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Gilt edge. 82 00 ><: V s Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/europepastpresenOOungerich EUROPE PAST AND PRESENT: A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY; SEPARATE DESCRIPTIONS AND STATISTICS OF EACH STATE, A COPIOUS INDEX, FACILITATING REFERENCE TO EVERY ESSENTIAL FACT IN THE HISTORY v AND PRESENT STATE OF EUROPE. BY FRANCIS H. UNGEWITTER, LL.D, NEW YORK: GEO. P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY, AND 49 BOW LANE, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 1850. - m Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, BY G. P. PUTNAM, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. THOMAS B. SMITH, 8TEREOTYPER, 216 WILLIAM STREET, N. Y. PREFACE As author of/ several extensive geographical works, which have been successfully published in Germany, my native country, I have ventured to prepare this vol- ume with the view of offering to the American public a guide in European Geography and History. It is superfluous to say that the value of such a work depends entirely upon its authenticity and accuracy : and that these qualities are, especially in Germany, es- sential to success. In endeavoring to avoid all superficial and unfounded statements, I have hoped also to steer clear of pedantry and prolixity. For such a volume, in the present state of popular information, I should not have felt justified in using any other than original and authentic materials. Fortunately, materials of this kind are not at all lack- ing in Europe. First, in most European countries an official almanac is published every year, which contains more or less copious statistical particulars to be relied PREFACE. * • on. Secondly, a census is taken in certain periods, -not restricted to the population only, but extended to a great variety of other statistical matters. Thirdly, there is scarcely a European state without its special geographi- cal and historical description, written by a native scholar. Beside these abundant materials, the official parliamen- tary reports and documents in many states furnish au- thentic statements with regard to the public finances, the army, the navy, etc. Moreover, I have visited most of the European countries, and have thus been enabled to fill up deficiencies almost inevitable with him who knows a people or a country merely by books. The index, annexed to this volume, and containing nearly ten thousand names, will enable the reader to find readily any essential fact connected with European geog- raphy or history. The table of contents, prefixed to the volume, gives at once a clear view of all those fifty-six states, which constitute Europe in a political sense. The arrangement with reference to the mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, etc., of all Europe, by compressing them within the compass of one common description, will perhaps meet with the approbation of the reader ; tedi- ous repetitions being avoided in this way. Beside this, the introduction contains a general, yet condensed history of Europe. Concerning the description of each of these fifty-six European states, the order observed is thus: first, the statements about area and population, surfaoe, soil, PREFACE. natural products, manufactures, commerce and trade, public finances, form of government, strength of the army and (with maritime states) of the navy, and the orders of honor; secondly, the history; and thirdly, the topography of the state. Trusting that the public will kindly make allowance for my want of an elegant English style, the more so as until the last year I never had any suitable oppor- tunity to improve in it practically, I sincerely wish, that for the rest this volume may answer every reasonable expectation on the part of the reader. F. H. UNGEWITTER. Nkw York, June 26th, 1850. + CONTENTS. PAdl INTRODUCTION, OR GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, 1 The Mountain Ranges of Europe, 4 Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits, 9 Lakes of Europe, 10 Rivers of Europe 12 Independent States of Europe, 21 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 23 PORTUGAL, 62 History of Portugal, 67 SPAIN, 76 History of Spain, 84 ITALY, 99 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia, 103 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 115 8. The Duchy of Parma, 115 4. The Duchy of Modena, 117 5. The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, (including Lucca) 1 20 6. The States of the Church, 127 7. The Republic of San Marino, 136 8. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 137 9. Malta, 149 SWITZERLAND, 151 History of Switzerland, 154 CONTENTS. PAGE FRANCE, 170 History of France, 179 The Provinces of Isle de France, Normandy, Picardy, 182 The Provinces of Artois, French Flanders, Champagne, 189 The Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 193 The Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 199 The Provinces of Bourbonnais, Nivernais and Berry, 203 The Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou, 205 The Provinces of Maine, Perche and Brittany, 207 The Provinces of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumais, La Marche, 210 The Provinces of Limousin, Auvergne and Lyonnais 213 The Provinces of Guyenne and Gascony 214 The Provinces of Navarre, Beam, Foix and Roussillon, 218 The Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny, 219 The Provinces of Provence, Avignon and Corsica, 223 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 227 British History, 232 A. The Kingdom of England, 234 B. The Kingdom of Scotland, 248 C. The Kingdom of Ireland, 256 THE NETHERLANDS, 261 1. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, .„ 265 2. The Kingdom of Belgium, 275 GERMANY, 284 1. German Provinces of Austria, 309 2. German Provinces of Prussia, 310 3. The Kingdom of Bavaria, 311 4. The Kingdom of Wirtemberg, 329 5. The Grand-Duchy of Baden, 337 6-7. The Principalities of Hohenzollern. 347 8. The Principality of Liechtenstein, 350 9. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse, 35I 10. The Landgraviate of Hesse, 358 11. The Duchy of Nassau, 360 12. The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and Duchy of Limburg 365 13. The Electorate of Hesse, 368 14. The Principality of Waldeck 375 16. The Kingdom of Saxony, 3^6 16. The Grand-Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, 386 17. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 38y CONTENTS. ix PAGE 1 8. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 892 19. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg 395 20-21. The Principalities of Reuss, 397 22-23. The Principalities of Schwarzburg > 399 24-25. The Duchies of Anhalt, > 402 26. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin, 406 27. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 28. The Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, 412 29. The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg, 420 30. The Principality of Lippe-Detmold 427 31. The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 32. The Kingdom of Hanover, 430 33. The Duchy of Brunswick, 444 34. The Free City of Hamburg. . . . . 448 35. The Free City of Lubec, 451 36. The Free City of Bremen, 453 37. The Free City of Frankfort, 454 THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 457 History of Prussia, 462 • THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, 601 1. The German Provinces of Austria 508 2. The Kingdom of Galicia 518 3. The Kingdom of Hungary, 520 4. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania, 630 6. The Military Frontier, 533 6. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, 534 7. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 536 DENMARK, 543 1. The Danish Islands, 549 2. Jutland, 552 3. The Duchy of Sleswick, 554 4. The Faroe Isles, 557 5. Iceland, 559 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 562 A. The Kingdom of Sweden, 567 B. The Kingdom of Norway, 576 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, & 579 1. Great Russia, 590 CONTENTS. PAGE 2. Little Russia, 594 8. The Baltic Provinces 595 4. The Grand-Duchy of Finland, 598 5. West, or Polish Russia, 600 6. The Kingdom of Poland, 603 7. The Kingdom of Kasan, 607 8. The Kingdom of Astrachan, 608 9. South Russia, 610 THE IONIAN ISLANDS, 614 History of the Ionian Islands, 615 GREECE, 617 History of Greece, 619 EUROPEAN TURKEY 624 1. Roumelia, 628 2. Bulgaria, 629 8. Macedonia, 630 4. Thessalia, 631 5. The Islands, 631 6. Albania, 632 7. Bosnia, 633 8. Tributary Provinces, 634 Se*™> 634 Wallachia, 635 Moldavia, 636 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT INTRODUCTION: GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Area of Europe: 3,816,936 square miles. Population of Europe : 262,300,000 inhabitants. 1. Before entering upon the subject, it may be remarked that most of the statistical statements in this work, especially those concerning the population of states, cities, towns, etc., correspond with the official and other authentic reports from the beginning of the year 1848. The political revolutions which since have occurred in most of the European countries, have in many in- stances changed the state of things, caused numerous emigrations, and, at all events, prevented a careful investigation in statistical matters. Moreover, a census is in Europe nowhere taken annu- ally, but, for instance, in France every fifth, in Germany every third year, and so on. However, the statements in this work being thoroughly authentic, they will afford a sure stand-point with regard to all future events, until matters and things are completely settled again in Europe. 2. The above-stated area of 3,816,936 square miles, is distrib- uted as follows : — Germany, 244,375 square miles. The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 36,508 " M Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . 164,521 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Area and Population of each country. Italy, v 119,706 square miles. Switzerland, 15,815 Holland and Belgium, .... 24,644 France, . ■. 204,825 Spain and Portugal, .... 216,429 British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.), 117,921 Denmark (including Iceland), . . 49,927 Sweden and Norway, .... 293,280 Russia (in Europe), .... 2,099,903 Ionian Islands, 1,108 Greece, 19,149 Turkey (in Europe), .... 209,422 Total, 3,816,936 Thus, the extent of Europe is almost equal to that of the United States, and of Mexico, put together. 3. The population of Europe, is distributed as follows : — Germany, 42,000,000 inhabitants. The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 3,865,000 " Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . . 20,082,000 Ital 7» 24,573,100 Switzerland, . . . . . . 2,400,000 Holland and Belgium, .... 7,558,000 " France > 35,401,000 S P ain ' 12,000,000 ro«*&l 3,750,000 British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.), 28,500,000 " Denmark (including Iceland), . . 1,800,000 Sweden and Norway, .... 4,650,000 Russia (in Europe) 62,000,000 Ionian Islands, 220000 „ Greece > 1,000,000 - Turkey (in Europe), .... i 2 , 50 0,000 « Tota ^ ' ' • • • . 262,299,100 GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Density of Population — Boundaries — Climate. This makes a population of about 70 inhabitants to a square mile — the highest ratio in any division of the world. For Asia (including the Indian Archipelago) has only 32, Africa has 13, America (i. e., North and South America) has but 3, and Aus- tralasia and Polynesia have no more than 1 inhabitant on a square mile. If the United States, whose extent (including Texas, but excluding California) is estimated at 2,620.000 square miles, and where, upon an average, at present only 9 souls live on a square mile, were as thickly settled as Europe, they would have a population of 183,400,000 inhabitants ; and not less than 801,720.000, if the proportion were like that of Holland aud Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. 4. The most northerly point of the European continent is North Cape (which belongs to Norway), N. lat. 71° 11' ; and its most southerly point is Gibraltar, N. lat. 36° 7'. Thus these parallels correspond with those of the northern part of Hudson's Bay, and of Hillsboro, or Louisburg, in North Carolina. The distance between North Cape and Gibraltar, is 2,424 miles. The most easterly point of Europe is Catharinburg (at the frontier of European Russia and Siberia), long. 60° 40' E. from Greenwich ; and its most westerly point is Cape Roxant (belonging to Portu- gal), long. 9° 31' W. from Greenwich ; and the distance between these two extreme points, is 3,370 miles. 5. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles, and the Archi- pelago, form the boundaries towards Asia ; and on the south, Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea. 6. The climate is generally much warmer than in the same parallels in America and Asia, and the difference is equivalent to eight or ten degrees of latitude. This may be accounted for by EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Surface.— Mountains : Alp3— Pyrenees. the almost universal cultivation of the soil in Europe, and by the absence of those extensive forests, which are to be found in America and Siberia. 7. In the north (with the exception of European Russia) and in the south, the surface is generally mountainous ; but in the middle parts of Europe, plains, here and there intersected by ranges of low mountains and hills, are prevailing. From the mouths of the Rhine, an immense plain runs through Holland, the north of Germany, the provinces of West and East Prussia, Poland, and Russia, to the Ural Mountains ; and its highest elevation, near the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and Don, is 1,064 feet. Other plains of smaller extent are to be found in Hungary, Wallachia, Lombardy, France. &c. The mountainous regions of the Euro- pean continent, occupy together an area of about 979,800 square miles. The most remarkable mountain ranges of Europe are the following : — a. The Alps, the principal chain of mountains in Europe, occupying an area of nearly 74,550 square miles, run from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, at the boundary between France and Italy, through Savoy, Switzerland, Tyrol, and other provinces of Austria, to the western parts of Turkey, at a distance of about 550 miles. Several regions of them have particular names, as, Maritime Alps (nearest to the coast), Cottian Alps (with the Pelvoux de Vallouise), Gray Alps (between Savoy and Piedmont), Pe?inine Alps (with the Mont Blanc), Lepontine Alps (with the Mount Rosa), etc. The highest peaks of the Alps, are: the Mont Blanc (in Savoy, 15,668 feet high), Mount Rosa (in Savoy, but near the frontier of Switzerland, 15,527 f.), Finsteraar- horn (in Switzerland, 14,325 f.), Pelvoux de Vallouise (on the French territory, 14,044 f.), Jungfrau (or Virgin, 13,730 f), Schrcckhorn (13,310 f— the two latter in Switzerland), Ortles (in Tyrol, 13,065 f), Watmann (in Bavaria, 9,150 f.), and Terglou (in Carinthia, 10,194 f. high). 6. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain, running in an almost westerly direction from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to that of the Bay of Biscay. The highest peaks of this mountain range, are: the Maladetta (11,436 f.), Mont Perdu (10,482 f.), and Pico Las Posets (10,584 f.) on the Spanish side, GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Mountains : Sierra Nevada — Appenines— Carpathians, etc. and the Marbore (10,374 f.), Vignemale (10,350 f), Piclong (9,972 f), and Canigou (8,800 f.) on the French side. c. The Sierra Nevada, the principal mountain range of Spain, covers chiefly that part of the country commonly called Upper Andalusia, or the province of Granada. Its highest peaks are the Cumbre de Mulhaccn (11,678 f.), and Picacho de Veleta (11,200 f). One branch of the Sierra Nevada, running in the direction of Cadiz, and ending in Cape Trafalgar, is partly named Alpu- jarras, partly Surra de Ronda. Parallel with the Sierra Nevada, and in the direction of Algarve (the southern province of Portugal), runs the Sierra Morena, which, in Portugal, bears the name of Sierra Monchique. Other mountain ranges in Spain, are the Cantabrian and Iberian Mountains, the Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Guadarama, and Sierra de Guadalupe. d The Apennines skirt the Gulf of Genoa, and run south-east to the south extremity of Italy. They bear particular names, according to their local position. Ligurian Apennines (with the Monte Chnone, in the Duchy of Modena, 6,778 feet high), Etruscan Apennines, Roman Apennines (with the Monte di Sibylla, 7,038 f), Neapolitan Apennines, and Abruzzi (in the northern part of the kingdom of Naples, with the Gran Sasso d'Ralia. 9,577 f. high). The volcano Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is 3,932 feet high. On the island of Sicily are, besides the volcano Mount Etna or Monte Gibello (10,870 f. high), to be noted the Callata bellata (3,699 f), Cuceio (3,329 f), and Scudery (3,190 f); on the island of Sardinia, the Gennargentu (5,630 f), and Gigantinu (3,744 f.) ; and on the island of Corsica, the Monte Rotondo (8,500 f), Pagalia Orba (8,100 f), and Cinto (7,900 f). e. The Carpathes, forming the boundary between Hungary and Galicia, run in a south-easterly direction from the sources of the Oder River to the Danube. The western part bears the particular name of the Beskides, the middle part that of the Carpathes Proper or Tatra Mountains, and the south- east part, comprising Transylvania, Upper Hungary, and the north of Walla- chia, is called the Highland Erdely. The highest peaks of the Carpathian Mountains are, the Ruska Poyana (9,912 f.), Gailuripi (9,000 f), Lomnitzer Spitze (Peak of Lomnitz, 8,316 f.), and Krivan (7,818 f). The highest peak of the Beskides in particular, is the Babia Gura, which rises to 5,420 feet. /. The Scandinavian Mountains form, for a great part, the boundary be- tween Sweden and Norway, where they are called Kblen (literally, the Keel). Near Roeraas, in Norway, the chief branch of the range, running south-west, the name of Dovre-fjeld (fjeld has the signification of Alpine range), EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mountains : in Turkey, France, Germany. and its highest peak is here the Skagastoeltind (8,400 f.). Other peaks of the Skaudinavian Mountains, are the Sncehcetta (8,122 f.), an 1 Sulitehna (6,840 f.). g. The Balkan or Haemus, running east through the midst of Turkey, rises to the height of no more than 3,000 feet, and is thoroughly covered with extensive forests. Among its five passes, those of Schumla are renowned in military history. Another mountain ran^e in Tin-key, and partly in Greece, is the Pindus, rising to the height of more than 5,000 fiet, and some of its divisions are called the Bora, Mczzovo, and Agrapha Mountains. h. In France are, besides the Pyrenees, to be noted : the Jura Mountains, forming the boundary between France and Switzerland (with the Reculet, 5,280 £, and Grand Colombier, 5,220 f., on the French side ; and with the Dole, 5,147 t,Mont Tendre, 5,170 f., Chasseron, 4,976 f., Crenx du Vent, 4,512 f., and Tete de Rang, 4,384 f., on the side of Switzerland); the Sevennes, commencing near the east end of the Pyrenees, and running north, form the dividing ridge between the valleys of the Rhone and Loire (their highest summits are, the Mezin of 6,162 £, Lozere of 5,584 f., Tarare of 4,350 f., and PUat of 3,696 f. in height) ; the Mountains of Auvergne, branching from the Sevennes and running north-west, form the dividing ridge between the valleys of the Loire and the Garonne; their principal part is known by the name of Mont Dure, and their highest peaks, commonly called Puy, are : Puy de Sancy (5,838 f.) t Puy de Lome (4,548 f.), and Plomb de Cantal (5,718 f.) ; the Vosges, running parallel with the Rhine, separate the provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, and rise to 4,400, 4,300, 3,900, and 3,100 feet, in the Ballon de Sulz, Tete (in the present duchy of Sleswick). These people readily com plied with the request, and in 449 went over to Britain : they drove back the Scots, but instead of then returning to Germany, they took possession of the country. Britain was afterwards divided by them into seven small kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy. The Britons partly retired into Wales, partly emi- grated to Armorica (in France), which since received the name of Bretagne, or Brittany. 5. At the same time the Huns, now ruled by an enterprising king, Attila, re-appeared on the European theatre of war. At the head of 700,000 men, Attila marched from Hungary into Germany, ravaging and plundering everywhere, and then invaded Gaul, or France, which he was about to conquer likewise. But in a bloody battle at Chalons on the Marne, in 451. he was de- feated, whereupon he invaded Italy, and died (in 452). After his death the ties of his empire loosened, and the Huns them- selves dispersed by degrees among other nations. 6. In the year 476, almost the last independent part of the Western empire, or Italy, with Rome itself, was entirely subju- gated by Odoacer, the leader of another northern tribe, called the Heruli; and it remained under this dominion for 14 years. 7. Meanwhile the Ostrogoths (see § 1 of the History) had transferred their seat into Pannonia (Bosnia) and Thracia, and were on good terms with the rulers of the Eastern empire at Constantinople. Theoioric, king of the Ostrogoths, now made to emperor Zeno the offer of conquering Italy for him. His proposal being agreed to, Theodoric emigrated with all the Os- trogoths to Italy, defeated in 490 Odoacer in three battles, made himself master of the whole country, and was by emperor Auas- tasius, successor of Zeno, acknowledged as king of Italy. But 2 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Merovingian Dynasty, founded by Clovis in Gaul. after his death, which occurred in 52G, emperor Justinian (who reigned from 527 to 565), anxious to realize his claims on Italy, sent thither two eminent commanders, Belisarius and Narscs, who, after a struggle of eighteen years, succeeded in their task, and made of Italy a province of the Eastern empire. The Eastern and Western empires were thus reunited, but only for a short period, as we soon shall see. 8. It is now time to cast a look at Gaul, or France. This latter name the country derived from the Franks, a German tribe, who, between the third and fourth centuries, or in the period from 237 to 375, got possession of the northern part of Gaul. It is said, their first king here was Pharamond, who died in 428. His grandson Meroveus, who died in 458, was the founder of the dynasty of the Merovingians, reigning in France for about three lyindred years. But the most eminent of the Merovingians was Clovis, who drove the Romans out of France (in 486), subdued the Ajinoricans in Bretagne, subjected the Burgundians (see § 3) to tnbute, wrested considerable tracts of land from the Visigoths in the south of France (see § 2), and extended his conquests northward to the Rhine. Clovis, having married a Christian princess, and attributing his success to the God whom she worshipped, determined to become a Christian himself, and in 496, he, with three thousand of his subjects, was baptized and anointed as king of the Franks, at Rheims, by the bishop Remigius. After his death (which occurred in 511), France was divided among his four sons. This impolitic proceed- ing proved fatal to the common interest ; the more so, as it was followed by subsequent divisions. At last, after the death of king Charibert, of Paris, or since the year 559, France, or rather the Frankish empire, was divided into three distinct states, viz. : Austrasia, or the eastern empire (comprising the north-east of Gaul and the southern half of Germany, between Tyrol and the SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. The Majores-domus in France. — Carlovinarian Dynasty. forest of Thuringia, and between the Rhine and the Inn rivers); Neustria, or the western empire (comprising the north-west of Gaul, between the Waal and Loire rivers) ; and Burgundy, or the southern empire (comprising Provence, parts of Aquitania, parts of Switzerland and Alsace). The capital of Austrasia was Metz, that of Neustria Soissons, and that of Burgundy Orleans. In the beginning of the 7th century, the Frankish king used to invest eminent men with the superintendence of the domains and fiefs of the crown, and with the command of the royal military forces. These men, endowed with great power, were called Majores-domus ; one of them had the superintendence in Aus- trasia, another in Neustria, and a third in Burgundy. The last kings of the Merovingian dynasty being weaklings, and not much better than mock-kings, the Majores-domus came soon to be con- sidered as the actual rulers. In 687, Pepin of Her stall (the latter name was derived from his estate near Liege), Major-domus of Austrasia, was invested with the superintendence in the other Frankish kingdoms too, and from that time assumed the title of " duke and prince of the Franks." He was succeeded in his dig- nity by his son Charles Martell, renowned for his brilliant and decisive victory over the Moors or Arabs, between Tours and Poitiers, in 732. The son and successor of Charles Martell was Pepin the Little, who was indeed but a very small man, but had a mighty spirit in his little body, and moreover an enormous deal of strength. The weakness and inaptitude of the Merovingian kings having become now too obvious, the last of them, Childeric III , was, in 752, by an assembly of the states of the empire held at Soissons, declared to have forfeited his throne, and was exiled to a monastery ; while Pepin the Little was elected king of the Franks, and anointed by the bishop Bonifacius. With him began the sway of the dynasty of the Carlovingians (which 28 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Lombards -Visigoth? — Moors. name was derived from Pepin's son, Charles the Great, or Charle- magne). 9. The Greek emperors exercised their sway in Italy only for fourteen years. The Lombards (a Suevian or German tribe, at first having their seat near the middle course of the Elbe;, who had once already been called on for assistance by the imperial governor Narses, returned to Italy in 568, headed by their val- iant king Alboin, wrested the northern part, since called Lom- bardy, from the Greeks, and got possession of most of the other parts of the Italian peninsula. They even threatened Rome, but pope Stephen III., calling on the Frankish king, Pepin the Little, for help, the latter defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to cede to the holy seat the maritime country on the Adriatic Sea, which they lately had conquered. In this way the pope's temporal powerYT&s established, and the foundation laid of what is now called the States of the Church. This occurred in 755. In 774 new differences between the pope and the Lombards brought on tho intervention of Charlemagne, who vanquished the Lombards completely and embodied their kingdom with that of the Franks. Lower Italy (comprising the continental part of the present kingdom of Naples) and the Island of Sicily remained under the sway of the Greek emperors until 842, when this island and Calabria came into the possession of the Arabs. 10. The Visigoths had since their inroad in Spain (see § 2) established their power there permanently, and extended it in the course of time over all parts of the peninsula. Their capital and royal residence was Toledo since 531. But as soon as the wars with other tribes and nations had ceased, there arose civil wars and other intestine commotions, which caused one party to call on the Moors or Arabs (who then had conquered the whole north- ern coast of Africa) for assistance. The latter acted the same part as the Saxons and Angles had done in Britain. Scarcely SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 29 Slaves— Creates— Servians, etc. had they set their foot on the Spanish ground, in 711, when they attacked the Visigoths and defeated them completely in a battle at Xeres de la Frontera, which lasted nine days. The fate of Rod- eric, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was never known ; his horse and weapons were found near the field of battle, but his body was nowhere to be seen. Pelagio, a prince of the blood- royal, took command of the Goths who had not been slain by the Moors, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and founded there-a little kingdom, the boundaries of which his suc- cessors enlarged in the course of time. But for the present, and for the next centuries, the Moors possessed the greatest part of the Pyrenean peninsula. 11. During the migration of nations, many countries in the east of Europe were depopulated, and this circumstance gave oc- casion to the Slaves (see Introduction, § 12,6), to move farther to the west, and occupy the abandoned seats. The main body of the Slaves remained in Russia and Poland, but some tribes peopled Bohemia, others settled themselves in the German coun- tries bordering on the Baltic Sea ; while lower" Hungary and Austria were occupied by the Avares (who had their primitive seat between the Black and Caspian Seas), Dalmatia, and other countries in the vicinity, by the Cruates and Servians, and Bul- garia by the Bulgarians (a Tartar tribe, who in the 5th century had emigrated from their primitive seat between the Volga and Ural rivers). About the Magyars, see Introduction, § 12. 12. The European territory of the Eastern empire, or of the Roman emperors residing at Constantinople, had, by all these circumstances, been greatly reduced ; nevertheless, it yet ranked highest among the Christian kingdoms by its civilization, wealth, and flourishing commerce. Constantinople was then the largest and handsomest city in Europe, and the imperial court displayed much splendor and luxury, though the history of this court pre- 30 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scandinavians— Normans— Charlemagne. sents a series of cruelties and infamous actions, seldom or never heard of in other countries. 13. The Scandinavian cm?iiries, or Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark, were, if not first, yet chiefly peopled by the German tribe of Goths, who immigrated there about the Christian era. In the course of time those countries became, in a certain degree, overpopulated, which gave rise to the famous naval expeditions of the Normans, who after the 9th century invaded the shores of England, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France, every- where plundering and ravaging. They proved themselves to be as daring freebooters, as they were gallant warriors, and acted an important part in the political affairs of several European countries in the west and south. 14. Charlemagne (see § 8), who was born in 742, reigned from the year 768 to 814, and in this whole period he was almost continually at war. In 774 he wrested the kingdom of Italy from the Lombards (see § 9), and added its crown to that which he wore already as king of the Franks. Meanwhile the long- nourished hostile sentiments between the Franks and their next neighbors in the north, the Saxons, had finally led to an erup- tion, which was followed by a war of more than thirty years. Charlemagne was indeed in this war the aggressor ; but beside his anxious desire to introduce Christianity among the pagan Saxons, he had well-founded political reasons to act as he did. For the Saxons had made frequent inroads into his empire, and moreover being a very valiant and enterprising people, it was to be feared they would sooner or later try to conquer it, or at least wrest some provinces from it. Thus the war commenced against them in 772, and lasted, though with some intervals, until 804, when a final treaty of peace was concluded, according to which the Saxons acknowledged the sovereignty of Charle- magne, and adopted the Christian faith. In one of those inter- SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. *1 Diviaion of Ihe Empire of Charlemagne — Germany. vals, in 778, the Moorish governor of Saragossa requested Charle- magne to lend him his assistance against the Emir Abderrahman. Accordingly, a Frankish army was* sent to Spain, and this cam- paign terminated in the annexation of all the country north of the Ebro to the Frankish empire. This new acquisition was called the Spanish mark (margraviate). A war against the Danes was in 810 terminated by a treaty of peace, which stipu- lated that the Eider river was to be considered as the boundary between the Danes and Franks ; and indeed this river has since continually been the boundary between Denmark and Germany. To secure the boundaries in the east and south-east, Charlemagne founded there several maigraviates, for instance ; the Avarian mark (comprising what is now called the arch-duchy of Austria) against the Avares (see §11); Friaul, etc. In the year 800 when Charlemagne happened to be at Rome, the pope (who for many substantial services, was highly indebted to him) placed the imperial crown upon his head, and thus, as it were, revived the Western Roman Empire. Charles the Great died in the year 814 at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was succeeded by his son Louis, sur- named the Pious, who was in point of mental power almost the reverse of his father. Louis the Pious died in 840, and left his dominions to his^ three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, who divided them by a treaty, concluded at Verdun in 843, in the following manner : Louis (since suruamed the German) acquired Germany, which since that time has ever been separated from France, and where after the death of the last descendant of Louis (which occurred in 911) an elective monarchy was established, and so it continued, even so late as the year 1806. Louis the German had shortly before his death inherited the rights to the imperial crown, as well as to Italy, Burgundy, part of Switzerland, to Alsace, Lor- raine, etc., and entailed these rights on his descendants and sue- 32 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. France— Kingdom of Italy — England. cessors to the German crown. They were realized for the first time by his grandson Arnulph (reigning in the period from 887 to 899), who not only was crowned as Roman-German emperor, but also brought the kingdom of Italy and Burgundy into a po- litical connection with Germany. Charles (surnamed the Bald) acquired France, which was ruled by his descendants until the year 987, when the Capetiaus supplanted the race of the Carlovingians. LoChaire acquired the imperial crown and the kingdom of Italy, and besides this a long tract of laud situated between France and Germany, viz. Provence, Dauphiny, Bu,r gundy, Al- sace, Lorraine and the Netherlands. But his race became extinct even so early as the year 875 ; and thus the German kings, his nearest relations, became the heirs of his rights. 15. As for England (see $ 4), all the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy were united into one, under the government of Egbert, King of Wessex. This occurred in the year 827. Egbert was therefore the first King of England — a name de- rived from that of Anglia, the home of the Angles, and sub- stituted for the former name of Britannia by Egbert. During his reign, and for many years afterwards, the Normans (see § 13) made frequent incursions into England, and sometimes overran the whole country. King Alfred the Great (who reigned from the year 871 to 901) opposed them with good success, but a hun- dred years after his death the Normans again broke into Eng- land, and were now completely victorious, so that in the period from 1016 to 1042 three Danish kings governed the country in succession (Swen, Canute, and Hardicanute). In the year 1042, the Normans or Danes were driven out of England, and another Saxon King, Edward II, surnamed the Confessor, was placed upon the throne. Meanwhile the Normans had settled in France, and acquired there (at the end of the 9th century) a large tract SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. Norman Conquest of England— Moore in Spain. of land, siuce called Normandy. William duke of Normandy, who was related to King Edward, made claim to the English throne, and after Edward's death, which occurred in 1066, he in- vaded England, at the head of sixty thousand men, defeated his rival Harold (son of the mighty Count Godwin ; for Edward had left no children) in the battle of Hastings (on the 14th of Oct. 1066), and became King of England. He was now called Wil- liam the Conqueror, and is the ancestor of the still reigning royal family of Great Britain. 16. The Moors in Spain (see § 10) were in the beginning ruled by governors of the Caliphs then reigning at Damascus (the seat of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until the year 754) ; but in 756 the Arabian prince Abderrahman founded an inde- pendent empire in Spain, and took his seat in Cordova (north-east, and 120 miles distant from Cadiz), which soon rose to be a splen- did city, and at one time numbered 1,000,000 inhabitants. The Moorish empire was at that time separated from that of the Christians by the Duero. Concerning the Christian empire, the little kingdom of Asturias, founded by Pelagio (see § 10), was since its first enlargement called the Kingdom of Leon. The Spanish mark, conquered by Charlemagne (see § 14), having meanwhile been divided into two counties, Barcelona and Navarre, and the count of Navarre having since assumed the royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain ; which, in the course of time, brought into existence the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Galicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. Portugal, being first a province of the united kingdoms of Cas- tile and Leon, became in 1139 an independent kingdom. The power of the Moors in Spain was more and more restricted by the conquests of the Christian kings, till in 1492 Granada, the last Moorish possession on the Pyrenean peninsula, was conquer- ed by the Queen Isabella of Castile, and King Ferdinand, of 2* 34 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ferdiuand and Isabella— Society in the Middle Ages. Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised not only Aragon, but the whole north-east part of Spain, while the kingdom of Castile comprised all other parts ; and as Ferdinand and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain came after their death under the sway, first of their daughter Johanna (or rather their son-in-law Philip), then of their grandson, the celebrated King Charles I. (or Charles V. as emperor of Germany), who entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. 17. This sketch of the political history of Europe will suffice for the present ; and deferring the further particulars of it to the his- torical introduction of each separate state, we shall now give a condensed description of the state of European culture in tlie mid- dle ages. Had the time of blooming and vigor of the Roman empire last- ed forever, there is no doubt but Roman culture would at last have prevailed throughout Europe. But the migration of nations (see § 2), and with it perpetual wars, interfered and destroyed almost the last remains of it. Thus a commencement was to be made anew. But a quiet and peaceful development being impos- sible at that time, matters went on in the following succession : 1. Improvement of warlike or military conditions. 2. Agriculture. 3. Foundation of new towns and cities. 4. Commercial intercourse and rudiments of industry. 5. A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity, and subsequently the extension of the clerical power. 6. The foundation of universities and the generalization of other schools. 7. The gradual improvement of sciences and fine arts. 8. Fresh life and activity in commercial and industrious enter- prises, generated by the Crusades. 9. Origination of free citizens and corporations. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 35 Social Progress in the Middle Ages. 10. New progress of sciences and fine arts. 11. The invention of gunpowder and of the art of printing ; the Reformation and the discovery of America, and of the passage by sea to India ; and the immense social and intellectual revolu- tions brought on by these events, whose consequences are still apparent. In the period from the latter time of the migration of nations until the crusades, Italy (as the former millennial seat of the Roman empire), Spain (as the seat of the industrious and intel- ligent Moors since the 8th century), and the Eastern empire (as retaining the remains of Roman culture) were to be considered as illuminated directly, and the other European countries as il- luminated indirectly, by the beams of the sun of culture. Mean- while the progress of culture went on in the above indicated man- ner. Thus we shall begin with the (a.) Improvement of warlike or military conditions ; — of course only with reference to the Germanic tribes (see §§ 1, 2, 3, etc.), as all other European nations (with the exception of the Romans) lived at that time in a state of complete barbarity. Among the Germanic tribes it was the custom and practice to wage war in two different ways: viz., either to call to arms all freeborn war- riors under the command of dukes elected by each tribe (this way was less frequent, and chiefly used in defensive wars) ; or to select warriors of profession out of those freeborn men, who were upon terms of a particular political dependence with the com- mander-in-chief. With this warfare the feudal system was closely connected. As soon as a foreign country was conquered? either the whole (as in the case of the Saxons in England, and of the Lombards in Italy), or some part of it (sometimes one third, but most frequently two thirds) was divided between the king (as commander-in chief) and his military retinue : each member of the latter receiving a lot, called Allodium, which as a patrimonial EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Feudal System— Agriculture— Bondage. estate was at his free disposition. The king, receiving a far greater lot than any member of his retinue, used to confer parts of it, by the name of fees (in Latin feuda or benejicia), on single members of this retinue in usufruct for lifetime. The feoffees, called vassals, were bound to faith and homage towards the feoffer, and to warfare in case of war. In this way all allodial proprietors became gradually feudal tenants also. The feoffer was under the obligation to protect his vassal, and for this reason many allodial proprietors, being incompetent to their own pro- tection, conferred their estate upon any powerful neighbor, and received it back again from him as a fee. At first the fees were not transmissible by inheritance, but in the course of time the heritable quality was partly conceded, partly usurped ; and since that time, only in case of felony the fee was allowed to be with- drawn. Considering the peculiar condition of society in the middle ages, it cannot tte denied that the feudal system was quite adapted to it, and afforded many advantages. (b.) Agriculture, formerly in a more or less flourishing state throughout most of those European countries that were under the Roman sway, but since the beginning of the migration of nations almost totally neglected (except in the Eastern empire), made but poor progress in the period from the year 476 till 752 (when the sway of the Carlovingians commenced), because the freeborn men being for the most time engaged in warfare, gave themselves seldom the trouble to cultivate the soil, which thus was chiefly tilled by the bondsmen or serfs. Bondage or servitude had from the earliest time been in practice not only among the Germanes, but also among the Slavonians (see § 12 of the Intro- duction), and has not, in most of the countries where it existed, been abolished before the last and the present centuries. It may indeed be called a kind of slavery, but in various respects it dif- fers from proper slavery, which was in use among the ancient SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 37 Foundation of Towns and Cities. Romans, Greeks, etc., and is still in use amongthe Mohammedans and other peoples ! — In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries agriculture was in the Christian countries of Europe promoted chiefly by the endeavors of the monks ; and since the beginning of the crusades (at the end of the 11th century), when many bondsmen entered the armies of the cross, in order to partake of their privileges of personal freedom, agriculture and other branches of husbandry became more and more the occupation of free farmers, and at the same time attained a higher degree of importance. In the East- ern empire the culture of silk-worms was introduced during the reign of Justinian I. (527-565). The Moors in Spain managed the cultivation of the soil in an exemplary manner ; and even steep and sandy hills were by their perseverance transformed into fertile arable land. The meadows of Andalusia were never parched by the scorching sun, as the Moors took care to keep them humid by irrigating canals. Along the Guadalquivir river were situated more than 12,000 flourishing villages, and the township of Seville alone contained not less than 100,000 villages and farms. (c.) In speaking of the foundation of towns and cities since the commencement of European culture in general, we of course have only in view those countries which but then emerged from their state of barbarity, and where hitherto the people had more or less been accustomed to live in huts lying scattered about in the woods or open field. This was the custom among the ancient Germans (for the towns and cities on the left bank of the Rhine had been founded by the Romans), among the Poles, Magyars, Britons, and in general among all the northern nations of Eu- rope. In the north and north-east of Europe, the foundation of towns and cities, in the style of those in the southern countries, did not take place before the middle of the 13th century, and the few existing ones were not endowed with municipal laws before S8 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. lloeskilde— Moscow — London — Constantinople. that time. In Sweden the city of Bjoerkoe, on an island of the lake Maelar. (see § 9, of the Introduction), was indeed, even so early as in the first half of the 9th century, distinguished by its numerous population, its riches and power ; but the country in general had but few towns of any importance. Rocskilde. the capital of Denmark until the year 1443, was founded at a very early period, and had since the 11th century a population of 100,000 inhabitants, and not less than 27 magnificent churches and monasteries ; but this was rather an exception from the rule. Moscow in Russia may have been founded in the 9th century, but it is more probable that its foundation did not take place before the middle of the 12th century. In 1367 the first palace of stone was built here. The first foundation of London was laid by the Romans even so early as the year 52 ; in the beginning of the 7th century it was. says a contemporary, "a commercial town frequented by many nations by sea and by land ;" and since the 11th century, the commercial intercourse was still more ac- tive here ; yet until towards the end of the 12th century most of the houses here were built of wood and thatched, till in 1189 King Richard I. ordered all houses with more than two stories to be built of stone, and roofed with tiles or slates. In Germany, the lack of cities or fortified towns was first felt when the fierce Magyars or Huns (as they commonly were called, and from which name originated that of the Hungarians) made their plundering incursions at the end of the 9th, and in the beginning of the 10th century; and not until now most of the principal towns in the interior of Germany were founded. Constantinople was at that time not only the emporium, but also in other respects the most important city of Europe. Besides this capital, the Eastern empire had many other fine cities ; while in Italy those which had been founded by the ancient Romans, were multiplied by new SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY Commercial I nlercourse— Industry. ones, for instance, by Venice. Likewise in Spain and in some parts of France, there were many cities of early origin. (d.) In the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th century, the commercial intercourse as well as the industry, was in general very insignificant, and almost entirely confined to Con- stardinople, where industry was considerably promoted by the luxury of the magnificent imperial court, and an important trade was at that time carried on with several maritime countries on the Mediterranean Sea. In the next period until the beginning of the crusades or of the 12th century, the Moors in Spain ex- celled all other nations of Europe in point of manufactures and other branches of industry. Their woollen cloth, silk stuffs, em- broideries in gold and silver, Morocco-leather, hardware, their ex- cellent workmanship in arms, etc. found everywhere in Europe as well as in Africa and Asia, a lucrative market. In the art of dyeing, the Moors were eminently skilled. Likewise the work- ing in the Spanish gold and silver mines was managed by them with ability and circumspection, and added greatly to their wealth. In other countries of Europe in the latter period, the commercial preponderance of Constantinople gradually went over to the Italian sea-towns of Venice, Pisa, Genoa and Amalfi (the last-named town is situated in the vicinity of Naples). These towns had risen to be independent commercial states, while in other western countries of Europe (with the exception of the Arabian part of Spain) the commercial intercourse was almost confined to trade by barter, or provision only for the daily supply. But now the circumstances there were more favorable. Indian and Levantine goods were sent from Constantinople by way of the Danube river up to Ratisbon (on the Danube), which was at that time the most considerable and populous city of Germany, and mediated the intercourse not only between the eastern and west- ern countries, but also between the north-east part of Europe and 40 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Chris. lanky — Monastic Life. Italy. In France the southern cities, above all Marseilles, traded with the Levant, while those of the north carried on commerce chiefly with England. Even the Slavonian tribes in the vicinity of the Elbe River and on the Baltic Sea, especially the citizens of Julin (on an island at the mouth of the Oder River; it was de- stroyed in 1170), kept up a commercial intercourse with neigh- boring countries. The increasing number of towns and cities, the establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver mines in the Hartz (see § 7, k. Introd.) and in other parts of Germany were promoting the industry in those quarters. (e.) A more general efficiency and 'propagation of Christianity was almost impossible during the troubles and disturbances in the period of the migration of nations. Yet a roundabout ground of it was laid by the transplantation of monastic life from the dioceses of the oriental church to those of the occidental. This was effected by St. Benedict of Nursia, who in 529 founded a mon- astery on Mount Cassino, near Naples, that gave rise to the es- tablishment of monasteries in other countries of Europe. These institutions were not only the seminaries for nearly all those heroes of the faith, who in the earlier time of the middle ages, as missionaries, propagated Christianity among the pagan tribes of Europe, frequently at the risk of their lives ; but may likewise be considered as the only nurseries and preservers of classical literature and of sciences in general in those dark ages. With- out the monasteries, even genuine manuscripts of the Holy Bible might be very rare. That monks deserved well for their cultiva- tion of the soil, has already been mentioned ; and moreover they were engaged in handiwork, in the instruction of youth, in writ- ing chronicles, in copying classical manuscripts, etc. Before the time of Charlemagne, the pope, as the visible head of the occiden- tal church, had but little influence or authority in temporal mat- ters ; but since he had placed the imperial crown upon the head SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 41 Papal Power— Instruction of the People. of this king (see § 14), be assumed the privilege of crowning all his successors, and subsequently (in the next period until the 1 1th century) the supreme legislative power in ecclesiastical matters, the supreme judicial power in the same matters and in all causes concerning the clergy, and the right of pronouncing the interdict (a papal prohibition to the clergy to celebrate the holy offices) against whole districts and even countries, and the anathema against persons, in cases of transgressions against the church. But the preponderance of the papal authority dated from the time of Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) and of the crusades (from the end of the 11th to that of the 13th century). The popes now went so far as to declare that God had given them all the kingdoms of heaven and earth ; they actually dethroned kings, treated them as their vassals, and continued for more than three hundred years to exercise an almost undisputed sway over both kings and peoples of the Christian world. It was about the pe- riod of the reign of Innocentus III (1198-1216) t&at the. power of the pope was at its highest pitch. But after' Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) had been deeply humbled, and treated with con- tempt by King Philip IV. of France, the papal power went rap- idly to decay. (f.) It cannot be denied that the Roman Catholic church has done far more for promoting knowledge and instruction than the oriental church, especially in the middle ages. Yet many kings were not behind in their endeavors, among them Charlemagne, who established a great number of .schools and interested himself even personally in the progress of the pupils. In the preceding period, the objects of instruction in the higher schools consisted of the so-called seven liberal arts, viz. study of the classical liter- ature, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. The best schools of this kind were at that time those of Cambridge, York and Canterbury in England, from whence sci- 42 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Schools — Universities. entific knowledge gradually spread over the European continent. In the Eastern empire the Roman literature had lost its strength- ening freshness by the prevalence of a depraved taste ; all attain- ments in literature and science were nearly concentrated in Con- stantinople ; yet until the reign of Justinian I. (527-565) there was still a renowned academy at Athens. The Moors in Spain, so distinguished in other branches of human exertions, excelled also in the cultivation of sciences, especially in the period from the 8th to the 12th century. Cordova was the seat of literary institutions, academies and numerous common schools. The academies were celebrated, and much resorted to from other countries. Both Christians and Jews attended the instruction in matters of philosophy, medicine, mathematical and physical sciences. In the last-named period (752-1100) France. Ger- many and Switzerland were possessed of excellent cloister, cathe- dral and episcopal schools in Paris and Normandy, at Corvey, Fulda, Paderborn and Hildesheim, and at St. Gall. About the same time the first universities of Europe were founded. The most celebrated among them were those of Salerno (in the vicin- ity of Naples), of Bologna (in the States of the Church), and of Paris. The object of instruction in the first was principally med- icine, in the second jurisprudence, and in the third theology and philosophy. At the medical faculty or seminary of Salerno, founded in the beginning of the 1 2th century, and endowed with the privileges of a university in 1150, it was chiefly Arabian pro- fessors who directed the instruction. In 1119, or about that time, the university of Bologna took its rise ; but its glory dates from the professorship of the celebrated legist Irnerius (f 1140); in 1158 it was endowed with the privileges of a university by Emperor Frederick I. About the year 1200, when another re- nowned professor, named Azzo, illustrated this university, it was frequented by 10,000 students. It must be remarked here, that SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 43 Universities— Literary Productions. many of the latter were indeed youth ; yet the greatest part of those students consisted of men of rank, or who filled high offices. For them was the knowledge of the Roman law (which was ex- plained here, and which had become the common law in most of the European countries) indispensable ; and as at that time the art of printing was not yet invented, and thus the study of books impossible, it was a matter of course, that they betook themselves to universities. The title of Doctor came first in use at the University of Bologna. Never did any university maintaiu its renown so long, nor influence church and state to such a de- gree as that of Paris. Though the opinion that its origin might be dated from the days of Charlemagne, is untenable, yet it orig- inated at a very early period, perhaps in the beginning of the 10th century. In the 12th century this university numbered among its professors, several men distinguished for their attain- ments in literature and science, of whom Peter Lombardus (+H64), a disciple of Abelard, was the most celebrated. His " libri sententiarum," comprise a theological system that for cen- turies vindicated its authority among the theologians. The uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge are of so early origin too, that the period of their foundation cannot be stated with certainty. Before the end of the 13th century, there had been founded uni- versities at Padua, Naples, Reggio, Rome and Treviso ; at Mont- pelliei', Orleans and Toulouse ; and at Salamanca in Spain. (g.) The literary productions in the western countries of Eu- rope during the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th century, consisted only of philosophical and church historical works, and were entirely written in Latin. Beda Venerabilis, author of a history of the Christian church in Eugland, intro- duced first the Christian chronology into the western countries of Europe. In this period too, the first essays in the art of painting (wholly neglected since the first period of the Roman EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. I iterary Productions— Fine Arts— Architecture. emperors) were made, and a transition from ancient to modern architecture was effected by the Gothic style (invented by the Ostrogoths, but in the course of time much improved and brought to its high state of grandeur), and likewise by the tasteless Lom- bardic style mingled with that of the Byzantines. In the Eastern empire the Latin language prevailed until the latter half of this period, when it began to be supplanted by a corrupt- ed Greek dialect. Literary productions at that time were rather insipid, and poetry was almost confined to the epigram. The church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian I. (527-563), was considered as a pattern of the early Christian architecture, the peculiar properties of which were the form of a cross,vthe cupola and the semicircular arch resting on cubical capitals.- It was not until the 9th century that the arts of painting and sculpture began to be improved in the Eastern empire. — In the next period (752-1100) it was chiefly the Moors in Spain who excelled in poetry. The ballad was devised by them. Their architectonic performances in the Arabian style (an improved imitation of the Byzantine style) were distinguished for their easy forms and rich ornaments. In scientifical matter they chiefly cultivated the mathematical and physical sciences. Edrisi (-f-1 180) who made his studies at Cor- dova, wrote several geographical works of great value. In the other European countries (with the exception of the Eastern em- pire) the Latin ceased to be a living language, since in the 9th century the Romanic and Germanic languages had been im- proved with more success. In the same period (752-1100) sev- eral poetical and other works were, for the first time, written in German, and the grand cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms, Mentz, Spires, etc., built in the mixed Lombardo-Byzantine style. In the 1 1th century, the first feudal castles were built ; among theni the celebrated Wartburg (now belonging to Saxe Weimar), in SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. The Crusades. 1067. About the same time music and painting on glass were cultivated successfully. (A.) As the Crusades, undertaken since the end of the 11th century by European nations for the recovery of the Holy Land, were attended by most important consequences with regard to the social condition and culture of Europe, we must previously give some historical outlines of them. The Holy Land, or Pal- estine, had, since the end of the 4th century, formed part of the Eastern empire, but in the 7th century been conquered by the Arabs. The latter granted free exercise of religion to the Chris- tian population, and in general, treated them with equity. In 963 the sultan of Egypt took possession of Palestine, which continued to be under the sway of himself and his successors until the year 1078, when the Seldschuks (or Turks, who from other Turkish tribes differed only by their particular name, which they had derived from that of their former sultan, named Seldschuk) subdued the country ; and by them, the Christians especially the pilgrims to Jerusalem, were often treated with cruelty and scorn. The pilgrims returned to Europe and gave an account of the treatment they received. This excited the indignation of the European Christians, and they were easily induced to unite in a great effort for taking the Holy Land from the infidel Seldschuks. There were in all, seven crusades: the first, in the period from the year 1096 to 1100; the second, 1147-1149; the third, 1189 -1 193 ; the fourth, 1203-1204 ; the fifth, in 1228 ; the sixth, in 1248; the seventh, in 1270. We shall now show the various consequences of the crusades, already alluded to. How they exerted influence on the extension of the papal power, see above paragraph, marked (e). Yet we must add here that the possession of the immense riches of the Roman Catholic clergy, especially of the regular clergy, dates from the period of the. crusades, they being then enabled to purchase at the cheapest prices the estates 46 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Consequences of the Crusades— Chivalry— Orders of Knighthood. of crusaders. To the princes, too, the crusades presented many opportunities for extending their power ; for instance, by the escheating of fiefs, which thus became estates of the crowu. The consequences, with regard to the nobility, were iu substance the following : — First, the spirit of chivalry was improved, family- names and ensigns armorial came into use among the nobles, and the tournaments became now more general and more splendid. Then the crusades gave rise to the erection of the following religious and military orders : 1. The Knights of St. John, whose first origin dates from the year 1048, when some merchants from Amalfi (near Naples) erected a monastery and hospital at Jeru- salem ; yet their regular organization took place during the first crusade. In 1187 they transferred their seat from Jerusalem to Ptolemais or Acre (on the Syrian coast), in 1291 to Cyprus, and in 1309 to Rhodes. On the last-named island they main- tained themselves for more than two hundred years until the year 1522, when the island was conquered by the Turkish sultan Soliman II. The king of Spain and German emperor Charles V., who then was in possession of Malta, ceded in 1530 to the knights this island, which in 1798 was conquered by the French, but since the year 1800 belongs to Great Britain. 2. The knights templars, whose first organization dates from the year 1118, and who were distinguished for their valor and great ser- vices in the Holy Wars. Since the loss of the Holy Land, the knights templars transferred their principal seat to France, but to their misfortune. For their great wealth excited the avidity of King Philip the Fair, who, in 1312, exterminated almost the whole order. 3. The Teutonic order, originating in 1190, and its members consisting only of German knights. Since the re-con- quest of Palestine by the Saracens, the master of the Teutonic order transferred his seat from Jerusalem to Venice, thence to Marburg (belonging to Hesse Cassel), and finally to Marienburg SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 47 Commercial Intercourse. (south-east, and 32 miles distant from Dantziok). The knights of the Teutonic order subdued, in the period from the year 1 233 to 1283, the pagan tribes of the Prussians proper, and took pos- session of the whole country that now comprises the Prussian provinces of East and West Prussia. The last master of the Teutonic order was the margrave Albert, of the house of Hohen- zollern ; he changed his Catholic creed for Protestantism, and in 1525 transformed his mastership into a duchy. The Teutonic order, dissatisfied with this alteration, now left the country, and removed their principal seat to Mergentheim (now belonging to the German kingdom of Wirtemberg). The dissolution of the order took place in 1809. Similar other orders originated chiefly in Spain. Concerning- the consequences of the crusades with regard to European commerce and industry, it may be remarked that before that period the commercial train of Europe, in the direction from east to west, was to be compared with the moderate running of a river, which afterwards rising to a mighty stream and dividing into several branches, diffused its contents in every di- rection. Italian, French, and Catalonian maritime towns seized upon the sea-commerce; while German, Netherlandish, and French traders took possession of the inland commerce. We shall first speak of the European sea- commerce, which from the remotest ages until the end of the 15th century ever continued to be (at least substantially) restricted to the Mediterranean Sea. During the crusades Venice, and partly Genoa and Pisa, acquired the most substantial monopolies and other commercial advantages in all seaports of the Eastern empire, as well as of Syria and Palestine. During the fourth crusade (in 1203 and 1204) the Venetians conquered most of the shores and islands of the first- named empire, and founded settlements there. At the same time the navigation on the Black Sea became subject to their sway, and thus they not only participated in the commerce between 48 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Trade of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Amain" with the East. + : — : Asia and the interior of Europe, but for a long while superin- tended the commercial intercourse with the north of Europe. But after the re-establishment of the Byzantinian authority at Constantinople in 1261, the Venetians were expelled from this capital, and the Genoese succeeded them ; while the Venetians became now (by commercial treaties with the Saracens) possessed of the highly important Indian trade through Egypt. Since they even participated in the caravan trade with the interior of Africa and obtained settlements on the coast of the Barbary. About the same time the Genoese founded settlements in Crimea and on other shores skirting the Black Sea. The exports of Venice to Egypt were chiefly olive-oil, cloth, velvet, furs, quicksilver, copper, lead, cinnabar, sweet oranges, and other fruits, etc., upon the whole at the value of about 300,000 ducats (an immense sum at that time) annually. Besides these goods, other ones, at the value of about 50,000 ducats, were smuggled in Egypt by the ships' crews. Towards the end of the 14th century the Vene- tian merchant-vessels amounted to upwards of 3,000 (including 300 of the burthen of 700 tons each), and were navigated by 25,000 men. The annual exports and imports of Genoa were likewise very considerable. Thus, for instance, in 1201, one cargo, brought from the Levant, comprised among other valuable goods 1500 pounds of gold, silver, and precious stones ; and in J 379, a large Genoese vessel brought a cargo of spices, muslin, silk stuffs, gold, and silver, at the value of 1,500,000 ducats. A large portion of the imported goods was exported to Germany, especially to Nuremberg Bills of exchange came first in use at Genoa in this period. Pisa was not behind in commercial and shipping enterprises ; it kept up a lively intercourse with the Levant, and acquired substantial privileges in Constantinople. The mer- chants of Amalfi (near Naples) were the first who exported European goods to Syria and Egypt. The mariner's compass is SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 49 Maritime Laws— Inland Commerce. said to have been invented at Anialfi, in 1302, by Flavio Gioja ; but, the peculiar use of the loadstone being known already a century before, he has perhaps only improved that instrument. Ancona traded chiefly with Cyprus; among other goods, it ex- ported Florentine and French cloth, soap, and wine, and im- ported cotton, spices, sugar, and alum. In the period from the 12th to the end of the 15th century, Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia in Spain, was renowned for its commercial and ship- ping enterprises, and rivalled successfully even with Venice and Genoa. In France, not only Marseilles, but also Aigues Mortes and Montpellier carried on great business in the last-named enterprises. Finally, it may be remarked that in this period the maritime laws, if not established for the first time, were im- proved and brought into more general practice. With regard to the inland commerce, there were in this period two principal commercial roads : the one between Constantinople and Germany by way of the Danube river, and the other between the Italian or French seaports and the staples of the interior of Europe. The first of these roads was indeed of great import- ance, but in general not so much frequented as the latter, for the simple reason of its shorter distance. Besides Ratisbon, which continued to be an emporium, Vienna was chiefly engaged in the trade through Constantinople. For the Levantic and Indian trade through Venice and Genoa, Nuremberg and Augs- burg became the great staples of Germany and other European countries. Their intercourse with Venice did not commence before the 14th century, but it soon yielded immense profits to them. The goods received from Venice (and partly from Genoa), they exporteJ partly to Erfurt (the staple of the east of Ger- many, etc.), partly to Mentz and Cohgne (the staples of the west and north of Germany, etc.), but chiefly to Bruges, Ant- werp, and Brussels, though these Netherlandish emporia received EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Commercial Marts— Manufactures. also directly goods from Venice by sea. In France, there were in this period no such staples like those of Germany ; yet in various other regards Lyons and Avignon were at all events sta- ples of great importance. The emporium of Kussia during the 14th and 15th centuries was Novogorod, which at that time had a population of 400,000 inhabitants. Next to this city Pskow or Pleskow (south-west, and 156 miles distant from St. Petersburg) was an important staple of Russia. The emporium of Sweden was Wisby, on the island of Gothland, which in the beginning of the 12th century sent abroad its merchant vessels even as far as to Alexandria in Egypt. The maritime law of Wisby was of great authority far and near. The staples of Denmark were Roeskilde, Aalborg, and Aarhuus, and that of Norway was Bergen. In England, London continued still to be the only emporium, but in the 15th century Bristol also began to rise. Lastly, with respect to industry, it was chiefly silk-weaving and dyeing, that were, the former art introduced, the latter improved, since the crusades. The Normans, settled on the island of Sicily, waged war against the Eastern empire, and in 1 148, headed by their king, Roger II., they took in Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, where, as in Constantinople, silk-manufactures were flourishing. Greek silk-weavers were now by them induced to go to Sicily and in- struct people there in the mysteries of their art. The latter, thus introduced for the first time in Italy, was soon improved with great success at Palermo ; thence it was transplanted to Lucca, in 1309 to Venice, and since the year 1314 to Florence, Milan, Bologna, etc. The art of dyeing was improved chiefly by the multiplication of dyeing materials ; saffron, alum, and prob- ably indigo too, being introduced by the crusaders. Orchilla. as dyeing material, was not known in Europe before the 14th cen- tury, and first brought from the Orient to Florence in the year 1300. Sicily, favored by its climate, enjoyed the peculiar SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 51 Origin of Free Citizenships and Corporations. advantage of cultivating the sugar-cane, and introducing the im- portant article of this tropical produce into Europe. Before the period of the crusades, honey was the only substitute for sugar throughout Europe, until the first crusaders became acquainted with the sugar-cane in Syria. Already, before the middle of the 12th century, it was cultivated in Sicily on a large scale ; thence it was transplanted to Madeira (discovered in 1419), and finally to the West Indies. Even so early as the 14th century the con- sumption of sugar in Italy was immense. (i.) It is obvious that these various improvements, occasioned by the crusades, could not forbear to react favorably upon the condition of the citizens in most of the European towns. Many communities acquired their independence and privileges by grant- ing loans or gratuities to their sovereigns in cases of pecuniary embarrassments. The first cities, obtaining substantial privileges, were those of Upper and Central Italy, which availing themselves of the opportunity presented by the long-lasting differences be- tween the German emperors and the popes, became independent in the administration of their local affairs. Their mayors were called podestas, and partly appointed by the German emperor (see historical introduction of Italy), partly and chiefly elected by the citizens. In the beginning the governmental power was exercised exclusively by the nobles (or patricians, as they were called in most of those cities) ; but subsequently the mechanics laid claim to a participation in government, and for the most part effected their desire. In Germany, those free cities, whose last remnants are Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, and Frankfort, took existence during the reign of emperor Frederic II. (1215-1250), and du- ring the interregnum (1250-1273 ; see historical introduction of Germany). Although these cities continued to be subjected to the emperor, their privileges were very substantial, and comprised, among others, the right of immediateness (i. e., they were in- 52 EUROPtt, PAST AND PRESENT Municipal Privileges — Luxuries. dependent members of the German empire), the right of self- government in local affairs, the staple-right, the rights of coinage, of holding fairs, of levying customs, etc. Here, as in the Italian cities, the governmental power was at first exercised exclusively by the patricians, till in the 14th century the mechanics, or rather the guilds, obtained the right of participation in government, at least in many cities of southern Germany. In France, especially in the south of that country, the high nobility and clergy granted regales, or other similar privileges, to many cities, partly for money, and partly because they considered the flourishing of these cities suitable to their own interest. In Aragon (see § 16), since the year 1137, comprising Catalonia also, there were likewise privileged cities, besides Barcelona ; yet the governmental power here was divided between royal and municipal officers. In the north of Europe, only Novogorod and Pleskow in Russia, and Wisby in Sweden, enjoyed similar privileges (Novogorod even more) as the Italian and German free cities. The increasing number and wealth of free citizens influenced greatly on the im- provement of manufactures and of industry in general, and the reaction proved favorable in almost every branch of human exer- tion. The cloth manufactories, for instance, being in this period most extensive and flourishing in Italy, Germany, France, Switzer- land, Spain, Englaud, and above all in the Netherlands (where Louvain, Ghent, Dendermonde, Ypres, Brussels, Bruges, etc., were highly distinguished for their cloth manufactures, and those of Bruges alone yielded the means of existence to more than 10,000 families), were promoting in an extraordinary manner the raising of sheep, which branch of husbandry was cultivated chiefly in England and Spain. The prevailing luxury influenced again on the manufactures. Scarlet and citrine were the most fashionable colors of dress in the middle ages ; and in the beginning of the 14th century, even the lower classes of Genoa wore red garments SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 53 Drinking Propensities and Customs. with lemon-colored lining, at least on holydays. Scarlet state- dresses were sometimes lined with green. The ladies of Placen- tia, and of other Italian cities, used to wear wide and long scarlet dresses, either of fine woollen, or of silk and velvet, or of gold- brocade. Sleeves and girdles were set with pearls. Besides diamond rings on the fingers, the hair was adorned with gold chains, pearls, and precious stones. In many cities of Germany, Flanders, Brabant, and France, the ladies were not inferior to those of Italy in finery. On the other side, the gentlemen were not behind-hand in ornament, and even their breeches were em- broidered with gold, silver, and pearls. That the delight in the pleasures of the table kept pace with this luxury, is a matter of course ; but a most striking feature in the customs of the middle ages were the so-called draughts of honor, or, in plain words, the drinking propensity. In Germany, the Netherlands, and in the north of France, beer was the common beverage, in the northern countries, mead, and in the southern, wine. Yet, in the first-named countries, wine also was drunk in great quantities. In the drink- ing-rooms of the cities formal drinking rules had been established by practice. The drinkers sat down round " the abbot and his monks," viz. : round the great bumper and the smaller ones, and the chairman insisted upon strict observance of the rules. Woe to him who was dilatory in pledging! He incurred the risk of having the contents of the bumper thrown into his face. Mead was a beverage from ancient times in the north of Europe ; it was even exported from Germany, through Constantinople, to Syria and Palestine, until the end of the 12th century. In Meissen, on the Elbe, it was brewed in such quantities, that in 1015, at winter time, when the river was frozen over, a rather great fire was extinguished with mead. The multiplication of the branches of industry, and the improvement of the condition of mechanics and tradesmen, gave rise to the formation of guilds, EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Guilds — Hanseatic League. or corporations of mechanics and tradesmen. They originated in the period of the crusades, and soon spread over all countries of Europe. In Italy they were most numerous, and Florence, for instance, numbered at one time not less than 72 different guilds. The guild of the cloth-weavers, belonged to those that stood highest in credit. Next to Italy, the guilds were most numerous in Germany. In the middle ages, cases of sword-law occurred frequently, but never in such degree as since the midst of the 13th century. About the same time, numerous pirates were roving about the European seas. Thus the communications, both by land and by sea, were infested ; and whereas, in Germany, the interregnum (1250-1273) prevented the redress by govern- ment, or in any other regular way, several commercial towns en- tered into a confederacy for mutual defence. This was the origin of the renowned Hanseatic League, to which belonged nearly 80 cities and towns of Germany, Prussia, and the Netherlands, among others, the following: Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Brunswick, Luneburg, Magdeburg, Breslau, Dortmund, Soest, Osnabruck, Stralsund, Wismar, Rostock, Stettin, Konigsberg, Elbing, Dant- zick, Amsterdam, Arnhem, Dort, Deventer, Groningen, Zutphen, Zwoll, Middelburg; moreover, Cracow in Poland, Dorpat in Livonia, and Wisby on the Swedish island of Gothland. In the course of time, Lubec became the head of the Hanseatic League that entertained a large navy. The Guildhall, in London, was established, if not directly by this league, yet by a corporation of German merchants. Other confederacies in Germany were the Rhenish League, which was established at Mentz in 1255, and to whom belonged not only Mentz, Worms, Spire, Frankfort on the Maine, etc., but also Cologne, Wesel, Munster, and other members of the Hanseatic League. To the Swabian League, originating partly in the 13th, but chiefly in the 15th century, belonged SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 65 Geographical Knowledge— Poetry and the Fine Arts. Nuremberg, Augsburg, and other cities of southern Germany that traded chiefly with Italy. (j.) New scientific progress since the crusades, was chiefly made in Geography and other kindred branches of knowledge The geographical conceptions hitherto prevailing in most parts of Europe, were in some measure enlarged and corrected by the crusades, and moreover by the accounts of several missionaries sent to Karakorum (830 miles north-west from Pekin, and 370 miles south from Irkutsk), once the splendid capital and residence of the Mongolian emperors, by the pope, and king Louis IX. of France, in 1246, and the following years. Besides these mission- aries, a Venetian merchant, named Marco Polo, visited Mongolia, or Tartary, and thence China, Cochinchina, Malacca, Ceylon, Persia, and Armenia, in the period from the year 1271 to 1295. Although mixed with numerous fables, his accounts are, in sub- stance, correct ; yet they did not in general add much to geo- graphical knowledge for want of auxiliary knowledge in nautical and other mathematical branches. All mathematical acquire- ments at that time had been derived from Arabian authors, or Arabian translations of Greek authors. This latter fact may appear strange ; as of course it might have been much better to make use of the Greek original instead of translations. But (with the exception of the Eastern empire and Arabian Spain) in Europe the study and knowledge of the ancient Greek language did not commence before the latter half of the 15th century ; and until then no other Bible was used or scarcely known than its Latin translation, commonly called Vulgata. The fine arts made, in this period, much greater progress than the sciences. Espe- cially poetry rose to a high state of improvement, and assumed, after the crusades, the character of the romantic. Epic and lyrical poetry flourished chiefly in Germany and in France, and highly celebrated were the German poets of the 12th and 13th 66 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Invention of Gunpowder— Art of Printing. century (they were called Minnesingers, or minstrels of love), and at the same period the Troubadours, or poets of Provence, and other parts of southern France. Even on the island of Iceland (at that time a fertile and well-cultivated country) the spirit of poetry was improved with the greatest success. The Scandina- vian poets of the middle ages were called Scalds. Painting and sculpture were first raised to independent fine arts in the 13th century; the former by Cimabue (born in 1240, died in 1300), the latter by Nicolo Pisano (the latter surname alludes to Pisa, where he lived in the midst of the 13th century). Painting on glass and plastic brass founding were at a high pitch of improve- ment in this period ; but above all. architecture, whose admirable grandeur in the Germanic, or New Gothic style (an improvement of the original Gothic style) dates chiefly from the 13th century. The construction of the cathedrals of Paris, Rouen, Rheims, and Amiens, of Burgos and Toledo, of Cologne and Magdeburg, and of St. Peter in York, and of Westminster Abbey in London, commenced in this century, while that of the cathedral of Stras- burg commenced in 1018, and of those of Vienna and of Freiburg (now belonging to the grand-duchy of Baden) commenced towards the midst of the 12th century. Not only churches, but also monasteries, or abbeys, palaces, castles, town-halls, bridges, etc., were at that time built in the above-named style. (k.) Since the days of the crusades, Europe had more and more become the focus of universal history, yet it attained its permanent ascendency in this respect not before the end of the 15th century, when not only the use of gunpowder (invented, according to common supposition, about the year 1350, by a monk, at Freiburg in Baden, named Barthold Schwarz) had become more general, but the invention of the art of printing (in 1 440) had brought another not less powerful, though moral weapon into its hand, and moreover now the discovery of America (in 1492), SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 57 The Reformation. and of the passage by sea to India (1498), opened at once, as it were, all temporal treasures to its spirit of enterprise, and ex- tended its commerce, hitherto confined to the Mediterranean Sea, in a rather short time over the whole earth. While these impor- tant discoveries brought on the most substantial changes in the material condition and circumstances of Europe, not less portentous spiritual alterations were effected by the almost simultaneous Refor- mation, dating from October 31, 1517. It is remarkable, and gives a new evidence of the defectiveness of human exertions and per- formances, that all those inventions, discoveries, and events, good as they were in themselves (perhaps with the exception of the in- vention of gunpowder), proved to have their wrong side too. So, for instance, Christianity is indebted to the art of printing for the circulation of the Holy Scriptures among all classes of society, and the sciences are indebted to this art for their high state of improvement ; but. at the same time, infidelity and revolutionary spirit have likewise availed themselves of this powerful lever to propagate their mischievous principles, unfortunately with great success. The advantages of the discovery of America have been immense in almost every respect ; yet it not only proved fatal in its consequences to the discoverers themselves, in drying up the intrinsical sources of prosperity in Spain ; but it transformed, almost throughout Europe, the hitherto more or less prevailing meek and quiet spirit, into a turbulent one. While the former "is in the sight of God of great price" (1 Pet. iii. 4), the latter is of great annoyance to those who are excited by this spirit. The benefits of the Reformation are unquestionable ; nevertheless, the arch-enemy knew very well how to avail himself even of this blessing. He suggested, that the primitive aim of the Reforma- tion had been not only the overthrow of superstition, but the overthrow of Christianity itself; and hence the whole host of English deists, French atheists, and German rationalists, have, 3* 58 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Thirty Years' War— Balance of Power. under the head of superstition, directed their weapons against everlasting divine truths, and united in the attempt to supplant the latter by human deceptions, or rather by their own wrong- headed fancies. Characteristic in this respect is the fact that at the very time when the first French revolution was at its highest pitch of excess, a prostitute acted the part of the goddess of reason ! 18. Besides this tendency to infidelity, it was chiefly the improve- ment of foreign and domestic politics, which marked the prevailing spirit of the age in the last three centuries. All the principal events of Europe, from the 16th to the end of the 18th century, may be traced to this latter head. The German emperor, Charles V., was the first European prince who followed a steady line of policy ; the next were Philip II. of Spain, and Henry IV. of France ; then followed Richelieu, and the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus ; Louis XIV., and William III. (of the house of Orange) ; Peter I., Frederic II., and Catharine II. The war of thirty years (1618-1648) was, among those of a general character, the only one that did not (at least not directly) arise from the principles of this policy ; for it was the natural result of a reactionary ten- dency, called forth on the part of the Roman Catholics by the Refor- mation. But the chief motive of all other wars in the before- named period, was more or less the desire of conquest and aggran- dizement. Thus the wars of Henry II. of France, of Philip II., of Richelieu (or nominally of Louis XIII.), and above all, those of Louis XIV., had no other aim. Henry IV. of France, was the inventor, and king William III. of England, the improver of that whimsical policy known by the name of European equilibrium. A balance was imagined, with Western Europe in the one, and Eastern Europe in the other scale, and now it was the rulers' problem of constantly equipoising and balancing. Thus the reciprocal countries and provinces were to be weighed in a manner SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 59 French Preponderance — Licentiousness — Infidelity. not unlike that of the grocer who is weighing his spices. Only to this strange rule of politics European Turkey owes the contin- uation of its existence. Henry IV. was, by the stabs of Ravaillac. prevented from realizing his dreams of equilibrium ; while William III. sacrificed to them the public interest of Holland, his native country. Even so late as the year 1790, King Frederic William II. of Prussia, was about to wage war against Austria and Russia, merely for the sake of the fancied European equilibrium. Before the days of Louis XIV. Spain and the German Empire ranked foremost among the European powers, but since then France had attained the ascendency, although her political preponderance had begun to be lessened by degrees so early as the year 1692, when in the battle of La Hogue her navy received the first fatal blow from the English. Yet her moral ascendency and influence has unfortunately continued to the present day, and generated all that corruption and licentiousness in customs and manners by which Europe became infected. The abominable public and pri- vate behavior of Louis XIV. set a bad example not only to his own subjects, but also to other nations ; first to foreign princes, then to their subjects. The still more ignominious dissoluteness of his successor, Louis XV., pulled down the last barriers of ven- eration and shame, the more so as this king stupidly suffered Voltaire, and the other French atheists, to undermine both the Christian faith and his own throne. Diderot was even allowed to declare publicly, that the sovereign happiness of man would begin as soon as the last king had been strangled with the entrails of the last priest ! German book-learned fancymongers, and Eng- lish so-called philosophers, aping the French fashion-leaders, as- sisted them faithfully in their endeavors, and even that great Prussian, King Frederic II., was in this respect so infatuated that in his epistolary correspondence with Voltaire, d'Alembert, and others of the same stamp, the letters written by him, as 60 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Plan of the separate accounts of each country. well as those written by his correspondents, closed always with the refrain : ecrasez Vinfame ! And let it be remembered that this blasphemous motto was applied to our Saviour himself! At that time, in the higher circles, and partly even among the lower classes of society in France, it was the fashion to deny the exist- ence of God ; materialism was the watchword and idol of the age ; the most insolent and disgusting selfishness went hand in hand with these principles, and a French author asserted publicly, that egotism was to be considered as the only and genuine motive of human actions. " Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools." (Rom. i. 22.) The excesses and crimes of the first French revolution (1789) were a natural sequence to this state of things. Entering now into particulars of the description of Europe, we shall describe the different countries in the following order of succession: — Portugal, Prussia, Spain, Austria, Italy, Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway, France, Russia, Great Britain and Ireland, Ionian Islands, Belgium and Holland, Greece, Germany, Turkey. It may, at the first glance, appear somewhat strange that we commence with Portugal, one of the less interesting countries of Europe. But, on due consideration, it seemed most natural to begin at the extreme boundaries, viz. : either on the north-east, i. e., with Russia, or on the south-west, i. e., with Portugal. Russia SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 61 Proposed Description of the several Countries. presents indeed far greater interest than Portugal ; but as the description of that country must indispensably digress in many instances into Asiatic Russia, and would at the same time imply the necessity of giving next after Russia the description of other eastern countries (Turkey, etc.), it appeared more suitable to com- mence with Portugal. PORTUGAL. Area : 36,508 square miles. Population: 3,725,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Portugal, comprising the western coast of the Pyrenean peninsula is upon an average 106 miles in breadth, surrounded on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the other sides by Spain. Of the above-stated area continental Portugal comprises 35,358 square miles, while the remainder is to be assigned to the Azore Isles, which, together with the former, constitute one and the same political body, and rank among the other Portuguese prov- inces. Thus they are not to be considered as African colonies, like Cape Verd Islands, Angola, etc. ; and as they at the same time are situated very nearly opposite Lisbon, and little more than 800 miles distant from continental Portugal (while the dis- tance between them and the next points of Africa amounts to more than 920 miles), they are very improperly ranked by most geographers as among the African Islands. Of the above-stated population, 3,500,000 live in continental Portugal, and 250,000 inhabitants on the Azore Isles. The Roman Catholic profession is the religion of the state, though all other denominations are tolerated. The archbishop of Lisbon bears the title of patriarch since the year 1717; besides him, there are 6 bishops in Portugal and its colonies (formerly there were 12 archbishops and 14 bishops), and their dioceses comprise PORTUGAL. n x ( 'limate— Soil— Productions. 4,086 parishes. Even so late as the year 1821 Portugal still numbered 360 monasteries with 5,760 monks, and 126 uunneries with 2,725 nuns. But in 1834 all cloisters were abolished. The surface of the country is in general mountainous, though not in such a prevailing manner as in Spain. The highest mountain ranges of Portugal are the Sierra de Estrella, rising to 7,700 feet in height, and the Sierra Monchique (see Introduction, § 7, ,.). The principal rivers of Portugal are, the Tagus, Douro, Minho, and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). Besides them there are only coast-rivers, e. g., the Mondego, the Lima, etc. The climate is in general mild and salubrious. The soil is upon the whole very fertile in the valleys and plains, especially in Algarve, and might yield the richest crops of various kind, if the people were more diligent and intelligent. Here, as in Spain, the possession of rich colonies paralyzed more or less the vigor of the national spirit, and while in the 16th century the riches of India, and subsequently those of Brazil, directed their streams to Portugal, the people sunk by degrees into indolence and poverty. Until the 16th century the cultivation of corn was the most productive source of wealth to the country ; but later it was more and more neglected, and already for many years past the corn raised in Portugal is not sufficient for home consumption. Wine, sea-salt, and olive oil, are the chief natural products of the country. The best wines are those produced in the environs of Oporto (universally known by the name of port-wine), and in the vicinity of Lisbon and St. Ubes. Algarve yields the best olive oil, and the chief place for making sea-salt is St. Ubes. Hemp and flax are cultivated in some northern districts. The rearing of cattle is far less important than the rearing of mules, and horses. Fine sheep are reared, and they produce valuable wool. The rearing of silk-worms is rather considerable. EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Industry— Commerce— Education. The industry was hitherto in a backward state as well as the agriculture ; yet in recent times several of its branches have been improved with much success. To be noticed are: the silk manu- factories of Oporto, Braganza, and Campo Grande (near Lisbon), the cloth and woollen manufactories of Portalegre, Covilhan, and Fundao, the manufactories of calico, gold and silver ware of Lisbon and Oporto, the linen manufactories in the provinces of Minho, Beira, and Traz os Montes ; and finally the tanneries of Lisbon, St. Ubes, Oporto, Coimbra, Beja, etc. The commerce of Portugal, once very extensive, especially in the 16th century, and even in the last century, is now quite limited, and the imports far exceed the exports in value. Since the days of Cromwell, and chiefly since the conclusion (in 1703) of the so-called Methuen-treaty (derived from the name of the English plenipotentiary, named Methuen), the English have not only acted the part of masters of the country, but almost exer- cised a monopoly on Portugal, into which they import even the meanest necessaries of life besides their manufactures. Fortu- nately the exports of port- wine to England are very considerable ; otherwise the Portuguese would have to pay the whole of the English imports in ready money. In 1844, Portugal exported 33,946 pipes of port-wine, of which 25,492 were exported to England, 3,278 to the United States, 1,943 to Brazil, 919 to Hamburg, 716 to Calcutta, and Hongkong, 290 to Sweden, Nor- way, and Denmark, 225 to Canada, 212 to Halifax, 162 to Hol- land, 109 to Newfoundland, 95 to Russia, 67 to Prussia, 6 to France, and 432 to the Portuguese colonies. The means of education are very deficient, notwithstanding the pompous names of the different schools. Besides one university at Coimbra (founded in 1297 at Lisbon, but in 1308 transferred to Coimbra; in 1841 it numbered 1,300 students), public reports of the year 1841 enumerated 17 seminaries, 27 lyceums. 8 gymna- PORTUGAL. Government— Finances. shims, 263 progymnasiums,* and 873 common schools ; yet all these schools were, in the named year, frequented by no more than 31.280 pupils. (The common schools of the city of Berlin alone, were at the same period frequented by as many pupils.) Moreover, the instruction itself is managed in a rather miserable manner. It is needless to remark that under these circumstances very few of the lower class in Portugal can read and write. The government of Portugal is a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King, or, at present, Queen (Donna Maria II. da Gloria, born April 4, 1819, ascending the throne in 1834. and married in second marriage to Prince Ferdi- nand, of Coburg-Kohary), and a legislative body. With respect to the public finances, the official statement for the period of 1845-1846 estimated the amount of the revenue at 10,756,954 millrees (one millree is little more in value than one dollar), and that of the expenditure at 10,717,542 millrees. * As the above-mentioned terms will frequently occur in this work, it may be suitable to give some explanations about them. The higher schools of continental Europe have the same object in view, but in general not the same organization as those of the United States. Universities have, in Germany, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, etc., the signification of high schools, where all branches of science are taught, and which for this purpose unite the four fac- ulties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy (including astrono- my and the higher branches of mathematics, history ,etc.). Lyceums and Gym- nasiums are those higher schools, where all branches of preparatory knowledge, necessary for those who frequent the universities, are taught (for instance, the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, mathematics, etc.). Their pupils are (at least in most of the countries of continental Europe) not boarders, but frequent the ly ceums and gymnasiums only at certain hours of the day and then go home again. Seminaries have in Europe almost everywhere the signification of prepara- tory schools for future teachers. Progymnasiums are schools where, beside the elements of knowledge, the Latin is taught, and which for this reason are as frequently called Latin schools. EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Public Debt— Army— Navy. Nevertheless in the preceding year, 1844, the actual amount of the revenue was 9,843,000, and of the expenditure 11,158,000 millrees. Thus a deficiency of 1,315,000 millrees became appa- rent. At the same period the public debt was 84,130,000 millrees, of which amount only 73,957,000 yielded interest. This state of things must appear somewhat strange, when we consider that in 1834 nearly 500 cloisters were abolished (see ante) and their estates confiscated in behalf of commonwealth. The produce of the sale must have been very considerable, as most of these con- vents were wealthy, and some of them had an annual revenue of more than $100,000. Towards the end of the year 1836 the real- ization of all these estates had been effected ; nevertheless, one or two months afterwards, viz. : on the first of February, 1837, the minister of finances declared publicly and officially a deficiency to the extent of 5,312,500 millrees! Thus the money got by the sale of the monastic estates cannot have been deposited in the public treasury, but must in some way or other have gone astray. And so it is. The Portuguese people have not received a farthing of the money, and their public burdens, instead of being alleviated, have on the contrary been aggravated by adding new items to the former heavy taxes ; but Don Pedro and his English and Portuguese adherents have been enriched by that lucrative experiment ; and it is a fact that golden crosses, sacred vessels, and many other objects of great value, have clandestinely been pilfered and carried away to England. The Portuguese army amounts, according to official statement, to 25,970, but actually only to about 18,000 men, besides 9,000 men in the colonies. The navy is at present reduced to 5 frigates, 4 sloops of war, and several other vessels of smaller size. In 1783, and still in 1808, the naval force of Portugal consisted of 10 ships of the line, 18 frigates, etc., all in good order; and in PORTUGAL. 67 Ordrrs of Honor— History of Portugal. 1825 it numbered at least still 5 ships of the line, while at pres- ent there is none more left. The Portuguese orders of honor are the following: — 1. The orJer of merit of St. Benedict of Aviz, established in 1162 as a religious order of knighthood, but in 1789 transformed by Maria I. into a military order of merit. 2. The order of St. Jago from the year 1288, transformed by Maria I. into an order of merit. 3. The order of Christ, derived from the papal order having the same name (see introduction, of the States of the Church). 4. The order of St. John, arisen from that order from the year 1048, described above (see History of Europe, § 17, h). 5. The order of tower and sword, established in 1459, and renewed in 1808. 6. The order of the immaculate conception of Villa Vicosa, established in 1819 by John VI. History of Portugal. — Portugal was called Lusitania by the Romans, who waged war against this country since the year 148, B. C, but did not conquer it completely before the year 19, B. C. Its fate since the migration of nations we have learned from the history of Europe (§§ 2, 10, 14, and 16), and we shall now enter into further particulars. About the midst of the 11th century King Ferdinand of Castile wrested the greatest part of Lusitania from the Moors. In these wars Count Henry of Burgundy (see History of Burgundy under the head of France) rendered such signal services to King Alphonso VL of Castile, that the latter, in reward for them, gave him, in 1093, his daughter in marriage and a Lusitanian province in dowry. This province, comprising the present provinces of Traz os Montes and Entre Minho e Douro, was styled the earldom of Portucalia (derived from Portus Cafe, the ancient name of Oporto), and thus Count Henry became the first count of Portugal (this latter name was derived from Portucalia). Henry's son and successor, Alphonso Henriquez, prosecuted the conquests of his father, and having in 1139 in the battle at Ourique (at the Algafvian frontier) vanquished five Moorish kings (hence the five bucklers in the Portuguese coat of arms), he was proclaimed king of Portugal by his troops. Soon after acknowledged and confirmed in his new dignity by the pope Alexander HI., he in 1143 summoned the Cortes or States of his empire to an assembly at Lamego, and on this occasion it was EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Portugal— Early Voyages and Discoveries. when the fundamental laws of Portugal, together with the order of succession, were established. King Alphonso IV. (1325-1357) was renowned for his valor, yet he polluted his glory by consenting to the assassination of his daughter-in-law, the handsome Inez (Agnes) de Castro, clandestinely married to his son Peter Z, surnamed the Cruel (on account of the frightful revenge ho took on the murderers of Inez). Peter the Cruel (died in 1367) was suc- ceeded by his eldest son Ferdinand who died in 1383, and with whom the so-called genuine Burgundian race became extinct. For the second marriage of Peter the Cruel with Inez de Castro was not considered as a legitimate one ; and for this reason a Castilian prince claimed the right of succession on the Portuguese throne. Yet the Portuguese Cortes, or states, filled with hatred against the Castilians, proclaimed, in 1 384, Peter's second son John king of Portugal. John I. being the son of Inez de Castro, he and his suc- cessors were comprehended under the appellation of the bastard Burgundian race. Nevertheless to the kings of this race the Portuguese owe the ages of their highest renown. For at the beginning of the next or 15th century those famous voyages of discovery commenced which ended in unlocking to the Portuguese the treasures of India and Brazil, and ranked them, at least for a long while, among the first nations of the world. They were superintended by Don Henry, son of King John I., who personally interested himself in these enterprises. The first vessels he, in 1416, sent out for this purpose sailed close by the north-western coast of Africa, and did not venture to double Cape Bojador; in 1418 the island of Porto Santo (near Madeira), in 1419 that of Madeira, and in 1432 the Azore Isles, were discovered and set- tled. In the last-named year Cape Bojador was at length doubled, and later Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, Cape Verd Islands, and Guinea discovered. King John II. was of a very active and enterprising character too ; he frequently sent vessels to the West- African shores, and thus in 1486 Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Barthol. Diaz. On the 9th of July, 1497, Vasco de Gama sailed from Lisbon ; he doubled the last-named cape on the 20th of Novem- ber, and arrived at the port of Calicut on the 19th of May, 1498. Thus the maritime way to India was opened to the enterprising spirit of the civilized world, six years after the discovery of America. King Emanuel of Portugal, the successor of John II. since the year 1495, hastened to avail himself of the important discovery made by Vasco de Gama (who returned to Lisbon, August 29, 1499), and sent a fleet of 13 vessels to India in 1500. On this occasion Brazil was discovered. But we must now return to the political history of PORTUGAL. 09 History — Spanish Rule — House of Braganza. Portugal. King Emanuel died 1521, and was succeeded by John III., who died in 1557, and was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian. Unfortunately King Sebastian was at the period of the regal vacancy only three years old, and his education, as well as the regency during his minority, was intrusted to the care of the Jesuits, who inspired him with a fanatic spirit to such a degree that it became his most ardent desire to wage war against the infidels. Guided by this spirit and turning a deaf ear to the warnings of his counsel- lors and even of the king of Spain, he in 1578 ventured an expedition against the Moors of Morocco, and on the 4th of August, in a bloody battle at Alcassar, not only his army was totally routed, but he himself disappeared in a myste- rious manner forever. His only legitimate successor to the crown was the old cardinal Henry, third son of King Emanuel, but his reign was of short duration; for he died in 1580. Amongst the pretenders to the throne who now came forth with their claims, the most powerful was King Philip II. of Spain, whose mother had been the eldest daughter of King Emanuel. Philip, countenancing his claims by an army of 24,000 men, attained his aim, and thus Portugal was, in the period from the year 1580 to 1640, under the sway of Spain. Yet the national hatred between the Portuguese and the Spaniards did not subside; and Philip's next nearest successor, Philip IV., being a weak and indolent king, the Portuguese seized the first opportunity of casting off the odious Spanish yoke, and proclaimed the duke of Braganza king of Portugal (December 1, 1640). The duke of Braganza was the de- scendant of a natural son of King John I. (see above), and mounted the throne as King John IV. Since that time the house of Braganza has continued to reign over the kingdom of Portugal. John IV. died in 1656, and his succes- sors were the following : Alphonso VI. (1656-1667), Peter II. (1667-1706), John V. (1706-1750), Joseph I. (1750-1777), Maria I. (1777-1816), and John VI. (1816-1826). The reign of the rather imbecile King Joseph I. was sig- nalized by the despotic proceeding of his minister, the marquis of Pombal f who. being a mimic and enthusiastic admirer of the so-called French philoso- phers (see History of Europe towards the end), intended to civilize, or rather to force the Portuguese people into his Utopian system at any price. Pre- possessed as he was with his insensate ideas and dreams, he treated every one, who seemed to stand in his way, with the utmost recklessness and tyranny ; and after his degradation (which took place at the death of King Joseph), the astonishing discovery was made that several rooms of his palace were filled with letters of petition, claims, etc., unopened! Prince John 70 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Portugal— Brazil— Contest of Pedro with M gnrl. (subsequently King John VI.) was in 1792 declared Prince Regent in conse- quence of his mother's insanity. He did not meddle at all with the French revolution and the subsequent political affairs of Europe ; yet being compelled by the English to disregard the continental system established by Napoleon, the latter sent, towards the end of October, 1807, an army to invade Portugal. In these circumstances the Prince Regent followed the advice of the English, and embarked with the royal family for Brazil, the chief Portuguese colony. Here he resided until the year 1821, when he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son Don Pedro behind. In the following year (1822) Don Pedro declared himself emperor of Brazil, which country has since continued to be an independent empire ; and by this declaration he actually renounced his hereditary right of succession to the Porhtguese crown, according to the clear terms of the order of succession established in 1641 by the Cortes of Lamego (as the legitimate representatives of the Portuguese people were called). Thus, when John VI. died in 1826, his legitimate successor was his second son, Don Miguel, who indeed was in 1828 proclaimed king by the Cortes with the agreement of the majority of the Portuguese people. But as Don Miguel considered both the English monopoly (see above) and a constitution of modern pattern as incompatible with the interest and welfare of the Por- tuguese people, he aroused on the one side the jealousy of the British gov- ernment, and on the other side the rage of the liberal party in France and other countries. Meanwhile Don Pedro had in 1831 been compelled by the Brazil- ians to abdicate, and was driven away. He went to Paris and lived there in retirement, until English stock-jobbers, headed by Lord Pahnerston, induced him to venture an expedition against his brother. The former provided him money, and the latter with adventurers of every kind. It would be endless to relate all the tricks, machinations, briberies, etc., employed for the purpose of attaining the aim. In short, Don Pedro at last succeeded, and in 1834 his daughter Donna Maria II. (see above) mounted the throne. In the same year died Don Pedro (on the 24th of September), having previously taken care to provide for himself and his good friends by confiscating the estates of the con- vents (see above). We are well aware that this statement of the modern part of Portuguese history differs from the misrepresentations circulated about Portugal in these last twenty or twenty- five yeais. But as it is the duty of every lristorian to adhere strictly to historical truth, we have not a moment hesitated to give the facta as they actually have been, and not as they should have been, according to feverish dreams, commonly called the spirit of the age. PORTUGAL. • 71 Geographical Description— Estremadura. Portugal (exclusive of the islands) has from old been divided into 6 provinces, of which the most southerly is styled the king- dom of Algarve. In 1835, of the two provinces of Beira and Entre Minho e Douro four provinces were formed, and the whole of the provinces subdivided into 17 districts. But as this altera- tion is not an essential one, we shall, for the sake of simplifica- tion, retain the former division. 1. The province of Estremadura (subdivided into the 3 districts of Lis- bon, Leiria, and Santarem), at the mouth and on both sides of the Tagus, containing: Lisbon (Portuguese Lisboa), the capital of Portugal and royal residence, on the right bank of the Tagus, with 280,000 inhabitants, 44 parish- churches (among them the remarkable cathedral), and numerous other churches and chapels, many charitable institutions, fine public and private buildings, a royal academy of sciences, a royal library with 85,000 volumes, 3 observatories, etc., and the royal palaces of Ajitda, Bemposta, and Necessi.- daden. Lisbon is a place of considerable commerce, and has one of the finest harbors in the world. A magnificent aqueduct, built in 1743 entirely of marble, supplies the city with fresh water. Lisbon has frequently suffered by earthquakes ; the most formidable of them were those of 1356, 1597, and especially of 1755 (Nov. 1), when one half of the city was destroyed, and more than 30,000 of the inhabitants perished. Upon the whole, the city is ill-built, and numerous dogs are running about in the dirty streets. Lisbon, wrested from the Moors in 1147, has since the days of John I., been royal residence. Belem, though a town by itself, is considered as forming a part of Lisbon ; it is noted for its royal castle, and a magnificent pile, formerly an abbey of the order of St. Jerome, the church of which contains the royal family vault. Another royal castle is at Queluz. About 14 miles to the north-west of Lisbon is situated the town of Cintra, with 4,000 inhabitants, and the remarkable so-called cork-cloister, the interior walls of which are covered with cork in order to keep off humidity. Quite near lie3 the village of Vimieira, noted for the first important battle between the English and the French in 1808. The royal palace of Mafra, built in the period from 1717-1731, contains 870 apartments, with 5,200 windows, and bears in many points resemblance to the famous palace of the Escurial in Spain. Torres Yedras, a city with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for the strong lines of fortifica- 72 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Geographical Description— Beira— Douro. tions which Lord Wellington established here in 1810. About 55 miles to the north of Lisbon are situated the stately building of the former monaste- ries of Alcobaca (founded in 1148), and Batalha (founded in 1386), whose monks were altogether nobles and possessed of immense riches. Santarem, a town on the right bank of the Tagus, 46 miles above Lisbon, with 8,000, and Abrantes, 37 miles farther up the river, with considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabitants. St. Ubes, or Setubal, a sea- town at 18 miles distance from Lis- bon, has 15,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works. Other cities and towns in the province of Estremadura are : Leiria (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pombal (with 4,000 inhabitants), Obidos (witli 5,500 inhabitants), Ourem (with 4,500 inhabitants), Thomar (with 3,800 inhabitants), Ahnada (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cezimbra (with 4,500 inhabitants), etc. 2. The province of Beira, between the Douro and Tagus rivers, and subdi- vided into the districts of Coimbra, Aveiro, Lamego. and Guarda (belonging to Upper Beira), and of Castello Branco (or Lower Beira) ; containing : Co- imbra, capital of the province, on the Mondego, north-north-east, and 110 miles distant from Lisbon, and southward and 69 miles distant from Oporto, with the only university of the country (see above), a remarkable cathedral, considerable inland commerce, and 15,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Coimbra was for years the royal residence, and in a garden on the opposite side of the Mondego the unfortunate Inez de Castro was murdered in 1350 (see History of Portugal). Aveiro, a maritime town at the mouth of the Vouga river, with 4,500 inhabitants. Vizeu, or Viseu, a town situated south- east, and 50 miles distant from Oporto, with great fairs, and 9,000 inhabitants. Lamego, a city eastward and 46 miles distant from Oporto, with 9,000 inhabi- tants, cultivating much vine. At Lamego the Cortes or states of Portugal framed the fundamental laws of the kingdom (see History of Portugal). Other cities and towns in the province of Beira are : Esqueira (formerly noted for its oldest and wealthiest Benedictine convent of the country), Figueira do Mon- dego (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pinhel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Almeida (strongly fortified, with 3,000 inhabitants), Covilhao (with 6,000 inhabitants), Castellobranco (with 6,500 inhabitants), Ovar (with 11,000 inhabitants), etc. 3. The province of Entre Minho e Douro, on the west bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Spanish province of Galicia, and on the other sides by Beira and Traz os Montes ; it is the best cultivated, most indus- trious, and most populous province (subdivided into the 3 districts of Oporto, Braga, and Viana), and contains : OroaTo, or Porto, the capital of the prov- PORTUGAL. 73 Geographical Description— Traz os Montes— Algarve. ince, on the right bank of the Douro, is not only the second city, but the sec- ond emporium of the kingdom; Ion* since famous for its considerable exports of port-wine (see the particulars above), and has moreover numerous manufac- tures of various descriptions, many fine building.?, 90 churches, 40 hospitals, etc., and 80,000 inhabitants. Brag a, a city situated north-north-east, and ST miles distant from Oporto, with a great and remarkable cathedral, and 15,00<> inhabitants. The Suevian kings, shortly after they had conquered the coun- try (see History of Europe, § 3), took their seat at Braga. Other cities and towns of this province are: Viana (with 8,000 inhabitants), Guhnardes (with 6,000 inhabitants), Amarante (with 4,000 inhabitants), Ponte tie Lima (with 2,500 inhabitants), Barccllos (with 5,000 inhabitants), Villa do Conde (with 3,000 inhabitants), etc. 4. The province of Tuaz os Montes (subdivided into the 2 districts of Bra- ganza and Villarcal), on the east side of the preceding province, containing : Braganza, the capital of the province, and the ancestral seat of the royal family (see History of Portugal), not far off the Spanish frontier, north-east- ward, and 184 miles distant, from Lisbon, with 5,000 inhabitants. Peso da Regoa, a little town, but noted for its considerable depot of port-wine and its famous wine-fairs in February. Other towns in this province are : Villareal (with 4,000 inhabitants), Chaves (with 5,500 inhabitants), Torre de Monoorvo (with 2,000 inhabitants), Miranda de Douro (with 1,600 inhabitants), Miran- della (with 1,800 inhabitants,) etc. 5. The province of Alemtejo, on the south side of the Tagus (divided info the 3 districts of Evora, Beja, and Portalegre), contains : Evora, the capital of the province, 74 miles south-east from Lisbon, with many Roman antiqui- ties, and 9,100 inhabitants, cultivating much vine. Bkja, a town with Roman antiquities, and 5,000 inhabitants. Elvas, a strongly fortified city near the Spanish frontier, with a remarkable aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, and 10,000 inhabitants. Villa Vicosa, a fortified town, with a royal palace, and 3,000 inhabitants. Ourique, a town near the frontier of Algarve, south- eastward, and 100 miles distant from Lisbon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for the defeat of the Moors by Alphonso I., in 1139 (see History of Portugal). Other towns of this province are : Portalegre (with 6.400 inhabitants), Estre- moz, (with 5,000 inhabitants), Moura (with 6,000 inhabitants), Serpa (with 6,000 inhabitants), Campo Mayor (with 4,500 inhabitants), Sines (with 1,200 inhabitants), etc. 6. The province (or kingdom) of Algarve, the most southerly province of 4 74 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Azores. Portugal (with an area of 2,151 square miles, and a population of 136,000 in- habitants), comprising only the district of Faro, and containing : Lagos, the ancient capital of Algarve, on a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, with 9,000 inhab- itants. Taviua, the modern capital of Algarve, near the mouth of the Gua- diana River, with 9,000 inhabitants. Near Cape St. Vincent (noted for a naval victory of the English in 1797) is situated the little town of Sagres, with the ruins of an old castle, the former seat of Don Henry, when he super- intended the famous voyages of discovery (see History of Portugal). Other towns of Algarve are : Faro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monchique (with 3,000 inhabitants), Stives (with 3,000 inhabitants), Villareal de San Antonio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Albufeira (with 1,800 inhabitants), etc. The Azores, or Western Isles, constitute, as has already been stated, together with continental Portugal, one and the same political body, and rank among the other Portuguese provinces as well as, for instance, the Balearic Isles rank among the Spanish provinces. It is not improbable that the existence of the Azores Isles was known to the Phoenicians, or at least to the Cartha- ginians ; yet to Europe they were unknown until the year 1432, when they were discovered by the Portuguese (see History of Portugal). In 1449 the first Europeans settled here. The climate of the Azores, situated between the parallels of 40° and 37 of N. lat., and between 25 D and 31 3 long, west from Green- wich, is peerless mild, and healthful ; and, besides grain and wine, oranges, lemons, and other similar fruits, thriving marvellously here, are the chief staples of the isles ; which latter yield to the government an annual revenue of about $30,000, while the ex- penditure amounts to little more than $10,000. The Azores, having together an area of 1,150 square miles, and a population of 250,000 inhabitants, comprise 9 islands, which are the follow- ing:— 1. San Miguel, or St. Michael (area : 341 square miles ; population : 100,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and fruits. Its capital is Punta Delgade, PORTUGAL. 76 Colonies. which is considered as the capital of the whole group too, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Another important staple-town is Ribeira Grande, with 12,000 inhabitants. The romantic valley of Furnas is noted for its hot and cold mineral springs. 2. Terceira (area : 224 square miles ; population : 40,000 inhabitants), with excellent pastures and numerous herds of cattle ; containing Angra, fortified town and seat of the governor of the Azores, with 15,000 inhabitants. Praya, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 3. Pico (area: 287 square miles ; population : 30,000 inhabitants), with many vineyards and a vulcan 6,500 feet high ; containing the towns of Lages (with 3,000 inhabitants), Magdalena and St. Boca. 4. San Jorge, or St. George (area: 106 square miles ; population : 20,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry and vines, containing the towns of Velas (with 4,000 inhabitants), Catheta and Topo. 5. Fayal (area : 53 square miles ; population : 24,000 inhabitants), noted for its delightful climate and tropic fruits. Horta is an important commercial town and sea-port, with 10,000 inhabitants. 6. Sta. Maria (area: 43 square miles; population: 8,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and wine. Its chief town Porto has 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Flores (area : 43 square miles ; population : 10,000 inhabitants), the most charming island of the whole group ; productive of grain and with numerous herds of cattle. Its chief town, Santa Cruz, has 3,000 inhabitants. 8. Graciosa (area : 32 square miles ; population . 12,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry, and productive of barley and wine. Its chief town bears, like that of the preceding island, the name of Santa Cruz, and has likewise 3,000 inhabitants. 9. Corvo (area: 21 square miles; population: 1,000 inhabitants), the smallest and most northerly island. Since the loss of Brazil (see History of Portugal), the Portu- guese Colonies are reduced to the following : — 1. Tn Africa: settlements and possessions in Lower Guinea and Eastern Africa, the Madeira and Cape Verd Islands, and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 2. In Asia : the cities and townships of Goa and Diu in Hin- dostan, Macao in China, and part of the island of Timor in the Indian Archipelago. SPAIN. Abea : 179,921 square miles. Population : 12,000,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Spain comprises nearly four fifths of the Pyrcnean peninsula, separated from France by the Pyrenees. The statements about the actual amount of the population dif- fer materially, even in the so-called official reports ; for want of a regular census of tlie people. Yet the estimation of 12,000,000 can, in all probability, not much fall short of the actual number of inhabitants. Besides the Spaniards proper, or Castilians (as they, in Spain, are called by way of eminence), there are 500.000 Basques (see Introduction, § 12) in the Basque provinces and Navarre, about 60,000 Modejares, or descendants of the Moors, and nearly 45,000 Gipsies The Roman Catholic is the estab- lished church ; yet all other denominations are at present not only tolerated but enjoy almost the same political privileges as the Catholics. At least the recent endeavors of protestant mis- sionaries to propagate the sound doctrines of the gospel among the Spanish people, have met with far less obstacles than could have been expected, considering the catholic zealotism pre- vailing here formerly. In 1 830 the catholic clergy of Spain numbered 8 archbishops (the archbishop of Toledo ranks fore- most as primate), 77 bishops, 2.393 canons, 1,869 prebendaries, 16,481 curates, 4,929 vicars, 17,411 beneficiaries, 27,757 seculars in orders, 15,015 sacristans, and 3,927 servitors. In the begin- SPAIN. 77 Geographical Features. ning of the year 1835, there were still 1.940 monasteries with 30.906 monks, and a proportional number of nunneries with about 24,000 nuns. But in the same year 884 of these cloisters were abolished, and the sale of their estates had yielded (accord- ing to official reports in June, 1835) a sum of 16,693,260 reals, which was designed for the alleviation of the public charges. "We shall soon see, under the head of Spanish finances, whether this intention was realized or not. Spain is thoroughly mountainous ; in regard to its chief moun- tain range, the Sierra Nevada, and the other ranges, see Introduc- tion, § 7, c ; and about the Spanish part of the Pyrenees, see § 7, b. The rivers peculiar to Spain are the Ebro, Guadalaviar, Xucar, Segura. and Guadalquivir, and those in common with Portugal : the Tagus, Ducro, Minho, and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). There is not any remarkable lake to be found throughout Spain, the Albufera, near the city of Valencia, being rather a lagoon than a lake. The Imperial canal (along the right bank of the Ebro), and the canal of Castile, scarcely deserve to be mentioued as canals. The climate is generally mild and pleasant, except in some tracts along the northern coast. The provinces of Valencia and Murcia enjoy the charms of an almost perennial spring, while in Granada and Andalusia the sugar-cane and other tropical pro- ductions thrive. Noxious winds are the cold and rough Gallego from the north, and the scorching and enfeebling Solano from Africa ; yet they commonly do not last long. The soil is generally very fertile except in some tracts of the Sierra Morena, in Estremadura and Asturias, producing in abundance, in most parts of Andalusia, and in the Mediterranean provinces, the vine, the olive, and southern fruits (among them the delicious pomegranate). The natural riches of the country consist chiefly of salt (rock- 18 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Natural Products of Spain. salt in Catalonia ; spring salt in Valencia ; sea-salt in Valencia, Sevilla. and on the Balearic Isles), olives, and other fruits of southern Europe, wines -(the choicest sorts are those from Malaga, Xeres, and Alicante), silk (in the southern provinces), horses (the finest breed in Andalusia, and next in Asturias), mules (which in Spain generally are preferred to the horses), and sheep, for which latter Spain has been renowned since the middle ages. Besides the merinos, there are two other less valuable breeds, called Churros and Metis. During summer the sheep feed on the ele- vated table lands of Castile and Leon, and are driven in winter to the low plains of Estremadura, and the adjoining provinces. Yet since the last civil war the flocks have greatly diminished in number ; and moreover, the Spanish merinos have long since dis- continued to outdo those of Germany and other countries. From the remotest ages until the beginning of the 16th century, Spain was renowned for the richness of her gold and silver mines, that were worked successfully by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Moors, and finally by the Spaniards, but were closed since the discovery of the exceedingly rich mines of Mexico and Peru. In the most recent time they have been re-opened and worked again so successfully, especially in Upper Andalusia, that in 1843 they yielded 229,090 marks of silver. For the rest, the Spanish mines yield excellent copper (yet only 300 quintals in 1843), great quantities of lead (next to England, Spain is said to possess the richest lead-mines in Europe), and quicksilver (at Almaden in the Castilian districts of La Mancha ; the annual produce is com- puted at 20.000 quintals) ; moreover, iron (chiefly in the Basque provinces ; the annual produce is on the increase), cobalt, alum, etc. Agriculture, once so flourishing in the days of the Moorish sway (see History of Europe, § 17, b), is long since in a backward state ; chiefly wheat is raised. With regard to other branches of industry, there are indeed SPAIN. 79 Industry— Commerce. woollen, silk, cotton, and various other manufactories, still to be found in Spain ; yet being unable to rival with those of Great Britain, and the English having availed themselves of their political influence, acquired during the last civil war, for tiie purpose of exercising a kind of monopoly in Spain, the Spanish manufactories are far from being in a prospering state. Since the expulsion of the Moors (the last remnants of them were driven away in 1609, and by this fanatic and insensate proceeding Spain lost 800,000 of its most diligent and most industrious inhabi- tants) Spain has ceased to be a manufacturing country. Only the woollen manufactories of Castile, the damask and silk manu- factories of Audalusia, the manufactories of arms in the north- western, and the paper manufactories in the eastern provinces, were prospering in the 17th century, while the cotton manufacto- ries of Catalonia rose in the 18th century. Nevertheless the woollen and silk looms did not exceed the number of 10,000 throughout Spain, and in 1768 there were in the whole country not more than 2.200,000 operatives, mechanics, husbandmen, and others depending for subsistence on handiwork. Since the beginning of the present century, Spain has been in an almost uninterrupted state of war, political convulsions, and internal dilacerations, which has proved fatal to most of the existing manufactures, and even to the commerce. The chief articles of export are : wines, fruits of southern Europe, salt, olive oil, corks, quicksilver, and a rather inconsiderable quantity of wool (scarcely one tenth of the quantity which was formerly exported). Of 2.830 vessels that in 1844 entered the port of Cadiz, 2.060 were Spanish coasters, while of the remainder 4S0 were English vessels, 75 from the United States, 6 from Hamburg, 4 from Bremen, 4 from Prussia, etc. Now let us see of what consist the articles of import. Besides colonial produces and spices, they consist chiefly of cloth, calicos, silks, linen, hardware, copper and 80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT Education in Spain. pewter utensils, glasswares, furniture, toys and trinkets, fancy articles, timber, corn, flax, hemp, dried and salt fish, salted beef, butter, cheese, poultry, and hogs. Now we ask, what conception can be formed of the actual state of industry in a country where kitchen and other domestic utensils, and even victuals, must be imported ? The means of education are in Spain in the same backward state as in Portugal. According to the assertion of a member of the Cortes in 1839. all Spain numbers not far above 900 schools of every description. At this ratio. 13,333 Spaniards must resort to one single school ! Nominally, there are still 8 universities : at Salamanca (founded in 1222, and in 1845 frequented by 302 students), at Valladolid (founded in 1346, and in 1841 with 1,300 students), at Valencia (founded in 1401, and in 1841 with 1,600 students), at Saragossa (founded in 1474, and in 1841 with 1,100 students), at Seville (founded in 1504, and in 1845 with 800 students), at Granada (founded in 1531, and in 1845 with 810 students), at St. Jago (founded in 1532. and in 1845 with 1,030 students), and at Oviedo (founded in 1580, and in 1845 numbering- 450 students). Yet by all the distractions and revo- lutions, brought on by the last civil war, they have been deprived of most of their revenues, and many of their best teachers and professors. The universities at Huesca (founded in 1354), at Alcala (founded in 1499), at Toledo (founded in 1499), at Ori- huela (founded in 1555), at Cervera (founded in 1717), and at Palma (founded in 1827), have been transformed into secondary schools. Of the first-named universities, only a few are endowed with the privilege of instruction in all branches of science (see note, or explanatory annotation, under the head of Portugal). In 1832, there were still 56 colleges and seminaries, numbering altogether 3,810 pupils, and moreover, 774 Latin schools (see the SPAIN. 81 (Jnwinment— Finances. just-mentioned note) ; yet they likewise are at present in a mis- erable condition. Spain is a kingdom, and its government a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King, or Queen (at present Isabella II, born in 1830, and at full age in 1843), and a legislative body. Since the end of the 15th century, the kings of Spain bear the predicate of " Catholic Majesty." in re- membrance of the zeal for the catholic creed evinced by Ferdi- nand and Isabella in subduing the Moors (see History of Europe, * 16). There is scarcely any kingdom or state to be found in the whole world, where the public finances are in such .decayed circum- stances as in Spain. Every year brings a more or less consider- able deficit, which in 1841 amounted to 174,421,846 reals. Ac- cording to an official statement of the year 1845, its amount would have been no more than 45. 112,665 reals, the expendi- ture being rated at 1,250,635,353, and the revenue at 1,205,- 522 688 reals. Yet in reality the deficit amounted to more than double that named sum, the revenue being designedly estimated too high, while the expenditure had by far been exceeded. The amount of the public debt does not fall short of the immense sum of 20,000,000,000 reals (say in words : twenty thousand mil- lions), besides about twenty millions of recently contracted debts, partly not consolidated and partly without paying interest. Con- sidering that the sale of the estates of convents (see above) has yieldeJ large sums, and that in 1843 the Spanish silver mines shall have yielded 229,090 marks of silver, it must at the first sight appear strange, that the Spanish finances should be in such miserable circumstances. Yet sifting the question to the bottom, the riddle is soon solved. The leaders of the Spanish revolution have been in the skill of making money quite as experienced and assiduous as the leaders of the Portuguese revolution. Thus, 4* 82 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ministerial Corruption. for instance, the Spanish minister of finances, Mr. Mcndizabal, had been for years but a poor Jewish pedlar, jet by his shrewdness he insinuated himself into the favor of the Queen Regent, Chris- tiana, who appointed him Minister of Finances. This office fur- nished ample opportunities for him to fill his pockets, as well as those of his adherents and of his benefactress. He sold the estates of convents, a great deal of church property, sacred vessels, and utensils ; nay, even church-bells ; and according to official returns from the month of June, 1835, the sum received out of the sale of 559 estates of convents, amounted to 16,693,- 260 reals, and according to official returns from the same month, 1840, the sum received out of the sale of 31,433 estates of con- vents and churches, amounted to 1,245,549,569 reals. Now it is a fact that the Spanish people have not since been released from a single item of their taxes, which number not less than 94 of various descriptions : but, on the contrary, they have at present to pay more taxes than ever, while the ci-devant poor pedlar, by his industry in financial affairs, has amassed a fortune to the amount of at least $3,000,000 ! If Mr. Mendizabal should be asked to give an account of his stewardship, and to restore all property illegally acquired, he would indeed be reduced to very low circumstances, and that deservedly. For he has evidently despoiled the public treasure of the Spanish nation, and to these spoiliations alone does he owe his wealth. His predecessors as well as his succes- sors in that lucrative office have practised the same arts, and in this way acquired immense riches, while the Spanish nation has been burdened with taxes at the ratio of more than 120 reals per head. The Spanish army, notwithstanding the unsettled state of the political institutions of Spain in general, is in good order, for the plain reason of being the principal support of the present rulers. It numbers nearly 100,000 men, and is arranged in 31 SPAIN. Army— Navy -Orders of Honor. regiments and 3 battalions of foot, 18 regiments of cavalry, and about 12,600 artillerists, etc. The Spanish navy is scarcely worthy to be mentioned. In 1802 it numbered not less than 68 ships of the line, 40 frigates, etc. ; but in 1834 it was reduced to 2 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 smaller men of war, and at present most of them have become disqualified for service. This being the state of facts, the once so important and renowned navy-departments (as they were styled) of Ferrol, Cadiz, and Carthagena have been abolished, and reduced to one navy station at Cadiz. The Spanish orders of honor are the following : 1. The order of the golden fleece, instituted in 1430 by Philip the Bountiful, duke of Burgundy.