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 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/europepastpresenOOungerich 
 
EUROPE 
 
 PAST AND PRESENT: 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL 
 
 EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY; 
 
 SEPARATE DESCRIPTIONS AND STATISTICS OF EACH STATE, 
 
 A COPIOUS INDEX, 
 
 FACILITATING REFERENCE TO EVERY ESSENTIAL FACT IN THE HISTORY 
 v AND PRESENT STATE OF EUROPE. 
 
 BY FRANCIS H. UNGEWITTER, LL.D, 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 GEO. P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY, 
 
 AND 49 BOW LANE, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 
 
 1850. 
 
- m 
 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, 
 
 BY G. P. PUTNAM, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 
 
 THOMAS B. SMITH, 8TEREOTYPER, 
 216 WILLIAM STREET, N. Y. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 As author of/ several extensive geographical works, 
 which have been successfully published in Germany, 
 my native country, I have ventured to prepare this vol- 
 ume with the view of offering to the American public a 
 guide in European Geography and History. 
 
 It is superfluous to say that the value of such a work 
 depends entirely upon its authenticity and accuracy : 
 and that these qualities are, especially in Germany, es- 
 sential to success. In endeavoring to avoid all superficial 
 and unfounded statements, I have hoped also to steer 
 clear of pedantry and prolixity. For such a volume, in 
 the present state of popular information, I should not 
 have felt justified in using any other than original and 
 authentic materials. 
 
 Fortunately, materials of this kind are not at all lack- 
 ing in Europe. First, in most European countries an 
 official almanac is published every year, which contains 
 more or less copious statistical particulars to be relied 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 * 
 • 
 
 on. Secondly, a census is taken in certain periods, -not 
 restricted to the population only, but extended to a great 
 variety of other statistical matters. Thirdly, there is 
 scarcely a European state without its special geographi- 
 cal and historical description, written by a native scholar. 
 Beside these abundant materials, the official parliamen- 
 tary reports and documents in many states furnish au- 
 thentic statements with regard to the public finances, 
 the army, the navy, etc. Moreover, I have visited most 
 of the European countries, and have thus been enabled 
 to fill up deficiencies almost inevitable with him who 
 knows a people or a country merely by books. 
 
 The index, annexed to this volume, and containing 
 nearly ten thousand names, will enable the reader to find 
 readily any essential fact connected with European geog- 
 raphy or history. The table of contents, prefixed to the 
 volume, gives at once a clear view of all those fifty-six 
 states, which constitute Europe in a political sense. 
 
 The arrangement with reference to the mountain 
 ranges, rivers, lakes, etc., of all Europe, by compressing 
 them within the compass of one common description, will 
 perhaps meet with the approbation of the reader ; tedi- 
 ous repetitions being avoided in this way. Beside this, 
 the introduction contains a general, yet condensed history 
 of Europe. 
 
 Concerning the description of each of these fifty-six 
 European states, the order observed is thus: first, the 
 statements about area and population, surfaoe, soil, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 natural products, manufactures, commerce and trade, 
 public finances, form of government, strength of the 
 army and (with maritime states) of the navy, and the 
 orders of honor; secondly, the history; and thirdly, the 
 topography of the state. 
 
 Trusting that the public will kindly make allowance 
 for my want of an elegant English style, the more so 
 as until the last year I never had any suitable oppor- 
 tunity to improve in it practically, I sincerely wish, that 
 for the rest this volume may answer every reasonable 
 expectation on the part of the reader. 
 
 F. H. UNGEWITTER. 
 
 Nkw York, June 26th, 1850. 
 
+ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAdl 
 
 INTRODUCTION, OR GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, 1 
 
 The Mountain Ranges of Europe, 4 
 
 Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits, 9 
 
 Lakes of Europe, 10 
 
 Rivers of Europe 12 
 
 Independent States of Europe, 21 
 
 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 23 
 
 PORTUGAL, 62 
 
 History of Portugal, 67 
 
 SPAIN, 76 
 
 History of Spain, 84 
 
 ITALY, 99 
 
 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia, 103 
 
 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 115 
 
 8. The Duchy of Parma, 115 
 
 4. The Duchy of Modena, 117 
 
 5. The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, (including Lucca) 1 20 
 
 6. The States of the Church, 127 
 
 7. The Republic of San Marino, 136 
 
 8. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 137 
 
 9. Malta, 149 
 
 SWITZERLAND, 151 
 
 History of Switzerland, 154 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 FRANCE, 170 
 
 History of France, 179 
 
 The Provinces of Isle de France, Normandy, Picardy, 182 
 
 The Provinces of Artois, French Flanders, Champagne, 189 
 
 The Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 193 
 
 The Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 199 
 
 The Provinces of Bourbonnais, Nivernais and Berry, 203 
 
 The Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou, 205 
 
 The Provinces of Maine, Perche and Brittany, 207 
 
 The Provinces of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumais, La Marche, 210 
 
 The Provinces of Limousin, Auvergne and Lyonnais 213 
 
 The Provinces of Guyenne and Gascony 214 
 
 The Provinces of Navarre, Beam, Foix and Roussillon, 218 
 
 The Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny, 219 
 
 The Provinces of Provence, Avignon and Corsica, 223 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 227 
 
 British History, 232 
 
 A. The Kingdom of England, 234 
 
 B. The Kingdom of Scotland, 248 
 
 C. The Kingdom of Ireland, 256 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS, 261 
 
 1. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, .„ 265 
 
 2. The Kingdom of Belgium, 275 
 
 GERMANY, 284 
 
 1. German Provinces of Austria, 309 
 
 2. German Provinces of Prussia, 310 
 
 3. The Kingdom of Bavaria, 311 
 
 4. The Kingdom of Wirtemberg, 329 
 
 5. The Grand-Duchy of Baden, 337 
 
 6-7. The Principalities of Hohenzollern. 347 
 
 8. The Principality of Liechtenstein, 350 
 
 9. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse, 35I 
 
 10. The Landgraviate of Hesse, 358 
 
 11. The Duchy of Nassau, 360 
 
 12. The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and Duchy of Limburg 365 
 
 13. The Electorate of Hesse, 368 
 
 14. The Principality of Waldeck 375 
 
 16. The Kingdom of Saxony, 3^6 
 
 16. The Grand-Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, 386 
 
 17. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 38y 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 8. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 892 
 
 19. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg 395 
 
 20-21. The Principalities of Reuss, 397 
 
 22-23. The Principalities of Schwarzburg > 399 
 
 24-25. The Duchies of Anhalt, > 402 
 
 26. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin, 406 
 
 27. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 
 
 28. The Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, 412 
 
 29. The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg, 420 
 
 30. The Principality of Lippe-Detmold 427 
 
 31. The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 
 
 32. The Kingdom of Hanover, 430 
 
 33. The Duchy of Brunswick, 444 
 
 34. The Free City of Hamburg. . . . . 448 
 
 35. The Free City of Lubec, 451 
 
 36. The Free City of Bremen, 453 
 
 37. The Free City of Frankfort, 454 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 457 
 
 History of Prussia, 462 
 
 • 
 
 THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, 601 
 
 1. The German Provinces of Austria 508 
 
 2. The Kingdom of Galicia 518 
 
 3. The Kingdom of Hungary, 520 
 
 4. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania, 630 
 
 6. The Military Frontier, 533 
 
 6. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, 534 
 
 7. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 536 
 
 DENMARK, 543 
 
 1. The Danish Islands, 549 
 
 2. Jutland, 552 
 
 3. The Duchy of Sleswick, 554 
 
 4. The Faroe Isles, 557 
 
 5. Iceland, 559 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 562 
 
 A. The Kingdom of Sweden, 567 
 
 B. The Kingdom of Norway, 576 
 
 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, & 579 
 
 1. Great Russia, 590 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2. Little Russia, 594 
 
 8. The Baltic Provinces 595 
 
 4. The Grand-Duchy of Finland, 598 
 
 5. West, or Polish Russia, 600 
 
 6. The Kingdom of Poland, 603 
 
 7. The Kingdom of Kasan, 607 
 
 8. The Kingdom of Astrachan, 608 
 
 9. South Russia, 610 
 
 THE IONIAN ISLANDS, 614 
 
 History of the Ionian Islands, 615 
 
 GREECE, 617 
 
 History of Greece, 619 
 
 EUROPEAN TURKEY 624 
 
 1. Roumelia, 628 
 
 2. Bulgaria, 629 
 
 8. Macedonia, 630 
 
 4. Thessalia, 631 
 
 5. The Islands, 631 
 
 6. Albania, 632 
 
 7. Bosnia, 633 
 
 8. Tributary Provinces, 634 
 
 Se*™> 634 
 
 Wallachia, 635 
 
 Moldavia, 636 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 INTRODUCTION: GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Area of Europe: 3,816,936 square miles. 
 Population of Europe : 262,300,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1. Before entering upon the subject, it may be remarked that 
 most of the statistical statements in this work, especially those 
 concerning the population of states, cities, towns, etc., correspond 
 with the official and other authentic reports from the beginning 
 of the year 1848. The political revolutions which since have 
 occurred in most of the European countries, have in many in- 
 stances changed the state of things, caused numerous emigrations, 
 and, at all events, prevented a careful investigation in statistical 
 matters. Moreover, a census is in Europe nowhere taken annu- 
 ally, but, for instance, in France every fifth, in Germany every 
 third year, and so on. However, the statements in this work 
 being thoroughly authentic, they will afford a sure stand-point 
 with regard to all future events, until matters and things are 
 completely settled again in Europe. 
 
 2. The above-stated area of 3,816,936 square miles, is distrib- 
 uted as follows : — 
 
 Germany, 244,375 square miles. 
 
 The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 36,508 " M 
 
 Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . 164,521 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Area and Population of each country. 
 
 Italy, v 119,706 square miles. 
 
 Switzerland, 15,815 
 
 Holland and Belgium, .... 24,644 
 
 France, . ■. 204,825 
 
 Spain and Portugal, .... 216,429 
 
 British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.), 117,921 
 
 Denmark (including Iceland), . . 49,927 
 
 Sweden and Norway, .... 293,280 
 
 Russia (in Europe), .... 2,099,903 
 
 Ionian Islands, 1,108 
 
 Greece, 19,149 
 
 Turkey (in Europe), .... 209,422 
 
 Total, 3,816,936 
 
 Thus, the extent of Europe is almost equal to that of the 
 United States, and of Mexico, put together. 
 
 3. The population of Europe, is distributed as follows : — 
 
 Germany, 42,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 3,865,000 " 
 
 Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . . 20,082,000 
 
 Ital 7» 24,573,100 
 
 Switzerland, . . . . . . 2,400,000 
 
 Holland and Belgium, .... 7,558,000 " 
 
 France > 35,401,000 
 
 S P ain ' 12,000,000 
 
 ro«*&l 3,750,000 
 
 British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.), 28,500,000 " 
 
 Denmark (including Iceland), . . 1,800,000 
 
 Sweden and Norway, .... 4,650,000 
 
 Russia (in Europe) 62,000,000 
 
 Ionian Islands, 220000 „ 
 
 Greece > 1,000,000 - 
 
 Turkey (in Europe), .... i 2 , 50 0,000 « 
 
 Tota ^ ' ' • • • . 262,299,100 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Density of Population — Boundaries — Climate. 
 
 This makes a population of about 70 inhabitants to a square 
 mile — the highest ratio in any division of the world. For Asia 
 (including the Indian Archipelago) has only 32, Africa has 13, 
 America (i. e., North and South America) has but 3, and Aus- 
 tralasia and Polynesia have no more than 1 inhabitant on a 
 square mile. If the United States, whose extent (including 
 Texas, but excluding California) is estimated at 2,620.000 square 
 miles, and where, upon an average, at present only 9 souls live on 
 a square mile, were as thickly settled as Europe, they would 
 have a population of 183,400,000 inhabitants ; and not less than 
 801,720.000, if the proportion were like that of Holland aud 
 Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. 
 
 4. The most northerly point of the European continent is 
 North Cape (which belongs to Norway), N. lat. 71° 11' ; and its 
 most southerly point is Gibraltar, N. lat. 36° 7'. Thus these 
 parallels correspond with those of the northern part of Hudson's 
 Bay, and of Hillsboro, or Louisburg, in North Carolina. The 
 distance between North Cape and Gibraltar, is 2,424 miles. The 
 most easterly point of Europe is Catharinburg (at the frontier of 
 European Russia and Siberia), long. 60° 40' E. from Greenwich ; 
 and its most westerly point is Cape Roxant (belonging to Portu- 
 gal), long. 9° 31' W. from Greenwich ; and the distance between 
 these two extreme points, is 3,370 miles. 
 
 5. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic, and on the 
 west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east the Ural Mountains, 
 the Ural River, the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles, and the Archi- 
 pelago, form the boundaries towards Asia ; and on the south, 
 Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa 
 by the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 6. The climate is generally much warmer than in the same 
 parallels in America and Asia, and the difference is equivalent to 
 eight or ten degrees of latitude. This may be accounted for by 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Surface.— Mountains : Alp3— Pyrenees. 
 
 the almost universal cultivation of the soil in Europe, and by the 
 absence of those extensive forests, which are to be found in 
 America and Siberia. 
 
 7. In the north (with the exception of European Russia) and 
 in the south, the surface is generally mountainous ; but in the 
 middle parts of Europe, plains, here and there intersected by ranges 
 of low mountains and hills, are prevailing. From the mouths of 
 the Rhine, an immense plain runs through Holland, the north of 
 Germany, the provinces of West and East Prussia, Poland, and 
 Russia, to the Ural Mountains ; and its highest elevation, near 
 the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and Don, is 1,064 feet. Other 
 plains of smaller extent are to be found in Hungary, Wallachia, 
 Lombardy, France. &c. The mountainous regions of the Euro- 
 pean continent, occupy together an area of about 979,800 square 
 miles. The most remarkable mountain ranges of Europe are the 
 following : — 
 
 a. The Alps, the principal chain of mountains in Europe, occupying an 
 area of nearly 74,550 square miles, run from the coast of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, at the boundary between France and Italy, through Savoy, Switzerland, 
 Tyrol, and other provinces of Austria, to the western parts of Turkey, at a 
 distance of about 550 miles. Several regions of them have particular names, 
 as, Maritime Alps (nearest to the coast), Cottian Alps (with the Pelvoux de 
 Vallouise), Gray Alps (between Savoy and Piedmont), Pe?inine Alps (with 
 the Mont Blanc), Lepontine Alps (with the Mount Rosa), etc. The highest 
 peaks of the Alps, are: the Mont Blanc (in Savoy, 15,668 feet high), Mount 
 Rosa (in Savoy, but near the frontier of Switzerland, 15,527 f.), Finsteraar- 
 horn (in Switzerland, 14,325 f.), Pelvoux de Vallouise (on the French territory, 
 14,044 f.), Jungfrau (or Virgin, 13,730 f), Schrcckhorn (13,310 f— the two 
 latter in Switzerland), Ortles (in Tyrol, 13,065 f), Watmann (in Bavaria, 
 9,150 f.), and Terglou (in Carinthia, 10,194 f. high). 
 
 6. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain, running in an almost westerly 
 direction from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to that of the Bay of Biscay. 
 The highest peaks of this mountain range, are: the Maladetta (11,436 f.), 
 Mont Perdu (10,482 f.), and Pico Las Posets (10,584 f.) on the Spanish side, 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Mountains : Sierra Nevada — Appenines— Carpathians, etc. 
 
 and the Marbore (10,374 f.), Vignemale (10,350 f), Piclong (9,972 f), and 
 Canigou (8,800 f.) on the French side. 
 
 c. The Sierra Nevada, the principal mountain range of Spain, covers chiefly 
 that part of the country commonly called Upper Andalusia, or the province 
 of Granada. Its highest peaks are the Cumbre de Mulhaccn (11,678 f.), and 
 Picacho de Veleta (11,200 f). One branch of the Sierra Nevada, running in 
 the direction of Cadiz, and ending in Cape Trafalgar, is partly named Alpu- 
 jarras, partly Surra de Ronda. Parallel with the Sierra Nevada, and in the 
 direction of Algarve (the southern province of Portugal), runs the Sierra 
 Morena, which, in Portugal, bears the name of Sierra Monchique. Other 
 mountain ranges in Spain, are the Cantabrian and Iberian Mountains, the 
 Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Guadarama, and Sierra de Guadalupe. 
 
 d The Apennines skirt the Gulf of Genoa, and run south-east to the south 
 extremity of Italy. They bear particular names, according to their local 
 position. Ligurian Apennines (with the Monte Chnone, in the Duchy of 
 Modena, 6,778 feet high), Etruscan Apennines, Roman Apennines (with the 
 Monte di Sibylla, 7,038 f), Neapolitan Apennines, and Abruzzi (in the 
 northern part of the kingdom of Naples, with the Gran Sasso d'Ralia. 9,577 
 f. high). The volcano Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is 3,932 feet high. On 
 the island of Sicily are, besides the volcano Mount Etna or Monte Gibello 
 (10,870 f. high), to be noted the Callata bellata (3,699 f), Cuceio (3,329 f), 
 and Scudery (3,190 f); on the island of Sardinia, the Gennargentu (5,630 f), 
 and Gigantinu (3,744 f.) ; and on the island of Corsica, the Monte Rotondo 
 (8,500 f), Pagalia Orba (8,100 f), and Cinto (7,900 f). 
 
 e. The Carpathes, forming the boundary between Hungary and Galicia, 
 run in a south-easterly direction from the sources of the Oder River to the 
 Danube. The western part bears the particular name of the Beskides, the 
 middle part that of the Carpathes Proper or Tatra Mountains, and the south- 
 east part, comprising Transylvania, Upper Hungary, and the north of Walla- 
 chia, is called the Highland Erdely. The highest peaks of the Carpathian 
 Mountains are, the Ruska Poyana (9,912 f.), Gailuripi (9,000 f), Lomnitzer 
 Spitze (Peak of Lomnitz, 8,316 f.), and Krivan (7,818 f). The highest peak 
 of the Beskides in particular, is the Babia Gura, which rises to 5,420 feet. 
 
 /. The Scandinavian Mountains form, for a great part, the boundary be- 
 tween Sweden and Norway, where they are called Kblen (literally, the Keel). 
 Near Roeraas, in Norway, the chief branch of the range, running south-west, 
 the name of Dovre-fjeld (fjeld has the signification of Alpine range), 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Mountains : in Turkey, France, Germany. 
 
 and its highest peak is here the Skagastoeltind (8,400 f.). Other peaks of the 
 Skaudinavian Mountains, are the Sncehcetta (8,122 f.), an 1 Sulitehna (6,840 f.). 
 
 g. The Balkan or Haemus, running east through the midst of Turkey, rises 
 to the height of no more than 3,000 feet, and is thoroughly covered with 
 extensive forests. Among its five passes, those of Schumla are renowned in 
 military history. Another mountain ran^e in Tin-key, and partly in Greece, 
 is the Pindus, rising to the height of more than 5,000 fiet, and some of its 
 divisions are called the Bora, Mczzovo, and Agrapha Mountains. 
 
 h. In France are, besides the Pyrenees, to be noted : the Jura Mountains, 
 forming the boundary between France and Switzerland (with the Reculet, 
 5,280 £, and Grand Colombier, 5,220 f., on the French side ; and with the 
 Dole, 5,147 t,Mont Tendre, 5,170 f., Chasseron, 4,976 f., Crenx du Vent, 4,512 
 f., and Tete de Rang, 4,384 f., on the side of Switzerland); the Sevennes, 
 commencing near the east end of the Pyrenees, and running north, form the 
 dividing ridge between the valleys of the Rhone and Loire (their highest 
 summits are, the Mezin of 6,162 £, Lozere of 5,584 f., Tarare of 4,350 f., and 
 PUat of 3,696 f. in height) ; the Mountains of Auvergne, branching from the 
 Sevennes and running north-west, form the dividing ridge between the valleys 
 of the Loire and the Garonne; their principal part is known by the name of 
 Mont Dure, and their highest peaks, commonly called Puy, are : Puy de Sancy 
 (5,838 f.) t Puy de Lome (4,548 f.), and Plomb de Cantal (5,718 f.) ; the Vosges, 
 running parallel with the Rhine, separate the provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 
 and rise to 4,400, 4,300, 3,900, and 3,100 feet, in the Ballon de Sulz, Tete 
 <T Ours, Ballon d' Alsace, and Grand Donnon (branches at the north end of 
 the Vosges, bear the names of Monts de Faucille and Hardt Mountains, the 
 latter with the Mont de Tonnere, 2,035 £ high) ; the Cote d'Or (in the prov- 
 ince of Burgundy), and Mokwan Mountains (on the high road between Paris 
 and Lyons), rise to 1,842 and 2,000 feet; lastly, the Ardennes, running from 
 the northern parts of Champagne to Luxemburg, are woody hills rising to 
 1,800 feet, and part of them are called the Argonnes. 
 
 i. The highest mountain range in the north of Germany, are the Sudetes, 
 or Sudelic Mountains, along the southern frontier of Silesia, with different 
 divisions and names. The Sudetic Mountains proper form the boundary 
 between Austrian Silesia and Moravia (with the Altvater 4,640 f., and the 
 Great Schneeberg or Snow-peak, 4,400 f. high). The Riesengebirge, or Giants' 
 Mountains, form the boundary between Silesia and Bohemia, (with the Riesen, 
 or Schneekoppe, 5,056 f., the Great Sturmhaube, 4,540 £, Little Sturmhaube, 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Mountains of Germany. 
 
 4,400 f., and Great Rod, or Wheel, 4,707 f.), and the Lusatian Mountains 
 (with the Jeschken, 3,140 f., and Lausche, 2,460 f.), form the boundary between 
 Lusatia and Bohemia. Other divisions of the Sudetes are : the Moravian 
 Mountains, (between Moravia and Bohemia), the Habehchwerdt Mountains 
 (in Silesia), the Eulen-Gebirge, or Owl Mountains, (with the Hohe Eule, 3,08 :i 
 f., in Silesia), and Heuscheuer Gebirge, or Haybarn Mountains (partly in 
 Silesia, partly in Bohemia). Between Breslau and the Eulen-Gebirge, mm 
 the Zobtenberg to 2,280 feet 
 
 j. Other mountain ranges in Germany, are : the Boehmeewald Mountains, 
 which form the boundary between Bohemia and Bavaria, and rise to 4,000 
 and 4,500 £ ; the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, which form the boundary 
 between Bohemia and Saxony, and rise to 3,870 f. (in the Somienwirbel), 
 3,732 f. (Kleine or Little Fichtelberg), and 3,721 £ (Grosse or Great Fichtcl- 
 bcrg); the Fichtel-Gebirge, in the north-east part of Bavaria, with the 
 Sch.ieeberg, 3,221 f., and OcJisenkopf, 3,123 £; the Black Forest (Schwarz- 
 wald), partly belonging to Wirtemberg, but chiefly occupying the southern 
 part of Baden ; it is covered with gloomy pine forests (hence its name), and 
 its middle elevation is between 3,000 and 3,500 feet ; although the Feldberg 
 and Belchen (both in Baden), rise to 4,650 and 4,397 feet ; the Au (which 
 has nothing in common with the Alps in Switzerland and Italy), in Wirtem- 
 berg, where it is commonly called Swabian Alp (with the Ober-Hohenberg, 
 3,160 £, Schafberg, 3,121 f., and Plattenberg, 3,100 f.), and partly Rauhe 
 (rough) Alp, and then running north-east through Bavaria, by the name of 
 Franconian Alp; the Odenwald, branching from the Black Forest and 
 running north through Hesse Darmstadt (with the Katzenbuckel, 2,180 f., 
 and Malchen, or Melibocus, 1,690 £); parallel with it runs on its western side 
 the so-called Bergstrasse, between Prankfort and Heidelberg ; the Spessart, 
 between Aschaffenburg and Wurtzburg, in Bavaria, with an elevation not 
 exceeding 1,900 feet, and having in its neighborhood the inferior ranges of the 
 Hass- Gebirge, and the Steigerwald; the Rhoen-Gebirge, on the north-west 
 boundary of Bavaria, with the Holy Kreuzberg (2,856 f.), Dammersfeld (2,840 
 f.), and Beierberg (2,264 f); to the westward, in Hesse Darmstadt, is to be 
 noted the range of the Vogelsberg, with an elevation of 2,388 feet; the 
 Thuringerwald (Forest of Thnringid), forming the boundary between 
 Bavaria and the Saxon Duchies, with the Beerberg (3,064 f.), Schneekopf 
 (3,043 £), Inselsberg (2,855 £), and Kickelhahn (2,643 f.) ; its eastern extrem- 
 ity is called the Frankenwald ; the Hartz, a more or less isolated mountain 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Mountains of Great Britain, Iceland, Russia. 
 
 range, occupying the south of Hanover, part of Brunswick, and part of the 
 Prussian province of Saxony ; it has its highest elevation in the Brocken or 
 Blocksberg (3,500 f.), and that part situated on the west side of the Brocken 
 is called Upper Hartz, and the other part is called Lower Hartz ; the Huns- 
 ni'CKEN, or Hundsruck (dog's back), a rough and woody table-land between 
 Treves and Coblentz, rising to 2,263 feet in the Idarkopf; the Eifel, between 
 Aix la Chapelle and Treves, rising to 2,260 feet; the Taunus, in Nassau, with 
 the Greut Feldberg (2,605 f.), and Altkonig (2,400 f.); the Westerwald, 
 partly in Nassau, partly in the Prussian province of Westphalia ; its north- 
 west slope is formed by the Siebengebirge, or Seven Hills, on the right bank 
 of the Rhine, opposite to Bonn ; the Osning, or Teutoburger Wald, in Lippe- 
 Dctmold ; the Wesergebirge, or Weser Mountains, along the Weser River. 
 Other inferior or hilly ranges, are : the Habichtswald, near Cassel, the Sollin- 
 ger Wald, the Deister, and Suntel, in Hanover. 
 
 k. The principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, are : the Grampian 
 Hills (with the Ben Lawers, 4,051 f, Ben Nevis, 4,379 f, and Cairngorm, 
 4,050 f.), running from the head of the frith of Clyde, north-east through the 
 centre of Scotland ; and the Cheviot Hills, on the southern boundary of 
 Scotland The highest peaks in England are, the Wharnside (4,052 f.), and 
 Ingleborough (3,987 f.), and, in Wales, the Snowdon (3,568 I), and Cader Idris 
 (3,550 f.). 
 
 I. Iceland— this rocky island on the borders of the frigid zone, is almost 
 entirely covered with volcanoes, among them the celebrated Mount Hecla, 
 rising to 5,210 feet. The highest peaks of the island are, the Oeraefe-Joekul 
 (6,240 f.), and the Oester-Joekul, or Eyjafialle-Joekul (5,794 f.). 
 
 m. In European Russia is only to be noted the Tauric Mountains, in 
 Crimea, rising to 4,740 feet in the Tschadyrdagh. The Wolchonsky Forest, 
 between St. Petersburg and Moscow, is nothing else but a ridge of low hills, 
 not exceeding 1,000 f. in height; although the Volga and other mighty rivers 
 have their sources here. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains belong to Asiatic 
 Russia. 
 
 8. The Northern and Atlantic Oceans, by which Europe is 
 bounded on the north and west, penetrate in many parts of the 
 continent, thus forming a great number of peninsulas, bays, and 
 inland seas. The most remarkable of the latter, formed by the 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, is the White Sea, which penetrates the northern 
 coast of Russia to the extent of 276 miles. 
 
 The principal inland seas, bays, etc., formed by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, are the following : — 
 
 The North Sea, which separates the British Islands from the 
 European continent, and has an extent nearly equal to that of 
 Germany. A branch of the North Sea, called Skagerack, and 69 
 miles wide, separates the Danish peninsula of Jutland from 
 Norway; the then following Cattegat (about 140 miles long and 
 70 wide), separates Jutland from Sweden ; and the following 
 three channels, or straits, lead from the Cattegat into the Baltic 
 Sea, viz. : the Oeresound, commonly called Sound (between Zealand 
 and Sweden), the Great Belt (between Funen and Zealand), and 
 the Little Belt (between Sleswick and Funen). 
 
 The Baltic Sea, with an extent of 135,680 square miles, and 
 surrounded by Sweden, Russian, Prussian, German, and Danish 
 countries, is, between Ystad and the island of Rugen, only 53 
 miles wide. Two gulfs set up from the Baltic : the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, between Sweden and Finland, and the Gulf of Finland, 
 between Finland and Esthland. Inferior to them in extent is the 
 Gulf of Riga, before the mouth of the Duna River. Between 
 Tilsit and Memel is the Curische Haff, or Sea, almost entirely 
 enclosed by a long and small tongue of land, with a narrow pass- 
 age into the Baltic. Other seas of the same kind, are the Fresh 
 Haff, before the mouths of the Pregel and other rivers, and the 
 Great and Little Haff, before the mouth of the Oder. 
 
 A great inland sea, or bay, in the north of Holland, is the 
 Zuyder Zee, 90 miles long, and 45 miles wide. Far inferior to it 
 in extent is the Dollart, before the mouth of Ems River. 
 
 The Strait of Dover, separating England from France, is about 
 27 miles wide ; and the well-known English Channel, is, upon an 
 average. 70 miles wide. 
 
 1* 
 
10 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Seas, Channels, Straits, Lakes. 
 
 St. George's Channel separates Ireland from England and 
 Wales ; at its south end is to be noted the Bristol Channel, be- 
 fore the mouth of Severn River, and at its north end the North 
 Channel, which separates Ireland from Scotland. 
 
 Between the French peninsula of Bretagne, and the northern 
 coast of Spain, is the Bay of Biscay, about 345 miles wide. 
 
 A narrow passage, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the 
 Mediterranean Sea, is the Strait of Gibraltar, which separates 
 Spain from Africa. 
 
 The Mediterranean Sea, separating Europe from Africa, and 
 on the east bordered by Asia, has an extent of 1,01 1,750 square 
 miles, and is 2,415 long, while its breadth is very different. 
 Before the mouth of the Rhone, is the Gulf of Lyons, and before 
 the city of Genoa, the Gulf of Genoa. The Strait of Bonifacio 
 separates the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, and the Strait of 
 Messina separates the island of Sicily from continental Italy. 
 At the south-east extremity of Italy, is the Gulf of Taranto ; 
 farther to the east, the Strait of Otranto separates Italy from 
 Turkey, and connects the Ionian Sea (between the Ionian 
 Islands and Sicily) with the Adriatic Sea, which latter separates 
 Italy from Dalmatia, and whose extent is estimated at nearly 
 63,900 square miles. The Grecian Archipelago separates Greece 
 and European Turkey from Asia Minor, and is connected by the 
 Dardanelles Strait, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus Strait, 
 with the Black Sea, the extent of which is computed at 182,1 15 
 square miles. The Strait of Jenikale connects the Black Sea 
 with the Sea of Azof, before the mouth of the Don. 
 
 9. The most remarkable lakes are in the north of Europe, and 
 in the region of the Alps. 
 
 In Russia are to be noted : Lake Ladoga, east of the Gulf of Finland, and 
 in the neighborhood of St. Petersburg ; its extent, computed at 6,220 square 
 miles, exceeds that of the kingdom of Saxony ; Lake Onega, east of the former, 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 11 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 with an extent of 4,260 square miles ; Lake llnien, 28 miles long and 20 wide, 
 in the province of Novogorod ; Lake Saima, about 40 miles long and wide, in 
 Finland. 
 
 In Sweden, which abounds in lakes, are to be noted : Lake Wener, not 
 very far from Gottenburg, with an extent of 2,130 square miles; Lake Wetter, 
 in the midst of the country, celebrated for its romantic environs, and remark- 
 able by its extraordinary depth, is 100 miles long, and betweeu 14 and 28 
 miles wide; Lake Maelar, near Stockholm, contains about 1,800 islands and 
 islets, with many handsome mansions and castles on them ; Lake Hjelmar, in 
 the neighborhood of the former, 46 miles long and 20 wide; Lake Star 
 (literally, Great Lake), in the province of Jemtland, and Lake Silja, in the 
 province of Dalarne. 
 
 In Norway, are Lake Mjos (north of Christiana, 83 miles long and 11 
 wide), and Lake Faemund (at the frontier of Sweden, about 40 miles long). 
 
 On the boundary of Switzerland and Germany, is the Lake of Constance, 
 37 miles long and about 9 wide. Three bays set up from it, and are called 
 Ueberlingen, Lower, and Zeller Lakes. 
 
 On the confines of Switzerland and Savoy, is the Lake of Geneva, 42 
 miles long and 7 wide. 
 
 In Switzerland are to be noted: the Lake of Neufchatel, 18 miles long 
 and about 5 wide, in the canton of Neufchatel ; Lake of Biel, in the canton of 
 Bern ; Lake of Thun, in the canton of Bern ; Lake of Luzerne, in the centre 
 of Switzerland ; Lake of Zurich, surrounded by the cantons of Zurich, St. 
 Gall, and Schwy tz ; and Lake of Lugano, in the canton of Tesino. 
 
 The most remarkable lakes of Italy are : Lake Maggiore, in Lombardy 
 and Piedmont, 37 miles long and about 8 wide ; Lake Como, in Lombardy, 
 32 miles long ; Lake di Gar da, east of the former ; Lake of Perugia, in the 
 States of the Church. 
 
 In Hungary, are the Lake of Balaton, or Platten-See (in Lower Hungary, 
 46 miles long), and Lake of Neusiedl, near the frontier of Austria. 
 
 In Germany are to be noted : the Lakes of Gmunden, of Ossiach, of Cla- 
 genfurt, and of Cirknitz, in Austria ; the Lakes of Chiem, of Starenberg, and 
 of Tegern, in Bavaria ; of Muritz, Schwerin, and Malchin, in Mecklenburg ; 
 of Ploen, in Holstein, and Lake of Madue, in Prussia, 
 
 In Holland is the Haarlem Lake, covering a tract of 33,000 acres. 
 
 In Scotland are to be noted : the Loch Lomond (23 miles long and 9 
 
12 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 wide), Loch Ness (20 miles long), and Loch Awe ; in Ireland, Lough Neagh 
 (18 miles long) ; and in England, Lake Winandcr (14 miles long). 
 In the other countries of Europe, are no remarkable lakes to be found. 
 
 10. Among the rivers of Europe, ranks, foremost, the Volga; 
 next in length is the Danube; then follow the Dnieper, Don, 
 Rhine, etc. We describe the course and tributaries of the prin- 
 cipal rivers of Europe in the following order : — 
 
 Through Russia flow : the Volga, having its head in the Wolchonsky Forest 
 (see § 7, m.), and a length of course of 2,166 miles, and emptying by about 
 70 outlets into the Caspian Sea. Its chief branches are the Oka, Sura, 
 Mologa, Kostronia, Wetluga, and Kama. 
 
 The Dnieper (the Borystheties of the ancients), having its sources in the 
 province of Smolensk, and a length of course of 1,209 miles, and emptying, in 
 the neighborhood of Odessa, into the Black Sea, forming there the Gulf of 
 Liman. Its chief branches are the Beresina, Pripet, Bog, Desna, and Sa- 
 mara (the latter is by the Cossacks called the Holy River). 
 
 The Don (in ancient times Tanais) : its sources in the neighborhood of 
 Tula, its length of course 1,081 miles, emptying into the Sea of Azof. Its 
 chief branches are the Choper and Donez. 
 
 The Dniester (in ancient times called Tyras, or Danastris) : its sources in 
 the Carpathian Mountains, not far from Lemberg ; its length 506 miles, and 
 emptying into the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Dnieper. 
 
 The Kuban (by Herodotus called Hypanis, by Ptolemy Vardanes, and by 
 the Genoese, in the middle ages, Copa) ; its sources in the Caucasus Mountains ; 
 its length 473 miles, and emptying by one outlet into the Sea of Azof, and by 
 another into the Black Sea. 
 
 The Terek, having its sources in the Caucasus Mountains, and emptying 
 into the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The Petschora: its sources in the Ural Mountains; its length 690 miles; 
 its mouth in the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The Mezen : its sources in the province of Wologda ; its length 552 miles ; 
 its mouth in the White Sea. 
 
 The Dwina: its head in the province of Wologda; its length 736 miles; 
 its mouth in the White Sea. Its chief branches are the Wytschegda, Pinega 
 and Waqa. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 13 
 
 Rivera. 
 
 The Onega, having its sources in the province of Olonetz, and emptying into 
 the White Sea. 
 
 The Kemi, having its sources in Finland, and emptying into the Gulf of 
 Bothnia. 
 
 The Newa, issuing from the Lake Ladoga, and emptying into the Gulf of 
 Finland, has a length of only 39 miles, but is at St. Petersburg from 1,800 to 
 2,400 feet wide. 
 
 The Duna, rising near the sources of the Volga, has a length of 644 miles, 
 and flows, below Riga, into the Gulf of Riga. 
 
 The Tornea, emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia, forms the boundary 
 between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 The Niemen rises in the Russian province of Minsk, has a length of 530 
 miles, and crossing Prussia, where it receives the name of Memel, empties 
 into the Curische Haff (see § 8). 
 
 Poland and Prussia are crossed by the Vistula, which rises at the frontier 
 of Austrian Silesia, has a length of 681 miles, is in Prussia from 1,000 to 
 2,000 feet wide, and empties into the Baltic Sea by two outlets, of which the 
 eastern is called Nogat. The chief branches of the Vistula are the Bug, San, 
 Wieprz, Drewenz, Ossa, Pilica, and Mottlau. 
 
 Through Prussia flow : the Pregel, in East Prussia, empties into the Fresh 
 Haff [see § 8]. 
 
 The Passarge, in East Prussia, empties into the same HafF. 
 
 The Persante and the Rega, in Pomerania, emptying into the Baltic Sea. 
 
 The Oder, which rises in the Sudetic Mountains, at the frontier of Moravia, 
 crosses Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, and empties, below Stettin, 
 into the Great HafF, which, by the Peene, Swine, and Divenow, is connected 
 with the Baltic Sea. Its length is 616 miles. The chief tributary of the Oder 
 is the Warthe, into which flows the Netze. Other branches are the Oppa, the 
 Silesian, and the Lusatian Neisse, the Ohlau, Katzbach, Bober, Olsa, Klod- 
 nitz, Malapane, and Stober. 
 
 In Sweden are to be noted : the Clara river which has its sources in the 
 Dovrefjeld, flows through the Wener Lake after which it is called the Gotha 
 river, and empties, below Gottenburg, into the Cattegat. Its whole length is 
 322 miles. 
 
 The Dal river, which rises in the province of Dalarne, and empties into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
U EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 In Norway are to be noted : the G lommen, which rises in Dovrefjeld, and 
 empties into the Cattegat 
 
 The Louven : sources in Dovrefjeld, and mouth in the Skager Rack. 
 
 Denmark has no remarkable river, besides the Guden, in Jutland, where it 
 empties into the Cattegat 
 
 The Eider, which has ever formed the boundary between Denmark and 
 Germany since the days of Charlemagne, has its source in Holstein, and 
 empties into the North Sea. 
 
 In Great Britain and Ireland are to be noted : the Thames and Humber 
 (formed by the united rivers Ouse and Trent), emptying into the North Sea, 
 and the Severn, which flows into the Bristol Channel, — in England. 
 
 The Tay and the Forth, emptying into the North Sea, and the Clyde, 
 which flows into the North Channel, — in Scotland. 
 
 The Shannon and Barrow, in Ireland, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 In Spain are to be noted : the Ebro, which has its sources in the Canta- 
 brian Mountains, forming then the boundary between Old Castile and the Bas- 
 cyan provinces and Navarre, and crossing Aragon and Catalonia, empties into 
 the Mediterranean Sea. Its length is 405 miles, and its chief branches are 
 the Aragon, Gallego, and Segro. 
 
 The Guadalaviar, which rises in the province of Arragon, and crossing the 
 province of Valencia, empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Likewise, into 
 the latter flow the Xucar and the Segura. 
 
 The Guadalquivir, which rises on the boundary of Jaen and Murcia, and 
 empties into the Atlantic Ocean, a few miles north of Cadiz. Its length is 
 800 miles. 
 
 Spain and Portugal are crossed by : the Tagus, which rises at the frontier 
 of Aragon and New Castile, crosses the latter province, Estremadura, and 
 Portugal, where it is called Tejo, and empties, below Lisbon, into the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Its length is 552 miles. 
 
 The Duero (in Portugal called Douro) rises between Saragossa and Bur- 
 gos, crosses Old Castile, Leon, and Portugal, and empties into the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Its length is 478 miles. 
 
 The Minho, winch has its sources in the Spanish province of Galicia, forms 
 the boundary between the latter and Portugal, and empties into the Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 The Guadiana, which has its sources in the southern part of New Castile, 
 forms the boundary between the Portuguese province of Algare and the Span- 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 15 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 ish province of Sevilla, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length ia 
 483 miles. 
 
 In Italy are to be noted : the Po, the chief river of Italy, has its sources 
 on the Cottic Alps, crosses Piedmont and Lombardy, has a length of 405 
 miles, and empties by several outlets into the Adriatic Sea. Its chief branches 
 are the Tanaro, Scrivia, Dora Riparia, Dora Baltea, Sesia, Ticino, Adda, 
 Oglio, and Mincio. 
 
 The Adige, having its sources in Tyrol, and a length of 221 miles, empties 
 into the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 The Tagliamento, Piave, and Brenta, in Lombardy, flow into the Adriatic 
 Sea also. 
 
 The Arno (in Tuscany), the Volturno (in Naples), and the Tiber and 
 Garigliano (rising in the States of the Church), flowing west, and emptying 
 into the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 In Turkey are : tbe Marissa, having its sources in the Balkan, a length of 
 243 miles, and its mouth in the Archipelago. The Karasu or Mcsto, the 
 Stromza or Struma (by the ancients called Strymon), and the Vardar (Axius 
 by the ancients), have their mouths in the Archipelago also ; while the Drin 
 and Narenta (partly crossing Dalmatia) empty into the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 In France are to be noted : The Seine, having its sources in Burgundy, 
 near Dijon, a length of 442 miles, and emptying into the English ChanneL 
 Its chief branches are the Marne, Oise, Aube, Yonne, and Eure. 
 
 The Loire, the largest river in France, rising in the Sevennes, crossing the 
 centre of the country, having a length of 607 miles, and emptying into the 
 Atlantic Ocean, below Nantes. Its chief branches are the A/lier, Cher, 
 Indre, Vienne, Sevre No,ntaise, Arroux, Nievre, and Mayenne. 
 
 The Garonne, rising in the Pyrenees, having a length of 416 miles, and 
 emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, below Bordeaux, where it receives the 
 name of Gironde. Its chief branches are the Dordogne, Tarn, Lot, and Gers. 
 
 The Rhone, having its sources at the foot of the St. Gotthard, in Switzer- 
 land, flowing through the Lake of Geneva, then crossing the southern prov- 
 inces of France, and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea, west of Marseilles. 
 Its outlets form a delta, called Camargue ; its length is 460 miles, and its 
 chief branches are the Saone, here, Drome, Durance, Ardeche, and Gard. 
 
 Other rivers are : the Var, Herault, and Aude, emptying into the Medi- 
 terranean Sea ; the Somme, and Orne, emptying into the English Channel ; 
 
16 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 and the Vilaine, Sevre Niortaise (into which flows the Vendee), Charente, 
 and Adour, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Through France, Belgium, and Holland flows : the Meuse, which rises at 
 the frontier of Champagne and Franche-Comte, crosses Lorraine and Cham- 
 pagne, then the eastern part of Belgium, receives below Gorkum in Holland 
 the name of Merwe, but above Rotterdam is called Meuse again, and empties 
 into the North Sea. Its chief branches are the Sambre, Ourthe, and Boer, 
 
 Through Belgium and part of Holland flows : the Scheldt, which rises 
 near the frontier of France and Belgium, runs through the west of Belgium, 
 by Ghent and Antwerp, and dividing, forms a delta at its mouth. One outlet, 
 which runs northward into the North Sea, is called East Scheldt, and the 
 other, running southward, is called West Scheldt. The chief tributaries of the 
 Scheldt are the Scarpe, Lys, Bender, and Rupel. 
 
 From Switzerland, through Germany, into Holland, runs the Rhine, 
 which has its sources on the east side of Mount St. Gotthard, in the canton 
 of Grisons, forms the boundary between Switzerland and Tyrol, flows through 
 the Lake of Constance, divides France and Germany, is in the neighborhood 
 of Spire 3,000, and below Mentz 2,500 feet wide, and divides within the 
 boundary of Holland into several branches, called Waal, Yssel, Leek, and Old 
 Rhine. Its length is 874 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Mayne 
 (rising at the Fichtelgebirge ; see § 7, j.), and the Moselle (rising in the Vosges, 
 at the frontier of Lorraine and Alsace). Other branches of the Rhine are, 
 namely : the Neckar (having its sources in the Black Forest), the Nahe, Lahn, 
 Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe. 
 
 Through Germany, Hungary, and Turkey flows : the Danube, having its 
 sources at Donaueschingen, in Baden, crossing the middle parts of Bavaria, 
 the archduchy of Austria, Lower and Upper Hungary, dividing the Turkish 
 provinces of Bulgaria and Wallachia, and emptying into the Black Sea. Its 
 length is 1,868 miles, and its chief branches are : the Jller, Lech, Isar, Inn, 
 Altmuhl, Nab, and Regen (in Bavaria) ; the Traun, Ens, March, and Trasen 
 (in Austria) ; the Waag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, Raab, Brave, and Save 
 (in Hungary) ; the Morawa, Aluta, Sereth, and Pruth (in Turkey). 
 
 In Germany are to be noted : the Elbe, rising in the Giant Mountains, 
 crossing Bohemia, Saxony, and Prussia, forming the boundary between Hano- 
 ver and Mecklenburg and Holstein, and emptying into the North Sea ; its 
 length being 713 miles. Its chief branches are: the Moldau and Eger (in 
 Bohemia) ; the Black Elster and Saale (in Prussia) ; the Mulde (in Anhalt. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 17 
 
 Natural Productions. 
 
 Dessau); the Havel (in Prussia); the lhnenau, Lulie, and Schwinge (in Han- 
 over) ; the Alster (in Hamburg) ; and the Stoer (in Holstein). 
 
 The Weser, formed by the junction of the Werra and Fulda, near Munden 
 (in Hanover), divides Oldenburg and Hanover, and enters the North Sea near 
 the Elbe. Its length is 253 miles; and its chief branches arc the Aller 
 (whose principal branch is the Leine), the Wumme or Lesum, Geeste, and 
 Hunte. 
 
 The Ems, rising in the Teutoburger Wald (see § 7, j.), and emptying into 
 the Dollart (see § 8). Its chief branch is the Haaxe. 
 
 The Trave, rising in Holstein, and entering the Baltic Sea below Lubec 
 Its chief branch is the Steckenitz. 
 
 The Warnow, in Mecklenburg, entering the Baltic Sea below Rostock. Its 
 only branch is the Nebel. 
 
 11. Europe abounds in a variety of useful natural productions. 
 As for minerals, no other division of the world has so many iron, 
 lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, salt, and coal mines ; whereas, pre- 
 cious metals are more abundant in America, Asia, and Africa. 
 The Russian gold and silver mines, are situated in Asia. Hun- 
 gary and Transylvania have the richest gold mines in Europe. 
 Silver is chiefly found in the Carpathic, Ore, Hartz, and Scandi- 
 navian Mountains ; copper, in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Hungary, 
 and England ; iron, in Sweden, Russia, Austria, France, Prussia, 
 England, and Belgium ; tin, in England. Lead is very generally 
 diffused in Europe ; but quicksilver is obtained exclusively from 
 the mines of Almaden, in Spain ; of Idria, in Austria ; and of 
 Wolfstein, in the Palatinate of Bavaria. The most noted coal 
 mines are near Newcastle, in England ; yet this mineral is also 
 found, in almost inexhaustible quantities, in France, Belgium, and 
 Germany. Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania, abound in rock 
 salt ; and the salt mines of Wieliczka, in Galicia. are the most 
 noted in the world. Nowhere are found so many mineral springs 
 as in Europe. The staple agricultural products of Europe, are 
 wh-eat, rye, barley, and oats. Maize is cultivated in the south of 
 
18 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Natural Productions— Animals— Races of Men. 
 
 Europe, and rice only in Loinbardy, and Turkey. The potato is 
 very commou in Europe ; and the highest degree of latitude, 
 where it thrives, is the 60th. In the cultivation of the vine 
 (from 43° aud 49° of latitude down to the southern extremity of 
 Europe), olice (chiefly in Frauce and Italy), and chestnut, Europe 
 excels ; and this division of the world is, at the same time, the 
 ouly one where the forests are regularly manage J. With regard 
 to animals, horses (the finest breed in England and Germany), 
 cattle (the finest in Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, and 
 Holland) sheep (of various breeds, but the finest in Germany, 
 Spain, and England), hogs, and other valuable domestic animals 
 are found in great perfection throughout Europe, nearly to the 
 parallel of 60°. Mules are reared in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and 
 in ihe south of France. The ferocious and other wild animals of 
 Europe, are generallly less in number than those of some of the 
 other quarters of the earth. The wolf and bear are still found 
 in Russia, Sweden, and in the mountainous regions of France ; 
 elks, in some parts of Sweden, Russia, and East Prussia ; the 
 wild ox (in ancient times, very common in Germany.) is still pre- 
 served in the forest of Bialowicza. in Lithuania The largest 
 bird of Europe, is the great bustard (otis tarda.) Silkworms are 
 most abundant in Italy. 
 
 12. Nearly all the Europeans belong to the Caucasian race. 
 Only a few tribes in Russia are Mongolians. With respect to their 
 origin, the Europeans form three great divisions : the Grermanes, 
 Slavonians, and Romanians, (a.) The Germanes are to be con- 
 sidered as descendants of Gomer (Gen. x. 2), or of the Kimres, 
 who at first lived in the countries near the mouths of the Dnieper 
 and Dniester, whence they afterwards moved to the north and 
 north-west, and peopled the Scandinavian peninsula, the present 
 kingdom of Denmark, Germany, etc. The old Goths were like- 
 wise Germanes. Thus, to the great family or tribe of the Ger- 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 Races of Men— Religion. 
 
 manes belong the Germans proper, most of the Swiss, and part 
 of the English, the Dutch, the Flemings (in Belgium), the Danes, 
 Icelanders, Norwegians, and Swedes. (b.) The Slavonians (or 
 rather Slaves, but in another sense than those who are m bondage), 
 in ancient times called Sarmates, are probably descendants of 
 Magog and Madai, (Gen. x. 2), or of the Scythians and Medes. 
 In the beginning they lived in the country between the Don, 
 Volga, and the Caucasus Mountains, and in the course of time 
 spread over the present Russia and Poland, and westward to the 
 Elbe River. To the great family or tribe of the Slavonians, 
 belong the Russians, Poles, Servians, Bosniacs, Bulgarians, Croats, 
 Slavonians proper, Bohemians, etc. (c.) The Romanians are de- 
 scendants, paitly of the ancient Iberians, Gauls, etc.. partly of the 
 ancient Romaus and Greeks, and partly of the Germanes ; and the 
 Italians, French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and part of the Swiss, 
 belong to this great family, or tribe. Besides these three great 
 divisions, there are still found descendants of the ancient Cells, 
 or Gaels, in Ireland and Wales, and the highlands of Scotland ; 
 and Basques, or descendants of the Iberians, in Biscay, and the 
 neighborhood of Bayonne, in France. The Turks belong to the 
 Tartar tribe ; the Magyars, in Hungary, are probably descend- 
 ants of the ancient Scythians, and lived, until the close of the 
 ninth century of the Christian era ; in the vicinity of the Ural 
 River ; and the Greeks are descendants partly of the ancient 
 Greeks, but chiefly of Slavonian tribes. The descent of the Jews 
 is universally known. 
 
 13. With the exception of about 7,000,000 Mohammedans, 
 3,000,000 Jews, and a few Pagans among the Samojedes and 
 Kalmucs, all the Europeans are Christians. Of these, nearly 
 133,000.000 are Roman Catholics (occupying the Pyrenean pe- 
 ninsula and Italy, and prevailing in France, Ireland, Belgium, 
 Poland, Austria and Bavaria), more than 59,000.000 are attached 
 
20 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Civilization— Science and Arts. 
 
 to the Greek Church (chiefly in Russia, and moreover prevailing 
 in Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands), and about 53,000,000 
 are Protestants (almost exclusively occupying the Scandinavian 
 peninsula and Denmark, and prevailing in Great Britain, Prussia, 
 Holland, Finland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, and in most 
 of the German states). 
 
 14. All Europeans are civilized, except the Laplanders, Samo 
 jedes. some Kalmuc tribes, and the Gipsies (the latter chiefly in 
 Hungary, Russia, Spain, and England), who are to be regarded 
 as half-civilized ; and as civilization has prevailed among them for 
 many hundred years, Europe is not only the most enlightened, but 
 also the best cultivated grand division of the earth. By its emi- 
 grants, America, and civilized countries of other parts of the 
 world, have been peopled. Husbandry is at the highest pitch of 
 improvement in England, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzer- 
 land, and Lonibardy. In manufactures and commerce, Great 
 Britain excels all other empires ; but in the former, or at least 
 in many branches of manufactures, France, Belgium, and Ger- 
 many rival it. The states of Europe, next after Great Britain in 
 commercial importance, are : France, Russia, Germany, Austria, 
 Holland, etc. The improvement of all the sciences, and the 
 finest productions of genius, belong exclusively to the Europeans. 
 In almost all European countries, numerous universities, colleges, 
 and other schools, provide for every branch of learning ; and. on 
 the other hand, the fine arts have their chief seat in Europe. All 
 the great painters, sculptors, artists in music, architects, and 
 poets of ancient and modern times, were Europeans* There are 
 to be found, it is true, huge monuments of ancient architecture 
 in Africa, Asia, and America, but compared with the sublime 
 
 * These remarks are intended to include the descendants of Europeans in 
 the United States and elsewhere. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 Independent Status. 
 
 works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, with the Gothic build- 
 ings of the middle ages, and even with the performances of mod- 
 em architects in Europe, they must yield the palm to them. 
 Most of the European countries are noted for their excellent 
 roads (above all England), and only Turkey and Hungary are 
 without them. Canals are most numerous in England, and, as 
 for the European continent, in Russia, Holland, Belgium, France, 
 and Sweden. Besides this, England is crossed in almost every 
 direction by rail-roads, which are now also to be found in every 
 country of the continent. 
 
 15. Europe comprises 55 independent states, of which 33 belong 
 to Germany, (exclusive of Prussia and Austria, the grand-duchy 
 of Luxemburg, and the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg), 7 
 to Italy, and 2 to the Netherlands (Belgium and Holland being 
 called thus in a general signification). If we mark Germany, 
 Italy, and the Netherlands with the name of countries, we may 
 say that Europe comprises 16 countries, of which 14 are at the 
 same time states, or political bodies. 
 
 These 16 European countries are the following: — 1, Russia; 
 2, Sweden and Norway ; 3, Denmark ; 4, Great Britain and Ire- 
 land ; 5, Portugal ; 6, Spain ; 7, France ; 8, the Netherlands ; 
 9, Germany; 10, the kingdom of Prussia; 11, the Austrian em- 
 pire; 12, Switzerland ; 13, Italy; 14, the Ionian Islands; 15, 
 Turkey; and 16, Greece. 
 
 Of those 55 states, 8 have a republican, and the remaining 47 
 a monarchic form of government. 
 
 The 7 republics are : France, San Marino, the Helvetic and 
 the Ionian Republics, and the free German cities, Hamburg, Bre- 
 men, Lubec. and Frankfort. 
 
 Among the 47 monarchic states are — 
 
 3 Empires : Austria, Russia, and Turkey (for the Grand Sig- 
 nior is in some respect considered as successor of the ancient 
 
22 EUKOPE, PAST AND PRESEYi . 
 
 independent States. 
 
 Greek emperors and, partly for this reason, entitled emperor by 
 the Europeans). 
 
 15 Kingdoms: Prussia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Great 
 Britain and Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Two Sicilies. Sar- 
 dinia, Holland, Belgium, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, aud Wur- 
 temberg. 
 
 7 Grand Duchies: Tuscany, Saxe Weimar, Mecklenburg — 
 Schwerin, Mecklenburg — Strelitz, Oldenburg, Hesse — Darm- 
 stadt; and Baden. 
 
 9 Duckies : 3 Saxon, 2 Anhaltian, Brunswick, Nassau, Modena, 
 and Parma. 
 
 1 Principalities : 2 Reussian, 2 Lippian, Hohenzollern — Hech- 
 ingen, Hohenzollern — Sigmaringen, Schwartzburg — Rudolstadt, 
 Schwartzburg — Sondershausen, Waldeck, and Liechtenstein : (the 
 other principalities in Europe are not independent). 
 
 1 Electorate : Hesse — Cassel. 
 
 1 Landgr aviate : Hesse — Homburg. 
 
 1 Ecclesiastical State : the States of the Church. 
 
 The oldest republic in Europe is San Marino, (from 469 
 A. D.) ; the oldest empire is the Turkish (from 1453; the 
 Russian dates from 1721, and the Austrian from 1804); the 
 oldest kingdoms are Spain, Denmark, and England ; the oldest 
 grand duchy is Tuscany, and the oldest duchy is Brunswick. 
 
 Russia comprises the most extensive territory, the principality 
 of Liechtenstein is the smallest state in population, and San Ma- 
 rino the smallest in extent among the European states. 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 
 
 The history of Europe can, as a general historical sketch 
 of all the European states, of course, not go farther back than 
 to the time of the migration of nations, or to that of the dissolu- 
 tion of the western Roman empire ; because until that time most 
 of the European countries were constituent parts of the Roman 
 empire, while the rest were then still in a too barbarous stage of 
 society to form a proper subject of political history. We will 
 only add, that at the time of the Christian era, the Roman em- 
 pire comprised the whole south of Europe, all France, England, 
 the greatest part of the Netherlands. Switzerland and the south 
 of Germany, Hungary, Turkey, and Greece, beside many other 
 nations and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. 
 
 1. In the fourth century after Christ, the Goths (see In trod. 
 § 12) occupied the north-east of Europe, the Visigoths were 
 settled in Dacia (Moldavia and Wallachia) and west of the 
 Dnieper : and the Ostrogoths east of the Dnieper river. The 
 Goths were the first among all the Germanic tribes, who adopted 
 Christianity. Between the Volga and Don rivers lived the 
 Alans. 
 
 2. Meanwhile the Huns, whose primitive seat was near the 
 northern boundary of China, had moved onward to the west ; in 
 375, they attacked and pressed forward the Alans, and then both 
 nations pressed on the Goths. In this way commenced the grent 
 
24 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Alans — Vandals — Burgundians— Saxons. 
 
 migration of nations into the several parts of the Roman empire. 
 In 378 the Visigoths, conjointly with the Huns and Alans, in- 
 vaded Thracia, and defeated the Roman emperor Valens at 
 Adrianople. Afterwards Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was in- 
 vested with the government of Illyrieum (Dalmatia and the 
 southern provinces of Turkey), and in 403 he invaded Italy, 
 threatened Rome twice with destruction, and in the year 410 he 
 took the city and gave it up to plunder. He shortly after died, 
 and his successor, Athaulf, making peace with emperor Hono- 
 rius, conducted his Visigoths to Gaul or France (in the year 412), 
 and in 414 to Spain, where the Visigoths soon became the ruling 
 nation, and founded an empire which comprised Aquitania (Guy- 
 enne, Gascogne, and Languedoc, in France) also, and whose capi- 
 tal was Toulouse. 
 
 3. About the same time, other Germanic tribes, the Alans, 
 Vandals, Burgundians, and Sueves (ancestors of the Suabians in 
 Wurtemberg), had moved on in the same direction, and, crossing 
 the Rhine (in 406), settled themselves permanently in various 
 parts of the Roman empire. The Vandals had their primitive 
 seat in the north of Germany, between the Elbe and Vistula 
 rivers, and in the first half of the 4th century transferred it to 
 Pannonia (Bosnia and parts of Hungary). The Burgundians, 
 at first residing in the vicinity of the Vandals, were compelled 
 by the Gepides (a Gothic tribe) to move from the mouth of 
 the Vistula into Germany, and afterwards into Switzerland 
 and the south-eastern provinces of the present France. The 
 Sueves had their primitive seat near the Elbe and in the middle 
 parts of Germany, and many of them joined afterwards the 
 Alans and Vandals on their march to the south-west of Europe. 
 
 4. In 426, the last Roman troops withdrew from Britannia, 
 or England, which since was invaded and ravaged by the ancient 
 Scots. The Britons, therefore, asked the assistance of two tribes 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. '25 
 
 Tlie [Jeruli— (Odoacer) — Ostrogoths— (Theodoric) — Franks. 
 
 of people from Germany, called Saxons (occupying the present 
 kingdom of Hanover and the duchy of Holstein) and Anglk> 
 (in the present duchy of Sleswick). These people readily com 
 plied with the request, and in 449 went over to Britain : they 
 drove back the Scots, but instead of then returning to Germany, 
 they took possession of the country. Britain was afterwards 
 divided by them into seven small kingdoms, called the Saxon 
 Heptarchy. The Britons partly retired into Wales, partly emi- 
 grated to Armorica (in France), which since received the name 
 of Bretagne, or Brittany. 
 
 5. At the same time the Huns, now ruled by an enterprising 
 king, Attila, re-appeared on the European theatre of war. At 
 the head of 700,000 men, Attila marched from Hungary into 
 Germany, ravaging and plundering everywhere, and then invaded 
 Gaul, or France, which he was about to conquer likewise. But 
 in a bloody battle at Chalons on the Marne, in 451. he was de- 
 feated, whereupon he invaded Italy, and died (in 452). After 
 his death the ties of his empire loosened, and the Huns them- 
 selves dispersed by degrees among other nations. 
 
 6. In the year 476, almost the last independent part of the 
 Western empire, or Italy, with Rome itself, was entirely subju- 
 gated by Odoacer, the leader of another northern tribe, called 
 the Heruli; and it remained under this dominion for 14 years. 
 
 7. Meanwhile the Ostrogoths (see § 1 of the History) had 
 transferred their seat into Pannonia (Bosnia) and Thracia, and 
 were on good terms with the rulers of the Eastern empire at 
 Constantinople. Theoioric, king of the Ostrogoths, now made 
 to emperor Zeno the offer of conquering Italy for him. His 
 proposal being agreed to, Theodoric emigrated with all the Os- 
 trogoths to Italy, defeated in 490 Odoacer in three battles, made 
 himself master of the whole country, and was by emperor Auas- 
 tasius, successor of Zeno, acknowledged as king of Italy. But 
 
 2 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Merovingian Dynasty, founded by Clovis in Gaul. 
 
 after his death, which occurred in 52G, emperor Justinian (who 
 reigned from 527 to 565), anxious to realize his claims on Italy, 
 sent thither two eminent commanders, Belisarius and Narscs, 
 who, after a struggle of eighteen years, succeeded in their task, 
 and made of Italy a province of the Eastern empire. The 
 Eastern and Western empires were thus reunited, but only for 
 a short period, as we soon shall see. 
 
 8. It is now time to cast a look at Gaul, or France. This 
 latter name the country derived from the Franks, a German 
 tribe, who, between the third and fourth centuries, or in the 
 period from 237 to 375, got possession of the northern part of 
 Gaul. It is said, their first king here was Pharamond, who died 
 in 428. His grandson Meroveus, who died in 458, was the 
 founder of the dynasty of the Merovingians, reigning in France 
 for about three lyindred years. But the most eminent of the 
 Merovingians was Clovis, who drove the Romans out of France 
 (in 486), subdued the Ajinoricans in Bretagne, subjected the 
 Burgundians (see § 3) to tnbute, wrested considerable tracts of 
 land from the Visigoths in the south of France (see § 2), and 
 extended his conquests northward to the Rhine. Clovis, having 
 married a Christian princess, and attributing his success to the 
 God whom she worshipped, determined to become a Christian 
 himself, and in 496, he, with three thousand of his subjects, was 
 baptized and anointed as king of the Franks, at Rheims, by the 
 bishop Remigius. After his death (which occurred in 511), 
 France was divided among his four sons. This impolitic proceed- 
 ing proved fatal to the common interest ; the more so, as it was 
 followed by subsequent divisions. At last, after the death of 
 king Charibert, of Paris, or since the year 559, France, or rather 
 the Frankish empire, was divided into three distinct states, viz. : 
 Austrasia, or the eastern empire (comprising the north-east of 
 Gaul and the southern half of Germany, between Tyrol and the 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Majores-domus in France. — Carlovinarian Dynasty. 
 
 forest of Thuringia, and between the Rhine and the Inn rivers); 
 Neustria, or the western empire (comprising the north-west of 
 Gaul, between the Waal and Loire rivers) ; and Burgundy, or the 
 southern empire (comprising Provence, parts of Aquitania, parts 
 of Switzerland and Alsace). The capital of Austrasia was 
 Metz, that of Neustria Soissons, and that of Burgundy Orleans. 
 In the beginning of the 7th century, the Frankish king used to 
 invest eminent men with the superintendence of the domains and 
 fiefs of the crown, and with the command of the royal military 
 forces. These men, endowed with great power, were called 
 Majores-domus ; one of them had the superintendence in Aus- 
 trasia, another in Neustria, and a third in Burgundy. The last 
 kings of the Merovingian dynasty being weaklings, and not much 
 better than mock-kings, the Majores-domus came soon to be con- 
 sidered as the actual rulers. In 687, Pepin of Her stall (the latter 
 name was derived from his estate near Liege), Major-domus of 
 Austrasia, was invested with the superintendence in the other 
 Frankish kingdoms too, and from that time assumed the title of 
 " duke and prince of the Franks." He was succeeded in his dig- 
 nity by his son Charles Martell, renowned for his brilliant and 
 decisive victory over the Moors or Arabs, between Tours and 
 Poitiers, in 732. The son and successor of Charles Martell was 
 Pepin the Little, who was indeed but a very small man, but had a 
 mighty spirit in his little body, and moreover an enormous deal 
 of strength. The weakness and inaptitude of the Merovingian 
 kings having become now too obvious, the last of them, Childeric 
 III , was, in 752, by an assembly of the states of the empire 
 held at Soissons, declared to have forfeited his throne, and was 
 exiled to a monastery ; while Pepin the Little was elected king 
 of the Franks, and anointed by the bishop Bonifacius. With 
 him began the sway of the dynasty of the Carlovingians (which 
 
28 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Lombards -Visigoth? — Moors. 
 
 name was derived from Pepin's son, Charles the Great, or Charle- 
 magne). 
 
 9. The Greek emperors exercised their sway in Italy only for 
 fourteen years. The Lombards (a Suevian or German tribe, at 
 first having their seat near the middle course of the Elbe;, who 
 had once already been called on for assistance by the imperial 
 governor Narses, returned to Italy in 568, headed by their val- 
 iant king Alboin, wrested the northern part, since called Lom- 
 bardy, from the Greeks, and got possession of most of the other 
 parts of the Italian peninsula. They even threatened Rome, but 
 pope Stephen III., calling on the Frankish king, Pepin the Little, 
 for help, the latter defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to 
 cede to the holy seat the maritime country on the Adriatic Sea, 
 which they lately had conquered. In this way the pope's temporal 
 powerYT&s established, and the foundation laid of what is now called 
 the States of the Church. This occurred in 755. In 774 new 
 differences between the pope and the Lombards brought on tho 
 intervention of Charlemagne, who vanquished the Lombards 
 completely and embodied their kingdom with that of the Franks. 
 Lower Italy (comprising the continental part of the present 
 kingdom of Naples) and the Island of Sicily remained under the 
 sway of the Greek emperors until 842, when this island and 
 Calabria came into the possession of the Arabs. 
 
 10. The Visigoths had since their inroad in Spain (see § 2) 
 established their power there permanently, and extended it in 
 the course of time over all parts of the peninsula. Their capital 
 and royal residence was Toledo since 531. But as soon as the 
 wars with other tribes and nations had ceased, there arose civil wars 
 and other intestine commotions, which caused one party to call 
 on the Moors or Arabs (who then had conquered the whole north- 
 ern coast of Africa) for assistance. The latter acted the same 
 part as the Saxons and Angles had done in Britain. Scarcely 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 29 
 
 Slaves— Creates— Servians, etc. 
 
 had they set their foot on the Spanish ground, in 711, when they 
 attacked the Visigoths and defeated them completely in a battle 
 at Xeres de la Frontera, which lasted nine days. The fate of Rod- 
 eric, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was never known ; 
 his horse and weapons were found near the field of battle, but his 
 body was nowhere to be seen. Pelagio, a prince of the blood- 
 royal, took command of the Goths who had not been slain by the 
 Moors, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and 
 founded there-a little kingdom, the boundaries of which his suc- 
 cessors enlarged in the course of time. But for the present, and 
 for the next centuries, the Moors possessed the greatest part of 
 the Pyrenean peninsula. 
 
 11. During the migration of nations, many countries in the 
 east of Europe were depopulated, and this circumstance gave oc- 
 casion to the Slaves (see Introduction, § 12,6), to move farther 
 to the west, and occupy the abandoned seats. The main body 
 of the Slaves remained in Russia and Poland, but some tribes 
 peopled Bohemia, others settled themselves in the German coun- 
 tries bordering on the Baltic Sea ; while lower" Hungary and 
 Austria were occupied by the Avares (who had their primitive 
 seat between the Black and Caspian Seas), Dalmatia, and other 
 countries in the vicinity, by the Cruates and Servians, and Bul- 
 garia by the Bulgarians (a Tartar tribe, who in the 5th century 
 had emigrated from their primitive seat between the Volga and 
 Ural rivers). About the Magyars, see Introduction, § 12. 
 
 12. The European territory of the Eastern empire, or of the 
 Roman emperors residing at Constantinople, had, by all these 
 circumstances, been greatly reduced ; nevertheless, it yet ranked 
 highest among the Christian kingdoms by its civilization, wealth, 
 and flourishing commerce. Constantinople was then the largest 
 and handsomest city in Europe, and the imperial court displayed 
 much splendor and luxury, though the history of this court pre- 
 
30 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Scandinavians— Normans— Charlemagne. 
 
 sents a series of cruelties and infamous actions, seldom or never 
 heard of in other countries. 
 
 13. The Scandinavian cm?iiries, or Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
 mark, were, if not first, yet chiefly peopled by the German tribe 
 of Goths, who immigrated there about the Christian era. In 
 the course of time those countries became, in a certain degree, 
 overpopulated, which gave rise to the famous naval expeditions 
 of the Normans, who after the 9th century invaded the shores 
 of England, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France, every- 
 where plundering and ravaging. They proved themselves to be 
 as daring freebooters, as they were gallant warriors, and acted 
 an important part in the political affairs of several European 
 countries in the west and south. 
 
 14. Charlemagne (see § 8), who was born in 742, reigned 
 from the year 768 to 814, and in this whole period he was almost 
 continually at war. In 774 he wrested the kingdom of Italy 
 from the Lombards (see § 9), and added its crown to that which 
 he wore already as king of the Franks. Meanwhile the long- 
 nourished hostile sentiments between the Franks and their next 
 neighbors in the north, the Saxons, had finally led to an erup- 
 tion, which was followed by a war of more than thirty years. 
 Charlemagne was indeed in this war the aggressor ; but beside 
 his anxious desire to introduce Christianity among the pagan 
 Saxons, he had well-founded political reasons to act as he did. 
 For the Saxons had made frequent inroads into his empire, and 
 moreover being a very valiant and enterprising people, it was 
 to be feared they would sooner or later try to conquer it, or 
 at least wrest some provinces from it. Thus the war commenced 
 against them in 772, and lasted, though with some intervals, 
 until 804, when a final treaty of peace was concluded, according 
 to which the Saxons acknowledged the sovereignty of Charle- 
 magne, and adopted the Christian faith. In one of those inter- 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. *1 
 
 Diviaion of Ihe Empire of Charlemagne — Germany. 
 
 vals, in 778, the Moorish governor of Saragossa requested Charle- 
 magne to lend him his assistance against the Emir Abderrahman. 
 Accordingly, a Frankish army was* sent to Spain, and this cam- 
 paign terminated in the annexation of all the country north of 
 the Ebro to the Frankish empire. This new acquisition was 
 called the Spanish mark (margraviate). A war against the 
 Danes was in 810 terminated by a treaty of peace, which stipu- 
 lated that the Eider river was to be considered as the boundary 
 between the Danes and Franks ; and indeed this river has since 
 continually been the boundary between Denmark and Germany. 
 To secure the boundaries in the east and south-east, Charlemagne 
 founded there several maigraviates, for instance ; the Avarian 
 mark (comprising what is now called the arch-duchy of Austria) 
 against the Avares (see §11); Friaul, etc. In the year 800 
 when Charlemagne happened to be at Rome, the pope (who for 
 many substantial services, was highly indebted to him) placed 
 the imperial crown upon his head, and thus, as it were, revived the 
 Western Roman Empire. Charles the Great died in the year 
 814 at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was succeeded by his son Louis, sur- 
 named the Pious, who was in point of mental power almost the 
 reverse of his father. Louis the Pious died in 840, and left his 
 dominions to his^ three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, who 
 divided them by a treaty, concluded at Verdun in 843, in the 
 following manner : 
 
 Louis (since suruamed the German) acquired Germany, which 
 since that time has ever been separated from France, and where 
 after the death of the last descendant of Louis (which occurred 
 in 911) an elective monarchy was established, and so it continued, 
 even so late as the year 1806. Louis the German had shortly 
 before his death inherited the rights to the imperial crown, as 
 well as to Italy, Burgundy, part of Switzerland, to Alsace, Lor- 
 raine, etc., and entailed these rights on his descendants and sue- 
 
32 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 France— Kingdom of Italy — England. 
 
 cessors to the German crown. They were realized for the first 
 time by his grandson Arnulph (reigning in the period from 887 
 to 899), who not only was crowned as Roman-German emperor, 
 but also brought the kingdom of Italy and Burgundy into a po- 
 litical connection with Germany. 
 
 Charles (surnamed the Bald) acquired France, which was 
 ruled by his descendants until the year 987, when the Capetiaus 
 supplanted the race of the Carlovingians. 
 
 LoChaire acquired the imperial crown and the kingdom of 
 Italy, and besides this a long tract of laud situated between 
 France and Germany, viz. Provence, Dauphiny, Bu,r gundy, Al- 
 sace, Lorraine and the Netherlands. But his race became extinct 
 even so early as the year 875 ; and thus the German kings, his 
 nearest relations, became the heirs of his rights. 
 
 15. As for England (see $ 4), all the seven kingdoms of the 
 Saxon Heptarchy were united into one, under the government 
 of Egbert, King of Wessex. This occurred in the year 827. 
 Egbert was therefore the first King of England — a name de- 
 rived from that of Anglia, the home of the Angles, and sub- 
 stituted for the former name of Britannia by Egbert. During 
 his reign, and for many years afterwards, the Normans (see § 13) 
 made frequent incursions into England, and sometimes overran 
 the whole country. King Alfred the Great (who reigned from 
 the year 871 to 901) opposed them with good success, but a hun- 
 dred years after his death the Normans again broke into Eng- 
 land, and were now completely victorious, so that in the period 
 from 1016 to 1042 three Danish kings governed the country in 
 succession (Swen, Canute, and Hardicanute). In the year 1042, 
 the Normans or Danes were driven out of England, and another 
 Saxon King, Edward II, surnamed the Confessor, was placed 
 upon the throne. Meanwhile the Normans had settled in France, 
 and acquired there (at the end of the 9th century) a large tract 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 
 
 Norman Conquest of England— Moore in Spain. 
 
 of land, siuce called Normandy. William duke of Normandy, 
 who was related to King Edward, made claim to the English 
 throne, and after Edward's death, which occurred in 1066, he in- 
 vaded England, at the head of sixty thousand men, defeated his 
 rival Harold (son of the mighty Count Godwin ; for Edward had 
 left no children) in the battle of Hastings (on the 14th of Oct. 
 1066), and became King of England. He was now called Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, and is the ancestor of the still reigning royal 
 family of Great Britain. 
 
 16. The Moors in Spain (see § 10) were in the beginning ruled 
 by governors of the Caliphs then reigning at Damascus (the seat 
 of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until the year 754) ; 
 but in 756 the Arabian prince Abderrahman founded an inde- 
 pendent empire in Spain, and took his seat in Cordova (north-east, 
 and 120 miles distant from Cadiz), which soon rose to be a splen- 
 did city, and at one time numbered 1,000,000 inhabitants. The 
 Moorish empire was at that time separated from that of the 
 Christians by the Duero. Concerning the Christian empire, the 
 little kingdom of Asturias, founded by Pelagio (see § 10), was 
 since its first enlargement called the Kingdom of Leon. The 
 Spanish mark, conquered by Charlemagne (see § 14), having 
 meanwhile been divided into two counties, Barcelona and 
 Navarre, and the count of Navarre having since assumed the 
 royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain ; 
 which, in the course of time, brought into existence the kingdoms 
 of Aragon, Castile, Galicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. 
 Portugal, being first a province of the united kingdoms of Cas- 
 tile and Leon, became in 1139 an independent kingdom. The 
 power of the Moors in Spain was more and more restricted by 
 the conquests of the Christian kings, till in 1492 Granada, the 
 last Moorish possession on the Pyrenean peninsula, was conquer- 
 ed by the Queen Isabella of Castile, and King Ferdinand, of 
 
 2* 
 
34 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Ferdiuand and Isabella— Society in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised not 
 only Aragon, but the whole north-east part of Spain, while the 
 kingdom of Castile comprised all other parts ; and as Ferdinand 
 and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain came after their 
 death under the sway, first of their daughter Johanna (or rather 
 their son-in-law Philip), then of their grandson, the celebrated 
 King Charles I. (or Charles V. as emperor of Germany), who 
 entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. 
 
 17. This sketch of the political history of Europe will suffice for 
 the present ; and deferring the further particulars of it to the his- 
 torical introduction of each separate state, we shall now give a 
 condensed description of the state of European culture in tlie mid- 
 dle ages. 
 
 Had the time of blooming and vigor of the Roman empire last- 
 ed forever, there is no doubt but Roman culture would at last 
 have prevailed throughout Europe. But the migration of nations 
 (see § 2), and with it perpetual wars, interfered and destroyed 
 almost the last remains of it. Thus a commencement was to be 
 made anew. But a quiet and peaceful development being impos- 
 sible at that time, matters went on in the following succession : 
 
 1. Improvement of warlike or military conditions. 
 
 2. Agriculture. 
 
 3. Foundation of new towns and cities. 
 
 4. Commercial intercourse and rudiments of industry. 
 
 5. A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity, 
 and subsequently the extension of the clerical power. 
 
 6. The foundation of universities and the generalization of 
 other schools. 
 
 7. The gradual improvement of sciences and fine arts. 
 
 8. Fresh life and activity in commercial and industrious enter- 
 prises, generated by the Crusades. 
 
 9. Origination of free citizens and corporations. 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 35 
 
 Social Progress in the Middle Ages. 
 
 10. New progress of sciences and fine arts. 
 
 11. The invention of gunpowder and of the art of printing ; the 
 Reformation and the discovery of America, and of the passage by 
 sea to India ; and the immense social and intellectual revolu- 
 tions brought on by these events, whose consequences are still 
 apparent. 
 
 In the period from the latter time of the migration of nations 
 until the crusades, Italy (as the former millennial seat of the 
 Roman empire), Spain (as the seat of the industrious and intel- 
 ligent Moors since the 8th century), and the Eastern empire (as 
 retaining the remains of Roman culture) were to be considered 
 as illuminated directly, and the other European countries as il- 
 luminated indirectly, by the beams of the sun of culture. Mean- 
 while the progress of culture went on in the above indicated man- 
 ner. Thus we shall begin with the 
 
 (a.) Improvement of warlike or military conditions ; — of course 
 only with reference to the Germanic tribes (see §§ 1, 2, 3, etc.), 
 as all other European nations (with the exception of the Romans) 
 lived at that time in a state of complete barbarity. Among the 
 Germanic tribes it was the custom and practice to wage war in 
 two different ways: viz., either to call to arms all freeborn war- 
 riors under the command of dukes elected by each tribe (this way 
 was less frequent, and chiefly used in defensive wars) ; or to 
 select warriors of profession out of those freeborn men, who were 
 upon terms of a particular political dependence with the com- 
 mander-in-chief. With this warfare the feudal system was 
 closely connected. As soon as a foreign country was conquered? 
 either the whole (as in the case of the Saxons in England, and of 
 the Lombards in Italy), or some part of it (sometimes one third, 
 but most frequently two thirds) was divided between the king (as 
 commander-in chief) and his military retinue : each member of 
 the latter receiving a lot, called Allodium, which as a patrimonial 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Feudal System— Agriculture— Bondage. 
 
 estate was at his free disposition. The king, receiving a far 
 greater lot than any member of his retinue, used to confer parts 
 of it, by the name of fees (in Latin feuda or benejicia), on single 
 members of this retinue in usufruct for lifetime. The feoffees, 
 called vassals, were bound to faith and homage towards the 
 feoffer, and to warfare in case of war. In this way all allodial 
 proprietors became gradually feudal tenants also. The feoffer 
 was under the obligation to protect his vassal, and for this reason 
 many allodial proprietors, being incompetent to their own pro- 
 tection, conferred their estate upon any powerful neighbor, and 
 received it back again from him as a fee. At first the fees were 
 not transmissible by inheritance, but in the course of time the 
 heritable quality was partly conceded, partly usurped ; and since 
 that time, only in case of felony the fee was allowed to be with- 
 drawn. Considering the peculiar condition of society in the 
 middle ages, it cannot tte denied that the feudal system was 
 quite adapted to it, and afforded many advantages. 
 
 (b.) Agriculture, formerly in a more or less flourishing state 
 throughout most of those European countries that were under 
 the Roman sway, but since the beginning of the migration of 
 nations almost totally neglected (except in the Eastern empire), 
 made but poor progress in the period from the year 476 till 752 
 (when the sway of the Carlovingians commenced), because the 
 freeborn men being for the most time engaged in warfare, gave 
 themselves seldom the trouble to cultivate the soil, which thus 
 was chiefly tilled by the bondsmen or serfs. Bondage or servitude 
 had from the earliest time been in practice not only among the 
 Germanes, but also among the Slavonians (see § 12 of the Intro- 
 duction), and has not, in most of the countries where it existed, 
 been abolished before the last and the present centuries. It may 
 indeed be called a kind of slavery, but in various respects it dif- 
 fers from proper slavery, which was in use among the ancient 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 37 
 
 Foundation of Towns and Cities. 
 
 Romans, Greeks, etc., and is still in use amongthe Mohammedans 
 and other peoples ! — In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries agriculture 
 was in the Christian countries of Europe promoted chiefly by the 
 endeavors of the monks ; and since the beginning of the crusades 
 (at the end of the 11th century), when many bondsmen entered 
 the armies of the cross, in order to partake of their privileges of 
 personal freedom, agriculture and other branches of husbandry 
 became more and more the occupation of free farmers, and at the 
 same time attained a higher degree of importance. In the East- 
 ern empire the culture of silk-worms was introduced during the 
 reign of Justinian I. (527-565). The Moors in Spain managed 
 the cultivation of the soil in an exemplary manner ; and even 
 steep and sandy hills were by their perseverance transformed 
 into fertile arable land. The meadows of Andalusia were never 
 parched by the scorching sun, as the Moors took care to keep 
 them humid by irrigating canals. Along the Guadalquivir river 
 were situated more than 12,000 flourishing villages, and the 
 township of Seville alone contained not less than 100,000 villages 
 and farms. 
 
 (c.) In speaking of the foundation of towns and cities since the 
 commencement of European culture in general, we of course have 
 only in view those countries which but then emerged from their 
 state of barbarity, and where hitherto the people had more or less 
 been accustomed to live in huts lying scattered about in the 
 woods or open field. This was the custom among the ancient 
 Germans (for the towns and cities on the left bank of the Rhine 
 had been founded by the Romans), among the Poles, Magyars, 
 Britons, and in general among all the northern nations of Eu- 
 rope. In the north and north-east of Europe, the foundation of 
 towns and cities, in the style of those in the southern countries, 
 did not take place before the middle of the 13th century, and the 
 few existing ones were not endowed with municipal laws before 
 
S8 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 lloeskilde— Moscow — London — Constantinople. 
 
 that time. In Sweden the city of Bjoerkoe, on an island of the 
 lake Maelar. (see § 9, of the Introduction), was indeed, even so 
 early as in the first half of the 9th century, distinguished by its 
 numerous population, its riches and power ; but the country in 
 general had but few towns of any importance. Rocskilde. the 
 capital of Denmark until the year 1443, was founded at a very 
 early period, and had since the 11th century a population of 
 100,000 inhabitants, and not less than 27 magnificent churches 
 and monasteries ; but this was rather an exception from the rule. 
 Moscow in Russia may have been founded in the 9th century, but 
 it is more probable that its foundation did not take place before 
 the middle of the 12th century. In 1367 the first palace of 
 stone was built here. The first foundation of London was laid 
 by the Romans even so early as the year 52 ; in the beginning 
 of the 7th century it was. says a contemporary, "a commercial 
 town frequented by many nations by sea and by land ;" and since 
 the 11th century, the commercial intercourse was still more ac- 
 tive here ; yet until towards the end of the 12th century most of 
 the houses here were built of wood and thatched, till in 1189 
 King Richard I. ordered all houses with more than two stories to 
 be built of stone, and roofed with tiles or slates. In Germany, 
 the lack of cities or fortified towns was first felt when the fierce 
 Magyars or Huns (as they commonly were called, and from which 
 name originated that of the Hungarians) made their plundering 
 incursions at the end of the 9th, and in the beginning of the 
 10th century; and not until now most of the principal towns in 
 the interior of Germany were founded. Constantinople was at 
 that time not only the emporium, but also in other respects the 
 most important city of Europe. Besides this capital, the Eastern 
 empire had many other fine cities ; while in Italy those which had 
 been founded by the ancient Romans, were multiplied by new 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 
 
 Commercial I nlercourse— Industry. 
 
 ones, for instance, by Venice. Likewise in Spain and in some 
 parts of France, there were many cities of early origin. 
 
 (d.) In the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th 
 century, the commercial intercourse as well as the industry, was 
 in general very insignificant, and almost entirely confined to Con- 
 stardinople, where industry was considerably promoted by the 
 luxury of the magnificent imperial court, and an important trade 
 was at that time carried on with several maritime countries on 
 the Mediterranean Sea. In the next period until the beginning 
 of the crusades or of the 12th century, the Moors in Spain ex- 
 celled all other nations of Europe in point of manufactures and 
 other branches of industry. Their woollen cloth, silk stuffs, em- 
 broideries in gold and silver, Morocco-leather, hardware, their ex- 
 cellent workmanship in arms, etc. found everywhere in Europe 
 as well as in Africa and Asia, a lucrative market. In the art of 
 dyeing, the Moors were eminently skilled. Likewise the work- 
 ing in the Spanish gold and silver mines was managed by them 
 with ability and circumspection, and added greatly to their 
 wealth. In other countries of Europe in the latter period, the 
 commercial preponderance of Constantinople gradually went over 
 to the Italian sea-towns of Venice, Pisa, Genoa and Amalfi (the 
 last-named town is situated in the vicinity of Naples). These 
 towns had risen to be independent commercial states, while in 
 other western countries of Europe (with the exception of the 
 Arabian part of Spain) the commercial intercourse was almost 
 confined to trade by barter, or provision only for the daily supply. 
 But now the circumstances there were more favorable. Indian 
 and Levantine goods were sent from Constantinople by way of 
 the Danube river up to Ratisbon (on the Danube), which was at 
 that time the most considerable and populous city of Germany, and 
 mediated the intercourse not only between the eastern and west- 
 ern countries, but also between the north-east part of Europe and 
 
40 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Chris. lanky — Monastic Life. 
 
 Italy. In France the southern cities, above all Marseilles, traded 
 with the Levant, while those of the north carried on commerce 
 chiefly with England. Even the Slavonian tribes in the vicinity 
 of the Elbe River and on the Baltic Sea, especially the citizens of 
 Julin (on an island at the mouth of the Oder River; it was de- 
 stroyed in 1170), kept up a commercial intercourse with neigh- 
 boring countries. The increasing number of towns and cities, 
 the establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver 
 mines in the Hartz (see § 7, k. Introd.) and in other parts of 
 Germany were promoting the industry in those quarters. 
 
 (e.) A more general efficiency and 'propagation of Christianity 
 was almost impossible during the troubles and disturbances in 
 the period of the migration of nations. Yet a roundabout ground 
 of it was laid by the transplantation of monastic life from the 
 dioceses of the oriental church to those of the occidental. This 
 was effected by St. Benedict of Nursia, who in 529 founded a mon- 
 astery on Mount Cassino, near Naples, that gave rise to the es- 
 tablishment of monasteries in other countries of Europe. These 
 institutions were not only the seminaries for nearly all those 
 heroes of the faith, who in the earlier time of the middle ages, as 
 missionaries, propagated Christianity among the pagan tribes of 
 Europe, frequently at the risk of their lives ; but may likewise 
 be considered as the only nurseries and preservers of classical 
 literature and of sciences in general in those dark ages. With- 
 out the monasteries, even genuine manuscripts of the Holy Bible 
 might be very rare. That monks deserved well for their cultiva- 
 tion of the soil, has already been mentioned ; and moreover they 
 were engaged in handiwork, in the instruction of youth, in writ- 
 ing chronicles, in copying classical manuscripts, etc. Before the 
 time of Charlemagne, the pope, as the visible head of the occiden- 
 tal church, had but little influence or authority in temporal mat- 
 ters ; but since he had placed the imperial crown upon the head 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 41 
 
 Papal Power— Instruction of the People. 
 
 of this king (see § 14), be assumed the privilege of crowning all 
 his successors, and subsequently (in the next period until the 1 1th 
 century) the supreme legislative power in ecclesiastical matters, 
 the supreme judicial power in the same matters and in all causes 
 concerning the clergy, and the right of pronouncing the interdict 
 (a papal prohibition to the clergy to celebrate the holy offices) 
 against whole districts and even countries, and the anathema 
 against persons, in cases of transgressions against the church. 
 But the preponderance of the papal authority dated from the 
 time of Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) and of the crusades 
 (from the end of the 11th to that of the 13th century). The 
 popes now went so far as to declare that God had given them all 
 the kingdoms of heaven and earth ; they actually dethroned kings, 
 treated them as their vassals, and continued for more than three 
 hundred years to exercise an almost undisputed sway over both 
 kings and peoples of the Christian world. It was about the pe- 
 riod of the reign of Innocentus III (1198-1216) t&at the. power 
 of the pope was at its highest pitch. But after' Boniface VIII. 
 (1294-1303) had been deeply humbled, and treated with con- 
 tempt by King Philip IV. of France, the papal power went rap- 
 idly to decay. 
 
 (f.) It cannot be denied that the Roman Catholic church has 
 done far more for promoting knowledge and instruction than the 
 oriental church, especially in the middle ages. Yet many kings 
 were not behind in their endeavors, among them Charlemagne, 
 who established a great number of .schools and interested himself 
 even personally in the progress of the pupils. In the preceding 
 period, the objects of instruction in the higher schools consisted 
 of the so-called seven liberal arts, viz. study of the classical liter- 
 ature, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and 
 music. The best schools of this kind were at that time those of 
 Cambridge, York and Canterbury in England, from whence sci- 
 
42 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Schools — Universities. 
 
 entific knowledge gradually spread over the European continent. 
 In the Eastern empire the Roman literature had lost its strength- 
 ening freshness by the prevalence of a depraved taste ; all attain- 
 ments in literature and science were nearly concentrated in Con- 
 stantinople ; yet until the reign of Justinian I. (527-565) there 
 was still a renowned academy at Athens. The Moors in Spain, 
 so distinguished in other branches of human exertions, excelled 
 also in the cultivation of sciences, especially in the period from 
 the 8th to the 12th century. Cordova was the seat of literary 
 institutions, academies and numerous common schools. The 
 academies were celebrated, and much resorted to from other 
 countries. Both Christians and Jews attended the instruction 
 in matters of philosophy, medicine, mathematical and physical 
 sciences. In the last-named period (752-1100) France. Ger- 
 many and Switzerland were possessed of excellent cloister, cathe- 
 dral and episcopal schools in Paris and Normandy, at Corvey, 
 Fulda, Paderborn and Hildesheim, and at St. Gall. About the 
 same time the first universities of Europe were founded. The 
 most celebrated among them were those of Salerno (in the vicin- 
 ity of Naples), of Bologna (in the States of the Church), and of 
 Paris. The object of instruction in the first was principally med- 
 icine, in the second jurisprudence, and in the third theology and 
 philosophy. At the medical faculty or seminary of Salerno, 
 founded in the beginning of the 1 2th century, and endowed with 
 the privileges of a university in 1150, it was chiefly Arabian pro- 
 fessors who directed the instruction. In 1119, or about that 
 time, the university of Bologna took its rise ; but its glory dates 
 from the professorship of the celebrated legist Irnerius (f 1140); 
 in 1158 it was endowed with the privileges of a university by 
 Emperor Frederick I. About the year 1200, when another re- 
 nowned professor, named Azzo, illustrated this university, it was 
 frequented by 10,000 students. It must be remarked here, that 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 43 
 
 Universities— Literary Productions. 
 
 many of the latter were indeed youth ; yet the greatest part of 
 those students consisted of men of rank, or who filled high offices. 
 For them was the knowledge of the Roman law (which was ex- 
 plained here, and which had become the common law in most of 
 the European countries) indispensable ; and as at that time the 
 art of printing was not yet invented, and thus the study of 
 books impossible, it was a matter of course, that they betook 
 themselves to universities. The title of Doctor came first in use 
 at the University of Bologna. Never did any university maintaiu 
 its renown so long, nor influence church and state to such a de- 
 gree as that of Paris. Though the opinion that its origin might 
 be dated from the days of Charlemagne, is untenable, yet it orig- 
 inated at a very early period, perhaps in the beginning of the 
 10th century. In the 12th century this university numbered 
 among its professors, several men distinguished for their attain- 
 ments in literature and science, of whom Peter Lombardus 
 (+H64), a disciple of Abelard, was the most celebrated. His 
 " libri sententiarum," comprise a theological system that for cen- 
 turies vindicated its authority among the theologians. The uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge are of so early origin too, that 
 the period of their foundation cannot be stated with certainty. 
 Before the end of the 13th century, there had been founded uni- 
 versities at Padua, Naples, Reggio, Rome and Treviso ; at Mont- 
 pelliei', Orleans and Toulouse ; and at Salamanca in Spain. 
 
 (g.) The literary productions in the western countries of Eu- 
 rope during the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th 
 century, consisted only of philosophical and church historical 
 works, and were entirely written in Latin. Beda Venerabilis, 
 author of a history of the Christian church in Eugland, intro- 
 duced first the Christian chronology into the western countries 
 of Europe. In this period too, the first essays in the art of 
 painting (wholly neglected since the first period of the Roman 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 I iterary Productions— Fine Arts— Architecture. 
 
 emperors) were made, and a transition from ancient to modern 
 architecture was effected by the Gothic style (invented by the 
 Ostrogoths, but in the course of time much improved and brought 
 to its high state of grandeur), and likewise by the tasteless Lom- 
 bardic style mingled with that of the Byzantines. In the 
 Eastern empire the Latin language prevailed until the latter 
 half of this period, when it began to be supplanted by a corrupt- 
 ed Greek dialect. Literary productions at that time were 
 rather insipid, and poetry was almost confined to the epigram. 
 The church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople during the 
 reign of Justinian I. (527-563), was considered as a pattern 
 of the early Christian architecture, the peculiar properties of 
 which were the form of a cross,vthe cupola and the semicircular 
 arch resting on cubical capitals.- It was not until the 9th century 
 that the arts of painting and sculpture began to be improved in 
 the Eastern empire. — In the next period (752-1100) it was 
 chiefly the Moors in Spain who excelled in poetry. The ballad 
 was devised by them. Their architectonic performances in the 
 Arabian style (an improved imitation of the Byzantine style) 
 were distinguished for their easy forms and rich ornaments. In 
 scientifical matter they chiefly cultivated the mathematical and 
 physical sciences. Edrisi (-f-1 180) who made his studies at Cor- 
 dova, wrote several geographical works of great value. In the 
 other European countries (with the exception of the Eastern em- 
 pire) the Latin ceased to be a living language, since in the 9th 
 century the Romanic and Germanic languages had been im- 
 proved with more success. In the same period (752-1100) sev- 
 eral poetical and other works were, for the first time, written in 
 German, and the grand cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms, Mentz, 
 Spires, etc., built in the mixed Lombardo-Byzantine style. In 
 the 1 1th century, the first feudal castles were built ; among theni 
 the celebrated Wartburg (now belonging to Saxe Weimar), in 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Crusades. 
 
 1067. About the same time music and painting on glass were 
 cultivated successfully. 
 
 (A.) As the Crusades, undertaken since the end of the 11th 
 century by European nations for the recovery of the Holy Land, 
 were attended by most important consequences with regard to 
 the social condition and culture of Europe, we must previously 
 give some historical outlines of them. The Holy Land, or Pal- 
 estine, had, since the end of the 4th century, formed part of the 
 Eastern empire, but in the 7th century been conquered by the 
 Arabs. The latter granted free exercise of religion to the Chris- 
 tian population, and in general, treated them with equity. In 
 963 the sultan of Egypt took possession of Palestine, which 
 continued to be under the sway of himself and his successors 
 until the year 1078, when the Seldschuks (or Turks, who from other 
 Turkish tribes differed only by their particular name, which they 
 had derived from that of their former sultan, named Seldschuk) 
 subdued the country ; and by them, the Christians especially the 
 pilgrims to Jerusalem, were often treated with cruelty and scorn. 
 The pilgrims returned to Europe and gave an account of the 
 treatment they received. This excited the indignation of the 
 European Christians, and they were easily induced to unite in a 
 great effort for taking the Holy Land from the infidel Seldschuks. 
 There were in all, seven crusades: the first, in the period from 
 the year 1096 to 1100; the second, 1147-1149; the third, 1189 
 -1 193 ; the fourth, 1203-1204 ; the fifth, in 1228 ; the sixth, in 
 1248; the seventh, in 1270. We shall now show the various 
 consequences of the crusades, already alluded to. How they 
 exerted influence on the extension of the papal power, see above 
 paragraph, marked (e). Yet we must add here that the possession 
 of the immense riches of the Roman Catholic clergy, especially 
 of the regular clergy, dates from the period of the. crusades, they 
 being then enabled to purchase at the cheapest prices the estates 
 
46 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Consequences of the Crusades— Chivalry— Orders of Knighthood. 
 
 of crusaders. To the princes, too, the crusades presented many 
 opportunities for extending their power ; for instance, by the 
 escheating of fiefs, which thus became estates of the crowu. The 
 consequences, with regard to the nobility, were iu substance the 
 following : — First, the spirit of chivalry was improved, family- 
 names and ensigns armorial came into use among the nobles, and 
 the tournaments became now more general and more splendid. 
 Then the crusades gave rise to the erection of the following 
 religious and military orders : 1. The Knights of St. John, whose 
 first origin dates from the year 1048, when some merchants from 
 Amalfi (near Naples) erected a monastery and hospital at Jeru- 
 salem ; yet their regular organization took place during the first 
 crusade. In 1187 they transferred their seat from Jerusalem 
 to Ptolemais or Acre (on the Syrian coast), in 1291 to Cyprus, 
 and in 1309 to Rhodes. On the last-named island they main- 
 tained themselves for more than two hundred years until the 
 year 1522, when the island was conquered by the Turkish sultan 
 Soliman II. The king of Spain and German emperor Charles 
 V., who then was in possession of Malta, ceded in 1530 to the 
 knights this island, which in 1798 was conquered by the French, 
 but since the year 1800 belongs to Great Britain. 2. The 
 knights templars, whose first organization dates from the year 
 1118, and who were distinguished for their valor and great ser- 
 vices in the Holy Wars. Since the loss of the Holy Land, the 
 knights templars transferred their principal seat to France, but 
 to their misfortune. For their great wealth excited the avidity of 
 King Philip the Fair, who, in 1312, exterminated almost the 
 whole order. 3. The Teutonic order, originating in 1190, and its 
 members consisting only of German knights. Since the re-con- 
 quest of Palestine by the Saracens, the master of the Teutonic 
 order transferred his seat from Jerusalem to Venice, thence to 
 Marburg (belonging to Hesse Cassel), and finally to Marienburg 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 47 
 
 Commercial Intercourse. 
 
 (south-east, and 32 miles distant from Dantziok). The knights 
 of the Teutonic order subdued, in the period from the year 1 233 
 to 1283, the pagan tribes of the Prussians proper, and took pos- 
 session of the whole country that now comprises the Prussian 
 provinces of East and West Prussia. The last master of the 
 Teutonic order was the margrave Albert, of the house of Hohen- 
 zollern ; he changed his Catholic creed for Protestantism, and in 
 1525 transformed his mastership into a duchy. The Teutonic 
 order, dissatisfied with this alteration, now left the country, and 
 removed their principal seat to Mergentheim (now belonging to 
 the German kingdom of Wirtemberg). The dissolution of the 
 order took place in 1809. Similar other orders originated chiefly 
 in Spain. Concerning- the consequences of the crusades with 
 regard to European commerce and industry, it may be remarked 
 that before that period the commercial train of Europe, in the 
 direction from east to west, was to be compared with the moderate 
 running of a river, which afterwards rising to a mighty stream and 
 dividing into several branches, diffused its contents in every di- 
 rection. Italian, French, and Catalonian maritime towns seized 
 upon the sea-commerce; while German, Netherlandish, and 
 French traders took possession of the inland commerce. We 
 shall first speak of the European sea- commerce, which from the 
 remotest ages until the end of the 15th century ever continued 
 to be (at least substantially) restricted to the Mediterranean Sea. 
 During the crusades Venice, and partly Genoa and Pisa, acquired 
 the most substantial monopolies and other commercial advantages 
 in all seaports of the Eastern empire, as well as of Syria and 
 Palestine. During the fourth crusade (in 1203 and 1204) the 
 Venetians conquered most of the shores and islands of the first- 
 named empire, and founded settlements there. At the same time 
 the navigation on the Black Sea became subject to their sway, 
 and thus they not only participated in the commerce between 
 
48 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Trade of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Amain" with the East. 
 