* 2. The order of Maria Louisa, instituted by the Queen Maria Louise (-f- 1819) only for ladies. 3. The order of Charles III, instituted by this king in 1771. 4. The military order of St. Ferdinand, instituted by Ferdinand VII. in 1815. 5. The military order of St. Hermenegild, instituted by Ferdinand VII., in 1815. 6. The so-called Navy-order for distinguished seamen, instituted in 1816 by the same king. 7. The order of St. Isabella, from the year 1815. 8. The military order of Maria Louisa Isabella, instituted in 1833 by Ferdinand VII. Besides these there are still to be mentioned the following religious orders of knighthood: the orders of Calatrava (instituted in 1158), of St. J ago de Composlella (instituted in 1 170), of Alcantara (insti- tuted in 1177), and of Montesa (instituted in 1319). * The present kingdom of Belgium and Holland constituted the ancient duchy of Burgundy, whose only heiress, Mary, was married to Prince Maxi- milian of Austria, the grandfather of King Charles I. of Spain. Thus since the beginning of the 16th century the duchy of Burgundy was one of the constituent parts of the Spanish kingdom until the year 1714, when the remaining Burgundian provinces were ceded to Austria. For this reason, the originally Burgundian order of the golden fleece has become an Austrian as well as a Spanish order. 84 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Spain. History. — The aborigines of Spain (which, in the Old Testament, e. g., Ezek. xxvii. 12, is called Tarshish), in as far as they are noticed by history, were the Iberians and the Celts (see Introduction, § 12), both descendants of Japheth, and immigrated here at an unknown period. The former prevailed in the eastern and southern, and the hitter in the western and northern part of the country. The Celts having in the course of time been intermingled with the Iberians, were since called Celtiberians. But these people lost their political independence at a very early period, when the Phoenicians came hither, settled here (they founded, for instance, Cadiz), reaped great profit from, the rich gold and silver mines (see above), and forced the aborigines to work them. Next to the Phoenicians came the Carthaginians, who treated the aborigines like savages and slaves, as also the Romans did, who since the year 206, before the Christian era, became gradually possessed of the Cartha- ginian settlements in Spain, though they did not finally conquer all Spain anterior to the year 25, B. C. The whole Pyrenean peninsula became a, Roman province, with Roman language, and Roman customs and manners. Before the time of the Emperor Augustus, the peninsula was divided into Hisponia citerior, or Tarraconensis (all the country between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River), and Hispania ulterior, or Lusitania (Portugal), and Baetica (all parts of Spain situated to the south of the Ebro River). At the time of Augustus, the province of Tarraconensis comprised the whole northern and north-western part of the peninsula, and Baetica comprised the south-eastern part, or Andalusia and Murcia. Lusitania comprised all Portugal with the exception of the provinces on the north side of the Douro. At the time of Emperor Constantine, the extreme north-western part of Tarraconensis was called Gallaecia (Galicia), and the extreme south-eastern part of Baetica was called Carthaginiensis (Murcia). Since the beginning of the migration of nations, Germanic tribes immigrated and settled in the Pyrenean peninsula (see History of Europe, §§ 2 and 3); at first (in 409 and the following years) the Alans, Sueves, and Vandals. The Alans settled chiefly in Lusitania and Carthaginiensis, the Sueves in Gallaecia, Baetica, etc., and the Vandals first in the north and subsequently in Baetica (hence its name Vandalitia, or, at present, Andalusia). Yet in 428 the Vandals emigrated to Africa and con- quered its northern part, at present called Barbary. In 414 the Visigoths invaded Spain, subdued the Alans and Sueves together with the last remnnnts of the Romans, and were in the 6th century masters of the Avhole peninsula. About the invasion of the Moors, the gradual foundation of Christian king- SPAIN. History of Spain— House of Hapsburgh— of Bourbon. doras, etc., see History of Europe, §§ 10, 14, and 16, where we left Spain under the sway of King Charles I., with whom began the reign of the house of Hapsburg in Spain. Charles I., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1516, resigned in 1556, and was succeeded by his son Philip II., who was the most powerful king in Europe at that period. He was the ruler not only of Spain, but likewise of the Netherlands, of Naples, of the islands of Sicily and Sar- dinia, of the duchy of Milan, of the Canarian and Philippine Islands, and of the immense colonies in America and partly in Africa Since the year 1580 he became moreover possessed of Portugal and its colonies (see History of Portugal). Yet Spain itself derived no real benefit either from her rich American colonies (for instead of staying at home to cultivate the soil, the inhabitants crossed the ocean in search of gold and silver), nor from the power of her king, who, by his perpetual wars, burdened Spain with a heavy public debt. Philip II. died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III. (1598-1621). Then succeeded Philip IV. (1621-1665), and Charles II. (1665 -1700). With Charles II. the male line of the house of Hapsburg, in Spain, became extinct, and now the female line was to succeed. The chief pretenders to the throne were the French prince Philip of Anjou (great-grandson of Philip IV.), and the Austrian Archduke Charles (subsequently emperor of Germany), great-grandson of Philip III., both by their grandmothers. As the parties did not come to an accommodation, a war ensued, known by the name of the Spanish war of succession, which lasted from the year 1701 to 1714. England and Holland partook in it by the instigation of William III., prepossessed by his fancies of European equilibrium (see History of Europe, § 18), and filled with personal hatred against Louis XIV., the grandfather of prince Philip. The German empire and the duke of Savoy partook likewise in this war. At last, in the treaties of peace concluded in 1713 at Utrecht, and in 1714 at Rastadt, matters were settled thus : the prince of Anjou, or Philip V., was acknowledged as king of Spain and both Indies (such was the title since the possession of the colonies in America, etc.). Charles, or the house of Austria, acquired the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy with the excep- tion of the island of Sardinia, which was ceded to the duke of Savoy, henceforth entitled king of Sardinia. England became possessed of Gibraltar and of the island of Minorca (the latter until the year 1755), and Holland acquired — noth- ing, in reward for all its sacrifices made to the fancies and immoderate ambition of William III. With Philip V. (1701-1746) the house of Bourbon ascended the throne of Spain. In 1713 he convocated the Spanish cortes, or states 8G EUROPti, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Spain — Its Provinces. (the legitimate representatives of the Spanish nation), chiefly for the purpose to fix the order of succession permanently. In agreement with the king this legislative body laid down as a rule, that only the male descendants of the reigning family should ascend the Spanish throne ; and thus the so-called Salic law (which excludes all females from the throne) became a fundamental law of the kingdom. The successors of Philip V. were: Ferdinand VI. (1746 -1759), Charles III. (1759-1788), Charles IV. (1788-1808). In 1808 Napo- leon enticed both Charles IV. and his eldest son (subsequently King Ferdinand VII.) to renounce their rights to the Spanish crown in favor of the French emperor, who now appointed his brother Joseph king of Spain. Yet Great Britain intervened, and the ensuing peninsular war ended in the restoration of the Bourbons in Spain, whither Ferdinand VII. (his father having resigned) returned in 1814. During his reign, Spain lost her colonies on the American continent; a far greater evil was, however, the king's weakness in listening to female intrigues and excluding his brother Charles, the legitimate heir of the throne, from the succession, in favor of his daughter Isabella. This act, as arbitrary as illegal, being in contradiction with the clear terms of the funda- mental law (see above), would indeed have been of little consequence but for the interposition of the French revolution of 1830, and the busy intermeddling of Louis Philipe and Lord Palmer ston (the British secretary of state for foreign affairs), who nourished in Spain the flames of civil war for more than six years, and supported, by the whole weight of their power and influence, the pretensions of the Queen Regent Maria Christiana (since the year 1833, when Ferdinand VII. died) and her infant daughter. How matters went on during this period, is manifested by the facts above stated under the head of finances, means of education, navy, etc. In 1833 Spain was divided into 48 departments, and their names were derived from their capitals. Yet since the middle ages Spain has been divided into 17 provinces, styled (with two single exceptions) kingdoms and principalities ; and as their names continually occur in history and other reading, we shall retain them in the following topographical descriptions ; denoting only the capitals of departments with this sign: +. It may still be remarked that the 1 1 provinces, beginning with New Cas- tile and ending with Murcia, are called the dominions of the SPAIN. 87 Geography— Statistics. crown of Castile, and the remainder the dominions of the crown of Aragoii (sec History of Europe, § 16). 1. The kingdom of New Castile, near the centre of the peninsula, and sepa- rated from the Mediterranean Sea by Valencia and Andalusia. It was wrested in 1085 from the Moors by Ferdinand surnamed the Holy, and con- tains the following cities and towns : -f- Madrid, the capital of all Spain, and (since the year 1560) royal residence, on the Manzanares, a branch of the Tagus, south-westward and 240 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), is situated on a sandy and sterile table-land, and numbers 9,000 houses, and according to the census of 1847, about 207,000 (exactly, 206,714) inhabitants. The royal castle is an extremely large and very magnificent building. There are many other noble edifices, besides 77 churches. The royal library num- bers 250,000 volumes. Among the beautiful walks of the city the most frequented are the celebrated " Prado" and the " Paseo de las delicias/' At the Prado is situated the royal palace Buen Retiro (built during the reign of Philip IV.), with extensive gardens. About 7 miles distant from Madrid is situated the royal castle of pleasure el Pardo (built in the 16th century) ; and between 4 and 5 miles distant from the capital is another castle, called Villa viciosa, where Ferdinand VIL died in 1833. Alcala de Henares, a town on the Henares River, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of Cervantes, the celebrated Spanish poet. The former university of Alcala (see above) was next to that of Salamanca the most renowned in Spain- -j- Toledo, a city on the Tagus, south-south-west and 27 miles distant from Madrid, with silk and sword-blade manufactories, and 16,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages Toledo was the largest city in the Christian part of Spai^ and in the 14th century it numbered 200,000 inhabitants. The magnificent cathedral was during several centuries a Moorish mosque. The archbishop of Toledo had formerly an annual revenue of- 300,000 ducats. Aranjuez, a town on the Tagus, southward and 27 miles distant from Madrid, with 4,000 inhabitants, and with a splendid royal castle of pleasure (founded by Philip II.),where the court uses to reside in the season between Easter and Whitsuntide. In the vicinity of Aranjuez is situated the town of Ocana (with 12,000 inhabi- tants) noted for the victory of the French over the Spaniards in 1809. Tala- vera de la Reyna, a town on the Tagus, south-westward and 64 miles distant from Madrid, with 8,000 inhabitants. It was formerly renowned for its silk manufactories, and is remarkable for Wellington's victory over the French on EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistics, etc.— Old Castile. the 27th and 28th of March, 1809. -j- Guadalaxaka, a town on the Henares, north- westward and 37 miles distant from Madrid, with cloth manufactories, and 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Siguenza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Brihuega (with 2,000 inhabitants). -f~ Cuen^a, a town on the Xucar, south-south-east and 83 miles distant from Madrid, with 9,000 inhabitants. Molina and Requena, towns with respectively 5,000 and 6,000 inhabitants. The southern part of New Castile is called La Mancha, on the south bordered by Andalusia, and on the west by Estremadura. It contains : -\- Ciudad Real, capital of La Mancha, near the Guadiana, southward and 92 miles distant from Madrid, with the most renowned mule marts in Spain, and 8,000 inhabitants. Almaden, a town near the frontier of Andalusia, with 10,000 inhabitants, and a mining academy, is noted for its rich quicksil- ver mines (see above). Other towns of La Mancha are : Valdepenas (with 8,000 inhabitants), Almagro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Alcaraz (with 3,500 inhabitants), Calatrava and Manzanares. 2. The kingdom of Old Castile, on the north side of New Castile, extend- ing northward to the Bay of Biscay. It was originally a country under the sway of the kings of Leon, until in 1016 it was raised to the rank of a king- dom. It contains : -\- Burgos, fortified capital of Old Castile, on the Arlan- zon River, northward and 138 miles distant from Madrid, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral (containing the sepulchres of many Spanish kings), and 12,000 inhabitants. At Burgos are still the remnants of the house in which the famous Spanish warrior, Ruy Dias de Vivar, surnamed the Cid, was born in 1026. He died in 1099, and was buried in the neighboring monastery of San Pedro de Cardena. Other towns in this district are : Aranda de JDuero and Laredo. -{- Santander, a fortified maritime town on the Bay of Biscay, westward and 115 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), with a good har- bor, rather active commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other, but smaller neighboring seaports are : Santana and Santillana. The town of Espinosa de los Monteros (with 2,000 inhabitants) is remarkable for the victory of the French over the British and Spaniards, on the 12th of November, 1808. Briviesca, a fortified town with 2,500 inhabitants. Near Pancorvo is an im- portant mountain pass on the high-road between Burgos and Vittoria, -{- Lo- grono, a fortified town on the Ebro, eastward and 70 miles distant from Burgos, with fairs, and 8,000 inhabitants, -4- Calahorra, a town on the table- land, called Rioja, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted as the birth-place of the ancient Roman author Quintilianus. Medina Cell, a town with 1,200 in- SPAIN. 89 Statistics, etc. — Leon. habitants. -f~ Soria, a town on the Duero, south-eastward and 78 miles dis tant from Burgos, with considerable trade in wool, and 6,000 inhabitants Here or close by stood the ancient town of Numantia. Osma, a town near the Duero, with 4.000 inhabitants. -(- Segovia, a town on the Erasma River, southward and 92 miles distant from Burgos, with a remarkable old castle, once the seat of Gothic and Moorish kings, 22 churches, and 13,000 inhabi- tants. Between Segovia and Madrid is situated the town of Sa?i lldefonso, with 4,300 inhabitants, and the royal castle La Granja, built in 1716 by the model of the palace of Versailles. In a wilderness of the Guadarrama Mountains, 23 miles west-north-west of Madrid, is situated the town (with 2,000 inhabitants) and celebrated palace of Escurial, built in the years 1563-1584, at an expense of 5,000,000 ducats, by order of Philip II., in re- membrance of his victory over the French at St. Quentin in 1557. The edi- fice, half palace, half monastery, is 740 feet long, 580 feet wide and 60 feet high, and has 5,000 windows. Chincfion, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, -f- Avila, a town on the Adaja River, 55 miles west-north-west of Madrid, with a remarkable Gothic cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. Until the year 1808 was here a university, founded in 1482. Other towns of this district are : Piedrahita and Arevalo (with 4,500 inhabitants). 3. The kingdom of Leon, between Old Castile and Portugal, and separated from the Bay of Biscay by Asturias. About its history, see History of Europe, § 16. It contains : -(-Leon, capital of Leon, 170 miles north-north- west of Madrid, with an ancient Gothic cathedral considered as the finest in all Spain, 7 other churches, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- trict are : Astorga (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sahagun (with a formerly cele- brated Benedictine abbey, and 4,000 inhabitants), and JSembibre (with 1,600 inhabitants), -j- Palencia, a town on the Carrion River, south-westward and 41 miles distant from Burgos, with a beautiful cathedral, and 11,000 inhabi- tants. Torquemada and Saldaaa, towns with respectively 2,300 and 4,000 inhabitants, -(-Valladolid, a town on the Pisuerga, 100 miles north-north- west of Madrid, with a royal castle, in which Philip II. and several of his ancestors were born, a magnificent cathedral, a university (see above), and 21,000 inhabitants. At Valladolid Columbus died in 1506, and at that period its population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis-. trict are: Medina del Rio seco (with 8,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle on the 14th of August, 1808), Tudela (with 2,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle on the 22d of November, 1808), Tordesillas (with 4,000 inhabi- 90 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistics, etc.— Asturias— Galicia. tants). and Simaneas (with 1,200 inhabitants), -[-Zamora, a fortified town on the Dnero, and near the frontier of Portugal, with 10,000 inhabitants. Fermoselle and Toro, towns on the Duero, with respectively 3.000 and 8,000 inhabitants, -j- Salamanca, a town on the Tonnes (with an ancient Roman bridge), north-westward and 115 miles distant from Madrid, has since the middle ages been celebrated for its university (see ante), contains a re- markable cathedral, 24 other churches, and numerous magnificent public edi- fices in general, but at present only 15,000 inhabitants. Battle on the 21st of July, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo, a fortified town near the frontier of Portu- gal, with 5,000 inhabitants. Wellington's victory in 1812. Other towns of this district are ; Ledesma (with 2,000), Bejar (with 5,000), and Alba de Tor- mes (with 4,000 inhabitants). 4. The principality of Asturias, along the Bay of Biscay, between Old Castile and Galicia, and on the south bordered by Leon. (About its history see History of Europe, § 16.) The crown-princes of Spain are, by way of eminence, titled princes of Asturias. Tins province contains : -\- Oviedo, the capital of Asturias, half way between Bilbao and Coruna, with a univer- sity (see above), 5 churches (one of which is remarkable for its high steeple), and 10,000 inhabitants. Gijon, a maritime town, 18 miles north-east of Oviedo, with 6,000 inhabitants. Gijon was the primitive seat of Pelayo (see History of Europe, § 10), whose successors were called kings of Gijon, until Alphonso the Chaste assumed the title of king of Oviedo. Other towns of Asturias are : Villa viciosa, Cudillero, Aviles, Mures, Navia, and Cangas de Onis. 5. The kingdom of Galicia, forming the extreme north-western part both of Spain and of the peninsula. It was at an early period wrested from the Moors, and in 1060 raised to the rank of a kingdom by Ferdinand, king of Castile and Leon. It contains : -(- Corunna, fortified capital of Galicia and maritime town, northward and 156 miles distant from Oporto, with a very spacious harbor, packet lines to the "West Indies and Falmouth, various manufactories, commerce, and 23,000 inhabitants. North-eastward and 23 miles distant from Corunna, is situated the fortified town of Ferrol (with 13,000 inhabitants), formerly the principal station of the Spanish navy. St. Jago de Compostella, a town southward and 32 miles distant from Corunna, with 28,000 inhabitants, a university, numerous linen and other manufactories, and a very large cathedral, to which since the 9th century innumerable pil- grims have resorted, as containing the bones of St. James the Less according to general belief Betanzos, a maritime town, with 2,000 inhabitants. SPAIN. Statistic:*, utc.—Kstmnadnra— Andalusia. -j- Lugo, a town near the head of the Minho River, with a remarkable cathe- dral, and 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district arc : Mondohedo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Ribadeo (with 2,000 inhabitants), Viverro (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Redondela. ^-Orense, a town on the Minho, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. -|- Pontevedra, a maritime town, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Tuy (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Vigo (with active commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants). 6. The province of Estremadura, between New Castile and Portugal, bor- dered on the south by Andalusia. It was conquered in 713 by the Moors, and wrested from them in the 11th and 13th century. It contains: -[-Bada- joz, strongly fortified capital of Estremadura, near the frontier of Portugal, eastward and 138 miles distant from Lisbon, and south-westward and 170 miles distant from Madrid, with 13,000 inhabitants. Olivenca, a fortified town quite near the frontier of Portugal, to which kingdom it belonged until the year 1801, when it was ceded to Spain ; it numbers 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis district are : Xeres de los Cavalier os (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zafra (with 10,000 inhabitants), Llerena (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Merida (with 9,000 inhabitants), -j- Caceres, a town on the river of the same name, with 1 0,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Truxillo (native place of Pizarro, with 4,000 inhabitants), Coria (with 4,500 inhabitants), Alcantara (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ahnaraz (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Plasencia (115 miles west- south-west of Madrid, with 7,000 inhabitants). Eastward and 23 miles distant from the last-named town, is the delightful valley of la Vera de Plasencia, with the famous convent of San Geronimo de Juste (founded in 1410), where King Charles I. died in 1558. 7, 8, and 9. Andalusia, comprising the southern part of Spain, and con- taining the following three provinces, styled kingdoms, and wrested from the Moors chiefly during the 13th century: — a. The kingdom of Seville, contain- ing : -4- Seville, the capital of this province, as well as in some respects of Andalusia too, on the Guadalquivir, 46 miles north-north-east of Cadiz, is 16 miles in circuit, and has 13,500 houses, but at present only 91,000 inhabitants, while under the sway of the Moors it numbered 500,000 inhabitants. Seville abounds in magnificent ancient buildings and edifices, and among them are the splendid cathedral, the steeple named Giralda (364 feet in height), an ancient Roman aqueduct, an ancient palace of the Moorish kings, etc. Other cities ^and towns ofr this district are : San Lucar, surnamed de Barrameda (seaport of Seville, with considerable commerce and 20,000 inhabitants), Utrera (with 92 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistic?, etc.— Seville— Cordova. 11,000 inhabitants), Carmona (with 13,000 inhabitants), Ossuna (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Fcija (with 35,000 inhabitants). -j-Huelva, a maritime town, 55 miles west-south-west of Sevilla, with 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near Huelva is situated the little town and seaport of Palos, from which Columbus Failed on his first voyage to America. Other towns of tliis district are : Niebla (with 9,000 inhabitants), Moguer (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Ayamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants). -[-Cadiz, a strongly fortified city and chief senport of Spain, on the Isle of Leon, with 70,000 inhabitants. Cadiz is not only one of the oldest towns of Europe (see History of Spain), but since the years 1717 and 1726, the centre of the rich trade with America and India (until that period, Seville had been the centre). So late as in the year 1 803, the imports of Cadiz were $61,000,000 in value. On the other or eastern end of the named isle, is situated the town of Isla de Leox, or San Fernando, with 15,000 inhabitants, and in its vicinity the village of Las Cabezas de San Juan, where, on the 1st of January, 1820, the military revolution, contrived by Riego, took place. On the continental part of this district are situated the following towns : Puerto de Santa Maria (with 20,000 inhabitants), Puerto Real (with 7,000 inhabitants), Medina Sidonia (with 10,000 inhabitants), Chiclana (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Conil (with 1,500 inhabitants). Off Cape Trafalgar (23 miles south-east of Cadiz) the British gained the great naval victory on the 21st of October, 1805, at which the renowned admiral Lord Nelson was killed. Between this cape and Gibraltar are situated the towns of A Igeziras (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarifa (with 9,000 inhabitants), and San Roque (with 3,000 inhabitants). Xeres de la Frontera. a city situated north-eastward, and 14 miles from Cadiz, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 60,000 inhabitants. Near this city it was where, in 711, the Visigoths were defeated by the Moors in a battle that lasted nine days. Areos de la Frontera, a town 14 miles north-east of Xeres de la Frontera, 12,000 inhabitants. Zahara, a small town at the head of the Gaudaleta River, and situated on a rock, with houses cut out in the rock b. The kingdom of Cordova, containing : -f- Cordova, capital of this province, and once the splendid residence of the Moorish caliphs (see History of Europe, §§16 and 17), at which period its population amounted to about 1,000,000 inhabitants, while at present it numbers only 60,000. The city is situated on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from Cadiz, and contains an exceedingly large and splendid cathedral (cflce a Moorish mosque), and, moreover, an ancient Moorish palace of great extent. Cordova SPAIN. Stat istirs, etc.— Gibraltar— Granada. was captured by the Christians in 1236. Other towns of this province are: Lucena (with 12,000 inhabitants), Montilla (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bujalance (with 9,000 inhabitants), Baena (with 4,800 inhabitants), Castro del Rio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Fuente Ovejuna (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Priego (with 6,000 inhabitants), c. The kingdom of J aen, containing : -j-Jaex, capital of this province, in a delightful country, southward and 196 miles distant from Madrid, with a remarkable cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Jaen surren- dered to the Christians in 1245. Other towns of this province are: Andujar (with 10,000 inhabitants), Baeza (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ubeda (with 16,000 inhabitants), Alcala la Real (with 9,000 inhabitants), Martos (with 14,000 inhabitants), Alcaudete (with 4,000 inhabitants), Linares (with 5,600 inhabi- tants), and Baylen (with 2,500 inhabitants). Near the last-named town, the French general Dupont fell into a narrow pass and saw himself obliged to surrender, with 8,000 men, to the Spaniards, in 1808. Carolina is the chief town of the German colonies in the Sierra Morena, founded in 1767 by the Spanish minister Olavides, and has 2,500 inhabitants, chiefly Germans. Gibraltar, at the southern extremity of Spain, is the strongest fortified town in the world, with a garrison of 3,000 men, and 17,000 inhabitants. This place was captured by the British in 1704, who have held it ever since. 10. The kingdom of Granada, frequently also called Upper Andalusia, on the west and north bordered by Andalusia, and on the south by the Mediter- ranean Sea. It was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492 (see History of Europe, § 16), and contains: -f- Granada, capital of this province, and, until the year 1492, the residence of the last Moorish king in Spain, on the Xenil River and at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, north eastward and 46 miles distant from Malaga, with 80,000 inhabitants, a university, a splendid cathedral (containing the sepulchres of Ferdinand anlf Isabella), 22 other churches, some manufactories, and highly remarkable edifices built by the Moors. Among the latter ranks first the Alhambra, the fortified castle of the ancient Moorish kings. Another Moorish palace is called Generalife. Other towns of this district are : Alhama (with 6.500 inhabitants), Guadix (with 9,000 inhabitants), Motril (with 12,000 inhabitants), Loxa (with 14,000 inhabitants), Baza (with 12,000 inhabitants), and Uxijar, the chief town of the so-called Alpujarras, with important lead mines. -4- Malaga, a maritime town, north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Gibraltar, is famous for its wines and fruits, and contains 62,000 inhabitants, who carry on a very active commerce. Other towns of this district are: Velez Malaga (with 14,000 inhabitants), Ronda (with 18,000 94 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistics, etc.— Murcia, Aragon, Catalonia. inhabitants), Antequcra (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Marbella (with 4,300 inhabitants). -{-Almeria, a maritime town, eastward and 110 miles distant from Malaga, with 20,000 inhabitants. In the 14th century, Almeria was the emporium of the kingdom of Granada. Velez el Rubio, a town with 12,000 inhabitants. Cuevas, a small town. 11. The kingdom of Murcia, between Andalusia and Valencia, containing: -f- Murcia, capital of this province, on the Segura, south-eastward and 221 miles distant from Madrid, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, important silk trade, and 86,000 inhabitants. Carthagena, a fortified maritime town, and formerly a station of the Spanish navy, with one of the best harbors in the Mediterranean and 37,000 inhabitants. Carthagena was founded by the Car- thaginians about 230 years before the Christian era. Lorca, a town in a most fertile country, 42 miles west-north-west of Carthagena, with copper and lead mines, and 25,000 inhabitants. -J- Albacete, a town near the frontier of New Castile, with important markets for cattle, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Chinchilla (with 11,000 inhabitants), Villena (with 9,000 inhabitants), and Almanm (noted for the victory gained by the Span, iards over the English, Dutch, and Portuguese, in 1707). 12. The kingdom of Aragon, between Catalonia and both Castiles, bordered on the north by the Pyrenees (about its history, see History of Europe, § 16), containing : -\- Saragossa, strongly fortified capital of Aragon, on the Ebro, north-eastward and 184 miles distant from Madrid, with a university, 18 churches, thriving commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. Famous siege by the French in 1808 and 1809. Other towns of this district are: Borja (with 3,200 inhabitants), Tarrazona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Calatayud (with 9,000 inhabitants), Daroca (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Fraga (with 3,000 inhabi- tants). -[-Teruel, a town on the Guadalaviar, southward and 83 miles distant from Saragossa, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district, are : Alcaniz (with 5,000 inhabitants), Albarracin (with 2,000 inhabitants), Cantavieja (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Montalban. -j-Huesca, a town on the Isuela, 37 miles north-north-east of Saragossa, with a secondary school, formerly a university (see above), and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Jaca (with 3,000 inhabitants), Mequinenza (with 2,000 inhabitants), Monzon (with 3,200 inhabitants), Barbastro (with 6,000 inhabi- tants), and Ainsa. 13. The principality of Catalonia, comprising the extreme north-eastern part of Spaia (About its history and important commerce in the middle SPAIN. Statistics, etc.— Catalonia— Valencia. ages, see History of Europe, §§16 and 17.) It contains: -j- Barcelona, fortified capital of Catalonia, the principal manufacturing town in Spain, and rivalling Cadiz in commerce, on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 200 miles south-west of Marseilles (in France), has (including the suburb of Bar- cclcmetta) a population of about 150,000 inhabitants, numerous magnificent public edifices, 82 churches, etc Northward and 20 miles distant from Bar- celona is Mo.vtserrat, a single mountain 3,937 feet high, was before the last civil war famous for its hermits and the number of pilgrims who visited it. Other towns of this district are : Manresa (with 9,000 inhabitants), Martorell (with 2,500 inhabitants), Mataro (with 13,000 inhabitants), Igualada (with 12,000 inhabitants), Vique or Vich (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarrasa (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca de Panades (with 6,000 inhabitants). -f- Tarragona, a maritime town, 46 miles west-south-west of Barcelona, with a remarkable cathedral, many Roman antiquities, and 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Reus (with 25,000 inhabitants, and the sea- port of Salou), Vails (with 9,000 inhabitants), Tortosa (strongly fortified, and with 16,000 inhabitants), and Villanueva (with 9,000 inhabitants). Alf agues or San Carlo is a sea-port, -f- Lerida, a fortified town on the Segre, and near the frontier of Aragon, westward and 73 miles- distant from Barcelona, with 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Balagaer (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cardona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cervera (with 5,000 inhabi- tants), Sohona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Urgel or Seu eT Urgel (with 3,200 inhabitants), Puycerda or Puigcerda (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Campredon (with 1,500 inhabitants), -p Gerona, a fortified town on the Ter, 55 miles north-north-east of Barcelona, with a beautiful cathedral, and 6,000 inhabi- tants. Figueras, a town at the foot of the Pyrenees, with 5,000 inhabitants, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, called San Fernando. Other towns of this district are : Rosas (with 2,000 inhabitants), Arens de Mar (with 4,000 inhabitants), Castello de Ampurias (now only with 1,500, but during the sway of the Romans with 100,000 inhabitants), Cadaqnes (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Hostalrich (with 3,000 inhabitants). About the little republic of Andorra, see under the head of France. 14. The kingdom of Valencia, between New Castile and the Mediterra- nean Sea, on the south bordered by Murcia, and on the north by Aragon and Catalonia. Since the year 788 a Moorish kingdom, it was conquered in 1238 by the Christian king of Aragon. The Valencians are distinguished by their industry and diligence, and for this reason Valencia is the best cultivated 96 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistics, tic. — Balearic Islands. province of Spain. It contains : -f- Valencia, the capital of this province, on the Guadalaviar and quite near its mouth, south-eastward and 193 miles distant from Madrid, with a university and numerous other literary institu- tions, important book-trade and silk manufactories, a magnificent cathedral and 72 other churches, and 66,000 inhabitants. Its seaport is called Gran. Northward and 32 miles distant from Valencia is situated Murviedro, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, and in ancient ages famous by the name of Sagunt. Other towns of this district are: Liria (with 12,000 inhabitants), San Felipe (with 15,000 inhabitants, founded by Philip V. in place of the town of Xativa, which in 1714 was demolished), Carcarente (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Alcira (with 9,000 inhabitants). -4-Castellon de la Plana, a maritime town, 55 miles north-north-east of Valencia, with 15,000 inhabitants.* Near the coast are the uninhabited isles of Columbretes. Other towns of this district are : Peniscola (with 2,500 inhabitants), Vinaroz (with 9,000 inhabitants), Scgorbe (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cervera and Morella. -f- Alicante, a mari- time town, southward and 83 miles distant from Valencia, with important wine-trade and salt-works, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Orihuela (with 26,000 inhabitants), Elche (with 20,000 inhabi- tants), Alcoy (with 18,000 inhabitants), Gandia (with 6,000 inhabitants), JDcnia (with 2,000 inhabitants), Guardamar (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Bcnidorme (with 2,500 inhabitants). 15. The kingdom of Majorca, or the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterra- nean Sea, opposite to the coast of Valencia. The Carthaginians were for a long time possessed of these islands, which subsequently were conquered by the Romans. In 429 A. D. the Vandals settled here, and since the year 198 the Moors took possession of the islands, which were wrested from them in the years 1229-1254 by King James I. of Aragon. There are altogether -1 islands, and two of them (Majorca and Minorca) are emphatically named L'a- learic, while the two other (Ivica and Formentera) are called the Pithyuxicn Islands. The island of Majorca (area : 1,342 square miles ; population : 200,000 inhabitants) contains: -f- Palma, fortified capital, with a secondary school, for- merly a university, a remarkable cathedral, and 34,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the island are: Alcudia (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Soller (with 5,600 inhabitants). The island of Minorca (area : 256 square miles ; popu- lation : 50,000 inhabitants), belonging to the British in the period from the year 1708 to 1755 (see History of Spain), contains: Mahon, or Port Mahon capital of the island, Avith one of the finest harbors in the Mediterranean, and SPAIN. Statistic--, etc. — Navarre — Basque Provinces. 6,000 inhabitants. The former capital of this island was Cuidadela, with 2,500 inhabitants. Besides Majorca and Minorca, the Balearic Islands com prise the Isles of Cabrera (a kind of convict colony), Foradada, Pantaleu, Dragonera, and Colomba. Of the Pithyusian Islands, that of Ivica has an area of 192 square miles, and a population of 20,000 inhabitants, while the other named Formentera, is 43 square miles in extent, and numbers 2,000 inhabitants. 16. The kingdom of Navarre, between Aragon and the Basque provinces, on the north separated from France by the Pyrenees. About its early his- tory, see History of Europe, § 16 ; and it is only to be added here, that in 1234 the kingdom of Navarre was inherited by the Count Theobald of Cham- pagne, who entailed it upon his French descendants, until in 1512 King Fer- dinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. It contains : -f- Pampeluna, fortified capital of Navarre, 207 miles north-north-east of Mad- rid, with 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Fstella (with 5,000 inhabitants), Viana (with 3,500 inhabitants), Tudela (with 8,000 inhab- tants), Olite (with 1,200 inhabitants), Tafalla (with 2,000 inhabitants), N and Sanguesa (with 2,500 inhabitants). The valley of Roncevalles in the Pyrenees, 28 miles north-east of Pampeluna, is noted for the attack on the Frankish warriors of Charlemagne in 800, and the glorious death of Roland. 17. The Basque Provinces, along the Bay of Biscay, and on the other sides surrounded by Navarre and Old Castile. They entered into a political con- nection with the kingdom of Castile by the treaties of the year 1202, with the reservation of particular privileges. There are three of them, viz. : — a. Biscay, containing : -f- Bilbao, fortified capital of Biscay, on the Ybaizabal, 7 miles distant from its mouth, 73 miles west-south-west of Bay on no (in France), with export of wool, and 15,000 inhabitants. Bilbao's seaport is called Portugaldc. Near the little town of Sorromastro, or Somorrostro. are important iron mine^. Other towns of Biscay are : Orduna (with 4,000 inhabitants), Durango (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Bermeo (with 1,500 inhabitants), b. Guipuzcoa, con taining : -f- San Sebastian, strongly fortified capital of Guipuzcoa, on the Bay of Biscay, 27 miles west-sonth-west of Bayonne (in France), with iron trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Guipuzcoa are : Los Passages (with 2,000 inhabitants), Fuentcrabia (with 1,800 inhabitants), Iran (with 1,100 inhabitants), Guetaria (with 500 inhabitants), Plasencia (with 1,300 inhabi- tants), Bergara (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mondragon (with 2,500 inhabitants), Tolosa (with 4,200 inhabitants), Alegria, and Azpeytia. The chief town of a 5 98 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Spanish Colonies. little district called Encartationes, is Onate (with hardware manufactories, and 4,000 inhabitants), whose former university is at present united with that of Valladolid. c. Alava, containing: Vittoria, capital of Alava, southward and 28 miles distant from Bilboa, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its sword-blades. Battle on the 21st of June, 1813. Other towns of Alava are : Salvatierra (with 1,200 inhabitants), A nana, and Banos de Ebro. The Spanish Colonies, at present reduced to an area of 110,760 square miles (with about 4,500,000 inhabitants), are the following : — 1. In Africa : the so-called Presidios, or four fortified towns on the northern coast of Africa, opposite the province of Granada (Ceuta, Pefion de Velez, Alhucemas, and Melilla) ; the Canary Islands, and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 2. In America : the West Indian islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. 3. In Asia : the greatest part of the Philippine Islands. 4. In Polynesia : the Ladrone, or Marianne Islands. In the period from the year 1580 to 1640. when the immense Spanish dominions on the American continent and the Portu- guese colonies were united, the total extent of the Spanish pos- sessions amounted to 9,239,855 square miles. ITALY : 119,706 square miles. Population : 24,573,100 inhabitants. Italy forms a great peninsula on the south of Europe, extend- ing into the Mediterranean Sea. It is fancied to have the shape of a boot, the island' of Sicily lying at the toe. Of the above-stated area and population, the Italian continent and its smaller isles comprise 99,652 square miles, and 21,785,100 inhabitants, while the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta, comprise 20,054 square miles, and 2,788,000 inhabitants. In a political sense, the island of Corsica forms a constituent part of France, and thus it can only in a geographical sense be considered as belonging to Italy. Its area (3,791 square miles) is for this reason added to that of the French continent. Of those Alps (see Introduction, § 7) which separate Italy from other countries, the Maritime and the Cottian Alps form the boundary towards France, the Pennine and the Lepontic Alps towards Switzerland, and the Rhaetic Alps towards Germany ; while the Gray Alps belong exclusively to Italy. About the Apennines, see Introduction, § 7. About the rivers and lakes of Italy, see Introduction, §§ 9 and 10 ; the seas, gulfs, and straits, washing the shores of Italy, are noted under § 8. The climate is generally mild and delightful ; and even in the northern parts of Italy, the short winter is of great mildness. 100 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Italian Scenery— Productions— Manufactures. Besides this, Italy is noted for the beauty, diversity, and romantic character of its scenery. Nevertheless, the country has in this respect its unfavorable side as well as other countries. Thus, for instance, the south wind proves often to be exceedingly hot and enfeebling, and is in this case called Sirocco; and the coast between Leghorn and Naples (likewise the country near the mouths of the Po) suffers much from malaria, or the bad air of the marshes. With respect to natural productions, Italy is very poor in min- erals, especially in metals, with the exception of iron (its annual produce is about 150,000 quintals), and some lead (2,000 quiutals). Yet Italy is noted for its excellent marble of Carrara (in the duchy of Modena), and the island of Siciry abounds in sulphur. Moreover, great quantities of lava and pumice are exported from Naples. Chief products of the vegetable kingdom are : rice (in Lombardy), maize and wheat (chiefly in Upper Italy and Tuscany), wine (in all parts of the country ; yet the best sorts are those known by the name of Lachrymae Christi, Monte Pulciano, Monte Fiascone, Vino Santo, etc.), olive oil, and fruits of southern Europe. Naples has the finest breed of horses; in many of the mountainous parts of Italy are mules, and in the States of the Church and Tuscany, buffaloes are reared. But, in general, the rearing of cattle and sheep is of no great importance. As nox- ious animals, maybe mentioned, vipers, tarantulas, and scorpions; while, the silk-worm, kept in great number throughout Italy, is of substantial benefit to the country. Agriculture flourishes in Lombardy and Tuscany. During the middle ages, Italy excelled in various manufactures, which are still important, though not so much so as formerly. The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice ranks first in manufac- tures, and those of other Italian countries are at least not in a backward state. Thus may be mentioned the manufacture of ITALY. 101 Italian Commerce — Education— Rrligion. silks at Turin, Genoa, Lucca, Naples, Palermo, Ancona, Florence, and Bologna ; of feather gloves at Naples, Genoa, Rome, and Lucca ; of paper at Lucca, Genoa, Turin, Pescia, etc. ; of pergamen at Rome, in Piedmont, etc. ; of artificial flowers at Genoa, Turin, Bologna. Rome, etc. ; of straw hats, in Tuscany ; and of catguts for musical instruments, at Rome, Naples, etc. » The Italian commerce is very considerable, though chiefly re- stricted to the intercourse with the Levant. The principal sea- ports and first commercial cities of Italy, are Leghorn and Genoa ; next to them are to be mentioned, Ancona, Naples, Messina,Venice, Civita Vecchia, Gallipoli, etc. The most important inland trade is carried on by Milan, Turin, Verona, Alessandria, Florence, Rome, Lucca, Modena, and Parma. The chief articles of export are silk, olive oil, oranges and other fruits, and marble; while tropical produce, corn, British, French, and German manufactures, fancy articles, etc., are chiefly imported. In the means of education, Lombardy and Venice, Tuscany and Parma, surpass by far the other Italian countries, where the lower classes are, for the most part, ignorant, and averse to improve- ment. Nevertheless there are throughout Italy learned men to be found, who are distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. In music, and perhaps even in sculpture, the Italians excel most of the other European nations. The Roman Catholic is the established religion in all the Italian states ; although others are at present, and some have long been, tolerated. The Waldenses, in Piedmont, who have almost the same religious faith as the Moravian brethren, do, since the year 1843, enjoy the same political privileges as their catholic fellow-citizens ; while the Armenians, Greeks, Mo- hammedans, and Jews, in the commercial cities, have free exercise of religion. During the wars and differences between the Em- peror Charles V. and the Pope, in the 16th century, the Refor- 102 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Italy. mation made such progress in Italy, that but for the subsequent rigorous and bloody proceeding of the inquisition, perhaps the majority of the Italians would have embraced the Protestant faith. History of Italy. — The aborigines of Italy, in as far as history has noticed them were the Umbrians, Siculians, Sabines, Volsci, Ausonians, Samnites, etc. At a very early period foreign immigrants joined them, for instance, Jllyrians, Pelasgians, Celtes, and Venetes ; and from their mixture arose vari- ous other people, as the Etruscans, Latins, Campanians, etc. In the period between the years 1000 and 700 B. C, many of the ancient Greeks settled in the southern parts of the Italian peninsula, and founded there the cities of Ta- rant, Sybaris, Croton, Brundusium, Naples, Reggio, etc. After that time the south of Italy was called Great- Greece. Anterior to the first settlement of the Greeks, Aeneas, a Trojan prince, shall have immigrated into Latium with many of his fugitive countrymen, and their descendants founded Rome in 754 A. C. In the beginning the Romans were ruled by kings in the following succession: Romulus (754-715), Numa Pompilius (715-672), Tullus Hostilius (672-640), Ancus Martius (640-616), Tarquinius Priscus (616-578), Servius Tullius (578-534), and Tarquinius Superbus (534-510). The monarchic form of government having been abolished in 510 B. C, Rome became a republic with aristocratic forms of government, which lasted until the year 45 B. 0, when Julius Caesar was appointed dictator for lifetime and assumed the title of imperator. The first actual Roman emperor was Octavius or Augustus, who after a reign of 44 years died in 14 A. D.; and the last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus, who in 476 A. D. was dethroned by Odoacer, the leader of a Germanic tribe called the Herull About the subsequent politi- cal fate of Italy, see History of Europe, §§ 6, 7, 9, and 14. Since the con- quest of the Lombardian kingdom of Italy by Charlemagne, the greatest part of Italy was under the sway of the Frankish, and since the end of the 9th century under that of the German kings and emperors (see History of Europe, § 14 at its end). But as soon as the latter began to yield to the pretensions of the popes, many parts of the country became independent, as republics or as duchies, etc., while in Lower Italy the Normans founded the kingdom of Naples. In the last three centuries most of the Italian states were the subject of a quarrel between Austria, France, and Spain, and the wars subsequent to the first French revolution brought on new political ITALY. 103 Divisions of Italy — Sardinia. changes there. But we must defer the further particulars to the history of each separate Italian state. Italy comprises the following states : — In Upper Italy : 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia. 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 3. The Duchy of Parma. 4. The Duchy of Modena. In Central Italy : 5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany 6. The Slates of the Church. 7. The Republic of San Marino. In Lower Italy : 8. The Kingdom of Naples.* I. THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. Area : 29,245 square miles. Population : 5,292,000 inhabitants. Until the peace of Utrecht (in 1713) this state was known by the name of the duchy of Savoy. Since that time and at present it embraces the western section of Upper Italy, together with the large island of Sardinia. * Besides these states, the geographical description of Italy must necessa- rily embrace that of the really Italian island of Malta also. 104 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Geographical Description. According to the census of 1844, the population of the whole kingdom amounted to 5,108,601 inhabitants; but since it has increased to the above-stated number. With the exception of about 22,000 Waldenses (see above) and of 8,000 Jews, all inhab- itants are Catholics, under the church authority of 7 archbishops and 34 bishops. There are still 334 monasteries and 95 nunne- ries in this kingdom. The north-west part of continental Sardinia comprises the highest branches and summits of the Alps (see above, and Intro- duction, § 7), while the Ligurian Apennines run through its southern part. The chief river is the Po ; and one of its tributaries, the Ticino (see Introduction, § 10), forms the boundary on the side of Lom- bardy and Venice. Of the continental provinces. Savoy is thoroughly mountainous, and for this reason not much adapted to agriculture. Piedmont and the adjacent districts are for the most part level, and at the same time fertile and well cultivated. Genoa and Nice, shelt red by the Apennines against the cold northerly winds, are noted for the mildness of the climate, and abound in fruits of southern Europe. Although in Savoy the rearing of cattle, and in Pied- mont, etc., the agriculture is in a high state of prosperity, yet the chief staple of the kingdom is only silk. Other articles of export are rice, olive oil, cattle, and hemp. About the manufac- tures, see above. There are 4 universities in the kingdom, viz.: at Turin (founded in 1412, and in 1842 frequented by 1,250 students), at Genoa (founded in 1812, and in 1842 with 610 students), at Cagliari (founded in 1720, renewed in 1764, and frequented in 1842 by 499 students), and at Sassari (founded in 1766, and in 1842 with 240 students). Besides these there are 85 colleges and 39 semi- naries. The common schools are still in a backward state. ITALY. 105 Sardinia: Government, etc.— History. Until the beginning of the last revolution in Italy the power of the king (at present Victor Emanuel, born 1820, March 14) in most of the provinces was absolute ; and in Genoa and the island of Sardinia more or less limited. The annual revenue of the state is upon an average 79,000,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure about 77,500,000 lire. The public debt amounts to nearly 150,000,000 lire, about $30,000,000. The army numbers on the peace footing 34,500, and on the war footing 135,300 men. The navy numbers 5 large frig- ates, 2 sloops of war, 2 brigs, 4 schooners, 12 gun-boats, and 3 steamers. The orders of honor of Sardinia are the following: 1. The order of St. Annunciata, in one class, instituted in 1362, and re- newed in 1518 and 1720. 2. The order of St. Mauritius and Lazarus, in 3 classes, instituted in 1434, and altered in 1527. 3. The military order of Savoy, in 4 classes, instituted in 1815. 4. The order of merit, from the year 1831. 5. The order or cross of loyalty, instituted in 1814. The royal title is: " King of Sardinia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem, Duke of Savoy, Genoa, etc., Prince of Piedmont, Margrave of Italy," etc. History. — The ancestral seat of the Sardinian monarchs is Savoy, which since the year 879 formed part of the kingdom of Arelat (see under France), and whose governor, Berold or Beroald, made himself independent in 1016, and was the first count of Savoy. His descendants acquired in the course of time, partly by marriage, partly by purchase, Piedmont, Asti, and Nice. In 1416 Count Amadeus VIII. was by the German emperor Sigismund raised to the rank of a duke of Savoy. In 1438 the heiress of the kingdom of Cyprus (established at the end of the 12th century) bequeathed that island to her nephew, Charles I. duke of Savoy, hence the claims of this house upon the above-stated title. In the history of Spain it has already been stated that the duke of Savoy (at that period Victor Amadeus II., whose great-grand- mother was the daughter of King Philip II. of Spain) partook in the war of ruccession. As confederate of Austria in this war, he acquired the duchy of • 5* 106 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Geographical Division — Piedmont. Montferrat and part of the duchy of Milan, and by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the island of Sicily, which he however in 1720 ceded to Austria, that indemnified him by the island of Sardinia. Since that time the dukes of Savoy transformed this title into that of kings of Sardinia. In 1792 the French invaded the continental part of the kingdom, and incorporated first Savoy and Nice, and subsequently all Sardinian provinces on the continent, with France. Thus the whole kingdom was reduced to the island of Sar- dinia; but in 1814 the king was not only reinstated into the possession of his dominions, but amply indemnified by the annexation of the former republic of Genoa. In 1831 the elder branch of the house of Savoy became extinct, and Charles Albert of the collateral line of Savoy- Carignan (whose ancestor was a younger son of the above-named Duke Emanuel) ascended the throne. But the reverses he met with in the war against Austria in 1849, induced him to abdicate, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the now reigning king Victor Emanuel. The whole kingdom is divided into 10 counties, or general intendancies, as they are styled (of Turin, Cuneo, Alessandria, Aosta, Novara, Savoy, Nice, Genoa, Cagliari, and Sassari), which are subdivided into 48 districts. But in the following topog- raphy, we shall retain the historical division into the provinces of Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, etc., as these names are more in use. Although Savoy is the ancestral seat, we must begin with Piedmont, as containing the metropolis and royal residence. 1. The principality of Piedmont, of which the counts of Savoy became possessed in the 11th and 12th century, contains: Turin, the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, on the Po, 73 miles west-south-west of Milan, and north-westward and 70 miles distant from Genoa, is the most regularly built of all the Italian cities, and adorned with numerous magnificent public edifices and palaces, and has 135,000 inhabitants. It contains 110 churches and chapels, a university (see p. 104), and many other literary institutions, and is noted for its manufactures of silk. In the beautiful environs of Turin, are the royal country-seats and palaces of Stupinigi (built in 1740, and one of the most splendid palaces in Europe), of Moncalieri, or Montecalieri (near ITALY. 107 Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. the town of the same name, with 7,000 inhabitants), of La Veneria (near the town of the same name, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a fine royal stud), and of Rivoli (near the town of the same name, with 6,000 inhabitants). La Superga is a magnificent church and convent, built in the years 1715-1731. Carignan, or Carignano, a town on the Po, southward and 1 1 miles distant from Turin, Is the ancestral seat of the reigning royal family, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Chieri, a town in the vicinity of Turin, has 14,000 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages a republic by the name of Cairo. Other towns of this district are: Carmagnola (with 12,000 inhabitants), Chivasso (with 7,000 inhabitants), Cirie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Caselle (with 4,500 inhabitants), San Maurizio (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lanzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Viu (with 4,600 inhabitants), Usseglio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Rivarolo (with 6,000 inhabi- tants), and Rivara (with 1,700 inhabitants). Susa, in the middle ages, chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Dora Riparia, westward and 30 miles distant from Turin, with 3,500 inhabitants, and the remarkable remains of the strong fortress of Brunetta, demolished in 1797. Other towns of this district are: Exilles (with 1,500 inhabitants), San Ambrogio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Giaveno (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Avigliana (with 3,000 inhabitants). Pinerolo, or Pignerol, a town on the Clusone, south- westward and 25 miles distant from Turin, with a beautiful cathedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. Pinerolo, Fenestrelle (with 4,000 inhabitants), Oulx (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Cesana (with 1,000 inhabitants), together with the valley of Clusone, belonged to France in the period from the year 1631tol7l3. Other towns of this district are : Cavoux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cumiana (with 3,500 inhabitants), Vigone (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca di Piemonte (with 8,000 inhabitants). The valleys of Lucerna, Peroso, and San Martino, are the seat of the above-mentioned Waldenses, with 13 churches. Saluzzo, formerly the chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Po, 32 miles south-south-west of Turin, with an old castle (once the residence of the renowned margraves of Saluzzo), a splendid cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Quite near is situated the magnificent abbey of Staffarda (founded in 1135 by Manfredo L, margrave of Saluzzo, and built in the Gothic style). Victory gained by the French marshal Catinat, in 1690. Other towns of this district are : Savigliano (with 1 6,500 inhabitants), Racconigi (with 10,500 inhabitants), and Barge (with 7,000 inhabitants). Cuneo, or Coni, a town at the junction of the Gesso and the Hura, 92 miles south-south-west of Turin, with 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Busca (with 108 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 8,000 inhabitants), Dronero (with 7,000 inhabitants), Fossano (with 13,000 inhabitants), Vinadeo (with 2,600 inhabitants), Demonte (with 7,000 inhabi- tants), Chiusa or La Chiusa (with 6,500 inhabitants), Valdieri (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Boves (with 8,000 inhabitants). Mondovi, a town on the Ellero, southward and 46 miles distant from Turin, with 16,500 inhabitants. Victory gained by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the 22d of April, 1 796. A short time before, Bonaparte had gained another victory at Millesimo (a town, eastward and 18 miles distant from Mondovi, with 1,300 inhabitants). Other towns of this district are : Ceva (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bene (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Cherasco (with 12,500 inhabitants). Alba, a town on the Tanaro, south- eastward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants. Bra, a town on the Hura, with 12,000 inhabitants. Govone, a town on the Tanaro, with 2,500 inhabitants. Polenzo, a village with a Gothic castle and beautiful park. Another village with an ancient castle, is Barolo. Asti, once the chief town of the county of Asti, of which the dukes of Savoy became possessed in 1531, with a magnificent Gothic cathe- dral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Cocconato and San Damiano, towns with respectively 3,500 and 7,000 inhabitants. Ivrea, a town on the Doria Baltea, northward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Locana (with 4,000 in- habitants), Aglie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cuorgne (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ponte (with 2,500 inhabitants), Castellamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants), Borgo- masino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Caluso (with 5,500 inhabitants), and San Giorgio (with 4,000 inhabitants). Vercelli, once the chief town of a Lord- ship belonging to the famous barons of Visconti, and since the year 1427 belonging to the house of Savoy (the Dukes Amadeus IX. and Charles III. resided here towards the end of the 15th, and in the beginning of the 16th century), is situated on the Sesia, 39 miles east-north-east of Turin, and con- tains many remarkable Gothic edifices, and 19,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Santhia, or St. Ya (with 3,500 inhabitants), Crescentino (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Trino (with 7,000 inhabitants). Biella, a town 41 miles north-north-east of Turin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Oropa (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andorno (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Occhieppo superiore (with 1,700 inhabitants), Croce Mosso (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Pollove (with 1,500 inhabitants). Masserano, a little prin- cipality belonging to the barons of Ferreri, under the sovereignty of Sardinia. Aosta, a town, at the foot of Mount St. Bernard, 50 mi|es north-north-west ITALY. 109 Sardinia: Statistics of Savoy. of Turin, with 7,000 inhabitants. St. Vincenzo, a town, with mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. Chattillon, a town, with iron works, and 1,500 inhabi- tants. Cormaggiore (in French, Courmayeur), a village between the Ber- •nardins, with frequented mineral springs, and 1,200 inhabitants. Bardo, or Bard, a fortress between Aosto and Ivrea, dominating the road over the Great St. Bernard, and therefore presenting the last serious obstacle to Bonaparte, when in 1800 he crossed the Alps with his army. 2. The duchy of Savoy, between Piedmont and France, on the north bor- dered by the lake of Geneva (its population was 606,396 inhabitants, accord- ing to the census of 1844; about its history, see p. 105) ; containing: Ch am- ber y, capital of Savoy, at 9 miles distance from the French frontier, 46 miles south-south-west of Geneva and 83 miles west-north-west of Turin, with an ancient castle once the residence of the dukes of Savoy, active trade with Lyons, and 18,500 inhabitants. Not far off is situated, in a delightful valley, the town of Aix, noted (even from the days of the Romans) for its mineral springs, and with 3,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Alta Comba, in French Haute Combe (with a renowned abbey from the year 1125, and with 1.600 inhabitants), Echelles (with 1,200 inhabitants), Mommeliano, in French Montmelian (with 1.300 inhabitants), Rumilly (with 4,500 inhabi- tants), St. Pierre d'Albigny (with 4,000 inhabitants), Yenne (with 3,500 in- habitants), Aillon (with 3,000 inhabitants), A rvillers (with 1,500 inhabitants), Ugine (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Aigues belles (with 1,000 inhabitants). The small towns of Conjlans and Hopital, on the Isere, are at present united by the name of Albertville, and have together 3,500 inhabitants. Pont Beauvoisin, a town on the Isere, with 1,500 inhabitants, belongs with its western half to France, and with its eastern to Savoy. Thonon, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Ciablese or Chablais, on the lake of Ge- neva, north-eastward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 4,20(5 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this district are : Evian (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Jean d'Aulps (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Abundance (with 1,800 inhabi- tants). Annecy, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Genevese, or Genevois (of which the dukes of Savoy became possessed, in 1401), on the lake of Annecy, southward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 9,000 inhabitants. Faverges, a town, with an important silk manufactory, and 3,000 inhabitants. Bonneville, formerly the capital of the ancient Lordship of Faucigny, or Fossigny, at the confluence of the Bonne and Arve, south-east- ward and 14 miles distant from Geneva, with 1,300 inhabitants. Cluse, or 110 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Statistics of Nice — Monaco — Montfcrrat. Cluses, a town on the Arve, with 2,000 inhabitants. Sallanche, or Sallenche, a town on the Arve, with 1,800 inhabitants. Chamouny, a village situated in the romantic valley of the same name, with 1,700 inhabitants. Tanninges, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. St. Gervais, or San Gervasio, a village at the foot of Mont Blanc, with mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. Montiers, or Monstiers, surnamed en Tarentaise, a town on the Isere, 30 miles east-south-east of Chambery, with 2,800 inhabitants. Aime, a town with 900 inhabitants. San Giovanni, or St. Jean de Maurienne, a town 28 miles south-east of Chambery, with frequented mineral springs, and 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Lans-le-Bourg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Modane (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Termignon (with 1,800 inhabitants). 3. The county of Nice (area: 1,448 square miles; population: 247,483 in- habitants, according to the census of 1844), along the coast and on the French border, once belonging to Provence, but since the year 1388, to the house of Savoy. It contains : Nice, a maritime town and the capital of the county, much frequented by the English, Germans, and others, on account of its salu- brious air, with 37,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the county are : Villafranca (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sospello (with 9,000 inhabitants), Turbia (with 800 inhabitants), Tenda (with 3,000 inhabitants), Briga (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Oneglia (with 5,000 inhabitants). The principality of Monaco (area: 53 square miles; population: 7,000 inhabitants), surrounded by the county of Nice, is independent in its local affairs, but in other respects under the protection and supremacy of Sardinia, It yields an annual revenue of 100,000 francs to the prince of Monaco (at present Florestan I., belonging to the family of Grimaldi), and contains the following towns : Monaco (the capital with 1,200 inhabitants), Mentone (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Rocca bruna. 4. The duchy of Montferrat (area : 1,065 square miles ; population : 170,000 inhabitants), situated between Turin and Genoa. Montferrat was originally a margraviate, and in 890 it was ruled by the margrave William, whose male line became extinct in 1305. The heiress of the margraviate, Iolantha, was married, in 1330, with a prince of Savoy, and by the right of succession, the house of Savoy became possessed of the margraviate, or duchy, in the years 1627 and 1703. It contains: Casale, capital of Montferrat, on the Po, eastward and 37 miles distant from Turin, with several remarkable palaces, and a cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Acqui, a town on the Bormida, with 8,500 ITALY. in Sardinia: Statistics of Duchy of Milan, etc. inhabitants. The little town of Cucarro is considered as the actual birth-place of Columbus, who, according to recent investigators, was born here in 1442 ; while others are of the opinion that he was born in Cogoleto (see under duchy of Genoa). Nizza delta Paglia, a town on the Belbo, with 5,000 inhabitants. 5. The Sardinian portion of the duchy of Milan (see history of this duchy in the description of the Austrian empire), containing : Alessandkia, sur- named delta Paglia, a city on the Tanaro, eastward and 46 miles distant from Turin, and northward and 42 miles distant from Genoa, with several literary institutions, frequented fairs, and 46,000 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the village of Marengo, noted for the battle of the 14th of June, 1800. Bosco, a great village, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a magnificent abbey, founded in the 16th century. Valenza, a town on the Po, with 7,000 inhab- itants. Lumello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mortara (with 4,200 inhabi- tants), and Vigevano (with 12,000 inhabitants). Novara, a town on the Agogna, north-eastward and 55 miles distant from Turin, with a magnificent cathedral, several literary institutions and societies, and 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Oleggio (with 7,000 inhabitants), Borgomanero (with 7,000 inhabitants), Maggiora (with 2,000 inhabitants), Borgosesia (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Varallo (with 3,000 inhabitants). Near the village of Alagna, at the foot of Mount Rosa, are important copper mines. On the Lake Maggiore is situated the town of Arona, with 65,000 inhabitants, noted for a colossal statue of Charles Borromeo, born in 1538 at Arona, and distin- guished for his works of Christian charity. He was cardinal and archbishop of Milan, where he died in 1584. Near Arona, and in the Lake Maggiore, are the Borromean Isles (Isola del Pescatori, Isola bella, and Isola madre), with beautiful gardens, belonging to the family of Borromeo. Pallanza (with 1,600 inhabitants), Intra (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Canobbio (with 2,000 inhabitants), towns on the Lake Maggiore. Other towns of this district are : Pomodossola, or Domo d'Ossola (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Vogogna (with 1,500 inhabitants). Tortona, a town on the Scrivia, eastward and 9 miles distant from Alessandria, with 9,000 inhabitants. Serravalle, a town, with 2,400 inhabitants. Bobbio, a town on the Trebbia, and near the frontier of the duchy of Parma, with 5,000 inhabitants. Voghera, a town 18 miles east-north-east of Alessandria, with 12,000 inhabitants. 6. The former republic (at present styled duchy) of Genoa (area : 2,343 square miles ; population, according to the census of 1844: 705,708 inhabi- tants). The city of Genoa was already in the days of the ancient Romans 112 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Duchy of Genoa— History and Statistics. noted for its extensive commerce. In the period of the migration of nations it came under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and since changed hands, until in the middle ages it threw off obedience to the German emperors, and became independent, with republican forms of government like those of Venice. So early as the year 806 it had conquered the island of Corsica, which it kept first until the 11th, and then, since the year 1284, until the latter half of the 18th century, when the island was ceded to France. About the higluy-un- portant and extensive commerce of Genoa in the middle ages, see History of Europe, § 17. Since the year 1464, Genoa, with its territory, was consid- ered as part of the duchy of Milan. It was conquered by King Francis I. of France, and again by Charles V. emperor of Germany. At last, in 1528, it re- acquired its independence, which it maintained until the wars brought on by the French revolution. In 1797, it was transformed into "a Ligurian Republic ; in 1805, incorporated into the French empire; and in 1815, into the kingdom of Sardinia. The duchy of Genoa contains the following cities and towns : Genoa, fortified capital of the duchy and chief seaport of Sardinia, on the Gulf of Genoa, with 120,000 inhabitants. It is built on the declivity of a mountain which half encircles its harbor, and is surnamed the Superb on account of its numerous and magnificent palaces and other edifices, among which are more than 100 churches. Besides a university (see p. 104), there are many other scientific and literary institutions. (About the birth-place of Columbus, see Cucarro, p. Ill, and Cogoleto, p. 113.) The shore to the right and to the left of the city, is covered with numerous and splendid villas. As Genoa's suburb is considered the neighboring town of San Piar d'Arena, or San Pietro d'Arena, with many villas and magnificent palaces, and 7,000 inhabitants. Westward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, is situated the village of Montenotte, noted for the victory gained by Bonaparte on the 14th of April, 1796. Other remarkable villages in the vicinity of Genoa are : Arenzano, San Cipriano, La Foce, and Sort. Voltri, a maritime town, with docks, paper manufactories, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- trict are : Cornigliano (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sestri di Ponente (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pra, or Pria (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pegli (with 4,000 inhabi- tants), Camogli (with 5,000 inhabitants), Nervi, Torriglia, and Mele. Novi, a town at the foot of the Apennines, 23 miles north-north-east of Genoa, with many palace-like houses and villas of the Genoese, and 10,800 inhabitants. Savona, a maritime town, 20 miles west-south-west of Genoa, with 17,000 inhabitants. Pope Pius VIL lived here forcedly, in the years 1809-1812. ITALY. ns Sardinia: Statistics— Island of Sardinia. Cogoleto, a village on the Gulf of Genoa, with 1,000 inliabitants, is considered as the birth-place of Columbus, according to the prevailing opinion, while others consider Cucarro (see p. Ill) as his birth-place. Other towns of this district are: Vado (with 2,000 inhabitants), A Ibizola (with 1,300 inhabitants), Varazze (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Noli (with 2,000 inhabitants). Albenga, a maritime town, south-westward and 32 miles from Savona, with 4,000 inhab- itants. Other towns of this district are : Alassio (with 6,000 inhabitants), Langueglia, or Laigueglia (with 2,200 inhabitants), Loano (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Finale (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varigotti (with 1,500 inhabitants). Porto Mauritio, or Porto San Maurizio, a maritime town, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Savona, with 5,700 inhabitants. San Remo, a maritime town, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Nice, with 12,000 inhabitants. It is said, in praise of this town, that within the memory of man, a murder has never happened there. Another maritime town is Venti- miglia, or Vinthniglia, with 5,500 inhabitants. Chiavari, a maritime town, eastward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, with 11,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Rapallo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Lavagna (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sestri di Levante (with 2,000 inliabitants), Borzonasca (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varese (with 6,000 inhabitants). Spezia, or Spezzia, a maritime town on the Gulf of Spezia, between Genoa and Leghorn, with a fine harbor, and 10,000 inhabitants. In and near the Gulf of Spezia, are situated the small isles of Palmaria, Tino (with a light -house), and Tinello. Of greater extent is the island of Capraja, between Corsica and Leghorn, with 3,660 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844. In the district of Spezia, are still the following towns to be mentioned : Portovenere (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lerici (with 4,700 inhabitants), Levanto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sarzana (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Monterosso (with 1,000 inhabitants). 7. The island of Sardinia (area: 9,287 square miles; population: 598,000 inhabitants), next to Sicily the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situ- ated in the latitude of Naples. The soil of the low country is generally very fertile in grain, of which great quantities axe exported, chiefly to Algiers. The rearing of cattle is also very considerable. In the mountainous districts lives the muffion, bearing a great resemblance to the Rocky Mountain sheep. The aborigines of the island of Sardinia were Iberians (see Introduc- tion, § 12), and in the course of time, Greek and Carthaginian immigrants settled here. The Romans conquered the island in 238 B. C, and in 720 A.D., it came under the sway of the Arabs, in 1050 under that of the Pi 114 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Island of Sardinia— Statistics. In 1324 the king of Aragon became possessed of it, and since that period the island continued to be under Spanish sovereignty, until in 1714 it was ceded to Austria, and in 1720 ceded to the duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily (see ante). With regard to the administration, the island is divided into two divisions, or provinces, which are subdivided into eleven districts ; and it contains : Cagliari, fortified capital of the island, on the gulf of the same name, with a university (see above), 38 churches, 20 convents, ship docks, active commerce, salt works, and 30,000 inhabitants. Quarto, a town, with 5,800 inhabitants. Here, and in the neighborhood, the female sex is distin- guished for its beauty. Busachi, chief town of a district, with 1,800 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this district are : Oristano (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Ales (with 1,000 inhabitants), while Cabras (with 8,500 inhabitants), Panlila- tino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sorgono (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Aritzu, are more or less remarkable villages. The district of Iglesias contains the fol- lowing towns: Iglesias (chief town, with a fine cathedral, and 8,500 inhabi- tants), Villacidro (with 5,800 inhabitants), Guspini (with lead mines, and 3,000 inhabitants), and Carloforte (on the isle of San Pietro, near the south- west coast, with 2,300 inhabitants). Isili, chief town of a district, with 2,200 inhabitants. Nurri and Sardara, villages, with respectively 2,000 and 1,700 inhabitants. Lanusei, chief town of the district of Ogliastra, with 1,700 in- habitants. Tortoli and Bavi, towns, with respectively 1,300 and 1,200 inhab- itants. Nuoro, chief town of a district, with 3,600 inhabitants. Orosei, Fonni, and Posada, towns, with respectively 2,000, 2,800, and 2,500 inhabi- tants. Montesanto, Orgosola, and Siniscola, are mountain villages, whose inhabitants are notorious for their wild manners. Dorgali, a village, with 2,900 inhabitants, and noted for its manufactory of arms. The fair sex of the village of Benetutti are distinguished for their beauty. Sassari, the second city on the island, near its northern coast, with 25 churches, 13 convents, a university (see above), and 23,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Osilo (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sorso (with 4,300 inhabitants), Castel Sardo (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Porto Torres (with 800 inhabitants). Alghieri, or Alghero, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cuglieri (with 3,900 inhabitants), and Bosa (with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inhabitants), towns. Ozieri (with 8,000 inhabitants), Oschiri (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Pattada (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Tempio, chief town of the district of Gallura, with 9,500 inhabitants. To this district belong, moreover, the town of Terranova (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the isles of Tavolara or Bucina, Moddalena, and Caprera. ITALY us Duchy of Parma. IL— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. Area: 17,594 square miles. Population : 5,068,000 inhabitants. This kingdom will be described together with the Austrian empire. III.— THE DUCHY OF PARMA. Area : 2,279 square miles. Population : 479,900 inhabitants. It is situated between the duchy of Modena and the conti- nental part of Sardinia, and on the north separated from Lom- bardy by the Po. The soil is generally very fertile, and agriculture in a rather high state of improvement. Yet the commerce and manufactures are of no great importance. The clergy are charged with the care of the schools. Most of the teachers are monks, and the schools for girls are under the direction of nuns. There was a university in the capital, founded in 1422, but it was abolished in 1832 and transformed into two higher special schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of 7 bishops. There are still 21 convents in the country. The public revenue was of late about 7,200,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure little more than 6,000,000 lire. The public debt amounted to 7,600,000 lire, or $1,428,800, in 1840. The military numbers about 800 men. There is an order of honor, 116 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Duchy of Pa-ma. called the Constantinian order of St. George, originally instituted by the Greek emperor Isaac, in 1190, and in 1699 sold to the Duke Francis I. of Parma. In 1815, it was renewed by the late Duchess Maria Louisa. History. — The country embraces 3 duchies, viz. : of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, of which the two first-named were always united, while Gruastalla was not added to them until the year 1748. The cities of Parma and Pia- cenza shared the fate of Upper and Middle Italy after the fall of the Western Empire, until in 1183 they succeeded in becoming independent, with repub- lican forms of government. Yet in the next century they were unable to maintain their independence, and they were ruled alternately by the Visconti, Este, Sforzas, and other dynasties, until in 1514 the apostolical see became possessed of them. Pope Paul III. raised Parma and Piacenza to the rank of duchies, and invested with them his natural son, Peter Aloys Farnese (father of the great warrior, Alexander of Farnese), in 1543. In 1131 the male line of the house of Farnese became extinct. Philip V. of Spain was married to a princess of Parma, and for this reason his son, Don Carlos became possessed of the duchies, which since (with the exception of a short interval) were ruled by Spanish Princes. First in 1802, and formally in 1805, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were incorporated into the French empire ; while the prince Borghese, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was invested with the duchy of Guastalla. In 1815, according to the determination of the congress of Vienna, the former empress of France, Maria Louisa, became possessed of these three duchies for lifetime. She died on the 18th of Decem- ber, 1847, and the duchies now devolved upon the legitimate heir, the Spanish prince, Charles, until then (since the year 1824) duke of Lucca, which latter duchy is since annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. The whole country is divided into the 5 districts of Parma, Piacenza, Borgo Sandonnino, Borgo Taro, and Guastalla. Yet in the description we shall retain the historical division of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. (a.) The duchy of Parma, embracing the eastern half of the state, and con- taining: Parma, the metropolis and ducal residence, north-westward and ITALY. H7 Duchy of Parm.i : Duchy of Modena. 81 miles distant from Modena, and northward and 92 miles distant from Leghorn, with an extensive ducal castle, several remarkable churches, many literary institutions, and 41,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this duchy are : Coforno (with 1,800 inhabitants), Fornovo (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Sala (with an ancient ducal castle). The ducal park at the village of Castelguelfo is one of the finest in Italy. (6.) The duchy of Piacenza, embracing the western half of the state, and containing : Piacenza (in French, Plaisance), the capital of this duchy, on the right bank of the Po, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Parma, with a beautiful cathedral and 30,000 inhabitants. Austria exercises the stipulated right of garrisoning the citadel of Piacenza. In the vicinity is the field of battle on the Trebia, where in 217 B. O, Hannibal defeated the Romans. Other towns of this duchy are : Borgo Sandonni.no (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Borgo Taro (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Fiorenznola (with 3,300 inhabitants). (c.) The duchy of Guastalla (area : 85 square miles; population: 33,500 inhabitants), about 18 miles north-east of the city of Parma. Its ancient dukes belonged to the house of Mantua, and became extinct in 1746. The duchy as an imperial fee escheated now to the German emperor, who in 1748 ceded it to the Spanish prince Don Carlos (see above). It contains: Guastalla, capital of this duchy, on the Po, with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inhabitants. Besides this are to be remarked the villages of Baccanello, San Giorgio, San Rocco, and Brocada. IV.— THE DUCHY OF MODENA. Area : 2,109 square miles. Population : 490,000 inhabitants. It is situated between Parma and the northern extremity of the popedom, has a fertile soil, and is noted for its fine Carrara marble. The manufacturing industry is of no great importance. 118 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Duchy of Modena. There was in the capital a university, which, however, in 1832, was transformed into three higher schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of 6 bishops. There are still 14 monasteries and 9 nunneries in the country. The public revenue was of late about $540,000, and the public debt amounted only to $252,000. The army, on the peace foot- ing, numbers 1,860 men. History. — Modena became in the middle ages a fee of the German empire, and in the 14th century the renowned house of Este was invested with it. This house, whose ancestral seat of the same name is situated in the kingdom of Lombardy Venice, belonged to the most ancient families of Italy, anil its ancestor was the margrave Albert of Este, who lived about the year 960, and was possessed of great estates in Lombardy. His great-grandson, Albert Azzo II., went to Germany and inherited there, by his wife, the large possessions of the Guelphs ; while the collateral degrees of kindred remained in Italy. To these belonged margrave Borso, who in 1452, was raised to the rank of a duke of Modena and Reggio. In 1806 the male line of the house of Este became extinct, and the heiress of the duchy being married to the Austrian archduke Ferdinand, the reigning dynasty was henceforth called Austria-Este. His grandson Francis V. (born in 1819) is the reigning duke since 1846. The whole duchy is divided into the six provinces of Modena, Reggio, Garfagna, Massa-Carrara, Lunigiana, and Frignano. Yet we shall, in the topography, follow the historical division into the duchies and principalities of Modena, Reggio, Correggio, Miran- dola, Novellara, and Massa-Carrara. Modena, capital of the whole country and residence of the duke, on a canal that unites the Panaro with the Secchia, south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Parma, and 60 miles north-north-west of Florence, with a magnificent palace of the duke, numerous churches (the high steeple of the cathedral is known by the name of Guirlandina), and 28,000 inhabitants (inclusive 1,500 Jews). Other towns of this district are : Sassuolo (with 8,000 inhabitants), ITALY. H9 Duchy of Modena. Finale (with 6,500 inhabitants), Frignano (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pavullo (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Acquaria (with hot springs). Cartelnuovo di Garfagna, a town on the Serchio, with 3,000 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the Lordship of Garfagna, which previously was annexed to Bologna. Carpi, a town situated northward and 9 miles distant from Modena, has 5,000 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of the principality of Carpi, that in 1530 was ceded to Modena by the house of Pico, for the sum of 100,000 ducats. Rkggio, the capital of the ancient duchy of Reggio, which has always been united with the duchy of Modena, is situated between the cities of Modena and Parma, and has 23 churches, several convents, and 19,000 inhab- itants. The renowned poet Ariosto, was born here in 1474. In the vicinity of this city, are to be found the ruins of the ancient castle of Canossa, where the German emperor Henry IV. humbled himself before the Pope Gregory VII., in 1077. Brescello, a fortified town on the Po, with 2,000 inhabitants. The province of Lunigiana contains the towns of Aulla (with 1,800 inhabi- tants), and Fosdinovo (with 2,000 inhabitants). Correggio, ancient capital of a principality of the same name, which in 1635 was annexed to Modena, near the Po, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. The great painter Antonio Allegzi, generally known by the name of Correggio, was born here. Mirandola, ancient capital of a duchy of the same name, which in 1711 was annexed to Modena, on the Burana, with 5,500 inhabitants. Con- cordia, a town on the Secchia, with 3,500 inhabitants. Novellara, ancient capital of a principality of the same name, with which the duke of Modena was invested in 1737, 20 miles north-north-west of Modena, with 5,000 inhab- itants. The duchy of Massa- Carrara, bordering on the sea, and having an area of 95 square miles, with more than 30,000 inhabitants, was annexed to the duchy of Modena in 1741, by marriage of its heiress with the hereditary prince of Modena. It contains : Massa, a city on the Frigido, and near the western coast of the Italian peninsula, with 10,000 inhabitants, and active commerce in olive oil and marble. In its vicinity is situated the town of Carrara, with 8,500 inhabitants, an academy of sculptors, and numerous workshops, where more than 400 artists are engaged in sculptural works. About 100 vessels are annually employed in exporting the marble of Carrara, Lavenza, a maritime town, with 1,300 inhabitants. 120 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. V.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TUSCANY. Area : 8,844 square miles. Population: 1,752,000 inhabitants. This state, comprising the north-western part of Middle Italy, consists, since the year 1847, of Tuscany Proper (8,418 square miles, and 1,570,000 inhabitants), and the Duchy of Lucca (426 square miles, and 182,000 inhabitants), which latter, according to the determinations of the congress at Vienna in 1815, was annexed to the grand-duchy as soon as the duchess of Parma died, and the duke of Lucca became her successor (compare the History of Parma). The Etruscan Apennines extend across the north-eastern part • of the country. The principal river of Tuscany is the Arno, while the Tiber has its sources here. Besides these, the Ombrone in Tuscany, and the Serchio in Lucca, may be mentioned. The soil is for the greatest part very fertile, although marshy at the mouth of the Arno, and along the coast, down to the frontier of the States of the Church. These marshes are known by the name of the Maremma. Agriculture flourishes in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca, and has attained here a high state of improvement. Besides the silk manufactures at Florence, Tuscany is renowned for its fine straw hats, and in the valley of the Arno thousands of country girls are engaged in plaiting straw. The manufactures in Lucca are various, and embrace chiefly silk, cotton, and woollen goods. With regard to the commerce, Leghorn may be considered as the chief seaport of the Italian peninsula, and besides this, the inland trade of Florence is also very important. With regard to the means of education, there are 3 universi- ITALY. 121 Tuscany: Education— Rv venu? — Army, etc. ties in Tuscany, viz. : at Pisa (founded in 1338, and in 1841 frequented by 580 students), at Siena (founded in 1351, and in 1841 with 257 students), and at Florence (founded in 1438, and in 1841 with 218 students). Moreover, there are 4 colleges for the sons of nobles, 16 gymnasiums, and 16 seminaries (see the ex- planatory note at the introduction to Portugal). The common schools are numerous in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca. At the head of the Catholic clergy are 4 archbishops (one of them in Lucca) and 16 bishops. In 1840 Tuscany numbered still 133 monasteries (with 2,540 monks) and 69 nunneries (with 3,907 nuns). In the duchy of Lucca the number of convents amounted to 23. Until the last revolutions in Italy, which commenced in 1847, the Tuscan government was absolute, but is now limited. The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for the last year has been about $5,000,000 annually. In 1836 the revenue of Tuscany was exactly 25,104,898 lire, and the expen- diture only 23,078,029 lire (or francs). Since 1829, Tuscany is without any public debt. In the duchy of Lucca, whose public debt amounted to about 500,000 lire, the public revenue was of late 3.700,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure somewhat less. The Tuscan army numbers on the peace footing 5,500 men. (The military of Lucca consisted of 700 men.) There are also some vessels of war, consisting of 4 schooners (one of them be- longed to the duchy of Lucca) and some gun-boats. The Tuscanese orders of honor are the following : — 1. The order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1562, and renewed in 1817, in 4 classes. 2. The order of St. Joseph, instituted in 1807, at Wurtzburg (see below), and renewed in 1817 for Tuscany, in 3 classes. 3. The order of the white cross, instituted in 1814. (The duke of Lucca had instituted the or ler of St. Louis, in 3 classes.) 122 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany: History. History. — The present grand-duchy of Tuscany comprises for the greatest part the ancient Etruria, or the land of the Etruscans, which in 284 A. C. was conquered by the Romans, and, after the fall of the Western Empire, came under the sway first of the Lombards, and then of the Franks. Charlemagne appointed margraves as governors of Tuscia (as the country now was named), who in the course of time became independent, but without being able to retain the whole of the country. For Florence, Pisa, Siena, etc., became free cities or republics in the 13th century. (See History of Europe, § 17, d, h, and i.) Pisa was for a long time the most powerful among them, but was subdued, first in 1407, then in 1509 by Florence, that in 1286 had purchased its independence from the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg at the sum of 600,000 gold florins. Among the eminent families of Florence were the Medici, renowned for their attainments and riches, who became at last (espe- cially since the year 1434) the rulers of the republic. To Alexander of Medici was the ducal title conferred by the emperor Charles V. in 1531, and to his son and successor Cosimo I. the title of a grand-duke by the pope in 1569. In 1554 Spain had taken possession of the republic of Siena, which for the greatest part was ceded to Cosmo I. in 1557. In this way the former republic of Florence was enlarged to a grand-duchy of Tuscany. With John Gaston the race of the Medici became extinct in 1737. and now, according to former stipulations, the duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine (married to the renowned Maria Theresa, heiress of Austria) ascended the throne. He was subsequently elected emperor of Germany, and died in 1765. Hi3 successor in Tuscany was first his son Leopold, and then (in 1790) his grandson Ferdi- nand HI. In the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville in 1801, it was stipulated that the hereditary prince of Parma should become possessed of Tuscany by the name of a kingdom of Etruria, in return for which the grand- duke Ferdinand III. was indemnified first by the archbishopric of Salzburg, and in 1805 by the grand-duchy of Wurtzburg (see introduction to Germany). Tuscany, or Etruria (as it was then called), was in 1807 annexed to the French empire, of which it formed a constituent until 1814, when Ferdinand III. was reinstated. He died in 1824, and was succeeded by his son, the still reigning grand-duke Leopold II. (born in 1797). In 1849 he was obliged to leave the country on account of a revolution which had the tendency to transform the grand-duchy into a republic. But an Austrian army entered the country and defeated the republicans, whereupon the grand-duke returned ITALY. 123 Tuscany: Geographical Divisions. to Florence. About the annexation of the duchy of Lucca, see above, and the History of Parma. Tuscany proper is divided into the 5 compartimenti or prov- inces of Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, and Grossetto, which are subdivided into Territorii coraunitativi, or townships. Part of the compartimenti of Pisa and Grossetto consists of the Stato degli Presidii, or the former territory of the ancient republic of Siena, which not before the year 1815 was annexed to the grand-duchy. For this reason we shall first give the topography of Tuscany proper, and then describe the Stato degli Presidii, and finally the duchy of Lucca. 1. Tuscany proper contains : Florence, the capital of the grand-duchy 5 and residence of the grand-duke, on the Arno, westward and 115 miles dis- tant from Ancona, and 50 east-north-east of Leghorn, with 105,000 inhabi- tants. Florence, one of the finest cities of Europe, is noted for its churches, palaces, galleries, and libraries. The most magnificent among the 172 churches is the cathedral, which was reared in the period from the year 1294 to 1448, and whose beautiful cupola rises to the height of 400 feet. The palace Pitti, the usual residence of the grand-dukes, contains 900 apartments. Another palace, reared by Cosmo I., contains, besides the so-called Maglia- becchian library, the celebrated Florentine gallery of sculpture, paintings, and other works of art. In the vicinity of the city are situated the beautiful Villa Demidof (belonging to the Russian count Demidof), and the grand-ducal mansions of Poggio Imperiale, Poggio a Cajano, Pratolino, and Castello. On the Stella, 23 miles north-west of Florence, is situated the city of Pistoja, with 28 churches (among them, a magnificent cathedral), a manufactory of organs, various other manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. The villages of Brozzi and Signa, are noted for their straw hats, which are plaited here in great quantities. Fiesole, a town in the vicinity of Florence, is remarkable for the remains of cyclopic walls and other ancient buildings. Other towns of the compartimento of Florence are : Prato (with 11,000 inhabitants), Peseta (with 11,000 inhabitants), Volterra (with 6,000 inhabitants), San Miniato (with 4,000 inhabitants), Figline (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Modigliano (with 2,300 inhabitants). The town of Certaldo is remarkable as the birth-place of 124 EUROPK, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany Statistics. the poet Boccacio. Arezzo, capital of the compartimento of the same name, south-eastward and 37 miles distant from Florence, with a magnificent cathe- dral, and 9,500 inhabitants). The town of Montepulciano, witli 3,000 inhab- itants, is noted for its wines. The town of Chiusi, which now has only 1,600 inhabitants, was in the days of old, or about 500 years before Christ, the residence of Porsenna, and then named Clusium. Stia, a town near the Arno, with cloth manufactories and 1,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated the celebrated abbey of Camaldoli, originated in 1012. Other towns in this compartimento are : Cortona (with 3,500 inhabitants), Borgo San Sepolcro (with 3,000 inhabitants), Anghiari (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Bibbiena (the wealthiest town in the district of Casentino). Siena, the capital of the com- partimento of the same name, situated in a picturesque country, southward and 30 miles distant from Florence, with a splendid cathedral ranking next to that of Milan, numerous palaces, a university and several other literary insti- tutions, silk and other manufactories, and 24,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, when Siena was a republic (see above), the population of the city amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Pienza, a town formerly called Corsignano, has 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this compartimento are: Chile (with 4,000 inhabitants), Montalcino (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Radicofani (with 1,000 inhabitants). Near the last-named town are the renowned watering- places of San Fillppo and San Casciano. Gkossetto, fortified town and capital of the compartimento of the same name, southward and 70 miles distant from Florence, in a marshy and very unwholesome country, near the coast, with salt works, and 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province (besides those that belong to the Stato degli Presidii) are : Soana, or Sovaow (remarkable as the birth-place of Pope Gregory VII.). Massa di Maremma (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Pitigliano (with 2,600 inhabitants). The com- partimento of Pisa contains : Pisa, a city on the Arno, about 4 miles distant from its mouth, and 12 miles north-north-east from Leghorn, had in the middle ages, when it was a powerful republic (see above), a population of 150,000, but has at present only 22,000 inhabitants. Yet it is still a most remarkable city, not only for its celebrated university, one of the best in Italy, but for its edifices and buildings. There are nearly 80 churches, among them the highly- interesting cathedral founded in 1063, richly decorated in the interior, and containing the tomb of the German emperor, Henry VII. (who died here in 1313). Near the back part of the cathedral is the remarkable Campanile, or leaning tower, 168 feet high, and inclining 14 feet from the perpendicular. It ITALY. 125 Tuscany : Statistic*. was reared in 117-1. On the other side is the Campo Santo, or church-yard, with fine paintings in fresco on the walls, with which it is surrounded. In the neighborhood of Pisa are mineral baths, which are much frequented. The grand-ducal farm of San Rossore, in the vicinity of Pisa, is noted for its studs and a herd of camels that have been kept here since the year 1622. Leghorn (in Italian, Livorno), the chief seaport of Tuscany, and the first commercial city in Italy, 50 miles west-south-west of Florence, with two harbors, ship docks, numerous manufactories, and 88,000 inhabitants, among whom are nearly 25,000 Jews, who have here one of the most splendid syna- gogues in Europe. In the vicinity is the picturesque mountain Montenero (or Monte Negro), with a rich convent and numerous mansions. Barga, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, is situated in the district called Garfagna Granducale. Fivizzano, a town with a Benedictine nunnery, and 2,500 inhabitants, is situated in the district called Lunigiana. Pontremoli, a town on the Magra, with a fine cathedral, a strong citadel, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns are : Castellina Marittima (with 1,000 inhabitants), Castelnuovo (with 1,000 inhabitants), Serravezza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pietrasanta (wi;h 3,000 inhabitants). Near the coast, and at no great distance from Leghorn, are situated the isles of Pianosa (to which Agrippa Posthumus, grandson of the Roman emperor Augustus, was exiled), Gianuti, Giglio (with 1,300 inhabitants), Monte Cristo, Palmajola (between Elba and the continent), Gorgona (right against Leghorn), and Meloria. 2. The Stato degli Presidii (area : 298 square miles) is a territory that once belonged to the ancient republic of Siena, and which, together with the city itself, was conquered by Spain in 1554. When, in 1557, the city of Siena was ceded to Tuscany by Philip II. of Spain, he kept its territory, which since formed a constituent part of the kingdom of Naples (then under Spanish sway). In 1801, Naples ceded it (or the Stato degli Presidii) to France, which kept the island of Elba for itself, while the principality of Piombino was given to Felix Bacchiochi, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, and the re- maining part of the Stato degli Presidii annexed to Tuscany. According to the stipulations of the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the whole was annexed to the grand-duchy. The Stato degli Presidii comprise the following towns on the continent: Orbjtello, about 13 miles distant from the frontier of the States of the Church, with 2,000 inhabitants, Ercole and San Stefano (little seaports) ; Piombino, a maritime town, and capital of the ancient principality of Piombino (whose princes of the houses of Appiani, Ludovici, and Buon- 126 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany: Duchy of Lucca— Statistics. campagni, were under the sovereignty first of the German emperor, then of Spain, Naples, etc.), with 1,000 inhabitants, Galdano, Scarlino, and Lili ; and, moreover, the island of Elba (area : 32 square miles, with important iron mines, and the towns of Porto Ferrajo, with 2,000 inhabitants, and Porto Longone, with 1,000 inhabitants). In 1814, the sovereignty of this island was given to Napoleon in exchange for the imperial crown of France. He remained here until March, 1815. 3. The duchy of Lucca (area : 426 square miles; population: 182,000 in- habitants), of which the statistical and geographical particulars have already been given above. It comprises the north-western extremity of the grand- duchy of Tuscany. Lucca became in the middle ages a fee of the German empire, and was ruled under this sovereignty by various families. But in 1370 it purchased its independence from the emperor Charles IV., and since it was a republic, first with a democratic, but since the years 1430 and 1556 with an aristocratic constitution. Lucca continued to be a republic until the year 1805, when Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law, Bacchiochi, prince of Piombino, hereditary president of Lucca, and thus transformed the republic into a kind of monarchy. In 1815 it was transformed into a duchy, and the widow of the hereditary prince of Parma (see History of Tuscany) invested with it. She died in 1824, and was succeeded by her son, the now (since 1847) reigning duke of Parma (see History of Parma). Since the end of the year 1847 the duchy of Lucca is annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany (see above). It contains the following places : Lucca, the capital and former resi- dence of the duke, near the Serchio, 12 miles north-north-east of Pisa, with an extensive and richly-decorated ducal palace, 22 churches (among them a Gothic cathedral reared in the 11th century), various manufactories, and 25,000 inhabitants. The famous mineral baths of Lucca are in the neighbor- ing towns of Bagni, Bagno alia Villa, and Ponte a Seraglio. Other towns of the duchy are : Caponnori (with 3,000 inhabitants), Borgo (with 2,000 in- habitants), Camajore (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Viareggio (a maritime town, with 6,500 inhabitants). ITALY. 127 Slates of the Church VL— THE STATES OF THE CHURCH Area : 17,280 square miles. Population* : 2,970,000 inhabitants. The territory forming the States of the Church, or the Pope- dom, occupies the centre of Italy, extending from the western coast of the peninsula to its eastern coast, and northward up to the mouths of the Po. The chief river of the Popedom is the Tiber. In the vicinity of Rimini, between Ancona and Ravenna, is the little river of Luso, or Uso, emptying into the Adriatic Sea. It is the same rivulet which anciently was so renowned by the name of Rubicon. About the mountains of the States of the Church, see Introduction, § 7, d. Near the mouths of the Po, and along the high road between Rome and Naples, are extensive marshes exhaling- bad air ; they are known by the names of Valli di Comacchio and Pontine marshes. The soil is generally good and fertile, but only in some parts of the country the agriculture is conducted with skill and dili- gence. The annual produce in grains is on an average computed at about 615,500 quarters of wheat, 295,600 quarters of maize, 20,000 quarters of oats, and 11,200 quarters of barley. Suffi- cient corn for home consumption is seldom raised throughout the country. The produce of the richest lands is only to the advan- tage of the clergy and nobility, while by far the most of the pub- lic charges press heavily upon the farmer. With the money got by the sale of his fruits, wines, olive-oil, hemp, flax, and silk, the farmer pays his debts, contracted beforehand, his taxes and necessaries of life. The numerous holidays and pilgrimages, jointly with the warm climate, are seducing the people into indo- lence, the more so as in many convents the poor can have their 128 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. States of the Church: Classes, Secular and Ecclesiastical. daily scanty food for nothing. Nevertheless a good deal of the population would starve but for their frugality, and the plenty and cheapness of a great variety of fruits. Though the rivers, lakes, and coasts afford great facilities for the fisheries, yet these are by no means a great object of pursuit ; and as there are an- nually about 160 days of abstinence on which only fish meals are allowed, great quantities of dried fish are to be imported from foreign countries. The commerce in general is of no great importance, and the imports are far exceeding the exports. Thus, for instance, in Civita Vecchia, the only seaport on the western coast of the country, the imports for the year 1842 were valued at $1,742,000, while the exports were only valued at $588,000. This being the actual state of things, the manufactures are, with few exceptions, in a backward state. The nation is divided into four classes : the clergy, nobility, burghers, and farmers. The nobility comprises princes and dukes belonging to collateral lines of the popes, the so-called senatorial nobility, or Roman aristocracy, and the lower degrees of nobility. The highest state offices are generally occupied by the cardinals, and most of the other public offices either by pre- lates or nobles. The Roman Catholic is of course the established church, which in this country is governed by 6 archbishops and 72 bishops. In 1847 there were, moreover, 53,000 secular and regular clergy- men, 1,824 monasteries, and 612 nunneries. Austins, Barna- bites, Benedictines, Camaldulenses, Capuchins, Carmelites, Cis- tercians, Ccelestians, Cordelians, Dominicans, Jesuits, Minims, Philippines, Recollectians, Somascians, Trinitarians, Theatins, etc. — all these religious orders are to be found in the States of the Church. As for the rest, all other religions are tolerated. In Rome are 8,000, and in Ancona 5,000 Jews. There are 7 universities : at Bologna (see History of Europe, ITALY. 129 States of the Church: Universities— Government. § 17,/; this university was in 1841 frequented by 5G0 students), at Rome (founded in 1248, and in 1841 with 680 students), at Ferrara (founded in 1264, and in 1841 with 200 students), at Perugia (founded in 1307, and in 1841 with 210 students), at Ma- cerata (founded in 1548, and in 1841 with 320 students), at Fermo (founded in 1589, and in 1841 with 235 students), and at Came- rino (founded in 1727, and in 1841 with 200 students). More- over, the clergy numbers many learned men, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. Nevertheless the means of education in general are very deficient, and the mass of the people grossly ignorant. That Rome is the chief seat of fine arts, and at the same time noted for the value of its libra- ries, is universally known. The form of government is an elective monarchy. The States of the Church are ruled by the pope, who is the head of the Catholic church, and is invested with absolute (although at pres- ent somewhat modified) power, both spiritual and temporal. He is elected out of the college of the cardinals (whose number is fixed at 70). The reigning pope, Pius IX. (previous to his elec- tion, Jos. Maria, Count Mastai Ferreti, archbishop of Imola, born on the 13th of May, 1792, at Sinigaglia), was elected on the 16th of June, 1846. The public revenue was lately estimated at about $9,000,000, and the expenditure at nearly $9,800,000, thus a deficit of $800,000. The public debt is computed at $34,000,000. The clerical revenues (for dispensations, taxes from the property left by clergymen, etc), which still in the last century amounted to more than $650,000 per annum, fall at present short of $300,000. The army numbered 12,669 men with 1,382 horses at the end of the year 1844. Besides these there were two regiments of Swiss, numbering 4,100 men. The navy consists of some small vessels. 6* 130 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT States of the Church : History. There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. Gregory the Great, instituted in 1832. 2. The order of St. John the Baptist, also called the order of Christ, instituted in 1319. 3. The order of the golden spur, instituted in 1559. History. — The pope, as ruler of the States of the Church, is invested with temporal, and as the head of the Catholic church, with spiritual power. We shall first speak of the latter. In the days of the apostles the Christian church was governed by seniors (presbyters), superintendents (bishops), and deacons, under the direction of the apostles. In the course of time it became the custom to select one of the seniors or superintendents, who by way of eminence was called bishop, and had a decisive vote in the affairs of the church community. About the middle of the third century the bishops of Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, Antiochia, and # other principal cities of the Ro- man empire, began to enjoy higher credit than those of the remaining dio- ceses. At a later period the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, were called patriarchs, and Rome being still revered as the former metropolis of the Roman empire, the bishop or patriarch of Rome began to exercise more and more a kind of supremacy, until in the year 607 Boniface 111. assumed the papal title for the first time. Thus the spiritual power of the pope, as head of the Catholic church, dates from this period. For a long time, the popes of Rome had authority only in matters of religion, but in the 9th century and after the death of Charlemagne, they began to claim the authority of God's agents or vicegerents on earth ; and towards the end of the 11th century Gregory VII (1073-1085) established the formal privilege of the pope to dispose freely of temporal crowns and kingdoms. He and several of his successors exercised this right on the largest scale, until first in the beginning of the 14th century, King Philip IV. of France, and then above all the reformation in the 16th century, put an end to this usurpa- tion. (See History of Europe, § 17, e and h.) The temporal power of the pope dates from the year 755, when Pepin the Little, king of the Franks, wrested the so-called exarchate (comprising? among others, the cities and towns of Ravenna, Forli, Frosinone, Velletri, and Rieti) from the Lombards, and gave it to the holy See. His son, Charlemagne, enlarged this territory considerably. In the 11th century the duchy of Benevento, and in the 12 th the duchy of Spoleto and part of the mark (margraviate) of Ancona, etc., were added by way of donation. The city of Rome did not become subject ITALY. 131 State9 of the Church : Geographical Division. to the papal power until in 1216. In the year 1273 the county of Venaissin (in the French province of Provence) was, by King Philip IV. of France, ceded to the popes, who in 1348 purchased the city of Avignon (quite near to Venaissin) for 80,000 gold florins. In the 16th century Bologna, the duchy of Ferrara, and the remaining part of the mark of Ancona, and in the 11 th cen- tury the duchies of Urbiuo and Castro were acquired. In this way the States of the Church in Italy were gradually enlarged to that extent which they have now. Only Avignon and Venaissin, of which the French took possession in 1190, were lost forever; while the Italian territories wrested from the Popedom by the French and Napoleon in the years 1191, 1808, and 1809 (in the last-named year the pope, then Pius VIL, was completely de- prived of his temporal power), were restored by the determination of the congress of Vienna in 1815. Since the year 1 832 the States of the Church are divided into 21 provinces, of which 13 are styled Delegations, and those of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Urbino-Pesaro, Forli, and Velletri are styled Legations, while the province of Rome bears the name of Comarca, and that of Loretto the appellation of Commissariat. In an historical relation the legation of Velletri, the comarca di Roma, the delegations of Frosinone and Rieti. and the legations of Ravenna and Forli, comprise the above-mentioned exarchate, given to the holy see io 755, or the ancient duchy of Rome and the Romagna. The delegations of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo comprise the so-called estates of Matilda, which were given to the popes in 1077 and 1102 by the margravine Matilda of Tuscany. The delegations of Spoleto, Camerino, and Perugia, comprise the ancient duchy of Spoleto (see above). The legation of Bologna comprises the ancient Bolognese, or the city of Bologna and its territory. The delegations of Ancona and Macerata, jointly with the commissariat of Loretto, comprise the ancient Mark of Ancona. The delegations of Fermo and Ascoli comprise the ancient Mark of Fermo. acquired in the 16th century. The legation of Ferrara comprises the ancient duchy of Fermo, acquired in 1598 ; 132 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. States of the Church: Statistics. and the legation of Urbino and Pesaro comprises the ancient duchy of Urbino, acquired in 1631. 1. The comarca di Roma contains : Rome, the capital of the States of the Church, and residence of the pope, on the Tiber, at 18 miles distance from its mouth, had, according to the census of 1847, a population of 1*75,883 inhabi- tants, exclusive of Jews, whose number was computed at 8,000. That Rome was once the capital of the Roman empire, is universally known ; it had then, or at least in the days of the Emperor Augustus, a population of 2,000,000 inhabitants, and was 50 miles in circumference. Though now much decayed, and a great part of it in ruins, it is still one of the most interesting cities in the world, and is noted for its churches, palaces, columns, arches, and other monuments of splendid architecture, among which are the Coliseum (a vast amphitheatre for 82,000 spectators, built in the days of the Emperor Titus), the column of Trajan, the arches of Titus, Septimus Severus, etc. Among the 364 churches of the city, ranks first St. Peter's, the largest church in the world (it was nearly 200 years in building, and not before the year 1626 completely finished : it is 666 feet long, and 284 feet wide, and its magnificent cupola rises to the height of 408 feet). The Vatican is the largest palace in the world: it is 1,080 feet long, and contains 4,422 saloons, halls, and apart- ments, moreover the most valuable library in Europe, and the finest works of Raphael and Michael Angelo. The popes have usually resided here in the win ter months. Other palaces are, the Quirinal (the residence of the pope in the summer season), the vast palace of Barberini, the palaces of Farnese, Oolonna, Borghese, etc The number of literary institutions, academies of fine arts, etc., in Rome, is very great. In the year 1845, there were at Rome 404 foreign artists, of whom 14 were from America. The environs of Rome, comprising the ancient Lat'mm, are at present known by the name of the Campagna di Roma. Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, a town on the Teverone, 18 miles east-north-east of Rome, with a beautiful cataract (60 feet in height), numerous remains of antiquity, and 6,300 inhabitants. Ostia, a maritime town at the mouth of the Tiber, was once the seaport of Rome, but it is now almost deserted, on account of the bad air of the surrounding marshes. Other towns of the Campagna di Roma are: A Ibano (with 5,600 inhabitants), Castel Gandolfo (with a palace of the pope, who resides here some weeks in the summer season), Frascati (formerly Tusculum, with 4,000 inhabitants), Pales- trina (formerly Praeneste, with 2,500 inhabitants), Subiaco (with 6,000 inhab- ITALY. 133 Slates of the Church : Statistics. itants), and Fiumicino (with 600 inhabitants). 2. The legation of Velletri, or Marittima, contains: Velletri, chief town, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Rome, with many remains of antiquity, and 12,000 inhabitants. Terracina (the ancient Anxur), a town near the coast and the frontier of Naples, amidst the Pontine marshes, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cori and Norma, towns with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 3. The delegation of Frosinone contains : Frosinone, chief town on the Cosa, 46 miles east-south- east of Rome, with 7,500 inhabitants. To this delegation belongs likewise the district of Fontecorvo, northward and 23 miles distant from Gaeta, and entirely surrounded by the Neapolitan territory. It occupies a tract of 43 square miles, has a population of more than 7,000 inhabitants, and belonged in the period from the year 1806 to 1810, to the late king of Sweden, Bernadotte. The town of Pontecorvo has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. 4. The delegation of Rieti contains : Rieti, chief town on the Velino, north- eastward and 37 miles distant from Rome, with 12,600 inhabitants. Magliano, a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. 5. The delegation of Spoleto contains : Spoleto, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, and on the Mareggia, crossed by a handsome bridge, with a magnificent cathedral, an aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, and 8,500 inhabitants. Narni and Tcrni, towns, with re- spectively 5,500 and 8,500 inhabitants. 6. The delegation of Civita Vecchia contains : Civita Vecchia, a fortified maritime town, and next to Ancona, the chief seaport of the States of the Church, 37 miles north-north-west of Ostia, or the mouth of the Tiber, with 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this dele- gation are : Tolfa (with 2,800 inhabitants), Corneto (with 3,800 inhabitants), Montalto, Canino, and Fonte Bodio. 7. The delegation of Viterbo contains : Viterbo, chief town at the foot of Mount Cimino, northward and 46 miles distant from Rome, with 15,000 inhabitants. Montefiascone, a town on the Lake Bolsena, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 4,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this delegation are : A cguapendente (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ronciglione (with various manufactories), and Bolsena (with curious remains of antiquity. 8. The delegation of Orvieto contains : Orvieto, chief town on the Paglia, northward and 18 miles distant from Viterbo, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, excellent wines, and 8,000 inhabitants. Civita Castellana, a town, with 4,500 inhabitants. 9. The delegation of Perugia contains : Perugia, a city between the Trasimenian Lake and the Tiber, northward and 83 miles distant from Rome, with several remarkable churches, a univer- sity, and 32,000 inhabitants. Assisi, a town renowned as the birth-place of 134 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. States of the Chinch : Statistics. St. Frauciscus, author of the Franciscan order, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this delegation are: Foligno (with 16,000 inhabitants), Spello (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cita di Castello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nocera (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Cita della Pieve. 10. The delegation of Ascoli, along the coast of the Adriatic, contains : Ascoli, chief town on the Trento, and near the Neapolitan frontier, with a citadel, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns are: Montalto and Ripa Transone. 11. The delegation of Fermo con- tains : Fermo, chief town, near the Adriatic, with 20,000 inhabitants, a uni- versity, and the little seaport Porto Fermo. 12. The delegation of Camerino contains : Camerino, chief town, in the Apennines, with a university, and 7,500 inhabitants. 13. The delegation of Macerata contains: Macerata, chief town on the high road between Rome and Ancona, with a university, and 18,000 inhabitants. Tolentino, a town on the Chienti, south-westward and 30 miles distant from Ancona, with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1797 between France and the pope, and for a battle in 1815, where King Murat, of Naples, was defeated by the Austrians. Fabriano, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 14. The Commissariat of Loreto contains: Loreto, or Loretto, a town near the Adriatic, southward and 13 miles distant from Ancona, has 8,000 inhabitants, and has, for many hundred years, been renowned for its holy shrine, or a little cottage, in which the holy virgin is said to have lived, having been transported by angels from Gali- lee to Dalmatia, and thence to Loreto. This cottage, called Casa Santa, is in the interior of a splendid church. Loreto has, therefore, long been a place of great resort for pilgrims, but the number has of late decreased. 15. The delegation of Ancona (about the mark of Ancona, see p. 131) contains : Ancona, a fortified city and chief seaport of the Popedom on the Adriatic, north-eastward and 30 miles distant from Rome, with very important trade with the Levant, an excellent pier built in the days of the Roman emperor Trajan, a remarkable cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Jesi and Osimo, towns, with respectively 6,000 and 7,000 inhabitants. 16. The legation of Urbino and Pesaro contains : Urbino, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, westward and 46 miles distant from Ancona, is noted as the birth-place of Raphael (born in 1483, in a house which still exists), and has 14,000 inhabi- tants. Sinigaglia, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, is celebrated for its annual fair, and has 11,600 inhabitants. Other towns and cities of this legation are: Fano (with 17,000 inhabitants), Fossombrone (with 6,400 inhab- itants), Gubbio (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pesaro (with 15,000 inhabitants). ITALY. 136 States of the Church : Statistics. 17. The legation of Forti contains: Forti, chief town in a fertile country, north-westward and 83 miles distant from Ancona, with a remarkable cathe- dral, and 17,000 inhabitants. Rimini, a maritime town at the mouth of the Marecchia, with several fine churches and well-corfserved remains of antiquity, and 18,000 inhabitants. Cesena, a town on the Savio, with 16,000 inhabi- tants. 18. The legation of Ravenna contains: Ravenna, chief town in a marshy country near the Adriatic, north-westward and 87 miles distant from Ancona, with several interesting remains of antiquity and edifices reared in the days of Honorius, Theoderic, etc., and 26,000 inhabitants. Ravenna was the residence of the last Roman emperors, of some Gothic kings, and of the exarch, or governor, of the Greek emperors. The seaport of Ravenna is called Porto Corsini. Other towns of this legation are : Cervia (with 4,000 inhabitants), Faenza (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Imola (with 9,000 inhabi- tants). 19. The legation of Bologna contains : Bologna, next to Rome the most important city of the States of the Church, in a romantic country, south- eastward and 23 miles distant from Modena, and northward 46 miles distant from Florence, with a magnificent cathedral, and several other remarkable churches and palaces, a university, and a great variety of other literary insti- tutions, and 75,000 inhabitants. Cento and Medicina, towns, with respectively 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants. 20. The legation of Ferrara contains : Ferrara, a city on a branch of the Po, in a marshy, unwholesome country, 27 miles north-north-east of Bologna, with a citadel, a vast Gothic castle, once the residence of the princes of Este (see History of Modena), a university, and 28,000 inhabitants. Comacchio, a fortified town amidst the marshy Valli di Comacchio (see above), with 6,000 inhabitants. Ponte di Lago Scuro, a town on the Po, with 5,000 inhabitants. 21. The delegation of Benevento comprises the ancient duchy of the same name, is entirely surrounded by Neapolitan territory, and situated north-eastward and about 32 miles distant from the city of Naples. It occupies a tract of 89 square miles, and has a population of 25,000 inhabitants. The duchy of Benevento was created in 571 by the Lombards, and had a far greater extent than now. In 851 it was divided into three principalities, of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua. The Emperor Henry III. gave Benevento to the holy See in 1053, and since that time it has formed a constituent part of the States of the Church. In the period from the year 1806 to 1815, the French minister Talleyrand was in possession of this principality, whose capital, Benevento, has a remarkable cathedral, many interesting remains of antiquity, and 15,000 inhabitants 136 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Republic of San Marino. VII— THE REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. Area : 32 square miles. Population : 8,200 inhabitants. The republic of San Marino is the smallest of all European states with regard to the extent (for with regard to the popula- tion, the principality of Liechtenstein is inferior to it), is entirely surrounded by papal territory, and situated between Ancona and Florence. It is at the same time the oldest republic in Europe, dating its origin from the year 469. In this year St. Marinus, or Marino, originally a mason from Dalmatia, retired to a solitary mountain here, and led a hermit's life. He soon became famous as a holy man, and the proprietress of the mountain, a pious lady, gave it to him. A great number of devouts joined him, and in this way the little state came into existence. The consti- tution is partly aristocratic, partly democratic. The executive power is vested in two Capitani reggenti, who are elected only for the period of six months. The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, is about $6,000. The regular military con- sists of only 24 men and 7< commissioned and non-commissioned officers, but the militia comprises 850 men. Besides the capital, there are only four villages in the country. San Marino, the capital and the seat of government, is situated on the above-mentioned mountain, and has 5 churches (in one of them is the tomb of San Marino), 3 convents, and 6,000 inhabitants. The 4 villages alluded to are : Serravalle, Faetano, Acquaviva, and Feglio. ITALY. 137 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. VIIL— THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. Area : 42,110 square miles. Population: 8,373,000 inhabitants. This state, commonly called the kingdom of Naples, comprises the whole of Lower Italy, together with the island of Sicily and some neighboring isles. With the exception of 80,000 Greek Christians and 2,000 Jews, the inhabitants are Catholics, under the church authority of 16 archbishops and 77 bishops. In 1842 the whole kingdom numbered 32.360 priests, 12,751 monks, and 10,056 nuns. About the Neapolitan Apennines and Abruzzi, the Gran Sassu oVIlalia and Mt. Vesuvius on the continent, and Mt. Etna, etc., on the island of Sicily, see Introduction, § 7, d. In the Abruzzi is the lake of Celano, about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide. Be- sides the Volturno and Garigliano (see Introduction, § 10), there are no rivers worth mentioning. The climate is in most parts of the country very delightful, and even during the winter months the trees are covered with green leaves. On the island of Sicily the sugar-cane and other tropical products thrive very well. The wine which grows in the environs of Syracuse is excellent, like that on Mt. Vesuvius, known by the name of Lacrymae Christi (see Introduction to Italy). On account of the peerless fertility of the soil in Sicily, wheat is raised here in such quantities, that in some years it has been exported at the value of 4,500,000 Neapolitan ducats ; not- withstanding that the agriculture is in a very backward state throughout the kingdom. Besides wheat and wine, the staples are olive-oil, silk, and sulphur. That the Neapolitan horses are of a very fine breed, has already been mentioned in the Introduc- tion to Italy. The kingdom of Naples is the only country in 138 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Two Sicilies — Education, etc. Europe where the porcupine is met with. Manufactures have of late improved, both on the continent and in Sicily. With regard to the means of education, there are 4 universi- ties: at Naples (founded in 1224, and in 1841 frequented by 1,550 students), at Catania (founded in 1445, and in 1841 with 600 students), at Palermo (founded in 1447, and in 1841 with 735 students), and at Messina (founded in 1838, and in 1841 with 60 students). Moreover there are lyceums at Salerno, Bari, Catan- garo. and Aquila, 4 gymnasiums in the city of Naples, and in each province at least one gymnasium. The number of Latin schools amounts to 780 ; and in the continental part of the kingdom there are 2,130 common schools. (About the terms of gymna- sium, etc., see the note annexed to the Introduction of Portugal.) The government is almost absolute, as it was before the last revolution, which in 1849 has been completely suppressed. The public revenue and expenditure is computed at about 26,000,000 Neapolitan ducats annually ; and the public debt at 86,000,000 ducats. The army numbers on the peace footing 60,000, and on the war footing nearly 100.000 men, besides several regiments of Swiss. The navy consists of 1 ship of the line, 3 frigates. 4 sloops of war, and 4 smaller vessels. There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. January, instituted in 1738, in one class. 2. The order of St. Fer- dinand, instituted in 1800, in 3 classes. 3. The order of St. Con- stantin, conferred by the king in his quality as heir of the house of Farnese (compare Parma). 4. The order of the two Sicilies, instituted in 1808, in 3 classes. 