 + : — : 
 
 Asia and the interior of Europe, but for a long while superin- 
 tended the commercial intercourse with the north of Europe. 
 But after the re-establishment of the Byzantinian authority at 
 Constantinople in 1261, the Venetians were expelled from this 
 capital, and the Genoese succeeded them ; while the Venetians 
 became now (by commercial treaties with the Saracens) possessed 
 of the highly important Indian trade through Egypt. Since they 
 even participated in the caravan trade with the interior of Africa 
 and obtained settlements on the coast of the Barbary. About 
 the same time the Genoese founded settlements in Crimea and 
 on other shores skirting the Black Sea. The exports of Venice 
 to Egypt were chiefly olive-oil, cloth, velvet, furs, quicksilver, 
 copper, lead, cinnabar, sweet oranges, and other fruits, etc., upon 
 the whole at the value of about 300,000 ducats (an immense 
 sum at that time) annually. Besides these goods, other ones, at 
 the value of about 50,000 ducats, were smuggled in Egypt by 
 the ships' crews. Towards the end of the 14th century the Vene- 
 tian merchant-vessels amounted to upwards of 3,000 (including 
 300 of the burthen of 700 tons each), and were navigated by 25,000 
 men. The annual exports and imports of Genoa were likewise 
 very considerable. Thus, for instance, in 1201, one cargo, brought 
 from the Levant, comprised among other valuable goods 1500 
 pounds of gold, silver, and precious stones ; and in J 379, a large 
 Genoese vessel brought a cargo of spices, muslin, silk stuffs, gold, 
 and silver, at the value of 1,500,000 ducats. A large portion of 
 the imported goods was exported to Germany, especially to 
 Nuremberg Bills of exchange came first in use at Genoa in 
 this period. Pisa was not behind in commercial and shipping 
 enterprises ; it kept up a lively intercourse with the Levant, and 
 acquired substantial privileges in Constantinople. The mer- 
 chants of Amalfi (near Naples) were the first who exported 
 European goods to Syria and Egypt. The mariner's compass is 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 49 
 
 Maritime Laws— Inland Commerce. 
 
 said to have been invented at Anialfi, in 1302, by Flavio Gioja ; 
 but, the peculiar use of the loadstone being known already a 
 century before, he has perhaps only improved that instrument. 
 Ancona traded chiefly with Cyprus; among other goods, it ex- 
 ported Florentine and French cloth, soap, and wine, and im- 
 ported cotton, spices, sugar, and alum. In the period from the 
 12th to the end of the 15th century, Barcelona, the capital of 
 Catalonia in Spain, was renowned for its commercial and ship- 
 ping enterprises, and rivalled successfully even with Venice and 
 Genoa. In France, not only Marseilles, but also Aigues Mortes 
 and Montpellier carried on great business in the last-named 
 enterprises. Finally, it may be remarked that in this period 
 the maritime laws, if not established for the first time, were im- 
 proved and brought into more general practice. 
 
 With regard to the inland commerce, there were in this period 
 two principal commercial roads : the one between Constantinople 
 and Germany by way of the Danube river, and the other between 
 the Italian or French seaports and the staples of the interior of 
 Europe. The first of these roads was indeed of great import- 
 ance, but in general not so much frequented as the latter, for 
 the simple reason of its shorter distance. Besides Ratisbon, 
 which continued to be an emporium, Vienna was chiefly engaged 
 in the trade through Constantinople. For the Levantic and 
 Indian trade through Venice and Genoa, Nuremberg and Augs- 
 burg became the great staples of Germany and other European 
 countries. Their intercourse with Venice did not commence 
 before the 14th century, but it soon yielded immense profits to 
 them. The goods received from Venice (and partly from Genoa), 
 they exporteJ partly to Erfurt (the staple of the east of Ger- 
 many, etc.), partly to Mentz and Cohgne (the staples of the 
 west and north of Germany, etc.), but chiefly to Bruges, Ant- 
 werp, and Brussels, though these Netherlandish emporia received 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Commercial Marts— Manufactures. 
 
 also directly goods from Venice by sea. In France, there were 
 in this period no such staples like those of Germany ; yet in 
 various other regards Lyons and Avignon were at all events sta- 
 ples of great importance. The emporium of Kussia during the 
 14th and 15th centuries was Novogorod, which at that time had a 
 population of 400,000 inhabitants. Next to this city Pskow or 
 Pleskow (south-west, and 156 miles distant from St. Petersburg) 
 was an important staple of Russia. The emporium of Sweden 
 was Wisby, on the island of Gothland, which in the beginning 
 of the 12th century sent abroad its merchant vessels even as far 
 as to Alexandria in Egypt. The maritime law of Wisby was of 
 great authority far and near. The staples of Denmark were 
 Roeskilde, Aalborg, and Aarhuus, and that of Norway was Bergen. 
 In England, London continued still to be the only emporium, 
 but in the 15th century Bristol also began to rise. Lastly, with 
 respect to industry, it was chiefly silk-weaving and dyeing, that 
 were, the former art introduced, the latter improved, since the 
 crusades. The Normans, settled on the island of Sicily, waged 
 war against the Eastern empire, and in 1 148, headed by their 
 king, Roger II., they took in Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, where, 
 as in Constantinople, silk-manufactures were flourishing. Greek 
 silk-weavers were now by them induced to go to Sicily and in- 
 struct people there in the mysteries of their art. The latter, 
 thus introduced for the first time in Italy, was soon improved 
 with great success at Palermo ; thence it was transplanted to 
 Lucca, in 1309 to Venice, and since the year 1314 to Florence, 
 Milan, Bologna, etc. The art of dyeing was improved chiefly by 
 the multiplication of dyeing materials ; saffron, alum, and prob- 
 ably indigo too, being introduced by the crusaders. Orchilla. as 
 dyeing material, was not known in Europe before the 14th cen- 
 tury, and first brought from the Orient to Florence in the year 
 1300. Sicily, favored by its climate, enjoyed the peculiar 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 51 
 
 Origin of Free Citizenships and Corporations. 
 
 advantage of cultivating the sugar-cane, and introducing the im- 
 portant article of this tropical produce into Europe. Before the 
 period of the crusades, honey was the only substitute for sugar 
 throughout Europe, until the first crusaders became acquainted 
 with the sugar-cane in Syria. Already, before the middle of the 
 12th century, it was cultivated in Sicily on a large scale ; thence 
 it was transplanted to Madeira (discovered in 1419), and finally 
 to the West Indies. Even so early as the 14th century the con- 
 sumption of sugar in Italy was immense. 
 
 (i.) It is obvious that these various improvements, occasioned 
 by the crusades, could not forbear to react favorably upon the 
 condition of the citizens in most of the European towns. Many 
 communities acquired their independence and privileges by grant- 
 ing loans or gratuities to their sovereigns in cases of pecuniary 
 embarrassments. The first cities, obtaining substantial privileges, 
 were those of Upper and Central Italy, which availing themselves 
 of the opportunity presented by the long-lasting differences be- 
 tween the German emperors and the popes, became independent 
 in the administration of their local affairs. Their mayors were 
 called podestas, and partly appointed by the German emperor (see 
 historical introduction of Italy), partly and chiefly elected by the 
 citizens. In the beginning the governmental power was exercised 
 exclusively by the nobles (or patricians, as they were called in 
 most of those cities) ; but subsequently the mechanics laid claim 
 to a participation in government, and for the most part effected 
 their desire. In Germany, those free cities, whose last remnants 
 are Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, and Frankfort, took existence 
 during the reign of emperor Frederic II. (1215-1250), and du- 
 ring the interregnum (1250-1273 ; see historical introduction of 
 Germany). Although these cities continued to be subjected to 
 the emperor, their privileges were very substantial, and comprised, 
 among others, the right of immediateness (i. e., they were in- 
 
52 EUROPtt, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 Municipal Privileges — Luxuries. 
 
 dependent members of the German empire), the right of self- 
 government in local affairs, the staple-right, the rights of coinage, 
 of holding fairs, of levying customs, etc. Here, as in the Italian 
 cities, the governmental power was at first exercised exclusively 
 by the patricians, till in the 14th century the mechanics, or rather 
 the guilds, obtained the right of participation in government, at 
 least in many cities of southern Germany. In France, especially 
 in the south of that country, the high nobility and clergy granted 
 regales, or other similar privileges, to many cities, partly for 
 money, and partly because they considered the flourishing of these 
 cities suitable to their own interest. In Aragon (see § 16), since 
 the year 1137, comprising Catalonia also, there were likewise 
 privileged cities, besides Barcelona ; yet the governmental power 
 here was divided between royal and municipal officers. In the 
 north of Europe, only Novogorod and Pleskow in Russia, and 
 Wisby in Sweden, enjoyed similar privileges (Novogorod even 
 more) as the Italian and German free cities. The increasing 
 number and wealth of free citizens influenced greatly on the im- 
 provement of manufactures and of industry in general, and the 
 reaction proved favorable in almost every branch of human exer- 
 tion. The cloth manufactories, for instance, being in this period 
 most extensive and flourishing in Italy, Germany, France, Switzer- 
 land, Spain, Englaud, and above all in the Netherlands (where 
 Louvain, Ghent, Dendermonde, Ypres, Brussels, Bruges, etc., were 
 highly distinguished for their cloth manufactures, and those of 
 Bruges alone yielded the means of existence to more than 10,000 
 families), were promoting in an extraordinary manner the raising 
 of sheep, which branch of husbandry was cultivated chiefly in 
 England and Spain. The prevailing luxury influenced again on 
 the manufactures. Scarlet and citrine were the most fashionable 
 colors of dress in the middle ages ; and in the beginning of the 
 14th century, even the lower classes of Genoa wore red garments 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 53 
 
 Drinking Propensities and Customs. 
 
 with lemon-colored lining, at least on holydays. Scarlet state- 
 dresses were sometimes lined with green. The ladies of Placen- 
 tia, and of other Italian cities, used to wear wide and long scarlet 
 dresses, either of fine woollen, or of silk and velvet, or of gold- 
 brocade. Sleeves and girdles were set with pearls. Besides 
 diamond rings on the fingers, the hair was adorned with gold 
 chains, pearls, and precious stones. In many cities of Germany, 
 Flanders, Brabant, and France, the ladies were not inferior to 
 those of Italy in finery. On the other side, the gentlemen were 
 not behind-hand in ornament, and even their breeches were em- 
 broidered with gold, silver, and pearls. That the delight in the 
 pleasures of the table kept pace with this luxury, is a matter of 
 course ; but a most striking feature in the customs of the middle 
 ages were the so-called draughts of honor, or, in plain words, the 
 drinking propensity. In Germany, the Netherlands, and in the 
 north of France, beer was the common beverage, in the northern 
 countries, mead, and in the southern, wine. Yet, in the first-named 
 countries, wine also was drunk in great quantities. In the drink- 
 ing-rooms of the cities formal drinking rules had been established 
 by practice. The drinkers sat down round " the abbot and his 
 monks," viz. : round the great bumper and the smaller ones, and 
 the chairman insisted upon strict observance of the rules. Woe 
 to him who was dilatory in pledging! He incurred the risk of 
 having the contents of the bumper thrown into his face. Mead 
 was a beverage from ancient times in the north of Europe ; it 
 was even exported from Germany, through Constantinople, to 
 Syria and Palestine, until the end of the 12th century. In 
 Meissen, on the Elbe, it was brewed in such quantities, that in 
 1015, at winter time, when the river was frozen over, a rather 
 great fire was extinguished with mead. The multiplication of 
 the branches of industry, and the improvement of the condition 
 of mechanics and tradesmen, gave rise to the formation of guilds, 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Guilds — Hanseatic League. 
 
 or corporations of mechanics and tradesmen. They originated 
 in the period of the crusades, and soon spread over all countries 
 of Europe. In Italy they were most numerous, and Florence, 
 for instance, numbered at one time not less than 72 different 
 guilds. The guild of the cloth-weavers, belonged to those that 
 stood highest in credit. Next to Italy, the guilds were most 
 numerous in Germany. In the middle ages, cases of sword-law 
 occurred frequently, but never in such degree as since the midst 
 of the 13th century. About the same time, numerous pirates 
 were roving about the European seas. Thus the communications, 
 both by land and by sea, were infested ; and whereas, in Germany, 
 the interregnum (1250-1273) prevented the redress by govern- 
 ment, or in any other regular way, several commercial towns en- 
 tered into a confederacy for mutual defence. This was the origin 
 of the renowned Hanseatic League, to which belonged nearly 80 
 cities and towns of Germany, Prussia, and the Netherlands, among 
 others, the following: Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Brunswick, 
 Luneburg, Magdeburg, Breslau, Dortmund, Soest, Osnabruck, 
 Stralsund, Wismar, Rostock, Stettin, Konigsberg, Elbing, Dant- 
 zick, Amsterdam, Arnhem, Dort, Deventer, Groningen, Zutphen, 
 Zwoll, Middelburg; moreover, Cracow in Poland, Dorpat in 
 Livonia, and Wisby on the Swedish island of Gothland. In the 
 course of time, Lubec became the head of the Hanseatic League 
 that entertained a large navy. The Guildhall, in London, was 
 established, if not directly by this league, yet by a corporation of 
 German merchants. Other confederacies in Germany were the 
 Rhenish League, which was established at Mentz in 1255, and to 
 whom belonged not only Mentz, Worms, Spire, Frankfort on the 
 Maine, etc., but also Cologne, Wesel, Munster, and other members 
 of the Hanseatic League. To the Swabian League, originating 
 partly in the 13th, but chiefly in the 15th century, belonged 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 65 
 
 Geographical Knowledge— Poetry and the Fine Arts. 
 
 Nuremberg, Augsburg, and other cities of southern Germany 
 that traded chiefly with Italy. 
 
 (j.) New scientific progress since the crusades, was chiefly 
 made in Geography and other kindred branches of knowledge 
 The geographical conceptions hitherto prevailing in most parts 
 of Europe, were in some measure enlarged and corrected by the 
 crusades, and moreover by the accounts of several missionaries 
 sent to Karakorum (830 miles north-west from Pekin, and 370 
 miles south from Irkutsk), once the splendid capital and residence 
 of the Mongolian emperors, by the pope, and king Louis IX. of 
 France, in 1246, and the following years. Besides these mission- 
 aries, a Venetian merchant, named Marco Polo, visited Mongolia, 
 or Tartary, and thence China, Cochinchina, Malacca, Ceylon, 
 Persia, and Armenia, in the period from the year 1271 to 1295. 
 Although mixed with numerous fables, his accounts are, in sub- 
 stance, correct ; yet they did not in general add much to geo- 
 graphical knowledge for want of auxiliary knowledge in nautical 
 and other mathematical branches. All mathematical acquire- 
 ments at that time had been derived from Arabian authors, or 
 Arabian translations of Greek authors. This latter fact may 
 appear strange ; as of course it might have been much better to 
 make use of the Greek original instead of translations. But 
 (with the exception of the Eastern empire and Arabian Spain) 
 in Europe the study and knowledge of the ancient Greek language 
 did not commence before the latter half of the 15th century ; and 
 until then no other Bible was used or scarcely known than its 
 Latin translation, commonly called Vulgata. The fine arts made, 
 in this period, much greater progress than the sciences. Espe- 
 cially poetry rose to a high state of improvement, and assumed, 
 after the crusades, the character of the romantic. Epic and 
 lyrical poetry flourished chiefly in Germany and in France, and 
 highly celebrated were the German poets of the 12th and 13th 
 
66 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Invention of Gunpowder— Art of Printing. 
 
 century (they were called Minnesingers, or minstrels of love), and 
 at the same period the Troubadours, or poets of Provence, and 
 other parts of southern France. Even on the island of Iceland 
 (at that time a fertile and well-cultivated country) the spirit of 
 poetry was improved with the greatest success. The Scandina- 
 vian poets of the middle ages were called Scalds. Painting and 
 sculpture were first raised to independent fine arts in the 13th 
 century; the former by Cimabue (born in 1240, died in 1300), 
 the latter by Nicolo Pisano (the latter surname alludes to Pisa, 
 where he lived in the midst of the 13th century). Painting on 
 glass and plastic brass founding were at a high pitch of improve- 
 ment in this period ; but above all. architecture, whose admirable 
 grandeur in the Germanic, or New Gothic style (an improvement 
 of the original Gothic style) dates chiefly from the 13th century. 
 The construction of the cathedrals of Paris, Rouen, Rheims, and 
 Amiens, of Burgos and Toledo, of Cologne and Magdeburg, and 
 of St. Peter in York, and of Westminster Abbey in London, 
 commenced in this century, while that of the cathedral of Stras- 
 burg commenced in 1018, and of those of Vienna and of Freiburg 
 (now belonging to the grand-duchy of Baden) commenced towards 
 the midst of the 12th century. Not only churches, but also 
 monasteries, or abbeys, palaces, castles, town-halls, bridges, etc., 
 were at that time built in the above-named style. 
 
 (k.) Since the days of the crusades, Europe had more and 
 more become the focus of universal history, yet it attained its 
 permanent ascendency in this respect not before the end of the 
 15th century, when not only the use of gunpowder (invented, 
 according to common supposition, about the year 1350, by a monk, 
 at Freiburg in Baden, named Barthold Schwarz) had become 
 more general, but the invention of the art of printing (in 1 440) 
 had brought another not less powerful, though moral weapon into 
 its hand, and moreover now the discovery of America (in 1492), 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 57 
 
 The Reformation. 
 
 and of the passage by sea to India (1498), opened at once, as it 
 were, all temporal treasures to its spirit of enterprise, and ex- 
 tended its commerce, hitherto confined to the Mediterranean Sea, 
 in a rather short time over the whole earth. While these impor- 
 tant discoveries brought on the most substantial changes in the 
 material condition and circumstances of Europe, not less portentous 
 spiritual alterations were effected by the almost simultaneous Refor- 
 mation, dating from October 31, 1517. It is remarkable, and gives 
 a new evidence of the defectiveness of human exertions and per- 
 formances, that all those inventions, discoveries, and events, good 
 as they were in themselves (perhaps with the exception of the in- 
 vention of gunpowder), proved to have their wrong side too. So, 
 for instance, Christianity is indebted to the art of printing for the 
 circulation of the Holy Scriptures among all classes of society, 
 and the sciences are indebted to this art for their high state of 
 improvement ; but. at the same time, infidelity and revolutionary 
 spirit have likewise availed themselves of this powerful lever to 
 propagate their mischievous principles, unfortunately with great 
 success. The advantages of the discovery of America have been 
 immense in almost every respect ; yet it not only proved fatal in 
 its consequences to the discoverers themselves, in drying up the 
 intrinsical sources of prosperity in Spain ; but it transformed, 
 almost throughout Europe, the hitherto more or less prevailing 
 meek and quiet spirit, into a turbulent one. While the former 
 "is in the sight of God of great price" (1 Pet. iii. 4), the latter 
 is of great annoyance to those who are excited by this spirit. 
 The benefits of the Reformation are unquestionable ; nevertheless, 
 the arch-enemy knew very well how to avail himself even of this 
 blessing. He suggested, that the primitive aim of the Reforma- 
 tion had been not only the overthrow of superstition, but the 
 overthrow of Christianity itself; and hence the whole host of 
 English deists, French atheists, and German rationalists, have, 
 
 3* 
 
58 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Thirty Years' War— Balance of Power. 
 
 under the head of superstition, directed their weapons against 
 everlasting divine truths, and united in the attempt to supplant 
 the latter by human deceptions, or rather by their own wrong- 
 headed fancies. Characteristic in this respect is the fact that at 
 the very time when the first French revolution was at its highest 
 pitch of excess, a prostitute acted the part of the goddess of 
 reason ! 
 
 18. Besides this tendency to infidelity, it was chiefly the improve- 
 ment of foreign and domestic politics, which marked the prevailing 
 spirit of the age in the last three centuries. All the principal 
 events of Europe, from the 16th to the end of the 18th century, 
 may be traced to this latter head. The German emperor, Charles 
 V., was the first European prince who followed a steady line of 
 policy ; the next were Philip II. of Spain, and Henry IV. of 
 France ; then followed Richelieu, and the Swedish king Gustavus 
 Adolphus ; Louis XIV., and William III. (of the house of Orange) ; 
 Peter I., Frederic II., and Catharine II. The war of thirty years 
 (1618-1648) was, among those of a general character, the only 
 one that did not (at least not directly) arise from the principles 
 of this policy ; for it was the natural result of a reactionary ten- 
 dency, called forth on the part of the Roman Catholics by the Refor- 
 mation. But the chief motive of all other wars in the before- 
 named period, was more or less the desire of conquest and aggran- 
 dizement. Thus the wars of Henry II. of France, of Philip II., of 
 Richelieu (or nominally of Louis XIII.), and above all, those of 
 Louis XIV., had no other aim. Henry IV. of France, was the 
 inventor, and king William III. of England, the improver of that 
 whimsical policy known by the name of European equilibrium. 
 A balance was imagined, with Western Europe in the one, and 
 Eastern Europe in the other scale, and now it was the rulers' 
 problem of constantly equipoising and balancing. Thus the 
 reciprocal countries and provinces were to be weighed in a manner 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 59 
 
 French Preponderance — Licentiousness — Infidelity. 
 
 not unlike that of the grocer who is weighing his spices. Only 
 to this strange rule of politics European Turkey owes the contin- 
 uation of its existence. Henry IV. was, by the stabs of Ravaillac. 
 prevented from realizing his dreams of equilibrium ; while William 
 III. sacrificed to them the public interest of Holland, his native 
 country. Even so late as the year 1790, King Frederic William 
 II. of Prussia, was about to wage war against Austria and Russia, 
 merely for the sake of the fancied European equilibrium. Before 
 the days of Louis XIV. Spain and the German Empire ranked 
 foremost among the European powers, but since then France had 
 attained the ascendency, although her political preponderance had 
 begun to be lessened by degrees so early as the year 1692, when 
 in the battle of La Hogue her navy received the first fatal blow 
 from the English. Yet her moral ascendency and influence has 
 unfortunately continued to the present day, and generated all 
 that corruption and licentiousness in customs and manners by 
 which Europe became infected. The abominable public and pri- 
 vate behavior of Louis XIV. set a bad example not only to his 
 own subjects, but also to other nations ; first to foreign princes, 
 then to their subjects. The still more ignominious dissoluteness 
 of his successor, Louis XV., pulled down the last barriers of ven- 
 eration and shame, the more so as this king stupidly suffered 
 Voltaire, and the other French atheists, to undermine both the 
 Christian faith and his own throne. Diderot was even allowed 
 to declare publicly, that the sovereign happiness of man would 
 begin as soon as the last king had been strangled with the entrails 
 of the last priest ! German book-learned fancymongers, and Eng- 
 lish so-called philosophers, aping the French fashion-leaders, as- 
 sisted them faithfully in their endeavors, and even that great 
 Prussian, King Frederic II., was in this respect so infatuated 
 that in his epistolary correspondence with Voltaire, d'Alembert, 
 and others of the same stamp, the letters written by him, as 
 
60 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Plan of the separate accounts of each country. 
 
 well as those written by his correspondents, closed always with 
 the refrain : ecrasez Vinfame ! And let it be remembered that 
 this blasphemous motto was applied to our Saviour himself! At 
 that time, in the higher circles, and partly even among the lower 
 classes of society in France, it was the fashion to deny the exist- 
 ence of God ; materialism was the watchword and idol of the age ; 
 the most insolent and disgusting selfishness went hand in hand 
 with these principles, and a French author asserted publicly, that 
 egotism was to be considered as the only and genuine motive of 
 human actions. " Professing themselves to be wise, they became 
 fools." (Rom. i. 22.) The excesses and crimes of the first French 
 revolution (1789) were a natural sequence to this state of things. 
 
 Entering now into particulars of the description of Europe, 
 we shall describe the different countries in the following order 
 of succession: — 
 
 Portugal, Prussia, 
 
 Spain, Austria, 
 
 Italy, Denmark, 
 
 Switzerland, Sweden and Norway, 
 
 France, Russia, 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, Ionian Islands, 
 
 Belgium and Holland, Greece, 
 
 Germany, Turkey. 
 
 It may, at the first glance, appear somewhat strange that we 
 commence with Portugal, one of the less interesting countries of 
 Europe. But, on due consideration, it seemed most natural to 
 begin at the extreme boundaries, viz. : either on the north-east, 
 i. e., with Russia, or on the south-west, i. e., with Portugal. Russia 
 
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 61 
 
 Proposed Description of the several Countries. 
 
 presents indeed far greater interest than Portugal ; but as the 
 description of that country must indispensably digress in many 
 instances into Asiatic Russia, and would at the same time imply 
 the necessity of giving next after Russia the description of other 
 eastern countries (Turkey, etc.), it appeared more suitable to com- 
 mence with Portugal. 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 Area : 36,508 square miles. 
 Population: 3,725,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The kingdom of Portugal, comprising the western coast of the 
 Pyrenean peninsula is upon an average 106 miles in breadth, 
 surrounded on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 on the other sides by Spain. 
 
 Of the above-stated area continental Portugal comprises 35,358 
 square miles, while the remainder is to be assigned to the Azore 
 Isles, which, together with the former, constitute one and the 
 same political body, and rank among the other Portuguese prov- 
 inces. Thus they are not to be considered as African colonies, 
 like Cape Verd Islands, Angola, etc. ; and as they at the same 
 time are situated very nearly opposite Lisbon, and little more 
 than 800 miles distant from continental Portugal (while the dis- 
 tance between them and the next points of Africa amounts to 
 more than 920 miles), they are very improperly ranked by most 
 geographers as among the African Islands. 
 
 Of the above-stated population, 3,500,000 live in continental 
 Portugal, and 250,000 inhabitants on the Azore Isles. The 
 Roman Catholic profession is the religion of the state, though all 
 other denominations are tolerated. The archbishop of Lisbon 
 bears the title of patriarch since the year 1717; besides him, 
 there are 6 bishops in Portugal and its colonies (formerly there 
 were 12 archbishops and 14 bishops), and their dioceses comprise 
 
PORTUGAL. n x 
 
 ( 'limate— Soil— Productions. 
 
 4,086 parishes. Even so late as the year 1821 Portugal still 
 numbered 360 monasteries with 5,760 monks, and 126 uunneries 
 with 2,725 nuns. But in 1834 all cloisters were abolished. 
 
 The surface of the country is in general mountainous, though 
 not in such a prevailing manner as in Spain. The highest 
 mountain ranges of Portugal are the Sierra de Estrella, rising to 
 7,700 feet in height, and the Sierra Monchique (see Introduction, 
 § 7, ,.). 
 
 The principal rivers of Portugal are, the Tagus, Douro, Minho, 
 and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). Besides them there are 
 only coast-rivers, e. g., the Mondego, the Lima, etc. 
 
 The climate is in general mild and salubrious. 
 
 The soil is upon the whole very fertile in the valleys and plains, 
 especially in Algarve, and might yield the richest crops of various 
 kind, if the people were more diligent and intelligent. Here, as 
 in Spain, the possession of rich colonies paralyzed more or less 
 the vigor of the national spirit, and while in the 16th century the 
 riches of India, and subsequently those of Brazil, directed their 
 streams to Portugal, the people sunk by degrees into indolence 
 and poverty. Until the 16th century the cultivation of corn was 
 the most productive source of wealth to the country ; but later 
 it was more and more neglected, and already for many years past 
 the corn raised in Portugal is not sufficient for home consumption. 
 Wine, sea-salt, and olive oil, are the chief natural products of the 
 country. The best wines are those produced in the environs of 
 Oporto (universally known by the name of port-wine), and in the 
 vicinity of Lisbon and St. Ubes. Algarve yields the best olive 
 oil, and the chief place for making sea-salt is St. Ubes. Hemp 
 and flax are cultivated in some northern districts. The rearing 
 of cattle is far less important than the rearing of mules, and 
 horses. Fine sheep are reared, and they produce valuable wool. 
 The rearing of silk-worms is rather considerable. 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Industry— Commerce— Education. 
 
 The industry was hitherto in a backward state as well as the 
 agriculture ; yet in recent times several of its branches have been 
 improved with much success. To be noticed are: the silk manu- 
 factories of Oporto, Braganza, and Campo Grande (near Lisbon), 
 the cloth and woollen manufactories of Portalegre, Covilhan, and 
 Fundao, the manufactories of calico, gold and silver ware of 
 Lisbon and Oporto, the linen manufactories in the provinces of 
 Minho, Beira, and Traz os Montes ; and finally the tanneries of 
 Lisbon, St. Ubes, Oporto, Coimbra, Beja, etc. 
 
 The commerce of Portugal, once very extensive, especially in 
 the 16th century, and even in the last century, is now quite 
 limited, and the imports far exceed the exports in value. Since 
 the days of Cromwell, and chiefly since the conclusion (in 1703) 
 of the so-called Methuen-treaty (derived from the name of the 
 English plenipotentiary, named Methuen), the English have not 
 only acted the part of masters of the country, but almost exer- 
 cised a monopoly on Portugal, into which they import even the 
 meanest necessaries of life besides their manufactures. Fortu- 
 nately the exports of port- wine to England are very considerable ; 
 otherwise the Portuguese would have to pay the whole of the 
 English imports in ready money. In 1844, Portugal exported 
 33,946 pipes of port-wine, of which 25,492 were exported to 
 England, 3,278 to the United States, 1,943 to Brazil, 919 to 
 Hamburg, 716 to Calcutta, and Hongkong, 290 to Sweden, Nor- 
 way, and Denmark, 225 to Canada, 212 to Halifax, 162 to Hol- 
 land, 109 to Newfoundland, 95 to Russia, 67 to Prussia, 6 to 
 France, and 432 to the Portuguese colonies. 
 
 The means of education are very deficient, notwithstanding the 
 pompous names of the different schools. Besides one university 
 at Coimbra (founded in 1297 at Lisbon, but in 1308 transferred 
 to Coimbra; in 1841 it numbered 1,300 students), public reports 
 of the year 1841 enumerated 17 seminaries, 27 lyceums. 8 gymna- 
 
PORTUGAL. 
 
 Government— Finances. 
 
 shims, 263 progymnasiums,* and 873 common schools ; yet all these 
 schools were, in the named year, frequented by no more than 31.280 
 pupils. (The common schools of the city of Berlin alone, were 
 at the same period frequented by as many pupils.) Moreover, 
 the instruction itself is managed in a rather miserable manner. 
 It is needless to remark that under these circumstances very few 
 of the lower class in Portugal can read and write. 
 
 The government of Portugal is a limited hereditary monarchy, 
 the supreme power being vested in a King, or, at present, Queen 
 (Donna Maria II. da Gloria, born April 4, 1819, ascending the 
 throne in 1834. and married in second marriage to Prince Ferdi- 
 nand, of Coburg-Kohary), and a legislative body. 
 
 With respect to the public finances, the official statement for 
 the period of 1845-1846 estimated the amount of the revenue at 
 10,756,954 millrees (one millree is little more in value than one 
 dollar), and that of the expenditure at 10,717,542 millrees. 
 
 * As the above-mentioned terms will frequently occur in this work, it may 
 be suitable to give some explanations about them. The higher schools of 
 continental Europe have the same object in view, but in general not the same 
 organization as those of the United States. Universities have, in Germany, 
 Holland, Sweden, Denmark, etc., the signification of high schools, where all 
 branches of science are taught, and which for this purpose unite the four fac- 
 ulties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy (including astrono- 
 my and the higher branches of mathematics, history ,etc.). Lyceums and Gym- 
 nasiums are those higher schools, where all branches of preparatory knowledge, 
 necessary for those who frequent the universities, are taught (for instance, the 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, mathematics, etc.). Their pupils are (at least in 
 most of the countries of continental Europe) not boarders, but frequent the 
 ly ceums and gymnasiums only at certain hours of the day and then go home again. 
 Seminaries have in Europe almost everywhere the signification of prepara- 
 tory schools for future teachers. Progymnasiums are schools where, beside the 
 elements of knowledge, the Latin is taught, and which for this reason are as 
 frequently called Latin schools. 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Public Debt— Army— Navy. 
 
 Nevertheless in the preceding year, 1844, the actual amount of 
 the revenue was 9,843,000, and of the expenditure 11,158,000 
 millrees. Thus a deficiency of 1,315,000 millrees became appa- 
 rent. At the same period the public debt was 84,130,000 millrees, 
 of which amount only 73,957,000 yielded interest. This state 
 of things must appear somewhat strange, when we consider that 
 in 1834 nearly 500 cloisters were abolished (see ante) and their 
 estates confiscated in behalf of commonwealth. The produce of 
 the sale must have been very considerable, as most of these con- 
 vents were wealthy, and some of them had an annual revenue of 
 more than $100,000. Towards the end of the year 1836 the real- 
 ization of all these estates had been effected ; nevertheless, one or 
 two months afterwards, viz. : on the first of February, 1837, the 
 minister of finances declared publicly and officially a deficiency 
 to the extent of 5,312,500 millrees! Thus the money got by 
 the sale of the monastic estates cannot have been deposited in 
 the public treasury, but must in some way or other have gone 
 astray. And so it is. The Portuguese people have not received 
 a farthing of the money, and their public burdens, instead of 
 being alleviated, have on the contrary been aggravated by adding 
 new items to the former heavy taxes ; but Don Pedro and his 
 English and Portuguese adherents have been enriched by that 
 lucrative experiment ; and it is a fact that golden crosses, sacred 
 vessels, and many other objects of great value, have clandestinely 
 been pilfered and carried away to England. 
 
 The Portuguese army amounts, according to official statement, 
 to 25,970, but actually only to about 18,000 men, besides 9,000 
 men in the colonies. The navy is at present reduced to 5 frigates, 
 4 sloops of war, and several other vessels of smaller size. In 
 1783, and still in 1808, the naval force of Portugal consisted of 
 10 ships of the line, 18 frigates, etc., all in good order; and in 
 
PORTUGAL. 67 
 
 Ordrrs of Honor— History of Portugal. 
 
 1825 it numbered at least still 5 ships of the line, while at pres- 
 ent there is none more left. 
 
 The Portuguese orders of honor are the following: — 1. The 
 orJer of merit of St. Benedict of Aviz, established in 1162 as a 
 religious order of knighthood, but in 1789 transformed by Maria 
 I. into a military order of merit. 2. The order of St. Jago from 
 the year 1288, transformed by Maria I. into an order of merit. 
 
 3. The order of Christ, derived from the papal order having the 
 same name (see introduction, of the States of the Church). 
 
 4. The order of St. John, arisen from that order from the year 
 1048, described above (see History of Europe, § 17, h). 5. The 
 order of tower and sword, established in 1459, and renewed in 
 1808. 6. The order of the immaculate conception of Villa Vicosa, 
 established in 1819 by John VI. 
 
 History of Portugal. — Portugal was called Lusitania by the Romans, who 
 waged war against this country since the year 148, B. C, but did not conquer 
 it completely before the year 19, B. C. Its fate since the migration of nations 
 we have learned from the history of Europe (§§ 2, 10, 14, and 16), and we 
 shall now enter into further particulars. About the midst of the 11th century 
 King Ferdinand of Castile wrested the greatest part of Lusitania from the 
 Moors. In these wars Count Henry of Burgundy (see History of Burgundy 
 under the head of France) rendered such signal services to King Alphonso VL 
 of Castile, that the latter, in reward for them, gave him, in 1093, his daughter 
 in marriage and a Lusitanian province in dowry. This province, comprising 
 the present provinces of Traz os Montes and Entre Minho e Douro, was styled 
 the earldom of Portucalia (derived from Portus Cafe, the ancient name of 
 Oporto), and thus Count Henry became the first count of Portugal (this latter 
 name was derived from Portucalia). Henry's son and successor, Alphonso 
 Henriquez, prosecuted the conquests of his father, and having in 1139 in the 
 battle at Ourique (at the Algafvian frontier) vanquished five Moorish kings 
 (hence the five bucklers in the Portuguese coat of arms), he was proclaimed 
 king of Portugal by his troops. Soon after acknowledged and confirmed in 
 his new dignity by the pope Alexander HI., he in 1143 summoned the Cortes 
 or States of his empire to an assembly at Lamego, and on this occasion it was 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Portugal— Early Voyages and Discoveries. 
 
 when the fundamental laws of Portugal, together with the order of succession, 
 were established. King Alphonso IV. (1325-1357) was renowned for his 
 valor, yet he polluted his glory by consenting to the assassination of his 
 daughter-in-law, the handsome Inez (Agnes) de Castro, clandestinely married 
 to his son Peter Z, surnamed the Cruel (on account of the frightful revenge 
 ho took on the murderers of Inez). Peter the Cruel (died in 1367) was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son Ferdinand who died in 1383, and with whom the 
 so-called genuine Burgundian race became extinct. For the second marriage 
 of Peter the Cruel with Inez de Castro was not considered as a legitimate 
 one ; and for this reason a Castilian prince claimed the right of succession on 
 the Portuguese throne. Yet the Portuguese Cortes, or states, filled with 
 hatred against the Castilians, proclaimed, in 1 384, Peter's second son John 
 king of Portugal. John I. being the son of Inez de Castro, he and his suc- 
 cessors were comprehended under the appellation of the bastard Burgundian 
 race. Nevertheless to the kings of this race the Portuguese owe the ages of 
 their highest renown. For at the beginning of the next or 15th century those 
 famous voyages of discovery commenced which ended in unlocking to the 
 Portuguese the treasures of India and Brazil, and ranked them, at least for a 
 long while, among the first nations of the world. They were superintended 
 by Don Henry, son of King John I., who personally interested himself in 
 these enterprises. The first vessels he, in 1416, sent out for this purpose 
 sailed close by the north-western coast of Africa, and did not venture to 
 double Cape Bojador; in 1418 the island of Porto Santo (near Madeira), in 
 1419 that of Madeira, and in 1432 the Azore Isles, were discovered and set- 
 tled. In the last-named year Cape Bojador was at length doubled, and later 
 Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, Cape Verd Islands, and Guinea discovered. King 
 John II. was of a very active and enterprising character too ; he frequently 
 sent vessels to the West- African shores, and thus in 1486 Cape of Good Hope 
 was discovered by Barthol. Diaz. On the 9th of July, 1497, Vasco de Gama 
 sailed from Lisbon ; he doubled the last-named cape on the 20th of Novem- 
 ber, and arrived at the port of Calicut on the 19th of May, 1498. Thus the 
 maritime way to India was opened to the enterprising spirit of the civilized 
 world, six years after the discovery of America. King Emanuel of Portugal, 
 the successor of John II. since the year 1495, hastened to avail himself of the 
 important discovery made by Vasco de Gama (who returned to Lisbon, August 
 29, 1499), and sent a fleet of 13 vessels to India in 1500. On this occasion 
 Brazil was discovered. But we must now return to the political history of 
 
PORTUGAL. 09 
 
 History — Spanish Rule — House of Braganza. 
 
 Portugal. King Emanuel died 1521, and was succeeded by John III., who 
 died in 1557, and was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian. Unfortunately 
 King Sebastian was at the period of the regal vacancy only three years old, 
 and his education, as well as the regency during his minority, was intrusted 
 to the care of the Jesuits, who inspired him with a fanatic spirit to such a 
 degree that it became his most ardent desire to wage war against the infidels. 
 Guided by this spirit and turning a deaf ear to the warnings of his counsel- 
 lors and even of the king of Spain, he in 1578 ventured an expedition against 
 the Moors of Morocco, and on the 4th of August, in a bloody battle at Alcassar, 
 not only his army was totally routed, but he himself disappeared in a myste- 
 rious manner forever. His only legitimate successor to the crown was the 
 old cardinal Henry, third son of King Emanuel, but his reign was of short 
 duration; for he died in 1580. Amongst the pretenders to the throne who 
 now came forth with their claims, the most powerful was King Philip II. 
 of Spain, whose mother had been the eldest daughter of King Emanuel. 
 Philip, countenancing his claims by an army of 24,000 men, attained his aim, 
 and thus Portugal was, in the period from the year 1580 to 1640, under the 
 sway of Spain. Yet the national hatred between the Portuguese and the 
 Spaniards did not subside; and Philip's next nearest successor, Philip IV., 
 being a weak and indolent king, the Portuguese seized the first opportunity 
 of casting off the odious Spanish yoke, and proclaimed the duke of Braganza 
 king of Portugal (December 1, 1640). The duke of Braganza was the de- 
 scendant of a natural son of King John I. (see above), and mounted the throne 
 as King John IV. Since that time the house of Braganza has continued to 
 reign over the kingdom of Portugal. John IV. died in 1656, and his succes- 
 sors were the following : Alphonso VI. (1656-1667), Peter II. (1667-1706), 
 John V. (1706-1750), Joseph I. (1750-1777), Maria I. (1777-1816), and John 
 VI. (1816-1826). The reign of the rather imbecile King Joseph I. was sig- 
 nalized by the despotic proceeding of his minister, the marquis of Pombal f 
 who. being a mimic and enthusiastic admirer of the so-called French philoso- 
 phers (see History of Europe towards the end), intended to civilize, or rather 
 to force the Portuguese people into his Utopian system at any price. Pre- 
 possessed as he was with his insensate ideas and dreams, he treated every 
 one, who seemed to stand in his way, with the utmost recklessness and 
 tyranny ; and after his degradation (which took place at the death of King 
 Joseph), the astonishing discovery was made that several rooms of his palace 
 were filled with letters of petition, claims, etc., unopened! Prince John 
 
70 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Portugal— Brazil— Contest of Pedro with M gnrl. 
 
 (subsequently King John VI.) was in 1792 declared Prince Regent in conse- 
 quence of his mother's insanity. He did not meddle at all with the French 
 revolution and the subsequent political affairs of Europe ; yet being compelled 
 by the English to disregard the continental system established by Napoleon, 
 the latter sent, towards the end of October, 1807, an army to invade Portugal. 
 In these circumstances the Prince Regent followed the advice of the English, 
 and embarked with the royal family for Brazil, the chief Portuguese colony. 
 Here he resided until the year 1821, when he returned to Portugal, leaving 
 his eldest son Don Pedro behind. In the following year (1822) Don Pedro 
 declared himself emperor of Brazil, which country has since continued to be 
 an independent empire ; and by this declaration he actually renounced his 
 hereditary right of succession to the Porhtguese crown, according to the clear 
 terms of the order of succession established in 1641 by the Cortes of Lamego 
 (as the legitimate representatives of the Portuguese people were called). 
 Thus, when John VI. died in 1826, his legitimate successor was his second 
 son, Don Miguel, who indeed was in 1828 proclaimed king by the Cortes 
 with the agreement of the majority of the Portuguese people. But as Don 
 Miguel considered both the English monopoly (see above) and a constitution 
 of modern pattern as incompatible with the interest and welfare of the Por- 
 tuguese people, he aroused on the one side the jealousy of the British gov- 
 ernment, and on the other side the rage of the liberal party in France and other 
 countries. Meanwhile Don Pedro had in 1831 been compelled by the Brazil- 
 ians to abdicate, and was driven away. He went to Paris and lived there in 
 retirement, until English stock-jobbers, headed by Lord Pahnerston, induced 
 him to venture an expedition against his brother. The former provided him 
 money, and the latter with adventurers of every kind. It would be endless 
 to relate all the tricks, machinations, briberies, etc., employed for the purpose 
 of attaining the aim. In short, Don Pedro at last succeeded, and in 1834 his 
 daughter Donna Maria II. (see above) mounted the throne. In the same year 
 died Don Pedro (on the 24th of September), having previously taken care to 
 provide for himself and his good friends by confiscating the estates of the con- 
 vents (see above). We are well aware that this statement of the modern 
 part of Portuguese history differs from the misrepresentations circulated about 
 Portugal in these last twenty or twenty- five yeais. But as it is the duty of 
 every lristorian to adhere strictly to historical truth, we have not a moment 
 hesitated to give the facta as they actually have been, and not as they should 
 have been, according to feverish dreams, commonly called the spirit of the age. 
 
PORTUGAL. • 71 
 
 Geographical Description— Estremadura. 
 
 Portugal (exclusive of the islands) has from old been divided 
 into 6 provinces, of which the most southerly is styled the king- 
 dom of Algarve. In 1835, of the two provinces of Beira and 
 Entre Minho e Douro four provinces were formed, and the whole 
 of the provinces subdivided into 17 districts. But as this altera- 
 tion is not an essential one, we shall, for the sake of simplifica- 
 tion, retain the former division. 
 
 1. The province of Estremadura (subdivided into the 3 districts of Lis- 
 bon, Leiria, and Santarem), at the mouth and on both sides of the Tagus, 
 containing: Lisbon (Portuguese Lisboa), the capital of Portugal and royal 
 residence, on the right bank of the Tagus, with 280,000 inhabitants, 44 parish- 
 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral), and numerous other 
 churches and chapels, many charitable institutions, fine public and private 
 buildings, a royal academy of sciences, a royal library with 85,000 volumes, 
 3 observatories, etc., and the royal palaces of Ajitda, Bemposta, and Necessi.- 
 daden. Lisbon is a place of considerable commerce, and has one of the finest 
 harbors in the world. A magnificent aqueduct, built in 1743 entirely of 
 marble, supplies the city with fresh water. Lisbon has frequently suffered 
 by earthquakes ; the most formidable of them were those of 1356, 1597, and 
 especially of 1755 (Nov. 1), when one half of the city was destroyed, and 
 more than 30,000 of the inhabitants perished. Upon the whole, the city is 
 ill-built, and numerous dogs are running about in the dirty streets. Lisbon, 
 wrested from the Moors in 1147, has since the days of John I., been royal 
 residence. Belem, though a town by itself, is considered as forming a part of 
 Lisbon ; it is noted for its royal castle, and a magnificent pile, formerly an 
 abbey of the order of St. Jerome, the church of which contains the royal 
 family vault. Another royal castle is at Queluz. About 14 miles to the 
 north-west of Lisbon is situated the town of Cintra, with 4,000 inhabitants, 
 and the remarkable so-called cork-cloister, the interior walls of which are 
 covered with cork in order to keep off humidity. Quite near lie3 the village 
 of Vimieira, noted for the first important battle between the English and 
 the French in 1808. The royal palace of Mafra, built in the period from 
 1717-1731, contains 870 apartments, with 5,200 windows, and bears in many 
 points resemblance to the famous palace of the Escurial in Spain. Torres 
 Yedras, a city with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for the strong lines of fortifica- 
 
72 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Geographical Description— Beira— Douro. 
 
 tions which Lord Wellington established here in 1810. About 55 miles to 
 the north of Lisbon are situated the stately building of the former monaste- 
 ries of Alcobaca (founded in 1148), and Batalha (founded in 1386), whose 
 monks were altogether nobles and possessed of immense riches. Santarem, 
 a town on the right bank of the Tagus, 46 miles above Lisbon, with 8,000, 
 and Abrantes, 37 miles farther up the river, with considerable trade, and 5,000 
 inhabitants. St. Ubes, or Setubal, a sea- town at 18 miles distance from Lis- 
 bon, has 15,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works. Other cities and 
 towns in the province of Estremadura are : Leiria (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Pombal (with 4,000 inhabitants), Obidos (witli 5,500 inhabitants), Ourem 
 (with 4,500 inhabitants), Thomar (with 3,800 inhabitants), Ahnada (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Cezimbra (with 4,500 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 2. The province of Beira, between the Douro and Tagus rivers, and subdi- 
 vided into the districts of Coimbra, Aveiro, Lamego. and Guarda (belonging 
 to Upper Beira), and of Castello Branco (or Lower Beira) ; containing : Co- 
 imbra, capital of the province, on the Mondego, north-north-east, and 110 
 miles distant from Lisbon, and southward and 69 miles distant from Oporto, 
 with the only university of the country (see above), a remarkable cathedral, 
 considerable inland commerce, and 15,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, 
 Coimbra was for years the royal residence, and in a garden on the opposite 
 side of the Mondego the unfortunate Inez de Castro was murdered in 1350 
 (see History of Portugal). Aveiro, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
 Vouga river, with 4,500 inhabitants. Vizeu, or Viseu, a town situated south- 
 east, and 50 miles distant from Oporto, with great fairs, and 9,000 inhabitants. 
 Lamego, a city eastward and 46 miles distant from Oporto, with 9,000 inhabi- 
 tants, cultivating much vine. At Lamego the Cortes or states of Portugal framed 
 the fundamental laws of the kingdom (see History of Portugal). Other cities 
 and towns in the province of Beira are : Esqueira (formerly noted for its 
 oldest and wealthiest Benedictine convent of the country), Figueira do Mon- 
 dego (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pinhel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Almeida 
 (strongly fortified, with 3,000 inhabitants), Covilhao (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Castellobranco (with 6,500 inhabitants), Ovar (with 11,000 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 3. The province of Entre Minho e Douro, on the west bordered by the 
 Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Spanish province of Galicia, and on the 
 other sides by Beira and Traz os Montes ; it is the best cultivated, most indus- 
 trious, and most populous province (subdivided into the 3 districts of Oporto, 
 Braga, and Viana), and contains : OroaTo, or Porto, the capital of the prov- 
 
PORTUGAL. 73 
 
 Geographical Description— Traz os Montes— Algarve. 
 
 ince, on the right bank of the Douro, is not only the second city, but the sec- 
 ond emporium of the kingdom; Ion* since famous for its considerable exports 
 of port-wine (see the particulars above), and has moreover numerous manufac- 
 tures of various descriptions, many fine building.?, 90 churches, 40 hospitals, 
 etc., and 80,000 inhabitants. Brag a, a city situated north-north-east, and ST 
 miles distant from Oporto, with a great and remarkable cathedral, and 15,00<> 
 inhabitants. The Suevian kings, shortly after they had conquered the coun- 
 try (see History of Europe, § 3), took their seat at Braga. Other cities and 
 towns of this province are: Viana (with 8,000 inhabitants), Guhnardes (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), Amarante (with 4,000 inhabitants), Ponte tie Lima (with 
 2,500 inhabitants), Barccllos (with 5,000 inhabitants), Villa do Conde (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 4. The province of Tuaz os Montes (subdivided into the 2 districts of Bra- 
 ganza and Villarcal), on the east side of the preceding province, containing : 
 Braganza, the capital of the province, and the ancestral seat of the royal 
 family (see History of Portugal), not far off the Spanish frontier, north-east- 
 ward, and 184 miles distant, from Lisbon, with 5,000 inhabitants. Peso da 
 Regoa, a little town, but noted for its considerable depot of port-wine and its 
 famous wine-fairs in February. Other towns in this province are : Villareal 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), Chaves (with 5,500 inhabitants), Torre de Monoorvo 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Miranda de Douro (with 1,600 inhabitants), Miran- 
 della (with 1,800 inhabitants,) etc. 
 
 5. The province of Alemtejo, on the south side of the Tagus (divided info 
 the 3 districts of Evora, Beja, and Portalegre), contains : Evora, the capital 
 of the province, 74 miles south-east from Lisbon, with many Roman antiqui- 
 ties, and 9,100 inhabitants, cultivating much vine. Bkja, a town with Roman 
 antiquities, and 5,000 inhabitants. Elvas, a strongly fortified city near the 
 Spanish frontier, with a remarkable aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, 
 and 10,000 inhabitants. Villa Vicosa, a fortified town, with a royal palace, 
 and 3,000 inhabitants. Ourique, a town near the frontier of Algarve, south- 
 eastward, and 100 miles distant from Lisbon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
 for the defeat of the Moors by Alphonso I., in 1139 (see History of Portugal). 
 Other towns of this province are : Portalegre (with 6.400 inhabitants), Estre- 
 moz, (with 5,000 inhabitants), Moura (with 6,000 inhabitants), Serpa (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), Campo Mayor (with 4,500 inhabitants), Sines (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 6. The province (or kingdom) of Algarve, the most southerly province of 
 
 4 
 
74 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Azores. 
 
 Portugal (with an area of 2,151 square miles, and a population of 136,000 in- 
 habitants), comprising only the district of Faro, and containing : Lagos, the 
 ancient capital of Algarve, on a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, with 9,000 inhab- 
 itants. Taviua, the modern capital of Algarve, near the mouth of the Gua- 
 diana River, with 9,000 inhabitants. Near Cape St. Vincent (noted for a 
 naval victory of the English in 1797) is situated the little town of Sagres, 
 with the ruins of an old castle, the former seat of Don Henry, when he super- 
 intended the famous voyages of discovery (see History of Portugal). Other 
 towns of Algarve are : Faro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monchique (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Stives (with 3,000 inhabitants), Villareal de San Antonio (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Albufeira (with 1,800 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 The Azores, or Western Isles, constitute, as has already been 
 stated, together with continental Portugal, one and the same 
 political body, and rank among the other Portuguese provinces 
 as well as, for instance, the Balearic Isles rank among the Spanish 
 provinces. It is not improbable that the existence of the Azores 
 Isles was known to the Phoenicians, or at least to the Cartha- 
 ginians ; yet to Europe they were unknown until the year 1432, 
 when they were discovered by the Portuguese (see History of 
 Portugal). In 1449 the first Europeans settled here. The 
 climate of the Azores, situated between the parallels of 40° and 
 37 of N. lat., and between 25 D and 31 3 long, west from Green- 
 wich, is peerless mild, and healthful ; and, besides grain and wine, 
 oranges, lemons, and other similar fruits, thriving marvellously 
 here, are the chief staples of the isles ; which latter yield to the 
 government an annual revenue of about $30,000, while the ex- 
 penditure amounts to little more than $10,000. The Azores, 
 having together an area of 1,150 square miles, and a population 
 of 250,000 inhabitants, comprise 9 islands, which are the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 1. San Miguel, or St. Michael (area : 341 square miles ; population : 100,000 
 inhabitants), productive of grain and fruits. Its capital is Punta Delgade, 
 
PORTUGAL. 76 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 which is considered as the capital of the whole group too, and has 20,000 
 inhabitants. Another important staple-town is Ribeira Grande, with 12,000 
 inhabitants. The romantic valley of Furnas is noted for its hot and cold 
 mineral springs. 2. Terceira (area : 224 square miles ; population : 40,000 
 inhabitants), with excellent pastures and numerous herds of cattle ; containing 
 Angra, fortified town and seat of the governor of the Azores, with 15,000 
 inhabitants. Praya, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 3. Pico (area: 287 
 square miles ; population : 30,000 inhabitants), with many vineyards and a 
 vulcan 6,500 feet high ; containing the towns of Lages (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Magdalena and St. Boca. 4. San Jorge, or St. George (area: 106 square 
 miles ; population : 20,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry and vines, 
 containing the towns of Velas (with 4,000 inhabitants), Catheta and Topo. 
 5. Fayal (area : 53 square miles ; population : 24,000 inhabitants), noted for 
 its delightful climate and tropic fruits. Horta is an important commercial 
 town and sea-port, with 10,000 inhabitants. 6. Sta. Maria (area: 43 square 
 miles; population: 8,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and wine. Its 
 chief town Porto has 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Flores (area : 43 square miles ; 
 population : 10,000 inhabitants), the most charming island of the whole group ; 
 productive of grain and with numerous herds of cattle. Its chief town, Santa 
 Cruz, has 3,000 inhabitants. 8. Graciosa (area : 32 square miles ; population . 
 12,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry, and productive of barley and 
 wine. Its chief town bears, like that of the preceding island, the name of 
 Santa Cruz, and has likewise 3,000 inhabitants. 9. Corvo (area: 21 square 
 miles; population: 1,000 inhabitants), the smallest and most northerly island. 
 
 Since the loss of Brazil (see History of Portugal), the Portu- 
 guese Colonies are reduced to the following : — 
 
 1. Tn Africa: settlements and possessions in Lower Guinea 
 and Eastern Africa, the Madeira and Cape Verd Islands, and two 
 islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 2. In Asia : the cities and townships of Goa and Diu in Hin- 
 dostan, Macao in China, and part of the island of Timor in the 
 Indian Archipelago. 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Abea : 179,921 square miles. 
 Population : 12,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The kingdom of Spain comprises nearly four fifths of the 
 Pyrcnean peninsula, separated from France by the Pyrenees. 
 
 The statements about the actual amount of the population dif- 
 fer materially, even in the so-called official reports ; for want of a 
 regular census of tlie people. Yet the estimation of 12,000,000 
 can, in all probability, not much fall short of the actual number 
 of inhabitants. Besides the Spaniards proper, or Castilians (as 
 they, in Spain, are called by way of eminence), there are 500.000 
 Basques (see Introduction, § 12) in the Basque provinces and 
 Navarre, about 60,000 Modejares, or descendants of the Moors, 
 and nearly 45,000 Gipsies The Roman Catholic is the estab- 
 lished church ; yet all other denominations are at present not 
 only tolerated but enjoy almost the same political privileges as 
 the Catholics. At least the recent endeavors of protestant mis- 
 sionaries to propagate the sound doctrines of the gospel among 
 the Spanish people, have met with far less obstacles than could 
 have been expected, considering the catholic zealotism pre- 
 vailing here formerly. In 1 830 the catholic clergy of Spain 
 numbered 8 archbishops (the archbishop of Toledo ranks fore- 
 most as primate), 77 bishops, 2.393 canons, 1,869 prebendaries, 
 16,481 curates, 4,929 vicars, 17,411 beneficiaries, 27,757 seculars 
 in orders, 15,015 sacristans, and 3,927 servitors. In the begin- 
 
SPAIN. 77 
 
 Geographical Features. 
 
 ning of the year 1835, there were still 1.940 monasteries with 
 30.906 monks, and a proportional number of nunneries with 
 about 24,000 nuns. But in the same year 884 of these cloisters 
 were abolished, and the sale of their estates had yielded (accord- 
 ing to official reports in June, 1835) a sum of 16,693,260 reals, 
 which was designed for the alleviation of the public charges. 
 "We shall soon see, under the head of Spanish finances, whether 
 this intention was realized or not. 
 
 Spain is thoroughly mountainous ; in regard to its chief moun- 
 tain range, the Sierra Nevada, and the other ranges, see Introduc- 
 tion, § 7, c ; and about the Spanish part of the Pyrenees, see § 7, b. 
 
 The rivers peculiar to Spain are the Ebro, Guadalaviar, Xucar, 
 Segura. and Guadalquivir, and those in common with Portugal : 
 the Tagus, Ducro, Minho, and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). 
 There is not any remarkable lake to be found throughout Spain, 
 the Albufera, near the city of Valencia, being rather a lagoon 
 than a lake. The Imperial canal (along the right bank of the 
 Ebro), and the canal of Castile, scarcely deserve to be mentioued 
 as canals. 
 
 The climate is generally mild and pleasant, except in some 
 tracts along the northern coast. The provinces of Valencia and 
 Murcia enjoy the charms of an almost perennial spring, while in 
 Granada and Andalusia the sugar-cane and other tropical pro- 
 ductions thrive. Noxious winds are the cold and rough Gallego 
 from the north, and the scorching and enfeebling Solano from 
 Africa ; yet they commonly do not last long. 
 
 The soil is generally very fertile except in some tracts of the 
 Sierra Morena, in Estremadura and Asturias, producing in 
 abundance, in most parts of Andalusia, and in the Mediterranean 
 provinces, the vine, the olive, and southern fruits (among them 
 the delicious pomegranate). 
 
 The natural riches of the country consist chiefly of salt (rock- 
 
18 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Natural Products of Spain. 
 
 salt in Catalonia ; spring salt in Valencia ; sea-salt in Valencia, 
 Sevilla. and on the Balearic Isles), olives, and other fruits of 
 southern Europe, wines -(the choicest sorts are those from Malaga, 
 Xeres, and Alicante), silk (in the southern provinces), horses (the 
 finest breed in Andalusia, and next in Asturias), mules (which in 
 Spain generally are preferred to the horses), and sheep, for which 
 latter Spain has been renowned since the middle ages. Besides 
 the merinos, there are two other less valuable breeds, called 
 Churros and Metis. During summer the sheep feed on the ele- 
 vated table lands of Castile and Leon, and are driven in winter 
 to the low plains of Estremadura, and the adjoining provinces. 
 Yet since the last civil war the flocks have greatly diminished in 
 number ; and moreover, the Spanish merinos have long since dis- 
 continued to outdo those of Germany and other countries. From 
 the remotest ages until the beginning of the 16th century, Spain 
 was renowned for the richness of her gold and silver mines, that 
 were worked successfully by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, 
 Moors, and finally by the Spaniards, but were closed since the 
 discovery of the exceedingly rich mines of Mexico and Peru. 
 In the most recent time they have been re-opened and worked 
 again so successfully, especially in Upper Andalusia, that in 1843 
 they yielded 229,090 marks of silver. For the rest, the Spanish 
 mines yield excellent copper (yet only 300 quintals in 1843), great 
 quantities of lead (next to England, Spain is said to possess the 
 richest lead-mines in Europe), and quicksilver (at Almaden in the 
 Castilian districts of La Mancha ; the annual produce is com- 
 puted at 20.000 quintals) ; moreover, iron (chiefly in the Basque 
 provinces ; the annual produce is on the increase), cobalt, alum, 
 etc. Agriculture, once so flourishing in the days of the Moorish 
 sway (see History of Europe, § 17, b), is long since in a backward 
 state ; chiefly wheat is raised. 
 
 With regard to other branches of industry, there are indeed 
 
SPAIN. 79 
 
 Industry— Commerce. 
 
 woollen, silk, cotton, and various other manufactories, still to be 
 found in Spain ; yet being unable to rival with those of Great 
 Britain, and the English having availed themselves of their 
 political influence, acquired during the last civil war, for tiie 
 purpose of exercising a kind of monopoly in Spain, the Spanish 
 manufactories are far from being in a prospering state. Since the 
 expulsion of the Moors (the last remnants of them were driven 
 away in 1609, and by this fanatic and insensate proceeding Spain 
 lost 800,000 of its most diligent and most industrious inhabi- 
 tants) Spain has ceased to be a manufacturing country. Only 
 the woollen manufactories of Castile, the damask and silk manu- 
 factories of Audalusia, the manufactories of arms in the north- 
 western, and the paper manufactories in the eastern provinces, 
 were prospering in the 17th century, while the cotton manufacto- 
 ries of Catalonia rose in the 18th century. Nevertheless the 
 woollen and silk looms did not exceed the number of 10,000 
 throughout Spain, and in 1768 there were in the whole country 
 not more than 2.200,000 operatives, mechanics, husbandmen, and 
 others depending for subsistence on handiwork. Since the 
 beginning of the present century, Spain has been in an almost 
 uninterrupted state of war, political convulsions, and internal 
 dilacerations, which has proved fatal to most of the existing 
 manufactures, and even to the commerce. The chief articles of 
 export are : wines, fruits of southern Europe, salt, olive oil, corks, 
 quicksilver, and a rather inconsiderable quantity of wool (scarcely 
 one tenth of the quantity which was formerly exported). Of 
 2.830 vessels that in 1844 entered the port of Cadiz, 2.060 were 
 Spanish coasters, while of the remainder 4S0 were English 
 vessels, 75 from the United States, 6 from Hamburg, 4 from 
 Bremen, 4 from Prussia, etc. Now let us see of what consist 
 the articles of import. Besides colonial produces and spices, they 
 consist chiefly of cloth, calicos, silks, linen, hardware, copper and 
 
80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 Education in Spain. 
 
 pewter utensils, glasswares, furniture, toys and trinkets, fancy 
 articles, timber, corn, flax, hemp, dried and salt fish, salted beef, 
 butter, cheese, poultry, and hogs. Now we ask, what conception 
 can be formed of the actual state of industry in a country where 
 kitchen and other domestic utensils, and even victuals, must be 
 imported ? 
 
 The means of education are in Spain in the same backward 
 state as in Portugal. According to the assertion of a member 
 of the Cortes in 1839. all Spain numbers not far above 900 schools 
 of every description. At this ratio. 13,333 Spaniards must resort 
 to one single school ! Nominally, there are still 8 universities : at 
 Salamanca (founded in 1222, and in 1845 frequented by 302 
 students), at Valladolid (founded in 1346, and in 1841 with 
 1,300 students), at Valencia (founded in 1401, and in 1841 with 
 1,600 students), at Saragossa (founded in 1474, and in 1841 with 
 1,100 students), at Seville (founded in 1504, and in 1845 with 
 800 students), at Granada (founded in 1531, and in 1845 with 
 810 students), at St. Jago (founded in 1532. and in 1845 with 
 1,030 students), and at Oviedo (founded in 1580, and in 1845 
 numbering- 450 students). Yet by all the distractions and revo- 
 lutions, brought on by the last civil war, they have been deprived 
 of most of their revenues, and many of their best teachers and 
 professors. The universities at Huesca (founded in 1354), at 
 Alcala (founded in 1499), at Toledo (founded in 1499), at Ori- 
 huela (founded in 1555), at Cervera (founded in 1717), and at 
 Palma (founded in 1827), have been transformed into secondary 
 schools. Of the first-named universities, only a few are endowed 
 with the privilege of instruction in all branches of science (see 
 note, or explanatory annotation, under the head of Portugal). 
 In 1832, there were still 56 colleges and seminaries, numbering 
 altogether 3,810 pupils, and moreover, 774 Latin schools (see the 
 
SPAIN. 81 
 
 (Jnwinment— Finances. 
 
 just-mentioned note) ; yet they likewise are at present in a mis- 
 erable condition. 
 
 Spain is a kingdom, and its government a limited hereditary 
 monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King, or Queen 
 (at present Isabella II, born in 1830, and at full age in 1843), 
 and a legislative body. Since the end of the 15th century, the 
 kings of Spain bear the predicate of " Catholic Majesty." in re- 
 membrance of the zeal for the catholic creed evinced by Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella in subduing the Moors (see History of Europe, 
 * 16). 
 
 There is scarcely any kingdom or state to be found in the 
 whole world, where the public finances are in such .decayed circum- 
 stances as in Spain. Every year brings a more or less consider- 
 able deficit, which in 1841 amounted to 174,421,846 reals. Ac- 
 cording to an official statement of the year 1845, its amount 
 would have been no more than 45. 112,665 reals, the expendi- 
 ture being rated at 1,250,635,353, and the revenue at 1,205,- 
 522 688 reals. Yet in reality the deficit amounted to more than 
 double that named sum, the revenue being designedly estimated 
 too high, while the expenditure had by far been exceeded. The 
 amount of the public debt does not fall short of the immense 
 sum of 20,000,000,000 reals (say in words : twenty thousand mil- 
 lions), besides about twenty millions of recently contracted debts, 
 partly not consolidated and partly without paying interest. Con- 
 sidering that the sale of the estates of convents (see above) has 
 yieldeJ large sums, and that in 1843 the Spanish silver mines 
 shall have yielded 229,090 marks of silver, it must at the first 
 sight appear strange, that the Spanish finances should be in such 
 miserable circumstances. Yet sifting the question to the bottom, 
 the riddle is soon solved. The leaders of the Spanish revolution 
 have been in the skill of making money quite as experienced and 
 assiduous as the leaders of the Portuguese revolution. Thus, 
 
 4* 
 
82 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Ministerial Corruption. 
 
 for instance, the Spanish minister of finances, Mr. Mcndizabal, 
 had been for years but a poor Jewish pedlar, jet by his shrewdness 
 he insinuated himself into the favor of the Queen Regent, Chris- 
 tiana, who appointed him Minister of Finances. This office fur- 
 nished ample opportunities for him to fill his pockets, as well as 
 those of his adherents and of his benefactress. He sold the 
 estates of convents, a great deal of church property, sacred 
 vessels, and utensils ; nay, even church-bells ; and according to 
 official returns from the month of June, 1835, the sum received 
 out of the sale of 559 estates of convents, amounted to 16,693,- 
 260 reals, and according to official returns from the same month, 
 1840, the sum received out of the sale of 31,433 estates of con- 
 vents and churches, amounted to 1,245,549,569 reals. Now it 
 is a fact that the Spanish people have not since been released from 
 a single item of their taxes, which number not less than 94 of 
 various descriptions : but, on the contrary, they have at present to 
 pay more taxes than ever, while the ci-devant poor pedlar, by his 
 industry in financial affairs, has amassed a fortune to the amount 
 of at least $3,000,000 ! If Mr. Mendizabal should be asked to give 
 an account of his stewardship, and to restore all property illegally 
 acquired, he would indeed be reduced to very low circumstances, 
 and that deservedly. For he has evidently despoiled the public 
 treasure of the Spanish nation, and to these spoiliations alone 
 does he owe his wealth. His predecessors as well as his succes- 
 sors in that lucrative office have practised the same arts, and in 
 this way acquired immense riches, while the Spanish nation has 
 been burdened with taxes at the ratio of more than 120 reals 
 per head. 
 
 The Spanish army, notwithstanding the unsettled state of the 
 political institutions of Spain in general, is in good order, for 
 the plain reason of being the principal support of the present 
 rulers. It numbers nearly 100,000 men, and is arranged in 31 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Army— Navy -Orders of Honor. 
 
 regiments and 3 battalions of foot, 18 regiments of cavalry, and 
 about 12,600 artillerists, etc. The Spanish navy is scarcely 
 worthy to be mentioned. In 1802 it numbered not less than 68 
 ships of the line, 40 frigates, etc. ; but in 1834 it was reduced to 
 2 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 smaller men of war, and at 
 present most of them have become disqualified for service. This 
 being the state of facts, the once so important and renowned 
 navy-departments (as they were styled) of Ferrol, Cadiz, and 
 Carthagena have been abolished, and reduced to one navy station 
 at Cadiz. 
 
 The Spanish orders of honor are the following : 1. The order of 
 the golden fleece, instituted in 1430 by Philip the Bountiful, duke 
 of Burgundy.* 2. The order of Maria Louisa, instituted by the 
 Queen Maria Louise (-f- 1819) only for ladies. 3. The order of 
 Charles III, instituted by this king in 1771. 4. The military 
 order of St. Ferdinand, instituted by Ferdinand VII. in 1815. 
 5. The military order of St. Hermenegild, instituted by Ferdinand 
 VII., in 1815. 6. The so-called Navy-order for distinguished 
 seamen, instituted in 1816 by the same king. 7. The order of 
 St. Isabella, from the year 1815. 8. The military order of Maria 
 Louisa Isabella, instituted in 1833 by Ferdinand VII. Besides 
 these there are still to be mentioned the following religious orders 
 of knighthood: the orders of Calatrava (instituted in 1158), of 
 St. J ago de Composlella (instituted in 1 170), of Alcantara (insti- 
 tuted in 1177), and of Montesa (instituted in 1319). 
 
 * The present kingdom of Belgium and Holland constituted the ancient 
 duchy of Burgundy, whose only heiress, Mary, was married to Prince Maxi- 
 milian of Austria, the grandfather of King Charles I. of Spain. Thus since 
 the beginning of the 16th century the duchy of Burgundy was one of the 
 constituent parts of the Spanish kingdom until the year 1714, when the 
 remaining Burgundian provinces were ceded to Austria. For this reason, the 
 originally Burgundian order of the golden fleece has become an Austrian as 
 well as a Spanish order. 
 
84 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Spain. 
 
 History. — The aborigines of Spain (which, in the Old Testament, e. g., Ezek. 
 xxvii. 12, is called Tarshish), in as far as they are noticed by history, were 
 the Iberians and the Celts (see Introduction, § 12), both descendants of 
 Japheth, and immigrated here at an unknown period. The former prevailed 
 in the eastern and southern, and the hitter in the western and northern part 
 of the country. The Celts having in the course of time been intermingled 
 with the Iberians, were since called Celtiberians. But these people lost their 
 political independence at a very early period, when the Phoenicians came 
 hither, settled here (they founded, for instance, Cadiz), reaped great profit from, 
 the rich gold and silver mines (see above), and forced the aborigines to work 
 them. Next to the Phoenicians came the Carthaginians, who treated the 
 aborigines like savages and slaves, as also the Romans did, who since the 
 year 206, before the Christian era, became gradually possessed of the Cartha- 
 ginian settlements in Spain, though they did not finally conquer all Spain 
 anterior to the year 25, B. C. The whole Pyrenean peninsula became a, 
 Roman province, with Roman language, and Roman customs and manners. 
 Before the time of the Emperor Augustus, the peninsula was divided into 
 Hisponia citerior, or Tarraconensis (all the country between the Pyrenees and 
 the Ebro River), and Hispania ulterior, or Lusitania (Portugal), and Baetica 
 (all parts of Spain situated to the south of the Ebro River). At the time of 
 Augustus, the province of Tarraconensis comprised the whole northern and 
 north-western part of the peninsula, and Baetica comprised the south-eastern 
 part, or Andalusia and Murcia. Lusitania comprised all Portugal with the 
 exception of the provinces on the north side of the Douro. At the time of 
 Emperor Constantine, the extreme north-western part of Tarraconensis was 
 called Gallaecia (Galicia), and the extreme south-eastern part of Baetica was 
 called Carthaginiensis (Murcia). Since the beginning of the migration of 
 nations, Germanic tribes immigrated and settled in the Pyrenean peninsula 
 (see History of Europe, §§ 2 and 3); at first (in 409 and the following years) 
 the Alans, Sueves, and Vandals. The Alans settled chiefly in Lusitania and 
 Carthaginiensis, the Sueves in Gallaecia, Baetica, etc., and the Vandals first in 
 the north and subsequently in Baetica (hence its name Vandalitia, or, at 
 present, Andalusia). Yet in 428 the Vandals emigrated to Africa and con- 
 quered its northern part, at present called Barbary. In 414 the Visigoths 
 invaded Spain, subdued the Alans and Sueves together with the last remnnnts 
 of the Romans, and were in the 6th century masters of the Avhole peninsula. 
 About the invasion of the Moors, the gradual foundation of Christian king- 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 History of Spain— House of Hapsburgh— of Bourbon. 
 
 doras, etc., see History of Europe, §§ 10, 14, and 16, where we left Spain 
 under the sway of King Charles I., with whom began the reign of the house 
 of Hapsburg in Spain. Charles I., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1516, 
 resigned in 1556, and was succeeded by his son Philip II., who was the most 
 powerful king in Europe at that period. He was the ruler not only of Spain, 
 but likewise of the Netherlands, of Naples, of the islands of Sicily and Sar- 
 dinia, of the duchy of Milan, of the Canarian and Philippine Islands, and of 
 the immense colonies in America and partly in Africa Since the year 1580 
 he became moreover possessed of Portugal and its colonies (see History of 
 Portugal). Yet Spain itself derived no real benefit either from her rich 
 American colonies (for instead of staying at home to cultivate the soil, the 
 inhabitants crossed the ocean in search of gold and silver), nor from the power 
 of her king, who, by his perpetual wars, burdened Spain with a heavy public 
 debt. Philip II. died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III. 
 (1598-1621). Then succeeded Philip IV. (1621-1665), and Charles II. (1665 
 -1700). With Charles II. the male line of the house of Hapsburg, in Spain, 
 became extinct, and now the female line was to succeed. The chief pretenders 
 to the throne were the French prince Philip of Anjou (great-grandson of 
 Philip IV.), and the Austrian Archduke Charles (subsequently emperor of 
 Germany), great-grandson of Philip III., both by their grandmothers. As 
 the parties did not come to an accommodation, a war ensued, known by the 
 name of the Spanish war of succession, which lasted from the year 1701 to 
 1714. England and Holland partook in it by the instigation of William III., 
 prepossessed by his fancies of European equilibrium (see History of Europe, 
 § 18), and filled with personal hatred against Louis XIV., the grandfather of 
 prince Philip. The German empire and the duke of Savoy partook likewise in 
 this war. At last, in the treaties of peace concluded in 1713 at Utrecht, and in 
 1714 at Rastadt, matters were settled thus : the prince of Anjou, or Philip V., 
 was acknowledged as king of Spain and both Indies (such was the title since the 
 possession of the colonies in America, etc.). Charles, or the house of Austria, 
 acquired the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy with the excep- 
 tion of the island of Sardinia, which was ceded to the duke of Savoy, henceforth 
 entitled king of Sardinia. England became possessed of Gibraltar and of the 
 island of Minorca (the latter until the year 1755), and Holland acquired — noth- 
 ing, in reward for all its sacrifices made to the fancies and immoderate ambition 
 of William III. With Philip V. (1701-1746) the house of Bourbon ascended 
 the throne of Spain. In 1713 he convocated the Spanish cortes, or states 
 
8G EUROPti, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Spain — Its Provinces. 
 
 (the legitimate representatives of the Spanish nation), chiefly for the purpose 
 to fix the order of succession permanently. In agreement with the king this 
 legislative body laid down as a rule, that only the male descendants of the 
 reigning family should ascend the Spanish throne ; and thus the so-called Salic 
 law (which excludes all females from the throne) became a fundamental law 
 of the kingdom. The successors of Philip V. were: Ferdinand VI. (1746 
 -1759), Charles III. (1759-1788), Charles IV. (1788-1808). In 1808 Napo- 
 leon enticed both Charles IV. and his eldest son (subsequently King Ferdinand 
 VII.) to renounce their rights to the Spanish crown in favor of the French 
 emperor, who now appointed his brother Joseph king of Spain. Yet Great 
 Britain intervened, and the ensuing peninsular war ended in the restoration 
 of the Bourbons in Spain, whither Ferdinand VII. (his father having resigned) 
 returned in 1814. During his reign, Spain lost her colonies on the American 
 continent; a far greater evil was, however, the king's weakness in listening to 
 female intrigues and excluding his brother Charles, the legitimate heir of the 
 throne, from the succession, in favor of his daughter Isabella. This act, as 
 arbitrary as illegal, being in contradiction with the clear terms of the funda- 
 mental law (see above), would indeed have been of little consequence but for 
 the interposition of the French revolution of 1830, and the busy intermeddling 
 of Louis Philipe and Lord Palmer ston (the British secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs), who nourished in Spain the flames of civil war for more than six 
 years, and supported, by the whole weight of their power and influence, the 
 pretensions of the Queen Regent Maria Christiana (since the year 1833, when 
 Ferdinand VII. died) and her infant daughter. How matters went on during 
 this period, is manifested by the facts above stated under the head of finances, 
 means of education, navy, etc. 
 
 In 1833 Spain was divided into 48 departments, and their 
 names were derived from their capitals. Yet since the middle 
 ages Spain has been divided into 17 provinces, styled (with two 
 single exceptions) kingdoms and principalities ; and as their 
 names continually occur in history and other reading, we shall 
 retain them in the following topographical descriptions ; denoting 
 only the capitals of departments with this sign: +. It may 
 still be remarked that the 1 1 provinces, beginning with New Cas- 
 tile and ending with Murcia, are called the dominions of the 
 
SPAIN. 87 
 
 Geography— Statistics. 
 
 crown of Castile, and the remainder the dominions of the crown 
 of Aragoii (sec History of Europe, § 16). 
 
 1. The kingdom of New Castile, near the centre of the peninsula, and sepa- 
 rated from the Mediterranean Sea by Valencia and Andalusia. It was 
 wrested in 1085 from the Moors by Ferdinand surnamed the Holy, and con- 
 tains the following cities and towns : -f- Madrid, the capital of all Spain, and 
 (since the year 1560) royal residence, on the Manzanares, a branch of the 
 Tagus, south-westward and 240 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), is 
 situated on a sandy and sterile table-land, and numbers 9,000 houses, and 
 according to the census of 1847, about 207,000 (exactly, 206,714) inhabitants. 
 The royal castle is an extremely large and very magnificent building. There 
 are many other noble edifices, besides 77 churches. The royal library num- 
 bers 250,000 volumes. Among the beautiful walks of the city the most 
 frequented are the celebrated " Prado" and the " Paseo de las delicias/' At 
 the Prado is situated the royal palace Buen Retiro (built during the reign of 
 Philip IV.), with extensive gardens. About 7 miles distant from Madrid is 
 situated the royal castle of pleasure el Pardo (built in the 16th century) ; and 
 between 4 and 5 miles distant from the capital is another castle, called Villa 
 viciosa, where Ferdinand VIL died in 1833. Alcala de Henares, a town on 
 the Henares River, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of 
 Cervantes, the celebrated Spanish poet. The former university of Alcala 
 (see above) was next to that of Salamanca the most renowned in Spain- 
 -j- Toledo, a city on the Tagus, south-south-west and 27 miles distant from 
 Madrid, with silk and sword-blade manufactories, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
 In the middle ages Toledo was the largest city in the Christian part of Spai^ 
 and in the 14th century it numbered 200,000 inhabitants. The magnificent 
 cathedral was during several centuries a Moorish mosque. The archbishop 
 of Toledo had formerly an annual revenue of- 300,000 ducats. Aranjuez, a 
 town on the Tagus, southward and 27 miles distant from Madrid, with 4,000 
 inhabitants, and with a splendid royal castle of pleasure (founded by Philip 
 II.),where the court uses to reside in the season between Easter and Whitsuntide. 
 In the vicinity of Aranjuez is situated the town of Ocana (with 12,000 inhabi- 
 tants) noted for the victory of the French over the Spaniards in 1809. Tala- 
 vera de la Reyna, a town on the Tagus, south-westward and 64 miles distant 
 from Madrid, with 8,000 inhabitants. It was formerly renowned for its silk 
 manufactories, and is remarkable for Wellington's victory over the French on 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Statistics, etc.— Old Castile. 
 
 the 27th and 28th of March, 1809. -j- Guadalaxaka, a town on the Henares, 
 north- westward and 37 miles distant from Madrid, with cloth manufactories, 
 and 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Siguenza (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), and Brihuega (with 2,000 inhabitants). -f~ Cuen^a, a town 
 on the Xucar, south-south-east and 83 miles distant from Madrid, with 9,000 
 inhabitants. Molina and Requena, towns with respectively 5,000 and 6,000 
 inhabitants. The southern part of New Castile is called La Mancha, on the 
 south bordered by Andalusia, and on the west by Estremadura. It contains : 
 -\- Ciudad Real, capital of La Mancha, near the Guadiana, southward and 
 92 miles distant from Madrid, with the most renowned mule marts in Spain, 
 and 8,000 inhabitants. Almaden, a town near the frontier of Andalusia, 
 with 10,000 inhabitants, and a mining academy, is noted for its rich quicksil- 
 ver mines (see above). Other towns of La Mancha are : Valdepenas (with 
 8,000 inhabitants), Almagro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Alcaraz (with 3,500 
 inhabitants), Calatrava and Manzanares. 
 
 2. The kingdom of Old Castile, on the north side of New Castile, extend- 
 ing northward to the Bay of Biscay. It was originally a country under the 
 sway of the kings of Leon, until in 1016 it was raised to the rank of a king- 
 dom. It contains : -\- Burgos, fortified capital of Old Castile, on the Arlan- 
 zon River, northward and 138 miles distant from Madrid, with a magnificent 
 Gothic cathedral (containing the sepulchres of many Spanish kings), and 
 12,000 inhabitants. At Burgos are still the remnants of the house in which 
 the famous Spanish warrior, Ruy Dias de Vivar, surnamed the Cid, was born 
 in 1026. He died in 1099, and was buried in the neighboring monastery of 
 San Pedro de Cardena. Other towns in this district are : Aranda de JDuero 
 and Laredo. -{- Santander, a fortified maritime town on the Bay of Biscay, 
 westward and 115 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), with a good har- 
 bor, rather active commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other, but smaller 
 neighboring seaports are : Santana and Santillana. The town of Espinosa 
 de los Monteros (with 2,000 inhabitants) is remarkable for the victory of the 
 French over the British and Spaniards, on the 12th of November, 1808. 
 Briviesca, a fortified town with 2,500 inhabitants. Near Pancorvo is an im- 
 portant mountain pass on the high-road between Burgos and Vittoria, -{- Lo- 
 grono, a fortified town on the Ebro, eastward and 70 miles distant from 
 Burgos, with fairs, and 8,000 inhabitants, -4- Calahorra, a town on the table- 
 land, called Rioja, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted as the birth-place of 
 the ancient Roman author Quintilianus. Medina Cell, a town with 1,200 in- 
 
SPAIN. 89 
 
 Statistics, etc. — Leon. 
 
 habitants. -f~ Soria, a town on the Duero, south-eastward and 78 miles dis 
 tant from Burgos, with considerable trade in wool, and 6,000 inhabitants 
 Here or close by stood the ancient town of Numantia. Osma, a town near 
 the Duero, with 4.000 inhabitants. -(- Segovia, a town on the Erasma River, 
 southward and 92 miles distant from Burgos, with a remarkable old castle, 
 once the seat of Gothic and Moorish kings, 22 churches, and 13,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Between Segovia and Madrid is situated the town of Sa?i lldefonso, 
 with 4,300 inhabitants, and the royal castle La Granja, built in 1716 by the 
 model of the palace of Versailles. In a wilderness of the Guadarrama 
 Mountains, 23 miles west-north-west of Madrid, is situated the town (with 
 2,000 inhabitants) and celebrated palace of Escurial, built in the years 
 1563-1584, at an expense of 5,000,000 ducats, by order of Philip II., in re- 
 membrance of his victory over the French at St. Quentin in 1557. The edi- 
 fice, half palace, half monastery, is 740 feet long, 580 feet wide and 60 feet 
 high, and has 5,000 windows. Chincfion, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, 
 -f- Avila, a town on the Adaja River, 55 miles west-north-west of Madrid, 
 with a remarkable Gothic cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. Until the year 
 1808 was here a university, founded in 1482. Other towns of this district 
 are : Piedrahita and Arevalo (with 4,500 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The kingdom of Leon, between Old Castile and Portugal, and separated 
 from the Bay of Biscay by Asturias. About its history, see History of 
 Europe, § 16. It contains : -(-Leon, capital of Leon, 170 miles north-north- 
 west of Madrid, with an ancient Gothic cathedral considered as the finest in 
 all Spain, 7 other churches, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- 
 trict are : Astorga (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sahagun (with a formerly cele- 
 brated Benedictine abbey, and 4,000 inhabitants), and JSembibre (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), -j- Palencia, a town on the Carrion River, south-westward and 
 41 miles distant from Burgos, with a beautiful cathedral, and 11,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Torquemada and Saldaaa, towns with respectively 2,300 and 4,000 
 inhabitants, -(-Valladolid, a town on the Pisuerga, 100 miles north-north- 
 west of Madrid, with a royal castle, in which Philip II. and several of his 
 ancestors were born, a magnificent cathedral, a university (see above), and 
 21,000 inhabitants. At Valladolid Columbus died in 1506, and at that period 
 its population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis-. 
 trict are: Medina del Rio seco (with 8,000 inhabitants, and noted for the 
 battle on the 14th of August, 1808), Tudela (with 2,000 inhabitants, and noted 
 for the battle on the 22d of November, 1808), Tordesillas (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 
90 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Statistics, etc.— Asturias— Galicia. 
 
 tants). and Simaneas (with 1,200 inhabitants), -[-Zamora, a fortified town on 
 the Dnero, and near the frontier of Portugal, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Fermoselle and Toro, towns on the Duero, with respectively 3.000 and 8,000 
 inhabitants, -j- Salamanca, a town on the Tonnes (with an ancient Roman 
 bridge), north-westward and 115 miles distant from Madrid, has since the 
 middle ages been celebrated for its university (see ante), contains a re- 
 markable cathedral, 24 other churches, and numerous magnificent public edi- 
 fices in general, but at present only 15,000 inhabitants. Battle on the 21st 
 of July, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo, a fortified town near the frontier of Portu- 
 gal, with 5,000 inhabitants. Wellington's victory in 1812. Other towns of 
 this district are ; Ledesma (with 2,000), Bejar (with 5,000), and Alba de Tor- 
 mes (with 4,000 inhabitants). 
 
 4. The principality of Asturias, along the Bay of Biscay, between Old 
 Castile and Galicia, and on the south bordered by Leon. (About its history 
 see History of Europe, § 16.) The crown-princes of Spain are, by way 
 of eminence, titled princes of Asturias. Tins province contains : -\- Oviedo, 
 the capital of Asturias, half way between Bilbao and Coruna, with a univer- 
 sity (see above), 5 churches (one of which is remarkable for its high steeple), 
 and 10,000 inhabitants. Gijon, a maritime town, 18 miles north-east of Oviedo, 
 with 6,000 inhabitants. Gijon was the primitive seat of Pelayo (see History 
 of Europe, § 10), whose successors were called kings of Gijon, until Alphonso 
 the Chaste assumed the title of king of Oviedo. Other towns of Asturias 
 are : Villa viciosa, Cudillero, Aviles, Mures, Navia, and Cangas de Onis. 
 
 5. The kingdom of Galicia, forming the extreme north-western part both 
 of Spain and of the peninsula. It was at an early period wrested from the 
 Moors, and in 1060 raised to the rank of a kingdom by Ferdinand, king of 
 Castile and Leon. It contains : -(- Corunna, fortified capital of Galicia and 
 maritime town, northward and 156 miles distant from Oporto, with a 
 very spacious harbor, packet lines to the "West Indies and Falmouth, various 
 manufactories, commerce, and 23,000 inhabitants. North-eastward and 23 
 miles distant from Corunna, is situated the fortified town of Ferrol (with 
 13,000 inhabitants), formerly the principal station of the Spanish navy. St. 
 Jago de Compostella, a town southward and 32 miles distant from Corunna, 
 with 28,000 inhabitants, a university, numerous linen and other manufactories, 
 and a very large cathedral, to which since the 9th century innumerable pil- 
 grims have resorted, as containing the bones of St. James the Less according 
 to general belief Betanzos, a maritime town, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Statistic:*, utc.—Kstmnadnra— Andalusia. 
 
 -j- Lugo, a town near the head of the Minho River, with a remarkable cathe- 
 dral, and 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district arc : Mondohedo 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), Ribadeo (with 2,000 inhabitants), Viverro (with 
 1,800 inhabitants), and Redondela. ^-Orense, a town on the Minho, with a 
 remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. -|- Pontevedra, a maritime 
 town, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Tuy (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), and Vigo (with active commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants). 
 
 6. The province of Estremadura, between New Castile and Portugal, bor- 
 dered on the south by Andalusia. It was conquered in 713 by the Moors, 
 and wrested from them in the 11th and 13th century. It contains: -[-Bada- 
 joz, strongly fortified capital of Estremadura, near the frontier of Portugal, 
 eastward and 138 miles distant from Lisbon, and south-westward and 170 miles 
 distant from Madrid, with 13,000 inhabitants. Olivenca, a fortified town quite 
 near the frontier of Portugal, to which kingdom it belonged until the year 1801, 
 when it was ceded to Spain ; it numbers 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 tliis district are : Xeres de los Cavalier os (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zafra (with 
 10,000 inhabitants), Llerena (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Merida (with 9,000 
 inhabitants), -j- Caceres, a town on the river of the same name, with 1 0,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Truxillo (native place of Pizarro, 
 with 4,000 inhabitants), Coria (with 4,500 inhabitants), Alcantara (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Ahnaraz (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Plasencia (115 miles west- 
 south-west of Madrid, with 7,000 inhabitants). Eastward and 23 miles distant 
 from the last-named town, is the delightful valley of la Vera de Plasencia, with 
 the famous convent of San Geronimo de Juste (founded in 1410), where King 
 Charles I. died in 1558. 
 
 7, 8, and 9. Andalusia, comprising the southern part of Spain, and con- 
 taining the following three provinces, styled kingdoms, and wrested from the 
 Moors chiefly during the 13th century: — a. The kingdom of Seville, contain- 
 ing : -4- Seville, the capital of this province, as well as in some respects of 
 Andalusia too, on the Guadalquivir, 46 miles north-north-east of Cadiz, is 16 
 miles in circuit, and has 13,500 houses, but at present only 91,000 inhabitants, 
 while under the sway of the Moors it numbered 500,000 inhabitants. Seville 
 abounds in magnificent ancient buildings and edifices, and among them are the 
 splendid cathedral, the steeple named Giralda (364 feet in height), an ancient 
 Roman aqueduct, an ancient palace of the Moorish kings, etc. Other cities 
 
 ^and towns ofr this district are : San Lucar, surnamed de Barrameda (seaport 
 of Seville, with considerable commerce and 20,000 inhabitants), Utrera (with 
 
92 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Statistic?, etc.— Seville— Cordova. 
 
 11,000 inhabitants), Carmona (with 13,000 inhabitants), Ossuna (with 15,000 
 inhabitants), and Fcija (with 35,000 inhabitants). -j-Huelva, a maritime 
 town, 55 miles west-south-west of Sevilla, with 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near 
 Huelva is situated the little town and seaport of Palos, from which Columbus 
 Failed on his first voyage to America. Other towns of tliis district are : Niebla 
 (with 9,000 inhabitants), Moguer (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Ayamonte 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants). -[-Cadiz, a strongly fortified city and chief senport 
 of Spain, on the Isle of Leon, with 70,000 inhabitants. Cadiz is not only one 
 of the oldest towns of Europe (see History of Spain), but since the years 
 1717 and 1726, the centre of the rich trade with America and India (until 
 that period, Seville had been the centre). So late as in the year 1 803, the 
 imports of Cadiz were $61,000,000 in value. On the other or eastern end of 
 the named isle, is situated the town of Isla de Leox, or San Fernando, with 
 15,000 inhabitants, and in its vicinity the village of Las Cabezas de San Juan, 
 where, on the 1st of January, 1820, the military revolution, contrived by 
 Riego, took place. On the continental part of this district are situated the 
 following towns : Puerto de Santa Maria (with 20,000 inhabitants), Puerto 
 Real (with 7,000 inhabitants), Medina Sidonia (with 10,000 inhabitants), 
 Chiclana (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Conil (with 1,500 inhabitants). Off 
 Cape Trafalgar (23 miles south-east of Cadiz) the British gained the great 
 naval victory on the 21st of October, 1805, at which the renowned admiral 
 Lord Nelson was killed. Between this cape and Gibraltar are situated the 
 towns of A Igeziras (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarifa (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
 and San Roque (with 3,000 inhabitants). Xeres de la Frontera. a city 
 situated north-eastward, and 14 miles from Cadiz, is noted for its excellent 
 wines, and has 60,000 inhabitants. Near this city it was where, in 711, the 
 Visigoths were defeated by the Moors in a battle that lasted nine days. 
 Areos de la Frontera, a town 14 miles north-east of Xeres de la Frontera, 
 12,000 inhabitants. Zahara, a small town at the head of the Gaudaleta River, 
 and situated on a rock, with houses cut out in the rock b. The kingdom of 
 Cordova, containing : -f- Cordova, capital of this province, and once the 
 splendid residence of the Moorish caliphs (see History of Europe, §§16 and 
 17), at which period its population amounted to about 1,000,000 inhabitants, 
 while at present it numbers only 60,000. The city is situated on the right 
 bank of the Guadalquivir, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from Cadiz, 
 and contains an exceedingly large and splendid cathedral (cflce a Moorish 
 mosque), and, moreover, an ancient Moorish palace of great extent. Cordova 
 
SPAIN. 
 Stat istirs, etc.— Gibraltar— Granada. 
 
 was captured by the Christians in 1236. Other towns of this province are: 
 Lucena (with 12,000 inhabitants), Montilla (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bujalance 
 (with 9,000 inhabitants), Baena (with 4,800 inhabitants), Castro del Rio (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Fuente Ovejuna (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Priego (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), c. The kingdom of J aen, containing : -j-Jaex, capital of 
 this province, in a delightful country, southward and 196 miles distant from 
 Madrid, with a remarkable cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Jaen surren- 
 dered to the Christians in 1245. Other towns of this province are: Andujar 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), Baeza (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ubeda (with 16,000 
 inhabitants), Alcala la Real (with 9,000 inhabitants), Martos (with 14,000 
 inhabitants), Alcaudete (with 4,000 inhabitants), Linares (with 5,600 inhabi- 
 tants), and Baylen (with 2,500 inhabitants). Near the last-named town, the 
 French general Dupont fell into a narrow pass and saw himself obliged to 
 surrender, with 8,000 men, to the Spaniards, in 1808. Carolina is the chief 
 town of the German colonies in the Sierra Morena, founded in 1767 by the 
 Spanish minister Olavides, and has 2,500 inhabitants, chiefly Germans. 
 
 Gibraltar, at the southern extremity of Spain, is the strongest fortified 
 town in the world, with a garrison of 3,000 men, and 17,000 inhabitants. 
 This place was captured by the British in 1704, who have held it ever since. 
 
 10. The kingdom of Granada, frequently also called Upper Andalusia, on 
 the west and north bordered by Andalusia, and on the south by the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea. It was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492 (see 
 History of Europe, § 16), and contains: -f- Granada, capital of this province, 
 and, until the year 1492, the residence of the last Moorish king in Spain, on the 
 Xenil River and at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, north eastward and 46 miles 
 distant from Malaga, with 80,000 inhabitants, a university, a splendid cathedral 
 (containing the sepulchres of Ferdinand anlf Isabella), 22 other churches, some 
 manufactories, and highly remarkable edifices built by the Moors. Among 
 the latter ranks first the Alhambra, the fortified castle of the ancient Moorish 
 kings. Another Moorish palace is called Generalife. Other towns of this 
 district are : Alhama (with 6.500 inhabitants), Guadix (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
 Motril (with 12,000 inhabitants), Loxa (with 14,000 inhabitants), Baza (with 
 12,000 inhabitants), and Uxijar, the chief town of the so-called Alpujarras, 
 with important lead mines. -4- Malaga, a maritime town, north-eastward and 
 69 miles distant from Gibraltar, is famous for its wines and fruits, and contains 
 62,000 inhabitants, who carry on a very active commerce. Other towns of 
 this district are: Velez Malaga (with 14,000 inhabitants), Ronda (with 18,000 
 
94 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Statistics, etc.— Murcia, Aragon, Catalonia. 
 
 inhabitants), Antequcra (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Marbella (with 4,300 
 inhabitants). -{-Almeria, a maritime town, eastward and 110 miles distant 
 from Malaga, with 20,000 inhabitants. In the 14th century, Almeria was the 
 emporium of the kingdom of Granada. Velez el Rubio, a town with 12,000 
 inhabitants. Cuevas, a small town. 
 
 11. The kingdom of Murcia, between Andalusia and Valencia, containing: 
 -f- Murcia, capital of this province, on the Segura, south-eastward and 221 
 miles distant from Madrid, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, important silk 
 trade, and 86,000 inhabitants. Carthagena, a fortified maritime town, and 
 formerly a station of the Spanish navy, with one of the best harbors in the 
 Mediterranean and 37,000 inhabitants. Carthagena was founded by the Car- 
 thaginians about 230 years before the Christian era. Lorca, a town in a 
 most fertile country, 42 miles west-north-west of Carthagena, with copper and 
 lead mines, and 25,000 inhabitants. -J- Albacete, a town near the frontier of 
 New Castile, with important markets for cattle, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this district are: Chinchilla (with 11,000 inhabitants), Villena (with 
 9,000 inhabitants), and Almanm (noted for the victory gained by the Span, 
 iards over the English, Dutch, and Portuguese, in 1707). 
 
 12. The kingdom of Aragon, between Catalonia and both Castiles, bordered 
 on the north by the Pyrenees (about its history, see History of Europe, § 16), 
 containing : -\- Saragossa, strongly fortified capital of Aragon, on the Ebro, 
 north-eastward and 184 miles distant from Madrid, with a university, 18 
 churches, thriving commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. Famous siege by the 
 French in 1808 and 1809. Other towns of this district are: Borja (with 
 3,200 inhabitants), Tarrazona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Calatayud (with 9,000 
 inhabitants), Daroca (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Fraga (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants). -[-Teruel, a town on the Guadalaviar, southward and 83 miles 
 distant from Saragossa, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district, 
 are : Alcaniz (with 5,000 inhabitants), Albarracin (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Cantavieja (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Montalban. -j-Huesca, a town on 
 the Isuela, 37 miles north-north-east of Saragossa, with a secondary school, 
 formerly a university (see above), and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this district are: Jaca (with 3,000 inhabitants), Mequinenza (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Monzon (with 3,200 inhabitants), Barbastro (with 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Ainsa. 
 
 13. The principality of Catalonia, comprising the extreme north-eastern 
 part of Spaia (About its history and important commerce in the middle 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Statistics, etc.— Catalonia— Valencia. 
 
 ages, see History of Europe, §§16 and 17.) It contains: -j- Barcelona, 
 fortified capital of Catalonia, the principal manufacturing town in Spain, and 
 rivalling Cadiz in commerce, on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 200 
 miles south-west of Marseilles (in France), has (including the suburb of Bar- 
 cclcmetta) a population of about 150,000 inhabitants, numerous magnificent 
 public edifices, 82 churches, etc Northward and 20 miles distant from Bar- 
 celona is Mo.vtserrat, a single mountain 3,937 feet high, was before the last 
 civil war famous for its hermits and the number of pilgrims who visited it. 
 Other towns of this district are : Manresa (with 9,000 inhabitants), Martorell 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants), Mataro (with 13,000 inhabitants), Igualada (with 
 12,000 inhabitants), Vique or Vich (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarrasa (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca de Panades (with 6,000 inhabitants). 
 -f- Tarragona, a maritime town, 46 miles west-south-west of Barcelona, with 
 a remarkable cathedral, many Roman antiquities, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this district are : Reus (with 25,000 inhabitants, and the sea- 
 port of Salou), Vails (with 9,000 inhabitants), Tortosa (strongly fortified, and 
 with 16,000 inhabitants), and Villanueva (with 9,000 inhabitants). Alf agues 
 or San Carlo is a sea-port, -f- Lerida, a fortified town on the Segre, and near 
 the frontier of Aragon, westward and 73 miles- distant from Barcelona, with 
 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Balagaer (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), Cardona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cervera (with 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Sohona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Urgel or Seu eT Urgel (with 3,200 
 inhabitants), Puycerda or Puigcerda (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Campredon 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), -p Gerona, a fortified town on the Ter, 55 miles 
 north-north-east of Barcelona, with a beautiful cathedral, and 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Figueras, a town at the foot of the Pyrenees, with 5,000 inhabitants, 
 and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, called San Fernando. 
 Other towns of this district are : Rosas (with 2,000 inhabitants), Arens de 
 Mar (with 4,000 inhabitants), Castello de Ampurias (now only with 1,500, 
 but during the sway of the Romans with 100,000 inhabitants), Cadaqnes 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Hostalrich (with 3,000 inhabitants). About the 
 little republic of Andorra, see under the head of France. 
 