5. The order of Francis the First, instituted in 1829 by King Francis I., in 5 classes. History. — The greatest part of the present kingdom of Naples was at an early period occupied by Greek colonists, and for this reason called Great- ITALY. l«g Kingdom of Naples: Ritftory. Greece (see History of Italy). At a later period the Carthaginians took pos- session of some parts of Sicily, and when in 212 B. C. the Romans conquered this island, the continental part of Magna Grecia had long since been subdued by them. After the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century, Naples anil Sicily became a prey of Germanic tribes, especially of the Ostrogoths. Since the year 535 Lower Italy and Sicily were under the sway of the Greek emperors, until in 842 the island of Sicily, and soon after Calabria too, was conquered by the Arabs. MeanwhiU, the Greek governors of several other parts of Lower Italy had made themselves independent. Greeks and Arabs now combated for the possession of Lower Italy, and finally the German emperors partook in this struggle and conquered the principalities of Bene- vento and Capua, and even part of Calabria. In 1016 Norman warriors from Normandy came accidentally to Salerno, where they defeated the Arabs, and were richly rewarded for it by the Christian inhabitants. The Nor- mans now remained in the country, others of their countrymen joined them, and thus they established themselves here permanently. Their valiant rulers belonged to the famous family of Hauteville, and the conquests of the Normans had, before the end of the 11th century, extended to Sicily (since the year 1061), and the greatest part of Lower Italy. Roger II. of Hauteville was crowned by the pope as king of the Two Siciliea, yet at the same time suffered himself to be enfeoffed with this kingdom by the holy father. Towards the end of the 12 th century the male line of the house of Hauteville became extinct with William III, and the only rightful heiress of the kingdom was Constantia, daughter of William III. She was married to the German emperor, Henry VI., of the house of Ho- henstaufen. When she died in 1198, she bequeathed the kingdom to her son, the famous emperor Frederic II. of Hohenstaufen, who during his reign was ever at variance with the holy see. About the middle of the 13th cen- tury the pope, filled with hatred against the house of Hohenstaufen, invested Charles of Anjou (brother of King Louis IX. of France) with the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Charles took possession of it, but lost the island of Sicily in 1282, when the French were exterminated there by the inhabitants. This massacre is known in history by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The Sicilians now elected Peter III. of Aragon (who was married to a princess of the house of Hohenstaufen) their king, while the continental part of the kingdom continued to be under the sway of the house of Anjou until the year 1442, when Johanna II., the last heiress, died. Naples and Sicily were 140 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples: History and Statistics. now united again by King Alphonso V. of Sicily and Aragon. He subse- quently invested his natural son Ferdinand with the continental part, but in 1503 both parts of the kingdom were united permanently. Since that time the two Sicilies continued to form a constituent part of the Spanish kingdom, until by the treaties of peace, concluded at Utrecht and Rastadt in 1713 and 1714, the house of Austria became possessed of them (see History of Spain). But in 1734 they were wrested from it again by the Spaniards, and the Span- ish prince, Charles, was acknowledged as king of the two Sicilies. "When in 1759 Charles ascended the Spanish throne, he ceded the kingdom of Naples to his third son, Ferdinand, with complete sovereignty for him and his de- scendants. Towards the end of the last century the French conquered the continental part of the kingdom, and in 1806 Napoleon appointed first his brother Joseph, and in 1808 his brother-in-law Murat king of this part, while Ferdinand, assisted by the English, kept possession of the island of Sicily. In 1815 Ferdinand was reinstated into the whole of his kingdom. He died in 1825, and was succeeded by his son, Francis I., who died in 1830, and was succeeded by Ins son, the at present reigning king, Ferdinand II. (born in 1810). The Neapolitan continent is divided into 15 provinces, of which the section Terra di Lavoro comprises 4 (Naples, Terra di Lavoro proper, Principato citeriore, and Principato ulteriore), the section Abruzzi comprises 3 (Abruzzo ulteriore I., Abruzzo ulteriore II.. and Abruzzo citeriore), the section Apulia comprises 4 (Molise, Capitanata, Terra di Bari. and Terra di Otranto), and the section Calabria comprises 4 (Basilicata, Calabria citeriore, Calabria ulteriore I., and Calabria ulteriore II.). The island of Sicily is divided into 7 val, or provinces. ITALY. hi Kingdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent. A.— THE NEAPOLITAN CONTINENT. Area : 31,556 square miles. Population : 6,323,000 inhabitants. 1. Terra di Lavoro, comprising : Naples (in ancient ages called Parthenope), the capital of the whole kingdom, and residence of the king, on a beautiful bay of the same name, near the base of Mount Vesuvius, south-eastward and 110 miles distant from Rome, is the largest city in Italy, and had, according to the census of 1845, a population of 400,813 inhabitants (among them were 3,401 priests, 1.764 monks, and 1,445 nuns). The houses have, for the mosf part, five or six stories, with fiat roofs decorated with orangery and flowers. There are many palaces, and some of them have been reared in the days of the Normans and Hohenstaufen. The theatre of San Carlo is the largest opera-house in the world. Among the 122 churches, the most remarkable is the magnificent cathedral where the pretended blood of St. January is pre- served. The number of convents in the city amounts to 149. Besides a university, there are many other literary institutions. Among the inhabi- tants are about 80,000 Lazzaroni, or people of the lower classes, who seldom dwell in a house, and only do any work (as porters, day-laborers, etc.) when they are compelled to it by hunger. The environs of Naples are highly interesting by the numerous remains of antiquity, among which are those of Herculanewn and Pompeji, that were buried under the lava and ashes of Vesuvius in 79 A. D. Near these ancient towns, digged out since the last century, are situated the town of Portici, with a royal palace and 7,000 inhabitants, and the large village of Renna, with a mansion of the prince of Salerno, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Torre delV Annunziata (with 9,000 inhabitants), Castellamare (with 15,000 inhabi- tants), and Sorrento (with 5,000 inhabitants). At the entrance of the bay of Naples are situated the following i*land$: Procida (with a population of 1 8,000 inhabitants), Ischia (very fertile, and much resorted to for bathing ; its population amounts to 24,000 inhabitants), Capri (with 4,000 inhabitants ; the Roman emperor Tiberius lived here many years ; immense flocks of quails are caught here annually), Nisida (beautiful like a garden), and Purgaturo. Caserta, or Caserta Nuova, chief town of the province of Terra di Lavoro 142 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. proper, romantically situated, northward and 1 3 miles distant from Naples, with a most splendid royal palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Gaeta, one of the strongest fortresses in the world, on the bay of the same name, north-westward and 42 miles distant from Naples. Close by is situated the town of Gaeta, with 16,000 inhabitants. Capua, a fortified town on the Vulturno, northward and 18 miles distant from Naples, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,500 inhabitants. Monte Cassino, a celebrated Benedictine abbey, founded in 528, on a steep hill, 46 miles north-north-west of Naples. Quite near is situated the town of San Germano, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Nolo, (with 9,000 inhabitants ; here died the Roman emperor Augustus), Piedimonte (with 5,000 inhabitants), Arpino (with 12,000 inhabi- tants), Santa Maria Maggiore (with the remains of the ancient Capua, destroyed by the Arabs in 844; has a population of 9,000 inhabitants), Cajazzo (with a remarkable cathedral, and 4,000 inhabitants), Acerra (with 7,000 inhabitants), Aversa (with a mad-house, and 16,000 inhabitants), Mad- daloni (with 11,500 inhabitants), Fondi (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sessa (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Aquino (noted as the birth-place of the holy Thomas of Aquino). South-westward from Gaeta are situated the Pontine, or Ponza Isles, with rather few inhabitants. Salerno, chief town of the province of Principato citeriore, on the bay of the same name, 28 miles east-south-east of Naples, with an ancient cathedral, where Pope Gregory VII. is buried, various manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. (About the once-renowned medical faculty, or seminary of Salerno, see History of Europe, § 17, /.) Amalfi, a town on the bay of Salerno, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Naples, with 3,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Amalfi was one of the emporiums of Europe (see History of Europe, § 17). Other towns of this province are : Capaccio (with 2,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the ancient town of Paestum), Eboli (with 6,000 inhabitants), Campagna (with a beautiful cathedral, and 7,000 inhabitants), Diano (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cava (with 19,000 inhabitants), Sarno (with 13,000 inhabitants), and Nocera (with 7,000 inhabitants). Avellino, chief town of the province of Principato ulteriore, at the foot of Mount Vergine, eastward and 28 miles distant from Naples, is noted for its nuts, and has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. Quite near are the Caudinian Passes, known by the Roman history. Other towns of this province are: Ariano (with 12,500 inhabitants), Solofra (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pesco Pagano (with 4,000 inhabitants), Conza (with 4,000 inhabitants), Montefarchio (with 6,000 inhabitants), Montefuseo (with 3,000 ITALY. 14* Kingdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent inhabitants), Atripalda, or Atribaldo (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rocca San Felice (with 2,500 inhabitants). 2. The section of the Abnizzi, comprising the most northerly part of the Neapolitan continent, contains : Teramo, chief town of the province of Abruzzo ulteriore I., on the high road between Naples and Ancona, north-eastward and 83 miles distant from Rome, with a botanic garden, and 10,000 inhabi- tants. Teramo was in ancient ages called Interamnia, and subsequently Abruzzo, hence the nomination of the Abruzzi. Other towns of this province are : Atri (with 5,000 inhabitants), Civitella del Tronto (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), Penne, or Civita di Penne (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Senarica (whose inhabitants are altogether nobles, and endowed with various privileges). Aquila, fortified capital of the province of Abruzzo ulteriore II., on the Aterno, south-westward and 28 miles distant from Teramo, belongs to the most industrious trading places of the kingdom, and has a population of 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Sulmona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Avezzano (with 6,000 inhabitants), Celano (with 2,200 inhabi- tants), Civita Ducale (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Tagliacozzo (a small town situated south-westward and 23 miles distant from Aquila, and eastward and 42 miles distant from Rome, noted for the battle in 1268, which the unhappy Conradin, of Hohenstaufen, lost against Charles of Anjou). Chieti, or Civita di Chieti, capital of the province of Abruzzo citeriore, on the Pescara and near the Adriatic, northward and 101 miles distant from Naples, with a beautiful cathedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. From this town, formerly called Tkeate, or Teate, the monastic order of the Theatines has derived its name. Lanciano, the most important trading town of the Abruzzi, on the Feltrino, and quite near the Adriatic, with 15,000 inhabitants. Ortona a Mare, a town on the Adriatic, with 6,000 inhabitants. Pescara, a fortified town on the river of the same name, and on the Adriatic, with 3,000, or, according to others } only with 600 inhabitants. 3. The section of Apulia (area: 9,351 square miles; population: 1,525,382, according to the census of 1844), comprising, exclusive the Abruzzi, the eastern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Lecce, capital of the province of Terra di Otranto (which comprises the eastern great tongue of land of Italy), in a fertile plain, eastward and 207 miles distant from Naples, with 12 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), 8 con- vents, several higher schools, and 21,000 inhabitants. Otranto, a fortified town at the strait of Otranto (entrance into the Adriatic Sea), with a citadel, 144 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. a remarkable cathedral, and 4,500 inhabitants. Brindisi, the ancient Brun- duftiwn (the common place of passing over to Dyrrachium on the opposite coast of Epirus), a maritime town on the Adriatic, 46 miles north-north-west of Otranto, with Roman antiquities, and 7,000 inhabitants (in the period of the crusades the population amounted still to 60,000 inhabitants). Taranto, a fortified town on a bay of the same name, with 8 churches, great salt-works, and 19,000 inhabitants. In the 5th century B. C. Taranto had a population of 300,000 inhabitants. Gallipoli, a fortified maritime town, on the bay of Ta- ranto, with very important trade in olive-oil, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bari, fortified capital of the province of Terra di Bari, on the Adriatic, opposite to Cattaro in Dalmatia, with a renowned chapel to which pilgrims resort, and 21,000 inhabitants. Trani, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, with a beauti- ful ancient cathedral (whose steeple is one of the highest in Italy), and 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Barletta (with great salt- works, and 22,000 inhabitants), Molfetta (with 13,000 inhabitants), Terlizzi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ruvo (with 10,000 inhabitants), Altamura (with 16,000 inhabitants), Monopoli (with 16,000 inhabitants), Mola, surnamed di Bari (with 8,000 inhabitants), Giovenazzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bisceglia (with 10,000 inhabitants), Bitonto (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Canosa (on the Ofanto, with 4,000 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Canosa is situated, 1U6 miles east-north-east of Naples, and 193 miles east-south-east of Rome, the little town of Canne, in ancient times called Cannae, so renowned for the victory Hannibal gained over the Romans in 216 B. C. Foggia, capital of the province of Capitanata, on the Cervaro, north-eastward and 83 miles dis- tant from Naples, with an annual fair much resorted to, 20 churches, and 26,000 inhabitants. San Severo, formerly the capital of this province, with a medical faculty, and 18,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Manfredonia (with important commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants), Lucera (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monte Sant' 'Angelo (with 12,500 inhabitants), Ascoli, sur- named di Satriano (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bovino, (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Viesti (with 6,000 inhabitants). To the province of Capitanata belong also the 4 Tremitian Isles, or Isole de Tremiti, lying in the Adriatic Sea, but of which only two, viz. : San Nicola or Tremiti, and Domino, are in- habited. Campobasso, capital of the province of Molise, 55 miles north- north-east of Naples with important corn-trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : hernia (with 5,000 inhabitants), Trivento (with ITALY. 145 Kingdum of Naples -Neapolitan Continent. 3,000 inhabitants), Bojano (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sepino (with 5,000 inhab- itants), and Agnone (with 7,000 inhabitants). 4. The section of Calabria (area: 10,107 square miles; population: 1,570,824 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844), comprising the west- ern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Reggio, capital of the province of Calabria ulteriore I. (which comprises the most southern part of the western great tongue of land of Italy), on the straits of Messina and in an exceedingly fertile country, with 12 churches, various manufactories, very active trade and 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Gerace (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sciglio (near the promontory which the ancients called Scylla, has a population of 4,500 inhabitants), Seminara (with 9,000 inhabitants) and JPalmi (with 6,500). Catanzaro, capital of the province of Calabria ulterior II., north eastward and 74 miles distant from Reggio, with important trade in silk and olive-oil, and 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Monteleone (with 7,000 inhabitants), Nicastro (with 10,000 inhabitants), Squillace (with 2,000 inhabitants), Tropea (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cotrone (anciently Croton, with 5,500 inhabitants), Santa Severina (anciently Syberona, with 1,800 inhabitants), Pizzo (with 5,500 inhabitants ; here was Joachim Murat in Oct 1815 taken and shot), and Stilo (with important iron mines). Cosenza, capital of the province of Calabria citeriore, in a romantic and fertile country, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Naples, with a beautiful cathedral, and 15 other churches, an orphan asylum for 700 chil- dren, considerable trade in silk, and 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near, in the bed of the little river of the Bisenzio, lies buried Alaric I., king of the Visigoths, who died here in 410 A. D. Other towns of this province are: Casmno (with 7,000 inhabitants), Castrovillari (with 5,000 inhabitants), Corigliano (with 7,000 inhabitants), Rossano (with 8,500 inhabitants), Amantra (with 8,500 inhabitants), Paula or Paola (with 5,500 inhabitants ; the holy Francis of Paula was born here), Longobuco (with iron mines), and Altomonte (with salt mines). Potenza, capital of the province of Basilicata (comprising the ancient Ltccdnia), in the Apennines, 92 miles east-south-east of Naples, with 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Matera (with 12,000 inhabitants), Montepeloso (with 5,000 inhabitants), Melfi (with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants), Turd (with 6,000 inhabitants), Venosa (with 4,500 inhabitants), Lagonegro or Lagonero (with 5,500 inhabitants), Franca- villa (with 12,000 inhabitants), Acerenza (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Bcr- nalda or Bernaldo (with 3,000 inhabitants). 146 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples — Island of Sicily. B.— THE ISLAND OF SICILY. Area: 10,554 square miles. Population : 2,050,000 inhabitants. This island is, as has already been mentioned, divided into 7 val, or prov- inces, bearing the name of their respective chief towns. In the following de- scription we shall separate them from each other by dashes. — Palermo, capital of the whole island, and the seat of its governor, on a small bay of the northern coast, 193 miles south-south-west of Naples, and westward and 124 miles distant from Messina, is splendidly and regularly built, and has 60 churches (among which are to be noted the magnificent Gothic cathedral, St. Joseph's, and the church of the Capuchins, the latter remarkable for its vaults), a vast and ancient royal castle, 8 abbeys and 11 other convents, a university, and numerous other similar institutions, a great many manufactories, consider- able trade and commerce, and 180,000 inhabitants. The environs of Palermo are adorned with numerous and magnificent villas. In the vicinity of the city is situated the town of Monreale or Montreale, with a splendid cathe- dral, and 14,000 inhabitants. In Monreale it was, where, on the 30th of March, 1282, the massacre of the French, or the Sicilian Vespers (see His- tory of the kingdom of the two Sicilies), commenced. Son Martino, a cele- brated abbey of the Benedictines, in whose church is one of the greatest organs in Italy. Termini, a maritime, town, with renowned hot springs, and 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Cefalu (with 10,000 inhabitants), Corleone (with 16,000 inhabitants), Cinesi (with 4,500 inhabi- tants), Polizzi (with 4,500 inhabitants), Castronuovo (with 6,500 inhabitants), Busachino (with 9,000 inhabitants), Piano de'Greci (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Carini (with 8,000 inhabitants). Northward and 18 miles distant from Palermo lies solitary in the Mediterranean Sea the little island of Ustica, with 2,400 inhabitants. — Trapani, a strongly fortified town on a peninsula, westward and 46 miles distant from Palermo, with 18 churches, 24 convents, important salt-works, and 26,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Alcamo (with 15,6;>0 inhabitants), Monte Giuliano (with 10,300 inhabi- tants), Castellconare (with 6,500 inhabitants), Calatafimi (with 11,000 in- habitants), Salemi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Castelvetrano (with 16,000 ITALY. 1,7 Kingdom of Naples: Island of Sicily. inhabitants), Mazzara (with a remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), and Marsala (noted for its vines, and with 16 churches, 14 convents, salt- works, and 23,400 inhabitants). Marsala is situated close by the promontory of Bocco, anciently renowned by the name of Lilybaeum. Westward from Trapani, at a distance of about 20 miles from the coast, are lying in the Mediterranean Sea the Aegades or Aegadian Islands, with 12,000 inhabitants. The largest and most remarkable of them are: Favignana (with 4,000 in- habitants), Levanzo (woody, with rearing of cattle, and 5,000 inhabitants), and Jfaretimo, or Jlaritimo (with a castle for state-prisoners). — Girgenti, a town on the southern coast, 60 miles south-south east of Palermo, with a remarkable cathedral, and 18,000 inhabitants. Quite near was situated the so renowned ancient city of Agrigent, which in its most flourishing days bad a population of 800,000 inhabitants. Favara, a town with 9,000 inhabitants, and situated in the midst of the so-called sulphur-districts, which occupy a tract of 596 square miles, and where in 150 mines about 4,400 workmen are occupied, earning annually about 1,000,000 quintals of sulphur. Contessa, Piana, Mezzafuso, and Palazzo Adriano, 4 towns which together bear the common name of Casale de 'Gkecchi, and whose inhabitants are descendants of emigrated Albanians who settled here in the year 1480. Other towns of this province are: Aragona (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sciacca (with 18 churches, 14 convents, and 15,000 inhabitants), Bivona (with 6,000 inhabi- tants), Gatolica and Regalmuto (with 8,000 inhabitants). Westward and 69 miles distant from Girgenti, and at about 36 miles distance from the Tunesian coast, lies the exceedingly fertile Island of Pantelaria, or Pantalaria, with a town of the same name (also known by the name of Oppidolo), mineral springs, and 7,000 inhabitants. Other smaller isles in its vicinity are : Lmn- pedusa, Lamp/one, and Cinosa. Only the first-named is inhabited since the year 1834. — Caltanisetta, a town situated in a fertile elevated plain, towards the midst of the island of Sicily, south-eastward and 64 miles distant from Palermo, with 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Piazza (with 13,000 inhabitants), Naro (with 10,000 inhabitants), Castro Giovanni (with 12,700 inhabitants), Alicata, commonly called Licata (with 12,000 in- habitants), Terranova (with 9,800 inhabitants), Mazzarino (with 10,000 in- habitants), Cannicatti (with 17,000 inhabitants), and Palma (with 6,000 inhab- itants). — Syracuse, a fortified city on the eastern coast of Sicily, southward and 83 miles distant from Messina, is renowned for its excellent wines, and has two seaports, 22 churches (among which is the cathedral, anciently a tem- 148 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples : Island of Sicily. pie of Minerva), and 18,000 inhabitants. The celebrated ancient Syracuse was 23 miles in circuit, and said to have had a population of 1,200,000 in- habitants. Noto, a town south-westward and 13 miles distant from Syra- cuse, with a remarkable cathedral, and 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Modica (with 26,000 inhabitants), Ragusa (with 21,500 inhabitants), Spaccafomo or Spaccafurno (with 9,000 inhabitants), Vittoria (with 10,000 inhabitants), Agosta (with 15,000 inhabitants), Avola (with 7,000 inhabitants), Pachino (with 1,500 inhabitants), Chiaramonte (with 6,500 in- habitants), Comiso (with 11,500 inhabitants), Biscari (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Floridia (with 4,500 inhabitants). — Catanea, or Catania, a city on the Sicilian east coast, and at the foot of Mount Etna, northward and 36 miles distant from Syracuse, with a university, a magnificent cathedral, 25 convents, considerable silk manufactories, and 60,000 inhabitants. Near the town of Mascoli (with 3,000 inhabitants), at the foot of Mount Etna, is the renowned chestnut-tree, considered as the largest tree throughout Europe. The circum- ference of its trunk is immense. Other towns of this province are : Aei Reale (with 20,000 inhabitants), Nicolosi (with 2,400 inhabitants), Glare (with 17,700 inhabitants), Nicosia (with 13,000 inhabitants), Paterno (with 10,700 inhabitants), Anderno (with 13,500 inhabitants), Mineo (with 8,300 inhabi- tants), Caltagirone (with 21,600 inhabitants), Vizzini (with 11,100 inhabitants), Lentini (with excellent potteries, and 7,300 inhabitants), Bronte (with 11,000 inhabitants), Biancavilla (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sperlinga (with 1,500 in- habitants), Leonforte (with 10,000 inhabitants), and San Filippo d'Argyro (with 7,500 inhabitants). — Messina, a city on the strait of the same name, with a university, considerable commerce, and 85,000 inhabitants. The cita- del of this city is very strong. Taormina, a town at the southern entrance of the strait of Messina, and on a steep and almost inaccessible rock, with 6,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages this town sustained a siege of 80 years, the longest known in history. Other towns of this province are : Melazzo, or Milazzo (with 9,200 inhabitants), Roccalumera (with 12,000 in- habitants), Patti (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcellona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Mistretta (with 11,000 inhabitants), Randazzo (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Castroreale (with 15,000 inhabitants). At a distance from 18 to 46 miles northward from the coast of the province of Messina, are lying, in the Medi terranean Sea, the Lipari Islands (anciently called the Aeolian Islands), 13 in number, and altogether of volcanic origin, although they produce wines, figs, cotton, etc. The most remarkable of them are : Lipari (the principal island, ITALY. 149 Island of Malta: Geographical Description. 106 square miles in extent, with hot mineral springs, and 16,000 inhabitants), Volcano (uninhabited, with two burning volcanic mountains), Sahna (with 4 villages, salt works, and 4,000 inhabitants), Stromboli (a volcanic mountain, constantly burning, and called the light-house of the Mediterranean j only with 300 inhabitants), Felicudi (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Volcanello (un- inhabited). IX.— MALTA. Area: 213 square miles. Population: 140,000 inhabitants. This group, consisting of the islands of Malta, Gozzo, and Comino (together with the uninhabited isle of Cominotto), is lying in the Mediterranean Sea, between the island of Sicily and the northern coast of Africa, and belongs to Great Britain since the year 1800. The islands are in themselves, it is true, bare calcareous rocks, yet for the most part covered with fertile mould. The climate is peerlessly mild and pleasant, and the inhabitants being very diligent in cultivating the soil, they raise corn, cotton, wine, sugar-cane, and other tropic productions. Besides this, sheep, goats, and donkeys, are reared. The inhabitants, for the most part Catholics, and speaking a corrupted Arabian, intermixed with modern Grecian, Italian, and French words, do not only till the ground, but are also manufac- turing cotton goods, and carry on a considerable trade. They have retained their ancient laws and privileges, and are ruled by a British military governor. In 1829, the public reve- nue amounted to £133,072, and the expenditure to only £103,610. 150 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Island of Matte: History, etc. History. — Malta was primitively called Iperia, and subsequently Ogygia (though the island of Gozzo was properly denoted by this latter name) ; at a later period, the Greeks named it Melite, which the Arabs finally transmuted into Malta. The most ancient inhabitants were Phaeacians ; however, they were expelled by the Phoenicians, and these again by the Greeks. Subse- quently the islands came under the sway of the Carthaginians, from whom they were wrested by the Romans. At last they formed a constituent part of the Eastern, or Greek Empire, until in 818 the Arabs took possession of them. In 1090 the islands were conquered by the Sicilian Normans, and since that period, Malta and Sicily were under the sway of one and the same ruler. The Emperor Charles V., in his quality as king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily (see History of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), ceded, in 1530, Malta to the knights of St. John (see History of Em-ope, § 17, h), who since assumed the name of knights of the order of Malta. They had engaged themselves to wage war continually against the Turks and pirates, and kept for this purpose a navy, which in 1770 consisted of 4 ships of the fine, 1 frigate, 4 galleys, and several other smaller vessels. In 1798 the French con- quered Malta, but in 1800 it was wrested from them by the British, who since have continued to be in possession of the islands. We shall now describe them in the following succession : — 1. The island of Malta (area: 128 square miles; population: 120,000 in- habitants), containing : La Valetta, capital of the whole group, and one of the strongest fortresses, with numerous ancient and modern palaces, a univer- sity, a public library with 100,000 volumes, a botanic garden, ship docks, two seaports, considerable commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. In the midst of the island is situated Citta Vechia (also called Malta, or Melite), the ancient capital, with a remarkable cathedral, several convents, and 6,500 inhabitants. Other towns are : Pinto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Zorrica (with 3,500 inhabi- tants), and Zebug (with 4,000 inhabitants). 2. The island of Gozzo (area: 88 square miles; population: 19,000 inhabi- tants), containing: Gozzo, chief town, with 3,000 inhabitants, and the little fortress of Rabatto. Chambra is a mansion of the English governor. 3. The island of Comino, with a fortress of the same name, has only a pop- ulation of 1,000 inhabitants. 4. The isle of Corninotto is uninhabited. SWITZERLAND. Area: 15,815 square miles. Population : 2,400,000 inhabitants. Switzerland (instead of which, the ancient name of Helvetia is sometimes used) is situated between Germany and Italy, and on the west bordered by France. In point of religion, the Swiss are divided into Reformists (or Calvinists) and Catholics ; in some cantons the former, in others the latter prevail. Of Lutherans, there are perhaps only 400 to be found throughout the country. In 1845, the total popula- tion amounted to 2,363,000 inhabitants, of whom 998,000 were Catholics, and about 1,364,000 Reformists. The Catholics are under the church-authority of 5 bishops, viz. : of Lausanne (residing at Friburg), of Basle (residing at Soleure), of Sion (for the canton of Yalais), of Chur and St. Gall (residing alternately at Chur and St. Gall), and of Como (for the canton of Tesino). The number of Jews in Switzerland amounts to about 2,000. What regards the origin, the majority of the Swiss belongs to the great family of the Germanians, and the remainder (speaking partly French, partly Italian, and partly the so-called Ladinian language, or a corrupted Latin) to the great family of the Roma- nians (see Introduction, § 12). Switzerland is thoroughly mountainous, and traversed by several branches of the Alps (see Introduction, § 7), while the Jura Mountains form the boundary on the west towards France (see the particulars in the just-naracd paragraph of the Introduction). ]62 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland: Geographical Features. Two of the principal rivers of Europe rise in Switzerland, viz. : the Rhine (whose tributaries are here the 111, Thur, and Aar, which latter receives here the Ernme, Reuss, and Limmat), and the Rhone, which has no remarkable tributaries in Switzerland. Moreover, the Tesino, or Jicino, tributary of the Po, and the Inn, tributary of the Danube, rise here. The lakes exclusively belong- ing to Switzerland, are described in § 9 of the Introduction, where also the particulars about the lakes of Constance and Geneva are to be found. The climate is wholesome throughout the country, although of course the temperature varies according to the higher or lower elevation of the country. In the higher mountainous regions the air is much cooled by the glaciers, or extensive fields of ice that cover the lofty summits of the Alps. It may be mentioned on this occasion, that sometimes vast masses of snow, called ava- lanches, break away from the glaciers, and slide down the declivi- ties with a tremendous roar, overwhelming in a moment the villages below. Remarkable winds are. the Bise, coming from east or north-east, and the Foehn, a humid south wind. Notwithstanding the mountainous character of the country, some parts of it are very fertile. Many valleys have a rich soil, and renowned for their nutritious and aromatic herbs are the excellent-Alpine pastures. Pasturage and the making of cheese are therefore the chief objects of the farmer. The Swiss breed of cattle is, in some respects, considered as the finest in Europe. The rearing of sheep is inconsiderable, but goats abound every- where. The horses, which generally are strong and durable, are, together with mules, used as sumpters, to carry goods on their backs across the mountains. The Swiss delight in hunting the chamois, which dwells among the highest precipices of the Alps, while the ibex is not more, or at least very seldom, found. The principal other wild animals found in Switzerland are, the bear, SWITZERLAND. 153 Manufactures— Political Division. wolf, lynx, and marmot. The rivers and lakes abound in various kinds of excellent fishes, and the Alpine brooks especially in trouts. In some of the western and southern cantons, the vine is cultivated. There are a great many manufactories in Switzerland, especially of cotton, silks, watches, etc. The trade is considerable, and, besides the manufactured goods, chiefly cattle, cheese, and drugs, are exported. Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities : at Basle (founded in 1459, and frequented by about 130 students), at Zurich (founded in 1833, and in 1845 frequented by 125 students), and at Berne (founded in 1834, but not much resorted to). Moreover, there are so-called academies, or faculties, at Geneva and Lausanne, and gymnasiums in most of the cantons. At Friburg is a college of Jesuits, and at Hofwyl (near the city of Berne) a celebrated boarding-school, founded by Mr. Fellen- berg. Common schools are numerous. Switzerland is divided into 22 cantons, and the government is that of a federal republic (also called Helvetic Republic). Each canton is independent, and has the exclusive control of all concerns merely local ; but the defence of the country, and the general interest of the confederacy are committed to a general government, or rather Diet — a kind of congress, called Tagsatzung, and composed of two deputies from each canton (Berne and Zurich have the privilege of sending each three deputies, while G-lurus sends only one). During the time when the Diet is not assembled, the so-called Vorort, that is the directory or directorial government, vested alternately in the cantons of Berne, Zurich, and Lucerne, for two years at a time, manages the affairs of the confederacy. The ordinary public expenditure of the confederacy was in 1818 fixed at 539,275 Swiss francs (these are somewhat more in 7* 154 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. value than the French francs) annually ; its public debt, which in 1814 amounted to 3,000,000 francs, is long since paid. The total revenue of the cantons may be computed at 10,000,000 francs. The wealthiest cantons are Berne, Vaud, and Zurich (the revenue of the first-named amounted in 1844 to 3.055,400 francs, that of the second to 1,655,200, and that of the third to 1,100,000 francs), and the poorest are Unterwalden, Lug, and Uri, with a revenue of respectively 20,000, 11,000, and 10,000 francs. The Helvetic Republic has no standing army, but keeps in time of peace only a small number of regular troops, not exceed- ing 1,200 or 1,300 men. Yet in time of war the confederacy raises a federal army, whose strength is fixed at 64,019 men, with 3,426 horses. History. — Switzerland, until the year 406 A. D. a Roman province and inhabited by Germanic tribes, called Helvetians by the Romans, was, since the beginning of the migration of nations, occupied by the Burgundians and Alemanni (belonging to the great tribe of the Sueves; compare History of Europe, § 3), and came about the year 500 under the sway of the Franks. After the death of Charlemagne, many Swiss counts and barons made them- selves independent, while part of the country belonged to the Burgundian empire (see History of Europe, §§3 and 8, and History of Burgundy under France). The German emperors were to be considered as sovereigns of this empire, and consequently of Switzerland too, and the latter would perhaps until the present day have formed a constituent part of the German empire, if not the political interest of the country itself and of France had prevented it. In Switzerland, the clergy was possessed of considerable estates and tracts of land, beside the barons, among whom the most powerful were the counts of Hapsburg, Kyburg, Toggenburg, Neuchatel, Thierstein, and Savoy, the barons of Wyssenburg, Grandson, etc. All these lords acknowledged the sovereignty of the German emperors, at least nominally, as also those cities and towns did, that were endowed with imperial privileges, and ruled by imperial gov- ernors, or bailifs of the empire. Cantons did not then exist ; however, there •were privileged provinces, of which Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden, elected SWITZERLAND. 155 History — Geography. in 1257 the mighty Count Rodolph V., count of Hapsburg (subsequently German emperor), their protector, but refused allegiance to his son, Emperor Albert I., because they pretended to be injured by him in their privileges. In the beginning of the year 1308, they destroyed the castles of the imperial governors (among whom was one, named Gesler), and united into a confederacy, at first for ten years. In the course of time, other provinces joined in thig confederacy, and as the canton of Schweitz was then the most powerful, the German name of Schweitz (Switzerland), for denoting the whole country, came into vogue. In 1513, the number of cantons was 13, since and before the year 1803, six other joined them, and in 1815 the whole number of 22 was completed by the addition of Valais, Neuchatel, and Geneva. Not before the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded in 1648, the independence of the Helvetic Republic was formally acknowledged by the foreign powers. It must be remarked here, by the way, that many modern historians are of the opinion that William Tell did never exist, but all what is related about him is to be considered as a legend, derived from the Scandinavian traditions. Be this as it may, the fact is, that the above-named three cantons united into a confederacy without William Tell, and that also in every other respect he did not exert the slightest political influence on the revolution of the year 1308. In this respect it made no difference, whether he shot Gesler or not. To place the political institutions and liberty of Switzerland on a par with those of the United States, would be a great mistake ; for since the end of the last century the Helvetic Republic has been in a very unsettled condition, which in the last twenty years has almost degenerated into complete anarchy. Liberty and lawlessness are at present nearly synonymous in the opinion of the great majority of the Swiss ; and sooner or later the country will doubt- less become a prey of the adjacent powers, which, hitherto, only the jealousy among them has prevented. In order to facilitate the finding out of the several cantons, we shall describe them in an alphabetic order ; and it only be remarked here, that Schafhausen is the most northerly, Valais the most southerly, Vaud the most westerly, and Grisons the most easterly canton. The population stated in the following descrip- tion is according to the last census of 1845. 156 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland— Cantons of Aargau and Appenzell. 1. The canton of Aargau (area: 511 square miles; population: 190,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, while only 00,000 are Catholics), between the cantons of Basle and Zurich, crossed by the Aar river, and on the north separated from the German grand-duchy of Baden by the Rhine. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne until in 1803, when it became an independent canton, and contains: Aarau, capital of the canton, on the Aar, south-eastward and 26 miles distant from Basle, with cotton, silk, and hardware manufactures, considerable trade, and 4,500 inhabitants. Aarburg, a town on the Aar, south-westward and 9 miles dis- tant from Aarau, with the only fortress of all Switzerland, and 1,700 inhabi- tants. Baden (sometimes also called Oberbaden, to distinguish it from the grand-ducal Badish town of the same name), a town on the Limmat, north- westward and 14 miles distant from Zurich, with renowned hot mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. On the 7th of September, 1714, a treaty of peace between France and the German empire, was concluded here. Huri, formerly a rich and celebrated abbey of the Benedictines, which was founded either in 991 or in 1027. This remarkable building is 725 feet long. Close by is the town of the same name, with a silk manufactory, and 1,800 inhabitants. Brugg, or Bruck, a town on the Aar, has 1,000 inhabitants, and was once the property of the counts of Hapsburg, of whose ancestor's castle Hapsburg considerable remnants are still extant in the neighborhood. This castle was reared in 1027. Not far from here, near the village of Windisch, it was where, on the 1st of May, 1308, Emperor Albert I. was murdered by his nephew. His widow and daughter reared a nunnery on the very place, named Koenigsfelden, which in 1528 was transformed into a hospital. Zofingen, a town on the Wigger, with various manufactures, and 3,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are: Bremgarten (with 1,050 inhabitants), Lenzburg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (with, 1,600 inhabitants), Lauffenburg (with 1,000 inhabitants), Klingnan (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zurzach (with 1,000 inhabitants), Villmergen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Frick (with 2,000 inhabitants), Wettingen (with 1,050 inhabitants), Ober-Kulm (with 1,700 inhab- itants), and Unter-Kulm (with 1,800 inhabitants). 2. The canton of Appenzell (area: 149 square miles; population: 54,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and partly Reformists, partly Catholics), en- tirely surrounded by the territory of the canton of St. Gall, and situated near the lake of Constance. It became an independent canton in 1513, and was since the reformation divided into two distinct districts, called Inner-Rhoden SWITZERLAND. 157 Canton of Basle. and Ausser-Rhoden, the former inhabited only by Catholics, and the latter only by Reformists. Inner -Rhoden contains : Appenzell, capital of the whole canton, on the Sitter, southward and 7 miles distant from the city of St. Gall, and 26 miles south-south-east of Constance, with a Gothic church, 2 convents, lineu trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. Weissbad and Gonlen, villages, with mineral springs. Ausser-Rhoden contains : Trogen, chief town of this district, with considerable linen trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Herisau (noted for its manufactures, with 7,900 inhabitants), Teuffen (with 4,200 inhabitants), Zum Stein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Umaesch (with 2,100 inhabitants), Gais (noted for its whey, with 2,900 inhabitants), and Rundwyl (with 1,100 inhabitants). 3. The canton of Basle (area: 192 square miles; population: 66,000 inhab- itants, of whom only 6,500 are Catholics, while the majority consists of Reformists, all speaking German), on and near the Rhine, bordered on the west by France, and on the south by the canton of Soleure. It joined the confederacy in 1491, and is since the year 1833 divided into Basle-City and Basle- Campagne. The former contains: Basle, capital of the canton, on the left bank of the Rhine, which is crossed here by its only stone bridge (all the other bridges over the Rhine are constructed by boats), southward and 73 miles distant from Strasburg, and northward and 46 miles distant from Berne, is noted for its considerable trade and manufactures, its university and board of missions, its ancient Gothic cathedral (founded in 1010; the council or synod of the years 1431-1448 was held here; and, moreover, it contains the sepulchre of the renowned Erasmus, of Rotterdam), and has a population of 23,000 inhabitants. One of its suburbs, called Littfe Basle (Klein-Basel), is situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Basle, founded in the 4th century, was until the year 1529 the seat of the catholic bishop of Basle, who at the same time was a prince of the German empire, and sovereign of a territory, which in 1814 was annexed to the canton of Berne. The present bishop of Basle resides at Soleure, while his antecessors since the year 1529 resided at Pruntrut (see next canton). To the district of Basle-city belong, morpover, the small townships of Bettingen, Riehen, and Kleinhueningen (Little Iluenin- gen). Basle-Campagne contains: Liestall, or Liechstall, chief town of this district, on the Ergolz, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Basle, with various manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Sissach (with 1,200 inhabitants), Waldenburg (with 800 inhabitants), Arlesheim 158 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland— Canton of Berne. (with 800 inhabitants), and Muttenz (with a remarkable old church, and 1,850 inhabitants). 4. The canton of Berne (area: 2,5*76 square miles; population: 440,000 inhabitants, for the most part speaking German, but in the western part, French; the majority consists of Reformists, and only 53,000 are Catholics), occupying nearly the centre of Switzerland, and on the south bordered by the canton of Valais. It joined the confederacy in 1352 ; and until 1803 the present cantons of Aargau and Vaud formed parts of it. In 1815, it was indemnificated by the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above). It contains : Berne, the capital of the canton, on the Aar, southward and 46 miles distant from Basle, and north-eastward and 82 miles distant from Geneva, with a university and several other schools and literary institutions, various manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. About 4 miles distant from here is situated the estate of Hofwyl, where is the before-mentioned school of Fellenberg. Laupen, a town on the Saane, with 900 inhabitants. In the district of Ober-Aargau (Upper Aargau) are situated the towns of Aarwangen (with 1,450 inhabitants), and Wangen (with 900 inhabitants). In the romantic valley of the Emme (noted for its fine cattle, cheese, and industry) are situated the towns of Langenthal (north- eastward and 23 miles distant from Berne, with 2,800 inhabitants), Langnau (with 5,700 inhabitants), Hutiweil, or Hutwijl (with 900 inhabitants), and Burgdorf (with 2,300 inhabitants). Saanen, chief town of the valley of the same name (noted for its cheese), and in French called Gessenay. In the so-called Berner Oberland (Highlands of Berne) are situated : Thun, a town on the lake of the same name, 16 miles south-south-east of Berne, is the seat of a military academy of the confederacy, and has a population of 5,000 inhabitants. Near the village of Lauterbrunnen are the celebrated falls of the Staubbach. Meyringen, on the Aar, is the chief town of the Haslithal (valley of Hasli), whose inhabitants are noted for their fine shape. Wimmis is the chief town of the eminently cultivated valley of the Simmen, or Sim- menthal. Other towns in the Bernese Oberlands are: Frutingen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Unterseen (with 1,250 inhabitants). Interlaken, or Inter- lachen, formerly a renowned monastery of Austin friars, founded in 1130. In the district called Seeland (lake-land, because it is bordered by the lake of Biel) are situated : Erlach (in French, Erlier, or Cerlicr), a town on the lake of Biel, 19 miles west-north-west of Berne, with 1,200 inhabitants, Nidau (a town, with 1.000 inhabitants), Bueren (a town on the Aar, with 1,350 inhabi- SWITZERLAND. 159 Cantons of F.eiburg and St. Gall. tants), and Aarberg (a town on the Aar, with 800 inhabitants). In the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above) are situated : Pbuntrut (in French, Porentruy), a town on the Halaine, 37 miles north-north-west of Berne, was until 1803 the seat of the bishop of Basle, who resided here in a magnificent palace, and has a population of 2,700 inhabitants. Biel (in French, Bienne), a town on the lake of the same name, with 2,800 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Delsberg, in French, Delemont (with 1,450 inhabitants), St. Ursanne, or St. Ursitz (with 1,000 inhabitants), Laufen (with 900 inhabi- tants), and Neuenstadt, in French, Neuveville, or Bonneville (with 1,300 inhabi- tants). 5. The canton of Friburg, or Freiburg (area : 564 square miles ; popula- tion: 95,000 inhabitants, partly speaking French, and partly German, and the majority consisting of Catholics, only 6,400 being Reformists), bordered on the north-west by the lake of NeuchateL and on the east by the canton of Berne. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains : Freiburg, or Friburg, the capital, on the Saane (crossed by a wire suspension bridge, which is 834 feet in length, and 145 feet above the surface of the water), south-westward and 19 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 73 miles distant from Geneva, is the seat of the bishop of Lausanne, and has the above-mentioned college of Jesuits (in 1842 with 676 pupils), a Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 365 feet in height), 8 convents, and 9,200 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the Cistercian monastery Altenryf, in French, Hauterive. Murten (in French, Morat), a town on the lake of the same name, is noted for the battle against Charles the Temerarious, of Burgundy, in 1476, and has 1,700 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Greyerz, in French, Gruyeres (noted for its cheese, and with 1,050 inhabitants), Rornont (with 1,400 inhabi- tants), and Staefis, in French, Estavayer (with 1,800 inhabitants). 6. The canton of St. Gall (area: 744 square miles; population: 172,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and in point of religion at the ratio of 106,000 Catholics and 66,000 Reformists), separated by the Rhine (before this river enters the lake of Constance) from Tyrol. This canton, which joined the confederacy in 1798, was until then (with the exception of the city of St. Gall) the territory of the Benedictine abbey of St. Gall, whose seat was in the just-named city, though separated from it by a high walL The abbey originated from a cell, built by the holy Gallus (from Ireland, and a pupil of Columban), who in the beginning of the 7 th century came here to preach the gospel to the neighboring AllemanL He converted many of them, who set- 160 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland — Canton of Geneva. tied themselves around him, and at last a monastery was built, whose first regular abbot was elected in 720. The abbey was endowed with many privileges ; the abbot was only subjected to the pope, and in his temporal quality as prince of the German empire, to the emperor, and was at the same time sovereign of a pretty large territory. Since the year 1451 he partook in the direction of the general affairs of the Helvetic Republic, without being an actual member of the confederacy, until in 1798 the whole bishopric (or the territory of the abbey), together with the city of St. Gall, was trans- formed into a canton. (About the present bishop of St. Gall, see above.) The canton contains : St. Gall, its capital, on the Steinach, 20 miles south- south-east of Constance, and eastward and 9 miles distant from Zurich, with the former edifice of the abbey, now the residence of the government, 6 churches, several schools and valuable libraries, important linen trade, and 11,500 inhabitants. Pfeffers (in French Faviere), a village situated in the wild, romantic Tamina Valley (Taminathal), and noted for its warm baths. Here is also a Benedictine abbey, founded in 720. Wildhaus, a village near the head of the Thur river, remarkable as the birth-place of the reformer Zwingli, who was born here in 1484, in a house which is still extant. Ror- schach, a town on the lake of Constance, with important commerce, and 1,700 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Rappers wyl, or Rapperschweil (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sargans (with 750 inhabitants), Wallenstadt (with 800 inhabitants), Rheineek (with 1,800 inhabitants), Ragatz (with 1,300 in- habitants), Werdenberg (with 950 inhabitants), Lichtermteig (chief town of the ancient county of Toggenburg, with 7,500 inhabitants), and Wyl (with 2,400 inhabitants). 7. The canton of Geneva (area : 92 square miles ; population : 65,000 in- habitants, speaking French, and for the most part Reformists, only 19,700 being Catholics), situated along the south-west corner of the lake of Geneva. It partook since the year 1558 in the direction of the public affairs of Swit- zerland, without being an actual member of the confederacy. In 1798 it was, by the name of Leman- department, annexed to France, but in 1815 restored to its independency, and now it became a formal member of the confederacy. It contains : Geneva, fortified capital, on the lake of the same name, and on the Rhone (at the point whore this river issues from the lake), south-westward and 82 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Lyons, is the most populous and industrious city of Switzerland, and especially noted for its extensive manufactures of watches and jewelleries SWITZERLAND. 161 Cantons of Glarus and Orisons. (annually about 60,000 ounces of gold, 5,000 marks of silver and precious stones, at the value of 500,000 francs, are used up for this purpose), and moreover for its literary institutions, and has a population of 31.000 inhabi- tants, among whom are 5,800 Catholics. Geneva was founded by the Allo- brogi (a Gaulic tribe in the southeastern part of Gaul and in the adjacent country, now called Savoy), came in the beginning of the 5th century of the Christian era under the sway of the Burgundians, and formed since part of the Burgundian kingdom, but was at the same time held in some dependency of the bishop of Geneva. In 1478 the bishop and the city entered into a league with the cantons of Berne and Freiburg, which in 1526 was renewed, till in 1558 (the bishopric being meanwhile dissolved) matters were arranged in the above-mentioned manner. The territory of the city contains, among others, the towns of Versoix or Versoy (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Carouge (with 4,000 inhabitants). 8. The canton of Glarus (area : 276 square miles ; population : 32,000 in- habitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, only 4,300 being Catholics), situated in the interior of Switzerland, at about 14 miles distance from Tyrol, and on the south bordered by the canton of Grisons. It joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains: Glarus, capital on the Linth, 32 miles south-south-west of St. Gall, and south-eastward and 36 miles distant from Zurich, with numerous cotton and cloth manufactures, important trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Mollis, Schwanden, and Naefels, towns with re- spectively 2,600, 2,200, and 1,800 inhabitants. Naefels is noted for a battle in 1388. 9. The canton of Grisons (area: 2,981 square miles; population: 92,000 inhabitants, of whom about two parts are Reformists and one part Catholics, speaking partly German, partly Italian, and partly the above-mentioned Ladinian, or corrupt Latin language), comprising the south-eastern part of Switzerland, and bordered by Tyrol and Lombardy. There are not less than 241 glaciers and 170 valleys in this canton, from which two great roads cross the Alps to Italy ; one over the Bernardin, and the other over Mount Spliigen. Grisons, once a constituent part of Rhaetia (as Tyrol anciently was called), came in the 5th century under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and in 529 under that of the king3 of Austrasia (see History of Europe, § 8), who annexed it to the duchy of Swabia, or Alemannia. The German emperor, Otho L, and the duke Louis of Alemannia endowed in 951 the bishop of Chur with various privileges in this city, which subsequently were extended over a great 162 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland— C;mt->i!S <n the north bordered by Germany, formed a constituent part of that tract 9 194 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Lorraine. of land, which by the treaty of Verdun in 813 (see History of Europe, § 14) fell to the share of Lothar ; but was at that time of far greater extent than sit present, stretching from the Vosges Mountains in a north-westerly direc-. tion down to the shores of the North Sea. In 954 it was divided into Upper and Lower Lorraine, out of which latter, comprising the Netherlands, Belgium, and Holland, including Luxemburg, arose in the course of time more or less independent duchies and counties, at last reunited under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy. On the other hand Upper Lorraine continued to be a German duchy, whose last duke was Francis Stephen, who married the renowned Austrian archi-duchess, Mary Therese (daughter of the German emperor Charles VI.), and was subsequently elected emperor by the name of Francis I. The king of France, Louis XV., was married to the daughter of Stanislaus Leczinski, who had been king of Poland in the period from 1704 to 1710. Thus, when King Augustus II. of Poland died in 1733, France supported the claims of Stanislaus Leczinski upon the Polish throne by armed force, while Austria conjointly with Russia supported the claims of Augustus III. (son of Augustus II.). At last a treaty of peace was concluded on the 3d of October, 1735, according to which Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, should become sovereign of the grand-duchy of Tuscany after the death of John Gasto, the last descendant of the Medici (see History of Tuscany), and on the other hand Stanislaus Leczinski should then succeed in Lorraine. In 1737 John Gasto died and was succeeded by Francis Stephen, while Stanislaus Leczinski became sovereign of Lorraine and Bar (the official name of the duchy). He died in 1766, and his duchy (considered as an inheritance of his daughter, the queen of France) was now annexed to France, in conformity to the stipulations of the above-mentioned treaty. Lorraine comprises at present 4 depart- ments, viz. : the Meurthe Department (chief town, Nancy), the Vosges Depart- ment (chief town, Epinal), the Meuse Department (chief town, Bar le Due), and the Moselle Department (chief town, Metz). 18. The Meurthe Depart- ment contains : -{-Nancy, ancient capital of Lorraine, near the Meurthe, west- ward and 74 miles distant from Strasburg, and southward and 74 miles dis- tant from Luxemburg, is one of the finest and most regularly built cities of France, was until 1690 the residence of the dukes of Lorraine, and has '32,500 inhabitants. Nancy is also noted for the battle of 1477, in which Charles the Temerarious of Burgundy was killed. Luneville, a town on the Meurthe, south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Nancy, with a magnificent palace (the residence of the ancient dukes of Lorraine in the period from 1690 to FRANCE. 195 The Province of Lorraine. 1766, but at present transformed into a military barrack), and 13,500 inhabi- tants. Luneville is noted for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th of February, 1801, between France and the German empire. Saarburg (in French, Sarrebourg), a town on the Saar, 37 miles west-north-west of Stras- burg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pont a, Mousson (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gondreville (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nico- las de Port (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Malzeville (with 4,000 inhabitants), Rosieres aux Salines (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau Salins (with 3,000 inhabitants), Dieuze (with 4,000 inhabitants), Vic (with 3,000 inhabitants), Moyenvic (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Baccarat (noted for its crystal-glass manufactures, with 3,000 inhabitants). The villages of St. Quirin and Cirey are also noted for their crystal and plate-glass manufactures. (About the towns of Pfalzburg and Toul, within this department, see below.) 19. The Vosges Department contains : -]-Epinal, chief town on the Moselle, 37 miles south-south- east of Nancy, with 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Archettes is noted for its paper manufactures. Plombieres, a town in the Vosges Mountains, is noted for its warm baths and hardware manufactures, and has 1,500 inhab- itants. Other towns of this department are : St. Die (with 8,200 inhabitants), Rambervillers (with 5,000 inhabitants), Remiremont (with 5,200 inhabitants), Gerardmer (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mirecourt (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Neufchateau (with 4.000 inhabitants). About the village of Domremy, birth- place of Joan d'Arc, see under the head of Champagne. 20. The Meuse Department contains : -|-Bar le Due, ancient capital of the former duchy of Bar (see above), which since the middle of the 15th century formed a con- stituent part of the duchy of Lorraine, is situated on the Ornain, westward and 46 miles distant from Nancy, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Varennes, a town on the Aisne, 13 miles north-north-east of St. Menehould (in Champagne, to which town we refer with regard to the seizure of Louis XVI.), with 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ligny (with 3,200 inhabitants), St. Mihiel, or St. Michel (with 6,000 inhabitants), Commercy (with 4,000 inhabitants), Damvilliers (with 1,000 inhabitants), Marville (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Montmedy (with 2,400 inhabitants). (About Verdun in this department, see below.) 21. The Moselle Department (whose capital, Metz, shall be described below) contains : Saargemund (in French, Sarregue- mines), a town on the Saar, at its junction with the Blies, eastward and 42 miles distant from Metz, with 4,500 inhabitants. The villages of Monther- hausen, Maisenthal, Goetzenbruck, and Munzthal, are noted for their great 196 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace. Bitsch, a town in the Vosges Mountains, is noted for its re- markable and strong citadel, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Thionville (in German, Diedenhofen), a strongly fortified town on the Moselle, southward and 13 miles distant from Luxemburg, with 6,000 inhabitants. It belonged formerly to the ancient duchy of Luxemburg, and was in 1659 ceded tc France. Other towns of this department are : St. Avoid (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Sarralbe or Saaralbe (on the Saar, at its junction with the Albe, has 4,000 inhabitants), Sierk (in French, Sierques, with 2,000 inhabitants), Briey (with 2,000 inhabitants), Longwy (a fortified town, with 2,500 inhabitants), and Faulquemont (in German, Falkenberg, with 1,500 inhabitants). Beside these is situated within the limits of Lorraine the town of Bourmont (on the Meuse, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,000 inhabitants), belonging to the Upper Marne Department (see under the head of Champagne). The following three cities of Metz, Tout, and Verdun, did indeed originally belong to Lorraine, but separated from it so early as towards the end of the 10th century, and became since German free towns. In the days of the Emperor Charles V., the Protestant German princes formed a league against him, and induced King Henry IL of France, to make common cause with them, upon condition that he was to occupy the three named cities for his security. The German princes had, it is true, no right at all to dispose thus of the imperial cities; however, the latter were in 1552 actually occupied by the French, and in 1648 by the Westphalian treaty of peace, formally ceded to them. To the Moselle Department (see above) belongs at present : -j- Metz, strongly fortified chief town of this department, on the Moselle, south-west- ward and 50 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 37 miles distant from Luxemburg, with a magnificent cathedral, a remarkable arsenal, several military schools, many literary institutions, and 48,000 inhabitants. To the Meurthe Department (see above) belongs : Toul, a fortified town on the Moselle, southward and 30 miles distant from Metz, with a remarkable cathe- dral, and 7,700 inhabitants. To the Meuse Department (see above) belongs : Verdun, a fortified town on the Meuse, westward and 34 miles distant from Metz, with a citadel, and 11,000 inhabitants. IX. Alsace. — This province, situated along the left bank of the Rhine, by which it is separated from the German grand-duchy of Baden, on the south bounded by the Swiss canton of Basle, and on the north by the Bavarian Palatinate, belonged since the year 870 to the German empire, and formed a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Swabia (see introduction to the FRANCE. 197 The Province of Alsace. Bavarian province, Swabia and Neuburg) in the period from the year 916 to 1268. Since the solution of this duchy in the last-named year, Alsace became an immediate territory of the empire, although Austria got possession of a great part of Upper Alsace. France had long since lusted after this fine country, and having been called for assistance by the German Protestants in the war of thirty years, France reserved to herself Alsace, which actually was ceded to it in the Westphalian treaty of peace in 1648, with the exception of Strasburg and some other imperial cities. However, France took possession of them too in 1681, and in 1697 they were formally ceded to her. Alsace comprises two departments, viz. : the Lower Rhine Department (or that part of Alsace which formerly was called Lower Alsace, or Northgau), and the Upper Rhine Department (formerly called Upper Alsace, or Sundgau, i. e., South District). 22. The Zotoer Rhine Department (or Lower Alsace) con- tains: -\- Strasburg, formerly the capital of all Alsace, and until the year 1681 an imperial city of the German empire, quite near the Rhine, south- westward and 46 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 70,500 inhabitants, numer- ous and important manufactures, is one of the strongest fortresses in France, and noted for its magnificent cathedral reared in the period from 1015 to 1275, and whose steeple is 445 feet high. Strasburg was founded in the middle of the 6th century by the Franks. Since the beginning of the 7th century it was the seat of a bishopric, whose bishop was an immediate member of the German empire, and whose territory was situated partly on the right bank of the Rhine, partly in Alsace, there comprising : Zabern, in French, Saverne (a town, with 5,500 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace, where the bishop resided since the reformation), and the towns of Molsheim (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Mutzig (with 4,000 inhabitants), Dambach (with 3,000 inhabitants), Bennfelden, and Markolsheim. Hagenau, a fortified town on the Moder, northward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with 10,000 inhabitants. Wasselonne (in German, Wasselnheim) and Rosheim, towns, with respectively 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Ehenheim (in French, Obernay), a town at the foot of Mount St. Odilia (2,364 feet high), with calico manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. In a neighboring valley of the Vosges is situated the village of Klingenthal, noted for its manufactures of sword blades, cutlery, etc. Barr, a town romantically situated at the foot of the Vosges, south-westward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with numerous cotton and woollen manufac- tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the valley called, in French, Ban de la Roche, and in German, Stehvthal, where the celebrated Lutheran 8* 198 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Alsace. minister J. F. Oberlin, lived in the period from 1766 to 1826, who transformed this rough and sterile valley into a little paradise, and by this, as well as by his truly Christian ministry, proved himself the benefactor of his parishioners. He resided in the village of Waldbach. Lichtenberg, a remarkable ancient feudal castle, until the year 1480 of barons of the same name, whose estates then were entailed upon the counts of Hanau (see the Bavarian Palatinate under the head of Germany). Buohsweiler (a town, with various manufac- tures, and 4,000 inhabitants) wa3 formerly the capital of the Lordship of Lichtenberg. Lauterburg, a fortified town near the junction of the Rhine with the Lauter, did until the first French revolution belong to the imme- diate German bishopric of Spire, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Here terminate the so-called Lines of Weissenburg, noted in the military history of the wars between France and Germany, and consisting of a rampart and moat running upwards along the Lauter to the town of Weissenburg (with 6,200 inhabi- tants), situated on this river, westward and 14 miles distant from Lauterburg. Other towns of this department are : Bischweiler (with 6,000 inhabitants), ScJdettstadt (with 10,000 inhabitants), Niederbronn (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Saar- Union (with 3,600 inhabitants). Fort Louis, formerly also called Fort Vauban, at present a village, with 600 inhabitants, but formerly a fortified town on an island of the Rhine, founded in 1689 by order of Louis XIV. The above-mentioned fortified town of Pfalzburg, belonging to Lower Alsace, but at present situated within the limits of the Meurthe Department (see under the head of Lorraine), has 4,000 inhabitants. (To Lower Alsace belonged also the towns of Landan, Rheinzabem, Kandel, and Bergzabern, which in 1815 were ceded from France to Germany, and then annexed to the Bavarian Palatinate.) 23. The Upper Rhine Department (or Upper Alsace) contains : -f- Colmar, chief town of the department, on the Lauch, 41 miles south-south- west of Strasburg, is famous for its extensive cotton manufactures, and has 16,500 inhabitants. New Breisach, a fortified town on the Rhine, right oppo- site and Old Breisach in Baden, founded in 1699 by Louis XIV., has 2,000 inhabitants. Munster, surnamed im Gregorienthal (in the valley of Gregory), with important cotton and paper manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants Other towns of this department are : Kaisersberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Turkheim (with 2,300 inhabitants), Rappoltsweiler (in French, Ribeauviller, with impor- tant cotton manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants), Rufach, or Rouffac (with 4,400 inhabitants), Egisheim (with 1,900 inhabitants), Herlishcim (with 1,200 inhabitants), Gebweiler (with 4,000 inhabitants). Watweiler (with 1,600 iuhabi- FRANCE. 199 The Provinces of Alsace and Burgundy. tants), St. Arnarin (with 2,000 inhabitants, and an extensive calico and iudienne manufactory in the neighboring ancient castle of Wesserling), Ensisheim (with 8,000 inhabitants), Thann (with 7,000 inhabitants), Sennheim, or Cernay (with 3,000 inhabitants), Beamoart (with extensive manufactures of hardware, etc., and 1,100 inhabitants), Sulz (with 5,300 inhabitants), and Altkirch (with 3,000 inhabitants). Near Basle (in Switzerland) and on the Rhine, is situated the town of Huningen (with 1,000 inhabitants), whose strong fortifications, erected in 1681 by order of Louis XIV., but demolished in 1815 according to the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, were renowned in the military history. Befort, or Belfort, a town on the Savoureuse, with 6,000 inhabi- tants, was once the capital of the Sundgau (see above). St. Marie aux Mines, in German, MarJcirch, a town, with various manufactures, and 10,500 inhabi- tants, is situated within the limits of this department, but is properly belonging to Lorraine. The city of Muhlsausen (on the 111, and 14 miles distant from Basle, with the most extensive cotton manufactures of the Upper Rhine Department, and 25,000 inhabitants), was formerly a German imperial city, and at the same time a member of the Helvetic confederation, but in 1798 ceded to France. X. Bourgogne, or the ancient duchy of Burgundy, at the southern frontier of Champagne, and separated from Switzarland by the Franche Comte (or ancient county of Burgundy). This province conserving by its name still the memory of ancient Burgundy in general, so often mentioned in the European history of the middle ages, it may be here the most convenient place to give a historical sketch of ancient Burgundy. The Burgundians, mentioned in § 3 of the History of Europe, founded after the beginning of the 5th century in the eastern parts of Gaul an extensive empire, which comprised not only the present French provinces of Bourgogne, Franche Comte, Lyonnais, Dauphiny, and Provence, but also Savoy and the western part of Switzerland. It was of greater extent than the present kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and ruled by kings who resided alternately at Geneva and Lyons. In the year 500 it was attacked by Clovis I., king of the Franks, who vanquished the Burgundians in a battle near Dijon, made them tributary, and wrested from them the greatest part of the subsequent Lyonnais. In 533 the kingdom of Burgundy was completely conquered by the sons of Clovis, and formally annexed to the Frankish empire. By the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see History of Europe, § 14) Lothar, the third son of Louis the Pious, became among other territories possessed of Burgundy too, and his claims upon it 200 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Burgundy. were subsequently transferred, by way of inheritance, to the German empe- rors and in several periods realized by them. Yet in the years 879 and 887 this ancient and primitive kingdom of Burgundy was divided into three more or less independent parts : the kingdom of Provence, the kingdom of Bur- gundy, and the duchy of Burgundy. .1. The kingdom of Provence, whose first king (since the year 879) was Boso duke of Provence (hence the name of the kingdom), did not only comprise the subsequent French province of this name, but also Savoy, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and part of Franche Gomte, and was subsequently often called the Cisjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. 2. The second division of ancient Burgundy comprised the greatest part of Switzerland and parts of Savoy and Franche Comte ; its first king was Ro- dolph, duke of West Franconia ; it was called par excellence the kingdom of Burgundy, or (to distinguish it from the just-mentioned other kingdom) the Transjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. In 933 it was united with the Cisju- ranian kingdom, and this united kingdom was since called tne Arelatian kingdom, or kingdom of Arelate, because its kings resided in the city of Aries (in Provence and on the Rhone). In the course of time several of the govern- ors of its provinces made themselves independent, at a later period they became vassals of the French crown, and thus at last all the western provin- ces were incorporated into the kingdom of France, while of the other prov- inces Savoy became an independent duchy, and those situated in Switzerland were annexed to the Helvetic confederation. 3. What regards the 'third division of ancient Burgundy, or the duchy of Burgundy (of which is properly the question here), its first duke, since the year 887, was Richard, brother of Boso (see above), but since the beginning of the 11th century its rulers were French princes, or younger brothers of the reigning kings of France and their descendants. In 1369 Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, heiress of Flanders, and since the dukes of Burgundy became gradually possessed of the Netherlands too. In 1384 Philip's son John inherited likewise the Franclie Comte (see the next province), which was generally known by the name of the county of Burgundy, or Upper Burgundy, and had for a long period been a constituent part of the Transjuranian kingdom. Towards the end of the 14th and during the 15th century the dukes of Burgundy resided alternately in Dijon, Besancon, Bruges, and and other cities of the Netherlands. In 1477 their male line became extinct, and the duchy now as vacant fee fell back to the French crown. The duchy, or province of Burgundy comprises at pres- ent 4 departments, viz. : the Cote d' Or Department (chief town Dijon), the FRANCE. 201 The Province of Burgundy. Sabne and Loire Department (chief town Macon), the Yonne Department (chief town Auxerre), and the Ain Department (Bourgen Bresse). 24. The Cote a" Or Department contains : -f-Duox, ancient capital of the duchy of Burgundy, at the junction of the Ouze and Suzon, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Paris, is noted for its mustard, wax candles and wines, and has 27,000 inhabitants. Citeaux (in Latin Cistercium), formerly a renowned abbey and chief convent of the Cistercian monks. Pommard and Volenay, great villages, noted for their excellent Burgundy wines. Nuits and Beaune, towns with respectively 3,000 and 12,000 inhabitants, are likewise noted for their Burgundy wines. Other towns of this department are: Fontaine Francaise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Issurtille (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Jean de Lome (with 2,000 inhabitants), Auxonne (with 5,800 inhabitants), Chatillon sur Seine (with 4,600 inhabitants), Semur, surnamed en Auxois (with 4,300 inhabitants), Montbard (with 2,400 inhabitants), Saulieu (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Arnay le Due (with 3,200 inhabitants). 25. The Sabne and Loire Department contains : -|-Macon, chief town, on the Saone, southward and 72 miles distant from Dijon, and westward and 65 miles dis- tant from Geneva, with important wine trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Cha- lons sdk Saone, a town on the Saone, southward and 147 miles distant from Chalons sur Marne, and westward and 72 miles distant from Lyons, with 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Tournus (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cluny or Glugny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Charolles (with 8,400 inhabitants), Bourbon Lancy (with 2,700 inhabitants), Louhans (with 3,000 inhabitants), Autun (with 10,800 inhabitants), Creuzot (with 1,600 in- habitants), and Semur, surnamed en Brionnais (with 1,500 inhabitants). 26. The Yonne Department contains : -[-Auxeere, chief town, on the Yonne, north-westward and 78 miles distant from Dijon, with 14 churches, among which is a remarkable cathedral, important wine and timber trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Avallon, a town on the Voisin, with 5,700 inhabitants. Cou- langes les Vineuses, a town on the Yonne, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. The small town of Vezelay, with 1,600 inhabitants, is remarkable in history for that the holy Bernard preached here the second crusade. (The other towns of this department to be noticed, see under the head of Champagne.) 27. The Ain Department contains : +Bourg, sur- named en Bresse (having been the capital of the Burgundian district of Bresse), chief town, on the Reyssouse, westward and 46 miles distant from Geneva, with a magnificent Gothic church, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bellet 9* 202 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comle. a town on the Rhone, with 4,400 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the Burgundian district of Bugey, that was for a long time in the possession of the dukes of Savoy, but was restored to France in 1601, and to which be- longed moreover the towns of Nantua, (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lagnieu (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Rambert (with 2,000 inhabitants), Oyonnar (with 2,000 inhabitants), Seyssel (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Ville Bois, surnamed sous Belley (with 2,000 inhabitants). Trevoux, a town on the Saone, with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of watch-cases, etc. Trevoux was formerly the capital of the sovereign principality of Dombes, to which moreover belonged the towns of Toissey (with 1,500 inhabitants), and St. Trivier en Dombes, or sur Mognand (with 1,400 inhabitants). Other towns of the Ain department are : Pont de Vaux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont a"Ain (with 1,400 inhabitants), Pont de Veyle (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mont- luel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chatillon les Do-mbes (with 3,000 inhabi- tants). Gex, a town at the Jura Mountains, is noted for its watch manufac- tures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. At about 2 miles distance from Geneva is situated the village of Ferney, where Voltaire lived. To the province, or duchy of Burgundy did moreover belong the town of Bar sur Seine, "with considerable wine trade, and 2,700 inhabitants, at present situated within the limits of the Aube Department (see Champagne), and the town of Arc en Barrois, with 2,000 inhabitants, at present situated within the limits of the Upper Marne Department (see Champagne). XI. Franche Comte, or the ancient county of Burgundy, situated between the duchy of Burgundy and Switzerland, and on the north bordered by Lor- raine and Alsace. It at first formed a constituent part of the Transjuranian kingdom of Burgundy (see above, under the head of Burgundy), became since an independent county, and devolved in 1384 by inheritance to the dukes of Burgundy. Though the male line of these dukes became extinct in 1477, the Franche Comte continued to form part of the Netherlandish estates of the house of Burgundy, until in 1679 it was ceded to France. Franche Comte comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Doubs Department (chief town Besancon), the Jura Department (chief town Lons le Saulnier), and the Upper Saone Department (chief town Vesoul). 28. The Doubs Department contains : -+- Besancon (in German, Bisanz), fortified former capital of Franche Comte, on the Doubs, eastward and 46 miles distant from Dijon, with a splendid Gothic cathedral, numerous manufactures, especially of watches, and 32,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : St. Hippolyte (with 5,000 FRANCE. 203 The Provinces of Franche Comte and Bourbonnais. inhabitants), Quingey (with 1,200 inhabitants), Pontarlier (with 5,200 inhabi- tants), Ornans (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Baume les Dames (with 3,000 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Pontarlier lies on a steep and high rock the little fortress of Joux, which formerly served as state-prison. (About the town of Montbeliard in this department, see below.) 29. The Jura Depart- ment contains : -|- Lons le Saulnier, chief town on the Vaille, 46 miles south-south-west of Besancon, with 8,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : St. Claude (with 5,600 inhabitants), St. Amour (with 3,000 inhabitants), Septmoncel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Morez (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), Dole (with 10,500 inhabitants), Poligny (with 6,000 inhabitants), Arbois (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Salins (with 8,500 inhabitants). 30. The Upper Marne Department contains : -f-VESoux, chief town on the Drugeon, northward and 28 miles distant from Besancon, with 6,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Jussey (with 3,000 inhabitants), Gray (with 7.000 inhabitants), Luxeuil (with renowned warm baths, and 4,000 inhabi- tants), and Lure (with 3,100 inhabitants). Within the limits of the Doubs Department is situated the former county, or principality, of Mompelgard (in French, Montbeliard), whose first sove- reigns became extinct with Count Henry, in 1395. Henry's only daughter and heiress, Harriet, being married to Count Everard of Wirtemberg, the house of Wirtemberg became possessed of the principality of Mompelgard, and retained it until the first French revolution, when the French seized it without any further ceremony. By the treaty of peace, concluded at Lune- ville in 1801, it was formally ceded to France. It contains: Mompelgard, or (in French) Montbeliard, the former capital of the principality, in the Doubs Department, and on the Alaine, north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Besancon, and south-westward and 138 miles distant from Stuttgart, with watch and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Montbeliard is the birth-place of the celebrated late naturalist Cuvier. Hericourt, a town, with 1.000 inhabitants. XII. Bourbonnais. — This province, situated at the south-western boundary of Burgundy, was for a long time ruled by barons of several families, until since the year 1327 the descendants of Robert of Clermont, youngest son of King Louis IX. of France, were invested with it by the title of a duchy, called either the duchy of Bourbonnais, or Bourbon. Duke Louis of Bourbon had two sons, of whom Peter was the ancestor of the house of Bourbon, reigning in Franee since the accession of Henry IV. (see History of France), 204 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Bourbonnoia, Nivernais and Berry. while the other, James, propagated the collateral line of the dukes of Bourbon. Charles, duke of Bourbon, having revolted against King Francis I., the duchy of Bourbonnais was reunited with the crown. Bourbonnais comprises at present : — 31. The Allier Department, containing : -J- Moulins, formerly the capital of the duchy, on the Allier, south- eastward and 115 miles distant from Orleans, and north-westward and 92 miles distant from Lyons, with manufac- tures of cutlery, and 16,000 inhabitants. Bourbon j/Archambault (in the days of the first French revolution called Bourges les Bains), a town, with 3,300 inhabitants, is noted for its warm baths, much resorted to. Other towns of this department are : St. Pourcain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Gannat (with 5,500 inhabitants), Montlucon (with 5,500 inhabitants), and La Palisse (with 2,400 inhabitants). The town of St. Amand (or St. Amand Montrond), with 7,800 inhabitants, belongs likewise to Bourbonnais, but is situated within the limits of the Cher Department (see below, under the head of Berry). XIII. Nivernais. — This province, situated to the north of Bourbonnais, was since the end of the 9th century a county, which by E!ing Francis I. was raised to a duchy, whose dukes bore the title of dukes of Nevers. It com- prises at present: — 32. The Nievre Department, containing: -(-Nbvers, for- merly the capital of Nivernais, at the junction of the Nievre river with the Loire, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Orleans, and north-westward and 115 miles distant from Lyons, with an ancient Gothic castle, once the residence of the dukes of Nevers, a magnificent cathedral, an extensive gun- foundry, and 1*7,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pouilly (with 3,000 inhabitants), La Charite (with 5,500 inhabitants), Clameey (with 6,000 inhabitants), Chateau- Chinon (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Cos?ie (with 6,500 inhabitants). XIV. Berry. — This province, situated in the centre of France, and at the southern frontier of Orlcanais, was ruled by counts, subsequently viscounts, who in 1094 sold it to Philip I., and since that time royal princes have fre- quently been invested with it. The last prince, who bore the title of duke of Berry, was the youngest son of Charles X. Berry comprises at present two departments, viz. : the Cher Department (chief town Bourges), and the Indre Department (chief town Chateauroux). 33. The Cher Department contains : -[-Bourges, the former capital of Berry, at the junction of the Auron and Evre, 64 miles south-south-east of Orleans, with a remarkable ancient castle, town walls built by the ancient Romans, a magnificent cathedral, and 26,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sancerre (with 3,700 in- FRANCE. The Provinces of Berry and Orleanais. habitants), Vierzon (with 7,500 inhabitants), Henrichemont (with 1,600 inhab- itants), Gray le Pre (with iron- works), and Boisbelle. (St. Amand in this department belongs to Bourbonnais, and has for this reason already been de- scribed above.) 34. The Indre Department contains : -{"Chateauroux, chief town on the Indre, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Bourges, with cloth manufactures and 14,500 inhabitants. Valensai, a town on the Nahon, 60 miles south-south-west of Orleans, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a palace, which belonged to the well-known prince of Talleyrand, and where Ferdinand VIL of Spain and his brother, Don Carlos, were retained as prisoners in the period from 1808 to 1814. Other towns of this department are: Issoudun (with 12,500 inhabitants), La Chdtre (with 4,800 inhabitants), Le Blanc (with 5,200 inhabitants), and Levroux (with 3,000 inhabitants). To Berry belongs also, but is situated within the limits of the Loir and Cher Department (see below), the town of St. Aignan, with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 inhabi- tants. XV. Orleanais, at the southern frontier of Isle de France, was ever be- longing to the crown, that, however, frequently invested royal princes with this province. The princes then bore the title of a duke of Orleans, as it was the case with Louis Philip before bis accession in 1830. The province of Orleanais comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Loiret Department (chief town Orleans), the Eure and Loir Department (chief town Chartres), and the Loir and Cher Department (chief town Blois). 35. The Loiret De- partment contains : -{-Orleans, the former capital of Orleanais, on the Loire, southward and 69 miles distant from Paris, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, considerable trade and 42,000 inhabitants. Montakgis, a town on the Loing, with a mountain-castle, cotton manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Beaugency (with 5,000 inhabitants), Clery (with a church containing the sepulchre of Louis XL, and 2,000 inhabitants), Meung or Mehun (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gien (with 5,500 inhabitants), Pithiviers (with 4,200 inhabitants), and Briare (with 2,000 inhabitants). 36. The Eure and Loir Department contains : -(-Chartres, chief town on the Eure, 46 miles north-north-west of Orleans, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France (the one steeple of which is 342 and the other 3*78 feet in height), important grain trade, and 15,500 inhabitants. Maintenox, a town on the Eure, with 2,000 inhabitants. As is known, the second consort of Louis XIV. bore the name after this town. Chdteaudun, a town on the Loire, with 7,000 inhabitants. (The town of Dreux in this department be- 206 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou. longs to Isle de France, and has been described under this head ; while about Nogent le Rotrou, also in this department, see below under the head of Perche.) 37. The Loir and Cher Department contains : -{-Blois, chief town on the Loire, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Orleans, has 14,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its ancient castle, where in 1588 the duke of Guise and his brother were murdered by order of King Henry III. Not far from here is the celebrated Gothic palace of Chambord, containing 440 apartments, and reared in the beginning of the 16th century by Francis I. The park, belonging to it, is 18 miles in circuit. In 1821 it was bought at the price of 1,542,000 francs by a society of French, and given to the duke of Bordeaux in the name of the French nation. This prince bears at present the title of a count of Chambord. Vendome, a town on the Loire, is noted for its glove manufactures, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Romorantin (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Savigny sur Lraye (with 2,000 inhabitants). The town of St. Aignan, within the limits of the Loir and Cher Department, belongs to Berry, and is described above* XVI. Touraine, at the south-western frontier of Orleanais, and on the south bordering upon Poitou. Touraine, on account of its fertility and beauty of sceneries called the "garden of France," was in 1044 annexed to the county of Anjou, and in 1202 united with the French crown, and comprises at present: — 38. The Indre and Loire Department, containing: -{-Tours, ancient capital of Touraine, on the Loire, south-westward and 69 miles distant from Orleans, and eastward and 115 miles distant from Nantes, with a re- markable Gothic cathedral, various manufactures, and 27,500 inhabitants. Not far from here is situated the ancient, now much decayed, palace oiPlessis lex Tours, where Louis XL spent the last days of his life, and died in 1483. Between Tours and Poitiers (see below) it was, where Charles Martell defeated the Moors, in 732. Amboise, a town on the Loire, with an ancient castle, or palace (where Louis XL instituted the equestrian order of St. Michael, and Charles VIII. died in 1498), and 5,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Loches (with 5,000 inhabitants), La Haye (with 2,100 inhab- itants), and Ghinon (noted for its mustard, with 7,400 inhabitants). About the town of Richelieu within this department, see below. XVII. Anjou, on the west bordering upon Brittany, and on the east upon Touraine, was in 1356 raised to a duchy and held in fee by several royal princes, among them Henry III., before his accession to the throne. The province of Anjou comprises at present : — 39. The Maine and Juoire Depart- FRANCE. 207 The Provinces of Anjou, Maine and Perche. uuut, containing: -{"Angers, ancient capital of Anjou, on the Mayenne, 50 miles east-north-east of Nantes, with a remarkable cathedral, and 37,000 inhabitants. In the neighborhood are celebrated slate-quarries. Other towns of this department are : Pont de Ce (with 4,000 inliabitants), Chalonnes (with 5,500 inhabitants), Ingrande (with 1,200 inhabitants), Chateauneuf (with 1,500 inhabitants), Done (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chollet (with 9,000 inhabitants), Durtal (with 3,000 inhabitants), Segre (with 2,200 inhabitants), Chemille (with 4,000 inhabitants), Beauge (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pouance (with 1,600 inhabitants), Beaufort (with 6,500 inhabitants), and Beaupreau (with 3,200 inhabitants). Saumur, formerly the chief town of a government of the same name, which comprised parts of Anjou and Upper Poitou, is situated on the Loire, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Angers, and has 12,500 inhab- itants. To this government belonged also the town of Richelieu (formerly a village, but in 1637 raised to a town by the cardinal of Richelieu, has at present 3,200 inhabitants), at present situated within the limits of the Indre and Loire Department (see above). XVIII. Maine and Perche, two former counties between Orleanais and Brittany, forming, together with the county of -Laval, one government, until the first French revolution. Maine, definitively united with the crown in 1584, and the former county of Laval (that belonged to the house of Tremouille until the first French revolution) comprise at present 2 departments, viz. : the Sarthe Department (chief town Le Mans), and the Mayenne Department (chief town Laval). 40. The Sarthe Department contains : -{-Le Mans, former capital of Maine, on the Sarthe, eastward and 83 miles distant from Rennes, and south-westward and 115 miles distant from Paris, with a remarkable Gothic cathedral, important poultry trade, noted wax- and linen-bleacheries, and 24,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sable (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mamers (with 6,000 inhabitants), St. Calais (with 4,000 inhabitants), La Ferte Bernard (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau du Loir (with 3,000 inhabitants), and La Fleche (with 6,800 inhabitants). 41. The Mayenne Department contains : -{-Laval, formerly the capital of the county of Laval, on the Mayenne, between Le Mans and Rennes, is noted for its linen manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Mayenne, a town on the Mayenne river, with important linen manufactures, and 10,500 inhabitants. Chdteau- Gonthier, a town on the Mayenne river, is noted for its flax- and hemp-yarn, and has 6,500 inhabitants. The former county of Perche, reunited with the French crown in 1226, EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Perche and Brittany. comprises at present parts of the Orne Department (see under the head of Normandy), containing : Mortagne (ancient capital of Perche, with important linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants ; in its vicinity is situated the celebrated convent of Cistercians La Trappe, founded in 1 140) ; and of the Eure and Loir Department (see above, under the head of Orleanais), containing : Nogent le Roteou, a town on the Huisne, with various manufactures, and 7,000 inhabi- tants. XIX. Brittany, or (in French) La Bretagne. — This province, comprising the great western peninsula of France, has derived its name from the ancient Britons, who in the middle of the 5th century emigrated from their native country (see History of Europe, § 4) to this Gaulic peninsula, at that time called Armorica, but which name was since transmuted into that of Brittany, or rather Little Brittany. Towards the end of the 5 th century the country was subdued by King Clovis, but since the death of Charlemagne it was ruled by independent dukes. The sole heiress of Brittany, duchess Ann, was married first to Charles VIII. and then to Louis XII., and moreover her daughter Claudia was married to King Francis I. of France ; and in this way Brittany was annexed to the .French crown. It comprises at present 5 de- partments, viz. : the Hie and Vilaine Department (chief town Rennes), the North Coasts Department (chief town St. Brieux), the Finisterre Department (chief town Quimpei), the Morbihan Department (chief town Vannes), and the Lower Loire Department (chief town Nantes). 42. The Hie and Vilaine Department contains : -]-Rennes, ancient capital of Brittany, at the junction of the Hie and Vilaine, 202 miles west-south-west of Paris, with important butter trade, and 36,500 inhabitants. In a neighboring ancient feudal castle the celebrated Bertrand du Guesclin (-(- in 1380) was born in 1313. St. Malo, a fortified maritime town on the English Channel, with numerous docks where merchant vessels are built, and 10,500 inhabitants. Not far from here is situated the maritime town of St. Servan, with 10,000 inhabi- tants. Between this town and the coast of Normandy is the Bay of Cancale, noted for its oysters. The town of Cancale has 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Fougeres (with 10,000 inhabitants), La Guerche (with 4,000 inhabitants), Vitre (with 9,500 inhabitants), Redon (with 5,000 inhabitants), Montfort (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Paimpont (with 4,000 in- habitants). 43. The North Coasts Department contains : -f-ST. Brieuc, or St. Brieux, chief town near the coast, north-westward and 60 miles distant from Rennes, with 11,800 inhabitants, and a seaport at the village of Legue St. FRANCE. 209 The Province of Brittany. Brieuc. The town of Lamballe, noted for its parchment, and containing 4,000 inhabitants, was until the first French revolution the capital of the duchy of Penthievre. Other towns of this department are : Binic (with 2,000 inhabitants), Quintin (with 4,000 inhabitants), Guingamp (with 6,200 inhabitants), Loudeac (with 7,000 inhabitants), Lannion (with 5,700 inhabi- tants), Treguier (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Dinan (with 8,200 inhabitants). 44. The Finislerre Department contains : -|-Quim?er, or Quimper Corentin, chief town near the south coast of Brittany, westward and 115 miles distant from Rennes, with a fine cathedral and 10,500 inhabitants. Brest, a fortified maritime town and chief naval station of France, on the Atlantic, 322 miles west-south-west of Paris, with a very fine harbor, a magnificent arsenal, and 31,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Quvmperle (with 5,400 inhabitants), Garhaix, or Keraes (with 2,000 inhabitants), Morlaix (with 10,000 inhabitants), St. Pol de Leon (with 6,300 inhabitants), Concar- neau (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ghdteaulin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lan- dernau (with 5,000 inhabitants). The islands of Ouessant (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), and of Sein (with 500 inhabitants), are also belonging to this depart- ment. 45. The Morbihan Department contains : -4-Vannes, chief town on the southern coast of Bretagne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Brest, with 12,000 inhabitants. Lorient, a fortified maritime town and great naval station, westward and 23 miles distant from Vannes, with 20,000 inhabitants. The former French East Indian Company had its seat in Lorient. Other towns of this department are : Port Louis (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sarzeau (with 6,400 inhabitants), Auray (with 4,000 inhabitants), Quiberon (with 3,000 inhabitants), Hennebon (with 4,900 inhabitants), Ploermel (with 5,600 inhabitants), and Pontivy (with important linen trade and 6,000 inhabitants). Pontivy was before the first French revolution the chief town of the princi- pality of Rohan. The islands of Belle Isle (with 7,000 inhabitants, and the chief town Palais), of Groix, or Grouaix (with 2,500 inhabitants), of Houat and Hordic, are belonging to this department. 46. The Lower Loire Depart- ment contains: -(-Nantes, chief town on the Loire, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Brest, and south-eastward and 230 miles distant from Paris, carries on a very important commerce to all parts of the world, and has 90,000 inhabitants. Nantes is moreover noted for an edict of Henry IY. (issued in 1598), respecting the Protestants, which was revoked in 1685. The seaport of Nantes is at Paimboeuf, a town near the mouth of the Loire, and at 25 miles distance from Nantes, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns 210 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Brittany and Poitou. of tliis department are : Bourgneuf (with 3,000 inhabitants), Querande, or Guerande (with 8,000 inhabitants), Le Crosic (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Nazaire (with 4.000 inhabitants), Savenay (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chateau- briand (with 4,000 inhabitants), Nozay (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ancenis (with 4,000 inhabitants), and St. Philibert (with 3,000 inhabitants). XX. Porrou, between Bordeaux and Nantes, along the coast of the Atlantic. Poitou was by Charlemagne raised to an earldom, whose heiress, Eleanor, was married to King Henry II. of England (reigning from the year 1154 to 1189), who thus became possessed of it. Not before the year 1371 was Poitou definitively reunited with the French crown. It comprises at present 3 departments, viz.: the Vienne Department (chief town Poitiers), the Two Sevres Department (chief town Niort), and the Vendee Department (chief town Bourbon- Vendee). 47. The Vienne Department contains : -f-PoicriERS, ancient capital of Poitou, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Nantes, with a beautiful cathedral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the battle- field of Maupertuis, where in 1356 King John of France was defeated by the prince of Wales (the so-called Black Prince) and taken prisoner. The town of Lusignan was the ancestral seat of the last king of Jerusalem, subsequently king of Cyprus, Guido of Lusignan (towards the end of the 12th century). Chatelleraut, a town on the Vienne, is noted for its manufactures of cutlery, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Civray (with 2,300 inhabitants), Loudun (with 5,300 inhabitants), Montmorillon (with 4,200 inhabitants), St. Savin (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Tremouille (with 1,200 inhabitants). 48. The Two Sevres Department contains : -(-Niort, chief town, on the Sevre Niortaise, 42 miles west-south-west of Poitiers, with 18,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Parthenay (with 4,500 inhabitants), Bressuire (with 2,000 inhabitants), Melle (with 3,000 inhabitants), Thouars (with 2,400 inhabitants), St. Maixent (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Mauze (with 2,000 inhabitants). 49. The Vendee Department contains : -[-Bourbon-Vendee (before the first French revolution called Roche svtt Yon), chief town on the Yon, southward and 37 miles distant from Nantes, with 5,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Fontenay le Comte (with 8,000 inhabitants), Lucon (with 4,000 inhabitants), Beauvoir sur Mcr (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Sables d'Olonne, or Les Sables d'Olonne (with 5,200 inhabitants). To Poitou and the Vendee Department are also belonging the islands of Noirmoutier (with 6,000 inhabitants), of Dieu, or c/' Yen (with 2,000 inhabitants), of Pilier, and Bouin. To Poitou belongs, moreover, the FRANCE. 211 The Provinces of Aunis, Saintonge and Angoumnis. town of Rochechouart, with 4,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the Upper Vienne Department (see under the head of Limousin). XXI. Aunis and Saintonge. — These two provinces, situated between Poitou and Guyenne, and separated from each other by the Charente river, were, together with Poitou, reunited with the French crown by King Charles V. (see History of France). Before the first French revolution, Aunis formed a government by itself, while Saintonge was conjointly with Angoumais (see below) under the administration of another governor. At present, Aunis and Saintonge comprise in substance : — 50. The Lower Charente Department, containing : -|-La Rochelle, ancient capital of Aunis, on the Atlantic, between Bordeaux and Nantes, is strongly fortified, and has 16,000 inhabitants. La Rochelle is noted in history for its siege of thirteen months, sustained in 1627 and 1628. At the outside of the harbor of La Rochelle lies the island of Re (area: 64 square miles ; population: 18,000 inhabitants). Rochefoet, a for- tified town on the Charente, 14 miles south-south-east of La Rochelle, was founded in 1664 by Louis XIV., is noted for its naval depot, and has 16,500 inhabitants. In Rochefort it was where Napoleon in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo, embarked, and then fell into the power of the English. Before the mouth of the Charente, lies the island of Oleron, with 16,000 inhabitants, and the town of Chateau du Bourg. On the Sevre Niortaise is situated the town of Marans, with 4,600 inhabitants. Saintes, formerly the capital of Saintonge, on the Charente, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Rochefort, with 10,800 inhabitants. Other towns of Saintonge and the Lower Charente Department are: Marennes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Brouage (with 1,000 inhabitants), Ionzac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Royan (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tonnay- Charente (with 3,000 inhabitants), and St. Jean d'Angely (with 6,200 inhabitants). To Saintonge belongs also the town of Barbezieux, noted for its linen cloth, capons, and truffles, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is situated within the limits of the Charente Department (see below). XXII. Angoumais, along the eastern frontier of the two last-named prov- inces, and at the northern frontier of Guyenne, was united with the French crown by King Charles V., and comprises at present: — 51. The Charente Department, containing : -[-Angouleme, former capital of Angoumais, on the Charente, 72 miles north-north-east of Bordeaux, with a remarkable cathedral, important wine and brandy trade, and 18,000 inhabitants. Cognac, a town on the Charente, is noted for its brandy, and has 4,000 inhabitants. Jarnac, a village in the vicinity of Cognac, is noted in history for the battle of the 212 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of La Marche, Limousin and Auvergue. year 1569, in winch the prince of Conde was killed. Ruffec (with 3,000 inhabitants), Confolens (with 3,000 inhabitants), Aubeterre (with 1,000 inhabi- tants), and La Rochefoucauld (with 2,700 inhabitants), towns in this depart- ment, within whose limits lies, moreover, Barbezieux, belonging to Saintonge (see above). XXIII. La Marche. — This province, situated near the centre of France and the southern frontier of Berry, has since the year 1531 been united with the French crown, and comprises at present: — 52. The Creuse Department, containing : -4-Gueret, formerly the capital of La Marche, near the head of the Gartempe river, southward and 115 miles distant from Orleans, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ahun (with 2,000 inhabitants), Bourganeuf (with 3,200 inhabitants), Aubusson (with 6,000 inhab- itants), Felletin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Boussac (with 1,000 inhabitants). The towns of Bellao (with 3,000 inhabitants) and Dorat (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), situated within the limits of the Upper Vienne Department, do likewise belong to La Marche. XXIV. Limousin, situated at the north-eastern frontier of Guyenne, and once an earldom, was by King Henry IV. united with the French crown, and comprises at present 2 departments, viz.: the Upper Vienne Department (chief town Limoges), and the Correze Department (chief town Tulle). 53. The Upper Vienne Department contains : -(-Limoges, formerly the capital of the Limousin, on the Vienne river, north-eastward and 115 miles distant from Bordeaux, is noted for its horse-marts, and has 30,500 inhabitants. Near the town of Chains (with 1,500 inhabitants) was in the middle ages a castle, in the siege of which King Richard of the Lion Heart was killed by an arrow in 1199. Other towns of this department are: St. Leonard (with 6,000 inhabitants), St Junien (with 6,400 inhabitants), St. Yrieix (with 7,500 inhabi- tants), Eymoutiers (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Magnac-Laval (with 3,000 inhabitants). 54. The Correze Department contains : -{-Tulle, chief town on the Correze, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Limoges, is noted for its manufactures of point net, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Drive la Gaillarde, a town on the Correze, with important truffle trade, and 9,500 inhabitants. The little town of Turenne is noted for its ancient castle, one of the oldest and most important fortresses in France. The fine palace in the village of Pom- padour was the property of the well-known marchioness of Pompadour. The town of Ussel is situated on the Sarsonne, and has 4,300 inhabitants. XXV. Auvergne, — This province, once an earldom, which was in 1360 FRANCE. o 13 The Provinces of Auvergne and Lyonn:ii?. raised to the rank of a duchy, and in 1531 united with the crown, comprises at present 2 departments, viz. : the Puy de Dome Department (chief town Clermont), and the Cantal Department (chief town Aurillac), both named after the highest peaks of the mountains of Auvergne (see Introduction, or General View of Europe, § 7, h). 65. The Puy de Dome Department con- tains : -{-Clermont, surnamed en Auvergne, ancient capital of Auvergne, at the foot of Mount Puy de Dome, westward and 83 miles distant from Lyons, consists properly of two towns, lying near each other, viz. : Clermont and Mont/errand, which since the first French revolution are united by the common name of Clermont-Ferrand. This united city has 34,000 inhabitants, and is noted for the council, or synod, held here in 1095, which gave the principal cause to the crusades. Riom, a town with 13,000 inhabitants, is situated northward and 9 miles distant from Clermont, in the beautiful and fertile plain known by the name of Limagne. The town of Aigueperse, with 3,200 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the duchy of Montpensier. Other towns of this department are : Volvic (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont du Chateau (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vodable (with 900 inhabitants), Issoire (with 6,200 inhabitants), Sauxillanges (with 2,000 inhabitants), Besse (with 2,000 inhabitants), Billom (with 5,800 inhabitants), Ambert (with 8,500 inhabitants), Arlant (with 4,000 inhabitants), Marsac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ihiers (with 1 1,000 inhabitants, and important manufactures of paper and cutlery), St. Remy (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Maringues (with 4,000 inhabitants). 56. The Cantal Department contains : -{-Aurillac, chief town, on the Jourdane, south- westward and 46 miles distant from Clermont, with various manufactures, trade with mules, and 11,500 inhabitants. The town of Chaudes-Aigues, with 2,300 inhabitants, is noted for its warm mineral baths. Other towns of this depart- ment are : St. Flour (with 6,500 inhabitants), Murat (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vic sur Cere (with 2,000 inhabitants), Maurs (with 3,000 inhabitants), Mauriac (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Salers (with 1,800 inhabitants). The towns of Briodde (with 5,500 inhabitants) and Langeac (with 3,000 inhabitants), situated within the limits of the Upper Loire Department (see under the head of Languedoc), do likewise belong to Auvergne. XXVI. Lyonnais. — This province is situated between Auvergne and Dau- phiny. It did at first form part of the primary kingdom of Burgundy (see above, under the head of Bourgogne), and was since under the Frankish sway ruled by governors who, in the course of time, made themselves independent, assuming the title of earls. Since the year 1173 they possessed only the dis- 214 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Lyonnais and Guyenne. tricts of Forez and Beaujolais, while the archbishop of Lyons exercised the sway over Lyonnais proper. These three districts were united with the French crown respectively by King Philip IV., and in the years 1369 and 1531. The province of Lyonnais comprises at present 2 departments, viz. : the Rhone Department (chief town Lyons), and the Loire Department (chief town Montbrison). 57. The Rhone Department contains : -{"Lyons, once the capital of Lyonnais, at the confluence of the Saone and Rhone, south-eastward and 2*70 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 166 miles distant from Marseilles, is the second French city in population and manufactures, and has (including the suburbs of la Guillotiere and la Croix Rousxe) 210,000 inhabitants. Its 40,000 silk-looms employ 80,000 men, and are annually pro- ducing silks at the value of 100 million francs. The town of Villefranche (noted for its cattle-fairs, and having 8,000 inhabitants) was formerly the cap- ital of Beaujolais (see above). Other towns of this department are : St. Genis- Laval (with 2,000 inhabitants), Givors (with 5,000 inhabitants), Tarare (with 7,000 inhabitants), Condrieu (with 5,000 inhabitants), Belleville (with 2,300 inhabitants), and Beaujeu (with 1,800 inhabitants). 58. The Loire Depart- ment contains : -(-Montbrison, formerly the capital of the province of Forez (see above), on the Vizezy, westward and 37 miles distant from Lyons, with 6,500 inhabitants. The city of St. Etienne is noted for its extensive manu- factures of fire-arms, hardware, and silk riband, and has 54,000 inhabitants. Roanne, a town on the Loire, with 10,500 inhabitants, is the centre of the inland trade between Marseilles, Lyons, and Paris. Other towns of this department are : St. Gahnier (with 2,500 inhabitants), St. Symphorien de Lay (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Chamond (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Rive de Gier (with 10,500 inhabitants). XXVII. Guyenne. — This province, on the north side of the Garonue, formed before the first French revolution one government together with Gascony lying on the south side of this river, and was by the Romans called Aquitania, on account of its mineral waters (aquae). In the 5th century the Visigoths settled here and founded an empire, whose capital was Toulouse. During a short period in the 8th century the name of Septimania was used instead of Aquitania. In 778 Charlemagne appointed his son Louis king of Aquitania, which however subsequently was divided into the duchies of Guyenne (Aquitania) and Gascogne, and in 1155, by way of marriage, came under the sway* of the English kings, who remained in possession for almost 300 years. In 1453 both duchies were united with the French crown. It FRANCE. 215 The Province of Guyenne. &* must be still observed that Guyenne was divided into six districts, viz. : Bour- delois (capital Bordeaux), Perigord (chief town Perigueux), Agenois (chief town Agen), Quercy (chief town Cahors), Rouergue (chief town Rhodez), and Bazadois (chief town Bazas). At present Guyenne is divided into 6 depart- ments, which in substance correspond to those districts. 59. The Gironde Department contains : -{-Bordeaux, formerly the capital of Guyenne, on the left bank of the Garonne, is the emporium of the south-west provinces and chief seat of the French wine trade, is handsomely built, and has 1 20,000 inhabitants. Previous to the first French revolution, the annual export of wines from Bordeaux was 100,000 tons, while in 1831 only 24,000 tons of this staple were exported. The district of Medoc is noted for its wines, and contains the towns of Lesparre (with 1.000 inhabitants), Medoc or St. Laurent de Medoc (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Paulliac (with 3,000 inhabitants). The towns of Barsac (with 2,700 inhabitants), Langon (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Podensac (with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their wines. Blaye, a fortified town on the Gironde, with 4,000 inhabitants, and a citadel where the duchess of Berry was kept prisoner from 1832 to 1833. Other towns of this department are : Buch or La Teste de Buck (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Castres (with 1,000 inhabitants), Bourg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Con- trast (with 3,200 inhabitants), Libourne (with 10,500 inhabitants), Castillon (with 3,000 inhabitants), La Reole (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Bazas (formerly the chief town of the district of Bazadois, with 4,600 inhabitants). 60. The Dordogne Department contains : -j-Perigueux, formerly chief town of Perigord, on the Isle, north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Bordeaux, is noted for its truffles, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- ment are: Riberac (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mncidan (with 1,500 inhabitants), Bergerac (with 9,500 inhabitants), Exideuil (with 1,000 inhabitants), Sarlat (with 6,200 inhabitants), and Nontron (with 3,700 inhabitants). 61. The Lot and Garonne Department contains: -|-Agen, chief town on the Garonne, south-eastward and 74 miles distant from Bordeaux, is noted for its prunes, and has 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Tonneins (with 8,000 inhabitants), Aiguillon (with 3,700 inhabitants), Marmande (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Villeneuve oVAgen (with 11,500 inhabitants). 62. The Lot Department contains : -{"Cahors, formerly the capital of Quercy (see above), on the Lot, 115 miles east-south-east of Bordeaux, is noted for its wines, and has a remarkable ancient cathedral, and 13,500 inhabitants. The village of Lamothe Fenelon is the birthplace of the renowned archbishop 216 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Guyanne and Gascony. Fenelon (born in 1651), and lies near Souillao, a town on the Dordogne, with 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Gourdon (with 5,000 inhabitants), Rocamadour (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Figeac (with 6,800 in- habitants). 63. The Tarn and Garonne Department contains : -J-Montauban, chief town, on the Tarn, northward and 32 miles distant from Toulouse, with a cathedral founded in 739, considerable inland trade, and 25,000 inhabitants. Moissac, a town on the Tarn, with important inland trade, and 11,000 inhabi- tants. (Oastel Sarrazin, within the limits of this department, belongs to Languedoc.) 64. The Aveyron Department contains: -4-Rodez, formerly the capital of Rouergue (see above), on the Aveyron, 166 miles east-south-east of Bordeaux, is noted for its beautiful cathedral with a steeple 290 feet high, and has 10,000 inhabitants. St. Geniez, or St. Geniez de Rivedolt, a town on the Lot, with numerous manufactures of cloth, etc., and 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Guiole (with 2,000 inhabitants), Milhaud (with 11,000 inhabitants), Aubin (with 3,100 inhabitants), Espalion (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Affrique (with 6,400 inhabitants), and Villefranche (with 10,000 inhabitants). XXVIII. Gascony. — The name of this province, situated between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, is derived from the ancient Gasconians, or Vas- conians, whose descendants are the Basques (see Introduction, § 12), and who from their primitive seat on the south side of the Pyrenees, partly emigrated to the present province of Gascony at the end of the 6th century. Since the 11th century Gascony shared the fate of Guyenne (see above). Previous to the first French revolution Gascony was divided into the districts of Armag- nac (chief town Auch), Labour, or the Country of the Basques (chief town Bayonne), Landes (comprising the duchy of Albret), Condomois (chief town Condom) and Marsan (chief town Mpnt de Marsan). At present Gascony comprises 3 departments, viz. : the Gers Department (chief town Auch), the Upper Pyrenees Department (chief town Tarbes), and the Heaths Department (chief town Mont de Marsan). 65. The Gers Department contains : -J-Auch, ancient capital of Gascony, south-eastward and 106 miles distant from Bor- deaux, with a splendid cathedral, and 11,000 inhabitants. Condom, formerly chief town of Condomois (see above), with 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Lectoure (with 6,700 inhabitants), Mirande (with 2,700 inhabitants), Lombez (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Eauze (with 3,500 inhabitants). 66. The Upper Pyrenees Department contains: -(-Tarbes, chief town, on the Adour, 115 miles south-south-east of Bordeaux, with a FRANCE. 217 The Province of Gascony. valuable stud, and 13,000 inhabitants. The towns of Lourdes (with 4,000 in- habitants), Argeles (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Lus (with 2,200 inhabitants), are situated in the romantic valley of Lavedan. The not less romantic valley of Campan contains the towns of Campan (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Bay- neres, surnamed de Bigorre (with 8,500 inhabitants). The village of Bareges, in the valley of the same name, is noted for its mineral baths and its webs of silk and wool, known by the name of Bareges. The village of Cautercts, in the Pyrenees, is noted for its warm mineral baths. 67. The Heatlts De- partment contains : -J-Mont de Marsan, chief town, on the Douze, north east- ward and 60 miles distant from B:iyonne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Roquefort de Marsan (with 2.000 inhabitants), Aire (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Sever (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Dax (with 5,000 inhabitants). To Gascony belong moreover several towns lying within the limits of other departments. First, from the Lower Pyrenees De- partment (see below) : Bayonne, a fortified maritime and commercial town, near the mouth of the Adour, 115 miles south-south-west of Bordeaux, is noted for its smoked hams, carries on an important trade, especially with Spain, and has 16,000 inhabitants. In 1679 the bayonets were invented here. The palace of Marrac, where in 1808 the royal family of Spain resigned in favor of Napoleon, has been destroyed by fire. St. Jean de Luz, a maritime town near the Spanish frontier, with 3,800 inhabitants. Not far from here is in the Bidassoa river the little Pheasant, or Conference Island, where the treaty of peace of the year 1669 was concluded between France and Spain. Haspaeon, or Hasparren, an industrious town with 5,000 inhabitants. Mau- leon, a town on the Gave, with 1,400 inhabitants. Secondly, from the Lot and Garonne Department (see above, under the the head of Guyenne) : Nekac, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Albret, on the Baise, 18 miles west-south-west of Agen, is noted for its truffle-pies, and has 7,000 inhabitants, and an old palace, once the residence of the kings of Navarre and the dukes of Albret, and where also King Henry IV. resided for a time with his consort Margaret of Valois. From the town of Albeet the duchv had derived its name. Thirdly, from the Upper Garonne Department (see below, under the head of Languedoc) : Mueet, a town on the Garonne, south- westward and 18 miles distant from Toulouse, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this same department are : St. Gaudens (with 6,500 inhabitants), St. Martory (with 1,600 inhabitants), St. Beat (with 1,500 inhabitants), and St. Bertrand de Comminges (with 1,200 inhabitants). Finally, belongs to 10 218 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Navarre, Beam and Foix. Gascony the town of St. Girons, with 4,500 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the Ariege Department (see below under the head of Foix). XXIX. Navarre and Bearn, along the Pyrenees, and surrounded by Gascony. In the description of Spain, it has already been related (page 197) that the ancient kingdom of Navarre was since 1234 in the possession of the French descendants of Count Theobald of Champagne, and that in 1512 King Ferdinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. The heiress of the northern part was in 1548 married to the Duke Anton of Bourbon (see Bourbonnais), and from this matrimony sprung King Henry IV., who inherited at the same time the principality of Beam, connected with the duchy of Albret. From Navarre and Beam has been formed : — 68. The Lower Pyre- nees Department, containing : -|-Pau, formerly the capital of the principality of Bearn, on the Gave, 55 miles east-south-east of Bayonne, with an ancient palace, where Henry IV. was born in 1553, and 13,000 inhabitants. The town of Pontac is noted for its wines, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Oloron, or Oleron, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, carries on an important trade with timber and lumber. The towns of Orthez (with 8,000 inhabitants) and Salies (with 6,800 inhabitants) are noted for their hams, Laruns for its sulphur baths, and Moneins (with 5,500 inhabitants) for its wines. St. Jean Pied de Port, formerly the capital of the (French) kingdom of Navarre, on the high road from France to Spain, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Bayonne* with a strong citadel, and 4,000 inhabitants. St. Palais, a town on the Bidouse, with 1 ,200 inhabitants. La Bastide de Clarence, a town with 2,000 inhabitants. (The other towns within the limits of this department, viz : Bayonne, St. Jean de Luz, Biaritz, Hasparren, and Mauleon, are already described under the head of Gascony, to which they belong.) XXX. The earldom of Foix, at the foot of the Pyrenees, was since the 11th century ruled by counts or earls, and in 1589 united with the French crown by Henry IV., whose ancestors had inherited it. At present it forms : — 69. The Ariege Department, containing: -f-Foix, the ancient capital of the earldom, on the Ariege, southward and 46 miles distant from Toulouse, with 5,000 inhabitants. The town of Ax, situated in a romantic valley of the Pyrenees, is noted for its mineral waters, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Pamiers and Tarascon, towns, with respectively 7,400 and 2,000 inhabitants. Between the French province of Foix and the Spanish province of Catalonia lies, in the Pyrenees, the neutral country of Andorra, or Andorre, occupying a tract of only 192 square miles, with 16,000 inhabitants, and forming from old a FRANCE. 219 The Provinces of Rousillon and Langueduc. kind of republic, whose independence has ever been respected by France and Spain. On the 7th of November, 1846, a new code of law was solemnly promulgated. It comprises 54 villages, among which the capital, bearing the name of Andorre la vielle. XXXL Roussillon, the most southern province of France, between Foix and the Mediterranean. The Frankish governors, appointed here since 796, made themselves independent in the course of time, and assumed the title of earls. The last of them bequeathed the earldom to King Alphonso of Aragon, in 1173. King John II. of Aragon mortgaged Roussillon, in 1463, to King Louis XL of France, for the sum of 350,000 gold dollars, which sum was not repaid, so that in the treaty of 1659, Roussillon was formally ceded to France. It forms at present : — 70. The East Pyrenees Department, containing : -f-PEa- pignan, the ancient capital of Roussillon, near the Mediterranean, south-west- ward and 138 miles distant from Marseilles, is the most southerly town of France, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Port Vendre (with 2,300 inhabitants), Rivesaltes (with 3,200 inhabitants), Collioure (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Laurent de Cerdans (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), Prades (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ceret (with 3,000 inhabitants). The little town of Mont-Louis, founded in 1681, has only 400 inhabitants, but is strongly fortified, and was formerly the capital of the French Cerdagne, which in 1660 was ceded to France by the Spanish crown. XXXII. Languedoc, between Guyenne and Provence, on the south bounded by the Mediterranean, has an area of 17,679 square miles, and derived its name from a French idiom, in the middle ages. Languedoc, since the 5th century possessed by the Visigoths, and in the 8th by the Moors, was by Pepin the Little brought under the sway of the Franks. In the 9th century, the governors of Languedoc assumed their independence and the title of earls of Ibulonse, and ruled for a long while over a great part of Provence likewise. In 1361, Languedoc was united with the French crown. It comprises at present 8 departments, whose preliminary enumeration would take up too much room here. 71. The Upper Garonne Department contains : -4-Toitlouse, ancient capital of Languedoc, on the Garonne, south-eastward and 138 miles distant from Bordeaux, with many remarkable ancient buildings (among them, especially, the city hall and the cathedral), numerous manufactures, and 80,000 inhabitants. The town of Bagneres de Lnckon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its warm mineral baths. Villefranche, a town, with 3,000 inhabitants. (Other towns within the limits of this department, as St. Gaudens, Muret, etc., 220 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Lanfmedoc. belonging to Gascony, are already described there.) 12. The Tarn Depart- ment contains : + Alby, chief town, on the Tarn, north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Toulouse, with a beautiful cathedral, and 12,500 inhabitants. Here, and in the surrounding country, called Albigeois, the Albigenses (who in some points had the same religious creed as the Waldenses mentioned under the head of Italy) had their chief seat. Castres, a town on the Agout, is noted for its cloth manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Gaillac (with 9,000 inhabitants), Soreze (with 2,900 inhabitants), Lavaur (with 7,100 inhabitants), Mazamet (with 7,000 inhabi- tants), Graulhet (with 5,000 inhabitants), Rabastens (with 7,000 inhabitants), Hautpovl (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Lautrec (with 3,600 inhabitants). 73. The A ude Department contains: -["Carcassonne, chief town on the Aude, south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Toulouse, is renowned for its cloth manufactures, and has a remarkable cathedral, and 19,500 inhabitants. The city of Narbonne (with various remarkable ancient buildings, and 11,500 inhabitants) was in the middle ages the emporium of Languedoc, and in the 8th century the seat of a Moorish governor. Castelnaudary, a town on the South canal, with cloth manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : La Grasse (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sijean (with 3,000 inhabitants), Leucate (with 1,500 inhabitants), Alet (with 1,200 inhabi- tants), Limoux (with 7,500 inhabitants). 74. The Herault Department con- tains : -(-Montpellier, chief town, near the Mediterranean, eastward and 1 24 miles distant from Toulouse, was in the middle ages the seat of a renowned medical school, is at present the resort of invalids for its salubrious air, and has 37,000 inhabitants. As the seaport, of Montpellier is to be considered Cette, a maritime town on the Mediterranean, is noted for its wines and salt- works, and has 11,000 inhabitants. The towns of Frontignan (with 2,000 inhabitants) and Lnnel (with 6,000 inhabitants), are noted for their excellent wines. Lodeve, a town at the foot of the Sevennes, is from old renowned for its cloth manufactures, and has 11,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ganges (with 4,500 inhabitants), Clermont- Lodeve, or Cler- mont V Herault (with 6,000 inhabitants), Agde (with 8,500 inhabitants), Pezenas (with 9,000 inhabitants), Beziers (with 17,500 inhabitants), Bedarieux (with 6,000 inhabitants), and St. Pons, surnamed de Tomiers (with 7,500 inhabitants). 75. The Gard Department contains : -4-Nimes, chief town, pleasantly situated north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Montpellier, has numerous manu- factures of silks, woollen, etc., and 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for a FRANCE. 221 The Province of Languedoc. highly remarkable aqueduct, called Pont du Gard, and reared by the ancient Romans. Beaucaire, a town on the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles distant from Marseilles, is noted for its important annual fair, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Aigues Mortes, a town near the Mediterranean, with 3,000 in- habitants, salt-works, and a seaport, where Louis IX. embarked for the 6th and 7th crusade, in 1248 and 1269. Other towns of this department are: Uzes (with 7,000 inhabitants), St. Gilles (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sommieres (with 4,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve d Avignon (with 3,600 inhabitants), Roque- maure (with 4,000 inhabitants), Alais (with 14,500 inhabitants), Bagnols, or Baignoh (with 5,200 inhabitants), Pont St. Esprit (with 5,000 inhabitants), Remoulins (with 1,000 inhabitants), Anduze (with 5,000 inhabitants), St. Hippolyte (with 5,800 inhabitants), and Le Vigan (with 5,000 inhabitants). 76. The Lozere Department contains : -}-Mende, chief town, on the Lot, north- eastward and 138 miles distant from Toulouse, with manufactures of serge, and 6,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Marvejols (with 4,200 inhabitants), Florae (with 2,400 inhabitants), Langogne (with 3,000 inhab- itants), and Chdteauneuf de Random (with 2,500 inhabitants). The towns of Villcfort and Vialas are noted for their lead mines. 77. The Ardeche Depart- ment contains : -j-Privas, chief town, on the Ouveze, southward and 69 miles distant from Lyons, with 4,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Tournon (with 4,300 inhabitants), St. Peray (with 2,000 inhabitants), Vernoux (with 1,500 inhabitants), La Voulte (with 1,500 inhabitants), Anno- nay (with 9,500 inhabitants), Largentieres (with 3,100 inhabitants), Aubenas (with 5,500 inhabitants), Vals (with 2,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve de Berg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Bourg St. Andeol (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Rockemaure (with 1,500 inhabitants). Viviers (on the Rhone, with 2,000 inhabitants) was formerly chief town of the district of Vivarais. 78. The Upper Loire Department contains : -f"LiE Puy, surnamed en Velay, chief town, near the Loire, north-eastward and 164 miles distant from Toulouse, and south-westward and 65 miles distant from Lyons, with a beautiful cathedral, various manufactures, and 15,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- ment are : Tence (with 6,000 inhabitants), Monistrol (with 4,000 inhabitants), Yssingeaux, or Issengeaux (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Polignac (with the ruins of the ancestral seat of the princes of Polignac). To Languedoc belongs likewise the town of Castel Sarrazin, on the Garonne, 35 miles north-north- west of Toulouse, with 7,700 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the Tarn and Garonne Departments (see above, under the head of Guyenne). 222 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny. The towns of Brioude and Langeac, within the limits of the Upper Loire Department, belonging to Auvergne, are already described there. XXXIII. Dauphiny, between the Rhone and Italy, on the south bordering upon Provence. At first forming part of the Burgundian kingdom, Dauphiny was subsequently ruled by earls, who since the beginning of the 11th century bore the title of Dauphins of Viennois. The last of them, Humbert II., be- queathed in 1343 the country to King Philip VI. of France, upon the condi- tion that every French crown-prince should bear the title of Dauphin. This custom has been observed until 1830. Dauphiny comprises at present 3 de- partments, viz. : the Isere Department (chief town Grenoble), the Upper Alps Department (chief town Gap) and the Drome Department (chief town Va- lence). 