 14. The kingdom of Valencia, between New Castile and the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea, on the south bordered by Murcia, and on the north by Aragon and 
 Catalonia. Since the year 788 a Moorish kingdom, it was conquered in 1238 
 by the Christian king of Aragon. The Valencians are distinguished by their 
 industry and diligence, and for this reason Valencia is the best cultivated 
 
96 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Statistics, tic. — Balearic Islands. 
 
 province of Spain. It contains : -f- Valencia, the capital of this province, on 
 the Guadalaviar and quite near its mouth, south-eastward and 193 miles 
 distant from Madrid, with a university and numerous other literary institu- 
 tions, important book-trade and silk manufactories, a magnificent cathedral 
 and 72 other churches, and 66,000 inhabitants. Its seaport is called Gran. 
 Northward and 32 miles distant from Valencia is situated Murviedro, a town 
 with 6,000 inhabitants, and in ancient ages famous by the name of Sagunt. 
 Other towns of this district are: Liria (with 12,000 inhabitants), San Felipe 
 (with 15,000 inhabitants, founded by Philip V. in place of the town of Xativa, 
 which in 1714 was demolished), Carcarente (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
 Alcira (with 9,000 inhabitants). -4-Castellon de la Plana, a maritime 
 town, 55 miles north-north-east of Valencia, with 15,000 inhabitants.* Near 
 the coast are the uninhabited isles of Columbretes. Other towns of this district 
 are : Peniscola (with 2,500 inhabitants), Vinaroz (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
 Scgorbe (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cervera and Morella. -f- Alicante, a mari- 
 time town, southward and 83 miles distant from Valencia, with important 
 wine-trade and salt-works, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 district are : Orihuela (with 26,000 inhabitants), Elche (with 20,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Alcoy (with 18,000 inhabitants), Gandia (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 JDcnia (with 2,000 inhabitants), Guardamar (with 2,000 inhabitants), and 
 Bcnidorme (with 2,500 inhabitants). 
 
 15. The kingdom of Majorca, or the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea, opposite to the coast of Valencia. The Carthaginians were for a long 
 time possessed of these islands, which subsequently were conquered by the 
 Romans. In 429 A. D. the Vandals settled here, and since the year 198 
 the Moors took possession of the islands, which were wrested from them in 
 the years 1229-1254 by King James I. of Aragon. There are altogether -1 
 islands, and two of them (Majorca and Minorca) are emphatically named L'a- 
 learic, while the two other (Ivica and Formentera) are called the Pithyuxicn 
 Islands. The island of Majorca (area : 1,342 square miles ; population : 200,000 
 inhabitants) contains: -f- Palma, fortified capital, with a secondary school, for- 
 merly a university, a remarkable cathedral, and 34,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of the island are: Alcudia (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Soller (with 
 5,600 inhabitants). The island of Minorca (area : 256 square miles ; popu- 
 lation : 50,000 inhabitants), belonging to the British in the period from the 
 year 1708 to 1755 (see History of Spain), contains: Mahon, or Port Mahon 
 capital of the island, Avith one of the finest harbors in the Mediterranean, and 
 
SPAIN. 
 
 Statistic--, etc. — Navarre — Basque Provinces. 
 
 6,000 inhabitants. The former capital of this island was Cuidadela, with 
 2,500 inhabitants. Besides Majorca and Minorca, the Balearic Islands com 
 prise the Isles of Cabrera (a kind of convict colony), Foradada, Pantaleu, 
 Dragonera, and Colomba. Of the Pithyusian Islands, that of Ivica has an 
 area of 192 square miles, and a population of 20,000 inhabitants, while the 
 other named Formentera, is 43 square miles in extent, and numbers 2,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 16. The kingdom of Navarre, between Aragon and the Basque provinces, 
 on the north separated from France by the Pyrenees. About its early his- 
 tory, see History of Europe, § 16 ; and it is only to be added here, that in 
 1234 the kingdom of Navarre was inherited by the Count Theobald of Cham- 
 pagne, who entailed it upon his French descendants, until in 1512 King Fer- 
 dinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. It contains : 
 -f- Pampeluna, fortified capital of Navarre, 207 miles north-north-east of Mad- 
 rid, with 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Fstella (with 
 5,000 inhabitants), Viana (with 3,500 inhabitants), Tudela (with 8,000 inhab- 
 tants), Olite (with 1,200 inhabitants), Tafalla (with 2,000 inhabitants), N and 
 Sanguesa (with 2,500 inhabitants). The valley of Roncevalles in the Pyrenees, 
 28 miles north-east of Pampeluna, is noted for the attack on the Frankish 
 warriors of Charlemagne in 800, and the glorious death of Roland. 
 
 17. The Basque Provinces, along the Bay of Biscay, and on the other sides 
 surrounded by Navarre and Old Castile. They entered into a political con- 
 nection with the kingdom of Castile by the treaties of the year 1202, with the 
 reservation of particular privileges. There are three of them, viz. : — a. Biscay, 
 containing : -f- Bilbao, fortified capital of Biscay, on the Ybaizabal, 7 miles 
 distant from its mouth, 73 miles west-south-west of Bay on no (in France), with 
 export of wool, and 15,000 inhabitants. Bilbao's seaport is called Portugaldc. 
 Near the little town of Sorromastro, or Somorrostro. are important iron mine^. 
 Other towns of Biscay are : Orduna (with 4,000 inhabitants), Durango (with 
 2,800 inhabitants), and Bermeo (with 1,500 inhabitants), b. Guipuzcoa, con 
 taining : -f- San Sebastian, strongly fortified capital of Guipuzcoa, on the Bay 
 of Biscay, 27 miles west-sonth-west of Bayonne (in France), with iron trade, 
 and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Guipuzcoa are : Los Passages (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Fuentcrabia (with 1,800 inhabitants), Iran (with 1,100 
 inhabitants), Guetaria (with 500 inhabitants), Plasencia (with 1,300 inhabi- 
 tants), Bergara (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mondragon (with 2,500 inhabitants), 
 Tolosa (with 4,200 inhabitants), Alegria, and Azpeytia. The chief town of a 
 
 5 
 
98 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Spanish Colonies. 
 
 little district called Encartationes, is Onate (with hardware manufactories, 
 and 4,000 inhabitants), whose former university is at present united with that 
 of Valladolid. c. Alava, containing: Vittoria, capital of Alava, southward 
 and 28 miles distant from Bilboa, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 sword-blades. Battle on the 21st of June, 1813. Other towns of Alava are : 
 Salvatierra (with 1,200 inhabitants), A nana, and Banos de Ebro. 
 
 The Spanish Colonies, at present reduced to an area of 
 110,760 square miles (with about 4,500,000 inhabitants), are the 
 following : — 
 
 1. In Africa : the so-called Presidios, or four fortified towns 
 on the northern coast of Africa, opposite the province of Granada 
 (Ceuta, Pefion de Velez, Alhucemas, and Melilla) ; the Canary 
 Islands, and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 2. In America : the West Indian islands of Cuba and Porto 
 Rico. 
 
 3. In Asia : the greatest part of the Philippine Islands. 
 
 4. In Polynesia : the Ladrone, or Marianne Islands. 
 
 In the period from the year 1580 to 1640. when the immense 
 Spanish dominions on the American continent and the Portu- 
 guese colonies were united, the total extent of the Spanish pos- 
 sessions amounted to 9,239,855 square miles. 
 
ITALY 
 
 : 119,706 square miles. 
 Population : 24,573,100 inhabitants. 
 
 Italy forms a great peninsula on the south of Europe, extend- 
 ing into the Mediterranean Sea. It is fancied to have the shape 
 of a boot, the island' of Sicily lying at the toe. 
 
 Of the above-stated area and population, the Italian continent 
 and its smaller isles comprise 99,652 square miles, and 21,785,100 
 inhabitants, while the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta, 
 comprise 20,054 square miles, and 2,788,000 inhabitants. In a 
 political sense, the island of Corsica forms a constituent part of 
 France, and thus it can only in a geographical sense be considered 
 as belonging to Italy. Its area (3,791 square miles) is for this 
 reason added to that of the French continent. 
 
 Of those Alps (see Introduction, § 7) which separate Italy 
 from other countries, the Maritime and the Cottian Alps form 
 the boundary towards France, the Pennine and the Lepontic Alps 
 towards Switzerland, and the Rhaetic Alps towards Germany ; 
 while the Gray Alps belong exclusively to Italy. About the 
 Apennines, see Introduction, § 7. 
 
 About the rivers and lakes of Italy, see Introduction, §§ 9 and 
 10 ; the seas, gulfs, and straits, washing the shores of Italy, are 
 noted under § 8. 
 
 The climate is generally mild and delightful ; and even in the 
 northern parts of Italy, the short winter is of great mildness. 
 

 
 100 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Italian Scenery— Productions— Manufactures. 
 
 Besides this, Italy is noted for the beauty, diversity, and romantic 
 character of its scenery. Nevertheless, the country has in this 
 respect its unfavorable side as well as other countries. Thus, for 
 instance, the south wind proves often to be exceedingly hot and 
 enfeebling, and is in this case called Sirocco; and the coast 
 between Leghorn and Naples (likewise the country near the 
 mouths of the Po) suffers much from malaria, or the bad air of 
 the marshes. 
 
 With respect to natural productions, Italy is very poor in min- 
 erals, especially in metals, with the exception of iron (its annual 
 produce is about 150,000 quintals), and some lead (2,000 quiutals). 
 Yet Italy is noted for its excellent marble of Carrara (in the 
 duchy of Modena), and the island of Siciry abounds in sulphur. 
 Moreover, great quantities of lava and pumice are exported from 
 Naples. Chief products of the vegetable kingdom are : rice (in 
 Lombardy), maize and wheat (chiefly in Upper Italy and Tuscany), 
 wine (in all parts of the country ; yet the best sorts are those 
 known by the name of Lachrymae Christi, Monte Pulciano, Monte 
 Fiascone, Vino Santo, etc.), olive oil, and fruits of southern 
 Europe. Naples has the finest breed of horses; in many of the 
 mountainous parts of Italy are mules, and in the States of the 
 Church and Tuscany, buffaloes are reared. But, in general, the 
 rearing of cattle and sheep is of no great importance. As nox- 
 ious animals, maybe mentioned, vipers, tarantulas, and scorpions; 
 while, the silk-worm, kept in great number throughout Italy, is 
 of substantial benefit to the country. Agriculture flourishes in 
 Lombardy and Tuscany. 
 
 During the middle ages, Italy excelled in various manufactures, 
 which are still important, though not so much so as formerly. 
 The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice ranks first in manufac- 
 tures, and those of other Italian countries are at least not in a 
 backward state. Thus may be mentioned the manufacture of 
 
ITALY. 101 
 
 Italian Commerce — Education— Rrligion. 
 
 silks at Turin, Genoa, Lucca, Naples, Palermo, Ancona, Florence, 
 and Bologna ; of feather gloves at Naples, Genoa, Rome, and Lucca ; 
 of paper at Lucca, Genoa, Turin, Pescia, etc. ; of pergamen at 
 Rome, in Piedmont, etc. ; of artificial flowers at Genoa, Turin, 
 Bologna. Rome, etc. ; of straw hats, in Tuscany ; and of catguts 
 for musical instruments, at Rome, Naples, etc. » 
 
 The Italian commerce is very considerable, though chiefly re- 
 stricted to the intercourse with the Levant. The principal sea- 
 ports and first commercial cities of Italy, are Leghorn and Genoa ; 
 next to them are to be mentioned, Ancona, Naples, Messina,Venice, 
 Civita Vecchia, Gallipoli, etc. The most important inland trade is 
 carried on by Milan, Turin, Verona, Alessandria, Florence, Rome, 
 Lucca, Modena, and Parma. The chief articles of export are 
 silk, olive oil, oranges and other fruits, and marble; while tropical 
 produce, corn, British, French, and German manufactures, fancy 
 articles, etc., are chiefly imported. 
 
 In the means of education, Lombardy and Venice, Tuscany and 
 Parma, surpass by far the other Italian countries, where the lower 
 classes are, for the most part, ignorant, and averse to improve- 
 ment. Nevertheless there are throughout Italy learned men to 
 be found, who are distinguished for their attainments in literature 
 and science. In music, and perhaps even in sculpture, the Italians 
 excel most of the other European nations. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the established religion in all the 
 Italian states ; although others are at present, and some have 
 long been, tolerated. The Waldenses, in Piedmont, who have 
 almost the same religious faith as the Moravian brethren, do, 
 since the year 1843, enjoy the same political privileges as 
 their catholic fellow-citizens ; while the Armenians, Greeks, Mo- 
 hammedans, and Jews, in the commercial cities, have free exercise 
 of religion. During the wars and differences between the Em- 
 peror Charles V. and the Pope, in the 16th century, the Refor- 
 
102 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Italy. 
 
 mation made such progress in Italy, that but for the subsequent 
 rigorous and bloody proceeding of the inquisition, perhaps the 
 majority of the Italians would have embraced the Protestant 
 faith. 
 
 History of Italy. — The aborigines of Italy, in as far as history has noticed 
 them were the Umbrians, Siculians, Sabines, Volsci, Ausonians, Samnites, 
 etc. At a very early period foreign immigrants joined them, for instance, 
 Jllyrians, Pelasgians, Celtes, and Venetes ; and from their mixture arose vari- 
 ous other people, as the Etruscans, Latins, Campanians, etc. In the period 
 between the years 1000 and 700 B. C, many of the ancient Greeks settled in 
 the southern parts of the Italian peninsula, and founded there the cities of Ta- 
 rant, Sybaris, Croton, Brundusium, Naples, Reggio, etc. After that time the 
 south of Italy was called Great- Greece. Anterior to the first settlement of 
 the Greeks, Aeneas, a Trojan prince, shall have immigrated into Latium with 
 many of his fugitive countrymen, and their descendants founded Rome in 
 754 A. C. In the beginning the Romans were ruled by kings in the following 
 succession: Romulus (754-715), Numa Pompilius (715-672), Tullus Hostilius 
 (672-640), Ancus Martius (640-616), Tarquinius Priscus (616-578), Servius 
 Tullius (578-534), and Tarquinius Superbus (534-510). The monarchic form 
 of government having been abolished in 510 B. C, Rome became a republic 
 with aristocratic forms of government, which lasted until the year 45 B. 0, 
 when Julius Caesar was appointed dictator for lifetime and assumed the title 
 of imperator. The first actual Roman emperor was Octavius or Augustus, 
 who after a reign of 44 years died in 14 A. D.; and the last Roman emperor 
 was Romulus Augustulus, who in 476 A. D. was dethroned by Odoacer, the 
 leader of a Germanic tribe called the Herull About the subsequent politi- 
 cal fate of Italy, see History of Europe, §§ 6, 7, 9, and 14. Since the con- 
 quest of the Lombardian kingdom of Italy by Charlemagne, the greatest 
 part of Italy was under the sway of the Frankish, and since the end of the 
 9th century under that of the German kings and emperors (see History of 
 Europe, § 14 at its end). But as soon as the latter began to yield to the 
 pretensions of the popes, many parts of the country became independent, as 
 republics or as duchies, etc., while in Lower Italy the Normans founded the 
 kingdom of Naples. In the last three centuries most of the Italian states 
 were the subject of a quarrel between Austria, France, and Spain, and the 
 wars subsequent to the first French revolution brought on new political 
 
ITALY. 103 
 
 Divisions of Italy — Sardinia. 
 
 changes there. But we must defer the further particulars to the history of 
 each separate Italian state. 
 
 Italy comprises the following states : — 
 
 In Upper Italy : 
 
 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 3. The Duchy of Parma. 
 
 4. The Duchy of Modena. 
 
 In Central Italy : 
 
 5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany 
 
 6. The Slates of the Church. 
 
 7. The Republic of San Marino. 
 
 In Lower Italy : 
 
 8. The Kingdom of Naples.* 
 
 I. THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. 
 
 Area : 29,245 square miles. 
 Population : 5,292,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Until the peace of Utrecht (in 1713) this state was known by 
 the name of the duchy of Savoy. Since that time and at present 
 it embraces the western section of Upper Italy, together with 
 the large island of Sardinia. 
 
 * Besides these states, the geographical description of Italy must necessa- 
 rily embrace that of the really Italian island of Malta also. 
 
104 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sardinia: Geographical Description. 
 
 According to the census of 1844, the population of the whole 
 kingdom amounted to 5,108,601 inhabitants; but since it has 
 increased to the above-stated number. With the exception of 
 about 22,000 Waldenses (see above) and of 8,000 Jews, all inhab- 
 itants are Catholics, under the church authority of 7 archbishops 
 and 34 bishops. There are still 334 monasteries and 95 nunne- 
 ries in this kingdom. 
 
 The north-west part of continental Sardinia comprises the 
 highest branches and summits of the Alps (see above, and Intro- 
 duction, § 7), while the Ligurian Apennines run through its 
 southern part. 
 
 The chief river is the Po ; and one of its tributaries, the Ticino 
 (see Introduction, § 10), forms the boundary on the side of Lom- 
 bardy and Venice. 
 
 Of the continental provinces. Savoy is thoroughly mountainous, 
 and for this reason not much adapted to agriculture. Piedmont 
 and the adjacent districts are for the most part level, and at the 
 same time fertile and well cultivated. Genoa and Nice, shelt red 
 by the Apennines against the cold northerly winds, are noted for 
 the mildness of the climate, and abound in fruits of southern 
 Europe. Although in Savoy the rearing of cattle, and in Pied- 
 mont, etc., the agriculture is in a high state of prosperity, yet 
 the chief staple of the kingdom is only silk. Other articles of 
 export are rice, olive oil, cattle, and hemp. About the manufac- 
 tures, see above. 
 
 There are 4 universities in the kingdom, viz.: at Turin (founded 
 in 1412, and in 1842 frequented by 1,250 students), at Genoa 
 (founded in 1812, and in 1842 with 610 students), at Cagliari 
 (founded in 1720, renewed in 1764, and frequented in 1842 by 
 499 students), and at Sassari (founded in 1766, and in 1842 with 
 240 students). Besides these there are 85 colleges and 39 semi- 
 naries. The common schools are still in a backward state. 
 
ITALY. 105 
 
 Sardinia: Government, etc.— History. 
 
 Until the beginning of the last revolution in Italy the power 
 of the king (at present Victor Emanuel, born 1820, March 14) 
 in most of the provinces was absolute ; and in Genoa and the 
 island of Sardinia more or less limited. 
 
 The annual revenue of the state is upon an average 79,000,000 
 lire (or francs), and the expenditure about 77,500,000 lire. The 
 public debt amounts to nearly 150,000,000 lire, about $30,000,000. 
 
 The army numbers on the peace footing 34,500, and on the 
 war footing 135,300 men. The navy numbers 5 large frig- 
 ates, 2 sloops of war, 2 brigs, 4 schooners, 12 gun-boats, and 3 
 steamers. 
 
 The orders of honor of Sardinia are the following: 1. The 
 order of St. Annunciata, in one class, instituted in 1362, and re- 
 newed in 1518 and 1720. 2. The order of St. Mauritius and 
 Lazarus, in 3 classes, instituted in 1434, and altered in 1527. 
 
 3. The military order of Savoy, in 4 classes, instituted in 1815. 
 
 4. The order of merit, from the year 1831. 5. The order or cross 
 of loyalty, instituted in 1814. The royal title is: " King of 
 Sardinia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem, Duke of Savoy, Genoa, etc., 
 Prince of Piedmont, Margrave of Italy," etc. 
 
 History. — The ancestral seat of the Sardinian monarchs is Savoy, which 
 since the year 879 formed part of the kingdom of Arelat (see under France), 
 and whose governor, Berold or Beroald, made himself independent in 1016, 
 and was the first count of Savoy. His descendants acquired in the course of 
 time, partly by marriage, partly by purchase, Piedmont, Asti, and Nice. In 
 1416 Count Amadeus VIII. was by the German emperor Sigismund raised to 
 the rank of a duke of Savoy. In 1438 the heiress of the kingdom of Cyprus 
 (established at the end of the 12th century) bequeathed that island to her 
 nephew, Charles I. duke of Savoy, hence the claims of this house upon the 
 above-stated title. In the history of Spain it has already been stated that 
 the duke of Savoy (at that period Victor Amadeus II., whose great-grand- 
 mother was the daughter of King Philip II. of Spain) partook in the war of 
 ruccession. As confederate of Austria in this war, he acquired the duchy of 
 • 5* 
 
106 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sardinia: Geographical Division — Piedmont. 
 
 Montferrat and part of the duchy of Milan, and by the treaty of Utrecht in 
 1713, the island of Sicily, which he however in 1720 ceded to Austria, that 
 indemnified him by the island of Sardinia. Since that time the dukes of 
 Savoy transformed this title into that of kings of Sardinia. In 1792 the 
 French invaded the continental part of the kingdom, and incorporated first 
 Savoy and Nice, and subsequently all Sardinian provinces on the continent, 
 with France. Thus the whole kingdom was reduced to the island of Sar- 
 dinia; but in 1814 the king was not only reinstated into the possession of his 
 dominions, but amply indemnified by the annexation of the former republic 
 of Genoa. In 1831 the elder branch of the house of Savoy became extinct, 
 and Charles Albert of the collateral line of Savoy- Carignan (whose ancestor 
 was a younger son of the above-named Duke Emanuel) ascended the throne. 
 But the reverses he met with in the war against Austria in 1849, induced 
 him to abdicate, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the now reigning 
 king Victor Emanuel. 
 
 The whole kingdom is divided into 10 counties, or general 
 intendancies, as they are styled (of Turin, Cuneo, Alessandria, 
 Aosta, Novara, Savoy, Nice, Genoa, Cagliari, and Sassari), which 
 are subdivided into 48 districts. But in the following topog- 
 raphy, we shall retain the historical division into the provinces 
 of Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, etc., as these names are more in 
 use. Although Savoy is the ancestral seat, we must begin with 
 Piedmont, as containing the metropolis and royal residence. 
 
 1. The principality of Piedmont, of which the counts of Savoy became 
 possessed in the 11th and 12th century, contains: Turin, the capital of the 
 kingdom and royal residence, on the Po, 73 miles west-south-west of Milan, 
 and north-westward and 70 miles distant from Genoa, is the most regularly 
 built of all the Italian cities, and adorned with numerous magnificent public 
 edifices and palaces, and has 135,000 inhabitants. It contains 110 churches 
 and chapels, a university (see p. 104), and many other literary institutions, 
 and is noted for its manufactures of silk. In the beautiful environs of Turin, 
 are the royal country-seats and palaces of Stupinigi (built in 1740, and one 
 of the most splendid palaces in Europe), of Moncalieri, or Montecalieri (near 
 
ITALY. 107 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 
 
 the town of the same name, with 7,000 inhabitants), of La Veneria (near the 
 town of the same name, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a fine royal stud), and of 
 Rivoli (near the town of the same name, with 6,000 inhabitants). La Superga 
 is a magnificent church and convent, built in the years 1715-1731. Carignan, 
 or Carignano, a town on the Po, southward and 1 1 miles distant from Turin, 
 Is the ancestral seat of the reigning royal family, and has 8,500 inhabitants. 
 Chieri, a town in the vicinity of Turin, has 14,000 inhabitants, and was in the 
 middle ages a republic by the name of Cairo. Other towns of this district 
 are: Carmagnola (with 12,000 inhabitants), Chivasso (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
 Cirie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Caselle (with 4,500 inhabitants), San Maurizio 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lanzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Viu (with 4,600 
 inhabitants), Usseglio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Rivarolo (with 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Rivara (with 1,700 inhabitants). Susa, in the middle ages, chief 
 town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Dora Riparia, westward 
 and 30 miles distant from Turin, with 3,500 inhabitants, and the remarkable 
 remains of the strong fortress of Brunetta, demolished in 1797. Other towns 
 of this district are: Exilles (with 1,500 inhabitants), San Ambrogio (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Giaveno (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Avigliana (with 
 3,000 inhabitants). Pinerolo, or Pignerol, a town on the Clusone, south- 
 westward and 25 miles distant from Turin, with a beautiful cathedral, and 
 14,000 inhabitants. Pinerolo, Fenestrelle (with 4,000 inhabitants), Oulx (with 
 1,000 inhabitants), and Cesana (with 1,000 inhabitants), together with the 
 valley of Clusone, belonged to France in the period from the year 1631tol7l3. 
 Other towns of this district are : Cavoux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cumiana 
 (with 3,500 inhabitants), Vigone (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca di 
 Piemonte (with 8,000 inhabitants). The valleys of Lucerna, Peroso, and San 
 Martino, are the seat of the above-mentioned Waldenses, with 13 churches. 
 Saluzzo, formerly the chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the 
 Po, 32 miles south-south-west of Turin, with an old castle (once the residence 
 of the renowned margraves of Saluzzo), a splendid cathedral, and 15,000 
 inhabitants. Quite near is situated the magnificent abbey of Staffarda 
 (founded in 1135 by Manfredo L, margrave of Saluzzo, and built in the Gothic 
 style). Victory gained by the French marshal Catinat, in 1690. Other towns 
 of this district are : Savigliano (with 1 6,500 inhabitants), Racconigi (with 
 10,500 inhabitants), and Barge (with 7,000 inhabitants). Cuneo, or Coni, a 
 town at the junction of the Gesso and the Hura, 92 miles south-south-west of 
 Turin, with 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Busca (with 
 
108 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 
 
 8,000 inhabitants), Dronero (with 7,000 inhabitants), Fossano (with 13,000 
 inhabitants), Vinadeo (with 2,600 inhabitants), Demonte (with 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Chiusa or La Chiusa (with 6,500 inhabitants), Valdieri (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), and Boves (with 8,000 inhabitants). Mondovi, a town on the 
 Ellero, southward and 46 miles distant from Turin, with 16,500 inhabitants. 
 Victory gained by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the 22d of April, 1 796. A short time 
 before, Bonaparte had gained another victory at Millesimo (a town, eastward 
 and 18 miles distant from Mondovi, with 1,300 inhabitants). Other towns of 
 this district are : Ceva (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bene (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 and Cherasco (with 12,500 inhabitants). Alba, a town on the Tanaro, south- 
 eastward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 
 8,000 inhabitants. Bra, a town on the Hura, with 12,000 inhabitants. 
 Govone, a town on the Tanaro, with 2,500 inhabitants. Polenzo, a village 
 with a Gothic castle and beautiful park. Another village with an ancient 
 castle, is Barolo. Asti, once the chief town of the county of Asti, of which the 
 dukes of Savoy became possessed in 1531, with a magnificent Gothic cathe- 
 dral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Cocconato and San Damiano, towns with 
 respectively 3,500 and 7,000 inhabitants. Ivrea, a town on the Doria Baltea, 
 northward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 
 8,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Locana (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Aglie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cuorgne (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Ponte (with 2,500 inhabitants), Castellamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants), Borgo- 
 masino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Caluso (with 5,500 inhabitants), and San 
 Giorgio (with 4,000 inhabitants). Vercelli, once the chief town of a Lord- 
 ship belonging to the famous barons of Visconti, and since the year 1427 
 belonging to the house of Savoy (the Dukes Amadeus IX. and Charles III. 
 resided here towards the end of the 15th, and in the beginning of the 16th 
 century), is situated on the Sesia, 39 miles east-north-east of Turin, and con- 
 tains many remarkable Gothic edifices, and 19,500 inhabitants. Other towns 
 of this district are : Santhia, or St. Ya (with 3,500 inhabitants), Crescentino 
 (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Trino (with 7,000 inhabitants). Biella, a town 
 41 miles north-north-east of Turin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this district are : Oropa (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andorno (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Occhieppo superiore (with 1,700 inhabitants), Croce Mosso (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), and Pollove (with 1,500 inhabitants). Masserano, a little prin- 
 cipality belonging to the barons of Ferreri, under the sovereignty of Sardinia. 
 Aosta, a town, at the foot of Mount St. Bernard, 50 mi|es north-north-west 
 
ITALY. 109 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics of Savoy. 
 
 of Turin, with 7,000 inhabitants. St. Vincenzo, a town, with mineral springs, 
 and 2,000 inhabitants. Chattillon, a town, with iron works, and 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants. Cormaggiore (in French, Courmayeur), a village between the Ber- 
 •nardins, with frequented mineral springs, and 1,200 inhabitants. Bardo, or 
 Bard, a fortress between Aosto and Ivrea, dominating the road over the Great 
 St. Bernard, and therefore presenting the last serious obstacle to Bonaparte, 
 when in 1800 he crossed the Alps with his army. 
 
 2. The duchy of Savoy, between Piedmont and France, on the north bor- 
 dered by the lake of Geneva (its population was 606,396 inhabitants, accord- 
 ing to the census of 1844; about its history, see p. 105) ; containing: Ch am- 
 ber y, capital of Savoy, at 9 miles distance from the French frontier, 46 miles 
 south-south-west of Geneva and 83 miles west-north-west of Turin, with an 
 ancient castle once the residence of the dukes of Savoy, active trade with 
 Lyons, and 18,500 inhabitants. Not far off is situated, in a delightful valley, 
 the town of Aix, noted (even from the days of the Romans) for its mineral 
 springs, and with 3,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Alta 
 Comba, in French Haute Combe (with a renowned abbey from the year 1125, 
 and with 1.600 inhabitants), Echelles (with 1,200 inhabitants), Mommeliano, 
 in French Montmelian (with 1.300 inhabitants), Rumilly (with 4,500 inhabi- 
 tants), St. Pierre d'Albigny (with 4,000 inhabitants), Yenne (with 3,500 in- 
 habitants), Aillon (with 3,000 inhabitants), A rvillers (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Ugine (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Aigues belles (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
 The small towns of Conjlans and Hopital, on the Isere, are at present united 
 by the name of Albertville, and have together 3,500 inhabitants. Pont 
 Beauvoisin, a town on the Isere, with 1,500 inhabitants, belongs with its 
 western half to France, and with its eastern to Savoy. Thonon, formerly 
 the capital of the ancient duchy of Ciablese or Chablais, on the lake of Ge- 
 neva, north-eastward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 4,20(5 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns of this district are : Evian (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. 
 Jean d'Aulps (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Abundance (with 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants). Annecy, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Genevese, or 
 Genevois (of which the dukes of Savoy became possessed, in 1401), on the 
 lake of Annecy, southward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 9,000 
 inhabitants. Faverges, a town, with an important silk manufactory, and 3,000 
 inhabitants. Bonneville, formerly the capital of the ancient Lordship of 
 Faucigny, or Fossigny, at the confluence of the Bonne and Arve, south-east- 
 ward and 14 miles distant from Geneva, with 1,300 inhabitants. Cluse, or 
 
110 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics of Nice — Monaco — Montfcrrat. 
 
 Cluses, a town on the Arve, with 2,000 inhabitants. Sallanche, or Sallenche, 
 a town on the Arve, with 1,800 inhabitants. Chamouny, a village situated in 
 the romantic valley of the same name, with 1,700 inhabitants. Tanninges, 
 a town with 3,000 inhabitants. St. Gervais, or San Gervasio, a village at 
 the foot of Mont Blanc, with mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 Montiers, or Monstiers, surnamed en Tarentaise, a town on the Isere, 30 
 miles east-south-east of Chambery, with 2,800 inhabitants. Aime, a town 
 with 900 inhabitants. San Giovanni, or St. Jean de Maurienne, a town 28 
 miles south-east of Chambery, with frequented mineral springs, and 3,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Lans-le-Bourg (with 1,500 
 inhabitants), Modane (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Termignon (with 1,800 
 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The county of Nice (area: 1,448 square miles; population: 247,483 in- 
 habitants, according to the census of 1844), along the coast and on the French 
 border, once belonging to Provence, but since the year 1388, to the house of 
 Savoy. It contains : Nice, a maritime town and the capital of the county, 
 much frequented by the English, Germans, and others, on account of its salu- 
 brious air, with 37,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the county are : Villafranca 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sospello (with 9,000 inhabitants), Turbia (with 800 
 inhabitants), Tenda (with 3,000 inhabitants), Briga (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 and Oneglia (with 5,000 inhabitants). 
 
 The principality of Monaco (area: 53 square miles; population: 7,000 
 inhabitants), surrounded by the county of Nice, is independent in its local 
 affairs, but in other respects under the protection and supremacy of Sardinia, 
 It yields an annual revenue of 100,000 francs to the prince of Monaco (at 
 present Florestan I., belonging to the family of Grimaldi), and contains the 
 following towns : Monaco (the capital with 1,200 inhabitants), Mentone (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Rocca bruna. 
 
 4. The duchy of Montferrat (area : 1,065 square miles ; population : 170,000 
 inhabitants), situated between Turin and Genoa. Montferrat was originally a 
 margraviate, and in 890 it was ruled by the margrave William, whose male 
 line became extinct in 1305. The heiress of the margraviate, Iolantha, was 
 married, in 1330, with a prince of Savoy, and by the right of succession, the 
 house of Savoy became possessed of the margraviate, or duchy, in the years 1627 
 and 1703. It contains: Casale, capital of Montferrat, on the Po, eastward 
 and 37 miles distant from Turin, with several remarkable palaces, and a 
 cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Acqui, a town on the Bormida, with 8,500 
 
ITALY. in 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics of Duchy of Milan, etc. 
 
 inhabitants. The little town of Cucarro is considered as the actual birth-place 
 of Columbus, who, according to recent investigators, was born here in 1442 ; 
 while others are of the opinion that he was born in Cogoleto (see under duchy 
 of Genoa). Nizza delta Paglia, a town on the Belbo, with 5,000 inhabitants. 
 
 5. The Sardinian portion of the duchy of Milan (see history of this duchy 
 in the description of the Austrian empire), containing : Alessandkia, sur- 
 named delta Paglia, a city on the Tanaro, eastward and 46 miles distant from 
 Turin, and northward and 42 miles distant from Genoa, with several literary 
 institutions, frequented fairs, and 46,000 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated 
 the village of Marengo, noted for the battle of the 14th of June, 1800. 
 Bosco, a great village, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a magnificent abbey, 
 founded in the 16th century. Valenza, a town on the Po, with 7,000 inhab- 
 itants. Lumello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mortara (with 4,200 inhabi- 
 tants), and Vigevano (with 12,000 inhabitants). Novara, a town on the 
 Agogna, north-eastward and 55 miles distant from Turin, with a magnificent 
 cathedral, several literary institutions and societies, and 15,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this district are : Oleggio (with 7,000 inhabitants), Borgomanero 
 (with 7,000 inhabitants), Maggiora (with 2,000 inhabitants), Borgosesia (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Varallo (with 3,000 inhabitants). Near the village of 
 Alagna, at the foot of Mount Rosa, are important copper mines. On the 
 Lake Maggiore is situated the town of Arona, with 65,000 inhabitants, noted 
 for a colossal statue of Charles Borromeo, born in 1538 at Arona, and distin- 
 guished for his works of Christian charity. He was cardinal and archbishop 
 of Milan, where he died in 1584. Near Arona, and in the Lake Maggiore, 
 are the Borromean Isles (Isola del Pescatori, Isola bella, and Isola madre), 
 with beautiful gardens, belonging to the family of Borromeo. Pallanza (with 
 1,600 inhabitants), Intra (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Canobbio (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), towns on the Lake Maggiore. Other towns of this district are : 
 Pomodossola, or Domo d'Ossola (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Vogogna (with 
 1,500 inhabitants). Tortona, a town on the Scrivia, eastward and 9 miles 
 distant from Alessandria, with 9,000 inhabitants. Serravalle, a town, with 
 2,400 inhabitants. Bobbio, a town on the Trebbia, and near the frontier of 
 the duchy of Parma, with 5,000 inhabitants. Voghera, a town 18 miles 
 east-north-east of Alessandria, with 12,000 inhabitants. 
 
 6. The former republic (at present styled duchy) of Genoa (area : 2,343 
 square miles ; population, according to the census of 1844: 705,708 inhabi- 
 tants). The city of Genoa was already in the days of the ancient Romans 
 
112 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sardinia: Duchy of Genoa— History and Statistics. 
 
 noted for its extensive commerce. In the period of the migration of nations 
 it came under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and since changed hands, until in 
 the middle ages it threw off obedience to the German emperors, and became 
 independent, with republican forms of government like those of Venice. So 
 early as the year 806 it had conquered the island of Corsica, which it kept 
 first until the 11th, and then, since the year 1284, until the latter half of the 
 18th century, when the island was ceded to France. About the higluy-un- 
 portant and extensive commerce of Genoa in the middle ages, see History 
 of Europe, § 17. Since the year 1464, Genoa, with its territory, was consid- 
 ered as part of the duchy of Milan. It was conquered by King Francis I. of 
 France, and again by Charles V. emperor of Germany. At last, in 1528, it re- 
 acquired its independence, which it maintained until the wars brought on by 
 the French revolution. In 1797, it was transformed into "a Ligurian Republic ; 
 in 1805, incorporated into the French empire; and in 1815, into the kingdom 
 of Sardinia. The duchy of Genoa contains the following cities and towns : 
 Genoa, fortified capital of the duchy and chief seaport of Sardinia, on the 
 Gulf of Genoa, with 120,000 inhabitants. It is built on the declivity of a 
 mountain which half encircles its harbor, and is surnamed the Superb on 
 account of its numerous and magnificent palaces and other edifices, among 
 which are more than 100 churches. Besides a university (see p. 104), there 
 are many other scientific and literary institutions. (About the birth-place of 
 Columbus, see Cucarro, p. Ill, and Cogoleto, p. 113.) The shore to the right 
 and to the left of the city, is covered with numerous and splendid villas. As 
 Genoa's suburb is considered the neighboring town of San Piar d'Arena, or 
 San Pietro d'Arena, with many villas and magnificent palaces, and 7,000 
 inhabitants. Westward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, is situated the 
 village of Montenotte, noted for the victory gained by Bonaparte on the 14th 
 of April, 1796. Other remarkable villages in the vicinity of Genoa are : 
 Arenzano, San Cipriano, La Foce, and Sort. Voltri, a maritime town, with 
 docks, paper manufactories, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- 
 trict are : Cornigliano (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sestri di Ponente (with 6,000 
 inhabitants), Pra, or Pria (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pegli (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Camogli (with 5,000 inhabitants), Nervi, Torriglia, and Mele. Novi, a 
 town at the foot of the Apennines, 23 miles north-north-east of Genoa, with 
 many palace-like houses and villas of the Genoese, and 10,800 inhabitants. 
 Savona, a maritime town, 20 miles west-south-west of Genoa, with 17,000 
 inhabitants. Pope Pius VIL lived here forcedly, in the years 1809-1812. 
 
ITALY. ns 
 
 Sardinia: Statistics— Island of Sardinia. 
 
 Cogoleto, a village on the Gulf of Genoa, with 1,000 inliabitants, is considered 
 as the birth-place of Columbus, according to the prevailing opinion, while 
 others consider Cucarro (see p. Ill) as his birth-place. Other towns of this 
 district are: Vado (with 2,000 inhabitants), A Ibizola (with 1,300 inhabitants), 
 Varazze (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Noli (with 2,000 inhabitants). Albenga, 
 a maritime town, south-westward and 32 miles from Savona, with 4,000 inhab- 
 itants. Other towns of this district are : Alassio (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Langueglia, or Laigueglia (with 2,200 inhabitants), Loano (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Finale (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varigotti (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
 Porto Mauritio, or Porto San Maurizio, a maritime town, south-westward 
 and 37 miles distant from Savona, with 5,700 inhabitants. San Remo, a 
 maritime town, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Nice, with 12,000 
 inhabitants. It is said, in praise of this town, that within the memory of 
 man, a murder has never happened there. Another maritime town is Venti- 
 miglia, or Vinthniglia, with 5,500 inhabitants. Chiavari, a maritime town, 
 eastward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, with 11,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this district are : Rapallo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Lavagna (with 
 2,500 inhabitants), Sestri di Levante (with 2,000 inliabitants), Borzonasca 
 (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varese (with 6,000 inhabitants). Spezia, or 
 Spezzia, a maritime town on the Gulf of Spezia, between Genoa and Leghorn, 
 with a fine harbor, and 10,000 inhabitants. In and near the Gulf of Spezia, 
 are situated the small isles of Palmaria, Tino (with a light -house), and Tinello. 
 Of greater extent is the island of Capraja, between Corsica and Leghorn, 
 with 3,660 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844. In the district of 
 Spezia, are still the following towns to be mentioned : Portovenere (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Lerici (with 4,700 inhabitants), Levanto (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Sarzana (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Monterosso (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
 
 7. The island of Sardinia (area: 9,287 square miles; population: 598,000 
 inhabitants), next to Sicily the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situ- 
 ated in the latitude of Naples. The soil of the low country is generally 
 very fertile in grain, of which great quantities axe exported, chiefly to 
 Algiers. The rearing of cattle is also very considerable. In the mountainous 
 districts lives the muffion, bearing a great resemblance to the Rocky Mountain 
 sheep. The aborigines of the island of Sardinia were Iberians (see Introduc- 
 tion, § 12), and in the course of time, Greek and Carthaginian immigrants 
 settled here. The Romans conquered the island in 238 B. C, and in 720 A.D., 
 it came under the sway of the Arabs, in 1050 under that of the Pi 
 
114 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Island of Sardinia— Statistics. 
 
 In 1324 the king of Aragon became possessed of it, and since that period the 
 island continued to be under Spanish sovereignty, until in 1714 it was ceded 
 to Austria, and in 1720 ceded to the duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily 
 (see ante). With regard to the administration, the island is divided into 
 two divisions, or provinces, which are subdivided into eleven districts ; and it 
 contains : Cagliari, fortified capital of the island, on the gulf of the same 
 name, with a university (see above), 38 churches, 20 convents, ship docks, 
 active commerce, salt works, and 30,000 inhabitants. Quarto, a town, with 
 5,800 inhabitants. Here, and in the neighborhood, the female sex is distin- 
 guished for its beauty. Busachi, chief town of a district, with 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns of this district are : Oristano (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
 Ales (with 1,000 inhabitants), while Cabras (with 8,500 inhabitants), Panlila- 
 tino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sorgono (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Aritzu, are 
 more or less remarkable villages. The district of Iglesias contains the fol- 
 lowing towns: Iglesias (chief town, with a fine cathedral, and 8,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Villacidro (with 5,800 inhabitants), Guspini (with lead mines, and 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Carloforte (on the isle of San Pietro, near the south- 
 west coast, with 2,300 inhabitants). Isili, chief town of a district, with 2,200 
 inhabitants. Nurri and Sardara, villages, with respectively 2,000 and 1,700 
 inhabitants. Lanusei, chief town of the district of Ogliastra, with 1,700 in- 
 habitants. Tortoli and Bavi, towns, with respectively 1,300 and 1,200 inhab- 
 itants. Nuoro, chief town of a district, with 3,600 inhabitants. Orosei, 
 Fonni, and Posada, towns, with respectively 2,000, 2,800, and 2,500 inhabi- 
 tants. Montesanto, Orgosola, and Siniscola, are mountain villages, whose 
 inhabitants are notorious for their wild manners. Dorgali, a village, with 
 2,900 inhabitants, and noted for its manufactory of arms. The fair sex of the 
 village of Benetutti are distinguished for their beauty. Sassari, the second 
 city on the island, near its northern coast, with 25 churches, 13 convents, a 
 university (see above), and 23,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district 
 are : Osilo (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sorso (with 4,300 inhabitants), Castel 
 Sardo (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Porto Torres (with 800 inhabitants). 
 Alghieri, or Alghero, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cuglieri (with 3,900 
 inhabitants), and Bosa (with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inhabitants), 
 towns. Ozieri (with 8,000 inhabitants), Oschiri (with 2,000 inhabitants), and 
 Pattada (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Tempio, chief town of the district 
 of Gallura, with 9,500 inhabitants. To this district belong, moreover, the 
 town of Terranova (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the isles of Tavolara or 
 Bucina, Moddalena, and Caprera. 
 
ITALY us 
 
 Duchy of Parma. 
 
 IL— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. 
 
 Area: 17,594 square miles. 
 Population : 5,068,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This kingdom will be described together with the Austrian 
 empire. 
 
 III.— THE DUCHY OF PARMA. 
 
 Area : 2,279 square miles. 
 Population : 479,900 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between the duchy of Modena and the conti- 
 nental part of Sardinia, and on the north separated from Lom- 
 bardy by the Po. 
 
 The soil is generally very fertile, and agriculture in a rather 
 high state of improvement. Yet the commerce and manufactures 
 are of no great importance. 
 
 The clergy are charged with the care of the schools. Most of 
 the teachers are monks, and the schools for girls are under the 
 direction of nuns. There was a university in the capital, founded 
 in 1422, but it was abolished in 1832 and transformed into two 
 higher special schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of 7 
 bishops. There are still 21 convents in the country. 
 
 The public revenue was of late about 7,200,000 lire (or francs), 
 and the expenditure little more than 6,000,000 lire. The public 
 debt amounted to 7,600,000 lire, or $1,428,800, in 1840. The 
 military numbers about 800 men. There is an order of honor, 
 
116 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Duchy of Pa-ma. 
 
 called the Constantinian order of St. George, originally instituted 
 by the Greek emperor Isaac, in 1190, and in 1699 sold to the 
 Duke Francis I. of Parma. In 1815, it was renewed by the late 
 Duchess Maria Louisa. 
 
 History. — The country embraces 3 duchies, viz. : of Parma, Piacenza, and 
 Guastalla, of which the two first-named were always united, while Gruastalla 
 was not added to them until the year 1748. The cities of Parma and Pia- 
 cenza shared the fate of Upper and Middle Italy after the fall of the Western 
 Empire, until in 1183 they succeeded in becoming independent, with repub- 
 lican forms of government. Yet in the next century they were unable to 
 maintain their independence, and they were ruled alternately by the Visconti, 
 Este, Sforzas, and other dynasties, until in 1514 the apostolical see became 
 possessed of them. Pope Paul III. raised Parma and Piacenza to the rank 
 of duchies, and invested with them his natural son, Peter Aloys Farnese 
 (father of the great warrior, Alexander of Farnese), in 1543. In 1131 the 
 male line of the house of Farnese became extinct. Philip V. of Spain was 
 married to a princess of Parma, and for this reason his son, Don Carlos 
 became possessed of the duchies, which since (with the exception of a short 
 interval) were ruled by Spanish Princes. First in 1802, and formally in 
 1805, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were incorporated into the French 
 empire ; while the prince Borghese, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was invested 
 with the duchy of Guastalla. In 1815, according to the determination of 
 the congress of Vienna, the former empress of France, Maria Louisa, became 
 possessed of these three duchies for lifetime. She died on the 18th of Decem- 
 ber, 1847, and the duchies now devolved upon the legitimate heir, the Spanish 
 prince, Charles, until then (since the year 1824) duke of Lucca, which latter 
 duchy is since annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. 
 
 The whole country is divided into the 5 districts of Parma, 
 Piacenza, Borgo Sandonnino, Borgo Taro, and Guastalla. Yet 
 in the description we shall retain the historical division of the 
 duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. 
 
 (a.) The duchy of Parma, embracing the eastern half of the state, and con- 
 taining: Parma, the metropolis and ducal residence, north-westward and 
 
ITALY. H7 
 
 Duchy of Parm.i : Duchy of Modena. 
 
 81 miles distant from Modena, and northward and 92 miles distant from 
 Leghorn, with an extensive ducal castle, several remarkable churches, many 
 literary institutions, and 41,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this duchy are : 
 Coforno (with 1,800 inhabitants), Fornovo (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Sala 
 (with an ancient ducal castle). The ducal park at the village of Castelguelfo 
 is one of the finest in Italy. 
 
 (6.) The duchy of Piacenza, embracing the western half of the state, and 
 containing : Piacenza (in French, Plaisance), the capital of this duchy, on 
 the right bank of the Po, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Parma, 
 with a beautiful cathedral and 30,000 inhabitants. Austria exercises the 
 stipulated right of garrisoning the citadel of Piacenza. In the vicinity is the 
 field of battle on the Trebia, where in 217 B. O, Hannibal defeated the 
 Romans. Other towns of this duchy are : Borgo Sandonni.no (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), and Borgo Taro (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Fiorenznola (with 
 3,300 inhabitants). 
 
 (c.) The duchy of Guastalla (area : 85 square miles; population: 33,500 
 inhabitants), about 18 miles north-east of the city of Parma. Its ancient 
 dukes belonged to the house of Mantua, and became extinct in 1746. The 
 duchy as an imperial fee escheated now to the German emperor, who in 
 1748 ceded it to the Spanish prince Don Carlos (see above). It contains: 
 Guastalla, capital of this duchy, on the Po, with a magnificent cathedral, and 
 6,000 inhabitants. Besides this are to be remarked the villages of Baccanello, 
 San Giorgio, San Rocco, and Brocada. 
 
 IV.— THE DUCHY OF MODENA. 
 
 Area : 2,109 square miles. 
 Population : 490,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between Parma and the northern extremity of 
 the popedom, has a fertile soil, and is noted for its fine Carrara 
 marble. The manufacturing industry is of no great importance. 
 
118 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Duchy of Modena. 
 
 There was in the capital a university, which, however, in 1832, 
 was transformed into three higher schools. The higher catholic 
 clergy consist of 6 bishops. There are still 14 monasteries 
 and 9 nunneries in the country. 
 
 The public revenue was of late about $540,000, and the public 
 debt amounted only to $252,000. The army, on the peace foot- 
 ing, numbers 1,860 men. 
 
 History. — Modena became in the middle ages a fee of the German empire, 
 and in the 14th century the renowned house of Este was invested with it. 
 This house, whose ancestral seat of the same name is situated in the kingdom 
 of Lombardy Venice, belonged to the most ancient families of Italy, anil its 
 ancestor was the margrave Albert of Este, who lived about the year 960, 
 and was possessed of great estates in Lombardy. His great-grandson, 
 Albert Azzo II., went to Germany and inherited there, by his wife, the large 
 possessions of the Guelphs ; while the collateral degrees of kindred remained 
 in Italy. To these belonged margrave Borso, who in 1452, was raised to the 
 rank of a duke of Modena and Reggio. In 1806 the male line of the house 
 of Este became extinct, and the heiress of the duchy being married to the 
 Austrian archduke Ferdinand, the reigning dynasty was henceforth called 
 Austria-Este. His grandson Francis V. (born in 1819) is the reigning duke 
 since 1846. 
 
 The whole duchy is divided into the six provinces of Modena, 
 Reggio, Garfagna, Massa-Carrara, Lunigiana, and Frignano. Yet 
 we shall, in the topography, follow the historical division into the 
 duchies and principalities of Modena, Reggio, Correggio, Miran- 
 dola, Novellara, and Massa-Carrara. 
 
 Modena, capital of the whole country and residence of the duke, on a canal 
 that unites the Panaro with the Secchia, south-eastward and 32 miles distant 
 from Parma, and 60 miles north-north-west of Florence, with a magnificent 
 palace of the duke, numerous churches (the high steeple of the cathedral is 
 known by the name of Guirlandina), and 28,000 inhabitants (inclusive 1,500 
 Jews). Other towns of this district are : Sassuolo (with 8,000 inhabitants), 
 
ITALY. H9 
 
 Duchy of Modena. 
 
 Finale (with 6,500 inhabitants), Frignano (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pavullo 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Acquaria (with hot springs). Cartelnuovo di 
 Garfagna, a town on the Serchio, with 3,000 inhabitants, was formerly the 
 capital of the Lordship of Garfagna, which previously was annexed to 
 Bologna. Carpi, a town situated northward and 9 miles distant from Modena, 
 has 5,000 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of the principality of Carpi, 
 that in 1530 was ceded to Modena by the house of Pico, for the sum of 100,000 
 ducats. Rkggio, the capital of the ancient duchy of Reggio, which has always 
 been united with the duchy of Modena, is situated between the cities of 
 Modena and Parma, and has 23 churches, several convents, and 19,000 inhab- 
 itants. The renowned poet Ariosto, was born here in 1474. In the vicinity 
 of this city, are to be found the ruins of the ancient castle of Canossa, where 
 the German emperor Henry IV. humbled himself before the Pope Gregory 
 VII., in 1077. Brescello, a fortified town on the Po, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
 The province of Lunigiana contains the towns of Aulla (with 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants), and Fosdinovo (with 2,000 inhabitants). Correggio, ancient capital 
 of a principality of the same name, which in 1635 was annexed to Modena, 
 near the Po, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. The great 
 painter Antonio Allegzi, generally known by the name of Correggio, was born 
 here. Mirandola, ancient capital of a duchy of the same name, which in 
 1711 was annexed to Modena, on the Burana, with 5,500 inhabitants. Con- 
 cordia, a town on the Secchia, with 3,500 inhabitants. Novellara, ancient 
 capital of a principality of the same name, with which the duke of Modena 
 was invested in 1737, 20 miles north-north-west of Modena, with 5,000 inhab- 
 itants. The duchy of Massa- Carrara, bordering on the sea, and having an 
 area of 95 square miles, with more than 30,000 inhabitants, was annexed to 
 the duchy of Modena in 1741, by marriage of its heiress with the hereditary 
 prince of Modena. It contains : Massa, a city on the Frigido, and near the 
 western coast of the Italian peninsula, with 10,000 inhabitants, and active 
 commerce in olive oil and marble. In its vicinity is situated the town of 
 Carrara, with 8,500 inhabitants, an academy of sculptors, and numerous 
 workshops, where more than 400 artists are engaged in sculptural works. 
 About 100 vessels are annually employed in exporting the marble of Carrara, 
 Lavenza, a maritime town, with 1,300 inhabitants. 
 
120 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. 
 
 V.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TUSCANY. 
 
 Area : 8,844 square miles. 
 Population: 1,752,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This state, comprising the north-western part of Middle Italy, 
 consists, since the year 1847, of Tuscany Proper (8,418 square 
 miles, and 1,570,000 inhabitants), and the Duchy of Lucca (426 
 square miles, and 182,000 inhabitants), which latter, according 
 to the determinations of the congress at Vienna in 1815, was 
 annexed to the grand-duchy as soon as the duchess of Parma 
 died, and the duke of Lucca became her successor (compare the 
 History of Parma). 
 
 The Etruscan Apennines extend across the north-eastern part 
 • of the country. The principal river of Tuscany is the Arno, 
 while the Tiber has its sources here. Besides these, the Ombrone 
 in Tuscany, and the Serchio in Lucca, may be mentioned. 
 
 The soil is for the greatest part very fertile, although marshy 
 at the mouth of the Arno, and along the coast, down to the 
 frontier of the States of the Church. These marshes are known 
 by the name of the Maremma. 
 
 Agriculture flourishes in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca, 
 and has attained here a high state of improvement. Besides the 
 silk manufactures at Florence, Tuscany is renowned for its fine 
 straw hats, and in the valley of the Arno thousands of country 
 girls are engaged in plaiting straw. The manufactures in Lucca 
 are various, and embrace chiefly silk, cotton, and woollen goods. 
 With regard to the commerce, Leghorn may be considered as the 
 chief seaport of the Italian peninsula, and besides this, the 
 inland trade of Florence is also very important. 
 
 With regard to the means of education, there are 3 universi- 
 
ITALY. 121 
 
 Tuscany: Education— Rv venu? — Army, etc. 
 
 ties in Tuscany, viz. : at Pisa (founded in 1338, and in 1841 
 frequented by 580 students), at Siena (founded in 1351, and in 
 1841 with 257 students), and at Florence (founded in 1438, and 
 in 1841 with 218 students). Moreover, there are 4 colleges for 
 the sons of nobles, 16 gymnasiums, and 16 seminaries (see the ex- 
 planatory note at the introduction to Portugal). The common 
 schools are numerous in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca. 
 
 At the head of the Catholic clergy are 4 archbishops (one of 
 them in Lucca) and 16 bishops. In 1840 Tuscany numbered 
 still 133 monasteries (with 2,540 monks) and 69 nunneries (with 
 3,907 nuns). In the duchy of Lucca the number of convents 
 amounted to 23. 
 
 Until the last revolutions in Italy, which commenced in 1847, 
 the Tuscan government was absolute, but is now limited. 
 
 The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for the 
 last year has been about $5,000,000 annually. In 1836 the 
 revenue of Tuscany was exactly 25,104,898 lire, and the expen- 
 diture only 23,078,029 lire (or francs). Since 1829, Tuscany is 
 without any public debt. In the duchy of Lucca, whose public 
 debt amounted to about 500,000 lire, the public revenue was of 
 late 3.700,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure somewhat 
 less. 
 
 The Tuscan army numbers on the peace footing 5,500 men. 
 (The military of Lucca consisted of 700 men.) There are also 
 some vessels of war, consisting of 4 schooners (one of them be- 
 longed to the duchy of Lucca) and some gun-boats. 
 
 The Tuscanese orders of honor are the following : — 1. The 
 order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1562, and renewed in 1817, 
 in 4 classes. 2. The order of St. Joseph, instituted in 1807, at 
 Wurtzburg (see below), and renewed in 1817 for Tuscany, in 3 
 classes. 3. The order of the white cross, instituted in 1814. (The 
 duke of Lucca had instituted the or ler of St. Louis, in 3 classes.) 
 
122 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Tuscany: History. 
 
 History. — The present grand-duchy of Tuscany comprises for the greatest 
 part the ancient Etruria, or the land of the Etruscans, which in 284 A. C. was 
 conquered by the Romans, and, after the fall of the Western Empire, came 
 under the sway first of the Lombards, and then of the Franks. Charlemagne 
 appointed margraves as governors of Tuscia (as the country now was named), 
 who in the course of time became independent, but without being able to 
 retain the whole of the country. For Florence, Pisa, Siena, etc., became free 
 cities or republics in the 13th century. (See History of Europe, § 17, d, h, 
 and i.) Pisa was for a long time the most powerful among them, but was 
 subdued, first in 1407, then in 1509 by Florence, that in 1286 had purchased 
 its independence from the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg at the sum of 
 600,000 gold florins. Among the eminent families of Florence were the 
 Medici, renowned for their attainments and riches, who became at last (espe- 
 cially since the year 1434) the rulers of the republic. To Alexander of 
 Medici was the ducal title conferred by the emperor Charles V. in 1531, and 
 to his son and successor Cosimo I. the title of a grand-duke by the pope in 
 1569. In 1554 Spain had taken possession of the republic of Siena, which 
 for the greatest part was ceded to Cosmo I. in 1557. In this way the former 
 republic of Florence was enlarged to a grand-duchy of Tuscany. With John 
 Gaston the race of the Medici became extinct in 1737. and now, according to 
 former stipulations, the duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine (married to the 
 renowned Maria Theresa, heiress of Austria) ascended the throne. He was 
 subsequently elected emperor of Germany, and died in 1765. Hi3 successor 
 in Tuscany was first his son Leopold, and then (in 1790) his grandson Ferdi- 
 nand HI. In the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville in 1801, it was 
 stipulated that the hereditary prince of Parma should become possessed of 
 Tuscany by the name of a kingdom of Etruria, in return for which the grand- 
 duke Ferdinand III. was indemnified first by the archbishopric of Salzburg, 
 and in 1805 by the grand-duchy of Wurtzburg (see introduction to Germany). 
 Tuscany, or Etruria (as it was then called), was in 1807 annexed to the 
 French empire, of which it formed a constituent until 1814, when Ferdinand 
 III. was reinstated. He died in 1824, and was succeeded by his son, the still 
 reigning grand-duke Leopold II. (born in 1797). In 1849 he was obliged to 
 leave the country on account of a revolution which had the tendency to 
 transform the grand-duchy into a republic. But an Austrian army entered 
 the country and defeated the republicans, whereupon the grand-duke returned 
 
ITALY. 123 
 
 Tuscany: Geographical Divisions. 
 
 to Florence. About the annexation of the duchy of Lucca, see above, and 
 the History of Parma. 
 
 Tuscany proper is divided into the 5 compartimenti or prov- 
 inces of Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, and Grossetto, which are 
 subdivided into Territorii coraunitativi, or townships. Part of the 
 compartimenti of Pisa and Grossetto consists of the Stato degli 
 Presidii, or the former territory of the ancient republic of Siena, 
 which not before the year 1815 was annexed to the grand-duchy. 
 For this reason we shall first give the topography of Tuscany 
 proper, and then describe the Stato degli Presidii, and finally 
 the duchy of Lucca. 
 
 1. Tuscany proper contains : Florence, the capital of the grand-duchy 5 
 and residence of the grand-duke, on the Arno, westward and 115 miles dis- 
 tant from Ancona, and 50 east-north-east of Leghorn, with 105,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Florence, one of the finest cities of Europe, is noted for its churches, 
 palaces, galleries, and libraries. The most magnificent among the 172 
 churches is the cathedral, which was reared in the period from the year 1294 
 to 1448, and whose beautiful cupola rises to the height of 400 feet. The 
 palace Pitti, the usual residence of the grand-dukes, contains 900 apartments. 
 Another palace, reared by Cosmo I., contains, besides the so-called Maglia- 
 becchian library, the celebrated Florentine gallery of sculpture, paintings, and 
 other works of art. In the vicinity of the city are situated the beautiful Villa 
 Demidof (belonging to the Russian count Demidof), and the grand-ducal 
 mansions of Poggio Imperiale, Poggio a Cajano, Pratolino, and Castello. On 
 the Stella, 23 miles north-west of Florence, is situated the city of Pistoja, 
 with 28 churches (among them, a magnificent cathedral), a manufactory of 
 organs, various other manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. The villages of 
 Brozzi and Signa, are noted for their straw hats, which are plaited here in 
 great quantities. Fiesole, a town in the vicinity of Florence, is remarkable 
 for the remains of cyclopic walls and other ancient buildings. Other towns 
 of the compartimento of Florence are : Prato (with 11,000 inhabitants), Peseta 
 (with 11,000 inhabitants), Volterra (with 6,000 inhabitants), San Miniato (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Figline (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Modigliano (with 
 2,300 inhabitants). The town of Certaldo is remarkable as the birth-place of 
 
124 EUROPK, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Tuscany Statistics. 
 
 the poet Boccacio. Arezzo, capital of the compartimento of the same name, 
 south-eastward and 37 miles distant from Florence, with a magnificent cathe- 
 dral, and 9,500 inhabitants). The town of Montepulciano, witli 3,000 inhab- 
 itants, is noted for its wines. The town of Chiusi, which now has only 1,600 
 inhabitants, was in the days of old, or about 500 years before Christ, the 
 residence of Porsenna, and then named Clusium. Stia, a town near the 
 Arno, with cloth manufactories and 1,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is 
 situated the celebrated abbey of Camaldoli, originated in 1012. Other towns 
 in this compartimento are : Cortona (with 3,500 inhabitants), Borgo San Sepolcro 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Anghiari (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Bibbiena (the 
 wealthiest town in the district of Casentino). Siena, the capital of the com- 
 partimento of the same name, situated in a picturesque country, southward 
 and 30 miles distant from Florence, with a splendid cathedral ranking next to 
 that of Milan, numerous palaces, a university and several other literary insti- 
 tutions, silk and other manufactories, and 24,000 inhabitants. In the middle 
 ages, when Siena was a republic (see above), the population of the city 
 amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Pienza, a town formerly called Corsignano, 
 has 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this compartimento are: Chile (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Montalcino (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Radicofani (with 
 1,000 inhabitants). Near the last-named town are the renowned watering- 
 places of San Fillppo and San Casciano. Gkossetto, fortified town and 
 capital of the compartimento of the same name, southward and 70 miles 
 distant from Florence, in a marshy and very unwholesome country, near the 
 coast, with salt works, and 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
 (besides those that belong to the Stato degli Presidii) are : Soana, or Sovaow 
 (remarkable as the birth-place of Pope Gregory VII.). Massa di Maremma 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Pitigliano (with 2,600 inhabitants). The com- 
 partimento of Pisa contains : Pisa, a city on the Arno, about 4 miles distant 
 from its mouth, and 12 miles north-north-east from Leghorn, had in the middle 
 ages, when it was a powerful republic (see above), a population of 150,000, 
 but has at present only 22,000 inhabitants. Yet it is still a most remarkable 
 city, not only for its celebrated university, one of the best in Italy, but for its 
 edifices and buildings. There are nearly 80 churches, among them the highly- 
 interesting cathedral founded in 1063, richly decorated in the interior, and 
 containing the tomb of the German emperor, Henry VII. (who died here in 
 1313). Near the back part of the cathedral is the remarkable Campanile, or 
 leaning tower, 168 feet high, and inclining 14 feet from the perpendicular. It 
 
ITALY. 125 
 
 Tuscany : Statistic*. 
 
 was reared in 117-1. On the other side is the Campo Santo, or church-yard, 
 with fine paintings in fresco on the walls, with which it is surrounded. In 
 the neighborhood of Pisa are mineral baths, which are much frequented. 
 The grand-ducal farm of San Rossore, in the vicinity of Pisa, is noted for its 
 studs and a herd of camels that have been kept here since the year 1622. 
 Leghorn (in Italian, Livorno), the chief seaport of Tuscany, and the first 
 commercial city in Italy, 50 miles west-south-west of Florence, with two 
 harbors, ship docks, numerous manufactories, and 88,000 inhabitants, among 
 whom are nearly 25,000 Jews, who have here one of the most splendid syna- 
 gogues in Europe. In the vicinity is the picturesque mountain Montenero 
 (or Monte Negro), with a rich convent and numerous mansions. Barga, a 
 town with 2,000 inhabitants, is situated in the district called Garfagna 
 Granducale. Fivizzano, a town with a Benedictine nunnery, and 2,500 
 inhabitants, is situated in the district called Lunigiana. Pontremoli, a town 
 on the Magra, with a fine cathedral, a strong citadel, and 6,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns are : Castellina Marittima (with 1,000 inhabitants), Castelnuovo 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), Serravezza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pietrasanta 
 (wi;h 3,000 inhabitants). Near the coast, and at no great distance from 
 Leghorn, are situated the isles of Pianosa (to which Agrippa Posthumus, 
 grandson of the Roman emperor Augustus, was exiled), Gianuti, Giglio 
 (with 1,300 inhabitants), Monte Cristo, Palmajola (between Elba and the 
 continent), Gorgona (right against Leghorn), and Meloria. 
 
 2. The Stato degli Presidii (area : 298 square miles) is a territory that once 
 belonged to the ancient republic of Siena, and which, together with the city 
 itself, was conquered by Spain in 1554. When, in 1557, the city of Siena 
 was ceded to Tuscany by Philip II. of Spain, he kept its territory, which since 
 formed a constituent part of the kingdom of Naples (then under Spanish 
 sway). In 1801, Naples ceded it (or the Stato degli Presidii) to France, 
 which kept the island of Elba for itself, while the principality of Piombino 
 was given to Felix Bacchiochi, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, and the re- 
 maining part of the Stato degli Presidii annexed to Tuscany. According to 
 the stipulations of the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the whole was annexed to 
 the grand-duchy. The Stato degli Presidii comprise the following towns on 
 the continent: Orbjtello, about 13 miles distant from the frontier of the 
 States of the Church, with 2,000 inhabitants, Ercole and San Stefano (little 
 seaports) ; Piombino, a maritime town, and capital of the ancient principality 
 of Piombino (whose princes of the houses of Appiani, Ludovici, and Buon- 
 
126 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Tuscany: Duchy of Lucca— Statistics. 
 
 campagni, were under the sovereignty first of the German emperor, then of 
 Spain, Naples, etc.), with 1,000 inhabitants, Galdano, Scarlino, and Lili ; and, 
 moreover, the island of Elba (area : 32 square miles, with important iron 
 mines, and the towns of Porto Ferrajo, with 2,000 inhabitants, and Porto 
 Longone, with 1,000 inhabitants). In 1814, the sovereignty of this island 
 was given to Napoleon in exchange for the imperial crown of France. He 
 remained here until March, 1815. 
 
 3. The duchy of Lucca (area : 426 square miles; population: 182,000 in- 
 habitants), of which the statistical and geographical particulars have already 
 been given above. It comprises the north-western extremity of the grand- 
 duchy of Tuscany. Lucca became in the middle ages a fee of the German 
 empire, and was ruled under this sovereignty by various families. But in 
 1370 it purchased its independence from the emperor Charles IV., and since 
 it was a republic, first with a democratic, but since the years 1430 and 1556 
 with an aristocratic constitution. Lucca continued to be a republic until the 
 year 1805, when Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law, Bacchiochi, prince of 
 Piombino, hereditary president of Lucca, and thus transformed the republic 
 into a kind of monarchy. In 1815 it was transformed into a duchy, and the 
 widow of the hereditary prince of Parma (see History of Tuscany) invested 
 with it. She died in 1824, and was succeeded by her son, the now (since 
 1847) reigning duke of Parma (see History of Parma). Since the end of the 
 year 1847 the duchy of Lucca is annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany (see 
 above). It contains the following places : Lucca, the capital and former resi- 
 dence of the duke, near the Serchio, 12 miles north-north-east of Pisa, with 
 an extensive and richly-decorated ducal palace, 22 churches (among them a 
 Gothic cathedral reared in the 11th century), various manufactories, and 
 25,000 inhabitants. The famous mineral baths of Lucca are in the neighbor- 
 ing towns of Bagni, Bagno alia Villa, and Ponte a Seraglio. Other towns 
 of the duchy are : Caponnori (with 3,000 inhabitants), Borgo (with 2,000 in- 
 habitants), Camajore (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Viareggio (a maritime 
 town, with 6,500 inhabitants). 
 
ITALY. 127 
 
 Slates of the Church 
 
 VL— THE STATES OF THE CHURCH 
 
 Area : 17,280 square miles. 
 Population* : 2,970,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The territory forming the States of the Church, or the Pope- 
 dom, occupies the centre of Italy, extending from the western 
 coast of the peninsula to its eastern coast, and northward up to 
 the mouths of the Po. The chief river of the Popedom is the 
 Tiber. In the vicinity of Rimini, between Ancona and Ravenna, 
 is the little river of Luso, or Uso, emptying into the Adriatic 
 Sea. It is the same rivulet which anciently was so renowned by 
 the name of Rubicon. About the mountains of the States of 
 the Church, see Introduction, § 7, d. Near the mouths of the Po, 
 and along the high road between Rome and Naples, are extensive 
 marshes exhaling- bad air ; they are known by the names of Valli 
 di Comacchio and Pontine marshes. 
 
 The soil is generally good and fertile, but only in some parts 
 of the country the agriculture is conducted with skill and dili- 
 gence. The annual produce in grains is on an average computed 
 at about 615,500 quarters of wheat, 295,600 quarters of maize, 
 20,000 quarters of oats, and 11,200 quarters of barley. Suffi- 
 cient corn for home consumption is seldom raised throughout the 
 country. The produce of the richest lands is only to the advan- 
 tage of the clergy and nobility, while by far the most of the pub- 
 lic charges press heavily upon the farmer. With the money got 
 by the sale of his fruits, wines, olive-oil, hemp, flax, and silk, the 
 farmer pays his debts, contracted beforehand, his taxes and 
 necessaries of life. The numerous holidays and pilgrimages, 
 jointly with the warm climate, are seducing the people into indo- 
 lence, the more so as in many convents the poor can have their 
 
128 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 States of the Church: Classes, Secular and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 daily scanty food for nothing. Nevertheless a good deal of the 
 population would starve but for their frugality, and the plenty 
 and cheapness of a great variety of fruits. Though the rivers, 
 lakes, and coasts afford great facilities for the fisheries, yet these 
 are by no means a great object of pursuit ; and as there are an- 
 nually about 160 days of abstinence on which only fish meals 
 are allowed, great quantities of dried fish are to be imported 
 from foreign countries. The commerce in general is of no great 
 importance, and the imports are far exceeding the exports. Thus, 
 for instance, in Civita Vecchia, the only seaport on the western 
 coast of the country, the imports for the year 1842 were valued 
 at $1,742,000, while the exports were only valued at $588,000. 
 This being the actual state of things, the manufactures are, with 
 few exceptions, in a backward state. 
 
 The nation is divided into four classes : the clergy, nobility, 
 burghers, and farmers. The nobility comprises princes and 
 dukes belonging to collateral lines of the popes, the so-called 
 senatorial nobility, or Roman aristocracy, and the lower degrees 
 of nobility. The highest state offices are generally occupied by 
 the cardinals, and most of the other public offices either by pre- 
 lates or nobles. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is of course the established church, which 
 in this country is governed by 6 archbishops and 72 bishops. 
 In 1847 there were, moreover, 53,000 secular and regular clergy- 
 men, 1,824 monasteries, and 612 nunneries. Austins, Barna- 
 bites, Benedictines, Camaldulenses, Capuchins, Carmelites, Cis- 
 tercians, Ccelestians, Cordelians, Dominicans, Jesuits, Minims, 
 Philippines, Recollectians, Somascians, Trinitarians, Theatins, 
 etc. — all these religious orders are to be found in the States of 
 the Church. As for the rest, all other religions are tolerated. 
 In Rome are 8,000, and in Ancona 5,000 Jews. 
 
 There are 7 universities : at Bologna (see History of Europe, 
 
ITALY. 129 
 
 States of the Church: Universities— Government. 
 
 § 17,/; this university was in 1841 frequented by 5G0 students), 
 at Rome (founded in 1248, and in 1841 with 680 students), 
 at Ferrara (founded in 1264, and in 1841 with 200 students), at 
 Perugia (founded in 1307, and in 1841 with 210 students), at Ma- 
 cerata (founded in 1548, and in 1841 with 320 students), at Fermo 
 (founded in 1589, and in 1841 with 235 students), and at Came- 
 rino (founded in 1727, and in 1841 with 200 students). More- 
 over, the clergy numbers many learned men, distinguished for 
 their attainments in literature and science. Nevertheless the 
 means of education in general are very deficient, and the mass 
 of the people grossly ignorant. That Rome is the chief seat 
 of fine arts, and at the same time noted for the value of its libra- 
 ries, is universally known. 
 
 The form of government is an elective monarchy. The States 
 of the Church are ruled by the pope, who is the head of the 
 Catholic church, and is invested with absolute (although at pres- 
 ent somewhat modified) power, both spiritual and temporal. He 
 is elected out of the college of the cardinals (whose number is 
 fixed at 70). The reigning pope, Pius IX. (previous to his elec- 
 tion, Jos. Maria, Count Mastai Ferreti, archbishop of Imola, born 
 on the 13th of May, 1792, at Sinigaglia), was elected on the 16th 
 of June, 1846. 
 
 The public revenue was lately estimated at about $9,000,000, 
 and the expenditure at nearly $9,800,000, thus a deficit of 
 $800,000. The public debt is computed at $34,000,000. The 
 clerical revenues (for dispensations, taxes from the property left 
 by clergymen, etc), which still in the last century amounted to 
 more than $650,000 per annum, fall at present short of $300,000. 
 The army numbered 12,669 men with 1,382 horses at the end of 
 the year 1844. Besides these there were two regiments of 
 Swiss, numbering 4,100 men. The navy consists of some small 
 vessels. 
 
 6* 
 
130 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 States of the Church : History. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. 
 Gregory the Great, instituted in 1832. 2. The order of St. John 
 the Baptist, also called the order of Christ, instituted in 1319. 
 3. The order of the golden spur, instituted in 1559. 
 
 History. — The pope, as ruler of the States of the Church, is invested with 
 temporal, and as the head of the Catholic church, with spiritual power. We 
 shall first speak of the latter. In the days of the apostles the Christian 
 church was governed by seniors (presbyters), superintendents (bishops), and 
 deacons, under the direction of the apostles. In the course of time it became 
 the custom to select one of the seniors or superintendents, who by way of 
 eminence was called bishop, and had a decisive vote in the affairs of the 
 church community. About the middle of the third century the bishops of 
 Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, Antiochia, and # other principal cities of the Ro- 
 man empire, began to enjoy higher credit than those of the remaining dio- 
 ceses. At a later period the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, 
 and Jerusalem, were called patriarchs, and Rome being still revered as the 
 former metropolis of the Roman empire, the bishop or patriarch of Rome 
 began to exercise more and more a kind of supremacy, until in the year 607 
 Boniface 111. assumed the papal title for the first time. Thus the spiritual 
 power of the pope, as head of the Catholic church, dates from this period. 
 For a long time, the popes of Rome had authority only in matters of religion, 
 but in the 9th century and after the death of Charlemagne, they began to 
 claim the authority of God's agents or vicegerents on earth ; and towards the 
 end of the 11th century Gregory VII (1073-1085) established the formal 
 privilege of the pope to dispose freely of temporal crowns and kingdoms. 
 He and several of his successors exercised this right on the largest scale, until 
 first in the beginning of the 14th century, King Philip IV. of France, and 
 then above all the reformation in the 16th century, put an end to this usurpa- 
 tion. (See History of Europe, § 17, e and h.) The temporal power of the 
 pope dates from the year 755, when Pepin the Little, king of the Franks, 
 wrested the so-called exarchate (comprising? among others, the cities and 
 towns of Ravenna, Forli, Frosinone, Velletri, and Rieti) from the Lombards, 
 and gave it to the holy See. His son, Charlemagne, enlarged this territory 
 considerably. In the 11th century the duchy of Benevento, and in the 12 th 
 the duchy of Spoleto and part of the mark (margraviate) of Ancona, etc., 
 were added by way of donation. The city of Rome did not become subject 
 
ITALY. 131 
 
 State9 of the Church : Geographical Division. 
 
 to the papal power until in 1216. In the year 1273 the county of Venaissin 
 (in the French province of Provence) was, by King Philip IV. of France, 
 ceded to the popes, who in 1348 purchased the city of Avignon (quite near 
 to Venaissin) for 80,000 gold florins. In the 16th century Bologna, the duchy of 
 Ferrara, and the remaining part of the mark of Ancona, and in the 11 th cen- 
 tury the duchies of Urbiuo and Castro were acquired. In this way the 
 States of the Church in Italy were gradually enlarged to that extent which 
 they have now. Only Avignon and Venaissin, of which the French took 
 possession in 1190, were lost forever; while the Italian territories wrested 
 from the Popedom by the French and Napoleon in the years 1191, 1808, and 
 1809 (in the last-named year the pope, then Pius VIL, was completely de- 
 prived of his temporal power), were restored by the determination of the 
 congress of Vienna in 1815. 
 
 Since the year 1 832 the States of the Church are divided into 
 21 provinces, of which 13 are styled Delegations, and those of 
 Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Urbino-Pesaro, Forli, and Velletri 
 are styled Legations, while the province of Rome bears the name 
 of Comarca, and that of Loretto the appellation of Commissariat. 
 In an historical relation the legation of Velletri, the comarca di 
 Roma, the delegations of Frosinone and Rieti. and the legations 
 of Ravenna and Forli, comprise the above-mentioned exarchate, 
 given to the holy see io 755, or the ancient duchy of Rome and 
 the Romagna. The delegations of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo 
 comprise the so-called estates of Matilda, which were given to the 
 popes in 1077 and 1102 by the margravine Matilda of Tuscany. 
 The delegations of Spoleto, Camerino, and Perugia, comprise the 
 ancient duchy of Spoleto (see above). The legation of Bologna 
 comprises the ancient Bolognese, or the city of Bologna and its 
 territory. The delegations of Ancona and Macerata, jointly with 
 the commissariat of Loretto, comprise the ancient Mark of Ancona. 
 The delegations of Fermo and Ascoli comprise the ancient 
 Mark of Fermo. acquired in the 16th century. The legation of 
 Ferrara comprises the ancient duchy of Fermo, acquired in 1598 ; 
 
132 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 States of the Church: Statistics. 
 
 and the legation of Urbino and Pesaro comprises the ancient 
 duchy of Urbino, acquired in 1631. 
 
 1. The comarca di Roma contains : Rome, the capital of the States of the 
 Church, and residence of the pope, on the Tiber, at 18 miles distance from its 
 mouth, had, according to the census of 1847, a population of 1*75,883 inhabi- 
 tants, exclusive of Jews, whose number was computed at 8,000. That Rome 
 was once the capital of the Roman empire, is universally known ; it had then, 
 or at least in the days of the Emperor Augustus, a population of 2,000,000 
 inhabitants, and was 50 miles in circumference. Though now much decayed, 
 and a great part of it in ruins, it is still one of the most interesting cities in 
 the world, and is noted for its churches, palaces, columns, arches, and other 
 monuments of splendid architecture, among which are the Coliseum (a vast 
 amphitheatre for 82,000 spectators, built in the days of the Emperor Titus), 
 the column of Trajan, the arches of Titus, Septimus Severus, etc. Among 
 the 364 churches of the city, ranks first St. Peter's, the largest church in the 
 world (it was nearly 200 years in building, and not before the year 1626 
 completely finished : it is 666 feet long, and 284 feet wide, and its magnificent 
 cupola rises to the height of 408 feet). The Vatican is the largest palace in 
 the world: it is 1,080 feet long, and contains 4,422 saloons, halls, and apart- 
 ments, moreover the most valuable library in Europe, and the finest works of 
 Raphael and Michael Angelo. The popes have usually resided here in the win 
 ter months. Other palaces are, the Quirinal (the residence of the pope in the 
 summer season), the vast palace of Barberini, the palaces of Farnese, Oolonna, 
 Borghese, etc The number of literary institutions, academies of fine arts, 
 etc., in Rome, is very great. In the year 1845, there were at Rome 404 
 foreign artists, of whom 14 were from America. The environs of Rome, 
 comprising the ancient Lat'mm, are at present known by the name of the 
 Campagna di Roma. Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, a town on the Teverone, 18 
 miles east-north-east of Rome, with a beautiful cataract (60 feet in height), 
 numerous remains of antiquity, and 6,300 inhabitants. Ostia, a maritime 
 town at the mouth of the Tiber, was once the seaport of Rome, but it is now 
 almost deserted, on account of the bad air of the surrounding marshes. Other 
 towns of the Campagna di Roma are: A Ibano (with 5,600 inhabitants), Castel 
 Gandolfo (with a palace of the pope, who resides here some weeks in the 
 summer season), Frascati (formerly Tusculum, with 4,000 inhabitants), Pales- 
 trina (formerly Praeneste, with 2,500 inhabitants), Subiaco (with 6,000 inhab- 
 
ITALY. 133 
 
 Slates of the Church : Statistics. 
 
 itants), and Fiumicino (with 600 inhabitants). 2. The legation of Velletri, or 
 Marittima, contains: Velletri, chief town, south-eastward and 23 miles 
 distant from Rome, with many remains of antiquity, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
 Terracina (the ancient Anxur), a town near the coast and the frontier of 
 Naples, amidst the Pontine marshes, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cori and Norma, 
 towns with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 3. The delegation of 
 Frosinone contains : Frosinone, chief town on the Cosa, 46 miles east-south- 
 east of Rome, with 7,500 inhabitants. To this delegation belongs likewise 
 the district of Fontecorvo, northward and 23 miles distant from Gaeta, and 
 entirely surrounded by the Neapolitan territory. It occupies a tract of 43 
 square miles, has a population of more than 7,000 inhabitants, and belonged 
 in the period from the year 1806 to 1810, to the late king of Sweden, 
 Bernadotte. The town of Pontecorvo has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. 
 4. The delegation of Rieti contains : Rieti, chief town on the Velino, north- 
 eastward and 37 miles distant from Rome, with 12,600 inhabitants. Magliano, 
 a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. 5. The delegation of Spoleto contains : Spoleto, 
 chief town at the foot of the Apennines, and on the Mareggia, crossed by a 
 handsome bridge, with a magnificent cathedral, an aqueduct built by the 
 ancient Romans, and 8,500 inhabitants. Narni and Tcrni, towns, with re- 
 spectively 5,500 and 8,500 inhabitants. 6. The delegation of Civita Vecchia 
 contains : Civita Vecchia, a fortified maritime town, and next to Ancona, the 
 chief seaport of the States of the Church, 37 miles north-north-west of Ostia, 
 or the mouth of the Tiber, with 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this dele- 
 gation are : Tolfa (with 2,800 inhabitants), Corneto (with 3,800 inhabitants), 
 Montalto, Canino, and Fonte Bodio. 7. The delegation of Viterbo contains : 
 Viterbo, chief town at the foot of Mount Cimino, northward and 46 miles 
 distant from Rome, with 15,000 inhabitants. Montefiascone, a town on the 
 Lake Bolsena, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 4,500 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this delegation are : A cguapendente (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Ronciglione (with various manufactories), and Bolsena (with curious remains 
 of antiquity. 8. The delegation of Orvieto contains : Orvieto, chief town on 
 the Paglia, northward and 18 miles distant from Viterbo, with a beautiful 
 Gothic cathedral, excellent wines, and 8,000 inhabitants. Civita Castellana, 
 a town, with 4,500 inhabitants. 9. The delegation of Perugia contains : 
 Perugia, a city between the Trasimenian Lake and the Tiber, northward 
 and 83 miles distant from Rome, with several remarkable churches, a univer- 
 sity, and 32,000 inhabitants. Assisi, a town renowned as the birth-place of 
 
134 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 States of the Chinch : Statistics. 
 
 St. Frauciscus, author of the Franciscan order, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this delegation are: Foligno (with 16,000 inhabitants), Spello (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Cita di Castello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nocera (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Cita della Pieve. 10. The delegation of Ascoli, along 
 the coast of the Adriatic, contains : Ascoli, chief town on the Trento, and 
 near the Neapolitan frontier, with a citadel, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns are: Montalto and Ripa Transone. 11. The delegation of Fermo con- 
 tains : Fermo, chief town, near the Adriatic, with 20,000 inhabitants, a uni- 
 versity, and the little seaport Porto Fermo. 12. The delegation of Camerino 
 contains : Camerino, chief town, in the Apennines, with a university, and 
 7,500 inhabitants. 13. The delegation of Macerata contains: Macerata, chief 
 town on the high road between Rome and Ancona, with a university, and 
 18,000 inhabitants. Tolentino, a town on the Chienti, south-westward and 
 30 miles distant from Ancona, with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for a treaty of 
 peace concluded here in 1797 between France and the pope, and for a battle 
 in 1815, where King Murat, of Naples, was defeated by the Austrians. 
 Fabriano, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 14. The Commissariat of Loreto 
 contains: Loreto, or Loretto, a town near the Adriatic, southward and 13 
 miles distant from Ancona, has 8,000 inhabitants, and has, for many hundred 
 years, been renowned for its holy shrine, or a little cottage, in which the holy 
 virgin is said to have lived, having been transported by angels from Gali- 
 lee to Dalmatia, and thence to Loreto. This cottage, called Casa Santa, 
 is in the interior of a splendid church. Loreto has, therefore, long been a 
 place of great resort for pilgrims, but the number has of late decreased. 
 15. The delegation of Ancona (about the mark of Ancona, see p. 131) contains : 
 Ancona, a fortified city and chief seaport of the Popedom on the Adriatic, 
 north-eastward and 30 miles distant from Rome, with very important trade 
 with the Levant, an excellent pier built in the days of the Roman emperor 
 Trajan, a remarkable cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Jesi and Osimo, 
 towns, with respectively 6,000 and 7,000 inhabitants. 16. The legation of 
 Urbino and Pesaro contains : Urbino, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, 
 westward and 46 miles distant from Ancona, is noted as the birth-place of 
 Raphael (born in 1483, in a house which still exists), and has 14,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Sinigaglia, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, is celebrated for 
 its annual fair, and has 11,600 inhabitants. Other towns and cities of this 
 legation are: Fano (with 17,000 inhabitants), Fossombrone (with 6,400 inhab- 
 itants), Gubbio (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pesaro (with 15,000 inhabitants). 
 
ITALY. 136 
 
 States of the Church : Statistics. 
 
 17. The legation of Forti contains: Forti, chief town in a fertile country, 
 north-westward and 83 miles distant from Ancona, with a remarkable cathe- 
 dral, and 17,000 inhabitants. Rimini, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
 Marecchia, with several fine churches and well-corfserved remains of antiquity, 
 and 18,000 inhabitants. Cesena, a town on the Savio, with 16,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 18. The legation of Ravenna contains: Ravenna, chief town in a 
 marshy country near the Adriatic, north-westward and 87 miles distant from 
 Ancona, with several interesting remains of antiquity and edifices reared in 
 the days of Honorius, Theoderic, etc., and 26,000 inhabitants. Ravenna was 
 the residence of the last Roman emperors, of some Gothic kings, and of the 
 exarch, or governor, of the Greek emperors. The seaport of Ravenna is 
 called Porto Corsini. Other towns of this legation are : Cervia (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), Faenza (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Imola (with 9,000 inhabi- 
 tants). 19. The legation of Bologna contains : Bologna, next to Rome the 
 most important city of the States of the Church, in a romantic country, south- 
 eastward and 23 miles distant from Modena, and northward 46 miles distant 
 from Florence, with a magnificent cathedral, and several other remarkable 
 churches and palaces, a university, and a great variety of other literary insti- 
 tutions, and 75,000 inhabitants. Cento and Medicina, towns, with respectively 
 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants. 20. The legation of Ferrara contains : Ferrara, 
 a city on a branch of the Po, in a marshy, unwholesome country, 27 miles 
 north-north-east of Bologna, with a citadel, a vast Gothic castle, once the 
 residence of the princes of Este (see History of Modena), a university, and 
 28,000 inhabitants. Comacchio, a fortified town amidst the marshy Valli di 
 Comacchio (see above), with 6,000 inhabitants. Ponte di Lago Scuro, a town 
 on the Po, with 5,000 inhabitants. 21. The delegation of Benevento comprises 
 the ancient duchy of the same name, is entirely surrounded by Neapolitan 
 territory, and situated north-eastward and about 32 miles distant from the 
 city of Naples. It occupies a tract of 89 square miles, and has a population 
 of 25,000 inhabitants. The duchy of Benevento was created in 571 by the 
 Lombards, and had a far greater extent than now. In 851 it was divided 
 into three principalities, of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua. The Emperor 
 Henry III. gave Benevento to the holy See in 1053, and since that time it has 
 formed a constituent part of the States of the Church. In the period from 
 the year 1806 to 1815, the French minister Talleyrand was in possession of 
 this principality, whose capital, Benevento, has a remarkable cathedral, many 
 interesting remains of antiquity, and 15,000 inhabitants 
 
136 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Republic of San Marino. 
 
 VII— THE REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. 
 
 Area : 32 square miles. 
 Population : 8,200 inhabitants. 
 
 The republic of San Marino is the smallest of all European 
 states with regard to the extent (for with regard to the popula- 
 tion, the principality of Liechtenstein is inferior to it), is entirely 
 surrounded by papal territory, and situated between Ancona and 
 Florence. It is at the same time the oldest republic in Europe, 
 dating its origin from the year 469. In this year St. Marinus, or 
 Marino, originally a mason from Dalmatia, retired to a solitary 
 mountain here, and led a hermit's life. He soon became famous 
 as a holy man, and the proprietress of the mountain, a pious 
 lady, gave it to him. A great number of devouts joined him, 
 and in this way the little state came into existence. The consti- 
 tution is partly aristocratic, partly democratic. The executive 
 power is vested in two Capitani reggenti, who are elected only 
 for the period of six months. The amount of the revenue, and 
 of the expenditure, is about $6,000. The regular military con- 
 sists of only 24 men and 7< commissioned and non-commissioned 
 officers, but the militia comprises 850 men. Besides the capital, 
 there are only four villages in the country. 
 
 San Marino, the capital and the seat of government, is situated on the 
 above-mentioned mountain, and has 5 churches (in one of them is the tomb 
 of San Marino), 3 convents, and 6,000 inhabitants. The 4 villages alluded to 
 are : Serravalle, Faetano, Acquaviva, and Feglio. 
 
ITALY. 137 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 VIIL— THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 Area : 42,110 square miles. 
 Population: 8,373,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This state, commonly called the kingdom of Naples, comprises 
 the whole of Lower Italy, together with the island of Sicily and 
 some neighboring isles. 
 
 With the exception of 80,000 Greek Christians and 2,000 
 Jews, the inhabitants are Catholics, under the church authority 
 of 16 archbishops and 77 bishops. In 1842 the whole kingdom 
 numbered 32.360 priests, 12,751 monks, and 10,056 nuns. 
 
 About the Neapolitan Apennines and Abruzzi, the Gran Sassu 
 oVIlalia and Mt. Vesuvius on the continent, and Mt. Etna, etc., on 
 the island of Sicily, see Introduction, § 7, d. In the Abruzzi is 
 the lake of Celano, about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide. Be- 
 sides the Volturno and Garigliano (see Introduction, § 10), there 
 are no rivers worth mentioning. 
 
 The climate is in most parts of the country very delightful, 
 and even during the winter months the trees are covered with 
 green leaves. On the island of Sicily the sugar-cane and other 
 tropical products thrive very well. The wine which grows in 
 the environs of Syracuse is excellent, like that on Mt. Vesuvius, 
 known by the name of Lacrymae Christi (see Introduction to 
 Italy). On account of the peerless fertility of the soil in Sicily, 
 wheat is raised here in such quantities, that in some years it has 
 been exported at the value of 4,500,000 Neapolitan ducats ; not- 
 withstanding that the agriculture is in a very backward state 
 throughout the kingdom. Besides wheat and wine, the staples 
 are olive-oil, silk, and sulphur. That the Neapolitan horses are 
 of a very fine breed, has already been mentioned in the Introduc- 
 tion to Italy. The kingdom of Naples is the only country in 
 
138 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Two Sicilies — Education, etc. 
 
 Europe where the porcupine is met with. Manufactures have of 
 late improved, both on the continent and in Sicily. 
 
 With regard to the means of education, there are 4 universi- 
 ties: at Naples (founded in 1224, and in 1841 frequented by 
 1,550 students), at Catania (founded in 1445, and in 1841 with 
 600 students), at Palermo (founded in 1447, and in 1841 with 735 
 students), and at Messina (founded in 1838, and in 1841 with 60 
 students). Moreover there are lyceums at Salerno, Bari, Catan- 
 garo. and Aquila, 4 gymnasiums in the city of Naples, and in each 
 province at least one gymnasium. The number of Latin schools 
 amounts to 780 ; and in the continental part of the kingdom 
 there are 2,130 common schools. (About the terms of gymna- 
 sium, etc., see the note annexed to the Introduction of Portugal.) 
 
 The government is almost absolute, as it was before the last 
 revolution, which in 1849 has been completely suppressed. 
 
 The public revenue and expenditure is computed at about 
 26,000,000 Neapolitan ducats annually ; and the public debt at 
 86,000,000 ducats. 
 
 The army numbers on the peace footing 60,000, and on the 
 war footing nearly 100.000 men, besides several regiments of 
 Swiss. The navy consists of 1 ship of the line, 3 frigates. 4 
 sloops of war, and 4 smaller vessels. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. 
 January, instituted in 1738, in one class. 2. The order of St. Fer- 
 dinand, instituted in 1800, in 3 classes. 3. The order of St. Con- 
 stantin, conferred by the king in his quality as heir of the house 
 of Farnese (compare Parma). 4. The order of the two Sicilies, 
 instituted in 1808, in 3 classes. 5. The order of Francis the First, 
 instituted in 1829 by King Francis I., in 5 classes. 
 
 History. — The greatest part of the present kingdom of Naples was at an 
 early period occupied by Greek colonists, and for this reason called Great- 
 
ITALY. l«g 
 
 Kingdom of Naples: Ritftory. 
 
 Greece (see History of Italy). At a later period the Carthaginians took pos- 
 session of some parts of Sicily, and when in 212 B. C. the Romans conquered 
 this island, the continental part of Magna Grecia had long since been subdued 
 by them. After the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century, Naples 
 anil Sicily became a prey of Germanic tribes, especially of the Ostrogoths. 
 Since the year 535 Lower Italy and Sicily were under the sway of the Greek 
 emperors, until in 842 the island of Sicily, and soon after Calabria too, was 
 conquered by the Arabs. MeanwhiU, the Greek governors of several other 
 parts of Lower Italy had made themselves independent. Greeks and Arabs 
 now combated for the possession of Lower Italy, and finally the German 
 emperors partook in this struggle and conquered the principalities of Bene- 
 vento and Capua, and even part of Calabria. In 1016 Norman warriors 
 from Normandy came accidentally to Salerno, where they defeated the 
 Arabs, and were richly rewarded for it by the Christian inhabitants. The Nor- 
 mans now remained in the country, others of their countrymen joined them, 
 and thus they established themselves here permanently. Their valiant 
 rulers belonged to the famous family of Hauteville, and the conquests of 
 the Normans had, before the end of the 11th century, extended to Sicily 
 (since the year 1061), and the greatest part of Lower Italy. Roger II. 
 of Hauteville was crowned by the pope as king of the Two Siciliea, yet 
 at the same time suffered himself to be enfeoffed with this kingdom by 
 the holy father. Towards the end of the 12 th century the male line of 
 the house of Hauteville became extinct with William III, and the only 
 rightful heiress of the kingdom was Constantia, daughter of William III. 
 She was married to the German emperor, Henry VI., of the house of Ho- 
 henstaufen. When she died in 1198, she bequeathed the kingdom to her 
 son, the famous emperor Frederic II. of Hohenstaufen, who during his reign 
 was ever at variance with the holy see. About the middle of the 13th cen- 
 tury the pope, filled with hatred against the house of Hohenstaufen, invested 
 Charles of Anjou (brother of King Louis IX. of France) with the kingdom 
 of the two Sicilies. Charles took possession of it, but lost the island of Sicily 
 in 1282, when the French were exterminated there by the inhabitants. This 
 massacre is known in history by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The 
 Sicilians now elected Peter III. of Aragon (who was married to a princess 
 of the house of Hohenstaufen) their king, while the continental part of the 
 kingdom continued to be under the sway of the house of Anjou until the 
 year 1442, when Johanna II., the last heiress, died. Naples and Sicily were 
 
140 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples: History and Statistics. 
 
 now united again by King Alphonso V. of Sicily and Aragon. He subse- 
 quently invested his natural son Ferdinand with the continental part, but in 
 1503 both parts of the kingdom were united permanently. Since that time 
 the two Sicilies continued to form a constituent part of the Spanish kingdom, 
 until by the treaties of peace, concluded at Utrecht and Rastadt in 1713 and 
 1714, the house of Austria became possessed of them (see History of Spain). 
 But in 1734 they were wrested from it again by the Spaniards, and the Span- 
 ish prince, Charles, was acknowledged as king of the two Sicilies. "When in 
 1759 Charles ascended the Spanish throne, he ceded the kingdom of Naples 
 to his third son, Ferdinand, with complete sovereignty for him and his de- 
 scendants. Towards the end of the last century the French conquered the 
 continental part of the kingdom, and in 1806 Napoleon appointed first his 
 brother Joseph, and in 1808 his brother-in-law Murat king of this part, while 
 Ferdinand, assisted by the English, kept possession of the island of Sicily. 
 In 1815 Ferdinand was reinstated into the whole of his kingdom. He died 
 in 1825, and was succeeded by his son, Francis I., who died in 1830, and was 
 succeeded by Ins son, the at present reigning king, Ferdinand II. (born 
 in 1810). 
 
 The Neapolitan continent is divided into 15 provinces, of which 
 the section Terra di Lavoro comprises 4 (Naples, Terra di Lavoro 
 proper, Principato citeriore, and Principato ulteriore), the section 
 Abruzzi comprises 3 (Abruzzo ulteriore I., Abruzzo ulteriore II.. 
 and Abruzzo citeriore), the section Apulia comprises 4 (Molise, 
 Capitanata, Terra di Bari. and Terra di Otranto), and the section 
 Calabria comprises 4 (Basilicata, Calabria citeriore, Calabria 
 ulteriore I., and Calabria ulteriore II.). The island of Sicily is 
 divided into 7 val, or provinces. 
 
ITALY. hi 
 
 Kingdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent. 
 
 A.— THE NEAPOLITAN CONTINENT. 
 
 Area : 31,556 square miles. 
 Population : 6,323,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1. Terra di Lavoro, comprising : Naples (in ancient ages called Parthenope), 
 the capital of the whole kingdom, and residence of the king, on a beautiful 
 bay of the same name, near the base of Mount Vesuvius, south-eastward and 
 110 miles distant from Rome, is the largest city in Italy, and had, according 
 to the census of 1845, a population of 400,813 inhabitants (among them were 
 3,401 priests, 1.764 monks, and 1,445 nuns). The houses have, for the mosf 
 part, five or six stories, with fiat roofs decorated with orangery and flowers. 
 There are many palaces, and some of them have been reared in the days of 
 the Normans and Hohenstaufen. The theatre of San Carlo is the largest 
 opera-house in the world. Among the 122 churches, the most remarkable is 
 the magnificent cathedral where the pretended blood of St. January is pre- 
 served. The number of convents in the city amounts to 149. Besides a 
 university, there are many other literary institutions. Among the inhabi- 
 tants are about 80,000 Lazzaroni, or people of the lower classes, who seldom 
 dwell in a house, and only do any work (as porters, day-laborers, etc.) when 
 they are compelled to it by hunger. The environs of Naples are highly 
 interesting by the numerous remains of antiquity, among which are those of 
 Herculanewn and Pompeji, that were buried under the lava and ashes of 
 Vesuvius in 79 A. D. Near these ancient towns, digged out since the last 
 century, are situated the town of Portici, with a royal palace and 7,000 
 inhabitants, and the large village of Renna, with a mansion of the prince of 
 Salerno, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Torre 
 delV Annunziata (with 9,000 inhabitants), Castellamare (with 15,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Sorrento (with 5,000 inhabitants). At the entrance of the bay of 
 Naples are situated the following i*land$: Procida (with a population of 
 1 8,000 inhabitants), Ischia (very fertile, and much resorted to for bathing ; 
 its population amounts to 24,000 inhabitants), Capri (with 4,000 inhabitants ; 
 the Roman emperor Tiberius lived here many years ; immense flocks of quails 
 are caught here annually), Nisida (beautiful like a garden), and Purgaturo. 
 Caserta, or Caserta Nuova, chief town of the province of Terra di Lavoro 
 
142 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 
 
 proper, romantically situated, northward and 1 3 miles distant from Naples, 
 with a most splendid royal palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Gaeta, one of the 
 strongest fortresses in the world, on the bay of the same name, north-westward 
 and 42 miles distant from Naples. Close by is situated the town of Gaeta, 
 with 16,000 inhabitants. Capua, a fortified town on the Vulturno, northward 
 and 18 miles distant from Naples, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,500 
 inhabitants. Monte Cassino, a celebrated Benedictine abbey, founded in 
 528, on a steep hill, 46 miles north-north-west of Naples. Quite near is 
 situated the town of San Germano, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this province are : Nolo, (with 9,000 inhabitants ; here died the Roman emperor 
 Augustus), Piedimonte (with 5,000 inhabitants), Arpino (with 12,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Santa Maria Maggiore (with the remains of the ancient Capua, 
 destroyed by the Arabs in 844; has a population of 9,000 inhabitants), 
 Cajazzo (with a remarkable cathedral, and 4,000 inhabitants), Acerra (with 
 7,000 inhabitants), Aversa (with a mad-house, and 16,000 inhabitants), Mad- 
 daloni (with 11,500 inhabitants), Fondi (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sessa (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), and Aquino (noted as the birth-place of the holy Thomas 
 of Aquino). South-westward from Gaeta are situated the Pontine, or Ponza 
 Isles, with rather few inhabitants. Salerno, chief town of the province of 
 Principato citeriore, on the bay of the same name, 28 miles east-south-east 
 of Naples, with an ancient cathedral, where Pope Gregory VII. is buried, 
 various manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. (About the once-renowned 
 medical faculty, or seminary of Salerno, see History of Europe, § 17, /.) 
 Amalfi, a town on the bay of Salerno, south-eastward and 23 miles distant 
 from Naples, with 3,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Amalfi was one of 
 the emporiums of Europe (see History of Europe, § 17). Other towns of 
 this province are : Capaccio (with 2,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the 
 ancient town of Paestum), Eboli (with 6,000 inhabitants), Campagna (with a 
 beautiful cathedral, and 7,000 inhabitants), Diano (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Cava (with 19,000 inhabitants), Sarno (with 13,000 inhabitants), and Nocera 
 (with 7,000 inhabitants). Avellino, chief town of the province of Principato 
 ulteriore, at the foot of Mount Vergine, eastward and 28 miles distant from 
 Naples, is noted for its nuts, and has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. 
 Quite near are the Caudinian Passes, known by the Roman history. Other 
 towns of this province are: Ariano (with 12,500 inhabitants), Solofra (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), Pesco Pagano (with 4,000 inhabitants), Conza (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), Montefarchio (with 6,000 inhabitants), Montefuseo (with 3,000 
 
ITALY. 14* 
 
 Kingdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent 
 
 inhabitants), Atripalda, or Atribaldo (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rocca San 
 Felice (with 2,500 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The section of the Abnizzi, comprising the most northerly part of the 
 Neapolitan continent, contains : Teramo, chief town of the province of Abruzzo 
 ulteriore I., on the high road between Naples and Ancona, north-eastward 
 and 83 miles distant from Rome, with a botanic garden, and 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Teramo was in ancient ages called Interamnia, and subsequently 
 Abruzzo, hence the nomination of the Abruzzi. Other towns of this province 
 are : Atri (with 5,000 inhabitants), Civitella del Tronto (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Penne, or Civita di Penne (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Senarica 
 (whose inhabitants are altogether nobles, and endowed with various privileges). 
 Aquila, fortified capital of the province of Abruzzo ulteriore II., on the 
 Aterno, south-westward and 28 miles distant from Teramo, belongs to the 
 most industrious trading places of the kingdom, and has a population of 
 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Sulmona (with 10,000 
 inhabitants), Avezzano (with 6,000 inhabitants), Celano (with 2,200 inhabi- 
 tants), Civita Ducale (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Tagliacozzo (a small town 
 situated south-westward and 23 miles distant from Aquila, and eastward and 
 42 miles distant from Rome, noted for the battle in 1268, which the unhappy 
 Conradin, of Hohenstaufen, lost against Charles of Anjou). Chieti, or Civita 
 di Chieti, capital of the province of Abruzzo citeriore, on the Pescara and 
 near the Adriatic, northward and 101 miles distant from Naples, with a 
 beautiful cathedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. From this town, formerly called 
 Tkeate, or Teate, the monastic order of the Theatines has derived its name. 
 Lanciano, the most important trading town of the Abruzzi, on the Feltrino, 
 and quite near the Adriatic, with 15,000 inhabitants. Ortona a Mare, a town 
 on the Adriatic, with 6,000 inhabitants. Pescara, a fortified town on the river 
 of the same name, and on the Adriatic, with 3,000, or, according to others } 
 only with 600 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The section of Apulia (area: 9,351 square miles; population: 1,525,382, 
 according to the census of 1844), comprising, exclusive the Abruzzi, the 
 eastern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Lecce, capital of 
 the province of Terra di Otranto (which comprises the eastern great tongue 
 of land of Italy), in a fertile plain, eastward and 207 miles distant from 
 Naples, with 12 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), 8 con- 
 vents, several higher schools, and 21,000 inhabitants. Otranto, a fortified 
 town at the strait of Otranto (entrance into the Adriatic Sea), with a citadel, 
 
144 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 
 
 a remarkable cathedral, and 4,500 inhabitants. Brindisi, the ancient Brun- 
 duftiwn (the common place of passing over to Dyrrachium on the opposite 
 coast of Epirus), a maritime town on the Adriatic, 46 miles north-north-west 
 of Otranto, with Roman antiquities, and 7,000 inhabitants (in the period of 
 the crusades the population amounted still to 60,000 inhabitants). Taranto, a 
 fortified town on a bay of the same name, with 8 churches, great salt-works, 
 and 19,000 inhabitants. In the 5th century B. C. Taranto had a population of 
 300,000 inhabitants. Gallipoli, a fortified maritime town, on the bay of Ta- 
 ranto, with very important trade in olive-oil, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bari, 
 fortified capital of the province of Terra di Bari, on the Adriatic, opposite to 
 Cattaro in Dalmatia, with a renowned chapel to which pilgrims resort, and 21,000 
 inhabitants. Trani, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, with a beauti- 
 ful ancient cathedral (whose steeple is one of the highest in Italy), and 15,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Barletta (with great salt- 
 works, and 22,000 inhabitants), Molfetta (with 13,000 inhabitants), Terlizzi 
 (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ruvo (with 10,000 inhabitants), Altamura (with 
 16,000 inhabitants), Monopoli (with 16,000 inhabitants), Mola, surnamed di 
 Bari (with 8,000 inhabitants), Giovenazzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bisceglia 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), Bitonto (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Canosa (on 
 the Ofanto, with 4,000 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Canosa is situated, 
 1U6 miles east-north-east of Naples, and 193 miles east-south-east of Rome, 
 the little town of Canne, in ancient times called Cannae, so renowned for the 
 victory Hannibal gained over the Romans in 216 B. C. Foggia, capital of 
 the province of Capitanata, on the Cervaro, north-eastward and 83 miles dis- 
 tant from Naples, with an annual fair much resorted to, 20 churches, and 
 26,000 inhabitants. San Severo, formerly the capital of this province, with 
 a medical faculty, and 18,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: 
 Manfredonia (with important commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants), Lucera (with 
 8,000 inhabitants), Monte Sant' 'Angelo (with 12,500 inhabitants), Ascoli, sur- 
 named di Satriano (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bovino, (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
 and Viesti (with 6,000 inhabitants). To the province of Capitanata belong 
 also the 4 Tremitian Isles, or Isole de Tremiti, lying in the Adriatic Sea, 
 but of which only two, viz. : San Nicola or Tremiti, and Domino, are in- 
 habited. Campobasso, capital of the province of Molise, 55 miles north- 
 north-east of Naples with important corn-trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this province are : hernia (with 5,000 inhabitants), Trivento (with 
 
ITALY. 145 
 
 Kingdum of Naples -Neapolitan Continent. 
 
 3,000 inhabitants), Bojano (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sepino (with 5,000 inhab- 
 itants), and Agnone (with 7,000 inhabitants). 
 
 4. The section of Calabria (area: 10,107 square miles; population: 
 1,570,824 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844), comprising the west- 
 ern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Reggio, capital of the 
 province of Calabria ulteriore I. (which comprises the most southern part of 
 the western great tongue of land of Italy), on the straits of Messina and in 
 an exceedingly fertile country, with 12 churches, various manufactories, very 
 active trade and 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Gerace 
 (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sciglio (near the promontory which the ancients 
 called Scylla, has a population of 4,500 inhabitants), Seminara (with 9,000 
 inhabitants) and JPalmi (with 6,500). Catanzaro, capital of the province of 
 Calabria ulterior II., north eastward and 74 miles distant from Reggio, with 
 important trade in silk and olive-oil, and 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this province are: Monteleone (with 7,000 inhabitants), Nicastro (with 10,000 
 inhabitants), Squillace (with 2,000 inhabitants), Tropea (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Cotrone (anciently Croton, with 5,500 inhabitants), Santa Severina (anciently 
 Syberona, with 1,800 inhabitants), Pizzo (with 5,500 inhabitants ; here was 
 Joachim Murat in Oct 1815 taken and shot), and Stilo (with important iron 
 mines). Cosenza, capital of the province of Calabria citeriore, in a romantic 
 and fertile country, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Naples, with 
 a beautiful cathedral, and 15 other churches, an orphan asylum for 700 chil- 
 dren, considerable trade in silk, and 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near, in the bed 
 of the little river of the Bisenzio, lies buried Alaric I., king of the Visigoths, 
 who died here in 410 A. D. Other towns of this province are: Casmno 
 (with 7,000 inhabitants), Castrovillari (with 5,000 inhabitants), Corigliano 
 (with 7,000 inhabitants), Rossano (with 8,500 inhabitants), Amantra (with 
 8,500 inhabitants), Paula or Paola (with 5,500 inhabitants ; the holy Francis 
 of Paula was born here), Longobuco (with iron mines), and Altomonte (with 
 salt mines). Potenza, capital of the province of Basilicata (comprising the 
 ancient Ltccdnia), in the Apennines, 92 miles east-south-east of Naples, with 
 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Matera (with 12,000 
 inhabitants), Montepeloso (with 5,000 inhabitants), Melfi (with a remarkable 
 cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants), Turd (with 6,000 inhabitants), Venosa (with 
 4,500 inhabitants), Lagonegro or Lagonero (with 5,500 inhabitants), Franca- 
 villa (with 12,000 inhabitants), Acerenza (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Bcr- 
 nalda or Bernaldo (with 3,000 inhabitants). 
 
146 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples — Island of Sicily. 
 
 B.— THE ISLAND OF SICILY. 
 
 Area: 10,554 square miles. 
 Population : 2,050,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This island is, as has already been mentioned, divided into 7 val, or prov- 
 inces, bearing the name of their respective chief towns. In the following de- 
 scription we shall separate them from each other by dashes. — Palermo, 
 capital of the whole island, and the seat of its governor, on a small bay of the 
 northern coast, 193 miles south-south-west of Naples, and westward and 124 
 miles distant from Messina, is splendidly and regularly built, and has 60 
 churches (among which are to be noted the magnificent Gothic cathedral, St. 
 Joseph's, and the church of the Capuchins, the latter remarkable for its vaults), 
 a vast and ancient royal castle, 8 abbeys and 11 other convents, a university, 
 and numerous other similar institutions, a great many manufactories, consider- 
 able trade and commerce, and 180,000 inhabitants. The environs of Palermo 
 are adorned with numerous and magnificent villas. In the vicinity of the 
 city is situated the town of Monreale or Montreale, with a splendid cathe- 
 dral, and 14,000 inhabitants. In Monreale it was, where, on the 30th of 
 March, 1282, the massacre of the French, or the Sicilian Vespers (see His- 
 tory of the kingdom of the two Sicilies), commenced. Son Martino, a cele- 
 brated abbey of the Benedictines, in whose church is one of the greatest 
 organs in Italy. Termini, a maritime, town, with renowned hot springs, and 
 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Cefalu (with 10,000 
 inhabitants), Corleone (with 16,000 inhabitants), Cinesi (with 4,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Polizzi (with 4,500 inhabitants), Castronuovo (with 6,500 inhabitants), 
 Busachino (with 9,000 inhabitants), Piano de'Greci (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 and Carini (with 8,000 inhabitants). Northward and 18 miles distant from 
 Palermo lies solitary in the Mediterranean Sea the little island of Ustica, 
 with 2,400 inhabitants. — Trapani, a strongly fortified town on a peninsula, 
 westward and 46 miles distant from Palermo, with 18 churches, 24 convents, 
 important salt-works, and 26,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
 are: Alcamo (with 15,6;>0 inhabitants), Monte Giuliano (with 10,300 inhabi- 
 tants), Castellconare (with 6,500 inhabitants), Calatafimi (with 11,000 in- 
 habitants), Salemi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Castelvetrano (with 16,000 
 
ITALY. 1,7 
 
 Kingdom of Naples: Island of Sicily. 
 
 inhabitants), Mazzara (with a remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), 
 and Marsala (noted for its vines, and with 16 churches, 14 convents, salt- 
 works, and 23,400 inhabitants). Marsala is situated close by the promontory 
 of Bocco, anciently renowned by the name of Lilybaeum. Westward from 
 Trapani, at a distance of about 20 miles from the coast, are lying in the 
 Mediterranean Sea the Aegades or Aegadian Islands, with 12,000 inhabitants. 
 The largest and most remarkable of them are: Favignana (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Levanzo (woody, with rearing of cattle, and 5,000 inhabitants), 
 and Jfaretimo, or Jlaritimo (with a castle for state-prisoners). — Girgenti, a 
 town on the southern coast, 60 miles south-south east of Palermo, with a 
 remarkable cathedral, and 18,000 inhabitants. Quite near was situated the 
 so renowned ancient city of Agrigent, which in its most flourishing days bad 
 a population of 800,000 inhabitants. Favara, a town with 9,000 inhabitants, 
 and situated in the midst of the so-called sulphur-districts, which occupy a 
 tract of 596 square miles, and where in 150 mines about 4,400 workmen are 
 occupied, earning annually about 1,000,000 quintals of sulphur. Contessa, 
 Piana, Mezzafuso, and Palazzo Adriano, 4 towns which together bear the 
 common name of Casale de 'Gkecchi, and whose inhabitants are descendants 
 of emigrated Albanians who settled here in the year 1480. Other towns 
 of this province are: Aragona (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sciacca (with 18 
 churches, 14 convents, and 15,000 inhabitants), Bivona (with 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Gatolica and Regalmuto (with 8,000 inhabitants). Westward and 69 
 miles distant from Girgenti, and at about 36 miles distance from the Tunesian 
 coast, lies the exceedingly fertile Island of Pantelaria, or Pantalaria, with 
 a town of the same name (also known by the name of Oppidolo), mineral 
 springs, and 7,000 inhabitants. Other smaller isles in its vicinity are : Lmn- 
 pedusa, Lamp/one, and Cinosa. Only the first-named is inhabited since the 
 year 1834. — Caltanisetta, a town situated in a fertile elevated plain, towards 
 the midst of the island of Sicily, south-eastward and 64 miles distant from 
 Palermo, with 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Piazza 
 (with 13,000 inhabitants), Naro (with 10,000 inhabitants), Castro Giovanni 
 (with 12,700 inhabitants), Alicata, commonly called Licata (with 12,000 in- 
 habitants), Terranova (with 9,800 inhabitants), Mazzarino (with 10,000 in- 
 habitants), Cannicatti (with 17,000 inhabitants), and Palma (with 6,000 inhab- 
 itants). — Syracuse, a fortified city on the eastern coast of Sicily, southward 
 and 83 miles distant from Messina, is renowned for its excellent wines, and 
 has two seaports, 22 churches (among which is the cathedral, anciently a tem- 
 
148 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples : Island of Sicily. 
 
 pie of Minerva), and 18,000 inhabitants. The celebrated ancient Syracuse 
 was 23 miles in circuit, and said to have had a population of 1,200,000 in- 
 habitants. Noto, a town south-westward and 13 miles distant from Syra- 
 cuse, with a remarkable cathedral, and 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this province are : Modica (with 26,000 inhabitants), Ragusa (with 21,500 
 inhabitants), Spaccafomo or Spaccafurno (with 9,000 inhabitants), Vittoria 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), Agosta (with 15,000 inhabitants), Avola (with 7,000 
 inhabitants), Pachino (with 1,500 inhabitants), Chiaramonte (with 6,500 in- 
 habitants), Comiso (with 11,500 inhabitants), Biscari (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 and Floridia (with 4,500 inhabitants). — Catanea, or Catania, a city on the 
 Sicilian east coast, and at the foot of Mount Etna, northward and 36 miles 
 distant from Syracuse, with a university, a magnificent cathedral, 25 convents, 
 considerable silk manufactories, and 60,000 inhabitants. Near the town of 
 Mascoli (with 3,000 inhabitants), at the foot of Mount Etna, is the renowned 
 chestnut-tree, considered as the largest tree throughout Europe. The circum- 
 ference of its trunk is immense. Other towns of this province are : Aei 
 Reale (with 20,000 inhabitants), Nicolosi (with 2,400 inhabitants), Glare (with 
 17,700 inhabitants), Nicosia (with 13,000 inhabitants), Paterno (with 10,700 
 inhabitants), Anderno (with 13,500 inhabitants), Mineo (with 8,300 inhabi- 
 tants), Caltagirone (with 21,600 inhabitants), Vizzini (with 11,100 inhabitants), 
 Lentini (with excellent potteries, and 7,300 inhabitants), Bronte (with 11,000 
 inhabitants), Biancavilla (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sperlinga (with 1,500 in- 
 habitants), Leonforte (with 10,000 inhabitants), and San Filippo d'Argyro 
 (with 7,500 inhabitants). — Messina, a city on the strait of the same name, 
 with a university, considerable commerce, and 85,000 inhabitants. The cita- 
 del of this city is very strong. Taormina, a town at the southern entrance 
 of the strait of Messina, and on a steep and almost inaccessible rock, with 
 6,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages this town sustained a siege of 80 
 years, the longest known in history. Other towns of this province are : 
 Melazzo, or Milazzo (with 9,200 inhabitants), Roccalumera (with 12,000 in- 
 habitants), Patti (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcellona (with 10,000 inhabitants), 
 Mistretta (with 11,000 inhabitants), Randazzo (with 15,000 inhabitants), and 
 Castroreale (with 15,000 inhabitants). At a distance from 18 to 46 miles 
 northward from the coast of the province of Messina, are lying, in the Medi 
 terranean Sea, the Lipari Islands (anciently called the Aeolian Islands), 13 in 
 number, and altogether of volcanic origin, although they produce wines, figs, 
 cotton, etc. The most remarkable of them are : Lipari (the principal island, 
 
ITALY. 149 
 
 Island of Malta: Geographical Description. 
 
 106 square miles in extent, with hot mineral springs, and 16,000 inhabitants), 
 Volcano (uninhabited, with two burning volcanic mountains), Sahna (with 4 
 villages, salt works, and 4,000 inhabitants), Stromboli (a volcanic mountain, 
 constantly burning, and called the light-house of the Mediterranean j only 
 with 300 inhabitants), Felicudi (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Volcanello (un- 
 inhabited). 
 
 IX.— MALTA. 
 
 Area: 213 square miles. 
 Population: 140,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This group, consisting of the islands of Malta, Gozzo, and 
 Comino (together with the uninhabited isle of Cominotto), is 
 lying in the Mediterranean Sea, between the island of Sicily and 
 the northern coast of Africa, and belongs to Great Britain since 
 the year 1800. 
 
 The islands are in themselves, it is true, bare calcareous rocks, 
 yet for the most part covered with fertile mould. The climate is 
 peerlessly mild and pleasant, and the inhabitants being very 
 diligent in cultivating the soil, they raise corn, cotton, wine, 
 sugar-cane, and other tropic productions. Besides this, sheep, 
 goats, and donkeys, are reared. 
 
 The inhabitants, for the most part Catholics, and speaking a 
 corrupted Arabian, intermixed with modern Grecian, Italian, and 
 French words, do not only till the ground, but are also manufac- 
 turing cotton goods, and carry on a considerable trade. 
 
 They have retained their ancient laws and privileges, and are 
 ruled by a British military governor. In 1829, the public reve- 
 nue amounted to £133,072, and the expenditure to only £103,610. 
 
150 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Island of Matte: History, etc. 
 
 History. — Malta was primitively called Iperia, and subsequently Ogygia 
 (though the island of Gozzo was properly denoted by this latter name) ; at a 
 later period, the Greeks named it Melite, which the Arabs finally transmuted 
 into Malta. The most ancient inhabitants were Phaeacians ; however, they 
 were expelled by the Phoenicians, and these again by the Greeks. Subse- 
 quently the islands came under the sway of the Carthaginians, from whom 
 they were wrested by the Romans. At last they formed a constituent part 
 of the Eastern, or Greek Empire, until in 818 the Arabs took possession of 
 them. In 1090 the islands were conquered by the Sicilian Normans, and 
 since that period, Malta and Sicily were under the sway of one and the same 
 ruler. The Emperor Charles V., in his quality as king of Spain, Naples, 
 and Sicily (see History of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), ceded, in 1530, 
 Malta to the knights of St. John (see History of Em-ope, § 17, h), who since 
 assumed the name of knights of the order of Malta. They had engaged 
 themselves to wage war continually against the Turks and pirates, and kept 
 for this purpose a navy, which in 1770 consisted of 4 ships of the fine, 1 
 frigate, 4 galleys, and several other smaller vessels. In 1798 the French con- 
 quered Malta, but in 1800 it was wrested from them by the British, who since 
 have continued to be in possession of the islands. We shall now describe 
 them in the following succession : — 
 
 1. The island of Malta (area: 128 square miles; population: 120,000 in- 
 habitants), containing : La Valetta, capital of the whole group, and one of 
 the strongest fortresses, with numerous ancient and modern palaces, a univer- 
 sity, a public library with 100,000 volumes, a botanic garden, ship docks, two 
 seaports, considerable commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. In the midst of the 
 island is situated Citta Vechia (also called Malta, or Melite), the ancient 
 capital, with a remarkable cathedral, several convents, and 6,500 inhabitants. 
 Other towns are : Pinto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Zorrica (with 3,500 inhabi- 
 tants), and Zebug (with 4,000 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The island of Gozzo (area: 88 square miles; population: 19,000 inhabi- 
 tants), containing: Gozzo, chief town, with 3,000 inhabitants, and the little 
 fortress of Rabatto. Chambra is a mansion of the English governor. 
 
 3. The island of Comino, with a fortress of the same name, has only a pop- 
 ulation of 1,000 inhabitants. 
 
 4. The isle of Corninotto is uninhabited. 
 
SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Area: 15,815 square miles. 
 Population : 2,400,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Switzerland (instead of which, the ancient name of Helvetia 
 is sometimes used) is situated between Germany and Italy, and 
 on the west bordered by France. 
 
 In point of religion, the Swiss are divided into Reformists (or 
 Calvinists) and Catholics ; in some cantons the former, in others 
 the latter prevail. Of Lutherans, there are perhaps only 400 
 to be found throughout the country. In 1845, the total popula- 
 tion amounted to 2,363,000 inhabitants, of whom 998,000 were 
 Catholics, and about 1,364,000 Reformists. The Catholics are 
 under the church-authority of 5 bishops, viz. : of Lausanne 
 (residing at Friburg), of Basle (residing at Soleure), of Sion (for 
 the canton of Yalais), of Chur and St. Gall (residing alternately 
 at Chur and St. Gall), and of Como (for the canton of Tesino). 
 The number of Jews in Switzerland amounts to about 2,000. 
 What regards the origin, the majority of the Swiss belongs to 
 the great family of the Germanians, and the remainder (speaking 
 partly French, partly Italian, and partly the so-called Ladinian 
 language, or a corrupted Latin) to the great family of the Roma- 
 nians (see Introduction, § 12). 
 
 Switzerland is thoroughly mountainous, and traversed by several 
 branches of the Alps (see Introduction, § 7), while the Jura 
 Mountains form the boundary on the west towards France (see 
 the particulars in the just-naracd paragraph of the Introduction). 
 
]62 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland: Geographical Features. 
 
 Two of the principal rivers of Europe rise in Switzerland, viz. : 
 the Rhine (whose tributaries are here the 111, Thur, and Aar, 
 which latter receives here the Ernme, Reuss, and Limmat), and the 
 Rhone, which has no remarkable tributaries in Switzerland. 
 Moreover, the Tesino, or Jicino, tributary of the Po, and the Inn, 
 tributary of the Danube, rise here. The lakes exclusively belong- 
 ing to Switzerland, are described in § 9 of the Introduction, 
 where also the particulars about the lakes of Constance and 
 Geneva are to be found. 
 
 The climate is wholesome throughout the country, although of 
 course the temperature varies according to the higher or lower 
 elevation of the country. In the higher mountainous regions the 
 air is much cooled by the glaciers, or extensive fields of ice that 
 cover the lofty summits of the Alps. It may be mentioned on 
 this occasion, that sometimes vast masses of snow, called ava- 
 lanches, break away from the glaciers, and slide down the declivi- 
 ties with a tremendous roar, overwhelming in a moment the 
 villages below. Remarkable winds are. the Bise, coming from 
 east or north-east, and the Foehn, a humid south wind. 
 
 Notwithstanding the mountainous character of the country, 
 some parts of it are very fertile. Many valleys have a rich soil, 
 and renowned for their nutritious and aromatic herbs are the 
 excellent-Alpine pastures. Pasturage and the making of cheese 
 are therefore the chief objects of the farmer. The Swiss breed 
 of cattle is, in some respects, considered as the finest in Europe. 
 The rearing of sheep is inconsiderable, but goats abound every- 
 where. The horses, which generally are strong and durable, are, 
 together with mules, used as sumpters, to carry goods on their 
 backs across the mountains. The Swiss delight in hunting the 
 chamois, which dwells among the highest precipices of the Alps, 
 while the ibex is not more, or at least very seldom, found. The 
 principal other wild animals found in Switzerland are, the bear, 
 
SWITZERLAND. 153 
 
 Manufactures— Political Division. 
 
 wolf, lynx, and marmot. The rivers and lakes abound in various 
 kinds of excellent fishes, and the Alpine brooks especially in 
 trouts. In some of the western and southern cantons, the vine 
 is cultivated. 
 
 There are a great many manufactories in Switzerland, especially 
 of cotton, silks, watches, etc. The trade is considerable, and, besides 
 the manufactured goods, chiefly cattle, cheese, and drugs, are 
 exported. 
 
 Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities : at 
 Basle (founded in 1459, and frequented by about 130 students), 
 at Zurich (founded in 1833, and in 1845 frequented by 125 
 students), and at Berne (founded in 1834, but not much resorted 
 to). Moreover, there are so-called academies, or faculties, at 
 Geneva and Lausanne, and gymnasiums in most of the cantons. 
 At Friburg is a college of Jesuits, and at Hofwyl (near the city 
 of Berne) a celebrated boarding-school, founded by Mr. Fellen- 
 berg. Common schools are numerous. 
 
 Switzerland is divided into 22 cantons, and the government is 
 that of a federal republic (also called Helvetic Republic). Each 
 canton is independent, and has the exclusive control of all 
 concerns merely local ; but the defence of the country, and the 
 general interest of the confederacy are committed to a general 
 government, or rather Diet — a kind of congress, called Tagsatzung, 
 and composed of two deputies from each canton (Berne and 
 Zurich have the privilege of sending each three deputies, while 
 G-lurus sends only one). During the time when the Diet is not 
 assembled, the so-called Vorort, that is the directory or directorial 
 government, vested alternately in the cantons of Berne, Zurich, 
 and Lucerne, for two years at a time, manages the affairs of the 
 confederacy. 
 
 The ordinary public expenditure of the confederacy was in 
 1818 fixed at 539,275 Swiss francs (these are somewhat more in 
 
 7* 
 
154 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 value than the French francs) annually ; its public debt, which 
 in 1814 amounted to 3,000,000 francs, is long since paid. The 
 total revenue of the cantons may be computed at 10,000,000 
 francs. The wealthiest cantons are Berne, Vaud, and Zurich 
 (the revenue of the first-named amounted in 1844 to 3.055,400 
 francs, that of the second to 1,655,200, and that of the third to 
 1,100,000 francs), and the poorest are Unterwalden, Lug, and 
 Uri, with a revenue of respectively 20,000, 11,000, and 10,000 
 francs. 
 
 The Helvetic Republic has no standing army, but keeps in 
 time of peace only a small number of regular troops, not exceed- 
 ing 1,200 or 1,300 men. Yet in time of war the confederacy 
 raises a federal army, whose strength is fixed at 64,019 men, with 
 3,426 horses. 
 
 History. — Switzerland, until the year 406 A. D. a Roman province and 
 inhabited by Germanic tribes, called Helvetians by the Romans, was, since 
 the beginning of the migration of nations, occupied by the Burgundians and 
 Alemanni (belonging to the great tribe of the Sueves; compare History of 
 Europe, § 3), and came about the year 500 under the sway of the Franks. 
 After the death of Charlemagne, many Swiss counts and barons made them- 
 selves independent, while part of the country belonged to the Burgundian 
 empire (see History of Europe, §§3 and 8, and History of Burgundy under 
 France). The German emperors were to be considered as sovereigns of this 
 empire, and consequently of Switzerland too, and the latter would perhaps 
 until the present day have formed a constituent part of the German empire, if 
 not the political interest of the country itself and of France had prevented it. 
 In Switzerland, the clergy was possessed of considerable estates and tracts of 
 land, beside the barons, among whom the most powerful were the counts of 
 Hapsburg, Kyburg, Toggenburg, Neuchatel, Thierstein, and Savoy, the barons 
 of Wyssenburg, Grandson, etc. All these lords acknowledged the sovereignty 
 of the German emperors, at least nominally, as also those cities and towns 
 did, that were endowed with imperial privileges, and ruled by imperial gov- 
 ernors, or bailifs of the empire. Cantons did not then exist ; however, there 
 •were privileged provinces, of which Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden, elected 
 
SWITZERLAND. 155 
 
 History — Geography. 
 
 in 1257 the mighty Count Rodolph V., count of Hapsburg (subsequently 
 German emperor), their protector, but refused allegiance to his son, Emperor 
 Albert I., because they pretended to be injured by him in their privileges. 
 In the beginning of the year 1308, they destroyed the castles of the imperial 
 governors (among whom was one, named Gesler), and united into a confederacy, 
 at first for ten years. In the course of time, other provinces joined in thig 
 confederacy, and as the canton of Schweitz was then the most powerful, the 
 German name of Schweitz (Switzerland), for denoting the whole country, came 
 into vogue. In 1513, the number of cantons was 13, since and before the 
 year 1803, six other joined them, and in 1815 the whole number of 22 was 
 completed by the addition of Valais, Neuchatel, and Geneva. Not before 
 the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded in 1648, the independence of the 
 Helvetic Republic was formally acknowledged by the foreign powers. It 
 must be remarked here, by the way, that many modern historians are of the 
 opinion that William Tell did never exist, but all what is related about him is 
 to be considered as a legend, derived from the Scandinavian traditions. Be 
 this as it may, the fact is, that the above-named three cantons united into a 
 confederacy without William Tell, and that also in every other respect he did 
 not exert the slightest political influence on the revolution of the year 1308. 
 In this respect it made no difference, whether he shot Gesler or not. To 
 place the political institutions and liberty of Switzerland on a par with those 
 of the United States, would be a great mistake ; for since the end of the last 
 century the Helvetic Republic has been in a very unsettled condition, which 
 in the last twenty years has almost degenerated into complete anarchy. 
 Liberty and lawlessness are at present nearly synonymous in the opinion of 
 the great majority of the Swiss ; and sooner or later the country will doubt- 
 less become a prey of the adjacent powers, which, hitherto, only the jealousy 
 among them has prevented. 
 
 In order to facilitate the finding out of the several cantons, we 
 shall describe them in an alphabetic order ; and it only be 
 remarked here, that Schafhausen is the most northerly, Valais the 
 most southerly, Vaud the most westerly, and Grisons the most 
 easterly canton. The population stated in the following descrip- 
 tion is according to the last census of 1845. 
 
156 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland— Cantons of Aargau and Appenzell. 
 
 1. The canton of Aargau (area: 511 square miles; population: 190,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, while only 
 00,000 are Catholics), between the cantons of Basle and Zurich, crossed by 
 the Aar river, and on the north separated from the German grand-duchy of 
 Baden by the Rhine. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne until in 
 1803, when it became an independent canton, and contains: Aarau, capital 
 of the canton, on the Aar, south-eastward and 26 miles distant from Basle, 
 with cotton, silk, and hardware manufactures, considerable trade, and 4,500 
 inhabitants. Aarburg, a town on the Aar, south-westward and 9 miles dis- 
 tant from Aarau, with the only fortress of all Switzerland, and 1,700 inhabi- 
 tants. Baden (sometimes also called Oberbaden, to distinguish it from the 
 grand-ducal Badish town of the same name), a town on the Limmat, north- 
 westward and 14 miles distant from Zurich, with renowned hot mineral 
 springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. On the 7th of September, 1714, a treaty of 
 peace between France and the German empire, was concluded here. Huri, 
 formerly a rich and celebrated abbey of the Benedictines, which was founded 
 either in 991 or in 1027. This remarkable building is 725 feet long. Close by 
 is the town of the same name, with a silk manufactory, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 Brugg, or Bruck, a town on the Aar, has 1,000 inhabitants, and was once the 
 property of the counts of Hapsburg, of whose ancestor's castle Hapsburg 
 considerable remnants are still extant in the neighborhood. This castle was 
 reared in 1027. Not far from here, near the village of Windisch, it was 
 where, on the 1st of May, 1308, Emperor Albert I. was murdered by his 
 nephew. His widow and daughter reared a nunnery on the very place, named 
 Koenigsfelden, which in 1528 was transformed into a hospital. Zofingen, a 
 town on the Wigger, with various manufactures, and 3,400 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this canton are: Bremgarten (with 1,050 inhabitants), Lenzburg 
 (with 2,200 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (with, 1,600 inhabitants), Lauffenburg 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), Klingnan (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zurzach (with 
 1,000 inhabitants), Villmergen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Frick (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Wettingen (with 1,050 inhabitants), Ober-Kulm (with 1,700 inhab- 
 itants), and Unter-Kulm (with 1,800 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The canton of Appenzell (area: 149 square miles; population: 54,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and partly Reformists, partly Catholics), en- 
 tirely surrounded by the territory of the canton of St. Gall, and situated near 
 the lake of Constance. It became an independent canton in 1513, and was 
 since the reformation divided into two distinct districts, called Inner-Rhoden 
 
SWITZERLAND. 157 
 
 Canton of Basle. 
 
 and Ausser-Rhoden, the former inhabited only by Catholics, and the latter 
 only by Reformists. Inner -Rhoden contains : Appenzell, capital of the whole 
 canton, on the Sitter, southward and 7 miles distant from the city of St. Gall, 
 and 26 miles south-south-east of Constance, with a Gothic church, 2 convents, 
 lineu trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. Weissbad and Gonlen, villages, with 
 mineral springs. Ausser-Rhoden contains : Trogen, chief town of this district, 
 with considerable linen trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 district are: Herisau (noted for its manufactures, with 7,900 inhabitants), 
 Teuffen (with 4,200 inhabitants), Zum Stein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Umaesch 
 (with 2,100 inhabitants), Gais (noted for its whey, with 2,900 inhabitants), 
 and Rundwyl (with 1,100 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The canton of Basle (area: 192 square miles; population: 66,000 inhab- 
 itants, of whom only 6,500 are Catholics, while the majority consists of 
 Reformists, all speaking German), on and near the Rhine, bordered on the 
 west by France, and on the south by the canton of Soleure. It joined the 
 confederacy in 1491, and is since the year 1833 divided into Basle-City and 
 Basle- Campagne. The former contains: Basle, capital of the canton, on the 
 left bank of the Rhine, which is crossed here by its only stone bridge (all the 
 other bridges over the Rhine are constructed by boats), southward and 73 
 miles distant from Strasburg, and northward and 46 miles distant from Berne, 
 is noted for its considerable trade and manufactures, its university and board 
 of missions, its ancient Gothic cathedral (founded in 1010; the council or 
 synod of the years 1431-1448 was held here; and, moreover, it contains the 
 sepulchre of the renowned Erasmus, of Rotterdam), and has a population of 
 23,000 inhabitants. One of its suburbs, called Littfe Basle (Klein-Basel), is 
 situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Basle, founded in the 4th century, 
 was until the year 1529 the seat of the catholic bishop of Basle, who at the 
 same time was a prince of the German empire, and sovereign of a territory, 
 which in 1814 was annexed to the canton of Berne. The present bishop of 
 Basle resides at Soleure, while his antecessors since the year 1529 resided at 
 Pruntrut (see next canton). To the district of Basle-city belong, morpover, 
 the small townships of Bettingen, Riehen, and Kleinhueningen (Little Iluenin- 
 gen). Basle-Campagne contains: Liestall, or Liechstall, chief town of this 
 district, on the Ergolz, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Basle, with 
 various manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : 
 Sissach (with 1,200 inhabitants), Waldenburg (with 800 inhabitants), Arlesheim 
 
158 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland— Canton of Berne. 
 
 (with 800 inhabitants), and Muttenz (with a remarkable old church, and 1,850 
 inhabitants). 
 
 4. The canton of Berne (area: 2,5*76 square miles; population: 440,000 
 inhabitants, for the most part speaking German, but in the western part, 
 French; the majority consists of Reformists, and only 53,000 are Catholics), 
 occupying nearly the centre of Switzerland, and on the south bordered by the 
 canton of Valais. It joined the confederacy in 1352 ; and until 1803 the 
 present cantons of Aargau and Vaud formed parts of it. In 1815, it was 
 indemnificated by the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above). It 
 contains : Berne, the capital of the canton, on the Aar, southward and 46 
 miles distant from Basle, and north-eastward and 82 miles distant from 
 Geneva, with a university and several other schools and literary institutions, 
 various manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. 
 About 4 miles distant from here is situated the estate of Hofwyl, where is 
 the before-mentioned school of Fellenberg. Laupen, a town on the Saane, 
 with 900 inhabitants. In the district of Ober-Aargau (Upper Aargau) are 
 situated the towns of Aarwangen (with 1,450 inhabitants), and Wangen 
 (with 900 inhabitants). In the romantic valley of the Emme (noted for its 
 fine cattle, cheese, and industry) are situated the towns of Langenthal (north- 
 eastward and 23 miles distant from Berne, with 2,800 inhabitants), Langnau 
 (with 5,700 inhabitants), Hutiweil, or Hutwijl (with 900 inhabitants), and 
 Burgdorf (with 2,300 inhabitants). Saanen, chief town of the valley of the 
 same name (noted for its cheese), and in French called Gessenay. In the 
 so-called Berner Oberland (Highlands of Berne) are situated : Thun, a town 
 on the lake of the same name, 16 miles south-south-east of Berne, is the seat 
 of a military academy of the confederacy, and has a population of 5,000 
 inhabitants. Near the village of Lauterbrunnen are the celebrated falls of 
 the Staubbach. Meyringen, on the Aar, is the chief town of the Haslithal 
 (valley of Hasli), whose inhabitants are noted for their fine shape. Wimmis 
 is the chief town of the eminently cultivated valley of the Simmen, or Sim- 
 menthal. Other towns in the Bernese Oberlands are: Frutingen (with 1,800 
 inhabitants), and Unterseen (with 1,250 inhabitants). Interlaken, or Inter- 
 lachen, formerly a renowned monastery of Austin friars, founded in 1130. In 
 the district called Seeland (lake-land, because it is bordered by the lake of 
 Biel) are situated : Erlach (in French, Erlier, or Cerlicr), a town on the lake 
 of Biel, 19 miles west-north-west of Berne, with 1,200 inhabitants, Nidau (a 
 town, with 1.000 inhabitants), Bueren (a town on the Aar, with 1,350 inhabi- 
 
SWITZERLAND. 159 
 
 Cantons of F.eiburg and St. Gall. 
 
 tants), and Aarberg (a town on the Aar, with 800 inhabitants). In the former 
 territory of the bishop of Basle (see above) are situated : Pbuntrut (in French, 
 Porentruy), a town on the Halaine, 37 miles north-north-west of Berne, was 
 until 1803 the seat of the bishop of Basle, who resided here in a magnificent 
 palace, and has a population of 2,700 inhabitants. Biel (in French, Bienne), 
 a town on the lake of the same name, with 2,800 inhabitants. Other towns 
 of this district are : Delsberg, in French, Delemont (with 1,450 inhabitants), 
 St. Ursanne, or St. Ursitz (with 1,000 inhabitants), Laufen (with 900 inhabi- 
 tants), and Neuenstadt, in French, Neuveville, or Bonneville (with 1,300 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 5. The canton of Friburg, or Freiburg (area : 564 square miles ; popula- 
 tion: 95,000 inhabitants, partly speaking French, and partly German, and 
 the majority consisting of Catholics, only 6,400 being Reformists), bordered on 
 the north-west by the lake of NeuchateL and on the east by the canton of 
 Berne. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains : Freiburg, or Friburg, 
 the capital, on the Saane (crossed by a wire suspension bridge, which is 834 
 feet in length, and 145 feet above the surface of the water), south-westward and 
 19 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 73 miles distant from 
 Geneva, is the seat of the bishop of Lausanne, and has the above-mentioned 
 college of Jesuits (in 1842 with 676 pupils), a Gothic cathedral (whose steeple 
 is 365 feet in height), 8 convents, and 9,200 inhabitants. In the vicinity is 
 situated the Cistercian monastery Altenryf, in French, Hauterive. Murten 
 (in French, Morat), a town on the lake of the same name, is noted for the 
 battle against Charles the Temerarious, of Burgundy, in 1476, and has 1,700 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Greyerz, in French, Gruyeres 
 (noted for its cheese, and with 1,050 inhabitants), Rornont (with 1,400 inhabi- 
 tants), and Staefis, in French, Estavayer (with 1,800 inhabitants). 
 
 6. The canton of St. Gall (area: 744 square miles; population: 172,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and in point of religion at the ratio of 106,000 
 Catholics and 66,000 Reformists), separated by the Rhine (before this river 
 enters the lake of Constance) from Tyrol. This canton, which joined the 
 confederacy in 1798, was until then (with the exception of the city of St. 
 Gall) the territory of the Benedictine abbey of St. Gall, whose seat was in 
 the just-named city, though separated from it by a high walL The abbey 
 originated from a cell, built by the holy Gallus (from Ireland, and a pupil of 
 Columban), who in the beginning of the 7 th century came here to preach the 
 gospel to the neighboring AllemanL He converted many of them, who set- 
 
160 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland — Canton of Geneva. 
 
 tied themselves around him, and at last a monastery was built, whose first 
 regular abbot was elected in 720. The abbey was endowed with many 
 privileges ; the abbot was only subjected to the pope, and in his temporal 
 quality as prince of the German empire, to the emperor, and was at the same 
 time sovereign of a pretty large territory. Since the year 1451 he partook 
 in the direction of the general affairs of the Helvetic Republic, without being 
 an actual member of the confederacy, until in 1798 the whole bishopric (or 
 the territory of the abbey), together with the city of St. Gall, was trans- 
 formed into a canton. (About the present bishop of St. Gall, see above.) 
 The canton contains : St. Gall, its capital, on the Steinach, 20 miles south- 
 south-east of Constance, and eastward and 9 miles distant from Zurich, with 
 the former edifice of the abbey, now the residence of the government, 6 
 churches, several schools and valuable libraries, important linen trade, and 
 11,500 inhabitants. Pfeffers (in French Faviere), a village situated in the 
 wild, romantic Tamina Valley (Taminathal), and noted for its warm baths. 
 Here is also a Benedictine abbey, founded in 720. Wildhaus, a village near 
 the head of the Thur river, remarkable as the birth-place of the reformer 
 Zwingli, who was born here in 1484, in a house which is still extant. Ror- 
 schach, a town on the lake of Constance, with important commerce, and 1,700 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Rappers wyl, or Rapperschweil 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sargans (with 750 inhabitants), Wallenstadt (with 
 800 inhabitants), Rheineek (with 1,800 inhabitants), Ragatz (with 1,300 in- 
 habitants), Werdenberg (with 950 inhabitants), Lichtermteig (chief town of 
 the ancient county of Toggenburg, with 7,500 inhabitants), and Wyl (with 
 2,400 inhabitants). 
 
 7. The canton of Geneva (area : 92 square miles ; population : 65,000 in- 
 habitants, speaking French, and for the most part Reformists, only 19,700 
 being Catholics), situated along the south-west corner of the lake of Geneva. 
 It partook since the year 1558 in the direction of the public affairs of Swit- 
 zerland, without being an actual member of the confederacy. In 1798 it was, 
 by the name of Leman- department, annexed to France, but in 1815 restored 
 to its independency, and now it became a formal member of the confederacy. 
 It contains : Geneva, fortified capital, on the lake of the same name, and on 
 the Rhone (at the point whore this river issues from the lake), south-westward 
 and 82 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 69 miles distant 
 from Lyons, is the most populous and industrious city of Switzerland, and 
 especially noted for its extensive manufactures of watches and jewelleries 
 
SWITZERLAND. 161 
 
 Cantons of Glarus and Orisons. 
 
 (annually about 60,000 ounces of gold, 5,000 marks of silver and precious 
 stones, at the value of 500,000 francs, are used up for this purpose), and 
 moreover for its literary institutions, and has a population of 31.000 inhabi- 
 tants, among whom are 5,800 Catholics. Geneva was founded by the Allo- 
 brogi (a Gaulic tribe in the southeastern part of Gaul and in the adjacent 
 country, now called Savoy), came in the beginning of the 5th century of the 
 Christian era under the sway of the Burgundians, and formed since part of 
 the Burgundian kingdom, but was at the same time held in some dependency 
 of the bishop of Geneva. In 1478 the bishop and the city entered into a 
 league with the cantons of Berne and Freiburg, which in 1526 was renewed, 
 till in 1558 (the bishopric being meanwhile dissolved) matters were arranged 
 in the above-mentioned manner. The territory of the city contains, among 
 others, the towns of Versoix or Versoy (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Carouge 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants). 
 
 8. The canton of Glarus (area : 276 square miles ; population : 32,000 in- 
 habitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, only 4,300 
 being Catholics), situated in the interior of Switzerland, at about 14 miles 
 distance from Tyrol, and on the south bordered by the canton of Grisons. It 
 joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains: Glarus, capital on the Linth, 32 
 miles south-south-west of St. Gall, and south-eastward and 36 miles distant 
 from Zurich, with numerous cotton and cloth manufactures, important trade, 
 and 6,000 inhabitants. Mollis, Schwanden, and Naefels, towns with re- 
 spectively 2,600, 2,200, and 1,800 inhabitants. Naefels is noted for a battle 
 in 1388. 
 
 9. The canton of Grisons (area: 2,981 square miles; population: 92,000 
 inhabitants, of whom about two parts are Reformists and one part Catholics, 
 speaking partly German, partly Italian, and partly the above-mentioned 
 Ladinian, or corrupt Latin language), comprising the south-eastern part of 
 Switzerland, and bordered by Tyrol and Lombardy. There are not less than 
 241 glaciers and 170 valleys in this canton, from which two great roads cross 
 the Alps to Italy ; one over the Bernardin, and the other over Mount Spliigen. 
 Grisons, once a constituent part of Rhaetia (as Tyrol anciently was called), 
 came in the 5th century under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and in 529 under 
 that of the king3 of Austrasia (see History of Europe, § 8), who annexed it 
 to the duchy of Swabia, or Alemannia. The German emperor, Otho L, and 
 the duke Louis of Alemannia endowed in 951 the bishop of Chur with 
 various privileges in this city, which subsequently were extended over a great 
 
162 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland— C;mt->i!S <<!' Crisou*, Luzcriio and Neucliatd. 
 
 part of Grisons, where, moreover, free communities had arisen. The latter 
 entered into three leagues, viz. : the Grey League, the Gods-house League, and 
 the League of the ten Jurisdictions ; while about the same time, or in 1419, 
 the bishop and the city of Chur entered into a confederacy with Zurich. Yet it 
 was not until the year 1198 Grisons became a canton and actual member of the 
 Helvetic Republic. The government of the canton consists of representatives 
 of the above leagues, still existing ; and it may be remarked that Chur is 
 the chief town of the so-called God's-house League, Ilanz that of the Grey 
 League, and Meyenfeld the chief town of the League of the ten Jurisdictions. 
 The canton contains : Chur, capital of all Grisons, near the sources of the 
 Rhine, southward and 46 miles distant from St. Gall, with a remarkable 
 cathedral, 2 convents, considerable transit trade, and 5,800 inhabitants. 
 Especially in the valley of Engadin the Ladinian language is spoken, and 
 many of its inhabitants are spread over all Europe as expert confectioners 
 and keepers of coffee-houses. Puschlaf or Poschiavo and Zizers, towns with 
 respectively 900 and 800 inhabitants. Ilanz (see above), the uppermost 
 town on the Rhine (the nethermost is Ley den, in Holland), westward and 18 
 miles distant from Chur, with 750 inhabitants. Splugen, a town at the north- 
 ern foot of Mount Splugen, 28 miles south-south-west of Chur, with 800 in- 
 habitants. Other towns of this district are: Disentis (with 1,200 inhabitants), 
 and Thusis (with 900 inhabitants). Meyenfeld (see above), a town north- 
 ward and 12 miles distant from Chur, with a remarkable old castle, transit 
 trade, and 1,200 inhabitants. Davos, a town with 1,100 inhabitants. Pretti- 
 gau, a valley noted for its fine cattle. 
 
 10. The canton of Luzerne (area: 595 square miles; population: 128,000 
 inhabitants, all Catholics, and speaking German), near the centre of Switzer- 
 land, and bordered on the north by the canton of Aargau. It joined the 
 confederacy in 1332, and contains: Luzerne, the capital, on the Reuss, 46 
 miles east-north-east of Berne, with 5 churches, 4 convents, several literary 
 institutions, manufactures, transit trade, and 8,500 inhabitants. The town of 
 Sempach, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted for a battle in 1386. Other towns 
 of this canton are : Willisau (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Sursee (with 3,000 
 inhabitants). 
 
 11. The canton of Neuchatel (area: 297 square miles; population: 66,000 
 inhabitants in 1845, but 67,200 inhabitants in the beginning of the year 1847; 
 they speak, for the most part, French, but also German ; the majority consists 
 of Reformists, and only 3,500 are Catholics), situated on the west side of the 
 
SWITZERLAND. 16* 
 
 CaistoiiS of Neudhatol n:,:! Sch:ifhRUse:i. 
 
 Like of Neuchatel, and on the west bordered by the French province of 
 Tranche Comte. This canton, since the year 1815 a member of the confed- 
 eracy, but in other respects subjected to the sovereignty of the king of Prussia, 
 -was in 1032 annexed to the German empire as an almost sovereign county, 
 (subsequently principality), which since the year 1324 changed hands, until 
 towards the end of the 17th century the Prince William III., of Orange (king 
 of Great Britain in the period 1689-1702), became possessed of it. From 
 him, his nephew, King Frederic I., of Prussia, inherited the principality, and 
 took possession of it in 1707. Since that time, Neuchatel has continued to be 
 under Prussian sway, with the exception of the period from the year 1805 to 
 1814, in which it formed part of France. In 1848 the people declared them- 
 selves independent from the Prussian crown, but it is very doubtful whether 
 they will be able to maintain their independence, the more so as the king of 
 Prussia has not at all acquiesced in it. The country is noted for its industry ; 
 and at the end of the year 1843, there were 8,825 watch-makers, 3,055 lace- 
 makers, 1.994 linen- weavers, 10,021 vine-dressers, etc., etc. Politically, or 
 historically, the country is divided into the principality of Neuchatel, and the 
 county of Valangin. The former contains : Neuchatel, the capital of the 
 whole canton, on the northern bank of the lake of Neuchatel, westward and 
 27 miles distant from Berne, with a castle, reared in 1250, and since the seat 
 of the sovereigns of the country, most of whom are buried in the Gothic 
 church of Our Lady here, manufactures of watches and laces, considerable 
 trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. Travers, a village in the valley of the same 
 name, whose 6,000 inhabitants are for the most part watch- and lace-makers. 
 Boudey, a town noted for its wines, with 1,700 inhabitants. Landeron, a town 
 on the lake of BieL with 1,000 inhabitants. Cortaillod, a village on the lake 
 of Neuchatel, with calico printings, and 1,100 inhabitants. Valangtx, chief 
 town of the ancient county of Valangin, in a deep valley, north-westward 
 and 2 miles distant from Neuchatel, with a Gothic church and 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Locle, a town near the French frontier, is noted for its manufactures 
 of watches, and has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. Also the town of 
 Chaux de Fonps (with 8,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of 
 watches. 
 
 12. The canton of Schafhaitsen (area: 117 square miles; population: 
 35,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the excep- 
 tion of only 600 Catholics), the most northerly canton, and almost entirely 
 eurrounded by the territory of the German grand-duchy of Baden. It joined 
 
164 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland— Cantons of Schweilz and Soleure. 
 
 the confederacy in 1501, and contains : Schafhausen, the capital, on the 
 Rhine (whose celebrated falls are not far from here, close by the village of 
 Laufen, which, however, belongs to Zurich), north-eastward and 82 miles 
 distant from Berne, and 2*7 miles north-north-east of Zurich, with 3 churches, 
 manufactures of silks and cotton goods, and 7,500 inhabitants. Stein, or 
 Stein am Rhein (because this town is situated on the Rhine), is noted for its 
 wines, and has 1,800 inhabitants. Quite near the town is the ancient castle 
 of Hohenklingen. Other towns of this canton are: Neukirch (with 1,000 
 inhabitants), Taeyingen (with 700 inhabitants), Unter-Hallau (with mineral 
 baths, and 3,100 inhabitants), and Wilchingen (with 900 inhabitants). 
 
 13. The canton of Schweitz, or Schwyz (area: 340 square miles; popula- 
 tion : 43,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on 
 the south side of the lake of Zurich. It was one of those three cantons which 
 in 1308 first entered into a confederacy, and contains: Schwyz, or Schweitz, 
 the capital, at the foot of Mount Myten (5,790 feet high), eastward and 65 
 miles distant from Berne, and south-westward and 69 miles distant from St. 
 Gall, with 2 convents, and 5.000 inhabitants. Einsiedeln, a town on the 
 Sihl, 9 miles north-north-east of Schwyz, with 6,000 inhabitants, and a cele- 
 brated Benedictine abbey (founded in 906), whose holy shrine is annually 
 visited by about 150,000 pilgrims. Other towns of this canton are: Lachen 
 (with 1,300 inhabitants), Gersau (with 1,500 inhabitants), Arth (with 2,600 
 inhabitants), and Kuessnacht (with 1,700 inhabitants). In this canton is also 
 Mount Rigi, 5,700 feet high. Between this mountain and another, called 
 Rusaberg (4,800 feet in height), was situated the town of Goldau, which on 
 the 2d of September, 1806, was totally buried by a terrible fall of earth. 
 
 14. The canton of Soleure (area : 255 square miles ; population : 65,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the south side 
 of the canton of Basle. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains: 
 Soleure, the capital, on the Aar, northward and 20 miles distant from Basle, 
 with 3 churches, 5 convents, considerable transit trade, and 4,600 inhabitants. 
 Gilgenberg, an ancient remarkable mountain-castle, whose walls are 14 feet 
 thick. Olten, a town on the Aar, with important inland trade, and 1,800 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Ballstall (with 800 inhabitants), 
 Trimmbach (with 1,100 inhabitants), Schoenenwerth, or Bellowerth (with 800 
 inhabitants), Hegendorf (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Grenchen (with 1,200 
 inhabitants). 
 
 15. The canton of Tfsino (area: 1,044 square miles; population: 114,000 
 
SWITZERLAND. 165 
 
 Cantons of Tesino and Tlmr-au. 
 
 inhabitants in 1845, but 121,000 inhabitants in 1847, speaking, for the most part, 
 Italian, and being Catholics), situated between Grisons (on the east) and 
 Valais (on the west), and on the south bordered by Lombardy. It consists 
 of the 7 former Italian bailiffships of Bellinzona, Riviera, Bollenz, Lugano, 
 Locarno, Meynthal, and Mendrisio, which were allied to the Swiss cantons, 
 until in 1803 they joined the confederacy as a canton by the name of Tesino 
 (derived from that of the river crossing the country). It is sometimes called 
 Italian Switzerland, has no permanent capital, the towns of Bellinzona, Lugano, 
 and Locarno, being alternately the seat of government, and contains : Bellin- 
 zona, a town on the Tesino, or Ticino, south-eastward and 115 miles distant 
 from Berne, with 3 castles, one of which is strongly fortified, 2 churches, 3 
 convents, transit trade, and 1,600 inhabitants. Riviera, or Polese, chief town 
 of the former bailiffship of the same name. Cevio, or Gevio, chief town of 
 the former bailiffship of Meynthal, has a population of 600 inhabitants. 
 Bollenz (also called Palenzerthal), formerly a bailiffship, which in 1500 allied 
 to the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden. Lugano (in German, 
 Lauis, or Lavis), a town on the lake of the same name, southward and 19 
 miles distant from Bellinzona, with 16 churches, 6 convents, various manufac- 
 tures, important trade, and 4,700 inhabitants. Agno and Ponte Tresa, towns, 
 with respectively 1,900 and 850 inhabitants. Locarno, a town at the northern 
 end of the lake Maggiore, westward and 9 miles distant from Bellinzona, with 
 1,700 inhabitants. Ascona and Dongio, towns, with respectively 1,800 and 
 1,000 inhabitants. Mendrisio, or Mendris, a town near the lake of Lugano, 
 northward and 30 miles distant from Milan, with 3 convents, silk spinning, 
 and 1,800 inhabitants. Airolo (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Giornico, or 
 Irnis (with 2 remarkable churches, and 900 inhabitants), towns situated in 
 the valley of Levantina. Other towns of this canton are : Balerno (with 750 
 inhabitants), Stabio (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Chiasso (with 800 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 16. The canton of Thurgau (area: 266 square miles; population: 92,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the exception of 
 19,800 Catholics), on the western bank of the lake of Constance, on the west 
 bordered by the canton of Zurich. This canton, the most fertile of Switzer- 
 land, joined the confederacy in 1803, and contains: Frauenfeld, the capital, 
 on the Murg, south-westward and 13 miles distant from Constance, with silk 
 manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Gottlieben, a town on the Rhine, and 
 near Constance, with an old castle, where John Huss and the pope, John 
 
166 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Switzerland— Cantons of Unlerwalden and Uri 
 
 XXIII, were kept prisoners in 1415, transit trade, and 600 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this canton are : Arbon (with various manufactures, and 
 1,100 inhabitants), Weinfelden (with 2,400 inhabitants), Steckborn (with 
 2,200 inhabitants), Diessenhofen (with 1,300 inhabitants), Bischofszell (with 
 2,600 inhabitants), Ermatingen (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Hauptweil (with 
 2,200 inhabitants). 
 
 17. The canton of Unterwalden (area: 266 square miles; population: 
 25,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated in the 
 interior of Switzerland, on the south bordered by the canton of Berne, and 
 on the north-west by the canton of Luzerne. It is crossed from the south to 
 the north by a forest, called Kernwald, which divides the canton into two 
 districts, known by the names of Nidwalden and Obwalden (beneath and 
 above the forest). Unterwalden is one of the three cantons, which in 1 308 
 first entered into a confederacy, and has no capital, Stanz (eastward and 46 
 miles distant from Berne, with 2 convents, and 3,500 inhabitants) being the 
 chief town of Nidwalden (which besides it contains the towns of Bucks, with 
 1,600 inhabitants, and Stanzstad, or Stansstadt, with 800 inhabitants). The 
 chief town of Obwalden is Sarnen, on the lake of the same name, 9 miles 
 west-south-west of Stanz, with a beautiful church, 2 convents, and 4,000 in- 
 habitants. Sachseln, or Saxeln, a village on the lake of Sarnen, with 2,200 
 inhabitants, and a church, where the renowned hermit, Nicholas von der Flue 
 (-)- 1487), is buried. Engelberg and Melchthal are two romantic villages. 
 Kerns and Alpnach, or Altnacht, towns with respectively 2,900 and 1,800 
 inhabitants. 
 
 18. The canton of Uri (area: 426 square miles; population: 14,500 in- 
 habitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the east side 
 of Unterwalden, and on the south-east and south bordered by the cantons 
 of Grison and Tesino. It was one of the the three cantons, which in 1308 
 first entered into a confederacy, aud contains : Altorf, the capital, on the 
 Reuss and the lake of Luzerne, eastward and 55 miles distant from Berne, 
 and southward and 36 miles distant from Zurich, with 2 convents, transit 
 trade, and 1 ,800 inhabitants. Here it was, where Gessler (see History of 
 Switzerland) lived. Not far from here is the wild, romantic valley, called 
 Schaechenthal. Fluelen, a village on the lake of Luzerne, with considerable 
 transit trade, and 650 inhabitants. Goeschenen, a village on the new road 
 over Mount St Gothard (whose highest peak, called GalenstocTc, is 11,300 
 feet high), which at the same time leads over the DeviV s-bridge (built in mod- 
 
BWITZE1U.AND. io7 
 
 Canton* of Uri, Valais and Vaud. 
 
 em time, and consisting of an arch 55 feet wide, and built at the height of 
 90 feet over the Reuss : the old Devil's-bridge is still extant). In the valley 
 of Urseren is situated the village of Andermatt, with 1,400 inhabitants. 
 
 19. The canton of Valais (area: 1667 square miles; population : 80,000 
 inhabitants, being Catholics, and speaking partly French, partly German, and 
 partly Italian), the most southerly canton, bordered on the south by Pied- 
 mont. It belonged first to the Burgundian, and since the year 1032 to the 
 German empire, became in the years 1475 and 1529 a member of the Swiss 
 confederacy, was in 1810 annexed to the French empire (by the name of de- 
 partment of Simplon), but in 1815 restored to independency. It is divided 
 into Upper and Lower Valais, and contains : Sion (in German Sitten), the 
 capital of the canton, and chief town of Upper Valais, near the Rhone, south- 
 ward and 54 miles distant from Berne, and northward and 82 miles distant 
 from Turin, with 6 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), a col- 
 lege of Jesuits, and 3,200 inhabitants. Leuk (in French, Loueche), a town on 
 the Rhone, is noted for its warm baths, and has 750 inhabitants. Simplon, a 
 village on the mountain of the same name (11,730 feet high), and on the road 
 crossing the latter. Brig, Naters, and Sieders, towns on the Rhone and in 
 Upper Valais, with respectively 750, 2,500, and 1,000 inhabitants. Mahtigny 
 (in German, Martinach), chief town of Lower Valais, on the Dranse, south- 
 westward and 9 miles distant from Sion, with vine culture on a large 
 scale, considerable transit trade, and 1,250 inhabitants. Between this town 
 and the frontier of Piedmont is the valley of Bagne, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Here commences the road over the Great St. Bernard (10,400 feet high, and 
 belonging to the Pennine. Alps), by which the French army passed into Italy 
 in the month of May, 1800, and at whose top is a Benedictine monastery 
 (reared in the midst of the 10th century), where annually about 15,000 trav- 
 ellers are hospitably entertained. St. Maurice (in German St. Moritz), a 
 town on the Rhone, with considerable transit trade, and 1,200 inhabitants. 
 Monthey, a town on the Vieze, with 1,100 inhabitants. 
 
 20. The canton of Vaud (area: 1,186 square miles; population: 203,000 
 inhabitants, for the most part Reformists, and of French origin, only 6,000 
 speaking German, and no more than 3,000 being Catholics), situated between 
 the lakes of Geneva and Neuchatel, and in common life also called French 
 Switzerland. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne, but joined the 
 confederacy in 1798 as an actual member. It contains : Lausanne, the capi- 
 tal, on the northern bank of the lake of Geneva, with a beautiful Gothic 
 
168 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 r^wi zerland- Cantons of Vand, Zu?, and Zurich. 
 
 cathe Iral and 2 other churches, several higher schools and literary institutions, 
 vine culture, and 16,000 inhabitants. Grandson (in German, Gransee), a 
 town on the lake of Neuchatel, is noted for a battle in 1476, and has 1,000 
 inhabitants. Vevay, or Viois, a town on the lake of Geneva, with manufac- 
 tures of watches, etc, and 4,700 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : 
 La Tour, surnamed de Peils (with 800 inhabitants), Villeneuve (with 1,500 in- 
 habitants), St. Saphorin (with 800 inhabitants), Cully, or Cuilly (with 2,900 
 inhabitants), Lustri, or Lutry (with 1,500 inhabitants), Morges, or Morsee 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aubonne (with 1,800 inhabitants), Nyon, in German, 
 Ncuss (with 2,800 inhabitants), Coppet (with 600 inhabitants), Yverdun, or 
 Iverdun, in German, Ifferten (with 3,200 inhabitants), Moudon, in German, 
 Milden (with 1,600 inhabitants), Avenches, in German, Wifflisburg (with 1,100 
 inhabitants), Casso?iay (with 1,200 inhabitants), Payerne, in German, Peter- 
 linqen (with 2,400 inhabitants), Romainmoustiers (with 1,200 inhabitants), 
 Echallens, in German, Tscherlitz (with 700 inhabitants), Orbe, in German, 
 Orbach (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aigle, in German, Aden (with 1,900 inhabi- 
 tants), and Bex (with the only salt- work in Switzerland, and 2,400 inhabitants). 
 The valley ofloux is noted for its manufactures of watches, swords, hard-ware, 
 etc., and has a population of 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
 21. The canton of Zug (area: 85 square miles; population: 16,500 inhabi- 
 tants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the south side of 
 the canton of Zurich. It joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains: Zug, 
 the capital, on the lake of the same name, southward and 14 miles distant 
 from Zurich, with transit trade, and 3,500 inhabitants. South-eastward and 9 
 miles distant from Zug is the little mountain or hill of Morgarten, noted for a 
 battle in 1315. Baar and Cham, towns, with respectively 2,500 and 1,300 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Aegeri (with 2,800 inhabitants), 
 Walchwyl (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Maenzingen (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
 
 22. The canton of Zurich (area : 686 square miles ; population : 280,000 
 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the exception of 
 2,000 Catholics), in the northern part of Switzerland, at about 20 miles distance 
 from the lake of Constance, on the north bordered by the canton of Schaf- 
 hausen. It joined the confederacy in 1351, and contains: Zurich, the capital, 
 on the lake of the same name, and on the Limmat, 46 miles east-south-east 
 of Basle, with a university (see above), 4 churches (at St. Peter's, the cele- 
 brated Lavater was minister),, several literary and charitable institutions, 
 various manufactures, considerable trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. In 1799, 
 
SWITZERLAND. 169 
 
 Canton of Zurich. 
 
 a battle was fought here between the French and the Austro-Russians. 
 Winterthur, a town, situated north-eastward and 14 miles distant from 
 Zurich, with various literary institutions, manufactures, and 3,650 inhabitants. 
 Pftffikoii, Wald, and Affoltern, extensive and highly industrious villages, with 
 respectively 3,500. 5,000, and 1,900 inhabitants. Laufen, a village near 
 Schafhausen, and on the Rhine, whose falls are here. Cappel, a village near 
 the frontier of the canton of Zug, is noted for a battle, in which the Reformists 
 of Zurich were defeated by the Swiss Catholics, and where Zwingli was killed. 
 Kyburg, a town, situated south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Zurich, 
 with an ancient mountain-castle, reared in 1079, and once the seat of renowned 
 and powerful counts of Kyburg. Other towns in this canton are : Neumunster 
 (with 4,400 inhabitants), Horgen (with 4,000 inhabitants), Buelach (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Meilen (with 5.100 inhabitants), Staefa (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
 Eglimu (with 1,800 inhabitants), Andelfingen (with 2,900 inhabitants), Grue- 
 ningen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Waedenschwyl, or Waedensweil (with 6,000 
 inhabitants), Richtenschweil (with 2,800 inhabitants), Marthalen (with 1,450 
 inhabitants), Ellg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Uster (with 2,200 inhabitants), and 
 Gossau (with 3,600 inhabitants). Upper and Lower Stammheim are two 
 towns, which together have a population of 2,500 inhabitants, and mineral 
 baths. 
 
 8 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Area : 204,825 square miles. 
 Population : 35,401,000 inhabitants. 
 
 France, lying on the south-west side of Germany, and on 
 ihe south separated from Spain by the Pyrenees, touches the 
 North Sea only with a small part o,f its northern extremity, is 
 separated from the British Islands by the Strait of Dover and 
 the English Channel, and is bounded on the west by the Atlantic 
 Ocean and the Bay of Biscay, and on the south by the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea and the Gulf of Lyons. (See Introduction, orGeneral 
 View of Europe, § 8.) 
 
 In France, every fifth year a census is taken ; and the above- 
 stated population is according to the last one, of the year 1846 ; 
 and the number of inhabitants was then exactly 35,400,486. 
 According to the census of 1841 the population was 34,173,234, 
 and according to that of 1836 it was 33,540,910 inhabitants. 
 Thus in the period from 1836 to 1841, the population had 
 increased by 632,324, and in the period from 1841 to 1846 by 
 1,227,252 inhabitants. In the year 1700 (when Corsica and 
 Lorraine were not yet annexed to France) the population amounted 
 to 19,669,320 inhabitants, and in 1773 to 23,531,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The great mass of the people consists of French, belonging to 
 the great family of the Romanians (see General View of Europe, 
 $ 12). The number of Germans (chiefly in Alsace and Lorraine) 
 is about 1,500,000; and in French Flanders live about 180,000 
 Flemings (see Introduction, § 12). In the French province of 
 
FRANCE. 171 
 
 Geographical Features. 
 
 Brittany are nearly 1,200,000 Breyzards, or descendants of the 
 ancient Britons, who settled here in the 5th century (see History 
 of Europe, § 4), and in Gascogne about 150,000 Basques. (See 
 General View of Europe, § 12). Near the Pyrenees are to be 
 found Gypsies, perhaps 9,000 in number. 
 
 There is no established religion in France, all denominations 
 being equal in the eye of the law ; but the great mass of the 
 people are Roman Catholics (under the church-authority of 14 
 archbishops and 66 bishops) ; while only about 4,000,000 are 
 Protestants (nearly 3,000,000 Reformists, and about 1,000,000 
 Lutherans). There are nearly 4.000 convents with 24,000 
 religious, of whom, however, 18,000 are sisters, or nuns, who have 
 devoted themselves to the attendance and care of the sick and 
 to the education of children. 
 
 The face of the country is mountainous in the south and east, 
 level in the north, and diversified in the centre. For the moun- 
 tain ranges which, beside parts of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Jura, 
 belong to France, see General View of Europe, § 7, h. 
 
 The 4 principal rivers of France : Seine, Loire, Garonne, and 
 Rhone, are together with their chief tributaries, and with the 
 other rivers, as: Var, Herault, Aude, Somme, etc., described in 
 General View of Europe, § 10. The principal canals in France 
 are the following : the canal of Languedoc, connecting the Garonne 
 with the Mediterranean Sea ; the canal of the centre, connecting 
 the Loire with the Saone ; the Rhine-canal, connecting the Rhine 
 with the Saone, and the canal of Burgundy, connecting the Seine 
 with the Rhone. It may be mentioned here, that at the present 
 time rail-roads are crossing many parts of France. The most im- 
 portant of them, are those which connect Havre de Grace with 
 Paris, and this capital with Strasburg. 
 
 The climate is in general temperate, France lying between the 
 parallels of 42° and 50° N. lat. In the south, it is sometimes 
 
172 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Natural Products of France. 
 
 very hot ; but there, as well as in other parts of the country, it 
 has sometimes also been very cold, especially in 1608, in the 
 beginning of last century, and in 1776. 
 
 The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, yet there are also many 
 barren and desert tracts, together amounting to 7,799,672 hec- 
 tares, or 30,279 square miles (nearly one seventh of the total 
 area of France). Of the arable land, about 14,000,000 hec- 
 tares (or 54,346 square miles) are appropriated to grain-raising; 
 and in 1843 there were 5,338,043 hectares (257£ hectares are 
 nearly equal to one English square mile) cultivated with wheat, 
 2,638,948 with rye, 1,300,186 with barley, 2,840,360 with oats, 
 700,890 with buckwheat, and 595.227 with maize and millet. Upon 
 an average, the annual produce is about 333,000,000 bushels of 
 grain, 128,000,000 of which consist of wheat. (Beside which, 
 the annual harvest of potatoes may be computed at 170,000,000 
 bushels.) All the grain raised in the country is at times not 
 sufficient for home consumption, and in the period from 1815 to 
 1841, grain has been imported from foreign countries to the 
 amount of 464,000,000 francs in value. The agriculture in France 
 is generally in a backward state, or at least inferior to that of 
 England, Belgium, and Germany. Of far greater importance 
 is the vine culture, to which purpose 2,134,822 hectares were 
 appropriated in 1843. At all events, France ranks first among 
 the wine countries in the world, and its annual produce in wines 
 may on an average be estimated at 720 million gallons (next to 
 France, follows the Austrian empire, inclusive Hungary, with an 
 annual produce of about 603 million gallons ; then Spain, with 
 about 153 million, and then Germany, with about 81 million 
 gallons). Other productions of the vegetable kingdom are prin- 
 cipally : madder (in the environs of Avignon, and other parts of 
 Provence, and in Languedoc), fruits (apples in Normandy and 
 Brittany, plums in Gascony), sugar beets (of which at least 22 
 
FRANCE. 178 
 
 Forests— Rearing of Cattle— Mineral Products. 
 
 million pounds of sugar are made annually), olives (renowned is 
 the olive-oil from Provence), tobacco (cultivated only in Brittany, 
 Gascony, French Flanders, and Alsace, the tobacco trade being 
 a monopoly of the government), capers, almonds, and trvffl.es 
 (renowned are the truffles of Perigord). Before the revolution 
 of 1789, France had extensive and valuable forests, but they have 
 since been thinned so extravagantly that in 1843 no more than 
 7,422,315 hectares, or only about the seventh part of the total 
 area of France, were still woodland, of which moreover only the 
 14th part consisted of forests of tall trees. 
 
 The rearing of cattle is in France, even more than agriculture, 
 in a backward state, and in 1843 the total number was only 
 9,130,632, whereas for instance Austria numbered in the same 
 year 11,389,001 heads of black cattle. The best breed is that of 
 Normandy and Auvergne. For the home consumption, the cattle 
 reared in France are not found sufficient. The number of horses 
 throughout the country is estimated at 2£ million ; the finest 
 breed is to be found in Normandy and Limousin, but even these 
 horses are inferior to those of Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, and 
 other parts of Germany, from which countries numerous horses 
 are annually imported to remount the French cavalry. In Poi- 
 tou and Auvergne are reared fine mules. The numbers of sheep 
 (the finest breed is in Berry) amounted in 1843 to 29,130,231 
 (in the same year in Austria there were numbered 31,809,481 
 sheep). Of goats, the fine breed from Angora and Thibet, intro- 
 duced into France since 1819, thrives well in the southern prov- 
 inces. In these provinces the rearing of silk-worms is also very 
 important. 
 
 Of mineral products, France has only iron and coal in somewhat 
 considerable quantities. Most of the iron mines are in Cham- 
 pagne, Burgundy, Franche-Comte, Lorraine, Nivernais, Lyonnais, 
 and Berry, and in 1842 the total produce was 6.954,100 
 
174 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce of France. 
 
 metric quintals of iron of various descriptions. The total pro- 
 duce of coal amounted in the same year to 35,920,843 metric 
 quintals, but being not sufficient for home consumption, nearly 
 17 million quintals had to be imported from Belgium and 
 England. Of precious metals, only silver is obtained in Dau- 
 phiny ; and the annual produce of copper (chiefly found in 
 Navarre and Beam, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and Lower Alsace) may 
 be estimated at 3,000 quintals. Salt is made in rather large 
 quantities by evaporation of sea-water at Cette and other mari- 
 time towns. France abounds in warm springs and mineral waters, 
 on account of which especially Bagneres and Bareges (in the 
 Pyrenees). Bourbon l'Archambault and Vichy (in Bourbonnais), 
 etc., are much visited. 
 
 The manufactures are various and numerous, ^,nd the value of 
 the annually manufactured goods (cotton, woollen, silk, and fancy 
 goods, hard-ware, jewelry, perfumes, paper, etc.) is estimated at 
 $400,000,000 to $500,000,000. Many of the French shawls rival, 
 if not in fineness and softness, at least in the elegance of pat- 
 tern, those of Cashemere. The French paper is almost unrival- 
 led ; and in some respects the same may be said of French cloth. 
 
 Next to Great Britain, France ranks first as a commercial state, 
 and its exports and imports for the year 1843 were in value 
 2,179,000,000 francs (about $436,000,000), the exports being in 
 value 992,000,000 francs (or about $198,500,000), and the im- 
 ports in value 1,187,000,000 francs (or about $237,500,000). 
 (In 1840 the total value of the exports and imports of the Uni- 
 ted States was about $214,500,000, but with the difference that 
 here the exports exceeded the imports by nearly $20,000,000, 
 while in France the imports were by 195,000,000 francs, or nearly 
 $39,000,000 more in value than the exports. Moreover, the 
 commerce of France does not extend to all parts of the world, 
 like that of the United States ; as for instance, its intercourse 
 
FRANCE. 175 
 
 Education— Universities 
 
 with China and India is comparatively very insignificant.) The 
 French exports are chiefly silks, cottons, woollens, wine, brandy, 
 madder, paper and paper-hangings, looking-glasses and plate-glass, 
 laces, and fancy articles of all kinds, olive-oil, fruits, etc. The 
 chief imports are cotton, raw silk, wool, grain, sugar, coal, timber, 
 furs and hides, iron, and indigo. 
 
 Of the means of education in France it may be said, that there 
 is much ado about nothing. All schools (with the exception of 
 military, mining, and other similar academies) are under the spe- 
 cial direction of a supreme board at Paris, styled the university, 
 which however has nothing to do with teaching or instructing 
 like other institutions bearing this name. It is a characteristic 
 evidence of the system of centralization prevailing in France, 
 that just as 27 tribunals are subjected to the control of the court 
 of cassation (or supreme court), so 27 academies (as they are 
 styled) are subjected to the control of the university ; while all 
 common and other inferior schools are again subjected to these 
 academies. France has no universities like those of Germany, 
 etc., that is with all 4 faculties united (see the explanatory note, 
 page 95), but the faculties are separated, though they have re- 
 tained that name. The university of Paris, so renowned in the 
 middle ages (see History of Europe, § 17,/), is still extant, and 
 was in 1841 frequented by about 7,000 students, but it con- 
 sists at present of three faculties (of theology, of jurisprudence, 
 and of medicine), separated from each other. It is the same 
 with that of Toulouse (founded in 1233, and in 1841 with 1,250 
 students), and of Strasburg (founded in 1638, and 880 students 
 in the last-named year). The former universities of Lyons 
 (founded in 1300), Aix (founded in 1409), Bordeaux (founded in 
 1447), and Rouen (founded in 1800) are now reduced to faculties 
 of catholic theology (only in Aix is also a faculty of jurispru- 
 dence) ; — those of Caen (founded in 1433), Dijon (founded in 
 
176 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Education in France — Form of Government. 
 
 1722), Poitiers (founded in 1411), and Rennes (founded in 1801), 
 to faculties of jurisprudence ; — that of Montpellier (founded in 
 1289), to a faculty of medicine ; that of Montauban (founded in 
 1800), to a protestant theological faculty; and that of Besancon 
 (founded in 1564), to a faculty of philosophy. Moreover, there 
 are faculties of science and literature (as they are styled) in Paris, 
 Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Montpellier, Strasburg, and Toulouse. 
 With regard to secondary schools, there are 358 public colleges 
 (numbering 57,278 pupils in 1844), 1,100 private schools (with 
 35,000), and 120 clerical schools (with 20,000 pupils). The 
 primary schools throughout France were in 1840 frequented by 
 2,881,679 children. (The common schools of Germany are an- 
 nually frequented by more than 6 million children.) In 1837 
 there were 7,682, and in 1840 still 4,196 French communities 
 vnthout schools at all (in Germany even not the smallest parish is 
 without a school), and according to the statement of a credible 
 French statistician (Legoyt, in his " France statistique"), out of 
 every one thousand French 405 (upon an average) can neither 
 read nor write. In 1843 there were out of 50,352 schoolmasters, 
 not less than 23,048 who had only an annual salary of 200 francs 
 (or little more than $40) each, while that of the remainder 
 amounted to no more than 300 francs. Now the sum for the 
 sustenance of a galley-slave in the bagnos of Toulon, Rochefort, 
 and Lorient is fixed at 319 francs annually; thus the wants of 
 culprits are indeed better provided for, than those of teachers in 
 the public schools. 
 
 The form of government is at present, i. e., since the year 
 1848, republican ; the legislative power being vested in an As- 
 sembly, or Congress, and the executive power in a President, 
 chosen for 4 years. How long this form may last, nobody can 
 at present say; yet it is at all events a curious fact, that 
 France has had not less than eight constitutions since its first 
 
•m 
 
 FRANCE. 177 
 
 
 
 Financial Particulars. 
 
 revolution, viz. : in 1791 (limited monarchy), 1793 (republic, with 
 terrorism), 1795 (republic with aristocratism), 1799 (republic 
 with absolutism), 1804 (unlimited military monarchy), 1814 (lim- 
 ited monarchy), 1830 (forms of limited monarchy with actual 
 absolutism and money-aristocracy), and 1848 (republic with ten- 
 dency to monarchical reaction). 
 
 It is evident that under such circumstances the public finances 
 of "the country could not prosper. Shortly before the revolution 
 of 1789 the public debt amounted to about 4,200 million livres, 
 or francs; in 1838 it had increased to 4,590,876,111, and at 
 present it amounts to more, than five thousand million francs, not- 
 withstanding the confiscation of several thousand millions of 
 church, private, and other property, in the time of the first revo- 
 lution. In 1787 the deficit in the public revenue and expenditure 
 was 180 million livres, and in 1846 the deficit amounted to 
 421,462,992 francs! In 1788 the ratio in tax-paying of the 
 French people fell short of 22 livres per head, and in 1846 this 
 ratio had increased to almost 79 francs. None of the French 
 rulers since the first revolution has extorted more money from the 
 people than Louis Philipe. In the year anterior to the revolution 
 of 1830 the amount of the public expenditure was 977,935,329, 
 and in the year posterior to this revolution it was 1,233,000,000 
 francs; in 1832 it was still more, and so it increased in Tegular 
 progression until in 1846 it had reached the height of 1,727,999,- 
 673 francs! In 1829 the public revenue and expenditure had 
 yielded a surplus of 1,180,382 francs, and every year posterior to 
 the revolution of 1830 brought ^deficit, which in 1843 amounted 
 to 39,826,728 francs, in 1844 to about 157,750,000, in the follow- 
 ing year to 350,000,000, and in 1846 to 421,462,992 francs! 
 We repeat, it was not the amount of the public debt, nor the 
 public expenditure, but a real and plain deficit. Neither the public 
 debt nor the expenditure were affected by such a trifle, the former 
 
 8* 
 
178 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Finances, Army and Navy of France. 
 
 requiring at the same period nearly 375 million francs for pay- 
 ing interest, and the latter amounting (as has been stated above) 
 to nearly 1,728 million francs. In short, at the beginning of the 
 year 1846 the account stood exactly thus : 
 
 Interest of the public debt, 374,845,536 francs. 
 
 Other branches of the expenditure, 1,353,151,137 " 
 
 The deficit of the last year, 421,462,992 " 
 
 Arrears of the former deficits, 293,560,267 " 
 
 Extraordinary loan contracted by the government, to 
 make head against temporary embarrassments, and 
 
 for which public forests were mortgaged, 350,000,000 " 
 
 Total amount, 2,793,019,932 francs. 
 
 Divide this enormous sum by the population of France, then 
 amounting to about 35.400,000 inhabitants, and it will be found 
 that each inhabitant had to contribute almost 79 francs. The 
 revolution of 1848 has anew increased the public expenditure, 
 and in 1849 a fresh loan of 200 million francs was required. 
 
 The French army comprised in 1846, according to official 
 statements, 340,000 men, and 81,669 horses; and the navy con- 
 sisted in 1845 of 23 ships of the line, 30 frigates, 22 sloops of 
 war, 154 other vessels, 4 steam frigates, and 41 other steam 
 vessels, all in active service ; while 23 ships of the line, 20 frigates, 
 3 sloops of war, and 2 schooners, were in the navy yards, and 4 
 steam frigates, and 18 other steam vessels, still on the stocks. 
 
 The monarchy having been again abolished, honorary orders 
 are of course out of question, at least for the present ; the more 
 so as since the revolution of 1830 only the order of the legion of 
 honor (instituted in 1 802 by Bonaparte) was retained and distrib- 
 uted by Louis Philipe in such an immense number (more than 
 50,000), that it was almost degraded to disdain. The former 
 
FRANCE. 179 
 
 History— The Capet Dynasty. 
 
 orders of honor, distributed before the revolution of 1789, and in 
 the period from 1814 to 1830, were the following: — 1. The order 
 of the Holy Ghost, instituted by King Henry III., in 1579. 2. The 
 order of St. Louis (instituted by Louis XIV., in 1693, for Catholic 
 officers of the army and navy). 3. The oidcr of St. Michael 
 (instituted by Louis XL, in 1469, and renewed in 1665). 4. The 
 order of Military Merit (instituted by Louis XV., in 1759, for 
 protestant officers). 
 
 History. — The aborigines of the country were the Iberians, and subsequently 
 the Celts (see Introduction, or General View of Europe, § 12), by the Romans 
 called Gauls. The country itself was then, and until the 5th century, only 
 known by the name of Gaul. In the period from the year 124 to 50 B. G, 
 the Romans subjected the whole country. The changes brought on since the 
 beginning of the 5 th century, by German tribes, especially by the Franks, 
 have been related in the History of Europe (§§ 3, 8, and 14), where we have 
 learned that by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843, Charles the Bald 
 acquired France. He died in 81*7, and his descendants and successors being 
 weak kings, the race of the French Carlovingians was towards the end of the 
 10th century excluded from the throne, upon which in 987 the mighty duke of 
 Francia (subsequently called Isle de France, and comprising the city of Paris), 
 Hugh Capet, was raised to it by the French barons, or vassals of the crown. 
 With him, the reign of the Capetingians commenced (Louis Philipe, as well 
 as other members of the House of Bourbon, are descendants of Hugh Capet). 
 Hugh Capet, or as King, Hugh I, died in 996, and was succeeded by his son 
 Robert I. (996-1031); then followed in succession: Henry I (1031-1060), 
 Philip I (1060-1108), Louis VI. (1108-1137), Louis VII. (1137-1180). The 
 last-named king was succeeded by Philip II, surnamed Augustus, who reigned 
 from the year 1180 to 1223, and in this period the wars between France and 
 England commenced. King Henry II., of England, being at the same time 
 duke of Anjou and Normandy by birth, acquired moreover, by marriage and 
 inheritance, Brittany, Guyenne, Poitou, etc., and became thus possessed of nearly 
 the whole western half of France. The French king refusing to acknowledge 
 the claims of Henry II., the wars commenced, and lasted, though with many 
 intervals, two centuries and a half, without a final success on the part of the 
 English. The successors of Philip II. were the following: Louis VIII. 
 
180 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 House of Bourbon— Firat French Revolution — Napoleon. 
 
 (1223-1226), Louis IX, surnamed the Holy (1226-1270), Philip III. (1270- 
 1285), Philip IV, surnamed the Fair (1285-1314), and in the short period 
 from 1314 to 1328, Philip the Fair's sons Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. 
 With the last-named king, the chief line of the Capetingians became extinct, 
 and now the collateral line of the House of Valois ascended the throne in the 
 person of Philip VI. (great-grandson of King Louis IX., and reigning from 
 1328 to 1350). His successors (belonging, like him, to the House of Valois) 
 were the following: John, surnamed the Good (1350-1364), Charles V, sur- 
 named the Wise (1364-1380), Charles VI. (1380-1422), Charles VII. (1422- 
 1461 ; at this time lived the famous Maid of Orleans, named Joan of Arc), 
 Louis XI. (1461-1483), Charles VIII (1483-1498), Louis XII. (1498-1515), 
 Francis I. (1515-1547), Henry II. (/1547-1559), Francis II. (1559-1560), 
 Charles IX. (1560-1574; during his reign, in 1572, the horrible murder of 
 French Protestants, in the night of Saint Bartholomew's day, occurred), and 
 Henry III. (1574-1589). With Henry III., who was murdered by a monk, 
 the House of Valois became extinct, and now the House of Bourbon ascended 
 the throne. The first king from this house (whose ancestor was Robert of 
 Clermont, second son of King Louis IX.) was Henry IV. (1589-1610), whose 
 father, Anton of Bourbon, was married to Johanna, heiress of Navarre, from 
 which cause, Henry became possessed of this kingdom (i. e., its part lying on 
 the north side of the Pyrenees) too, and bequeathed it to his descendants and 
 successors on the French throne. Henry was murdered on the 14th of May, 
 1610, by Ravaillac, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. (1610-1643). 
 The following kings were : Louis XIV. (1643-1715), Louis XV. (his great- 
 grandson, 1715-1774), and Louis XVI. (grandson of Louis XV.), who 
 ascended the throne in 1774, and was a good-natured and honest man, but 
 not at all qualified for a ruler. Being of an extremely weak and yielding 
 temper, he made one concession after the other to the leaders of the first 
 French revolution (see History of Europe, § 18), and this was the surest way, 
 first to be deprived of his royal prerogatives (on the 3d of September, 1791), 
 and then of his life on the scaffold (on the 21st of January, 1793). The reign 
 of terror lasted for more than a whole year, viz.: from the 24th of July, 1793, 
 to the 28th of July, 1794, and that of the so-called Directory (government of 
 five members) from the 26th of October, 1795, to the 10th of November, 
 1799, when Bonaparte attained the power, first as Consul, and in 1804 as 
 Fmperor,bj the name of Napoleon. In 1814, he was compelled by the other 
 European powers to surrender the imperial crown of France, in exchange for 
 
FRANCE. 181 
 
 Second and Third Revolution— Departments and Provinces. 
 
 the sovereignty of the little island of Elba (see page 126), the Bourbons returned 
 to France, and Louis XVIII. was established on the French throne. In March, 
 1815, Napoleon suddenly landed on the French coast, and in a few days hi9 
 banner again waved triumphant over all France, but iu the battle of Waterloo, 
 on the 18th of June, 1815, he was utterly overthrown, and the Bourbons returned 
 for a second time. Louis XVIII. died on the 16th of September, 1824, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Charles X. By the revolution of 1830, the Bourbons 
 were banished anew from the French territory, with the exception of the 
 duke of Orleans (a descendant of Philip of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV.), 
 who by the name of Louis Philip was proclaimed king of the French, but 
 experiened at last the very same fate which he had prepared to his cousin 
 and antecessor, eighteen years before. By the revolution of February, 1848, 
 he was compelled to make his escape to England, and the French citizen- 
 kinghood was transformed into a republic 
 
 Before the first French revolution France was divided into as 
 many provinces (32 great, and 8 smaller ones, which latter were, 
 except Corsica, inclosed by the former), as there had been baro- 
 nages, or duchies and counties, in the middle ages. In 1790 this 
 arrangement was abolished, and the country divided into 86 (at 
 first into fc3) departments, and their names derived chiefly from 
 the rivers, mountains, and other natural objects within their 
 limits. The departments are subdivided into districts (363 in all), 
 the latter into cantons (2,846), and the cantons again into commu- 
 nities (37,295 in all). Each department is governed by a prefect, 
 each district by an under-prefect, and each canton and commu- 
 nity by a mayor. But as the names of the provinces have all 
 since continued to be used in commou life, and as they moreover 
 continually occur in history and other reading, we have retained 
 them in the following description, and combined them at the 
 same time with the departmental division, in a manner that it 
 easily can be found out which and how many departments each 
 province comprises. The chief towns of departments are marked 
 by a cross (-J-). 
 
182 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province Of Isle de France. 
 
 I. Isle de France. — This province, once called Francia (see History of 
 France), and subsequently Isle de France, or Island of France, on account of 
 its insular situation amidst the rivers of Seine, Marne, Oise, etc., comprises 5 
 departments, viz. : the Aisne Department (part of which belongs to Picardy ; 
 its chief town is Laon), the Oise Department (chief town Beauvais), the Seine 
 and Oise Department (chief town Versailles), the Seine Department (with 
 Paris), and the Seine and Marne Department (chief town Melun). 1. The 
 Seine Department contains : -(-Paris, the capital of all France, on the Seine, 
 165 miles south-south-west of Brussels, with a population of 1,053,907 inhab- 
 itants, according to the census of 1846. It embraces (beside 14 suburbs) 
 three parts, called ville, cite, and university. The ville is situated on the 
 north side of the Seine, the cite (city proper) on the islands of the river, and 
 the university on the south side of the Seine. Paris is next to London the 
 first city in Europe for size ; and its numerous public buildings and palaces 
 generally excel those of the British capital. It contains about 30,000 houses 
 (many of which are eight stories high), 1,150 streets, 75 public places (among 
 which are, the place of Vendome with the statue of Napoleon on a column 133 
 feet high ; the place of Concord, formerly called place of Louis XV., where 
 Louis XVI. was executed, and which is at present adorned by an obelisk 
 from Luxor, and the place of Victory, with an equestrian statue of Louis 
 XIV.), 22 bridges (among which the Pont Neuf, 1,020 feet long and 72 feet 
 wide, with an equestrian statue of Henry IV.), 41 churches (the most remark- 
 able of which is the Gothic cathedral of Notre Dame), 25 hospitals, 84 bar- 
 racks, 24 theatres, and 8 former royal palaces. The most prominent among 
 these palaces are the Tuileries (reared in 1564 and the following years by 
 Queen Catharine of Medici), connected by side-wings with the Louvre (founded 
 in 1528 by Francis 1.), and the Palais Royal (reared by the cardinal Riche- 
 lieu in the years 1629-1636, presented by him to Louis XIII., and subse- 
 quently by Louis XIV. to his brother Philip of Orleans, who bequeathed it 
 to his descendants). Other remarkable public buildings are : the palace of 
 Luxembourg (founded in 1612 by Queen Mary of Medici, widow of Henry IV.), 
 the Hotel of Invalids (since 1840 containing the mortal remains of Napoleon), 
 the palace of Justice (reared in the 9th century, and until 1431 the royal 
 residence), the Hotel Dieu, the Salpetriere (containing 4,000 tenants), etc. 
 The most remarkable of the public gardens is the Jardin des plantes, or 
 botanic garden, with 7,000 exotic plants and a menagery. Paris is also noted 
 for the value of its public libraries (43 in all, and the principal public library 
 
FRANCE. 183 
 
 The Province of Isle de France. 
 
 contains 700,000 volumes, and 70,000 manuscripts), collections of pictures, etc., 
 and literary institutions ; and moreover for its numerous and various manu- 
 factures. Its inland trade is very important. Paris was founded already 
 before the Christian era, but then known only by the name of Lntetia ; it 
 was burnt down by the Parisians, a Celtic tribe, but built up again by the 
 Romans, and since that time the name of Paris came into use. The kings of 
 the race of the Merovingians and Carlovingians resided here only at times, 
 but the Capetingians permanently, except in the period from 1672 to 1790, 
 during which the kings of France resided at Versailles. Louis Philipe used to 
 reside during the summer season in his palace at Neuilly, a town with 3,000 
 inhabitants. St. Denis, a town near the right bank of the Seine, with 9,500 
 inhabitants, and a formerly renowned Benedictine abbey (founded in the year 
 600 by King Clotar II.), in whose magnificent church is the sepulchre of the 
 royal family of France, the mortal remains of 26 kings of France, 16 queens, 
 and 83 princes and princesses having been deposited there. Other towns of 
 this department are : Passy (with 3,100 inhabitants), Vincennes (with 5,000 in- 
 habitants, and a renowned castle, reared in 1337 by Philip of Valois), Cka- 
 renton (near the junction of the Marne with the Seine, with a mad-house, 
 and 1,500 inhabitants), Sceaux (with important cattle fairs, and 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants), and Bourg la Reine (with a manufactory of porcelain). 2. The Seine 
 and Oise Department contains : -f- Versailles, chief town, 9 miles west-south- 
 west of Versailles, with 30,000 (before the revolution of 1789 with nearly 
 100,000) inhabitants, and a vast palace (1.800 feet long), reared by Louis 
 XIV., and the splendid royal residence in the period 1672-1790, with a 
 highly remarkable park and water-works. About 4 miles distant from here 
 is Marly, a town on the Seine, with 1,500 inhabitants, and a former royal 
 palace. Within the limits of the park of Versailles is situated St. Cyr, 
 formerly a convent of Austin nuns, instituted in 1686 by Madame de Mainte- 
 non (married to Louis XIV. with the left hand), at present a military acad- 
 emy. Not far from here are the former royal palaces of Great and Little 
 Trianon. St. Germain, surnamed en Laye, a town on the left bank of the 
 Seine, opposite St. Denys, with 11,000 inhabitants, and a great former royal 
 palace, reared by King Francis I., and in which Henry II., Charles IX., and 
 Louis XIV. were born, and where James II. of England lived until his 
 death. St. Cloud, a town on the Seine, opposite the Bois de Boulogne 
 (which is connected with the garden of the Tuileries at Paris), with 3,000 
 inhabitants, and a former royal palace, in which Henry III. was murdered. 
 
184 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Isle de France. 
 
 Not far from here are Sevres (a town with 4,000 inhabitants, and a celebrated 
 manufactory of porcelain), and Malmaison, once the favorite palace of Napo- 
 leon, where his consort Josephine died in 1814. Montmorency, a town in 
 the romantic valley of the same name, with 1,900 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this department are : Rueil (with 3,000 inhabitants, and a palace, once the 
 frequent abode of the cardinal Richelieu), Rambouillet (with 3,200 inhabitants, 
 and a palace, where Francis I. died in 1547), Pontoise (with 5,800 inhabi- 
 tants), Ecouen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Argenteuil (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Corbeil (with 3,900 inhabitants), Mantes (with 4,400 inhabitants), Etampes 
 (with 8,500 inhabitants), Meudon (with 3,000 inhabitants), Poissy (with im- 
 portant cattle fairs, and 3,000 inhabitants), and Mereville (with the most 
 considerable fairs of the Department). 3. The Seine and Marne Department 
 contains : -(-Melun, chief town, on the Seine, south-eastward and 28 miles 
 distant from Paris, with a remarkable church, and 7,000 inhabitants. Fon- 
 tainebleau, a town on the Seine and in an extensive and beautiful forrest, 
 37 miles south-south-east of Paris, with 8,800 inhabitants, and a celebrated 
 vast palace, the frequent seat of the last members of the House of Valois, 
 and where in 1657 Monaldeschi, equerry of the Swedish queen Christiana, 
 was murdered by her command. Other towns of this department are: 
 Nemours (with 4,000 inhabitants), Nangis (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Brie 
 sur Yeres, or Brie Comte Robert (with 3,000 inhabitants). These three last- 
 named towns belong to the ancient district of la Brie francoise (la Brie cham- 
 penoise is within the limits of Champagne, and comprises the towns of 
 Meaux, Provins, Coulommiers, and La Ferte sous Jouarre, which in adminis- 
 trative regard belong to the Seine and Marne Department). 4. The Oise 
 Department contains : -{-Beauvais, chief town on the Therain, eastward and 
 46 miles distant from Rouen, and 46 miles north-north-west of Paris, with a 
 remarkable Gothic cathedral, important manufactures of carpets, cloth, etc., 
 and 14,000 inhabitants. Compiegne, a town on the Oise, 46 miles north-north- 
 east of Paris, with an ancient palace (where in former times the royal court 
 used to reside in the summer season), several Gothic churches, and 9,500 in- 
 habitants. Clermont, surnamed en Beauvaisis (at present also called Cler- 
 mont- Oise), a town eastward and 13 miles distant from Beauvais, with numer- 
 ous manufactures, and 2,000 inhabitants. Salency, a village on the Oise, 
 noted for its feast of roses, celebrated annually on the 8th of June, and insti- 
 tuted in the 5th century by the holy Medardus. Crepy, or Crespy en Valois t 
 a town southward and 13 miles distant from Compiegne, with 2,300 inhabi- 
 
FRANCE. 185 
 
 The Provinces of Isle de France and Normandy. 
 
 tants, is noted for a treaty of peace, concluded here on the 18th of Septem- 
 ber, 1544, between Francis I. and the emperor Charles V. Other towns of 
 this department are : Senlis (with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, whose steeple 
 is one of the highest in France, and 5,500 inhabitants), Chantilly (with 2,000 
 inhabitants, important manufactures of laces, etc., and the remains of a once 
 renowned palace of the princes of Conde), and Creil (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
 5. The Aisne Department contains : -J-Laon, chief town, on a hill and surrounded 
 by fortifications, north-eastward and 74 miles distant from Paris, with a vast 
 and remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants. Soissons, a town on the 
 Aisne, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Paris, with a remarkable ca- 
 thedral, and 8,500 inhabitants, is noted for a battle in 486, in which King Clovis 
 I. defeated Syagrius, the last Roman governor in France. Other towns of this 
 department are : Chauny (with 4,000 inhabitants), La Ferte Milon (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Craonne (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Crexpy en Ldonais (north- 
 eastward and 36 miles distant from Crespy en Valois, with 1,400 inhabitants). 
 Premontrc, formerly the chief convent of the Premonstrants. Of the other 
 towns, belonging to this department, those of St. Quentin, La Fere, Vervins, 
 St. Gobin, and Aubenton, are situated within the limits of Picardy, and Cha- 
 teau Thierry within the limits of Champagne. On the other hand the 
 following towns of the Eure and Loir Department {see Orleanais) are situated 
 within the limits of Isle de France : Dreux, a town on the Blaise, westward 
 and 32 miles distant from Versailles, with 7,000 inhabitants, is noted for a 
 battle in 1562 between the Catholics and Protestants, in which the prince of 
 Conde was taken prisoner. Anet, a town with 1,800 inhabitants, and a 
 palace reared by King Henry II., and inhabited by bis mistress, Diana of 
 Poitiers. 
 