79. The Isere Department contains : -{-Grenoble, ancient capital of Dauphiny, on the Isere, south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Lyons, is noted for its manufactures of gloves, and has 30,000 inhabitants. About 13 miles north of Grenoble is situated in a dreary mountainous tract the princi- pal monastery of the Carthusians, called Grande Chartreuse, and founded in 1084 by the holy Bruno. Vienne, a town on the Rhone, southward and 13 miles distant from Lyons, is noted for its high antiquity and for its many rem- nants of Roman architecture, and has 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Sassenage (with 1,500 inhabitants), Vif {with 4,000 in- habitants), Vizille (with 3,000 inhabitants), Rives (with 2,000 inhabitants), Voiron (with 8,500 inhabitants), Allemont (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Mar- cellin (with 3,100 inhabitants), La Tour du Pin (with 2,600 inhabitants), Bourgain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pont Beauvoisie (with 2,000 inhabitants), and La Balme (with 1,200 inhabitants). 80. The Upper Alps Department contains : -{-Gap, chief town, at the confluence of the Bonne and Luie, 50 miles south south-east of Grenoble, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants. Brianc/on, a town near the head of the Durance and in a tract of the Alps, which is elevated 7,374 feet above the sea, is noted for its strong fortifications, and has 3,600 inhabitants. Mont Dauphin, a town and fortress, with 500 inhabitants. Embrun, a town on the Durance, with a remarkable ancient cathedral, and 3,400 inhabitants. 81. The Drome Department con- tains: -[-Valence, chief town, on the Rhone, southward and 54 miles distant from Lyons, with a remarkable cathedral, and 11,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Die (with 4,000 inhabitants), Tain (with 2,000 inhabitants), Romans (with 7,300 inhabitants), Dieu le Fit (with 4,000 inhabitants), Montelimart (with 8,400 inhabitants), Chabeuil (with 4,000 FRANCE. 223 The Provinces of Dauphiny and Provence. inhabitants), Crest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Nyons (with 3,500 inhabi- tants). To the government of Dauphiny did also belong the principality of Oeange, which lies between Dauphiny and Provence along the Rhone. Since the 11th century it was under the sway of earls, who assumed the princely title, and became extinct in 1531 with Prince Philibert, who bequeathed the country to lus nephew, Renatus of Nassau. Since that time the at present, in Hol- land, reigning line of the house of Nassau has been called Nassau-Orange, or the house of Orange. In the treaty of peac e concluded at Utrecht in 1713, the principality was ceded to France by the king of Prussia, who had inher- ited it from the prince, William III., of Orange (and king of England). At present the principality of Orange forms part of the Vaucluse Department (see below), and contains the towns of Orange (formerly its capital, near the Rhone, northward and 16 miles distant from Avignon, with 9,500 inhabitants), and Courteson (with 2,500 inhabitants). XXXIV. Provence, along the Mediterranean, between the Rhone and the Sardinian continent. About its history, see under the head of Bourgogne, or Burgundy ; and it needs only to be remarked that in 1481 Provence was definitively united to the French crown. At present it comprises 3 depart- ments, viz. : the Rhone-mouths Department (chief town Marseilles), the Var Department (chief town Draguignan) and the Lower Alps Department (chief town Digne). 82. The Rhone-mouths Department contains : Aix, the ancient capital of Provence, on the Arc, northward and 13 miles distant from Mar- seilles, with a remarkable cathedral, and 26,000 inhabitants. -{-Marseilles, the capital of the department and, in some respect, the first commercial city of France, on the Mediterranean, between the mouths of the Rhone and Toulon, has 160,000 inhabitants, a great many fine houses and public build- ings, is the seat both of literary institutions and manufactures, and its com- merce with the Levant is very extensive. Marseilles was founded 600 years before the Christian era by Greek colonists. Arles, a town on the Rhone, north-westward and 46 miles distant from Marseilles, has 22,000 inhabitants, and many remarkable ancient buildings, and was since 933 the capital of the kingdom of Arelat (see History of Burgundy above). Other towns of this department are : Martigues (with 7,800 inhabitants), Berre (with 2,000 inhab- itants), St. Chamas (with 3,000 inhabitants), Salon (with 6,000 inhabitants), Lambesc (with 4,400 inhabitants), Jstres (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tarascon (with 12,000 inhabitants), St. Remy (with 6,000 inhabitants), La Ciotat (with 224 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Provence and Avignon. 5,000 inhabitants), Cassis (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aubagne (with 6,000 in- habitants), Auriol (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gardanne (with 3,000 inhabitants) Organ (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chateau- Renard (with 3,600 inhabitants). 83. The Var Department contains : -J-Draguignan. chief town, at the foot of the Alps, 60 miles north-north-east of Marseilles, with 10,500 inhabitants. Toulon, a strongly fortified town and chief naval station, on the Mediterra- nean, with one of the finest harbors in Europe, great naval stores, etc., and 37,000 inhabitants. On the 16th of August, 1793, an English fleet under ad- miral Hood took possession of Toulon, which however was reconquered on the 18th of December, of the same year. Other towns of this department are : Seyne, or La Seyne (with 7,000 inhabitants), Brignolles (with 6,500 in- habitants), St. Barjols (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Maximin (with 4.0U0 in- habitants), Grasse, or La Grasse (with 1 3,500 inhabitants), Ollioules (with 3,000 inhabitants), Frejns (with 3,300 inhabitants), St. Trope* (with 4,000 in- habitants), Antibes (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cannes (with 4,500 inhabitants), St. Laurent les Var (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Hyeres (with 8,000 inhabi- tants). Near the coast lie the Hyerian and Lerinian Islands. On the isle of Sainte Marguerite (belonging to the latter) it was, where the mysterious man with the iron mask was kept prisoner from the year 1661 to 1691. He died in 1704 in the Bastile of Paris, and it is presumed that he was a twin brother of Louis XIV. 84. The Lower Alps Department contains : -{-Digne, chief town, on the Blcone, and at the foot of the Alps, north-eastward and 72 miles distant from Marseilles, with 6,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Colmars (with 1,300 inhabitants), Sisteron (with 4,000 in- habitants), Forcalquier (with 3,300 inhabitants), Riez (with 3,000 inhabitants), Manosque (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcelonette (with 2,400 inhabitants), Entrevaux (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Castellane (with 2,200 inhabitants). The town of Apt, with 6,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the Vaucluse Department, belongs likewise to Provence. XXXV. Avignon and Venaissin, along the Rhone, and surrounded by Provence. In the history of the States of the Church (page 194) it has already been related, in which way the Apostolic See became possessed of the city of Avignon and the county of Venaissin. The popes resided in Avignon during the period from 1305 to 1377. Since the year 1791 Avignon and Venaissin have continued to form a constituent part of France, and are comprised by : — 85. The Vaucluse Department, containing : -["Avignon, chief town, on the left bank of the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles distant FRANCE. 225 The Provinces of Avignon and Corsica. from Marseilles, with numerous remarkable ancient buildings, important mad- der trade, and 32,500 inhabitants. In the 14th century, when the pope re- sided here, the population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Carpentras, formerly the capital of the county of Venaissin, north-eastward and 13 miles distant from Avignon, with 10,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- ment are : Venasque (with 1,800 inhabitants), Vaison (with 2,900 inhabitants), Cavaillon (with 7,000 inhabitants), and L'lsle (with 6,000 inhabitants). XXXVL Corsica. — This island (area: 3,791 square miles; population: 221,800 inhabitants), in the Mediterranean Sea, at about 90 miles distance from the coast of Provence, was since the year 237 B. C. under the sway of the Romans, and subsequently changed hands until first in 806, and then in 1284 the Genuese took possession of it and kept it for nearly 500 years. The Genuese treated in a very despotic manner the Corsicans, who since 1729 re- volted at several times, and in 1735, declaring their independence, eleoted a German baron, Theodor of Neuhof, their king. But he was not able to main- tain himself, and died in England in 1756. The Corsicans meanwhile con- tinued to revolt, so that at last the Genuese republic thought it best to cede the island to France, which occurred in 1768. In 1790 the government of the island was transformed into : — 86. The Department Corsica, containing : -4-Ajaccio, chief town, on the western coast, is remarkable as the birth-place of Napoleon, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Bastia was formerly the capital of Corsica, and has 13,500 inhabitants. Other towns on the island are: Corte (with 4,000 inhabitants), Calvi (with 2,200 inhabitants), San Fiorenzo, or St. Florent (with 600 inhabitants), Aleria (with 800 inhabitants), Sartene (with 3,000 inhabitants), Porto Vechio (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Bonifacio (with 3,300 inhabitants). The French Colonies are the following : — 1. In Africa: Algeria (area estimated at 191,700 square miles, and population at 3,500.000 inhabitants), the island of Bourbon (area: 2,386 square miles; population: 110,000 inhabi- tants), settlements on the Senegal, etc. 2. In Asia: The cities and towns of Pondichery, Karikal, Make, and Chandenagor, occupying together 532 square miles, with 180,000 inhabitants. 3. In America: French Guyana, or Cajenne (with 30,000 10* 226 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Colonies. inhabitants), the "West Indian islands of Guadeloupe (682 square miles, and 120,000 inhabitants), Martinique (362 square miles, and 1 16,000 inhabitants), etc., and the isles of St. Pierre, Miquelon, and Langley, near Newfoundland. 4. In Polynesia, the French government has assumed a mock protectorate over Otaheite and other islands, but nowhere estab- lished a regular colony. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Area: 117,921 square miles. Population : 28,500,000 inhabitants. The united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it is officially styled) comprises two large islands (with several groups of smaller ones), lying right opposite to the middle part of con- tinental Europe, and separated from it by the Strait of Dover. The largest of the two islands, embracing England (with Wales) and Scotland, is called Great Britain since the year 1603, when, by the accession of King James VI. of Scotland to the English throne, both kingdoms were united. The other and smaller of the two islands is Ireland, which in 1172 was conquered by the English, and ever since has formed a constituent part, first of the kingdom of England, and since 1603 of the united kingdom. About the seas, bays, etc., washing the shores of the British islands, see Introduction, § 8, pages 19 and 20. According to the census of 1841, the total population was 26,861,464 inhabitants ; and according to that of 1845, the popu- lation of Great Britain (exclusive Ireland) amounted to 19,572,574 inhabitants. The nation is divided into three classes: the nobility, gentry, and commonalty. The first comprises dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons ; the second, all who are distinguished for wealth, education, talents, or office ; and the third, tradesmen, artificers, and laborers. With regard to reli- gious concerns, the Church of England is established by law ; its 228 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. supreme head is the sovereign, and under him are 2 archbishops, 25 bishops, 60 archdeacons, and more than 10.000 deans, vicars, rectors, etc. The members of other churches are called dis- senters, and they comprise Methodists, Baptists, Independents, etc. This has, however, regard only to England (and Wales). In Ireland, there are four fifths of the people Roman Catholics, and nearly one half of the other fifth Presbyterians. On the other hand, in Scotland the established religion is Presbyterian- ism, the fundamental principle of which is the equality of the clergy, in opposition to Episcopacy and Prelacy. Lately a divi- sion has taken place, one half of the preachers having seceded, and formed the " Free Church of Scotland," in which the min- isters are elected by their hearers. About the principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, see Introduction, § 7, k. While thus Wales and most of the western counties of England are mountaiuous, the rest of England is diversified with beautiful hills, vales, and plains ; as it is for the most part also the case with Ireland, where, however, about an eighth part of the surface is covered with bogs, while in the south- west are mountains of about 3.000 feet high. Scotland is divided into the Highlands and Lowlands, which latter embrace the counties south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and some tracts north of them. About the principal rivers, see Introduction, § 10. England is intersected by numerous canals, which extend about 2,800 miles in length. Most of them are of the most costly and perfect construction. In Scotland and Ireland are likewise excellent canals. At present England is, as it were, covered with a net of rail-roads, many of which have also been constructed in Ireland and Scotland. The climate is generally healthful, though moist in England and Ireland, and cold in the Highlands of Scotland. In Ireland GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229 The Products of England and Scotland. it is more mild than ia England, and produces there a beautiful and continued verdure. The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, though, especially in the Scotch Highlands, generally poor. With the exception of timber and wine, the British islands are supplied with natural products in such quantities that, in case of necessity (as was the ca^e in the period of the continental system from 1806 to 1813), they can dis- pense with any importation from the European continent But, on the other hand, there are but few articles of this kind, which can be exported without prejudice to the home consumption. Until the last quarter of the last century, England, indeed, was enabled to export, upon an average, about two million bushels of grain annually ; but since the year 1793 it could never afford that, although agriculture is conducted here with a skill almost unrivalled, and most of the grain is raised here. The chief products of England, in this and similar other respects, are, wheat, barley, oats, hops, etc. In Scotland, oats are the staple agricultural production. In Ireland, agriculture is in a less improved state than in England or Scotland ; barley, oats, wheat, and flax, are exten- sively cultivated ; but potatoes are the chief product, and form the principal food of the poor. The rearing of cattle is in a high state of perfection throughout most parts of the islands. There are about 11,500,000 head of cattle, more than 50,000,000 sheep of more or less improved breed, about 2,250,000 horses, etc. In Ireland, grazing and the dairy are the best managed parts of husbandry. The British coal mines may be considered as inexhausti- ble. The tin mines of Cornwall have been renowned ever since the days of the Phoenicians. The lead mines of Cornwall yield, beside the lead, from 12,000 to 20,000 marks of silver annually. Other productions from the mineral kingdom are, copper (Cornwall, Wales, and Anglesea island), iron (of which in 1842 about 1,500,000 tons were produced in England and Scotland), and black lead. England (and in some respects, Scotland too) is the first man- ufacturing country in the world. The chief articles are cotton and woollen goods, hardware, earthen ware, silks, and leather. These six articles give employment to about 2,000,000 persons, who manufacture them to the value of about $500,000,000 an- nually. In Scotland, the principal manufactures are fine cotton 230 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Commerce — Education, etc. goods, and coarse linens ; and in Ireland, it is linen, which, for instance, in Ulster is made in almost every village and family. In 1844, the aggregate value of the exported English cotton goods was estimated at £18,823,402. In the years 1840 and 1841 there were imported respectively 50,002,979 and 53,130,446 pounds of wool, and exported woollen goods at the value of respectively £5,780,810 and £6,276,888 ; and in 1844 this value had increased to more than £9,300,000. The value of other articles exported in the years 1840 and 1841, was more than £3,300,000 for linenj respectively £1,349, 137 and £1,625,191 for hardware, respectively £792,648 and £786,066 for silks, respectively £573,184 and £590,772 for porcelain and earthen ware, respectively £417.178 and £421,271 for glass wares, etc. The commerce is superior to that of any other nation, and extends to all quarters of the world. The capital vested in it is estimated at £1,500,000,000, or at more than $6,000,000,000. In 1844, the exports were in value of £50,615,265. The commerce with the colonies was, in 1840," in value of £17,852,600. The British merchant vessels (exclusive those of the colonies) were on the 1st of January, 1845, 23,253 in number (among them, 897 steam vessels), of the burthen of 2,995,196 tons. In the colonies, were 3,579 merchant vessels, of the burthen of 214,878 tons, in 1837. With regard to the means of education, there are, upon the whole, 8 universities, viz. : 3 in England, 1 in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. About the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, it has already been observed in the History of Europe (§ 17, /), that they were founded in a very early period of the middle ages ; yet, commonly, the years 1249 (for Oxford) and 1279 (for Cambridge) are considered as those when they were first formally and per- manently organized. In 1841, Oxford numbered 5,204, and Cambridge 5.530 students. In 1828, a third English university GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 231 Government and Financespof Great Britain. was founded in London, but on a different system than the other two; in 1842, it was frequented by 886 students. The Irish university, founded in 1591, is in Dublin, and numbered 1,350 students in 1841. The annual revenues of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, amount to £834,038. The Scotch universities are, St. Andrews (founded in 1411, and in 1841 with 200 students), Glasgow (founded in 1454, and in 1841 with 1,570 students), Aberdeen (founded in 1471, and in 1841 with 510 students), and Edinburgh (founded in 1581, and in 1841 with 2,140 students). The higher seminaries of learning are numerous ; but the common schools are by far not in so high a state of improvement as, for instance, in Germany. Those of Scotland are in general better arranged and managed, than those of Ireland, and even England. The government is a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King (at present, a Queen), and Parlia- ment. The Parliament consists of two houses, viz. : a House of Lords, composed of bishops (i. e., of the established church), and hereditary peers of the above-stated five different ranks, and a House of Commons, composed of more than 600 representatives elected by the people. In the financial year, from the 5th July, 1845, to the 5th July, 1846, the public expenditure amounted to 49,895,800 pounds sterling, and the revenue to £52,715,871, which yielded a surplus of nearly £3,000,000. But since, in consequence of political events and other circumstances, the revenue has in the same degree decreased, as the expenditure has increased j so that, upon the whole, the ratio of the public charges is thus, that every inhabitant of the united kingdoms has to contribute to them about $9 00 annually. The public debt had, on the 5th of January, 1844, attained the enormous height of 790,576,393 pounds sterling, the interest of which amounted to £28,161,959. 232 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Early* History of England. The army comprises about 122,000 men. inclusive more than 30,000 which the government keep in India, besides the troops of the East Indian Company. The navy numbered in 1845, upon the whole, 680 vessels, 125 of which were steamers, 99 were ships of the line, 80 frigates, etc. The British orders of honor, are the following: — 1. The garter, instituted in 1349 by Edward III. ; it is the highest order of English knighthood. 2. The order of Bath, instituted in 1399 by Richard II., and renewed in 1725 by George I., in 3 classes since 1815. 3. The Scotch thistle order, or order of St. Andrew, from the year 787, but renewed in 1540 by James V. of Scotland, and in 1703 by Queen Anne. 4. The Irish order of St. Patrick, insti- tuted in 1783. 5. The order of St. Michael and GW^-e, instituted in 1818, only for Malta. 6. The order of British India, insti- tuted in 1837, only for officers in India. History. — About the early part of British history, see History of Europe, §§ 4 and 15. William the Conqueror reigned from 1066 to 1087, and was succeeded by two of his sons, first by William II. (1087-1 100), then by Henry I. (1100-1135). After the death of Henry I. — who left an only daughter mar- ried to Godfrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou — a civil war broke out on account of Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois, having mounted the English throne, in- stead of Henry's grandson (son of his daughter), Henry Plantagenet. At last a conciliation was brought about, and in 1154 Henry Plantagenet mounted the throne by the name of Henry II. He in 1172 conquered Ireland, died in 1189, and was succeeded by his son Richard I, surnamed of the Lion Heart, who died in 1199, and was succeeded by his brother John (surnamed without land). John was as weak and feeble as cruel, and was in 1215 com- pelled by the English barons to sign the Magna Charta, the foundation of the British constitution. He died in 1216, and his successors of the principal line of the house of Plantagenet were the following kings : Henry HI. (1216- 1272), Edward I. (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307-1327), Edward III. (1327- 1377), and Richard II. (1377-1399). The last-named king, son of the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III., was by his cousin, Henry of Lancaster (likewise a grandson of Edward III.), taken prisoner and compelled to resign, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 233 Historical Sketch of England. after which his cousin mounted the throne by the name of Henry IV. (1399- 1413). He was succeeded by his son, Henry V. (1413-1422). Against his son Henry VI. (1422-1461), rose his cousin, the duke Richard of York (great- grandson of Edward III.), pretenJing that he had nearer claims upon the throne than Henry. Thus began (in 1455) the war of the Roses, or between the Yorkists (wearing white roses as emblems) and the Lancastrians (wearing red rose*; Richard of York was killed in a battle, but his son mounted the throne by the name of Edward IV. (1461-1483). The whole house of Lan- caster was exterminated, with the exception of Henry Tudor, earl of Rich- mond, who made his escape to France. Edward IV. died in 1483, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward V., who however, together with his younger brother, was murdered by his uncle, the duke Richard of Gloucester, who mounted the throne by the name of Richard III. but only reigned until 1485, when he was subdued and killed in the battle of Bosworth by Henry Tudor, the last descendant of the house of Lancaster. Henry ascended the throne by the name of Henry VII. He died in 1509, and has the followit.g successors from the house of Tudor (Lancaster) : Henry VIII. (1509-1547), Edward VI. (1547-1553), Mary (1553-1558), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). With Elizabeth the house of Tudor became extinct, and as her father's (Henry V Ill's) sister Margaret had been married to James IV. of Scotland, the great-grandson of the latter, James VI. of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart), ascended the English throne by the name of James I. (1603-1625), and thus united both kingdoms. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son, Cliarles I, who after a very troublesome reign leading to a civil war, was be- headed on the 30th of January, 1649. The government was now called a republic, although Oliver Cromwell exercised an almost absolute power until his death, which occurred in 1658. His son Richard succeeded him in the dignity of a Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, but resigned spontaneously, upon which the eldest son of Charles I. ascended the throne by the name of Charles II. (1660-1685). He died in 1685, and was suc- ceeded by his brother James II, who only reigned until 1688, when he was dethroned, and his sister Mary, or rather her consort William of Orange, in- vested with the royal power. After William's death (in 1702) his sister-in- law, Anne, ascended the throne, and when she died (in 1714), she was suc- ceeded by George I, elector of Hanover and great-grandson of James I. (whose daughter Elizabeth, married to the elector of the Palatinate, had a daughter who was the mother of George I.). George I. died in 1727, and 234 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England: its Geographical Divisions has had until now the following successors : George II. (1727-1760), George III. (1760-1820), George IV. (1820-1830), William IV. (1830-1837), and Victoria, who is still reigning. The British empire proper embraces the three united king- doms of England (inclusive Wales), Scotland, and Ireland, which are divided into counties, or shires (as they in England and Scot- land are called by preference). The capitals of the counties will be found marked with a cross (+). A.— THE KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. It comprises the southern half of the great eastern island, and consists of two unequal parts, the greater of which being England proper, and the by far smaller part constituting what is called Wales. The total area amounts to 58,468 square miles — England having an extent of 51,205 square miles, and Wales of 7,263 square miles. The total population is about 17,000,000 inhabi- tants— 1 5,975,000 in England, and 1 ,000,000 in Wales. England proper contains 40 counties or shires. 1. Middlesex, on the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -{-London, the metropolis of the British empire, and greatest city in Europe, on the Thames, 40 miles from its mouth, had in 1844 a population of 2,007,550, and at present more than 2,250,000 of inhabitants. The number of the houses is estimated at more than 300,000 ; that of the streets, lanes, etc., at 14,000. London embraces, besides the city proper, where the chief shops and ware- houses are, Westminster (containing the royal palaces, houses of Parliament, the grand Gothic edifice known by the name of Westminster Abbey, etc.), and Southwark (on the south side of the Thames, and containing the usaul GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. England : iu Geographical Divisions. residence of the archbishop of Canterbury, called Lambe th palace, King's Bench, etc.), and numerous other districts with distinct names, covering a space of nearly 50 square miles. The most remarkable public buildings are, besides Westminster Abbey, especially, St. Paul's cathedral (next to St Peter's at Rome, the greatest structure in Cliristendoin), the Tower, the Bank of England, St James' palace (royal residence in the period from 1695 to the beginning of the present century), Mansion house, Guildhall, eta The bridges of London are seven in number, all built of stone, except one, which is constructed of iron ; one of these is a suspension bridge. The Tunnel under the Thames, is one of the most remarkable works of the age. London, which was already in the days of the Roman emperor Nero, a considerable trading town, became the capital of England during the reign of King Alfred. The ancient royal palace of Hampton Court, in the vicinity of London, was reared by the cardinal Wolsey, and in 1516 ceded by him to King Henry VIII. Another royal palace is at Kensington, a town, with 24,000 inhabitants. Above London, on the Thames, is Chelsea, a town, with 36,000 inhabitants, and containing the great national asylum for invalid soldiers. 2. Berkshire, at the western frontier of Middlesex, and on the south side of the Thames, containing : -(-Reading, a town, with 20,000 inhabitants. Windsor, a town 22 miles from London, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its castle, which was originally erected nearly 8 centuries ago, and has been the chief and favorite residence of most of the sovereigns of England. Newbury (with 6.000 inhabitants), and Isley (noted for its sheep fairs), towns. 3. Bucks, or Buckinghamshire, separated from the former shire by the Thames, containing : -[-Buckingham, a town on the Ouse, with 4,000 inhabi- tants. Eton, a town on the Thames, right against Windsor, is noted for its college, and has 4,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the village of Slough, where the renowned astronomer Herschel had his observatory, and died in 1822. Aylesbury, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 4. Surrey, between Berkshire and Greenwich, containing : -{-Guildford, a town on the Wye, with 5,000 inhabitants. The village of Epsom (with 4,000 inhabitants) is noted for its culture of hops, and that of Addiscombe for its military school of the British East Indian Company. At Kingston (a town with 5,000 inhabitants), the Saxon kings used to be crowned. The town of Croydon has 1 3,000 inhabitants. That above-mentioned part of London, called Southwark, containing 150,000 inhabitants, is situated within the limits of this ehire. 236 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England : its Geographical Divisions. 5. Kent, the most extensive and finest of the southern counties, contains : -(-Canterbury, the ecclesiastical metropolis of England, on the Stour, north- westward and 14 miles distant from Dover, and 92 miles east-south-east of London, with a highly remarkable cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Green- wich, a town on the Thames, is famous for its naval hospital for infirm seamen, and its observatory, from which longitude is reckoned, and has 76,000 inhabi- tants. Dover, a town on the Straits of Dover (here 21 miles wide), has 25,000 inhabitants, is the station of packets for France, and one of the so-called Cinque Ports, to which, moreover, belong the towns and seaports of Sandwich (with 9,000 inhabitants), Romney, and Hythe (the four others : Winchelsea, Rye, Hastings, and Seaford, are situated within the limits of Sussexshire). Other remarkable towns of this county are : Maidstone (with 33,000 inhabi- tants), Tunbridge (with 8,000 inhabitants, and the watering-place, Tunbridge Wells), Deptford (with 26,000 inhabitants, noted for its naval depot), Woolwich (noted for its immense train of artillery, has 18,000 inhabitants), Chatham (noted for its great arsenal of the navy, has 18,000 inhabitants), Gravesand (with 6,000 inhabitants), Rochester (with 10,000 inhabitants), Ramsgate (with 9,000 inhabitants), and Margate (with 11,000 inhabitants). 6. Sussex, on the English Channel, containing: -(-Chichester, a town on the Levant, eastward and 18 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 9,000 inhabi- tants. The towns and seaports of Hastings (with 11,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle in 1066), Winchelsea (with 8,000 inhabitants), Rye (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Seaford (which, however, is to be considered as a part of Hastings), belong to the above-mentioned Cinque Ports. Brighton, a splendid city since the days of George IV., whose favorite residence it was, has 50,000 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. 7. Essex, along the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -(-Chelms- ford, a town 32 miles east-north-east of London, with 6,000 inhabitants. Harwich, a maritime town on the North Sea, formerly the station of packets for Sweden, Hamburg, and Holland, has 18,000 inhabitants. Colchester, a maritime town, noted for its oysters, has 20,000 inhabitants. 8. Suffolk, on the north side of Essexshire, containing : -(-Ipswich, a town near the mouth of the Orwell, with 22,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Bury St. Edmunds (with 15,000 inhabitants), Lowestoff (with 12,000 inhabitants), Sudbury (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Woodbridge (with 4,000 inhabitants). 9. Norfolk, on the north side of Suffolkshire, containing : -(-Norwich, the GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 257 England: its Geographical Divisions. finest city in the east of England, on the Winsder and Yare, north-eastward and 129 miles distant from London, is noted for its ancient and beautiful ca- thedral, and its woollen goods, and has 62,000 inhabitants. Yarmouth, a maritime town, is noted for its herring fishery, and has 24,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Lynn Regis (with 17,000 inhabitants), Swaff- ham (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Downham (with 2,000 inhabitants). 10. Cambridgeshire, bordering upon the two former counties, and contain- ing : -(-Cambridge, a town on the Cam, northward and 50 miles distant from London, is celebrated for its university, and has 25,000 inhabitants. New- market, a town with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for horse-races, and Ely, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, for its splendid cathedral, whose steeple is 400 feet in height. Wisbeach, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 11. Huntingdonshire, partly surrounded by Cambridgeshire, contains: -{-Huntingdon, a town on the Ouse, northward and 40 miles distant from London, with 4,000 inhabitants. Cromwell was born here in 1599. St. Ives is a fine village, or town, on the Ouse, with 3,000 inhabitants. 12. Lincolnshire, between Cambridgeshire and the Humber, containing : -{-Lincoln, a city on the Witham, northward and 119 miles distant from London, is celebrated for its venerable cathedral with 3 high steeples, and has 36,500 inhabitants. Another beautiful Gothic church is in the town of Boston, at the mouth of the Witham into the Wash, with 35,000 inhabitants. In the neighboring village of Woolsthorpe the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton (+1727) was born in 1642. Grimsby, a maritime town at the mouth of the Humber, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Spalding (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gainsborough (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Stam- ford (with 6,000 inhabitants). 13. Hertfordshire, between Cambridge and London, containing : -{-Hert- ford, a town northward and 23 miles distant from London, with 6,000 in- habitants, and an institution where civil officers of the East Indian Company are instructed and prepared for their future destination in India. St. Albans, a town with a remarkable Gothic church and 6,000 inhabitants. 14. Oxfordshire, bordering upon Middlesex, and containing: -{-Oxford, a town on the Thames, is celebrated for its university, and has 22,000 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this county are : Woodstock (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Banbxiry (with 6,000 inhabitants). 15. Bedfordshire, between Oxford and Cambridgeshire, containing: -(-Bed- ford, a town on the Ouse, 23 miles west-south-west of Cambridge, with 8,000 238 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England: its Geographical Divisions. inhabitants. Woburn, a borough with 2,000 inhabitants, and the splendid mansion of the family of Russell, called Woburn Abbey. 16. Hants or Hampshire, between Berkshire and the English Channel, con- taining: -{-Winchester, a city on the Itching, south-westward and 65 miles distant from London, with a cathedral reared by the Saxon kings, and 10,000 inhabitants. During part of the middle ages Winchester was the capital of England, and is at present noted for its college. Portsmouth, a strongly fortified city on the southern coast, has 64,000 inhabitants, and the best har- bor in Great Britain, is the great arsenal and rendezvous of the navy, and situated near the famous roadstead of Spithead. The maritime town of Southampton, with 2*7,500 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade with the Norman islands and the south of France, and is much resorted to for sea- bathing. Gosport (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Chrislchurch (with 5,000 in- habitants), boroughs. The fertile Isle of Wight (192 square miles, and 36,000 inhabitants) is noted for it beautiful and romantic sceneries. 17. Dorsetshire, on the southern coast, contains : -{-Dorchester, a town on the Frome, westward and 65 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 5,000 in- habitants. Other towns of this county are : Weymouth (with 4,000 inhabi- tants), Bridport (with 5,000 inhabitants), Poole (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Shaftsbury (with 4,000 inhabitants). The fertile Bill of Portland is noted for its quarries. 18. Devonshire, between Dorsetshire and Cornwall, contains : -{-Exeter, a city on the mouth of the Exe, westward and 115 miles distant from Portsmouth, and north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Plymouth, with a magnificent cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Plymouth, a fortified city on the English Channel, with 76,000 inhabitants, is one of the great naval stations, and noted for its breakwater, which cost more than $5,000,000. The city embraces at present Plymouth proper, Devonport (formerly called Plymouth Dock), and Stonehouse. At about 14 miles distance from the roadstead of Plymouth on a solitary cliff, stands the well-known lighthouse of Eddystone. There are many beautiful and splendid country-seats in Devonshire, among them Mount Edgecombe and Ugbrook. Remarkable towns are, among others : Tavistock (with 6,000 inhabitants), Dartmouth (with 5,000 inhabitants), Teignmouth (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barnstable (with 8,000 inhabitants), Tiverton (with 10,500 inhabitants), Biddeford (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Sidmouth (with 3,000 inhabitants). 19. Cornwall, forming a peninsula at the south-western extremity of Eng- GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 239 England : its Geographical Divisions. land, is celebrated, even since the time of the Phoenicians, for its tin, and since the middle ages, for its copper also. At an early period it was ruled by earls, but at the beginning of the 9th century subdued by King Egbert. Edward III. promoted the county of Cornwall to the rank of a duchy, in favor of his son, the renowned Black Prince ; and since that time the first- born royal prince assumes the title of a duke of Cornwall, after which he is oreated prSce of Wales. It contains : -{-Launcestox, a town on the Tamar, with 5,000 inhabitants. Falmouth, a maritime town at the mouth of the Fal, 46 miles west south-west of Plymouth, is a stopping place of steamers for Spain and the West Indies, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Cornwall are : Truro (with . 8,000 inhabitants), Penzance (with 7,000 inhabi- tants), and Penryn (with 5,000 inhabitants). The south-western extremity of Cornwall is known by the name of Land's End, and its southern extremity by that of Cape Lizard, or Lizard Point. Not far from Land's End are lying in the Atlantic Ocean the Scilly Isles, six of which are inhabited, having a total population of 3,000 inhabitants. To the Phoenicians and other people of antiquity they were known by the name of Cassiterides, or Tin-Islands. 20. Wilts, or Wiltshire, towards the interior, containing : -(-Salisbury, a city on the Avon, 70 miles west-south-west of London, is celebrated for its elegant Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is 410 feet high, and has 10,000 inhabi- tants. Bradford, a town on the Avon, with 12,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fine cloth. Other towns are : Wilton (with 8,000 inhabi- tants) and Chippenham (with 6,000 inhabitants). Near Wilton is the splendid country seat of Lord Pembroke, called Wiltonhouse. Another one, belonging to the family of Radnor, and called Longford, is noted for its fine collection of pictures. 21. Somersetshire, between Wilts and the Bristol Channel, containing : -{-Bristol, a city on a branch of the Severn, westward and 115 miles distant from London, has 120,000 inhabitants, and is the third commercial town in England. About 9 miles from here is Bath, a city, with 70,000 inhabitants, is noted for its hot mineral waters, and visited by persons (sometimes to the number of 8,000 in the season) in quest of health and pleasure. The Gothic cathedral of Bath is very remarkable, as is also that of Wells, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Somerset, for the most part noted for their woollen manufactures, are: Calne (with 5,000 inhabitants), Froome (with 25,000 inhabitants), Taunton (with 33,500 inhabitants), and Bridgewater (with 10,000 inhabitants). The town of Glastonbury is noted for the ruins of a 240 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England : its Geographical Divisions. monastery which covered sixty acres, and whose foundation was laid in a very early period of the Christian era ; at least, King Arthur, son of Uther Pen- dragon, who reigned from 516 to 542, was buried here. 22. Gloucestershire, bordering upon Oxfordshire, contains: -4- Gloucester, a city on the Severn, north-eastward and 37 miles distant from Bristol, with a remarkable ancient cathedral (where William the Conqueror and Edward II. are buried), manufactures of puis, and 27,000 inhabitants. Cheltenham, noted for its mineral waters, and Stroud, for its cloth manufactures, are'towns, with respectively 40,500 and 10,000 inhabitants. Tewkesbury, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants, has a Gothic church with the sepulchres of the English king of the house of Plantagenet. Berkeley, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remark- able as the birth-place of the renowned Dr. Jenner. 23. Monmouthshire, between Wales and Gloucestershire, contains: -{-Mon- mouth, a town in a romantic situation, northward and 23 miles distant from Bristol, with 6,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are the highly interesting ruins of Tintern Abbey, and of Ragland Castle, which latter was once the residence of the dukes of Beaufort. Chepstow (with 6,000 inhabitants), Newport (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Abergavenny (with 5,000 inhabitants). 24. Herefordshire, at the northern frontiers of Gloucestershire, containing : -{-Hereford, a city on the Wye, northward and 42 miles distant from Bristol, with a remarkable cathedral, and 34,500 inhabitants. Leominster, or Lempster, a town on the Lugg, with 6,000 inhabitants. Ross, a borough on the Wye, with 4,000 inhabitants. Here lived Pope's " man of Ross." 25. Worcestershire, towards the interior, containing : -j- Worcester, a city on the Severn, north-westward and 105 miles distant from London, is noted for its porcelain, and has a highly remarkable cathedral, and 27,500 inhabitants. Kidderminster, a manufacturing town on the Stour, with 30,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Stourbridge (with 7,000 inhabitants), Dudley (with 24,000 inhabitants), and Droitwich (with 3,000 inhabitants). 26. Warwickshire, at the northern frontier of Oxfordshire, containing : -(-Warwick, a town on the Avon, north-westward and 82 miles distant from London, with 9,500 inhabitants. Near it lies on a rock Warwick Castle, belonging to the earl of Warwick, and reared in the middle ages. Coventry, a manufacturing town, noted for its watches and ribbons, has 31,500 inhabi- tants. Kenilworth, a borough, with 3.000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the once so renowned castle of the same name, reared in the 12th century by King Henry I. Stratford, a town on the Avon, with 6,000 inhabitants, is remark- GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 241 Enghtud : its Geographical Divisions. able as the birth-place of Shakspeare. The borough of Leamington, with 6,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to on account of its mineral baths. Rugby, a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its college. Birmingham, a city, with 183,000 inhabitants, about half way between Liverpool and London, is the great centre of the manufacture of hardware, including fire-arms, steam engines, locks, screws, buttons, and such a variety of small articles that it has been styled the " toy-shop of Europe." Similar manufactures are at Soho, which is considered as a suburb of Birmingham, though it is situated within the limits of Staffordshire. 27. Staffordshire, at the northern frontier of the former, contains : -(-Staf- ford, a town, north-westward and 23 miles distant from Birmingham, with 8,000 inhabitants. Burslem, a town on the Great Trunk Canal with 14,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of earthen ware, and is at the same time the centre of the so-called Potteries, a district comprising numerous villages (among them, that of Etruria), where the Wedgewood ware is fabri- cated. Burton, surnamed upon Trent, a town on the Trent, is noted for its excellent ale, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Lichfield, a town, with 8,000 inhab- itants, and a renowned college, instituted by Edward VI. Wolverhampton, a city, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 50,000 inhabitants, is noted for its hardware, and Bradley for its iron works. Other towns of this county are : Walsall (with 16,000 inhabitants), Wednesbury (with 9.000 inhabitants), Newcastle under Lyne (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bilston (with 16,000 inhabi- tants), and Tamworth (with 8,000 inhabitants). 28. Northamptonshire, on the northern side of Oxfordshire, containing: -f-NoRTHAMPTON, a town on the Nen, 64 miles north-north-west of London, with 28,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is Althorp, the ancestral seat of the earl of Spencer. Peterborough, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, and a remarkable cathedral, where the unfortunate Scottish queen, Mary Stuart, lies buried. She was beheaded on the 8th of February, 1587, in the neigh- boring castle of Fotheringay, which, by order of her son, James L, was entirely demolished. Stamford, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 29. Rutland, northward from Northamptonshire, containing: -(-Oakham, a town in the fertile valley of Cathross, 92 miles north-north-west of London, with 4,000 inhabitants. Uppingham, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 30. Leicestershire, on the western side of Rutland, containing : -(-Leicester, a city on the Sour, 37 miles east-north-east of Birmingham, with manufac- tures of stockings, and 61,000 inhabitants. The borough of Lutterworth is 11 242 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT England: its Geographical Divisions. remarkable as the birth-place of Wickliffe ; and Belvoir is the splendid coun- try-seat of the duke of Rutland. Loughborough (with 25,000 inhabitants), and Melton Mowbray (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. 31. Shropshire, or Salop, at the frontier of Wales, containing : -{-Shrews- bury, a town on the Severn, southward and 56 miles distant from Liverpool, with the beautiful remains of an ancient castle, and 22,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Ludlow (with 8,000 inhabitants), Broseley (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bridgenorth (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Oswestry (with 10,000 inhabitants). The borough of Shiffnall (with 4,000 inhabitants), and the extensive village of Colebrookdale are noted for their iron- works. 32. Cheshire, or the Palatinate of Chester, at the frontier of Wales, and northward from Shropshire, containing: -(-Chester, a city on the Dee, southward and 14 miles distant from Liverpool, is noted for its cheese, and has a remarkable cathedral, and 23,000 inhabitants. The town of Mac- clesfield (with 25,000 inhabitants), is noted for its silks. Other towns of this county are : Northwlch (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nantwich (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Stockport (with numerous manufactures, and 86,000 inhabi- tants). 33. Nottinghamshire, between Cheshire and Leicester, containing : -(-Not- tingham, a city on the Trent, south-eastward and 70 miles distant from Liver- pool, is noted for its stockings and ale, and has 54,000 inhabitants. Another manufacturing town is Newark, with 10,000 inhabitants. The town of Worksop (with 6,000 inhabitants) may be considered as the chief place of the so-called Dukeries, comprising many country-seats, among others, Work- sop Manor (the property of the duke of Norfolk), Clumber Park (of the duke of Newcastle), Welbeck Abbey (of the duke of Portland), and Newstead Abbey (formerly belonging to Lord Byron). Mansfield, a borough with 11,000 inhabitants. 34. Derbyshire, at the northern frontier of Nottinghamshire, containing: -1-Derby, a town on the Derwent and Trent, westward and 14 miles distant from Nottingham, with various manufactures and 35,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Chesterfield (with 6,000 inhabitants), Castleton (with 1,500 inhabitants), Buxton (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Matlok (with 4,000 inhabitants). Chatsworth is the splendid country-seat of the duke of Devonshire. 35. Lancashire, or the Palatinate of Lancaster, at the northern frontier of Wales, and comprising part of the English west coast, contains: -{-Lancaster, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 243 England : its Geographical Divisions. a town on the Lancaster Bay, northward and 46 miles distant from Liverpool, with 36,000 inhabitants. Liverpool, a city with 295,000 inhabitants, and nearly 25,000 houses, on the river Mersey, near its mouth, is next to London in commerce, the great depot of the trade with America and Ireland, and noted for the most costly docks in the world. In 1833 the custom-house of Liverpool had a revenue of not less than 3,555,955 pounds sterling. There are many splendid public edifices in this city, which in the 16th century was yet an insignificant place. Manchester, a city on the Irrwell, eastward and 30 miles distant from Liverpool, is the great centre of the cotton manufacture, and has 310,000 inhabitants. The following cities and towns are also more or less noted for their cotton manufactures : Blackburn (with 75,000 inhabi- tants), Bolton (with 98,000 inhabitants), Oldham (with 68,000 inhabitants), Rochdale (with 60,000 inhabitants), Wigan (with 66,500 inhabitants), Bury (with 78,000 inhabitants), Preston (with 77,500 inhabitants), Warrington (with 32,000 inhabitants), and Ashton under Line (with 130,500 inhabitants, inclusive the parish). The town of Prescot (with 8,000 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of watch-wheels, clock-works, etc., and the borough of St. Helen' 8 for its manufactures of looking-glasses. 36. Yorkshire, along the eastern coast, is the most extensive county of England (5,985 square miles, and 1,600,000 inhabitants), and subdivided into three districts, or Ridings, viz. : North Riding, East Riding, and West Riding, containing : -}-York, the second city of the kingdom in rank, being the resi- dence of the archbishop of York, is situated in an extensive plain on the Ouse, northward and 184 miles distant from London, is noted for its splendid cathedral (reared in the 12th, but not completed before the 14th century), and has 36,000 inhabitants. To East Riding belong the following cities and towns : Hull (noted for its trade to the Baltic, and the whale fishery, has 50,000 inhabitants), Goole (with 12,000 inhabitants), Beverley (with 10,000 inhabitants), Bridlington (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Howden (with 2,000 inhabitants). North Riding comprises : Scarborough, a maritime and com- mercial town on the North Sea, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Whitby, another commercial town, with 12,000 inhabitants, much engaged in the coal trade. The town of Richmond (with 6,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, and the borough of Gisborough (with 2,500 inhabitants) for its canvass manu- factures, and alum works. West Riding comprises the following manufac- turing cities and towns : Leeds (famous for its manufactures of cloth and other woollen goods, with 170,000 inhabitants, Huddcrsfield and Halifax (each with 244 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England: its Geographical Divisions. 110,000 inhabitants, and both noted for their cloth manufactures), Wakefield (also with important cloth manufactures, corn and cattle fairs, and 46,000 inhabitants); Sheffield (noted for cutlery and plated goods, with 85,000 inhabitants), Bradford (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Keighley (with 68,000 in- habitants, both noted for their manufactures of woollen goods), and finally Knaresborough (noted for its linen, and mineral waters, with 8,000 inhabitants). The village of Harrowgate is likewise resorted to for its mineral waters. 37. Durhamshire, at the northern frontier of Yorkshire, containing : -(-Due- ham, a city on the Wear, 54 miles north-north-west of York, with a remark- able cathedral (reared in the 11th century), manufactures of carpets, etc., and 39,000 inhabitants. The towns of Sunderland and Wearmouth, situated on opposite sides of the Wear at its mouth, are joined together by a very remarkable iron bridge, are largely engaged in the coal trade, and have a total population of 57,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Stockton (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Darlington (with 9,000 inhabitants). 38. Northumberland, the most northerly county, containing : -{-Newcastle, surnamed upon Tyne, a city on the Tyne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Edinburgh, is famous for its coal-pits, various manufactures, and the whale fishery, and has 72,000 inhabitants. The town of Shields (with im- portant coal trade, and 30,000 inhabitants) consists properly of two parts, viz. : North Shields in Northumberland, and South Shields in Durham. Berwick, a town on the Tweed, and at the frontier of Scotland, with 16,000 inhabi- tants, was by James VI. (of Scotland) declared neutral territory, though a Scotch county bears its name. Other towns of Northumberland are : Tyne- mouth (with 25,000 inhabitants), Hexham (with 6,000 inhabitants), Morpeth (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Alnwick (with 6,000 inhabitants, and a splendid Gothic castle of the duke of Northumberland). 39. Cumberland, on the west coast, and bordering upon Scotland, contains : -(-Carlisle, a city on the Eden, westward and 54 miles distant from Newcastle, with a remarkable cathedral, various manufactures, and 36,500 inhabitants. Whitehaven, a maritime town, largely engaged in the coal trade, has 30,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Workington (with 7,000 inhabi- tants), Maryport (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Penrith (with 5,000 inhabi- tants). The borough of Keswick (with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead pencils. 40. Westmoreland, between Cumberland and Lancashire, containing : -(-Ap- pleby, a borough on the Eden, northward and 80 miles distant from Liverpool, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 245 Wales : its Geographical Divisions. with 3,000 inhabitants. Kendal, a town, with numerous manufactures of woollen and other goods, and 35,000 inhabitants. The principality of Wales (area : 7,263 square miles ; popula- tion: 1,000,000 inhabitants) forms indeed a constituent part of the kiDgdom of England, but is in all public acts denominated discriminately. It comprises that part of the English west coast situated between Bristol and Liverpool, is inhabited by descend- ants of the ancient Britons, and continued to be an independent kingdom for several centuries, until in 1282 it was subdued by the English king Edward I, though first since the year 1536 it has permanently been united with England. The eldest son of the sovereign of England, is styled Prince of Wales. Most of the people talk the Welsh language, and excel chiefly in the manufacturing of flannel. Iron, lead, copper, and coal, abound. Wales is divided into 12 counties, 6 of which are in South Wales, and 6 in North Wales. South Wales comprises the following six counties : — 41. Pembrokeshire, containing: + Pembroke, a town on the Milford Haven, with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a remarkable ancient castle, reared in the beginning of the 11th century. St. David's, the ecclesiastical capital of South "Wales, with 4,000 inhabitants. Haverfordwest, a town, with 6,000 inhabitants. Milford, a borough noted for its fine harbor, with 3,000 inhabi- tants. 42. Caermarthenshire, containing : -{-Caermarthen, an important commer- cial town on the Tawey, with 10,000 inhabitants. Llanelly and Kidwelly, towns on the Bristol Channel, with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 43. Glamorganshire, containing : -{-Cardiff, a town at the mouth of the Severn, with 7,000 inhabitants. Swansea, an important commercial town at the mouth of the Tawey, is at the same time a noted resort for sea-bathing, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Merthyr Tydvil, a town, with 30,000 inhabi- tants, is noted for its iron works and mines, and coal-pits. Llandajf, the resi- dence of a bishop, with 2,000 inhabitants. Neath, a town on the river of the same name, with coal-pits, iron and copper mines, and 8,000 inhabitants. 246 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Wales: its Geographical Divisions. 44. Brecon, or Brecknockshire, containing : -{-Brecknock, a town on the Uske, with manufactures of cloth and stockings, and 8,000 inhabitants. Crickhowel, a borough, with flannel manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants. 45. Radnorshire, containing : -J-Presteign, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. Radnor, or properly New Radnor, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 46. Cardiganshire, containining : -{-Cardigan (with coasting trade and 3,000 inhabitants), and Aberystwith (with sea-bathing, and 5,000 inhabitants), towns on the Cardigan Bay. North Wales comprises the following six counties : 47. Montgomeryshire, containing : -(-Montgomery, a town at the frontier of Shropshire, with the ruins of an ancient castle, and 2,000 inhabitants. Welshpool, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of flannel. Llanydloes, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. 48. Merionetshire, containing : -j-Bala, a town on the Pimple lake, or Bala pool, with fishery, manufactures of flannel, and 2,500 inhabitants. Dolgelly (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Harleigh, or Harlech (with 2,500 inhabitants). 49. Flintshire, containing : -(-Flint, a town on the Dee, with 4,000 inhabi- tants, and the ruins of a castle, where Richard II. was in 1399 kept prisoner and killed. Flint is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The neighboring town of Holywell (with 10,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, brass- and copper- works. St. Asaph is the residence of a bishop, and has 4,000 inhabi- tants. Near the town of Mold (with 8,000 inhabitants) are lead mines and coal-pits. 50. Denbighshire, containing : -(-Denbigh, a town near the Cluyd, and in a highly fertile valley, with a remarkable castle and 5,000 inhabitants. Wrex- ham, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, is noted for its flannel and iron- and brass- works. Ruthin, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 51. Caernarvonshire, containing: -(-Caernarvon, a town on the Menai Strait, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its stately castle, reared in the 13th century by Edward L • Bangor and Aberconway, towns with respectively 5,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 52. Anglesea, a county comprising the island of this name, which has 186 square miles in extent, and a population of 50,000 inhabitants, and ia separated from Wales by the Menai Strait. This strait is crossed by the Menai bridge, one of the most remarkable of the kind in the world ; it con- sists of strong iron chains, which connect arches of masonry, 560 feet apart ; thus forming a safe and useful structure. The island of Anglesea, noted fur GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 217 The Isle of Man. the Norman Islands, and the Isle of H«lifoUa I. its copper mines, contains : -{-Beaumaris, a town with 3.U00 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the romantically situated mansion of Baron Hill. The borough of Holyhead (with 5,500 inhabitants) is a chief station of packets for Ireland. To England, but to none of its counties, belong the following islands : (a.) The isle of Man (224 square miles, and 45,000 inhabitants), lying in the Irish Sea, at about equal distance from each of the three united kingdoms. Its natives are called Manxmen, and their language is very similar to that of the native Irish. Their ancestors were subdued in the 10th century by the Danes, and in the 11th by the Normans (from Normand) ). In the 13th cen- tury the Scotch, and in the 14th the English conquered the island, with which in the 15th century the earls of Derby were invested, and since styled kings. In the 16th century, however, the duke of Athol became possessed of the island, which in 1765 was purchased by the British government, in order to put an end to the smuggling which was carried on here upon the largest scale. The capital of the island is Castleton, on the southern coast, with 3,000 inhabitants. It was formerly called Sodor. The residence of the ancient kings of Man was in Castle Rushen. The most important town of the isle is Douglas, residence of a bishop, with 7,000 inhabitants. Another town is Ramsay, with 2,000 inhabitants. (b.) The Norman Islands (total area : 266 square miles ; total population : 80,000 inhabitants), situated in the English Channel, near the French coast of Normandy. They are the only possession left to the English of what they formerly had wrested from France. They have a mild climate and a fertile soil, and are the following: — 1. Jersey (149 square miles, and 41,000 inhabitants), containing, among others, the towns of St. Helier (with 22,000 inhabitants), and St. Aubin (with 2,000 inhabitants). 2. Guernsey (96 square miles, and 34,000 inhabitants), containing, among others, St. Pierre, or St. Peter's Port (with 20,000 inhabitants). 3. Alderney, or Aurigny (16 square miles, and 4,000 inhabitants), containing the borough of the same name, with 1,000 inhabitants. 4. Sark (5 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), is in French called Cers, or Sereg, and contains the fortified seaport of Longy. (c.) The Scilly Isles (see above, under the head of Cornwall). The Isle of Heligoland (5 square miles, and 3,500 inhabi- 248 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scotland: its History. tants), lying in the North Sea, before the mouths of the Weser, Elbe, and Eider, is inhabited by descendants of the ancient Friselanders, was in 1714 subdued by the Danes and annexed to the duchy of Sleswick, and in 1814 ceded by Denmark to the British crown. Heligoland is much resorted to for sea- bathing. B.— THE KINGDOM OF SCOTLAND. It comprises the northern smaller half of the great eastern island, has 31,268 square miles in extent, and a population of 2,840,000 inhabitants. Little is known about the aborigines of Scotland ; they were called Caledonians by the Romans, who conquered a part of the country. The Picts, mentioned at a later period, seem to have been identical with the Caledonians ; while the Scots had their primitive home in Ireland, from whence they emigrated at an early period of the Christian era. They sub- dued, in 836, the Picts, and became since the ruling people, though since the 8th century intermingled with the Angles and Saxons. From the 9th to the 13th century, they were ruled by kings of the house of Kenneth, which became extinct in 1289. Now a long struggle arose for the crown between the two mighty families of Baliol and Bruce, when finally the latter became possessed of it. In 1371, it was transferred to Robert Stuart, a nephew of King David of the house of Bruce. That James VI., son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne in 1603, thus uniting both kingdoms, is already related in the British history. Scotland is, by the Grampian hills, divided into the Highlands and Lowlands, and politically into 32 shires, or counties, inclusive GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 249 Scotland : its Geographical Divisions. numerous islands. The latter, however, we shall describe sepa- rately, in order to get a clearer view of them. The Lowland counties are the following : — 1. Mid- Lothian, or Edinburghshire, containing : -{-Edinburgh, the metrop- olis of Scotland, quite near the Frith of Forth, 396 miles north by west of London, with about 13,000 houses, and 190,000 inhabitants (including Leith). The new town, on the north, regularly laid out and built of freestone, is one of the most beautiful towns of Europe. The most remarkable public edifices of the city are, Holyrood, once the residence of the Scottish kings (the rooms inhabited by Mary Stuart are left in their former condition and arrangement), and Edinburgh Castle, likewise conspicuous in Scottish "history. Edinburgh has but few manufactures, yet it has long been noted for its science and learn- ing, and especially its university is distinguished Leith, its seaport, was formerly 2 miles distant, but is now joined to Edinburgh by continuous ranges of buildings. Musselburgh (with 10,000 inhabitants) and Dalkeith (with 7,000 inhabitants), towns. 2. West Lothian, or Linlithgowshire, containing: -{-Linlithgow, a town about 5 miles distant from the Frith of Forth, with 6,000 inhabitants, and an ancient royal palace, where Mary Stuart was born in 1542. Borrowstownness (in common life, Bo'ness) and Bathgate, towns, with respectively 8,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. 3. East Lothian, or Haddingtonshire, containing : -{-Haddington, a town on the Tyne, with 6,000 inhabitants. Dunbar, a maritime town, 32 miles east-north-east of Edinburgh, is noted for the battle on the 3d of September, 1650, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Prestonpans, a town noted for a battle in 1745, has 3,000 inhabitants. 4. Berwickshire, or Mersc, containing : -{-Greenlaw, a borough on the Black Adder, with 2,000 inhabitants. The town of Dunse, with 4,000 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle fairs. The renowned scholar of the middle ages, Duns Scotus (-(- 1308), was born here in 1274. Coldstream, a borough on the Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The British Coldstream Regiment bears its name from this place. 5. Roxburghshire, or Teviotdale, containing : -{-Hawick, a town on the Teviot, with 6,000 inhabitants. The village of Melrose is noted for an ancient Gothic monastery, founded in the 12th century by David I. Kelso, a borough, with 5,000 inhabitants. Jedburgh, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 11 # 250 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 6. Selkirkshire, containing : -(-Selkirk, a borough on the Ettrick, with 4,000 inhabitants. Galoshields, a village on the Galowater, with 1,500 inhabitants. 7. Peeblesshire, or Tweeddale, containing: -[-Peebles, a borough on the Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The villages of Innerleithen and Newlands, are noted for their mineral waters. 8. Dumfriesshire, containing : -(-Dumfries, a town on the Nith, southward and 64 miles distant from Edinburgh, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 15,000 inhabitants. The borough of Moffat, on the Evan, with mineral waters, and 3,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to as a bathing place. Other boroughs of this county are : Langholm (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sanquhar (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Wanlockhead (with lead mines). The village of Gretna Green, in the extreme south, on the English border, is famous for marriages of runaway lovers from England. Annan, a town on the Solway frith, with 6,000 inhabitants. 9. Kirkcudbrightshire, or East Galloway, containing: -(-Kirkcudbright, a town at the mouth of the Dee, and on the Solway frith, with 5,000 inhabi- tants. New Galloway (with 1,500 inhabitants) and Creetown (with 3,000 inhabitants), boroughs. 10. Wigtonshire, or West Galloway, containing: -(-"Wigton, a town on the Wigton Bay, with 3,500 inhabitants. Port Patrick, a borough on the North Channel, is a station of packets for Ireland, and has 4,000 inhabitanta Stranrawer, or Stranraer (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Newton Stuart (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 11. Ayrshire, containing: -(-Ayr, a town on the Frith of Clyde, with con- siderable leather manufactories, and 9,000 inhabitants. In the time of Wallace and Bruce, viz. : at the end of the 13th, and in the beginning of the 14th century, Ayr was the scene of great events. Newton upon Ayr, a borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Kilmarnock, a town on the Irwin, is noted for its carpets, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Irwin (with 7,000 inhabitants), Androssan (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Saltcoats (with 4,000 inhabitants), boroughs. 12. Lanarkshire, ox Clydesdale, containing : -(-Lanark, a town on the Upper Clyde, with 9,000 inhabitants, and an important wool-spinning factory at New Lanark Glasgow, a city on the Clyde, westward and 46 miles distant from Edinburgh, has 280,000 inhabitants, and is thus the largest city in Scotland, and at the same time the first in commerce and manufactures, and especially noted for fine cotton goods. Its university is celebrated, and its cathedral is GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 261 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. the best preserved specimen of Gothic architecture in Scotland. In the neighborhood are the celebrated Clyde Iron Works, and the lead mines known by the name of Leadhills, which belong to the earl of Hopetoun. Cambusneath, a borough with 4,000 inhabitants. Hamilton, a town on the Clyde, with 10,000 inhabitants, and a splendid palace of the duke of Hamilton. 13. Renfrewshire, containing : -[-Renfrew, a borough on the Clyde, with 3,500 inhabitants. Paisley, a manufacturing town, on the Cart, with 60,000 inhabitants, is especially noted for the manufacture of the finest cotton goods, and for the intelligence of her operative weavers. Once there was a celebra- ted abbey here. Greenock, a maritime town, near the mouth of the Clyde, is the principal seaport of the Scotch west coast, and has 36,000 inhabitants. Port Glasgow is the seaport of Glasgow. The villages of Kilbarchan (with 4,500 inhabitants), Johnstown (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Eaglesham (with 2,500 inhabitants), are noted for their cotton manufactures. 14. Stirlingshire, containing : -["Stirling, a town, on the Forth, 32 miles west-north-west of Edinburgh, is noted for its castle, anciently one of the bulwarks of the kingdom, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is Bannockburn, where on the 14th of June, 1314, King Edward II. of England was totally defeated by the Scotch under Robert Bruce. Falkirk, a town, on the Carron, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Near Falkirk are the considerable iron-works in the village of Carron. The borough of Grangemouth, at the mouth of the Carron, has 4,000 inhabitants, Buchanan, a beautiful country-seat of the duke of Montrose. 15. Dumbartonshire, containing: -}-Dumbarton, a town, on the Clyde, 14 miles west-north west of Glasgow, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its castle, the ancient stronghold of the Scots, towering on the summit of a per- pendicular rock 500 feet in height. The village of Helensburgh (with 1,200 inhabitants), is noted for sea-bathing. 16. Clackmannanshire, containing : -{-Clackmannan, a town, on the Forth, with 5,000 inhabitants. Alloa, or Alloway, a town, on the Forth, with 7,000 inhabitants. Tillicoultry, a romantically situated village, on the Devon, with 1,500 inhabitants. 17. Fife, or Fifeshire, containing : -(-Cupar, a town, on the Eden, with linen manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants. St. Andrews, a city on the coast, be- tween the friths of Forth and Tay, with a remarkable cathedral, a university, canvass and linen manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants Before the reforma- tion St. Andrews was the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland. The neigh- 252 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. boring town of Dunfermline (with 20,000 inhabitants), is noted for its cotton and linen manufactures, and was anciently very often the residence of the Scottish kings. Kirkaldy, a town, on the Frith of Forth, with linen manufac- tures, sea-bathing, and 6,000 inhabitants. Burntisland, a borough, on the Frith of Forth, with 3,500 inhabitants. 18. Kinross-shire, containing: -{-Kinross, a town, with linen and cotton manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants, is romantically situated on the Lochleven, a lake with an isle, on which are the ruins of a castle where Mary Stuart was in 1567 kept prisoner for a while. 19. Buteshire, comprising the following islands in the frith of Clyde, hav- ing a total area of 213 square miles, and a population of 18,000 inhabitants : the small but fertile isle of Bute, containing Rothsay, with 5,000 inhabitants, much resorted to for sea-bathing ; the larger isle of Arran, where Ossian shall have lived, containing Lamlash, a borough, with a fine harbor, and 6,000 inhabitants ; — Ailsa and the Cumbrays, very small isles. 20. Forfaxshire, or Angus, containing : -(-Forfax, a town on a lake of the same name, northward and 23 miles distant from Dundee, with 9,000 inhabi- tants. Dundee, a city on the frith of Tay, northward and 46 miles distant from Edinburgh, has 64,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its sail-cloth and other manufactures of hemp and coarse linen. Dundee is at the same time one of the principal seaports of Scotland, as is also Montrose, a town at the mouth of the Esk, with various manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Bre- chin, a town on the Esk, with 1,000 inhabitants. Arbroath, or Aberbrothik, a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a once stately abbey. In the vicinity is a celebrated light-house, on the solitary rook called Bellrock. 21. Kinkardine, or Mearns, containing : -|-Stonehaven, a maritime town, between Aberdeen and Montrose, with 5,000 inhabitants. Bervie, or Inver- bervie, a borough, with 1,500 inhabitants. Laurencekirk (with 1,000 inhabi- tants), and Finnan, villages. 22. Aberdeenshire, containing : + Aberdeen, the largest city on the north side of the Forth, at the mouth of the Dee, 100 miles north-north-east of Edinburgh, has 70,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, and as the chief ship-building port in Scotland. Peterhead, a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabi- tants, mineral-waters, sea-bathing, and herring fishery. Frasersburgh, a borough, with 3,000 inhabitants, is situated near Kinnaird's Head, where the Scottish coast takes a westerly direction. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 253 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 23. Banffshire, containing : -(-Banff, a town on the North Sea, 42 miles north-north-west of Aberdeen, is noted for its linens, and herring fishery, and has 8,000 inhabitants. St. Fergus (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Garmouth (with 2,500 inhabitants), boroughs on the North Sea. Other boroughs are Portsoy, Cullen, Fochabers, and Findhorn. 24. Elginshire, or Moray, containing : -(-Elgin, a town on the Lossie, with an ancient, yet very remarkable Gothic cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants. Forres, a borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. 25. Nairnshire, containing: -(-Nairn, a town on the Murray frith, with 4,000 inhabitants, and sea-bathing. The Highland counties are the following : — 26. Perthshire, containing : -(-Pjerth, a town on the Tay, westward and 23 miles distant from Dundee, is noted for its schools, and for its cotton and linen manufactures, and has 22,000 inhabitants. In the ancient castle of Scone, about 5 miles distant from Perth, the Scottish kings used to be crowned. The ancient castle of Glammis is supposed to be that where King Duncan was murdered by Macbeth, while the latter shall have resided in the castle of Dunsinan. The lake known by the name of Loch Katerine, has become celebrated by Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. Dunkkld, a borough on the Tay, with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently the capital of the Caledonian king- dom, and is the pride of Scotland for grand and picturesque scenery. The borough of Abernethy, on the Tay, was once the capital of the Picts. 27. Inverness-shire, containing : -(-Inverness, considered as the capital of the Highlands, is situated at the head of Murray frith, and noted for its schools, and manufactures of tartans, linen, and cotton goods; its population is 18,000 inhabitants. Inverlochy Castle shall once have been the residence of the Caledonian kings. About the Hebrides, the middlemost isles of which belong to this county, see below. 28. Argyleshire, or the Western Highlands, containing : -[-Inverary, a town on the Loch Fyne, north-westward and 46 miles distant from Glasgow, with 8,000 inhabitants, herring fishery, and the splendid palace of the duke of Argyle. Appin, a borough on the Loch Linnhe, with 2,500 inhabitants. Campbelltown, a commercial town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its herring fishery, and situated on the long and narrow peninsula of Cantyre. The beautiful valley of Coe, or Glen-Coe, was, according to a tale of ancient 254 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scotland : its Geographical Divisions and its Islands. times, the birth-place of Ossian. About the Hebrides, whose southernmost isles belong to this county, see below. 29. Cromarty, containing : -{"Cromarty, a town on the Murray frith, north- ward and 23 miles distant from Inverness, is noted for its fishery, and has 5,000 inhabitants. 30. Ross, containing: -{-Dingwall, a town on the Cromarty frith, with 4,000 inhabitants. Tain, a town on the Dornoch frith, with 3,500 inhabi- tants. About the Hebrides, whose northernmost isles belong to this county, see below. 31. Sutherland, containing : -j-Dornoch, a town on the frith of the same name, with 3,000 inhabitants. Edderachyllis, a borough, with 1,800 inhabi- tants. 32. Caithness, the northernmost county of Scotland, containing : -{-Thurso, a maritime and the northernmost town of the British main land, with 6,000 inhabitants. John o' Groat's house is the most northern residence on this main land. The maritime town of Wick (with 10,000 inhabitants), is noted for the herring fishery. The chief groups of the Scottish islands, are the following : — (a.) The Hebrides, or Western Islands, between 200 and 300 in number, with a total population of 90,000 inhabitants, who, for the most part, are Roman Catholics. In the 9th century, the Hebrides were conquered by the Norwe- gians, but subsequently subjected to the sway of the Scottish kings. The most remarkable of the islands are : Islay, or Isla (the southernmost, 84 square miles in extent, and with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its black-colored cattle, and linen manufactures) ; Jura (only with 1,200 inhabitants) ; Mull (341 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in hus- bandry) ; Staffa (only half a mile in diameter, but remarkable for one of the greatest curiosities in nature, called FingaTs Cave, which is more than 200 feet long, and, at its opening, 42 feet wide : on each side it is bounded by splendid basaltic columns in perpendicular ranges, supporting at the top a roof, 66 feet above the water, and formed by the broken ends of other basaltic columns ; the cave was accidentally discovered in 1772, by an Irishman) ; Iona, or Icolmkill (near Staffa, is noted in history as the residence of monks, who lived in a monastery founded by St. Columban about the middle of the 6th century, and diffused the light of learning and Christianity through many GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 255 Scottish Islands. parts of northern Europe) ; Coll (with 1,300 inhabitants) ; Tyree (with 3,200 inhabitants) ; Skye (788 square miles, but only with 20,000 inhabitants, and the neighboring little isles of Rum and Canna) ; Lewis (894 square miles, yet with not more than 15,000 inhabitants, and the borough oiStornoway) ; North Uist, and South Uist (with respectively 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants); St. K>lda (a solitary isle, 21 square miles in extent, and inhabited by about 150 industrious islanders, who are much engaged in catching sea-fowl). (b.) The Orkney Islands, separated from the northern extremity of Scottish main land by the Pentland Frith They are 67 in number, 29 of which are inhabited, with a total population of 40,000 inhabitants. These islands are the resort of vast numbers of sea-fowl, which the islanders catch by descend- ing with ropes, from the high cliffs to which the birds resort The Orkneys were in the 9th centuiy conquered by the Norwegians, and subsequently ruled by native earls, until they became subjected to the crown of Scotland. The principal island is Pomona (213 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), whose capital, Kirkwall (with 2,500 inhabitants), was anciently the residence of the sovereign earls of the Orkneys. Stromness is the chief seaport of the island. (c.) The Shetland Islands, north-eastward from the former, 86 in number (yet only 40 are inhabited), with a total area of 980 square miles, and a total population of 30,000 inhabitants. The little horses of Shetland, known by the name of ponie9, are of great use in mountainous districts. The wool- len stockings knitted by the islanders, are an article much in demand. The Shetland Islands, conquered by the Norwegians in the 9th century, were given in dowry to a Norwegian princess, who towards the end of the 15 th century was married to King James III. of Scotland. The principal island is Shetland, or Mainland, with 16,000 inhabitants, and the borough and sea- port of Lerwick (with 1,200 inhabitants). The most fertile and beautiful island is Yell (149 square miles, and 2,000 inhabitants). The northernmost is Unst (43 square miles, and 2,400 inhabitants). 256 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ireland : Historical Sketch and Geographical Divisions. C— THE KINGDOM OF IRELAND. It comprises the great island of the same name, lying west of Great Britain, has an area of 28,095 square miles, and a popu- lation of 8,600,000 inhabitants. The Romans did never set a foot on the Irish shore, and for this reason the early history of this country is but little known until the 4th century, when the Irish, in that period called Scots, began to make their inroads into Scotland. So early as in the beginning of the 5th century Christianity was introduced in Ireland, especially by Patricius, or St. Patrick. The country was then ruled by many chiefs ; subsequently the four present provinces were independent king- doms. That Ireland in 1172 was conquered by the English, has already been related above. Ireland is divided into the 4 provinces of Leinster, Ulster, Con- naught, and Munster, which are subdivided into 32 counties. I. The province of Leinster, comprising the south-eastern part of Ireland, is divided into 12 counties, viz.: — 1. The county of Dublin, containing: -)-DuBLiN, the capital of Ireland, on both sides and at the mouth of the river LifFey, with 310,000 inhabitants, numerous and beautiful public edifices (among ■which St. Patrick's Cathedral, the Bank of Ireland, the Exchange, and the Four Courts, are conspicuous), a university, 6 monasteries, 7 nunneries, many- manufactures of linen, silks, cotton goods, etc., and an extensive commerce. With its seaport, Kingston, Dublin is connected by an atmospheric railway. 2. The county of Wicklow, containing : -j-Wickxow, a maritime town, on the Irish Sea, with 3,500 inhabitants. Arklow, a town, with 2,000 inhabitants. Bray, and Rathdrum, boroughs with respectively 2,000 and 1,800 inhabitants. 3. The county of Wexford, containing : -{-Wexford, a town on St. George's Channel, with mineral waters, and 12,000 inhabitants. Enniscorthy, and New Ross, towns with respectively 7,000 and 9,000 inhabitants. 4. The county of Kilkenny, containing : -J-Kilkenny, a town on the Norr, with GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 257 Ireland : its Geographical Divisions. 30,000 inhabitants, a stately castle of the earl of Ormond, and one of the finest cathedrals in Ireland. Moreover, Kilkenny is noted for its beautiful white and black marble. The borough of Castle Comer is noted for its coal. 5. The county of Carlow, or Catherlagh, containing: -J-Carlow, a town on the Barrow, with a remarkable ancient abbey, and 10,000 inhabitants. Tul- low, a town on the Slaney, with 3j000 inhabitants. 6. The county of Kildare, containing : -J-Kildare, a town on the so-called Curragh of Kildare, is noted for horse-races, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Athy (with 4,000 inhabitants), Naas (with an ancient castle, once the resi- dence of the kings of Leinster, and 3,500 inhabitants), and Maynooth (with a noted Catholic college, and 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Queen's County, contain- ing : -{"Maryborough, G r Queenstown, a town south-westward and 60 miles distant from Dublin, with 4,000 inhabitants. This town bears its name in honor of Queen Mary, who reigned from 1553 to 1558. Other towns of this county are : Mount Mellick (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Mountrath (with 5,000 inhabitants). 8. King's County, containing : -[-Philipstown, a town on the Grand Canal, bears its name in honor of King Philip of Spain, consort of the above-nam»d Queen Mary, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Tullamore (with 8,000 inhabitants), Banagher (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Birr, or Parsonstown (with 6,000 inhabitants). 9. The county of West Meath, containing : -j-Mullingar, a town on the Royal Canal, with 6,000 inhabitants. Athlone, a town, with 12,000 inhabitants. 10. The county of East Meath, or Meath, containing: -{-Trim, a town on a branch of the Boyne, with 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kells (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Navan (with 7,000 inhabitants). 11. The county of Longford, containing : -{-Longford, a town on the Camlin, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Granard (with 4,000 in- habitants), and Lanesborough (with 5,000 inhabitants). 12. The county of Louth, containing : -{-Dundalk, a town on the bay of the same name, carries on a considerable commerce, and has 16,000 inhabitants. Drogheda, a town at the mouth of the Boyne, with considerable commerce, and 22,000 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this county are : Carlingford (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Ardee (with 4,000 inhabitants). II. The province of Ulster, comprising the northern part of Ireland, is divided into 9 counties, viz.: — 13. The county of Antrim, containing: -[-Car- rickfergus, a town on the Belfast Lough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Belfast, the emporium of the north of Ireland, and centre of the linen trade, at the 258 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ireland: its Geographical Divisions head of the Belfast Lough, northward and 92 miles distant from Dublin, has 56,000 inhabitants. Antrim (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lisburn (with 7,000 inhabitants), Balleyma (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lame (with 5,000 inhabi- tants), and Ballycastle (with 2,500 inhabitants), towns. Within the limits of this county is the Giants causeway, an astonishing work of nature, consisting of vast numbers of perpendicular columns of basaltic rock, from 200 to 400 feet high, compacted together over a space 600 feet long by about 180 broad, and projecting into the sea an unknown distance. 14. The county of London- derry, or Berry, containing : -{-Londonderry, a considerable seaport town, at the mouth of the Foyle river, 115 miles north-north-west of Dublin, is strongly fortified (in 1690-1 it sustained a siege by the forces of James II.), carries on an important trade with America and the West Indies, and has 18,000 inhabit- ants. Coleraine, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 15. The county of Donegal, or Tyrconel, containing : -j-Lifford, a town on the Foyle, with 2,500 inhabitants. Donegal, a town at the mouth of the Eask, with 4,500 inhabitants. The town of Ballyshannon (with 9,000 inhabitants) is noted for its linen manu- factures. 16. The county of Fermanagh, containing: -j-Enniskillen, a romantically situated town, near the Lough Erne, with linqn manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. 17. The county of Tyrone, containing: -4-Omagh, a town on the Roe, with 4,000 inhabitants. Dungannon, a town on the Lough Neagh, has 7,000 inhabitants, and is the chief seat of the O'Neals, known by their animosity against the English. Strabane, a town on the Foyle, with 8,000 inhabitants. 18. The county of Cavan, containing : -j-Cavan (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Belturbet (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 19. The county of Monaghan, containing : -{-Monaghan, a town with linen manufac- tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Carrickmacross, a town, with 3,500 inhabitants. 20. The county of Armagh, containing : -{-Armagh, a town on the Callen, is the ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland, and has 10,000 inhabitants, who are much engaged in the linen trade. The town of Lurgan (with linen trade, and 5,000 inhabitants), is sometimes called Little England. 21. The county of Down, containing : -(-Downpatrick, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted as the burial-place of St Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Newry, a considerable seaport town, with 16,000 inhabitants. Donaghadee, a maritime town, with 5,000 inhabitants, and a ferry between it and Port Patrick in Scotland, the shortest route by sea to Great Britain. Bangor (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Strang ford (with 1,800 inhabitants), towns. IIL The province of Connaught, comprising the middlemost part of western GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 259 Ireland: its Geographical Divisions. [reland, is divided into 5 counties, viz. : — 22. The county of Galway, contain- ng: + Galway, a town on the Galway Bay, has 36,000 inhabitants, carries m a considerable trade, and is noted as a resort of the gentry for sea-bathing. Tuam, a towu on the Clare, is the seat of an Anglican archbishop, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Loughrea (with linen trade, and 7,000 inhabitants), and Ballinasloe (noted for the greatest cattle fairs in Ireland, with 8,000 inhabitants). 23. The county of Mayo, containing : -{-Castlebar, a town near Lough Lanach, with linen manufactures, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Killala (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ballinrobe (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ballina (with 7,000 inhabitants). 24. The county of Sligo, containing : 4-Sligo, a considerable seaport town, on the bay of the same name, with 15,000 inhabitants. 25. The county of Leitrim, containing : -j-Carrick on Shannon, a town on the Shannon, with 2,500 inhab- itants. The town of Leitrim (with 3,000 inhabitants) is also situated on the Shannon. 26. The county of Roscommon, containing : -f~ Roscommon, a town, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Boyle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Athlone, or Etholone (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Castlereagh (with 2,500 inhabitants). IV. The province of Munster, comprising the south-western part of Ireland, is divided into 6 counties, viz. : — 27. The county of Cork, containing : -|"Cork, the second Irish city in population, having 130,000 inhabitants, is the emporium of the south of Ireland, and chief mart of the provision trade ; and its harbor, called the Cove, is strongly fortified and one of the best in the world. On the isle Great-Island, within the harbor, is the town of Cove, with 7,000 inhab- itants. Bandon, a town on the river of the same name, with linen and cotton manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kinsale (with 8,000 inhabitants), Micheltown (with 4,000 inhabitants), Youghall (with 10,000 inhabitants), Mallow (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Fermoy (with 6,000 inhabitants). 28. The county of Waterford, containing : -j-Waterford an import seaport town, 70 miles east-north-east of Cork, and 92 miles south- south-west of Dublin, has 60,000 inhabitants, and an extensive intercourse with England and Wales, and is noted for its trade in provisions, and New- foundland fishery. Dcjngarvan, the largest fishing town in Ireland, westward and 30 miles distant from Waterford, with 6,000 inhabitants. Lismore, a town on the Blackwater, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral, and a castle, reared in 1185 by King Henry II., and at present belonging to the duke of Devonshire. 29. The county of Tipperary, containing : -{-Clonmel, EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ireland : its Geographical Divisions— The British Colonies. a town on the Suire, is the centre for the Irish butter trade, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Tipperary, a town near the Suire, south-westward and 100 miles distant from Dublin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cashel, a town, with 9,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of an ancient cathedral, where the kings of Munster were crowned. Other towns of this county are : Carrick on Suire (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Thurles (with 6,000 inhabitants). 30. The county of Clare, containing : -j-Ennis, a town on the Fergus, is noted for its stately Gothic abbey, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Killaloe, a town on the Shannon, with 2,500 inhabitants. 31. The county of Limerick, containing : -J-Limerick, an important commercial town, on the Shannon, north-westward and 70 miles distant from Waterford, has 70,000 inhabitants, is largely engaged in the provision trade, and was formerly noted for the strongest fortress in Ireland, and for its firm stand in the cause of the Catholics. 32. The county of Kerry, containing : -|-Tralee, a town on the Atlantic Ocean, with considerable fishery, and 10,000 inhabitants. Killarney, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants, is situated on the lake of Killarney, which is celebrated for the beauty and grandeur of its scenery. Dingle, a town, with 6,000 inhabitants. The British possessions and colonies are the following : — {a.) In Europe : 1. The isle of Heligoland (see above). 2. Gib- raltar (see under the head of Spain). 3. Malta (see under the head of Italy). 4. The Ionian Isles, which will be found described elsewhere in this work. (b.) In Africa : Settlements in Senegambia and Upper Guinea ; moreover, Cape Colony, St. Helena, Mauritius, etc. (c.) In Asia : Hindoostan, provinces in Farther India, Ceylon (belonging to the crown), Singapore, Hongkong, etc., etc. (d.) In Australia : The continent of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and Norfolk Island. . (e.) In America : British North America, Guiana, and many islands of the West Indies, Bahamas, etc. « The total area of all these possessions and colonies is estimated at 4,686,000 square miles, and the total population at 131,000,000 inhabitants. THE NETHERLANDS. Total area : 24,644 square miles. Total population : 7,558,000 inhabitants. Holland and Belgium, together, were from old styled the Netherlands, or Lowlands, on account of their level physical character, so that parts of their surface are even lower than the eea, which is prevented from overflowing the land by vast dikes, or embankments. Thus, while Holland and Belgium are political names, the Netherlands are a geographical name, like that of Italy, for instance. By first giving a general view of all Netherlands, in their common physical and natural character, we avoid, at the same time, the inconvenience of numerous repeatings. The Netherlands are a maritime country, at the north-western frontier of Germany, and on the north bounded by the North Sea. Since the revolution of 1830, they are divided into two kingdoms, the northernmost of which is styled the Kingdom of the Nether- lands* (until the year 1795, it was a republic known by the name of the United Provinces of the Netherlands), while the southern is styled the Kingdom of Belgium (till towards the end of last century, known by the name of Austrian Netherlands). * In common life, it is sometimes called the kingdom of Holland, but a kingdom of this name has never existed, except in the short period from 1806 to 1810; and Holland has never been anything else than a province of the whole state. 262 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Netherlands : Political Division, Climate, etc. Both were however united, first until the last quarter of the 16th century, and then again in the period from 1815 to 1830. Of the above-stated total area and population — Square miles. Inhabitants. The kingdom of the Netherlands proper takes up . 11,832 2,926,000 Its provinces of Luxemburg and Limburg, which politically belong to Germany, take up .... 1,395 282,000 The Kingdom of Belgium takes up 11,411 4,350,000 Total, 24,644 1,558,000 The country, as has already been mentioned, is level, with the exception of a small part in the south-east, where low hills grad- ually rise to the Ardennes (see Introduction to Europe, page 6). Mostly there is no great variety in the scenery of the landscape ; especially in the North Netherlands, grass and cows, canals and wind-mills, and cleanly villages, or towns, invariably relieve one another with picturesque effect. About the Zuyder Zee, Dollart, the lakes and rivers, as the Meuse, Scheldt, etc., see pages 9, 11, and 16. The country is intersected by numerous canals, the most remarkable of which is the great canal of North Holland, extending from the Helder to Amster- dam, cost several million of florins, and will float a ship of the line. The climate is in general more moderate than in eastern coun- tries in the same parallels, but frequently moist. In the southern half of the Netherlands it is somewhat more wholesome than in the northern half. The more or less marshy soil is (with the exception of the North Netherland province of Drenthe, and the Belgian province of Luxemburg) extraordinary fertile. In North Netherlands is the rearing of cattle prevailing, and in Belgium agriculture which has attained here the highest pitch of improvement. THE NETHERLANDS. 203 Geographical Features— History. Belgium abounds in iron and coal ; the kingdom of the Neth- erlands abounds in peat, which is almost the only fuel used there. The cattle is of an excellent breed, especially in the proviuces of Groningen, Utrecht and Holland, South Brabant, East and West Flanders. The horses too are of a good breed. Butter of fiue quality is indeed raised in Belgium, but by far more in the king- dom of the Netherlands, where butter and cheese are largely exported, partly even to America and India. The most numer- ous flocks of sheep are to be found in the provinces of Luxem- burg, Flanders, Groningen, Friesland, and North Holland. The rearing of hogs is chiefly carried on in the provinces of Liege, Namur, Luxemburg, and Friesland. The waters abound in fishes of various kinds. Extensive forests are not to be found in the kingdom of the Netherlands, and are in Belgium very scarce, except in Luxemburg, and partly in Hainault, Liege, and Namur. The Belgian soil yields excellent wheat ; moreover, hemp and flax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. In the northern half of the Netherlands sufficient corn for home consumption is not raised, but so much the more vegetables (even largely ex- ported), rape-seed, etc. Besides this the province of Holland is several centuries since noted for its culture of flowers, especially of tulips. In this province are also raised vast quantities of ex- cellent strawberries. Of commerce, manufactures, etc., shall be treated separately below ; and we will now give an historical sketch of all Nether- lands until their separation during the reign of King Philip II. of Spain, their sovereign then. History. — In the days of the Romans, the southern half of the Netherlands was inhabited by the Belgians, and the northern half by the Batavians ; at the northern boundaries of the latter lived the Frie&es, or Frieslanders. About the year 54 before the Christian era, Julius Csesar subdued the Bel- gians and Frieses, and entered upon friendly terms with the Batavians. Since 264 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Netherlands— Historical Sketch. the decay of the Roman empire the Netherlands came under the sway of the Franks ; and by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 32) the northern, and after 887 also the remainiug part of the Netherlands was an- nexed to the German empire. The German emperors appointed dukes and earls governors of the Netherlandish provinces ; yet gradually they made their office inheritable and themselves independent so early as in the 10th century. In this way arose the earldoms of Flanders, Holland, the duchy of Brabant, and other lordships. In 1369 Margaret, the only heiress of Flanders entered into marriage with Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus be- came possessed of that earldom (see History of Burgundy, page 200). At the same time the line of the ancient dukes of Brabant had become extinct, and the only heiress, Johanna of Brabant, bequeathed the duchy to her grand- nephew, Anton of Burgundy, the son of Philip the Bold. In the course of time other parts of the Netherlands were annexed to these possessions, and in the latter half of the 15th century, nearly the whole was under the sway of the duke of Burgundy. The last duke in the male line of this house, Charles the Bold, died in 1477, and his only daughter, Mary, inherited the Netherlands together with Burgundy proper. She was married to the Aus- trian archduke Maximilian ; and their son Philip was married with Johanna of Castile, the only heiress of the united crowns of Castile and Aragou. Philip's and Johanna's eldest son, the renowned emperor Charles V., inherited all these immense possessions, and bequeathed the Netherlands, together with Spain, etc., to his son Philip II of Spain. During the reign of the latter the northern provinces of the Netherlands separated themselves from the south- ern provinces, as an independent state, by the name of the " Republic of the United Provinces." As such they were preliminarily acknowledged by Spain in 1609, and definitively in 1648. The southern provinces continued to be an- nex^l to Spain, until by the terms of the treaty, concluded at Rastadt on the 7th of March, 1714, they were ceded to Austria, which in 1797 ceded them to France. In 1814 they were restored to Austria, that however re- nounced them in favor of an arrangement, by which the northern and southern provinces were reunited under the name of the " Kingdom of the Nether- lands." But, as has already been told, the revolution in 1830 separated them again ; and since that time the northern provinces have retained the name of a kingdom of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces are united to a " Kingdom of Belgium." THE NETHERLANDS. 265 The Kingdom of the Netherlands. I— THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS* Aeea: 13,227 square miles. Population : 3,208,000 inhabitants. Of the here-stated area and population are to be deducted 1,395 square miles, and 282,000 inhabitants, as belonging to the grand- duchy of Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, which 'politically form part of Germany, though they are ruled by the sovereign of the Netherlands. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands proper has 2,926,000 inhabitants, among whom the prevailing religion is Calvinism. But all religions are tolerated, and more than one third of the people are Catholics (according to the census of 1844, their number was 1,100,616, inclusive those of Luxemburg). In point of origin, the Netherlanders, or Dutch, belong to the great Germanic tribe. (See Introduction to Europe, page 19.) Beside the rearing of cattle and other branches of husbandry, the chief means of sustenance is the commerce, that extends over all parts of the world. The emporiums are Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Some provinces are noted for their manufactures, especially of linen and paper. Yet, upon the whole, this kingdom is more a commercial than a manufacturing state. I Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities, viz. : at Leyden (instituted in 1575, and in 1846 frequented by 602 students), at Groningen (instituted in 1616, and in 1846 frequented by 300 students), and at Utrecht (instituted in 1636, and in 1846 frequented by 444 students). Three other similar institutions, * Frequently called Holland, but that a kingdom of Holland does not exist, has been already remarked 12 266 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Kingdom of the Netherlands : its Finance —Navy— Army. on a smaller scale, styled Atbenaea, are in Amsterdam. Franeker, and Deventer. Beside these, there are 68 Latin schools, 9 seminaries,* 70 secondary, 2,125 public schools, etc. The government is a constitutional monarchy, limited by rep. resentatives of the people in two chambers, styled General States. In 1847, the public revenue was estimated at 70,742,323, and the expenditure at 70,283,555 florins, which thus would have yielded a surplus of 458,768 florins. The public debt amounted to 1,232,961,711 florins, but inclusive more than 203,000,000 from the period 1815-1830. which are to be paid by Belgium. The Netherlandish colonies in India, yielded in 1844 a nett revenue of 2,123,424 florins. The army amounted, hitherto, to 43,000 men during peace, and to 76,000 during war, beside 25,000 men of Schutters, or militia, who could be increased to 80.000 men in case of neces- sity. Yet lately a reduction of the army has taken place. The navy consists of 9 ships of the line, 19 frigates, and 37 sloops of war, brigs, etc., 14 steamers, and 87 gun-boats. (About the year 1790, the navy consisted of 24 ships of the line, and 40 other vessels of war, but the English seized nearly the whole of it.) The Netherlandish navy in the eastern colonies, consists of 1 frigate, and 20 other vessels. There are the following orders of honor : — 1 . The military order of William, in 4 classes, instituted in 1 8 1 5. 2. The Netherlandish lion order, likewise in 4 classes, and instituted in 1815. 3. The Luxemburgian order of the oak crown, instituted in 1841. History. — In the history of the Netherlands, the above mentioned separa- tion of the northern provinces from the whole political body, was chiefly urged by the Prince William of Orange (see page 223), who by King Philip II. had been appointed governor of the provinces of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, and, filled with immoderate ambition and personal hatred against his sove- * About the signification of these terms, see the note, page 65. THE NETHERLANDS. 267 History of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. reign, instigated the people under the pretext of maintaining their rights. He, in 1579, prevailed upon the just-mentioned three provinces and those of Geldern and Friesland, to declare their independence, if not directly, yet indi- rectly, by uniting themselves into the so-called Union, of Utrecht, to which sub- sequently also acceded Groningen and OverysseL These thus united seven provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldern, Friesland, Groningen, and Overyssel) chose the prince of Orange their chief, conferring upon him the modest title of a Stattholder, or vice-regent (to wit, of the king of Spain) ; because they would fain not to appear in the light of rebels, but of having only maintained their rights and privileges. Nevertheless, they actually established an independ- ent republic that became one of the most influential states, and whose navy was in the 17th century the most powerful for a while. Yet their own Stattholder, William III. of Nassau-Orange, having only in view his personal interest, and aiming at the British crown (see British History, page 233), set aside the interest of the republic, and gradually brought it down from its high pitch of jwwer, in favor of England. To the renowned Netherlandish East Indian Company, established in 1602, all the important Netherlandish colonies in Asia, Africa, and America, did belong (though they were held in the name of the General States, or government), and the nett annual profit, earned by this company, was estimated at 3,000,000 ducats. In 1794, the French waged war against the republic, and transformed it into a so-called Batavian Republic ; its last Stattholder, William V., fled to England, and was base enough to deliver over nearly the whole navy to the English. On the other hand, the French compelled the republic to share in their wars, and in this way the Netherlandish colonies were lost and conquered by the English. In 1806, Napoleon transformed the Batavian Republic into a Kingdom of Holland, of which he appointed king his brother Louis, who, however, abdicated in 1810, upon which this state was incorporated with the French empire. In 1813, the Netherlander, or Dutch, proclaimed the son of William V. their sovereign ; England restored most of the conquered colonies, but retained three of the most valuable ones, viz. : Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara. For this loss, Netherland should have been indemnified by the above-stated arrangement of a reunion with the southern provinces. However, in 1830, it was again England that urged the separation, without caring in the least for that stipulation. William T., king of the Netherlands since 1813, abdicated in 1840, and was succeeded by his son William II., who died in 1849, and was succeeded by his son William III., born on the 19th of February, 1817. 268 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions. The kingdom of the Netherlands is divided into 10 provinces, 2 of which, North and South Holland, comprise the ancient province of Holland, while of the 8 others, Drenthe was formerly only a district, and North Brabant (conquered by the ancient republic) belonged to what was styled the " General ty countries." (About Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, see under the head of Germany.) 1. The province of Holland (2,007£ square miles, and, according to the census of 1846, with a population of 1,027,574 inhabitants), which anciently formed the chief constituent part of the earldom of Holland, that in 1299 was inherited by the earls of Hainault, and in 1425 by the duke of Burgundy. At present it is divided into North and South Holland. North Holland (894^ square miles, and in 1846 with 468,737 inhabitants), contains : Amster- dam, the principal city and emporium of the kingdom, on the Amstel river, that disembogues here into the Y (as a branch of the Zuyder Zee is styled), with 225,000 inhabitants. The city is intersected by canals, over which there are 290 bridges, and which mostly are bordered by rows of trees. The houses and streets are kept remarkably clean, and the arrangements in the interior of the former give evidence of great comfort. Among the numerous public edifices, the most remarkable is the royal palace, formerly the city- hall, which was reared in the period from 1648 to 1655, at the expense of 18 million florins. It has 282 feet in front, 235 in breadth, and 116 in height, while its magnificent cupola (containing the finest chime of bells in the Neth- erlands) rises 41 feet above the roof. It is built of freestone, and rests upon a foundation of 13,659 piles, or long timbers, driven into the ground. Am- sterdam was founded in the 12th century. Zaardam, or Saardam, formerly the largest village in Holland, at present a town, in the neighborhood of Am- sterdam, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its numerous windmills (more than 700) and docks, where the Russian emperor, Peter I. in 1697 suf- fered himself to be engaged as an apprentice, in order to get a practical knowledge of the art of ship-building. The village of Broek irit Waterland, the residence of rich inhabitants of Amsterdam, who have retired from busi- ness, is noted for the remarkable cleanliness of its houses and streets. No stranger is allowed to enter any house without having previously pulled off his boots and put on clean slippers. Muiden, or Muyden, (with 1,800 inhabi- THE NETHERLANDS. 269 The Province of Holland. tants), and Naarden (with 3,000 inhabitants), fortified towns on the Zuydcr Zee. Medemblik, on the Zuyder Zee, with 2,800 inhabitants, is considered as the most ancient town in North Holland, and as the residence of the an- cient kings of Friesland. Other towns in North Holland are : Weesp (with 3,200 inhabitants), Monnikendam (with 2,900 inhabitants), Purmerend (with 3,300 inhabitants, largely engaged in the cheese trade), Edam (noted for its cheese, with 4,600 inhabitants), Alkmaar (also noted for its cheese, with 10,000 inhabitants), Enkhuyzen (noted for its herring fishery, with 7,000 in- habitants), and Hoorn (with 10,000 inhabitants, who likewise are largely en- gaged in the butter and cheese trade). The village of Helder, at the entrance to Zuyder Zee, has 2,000 inhabitants, who for the most part consist of pilots, is noted for its excellent harbor, called Nieuwe Diep. Near Helder is the Island of Texel (53 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants), noted for its sheep and cheese. Other smaller islands here are : Vlieland and Terschelling. The town of Haarlem, near the lake of the same name, westward and 12 miles distant from Amsterdam, has 23,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its organ with 8,000 (or, according to other statements, only with 4,500) pipes and 64 registers, and its trade in flowers. South Holland (1,113 square miles, and in 1846 with 558,83*7 inhabitants) contains : the Hague (in Dutch also styled & ' Graavenhaag), the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, near the North Sea, 28 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, with 66,000 inhabi- tants, is one of the most regularly and best built cities in Europe, and con- tains many handsome buildings. The neighboring village of Scheveningest (with 5,600 inhabitants) is much resorted to for sea-bathing. Near the Hague is also the village of Ryswick, with an ancient castle, where the peace of Ryswick was concluded in 1697. Levden, a town between the Hague and Haarlem, with 36,000 inhabitants, is celebrated for its university. Delft, a town situated between the Hague and Rotterdam, with 17,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the burial-place of the princes of Orange, of the Admiral Tromp, etc. The prince, William I. of Orange, was murdered here in 1584. Rotteroam, a city on the Merwe (as the Meuse is called here, see page 16), 52 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, is next to Amsterdam the empo- rium of the kingdom, contains a great many stately houses and remarkable public edifices, and has 83,000 inhabitants. The renowned scholar Erasmus was born here, in 1467. In its neighborhood is the town of Dort, w T ith im- portant commerce, and 21,500 inhabitants ; it is noted in history for the Synod (in 1618 and 1619), which condemned Arminianism. Other towns of South 6* 270 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Provinces of Holland and Zealand. Holland are : Oudeicater (with 2,000 inhabitants), Gouda (noted for its earthen ware, especially tobacco pipes, has 14,000 inhabitants), Schiedam, (noted for its gin, and herring fishery, has 12,500 inhabitants), Maassluis (with 4,500 inhabitants), Vlaardingen (with 8,000 inhabitants), Viancn (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Schoonhoven (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nieuwpoort (with 800 inhabi- tants), Asperen (with 800 inhabitants), Leerdam (with 1,900 inhabitants), and Gorkum (with 8,500 inhabitants). Between Dort and the sea, is the island of Voorne, with the towns of Helvoetsluis (formerly the station of the packets for England, with 2,600 inhabitants), and Briel (with 5,000 inhabitants, noted in history for its occupation by the so-called Watergeuses in 1572). Another island is Over-Flakke, or Zuyd- Voorne, with the town of Goree (with 800 inhabitants). 2. The province of Zealand (649 square miles, and in 1846 with 157,062 inhabitants), comprising islands formed by the mouths of the Scheldt, and a part of the main land, known by the name of Staatsflanders. It was anciently an earldom, which belonged to the earls of Holland, and in 1436 came under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy. Its chief islands are the following : — a. The island of Walcheren, containing ; Middelburg, fortified capital of the province, has 16,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent town halL Flushing, a strongly fortified town, the great naval depot of the kingdom, and station of the navy, with a fine and spacious harbor, and 8,500 inhabi- tants. The renowned Dutch admiral Ruyter, was born here in 1607. Other towns of this island are : Westkapellen (with 1,900 inhabitants), Veere (with 1,500 inhabitants), Domburg (with 600 inhabitants), and Arnemuyden (with 900 inhabitants). 6. The island of Zuid-Beveland, the largest and finest of the province, containing : Goes, a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. Bath, a fort com- manding the entrance to the Scheldt, c. The island of Noord-Beveland, once the most beautiful and most fertile of Zealand, but in 1530 and 1532 laid waste by terrible inundations, contains at present several villages, and the borough of Kortgene, with 700 inhabitants, d. The island of Schouwen, noted for its madder, and containing the towns of Zieriksee (with trade in madder, and 7,500 inhabitants) and Brouwershaven (with numerous breweries, and 1,000 inhabitants), e. The island of Tholen, containing the towns of Tholen (with 3,000 inhabitants) and St. Martensdyk (with 1,500 inhabitants). /. The continental part of Zealand, until 1648 belonging to the ancient earldom of Flanders, and since called Staats-Flanders, or Dutch Flanders, contains the following towns : Sluis (in French, called Ecluse, strongly fortified, with THE NETHERLANDS. 271 The Provinces of Zealand, Utrecht, and (inldern. 2,100 inhabitants), Biervliet (with 2,000 inhabitants), Saa van Gent (with 1,000 inhabitants), Axel (with 2,800 inhabitants), Hulst (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Ysendyk (with 1,300 inhabitants), A ardenburg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Oostburg (with 900 inhabitants), Ter Neuse (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Philippine (with 600 inhabitants). 3. The province of Utrecht (532£ square miles, and in 1846 with 153,083 inhabitants), situated between Holland and Geldern, on the north bounded by the Zuyder Zee, was since the year 695 the lordship of a sovereign bishop, and in 1528 purchased by the Emperor Charles V., who annexed it to the government of Holland. It contains : Utrecht, the capital of the province, on a branch of the Rhine, 20 miles south-south-east of Amsterdam, has 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university, its St. Martin's church, reared in the 14th century, whose steeple is 388 feet high, and for the peace concluded here in 1713. The neighboring village of Zeyst, settled by Moravian Brethren, is noted for its boarding school for young ladies, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Amersfoort, a town on the Eem, 12 miles east-north-east of Utrecht, with 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Rhenen (with 3,000 inhabitants, and the so called king's house, where the unfortunate Elector Frederic V. lived in 1621), Ysselstein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Woerden (with 2,800 inhabitants), Wyk, surnamed te, or by Duurstede (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Montfort (with 1,850 inhabitants). 4. The province of Geldern, or Gelderland (2,007 J square miles, and in 1846 with 366.468 inhabitants), situated between the German frontier and the Zuyder Zee, did primitively belong to the German empire, and was in 1543 annexed to the duchy of Burgundy. It contains : Arnheim, or Arnhem, the capital of the province, 37 miles east-south-east of Utrecht, is strongly fortified, has 15,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of the earls and dukes of Gelderland. Nimeguen, a fortified town on the Waal, southward and 9 mile? distant from Arnheim, has 19,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable for the peace concluded here in 1679. On the neighboring Heath of Mook, the adherents of the Prince William of Orange were in 1574 totally defeated by the Spaniards. Harderwyk, a town on the Zuyder Zee, with 5,200 inhabi- tants, was formerly noted for a university founded in 1648. Zutphen, a town on the Yssel, has 11,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of sove- reign earls of Zutphen, and in the middle ages a member of the Hanseatic League. In its vicinity is the fine royal palace het Loo, with a beautiful garden and park. Other towns of this province are : TJtiel (with 5,200 inhab- 272 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Netherlandish Provinces of Overyssel and Friesland. itants), Bommel, or Salt-Bommel (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kuylenburg (with 5,300 inhabitants), Oroenlo, or Grol (with 2,000 inhabitants), LoeJiem (with 1,800 inhabitants), Borkelo (with 1,200 inhabitants), Doesburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Deutichem (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wageningen (with 4,500 inhab- itants), Elburg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Nieuwkerk (with 5,000 inhabitants), Hattem (with 2,800 inhabitants), Zevenaer, or Sevenaer (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Huissen (with 1,100 inhabitants). 5. The province of Overyssel (1,299 square miles, and in 1846 with 211,279 inhabitants), was anciently, together with Utrecht, under the sway of a sove- reign bishop, and in 1528 purchased by Charles V. and annexed to the duchy of Burgundy ; it contains : Zwoll, strongly fortified capital of the province, near the Yssel and Vechte rivers, north-eastward and 52 miles distant from Utrecht, with 17,500 inhabitants. Deventer, a town on the Yssel, is noted for its honey-cakes, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Campen (with 10,000 inhabitants), Vollenhoven (with 2,200 inhabitants), Hasselt (with 1,500 inhabitants), Almelo (with 3,200 inhabitants), Ommen (with 1,050 inhabitants), Hardenberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Oldenzaal (with 4,800 inhabitants), Enacliede (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Steenwyk (with 2,500 inhabitants). 6. The province of Friesland (1,043| square miles, and in 1846 with 245,266 inhabitants), situated on the North Sea and Zuyder Zee, and sepa- rated from East Friesland (belonging to Germany) by the province of Gronin- gen. Friesland, formerly by way of distinction frequently called West Fries- land (with reference to East Friesland), anciently formed part of the country inhabited by the Frieslanders, and was subsequently ruled by native princes. In the period from 1436 to 1523 it was gradually annexed to the duchy of Bur- gundy, or the Netherlands. It contains : Leeuwarden, the capital of the province, 83 miles north-north-east of Amsterdam, carries on a considerable trade, and has 22,500 inhabitants. Franeker, a town, formerly noted for a university, has 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Haarlingen (with 8,500 inhabitants), Dokkwn (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sneek (with 7,500 inhabitants), Workum (with 3,600 inhabitants), Hindelopen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sta- veren (once the largest town of Friesland, and the residence of its princes, but at present only with 1,800 inhabitants), Bohward (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Heerenveen (with 1,900 inhabitants). Near the coast of Friesland are the isles of Ameland (with 3,300 inhabitants), and Schiermonnikoog (with 2,000 inhabitants). THE NETHERLANDS. 273 The Provinces of Groningen, Dre nthe and North Brabant. 7. The province of Groningen (905£ square miles, and in 1846 with 189,714 inhabitants), situated between Friesland and the German frontier, on the north bounded by the North Sea, was primitively ruled by German governors, who in the course of time made themselves independent, and came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. It contains: Groningen, fortified capital of the province, half way between Leeuwarden and Emden (the latter town belongs to East Friesland), has 31,000 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its university, its town-hall, and St Martin's church with high steeple and excellent organ. ' Delfzyl, a fortified town on the Dollart, with 3,700 inhabitant". The town of Dam, or Apingculam, with 3,600 inhabitants, is noted for its horse marts. Winschoten, a fortified town on the Rensel, with 4,000 inhabitants. Bottutn, a little island near the coast, with 250 inhabitants. . 8. The province of Drenthe (958J square miles, and in 1846 with 80,978 inhabitants), situated between Overyssel and Gelderland, did for a long while belong to the German empire, and came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. In the time of the republic, Drenthe was not a province, but a territory under the immediate government of the General States. It contains : Assen, the capital of the province, on a canal connect- ing it with the Zuyder Zee, southward and 15 miles distant from Groningen, with 2,800 inhabitants. Frederiksoort is a settlement for the poor, who are engaged here in husbandry and other branches of industry, and get in this manner amply the means of sustenance. Its population amounts to 2,500 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the town of Meppel, with 6,500 in- habitants. Koevoerden, a fortified town near the frontier of Germany, with 2,800 inhabitants. 9. The province of North Brabant (1,970 square miles, and in 1846 with 390,386 inhabitants), formerly a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Bra- bant, and in the beginning of the 17th century conquered by the Dutch, contains : Bois le Due (this is the French name, while the Dutch call it Herto- genbosch), strongly fortified capital of the province, in a plain, intersected by canals, 32 miles south-south-east of Utrecht, with a remarkable church and town-hall, numerous manufactures, considerable commerce, and 21,500 inhab- itants. Breda, a strongly fortified town, 23 miles west-south-west of Bois le Due, with 14,500 inhabitants, is noted for its principal church with 2 organs and the sepulchres of several earls of Nassau. By the terms of the treaty of peace concluded here on the 10th of July, 1668, the Netherlandish republic ■jo* 274 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions and C<>k>;iie3. ceded the city of New York (then called New Amsterdam) to England- Other more or less strongly fortified towns of this province are : Bergen op Zoom (with 8,000 inhabitants), Geetruidenberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Steenbergen (with 4,300 inhabitants), the Klundert (with 900 inhabitants), Willemstadt (with 2,000 inhabitants), Heusden (with 2,100 inhabitants), Grave (with 2,800 inhabitants), Ravensteen (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Workum (with 800 inhabitants). Eindhoven, a town on the Dommel, has 4,100 inhab- itants, and is noted for its manufactures of cotton goods, linen, etc. The town of Tilburg (with 13,500 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth manufactures; and the town of Helmond (with 3,200 inhabitants) for its linen manufactures. Osterhout, a borough, with numerous potteries, and 7,500 inhabitants. 10. The duchy of Limburg has, as Netherlandish province, an extent of 852 square miles, and a population of 198,000 inhabitants, but is divided into two districts, of which the one (viz. : the district of Roeremonde) is politically forming part of Germany, and, for this reason, to be described under that head ; while the other, viz. : the district of Maestricht (46 8 J square miles, and in 1846 with 103,931 inhabitants), forms a constituent part of the king- dom of the Netherlands proper, and contains : Maestricht, the capital of this district, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, on the Meuse, has 31,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather manufactures, and its quarry in St Peter's hill containing not less than 20,000 horizontal galleries, which have been cut out here in a period of nearly 2,000 years. The town and fortress of Maestricht was conquered by the Dutch in 1632, and ceded to them formally in 1648. Venloo, a fortified town, on the Meuse, with 7,000 inhabitants. About Luxemburg, see under the head of Germany. To the kingdom of the Netherlands belong the following colonies : — 1. In Asia : the islands of Java, Sumatra, Amboina, and other of the Spice Islands, etc., the greatest part of the island of Celebes, and settlements on Borneo, the total area of which is computed at 97,405 square miles, and the total population at 9,750,000 inhabitants. 2. In Africa : settlements on the coast of Upper Guinea, estimated at 2,790 square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants. 3. In America : the colony of Surinam in Guiana, and the THE NETHERLANDS. 275 Kingdom of Belgium. West Indian islands of Curacoa, St. Eustatius, and two smaller ones, the total area of which is estimated at 39,064 square miles, and the total population at 101,500 inhabitants. That Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara, were likewise Neth- erlandish colonies, but ceded to England in 1814, is already mentioned above. II— THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. Area: 11,417 square miles. Population : 4,350,000 inhabitants. The population of this kingdom consists (with the exception of about 25,000 Protestants, etc.) of Roman Catholics, under the ecclesiastical direction of 1 archbishop (at Mechlin) and 5 bishops (at Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Namur, and Liege), and with nearly 500 monasteries and nunneries. In point of origin, the majority of the people belongs to the great Germanic tribe, and is known by the name of Flemings, differing but little from the Dutch, in language, customs, and manners. The people in the south, or the Walloons, are, for the most part, descendants of the ancient Gauls, and speak the French language. It has already been remarked, that agriculture is on a high pitch of improvement in Belgium. However, the various branches of husbandry are, by far, not the only means of sustenance here, as the Belgians do also excel in manufactures; and, moreover, as Belgium is the most thickly settled country in Europe, the 276 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Belgium: its Manufactures, Commerce, etc. ratio of population being 381 inhabitants on a square mile, suffi- cient corn for home consumption cannot be raised, so that, for instance, in the years 1842 and 1843 corn was imported at the value of 6,600,0 00 florins. The chief objects of manufacture are lace (renowned from old : the centres of its fabrication are Brussels and Mechlin ; other places noted for it are Bruges, Ghent, and St. Tron ; a pound of the finest twisted thread for bone-lace, costs about 2.000 florins), cloth (especially in the province of Liege), linen (especially in Flanders, but also in Brabant and Hainault), cotton goods (Ghent, Brussels, etc.), fire-arms, cutlery, and steam engines (Liege, Namur, Charleroi), leather (Stablo, Liege, and Ghent), and carpets (Tournay, etc.). Though Belgium possesses, altogether, no more than 128 mer- chant vessels, beside some steamers, and therefore its own ship- ping is very insignificant, its commerce is of great importance. Thus, in 1843, the exports and imports were estimated at the value of 516,738,461 francs, viz. : the imports at 294,584,180, and the exports at 222,154,281 francs. In 1845, the exports had increased by the value of nearly 26,000,000, and the imports (for a great part, transit goods and cotton for fabrication) by that of 57,500,000 florins. The prevailing system of education, is more or less impregnated with the spirit of Catholicism ; at least, all Catholic schools are under the immediate control of the clergy, which, however, does not precisely prejudice the instruction itself. There are 3 uni- versities, viz. : at Louvain (founded in 1426, renewed in 1815 and 1835, and in 1841 frequented by 660 students), at Ghent (founded in 1816, and in 1841 with 340 students), and at Liege (founded in 1817, and in 1841 with 350 students). Beside these three bearing the Catholic stamp, there was founded in 1837 at Brussels a fourth university, as it were, in spite of the Catholic clergy, and THE NETHERLANDS. 277 Kingdom of Belgium: its Finances, Army, and History. styled " Free University ;" the number of its students, however, is very moderate. The number of the various other schools amounted in 1840 to 5,189, but 2,284 of them were private schools, which are, for the most part, very defective. The government is a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a king, a senate, and a chamber of repre- sentatives. The public revenue was in 1846 estimated at 126,681,575 francs, and the expenditure at 126,459,281 francs. The 'public debt amounted to 317,887,632 francs, on the 1st of January, 1845. The army consists of about 32,000 men on the peace, and of nearly 86,000 men on the war footing. Except some gun-boats, Belgium has no navy. In 1832, an order of honor was created by the name of Leopold order, for civil and military officers, in 5 classes. History. — The essential points of Belgian history are already stated above ; we will, therefore, only add some particulars. Since the establishment of the Netherlandish republic, towards the end of the 16th century, the southern provinces of the Netherlands, continuing to be under the sway of Spain, and retaining the Catholic creed, were for this reason commonly styled either the Spanish, or the Catholic Netherlands, and since 1714, when they were ceded to Austria, they were known by the name of the Austrian Netherlands. In 1794, they were conquered by the French, and, by the terms of the treaty of peace, concluded at Campo Formio in 1797, formally ceded to them. That they in 1814 were restored to Austria, but that this power renounced them in favor of the united kingdom of all Netherlands, and that finally this latter was dissolved again in consequence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, has already been mentioned. By the terms of an agreement brought about in 1839, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg was divided between the kingdoms of the Neth- erlands and of Belgium, the latter acquiring its western, and the former retaining the eastern half. In 1831, the Belgians elected Leopold duke of Saxe-Coburg (consort of the late British princess Charlotte, who died in 1817), their hereditary king. 278 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Belgium: the Province of South Brabant. The kingdom of Belgium, since the alterations and arrange- ments just mentioned, is divided into 9 provinces. 1. The province of South Brabant (1,278 square miles, and, according to the census published on the 1st of January, 1844, with 654,758 inhabitants), towards the centre of the kingdom, bears the appellation of South, in order to distinguish it from North Brabant (see under the head of " Kingdom of the Netherlands"), though both these provinces were once constituent parts of the ancient duchy of Brabant, to which also belonged the greatest part of the present province of Antwerp. This duchy was since the days of the Frankish sway ruled by native dukes, who at first were vassals of the German empire, but made themselves independent in the course of time. About the remaining part of its history, see page 264. The province of South Brabant contains : Brussels, the metropolis of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the river Senne, westward and 76 miles distant from Aix la Chapelle, had in 1846 a population of 124,781 inhabitants, exclusive of the suburbs, whose total population amounts to more than 40,000 inhabitants. Brussels ranks among the finest cities of Europe, and is noted not only for its extensive manufactures of lace, carpets, etc., but also for several of its public edifices, especially for its Gothic city hall (facing the chief market place, where in 1568 the counts of Egmont and Hoorn were executed), whose steeple is 364 feet high, and the St. Gudule church, containing pictures by Rubens and other masters of the Flemish school. Southward and 10 miles distant from Brussels, is situated the village of Waterloo (with 1,900 inhabitants), noted for the great battle fought on the 18th of June, 1815. Louvain, a town on the Dyle, 15 miles east-north-east of Brussels, with 28,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, its churches, and town-halL In the middle ages, Louvain was a city, with nearly 200,000 inhabitants, and remarkably flourishing by its cloth and other woollen manufactures, that gave employment to more than 150,000 operatives But the latter revolted in 1382, and having been punished for it, they mostly emigrated to England. The university of Louvain was in the 16th century sometimes frequented by 6,000 students. Other towns of this province are : Vilvorden (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tirlenwnt, or Tienen (with 8,500 inhabi- tants), Wavre (with 5,500 inhabitants), Nivelles, or Nyvel (with 7,700 inhabi- tants), Haulx, or Halle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Diest (with 8,000 inhabitants), JHontaigu, in Flemish, Scherpenheuvel (with 1,800 inhabitants), Aerschot (with THE NETHERLANDS. 279 The Belgian Provinces of Antwerp and E;ist Flanders. 