 II. Normandy. — This province, between Paris and the English Channel, and 
 crossed by the Seine, was in 911 given to the Normans in feoffment (see 
 History of Europe, § 15), and reunited with the French crown by King 
 Charles VII. It comprises 5 departments, viz. : the Lower Seine Department 
 (chief town, Rouen), the Eure Department (chief town, Evreux), the Calvados 
 Department (chief town, Caen), the Orne Department (chief town, Alencon), 
 and the Manche Department (chief town, St. Lo). 6. The Lower Seine 
 Department contains : -f- Rouen, ancient capital of Normandy, on the Seine, 
 north-westward and 69 miles distant from Paris, and southward and 115 miles 
 distant from Calais, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral (where many of the 
 dukes of Normandy are buried), very considerable commerce, numerous and 
 
186 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Normandy. 
 
 important manufactures of cotton, etc., and 100,000 inhabitants. Noted for 
 their manufactures are also the neighboring towns of Bolbec (with 9,000 inhab- 
 itants), Caudebec (with 3.000 inhabitants), and Lillebonne (with 2,100 inhab- 
 itants). Elbeuf, a town in the vicinity of Rouen, with 11,000 inhabitants, is 
 one of the principal seats of cloth manufactures. Havre (surnamed de Grace, 
 but by the French commonly called Le Havre), a fortified commercial city at 
 the mouth of the Seine, may be eonsidered as the port of Paris, is the chief 
 seat of the commerce with America, and has 30,000 inhabitants. Dieppe, a 
 maritime town on the English Channel, 82 miles south-south-west of Calais, is 
 renowned for its sea-baths, and has 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are : Neufchatel (with 3,800 inhabitants), Gournay (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Fecamp (with 9,000 inhabitants), St. Valery, surnamed en Caux 
 (with 5,500 inhabitants), Ailly (with 1,800 inhabitants),.^ (with 4,000 inhab- 
 itants, and a former royal palace), Treport (with 2,500 inhabitants), Aumale 
 (with 2,260 inhabitants, and mineral springs), Yvetot (with renowned linen 
 manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants), Harfleur (with 2,300 inhabitants), and 
 Montivilliers (with 4,000 inhabitants). 7. The Eure Department contains : 
 ~\- Evreux, chief town on the Iton, southward and 27 miles distant from 
 Rouen, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 252 feet in height), 
 and 13,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the palace of Navarre, 
 reared in 1686 by a duke of Bouillon, and inhabited by the Empress Josephine 
 in the period from 1810 to 1813. Louviers, a town on the Eure, and one of 
 the principal seats of cloth manufactures, with a magnificent cathedral, and 
 11,000 inhabitants. Quilleboeuf, a maritime town on the left bank of the 
 Seine, opposite to Havre, is to be considered as the port of Rouen, and has 
 1,500 inhabitants. Ivry, a town on the Eure, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted 
 for the victory Henry IV. obtained over the Liguists, or Catholics, on the 14th 
 of March, 1590. Other towns of this department are : Conches (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Rugles (with 2,000 inhabitants), Verneuil (with renowned pot- 
 teries, and 4,600 inhabitants), Vernon (with 7,000 inhabitants), Les Andelys 
 (with 5,500 inhabitants), Pont Audemer (with 5,800 inhabitants), and Bernay 
 (with important horse-marts, and 8,000 inhabitants). 8. The Calvados Depart- 
 ment contains : -j- Caen, chief town near the mouth of the Orne, with lace 
 manufactures, a church containing the mortal remains of William the Con- 
 queror, and 43,000 inhabitants. Courseule, a village on the English Channel, 
 is noted for its oysters, of which about 1,000,000 are sent every week to Paris. 
 Honfleur, a maritime town on the south side of the mouth of the Seine, oppo- 
 
FRANCE. 187 
 
 The Provinces of .Normandy and Picardy. 
 
 site to Harfleur and Havre, with 11,000 inhabitants, many of whom are 
 engaged in whale and cod-fishery. Other towns of this department are: 
 Pont PEveqtie (with 2,300 inhabitants), Vire (with 8,500 inhabitants), Condi 
 sur Noireau (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bayeux (with a remarkable cathedral, 
 and 11,000 inhabitants), Isigny (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lisieux (with impor- 
 tant linen and cloth manufactures, and 12,500 inhabitants), and Falaise (with 
 10,000 inhabitants, renowned dyeries and hosieries, the remains of an ancient 
 castle where William the Conqueror was born in 1027, and celebrated fairs in 
 its suburb Ghiibray). 9. The Manche Department contains: St. L6, chief 
 town on the Vire, westward and 32 miles distant from Caen, with important 
 manufactures of coarse woollens, two beautiful and remarkable churches, and 
 9,500 inhabitants. Cherbourg, a fortified maritime town and naval depot on 
 the English Channel, is famous for its breakwater and docks, and has a popu- 
 lation of 20,500 inhabitants. On the 18th of August, 1830, Charles X. em- 
 barked here with his family for England. Westward and 23 miles distant 
 from here is Cape La Ilogue, noted for the naval battle in 1692, between the 
 French and British. Mont St. Michel, a strongly fortified town on a promon- 
 tory, which twice daily is separated from the continent by the tide, with a 
 castle, where state-prisoners are confined, and with Gothic chapels belonging 
 to a Benedictine abbey, instituted in 966. Other towns of this department 
 are: Coutances (with one of the finest cathedrals in France, and 9,500 inhab- 
 itants), Valogne (with 7,000 inhabitants), Moriain (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Granville (with 8,500 inhabitants), Avranches (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
 Villedieu les Poeles (with 3,000 inhabitants). 10. The Orne Department 
 contains : -j- Alen^on, chief town on the Sarthe, 110 miles west-south-west of 
 Paris, with various manufactures, and 15,000 inhabitants. The manufacturing 
 of lace, straw hats, and crystal wares, for which Alencon formerly was 
 renowned, are at present almost left oft Other towns of this department are : 
 Seez (with a beautiful cathedral, and 5,800 inhabitants), Argentan (with 6,500 
 inhabitants), Vimoutiers (chief seat of linen manufactures, with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), L'Aigle (with needle manufactures, and 6,000 inhabitants), Tinchebray 
 with 3,500 inliabitants), and Domfront (with 2,600 inhabitants). The towns 
 of Mortagne, La Trappe, etc., belonging to this department, are situated within 
 the limits of Perche (see province XVIII.). 
 
 III. Picardy. — This province, on the north side of Normandy and Isle de 
 France, and bordering upon the English Channel between Dieppe and Calais, 
 was since the year 823 ruled by mighty counts, who, however, continued to 
 
188 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Picardy. 
 
 be more or less dependent on the French crown. Out of its chief territory- 
 has been formed the Somme Department, yet being of far greater extent, the 
 province of Picardy comprises also parts of the Pas de Calais and Aisne 
 Departments. 11. The Somme Department contains: -f- Amiens, the fortified 
 ancient capital of Picardy, on the Somme, northward and 73 miles distant 
 from Paris, with a cathedral considered as a masterpiece of Gothic architec- 
 ture, important manufactures of velvet, carpets, etc., considerable inland trade, 
 and 48,000 inhabitants. Treaty of peace concluded here between France and 
 Great Britain, on_the 25th of March, 1802. Abbeville, a fortified town on 
 the Somme, with velvet, cloth, and other manufactures, considerable trade, 
 and 19,500 inhabitants. Peeonne, a fortified town on the Somme, on the 
 high road between Valenciennes and Paris, with a remarkable old castle (in 
 which Charles the Simple was kept prisoner and died in 929, and where also 
 Louis XL was confined for three days by Charles of Burgundy, in 1468), and 
 4,200 inhabitants. Crecy, or Cressy, a town, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted 
 for the battle of the 26th of August, 1346, in w 7 hich Philip of Valois was 
 defeated by King Edward III. of England. Ham, a town on the Somme, with 
 an ancient strong castle, whose walls are 36 feet thick, and where, among 
 other state-prisoners, Polignac and his fellow-ministers, Louis Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, etc., were confined. Other towns of this department are : Conti (from 
 which Bourbon princes of a collateral fine derived their title), Doullens (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), St. Valery (north-eastward and 42 miles distant from St. 
 Valery en Caux, with 3,500 inhabitants, and a harbor where William the 
 Conqueror embarked for England in 1066), Rue (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 Crotoy (with 1,000 inhabitants), .4 w/£ (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Montdidier 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants). Of the towns belonging to the Aisne Department 
 (see Isle de France) are situated within the limits of Picardy the following : 
 St. Quentin, a fortified city on the Somme, eastward and 37 miles distant 
 from Amiens, with important manufactures of laces, shawls, etc., and 20,000 
 inhabitants. Battle in 1557 between the Spaniards and French. St. Gobain, 
 a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is renowned for its looking-glass manufactory 
 which makes plate-glasses of more than 150 inches in height, and more than 
 90 inches wide. La Fere, a fortified town on the Oise, with an artillery 
 school, and 3,000 inhabitants. Vervins (noted for a treaty of peace concluded 
 here in 1598, between France and Spain) and Aubenton, towns, with respect- 
 ively 3,000 and 1,500 inhabitants. Of the towns belonging to the Pas de 
 Calais Department (see Artois) are situated within the limits of Picardy the 
 
FRANCE. 189 
 
 . 
 
 The Provinces of I'icaidy, Artvii, and Bouhmniiis. 
 
 following: Calais, a fortified town on the Strait of Dover (here about 18 miles 
 wide), with important cotton manufactures, sea-baths, and 12,000 inhabitants' 
 A daily intercourse with Dover is kept up here by steam navigation. Edward 
 III. of England conquered Calais in 1346, and the English since continued to 
 be possessed of it until the year 1558, when the French wrested it from them 
 again. Ardres, a fortified town in the midst of marshes, with 2,300 inhabi- 
 tants. Near this town, Francis I. held an interview with Henry VIII. of 
 England, in 1520. Montreuil and St. Pierre, towns, with respectively 4,100 
 and 7,000 inhabitants. 
 
 IV. Artois. — This province, comprising a tract of land between Amiens 
 and Lille, once formed part of Flanders and Hainault, and was in 1180 
 brought in dowry by Isabella of Hainault, to her consort King Philip II. of 
 France. It comprises at present: 12. The Pas de Calais Department, which 
 contains : -j- Arras, fortified ancient capital of Artois, on the Scarpe, north- 
 eastward and 32 miles distant from Amiens, with a strong citadel, a remark- 
 able Gothic cathedral, manufactures of lace, cotton goods, etc., and 24,500 
 inhabitants. St. Omer, a fortified town on the Aa, south-eastward and 23 
 miles distant from Calais, with tobacco manufactories, and 20,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this department are : St. Pol (with 4,000 inhabitants), Bapaume 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Bethune (with 7,000 inhabitants), Aire (with 9,000 
 inhabitants), Hesdin (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Lens (with 2,300 inhabitants). 
 The village of Agincourt is noted for the victory King Henry V. of England 
 obtained over the French, on the 25th of October, 1415. 
 
 V. Boulonnais. — It is situated on the Strait of Dover, south of Calais, and 
 once formed part of the ancient county of Flanders, until it was acquired by 
 Louis XI., who then invested with it the church of Our Lady at Boulogne, 
 but considering himself as a vassal of this church, he offered to his feigned 
 lady paramount a golden heart, 6,000 livres in value, in acknowledgment of 
 her right This ceremony was kept on by his successors until the first French 
 revolution. At present the former province of Boulonnais forms part of the 
 Pas de Calais Department (see above), and contains: Boulogne, ancient 
 capital of Boulonnais, and a fortified maritime town, on the Strait of Dover, 
 or rather on the English Channel, 23 miles south-south-west of Calais, with 
 frequented sea-baths, considerable fishery, and 26,500 inhabitants. Boulogne 
 is the residence of many English families. Etaples, a maritime town on the 
 English Channel, with 1,800 inhabitants, and a harbor, where Julius Caesar 
 shall have embarked for Britannia in the years 55 and 54 B. C. At the little 
 
190 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 French Flanders. 
 
 maritime town of Ambleteuse it was, where James II. landed, when he had 
 made his escape from England. 
 
 VI. French Flanders. — This province, also called the French Netherlands, 
 because it comprises only former Netherlandish territories, viz. : a great part 
 of the ancient county of Flanders, the so-called country of Cambresis, and 
 parts of Hainault and Namur. At present it comprises the whole Nord 
 Department, and a part of the Ardennes Department. 13. The Nord Depart- 
 ment contains : -j- Lille (in Flemish, called Ryssel), formerly the capital of 
 the province, on the Deule, northward and 138 miles distant from Paris, is 
 one of the strongest fortresses of France, is noted for its manufactures of cloth, 
 linen, etc., and for its trade in flowers, and has a population of 80,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Not far from here is the village of Bouvines. or Bovines, noted for the 
 victory Philip II. obtained over the Emperor Otho IV. and the count of 
 Flanders, in 1214. Douai, a fortified town on the Scarpe, with one of the 
 greatest arsenals in France, numerous manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. 
 Gravelines (in Flemish, Gravelingen), a fortified town on the North Sea, with 
 4,000 inhabitants. Commines, a town on the Lys, by which it is divided into 
 two parts, the one belonging to France (and having 5,000 inhabitants), and 
 the other to Belgium (see Commines, under the head of Belgish West 
 Flanders). Other towns of this French part of Flanders are : Armentieres 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bergues (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mont-Cassel, or 
 Cassel (with 4,400 inhabitants), Hazebrouk (with 8,000 inhabitants), Bailleul 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), Roubaix (with 16,000 inhabitants), Tourcoing (with 
 18.000 inhabitants), St. Amand (with 9,500 inhabitants), and Mortagne (with 
 4,000 inhabitants). In the former so-called country of Cambresis are situated : 
 Cambrai (in Flemish, Cameryk), a fortified town on the Scheldt, southward 
 and 32 miles distant from Lille, is noted for its cambric manufactures, and has 
 32,000 inhabitants, and a cathedral with the sepulchre of the celebrated arch- 
 bishop Fenelon. Chateau-Cambresis, formerly the capital of the country (or 
 county) of Cambresis, south eastward and 15 miles distant from Cambrai, is 
 noted for its fine twisted thread for bone-lace, and has 5,000 inhabitants. 
 Crevecoeur, a town on the Scheldt, with 1,800 inhabitants. The French part 
 of Hainault contains : Valenciennes, a strongly fortified town on the -Scheldt, 
 32 miles south-south-east of Lille, and south-westward and 55 miles distant 
 from Brussels, with renowned lace manufactures, and 21,000 inhabitants. The 
 neighboring village of Anzin is noted for its coal-pits, worked by 16,000 men. 
 Conde, a fortified town on the Scheldt, with 8,000 inhabitants. Bouchain 
 
FRANCE. 191 
 
 French Flanders and the Province of Champagne. 
 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Le Quesnoy (with 3,000 inhabitants), Landrecies (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Maubeuge (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Avesnes (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), fortified towns. The village of Malplaquet is noted for the battle 
 in 1709, between the French and the allied army under the command of 
 Marlborough and Prince Eugene ; and the village of Denain for the capture of 
 the important Austrian magazines by Villars in 1712, in consequence of which, 
 Prince Eugene was compelled to retreat. Bavay, a town, with Roman anti- 
 quities, and 2,000 inhabitants. To the former province of French Flanders 
 was annexed, since the treaty of Utrecht, the little province of Dunkirk, com- 
 prising, beside some villages, the fortified maritime and commercial city of 
 Dunkirk, on the North Sea, and at the northern extremity of France (north- 
 ward and 580 miles distant from Perpignan, the most southern town of 
 France), before the first revolution with 54,000, but at present only with 25,000 
 inhabitants. First in 1646, and then in 1658, Dunkirk was wrested from the 
 Spaniards by the French, who then ceded it to the English, in reward for their 
 assistance in this war. But four years later, Charles II. sold it to France for 
 5,000,000 livres. The French part of the former county of Namur comprises 
 the following towns, which are situated within the limits of French Flanders, 
 but belong at present to the Ardennes Department (see Champagne) : Givet, 
 a fortified town on the Meuse, 40 miles east-south-east of Valenciennes, has 
 4,000 inhabitants, and consists of the three united towns of Givet Notre Dame, 
 Givet St. Hilaire, and Charlemont. Other towns on the Meuse are : Fumay 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Revin (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
 
 VII. Champagne. — This province, situated between Isle de France and 
 Lorraine, had in the days of the Carlovingians, their proper dukes, subse- 
 quently counts, who ruled it until the latter part of the 13th century, when 
 its only heiress, princess Johanna, brought it in dowry to her consort, Philip 
 IV, or the Fair, in 1284, together with that part of it which was called 
 Brie. Champagne comprises at present 4 departments, viz. : the Aube De- 
 partment (chief town, Troyes), the Marne Department (chief town, Chalons), 
 the Upper Marne Department (chief town, Chaumont), and the Ardennes 
 Department (chief town, Mezieres). Beside these, parts of the Seine and 
 Marne, Meuse and Aisne departments are within its limits. 14. The Aube 
 Department contains : -["Troyes, ancient capital of Champagne, on the Seine, 
 83 miles east-south-east of Paris, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral, numer- 
 ous cotton manufactures, and 26,500 inhabitants. Arcis sur Aube and Bar 
 stir Aube, towns on the Aube, with respectively 3,000 and 4,200 inhabitants. 
 
192 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province oi' Champagne. 
 
 Other towns of this department are : Nogent sur Seine (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Font sur Seine (with 2,000 inhabitants), Brienne (formerly with a military 
 academy where Napoleon was educated, and with 3,500 inhabitants), Riceys 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (formerly the seat of a renowned 
 abbey of the Cistercians, whose abbot the holy Bernard was from 1115 to 1153). 
 15. The Marne Department contains: -(-Chalons sur Marne, chief town, on 
 the Marne, eastward and 92 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 1-47 
 miles distant from Chalons sur Saone, with a great cathedral, and 13,500 in- 
 habitants. By the Romans Chalons was called Catalaunum, hence the name 
 of the neighboring Catalaunian Fields, where Attila, king of the Huns, was 
 defeated in 451. Rheims, a city situated north-eastward and 83 miles 
 distant from Paris, is noted for its splendid cathedral (in which the kings of 
 France were formerly crowned, for the last time in 1825), and for its consid- 
 erable wine-trade, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Sillery, a village, and Ai, a 
 town with 3,000 inhabitants, are noted for their culture of the vine. The 
 chief seat of the trade in wines of Champagne is Epernay, a town on the 
 Marne, southward and 14 miles distant from Rheims, with 5,800 inhabitants. 
 St. Menehould, a town on the Aisne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Here it was 
 where Louis XVI. on his flight from Paris was discovered by the postmaster 
 Diouet, on the 22d of June, 1791, and upon this apprehended on the next 
 stage at Varennes (in Lorraine), and recouveyed to Paris. Other towns of 
 this department are : Chatillon sur Marne (with 1,800 inhabitants), La Fere 
 Champenoise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Vitry le Francais (with 7,500 inhabi- 
 tants), and Vienne le Chateau (with 1,800 inhabitants). (About Montmirail 
 in this department, see below under the head oi Brie.) 16. The Upper 
 Marne Department contains : -j-Chaumont, fortified chief town, eastward and 
 46 miles distant from Troyes, with iron-works and 6,800 inhabitants. Nogent 
 le Roy, a town on the Treire, 184 miles east-south-east of Nogent le Roy in 
 Orleanais, is renowned for its cutleries, and has 2,800 inhabitants. Bour- 
 bonne les Bains, a town renowned for its mineral baths, has 3,700 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns of this department are : Langres (with a magnificent 
 cathedral, renowned manufactures of cutleries, considerable trade in mill- 
 stones, and 8,000 inhabitants). Vassy (with 2,800 inhabitants), St. Dizicr 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Joinville (with 3,200 inhabitants). 17. The 
 Ardennes Department contains: -j- Mezieres, fortified chief town, on the 
 Meuse, westward and 92 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 83 
 miles distant from Brussels, with 4,400 inhabitants. On the opposite bank 
 
FRANCE. 193 
 
 The Province of Champagne and Lorraine, 
 
 of the Meuse is situated the town of Charleville, with a manufactory of fire- 
 arms, and 8,500 inhabitants. Sedan, a fortified town on the Meuse and near 
 the frontier of Belgium, is renowned for its cloth manufactures, has a popula- 
 tion of 14,500 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of a principality, 
 belonging to the dukes of Bouillon, who in 1624 ceded it to France. Other 
 towns of this department are : Chene le populeuz (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
 Rethel (with 7,000 inhabitants), Rocroy (with 3,700 inhabitants), Grandpre 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants), Vouziers (with 2,300 inhabitants), Mouzon (with 2,400 
 inhabitants), and Chateau Regnaud (with 1,800 inhabitants). (About Givet, 
 Fumay, and Bevin, belonging to the Ardennes Department likewise, see 
 French Flanders, towards the end.) Beside the above-stated places, the 
 following, which belong to several other departments, are situated also within 
 the limits of Champagne: Bray sua Seine (with 2,300 inhabitants), and 
 Montekeau fault Yonne (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the 
 Seine and Marne Department (see Isle de France) ; Domremy (village and 
 birth-place of Joan d'Arc, the Maid of Orleans, born here in 1411), belonging 
 to the Vosges Department (see Lorraine) ; Vaucoulburs, a town on the 
 Meuse, with 5,500 inhabitants, belonging to the Meuse Department (see Lor- 
 raine) ; Sens (on the Yonne, with a splendid Gothic cathedral and 9,400 in- 
 habitants), Joigny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Ton.ne.re (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Chablis (with 2,500 inhabitants), Villeneuve le Roy (with 5,500 inhabitants), 
 Villeneuve VArcheveque (with 2,000 inhabitants), and St. Florentin (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the Yonne Department (see Burgundy). 
 That part of Champagne, which is called Brie (about Brie francoise, see 
 under the head of Isle de France), or rather Brie champcnoise, comprises the 
 following towns : Meaux (ancient capital of Brie in general, on the Marne, 
 with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), Proving (with 6,500 
 inhabitants), La Ferte sous Jouarre (with 4,300 inhabitants), and Coulommiers 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), all four belonging to the Seine and Marne Depart- 
 ment (see Isle de France) ; Chateau Thierry (a town on the Marne, 46 miles 
 east-north-east of Paris, with 5,000 inhabitants), belonging to the Aime De- 
 partment (see Isle de France) ; Montmirail (a town on the Morin, eastward 
 and 54 miles distant from Paris, with considerable trade in millstones, and 
 2,300 inhabitants), and Sezanne (a town on the Auge, with 4,500 inhabitants), 
 belonging to the Marne Department (see above). 
 
 VIII. Lorraine. — This province, situated between Champagne and Alsace, 
 >n the north bordered by Germany, formed a constituent part of that tract 
 
 9 
 
194 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Lorraine. 
 
 of land, which by the treaty of Verdun in 813 (see History of Europe, § 14) 
 fell to the share of Lothar ; but was at that time of far greater extent than 
 sit present, stretching from the Vosges Mountains in a north-westerly direc-. 
 tion down to the shores of the North Sea. In 954 it was divided into Upper 
 and Lower Lorraine, out of which latter, comprising the Netherlands, Belgium, 
 and Holland, including Luxemburg, arose in the course of time more or less 
 independent duchies and counties, at last reunited under the sway of the dukes 
 of Burgundy. On the other hand Upper Lorraine continued to be a German 
 duchy, whose last duke was Francis Stephen, who married the renowned 
 Austrian archi-duchess, Mary Therese (daughter of the German emperor 
 Charles VI.), and was subsequently elected emperor by the name of Francis I. 
 The king of France, Louis XV., was married to the daughter of Stanislaus 
 Leczinski, who had been king of Poland in the period from 1704 to 1710. 
 Thus, when King Augustus II. of Poland died in 1733, France supported the 
 claims of Stanislaus Leczinski upon the Polish throne by armed force, while 
 Austria conjointly with Russia supported the claims of Augustus III. (son of 
 Augustus II.). At last a treaty of peace was concluded on the 3d of October, 
 1735, according to which Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, should become 
 sovereign of the grand-duchy of Tuscany after the death of John Gasto, the 
 last descendant of the Medici (see History of Tuscany), and on the other 
 hand Stanislaus Leczinski should then succeed in Lorraine. In 1737 John 
 Gasto died and was succeeded by Francis Stephen, while Stanislaus Leczinski 
 became sovereign of Lorraine and Bar (the official name of the duchy). He 
 died in 1766, and his duchy (considered as an inheritance of his daughter, the 
 queen of France) was now annexed to France, in conformity to the stipulations 
 of the above-mentioned treaty. Lorraine comprises at present 4 depart- 
 ments, viz. : the Meurthe Department (chief town, Nancy), the Vosges Depart- 
 ment (chief town, Epinal), the Meuse Department (chief town, Bar le Due), 
 and the Moselle Department (chief town, Metz). 18. The Meurthe Depart- 
 ment contains : -{-Nancy, ancient capital of Lorraine, near the Meurthe, west- 
 ward and 74 miles distant from Strasburg, and southward and 74 miles dis- 
 tant from Luxemburg, is one of the finest and most regularly built cities of 
 France, was until 1690 the residence of the dukes of Lorraine, and has '32,500 
 inhabitants. Nancy is also noted for the battle of 1477, in which Charles the 
 Temerarious of Burgundy was killed. Luneville, a town on the Meurthe, 
 south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Nancy, with a magnificent palace 
 (the residence of the ancient dukes of Lorraine in the period from 1690 to 
 
FRANCE. 195 
 
 The Province of Lorraine. 
 
 1766, but at present transformed into a military barrack), and 13,500 inhabi- 
 tants. Luneville is noted for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th 
 of February, 1801, between France and the German empire. Saarburg (in 
 French, Sarrebourg), a town on the Saar, 37 miles west-north-west of Stras- 
 burg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pont a, 
 Mousson (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gondreville (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nico- 
 las de Port (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Malzeville (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Rosieres aux Salines (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau Salins (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Dieuze (with 4,000 inhabitants), Vic (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Moyenvic (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Baccarat (noted for its crystal-glass 
 manufactures, with 3,000 inhabitants). The villages of St. Quirin and Cirey 
 are also noted for their crystal and plate-glass manufactures. (About the towns 
 of Pfalzburg and Toul, within this department, see below.) 19. The Vosges 
 Department contains : -]-Epinal, chief town on the Moselle, 37 miles south-south- 
 east of Nancy, with 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Archettes is 
 noted for its paper manufactures. Plombieres, a town in the Vosges Mountains, 
 is noted for its warm baths and hardware manufactures, and has 1,500 inhab- 
 itants. Other towns of this department are : St. Die (with 8,200 inhabitants), 
 Rambervillers (with 5,000 inhabitants), Remiremont (with 5,200 inhabitants), 
 Gerardmer (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mirecourt (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
 Neufchateau (with 4.000 inhabitants). About the village of Domremy, birth- 
 place of Joan d'Arc, see under the head of Champagne. 20. The Meuse 
 Department contains : -|-Bar le Due, ancient capital of the former duchy of 
 Bar (see above), which since the middle of the 15th century formed a con- 
 stituent part of the duchy of Lorraine, is situated on the Ornain, westward 
 and 46 miles distant from Nancy, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Varennes, a 
 town on the Aisne, 13 miles north-north-east of St. Menehould (in Champagne, 
 to which town we refer with regard to the seizure of Louis XVI.), with 
 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ligny (with 3,200 
 inhabitants), St. Mihiel, or St. Michel (with 6,000 inhabitants), Commercy 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), Damvilliers (with 1,000 inhabitants), Marville (with 
 1,200 inhabitants), and Montmedy (with 2,400 inhabitants). (About Verdun 
 in this department, see below.) 21. The Moselle Department (whose capital, 
 Metz, shall be described below) contains : Saargemund (in French, Sarregue- 
 mines), a town on the Saar, at its junction with the Blies, eastward and 42 
 miles distant from Metz, with 4,500 inhabitants. The villages of Monther- 
 hausen, Maisenthal, Goetzenbruck, and Munzthal, are noted for their great 
 
196 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace. 
 
 Bitsch, a town in the Vosges Mountains, is noted for its re- 
 markable and strong citadel, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Thionville (in 
 German, Diedenhofen), a strongly fortified town on the Moselle, southward 
 and 13 miles distant from Luxemburg, with 6,000 inhabitants. It belonged 
 formerly to the ancient duchy of Luxemburg, and was in 1659 ceded tc 
 France. Other towns of this department are : St. Avoid (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Sarralbe or Saaralbe (on the Saar, at its junction with the Albe, has 
 4,000 inhabitants), Sierk (in French, Sierques, with 2,000 inhabitants), Briey 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Longwy (a fortified town, with 2,500 inhabitants), 
 and Faulquemont (in German, Falkenberg, with 1,500 inhabitants). Beside 
 these is situated within the limits of Lorraine the town of Bourmont (on the 
 Meuse, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,000 inhabitants), belonging to the 
 Upper Marne Department (see under the head of Champagne). 
 
 The following three cities of Metz, Tout, and Verdun, did indeed originally 
 belong to Lorraine, but separated from it so early as towards the end of the 
 10th century, and became since German free towns. In the days of the 
 Emperor Charles V., the Protestant German princes formed a league against 
 him, and induced King Henry IL of France, to make common cause with 
 them, upon condition that he was to occupy the three named cities for his 
 security. The German princes had, it is true, no right at all to dispose thus 
 of the imperial cities; however, the latter were in 1552 actually occupied by 
 the French, and in 1648 by the Westphalian treaty of peace, formally ceded 
 to them. To the Moselle Department (see above) belongs at present : -j- Metz, 
 strongly fortified chief town of this department, on the Moselle, south-west- 
 ward and 50 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 37 miles distant 
 from Luxemburg, with a magnificent cathedral, a remarkable arsenal, several 
 military schools, many literary institutions, and 48,000 inhabitants. To the 
 Meurthe Department (see above) belongs : Toul, a fortified town on the 
 Moselle, southward and 30 miles distant from Metz, with a remarkable cathe- 
 dral, and 7,700 inhabitants. To the Meuse Department (see above) belongs : 
 Verdun, a fortified town on the Meuse, westward and 34 miles distant from 
 Metz, with a citadel, and 11,000 inhabitants. 
 
 IX. Alsace. — This province, situated along the left bank of the Rhine, by 
 which it is separated from the German grand-duchy of Baden, on the south 
 bounded by the Swiss canton of Basle, and on the north by the Bavarian 
 Palatinate, belonged since the year 870 to the German empire, and formed a 
 constituent part of the ancient duchy of Swabia (see introduction to the 
 
FRANCE. 197 
 
 The Province of Alsace. 
 
 Bavarian province, Swabia and Neuburg) in the period from the year 916 
 to 1268. Since the solution of this duchy in the last-named year, Alsace 
 became an immediate territory of the empire, although Austria got possession 
 of a great part of Upper Alsace. France had long since lusted after this fine 
 country, and having been called for assistance by the German Protestants in 
 the war of thirty years, France reserved to herself Alsace, which actually was 
 ceded to it in the Westphalian treaty of peace in 1648, with the exception of 
 Strasburg and some other imperial cities. However, France took possession 
 of them too in 1681, and in 1697 they were formally ceded to her. Alsace 
 comprises two departments, viz. : the Lower Rhine Department (or that part 
 of Alsace which formerly was called Lower Alsace, or Northgau), and the 
 Upper Rhine Department (formerly called Upper Alsace, or Sundgau, i. e., 
 South District). 22. The Zotoer Rhine Department (or Lower Alsace) con- 
 tains: -\- Strasburg, formerly the capital of all Alsace, and until the year 
 1681 an imperial city of the German empire, quite near the Rhine, south- 
 westward and 46 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 70,500 inhabitants, numer- 
 ous and important manufactures, is one of the strongest fortresses in France, 
 and noted for its magnificent cathedral reared in the period from 1015 to 1275, 
 and whose steeple is 445 feet high. Strasburg was founded in the middle of 
 the 6th century by the Franks. Since the beginning of the 7th century it was 
 the seat of a bishopric, whose bishop was an immediate member of the 
 German empire, and whose territory was situated partly on the right bank 
 of the Rhine, partly in Alsace, there comprising : Zabern, in French, Saverne 
 (a town, with 5,500 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace, where the bishop 
 resided since the reformation), and the towns of Molsheim (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Mutzig (with 4,000 inhabitants), Dambach (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Bennfelden, and Markolsheim. Hagenau, a fortified town on the Moder, 
 northward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Wasselonne (in German, Wasselnheim) and Rosheim, towns, with respectively 
 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Ehenheim (in French, Obernay), a town at the 
 foot of Mount St. Odilia (2,364 feet high), with calico manufactures, and 5,000 
 inhabitants. In a neighboring valley of the Vosges is situated the village of 
 Klingenthal, noted for its manufactures of sword blades, cutlery, etc. Barr, 
 a town romantically situated at the foot of the Vosges, south-westward and 
 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with numerous cotton and woollen manufac- 
 tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the valley called, in French, 
 Ban de la Roche, and in German, Stehvthal, where the celebrated Lutheran 
 
 8* 
 
198 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Alsace. 
 
 minister J. F. Oberlin, lived in the period from 1766 to 1826, who transformed 
 this rough and sterile valley into a little paradise, and by this, as well as by 
 his truly Christian ministry, proved himself the benefactor of his parishioners. 
 He resided in the village of Waldbach. Lichtenberg, a remarkable ancient 
 feudal castle, until the year 1480 of barons of the same name, whose estates 
 then were entailed upon the counts of Hanau (see the Bavarian Palatinate 
 under the head of Germany). Buohsweiler (a town, with various manufac- 
 tures, and 4,000 inhabitants) wa3 formerly the capital of the Lordship of 
 Lichtenberg. Lauterburg, a fortified town near the junction of the Rhine 
 with the Lauter, did until the first French revolution belong to the imme- 
 diate German bishopric of Spire, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Here terminate 
 the so-called Lines of Weissenburg, noted in the military history of the wars 
 between France and Germany, and consisting of a rampart and moat running 
 upwards along the Lauter to the town of Weissenburg (with 6,200 inhabi- 
 tants), situated on this river, westward and 14 miles distant from Lauterburg. 
 Other towns of this department are : Bischweiler (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 ScJdettstadt (with 10,000 inhabitants), Niederbronn (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 and Saar- Union (with 3,600 inhabitants). Fort Louis, formerly also called 
 Fort Vauban, at present a village, with 600 inhabitants, but formerly a fortified 
 town on an island of the Rhine, founded in 1689 by order of Louis XIV. The 
 above-mentioned fortified town of Pfalzburg, belonging to Lower Alsace, but 
 at present situated within the limits of the Meurthe Department (see under 
 the head of Lorraine), has 4,000 inhabitants. (To Lower Alsace belonged also 
 the towns of Landan, Rheinzabem, Kandel, and Bergzabern, which in 1815 
 were ceded from France to Germany, and then annexed to the Bavarian 
 Palatinate.) 23. The Upper Rhine Department (or Upper Alsace) contains : 
 -f- Colmar, chief town of the department, on the Lauch, 41 miles south-south- 
 west of Strasburg, is famous for its extensive cotton manufactures, and has 
 16,500 inhabitants. New Breisach, a fortified town on the Rhine, right oppo- 
 site and Old Breisach in Baden, founded in 1699 by Louis XIV., has 2,000 
 inhabitants. Munster, surnamed im Gregorienthal (in the valley of Gregory), 
 with important cotton and paper manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants Other 
 towns of this department are : Kaisersberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Turkheim 
 (with 2,300 inhabitants), Rappoltsweiler (in French, Ribeauviller, with impor- 
 tant cotton manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants), Rufach, or Rouffac (with 
 4,400 inhabitants), Egisheim (with 1,900 inhabitants), Herlishcim (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), Gebweiler (with 4,000 inhabitants). Watweiler (with 1,600 iuhabi- 
 
FRANCE. 199 
 
 The Provinces of Alsace and Burgundy. 
 
 tants), St. Arnarin (with 2,000 inhabitants, and an extensive calico and iudienne 
 manufactory in the neighboring ancient castle of Wesserling), Ensisheim (with 
 8,000 inhabitants), Thann (with 7,000 inhabitants), Sennheim, or Cernay (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Beamoart (with extensive manufactures of hardware, etc., 
 and 1,100 inhabitants), Sulz (with 5,300 inhabitants), and Altkirch (with 3,000 
 inhabitants). Near Basle (in Switzerland) and on the Rhine, is situated the 
 town of Huningen (with 1,000 inhabitants), whose strong fortifications, erected 
 in 1681 by order of Louis XIV., but demolished in 1815 according to the 
 terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, were renowned in the military 
 history. Befort, or Belfort, a town on the Savoureuse, with 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants, was once the capital of the Sundgau (see above). St. Marie aux Mines, 
 in German, MarJcirch, a town, with various manufactures, and 10,500 inhabi- 
 tants, is situated within the limits of this department, but is properly belonging 
 to Lorraine. The city of Muhlsausen (on the 111, and 14 miles distant from 
 Basle, with the most extensive cotton manufactures of the Upper Rhine 
 Department, and 25,000 inhabitants), was formerly a German imperial city, 
 and at the same time a member of the Helvetic confederation, but in 1798 
 ceded to France. 
 
 X. Bourgogne, or the ancient duchy of Burgundy, at the southern frontier 
 of Champagne, and separated from Switzarland by the Franche Comte (or 
 ancient county of Burgundy). This province conserving by its name still the 
 memory of ancient Burgundy in general, so often mentioned in the European 
 history of the middle ages, it may be here the most convenient place to give 
 a historical sketch of ancient Burgundy. The Burgundians, mentioned in § 3 
 of the History of Europe, founded after the beginning of the 5th century in 
 the eastern parts of Gaul an extensive empire, which comprised not only the 
 present French provinces of Bourgogne, Franche Comte, Lyonnais, Dauphiny, 
 and Provence, but also Savoy and the western part of Switzerland. It was 
 of greater extent than the present kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and ruled by 
 kings who resided alternately at Geneva and Lyons. In the year 500 it was 
 attacked by Clovis I., king of the Franks, who vanquished the Burgundians 
 in a battle near Dijon, made them tributary, and wrested from them the 
 greatest part of the subsequent Lyonnais. In 533 the kingdom of Burgundy 
 was completely conquered by the sons of Clovis, and formally annexed to 
 the Frankish empire. By the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see 
 History of Europe, § 14) Lothar, the third son of Louis the Pious, became 
 among other territories possessed of Burgundy too, and his claims upon it 
 
200 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Burgundy. 
 
 were subsequently transferred, by way of inheritance, to the German empe- 
 rors and in several periods realized by them. Yet in the years 879 and 887 
 this ancient and primitive kingdom of Burgundy was divided into three more 
 or less independent parts : the kingdom of Provence, the kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy, and the duchy of Burgundy. .1. The kingdom of Provence, whose 
 first king (since the year 879) was Boso duke of Provence (hence the name 
 of the kingdom), did not only comprise the subsequent French province of 
 this name, but also Savoy, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and part of Franche Gomte, 
 and was subsequently often called the Cisjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. 
 2. The second division of ancient Burgundy comprised the greatest part of 
 Switzerland and parts of Savoy and Franche Comte ; its first king was Ro- 
 dolph, duke of West Franconia ; it was called par excellence the kingdom of 
 Burgundy, or (to distinguish it from the just-mentioned other kingdom) the 
 Transjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. In 933 it was united with the Cisju- 
 ranian kingdom, and this united kingdom was since called tne Arelatian 
 kingdom, or kingdom of Arelate, because its kings resided in the city of Aries 
 (in Provence and on the Rhone). In the course of time several of the govern- 
 ors of its provinces made themselves independent, at a later period they 
 became vassals of the French crown, and thus at last all the western provin- 
 ces were incorporated into the kingdom of France, while of the other prov- 
 inces Savoy became an independent duchy, and those situated in Switzerland 
 were annexed to the Helvetic confederation. 3. What regards the 'third 
 division of ancient Burgundy, or the duchy of Burgundy (of which is properly 
 the question here), its first duke, since the year 887, was Richard, brother of 
 Boso (see above), but since the beginning of the 11th century its rulers were 
 French princes, or younger brothers of the reigning kings of France and their 
 descendants. In 1369 Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, heiress 
 of Flanders, and since the dukes of Burgundy became gradually possessed 
 of the Netherlands too. In 1384 Philip's son John inherited likewise the 
 Franclie Comte (see the next province), which was generally known by the 
 name of the county of Burgundy, or Upper Burgundy, and had for a long period 
 been a constituent part of the Transjuranian kingdom. Towards the end of the 
 14th and during the 15th century the dukes of Burgundy resided alternately 
 in Dijon, Besancon, Bruges, and and other cities of the Netherlands. In 1477 
 their male line became extinct, and the duchy now as vacant fee fell back to 
 the French crown. The duchy, or province of Burgundy comprises at pres- 
 ent 4 departments, viz. : the Cote d' Or Department (chief town Dijon), the 
 
FRANCE. 201 
 
 The Province of Burgundy. 
 
 Sabne and Loire Department (chief town Macon), the Yonne Department 
 (chief town Auxerre), and the Ain Department (Bourgen Bresse). 24. The 
 Cote a" Or Department contains : -f-Duox, ancient capital of the duchy of 
 Burgundy, at the junction of the Ouze and Suzon, south-eastward and 165 
 miles distant from Paris, is noted for its mustard, wax candles and wines, and 
 has 27,000 inhabitants. Citeaux (in Latin Cistercium), formerly a renowned 
 abbey and chief convent of the Cistercian monks. Pommard and Volenay, 
 great villages, noted for their excellent Burgundy wines. Nuits and Beaune, 
 towns with respectively 3,000 and 12,000 inhabitants, are likewise noted for 
 their Burgundy wines. Other towns of this department are: Fontaine 
 Francaise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Issurtille (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. 
 Jean de Lome (with 2,000 inhabitants), Auxonne (with 5,800 inhabitants), 
 Chatillon sur Seine (with 4,600 inhabitants), Semur, surnamed en Auxois 
 (with 4,300 inhabitants), Montbard (with 2,400 inhabitants), Saulieu (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Arnay le Due (with 3,200 inhabitants). 25. The 
 Sabne and Loire Department contains : -|-Macon, chief town, on the Saone, 
 southward and 72 miles distant from Dijon, and westward and 65 miles dis- 
 tant from Geneva, with important wine trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Cha- 
 lons sdk Saone, a town on the Saone, southward and 147 miles distant from 
 Chalons sur Marne, and westward and 72 miles distant from Lyons, with 
 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Tournus (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Cluny or Glugny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Charolles (with 
 8,400 inhabitants), Bourbon Lancy (with 2,700 inhabitants), Louhans (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Autun (with 10,800 inhabitants), Creuzot (with 1,600 in- 
 habitants), and Semur, surnamed en Brionnais (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
 26. The Yonne Department contains : -[-Auxeere, chief town, on the Yonne, 
 north-westward and 78 miles distant from Dijon, with 14 churches, among 
 which is a remarkable cathedral, important wine and timber trade, and 12,500 
 inhabitants. Avallon, a town on the Voisin, with 5,700 inhabitants. Cou- 
 langes les Vineuses, a town on the Yonne, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its wines. The small town of Vezelay, with 1,600 inhabitants, is 
 remarkable in history for that the holy Bernard preached here the second 
 crusade. (The other towns of this department to be noticed, see under the 
 head of Champagne.) 27. The Ain Department contains : +Bourg, sur- 
 named en Bresse (having been the capital of the Burgundian district of 
 Bresse), chief town, on the Reyssouse, westward and 46 miles distant from 
 Geneva, with a magnificent Gothic church, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bellet 
 
 9* 
 
202 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comle. 
 
 a town on the Rhone, with 4,400 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the 
 Burgundian district of Bugey, that was for a long time in the possession of 
 the dukes of Savoy, but was restored to France in 1601, and to which be- 
 longed moreover the towns of Nantua, (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lagnieu 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Rambert (with 2,000 inhabitants), Oyonnar (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Seyssel (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Ville Bois, surnamed 
 sous Belley (with 2,000 inhabitants). Trevoux, a town on the Saone, with 
 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of watch-cases, etc. Trevoux 
 was formerly the capital of the sovereign principality of Dombes, to which 
 moreover belonged the towns of Toissey (with 1,500 inhabitants), and St. 
 Trivier en Dombes, or sur Mognand (with 1,400 inhabitants). Other towns 
 of the Ain department are : Pont de Vaux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont 
 a"Ain (with 1,400 inhabitants), Pont de Veyle (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mont- 
 luel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chatillon les Do-mbes (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants). Gex, a town at the Jura Mountains, is noted for its watch manufac- 
 tures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. At about 2 miles distance from Geneva is 
 situated the village of Ferney, where Voltaire lived. To the province, or 
 duchy of Burgundy did moreover belong the town of Bar sur Seine, "with 
 considerable wine trade, and 2,700 inhabitants, at present situated within the 
 limits of the Aube Department (see Champagne), and the town of Arc en 
 Barrois, with 2,000 inhabitants, at present situated within the limits of the 
 Upper Marne Department (see Champagne). 
 
 XI. Franche Comte, or the ancient county of Burgundy, situated between 
 the duchy of Burgundy and Switzerland, and on the north bordered by Lor- 
 raine and Alsace. It at first formed a constituent part of the Transjuranian 
 kingdom of Burgundy (see above, under the head of Burgundy), became since 
 an independent county, and devolved in 1384 by inheritance to the dukes of 
 Burgundy. Though the male line of these dukes became extinct in 1477, the 
 Franche Comte continued to form part of the Netherlandish estates of the 
 house of Burgundy, until in 1679 it was ceded to France. Franche Comte 
 comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Doubs Department (chief town 
 Besancon), the Jura Department (chief town Lons le Saulnier), and the Upper 
 Saone Department (chief town Vesoul). 28. The Doubs Department contains : 
 -+- Besancon (in German, Bisanz), fortified former capital of Franche Comte, 
 on the Doubs, eastward and 46 miles distant from Dijon, with a splendid 
 Gothic cathedral, numerous manufactures, especially of watches, and 32,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : St. Hippolyte (with 5,000 
 
FRANCE. 203 
 
 The Provinces of Franche Comte and Bourbonnais. 
 
 inhabitants), Quingey (with 1,200 inhabitants), Pontarlier (with 5,200 inhabi- 
 tants), Ornans (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Baume les Dames (with 3,000 
 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Pontarlier lies on a steep and high rock the 
 little fortress of Joux, which formerly served as state-prison. (About the 
 town of Montbeliard in this department, see below.) 29. The Jura Depart- 
 ment contains : -|- Lons le Saulnier, chief town on the Vaille, 46 miles 
 south-south-west of Besancon, with 8,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are : St. Claude (with 5,600 inhabitants), St. Amour (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Septmoncel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Morez (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Dole (with 10,500 inhabitants), Poligny (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Arbois (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Salins (with 8,500 inhabitants). 30. The 
 Upper Marne Department contains : -f-VESoux, chief town on the Drugeon, 
 northward and 28 miles distant from Besancon, with 6,200 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this department are : Jussey (with 3,000 inhabitants), Gray (with 
 7.000 inhabitants), Luxeuil (with renowned warm baths, and 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Lure (with 3,100 inhabitants). 
 
 Within the limits of the Doubs Department is situated the former county, 
 or principality, of Mompelgard (in French, Montbeliard), whose first sove- 
 reigns became extinct with Count Henry, in 1395. Henry's only daughter 
 and heiress, Harriet, being married to Count Everard of Wirtemberg, the 
 house of Wirtemberg became possessed of the principality of Mompelgard, 
 and retained it until the first French revolution, when the French seized it 
 without any further ceremony. By the treaty of peace, concluded at Lune- 
 ville in 1801, it was formally ceded to France. It contains: Mompelgard, or 
 (in French) Montbeliard, the former capital of the principality, in the Doubs 
 Department, and on the Alaine, north-eastward and 42 miles distant from 
 Besancon, and south-westward and 138 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 
 watch and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Montbeliard is the 
 birth-place of the celebrated late naturalist Cuvier. Hericourt, a town, with 
 1.000 inhabitants. 
 
 XII. Bourbonnais. — This province, situated at the south-western boundary 
 of Burgundy, was for a long time ruled by barons of several families, until 
 since the year 1327 the descendants of Robert of Clermont, youngest son of 
 King Louis IX. of France, were invested with it by the title of a duchy, 
 called either the duchy of Bourbonnais, or Bourbon. Duke Louis of Bourbon 
 had two sons, of whom Peter was the ancestor of the house of Bourbon, 
 reigning in Franee since the accession of Henry IV. (see History of France), 
 
204 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Bourbonnoia, Nivernais and Berry. 
 
 while the other, James, propagated the collateral line of the dukes of Bourbon. 
 Charles, duke of Bourbon, having revolted against King Francis I., the duchy 
 of Bourbonnais was reunited with the crown. Bourbonnais comprises at 
 present : — 31. The Allier Department, containing : -J- Moulins, formerly the 
 capital of the duchy, on the Allier, south- eastward and 115 miles distant from 
 Orleans, and north-westward and 92 miles distant from Lyons, with manufac- 
 tures of cutlery, and 16,000 inhabitants. Bourbon j/Archambault (in the 
 days of the first French revolution called Bourges les Bains), a town, with 
 3,300 inhabitants, is noted for its warm baths, much resorted to. Other towns 
 of this department are : St. Pourcain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Gannat (with 
 5,500 inhabitants), Montlucon (with 5,500 inhabitants), and La Palisse (with 
 2,400 inhabitants). The town of St. Amand (or St. Amand Montrond), 
 with 7,800 inhabitants, belongs likewise to Bourbonnais, but is situated within 
 the limits of the Cher Department (see below, under the head of Berry). 
 
 XIII. Nivernais. — This province, situated to the north of Bourbonnais, 
 was since the end of the 9th century a county, which by E!ing Francis I. was 
 raised to a duchy, whose dukes bore the title of dukes of Nevers. It com- 
 prises at present: — 32. The Nievre Department, containing: -(-Nbvers, for- 
 merly the capital of Nivernais, at the junction of the Nievre river with the 
 Loire, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Orleans, and north-westward 
 and 115 miles distant from Lyons, with an ancient Gothic castle, once the 
 residence of the dukes of Nevers, a magnificent cathedral, an extensive gun- 
 foundry, and 1*7,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pouilly 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), La Charite (with 5,500 inhabitants), Clameey (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), Chateau- Chinon (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Cos?ie (with 
 6,500 inhabitants). 
 
 XIV. Berry. — This province, situated in the centre of France, and at the 
 southern frontier of Orlcanais, was ruled by counts, subsequently viscounts, 
 who in 1094 sold it to Philip I., and since that time royal princes have fre- 
 quently been invested with it. The last prince, who bore the title of duke of 
 Berry, was the youngest son of Charles X. Berry comprises at present two 
 departments, viz. : the Cher Department (chief town Bourges), and the Indre 
 Department (chief town Chateauroux). 33. The Cher Department contains : 
 -[-Bourges, the former capital of Berry, at the junction of the Auron and 
 Evre, 64 miles south-south-east of Orleans, with a remarkable ancient castle, 
 town walls built by the ancient Romans, a magnificent cathedral, and 26,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sancerre (with 3,700 in- 
 
FRANCE. 
 
 The Provinces of Berry and Orleanais. 
 
 habitants), Vierzon (with 7,500 inhabitants), Henrichemont (with 1,600 inhab- 
 itants), Gray le Pre (with iron- works), and Boisbelle. (St. Amand in this 
 department belongs to Bourbonnais, and has for this reason already been de- 
 scribed above.) 34. The Indre Department contains : -{"Chateauroux, chief 
 town on the Indre, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Bourges, with 
 cloth manufactures and 14,500 inhabitants. Valensai, a town on the Nahon, 
 60 miles south-south-west of Orleans, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a palace, 
 which belonged to the well-known prince of Talleyrand, and where Ferdinand 
 VIL of Spain and his brother, Don Carlos, were retained as prisoners in the 
 period from 1808 to 1814. Other towns of this department are: Issoudun 
 (with 12,500 inhabitants), La Chdtre (with 4,800 inhabitants), Le Blanc (with 
 5,200 inhabitants), and Levroux (with 3,000 inhabitants). To Berry belongs 
 also, but is situated within the limits of the Loir and Cher Department (see 
 below), the town of St. Aignan, with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 XV. Orleanais, at the southern frontier of Isle de France, was ever be- 
 longing to the crown, that, however, frequently invested royal princes with 
 this province. The princes then bore the title of a duke of Orleans, as it 
 was the case with Louis Philip before bis accession in 1830. The province of 
 Orleanais comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Loiret Department 
 (chief town Orleans), the Eure and Loir Department (chief town Chartres), 
 and the Loir and Cher Department (chief town Blois). 35. The Loiret De- 
 partment contains : -{-Orleans, the former capital of Orleanais, on the Loire, 
 southward and 69 miles distant from Paris, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, 
 considerable trade and 42,000 inhabitants. Montakgis, a town on the Loing, 
 with a mountain-castle, cotton manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this department are: Beaugency (with 5,000 inhabitants), Clery 
 (with a church containing the sepulchre of Louis XL, and 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Meung or Mehun (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gien (with 5,500 inhabitants), 
 Pithiviers (with 4,200 inhabitants), and Briare (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
 36. The Eure and Loir Department contains : -(-Chartres, chief town on the 
 Eure, 46 miles north-north-west of Orleans, with one of the finest Gothic 
 cathedrals in France (the one steeple of which is 342 and the other 3*78 feet 
 in height), important grain trade, and 15,500 inhabitants. Maintenox, a 
 town on the Eure, with 2,000 inhabitants. As is known, the second consort 
 of Louis XIV. bore the name after this town. Chdteaudun, a town on the 
 Loire, with 7,000 inhabitants. (The town of Dreux in this department be- 
 
206 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou. 
 
 longs to Isle de France, and has been described under this head ; while about 
 Nogent le Rotrou, also in this department, see below under the head of 
 Perche.) 37. The Loir and Cher Department contains : -{-Blois, chief town 
 on the Loire, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Orleans, has 14,500 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its ancient castle, where in 1588 the duke of 
 Guise and his brother were murdered by order of King Henry III. Not 
 far from here is the celebrated Gothic palace of Chambord, containing 440 
 apartments, and reared in the beginning of the 16th century by Francis I. 
 The park, belonging to it, is 18 miles in circuit. In 1821 it was bought at 
 the price of 1,542,000 francs by a society of French, and given to the duke of 
 Bordeaux in the name of the French nation. This prince bears at present 
 the title of a count of Chambord. Vendome, a town on the Loire, is noted 
 for its glove manufactures, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are: Romorantin (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Savigny sur 
 Lraye (with 2,000 inhabitants). The town of St. Aignan, within the limits 
 of the Loir and Cher Department, belongs to Berry, and is described above* 
 
 XVI. Touraine, at the south-western frontier of Orleanais, and on the 
 south bordering upon Poitou. Touraine, on account of its fertility and beauty 
 of sceneries called the "garden of France," was in 1044 annexed to the 
 county of Anjou, and in 1202 united with the French crown, and comprises 
 at present: — 38. The Indre and Loire Department, containing: -{-Tours, 
 ancient capital of Touraine, on the Loire, south-westward and 69 miles distant 
 from Orleans, and eastward and 115 miles distant from Nantes, with a re- 
 markable Gothic cathedral, various manufactures, and 27,500 inhabitants. 
 Not far from here is situated the ancient, now much decayed, palace oiPlessis 
 lex Tours, where Louis XL spent the last days of his life, and died in 1483. 
 Between Tours and Poitiers (see below) it was, where Charles Martell defeated 
 the Moors, in 732. Amboise, a town on the Loire, with an ancient castle, or 
 palace (where Louis XL instituted the equestrian order of St. Michael, and 
 Charles VIII. died in 1498), and 5,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are : Loches (with 5,000 inhabitants), La Haye (with 2,100 inhab- 
 itants), and Ghinon (noted for its mustard, with 7,400 inhabitants). About 
 the town of Richelieu within this department, see below. 
 
 XVII. Anjou, on the west bordering upon Brittany, and on the east upon 
 Touraine, was in 1356 raised to a duchy and held in fee by several royal 
 princes, among them Henry III., before his accession to the throne. The 
 province of Anjou comprises at present : — 39. The Maine and Juoire Depart- 
 
FRANCE. 207 
 
 The Provinces of Anjou, Maine and Perche. 
 
 uuut, containing: -{"Angers, ancient capital of Anjou, on the Mayenne, 50 
 miles east-north-east of Nantes, with a remarkable cathedral, and 37,000 
 inhabitants. In the neighborhood are celebrated slate-quarries. Other towns 
 of this department are : Pont de Ce (with 4,000 inliabitants), Chalonnes (with 
 5,500 inhabitants), Ingrande (with 1,200 inhabitants), Chateauneuf (with 1,500 
 inhabitants), Done (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chollet (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
 Durtal (with 3,000 inhabitants), Segre (with 2,200 inhabitants), Chemille (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Beauge (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pouance (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), Beaufort (with 6,500 inhabitants), and Beaupreau (with 3,200 
 inhabitants). Saumur, formerly the chief town of a government of the same 
 name, which comprised parts of Anjou and Upper Poitou, is situated on the 
 Loire, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Angers, and has 12,500 inhab- 
 itants. To this government belonged also the town of Richelieu (formerly a 
 village, but in 1637 raised to a town by the cardinal of Richelieu, has at 
 present 3,200 inhabitants), at present situated within the limits of the Indre 
 and Loire Department (see above). 
 
 XVIII. Maine and Perche, two former counties between Orleanais and 
 Brittany, forming, together with the county of -Laval, one government, until 
 the first French revolution. Maine, definitively united with the crown in 1584, 
 and the former county of Laval (that belonged to the house of Tremouille 
 until the first French revolution) comprise at present 2 departments, viz. : the 
 Sarthe Department (chief town Le Mans), and the Mayenne Department 
 (chief town Laval). 40. The Sarthe Department contains : -{-Le Mans, former 
 capital of Maine, on the Sarthe, eastward and 83 miles distant from Rennes, 
 and south-westward and 115 miles distant from Paris, with a remarkable 
 Gothic cathedral, important poultry trade, noted wax- and linen-bleacheries, 
 and 24,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sable (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), Mamers (with 6,000 inhabitants), St. Calais (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), La Ferte Bernard (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau du Loir 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), and La Fleche (with 6,800 inhabitants). 41. The 
 Mayenne Department contains : -{-Laval, formerly the capital of the county 
 of Laval, on the Mayenne, between Le Mans and Rennes, is noted for its linen 
 manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Mayenne, a town on the Mayenne 
 river, with important linen manufactures, and 10,500 inhabitants. Chdteau- 
 Gonthier, a town on the Mayenne river, is noted for its flax- and hemp-yarn, 
 and has 6,500 inhabitants. 
 
 The former county of Perche, reunited with the French crown in 1226, 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Perche and Brittany. 
 
 comprises at present parts of the Orne Department (see under the head of 
 Normandy), containing : Mortagne (ancient capital of Perche, with important 
 linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants ; in its vicinity is situated the celebrated 
 convent of Cistercians La Trappe, founded in 1 140) ; and of the Eure and Loir 
 Department (see above, under the head of Orleanais), containing : Nogent le 
 Roteou, a town on the Huisne, with various manufactures, and 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 XIX. Brittany, or (in French) La Bretagne. — This province, comprising 
 the great western peninsula of France, has derived its name from the ancient 
 Britons, who in the middle of the 5th century emigrated from their native 
 country (see History of Europe, § 4) to this Gaulic peninsula, at that time 
 called Armorica, but which name was since transmuted into that of Brittany, 
 or rather Little Brittany. Towards the end of the 5 th century the country 
 was subdued by King Clovis, but since the death of Charlemagne it was 
 ruled by independent dukes. The sole heiress of Brittany, duchess Ann, was 
 married first to Charles VIII. and then to Louis XII., and moreover her 
 daughter Claudia was married to King Francis I. of France ; and in this way 
 Brittany was annexed to the .French crown. It comprises at present 5 de- 
 partments, viz. : the Hie and Vilaine Department (chief town Rennes), the 
 North Coasts Department (chief town St. Brieux), the Finisterre Department 
 (chief town Quimpei), the Morbihan Department (chief town Vannes), and 
 the Lower Loire Department (chief town Nantes). 42. The Hie and Vilaine 
 Department contains : -]-Rennes, ancient capital of Brittany, at the junction 
 of the Hie and Vilaine, 202 miles west-south-west of Paris, with important 
 butter trade, and 36,500 inhabitants. In a neighboring ancient feudal castle 
 the celebrated Bertrand du Guesclin (-(- in 1380) was born in 1313. St. 
 Malo, a fortified maritime town on the English Channel, with numerous 
 docks where merchant vessels are built, and 10,500 inhabitants. Not far 
 from here is situated the maritime town of St. Servan, with 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Between this town and the coast of Normandy is the Bay of Cancale, 
 noted for its oysters. The town of Cancale has 5,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this department are : Fougeres (with 10,000 inhabitants), La Guerche 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), Vitre (with 9,500 inhabitants), Redon (with 5,000 
 inhabitants), Montfort (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Paimpont (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants). 43. The North Coasts Department contains : -f-ST. Brieuc, or St. 
 Brieux, chief town near the coast, north-westward and 60 miles distant from 
 Rennes, with 11,800 inhabitants, and a seaport at the village of Legue St. 
 
FRANCE. 209 
 
 The Province of Brittany. 
 
 Brieuc. The town of Lamballe, noted for its parchment, and containing 
 4,000 inhabitants, was until the first French revolution the capital of the 
 duchy of Penthievre. Other towns of this department are : Binic (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Quintin (with 4,000 inhabitants), Guingamp (with 6,200 
 inhabitants), Loudeac (with 7,000 inhabitants), Lannion (with 5,700 inhabi- 
 tants), Treguier (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Dinan (with 8,200 inhabitants). 
 44. The Finislerre Department contains : -|-Quim?er, or Quimper Corentin, 
 chief town near the south coast of Brittany, westward and 115 miles distant 
 from Rennes, with a fine cathedral and 10,500 inhabitants. Brest, a fortified 
 maritime town and chief naval station of France, on the Atlantic, 322 miles 
 west-south-west of Paris, with a very fine harbor, a magnificent arsenal, and 
 31,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Quvmperle (with 
 5,400 inhabitants), Garhaix, or Keraes (with 2,000 inhabitants), Morlaix 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), St. Pol de Leon (with 6,300 inhabitants), Concar- 
 neau (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ghdteaulin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lan- 
 dernau (with 5,000 inhabitants). The islands of Ouessant (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and of Sein (with 500 inhabitants), are also belonging to this depart- 
 ment. 45. The Morbihan Department contains : -4-Vannes, chief town on the 
 southern coast of Bretagne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Brest, 
 with 12,000 inhabitants. Lorient, a fortified maritime town and great naval 
 station, westward and 23 miles distant from Vannes, with 20,000 inhabitants. 
 The former French East Indian Company had its seat in Lorient. Other 
 towns of this department are : Port Louis (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sarzeau 
 (with 6,400 inhabitants), Auray (with 4,000 inhabitants), Quiberon (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Hennebon (with 4,900 inhabitants), Ploermel (with 5,600 
 inhabitants), and Pontivy (with important linen trade and 6,000 inhabitants). 
 Pontivy was before the first French revolution the chief town of the princi- 
 pality of Rohan. The islands of Belle Isle (with 7,000 inhabitants, and the 
 chief town Palais), of Groix, or Grouaix (with 2,500 inhabitants), of Houat 
 and Hordic, are belonging to this department. 46. The Lower Loire Depart- 
 ment contains: -(-Nantes, chief town on the Loire, south-eastward and 165 
 miles distant from Brest, and south-eastward and 230 miles distant from 
 Paris, carries on a very important commerce to all parts of the world, and 
 has 90,000 inhabitants. Nantes is moreover noted for an edict of Henry IY. 
 (issued in 1598), respecting the Protestants, which was revoked in 1685. 
 The seaport of Nantes is at Paimboeuf, a town near the mouth of the Loire, 
 and at 25 miles distance from Nantes, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns 
 
210 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Brittany and Poitou. 
 
 of tliis department are : Bourgneuf (with 3,000 inhabitants), Querande, or 
 Guerande (with 8,000 inhabitants), Le Crosic (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. 
 Nazaire (with 4.000 inhabitants), Savenay (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chateau- 
 briand (with 4,000 inhabitants), Nozay (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ancenis 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), and St. Philibert (with 3,000 inhabitants). 
 
 XX. Porrou, between Bordeaux and Nantes, along the coast of the Atlantic. 
 Poitou was by Charlemagne raised to an earldom, whose heiress, Eleanor, was 
 married to King Henry II. of England (reigning from the year 1154 to 1189), 
 who thus became possessed of it. Not before the year 1371 was Poitou 
 definitively reunited with the French crown. It comprises at present 3 
 departments, viz.: the Vienne Department (chief town Poitiers), the Two 
 Sevres Department (chief town Niort), and the Vendee Department (chief town 
 Bourbon- Vendee). 47. The Vienne Department contains : -f-PoicriERS, ancient 
 capital of Poitou, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Nantes, with a 
 beautiful cathedral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the battle- 
 field of Maupertuis, where in 1356 King John of France was defeated by the 
 prince of Wales (the so-called Black Prince) and taken prisoner. The town 
 of Lusignan was the ancestral seat of the last king of Jerusalem, subsequently 
 king of Cyprus, Guido of Lusignan (towards the end of the 12th century). 
 Chatelleraut, a town on the Vienne, is noted for its manufactures of cutlery, 
 and has 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Civray 
 (with 2,300 inhabitants), Loudun (with 5,300 inhabitants), Montmorillon (with 
 4,200 inhabitants), St. Savin (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Tremouille (with 
 1,200 inhabitants). 48. The Two Sevres Department contains : -(-Niort, chief 
 town, on the Sevre Niortaise, 42 miles west-south-west of Poitiers, with 18,500 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Parthenay (with 4,500 
 inhabitants), Bressuire (with 2,000 inhabitants), Melle (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Thouars (with 2,400 inhabitants), St. Maixent (with 4,500 inhabitants), and 
 Mauze (with 2,000 inhabitants). 49. The Vendee Department contains : 
 -[-Bourbon-Vendee (before the first French revolution called Roche svtt Yon), 
 chief town on the Yon, southward and 37 miles distant from Nantes, with 
 5,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Fontenay le Comte 
 (with 8,000 inhabitants), Lucon (with 4,000 inhabitants), Beauvoir sur Mcr 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Sables d'Olonne, or Les Sables d'Olonne (with 
 5,200 inhabitants). To Poitou and the Vendee Department are also belonging 
 the islands of Noirmoutier (with 6,000 inhabitants), of Dieu, or c/' Yen (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), of Pilier, and Bouin. To Poitou belongs, moreover, the 
 
FRANCE. 211 
 
 The Provinces of Aunis, Saintonge and Angoumnis. 
 
 town of Rochechouart, with 4,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of 
 the Upper Vienne Department (see under the head of Limousin). 
 
 XXI. Aunis and Saintonge. — These two provinces, situated between Poitou 
 and Guyenne, and separated from each other by the Charente river, were, 
 together with Poitou, reunited with the French crown by King Charles V. 
 (see History of France). Before the first French revolution, Aunis formed a 
 government by itself, while Saintonge was conjointly with Angoumais (see 
 below) under the administration of another governor. At present, Aunis and 
 Saintonge comprise in substance : — 50. The Lower Charente Department, 
 containing : -|-La Rochelle, ancient capital of Aunis, on the Atlantic, between 
 Bordeaux and Nantes, is strongly fortified, and has 16,000 inhabitants. La 
 Rochelle is noted in history for its siege of thirteen months, sustained in 1627 
 and 1628. At the outside of the harbor of La Rochelle lies the island of Re 
 (area: 64 square miles ; population: 18,000 inhabitants). Rochefoet, a for- 
 tified town on the Charente, 14 miles south-south-east of La Rochelle, was 
 founded in 1664 by Louis XIV., is noted for its naval depot, and has 16,500 
 inhabitants. In Rochefort it was where Napoleon in 1815, after the battle of 
 Waterloo, embarked, and then fell into the power of the English. Before the 
 mouth of the Charente, lies the island of Oleron, with 16,000 inhabitants, and 
 the town of Chateau du Bourg. On the Sevre Niortaise is situated the town 
 of Marans, with 4,600 inhabitants. Saintes, formerly the capital of Saintonge, 
 on the Charente, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Rochefort, with 
 10,800 inhabitants. Other towns of Saintonge and the Lower Charente 
 Department are: Marennes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Brouage (with 1,000 
 inhabitants), Ionzac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Royan (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Tonnay- Charente (with 3,000 inhabitants), and St. Jean d'Angely (with 6,200 
 inhabitants). To Saintonge belongs also the town of Barbezieux, noted for 
 its linen cloth, capons, and truffles, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is situated within 
 the limits of the Charente Department (see below). 
 
 XXII. Angoumais, along the eastern frontier of the two last-named prov- 
 inces, and at the northern frontier of Guyenne, was united with the French 
 crown by King Charles V., and comprises at present: — 51. The Charente 
 Department, containing : -[-Angouleme, former capital of Angoumais, on the 
 Charente, 72 miles north-north-east of Bordeaux, with a remarkable cathedral, 
 important wine and brandy trade, and 18,000 inhabitants. Cognac, a town 
 on the Charente, is noted for its brandy, and has 4,000 inhabitants. Jarnac, 
 a village in the vicinity of Cognac, is noted in history for the battle of the 
 
212 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of La Marche, Limousin and Auvergue. 
 
 year 1569, in winch the prince of Conde was killed. Ruffec (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), Confolens (with 3,000 inhabitants), Aubeterre (with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and La Rochefoucauld (with 2,700 inhabitants), towns in this depart- 
 ment, within whose limits lies, moreover, Barbezieux, belonging to Saintonge 
 (see above). 
 
 XXIII. La Marche. — This province, situated near the centre of France 
 and the southern frontier of Berry, has since the year 1531 been united with 
 the French crown, and comprises at present: — 52. The Creuse Department, 
 containing : -4-Gueret, formerly the capital of La Marche, near the head of 
 the Gartempe river, southward and 115 miles distant from Orleans, with 
 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ahun (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Bourganeuf (with 3,200 inhabitants), Aubusson (with 6,000 inhab- 
 itants), Felletin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Boussac (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
 The towns of Bellao (with 3,000 inhabitants) and Dorat (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), situated within the limits of the Upper Vienne Department, do likewise 
 belong to La Marche. 
 
 XXIV. Limousin, situated at the north-eastern frontier of Guyenne, and 
 once an earldom, was by King Henry IV. united with the French crown, and 
 comprises at present 2 departments, viz.: the Upper Vienne Department (chief 
 town Limoges), and the Correze Department (chief town Tulle). 53. The 
 Upper Vienne Department contains : -(-Limoges, formerly the capital of the 
 Limousin, on the Vienne river, north-eastward and 115 miles distant from 
 Bordeaux, is noted for its horse-marts, and has 30,500 inhabitants. Near the 
 town of Chains (with 1,500 inhabitants) was in the middle ages a castle, in 
 the siege of which King Richard of the Lion Heart was killed by an arrow 
 in 1199. Other towns of this department are: St. Leonard (with 6,000 
 inhabitants), St Junien (with 6,400 inhabitants), St. Yrieix (with 7,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Eymoutiers (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Magnac-Laval (with 3,000 
 inhabitants). 54. The Correze Department contains : -{-Tulle, chief town on 
 the Correze, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Limoges, is noted for 
 its manufactures of point net, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Drive la Gaillarde, 
 a town on the Correze, with important truffle trade, and 9,500 inhabitants. 
 The little town of Turenne is noted for its ancient castle, one of the oldest and 
 most important fortresses in France. The fine palace in the village of Pom- 
 padour was the property of the well-known marchioness of Pompadour. The 
 town of Ussel is situated on the Sarsonne, and has 4,300 inhabitants. 
 
 XXV. Auvergne, — This province, once an earldom, which was in 1360 
 
FRANCE. o 13 
 
 The Provinces of Auvergne and Lyonn:ii?. 
 
 raised to the rank of a duchy, and in 1531 united with the crown, comprises 
 at present 2 departments, viz. : the Puy de Dome Department (chief town 
 Clermont), and the Cantal Department (chief town Aurillac), both named 
 after the highest peaks of the mountains of Auvergne (see Introduction, or 
 General View of Europe, § 7, h). 65. The Puy de Dome Department con- 
 tains : -{-Clermont, surnamed en Auvergne, ancient capital of Auvergne, at 
 the foot of Mount Puy de Dome, westward and 83 miles distant from Lyons, 
 consists properly of two towns, lying near each other, viz. : Clermont and 
 Mont/errand, which since the first French revolution are united by the common 
 name of Clermont-Ferrand. This united city has 34,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for the council, or synod, held here in 1095, which gave the principal 
 cause to the crusades. Riom, a town with 13,000 inhabitants, is situated 
 northward and 9 miles distant from Clermont, in the beautiful and fertile 
 plain known by the name of Limagne. The town of Aigueperse, with 3,200 
 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the duchy of Montpensier. Other 
 towns of this department are : Volvic (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont du 
 Chateau (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vodable (with 900 inhabitants), Issoire (with 
 6,200 inhabitants), Sauxillanges (with 2,000 inhabitants), Besse (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), Billom (with 5,800 inhabitants), Ambert (with 8,500 inhabitants), 
 Arlant (with 4,000 inhabitants), Marsac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ihiers (with 
 1 1,000 inhabitants, and important manufactures of paper and cutlery), St. Remy 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Maringues (with 4,000 inhabitants). 56. The 
 Cantal Department contains : -{-Aurillac, chief town, on the Jourdane, south- 
 westward and 46 miles distant from Clermont, with various manufactures, trade 
 with mules, and 11,500 inhabitants. The town of Chaudes-Aigues, with 2,300 
 inhabitants, is noted for its warm mineral baths. Other towns of this depart- 
 ment are : St. Flour (with 6,500 inhabitants), Murat (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Vic sur Cere (with 2,000 inhabitants), Maurs (with 3,000 inhabitants), Mauriac 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Salers (with 1,800 inhabitants). The towns of 
 Briodde (with 5,500 inhabitants) and Langeac (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 situated within the limits of the Upper Loire Department (see under the 
 head of Languedoc), do likewise belong to Auvergne. 
 
 XXVI. Lyonnais. — This province is situated between Auvergne and Dau- 
 phiny. It did at first form part of the primary kingdom of Burgundy (see 
 above, under the head of Bourgogne), and was since under the Frankish sway 
 ruled by governors who, in the course of time, made themselves independent, 
 assuming the title of earls. Since the year 1173 they possessed only the dis- 
 
214 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Lyonnais and Guyenne. 
 
 tricts of Forez and Beaujolais, while the archbishop of Lyons exercised the 
 sway over Lyonnais proper. These three districts were united with the 
 French crown respectively by King Philip IV., and in the years 1369 and 
 1531. The province of Lyonnais comprises at present 2 departments, viz. : 
 the Rhone Department (chief town Lyons), and the Loire Department (chief 
 town Montbrison). 57. The Rhone Department contains : -{"Lyons, once the 
 capital of Lyonnais, at the confluence of the Saone and Rhone, south-eastward 
 and 2*70 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 166 miles distant 
 from Marseilles, is the second French city in population and manufactures, 
 and has (including the suburbs of la Guillotiere and la Croix Rousxe) 210,000 
 inhabitants. Its 40,000 silk-looms employ 80,000 men, and are annually pro- 
 ducing silks at the value of 100 million francs. The town of Villefranche 
 (noted for its cattle-fairs, and having 8,000 inhabitants) was formerly the cap- 
 ital of Beaujolais (see above). Other towns of this department are : St. Genis- 
 Laval (with 2,000 inhabitants), Givors (with 5,000 inhabitants), Tarare (with 
 7,000 inhabitants), Condrieu (with 5,000 inhabitants), Belleville (with 2,300 
 inhabitants), and Beaujeu (with 1,800 inhabitants). 58. The Loire Depart- 
 ment contains : -(-Montbrison, formerly the capital of the province of Forez 
 (see above), on the Vizezy, westward and 37 miles distant from Lyons, with 
 6,500 inhabitants. The city of St. Etienne is noted for its extensive manu- 
 factures of fire-arms, hardware, and silk riband, and has 54,000 inhabitants. 
 Roanne, a town on the Loire, with 10,500 inhabitants, is the centre of the 
 inland trade between Marseilles, Lyons, and Paris. Other towns of this 
 department are : St. Gahnier (with 2,500 inhabitants), St. Symphorien de Lay 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Chamond (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Rive de 
 Gier (with 10,500 inhabitants). 
 
 XXVII. Guyenne. — This province, on the north side of the Garonue, 
 formed before the first French revolution one government together with 
 Gascony lying on the south side of this river, and was by the Romans called 
 Aquitania, on account of its mineral waters (aquae). In the 5th century the 
 Visigoths settled here and founded an empire, whose capital was Toulouse. 
 During a short period in the 8th century the name of Septimania was used 
 instead of Aquitania. In 778 Charlemagne appointed his son Louis king of 
 Aquitania, which however subsequently was divided into the duchies of 
 Guyenne (Aquitania) and Gascogne, and in 1155, by way of marriage, came 
 under the sway* of the English kings, who remained in possession for almost 
 300 years. In 1453 both duchies were united with the French crown. It 
 
FRANCE. 215 
 
 The Province of Guyenne. 
 
 &* 
 
 must be still observed that Guyenne was divided into six districts, viz. : Bour- 
 delois (capital Bordeaux), Perigord (chief town Perigueux), Agenois (chief 
 town Agen), Quercy (chief town Cahors), Rouergue (chief town Rhodez), and 
 Bazadois (chief town Bazas). At present Guyenne is divided into 6 depart- 
 ments, which in substance correspond to those districts. 59. The Gironde 
 Department contains : -{-Bordeaux, formerly the capital of Guyenne, on the 
 left bank of the Garonne, is the emporium of the south-west provinces and 
 chief seat of the French wine trade, is handsomely built, and has 1 20,000 
 inhabitants. Previous to the first French revolution, the annual export of 
 wines from Bordeaux was 100,000 tons, while in 1831 only 24,000 tons of 
 this staple were exported. The district of Medoc is noted for its wines, and 
 contains the towns of Lesparre (with 1.000 inhabitants), Medoc or St. Laurent 
 de Medoc (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Paulliac (with 3,000 inhabitants). The 
 towns of Barsac (with 2,700 inhabitants), Langon (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
 and Podensac (with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their wines. 
 Blaye, a fortified town on the Gironde, with 4,000 inhabitants, and a citadel 
 where the duchess of Berry was kept prisoner from 1832 to 1833. Other 
 towns of this department are : Buch or La Teste de Buck (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Castres (with 1,000 inhabitants), Bourg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Con- 
 trast (with 3,200 inhabitants), Libourne (with 10,500 inhabitants), Castillon 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), La Reole (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Bazas 
 (formerly the chief town of the district of Bazadois, with 4,600 inhabitants). 
 60. The Dordogne Department contains : -j-Perigueux, formerly chief town 
 of Perigord, on the Isle, north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Bordeaux, is 
 noted for its truffles, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
 ment are: Riberac (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mncidan (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Bergerac (with 9,500 inhabitants), Exideuil (with 1,000 inhabitants), Sarlat 
 (with 6,200 inhabitants), and Nontron (with 3,700 inhabitants). 61. The Lot 
 and Garonne Department contains: -|-Agen, chief town on the Garonne, 
 south-eastward and 74 miles distant from Bordeaux, is noted for its prunes, 
 and has 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Tonneins 
 (with 8,000 inhabitants), Aiguillon (with 3,700 inhabitants), Marmande (with 
 7,000 inhabitants), and Villeneuve oVAgen (with 11,500 inhabitants). 62. The 
 Lot Department contains : -{"Cahors, formerly the capital of Quercy (see 
 above), on the Lot, 115 miles east-south-east of Bordeaux, is noted for its 
 wines, and has a remarkable ancient cathedral, and 13,500 inhabitants. 
 The village of Lamothe Fenelon is the birthplace of the renowned archbishop 
 
216 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Guyanne and Gascony. 
 
 Fenelon (born in 1651), and lies near Souillao, a town on the Dordogne, with 
 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Gourdon (with 5,000 
 inhabitants), Rocamadour (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Figeac (with 6,800 in- 
 habitants). 63. The Tarn and Garonne Department contains : -J-Montauban, 
 chief town, on the Tarn, northward and 32 miles distant from Toulouse, with 
 a cathedral founded in 739, considerable inland trade, and 25,000 inhabitants. 
 Moissac, a town on the Tarn, with important inland trade, and 11,000 inhabi- 
 tants. (Oastel Sarrazin, within the limits of this department, belongs to 
 Languedoc.) 64. The Aveyron Department contains: -4-Rodez, formerly the 
 capital of Rouergue (see above), on the Aveyron, 166 miles east-south-east 
 of Bordeaux, is noted for its beautiful cathedral with a steeple 290 feet high, 
 and has 10,000 inhabitants. St. Geniez, or St. Geniez de Rivedolt, a town 
 on the Lot, with numerous manufactures of cloth, etc., and 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this department are : Guiole (with 2,000 inhabitants), Milhaud 
 (with 11,000 inhabitants), Aubin (with 3,100 inhabitants), Espalion (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), St. Affrique (with 6,400 inhabitants), and Villefranche 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants). 
 
 XXVIII. Gascony. — The name of this province, situated between the 
 Garonne and the Pyrenees, is derived from the ancient Gasconians, or Vas- 
 conians, whose descendants are the Basques (see Introduction, § 12), and who 
 from their primitive seat on the south side of the Pyrenees, partly emigrated 
 to the present province of Gascony at the end of the 6th century. Since the 
 11th century Gascony shared the fate of Guyenne (see above). Previous to 
 the first French revolution Gascony was divided into the districts of Armag- 
 nac (chief town Auch), Labour, or the Country of the Basques (chief town 
 Bayonne), Landes (comprising the duchy of Albret), Condomois (chief town 
 Condom) and Marsan (chief town Mpnt de Marsan). At present Gascony 
 comprises 3 departments, viz. : the Gers Department (chief town Auch), the 
 Upper Pyrenees Department (chief town Tarbes), and the Heaths Department 
 (chief town Mont de Marsan). 65. The Gers Department contains : -J-Auch, 
 ancient capital of Gascony, south-eastward and 106 miles distant from Bor- 
 deaux, with a splendid cathedral, and 11,000 inhabitants. Condom, formerly 
 chief town of Condomois (see above), with 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns 
 of this department are : Lectoure (with 6,700 inhabitants), Mirande (with 
 2,700 inhabitants), Lombez (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Eauze (with 3,500 
 inhabitants). 66. The Upper Pyrenees Department contains: -(-Tarbes, 
 chief town, on the Adour, 115 miles south-south-east of Bordeaux, with a 
 
FRANCE. 217 
 
 The Province of Gascony. 
 
 valuable stud, and 13,000 inhabitants. The towns of Lourdes (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Argeles (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Lus (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
 are situated in the romantic valley of Lavedan. The not less romantic valley 
 of Campan contains the towns of Campan (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Bay- 
 neres, surnamed de Bigorre (with 8,500 inhabitants). The village of Bareges, 
 in the valley of the same name, is noted for its mineral baths and its webs 
 of silk and wool, known by the name of Bareges. The village of Cautercts, 
 in the Pyrenees, is noted for its warm mineral baths. 67. The Heatlts De- 
 partment contains : -J-Mont de Marsan, chief town, on the Douze, north east- 
 ward and 60 miles distant from B:iyonne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this department are : Roquefort de Marsan (with 2.000 inhabitants), 
 Aire (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Sever (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Dax 
 (with 5,000 inhabitants). To Gascony belong moreover several towns lying 
 within the limits of other departments. First, from the Lower Pyrenees De- 
 partment (see below) : Bayonne, a fortified maritime and commercial town, 
 near the mouth of the Adour, 115 miles south-south-west of Bordeaux, is 
 noted for its smoked hams, carries on an important trade, especially with 
 Spain, and has 16,000 inhabitants. In 1679 the bayonets were invented here. 
 The palace of Marrac, where in 1808 the royal family of Spain resigned in 
 favor of Napoleon, has been destroyed by fire. St. Jean de Luz, a maritime 
 town near the Spanish frontier, with 3,800 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
 in the Bidassoa river the little Pheasant, or Conference Island, where the 
 treaty of peace of the year 1669 was concluded between France and Spain. 
 Haspaeon, or Hasparren, an industrious town with 5,000 inhabitants. Mau- 
 leon, a town on the Gave, with 1,400 inhabitants. Secondly, from the Lot 
 and Garonne Department (see above, under the the head of Guyenne) : 
 Nekac, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Albret, on the Baise, 
 18 miles west-south-west of Agen, is noted for its truffle-pies, and has 7,000 
 inhabitants, and an old palace, once the residence of the kings of Navarre 
 and the dukes of Albret, and where also King Henry IV. resided for a time 
 with his consort Margaret of Valois. From the town of Albeet the duchv 
 had derived its name. Thirdly, from the Upper Garonne Department (see 
 below, under the head of Languedoc) : Mueet, a town on the Garonne, south- 
 westward and 18 miles distant from Toulouse, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this same department are : St. Gaudens (with 6,500 inhabitants), 
 St. Martory (with 1,600 inhabitants), St. Beat (with 1,500 inhabitants), and 
 St. Bertrand de Comminges (with 1,200 inhabitants). Finally, belongs to 
 
 10 
 
218 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Navarre, Beam and Foix. 
 
 Gascony the town of St. Girons, with 4,500 inhabitants, situated within the 
 limits of the Ariege Department (see below under the head of Foix). 
 
 XXIX. Navarre and Bearn, along the Pyrenees, and surrounded by 
 Gascony. In the description of Spain, it has already been related (page 197) 
 that the ancient kingdom of Navarre was since 1234 in the possession of the 
 French descendants of Count Theobald of Champagne, and that in 1512 King 
 Ferdinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. The heiress 
 of the northern part was in 1548 married to the Duke Anton of Bourbon (see 
 Bourbonnais), and from this matrimony sprung King Henry IV., who inherited 
 at the same time the principality of Beam, connected with the duchy of 
 Albret. From Navarre and Beam has been formed : — 68. The Lower Pyre- 
 nees Department, containing : -|-Pau, formerly the capital of the principality 
 of Bearn, on the Gave, 55 miles east-south-east of Bayonne, with an ancient 
 palace, where Henry IV. was born in 1553, and 13,000 inhabitants. The 
 town of Pontac is noted for its wines, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Oloron, or 
 Oleron, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, carries on an important trade with 
 timber and lumber. The towns of Orthez (with 8,000 inhabitants) and Salies 
 (with 6,800 inhabitants) are noted for their hams, Laruns for its sulphur 
 baths, and Moneins (with 5,500 inhabitants) for its wines. St. Jean Pied de 
 Port, formerly the capital of the (French) kingdom of Navarre, on the high 
 road from France to Spain, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Bayonne* 
 with a strong citadel, and 4,000 inhabitants. St. Palais, a town on the 
 Bidouse, with 1 ,200 inhabitants. La Bastide de Clarence, a town with 2,000 
 inhabitants. (The other towns within the limits of this department, viz : 
 Bayonne, St. Jean de Luz, Biaritz, Hasparren, and Mauleon, are already 
 described under the head of Gascony, to which they belong.) 
 
 XXX. The earldom of Foix, at the foot of the Pyrenees, was since the 
 11th century ruled by counts or earls, and in 1589 united with the French 
 crown by Henry IV., whose ancestors had inherited it. At present it forms : — 
 69. The Ariege Department, containing: -f-Foix, the ancient capital of the 
 earldom, on the Ariege, southward and 46 miles distant from Toulouse, with 
 5,000 inhabitants. The town of Ax, situated in a romantic valley of the 
 Pyrenees, is noted for its mineral waters, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Pamiers 
 and Tarascon, towns, with respectively 7,400 and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Between the French province of Foix and the Spanish province of Catalonia 
 lies, in the Pyrenees, the neutral country of Andorra, or Andorre, occupying a 
 tract of only 192 square miles, with 16,000 inhabitants, and forming from old a 
 
FRANCE. 219 
 
 The Provinces of Rousillon and Langueduc. 
 
 kind of republic, whose independence has ever been respected by France and 
 Spain. On the 7th of November, 1846, a new code of law was solemnly 
 promulgated. It comprises 54 villages, among which the capital, bearing the 
 name of Andorre la vielle. 
 
 XXXL Roussillon, the most southern province of France, between Foix 
 and the Mediterranean. The Frankish governors, appointed here since 796, 
 made themselves independent in the course of time, and assumed the title of 
 earls. The last of them bequeathed the earldom to King Alphonso of Aragon, 
 in 1173. King John II. of Aragon mortgaged Roussillon, in 1463, to King 
 Louis XL of France, for the sum of 350,000 gold dollars, which sum was not 
 repaid, so that in the treaty of 1659, Roussillon was formally ceded to France. 
 It forms at present : — 70. The East Pyrenees Department, containing : -f-PEa- 
 pignan, the ancient capital of Roussillon, near the Mediterranean, south-west- 
 ward and 138 miles distant from Marseilles, is the most southerly town of 
 France, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : 
 Port Vendre (with 2,300 inhabitants), Rivesaltes (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
 Collioure (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Laurent de Cerdans (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Prades (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ceret (with 3,000 inhabitants). 
 The little town of Mont-Louis, founded in 1681, has only 400 inhabitants, but 
 is strongly fortified, and was formerly the capital of the French Cerdagne, 
 which in 1660 was ceded to France by the Spanish crown. 
 
 XXXII. Languedoc, between Guyenne and Provence, on the south bounded 
 by the Mediterranean, has an area of 17,679 square miles, and derived its 
 name from a French idiom, in the middle ages. Languedoc, since the 5th 
 century possessed by the Visigoths, and in the 8th by the Moors, was by 
 Pepin the Little brought under the sway of the Franks. In the 9th century, 
 the governors of Languedoc assumed their independence and the title of earls 
 of Ibulonse, and ruled for a long while over a great part of Provence likewise. 
 In 1361, Languedoc was united with the French crown. It comprises at 
 present 8 departments, whose preliminary enumeration would take up too 
 much room here. 71. The Upper Garonne Department contains : -4-Toitlouse, 
 ancient capital of Languedoc, on the Garonne, south-eastward and 138 miles 
 distant from Bordeaux, with many remarkable ancient buildings (among them, 
 especially, the city hall and the cathedral), numerous manufactures, and 80,000 
 inhabitants. The town of Bagneres de Lnckon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its warm mineral baths. Villefranche, a town, with 3,000 inhabitants. 
 (Other towns within the limits of this department, as St. Gaudens, Muret, etc., 
 
220 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Province of Lanfmedoc. 
 
 belonging to Gascony, are already described there.) 12. The Tarn Depart- 
 ment contains : + Alby, chief town, on the Tarn, north-eastward and 42 miles 
 distant from Toulouse, with a beautiful cathedral, and 12,500 inhabitants. 
 Here, and in the surrounding country, called Albigeois, the Albigenses (who 
 in some points had the same religious creed as the Waldenses mentioned under 
 the head of Italy) had their chief seat. Castres, a town on the Agout, is 
 noted for its cloth manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this department are : Gaillac (with 9,000 inhabitants), Soreze (with 2,900 
 inhabitants), Lavaur (with 7,100 inhabitants), Mazamet (with 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Graulhet (with 5,000 inhabitants), Rabastens (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
 Hautpovl (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Lautrec (with 3,600 inhabitants). 
 73. The A ude Department contains: -["Carcassonne, chief town on the Aude, 
 south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Toulouse, is renowned for its cloth 
 manufactures, and has a remarkable cathedral, and 19,500 inhabitants. The 
 city of Narbonne (with various remarkable ancient buildings, and 11,500 
 inhabitants) was in the middle ages the emporium of Languedoc, and in the 
 8th century the seat of a Moorish governor. Castelnaudary, a town on the 
 South canal, with cloth manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Other towns 
 of this department are : La Grasse (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sijean (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Leucate (with 1,500 inhabitants), Alet (with 1,200 inhabi- 
 tants), Limoux (with 7,500 inhabitants). 74. The Herault Department con- 
 tains : -(-Montpellier, chief town, near the Mediterranean, eastward and 1 24 
 miles distant from Toulouse, was in the middle ages the seat of a renowned 
 medical school, is at present the resort of invalids for its salubrious air, and 
 has 37,000 inhabitants. As the seaport, of Montpellier is to be considered 
 Cette, a maritime town on the Mediterranean, is noted for its wines and salt- 
 works, and has 11,000 inhabitants. The towns of Frontignan (with 2,000 
 inhabitants) and Lnnel (with 6,000 inhabitants), are noted for their excellent 
 wines. Lodeve, a town at the foot of the Sevennes, is from old renowned for 
 its cloth manufactures, and has 11,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are : Ganges (with 4,500 inhabitants), Clermont- Lodeve, or Cler- 
 mont V Herault (with 6,000 inhabitants), Agde (with 8,500 inhabitants), Pezenas 
 (with 9,000 inhabitants), Beziers (with 17,500 inhabitants), Bedarieux (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), and St. Pons, surnamed de Tomiers (with 7,500 inhabitants). 
 75. The Gard Department contains : -4-Nimes, chief town, pleasantly situated 
 north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Montpellier, has numerous manu- 
 factures of silks, woollen, etc., and 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for a 
 
FRANCE. 221 
 
 The Province of Languedoc. 
 
 highly remarkable aqueduct, called Pont du Gard, and reared by the ancient 
 Romans. Beaucaire, a town on the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles 
 distant from Marseilles, is noted for its important annual fair, and has 10,000 
 inhabitants. Aigues Mortes, a town near the Mediterranean, with 3,000 in- 
 habitants, salt-works, and a seaport, where Louis IX. embarked for the 6th 
 and 7th crusade, in 1248 and 1269. Other towns of this department are: 
 Uzes (with 7,000 inhabitants), St. Gilles (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sommieres 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve d Avignon (with 3,600 inhabitants), Roque- 
 maure (with 4,000 inhabitants), Alais (with 14,500 inhabitants), Bagnols, or 
 Baignoh (with 5,200 inhabitants), Pont St. Esprit (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Remoulins (with 1,000 inhabitants), Anduze (with 5,000 inhabitants), St. 
 Hippolyte (with 5,800 inhabitants), and Le Vigan (with 5,000 inhabitants). 
 76. The Lozere Department contains : -}-Mende, chief town, on the Lot, north- 
 eastward and 138 miles distant from Toulouse, with manufactures of serge, 
 and 6,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Marvejols (with 
 4,200 inhabitants), Florae (with 2,400 inhabitants), Langogne (with 3,000 inhab- 
 itants), and Chdteauneuf de Random (with 2,500 inhabitants). The towns of 
 Villcfort and Vialas are noted for their lead mines. 77. The Ardeche Depart- 
 ment contains : -j-Privas, chief town, on the Ouveze, southward and 69 miles 
 distant from Lyons, with 4,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this department 
 are : Tournon (with 4,300 inhabitants), St. Peray (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Vernoux (with 1,500 inhabitants), La Voulte (with 1,500 inhabitants), Anno- 
 nay (with 9,500 inhabitants), Largentieres (with 3,100 inhabitants), Aubenas 
 (with 5,500 inhabitants), Vals (with 2,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve de Berg 
 (with 2,400 inhabitants), Bourg St. Andeol (with 4,000 inhabitants), and 
 Rockemaure (with 1,500 inhabitants). Viviers (on the Rhone, with 2,000 
 inhabitants) was formerly chief town of the district of Vivarais. 78. The 
 Upper Loire Department contains : -f"LiE Puy, surnamed en Velay, chief town, 
 near the Loire, north-eastward and 164 miles distant from Toulouse, and 
 south-westward and 65 miles distant from Lyons, with a beautiful cathedral, 
 various manufactures, and 15,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
 ment are : Tence (with 6,000 inhabitants), Monistrol (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Yssingeaux, or Issengeaux (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Polignac (with the 
 ruins of the ancestral seat of the princes of Polignac). To Languedoc belongs 
 likewise the town of Castel Sarrazin, on the Garonne, 35 miles north-north- 
 west of Toulouse, with 7,700 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the 
 Tarn and Garonne Departments (see above, under the head of Guyenne). 
 
222 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny. 
 
 The towns of Brioude and Langeac, within the limits of the Upper Loire 
 Department, belonging to Auvergne, are already described there. 
 
 XXXIII. Dauphiny, between the Rhone and Italy, on the south bordering 
 upon Provence. At first forming part of the Burgundian kingdom, Dauphiny 
 was subsequently ruled by earls, who since the beginning of the 11th century 
 bore the title of Dauphins of Viennois. The last of them, Humbert II., be- 
 queathed in 1343 the country to King Philip VI. of France, upon the condi- 
 tion that every French crown-prince should bear the title of Dauphin. This 
 custom has been observed until 1830. Dauphiny comprises at present 3 de- 
 partments, viz. : the Isere Department (chief town Grenoble), the Upper Alps 
 Department (chief town Gap) and the Drome Department (chief town Va- 
 lence). 79. The Isere Department contains : -{-Grenoble, ancient capital of 
 Dauphiny, on the Isere, south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Lyons, is 
 noted for its manufactures of gloves, and has 30,000 inhabitants. About 13 
 miles north of Grenoble is situated in a dreary mountainous tract the princi- 
 pal monastery of the Carthusians, called Grande Chartreuse, and founded in 
 1084 by the holy Bruno. Vienne, a town on the Rhone, southward and 13 
 miles distant from Lyons, is noted for its high antiquity and for its many rem- 
 nants of Roman architecture, and has 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this department are: Sassenage (with 1,500 inhabitants), Vif {with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Vizille (with 3,000 inhabitants), Rives (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Voiron (with 8,500 inhabitants), Allemont (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Mar- 
 cellin (with 3,100 inhabitants), La Tour du Pin (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
 Bourgain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pont Beauvoisie (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 and La Balme (with 1,200 inhabitants). 80. The Upper Alps Department 
 contains : -{-Gap, chief town, at the confluence of the Bonne and Luie, 50 
 miles south south-east of Grenoble, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 
 inhabitants. Brianc/on, a town near the head of the Durance and in a tract 
 of the Alps, which is elevated 7,374 feet above the sea, is noted for its strong 
 fortifications, and has 3,600 inhabitants. Mont Dauphin, a town and fortress, 
 with 500 inhabitants. Embrun, a town on the Durance, with a remarkable 
 ancient cathedral, and 3,400 inhabitants. 81. The Drome Department con- 
 tains: -[-Valence, chief town, on the Rhone, southward and 54 miles distant 
 from Lyons, with a remarkable cathedral, and 11,500 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this department are: Die (with 4,000 inhabitants), Tain (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Romans (with 7,300 inhabitants), Dieu le Fit (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), Montelimart (with 8,400 inhabitants), Chabeuil (with 4,000 
 
FRANCE. 223 
 
 The Provinces of Dauphiny and Provence. 
 
 inhabitants), Crest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Nyons (with 3,500 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 To the government of Dauphiny did also belong the principality of Oeange, 
 which lies between Dauphiny and Provence along the Rhone. Since the 11th 
 century it was under the sway of earls, who assumed the princely title, and 
 became extinct in 1531 with Prince Philibert, who bequeathed the country 
 to lus nephew, Renatus of Nassau. Since that time the at present, in Hol- 
 land, reigning line of the house of Nassau has been called Nassau-Orange, or 
 the house of Orange. In the treaty of peac e concluded at Utrecht in 1713, 
 the principality was ceded to France by the king of Prussia, who had inher- 
 ited it from the prince, William III., of Orange (and king of England). At 
 present the principality of Orange forms part of the Vaucluse Department 
 (see below), and contains the towns of Orange (formerly its capital, near the 
 Rhone, northward and 16 miles distant from Avignon, with 9,500 inhabitants), 
 and Courteson (with 2,500 inhabitants). 
 
 XXXIV. Provence, along the Mediterranean, between the Rhone and 
 the Sardinian continent. About its history, see under the head of Bourgogne, 
 or Burgundy ; and it needs only to be remarked that in 1481 Provence was 
 definitively united to the French crown. At present it comprises 3 depart- 
 ments, viz. : the Rhone-mouths Department (chief town Marseilles), the Var 
 Department (chief town Draguignan) and the Lower Alps Department (chief 
 town Digne). 82. The Rhone-mouths Department contains : Aix, the ancient 
 capital of Provence, on the Arc, northward and 13 miles distant from Mar- 
 seilles, with a remarkable cathedral, and 26,000 inhabitants. -{-Marseilles, 
 the capital of the department and, in some respect, the first commercial city 
 of France, on the Mediterranean, between the mouths of the Rhone and 
 Toulon, has 160,000 inhabitants, a great many fine houses and public build- 
 ings, is the seat both of literary institutions and manufactures, and its com- 
 merce with the Levant is very extensive. Marseilles was founded 600 years 
 before the Christian era by Greek colonists. Arles, a town on the Rhone, 
 north-westward and 46 miles distant from Marseilles, has 22,000 inhabitants, 
 and many remarkable ancient buildings, and was since 933 the capital of the 
 kingdom of Arelat (see History of Burgundy above). Other towns of this 
 department are : Martigues (with 7,800 inhabitants), Berre (with 2,000 inhab- 
 itants), St. Chamas (with 3,000 inhabitants), Salon (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Lambesc (with 4,400 inhabitants), Jstres (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tarascon 
 (with 12,000 inhabitants), St. Remy (with 6,000 inhabitants), La Ciotat (with 
 
224 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Provinces of Provence and Avignon. 
 