4,000 inhabitants), and Hoegaerden (with 3,000 inhabitants). Tubize and Brainc-Lalleu, boroughs, with respectively 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants. 2. The province of Antwerp (1,097 square miles, and in 1844 with 385,894 inhabitants), anciently a constituent part of the duchy of Brabant, contains : Antwerp, fortified capital of the province, and the chief commercial city in Belgium, on the right bank of the Scheldt (which river is here 2,160 feet broad), northward and 28 miles distant from Brussels, has 80,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 444 feet high), its merchant's exchange (reared in 1531, and the most ancient and largest one in Europe), and its citadel (reared in 1567 by the duke of Alba, and valorously defended in 1832 by the general Chasse). Antwerp was towards the end of the 15th and during the greatest part of the 16th century the emporium of nearly all Europe. At a later period it was the residence of Rubens, and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Lier, a town, 10 miles east-south-east of Antwerp, is noted for its breweries, and has 14,000 inhabitants. Herentah and Hoogstraten, towns, with respectively 3,000 and 1,600 inhabitants. Arendonk (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gheel (with 8,500 inhabitants), boroughs. Mechlin, a city on the Dyle, half way between Antwerp and Brussels, is the residence of the archbishop and Primas of Belgium, has a remarkable cathedral (founded in 1250, but not completed before the year 1475 ; its steeple is 348 feet high), and 26,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its lace, considered as the finest in Brabant. 3. The province of East Flanders (1,150 square miles, and in 1844 with 799,428 inhabitants), which once formed the eastern half of the ancient earl- dom of Flanders, whose first earl was Baldwin I., who lived in the 9th cen- tury. Margaret, the daughter and heiress of the 24th earl, Louis II., was in 1369 married to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus became pos- sessed of all Flanders. This province is the most thickly settled in Belgium, and noted for its linen. It contains: Ghent, the capital of the province (anciently also the capital of the earldom), on the Scheldt, 34 miles west- south-west of Antwerp, and north-westward and 34 miles distant from Brus- sels, has various remarkable ancient edifices, among them the cathedral, the palace where Charles V. was born in 1500, and a castle, once the residence of the earls of Flanders and of the dukes of Burgundy, and a population of 90,000 inhabitants. Moreover, Ghent is the centre of the Belgian cotton man- ufactures, and is also noted for its trade in flowers. In 1814 the treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed here. Oude- 280 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Belgian Provinces of East and West Flanders. naarde, a fortified town on the Scheldt, with a remarkable town-hall, and 6,000 inhabitants. Dendermonde (in French, Tenremoiide, or Termonde), a fortified town at the mouth of the Dender into the Scheldt, is noted for its flax and linen- bleacheries, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other remarkable towns and boroughs of this province are: Alost, or Aalst (noted for its hops, has 16,000 inhabitants), Geertuberghen, in French Grammont (with 7,700 in- habitants), Rome, in French Renaix (with 13,00 inhabitants), Ninove (with 5,000 inhabitants), Deyn&e (with 5,000 inhabitants), Eecloo (with 9,500 inhab- itants), Zele (with 11,000 inhabitants), Wetteren (with 9,500 inhabitants), Waerschot (with 5,500 inhabitants), Hamme (with 8,500 inhabitants), Loke- ren (with 16,500 inhabitants), Beveren (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rupel- monde (noted for its bricks, has 2,500 inhabitants). The town of St. Nikolas (with 18,500 inhabitants, and numerous manufactures, especially of leather), is the chief place of the so-called Waesland, a tract of land noted for its highly cultivated soil and its fine flax. The above-stated boroughs of Hamme, Lokeren, Beveren, and Rupelmonde are also situated in this tract. The for- tified borough of Zwyndrecht (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the left bank of the Scheldt, right opposite Antwerp, is considered as the tete-de-pont of Antwerp, and is for this reason also named Tete de Flandres, or (in Flemish) Vlaamsch- Hoofd. 4. The province of West Flanders (1,257 square miles, and in 1844 with 659,270 inhabitants), which formed the western half of the ancient earldom of Flanders (see above), contains : Bruges, the capital of the province, north- westward and 28 miles distant from Ghent, has 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (with the sepulchres of Charles the Bold and his daughter Mary), and its numerous manufactures of linen, lace, etc. In the 14th and 15th centuries Bruges was famous for its commerce. Courtray (in Flemish, Cortryk), a town on the Lys, and near the French frontier, has 20,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen of the finest quality. Commines, a town on the French frontier, has 2,700 inhabitants, and is by the river Lys divided into two parts, of which that on the right bank belongs to France since 1714. Roulers (in Flemish, Rousselaer), a town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its flax and linea Ypern, in French Ypres, a fortified town on the little river Yperle, with a Gothic town-hall, a remarkable ancient cathedral, lace manufactures, and 17,500 inhabitants. Ostende, a fortified maritime town on the North Sea, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 12,500 inhabitants. Another fortified maritime town is Nieuport, or Nieuwport (with 3,800 in- THE NETHERLANDS. 281 The Belgian Provinces of West Flanders, Hainault and Namnr. habitants), noted in history for a battle in 1600 between the Dutch and Span- iards. Veurne (in French called Furneit), a town near the North Sea, carries on a considerable trade in corn and provisions, and has 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns and boroughs of this province are : Meenen, or Menin (is noted for its lace and linen, and has 8,000 inhabitants), Warneton, or Waesten (also noted for its lace, has 6,000 inhabitants), Werwick (with 5,800 inhabitants), Iseghem (with 9,000 inhabitants), Thielt (with 12,500 inhabitants), Meulebeke (with 9,000 inhabitants), Moorzele or Moorslede (with 4,400 inhabitants), Dixmuyden (with 3,500 inhabitants), Poperingen (with 11,000 inhabitants), Blankenberghe (with 2,000 inhabitants), Thorout (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Lichtervelde (with 7,000 inhabitants). 5. The province of Hainault (1,449 square miles, and in 1844 with 679,536 inhabitants), anciently an earldom of the same name, which, however, so early as in the 12th century came under the sway of the earls of Flanders, and subsequently under that of the dukes of Burgundy. It contains : Mons (in Flemish it is named Bergen), fortified capital of the province, on the former high road between Brussels and Paris, is noted for its coal mines, and has 24,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the village of Jemappes (with 3,000 inhabitants), noted for a battle in 1792, between the French and the allied powers. Ath, a fortified town, on the Dender, is noted for its linen manufac- tures, and has 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Roulx (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soignies (with 7,000 inhabitants), Leuze (with 5,500 inhabitants), Lesmnes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Enghien (with 4,000 inhabi- tants), Braine le Cornte (with 4,700 inhabitants), Binche (with 5,500 inhabi- tants), Fontaine TEveque (with 2,800 inhabitants), Beaumont (with 1,900 inhabitants), Chirnay (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ligne (with 2,000 inhabi- tants). Thuin, a town on the Sambre, with 4,000 inhabitants, did formerly belong to the sovereign bishopric of Liege. Charleeoi, a fortified town, on the Sambre, with 7,500 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms and hardware, and did anciently belong to the earldom of Namur. Tournay (in Flemish, Doomik), a fortified city, on the Scheldt, south-westward and 46 miles distant from Brussels, is noted for its manufactures of carpets and porcelain, and has 30,500 inhabitants. The villages of Fontenay and Fleurus are noted for battles at different times. 6. The province of Namur (1,422 square miles, and in 1844 with 251,326 inhabitants), chiefly com prising the ancient earldom of Namur, which in 1421 was sold by Earl John III. (who had no descendants) to Philip, duke of Burgundy. It contains: Namur (in Flemish and Dutch, named Namen), 182 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Belgian Provinces of Namur and Liege. fortified capital, on tlie Meuse, 35 miles south-south-east of Brussels, is noted for its fire-arras and cutlery, and has 24,500 inhabitants. Marienburg and Philippeville, little but fortified towns, with respectively 700 and 1,500 inhab- itants. Dinant, a town on the Meuse, is noted for its freestone and marble, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Other towns and boroughs of this province are : Bouvignes (with 1,600 inhabitants), Walcourt (with 1,100 inhabitants), Rochrfort (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andenne (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Gembloux (with 2,000 inhabitants). The village of Ligny, 18 miles south-south-east of Waterloo, is noted for*a battle on the 16th of June, 1815 (but two days previous to the battle of Waterloo), in which the Prussians were defeated by the French. 7. The province of Liege (1,123 square miles, and in 1844 with 425,758 inhabitants), between South Brabant and the Prussian Rhenish province, com- prising in substance the territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Liege, whicli was established in the city of Liege in the beginning of the 8th century by St. Hubertus, and was an actual member of the German empire until towards the end of last century, when it was conquered by the French, together with the Catholic Netherlands, with which it has since continued to be united. It contains: Liege (in Flemish and Dutch, named Luik), the capital, at the junction of the Ourthe and Meuse, 54 miles east-south-east of Brussels, and 28 miles west- south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has a strongly fortified citadel, a remarkable cathedral, and 73,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its fire-arms, cannon foundry, iron works, and coal mines. The neighboring village of Seraing (with 3,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of steam engines, etc. The ancient abbey of St. Lambertthal is at present noted for one of the most considerable glass manufactures. The borough of Herstai.l (5 miles north-east of Liege, with iron works, and 5,500 inhabitants) is remark- able as the ancestral seat of the Frankish Majordomus Pipin of Herstall, great-grandfather of Charlemagne. Veeviers, a town on the Weze, half-way between Liege and Aix la Chapelle, has 21,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its numerous and excellent cloth manufactures. The boroughs of Theux (with 3,500 inhabitants) and Glons (with 2,000 inhabitants), are noted, the former for its iron foundry and marble, and the latter for its manufactures of straw hats. Spa, a town, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Liege, and 20 miles south-south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is celebrated for mineral waters, which are also to be found in the neigh- boring village of Chaudfontaine. The town of Huy (on the Meuse, between Liege and Namur, with 8.000 inhabitants) is noted for its mountain castle, and THE NETHERLANDS. 283 The ISeluiaii Provinces of Liege, Limbing ami Luxemburg. romantic environs. The town of Vise, or Weset, on the Meuse, with 2,200 inhabitants, has likewise romantic environs. The town of Limburg (noted for its cheese and cloth manufactures, and with 2,200 inhabitants) did not belong to the bishopric of Liege, but was formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of Germany), to which also belonged the towns of Herve (noted for its cheese, and with 3,500 inhabitants), Dalhem (with 900 inhabitants), and Hodimont (with 1,500 inhabi- tants). To the ancient duchy of Brabant did belong the towns of Stablo (with very considerable leather manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants), Hanut (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Landen (with 1,050 inhabitants). 8. The province of Limburg (937 square miles, and in 1844 with 177,184 inhabitants) has, but for the name, nothing in common with the ancient duchy of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of the Netherlandish German states), but does only comprise parts of the territory formerly belonging to the bishopric of Liege, containing : Hasselt, the capital of this province, on the Demer, north-westward and 14 miles distant from Mastricht, with 7,400 inhabitants. St. Tron (in Flemish, St. Trujen), a town, south- westward and 9 miles distant from Hasselt, is noted for its manufactures of lace and fire-arms, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Tongern (with 5,600 inhabitants), Bilsen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Maaseyk (with 4,200 inhabitants), Looz, or Borchloen (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Reeckem (with 1,000 inhabitants). 9. The province of Luxemburg (1,704 square miles, and in 1844 with 180,709 inhabitants), comprising the western half of the ancient duchy (at present grand-duchy) of Luxemburg (see above, in the History of Belgium : the history of this duchy, or grand-duchy, will be found under the head of Germany), and containing : Arlon, the capital of this province, amidst exten- sive forests, 14 miles west-north-west of the city of Luxemburg, with leather manufactures, and 4„000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Bastogne (with 2,600 inhabitants), Marche en Famine (with 1,600 inhabitants), St. Hubert (with 1,600 inhabitants), La Roche (with 1,000 inhabitants), Neuf- chateau (with 1,600 inhabitants), Chiny (with 1,150 inhabitants), and Viel Salm (with 2,900 inhabitants, and the ruins of the castle of Salm, the ancestral seat of the German princes and earls of Salm). Bouillon, a fortified town near the French frontier, with 2,800 inhabitants, and a mountain castle, anciently the residence of the renowned leader of the first army of crusaders, and first king of Jerusalem (in 1099), Godfrey of Bouillon. This town was formerly the capital of a duchy of the same name. GERMANY. Abea : 244,3*75 square miles. Population : 42,000,000 inhabitants. Germany is situated in the centre of Europe, between 55° and 45° north latitude, and between 5° 45' and 19° 45' east from Greenwich. On the north it is bounded by the North and Baltic Seas and by Denmark ; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, Italy and Switzerland ; on the east by Hungary and the Polish provinces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; and on the west by France and the Netherlands. The distance between Germany and Gibraltar is nearly equal to that between Germany and Moscow, viz. : more than 1000 miles ; and to Stockholm in Sweden it is just about as far as to Naples in Italy. In the northern and western parts of Germany the surface is more or less level ; the southern and eastern parts are traversed by the mountain ranges described pages 6-8 ; and towards the southern extremity branches of the Alps are running in an east- erly direction. About the rivers and lakes of Germany, see Introduction to Europe, §§ 9 and 10, pages 11, 13, 16 and 17. The climate is both moderate and healthful throughout Ger- many. Though the country is intersected by about 60 navigable riv- ers, which thus would afford the greatest facility of connecting them one to another by canals, the latter are rather few in nuni- GERMANY. 235 Natural Products. ber. The principal and most useful canal is the so-called Louis Canal, crossing the northern half of Bavaria and uniting the Rhine with the Danube. This deficiency is however amply com- pensated by numerous public roads and rail-roads, which latter are at preseut crossing almost every German country. The chief natural products of Germany are the following : Corn, which not only is raised sufficiently for home consumption, but even fur exportation. For the soil is generally fertile, and agriculture is carried on with diligence and great skilL Wine, especially along the Rhine and most of its tributaries, and in the German provinces of Austria. Timber, which is exported in considerable quantities from the southern and middle parts of Germany. The mountain ranges are generally covered with exten- sive forests ; hence the final syllable wald (forest) in the proper names of so many of them ; for instance, Schwarzvvald (Black Forest), Odenwald, Boeh- merwald, etc. Fruits, in great variety, and partly in immense quantities. Flax, which is cultivated throughout Germany, but especially in Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, Westphalia, etc. Moreover hops (the best quality is to be fouud in the northern part of Bavaria, and in Bohemia), and hemp (chiefly in the kingdom of Hanover). — Horses, more than 5,000,000 in number, and for the most part of excellent breed. Those of Mecklenburg, Hanover, Holstein, and Oldenburg, rival the finest English horses, and are even frequently superior to them, if perhaps not in swiftness on the turf, but in other more useful qualities. Nearly the whole remount of the French army is supplied with German horses. Cattle, whose total number of heads amounts to more than 15,000,000 (double the amount of the cattle in France), and the finest breed of which is reared in Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, East Fries- land, Holstein, Oldenburg, Dessau, and Mecklenburg. Sheep, about 30,000,000 in number, and at present for the most part of improved breed ; for which reason their wool is one of the chief staples. Hoys (more than 8,000,000) are reared in vast numbers in Westphalia (noted for its excellent hams), Ba- varia, etc. Moreover, Germany abounds in game, fowls, bees (great quantities of wax and honey are exported), etc. — Silver, extracted from the mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Hanover, and Prussia, to the annual amount of between 160,000 and 200,000 marks. Iron (more than 4,000,000 quintals annually) ; Tin (especially in Bohemia and Saxony) ; Copper (about 30,000 quintals an- EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Manufactures and Commerce of Germany. nually) ; Quicksilver (in Illyria) ; Lead (nearly 200,000 quintals) ; and above all, Salt, of which about 5 million quintals are annually made. There is perhaps no country where mineral springs of any description are more abundant than in Germany, where moreover the spas, or watering-places, especially those of Bohemia, Silesia, Bavaria, Baden, and Nassau, are every year, in the summer season, visited by foreigners from various parts of Europe in quest of health or pleasure. The German manufactures are important arid various, and their chief articles are the following : linen (the finest qualities in Silesia, Bohemia, Lusatia, and Westphalia), woollen goods (especially in the Rhenish province of Prussia, and moreover in Moravia, Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), cotton goods (above all in the kingdom of Saxony, and at Berlin, Elberfeld, Barmen, in Bohemia and Lower Austria), silks (especially in Crefeld and Berlin, which moreover are famed for their velvet; in Vienna, in the southern part of Tyrol,. etc ), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms (in the Rhenish province of Prussia, in some parts of Westpha- lia and of the Prussian province of Saxony, in Austria, etc.), leather (Malinedy is famous for it, but also some places in Bohe- mia. Silesia, etc.), 'porcelain (the porcelain manufactures of Ber- lin, Vienna, and Meissen may be considered as the finest in Europe), glass (no country in the world fabricates so much glass as Germany, especially Bohemia is celebrated for it), musical in- struments (first-rate pianos are constructed not only in Vienna, Augsburg, Prague, and other cities, but even in villages of the southern and middle parts of Germany ; excellent violins, espe- cially in Tyrol), gold- and silver-smith's wares (in which excel, Augsburg, Vienna, Berlin, and Breslau), and finally, optical, chi- rurgical, and other similar instruments, which are partly superior to those of England or France. In commerce, Germany is surpassed by Great Britain, Prance, and Russia, nevertheless it is carried: on to a great extent, espe- GERMANY. 287 Commerce, Trade, ami Means of Education. cially by Hamburg, Bremen, and Trieste, and next to them, by Altona, Lubeck, Stettin, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, Kiel, and Emden. The chief exports are : grain, timber, wool, linen, hard- ware, lead, zinc, quicksilver, glass, salt, woollen and cotton goods, horses, cattle, and butter (the latter, especially, from Holstein and Mecklenburg). The inland trade is very considerable, and the principal cities and towns engaged in it are, Vienna, Leipsic, Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, Berlin, Breslau, Prague. Augs- burg, Frankfort on the Mayne, Frankfort on the Oder, Botzen, Laibach, etc. The literary institutions in Germany, are both numerous and celebrated. The universities, all on a large scale, and comprising the four faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and phi- losophy (inclusive astronomy, etc.), are so eminently arranged, and answer the purpose so well, that they are much resorted to, even from other countries. At present, there are 23 universities on this scale in Germany, viz. : — Five in the German provinces of Austria : at Prague (founded in 1348), Vienna (in 1365), Olmutz (in 1581), Gratz (in I486), and Innspruck (in 1672). Five in the German provinces of Prussia: at Greifswald (founded in 1456), Halle (in 1694), Breslau (in 1702), Berlin (in 1810), and Bonn (in 1818). Three in Bavaria: at Wurtzburg (founded in 1403), Erlangen (in 1743), and Munich (in 1826). Two in Baden : at Heidelberg (founded in 1 386), and Freiburg (in 1457). One in Saxony: at Leipsic (founded in 1409). One in Mecklenburg: at Rostock (founded in 1419). One in Wirtemberg: at Tubingen (founded in 1477). One in Hesse Cassel: at Marburg (founded in 1527). One in Saxe-Weimar: at Jena (founded in 1557). 288 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Public L braries, Picture Galleries, etc., and Schools in Germany. One in Hesse-Darmstadt: at Giessen (founded in 1607). One in Holstein: at Kiel (founded in 1665). One in Hanover: at Goettingen (founded in 1737). (Towards the end of last century, there were, moreover, uni- versities at Erfurt. Wittenberg, Frankfort on the Oder, Helmstadt, Rinteln, Duisburg, Altdorf, and in 18 other places, which, however, since have been abolished, or united with others.) The public libraries are likewise on a large scale, and while there are about 50 of them, which contain more than 25,000 volumes each, there are nearly as many that contain above 100,000 volumes. So, for instance, at Munich there is one with 600,000, and another with 160,000 volumes; the royal library at Berlin numbers 500,000, the imperial at Vienna 350.000 volumes; beside these, there are public libraries at Dresden (with 220,000), Goettingen, (with 300.000), Hamburg (with 200,000), Stuttgart (with 200,000), Wolfenbuttel (with 190,000), Prague (with 130,000), Weimar (with 120,000), Darmstadt, Frankfort, Breslau (with 200,000 volumes), etc., etc. Munich, Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, and Goettingen, may, in some regard, be considered as central points of sciences and arts, not only with regard to Germany, but also to other countries. Highly distinguished are the picture galleries in Dresden, Vienna, Munchen, and Berlin (that of Dusseldorf is since the year 1806 removed to Munich), the cabinets of natural curiosities in Vienna, Prague. Munich, Berlin, Goettingen, and Hamburg, and the observatories in Berlin, Vienna, Goettingen, Munich, Prague, and near Gotha. No country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of knowledge ; and common school education is the more widely extended, as parents are forced by the law to send their children to school, or at least to give evidence of having in a suitable manner provided for their education. The children of the poor enjoy, of course, the benefits of instruction, free from expenses. GERMANY. 28U The Common School System of Germany. The total number of children frequenting the common Softools in Germany, amounts to more than 6,000,000. The common public schools in the kingdom of Saxony, for instance, were in 1840 frequented by 303,506 children, and those of Prussia in 1843 fre- quented by 2,328,146 children ; and as in 1840 the total popula- tion of Saxony was 1,709,880, and that of Prussia in 1843 was 15,471,765 inhabitants, it is impossible to imagine, with regard to common school education, a more just ratio between school- children and adults (inclusive of infants), than this, which is one to five, or six. About 15,500,000 Prussian dollars are, in Germany, annually bestowed upon this branch of school education ; and the 927 teachers in the common public schools of Saxony, for instance (where, as in other German countries, most of these schools are in the villages of the peasantry), receive a salary of respectively 120, 150, 200. 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700, Prussian dollars, which, there, is equal to as many American dollars. But while they thus are placed in a situation more or less free from cares for sustenance, they are not allowed to occupy any teachership without having previously been carefully instructed in the so-called school-seminaries, and given evidence of solid knowledge in a rigorous examination. That with these arrangements scarcely none above six years old are to be found throughout Germany, who cannot read, and but very few who cannot write, is not to be wondered at. Some years ago, there were among 122,897 men of the standing Prussian army, only two soldiers who could not write, and these were not Germans, but Poles from the province of Posen. The particulars about the higher schools, will be found in the description of the various German states ; and it may only be remarked here, that the total number of lycea in Germany amounts to nearly 100, of gymnasia to more than 400, of so-called Latin schools to about 800, and of school seminaries to nearly 1,100. (About the signification of these terms, see the note page 65.) 13 290 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Characteristic of the German Scholars in general. Many of the learned men in Germany are, indeed, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science, but in general only in philology, history, pathology and other branches of medical science, jurisprudence, mineralogy, 1 1 id metallurgy ; while in nearly all other scientific branches, the learned men of other European countries rival, and, even in some points, by far surpass them. This deficiency is chiefly owing to an unlucky tendency to bibliola- try, which much prevails among the German scholars. They are more or less filled with the wrong idea, that all and every knowledge may be acquired t'rom books, even the art of ship-building, for instance. Indeed there are many scientific branches, which can and must be learned chiefly from printed books ; but for obtaining a sound judgment, it is indispensable to study, at the same time, the open book of practical life. About eighty years ago, it became fashionable to babble after the manner of atheistical philosophers of the Voltaire school, and since that time, not only Rationalism sprung up in the province of theology, but also other theories and hypotheses of the most nonsensical kind were brought forward in Germany. Thus, for instance, one scholar, named Ballenstadt, pretended that the human race had sprung from a primitive slime, or mud, that had been quickened by electric flashes and thunderclaps ; another, of the name of Wagner, has, by a profound study in his closet, discovered that our globe is an animal, whose sweat presents itself in the evaporation of the waters, while its circulation of the blood makes itself known by the tide ! Even in recent times, several German naturalists still harbor the opinion, that man is properly nothing else but a monkey fully developed, and has descended either from the Orang Outang in Borneo, or from the Boggo (Pan Africanus) in Guinea ! Had these learned men, who never have been much out of doors, compared monkey skulls with human skulls, and, above all, carefully studied the natural history of these animals, they would long since have been restored to reason, and become sensible of the palpable truth, that a brute can never become a rational being, and that, for this same reason, monkeys will still remain monkeys, even if those scholars should be foolish enough to try to instruct or educate them. How far the constructors of philosophical systems in Germany have gone, may be inferred from the fact, that Mr. Michelet, professor of philosophy in the university of, Berlin, boldly maintains, in his works and lectures, the following proposition : " What we call God, is nothing else but human culture in its highest potency !" Whoever has troubled himself with reading the debates in the so-called German parliament, which gave up the ghost last summer, will have had GERMANY. 291 Origin and Religion of the Germans. ample opportunity to notice the total lack of practical capacity on the part of German bookworms and shallow literati. Fortunately there are also a great many eminent and devout theologians, as well as philosophers endowed with sound judgment ; and by these and the common sense of the German nation in general, those bookworms are at least prevented from doing more mischief than they have already done. In point of origin, the majority of the population belongs to the great family of the Germanic tribe, while about 6 or 7 million inhabitants of north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern provinces belong to the Slavic tribe (see Introduction to Europe. §12, pages 18 and 19). These latter are known by the names of Wenden and Kassuben (in Pomerania), of Sorben (in Lusatia, etc.), Ozechen (in Bohemia), etc. ; however, with the exception of the tribe in Bohemia, they have assimilated themselves almost entirely to other Germans. In point of religion, Catholicism is prevailing in the southern half of Germany, and Protestantism in the northern. The num- ber of Roman Catholics is between 22 and 23 millions, and that of Protestants amounts to more than 18 millions. Since the year 1817 the Lutherans and Reformists in Prussia, Baden, Hesse- Darmstadt, Nassau, and the Bavarian Palatinate have united into one common church, styled Evangelical. But in Saxony, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Holstein, the Lutheran, and for in- stance, in Hesse-Cassel the Reformed religion still prevails. The number of Jews in Germany amounts to about 500,000. Before entering into German history, it may be suitable to give some particulars with regard to the ancient German Empire, which was formally dissolved in 1806. Officially it was styled either the Holy Roman, or the Roman German Empire. The term c: Roman" had reference to the historical fact, that the first wearer of the German imperial crown, viz. : Charlemagne, was crowned Roman emperor (see History of Europe, §14, page 31). 292 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Historical Particulars about the ancient German Empire. The term " Holy" rested upon the opinion of the emperor being the protector and defender of the holy see and of all Christen- dom. The States of Empire (Reichsstande), nominally 1762, or at least 376, yet actually only 221 in number, consisted of independent (i. e., in local affairs), or immediate (reiohsunmittel- bar) archbishops, bishops, abbots, provosts (Reichsprobste), duchies, mar gr aviates, principalities, earldoms, lordships, and imperial cities (Reichsstadte). Besides these, there were certain territories be- longing to knighthood (rittershaftliche Grebiete), imperial villages (Reichsdorfer), etc. Most of these States formed part of those 10 circles, into which Germany was divided since the days of Emperor Maximilian I., for the purpose of maintaining public peace and order, and executing sentences of the supreme courts of the Empire with armed force, in case of necessity. They were organized in a similar manner as the empire itself, but had for the rest no political power. These 10 circles were the fol- lowing : 1. The Austrian circle, comprising the present German provinces of Aus- tria, with the exception of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 2. The Burgundian circle, comprising the present kingdom of Belgium, with the exception of the ancient bishopric of Liege, which belonged to the Westphalian circle. The political connection between the Burgundian circle and the German empire was however only a nominal one. 3 The Lower Rhenish circle, comprising the former three ecclesiastical electorates of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the electoral Palatinate, etc. 4 The Upper Rhenish circle, comprising Hesse Cassel, the greatest part of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Bavarian palatinate, the imperial cities of Frankfort, Worms, Spire, etc. 5. The Franhish circle, comprising the greatest part of the northern half of the present kingdom of Bavaria, etc. 6. The Bavarian circle, comprising the southern half of the present king- dom of Bavaria. 7. The Swabian circle, comprising the duchy of Wirtemberg, the margra- GERMANY. 293 Germany: its ancient Geographical Divisions. viate of Baden, the principalities of Hohenzollern, and in substance the Swa- bian district of the present kingdom of Bavaria. 8. The Westphalian circle, comprising the present Prussian province of Westphalia, and some parts of the Rhenish province (Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, Cleve, Aix la Chapelle, etc.), moreover, the bishopric of Liege, some parts of the present kingdom of Hanover (Osnabruck, Verden, etc.), etc. 9. The Upper Saxon circle, comprising the present Saxon kingdom, grand- duchy and duchies, the present Prusian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomera- nia (with some exceptions) and Saxony, the principalities of Schwarzburg, etc. 10. The Lower Saxon circle, comprising the greatest part of the present kingdom of Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, etc. The above-mentioned states of the empire were since the latter half of the 17 th century seldom or never personally present at the Diet, but were repre- sented there by plenipotentiaries. According to the terms of the constitution, the diet was to be convoked at least every tenth year, but since the year 1663 it was permanent, and held its sessions at Ratisbon (on the Danube and in the present kingdom of Bavaria). The supreme judicial power was vested in two imperial tribunals, viz. : the Imperial Chamber (Reichskammergericht) at Wetzlar, and the Imperial Aulic C&ancil (Reichshofrath) in Vienna. K not exactly since its existence, but at least since the death of the last German Carolingian, Louis III., or since the year 911, the German empire was not a hereditary, but an elective monarchy. The right and privilege of elect- ing the emperor was exclusively vested in the electors, i. e., those most powerful states of the empire that had exercised this right from the begin- ning. Primitively they were only 7 in number (viz. : the electors of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, Bohemia, Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg), but in the 17th century two others (of Bavaria and Brunswick-Luneburg) were added to them. The principal elector was the archbishop of Mentz. The election of the emperor took place at Frankfort on the Mayne, where at the same time (since the year 1564) the emperor was crowned by the archbishop and elector of Mentz. Though the emperor was the nominal sovereign of all Germany, he was in the exercise of his executive power restricted even more than the king or queen of Great Britain. In consequence of the conquests of the French on the left bank of the Rhine, and the treaty of Luneville in 1801, the German empire underwent many substantial alterations. The archbishops of Treves and Cologne not 294 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kecent Political Changes in Germany. only were deprived of their territories, but also of their character as actual electors. The elector of Mentz was restricted to his principality of Aschaffen- burg on the Mayne. In short, all German territories on the left bank of the Rhine were to be ceded to France, and in order to indemnify their princes, the sovereign bishoprics, etc., were secularized and divided differently. But for these alterations, the German empire retained its ancient forms and organization. Yet, in 1806, Napoleon induced the majority of the German princes to unite into a confederation, which was styled the Rhenish Confedera- tion. As by this arrangement the German empire had actually ceased to exist, the emperor, then Francis II., did on the 6th of August, 1806, proclaim its formal dissolution. In 1806 and 1807, Napoleon created the following new states in Germany, viz. : — 1. The grand-duchy of Berg, which was first given to Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, and in 1809 to Napoleon's nephew; it comprised the ancient duchy of Berg, and several parts of Westphalia, and had in 1809 an area of 6,709£ square miles, and a population of 878,157 inhabitants. 2. The grand- duchy of Wurzburg, which in 1806 was given to the former grand-duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph (see History of Tuscany). It had, in 1808, an area of 1,651 square miles, and a population of 256,331 inhabitants, and consisted of the secularized sovereign bishopric of Wurzburg. 3. The kingdom of Westphalia, in 1807 created and given to Napoleon's brother Jerome. It had then an extent of 14,825 square miles, with 1,912,303 inhabitants, and comprised the greatest part of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover, Brunswick, and many parts of the present Prussian province of Saxony, and district of Minden. Its capital and royal residence was CasseL 4. The grand-duchy of Frankfort, which comprised, besides the city of this name, the principality of Aschaffen- burg (see above), and the districts of Hanau and Fulda, and was in 1809 created in favor of the above-mentioned former archbishop and elector of Mentz, Charles Theodore of Dalberg. It had an extent of 1,874 square miles, and a population of 300,000 inhabitants. After the political events in 1814 and 1815. these new creations disappeared, and the respective territories were restored to their former sovereigns ; other sovereigns, who until then had retained their sovereignty, were mediatized,* and, according to the tenor * That is, their territories were annexed to larger neighboring states, under GERMANY. 295 The German Confederation of 1816-48. of a treaty concluded at Vienna on the 8th of June, 1815, a union of the several German states was formed by the name of Germanic Confederation, the object of which was to provide for mutual safety and defence. Each state was independent within itself, but for general purposes the whole was governed by the Diet, a body composed of plenipotentiaries from the different states, and residing at Frankfort on the Mayne. On the 5th of November? 1816, the Diet held its first session. It was voted, according to circumstances, either in a committee, or in full session. The Austrian plenipotentiary presided. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., had each one vote ; while of the smaller states, several together had one vote in common. The order of succession was the following : — Austria, having in the committee, 1 vote. Prussia, . " " 1 " Bavaria, " " 1 " Saxony, ....... u « 1 " Hanover, ....... " M 1" Wirtemberg, ■ " 1 « Baden, ■ ■ 1 " Hesse-Cassel, « 1 u Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse -Homburg, together, " " 1 " Denmark (on account of Holstein and Lauenburg), " * 1 ■ Nether land (on account of Luxemburg and Limburg), " " _ . 1 . " Saxe- Weimar and the 3 Saxon duchies, together, " " 1 " Mecklenburg-Schwerin and M. Strelitz, . " "1 ■ Brunswick and Nassau, .... " 1 " Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwarzburg, . " " 1 * Hohenzollern, Liechtenstein, Reuss, Scliaumburg- Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, and Waldeck, . " " 1.' Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, " " 1 . * Total in the committee, 17 a whose sovereignty they themselves were placed, while they in substance retained their independence in local affairs. 296 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Organization of the former German Diet. The so-called plenum, or full session, was held whenever the question was of fundamental laws of the Confederation, or arrange- ments concerning its organization, etc. ; and in this plenum was voted in the following order of succession : — Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover, . Wirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Holstein-Lauenburg, Luxemburg- Limburg, Brunswick, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, .... Nassau, Saxe- Weimar, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, ..... Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Kothen (since Nov., 1847, become void), Schwarzburg-S ondershausen, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, .... Hohenzollern-Hecbingen, .... Liechtenstein, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, . Waldeck, Reuss, elder line, Reuss, younger line, Schaumburg-Lippe, having in the pier um, 4 votes. « a 4 4 « « u 4 " « «( 4 " m u 4 <( u « 3 «« M M 3 u « ■ 3 u u « 3 u m « 3 (i u m 2 U m H 2 « GERMANY. 297 The Supreme Tribunals in Germany. Lippe-Detmold, ' having in the plenum, 1 vote. Lubeck, ■ 1 ■ Frankfort, " 1 « Bremen, ■ " 1 ■ Hamburg, ■ • * ■ Hesse-Homburg, " u 1 • Total in the plenum, 69 votes. Since the dissolution of the ancient German empire, there are no supreme courts for all Germany more, but the larger states have their own, while the smaller German states have supreme courts in common. Thus, the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, together with the principalities of Reuss, have a supreme court at Jena in common ; the duchies and principalities of Anhalt and Schwarzburg at Zerbst ; the grand-duchies of Mecklenburg at Ros- tock ; Brunswick and the principalities of Lippe and Waldeck at Wolffenbuttel, and the 4 Free Cities (Hamburg, etc) at Lubeck ; while Liechtenstein appeals to the supreme court at Innspruck, Hesse-Homburg to that of Darmstadt, and the principalities of Hohenzollern to that of Stuttgart. The strength of the confed- eral army was in 1830 fixed at 303,484 men. History of Germany. — Little or nothing is known of German history ante- rior to about 100 years before our Christian era. The country was known to the Romans by the name of Gennania, and its southern and western parts conquered by them, especially Rhaetia (comprising in substance the present Tyrol), Vindelicia (South Bavaria and the south-eastern part of the present kingdom of Wirtemberg), and Noricwn (arch-duchy of Austria, Styria, Carin- thia, and part of Carniola). The chief German tribes, mentioned by the Romans, were the Cimbrians (whose principal seat was in Jutland), Teutones (in Mecklenburg), Chatts (chiefly in Hesse), Cherusks (in the centre of the present kingdom of Hanover and Lippe-Detmold), and Marcomans (in Bohe- mia). About the Vandals, Suevians, etc., see History of Europe, § 3, page 24. The ancient Germans were ruled by native princes elected out of illua- 13* 298 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany. trious families ; their leaders in time of war were commonly called dukes, and elected from among the most valiant warriors. They had no cities or towns, but lived in rough huts or cottages scattered about, and in only rather few instances united to a village. Chastity and hospitality were their character- istic virtues. Since the discontinuance of the migration of nations (see His- tory of Europe, § 8), which had brought about many political alterations in Germany, and at the period of the foundation of the Frankish kingdom by Clovis (see History of Europe, § 8, page 26), the most powerful of the Ger- man tribes were the following : — 1. The Frieslanders, along the coast of the North §ea, between the Zuyder Zee and the mouth of the Weser. 2. The Saxons, occupying the whole tract of land between the Rhine and Eider rivers, that comprises at present Westphalia, the principalities of Lippe, the middle and southern parts of Hanover, Brunswick, and Holstein. Those of Westphalia were particularly also called Westphalians (those in the neighbor- hood of Minden sometimes fingers), those of Holstein North Albingians, and those of Brunswick sometimes Eastphalians. 3. The Franks, consisting of Ripuariau Franks (in the present Rhenish province of Prussia), who under the reign of their king, Clovis, conquered nearly all Gaul and imparted their name to this country, and of Salic Franks, from whom is derived the name of Franconia, which is still the common name of the northern half of Bavaria, where they had their principal seat. 4. The Alemanni, primitively called Sueviatis, and occupying the whole tract of land, which in a later period formed the Swabian circle (see above). 5. The Bajoarians, the forefathers of the Bavarians proper, had their principal seat in the southern half of jthe present kingdom of Bavaria. 6. The Thuringians, living in the countries at present consisting of the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies. All these tribes were subjected partly by Clovis and his Merovingian successors, partly by_ Charlemagne, and thus incorporated to the great Frankish empire ; and not before the year 843, when this empire was divided, by the treaty of Verdun (see History of Europe, § 14, page 31), Germany became independent. Char- lemagne's grandson, Louis II., surnamed the German, was its first independ- ent king (see History of Europe, § 14). He was called Louis the Second on account of his father, Louis the Pious, having been the first sovereign of Ger- many with the name of Louis. When Louis II. died (in 876), the German kingdom was divided among his three sons, of whom the two eldest died successively in 880 and 882, after which the youngest, Charles III., surnamed the Fat, attained to the power, first in Germany, and then in nearly all GERMANY. 299 Hfvtory of bormnajr. other parts of the ancient Frankish empire. His great-grandfather Charle- magne was, as first emperor, considered also as first sovereign of Germany, and for this reason denoted with the name of Charles L Charles the Bald (brother of Louis the German), was crowned emperor (in 875), considered as Charles IL, though he was properly only the sovereign of France (see His- tory of Europe, § 14). Charles the Fat having been dethroned in 887, he was in Germany succeeded by his nephew, the duke of Carinthia, Arnulph (887-899), who was the first German king realizing the claims upon the im- perial crown (see page 32). With his son and successor, Louis III., surnamed the Child (899-911), the German line of the Carlovingians became extinct, and henceforth the German empire was an elective monarchy. For, the weak- ness of Charlemagne's successors had allowed the most powerful among the vassals to make themselves almost independent, and these were the dukes of Saxony (to whom the Thuringians had for the most part been subjected), of Franconia, Suevia (Swabia), Bavaria, and Lorraine. However they finally agreed upon electing a common sovereign, and they first chose the duke of Franconia, who, as Conrad I., reigned from 911 to 918. After his death the duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Fowler, was elected king of Germany. Henry I. united in himself all the virtues of a truly great man ; he maintained internal peace and order, built a great many regular towns (for instance Merseburg, Meissen, Quedlinburg, Nordhauseu, Goslar), and put to the rout (in 933, near Merseburg) the Magyars, who until then had nearly every year made plundering and devastating inroads into Germany. Endowed with similar great qualities was his son and successor Otho I. (936-972). In 962 he was in Rome crowned emperor by the pope, and as since this example was followed by his successors, the German kings were henceforth commonly styled Roman-German emperors. Otho's next three successors were Otho II. (972-983), Otho III. (983-1002), and Henry IL, surnamed the Holy (1002- 1024). With Henry II. the imperial line of the Saxon house became extinct and now Conrad II. (1024-1039) was elected, belonging to the ducal house of Franconia, or the Salic Franks (for which reason the emperors of this house were frequently called the Salic emperors). His son and successor, Henry III. (1039-1056), was the most energetic of all German emperors; and it is no doubt, that had he lived longer than actually was the case (for he was only 39 years old when he died in 1056), he not only would have turned the elective monarchy into a hereditary one, but also made of Germany a very powerful empire, with whose domestic affairs the popes would never m 300 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany. have dared to meddle, as they in later periods did, to the greatest prejudice of the political independence of Germany. This was first tried successfully by Pope Gregory VII. during the reign of Henry's son, Henry IV. (1056- 1106), whom he treated in the most humiliating manner. With Henry IV.'s son and successor, Henry V. (1106-1125), the line of the so-called Salic em- perors became extinct ; next to him was elected Lothar II. (earl of Supplin- genburg, in the present duchy of Brunswick : Lothar the Second he was styled with reference to Lothar I., who by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 had borne the imperial crown), who reigned from 1125 to 1137, in which period the long-lasting struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, or between the adherents of the powerful houses of Saxony (which duchy, together with that of Bavaria, was under the sway of the Guelphs) and Ho- henstaufen (under whose sway was the duchy of Swabia), originated, by that Lothar, whose son-in-law was duke of both Saxony and Bavaria, grossly offended his rivals. But after his death these very rivals of the celebrated house of Hohenstaufen were elected, first Conrad III. (1137-1152), then his nephew Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa (1152-1190), and next to him his son Henry VI. (1190-1197). When the last-named emperor died, his son Frederic was only 3 years old, and of this circumstance the Guelphs availed themselves, and elected (in 1198) one of their adherents, Otho (son of Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony), while their adversaries elected Henry's younger brother Philip, surnamed of Swabia (1198-1208), king of Germany. But the latter was murdered in 1208, and since Otho IV. reigned without opposition until the year 1215, when Henry's son (see above), Fred- eric II. (1215-1250), was elected. With Frederic's son and successor, Conrad IV. (1250-1254), the house of Hohenstaufen became extinct, and now a period of nearly 20 years ensued, which in German history is known by the name of Interreign, and to which conveniently could be applied what is said in Judges, xvii. 6 : "In those days there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which was right in his own eyes." For not only the sword-law exercised its barbarous sway uncontrolled throughout Germany, but also the number of petty sovereigns increased from year to year, so that at the end of the 13th century it amounted already to almost 150 (duchies, principalities, earldoms, bishoprics, free cities, etc.). Some of the German princes tried indeed to put an end to this anarchy, by electing in succession the earl William of Holland (-j-1256), Richard of Cornwall (-j-1272), and King Alphon80 of Castilia (who never set a foot on the German ground) ; but GERMANY. 301 History of Germany. these mock-kings had no authority at all, so much the less as they actually were not recognized as kings or emperors of Germany. No German prince was, under the existing circumstances, willing to accept the crown. Finally it became evident to all that the continuance of such a state of things would lead to common ruin ; even the pope insisted energetically upon the election of a new sovereign of all Germany, and so then Rodolph I. (1273-1291), earl, or count of Hapsburg in Switzerland (see page 156), was elected. He proved himself worthy of the confidence shown to him, and succeeded in a rather short time to restore tranquillity and order to the country. Ottokar, king of Bohemia and sovereign of nearly all the other present German prov- inces of Austria, refusing to acknowledge Rodolph as emperor, was declared outlawed, defeated in two decisive battles, and, with the exception of Bohe- mia and Moravia, deprived of his possessions. Carinthia was given in fee to the earl Mainhard of Tyrol, but with Austria (i. e., the present archduchy of Austria), Styria, and Carniola, Rodolph invested his own sons, Albert and Rodolph, and thus laid the foundation to the domestic power of the house of Hapsburg in Austria. It was perhaps owing to this somewhat selfish proceeding, that not his eldest son but the earl Adolphus of Nassau (1291- 1298) was elected king and emperor of Germany. However Rodolph's son acquiesced not in it, but took the field against Adolphus, defeated and killed him in a battle at Gellheim (in the present Bavarian Palatinate), and was now recognized as emperor, by the name of Albert I. (1298-1308). In the period from his death (in 1308 ; he was murdered by his own nephew) until towards the middle of the 15th century, princes from different houses mounted the imperial throne. First, Henry VII. (1308-1313), from the house of Luxemburg ; and next to him, Louis IV. (1313-1347), surnamed the Bavarian, because he belonged to the reigning Bavarian house of Wittelsbach. Then one party elected the Earl Gunther of Schwarzburg, while another party elected Henry VIL's grandson, Charles of Luxemburg, and the latter, or Charles IV. (1347-1378), got the better of the other, the more so, as Gunther soon died (in 1349). Charles IV. is remarkable as the author of the so-called Golden Bull, L e., a public document concerning the election of an emperor, the rank or dignity of the 7 electors, etc., which was published in 1356. He was suc- ceeded by his eldest son Wenceslaus (1378-1400), who cared so little for the public welfare, that in 1400 four electors elected the Palatine Rupert (1400- 1410) in his place. Rupert, however, made himself unpopular, likewise • moreover, he had not been generally recognized as emperor ; one party elected 302 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany. the margrave lodocus of Moravia (a cousin of Wenceslaus) ; another, Wences- Lius' brother Sigismund ; and thus there were at one period 3 German kings, or emperors, at once (for Wenceslaus lived until 1419). Finally, Sigismund (1410-1437) maintained himself in the possession of the imperial crown. During his reign, the Council at Constance was held in 1415, and John Huss burnt there, which gave rise to the war of the Hussites in Bohemia, that lasted from 1419 to 1436. It may be noticed here also, that Sigismund sold the margraviate of Brandenburg (which he had inherited), together with the electoral dignity, to the burgrave Frederic of Hohenzollern, at the price of 400,000 ducats. Sigismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his son-in-law Albert II. (1437-1439) of Austria, and henceforth only princes of this house (with one single exception) were elected emperors. Albert's successor was his cousin, Frederic III. (1439-1493), who was the last-elected German king crowned emperor at Rome ; while his son Maximilian I. (1493-1519) was the first who proclaimed himself " elected German emperor" which since was the usual title of the sovereigns of the German empire. During Maximilian's reign, the Reformation began ; by that, Luther published his ninety -five prop- ositions on the 31st of October, 1517. Most of the public acts of Maximil- ian's grandson and successor, Charles V. (1519-1556), had reference to the Reformation, as, for instance, the diets at Worms (in 1521), Spire (in 1529), Augsburg (in 1530), the so-called Schmalkaldian war (in 1546), the treaty of Passau (in 1552), the treaty of peace, concluded at Augsburg in 1555, by which the religious differences were settled, and the Council at Trent (since the year 1545). Charles renounced the Austrian estates (which he had inherited from his grandfather Maximilian) in favor of his younger brother, Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who at the same time had been elected emperor. Ferdinand was succeeded by his son Maximilian II. (1564-1576), who, like his father, was noted for his clemency and equity. His son and successor Rodolph II. (1576-1612), was a very learned scholar, but the much more unfit for ruling, which also may be said of his brother Matthias (1612-1619), under whose reign the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) originated. It is easy to conceive that an event of so important consequences, as the Reformation had proved to be, must produce a violent fermentation in the minds of the majority of Roman Catholics, and at last lead to a reaction and open hostilities. Thus, in the course of time the mutual exasperation between the Catholics and Protestants had increased to the highest pitch, and both parties waited, as it were, only for a plausible pretext to strike the first blow. This pretext GERMANY. 303 History of Germany. was offered, by that the Protestants at Prague precipitated the imperial governors from the windows of the royal castle, on the 23d of May, 1618. The Bohemians then elected the elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate then- king, but were defeated in the battle near Prague, on the 8th of November, 1620, and soon the war extended to all parts of Germany. Meanwhile, the cousin of Matthias, Ferdinand II. (1619-1637), had been elected emperor, and during his reign the principal events of the said war took place : the total defeat of King Christian V. of Denmark in the battle of Lutter on the Baren- berg (27th of August, 1626), the taking of Magdeburg by storm (20th of May, 1631), the battle of Breitenfeld (7th of September, 1631), the battle of Liitzen (16th of November, 1632), etc. Ferdinand II. was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), whose reign is noted for the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded on the 24th of October, 1648, respectively at Munster (with reference to the Catholic concerns) and Osnabriick (with reference to the Protestant concerns). By the terms of this treaty, the execu- tive power of the emperor was restricted still more than ever before. Ferdi- nand IL died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold I. (1657-1705), who was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph I. (1705-1711), and then by a younger son Charles VI. (1711-1740), with whom the male line of the house of Hapsburg became extinct. He bequeathed all his patrimonial dominions (comprising the present Austrian monarchy, with the exception of the Polish provinces and of the former Venetian territories) to his ouly daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary Theresa, who was married to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, from which cause the house of Hapsburg has since been styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. There arose claims upon the Austrian dominions on the part of several German princes, above all of Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, and cousin to Mary Theresa. Yet the latter prevailed, both against him and the other pretenders, with the exception of Frederic IL of Prussia, to whom she ceded the greatest part of Silesia. Charles Albert was, however, elected emperor by the name of Charles VII., but as he already died in 1745, Mary Theresa's consort was elected emperor by the name of Francis I. (1745-1765). He died in 1765, and was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph IL (1765-1790), and then by a younger son Leopold IL (1790-1792). Leopold's son, Francis II. (1792-1806), was the last German emperor, as has already been mentioned above, where also the alterations the political body of Germany underwent since the beginning of the present century, have been alluded to. The revolutions which occurred in Germany in 304 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany— Recent Revolutions. the years 1848 and 1849, are too fresh in remembrance than that they needed to be related here ; yet with reference to their actual causes, we cannot forbear to draw the attention of the reader to the following facts. First, we have seen above that no country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of knowledge, and that its literary institutions are both numerous and celebrated. Secondly, Germany is renowned for various branches of its numerous manu- factures. Thirdly, both its commerce and inland trade is very considerable. Besides this, the agriculture is in general conducted with a skill almost unrivalled, and the horses, sheep, and cattle, there belong, for the most part, to the finest breed. Still we add, that, for instance, the system, long since adopted there in medical concerns, may be called exemplary, and that the administration of justice is likewise in the best order. Now we ask, whether all these advantages could possibly have been obtained, if Germany had been under the sway of tyrants and despots, as German party-leaders would make foreigners believe ? On the contrary, the very fact of these advantages pre- supposes liberal and benevolent principles on the part of the governments in general. The assertion of those party-leaders, that the German people had to bear enormous public charges, and especially all the expenses of the princely courts in that country, is completely a talk at random. First, in Germany the taxes are lower than in almost any other country of Europe — for, upon an average, each inhabitant has to pay only one and a half dollars per annum ;* whereas, the proportion of taxes in England is at the rate of ten, and in France, at present, at the enormous rate of fourteen dollars. (The particulars of the proportion of taxes in Germany will be found below, and in the description of the several German states.) And, secondly, with regard to the expenses of the princely families and courts in Germany, the people have to contribute out of their pockets not one single cent towards them. The fact is, that these families subsist entirely on the revenues of their domains, or family estates. They are possessed of property, as well as millions of private * In the financial year ending on the 30th of June, 1844, the public expendi- ture of the United States was $32,958,827. At the same period, the total population of the Union was about 19,500,000 inhabitants. Thus, 19,500,000 divided into 33,000,000 gives a ratio of $1 69 per inhabitant. But, let even the average amount of the expenditure be only $25,000,000, the ratio per inhabitant is still at least $1 25 — i. e., exclusive of the separate public charges in the single states. GERMANY. 305 Recent Revolutions in Germany. men throughout the whole world ; and that this property consists chiefly of family estates, commonly called domains, makes no difference. "We have seen above, that the ancestor of the reigning royal family in Prussia, Frederic of Hohenzollern, was able to pay 400,000 ducats in cash to Emperor Sigis- mund — an immense sum at that time ! Rodolph of Hapsburg was, before his accession to the imperial throne, one of the wealthiest earls in Switzerland. The Guelphs, ancestors of the house of Brunswick-Hanover, were wealthy and powerful barons in Italy and Southern Germany. We could cite other instances to show that the German princes descend from wealthy ancestors, who entailed their large estates as feoffments in trust upon their descendants. The revenues from these estates far exceeding the expenses of the princely households, it is evident that the assertion that German princes did live at the charges of the people, is a fabrication. On the contrary, in former times the surplus of the revenues, applied to purposes of public service then as well as at present, proved almost sufficient for the public expenditure ; and what the people had to pay in taxes, was a trifle. Only the wars and other extraordinary contingencies since the first French revolution, have increased the taxes of the German people, still to a comparatively very low ratio. In the table, page 308, that of some countries is indeed higher than the average ratio of one and a half dollars, but this is chiefly owing to the rail-roads, which in Germany, for the most part, have been constructed at the expense and on account of the public treasury. Thus, neither tyranny nor despotism on the part of the princes, neither incapacity nor malevolence on the part of the rulers, neither heavy taxes nor infringement of the rights and liberties of the people have brought on the revolution in Germany, but the artifices of those very party-leaders, who in this way endeavored to satisfy their immod- erate ambition and unreasonable discontent. That the reader may not charge us with partiality, or exaggeration, we shall cite their own words. Last summer, as is known, a republic in the grand- duchy of Baden and the Bavarian palatinate was established, but soon put down again. Now, of course, the leaders took to flight ; and Mr. Brentano, the ex-president of the transitory republican government, had just time enough to publish an address to the people of Baden, in which, among other things, he says : — " Fellow- citizens ! You will be astonished to learn from the records, to what pur- poses your money has been appropriated; how few there were who, without self-interest, devoted themselves to the cause of the people, and how the great majority did not make a step without asking payment for it out of 306 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Excess of Population in Germany the public treasury. In the first beginning of our revolution, hundreds of adventurers flocked into our country ; they boasted of their having suffered for the sake of liberty, and claimed the reward of it in ready money out of your treasuries. At the head of this party was Struve, whom the army disdains on account of his cowardice. I had put my trust in the constituent assembly ; but I have been disappointed. The majority of its members con- sisted of entirely unqualified common brawlers. I could name a great number of valiant bullies, who, under various pretexts, declined dangerous com- missions as ' unworthy of themselves,' while they greedily sought to obtain others which they could perform in perfect safety at the expenses of the public treasury." We should think that these revelations speak clear enough to every one who desires to become acquainted with the actual causes of the German revolutions. There is no state in the world that can boast of its being a perfect one ; for the simple reason that man himself is not perfect Thus, the German states cannot either boast of perfection; but their chief defect can neither be laid to the governments' charge, nor be remedied by revo- lutions ; for it consists of nothing else but excess of population, and hence want of subsistence on the part of a great many inhabitants, especially among the lower classes of society. In 1807, the total population of Germany was 26,226,000 inhabitants, while in the beginning of 1848 it was, in round numbers, 42,000,000 — thus in 41 years, an increase of more than 15,750,000 inhabitants ! The increase would have been far more considerable but for the wars which occurred prior to 1814, and which caused, directly and indirectly, great mortality. The German emigrants who came to the United States in these last twenty-five years, are, for the most part, natives from the grand- duchy of Baden, the kingdom of Wirtemberg, and the Bavarian palatinate ; and whoever will take the trouble to ask them for what reason they have emigrated, they will tell him (of course, in so far as they do not belong to the political refugees), that it was chiefly want of subsistence in their native country that induced them to leave it and to go in search of a livelihood on the other side of the Atlantic. In the last-named countries, the people depend for subsistence chiefly on husbandry, and partly on manufactures. In 1807, the population of the grand-duchy of Baden was 840,000 in- habitants, who in general had the means of subsistence, but since, this pop- ulation has increased by more than half a million, amounting at present to about 1,380,000 inhabitants. Thus, while in 1807 only 146 lived on a square mile, this ratio has increased to 233. The population of Wirtemberg was iu GERMANY. 307 The Geographical and Political Divisions of Germany. 180*7 at the ratio of 159 inhabitants to the square mile, but in the beginning of 1848 it was at the ratio of 232. In the Bavarian palatinate are living 268, and in the governmental district of Dusseldorf (with an area of 2,094 square miles, and a population of 892,500 inhabitants) not less than 426 inhabitants on a square mile ! The most populous states of the Union are, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; yet, according to the census of 1840, ihe ratio of population in the first-named state was only 98, in the second 80, and in Connecticut 65, on a square mile. In comparing this ratio with that of the named German countries, the exceeding competition and rivalry in all branches of industry and livelihood, may indeed not be wondered at. The ratio of population in the other German countries varies, upon an average, between 160 and 210; while the ratio of all Germany is 171 inhab- itants to a square mile. We shall now describe the different German states according to their actual political condition in the beginning of the year 1848, for the reasons alluded to, page 1. Moreover, the altera- tions proposed by the above-mentioned so-called German parlia- ment, have not been noticed at all by the different governments ; and some few others resolved upon by the latter, may be consid- ered either as transitory, or as immaterial. The following geographical and statistical table of Germany, in detail, shows at once the order of succession, followed in the description of the several states, their geographical situation, their area and population, their respective capitals, and the ratio of tax-paying per inhabitant. S. G. signifies Southern Germany ; C. G. signifies Central Germany ; N. G. signifies Northern Ger- many. The particulars of the ratio in paying taxes will be found in the description of the several states, and some of them are already given above. Wherever the ratio is omitted in this table, there the public expenditure is either covered by the revenues of the domains, etc , or the ratio is less than l-£ dollars : as, for instance, in the principalities of Reuss. 308 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. is s s ■8*3 81 3 MrinWrt H rH §3 8 888881888888 § 8 i-»«S5 8 888388888888 © ©coo© ©So© ©55 oo « o f' *' oc d e c x k c i ritfS KJWn I-C<« - . BhOOH^OKWOOCCI !-!—(■<»< Ifl rl PH Tf r-MO< S 1 i •£ s Sf-2 S •« « !1 S ^ oq ^ 3? (3 3 tq ^ 3 Sj £ '5? C>e a hi it gas E * 1 S g S S * * 3 co-si ta^, . • 22 > t» «d a =_= &oso££ so a b > * a lllll 0.0. - - r | Sooa OOaJ 02* 02 B§: 5 ■- 9 — If .c 2 2S «S - fflB»S ooos a" d d <3 eg* 1 -a bog 1I1b^"° SbIbIIub |4l«:Illi xJ2 B«ScSi S6Qfc =t £ ® S ® « © s i u <& f|l«f*«INs* rg rrrrrrrrv : Z N si ; H J O fe H as 5 as p . . ». ghn'H- f -$£•-*■ |5gl||li|!sS 0<~£~ f -! P as as ou^ 5 SS 3! """] ° IlllllHi. . . « o c c5 £ £ £ a &- . s 2 3. aS m h x 2 * as a 3 sg||2 kfe=£fi ,-5-5 , Jt fift^ 5 d 3 ? g o n h £ as sc m O i?S z P « ° _i» o -g m 03 02 e"5 S^ o o o s .£ I i § g § ^£5oQQQ S < 1 ? tz s s ^ ^ IWW*<»« O «010-he, Eitel Frederic VI., became possessed of the smaller portion, and assumed the title of Hohenzollern- Hechingen, while the other, Charles II., obtained the larger portion, and called himself earl of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen. Both lines are still extant, and respectively in 1623 and 1696 the princely title was conferred upon them by the emperor. GERMANY. 349 The Principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen. We shall now describe the two principalities separately : L HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN. This principality has an area of 341 square miles, and a popu- lation of 45,100 inhabitants; is on the north bound by Hechin- gen, on the east by the Danube Circle of Wirtemberg, and on the south and west by the Lake Circle of Baden. The reigning prince since 1848, is Charles Anton, born in 181 1. Sigmaringen, the capital of the principality and princely residence, on the Danube, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Ulm, and southward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, with an extensive and stately princely palace, and 2,100 inhabitants. Vohringen, a town on the Lauchart river, with the ruins of a once remarkable feudal castle, and 800 inhabitants. Other town9 are : Gamertingen (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hettingen (with 600 inhabitants), and Haigerloch (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-towns of Ostrach (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Steassberg (with 800 inhabitants), belong at present to the prince of Thurn and Taxis (see page 317), while the town of Troch- telfingen (with 1,200 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Furstenberg (see above, under the head of Lake Circle of Baden), of course without prejudice to the sovereignty of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringea II. HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. This principality has an area of 117 square miles, and a popu- lation of 21,000 inhabitants, and is on the south, and partly on the west, bound by the former principality. The reigning prince is, since 1838, Frederic, born in 1801. Hechingen, the capital of this principality, and residence of the prince, on the Starzel river, north-westward and 20 miles distant from Sigmaringen, with a stately princely palace, and 3,500 inhabitants. Not far from here is situated, on a steep hill, the ancient, and in 1826, entirely restored castle of Hohenzollern, once the renowned seat of the ancestors of both the princes of Hohenzollern and kings of Prussia, reared in the year 980. Stetten, a market-town in the neighborhood of Hechingen, has 600 inhabitants, and a 350 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Principality of Liechtenstein. remarkable church, where several earls of Hohenzollern are buried. The market-town of Burladingen, with 1,400 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its church. The market town of Grosselfingen, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted for its potteries. VHL— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN. Area : 53 square miles. Population : 6,400 inhabitants. This smallest amoDg the German states, is situated about 18 miles south of the lake of Constance, bordering upon Switzer- land on the west and south, and bound by Tyrol on the east. The inhabitants are Catholics, and depend for subsistence chiefly on rearing of cattle, agriculture, and some wine culture. The monarchical government is somewhat limited by a chamber of deputies. The military contingent which is to be furnished to the army of the German Confederation, consists of 55 men. The public expenditure is at a very low rate, and covered by the revenue, amounting to 22,000 florins, and consisting chiefly of revenues from the princely domains in the country. The prince has, however, far more considerable dominions in Austria, among which are the dependent principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf, and which altogether have an area of 2,215 square miles, and a population of 600,000 inhabitants, and yield an annual revenue of at least 1,500,000 florins. History. The ancestor of the house of Liechtenstein, mentioned in docu- ments from the year 942, descended from the house of Este (see page 118). His dominions had, however, nothing in common with the present principal- ity, but were situated in the subsequent Austrian provinces. Among his descendants are to be noticed the earls Ulric and Henry of Liechtenstein, GERMANY. 351 The Principality of Liechtenstein.— The Grand-Duchy of Hesse. who acted an important part in the quarrel between Rodolph of Hapsburg and King Ottocar of Bohemia (see page 301). Earl Hartmann IV., who died in 1585, left behind two sons, Charles and Gundakar, who respectively in 1618 and 1623, were promoted to princes by the emperors Matthias and Ferdinand IL, while at the same time Charles was invested with the Silesian principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf. His grandson, Prince John Adam Andrew, purchased in 1699 from the earl of Hohenembs the immediate lordships of Vadutz and Schellenberg, and these are the constituent parts of the present principality of Liechtenstein. The reigning prince since 1836, is Aloys, born in 1796. Thus the principality of Liechtenstein consists of the former dominion or lordship of Vadutz, forming its southern part, and of the former earldom of Schellenberg, forming its northern part. Vadutz, its capital, has in recent times received the name of Liechtenstein, is situated near the Rhine, 50 miles east-south-east of Zurich, and 100 miles west- south-west of Innspruck, and has 1,000 inhabitants. The princoly palace or castle towers on a rock, but the usual residence of the prince is Vienna. Be- sides Vadutz, deserve only to be mentioned the castle of Schellenberg, north of Vadutz, and the villages ©f Balzers, Triesen or Treisen, and Benderen. IX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF HESSE. Area : 3,259 square miles. Population : 845,000 inhabitants. This grand-duchy, officially styled Hesse and at Rhine (Hessen und bei Rhein), and more commonly known by the name of Hesse- Darmstadt, is situated towards the centre of Germany, half-way between Bohemia and the Netherlands, along the Rhine and Mayne. 352 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. Nearly one half of the population consists of Lutherans, anc the remainder of about 150,000 Evangelicals (see page 291) 40,000 Calvinisls, 209,500 Roman Catholics, 1,450 Mennonites. and 28,300 Jews. The chief staples are fruits of various kinds (even chestnuts and almonds in the so-called Bergstrasse and in Rhenish Hesse), wines (some sorts in Rhenish Hesse rank among the choicest Rhenish wines), grain and timber. The rearing of cattle is very- considerable in the provinces of Starkenburg and Upper Hesse. The chief products from the mineral kingdom are iron and peat. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen and woolhn goods. The principal manufacturing place is Offenbach. Mentz carries on a considerable trade. Besides the university at Giessen (see page 288), which in 1846 was frequented by 535 students, there are 7 lycea and gymnasia, 5 seminaries (see page 65, about the signification of these terms), etc., and 1,600 common schools. The government is similar to that of the grand-duchy of Baden. According to the budget of the period 1839-1841, the public revenue was esti- mated at 7,087,181, and the expenditure at 7,078,462 florins annu- ally. The public debt was in 1842 reduced to about 3-J- million florins. The regular army consists of 6,662 men on the peace, and of 9,541 on the war footing; the contingent to the confed- erated army was fixed at 6,195 men. There are the following two orders of honor: 1. The Louis order, in 5 classes, and instituted in 1807. 2. The order of Philip the Generous, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1840. History. — The first historically known inhabitants of Hesse in general were the Ohatts (see page 297) ; and since the 8th century, when Christianity was permanently founded here by Bonifacius, the name of Hesse seems to have originated. In the days of the Carlovingians the country was ruled by native earls. About the middle of the 11th century, Louis, surnamed the GERMANY. 353 The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its History. Bearded, a descendant of the princes of Lorraine, was invested with Thuringia (see its history, under the head Saxe- Weimar) ; while his descend- ants subsequently became the sovereigns of Hesse ; first by acquiring con- siderable estates in the way of marriage, and then by inheriting other exten- sive territories there. In 1247 the male line of the landgraves of Thuringia became extinct, and now, while the landgraviate itself was inherited by the margraves of Meissen, the niece of the last landgrave, the duchess Sophia of Brabant, became possessed of the Hessian dominions, which she bequeathed to her son Henry, who thus became the first independent ruler of Hesse, in 1263. This Henry I., surnamed the Child, was in 1292 by Emperor Adol- phus promoted to the dignity of a landgrave, and made Cassel his residence. He died in 1308, and by his successors and descendants frequently partitions of the country were agreed upon, though also fresh acquisitions were made, as, for instance, Hersfeld, Ziegenhain, Nidda, Katzenellnbogen (in 1479), Homburg (in 1504), etc Finally all constituent parts of the landgraviate of Hesse were reunited in 1504 by William II., who died in 1509, and bequeathed the whole to his son Philip, surnamed the Generous, well known in the his- tory of the Reformation. Philip died in 1567 at Cassel, after having divided the country among his four sons, of whom the youngest, George, obtained the so-called upper earldom of Katzenellnbogen, comprising the city of Darm- stadt, etc. Landgrave George I. of Hesse-Darmstadt died in 1596, and was succeeded by his son Louis V. (for it was counted here according to the gen- eral rule for all Hesse), who inherited the present province of Upper Hesse, and died in 1626. He was succeeded by his descendants in the following order of succession: George II. (1626-1661), Louis VL (until 1678), Ernest Louis (-J-1736), Louis VIII. (+1769), Louis IX. (+1790), and Louis X., who, by the terms of the treaty of Luneville in 1801, was deprived of his do- minions on the left bank of the Rhine, but amply indemnified in 1803, by the annexation of the ancient duchy of Westphalia (see under the head of the Prussian province of Westphalia), some imperial cities, etc. In 1806 the landgrave became a member of the Rhenish Confederation (see page 294) as Grand Duke Louis I. In 1816 he ceded the duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, and made several other cessions, instead of which he became possessed of the present Rhenish Hesse. He died in 1830, and was succeeded by his son Louis II., who abdicated on the 16th June, 1848, in favor of his son, Louis III., the reigning grand duke, born in 1806. 354 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Hesse. The grand-duchy is divided into 3 provinces, the northernmost of which is surrounded by territories of Hesse-Cassel, and by them separated from the two other provinces that are separated from each other by the Rhine. The provinces are subdivided into circles. I. The province of Starkenburg, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, and on the left bank of the Mayne. It has derived its name from an ancient castle, formerly belonging to the electorate of Mentz, yet now in ruins, and comprises both ancient Hessian dominions and recently (since 1803) acquired territories. 1. The principal of those dominions is the so-called Upper Earl- dom of Katzenellnbogen, whose native earls became extinct in 1479, when it was inherited by the house of Hesse. Witty remarks about it will be found in Washington Irving's interesting tale entitled " The Spectre Bridegroom." It contains : -{-Darmstadt, the capital of the grand-duchy, and grand-ducal residence, on the little Darm river, southward and 14 miles distant from Frankfort, with 31,000 inhabitants, and various manufactures. The most re- markable of its public edifices are the extensive grand-ducal palace (whose foundation was laid by George I.), the Catholic church, and the so-called drill- house, at present used as an arsenal. The neighboring castle of Krauich stein is noted as a grand-ducal hunting-seat. The village of Oberramstadt (in the vicinity of Darmstadt, with 2,000 inhabitants), is noted as the birth-place of Lichtenberg, the celebrated German author of the interesting commentary to Hogarth's engravings. Grossgerau, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its greens. Trebur, a market-town near the Rhine, 14 miles west-north- west of Darmstadt, has at present only 1,500 inhabitants, but was in the mid- dle ages noted for several councils and diets held here, and for a palace where Charlemagne frequently resided. Zwingenberg, a town on the Bergstrasse, with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently a strong fortress. Reinhehn, a town on the Odenwald, with 1,300 inhabitants. Babenhaitsen, a town on the Gersprenz river, with 1,600 inhabitants. 2. To the electorate of Mentz formerly belonged : Heppenheim, a town on the Bergstrasse, with 4,200 inhabitants, is noted for its fruits and wines. Not far from here are the ruins of the above-men- tioned ancient castle of Starkenburg, reared in 1064 by the abbot of the once highly renowned monastery of Lorsch (instituted in 764), whose seat was the present market-town of this name (with 2,600 inhabitants). Gernsheim, a town on the Rhine, with considerable corn-trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. GERMANY. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its Geographical Divisions. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Seligenstadt (with 3,300 inhabitants), Steinheim (with 1,150 inhabitants), Dieburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Hirschhorn (with 1,850 inhabitants). 3 To the Electoral Palatinate (see page 342) and other formerly independent territories belonged : Umstadt, a town at the foot of the Odenwald Mountains, eastward and 12 miles distant from Darmstadt, with 3,100 inhabitants, Linden/els and Hering, towns with respectively 900 and 500 inhabitants, Neckarsteinach, a town on the Neckar, with 1,300 inhabitants, Frankisch-Krumbach, a village with 1,200 inhabitants, and the ruins of the ancient castles of Rodenstein and Schnellerts, notori- ous for a strange noise heard here sometimes, the natural cause of which has never yet been discovered. About the market-town of Kurnbach, see page 340. Its Hessian half has 600 inhabitants. Wimpfen, until 1803 an imperial city, on the Neckar, has considerable salt-works, and 2,300 inhabi- tants, and is noted in history for a battle on the 6th May, 1622. 4. The for- merly sovereign or independent, but since 1806 dependent earldom of Erbach, belonging to the earls of this name (descendants of Eginhard, son-in-law to Charlemagne), who at present are divided into three chief branches, and hav- ing, together with dominions in Bavaria, an area of 266 square miles, and a population of 34,000 inhabitants, contains : Erbach, its capital, on the Mum- ling river, with a very remarkable palace of the earls, and 2,100 inhabitants. Michelstadt (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Neustadt, surnamed in der Rosenan (with 1,000 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly likewise independent, but since 1815 dependent principality of Isenburg (properly styled Upper Isen- burg), belonging to a branch of the princes and earls of this name, and of an- cient origin, and having an area of 160 square miles, with 17,500 inhabitants, and yielding an annual revenue of more than 104,000 florins, contains: Of- fenbach, its capital and usual princely residence, on the Mayne, at about 2 miles distance from Frankfort, has 11,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its various manufactures and considerable inland trade. Dreieicherhain, a town southward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, has 1,000 inhabitants, and is in various respects remarkable in history. Philippseich, a village with 400 inhabitants, and a palace remarkable as the residence of the earl of Isenburg- Philippseich, belonging to a collateral line of that named house. II. The province of Rhenish Hesse, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, and comprising chiefly territories, which formerly belonged to the electorate of Mentz and to the Electoral Palatinate. 1. The former Electorate of Mentz embraced, beside the territories within the limits of this province, already 356 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. described above under the head of Bavaria (page 327), and Baden (page 343), the towns of Rudesheim, Hochheim, etc., in the present duchy of Nas- sau, the towns of Fritzlar and Amoneburg at present belonging to Hesse-Cas- sel, the town of Erfurt (at present belonging to Prussia), and the so-called Eichsfeld, which at present is divided between Prussia and Hanover. That part within the limits of this province contains: -)-Mentz or Mayence (in German Mainz), at present the capital of this province, was formerly that of the electorate and the residence of the archbishop elector, is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the Mayne, has the strongest fortress in Germany, and 34,000 inhabitants (exclusive of 8,000 men of Aus- trian and Prussian troops). Its principal public edifices are the cathedral, the grand-ducal palace (formerly belonging to the Teutonic Order), the for- mer electoral palace, etc. The house where Guttenberg, the inventor of the art of printing, was born, is still shown. Mentz was founded by the ancient Romans shortly before the Christian era, and the first archbishop here was the holy Bonifacius, appointed in 745. The city is connected, by means of a bridge of boats 1,666 feet long, with the likewise strongly fortified town of Kastel (with 2,250 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Bin- gen, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, at its junction with the Nahe, with considerable trade and 5,000 inhabitants. Algesheim or Gaualgesheim, a town noted for its wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. The village of Budesheim (with 1,600 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. 2. To Electoral Palat- inate (see page 342) did belong : Ingelheim ( Upper and Lwoer), two mar- ket-towns about half-way between Bingen and Mentz, are noted for their wines, and have respectively 2,400 and 2,200 inhabitants. Charlemagne re- sided frequently at Lower Ingelheim. Oppenheim, a town on the Rhine, with a remarkably ancient church and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Nierstein (with 2,300 inhabitants), is renowned for its wines. Alzey, a town on the Selz river, with 4,600 inhabitants. Pfeddersheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Odernheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), towns noted for their wines. Alsheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), Westhofen (with 1,900 in- habitants), and Osthofen (with 3,800 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The city of Worms, near the Rhine, 12 miles north-north-west of Mannheim, and northward and 23 miles distant from Spire, noted for its wines (known by the name of " Liebfrauenmilch"), and with 9,000 inhabitants, was formerly an imperial city, and highly renowned in history, especially for the diet held here in 1521. At that period it was flourishing by its considerable trade, and GERMANY. 357 The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its Geographical Divisions. had 40,000 inhabitants. The former earldom of Leiningen (see page 328) contains within the limits of this province the market-towns of Guntersblum (with 2,500 inhabitants), BechtJieim (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Monsheim (with 900 inhabitants). III. The province of Upper Hesse, situated north of the province of Starkenburg, and comprising chiefly Hessian and mediated territories. 1. The ancient Hessian territory contains : -j-Giessen, the capital of the province, at the high-road between Cassel and Frankfort, has 7,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see abovo). Nidda, a town on the river of the same name, with some linen and woollen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. BiEi>ENKOPF,a town on the Upper Lahn, 27 miles north-north-west of Giessen, with cloth manufactures, iron-works, and 3,600 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Allendorf, surnamed an der Lnmda (with 1,100 inhabitants), Gross-Linden (with 950 inhabitants), Staufenberg (with 600 inhabitants), Grunberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Homberg an der Ohm (with 1,800 inhabitants), Alsfeld (with 3,800 inhabitants), Kirdorf (with 1,400 inhabitants), Lauterbach (with 3,550 inhabitants), Ulrichstein (with 950 inhabitants), Schotten (with 2,100 inhabitants), Ober-Rossbach (with 1,200 inhabitants), Butzbach (with 2,200 inhabitants), Hatzfeld (with 1,000 inhabi- tants), and Battenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants). The village of Thalitter (with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its copper mines. liter, a village, with the ruins of an ancient castle of the same name. 2. To the dominions of the at present mediatized princes and earls of Solms (a very ancient dynasty and descendants of the emperor Conrad I., divided into two chief branches, with several collateral lines), belonged : Rodelhetm, a market-town on the Nidda and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with a formerly fortified castle, and 2,100 inhabitants. Laubach, a town on the Wetter river, with iron-works and 2,100 inhabitants. Lich, a town on the Wetter river, with 2,200 inhabi- tants, and a palace of the prince of Solms-Lich. A$senheim, Hungen and Miinzenberg, towns, with respectively 800, 1,100, and 900 inhabitants. 3. The town of Buedingen (with 2,900 inhabitants and various manufactures) belongs to the prince of Isenburg-Budingen (see above), who resides here. The town of Wenings (with 1,000 inhabitants) belongs to another line of this house. 4. The town of Ortenberg (on the Nidder, 18 miles north-north-east of Hanau, with 1,100 inhabitants), and the market-towns of Gedern (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Ranstadt (with 800 inhabitants), belong to the earls of Stol- berg (see under the head of Prussia). 5. The town of Schlitz (near the 358 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy and Landgraviate of Hesse. Fulda river, with considerable breweries and 3,300 inhabitants) belongs to the count of Schlitz, surnamed of Qortz. 6. The city of Friedberg was until 1803 an imperial city, is situated in the so-called Wetterau, northward and 14 miles distant from Frankfort, and has various manufactures, a remark- able Gothic church, and 2,800 inhabitants. Friedberg is moreover noted for its ancient castle of the same name, formerly the seat of a knighthood en- dowed with substantial privileges. X.— THE LANDGRAVIATE OF HESSE. Area: 128 square miles. Population : 26,000 inhabitants. This little state, commonly known by the name of Hesse-Hom- burg, consists of two distinct territories, situated about 55 miles apart, and separated from each other by Nassau and Hesse- Darmstadt. The smaller territory (43 square miles and 11,500 inhabitants), situated northward and 10 miles distant from Frankfort on the Mayne, comprises the old landgraviate of Horn- burg, while the larger territory (85 square miles and 14,500 inhabitants), is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, at the north-western frontier of the Bavarian palatinate, and comprises chiefly the ancient dominion of Meisenheim, formerly belonging to the palatine principality of Zweibriicken (see page 327). The majority of the population consists of Lutherans, and the remainder of about 6,000 Calvinists, and 3,000 Catholics. The soil is fertile and well cultivated. Manufactures are not lacking, but in general of no great importance. The government is at present a limited monarchy. The public revenue amounts to about 150.000 florins annually (exclusive of 33,000 florins which GERMANY. 359 The Landgraviate of Hesse — its History and Geographical Divisions. the private estates of the landgrave yield). To the confederal army are to be furnished 229 men. History. — When Philip the Generous divided the whole landgraviate of Hesse among his four sons (see History of Hesse-Darmstadt), George obtained the dominion of Homburg, together with that of Darmstadt. His son and successor, Louis V. (1596-1626), who had to pay 20,000 florins annually as appanage to his brother Frederic, found it more convenient to cede to him (in 1622) in place of the ready money, the dominion of Homburg, yet reserving to Hesse-Darmstadt the seignory over it. Frederic I. died in 1638, and was succeeded first by his son William Christoph (1638-1669), then George Chris- tian (1669-1677), Mer am Barenberge (with 1,300 inhabitants), noted in history for the victory the imperial general Tilly obtained here over the Danes, on the 27th Aug., 1626- Holzminden, a town on the Weser, westward and 18 miles distant from Eimbeck, with manufactures of hardware, cutlery, pins, etc. ; iron-works, considerable linen trade, and 3,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situ- ated the ancient mountain castle of Furstenberg, since 1753 with a porcelain manufactory. Eschersleben, a market-town noted for its flax and linen, has 1,300 inhabitants. Severn, a market-town in the neighborhood of Holzmin- den, with 1,500 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient ducal castle, in the period from 1704 to 1735, the residence of a collateral line of the ducal house. Stadt Oldendorf, a town north-eastward and 12 miles distant from Holzminden, with linen manufactures, quarries, and 1,800 inhabitants. TJiedinglumsen, a market-town on the Weser, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Bremen, with linen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants, is the chief place of the bailiwick of Thedinghausen situated entirely apart Blankenburg, the capital of the above-mentioned principality of the same name (which has I70i square miles in extent, and a population of 22,000 inhabitants), at the lower Hartz, south-eastward and 37 miles distant from Brunswick, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its ducal palace. In the neighborhood are two remarkable caves (similar to Wyer's Cave, in Vir- ginia), known by the names of Baumannshbhle and Biehteinhofde. The 448 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Free City of Hamburg. villages of Zorge (with 1,300 inhabitants), Wieda (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Hohegeiss (with 1,100 inhabitants), are noted for their iron-works. Hasselfelde, a town with 1,700 inhabitants. XXXIV.— THE FREE CITY OF HAMBURG. Area : 149 square miles. Population : 168,000 inhabitants. The city of Hamburg is situated on the right bank of the river Elbe, about 84 miles from the sea, and its territory partly in the immediate vicinity, partly at the mouth of the Elbe. In the above-stated area and population, are included 42^ square miles, and 13,000 inhabitants, as the area and population of the baili- wick of Bergedorf (above Hamburg on the Elbe), of which Ham- burg and Lubec are possessed in common. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; but besides them, there are about 4,100 Calvinists, 3,100 Roman Catholics, 600 Mennou- ites, and 8,000 Jews. The government is a republic, the sovereign power being vested in a senate and the citizenship. The public revenue amounted in 1845, to 5,827,000 bank-marks (3 are equal to 1 dollar), and the expenditure to 5,996,000 marks. The public debt amounts to about 70 million bank-marks, and this rather high amount is chiefly owing to a loan which became necessary, in consequence of a dreadful fire in 1842, which destroyed a considerable part of the city. The troops to be furnished to the confederal army, are 1,298 men. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec are, as ancient mem- bers of the Hanseatic League (see page 54), still sometimes styled GERMANY. 449 The Free City of Hamburg. Ilanseatic cities, both in common life and officially. — It is proba- ble that Hamburg already existed before the days of Charle- magne, as a city of the North Albingians (see page 298) In 808 this emperor reared here an imperial castle, anct in 834 Hamburg became the seat of an archbishopric, which, however, a few years later, was transferred to Bremen. At a later period, Hamburg came under the sway of the earls of Holstein, who favored it with substantial privileges. In the 12th century it was already a commercial city of importance, and in 1215 it was raised to a sovereign imperial city by Emperor Otto IV. In 1241 it entered into an alliance with Lubec, laying thus the foun- dation of the Hanseatic League, and in the years 1258 and 1269, it acquired a considerable territory. Its flourishing state continued even in the period of the thirty years' war, which left Hamburg unharmed ; as was likewise the case in the seven years' war, and in the period of the first French revolution. But since 1803, Hamburg has suffered many calamities. First the Elbe river was shut up by the French, and blockaded by the English ; secondly, Hamburg was in 1806 occupied by French troops, and had since to pay enormous war-taxes ; thirdly, it was incorporated in 1810 with the French empire ; and lastly it was in 1813 occu- pied by a numerous body of French troops commanded by Davoust, who condemned Hamburg to a fine of 48 million francs, took considerable sums of private property from the bank, and transformed the city into a strong fortress, which did not surren- der before the peace was concluded at Paris, on the 31st May, 1814. The losses in ready money Hamburg has suffered in the period from 1806 to 1814, are estimated at 140 million bank- marks. In 1815 Hamburg was restored to its political indepen- dence, and joined the German Confederation as a free city. The above-mentioned great fire in 1842, lasted from the 4th to the 8th of May, and destroyed 1,992 houses, which had been the 450 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Free City of Hamburg. dwellings of about 30,000 inhabitants. We shall now enter into some particulars of topographical description. Hamburg lies, as has already been stated, on the right bank of the Elbe, at its junction with the Alster, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Bre- men, and south-westward and 40 miles distant from Lubec, is universally known as the chief commercial city in Germany, and has 137,000 inhabitants. Before the great fire in 1842, Hamburg was noted for its 5 fine and high steeples of churches, two of which burnt down on that occasion, and are about to be replaced by new churches with similar high steeples. Of the three others that remained unhurt, St. Michael's church steeple is 458 feet in height, thus one of the highest in the world The Merchant's Exchange is a magnificent, well-arranged, and extensive edifice, in whose vaults the silver ingots of the bank of Hamburg are deposited. The new post-office is like- wise a stately edifice. In the suburb of St. George is the city hospital, an immense building with a front of 700 feet, while each of its two wings has on the inner side a length of 375 feet. Hamburg has more than 200 own vessels engaged in its commerce ; and is moreover noted both for its various manufactures, and its numerous literary institutions. The city library con- tains about 200,000 vols. There are besides, an eminently-arranged gymna- sium, and numerous other schools. In the territory belonging to Hamburg exclusively, are to be noticed the handsome neighboring villages of Eppendorf, Barmbeck, Hamm, and Horn, much resorted to for amusement ; and the isles of Ochsenwerder (with 1,900 inhabitants), Billwerder (with 4,200 inhabitants), Moorwerder (with 300 inhabitants), and Grasbrook (with 700 inhabitants), between Hamburg and Harburg. At the mouth and on the left bank of the Elbe are situated the boroughs of Ritzebuttel (the seat of a bailiwick of the same name, has 1,700 inhabitants) and Cuxhafen (with a harbor, roadstead, sea-bathing, and 800 inhabitants). In common with Lubec, Hamburg is possessed of the bailiwick of Bcrgedorf (42i square miles, and 13,000 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the Elbe, between Hamburg and Lauenburg. It formerly belonged to the duchy of Lauenburg, but was in the 15th century conquered by Hamburg and Lubec jointly, and since the year 1420 both cities have possessed it. It contains, besides the town of Bergedorf (at the Berlin and Hamburg rail- road, with 2,400 inhabitants), and the village of Gcesthacht (with 1,000 inhab- GERMANY. 451 The Free City of Lubec. itnnts), a district known by the name of Vierlande, noted for the great fer- tility of its soil, for its greens, and for its excellent fruits of various kinds, especially cherries. XXXV.— THE FREE CITY OF LUBEC. Akka: 160 square miles. Population : 53,500 inhabitants. The area and population here stated include 42£ square miles, and 13,000 inhabitants, as the population of the bailiwick of Bergedorf (see above). Thus, there remains H7-£ square miles and 40,500 inhabitants to Lubec and its territory alone. Lubec is situated on the river Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans. The republican government is similar to that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 1845, the public revenue amounted to 834,191, and the expenditure to 797,733 current marks (3-f- = $1). The public debt, which in 1814 amounted to 11 millions, was in 1844 reduced to 5,881,041 current marks. There are 1 gymnasium, 1 seminary, 1 nautical school, etc., and numerous private and public common schools. Troops to be furnished to the confederal army : 407 men. — With regard to history, the present city of Lubec was founded in 1143 by Earl Adolphus II. of Holstein and Schaumburg (see History of Holstein), who in 1158 ceded it to the frequently-mentioned duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion ; and since then Lu- bec was for a while both the seat of the above (under the head of Oldenburg) mentioned bishopric of this name, and under the sway of the duke of Saxony. However it soon became inde- pendent, being in 1226 raised to an imperial city by Emperor 452 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Free City of Lubec. Frederic II. At that period it had by its widely-extended com- merce already grown wealthy and become an emporium on the Baltic. But it attained to the highest pitch of commercial and political authority and power since the establishment of the Han- seatic League (see page 54), whose head it became. Lubec was still in the beginning of the 16th century possessed of a powerful navy, and had about 100,000 inhabitants. But since it went gradually to decay together with that League, whose formal solu- tion took place in 1632. After the battle of Jena in 1806, the Prussian general Blucher took with a detached body of troops a strong position in Lubec, which then was stormed by the French and pillaged during three days. In 1810 the city was annexed to the French empire, and formed part of the department of the mouth of the Elbe, the capital of which was Hamburg In 1813 Lubec was restored to its political independence, and joined sub- sequently the German Confederation as a free city. Lubec (in German LubecTc) is, as has already been remarked, situated on the Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 40 miles distant from Hamburg, is the seat of the Supreme Tribunal for the 4 Free Cities (see page 297), and had on the 1st September, 1845, a population of 25,360 in- habitants, among whom were about 400 Calvinists, 300 Roman Catholics, and 500 Jews. The commerce of Lubec is at present not very considerable, yet a regular line of steam-sliips (at least in the summer season) connects it with St. Petersburg, Copenhagen, and other seaports of the Baltic. About the schools see above. Lubec is noted for several remarkable ancient edifices, among which rank first St. Mary's church (reared in the period of 1163-1170, containing among others an admirable picture and clock, both from the be- ginning of the 15th century, and whose two steeples are each 422 feet high), and the enormously extensive city-hall, remarkable as the former meeting- place of the representatives of the Hanseatic League. To the territory of the city belongs the town of Travemunde, at the mouth of the Trave, with a seaport, sea-bathing, and 1,100 inhabitants. Lubec acquired it in 1320. The bailiwick of Bergedorf, possessed in common by Lubec and Hamburg } is already described above. GERMANY. 453 The Free City of Bremen. XXXVL— THE FREE CITY OF BREMEN. Area : 106£ square miles. Population: 76,000 inhabitants. Bremen is situated on the Weser, about 46 miles from the North Sea. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 2,000 Roman Catholics) partly Calvinists, partly Lutherans. Jews are not allowed to live in the city. The government is a republic, like that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 1845, the public revenue, amounted to 602,572 rix dollars in louis d'or (1 rix dollar is equal to about 75 cents), and the expenditure to 691.640 rix dollars. The deficit of 89,068 was chiefly owing to the expenses occasioned by the structure of the Bremen and Hanover railroad, and is long since refunded. The public debt amounted to 2f million rix dollars, though upon the whole the public finances of Bremen are in the best order. The troops to the confederal army : 485 men. — The more ancient history of the city is closely connected with that of the archbishopric of Bremen (see above under the head of Hanover, page 438), where we have seen that since the beginning of the Reformation the city of Bremen embraced Protestantism (at first, i. e. in 1522 Lutheranism, and in 1562 Calvinism, which since prevailed until recent times) and became independent. Its commerce had long before that period been flourishing, especially since the city, in 1283, had joined the Hanseatic League. In 1640 Bremen was endowed with the privileges of an imperial city, though it actually was not allowed to make use of them be- fore the year 1731. In 1810 the city was annexed to the French empire as capital of the Weser mouth department, but in 1813 restored to its independency, and became subsequently an actual 454 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Free Cities of Bremen and Frankfort. member of the German Confederation. In 1829 it acquired from Hanover a small tract of land on the right bank of the Weser, where it since established the seaport of Bremerhaven. — We add the following topographical and statistical particulars, m Bremen, situated on both sides of the Weser, though chiefly on its right bank, about 46 miles from the sea, south-westward and 60 miles distant from Hanover, is next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, and has 53,000 inhabitants. Steam-ships connect Bremen with New York, and merchant-vessels (more than 230 of which belong to the city itself) are trading not only to New York and other ports of the United States, but also to South America, the West Indies, Brazil, the chief maritime towns of the Baltic, and even to Australia, etc. The inland trade is likewise very impor- tant, and Bremen is noted for its tobacco, canvass, and other manufactures. Besides a gymnasium, there are several other, and numerous common schools. The city-hall is a magnificent Gothic edifice. The ancient cathedral, or, since the Reformation, Lutheran church, is likewise a remarkable edifice, and was reared in the years 1043-10*72, though some parts of it were founded in the 10th century. The steeple of St. Ansgarii is 324 feet high. In the territory of the city are chiefly to be noticed : Vegesack, a borough on the right bank of the Weser, at its junction with the Lesum or Wumme, with 1,500 inhabi- tants, who are amply engaged in ship-building, and the above-mentioned town of Bremerhaven, likewise on the right bank of the Weser, at its junction with the Geeste, with harbor, and 2,700 inhabitants. XXXVIL— THE FREE CITY OF FRANKFORT. Area : 42£ square miles. Population : 68,000 inhabitants. It is situated towards the centre of Germany, on the river Mayne, about 18 miles from its junction with the Rhine, sur- GERMANY. 465 The Free City of Frankfort— its Statistics, History, etc. rounded by Hessian territories and bordering upon the ducby of Nassau. The majority of the population consist of Lutherans ; there are, however, 6,500 Roman Catholics, and besides them about 2,000 Calvinists. and 6,500 Jews. The government is a re- public, the sovereign power being vested in a senate and a legis- lative body. The amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure for several years, has been about 900,000 florins. The 'public debt is 8 million florins. The troops to be furnished to the confederal army : 693 men. — Frankfort was probably founded as early as the 5th century by the Franks. The Fran- conian dukes had in Frankfort a palace, which at a later period was frequently the residence of Charlemagne. His son Louis the Pious and his grandson Louis the German had for several years their residence in this city, which in the 9th century became an emporium of Austrasia (see page 26), and in 1254 an imperial city. Since the year 1356 the German emperors were elected, and since 1562 also crowned in Fraukfort, which meanwhile had grown rich by its extensive inland trade and annual fairs. In the beginning of the year 1806 French troops occupied the city, and in 1810 it became the capital of the grand-duchy of Frank- fort (see page 294). In 1813 Frankfort was restored to its for- mer independency, and was in the period from 1816 to 1848 the seat of the Diet of the German Confederation. — We add the fol- lowing statistical particulars. Frankfort is in German called Frankfurt, and surnamed am Main (L e. on the Mayne), to distinguish it from another German city of the same name, situated on the Oder river. The city itself has a population of 58,000 inhabi- tants, carries on a considerable trade, and is much engaged in banking busi- ness, though its annual fairs have, like those of Brunswick, lost their former importance since the construction of railroads throughout Germany. Its book-trade and manufactures may be considered as considerable. Frankfort is noted for its numerous literary institutions, among them two public libra- 456 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Free City of Frankfort. ries (one of which contains 80,000 volumes), a cabinet of natural curiosities, a fine collection of paintings, etc. Schools are various. The most remark- able of the public edifices are the city-hall, styled R'dmer (where the empe- rors were elected, and which in substance was already extant in 964), and the ancient Gothic St. Bartholomew's church (where the emperors were crowned). Frankfort is renowned for its extensive and comfortable hotels. The territory of the city contains the market-town of Bonames (with 600 in- habitants), and the villages of Bornheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Niederrad (with 1,500 inhabitants), Oberrad (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Hansen (with 600 inhabitants). THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. Area: 108,214 square miles. Population: 16,100,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Prussia (in German Preussen) consists of two distinct territories, situated about 40 miles apart, and separated from each other by Hanover and Hesse-Cassel. The eastern and larger section extends from the Russian fron- tier and the Baltic, towards the centre of Germany ; while the western territory extends from the banks of the Weser across the Rhine, towards the French frontier. About two thirds of the population are Evangelicals (see page 291), and somewhat more than one third Roman Catholics. At the end of the year 1843, the population of the kingdom was exactly (i. e. according to the census) 15,471,765 inhabitants. Of these were 9,428,911 Evangelicals (inclusive 200,000 Mora- vian Brethren), and 5,820,123 were Catholics. The remainder consisted of 1,879 followers of the Greek Church, 14,313 Men- nonites, 206.529 Jews, and 10 Mohammedans. The Catholics are under the spiritual superintendence of 2 archbishops (of Cologne and Gnesen) and 6 bishops (of Treves, Munster, Paderborn, Culm, Breslau, and Ermeland). With regard to the surface of the country, that of the eastern territory is (with the exception of Upper Silesia) generally level, and that of the western territory for the most part mountainous. The chief mountain range is the Riesengebirge (see page 6), besides which parts of the Hartz with the Brocken (see pages 7 20 458 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Rivers, Soil, Natural Products, etc. and 8), and of the Thuringerwald (see page 7), are to be noticed in the eastern territory ; while the chief mountain ranges in the western territory, are the Westerwald, Hunsrucken, Eifel, and Seven Hills (see page 8). Bays of the Baltic Sea are here, the Curische, Fresh, Great, and Little Haff (see page 9). Of inland lakes is the Madue Lake (see page 11) ; and of rivers, the Oder, the Elbe (with the Black Lister, Saale, and Havel), the Rhine (with the Nahe, Lahn, Sieg, Wupper, Lippe, Ruhr, and Moselle), the lower Vistula, the Pregel, etc. (see the particulars, pages 13, 16, etc.), to be noticed. Of canals may be mentioned the Netze, Finow, and MiXllrose canals, connecting the Vistula, Oder, and Elbe, with each other. The natural character of the soil is greatly diversified. The most fertile province is in general the province of Saxony, where at the same time the soil is exceedingly well-cultivated, especially in the so-called Guldene Aue (see page 399) and the district of Magdeburg. Yet in all other provinces are highly fertile dis- tricts likewise, as, for instance, in the province of Prussia, those of Tilsit, Marienburg, Marienwerder, Dantzick; in the province of Posen, the districts along the Netze river; in Pomerania, the island of Rugen, the district of Stralsund in general, and along the banks of the Oder ; in Silesia, especially Lower Silesia ; in Brandenburg, the districts known by the names of Lenzerwische (meadow of Lenzen), Oderbruch, and Spreewald; in Westphalia, the districts of Soest and Warburg; in the Rhenish province, the valleys along the Moselle, Saar, and Nahe, and the districts watered by the Sieg and Wupper rivers, and of Juliers. Thus, upon the whole, corn is raised sufficiently, not only for home consumption, but even for exportation. Besides grain, is especially cultivated vine, in the Rhenish province, principally on the banks of the Moselle, Nahe, and Ahr rivers. With the ex- ception of the provinces of Saxony and Westphalia, there are PRUSSIA. 459 Natural Products, Manufactures, Trade and Commerce. extensive forests yielding both fuel and timber, the latter in suffi- cient quantities for exportation. The most remarkable forests are in the province of Prussia, covering there a space of 5 ,700,000 Prussian acres. — The aggregate number of horses was 1 ,564,554 in the year 1843; and the breed reared in the royal stud of Trakehnen (in East Prussia) surpasses in beauty and nicety of external appearance, even the English breed. Yet, upon the whole, the kingdom of Prussia is not so generally noted for its horses, as for instance Mecklenburg ; and the same may be said of the black cattle, of which 5,042,010 heads were numbered in the year 1843. The number of sheep (about 4,200,000 of which were of the finest, and nearly 8 million of half -improved breed) amounted to 16,235,885, and that of hogs (especially in Westphalia, Pomerania, and the province of Saxony) to 2,1 15,212. The principal productions from the mineral kingdom are iron (in 1843 produced at the primitive value of 17,487,481 Prussian dol- lars), and coal (in 1843 produced at the primitive value of 5,307,661 Prussian dollars) ; besides which may be mentioned lead, copper, zinc, silver (of which latter, 30,152 marks were produced in 1843), salt (at the value of 1,348,794 Prussian dollars, made in that year), and yellow amber (only at the Baltic coast in the province of Prussia). The manvfactures are both numerous and important, especially those of cloth and other woollens, of cotton goods (Elberfeld is at the same time noted for its spun cotton, dyed in Turkey red), linens (especially in Silesia and Westphalia), silks and velvets, and articles of iron and steel. (See the remarks and statements, page 286.) The inland trade is considerable, and though the foreign com- merce does not rival that of several other European countries, yet the exportation (consisting principally in grain, timber, salt, wool, linen, cloth, hardware, etc.) surpass by far the imports, both in quantity and value. The chief seaports are Stettin, Dant- 460 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia — its Means of Education. zick, K6nigsberg, Memel, and Stralsund; and in the inland trade are principally engaged : Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, Berlin, Breslau, and Frankfort on the Oder. It has been com- puted that the Prussian nation, in the period prior to the year 1806, had by means of the various branches of industry, hus- bandry, trading business, etc., upon an average, an annual income of about 147 million Prussian dollars, which in 1831 had raised to the amount of 321 million, and in 1843 to that of nearly 461 million Prussian dollars. What has been stated, page 287, etc., about the means of education in Germany, may in substance be applied to Prussia. The acad- emies of sciences and fine arts in Berlin, were founded respect- ively in 1701 and 1699. About the universities mt Berlin (in 1846 with 1,608 students), Halle (with 777 students), Breslau (with 749 students), Bonn (with 667 students), and Greifswald (with 212 students), see page 287. The university at Konigsberg was founded in 1543, and in 1846 frequented by 317 students. Formerly there were also universities at Cologne (founded in 1388), Erfurt, (1392), Treves (1472), Wittenberg (1502), Frank- fort on the Oder (1506), Paderborn (1615), and Duisburg (founded in 1655), which however, in the present century, have been abolished or united with other universities. In Munster and Braunsberg, are Roman Catholic theological faculties, and in other places, 5 seminaries. The number of Protestant theologi- cal seminaries is 9, and that of seminaries for school teachers amounts to 41. Besides 117 common gymnasia, there are 6 paedagogia, or gymnasia arranged in a similar manner, as for instance the college of Eton in England, and 3 others, styled Ritteracademien. Still there are to be noticed 32 progymnasia, 100 higher secondary schools (in 1843 with 14,795 pupils), 658 common secondary schools (with 79,101 pupils), and 23,646 pri- PRUSSIA. 4ci Government, Public Finances, Army, Orders of Honor. raary schools, which in 1843 were frequented by 2,328,146 chil- dren. The government was until 1847 an absolute monarchy, as the provincial states or deputies, introduced in 1823 and 24, had only a deliberative vote. By decree issued on the 3d February, 1847, a decisive vote was conferred upon them, though only in matters concerning taxes and public debts. Finally the revolution in Berlin, on the 18th March, 1848, was followed by a constitution framed on modern political principles. According to the budget of 1844, the public revenue amounted to 57,677,194 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure was of about the same amount. The public debt was on the 1st January, 1843, to the amount of 138,861,087 Prussian dollars. The regular army (guards and troops of the line) consists on the peace footing of 122,897 men. But this army can in time of war be increased to about 553,000 men, by 250,000 of the reserve and landwehr (militia) of the first summons, and by 180,000 of the landwehr of the second summons. The troops which Prussia had to furnish to the confederal army, amounted to 79.434 men. The number of fortresses in Prussia amounts to 26. The sloop of war which Prussia has, is more a plaything than the embryo of a navy. There are the following orders of honor : 1. The order of the Black Eagle, instituted on the 18th January, 1701, in one class. 2. The order of the Red Eagle, instituted in 1744, renewed in 1792, and since 1830 in 4 classes. 3. The order pour le Merite, instituted in 1740, and since 1842, in two distinct classes. 4. The order of St. John, instituted in 1812, in one class. 5. The order of the Iron Cross, instituted in 1813, in 2, or prop- erly 3 classes, but since the wars in 1813-1815, not more con- ferred. 6. The order of Louisa, instituted in 1814, only for ladies. 462 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia— its History. History. — The present kingdom of Prussia consists of more than 50 ancient territories of the German empire, united in the last four centuries by way of purchase, conquering, inheritance, etc. Brandenburg is the basis of the king- dom, and was conquered by Charlemagne, who subjected it to the authority of margraves. Since it was styled the margraviate of Brandenburg, which latter name was derived from the city of Brandenburg, founded by Slavonian tribes about the 7th century. In 1142 Albert surnamed the Bear, son of Earl Otto of Ascania (mentioned in the History of Anhalt, page 402), be- came possessed of the margraviate of Brandenburg, and bequeathed it to his descendants, who became extinct in 1320, when the margraviate escheated as a fief of the German empire to the emperor, who successively invested several German princes with it, until at last the burgrave of Nuremberg, Frederic VI. of Hohenzollern, became possessed both of the margraviate and the electoral dignity in 1417. (See the particulars, pages 302 and 318.) Frederic, as elector and margrave of Brandenburg Frederic I, died in 1440, and was succeeded by the following descendants : Frederic II. (+1471), Al- bert, surnamed Achilles (+1486), John, surnamed Cicero (-{-1499), Joachim I, surnamed Nestor (+1535), Joachim II, surnamed Hector (+1571), John George (+1598), Joachim Frederic (+1608), John Sigismund (+1619), George William (1640), Frederic William (+1688) and Frederic III, who reigned since 1688. Meanwhile the territory on the eastern shores of the Baltic, since the 13th and 14th centuries conquered and possessed by the Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336), and known by the name of Prussia, had since the year 1525 been transformed into a duchy, whose second duke Albert IL had as only heirs two daughters, who were married the one to the elector Joachim Frederic, and the other to his grandson, the elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg, who in this way inherited the duchy of Prussia in 1618, and bequeathed it, beside the margraviate and electorate, to his de- scendants. His grandson Frederic William, acquired moreover considerable territories in Germany ; and Frederic III. (his son) having added new acqui- sitions by inheritance, began to harbor the desire of adding also an inde- pendent dignity to that dependent one of which he was already possessed as prince of the German empire. For this purpose he transformed his duchy of Prussia (which had politically nothing in common with -the German em- pire) into a kingdom, and let himself be crowned at Konigsberg as King of Prussia on the 18th January, 1701. He died as King Frederic I. in 1713, and was succeeded by his son Frederic William I, who in some respect did PRUSSIA. 463 History of Prussia. provide for the true welfare of his people in a more proper manner than his son and successor Frederic IL When he ascended the throne, he found the state deeply involved in debts and in great disorder ; the people were more or less impoverished, extensive tracts of arable land lay waste, and most branches of industry were in a languishing condition. Frederic William was indeed neither a learned man, nor a man of the latest French fashion, but he was endowed with common sense, and thus within rather few years all pub- lic debts were paid, the waste tracts of land cultivated, all branches of hus- bandry and industry in a flourishing state, and while in a later period the public revenue had increased to 7£ million Prussian dollars annually (a very considerable amount at that period), the taxes had at the same time been lowered considerably. When Frederic William died (on the 31st May, 1740), he left behind 9 millions of ready money in the public treasury, and a well- disciplined army of 70,000 men to his eldest son and successor Frederic II, whose character is too well known than that we should need to enter in any particulars about it. Moreover its essential point is already alluded to in the History of Europe, pages 59 and 60. But for the circumstance that Charles VL died in the very year of his accession and left behind no male descendants, Frederic would never have dared to raise his, by no means well- founded, claims upon Silesia ; and but for the constant disunion among his enemies in the field, he would not have been allowed to be finally success- ful in the seven years' war. During this whole period he had continually some poison in his pocket, for the purpose of suicide in case of total failure. He may be considered as the author of the atheistical principles that since his reign began to become fashionable and even prevailing in Germany ; and he was by his contemporaries surnamed the Great, more on account of that he harbored and propagated those principles, than on account of his victories on the battle-field. At least indirectly, he suggested the plan for dividing Po- land ; and by annexing one part of it (in 1772), beside Silesia, to his king- dom, he indeed had finally enlarged the latter to an extent of 74,827 square miles, with more than 6 million inhabitants. But he considered and treated the people like a machinery, and put all his trust in his well-drilled army of 200,000 men. By this predilection for soldiery he has done great mischief to Germany in general, whose other princes were induced to follow his ex- ample, thus rearing an artificial political edifice which subsequently was easily overturned by Napoleon. Frederic II. died in 1786, and was suc- ceeded by his nephew, Frederic William II, who died in 1797, and was sue- 464 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia— its Geographical Divisions. ceeded by his son, Frederic William III., who had to undergo many hard- ships and troubles since his total defeat on the 14th October, 1806, at Jena and Anerstadt, but was amply indemnified in 1814 and 15. He died on the 7th June, 1840, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the present reigning Frederic William IV., born on the 15th October, 1795. The kingdom of Prussia is divided in 8 provinces. Each prov- ince is subdivided into governmental districts, and each of the lat- ter subdivided into circles, as they are styled. Six of those prov- inces (together at an extent of 71,696 square miles, with 12,230.000 inhabitants) formed constituent parts of the Ger- man Confederation, and for this reason we shall describe them first, and finally the two other provinces. (See page 310.) As the governmental districts are named after their capitals, we shall mark the latter with a cross (+). I— THE PROVINCE OF BRANDENBURG. Area: 15,634 square miles. Population : 2,020,000 inhabitants. This province, subdivided into the governmental districts of Potsdam and Frankfort, and being the basis of the whole king- dom (see above, page 462), comprises in substance its ancient his- torical constituent parts, in common life still known by the names of Mittelmark (central margraviate), Uckermark, Priegnitz, and Neumark (new margraviate). The Mittelmark contains: Berlin, the metropolis of the kingdom and royal residence (at least in the winter season), on the Spree, 9 miles above PRUSSIA. 465 Province of Brandenburg. its junction with the Havel (see page 17), south-eastward and 186 miles dis- tant from Hamburg, is very regularly built, and one of the finest cities in Europe, and had, in the beginning of 1846, 8,384 houses, and shortly before the revolution of March, 1848, a population of 420,000 inhabitants, that however since has decreased by more than 100,000 inhabitants, who have thence emigrated. Simultaneously the chief sources of prosperity are dried up in this city, naturally poor — much more so than most of the other Euro- pean capitals. Many of its factories have, since that event, been closed for want of business, while others have been spoiled by the plundering mob, and even by operatives ; and the effect of the disturbances on the general prosperity of the city has been disastrous. The most remarkable public edifices of Berlin are : the royal castle or palace (reared in the period from 1451 to 1716 ; it is 101 £ feet high, has 460 feet in front, and contains more than 500 apartments), the arsenal (a quadrangle, 280 feet long and broad), the university building (reared in 1154-1764 as palace of King Frederic IL's brother Henry), the opera-house (265 feet long by 104 feet broad), the royal museums, eta In short, it would take up too much room, even simply to enumerate all the magnificent edifices and other curiosities of Berlin. Char- lottenburg, a town in the neighborhood of Berlin, has 7,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its royal palace (reared in 1705-10) and park. Other neighbor- ing and more or less remarkable towns are: Teltovo (with 1,500 inhabitants), Oranienburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bernau (with 3,800 inhabitants), Lie- benwalde (with 2,600 inhabitants), Alt-Landsberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), Kopenick (with 2,750 inhabitants), and Mittenwalde (with 2,100 inhabitants). -|-Potsdam, a city on the Havel, is considered as royal residence second in rank, has 40,000 inhabitants, and a manufactory of fire-arms, and is noted for its military orphan asylum, its so-called garrison church (with the sepulchres of Frederic William L and Frederic II), its city-hall, and royal palace. Close by are several other royal palaces, among them that of Sanssouci, reared in 1745-47, and once the favorite residence of Frederic II. Spandau, a town on the Havel, at its junction with the Spree river, is noted for its for- tress, and has 9,300 inhabitants. The first three or four electors of Branden- burg from the house of Hohenzollern, resided in Spandau. Fehrbellin, a town at the former high-road between Berlin and Hamburg, has 1,700 inhab- itants, and is noted in history for a battle in 1675. Brandenburg, ancient capital of the margraviate of Brandenburg, on the Havel, westward and 23 miles distant from Potsdam, has 16,400 inhabitants, carries on a rather 20* 466 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Province of Brandenburg. considerable trade, and is noted for several ancient edifices. Rathenow, or Rathenau, a town on the Havel, with several manufactures, and 5,800 inhab- itants. Werder, a town near Potsdam, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its fruits. Freienwalde, a town near the Oder, has 4,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters. Neustadt-Eberswalde, a town at the Ber- lin and Stettin railroad, has 5,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters and manufactures of hardware. Neustadt an der Dosse, a town on the Dosse river, north-westward and 60 miles distant from Berlin, has only 1,200 inhabitants, but is noted for its manufactures of looking-glasses. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Friesack (with 2,450 inhabitants), Treuenbrietzen (with 4,900 inhabitants). Written (with 6,050 inhabitants), Wusterhausen an der Dosse (with 2,850 inhabitants), Rheinsberg (with 2,250 inhabitants), and Ruppin (with cloth and woollen manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants). — The Uckermark contains: Prenzlau (officially Prenzlow), its ancient capital, 72 miles north-north-east of Berlin, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 12,700 inhabitants. Boitzenburg, a market-town, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for the magnificent mansion of the count of Arnun, in recent times frequently mentioned as Prussian minister, member of the legislative chamber, etc. Templin, a town on a lake of the same name, with notable town-hall, manufactures, and 3,500 inhabitants. Angermunde, a town on a lake, about lialf-way between Berlin and Stettin, with cloth man- ufactures, hosieries, and 4,400 inhabitants. Schwedt, a town on the Oder, 28 miles south of Stettin, with 7,150 inhabitants, several manufactures, and an ancient castle, formerly the seat of a collateral line of the reigning house of Brandenburg. Lychen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Zehdenik (with 3,000 inhab- itants), Vierraden (with 1,700 inhabitants), and Joachimsthal (with 1,750 inhabitants). — The Priegnitz (also called Vormark) contains: Peeleberg, its ancient capital, near the Berlin and Hamburg railroad, 90 miles north- west of Berlin, is noted for its flax and breweries, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Lenzen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Havelberg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wilsnack (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pnttlitz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Kyritz (with 3,600 inhabitants), Pritzwalk (with 4,600 inhabitants), and Mayenburg (with 1,650 inhabitants), towns. Wittstock, a town on the Dosse, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 6,450 inhabitants, is noted in history for a battle in 1636. Beeskow, Storkow, and Buchholz, towns with respectively 4,250, 1,800, and 950 inhabitants. Luckenwalde, a town 30 miles south of Berlin, has 6,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Zinna, a town with PRUSSIA. 4C7 Province of Brandenburg. manufactures, and 1,850 inhabitants. Juterbock, a town at the Berlin and Cothen railroad, has 5,500 inhabitants, and is noted in history for two battles in 1644 and 1813. Baruth, a town with 1,650 inhabitants, and a palace of the count of Solms- Baruth. The Mittelmark (see above) contains : -j-Frankfort, surnamed an der Oder, a city on the Oder river, 55 miles east-south-east of Berlin, has 30,000 inhabi- tants, several noted ancient public edifices, considerable trade and manufac- tures, and was hitherto noted especially for its annual fairs, which are at present less important than formerly. The above-mentioned university, founded here in 1506, was in 1811 united with that of Breslau. Fursten- walde, a town on the Spree river, westward and 20 miles distant from Frank- fort, with remarkable church, woollen manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are: Zebus (with 1,850 inhabitants), Muncheberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Seelow (with 2,400 inhabitants), Mull- rose (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Buckow (noted for its hops, has, 1,500 in- habitants). The village of Kunnersdorf, 5 miles east of Frankfort, is noted for the battle on the 22d August, 1*759, in which Frederic IL was totally de- feated. — The Neumark (see above) contains : Kuestrin, its ancient capital, on the Oder, at its junction with the "Warthe, northward and 18 miles dis- tant from Frankfort, is noted for its fortress, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Kb- nigsberg, surnamed in der Neumark, a town near the frontier of Pomerania, with remarkable ancient town-hall, 2 notable churches, some manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. The towns of Zullichau (with 5,400 inhabitants), Krossen (with 7,250 inhabitants), Cottbus (with 8,500 inhabitants), and Neu- damm (with 3,250 inhabitants), are noted for their cloth manufactures. Lands- berg, surnamed an der Warthe, a city on the Warthe river, north-eastward and 30 miles distant from Kustrin, with important corn and wool trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. Barwalde, a town southward and 14 miles distant from Konigsberg in der Neumark, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted in history for a convention concluded here on the 13th June, 1631, between Sweden and France. Other towns are : Soldin (with 5,900 inhabitants), Berlinchen (with 3,800 inhabitants), Lippehne (with 2,850 inhabitants), Bernstein (with 1.950 inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 4,800 inhabitants), Driesen (with 3,900 inhabi- tants), Woldenberg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Arnswalde (with 5,200 inhabi- tants), and Konigswalde (with 1,450 inhabitants). Schwiebus, a town in a fertile district, eastward and 40 miles distant from Frankfort, with consid- erable cloth manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. — Lower Lusatia (see page 468 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Provinces of Brandenburg and Pomerania. 