 5,000 inhabitants), Cassis (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aubagne (with 6,000 in- 
 habitants), Auriol (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gardanne (with 3,000 inhabitants) 
 Organ (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chateau- Renard (with 3,600 inhabitants). 
 83. The Var Department contains : -J-Draguignan. chief town, at the foot of 
 the Alps, 60 miles north-north-east of Marseilles, with 10,500 inhabitants. 
 Toulon, a strongly fortified town and chief naval station, on the Mediterra- 
 nean, with one of the finest harbors in Europe, great naval stores, etc., and 
 37,000 inhabitants. On the 16th of August, 1793, an English fleet under ad- 
 miral Hood took possession of Toulon, which however was reconquered on 
 the 18th of December, of the same year. Other towns of this department 
 are : Seyne, or La Seyne (with 7,000 inhabitants), Brignolles (with 6,500 in- 
 habitants), St. Barjols (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Maximin (with 4.0U0 in- 
 habitants), Grasse, or La Grasse (with 1 3,500 inhabitants), Ollioules (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Frejns (with 3,300 inhabitants), St. Trope* (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Antibes (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cannes (with 4,500 inhabitants), 
 St. Laurent les Var (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Hyeres (with 8,000 inhabi- 
 tants). Near the coast lie the Hyerian and Lerinian Islands. On the isle 
 of Sainte Marguerite (belonging to the latter) it was, where the mysterious 
 man with the iron mask was kept prisoner from the year 1661 to 1691. He 
 died in 1704 in the Bastile of Paris, and it is presumed that he was a twin 
 brother of Louis XIV. 84. The Lower Alps Department contains : -{-Digne, 
 chief town, on the Blcone, and at the foot of the Alps, north-eastward and 
 72 miles distant from Marseilles, with 6,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 department are : Colmars (with 1,300 inhabitants), Sisteron (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), Forcalquier (with 3,300 inhabitants), Riez (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Manosque (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcelonette (with 2,400 inhabitants), 
 Entrevaux (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Castellane (with 2,200 inhabitants). 
 The town of Apt, with 6,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the 
 Vaucluse Department, belongs likewise to Provence. 
 
 XXXV. Avignon and Venaissin, along the Rhone, and surrounded by 
 Provence. In the history of the States of the Church (page 194) it has 
 already been related, in which way the Apostolic See became possessed of 
 the city of Avignon and the county of Venaissin. The popes resided in 
 Avignon during the period from 1305 to 1377. Since the year 1791 Avignon 
 and Venaissin have continued to form a constituent part of France, and are 
 comprised by : — 85. The Vaucluse Department, containing : -["Avignon, chief 
 town, on the left bank of the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles distant 
 
FRANCE. 225 
 
 The Provinces of Avignon and Corsica. 
 
 from Marseilles, with numerous remarkable ancient buildings, important mad- 
 der trade, and 32,500 inhabitants. In the 14th century, when the pope re- 
 sided here, the population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Carpentras, 
 formerly the capital of the county of Venaissin, north-eastward and 13 miles 
 distant from Avignon, with 10,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
 ment are : Venasque (with 1,800 inhabitants), Vaison (with 2,900 inhabitants), 
 Cavaillon (with 7,000 inhabitants), and L'lsle (with 6,000 inhabitants). 
 
 XXXVL Corsica. — This island (area: 3,791 square miles; population: 
 221,800 inhabitants), in the Mediterranean Sea, at about 90 miles distance 
 from the coast of Provence, was since the year 237 B. C. under the sway of 
 the Romans, and subsequently changed hands until first in 806, and then in 
 1284 the Genuese took possession of it and kept it for nearly 500 years. The 
 Genuese treated in a very despotic manner the Corsicans, who since 1729 re- 
 volted at several times, and in 1735, declaring their independence, eleoted a 
 German baron, Theodor of Neuhof, their king. But he was not able to main- 
 tain himself, and died in England in 1756. The Corsicans meanwhile con- 
 tinued to revolt, so that at last the Genuese republic thought it best to cede 
 the island to France, which occurred in 1768. In 1790 the government of 
 the island was transformed into : — 86. The Department Corsica, containing : 
 -4-Ajaccio, chief town, on the western coast, is remarkable as the birth-place 
 of Napoleon, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Bastia was formerly the capital 
 of Corsica, and has 13,500 inhabitants. Other towns on the island are: 
 Corte (with 4,000 inhabitants), Calvi (with 2,200 inhabitants), San Fiorenzo, or 
 St. Florent (with 600 inhabitants), Aleria (with 800 inhabitants), Sartene (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Porto Vechio (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Bonifacio (with 
 3,300 inhabitants). 
 
 The French Colonies are the following : — 
 
 1. In Africa: Algeria (area estimated at 191,700 square 
 miles, and population at 3,500.000 inhabitants), the island of 
 Bourbon (area: 2,386 square miles; population: 110,000 inhabi- 
 tants), settlements on the Senegal, etc. 
 
 2. In Asia: The cities and towns of Pondichery, Karikal, 
 Make, and Chandenagor, occupying together 532 square miles, 
 with 180,000 inhabitants. 
 
 3. In America: French Guyana, or Cajenne (with 30,000 
 
 10* 
 
226 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The French Colonies. 
 
 inhabitants), the "West Indian islands of Guadeloupe (682 square 
 miles, and 120,000 inhabitants), Martinique (362 square miles, 
 and 1 16,000 inhabitants), etc., and the isles of St. Pierre, Miquelon, 
 and Langley, near Newfoundland. 
 
 4. In Polynesia, the French government has assumed a mock 
 protectorate over Otaheite and other islands, but nowhere estab- 
 lished a regular colony. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 Area: 117,921 square miles. 
 Population : 28,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it is 
 officially styled) comprises two large islands (with several groups 
 of smaller ones), lying right opposite to the middle part of con- 
 tinental Europe, and separated from it by the Strait of Dover. 
 
 The largest of the two islands, embracing England (with Wales) 
 and Scotland, is called Great Britain since the year 1603, when, 
 by the accession of King James VI. of Scotland to the English 
 throne, both kingdoms were united. 
 
 The other and smaller of the two islands is Ireland, which in 
 1172 was conquered by the English, and ever since has formed a 
 constituent part, first of the kingdom of England, and since 1603 
 of the united kingdom. 
 
 About the seas, bays, etc., washing the shores of the British 
 islands, see Introduction, § 8, pages 19 and 20. 
 
 According to the census of 1841, the total population was 
 26,861,464 inhabitants ; and according to that of 1845, the popu- 
 lation of Great Britain (exclusive Ireland) amounted to 19,572,574 
 inhabitants. The nation is divided into three classes: the 
 nobility, gentry, and commonalty. The first comprises dukes, 
 marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons ; the second, all who are 
 distinguished for wealth, education, talents, or office ; and the 
 third, tradesmen, artificers, and laborers. With regard to reli- 
 gious concerns, the Church of England is established by law ; its 
 
228 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 
 
 supreme head is the sovereign, and under him are 2 archbishops, 
 25 bishops, 60 archdeacons, and more than 10.000 deans, vicars, 
 rectors, etc. The members of other churches are called dis- 
 senters, and they comprise Methodists, Baptists, Independents, 
 etc. This has, however, regard only to England (and Wales). 
 In Ireland, there are four fifths of the people Roman Catholics, 
 and nearly one half of the other fifth Presbyterians. On the 
 other hand, in Scotland the established religion is Presbyterian- 
 ism, the fundamental principle of which is the equality of the 
 clergy, in opposition to Episcopacy and Prelacy. Lately a divi- 
 sion has taken place, one half of the preachers having seceded, 
 and formed the " Free Church of Scotland," in which the min- 
 isters are elected by their hearers. 
 
 About the principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, see 
 Introduction, § 7, k. While thus Wales and most of the western 
 counties of England are mountaiuous, the rest of England is 
 diversified with beautiful hills, vales, and plains ; as it is for the 
 most part also the case with Ireland, where, however, about an 
 eighth part of the surface is covered with bogs, while in the south- 
 west are mountains of about 3.000 feet high. Scotland is divided 
 into the Highlands and Lowlands, which latter embrace the 
 counties south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and some tracts 
 north of them. 
 
 About the principal rivers, see Introduction, § 10. England is 
 intersected by numerous canals, which extend about 2,800 miles 
 in length. Most of them are of the most costly and perfect 
 construction. In Scotland and Ireland are likewise excellent 
 canals. At present England is, as it were, covered with a net of 
 rail-roads, many of which have also been constructed in Ireland 
 and Scotland. 
 
 The climate is generally healthful, though moist in England 
 and Ireland, and cold in the Highlands of Scotland. In Ireland 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229 
 
 The Products of England and Scotland. 
 
 it is more mild than ia England, and produces there a beautiful 
 and continued verdure. The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, 
 though, especially in the Scotch Highlands, generally poor. 
 
 With the exception of timber and wine, the British islands are supplied 
 with natural products in such quantities that, in case of necessity (as was the 
 ca^e in the period of the continental system from 1806 to 1813), they can dis- 
 pense with any importation from the European continent But, on the other 
 hand, there are but few articles of this kind, which can be exported without 
 prejudice to the home consumption. Until the last quarter of the last century, 
 England, indeed, was enabled to export, upon an average, about two million 
 bushels of grain annually ; but since the year 1793 it could never afford that, 
 although agriculture is conducted here with a skill almost unrivalled, and most 
 of the grain is raised here. The chief products of England, in this and similar 
 other respects, are, wheat, barley, oats, hops, etc. In Scotland, oats are the 
 staple agricultural production. In Ireland, agriculture is in a less improved 
 state than in England or Scotland ; barley, oats, wheat, and flax, are exten- 
 sively cultivated ; but potatoes are the chief product, and form the principal 
 food of the poor. The rearing of cattle is in a high state of perfection 
 throughout most parts of the islands. There are about 11,500,000 head of 
 cattle, more than 50,000,000 sheep of more or less improved breed, about 
 2,250,000 horses, etc. In Ireland, grazing and the dairy are the best managed 
 parts of husbandry. The British coal mines may be considered as inexhausti- 
 ble. The tin mines of Cornwall have been renowned ever since the days of 
 the Phoenicians. The lead mines of Cornwall yield, beside the lead, from 
 12,000 to 20,000 marks of silver annually. Other productions from the mineral 
 kingdom are, copper (Cornwall, Wales, and Anglesea island), iron (of which 
 in 1842 about 1,500,000 tons were produced in England and Scotland), and 
 black lead. 
 
 England (and in some respects, Scotland too) is the first man- 
 ufacturing country in the world. The chief articles are cotton 
 and woollen goods, hardware, earthen ware, silks, and leather. 
 These six articles give employment to about 2,000,000 persons, 
 who manufacture them to the value of about $500,000,000 an- 
 nually. In Scotland, the principal manufactures are fine cotton 
 
230 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Commerce — Education, etc. 
 
 goods, and coarse linens ; and in Ireland, it is linen, which, for 
 instance, in Ulster is made in almost every village and family. 
 In 1844, the aggregate value of the exported English cotton goods 
 was estimated at £18,823,402. In the years 1840 and 1841 there 
 were imported respectively 50,002,979 and 53,130,446 pounds of 
 wool, and exported woollen goods at the value of respectively 
 £5,780,810 and £6,276,888 ; and in 1844 this value had increased 
 to more than £9,300,000. The value of other articles exported 
 in the years 1840 and 1841, was more than £3,300,000 for linenj 
 respectively £1,349, 137 and £1,625,191 for hardware, respectively 
 £792,648 and £786,066 for silks, respectively £573,184 and 
 £590,772 for porcelain and earthen ware, respectively £417.178 
 and £421,271 for glass wares, etc. 
 
 The commerce is superior to that of any other nation, and 
 extends to all quarters of the world. The capital vested in it is 
 estimated at £1,500,000,000, or at more than $6,000,000,000. In 
 1844, the exports were in value of £50,615,265. The commerce 
 with the colonies was, in 1840," in value of £17,852,600. The 
 British merchant vessels (exclusive those of the colonies) were 
 on the 1st of January, 1845, 23,253 in number (among them, 897 
 steam vessels), of the burthen of 2,995,196 tons. In the colonies, 
 were 3,579 merchant vessels, of the burthen of 214,878 tons, in 
 1837. 
 
 With regard to the means of education, there are, upon the whole, 
 8 universities, viz. : 3 in England, 1 in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. 
 About the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, it has 
 already been observed in the History of Europe (§ 17, /), that 
 they were founded in a very early period of the middle ages ; yet, 
 commonly, the years 1249 (for Oxford) and 1279 (for Cambridge) 
 are considered as those when they were first formally and per- 
 manently organized. In 1841, Oxford numbered 5,204, and 
 Cambridge 5.530 students. In 1828, a third English university 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 231 
 
 Government and Financespof Great Britain. 
 
 was founded in London, but on a different system than the other 
 two; in 1842, it was frequented by 886 students. The Irish 
 university, founded in 1591, is in Dublin, and numbered 1,350 
 students in 1841. The annual revenues of the universities of 
 Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, amount to £834,038. The 
 Scotch universities are, St. Andrews (founded in 1411, and in 
 1841 with 200 students), Glasgow (founded in 1454, and in 1841 
 with 1,570 students), Aberdeen (founded in 1471, and in 1841 with 
 510 students), and Edinburgh (founded in 1581, and in 1841 
 with 2,140 students). The higher seminaries of learning are 
 numerous ; but the common schools are by far not in so high a 
 state of improvement as, for instance, in Germany. Those of 
 Scotland are in general better arranged and managed, than those 
 of Ireland, and even England. 
 
 The government is a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme 
 power being vested in a King (at present, a Queen), and Parlia- 
 ment. The Parliament consists of two houses, viz. : a House of 
 Lords, composed of bishops (i. e., of the established church), and 
 hereditary peers of the above-stated five different ranks, and a 
 House of Commons, composed of more than 600 representatives 
 elected by the people. 
 
 In the financial year, from the 5th July, 1845, to the 5th 
 July, 1846, the public expenditure amounted to 49,895,800 pounds 
 sterling, and the revenue to £52,715,871, which yielded a surplus 
 of nearly £3,000,000. But since, in consequence of political 
 events and other circumstances, the revenue has in the same 
 degree decreased, as the expenditure has increased j so that, upon 
 the whole, the ratio of the public charges is thus, that every 
 inhabitant of the united kingdoms has to contribute to them about 
 $9 00 annually. The public debt had, on the 5th of January, 1844, 
 attained the enormous height of 790,576,393 pounds sterling, the 
 interest of which amounted to £28,161,959. 
 
232 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Early* History of England. 
 
 The army comprises about 122,000 men. inclusive more than 
 30,000 which the government keep in India, besides the troops 
 of the East Indian Company. The navy numbered in 1845, upon 
 the whole, 680 vessels, 125 of which were steamers, 99 were ships 
 of the line, 80 frigates, etc. 
 
 The British orders of honor, are the following: — 1. The garter, 
 instituted in 1349 by Edward III. ; it is the highest order of 
 English knighthood. 2. The order of Bath, instituted in 1399 by 
 Richard II., and renewed in 1725 by George I., in 3 classes since 
 1815. 3. The Scotch thistle order, or order of St. Andrew, from 
 the year 787, but renewed in 1540 by James V. of Scotland, and 
 in 1703 by Queen Anne. 4. The Irish order of St. Patrick, insti- 
 tuted in 1783. 5. The order of St. Michael and GW^-e, instituted 
 in 1818, only for Malta. 6. The order of British India, insti- 
 tuted in 1837, only for officers in India. 
 
 History. — About the early part of British history, see History of Europe, 
 §§ 4 and 15. William the Conqueror reigned from 1066 to 1087, and was 
 succeeded by two of his sons, first by William II. (1087-1 100), then by Henry I. 
 (1100-1135). After the death of Henry I. — who left an only daughter mar- 
 ried to Godfrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou — a civil war broke out on account 
 of Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois, having mounted the English throne, in- 
 stead of Henry's grandson (son of his daughter), Henry Plantagenet. At 
 last a conciliation was brought about, and in 1154 Henry Plantagenet mounted 
 the throne by the name of Henry II. He in 1172 conquered Ireland, died 
 in 1189, and was succeeded by his son Richard I, surnamed of the Lion 
 Heart, who died in 1199, and was succeeded by his brother John (surnamed 
 without land). John was as weak and feeble as cruel, and was in 1215 com- 
 pelled by the English barons to sign the Magna Charta, the foundation of 
 the British constitution. He died in 1216, and his successors of the principal 
 line of the house of Plantagenet were the following kings : Henry HI. (1216- 
 1272), Edward I. (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307-1327), Edward III. (1327- 
 1377), and Richard II. (1377-1399). The last-named king, son of the Black 
 Prince and grandson of Edward III., was by his cousin, Henry of Lancaster 
 (likewise a grandson of Edward III.), taken prisoner and compelled to resign, 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 233 
 
 Historical Sketch of England. 
 
 after which his cousin mounted the throne by the name of Henry IV. (1399- 
 1413). He was succeeded by his son, Henry V. (1413-1422). Against his 
 son Henry VI. (1422-1461), rose his cousin, the duke Richard of York (great- 
 grandson of Edward III.), pretenJing that he had nearer claims upon the 
 throne than Henry. Thus began (in 1455) the war of the Roses, or between 
 the Yorkists (wearing white roses as emblems) and the Lancastrians (wearing 
 red rose*; Richard of York was killed in a battle, but his son mounted the 
 throne by the name of Edward IV. (1461-1483). The whole house of Lan- 
 caster was exterminated, with the exception of Henry Tudor, earl of Rich- 
 mond, who made his escape to France. Edward IV. died in 1483, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son, Edward V., who however, together with his 
 younger brother, was murdered by his uncle, the duke Richard of Gloucester, 
 who mounted the throne by the name of Richard III. but only reigned until 
 1485, when he was subdued and killed in the battle of Bosworth by Henry 
 Tudor, the last descendant of the house of Lancaster. Henry ascended the 
 throne by the name of Henry VII. He died in 1509, and has the followit.g 
 successors from the house of Tudor (Lancaster) : Henry VIII. (1509-1547), 
 Edward VI. (1547-1553), Mary (1553-1558), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). 
 With Elizabeth the house of Tudor became extinct, and as her father's 
 (Henry V Ill's) sister Margaret had been married to James IV. of Scotland, 
 the great-grandson of the latter, James VI. of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart), 
 ascended the English throne by the name of James I. (1603-1625), and thus 
 united both kingdoms. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Cliarles I, who after a very troublesome reign leading to a civil war, was be- 
 headed on the 30th of January, 1649. The government was now called a 
 republic, although Oliver Cromwell exercised an almost absolute power until 
 his death, which occurred in 1658. His son Richard succeeded him in the 
 dignity of a Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, but resigned 
 spontaneously, upon which the eldest son of Charles I. ascended the throne 
 by the name of Charles II. (1660-1685). He died in 1685, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother James II, who only reigned until 1688, when he was 
 dethroned, and his sister Mary, or rather her consort William of Orange, in- 
 vested with the royal power. After William's death (in 1702) his sister-in- 
 law, Anne, ascended the throne, and when she died (in 1714), she was suc- 
 ceeded by George I, elector of Hanover and great-grandson of James I. 
 (whose daughter Elizabeth, married to the elector of the Palatinate, had a 
 daughter who was the mother of George I.). George I. died in 1727, and 
 
234 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England: its Geographical Divisions 
 
 has had until now the following successors : George II. (1727-1760), George 
 III. (1760-1820), George IV. (1820-1830), William IV. (1830-1837), and 
 Victoria, who is still reigning. 
 
 The British empire proper embraces the three united king- 
 doms of England (inclusive Wales), Scotland, and Ireland, which 
 are divided into counties, or shires (as they in England and Scot- 
 land are called by preference). The capitals of the counties will 
 be found marked with a cross (+). 
 
 A.— THE KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. 
 
 It comprises the southern half of the great eastern island, and 
 consists of two unequal parts, the greater of which being England 
 proper, and the by far smaller part constituting what is called 
 Wales. The total area amounts to 58,468 square miles — England 
 having an extent of 51,205 square miles, and Wales of 7,263 
 square miles. The total population is about 17,000,000 inhabi- 
 tants— 1 5,975,000 in England, and 1 ,000,000 in Wales. England 
 proper contains 40 counties or shires. 
 
 1. Middlesex, on the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -{-London, 
 the metropolis of the British empire, and greatest city in Europe, on the 
 Thames, 40 miles from its mouth, had in 1844 a population of 2,007,550, and 
 at present more than 2,250,000 of inhabitants. The number of the houses is 
 estimated at more than 300,000 ; that of the streets, lanes, etc., at 14,000. 
 London embraces, besides the city proper, where the chief shops and ware- 
 houses are, Westminster (containing the royal palaces, houses of Parliament, 
 the grand Gothic edifice known by the name of Westminster Abbey, etc.), 
 and Southwark (on the south side of the Thames, and containing the usaul 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 England : iu Geographical Divisions. 
 
 residence of the archbishop of Canterbury, called Lambe th palace, King's Bench, 
 etc.), and numerous other districts with distinct names, covering a space of 
 nearly 50 square miles. The most remarkable public buildings are, besides 
 Westminster Abbey, especially, St. Paul's cathedral (next to St Peter's at 
 Rome, the greatest structure in Cliristendoin), the Tower, the Bank of England, 
 St James' palace (royal residence in the period from 1695 to the beginning 
 of the present century), Mansion house, Guildhall, eta The bridges of London 
 are seven in number, all built of stone, except one, which is constructed of 
 iron ; one of these is a suspension bridge. The Tunnel under the Thames, is 
 one of the most remarkable works of the age. London, which was already 
 in the days of the Roman emperor Nero, a considerable trading town, became 
 the capital of England during the reign of King Alfred. The ancient royal 
 palace of Hampton Court, in the vicinity of London, was reared by the cardinal 
 Wolsey, and in 1516 ceded by him to King Henry VIII. Another royal 
 palace is at Kensington, a town, with 24,000 inhabitants. Above London, on 
 the Thames, is Chelsea, a town, with 36,000 inhabitants, and containing the 
 great national asylum for invalid soldiers. 
 
 2. Berkshire, at the western frontier of Middlesex, and on the south side of 
 the Thames, containing : -(-Reading, a town, with 20,000 inhabitants. Windsor, 
 a town 22 miles from London, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its 
 castle, which was originally erected nearly 8 centuries ago, and has been 
 the chief and favorite residence of most of the sovereigns of England. Newbury 
 (with 6.000 inhabitants), and Isley (noted for its sheep fairs), towns. 
 
 3. Bucks, or Buckinghamshire, separated from the former shire by the 
 Thames, containing : -[-Buckingham, a town on the Ouse, with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Eton, a town on the Thames, right against Windsor, is noted for its 
 college, and has 4,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the village of 
 Slough, where the renowned astronomer Herschel had his observatory, and 
 died in 1822. Aylesbury, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 
 
 4. Surrey, between Berkshire and Greenwich, containing : -{-Guildford, a 
 town on the Wye, with 5,000 inhabitants. The village of Epsom (with 4,000 
 inhabitants) is noted for its culture of hops, and that of Addiscombe for its 
 military school of the British East Indian Company. At Kingston (a town 
 with 5,000 inhabitants), the Saxon kings used to be crowned. The town of 
 Croydon has 1 3,000 inhabitants. That above-mentioned part of London, called 
 Southwark, containing 150,000 inhabitants, is situated within the limits of this 
 ehire. 
 
236 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 5. Kent, the most extensive and finest of the southern counties, contains : 
 -(-Canterbury, the ecclesiastical metropolis of England, on the Stour, north- 
 westward and 14 miles distant from Dover, and 92 miles east-south-east of 
 London, with a highly remarkable cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Green- 
 wich, a town on the Thames, is famous for its naval hospital for infirm seamen, 
 and its observatory, from which longitude is reckoned, and has 76,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Dover, a town on the Straits of Dover (here 21 miles wide), has 
 25,000 inhabitants, is the station of packets for France, and one of the so-called 
 Cinque Ports, to which, moreover, belong the towns and seaports of Sandwich 
 (with 9,000 inhabitants), Romney, and Hythe (the four others : Winchelsea, 
 Rye, Hastings, and Seaford, are situated within the limits of Sussexshire). 
 Other remarkable towns of this county are : Maidstone (with 33,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Tunbridge (with 8,000 inhabitants, and the watering-place, Tunbridge 
 Wells), Deptford (with 26,000 inhabitants, noted for its naval depot), Woolwich 
 (noted for its immense train of artillery, has 18,000 inhabitants), Chatham 
 (noted for its great arsenal of the navy, has 18,000 inhabitants), Gravesand 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), Rochester (with 10,000 inhabitants), Ramsgate (with 
 9,000 inhabitants), and Margate (with 11,000 inhabitants). 
 
 6. Sussex, on the English Channel, containing: -(-Chichester, a town on the 
 Levant, eastward and 18 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 9,000 inhabi- 
 tants. The towns and seaports of Hastings (with 11,000 inhabitants, and 
 noted for the battle in 1066), Winchelsea (with 8,000 inhabitants), Rye (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), and Seaford (which, however, is to be considered as a part 
 of Hastings), belong to the above-mentioned Cinque Ports. Brighton, a 
 splendid city since the days of George IV., whose favorite residence it was, 
 has 50,000 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. 
 
 7. Essex, along the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -(-Chelms- 
 ford, a town 32 miles east-north-east of London, with 6,000 inhabitants. 
 Harwich, a maritime town on the North Sea, formerly the station of packets 
 for Sweden, Hamburg, and Holland, has 18,000 inhabitants. Colchester, a 
 maritime town, noted for its oysters, has 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 8. Suffolk, on the north side of Essexshire, containing : -(-Ipswich, a town 
 near the mouth of the Orwell, with 22,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
 county are: Bury St. Edmunds (with 15,000 inhabitants), Lowestoff (with 
 12,000 inhabitants), Sudbury (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Woodbridge (with 
 4,000 inhabitants). 
 
 9. Norfolk, on the north side of Suffolkshire, containing : -(-Norwich, the 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 257 
 
 England: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 finest city in the east of England, on the Winsder and Yare, north-eastward 
 and 129 miles distant from London, is noted for its ancient and beautiful ca- 
 thedral, and its woollen goods, and has 62,000 inhabitants. Yarmouth, a 
 maritime town, is noted for its herring fishery, and has 24,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this county are: Lynn Regis (with 17,000 inhabitants), Swaff- 
 ham (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Downham (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
 
 10. Cambridgeshire, bordering upon the two former counties, and contain- 
 ing : -(-Cambridge, a town on the Cam, northward and 50 miles distant from 
 London, is celebrated for its university, and has 25,000 inhabitants. New- 
 market, a town with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for horse-races, and Ely, a 
 town with 6,000 inhabitants, for its splendid cathedral, whose steeple is 400 
 feet in height. Wisbeach, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 
 
 11. Huntingdonshire, partly surrounded by Cambridgeshire, contains: 
 -{-Huntingdon, a town on the Ouse, northward and 40 miles distant from 
 London, with 4,000 inhabitants. Cromwell was born here in 1599. St. Ives 
 is a fine village, or town, on the Ouse, with 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
 12. Lincolnshire, between Cambridgeshire and the Humber, containing : 
 -{-Lincoln, a city on the Witham, northward and 119 miles distant from 
 London, is celebrated for its venerable cathedral with 3 high steeples, and 
 has 36,500 inhabitants. Another beautiful Gothic church is in the town of 
 Boston, at the mouth of the Witham into the Wash, with 35,000 inhabitants. 
 In the neighboring village of Woolsthorpe the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton 
 (+1727) was born in 1642. Grimsby, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
 Humber, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Spalding 
 (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gainsborough (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Stam- 
 ford (with 6,000 inhabitants). 
 
 13. Hertfordshire, between Cambridge and London, containing : -{-Hert- 
 ford, a town northward and 23 miles distant from London, with 6,000 in- 
 habitants, and an institution where civil officers of the East Indian Company 
 are instructed and prepared for their future destination in India. St. Albans, 
 a town with a remarkable Gothic church and 6,000 inhabitants. 
 
 14. Oxfordshire, bordering upon Middlesex, and containing: -{-Oxford, a 
 town on the Thames, is celebrated for its university, and has 22,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns of this county are : Woodstock (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 and Banbxiry (with 6,000 inhabitants). 
 
 15. Bedfordshire, between Oxford and Cambridgeshire, containing: -(-Bed- 
 ford, a town on the Ouse, 23 miles west-south-west of Cambridge, with 8,000 
 
238 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 inhabitants. Woburn, a borough with 2,000 inhabitants, and the splendid 
 mansion of the family of Russell, called Woburn Abbey. 
 
 16. Hants or Hampshire, between Berkshire and the English Channel, con- 
 taining: -{-Winchester, a city on the Itching, south-westward and 65 miles 
 distant from London, with a cathedral reared by the Saxon kings, and 10,000 
 inhabitants. During part of the middle ages Winchester was the capital of 
 England, and is at present noted for its college. Portsmouth, a strongly 
 fortified city on the southern coast, has 64,000 inhabitants, and the best har- 
 bor in Great Britain, is the great arsenal and rendezvous of the navy, and 
 situated near the famous roadstead of Spithead. The maritime town of 
 Southampton, with 2*7,500 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade with 
 the Norman islands and the south of France, and is much resorted to for sea- 
 bathing. Gosport (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Chrislchurch (with 5,000 in- 
 habitants), boroughs. The fertile Isle of Wight (192 square miles, and 
 36,000 inhabitants) is noted for it beautiful and romantic sceneries. 
 
 17. Dorsetshire, on the southern coast, contains : -{-Dorchester, a town on 
 the Frome, westward and 65 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 5,000 in- 
 habitants. Other towns of this county are : Weymouth (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Bridport (with 5,000 inhabitants), Poole (with 7,000 inhabitants), and 
 Shaftsbury (with 4,000 inhabitants). The fertile Bill of Portland is noted 
 for its quarries. 
 
 18. Devonshire, between Dorsetshire and Cornwall, contains : -{-Exeter, a 
 city on the mouth of the Exe, westward and 115 miles distant from Portsmouth, 
 and north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Plymouth, with a magnificent 
 cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Plymouth, a fortified city on the English 
 Channel, with 76,000 inhabitants, is one of the great naval stations, and noted 
 for its breakwater, which cost more than $5,000,000. The city embraces at 
 present Plymouth proper, Devonport (formerly called Plymouth Dock), and 
 Stonehouse. At about 14 miles distance from the roadstead of Plymouth 
 on a solitary cliff, stands the well-known lighthouse of Eddystone. There are 
 many beautiful and splendid country-seats in Devonshire, among them Mount 
 Edgecombe and Ugbrook. Remarkable towns are, among others : Tavistock 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), Dartmouth (with 5,000 inhabitants), Teignmouth (with 
 6,000 inhabitants), Barnstable (with 8,000 inhabitants), Tiverton (with 10,500 
 inhabitants), Biddeford (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Sidmouth (with 3,000 
 inhabitants). 
 
 19. Cornwall, forming a peninsula at the south-western extremity of Eng- 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 239 
 
 England : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 land, is celebrated, even since the time of the Phoenicians, for its tin, and 
 since the middle ages, for its copper also. At an early period it was ruled 
 by earls, but at the beginning of the 9th century subdued by King Egbert. 
 Edward III. promoted the county of Cornwall to the rank of a duchy, in 
 favor of his son, the renowned Black Prince ; and since that time the first- 
 born royal prince assumes the title of a duke of Cornwall, after which he is 
 oreated prSce of Wales. It contains : -{-Launcestox, a town on the Tamar, 
 with 5,000 inhabitants. Falmouth, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
 Fal, 46 miles west south-west of Plymouth, is a stopping place of steamers 
 for Spain and the West Indies, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 Cornwall are : Truro (with . 8,000 inhabitants), Penzance (with 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Penryn (with 5,000 inhabitants). The south-western extremity 
 of Cornwall is known by the name of Land's End, and its southern extremity 
 by that of Cape Lizard, or Lizard Point. Not far from Land's End are lying 
 in the Atlantic Ocean the Scilly Isles, six of which are inhabited, having a 
 total population of 3,000 inhabitants. To the Phoenicians and other people of 
 antiquity they were known by the name of Cassiterides, or Tin-Islands. 
 
 20. Wilts, or Wiltshire, towards the interior, containing : -(-Salisbury, a city 
 on the Avon, 70 miles west-south-west of London, is celebrated for its elegant 
 Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is 410 feet high, and has 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Bradford, a town on the Avon, with 12,000 inhabitants, is noted for 
 its manufactures of fine cloth. Other towns are : Wilton (with 8,000 inhabi- 
 tants) and Chippenham (with 6,000 inhabitants). Near Wilton is the splendid 
 country seat of Lord Pembroke, called Wiltonhouse. Another one, belonging 
 to the family of Radnor, and called Longford, is noted for its fine collection 
 of pictures. 
 
 21. Somersetshire, between Wilts and the Bristol Channel, containing : 
 -{-Bristol, a city on a branch of the Severn, westward and 115 miles distant 
 from London, has 120,000 inhabitants, and is the third commercial town in 
 England. About 9 miles from here is Bath, a city, with 70,000 inhabitants, 
 is noted for its hot mineral waters, and visited by persons (sometimes to the 
 number of 8,000 in the season) in quest of health and pleasure. The Gothic 
 cathedral of Bath is very remarkable, as is also that of Wells, a town, with 
 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Somerset, for the most part noted for their 
 woollen manufactures, are: Calne (with 5,000 inhabitants), Froome (with 
 25,000 inhabitants), Taunton (with 33,500 inhabitants), and Bridgewater (with 
 10,000 inhabitants). The town of Glastonbury is noted for the ruins of a 
 
240 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 monastery which covered sixty acres, and whose foundation was laid in a very 
 early period of the Christian era ; at least, King Arthur, son of Uther Pen- 
 dragon, who reigned from 516 to 542, was buried here. 
 
 22. Gloucestershire, bordering upon Oxfordshire, contains: -4- Gloucester, a 
 city on the Severn, north-eastward and 37 miles distant from Bristol, with a 
 remarkable ancient cathedral (where William the Conqueror and Edward II. 
 are buried), manufactures of puis, and 27,000 inhabitants. Cheltenham, noted 
 for its mineral waters, and Stroud, for its cloth manufactures, are'towns, with 
 respectively 40,500 and 10,000 inhabitants. Tewkesbury, a town, with 8,000 
 inhabitants, has a Gothic church with the sepulchres of the English king of 
 the house of Plantagenet. Berkeley, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remark- 
 able as the birth-place of the renowned Dr. Jenner. 
 
 23. Monmouthshire, between Wales and Gloucestershire, contains: -{-Mon- 
 mouth, a town in a romantic situation, northward and 23 miles distant from 
 Bristol, with 6,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are the highly interesting 
 ruins of Tintern Abbey, and of Ragland Castle, which latter was once the 
 residence of the dukes of Beaufort. Chepstow (with 6,000 inhabitants), Newport 
 (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Abergavenny (with 5,000 inhabitants). 
 
 24. Herefordshire, at the northern frontiers of Gloucestershire, containing : 
 -{-Hereford, a city on the Wye, northward and 42 miles distant from Bristol, 
 with a remarkable cathedral, and 34,500 inhabitants. Leominster, or Lempster, 
 a town on the Lugg, with 6,000 inhabitants. Ross, a borough on the Wye, 
 with 4,000 inhabitants. Here lived Pope's " man of Ross." 
 
 25. Worcestershire, towards the interior, containing : -j- Worcester, a city on 
 the Severn, north-westward and 105 miles distant from London, is noted for 
 its porcelain, and has a highly remarkable cathedral, and 27,500 inhabitants. 
 Kidderminster, a manufacturing town on the Stour, with 30,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this county are : Stourbridge (with 7,000 inhabitants), Dudley 
 (with 24,000 inhabitants), and Droitwich (with 3,000 inhabitants). 
 
 26. Warwickshire, at the northern frontier of Oxfordshire, containing : 
 -(-Warwick, a town on the Avon, north-westward and 82 miles distant from 
 London, with 9,500 inhabitants. Near it lies on a rock Warwick Castle, 
 belonging to the earl of Warwick, and reared in the middle ages. Coventry, 
 a manufacturing town, noted for its watches and ribbons, has 31,500 inhabi- 
 tants. Kenilworth, a borough, with 3.000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the 
 once so renowned castle of the same name, reared in the 12th century by King 
 Henry I. Stratford, a town on the Avon, with 6,000 inhabitants, is remark- 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 241 
 
 Enghtud : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 able as the birth-place of Shakspeare. The borough of Leamington, with 
 6,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to on account of its mineral baths. Rugby, 
 a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its college. Birmingham, a city, 
 with 183,000 inhabitants, about half way between Liverpool and London, is 
 the great centre of the manufacture of hardware, including fire-arms, steam 
 engines, locks, screws, buttons, and such a variety of small articles that it has 
 been styled the " toy-shop of Europe." Similar manufactures are at Soho, 
 which is considered as a suburb of Birmingham, though it is situated within 
 the limits of Staffordshire. 
 
 27. Staffordshire, at the northern frontier of the former, contains : -(-Staf- 
 ford, a town, north-westward and 23 miles distant from Birmingham, with 
 8,000 inhabitants. Burslem, a town on the Great Trunk Canal with 14,000 
 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of earthen ware, and is at the same 
 time the centre of the so-called Potteries, a district comprising numerous 
 villages (among them, that of Etruria), where the Wedgewood ware is fabri- 
 cated. Burton, surnamed upon Trent, a town on the Trent, is noted for its 
 excellent ale, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Lichfield, a town, with 8,000 inhab- 
 itants, and a renowned college, instituted by Edward VI. Wolverhampton, 
 a city, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 50,000 inhabitants, is noted for 
 its hardware, and Bradley for its iron works. Other towns of this county 
 are : Walsall (with 16,000 inhabitants), Wednesbury (with 9.000 inhabitants), 
 Newcastle under Lyne (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bilston (with 16,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Tamworth (with 8,000 inhabitants). 
 
 28. Northamptonshire, on the northern side of Oxfordshire, containing: 
 -f-NoRTHAMPTON, a town on the Nen, 64 miles north-north-west of London, 
 with 28,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is Althorp, the ancestral seat 
 of the earl of Spencer. Peterborough, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, and a 
 remarkable cathedral, where the unfortunate Scottish queen, Mary Stuart, 
 lies buried. She was beheaded on the 8th of February, 1587, in the neigh- 
 boring castle of Fotheringay, which, by order of her son, James L, was 
 entirely demolished. Stamford, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 
 
 29. Rutland, northward from Northamptonshire, containing: -(-Oakham, a 
 town in the fertile valley of Cathross, 92 miles north-north-west of London, 
 with 4,000 inhabitants. Uppingham, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 
 
 30. Leicestershire, on the western side of Rutland, containing : -(-Leicester, 
 a city on the Sour, 37 miles east-north-east of Birmingham, with manufac- 
 tures of stockings, and 61,000 inhabitants. The borough of Lutterworth is 
 
 11 
 
242 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 England: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 remarkable as the birth-place of Wickliffe ; and Belvoir is the splendid coun- 
 try-seat of the duke of Rutland. Loughborough (with 25,000 inhabitants), 
 and Melton Mowbray (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. 
 
 31. Shropshire, or Salop, at the frontier of Wales, containing : -{-Shrews- 
 bury, a town on the Severn, southward and 56 miles distant from Liverpool, 
 with the beautiful remains of an ancient castle, and 22,000 inhabitants. 
 Other towns of this county are : Ludlow (with 8,000 inhabitants), Broseley 
 (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bridgenorth (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Oswestry 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants). The borough of Shiffnall (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 and the extensive village of Colebrookdale are noted for their iron- works. 
 
 32. Cheshire, or the Palatinate of Chester, at the frontier of Wales, and 
 northward from Shropshire, containing: -(-Chester, a city on the Dee, 
 southward and 14 miles distant from Liverpool, is noted for its cheese, and 
 has a remarkable cathedral, and 23,000 inhabitants. The town of Mac- 
 clesfield (with 25,000 inhabitants), is noted for its silks. Other towns of 
 this county are : Northwlch (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nantwich (with 6,000 
 inhabitants), and Stockport (with numerous manufactures, and 86,000 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 33. Nottinghamshire, between Cheshire and Leicester, containing : -(-Not- 
 tingham, a city on the Trent, south-eastward and 70 miles distant from Liver- 
 pool, is noted for its stockings and ale, and has 54,000 inhabitants. Another 
 manufacturing town is Newark, with 10,000 inhabitants. The town of 
 Worksop (with 6,000 inhabitants) may be considered as the chief place of 
 the so-called Dukeries, comprising many country-seats, among others, Work- 
 sop Manor (the property of the duke of Norfolk), Clumber Park (of the 
 duke of Newcastle), Welbeck Abbey (of the duke of Portland), and Newstead 
 Abbey (formerly belonging to Lord Byron). Mansfield, a borough with 11,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 34. Derbyshire, at the northern frontier of Nottinghamshire, containing: 
 -1-Derby, a town on the Derwent and Trent, westward and 14 miles distant 
 from Nottingham, with various manufactures and 35,500 inhabitants. Other 
 towns of this county are : Chesterfield (with 6,000 inhabitants), Castleton 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Buxton (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Matlok (with 
 4,000 inhabitants). Chatsworth is the splendid country-seat of the duke of 
 Devonshire. 
 
 35. Lancashire, or the Palatinate of Lancaster, at the northern frontier of 
 Wales, and comprising part of the English west coast, contains: -{-Lancaster, 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 243 
 
 England : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 a town on the Lancaster Bay, northward and 46 miles distant from Liverpool, 
 with 36,000 inhabitants. Liverpool, a city with 295,000 inhabitants, and 
 nearly 25,000 houses, on the river Mersey, near its mouth, is next to London 
 in commerce, the great depot of the trade with America and Ireland, and 
 noted for the most costly docks in the world. In 1833 the custom-house of 
 Liverpool had a revenue of not less than 3,555,955 pounds sterling. There 
 are many splendid public edifices in this city, which in the 16th century was 
 yet an insignificant place. Manchester, a city on the Irrwell, eastward and 
 30 miles distant from Liverpool, is the great centre of the cotton manufacture, 
 and has 310,000 inhabitants. The following cities and towns are also more 
 or less noted for their cotton manufactures : Blackburn (with 75,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Bolton (with 98,000 inhabitants), Oldham (with 68,000 inhabitants), 
 Rochdale (with 60,000 inhabitants), Wigan (with 66,500 inhabitants), Bury 
 (with 78,000 inhabitants), Preston (with 77,500 inhabitants), Warrington 
 (with 32,000 inhabitants), and Ashton under Line (with 130,500 inhabitants, 
 inclusive the parish). The town of Prescot (with 8,000 inhabitants) is noted 
 for its manufactures of watch-wheels, clock-works, etc., and the borough of 
 St. Helen' 8 for its manufactures of looking-glasses. 
 
 36. Yorkshire, along the eastern coast, is the most extensive county of 
 England (5,985 square miles, and 1,600,000 inhabitants), and subdivided into 
 three districts, or Ridings, viz. : North Riding, East Riding, and West Riding, 
 containing : -}-York, the second city of the kingdom in rank, being the resi- 
 dence of the archbishop of York, is situated in an extensive plain on the 
 Ouse, northward and 184 miles distant from London, is noted for its splendid 
 cathedral (reared in the 12th, but not completed before the 14th century), and 
 has 36,000 inhabitants. To East Riding belong the following cities and 
 towns : Hull (noted for its trade to the Baltic, and the whale fishery, has 
 50,000 inhabitants), Goole (with 12,000 inhabitants), Beverley (with 10,000 
 inhabitants), Bridlington (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Howden (with 2,000 
 inhabitants). North Riding comprises : Scarborough, a maritime and com- 
 mercial town on the North Sea, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Whitby, another 
 commercial town, with 12,000 inhabitants, much engaged in the coal trade. 
 The town of Richmond (with 6,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, 
 and the borough of Gisborough (with 2,500 inhabitants) for its canvass manu- 
 factures, and alum works. West Riding comprises the following manufac- 
 turing cities and towns : Leeds (famous for its manufactures of cloth and other 
 woollen goods, with 170,000 inhabitants, Huddcrsfield and Halifax (each with 
 
244 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 England: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 110,000 inhabitants, and both noted for their cloth manufactures), Wakefield 
 (also with important cloth manufactures, corn and cattle fairs, and 46,000 
 inhabitants); Sheffield (noted for cutlery and plated goods, with 85,000 
 inhabitants), Bradford (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Keighley (with 68,000 in- 
 habitants, both noted for their manufactures of woollen goods), and finally 
 Knaresborough (noted for its linen, and mineral waters, with 8,000 inhabitants). 
 The village of Harrowgate is likewise resorted to for its mineral waters. 
 
 37. Durhamshire, at the northern frontier of Yorkshire, containing : -(-Due- 
 ham, a city on the Wear, 54 miles north-north-west of York, with a remark- 
 able cathedral (reared in the 11th century), manufactures of carpets, etc., and 
 39,000 inhabitants. The towns of Sunderland and Wearmouth, situated on 
 opposite sides of the Wear at its mouth, are joined together by a very 
 remarkable iron bridge, are largely engaged in the coal trade, and have a total 
 population of 57,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Stockton 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Darlington (with 9,000 inhabitants). 
 
 38. Northumberland, the most northerly county, containing : -{-Newcastle, 
 surnamed upon Tyne, a city on the Tyne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant 
 from Edinburgh, is famous for its coal-pits, various manufactures, and the 
 whale fishery, and has 72,000 inhabitants. The town of Shields (with im- 
 portant coal trade, and 30,000 inhabitants) consists properly of two parts, viz. : 
 North Shields in Northumberland, and South Shields in Durham. Berwick, 
 a town on the Tweed, and at the frontier of Scotland, with 16,000 inhabi- 
 tants, was by James VI. (of Scotland) declared neutral territory, though a 
 Scotch county bears its name. Other towns of Northumberland are : Tyne- 
 mouth (with 25,000 inhabitants), Hexham (with 6,000 inhabitants), Morpeth 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Alnwick (with 6,000 inhabitants, and a splendid 
 Gothic castle of the duke of Northumberland). 
 
 39. Cumberland, on the west coast, and bordering upon Scotland, contains : 
 -(-Carlisle, a city on the Eden, westward and 54 miles distant from Newcastle, 
 with a remarkable cathedral, various manufactures, and 36,500 inhabitants. 
 Whitehaven, a maritime town, largely engaged in the coal trade, has 30,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Workington (with 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Maryport (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Penrith (with 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants). The borough of Keswick (with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead 
 pencils. 
 
 40. Westmoreland, between Cumberland and Lancashire, containing : -(-Ap- 
 pleby, a borough on the Eden, northward and 80 miles distant from Liverpool, 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 245 
 
 Wales : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 with 3,000 inhabitants. Kendal, a town, with numerous manufactures of 
 woollen and other goods, and 35,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The principality of Wales (area : 7,263 square miles ; popula- 
 tion: 1,000,000 inhabitants) forms indeed a constituent part of 
 the kiDgdom of England, but is in all public acts denominated 
 discriminately. It comprises that part of the English west coast 
 situated between Bristol and Liverpool, is inhabited by descend- 
 ants of the ancient Britons, and continued to be an independent 
 kingdom for several centuries, until in 1282 it was subdued by 
 the English king Edward I, though first since the year 1536 it 
 has permanently been united with England. The eldest son of 
 the sovereign of England, is styled Prince of Wales. Most of 
 the people talk the Welsh language, and excel chiefly in the 
 manufacturing of flannel. Iron, lead, copper, and coal, abound. 
 Wales is divided into 12 counties, 6 of which are in South Wales, 
 and 6 in North Wales. 
 
 South Wales comprises the following six counties : — 
 
 41. Pembrokeshire, containing: + Pembroke, a town on the Milford Haven, 
 with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a remarkable ancient castle, reared 
 in the beginning of the 11th century. St. David's, the ecclesiastical capital 
 of South "Wales, with 4,000 inhabitants. Haverfordwest, a town, with 6,000 
 inhabitants. Milford, a borough noted for its fine harbor, with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 42. Caermarthenshire, containing : -{-Caermarthen, an important commer- 
 cial town on the Tawey, with 10,000 inhabitants. Llanelly and Kidwelly, 
 towns on the Bristol Channel, with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 43. Glamorganshire, containing : -{-Cardiff, a town at the mouth of the 
 Severn, with 7,000 inhabitants. Swansea, an important commercial town at 
 the mouth of the Tawey, is at the same time a noted resort for sea-bathing, 
 and has 40,000 inhabitants. Merthyr Tydvil, a town, with 30,000 inhabi- 
 tants, is noted for its iron works and mines, and coal-pits. Llandajf, the resi- 
 dence of a bishop, with 2,000 inhabitants. Neath, a town on the river of the 
 same name, with coal-pits, iron and copper mines, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
 
246 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Wales: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 44. Brecon, or Brecknockshire, containing : -{-Brecknock, a town on the 
 Uske, with manufactures of cloth and stockings, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
 Crickhowel, a borough, with flannel manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 45. Radnorshire, containing : -J-Presteign, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. 
 Radnor, or properly New Radnor, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 
 
 46. Cardiganshire, containining : -{-Cardigan (with coasting trade and 
 3,000 inhabitants), and Aberystwith (with sea-bathing, and 5,000 inhabitants), 
 towns on the Cardigan Bay. 
 
 North Wales comprises the following six counties : 
 
 47. Montgomeryshire, containing : -(-Montgomery, a town at the frontier 
 of Shropshire, with the ruins of an ancient castle, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 Welshpool, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of 
 flannel. Llanydloes, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
 48. Merionetshire, containing : -j-Bala, a town on the Pimple lake, or Bala 
 pool, with fishery, manufactures of flannel, and 2,500 inhabitants. Dolgelly 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Harleigh, or Harlech (with 2,500 inhabitants). 
 
 49. Flintshire, containing : -(-Flint, a town on the Dee, with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and the ruins of a castle, where Richard II. was in 1399 kept prisoner 
 and killed. Flint is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The neighboring town 
 of Holywell (with 10,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, brass- and 
 copper- works. St. Asaph is the residence of a bishop, and has 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Near the town of Mold (with 8,000 inhabitants) are lead mines and 
 coal-pits. 
 
 50. Denbighshire, containing : -(-Denbigh, a town near the Cluyd, and in a 
 highly fertile valley, with a remarkable castle and 5,000 inhabitants. Wrex- 
 ham, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, is noted for its flannel and iron- and brass- 
 works. Ruthin, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 51. Caernarvonshire, containing: -(-Caernarvon, a town on the Menai 
 Strait, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its stately castle, reared in the 
 13th century by Edward L • Bangor and Aberconway, towns with respectively 
 5,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 52. Anglesea, a county comprising the island of this name, which has 
 186 square miles in extent, and a population of 50,000 inhabitants, and ia 
 separated from Wales by the Menai Strait. This strait is crossed by the 
 Menai bridge, one of the most remarkable of the kind in the world ; it con- 
 sists of strong iron chains, which connect arches of masonry, 560 feet apart ; 
 thus forming a safe and useful structure. The island of Anglesea, noted fur 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 217 
 
 The Isle of Man. the Norman Islands, and the Isle of H«lifoUa I. 
 
 its copper mines, contains : -{-Beaumaris, a town with 3.U00 inhabitants. In 
 its vicinity is the romantically situated mansion of Baron Hill. The 
 borough of Holyhead (with 5,500 inhabitants) is a chief station of packets 
 for Ireland. 
 
 To England, but to none of its counties, belong the following 
 islands : 
 
 (a.) The isle of Man (224 square miles, and 45,000 inhabitants), lying in the 
 Irish Sea, at about equal distance from each of the three united kingdoms. 
 Its natives are called Manxmen, and their language is very similar to that of 
 the native Irish. Their ancestors were subdued in the 10th century by the 
 Danes, and in the 11th by the Normans (from Normand) ). In the 13th cen- 
 tury the Scotch, and in the 14th the English conquered the island, with which 
 in the 15th century the earls of Derby were invested, and since styled kings. 
 In the 16th century, however, the duke of Athol became possessed of the 
 island, which in 1765 was purchased by the British government, in order to 
 put an end to the smuggling which was carried on here upon the largest 
 scale. The capital of the island is Castleton, on the southern coast, with 
 3,000 inhabitants. It was formerly called Sodor. The residence of the 
 ancient kings of Man was in Castle Rushen. The most important town of 
 the isle is Douglas, residence of a bishop, with 7,000 inhabitants. Another 
 town is Ramsay, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 (b.) The Norman Islands (total area : 266 square miles ; total population : 
 80,000 inhabitants), situated in the English Channel, near the French coast 
 of Normandy. They are the only possession left to the English of what 
 they formerly had wrested from France. They have a mild climate and a 
 fertile soil, and are the following: — 1. Jersey (149 square miles, and 41,000 
 inhabitants), containing, among others, the towns of St. Helier (with 22,000 
 inhabitants), and St. Aubin (with 2,000 inhabitants). 2. Guernsey (96 square 
 miles, and 34,000 inhabitants), containing, among others, St. Pierre, or St. Peter's 
 Port (with 20,000 inhabitants). 3. Alderney, or Aurigny (16 square miles, 
 and 4,000 inhabitants), containing the borough of the same name, with 1,000 
 inhabitants. 4. Sark (5 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), is in French 
 called Cers, or Sereg, and contains the fortified seaport of Longy. 
 
 (c.) The Scilly Isles (see above, under the head of Cornwall). 
 
 The Isle of Heligoland (5 square miles, and 3,500 inhabi- 
 
248 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Scotland: its History. 
 
 tants), lying in the North Sea, before the mouths of the Weser, 
 Elbe, and Eider, is inhabited by descendants of the ancient 
 Friselanders, was in 1714 subdued by the Danes and annexed 
 to the duchy of Sleswick, and in 1814 ceded by Denmark to 
 the British crown. Heligoland is much resorted to for sea- 
 bathing. 
 
 B.— THE KINGDOM OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 It comprises the northern smaller half of the great eastern 
 island, has 31,268 square miles in extent, and a population of 
 2,840,000 inhabitants. Little is known about the aborigines of 
 Scotland ; they were called Caledonians by the Romans, who 
 conquered a part of the country. The Picts, mentioned at a later 
 period, seem to have been identical with the Caledonians ; while 
 the Scots had their primitive home in Ireland, from whence they 
 emigrated at an early period of the Christian era. They sub- 
 dued, in 836, the Picts, and became since the ruling people, 
 though since the 8th century intermingled with the Angles and 
 Saxons. From the 9th to the 13th century, they were ruled by 
 kings of the house of Kenneth, which became extinct in 1289. 
 Now a long struggle arose for the crown between the two mighty 
 families of Baliol and Bruce, when finally the latter became 
 possessed of it. In 1371, it was transferred to Robert Stuart, a 
 nephew of King David of the house of Bruce. That James VI., 
 son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne in 1603, thus 
 uniting both kingdoms, is already related in the British history. 
 
 Scotland is, by the Grampian hills, divided into the Highlands 
 and Lowlands, and politically into 32 shires, or counties, inclusive 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 249 
 
 Scotland : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 numerous islands. The latter, however, we shall describe sepa- 
 rately, in order to get a clearer view of them. 
 The Lowland counties are the following : — 
 
 1. Mid- Lothian, or Edinburghshire, containing : -{-Edinburgh, the metrop- 
 olis of Scotland, quite near the Frith of Forth, 396 miles north by west of 
 London, with about 13,000 houses, and 190,000 inhabitants (including Leith). 
 The new town, on the north, regularly laid out and built of freestone, is one 
 of the most beautiful towns of Europe. The most remarkable public edifices 
 of the city are, Holyrood, once the residence of the Scottish kings (the rooms 
 inhabited by Mary Stuart are left in their former condition and arrangement), 
 and Edinburgh Castle, likewise conspicuous in Scottish "history. Edinburgh 
 has but few manufactures, yet it has long been noted for its science and learn- 
 ing, and especially its university is distinguished Leith, its seaport, was 
 formerly 2 miles distant, but is now joined to Edinburgh by continuous ranges 
 of buildings. Musselburgh (with 10,000 inhabitants) and Dalkeith (with 7,000 
 inhabitants), towns. 
 
 2. West Lothian, or Linlithgowshire, containing: -{-Linlithgow, a town 
 about 5 miles distant from the Frith of Forth, with 6,000 inhabitants, and an 
 ancient royal palace, where Mary Stuart was born in 1542. Borrowstownness 
 (in common life, Bo'ness) and Bathgate, towns, with respectively 8,000 and 
 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 3. East Lothian, or Haddingtonshire, containing : -{-Haddington, a town 
 on the Tyne, with 6,000 inhabitants. Dunbar, a maritime town, 32 miles 
 east-north-east of Edinburgh, is noted for the battle on the 3d of September, 
 1650, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Prestonpans, a town noted for a battle in 
 1745, has 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
 4. Berwickshire, or Mersc, containing : -{-Greenlaw, a borough on the Black 
 Adder, with 2,000 inhabitants. The town of Dunse, with 4,000 inhabitants, 
 is noted for its cattle fairs. The renowned scholar of the middle ages, 
 Duns Scotus (-(- 1308), was born here in 1274. Coldstream, a borough on the 
 Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The British Coldstream Regiment bears its 
 name from this place. 
 
 5. Roxburghshire, or Teviotdale, containing : -{-Hawick, a town on the Teviot, 
 with 6,000 inhabitants. The village of Melrose is noted for an ancient Gothic 
 monastery, founded in the 12th century by David I. Kelso, a borough, with 
 5,000 inhabitants. Jedburgh, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 
 
 11 # 
 
250 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 6. Selkirkshire, containing : -(-Selkirk, a borough on the Ettrick, with 4,000 
 inhabitants. Galoshields, a village on the Galowater, with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 7. Peeblesshire, or Tweeddale, containing: -[-Peebles, a borough on the 
 Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The villages of Innerleithen and Newlands, 
 are noted for their mineral waters. 
 
 8. Dumfriesshire, containing : -(-Dumfries, a town on the Nith, southward 
 and 64 miles distant from Edinburgh, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 
 15,000 inhabitants. The borough of Moffat, on the Evan, with mineral waters, 
 and 3,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to as a bathing place. Other boroughs 
 of this county are : Langholm (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sanquhar (with 3,500 
 inhabitants), and Wanlockhead (with lead mines). The village of Gretna 
 Green, in the extreme south, on the English border, is famous for marriages 
 of runaway lovers from England. Annan, a town on the Solway frith, with 
 6,000 inhabitants. 
 
 9. Kirkcudbrightshire, or East Galloway, containing: -(-Kirkcudbright, a 
 town at the mouth of the Dee, and on the Solway frith, with 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants. New Galloway (with 1,500 inhabitants) and Creetown (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), boroughs. 
 
 10. Wigtonshire, or West Galloway, containing: -(-"Wigton, a town on the 
 Wigton Bay, with 3,500 inhabitants. Port Patrick, a borough on the 
 North Channel, is a station of packets for Ireland, and has 4,000 inhabitanta 
 Stranrawer, or Stranraer (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Newton Stuart (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 
 
 11. Ayrshire, containing: -(-Ayr, a town on the Frith of Clyde, with con- 
 siderable leather manufactories, and 9,000 inhabitants. In the time of 
 Wallace and Bruce, viz. : at the end of the 13th, and in the beginning of the 
 14th century, Ayr was the scene of great events. Newton upon Ayr, a 
 borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Kilmarnock, a town on the Irwin, is noted 
 for its carpets, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Irwin (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
 Androssan (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Saltcoats (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 boroughs. 
 
 12. Lanarkshire, ox Clydesdale, containing : -(-Lanark, a town on the Upper 
 Clyde, with 9,000 inhabitants, and an important wool-spinning factory at New 
 Lanark Glasgow, a city on the Clyde, westward and 46 miles distant from 
 Edinburgh, has 280,000 inhabitants, and is thus the largest city in Scotland, 
 and at the same time the first in commerce and manufactures, and especially 
 noted for fine cotton goods. Its university is celebrated, and its cathedral is 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 261 
 
 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 the best preserved specimen of Gothic architecture in Scotland. In the 
 neighborhood are the celebrated Clyde Iron Works, and the lead mines 
 known by the name of Leadhills, which belong to the earl of Hopetoun. 
 Cambusneath, a borough with 4,000 inhabitants. Hamilton, a town on the 
 Clyde, with 10,000 inhabitants, and a splendid palace of the duke of Hamilton. 
 
 13. Renfrewshire, containing : -[-Renfrew, a borough on the Clyde, with 
 3,500 inhabitants. Paisley, a manufacturing town, on the Cart, with 60,000 
 inhabitants, is especially noted for the manufacture of the finest cotton goods, 
 and for the intelligence of her operative weavers. Once there was a celebra- 
 ted abbey here. Greenock, a maritime town, near the mouth of the Clyde, 
 is the principal seaport of the Scotch west coast, and has 36,000 inhabitants. 
 Port Glasgow is the seaport of Glasgow. The villages of Kilbarchan (with 
 4,500 inhabitants), Johnstown (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Eaglesham (with 
 2,500 inhabitants), are noted for their cotton manufactures. 
 
 14. Stirlingshire, containing : -["Stirling, a town, on the Forth, 32 miles 
 west-north-west of Edinburgh, is noted for its castle, anciently one of the 
 bulwarks of the kingdom, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
 Bannockburn, where on the 14th of June, 1314, King Edward II. of England 
 was totally defeated by the Scotch under Robert Bruce. Falkirk, a town, 
 on the Carron, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Near 
 Falkirk are the considerable iron-works in the village of Carron. The 
 borough of Grangemouth, at the mouth of the Carron, has 4,000 inhabitants, 
 Buchanan, a beautiful country-seat of the duke of Montrose. 
 
 15. Dumbartonshire, containing: -}-Dumbarton, a town, on the Clyde, 14 
 miles west-north west of Glasgow, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 castle, the ancient stronghold of the Scots, towering on the summit of a per- 
 pendicular rock 500 feet in height. The village of Helensburgh (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), is noted for sea-bathing. 
 
 16. Clackmannanshire, containing : -{-Clackmannan, a town, on the Forth, 
 with 5,000 inhabitants. Alloa, or Alloway, a town, on the Forth, with 7,000 
 inhabitants. Tillicoultry, a romantically situated village, on the Devon, with 
 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 17. Fife, or Fifeshire, containing : -(-Cupar, a town, on the Eden, with linen 
 manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants. St. Andrews, a city on the coast, be- 
 tween the friths of Forth and Tay, with a remarkable cathedral, a university, 
 canvass and linen manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants Before the reforma- 
 tion St. Andrews was the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland. The neigh- 
 
252 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 boring town of Dunfermline (with 20,000 inhabitants), is noted for its cotton 
 and linen manufactures, and was anciently very often the residence of the 
 Scottish kings. Kirkaldy, a town, on the Frith of Forth, with linen manufac- 
 tures, sea-bathing, and 6,000 inhabitants. Burntisland, a borough, on the 
 Frith of Forth, with 3,500 inhabitants. 
 
 18. Kinross-shire, containing: -{-Kinross, a town, with linen and cotton 
 manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants, is romantically situated on the Lochleven, 
 a lake with an isle, on which are the ruins of a castle where Mary Stuart 
 was in 1567 kept prisoner for a while. 
 
 19. Buteshire, comprising the following islands in the frith of Clyde, hav- 
 ing a total area of 213 square miles, and a population of 18,000 inhabitants : 
 the small but fertile isle of Bute, containing Rothsay, with 5,000 inhabitants, 
 much resorted to for sea-bathing ; the larger isle of Arran, where Ossian 
 shall have lived, containing Lamlash, a borough, with a fine harbor, and 
 6,000 inhabitants ; — Ailsa and the Cumbrays, very small isles. 
 
 20. Forfaxshire, or Angus, containing : -(-Forfax, a town on a lake of the 
 same name, northward and 23 miles distant from Dundee, with 9,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Dundee, a city on the frith of Tay, northward and 46 miles distant 
 from Edinburgh, has 64,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its sail-cloth and 
 other manufactures of hemp and coarse linen. Dundee is at the same time 
 one of the principal seaports of Scotland, as is also Montrose, a town at the 
 mouth of the Esk, with various manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Bre- 
 chin, a town on the Esk, with 1,000 inhabitants. Arbroath, or Aberbrothik, 
 a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a once stately 
 abbey. In the vicinity is a celebrated light-house, on the solitary rook 
 called Bellrock. 
 
 21. Kinkardine, or Mearns, containing : -|-Stonehaven, a maritime town, 
 between Aberdeen and Montrose, with 5,000 inhabitants. Bervie, or Inver- 
 bervie, a borough, with 1,500 inhabitants. Laurencekirk (with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Finnan, villages. 
 
 22. Aberdeenshire, containing : + Aberdeen, the largest city on the north 
 side of the Forth, at the mouth of the Dee, 100 miles north-north-east of 
 Edinburgh, has 70,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, and as the chief 
 ship-building port in Scotland. Peterhead, a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabi- 
 tants, mineral-waters, sea-bathing, and herring fishery. Frasersburgh, a 
 borough, with 3,000 inhabitants, is situated near Kinnaird's Head, where the 
 Scottish coast takes a westerly direction. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 253 
 
 Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 23. Banffshire, containing : -(-Banff, a town on the North Sea, 42 miles 
 north-north-west of Aberdeen, is noted for its linens, and herring fishery, and 
 has 8,000 inhabitants. St. Fergus (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Garmouth 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants), boroughs on the North Sea. Other boroughs are 
 Portsoy, Cullen, Fochabers, and Findhorn. 
 
 24. Elginshire, or Moray, containing : -(-Elgin, a town on the Lossie, with 
 an ancient, yet very remarkable Gothic cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
 Forres, a borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 25. Nairnshire, containing: -(-Nairn, a town on the Murray frith, with 
 4,000 inhabitants, and sea-bathing. 
 
 The Highland counties are the following : — 
 
 26. Perthshire, containing : -(-Pjerth, a town on the Tay, westward and 23 
 miles distant from Dundee, is noted for its schools, and for its cotton and linen 
 manufactures, and has 22,000 inhabitants. In the ancient castle of Scone, 
 about 5 miles distant from Perth, the Scottish kings used to be crowned. The 
 ancient castle of Glammis is supposed to be that where King Duncan was 
 murdered by Macbeth, while the latter shall have resided in the castle of 
 Dunsinan. The lake known by the name of Loch Katerine, has become 
 celebrated by Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. Dunkkld, a borough on the 
 Tay, with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently the capital of the Caledonian king- 
 dom, and is the pride of Scotland for grand and picturesque scenery. The 
 borough of Abernethy, on the Tay, was once the capital of the Picts. 
 
 27. Inverness-shire, containing : -(-Inverness, considered as the capital of the 
 Highlands, is situated at the head of Murray frith, and noted for its schools, 
 and manufactures of tartans, linen, and cotton goods; its population is 18,000 
 inhabitants. Inverlochy Castle shall once have been the residence of the 
 Caledonian kings. About the Hebrides, the middlemost isles of which belong 
 to this county, see below. 
 
 28. Argyleshire, or the Western Highlands, containing : -[-Inverary, a town 
 on the Loch Fyne, north-westward and 46 miles distant from Glasgow, with 
 8,000 inhabitants, herring fishery, and the splendid palace of the duke of 
 Argyle. Appin, a borough on the Loch Linnhe, with 2,500 inhabitants. 
 Campbelltown, a commercial town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its 
 herring fishery, and situated on the long and narrow peninsula of Cantyre. 
 The beautiful valley of Coe, or Glen-Coe, was, according to a tale of ancient 
 
254 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Scotland : its Geographical Divisions and its Islands. 
 
 times, the birth-place of Ossian. About the Hebrides, whose southernmost isles 
 belong to this county, see below. 
 
 29. Cromarty, containing : -{"Cromarty, a town on the Murray frith, north- 
 ward and 23 miles distant from Inverness, is noted for its fishery, and has 
 5,000 inhabitants. 
 
 30. Ross, containing: -{-Dingwall, a town on the Cromarty frith, with 
 4,000 inhabitants. Tain, a town on the Dornoch frith, with 3,500 inhabi- 
 tants. About the Hebrides, whose northernmost isles belong to this county, 
 see below. 
 
 31. Sutherland, containing : -j-Dornoch, a town on the frith of the same 
 name, with 3,000 inhabitants. Edderachyllis, a borough, with 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 32. Caithness, the northernmost county of Scotland, containing : -{-Thurso, 
 a maritime and the northernmost town of the British main land, with 6,000 
 inhabitants. John o' Groat's house is the most northern residence on this main 
 land. The maritime town of Wick (with 10,000 inhabitants), is noted for the 
 herring fishery. 
 
 The chief groups of the Scottish islands, are the following : — 
 
 (a.) The Hebrides, or Western Islands, between 200 and 300 in number, with 
 a total population of 90,000 inhabitants, who, for the most part, are Roman 
 Catholics. In the 9th century, the Hebrides were conquered by the Norwe- 
 gians, but subsequently subjected to the sway of the Scottish kings. The 
 most remarkable of the islands are : Islay, or Isla (the southernmost, 84 square 
 miles in extent, and with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its black-colored 
 cattle, and linen manufactures) ; Jura (only with 1,200 inhabitants) ; Mull 
 (341 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in hus- 
 bandry) ; Staffa (only half a mile in diameter, but remarkable for one of the 
 greatest curiosities in nature, called FingaTs Cave, which is more than 200 
 feet long, and, at its opening, 42 feet wide : on each side it is bounded by 
 splendid basaltic columns in perpendicular ranges, supporting at the top a 
 roof, 66 feet above the water, and formed by the broken ends of other basaltic 
 columns ; the cave was accidentally discovered in 1772, by an Irishman) ; Iona, 
 or Icolmkill (near Staffa, is noted in history as the residence of monks, who 
 lived in a monastery founded by St. Columban about the middle of the 6th 
 century, and diffused the light of learning and Christianity through many 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 255 
 
 Scottish Islands. 
 
 parts of northern Europe) ; Coll (with 1,300 inhabitants) ; Tyree (with 3,200 
 inhabitants) ; Skye (788 square miles, but only with 20,000 inhabitants, and 
 the neighboring little isles of Rum and Canna) ; Lewis (894 square miles, yet 
 with not more than 15,000 inhabitants, and the borough oiStornoway) ; North 
 Uist, and South Uist (with respectively 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants); St. 
 K>lda (a solitary isle, 21 square miles in extent, and inhabited by about 150 
 industrious islanders, who are much engaged in catching sea-fowl). 
 
 (b.) The Orkney Islands, separated from the northern extremity of Scottish 
 main land by the Pentland Frith They are 67 in number, 29 of which are 
 inhabited, with a total population of 40,000 inhabitants. These islands are 
 the resort of vast numbers of sea-fowl, which the islanders catch by descend- 
 ing with ropes, from the high cliffs to which the birds resort The Orkneys 
 were in the 9th centuiy conquered by the Norwegians, and subsequently ruled 
 by native earls, until they became subjected to the crown of Scotland. The 
 principal island is Pomona (213 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), whose 
 capital, Kirkwall (with 2,500 inhabitants), was anciently the residence of the 
 sovereign earls of the Orkneys. Stromness is the chief seaport of the island. 
 
 (c.) The Shetland Islands, north-eastward from the former, 86 in number 
 (yet only 40 are inhabited), with a total area of 980 square miles, and a 
 total population of 30,000 inhabitants. The little horses of Shetland, known 
 by the name of ponie9, are of great use in mountainous districts. The wool- 
 len stockings knitted by the islanders, are an article much in demand. The 
 Shetland Islands, conquered by the Norwegians in the 9th century, were 
 given in dowry to a Norwegian princess, who towards the end of the 15 th 
 century was married to King James III. of Scotland. The principal island 
 is Shetland, or Mainland, with 16,000 inhabitants, and the borough and sea- 
 port of Lerwick (with 1,200 inhabitants). The most fertile and beautiful 
 island is Yell (149 square miles, and 2,000 inhabitants). The northernmost 
 is Unst (43 square miles, and 2,400 inhabitants). 
 
256 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Ireland : Historical Sketch and Geographical Divisions. 
 
 C— THE KINGDOM OF IRELAND. 
 
 It comprises the great island of the same name, lying west of 
 Great Britain, has an area of 28,095 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 8,600,000 inhabitants. The Romans did never set a 
 foot on the Irish shore, and for this reason the early history of 
 this country is but little known until the 4th century, when the 
 Irish, in that period called Scots, began to make their inroads 
 into Scotland. So early as in the beginning of the 5th century 
 Christianity was introduced in Ireland, especially by Patricius, 
 or St. Patrick. The country was then ruled by many chiefs ; 
 subsequently the four present provinces were independent king- 
 doms. That Ireland in 1172 was conquered by the English, has 
 already been related above. 
 
 Ireland is divided into the 4 provinces of Leinster, Ulster, Con- 
 naught, and Munster, which are subdivided into 32 counties. 
 
 I. The province of Leinster, comprising the south-eastern part of Ireland, 
 is divided into 12 counties, viz.: — 1. The county of Dublin, containing: 
 -)-DuBLiN, the capital of Ireland, on both sides and at the mouth of the river 
 LifFey, with 310,000 inhabitants, numerous and beautiful public edifices (among 
 ■which St. Patrick's Cathedral, the Bank of Ireland, the Exchange, and the 
 Four Courts, are conspicuous), a university, 6 monasteries, 7 nunneries, many- 
 manufactures of linen, silks, cotton goods, etc., and an extensive commerce. 
 With its seaport, Kingston, Dublin is connected by an atmospheric railway. 
 
 2. The county of Wicklow, containing : -j-Wickxow, a maritime town, on the 
 Irish Sea, with 3,500 inhabitants. Arklow, a town, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
 Bray, and Rathdrum, boroughs with respectively 2,000 and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The county of Wexford, containing : -{-Wexford, a town on St. George's 
 Channel, with mineral waters, and 12,000 inhabitants. Enniscorthy, and 
 New Ross, towns with respectively 7,000 and 9,000 inhabitants. 4. The 
 county of Kilkenny, containing : -J-Kilkenny, a town on the Norr, with 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 257 
 
 Ireland : its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 30,000 inhabitants, a stately castle of the earl of Ormond, and one of the 
 finest cathedrals in Ireland. Moreover, Kilkenny is noted for its beautiful 
 white and black marble. The borough of Castle Comer is noted for its coal. 
 5. The county of Carlow, or Catherlagh, containing: -J-Carlow, a town on 
 the Barrow, with a remarkable ancient abbey, and 10,000 inhabitants. Tul- 
 low, a town on the Slaney, with 3j000 inhabitants. 6. The county of Kildare, 
 containing : -J-Kildare, a town on the so-called Curragh of Kildare, is noted 
 for horse-races, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : 
 Athy (with 4,000 inhabitants), Naas (with an ancient castle, once the resi- 
 dence of the kings of Leinster, and 3,500 inhabitants), and Maynooth (with 
 a noted Catholic college, and 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Queen's County, contain- 
 ing : -{"Maryborough, G r Queenstown, a town south-westward and 60 miles 
 distant from Dublin, with 4,000 inhabitants. This town bears its name in 
 honor of Queen Mary, who reigned from 1553 to 1558. Other towns of this 
 county are : Mount Mellick (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Mountrath (with 
 5,000 inhabitants). 8. King's County, containing : -[-Philipstown, a town on 
 the Grand Canal, bears its name in honor of King Philip of Spain, consort of 
 the above-nam»d Queen Mary, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
 this county are : Tullamore (with 8,000 inhabitants), Banagher (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), and Birr, or Parsonstown (with 6,000 inhabitants). 9. The 
 county of West Meath, containing : -j-Mullingar, a town on the Royal Canal, 
 with 6,000 inhabitants. Athlone, a town, with 12,000 inhabitants. 10. The 
 county of East Meath, or Meath, containing: -{-Trim, a town on a branch of 
 the Boyne, with 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kells 
 (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Navan (with 7,000 inhabitants). 11. The 
 county of Longford, containing : -{-Longford, a town on the Camlin, with 
 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Granard (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), and Lanesborough (with 5,000 inhabitants). 12. The county of 
 Louth, containing : -{-Dundalk, a town on the bay of the same name, carries 
 on a considerable commerce, and has 16,000 inhabitants. Drogheda, a town 
 at the mouth of the Boyne, with considerable commerce, and 22,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns of this county are : Carlingford (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 and Ardee (with 4,000 inhabitants). 
 
 II. The province of Ulster, comprising the northern part of Ireland, is 
 divided into 9 counties, viz.: — 13. The county of Antrim, containing: -[-Car- 
 rickfergus, a town on the Belfast Lough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Belfast, 
 the emporium of the north of Ireland, and centre of the linen trade, at the 
 
258 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Ireland: its Geographical Divisions 
 
 head of the Belfast Lough, northward and 92 miles distant from Dublin, has 
 56,000 inhabitants. Antrim (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lisburn (with 7,000 
 inhabitants), Balleyma (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lame (with 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Ballycastle (with 2,500 inhabitants), towns. Within the limits of 
 this county is the Giants causeway, an astonishing work of nature, consisting 
 of vast numbers of perpendicular columns of basaltic rock, from 200 to 400 
 feet high, compacted together over a space 600 feet long by about 180 broad, 
 and projecting into the sea an unknown distance. 14. The county of London- 
 derry, or Berry, containing : -{-Londonderry, a considerable seaport town, at 
 the mouth of the Foyle river, 115 miles north-north-west of Dublin, is strongly 
 fortified (in 1690-1 it sustained a siege by the forces of James II.), carries on 
 an important trade with America and the West Indies, and has 18,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Coleraine, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 15. The county of Donegal, or 
 Tyrconel, containing : -j-Lifford, a town on the Foyle, with 2,500 inhabitants. 
 Donegal, a town at the mouth of the Eask, with 4,500 inhabitants. The 
 town of Ballyshannon (with 9,000 inhabitants) is noted for its linen manu- 
 factures. 16. The county of Fermanagh, containing: -j-Enniskillen, a 
 romantically situated town, near the Lough Erne, with linqn manufactures, 
 and 8,000 inhabitants. 17. The county of Tyrone, containing: -4-Omagh, a 
 town on the Roe, with 4,000 inhabitants. Dungannon, a town on the Lough 
 Neagh, has 7,000 inhabitants, and is the chief seat of the O'Neals, known by 
 their animosity against the English. Strabane, a town on the Foyle, with 
 8,000 inhabitants. 18. The county of Cavan, containing : -j-Cavan (with 
 4,000 inhabitants), and Belturbet (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 19. The 
 county of Monaghan, containing : -{-Monaghan, a town with linen manufac- 
 tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Carrickmacross, a town, with 3,500 inhabitants. 
 20. The county of Armagh, containing : -{-Armagh, a town on the Callen, is 
 the ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland, and has 10,000 inhabitants, who are 
 much engaged in the linen trade. The town of Lurgan (with linen trade, 
 and 5,000 inhabitants), is sometimes called Little England. 21. The county 
 of Down, containing : -(-Downpatrick, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted 
 as the burial-place of St Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Newry, a 
 considerable seaport town, with 16,000 inhabitants. Donaghadee, a maritime 
 town, with 5,000 inhabitants, and a ferry between it and Port Patrick in 
 Scotland, the shortest route by sea to Great Britain. Bangor (with 4,000 
 inhabitants), and Strang ford (with 1,800 inhabitants), towns. 
 
 IIL The province of Connaught, comprising the middlemost part of western 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 259 
 
 Ireland: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 [reland, is divided into 5 counties, viz. : — 22. The county of Galway, contain- 
 ng: + Galway, a town on the Galway Bay, has 36,000 inhabitants, carries 
 m a considerable trade, and is noted as a resort of the gentry for sea-bathing. 
 Tuam, a towu on the Clare, is the seat of an Anglican archbishop, and has 
 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Loughrea (with linen 
 trade, and 7,000 inhabitants), and Ballinasloe (noted for the greatest cattle 
 fairs in Ireland, with 8,000 inhabitants). 23. The county of Mayo, containing : 
 -{-Castlebar, a town near Lough Lanach, with linen manufactures, and 6,000 
 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Killala (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Ballinrobe (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ballina (with 7,000 inhabitants). 
 24. The county of Sligo, containing : 4-Sligo, a considerable seaport town, on 
 the bay of the same name, with 15,000 inhabitants. 25. The county of Leitrim, 
 containing : -j-Carrick on Shannon, a town on the Shannon, with 2,500 inhab- 
 itants. The town of Leitrim (with 3,000 inhabitants) is also situated on the 
 Shannon. 26. The county of Roscommon, containing : -f~ Roscommon, a town, 
 with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Boyle (with 6,000 
 inhabitants), Athlone, or Etholone (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Castlereagh 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants). 
 
 IV. The province of Munster, comprising the south-western part of Ireland, 
 is divided into 6 counties, viz. : — 27. The county of Cork, containing : -|"Cork, 
 the second Irish city in population, having 130,000 inhabitants, is the emporium 
 of the south of Ireland, and chief mart of the provision trade ; and its harbor, 
 called the Cove, is strongly fortified and one of the best in the world. On 
 the isle Great-Island, within the harbor, is the town of Cove, with 7,000 inhab- 
 itants. Bandon, a town on the river of the same name, with linen and cotton 
 manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : 
 Kinsale (with 8,000 inhabitants), Micheltown (with 4,000 inhabitants), Youghall 
 (with 10,000 inhabitants), Mallow (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Fermoy (with 
 6,000 inhabitants). 28. The county of Waterford, containing : -j-Waterford 
 an import seaport town, 70 miles east-north-east of Cork, and 92 miles south- 
 south-west of Dublin, has 60,000 inhabitants, and an extensive intercourse 
 with England and Wales, and is noted for its trade in provisions, and New- 
 foundland fishery. Dcjngarvan, the largest fishing town in Ireland, westward 
 and 30 miles distant from Waterford, with 6,000 inhabitants. Lismore, a town 
 on the Blackwater, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral, and a 
 castle, reared in 1185 by King Henry II., and at present belonging to the 
 duke of Devonshire. 29. The county of Tipperary, containing : -{-Clonmel, 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Ireland : its Geographical Divisions— The British Colonies. 
 
 a town on the Suire, is the centre for the Irish butter trade, and has 18,000 
 inhabitants. Tipperary, a town near the Suire, south-westward and 100 
 miles distant from Dublin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cashel, a town, with 9,000 
 inhabitants, and the ruins of an ancient cathedral, where the kings of Munster 
 were crowned. Other towns of this county are : Carrick on Suire (with 8,000 
 inhabitants), and Thurles (with 6,000 inhabitants). 30. The county of Clare, 
 containing : -j-Ennis, a town on the Fergus, is noted for its stately Gothic 
 abbey, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Killaloe, a town on the Shannon, with 
 2,500 inhabitants. 31. The county of Limerick, containing : -J-Limerick, an 
 important commercial town, on the Shannon, north-westward and 70 miles 
 distant from Waterford, has 70,000 inhabitants, is largely engaged in the 
 provision trade, and was formerly noted for the strongest fortress in Ireland, 
 and for its firm stand in the cause of the Catholics. 32. The county of Kerry, 
 containing : -|-Tralee, a town on the Atlantic Ocean, with considerable fishery, 
 and 10,000 inhabitants. Killarney, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants, is situated 
 on the lake of Killarney, which is celebrated for the beauty and grandeur of 
 its scenery. Dingle, a town, with 6,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The British possessions and colonies are the following : — 
 
 {a.) In Europe : 1. The isle of Heligoland (see above). 2. Gib- 
 raltar (see under the head of Spain). 3. Malta (see under the 
 head of Italy). 4. The Ionian Isles, which will be found described 
 elsewhere in this work. 
 
 (b.) In Africa : Settlements in Senegambia and Upper Guinea ; 
 moreover, Cape Colony, St. Helena, Mauritius, etc. 
 
 (c.) In Asia : Hindoostan, provinces in Farther India, Ceylon 
 (belonging to the crown), Singapore, Hongkong, etc., etc. 
 
 (d.) In Australia : The continent of Australia, Van Diemen's 
 Land, New Zealand, and Norfolk Island. 
 
 . (e.) In America : British North America, Guiana, and many 
 islands of the West Indies, Bahamas, etc. « 
 
 The total area of all these possessions and colonies is estimated 
 at 4,686,000 square miles, and the total population at 131,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Total area : 24,644 square miles. 
 Total population : 7,558,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Holland and Belgium, together, were from old styled the 
 Netherlands, or Lowlands, on account of their level physical 
 character, so that parts of their surface are even lower than the 
 eea, which is prevented from overflowing the land by vast dikes, 
 or embankments. Thus, while Holland and Belgium are political 
 names, the Netherlands are a geographical name, like that of Italy, 
 for instance. 
 
 By first giving a general view of all Netherlands, in their 
 common physical and natural character, we avoid, at the same 
 time, the inconvenience of numerous repeatings. 
 
 The Netherlands are a maritime country, at the north-western 
 frontier of Germany, and on the north bounded by the North 
 Sea. 
 
 Since the revolution of 1830, they are divided into two kingdoms, 
 the northernmost of which is styled the Kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands* (until the year 1795, it was a republic known by the name 
 of the United Provinces of the Netherlands), while the southern 
 is styled the Kingdom of Belgium (till towards the end of last 
 century, known by the name of Austrian Netherlands). 
 
 * In common life, it is sometimes called the kingdom of Holland, but a 
 kingdom of this name has never existed, except in the short period from 1806 
 to 1810; and Holland has never been anything else than a province of the 
 whole state. 
 
262 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Netherlands : Political Division, Climate, etc. 
 
 Both were however united, first until the last quarter of the 
 16th century, and then again in the period from 1815 to 1830. 
 Of the above-stated total area and population — 
 
 Square miles. Inhabitants. 
 
 The kingdom of the Netherlands proper takes up . 11,832 2,926,000 
 Its provinces of Luxemburg and Limburg, which 
 
 politically belong to Germany, take up .... 1,395 282,000 
 
 The Kingdom of Belgium takes up 11,411 4,350,000 
 
 Total, 24,644 1,558,000 
 
 The country, as has already been mentioned, is level, with the 
 exception of a small part in the south-east, where low hills grad- 
 ually rise to the Ardennes (see Introduction to Europe, page 6). 
 Mostly there is no great variety in the scenery of the landscape ; 
 especially in the North Netherlands, grass and cows, canals and 
 wind-mills, and cleanly villages, or towns, invariably relieve one 
 another with picturesque effect. 
 
 About the Zuyder Zee, Dollart, the lakes and rivers, as the Meuse, 
 Scheldt, etc., see pages 9, 11, and 16. The country is intersected 
 by numerous canals, the most remarkable of which is the great 
 canal of North Holland, extending from the Helder to Amster- 
 dam, cost several million of florins, and will float a ship of the 
 line. 
 
 The climate is in general more moderate than in eastern coun- 
 tries in the same parallels, but frequently moist. In the southern 
 half of the Netherlands it is somewhat more wholesome than in 
 the northern half. 
 
 The more or less marshy soil is (with the exception of the 
 North Netherland province of Drenthe, and the Belgian province 
 of Luxemburg) extraordinary fertile. In North Netherlands is 
 the rearing of cattle prevailing, and in Belgium agriculture which 
 has attained here the highest pitch of improvement. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 203 
 
 Geographical Features— History. 
 
 Belgium abounds in iron and coal ; the kingdom of the Neth- 
 erlands abounds in peat, which is almost the only fuel used there. 
 The cattle is of an excellent breed, especially in the proviuces of 
 Groningen, Utrecht and Holland, South Brabant, East and West 
 Flanders. The horses too are of a good breed. Butter of fiue 
 quality is indeed raised in Belgium, but by far more in the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands, where butter and cheese are largely 
 exported, partly even to America and India. The most numer- 
 ous flocks of sheep are to be found in the provinces of Luxem- 
 burg, Flanders, Groningen, Friesland, and North Holland. The 
 rearing of hogs is chiefly carried on in the provinces of Liege, 
 Namur, Luxemburg, and Friesland. The waters abound in 
 fishes of various kinds. Extensive forests are not to be found 
 in the kingdom of the Netherlands, and are in Belgium very 
 scarce, except in Luxemburg, and partly in Hainault, Liege, and 
 Namur. The Belgian soil yields excellent wheat ; moreover, 
 hemp and flax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. In the northern 
 half of the Netherlands sufficient corn for home consumption is 
 not raised, but so much the more vegetables (even largely ex- 
 ported), rape-seed, etc. Besides this the province of Holland is 
 several centuries since noted for its culture of flowers, especially 
 of tulips. In this province are also raised vast quantities of ex- 
 cellent strawberries. 
 
 Of commerce, manufactures, etc., shall be treated separately 
 below ; and we will now give an historical sketch of all Nether- 
 lands until their separation during the reign of King Philip II. 
 of Spain, their sovereign then. 
 
 History. — In the days of the Romans, the southern half of the Netherlands 
 was inhabited by the Belgians, and the northern half by the Batavians ; at 
 the northern boundaries of the latter lived the Frie&es, or Frieslanders. 
 About the year 54 before the Christian era, Julius Csesar subdued the Bel- 
 gians and Frieses, and entered upon friendly terms with the Batavians. Since 
 
264 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Netherlands— Historical Sketch. 
 
 the decay of the Roman empire the Netherlands came under the sway of the 
 Franks ; and by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 32) the 
 northern, and after 887 also the remainiug part of the Netherlands was an- 
 nexed to the German empire. The German emperors appointed dukes and 
 earls governors of the Netherlandish provinces ; yet gradually they made 
 their office inheritable and themselves independent so early as in the 10th 
 century. In this way arose the earldoms of Flanders, Holland, the duchy of 
 Brabant, and other lordships. In 1369 Margaret, the only heiress of Flanders 
 entered into marriage with Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus be- 
 came possessed of that earldom (see History of Burgundy, page 200). At 
 the same time the line of the ancient dukes of Brabant had become extinct, 
 and the only heiress, Johanna of Brabant, bequeathed the duchy to her grand- 
 nephew, Anton of Burgundy, the son of Philip the Bold. In the course of 
 time other parts of the Netherlands were annexed to these possessions, and 
 in the latter half of the 15th century, nearly the whole was under the sway 
 of the duke of Burgundy. The last duke in the male line of this house, 
 Charles the Bold, died in 1477, and his only daughter, Mary, inherited the 
 Netherlands together with Burgundy proper. She was married to the Aus- 
 trian archduke Maximilian ; and their son Philip was married with Johanna 
 of Castile, the only heiress of the united crowns of Castile and Aragou. 
 Philip's and Johanna's eldest son, the renowned emperor Charles V., inherited 
 all these immense possessions, and bequeathed the Netherlands, together with 
 Spain, etc., to his son Philip II of Spain. During the reign of the latter the 
 northern provinces of the Netherlands separated themselves from the south- 
 ern provinces, as an independent state, by the name of the " Republic of the 
 United Provinces." As such they were preliminarily acknowledged by Spain 
 in 1609, and definitively in 1648. The southern provinces continued to be an- 
 nex^l to Spain, until by the terms of the treaty, concluded at Rastadt on 
 the 7th of March, 1714, they were ceded to Austria, which in 1797 ceded 
 them to France. In 1814 they were restored to Austria, that however re- 
 nounced them in favor of an arrangement, by which the northern and southern 
 provinces were reunited under the name of the " Kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands." But, as has already been told, the revolution in 1830 separated them 
 again ; and since that time the northern provinces have retained the name of 
 a kingdom of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces are united to a 
 " Kingdom of Belgium." 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 265 
 
 The Kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 
 I— THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS* 
 
 Aeea: 13,227 square miles. 
 Population : 3,208,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Of the here-stated area and population are to be deducted 1,395 
 square miles, and 282,000 inhabitants, as belonging to the grand- 
 duchy of Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, 
 which 'politically form part of Germany, though they are ruled by 
 the sovereign of the Netherlands. Thus the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands proper has 2,926,000 inhabitants, among whom the 
 prevailing religion is Calvinism. But all religions are tolerated, 
 and more than one third of the people are Catholics (according 
 to the census of 1844, their number was 1,100,616, inclusive those 
 of Luxemburg). In point of origin, the Netherlanders, or Dutch, 
 belong to the great Germanic tribe. (See Introduction to Europe, 
 page 19.) 
 
 Beside the rearing of cattle and other branches of husbandry, 
 the chief means of sustenance is the commerce, that extends over 
 all parts of the world. The emporiums are Amsterdam and 
 Rotterdam. Some provinces are noted for their manufactures, 
 especially of linen and paper. Yet, upon the whole, this kingdom 
 is more a commercial than a manufacturing state. I 
 
 Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities, viz. : 
 at Leyden (instituted in 1575, and in 1846 frequented by 602 
 students), at Groningen (instituted in 1616, and in 1846 frequented 
 by 300 students), and at Utrecht (instituted in 1636, and in 1846 
 frequented by 444 students). Three other similar institutions, 
 
 * Frequently called Holland, but that a kingdom of Holland does not exist, 
 has been already remarked 
 12 
 
266 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Kingdom of the Netherlands : its Finance —Navy— Army. 
 
 on a smaller scale, styled Atbenaea, are in Amsterdam. Franeker, 
 and Deventer. Beside these, there are 68 Latin schools, 9 
 seminaries,* 70 secondary, 2,125 public schools, etc. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy, limited by rep. 
 resentatives of the people in two chambers, styled General States. 
 
 In 1847, the public revenue was estimated at 70,742,323, and 
 the expenditure at 70,283,555 florins, which thus would have 
 yielded a surplus of 458,768 florins. The public debt amounted 
 to 1,232,961,711 florins, but inclusive more than 203,000,000 from 
 the period 1815-1830. which are to be paid by Belgium. The 
 Netherlandish colonies in India, yielded in 1844 a nett revenue 
 of 2,123,424 florins. 
 
 The army amounted, hitherto, to 43,000 men during peace, 
 and to 76,000 during war, beside 25,000 men of Schutters, or 
 militia, who could be increased to 80.000 men in case of neces- 
 sity. Yet lately a reduction of the army has taken place. The 
 navy consists of 9 ships of the line, 19 frigates, and 37 sloops of 
 war, brigs, etc., 14 steamers, and 87 gun-boats. (About the year 
 1790, the navy consisted of 24 ships of the line, and 40 other 
 vessels of war, but the English seized nearly the whole of it.) 
 The Netherlandish navy in the eastern colonies, consists of 1 
 frigate, and 20 other vessels. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : — 1 . The military order 
 of William, in 4 classes, instituted in 1 8 1 5. 2. The Netherlandish 
 lion order, likewise in 4 classes, and instituted in 1815. 3. The 
 Luxemburgian order of the oak crown, instituted in 1841. 
 
 History. — In the history of the Netherlands, the above mentioned separa- 
 tion of the northern provinces from the whole political body, was chiefly urged 
 by the Prince William of Orange (see page 223), who by King Philip II. had 
 been appointed governor of the provinces of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, 
 and, filled with immoderate ambition and personal hatred against his sove- 
 
 * About the signification of these terms, see the note, page 65. 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 267 
 
 History of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 
 reign, instigated the people under the pretext of maintaining their rights. 
 He, in 1579, prevailed upon the just-mentioned three provinces and those of 
 Geldern and Friesland, to declare their independence, if not directly, yet indi- 
 rectly, by uniting themselves into the so-called Union, of Utrecht, to which sub- 
 sequently also acceded Groningen and OverysseL These thus united seven 
 provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldern, Friesland, Groningen, and 
 Overyssel) chose the prince of Orange their chief, conferring upon him the modest 
 title of a Stattholder, or vice-regent (to wit, of the king of Spain) ; because they 
 would fain not to appear in the light of rebels, but of having only maintained 
 their rights and privileges. Nevertheless, they actually established an independ- 
 ent republic that became one of the most influential states, and whose navy was 
 in the 17th century the most powerful for a while. Yet their own Stattholder, 
 William III. of Nassau-Orange, having only in view his personal interest, and 
 aiming at the British crown (see British History, page 233), set aside the 
 interest of the republic, and gradually brought it down from its high pitch of 
 jwwer, in favor of England. To the renowned Netherlandish East Indian 
 Company, established in 1602, all the important Netherlandish colonies in 
 Asia, Africa, and America, did belong (though they were held in the name of 
 the General States, or government), and the nett annual profit, earned by this 
 company, was estimated at 3,000,000 ducats. In 1794, the French waged war 
 against the republic, and transformed it into a so-called Batavian Republic ; 
 its last Stattholder, William V., fled to England, and was base enough to 
 deliver over nearly the whole navy to the English. On the other hand, the 
 French compelled the republic to share in their wars, and in this way the 
 Netherlandish colonies were lost and conquered by the English. In 1806, 
 Napoleon transformed the Batavian Republic into a Kingdom of Holland, of 
 which he appointed king his brother Louis, who, however, abdicated in 1810, 
 upon which this state was incorporated with the French empire. In 1813, the 
 Netherlander, or Dutch, proclaimed the son of William V. their sovereign ; 
 England restored most of the conquered colonies, but retained three of the 
 most valuable ones, viz. : Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara. For this loss, 
 Netherland should have been indemnified by the above-stated arrangement of a 
 reunion with the southern provinces. However, in 1830, it was again England 
 that urged the separation, without caring in the least for that stipulation. 
 William T., king of the Netherlands since 1813, abdicated in 1840, and was 
 succeeded by his son William II., who died in 1849, and was succeeded by 
 his son William III., born on the 19th of February, 1817. 
 
268 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 The kingdom of the Netherlands is divided into 10 provinces, 
 2 of which, North and South Holland, comprise the ancient 
 province of Holland, while of the 8 others, Drenthe was formerly 
 only a district, and North Brabant (conquered by the ancient 
 republic) belonged to what was styled the " General ty countries." 
 (About Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, 
 see under the head of Germany.) 
 
 1. The province of Holland (2,007£ square miles, and, according to the 
 census of 1846, with a population of 1,027,574 inhabitants), which anciently 
 formed the chief constituent part of the earldom of Holland, that in 1299 
 was inherited by the earls of Hainault, and in 1425 by the duke of Burgundy. 
 At present it is divided into North and South Holland. North Holland 
 (894^ square miles, and in 1846 with 468,737 inhabitants), contains : Amster- 
 dam, the principal city and emporium of the kingdom, on the Amstel river, 
 that disembogues here into the Y (as a branch of the Zuyder Zee is styled), 
 with 225,000 inhabitants. The city is intersected by canals, over which there 
 are 290 bridges, and which mostly are bordered by rows of trees. The 
 houses and streets are kept remarkably clean, and the arrangements in the 
 interior of the former give evidence of great comfort. Among the numerous 
 public edifices, the most remarkable is the royal palace, formerly the city- 
 hall, which was reared in the period from 1648 to 1655, at the expense of 
 18 million florins. It has 282 feet in front, 235 in breadth, and 116 in height, 
 while its magnificent cupola (containing the finest chime of bells in the Neth- 
 erlands) rises 41 feet above the roof. It is built of freestone, and rests upon 
 a foundation of 13,659 piles, or long timbers, driven into the ground. Am- 
 sterdam was founded in the 12th century. Zaardam, or Saardam, formerly 
 the largest village in Holland, at present a town, in the neighborhood of Am- 
 sterdam, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its numerous windmills 
 (more than 700) and docks, where the Russian emperor, Peter I. in 1697 suf- 
 fered himself to be engaged as an apprentice, in order to get a practical 
 knowledge of the art of ship-building. The village of Broek irit Waterland, 
 the residence of rich inhabitants of Amsterdam, who have retired from busi- 
 ness, is noted for the remarkable cleanliness of its houses and streets. No 
 stranger is allowed to enter any house without having previously pulled off 
 his boots and put on clean slippers. Muiden, or Muyden, (with 1,800 inhabi- 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 269 
 
 The Province of Holland. 
 
 tants), and Naarden (with 3,000 inhabitants), fortified towns on the Zuydcr 
 Zee. Medemblik, on the Zuyder Zee, with 2,800 inhabitants, is considered 
 as the most ancient town in North Holland, and as the residence of the an- 
 cient kings of Friesland. Other towns in North Holland are : Weesp (with 
 3,200 inhabitants), Monnikendam (with 2,900 inhabitants), Purmerend (with 
 3,300 inhabitants, largely engaged in the cheese trade), Edam (noted for its 
 cheese, with 4,600 inhabitants), Alkmaar (also noted for its cheese, with 
 10,000 inhabitants), Enkhuyzen (noted for its herring fishery, with 7,000 in- 
 habitants), and Hoorn (with 10,000 inhabitants, who likewise are largely en- 
 gaged in the butter and cheese trade). The village of Helder, at the entrance 
 to Zuyder Zee, has 2,000 inhabitants, who for the most part consist of pilots, 
 is noted for its excellent harbor, called Nieuwe Diep. Near Helder is the 
 Island of Texel (53 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants), noted for its sheep 
 and cheese. Other smaller islands here are : Vlieland and Terschelling. 
 The town of Haarlem, near the lake of the same name, westward and 12 
 miles distant from Amsterdam, has 23,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 organ with 8,000 (or, according to other statements, only with 4,500) pipes 
 and 64 registers, and its trade in flowers. South Holland (1,113 square miles, 
 and in 1846 with 558,83*7 inhabitants) contains : the Hague (in Dutch also 
 styled & ' Graavenhaag), the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, near 
 the North Sea, 28 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, with 66,000 inhabi- 
 tants, is one of the most regularly and best built cities in Europe, and con- 
 tains many handsome buildings. The neighboring village of Scheveningest 
 (with 5,600 inhabitants) is much resorted to for sea-bathing. Near the 
 Hague is also the village of Ryswick, with an ancient castle, where the peace 
 of Ryswick was concluded in 1697. Levden, a town between the Hague 
 and Haarlem, with 36,000 inhabitants, is celebrated for its university. Delft, 
 a town situated between the Hague and Rotterdam, with 17,000 inhabitants, 
 is remarkable as the burial-place of the princes of Orange, of the Admiral 
 Tromp, etc. The prince, William I. of Orange, was murdered here in 1584. 
 Rotteroam, a city on the Merwe (as the Meuse is called here, see page 16), 
 52 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, is next to Amsterdam the empo- 
 rium of the kingdom, contains a great many stately houses and remarkable 
 public edifices, and has 83,000 inhabitants. The renowned scholar Erasmus 
 was born here, in 1467. In its neighborhood is the town of Dort, w T ith im- 
 portant commerce, and 21,500 inhabitants ; it is noted in history for the Synod 
 (in 1618 and 1619), which condemned Arminianism. Other towns of South 
 
 6* 
 
270 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Provinces of Holland and Zealand. 
 