385), which in 1815 was annexed to Prussia, contains: Luckau, ancient capi- tal of Lower Lusatia, 48 miles south-south-east of Berlin, with remarkable Gothic church, cloth manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. Sorau, a town near the frontier of Silesia, is noted for its wax candles, and has 7,500 inhab- itants. Kalau, a town on the Dober river, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots and shoes made in it. Lubben, a town on the Spree river, with several remarkable churches, cloth and linen manufactures, and 4,800 inhabitants. Lubbenau, a town on the Spree river, with 3,300 in- habitants, and a palace of the count of Lynar. Guben, a town on the Neisse river, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Other more or less notable towns are: Dobriluck (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sprem- berg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Forste (with 3,650 inhabitants), and Lieberose (with 1,600 inhabitants). Senftenberg, Finsterwalde, and Sonnenwalde, towns with respectively 1,450, 4,800, and 1,150 inhabitants. IL— THE PROVINCE OF POMERANIA. •i Akea: 12,233 square miles. Population : 1,166,000 inhabitants. Pomerania, extending along the Baltic Sea, which here re- ceives the Oder, was primitively inhabited by Germanic, and since the 6th century by Slavonic tribes. However, since the propagation of Christianity in this quarter, or since the 12th century, many Germans settled here, and became at last predom- inant. Pomerania was at first under the sway of Slavonic chiefs, and subsequently ruled by one common prince. The first his- torically known or remarkable prince of Pomerania was Svanti- bor Z, who died in 1 107, and was succeeded by his two sons, who divided the country, the elder taking the western part (since known by the general name of Fore Pomerania), and the younger PRUSSIA. 469 Province of Pomerania. of the eastern part (since called Back Pomerania). In 1 1 82 the princes of Pomerania were by Emperor Frederic I. endowed with the privileges of actual membership of the German empire, and raised to the dignity of dukes. In 1325 the principality of Ru- gen (comprising the island of the same name) was inherited and annexed to Pomerania, which was united in one single duchy in 1625 by Duke Bolislav XIII. With the latter'sson and succes- sor, duke Bolislav XIV., the reigning house of Pomerania became extinct in 1637. According to former agreements between the dukes of Pomerania and the electors of Brandenburg, the latter had indeed well-founded claims upon the inheritance. However, Sweden, which was to be indemnified for its losses and assistance to the Protestant cause in the thirty years' war, became possessed of the greatest part of Pomerania, while Brandenburg acquired only parts of Back Pomerania. In 1720 Sweden ceded other parts of Back Pomerania to Prussia, which in 1815 became also possessed of Fore Pomerania and Bugen (see page 419). The present province of Pomerania is subdivided into the govern- mental districts of Stettin, Stralsund and Coslin. Prussian Fore Pomerania (thus styled since 1720) contains: -|-Stettin, ancient capital of all Pomerania, on the Oder, 94 miles north-north-east of Berlin, is strongly fortified, and to be considered as the chief commercial city and seaport of Prussia, is at the same time noted for its manufactures, and has 45,000 inhabitants. Its royal palace, until 1637 the residence of the dukes of Pomerania, is very extensive, and was reared in 1577. Swinemunde, near the mouth of the Swine river into the Baltic Sea, is the actual seaport of Stettin, and resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 4,200 inhabitants. Swine- munde is situated on the isle of Usedom, which in the early part of the middle ages was renowned for its emporium, named Vineta or Wineda. The town of Wollin (with timber trade and 4,100 inhabitants) is situated on the isle of the same name, and stands on the same spot where in the middle ages the powerful commercial city of Julin (destroyed in 1170) stood. Qarz (with 4,400 inhabitants), Damm (with 3,100 inhabitants), Politz (with 470 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Province of Pomerania. 2,600 inhabitants), and Penkuu (with 1,750 inhabitants), towns in the neigh- borhood of Stettin. Anclam, Demmiii, and Jarmen, towns on the Peene river, with respectively 8,500, 7,000, and 1,700 inhabitants. Demmin was extant so early as in 540, and a celebrated city in the days of Charle- magne. Uckermunde, a town on the Ucker river, and near the Little Half, north-westward and 42 miles distant from Stettin, with a remarkable ancient castle, and 3,700 inhabitants. Pasewalk, a town on the Ucker river, with noted breweries, and 6,850 inhabitants. Gollnow, a town with some manu- factures, and 5,600 inhabitants, was in the middle ages an actual member of the Hanseatic League. — Back Pomerania contains: Stargard, its ancient capital, on the Ihna river, 30 miles east-south east of Stettin, with a remarkable ancient church, several important branches of industry, and 13,200 inhabi- tants. Naugard, a town on a lake, with remarkable church, a house of correc- tion, and 3,600 inhabitants. Greiffenberg, a town on the Rega river, north-east- ward and 46 miles distant from Stettin, is noted for its linen manufactures, and has 4,600 inhabitants. It is situated northward and 220 miles distant from Greiffenberg in Silesia, which accidentally is likewise renowned for its linens. Greiffenhagen, a town on the Reglitz river, with some cloth manu- factures, and 5,300 inhabitants. Pyritz, a town in a fertile district, south- eastward and 30 miles distant from Stettin, has 5,500 inhabitants, and was anciently very remarkable. In a well here, the first Pomeranians who em- braced the Christian creed (7,000 in number) were baptized, in 1124. Lobes and Regenwalde, towns with respectively 3,350 and 2,500 inhabitants. Kam- min or Cammin, a town at the mouth of the Divenow, into the Baltic Sea, has 3,600 inhabitants, is noted for its churches and flax, and was until 1650 the seat of a sovereign bishopric, instituted in 1128. Ancient Fore, or Swedish Pomerania (see above), contains : -J-Stralsund, its ancient capital, on Strait Gellen (which separates the island of Rxigen from continental Pomerania), northward and 170 miles distant from Ber- lin, is fortified, and noted for its commerce, shipping business, and manu- factures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Stralsund ranked among the most noted members of the Hanseatic League, and is also renowned in military history. Barth, a commercial town on a little bay of the Baltic, has 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns are : Dammgarten (with linen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants), Grimmen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Tribsees, or Trib- besee (with 2,800 inhabitants). A very ancient city, at present noted for its commerce and shipping business, is Wolgast, near the Baltic Sea, with 5,350 PRUSSIA. 471 Province of Pomerania. inhabitants. Greifswald, a city near the Baltic Sea, with which it is con- nected by a canal, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Stralsund, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287), its commerce and its salt-works. The neighboring ancient Cistercian abbey of Eldena, is at present noted for its academy for political economy. — The island of Rugen (426 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), the largest of all German islands, is separated by a strait called Gellen, and only 1 mile wide, from continental Pomerania (see above undei the head of Stralsund), and is noted both for the fertility of its soil and the beauty of its natural sceneries. In the early times of the middle ages, it was the chief seat of idolatry on the part of Slavonic tribes, and many prisoners taken among the neighboring Christians, were immolated on its bloody altars. Finally, King Waldemar I. of Denmark, who in 1169 conquered the island, put an end to these abominations, and since then the inhabitants embraced the Christian creed. The native princes of the island continued to be vassals of the Danish crown until in 1325, when they became extinct, Rugen was inherited by the duke of Pomerania (see above). There are to be noticed here: Bergen, ancient capital of the island, situated in its centre x was founded in 1190, and has 3,150 inhabitants. Puttbus, a market-town, and residence of the dependent prince of the same name, and descendant of the native princes of Rugen (see above), is noted as a watering-place, and for its handsome princely palace and park. Other market-towns are Gingst (with 800 inhabitants), and Sagard (with 1,000 inhabitants). On a cape of the western coast, at present with a lighthouse, stood anciently the renowned stronghold of Arcona. The town of Garz has 1,750 inhabitants. Back Pomerania (see above) contains : -{-Coslin, at present the capital of the governmental district of the same name, near the Baltic Sea, north-east- ward and 85 miles distant from Stettin, has 8,350 inhabitants. Colberg or Kolberg, a strongly fortified city near the mouth of the Persante into the Baltic, westward and 22 miles distant from Coslin, has 8,700 inhabitants, several remarkable churches, salt-works, commerce and fishery, and is noted in military history. Anciently Colberg was the capital of the duchy of Cas- mben, at present only mentioned in history. Rugenwalde, a commercial town near the Baltic, is noted for various branches of industry, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Stolpe, a maritime and commercial town, near the Baltic, north- eastward and 45 miles distant from Coslin, and westward and 70 miles dis- tant from Dantzick, has 9,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its articles made 472 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Provinces of Pomerania and Silesia. of yellow amber. Other more or less remarkable towns are : C'orlin (with 2,500 inhabitants), Bublitz (with 3,100 inhabitants), Belgard (with 3,700 in- habitants), Polzin (with 3,150 inhabitants), Neustettin (with 4,300 inhabitants), Tempelburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Rummelsburg (with 3,350 inhabi- tants). — Schiefelbein (with 3,650 inhabitants), Dramburg (with 3,500 inhabi- tants), and Callies (with 3,000 inhabitants) are towns situated within the limits of the Neumark (see back). IIL— THE PROVINCE OF SILESIA. Area: 15,799 square miles. Population : 3,065,800 inhabitants. Silesia, situated on both sides of the river Oder, was anciently inhabited by Quades and Lygians or Elysians, two Germanic tribes, who about the middle of the 6th century were dispossessed by Slavonic tribes. In the 10th century Silesia came under the sway of the dukes of Poland, but since the year 1 163 it was ruled by independent princes or dukes, descendants of King Wladislav II. of Poland. There were at first three, but subsequently two dukes, who reigned the one in Upper Silesia (answering to the present governmental district of Oppeln), and the other in Lower Silesia (comprising the remainder of Silesia, with one ex- ception). In the course of time several collateral lines sprung up, and since the middle of the 13th century the Silesian princes submitted spontaneously to the feudal sovereignty of the kings of Bohemia. How since the year 1740 Prussia became possessed of Silesia, has been already alluded to (page 463). According to the terms of the treaties of peace concluded in 1742, 1745 and PRUSSIA. 473 The Province of Silesia. 1763, Austria (whose sovereign was since 1440 at the same time the sovereign of Bohemia) ceded Upper and Lower Silesia, to- gether with the Silesian earldom of Glatz, to Prussia, and re- tained only the Silesian principalities of Teschen, Troppau and Jagerndorf. The present province of Silesia is subdivided into the governmental districts of Breslau, Liegnitz and Oppeln. " Lower Silesia (see above) contains : -f-I3aESLAU, ancient capital of all Sile- sia, and considered as the third royal residence (see under the head of Pots- dam), on the Oder, south-eastward and 220 miles distant from Berlin, and north-eastward and 156 miles distant from Prague, had at the end of the year 1846 a population of 112,798 inhabitants, among whom were 32,904 Ro- man Catholics and 7,057 Jews, the remainder consisting of Evangelicals. Breslau carries on a very extensive inland trade, especially in wool, has nu- merous manufactures, and is noted for its literary institutions, among which ranks first the university (see above and page 287). The Gothic cathedral, and besides it the city-hall, the royal palace, etc., are very notable. The neighboring village of Leuthen (with 600 inhabitants) is noted in history for a battle in 1757. Brieg, a city on the Oder, 25 miles above Breslau, with a remarkable ancient castle, cloth manufactures, considerable cattle marts, and 12,250 inhabitants. Schweidnitz, a fortified city near the Bohemian frontier, south-westward and 33 miles distant from Breslau, with considerable trade, and 12,700 inhabitants. Zobten, a town at the foot of the mountain of the same name (see page 7), with 1,700 inhabitants. Freiburg, surnamed unterm Furstenstein, a town on the Polsnitz river, with 4,100 inhabitants. The sur- name of Freiburg is derived from Furstenstein, a magnificent and romantic- ally situated mountain castle of the count of Hochberg-Furstenstein. The village of Salzbrunn is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by many strangers. Reichenbach, a manufacturing town at the Eulengebirge (see page 7), with considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Namslau (with 4,100 inhabitants), Newnarkt (with 4,150 inhabitants), Olau (with 5,800 inhabitants), Strehlen (with 4,800 inhabitants), Nimptsch (with 2,100 inhabitants), Striegau (with 5,100 inhabi- tants), Waldenburg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Wolau (with 2,500 inhabitants), Steinau (with 2,700 inhabitants), and Chirau (with 3,900 inhabitants). Within the limits of Upper Silesia are situated the towns of Silberberg (noted 474 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. t — 1 Prussia. — Province of Silesia. for its strong fortress, has 2,000 inhabitants), Munsterberg (with 4,600 inhabitants), Wartha (with 1,100 inhabitants), Frankenstein (with 6,200 in- habitants), and Reichenstein (with 2,200 inhabitants). The earldom of Glalz (in reality only a Silesian dominion, which in 1462 was raised to the dignity of an earldom) contains: Glatz, its ancient capital on the Neisse, 60 miles south-south-west of Breslau, has 10,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its for- tress. Habelschwerdt, a town on the Neisse, southward and 9 miles distant from Glatz, with various important manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Other towns are: Reiner z (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lewin (with 1,450 inhabi- tants), and Mittelwalde (with 1,900 inhabitants). The above (under the head of Brunswick) mentioned dependent principality of Oels (681 £ square miles, and 100,000 inhabitants), contains : Oels, its capital, on the Oelsa river, 18 miles north-east of Breslau, with an extensive ducal palace, and 6,200 inhabi- tants. Trebnitz, a manufacturing town, with 4,200 inhabitants. Juliusburg and Bernstadt, towns with respectively 1,100 and 3,800 inhabitants. The fol- lowing towns are capitals of dependent dominions of the same names, and belonging to various princes : Wartenberg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Trachen- berg (with 2,600 inhabitants), Militsch (with 2,800 inhabitants), Freihan (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Sulau (with 800 inhabitants). Lower Silesia (see above) contains moreover : -J-Liegnitz, the capital of the governmental district of the same name, on the Katzbach, westward and 36 miles distant from Breslau, is noted for its college styled Ritteracademie, its ancient castle or palace, and greens, and has 14,200 inhabitants. On the 9th April, 1241, a very bloody battle was fought in its neighborhood between the Germans and the Moguls. Goldberg, a town on the Katzbach, is noted for its cloth manufactures, and has 7,500 inhabitants. Glogau, a city on the Oder, north-westward and 80 miles distant from Breslau, has 14,750 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its fortress, its ancient cathedral and industry. Grun- berg, a city at the high-road between Breslau and Berlin, with 10,500 inhabi- tants, cloth and other manufactures, and vine culture on a large scale, though the wine produced is by no means of an excellent quality. Jauer, a town on the Neisse and at the foot of the Riesengebirge, has 6,650 inhabitants, and considerable trade in corn, and is noted for its gloves and sausages. Bunz- lau, a town on the Bober, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its potteries. The towns of Hirschberg (romantically situated at the northern foot of the Riesengebirge, with 7,500 inhabitants), Schmiedeberg (at the foot of the Schneekoppe, with 3,600 inhabitants), Lowenberg (with 4,400 inhabitants), PRUSSIA. 475 The Province of Silesia. Oreiffenberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Laridshut (with 4,150 inhabitants), are noted for their linens. The market- town of Warmbrunn (with a handsome palace of the count of Schaffgotsch, and 1,900 inhabitants), is noted and much resorted to as a watering-place. The village of Stohnsdorf (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its beer. Naumburg, surnamed am Quels (with 1,750 inhabitants), Bolkenhain (with 1,900 inhabitants), Deutsch- Wartenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hohenfried- berg (with 850 inhabitants), Liebau (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Schomberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), more or less noted towns. Sagan, the capital of the dependent principality of the same name (since 1842 belonging to the prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, and having 426 square miles in extent, with 41,000 inhabitants), on the Bober, westward and 35 miles distant from Glogau, with stately palace of the prince, considerable corn trade, and 7,200 inhabitants. Naumburg, surnamed am Bober (with 950 inhabitants), Priebus (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Freiwaldau (with 800 inhabitants), towns of this principality Beuthen, a town on the Oder, 14 miles west-north-west of Glogau, with 3,800 inhabitants, is the capital, and Garolath (with princely palace, and 750 inhabi- tants), a market-town of the dependent principality of Carolath (96 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of Carolath- Be uthen. That part of Upper Lusatia (see under the head of Saxony, page 385) Prussia became possessed of in 1815, contains: G6aLiTz,a city on the Neisse, westward and 60 miles distant from Liegnitz, and eastward and 66 miles dis- tant from Dresden, has several remarkable public edifices, and 16,000 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its literary institutions and cloth manufactures. Lau- ban, a city on the Queis river, with remarkable ancient church, some manu- factures, inland trade, and 6,150 inhabitants. Hoyerswerda, a town on the Black Elster, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots and shoes made here. Niesky, a market-town, with a paedagogium or col- lege, and 700 inhabitants, being Moravian Brethren. Muskau, a town on the Neisse, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is the capital of a dependent principality of the same name, since 1846 belonging to the prince Frederic of the Nether- lands. Upper Silesia (see back) contains : -|-Oppeln, its ancient capital, on the Oder, 64 miles above Breslau, with remarkable city -hall and royal palace, con- siderable cattle-marts, and 7,900 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mala- pane is noted for its important iron-works. Kosel, a strongly fortified town on the Oder, with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants. The 476 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Province of Silesia. village of Gnadenfeld is noted for a theological seminary of the Moravian Brethren. The market-town of Schlawentzitz or Slawensik is remarkable as capital of a dependent dominion of the same name, belonging to the prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen. Ober-Glogan, a town in the neighborhood of Ko- sel, with a remarkable ancient castle, and 3,750 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Gleiwitz (with a noted iron-foundry, and 1,400 in- habitants), Gross- Strehlitz (with 2,500 inhabitants), Ujest (with 2,450 inhabi- tants), Lublinitz (with 2,250 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,850 inhabitants), and Kreuzburg (with 3,800 inhabitants). Ratibor, a city on the Oder, 50 miles above Oppeln, and near the frontier of Austrian Silesia, carries on a con- siderable trade, especially in grain, has 7,900 inhabitants, and is the capital of a dependent principality of the same name, since 1834 belonging to the prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst. Pless, a town near the frontier of Ga- licia, south-eastward and 64 miles from Oppeln, has 3,550 inhabitants, and is the capital of the dependent principality of the same name, mentioned un- der the head of Anhalt, page 405. Beuthen (south-eastward and 48 miles distant from Oppeln, with 5,150 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent do- minion of the same name (298 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), belong- ing to the count Henkel of Donnersmark, and within whose limits is also situated the celebrated mining town of Tarnowitz (with 3,900 inhabitants). Neisse, a strongly fortified city on the river of the same name, south-west- ward and 34 miles distant from Oppeln, has 16,400 inhabitants, and is the capital of a dependent principality of the same name (511 square miles, and 105,000 inhabitants), belonging to the bishop of Breslau. Other towns of this princpality are : Patschkau (with linen and woollen manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants), Ziegenhals (with noted linen manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants), Grotkau (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ottmachau (with 2,900 inhabitants). The towns of Hultschin (with 2,600 inhabitants), Bauerwitz (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Leobschutz (with 6,800 inhabitants), belong to the prince of Liechtenstein (see page 350). The town of Katscher (with linen manufactures, and 2,750 inhabitants) is situated in a district known by the name of Prussian Moravia, and belonging to the archbishop of Olmutz. PRUSSIA. 477 The Province of Saxony. IV.— THE PROVINCE OF SAXONY. Area: 9,818$ square miles. Population: 1,742,500 inhabitants. It is situated between the Elbe, Hartz, and Thuringerwald, is subdivided into the governmental districts of Magdeburg, Merse- burg, and Erfurt, and comprises in substance: 1. The northern half of the kingdom of Saxony, ceded to Prussia in 1815 (see page 380). 2. The so-called Altmark (historically forming a con- stituent part of the ancient margraviate of Brandenburg). 3. The ancient duchy of Magdeburg. 4. The ancient principality of Halberstadt. 5. Ancient dominions and territories of the for- mer electorate of Meniz, etc. The duchy of Magdeburg, primitively an independent archbishopric, institu- ted in 967, which in 1648 was secularized, and in 1680 annexed to the elec- torate of Brandenburg (i. e. to the present Prussia, by the title of a duchy), contains : -|-Magdeburg, the capital of the province, on the left bank of the Elbe, 110 miles south-west of Berlin, and 130 miles south-east of Hamburg, has 68,500 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and is highly renowned, not only for its extensive inland trade and manufactures, but also for its architectural monuments, among which ranks first the very handsome Gothic cathedral, reared in the period from 1211 to 1363. It was one of the few buildings that remained unhurt in the conflagration occasioned by the storming of Magdeburg on the 10th May, 1631. Burg, a city on the Bile river, 14 miles north-north-east of Magdeburg, has 14,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Neuhaldensleben (a town, with 4,800 inhabitants) and Althaldensleben (a village, with 2,000 inhabitants) are noted for their numer- ous and various manufactures. Schdnebeck, a town at the railroad between Magdeburg and Cothen, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works and chemical articles. The neighboring town of Gross-Salze, with 2,700 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its salt-springs, and much resorted to for bathing. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Kalbe (with noted man- 478 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Province of Saxony. ufactures, and 5,750 inhabitants), Wanzleben (with 3,200 inhabitants), Aken (with 4,400 inhabitants), Stassfurth (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wollmirstadt (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Genthin (with 2,500 inhabitants).— The above- mentioned so-called Altmark contains : Stendal, its ancient capital, on the left bank of the Elbe, northward and 40 miles distant from Magdeburg, with remarkable ancient churches, woollen manufactures, and 6,700 inhabitants. Salzwedel, a city near the frontier of Hanover, with celebrated ancient churches, noted cloth manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Tangermunde, a town on the Elbe, at its junction with the Tanger river, has 4,400 inhabi- tants, and noted breweries, and is distinguished in history for its having been the residence of the first elector of Brandenburg from the house of Hohen- zollern, whose son, the elector Frederic IL, was born here in 1413. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Ameburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bis- mark (with 1,800 inhabitants), Osterburg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Werben (with 2,000 inhabitants), Arendsee (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Gardelegen (with 5,400 inhabitants). — The ancient principality of Halberstadt primitively an independent bishopric, instituted in 814, and secularized in 1648, when it was, by the title of principality, annexed to the electorate of Brandenburg, contains: Halberstadt, its ancient capital, on the Holzemme river, south- westward and 30 miles distant from Magdeburg, is noted for its Gothic ancient cathedral, and other architectural monuments, is considerably engaged in manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Strobeck (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for the skill of its peasantry in playing at chess. Aschersleben, a city on the Eine river, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Halberstadt, with noted woollen manufactures, and 11,600 inhabitants. Until the year 1319, Aschersleben was the capital of the earldom of Ascania (see page 402). Oschersleben (with 4,000 inhabi- tants), Wegeleben (with 2,600 inhabitants), Osterwiek (with 3,500 inhabitants), Derenburg (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Schwanebeck (with 2,150 inhabitants), more or less notable towns. — Quedlinbueg, a city on the Bode river, south- eastward and 9 miles distant from Halberstadt, with 14,000 inhabitants, con- siderable corn trade, various manufactures, and a highly celebrated and extensive ancient castle, with the sepulchre of Emperor Henry I, who in 920 founded Quedlinburg, which was until 1803 the seat of an indepen- dent or sovereign female abbey of the same name. — Wernigerode, a town at the foot of the Brocken (see page 8), has 5,500 inhabitants, and an exten- sive and remarkable mountain castle, the residence of the earl of Stolberg- PRUSSIA. 479 The Province of Saxony. Wernigerode, who, until 1807, was an independent sovereign of the earldom of Wernigerode (106 square miles, and 18,000 inhabitants), which then became dependent, and was as such annexed to Prussia in 1815. llsenburg, a market-town, with iron-works, and 2,400 inhabitants. — Barby, anciently the capital of an earldom, which, from 1659 to 1815, did belong to the elec- torate (at present kingdom) of Saxony, is situated on the Elbe, and has 3,500 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town of Gnadau (with 600 inhabitants) is a settlement of Moravian Brethren. The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Saxony, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia, contains: -[-Merseburg, presently the capital of the governmental district of the same name, on the Saale, about half-way between Halle and Leipsic, is noted for its ancient cathedral and other archi- tectural monuments, and for its excellent beer, and has 11,500 inhabitants. Lutzen, a town at the high-road between Leipsic and Weimar, 13 miles west-south-west of Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the battle on the 16th Nov., 1632, in which Gustavus Adolphus, the renowned king of Sweden, was killed. Other towns are Schkenditz (with 2,800 inhabi- tants), Lauchstadt (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Schaafstadt (with 2,000 inhabitants). Naumburg, a city on the Saale, between Weimar and Leipsic, with a remarkable ancient cathedral, various manufactures, annual fairs (which however are at present rather unimportant), and 13,200 inhabitants. Zeitz, a city on the Elster, south-westward and 24 miles distant from Leip- sic, with woollen and other manufactures, a remarkable ancient castle, and 11,200 inhabitants. Querfurt, a town south-westward and 18 miles distant from Halle, with rather considerable trade, and 3,800 inhabitants. Heldrun- gen, a town with 1,850 inhabitants. Mansfeld, formerly the capital of an earldom of the same name, 25 miles west-north-west of Halle, with 1,600 inhabitants. Eisleben, a town near two lakes, with several architectural monuments, etc. (among them the house where Luther was born, on the 10th Nov., 1483), various branches of industry, and 9,000 inhabitants. Witten- berg, a strongly fortified city on the Elbe, 44 miles north-north-east of Leip- sic, and 58 miles south-south-west of Berlin, with 11,300 inhabitants, a remark- able ancient castle (once the residence of the electors of Saxony, and whose church it was where Luther affixed his 95 positions, on the 31st Oct, 1517, and where he and Melanchthon are buried), and several higher schools. The once so renowned university, founded in 1602, was in 1817 united with that of Halle Zahna (with 2,300 inhabitants), Pretsch (with 2,000 inhabitants), 480 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Province of Saxony. Ziebenwerda (with 2,260 inhabitants), Bitter/eld (with 4,200 inhabitants), Grdfenhainchen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Schweinitz (with 1,500 inhabi- tants), towns. Eilenburg, a city on the Mulde, north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Leipsic, is noted for its hops, and has 9,000 inhabitanta De- litzsch, a town with some manufactures, breweries, and 5,000 inhabitants. Duben and Zorbig, towns with respectively 4,700 and 3,000 inhabitants. Torgau, fortified city on the Elbe, 46 miles below Dresden, with a remarka- ble ancient castle, and 9,200 inhabitants. Muhlberg, a town on the Elbe, about half-way between Torgau and Dresden, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is remarkable in history for a battle on the 24th April, 1547, in which the elector John Frederic the Generous (see page 379) was taken prisoner by the troops of Emperor Charles V. Schilda and Elsterwerda, towns with respectively 1,750, and 1,400 inhabitants. Weissenfels, a city on the Saale, below Naumburg and Lutzen, with various important manufactures, considerable timber trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Schulpforta, or Pforta, a village in the neighborhood of Naumburg, is noted for its highly celebrated college. The village of Kosen is noted for its salt-springs and works. Eckardtsberga, a town between "Weimar and Naumburg, with 2,000 inhabitants. In its neigh- borhood is situated the village of Auerstddt, where on the very day of the battle of Jena, another chief body of the Prussian army was defeated by the French marshal Davoust. The village of Mernmleben, 9 miles north-north- west of Eckardtsberga, was once the seat of a celebrated Benedictine monas- tery, where the German emperors, Henry I. and Otto I., died. Sanger hau- sen, a town on the little Gonna river, with various important branches of industry, and 6,250 inhabitants. North-westward and 7 miles distant from "Weissenfels, is situated the village of Rossbach, noted in history for the battle on the 5th Nov., 1757. — The ancient duchy of Magdeburg (see above) con- tains, within the limits of the governmental district of Merseburg : Halle, a city on the Saale, and at the Magdeburg and Leipsic Railroad, north-west- ward and 20 miles distant from Leipsic, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above, and page 287), its considerable salt-works, and its orphan asylum, in an enormous edifice, whose foundation was laid on the 13th July, 1698, by a faithful follower of Christ, Augustus Hermann Franlce, by name. The neighboring royal estate of Giebichenstein was in the middle ages highly remarkable for its mountain castle, at present in ruins. Wettin, a town on the Saale, with important coal mines, and 3,400 inhabitants. The former territories of the electorate of Mentz (see page 355), within PRUSSIA. 481 The Province of Saxony. the limits of this province, contain : -{-Erfurt, ancient capital of Thuringia, exactly half-way between Gotha and Weimar, has 82,000 inhabitants, carries on a rather considerable inland trade, is engaged in various branches of indus- try, and noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, several other ancient churches, and its fortifications. The ancient Augustine monastery, in which Luther lived since 1505. is yet extant, as an orphan asylum. Erfurt was in the mid- dle ages an emporium, and since 741 the seat of a bishopric, whose ecclesias- tical authority was in a later period exercised by the electors, archbishops of Mentz, who subsequently became also possessed of the city. In 1806 the French acquired it, and in 1813 Erfurt was restored to Prussia, to which it had been ceded in 1803. The ancient territory of Erfurt contains, among others, the town of Sommerda (with manufactures of hardware and fire-arms, and 3,500 inhabitants), and the market-town of Gross- Vargula (with 1,000 inhabitants). Heiligenstadt, ancient capital of the so-called Eichsfeld (see page 440), on the Leine river, 34 miles east-north- east of Cassel, with several remarkable churches, manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Worbis, a town with 2,200 inhabitants. — The Prussian part of the ancient earldom of Hohn- stein (see page 440) contains : Ellrich, its ancient capital, at the foot of the Hartz, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Nordhausen, with several branches of industry, and 3,250 inhabitants. Sachsa, Bleicherode, and Ben- neckenstein, towns with respectively 1,800, 3,000, and 3,800 inhabitants. Muehlhausen (a city half-way between Erfurt and Gottingen, with Gothic churches, rather important manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants) and Nord- hausen (a city at the Giildene Aue, westward and 60 miles distant from Halle, with considerable corn trade, and 13,800 inhabitants), were until 1803 imperial cities. — The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Sax- ony, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia, contain, within the limits of this govern- mental district: Langensalza, a city on the Salza, north-westward and 18 miles distant from Erfurt, with a remarkable Gothic church, several manu- factures, and 8,300 inhabitants. Tennstadt (with 3,200 inhabitants), Weissen- see (with 2,800 inhabitants), Kindelbruck (with 1,900 inhabitants), Gebesee (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Treffurt (with 2,200 inhabitants). The town of Schleusingen (on the Thuringerwald, 40 miles south-south-west of Erfurt, with a noted gymnasium, and 3,500 inhabitants) was anciently the residence of the princes of Henneberg (see page 388). Suhl, an important manufacturing town, 9 miles north-north-west of Schleusingen, is noted for its fire-arms and hardware manufactures, aud has 8,400 inhabitants. Zie- 21 482 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Provinces of Saxony and Westphalia. genrueck, a town on the Saale, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Erfurt, with linen manufactures, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Rahnis, a town with 1,300 inhabitants. V.— THE PROVINCE OF WESTPHALIA. Area : 7,838£ square miles. Population : 1,445,700 inhabitants. It is situated between the Weser and Rhine rivers, on the west bound by the kingdom of the Netherlands, and on the east bordering upon Hesse-Cassel. That Westphalia is no political, but a general name for a tract of land once inhabited by the Westphalians, one of the Saxon tribes, is already alluded to, pages 298 and 441. The present Prussian province of West- phalia bears its name, for the very reason that its political con- stituent parts (as the ancient independent bishoprics of Minister and Paderborn, duchy of Westphalia, earldoms of Mark, Ravens- berg, and Tecklenburg, etc.) are situated within the limits of Westphalia It is subdivided into the governmental districts of Miinster, Minden, and Arnsberg. The ancient sovereign bishopric of Munster (instituted in 802 by Charlemagne and secularized in 1 803, when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : -}-Muen- ster, its ancient capital, at present the capital of the province, near the Ems river, northeastward and 70 miles distant from Diisseldorf, and 120 miles east-south-east of Amsterdam, with 25,000 inhabitants, an extensive palace (formerly the residence of the sovereign bishop), a celebrated Gothic cathe- dral, and numerous other architectural monuments, a Gothic city -hall (where the Westphalian peace was concluded in 1648), a Catholic theological faculty PRUSSIA. 483 The Province of Westphalia. (see above, page 460), various manufactures, and a considerable trade, espe- cially in excellent hams. Telgte (with 2,300 inhabitants), Warendorf (with 4,500 inhabitants), Beckum (with 2,200 inhabitants), Ludinghausen (with 1,850 inhabitants), and Werne (with 2,000 inhabitants), more or less remark- able towns. Other former territories of the bishopric are, since 1803, de- pendent dominions, chiefly belonging to the princes of Salm, and contain among others : Koesfeld or Coesfeld, a town on the Berkel river, westward and 18 miles distant from Munster, with 2 palaces, paper manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants. Horstmar, a town with 1 ,300 inhabitants. Billerbeck, a town with linen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Aahaus, a town on the Aa river, with princely palace, linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Bocholt, a town on the Aa, with princely palace, a haudsome Gothic church, various manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. Borken (with 3,200 inhabitants), Stadtlohn (with 2,500 inhabitants), Wreden (with 2,750 inhabitants), towns noted for their linens. Duelmen, a town south-westward and 18 miles dis- tant from Munster, with 3,300 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and a palace of the duke of Croy-Dulmen. Rheina, a town 24 miles north-north-west of Munster, linen, woollen and other manufactures, and 2,600 inhabitants. — To the electorate of Cologne formerly belonged : Recklinghausen (a town south- westward and 9 miles distant from Munster, with linen manufactures, brew- eries, and 3,700 inhabitants), Dorsten (a town with linen and cloth manufac- tures, and 3,100 inhabitants), Anholt (a town south-westward and 60 miles distant from Munster, with 2,100 inhabitants, and an extensive palace of the prince of Salm-Salm), and Steinfurt (a town with 2,900 inhabitants). — Teck- lenburg, ancient capital of an earldom of the same name (which in 1707 was inherited by Prussia), between Munster and Osnabruck, with linen manufac- tures, and 1,400 inhabitants. Lengerich, a town near Tecklenburg, with linen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Ibbenburen, a town on the Plane river, with linen manufactures, coal mines, and 2,200 inhabitants. The ancient independent bishopric of Minden (instituted in 780 by Charle- magne, and secularized in 1648, when the elector of Brandenburg became possessed of it by the title of a principality) contains : -{-Minden, its ancient capital, on the left bank of the Weser, 70 miles above Bremen, and westward and 40 miles distant from Hanover, has 12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its ancient cathedral, its manufactures, inland trade, and fortress. Minden is one of the most ancient cities of Germany ; Emperor Henry III. was born, and his son Henry IV. resided here for a while. Petershagen (with 2,200 484 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Province of Westphalia. inhabitants), and Lubbecke (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Hausberge (with linen manufactures, and 900 inhabitants), Schlusselburg (with linen manufac- tures, and 1,000 inhabitants), and Rahden (with linen manufactures, and 2,300 inhabitants), market-towns. — The former independent or sovereign bishopric of Paderborn (instituted in 780 by Charlemagne, and secularized in 1803, when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : Paderborn, its ancient capi- tal, on the little Pader river, southward and 44 miles distant from Minden, with a highly remarkable cathedral, a Catholic theological seminary, brewe- ries, and 9,500 inhabitants. Warburg, a town in one of the most fertile dis- tricts of Westphalia, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Paderborn, with linen manufactures, considerable trade, and 3,600 inhabitants. Driburg, a town noted for its mineral waters, has 2,250 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : Delbruck (with 1,300 inhabitants), Buren (with a handsome Gothic church, and 1,800 inhabitants), Salzkotten (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), Brakel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lugde or Lude (with 2,200 inhabi- tants). — Corvey, an ancient and extensive castle on the "Weser, south-east- ward and 44 miles distant from Minden, was until 1803 the residence of an independent abbot, whose abbey had been instituted by Louis the Pious in the 9th century. The territory of the abbey, endowed with the title of a de- pendent principality, belongs at present to the dependent prince of Hoheu- lohe-Schillingsfurst, and contains (beside that castle and some villages) the town of H'dxter, on the Weser, and in the neighborhood of the castle of Cor- vey, with important branches of industry, and 3,800 inhabitants. — The ancieut earldom of Ravensberg, which in 1666 was inherited by the elector of Bran- denburg, contains: Bielefeld, its ancient capital, south-westward and 27 miles distant from Minden, and south-eastward and 30 miles distant from Osnabriick, is highly renowned for its excellent linens, and has 10,500 inhabi- tants. The neighboring villages of Brackwede (with 1,200 inhabitants) and Jssellvorst (with 1,200 inhabitants), the market-town of Schildesche (with 2,500 inhabitants), and the towns of Werther (with 2,100 inhabitants), Versmold (with 1,600 inhabitants), Borgholzhausen (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Bunde (with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their linen manufactures. Herford, a city north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Bielefeld, with va- rious manufactures, some literary institutions, and 8,800 inhabitants. En- ger, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted in history as having been once the seat of the celebrated Saxon duke Wittekind. Rheda (with noted linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants), and Rietberg (with important PRUSSIA. 485 The Province of Westphalia. linen manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants), are the capitals of dependent principalities of the same names. The ancient duchy of Westphalia was primitively nothing but part of West- phalia in general, and thus belonged to the ancient duchy of Saxony. After Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, having been outlawed in 1180, this part of his duchy was, by the title of a duchy of Westphalia, given and annexed to the archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. In 1803 Hesse-Darmstadt, and in 1816 Prussia became possessed of it. It contains: -{-Abnsberg, its for- mer capital on the Ruhr, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Miin- ster, with the ruins of an anciently very remarkable mountain castle, and 4,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages Arnsberg was a member of the Han- seatic League. Brilon, a town at the high-road between Arnsberg and Cas- seL with some manufactures of hardware, and 3/700 inhabitants. In the middle ages Brilon belonged to the Hanseatic League as actual member. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Olpe (with 2,000 inhabitants), Neheim (with 2,200 inhabitants), Marsberg, also named Stadtberg (with 3,600 inhabitants), Meschede (with 2,200 inhabitants), Gesecke (with 3,550 in- habitants,) Mmden (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Werl (anciently noted for its trade, at present for its salt-works, has 3,900 inhabitants). — The ancient earldom of Mark (whose native earls became extinct in 1609, when the elec- tor of Brandenburg became possessed of it by way of inheritance) contains: Hamm, its ancient capital, on the Lippe river, north-westward and 23 miles distant from Arnsberg, and south-eastward and 24 miles distant from Miin- ster, with linen manufactures, linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Iserlohn, an important manufacturing town in a mountainous district, westward and 23 miles distant from Arnsberg, is especially noted for its hardware, and has 11,100 inhabitants. Similar articles, as in Iserlohn, are fabricated in the neighboring manufacturing town of Altena, with 4,900 inhabitants. Other towns noted for their manufactures, are : Bockum (with 4,400 inhabitants), Hattingen (with 4,500 inhabitants), Ludenscheid (with 4,000 inhabitants), Ha- gen (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Schwelm (with 4,400 inhabitants). The town of Unna (between Arnsberg and Hamm, with 5,500 inhabitants), is noted for its salt-works. The town of Horde (with 2,200 inhabitants) is noted for its coal mines. Soest, a city in one of the most fertile districts of Westphalia, is chiefly engaged in linen manufacturing and corn trade, has 8,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages a renowned member of the Hanseatic League. — Dortmund, a city in a fertile district, north-westward 486 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Province of Westphalia and Rhenish Province. and 32 miles distant from Arnsberg, with considerable manufactures and trade, and 7,900 inhabitants, was, like Soest, a renowned member of the Hanseatic League, and traded to Nowgorod, in Russia, as well as to London, etc. — The former principality of Nassau Siegen (which in 1806 was annexed to the grand-duchy of Berg, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia) contains : Siegen, its ancient capital, on the Sieg river, 46 miles east-south-east of Cologne, and southward and 45 miles distant from Arnsberg, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its iron mines and manufactures. Hilchenbach, a town at the foot of the Westerwald, 7 miles north-north-east of Siegen, with various manu- factures, iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Grund is remarkable as the birth-place of the pious, and among faithful Christians, well-known Jung-Stilling. — Berleburg (south- eastward and 30 miles distant from Arnsberg, with a handsome princely palace, iron-works, and 2,400 inhabitants) and Laasphe (southward and 9 miles distant from Berleburg, with 2,200 inhabitants, cloth manufactures, iron-works, and a stately princely palace), are capitals of the dependent principalities of Witt- genstein. VL— THE RHENISH PROVINCE. Area : 10,373 square miles. Population : 2,763,000 inhabitants. This province (formerly consisting of two provinces, viz., Ju- lich-Cleve-Berg and Lower Rhine) has been thus styled on ac- count of its being situated on both sides (though chiefly on the left bank) of the Rhine, and comprises (with the exception of the ancient duchies of Cleve and Geldern, and principality of Moers) only newly acquired (i. e. since 1815) territories, the most notable of which are the former electorates of Treves and Cologne, the duchies of Berg and Juliers, etc. In the beginning of the present PRUSSIA. 487 The Rhenish Province. century there were about 100 independent dominions of the Ger- man empire in the present Rhenish province, which is subdivided into the 5 governmental districts of Coblenz, Treves, Aix la Cha- pelle, Cologne and Dusseldorf. The former independent or sovereign archbishopric and electorate of Treves is of very ancient origin ; its first bishop, Agritius by name, being appointed as early as in 327 by the Roman emperor Constantine. He took his seat in the city of Treves, and his successors, raised to the dignity of archbishops and electors, became in the course of time possessed of considerable territories. According to the terms of the treaty concluded at Luneville in 1801, the ter- ritories situated on the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France ; while the remainder, on the right bank of this river, was in 1803 given to Nassau- What in 1814 France restored, Prussia became possessed of, together with a little district on the right bank of the Rhine. The territories of the electorate within the limits of the following governmental district contain : -+-Coblenz, a fortified city, and formerly the residence of the elector archbishop of Treves, on the left bank of the Rhine (crossed here by a bridge of boats 1,100 feet long), at its junction with the Moselle (crossed by a beautiful Gothic bridge, reared in the middle of the 14th century and thoroughly built of freestone), about half-way between Mentz and Cologne, with vari- ous and important manufactures, considerable trade, and 23,000 inhabitants. Coblenz, at present the capital of the Rhenish province, is noted for several literary institutions, the former electoral palace, several remarkable ancient churches, and for its fortifications, among which ranks first the very strong fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Co- blenz, and standing on a high rock, at the foot of which is situated the town of Thai- Ehrenbreitstein, with 4,200 inhabitants. Vallendar, a town on the right bank of the Rhine, with important leather manufactures, and 3,400 inhabitants. Boppard, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, with vine cul- ture, noted potteries, and 4,200 inhabitants. Oberwesel, a town on the Rhine, with vine culture, and 2,850 inhabitants. Stolzenfels, a remarkable Gothic mountain castle, at present arranged as the private palace of the king of Prussia. Kochheim and Zell, towns on the Moselle, with vine culture, and respectively 2,700 and 2,300 inhabitants. — The territories of the former elec- torate of Cologne (see forward under the head of Cologne), within the limits of this governmental district, contain : Andebnach, a town on the left bank of 488 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Rhenish Province. the Rhine, 14 miles below Coblenz, with considerable trade, and 3,800 in- habitants. Rhense, a market-town on the Rhine, 5 miles above Coblenz, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its anciently celebrated king's seat (Konigsstuhl), an open building resting on 9 pillars. The market-towns of Unkel (with 900 inhabitants) and Erpel (with 900 inhabitants), are noted for their wines. Ahrweiler, a town on the Ahr river, has 2,600 inhabitants, and is renowned for its wines. Linz, a town on the Rhine, 30 miles below Co- blenz, and north-westward and nearly 400 miles distant from Linz in Aus- tria, with vine culture, and 2,650 inhabitants. — To various territories formerly belonged : St. Goar, ancient capital of the lower earldom of Katzenellnbo- gen (see page 364), on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St. Goarshausen (in Nassau), with important leather manufactures, and 1,100 inhabitants. Remagen (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Sinzig (with 2.000 inhabitants), towns formerly belonging to the duchy of Juliers Bacharach, a town on the Rhine, with vine culture, and 1,750 inhabitants. Kreuznach, a town on the Nahe river, southward and 9 miles distant from Bingen, with important lea- ther manufactures and vine culture, salt-works, bathing, and 9,400 inhabitants. Simmern, formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, on the Hunsruck, with leather and other manufactures, iron-works, and 3,300 inhabi- tants. Sobernheim, a town with vine culture, and 2,700 inhabitants. Kirn, a town on the Nahe river, with coal mines, and 1,950 inhabitants. Wetzlar, formerly an imperial city, and from 1691 to 1806 the seat of the Supreme Tribunal of the German Empire (see page 293), romantically situated on the Lahn river, 46 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, and north-westward and 33 miles distant from Frankfort, with remarkable ancient cathedral, and 5,700 inhabitants. — Neuwied, the capital of the dependent principality or earl- dom of Wied, on the Rhine (right bank), 10 miles below Coblenz, with a magnificent princely palace, various higher schools, numerous manufactures, and 6,250 inhabitants, among whom are many Moravian Brethren. Braun- fels (near Wetzlar, with 1,800 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent dominion belonging to the prince of Solms-Braunfels. The territories of the former electorate of Treves, within the limits of the following governmental district, contain : -{-Treves (in German Trier), for- merly the capital of the electorate, on the Moselle (crossed by a bridge built of freestone, and 690 feet long), south-westward and 60 miles distant from Coblenz, has 20,000 inhabitants, various manufactures and vine culture, and is renowned for its very ancient cathedral and numerous other architec- PRUSSIA. 489 The Rhenish Province. tural monuments. Treves is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, and was frequently the temporary residence of the Roman emperors, subse- quently also the seat of the Roman governor of Gaul. The market-town of Pfalzel (with 1,300 inhabitants), and the villages of Piesport (with 600 inhabitants), Dusemond (with 700 inhabitants), and Guns (with 1,000 inhabi- tants), situated on the Moselle, are noted for their wines. More or less celebrated towns are: Bernkastel (with 2,400 inhabitants), Wittlich (with 3,000 inhabitants), Merzig (with 3,700 inhabitants), and Saarburg (with 2,200 inhabitants). The town of St. Wendel (on the Blies river, south-east- ward and 82 miles distant from Treves, with 2,800 inhabitants) was until 1884 the capital of the principality of Lichtenberg, which then was ceded by Saxe-Gotha to Prussia (see page 393). To various other territories did formerly belong: Saarbbueck, until 1801 the capital of an earldom belong- ing to the princely house of Nassau, on the Saar, south-westward and 80 miles distant from Treves, has 8,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- factures and coal mines. Ottweiler, a town on the Blies river, with some manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Pbuem, a town at the foot of the Eifel, north-eastward, and 34 miles distant from Treves, with important leather manufactures, and 2,500 inhabitants. Bitburg, a town between Prum and Treves, with 2,200 inhabitants, and Neuerburg, market-town, with 1,7000 inhabitants, formerly belonged to the duchy of Luxemburg. Veldenz, a village with 800 inhabitants, is noted for its mines and iron-works. Saar- louis, strongly fortified town on the Saar river, southward and 30 miles distant from Treves, with various manufactures, and 7,200 inhabitants. Saar- louis, founded by Louis XIV., did until 1815 belong to France. The formerly imperial city of Aix-la-Chapelle, founded or at least embel- lished by Charlemagne, was for a long while considered as the capital of the German empire. In the period from 813 to 1558, the emperors were usu- ally crowned here. Towards the close of the last century, the city was occupied by the French, and in 1801 formally ceded to France. In 1815 Prussia became possessed of it. We thus describe : -j- Aix-la-Chapelle (in German Aachen), at present the capital of a governmental district of the same name, close by the Netherlandish frontier, eastward and 18 miles dis- tant from Mastricht, and westward and 40 miles distant from Cologne, has 48,600 inhabitants, and is renowned for its numerous and important manu- factures of fine cloth, cassimere, pins, needles, and various other articles, for its mineral waters and baths, and finally for its numerous architectural mon- 490 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Rhenish Province. uments, among which ranks first the very ancient Gothic cathedral (founded in 796 by Charlemagne, who lies buried here), with many historical curios- ities, and next to it the Gothic city-hall, reared in 1353, and standing upon the same spot where the palace of Charlemagne was. The neighboring town of Burtscheid (with 5,700 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth, cassimere, and needle manufactures, and its hot sulphur baths. — The ancient duchy of Juliers (whose native sovereigns became extinct in 1423, when the duchy was inherited by the dukes of Berg; from 1666 to the end of last century, the electors of the Palatinate were possessed of it, and in 1815 it was ceded to Prussia) contains, within the limits of this governmental district : Juliers (in German Jiilich), its ancient capital, on the Roer, north-eastward and 18 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is fortified, and has 4,400 inhabitants. JDuren, a city on the Roer, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- factures of cloth, cassimere, etc., of hardware and various other articles. Stollberg, important manufacturing town, eastward and 7 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its various and numerous articles made of brass. Montjoie, a noted manufacturing town, near the head of the Roer, southward and 18 miles distant from Aix-la- Chapelle, and is renowned for its fine cloth and cassimere. Eschweiler, a man- ufacturing town on the Inde river, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its silks, woollens, etc., and for its coal mines. Imgenbroich, a village with con- siderable manufactures of cloth and cassimere, and 900 inhabitants. — To various other territories formerly belonged : Eupen (in French Ne.au), a noted manufacturing town, romantically situated on the little Wenze river, south- ward and 12 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, has 12,400 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its superfine cloth and cassimere. Herzogenrath (in French Rolduc, or Rode le Due), a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix- la-Chapelle, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its coal mines and quarries. Schleiden, a market-town on the Eifel, south-eastward and 24 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, with manufactures of woollens, etc., iron-works, and 750 inhabitants. Malmedy, a town on the Warge river, southward and 23 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the most important leather manu- factures in Prussia, mineral waters, and 4,300 inhabitants. Corneliwmunster, a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix-la-Chapelle, with cloth and cassi- mere manufactures, quarries, lead mines, and 800 inhabitants. The former archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. As first bishop of Cologne, is considered Maternus, who lived about the year 314 ; this bishop- PRUSSIA. 4 91 The Rhenish Province. ric was in 745 raised to the dignity of an archbishopric. The archbishop Heribert (997-1021) was invested with the electoral privileges, and in the course of time, considerable dominions were acquired, especially in West- phalia, since Duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion, had been outlawed (see before, under Westphalia). Since the year 1263, the archbishops, elec- tors, resided usually in Bonn or in Bruhl, and not more in Cologne, on account of altercations with this city, that relied upon its privileges as impe- rial city, and was not willing to be unconditionally subjected to the author- ity of the archbishop. It may be mentioned here by the way, that arch- bishop Guebhard of Waldburg, who occupied the see in the period of 1577-83, turned Protestant, being enamored of the fair countess, Agnes of Mansfeld, whom he married. However his chapter chose instantly another archbishop in his place. Since the end of the last century, the electorate underwent the same vicissitudes as the electorate of Treves. Its territories, within the limits of the following governmental district, contained : -{-Co- logne (in German Coin), the largest city in the Rhenish province, on the Rhine (left bank), crossed here by a bridge of boats, had, at the close of the year 1846, 9,020 habitations, 227 public edifices (among them 25 churches and 8 chapels), and 95,202 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and highly famed for its important trade and commerce, its numerous manufactures (univer- sally known is the excellent Cologne-water), its literary institutions, and for its vast number of interesting monuments of Gothic architecture. Among the latter ranks first the sublime edifice of the cathedral, which was founded in 1248, and since the days of the Reformation left unfinished, thoifgh at present the completion of the work is projected. In the middle ages Cologne was a powerful and far-renowned commercial and manufacturing city, num- bered 30,000 warriors, and had a population of more than 150,000 inhabi- tants. Opposite Cologne, is situated on the Rhine, the town of Deutz, with various manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. Bruhl, a market-town roman- tically situated at the foot of the Eifel, southward and 5 miles distant from Cologne, with 1,600 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace and park. The archbishops of Cologne resided here in the summer season. Bonn, a city on the Rhine, formerly the usual residence of the electors of Cologne, 14 miles above Cologne, has 18,000 inhabitants, and is since 1818 noted for its univer- sity (see above and page 287), to which is ceded the former palace of the electors. Zulpich, a town in a fertile and romantic plain, south-westward and 23 miles distant from Cologne, has 1,400 inhabitants, and is historically EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Rhenish Province. remarkable for a decisive victory obtained here by King Clovis over the Ale- manni, in 496. Konigswinter, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and at the foot of the Seven Hills (see page 8), has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its quarries. The market-town of Bedburg (with 700 inhabitants) is noted for its college. — The towns of Munstereifel (with woollen manufactures, and 2,100 inhabitants) and Euskirchen (with 3,250 inhabitants), belonged to the ancient duchy of Juliers. — The ancient duchy of Berg (see below) contains, within the limits of this governmental district: Siegburg, a town on the right bank of the Rhine, and on the Sieg river, with a madhouse, and 3,200 inhabitants. Muhlheim am Ehein, a town on the Rhine, opposite Cologne, with important manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. The village of Bensberg (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its military academy. The village of Waldbroel (with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its iron-works. Wipperfurt, a town on the Wupper, below Elberfeld, with woollen manu- factures, and 2,000 inhabitants. The ancient duchy of Berg (whose native sovereigns became extinct in the 17th century, when the Palatines became possessed of it by way of inher- itance; in 1806 it was ceded to France by the king of Bavaria, from the Palatine house, and in 1815 to Prussia) contains: -(-Duesseldorf, its ancient capital, on the Rhine (right bank), between Cologne and Wesel, north-east- ward and 46 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is at present the capital of a governmental district of the same name (2,087 square miles, and 892,500 inhabitants), carries on a considerable trade, especially to Holland, has a vast number of various and important manufactures, and 28,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its literary and artistical institutions. (About the gallery of paintings, which was here until 1806, see page 288.) The neighboring village of Pempelfort (with 2,300 inhabitants) is noted for its greens. In the neighboring Dusselthal (formerly a Carthusian monastery) was founded in 1819, an institution for educating disorderly children. Ratingen and Gerres- heim, towns with respectively 4,200 and 1,500 inhabitants. Elberfeld, one of the moBt important manufacturing and trading towns in the kingdom, on the Wupper, eastward and 19 miles distant from Diisseldorf, has 38,250 inhabi- tants, and is famed especially for its cotton and silk articles, ribbons, and dyeing in Turkish red. The whole valley along the Wupper, upwards to and beyond Barmen (with 34,950 inhabitants), is covered with factories of various kinds, and the density of population is 471 on a square mile, in the neigh- borhood of Elberfeld and Barmen. Solingen, likewise a very important PRUSSIA. 493 The Rhenish Province. manufacturing town, on the Wupper, 10 miles below Elberfeld, is from old renowned for its sword-blades and cutleries, and has 6,300 inhabitants. Remscheid, a manufacturing town in the neighborhood of Elberfeld, is famed for its steel and iron-works, especially for its farming utensils. Its township has 12,100 inhabitants. Lennep, a manufacturing town on a little river of the same name, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Elberfeld, has 6,900 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and other woollen articles. Other towns noted for their manufactures of cotton goods, woollens, cutlery, hardware, etc., are : Burscheid and Leichlingen (united and together, with 11,000 inhabitants), Opladen and Neukirchen (united and together, with 8,400 inhabitants), Graf rath (with 4,400 inhabitants), Wulfrath (with 1,200 inhabitants), Hohscheid (with 11,650 inhabitants), Ronsdorf (with 7,000 inhabitants), Huckeswagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wald (with 4,650 inhabi- tants), Rode vor dem Wald (with 1,300 inhabitants), Luttringhausen (with 1,100 inhabitants), Neviges (with 1,500 inhabitants), Langenberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Mettmann (with 2,800 inhabitants). The city of Muhlheim an der Ruhr, situated on the river Ruhr, between Dusseldorf and Wesel, with 10,000 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its manufactures, but especially for its coal mines. — The former territories of the electorate of Cologne (see back) contain, within the limits of this governmental district : Kempen, a town on the Niers river, westward and 9 miles from Crefeld, has 4,000 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its linens and flax. The Christian author, Thomas Hammerken, universally known by the name of Thomas a Kempis, was born here in 1380. Neuss, a city on the Erft, near its junction with the Rhine, 7 miles above Dusseldorf, is noted for its Gothic church (founded in 825), its cloth and cassimere manufactures, and considerable corn trade, and has 9,800 inhabitants. The towns of Uerdingen, (with 3,100 inhabitants), Wevel- inghoven (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Odenkirchen (with 1,550 inhabitants), are noted- for their manufactures, especially of cotton goods. — To the ancient duchy of Juliers (see above) belonged: Gladbach, a town near the Mers river, westward and 17 miles distant from Dusseldorf, is famed for its excel- lent linens, and has 3,300 inhabitants. Grevenbroich, a town on the Erft, with manufactures of woollens and hardware, and 1,000 inhabitants. Dulken, a town with 2,500 inhabitants, is noted for its flax. Dahlen, a town with considerable linen trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Rheidt, a manufacturing town, with 3,800 inhabitants. — To various other dominions formerly belonged : Kaiserswerth, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and in the neighborhood of 494 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Rhenish Province. Diisseldorf, with 2,100 inhabitants. Essen, a city on the Berne river, south- eastward and 24 miles distant from Wesel, with a remarkable ancient church, manufactures of hardware, etc., coal mines, and 7,300 inhabitants. Werden, a city on the Ruhr, with cloth and other manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. Ketlwig, a town with 2,800 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. — The ancient duchy of Cleve (whose native dukes became extinct in the 17 th century, when Brandenburg or Prussia became possessed of it) contains : Cleve, its former capital, near the Rhine, 46 miles north-north-west of Diis- seldorf, with a renowned ancient castle, some manufactures, and 7,700 inhab- itants. Calcar, a market- town, with flannel manufactures, and 1,900 inhabi- tants. Goch, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, with cotton manufactures, and 3,900 inhabitants. Cranenburg, a market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. Xanten, a town on the Rhine (left bank), has 3,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its Gothic church, and cloth, cassimere, and other manufactures. Orsoy, a town on the Rhine, with woollen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Rees, a town on the Rhine (right bank), below Wesel, with 3,700 inhabitants, who are largely engaged in agricultural business. Anciently tins town was noted for its fortress. Emmerich, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and close by the Netherlandish frontier, with rather important manufactures, and 6,500 inhabitants. Isselburg, or Ysselburg, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, with foundries, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Wesel, a strongly fortified city on the Rhine (right bank), at its junction with the Lippe, with numerous manufactures, and 16,000 inhabitants. Duisbicrg, a city on the Ruhr, 2£ miles from its junction with the Rhine, with numerous manufactures, and 7,700 inhabitants, was in the period from 1655 to 1802 the seat of a univer- sity. Ruhrort, a town on the Ruhr, at its junction with the Rhine, is noted for its coal trade, and has 3,400 inhabitants. Dinslaken, a town near the Rhine, with cotton manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. — The ancient duchy of Geldern (since 1543 forming part of the duchy of Burgundy, until in 1713 one part was ceded to the republic of the Netherlands, and the other to Prussia) contains : Geldern, its ancient capital, 23 miles south-south-east of Cleve, with cloth and flannel manufactures, breweries, and 3,850 inhabi- tants. Viersen, a noted manufacturing town, with 5,250 inhabitants. — The ancient principality of Moers (whose native princes became extinct in 1488, when it was inherited by the princely house of Nassau, while in the begin- ning of last century, Prussia became possessed of it by way of inheritance) contains : Moers, or Meurs, its ancient capital, near the Rhine (left bank), PRUSSIA. 495 Prussia.— Province of Prussia. with 3,200 inhabitants, and manufactures of silks, woollens, and cotton goods. Yet the most important city of the ancient principality is Kkefeld, situated on a fertile plain, about 5 miles from the Rhine, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Diisseldorf, has 30,000 inhabitants, and is highly renowned for its silks and velvet, moreover for its cloth, cassimere, and various other articles. Vn.— THE PROVINCE OF PRUSSIA. Area : 25,091 square miles. Population : 2,499,400 inhabitants. This province has derived its name from the ancient Prussians, a mixed Germanic and Slavonic tribe, who respectively since the 3d and 6th centuries of the Christian era had settled in the country. They were fanatic pagans, and evinced their hatred against Christianity on numerous occasions. Especially in Po- land they made frequent plundering incursions, by which at last the sovereign of this country was induced to require the assist- ance of the Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336). That thi3 order conquered the country of the Prussians (which had the same extent as the present province), and that in 1525 it was transformed into a duchy, and in 1618 inherited by the reigning house of Brandenburg, is already related above in the general history of Prussia. Formerly the present province of Prussia consisted of two, styled East and West Prussia, and their names occur still in common life ; but at present they are imited into one, which is subdivided into the 4 governmental districts of Konigsberg, Gumbinnen (formerly constituting the. province of 496 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Its Governmental Districts. East Prussia), Danlzic and Marienweirler (these two latter consti- tuted formerly the province of West Prussia.) +K6nigsberg, the capital of the province, and considered as the third royal residence, on the Pregel (see page 13), north-eastward and 360 miles distant from Berlin, and south-westward and 550 miles distant from St. Pe- tersburg, has 7*7,100 inhabitants, carries on a considerable commerce, and is noted not only for its university (see page 460), but also its remark- able ancient ducal, at present royal palace, 333 feet long by 213 feet wide, and containing many historical curiosities, and for several other architectural monuments. The seaport of Konigsberg is at Pillau, a fortified town at the entrance into the Fresh Haff, with commerce, and 4,700 inhabitants. Memel, a maritime town on the Baltic, and the Russian frontier, northward and 96 miles distant from Konigsberg, with considerable trade (especially in timber) and commerce, and 10,250 inhabitants. The towns of Eylau (prop- erly styled Preussisch Eylau, is situated southward and 23 miles distant from Konigsberg, and has 2,800 inhabitants) and Friedland (south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Konigsberg, with 2,650 inhabitants) are noted for bat- tles fought here respectively on the 7th and 8th February, and on the 14th June, 1807. Braunsberg, a city on the Passarge, with various manufactures, rather considerable trade, noted high schools, and 9,100 inhabitants. Frau- enburg, a town on the Fresh Haff, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of Ermeland, and has 2,500 inhabitants. The celebrated astronomer Nicholas Copernicus died here in 1543. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Welau (with 4,200 inhabitants), Tapiau (with 3,400 inhabitants), Heiligenbeil (with 3,000 inhabitants), Schippenbeil (with 2,650 inhabitants), Bartenstein (with 4,200 inhabitants), Rastenburg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Gerdauen (with 2,500 inhabitants), Wormditt (with 3,550 inhabitants), Mehlsack (with 3,100 inhabitants), Heilsberg (with 4,600 inhabitants), Allenstein (with 3,600 inhabitants), Preussisch-Holland (with 3,600 inhabitants), Mohrungen (with 2,900 inhabitants), Neidenburg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soldau (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Ortelsburg (with 1,750 inhabitants). South-eastward and 65 miles distant from Konigsberg is situated, in the neighborhood of Rasten- burg, the celebrated Catholic convent of Heilige Linde (holy linden), a place of great report for pilgrims, to visit its holy shrine. -}-GuMBiNNEN, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, eastward and 66 miles distant from Konigsberg, and northward and 170 PRUSSIA. 497 The Province of Prussia. miles distant from Warsaw, is well built, carries on a considerable corn trade, and has 6,800 inhabitants. Insterburg, a city on the Inster river, westward and 16 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with notable stud, corn trade, and 9,700 inhabitants. Stallupdhnen, a town near the Russian frontier, eastward and 17 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with cattle trade, and 3,150 inhabi- tants. South-eastward and 7 miles from here is the highly noted royal stud of Trakehnen. Southward and 72 miles distant from Insterburg is situ- ated the town of Johannisburg (with a historically remarkable castle, and 2,100 inhabitants), near the extensive forest of the same name, and 30 miles in length. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Angerburg (with 3,600 inhabitants), Goldapp (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lyck (with 3,550 in- habitants), Oletzko (with 3,100 inhabitants), Sensburg (with 2,400 inhabi- tants), Nikolaiken (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lotzen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ragnit (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bialla (with 1,300 inhabitants), Schirwind (with 1,500 inhabitants), Pillkallen (with 1,900 inhabitants), and Darkehmen (with 2,400 inhabitants). Tilsit, a city on the Memel river, north-eastward and 74 miles distant from Konigsberg, with noted horse-marts, considerable trade, and 13,900 inhabitants. Historically remarkable is this city for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th of July, 1807. -{-Dantzick. (in German Danzig), the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on a branch of the Vistula, 5 miles from the Baltic Sea, 120 miles west-south-west of Konigsberg, is one of the first maritime and commercial cities of the kingdom, engaged in numerous branches of indus- try, and strongly fortified, has 66,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for several of its Gothic churches and other architectural monuments. Dant- zick is of very ancient origin, and was already in the 6th century a very nota- ble place ; in 1310 it came under the sway of the Teutonic order, and in 1454 under that of Poland, until in 1793 Prussia became possessed of it. The actual seaport of Dantzick is at Neufahrwasser and Weichselmunde, on the Baltic Sea. Oliva, a market-town in the neighborhood of Dantzick, with 1,400 inhabitants, and an ancient Cistercian abbey, noted in history for a treaty of peace concluded here on the 3d of May, 1660, between Prussia and Poland. Elbing, a city in a fertile district near the Fresh Haff, 40 miles east-south-east of Dantzick, has 20,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its char- ities for the poor, its commerce and manufactures. Marienburg, a city on the Nogat, south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Dantzick, has 6,600 in- habitants, and is famed for its having been anciently the chief seat of the 498 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia.— Its Governmental Districts. Teutonic Order, whose master resided here in an extensive and admirable Gothic castle, which in recent times is completely restored. Tolkemit, a town on the Fresh Haff, is noted for its fishing and fowling, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : Putzig (with 2,300 in- habitants), Berent (with 2,300 inhabitants), Schbneck (with 2,200 inhabi tants), Dirschau (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Carthaus (with 600 inhabi- tants). -{-Marienwerder, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, in a fertile plain near the Vistula, 64 miles south-south-east of Dantzick, with an extensive ancient castle, a remarkable Gothic church, corn trade, and 6,250 inhabitants. Culm, a city near the Vistula, southward and 76 miles distant from Dantzick, with a military academy, some woollen manufactures, and 6,800 inhabitants. In the middle ages Culm was an important member of the Hanseatic League, and famed for its cloth manufactures. Graudenz, a city on the Vistula (crossed here by a bridge of boats, 2,700 feet long), 18 miles south-south-west of Marienwerder, has 8,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its strong fortress. Thorn, a strongly fortified city, on the Vistula, north- westward and 125 miles distant from Warsaw, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (born in 1473), and noted for its gingerbread, corn, and timber trade. Christburg, a town on the Sorge river, with cloth and linen manu- factures, and 2,700 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Stuhmsdorf is remarkable in history for a convention concluded here on the 9th September, 1635, between Sweden and Poland. Lobau, a town south-eastward and 43 miles distant from Marienwerder, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen and flax Other more or less notable towns are : Stuhm (with 1,300 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Riesenburg (with 3,600 in- habitants), Gollup (with 2,300 inhabitants), Oulmsee (with 1,700 inhabitants), Briesen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Schwetz (with 3,200 inhabitants), Conitz (with 4,100 inhabitants), Schlochau (with 2,100 inhabitants), Deutsch-Crone (with 3,900 inhabitants), Hammerstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), Jasirow (with 3,750 inhabitants), Flatow (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Zempelburg (with 3,500 inhabitants). PRUSSIA. 499 The Province of Posen. VHL— THE PROVINCE OF POSEN. Area: 11,417 square miles. Population : 1,364,000 inhabitants. This province was until 1795, when Prussia took possession of it, a constituent part of the ancient kingdom of Poland ; it was in 1807 annexed to the then created grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1814 restored to Prussia. (About its other historical particu- lars see history of Poland under the head of Russia.) The title of a grand-duchy conferred upon this province, is but seldom used. It is subdivided into the two governmental districts of Posen and Bromberg, and contains : -[-Posen, the capital of the province, on the Warthe river, about half-way between Berlin and Warsaw, is at present strongly fortified, has 40,500 in- habitants (of whom 18,500 are Roman Catholics, 12,000 Protestants, and 10,000 Jews), and is noted for its handsome cathedral and several other churches, its remarkable city-hall, its literary institutions, manufactures, and considerable trade. Posen was in the middle ages for a long while the residence of the Polish sovereigns. Fraustadt (in Polish Wschowa), a city near the frontier of Silesia, with noted cloth and linen manufactures, consid- erable corn trade, and 6,100 inhabitants. Other cities and towns noted for their manufactures of various articles are : Lissa (with 9,300 inhabitants), Rawicz (with 10,200 inhabitants), Krotoszin (with 7,600 inhabitants), Mese- ritz (with 4,800 inhabitants), Tirschtiegel (with 2,500 inhabitants), Zduny (with 3,600 inhabitants), Bratz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Rogasen (with 4,900 inhabitants), and Pleszew (with 5,150 inhabitants). Still may be noticed the towns of Samter (with 2,850 inhabitants), Reisen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Storchnest or Osieczno (with 1,550 inhabitants), Bojanowo (with 3,000 inhab- itants), Schrimm (with 3,850 inhabitants), and Kurnik (with 2,850 inhab- itants). -j-Bromberg, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on 500 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Province of Posen. the Brahe river, north-eastward and 72 miles distant from the city of Posen, with several high schools, manufactures, considerable trade, and 9,800 inhab- itants. Gnesen, a very ancient and once renowned city, 45 miles south- south-west of Bromberg, with a highly remarkable cathedral, considerable manufactures, noted cattle- and horse-marts, and 7,350 inhabitants. In the earlier period of the middle ages the Polish kings were crowned here. Inowraclaw (in German Jung-Breslau), a town in a fertile plain, with con- siderable trade, and 5,800 inhabitants. The town of Kruschwitz has at present only 450 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important city. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Fordon (with 2,250 inhabitants), Czarnikow (with 3,700 inhabitants), Schonlanke (with 4,000 inhabitants), Filehne (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Schneidemuhl or Pila (with 4,400 in- habitants). THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. Area : 258,262 square miles. Population: 37,850,000 inhabitants. The Austrian Empire is situated between Germany and Tur- key, and between Italy and Russia, and embraces four principal constituent parts, which with reference to the nationality of their inhabitants are styled German, Polish. Hungarian and Italian Provinces, and whose common sovereign is the Emperor of Austria. The above-stated area and population is distributed as fol- lows : German provinces (see p. 309) 16,147 sq. m. and 12,700,000 inh. *** - i»5t2gsj 32 > 908 - - •* *>™ : Hungarian" j g^^ffiS [ 129 ' 696 " " and 14,900,000 « Italia « j and 1 Is a tHa y_VeniCe \ 19 ' 511 " " and 5 > 300 > 000 " In point of religion the Roman Catholic is prevailing, and the particulars may be learned from the official statements of the year 1842, when the total population of the empire was 35,804,152 in- habitants. Of these were 24,874,139 Roman Catholics (with 12 archbishops and 61 bishops), more than 3£ million conformed (i. e. to the Roman Catholic church) and nearly 3 million nonconformed Greek Christians ; 1,207,309 Lutherans, and 2,037,479 Calvinists; the remainder consisting (beside 668,906 Jews) of Unitarians, etc. In point of origin, there are somewhat more than 7 million 502 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria — its Mountains, Rivers, Soil, etc. inhabitants belonging to the Germanic tribe, about 18 millions belonging to the Slavonic tribe (as Poles, Bohemians proper, Slowacks, Slavonians, etc.), nearly 5£ millions belonging to the Romanic tribe, and about 5 million Magyars (see pages 18 and 19), besides about 700,000 Jews, etc. With regard to the surface, it may generally be said that in the western section of the empire high mountains, and in the east- ern section level plains prevail ; with the exception, however, of a level plain in Lombardy, and mountain ranges in Transylvania. The chief mountain ranges within the limits of the Austrian empire are: eastern branches of the Alps (see page 4) ; the Car- pathian Mountains (see page 5), the Bohmerwald, Erzgebirge, and part of the Sudetic Mountains (see pages 6 and 7). The shores of the south-western section of the empire are washed by the Adriatic Sea (see page 10). — The most notable lakes are the Maggiore and Garda lakes in Lombardy, the Ba- laton and Neusiedl lakes in Hungary, and the Gmunden, Ossiach, Clagenfurt and Cirknitz lakes in the German provinces (see page 11). — The chief rivers and tributaries are: the Danube (with the Inn, Ens, March, Trasen, Waag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, Raab, Drave and Save (see page 16) ; the Elbe (with the Mol- dau and Egcr (see page 16) ; the Po (with the Adda, Oglio, Mincio, Tagliamenlo, Piaveand Brenta (see page 15) ; the Adige (see page 15), and the sources of the Vistula (see page 13). The soil is generally very fertile, especially most of the plains in Hungary and Slavonia. Yet not only the most fertile, but at the same time best-cultivated districts of the empire, are the valley of the Danube, in the Austrian arch-duchy, and the plain along the Po, in Lombardy and Venice. Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia, are likewise favored with a fertile soil ; while the exten- sive heaths of Ketskemet and Debreczin in Hungary, are sterile wastes. AUSTRIA. fiOS The Natural Products of Austria. Of the total area above stated, 218,431 square miles are com- puted to be arable land, distributed as follows: 82,090 square miles, appropriated to agriculture, 3,855 square miles to vine cul- ture, 234 square miles to rice culture (in Lombardy), 25,816 square miles, consisting of meadows and gardens, and 27,945 square miles of common pastures ; the remainder being covered with forests, and partly appropriated to the cultivation of various fruits. From this it may easily be inferred, that grain is raised far more than what is required for home consumption. The same may be said with reference to the rearing of cattle. In 1842, the whole empire had an aggregate number of more than 14,000,000 heads of black cattle (the most valuable breed is reared in the dis- tricts of the Alps, in the German provinces in general, and in Hungary and Galicia), about 2,800,000 horses (the finest breed in Hungary, Transylvania, but also in the northern German prov- inces), nearly 34,000 mules (reared in Lombardy and Venice and in Dalmatia), 32,000,000 sheep (three fifths of them of improved breed), and 5,345,000 hogs (especially in Hungary, but also in other provinces of the empire). The produce of the silkworm (for which Lombardy and Venice, the southern part of Tyrol, Istria, etc., are noted) amounted in 1841 to about 4 million pounds of raw silk. Game of various kinds is to be found abun- dantly in most of the provinces. The mining products in 1841, had a value of 26,058,802 florins (more than $9,827,000), and consisted of gold (6,213 marks: Transylvania and Hungary proper), silver (97,329 marks : Hungary proper, Bohemia, Tran- sylvania, etc.), quicksilver (2,973 quintals, chiefly from the mines of Istria), tin (877 quintals, only in Bohemia), copper (49,157 quintals, chiefly in Hungary), lead for the marts (72,028 quintals: Carinthia and Carniola, moreover in Hungary, etc.), lead ore (20,629 quintals, only in Bohemia), zinc (4,060 quintals, in Hun- 504 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria— its Natural Products, Mauufacttures and Commerce. gary and Tyrol), iron of every description (2.649,632 quintals, chiefly in Styria, but also in Illyria, Hungary, Bohemia, etc.), and coal (9,353,939 quintals, chiefly in Bohemia, but also in Moravia, Lower Austria, etc.). Austria abounds in salt of every description, and in 1841 the rock-salt mines in Galicia, Transyl- vania, Hungary proper, Upper Austria, and Styria, produced 3,031,079 quintals, the salt-springs (in Upper Austria, Salzburg, Galicia, etc.) 2,011,616 quintals, and in the seaports 733,942 quintals of salt were made. The Austrian empire has the most valuable, and next to Russia, the most extensive forests in Europe, yielding both timber and fuel in immense quantities. Since the days of the celebrated empress Maria Theresa, the manufactures in Austria have made immense progress, and at present they rival those of England and France. Yet only the German and Italian provinces excel in them, while in the Hunga- rian and Polish provinces, the manufactures are in a backward state. The principal articles of manufacture are glass (for which Bohemia is famed), looking-glasses (Venice and Lower Austria), shawls (Vienna is universally noted for them), cloth (chiefly in Moravia), linens (Bohemia, Austrian / ilesia, Lombardy, etc.), silks and velvet (Vienna, Milan, Venice, etc.), farming utensils (Styria), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms, etc. (Lower Austria, Venice, Lombardy, Bohemia, etc.), cotton goods (in the German provinces and Lombardy), besides paper, porcelain, lace, etc. The inland trade ( Vienna, Prague, Pesth, Brody, Botzen, Lem- burg, Kronstadt, and Brunn, are chiefly noted for it) as well as the commerce [Trieste ranks first among the seaports on the Adri- atic), is very considerable. The chief exports (in 1842 at the value of 124,075,107 florins, or about $46,794,000) are silk and silks, wool and woollens, glass of every description, cutlery, hard- ware, farming utensils, leather articles, furniture, tobacco, wine, grain, olive oil, and timber. The principal imports (in 1842 at AUSTRIA. 605 The Means of Education and Forms of Government. the value of 126,510,526 florins, or about $47,712,500) are: cot- ton, tropical produce, hides and furs. In the means of education Austria rivals any other European country, and it is distinguished both for eminence in literature and science, and for the general diffusion of knowledge, with the only exception of Hungary, where the Austrian government was hitherto prevented by the jealousy of the privileged classes in that country from exercising any substantial direct influence on school education. There are 9 universities in the Austrian empire, viz , at Prague (founded in 1348, and in 1842 with 2,741 students), Vienna (founded in 1365, and in 1842 with 5,395 stu- dents), Olmutz (founded in 1581, and in 1842 with 559 students), Grdlz (founded in 1486, and in 1842 with 942 students), Inns- bruck (founded in 1672, and in 1842 with 416 students), Padua (founded in 1228, and in 1842 with 1,825 students), Pavia (founded in 1361, and in 1842 with 1,484 students), Lemberg (founded in 1784, and in 1842 with 1,182 students), and at Pesth (founded in 1465, and in 1842 with 1,250 students). Besides these there are 37 academies or higher special schools, 77 theo- logical and 78 philosophical faculties, 31 lycea, 283 gymnasia, 1,428 seminaries, etc. The total number of common schools was in 1842, in the German, Italian, and Polish provinces (thus exclu- sive the Hungarian provinces), 31,436, that were then frequented by 2,427,857 children. With regard to the government, it was until 1848 partly a lim- ited, partly an unlimited monarchy. In Dalmatia and the Mili- tary Frontier the power of the emperor was absolute, in the Ger- man, Italian and Polish provinces limited by provincial diets, and in the kingdom of Hungary and in Transylvania the executive power was by the legislative power of an aristocratic body of no- bles, prelates and representatives of privileged towns so restricted, that it was almost reduced to nothing. The sovereign of the 22 506 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria — its Government, Finances, Army, etc. Austrian empire bears since the 11th August, 1804, the title of hereditary Emperor of Austria ; for the imperial title borne by the Austrian sovereign since the days of Albert II., as elected emperors of Germany, kad nothing in common with their patrimonial domin- ions. The plenary title runs thus : Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, King of Lombardy and Venice, of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria and Illyria ; Arch-Duke of Austria, Grand Duke of Transylvania, etc., etc. As king of Hungary the sovereign has since 1758 the predicate of " Apostolic Majesty." The public revenue for several years anterior to the commotions in 1848 were about 152,000,000 florins (including 4,395,000 florins raised as taxes in Hungary), and the public expenditure amounted to only 125,000,000 florins. The revenue and expen- diture thus yielded a surplus 'of 27 million, which was appropri- ated to the sinking fund and paying interest of the public debt that in 1841 amounted to 822 million florins. The regular army on the peace footing consisted prior to the year 1848 of about 230,000 men, and can in time of war be in- creased to 750,000 men. — The navy consisted, beside 8 unrigged ships of the line, of 8 frigates, 4 sloops of war, 6 brigs, 7 schooners and other smaller vessels. Besides the order of the Golden Fleece (see page 83), there are the following other orders of honor: 1. The military order of Maria Theresa, instituted in 1757, and in 3 classes. 2. The order of Elizabeth Theresa, instituted in 1750, and renewed in 1771. 3. The Hungarian order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1764, and in 3 classes. 4. The order of Leopold, instituted in 1808, and in 3 classes. 5. The order of the Iron Crown, instituted in 1805 by Napoleon and renewed in 1816 by Emperor Francis, in 3 classes. History. — The basis of the Austrian empire is the Avarian mark men- tioned page 31, and which was erected by Charlemagne in 788-801 as a AUSTRIA. 507 The History of Austria. bulwark against the Avares (see page 29), who had settled in this quarter since the 6th century. In a later period that name had been supported by the name of Eastern mark or orientalis regio, from which was finally derived the name of Austria. Leopold, earl of Babenberg (whose ancestral castle was close by the city of Bamberg on the Mayne), appointed in 944, was the first hereditary margrave of Austria. In 1156 the district at present known by the general name of Upper Austria (between the Inn and the Ens rivers) was annexed to the margraviate of Austria, and the latter raised to the dig- nity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic I Duke Leopold VI. inherited tStyria in 1186, and his son and successor, Frederic II., Carniola in 1232. With Duke Frederic II. the male line of the house of Babenberg became extinct, and now his brother-in-law, King Ottokar of Bohemia, took possession of Austria in 1260 ; he was, however, deprived of it in 1276 by emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, who then invested his sons with the Austrian dominions, and whose descendants are still possessed of them (see History of Germany, page 301). To Austria, Styria and Carniola (see above) were annexed in 1331 Carinthia, and in 1365 Tyrol, by way of inheritance. Duke Rodolph IV. (-f-1365) assumed the archducal title, which was since 1453 an official one. The general history of Austria being since the days of Rodolph of Hapsburg more or less closely connected with the general history of Ger many, the most remarkable particulars of it are to be found in the latter ; and we have only to add some few others. In 1740 the male line of the house of Hapsburg became extinct with the German emperor Charles VL, and as his daughter Maria Theresa, who succeeded him in the patrimonial dominions, was married to Duke Francis of Lorraine, the reigning house is frequently styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. Emperor Francis I. (as emperor of Germany Francis II.) died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand I., who resigned in November, 1848, and was succeeded by his nephew, the present reigning emperor Francis Joseph Charles, born in 1 830. As has already been mentioned above, the Austrian empire embraces four principal constituent parts, styled the German, Polish, Hungarian and Italian provinces. Yet by the term of Hungarian Provinces, the Austrian statistics indicate all coun- tries under the imperial sway, which form part neither of the German, nor of the Polish, nor of the Italian provinces ; and thus 508 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria— its Geographical Divisions. under this head are comprised the kingdom of Hungary as well as Transylvania, the Military Frontier, and even Dalmatia, though the latter has no administrative connection with all the other provinces just named, while the Military Frontier has thoroughly a military organization, and Transylvania has likewise no admin- istrative connection with the kingdom of Hungary. Thus they are to be described separately, and we shall give the topographi- cal description in the following order of succession : I. The Ger- man Provinces ; II. The Kingdom of Galicia ; III. The King- dom of Hungary ; IV. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania ; V. The Military Frontier; VI. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, and VII. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. L— THE GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA Area : 76,147 square miles. Population: 12,700,000 inhabitants. They comprise, as has already been stated, page 309, the arch- duchy of Austria, Styria, lllyria, Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia, and finally the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. 1. The Arch-duchy of Austria (15,070 square miles, and 2,400,000 inhabitants), situated on both sides of the Danube, between Bavaria and Hungary proper, and is officially divided into 4 districts, styled circles, two of which embrace the eastern half, in common life named Lower Austria, while the western half is commonly named Upper Austria. Lower Austria contains: Vienna (in German Wien), the metropolis of the empire and imperial residence, on the right bank of the Danube, 360 miles south-south- AUSTRIA. 509 The German Provinces of Austria. east of Berlin, north-eastward and 284 miles distant from Venice, and north- westward and 1,070 miles distant from Constantinople, is at present strongly fortified, and had in the beginning of the year 1846, 8,776 habitations, and 429,500 inhabitants. Vienna, already extant in the days of the ancient Romans, and a flourishing emporium in the ear her period of the middle ages, is at present the first trading and manufacturing city of the empire, and is besides this, highly renowned for its vast number of literary and scientific establishments (see page 288), of stately palaces and public edifices (the most remarkable among the latter is St Stephen's cathedral, whose steeple is 435 J feet high), for its handsome public gardens (as Prater, Angarten, etc.), and for its wealth. There are dwelling-houses in Vienna with more than 1,500 inhabitants, and yielding an annual house-rent of 100,000 florins. The number of magnificent and extensive palaces (besides those of the emperor) amounted to 123 some years ago. Vienna consists of the principal city and 34 suburbs, as they are styled, though they are more regularly built than the city itself. The neighboring imperial palaces of Schonbrunn and Lax- enburg, are noted for their beautiful parks and other curiosities. Baden, a town on the Schwechat, 14 miles south-south-west of Vienna, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed, and much resorted to as a watering-place Wienerisch-Neustadt, a city on a canal, southward and 28 miles distant from Vienna, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its military academy and manufactures. Schwechat, a market-town on the river of the same name, and at the high-road to Hungary, with cotton manufactures, and 2,500 inhab- itants. Pottendorf, a market-town near the Hungarian frontier, is noted for its cotton manufactures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. St. Polten, a town on the Trasen river, westward and 33 miles distant from Vienna, with various manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Mblk, or Melk, a market-town on the Danube, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted for its magnificent Benedictine abbey, instituted in 984. Krems, a town on the Danube, 88 miles west- north-west of Vienna, with various higher schools, manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. The village of Maria Taferl is a place of great resort for pil- grims, to visit its holy shrine. Korneuburg, a town on the Danube, north- ward and 9 miles distant from Vienna, with 2,600 inhabitants. The neigh- boring villages of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram, are remarkable for battles fought here in 1809, between the Austrians and French — Upper Austria contains: Linz, its capital, on the Danube, westward and 112 miles distant from Vienna, has 25,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for its 610 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The German Provinces of Austria and Styria. manufactures and important inland trade. Stcyer, a city on the Ens, south- eastward and 18 miles distant from Linz, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is, on account of its numerous and important hardware manufactures, sometimes called the Austrian Birmingham. St. Florian, a market-town, with 900 inhabitants, is situated in a district noted for the fertility of its soil, and for the wealth of its peasantry. In this district is also situated the market-town of Kremsrnunster (with 1,050 inhabitants), highly renowned for its Benedic- tine abbey, instituted in 772. Ischl, a market-town on the Traun river, south-westward and 48 miles distant from Linz, and eastward and 28 miles distant from Salzburg, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-springs and baths. Ischl is the chief place of a district styled Salzkammergut (salt- domain), on account of the vast quantities of salt made here. Wels, a town on the Traun river, south-westward and 14 miles distant from Linz, with various manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabitants. Hied, a market-town on two little rivers, westward and 28 miles distant from "Wels, with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. JBraunau, a town on the Inn, and at the frontier of Bavaria, westward and 60 miles distant from Linz, with various manufactures, numerous breweries, and 2,500 inhab- itants. — The former independent or sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg (it had before its secularization an extent of 3,706 square miles, with 250,000 inhabitants, was instituted in 716, in 1801 secularized and given to the grand duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph, in 1805 ceded to Austria, in 1809 to Bavaria, and in 1815 restored to Austria) contains: Salzburg, its former capital very romantically situated on the Salzach river, and near the Bava- rian frontier, 160 miles west-south-west of Vienna, has 13,400 inhabitants, is famed for its cathedral and numerous other architectural monuments, and for its manufactures and inland trade. Close by the city towers on a steep rock, 440 feet high, the remarkable ancient fortress of Hohensalzburg. Southward and 48 miles distant from Salzburg is situated the market-town of Gastrin (with 600 inhabitants), highly famed and much resorted to as a watering-place. Hallein, a town on the Salzach river, southward and 9 miles distant from Salzburg, has 4,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its important gait-works. Nearly the whole territory of the ancient bishopric of Salzburg is distinguished for the wild and sublime character of its sceneries. 2. The Duchy of Styria, in German Steiermark (8,690 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), on the south side of the former province, contains : Graetz or Gratz, its capital, romantically situated on the Mur river, with AUSTRIA. 611 The German Provinces of Styria, Carniola and Carinthia. numerous manufactures, noted annual fairs, several Gothic and remarkable churches, a university (see above) and other literary and scientific institu- tions, and 50,000 inhabitants. Marburg, a city on the Drave, 40 miles south- south-east of Gratz, with noted manufactures, considerable trade, and 6,200 inhabitants. Luttenberg, a market-town, with 850 inhabitants, is noted for its vine culture. Cilli, a town on the San river, southward and 56 miles distant from Gratz, with Roman antiquities, corn and wine trade, and 2,000 inhabi- tants. Judenburg, a town on the Mur river, westward and 40 miles distant from Gratz, with remarkable ancient castle, iron-works, and 2,000 inhabi- tants. Brack, a town on the Mur, 25 miles north-north-west of Gratz, has 1,850 inhabitants, and is noted for its hardware. Leoben, a town, south- westward and 90 miles distant from Vienna, with hardware manufactures, considerable trade in iron, and 3,200 inhabitants. Mariazell, a market- town on the Salza river, south-westward and 64 miles distant from Vienna, has 1,100 inhabitants, and has long been a place of great resort for pilgrims, to visit its holy shrine. 3. The Kingdom of Illyria (9,052£ square miles, and 1,357,000 inhabi- tants) is situated between Styria and the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, on the south bordering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the period from 1809 to 1814 it was under the sway of Napoleon, and embraces the ancient duchies of Carniola and Carinthia, the so-called Littorale, Austrian Friaul, Austrian Istria, and the former Venetian Istria, (which two latter districts have, how- ever, no political connection with Germany). — The ancient duchy of Carni- ola (in German Krain) contains : Laibach or Laybach, its ancient capital, and at present the capital of the kingdom of Illyria, on a river of the same name, south-westward and 190 miles distant from Vienna, with remarkable cathedral, important inland trade, and 19,000 inhabitants. Neustadtl, a town on the Gurk river, with 1,600 inhabitants. Adelsberg, a market-town south- westward and 24 miles distant from Laibach, with important horse-marts, 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the remarkable caves in the neighboring rocks. — The ancient duchy of Carinthia (in German Karnthen) contains: Klagenfurt, its ancient capital, near the lake of the same name, 43 miles north-north-west of Laibach, ha3 13,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its white lead and other manufactures, for its ancient castle, and several remark- able churches. The neighboring very ancient castle of Tanzenberg is re- markable as the birth place of Emperor Maximilian L St. Veit, a town on the Glan river, northward and 9 miles distant from Klagenfurt, has 2,000 in- 512 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The German Provinces of Littorale, Friaul, etc. habitants, and is noted for its horse-marts and considerable trade in iron and hardware. Villach, a town on the Drave, westward and 24 miles distant from Klagenfurt, with iron works, considerable trade in mining products, and 3,200 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Bleiberg is famed for its important lead mines. The so-called Littorale contains : Trieste (in Ger- man Triest), next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, in some respects rivalling Bremen, on the Adriatic Sea, south-westward and 240 miles distant from Vienna, has 7 6,000 inhabitants, and is noted not only for its ex- tensive commerce, but also for its manufactures and several architectural monuments. The neighboring village of Prosecco is renowned for its wines. Aquileja, a town near the Adriatic Sea, about half-way between Trieste and Venice, has at present only 1,800 inhabitants, but was in the days of the ancient Romans a celebrated city with 100,000 inhabitants, when in 452 of the Christian era it was almost totally destroyed by the Huns under Attila. — Austrian Friaul (see page 31) contains : Gorz (in Italian Gorizia), a city on the Isonzo river, 24 miles north-north-west of Trieste, with remarkable mountain castle, and cathedral, various manufactures, and 9,600 inhabitants. Gradisca, a fortified town on the Isonzo, with remarkable mountain castle, and 1,000 inhabitants. Idria, a mining town in a mountainous district, north- eastward and 28 miles distant from Trieste, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is universally noted for its quicksilver mines. — The Austrian and former Vene- tian Jstria (which, as has already been noticed, do not belong politically to the German provinces) contain : Mitterburg (in Italian Pisino), a town to- wards the centre of the Istrian peninsula, south-eastward and 40 miles dis- tant from Trieste, with remarkable ancient mountain castle, vine culture, and 2,700 inhabitants. Capodistria, ancient capital of Venetian Istria, on the Adriatic Sea, southward and 9 miles distant from Trieste, with magnificent cathedral, noted manufactures, considerable commerce, and 7,000 inhabitants. Isola, a market-town on the sea, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Pola, a maritime town, southward and 72 miles distant from Trieste, has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 9th cen- tury) and Roman antiquities. Pola was anciently a station of the Roman navy. Rovigno, a city on the Adriatic, with considerable commerce, and 11,000 inhabitants. Pirano, a city on the Adriatic, westward and 7 miles distant from Capodistria, is noted for its salt-works, and has 8,600 inhabi- tants. I/ussin Piccolo, a maritime town on the isle of Osero, is noted for its commerce, and has 3,600 inhabitants. AUSTRIA. 513 The German Province of Tyrol. 4. The princely Earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 in- habitants), a thorough mountainous country, between Switzerland and Up- per Austria (see above), and between Bavaria and Italy, is crossed by branches of the Alps, and by the rivers Inn, Adige and Eisack. Tyrol came in the 6 th century under the sway of the Bavarian dukes, and in a later period under that of the native dukes of Meran, and of the independent or sovereign bishops of Brixen and Trent. When in 1248 the male line of the duke of Meran became extinct, the earls of Tyrol became possessed of their dominions, and in 1365 the latter were inherited by the dukes of Aus- tria. The named independent bishoprics were secularized in 1803, and sub- jected to the sovereignty of Austria. In 1805 Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria, but in 1814 restored to Austria. It contains: Innspruck, its capital, on the Inn river, 60 miles south-south-west of Munich, and north-eastward and 170 miles distant from Milan, with considerable inland trade, a university (see above), and 14,000 inhabitants, is famed for its numerous remarkable ancient public edifices, among which ranks first the imperial castle, once the residence of the sovereigns of TyroL The neighboring town of Hall (with 5,000 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-works. Schwatz, a market-town on the Inn, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Innspruck, has 4,100 in- habitants, and is noted for its iron and copper mines. Kuf stein, a town on the Inn, with 1,700 inhabitants, is noted for its fortress. Botzen (in Italian Bolzano), the emporium of Tyrol, on the Eisack river, with linen and silk manufactures, noted annual fairs, and 8,600 inhabitants. Tramin, a market- town, with 1,400 inhabitants, is noted for its wines. Meran, a town on the Adige, 48 miles south-south-west of Innspruck, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is much resorted to as a watering-place, and was anciently the residence of the dukes of Meran (see above). The neighboring castle of Tyrol was the an- cestral seat of the earls of this name (see above). Roveredo (in German Rovereith), a city near the Adige, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Venice, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its silk manufactures, and considerable trade. — Trent (in German Trient), formerly the capital of a sovereign bishopric of the same name (see above), on the Adige and near the Italian frontier, with 15,000 inhabitants, an extensive Gothic castle (for- merly the residence of the sovereign bishop), remarkable churches (among which that where the noted council in the period from 1545 to 1563 was held), important manufactures, and considerable trade. — Brixen (in Italian Bressanone), formerly the capital of a sovereign bishopric of the same name 514 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria. — The German Provinces of Tyrol and Bohemia. (see back), on the Eisack river, 42 miles south-south-east of Inuspruck, with handsome cathedral, mineral waters, and 3,500 inhabitants. — The dominions of Voralberg (which were acquired by Austria since the 14th century, but had politically nothing in common with the earldom of Tyrol) contain : Bre- genz, a town on the lake of Constance, opposite the city of Constance, with notable branches of industry, and 3,000 inhabitants. Feldkirch (in Italian Campo di San Pietro), a town southward and 18 miles distant from Bregenz, with considerable inland trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. Hohenembs, a market- town, with 2,200 inhabitants. 5. The Kingdom of Bohemia (20,096£ square miles, and 4,600,000 inhabi- tants), forming the most northern and north-western part of the Austrian empire. It has derived its name from a Celtic tribe that in 589 before the Christian era immigrated here from Gaul. In the 6th century of the Chris- tian era the Celtic inhabitants of the country were subdued, and since gradu- ally removed by Slavonian tribes who had emigrated from the present Cro- atia, headed by a chief named Czech, which name was subsequently adopted by the Slavonian inhabitants of Bohemia. The latter was in a later period ruled by native dukes, whose ancestor was Primizl, but became extinct in 1306 with Wenceslaus III., grandson of King Ottocar II. (see History of Germany, page 301). Bohemia had meanwhile become a constituent part of the German empire (since the 9th, or rather since the 10th century), and in 1061 been raised to the dignity of a kingdom. After the death of Wen- ceslaus III., the Bohemians elected princes from the house of Luxemburg their kings, and since 1440 for the most part princes from the house of Haps- burg or Austria, until in 1547 Ferdinand of Austria (subsequently German emperor) became hereditary king of Bohemia. The kingdom contains : Prague (in German Prag), its capital, on the Moldau river, 80 miles south- south-east of Dresden, and north-westward and 160 miles distant from Vienna, is forti- fied, and has 114,000 inhabitants, and is one of the most important trading and manufacturing cities in the Austrian empire, and highly renowned for its magnificent public and private buildings, its literary and scientific institu- tions (about its university see above), and its wealth. The most remarkable among the public edifices are the royal castle, styled ffradschin, containing 440 saloons and other splendidly furnished rooms, — the cathedral (reared in the middle of the 14th century, and containing among others the remains of the holy John of Nepomuk in a cofiin of pure silver, 5,000 marks in weight), —the ancient Gothic city-hall, eta Wischehrad, a town in the neighborhood AUSTRIA. 515 The Province of Bohemia. of Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and was anciently renowned for its strong mountain castle, which in 1420 was destroyed by the Hussites. Kollin, a town on the Elbe, eastward and 36 miles distant from Prague, with cotton manufactures, iron-works, and 6,500 inhabitants, is remarkable for a battle on the 18th June, 1757, in which the Prussians were defeated. Jankau, or Jan- kowitz, a market-town south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Prague, with only 500 inhabitants, but remarkable in history for the victory gained by the Swedes on the 24th February, 1645. Beraun, a town south-west- ward and 18 miles distant from Prague, with noted potteries, cotton manu- factures, and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Carl- stein, reared in 1348, is highly remarkable. Purglitz, or Burglitz, is likewise a remarkable mountain castle, and was reared in 1110. Pihen, a city at the junction of several little rivers, 60 miles west-south-west of Prague, with a magnificent church, noted manufactures, considerable inland trade, important coal and iron mines, and 10,000 inhabitants. The town of Tepl (south-west- ward and 66 miles distant from Teplitz, with 2,000 inhabitants) is noted for its ancient and wealthy Premonstrant abbey, and for the neighboring water- ing-place of MarienbacL The town of Ellbogen, on the Eger river, 80 miles west-north-west of Prague, is noted for its porcelain, and has 2,500 inhabi- tants. In its neighborhood is situated the long since as a watering-place re- nowned town of Carlsbad, with 3,700 inhabitants, and numerous manufac- tures. Eger, a city on the river of the same name, and near the Bavarian frontier, north-westward and 54 miles distant from Pilsen, with numerous and important manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. The house where Wal- lenstein was murdered on the 25th February, 1634, is still extant. Near Eger is the noted watering-place of Franzensbrunnen. The mining town of Joachimsthal (14 miles north-north-east of Ellbogen, with various manufac- tures, and 4,750 inhabitants) was formerly noted for its silver mines. Leit- meritz, a town romantically situated on the Elbe, 40 miles north-north-west of Prague, with remarkable cathedral, important manufactures, considerable corn trade, vine culture, and 4,700 inhabitants. Teplitz, or Toplitz, a town romantically situated in a valley, southward and 34 miles distant from Dres- den, and 50 miles north-north-west of Prague, is highly renowned and much resorted to as a watering-place, and has 3,500 inhabitants. Tetschen, a town near the Saxon frontier, carries on a considerable trade, and has 1,600 inhabi- tants. Melnik, a town on the Elbe, northward and 24 miles distant from Prague, is noted for its wines, and has 1,750 inhabitants. Munchengratz, a ,-- EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria. — The German Provinces of Bohemia and Moravia. town on the Little Iser river, north-eastward and 40 miles distant from Prague, with a remarkable palace, a church with the sepulchre of Wallen- stein, cotton manufactures, and 3,000 inhabitants. Reichstadt, a market- town northward and 48 miles distant from Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and was until 1832 the capital of a dependent duchy of young Napoleon, who died in that year. Reichenberg, one of the most important manufacturing towns in Bohemia, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Prague, is noted especially for its cloth, linen, hosieries, and cotton goods, and has 12,000 in- habitants. Friedland, a town on the Wittich river, 72 miles north-north-east of Prague, has 3,600 inhabitants, and was anciently the capital of a duchy belonging to "Wallenstein. Koniggratz, a fortified city on the Elbe, 70 miles east-north-east of Prague, with scientific institutions, manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Chrudim, a town on the Chrudimka, 64 miles east-south-east of Prague, has 6,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. Kuttenberg, a mining town, 40 miles east-south-east of Prague, has 10,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its silver mines. Budweis, a town on the Moldau river, with cloth manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 8,200 inhabitants. 6. The Margraviate of Moravia, and Austrian Silesia (total area: 10,607 square miles; total population: 2,310,000 inhabitants), situated between Bo- hemia and Hungary. Moravia (8,616 square miles, and 1,833,200 inhabi- tants) was in the 8th century a powerful kingdom, which, beside the present margraviate, comprised also considerable parts of Hungaria and Austria proper. About the year 871 King Swatopluk or Zwentibold reigned and re- sided in "Welehrad (at present a Cistercian monastery, 44 miles south-south- east of Olmutz). During the reign of his son, Swatobog, or since the year 908, the kingdom became mostly a prey of the Hungarians, Poles, and Ger- mans, and of the present margraviate the duke of Bohemia became pos- sessed. In 11C2 Emperor Frederic L conferred the title of a margraviate upon the country, which since the year 1293 has constantly been united with Bohemia. It is at present noted for its important manufactures, and con- tains: Bruenn, its capital, on the Schwarzawa river, northward and 64 miles distant from Vienna, and south-eastward and 120 miles distant from Prague, has 42,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and leather manu- factures, its considerable inland trade, its cathedral and Gothic St. James' church, and its citadel named Spielberg. Eastward and 14 miles distant from Brunn is situated the town of Austerlitz (with a magnificent palace of the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and 3,300 inhabitants), historically noted for AUSTRIA. 517 The German Provinces of Moravia and Austrian Silesia. the battle on the 2d December, 1805. Msgrub, a market-town, half-way be- tween Briinn and Vienna, has 2,200 inhabitants, and is famed for the palace and one of the finest parks and gardens in Europe, belonging to the prince of Liechtenstein. Nikolsburg, a town in a fertile district, and near the frontier of Austria proper, has 8,150 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade, and is noted for a stately palace of the prince of Dietrichstein. Olmuetz, formerly the capital of Moravia, on the March river, 42 miles north-north- east of Briinn, has 18,300 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for the magnificent palace of the archbishop of Olmutz, for several highly remark- able churches, and for its cattle-marts. Znaym, a town on the Thaya, 48 miles north-north-west of Vienna, with ancient castle, once the residence of the margraves of Moravia, cloth manufactures, vine culture, and 6,400 inhab- itants. Iglau, a city near the frontier of Bohemia, with a remarkable Gothic church, noted cloth manufactures, considerable trade, and 16,000 inhabitants. Kremsier, a town southward and 18 miles distant from Olmutz, with a costly palace of the archbishop of Olmutz, and 6,400 inhabitants. Neu-Titschein (eastward and 35 miles distant from Olmutz, with cloth and other manufac- tures, considerable trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), and Fulnek (with cloth and other woollen manufactures, and 3,900 inhabitants), towns situated in a fer- tile grazing district, named Kuhlandchen (literally, Little Cow-land). — Aus- trian Silesia (1,991 square miles, and 4*76,800 inhabitants), which is nothing else but a Silesian section retained by Austria according to the treaties of peace concluded with Prussia in 1742, 1745 and 1763, contains : Teschen, the capital of a dependent principality belonging to the Austrian archduke Charles, at the northern foot of the Beskides (see page 5), south-eastward and 120 miles distant from Breslau, and 72 miles east-north-east of Olmutz, with notable manufactures, considerable trade, and 7,600 inhabitants. Trop- pau, the capital of a dependent principality belonging to the prince of Liech- tenstein (see page 350), on the Oppa river, north-westward and 38 miles distant from Teschen, with a Gothic church and several other architectural monuments, cloth and linen manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Jae- gerndorf, the capital of a dependent principality, which likewise belongs to the prince of Liechtenstein, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Troppau, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Zuck- mantel, a town with various manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Freiwal- dau, a town in a mountainous district, south-westward and 48 miles distant from Oppeln (in Prussian Silesia), with woollen manufactures, and 2,500 in- 518 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Galicia and Lodomeria. habitants. In its neighborhood is situated the village of Grdfenberg, re- nowned as a watering-place. 7. The Duchies of Auschwitz and Zatoe (1,491 square miles, and 365,000 inhabitants), situated between Teschen and Cracow. Since the year 1179 they formed a constituent part of Silesia, but were in the latter half of the 15th century ceded to Poland. In 1772 Austria became possessed of them, together with Galicia. They contain : Auschwitz, the capital of the duchy of the same name, on the Vistula, westward and 32 miles distant from Cra- cow, with 2,400 inhabitants. Binla, a town on the river of the same name, with cloth manufactures, and 4,400 inhabitants. Wadomce, a town with 2,800 inhabitants. Zator, the capital of the duchy of the same name, with 1,800 inhabitants. Andrichau, a town with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 inhabitants. H— THE KINGDOM OF GALICIA Area: 32,908 square miles. Population : 4,950,000 inhabitants. It is officially styled the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (as for the reason see below), and was primitively a constituent part of Russia, at which period it was named Red Russia. In the year 1019-1054 it was ruled by Jaroslav I., son of the Rus- sian grand duke Wladimir the Great ; his sons divided it, and thus one part of it was since called Halicz or Galicia, and the other Wladimir or Lodomeria. Since the year 1084 and the lat- ter half of the 13th century, the kings of Hungary became pos- sessed of the present kingdom of Galicia. but in 1390 it was wrested from them by the Poles, who retained it until 1772, when the first partition of Poland took place and Galicia was ceded to Austria. When in 1795 Poland was divided for the third time, AUSTRIA. 519 The Province of Galicia. Austria became possessed, besides other Polish districts, of the city of Cracow, which, however, from the period 1815 to 1846 was a republic (at the extent of 447 square miles, with nearly 150,000 inhabitants); but in the last-named year, having contin- ually been a central seat of rebellion, and thus endangering the peace and order in the neighboring states, Austria took posses- sion of it again, and it now forms one of the circles, into which the kingdom of Galicia is divided. The latter contains : Lemberg, its capital, on a branch of the Bug river, eastward and 190 miles distant from Cracow, and north-eastward and 386 miles distant from Vienna, has 75,000 inhabitants (among them more than 20,000 Jews), is in general well built, and noted for its university (see before, page 505) and its considerable inland trade. Cracow (see above), a city on the Vistula, west- ward and 190 miles distant from Lemberg, south-eastward and 156 miles distant from Breslau, and 166 miles south-south-west of Warsaw, has 45,000 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, and is highly renowned for its many architectural monuments, especially for its churches and extensive castle, anciently the residence of the Polish king for a long while. In 1343 a university was founded here, which in 1843 was frequented by 149 stu- dents. Bochnia, a town near the Raba river, 24 miles east-south-east of Cra- cow, with rock-salt mines (wrought since the year 1251), and 6,300 inhabi- tants. But far more renowned for its rock-salt mines (wrought since the year 1250) is the town of Wieliczka, at 5 miles distance from Cracow, with 7,000 inhabitants. The annual produce of these mines is upon an average about 700,000 quintals salt Podgorze, a town on the Vistula, opposite Cra- cow, with considerable trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Tarnoio, a town on the Biala river, with remarkable ancient church, linen manufactures, and 6,500 inhabitants. Dukla, a town near the Hungarian frontier, with considerable trade in Hungarian wines, and 2,500 inhabitants. Jaroslaw, a town on the San river, with noted cloth manufactures, and 9,000 inhabitants. Brody, the emporium of Galicia, near the Russian frontier, 58 miles east-north-east of Lemberg, has 25,000 inhabitants (five sixths of them are Jews), and is not only noted for its important inland trade to Russia, Poland and Turkey, but also for its variety of manufactures. Tarnopol, a city on the Sereth river, 86 miles east-south-east of Lemberg, is noted for its important horse-marts, 520 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Galicia and Hungary. and has 14,000 inhabitants. — The Btjkowina, administratively belonging to the kingdom of Galicia, was since 1482 a constituent part of Moldavia, but was in 1174 conquered by Russia, and then ceded to Austria. It has an ex- tent of 4,047 square miles, with 350,000 inhabitants, and contains : Czerno- witz, its ancient capital, near the Pruth river, south-eastward and 172 miles distant from Lemberg, with considerable trade, and 11,500 inhabitants. Se- reth, a town noted for its horse-marts, has 4,200 inhabitants. Suczawa, a town with various manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 6,500 inhabi- tants, was anciently the capital of Moldavia, and had in the 14th century not less than 16,000 dwelling-houses. m— THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY. Area : 88,267 square miles. Population: 11,017,600 inhabitants. Referring to our remarks above, page 508, it needs only to be noticed here, that what is styled kingdom of Hungary, com- prises Hungary proper (officially styled Provincial Hungary), Croatia and Slavonia. That the two latter constituent parts bear the title of kingdoms, makes no difference, as this title has only a historical meaning. More than 5 millions of the above- stated population belong to the Slavonic tribe (see pages 18 and 19), about 4 millions are Magyars (see page 19), and the re- mainder consists chiefly of Germans (immigrated here since the 12th century). It deserves to be noticed that the Latin lan- guage is very much in use among nearly all classes of society. About the natural features of the country see page 502. The immense forest of Bakonya (having 55 miles in length and from 9 to 24 miles in width) extends between Comorn and the lake AUSTRIA. 521 Provincial Hungary. of Balaton. Not unlike the prairies in the western part of the United States are the so-called Puszten, or extensive pasture- grounds, especially in Lower Hungary. Of the number of horses, sheep, etc., stated page 503, 5 million heads of black cattle, 1 mil- lion horses and 17 million sheep were in the kingdom of Hun- gary, where moreover in the named year (1842) 23,400,000 quar- ters of grain, and 394,418,600 gallons of wine were produced. Nothing is known of the early history of Hungary until the time of the Romans. The latter, who conquered the country, called part of Upper Hungary (including Transylvania) Dacia, and the remainder Pannonia. The native population consisted chiefly of Jazyges and Pannoni. At the end of the 3d century of the Christian era, the Vandals (see page 24) took possession of Pannonia (while Dacia came soon after under the sway of the Huns), in the next century the Groths (see pages 18 and 23), and after them the Avares (see page 29), who maintained them- selves here for several centuries, till they by degrees melted away among the surrounding Slavonic tribes. It was chiefly the latter tribes who occupied Pannonia and rDacia, when suddenly towards the end of the 9th century (in 889) a people, until then entirely unknown in Europe, appeared in that quarter. This people were the Magyars, a Tartar tribe, who, by the Petschene- gri (another Tartar tribe), had been forced to leave their primi- tive home in Jugria, on the eastern side of the Ural river, and in the neighborhood of the Caspian lake. As a Nomadic nation, they had with them their families, horses and cattle, wandering along the banks of the Volga and Don rivers, and then along the northern coast of the Black Sea, from one pasture-ground to the other, till they at last directed their attention towards the fertile countries skirting the Danube. They were then ruled by seven chieftains or dukes, and numbered at that time 260,000 armed horsemen, who were bold warriors, though armed only with bows 522 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The History of Hungary. and arrows. To make it short, soon after they had entered Pan- nonia, they conquered it, and made since plundering incursions into Italy, and especially into Germany (see page 299). Here they were called Huns, because, by their atrocities, they called to remembrance the ancient Huns, who under Attila devastated so many countries of Europe in the 5th century. Since that time the names Hungarians and Hungary, applied to the Magyars and their country, have come into use. In the latter half of the 10th century Christianity began to take root among the Magyars, and at the same time they became acquainted with agriculture, or at least applied themselves to it with more inclination than be- fore, and in this way they gradually left off their former Nomadic habits. When they had entered Pannonia the chief among their dukes was Arpad, whose descendants became in a later period the only rulers of the country. The most renowned of them was duke Stephen, who in the year 1000 assumed the royal title, and may be considered as the founder of the political and adminis- trative organization and institutions of Hungary.. He conquered Transylvania, checked^ the nobles in their pretensions and en- croachments, and reigned with energy and justice. Unfortu- nately one of his successors, Andrew II, engaged himself in a crusade (in 1217), and during his long stay in Palestine the no- bility and clergy in Hungary took advantage of this opportunity to extend their rights and privileges, and after his return he saw himself contrived to acquiesce in their encroachments. Thus in 1222 that above (page 505) mentioned aristocratic constitution was framed which has since limited the power of the Hungarian kings and reduced it to almost nothing, only tending to invest the nobles and prelates (who in general are likewise nobles by birth) with the actual power. In the year 1301 the race of the Arpa- dians (or descendants of the above-named Duke Arpad) became extinct, and Hungary was since for about two hundred years AUSTRIA. 523 The History of Hungary. ruled (with one single exception) by kings of foreign princely families. By treaties concluded in the years 1463 and 1506 be- tween the Hungarians and Austria, the hereditary right of succes- sion in Hungary was insured to the House of Hapsburg, in male and female lines. The first Hungarian king of this house was Ferdinand Z, subsequently ^emperor of Germany; he was suc- ceeded by his son Maximilian, and in this way the house of Haps- burg or Austria has reigned in Hungary uninterruptedly for more than three ceuturfes. That in Hungary the various branches of husbandry and industry, as well as the general means of education, are in a backward state, has already been alluded to in the preceding statements concerning the Austrian empire. In- stead of that, they would long since have been in the same flour- ishing state as in the German and Italian provinces, had not the Hungarian aristocracy incessantly counteracted the benevolent design of the Austrian government in favor of the lower classes, that were, until recent times, kept in bondage and treated with the utmost contempt by those aristocrats. According to authen- tic statements of the year 1843, Hungary numbered not less than 275,600 nobles, thus having 3£ nobles to a square mile ! (In Transylvania, where the majority of the population consists of Germans, this proportion is less, there being at that time only 28,000 nobles ; yet this body is numerous enough too.) For more than six hundred years they have enjoyed the most substantial privileges, and only when the last revolution was at work, re- nounced them by words and letters on the paper. Now, we leave it entirely to our readers to judge for themselves by these facts, whe- ther it would appear probable that, in case the last revolution had proved successful, a Hungarian Republic would have both been 3stablished and permanently rested on the same principles as ,he republic of the United States 1 We have neither any pred- iction nor antipathy in political matters, but as a historian we 624 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Provincial Hungary. are under the obligation to state the facts as they actually are, and not as the one or other political party would like to have them. — We shall describe first Provincial Hungary (or Hungary proper), and then Croatia and Slavonia. 1. Provincial Hungary (80,940 square miles, and 10,133,400 inhabitants), on the north separated from Galicia by the Carpathian Mountains, on the east bordering upon Transylvania, and on the west upon the German Prov- inces, while on the south it is separated froaa Turkey by Croatia, Slavonia, and the MiHtary Frontier. In common life the western half of the country is called Lower Hungary, and the eastern, more mountainous half, Upper Hun- gary. Officially, Lower Hungary is divided into two circles (styled on this side, and on the other side of the Danube), and Upper Hungary also into two circles (styled on this side, and on the other side of the Theiss) ; and these circles are subdivided into 46 shires, or counties (24 in Lower Hungary, and 22 in Upper Hungary ; Croatia and Slavonia are divided into 6 : thus there are 52 counties in the kingdom of Hungary). Beside these counties, there are 4 privileged districts in Provincial Hungary : Great and Little Kumania, the dis- trict of the Hajduks, and that of the Jazyges. Until 1*784 Pressburg was the capital of Hungary proper, but since that time Buda has ranked as such. As however the Diets have since continued to be held at Pressburg, and for other reasons, we shall begin with this city in the following description. Lower Hungary contains : Pressburg (in Magyar language named Poso7iy), a city on the Danube, below or eastward, and 34 miles distant from Vienna, has 45,000 inhabitants, is remarkable for that the kings of Hungary have, in the last centuries, usually been crowned, and the diets held here, and is noted for several ancient churches and for its manufactures. Tymau, a city on a river of the same name, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, with several higher schools, manufactures, and 1,000 inhabitants. Galantha, a market-town near the "Waag, eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, with 1,900 inhabitants, and a palace of the prince of Ester hazy. Within the limits of the county of Pressburg is situated the isle of Schutt (54 miles long, and 34 miles wide), formed by two arms of the Danube, noted for the fertility of its soil, and containing the fortress of Komorn (see below), and the mar- ket-towns of Sommerein and Wajka, with respectively 3,000 and 1,100 in- habitants. Another neighboring isle of the same name is called the Little AUSTRIA. Provincial Hungary. Schutt, to distinguish it from the former. Ncuhausel, a market-town, with 7,000 inhabitants, was anciently noted for its strong fortress. Trencsin, a city on the Waag, 72 miles north-north-east of Pressburg, with a notable an- cient mountain castle, and 3,600 inhabitants. Gran, the ecclesiastical metrop- olis of Hungary, on the Danube, 80 miles east-south-east of Pressburg, is noted for its handsome churches and other public edifices, and has 13,000 inhabi- tants. Kremnitz, a noted mining town, north-eastward and 96 miles distant from Pressburg, is highly famed for its silver, and especially gold mines, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Still more famed for its gold, but especially silver mines, is Schemnitz, the largest mining town in Hungary, southward and 16 miles distant from Kremnitz, with a mining academy, and (inclusive the suburbs) 20,000 inhabitants. Buda (in German Oferi), with 45,000 inhabitants, and Pest, with 90,000 inhabitants, situated on opposite sides of the Danube (Buda on the right, and Pest on the left side), and joined together by a bridge, thus forming, as it were, one single city, yet with some difference, in so far as Pest is the emporium of the country, and at the same time noted for its nu- merous and important manufactures, while Buda is chiefly noted for its exten- sive royal castle and considerable vine culture. However, upon the whole, the one city is as remarkable as the other. About the university see above, page 505. It may finally be noticed, that Pest and Buda are situated south- eastward and 150 miles distant from Vienna. The neighboring market- town of Vissegrad (in German Plintenburg), with 1,100 inhabitants, was, in the middle ages, renowned for its splendid and majestic royal castle. Waitzen (in Magyarian Vacz), a city on the Danube. 18 miles above Pest, with a mag- nificent cathedral, and 13,000 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle-marts and vine culture. Kolocsa, a city near the Danube, is the seat of an archbishop (who resides in an extensive ancient palace), and has 8,200 inhabitants. Kecskemet, or Ketskemet, is the largest market-town in Hungary, having 40,000 inhabitants (who are largely engaged in various branches of hus- bandry), and is situated on the extensive heath of the same name (see above, page 502), south-eastward and 118 miles distant from Pest. Zombor, or Som- bor, a city near the Danube, southward and 125 miles distant from Pest and Buda, with considerable trade in corn, etc., and 22,500 inhabitants. Theresien- stadt, a city on an extensive and fertile plain (noted for its cattle), 110 miles south-south-east of Pest, with leather manufactures, considerable trade, and 44,000 inhabitants. Neusatz, a city on the Danube, 160 miles south-south- east of Pest, and north-westward and 46 miles distant from Belgrad (in 626 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Provincial Hungary. Turkey), is the emporium in this quarter, and has 22,000 inhabitants. Bacs y or Batsch, a market-town, 34 miles north-north-west of Neusatz, carries on a considerable trade likewise, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Zentha, a market- town on the Theiss, 120 miles south-south-east of Pest, has 14,000 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the victory obtained here by the Austrians over the Turks, on the 11th September, 1696. Funfkirchen (literally, Five Churches; in Magyar ian named Pecs), a city near the Slavonian frontier, 112 miles south-south-west of Buda, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, for its leather manufactures, and considerable trade, and has 15,500 inhabitants. Mohacz, a market-town on the Danube, southward and 112 miles distant from Buda, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable in history for two battles, in 1526 (when the Turks were victorious) and 168*7 (when the Turks were de- feated). Szigethvar, or Zigeth, a fortified market-town on the Almasch river, westward and 24 miles distant from Funfkirchen, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its gallant defence in 1566 against the Turks. Eisenburg (in Magyarian Vasvar), a market-town, 90 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with 2,600 inhabitants. Guns, a city on a river of the same name, with a remark- able castle of the prince of Esterhazy, vine culture, and 6,500 inhabitants. Papa, a market- town, south-eastward and 52 miles distant from Oedenburg, with a costly palace of the earl of Esterhazy, and 15,000 inhabitants. Vess- prim, a city on the Sed river, eastward and 54 miles distant from Eisenburg, with a remarkable mountain castle, considerable trade in corn and wine, and 11,800 inhabitants. Stuhlweissenburg (in Magyarian Szekes-Fejervar), a city south-eastward and 120 miles distant from Vienna, and south-westward and 36 miles distant from Buda, with many remarkable architectural monuments, various manufactures, and 22,000 inhabitants. Komom, or Comorn, a strongly fortified city on the Danube, at its junction with the Waag, south-eastward and 62 miles distant from Pressburg, 94 miles east- south-east of Vienna, and east- ward and 25 miles distant from Raab, is situated on the eastern extremity of the isle of Schiitt (see above), and has 19,500 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in corn, wine, and timber. The neighboring market-town of Dotis (or Tata), with 12,500 inhabitants, is noted for a palace of the earl of Esterhazy, with handsome park, and for its woollen blankets. Raab, a for- tified city on the Raab river, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Press- burg, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, its horse-marts and con- siderable corn trade, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Battle on the 14th June 1809, between the French and Austrians. Oedenburg (in Magyarian Soprony), AUSTRIA. 627 Provincial Hungary. a city near the lake of Neusiedl, 36 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with a collegiate church whose steeple is the highest in Hungary, considerable cat- tle trade, and 14,800 inhabitants. The neighboring town of Russt (with 1,200 inhabitants) is noted for its wines. Near the lake of Neusiedl is situa- ted Estcrhaz, the highly remarkable and magnificent ancestral castle of the princes and earls of Esterhazy. The chief of this family has annual revenues to the amount of 2,000,000 florins. Eisenstadt, a city southward and 24 miles distant from Vienna, has 5,800 inhabitants, and is famed for the stately palace and handsome park and gardens of the prince of Esterhazy. In the neighboring princely mountain castle of Forchtenstein is the family treasure of the princes of Esterhazy, containing a vast number of precious stones, pearls, plate, etc. Wieselburg- (in Magyarian Mosony), a market-town with considerable corn trade, and 3,300 inhabitants. — Upper Hungary contains: Kaschau, a city on the Hernad river, north-eastward and 150 miles distant from Pest, and south-westward and 164 miles distant from Lemberg, is con- sidered as the capital of Upper Hungary, carries on a very considerable trade, is noted for its extensive and remarkable cathedral, and has 14,500 in- habitants. Leutschau (in Magyarian Zocse), a city on a little river of the same name, 124 miles north-north-east of Pest, with remarkable ancient city-hall and Gothic church, noted breweries of mead, and 5,800 inhabitants. Kesmark,or Kasmark, a city near the Carpathes, with handsome city-hall, considerable trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Zipserhaus (in Magyarian Szepes- Var) is noted in history. Erlau (in Magyarian Eger), a city on the river Erlau, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Pest, with a magnificent cathedral, vine culture, and 20,000 inhabitants. Szolnok, a mar- ket-town on the Theiss, with considerable salt depot, and 12,000 inhabitants. Eperies, a city on the Tarcza river, 156 miles north-north-east of Pest, is noted for its considerable trade, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Bart/eld, a city on the Tepel river, with noted mineral waters and baths, considerable trade in wine, corn, eta, and 6,700 inhabitants. Satorallya Ujhely, a market-town at the foot of the Hegyallya Hills (noted for vine culture), north-eastward and 146 miles distant from Pest, with vine culture, and 7,000 inhabitants. Tokay, a market-town on the Theiss, at 60 miles distance from the Transylvanian frontier, and eastward and 240 miles distant from Vienna, is famed for its excellent wines, and has 4,700 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town of Tarczal (with 3,200 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. The same is to be said of Bodrog-Keresstxir, Maad, and Tallya, market-towns, with re- 528 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Provincial Hungary. spectively 2,000, 5,700, and 5,400 inhabitants. Munkacs, a market-town on the Latorcza river, with a remarkable mountain castle, and 5,800 inhabitants. Szigeth, a market-town on the Theiss, towards the frontiers of Transylvania and Galicia, with considerable salt depots, and 10,500 inhabitants. Nagy- Karoly, a market-town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with stately palace and handsome park of the earl of Karoly, vine culture, and 12,000 inhabitants. Szathmar-Nemet, a city on the Szamos, with several seminaries and other schools, potteries, vine culture, and 18,000 inhabitants. Nagy-Banya, a mining town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with gold, silver, and lead mines, a mint, various branches of industry, and 5,300 inhabitants. Gross Wardein (in Magyarian Nagy Varad, which means Great Wardein), a city on the river Sebes Koros, 28 miles from the Transyl- vanian frontier, and 146 miles east-south-east of Pest, with a stately palace of the bishop, who resides here, a highly remarkable cathedral, various branches of industry, hot mineral baths, and 1*7,000 inhabitants. Debreczin, next to Pest the largest city in Hungary, 38 miles north-north-west of Grosswardein, and eastward and 120 miles distant from Pest, is noted for its academy, for its soap, Zischmen, or Hungarian slippers, and for numerous other branches of national industry, and has 60,000 Magyarian inhabitants, The neighboring village of Hagos (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its weekly markets held there every Sunday, and at which vast numbers of hogs are sold. Szegedin, a fortified city on the Theiss, south-eastward and 100 miles distant from Pest, with numerous branches of national industry, considerable trade, and 35,000 inhabitants. Csongrad, Szentes, and Vasarhely, large market-towns, with respectively 15,500, 22,000, and 32,500 inhabitants. Arad, a fortified city on the Maros river, 64 miles east-south -south of Szegedin, and 140 miles north-north-east of Belgrad, with considerable trade, and 18,000 in- habitants. — The south-eastern section of Provincial Hungary, comprising 3 coun- ties, is commonly named Banat, and contains : Temesvar, a strongly fortified city on a canal, south-eastward and 170 miles distant from Pest, is considered as the capital of Banat, carries on a considerable trade, and has 18,500 in- habitants. Nagy-Szent-Miklos (literally, Great St. Nicholas), a market-town with 15,000 inhabitants. — The above-mentioned 4 privileged districts are (with one exception) situated within the limits of Upper Hungary, have an aggregate area of 2,215 square miles, and a total population of 263,200 in- habitants. Those in Upper Hungary are : Great Rumania (whose capital is Kardsschag- Uj-Szallas, at the high-road between Pest and Debreczin, with AUSTRIA. 529 Provincial Hungary, Croatia and Slavonia. 13,000 inhabitants) ; Jazygia, or the District of the Jazyges (whose capital is Jass-Bereny, eastward and 38 miles distant from Pest, with 17,300 inhabitants) and the Hajduks' District (whose capital is Bossormeny, northward and 9 miles distant from Debreczin, with 16,000 inhabitants). Within the limits of Lower Hungary is situated Little Rumania (whose capital is Felegyhaza, at the high-road between Pest and Szegedin, with 16,000 inhabitants). 2. The kingdom of Croatia (3,674 square jniles, and 531,500 inhabitants), separated from Provincial Hungary by the Drave, and on the south-west bor- dering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the days of the ancient Romans Croatia was a constituent part of Pannonia ; in a later period it was under the sway of the Frankish kings, and since 867 under that of the Greek emperors, until since the close of the 10th century it was ruled by native kings, who became extinct towards the end of the 11th century, when Croatia was annexed to the kingdom of Hungary. It may still be noticed that the inhabitants of Croatia (with the exception of comparatively few Germans) belong thoroughly to the Slavonic tribe. The country contains : Agram, the capital of Croatia, and residence of the royal Banus or Governor of Croatia and Slavonia, near the Save, eastward and 120 miles distant from Trieste, southward and 175 miles distant from Vienna, and south-westward aud 190 miles distant fromBuda, is noted for its higher schools, its remarkable cathedral, and considerable trade, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Carlstadt, a city on the Kulpa river, is noted for its fortress and considerable trade, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Warasdin, a city on the Drave, with vine culture, and 9,500 inhabitants. Szissek, a mar- ket-town on the Drave, at its junction with the Kulpa, with considerable corn trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. Fiume, a commercial city on the Adriatic Sea, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Trieste, with notable manufac- tures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Buccari and Porto Re, maritime towns, with respectively 1,700 and 1,200 inhabitants. 3. The kingdom of Slavonia (3,653 square miles, and 352,700 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the Drave and Danube rivers, on the west bor- dering upon Croatia. In remote ages Slavonia underwent the same vicissi- tudes as Croatia, during the 9th and 10th centuries it formed a constituent part of the ancient kingdom of Servia, in 1079 it was annexed to the king- dom of Hungary, in 1526 it was ceded to Turkey, but in 1699 restored. Among the inhabitants are but few Magyars, all the rest being genuine Sla- vonians. The country contains : Essek, strongly fortified capital of Slavonia, on the Drave, and at the frontier of Provincial Hungary, eastward and 12 580 EUROPE, TAST AND TRESENT. Austria. — Slavonia and Transylvania. miles distant from Agram, is especially noted for its fortress, but also for its considerable trade, and has 12,500 inhabitants. Verocze (with vine cul- ture, and 4,500 inhabitants), Csepin (with 2,000 inhabitants), Diakovar (with 2,100 inhabitants), Dalya (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Valpo (with 2,400 inhabitants), market-towns. Posega, a city on a branch of the Save, 48 miles west-south-west of Essek, is noted for its tobacco and wines, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Pacracz, a market-town, with vine culture, and 1,100 inhabitants. Vukovar and Jllok, market-towns, with respectively 6,200 and 3,500 inhabitants. IV.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TRANSYLVANIA. Area: 21,269 square miles. Population: 2,212,400 inhabitants. Transylvania (in Maygarian Erdely, and in German Sieben- bilrgen) is situated between Provincial Hungary and Moldavia, bordering on the south upon Wallachia. Transylvania, anciently called Dacia, and in the 9th century conquered by the Magyars, was in 1002 by King Stephen I. of Hungary completely subdued and annexed to this kingdom. It was since ruled by Hungarian governors, who, however, made themselves independent in the beginning of the 16th century. John of Zapolya, Stephen Balory, RaJcoczy, and Bethlen Gabor were the most noted of the indepen- dent princes of Transylvania. Finally, in 1687 Emperor Leo- pold I. subdued the country again, which in 1765 was by Maria Theresa raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. The political constitution of Transylvania was framed on the same principles as that of the kingdom of Hungary, yet the Transylvanian Diet had for the rest nothing in common with the Hungarian. — Tran- AUSTRIA. 631 The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. sylvania is inhabited by three distinct tribes, or nations, viz., Magyars, Szekler (a kindred Magyarian tribe) and Germans (here, by way of eminence, named Saxons, though they are immigrated since the I Oth century from various parts of Germany), and for this reason is it divided into the Country of the Magyars, the Country of the, Szekler, and the Country of the Saxons, which are subdivided into counties. 1. The Country of tfie Magyars (inhabited by about 500,000 Magyars) con- tains : Klausenburg (in Magyarian Kolosvar), its capital, and likewise the capital of Transylvania, 220 miles east-south-east of Pest, and north-westward and 220 miles distant from Bukarest (in Wallachia), has 20,000 inhabitants, and is noted for several churches, literary institutions, and for its horse-marts. Szamos Ujvar (in German Armenierstadt), with vine culture, trade in cattle, and 4,000 inhabitants. Carlsburg, a fortified city on the Maros, southward and 54 miles distant from Klausenburg, was anciently the capital of Transylva- nia and called Weissenburg, receiving its present from Emperor Charles VL It is noted for its remarkable cathedral, its mint and wines, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Gorgeny Szent Imreh, a market-town, with glass and paper manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Gorgeny, once the resi- dence of the Transylvanian princes. Other more or less remarkable market- towns are : Dees or Des (with 5,400 inhabitants), Thorda (with noted rock-salt mines, and 8,000 inhabitants), Nagy Enyed, in German Egidstadt (with 5,500 inhabitants), Abrudbanya, in German Gross- Schlatten (with important gold mines, and 4,200 inhabitants), Zalathna, in German Klein- Schlatten (with productive gold and silver mines, and 5,000 inhabitants), Balasfalva, in Ger- man Blasendorf (with 4,000 inhabitants), JDeva (with 3,800 inhabitants), K'drbsbanya (with 1,700 inhabitants), Somlyo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Krasna (with 1,000 inhabitants), Nagy Falu (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zilah, in German Wallenberg (with 9,000 inhabitants), Sibo (with 1,200 inhabi- tants), Tasnad, in German Trestenburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Fagaras (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Kapnik-Banya (with important gold, silver, and lead mines). Maros Ujvar, a village on the Maros, is noted for its rock- salt mines, producing 500,000 quintals of salt annually. Vajda Hunyad, a market-town, noted for its important iron-works, and for its very ancient and historicallv renowned mountain castle. 632 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. 2. The Country of the Szekler, whose counties are styled Stools, contains: Maros Vasarhely (or Szekely Vasarhely), its capital, on the Maros, 54 miles east-south-east of Klausenburg, is noted for its literary institutions, its to- bacco and wines, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Udvarhely, a market-town, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Maros Vasarhely, and northward and 54 miles distant from Kronstadt, with noted leather manufactures, trade in tobacco and honey, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable market-towns are : Szekely Keresstur (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sepsi Szent Gyorgy (with mineral waters), and Felvincz (remarkable for gypsies, who have permanently settled here, and are engaged in various branches of hus- bandry). 3. The Country of the Saxons, whose counties are likewise styled Stools, contains : Hermannstadt, its capital, on the Zibia, 76 miles south-south-east of Klausenburg, is the finest city in Transylvania, noted for several Gothic and in other respects remarkable churches, literary institutions, for its im- portant manufactures and inland trade, and has 21,000 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Heltau is noted for its woollens and fruits, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Schassburg, a city on the Great Kokel, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from Hermannstadt, with some manufactures, and 6,500 inhabitants. Mediasch, or Medwisch, a city with vine culture, and 6,200 in- habitants. Muhlenbach, a city with some manufactures, vine culture, and 5,000 inhabitants. Reps (with mineral waters, and 2,200 inhabitants). Lbschkirch (with 1,000 inhabitants), Broos, or Sachsenstadt, in Magyarian Szassvaros (with 3,500 inhabitants), Marienburg, in Magyarian Foldvar (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zeiden (noted for its fine flax, has 3,600 inhabitants), and Rosenau or Rosnyo (with 3,800 inhabitants). Bistritz, a city on the river of the same name, northward and 120 miles distant from Hermann- stadt, is noted for its Gothic Lutheran church with high steeple, and for its corn trade, and has 6,600 inhabitants. Kronstadt, the chief manufacturing city and emporium of Transylvania, in a fertile valley, 16 miles east-south- east of Hermannstadt, and 100 miles north-north west of Bukarest (in Wal- lachia), is, beside its manufactures and extensive inland trade, noted for its handsome Gothic Lutheran church, its city-hall, etc., and has 30,000 inhab- itants. AUSTRIA. 533 The Military Frontier. V.^THE MILITARY FRONTIER. Area : 15,208 square miles. Population : 1,248,100 inhabitants. It extends along the Turkish frontier from the Adriatic Sea eastward up to Moldavia, and consists of nothing else but parts of Croatia, Slavonia, Provincial Hungary and Transylvania, which since the end of the 17th, but chiefly in the course of the last and present centuries, have been organized on a thorough military footing. The object of this organization has been to se- cure the Austrian empire against the inroads of the Turks, and subsequently against the intrusion of the plague. All grown male inhabitants are bound to military service, in lieu of taxes, and in case of danger the whole frontier can, by means of signal poles, be alarmed within four hours. — The Military Frontier is divided into four principal sections. 1. The Croatian Military Frontier contains : Carlopago, a maritime town on the Adriatic Sea, 62 miles south-south-east of Fiume, with 900 inhabitants. Gospich,& market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. Other more or less notable market-towns are : Ogulin (with 2,300 inhabitants), Glina (with 1,600 inhabi- tants), Dubitza (with 3,200 inhabitants), Jassenovacz (with 2,600 inhabitants), and St. Georgen (with 3,600 inhabitants). The maritime town of Zengg, on the Adriatic, with 3,100 inhabitants, is noted for its handsome cathedral. Petrinia and Kosstainicza towns with respectively 4,200 and 3,200 inhabitants. 2. The Slavonian Military Frontier contains : Peterwardein, a city noted as one of the strongest fortresses of the Austrian empire, on the Danube (right bank), 212 miles east-south-east of Agram, with remarkable arsenal, and 6,500 inhabitants. Carlowitz, a city on the Danube, 5 miles below Peter- wardein, is noted for its wines, fisheries, and inland trade, and has 6,400 in- habitants. In 1699 a treaty of peace with Turkey was concluded here. Semlin, a city on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, opposite the 634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The Military Frontier and Kingdom of Dalmatia. Turkish city of Belgrad, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Peterwar- dein, is the chief seat of the trade of Austria with Turkey, and has 10,500 inhabitants. Mitrovicz, a market-town on the Save, with Roman antiquities, and 3,500 inhabitants. Old Pazna, a village noted for its agricultural pur- suits, has 4,000 inhabitants. Brood, a town on the Save, is noted for its for- tress, and has 2,400 inhabitants. New Gradisca, a market-town, with 1,600 inhabitants. Old Gradisca, a fortified town on the Save, with 2,200 inhabi- tants. Tittel, a market-town on the Theiss, near its junction with the Danube, with 2,300 inhabitants. 3. The Hungarian Military Frontier contains : Pancsova, a town near the Danube, and in the neighborhood of Semlin, with considerable trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Karansebes, a market-town, with vine culture, and 3,500 inhabitants. Mehadia, a market-town in a beautiful valley, is from old highly famed as a watering place, and has 1,700 inhabitants. Old Orsova, a fortified market-town on the Danube, with 1,000 inhabitants. Fejer Templom (in Ger- man Weisskirchen), a town eastward and 40 miles distant from Pancsova, with vine culture, considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 4. The Transylvanian Military Frontier contains : Kezdi Vasarhely, a mar- ket-town noted for its numerous branches of national industry, has 4,900 in- habitants. Gyergyb Szent Miklos, a market-town with considerable trade, and 5,100 inhabitants. Hatzeg, a market-town westward and 60 miles distant from Hermannstadt, with vine culture. Still is to be noticed the mountain pass known by the name of Rother Thurm (red tower), southward and 9 miles distant from Hermannstadt. VI— THE KINGDOM OF DALMATIA. Area: 4,952 square miles. Population : 421,300 inhabitants. Dalmatia is a strip of country, in some places only 2 or 3 miles wide, extending along the Adriatic, on the north bordering AUSTRIA. 535 History and Geographical Description of Dalmatia. upon the Croatian Military Frontier, and for the rest surrounded by Turkish territories. The inhabitants, mostly belonging to the Slavonic tribe, speak a peculiar idiom known by the name of lllyrian or Serbian language. In the days of the ancient Romans Dalmatia formed a constituent part of Illyricum, subsequently of the Eastern, or Greek Empire. In the 7th century Slavonian tribes settled here, ruled by native chieftains, who, in the 10th century acknowledged the sovereignty of the Republic of Venice, though in the period from 1357 to 1420 the country was under the sway of Hungary. Since the last-named period Venice was (with the exception of two short intervals) continually possessed of Dalmatia until 1797, when, in conformity to the treaty of Campo Formio, it was ceded to Austria, that, in 1805, ceded it to Napoleon, and became possessed of it again in 1814. — Dalmatia is divided into 4 counties, styled circles, which are subdivided into 26 districts. Zara, the fortified capital of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, opposite the city of Ancona (in the States of the Church), 136 miles south-south-east of Trieste, is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 13th century), its literary institutions, and its cordials (known by the name of Rosoglio), and has 7,400 inhabitants. Pago, a town on an isle of the same name, with salt-works, vine culture, and 2,600 inhabitants. Sebenico, a maritime town, with the finest cathedral in Dalmatia, is moreover noted for its wines and cordials, and has 5,200 inhabi- tants. Knin, a market-town with a mountain castle, and 700 inhabitants. Spalato, or Spalatro, a city on the Adriatic, south-eastward and 70 miles distant from Zara, is noted for its remarkable Roman antiquities, mineral baths, commerce, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. Fort Opus, a market-town with 800 inhabitants, who are widely engaged in the exportation of leeches. Brazza, Lesina, and Lissa, islands near the coast, noted for their wines, figs, oranges, and other similar fruits. Cattaro, a fortified town at the south-east- ern extremity of Dalmatia, and on the Adriatic, with remarkable cathedral, noted leather manufactures, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ragusa, until 1807 the capital of a republic of the same name, on the Adriatic, north-westward and 28 miles distant from Cattaro, is fortified, and noted for its cathedral and 536 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Dalmatia and Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. other churches, its literary institutions, manufactures, ship-building, etc., and 6,000 inhabitants. The republic of Ragusa originated in the 13th century, was since 1357 under the protection of Hungary, subsequently under that of Turkey, was in 1807 subjected by the French, and kept by them until 1814, when Austria became possessed of it. VII— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. Area: 17,594 square miles. Population : 5,068,000 inhabitants. It comprises nearly the whole eastern half of Upper Italy (see page 103), on the west separated by the Ticino river from the continental part of Sardinia, and on the south separated by the Po river from Parma, Modena, and the States of the Church. The name of Lombardy, derived from the Lombards (see page 28), has at present no actual political meaning, but is a general name adapted to the ancient duchies of Milan and Mantua, etc. Referring to the history of Europe, $§ 6, 7, 9 and 14, and to the history of Italy, page 102, with regard to historical particulars of Lombardy in general, we shall simply premise here, that the duchies of Milan and Mantua, and the principality of Castig- lione have already since respectively 1706, 1707 and 1773 be- longed to Austria, while former territories of Grisons (in Swit- zerland), and those of the ancient republic of Venice, have not before the year 1814 been permanently annexed to the Austrian empire. (About the historical particulars see below.) — The kingdom is divided into 2 governments, styled gubernia, those of AUSTRIA. 537 Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. Milan and Venice, and subdivided into 17 provinces, styled dele- gations. (a.) The government (gubernium) of Milan or of Lombardy comprises, be- side the above-mentioned duchies and principality of Milan, Mantua and Castiglione, former territories of the present Swiss canton of Grisons, viz., the dominions of Veltlin, Bormio, and Chiavenna, and part of the former territo- ries of the republic of Venice. — 1. The ancient duchy of Milan took existence in the beginning of the 14th century. The city of Milan had until then been formally under the sway of the German emperors, but actually been inde- pendent. A native nobleman, Matthew Visconti, in 1313 usurped authority in the city and its territory, was acknowledged as its ruler by Emperor Henry VII., and his grandson, John Galeazzo Visconti, was in 1395 by Empe- ror Wenceslaus raised to the dignity of duke. His daughter was married to the duke Louis of Orleans, hence the subsequent claims of France upon the duchy. About the middle of the 15th century the male line of the ducal house became extinct, and now the son-in-law of the last duke, Francis Sforza, was elected duke of Milan. But in the beginning of the 16th cen- tury King Francis I. of France raised claims upon the duchy, while Emperor Charles V. reclaimed it as an escheated fief of the German empire. After a long contest the emperor prevailed against Francis I., and in 1540 he in- vested his son Philip (subsequently king of Spain) with the duchy of Milan, which since formed a constituent part of Spain until 1706, when Austria took possession of it, while in 1714 it was formally ceded to this power (see page 85). In 1797 Austria renounced it, after it having been transformed into a Cis- alpinian republic; since 1805 it formed the principal constituent part of the kingdom of Italy, and in 1815 it was restored to Austria. It contains: Mi- lan (in German Mailand, and in Italian Milano), its ancient capital, at present the capital of the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, on the Olona, and in a fertile and beautiful plain, between the Tessino and Adda rivers, northward and 80 miles distant from Genoa, and westward and 160 miles distant from Venice, had in 1845 a population of 205,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for its numerous and splendid public buildings (of which the cathedral is one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture, and adorned with about 4,000 statues) and private palaces, for its valuable public libraries and literary in- stitutions, for its charities for the poor and sick, for its exceedingly important manufactures, and its considerable inland trade. The city was founded in 538 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 359 B. C. by the ancient Gauls, and has since that period been more than forty times besieged, more than twenty times taken, and four times destroyed (for the last time in 1162) and rebuilt. The neighboring market-town of Rho is noted for its mineral waters and baths. Monza, a city on the Lam- bro, 9 miles north-east of Milan, with very ancient remarkable church, a splendid palace of the viceroy of Lombardy and Venice, silk and cotton man- ufactures, and 17,300 inhabitants. Marignano, a town on the Lambro, south- ward and 9 miles distant from Milan, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the battle on the 13th and 14th September, 1515, in which the Swiss were defeated by the French. Pa via, a city on the Ticino, south- ward and 18 miles distant from Milan, once the residence of the Lombardian kings (the last of them, King Desiderius, was in 774 taken prisoner here by Charlemagne), has 24,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above, page 505) and other literary institutions, for its cathedral and other remarkable churches, and for its considerable trade. In 218 B. C. Hannibal defeated here the Romans; and in 1525 King Francis L was taken prisoner by the troops of Charles V. in a neighboring park. Lodi, a city on the Adda (crossed here by a bridge noted as a central point in the battle on the 10th May, 1796), south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Milan, with numerous potteries and delf-ware manufactures, and 18,000 inhabitants. Codogno, a market-town eastward and 24 miles distant from Milan, has 8,400 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its cheese. Cremona, a city on the Po, south- eastward and 48 miles distant from Milan, has 28,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral, its literary institutions, charities for the poor and sick, and for its excellent violins. Cased Maggiore and Piz- zighettone, towns with respectively 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Como, a city on the lake of the same name, northward and 28 miles distant from Mi- lan, with beautiful and remarkable cathedral, numerous and important man- ufactures, and 17,000 inhabitants. The neighboring Villa a" Este was in the year 1816-18 the residence of the princess Carolina, consort to King George IV. of England. Varese, a town on the Olone, eastward and 12 miles distant from Como, with numerous palaces and villas, silk manufactures, and 8,500 inhabitants. Lecco, a market-town on the lake of Como, with iron-works, and 2,200 inhabitants. Treviglio, a market-town on the Adda, is noted for its silks, and has 6,200 inhabitants. — 2. The ancient duchy of Mantua was since the year 1328 under the sway of princes from the house of Gonzaga, who in 1432 were by the German emperor Sigismund raised to the dignity AUSTRIA. 639 Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. of margraves, and by Emperor Charles V. to that of dukes. In the war of succession (see page 85) Duke Charles IV. of Mantua took up arms against the emperor, upon which he was outlawed for felony, while in 170*7 Austria became possessed of this duchy and kept it since (with the exception of the period from 1796 to 1814). It contains: Mantua, its ancient capital, on a lake, 80 miles east-south-east of Milan, with a strong fortress, a remarkable palace, a beautiful cathedral, several literary institutions, important manu- factures, considerable trade, and 28,000 inhabitants Gonzaga, a market- town noted for the ancestral castle of the ancient dukes of Mantua, has 13,500 inhabitants. Viadana, a market-town noted for its linens, with 14,000 inhabitants. — 3. The ancient principality of Castiglione, which was under the sway of princes of the house of Gonzaga, until in 1773 Austria became possessed of it, contains : Castiglione, its ancient capital, at the Milan and Venice railroad, with 5,500 inhabitants. Solferino, a market-town, with 1,300 inhabitants. — 4. The former territories of Veltlin, JBormio, and Chiavenna (see above) were primitively under the sway of the bishop of Chur (see page 161), who in 1637 ceded them to the Swiss canton of Gri- sons, from which they were wrested by the rulers of the transitory Cis- alpinian republic (see above under the head of Milan), and subsequently annexed to the kingdom of Italy. In this way Austria became possessed of them in 1814. They contain : SoNDRio,the former capital of Veltlin, on the Adda, 64 miles north-north-east of Milan, with 4,100 inhabitants. Tirano and Morbegno, market-towns, with respectively 2,800 and 2,300 inhabitants. Bormio, a market-town near the head of the Adda, 90 miles north-north-east of Milan, with 1,200 inhabitants. Chiavenna (in German Cleven), a town on the Maira, north-westward and 34 miles distant from Sondrio, with manufac- tures, considerable trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. In its neighborhood was situated the wealthy town of Plurs, which in 1618 was totally buried under the fragments of the adjacent Mount Con to. — 5. The former territories of the ancient republic of Venice (see forward), within the limits of this govern- ment, contain : BaEsciA, a city at the Milan and Venice railroad, eastward and 54 miles distant from Milan, and 110 miles west-north-west of Venice, has 28,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for its manufactures of fire-arms, cutleries, etc., and is moreover noted for its architectural monuments, pal- aces, and literary institutions. Salo, a market-town on the Garda lake, is noted for its silk, and has 4,600 inhabitants. Desenzano, on the Garda lake, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 3,700 inhabitants. Other more or 540 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— Lombardy and Venice ; History of Venice. less notable market-towns are: Montechiaro (with 6,600 inhabitants), 67a- ari (with 9,000 inhabitants), Toscolano (with 2,400 inhabitants), Gargnano (with 3,400 inhabitant?), Verola Nuova (with 4,000 inhabitants), Orzi Nuovi (with 4,700 inhabitants), Pontevico (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bagolino (with 3,700 inhabitants), Gardone (with 1,400 inhabitants), Casienedolo (with 4,500 inhabitants), Lonato (with 6,000 inhabitants), Iseo (with 1,800 inhabitants), Lovere (with 4,100 inhabitants), Martinengo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Bre or Breno (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Romano (with 3,000 inhabitants). Ber- gamo, a city between the Serio and Brembo rivers, north-eastward and 34 miles distant from Milan, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its annual fairs, considerable tr^de and manufactures, for several remarkable churches, literary institutions, etc. Cbema, a city on the Serio, north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Lodi, has 9,000 inhabitants, is noted for its wines and flax, and carries on a considerable trade. (b.) The government (gubernium) of Venice comprises nothing but former territories of the ancient Republic of Venice. Venice has derived its name from the ancient Venetes (see page 102), who had their chief seat on the Italian continent, but in 452 when the Huns under Attila invaded Italy, fled to the neighboring islands, settled there, and supported themselves by fishing, making salt, and subsequently by commerce. They were joined by other Italian tribes, their commerce flourished more and more, in 697 they elected their first duke, styled Doge, as head of their republic, which in 1172 was decidedly founded on aristocratic principles, and at that period Venice had already become one of the most powerful states. (Some interesting particu- lars about its commerce and manufactures are given in the History of Eu- rope.) Its wealth and power had attained the highest pitch, when suddenly the discovery of America and of the way to India by sea (see pages 56 and 57) changed the state of things throughout Europe, and soon proved to be a hard blow to the commerce of Venice. Since the republic was more or less in a lingering condition, and at the first shock in 1797, the whole artificial political structure was overturned. At that period its territories, comprising those on the Italian continent (including the greatest part of Istria), the Ionian Islands, and Dalmatia, had an extent of 13,312 square mile3, with a population of 3,000,000 inhabitants. The public revenue was estimated at 5 J millions Venetian ducats (about $3,000,000), and the navy consisted in 1783 of 24 ships of the line and 56 other vessels. It cannot be left unnoticed, that history knows of but few instances where a more despotic governmental AUSTRIA. 541 Geographical Description of Lorabardy and Venice. system was established, than in the mock republic of Venice, whose actual rulers were exclusively chosen from a body of 1,500 nobles. According to the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at CampoFormio in 1797, Austria became possessed of the Italian territories of the republic; in 1805 it ceded them to France, and in 1814 they were restored to Austria. We now describe : Venice (in Italian Venezia, and in German Venedig), ancient capital of the former republic, built upon 136 islands joined together by 450 bridges, at the head of the gulf of Venice, or Adriatic Sea, had in 1842 94,177 in- habitants, but in 1846, a population of 120,000 inhabitants (among them were only 6,380 persons considered as notoriously poor). There are few cities in the world that have so great a number of historically remarkable public and private edifices and buildings as Venice. St. Mark's cathedral, the ancient palace of the Doge, the naval depots, the Ponte Rialto, St. Mark's place, the Campanile, etc., are but few intimations of the numerous remarkable objects of this city, which is also still noted for its various important manufactures and commerce. The island of Murano is noted for its manufactures of looking-glasses. Chioggia, or Chiozza, a city on an island of the same name, with salt-works, and 25,500 inhabitants. Mestre, a mar- ket-town on the continent, with considerable trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. Padua, a city on the Bachiglione, and near the Brenta river, westward and 24 miles distant from Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its uni- versity (see above, page 505) and other remarkable literary institutions, its cathedral and other churches, its manufactures and annual fairs. Monselice, a market-town noted for its silk, quarries, and considerable trade, has 8,000 inhabitants. Abbano (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Battaglia (with 2,700 inhab- itants), market-towns noted for their mineral waters and baths. Este, a town on a canal, 14 miles south-south-west of Padua, is remarkable as the ances- tral place of the renowned house of Este (see pages 118 and 433), and has 9,000 inhabitants. Montagnana, a town on the Fiumicello, is noted for its hemp, and has 8,700 inhabitants. Rovigo, a city on the Adigetto, a branch of the Adige, south-westward and 38 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable cathedral and several other handsome edifices, and 9,000 inhabitants. Adria, a city in the neighborhood of Rovigo, on a branch of the Po, 14 miles from the Adriatic Sea (whose name is derived from that of the city, which stood an- ciently close by the sea and was an emporium), with a remarkable museum, considerable trade in corn, cattle, etc., vine culture, and 10,400 inhabitants. Lendinara and Badia, market-towns, with respectively 5,000 and 3,600 in- 542 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria. — Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. habitants. Verona, a strongly fortified city on the Adige, half-way between Milan and Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is renowned for the vast num- ber of well-conserved remains of ancient Roman edifices (among which a vast amphitheatre having room for 22,000 spectators, and 1,331 feet in circuit), for its many literary institutions, scientific societies, for its important silk manufactures, annual fairs, etc. Legnago, a fortified town on the Adige, is noted for its rice, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Vicenza, a city on the Bacchi- glione, 42 miles west-north-west of Venice, with numerous magnificent public edifices, silk manufactures, trade in greens and cattle, and 33,500 inhabitants. Bassano, a city on the Brenta, north-westward and 38 miles distant from Ven- ice, with 25 churches and chapels, charities for the poor and sick, considerable trade in wine, silk, etc., and 13,000 inhabitants. Schio, a market- town, with 6,700 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. Treviso, a city at the high-road between Venice and Tyrol, northward and 18 miles distant from Venice, with several Gothic churches, a remarkable city-hall, a public library, botanic garden, etc., various and important manufactures, annual fairs, and 20,000 inhabitants. Ceneda, a town with paper and leather manufactures, mineral waters, and 5,100 inhabitants. Serravalle and Castelfranco, market- towns, wiih respectively 4,800 and 4,000 inhabitants. Belluno, a city on the Piave, northward and 54 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable cathe- dral, timber trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. Feltre, a city near the frontier of Tyrol, with considerable trade in silk, wine, and olive oil, and 5,200 in- habitants. Cadore, a market-town on the Piave, is remarkable as the birth- place of the renowned painter, Titian, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Agordo, a market-town in the neighborhood of Belluno, with important copper mines, and 2,400 inhabitants. The market-town of Auronzo (with 3,100 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines. — The former Venetian Friaul (see above) con- tains : Udine, its ancient capital, on the Roja, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Venice, with a cathedral and 12 other churches, charities for the poor and sick, silk manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. South-westward and 5 miles distant from here is situated the village of Campo Formio, with a castle, where on the 17th October, 1797, the noted treaty of peace be- tween France and Austria was concluded. Palmanova, a strongly fortified town at the frontier of Illyria, with silk manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. Cividale, a town on the Natissone, with linen manufactures, dyeing in Turkish red, and 3,600 inhabitants. Sacile (with 4,200 inhabitants), Pordenone (with 5,000 inhabitants), Latisana (with 3,200 inhabitants) and Tolmezzo (with 1,200 inhabitants), market-towns. DENMARK. Area: 49,927 square miles. Population: 1,800,000 inhabitants. This kingdom comprises the continent and islands between the North and Baltic Seas to the north of the Lower Elbe and its mouth ; and beside them, the Faroe Isles and the island of Ice- land in the Atlantic Ocean. The continental part of the kingdom is on the north separated from Norway by the Skagerrack, and on the east from Sweden by the Cattegat (see page 9) ; while the Sound separates Zealand from Sweden, and the Great and Litth Belt (see page 9) separate the two largest Danish islands from each other, and from the Danish peninsula. The above-stated area and population are distributed as fol- lows: Danish Islands, between the ) „ m . „ , MAlUt ,, , ,. L v 5,005 square miles, and 780,000 inhabitants. Cattegat and Baltic Sea, ) Jutland, . 9,574 « " ■ 570,000 Sleswick, . 3,482 K M «( 370,000 Iceland, . 30,716 " " a 70,500 Faroe Isles, . . 1,150 « M H 9,500 Total, . . 49,927 " " " 1,800,000 Adding 3,738 square miles and 515,000 inhabitants, as the area and population of the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg (see page 413), the whole kingdom would have a total area of 53.665 544 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark— its Natural Features and Products. square miles, and a total population of 2,315,000 inhabitants. (About the Danish Colonies, see below ) The established church in Denmark is the Lutheran, under the church authority of 9 Lutheran bishops, viz., of Zealand, Funen, Laaland-Falster, Aalborg, Wiborg, Aarhuus, Kibe, Alsen-Aeroe, and Iceland, beside 2 superintendents-general (in Sleswick and Holstein), &c, &c. The number of parishes (including Iceland and the Faroe Isles) is 2,156. On the 1st February, 1840, there were throughout the whole kingdom only 1,693 Calvinists and 2,233 Roman Catholics, beside 7,809 Jews. The Lutheran bishops in Denmark have about the same authority as the bishops of the Church of England. As the natural features of Iceland and the Faroe Isles have a peculiar character, entirely differing from those of the main body of the kingdom, the following particulars have reference only to the latter. The surface of the country is generally level, with the excep- tion of a range of low hills in the peninsula of Jutland, with the Himmelsberg, only 536 feet in height. The coast of Jutland and the Danish Islands is indented with numerous bays, styled Fjords, the widest and most remarkable of which are the Lymfjord in Jutland, and the Isefjord in Zealand. The climate is moderate, and generally wholesome, and the soil is, upon the whole, exceedingly fertile in grain and pasturage. Corn is raised in such quantities that the annual exports of it are very considerable. The rearing of cattle and horses is at the same high pitch of improvement as agriculture. The Danish breed of horses (about 700,000 in the kingdom) is widely famed for its excellence, and the same may be said of the breed of black cattle (more than 1,500,000 heads in aggregate number), especially in Jutland. There are about 2,000,000 sheep, but only part of them is of improved breed. Vast numbers of hogs and DENMARK 545 Commerce, Means of Education, Government. geese are both in the continental part and the islands. Beside coal on the island of Bornholm, the mineral kingdom yields in Denmark almost nothing but peat, which is generally the only fuel used here. While the manufactures consist chiefly of lace and gloves (for which Denmark is noted), of linen and canvass, and are almost restricted to Copenhagen, and a few other cities, the commerce is the more considerable and important, and extends to the West Indies and Africa, as well as to India and China. The chief exports are corn, black cattle, horses, beef, butter, etc. About 10,000 horses are annually exported. Of fattened black cattle were in 1845 exported 45,000 heads of oxen, calves and cows (in 1840 alone 33,500 heads of fattened oxen) ; of salted and smoked beef 250.000 quintals, of butter 190,000 quintals, of sheep, etc. 14,000 heads, of wool 16,000 quintals, of hogs, 17,000 heads, of bacon 60,000 quintals, and of wax about 80,000 pounds. The means of education are in the best order, and very properly arranged. In 1837 the number of common schools was 3,644, of which 697 were in Sleswick, and the remainder in Jutland and the Danish Islands. (About the schools in Holstein and Lauen- burg, see page 413.) Beside these there are 6 seminaries for school-teachers (the seventh is in Holstein), 27 gymnasiums (4 of them in Sleswick), 26 Latin schools, 7 academies and similar other higher schools, and one university at Copenhagen (founded in 1479, and in 1841 frequented by 1,260 students: its valuable library contains more than 100,000 volumes). About the univer- sity at Kiel, see page 413. The government was since 1660. and until recent times, an un- limited monarchy, that, however, had not the slightest infusion of that despotic character, as, for instance, the French government had in the days of Louis XIV. Since the years 1831 and 34 the government was somewhat limited by provincial diets with 516 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark — its Finances, Army and Navy. deliberative votes. But at present the government is limited by a constitution like those in other states of western Europe. According to the budget of 1846, the public revenue amounted to 16,008,440 Riksbankdollars (or about $8,000,000, one Riks- bankdollar being equal to 50 cents), and the public expenditure to 15,935,053 Riksbankdollars. The toll levied at Elsinore (on the Sound) from the ships which trade to the Baltic Sea, yields annually about 2 million of Riksbankdollars (or $1,000,000). The public debt, amounting to 1 14,194,806 Riksbankdollars on the 1st January 1843, was in the following year reduced to 112,619,- 154 by paying off; but has of course since, on account of the in- tervening unprovoked war (see page 415), considerably increased again. The regular army consisted hitherto of 24,823 men on the peace footing, and of about 100,000 men on the war footing. Formerly Denmark ranked high as a maritime power, and even so late as in 1806 her navy consisted of 20 ships of the line, 16 frigates, 9 brigs, 1 schooner, and 52 gun-boats and other vessels. Most of them were first rate men-of-war, and England had long since had an appetite for them. Suddenly in 1807, towards fall, the English surprised Denmark — which was then in peace with Eng- land, and all other nations — with a powerful fleet and a numerous body of landing troops, bombarded Copenhagen in a frightful manner during four days (on which occasion 2,400 dwelling- houses were destroyed, 400 of which totally, and more than 2,000 inoffensive inhabitants killed), and simultaneously attacked the Danish navy with far superior forces ; and in this way indeed they finally succeeded in enforcing a capitulation, signed on the 7th September. By this convention it was stipulated, that Den- mark should surrender her navy to the English, who on their part engaged themselves, according to the terms of this very convention, to restore it immediately after the conclusion of a gen- DENMARK. 547 History of Denmark. eral peace. The latter was concluded in 1814 — but England did never restore even so much as a single ship to Denmark ! In 1846 the Danish navy consisted of 7 ships of the line, 8 frigates, 5 sloops of war, 4 brigs, 4 steamers, and 6 other vessels, beside 82 gun-boats, etc. There are the following Orders of honor : 1. The Elephant order, instituted so early as in the 12th century, and renewed in 1458 : it is only conferred on princes or persons of the highest rank; 2. the Danebrog order, instituted in 1219, renewed in 1671, and in 4 classes. History. — That Denmark was, simultaneously with the other Scandinavian countries, chiefly peopled by the German tribe of the Goths, about the be- ginning of the Christian era, has already been alluded to, page 30. Accord- ing to an ancient tale, a Gothic prince, named Odin, or Oden, founded in that period the city of Odense on the island of Funen, and then removing to Sweden, left behind his son Skjold, who thus became the ancestor of the first reigning dynasty in Denmark, known in history by the name of Skjoldunger. The country was, however, for centuries not under the sway of one single king, but under that of several princes, until in 883 Gorm, surnamed the Old, united the different parts into one kingdom. That prior to this period the war against Charlemagne had in 810 been terminated by a treaty of peace, which fixed the Eider river as the boundary between the Danes and Franks (subsequently between Denmark and the German empire), has already been related, page 31. During the reign of Harald VIII. (931-981), surnamed Blaatand (literally, blue tooth), Christianity began to be propagated in Den- mark ; and his grandson Sven conquered both England (see page 32) and Norway. With King Hardicanute, who died in 1041, the male line of the Skjoldunger became extinct, and now Sven Estridson (son of Hardicanute's aunt) succeeded, but also his male line became extinct in 1376 with king Waldemar III. Waldemar's only daughter Margareth (married to a Nor- wegian prince) succeeded him, and was in 1397 acknowledged as reigning queen of all the Scandinavian kingdoms (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). With Christoph III., who died in 1448, the race of the Skjoldunger became totally extinct, and now the earl Christian of Oldenburg was elected heredi- tary king of Denmark, and mounted the Danish throne as Christian 1. (see 548 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark— its History and Geographical Divisions. History of Holstein, page 414). He died in 1481, and had the following suc- cessors : John (1481-1513), Christian II. (1513-1523), Frederic I. (1523-1533), Christian III. (1533-1559), Frederic II. (1559-1588), Christian IV. (1588- 1648), Frederic III. (1648-1670), Christian V. (16*70-1699), Frederic IV. (1699-1730), Christian VI. (1730-1746), Frederic V. (1746-1766), Christian VIL (1766-1808), and Frederic VI. (1808-1839). That in 1807 Denmark was deprived of its navy by the English, has already been mentioned above, and that in 181 3 Norway was wrested from the kingdom by Sweden, and that final- ly it was indemnified by the duchy of Lauenburg, has been related, page 419 ; while in the History of Holstein the real motives of the endeavors to wrest also the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg from Denmark have been fully explained. (The historical particulars with reference to Sleswick see below.) King Frederic VI. died in 1839, and was succeeded by his cousin, Christian VIII, who died on the 20th January, 1848, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning king, Frederic VIL, born on the 6th October, 1808. In case the latter should die childless, his next heir and successor would be his uncle, Prince Ferdinand (born in 1792, and childless), and then first would succeed Prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, whose mother Char- lotte is sister of Ferdinand and the late king Christian VIII. The Danish Islands (between the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea) and Jutland are divided in 19 bailiwicks, while Sleswick is di- vided into 15 bailiwicks and 40 privileged districts, cities, etc., in a similar manner as Holstein. In the following topography we shall, however, describe these islands separately, under one single head, only denoting the capitals of the bailiwicks with this sign, +. The remaining sections to be described separately are : Jutland, Sleswick, Faroe Isles, and Iceland. DENMARK. 549 Danish Islands. 1.— THE DANISH ISLANDS. Area : 5,005 square miles. Population: 780,000 inhabitants. Under this head are comprised the islands situated between the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea, excluding the few that are con- sidered as annexed to Jutland and Sleswick. The island of Zealand (2,705 square miles, and 480,000 inhabitants), sep- arated from Sweden by the Sound, contains : -[-Copenhagen (in Danish Kjbbenhavn), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, is one of the most handsome cities in Europe, and strongly fortified, has 125,000 inhabi- tants, a good harbor, with considerable commerce, and is noted for many magnificent public edifices and private buildings, its university (see above), and numerous literary institutions, its vast docks, and important manufac- tures. The royal library here (which is not to be confounded with that of the university) contains 500,000 volumes. Roeskilde, a city near the south- ern extremity of the above-mentioned Isefjord, 18 miles west-south-west of Copenhagen, has at present only 3,000 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages a renowned city (see page 38). The neighboring village of Leire was until the 10th century the principal seat of the Danish kings. Kjoge, a maritime town on the eastern coast, with remarkable town-hall, and 2,000 inhabitants. -|-Hiller6d, a town on an inland lake, 21 miles north-north- west of Copenhagen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the extensive and magnificent Gothic castle of Frederiksbcrrg, in whose church the kings of Denmark use to be crowned. The neighboring royal palace of Fredens- borg is remarkable in history for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 3d July, 1720. Frederikswerk, a market-town on a lake, with 600 inhabi- tants, is noted for its cannon-foundry. Helsingor, or Flsenor, a maritime :own on the Sound, with some manufactures, commerce, sea-bathing, and 7,500 nhabitants. The toll levied here (see above), yielded in 1840 the sum of i,140,360 Riksbankdollars ($1,070,180), paid by 17,332 passing vessels. Jlose by the town is situated the citadel or fortified castle of Kronborg, eared in the years 1577-85. The Sound is here only 4,443 yards wide. 550 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark— Islands of Zealand, Bornholm, etc. The neighboring village of Hellebeck is noted for a fire-arms manufactory. Frederikssund, a maritime town, with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. -fHoLBEK, a maritime town, on the Isefjord, with corn trade, and 2,000 in- habitants. Nykjbbing, a town on the Isefjord, with some woollen manufac- tures, and 950 inhabitants. Kallundborg, a rather important maritime and commercial town at the northern entrance into the Great Belt, with 2,500 in- habitants. -(-Soroe, a town on ar lake of the same name, south-westward and 44 miles distant from Copenhagen, has 900 inhabitants, and is renowned for its academy founded in 1586. The neighboring and very ancient town of Ring- sled (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its church, reared in the 11th cen- tury, and containing the sepulchres of Waldemar L and II. and other Skjol- dungers. Slagelse, Skjelskoer, and Korsoer, more or less remarkable towns near and on the Great Belt, with respectively 3,000, 1,000, and 1,500 inhabi- tants. -j-Praestoe, a maritime town in the southern extremity of Zealand, 48 miles south-south-west of Copenhagen, with fine harbor, corn trade, and 900 inhabitants. Nestved, a town romantically situated, is noted for its con- siderable corn trade, and has 2,500 inhabitants. Wordingborg, a maritime town, with 1,600 inhabitants. The island of Samsoe, between Jutland and Zealand, at the northern en- trance into the Great Belt, has a very fertile soil, 42 square miles in extent, and 6,000 inhabitants, who are noted for their wealth. The island of Moen (85 square miles, and 12,000 inhabitants), near the south-eastern extremity of Zealand, is noted for the fertility of its soil in grain, for its valuable forests, and the wealth of its population, and contains the town of Stege, with light- house, and 1,700 inhabitants. The island of Bornholm (213 square miles, and 25,000 inhabitants), situa- ted in the Baltic Sea, about 80 miles east of Zealand, is in the interior fertile in grazing, and noted for its quarries and coal mines. It contains : Bonne, or fiottum, a town on the western coast, with rather considerable commerce, manufactures of clocks, numerous potteries, and 4,000 inhabitants. Aakirke, a town towards the centre of the island, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its fine church, built of black marble. Other towns are Nexbe (with 1,600 inhabitants), Svanike (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Hasle (with 700 inhabi- tants). The island of Laaland (458 square miles, and 50,000 inhabitants), situated between Zealand and Holstein, has an exceedingly fertile soil, and its in- habitants are generally very wealthy. It contains : Mariboe, a town on a DENMARK. 551 Islands of Fulster, Funen, Thaasinge, and Langeland. lake of the same name, with corn trade, and 1,400 inhabitants, Nysted (with 1,000 inhabitants), Saxkjobing (with 800 inhabitants), Nakskop (with 2,500 inhabitants), and R'ddby (with 1,200 inhabitants), maritime towns more or less noted for their corn trade. The island of Falster (181 square miles, and 21,000 inhabitants), situated close by the former island, is noted for its fruits, and in common life fre- quently called the orchard of Denmark. Much grain is likewise raised, and the forests here yield valuable timber. It contains : Nykjobing, a very ancient chief town, on the Strait that separates the island from Laaland, with ancient royal palace, considerable corn trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. Stubbekjbbing, a town with 900 inhabitants. The island of Funen (in Danish Fyen) is next to Zealand the largest among the Danish islands, having an area of 1,193 square miles, with 154,000 inhabitants, and is by the Great Belt separated from Zealand, and by the Little Belt from Sleswick. The soil is thoroughly very fertile in grain and grazing, and not only the black cattle, but especially the horses are of excellent breed. There are more than 100 large and wealthy estates on the island, which contains : -j-Odense, its very ancient capital (see above in the History of Denmark), on a bay of the northern coast, with 9,000 in- habitants, 4 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in the 11th century), a notable public library, manufactures of gloves, and consider- able commerce. Middelfart, a town on the Little Belt, is noted for its fishe- ries, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable maritime towns ire : Bogense (with 1,250 inhabitants), Assens (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Kjerteminde (with 1,700 inhabitants). -(-Svendborg, a maritime and com- nercial town on the southern coast, with remarkable church, various manu- actures, and 3,800 inhabitants. Nyborg, a fortified town and naval station, m the Great Belt, with remarkable town-hall, rather considerable commerce, nd 3,200 inhabitants. Faaborg, a maritime and commercial town on the outhern coast, with 1,800 inhabitants. The island of Taasinge (also named Thorsenge), only 28 square miles in xtent, with 4,000 inhabitants, is situated near the southern coast of Funen, nd contains : Troense, a market-town with harbor, some commerce, and 00 inhabitants. The island of Langeland (106 square miles, and 16,000 inhabitants), near le former island, is noted fo the fertility of its soil, and contains Rudkjobing, town with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. 552 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark— Province of Jutland. 2._^JUTLAND. Area : 9,5*74 square miles. Population: 5*70,000 inhabitants. It comprises the northern and larger part of the Danish pen- insula, and is by the Danes themselves generally called North Jutland^ to distinguish it from Sleswick, for which they have re- tained its primitive name of South Jutland. — Jutland contains : -{-Aalboeg, a city on the Lymfjord (see above), southward and 58 miles distant from the promontory of Skagen (the northern extremity of the pen- insula), with 8,000 inhabitants, considerable commerce, leather and other manufactures, a noted nautical school, and an ancient royal castle, remarkable in history, by the name of Aalborghuus. The town of Nibe, on the Lymfjord, •with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted for its fisheries. -|-Hjorring, a town north- ward and 30 miles distant from Aalborg, with 1,200 inhabitants. Skagen, a town at the northern extremity of the peninsula, on the Skagerrack, with light-house (reared in 1*751, and 64 feet high), and 1,500 inhabitants. Freder- ikshavn, a town on the Cattegat, is commonly called Fladstrand (which is the name of its citadel), and has 1,300 inhabitants. Saby, a town on the Catte- gat. with trade in chalk of very good description, and 850 inhabitants. Lasoe, au isle in the Cattegat, 46 square miles in extent, with 2,300 inhabitants, sub- sisting on fishing and agriculture. -J-Thisted, a town on the Lymfjord, west- ward and 46 miles distant from Aalborg, with corn trade, and 1,750 inhabi- tants. The island of Mors, in the Lymfjord, has 128 square miles in extent, and 12,000 inhabitants, with a generally fertile soil, and containing the town of Nykjbbing, with 1,150 inhabitants. -j-Wiborg, a city south-westward and 44 miles distant from Aalborg, is one of the most ancient cities in the king- dom, and in some respects considered as the capital of Jutland, is noted for its remarkable cathedral (reared in 1169) and its annual fairs, and has 3,700 inhabitants. Skive, a very ancient town, on the Lymfjord, with considerable cattle-marts, fishery and corn trade, and 1,100 inhabitants. -4-Aarhuus, a DENMARK 653 Geographical Description of Jutland. city on the Cattegat, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Wiborg, with 3 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in 1201), a tract society and foreign missions, important manufactures, and annual fairs, con- siderable commerce, and 7,000 inhabitants. -j-Randers, a city on the river Guden, northward and 18 miles distant from Aarhuus, with various and im- portant branches of industry, commerce, and 6,500 inhabitants. Mariager (with 900 inhabitants), Hobro (with 800 inhabitants), Grenaa (with 1,500 in- habitants), and Ebeltoft (with 950 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. The isle of Anholt, in the Cattegat, has only 21 square miles in ex- tent, and 200 inhabitants, who subsist entirely on fishing. -J-Skanderborg, a town romantically situated on a lake of the same name, south-westward and 16 miles distant from Aarhuus, with 1,000 inhabitants. Horsens, a maritime town on a bay, and in a fertile district, with considerable commerce, iron- works, and 5,000 inhabitants. -f~^ IBE ( m German Ripen), a city in a dis- trict surrounded by territories of Sleswick, at 5 miles distance from the North Sea, south-westward and 86 miles distant from Aarhuus, with a very remark- able cathedral, considerable trade in corn, fattened black cattle, etc., and 3,000 inhabitants. 'Warde, a town with noted potteries, corn trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Fande and Amrum are isles in the North Sea, near the coast of Jutland, with respectively 2,500 and 450 inhabitants. -j-Ringkjobing, a maritime town on the North Sea, westward and 85 miles distant from Aarhuus, with manufactures, considerable commerce, and 1,600 inhabitants. Holstebro and Letnvig, towns with respectively 1,250 and 800 inhabitants. -[-Weile, a maritime town on a bay of the Cattegat, 44 miles south-south- west of Aarhuus, with remarkable ancient town-hall, considerable commerce, and 2,500 inhabitants. Fridericia, a fortified city at the northern entrance into the Little Belt, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Weile, with 2 Lutheran churches, 1 Reformist church, and 1 Roman Catholic chapel, cloth manufactures, cattle-marts, and 4,500 inhabitants. Fridericia was founded in 1615 by King Frederic III., and named after him. Kolding, a town on a bay of the same name, which separates it from Sleswick, with 2 churches, cloth manufactures, corn and cattle trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. 24 554 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark. — Duchy of Sleswick. 3.— THE DUCHY OF SLESWICK. Area : 3,482 square miles. Population : 370,000 inhabitants. Sleswick (in German Schleswig) comprises the southern part of the Danish peninsula, and has, for this reason, from old been called South Jutland (until the middle of the 15th century this name was exclusively, and since at least very frequently used). On the south it is separated from Holstein by the Eider river (see above, and page 31). It has ever formed a constituent part of the Danish kingdom, and would never have been named Sleswick or South Jutland, nor styled a duchy, but, together with the northern part of the peninsula, would have been com- prised under the general name of Jutland, if the political blunder had not been made by Queen Margaret, in 1386 (see History of.Denmark), of investing the earl Gerhard VI. of Holstein with South Jutland. She had not the slightest political ground to make any difference between North and South Jutland, which latter could quite as well as other provinces of the kingdom have been ruled by a governor appointed by the Danish government, and did not want an extraordinary ruler in the person of a vassal of the Danish crown, as Gerhard VI. now became. It was this earl, who, assuming the title of a duke, of Sleswick, arbitrarily altered the name of South Jutland. When the male line of the earls of Schaumburg in Holstein became extinct, in 1459 (see History of Holstein), the duchy of Sleswick, as it now was styled, escheated, of course, to the Danish crown as a now vacant fee, while this same crown became possessed of the earldom (since 1474 duchy) of Holstein by way of inheritance. This occurred during DENMARK. 655 History of Sleswick. the reign of Christian I., as we have seen in the History of Holstein ; and to this king was thus afforded the best opportunity not only to redress the blunder committed by Queen Margaret, but also to increase the actual power and authority of the reign- ing house of Denmark, by retaining the direct government of Holstein j as for instance, King George I. of England and his successors did with regard to Hanover. But Christian I. and his successors were prepossessed with the then prevailing wrong principles of dividing territories among brothers of the reigning sovereign, instead of endowing them with appanages, as is now long since the custom. Thus, while Christian I. invested his second son, Frederic, with Sleswick and Holstein as fees of the Danish crown, his grandson Christian III. (see History of Denmark) in- vested with them partly his own son, John (who thus became the ancestor of the collateral line of Sonderburg), partly his brother Adolphus (the ancestor of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, men- tioned in the History of Holstein). The reigning sovereign had, however, retained some territories both in Sleswick and Holstein, and, as in the so-called northern war, between Sweden and Den- mark (Russia and Poland were likewise engaged in it), the dukes of Sleswick made common cause with the enemy of Denmark, and surrendered spontaneously the fortress of Tondern to the Swedes, thus committing an evident act of felony ', and forfeiting their territories in the duchy (see page 36), these latter were, of course, withdrawn from them by the Danish crown, in 1713. In the treaty of peace concluded at Fredensborg on the 5th of July, 1720, Sweden, England, and France recognized explicitly this act as a just one. Since that period (i. e. since 1713) Sleswick has ever continued to form an actual constituent part of the Danish kingdom, as it did primitively, and for centuries in the middle ages. The only mistake with regard to it has been, that Sleswick was by the Danish crown placed under one and the same provin- 556 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark.— Historical and Geographical Description of Sleswick. cial government with Holstein, this being the surest way to extend the plots generated in Holstein and Germany also to Sleswick. (About other historical particulars, see History of Holstein.) The soil of Sleswick is quite as rich and fertile as in Holstein, and like the latter country, Sleswick was, prior to the war with Den- mark, highly noted for its wealth and prosperity. Its adminis- trative division has already been noticed. It contains : Sleswick (in German Schleswig), its capital, on a bay of the Baltic Sea, (known by the name of Schlei), north-westward and 24 miles distant from Kiel, with 11,700 inhabitants, 3 churches (among them the remarkable St. Peter's church, reared in 1260), considerable fisheries, and the extensive and magnificent castle of Gottorp, once the residence of the dukes of Sleswick. The city of Sleswick was in the earlier period of the middle ages an empo- rium in this quarter. Flensburg, a noted commercial city, on a bay of the Baltic Sea, northward and 18 miles distant from the city of Sleswick, with important manufactures, and 15,700 inhabitants. Apenrade, a city on a bay of the Baltic Sea, northward and 16 miles distant from Flensburg, with a spacious harbor, considerable commerce (at least before the war with Den- mark), and 4,200 inhabitants. Hadersleben. the most northerly city of Sleswick, romantically situated on a bay of the Little Belt, northward and 18 miles distant from Apenrade, with manufactures, commerce, and 6,400 inhabitants. Tondern, a city on the Widaae, 7 miles from the North Sea, north-westward and 24 miles distant from Flensburg, has 3,000 inhabitants, and was until 1750 noted for its fortress. Husum, a maritime town on a bay of the North Sea, westward and 18 miles distant from Sleswick, with a remarkable ancient castle, and 4,200 inhabitants. Frederikstad, a maritime town on the Treene, at its junction with the Eider, has a spacious harbor, and 2,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its mustard. Tonning, a mari- time and commercial town on the Eider, 2 miles from the North Sea, with 2,500 inhabitants. Gar ding, a town with corn and wool trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Eckernforde, a city on a bay of the Baltic Sea, 14 miles east- south-east of Sleswick, and north-westward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, with commerce, and 4,300 inhabitants. Frederiksort, a little fortress at the entrance of the bay of Kiel, northward and 7 miles distant from this city. Gravenstein, a market-town on the bay of Flensburg, with 500 inhabitants, DENMARK. 557 Geographical Description of Sleswick. and a palace of the duke of Angustenburg. Aaroe, a fertile little island in the Little Belt. Lygumkloster, a market-town, northward and 9 miles dis- tant from Tondern, with noted cattle and horse-marts, and 1,400 inhabitants. Fohr, an island in the North Sea, near the coast of Sleswick, with 4,500 in- habitants, considerable fowling, and the market-town of Wyk, noted for sea- bathing. Numerous other isles in the neighborhood of Fohr are known by the general name of Halligen. Gluecksburg, a market-town near the bay of Flensburg, has 850 inhabitants, and is noted for its castle or palace, which was in the period of 1622-1778 the residence of the dukes of Holstein- Glucksburg. — The island of Alsen (128 square miles, and 22,000 inhabi- tants), situated in the Little Belt, and one of the most beautiful and fertile islands in the Baltic, contains: Sonderburg, its capital, on the strait that separates the island from continental Sleswick, with 3,500 inhabitants, a fine harbor, commerce, and an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the duke of Angustenburg. Norburg, a market-town, with 1,200 inhabitants. Augustenburg, a market-town, 5 miles east north-east of Sonderburg, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its stud and a magnificent palace, formerly the residence of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Angustenburg. — The island of Aeroe or Arr'de (32 square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), situated at the southern entrance of the Little Belt, eastward and 9 miles distant from Alsen, is noted for its fowl, and contains the town of Aeroeskjbbing (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the market-town of Mar stall (with 2,300 inhab- itants). — The island of Femern (64 square miles, and 9,000 inhabitants), sit- uated in the Baltic, opposite the coast of Holstein, with a rather sterile soil, containing the town of Burg (with 2,000 inhabitants), and the village of Pe- tersdorf (with 750 inhabitants), beside some other places. 4.— THE FAROE ISLES. Area: 1,150 square miles. Population : 9,500 inhabitants. This group, consisting of 17 inhabited and 8 uninhabited isles, is situated in the Atlantic Ocean and in about the 60th degree 558 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark.— Faroe Isles. of north latitude, west by south and 550 miles distant from Drontheim, in Norway. They are generally rocky, and, upon the whole, barren, yet the inhabited isles are here and there covered with mould fertile in grazing, and even in grain, that is raised here at a rather considerable amount. The climate of the isles is in general mild. Black cattle, sheep with coarse wool, and horses, are likewise reared ; yet the inhabitants subsist chiefly on fishing and catching of sea-fowl, vast numbers of which have their resort here. Knitted stockings and other woollen articles, eider-down, goose-feathers, salted mutton, tallow, etc., are largely exported from the isles. The inhabitants are of Norwe- gian origin, and King Harald Haarfager of Norway it was who, towards the end of the 9th century, took possession of the Faroe Isles, at the same time when the Hebrides and Shetland Islands were conquered. Since the year 1026 the Faroe Isles formed permanently a constituent part of the kingdom of Norway and consequently of the kingdom of Denmark, which retained them in 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden. The principal island is Stromoe (138 square miles, and 2,500 inhabitants), containing the highest mountain of the group, named Skiellingsfield, and 2,400 feet high, and moreover the little town of Thorshavn, the seat of the Danish governor, with a Latin school, a hospital, and 1,000 inhabitants, being at the same time the principal mart of the isles. — The island of Oesteroe has 85 square miles in extent, and 1,600 inhabitants, and a good harbor at Kongshavn. — The island of Soderoe (42 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), is the most southern of the inhabited isles. DENMARK. 559 Geographical Description of Iceland. 6.— ICELAND. Area: 30,716 square miles. Population : 70,500 inhabitants. This island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, on the borders of the frigid zone, between 63° 21' and 66° 34' north latitude, at 160 miles distance from Greenland, and at 700 miles distance from Norway. On account of the prevailing wild and barren rocky character of its surface, only about 4,200 square miles of the whole island are inhabited, and the main body of the popula- tion is settled in the south-western coasting tract. About the most remarkable mountains of Iceland see page 8, and beside the Hecla noticed there, 1 8 other volcanoes are constantly burning, among them the Krabla. The so-called Geisers are hot springs, which throw up large columns of boiling water, to the height of 50 or 60 to 100 feet. It has already been noticed, page 56, that in the middle ages not only the spirit of poetry was most success- fully improved with the Icelanders, but that also the island itself was then a fertile and well-cultivated country. The subterra- nean fire having since burst forth in devastating lava-streams, and at the same time immense masses of ice from the North Pole accumulated at Iceland's shores, the vegetation of this island has substantially degenerated. Iceland is, however, yet noted for the exceedingly beautiful green of its pastures and meadows, which afford to the inhabitants ample means for rearing both cattle and horses. The branches of industry are in general the same as on the Faroe Isles. — A Norwegian pirate, named Naddok, is said to have discovered Iceland in 861, which, however, was already inhabited by tribes perhaps from Ireland ; while on the 560 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Denmark.— Geographical Description of Iceland. other hand, the island of Thule, mentioned by ancient Roman authors, was probably identical with Iceland. Be this as it may, in short, the aborigines were gradually supplanted by Norwe- gians, who settled here since the year 874 or 875, established a kind of republic, but were in 1261 subjected to the sovereignty of Norway, and in this manner Denmark became possessed of the island. — The Icelanders, who consequently are of Norwegian origin, are noted not only for their fine shape and features, but also for their rigid morality and piety, and for love of learning. It is a fact, first that crimes are never heard of as committed by any Icelander, and secondly that even the peasantry frequently spend the longer winter evenings by reading ancient Roman au- thors in the original. In point of religion, the Icelanders are Lutherans, under the church authority of a bishop residing in Reikiavik. The aggregate number of churches in Iceland is 321, with 154 ministers. — The island, divided into 21 districts, contains : Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on a bay of the south-western coast, is the seat of the Danish governor, of the bishop, of a scientific, a bible, and a tract society, and has 700 inhabitants, a cathedral built of stone, a gymnasium, an observatory, a public library containing 6,000 volumes, and an apothecary's shop. Bessestad, in the neighborhood of Reikiavik, was once the dwelling- place of the renowned poet Snorre Sturleson (who lived in the latter half of the 13th century), and has a gymnasium, where, among others, the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and mathematics are taught. In Leiria is a printing-office. East of Reikiavik is situated Skalholt, with the largest church on the island. Hraundalur, Skagastrand, and Husavik are trading places. Holum, at pres- ent only with rather few dwelling-houses, and a church, was in the period from 1106 to 1797 the seat of a bishop, and so early as in 1530 endowed with a printing-office and a gymnasium. About the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, see page 412. The Danish Colonies are the following : DENMARK. 561 The Danish Colonies. 1. In America : settlements on the western coast of Greenland^ and the West Indian islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. Johns. 2. In Africa : settlements in Upper Guinea. 3. In Asia : presently only the Nicobar Islands, as the colonies of Tranquebar and Serampore have been sold in 1845 to the British East India Company. The total area of these colonies is estimated at 4,686 square miles (inclusive 3,962 square miles in Greenland), with a popula- tion of 110,000 inhabitants. 24* SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Akea : 293,280 square miles. Population : 4,650,000 inhabitants. These two countries, frequently mentioned under the general name of Scandinavian Peninsula, and at the same time politically united in so far as they are under the sway of one and the same sovereign, extend from 55° 20' to 71° 11' north latitude, and are situated between the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea, at the north-eastern extremity bordering upon Russia. — From Denmark they are separated by the Skagerrak, the Cattegat, and Sound, and from Russia by the Gulf of Bothnia (see page 9). — About the Scandinavian Mountains, see pages 5 and 6 ; about the lakes see page 11, and about the principal rivers see pages 13 and 14. — Sweden is noted for the Gota- Canal that crosses the country in a westerly direction, thus connecting the Cattegat with the Baltic. — The climate, though severe in winter, is in general very whole- some. Both countries abound in sublime and romantic scenery. The northern provinces are either mostly barren, as in Norway, or covered with extensive forests, as in Sweden, and in both coun- tries thinly covered ; while the southern are much more fertile, and in Sweden both well-cultivated and thickly settled. Sufficient corn is raised in Sweden for home consumption, but not in Nor- way, where, in 1838, more than 1,500,000 bushels of grain were to be imported. The surplus products of both countries are iron, copper, limber, and fish. The Swedish iron mines yield, upon an SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 568 Natural Products and Manufactures. average, more than 1,600,000 quintals of iron, in some respects of the best quality in the world. Those of Norway are not so productive, yielding about 150,000 quintals annually. The an- nual produce of the copper mines in Sweden is about 18,300 quin- tals, and in Norway, upon an average, 9,000 quintals of copper. On the other hand, Norway is noted for its silver mines at Kongs- berg, which, in 1842, produced 21,088, and in 1834 more than 27,000 marks of silver. Beside these metals, are to be noticed alum, porphyry, and coal (the latter in the Swedish province of Skone). Sweden is noted for its mineral waters, and its water- ing-places of Medewi, Ramlosa, Loka, etc., are in the summer season crowded with strangers. Salt is totally wanting in both countries, and thus to be imported. — As both Sweden and Nor- way have extensive forests, which, in Sweden alone, cover nearly 16,700,000 acres, the exports of timber (moreover, of tar, pitch, and smoke black) are very considerable. — Cattle are reared at a rather great extent, though their breed is but middle-sized. In 1830 both countries numbered about 2,000,000 heads of black cattle, 1,500.000 sheep, 600.000 hogs, 170,000 goats, and 600,000 horses. The latter, in so far as they belong to the original breed of the countries, are but small, yet swift runners, and exceedingly en- during. The deer and other game abound ; and even the elk is still to be found. The Laplanders keep considerable herds of reindeer. Of wild animals, the bear, wolf, lynx, and glutton are to be noticed. The manufactures of Norway are of no great importance, but the more considerable in Sweden, which is distinguished for its hardware, cutleries, fire-arms and porphyry vessels ; and whose cloth, glass, and delf manufactures are likewise noted, while its silks and cotton goods want still some more improvement in colors and patterns. At Motala is a renowned manufactory of steam- engines ; and in ship-building and mining the Swedes are sur- 564 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway — their Commerce, etc. passed by no other nation. The only reason that Norway has but few manufactures is the fact, that this country is, upon the whole, not qualified for them, on account of its peculiar local and social condition. For the rest, all farming utensils, tools, furni- ture, etc., are made by the peasantry themselves, both in Norway and Sweden ; and linen, for instance, is made in almost every vil- lage and family ; and some descriptions of this linen are not only distinguished for their fineness, but are also widely exported. The commerce is very considerable, and in general the exports surpass the imports in value. In 1842 the exports of Sweden amounted to 23,373,550 Bankrixdollars (one Swedish Bankdollar is equal to about 40 cents), and the imports only to 19,511,800 Bankrixdollars in value. In Norway the annual exports may be estimated at 7 millions, and the imports at 6 millions in value. The chief exports of both countries are iron and steel, timber, pitch, tar, cordage, canvass, anchors, etc., dried and pickled fish, furs, copper, alum, potash, etc. In the Swedish and Norwegian docks are numerous vessels and steamers built for foreign ac- count. The merchant vessels belonging to Sweden amounted in 1839 to 994, of the burthen of 109,314 tons, exclusive of 36 steamers ; and the Norwegian merchant vessels amounted in 1837 to 2,373, of the burthen of 158,556 tons. Both the Swedes and Norwegians belong to the Germanic tribe (see pages 18 and 19), with the exception of about 7,000 Finlanders and 9,100 Laplanders, that belong to a peculiar or mixed tribe commonly comprised by the general name of Finnish tribe. Jews are not allowed to dwell in Norway, while in Sweden they are not permitted to settle elsewhere than in the cities of Stockholm, Gottenburg and Norrkoping. — In point of religion, the established church in Sweden and Norway is the Lutheran, arranged and founded on similar principles as the church of England. In Sweden are 12 bishops (including the SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 565 Means of Education, Government, Army and Navy. archbishop of Upsala) and 2,400 parishes, and in Norway 5 bishops and 342 parishes. There are 3 universities, viz., two in Sweden (at Upsala, founded in 1476, and in 1845 frequented by 1,367 students; and at Lund, founded in 1668, and in 1845 with 645 students), and one in Norway, at Christiania (founded in 1811, and in 1841 with 693 students). Beside these, there are 18 gymnasiums (14 in Sweden and 4 in Norway), 23 seminaries, 148 secondary, and 2,994 primary schools. Only few of the peasantry are unable to read, as education is general. The government is a limited monarchy, both in Sweden and Norway. Each kingdom has its particular constitution, its own laws, and a national legislature ; and yet with reference to the executive power both are under the control of the same sove- reign. The public finances are in good order. In Sweden the amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure, for several years has been about 11 millions Bankrixdollars (or about $4,400,000) ;— in Norway about $3,000,000. Sweden has no public debt, while that of Norway on the 1st January, 1839, amounted only to $1,163,000. The regular army consists in Sweden of nearly 40,000, and in Norway of 12,000 men, and can in time of war be reinforced by 80,000 men of militia and troops of reserve. The Swedish navy consists of 10 ships of the line, 14 frigates and sloops of war, 10 brigs, several steamers, and more than 300 gun-boats. Norway had in 1835 a little navy of 1 frigate, 1 sloop of war, 2 brigs, and 43 gun-boats. There are the following Swedish (for Norway has none) orders of honor : 1. The Seraphim order, the highest, and in one class ; instituted in 1333, and renewed in 1748. 2. The Sword order, instituted in 1523, and renewed in 1748, in 3 classes. 3. The North-star order, instituted in 1748, and in 2 classes. 4. The 566 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway— their History. Warn order, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1772, and 5. The order of Charles XIII., instituted by this king in 1811, and only conferred on free-masons. History. — Sweden, as whose aborigines may be considered the Finlanders and Laplanders, was at an early period occupied by the Germanic tribes of the Goths and Sueones, who were under the native chieftains or petty kings. It was the same case with Norway. Odin (see History of Denmark) having returned to Sweden, became here the ancestor of the dynasty of the Ynglingar, who were succeeded by the Ifwarian race, that reigned until the middle of the 11th century. In Norway had meantime the valiant king Harald Horfagar (the latter surname means " handsome hair," for which he was distinguished) put an end to the petty kingdoms, and in 875 subjected them to his sway, thus transforming Norway into one single kingdom, which, however, did not keep its independence, but continued to be annexed to Denmark since the days of Queen Margareth (see History of Denmark), or since the year 139*7. In Sweden the Ifwarian race was since 1053 succeeded by several other dynasties, until finally the kingdom was in 1397, together with Norway and Denmark, united under the sway of the just-named queen. The Danish sway lasted in substance until 1521, when Gustavus, belonging to the renowned noble family of Wasa, ascended the Swedish throne. His youngest son, Charles IX., reigning from 1599 to 1611, was the father of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, whose sister Catherine was married to the palatine John Kasimir of Zweibrucken (see page 327), whose son mounted the Swedish throne in 1654 by the name of Charles X. Gustavus, his cousin, Queen Christiana (only daughter of Gustavus Adolphus) having abdicated. The son and successor of Charles X. Gustavus, King Charles XL (1660-1697), left behind the great warrior Charles XII. and two daughters, who were married, the one to a prince of Hesse-Cassel, and the other to a duke of Hol- stein-Gottorp. Thus, when Charles XII. died in 1718 (he was insidiously shot from behind by his own aid-de-camp, a Frenchman named Siquier), he was succeeded first by his brother-in-law, Frederic L (see History of Hesse- Cassel), and next to him by a prince from the house of Holstein-Gottorp, Adolphus Frederic (1751-1771). The latter was succeeded by his son Gus- tavus III, who was shot at a masquerade, in 1792, and was succeeded by his son Gustavus IV. Adolphus. This king committed so many political blun- ders, that some contemporaries have thought proper to impute them to a SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 567 History of both Countries, and Geographical Description of Sweden. disorder in his brains ; in short, lie behaved in such a manner that at last his subjects were compelled to dethrone him. This took place in 1809, when the king's uncle, Charles XIII., succeeded him ; but as the latter was child- less, first the Danish prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- gustenburg (related to the royal Swedish family), and then (as this prince died suddenly in 1810) the French marshal Bernadotte was declared crown- prince of Sweden. In 1818, when Charles XIII. died, Bernadotte succeeded him by* the name of Charles XIV. John. He died in 1844, and was suc- ceeded by his son, the present reigning king Oscar, born on the 4th of July, 1799. That in 1814 Norway was annexed to Sweden, has already been stated in the History of Denmark, and page 419. On the other hand, Fin- land was in 1809 wrested from Sweden by Russia, which had unprovokedly been challenged by King Gustavus IV. Adolphus in an inexcusable manner. We shall now give a topographical description of each kingdom separately. A.— THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN. Area: 170,528 square miles. Population : 3,300,000 inhabitants. It embraces the eastern and larger half of the Scandinavian peninsula, and is officially divided into 24 counties, styled Lane. Yet as the ancient historical division into as many provinces is in substance left unaltered, and moreover the names of these prov- inces occur continually in common life, history and other read- ing, we shall in the ensuing description follow a similar course as in France, Spain, and other countries. The following 5 provinces are comprised by the general name of Svea- rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the Sueones (see above in history) : 568 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. 1. Upland, containing : Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, built on several small islands and peninsulas, near the entrance of Lake Malar into the Baltic Sea, has 88,000 inhabitants, and is a handsome city, noted for its magnificent royal palace and architectural monuments, its literary institutions, manufactures, extensive commerce, and safe and commo- dious harbor. The great iron warehouse, is remarkable for the immense quantity of that article deposited in it. The most notable of the churches (22 in number) is that of Riddarholm, containing the sepulchres of nearly all the kings of the house of "Wasa. Drottningholm, Haga, Rosendal, and Ul- riksdal, are romantically situated royal palaces and parks, in the neighbor- hood of Stockholm. Waxholm, a. town on an isle of the same name, at the entrance into the harbor of Stockholm, is noted for its citadel, and has 1,200 inhabitants. Norrtelge, a maritime town on the Baltic, northward and 46 miles distant from Stockholm, with 1,500 inhabitants, and manufactures of fire-arms and cloth Oeregrund, a maritime town on the Baltic, with good harbor, and 900 inhabitants. Bjork'6, an* island in the lake Malar, westward and 18 miles distant from Stockholm, is remarkable for its having once been the seat of the emporium of the same name (see page 38). Sigtuna, on the lake Malar, at present a town with only 600 inhabitants, but in the middle ages the capital of the kingdom, with magnificent churches and convents. Rosersberg, a stately royal palace on the lake Malar, with beautiful park. Upsala, a city on the river Fyris, northward and 54 miles distant from Stockholm, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above), to which belong a library containing more than 100,000 volumes, a remark- able botanic garden, a valuable collection of coins, an observatory, etc. ; for its cathedral, reared in the 13th century, and for its magnificent royal pal- ace, reared in the middle of the 16th century, by King Gustavus I. Skoklos- ter, an estate of the count of Brahe, romantically situated on the lake Malar, with an extensive and splendid Gothic palace, anciently a convent, reared in the 13th century. Dannemora, at about 28 miles distance from Upsala, is famed for its higly important iron mines, and the neighboring places of Oesterby, Lofsta, and Soderfors, are noted for their iron- works. JEJnkdping, a town on the lake Malar, north-westward and 56 miles distant from Stock- holm, with 1,500 inhabitants. 2. Sodermanland contains : Nykoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic Sea, south-westward and 88 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, important manufactures of cloth, cotton goods, etc., iron-works, and 3,200 in- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 569 Geographical Description of Sweden. habitants. Trosa, a maritime town on the Baltic, with considerable corn trade, fisheries, and 800 inhabitants. Tullgarn, a valuable royal private domain, with stately palace. Marie/red, a town on the lake Malar, westward and 44 miles distant from Stockholm, with 800 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated, on two isles of the lake, the highly remarkable Gothic royal castle of Grips/tolm, reared in the 13th century, and containing splendidly fur- nished apartments. Strengnas, a town on the lake Malar, with Gothic cathe- dral (reared in 1291), corn trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Eskilstuna, the chief manufacturing town in Sweden, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 86 miles distant from Stockholm, is noted especially for its cutleries, sword- blades, and fire-arms, and has 2,600 inhabitanta Thorshalla, a very ancient town, near Lake Malar, and in the neighborhood of Eskilstuna, has 800 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its Gothic church, whose steeple is 306 feet high. Sodertelge, a maritime town on a bay of the Baltic, with hosieries, and 1,200 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is the little seaport of Elfsnabben, or Hjelmsnabben, where Gustavus Adolphus embarked in 1630 with his army for Germany. 3. Nerike, between the Malar and Wener lakes, contains : Oerebbo, its capital, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 146 miles distant from Stock- holm, with an ancient, historically remarkable castle, a Gothic church, a no- table town-hall, various and important manufactures, and 4,600 inhabitants. The neighboring ancient castle of Goksholm, on the Hjelmar lake, is highly remarkable. Askersund, a mining town on the Wetter lake, with literary institutions, iron trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. 4. Westmanland, between Upland and Nerike, contains : Westeroas, its capital, on the Malar lake, 64 miles west-north-west of Stockholm, with re- markable ancient castle, notable cathedral, a renowned gymnasium, and va- rious other schools, considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Sala, a mining town, north-westward and 86 miles distant from Stockholm, has 3,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its silver mines, which, how- ever, are at present rather unproductive. Arboga (with 2,000 inhabitants), Koping (with 1,500 inhabitants), Lindesberg (with 800 inhabitants), and Nora (with 900 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Loka is a watering- place much resorted to. 5. Dalarne, or DcUekarlien, whose inhabitants have from old been distin- guished for their uprightness and loyalty, contains : Falun, its capital, and the chief mining town in Sweden, 176 miles east-north-east of Christiania 570 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. (in Norway), and north-westward and 166 miles distant from Stockholm, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its valuable copper mines (see above), but moreover for its distinguished mining academy, and its various and important manufactures. Sdter, Hedemora, and Avesta, towns with re- spectively 700, 1,100, and 800 inhabitants. The following 11 provinces are comprised by the general name of Gotha- rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the immigrated Goths (see past, in History) : 1. Oester- Gothland, between the Wetter lake, and the Baltic Sea, con- tains : Norrkoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic, south-westward and 130 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, several schools and char- ities for the poor and sick, a noted iron foundry, important manufactures of cloth, linen, etc., considerable commerce, and 13,000 inhabitants. Soderkop- ing, a town near the Baltic Sea, with stately town-house, mineral waters, and 1,100 inhabitants. Linkoping, a city situated in the centre of the province, has 4,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in 1138-51), its ancient castle, its gymnasium, and city-hall. Wadstena, a town romantically situated on the Wetter lake, south-westward and 140 miles distant from Stockholm, with an ancient, and once highly renowned nunnery (whose building was reared in the middle of the 13 th century), linen manufactures, and 2,500 inhabitants. Medewi, the most frequented watering-place in Sweden, is very romantically situated on the Wetter lake. Finspong is noted for its iron-works, and Motala (on the Wetter lake) for its manufactory of steam- engines. Skeninge, a town, with 1,100 inhabitants. 2. Smoaland, along the Baltic coast, contains : Calmar, its capital, on the Calmar Sound (that separates the island of Oeland from the Swedish conti- nent), 280 miles south-south-west of Stockholm, and 46 miles north-north-east of Carlskrona, with an ancient castle (where, in 1397, the convention was signed, according to which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united under the sway of Queen Margaret), a handsome cathedral, important manufac- tures, considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. The little place of Brbmsebro, at the frontier of Bleking, southward and 33 miles distant from Calmar, is noted in history for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1645, be- tween Sweden and Denmark. Wimmerby and Ekesj'6, towns with respectively 1,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. Wexio, a town on a lake, westward and 56 miles distant from Calmar, is noted for its gymnasium, and has 2,000 inhabi- tants. Westervik, a maritime town, on a bay of the Baltic, with rather con- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 671 Geographical Description of Sweden. tiderable commerce, and 3,600 inhabitants. Jonkoping, a city on the Wetter lake, north-westward and 146 miles distant from Calmar, with 3 churches, fire-arms, and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Grenna, a town on the Wetter lake, with a celebrated church, considerable trade in cattle, and 1,200 inhabitants. 3. The island of Oeland (596 square miles, and 35,000 inhabitants), situ- ated in the Baltic Sea, opposite the city of Calmar (see above), is noted for its cattle, and alum mines, and contains, among other places, the town of Borgholm, with 700 inhabitants. 4. The island of Gottland (895 square miles, and 42,000 inhabitants), situated in the Baltic Sea, north-eastward from the former, and southward and about 100 miles distant from Stockholm, is upon the whole fertile, was, in the period from 1448 to 1645, possessed by the Danes, and contains: Wisby, its capital, on the western shore, with a Gothic cathedral (reared in the beginning of the 13th century), leather and other manufactures, consider- able trade, and 4,600 inhabitants. That Wisby was, in the middle ages, a renowned emporium, has already been stated, page 50. Jlosendal, a hand- some estate, with beautiful park and gardens. 5. Bleking, a province along the southern coast of the Swedish continent, contains: Carlskrona, fortified capital, and chief station of the Swedish navy, on the Baltic Sea, 46 miles west-south-west of Calmar, has 14,000 in- habitants, and is noted for its vast docks, its naval depots and arsenal, and its extensive fortifications. The neighboring market-town of Rbnneby is noted for its wealth and industry. Carlshamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, west- ward and 28 miles distant from, Carlskrona, with canvass and leather manu- factures, commerce, and 4,500 inhabitants. Christianopel and Sblvitsborg, maritime towns, with respectively 950 and 1,600 inhabitants. 6. Skane (to be pronounced Scoane), the most level and fertile province, on the Sound and Baltic Sea, contains : Malmo, its capital, on the Souud, opposite Copenhagen, is a well-built city, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for several handsome public edifices and private buildings, its numerous manufactures, and corn trade. Lund, a very ancient city, situated in the in- terior of the province, at 14 miles distance from Malmo, has 4,500 inhabitants, and is noted both for its university (see above) and its highly remarkable cathedral (reared in the middle ages) and other architectural monuments. In the middle ages this city was densely peopled, and had not less than 22 churches. Ystad, a maritime town on the Baltic, is the station of packets for 572 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Sweden. Stralsund (in Prussia), and has 4,400 inhabitants. Landskrona, a maritime town on the Sound, between Malmo and Helsingborg, with a good harbor, various manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants. Opposite the town, in the Sound, is situated the little island of liven, with 500 inhabitants, and histori- cally remarkable for that the noted astronomer Tycho de Brahe (-fin 1601) dwelt here for several years, until 1597. He had here two observatories. Helsingborg, a maritime town on the Sound, right opposite Elsenor (in Zealand), with noted potteries, sea-bathing, and 3,000 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is the watering-place of Ramlosa, much resorted to. Near Kvllen, northward and 9 miles distant from Helsingborg, are important coal mines. Christianstad, a fortified city on the river Helge, with manufactures of woollens and gloves, a handsome church, and 4,500 inhabitants. Cimbris- hamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, with 850 inhabitants. JSngelholm, a maritime town on the Cattegat, with coal trade, and 900 inhabitants. 7. Holland, along the Cattegat, contains : Halmstad, its capital, on the Cat- tegat, with noted salmon-fishery, woollen manufactures, sea-bathing, com- merce, and 2,000 inhabitants. Other maritime towns on the Cattegat are : Laholm (with 1,000 inhabitants), Falkenberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), Warberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Kongsbacka (with 1,000 inhabitants). 8. Wester- Gothland, between the "Wetter lake and the Cattegat, contains: Gottenburg (in Swedish Gotheborg), the first commercial city in Sweden next to Stockholm, on the Gotha river (left bank), about 9 miles from the Cattegat, has 30,000 inhabitants, is handsomely built, and abounds in magnifi- cent dwelling-houses, and is noted for its extensive commerce, various and important manufactures, its schools, splendid cathedral, and its Gothic Ger- man church, with high steeple. Opposite the city, on the other side of the named river, is the island of Hisingen, of 30 miles in circuit, and with 10 parishes. The very strong little fortress of Nya (New) Mfsborg, near the mouth of the Gotha river, was reared in 1644. Wenersborg, a town at the southern extremity of the Wener lake, northward and 58 miles distant from Gottenburg, with considerable transit trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Trollhatta is noted for the Falls of the Gotha river. Ailing sos, a town on the river Safve, about half-way between Wenersborg and Gottenburg, is noted for its manufactures of cloth and silk stockings, and has 1,000 inhabitants. Boros and Ulricehamn, towns with respectively 2,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. Skara, a town in a well-cultivated plain, north-east- ward and 72 miles distant from Gottenburg, with remarkable Gothic cathe- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 673 Geographical Description of Sweden. dral, reared in the 11th century, a noted gymnasium, and 1,800 inhabitants. Skofde (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hjo (pronounced like you, has 700 inhabi- tants), Falkoping (with 800 inhabitants), Lidkoping (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Mariestad (with 2,600 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Carlsborg, a strong fortress on the Wetter lake, reared in 1809. 9. Wermland, on the north side of the Weuer lake, contains : Carlstad, its capital, at the mouth of the Clara river into the Wener lake, with a hand- some cathedral, a famed gymnasium, extensive iron and copper trade, noted fairs, and 3,400 inhabitants. Christinehamn, an important trading town on the Wener lake, with considerable iron trade, noted annual fairs, and 2,000 inhabitants. Philipstad, a mining town, with iron trade, and 1,000 inhabi- tants. 10. Dalsland, between the Wener lake and Norway, contains : Amoal, its capital, on the Wener lake, northward and 100 miles distant from Gottenburg, with considerable trade in iron, timber, and tar, and 1,600 inhabitants. Bil- lingfors and Kollero are noted for their iron-works. 11. Boh us, between Gottenburg and Norway, on the Cat tegat, contains : Kongelf, its capital, on the Gotha river, northward and 14 miles distant from Gottenburg, has at present only 850 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages a considerable city, and the residence of several kings of Norway, to which Bohus then belonged. Marstrand, a very ancient town on an island in the Cattegat, has 1,400 inhabitants, and a fine harbor, and is noted for its strong fortress of Carlsten. Uddewalla, a maritime town on the bay of the Cattegat, with some manufactures, considerable commerce, and 4,000 inhabi- tants. Stromstad, a maritime town near the frontier of Norway, with con- siderable fishery, and 1,800 inhabitants. The following 7 provinces are comprised by the general name of Norr- land, because they are situated to the north of Svearike and Gotharike : 1. Gestrikland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, contains: Gefle, its capital, and at the same time the capital of Norrland, on a bay of the Gulf of Bothnia, north- ward and 96 miles distant from Stockholm, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its extensive trade in iron, timber, etc., and commerce, its impor- tant manufactures, considerable fisheries, and its very handsome city-halL In the neighborhood is the watering-place of Hillehrunn. 2. Helsingland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the south bounded by Gestrikland, is famed for its excellent linens, and noted for its vast number of mountain-cocks and grouses, of which in winter whole sled-loads are sent 5H EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. to Stockholm. It contains : Hudirswall, its capital, on the Gulf of Bothnia, with considerable linen manufactures, extensive trade in timber, flax (100,000 pounds of which are annually exported), linen (200,000 yards exported an- nually), butter, fowl, etc., good harbor, and 2,000 inhabitants. Soderhamn, a maritime town on the Gulf of Bothnia, is likewise noted for its linen manu- factures and linen trade, moreover for the finest church in Norrland, and 1,800 inhabitants. 3. Herjedalen, between Helsingland and Norway, contains : Ljusnedal, its capital, has only 350 inhabitants, but is noted, for its iron and copper mines, and iron-works. 4. Medelpad, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and bounded on the south by Hel- singland, is noted for its extensive forests, which harbor the elk, reindeer, lynx, beaver, and vast numbers of wild fowl, and contains : Sundswall, its capital, on the named gulf, with some woollen manufactures, considerable trade in timber, tar, hides, etc., and 2,000 inhabitants. 5. Jemtland, at the frontier of Norway, contains : Oestersund, its capital, on the Stor lake, with considerable inland trade, and 100 inhabitants. 6. Angermanland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, bounded on the south by Me- delpad, contains : Hernosand, its capital, on the named gulf, northward and 230 miles distant from Stockholm, with 2,500 inhabitants, a noted gymna- sium, considerable linen trade and fairs, fishery, and a printing-office, where books are printed in the language of the Laplanders. *l. Westerbottn, comprising the most northerly Swedish coasting tract along the Gulf of Bothnia, and containing: Umea, its capital, on the named gulf, 140 miles north-north-east of Hernosand, is regularly laid out^and has 1,500 inhabitants, engaged in trading and fishing business. Pitea and Lulea, mari- time towns, each with 1,200 inhabitants. Lapland in general belongs partly to Sweden, partly to Norway, and partly to Russia, is a cold, desolate region, and lying north of the Arctic circle, extends eastward to the White Sea, and westward to the Ocean. The Swedish Lapland is, however, situated in the interior of the Scandinavian peninsula, and separated by Norway from the ocean, and by the Tor- nea river from Russian Lapland, Its area is estimated at about 40,000 square miles, and its population at 12,000 inhabitants, among them only 4,000 Laplanders, while the remainder consists of Swedish, Finlandish, and even German settlers. For the rest, the Swedish Lapland is noted for the immense quantities of iron ores, and many districts there are distinguished SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 575 Geographical Description of Sweden. for the wild and sublime character of the scenery. The Laplanders have been nearly all converted to Christianity, and are, generally, attached to its duties. Great crimes are unknown among them. In short, they are a simple, harmless people, greatly attached to their native country. They are of short stature, being generally under five feet in height. Their chief wealth is in the reindeer, which yields them food and clothing, and transports them in sledges over the snow. The Laplanders move about from place to place, with their herds of reindeer, and seldom reside in towns. In summer they live in tents, and in winter in rude huts, formed of stones and earth, and covered with turf. The villages are very small seldom containing more than 100 or 200 inhabitants. The most remarkable among them (but not exclu- sively inhabited by Laplanders) are : Juckasjarwi, a village on the Tornea river, in 67° 51' north latitude, with the most northerly church in Europe; Kengis, with the most northerly iron- works existing ; Jochnioch, with church, school, and 1,400 inhabitants, and Asele, a village on the Angerman river, with church and school. The only foreign colony Sweden is possessed of, is the island of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, which was ceded to Swe- den in 1784, by France. B.— THE KINGDOM OF NORWAY. Area: 122,752 square miles. Population : 1,350,000 inhabitants. It embraces the western, and smaller half of the Scandinavian peninsula, and is divided into 1 7 bailiwicks, that are subdivided in 45 smaller districts, and 66 townships, or Sorenskriverier, as they are styled. The ancient and historical division into 4 sec- 576 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Norway. tions, styled stifter (chapters), being at the same time the dioceses of as many bishops, is in common life still frequently alluded to ; and for this reason we shall, in the following topographical de- scription of Norway, denote the capitals of sections (bearing the same names) thus : +. -f-CHRisTiANiA, the capital of Norway, and residence of the royal governor, on a bay of the Cattegat, known by the name of Christianiafjord, northward and 172 miles distant from Gottenburg, is regularly laid out, while most of the dwelling-houses and all public edifices are built of free-stone, has 27,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see back ; the library contains 112,000 volumes), and several other higher schools and literary institutions, its remarkable cathedral, its important manufactures, and considerable com- merce. After the ancient mountain castle of Aggerhuus, the section, or " stift" (see above) of Christiania is sometimes named. Moss, a maritime town on the Christianiafjord (see above), is noted for its iron-works and saw- mills, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Drammen, a city on a bay, connected with that of Christiania, south-westward and 30 miles distant from Christiania, is the centre for the Norwegian timber and lumber trade, is moreover noted for its iron-works, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Laurvig, a maritime town at the entrance into Christianiafjord (see above), 72 miles south-south-west of Christiania, is noted for its considerable iron trade, and has 3,600 inhabitants. Close by stands the fortress of Frederiksvarn. The maritime town of Tonsberg (with timber trade, and 2,200 inhabitants) was, in the middle ages, a densely populated city, containing, among others, 9 churches. The neigh- boring ancient castle of Jarlsberg is noted in history. Skeen, a town on a river of the samo name, with numerous saw-mills, timber trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. Frederiksstad and Frederikshald are fortified and remarkable maritime towns near the Swedish frontier, with respectively 3,000 and 6,300 inhabitants. Near the latter stands, on a steep rock, 350 feet high, the strong fortress of Frederikssteen, which, in 1718, was besieged by the Swedes, on which occasion Charles XII. was assassinated (see History of Sweden). In the valley, known by the name of Nummedalen, is situated the important mining town of Kongsberg, with 4,400 inhabitants, and noted not only for its silver mines (see above), but also for its mining academy, and various manu- factures. (-Chrtstiansand, a city on a very spacious bay of the Skagerrak, with a cathedral vast docks, considerable trade in timber and corn, and SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 57*7 Geographical Description of Norway. 8,300 inhabitants. Mandal, a maritime town with 2,400 inhabitants, is noted for its pickled and smoked salmon, of which considerable quantities are ex- ported. Arendal, a town romantically situated on a bay of the Skagerrak, is noted for its iron mines, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Oesteriisber and Stavan- ger, noted maritime and commercial towns, with respectively 2,000 and 4,300 inhabitants. (-Bergen, a commercial city on a bay of the North Sea, 166 miles west-north-west of Christiania, with a spacious and commodious har- bor, 7 churches (among which one is for Germans), vast docks, the most con- siderable commerce in Norway, various manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. Bergen, founded in 1069, was, in the middle ages, a city with more than 30 churches and convents, and for a long period the centre of the commerce car- ried on by the Hanseatic League in the northern countries of Europe. — -j-Drontheim (in Norwegian Trondhiem), a city on a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, northward and 250 miles distant from Christiania, with a scientific society, a remarkable cathedral (where the kings of Norway are crowned), a gymnasium, seminary for Laplanders, various manufactures, considerable commerce, and 14,000 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their hospitality and polite manners. Drontheim was, in the middle ages, a famous city, with 10 churches, 5 convents, etc. In its neighborhood are many iron- works, among them those of Leerfoss deserve to be noticed. Roeraas, a mining town in a very desolate mountainous district, 60 miles south-south-east of Drontheim, is famed for its considerable copper mines (see back), and has 3,200 inhabitants. Christiansund and Molle, maritime towns on the Atlantic Ocean, with respectively 2,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. — The section, or chap- ter (stift; see back) of Nordland, embracing the most northern part of Norway, comprises Nordland proper, and the Norwegian Lapland. To the former belongs the group of the Lofoden isles, near the western coast, among which are to be noticed the isle of Rost (the most southern, in about 66° 15' north latitude), anol the isle of Mosken, noted for the Moskenas-Strommen, as the Norwegians name the Mahlstrom, of which formerly, in other European countries, the opinion was entertained, as if it was a terrific whirlpool, draw- ing in sometimes ships, as well as whales, and other animals, and dash- ing them on the rocks beneath. That is, however, not at all the case ; on the contrary, the Mahlstrom is annually in the months of February and March the meeting-place of 3,000 or 4,000 fishing-boats, and at that period some- times 16 million cod-fishes, haddocks, etc., are caught here. Bodoe, a town on a bay, named Sattenfjord, in 66° 15' north latitude, is noted for its seaport 25 618 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Norway. of Hundholm, where a considerable barter is kept up with the neighboring fishermen. Altstahaug is the seat of the bishop of Nordland. — The Norwe- gian Lapland, styled Finmarken (about the Laplanders, see under the head of Sweden), contains Hammer f est, a town on an island in the Arctic Ocean, in 70° 38' north latitude, has 400 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for trade and barter, especially by Russians. In the neighborhood are rich cop- per mines, at which 1,100 workmen are employed. About the North Cape, see page 3. Tromsoe, a town on an island of the same name (north latitude 68° 36'), with a church, and 800 inhabitants. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Area : 2,099,903 square miles. Population: 62,000,000 inhabitants. It is almost universally known, that Russia is by no means re- stricted to Europe, but that it comprises also a considerable part of Asia, and even part of North America. Considered in this view it is styled the Russian empire, whose total area is estimated at not less than 8,552,700 square miles, with a total population of 67,000,000 inhabitants. As this hook treats only of Europe, we must in substance re- strict ourselves to the description of European Russia, though it is almost impossible to avoid frequent digressions into Asiatic Russia, which contains several of the chief sources of the public revenues of the Russian empire. European Russia, on the north bounded by the Arctic Ocean (with the White Sea, see page 9), and on the south by the Black Sea, etc. (see page 10), is on the east by the Ural Mountains (and Ural river), and on the south by the Caucasus Mountains (see page 8) separated from Asiatic Russia, and borders on the south- west and west upon European Turkey, the Austrian empire, and the kingdom of Prussia. — Its principal lakes and rivers are noticed on pages 10, 11,12, and 13 j and about the Tauric Mountains and Wolchonsky Forest, see page 8. The great majority of the population, or more than sixty mil- lion inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race ; while the Lap- 680 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia— its Population in point of Origin, Religion, etc. landers, the aboriginal Finns (not to be confounded with the pre- dominant inhabitants of Finland, who are of Swedish origin), the Samojedes, Kalmucks, and partly the Baschhirs belong to the Mon- golian race. As to their origin, the Russians proper and the Poles belong to the great tribe of Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), whose total number in the Russian empire amounted in 1837 to 48,000.000, including 4 millions Lettonians, Bulgarians, etc. The number of Germans in Russia (whose chief seat is in the Baltic provinces), is estimated at 800,000 ; that of Jews at 1,600,000 (chiefly in the Polish provinces). More than 6 mil- lions are of Tartarian origin (not to be confounded with the Mon- golian race, as all genuine Tartarian tribes, for instance, the Turks, Magyars, etc., belong decidedly to the Caucasian race) ; and the remainder consists of Greek, Persian, and other oriental tribes, Gypsies, and the above-mentioned people : Laplanders, Samojedes, Kalmucks, etc.* In regard to religion, the established church is the Greek, and generally all Russians are Greek Christians ; while nearly all Poles are Roman Catholics, and most of the Germans Lutherans. The Tartarian and other kindred tribes in the southern and south-eastern provinces of European Russia are for the most part Mohammedans. About the Jews, see above. The Russian nation is divided into three classes, the nobility, citizens, and peasantry. (About the same distinction is estab- lished in Poland, while in the Baltic provinces the social condi- tion of the population bears a strong resemblance to that of Ger- many.) There is an essential distinction between hereditary and * The Cossacks are not peradvcnture a separate tribe, but genuine Rus- sians, with the only difference, tliat since the 17th century they are endowed with various privileges, and (on the other hand) in lieu of paying taxes, are required to act as soldiers in time of war. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 581 The Russian Nobility, Peasantry, etc. personal nobility. The number of nobles by birth (or of those who belong to the hereditary nobility) in the whole Russian em- fire (thus including the Polish, Bulgarian, Tartarian and other nobles), was some years ago about 551,000 ; while the personal nobility (i. e. for lifetime only) is conferred upon the higher classes of the clergy and citizens, and upon the civil and military public officers (provided that they are not already nobles by birth). The nobles, as well as the commoners, are exempted from the poll-tax (land-taxes, excises, and other similar taxes they have to pay), and cannot be compelled to enter the army, though a great many of them enter it voluntarily. By the term of cit- izens is to be understood all free inhabitants of cities and towns, who are engaged in commerce, trade, manufacturing, and other branches of industry. They are divided into 6 classes, styled guilds (compare pages 52 and 53), and about 4,500,000 in num- ber. The peasantry comprises freeholders (about 700,000), peasants of the crown (more than 17,500,000), who at present are to be considered as personally free men, and thirdly, bondsmen (com- pare page 36), about 21,000,000 in number, and for the most part on the estates of the nobility. Thus two thirds of the population are free men, and moreover the emperor, Nicholas, has in recent times provided by the law for the gradual emancipation of the remaining third also. To emancipate them at once, would have been a hard blow to the bondsmen themselves, for it is a fact, that they generally are in a better and more comfortable condition than many free men, at least among the lower classes, who not seldom endure great distress, while the bondsmen, so to say, are never suffered to starve, their masters being compelled by the law to provide for their wants, in cases of necessity (sickness, weakness from age, etc.). It has frequently occurred, that bondsmen, emancipated by their masters, have spontaneously re- turned into their former condition of servitude. They not only EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia— its Soil aud Natural Products. till the ground (two days in the week for their own account), but are employed in various other manners : as mechanics, operatives, servants, coachmen, etc., and have ample opportunity to earn suf- ficient money for their redemption from bondage. Hundreds of them are annually levied as recruits, and they are at once free, for themselves and their descendants, as soon as they enter the army. The surface of European Russia is generally level ; its chief features being vast plains and large rivers, with numerous lakes in the north-western quarter. In the northern provinces, it is intensely cold in winter, while in the southern, the climate is mild and pleasant. The soil is, in general, highly productive, though in the most northern provinces the cold climate and the short summer pre- vent the full development of the natural fertility of the soil. In the southern and some other parts of the country more or less ex- tensive steppes are to be found, the most remarkable of which are those of the Kirgises, in Bessarabia, near the Don and Dnieper, the Nogaian, of Azow, etc. Nearly 300 millions of acres are appro- priated to agriculture, yielding annually about 1 52,750,000 quarters of wheat, rye, and other descriptions of grain, of which more than 9,500,000 are exported. In 1841 corn was exported to the value of 10,382,509 rubles in silver; in 1842 to the value of 12,191,529 rubles; and in 1843 to the value of 12,899,911 ru- bles in silver. Of flax were, in 1843, exported 965,953 quintals, and of hemp 739,324 quintals. In Bessarabia, Tauria, Crimea, and on the banks of the Don even the vine is cultivated, and the annual produce of very good wines is estimated at about 2,200,- 000 gallons. Vast forests abound in various parts of Russia, and they furnish the seaports with large supplies of timber, pitch, tar, etc., for exportation. Black cattle are reared in immense num- bers ; the finest breed is to be found in Podolia, Volhynia, and RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 588 Natural Products and Manufactures. Ukraine, from which provinces thousands of heads are annually exported. Horses are likewise reared in vast numbers, and of various breed ; they are in general distinguished for their swift- ness and endurance. The total number of sheep in the Russian empire is estimated at 60,000,000 ; they are of different breed. European Russia numbered 4,000,000 of improved breed in 1843, when 169,491 quintals of their wool was exported. The above- mentioned extensive forests (i. e. those in the northern provinces, and especially in Siberia) abound in wild animals that are eagerly hunted for their valuable furs, as the sable, ermine, black fox, etc. Yet the bear, wolf, and other beasts of prey are likewise very common. The sturgeon, etc. fisheries of the river Volga, and of the Caspian Sea, are extensive and very productive. Upwards of 10,000 fishing^ooats are employed on the Volga alone. Rus- sia is noted for its precious metals, of which gold and platina are found in the Ural Mountains, also in the Siberian province of Jeniseisk, and silver in Siberia, while copper, iron, and lead are met with in various quarters. In the five years' period of 1842- 1846, the Russian gold mines in the Ural Mountains yielded a total produce of gold, which was, in England, estimated at £12,- 784,808. In the one year of 1843, they produced 724,640 ounces of gold. Of platina were, in the same year, 71,680 ounces pro- duced. The annual produce in silver is, upon an average, esti- mated at 84,000 marks ; of copper, at 86,000 quintals ; of lead, at 14,350 quintals, and of iron, at 3,500.000 quintals. The Ural Mountains contain also diamonds, emeralds, and other precious stones. — Salt is extensively made, especially in the southern provinces. The manufactures, which, during the greater part of the last century almost restricted to those of the noted Russia leather, have, since the reign of the empress Katharine II., and especially since that of the emperors Alexander and Nicholas, made aston- 584 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia— its Manufactures and Commerce. ishing progress. In 1812 the Russian empire numbered 2,332 manufactories, with 119,093 operatives ; in 1835, 6,045 manufac- tories, with 279,673 operatives ; in 1839 the former had increased to 6,855, and the latter to 412,931 ; and since the manufactures have increased to such an extent that they furnish the country with almost sufficient supplies, of which only about one sixth is imported from foreign countries. The various articles manufac- tured in 1843 had a value of nearly 103 millions of rubles in sil- ver, while those which were imported in the same year, had only the value of 18 millions. The chief manufacturiDg district is in and around Moscow, where in the just-named year cotton goods were manufactured to the value of 20,163,174, and silks to the value of 1,367,331 rubles in silver. Of other articles are to be noticed cloth, canvass, cutleries and harduMre, leather, glass- ware, etc. The commerce is very extensive, and increasing almost every year. In 1843 the exports were to the value of 82,565,600, and the imports to the value of 75,028,399 rubles in silver ; thus, the former surpassing the latter by 7,537,201 rubles in value. The exports consist chiefly of tallow, corn, hemp, flax, linseed, hemp-seed, timber, wool, canvass, iron, copper, Russian leather, furs (in 1843 exported to the amount of 2,205,000 silver rubles in value), wax, hog's bristles, candles, soap, etc. Great fairs are held in different places, which attract vast crowds of merchants and traders from all parts. The inland commerce is much facilitated by the nu- merous rivers, canals, and lakes ; and by the snow, in the winter season, over which sleighs travel with great rapidity. The chief internal trade is with China, Independent Tartary, Persia, and Germany. With regard to the canals in European Russia, it is doubtful whether they, in general, do not afford more practical ad- vantages than those in Great Britain. At least, it is a fact, that by these canals the White, Black, Caspian, and Baltic Seas have RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 585 The Russian Commerce, Schools and Government. been brought into connection with each other, and thus navigable internal lines, of enormous length, been established. The canals of Wisnei- Wolotsschok, Tichwin, Ladoga, and Nowgorod unite the Caspian Sea with the Baltic ; the canals of Kubenski and Katharine, unite the Caspian with the White Sea ; and the canals of Beresina, Oginski, and Machawez unite the Black Sea with the Baltic, while on the other hand, a direct connection between these canals themselves is established likewise. With regard to general diffusion of knowledge, and to common- school education, Russia has hitherto been greatly behind other European countries, yet is at present advancing in this particular, as well as in others. Considerable exertions are made by the government to introduce schools and instruct the lower classes of the people. In the period from 1837 to 1845 not less than 4,924 common schools have been founded among the peasantry of the crown. They were in the last-named year frequented by 271,262 children. In the higher branches of knowledge Russia rivals the rest of Europe. Beside several scientific societies, and public and private libraries, each of which contains from 100,000 to 450,000 volumes, there are 7 universities (those of Warsaw and Wilna have been abolished in 1832), viz., at Dorpat (founded in 1632, and in 1844 frequented by 484 students), at Moscow (founded in 1705 and in 1844 with 836 students), at Kasan (founded in 1803, and in 1844 with 359 students), at Charkow (founded in 1803, and in 1844 with 410 students), at St. Petersburg (founded in 1819, and in 1844 with 557 students), at Helsingfors (founded in 1640 by Queen Christiana of Sweden, in Abo, in 1827 transferred to Hel- singfors, and in 1843 with 463 students), and at Kiew (founded in 1833, and in 1844 with 320 students). Every governmental or provincial capital contains a gymnasium ; in those of Irkutsk and Kiachta the Japan and Chinese languages are taught. The government is an absolute monarchy. All power emanates 586 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia— its Finances and Army. from the Emperor, who is the head of the state and (Greek) church, and styled the Autocrat of all the Russias. The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for several years has been about $81,000,000. One of the chief sources of the revenues are the customs, or duties, on goods imported from foreign countries. The public debt amounted in 1843 to 290,- 434,155 rubles in silver, thus being far less than that not only of Great Britain, but also of France or Spain. The Russian army numbers at present not less than 1,000,000 men in the war department, and is arranged into six main bodies, the general reserve, and the several corps of Cossacks. The six main bodies of the army are the following : 1. The great movable European army of operation, consisting of 465,720 men, with 1.200 pieces of ordnance. 