 Holland are : Oudeicater (with 2,000 inhabitants), Gouda (noted for its earthen 
 ware, especially tobacco pipes, has 14,000 inhabitants), Schiedam, (noted for 
 its gin, and herring fishery, has 12,500 inhabitants), Maassluis (with 4,500 
 inhabitants), Vlaardingen (with 8,000 inhabitants), Viancn (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Schoonhoven (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nieuwpoort (with 800 inhabi- 
 tants), Asperen (with 800 inhabitants), Leerdam (with 1,900 inhabitants), and 
 Gorkum (with 8,500 inhabitants). Between Dort and the sea, is the island 
 of Voorne, with the towns of Helvoetsluis (formerly the station of the packets 
 for England, with 2,600 inhabitants), and Briel (with 5,000 inhabitants, noted 
 in history for its occupation by the so-called Watergeuses in 1572). Another 
 island is Over-Flakke, or Zuyd- Voorne, with the town of Goree (with 800 
 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The province of Zealand (649 square miles, and in 1846 with 157,062 
 inhabitants), comprising islands formed by the mouths of the Scheldt, and a 
 part of the main land, known by the name of Staatsflanders. It was anciently 
 an earldom, which belonged to the earls of Holland, and in 1436 came under 
 the sway of the dukes of Burgundy. Its chief islands are the following : — 
 a. The island of Walcheren, containing ; Middelburg, fortified capital of the 
 province, has 16,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent town halL 
 Flushing, a strongly fortified town, the great naval depot of the kingdom, 
 and station of the navy, with a fine and spacious harbor, and 8,500 inhabi- 
 tants. The renowned Dutch admiral Ruyter, was born here in 1607. Other 
 towns of this island are : Westkapellen (with 1,900 inhabitants), Veere (with 
 1,500 inhabitants), Domburg (with 600 inhabitants), and Arnemuyden (with 900 
 inhabitants). 6. The island of Zuid-Beveland, the largest and finest of the 
 province, containing : Goes, a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. Bath, a fort com- 
 manding the entrance to the Scheldt, c. The island of Noord-Beveland, 
 once the most beautiful and most fertile of Zealand, but in 1530 and 1532 
 laid waste by terrible inundations, contains at present several villages, and 
 the borough of Kortgene, with 700 inhabitants, d. The island of Schouwen, 
 noted for its madder, and containing the towns of Zieriksee (with trade in 
 madder, and 7,500 inhabitants) and Brouwershaven (with numerous breweries, 
 and 1,000 inhabitants), e. The island of Tholen, containing the towns of 
 Tholen (with 3,000 inhabitants) and St. Martensdyk (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
 /. The continental part of Zealand, until 1648 belonging to the ancient earldom 
 of Flanders, and since called Staats-Flanders, or Dutch Flanders, contains 
 the following towns : Sluis (in French, called Ecluse, strongly fortified, with 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 271 
 
 The Provinces of Zealand, Utrecht, and (inldern. 
 
 2,100 inhabitants), Biervliet (with 2,000 inhabitants), Saa van Gent (with 
 1,000 inhabitants), Axel (with 2,800 inhabitants), Hulst (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Ysendyk (with 1,300 inhabitants), A ardenburg (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Oostburg (with 900 inhabitants), Ter Neuse (with 1,500 inhabitants), and 
 Philippine (with 600 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The province of Utrecht (532£ square miles, and in 1846 with 153,083 
 inhabitants), situated between Holland and Geldern, on the north bounded by 
 the Zuyder Zee, was since the year 695 the lordship of a sovereign bishop, 
 and in 1528 purchased by the Emperor Charles V., who annexed it to the 
 government of Holland. It contains : Utrecht, the capital of the province, 
 on a branch of the Rhine, 20 miles south-south-east of Amsterdam, has 45,000 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its university, its St. Martin's church, reared in 
 the 14th century, whose steeple is 388 feet high, and for the peace concluded 
 here in 1713. The neighboring village of Zeyst, settled by Moravian Brethren, 
 is noted for its boarding school for young ladies, and has 2,000 inhabitants. 
 Amersfoort, a town on the Eem, 12 miles east-north-east of Utrecht, with 
 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Rhenen (with 3,000 
 inhabitants, and the so called king's house, where the unfortunate Elector 
 Frederic V. lived in 1621), Ysselstein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Woerden (with 
 2,800 inhabitants), Wyk, surnamed te, or by Duurstede (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 and Montfort (with 1,850 inhabitants). 
 
 4. The province of Geldern, or Gelderland (2,007 J square miles, and in 
 1846 with 366.468 inhabitants), situated between the German frontier and the 
 Zuyder Zee, did primitively belong to the German empire, and was in 1543 
 annexed to the duchy of Burgundy. It contains : Arnheim, or Arnhem, the 
 capital of the province, 37 miles east-south-east of Utrecht, is strongly fortified, 
 has 15,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of the earls and dukes 
 of Gelderland. Nimeguen, a fortified town on the Waal, southward and 9 
 mile? distant from Arnheim, has 19,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable for the 
 peace concluded here in 1679. On the neighboring Heath of Mook, the 
 adherents of the Prince William of Orange were in 1574 totally defeated by 
 the Spaniards. Harderwyk, a town on the Zuyder Zee, with 5,200 inhabi- 
 tants, was formerly noted for a university founded in 1648. Zutphen, a town 
 on the Yssel, has 11,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of sove- 
 reign earls of Zutphen, and in the middle ages a member of the Hanseatic 
 League. In its vicinity is the fine royal palace het Loo, with a beautiful 
 garden and park. Other towns of this province are : TJtiel (with 5,200 inhab- 
 
272 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Netherlandish Provinces of Overyssel and Friesland. 
 
 itants), Bommel, or Salt-Bommel (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kuylenburg (with 
 5,300 inhabitants), Oroenlo, or Grol (with 2,000 inhabitants), LoeJiem (with 
 1,800 inhabitants), Borkelo (with 1,200 inhabitants), Doesburg (with 3,500 
 inhabitants), Deutichem (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wageningen (with 4,500 inhab- 
 itants), Elburg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Nieuwkerk (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Hattem (with 2,800 inhabitants), Zevenaer, or Sevenaer (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
 and Huissen (with 1,100 inhabitants). 
 
 5. The province of Overyssel (1,299 square miles, and in 1846 with 211,279 
 inhabitants), was anciently, together with Utrecht, under the sway of a sove- 
 reign bishop, and in 1528 purchased by Charles V. and annexed to the duchy 
 of Burgundy ; it contains : Zwoll, strongly fortified capital of the province, 
 near the Yssel and Vechte rivers, north-eastward and 52 miles distant from 
 Utrecht, with 17,500 inhabitants. Deventer, a town on the Yssel, is noted 
 for its honey-cakes, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
 are : Campen (with 10,000 inhabitants), Vollenhoven (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
 Hasselt (with 1,500 inhabitants), Almelo (with 3,200 inhabitants), Ommen (with 
 1,050 inhabitants), Hardenberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Oldenzaal (with 4,800 
 inhabitants), Enacliede (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Steenwyk (with 2,500 
 inhabitants). 
 
 6. The province of Friesland (1,043| square miles, and in 1846 with 
 245,266 inhabitants), situated on the North Sea and Zuyder Zee, and sepa- 
 rated from East Friesland (belonging to Germany) by the province of Gronin- 
 gen. Friesland, formerly by way of distinction frequently called West Fries- 
 land (with reference to East Friesland), anciently formed part of the country 
 inhabited by the Frieslanders, and was subsequently ruled by native princes. 
 In the period from 1436 to 1523 it was gradually annexed to the duchy of Bur- 
 gundy, or the Netherlands. It contains : Leeuwarden, the capital of the province, 
 83 miles north-north-east of Amsterdam, carries on a considerable trade, and 
 has 22,500 inhabitants. Franeker, a town, formerly noted for a university, has 
 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Haarlingen (with 8,500 
 inhabitants), Dokkwn (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sneek (with 7,500 inhabitants), 
 Workum (with 3,600 inhabitants), Hindelopen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sta- 
 veren (once the largest town of Friesland, and the residence of its princes, 
 but at present only with 1,800 inhabitants), Bohward (with 2,800 inhabitants), 
 and Heerenveen (with 1,900 inhabitants). Near the coast of Friesland are 
 the isles of Ameland (with 3,300 inhabitants), and Schiermonnikoog (with 
 2,000 inhabitants). 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 273 
 
 The Provinces of Groningen, Dre nthe and North Brabant. 
 
 7. The province of Groningen (905£ square miles, and in 1846 with 
 189,714 inhabitants), situated between Friesland and the German frontier, on 
 the north bounded by the North Sea, was primitively ruled by German 
 governors, who in the course of time made themselves independent, and 
 came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. It contains: 
 Groningen, fortified capital of the province, half way between Leeuwarden 
 and Emden (the latter town belongs to East Friesland), has 31,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its university, its town-hall, and St Martin's church 
 with high steeple and excellent organ. ' Delfzyl, a fortified town on the 
 Dollart, with 3,700 inhabitant". The town of Dam, or Apingculam, with 3,600 
 inhabitants, is noted for its horse marts. Winschoten, a fortified town on the 
 Rensel, with 4,000 inhabitants. Bottutn, a little island near the coast, with 
 250 inhabitants. . 
 
 8. The province of Drenthe (958J square miles, and in 1846 with 80,978 
 inhabitants), situated between Overyssel and Gelderland, did for a long while 
 belong to the German empire, and came in 1536 under the sway of the 
 Netherlandish sovereign. In the time of the republic, Drenthe was not a 
 province, but a territory under the immediate government of the General 
 States. It contains : Assen, the capital of the province, on a canal connect- 
 ing it with the Zuyder Zee, southward and 15 miles distant from Groningen, 
 with 2,800 inhabitants. Frederiksoort is a settlement for the poor, who are 
 engaged here in husbandry and other branches of industry, and get in this 
 manner amply the means of sustenance. Its population amounts to 2,500 
 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the town of Meppel, with 6,500 in- 
 habitants. Koevoerden, a fortified town near the frontier of Germany, with 
 2,800 inhabitants. 
 
 9. The province of North Brabant (1,970 square miles, and in 1846 with 
 390,386 inhabitants), formerly a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Bra- 
 bant, and in the beginning of the 17th century conquered by the Dutch, 
 contains : Bois le Due (this is the French name, while the Dutch call it Herto- 
 genbosch), strongly fortified capital of the province, in a plain, intersected by 
 canals, 32 miles south-south-east of Utrecht, with a remarkable church and 
 town-hall, numerous manufactures, considerable commerce, and 21,500 inhab- 
 itants. Breda, a strongly fortified town, 23 miles west-south-west of Bois le 
 Due, with 14,500 inhabitants, is noted for its principal church with 2 organs 
 and the sepulchres of several earls of Nassau. By the terms of the treaty of 
 peace concluded here on the 10th of July, 1668, the Netherlandish republic 
 
 ■jo* 
 
274 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions and C<>k>;iie3. 
 
 ceded the city of New York (then called New Amsterdam) to England- 
 Other more or less strongly fortified towns of this province are : Bergen op 
 Zoom (with 8,000 inhabitants), Geetruidenberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Steenbergen (with 4,300 inhabitants), the Klundert (with 900 inhabitants), 
 Willemstadt (with 2,000 inhabitants), Heusden (with 2,100 inhabitants), Grave 
 (with 2,800 inhabitants), Ravensteen (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Workum 
 (with 800 inhabitants). Eindhoven, a town on the Dommel, has 4,100 inhab- 
 itants, and is noted for its manufactures of cotton goods, linen, etc. The town 
 of Tilburg (with 13,500 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth manufactures; and 
 the town of Helmond (with 3,200 inhabitants) for its linen manufactures. 
 Osterhout, a borough, with numerous potteries, and 7,500 inhabitants. 
 
 10. The duchy of Limburg has, as Netherlandish province, an extent of 852 
 square miles, and a population of 198,000 inhabitants, but is divided into two 
 districts, of which the one (viz. : the district of Roeremonde) is politically 
 forming part of Germany, and, for this reason, to be described under that 
 head ; while the other, viz. : the district of Maestricht (46 8 J square miles, 
 and in 1846 with 103,931 inhabitants), forms a constituent part of the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands proper, and contains : Maestricht, the capital of 
 this district, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, on the Meuse, has 
 31,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather manufactures, and its quarry in 
 St Peter's hill containing not less than 20,000 horizontal galleries, which have 
 been cut out here in a period of nearly 2,000 years. The town and fortress of 
 Maestricht was conquered by the Dutch in 1632, and ceded to them formally 
 in 1648. Venloo, a fortified town, on the Meuse, with 7,000 inhabitants. 
 
 About Luxemburg, see under the head of Germany. 
 
 To the kingdom of the Netherlands belong the following 
 colonies : — 
 
 1. In Asia : the islands of Java, Sumatra, Amboina, and other 
 of the Spice Islands, etc., the greatest part of the island of Celebes, 
 and settlements on Borneo, the total area of which is computed 
 at 97,405 square miles, and the total population at 9,750,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 2. In Africa : settlements on the coast of Upper Guinea, 
 estimated at 2,790 square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants. 
 
 3. In America : the colony of Surinam in Guiana, and the 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 275 
 
 Kingdom of Belgium. 
 
 West Indian islands of Curacoa, St. Eustatius, and two smaller 
 ones, the total area of which is estimated at 39,064 square miles, 
 and the total population at 101,500 inhabitants. 
 
 That Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara, were likewise Neth- 
 erlandish colonies, but ceded to England in 1814, is already 
 mentioned above. 
 
 II— THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 
 
 Area: 11,417 square miles. 
 Population : 4,350,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The population of this kingdom consists (with the exception 
 of about 25,000 Protestants, etc.) of Roman Catholics, under the 
 ecclesiastical direction of 1 archbishop (at Mechlin) and 5 bishops 
 (at Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Namur, and Liege), and with nearly 
 500 monasteries and nunneries. In point of origin, the majority 
 of the people belongs to the great Germanic tribe, and is known 
 by the name of Flemings, differing but little from the Dutch, in 
 language, customs, and manners. The people in the south, or the 
 Walloons, are, for the most part, descendants of the ancient Gauls, 
 and speak the French language. 
 
 It has already been remarked, that agriculture is on a high 
 pitch of improvement in Belgium. However, the various branches 
 of husbandry are, by far, not the only means of sustenance here, 
 as the Belgians do also excel in manufactures; and, moreover, 
 as Belgium is the most thickly settled country in Europe, the 
 
276 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Belgium: its Manufactures, Commerce, etc. 
 
 ratio of population being 381 inhabitants on a square mile, suffi- 
 cient corn for home consumption cannot be raised, so that, for 
 instance, in the years 1842 and 1843 corn was imported at the 
 value of 6,600,0 00 florins. 
 
 The chief objects of manufacture are lace (renowned from 
 old : the centres of its fabrication are Brussels and Mechlin ; 
 other places noted for it are Bruges, Ghent, and St. Tron ; a 
 pound of the finest twisted thread for bone-lace, costs about 2.000 
 florins), cloth (especially in the province of Liege), linen (especially 
 in Flanders, but also in Brabant and Hainault), cotton goods 
 (Ghent, Brussels, etc.), fire-arms, cutlery, and steam engines (Liege, 
 Namur, Charleroi), leather (Stablo, Liege, and Ghent), and carpets 
 (Tournay, etc.). 
 
 Though Belgium possesses, altogether, no more than 128 mer- 
 chant vessels, beside some steamers, and therefore its own ship- 
 ping is very insignificant, its commerce is of great importance. 
 Thus, in 1843, the exports and imports were estimated at the 
 value of 516,738,461 francs, viz. : the imports at 294,584,180, and 
 the exports at 222,154,281 francs. In 1845, the exports had 
 increased by the value of nearly 26,000,000, and the imports (for 
 a great part, transit goods and cotton for fabrication) by that of 
 57,500,000 florins. 
 
 The prevailing system of education, is more or less impregnated 
 with the spirit of Catholicism ; at least, all Catholic schools are 
 under the immediate control of the clergy, which, however, does 
 not precisely prejudice the instruction itself. There are 3 uni- 
 versities, viz. : at Louvain (founded in 1426, renewed in 1815 and 
 1835, and in 1841 frequented by 660 students), at Ghent (founded 
 in 1816, and in 1841 with 340 students), and at Liege (founded in 
 1817, and in 1841 with 350 students). Beside these three 
 bearing the Catholic stamp, there was founded in 1837 at Brussels 
 a fourth university, as it were, in spite of the Catholic clergy, and 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 277 
 
 Kingdom of Belgium: its Finances, Army, and History. 
 
 styled " Free University ;" the number of its students, however, is 
 very moderate. The number of the various other schools amounted 
 in 1840 to 5,189, but 2,284 of them were private schools, which 
 are, for the most part, very defective. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign 
 power being vested in a king, a senate, and a chamber of repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 The public revenue was in 1846 estimated at 126,681,575 francs, 
 and the expenditure at 126,459,281 francs. The 'public debt 
 amounted to 317,887,632 francs, on the 1st of January, 1845. 
 
 The army consists of about 32,000 men on the peace, and of 
 nearly 86,000 men on the war footing. Except some gun-boats, 
 Belgium has no navy. 
 
 In 1832, an order of honor was created by the name of Leopold 
 order, for civil and military officers, in 5 classes. 
 
 History. — The essential points of Belgian history are already stated above ; 
 we will, therefore, only add some particulars. Since the establishment of the 
 Netherlandish republic, towards the end of the 16th century, the southern 
 provinces of the Netherlands, continuing to be under the sway of Spain, and 
 retaining the Catholic creed, were for this reason commonly styled either the 
 Spanish, or the Catholic Netherlands, and since 1714, when they were ceded 
 to Austria, they were known by the name of the Austrian Netherlands. In 
 1794, they were conquered by the French, and, by the terms of the treaty of 
 peace, concluded at Campo Formio in 1797, formally ceded to them. That 
 they in 1814 were restored to Austria, but that this power renounced them 
 in favor of the united kingdom of all Netherlands, and that finally this latter was 
 dissolved again in consequence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, has already 
 been mentioned. By the terms of an agreement brought about in 1839, the 
 grand-duchy of Luxemburg was divided between the kingdoms of the Neth- 
 erlands and of Belgium, the latter acquiring its western, and the former 
 retaining the eastern half. In 1831, the Belgians elected Leopold duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg (consort of the late British princess Charlotte, who died in 1817), 
 their hereditary king. 
 
278 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kingdom of Belgium: the Province of South Brabant. 
 
 The kingdom of Belgium, since the alterations and arrange- 
 ments just mentioned, is divided into 9 provinces. 
 
 1. The province of South Brabant (1,278 square miles, and, according to 
 the census published on the 1st of January, 1844, with 654,758 inhabitants), 
 towards the centre of the kingdom, bears the appellation of South, in order to 
 distinguish it from North Brabant (see under the head of " Kingdom of the 
 Netherlands"), though both these provinces were once constituent parts of 
 the ancient duchy of Brabant, to which also belonged the greatest part of 
 the present province of Antwerp. This duchy was since the days of the 
 Frankish sway ruled by native dukes, who at first were vassals of the German 
 empire, but made themselves independent in the course of time. About the 
 remaining part of its history, see page 264. The province of South Brabant 
 contains : Brussels, the metropolis of the kingdom, and royal residence, on 
 the river Senne, westward and 76 miles distant from Aix la Chapelle, had in 
 1846 a population of 124,781 inhabitants, exclusive of the suburbs, whose total 
 population amounts to more than 40,000 inhabitants. Brussels ranks among 
 the finest cities of Europe, and is noted not only for its extensive manufactures 
 of lace, carpets, etc., but also for several of its public edifices, especially for 
 its Gothic city hall (facing the chief market place, where in 1568 the counts of 
 Egmont and Hoorn were executed), whose steeple is 364 feet high, and the 
 St. Gudule church, containing pictures by Rubens and other masters of the 
 Flemish school. Southward and 10 miles distant from Brussels, is situated 
 the village of Waterloo (with 1,900 inhabitants), noted for the great battle 
 fought on the 18th of June, 1815. Louvain, a town on the Dyle, 15 miles 
 east-north-east of Brussels, with 28,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, 
 its churches, and town-halL In the middle ages, Louvain was a city, with 
 nearly 200,000 inhabitants, and remarkably flourishing by its cloth and other 
 woollen manufactures, that gave employment to more than 150,000 operatives 
 But the latter revolted in 1382, and having been punished for it, they mostly 
 emigrated to England. The university of Louvain was in the 16th century 
 sometimes frequented by 6,000 students. Other towns of this province are : 
 Vilvorden (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tirlenwnt, or Tienen (with 8,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Wavre (with 5,500 inhabitants), Nivelles, or Nyvel (with 7,700 inhabi- 
 tants), Haulx, or Halle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Diest (with 8,000 inhabitants), 
 JHontaigu, in Flemish, Scherpenheuvel (with 1,800 inhabitants), Aerschot (with 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 279 
 
 The Belgian Provinces of Antwerp and E;ist Flanders. 
 
 4,000 inhabitants), and Hoegaerden (with 3,000 inhabitants). Tubize and 
 Brainc-Lalleu, boroughs, with respectively 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
 2. The province of Antwerp (1,097 square miles, and in 1844 with 385,894 
 inhabitants), anciently a constituent part of the duchy of Brabant, contains : 
 Antwerp, fortified capital of the province, and the chief commercial city in 
 Belgium, on the right bank of the Scheldt (which river is here 2,160 feet 
 broad), northward and 28 miles distant from Brussels, has 80,000 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 444 feet 
 high), its merchant's exchange (reared in 1531, and the most ancient and 
 largest one in Europe), and its citadel (reared in 1567 by the duke of Alba, 
 and valorously defended in 1832 by the general Chasse). Antwerp was 
 towards the end of the 15th and during the greatest part of the 16th century 
 the emporium of nearly all Europe. At a later period it was the residence 
 of Rubens, and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Lier, a town, 
 10 miles east-south-east of Antwerp, is noted for its breweries, and has 
 14,000 inhabitants. Herentah and Hoogstraten, towns, with respectively 
 3,000 and 1,600 inhabitants. Arendonk (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gheel 
 (with 8,500 inhabitants), boroughs. Mechlin, a city on the Dyle, half way 
 between Antwerp and Brussels, is the residence of the archbishop and Primas 
 of Belgium, has a remarkable cathedral (founded in 1250, but not completed 
 before the year 1475 ; its steeple is 348 feet high), and 26,000 inhabitants, 
 and is celebrated for its lace, considered as the finest in Brabant. 
 
 3. The province of East Flanders (1,150 square miles, and in 1844 with 
 799,428 inhabitants), which once formed the eastern half of the ancient earl- 
 dom of Flanders, whose first earl was Baldwin I., who lived in the 9th cen- 
 tury. Margaret, the daughter and heiress of the 24th earl, Louis II., was in 
 1369 married to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus became pos- 
 sessed of all Flanders. This province is the most thickly settled in Belgium, 
 and noted for its linen. It contains: Ghent, the capital of the province 
 (anciently also the capital of the earldom), on the Scheldt, 34 miles west- 
 south-west of Antwerp, and north-westward and 34 miles distant from Brus- 
 sels, has various remarkable ancient edifices, among them the cathedral, the 
 palace where Charles V. was born in 1500, and a castle, once the residence 
 of the earls of Flanders and of the dukes of Burgundy, and a population of 
 90,000 inhabitants. Moreover, Ghent is the centre of the Belgian cotton man- 
 ufactures, and is also noted for its trade in flowers. In 1814 the treaty of 
 peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed here. Oude- 
 
280 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Belgian Provinces of East and West Flanders. 
 
 naarde, a fortified town on the Scheldt, with a remarkable town-hall, and 
 6,000 inhabitants. Dendermonde (in French, Tenremoiide, or Termonde), a 
 fortified town at the mouth of the Dender into the Scheldt, is noted for its 
 flax and linen- bleacheries, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other remarkable 
 towns and boroughs of this province are: Alost, or Aalst (noted for its hops, 
 has 16,000 inhabitants), Geertuberghen, in French Grammont (with 7,700 in- 
 habitants), Rome, in French Renaix (with 13,00 inhabitants), Ninove (with 
 5,000 inhabitants), Deyn&e (with 5,000 inhabitants), Eecloo (with 9,500 inhab- 
 itants), Zele (with 11,000 inhabitants), Wetteren (with 9,500 inhabitants), 
 Waerschot (with 5,500 inhabitants), Hamme (with 8,500 inhabitants), Loke- 
 ren (with 16,500 inhabitants), Beveren (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rupel- 
 monde (noted for its bricks, has 2,500 inhabitants). The town of St. Nikolas 
 (with 18,500 inhabitants, and numerous manufactures, especially of leather), 
 is the chief place of the so-called Waesland, a tract of land noted for its 
 highly cultivated soil and its fine flax. The above-stated boroughs of Hamme, 
 Lokeren, Beveren, and Rupelmonde are also situated in this tract. The for- 
 tified borough of Zwyndrecht (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the left bank of the 
 Scheldt, right opposite Antwerp, is considered as the tete-de-pont of Antwerp, 
 and is for this reason also named Tete de Flandres, or (in Flemish) Vlaamsch- 
 Hoofd. 
 
 4. The province of West Flanders (1,257 square miles, and in 1844 with 
 659,270 inhabitants), which formed the western half of the ancient earldom 
 of Flanders (see above), contains : Bruges, the capital of the province, north- 
 westward and 28 miles distant from Ghent, has 45,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its cathedral (with the sepulchres of Charles the Bold and his 
 daughter Mary), and its numerous manufactures of linen, lace, etc. In the 
 14th and 15th centuries Bruges was famous for its commerce. Courtray (in 
 Flemish, Cortryk), a town on the Lys, and near the French frontier, has 20,000 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen of the finest quality. Commines, a town 
 on the French frontier, has 2,700 inhabitants, and is by the river Lys divided 
 into two parts, of which that on the right bank belongs to France since 1714. 
 Roulers (in Flemish, Rousselaer), a town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its flax and linea Ypern, in French Ypres, a fortified town on the little 
 river Yperle, with a Gothic town-hall, a remarkable ancient cathedral, lace 
 manufactures, and 17,500 inhabitants. Ostende, a fortified maritime town on 
 the North Sea, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 12,500 inhabitants. 
 Another fortified maritime town is Nieuport, or Nieuwport (with 3,800 in- 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 281 
 
 The Belgian Provinces of West Flanders, Hainault and Namnr. 
 
 habitants), noted in history for a battle in 1600 between the Dutch and Span- 
 iards. Veurne (in French called Furneit), a town near the North Sea, carries 
 on a considerable trade in corn and provisions, and has 4,800 inhabitants. 
 Other towns and boroughs of this province are : Meenen, or Menin (is noted 
 for its lace and linen, and has 8,000 inhabitants), Warneton, or Waesten (also 
 noted for its lace, has 6,000 inhabitants), Werwick (with 5,800 inhabitants), 
 Iseghem (with 9,000 inhabitants), Thielt (with 12,500 inhabitants), Meulebeke 
 (with 9,000 inhabitants), Moorzele or Moorslede (with 4,400 inhabitants), 
 Dixmuyden (with 3,500 inhabitants), Poperingen (with 11,000 inhabitants), 
 Blankenberghe (with 2,000 inhabitants), Thorout (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
 Lichtervelde (with 7,000 inhabitants). 
 
 5. The province of Hainault (1,449 square miles, and in 1844 with 679,536 
 inhabitants), anciently an earldom of the same name, which, however, so early 
 as in the 12th century came under the sway of the earls of Flanders, and 
 subsequently under that of the dukes of Burgundy. It contains : Mons (in 
 Flemish it is named Bergen), fortified capital of the province, on the former 
 high road between Brussels and Paris, is noted for its coal mines, and has 
 24,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the village of Jemappes (with 3,000 
 inhabitants), noted for a battle in 1792, between the French and the allied 
 powers. Ath, a fortified town, on the Dender, is noted for its linen manufac- 
 tures, and has 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Roulx 
 (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soignies (with 7,000 inhabitants), Leuze (with 5,500 
 inhabitants), Lesmnes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Enghien (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Braine le Cornte (with 4,700 inhabitants), Binche (with 5,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Fontaine TEveque (with 2,800 inhabitants), Beaumont (with 1,900 
 inhabitants), Chirnay (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ligne (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants). Thuin, a town on the Sambre, with 4,000 inhabitants, did formerly 
 belong to the sovereign bishopric of Liege. Charleeoi, a fortified town, on 
 the Sambre, with 7,500 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms 
 and hardware, and did anciently belong to the earldom of Namur. Tournay 
 (in Flemish, Doomik), a fortified city, on the Scheldt, south-westward and 46 
 miles distant from Brussels, is noted for its manufactures of carpets and 
 porcelain, and has 30,500 inhabitants. The villages of Fontenay and Fleurus 
 are noted for battles at different times. 
 
 6. The province of Namur (1,422 square miles, and in 1844 with 251,326 
 inhabitants), chiefly com prising the ancient earldom of Namur, which in 1421 
 was sold by Earl John III. (who had no descendants) to Philip, duke of 
 Burgundy. It contains: Namur (in Flemish and Dutch, named Namen), 
 
182 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Belgian Provinces of Namur and Liege. 
 
 fortified capital, on tlie Meuse, 35 miles south-south-east of Brussels, is noted 
 for its fire-arras and cutlery, and has 24,500 inhabitants. Marienburg and 
 Philippeville, little but fortified towns, with respectively 700 and 1,500 inhab- 
 itants. Dinant, a town on the Meuse, is noted for its freestone and marble, 
 and has 5,500 inhabitants. Other towns and boroughs of this province are : 
 Bouvignes (with 1,600 inhabitants), Walcourt (with 1,100 inhabitants), Rochrfort 
 (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andenne (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Gembloux 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants). The village of Ligny, 18 miles south-south-east of 
 Waterloo, is noted for*a battle on the 16th of June, 1815 (but two days 
 previous to the battle of Waterloo), in which the Prussians were defeated by 
 the French. 
 
 7. The province of Liege (1,123 square miles, and in 1844 with 425,758 
 inhabitants), between South Brabant and the Prussian Rhenish province, com- 
 prising in substance the territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Liege, 
 whicli was established in the city of Liege in the beginning of the 8th century 
 by St. Hubertus, and was an actual member of the German empire until 
 towards the end of last century, when it was conquered by the French, 
 together with the Catholic Netherlands, with which it has since continued to 
 be united. It contains: Liege (in Flemish and Dutch, named Luik), the 
 capital, at the junction of the Ourthe and Meuse, 54 miles east-south-east of 
 Brussels, and 28 miles west- south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has a strongly 
 fortified citadel, a remarkable cathedral, and 73,000 inhabitants, and is famed 
 for its fire-arms, cannon foundry, iron works, and coal mines. The neighboring 
 village of Seraing (with 3,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of 
 steam engines, etc. The ancient abbey of St. Lambertthal is at present noted 
 for one of the most considerable glass manufactures. The borough of Herstai.l 
 (5 miles north-east of Liege, with iron works, and 5,500 inhabitants) is remark- 
 able as the ancestral seat of the Frankish Majordomus Pipin of Herstall, 
 great-grandfather of Charlemagne. Veeviers, a town on the Weze, half-way 
 between Liege and Aix la Chapelle, has 21,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated 
 for its numerous and excellent cloth manufactures. The boroughs of Theux 
 (with 3,500 inhabitants) and Glons (with 2,000 inhabitants), are noted, the 
 former for its iron foundry and marble, and the latter for its manufactures of 
 straw hats. Spa, a town, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Liege, 
 and 20 miles south-south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and 
 is celebrated for mineral waters, which are also to be found in the neigh- 
 boring village of Chaudfontaine. The town of Huy (on the Meuse, between 
 Liege and Namur, with 8.000 inhabitants) is noted for its mountain castle, and 
 
THE NETHERLANDS. 283 
 
 The ISeluiaii Provinces of Liege, Limbing ami Luxemburg. 
 
 romantic environs. The town of Vise, or Weset, on the Meuse, with 2,200 
 inhabitants, has likewise romantic environs. The town of Limburg (noted for 
 its cheese and cloth manufactures, and with 2,200 inhabitants) did not belong 
 to the bishopric of Liege, but was formerly the capital of the ancient duchy 
 of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of Germany), to 
 which also belonged the towns of Herve (noted for its cheese, and with 3,500 
 inhabitants), Dalhem (with 900 inhabitants), and Hodimont (with 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants). To the ancient duchy of Brabant did belong the towns of Stablo 
 (with very considerable leather manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants), Hanut 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Landen (with 1,050 inhabitants). 
 
 8. The province of Limburg (937 square miles, and in 1844 with 177,184 
 inhabitants) has, but for the name, nothing in common with the ancient duchy 
 of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of the Netherlandish 
 German states), but does only comprise parts of the territory formerly 
 belonging to the bishopric of Liege, containing : Hasselt, the capital of this 
 province, on the Demer, north-westward and 14 miles distant from Mastricht, 
 with 7,400 inhabitants. St. Tron (in Flemish, St. Trujen), a town, south- 
 westward and 9 miles distant from Hasselt, is noted for its manufactures of 
 lace and fire-arms, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
 are : Tongern (with 5,600 inhabitants), Bilsen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Maaseyk 
 (with 4,200 inhabitants), Looz, or Borchloen (with 1,400 inhabitants), and 
 Reeckem (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
 
 9. The province of Luxemburg (1,704 square miles, and in 1844 with 
 180,709 inhabitants), comprising the western half of the ancient duchy (at 
 present grand-duchy) of Luxemburg (see above, in the History of Belgium : 
 the history of this duchy, or grand-duchy, will be found under the head of 
 Germany), and containing : Arlon, the capital of this province, amidst exten- 
 sive forests, 14 miles west-north-west of the city of Luxemburg, with leather 
 manufactures, and 4„000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: 
 Bastogne (with 2,600 inhabitants), Marche en Famine (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 St. Hubert (with 1,600 inhabitants), La Roche (with 1,000 inhabitants), Neuf- 
 chateau (with 1,600 inhabitants), Chiny (with 1,150 inhabitants), and Viel 
 Salm (with 2,900 inhabitants, and the ruins of the castle of Salm, the ancestral 
 seat of the German princes and earls of Salm). Bouillon, a fortified town 
 near the French frontier, with 2,800 inhabitants, and a mountain castle, anciently 
 the residence of the renowned leader of the first army of crusaders, and first 
 king of Jerusalem (in 1099), Godfrey of Bouillon. This town was formerly 
 the capital of a duchy of the same name. 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 Abea : 244,3*75 square miles. 
 Population : 42,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Germany is situated in the centre of Europe, between 55° 
 and 45° north latitude, and between 5° 45' and 19° 45' east 
 from Greenwich. On the north it is bounded by the North and 
 Baltic Seas and by Denmark ; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, 
 Italy and Switzerland ; on the east by Hungary and the Polish 
 provinces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; and on the west by 
 France and the Netherlands. 
 
 The distance between Germany and Gibraltar is nearly equal to 
 that between Germany and Moscow, viz. : more than 1000 miles ; 
 and to Stockholm in Sweden it is just about as far as to Naples in 
 Italy. 
 
 In the northern and western parts of Germany the surface is 
 more or less level ; the southern and eastern parts are traversed 
 by the mountain ranges described pages 6-8 ; and towards the 
 southern extremity branches of the Alps are running in an east- 
 erly direction. 
 
 About the rivers and lakes of Germany, see Introduction to 
 Europe, §§ 9 and 10, pages 11, 13, 16 and 17. 
 
 The climate is both moderate and healthful throughout Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Though the country is intersected by about 60 navigable riv- 
 ers, which thus would afford the greatest facility of connecting 
 them one to another by canals, the latter are rather few in nuni- 
 
GERMANY. 235 
 
 Natural Products. 
 
 ber. The principal and most useful canal is the so-called Louis 
 Canal, crossing the northern half of Bavaria and uniting the 
 Rhine with the Danube. This deficiency is however amply com- 
 pensated by numerous public roads and rail-roads, which latter 
 are at preseut crossing almost every German country. 
 The chief natural products of Germany are the following : 
 
 Corn, which not only is raised sufficiently for home consumption, but even 
 fur exportation. For the soil is generally fertile, and agriculture is carried 
 on with diligence and great skilL Wine, especially along the Rhine and 
 most of its tributaries, and in the German provinces of Austria. Timber, 
 which is exported in considerable quantities from the southern and middle 
 parts of Germany. The mountain ranges are generally covered with exten- 
 sive forests ; hence the final syllable wald (forest) in the proper names of so 
 many of them ; for instance, Schwarzvvald (Black Forest), Odenwald, Boeh- 
 merwald, etc. Fruits, in great variety, and partly in immense quantities. 
 Flax, which is cultivated throughout Germany, but especially in Silesia, 
 Bohemia, Moravia, Westphalia, etc. Moreover hops (the best quality is to 
 be fouud in the northern part of Bavaria, and in Bohemia), and hemp 
 (chiefly in the kingdom of Hanover). — Horses, more than 5,000,000 in 
 number, and for the most part of excellent breed. Those of Mecklenburg, 
 Hanover, Holstein, and Oldenburg, rival the finest English horses, and are 
 even frequently superior to them, if perhaps not in swiftness on the turf, but 
 in other more useful qualities. Nearly the whole remount of the French 
 army is supplied with German horses. Cattle, whose total number of heads 
 amounts to more than 15,000,000 (double the amount of the cattle in France), 
 and the finest breed of which is reared in Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, East Fries- 
 land, Holstein, Oldenburg, Dessau, and Mecklenburg. Sheep, about 30,000,000 
 in number, and at present for the most part of improved breed ; for which 
 reason their wool is one of the chief staples. Hoys (more than 8,000,000) 
 are reared in vast numbers in Westphalia (noted for its excellent hams), Ba- 
 varia, etc. Moreover, Germany abounds in game, fowls, bees (great quantities 
 of wax and honey are exported), etc. — Silver, extracted from the mines in 
 Saxony, Bohemia, Hanover, and Prussia, to the annual amount of between 
 160,000 and 200,000 marks. Iron (more than 4,000,000 quintals annually) ; 
 Tin (especially in Bohemia and Saxony) ; Copper (about 30,000 quintals an- 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce of Germany. 
 
 nually) ; Quicksilver (in Illyria) ; Lead (nearly 200,000 quintals) ; and 
 above all, Salt, of which about 5 million quintals are annually made. There 
 is perhaps no country where mineral springs of any description are more 
 abundant than in Germany, where moreover the spas, or watering-places, 
 especially those of Bohemia, Silesia, Bavaria, Baden, and Nassau, are every 
 year, in the summer season, visited by foreigners from various parts of 
 Europe in quest of health or pleasure. 
 
 The German manufactures are important arid various, and 
 their chief articles are the following : linen (the finest qualities 
 in Silesia, Bohemia, Lusatia, and Westphalia), woollen goods 
 (especially in the Rhenish province of Prussia, and moreover in 
 Moravia, Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), cotton goods (above 
 all in the kingdom of Saxony, and at Berlin, Elberfeld, Barmen, 
 in Bohemia and Lower Austria), silks (especially in Crefeld and 
 Berlin, which moreover are famed for their velvet; in Vienna, in 
 the southern part of Tyrol,. etc ), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms 
 (in the Rhenish province of Prussia, in some parts of Westpha- 
 lia and of the Prussian province of Saxony, in Austria, etc.), 
 leather (Malinedy is famous for it, but also some places in Bohe- 
 mia. Silesia, etc.), 'porcelain (the porcelain manufactures of Ber- 
 lin, Vienna, and Meissen may be considered as the finest in 
 Europe), glass (no country in the world fabricates so much glass 
 as Germany, especially Bohemia is celebrated for it), musical in- 
 struments (first-rate pianos are constructed not only in Vienna, 
 Augsburg, Prague, and other cities, but even in villages of the 
 southern and middle parts of Germany ; excellent violins, espe- 
 cially in Tyrol), gold- and silver-smith's wares (in which excel, 
 Augsburg, Vienna, Berlin, and Breslau), and finally, optical, chi- 
 rurgical, and other similar instruments, which are partly superior 
 to those of England or France. 
 
 In commerce, Germany is surpassed by Great Britain, Prance, 
 and Russia, nevertheless it is carried: on to a great extent, espe- 
 
GERMANY. 287 
 
 Commerce, Trade, ami Means of Education. 
 
 cially by Hamburg, Bremen, and Trieste, and next to them, by 
 Altona, Lubeck, Stettin, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, Kiel, and 
 Emden. The chief exports are : grain, timber, wool, linen, hard- 
 ware, lead, zinc, quicksilver, glass, salt, woollen and cotton goods, 
 horses, cattle, and butter (the latter, especially, from Holstein 
 and Mecklenburg). The inland trade is very considerable, and 
 the principal cities and towns engaged in it are, Vienna, Leipsic, 
 Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, Berlin, Breslau, Prague. Augs- 
 burg, Frankfort on the Mayne, Frankfort on the Oder, Botzen, 
 Laibach, etc. 
 
 The literary institutions in Germany, are both numerous and 
 celebrated. The universities, all on a large scale, and comprising 
 the four faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and phi- 
 losophy (inclusive astronomy, etc.), are so eminently arranged, 
 and answer the purpose so well, that they are much resorted to, 
 even from other countries. At present, there are 23 universities 
 on this scale in Germany, viz. : — 
 
 Five in the German provinces of Austria : at Prague (founded 
 in 1348), Vienna (in 1365), Olmutz (in 1581), Gratz (in I486), and 
 Innspruck (in 1672). 
 
 Five in the German provinces of Prussia: at Greifswald (founded 
 in 1456), Halle (in 1694), Breslau (in 1702), Berlin (in 1810), and 
 Bonn (in 1818). 
 
 Three in Bavaria: at Wurtzburg (founded in 1403), Erlangen 
 (in 1743), and Munich (in 1826). 
 
 Two in Baden : at Heidelberg (founded in 1 386), and Freiburg 
 (in 1457). 
 
 One in Saxony: at Leipsic (founded in 1409). 
 
 One in Mecklenburg: at Rostock (founded in 1419). 
 
 One in Wirtemberg: at Tubingen (founded in 1477). 
 
 One in Hesse Cassel: at Marburg (founded in 1527). 
 
 One in Saxe-Weimar: at Jena (founded in 1557). 
 
288 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Public L braries, Picture Galleries, etc., and Schools in Germany. 
 
 One in Hesse-Darmstadt: at Giessen (founded in 1607). 
 
 One in Holstein: at Kiel (founded in 1665). 
 
 One in Hanover: at Goettingen (founded in 1737). 
 
 (Towards the end of last century, there were, moreover, uni- 
 versities at Erfurt. Wittenberg, Frankfort on the Oder, Helmstadt, 
 Rinteln, Duisburg, Altdorf, and in 18 other places, which, however, 
 since have been abolished, or united with others.) 
 
 The public libraries are likewise on a large scale, and while there 
 are about 50 of them, which contain more than 25,000 volumes 
 each, there are nearly as many that contain above 100,000 volumes. 
 So, for instance, at Munich there is one with 600,000, and another 
 with 160,000 volumes; the royal library at Berlin numbers 
 500,000, the imperial at Vienna 350.000 volumes; beside these, 
 there are public libraries at Dresden (with 220,000), Goettingen, 
 (with 300.000), Hamburg (with 200,000), Stuttgart (with 200,000), 
 Wolfenbuttel (with 190,000), Prague (with 130,000), Weimar 
 (with 120,000), Darmstadt, Frankfort, Breslau (with 200,000 
 volumes), etc., etc. 
 
 Munich, Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, and Goettingen, may, in some 
 regard, be considered as central points of sciences and arts, not 
 only with regard to Germany, but also to other countries. Highly 
 distinguished are the picture galleries in Dresden, Vienna, Munchen, 
 and Berlin (that of Dusseldorf is since the year 1806 removed to 
 Munich), the cabinets of natural curiosities in Vienna, Prague. 
 Munich, Berlin, Goettingen, and Hamburg, and the observatories 
 in Berlin, Vienna, Goettingen, Munich, Prague, and near Gotha. 
 
 No country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of 
 knowledge ; and common school education is the more widely 
 extended, as parents are forced by the law to send their children 
 to school, or at least to give evidence of having in a suitable 
 manner provided for their education. The children of the poor 
 enjoy, of course, the benefits of instruction, free from expenses. 
 
GERMANY. 28U 
 
 The Common School System of Germany. 
 
 The total number of children frequenting the common Softools in 
 Germany, amounts to more than 6,000,000. The common public 
 schools in the kingdom of Saxony, for instance, were in 1840 
 frequented by 303,506 children, and those of Prussia in 1843 fre- 
 quented by 2,328,146 children ; and as in 1840 the total popula- 
 tion of Saxony was 1,709,880, and that of Prussia in 1843 was 
 15,471,765 inhabitants, it is impossible to imagine, with regard 
 to common school education, a more just ratio between school- 
 children and adults (inclusive of infants), than this, which is one 
 to five, or six. About 15,500,000 Prussian dollars are, in Germany, 
 annually bestowed upon this branch of school education ; and the 
 927 teachers in the common public schools of Saxony, for instance 
 (where, as in other German countries, most of these schools are 
 in the villages of the peasantry), receive a salary of respectively 
 120, 150, 200. 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700, Prussian dollars, 
 which, there, is equal to as many American dollars. But while 
 they thus are placed in a situation more or less free from cares 
 for sustenance, they are not allowed to occupy any teachership 
 without having previously been carefully instructed in the so-called 
 school-seminaries, and given evidence of solid knowledge in a 
 rigorous examination. That with these arrangements scarcely 
 none above six years old are to be found throughout Germany, 
 who cannot read, and but very few who cannot write, is not to be 
 wondered at. Some years ago, there were among 122,897 men 
 of the standing Prussian army, only two soldiers who could not 
 write, and these were not Germans, but Poles from the province 
 of Posen. The particulars about the higher schools, will be found 
 in the description of the various German states ; and it may only 
 be remarked here, that the total number of lycea in Germany 
 amounts to nearly 100, of gymnasia to more than 400, of so-called 
 Latin schools to about 800, and of school seminaries to nearly 1,100. 
 (About the signification of these terms, see the note page 65.) 
 
 13 
 
290 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Characteristic of the German Scholars in general. 
 
 Many of the learned men in Germany are, indeed, distinguished for their 
 attainments in literature and science, but in general only in philology, history, 
 pathology and other branches of medical science, jurisprudence, mineralogy, 
 1 1 id metallurgy ; while in nearly all other scientific branches, the learned men 
 of other European countries rival, and, even in some points, by far surpass 
 them. This deficiency is chiefly owing to an unlucky tendency to bibliola- 
 try, which much prevails among the German scholars. They are more or 
 less filled with the wrong idea, that all and every knowledge may be acquired 
 t'rom books, even the art of ship-building, for instance. Indeed there are 
 many scientific branches, which can and must be learned chiefly from printed 
 books ; but for obtaining a sound judgment, it is indispensable to study, at the 
 same time, the open book of practical life. About eighty years ago, it became 
 fashionable to babble after the manner of atheistical philosophers of the 
 Voltaire school, and since that time, not only Rationalism sprung up in the 
 province of theology, but also other theories and hypotheses of the most 
 nonsensical kind were brought forward in Germany. Thus, for instance, one 
 scholar, named Ballenstadt, pretended that the human race had sprung from 
 a primitive slime, or mud, that had been quickened by electric flashes and 
 thunderclaps ; another, of the name of Wagner, has, by a profound study in 
 his closet, discovered that our globe is an animal, whose sweat presents itself 
 in the evaporation of the waters, while its circulation of the blood makes 
 itself known by the tide ! Even in recent times, several German naturalists 
 still harbor the opinion, that man is properly nothing else but a monkey fully 
 developed, and has descended either from the Orang Outang in Borneo, or 
 from the Boggo (Pan Africanus) in Guinea ! Had these learned men, who 
 never have been much out of doors, compared monkey skulls with human 
 skulls, and, above all, carefully studied the natural history of these animals, 
 they would long since have been restored to reason, and become sensible of 
 the palpable truth, that a brute can never become a rational being, and that, 
 for this same reason, monkeys will still remain monkeys, even if those scholars 
 should be foolish enough to try to instruct or educate them. How far the 
 constructors of philosophical systems in Germany have gone, may be inferred 
 from the fact, that Mr. Michelet, professor of philosophy in the university of, 
 Berlin, boldly maintains, in his works and lectures, the following proposition : 
 " What we call God, is nothing else but human culture in its highest potency !" 
 Whoever has troubled himself with reading the debates in the so-called 
 German parliament, which gave up the ghost last summer, will have had 
 
GERMANY. 291 
 
 Origin and Religion of the Germans. 
 
 ample opportunity to notice the total lack of practical capacity on the part 
 of German bookworms and shallow literati. Fortunately there are also a 
 great many eminent and devout theologians, as well as philosophers endowed 
 with sound judgment ; and by these and the common sense of the German 
 nation in general, those bookworms are at least prevented from doing more 
 mischief than they have already done. 
 
 In point of origin, the majority of the population belongs to 
 the great family of the Germanic tribe, while about 6 or 7 million 
 inhabitants of north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern provinces 
 belong to the Slavic tribe (see Introduction to Europe. §12, pages 
 18 and 19). These latter are known by the names of Wenden and 
 Kassuben (in Pomerania), of Sorben (in Lusatia, etc.), Ozechen 
 (in Bohemia), etc. ; however, with the exception of the tribe in 
 Bohemia, they have assimilated themselves almost entirely to 
 other Germans. 
 
 In point of religion, Catholicism is prevailing in the southern 
 half of Germany, and Protestantism in the northern. The num- 
 ber of Roman Catholics is between 22 and 23 millions, and that of 
 Protestants amounts to more than 18 millions. Since the year 
 1817 the Lutherans and Reformists in Prussia, Baden, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, Nassau, and the Bavarian Palatinate have united 
 into one common church, styled Evangelical. But in Saxony, 
 Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Holstein, the Lutheran, and for in- 
 stance, in Hesse-Cassel the Reformed religion still prevails. The 
 number of Jews in Germany amounts to about 500,000. 
 
 Before entering into German history, it may be suitable to 
 give some particulars with regard to the ancient German Empire, 
 which was formally dissolved in 1806. Officially it was styled 
 either the Holy Roman, or the Roman German Empire. The 
 term c: Roman" had reference to the historical fact, that the first 
 wearer of the German imperial crown, viz. : Charlemagne, was 
 crowned Roman emperor (see History of Europe, §14, page 31). 
 
292 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Historical Particulars about the ancient German Empire. 
 
 The term " Holy" rested upon the opinion of the emperor being 
 the protector and defender of the holy see and of all Christen- 
 dom. The States of Empire (Reichsstande), nominally 1762, 
 or at least 376, yet actually only 221 in number, consisted of 
 independent (i. e., in local affairs), or immediate (reiohsunmittel- 
 bar) archbishops, bishops, abbots, provosts (Reichsprobste), duchies, 
 mar gr aviates, principalities, earldoms, lordships, and imperial cities 
 (Reichsstadte). Besides these, there were certain territories be- 
 longing to knighthood (rittershaftliche Grebiete), imperial villages 
 (Reichsdorfer), etc. Most of these States formed part of those 
 10 circles, into which Germany was divided since the days of 
 Emperor Maximilian I., for the purpose of maintaining public 
 peace and order, and executing sentences of the supreme courts 
 of the Empire with armed force, in case of necessity. They 
 were organized in a similar manner as the empire itself, but had 
 for the rest no political power. These 10 circles were the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 1. The Austrian circle, comprising the present German provinces of Aus- 
 tria, with the exception of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 
 
 2. The Burgundian circle, comprising the present kingdom of Belgium, 
 with the exception of the ancient bishopric of Liege, which belonged to the 
 Westphalian circle. The political connection between the Burgundian circle 
 and the German empire was however only a nominal one. 
 
 3 The Lower Rhenish circle, comprising the former three ecclesiastical 
 electorates of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the electoral Palatinate, etc. 
 
 4 The Upper Rhenish circle, comprising Hesse Cassel, the greatest part of 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, the Bavarian palatinate, the imperial cities of Frankfort, 
 Worms, Spire, etc. 
 
 5. The Franhish circle, comprising the greatest part of the northern half 
 of the present kingdom of Bavaria, etc. 
 
 6. The Bavarian circle, comprising the southern half of the present king- 
 dom of Bavaria. 
 
 7. The Swabian circle, comprising the duchy of Wirtemberg, the margra- 
 
GERMANY. 293 
 
 Germany: its ancient Geographical Divisions. 
 
 viate of Baden, the principalities of Hohenzollern, and in substance the Swa- 
 bian district of the present kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 8. The Westphalian circle, comprising the present Prussian province of 
 Westphalia, and some parts of the Rhenish province (Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, 
 Cleve, Aix la Chapelle, etc.), moreover, the bishopric of Liege, some parts of 
 the present kingdom of Hanover (Osnabruck, Verden, etc.), etc. 
 
 9. The Upper Saxon circle, comprising the present Saxon kingdom, grand- 
 duchy and duchies, the present Prusian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomera- 
 nia (with some exceptions) and Saxony, the principalities of Schwarzburg, etc. 
 
 10. The Lower Saxon circle, comprising the greatest part of the present 
 kingdom of Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, 
 Lubec, etc. 
 
 The above-mentioned states of the empire were since the latter half of the 
 17 th century seldom or never personally present at the Diet, but were repre- 
 sented there by plenipotentiaries. According to the terms of the constitution, 
 the diet was to be convoked at least every tenth year, but since the year 1663 
 it was permanent, and held its sessions at Ratisbon (on the Danube and in the 
 present kingdom of Bavaria). The supreme judicial power was vested in 
 two imperial tribunals, viz. : the Imperial Chamber (Reichskammergericht) 
 at Wetzlar, and the Imperial Aulic C&ancil (Reichshofrath) in Vienna. 
 
 K not exactly since its existence, but at least since the death of the last 
 German Carolingian, Louis III., or since the year 911, the German empire was 
 not a hereditary, but an elective monarchy. The right and privilege of elect- 
 ing the emperor was exclusively vested in the electors, i. e., those most 
 powerful states of the empire that had exercised this right from the begin- 
 ning. Primitively they were only 7 in number (viz. : the electors of Mentz, 
 Treves, Cologne, Bohemia, Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg), but in the 
 17th century two others (of Bavaria and Brunswick-Luneburg) were added 
 to them. The principal elector was the archbishop of Mentz. The election 
 of the emperor took place at Frankfort on the Mayne, where at the same 
 time (since the year 1564) the emperor was crowned by the archbishop and 
 elector of Mentz. Though the emperor was the nominal sovereign of all 
 Germany, he was in the exercise of his executive power restricted even more 
 than the king or queen of Great Britain. 
 
 In consequence of the conquests of the French on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, and the treaty of Luneville in 1801, the German empire underwent 
 many substantial alterations. The archbishops of Treves and Cologne not 
 
294 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Kecent Political Changes in Germany. 
 
 only were deprived of their territories, but also of their character as actual 
 electors. The elector of Mentz was restricted to his principality of Aschaffen- 
 burg on the Mayne. In short, all German territories on the left bank of the 
 Rhine were to be ceded to France, and in order to indemnify their princes, 
 the sovereign bishoprics, etc., were secularized and divided differently. 
 
 But for these alterations, the German empire retained its ancient forms and 
 organization. Yet, in 1806, Napoleon induced the majority of the German 
 princes to unite into a confederation, which was styled the Rhenish Confedera- 
 tion. As by this arrangement the German empire had actually ceased to 
 exist, the emperor, then Francis II., did on the 6th of August, 1806, proclaim 
 its formal dissolution. 
 
 In 1806 and 1807, Napoleon created the following new states in Germany, 
 viz. : — 1. The grand-duchy of Berg, which was first given to Murat, Napoleon's 
 brother-in-law, and in 1809 to Napoleon's nephew; it comprised the ancient 
 duchy of Berg, and several parts of Westphalia, and had in 1809 an area of 
 6,709£ square miles, and a population of 878,157 inhabitants. 2. The grand- 
 duchy of Wurzburg, which in 1806 was given to the former grand-duke of 
 Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph (see History of Tuscany). It had, in 1808, an 
 area of 1,651 square miles, and a population of 256,331 inhabitants, and 
 consisted of the secularized sovereign bishopric of Wurzburg. 3. The kingdom 
 of Westphalia, in 1807 created and given to Napoleon's brother Jerome. It 
 had then an extent of 14,825 square miles, with 1,912,303 inhabitants, and 
 comprised the greatest part of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover, Brunswick, and 
 many parts of the present Prussian province of Saxony, and district of Minden. 
 Its capital and royal residence was CasseL 4. The grand-duchy of Frankfort, 
 which comprised, besides the city of this name, the principality of Aschaffen- 
 burg (see above), and the districts of Hanau and Fulda, and was in 1809 
 created in favor of the above-mentioned former archbishop and elector of 
 Mentz, Charles Theodore of Dalberg. It had an extent of 1,874 square miles, 
 and a population of 300,000 inhabitants. 
 
 After the political events in 1814 and 1815. these new creations 
 disappeared, and the respective territories were restored to their 
 former sovereigns ; other sovereigns, who until then had retained 
 their sovereignty, were mediatized,* and, according to the tenor 
 
 * That is, their territories were annexed to larger neighboring states, under 
 
GERMANY. 295 
 
 The German Confederation of 1816-48. 
 
 of a treaty concluded at Vienna on the 8th of June, 1815, a union 
 of the several German states was formed by the name of Germanic 
 Confederation, the object of which was to provide for mutual 
 safety and defence. Each state was independent within itself, 
 but for general purposes the whole was governed by the Diet, a 
 body composed of plenipotentiaries from the different states, and 
 residing at Frankfort on the Mayne. On the 5th of November? 
 1816, the Diet held its first session. It was voted, according to 
 circumstances, either in a committee, or in full session. The 
 Austrian plenipotentiary presided. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., 
 had each one vote ; while of the smaller states, several together had 
 one vote in common. The order of succession was the following : — 
 
 Austria, having in the committee, 1 vote. 
 
 Prussia, . " " 1 " 
 
 Bavaria, " " 1 " 
 
 Saxony, ....... u « 1 " 
 
 Hanover, ....... " M 1" 
 
 Wirtemberg, ■ " 1 « 
 
 Baden, ■ ■ 1 " 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, « 1 u 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse -Homburg, together, " " 1 " 
 
 Denmark (on account of Holstein and Lauenburg), " * 1 ■ 
 
 Nether land (on account of Luxemburg and Limburg), " " _ . 1 . " 
 
 Saxe- Weimar and the 3 Saxon duchies, together, " " 1 " 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin and M. Strelitz, . " "1 ■ 
 
 Brunswick and Nassau, .... " 1 " 
 
 Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwarzburg, . " " 1 * 
 Hohenzollern, Liechtenstein, Reuss, Scliaumburg- 
 
 Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, and Waldeck, . " " 1.' 
 
 Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, " " 1 . * 
 
 Total in the committee, 17 a 
 
 whose sovereignty they themselves were placed, while they in substance 
 retained their independence in local affairs. 
 
296 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Organization of the former German Diet. 
 
 The so-called plenum, or full session, was held whenever the 
 question was of fundamental laws of the Confederation, or arrange- 
 ments concerning its organization, etc. ; and in this plenum was 
 voted in the following order of succession : — 
 
 Austria, 
 Prussia, 
 
 Bavaria, 
 Hanover, . 
 Wirtemberg, 
 Baden, 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 
 Holstein-Lauenburg, 
 
 Luxemburg- Limburg, 
 
 Brunswick, 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, .... 
 
 Nassau, 
 
 Saxe- Weimar, 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, ..... 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen, 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg, 
 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
 
 Oldenburg, 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, 
 
 Anhalt-Bernburg, 
 
 Anhalt-Kothen (since Nov., 1847, become void), 
 Schwarzburg-S ondershausen, 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, .... 
 Hohenzollern-Hecbingen, .... 
 
 Liechtenstein, 
 
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, . 
 
 Waldeck, 
 
 Reuss, elder line, 
 
 Reuss, younger line, 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe, 
 
 having in 
 
 the 
 
 pier 
 
 um, 4 votes. 
 
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 4 
 4 
 
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 4 
 
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 4 
 
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 m 
 
 
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 4 
 
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 3 
 
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 2 
 
 U 
 
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 H 
 
 2 
 
 « 
 
GERMANY. 297 
 
 The Supreme Tribunals in Germany. 
 
 Lippe-Detmold, ' having in the plenum, 1 vote. 
 
 Lubeck, ■ 1 ■ 
 
 Frankfort, " 1 « 
 
 Bremen, ■ " 1 ■ 
 
 Hamburg, ■ • * ■ 
 
 Hesse-Homburg, " u 1 • 
 
 Total in the plenum, 69 votes. 
 
 Since the dissolution of the ancient German empire, there are 
 no supreme courts for all Germany more, but the larger states 
 have their own, while the smaller German states have supreme 
 courts in common. Thus, the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, 
 together with the principalities of Reuss, have a supreme court 
 at Jena in common ; the duchies and principalities of Anhalt and 
 Schwarzburg at Zerbst ; the grand-duchies of Mecklenburg at Ros- 
 tock ; Brunswick and the principalities of Lippe and Waldeck at 
 Wolffenbuttel, and the 4 Free Cities (Hamburg, etc) at Lubeck ; 
 while Liechtenstein appeals to the supreme court at Innspruck, 
 Hesse-Homburg to that of Darmstadt, and the principalities of 
 Hohenzollern to that of Stuttgart. The strength of the confed- 
 eral army was in 1830 fixed at 303,484 men. 
 
 History of Germany. — Little or nothing is known of German history ante- 
 rior to about 100 years before our Christian era. The country was known to 
 the Romans by the name of Gennania, and its southern and western parts 
 conquered by them, especially Rhaetia (comprising in substance the present 
 Tyrol), Vindelicia (South Bavaria and the south-eastern part of the present 
 kingdom of Wirtemberg), and Noricwn (arch-duchy of Austria, Styria, Carin- 
 thia, and part of Carniola). The chief German tribes, mentioned by the 
 Romans, were the Cimbrians (whose principal seat was in Jutland), Teutones 
 (in Mecklenburg), Chatts (chiefly in Hesse), Cherusks (in the centre of the 
 present kingdom of Hanover and Lippe-Detmold), and Marcomans (in Bohe- 
 mia). About the Vandals, Suevians, etc., see History of Europe, § 3, page 
 24. The ancient Germans were ruled by native princes elected out of illua- 
 
 13* 
 
298 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Germany. 
 
 trious families ; their leaders in time of war were commonly called dukes, and 
 elected from among the most valiant warriors. They had no cities or towns, 
 but lived in rough huts or cottages scattered about, and in only rather few 
 instances united to a village. Chastity and hospitality were their character- 
 istic virtues. Since the discontinuance of the migration of nations (see His- 
 tory of Europe, § 8), which had brought about many political alterations in 
 Germany, and at the period of the foundation of the Frankish kingdom by 
 Clovis (see History of Europe, § 8, page 26), the most powerful of the Ger- 
 man tribes were the following : — 1. The Frieslanders, along the coast of the 
 North §ea, between the Zuyder Zee and the mouth of the Weser. 2. The 
 Saxons, occupying the whole tract of land between the Rhine and Eider 
 rivers, that comprises at present Westphalia, the principalities of Lippe, the 
 middle and southern parts of Hanover, Brunswick, and Holstein. Those of 
 Westphalia were particularly also called Westphalians (those in the neighbor- 
 hood of Minden sometimes fingers), those of Holstein North Albingians, and 
 those of Brunswick sometimes Eastphalians. 3. The Franks, consisting of 
 Ripuariau Franks (in the present Rhenish province of Prussia), who under 
 the reign of their king, Clovis, conquered nearly all Gaul and imparted their 
 name to this country, and of Salic Franks, from whom is derived the name 
 of Franconia, which is still the common name of the northern half of Bavaria, 
 where they had their principal seat. 4. The Alemanni, primitively called 
 Sueviatis, and occupying the whole tract of land, which in a later period 
 formed the Swabian circle (see above). 5. The Bajoarians, the forefathers 
 of the Bavarians proper, had their principal seat in the southern half of jthe 
 present kingdom of Bavaria. 6. The Thuringians, living in the countries at 
 present consisting of the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies. All these tribes 
 were subjected partly by Clovis and his Merovingian successors, partly by_ 
 Charlemagne, and thus incorporated to the great Frankish empire ; and not 
 before the year 843, when this empire was divided, by the treaty of Verdun 
 (see History of Europe, § 14, page 31), Germany became independent. Char- 
 lemagne's grandson, Louis II., surnamed the German, was its first independ- 
 ent king (see History of Europe, § 14). He was called Louis the Second on 
 account of his father, Louis the Pious, having been the first sovereign of Ger- 
 many with the name of Louis. When Louis II. died (in 876), the German 
 kingdom was divided among his three sons, of whom the two eldest died 
 successively in 880 and 882, after which the youngest, Charles III., surnamed 
 the Fat, attained to the power, first in Germany, and then in nearly all 
 
GERMANY. 299 
 
 Hfvtory of bormnajr. 
 
 other parts of the ancient Frankish empire. His great-grandfather Charle- 
 magne was, as first emperor, considered also as first sovereign of Germany, 
 and for this reason denoted with the name of Charles L Charles the Bald 
 (brother of Louis the German), was crowned emperor (in 875), considered as 
 Charles IL, though he was properly only the sovereign of France (see His- 
 tory of Europe, § 14). Charles the Fat having been dethroned in 887, he 
 was in Germany succeeded by his nephew, the duke of Carinthia, Arnulph 
 (887-899), who was the first German king realizing the claims upon the im- 
 perial crown (see page 32). With his son and successor, Louis III., surnamed 
 the Child (899-911), the German line of the Carlovingians became extinct, 
 and henceforth the German empire was an elective monarchy. For, the weak- 
 ness of Charlemagne's successors had allowed the most powerful among the 
 vassals to make themselves almost independent, and these were the dukes of 
 Saxony (to whom the Thuringians had for the most part been subjected), of 
 Franconia, Suevia (Swabia), Bavaria, and Lorraine. However they finally 
 agreed upon electing a common sovereign, and they first chose the duke of 
 Franconia, who, as Conrad I., reigned from 911 to 918. After his death the 
 duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Fowler, was elected king of Germany. 
 Henry I. united in himself all the virtues of a truly great man ; he maintained 
 internal peace and order, built a great many regular towns (for instance 
 Merseburg, Meissen, Quedlinburg, Nordhauseu, Goslar), and put to the rout 
 (in 933, near Merseburg) the Magyars, who until then had nearly every year 
 made plundering and devastating inroads into Germany. Endowed with 
 similar great qualities was his son and successor Otho I. (936-972). In 962 
 he was in Rome crowned emperor by the pope, and as since this example was 
 followed by his successors, the German kings were henceforth commonly 
 styled Roman-German emperors. Otho's next three successors were Otho II. 
 (972-983), Otho III. (983-1002), and Henry IL, surnamed the Holy (1002- 
 1024). With Henry II. the imperial line of the Saxon house became extinct 
 and now Conrad II. (1024-1039) was elected, belonging to the ducal house 
 of Franconia, or the Salic Franks (for which reason the emperors of this 
 house were frequently called the Salic emperors). His son and successor, 
 Henry III. (1039-1056), was the most energetic of all German emperors; 
 and it is no doubt, that had he lived longer than actually was the case (for he 
 was only 39 years old when he died in 1056), he not only would have turned 
 the elective monarchy into a hereditary one, but also made of Germany a 
 very powerful empire, with whose domestic affairs the popes would never 
 
m 
 
 300 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Germany. 
 
 have dared to meddle, as they in later periods did, to the greatest prejudice 
 of the political independence of Germany. This was first tried successfully 
 by Pope Gregory VII. during the reign of Henry's son, Henry IV. (1056- 
 1106), whom he treated in the most humiliating manner. With Henry IV.'s 
 son and successor, Henry V. (1106-1125), the line of the so-called Salic em- 
 perors became extinct ; next to him was elected Lothar II. (earl of Supplin- 
 genburg, in the present duchy of Brunswick : Lothar the Second he was 
 styled with reference to Lothar I., who by the terms of the treaty of Verdun 
 in 843 had borne the imperial crown), who reigned from 1125 to 1137, in 
 which period the long-lasting struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
 or between the adherents of the powerful houses of Saxony (which duchy, 
 together with that of Bavaria, was under the sway of the Guelphs) and Ho- 
 henstaufen (under whose sway was the duchy of Swabia), originated, by that 
 Lothar, whose son-in-law was duke of both Saxony and Bavaria, grossly 
 offended his rivals. But after his death these very rivals of the celebrated 
 house of Hohenstaufen were elected, first Conrad III. (1137-1152), then his 
 nephew Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa (1152-1190), and next to him his 
 son Henry VI. (1190-1197). When the last-named emperor died, his son 
 Frederic was only 3 years old, and of this circumstance the Guelphs availed 
 themselves, and elected (in 1198) one of their adherents, Otho (son of 
 Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony), while their adversaries elected 
 Henry's younger brother Philip, surnamed of Swabia (1198-1208), king of 
 Germany. But the latter was murdered in 1208, and since Otho IV. reigned 
 without opposition until the year 1215, when Henry's son (see above), Fred- 
 eric II. (1215-1250), was elected. With Frederic's son and successor, 
 Conrad IV. (1250-1254), the house of Hohenstaufen became extinct, and 
 now a period of nearly 20 years ensued, which in German history is known 
 by the name of Interreign, and to which conveniently could be applied 
 what is said in Judges, xvii. 6 : "In those days there was no king in Israel, 
 but every man did that which was right in his own eyes." For not only the 
 sword-law exercised its barbarous sway uncontrolled throughout Germany, 
 but also the number of petty sovereigns increased from year to year, so that 
 at the end of the 13th century it amounted already to almost 150 (duchies, 
 principalities, earldoms, bishoprics, free cities, etc.). Some of the German 
 princes tried indeed to put an end to this anarchy, by electing in succession 
 the earl William of Holland (-j-1256), Richard of Cornwall (-j-1272), and 
 King Alphon80 of Castilia (who never set a foot on the German ground) ; but 
 
GERMANY. 301 
 
 History of Germany. 
 
 these mock-kings had no authority at all, so much the less as they actually 
 were not recognized as kings or emperors of Germany. No German prince 
 was, under the existing circumstances, willing to accept the crown. Finally 
 it became evident to all that the continuance of such a state of things would 
 lead to common ruin ; even the pope insisted energetically upon the election 
 of a new sovereign of all Germany, and so then Rodolph I. (1273-1291), 
 earl, or count of Hapsburg in Switzerland (see page 156), was elected. He 
 proved himself worthy of the confidence shown to him, and succeeded in a 
 rather short time to restore tranquillity and order to the country. Ottokar, 
 king of Bohemia and sovereign of nearly all the other present German prov- 
 inces of Austria, refusing to acknowledge Rodolph as emperor, was declared 
 outlawed, defeated in two decisive battles, and, with the exception of Bohe- 
 mia and Moravia, deprived of his possessions. Carinthia was given in fee 
 to the earl Mainhard of Tyrol, but with Austria (i. e., the present archduchy 
 of Austria), Styria, and Carniola, Rodolph invested his own sons, Albert 
 and Rodolph, and thus laid the foundation to the domestic power of the house 
 of Hapsburg in Austria. It was perhaps owing to this somewhat selfish 
 proceeding, that not his eldest son but the earl Adolphus of Nassau (1291- 
 1298) was elected king and emperor of Germany. However Rodolph's son 
 acquiesced not in it, but took the field against Adolphus, defeated and 
 killed him in a battle at Gellheim (in the present Bavarian Palatinate), and 
 was now recognized as emperor, by the name of Albert I. (1298-1308). 
 In the period from his death (in 1308 ; he was murdered by his own nephew) 
 until towards the middle of the 15th century, princes from different houses 
 mounted the imperial throne. First, Henry VII. (1308-1313), from the house 
 of Luxemburg ; and next to him, Louis IV. (1313-1347), surnamed the Bavarian, 
 because he belonged to the reigning Bavarian house of Wittelsbach. Then one 
 party elected the Earl Gunther of Schwarzburg, while another party elected 
 Henry VIL's grandson, Charles of Luxemburg, and the latter, or Charles IV. 
 (1347-1378), got the better of the other, the more so, as Gunther soon died 
 (in 1349). Charles IV. is remarkable as the author of the so-called Golden 
 Bull, L e., a public document concerning the election of an emperor, the rank 
 or dignity of the 7 electors, etc., which was published in 1356. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son Wenceslaus (1378-1400), who cared so little for the 
 public welfare, that in 1400 four electors elected the Palatine Rupert (1400- 
 1410) in his place. Rupert, however, made himself unpopular, likewise • 
 moreover, he had not been generally recognized as emperor ; one party elected 
 
302 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Germany. 
 
 the margrave lodocus of Moravia (a cousin of Wenceslaus) ; another, Wences- 
 Lius' brother Sigismund ; and thus there were at one period 3 German kings, 
 or emperors, at once (for Wenceslaus lived until 1419). Finally, Sigismund 
 (1410-1437) maintained himself in the possession of the imperial crown. 
 During his reign, the Council at Constance was held in 1415, and John Huss 
 burnt there, which gave rise to the war of the Hussites in Bohemia, that lasted 
 from 1419 to 1436. It may be noticed here also, that Sigismund sold the 
 margraviate of Brandenburg (which he had inherited), together with the 
 electoral dignity, to the burgrave Frederic of Hohenzollern, at the price of 
 400,000 ducats. Sigismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his son-in-law 
 Albert II. (1437-1439) of Austria, and henceforth only princes of this house 
 (with one single exception) were elected emperors. Albert's successor was 
 his cousin, Frederic III. (1439-1493), who was the last-elected German king 
 crowned emperor at Rome ; while his son Maximilian I. (1493-1519) was the 
 first who proclaimed himself " elected German emperor" which since was the 
 usual title of the sovereigns of the German empire. During Maximilian's 
 reign, the Reformation began ; by that, Luther published his ninety -five prop- 
 ositions on the 31st of October, 1517. Most of the public acts of Maximil- 
 ian's grandson and successor, Charles V. (1519-1556), had reference to the 
 Reformation, as, for instance, the diets at Worms (in 1521), Spire (in 1529), 
 Augsburg (in 1530), the so-called Schmalkaldian war (in 1546), the treaty of 
 Passau (in 1552), the treaty of peace, concluded at Augsburg in 1555, by 
 which the religious differences were settled, and the Council at Trent (since 
 the year 1545). Charles renounced the Austrian estates (which he had 
 inherited from his grandfather Maximilian) in favor of his younger brother, 
 Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who at the same time had been elected emperor. 
 Ferdinand was succeeded by his son Maximilian II. (1564-1576), who, like 
 his father, was noted for his clemency and equity. His son and successor 
 Rodolph II. (1576-1612), was a very learned scholar, but the much more 
 unfit for ruling, which also may be said of his brother Matthias (1612-1619), 
 under whose reign the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) originated. It is easy 
 to conceive that an event of so important consequences, as the Reformation 
 had proved to be, must produce a violent fermentation in the minds of the 
 majority of Roman Catholics, and at last lead to a reaction and open hostilities. 
 Thus, in the course of time the mutual exasperation between the Catholics 
 and Protestants had increased to the highest pitch, and both parties waited, 
 as it were, only for a plausible pretext to strike the first blow. This pretext 
 
GERMANY. 303 
 
 History of Germany. 
 
 was offered, by that the Protestants at Prague precipitated the imperial 
 governors from the windows of the royal castle, on the 23d of May, 1618. 
 The Bohemians then elected the elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate then- 
 king, but were defeated in the battle near Prague, on the 8th of November, 
 1620, and soon the war extended to all parts of Germany. Meanwhile, the 
 cousin of Matthias, Ferdinand II. (1619-1637), had been elected emperor, and 
 during his reign the principal events of the said war took place : the total 
 defeat of King Christian V. of Denmark in the battle of Lutter on the Baren- 
 berg (27th of August, 1626), the taking of Magdeburg by storm (20th of May, 
 1631), the battle of Breitenfeld (7th of September, 1631), the battle of 
 Liitzen (16th of November, 1632), etc. Ferdinand II. was succeeded by his 
 son Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), whose reign is noted for the Westphalian 
 treaty of peace, concluded on the 24th of October, 1648, respectively at 
 Munster (with reference to the Catholic concerns) and Osnabriick (with 
 reference to the Protestant concerns). By the terms of this treaty, the execu- 
 tive power of the emperor was restricted still more than ever before. Ferdi- 
 nand IL died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold I. (1657-1705), 
 who was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph I. (1705-1711), and then by 
 a younger son Charles VI. (1711-1740), with whom the male line of the 
 house of Hapsburg became extinct. He bequeathed all his patrimonial 
 dominions (comprising the present Austrian monarchy, with the exception of 
 the Polish provinces and of the former Venetian territories) to his ouly 
 daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary Theresa, who was married to Francis 
 Stephen, duke of Lorraine, from which cause the house of Hapsburg has 
 since been styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. There arose claims upon the Austrian 
 dominions on the part of several German princes, above all of Charles Albert, 
 elector of Bavaria, and cousin to Mary Theresa. Yet the latter prevailed, 
 both against him and the other pretenders, with the exception of Frederic IL 
 of Prussia, to whom she ceded the greatest part of Silesia. Charles Albert 
 was, however, elected emperor by the name of Charles VII., but as he already 
 died in 1745, Mary Theresa's consort was elected emperor by the name of 
 Francis I. (1745-1765). He died in 1765, and was succeeded first by his 
 eldest son Joseph IL (1765-1790), and then by a younger son Leopold IL 
 (1790-1792). Leopold's son, Francis II. (1792-1806), was the last German 
 emperor, as has already been mentioned above, where also the alterations the 
 political body of Germany underwent since the beginning of the present 
 century, have been alluded to. The revolutions which occurred in Germany in 
 
304 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 History of Germany— Recent Revolutions. 
 
 the years 1848 and 1849, are too fresh in remembrance than that they needed 
 to be related here ; yet with reference to their actual causes, we cannot forbear 
 to draw the attention of the reader to the following facts. First, we have 
 seen above that no country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of 
 knowledge, and that its literary institutions are both numerous and celebrated. 
 Secondly, Germany is renowned for various branches of its numerous manu- 
 factures. Thirdly, both its commerce and inland trade is very considerable. 
 Besides this, the agriculture is in general conducted with a skill almost 
 unrivalled, and the horses, sheep, and cattle, there belong, for the most part, 
 to the finest breed. Still we add, that, for instance, the system, long since 
 adopted there in medical concerns, may be called exemplary, and that the 
 administration of justice is likewise in the best order. Now we ask, whether 
 all these advantages could possibly have been obtained, if Germany had been 
 under the sway of tyrants and despots, as German party-leaders would make 
 foreigners believe ? On the contrary, the very fact of these advantages pre- 
 supposes liberal and benevolent principles on the part of the governments in 
 general. The assertion of those party-leaders, that the German people had 
 to bear enormous public charges, and especially all the expenses of the princely 
 courts in that country, is completely a talk at random. First, in Germany the 
 taxes are lower than in almost any other country of Europe — for, upon an 
 average, each inhabitant has to pay only one and a half dollars per annum ;* 
 whereas, the proportion of taxes in England is at the rate of ten, and in 
 France, at present, at the enormous rate of fourteen dollars. (The particulars 
 of the proportion of taxes in Germany will be found below, and in the 
 description of the several German states.) And, secondly, with regard to 
 the expenses of the princely families and courts in Germany, the people have 
 to contribute out of their pockets not one single cent towards them. The fact 
 is, that these families subsist entirely on the revenues of their domains, or 
 family estates. They are possessed of property, as well as millions of private 
 
 * In the financial year ending on the 30th of June, 1844, the public expendi- 
 ture of the United States was $32,958,827. At the same period, the total 
 population of the Union was about 19,500,000 inhabitants. Thus, 19,500,000 
 divided into 33,000,000 gives a ratio of $1 69 per inhabitant. But, let even 
 the average amount of the expenditure be only $25,000,000, the ratio per 
 inhabitant is still at least $1 25 — i. e., exclusive of the separate public charges 
 in the single states. 
 
GERMANY. 305 
 
 Recent Revolutions in Germany. 
 
 men throughout the whole world ; and that this property consists chiefly of 
 family estates, commonly called domains, makes no difference. "We have 
 seen above, that the ancestor of the reigning royal family in Prussia, Frederic 
 of Hohenzollern, was able to pay 400,000 ducats in cash to Emperor Sigis- 
 mund — an immense sum at that time ! Rodolph of Hapsburg was, before 
 his accession to the imperial throne, one of the wealthiest earls in Switzerland. 
 The Guelphs, ancestors of the house of Brunswick-Hanover, were wealthy 
 and powerful barons in Italy and Southern Germany. We could cite other 
 instances to show that the German princes descend from wealthy ancestors, 
 who entailed their large estates as feoffments in trust upon their descendants. 
 The revenues from these estates far exceeding the expenses of the princely 
 households, it is evident that the assertion that German princes did live at 
 the charges of the people, is a fabrication. On the contrary, in former times 
 the surplus of the revenues, applied to purposes of public service then as well 
 as at present, proved almost sufficient for the public expenditure ; and what 
 the people had to pay in taxes, was a trifle. Only the wars and other 
 extraordinary contingencies since the first French revolution, have increased 
 the taxes of the German people, still to a comparatively very low ratio. In 
 the table, page 308, that of some countries is indeed higher than the average 
 ratio of one and a half dollars, but this is chiefly owing to the rail-roads, 
 which in Germany, for the most part, have been constructed at the expense 
 and on account of the public treasury. Thus, neither tyranny nor despotism 
 on the part of the princes, neither incapacity nor malevolence on the part of 
 the rulers, neither heavy taxes nor infringement of the rights and liberties of 
 the people have brought on the revolution in Germany, but the artifices of 
 those very party-leaders, who in this way endeavored to satisfy their immod- 
 erate ambition and unreasonable discontent. That the reader may not 
 charge us with partiality, or exaggeration, we shall cite their own words. 
 Last summer, as is known, a republic in the grand- duchy of Baden and the 
 Bavarian palatinate was established, but soon put down again. Now, of 
 course, the leaders took to flight ; and Mr. Brentano, the ex-president of the 
 transitory republican government, had just time enough to publish an address 
 to the people of Baden, in which, among other things, he says : — " Fellow- 
 citizens ! You will be astonished to learn from the records, to what pur- 
 poses your money has been appropriated; how few there were who, 
 without self-interest, devoted themselves to the cause of the people, and how 
 the great majority did not make a step without asking payment for it out of 
 
306 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Excess of Population in Germany 
 
 the public treasury. In the first beginning of our revolution, hundreds of 
 adventurers flocked into our country ; they boasted of their having suffered 
 for the sake of liberty, and claimed the reward of it in ready money out of 
 your treasuries. At the head of this party was Struve, whom the army 
 disdains on account of his cowardice. I had put my trust in the constituent 
 assembly ; but I have been disappointed. The majority of its members con- 
 sisted of entirely unqualified common brawlers. I could name a great number 
 of valiant bullies, who, under various pretexts, declined dangerous com- 
 missions as ' unworthy of themselves,' while they greedily sought to obtain 
 others which they could perform in perfect safety at the expenses of the 
 public treasury." We should think that these revelations speak clear enough 
 to every one who desires to become acquainted with the actual causes of the 
 German revolutions. There is no state in the world that can boast of its 
 being a perfect one ; for the simple reason that man himself is not perfect 
 Thus, the German states cannot either boast of perfection; but their chief 
 defect can neither be laid to the governments' charge, nor be remedied by revo- 
 lutions ; for it consists of nothing else but excess of population, and hence 
 want of subsistence on the part of a great many inhabitants, especially among 
 the lower classes of society. In 1807, the total population of Germany was 
 26,226,000 inhabitants, while in the beginning of 1848 it was, in round 
 numbers, 42,000,000 — thus in 41 years, an increase of more than 15,750,000 
 inhabitants ! The increase would have been far more considerable but for the 
 wars which occurred prior to 1814, and which caused, directly and indirectly, 
 great mortality. The German emigrants who came to the United States in 
 these last twenty-five years, are, for the most part, natives from the grand- 
 duchy of Baden, the kingdom of Wirtemberg, and the Bavarian palatinate ; 
 and whoever will take the trouble to ask them for what reason they have 
 emigrated, they will tell him (of course, in so far as they do not belong to the 
 political refugees), that it was chiefly want of subsistence in their native 
 country that induced them to leave it and to go in search of a livelihood on 
 the other side of the Atlantic. In the last-named countries, the people 
 depend for subsistence chiefly on husbandry, and partly on manufactures. 
 In 1807, the population of the grand-duchy of Baden was 840,000 in- 
 habitants, who in general had the means of subsistence, but since, this pop- 
 ulation has increased by more than half a million, amounting at present to 
 about 1,380,000 inhabitants. Thus, while in 1807 only 146 lived on a square 
 mile, this ratio has increased to 233. The population of Wirtemberg was iu 
 
GERMANY. 307 
 
 The Geographical and Political Divisions of Germany. 
 
 180*7 at the ratio of 159 inhabitants to the square mile, but in the beginning 
 of 1848 it was at the ratio of 232. In the Bavarian palatinate are living 
 268, and in the governmental district of Dusseldorf (with an area of 2,094 
 square miles, and a population of 892,500 inhabitants) not less than 426 
 inhabitants on a square mile ! The most populous states of the Union are, 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; yet, according to the census 
 of 1840, ihe ratio of population in the first-named state was only 98, in the 
 second 80, and in Connecticut 65, on a square mile. In comparing this ratio 
 with that of the named German countries, the exceeding competition and 
 rivalry in all branches of industry and livelihood, may indeed not be wondered 
 at. The ratio of population in the other German countries varies, upon an 
 average, between 160 and 210; while the ratio of all Germany is 171 inhab- 
 itants to a square mile. 
 
 We shall now describe the different German states according 
 to their actual political condition in the beginning of the year 
 1848, for the reasons alluded to, page 1. Moreover, the altera- 
 tions proposed by the above-mentioned so-called German parlia- 
 ment, have not been noticed at all by the different governments ; 
 and some few others resolved upon by the latter, may be consid- 
 ered either as transitory, or as immaterial. 
 
 The following geographical and statistical table of Germany, 
 in detail, shows at once the order of succession, followed in the 
 description of the several states, their geographical situation, 
 their area and population, their respective capitals, and the ratio 
 of tax-paying per inhabitant. S. G. signifies Southern Germany ; 
 C. G. signifies Central Germany ; N. G. signifies Northern Ger- 
 many. The particulars of the ratio in paying taxes will be found 
 in the description of the several states, and some of them are 
 already given above. Wherever the ratio is omitted in this table, 
 there the public expenditure is either covered by the revenues 
 of the domains, etc , or the ratio is less than l-£ dollars : as, for 
 instance, in the principalities of Reuss. 
 
308 
 
 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
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GERMANY. 300 
 
 The Germaii Provinces of Austria. 
 
 L GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Area : 76,147 square miles. 
 Population : 12,700,000 inhabitants. 
 
 They consist of the following constituent parts of the Aus- 
 trian empire : 
 
 (a.) The arch-duchy of Austria (15,070 square miles, and 2,400,000 inhab- 
 itants), on both sides of the Danube, with Vienna as capital. 
 
 (6.) The duchy of Styria (8,690 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), 
 on the south side of the former, with Gratz as capital. 
 
 (c.) The kingdom of Illyria (9,052£ square miles, and 1,125,000 inhabi- 
 tants), comprising Carinthia, Carniola, and the so-called Austrian Friaul, 
 with Klagenfurt, Laibach, and Trieste as capitals. 
 
 (d.) The earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 inhabitants), 
 between Bavaria and Italy, on the west bounded by Switzerland, and on the 
 east connected with the Austrian arch-duchy and Illyria. Its capital is 
 Innspruck. 
 
 (<?.) The kingdom of Bohemia (20,096$ square miles, and 4,600,000 inhabi- 
 tants), between the arch-duchy of Austria and the kingdom of Saxony, with 
 Prague as capital. 
 
 (/) The margraviate of Moravia and Austrian Silesia (10,607 square 
 miles, and 2,310,000 inhabitants), between Bohemia and Hungary, with 
 Brunn as capital. 
 
 (g.) The duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (1,491 square miles, and 365,000 
 inhabitants), near Cracow, belonging politically to Germany, but in every 
 other respect to Galicia, with Auschwitz as capital 
 
 The detailed description of these German provinces will be 
 found under the head of the Austrian empire, as it would be in- 
 convenient to describe them separately. 
 
310 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The German Provinces of Prussia. 
 
 IL— GERMAN PROVINCES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Area: 11,696 square miles 
 Population: 12,230,000 inhabitants. 
 
 They consist of the following constituent parts of the kingdom 
 of Prussia: 
 
 (a.) The province of Brandenburg (15,634 square miles, and 2,020,000 
 inhabitants), between the Oder and Elbe rivers, with Berlin as capital. 
 
 (6.) The province of Pomerania (12,233 square miles, and 1,166,000 inhabi- 
 tants), on the Baltic, and crossed by the Oder river, with Stettin as capital. 
 
 (c.) The province of Silesia (15,799 square miles, and 3,049,500 inhabitants), 
 along the north-eastern frontier of the kingdoms of Saxony and Bohemia, 
 with Breslau as capital. 
 
 (d.) The province of Saxony (9,81 8^ square miles, and 1,741,500 inhabi- 
 tants), between Brandenburg and the kingdom of Saxony, crossed by the 
 Elbe river, with Magdeburg as capital. 
 
 (e.) The province of Westphalia (7,838| square miles, and 1,470,000 inhab- 
 itants), between Central Germany and the kingdom of the Netherlands, with 
 Munster as capital. 
 
 (f.) The Rhenish Province (10,373 square miles, and 2,783,000 inhabitants), 
 on both sides of the Rhine, but chiefly on its left bank, with Coblentz, the seat 
 of its governor. 
 
 The detailed description of these German provinces will be 
 found under the head of the Prussian Kingdom, as also in this 
 case it would be inconvenient to describe them separately. It is 
 true, that in the period when the so called German parliament 
 was still alive, the other Prussian provinces (at least the province 
 of Prussia) were declared constituent parts of Germany like- 
 wise ; but this arrangement is to be considered as a transitory 
 
GERMANY. 311 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 one, so much the more as it is yet very doubtful what part 
 Prussia generally may act with regard to the political organiza- 
 tion of Germany. 
 
 Ill— THE KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. 
 
 Area : 29,703 square miles. 
 Population : 4,450,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This kingdom (officially styled Bayern in German), next to 
 Austria and Prussia, the most important state in Germany, forms 
 the middle part of Southern Germany, is on the south separated 
 from Italy by Tyrol, and consists of two distinct territories, sit- 
 uated about 40 miles apart, the smallest of which being on the 
 left bank of the Rhine. 
 
 According to the census of 1843 the total population was 
 4,440,327 inhabitants, of whom 1,226,753 were Protestants (for 
 the most part Lutherans), and more than 63,000 Jews, the re- 
 mainder consisting of Roman Catholics, with 2 archbishops (at 
 Munchen and Bamberg), and 6 bishops (at Augsburg, Passau, 
 Regensburg, Eichstadt, Wurzburg, and Spire). 
 
 The most remarkable of the mountain-ranges are, beside 
 branches of the Alps, the Bohmerwald, Fichtelgebirge, Spessart, 
 etc. (see page 7) ; and of the rivers the Danube, and one of the 
 chief tributaries of the Rhine, the Mayne, with the branches 
 noted, page 16. About the most remarkable lakes, see page 11. 
 The Louis Canal, mentioned above (page 285), is crossing the 
 
312 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 northern half of Bavaria from north to south, and its whole 
 length is 107 miles. 
 
 With regard to natural products. Bavaria is noted for its ex- 
 tensive forests, yielding annually about 2£ million cords of timber 
 and firewood, its excellent wines (in Franconia and the Bavarian 
 palatinate), and hops. It abounds in salt and molybdena (plum- 
 bago), and its other principal minerals are coal, iron, copper, 
 and some quicksilver (in the Bavarian palatinate). Cattle, sheep, 
 horses, and hogs, are abundant. 
 
 Agriculture and other branches of husbandry furnish the 
 chief means of subsistence. Breweries are very numerous, and 
 the Bavarian beer is celebrated throughout all Germany. Man- 
 ufactures are carried on to a great extent, and the most noted 
 among them are those of optical, chirurgical, and musical instru- 
 ments, of crucibles, gold and silver articles, leather, and wax 
 candles. The inland trade is considerable. 
 
 Of the above-mentioned (see page 287) 3 Bavarian universities, 
 that of Munich was in 1846 frequented by 1,406 students, that 
 of Wurzburg by 450, and that of Erlangen in 1842 by 309 stu- 
 dents. Besides these institutions there are 9 lycea, 26 gymnasia, 
 about 60 Latin schools, 9 seminaries (about the signification of 
 these terms, see page 65), 3 polytechnical, 5,400 common schools, 
 etc. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
 being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the 
 budget for the period of 1843-1849, the public revenue was esti- 
 mated at 31.736,407 florins, and the expenditure at 31,536,407 
 florins annually. The 'public debt amounted in 1838 to about 
 126 million florins. The regular army consists during peace 
 of 20,500, and in time of war of 56.269 men. The troops 
 which Bavaria, as a member of the German confederacy, was 
 bound to furnish, amounted to 35,600 men. 
 
GERMANY. 813 
 
 Kingdom of Bavaria— its History. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : — I, The order of St. 
 Hubertus, instituted in 1444, and renewed respectively in 1708 
 and 1800, only for princes and officers of the highest rank. 2. 
 The order of St. George, instituted in the days of the crusades, but 
 renewed in 1729. 3. The order of Maximilian Joseph, instituted 
 in 1806, only for military officers. 4. The order of the Bavarian 
 crown, instituted in 1808, for civil officers. 5. The order of Louis, 
 instituted in 1827. 6. The order of St. Michael, instituted in 
 1693, but renewed and altered in 1808. 7. The order of St. The- 
 resa, instituted in 1827, for ladies. 8. The order of St. Elizabeth, 
 instituted in 1766. 
 
 History. — The present Bavaria, anciently forming part of Vindelicia and 
 Noricum (see History of Germany), came since the fall of the Roman empire 
 first under the sway of the Ostrogoths, then under that of the Frankish em- 
 pire, though it was, since the end of the 6th century, governed by native 
 dukes belonging to the house of Agilolf. The Bavarian dukes, who thus 
 were vassals of the Frankish kings, continued in the same relation of depend- 
 ence to the German empire since the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 31). 
 In the period from 94*7 to 1180, barons from different houses were invested 
 with the duchy, and the most renowned among them were those belonging 
 to the house of the Guelphs (since the year 1071), until in 1180 the yet 
 reigning dynasty of Wittelsbach became possessed of it. The duchy of Ba- 
 varia comprised however only the present provinces of Upper and Lower 
 Bavaria ; all the other territories have in the course of time been annexed 
 to it: the Upper Palatinate in 1623 (at the same time the electoral dignity 
 was conferred on the duke of Bavaria), the formerly sovereign bishoprics of 
 Augsburg, Bamberg, Wurzburg, Eichstadt, and Passau, together with several 
 imperial cities, in 1803 ; the imperial cities of Augsburg, Nuremberg, and 
 Lindau, the greatest part of the territories in the province of Swabia, and 
 the principality of Ansbach in 1806 ; the principality of Bayreuth and the 
 imperial city of Ratisbon in 1810 ; the principality of Aschaffenburg and the 
 greatest part of the present Bavarian palatinate in 1814. According to the 
 terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Presburg on the 26th of December, 
 1805, the electorate of Bavaria was raised to a kingdom. Tyrol (which was 
 annexed to it in 1805), anil the former sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg 
 
 14 ' 
 
314 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 were in 1813 respectively restored and ceded to Austria. King Maximilian 
 Joseph I. died in 1825, and was succeeded by his son Louis I., who abdicated 
 in 1848, and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II, the still reigning king, 
 born in 1811. 
 
 In 1803 the kingdom was divided into circles, whose names, after 
 the example of France, were derived from the rivers within their 
 limits. But in 1837 these names were altered into others of 
 historical signification and long since commonly used. They are 
 still styled circles, and are 8 in number. The capitals of the 
 circles are in the following description marked with a cross (-}-)• 
 
 L The circle of Upper Bavaria, comprising chiefly that part of the ancient 
 duchy of Bavaria, which ever has been styled Upper Bavaria, aud besides it 
 some other territories annexed to it since 1803. 1. The ancient duchy of 
 Bavaria, within the limits of this circle, contains : -4-Munioh ( m German 
 Munchen), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Isar, west- 
 ward and 230 miles distant from Vienna, with 115,000 inhabitants, and 6 
 suburbs (the most remarkable of which is called the Au), is to be considered 
 as one of the central points of sciences and arts in Germany, and noted for 
 its splendid galleries of paintings and sculpture, literary institutions (see In- 
 troduction to Germany), palaces, churches, etc. Munich was founded in 1175 
 by the duke Henry of Bavaria and Saxony, surnamed the Lion. The neigh- 
 boring village of Nymphenburg (with 1,200 inhabitants; is noted for its por- 
 celain manufacture and royal palace, where the royal family uses to reside 
 in the summer season. The little village of Kdferloh is noted for its market 
 for cattle held here in the month of September, and the village of Hohenlin- 
 den (eastward and 18 miles distant from Munich), noted for a battle on the 
 3d of December, 1800. Hohenschwangau, an ancient feudal castle, once be- 
 longing to the celebrated house of Hohenstaufen, at present arranged and 
 furnished in a magnificent style, and the private property of the king. Traun- 
 stein (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Reichenhall (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 towns between Munich and Salzburg, noted for their salt-springs. Ingol- 
 stadt, a fortified town on the Danube, northward and 44 miles distant from 
 Munich, has 10,200 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its university 
 (instituted in 1472), which in 1802 was transferred to Landshut, and in 1826 
 
GERMANY. 315 
 
 Kingdom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 united with the university of Munich. Old Oetting, a market-town near the 
 Austrian frontier, has 1,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its holy shrine, and 
 the sepulchres of various princes, and of the field-marshal Tilly (-f-1632). 
 Tegernsee, formerly a Benedictine abbey, at present royal residence in the 
 summer season, is situated on a lake of the same name, 30 miles south-south- 
 east of Munich. In its neighborhood is a noted bathing-place, named Kreut. 
 The town of Rain (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the Lech, near its junction 
 with the Danube, and at 23 miles distance from Augsburg, is noted for the 
 victory gained by Gustavus Adolphus on the 5th of April, 1632, which 
 opened to him the way into Bavaria. The town of Muhldorf (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), on the Inn river and near Salzburg, is noted for battles in 1259 
 and 1322. Other towns, more or less deserving to be noticed, are: Erding 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pfaffenhofen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Moosburg 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Weilheim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Schongau (with 
 1,600 inhabitants), Landsberg (with 3,300 inhabitants), Wasserburg (with 
 2,400 inhabitants), Friedberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aichach (with 1,800 
 inhabitants), Schrobenhausen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Burghausen (with 
 2,500 inhabitants). 2. The ancient sovereign bishopric of Freising (instituted 
 in 724 and secularized in 1803) contains : Freising, a city on the Isar, 22 
 miles north-north-east of Munich, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,400 
 inhabitants. Garmisch (with 1,600 inhabitants), Mittenwald (with 2,100 in- 
 habitants), and Partenkirchen (with 1,100 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. 
 The once highly renowned provostship of Berchtesgaden (which was instituted 
 in 1106, raised to the dignity of a principality, and possessed of a territory 
 213 square miles in extent, but was secularized in 1803) contains: Berchtes- 
 gaden, a town near the frontier of Tyrol, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its salt-springs and toys, or carved works of ivory, etc. 4. To the ancient 
 archbishopric of Salzburg formerly belonged the towns of Laufen (with 
 1,900 inhabitants), and Tittmoning (with 1,200 inhabitants), and the boroughs 
 of Waging and Teisendorf, with respectively 650 and 500 inhabitants. 
 
 II. The circle of Lower Bavaria, comprising chiefly that part of the 
 ancient duchy of Bavaria, which ever has been styled Lower Bavaria, and 
 besides it, the former territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Passau. 
 1. The ancient duchy of Bavaria, within the limits of this circle, contains : 
 -J-Landshut, capital of this circle, romantically situated on the Isar, north- 
 eastward and 40 miles distant from Munich, with 10,300 inhabitants, 9 churches 
 (the steeple of one of them is 422 feet high), and the ancient mountain castle 
 

 316 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 of TYausnitz, once the residence of the Bavarian dukes. In the period from 
 1802 to 1826, Landshut was the seat of a university, at present in Munich. 
 Straubing, a town on the Danube (crossed here b} r a remarkable bridge of 
 stone), 23 miles east-south-east of Ratisbon, with 7,800 inhabitants, numerous 
 breweries, and considerable trade in grain and horses. Kklheim, a town on 
 the left bank of the Danube, at its junction with the Altmuhl (which river is 
 brought into connection with the Mayne by the Louis Canal), south-westward 
 and 12 miles distant from Ratisbon, with 2,200 inhabitants. Other more or 
 less remarkable towns are: Abensberg (with 1,300 inhabitants), ViUhofen 
 (with 2,200 inhabitants), Osterhofen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Deygendorf (with 
 3,800 inhabitants), and Grafenau (with 750 inhabitants). The village of 
 Eckmuhl, between Landshut and Regensburg, is noted for a battle on the 
 24th of April, 1809, between the French and Austrians. The market-town 
 of Ortenburg (with 1,100 inhabitants), westward and 9 miles distant from 
 Passau, was formerly the capital of a sovereign earldom of the same name, 
 and 32 square miles in extent. 2. The former territory (of an extent of 426 
 square miles) of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Passau (instituted in 737, 
 and secularized in 1803), contains: Passau, fortified city on the Danube, at 
 its junction with the Inn (which latter river separates the city from the 
 Austrian territory), has a remarkable cathedral, and 11,000 inhabitants, and 
 is noted for the beauty of its ladies. The market-town of Hafnerzell (with 
 1,350 inhabitants) is noted for its crucibles made of molybdena. In some of 
 them can be melted 2,000 marks of silver at once. 
 