2. The European army of reserve, numbering 202,480 men, with 472 pieces of artillery. 3. The Caucasian army, consisting of 150,167 men, with 302 pieces. 4. The main body of the army in Finland, numbering 16,000 men, with 16 cannons. 5. That of Orenburg, consisting of 64,000 men, with 16 pieces ; and 6. The main body of the army in Siberia, con- sisting of 16,000 men, with 16 pieces of artillery. The several regular corps of Cossacks (see note back) amount to 50,000 men. Other Cossacks, generally forming irregular troops, have to guard the frontiers of the empire from inroads, etc. Thus the disposable forces Russia is entitled to send in the field in time of war, amount to about 800,000 men. Of course they con- sist only of the European armies of operation and reserve, and of the regiments of Cossacks ; because the main bodies of army in Caucasian Russia, in the province of Orenburg, etc., must keep their stations for the maintaining of internal peace and order there, and for the safety of the frontiers. As for the garrisons in other parts of the interior, and especially in the Polish prov- inces, they are easily provided for by the general reserve, whose RUSSIA. IN EUROPE. 587 The Russian Army and Navy. amount depends on the urgency of the circumstances, and for the most part comprise the troops trained up in the military colonies. The latter were established in 1 820 with the view partly to save a large amount of the expenses for the army, and partly to allevi- ate the burden of the recruiting. They number about 400,000 soldiers. In 1831 they underwent some reforms, and are now styled districts of farmer-soldiers. Since that period the system of recruiting the army by the conscription or a general levy pre- vails again. Liable to conscription are particularly the sons of tradesmen and peasantry, and usually two out of one hun- dred are levied. The merchants, professors, artists, physicians, civil officers, lawyers, etc., are not liable to the duty of military service ; and that bondsmen become free men as soon as they enter the army, is already noticed above. The navy consisted in 1840 of 56 ships of the line, carrying from 74 to 1 20 guns, 48 frigates, carrying from 44 to 60 guns, and an adequate number of sloops of war, brigs, and steamers. Of the ships of the line 31, and of the frigates 30, were stationed in the Baltic Sea (where Kronstadt and Reval are the chief sta- tions), and the remainder in the Black Sea, where the chief sta- tions of the navy are Sevastopol, Cherson, and Nicolajew. Ships of war of smaller size are stationed in the Caspian and White Seas. There are the following Orders of honor: 1. The order of St. Andrew, in one class, and instituted in 1698. 2. The Alexan- der Newsky order, in one class, and instituted in 1722. 3. The White Eagle order, primitively a Polish order, instituted in 1335, and renewed in 1705, in one class. 4. The St. Ann order, primi- tively a Holsteinian order, instituted in 1735, and in 4 classes. 5. The St. Stanislaus order, primitively a Polish order, instituted in 1765, and in 3 classes. 6. The order of St. George, a military order of merit, instituted in 1769, and in 4 classes. 7. The order of St. Wladimir, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1782; and 588 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia— its History. 8. The St. Katharine order, only for ladies, in 2 classes, and in- stituted in 1714. History. — The ancient inhabitants of European Russia were but very little known to the Greeks and Romans, and comprised either by the general name Scythians, or by that of Sarmatians. They belonged to the Slavonic tribe as well as those who settled in the country at a later period (see page 29). They founded two subsequently renowned states of Novgorod (compare page 52) and Kiew ; yet for the rest, they were almost constantly engaged in civil wars. To put an end to them, the people of Novgorod and other pow- erful tribes sent in 862 of the Christian era, an embassy to the Scandinavian peninsula, which then already was noted for valiant and prudent men, and asked for one of them to become their sovereign. Three brothers, named Rurik, Snio and Truvor, and belonging to the family of Russ (hence subse- quently the name of Russia), followed the invitation, and Rurik, the eldest of them, became thus the ancestor of the still reigning dynasty of Russia. He founded the grand-duchy of Great Russia, whose capital was first Nov- gorod, but then Kiew. One of Rurik's descendants and successors, "Wladimir, surnamed the Great, married a daughter of the Greek emperor in 988, and as she was a Christian, he not only himself, but also his people, were con- verted to Christianity. In the course of time not less than 400 churches were built in Kiew, which at the same time became a city of such extent and splendor, that it used to be called a second Constantinople. At a later period a second grand-duchy took existence, viz., that of Wladimir ; and be- side it there were 50 principalities, which indeed nominally, yet for the most part not actually, were subjected to the sovereignty of the grand dukes. This being the state of things, Russia was an easy prey to the Mongolians, who in 1238 invaded the country and conquered it, with the exception of the city and republic of Novgorod. They suffered, however, the Russian grand dukes to continue reigning, though they were considered as their vassals and had to pay tribute to them ; and restricted their immediate authority and government to the kingdoms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time com- prised by the name of Kaptshak. In 1328 the grand-duchy of Wladimir was united with that of Moscow, in 1480 the yoke of the Mongolians thrown off, and in the years 1552 and 54 their last possessions in Russia, Kaptshak, re-conquered. Meanwhile, the grand duke Ivan, surnamed the Great, and reigning from 1462 to 1505, had subjected all dependent principalities to his RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 589 History of Russia. authority, and thus established one single and united empire, upon which he assumed the title of Czar (which means nothing else but king). In 1598 the male line of the house of Rurik became extinct, and now a period of fifteen years ensued, during which both the Poles and Swedes wrested several prov- inces from the empire, which at that time was the scene of civil wars. At last the Russians regained strength, and driving away the enemies from abroad, elected Michael Romanow (whose mother belonged to the house of Rurik) their king, in 1613. King Michael died in 1645, and was succeeded by his son Alexei (1645-1676), who was succeeded by Ins grandson, Feodor IIL (1676-1682). All three were distinguished for their governmental skill and virtues. When Feodor IIL died in 1682, he was succeeded by his two sons, Ivan and Peter, at once. Yet the latter (born on the 20th June, 1672), leaving to his brother only the title of Czar, ascended in 1689 the throne as autocrat, by the name of Peter I, and was subsequently surnamed the Great. In the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), he wrested the provinces of Ingria, Esthnia, and Livonia from Sweden, and in the wars with the Turks he extended the Russian boundaries to the Sea of Azof. In 1722 he assumed the title of Emperor of all the Russias. He died in 1725, and was succeeded first by his consort, the empress Katharine L, then by his grandson, Peter IL, with whom the male line of the house of Romanow became extinc£, in 1730. Yet Peter L had left behind two daughters, Ann (married to the duke Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp), and Elizabeth ; and his brother Ivan (4- in 1696) had likewise left behind two daughters, Katharine (duchess of Mecklenburg), and Ann (duchess of Kurland). The latter ascended first the throne as reigning empress, and was in 1740 succeeded by her niece (daughter of her sister Katharine), who, however, was removed in 1741, and succeeded by the reigning empress Elizabeth (daughter of Peter I.), who died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. (son of her sister Ann, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp; see History of Holstein), whose reign, however, did not last longer than six months, when he was succeeded by his consort, the empress Katharine II. (1762-1796). The latter was succeeded by her son, Paul I. (1796-1801), who was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. The present reigning emperor, since 1825, is Alexander's brother, Nicholas Z, born on the 7th July, 1796 The Russian empire is divided into about 60 counties, styled governments, which are subdivided into districts, styled circles. 590 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Great Russia. Into 50 of these governments is European Russia divided ; but as it embraces, beside Russia proper, various constituent parts, whose names continually occur in history and other reading, and which therefore require to be described separately, we shall give the topographical description of European Russia in the fol- lowing order of succession : I. Great Russia ; II. Little Russia ; III. The Baltic Provinces ; IV. The Grand-duchy of Finland ; V. West or Polish Russia ; VI. The Kingdom of Poland ; VII. The Kingdom of Kasan ; VIII. The Kingdom of Astrachaii, and IX. South Russia. — The governmental capitals will be found denoted thus, +. L— GREAT RUSSIA. Area : 852,000 square miles. Population : 24,000,000 inhabitants. It comprises the centre of European Russia, extending north- ward to the Arctic Ocean, has from old retained the above-stated name, and contains : -f-Moscow, the old capital, by eminence, of the Russian empire, and until 1720 the imperial residence (the emperors are, for the rest, yet crowned here), in a beautiful and fertile plain, on the Moskwa (a branch of the Oka, which is a tributary of the Volga), south-eastward and 500 miles distant from St. Petersburg, and about 1,000 miles east-north-east of Berlin ; had, in 1840, 15,275 dwelling-houses, and in 1843 a population of 375,200 inhabitants. In the great conflagration in 1812, which lasted from the 14th to the 21st Sep- tember, 6,500 buildings were destroyed. The long since rebuilt city contains a vast number of highly remarkable, and partly very magnificent public and RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 591 Geographical Description of Great Russia. private edifices and palaces ; for it is in the winter season the chief residence of the Russian nobles. Among the public edifices ranks first the Kremlin, a very extensive castle, being 5 or 7 miles in circuit, and surrounded by a wall 60 feet in height, and with numerous Gothic towers. The Kremlin comprises, beside the Gothic ancient palace of the Russian Czars, several convents, and not less than 32 churches, among which are to be noticed St. Mary's Ascen- sion's church (where the emperors are crowned), St Michael's cathedral, with the sepulchres of Ivan the Great, and the church steeple, named Ivan Veliki, containing 22 bells, the largest of which weighs 1,400 quintals (not to be con- founded with another bell, founded in 1734, which is 67 feet round, 19 feet high, weighs 2,250 quintals, and is to be considered as the largest bell in the world). The aggregate number of churches in Moscow is 400, beside 637 chapels. The church of St. Basil is remarkable for the peculiar style of its architecture. Moscow is not only the centre of the inland trade of Rus- sia, but at the same time noted for its exceedingly great wealth. Its mer- chants and tradesmen display much luxury, and rival, in this point, the rich nobles ; except they are on business tours, they are seldom seen in the streets but in coach-and-four or six horses. About the important manufactures of Moscow see above, and about its history, see page 38. Troizkoi Sergiev, a market-town noted for its wealthy convent and remarkable cathedral, is situ- ated south-eastward and 44 miles distant from Moscow. Mosaisk, a town on the Moskwa, westward and 60 miles distant from Moscow, has 4,500 in- habitants, and is remarkable for the battle on the 7th September, 1812. -{-Smolensk, a city on the Dnieper, 240 miles west-south-west of Moscow, with silk, linen, and leather manufactures, noted horse-marts, considerable trade, and 14,700 inhabitants. -{-Kaluga, a city on the Oka, south-westward and 106 miles distant from Moscow, with numerous and important manufac- tures, considerable trade, and 35,500 inhabitants. Borowsk, a town on the Protwa, is noted for its greens, and has 8,200 inhabitants. -{-Tula, an impor- tant manufacturing city, on the Upa (a branch of the Volga), southward and 120 miles distant from Moscow, has 52,400 inhabitants, and is especially noted for its great manufactory of fire-arms and hardware, its numerous cloth and other manufactures, and its extensive trade. Bjelew, a town on the Oka, is likewise noted for hardware, etc., manufactures, and has 8,900 inhabitants. -{-Orel, a city on the Oka, 220 miles south-south-west of Moscow, has 32,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp, considerable trade and manufactures of silk, linens, and leather. Brjansk, a town on the Desna, with a great can- 592 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Great Russia. non-foundry, extensive trade in timber, and 8,550 inhabitants. -{-Kursk, a city on the Kura and Tuskara, southward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, has 24,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its distinguished theological seminary, its leather manufactures, and annual fairs in its immediate neighborhood. Belgorod and Michaelovka, towns with respectively 11,100 and 6,000 inhabi- tants. -{-Woronesh, a city near the Don, 312 miles south-south-east of Mos- cow, with considerable cloth manufactures, extensive trade and commerce, and 45,000 inhabitants. Pawlovsk, a fortified town on the Don, is noted for its garden fruits, and has 3,500 inhabitants. -|-Tambow, a city near the Oka, south-eastward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, is noted for its cloth and canvass manufactures, and has 21,000 inhabitants. Jelatma, a town on the Oka, with trade in corn and hemp, and 6,500 inhabitants. In its neighbor- hood are considerable iron-works, especially at Ujensk. -j-Rjaesan, a city on the Trubesh, south-eastward and 113 miles distant from Moscow, with cloth, canvass, linen, and other manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. Kasi- mov, a city on the Oka, is noted for its considerable fur trade, and has 10,000 inhabitants, among whom are many Mohammedan Tartars. -|-Nishnei-Nov- gorod, a city on the Volga, at its junction with the Oka, and at the high- road between Moscow and Siberia, is highly famed for its annual fair (at all events, the most important throughout Europe), and has 28,000 inhabitants. It lies 580 miles east-south-east of Novgorod, noticed above in History, with which it is not to be confounded. Liscowo, a market- town on the Volga, is famed for its linens and horse-marts, and has 4,000 inhabitants. -{-"Wladimir, a city on the Kljasma, eastward and 116 miles distant from Moscow, with a noted theological seminary and gymnasium, considerable culture of garden and other fruits, with silk manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Wladimir was, in the period from 1157 to 1328, the capital of a Russian grand-duchy (see above, in History). Ivanovo, an extensive village, noted for its consider- able manufactures, especially of cotton goods, with 6,000 inhabitants. -{-Kos- troma, a city on the Volga, north-eastward and 180 miles distant from Moscow, with considerable leather and other manufactures, and 14,000 inhabi- tants. -4-Jaroslav, a city on tHe Volga, 170 miles north-north-east of Moscow, is noted for its academy, and considerable manufactures, and has 33,200 in- habitants. Rostow, a very ancient city, on a lake of the same name, with a remarkable ancient cathedral, considerable inland trade, noted fairs, and 7,800 inhabitants. Rybinsk, a town on the Volga, 46 miles above Jaroslav, is an emporium of the Russian bland trade, and the centre for the inland RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 693 Geographical Description of Great Russia. navigation, is moreover noted for its linen manufactures, and has 7,500 in- habitants. -j-Twer, a city on the Volga, north-westward and 94 miles dis- tant from Moscow, with considerable trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. -j-Ples- kow, or Pskow, a city near the Peipus lake, south-westward and 156 miles distant from St Petersburg, was, in the middle ages, 'an emporium (see page 50), is at present noted for its Russian leather manufactures and annual fair, and has 1 2,000 inhabitants. -{-Novgorod, a city on the Hmen lake, south- ward and about 100 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has at present only 15,000 inhabitants, but was, in the middle ages, a renowned commercial city and republic (see above, in History, and page 50). -j-Petrosawodsk, a city on the lake Onega, north-eastward and 190 miles distant from St. Peters- burg, is noted for its cannon-foundry, copper and iron- works, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Olonetz, a town on the Ladoga lake, with iron and copper mines, and 3,000 inhabitants. -f-WoLOGDA, a city on a river of the same name, eastward and 360 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 16,400 inhabitants. Ustjug- Weliki, a city at the high-road between Archangel and Siberia, with numerous and noted manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants. + Arch- angel, an important commercial city, on the Dwina, 38 miles from the White Sea, north-eastward and nearly 300 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous manufactures, docks, etc., and 22,000 inhabitants. Archangel was founded in 1584. Kola, the most northern town in European Russia, near the Arctic Ocean, 380 miles north-north-west of Archangel, with considerable fisheries, and 1,500 inhabitants. The island of Nova Zembla, the largest in the Arctic Ocean, having nearly 95,000 square miles in extent, is situated near the northern extremity of European Russia, yet northward of the Arctic circle, in about 72° north latitude. Being dreary and mostly covered with masses of snow and ice, it has no permanent inhabitants, yet is in the sum- mer season resorted to by a great many Russian hunters and fishermen, for the island abounds with white bears, white foxes, reindeer, seals, etc. The group of the Spitzbergen islands belongs likewise to Russia, lies in the Arctic Ocean, between 76° 80' and 80° 40' north latitude, and between 70° and 24° longitude east from Greenwich, is resorted to by whalers and Rus- sian hunters, and has in recent times become the seat of a hunting and fish- ing settlement^ consisting of about 25 Norwegians and Laplanders. 594 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Little Russia. IL— LITTLE RUSSIA. Area : 76,680 square miles. Population : 6,500,000 inhabitants. t It is situated on the south-west side of Great Russia, and both in history and common life usually named Ukraine ; is, in some respect, to be considered as the basis of the Russian empire (as may be derived from the History above), and was until 1674 the chief seat of those warlike Russians, who since have, by way of eminence, been called Cossacks (see the note back). It con- tains : -4-Kiew, or Kiev, its former capital, and in the period of SSO-llSY the resi- dence of the Russian grand dukes (see History, above), on the Dnieper, south- ward and 336 miles distant from Smolensk, and south-eastward and 450 miles distant from Warsaw, with 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Lutheran, and 25 Greek churches (among the latter are the cathedral and St. Andrew's church highly remarkable), 9 convents (among which that of Petscheri is noted for its ex- tensive vaults and sepulchres), a university (see above), important annual fairs, and 48,000 inhabitants. Uman, a city on the Umanka, with consider- able trade in cattle, and 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring estate of Sofi- ovka is famed for its extensive and handsome gardens and park Lisianka, a town noted as a watering-place, has 3,000 inhabitants. -{-Czernigow, a city on the Desna, with various branches of industry, and 11,100 inhabitants. Krolewetz, a town noted for its important annual fairs, has 6,200 inhabitants. 4-Pultawa, or Poltawa, a city on the Pultawka, south-eastward and 200 miles distant from Kiew, has 15,600 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive in- land trade, and remarkable in history for the battle in 1709, in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by the Russians. The neighboring former village of Retshitilova is at present a city, with 11,000 inhabitants. -|-Charkow, a city on the Donetz, 86 miles east-north-east of Pultawa, is noted for its university (see back), its important annual fairs, and consider- able inland trade, and has 34,000 inhabitants. Achtyrka, a city on a river of the same name, is noted for its fruits, and has 1 6,000 inhabitants. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 695 Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. III.— THE BALTIC PROVINCES. Abba : 55,380 square miles. Population : 3,000,000 inhabitants. They comprise the four provinces of Ingria, Esthnia, Livonia, and Curlandj the three first-named of which were conquered and wrested from Sweden in the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), while Curland was not before the year 1795 annexed to the Rus- sian empire. The majority of the population are Germans, or of German origin, beside aboriginal tribes, while but rather few Russians proper are to be met with here. 1. Ingria (18,531 square miles, and 1,350,000 inhabitants), situated at the head of the Gulf of Finland, and on the Ladoga lake, already in the 13th century belonged to Russia, but was in 1617 ceded to Sweden, and occupied again in 1703, contains: +St. Petersburg, imperial residence, and officially second capital of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Newa (which river is 1.200 feet wide here), north-westward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, with (in 1843) 8,956, and (in 1846) 473,000 inhabitants. St. Petersburg is the most regularly-built and splendid city in the world, and is highly famed for its vast number of magnificent palaces and public edifices. It is at the same time the principal place of commerce for the empire, and the seat of its learning and science. (Concerning its university, see back.) The imperial public library contains 450,000, and that of the university 100,000 volumes. The imperial winter palace has 721 feet in front, and contains in its first floor alone about 1 00 saloons and apartments. St. Isaac's cathedral is one of the finest churches in the world, and with its handsome cupola, 317 feet in height. The annual traffic of the principal mercantile houses of St. Petersburg (Stieg- litz & Co., I. Thomas & Co., G. Loder Beaumont, 281 Avalanches, 152 Bagolino, 540 Barmbeck, 450 Beaune, 201 Avallon, 201 Baiersdorf, 321 Barmen, 492 Beaupreau, 207 Avares, 29, 521 Bagnols, 221 Barmstedt, 418 1 Beau vais, 184 Avarian mark, 31 Bailleul, 190 Barnstable, 238 Beauvoir sur Mer, 210 Aveiro, 72 Bajuarians, 298 Barolo, 108|Bechtheim, 357 Avellino, 142 Bakonya Forest, 520 Baron Hill, 247 Beckum, 483 Avenches, 168 Baktshisarai, 610 Barr, 197 Bedarieux, 220 A versa, 142 Bala, 246 Barrow, 14 Bed burg, 492 Avesnes, l91|Balaguer, 95 Barsac, 215IBederkesa, 438 Avesta, 570 Balaklava, 610 Bartenstein, 337 ,496 Bedford, 237 Aveyron Depart- Balasfalva, 531 Bartfeld, 527 1 Bedfordshire, 237 ment, 216 Balaton Lake, 11 Barth, 470 Beerbersr, 7 Avezzano, 143 Balearic Islands, 96 Baruth, 467 Beeskow, 466 Avigliana, 107 Balerno, 165 Barwalde, 467 Befort, 199 Avignon, 224 Balingen, 333 Basardshik, 630 Beierberg, 7 Avila, 89 Balkan, 6 Baschkirs, 580 Beilngries, 322 Aviles, 90 Ballenberg, 344 Bashaw, 626 Beira, 72 Avlona, 633 Ballenstedt, 404 Basle, 157 Beja, 73 Avola, 148 Balleyma, 258 , Little, 157 Bejar, 90 Avranches, 187 Ballina, 259 Basques, 19, 76 Belchen, 7 Ax, 218 Ballinasloe, 259 Basques, country Belem, 71 Axel, 271 Ballinrobe, 259 of the, 216 Belfast, 257 Axius, 15 Ballon d' Alsace, 6 Basque Provinces, 97 Belfort, 199 Ayamonte, 92 Ballon de Sulz, 6 Bassano, 542 Belgard, 472 Aylesbury, 235 Ballstall, 164 Bassum, 436 Belgians, 263 Ayr, 250 Ballycastle, 258 Bastia, 225 Belgium, 275 Ayrshire, 250 Ballysbannon, 258 Bastide de Clar- Belgorod, 592 Azof Sea, 10 Balme, La, 222 ence, 218 Belgrade, 635 Azore Islands, 74 Baltic Provinces Bastogne, 283 Beligrad, 634 Azores, 74 of Russia, 595 Batalha, 72 Bellac, 212 Azov, 612 Baltic Sea, 9 Batavians, 263 Belle Isle, 209 Azpeytia, 97 Balzers, 351 Bath, 239 Belleville, 214 Bamberg, 319 Bath (Dutch fort) ,270 Belley, 201 Baar (Switzerland) 16 Banagher, 257 Bathgate, 249 Bellinzona, 165 Baasdorf, 406 Banat, 528 Batsch, 526 Bellowerth, 164 Babadagh, 630 1 Banbury, 237JBattaglia, 541 Bellrock, 252 Babenberg, 319 Ban de la Roche, 197 Battenberg, 357 Belluno, 542 Babenhausen, 326, 35 1 ! Bandon, 259 Bauerwitz, 476 Belt, Great, 9 Babia Gura, 5 Banff, 253! Baumannshohle, 447 , Little, 9 Baccanello, 117 Banffshire, •J.">:i B.-iume les Dames, 203 Belturbet, ' 258 Baccarat, 195 Bangor, 246 258 Bauske, 597 Bel voir, 242 Bacharach, 488 Banjaluka, ti:i:i Bautzen, 385Belzi, 612 Bachmut, 612 Bannockburn, 251 {Bavaria, 311 314 Bembibre, 89 Backnang, 331 Banos de Ebro, 981 Bavarian circle, 292l Bemposta, 71 642 INDEX. PAOK 612 351 Bender, Benduren, Bene, 108 Benetutti, 114 Benevento, 135 Benidorme, 96 Ben Lawer9, B Ben Novi9, 6 Benneckensteiu, 481 Bennfelden, 19? Bensberg, 492 Bentheim, 442 Bentink, earl of, 424 Berat, 633 Beraun, Berbir, Berching, 322 Berchtesgaden, 315 Berdjansk, 611 Berdyczew, 602 Berent, 498 Beresina, 12 Berg, duchy of, 492 Berg, grand-du- chy of, 294 Berga, 388 Bergamo, 540 Bergara, 97 Bergedorf, 450 Bergen, 577 Bergen (in Bel- gium), 281 Bergen (in Hesse- Cassel), 374 Bergen (on the island of Riigen), 471 Bergen op Zoom, 274 Bergerac, 215 Bergheim, 376 Bergstrasse, 7 Bergues, 190 Bergzabern, 328 Berka, 387, 389 Berkeley, 240 Berkshire, 235 Berleburg, 486 Berlin, 464 Berlinchen, 467 Bermeo, 97 Bernalda, 145 Bernaldo, 145 Bernau, 465 Bernay, 186 Bernburg, 404 Berne, 158 Berneck, 319 Berner Oberland, 158 Berukastel, * 489 Bernstadt, 474 Bernstein, 467 Beroea, 631 Berre, 223 Berry, 204 Berthelsdorf, 385 Bervie, 252 Berwick, 244 Berwickshire, 249 Besancou, 202 Besigheim, 331 Beskides, Bessarabia, PAGE 5 611 213 560 Betanzos, 90 Bethune, L8U Bettiiigen, 157 Betzenstein, 320 Beutelsbach, 336 Beuthen, 475, 476 Beveren, 280 Beverley, 243 Bevern, 447 Bex, 168 Beziers, 220 Biala, 518 Bialla, 497 Bialowieza, 601 Bialystock, 602 Biancavilla, 148 Bibbiena, 124 Biberach, 334 Biddeford, 238 Bihacz, 634 Biebrich, 362 Biedenkopf, 357 Biel, 159 Biel, Lake of, 11 Bielefeld, 484 Biella, 108 Bielsk, 602 Bielsteinhohle, 447 Bienne, 159 Bietigheim, 331 Biervliet, 271 Bilbao, 97 Bill of Portland, 238 Biilerbeck, 483 Billingfors, 573 Billom, 213 Hi Hung. Hermann, 433 BiHwerder, 450 Bilsen, 283 Bilston, 241 Binche, 281 Bingen, 356 Binic, 209 Biograd, 634 Birkenfeld, 426 Birmingham, 241 Birr, 257 Birstein, 374 Bisanz, 202 Biscari, 148 Biscay, 97 Bisceglia, 144 Bischofsheim, 342, 344 Bischofsheim vor der Rhon, 323 Bischofszell, 166 Bischweiler, 198 Bismark, 478 Bistritz, 532 Bitburg, 489 Bitonto, 144 Bitsch, 196 Bitterfeld, 480 Bivona, 147 Bjelew, 591 PAGK[ Bjorko, 38, 568; Bjorneborg, 598. Blackbird Field, 635 Blackburn, 243 Black Elster, 16 Black Forest, 7 Black Forest circle 332 Black Russia, 601 Black Sea, 10 Blankenberghe, 281 Blankenburg, 401, 447 I Blankenese, 418 JBlankenhayn, 387 Blasendorf, 531 Blasien-Zella, 394 jBlaubeuren, 335 Blaye, 215 Bleiberg, 512 Bleicherode, 481 Bleking, 571 Blendheim, 326 Blexen, 423 Blexum, 423 Blieskastel, 328 Blindheim, 326 Blocksberg, 8 Blois, 206 Blomberg, 428 Blumfeld, 347 Bobbio, 111 Bober, 13 Boblingen, 331 Bobruisk, 601 Bochnia, 519 Bocholt, 483 Bockenem, 439 Bockenheim, 374 Bockum, 485 Bodenteich Lake, 43 1 Bodenwerder, 436 Bodoe, 577 Bodrog-Keresstur, 527 Bog, 12 Bogense, 551 Bohemia, 514 Boehmerwald Mts., 7 Boh us, 573 Boisbelle, 205 Bois le Due, 273 Boitzenburg, 466 Bojano, 145 Bojanowo, 499 Bolbec, 186 Bolkenhain, 475 Bollenz, 165 Bologna, 135 Bolognese, 131 Boise i m, 133 Bolsward, 272 Bolton, 243 Bolzano, 513 Bommel, 272 Bonames, 456 Bondage, 36 Boness, 249 Boniface VIIL, 41 Bonifacio, 225 Bonn, 491 Bonneville, 109, 159 Bonnigheim, 331 Bootia, 621 Bopflngen, 336 Boppard, 487 Bora Mis., 6 Borchloen, 283 Bordeaux, 215 Borgholm, 571 Borgholzhausen, 484 Borgloh, 441 Borgo, 126, 509 Borgomanero, 1 1 1 Borgomasino, 108 Borgo Sandonnino 117 Borgo San Sepol- cro, 124 Borgosesia, 11 1 Borgo Taro, 117 Borja, 94 Borkelo, 272 Borken, 371, 483 Bonnio, 539 Borua, 383 Bomheim, 456 Bornholm, 550 Boros, 572 Borowsk, 591 Borromean Isles, 1 ] 1 Borrowstownuess, 249 Borysthenes, 12 Borzonasca, 113 Bosa, 1 14 Bosau, 426 Bosco, 111 Bosna Serai, 633 Bosnia, 633 Bosniacs, 633 Bosphorus, 10 B ossormeny, 529 Boston, 237 Bothnia Gulf, 9 Bottoshani, 637 Botushan, 637 Botzen, 513 Bouchain, 190 Boudry, 163 Bouillon, 283 Bouin, 210 Boulogne, 189 Boulonnais, 189 Bourbon, 203 Bourbon l'Archam- bault, 204 Bourbonne les Bains, 192 Bourbon Lancy, 201 Bourbonnais, 203 Bourbon Vendee, 210 Bourdelois, 215 Bourg, 215 Bourgain, 222 Bourganeuf, 212 Bourg en Bresse, 201 Bourges, 204 Bourges les Bains, 204 Bourg la Reine, 183 Bourgneuf, 210 Bourgogne, 199 Bourg St. Andeol, 221 IXDEX. 613 PAGE Bourmont. 19fi Boussac, ' 212 Bouvignes, 282 Boiiviues, 190 Bovenden, 410 Bove9, 108 Boviuo, 144 Bo vines, 190 B ixherg, 344 Boyle, 259 Bra, 108 Brabant, 278 Brackenheim, 331 Brackwede, 484 Braclaw, 602 Bradford, 239, 244 Bradley, 241 Bniga," 73 Braganza, 73 Brahestad, 599 Braila, 636 Braine-Lalleu, 279 Braiae le Comte, 281 Brake, 423 Brake!, 484 Bramsche, 441 Bramsledt, 417 Brand, 381 Brandenburg, city of, 465, Brandenburg, pro- vince of, 464 Braslaw, 600 B iitz, 499 Braubach", 364 1 Braunau, 510' Braunfels, 488 Braunlingen, 347| Braunsberg, 49(5 Braunschweig, 416 Bray, 256 | Bray sur Seine, 193 Brazza, 535. Bre, 540 J Brechin, 252 | BreckniKsk, 246 Brecknockshire, 246 Brecon, 246 Breda, 273 Bregenz, 514 Breisach, 345 Breisgau, 344 Bremen, 453, 454 Bremen, duchy of, 438 Bremerhaven, 454 Bremerlebe, 438 Bremgarten, 156 Breno, 540 Brenta River, 15 Brescello, 119 Brescia, 539 Breslau, 473 Bressanone, 513 Bresse, 201 Bressuire, 210 Brest. 209 Bretagne, La, 908 Bretten, 342 Breyzards, 1711 PAGE | Brianeon, 222 Brians 205 Bridgenorth, 24-2 Bridgewater, 239 Bridlington, 243 Bridporl, 238 Brie, 191, 193, Brie Champenoise l!)3 Brie Compte Ro- bert, 1841 Brie Francoise, 184 Brie sur Yeres, 184 Brieg, 473 Briel, 270 Brienne, 192 Briesen, 498 1 Briey, 196 j Brig, 167 Briga, 110 Brighton, 23(5 Brihuega, 88 Brignolles, 224} Brilon, 485! Briudisi, 144 J Brioude, 213 1 Bristol, 239 Bristol Channel, 10 Britannia, 24 Brittany, 208 BrivelaGaillarde, 212 Briviesca, 88 Brixen, 513 Brjiinsk, 901! Brecada, 117 j Brocken, 8 Brody, 519 Bruek in't Water- land, 2(58 Bromberg, 49!) Bromsebro, 570 Bronte, 148 Brood, 534 Broos, 532 Bro9eley, 242 Brotterode, 373 Brouage, 21 1 Brouwershaven, 270 Brozzi, 123 Bruchsal, 341 Brack, 156, 511 Briickenau, 323 Bruges, 280 Brugg, 156 Briihl, 491 Brundusium, 144 Brunetta, 107 Briinn, 516 Brunsbiittel, 418 Brunshausen, 438 Brunswick, city, 446 Brunswick, duchy of, 444 Brunswick-Oels, 445 Brussels, 278 Brzesk Cujavski, 605 Brzesc Litewski, 601 Bublitz, 472 Buccari, 529 Buch, 215 1 PAOK PAOK Buchanan, 251 Biitzow, 409 Buchau, 334 Butzbach, 357 Buchen, 341 Hullsta. ll, 387 Bin-hen, 420 B.itrinto, 633 Baciiholz, 466 Buxtehude, 438 Buchhorn, 334 Buxton, 242 Bacha, 166 Buchsweiler, 198 Cabras, 114 Bucina, 114 Cabrera (isle of) 97 Biickeburg, 429 Caceres, 91 Buckingham, 235 Cadaques, 95 Bucki nghamshire, 235 Cader Idria, 8 Buckow, 467 Cadiz, 92 Bucks, 235 Cadore, 542 Buda, 525 Caen, 186 Budesheim, 356 j Caermarthen, 245 Biidingen, 357 Caermarthenshire, 245 Bitdissiu, 385 Caernarvon, 216 Budweis, 516 Caernarvonshire, 246 Buelach, 169 Cagliari, 114 Buen Retiro, 87 Cahors, 215 Bueren, 158 Cairgorm, 8 Bug, 13 Caithness, 254 Bugey, 202 Cajazzo, 142 Biial, 341 Calabria, 145 Bujalance, 93 Calahorra, 88 Bukarest, 636 j Calais, 189 Bukowiua, 520jCalataflmi, 146 Bulach, 333 Calatayud, 94 Bulgaria, 629 Calatrava, 88 Bulgarians, 29, 629lCalcar, 494 Biiude, 484|Caldano, 126 Bunzlau, 474 Caledonians, 248 Biiren, 484|Calenberg, 435 Burg, Burgas, 477, 557 Cal lata bellata, 629 Callenberg, 5 384 Burgau, 325 Callies, 472 Burgdurf, 437 Calmar, 570 Burgdorf (Switzer- Calne, 239 land), 158 Caltagirone, 148 Burghaslach, 322 Caltanisetta, 147 Burghaun, 373 Caluso, 108 Burghausen, 315 Calvados Depart Burglitz, 515 ment, 186 Burgos, 88 Calvi, 225 Burgraviate of Nu- Calvorde, 447 remberg, 318 Calw, 333 Burgundian circle, 292 Camajore, 126 Btirguudians, 24, 199 Camaldoli, 124 Burgundy, 27, 199 Camargue, 15 Burgundy, earl- Cam bray, 190 dom of, 202 Carnbresis, 190 Burken, 344 Cambridge, 345; Cambridgeshire, 237 Burkheim, 237 Burladingen, 350 j Cambusneath, 251 Burntisland, 252 Camenz, 385 Burscheid, 493|Caraerino, 134 Burslem, 241 Cameryk, 190 Burton upon Trent 241 Cam mi n, 470 Burtscheid, 490Camogli, 112 Bury, 243 Campagna, 142 B in St. Edmunds, 236 C.impagua di Ro- Busachi, 114 ma, 132 Busachino, 145 Campan, 217 Busca, 107 Campanians, 102 Busco, 636 Campbelltown, 253 Bute, 252 Campen, 272 Buteshire, 252 Campobasso, 144 Butjadiugerland, 423 Campo Formio, 542 644 INDEX. PAGE; Cam po Mayor, 73]Carlstein, Campo di San Pie- jCarlsten, tro, 514 ( Carmagnola, Cainpredon, 95 Carmona, Cancale, 208 Carniola, Cancaio, bay of, 208 Carolath, Candia, 631, 632 Carolina, Canea, 632jCarouge, Can gas de Onis, 90 Carpathes, PAGEj PAGE 515 'Castle Rushen, 247 Chamouny, 573 Castleton, 242, 247 Champagne, 107 Castres, 215, 220 Chantilly, Canigou Canino, Canna, Cannae, Canne, Cannes, Cannicatti, Canobbio, Canosa, Canossa, Cans tat t, Cantabria Mts., Cantal Depart- ment, Cantavieja, Canterbury, Can tyre, Capaccio, Cape Lizard, Cape Trafalgar, Cape St. Vincent, Capetians, Capetingians, Capodisiria, Caponnori, Cappel, Capraja, Caprera, Capri, Capua, Carcarente, Carcassouue, Cardiff, Cardigan, Cardiganshire, C.i nl( ma, Carelia, Carliaix, Caritcnan, Carignano, Carini, Carinthia, Carlebv, Gamla, ,Ny, Carlingford, Carlisle, Carh .forte, Carlopago, Carlovingians, Carlow, Carlowitz, Carlsbad, Carls bo rg, Carlsburg, Carlshafen, Carlshamn, Carlskrona, Carlsruhe, Carlstad, Carlstadt, 5 Carpathes proper, 5 Catalaunum 133 Carpentras, 225, Catalonia, 255 Carpi, 144 1 Carrara, 144 Carrick fergus, 224 Carrickmacross, 147 Carrick on Shan- Ill non, 144 Carrick on Suire, 119 Carron, 331 Carthagena, 5 Carthageniensis, Carthaus, 213 Casale, 94 Casale de Grecchi, 147 236 Casal Maggiore, 538 253 Caselle, 142 Casentino, Caserta, Caserta Nuova, Cashel, Cassano, 92 Castro del Rio 511 Castro Giovanni 475 Castronuovo, 93 Castroreale, 161jCastrovillari, 5 Catalaunian Fielda 102 Charkow, 192 Charlemagne. 94 Charlemont, 93 Charente 147 Charente Depart 146 incut, 148 Chsrenton, 145 Charite, La, 14.-. 370 Cassel (in France) 190 Cassis, Cassiterides, Cassonay, 119 Catanea, 119 Catania, 257jCatanzaro, 258 Catharinburg, Catherlagh, 259 Caiheta, 2W Catholic Nether- 251 1 lands, 94jCatolica, 84'Cattaro, Cattegat, Caub, Caudebec, Caudinian Passes, Cauterets, Cava, Cavaillon, Cavan, Cavoux, Cefalu, Celano, Celle, Celts, Ceneda, PAGE 110 191 1&5 16 211 183 204 594 30 191 281 27 193 201 465 205 110 224 23;) 471 Castel (in Bava- Castel franco, Castel Gandolfo, Castelguelfo, Castell, Castellamare, 141,146 Castellamonte, 108 Castel lane, Castel Una Marit- tima, Castello, 224 Castello de Ampu- rias, Castellobranco, Castellon de la Plana, Castel uaudary, 2 Castelnuovo, 1 Castel nuovo di Garfajjna, Castel Sardo, Castel Sarrazin, Castelvetrano, 573 i Castenedolo, 531|CastiKlione, 370lCastiJe, 571|Castilians, 148 Charleroi, 148 Charles Martell, 145 Charleville, 3 Charolles, 257 Charlottenburg, 75 Chartres, Chartreuse, 277 ! Grande, 222 147 Chasseron, 6 535 Chatam, 236 9 Chateaubriand, 210 364 Chateau Cambre- 186 sis, 190 142 Chateau-Chinon, 204 217 Chateau duBourg, 211 142 Chateaudun, 205 225 Cbateau-Gonthier, 207 258 Chateaulin, 209 107 Chateau du Loir, 207 146 Chateauneuf, 207 143 Chateauneuf de 437i Random, 221 19 Chateau Regnaud, 13 542 Chateau-Renard, 224 Central Franconia,320 Chateauroux, Central Italy, Cento, | Cephalonia, Cerdagne, Ceret, Cerigo, Cerigotto, Cerlier, Cernay, Cers, Certaldo, Cervera, Cervia, Cesana, Cesena, Cette, Ceva, Cevio, * Cezimbra, Chabeuil, Chablais, Chablis, Chalkis, Chalonnes, 205 195 193 210 Chalons sur Marne 192Chenceny, 57 1 1 Castillon, 340 Castlebar, 573 Castle Comer, 323,529 ! Castlereagh, 119 114 2-21 148 541) 539|Chalu8, 87 1 Cham, 76 Cham (Switzer- 215 land), 259! Cham bery, 257 Chambord, 259'Chambra, 103 Chateau Salins, 135 Chateau Thierry 616 Chatelleraut, 219Chatillon sur 2191 Marne, 192 610 Chat il Ion sur 6161 Seine, 201 158'Chatillonles 199' Dombes, 202 247!Chatillon(in Italy) 109 123 Chatts, 297 95, 96Chatsworth, 135 \ Chaudes- Aigues, 107 [ Chaudfontaiue, 135 Chaumont, 220 Chauny, 108 Chaux de Fonda, 165 Chaves, 72lChelm, 222 Chelm ford, 109 Chelsea, 193 Cheltenham, 623 Chemille, 207; Chemnitz, 24-3 213 282 193 185 163 73 007 936 23.-) 240 207 383 606 Chalons sur Sadne 201 jChene le populeux 193 212 Chepstow, 240 317 Cher, 15 I Cher Department, 204 168jCherasco, 108 109 1 Cherbourg, 187 206Cheronea, 621 150]Cherson, 611 INDEX. Cherusks, Cheshire, Chester, Chesterfield, Cheviot Hills, Chiaramontc, Chiari, Chiasso, Cliiavari, Chiavenna, Chichester, Chiclana, Chiem Lake, Chieri, Chieti, Chi may, Chinchilla, Chi action, Chilian, Chiny, Chioggia, Chiozza, Chippenham, Chiusa, Chiusi, Chivalry, Chivasso, Choi let, Clioper, Chotin, Christburg, Chrislchurch, Christian ia, Christianiafjord, Christianopel, Curistiansand, Christianstad, Christiansund, Cliristinehamn, Christinestad, Chrudin, Chur, Ciablese, Cid, the Cilli, Cimbrians, Ciinbrishamn, Cinesi, Cinosa, Circe, Cinque Ports, Cinto, Cintra, Ciotat, La, Cirey, Cirknitz Lake, Cisjuranian Bur- gundy, Cistercium, Cita di Cistello, Cita della Pieve, Citeaux, Citta Vechia, Ciudadela, Ciudad Real, Ciudad Rodrigo, Cividale, paok | 297 ;Ci vita Ducalo, 242 Civitadi Penne 242 Civita Vecchia, 242 Ci vitella del 8 Tronto, 148 Civray, 540 Clackmannan, 165 Clackmannanshire 251: Como Lake 1 13 Clagenfurt Lake, J 1 IComorn, 539 Clairvaux, 192, 307!Compiegne, 2U4 ! Concarneau, 13 1 Conches, 260 Concordia, 443, 444 Conde, 143 Comarca diRoma, 132 143 Comino, 150 133 jCoiiiinotto, Coiniso, 143 J Com mercy, 210;Commiues, 251! Como, PAOK Cossacks, 580 Cossacks of the Don, 612 148,C6ted'Or, 6 195 Cdte d'Or Dopart- 190, 2801 mt-nt, 201 53HiC6ihen, 406 11 DotroM, 145 526Cotlbus, 467 184|Cottian Alps, 4 209jCoulungesles Vi- 186 neuses, 201 119 Coulommiers, 11)3 190 1 Council at Con- 442 CmHlesurNoireaul87| stance, 302 213 Condom, 2J6iCouncil at Trent, 302 Condomois, 216lCountry of Cam 236 Clamecy, 92 Clara River. 11 Clare, 107 Clausthal, 143 Cleraenswerth, 28 J Clermont, 94 Clermont en Au- 89j vergne, 213|Condrieu, bresi? 203 1 Clermont en Beau- 283 vaisis, 1^4 Conflans, 541 Clermont-Ferrand 213 Cont'oleus, 541 Clermont l'Herault220;Coni, 239 < Icrmont-Lodeve, 220iConil, 106 Clermont-Oise, 184JConitz, 124 Clery, 205 Connaught, 258 46Cleve, 494 J Constance, 346 107 Cleven, 530 Constance, Lake of, 1 1 207|Clingen, 401 Constantinople, 628 12iClonmel, 259, Constantinople 612 Clovis, king of the (Hist.), Conference Island 217 Courmayeur 109 Course u I e, 212!Courtesoii, 107lCourtray, 92|Coutances, 498 Coutras, 498 Franks, 238|Clugny, 576|Clumber Park, 576jCluny, 57l|Cluse, 576 572 577 573 MS CI uses, 110 Clusium, 124 Clusone, valley of, 107 Clyde, 14 599|Clvdesdale, 250 516 Clyde Iron Works, 251 16-2 Coblenz, 109|Coburg, 88 Cocconato, Codogno, Coe, Coesfeld, Cognac, Cogoleto, Coimbra, Col berg, Colchester, Colditz, ■> Coldstream, 195IColebrookdale, 11 511 307 573 140 147 107 •23H 5 71 233 26 1 Contessa, 201 Conti, Conza, Copa, Copenhagen, Coppenbriigge, Coppet, Corbach, Corbeil, Corcyra, Cordova, Corfu, Cori, 108Coria, 538 Corigliano, 253 Corinth, 483 Cork, 211 Corleone, 113;C6rlin, 72 1 Cormaggiore, 38,39 147 I IK) [00 188 •J-23 280 187 •215 350 •210 :-2 510 Cove, Coventry, Covilhao, Cracow, Crailsheim, 336 Cranach, 320 Crane n burg, 494 Craonne, 185 142|Crecy, 188 12|Creetown, 250 549 Creglingen, 336 436 Creil, 185 168Crema, 540 376 Cremona, 538 184 Crescentino, 108 615|Crepy, 184 92 Crespy en Laonais 185 615 Crespy en Valois, 184 133 Cressy, 91 Crest, 145 Creta, 621 Creuse-Depart- 259| ment, J46 Creux du Vent, 472 Creuzburg, 109 Creuzot, 471 jCorneliusmiinster, 490 Crevecoeuer, Civita Cistellana, 133 Columbretes, Civita di Chieti, 143i Comacchiu, Coleraine, Coll, 300 Colle, 201 Collioure, 134|Colmar, 134 1 Col mars, 201 Coin, 150 Cologne, ancient 97; archbishopric of, 490 Cortina, 881 , city of, 491 Corvey, 90iColomba, 97Corvo, 512 Cofc >mo, 117 Cosenza, 9-. Coal n, 135 Cosue, 236iCorneto, 382 { Corn igliano, 249 Cornwall, 342iCorreggio, 258JCorreze Depart- 255 ment, 124 1 Corsica, 219iCorsignano, 198iCortaillod, 224Corte, 491 Cortona, (Cortryk, ]88 212 I 389 201 190 246 610 383 408 133 Crickhowel, 112 Crimea, 238 Crimmitzsch.au, 119 Crivitz, jCroates, 29 212 Croatia, 529 225 Croce Mosso, 108 124 Croja, 633 163 Croix Rousse, La, 214 225 Cromartv, 124 Cromwell, 280 Crosic, Le, 90 Croton, 484 Crotoy, 75 Croydon, 145 Crusades, 471 Csepin, 204 Csongrad, 254 233 210 145 188 235 45 530 528 646 INDEX. PAGE | Cucarro, Cuccio, Cud i Hero, Cuenca, Cuglieri, Cuilly, Cnllen, Cully, Culm, Culm bach, Culmsee, Cumberland) Cum brays, Cumbrede Mulha ceu, < ' imiaini, Cuueo, Cans, Cuorgne, Cupar, Curishe Haff, Curland, Cusel, Cuxhafen, Cyclades, Cylhera, Czar, Czarnikow, Czech, Czenstochau, Czernigow, Czernowitz, Czerny Georg, Dacia,521,530,635,630 PAGK| Ill Davos, 5 Davidow, 6(11 90 Dax, 217 88 Debreczin, 528 114|Debreczin Heath, 502 168 Dees, 253 Deggendorf, 168 Deidesheim 49Speinach, 319!Deister, 498 Delbriick, 244 Delemont, 252 1 Delft, pelfzyl, 5|Delitzch, 107lDelmenhorst, 107!Delos, 4*9 Dei phi, lOHpelsberg, 251 Delvino, 9 Demmin, 597 Demonte, 328!Demotica, 450 Denain, Dago, Dahlen, Dal River, Dalarue, Dalekarlien, Dalhem, Dalkeith, Dalmatia, D;i Island, Dalya, Dana, Dam bach, I), i in m, Dammersfeld, Dammgarten, Damvilliers, Daniistris, Daugast, Danish Islands Dannemoia, Daiineiilierg, D.uiizick, Danube, Danube circle, Danzig, Dardanelles, Darkehmen, Darlington, Darmstadt, Daroca, Dartmouth, Dauphins of Vien note, Dauphiny, Denbigh, Denbighshire, Dender, Dendermonde, Denia, Denmark, Deptt'ord, Derby, Derbyshire, Derenburg, Derry, Des, Desenzano, Desna, Dessau, Detmold, Deitelbach, Detlingen, Deutichem, Deutsch-Crone, Deutsch- Wallen- berg, Deutz, Deux-Ponts, Deva, Deventer, Devil's Bridge, Devil's Ladder, Devonport, Devonshire, Deynse, Diakovar, Diauo, Die, Diedenhofen, 497|Dieburg, 10 Diekirch, 497Diepenau, 244 Diepholz, 354 I Dieppe, MJDieagtMiuofen, 238;Diust, Dietftirt, 222 Dietz, 22^. Die u (island), 531 316 327 333 8 484 150 269 273 480 42.1 623 RSI 158 633 47(1 roe v.n M6 MB 10 no 06 543 336 242 478 sse S3] 53 » 12 (05 438 32! 333 272 498 47.". 491 338 531 272 106 983 530 142 222 1 196 355 367 436 436 184 166 278 3 17 369 210 Dieu le Fit, jDieuze, Digne, Dijon, J Di I len burg, jDillingen, Dinan, Dinant, ! Dingle, i Dingwall, iDinkelsbiihl, jDinklage, iDinogetia, Dinslaken, Dippoldiswalde. Diischau, Disenlis, Dissen, PAGE) 222 Dortmund, 195 Dorum, 224 Dotis, 201 Douai, 362 Doubs Depart- 325 meut, 209 Done, 282 Doutflas, 260 Doullens, 254 Douro, 321 Dover, 423 Dovre-fjeld, 612 Down, 494 Downham, 381 Downpatrick, 498 Dragomestre, 162;Dragonera, 441!Draguignan, Dithmarschen 414,418 Drama, Divenow, Dixmuyden, Dnieper, Dniester, Dobbertin, ; Doberan, ! Dobriluck, Doesburg, 13 Dramburg, 281 Dram men, 121 Drave, 12 Dreieicherhain, 410iDrenthe, 409 1 Dresden, 408 Dreux, 272|Dreysam, Doge (of Venice), 540jDriburg, Dohna Dokkum, Dole, Dolgelly, Dollart, Dombes, Domburg, Dom front, Dornhof, Domino, Domitz, Domndossola, Domo d'Ossola, Domremy, Don, Donaghadee, Donaueschingen, Donaustauf, Donauworth, Donegal, Donez, Dongio, Doornik, Dora Baltea, Dora Riparia, Dorat, Dorchester, Dordogne, Dordogue Depart merit, Durgali, Dornburg, Dornhan, Dornholzhaustm, Dornoch, Durnstetten, Dorohoe, Dorpat, Dorsetshire, D.irsteu, Dorl, 381 Driesen, 272 6, 203 246 270 Drin, Dristra, Drogheda, Dmhyczyn, Droitwich, Drome, D.dine Depart- ment, Dronero, Drottningholm, Drontheim, Diiben, Dubienka, Dubitza, Dublin, Duderstadt Dudley, Duern, Duisburg, Dukeries, Dukla, Dulcigno, Dulken, Diilmen, PAGE 485 438 526 190 202 207 247 188 14 236 5 258 237 258 621 97 224 630 472 576 16 355 273 380 185 338 484 467 15 629 257 602 240 15 222 108 568 577 480 607 533, 634 256 440 240 14 494 242 519 632 493 483 251 212|Dumbarton, 238 1 Dumbartonshire, 251 15! Dumfries, 250 [Dumfriesshire, 250 215] Dummer Lake, 431 114 puna, 13 406lDunaburg, 601 333| Dunbar, 249 359Dundalk, 257 254! Dundee, 252 333: Dunfermline, 252 637!Dui.gann..n, 258 5:)7|Dunuaivau, 259 3S8|DanktfM, 253 4831 Dunkirk, 191 269iDanse, 249 IXDEX. 647 Dunsinan, Durance, Durango, Durazzo, Diiren, Durham, D irhamshire, Diirkheim, Durlach, Durtal, Dusemond, Diisseldorf, Dii-i-rltll.il, Dutch, the Dutch Flanders, Dwrna, D'Yeu (island), Dyrrachium, Eaglesham. East Flanders, K ist Friseland, East Galloway, East Luthian, East Meath, Eastphalians, East Prussia, East Pyrenees De- partment, Eist Riding, Eaize, Ebeleben, Ebeltoft, Eberbach, Ebermanustadt, Ebern, Ebersdorf, f'bingen, Eboli, Ebro, Echallens, Eehelles, Echternach, Ecija, Eckardtsberga, Eckernforde, Ecktniihl, Eel use, Eeouen, Edam, EdlerachylUa, Eddy stone, Edenkoben, Ede-theitn, BduMB, Edinburgh, Edinburghshire, Ef»cloo, Eger (city), Eger Hn Hungary) 527 BttrUle Eger River, 16 Klvas, rxocl PAOI 253 Ehningen, 333 15 Ehrenbreitstein, 487 97 Ehrig, 400 63-2 Eibenstock, 383 490 Eichsfeld, 481 244 Eichsfeld, Lower, 440 244 Eichstiidt, 388 Eider, 340 Eifel, 207 Eilenburg, 489 Eilsen, 492 Eimbeck, 492 Eindhoven 2ii5 Einsiedeln, 270 Eisenach, 12 Eisenberg. 210 Eisenburg, 632 Eisenstadt, iEisfeld, 251 Eisgrub, 279 Eisleben, 442 Ekenas, 250 Ekesjo, 249 Elba, 257 Elbe, 298 Elberfeld, 495 Elbeuf, Elbing, PAOK 158 , 364 17 98 345 162 ma 572 484 298 281 234 219 Elbingerode, 243 El burg, 2l6Elche, 401 Eldagsen, 553 Eldena, 314 Electoral Hesse, 368 319 Electoral Palat- 333 inate, 327, 312 393 Electors of the an- 333 j cient German 142 1 empire, 14 Ellsborg, 168 Elfs-iabben, 109 Elgersburg, 367 Elgin. 92l Elginshire, 483! El is, 5561 Elisabethgrad 3lfi|Eilfeld, 270 Ellbogen, 184iEllg, SOU Ellinsren, 254 Ellrich, 338 Ellwaugen, 327 Blmshorn, 327 Rtmntftr, 630 Elsfleth, 241) Eisterben?, 349 Elsterwerda, 380 Elterlein, 515 EH mum, If. 272 4t> 72 221 527 192 Egglofotein, Egidatadt, Egina. Egisheim, Eglisau, Egribos, Ehenheim, Ehingeu, 32) | Ely, 5:11 E'.vaiaus, 820 Blxaeh, 198 Elza, r; » Bmbrun, 633 Bindeo, 197 r'mmendingen, 3 ■;."» Emmerich, Emme-valley, Ems (in Nassau). Ems River, Encartaiiones, Endingen, Eug.idin, Engelberg, Eugelholm, Enger, Engers, Enghien, England, English Channel, Enkhuyzen, Biikoping, Ennis, Enniscorthy, Enniskillen, Enontekis, Enos, Ens, Enschede, Ensigns armorial Enstsheim, Entre Minlio e Douro, Entrevaux, Eperies, Eperuay, Epidaurus Limera623 Epinal, Epirus, Eppendorf, Eppiagen, Epsom, Epstein, Erbach, Exole, Enlely, Enlely Highland, Erding, En-kli, Erfurt, Ergi Kastri, Erlacii, Erlangen, Erlau, Erlier, E<-ma:ingen, Ermeland, Enistthal, Erpel, Erzgebirge, Eres, 75 Frankish circle, 292 Friesack, 466 Feldberg, Great, 8JFloridia, 1 18 ' Friinkisch-Kruin- IFrieses, 263 Feldkirch, 514lFlottbeck, 418| bach, 353 Friesland, 272 Felegyhaza, 529 Fluelen, Kit; Franks (Germau iFrieslunders, 298 Felicudi, 149 Flushing, 270 tribe), 26 Frignano, 119 Felletin, 212 Fochabers, 253 Franks (in Tur- Fritzlar, 372 Fellin, 597 Foehn, 152 key), 624 Frontignan, 220 Felsberg, 371 Foggia, 144 Franks, Ripuarian 298 Froome, 239 Feltre, 542 Fohr, 557 , Salic, 298 Frosinoue, 133 Felvincz, 532 Foix, 218 Franzensbrunn, 515 Frutingen, 158 Femern, 557 Fokshan, 636 Frascati, 132 Fuente Ovejuna, 93 Fene9trelle, 107 Fdldvar, 532 Frasersburgh, 252 Fuenterabia, 97 Feodosia, 610 Foligno, 134 Frauenburg, 496 Fugger, princes Ferrara, 135 Fondi, 142 Frauenfeld, 165i and earls of, 326 Fere Champenoise, Fonni, 114 Frauenstein, 381 Fulda (city), 373 La, 192 Fontenay, 281 Fraustadt, 499 Fulda (Hessian Fermanagh, 258 Fontenay le Comte 110 Fredensborg, 549 i province), 372 Fermo, 134 Fontainebleau, 184 Frederic the Great 46 17 Fermoselle, 90 Fontaine rEveque281 Frederiksborg, 549 Fulnek, 517 Fermoy, 259 Fontaine Fran- Frederikshald, 576 Fumay, 191 Feruey, 202 caise, 201 Frederishamn, 599 Funen, 551 Ferrol, 90 Foradada, 97 Frederikshavn, 552 FUnfkirchen, 526 Ferte Bernard, La 207 Forcalquier, 224 Frederiksoort, 273 Furnas, 75 Ferte sous Jouarre, 193 Forchheim, 320 Frederiksort, 556 Furnes, 281 Feuchtwang, 320 Forchtenberg, 337 Frederiksstad, 576 Fiirstenau, 441 Feudal System, 35 Forchteustein, 527 Frederikstad, 556 Furstenberg, 412, 44 Fichtelberg, Great, 7 Fordon, 500 Frederikssteen, 576 Furstenberg, prij . Little, 7 Forest of Thurin Frederikssund, 550 ces of, 346 ,347 Fichtel-Gebirge, 7 g'a, 7 Frederiksviirn, 576 Furstenberg, town Fiesole, 123 Forez, 214 Frederikswerk, 549 of, 347 File, 251 Forfax, 252 Free Cities, 51 FUrstenstein, 473 Fifeshire, 251 Forfaxshire, 252 Freiberg, 381 Fiirstenwalde, 467 Figeac, 216 Forli, 135 Freiburg in Breis Furth, 320 Figline 123 Formentera, 97 gau, 344 ,345 Fiissen, 325 Figueira do Mon- Fornovo, 117 Freiburg (in Swit Fyen, 551 dego, 72 Forres, 253 zerland), 159 Figueras, 95 Forst, 327 Freiburg unterm Gadebiisch, 409 Filehne, 500 Forste, 468 FUrstenstein, 473 Gabela, 634 Filibe, 630 Fort Louis, 198 Freienhagen, 376'Gaeta, 112 Finale, 113 Fort Opus, 535 Freienwalde, 466 Gaels, 19 Finale (iu Mode- Fort Vauban, 198 Freihan, 474 Gai bach, : J 23 na), 119 Forth, 14 Freising, 315 Gaillac, 220 Findhorn, 253 Fosdinovo, 119 Freiwaldau, 475 , 517 Gailinipi, Fingal'8 Cave, 254 Fossano, 108 Frejus, 224 Gainsborough, 2)7 Finisterre Depart- Fossigny, 109 French Flanders, 190 Gais, 157 ment, 209 Fossombrone, 134 French Nether- i Galacz, 637 Finland, 598 Fotheringay, 241 lands, 190!Galanlha, 524 Finland Gulf, 9 Fougeres, 208 French Switzer- |Galaxidi, 621 Finnan, 252 Fraga, 94 land, 167 Galenstock, 166 Finnish tribe, 564 Francavilla, 145 Fresh Haff, 9 Galicia (Austrian) 518 Finnmarken, 578 France, 170 Freudenstadt, 333 Galicia (in Spaiu ; , 90 Finspong, 570 Franche Freudenberg, 314 Gallaecia, 84 Finsteraarhorn, 4 Comte, 200, 202 Freystadt, 318 Gallego. 14, 77 Finsterwalde, 468 Franconi a, Friaul, 31 512 Gallipoli, 144 ,628 Fiorenzuola, 117 318,320,322 Friaul, Venetian, 542 .Galloway, East, 250 Fiume, 529 Franconiau Alps, 7 Friburg, 159 New. 2.30 Fiumicino, 133 Franeker, 272 Frick, 156 , West, 250 INDEX. 64T Galium, Galoshields, Galway, Gamertingen, Gamla Carle by, Gandersheim, Gandia, Ganges, G an nat, Gap, Gard. PAGE 114 250 259 349 Gerabronn, Gerace, Gerardraer, .__ Gerdauen, 599iGeringswalde, 447|Gerlachsheim, 96 German Empire, 220 1 the ancient, 204 Germanes, 222|Germania, 297 15 Germanic Confed- PAG«| PAUK 336 Glatz, 474 145 1 Glatz, earldom of, 474 Gard Department, 220 1 eration Garda Lake, 1 1 Germany Gardanne, Gardelegen, Garding, Gardone, Garfagna, Garfagna Grandu cale, Gargnano, Garigliano, Garmisch, Garmouth, Garonne, Garter, the, Garz, Garz (on the island 224 Germersheim 478 Gernrode, 556 Gernsbach, 540 Gernsheim, 119 Gerolzhofen, | Gerona, 125 Gerresheim, 540 Gers, 195 Glauchau, 496:Gleiwitz, 383 Glen-Coe, 344 Glina, Glogau, 291|Glommen, 18, 19 Glons, Glott. Gloucester, Gloucestershire, Gliicksbrunu, 3-27 Gliicksburg GlUckstadt, Gmiind, Gmunden Lake, Gnadau, _ Gnadenfeld, 492 Gnesen, 15Goch, 404 341 354 323 95 15 Gers Department, 216 Goes, 315 Gersau, 164 1 Goeschenen 253 Gerstungen, 15 Gertruidenberg. 232 Gesecke 389iGoetzenbruck 274G6ksholm, 485|Goldapp, 158iGoIdau, of Riigen), Gascony, G ostein, Gatshina, Gaualgesheim, Gaul, Gebeaee, Gebweiler, Gedern, Geertsberghen, Geeste, Geeslhacht, Gefle, Gehren, Geilnau, Geisenbeim, Geiser, Geisingen, Geislingen, Geismar, Gelderland, Geldern, Geldern (in Prus- G rand pre, Grand Signior, 1 Gessenay, 158iGoldau, 164; Grandson, Gvstrikland, 573 Goldberg, 410, 474 Grand Vizier, 165 Golden Bull, 301 Grangemouth, 202| Golden Fleece, 83, 506 Gran River, Gellen, Gellbeim, Gelnhausen, Gembloux, Gemiinden, Generalife, Geneva, Geneva Lake, Genevese, Genevois, Gengenbach, Gennargentu, Gennep, Genoa, Genthin, Gepides, Gera, 471 Gevio, 216 Gex, 510 Geyer, 596 Geysa, 356 Gheel, 26 Ghent, 481 Giant's Causeway, 258 198 Giants' Mts., 357 Gianuti, 280 Giare, 17 Giaveno, 450 Gibraltar, 573 Giebichenstein, 401 Gieboldehausen, 365 Gien, 363 Giencen, 559 Gieasen, 347 Gifhorn, 334 Gigantiuu, 371 Giglio, 271 Gijon, 271 Gilgenberg, |Gingst, 494 Giornico, 471 Giovenazzo, 328 Girgenti, 374 Gironde, 282Gironde Depart- 323, 372; ment, 93 Gisborough, 160Giurgewo, 11 Givet, 109Givors. 109| Glaciers, 341 Gladbach, 5 Glammis, 368 Glamorganshire, 111,112 Glarus, 478 Glasgow, 24 Glashutle, 399 Glastonbury, 384 476 253 533 474 14 282 326 240 240 391 557 416 336 11 479 476' 500i 4114 270 l(i(i 19.-) 5(59 497 164 474! II Gournay, Govone, Gozzo, Graben, Grabfeld, Grabow, Graciosa, Gradisca, Gradisca, New, , Old, Grafenau, Grafenberg, Grafenberg (in Ba varia), Griifenhainchen, Griifrath, Grammont, Grampian Hills, Gran, Granada, Granard, Grand Colombier, Grand Donnon, Grand Chartreuse, 22 10 32f> 32 40f; 51; 53 i 53 3K 518 4:.. W S3 9:< •Jo: 383 Goldingen, 389 Goldkronach, 279 Gollheim, 279 Gollnow, Gollup, Gondreville, Gonten, Gonzaga, Goole, Goppingen, Goree, Gorgeny, Gorgeny-Szent- Imreh, Gorgona, Gorizia, Gorkum, Gorlitz, Gortz-Schlitz, Gorz, Goslar, Gospich, Gosport, Gossau, Gota-Canal, Gotha, Gotha River, Gotharike, Gdtheborg, Gothic style in ar chitecture, 152 Goths, 493 Gottenburg, 253 Gdttingen, 245 Gottland, 161 Gottlieben, 256 Gottorp, 381 Gouda, 239 Gourdon, 28 596 319 328 470 498 195 J 157 539 243 335! 270j 5311 531 125 512 270 475 358 512! 439! 533 1 238 169 562 394 13 570 572 44 18,23 572 440 571 165 556 270 216 193 6-26 251 16 Gran Sasso d'ltalia, 5 168 187 93 450 221 Gran see, Granville, Grao, Grasbrook, Grasse, Grasse, La, Gratz, Gratz, Graudenz, Graulhet, Grave, Gravelines, Gravelingen, s'Gravenhaag, Gravenstein, Gravesand, Gray, Gray Alps, Gray le Pre, Great Belt, Great Britain, Great Feldberg, Great Greece, Great Hall', Great-Island, Great Rumania, Great Poland, Great Rad, Great Russia, Great Schneeberg, 6 Grebenstein, 371 Grecian Archipel- ago, 10 Greding, 322 Greece, 617 Greek Church, 20 Greeks, 19 Greenlaw, 249 510 510 498 220 274 190 190 269 556 230 203 4 8 10C 9 259 528 6o;» 7 980 650 INDEX. PAGE' PAGE PAGE PAGE Greenock, 251 Guden, 14 Halifax, 243 Hauptweil, 166 Greenwich, 236 Gudensberg, 371 Hall, 335, 513 Hausach, 312 Greetsiel, 443 Guelphs, 433 Halland, 572 Hausberge, 484 Gregory VII., 41,Guerande, 210 Halle, 480 Hausen, 342, 345, 3' Greiffenberg, 470JGuerche, La, 208 Halle (inBelgiun )278 Haute Combe, 109 Greiffenberg (in |Gueret, 212 Hallein, 510 Hauterive, 159 Silesia), 475 j Guernsey, 247 Halligen, 557 Hautpoul, 220 Greiffenhagen, 470jGuetaria, 97 Halmstad, 572 Havel, 17 Greifswald, 471:Gugglingen, 331 Ham, 188 Havelberg, Haverfordwest, 466 Greiz, 398 Guibray, 187 Hambach, 327 245 Grenaa, 553; Guildford, 235 Hamburg, 448, 450 Havre de Grace, 186 Grenchen, 164 i Guildhall in Lon Haraeln, 435 Hawick, 249 Grenna, 571 don (History of), 54 Hamilton, 251 Hay barn Mts., 7 Grenoble, 222 Guilds, 52, 53 Hamra, 450, 4£ Hazebrouk, 190 Gretna Green, 250 Guillotiere, La, 214 Ham me, 280 Heath of Debrec- Greussen, 400 Guimaraes, 73 Hammelburg, 323 zin, 502 Grevemachern, 366 Guingamp, 209 Hammerfest, 578 Heath of Ketske- Grevenbroich, 493 Guiole, 216 Hammers tein, 498 met, 502 Grevismiihlen, 409 Guipuzcoa, 97 Hampshire, 238 Heaths Depart- Greyerz, 159 G oldene Aue, 399, 458 Hampton Court, 235 ment, 217 Grigoriopol, 611 Gulf of Genoa, 10 Hanau, 373 Hebrides, 254 Grimby, 237 Gulf of Lyons, 10 Hanau-Lich ten- Hechingen, 349 Grimrna, 382 1 Gulf of Riga, 9 berg, 328 Hecla, 8 Grim men, 470 i Gulf of Taranto, 10 Hanover, city, 435 Heddernheim, 363 Gripsholm, 569j Gumbinnen, 496 Hanover, Kingdom Hedemora, 570 Grisons, 161 Gundelfingen, 326 of, 430 Hedemiinden, 440 Grodno, 600 Gundelsheim, 332 Hanschuchsheim 343 Heerenveen, 272 Groenlo, 2721 Guns, 526 Hauseatic cities, 447 Hegendorf, 164 Grohnde, 436; Guntersblum, 357 Hanseatic League, 54 Hegyallya Hills, Heide, 527 Groix, 209iGUnthersberge, 404 Hants, 238 418 Grol, 272|Gunzburg, 325jHanut, 283 Heidelberg, 343 Gronau, 439 Gunzenhausen, 321|Hapsburg, 156 Heidelsheim, 342 Gronenbach, 325 Gurau, 473iHapsburg, House Heidenheim, 32C ,337 Groningen, 273 Guspini, 114J of, 30] ,507 Heilbronn, 332 Gross- Almerode, 370 Giistrow, 409 Hapsburg-Lor- Heilige Linde, 496 Grossbottwar, 331 Guyenne, 214 raine, 303, 507 Heiligenbeil, 496 Grosselflngen, 350 Gyergyo Szent Harburg, 437 Heiligenberg, 347 Grossenhain, 381 Miklos, 534 Hardenberg, 272 Heiligenhafen, 417 Grossetto, 124 Harderwvk, 271 Heiligenstadt, 481 Grossgerau, 354 Haarlem, 269|Hardt Mountains 6 Heiliger Damm, 407 Grosshennersdorf, 385 Haarlem Lake, 11 Harfleur, 186 Heilsberg, 496 Gross-Linden, 357 Haarlingen, 272 i Harlech, 246 Heilsbronn, 320 Gross-Salze, 477 Haase, 17iHarleigh, 246 Heinersdorf, 392 Gross-Schlatten, 531 Habelschwerdt, 474 Harrowgate, 244 Heitersheim, 346 Gross-Schonau, 385 Habelschwerdt Harsefeld, 438 Heldburg, 392 Gross-Strehlitz, 476 Mountains, 7 Hartenstein, 384 Helder, 269 Gross-Vargula, 481 Habichtswald, 8 Hartz, 7,8 Heldrungen, 479 Gross-Wardein, 528 Habsal, 596 Harwich, 236 Helensburgh, 251 Grotkau, 476 Hachenburg, 362 Harzburg, 447 Heligoland, 247 Grotzi ngen, 333, 340 Had amar, 362 Harzgerode, 404 Hellas, 61fl ,620 Grouaix, 209 1 Haddington, 249 Haseiiinne, 442 Hellebeck, 550 Grubenhagen, 440| Haddingtonshire, 249 Haslach, 342 Helmond, 274 Grubin, 598 Hadeln, 438 Hasle, 550 Helmstadt, 447 Grueningen, 169 Hadersleben, 556 Haslithal, 158 Helsingborg, 572 Giunberg, 357 , 474IHaemus, 6 Hasparon, 217 Helsingfors, 5SI9 Grund, 444, 486 1 Hafnerzell, 316 Hasparren, 217 Helsingland, 573 GiUnhain, 384 Haga, 568 Hasselfelde, 448 Helsingor, 594 Griinsfeld, 344 Hagen, 485 Hasselt, 272, 283 Heltau, 532 Griinstadt, 328 Hagenau, 197 Has8furt, 323 Helvetia, 151 Gruyeres, 159 Hagenow, 409 Hass-Gebirge, 7|Helvetic Republi c 153 Guadalaviar, 14 Hagos, 528 Hastenbeck, 435 Helvoetsluin, 270 Guadalaxara, 88 Hague, the, 269 Hastings, 236 Henneberg, ancient Guadalquivir, 14 Haiger, 362 Hattem, 272 castle of, 391 Gnadiana, J4iHaigerloch, 349 Hattenheim, 363 Heunebcrg, earl- Guadix, 93|Haiiiault, 281 Hattei>heim, 363 dom of, 388 Guardamar, 96 Hainichen, 381 Hatiingen, 485 Hennebon, 209 Guastalla, 117 Hajduks' District 529 Hatzeg, 534 Hennersdoif in Gubbio, 134jHalberstadt, 478 Hatzleld, 357 Seifen, 385 Guben, 468 Halin, 630 Haulx, 278 Henricbemont, 205 INDEX. 651 PAOB | PAOB[ PAOt' PAOB Henry the Lion, 433 Hillebrunn, 573 Holstein, 41 -2 Humber, 14 Heppeuheim, 334 Hillerod, 549 Holsteiu-Gottorp .til HUmmling, 431 Heptarchy, 25 Hillscheid, 363 Holum, 530 Hundholm, 578 Heraclea, 628lHilpoltstein, 317 Holy Causeway, 407 Hundsruck, 8 Herault, 15 Hilsbach, 344 Holyhead, 247 Hundwyl, 7 Hiinfeld, 157 Herault Depart- Himmelsberg, 544 Holy Kreuzberg, 373 ment, 220 Hindelopen, 27-2 Holy River, 12 Hungary, 520 Herbolzheim, 345 Hirschau, 31" ,333 Holy Roman Em Hungen, 357 Herborn, 388 Hirschberg, 474 pire, 2S>1 Hliningen, 199 Herculanum, 141 1 lirscli horn, 355 Holyrood, 249 Huns, 25 Hereford, 240 Hirsova, 630 Holywell, 246 Hunsriicken, 8 Herefordshire, 240 Hisingen, 572 Holzappel, 364 Hunte, 17 Herentals, 279 Hispania citerior, 84 Holzminden, 447 Huntingdon, 237 Herford, 484 Hispania ulterior , 84iHotnberg in Hesse, 371 Huntingdonshire , 237 Hericourt, 203 Hitzacker, 437 Horn berg an der Husavik, 560 Hering, 355 Hjelmar Lake, 373 Hjelmsnabben, 11 Ohm, 357 Husum, 556 Heringen, 569 Homburg (in Bava- Huttweil, 158 Hurisau, 157 Hjo, 573 ria), 328 Hutwyl, 158 Herjedalen, 574 Hjorring, 552 Homburg vor der Huy, 2-!2 Herlisheim, 198 Hobro, 553 Hohe, 359 Hven, 572 Hermannstadt, 532 Hochberg, 345 Homel, 601 Hydra, 622 Hermopolis, 623 Hochheim, 363jHonfleur, 186 Hyeres, 224 Herraunduri, 378 Hochkirch, 385Hoogstraten, 279 Hyerian Islands, 224 Hernosand, 574 Hochst, 363|Hooksiel, 424 Hypanis, 12 Herrenberg, 333 Hocbstadt, 319, 326|Hoorn, 269 Hythe, 236 Herrieden, 322 Hodimont, 2S3 Hdpital, 109 Herrnhut, 385 Hoegaerden, 279 Horb, 332 Ibbenbiiren, 483 Hersbruck, 321 Hof, 319 1 Horde, 485 Iberian Mountains, 5 Hersfeld, 373 Hofgeismar, 370 Hordic, 209 Iberians, 19 Hera tall, 282 Hofheim, 363 Horgen, 169 Ibrahil, 636 Hertford, 237 Hofwyl, 158 Horn, 428, 45 559 Hertfordshire, 237 Hogue, La, 187 Horn berg, 346 Icolmkill, 254 Hertogenbosch, 273 ! Hone Eule, 7 Horneburg, 438 Idar, 426 Heruli, 25 Hohegeiss, 448 Horsens, 553 Idarkopf, 8 Herve, 283 Hohr, an Horstmar, 483Idria, 512 H«rzberg, 440 Hohscheid, 493 Horla, 75 Idstein, 362 Herzegovina, 634Hohenasperg, 331 Hospodars, 636 Ifferten, 168 Herzogenrath, 490 Hohenberg, 332 Hostalrich, 95 Iglau, 517 Herzogenaurach, 320 Hohenembs, 514i Houat, 209 Iglesias, 114 Hesargrad, 630 Hohenfried berg, 475 House of Bourbon, 180 Igualada, 95 Hesdin, 189 1 Hohenheben, 347 House of Bragau- jlianz, 162 Hesse-Cassel, 368Hohenklingen, 164 za, 69'Ilfeld, 440 Hesse-Darmstadt, 351 Hohenkriihen, 347 1 House of Este, 1 18 ' Hie and Vilaine De- Hesse, electorate of 368 i Hohenlindeu, 314! House of Hano vei ■,233| partment, 208 Hesse, grand-duchy iHohenlohe, 336 House of Medici, 122 Iller, 16 of, 351 1 Hohenlohe-Schil- House of Stuart, 233 Illertissen, 325 Hesse-Homburg, 358 lingsfurst, 322 House of Tudor, 233 Illok, 530 Hesse, landgravi Hohensalzburg, 510 House of Witteis- Dlyria, 511 ate of, 358 Hohensch wangau ,314 bach, 313llllyrians, 102 Hesse and at Hohenstaufen, Howden, 243 Ilmen Lake, 11 Rhine, 351 324,33 H oxter, 484.11menau, 388 Het Loo, 271 Hohenstein, 384 Hoya, 436 II raenau River, 17 Hettingen, 349 HohenstofTeln, 347 Hoyerswerda, 475 Usen burg, 479 Heubach, Klein, 323 Hohentwiel, 333 Hoym, 404 Imbro, 632 Heuscheuer Ge- Hohenzollera, an- Hradschin, 514 Imbros, 632 birge, 7 cestral castle of, 349 Hraundalur, 560 1 Imgenbroich, 490 Heusden, 274 Hohenzollern, the Hrubieszow, 607 lmmediateness ( n Hexham, 244 principalities of, 347 Hubertsburg, 382 Germany), 51 Highland of Bay Hohenzollern-He Hiickeswagen, 493 Immenhausen, 371 reuth, 319 chingen, 349 Huddersfield, 243 Immeustadt, 325 Highlands of Hohenzollern-Sig Hudikswall, 574 Imola, 135 Berne, 158 maringen, 349 Huelva, 92 Indre, 15 Highland of Meis- Hohnstein, 440 Huesca, 94 lndre Department 2t sen, 376 Hohnstein, ancient Hiiringen, 347 Indre and Loire Highlands of Scot- earldom of, 481 Huissen, 272 Department, 206 land, 253 Holbek, 550 Hull, 243 Ingelflngen, 336 Hilchenbach, 4fifi Holland, 208 Hulonesus, 623 (ngelheim, 356 Hildhiircrhnusen, 393 llollleld, 320 II ulst, 271 In^rleboroiiifh, 8 Hildeshciin, 439 Holstebro, 553 Hultschin, 476 Ingolstadt, 314 652 INDEX. VMiK PAGK f PAGK pads lnsrrnnde, 207 Itzehoe, 417 Judenbach, 392 Kji(zont'linbo}re7 , Injuria, 595 Ivanovo, 592 Judenburg, 511 3o4, 3G4 Inn River, 16 Iverdun, 168jJugria, 521 Kntzeiielhibogei) Innerleithen, 250 Ivica, 97 Jiilich, 490 (town), 364 Inner-Rhoden, 157 [vrea, 108|Juliers, 490 Kaub, 364 Innucentus III., 41 Ivrv, l86Julin, 469 jKaufbeuren, 334 Innspruck, 513i (Jung-Breslau, 500 K aval a, 630 Inuwraclaw, 500Jaca, 94;Jungfrau, 4 Kecskemet, 525 lnsara, 608|Jacobstad, 7jJacobstadt, 599 Jung-Stilling, 486 Kedrich, 363 Inselsberg, 598 Jura Department, 203 Kehl, 341 Insterburg, 497 | Jaen. 93 Jura (island), 254 Keighley, 244 Interamnia, 143|Jagello, 600 Jura Mts., 6 Kelheim, 316 Interlachen, 158 Jagerndorf, 517 Jurburg, 601 Kellinghusen, 417 Interlaken, 158 Jagodina, 635 Jussev, 203 Kells, 257 Intra, llljJaik, 609 Justinian, 26 Kelso, 249 Inverbervie, 252 Jaitza, 634 Jiiterbock, 467 Kemi, 13 Inverary, 253;jalta, 611 Jutland, 552 Kemitrilsk, 599 Inverlochy Castle, 253 Janepol, 602 Kemnath, 317 Inverness, 253 Jankau, 515 Kadolzburg, 321 Kempen, 493 Inverness-shire, 253,Jankowitz, 515 Kaferloh, 314 Kempten, 324 Iona, 254 Jaonina, 633 Kiifernburg, 401 Kendal, 245 Ionian Islands, 6l4|Jarlsberg, 576 Kaffa, 610 Kengis, 575 Ionian Sea, 10 Jarmen, 470 Kahla, 396 Kenilworth, 240 Iperia, ISOJarnac, 211 Kaisersberg, 198 Kent, 236 Ipswich, 236|jaroslav, 519, 592 Kensington, 235 Irbit, 608 Jass-Bereny, 529 Kaisersreuth, 336 Kenzingen, 345 Ireland, 256 Jasseno vacz, 533 Kaiserswerth, 493 Keraes, 209 Irnis, 165,Jassy, 637 Kalau, 468 Kerensk, 608 Irwin, 250 Jastrow, 498 Kalauria, 622; Kerns, 166 Isar, 16 Jauer, 474 Kalavrito, 622 i Kernwald, 166 Ischia, 141 Jaxt, 329 Kalbe, 477 Kerry, 260 Ischl, 510 Jaxtberg, 337 Kalish, 605|Ker8Ova, 630 Isefjord, 544 Jaxt circle, 335 Kallenberg, 394|Kertsh, 611 Iseghem, 281 Jazyges, 521, 529 Kallraiinz, 17 Kesmark, 527 Isenburg, 355 Jazygia, 529iKallundborg, 550 Kesselsdorf, 381 Isenburg-Biidin- Jebaluga, 608 Kalmucks, 580 Keswick, 244 gen, 357 Jedburgh, 249 Kaltennordheim, 389 Ketskemet, 525 Iseo, 540 Jekaterinador, 613'Kaltensundheim, 389 Ketskemet Heath, 50i Isere Department, 222 Jekaterinburg, 607 Kaluga, 591 Kettwig, 494 Iserlohn, 485 Jekaterinoslav, 612 Kama, 12 Keula, 401 Isernia, 144 Jelatma, 592 Kamengrad, 634 Kezdi Vasarhely, 534 Ish, 608 Jemappes, 281 Kaminiec Podol- Kickelhahn, 7 Ishevski-Zavod, 608 Jemtland, 574 ski, 602 Kidderminster, 240 BT' 187 Jena, 387 Kammin, 470 Kidwelly, 245 114 Jenibazar, 635 Kamyshin, 609 Kandern, 345 Kiel, 417 isim 254 Jenidshe, 630 Kielce, 606 Isla de Leon, 92 Jersey, 247 Kapnik Banya, 531 Kiev, 594 Islay, 254 Jeschken, 7 Kaprena, 621 Kiew, Kieydani, 594 Isle de France, 182 Jesi, 134 Kapsali, 616 601 Ismail, 611 Jessnitz, 405 Kaptshak, 588 Kilbarchan, 251 Isny, 334 Jever, 424 Karansebes, 534 Kildare, 257 Isola, 512 Jewpatoria, 611 Karasu, 15, 610 Kilia, 611 Isola bella, 111 Joachimsthal, 466, 515 Karaveria, 631 Killala, 259 Isola mad re, 111 Jockmock, 575 Kardsschag-Uj- Killalve, 260 Isola dei Pescatori 111 Johanngeorgen- Szallas, 528 Killarney, 260 Isole de Tremiti, 144 stadt, 383 Kiirnthen, 511 Killkenny, 256 Isselburg, 494 Johannisberg, 363 Karystoa, 623 Kilmarnock, 250 Isselhorst, 484 Johannisburg, 497 Karytone, 622 Kimpolung, Kindelbriick, 636 Issengeaux, 221 John O'Groat's Kasan, 607 481 Issoire, 213 house, 254 Kaschau, 527 King's County, 257 Issoudun, 205 Johnstown, 251 Kasimov, 592 Kingston, 235, 256 Istres, 223 Johstadt, 383 Kasmark, 527 Kincardine, 252 Istria, 512 Joigny, 193 Kastel, 356 Kinnaird's Head, 252 Issnrtille, Italian Switzer- land, Italy, Ithaca, Itter, 201 Joinville, Jonkdping, 192 571 Kastri, 621 Katarinburg, 607 Kinross, Kinross-shire, 252 252 165 Jonzac, 211 Katscher, 476 Kinsale, 259 99 616 Joux, Joux, valley of, 203 168 Katz, 364 Katzbach, 13 Kirchberg, Kircbhain, 336 372 357 Jucka9jarwi, 575 Katzenbuckel, 7 Kirchheim, 326 INDEX. 653 PA.GC Kirchheim unter Teck, 335 Kirdorf, 357 Kirkaldy, 25? Kirkcudbright, 250 Kirkcudbright- shire, 250 K rkilissa, 629 Kirkwall, 255 Kirn, 4*8 Kishinev, fil 1 Kissingen, 322 Klagenfurt, 511 Klausenhurg, 531 Klein-Heubach, 3231 Kleinhueningen, 157 1 Klein-Schlatten, 531 Klein-Schmalkal- den, 373 Kleinwelka, 385 Klettgau, 346 Klingenberg, 323 Klingenthal, 197 Klingnau, 156 Klodnitz, 13 Kloppenburg, 423 ! Klundert, 274 Klutz, 409 Knaresborongh, 244 Knights of St. John, 46 Knights of the Or- der of the Sword 596 Knights Templars, 46 Knin, 535 Kniphiiusen, 424 Knyszyn, 602 Kobryn, 601 Koburg, 394 Kocher, 329 Kochheim, 487 Kock, 607 Koenigsfelden, 156 Koesfeld, 483 Koevoerden, 273 Kola, 593 Kolberg, 471 Kolding, 553 Kolen, 5 Kollero, 573 Kollin, 515 Kolocsa, 525 Kolosvar, 531 Koluri, 621 Komorn, 526 Kongelf, 573 Kongsbacka, 572 Kongsberg, 576 Kongshavn, 558 Koniggratz, 516 Konigheim, 344 Konigsberg, 496 Konigsherg in Franken, 394 Konigsberg in der Neumark, 467 Konigsbronn, 337 Konigsbriick, 385 Kdnigsee, 401 Kduigshofen, 322, 344 MM PAOKl Konigshiitte, 444 Kiinzelsau, 337 Konigslutter, 447 Kuopio, 599 Konigstein, 364 ,382 Kupferberg, 320 Konigsstuhl, 488 Kupferzell, 337 Kdnigswalde, 467 Kurnbach, 340, 355 Konigswinter, 492 Kurnik, 499 Konskie, 606 Kursk, 592 Kopenick, 465 Kusamo, 599 Kdping, 569 Kusnetzk 609 Korbach, 376 Kustrin, 467 Korneuburg, 509 Kuttenberg, 516 Koron, 622 Kuylenburg, 272 Korosbanya, 531 Kyburg, 169 Korsoer, 550 Kydonia, 632 Kortgene, 270 Kyfifhausen, 401 Kosel, 475 Kyparissa, 622 Kosen, 480 Kyritz, 466 Koslow, 611 Kj'»rteminde, 551 Kosstainicza, 533 Kjobenhavn, 549 Kostandschi, 630 Kjoge, 549 Kostendil, 631 i Kostritz, 399 Laaland, 550 Kostroma, 12, 592 Laasphe, 486 Knswick, 404 La Balme, 222 Kothen, 406 La Bastide de Clar- Knwno, 600 ence, 218 Krabln, 559 Labea, 470 Kragnjewatz, 635 Labour, 216 Krailsheitn, 336 La Charite, 204 1 Krain, 511 La Chatre, 205 Krajova, 636 Lachen, 164 Kranichstein, 354 La Chiusa, 108 Krasna, 531 La Ciotat, 223 Krasnoi-Jar, 609 Laconia, 622 Krautheim, 344 Ladenburg, 343 Krawinkel, 394 Ladinian, 151 Krefeld, 495 Ladoga Lake, 10 Kreischa, 3«1 La Fere, 188 Kremlin, 591 La Fere Champe- Kremnitz, 525 noise, 192 1 K reins, 509 1 La Ferte Bernard ,207 Kremsier, 517 La Ferte sous Jou- Kremsmiinster, 510 arre, 193! Kreut, 315 La Ferte Milon, 185 Kreuzburg, 389 ,476 La Fleche, 207! Kreuznach, 488 La Foce, 112 Kreuz-Wertheim 323 Lages, 75 Krivan, 5 Lagnieu, 202 Krolewetz, 594 Lagonegro, 145 Kronach, 320|Lngonero, 145 1 Kronberg, 364 [Lagos, 74 Kronborg, 549 LaGranja, 89 Kronstadt, 532, 596 i La Grasse, 224 Krossen, 467 La Guerche, 208 Krotoszin, 499 La Guillotiere, 214 Krumbach, 325 La Haye, 206 Kruschwitz, 500,Lahn, 16 Krzemieniec, 602lLahneck, 364 > Kuban, 12,613 Lahr 363 Kufstein, 513 La Hogue, 187 Kuhlandchen, 517 Laholm, 572 Kukukstein, 381 Lahr, 342 Kullen, 572 Lai bach, 511 Kiilsheim, 344 L'Aigle, 1871 Rumania, Great, 528 Laigueglia, 113! , Little, 529 Lake circle, 346 Knmurdshina, 6-2-* Lake of Constance, 11 Knngur. 607 Lake di Card a, 11 Kuunersdorf, 467 Lake of Geneva, 11 PAOK Lake Maggiore, 11 La Mancha, 88 La Marche, 212 Lamballe, 209 Lambesc, 223 Lamego, 72 Lamia, 621 Lam lash, 252 Lamothe-Fenelon, 215 Lampedusa, 147 Lampione, 147 Lanark, 250 Lanarkshire, 250 Lancashire, 242 Lancaster, 242 Lanciano, 143 Landau, 327 Landen, 283 Landernau, 209 Landeron, 163 Landes, 216 Landrecies, 191 Landsberg, 315 Landsberg an der Warthe, 467 Land's End, 239 Landshut, 315 Landshut (in Sile- sia), 475 Landskrona, 572 Landstuhl, 328 Lanesborough, 257 Langeac, 213 Laugeland, 551 Langenargen, 335 Langennerg, 493 Langenburg, 336 Langensalza, 481 Langenthal, 158 Langholm, 250 Langnau, 158 Langogne, 221 Langon, 215 Langres, 192 Languedoe, 219 Langueglia, 113 Lannion, 209 Lans-le-Bourg, 110 Lanusei, 114 Lanzo, 107 Laon, 185 La Palisse, 204 Lapland, 574 Laplanders, 574 liaredo, 88 La Reole, 215 Largentieres, 221 Larissa, 631 Larne, 258 La Roche, 283 La Rochefoucauld 212 La Rochelle, 211 Laruns, 218 Las Cabezas de San Juan, 92 La Seyne, 224 Lask, 606 Lasde, 552 La Superga, 107 654 INDEX. PAGE La Teste de Buch, 215 Leicester, Latins, 102 Leicestershire, Latisana, 542 Leichlingen, Latium, 132jLeirnen, La Tour de Peils, 168;Leine, La Tour du Pin, 222] Leiningen, La Trappe, 208j Leiningen, earl Laubach, 357 dom^of, Laubar., 475 Leinster, Lauchheim, 336 Leipsic, Lauchstadt, 479 Lei pzig, Lauda, 344|Leire, Laudenbach, 343 j Lei ria, Lauenau, 436jLeisnig, Lauenburg, 413, 418, | Lei th, 4l9jLeitha, Lauenstein, 436 Leitmeritz, Lauf, 321 Leitrim, Laufen, 159, 169 JLe Mans, Laufen (in Bavaria) 31 5 [ Lemberg, Lauffen, 331;Lemforde, 156 Lemgo. Lauffenburg, Lauingen, Lauis, Launceston, Laupen, Laurenbunr, Lawrencekirk. Laurvig, Lausanne, Lausche, Lautenthal, Lauterbach, Lauterbrunnen, Lauterburg, Lautereck, Lautrec, Lavagna, Laval, La Valetta, Lavaur, Lavedan, La Veneria, Lavenza, Lav is, La Voulte, Laxenburg, Laybach, Lazzaroni, Leadhills, Leamington, Le Blanc, Lebus, Lecce, Lecco, Loch, Leek, Le Crosic, Lectoure, Ledesma, Leeds, Leer, Leerdara, Leerfoss, Leeuwarden, Leghorn, Legnago, Legue St. Brieuc 326 165 239 158 301, 364 , 252 576 167 7 444 357 158 198 327 220 113 207 150 220 217 107 119 165 221 SOB 511 141 25 1 241 MS 407 143 536 J 6 n 210 210 90 243 443 270 577 27-2 125 542 Lernnos, Lempster, Lemsal, Lemvigr, Lendinara, Lengenfeld, Lengerich, Lennep, Lens, Lentini, Lenzburg, Lenzen, Lenzerwische, Lenzna, Leoben, Leobschiitz, Leominster, Leon, Leonberg, Leonforte, Leopoldshafen Le panto, Lepontine Alps, PAGE I 24 1 Levanto, 241 1 Levanzo, 493 Le Vigan, 343Levroux, 17 Lewin, 328j Lewis (island) Leyden, 357: Li ban, 256 Libourne, 382 Licata, 382 Lich, 549 Lichfield, 72, 560 Lichtenau, 383 Lich ten berg, 249 Lichtenberg (Al- 16j sace), 515 Lichtenberg, prin 259 cipality of, 207 Lich tenfels, 519 Lichtensteig, 436 Lichtenstein, 428 Lichtervelde, 632 Lidkbping, 240 Lidoriki, 597 Liebau, 553 Liebenau, 541 Liebenstein, 384 Liebenwalde, 442, 483 Liebenwerda, 493 Liebenzell, 189 Lieberose, 148 Liebstadt, 156,LiechstalI, PAGEl PAGE 1 13 Lines of Weissen- 147 burg, 198 221 Lingen, earldom 205 of, 441 474 1 Lingen, town, 442 255 Linkoping, 570 Linlithgow, . 249 Linlithgowshire, 249 2li'.i 598 215 147 357 241 342, 371 Linz, 509 Linz (in Prussia), 48-* Li pari, 14ft Lipari Islands, 118 Lippe-Biickeburg, 428 Li ppe-Detmold, 427 Lippe River, Lippehne, Lippstadt, Liria, Lisboa, Lisbon, Lisburn, Liscowo, 573jLisianka, 621 Lisieux, 475 L'Isle, -\t - 16 467 428 96 71 71 258 592 594 187 225 259 499, 535 600 436 Lismore, 391JLissa, 465! Lithuania, 480 Little Belt, 9 333 [Little Brittany, 208 468; Little England, 258 381 Little Haff, 9 157 Little Poland, 602,605 466 : Liechtenstein, 350, 351 j Little Russia, 594 458Liege, 282 Little Schiitt, 524,525 607 ( Liegnitz, 474 1 Little Wallachia, 636 Le Puy en Velay, 221 lie, 511 Lier, 476Liestall, 240JLifford, 89jLigne, 331 Ligny, 148,Ligny (Lorraine), 340 Ligurian Apen- 621 nines, 4 1 Ligurian Repub- 279|Littorale, Le Quesnoy, Lerici, Lerida, Lerinian Islands, Lerwick, Les Andelys, Lesina, Lesparre, Les Sables d'Ol- onne, Lessines, Lesum River, Letrini, Leucadia, Leucate, Leuchtenberg, Leuk, Leutershausen, Leuthen, Leutkirch, Leutschau, Leuze, 191 Lili, 208, 2091 Levauti na, 113 95 224 255 180 535 215 210 981 17 022 Oil) 330 31ft 107 321 473 334 527 2ft I 163 Lille, Lillebonne, Lilybaeum, Limagne, Liman Gulf, Limburg (town in Belgium), Limburg (in Nas- sau), Limburg, duchy of, 274, 365, 367 Limerick, Limmer, Limoges, Limousin, Limoux, Linares, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, Lindau, Lindenfels, Lindesberg, 260 435 212 212 220 93 237 237 324, 440 355 Livadia, Livato, Liverpool, Livno, Livonia, Livorno, Lixuri, Lizard Point, Ljusnedal, Llandaff, Llanelly, Llanydloes, Llerena, Loano, Lbbau, Lobenstein, Locana, Locarno, T.,occum, Loch Awe, Lochem, Loches, Loch Katerine Loch Lomond, Loch Ness, Locle, LOcse, Lodeve, Lodi, Lodomeria, Loffingen, Lofoden, 512 620, 621 616 243 634 596 125 616 239 574 245 245 246 91 113 385, 498 398 108 lfi5 435 12 272 20« 253 11 12 163 527 220 538 518 347 577 INDEX. 655 PAGE* PAGE I PAGE PAGE Ltifsta, 568 Lowenstein- Wer- Lucon, 88 theim, 324 Lude, 210 Lya, 16 Logrofio, 484 Lohr, 323 Lower Alps De- Lihienscheid, 485 Maad, 527 Loir and Cher De- partmerit, 224 Liidinghausen, 483 Maaseyk, 2*3 pnrtment, 206 Lower Alsace, 197 Liidingworth, 438 Maassluis, 270 Loire, 15 Lower Austria, 508 Ludlow, 242 Macclesfield, 242 Loire Depart- Lower Bavaria, 315 Ludwigsburg, 331 Macedonia, 630 ment, 214 Lower Charente Ludwigslust, 409|Macerata, 134 Loiret Depart- | Department, 211 Ludwigstadt, 319 Macon, 2ul ment, 205 Lower Eichsfeld, 440 Lugano, 165 Maddalena, II t Loka, 569 Lower Franconia, 322 Lugano Lake, 11 Maddaloni, 142 Lokeren, 280 Lower Hesse (of iLiigde, 484 Madrid, bl Lokris, 631 Hesse-Casael), 370 Lugo, 91 Mad ue Lake, . 11 Lombards, 28 Lower Hungary, 524 Luhe, 17 Maelar Lake, 11 Lombardy, 536, 537 Lower Ingefheim, 35(5 Luik, 282 Maenzingen, 146 Lombardy and Ve- | Lower Italy, 103 Lukow, 607 Maestricht, 274 nice, 536 Lower Lake, 11 Lulea, 574 Mafra, 71 Lorabez, 216 Lower Loire De- Lumello, 111 Magdalena, 75 Lommatzsch, 381 partment, 209 Lund, 571 Magdeburg, 477 Lomnitzer Spitze, 5 Lower Lusatia, 46? Lunden, 418 Miigdesprung, 404 Lomza, 606 Lower Margra- Liineburg, 436 Maggiora, 111 Lonato, 540 viate, 310 Liineburg Heath, 431 Maggiore Lake, 11 Londari, 622 Lower Moesia, 629 jLunel, 220 Magliano, 133 London, 234 Lower Palatinate, 342|Luneville, 194 Magna Graecia, 102 London (History , 38 Lower Pyrenees Lunigiana, 11{ ,125 Magnac Laval, 212 Londonderry, 25« Department, 218 Lupodanum, 343 Magyars, 19, 52C ,521 Longford, 239, 257 Lower Rhenish Lupodum, 343 Mali 1 berg, 346 Longobuco, 145 circle, 292 Lure, 203 Mahlstrom, 577 Longwy, 196 Lower Rhine cir- Lurgan, 258 Mahon, 96 Longy, 247 cle, 342 Lnrley, 364 Maidstone, 236 Loningen, 423 Lower Rhine De- Lus, 217 Mai land, 537 Lons le Saulnier, 203 partment, 197 Lusatia, 384 Maine, 207 Loo, het, 271 Lower Saxon cir- Lusatia, Lower, 467 Maine and Loire Looz, 283 cle, 293 Lusatia, Upper, Lusatian Mis.. 475 Department, 206 Lopshorn, 428 Lower Saxony, 378 7 Mainland, 255 Lorca, 94 Lower Seine De- Lusatian Neisse, 13 Maiutenon, 205 Lorch, 337 ,363 partment, 185 Lusignan, 210 Mainz, 356 Loreto, 134 Lower Selters, 363 Lusitania, 84 Maisenthal, 195 Loretto, 134 Lower Silesia, 474 Luso, 127 Majorca, 96 Lorient, 209 Lower Stamm- Lussin Piccolo, 512 Majores-domus, 27 Lorrach, 345 heim, 169 Lustri, 168 Ma'ladetta, 4 Lorraine, 193 Lower Valais, 167 Lutetia, 183 Malaga, 93 Lorsch, 354 Lowestoff, 236 Liitetsburg, 443 Malapane, 13, 47; Loschkirch, 532 Lowicz, 605 Liitjenburg, 417 Malaria, 100 Los Passages, 97 Lowlands of Scot- Lutry, 168 Malchen, 7 Lossnitz, 384 land, 249 Luttenberg, 511 Malchin, 409 Lot, 15 Loxa, 93 Lutter am Baren Malchin Lake, 11 Lot Department, 215 Lozere, 6 berge, 447 Malchow, 410 Lot and Garonne Lozere Depart- Lutterworth, 241 Mallow, 259 Department, 215 ment, 221 Liittringhausen, 493 Malmaison, 184 Lothians, 249 Liibbecke, 484 Liitzelburg, 365, 36(5 Malmedy, 490 Lotzen, 497 Liibben, 468 Liitzen, 479 Malmo, 571 Loudeac, 209 Liibbenau, 468 Luxeuil, 203 Malplaquet, 191 Loudun, 210 Lubec, 451, 452 Luxemburg (Bel- iMalta, 14S , 150 Loueche, 167 Lubec, principality gian), 283 Mamers, 207 Loughborough, 242 of, 4-25 Luxemburg (city) ,366 Man, 247 Lough Neagh, 12 Liibeck, 452 Luxemburg, grand- Man with the iron Loughrea, 259 Lublin, 605 duchy of, 365 mask, 224 Louhans, 201 Lublinitz, 47(5 Luzerne, 162 Mancha, La, 88 Lourdea, 217 Liibtheen, 40'.) Luzerne, Lake of 11 Ifaoehe Depart- Louth, 257 Lucania, 145 L izk, 602 ment, 187 Louvain, 278 Lucca, 125 Lychen, 466 .Manchester, 243 Louven, 14 Lucena, 93 Lyck, 497 Mumlal, 577 Louviers, 186 Lucera, 1 M Lygians, 472 Manebach, 394 Louvre, 182 Lucerna, valley of, 107< Lygumkloster, 557 Maulrednnia, 144 Lovere, 540 Liichow, 4:57 Lymfjord, 5-14 Maugulia, 630 Lovisa, 5<>9 Lucka, 39() Lyonnais, 2131 Manresa, 95 656 INDEX. PAGE Mansfeld, 479 Mansfield, 242 Mantes, 184 Mantua, city of, 539 , ancient duchy of, Manxmen, Manzanares, Marans, Marbach, Marbella, Marbore, Marourg, Marburg (in Aus- tria), March River, Marche, La, Marche en Fa- mine, Marcomans, Marco Polo, Maremma, Marengo, Marennes, Maretimo, Margate, Mariager, Maria Taferl, Mariazell, Mariboe, Mariefred, Marienbad, Marienberg, Marseilles, Mars tall, Marstrand, Marthalen, Martigny, Martigues, Martinach, Martinengo, Martorell, Martos, Marvejols, Marville, Marxburg, Maryborough, Mary port, Mascoli, PAGE 223 557 573 169 167 223 167 540 95 93 221 195 364 257 244 148 119 119 Massa-Carrara, 283 Massa di Marema, 124 297 Masserano, 108 55 Mataro, 95 120 Matera, 145 111 Matlok, 242 211 Maubeuge, 191 147 Maulbronn, 236 Mauleon, 553 Maupertuis, 509 Mauriac, 511 Maurizio, San 550|Maurs, 569iMauze, 5l5JMaxen, 383 Maxsayn. Meersch, Meganisi, Megara, Mehadia, Mehlsack, Mehun, Meilen, Meinau, Meiningen, Meinungen, Meisenheim, Meissen, Melazzo, Melchthal, Meldorf, Mele, Melfi, Melibocus, Melite, Melk, Melle, Mellrichstadt, Melnik, Meloria, 331 Melrose, 217 Melsungen, 210 Melton Mowbray, 242 PAGE 367 205 169 347 391 391 359 379, 381 148 166 418 112 145 7 150 509 210, 441 323 515 1-25 24! I 371 Marienburg, 497, 532jMayenburg Marienburg (in Bel- JMayence, gium), Marienwerder, Mariestad, Marignano, Marino, San, Maringuea, Marissa, Maritime Alps, Maritimo, Mariupol, Mark, ancient earl dom of, Markdorf, Markgroningen, Markirch, Markneukirchen, 384 Markolsheim, 197 Markranstadt, 383 Markt-Einersheim 322 I.larkt-Erlbach, 321 282|Mayenne 498 j Mayenne Depart- 573 ment, 538!Mayne, 136 j Maynooth, 21 3 j Mayo, 15iMazamet, 4 1 Mazzara, 213 Melun, 184 107 Memel (city), 496 213 Memel River, 13 210 Memmingen, 324 381|Memmleben, 480 362 Memsen, 436 466 Menai Strait, 246 356;Mende, 221 15, 207iMenden, 485 Mendris, 165 207'Mendrisio, 165 16JMengen, 335 257 Mengeringhausen, 376 259lMenin, 281 220 Mentone, Mazzarino, Mearns, Meath, Meaux, 346 j Mechlin, 331 Mecklenburg- Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Stre- litz, Medelpad, Medemblik, Medewi, Mentz, city, , ancient elec- torate, 257JMeppel, ~~ Meppen, Mequinenza, Meran, Mereczowszczisa, Mereville, 4lO|Mergeutheim, 574 Merida, 40li Markthennersdorf, 385: Mediasch, Marly, 183! Medici, House of, 122 Marmande, 215 Medicina, 135 I larmora Sea, 10| Medina Celi, Marne, 15, 418 Medina Sidonia, Marne Depart- ment, 192 Maros Ujvar, 531 Maros Vasarhely, 532 Marrac, 217 Marsac, 213 Marsala, 147 Marsan, 2 Marsberg, 269j Merionetshire, 570|Merkendorf, 532 j Merovingians, Medina del Rio seco, 89 Mediterranean Sea, 10 Medoc, 215 Medwisch, 532 Meenen, 281 Meerane, 384 Meerholz, 374 485 l Meersburg, 346 Merse, Merseburg, Merthyr Tydvil, Merwe, Merxheim, Merzich, Meschede, Meseritz, Messenia, Messina, Mesto, Mestre, Methone, 110 35(3 355 273 442 94 513 600 184 336 91 246 320 26 249 479 245 16 360 489 485 499 622 148 15 541 622 Mettmann, Metz, Metzingen unter Urach, Meudon, Meulebeke, Meung, Meurs, Meurthe Depart- ment, Me use, Meuse Depart- ment. Meyenfeld, Meynthal, Meyringen, Mezen, Mezieres, Mezin, Mezzafuso, Mezzovo Mts., Michailovka, Michelstadt, Micheltown, Middelburg, Middelfart, Middle Rhine cir cle, Middlesex, Mid-Lothian, Miechow, Miedniki, Miedzerzyce, Miedzyborz, Mietau, Migration of na- tions, Mjos Lake, Milan, Milano, Milazzo, Milden, Milford, Milhaud, 196 333 184 281 205 494 194 16 195 162 165 158 12 192 6 147 6 592 355 259 270 551 340 234 249 607 602 597 23,24 11 537 537 148 168 245 216 Military Frontier, 533 Militsch, Millesimo, Milo, Miltenberg, Mincio, Mindelheim, Minden, Mineo, Minho, Minnesingers, Minorca, Minsk, 474 108 623 323 15 325 483 148 14 56 96 601 Miranda de Douro, 73 Mirande, Mirandella, Mirandola, Mirecourt, Missolonghi, Mistretta, Mitrovicz, Mittelmark, Mittelwalde, Mittenwakl, Mittenwalde, 216 73 119 195 621 148 534 464, 467 474 315 465 INDEX. 657 Mitterburg, Mockmiihl, Modane, Modejares, Modena, Modica, Modtgliano, Modlin, Modon, Moen, Moers, Moesia, Lower, Moesia, Upper, Moffat, Moguer, Mohacz, Mohammedans, Mohilew, Mohilow, Mohra, Miihringen, Mohrungen, Moissac, Mokshansk, Mola di Bari, Mold, Moldau River, Moldavia, Molfetta, Molina, Molk, Molle, Mollis, Molln, Mologa, Molsheim, Mommelliano, Mompelgard, Monaco, Monaghan, Moncaiieri, Monchiqne, Mondonedo, Mondovi, Mondragon, Moneins, Monheim, Monistrol, Monmouth, Monmouthshire, Monnikendam, Monopoli, Monreale, Mons, Monselice, Monsheim, Monstiers, Montabaur, Montasrnana, Montaigu, Montalban, Montalcino, Montalto, Montargis, Montauban, Montbard, Montbeliard, Mont Blanc, Montbrison, PAQK 512 331 110 76 117, 118 148 123 606 622 550 494 629 634 250 92 391! 347 496 216 608 144! 246 16 636 144 88 509 577 161 420 12 197 109 203 110 258 106 74 91 108 97 218 326 221 240 240 269 144 146 281 541 357 110 363 541 278 94 124 133,134 205 216 201 203 4 214 63!} 112 149 124 H3 113 5 144 114 5 113 110 Mont-Cassel, Mont Dauphin, Montdidier, Mont Dore, Montecalieri, Monte Cassino, Montechiaro, Monte Christo, Monte Cimone, Montefarchio, Monteflascone, Montefusco, Monte Gibello, Monte Giuliano, Monteleone, Montelimart, Monte Negro (near Leghorn), Montenegro (in Turkey), Montenotte, Monte peloso, Montepulciano, Montereau fault Yonne, Monterosso, Monte Rotondo, Monte Sant' An- Mgelo, Muntesanto, Monte di Sibylla, Montferrand, Montferrat, Montfort, 208,271 Montgomery, 246 Montgomeryshire, 246 Montherhausen, 195 Monthey, Montiers, Monti I la, Montivilliers, Montjoie, Mont- Louis, Montlucon, Monti uel, Mont de Marsan, Montmedy, Montmelian, Montm trail, Montmorency, M out inori lion, Montpellier, Montpensier, Mont Perdu, Montreale, Montreuil, Montrose, Mont St. Michel, Montserrat, Mont Tendre, Mont de Tonnere, Monts de Faucille, 6 Monza, 538 Monzon, 94 Mook, heath of, 271 Moors, 28, 33 Moorslede, 281 Moorzele, 281 Moorwerder, 450 28 1 FA OR | 190;Moo8burg, 2-2-2 Morat, 188j Moravia, 6 1 Moravian Mts., 106 Morawa, 142; Moray, 540 Morbegno. Morbihan Depart ment, Mordwines, Morea, Morella, Morez, Morgarten, Morges, Moringen, Moritzburg, Morlaix, Morpeth, Mors, Morsburg, Morsee, Mortagne, Mortain, Mortara, Morwan Mts., Mosaisk, Mosbach, Moscow, Moselle, Moselle Depart- ment, Mosken, Moskenas-Strom- men, Moskirch, Mosony, 167 110 83 1«!-) 40.) 319 204 202 217 195 109 199 184 210 220 213 4 148 189 252 181 •J.") i PAOK 315 159 516 7 16 253 539 Mostar, Motala, Motril, Mottlau, Moudon, Moulins, Mount Edge- combe, Mount Hecla, Mount Mellick, Mountrath, Mount Rosa, Moura, Monzon, Moyenvic, Mucidan, Mufflon, Mufti, Muggendorf, Muhlberg, MUhldorf, MUhlenbach, Miihlhausen, MUhlhausen (Al- sace), Miihlheim am Rhein, Miihlheim Ruhr, Muhlingen. Miihltroff, 203 168 168 440 382 209 244 552 346 168 190,208 187 111 6 591 344 590 16 188 577 577 347 527 57ti 831 570 03 13 168 204 8 257 887 4 73 193! 195 215 113 6261 319 480 315 532 481 der 402 493 401 Muiden, 268 Mulde, 16 Mull, 254 Mijllheim, 345 Mullingar, 257 Miillrose, 467 Mummel Lake, 338 Munch berg, 319 Muncheberg, 467 Miinchen, 314 Miinchengratz, 515 M iinden, 440 Miinder, 436 Munderkingen, 335 Munich, 314 Munkacs, 528 Mii nncrs tadt, 323 Munsingen, 335 Munster, 259 MUnster, 482 Minister imGrego- rienthal, ' 108 Miinsterberg, 474 Miinstereifel, 492 Miinzenberg, 357 Munzthal, 195 Murano, 541 Marat, 213 Murcia, 94 Mures, 90 Muret, 217 Murg, 338 Muri, 156 Muritz Lake, 11 Murrhard, 331 Murten, 159 Murviedro, 96 Muskau, 475 Musselburgh, 249 Muttenz, 158 Mutzig, 197 Mutzschen, 3*2 Muyden, 268 Mylau, 384 Naarden, 269 Naas, 257 Nab, 16 Nabburg, 317 Nachitschevan, 612 Naefels, 161 tfagold, 333 Nagy-Banya, 528 Nagy Enyed, 531 Nagy Falu, 531 Nagy-Karoly, 528 Nas?y-Szent-Mik- los, 528 Nagy Varad, 528 Nahe, 16 Naila, 319 Nairn, 253 Nairnshire, 253 V tk-kop, 551 Nam. mi, 281 Vamslau, 473 tfamur, 281 Nancy, Nangis, 194 184 658 INDEX. PA6K| PAGKj PAGEI PAGE Nantes, 209 (Netherlands, king- |Neustadtl, 51l!Nieuwport, 280 Nantua, 202| domofthe, 265 Neustettin, 472Nievre, 15 Nautwicb, 242; Netherlander, 265 Neu-Strelitz, 41l|Nievre Depart- Naples, 141 Netze, 13Neustria, 27 ment, 204 Napoli di Malva- Netzschkau, 384jNeu-Titschein, 517|Nikolaiken, 497 sia, 622, 623 Neubrandenburg, 412 Neuveville, 159|Nikolajew, 611 Napoli di Roma- Neuburg on the Neuwied, 488;Nikolsburg, 517 nia, 621 Danube, 326 Nevers, 204iNimeguen, 271 Narbonne, 220 Neuchatel, 162, 163 Nevesigna, 634|Nimes, 220 Narenta, 15 Neuchatel (in Neviges, 493 Nimptsch, 473 Narni, 133 France), 186 Newa, 13 Ninove, 280 Naro, 147 Neudamm, 467 Newark, 242 Niort, 210 Narva, 596 Neudenau, 344 New Branden- Nishnei-Novgo- Nassau, duchy, 360 Neuenburg, 423 burg, 412 rod, 592 Nassau (town), 362 Neuenburg, 333 New Breisach, 198 Nishnei-Tagilsk, 608 Nassau-Siegen, 486 Neuenhaus, 442 Newbury, 235 Nishnij Lomov, 608 Naters, 167 Neuenstadt, 159 Nt 87 Nisida, 141 Naugard, 470 Neuenstein, 337 Newcastle under Nissa, 635 Nauheim, 374 Neuerburg, 489 Lyne, 241 Nivelles, 278 Naumburg, 479 Neufahrwasser, 497 Newcastle upon Nivernais, 204 Naumburg am Bo- Neufchaieau, 195,283 Tyne, 244 NizzadellaPaglia, 111 ber, 475 Neufchatel Lake, 11 New Galloway, 250 Nobility (history), 46 Naumburg (in Neuffen, 333 New Gradisca, 534 Nocera, 134, 142 Hesse-Cassel), 372 Neuhaldensleben, 477 New Katzenellnbo- Nogat, 13 Naumburg am Neuhaus, 437 gen, 364 Nogayzg, 611 Queis, 475 Neuhausel, 525 New Lanark, 250 Nogayan Steppe, 611 Naupaktos, 621 Neuilly, 183 Newlands, 250 Nogent le Roi, 192 Nauplia, 621 Neukirch, 164 Newmarket, 237 Nogent le Rotrou, 208 Navia, 90 Neukirchen, 372,493 New Orsova, 635 Nogent sur Seine, 192 Navan, 257 Neukloster, 410 New Patrae, 621 Noirmoutier, 210 Navarino, 622 Neumark, 464, 467 Newport, 240 Nola, 142 Navarre (in Neumarkt, 317, 473 New Radnor, 246 Noli, 113 France), 218 Neumiinster, 169, 417 New Ross, 256 Nonnenmattwei- Navarre (in Neunburg vordem Newry, 258 her, 338 Spain), 97 Walde, 317 Newstead Abbey, 242 Nontron, 215 Navarre (palace Neusatz, 525 New Strelitz, 411 Noord-Beveland, 270 of), 186 Neusiedl Lake, 11 Newton upon Ayr, 250 Nora, 569 Naxia, 623 Neuss, 168, 493 Newton Stuart, 250 Norburg, 557 Naxos, 623 Neustadt (in Hol- NexOe, 550 Nord Department, 190 Neapolitan Apen- stein), 417 Nibe, 552 Norden, 443 nines, 5 Neustadt (in Meck- Nicastro, 145 Norderney, 443 Neath, 245 lenburg), 409 Nice, 110 Nordhausen, * 481 Neau, 490 Neustadt an der Nicolas de Port, 195 Nordheim, 440 Nebel, 17 Aisch, 321 Nicolosi, 148 Nordhorn, 442 Necessidades, 7] Neustadt am Culm 318 Nicopoli, 629 Nord land, 577 Neckar, 16, 329 Neustadt an der Nicosia, 148 Nordlingen, 324 Neckar-Biscbof- Dosse, 466 Nidau, 158 Norfolk, 236 sheim, 344 Neustadt-Ebers- Nidda, 357 Noricum, 297 Neckar Circle, 331 walde, 466 Nidwalden, 166 Norma, 133 Neckargemiind, 343 Neustadt an der Niebla, 92 Normandy, 185 Neckarsteinach, 355 Haardt, 327 Niedenstein, 371 Norman Islands, 247 Neckarsulm, 332 Neustadt an der Niederaula, 373 Normans, 30 Negropont, 623 Heide, 394jNiederbronn, 198 Norrkoping, 570 Neheim, 485 Neustadt (in Hesse- [Niedernhall, 337 Norrland, 573 Neidenau, 344 Cassel), 372 Niederrad, 456 Norrtelge, 508 Neidenburg, 496 Neustadt unterm Nieder-Selters, 363 North Albingia, 414 Neisse, 476 Hohnstein, 441 ' Niederstetten, 337 North Albingians, 298 Neisse River, 13 Neustadt an der INiederwildungen 376 Northampton, 241 Neitra, 16 Linde, 331[Niemen, 13 Northampton- Nemours, 184 Neustadt an der Niemirow, 602 shire, 241 Nenndorf, 372 Orla, 388Nienburg, 436 North Brabant, 273 Nerac, 217 Neustadt in der iNienburg an der North Cape, 3, 578 Nerike, 569 Rosenau, 355] Saale, 406 North Channel, 10 Nervi, 112 Neustadt am RU- INierstein, 356, North Coasts De- Nestved, 550 benberge, 436 Niesky, 475! partment, 20b Netherlands, 261 STeustadt an der Nieuport, 280 Northgau, 197 , Austrian, 277 Saale, 323 Nieuwe Dien, 2C,9 North Holland, 268 , Catholic, 277 Neustadt an der Nieuwfcerk," 272 Northumberland. 244 , Spanish, 277, Waldnab, 318 Sieuwpoort, 210 Vorlh Jutland, 552 INDEX. 659 PAOK PAOE PAOK PAOK North Riding, 24: 1 Oberwesel, 48' ' Old Orsova, 5U Ortenau, 341 North Sea, £ Obidoa, 72 Old Pazna, 534 Ortenberg, 357 North Shields, 244 Obotrites, 40" Old Rhine, H Ortenburg, Orthez, 316 North Uist, 255 Obwalden, 16C Old Strelitz, 41S 218 North Wales, 24« Ocana, 8- Oleggio, ill Ortles, 4 North wich, 24-. Occhieppo supe- Oleron, 211, 21* Ortona a Mare, 143 Norway, 575 riore, 10£ Oletzko, 497 Orvieto, 133 Norwegian Lap- Ochsenfurt, 323 Olgun, 635 Orzi Nuovi, 540 land, 578 Ochsenkopf, 7 Olite, 97 Oschereleben, 478 Norwich, 236 Ochsenwerder, 450 Oliva, 497 Oschiri, 114 Noto, 148 Ochrida, 63: Olivenca, 91 Osieczno, 499 Nottingham, 242 Oczakow, 611 Olkusz,' 606 Osilo, 114 Nottinghamshire , 242 Odeu, 547 Ollioules, 224 Osimo, 134 Novara, 111 Odenkirchen, 493 Olmiitz, 517 Osma, 89 Nova Zembla, 593 Odense, 551 Olonetz, 593 Osmanlis, 624 Novel lara, 119 Odenwald, 7 Oloron, 218 Osnabriick, 441 Novgorod, 593 Oder, 13 Olpe, 485 Osning, 8 Novi, 112 Oderbruch, 458 Olsa, 13 Ossa, 13 Novibasar, 635 Odernheim, 356 Otten, 164 Ossiach Lake, 11 Novo Georgievsk, 606 Odessa, 611 Olviopol, Omagh, 611 Ossuna, 92 Novogorod, 50 Odin, 547 258 Ostende, 280 Novo Mirgorod, Nowogrodek, 611 Odoacer, 45 Orabrone, 120 Osterburg, 478 60] Oedenburg, 526 Ommen, 272 Osterburken, 344 Nowoi-Tsherkask, 612;Oederan, 384 Onate, "93 Osterhofen, 316 Nozay, 210 Oehringen, 336 Onega Lake, 10 Osterholz, 438 Nucko, 596 Oeland, 571 Onega River, 13 Osterhout, 274 Nuits, 201 Oels, 445,4 Oneglia, 110 Osterland, 382. 395 Numantia, 89 Oelsnitz, 384 Onolzbaeb, 320 Osterode, 440 Numburg, 372 Oeraefe-Joekul, 8 Oostburg, 27HOsterwiek, 478 Nummedalen, 576 Oerebro, 569 Opatow, 606 Ostheim, 389 Nuremberg, 321jOeregrund, 568 Opladen, 493|Osthofen, 356 Niirnberg, 321 1 Oeresound, 9 Oporto, 72 Ostra, 132 Nuoro, 114 Oesel, 597 Oppa, 13 Ostrach, 349 Nurri, 114 Oesterby, 333'Oester-G6thland, 568 Oppeln, 475 Ostrog, 602 Niirtingen, 570 Oppenau, 341 Ostrogoths, 23 Nusloch, 343 Oesteriisoer, 577 Oppenheim, 356 Ostrolenka, 606 Nya Elfsborg, 572 Oester-Joekul, 8 Oppidolo, 147 Oswestry, 242 Nyborg, 551 Oesteroe, 558 Orange, 223|Otranto, 143 Ny Carleby, 599 Oestersund, 574 Oranienbaum, 405jOttensen, 418 Nykjobing 550,!OetMng,Old, 315 Oranienburg, 465 Otterbersr, 327 551 , 552 Oettingen, 326 Orb, 323 Otterndorf, 438 Nykoping, 568 Ofen, 525 Orbach, 168 Ottersberg, 438 Nymphenburg, 314 Offenbach, 355 Orbe, 168 Ottmachau, 476 Nyon, 168 Offen burg, 341 Orbitello, 125 Ottobeuren, 325 Nyons, 223 Oggersheira, 327 Ordufia, 97 Ottweiler, 360, 489 Nystad, 598!Ogliastra, 114 Ore Mountains, 7 Oudenaarde, 279, 280 Nysted, 551 Oglio, 15 Orel, 591 Oudewater, 270 Nyvel, 278 Ogulin, 533 Orenburg, 609 Ouessant, 209 Ogygia, 150 Orense, 91 Oufa, 609 Oakham, 241 Ohlau, 13 Orfan, 631 Oulx, 107 Ober-Aargau, 158 Ohrdruf, 394 Orghei, 612 Ourem, 72 Oberbaden, 156iOhrnbau, 322 Orgon, 224 Ourique, 73 Ober-Glogau, 476 Oise, 15 Orgosola, 114 Ourthe, 16 Obergiinzburg, 325 Oise Department, 184 Orihuela, 96 Otise, 14 Ober-Hohenberg, 7 Oka, 12 Dristano, 114|Ovar, 72 Oberkirch, 341 Okna, 637 Orkney Islands, 255jOvelgonne, 423 Ober-Kulm, 156 Olau, 473 Drkneys, 255|Over-Flakke, 27D Oberlahnstein, 363 Oldenburg, city of, 423 )rlamiinde, 396 Overyssel, 272 Obermoschel, 328 Oldenburg, Grand- 3rleanais, 205 Ovidiopol, 611 Obernay, 197 duchy of, 420 Orleans, 205 Dviedo, 90 Obernburg, 323 Oldenburg (in Drnans, 303 >wl Mountains, 7 Oberndorf, 332 Holstein), 417 Orne, 15 < Dxford, 237 Obernkirchen, 372 Old Castile, 88 >ne Department, 187 1 Oxfordshire, 237 Oberrad, 456 Oldendorf, 371 Dropa, 108 1 >vonnar, 202 Oberramstadt, 354 Oldenzaal, 272 )rosei, 1 14 Ozieri, 114 Ober-Rossbach, 357 Oldesloe, 417 )rsova. 635 Ozorkov, 605 Oberschonau, 3" A Old Gradisca, 5:14 Orsova, Old, 5:i f Oberstein, 428 Oldham, 2411 )rsoy, Ortelsburg, 494! Pacha, 626 Obersteut'eld, 332! Old Oetting, 3151 490 1 ^uchino, 148 660 INDEX. Pacracz, Paderborn, Padua, Paestum, Pagalia Orba, Pago, Puimpont, Paisley, Palais, Palais Royal, Palatinate, Bava- rian, Palatinate of Ches- ter, Palatinate, Elec- PAGE 530 484 541 142 5 535 208 251 209 182 :vjr, Patricians, Patschkau, Pattada, Patlensen, Patti, Pau, Paula, Paulinzelle, Paulilatino, Paulliac, Pausa, Pavia, Pavullo, 242|Pawlovsk, Paxo, toral, 342 Pay erne, Palati nate of Lan- | Pecs, caster, 242 1 Peebles, Palatinate, Up- | Peeblesshire, per, 316, 317 Peene, Pal a ti nes, 342 1 Pegau, Palazzo Adriano, 147 Pegli, Pilencia. Palenzerthal, Palermo, Palestrina, Palisse, La, Pallauza, Palma, Palmajola, Palmanova, Palm aria, Palmi, Painters, un pel una, Pancorvo, Pancsova, Paunonia, Pantalaria, Pantaleu, Pantelaria, Paola, Papa, Papenburg, Pappenheim Parchim, Pardo, el, Parga, Paris, Parisians, Parma, Paros, Parsberg, Parsonslown, Partenkirchen, Parthenay, Parthenope, Pas de Calais De- partment, Pasewalk, Passages, Los, Passarge, Passarovitz, Passau, Passy, Paterno, Patradschik, Patrae, Patras, 89 Peina, 165|Pelagio, 146:Pelasgians, 1 32^11^ 204 1 Peloponnesus, 619, 621 llljPelvouxde Val- 96, 147 louise, 125! Pembroke, 542 j Pembrokeshire, 113 Pempelfort, Penig, Peniscola, Penkun, Penne, Pennine Alps, Penrith, Penryn, Pensa, Penthievre, Pentland Frith, Penzance, Penzlin, Pepin of Herstall Pepin the Little, Perche, Perigord, Perigueux, Peritia, Perleberg, Perm, Pernau, Peronne, Peroso, valley «f, Perpignan, Persante, Perserin, Perth, Perthshire, Perugia, Perugia Lake, Pesaro, Pescara, Pescia, Pesco Pagano, Peso da Regoa, Pest, Peterborough, 145 218 97 88 534 521, 633 147 97 14 145 526 442 322 409 87 633 182 183 115, 116 623 317 257 315 210 141 PAGE( 51 Peterhead, 476 Peterlingen, 114 Petersburg, 436Petersdorf, 148;Petershagen, 218 j Peterwardein, 145Petrikau, 401 Petri nia, 114 Petrosawodsk, 215 Petrovsk, 384 l Petschenegri, 538 Petschora, 119 Pezenas, 592;Pi'affenhofen, 615Pfalz, die, 168'Pfalzburg, 526:Pfalzel, 250 Pfeddersheim, 250 Pfeffers, 13 Pt'effikon, 383 Pflnz, 112 Pforta, 439 Pforzheim, 29IPfreimdt, 102!Pfullendorf, 630 Pfullingen, Phdakia, Phanagoria, Phanari, Pharsalus, 245! Pheasant Island, 492JPhigalia, 383 1 Philippe ville, 96|Philippi, 470 Philippine, 143 Philippople, 4|Philippsburg, 244Philipseich, 239 Philippsruhe, 608 Philipstad, " Philippsthal, Philipstown, Phokis, Phthiotis, Piacenza, Piana, Piano de'Greci, Pianosa, Isle of, Piast, Piave, Piazza, Picacho de Veleta, Picardy, Piclong, Pico, Pico las Posets, Picts, Piedimonte, Piedmont, Piedrahita, Pienza, Piesport, Pietrasanta, Picnerol, PiFa, Pilat, Pilica, Pilier, PUlau, PAGE 252 168 595 557 483 533 G06 533 593 609 521 12 220 315 364 198 489 356 160 169 338 480 340 318 346 333 615 613 622 631 217 622 282 630 271 25.-. 239 409 27 27 207 215 215 615 400 (HIT 597 188 107 219 13 033 253 253 iaa ii 134 143 133 14-2 73 525 241 iPilkallen, Pillnitz, Pilsen, jPmczow, (Pindus, ■ Pinega, jPinerolo, Pinhel, Pinneberg, ! Pi nek, | Pinto, iPiombino, jPirano, Piraus, Pinnasenz, Pima, Pisa, Pisino, Pistoja, Pitea, Pitest, Pithiviers, Pithyusian Islands, 97 PAGE 497 382 515 606 6 12 107 72 414, 418 601 150 125 512 620 328 382 124 512 123 574 636 205 Pitigliano, Pizzighettone. Pizzo, Piaisance, Plantagenet, Plaeencia, Plattenberg, Platten See, Plan, Plaue, Plauen, Plauenscher Grund, Pleissenburg, Pleskow, Pless, 124 538 145 117 232 91,97 7 11 409 401 381,384 381 382 50. 593 405, 476 jPlessis les Tours, 206 jPleszew, iPlinteiiburg, IPlock, iPloen Lake, Ploermel, Plomb de Cantal, Plombieres, Plon, Plotzkau, PIUl-8, Plymouth, Po, Podensac, Podestas, Podgorze, Podlachia, Podolia, Poggio a Cajano, 13,606 210 499 525 606 II 209 6 195 417 404 539 238 15 215 5t 519 mi 602 123 Poggio Imperiale, 12.1 Poissy, Poitiers, Poitou, Pola, Poland, Polangen, Polenzo, Polese, Polesia, Polignac, 184 210 210 512 603 601 108 165 601 221 INDEX. 661 PAOIC Policrny, 203 Polish Russia, 600 Poitz, 46it Polizzi, 1 Ki Poiie, 43t> Pollove, 10* Polozk, 601 Poltawa, 594 Polzin, 47-2 Pombal, 72 Pomerania, 468 , Back 409, 470, 471 , Fore, 468, 469 , Swedish, 470 Pommard, 201 Pommersfelden, 320 Pomona, 255 Pompadour, 212 Pompeii, 141 Pontac, 218 Pontd'Ain, 20-2 PoDtarlier, 201 J Pout Audemer, 186 Pont Beauvoisie, 222 j Pont Beauvoisin, 109 PontdeCe, 207 Pont du Chateau, 213, Pont I'Eveque, 187; PontduGard, 221 Pont a Mousson, 195 Pont St. Esprit, 221, Pont sur Seine, 192 Pont de Vaux, 202 PontdeVeyle, 202 Poute, 108 t P.mte Bodio, 133 ' Pontocorvo, 133 Ponte di Lugo Scuro, 135 Ponte de Lima, 73 Ponte a Seraglio, 126 Ponte Tresa, 165 Pontevedra, 91 Pontevico, 540 Pontine Isles, 142 Pontine Marshes, 127 Pontivy, 209 Pontoise, 184 Pontremoli, 125 Ponza Isles, 142 Poole, 238 Popedom, 127 Poperingen, 281 Pordenone, 542 Porentruy, 159 Poretsh, 635 Pon.s, 622 Port Ghvgow, 25 1 1 Port Louis, 209 Port Mahon, 96 Port Patrick, 250 Port Vendre, 219 Portalegie, 73 Porte, 626 Portici, 141 Portland, Bill of, 23H Porto, 72 Porto (Azores), 75 Porto Corsini, 135 paoc paob Porto Drapano, 61t>[Privas, 221 Porto Fermo, 134|Procida, 141 Porto Ferrajo, 126{Pronia, 622 Porto Gai, 615 Prosecco, 512 Porto Longone, 126 Provence, 223 Porto Mauritio, 113 Provence, King- Porto San Mauri- dom or, 200| zio, 113 Provincial Hun- Porto Re, 529 gary, 520, 524 Porto Torres, 114 Provins, 193 Porto Vechio, 225 Prozelten, 323 Portovenere, 113 Priim, 489 Portsmouth, 238 Pruntrut, 159 Portsoy, 253 Pruschani, 601 Portugal, 62 Prussia, Kingdom Portugaleto, 97 of, 457 Posada, 114 Prussia, Province Poschiavo, 162 of, 495 Posega, 530 Prussian Moravia, 476 Posen, 499 Prussians, 495 Posneck, 392 Pruth, 16 Posony, 524 Pskow, 50, 593 Potenza, 145 Puerto Real, 92 Pottendorf, 509 Puerto de Santa Pottenstein, 320 Maria, 92 Potteries, 241 Puigcerda, 95 Potsdam, 465 Pulawy, 606 Potshitatz, 634 Pultawa, 534 Pouance, 207,Pultusk, 606 Pouilly, 204jPuntaDelgada, 74 Pra, 112|Purgaturo, 141 Prades, 219 Piirglitz, 515 Praeneste, 132 Purmerend, 269 Prag, 514 Puscblaf, 162 Praga, 605 Puszten, 521 Prague, 514 Puttbus, 471 Prastoe, 550 Puttlitz, 466 Prato, 123 Putzig, 498 Pratolino, 123 Puycerda, 95 Praunheim, 374 Puy de D6me, 6 Praya, 75 Puy de Dome De- Preetz, 417 partment, 213 Pregel, 13 Puy de Saucy, 6 Premontre, 185 Pylos, 622 Prenzlau, 406 Pyrenean Penin- Prenzlow, 466 sula, 76 Prescot, 243 Pyrenees, 4 Presidios, 98 Pyrgos, 622 Pressburg, 524 Pyritz, 470 Presteign, 246 Pyrmont, 376 Preston, 243 Preston pans, 249 Quackenbriick, 441 Pretsch, 479 Quades, 472 Prettigau, 162 Quarto, 114 Preussen, 457 duedlinburg, 478 Preussisch Eylau , 496 Queen's County, 257 Preussisch-Hol- Queenstown, 257 land, 490 Utieltiz, 71 Prevesa, 633 Que rand e, 210 Prevorst, 332 Quercy, 215 Pria, 112 Ciuerfurt, 479 Priebns, 475|Quesnoy, Le, 19] Priegnitz, 46tiJQiiiberon, '203 Priego, 9 1 Quilleboeuf, 184 Primizl, 5l4|Quimper, 209 Prince Isles, 628' Corenlin, Pripet, l2lQnimperle, 209 Pristina, 635 Quinary, 203 Pritzwalk, 466 Quinlin, 209 PAGE Raab, 526 Raab River, 16 Rabastens, 220 Rabatto, 150 Racconigi, 107 Radeberg, 381 Radeburg, 381 Rade vor dem Wald, 493 Radicofani, 124 Radnor, 246 Radnorshire, 246 Radolphzell, 346 Radom, 606 Radzivilov, 602 Ragatz, 160 Ragland Castle, 240 Ragnit, 497 Raguhn, 405 Ragusa, 535 Ragusa (in Sicily), 148 Rahden, 484 Rahnis, 482 Rain, 315 Rambervillers, 195 Rambouillet, 184 Ramea, 598 Ramlosa, 572 Ramsay, 247 Ramsgate, 236 Rnndazzo, 148 Randers, 553 Ranstadt, 357 Kanzau, 418 Rapallo, 113 Rapperschweil, 160 Rapper8wyl, 160 Rappoltsweiler, 198 Rassova, 629 Rastadt, 341 Rastede, 423 Rastenburg, 496 Rathdrura, 256 Rathekau, 426 Rathenau, 466 Rathenow, 466 Ratibor, 476 Ratingen, 492 Ratisbon, 316 Ratzeburg, 419 Ratzeburg, princi- pality of, 412 Ratzgrad, 630 Rauenthal, 363 Ran he Alp, 7 Rauschenberg, 372 Rava, 605 Ravenna, 135 Ravensberg, 484 Ravensburg, 334 Ravensteen, 274 Riwick, 499 Re (island), 211 Reading, 235 Recklinghausen, 483 Reonlet, 6 Redon, 208 Re'inndela. 91 Red Russia, 518 662 INDEX. Reeckem, Rees, Rega, Regalmnto, Regen River, Regensburg, Regenstauf, Regenwalde, Reggio, Reggio (in Mo- dena), 119 Rehau, 319 Rehburg, 435 Rehna, 409 Reibersdorf, 385 Reichenau, 346 Reichenbach, 384, 473 Reichenberg, 364, 516 Reichenhall, Reichenstein, Reichstadt, Reikiavik, Reinerz, Reinheira, Reisen, Remagen, Remda, Remich, Remiremont, Remoulins, Remscheid, Renaix, Renchen, Rendsburg, Renfrew, Renfrewshire, Rennes, Reny, Reole, La, Reps, Requena, Resina, Rethel, Retshitilova, Rettimo, Reus, Reuss, principali- ties of, 397 Reuss-Greiz, 398 Reuss- Lobenstein- Ebersdorf, 398 Reuss-Schleiz, Reutlingen, Reval, Revin, Rbaetia, Rheda, Rheidt, Rheims, Rheina, Rhein-Bischofa heim, Rheineck, Rheinfelden, Rheingau, 212 PAOKI PAGE PAGK 283 Rhenish Confed- Rochefort (in Bel- 494| eration, 294 1 gium), 282 13|Rhenish Hesse, 355 Rochefoucauld, 147 1 Rhenish League, 54 1 La, 10 1 Rhenish province, 486 iRochelle, La, 488lRocbemaure, 16 1 Rochester, 632|Rochlitz, 538Rochsburg, 376 1 Rockenhausen, Rosieres aux Sa- PAOE 316 Rherise, 317! Rhine, 470 Rhitymna. 145 Rho, Rhoden, Rhoen-Gebirge, Rhone, Rhone Depart- ment, 214 Rhone-mouths De- partment, Ribadeo, Ribe, 3]4jRibeauviller, 474;Ribeira Grande, 516lRiberac, 560|Ribnitz, 474 Riceys, 354 499 488 387 367 195 221 493 280 341 417 251 251 208 612 215 532 88 141 193 594 632 95 386 838 508 191 397 484 493 19-2 483 342 Richelieu, Richmond, Richtenschweil, Ried, Riedenburg, Riedlingen, Riehen, Ries, Riesa, Riesenburg, Riesengebirge, Riesenkoppe, Rietberg, Rieti, Riez, Riga, Riga Gulf, Rki, Rimini, Rimnik, Ringkjobing, Ringsted, Rinteln, Rioja, Rioin, Ripa Transone, Ripen, 223 91 553 198 75 215 41(1 192 207 243 169 510 317 335 157 325 381 Rocroy, Roda, Rodach, Rod by, Rode le Due, Rodelheim, Rodenberg, Rodenstein, Rodez, Roding, Rodolph of Haps- burg, Rodosto, Roer, Roeraas, Roeremonde, Roeskilde, Rogasen, Roggenburg, Rohan, Rolduc, Romagna, Romainmoustiers, 168 Roman, 637 Roman Apennines, 5 Roman German Empire, 291 Romanians, 18, 19 Romans, 222 Romano, 540 Romanow, House of, 589 Rome, 132 Romhild, 391 Romney, 236 Romont, 159 Romorantin, 213lRoncevalles, 134JRonciglioue, 553 Ronda, lines, Rosnyo, Ross, 21l|Rossano, 221 Rossbach, 236 Rosslau, Rost, Rostock, Rostow, Rotenburg, Rotenburg (in Hesse), Rotenburgian Quarter, Rothenburg an der Tauber, Rother Thurm, Roth say, Rotten burg, Rotterdam, Rottum, Rottweil, Roubaix, Rouen, Rouergue, Rouffac, Rough Alp, Roulers, Roulx, Roumelia, Rousselaer, Roussillon, Roveredo, Rovereith, Rovigno, Rovigo, Roxant, Cape, Roxburghshire, Royan, Rubicon, Riidesheim, Rudkjobing, Rudolstadt, Rue, Rueil, 195 532 240, 254 145 301 628 16 577 367 38,549 499 325 209 490 131 480 406 577 410 592 438 371 371 321 534 252 332 269 273,550 332 190 185 215 198 7 280 281 628 280 219 513 513 512 541 3 206 Ri puarian Franks, 298 1 Ronne, Ritzebiittel, 450JRonneburg, Rivara, Rivarolo, Rive de Gier, Rives, Rivesaltes, Riviera, Rivoli, Rjiisan, Roanne, Rocca bruna, 160 1 Roccal umera, 156 1 Rocamadour, 107|Ronneby, 107 Ronsdorf, 214 222 219 165 107 592 '214 110 148 216 363 Rocca San Felice, 143 Rheinhardsbrunn, 394 'Rochdale, Rheinsberg, 466 i Roche sur Yon, Rheinzabern, 327jRochechouart, Rhenen, 271 1 Rochefort, Ronse Roquefort de Mar- san, Roquemaure, Rorschach, Rosas, Roscommon, Rosenau, Rosenberg, Rosendal, Rosenthal, 217 221 95 259 394, 532 476, 498 568, 571 372 243 Rosersberg, 568 210|Roses, war of the, 233|Russia, 21 1 j Rosheim, 197 j Russia, Great, 21llRosienie, 601 ' , Little, Rufach, Ruffec, Rugby, Riigen, Rugenwalde, Rugles, Ruhla, Ruhr, Ruhrort, Rum, Ruinilly, Rummelsburg, 60 Rumpeuheim, Rilnkel, Rupel, Rupelmonde, Ruppin, Rurik, Ruska Poyana, Russberg, 211 127 363 551 401 188 184 198 212 241 469, 471 471 186 494 255 109 472 374 365 16 280 466 588 5 164 579 590 594 INDEX. 663 PAOK ! PAO« PAOK] PAOK Russian Lapl iiul. ."«.>'. i Salvatierra, 98 San Pietro (isle) , 144 «t. Helier, 247 Russt, BtUzbrunii) 473 San Pietro d'Are- |St. Hippolyte, 202,22 Rustschuk, 629 Salzburg, 510 na, 112 St. Hubert, 283 Ruthin, 246 Salzdahlum, 44( San Remo, 113 St. Ives, 237 Rutland, 241 Salzderhelden, 440 San Rocco, 117 St. Jago deCom Ruvo, 144 Salzdetiurt, 439 San Roque, 92 postella. 90 Rybinsk, 5 ( J2 Salzhemmendorf, 436 San Russore, 125 St. Jean d'Angely, 211 97 St. Jean d'Aulp-. \W Rye, 236 Salzkammergut, 5 10 ! San Sebastian, Ryssel, 190 Salzkotten, 484 1 San Severo, 144 St. Jean de Loan e,20l Ryswick, 269 Salzschlierf, 373 San Stefano, 1 ■-'■') St.. I. -.u i de Luz, 217 Salzungen, 391 St. Affrique, 216 St. Jean de Mau- Saalburg, 39y Salzwedel, 478 St. Aignan, 205 rienne, 110 Saale, 16 Samara, 12, 608 St. Albans, 237 St. Jean Pied de Saalfeld, 392 Sainbre, 16 St. Amand, 190, 2 218 Saanen, 158 Samnites, 102 St. Amand, Mon St. Junien, 212 Saaralbe, 196 Samogitia, 601 troud, 204 St. Kilda, 255 Saarbriick, 4*9 Samojedes, 580 St. Amarin, 199 St. Lamberthal, 282 Saarburg, 195, 489 Samothracia, 839 St. Amour, 203 St. Laurent de Saardam, 268 Samothraki, 632 Si. Andrews, 251 1 Cerdaus, 219 Saargemiind, 195 Samsoe, 550 St. Asaph, 24ti St. Laurent de Saarlouis, 489 Samter, 499 St. Aubin, 247 Medoc, 215 Saar-Union, 198 San, 13 St. Avoid, 196 Si. Laurent les Sabines, 102 Sancerre, 204 St. Barjols, 224 Var, 224 Sable, 207 Sandomir, 606 St. Beat, 21 71 St. Leonard, 212 Sables d'Olonne, 2J0 Sandwich, 236 St. Bernard, Great, 167 1 St. L6, 187 Siiby, 552 Sangerhausen, 480 St. Bertrand de St. Maixent, 210 Sachsa, 481 Sanguesa, 97 Comminges, 217 St. Malo, 208 Sachseln, 166; Sanquhar, 250 St. Blasien, 345 St. Malzeville, 195 Sachsenberg, 376 Sanssouci, 465 j St. Brietic, 906 St. Marcellin, 222 Sachsenhagen , 372 San tana. 88 St. Brieux, 906 St Marie aux Sachsenhausen, antander, 88 St. Calais, 207| Mines, 199 Sachsenstadt, 532 Santarem, 72 St. Chamas, 22:* St. Martensdyk, 270 Sacile, 542Santhia, 108 St. Chamond, 214 St. Martory, 217 Siickingen, 345 Santillana, 88 St. Claude, 203 St. Maurice, 167 Sagan, • 475 Santorin, 623 St. Cloud, 183 St. Maximin, 224 Sagard, 471 San Ambrogio, 107 St. Cyr, 183 St. Menehould, 192 Sagres, — Sagunt, • ™ 74 San Carlo, 95 St. David's, 245 St. Michel, 195 96 San Casciano, 124 St. Denis, 183 St. Mihiel, 195 Sahagun, 89 San Cipriano, 112 St. Die, 1951 St. Moritz, 167 Saima Lake, 11 San Damiano, 108 St. Dizier, 199 St. \azaire, 210 Sainte Marguerite, 2-24 San Felipe, 96 St. Dmitria Ros- |St. Nikolas, 280 Saintes, 211 San Fernando, 92, 95 tovskaja, 612 St. Oraer, 189 Saintonge, 211 San Filippo, 124 St. Etienne, 214| St. Palais, 218 Sala, 117, 569 San Filippo d'Ar St. Fergus, 253 St. Peray, 221 Salamanca, 90 gy°' 148 St. Florent, 225 St. Petersburg, 595 Salamis, 621 San Fiorenzo, 225 St. Florentin, 193 St. Peter's Port, 247 Saldana, 89 San Germano, 142 St. Florian, 510 St. Philibert, 210 Salemi, 146 San Geronimo de St. Flour, 213 St. Pierre, 180, 247 Salency, 184 Juste, 91 St. Gall, 159, 16 St. Pierre d'Al- Salerno, 142 San Gervasio, 110 St. Galmier, 214 bigny, 109 Salers, 213 San Giorgio, 108 ,117 St. Gaudens, 217 St. Pol, 189 Salic Franks, 298 San Giovanni, 110 St. Geniez, 216 St. Pol de Leon, 209 Salies, 2 18 1 San Ildefonso, 89 St. Geniez de Rive- St. Polten. 599 Salina, 149 San Jorge, 75 dolt, 216 St. Pons de To- Sal ins, 203 San Lucar de Bar- St. Genis-Laval, 214 rn iers, 220 Salisbury, 239 rameda, 91 St. George, 75 St. Pourcain, 204 Sallanche, 110 San Marino, 136 St. George's Chan- St. Quentin, 188 Sallenche, 110 San Marti no, 146 nel, 10 St. Quirin, 195 Salm, 283,483 San Marti no, val- St. Georgen, 533 St. Rambert, 202 Salmiinster, 374 ley of, 107 St. Germain en St. Remy, 213, 223 Salo, 539 San Maurizio, 107 Laye, 183 St. Roca, 75 Salon, 223 San Michael, 74 St. Gervais, 110 1st. Saphorin, 168 Salona, 621 San Miguel, 74 St. Gilles, 221 St. Savin, 210 Siilonica, 630 San Miniato, 123 St. Girons, 218 St. Servan, 208 Salop, 242 San Nicola, 144 St. Goar, 488 SL Sever, 217 Salou, 95 San Nikolo, 615; St. Goarshausen, 364 i St. Sophia, 628 Sall-Bommel, 272 San Pedro de Car- |St. Gobain, 188 St. S> mphorien de Saltcoats, 250 dena, 88! St. Gothard, 166 Lay, 214 Saluzzo, 107 San Piar d' Arena, 1121 St. Helen's, 243 St. Tron, 283 664 INDEX. PAGE page] PAOKf PAGE St. Tropez, 224 Saxe-Lauenburg, 419|Schmalkalden, 373|Schwelm, 485 St. Trujen, 283 Saxe-Meiningen, 389|Schmiedeberg, 474 Schwerin, 408 St. Ubes, 72 Saxe-Weimar, 386 Schneeberg, 383 Schwerin Lake, 11 St. Ursanne, 159 Saxeln, 166 Schneeberg (Mt.) , 7jSchwetz, 498 St. Ursitz, ]59 Saxkjobing, 551 Schneekopf, 7|Schwetzing«n, 343 St. Valery, 188 Saxon Palatinate , 388 Schneekoppe, 6,Schwiebu8, 467 St. Valery en Saxon Switzer- Schneidemiihl, 500 Schwinge, 17 Caux, 186 land, 376, 3821 Schnellerts, 355'Schwyz, 164 St. Veit, 511 Saxons, the, 25, 30, 298iSchnepfenthal, 394 Sciacca, 147 St. Vincenzo, 109 Saxony, Kingdom Schbmberg, 475 Sciglio, 145 St. Wendel, 489 of, 376 ; Schonau, 343, 345 Scilly Isles, 239 St. Ya, 108 Saxony, Prussian |Schonebeck, 477 Scone, 253 St. Yrieix, 212 province of, 477 Schonborn, 323 Scotland, 248 Santa Cruz, 75 Sayda, 381|Schonbrunn, 509 Scots, 248 Sia. Maria, 75 Scalds, 56 Schonburg, Princes 1 Scrivia, 15 Santa Maria Mag- Scandinavian coun- | and Earls of, 384 Scudery, 5 giore, 142 tries, 30 Schoneck, 498 Scutari, 632 Santa Maura, 616 Scandinavian Mts ., 5;Schoenenwerth, 164 Scylla, 145 Santa Severina, 145 Scandinavian Pen- |Schongau, 315 Scythian Desert, 611 Saone, 15 insula, 562:Schoningen, 447 Scythians, 588 Sa6ne and Loire Scarborough, 243 Schonlanke, 500 Sea of Azof, 10 Department, 201 Scarlino, 126 Schonsee, 318 Seaford, 236 Saragossa, 94 Scarne, le.Schoonhoven, 270 Sebenico, 535 Saransk, 608 Scea'ux, 183 Schopfheim, 345 Sedan, 193 Sarapul, 608 Schaafstadt, 479 Schoppenstedt, 446 See berg, 394 Saratow, 609 Schabacz, 635 Schorndorf, 337 Seeland (Switzer Sardara, 114 Schaechenthal, 166 Schotten, 357 land), 158 Sardica, 629 Schafberg, 7 Schouwen, 270 Seel burg, 597 Sardinia, island, U3jSchafhausen, 163 ,164 Schramberg, 332 Seelow, 467 , kingdom, 103 Schandau, 382 Schreckhorn, 4 Seesen, 447 Sarepta, 609 Schapen, 442 Schrimm, 499 Seez, 187 Sargans, 160 Sch arm beck, 438 Schrobenhausen, 315 Segeberg, 417 Sark, 247 Schassburg, 532 Schrock, 340 Segorbe, 96 Sarlat, 215 Schaumburg, 371 ,372 Sch ul plbrta, 480 Segovia, 89 Sar mates, 19:Schaumburg- Schutt, 524 Segre; 207 Sarmatians, 588 Lippe, 428 Schuttorf, 442 Segro, 14 Sarnen, 166 Scheibenberg, 383 Schwabach, 320 Segura, % Seifhennersdorf, 14 Sarno, 142 Scheldt, 16 Schwabeck, 325 385 Sarralbe, 196 Schellenberg, 351 Schwabisch Sein, 209 Sarrebourg, 195 Schemberg, 332 Gmiind, 336 Seine, 15 Sarreguemines, 195 Schemnitz, 525 Schwabisch Hall 335 Seine Depart- Sarstedt, 439 Schernberg, 401 Schwaieern, 332 ment, 182 Sartene, 225 Scherpenheuvel, 278 Schwalbach, 361 Seine and Marne Sarthe Depart- Scheveningen, 269 ; Sch walen berg, 376 Department, 184 ment, 207 Schidlow, 606 Schwanden, 161 Seine and Oise Sarzana, 113 Schiedam, 270 Schwanebeck, 478 Department, 183 Sarzeau, 209 Schiefelbein. 472|Schwartau, 426 Selb, 319 Sas van Gent, 271 Schiermounikoog , 272 Schwarzburg (an Seligenstadt, 355 Sasbach, 341 Schilda, 480 cestral castle), 401 Seligenthal, 373 Sassari, 114 Schildesche, 484 Schwarzburg, Prin- Selimnia, 629 Sassenage, 222 Schiltach, 346 1 cipalities of, 399 Selkirk, 250 Sassuolo, 118 Schio, 542 Sch warzburg-Ru- Selkirkshire, 250 Siiter, 570 Schippenbeil, 496 dolstadt, 401 Selters, 363 Satorallya Ujhely , 5-27 Schirgiswalde, 385 Sch warzburg-Son- Semendria, 635 Saulgau, 335 Schiiwind, 497 dershausen, 400 Seminara, 145 Saulieu, 201 Schitomir, 602 Sch warzenbek, 420 Semlin, 533 Saumur, 207 Schkeuditz, 479 Schwarzen- Sempach, 162 Sausenberg, 345 Schlangenbad, 3(i4 beig, 322,383 Semuren Auxois, 201 Sauxillanges, 213 Schlawentzitz, 476 Sch warzenborn, 372 Semuren Brion- Save, 16 Schlei. 556 Sch warzwald, 7 nais, 201 Savenay, 210 Schleiden, 490 Schwatz, 513 Senarica, 143 Saverne, 197 Schleiz, 398 Schwechat, 509 Senftenberg, 468 Savigliano, 107 Schleswig, 554 556 Sch wed I, 466 Senlis, 185 Savigny sur Braye206 Schlettstadt, im Scliweidi.itz, 473 Senner Haide, 427 Savona, 112 Schleusiugen, 481 Scliweina, 391 Senner Heath, 427 Savoy, 109 Schlitz, 357 Scliweinfurt, 323 Sennheim, 199 Saxe-Altenburg, 395 Schlochau, 4!)rf Schweinilz, 480 Sens, 193 Saxe-Coburg-Go- Schliichtern, 371 Schweinsberg, 372 SensburR, 497 tha, 392 Schliisselburg, 4S4 Schweiz, 155 164 Sepino, 145 INDEX. 665 PAOKl page] TA.au PAOE Sepsi Szent Gy- Sierra de Guada- Slavkov, 606 Sophia, 629 dn?y, 532 1 lupe, 5 Slavonia, 529 Soprony, 526 Septi mania, 214 ! Sierra de Guada- Slavonians, 8, 19 Sorau, 468 Septmoncel, 203! rama, 5 Slawensik, 476 Sorbes, 378 Bavaallo, 628 Sierra Monchique, Soreze, 220 Serai ng, 288 Bierra Morena, 5Sligo, 259 Sorgono, 114 Serchio, 190 Sierra Nevada, 5|Slobodskoi, 60S Sori, 112 Sereg, 247 Sierra de Ronda, 5 Slobosk, 608 Soria, 89 Seres, 630 Siewierz, 606|Slonira, 601 Soroe, . 550 Sereth, 16, 520 Sinmaringen, 349 Slough, 235 Soroka, 612 Serpa, 73|Signa, 123 Sluis, 270 Sorrento, 141 Serravalle, IStgtuna, 568 Sluzk, 601 Sorromastro, 97 111, 136, 542 Siguenza, 88 Smoiland, 570 Sorso, 114 Serravezza, 195 Sijean, 634JSilberberg, 220 Smolensk, 591 Sospello, 110 Servia, 473 Smorgoni, 600 Souillac, 216 Servians, 29 Silesia, 472 Sneek, 272 'Sound, 9 Servitude, 36 Silesia, Austrian, 517 Snoehiltta, 6 Southampton, 238 Sesia, 15 Silesia, Lower, 'Snowdon, 8 South Brabant, 278 Sessa, 1421 472, 473, 474 Soana, 124 South Holland, 269 Sessola, 616J , Upper, 472 , 475 Sobernheim, 488 ! South Jutland, 554 Sestri di Le- ISilesian Neisse, 13 Soden, 374 \ South Russia, 610 vante, 113 Silistria, 629 So.lerfors, 568 South Shields, 244 di Pouente, 112 Silivri, 628 Soderhamn, 574 South Hist, 255 Setubal, 72SiljaLake, 11 Sod erko ping, 570 'South Wales, 245 Seu d'Urgel, 95 Sillery, 192 Soderraauland, 568 S uithwark, 234,2 Sevastopol, 610 Silves, 74 Soderde, 558|Sovana, 124 Sevenaer, 272 Simaneas, 90 Sodertelge, 569; Spa, 282 Seven Hills, 8 Simbirsk, 608 Sodor, 247 Spaccaforno, 148 Sevennes, 6 Simferopol, 610 Soest, 485 Spaccafurno, 148 Severn, 14 Simmenthal, 158 Soflovka, 594 Spaichingen, 332 Severia, 606 Simmern, 488 Soho, 241 Spain, 76 Seville, 91 Simplon, 167 Soignies, 281 Spalato, 535 Sevre Nantaise, 15 Sindelflngen, 331 Soissons, 185 Spalatro, 535 Sevre Niortaise, 16 Sindringeu, 337 Solano, 77 Spalding, 237 Sevres, 184 Sines, 73 Sold au, 496 Spalt, 322 Seyne, 224 'Sinigaglia, 134 Soldi n, 467 Spandau, 465 Seyssel, 202 Siniscola, 114 Soleure, 164 Spaneenberg, 371 Sezanne, 193 Sinsheim, 344 Solferino, 539 Spanish mark, 31 Sforza, 537 Sinzig, 488 Solikamsk, 607 Spanish Nether- Shaftsbury, 238 Sion, 167Solingen, 492 lands, 277 Shannon, 14 Siroceo, 100 Soller, 96 Sparta, 622 Sheffield, 244 Sissach, 157 Sollinger Wald, 8 Spello, 134 Shetland, 255 1 Sisteron, 224iSolm8, Princes and Sperlinga, 148 Shetland Islands. 255 Sistova, 629 1 Earls of, 357 Spessart, 7 Shields, 244Sittard, 368 Solms-Braunfels, 488 Spezia, 113 Shi final, 242 Sitten, 167 Solnhofen, 326JSpezzia, 113,622 Shrewsbury, 242 Skagastoeltind, 6 Solofra, 142 Sphakia, 632 Shropshire, 242 Skagastrand, 560 Solsona, 95 Sphakiotes, 632 Shumla, 629 Skagen, 552'Soltau, 437 Spielberg, 516 Si bo, 531 Skagerack, 9 Solvitsborg, 571 Spire, 3*27 Sicilian Vespers, 139 Skalbolt, 560Sombor, 525 Spithead, 238 Sicily, 146Skane, 571 1 Somersetshire, 239 Spitzbergen, 593 Siculians, 102 Skanderborg, 553 Somlyo, 531 Spluaren, 162 Sidroouth, 238 Skara, 572 Somme, 15 Spoleto, 133 Siebenbiinjen, 530 Skeen, 576 Somme Depart- Sporades, 623 Siebcngebirge, 8 Skeninge, 570 ment, 188 Spree wald, 458 Sieders, 167Skiathos, 623 Sommerda, 481 Spremberg, 468 Siedlce, 606 Skiellingsfjeld, 558 Sommerein, 524 Springe, 436 Si eg River, 16 Skive, 552 Soramieres, 221 Squillace, 145 Siegburg, 492 Skjelskder, 550 Somorrostro, 97 Staatsflanders, 270 Siegen, 486 Skjold, 547jSonderburg, 557 Stabio, 165 Sielbeck, 426 Skjoldunger, 547 1 Sondershausen, 400 Stablo, 283 Siemiatyce, 602 Skofde, 573 Sondrio, 539 Stade, 437, 4: Siena, 124 Skokloster, 568JSonneberg, 392 Sladtamhof, 317 Sieradz, 605 Skopelos, 623, Sonne nberg, 392 Stadtberg, 485 Sierk, 196 Skyros, 623|Sonnenstein, 382 Stadthagen, 429 Sierques, 196 Slagelse, 550 Sonnen walde, 468 Stadt Urn, 401 Sierra de Cuenca, 5 Slaves (tribe of Sonnenwirbel, 7 Stadtlohn, 483 Sierra de Estrella, 631 the), 19 Sontra, 371 Stadt Oldendorf, 447 G66 INDEX. PAGEI pagk! PAGKl PAGE Stadtsteinach, 320 Stohnsdorf, 475 Sulphur-districts Tagus, 14 Stadtsulza, 387|StolIbersr, 490| (in Sicily), 147 Tain, 222, 254 Staefa, 169 jStoll berg- Werni Sultan, 626 Talanti, 621 Staefis, 159 gerode, 478,479iSulz, 199,333 Talavera de la Staffa, 254lStolpen, 385 Suiza, 387 Reyna, 87 Btaffarda, 107|Stolzenau, 436 Sulzbach, 317 Tallya, 527 Staffelstein, 320|Stolzenfels, 487 Sunderland, 244 Taman, 613 Stafford, 241 Stonehaven, 252|Sundgau, 197 Tamaszov, 607 Staffordshire, 241 Stonehouse, 238Sundswall, 574 Tambach, 394 Stali mene, 632 Storchnest, 499!Suntel, 8 Tarn bow, 592 Stallupohnen, 497Storkow, 466 Superga, La, 107 Tamina Valley, 160 Stamford, 237 , 241 Stor Lake, ll'Supplingenburg, 447 Tarn worth, 241 Stammheim, 169 Stormam, 414'Sura, 12 Tanais, 12 Stansstadt, 166 Stornoway, 255 [Surrey, 235 Tanaro, 15 Stanz, 166 Stourbridge, 240|Sursee, 162 Tangermiinde, 478 Stanzstad, 166 Strabane, 258,Susa, 107 Tanninges, 110 Starenberg Lake 11 Strait of Bonifacio, 10 Sussex, 236 Tanzenberg, 511 Stargard, 470 Strait of Dover, 9 Siisteren, 368 Taormina, 148 Standard (in Meek- [Strait of Gibraltar, 10 1 Sutherland, 254 Tapiau, 606 Taranto, 496 lenburg-Strelitz) 412; Strait of Jenikale >, 10 Suwalki, 144 Stari Matdar, 634 Strait of Messina, 10 Svanike, 550 Tarare, >,214 Starkenburg, 354 Strait of Otranto 10 Sveaborg, 599 Tarascon, 218, 223 Staroi-Tsherkask , 612 Stralsund, 470iSvearike, 567 Tarbes, 216* Stassfurth, 478 Strangford, 258 Svendborg, 551 Tarczal, 527 Staszov, 606 Stranraer, 250 Swabia, 324 Tarentaise, 110 States of the iStranrawer, 250 Swabian Alps, 7 Targowicz, 602 Church, 127|Strasburg, 197 Swabian Austria, 334 Tar i fa, 92 Stato degli Pre- Strassberg, 349 Swabian Circle, 292 Tarn, 15 sidii, 125 Stratford, 240 j Swabian League, 54 Tarn Department, 220 Tarn and Garonne Statt holder, 267 Straubing, 316 Swaffham, 237 Staubbach, 158 Strehlen, 473 j Swansea, 245 Department, 216 Staufen, 345jStrelitz, 412 [Sweden, 567 Tarnopol, 519 Staufenberg, 357StrengntLs. 569 jSweden and Nor- Tarnow, 519 Stavanger, 577:Striegau, 473 way, 562 Tarnowitz, 476 Stavenhagen, 409 Strivali Isles, 616 ] Swedish Lapland ,574 Tarraconensis, 84 Staveren, 272JStrobeck, 478jSwiask, 607 Tarragona, 95 Steckbora, 166 Stromboli, 149 Swine, 13 Tarrasa, 95 Steckenitz, 17 Stromness, 255 ! Swinemunde, 469 Tarrazona, 94 Steenberyen, 274iStr6m6e, 558 Switzerland, 151 Tarshish, 84 Steenwyk, 272|Str6mstad, 573 Sword-law (his- Tasnad, 531 Stege, 550 Strom za, 15 tory), 54 Taso, 632 Steiermark, Steigerwald, 510 Strophades, 616 Swornik, 634 Tata, 526 7 Stroud, 240 Syberona, 145 Tatar Basardshik , 629 Stein, 164 Struma, 15 Svke, 436 Tatarians, 580 Stein am Rhein, 164 Strymon, 15 Syra, 623 Tatra Mountains, 5 Steinau, 374, 473 Stuart, House of, 233 Syracuse, 147 Tauber-Bischofs- Steinbach, 341 ,391 Stubbekjobing, 551 Sysran, 608 heim, 344 Steinfurt, 483 Stiihlingen, 347 Szamos Ujvar, 531 Taucha, 383 Steinheide, 392 Stuhlweissenburg ',526 Szassvaros, 532 Taunton, 239 Steinheim, 355 Stuhm, 498 Szathmar-Nemet, 528 Taunus, 8 Steinhude, 430 Stuhmsdorf, 498 Szegedin, 528 Tauric Chersonese 61 Steinthal, 197 Stupinigi, 106 Szekoly Keresstur, 532 Tauric Mts., 8 Stendal, 478 Sturmhaube, Great 6 Szekely Vasarhelj -532 Tauris, 610 Steppes in Russia, 582 , Little, 6,7 Szekes-Fejeryar, Szekler, 531 526 Tauroggen, 601 Sternberg, 409 Stuttgart, 331 ,532 Tavastehus, 599 Stetten, 349 Styria, 510 Szentes, 528 Tavira, 74 Stettin, 469 Subiaco, 132 Szepes-Var, 527 Tavistock, 238 Stevens-Waerd, 368 Sublime Porte, 626 Szigeth, 528 Tavolara, 114 Steyer, 510 Suczawa, 520 Szigethvar, 526 Tay, 14 Stia, 124 Sudbury, 236 Szissek, 529 Teate, 143 Stilo, 145 Sudetic Mts., 6 Szolnok, 527 Teck, 335 Stirling, 251 Sueones, 566 Szydlowiec, 606 Tecklenburg, 483 Stirlingshire, 251 Sueves, 24 Tegern Lake, 11 Stober, 13 Suffolk, 236 Taasinge, 551 Tegernsee, 315 Stockach, 346 Suhl, 481 Taeyingen, 164 Teignmouth, 238 Stockholm, 568 Suhlingen, 436 Tafalla, 97 Teisendorf, 315 Stockport, 242 Sulau, 474 Taganrog, 612|Tejo, 14 Stockton, 244 Sulitelma, 6 Tagliacozzo, 143Te'lgte, 483 Stoer, 17 Sulmona, 143 Tagliamento, 151 Teltow, 465 INDEX. 667 PAQK1 PAGE PAQEl PAGE Temesvar, 528!Thiengen, 340 Tondern, 556 Treuen, 384 Tempelburg, 472|Thiers, 213 Tongem, 2^:1 Treuenbrietzen, 466 Teinpio, 114 Thionville, 196 Tonnay-Charente, 21 1 jTreves, ancient Tempi in, 460 Thirty years' Tonneins, 215 archbishopric Tence, 2-21 war, 58, 31 Tonne re, 193 of, 487 Tenda, HOiThisted, 552 Tunning, 556! , city of, 488 Tennstadt, 481Thiva, 621 Tonsberg, 576 Treviglio, 538 Tenos, 623 Tholen, 270 Toplitz, 515 Treviso, 542 Tenremonde, 28l» Thomar, 72 Topo, 75 Trevoux, 202 Tepl, 515 Thomas a Kempis 493 Topola, 635 Treysa, 372 Teplitz, 515 Thonon, 109 Tordesillas, 89 Trianon, 183 Teramo, 143 Thorda, 531 Torgau, 480 Tribbesee, 470 Terceira, 75 Thorn, 498 Tornea, 13 Triberg, 345 Terek, 12 Thorout, 281 Tornea (town), 599 Tribsees, 470 Terglou, 4 Thorsenge, 551Toro, 90 Trichonium, 621 Terlizzi* 144 Thorshiilla, 569JTorquemada, 89 Trient, 513 Termignon, 110 Thorshavn, 558 Torre de Moncorvo 73 Trier, 4*4 Termini, 146 Thouars, 210 Torre dell' Annun- | Triesen, 351 Termonde, 28U Thracia, 628 ziata, 141 Triest, 512 Ter Neuse, 271|Thuin, 281 Torres Vedras, 71 Trieste, 512 Tend, 133 Thule, 560 Torriglia, 112 Trifels, 328 .Ternova, 629 Thun, 158 Tortoli, 114 Trikala, 631 Terracina, 133 Tii an, Lake of, 11 Tortona, 111 Trim, 257 Terra di Lavoro, HliThurgau, 165 Tortosa, 95 Trimmbach, 164 Terranova, 11< , 147 Thuringia, ancient Toscolano, 540 Trino, 108 Terschelling, 269 landgraviate of, 388 Touraine, 206 Tripoli zza, 622 Teruel, 94 Thuringians, 298Toul, 196 Triptis, MB Teschen, 517 Thuringerwald, 7 Toulon, 224 Trivento, 144 Ti'SJIlO, 164 Thurles, 260 Toulouse, 219 Trivieren Dorabes202 Teste de Buch, 215 Thurnau, 320 Tourcoing, 190 Trivier sur Mog- Tele de Flandres, 280 Thurn and Taxis, 317 Tournaments, 46 I nand, 202 Tete d'Ours, 6 Thurso, 254 Tournay, 23llTrochtelflngen, 349 Teie de Rang, 6 Thusis, 162 Tournon, 221 Troense, 551 Teterow, 409 Tiber River, 15jTournus, 201 Trogen, 157 Tetinschi, 607 Ti bur, 132 Tours, 206 Troizkoi Sergiev, 591 Telschen, 515 Ticino, 15 Trachenberg, 474|Trbki, 600 Teaming, 335 Tienen, 278 Trafalgar, 92 Troll hiitta, 572 Teuffen, 157 Til burg, 274 Trankehnen, 497Tromsoe, 578 Ttsischnitz, 3-20 Tillicoultry, 251 Tralee, 260 Trondhiem, 577 T.mtoburger Wald, H 497 Tramin, 513 Tropea, 145 Teutoues, 297 Tinchebray, 187 Trani, 144|Troppau, 517 Teutonic Order 46, 3:] 113 Transjuranian Bur- |Trosa, 569 Teviotdale, 219 Tin-Islands, 239 gundy, 200 Troubadours, K Tewkesbury, 240 Tino, 113 Transylvania, 530 Troyes, 191 Texe), 269,Tinos, 623]Trapani, 146 Truro, 239 Thal-Ehrenbreit- iTi ntern Abbey, 240 Trappe, La, 906 Tr.ixillo, 91 8tein, 487 Tipperary, 260 Trasen, 16 (Try berg, 345 Tlmlitler, 357 Tirano, 539 Traun, 16 Tschadyrdagh, 8 Thames, 14 Tiraspol, 611 Traunstein, 314lTscherlitz, 168 Thanu, 199 Tirgovist, 636 T.uusnitz, 316 Tsheboksar, 607 Tharand, 381 Tirlemont, 278 Trave, 17 Tshernoi-Jar, 609 Tnasoa, 832 Tirschenreuth, 317 Travemiinde, 452 Tshernomorsk (Cos- Theaki, 616 Tirschtiegel, 499 Travendahl, 418 sacks, 612 Tueate, 143 Tittel, 534 Travera, 163|Tuam, 259 Thebes, 621 Tittmoning. 315 Travnik, 6331 Tubingen, :w2 Thedinghausen, 447 Tiverton, 238 Traz os Montes, 73 Tubize, 279 Theiss, 16 Tivoli, 132 Trebigno, 634 Tudela, 89, 97 Tliemar, 391 Tmutarakan, 613 Trebnitz, 474 Tudor, house of, 233 Theodoric, king of Todlnau, 315 Trebur, 354 Tuiieries, 189 the Ostrogoths, 25 Tosgenbaig, 160 Treffurt, 481 Tukum, 598 Thera, 623 Toissey, 202 Treguier, 209 Tula, 591 Theresienstadt, 525 Tokay, 527 Treisen, 351 Tulczin, 602 Therma, 630 Toledo, 87 Tremiti, 144iTullamore, 257 Thermopylae, 621 Tolentino, 134 Tremitian Isles, 144 Tulle, 212 Thessalia, 631 Tolfa, 133 Tremouille, 210 Tullgarn, 569 Thessalouica, 630 Tolkemit, 498 Trencsin, 525 Tullow, 257 Theux, 282 Tol mezzo, 542 Trent, 14 ,5l3|Tunbridge, 236 Thiel, 271 Tolosa, 97 Treport, 186 1 Tun bridge Wells, 236 Thielt, 281 Tomaszov, 605 Trestenburg, 531 Turbia, 110 608 INDEX. PAGET PAGE PARE PAGE Turenne, 212 Unterseen, 158 Vacha, 389 Venezia, 541 Turin, 106 Unterwalden, 166 Vacz, 525 Venice, city of, 541 Turkey, 624 1 Upland, 568 Vado, 113 , ancient Re- Turkheim 198,325,328 Upper Alps Depart- Vadutz, 351 public of, 540 Turkish Croatia, 634 ment, 222 Vaels, 308 Venloo, 274 Turkish Dalma- Upper Alsace, 197, 198 Vaihingen, 331 Venosa, 145 tia. 634 Upper Andalu- sia, Vaison, 225 Ventimiglia, 113 Turkish Gradis- 93 Vajda Hunyad, 531 Vercelli, 108 ca, 634 Upper Austria, 509 Valais, 167 Verden, 438 Turks, ]9 Upper Bavaria, 314 Valangin, 163 Verdun, 196 Turnovo, 631 Upper Franconia, 318 Valdepenas, 88 Veria, 631 Tursi, 145 Upper Garonne Valdieri, 108 Verneuil, 186 Tuscany, 120 Department, 219 Valencai, 205 Vernon, 186 Tuscia, 122 Upper Hesse, 357 Valence, 222 Vernoux, 221 Tusculum, 132 Upper Hesse (of Hesse-Cassel), Valencia, 95, 96 Verocze, 530 Tuttliugen, 333 372 Valenciennes, 190 Verola Nuova, 540 Tuy, 91 Upper Hungary, 527 Valenza, 111 Verona, 542 Tweeddale, 250 Upper Ingelheim , 356 Valkenburg, 368 Versailles, 183 Twer, 593 Upper Italy, 103 Valladolid, 89 Versmold, 484 Two Sicilies, 137 Upper Loire De- Vallendar, 487 Versoix, 161 Two Sevres De- partment, 221 Valli di Comac- Versoy, 161 partment, 210 Upper Lorraine, 194 chio, 127 Verviers, 282 Tynemouth, 244 Upper Lusa- Vails, 95 Vervins, 188 Tyras, 12 tia, 385, 475 Valogne, 187 Vesoul, 203 Tyrconel, 258 Upper Marne De Valona, 633 Vesprim, 5-26 Tyree, 255 partment, 192, 20: Valpo, 530 Vesuvius, 5 Tyrnau, 524 Upper Moesia, 634 Vals, 221 Veurne, 281 Tyrol, 513 Upper Palatin- Vandals, 24 Vevay, 168 Tyrone, 258 ate, 316, 317 Vannes, 209 Vezelay, 201 Upper Pyrenees Department, Var, 15 Viadana, 539 Ubede, 93 216 Var Department, 224 Vial as, 221 Uchte, 436 Upper Rhenish Varallo, 111 Viana, 73, 97 Uckermark, 466 circle, 292 Varazze, 113 Vianden, 366 Uckermiinde, 470 Upper Rhine cir- cle (of Baden), Vardanes, 12 Vianen, 270 Uddewalla, 573 344 Vardar, 15, 630 Viareggio, 126 Udine, 542 Upper Rhine De- Varel, 424 Vic, 195 Udvarhely, 532 partment, 198 Varennes, 195 Vic sur Cere, 213 Ueberlingen, 346 Upper Saxon cir- Varese, 113, 538 Vicenza, 542 Ueberlingen Lake, 1 1 cle, 293 Varesh, 633 Vich, 95 Uelzen, 437 Upper Silesia, 472, 475 Varigotti, 113 Viel Salm, 283 Uerdingen, 493 Upper Stamm- Varna, 630 Vienna, 508 Uetersen, 418 heim, 169 Vasarhely, 528 Vienne, 222 UexkUIl, 597 Upper Valais, 167 Vassals, 36 Vien le Chateau, 192 Uflfenheim, 320 Upper Vienne De - Vassy, 192 Vienne Depart- Ugbrook, 238 partment, 212 Vasvar, 526 ment, 210 Ugine, 109 Uppingham, 241 Vathi, 616 Vienne River, 15 Uist, North, 255 Upsala, 568 Vaucluse Depart- Vierlande, 451 , South, 255 Urach, 333 ment, 224 Vierraden, 466 Ujensk, 592 Uralsk, 609 Vaucouleurs, 193 Viersen, 494 Ujest, 476 Urbino, 134 Vaud, 167 Vierzon, 205 Ukraine, 594 Urgel, 95 Vechta, 423 Viesti, - 144 Uleaborg, 599 Uri, 166 Veere, 270 Vif, 222 Ulm, 333 Urnaesch, 157 Vegesack, 454 Vigan, Le, 221 Ulricehamn, 572 Ursberg, 325 Velas, 75 Vigevano, 111 Ulrichslein, 357 Urseren, 167 Veldenz, 489 Vignemale, 5 Ulriksdal, 568 Usedom, 469 Velez Malaga, 93 Vigo, 91 Ulster, 257 Usicza, 635 Velez el Rubio, 94 Vigone, 107 Uman, 594 Usingen, 362 Velletri, 133 Vilaine, 16 Umbrians, 102 Uslar, 440 Veltlin, 539 Ville Dois sous Uinea, 574 Uso, 127 Venaissin, 224, 225 Belley, 202 Uinstadt, 355 Usseglio, 107 Venasque, 225 Villena, 94 Ungstein, 327 Ussel, 212 Vendee Depart- Villedieu les Universities, found- Uster, 169 ment, 210 Pneles, 187 ed in Europe, 42 Ustica, 146 Vendee River, 16 Villefort, 221 Unkel, 488 Ustjug-Weliki, 593 Venddme, 206 Villefranche, Unna, 485 Utrecht, 271 Venedig, 541 214, 216, 21 Unst, 255 Utrera, 91 Veneria, La, 107 Villeneuve, 168 Unter-Hallau, 164|Uxijar, 93 Venetes, 102, 540 Villeneuve Unter-Kulm, 156 Uzes, 221 Venetian Friaul, 542 d'Agen, 215 INDEX. 669 PAOK PAOK PAOK' PAOK Villeneuve l'Ar- Vohenstrauss, 318 Waldkirch, 345 Weikersheim, 337 cheveque, 193 Vohrenbach, 347 Waldiniinchen, 317 Weilbach, 363 Villeneuve d' Avig- Vohringen, 349 Waldsassen, 317 Weilburg, 362 non. 221 Voigtland 383,384,3! 335 Weil, 332 Villeneuve de Voiron, 222 Waldshut, 345 Weile, 553 Berg, 221 Volcanello, 149 Wales, 245 Weilheim, 315 Villeneuve le Roy, 193 Volcano, 149 Walhalla, 317 Weilmunster, 362 Villingen, 347 Volenay, 201 Waljewo, 12 Wallachia, 635 Weilnau, 362 Villmergen, 156 Volga, 635 Weimar, 387 Vilsen, 436 Volhynia, 602 Wallachia, Little , 636 Weinfelden, 166 Vilshofen, 316 Volkach, 323 Walldiirn, 344 Weingarten, 334 Vilvorden, 278 Volkmarsen, 372 Wallenstadt, 160 Wemheim, 343 Villach, 512 Vollenhoven, 272 Wallerstein, 326 Weiusberi{, 331 Villacidro, 114 Vol.., 631 Walloons, 275|Weissbad, 157 Villa do Conde, 73 Volsci, 10-2 Walsall, 241 j Weissenbure:, 198, 531 Villa Demidof, 123 Volterra, 123 Walsrode, 437|Weissenburg im Villa d'Este, 538 Voltri, 112 Waltenberg, 5311 Nordgau, 321 Villi! Traiica, 110 Volluruo, 15 Waltershausen, 394 Weissenlels, 4S0 Villafraucade Pa Volvic, 213 Wandsbeck, 417 Weissenhorn, 326 nades, 95 Vonitza, 621 Wangen, 158, 334jWeissensee, 4S1 Villafrauca di Pie- Voorae, 270 Wangeroog, 424 Weissenst vdt, 319 munte, 107 Voralberg, 514 Wanlockhead, 250 Weissenstein, 596 Villanueva, 95 Vorden, 441 Wanfried, 371 Weisskit-meu, 534 Villareal, 73 Vormark, 460 Wanzleben, 478 Weissmain, 320 Villareal de San Vorsfelde, 447 War of succession, Welau, 496 Antonio, 74 Vosges, 6 the Spanish, 85 Welbeck Abbey, 242 Villa viciosa, 87 Vosges Depart- Warasdin, 529 Welehrad, 516 Villa viciosa (in ment, 195 Warberg, 572 Wells, 239 Asturias), 90 Vostizza, 622 Warburg, 484 Wels, 510 Villa Vicosa, 73 Voulte, La, 221 Warde, 553 Welshpool, 246 Vimieira, 71 Vouziers, 193 Waren, 409 Welzheim, 337 Vimoutiers, 187 Vrachori, 621 Warendorf, 483 Weuden, 597 Vinadeo, 108 Vukovar, 530 Warmbrunn, 475 Weuer Lake, 11 Vinaroz, 96 Warnemunde, 410 Wenersborg, 572 Vincennes, 183 Waag, 16 Warneton, 281 Wenings, 357 Vindelicia, 297 Waal, 16 Warnow River, 17 Werben, 478 Vineta, 469 Wachenheim, 327 Warrington, 243 Werchi Lomov, 608 Viniimiglia, 113 Wachtersbach, 374 Warsaw, 605 Werchoturie, 007 Vique, 95 Wadowice, 518 Wartburg, 388 Werdau, 383 Vire, 187 Wadstena, 570 Wartenberg, 474 Werden, 494 Visconti, 537 Waedenschwyl, 169 Wartha, 474 Werdenberg, 160 Vise, 283 Waedensweil, 169 Warthe, 13 Werder, 466 Viseu, 72 Waerschot, 280 Warwick, 240 Werl, 485 Visigoths, 23, 28 Waesland, 280 Warwick Castle, 240 Wermland, 573 Visoko, 6311 Waesten, 281 Warwickshire, 240 Werne, 483 Vissegrad, 525 Waga, 12 Wasa, 599 Wernigerode, 478 Vistula, 13 Wageningen, 272 Wasa, House of, 566 Werra, 17 Viterbo, 133 Waging, 315 Wasselnheim, 197 Wertheira, 344 Vitre, 208 Wagram, 509 Wasselonne, 197 Werther, 484 Vitry le Francais , 192 Waiblingen, 331 Wasseralfingen, 335 Werwick (in Bel Vittoria, 98|Waibstadt, 344 Wasserburg, 315 gium), 281 Vittoria (in Si- Waitzen, 525 Wassertrudingen 320 Wesel, 494 cily), 148,Wajka, 1 07 i Wakefield, 524 Wasungen, 391 Wesenberg, 596 Viu, 244 Waterford, 259 Weser, 17 Vivarais, 221)Walcheren, 270 Waterloo, 278 Wesergebirge, 8 Viverro, 91 Walchwyl, 168 Watweiler, 198 Weser Mountains, ( Viviers, 22l|Walcourt, 282 Watzmann, 4 Weset, 283 Vivis, 168Wald, 169, 493 Wavre, 278 Wessem, 368 Vizeu, 7-2 Waldbach, 193 Waxholm, 568 Wesserling, 199 Vizille, 2-22 Waldbroel, 492 Wearmouth, 244 West Flanders, 280 Vizzini, 148 Waldburg, 334 Wechselburg, 383 West Friesland, 272 Vlaamsch-Hoofd, 280 Waldeck, Princi- Wedel, 418 West Galloway, 250 Vlaardingen, 2T0 pality of, 37.1 Wednesbury, 241 Westhofen, 356 Vlieland, 209 Waldeck (town) 376 Weerdt, 367jWestkapellen, 270 Vodable, 213 Waldeuburg, 157 , 337, Weesp, 960 West Lothian, 249 Vodina, 630 384, 473 Wegeleben, 478 Wesimanland, 589 Vogelsberg, 7 Waldenses, 10 , 107 Weichselrniinde, 497 West Meath, 257 Voghera, 111 Waldheim, :K3 Weida, 383! Westminster, 234 VugOglia, 111 Waldkappel. 371 Weideu, 317 Westmoreland, 244 670 INDEX. PAGK! PAGE' PAGE, PAfJK Westphalia, duchy Wildungen, 376 Wolgast, 374 Wolkenstein, 470!Ypres, 280 of, 485 Wilhelmsbad, 383!Ysendyk, 271 Westphalia, king Wilhelmshohe, 370 Wollin, 469|Yssel, 16 dom of, 294 Wilhelmstein, 430 Wollmirstadt, 478 Ysselburg, 494 Westphalia, Prus- Wilhelmsthal, 389|Wolmar, 597 Ysselstein, 271 sian province of, 482 Willemstadt, 274 Wologda, 593 Yssingeaux, 221 Westphalian .William the Con- Wolsk, 609 Ystad, 571 circle, 293 queror, 33 Wolverhampton, 241 Yverdun, 168 Westphalian Treaty Wil Ham Tell, 155 Wood bridge, 236 Yvetot, 186 of peace, 303 Willisau, 162 Woodstock, 237 Westphalians, 298 Wilna, 600 Woolsthorpe, 237 Z a an I am, 268 West Prussia, 495 Wilsdruf, 381 Woolwich, 236 Zabern, 197 West Riding, 243 Wilsnack, 466 Worbis, 481 Zafra, 91 West Russia, 600 Wilster, 417 Worcester, 240 Zahara, 92 Westerbottn, 574 Wilton, 239 Worcestershire, 240 Zahna, 479 Wester-Gothland , 572 Wilton house, 239 Wordingborg, 550 Zahringen, castle Westeroas, 569 Wilts, 239 Workington, 244 of, 345 Westervik, 570 Wiltshire, 239 Worksop, 242 Zahringians, 339 Westerwald, S^ilz, 366 Worksop Manor, 242 Zalathna, 531 Western High- Wimmerby, 570 Workum, 27S ,274 Zamora, 90 lands, 253 Wimmis, 158 Worlitz, 405 Zamosk, 606 Western Islands, Wimpfen, 355 Wormditt, 496 Zante, 616 74 254 Winander Lake, 12 Worms, 356 Zara, 535 Wetluga, 12 Winchelsea, 236 Worms (Russian Zaritzin, 609 Wettenhausen, 325 Winchester, 238 isle), 596 Zarki, 606 Wetter, 372|Windau, 598 Woronesh, 592 Zarskoje-Selo, 595 Wetter Lake, 11 Windisch, 156 Worth, 317 Zator, 518 Wetteren, 280;Windsbach, 320 Wosnosensk, 611 Zawichost, 606 Wettin, 480iWindsheim, 321 Wreden, 483 Zealand, 270, 54! Wettingen, 156 Windsor, 235 Wrexham, 246 Zebug, 150 Wetzlar, 488jWineda, 469 Wriezen, 466 Zdunska Wola, 606 Wevelinghoven, 493,Winnenden, 331 Wschowa, 499 Zduny, 499 Wexford, 256 Winnweiler, 328 Wiilfrath, 493 Zehdenik, 466 Wexid, 570 Winschoten, 273 Wumme, 17 Zeiden, 532 Weymouth, 238,Winsen an der Wunsiedel, 319 Zeitun, 621 Wharnside, 8 Luhe, 437 Wunstorf, 435 Zeitz, 479 Whitby, 243 Winterstetten- Wupper, 16 Zele, 280 Whitehaven, 244 atadt, 334 Wiiritemberg, 329 Zell, 345, 487 White Russia, 601 Winterthur, 169 Wurzach, 334 Zell am Hammers- White Sea, 9 Wipperfurt, 492 Wiirzburg, 322 bach, 341 Wiborg, 552 , 599lWirtemberg, 329 WUrzburg, grand Zella, 394 Wick, 254 Wisbeach, 237 duchy of, 294 Zelle, 437 Wicklow, 256 Wisby, 571 Wurzen, 382 Zeller Lake, 11 Widdem, 331 Wisby (history) 50 Wusterhausen an i Zellerfeld, 444 Widdin, 629|Wischehrad, 514 der Dosse, 466 Zempelburg, 498 Wied, 488 Wislitza, 606 Wustrow, 437 Zengg, 533 Wieda, 448 Wismar, 410 Wyk, 557 Zentha, 526 Wieliczka, 519 Witebsk, 601 WykteDuurstede271 Zerbst, 405 Wien, 508 Wittelsbach, House Wyl, Wytschegda, 160 Zeulenroda, 398 Wienerisch-Neu- of, 313 12 Zeven, 438 stadt, 509 Wittenberg, 479 Xanten, 494 Xativa, 96 Xeres de los Caval- Zevenaer, 272 Wieprz, 13 Wittenburg, 409 Zeyst, 271 Wiesbaden, Wiese, 362 338 Wittgenstein, Wittlich, 486 489 Ziegenhain, Ziegenhala, 372 476 Wieselburg, 527 Wittmund, 443 leros, Xeres de la Fron a± Ziegenruck, 481 ,482 Wiesentheid, 323|Wittstock, 466 92 14 Zierenberg, 371 Wiesloch, 343, 344 Witzenhausen, 371 tera, Xucar, Zieriksee, 270 Wifflisburg, 168 Wjatka, 243|Wladimir, 608 Zigeth, 526 Wigan, 592 Yarmouth, 237 Zilah, 531 Wight, isle of, 238iWoburn, 238 Yell, 255 Zinna, 466 Wigton, 250 Woburn Abbey, 238iYenne, 109 Zipserhaus, 527 Wii^tonshire, 250jWoerden, 271 Ynglingar, 566 Zittau, 385 Wilchingen, 164 Wolau, 473 : Yonne, 15 Zizers, 162 Wild bad, 333 IWolchonsky Forest 8;Yonne Depart- Znaym, 517 Wildemann, 444 Woldenberg, 467 ment, 201 Zobten, 473 Wildenfela, 384 Wdlfach, 342 York, 243 Zobteuberg, 7 Wilder Lake, 3:58 Wolfenbuttel, 446 Yorkshire, 243 /ofinffen, 156 WUdeshauseOi 4*1 Wolfhagen, 37' Youghall, 259 /oinl.or, 525 Wildhaus, 160 \V r oili>teiii, 3*7 Ypern, 280 ; Ziirbig, 480 IXDEX. 671 Zorge, Zorrica, Zuckmantel, Zug, Zuid-Beveland, Ziillichau, PAOKI 448 Ziilpich, 150 Zum Stein, 517 Zurich, 1681 Zurich, Lake of, 270|Zurzach, 467iZiitphen, PAOKI FAOK I 491 1 Zuyder Zee, 9 Zwischenahn 157!Zuyd-Voonie, 270; Lake, 168| Zweibriickeu, 327, 328 1 Zwoll, 11 Zwenkau, 383 Z worn ik, 156 Zwickau, 383 Zwyndrecht, 271 j Z wingenbefg, 354 1 Z y tomierz, 420 272 634 THE END. 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