 III. The circle of Upper Palatinate and Ratisbon, chiefly comprising the 
 ancient Upper Palatinate and the former imperial city of Regensburg, part 
 of the ancient duchy of Bavaria, etc. 1. The former imperial city of 
 -{-Ratisbon (in German, Regensburg), at present the capital of this circle, is 
 situated on the right bank of the Danube (crossed by a stately bridge, built 
 in the period from 1135 to 1146 of freestone, and having a length of 1,091 
 feet), 64 miles north-north-east of Munich, and south-eastward and 50 miles 
 distant from Nuremberg, with 18 churches, 4 convents, numerous breweries 
 and manufactures, a considerable trade, and 22,000 inhabitants. The most 
 remarkable public edifices of this city (which in the 12th century was endowed 
 with the privileges of an imperial one, and in 1809 annexed to Bavaria) are 
 the cathedral, reared in the 13th century, the city hall (where, in the period 
 from 1663 to 1806, the Diet of the ancient German empire held its sessions), 
 and the buildings of the former immediate abbeys of Obermunster, Nieder- 
 
GERMANY. Slf 
 
 The Kindgom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 miinster, and St. Emmeran. The latter is at present the property and resi- 
 dence of the prince of Thurn and Taxis, formerly postmaster-general of the 
 German empire. These abbeys were instituted respectively about the 
 years 896, 900, and 652. To the former sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
 Ratnbon (which was instituted in the beginning of the 8th century, and secu- 
 larized in 1803, but which had nothing in common with the city of Ratisbon) 
 did belong the market-towns of Worth (with 1,000 inhabitants) and Donaustmif 
 (with 150 inhabitants). Near the latter is the Wafhalla, a building reared in 
 1830-1842 by order of King Louis of Bavaria, and devoted to the memory 
 of celebrated Germans. 2. The Upper Palatinate, primitively belonging to 
 the dukes of Swabia, and in the period 1329-1623 annexed to the Palatinate 
 on the Rhine, contains : Ambkrg, formerly the capital of the Upper Palatinate, 
 on the high road between Regensburg and Bayreuth, eastward and 34 miles 
 distant from Nuremberg, with several remarkable public buildings, various 
 manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. In the neighboring town of Hirschau 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Jerome of Prague, the friend of John Huss, was 
 taken prisoner in 1415, and conveyed to Constance, where he was burnt. 
 Other more or less remarkable market and proper towns of the Upper Palat- 
 inate are : Casttel (with 1,200 inhabitants), Neumarkt (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
 Nabburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Neunburg vor dern Walde (with 2,100 inhab- 
 itants), Roding (with 1 ,500 inhabitants), Waldmunchen (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
 Tirschenreuth (with 2,500 inhabitants), Waldsassen (with 1,650 inhabitants), 
 Eschenbach (with 1,850 inhabitants), and Kemnath (with 1,650 inhabitants). 
 3. That part of the ancient duchy of Bavaria within the limits of this circle, 
 contains : Stadtamhof (literally : town at the court), a town on the left bank 
 of the Danube, opposite to Regensburg, with 2,200 inhabitants. Cham, a town 
 on the Regen river, with various branches of industry, and 2,200 inhabitants. 
 Dietfurt (on the AltmuhL with 1,000 inhabitants), and Riedenburg (with 1,050 
 inhabitants), towns. 4. The former principality of Neuburg (about its par- 
 ticulars, see under the head of the circle No. VII.), within the limits of this 
 circle, contains : Hilpoltstein, a town on the Roth river, 46 miles west-north- 
 west of Regensburg, with a remarkable ancient palace and town-hall, and 
 1,500 inhabitants. Kalhnunz (with 1,300 inhabitants), Parsberg (with 600 
 inhabitants), and Regenstauf (with 1,650 inhabitants), market-towns. 5. The 
 former principality of Sulzbach (which in 1309 was annexed to that of 
 Neuburg), contains: Sulzbach, once its capital, near Amberg, has 3,100 inhab- 
 itants, and is noted for its ancient mountain castle. Weiden, a town, with 
 
318 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Gr.rmany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 2,400 inhabitants. Vohenstrauss, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 6. Within the limits of this circle is also situated the mediate duchy of Leuch- 
 tenberg (anciently a landgraviate, which in 1646 was annexed to Bavaria), 
 belonging to the Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg (son-in-law of the Russian 
 emperor Nicholas), whose father, Eugene Beauharnois, was in 1817 invested 
 with it and the principality of Eichstadt. It contains : Leuchtenberg, capital 
 of the duchy, 52 miles east-north-east of Nuremberg, with 600 inhabitants. 
 In its neighborhood is situated the town of Pfreimdt, with 1,600 inhabitants. 
 
 7. To various other territories did formerly belong : Neustadt, surnamed an 
 der Waldnab, a town on the Waldnab river (hence its surname), near the 
 frontier of Bohemia, with 1,600 inhabitants. Schonsee, a town, with 1,300 
 inhabitants. Freystadt, a town on the Schwarzach river, with 900 inhabi- 
 tants. Neustadt am Culm, a town in the vicinity of Bayreuth, with 1,200 
 inhabitants. 
 
 IV. The circle of Upper Franconia, comprising chiefly the ancient princi- 
 pality of Bayreuth, and the formerly sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
 Bamberg. 1. The former principality of Bayreuth was, together with the 
 principality of Ansbach (see the next circle), primitively a constituent part of 
 the ancient burgr aviate of Nuremberg, which had its seat in a castle within 
 the walls of the city of Nuremberg, but in other respects nothing in common 
 with the latter. The first historically-known burgrave, was Godfrey of 
 Hohenlohe, who lived about the year 1138. But already so early as in 1164 
 the house of Hohenzollern was invested with the burgraviate, and since suc- 
 cessively with other dominions, forming at last the two named principalities. 
 When the burgrave Frederic VI. in 141*7 was invested with the electorate 
 and margraviate of Brandenburg (see page 302), he retained his pos- 
 sessions in Franconia, but his two grandsons divided the inheritance in such a 
 manner that the one succeeded in Brandenburg, and the other in Bayreuth 
 and its dependencies. The latter line became extinct in 1791, and both prin- 
 cipalities (of Bayreuth and Ansbach) were now annexed to the dominions of 
 the other line, or to the kingdom of Prussia. The principality of Bayreuth 
 (1,534 square miles, and in 1801 with 218,500 inhabitants) was in 1807 ceded 
 by Prussia to France, which retained it until 1810, when it ceded it to Bavaria. 
 The principality of Ansbach (1,448 square miles, and in 1800 with 245,000 
 inhabitants) was ceded by Prussia to France in 1805, and by the latter power 
 to Bavaria in 1806. The princes of Bayreuth and Ansbach bore the title of 
 margraves, with reference to the margraviate of Brandenburg. Here is, for 
 
GERMANY. 319 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 the present, only the question of the former principality of Bayreuth, which con- 
 tains (within the limits of this circle, or in the so-called Highland of Bayreuth) : 
 -[-Bayreuth, formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the capital 
 of Upper Franconia, on a branch of the Mayne, 42 miles north-north-west of 
 Nuremberg, with 17,000 inhabitants, a remarkable ancient castle, and one of 
 the largest opera-houses in Germany. The former princely gardens here 
 cover a space of about 84 acres. Culmbach, a town on a branch of the 
 Mayne, 14 miles north-north-west of Bayreuth, is noted for its breweries, has 
 4,250 inhabitants, and was, in the period from 1603 to 1726, the residence of 
 a collateral line of the princely house of Bayreuth. Hof, a town at the 
 frontier of Bohemia and Saxony, is noted for its woollen, linen, and cotton 
 manufactures, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Wunsiedel, a town half-way between 
 Bayreuth and Eger, with various manufactures, iron mines, and 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. The market-town of Muggendorf, south-westward and 16 miles distant 
 from Bayreuth, with 450 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive and highly 
 remarkable caves. Other towns are : Naila (with 1,700 inhabitants), Selb 
 (with 3,400 inhabitants), Weissenstadt (with 2,400 inhabitants), Rehau (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), Ludwigstadt (with 950 inhabitants), Munchberg (with 2,300 
 inhabitants), Berneck (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Goldkronach (with 1,000 
 inhabitants). 2. The territory of the former sovereign, or immediate bishopric 
 of Bamberg, which primitively, and until 908, belonged to the powerful earls 
 of Babenberg, and in 1006 was transformed into this bishopric that continued 
 to exist for nearly 800 years, when it was secularized in 1803, at which period 
 it had an area of 1384 square miles, and a population of 185,000 inhabi- 
 tants, contains : Bamberg, formerly the capital of this bishopric, on the Regnitz, 
 near its junction with the Mayne, northward and 32 miles distant from Nurem- 
 berg, with important trade, noted breweries, and 21,500 inhabitants. Its 
 most remarkable public edifices are : the cathedral (reared by Emperor 
 Henry IL, whose sepulchre is here), the palace of the former sovereign bishops 
 (reared in 1702, and remarkable for that Alexander Berthier, Napoleon's 
 marshal, precipitated himself out of one of its windows, on the 1st of June, 
 1815), the extensive hospital reared in 1787, and the former Benedictine 
 abbey. Bamberg, whose foundation was laid in 804, was in the middle ages 
 frequently the gay and splendid resort of the imperial court, of the knight- 
 hood, etc. Ebermannstadt, a town romantically situated on the Wiesent 
 river, south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Bamberg, with 750 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns are : Hochstadt (noted for its hops, with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 
320 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 Hollfeld (with 1,100 inhabitants), Weissmain (with 1,100 inhabitants), Herzo- 
 genaurach (with 1,850 inhabitants), Forrkheim (with 3,200 inhabitants), Potten- 
 stein (with 1,000 inhabitants), Stadtsteinach (with 1,400 inhabitants), Kupferberg 
 (with 950 inhabitants), Lichtenfels (with 2,200 inhabitants), Teuschnitz (with 
 850 inhabitants), Staff elstein (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Kronach, or Cranach 
 (remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated painter Lucas of Cranach, a 
 contemporary of Luther, has 3,000 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable 
 trade in timber and lumber). 3. To the Franconian immediate nobility of the 
 empire did, among other places, belong : Thurnau, a town on the Au river, 
 north-westward and 9 miles distant from Bayreuth, with 1,500 inhabitants, 
 and a remarkable ancient castle, or palace of the count of Giech. Pom- 
 mersfelden, a village in the vicinity of Bamberg, with 650 inhabitants, 
 belongs to the count of Schonborn, who occupies a magnificent palace here. 
 4. To the former territory of the city of Nuremberg did belong the towns 
 of Grafenberg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Betzenstein (with 100 inhabitants), 
 the village of Egglof stein (with 550 inhabitants), etc. 
 
 V. The circle of Central Franconia, comprising the former principality 
 of Ansbach, the Lowland of Bayreuth (see above), the city of Nuremberg 
 and its former territory, etc 1. The former principality of Ansbach (a his- 
 torical sketch of which, together with other particulars, is given above, under 
 the head of Bayreuth), contains : -|- Ansbach, or Anspach (anciently also 
 called Onolzbach), formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the 
 capital of Central Franconia, on the Franconia Rezat river, south-westward 
 and 23 miles distant from Nuremberg, with various manufactures, and 13,000 
 inhabitants. The former palace of the margraves, or princes, of Ansbach 
 was reared in the years 1587 and 1588, and is at preseat noted for a valuable 
 library and gallery of paintings. Schwabach, a celebrated manufacturing 
 town, southward and 9 miles distant from Nuremberg, has 8,300 inhabitants, 
 and is especially noted for its pins and needles. Another renowned manufac- 
 turing town is Furth, in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with 16,000 inhabitants. 
 Heilsbronn (not to be confounded with Heilbronn in Wirtemberg), a market- 
 town on the little Schwabach river, south-westward and 10 miles distant from 
 Nuremberg, is remarkable as the burying-place of most of the ancient bur- 
 graves of Nuremberg, and has 850 inhabitants. Other more or less remark- 
 able towns are : Uffen heim (with 1,750 inhabitants), Wassertrudmgen (with 
 2,100 inhabitants), Feuchtwang (with 2,600 inhabitants), Wlndsbach (with 1,250 
 inhabitants), Merkendorf (with 850 inhabitants), HeidenJieim (with 1,900 in- 
 
GERMANY. 321 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 habitants), Kadolzburg (with 1,400 inhabitants), Gunzenhausen (with 2,700 
 inhabitants), and Leutershausen (with 1,500 inhabitants). 2. The so-called 
 Lowland of Bayreuth (to distinguish it from the above-mentioned more 
 mountainous Highland of Bayreuth) contains : Eri.angen, a town on the 
 Regnitz, northward and 12 miles distant from Nuremberg, has 11,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its university. Other towns are : Neustadt an der 
 Aisch (on the Aisch river, with 3,200 inhabitants), Baiersdorf (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), and Markt-Erlbach (with 1,300 inhabitants). 3. The ancient 
 territory of the formerly independent, or imperial city of Nuremberg (in the 
 long period from the 10th century to 1806), contains: Nuremberg (in Ger- 
 man Nurnberg), a city on the Pegnitz river, 96 miles north-north-west of 
 Munich, and south-westward and 140 miles distant from Leipsic, has 48,000 
 inhabitants, was in the middle ages and in later periods highly celebrated for 
 its inland trade, manufactures, and its collection of works of art, and is at 
 present the most important trading and manufacturing place at least in Ba- 
 varia. Its city hall, reared in the period from 1613 to 1619, is one of the 
 largest in Germany, and contains valuable pictures of Albert Diirer, which 
 are also to be found in the beautiful St. Sebaldus' and St. Laurentius' churches. 
 The above-mentioned (see page 318) castle and ancient residence of the bur- 
 graves was in 1427 sold to the city. Within the limits of Nuremberg's for- 
 mer territory were, among other places, situated : Altdorf, a town on the 
 Schwarzach river, 14 miles east-south-east of Nuremberg, has 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and was formerly noted for its university (instituted in 1578, and in 
 1809 united with the university of Erlangen), where in 1599 Wallenstein 
 made his studies. Hersbruck, a town on the Pegnitz, has 2,400 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its excellent hops. Lauf a town on the Pegnitz, with vari- 
 ous manufactures, and 3,100 inhabitants. 4. Other imperial cities were until 
 the year 1803 the following: Rothenburg an der Tauber (surnamed thus, 
 because it is situated on the Tauber river, has several remarkable churches, 
 and 6,500 inhabitants), Dinkelsbuhl (like the former, situated near the fron- 
 tier of Wirtemberg, has 6,000 inhabitants), Windsheim (north-westward and 
 18 miles distant from Ansbach, with many breweries, and 3,600 inhabitants), 
 and Weissenburg (commonly surnamed im Nordgau, south-eastward and 28 
 miles distant from Ansbach, with various manufactures, numerous breweries, 
 and 4,300 inhabitants). 5. To the Teutonic order (see page 46) did belong : 
 Ellingen, a town on the Swabian Rezat river, south-eastward and 27 miles 
 distant from from Ansbach, with an extensive palace, and 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 14* 
 
322 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 Ellingen and its dependencies (forming together a territory of 85 square miles 
 in extent) belong at present to the descendants of the late Bavarian field- 
 marshal, Wrede. 6. The formerly sovereign, immediate bishopric of Eichstadt 
 (instituted in 741, and secularized in 1803), whose territory (469 square miles, 
 and in 1803 with 56,000 inhabitants) forms at present a mediate principality, 
 belonging to the duke of Leuchtenberg (see above), contains : Eichstadt, its. 
 capital, on the Altmuhl, 60 miles north-north-west of Munich, has 7,000 in- 
 habitants, and is noted for its cathedral and other public edifices. Spalt, a 
 town on the Franconian Rezat river, southward and 22 miles distant from 
 Nuremberg, has 1,850 inhabitants, and is renowned for its hops. Other towns 
 are : Beilngries (with 1,200 inhabitants), Berching (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Abenberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), Greeting (with 1,150 inhabitants), Her- 
 rieden (1,450 inhabitants), and Ohmbau (with 850 inhabitants). 7. To vari- 
 ous mediatized princes belong the following territories : of Hohenlohe-Schil- 
 lingsfurst (21 square miles, and 3,800 inhabitants) ; of Schwarzenberg (101 
 square miles, and 12,500 inhabitants ; the prince of tliis name resides com- 
 monly in Vienna) ; and of Pappenheim (75 square miles, and 9,300 inhabi- 
 tants, belonging to the earl of this name, who resides in the town of Pappen- 
 heim, romantically situated on the Altmuhl, near Eichstadt, and having 
 2,250 inhabitants). The town of Markt-Einersheim (with 800 inhabitants), 
 belongs to the count of Rechtern-Limpurg, and the town of Burghaslach 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), to the count of Castell. 
 
 VI. The circle of Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, comprising 
 chiefly the former sovereign, or independent bishopric of Wurzburg, and the 
 principality of Aschaffenburg. 1. The territory of the former independent 
 bishopric of Wurzburg (instituted in 741, and secularized in 1803, at which 
 period its extent was 1,917 square miles, with 240,000 inhabitants) contains : 
 -4-Wurzburg, fortified capital on the Mayne, half way between Frankfort 
 and Nuremberg, with considerable trade, various manufactures, and 27,500 
 inhabitants. Wurzburg is noted for its splendid and extensive palace (form- 
 erly the residence of the bishop, and reared in the period from 1720 to 1740), 
 its university, and its excellent wines. Kitzingen, a town on the Mayne, 
 south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Wurzburg, is noted for its brewe- 
 ries, and has 5,100 inhabitants. Kissingen, a town on the Franconian Saale, 
 northward and 32 miles distant from Kitzingen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its mineral waters and salt-springs, and much resorted to for bath- 
 ing. Konigshofen, surnamed im Grabfelde, a town on the Franconian Saale, 
 
GERMANY. 323 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 westward and 23 miles distant from Coburg, with 1,750 inhabitants. Ebern 
 (with 1,200 inhabitants), Haasfurt (with 1,950 inhabitants), Eltmann (with 
 1,500 inhabitants), Gerolzhofen (with 2,200 inhabitants), Volkach (with 2,100 
 inhabitants), Dettelbach (with 2,500 inhabitants), Ochsenfurt (with 2,300 in- 
 habitants), Aub (with 1,050 inhabitants), Carlstadt (with 2,250 inhabitants), 
 Arnstein (with 1,600 inhabitants), Gemunden (with 1,650 inhabitants), Mun- 
 nerstadt (with 1,650 inhabitants), Neustadt an der Saale (with 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants), Bischofsheim vor der Rhbn (with 1,850 inhabitants), Fladungen (with 
 950 inhabitants), and Mellricfistadt (with 1,850 inhabitants), more or less 
 remarkable towns. 2. The former principality of Aschajfenburg, which, 
 until 1803, did belong to the electorate of Mentz, and at that period had an 
 area of 437 square miles, and a population of 70,300 inhabitants, contains : 
 Aschaffenburg, formerly electoral residence next in rank to Mentz, on the 
 Mayne, between Frankfort and Wurzburg, with 9,500 inhabitants, a magnifi- 
 cent palace (formerly electoral, at present royal), and several other remarkable 
 public edifices. The neighboring village of Dettingen (with 600 inhabitants) 
 is noted for a battle against the French, which was won by King George IL 
 of England, on the 27th of June, 1743. Obernburg, a town near the Mayne, 
 with 2,000 inhabitants. Klingenberg, Prozelten, and Lohr, towns on the 
 Mayne, with respectively 1,050, 1,000, and 3,800 inhabitants. Orb, a town 
 half way between Fulda and Aschaffenburg, has 4,500 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its salt springs. Miltenberg (on the Mayne, 22 miles south-south- 
 east of Aschaffenburg, with 3,100 inhabitants), and Amorbach (near Milten- 
 berg, with a magnificent princely palace, and 2,900 inhabitants), two towns 
 belonging at present, together with other neighboring places, to the prince of 
 Leixingen. 3. The towns of Bruckenau (north-westward and 16 miles dis- 
 tant from Kissingen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is much resorted to as a 
 watering-place), and Hammelburg (northward and 23 miles distant from 
 Wurzburg, with 2,700 inhabitants), did formerly belong to the territory of 
 the immediate bishopric of Fulda. Schweinfurt, formerly an imperial city 
 (since the 14th century to 1803), on the Mayne, 23 miles north-north-east of 
 Wurzburg, with 7,400 inhabitants. Castell, the capital of a mediate earl- 
 dom of the same name, between Kitzingen and Bamberg, has 750 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its wines. Wiesentheid (a market-town, with 1,150 inhabi- 
 tants), and Gaibach (a village, with 450 inhabitants, and a beautiful palace), 
 belong to the earl of Schonborn. The market-towns of Klein-Heubach and 
 Kreuz-Wertbheim, on the Mayne, with respectively 1,700 and 850 inhabi- 
 
324 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 tants, and noted for their wines, belong at present to the mediatized prince 
 of Lowenstein- Werthheim. 
 
 VII. The circle of Swabia and Neuburg, comprising the territories of 
 numerous formerly sovereign or immediate princes, prelates, etc. — all together 
 (with the exception of the principality of Neuburg) belonging to the Swabian 
 circle of the German empire (see above, page 292). The name of Swabia 
 occurs in Germany very frequently in common life, and has geographically 
 the same signification as formerly that of " Swabian circle" (see page 292). 
 It is derived from the ancient Suevians, who were first commonly known by 
 the name of Alemanni, and subsequently called Swabians. In the beginning 
 of the 10th century, Swabia was raised to a duchy, with which in 1094 the 
 celebrated house of Hohenstaufen was invested ; that retained it until itself 
 became extinct in 1268. Since, the duchy was divided in various smaller 
 territories. 1. Imperial cities, until 1803 (Augsburg until 1806), were the 
 following: -{-Augsburg, at present the capital of this circle, on the Lech, 
 north-westward and 38 miles distant from Munich, has 38,000 inhabitants, and 
 so many stately public and private buildings, that Sir Robert Peel, who was 
 here several years ago, declared it to be the finest city he ever had seen. At 
 least, Augsburg may boast of the solidity and tasteful style of most of its 
 buildings. Among its public edifices are especially to be noticed : the city 
 hall (the most magnificent in Germany, both with regard to its exterior and 
 interior ; it was reared in the beginning of the 1 7th century, and contains, 
 among other numerous rooms, a richly decorated hall, 110 feet long, 58 broad, 
 and 52 feet high), the Gothic cathedral (whose foundation was laid in the 10th 
 century), several other churches, the chapel where, on the 25th of June, 1530, 
 the Lutheran confession of faith was presented to Charles V., etc. In the 
 15th and 16th century, Augsburg was the chief staple place for the goods 
 conveyed overland between Antwerp and Venice ; and is still noted for its 
 inland trade and manufactures. Kempten, formerly an imperial city, on the 
 Iller, 50 miles south-south-west of Augsburg, has 7,800 inhabitants. Kauf- 
 beuren, until 1803 an imperial city, on the Wertach river, 40 miles south- 
 south west of Augsburg, with 3,800 inhabitants. Memmingen, formerly an 
 imperial city, near the Uler river, south-westward and 44 miles distant from 
 Augsburg, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its hops. Lindau, respect- 
 ively, until 1790 and 1805, an imperial city, on the lake of Constance, south- 
 westward and 100 miles distant from Munich, is fortified, and has 4,250 
 inhabitants. Nordlingen, until 1803 an imperial city, near the frontier of 
 
GERMANY. 325 
 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Wirtemberg, eastward and 60 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 6,700 inhab- 
 itants, a remarkable Gothic church, and considerable manufactures of woollens 
 and linen, is noted for the decisive battle on the 7th of September, 1634, and 
 situated in the so-called Hies, a district renowned for its extraordinary fertility 
 of the soil. Donauwoerth, formerly an imperial city (but actually only until 
 1607), on the Danube, northward and 27 miles distant from Augsburg, with 
 2,700 inhabitants. 2. To the formerly sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
 Augsburg (instituted in 590, and secularized in 1803 : but for the cathedral, it 
 had nothing in common with the city of Augsburg) did belong : Dillingen, a 
 town on the left bank of the Danube, north-westward and 23 miles distant 
 from the city of Augsburg, was formerly the residence of the bishop, and has 
 3,500 inhabitants. In the period from 1552 to 1804, a university was here. 
 Fuessen, a town on the Upper Lech, near the frontier of Tyrol, is noted for a 
 treaty of peace concluded here in 1745 between Austria and Bavaria, and 
 has 1,800 inhabitants. Graben, a village, with only 400 inhabitants, but 
 remarkable as the ancestral seat of the princes and earls of Fugger, whose 
 ancestor, John Fugger, emigrated in 1370 to Augsburg as a poor linen- weaver, 
 yet by his industry laid the foundation to the immense riches of his descend- 
 ants. 3. The following towns did belong to various immediate abbeys secular- 
 ized in 1803, as: Geoenenbach, with 1,750 inhabitants, and Obergunzburg, 
 with 1,400 inhabitants (to the abbey of Kempten, instituted in 773) ; Otto- 
 beuren, with 1,500 inhabitants (to the abbey of the same name, instituted in 
 764); other abbeys were: Ursberg (instituted in 1125), Roggenburg (instituted 
 in 1126), Wettenhausen (instituted in 982), etc. 4. The former margraviate of 
 Burgau, which belonged to Austria in the period from 1301 to 1805, contains: 
 Burgau, a town on the Mindel river, north-westward and 23 miles distant 
 from Augsburg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Guenzburg, a town on the Danube, 
 north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Ulm, has 3,200 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its bleacheries. Krumbach, a market-town, with 1,350 inhabitants, 
 is noted for its linen. 5. The former lordships of Mindelheim and Schwabeck, 
 of which in 1612 Bavaria became possessed of (in the period from 1706 to 
 1714, the duke of Marlborough was invested with Mindelheim), contains: 
 Mindelheim, a town on the Mindel river, south-westward and 30 miles distant 
 from Augsburg, with a royal castle, several churches, and 2,700 inhabitants. 
 Turkheim and Illertissen, market-towns, with respectively 1,550 and 1,200 
 inhabitants. Immenstadt, a town, eastward and 27 miles distant from Lindau, 
 until 1804 belonging to the Count Konigsegg-Rothenfels, has 1,200 inhabitants, 
 
326 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 an J carries on a considerable linen trade. 6. The dependent principality of 
 Oettingen (belonging to the princes of Oettingen-Wallerstein and Oettingen- 
 Spielberg, under the sovereignty of Bavaria, and having an area of 250 square 
 miles, and a population of 42,000 inhabitants), contains: Wallerstein, a 
 town, and the residence of the prince of Oettingen-Wallerstein, in the above- 
 mentioned Ries, near Nordlingen, with a stately princely palace, and 2,000 
 inhabitants. Oettingen, a town, and the residence of the prince of Oettingen- 
 Spielberg, on the Wernitz, 9 miles north-north east of Nordlingen, with two 
 castles, or palaces, and 3,300 inhabitants. 7. The mediate dominions of the 
 princes and earls of Fugger (whose ancestor lived at first in the above-men- 
 tioned village of Graben), together, 298 square miles in extent, and with 
 30,000 inhabitants, yielding annually about 350,000 florins, contain, among 
 others: Babenhausen, town and residence of the prince of Fugger- Babenhau- 
 sen, south-westward and 33 miles distant from Augsburg, with 1,750 inhabi- 
 tants. Gloett, town and residence of the earl of Fugger-Glott, north-westward 
 and 22 miles distant from Augsburg, with 750 inhabitants. Kirchheim, town 
 and residence of the earl of Fugger- Kirchheim, in the vicinity of Babenhausen, 
 with a beautiful palace, and 1,850 inhabitants. Weissenhorn, town and 
 residence of the earl of Fugger-Kirchberg- Weissenhorn, north-westward and 
 13 miles distant from Babenhausen, with 1,650 inhabitants 8. To the dependent 
 earldom of Pappenheim (see under the head of Central Franconia) belongs 
 the village of Solnhofen (with 650 inhabitants), celebrated for its extensive 
 quarries, whose slabs are wonderfully adapted to lithography. 9. The former 
 principality of Neuburg (which, together with Sulzbach, did primitively 
 belong to the duchy of Bavaria, but in the period from 1507 to 1799 was 
 possessed by a collateral line, when it was restored to Bavaria), contains : 
 Neuburg, surnamed on the Danube, a town on the Danube, 27 miles north- 
 north-east of Augsburg, with a remarkable castle, and 6,550 inhabitants. 
 Monheim, a town at the high-road between Augsburg and Nuremberg, with 
 1,900 inhabitants. Hoechstadt, a town on the Danube, 28 miles west-south- 
 west of Neuburg, has 2,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its remarkable Gothic 
 castle, and two battles in 1703 and 1704, the latter of which is commonly 
 named after the neighboring village of Blindheim, or Blendheim. The towns 
 of Lauingen and Gundelfingen, have respectively 4,000 and 2,800 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 VIII. The circle of the Palatinate (2,247 square miles, and 603,000 inhab- 
 itants) comprises chiefly territories, which, both politically and in common 
 
GERMANY. 327 
 
 The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 life, were, and are still, known by the name of Palatinate. The political par- 
 ticulars will be found below. 1. As capital of this circle, we must first describe : 
 -|-Spire, one of the oldest former imperial cities (in 1801 ceded to France, 
 and in 1814 to Bavaria), on the Rhine, southward and 46 miles distant from 
 Mentz, and north-eastward and 70 miles distant from Strasburg, with 17 
 churches, and 9,500 inhabitants. Julius Csesar resided frequently at Spire, 
 which in the middle ages was the burial-place of German emperors, whose 
 highly remarkable sepulchres are to be seen in its magnificent Gothic cathedral. 
 In the period from 1529 to 1691, Spire was the seat of the Imperial Chamber 
 (see page 293). Landau, formerly likewise an imperial city, south-westward 
 and 18 miles distant from Spire, has 6,500 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, 
 and was in the period from 1680 to 1815 possessed by France. To the former 
 sovereign or immediate bishopric of Spire (which was instituted in 348, and 
 secularized in 1803, but had nothing in common with the city of Spire), did 
 belong the towns of Deidesheim (noted for its wines, has 2,600 inhabitants), 
 Edesheim (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Rheinzabern (with 2,100 inhabitants), 
 and the villages of Forat (with 850 inhabitants) and Ungstein (with 1,150 
 inhabitants), noted for their wines. 2. To the former Electoral Palatinate 
 (see its particulars under the head of Baden) did belong: Frankenthal, 
 formerly the third in rank among its capitals, near the Rhine, north-westward 
 and 9 miles distant from Mannheim, is noted for its various manufactures, and 
 has 5,000 inhabitants. Neustadt, surnamed an der Haardt, a town at the foot 
 of the Haardt Mountains, westward and 13 miles distant from Spire, is noted 
 for its wines, and has 6,150 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated the 
 little village of Hambach, with the ruins of an ancient castle, reared by 
 Emperor Henry IV. Germersheim, a fortified town on the Rhine, southward 
 and 13 miles distant from Spire, with 2,300 inhabitants. Rodolph of Haps- 
 burg died here on the 15th of July, 1291. Kaiserslautern (frequently also 
 called Lautern), a town on the Lauter river, 36 miles west-north-west of Spire, 
 with 7,450 inhabitants. Wolfstein, a town on the Lauter river, north-west- 
 ward and 12 miles distant from Kaiserslautern, has 1,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its quicksilver mines. Other more or less remarkable towns are : 
 Oggersheim (with 1,700 inhabitants), Wachenheim (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Edenkoben (with 5,000 inhabitants), Otterberg (with 2,600 inhabitants), RocJc- 
 enhausen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Lautereck (with 1,200 inhabitants). 
 3. The former palatine principality of Zweibriickcn (which primitively be- 
 longed to the house of the Palatinate, and since the beginning of the 15th 
 
328 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 century was an independent or immediate principality until 1199, when its 
 sovereign, Maximilian Joseph, inherited all Bavaria and Electoral Palatinate), 
 contains : Zweibeuecken, or Deux-Ponts (its French and English name), for- 
 merly the capital of the principality, on the Erbach river, westward and 50 
 miles distant from Spire, with manufactures, and 7,800 inhabitants. Ann- 
 weilee, a town on the Queich, 23 miles west -south-west of Spire, with 2,800 
 inhabitants, and the remarkable ruins of the once so-renowned castle of 
 Trifels, where Bang Richard of the Lion Heart was kept prisoner in 1193. 
 Other towns are : Hovnburg (northward and 9 miles distant from Deux-Ponts, 
 with 3,200 inhabitants), Bergzabern (with 2,900 inhabitants), Cusel (with 2,400 
 inhabitants), and Obermoschel (with 1,200 inhabitants). 4. The former lord- 
 ship of Hanau-Lichtenberg (which in the period from 1136 to 1801 did belong 
 to Hesse-Darmstadt), contains : Pirmasenz, a town in the vicinity of Zwei- 
 brucken, has 5,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle of last century the 
 residence of the landgrave Louis IX. of Hes9e-Darmstadt. 5. The former 
 earldom of Leiningen (which belonged to the house of this name, but was in 
 1814 ceded to Bavaria), contains the towns of Durkheim, or Turkheim (with 
 4,600 inhabitants), and Gruenstadt (with 3,600 inhabitants). 6. To various 
 other former sovereigns did belong : Landstuhl, a town in the vicinity of 
 Kaiserlautern, with 1,950 inhabitants (did belong to the count of Sickingen); 
 Blieskastel, a town in the neighborhood of Zweibrucken, with 2,000 inhabi- 
 itants (belongs still to the prince of the Leyen) ; Winnweiler (was formerly 
 the capital of the earldom of Falkenstein, and has 1,400 inhabitants), and 
 Goellheim, or Gellheim (a market-town, north-westward and 20 miles distant 
 from Mannheim, noted for the battle on the 2d of June, 1298, and with 1,750 
 inhabitants, did belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau). 
 
GERMANY. 329 
 
 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
 
 IV.— THE KINGDOM OF WIRTEMBERG. 
 
 Aeea: 7,551 square miles. 
 Population : 1,150,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Wirtemberg (officially styled Wurttemberg in German) is 
 situated between Bavaria and Baden, and surrounded by these 
 states, except on the south, where it is washed by the waters of 
 the lake of Constance. 
 
 The majority of the population consists of Lutherans, and the 
 remainder (with the exception of about 12,000 Jews) of 500,000 
 Roman Catholics, with a bishop in Rottenburg. 
 
 The chief mountain-range is the Svoabian Alp, and next to it 
 the eastern part of the Black Forest (see page 7). The Neckar 
 (one of the tributaries of the Rhine), with its branches of the 
 Kocher and Jaxt, crosses the country in the direction from south 
 to north, and the Danube in the direction from west to east. 
 Besides the lake of Constance, the Feder lake deserves to be 
 noticed. 
 
 The chief natural products are : grain (sufficiently raised not 
 only for home consumption, but also for exportation), wines, 
 fruits (as, apples, pears, cherries, etc.), and timber; furthermore, 
 cattle, horses, and sheep ; finally, iron and soli. 
 
 Among the manufactures of Wirtemberg, those of linen have 
 long since been renowned. Other principal articles are : wool- 
 len, cottons, leather, cutlery, etc. The inland trade is rather consid- 
 erable. 
 
 The means of education are well arranged. Besides a uni- 
 versity at Tubingen (see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented 
 by 863 students, there are 3 lycea, 6 gymnasia, 78 Latin schools, 
 
330 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
 
 several seminaries, etc. (see the note, page 65), and 2,256 com- 
 mon schools. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
 being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the 
 budget for the period of 1844-1845, the public revenue was esti- 
 mated at 10,869,807 florins, and the expenditure at 10,711,210 
 florins per annum. The public debt amounted on the first of 
 July, 1840, to 22,695,068 florins. The regular army consists on 
 the peace footing of 7,426 men, and on the war footing of 20,094 
 men and 4,988 horses. Troops to be furnished with regard to 
 the German confederacy, 13,955 men. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The military order 
 of merit, in 3 classes, and instituted respectively in 1806 and 
 1818. 2. The order of the Wirtemberg crown, instituted in 1818. 
 3. The Frederic's order, instituted in 1830, in commemoration of 
 the late king, Frederic I. 
 
 History. — The kernel of the present kingdom of Wirtemberg consists of 
 the ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, which prior to the year 1495 was an earl- 
 dom, primarily forming part of the above-mentioned (page 324) duchy of 
 Swabia. The first historically known earl of Wirtemberg was Ulric Z, who 
 reigned in the period of 1246-1265, and whose patrimonial dominions em- 
 braced only small parts of the present Neckar and Black Forest circles. His 
 son (-(-1325) and grandson extended the limits of the earldom by annexing 
 to it neighboring districts, which they either inherited or purchased. That 
 Mompelgard was towards the end of the 14th century acquired by marriage, 
 has already been mentioned under the head of France, page 203. In this 
 way the earldom (whose name was derived from the ancestral castle of Wir- 
 tineberg, or Wiirtemberg, near Canstadt) gradually increased to an extent, 
 that Emperor Maximilian 1. was induced to raise it to the dignity of a duchy 
 in 1495. Its last duke, since 1*797, was Frederic II., who in the treaty of 
 peace concluded at Luneville in 1801, ceded Mompelgard to France, but was 
 in 1803 amply indemnified by the territories of several immediate prelates 
 and imperial cities ; at the same time the electoral title was conferred on him. 
 By the terms of the treaty of Presburg in 1805, the earldom of Hohenberg, 
 
GERMANY. 331 
 
 The Kingdom of Wirteinberg— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 and several other dominions, were ceded to him, and he assumed the royal 
 title. He died, as King Frederic I., in 1816, and was succeeded by his son, 
 the still reigning king, William /., born in 1781. 
 
 The kingdom is, since 1817, divided into 4 provinces, styled 
 circles, which are subdivided into 64 bailiwicks. The capitals of 
 the circles will be found marked with a cross (-{-). 
 
 I. The Neckar Circle, comprising chiefly parts of the ancient duchy of 
 Wirteinberg, containing : Stuttgaet, capital of the kingdom, and royal resi- 
 dence, on the little Nesenbach river, a branch of the Neckar, south-eastward 
 and 40 miles distant from Carlsruhe, and north-westward and 120 miles dis- 
 tant from Munich, has 46,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent 
 royal palace, its opera-house, and its royal library, which, among other 
 valuable works, contains a collection of 12,000 bibles, in 68 different lan- 
 guages. Stuttgart has been the seat of its sovereigns since the year 1321. 
 -|-Ll t dwigsburg, capital of the Neckar Circle, near Hie Neckar, northward 
 and 9 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 10,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 extensive royal palace, containing valuable collections of paintings, etc. In 
 its vicinity is situated the market-town of Asperg, with 1,700 inhabitants, 
 and the fortress, or fortified castle of Hohenasperg. Canst att, a town on the 
 Neckar, and in the vicinity of Stuttgart, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its mineral waters. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Mark- 
 grbningen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vaihlngen (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
 Lauffen (with 4,000 inhabitants), Brackenheim (with 1,700 inhabitants), Gug- 
 glingen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Besigheim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Bietig- 
 heim (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bbnnigheim (with 2,400 inhabitants), Neustadt 
 an der Linde (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mbckmuhl (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 Widdern (with 1,400 inhabitants), Marbach (with 2,500 inhabitants), Gross- 
 bottwar (with 2,500 inhabitants), Backnang (with 4,500 inhabitants), Murrhard 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants), Waiblingen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Winnenden 
 (with 3,100 inhabitants), Bbblingen (with 3,400 inhabitants), Sindelfingen 
 (with 3,700 inhabitants), and Leonberg (with 2,200 inhabitants). The village 
 of Maulbronx is remarkable for its ancient Cistercian monastery (instituted 
 in 1187), which after the Reformation was transformed into a theological 
 seminary. Weinsberg, a town on the Sulm river, northward and 28 miles 
 distant from Stuttgart, with the ruins of a once highly renowned castle, and 
 
332 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Wirteraberg. 
 
 2,100 inhabitants. Oberstenfeld, a market-town between Stuttgart and 
 Weinsberg, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its pensionnaire, or board- 
 ing-school for young ladies of rank. In its vicinity is situated the solitary 
 village of Prevorst, with 450 inhabitants. 2. The following were imperial 
 cities until 1803 : Heilbronn, a city on the Neckar, northward and 20 miles 
 distant from Stuttgart, has 11,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable in- 
 land trade, and is noted for its manufactures. Esslingen, formerly an impe- 
 rial city, on the Neckar, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Stuttgart, 
 has 12,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its optical and other similar instru- 
 ments, and its wines. Weil, formerly an imperial city, on the Wurm river, 
 and north-westward and 9 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 2,000 inhabitants, 
 and is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Keppler 
 (born in 1571, and -j-1630 at Ratisbon). 3. The mediate earldom of Lbwen- 
 stein (53 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of 
 Lowenstein, contains : Lowenstein, its capital, in the vicinity of Weinsberg, 
 is noted as a watering-place, and has 2,000 inhabitants. 4. The mediate 
 lordship of Schwaigern, belongs to the earl of Neipperg, (son-in-law of the 
 reigning king of Wirtemberg), and contains, among others, the town of 
 Schwaigern, with a palace of the earl, and 2,000 inhabitants. 5. The towns 
 of Neckarsulm (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gundelsheim (with 1,200 inhabi- 
 tants), formerly belonged to the Teutonic order. 
 
 II. The Black Forest Circle, comprising other parts of the ancient duchy 
 of "Wirtemberg, the former earldom of Hohenberg, and the following (until 
 1803) imperial cities : -j-Reutlingen, at present the capital of this circle, south- 
 ward and 18 miles distant from Stuttgart, is noted for its numerous printing- 
 offices and manufactures, and has 12,800 inhabitants. Rottweil, formerly 
 an imperial city, on the Neckar, south-westward and 32 miles distant from 
 Reutlingen, with considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 2. The former 
 earldom of Hohenberg, which since 1381 did belong to Austria, and was 
 ceded to Wirtemberg in 1805, containing: Rottenburg, a city in the neighbor- 
 hood of Tjibingen, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of Wirtemberg, and 
 noted for its musical instruments, and has 6,500 inhabitants. Horb, a town 
 on the Neckar, with cloth manufactures, and 2,050 inhabitants. Other towns 
 are : Oberndorf ( with 1,900 inhabitants), Schramberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), 
 Spaichingen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Schemberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), and 
 Fricdingen (with 1,000 inhabitants). 3. The ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, 
 within the limits of this circle, contains : Tuebingen, considered as the second 
 
GERMANY. 833 
 
 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg— Us Geographical Division?. 
 
 capital of the kingdom, on the Neckar, 18 miles south-south-west of Stutt- 
 gart, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and 
 page 287). Urach, a town on the Rough Alp, south-eastward, and 20 miles 
 distant from Stuttgart, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is renowned for its damask 
 linen. In its vicinity is situated the town of Metzingen, surnamed unter 
 Urach (beneath, or at the foot of Urach), with 4,200 inhabitants, and noted 
 for its wines and corn-markets. Ehningen, the largest and finest market-town 
 in the kingdom, in the neighborhood of Reutlingen, has 5,000 inhabitants, 
 who for the most part consist of pedlars. Pfullingen, a romantically situa- 
 ted town, near Reutlingen, with 4,000. inhabitants, is noted for its fruits and 
 wines. Calw, one of the most industrious manufacturing towns in the coun- 
 try, westward and 22 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 4,500 inhabitants. 
 The neighboring village of Hirschau (with 800 inhabitants), was once noted 
 for its magnificent Benedictine convent, instituted in 830. The romantically 
 situated village of Deinach (with 500 inhabitants), is much resorted to as a 
 watering-place. Other noted watering-places are the towns of Liebenzell 
 (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Wildbad (with 1,800 inhabitants). Tuttlingen, 
 a town on the upper Danube, 28 miles north-north west of Constance, has 
 5,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable corn-trade, and is noted for its 
 manufactures of cutlery. Not far from here is situated, on a solitary steep 
 rock, 2,174 feet high, the once celebrated fortress of Hohentwiel, now iu 
 ruins. The towns of Balingen (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ebingen (with 
 4,400 inhabitants), carry on a considerable trade in corn and cattle. Other 
 more or less remarkable towns are : Nurtingen (noted for its musical instru- 
 ments, has 3,900 inhabitants), Neuffen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Grotzingen 
 (with 1,100 inhabitants), Herrenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Nagold (with 
 2,600 inhabitants), Altensteig (with 2,100 inhabitants), Bulach (with 1,300 in- 
 habitants), Neuenburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Freudenstadt (with 4,100 in- 
 habitants). Dornstetten (with 1,250 inhabitants), Alpirspach (with 1,800 
 inhabitants), Sidz (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Dornhan (with 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 III. The Danube Circle, comprising only a small part of the ancient duchy 
 of Wirtemberg, while the remainder consists of territories annexed to the 
 kingdom since the year 1803. -4-Ulm, at present the capital of this circle, 
 formerly an imperial city, on the Danube at its junction with the Uler, south, 
 eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, and westward and 42 miles 
 distant from Augsburg, is strongly fortified, and has 18,400 inhabitants, and 
 
334 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
 
 is*, besides for numerous manufactures, especially noted for its magnificent 
 Gothic minster or cathedral, which is 485 feet long, 200 wide, and 141 feet 
 high, and whose steeple is 337 feet in height. In the middle ages, Ulm was 
 in high reputation for its extensive trade. In 1805 the Austrian general 
 Mack capitulated here with 30,000 men. Ulm had, being an imperial city, 
 a considerable territory, which, among other places, contained Geislingen, 
 a town with 2,200 inhabitants, and noted for its fine turneries in ivory, 
 horn, &c. Isny, an imperial town until 1803, near the frontier of Bavaria, 
 with important linen trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. It belongs at present to 
 the count of Quadt. Wangen, formerly an imperial city, westward and 9 
 miles distant from Isny, with various manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. 
 Leutkirch, likewise an imperial city until 1803, southward and 40 miles dis- 
 tant from Ulm, is noted for its linen, and has 2,200 inhabitants. Bucuhorn, 
 an imperial city until 1803, on the lake of Constance, received by the late 
 king Frederick I., the name of Friedrichshafen, and has 1,300 inhabitants. 
 Ravensburg, likewise an imperial city formerly, 46 miles south-south-west of 
 Ulm, with* various manufactures, important trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. 
 Biberach, an imperial city until 1803, on the little Riss river, 23 miles south- 
 south-west of Ulm, with various manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Buchau, 
 formerly an imperial city, on the Feder lake, 9 miles west-south-west of Bib- 
 erach, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its stately castle or palace, of the 
 prince of Thurn and Taxis (see Ratisbon), which was, until 1803, the seat of 
 an independent abbey, instituted in the beginning of the 10 th century. Among 
 the other formerly independent abbeys, is especially to be noticed the Benedic- 
 tine abbey of Weingarten (close by the market-town of Altdorf in the 
 neighborhood of Ravensburg), instituted in 920 as a nunnery, but in 1047 
 transformed into a monastery. Its buildings are magnificent and extensive, 
 and its church contains an organ with 6,666 pipes. In 1803, when this abbey 
 was secularized, the house of Orange-Nassau became possessed of it, but in 
 1806 it was ceded to Wirtemberg. 2. Of the territories of 8 princes, who 
 respectively until 1803 and 1806 were sovereign or independent, deserve to be 
 noticed the dominions of the princes of Waldburg (181 square miles, and 
 36,000 inhabitants), containing: Wurzach, a town in the neighborhood of 
 Leutkirch, with 1,100 inhabitants, and a palace of the prince of Waldburg- 
 Zeil- Wurzach, Aichstetten (with 700 inhabitants), and Winterstettenstadt 
 (with 450 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The formerly so-called Swabian 
 Austria, which in 1805 was ceded by Austria to Wirtemberg, contains: 
 
GERMANY. 335 
 
 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Ehingen, a town on the Schmiechen river, south-westward and 16 miles dis- 
 tant from Ulna, with considerable trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. Munderkin- 
 gen, a town on the Danube, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse- 
 marts. Saulgau, a town on the Schwarzach, with considerable corn trade, 
 and 2,300 inhabitants, is noted for its town-hall, and church with beautiful 
 paintings on glass. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wa/dsee 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Mengen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Riedlingen (with 
 1,800 inhabitants), and Tettnang (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-town 
 of Langenargeii (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its corn trade. 4. The 
 ancient duchy of Wirteinberg within the limits of the Danube circle, contains : 
 Blaubeuren, a town on the Blau, a branch of the Danube, westward and 9 
 miles distant from Ulm, has 2.100 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen, and 
 especially for its theological seminary, in the buildings of a former Benedic- 
 tine convent, instituted in 1095. Goeppingen, a town on the Fils river, 23 
 miles east-south-east of Stuttgart, is noted for its manufactures, and has 5,500 
 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the market-town of Hohenstaufex, 
 with the ruins of the ancestral castle of the once so renowned family of this 
 name, and 1,100 inhabitants. Munsingen, a town on the Rough Alp, westward 
 and 23 miles distant from Ulm, is noted for its damask linen, and has 1,550 
 inhabitants. Kirchheim, surnamed unter Teck, a town on the Lauter (a branch 
 of the Danube, and thus not to be confounded with the Lauter in the Bava- 
 rian palatinate), north-westward and 32 miles distant from Ulm, with 5,600 
 inhabitants, various manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Teck ? 
 once the ancestral seat of the dukes of this name, whose dominions were pur- 
 chased by the Earl Eberhard of Wirtemberg in 1381. 
 
 IV. The Jaxt Circle, comprising for the most part territories annexed to 
 Wirtemberg since the year 1803. Among them are : — 1. Those of the formerly 
 sovereign or independent provostship of JMlwan.gen, which was instituted 
 in 764 as a Benedictine convent, and secularized in 1803, containing: -(-Ell- 
 wangen, at present the capital of this circle, formerly the residence of the 
 provost, on the Jaxt river, north-eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, 
 with remarkable Gothic church, noted horse-marts, and 3,800 inhabitants. 
 WassercUfingen, a market-town, with iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. 
 Abtsgemund, a village on the Kocher, with iron-works and 750 inhabitants. 
 2. The following 5 cities were imperial cities until 1803: Hall, or Schwdbisch 
 Hall (Swabian Hall), on the Kocher, eastward and 27 miles distant from 
 Heilbronn, has 6,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt springs, Gothic 
 
836 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 
 
 church, town-hall, and trade in cattle. Gmund, or Sckwabisch Gmund (an- 
 ciently it was called Kaiser sreuth), on the Rems river, was once renowned 
 for its manufactures of glass, wax- candles, gold and silver articles, but has at 
 present only 7,000 inhabitants. Aalen, on the Kocher, southward and 9 
 miles distant from Ellwangen, is noted for its breweries and iron-works, and 
 has 3,300 inhabitants. Giengen, on the Brunz river, has 2,350 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its mineral water and manufactures of cutlery ; and Bopfin- 
 gen, in the vicinity of Ellwangen, with 1,600 inhabitants. 3. The Teutonic 
 Order, instituted (as has already been related, page 46) in Palestine in 1190, 
 and since the year 1230 conquering the ancient Prussia, left it, since its secu- 
 larization in 1525, and went to Germany, having there considerable dominions 
 (together, 809 square miles, with 84,000 inhabitants), which were secularized 
 in 1809, and partly ceded to Bavaria, partly to Wirtemberg. The grand- 
 master of the order resided at Mergentheim, a town on the Tauber, near the 
 frontiers of Bavaria and Baden, with a beautiful church, mineral waters, and 
 2,400 inhabitants. Lauchheim, a town on the Jaxt, with 1,200 inhabitants. 
 4. To the former margraviate or principality of Ansbach (see Bavarian circle 
 of Central Franconia), did belong and were ceded to Wirtemberg in 1810: 
 Crailsheim, or Krailsheim (northward and 14 miles distant from Ellwangen, 
 with numerous manufactures and 3,000 inhabitants), Gerabronn (with 700 
 inhabitants), and Creglingen (with 1,400 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly 
 sovereign or independent, but since 1806 mediate principalities of Hohen- 
 lohe, belonging to the princes of this name (descendants of Duke Eberhard 
 of Franconia, brother to Emperor Conrad I.), who at present are divided into 
 two chief branches; viz., the Catholic branch of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg 
 (with the collateral lines of Bartenstein, Jaxtberg, and Schillingsfurst), and 
 the Protestant branch of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein (with the collateral lines of 
 Langenburg, Kirchberg, and Oehringen, the latter being formerly named 
 Ingelfingen), and having together an area of 735 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 114,000 inhabitants, contain: Oeheingen, a town on the Ohrn river, 
 north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Heilbronn, is the residence of the 
 prince of Hohenlohe-Oehringen (formerly named Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen), and 
 has 3,300 inhabitants Ingelfingen, a town on the Kocher, with 1,550 inhab- 
 itants. Langenburg, a town on the Jaxt, with 900 inhabitants, is the rosidence 
 of the prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Kirchberg, a romantically situ- 
 ated town on the Jaxt, eastward and 22 miles distant from Oehringen, has 
 1,800 inhabitants, and is the residence of the prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg. 
 
GERMANY. 337 
 
 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg— its Geographical Divisions.— Grand Duchy of Baden. 
 
 Bartenstein, a town 13 miles east-north-east of Ingelfingen, has 1,100 inhab- 
 itants, and a stately palace of the prince of Hohenlohe -Bartenstein. Jaxt- 
 3erg, a town on the Jaxt, with 1,400 inhabitants, belongs to the prince of 
 Hohenlohe-Jaxtberg. The town of Waldenburg (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
 and the market-towns of Kupferzell (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Adolzfurth 
 ^with 600 inhabitants), belong to the prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst (see 
 page 322). Other more or less remarkable towns of these principalities are : 
 Neuenstein (with 1,600 inhabitants), Forchtenberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 Kunnzehau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Niedernhall (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
 Weikersheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sindxingen (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
 and Niederstetten (with 1,700 inhabitants). 6. The ancient duchy of Wir- 
 temberg, within the limits of this circle, contains : Schorndorf, a town on the 
 Rems, 14 miles east-north-east of Stuttgart, with various manufactures, and 
 3,700 inhabitants. Beutelsbach, a market-town in the neighborhood of Schorn- 
 dorf, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the burial-place of some of 
 the ancient earls of Wirtemberg. Heidenheim, a town on the Brenz, south- 
 ward and 18 miles distant from Ellwangen, has 2,800 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its linen trade and numerous manufactures of linen, cotton goods and 
 hardware. Welzheim, a town north-eastward and 7 miles distant from 
 Schorndorf, with 1,800 inhabitants, and considerable trade in flax and timber. 
 Lorch (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Konigsbronn (with considerable iron- 
 works), market-towns. 
 
 V.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF BADEN. 
 
 Area : 5,932 square miles. 
 Population : 1,379,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated along the right bank of the Rhine (by which 
 river it is separated from France), on the south bound by Swit- 
 zerland and the lake of Constance, and on the east bound by 
 Wirtemberg. 
 
 \o 
 
338 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Baden. 
 
 The population consists of about 804,000 Catholics (with a 
 archbishop at Freiburg), 553,000 Protestants, and 22.000 Jews. 
 
 The country in the neighborhood of the lake of Constance, an* 
 partly along the Rhine, is more or less level ; but in the interio 
 the surface is mountainous. The chief mountain ranges are th< 
 Black Forest and the Odenwald (see page 7). The country i; 
 intersected by numerous branches of the Rhine (as for instance 
 the Aach, Murg,Wiese, Dreysam, Acher, Pfinz, etc.), but its prin 
 cipal tributary here, is the Neckar. About the lakes, see page 1 1 
 Other remarkable lakes, in the Black Forest, are the Mnmmel 
 the Wilder, and the Nonnenmattweiher lakes. There are about 6C 
 watering-places in the country, the most renowned of which arc 
 Baden and Ueberlingen. 
 
 Some parts of the country have a most fertile soil, especially the 
 former margraviate of Baden ; others, as for instance some of the 
 mountainous districts, are less fertile, and partly even sterile ; 
 yet, upon the whole, the grand-duchy rivals Wirtemberg in the 
 natural products. Thus, the chief staples are almost the same 
 as in the just-named kingdom, perhaps with the exception of iron, 
 which abounds in Baden more than in Wirtemberg. 
 
 The manufactures are various and mostly important. The prin- 
 cipal articles of fabrication are clocks (nearly in all parts of the 
 world known by the name of Black Forest clocks), hardware 
 and jewelleries, next to them linen, woollen, cotton goods and chemical 
 articles. The inland trade is very considerable. 
 
 Besides the universities (see page 287) at Heidelberg (in 184(5 
 frequented by 864 students), and Freiburg (in 1845 frequented 
 by 213 students), there are 6 lycea, 5 gymnasia (about the sig- 
 nification of these terms, see page 65), 1,916 common, and 65 
 other schools of various distinction. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- 
 berg, with the only difference that the sovereign of Baden bears 
 
GERMANY. 339 
 
 Grand-Duchy of Baden— its Finances and History. 
 
 the title of grand duke. The public revenue in the two years 
 1844 and 1845 amounted to 32,847,690 florins, and the total ex- 
 penditure in these two years to 30,950,034 florins. In 1845 the 
 public debt was 41,271,434 florins (inclusive of a loan of 14 mil- 
 lions which had been contracted for constructing the rail-roads of 
 the country). The regular army consists respectively of 4,595 
 and 10,423 men. The troops to the confederacy (see under the 
 head of Bavaria and Wirtemberg) : 10,000 men. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor: 1. The order of loyalty 
 (Orden der Treue), in 2 classes, instituted in 1715, and renew- 
 ed in 1803. 2. The military order of merit, instituted by Charles 
 Frederic in 1807, in 3 classes. 3. The order of the lion of Zdh- 
 ringen, instituted in 1812, in 3 classes. 
 
 History. — The present grand-duchy of Baden which, in respect to extent 
 and population, rivals German kingdoms, was until the year 1803 a mar- 
 graviate with an area of only 1,384 square miles, and a population of no 
 more than 220,000 inhabitants. All the remainder has since been annexed to 
 this primitive country, which was first under the sway of the Bertilons, but 
 already in the 10th century under that of the Zahringians, whose ancestral 
 seat was the castle of the same name (now in ruins) near Freiburg. Berthold 
 of Zahringen, proprietor of wealthy estates both in Swabia and Alsace, was 
 in 1060 nominated duke of Carinthia and margrave of Verona, and since 
 that period the title of margrave rested with the members of this dynasty. 
 Berthold's son Hermann acquired Baden by marriage ; and his son of the 
 same name was theirs* margrave of Baden, by the name of Hermann L He 
 died in 1 1 30, and was succeeded by his son Hermann II. When in 1 190 his son 
 Hermann III. died, he left behind two sons, the younger of whom became the 
 author of the collateral line of Hochberg. Margrave Christoph of Baden re- 
 united the territories of both hues, but his sons Bernhard and Ernesd divided 
 them again, and there were two reigning lines of Baden-Baden, and Baden- 
 Durlach, until they were once more and permanently reunited in 1771 by 
 the margrave Charles Frederic of Baden- Durlach. The long reign of this 
 sovereign (from respectively 1738 and 1746 to 1811) proved in every respect 
 beneficial to the country. By the treaty of Luneville in 1801 he lost some 
 
340 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Baden. 
 
 territories on the left bank of the Rhine, but was amply indemnified in 1801 
 by the Lower Palatinate, the territories of several prelates, imperial cities, etc. 
 together at the extent of 1,949 square miles, with 215,000 inhabitants. A 
 the same time he was raised to the dignity of an elector, and in 1806 to tha 
 of a grand duke, and made fresh acquisitions in the years 1806, 1809 and 10 
 He died in 1811, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles Louis Frederic 
 who died in 1818, and was succeeded by his uncle Louis, who died in 1830 
 and was succeeded by his step-brother, the still reigning grand duke Leopold 
 born in 1790. About the revolution in 1849 see above, page 305. 
 
 The grand-duchy is, since 1832, divided into 4 provinces, styled 
 circles, which are subdivided into 79 bailiwicks. The capitals 
 of the circles are in the following topography marked with a 
 cross (+)• 
 
 I. The Middle Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the territories of the an- 
 cient margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden, and besides them 
 some former imperial cities, etc. 1. The ancient margraviate of Baden-Dur- 
 lach (formerly also styled the Lower Margraviate of Baden), contains : Carls- 
 ruhe, the capital of the whole country, and residence of the grand duke, at 
 3 i miles distance from the Rhine, north-westward and 40 miles distant from 
 Stuttgart, has 24,800 inhabitants, is very regularly laid out and fan-shaped, 
 has many stately palaces, of which that where the grand duke resides is 
 very extensive, and other remarkable public edifices, and is noted for its lite- 
 rary institutions and manufactures. The foundation of the city was laid in 
 1715 by the margrave Charles of Baden-Durlach. On the Rhine is the vil- 
 lage of Schrock, with 700 inhabitants, and a landing at present called Leopolds- 
 hafen. Durlach, formerly the capital and residence of the margrave of 
 Baden-Durlach, on the Pfinz, eastward and 2 miles distant from Carlsruhe, 
 with some manufactures and 5,000 inhabitants. Grbtzingen, a village with 
 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its madder and wines. Pforzheim, the most 
 important manufacturing town in the country, on the Enz, south-eastward and 
 14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 8,400 inhabitants, and its principal man- 
 ufactures are those of jewelleries and similar other articles. Kurnbach, a 
 market-town, one half of which belongs to Baden, and the other to Hesse- 
 Darmstadt. The former half has 550 inhabitants. 2. The ancient margra- 
 viate of Baden-Baden (formerly also known by the name of the upper 
 
GERMANY. 341 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Badon— its Goographical Divisions. 
 
 nargraviate of Baden), contains : Baden, formerly the capital of this margra- 
 iate, at present one of the most frequented watering-places in Germany, is 
 omantically situated in a valley, about half-way between Strasburg and 
 Karlsruhe, and has 6,300 inhabitants. -(-Rastadt, formerly the residence of 
 he margrave of Baden-Baden, at present the capital of the Middle Rhine 
 Circle, on the Murg, about 3 miles from its junction with the Rhine, and north- 
 ward and 7 miles distant from Baden, is strongly fortified, and has 8,800 in- 
 habitants. The foundation of Rastadt was laid by the margrave Louis Wil- 
 liam of Baden-Baden, who reigned in the period of 1691-1707. The little 
 village of Ajfcnthal is noted for its wines. Steinbach, a town in the vicinity 
 of Baden, with 2,800 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the cele- 
 brated architect Erwin of Steinbach (+1318), who was the chief architect 
 for that fine structure, the cathedral of Strasburg. The town of Kehl, on the 
 Rhine, opposite to Strasburg, has 1,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for 
 its strong fortifications, which in 1815 were razed. Geknsbach, a town on the 
 Murg, at about 9 miles distance from Rastadt, with considerable trade in tim- 
 ber, and 2,400 inhabitants. Achern, a town on the Acher, eastward and 
 16 miles distant from Strasburg, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is situated in a 
 district called the Ortenau, of which the duke Ferdinand of Modena was pos- 
 sessed in the short period from 1803 to 1805. Ettlingen, a town on the lit- 
 tle Alb river, with powder mills, paper manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. 
 Buhl, a town southward and 12 miles distant from Rastadt, has 2,800 inhab- 
 itants, and is noted for its cattle-fairs. 3. The following imperial cities came 
 in 1803 under the sway of Baden: Offenburg, formerly an imperial city, 
 on the Kinzig, 12 miles south-east of Strasburg, with 4,200 inhabitants. Gen- 
 genbach, formerly an imperial city, in the vicinity of Offenburg, with 2,700 
 inhabitants. Zell, surnamed am. Hammersbach, an imperial city until 1803, 
 on a little river called Hammersbach, and in the neighborhood of Gergenbach, 
 with 1,400 inhabitants. 4. The former territory of the ancient bishopric of 
 Spire (see page 327), which in 1803 was annexed to Baden, contains: 
 Bruchsal, formerly the residence of the bishop, whose magnificent palace is 
 still extant, is situated north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, 
 and has 7,800 inhabitants. 5. To the former independent bishopric of Stras- 
 burg (see page 197), belonged the towns of Oberkirch (has 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its wines and fruits), Oppenau (with 2,100 inhabitants), 
 and Renchen (with 2,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp), and the vil- 
 lage of Sasbach (with 1,400 inhabitants), eastward and 14 miles distant from 
 
342 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Baden. 
 
 Strasburg, is remarkable for that the French marshal, Turenne, was struck 
 dead here by a cannon-ball, on the 27th July, 1675. 6. The towns of Bisch- 
 ofsheim, or Rliein-Bishofsheim (near the Rhine, north-eastward and 10 miles 
 distant from Strasburg, is noted for its hemp, and has 1,800 inhabitants), and 
 Lichtenau (likewise noted for its hemp, and with 1,600 inhabitants), until 
 1803 belonged to the ancient lordship of Hanau-Lichtenberg (see page 328). 
 The town of Lahr (18 miles south-south-east of Strasburg, with important 
 manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), did formerly 
 belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau. To Electoral. Palatinate 
 (see below) belonged : Bretten, a town on the Sulzbach, eastward and 15 
 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 3,100 inhabitants, and is noted as the birth- 
 place of Melanchthon. The house where he was born is still extant. Eppin- 
 gen, a town on the Elsenz, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Carls- 
 ruhe, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 3,100 inhabitants. Heidelsheim, 
 a town with 2,300 inhabitants. 7. To the dependent principality of Fursten- 
 berg (see below, under the head of Donaueschingen and Trochtelfingen), 
 belong the towns of Hausen, or Hausach (with 1,300 inhabitants), Wolfach 
 (with copper and other mines, and 1,700 inhabitants), and Haslach (with 
 1,750 inhabitants). 
 
 II. The Lower Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the principal territory 
 of ancient Electoral or Lower Palatinate, which had the following origin. 
 Emperor Otto I. (936-972) appointed Palatines in several parts of the em- 
 pire, who had to pronounce sentences in the name of the king or emperor, and 
 to watch over the royal rights and prerogatives. Their title was derived 
 from the Latin palatium (palace), because they commonly had their seat in the 
 immediate vicinity of the royal or imperial palaces, of which there was a 
 considerable number throughout Germany, but especially along the Rhine. 
 In the course of time the Palatine on the Rhine became the most noted and 
 powerful among these representatives of the emperor ; and so early as in the 
 beginning of the 13th century, he belonged to those powerful princes, who, 
 under the title of electors (see page 293), exercised the exclusive right of 
 electing the emperor. His dominions consisted of the territories in the north, 
 era part of the present grand-duchy of Baden, and in the present Bavarian 
 palatinate (see page 327), and were frequently called Lower Palatinate, to 
 distinguish them from Upper Palatinate (see page 317). Since the middle 
 of the 15th century, a collateral line of the reigning Bavarian house of Wit- 
 telsbach was possessed of the Palatinate, but was, in 1623 (because the Pala- 
 
GERMANY. 343 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Bsuien— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 tiue and Elector, Frederic V., had, as it were, committed felony by accepting 
 the crown of Bohemia, and led his troops against the emperor) deprived both 
 of the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity, which was conferred on the 
 duke of Bavaria. However by the Westphalian treaty of peace in 1648, an 
 eighth electoral dignity was created in favor of Frederic V.'s son and succes- 
 sor. In 1777 the principal line of the reigning house of Bavaria became ex- 
 tinct, and now the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate inherited the 
 whole electorate of Bavaria. He died in 1799, and was succeeded by Max- 
 imilian Joseph (see page 314), who in 1803 ceded that part of the Lower 
 Palatinate situated on the right bank of the Rhine, to Baden ; while the other 
 part, on the left bank, is retained by Bavaria. "We have thus to describe 
 here only the former, containing : -{-Mannheim, at present the capital of the 
 Lower Rhine Circle, formerly the second capital of the Palatinate, and, in 
 the period from 1720 to 1799, the residence of the Palatine elector, on the 
 Neckar, at its junction with the Rhine, has 23,800 inhabitants, is very regu- 
 larly laid out, and noted for its extensive former electoral palace (with 
 1,500 windows for instance), considerable trade and numerous manufactures. 
 Heidelberg, once the capital of the whole Palatinate, and, since 1386, also 
 noted for its university (see above and page 287), on the Neckar, not far from 
 Mannheim, has 15,000 inhabitants. The remarkable castle, where the pala- 
 tines and electors resided, was in 1689 laid waste by the French, and in 1764 
 struck by lightning. Its cellar contains the noted wine-cask, holding 2,100 
 tierces, though it may never have actually been filled with such an immense 
 quantity of wine. The neighboring village of Hanschuchsheim, with 2,100 in- 
 habitants, is noted for its fruit, especially cherries. Nusloch, a market-town, 
 noted for its iron-mines and wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. Still noted for its 
 wines, is the town of Weinheim, with 5,900 inhabitants. Ladenburg, a town 
 already existing in the days of the Romans, by whom it was called Lupodum 
 or Lupodanum, is noted for its madder, and has 2,500 inhabitants. Schdnaic, 
 a town on the Odenwald, with iron-works, bleacheries, and 1,700 inhabitants. 
 Leimen, a market-town, noted for its wines, has 1,500 inhabitants. Lauden- 
 bach, a village with 1,750 inhabitants, cultivates the best sort of the so-called 
 Bergstrasser wines. Netkargemund, a town on the Neckar at its junction 
 with the Elsenz, is noted for its potteries, and has 2,700 inhabitants. Schwet- 
 zingen, a town on the Leimbach river, westward and 7 miles distant from 
 Heidelberg, has 2,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its grand-ducal palace, and 
 highly-renowned gardens. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wies- 
 
344 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 
 
 loch (with 2,800 inhabitants), Boxberg (with 800 inhabitants), Mosbach (with 
 2,700 inhabitants), Eberbach (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sinshehn (with 2,800 
 inhabitants), and Hilsbach (with 1,350 inhabitants). 2. To the former terri- 
 tory of the ancient archbishopric and electorate of Mentz belonged : Bisch- 
 ofsheim, or Tauber-Bischofsheim, a town on the Tauber river, north-eastward 
 and 52 miles distant from Heidelberg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Kbnigheim, a 
 market- town noted for its wines, has 2,100 inhabitants. Other more or less 
 remarkable towns are : Kulsheim (with 2,200 inhabitants), Walldurn (with 
 3,200 inhabitants), Buchen (with 2,400 inhabitants), Burken or Osterburken 
 (with 1,200 inhabitants), K'dnigshofen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Krautheim 
 (with 900 inhabitants), Neudenau, or Neidenau (with 1,300 inhabitants), and 
 Ballenberg, which latter has only 600 inhabitants, but is remarkable as the 
 birth-place of George Metzler, chief leader in the war of peasantry in 1525 
 3. The former immediate earldom, at present dependent lordship of Wertheim, 
 belonging to the prince of Lowenstein (see page 332), contains : Wertheim, 
 formerly its capital, on the Mayne, at its junction with the Tauber, is noted 
 for its wines, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Freudenberg, a town on the Mayne, 
 with 1,700 inhabitants. 4. To the former sovereign or independent bishoprics 
 of Spire and Wurzburg (pp. 322, 327), and to the Swabian and Franconian 
 knighthood of the empire, did respectively belong : Phtlippsburg, formerly a 
 fortress of the empire, on the Rhine, northward and 16 miles distant from 
 Carlsruhe, with 1,700 inhabitants. Waibstadt, likewise once a fortress of the 
 empire, with linen and leather manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Ger- 
 lachsheim, a market-town on the Tauber, is noted for its wines, and has 1,150 
 inhabitants. Grunsfeld and Lauda, towns with respectively 1,300 and 1,100 
 inhabitants. Neckar-Bischofsheim, a town near the Neckar, is noted for its 
 linen, and has 2,100 inhabitants. Adelsheim, a town on the Odenwald, east- 
 ward and 32 miles distant from Heidelberg, with 3 ancient castles, and 1,600 
 inhabitants. 
 
 III. The Upper Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the ancient Breisgau 
 and former margraviate of Hochberg. 1. The Breisgau, a name still much 
 used in common life, is a considerable district in the Black Forest, which in 
 the middle ages had its distinct political boundaries, primitively belonging to 
 the dukes of Zahringen, and subsequently inherited by the collateral line of 
 Hochberg (see above page 339). In 1367 it was sold to Austria that retained 
 it until 1803, when it was ceded to the duke of Modena (see page 118), while 
 in 1805 it was annexed to Badea The Breisgau contains: -+-Freibdrg 
 
GERMANY. 345 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Baden — its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 (commonly surnamed im Breisgau, -whose capital it was), at present the capi- 
 tal of the Upper Rhine Circle, on the Dreisam river, 74 miles south-south- 
 west of Carlsruhe, and 32 miles north-north-east of Basle, has various manu- 
 factures and 14,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and 
 page 287), and especially also for its minster, whose foundation was laid in 
 the 12th century, and which belongs to the finest specimens of Gothic archi- 
 tecture. Its steeple is 356 feet in height. Not far from Freiburg are the 
 ruins of the ancestral castle of Zahringen (see above, page 339). Breisach 
 (or Alt-Breisach, to distinguish it from Neu- Breisach, on the opposite side and 
 belonging to France), a town on the Rhine, westward and 14 miles distant 
 from Freiburg, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 3,400 inhabitants. Try- 
 berg, or Triberg, a town in the Black Forest, north-eastward and 18 miles 
 distant from Freiburg, has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its wooden 
 clocks, of which immense quantities are exported every week. Other more 
 or less remarkable towns are: Staufen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Burkheim 
 (with 750 inhabitants), Schonau (with 1,100 inhabitants), Todtnau (with 1,500 
 inhabitants), Zell (with 1,400 inhabitants), Waldkirch (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
 Elzach (with 1,050 inhabitants), Kenzingen (with 2,600 inhabitants), Herbolz- 
 heim (with 2,100 inhabitants), Endingen (with 3,300 inhabitants), Waldshut 
 (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Sackingen (with 1,500 inhabitants). Formerly 
 renowned Benedictine abbeys, instituted in the 8th century, were St. Blasien 
 and Ettenheimmunster. In the town of Neuenburg (on the Rhine, with 1,200 
 inhabitants), it was where the Duke Bernhard of Weimar, so renowned as 
 general in the thirty years' war, died on the 16th July, 1639, probably poi- 
 soned. 2. The former margraviate of Hochberg (during a long period pos- 
 sessed by a collateral line of the house of Zahringen see page 339), contains : 
 Badexweiler, a market-town, with 1,300 inhabitants, is noted as a watering- 
 place much resorted to. Emmendingen, a town on the Elz, northward and 9 
 miles distant from Freiburg, with 2,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the an- 
 cestral castle of Hochberg, which was reared in the 9 th century. Muellheim, 
 a town in the Black Forest, south-westward and 18 miles distant from Frei- 
 burg, is noted for its wines, and has 2,600 inhabitants. Loerrach, a town on 
 the Wiese river, with various manufactures and 2,600 inhabitants. In the 
 vicinity of Kaxderx ( a town with various manufactures and 1,400 inhabi- 
 tants), are the ruins of the once renowned castle of Sausenberg. The village 
 of Hansen (with 600 inhabitants) is noted for its iron-works. Schopfheim, a 
 manufacturing town on the Wiese river, with 1,700 inhabitants. 3. To the 
 15* 
 
346 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 
 
 former bishopric of Strasburg (see page 197), belonged the town of 
 Ettenheim, on the Ettenbach, 23 miles south-south-east of Strasburg, with 
 considerable trade in linen, hemp, &c, and 3,300 inhabitants. In the night 
 of the 14th March, 1804, the duke of Enghien was seized here by French 
 troops, whence he was conveyed to Paris, and shot on the 20th March, at 
 Vincennes. 4. The town of Heitersheim, south-westward and 13 miles dis- 
 tant from Freiburg, with beautiful gardens and 1,600 inhabitants, did until 
 1805 belong to the Knights of St. John (see page 46). Mahlberg, a town 
 near Ettenheim, with 1,150 inhabitants, was anciently the capital of the lord- 
 ship of Mahlberg, of which Baden-Baden became possessed in 1629. The 
 towns of Hornberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Schiltach (with 1,600 inhab- 
 itants), formerly belonged to Wirtemberg. The town of Thiengen (on the 
 Wutach, with 1,200 inhabitants) was formerly the capital of a landgraviate 
 of Klettgan, and belongs to a line of the princely house of Schwarzenberg. 
 
 IV. The Lake Circle (whose name has reference to the lake of Constance, 
 along which it is chiefly situated), comprising various territories annexed to 
 Baden, since the year 1803. 1. To the so-called Swabian Austria (see page 
 334) did formerly belong : -{-Constance, capital of the circle, on the left bank 
 of the Rhine, that issues here from the lake of Constance, south-eastward 
 and 70 miles distant from Freiburg, with various manufactures, considerable 
 trade, and 7,000 inhabitants. Its most remarkable public edifices are the 
 cathedral, the ancient monastery of Dominican friars (where John Huss was 
 kept prisoner before he was burnt in 1415), the town-hall, and the building 
 where the principal sessions of the council in the years 1414-1418 were held. 
 In this last-named period there were once not less than 150,000 foreigners in 
 the city. Radolphzell (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Stockack (with 1,800 
 inhabitants), towns. 2. To the former independent bishopric of Constance 
 (which was instituted in 570, had its cathedral in Constance, but in other re- 
 spects nothing in common with this city, and was in 1803 incorporated with 
 Baden) belonged : Meersburg, or Morsburg, formerly the residence of the 
 bishop, has 1,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Markdorf a town 
 with 1,800 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle-fairs. Reichenau is a beautiful 
 and highly fertile isle in the Lower Lake or Untersee, formerly with a re- 
 nowned Benedictine abbey, has 1,500 inhabitants. 3. Pfullendorf (north- 
 ward and 22 miles distant from Constance, with a remarkable church, and 1,800 
 inhabitants), and Ueberlingen (noted for its wines, has 2,800 inhabitants), 
 were until 1803 imperial cities. 4. The dependent territories of the princes of 
 
GERMANY. 347 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Baden— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Fuerstenberg (whose possessions in Baden, Wirtemberg, and Bohemia, have 
 a total area of almost 800 square miles, and a population of 114,000 inhabi- 
 tants, yielding revenues to the amount of about 600,000 florins annually) 
 contain the following towns : Donaueschingen, town and residence of the 
 prince of Furstenberg, near the head of the Danube, eastward and 32 miles 
 distant from Freiburg, with a noble princely palace, and 3,300 inhabitants. 
 Hufingen, a town on the Brege, with 1.600 inhabitants. The town of Fursten- 
 berg has only 400 inhabitants, but is remarkable for the ruins of the ancestral 
 castle of the princes of Furstenberg. Mohringen, a town on the Danube 
 with 1,200 inhabitants), is noted for its cattle- and sheep-markets. Other 
 more or less remarkable towns are : Geisingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Lbf- 
 fingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Vbhrenbach (with 1,100 inhabitants), Stuhl- 
 ingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Engen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Heiligenberg 
 (with 600 inhabitants), and Moskirch (with 1,700 inhabitants). Near Engen 
 are the ruins of the anciently famous feudal castles of Hohenheben, Hohen- 
 krahen, and Hohenstoffeln. 5. The towns of Villingen (noted for its brew- 
 1 eries, iron- works, and corn trade, has 3,900 inhabitants), and Braeunlingen 
 (with 1,650 inhabitants), did formerly belong to the Austrian Breisgau (see 
 above). The town of Blum/eld (north-westward and 27 miles distant from 
 Constance, with 450 inhabitants), and the romantical and fertile isle of Meinau 
 (in the lake of Ueberlingen), did formerly belong to the Teutonic order. 
 
 VL-VIL— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF HOHENZOLLERN. 
 
 Area : 458 square miles. 
 Population : 66,000 inhabitants. 
 
 These two principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (the 
 largest) and Hohenzolkrn-Hechingen (the smallest), in Southern 
 Germany, are entirely surrounded by territories of Baden and 
 Wirtemberg, and are situated about half-way between Ulm and 
 
348 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Principalities of Hohenzollern. 
 
 Freiburg, not very far from the lake of Constance. The inhabi- 
 tants are Catholics, and depend for subsistence chiefly on hus- 
 bandry. The natural products are in general the same as in Ba- 
 den and Wirtemberg. The government is monarchical, but less 
 limited than in Baden or Wirtemberg. The public charges are 
 at a very low standard, especially in Sigmaringen, whose sove- 
 reign is possessed of large private estates (for instance, in Gelder- 
 land), which, together with his dominions in the country itself, 
 yield an annual revenue of more than 300,000 florins, covering 
 by far the greatest part of the public expenditure. The revenues 
 of the prince of Hechingen (who, among other private estates, has 
 some even in Spain) amount to 160,000 florins per annum. To 
 the army of the Confederation are to be furnished respectively 
 
 356 and 145 men. 
 
 i 
 
 History. — The ancestor of the house of Hohenzollern is Thassilo, a powerful 
 baron, who lived in the days of Charlemagne, or about the year 800. One 
 of his descendants, Earl Frederic, reared in 980 the castle near the present 
 city of Hechingen, and called it Hohenzollern, which has since become the 
 family name of this dynasty. Earl Rodolph II. of Hohenzollern, who lived 
 about the year 1165, had two sons: the eldest, Frederic IV., inherited the 
 patrimonial estates, comprising in substance the present principalities of Ho- 
 henzollern ; while the younger son, Conrad, was appointed burgrave of Nu- 
 remberg, and became the ancestor of the house of Brandenburg. (See page 
 318). Here, however, we have only to do with Frederic IV. and his de- 
 scendants, the most remarkable of whom were Earl Eitel Frederic IV. (who 
 in 1495 was appointed president of the then instituted Supreme Court of the 
 empire), and Earl Charles I. (who was highly estimated and honored by Em- 
 peror Charles V.). "When the latter, or Charles I. died, in 1576, he leftB&ind 
 two sons, who divided the patrimonial dominions in such manner ; the*T?>he, 
 Eitel Frederic VI., became possessed of the smaller portion, and assumed the 
 title of Hohenzollern- Hechingen, while the other, Charles II., obtained the 
 larger portion, and called himself earl of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen. Both 
 lines are still extant, and respectively in 1623 and 1696 the princely title was 
 conferred upon them by the emperor. 
 
GERMANY. 349 
 
 The Principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen. 
 
 We shall now describe the two principalities separately : 
 
 L HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN. 
 
 This principality has an area of 341 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 45,100 inhabitants; is on the north bound by Hechin- 
 gen, on the east by the Danube Circle of Wirtemberg, and on 
 the south and west by the Lake Circle of Baden. The reigning 
 prince since 1848, is Charles Anton, born in 181 1. 
 
 Sigmaringen, the capital of the principality and princely residence, on the 
 Danube, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Ulm, and southward and 
 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, with an extensive and stately princely palace, 
 and 2,100 inhabitants. Vohringen, a town on the Lauchart river, with the 
 ruins of a once remarkable feudal castle, and 800 inhabitants. Other town9 
 are : Gamertingen (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hettingen (with 600 inhabitants), 
 and Haigerloch (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-towns of Ostrach (with 
 1,100 inhabitants), and Steassberg (with 800 inhabitants), belong at present 
 to the prince of Thurn and Taxis (see page 317), while the town of Troch- 
 telfingen (with 1,200 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Furstenberg (see 
 above, under the head of Lake Circle of Baden), of course without prejudice 
 to the sovereignty of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringea 
 
 II. HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. 
 
 This principality has an area of 117 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 21,000 inhabitants, and is on the south, and partly on 
 the west, bound by the former principality. The reigning 
 prince is, since 1838, Frederic, born in 1801. 
 
 Hechingen, the capital of this principality, and residence of the prince, on 
 the Starzel river, north-westward and 20 miles distant from Sigmaringen, 
 with a stately princely palace, and 3,500 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
 situated, on a steep hill, the ancient, and in 1826, entirely restored castle of 
 Hohenzollern, once the renowned seat of the ancestors of both the princes 
 of Hohenzollern and kings of Prussia, reared in the year 980. Stetten, a 
 market-town in the neighborhood of Hechingen, has 600 inhabitants, and a 
 
350 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Principality of Liechtenstein. 
 
 remarkable church, where several earls of Hohenzollern are buried. The 
 market-town of Burladingen, with 1,400 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its 
 church. The market town of Grosselfingen, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its potteries. 
 
 VHL— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN. 
 
 Area : 53 square miles. 
 Population : 6,400 inhabitants. 
 
 This smallest amoDg the German states, is situated about 18 
 miles south of the lake of Constance, bordering upon Switzer- 
 land on the west and south, and bound by Tyrol on the east. 
 The inhabitants are Catholics, and depend for subsistence chiefly 
 on rearing of cattle, agriculture, and some wine culture. The 
 monarchical government is somewhat limited by a chamber of 
 deputies. The military contingent which is to be furnished to 
 the army of the German Confederation, consists of 55 men. 
 The public expenditure is at a very low rate, and covered by the 
 revenue, amounting to 22,000 florins, and consisting chiefly of 
 revenues from the princely domains in the country. The prince 
 has, however, far more considerable dominions in Austria, among 
 which are the dependent principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf, 
 and which altogether have an area of 2,215 square miles, and a 
 population of 600,000 inhabitants, and yield an annual revenue 
 of at least 1,500,000 florins. 
 
 History. The ancestor of the house of Liechtenstein, mentioned in docu- 
 ments from the year 942, descended from the house of Este (see page 118). 
 His dominions had, however, nothing in common with the present principal- 
 ity, but were situated in the subsequent Austrian provinces. Among his 
 descendants are to be noticed the earls Ulric and Henry of Liechtenstein, 
 
GERMANY. 351 
 
 The Principality of Liechtenstein.— The Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 
 
 who acted an important part in the quarrel between Rodolph of Hapsburg 
 and King Ottocar of Bohemia (see page 301). Earl Hartmann IV., who 
 died in 1585, left behind two sons, Charles and Gundakar, who respectively 
 in 1618 and 1623, were promoted to princes by the emperors Matthias and 
 Ferdinand IL, while at the same time Charles was invested with the Silesian 
 principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf. His grandson, Prince John Adam 
 Andrew, purchased in 1699 from the earl of Hohenembs the immediate 
 lordships of Vadutz and Schellenberg, and these are the constituent parts of 
 the present principality of Liechtenstein. The reigning prince since 1836, is 
 Aloys, born in 1796. 
 
 Thus the principality of Liechtenstein consists of the former 
 dominion or lordship of Vadutz, forming its southern part, and of 
 the former earldom of Schellenberg, forming its northern part. 
 
 Vadutz, its capital, has in recent times received the name of Liechtenstein, is 
 situated near the Rhine, 50 miles east-south-east of Zurich, and 100 miles west- 
 south-west of Innspruck, and has 1,000 inhabitants. The princoly palace or 
 castle towers on a rock, but the usual residence of the prince is Vienna. Be- 
 sides Vadutz, deserve only to be mentioned the castle of Schellenberg, north 
 of Vadutz, and the villages ©f Balzers, Triesen or Treisen, and Benderen. 
 
 IX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF HESSE. 
 
 Area : 3,259 square miles. 
 Population : 845,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This grand-duchy, officially styled Hesse and at Rhine (Hessen 
 und bei Rhein), and more commonly known by the name of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, is situated towards the centre of Germany, half-way 
 between Bohemia and the Netherlands, along the Rhine and 
 Mayne. 
 
352 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 
 
 Nearly one half of the population consists of Lutherans, anc 
 the remainder of about 150,000 Evangelicals (see page 291) 
 40,000 Calvinisls, 209,500 Roman Catholics, 1,450 Mennonites. 
 and 28,300 Jews. 
 
 The chief staples are fruits of various kinds (even chestnuts 
 and almonds in the so-called Bergstrasse and in Rhenish Hesse), 
 wines (some sorts in Rhenish Hesse rank among the choicest 
 Rhenish wines), grain and timber. The rearing of cattle is very- 
 considerable in the provinces of Starkenburg and Upper Hesse. 
 The chief products from the mineral kingdom are iron and peat. 
 The manufactures consist chiefly of linen and woolhn goods. The 
 principal manufacturing place is Offenbach. Mentz carries on a 
 considerable trade. 
 
 Besides the university at Giessen (see page 288), which in 
 1846 was frequented by 535 students, there are 7 lycea and 
 gymnasia, 5 seminaries (see page 65, about the signification of 
 these terms), etc., and 1,600 common schools. The government 
 is similar to that of the grand-duchy of Baden. According to 
 the budget of the period 1839-1841, the public revenue was esti- 
 mated at 7,087,181, and the expenditure at 7,078,462 florins annu- 
 ally. The public debt was in 1842 reduced to about 3-J- million 
 florins. The regular army consists of 6,662 men on the peace, 
 and of 9,541 on the war footing; the contingent to the confed- 
 erated army was fixed at 6,195 men. 
 
 There are the following two orders of honor: 1. The Louis 
 order, in 5 classes, and instituted in 1807. 2. The order of Philip 
 the Generous, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1840. 
 
 History. — The first historically known inhabitants of Hesse in general 
 were the Ohatts (see page 297) ; and since the 8th century, when Christianity 
 was permanently founded here by Bonifacius, the name of Hesse seems to 
 have originated. In the days of the Carlovingians the country was ruled by 
 native earls. About the middle of the 11th century, Louis, surnamed the 
 
GERMANY. 353 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its History. 
 
 Bearded, a descendant of the princes of Lorraine, was invested with 
 Thuringia (see its history, under the head Saxe- Weimar) ; while his descend- 
 ants subsequently became the sovereigns of Hesse ; first by acquiring con- 
 siderable estates in the way of marriage, and then by inheriting other exten- 
 sive territories there. In 1247 the male line of the landgraves of Thuringia 
 became extinct, and now, while the landgraviate itself was inherited by the 
 margraves of Meissen, the niece of the last landgrave, the duchess Sophia of 
 Brabant, became possessed of the Hessian dominions, which she bequeathed 
 to her son Henry, who thus became the first independent ruler of Hesse, in 
 1263. This Henry I., surnamed the Child, was in 1292 by Emperor Adol- 
 phus promoted to the dignity of a landgrave, and made Cassel his residence. 
 He died in 1308, and by his successors and descendants frequently partitions 
 of the country were agreed upon, though also fresh acquisitions were 
 made, as, for instance, Hersfeld, Ziegenhain, Nidda, Katzenellnbogen (in 1479), 
 Homburg (in 1504), etc Finally all constituent parts of the landgraviate of 
 Hesse were reunited in 1504 by William II., who died in 1509, and bequeathed 
 the whole to his son Philip, surnamed the Generous, well known in the his- 
 tory of the Reformation. Philip died in 1567 at Cassel, after having divided 
 the country among his four sons, of whom the youngest, George, obtained the 
 so-called upper earldom of Katzenellnbogen, comprising the city of Darm- 
 stadt, etc. Landgrave George I. of Hesse-Darmstadt died in 1596, and was 
 succeeded by his son Louis V. (for it was counted here according to the gen- 
 eral rule for all Hesse), who inherited the present province of Upper Hesse, 
 and died in 1626. He was succeeded by his descendants in the following 
 order of succession: George II. (1626-1661), Louis VL (until 1678), Ernest 
 Louis (-J-1736), Louis VIII. (+1769), Louis IX. (+1790), and Louis X., 
 who, by the terms of the treaty of Luneville in 1801, was deprived of his do- 
 minions on the left bank of the Rhine, but amply indemnified in 1803, by the 
 annexation of the ancient duchy of Westphalia (see under the head of the 
 Prussian province of Westphalia), some imperial cities, etc. In 1806 the 
 landgrave became a member of the Rhenish Confederation (see page 294) as 
 Grand Duke Louis I. In 1816 he ceded the duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, 
 and made several other cessions, instead of which he became possessed of the 
 present Rhenish Hesse. He died in 1830, and was succeeded by his son Louis 
 II., who abdicated on the 16th June, 1848, in favor of his son, Louis III., the 
 reigning grand duke, born in 1806. 
 
354 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 
 
 The grand-duchy is divided into 3 provinces, the northernmost 
 of which is surrounded by territories of Hesse-Cassel, and by them 
 separated from the two other provinces that are separated from 
 each other by the Rhine. The provinces are subdivided into circles. 
 
 I. The province of Starkenburg, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 and on the left bank of the Mayne. It has derived its name from an ancient 
 castle, formerly belonging to the electorate of Mentz, yet now in ruins, and 
 comprises both ancient Hessian dominions and recently (since 1803) acquired 
 territories. 1. The principal of those dominions is the so-called Upper Earl- 
 dom of Katzenellnbogen, whose native earls became extinct in 1479, when it 
 was inherited by the house of Hesse. Witty remarks about it will be found 
 in Washington Irving's interesting tale entitled " The Spectre Bridegroom." 
 It contains : -{-Darmstadt, the capital of the grand-duchy, and grand-ducal 
 residence, on the little Darm river, southward and 14 miles distant from 
 Frankfort, with 31,000 inhabitants, and various manufactures. The most re- 
 markable of its public edifices are the extensive grand-ducal palace (whose 
 foundation was laid by George I.), the Catholic church, and the so-called drill- 
 house, at present used as an arsenal. The neighboring castle of Krauich stein 
 is noted as a grand-ducal hunting-seat. The village of Oberramstadt (in the 
 vicinity of Darmstadt, with 2,000 inhabitants), is noted as the birth-place of 
 Lichtenberg, the celebrated German author of the interesting commentary to 
 Hogarth's engravings. Grossgerau, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its greens. Trebur, a market-town near the Rhine, 14 miles west-north- 
 west of Darmstadt, has at present only 1,500 inhabitants, but was in the mid- 
 dle ages noted for several councils and diets held here, and for a palace where 
 Charlemagne frequently resided. Zwingenberg, a town on the Bergstrasse, 
 with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently a strong fortress. Reinhehn, a town on 
 the Odenwald, with 1,300 inhabitants. Babenhaitsen, a town on the Gersprenz 
 river, with 1,600 inhabitants. 2. To the electorate of Mentz formerly belonged : 
 Heppenheim, a town on the Bergstrasse, with 4,200 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its fruits and wines. Not far from here are the ruins of the above-men- 
 tioned ancient castle of Starkenburg, reared in 1064 by the abbot of the once 
 highly renowned monastery of Lorsch (instituted in 764), whose seat was 
 the present market-town of this name (with 2,600 inhabitants). Gernsheim, 
 a town on the Rhine, with considerable corn-trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Other more or less remarkable towns are : Seligenstadt (with 3,300 inhabitants), 
 Steinheim (with 1,150 inhabitants), Dieburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), and 
 Hirschhorn (with 1,850 inhabitants). 3 To the Electoral Palatinate (see 
 page 342) and other formerly independent territories belonged : Umstadt, a 
 town at the foot of the Odenwald Mountains, eastward and 12 miles distant 
 from Darmstadt, with 3,100 inhabitants, Linden/els and Hering, towns with 
 respectively 900 and 500 inhabitants, Neckarsteinach, a town on the Neckar, 
 with 1,300 inhabitants, Frankisch-Krumbach, a village with 1,200 inhabitants, 
 and the ruins of the ancient castles of Rodenstein and Schnellerts, notori- 
 ous for a strange noise heard here sometimes, the natural cause of which 
 has never yet been discovered. About the market-town of Kurnbach, see 
 page 340. Its Hessian half has 600 inhabitants. Wimpfen, until 1803 an 
 imperial city, on the Neckar, has considerable salt-works, and 2,300 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted in history for a battle on the 6th May, 1622. 4. The for- 
 merly sovereign or independent, but since 1806 dependent earldom of Erbach, 
 belonging to the earls of this name (descendants of Eginhard, son-in-law to 
 Charlemagne), who at present are divided into three chief branches, and hav- 
 ing, together with dominions in Bavaria, an area of 266 square miles, and a 
 population of 34,000 inhabitants, contains : Erbach, its capital, on the Mum- 
 ling river, with a very remarkable palace of the earls, and 2,100 inhabitants. 
 Michelstadt (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Neustadt, surnamed in der Rosenan 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly likewise independent, but 
 since 1815 dependent principality of Isenburg (properly styled Upper Isen- 
 burg), belonging to a branch of the princes and earls of this name, and of an- 
 cient origin, and having an area of 160 square miles, with 17,500 inhabitants, 
 and yielding an annual revenue of more than 104,000 florins, contains: Of- 
 fenbach, its capital and usual princely residence, on the Mayne, at about 2 
 miles distance from Frankfort, has 11,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 various manufactures and considerable inland trade. Dreieicherhain, a town 
 southward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, has 1,000 inhabitants, and is 
 in various respects remarkable in history. Philippseich, a village with 400 
 inhabitants, and a palace remarkable as the residence of the earl of Isenburg- 
 Philippseich, belonging to a collateral line of that named house. 
 
 II. The province of Rhenish Hesse, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 and comprising chiefly territories, which formerly belonged to the electorate 
 of Mentz and to the Electoral Palatinate. 1. The former Electorate of Mentz 
 embraced, beside the territories within the limits of this province, already 
 
356 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 
 
 described above under the head of Bavaria (page 327), and Baden (page 
 343), the towns of Rudesheim, Hochheim, etc., in the present duchy of Nas- 
 sau, the towns of Fritzlar and Amoneburg at present belonging to Hesse-Cas- 
 sel, the town of Erfurt (at present belonging to Prussia), and the so-called 
 Eichsfeld, which at present is divided between Prussia and Hanover. That 
 part within the limits of this province contains: -)-Mentz or Mayence (in 
 German Mainz), at present the capital of this province, was formerly that of 
 the electorate and the residence of the archbishop elector, is situated on the 
 left bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the Mayne, has the strongest 
 fortress in Germany, and 34,000 inhabitants (exclusive of 8,000 men of Aus- 
 trian and Prussian troops). Its principal public edifices are the cathedral, 
 the grand-ducal palace (formerly belonging to the Teutonic Order), the for- 
 mer electoral palace, etc. The house where Guttenberg, the inventor of the 
 art of printing, was born, is still shown. Mentz was founded by the ancient 
 Romans shortly before the Christian era, and the first archbishop here was 
 the holy Bonifacius, appointed in 745. The city is connected, by means of a 
 bridge of boats 1,666 feet long, with the likewise strongly fortified town of 
 Kastel (with 2,250 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Bin- 
 gen, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, at its junction with the Nahe, with 
 considerable trade and 5,000 inhabitants. Algesheim or Gaualgesheim, a 
 town noted for its wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. The village of Budesheim 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. 2. To Electoral Palat- 
 inate (see page 342) did belong : Ingelheim ( Upper and Lwoer), two mar- 
 ket-towns about half-way between Bingen and Mentz, are noted for their 
 wines, and have respectively 2,400 and 2,200 inhabitants. Charlemagne re- 
 sided frequently at Lower Ingelheim. Oppenheim, a town on the Rhine, 
 with a remarkably ancient church and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring 
 village of Nierstein (with 2,300 inhabitants), is renowned for its wines. 
 Alzey, a town on the Selz river, with 4,600 inhabitants. Pfeddersheim (with 
 2,000 inhabitants), and Odernheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), towns noted for 
 their wines. Alsheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), Westhofen (with 1,900 in- 
 habitants), and Osthofen (with 3,800 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The 
 city of Worms, near the Rhine, 12 miles north-north-west of Mannheim, and 
 northward and 23 miles distant from Spire, noted for its wines (known by 
 the name of " Liebfrauenmilch"), and with 9,000 inhabitants, was formerly an 
 imperial city, and highly renowned in history, especially for the diet held 
 here in 1521. At that period it was flourishing by its considerable trade, and 
 
GERMANY. 357 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Hesse— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 had 40,000 inhabitants. The former earldom of Leiningen (see page 328) 
 contains within the limits of this province the market-towns of Guntersblum 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants), BechtJieim (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Monsheim 
 (with 900 inhabitants). 
 
 III. The province of Upper Hesse, situated north of the province of 
 Starkenburg, and comprising chiefly Hessian and mediated territories. 1. The 
 ancient Hessian territory contains : -j-Giessen, the capital of the province, at 
 the high-road between Cassel and Frankfort, has 7,500 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its university (see abovo). Nidda, a town on the river of the same 
 name, with some linen and woollen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. 
 BiEi>ENKOPF,a town on the Upper Lahn, 27 miles north-north-west of Giessen, 
 with cloth manufactures, iron-works, and 3,600 inhabitants. Other more or 
 less remarkable towns are: Allendorf, surnamed an der Lnmda (with 1,100 
 inhabitants), Gross-Linden (with 950 inhabitants), Staufenberg (with 600 
 inhabitants), Grunberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Homberg an der Ohm (with 
 1,800 inhabitants), Alsfeld (with 3,800 inhabitants), Kirdorf (with 1,400 
 inhabitants), Lauterbach (with 3,550 inhabitants), Ulrichstein (with 950 
 inhabitants), Schotten (with 2,100 inhabitants), Ober-Rossbach (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), Butzbach (with 2,200 inhabitants), Hatzfeld (with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants), and Battenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants). The village of Thalitter 
 (with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its copper mines. liter, a village, with the 
 ruins of an ancient castle of the same name. 2. To the dominions of the at 
 present mediatized princes and earls of Solms (a very ancient dynasty and 
 descendants of the emperor Conrad I., divided into two chief branches, with 
 several collateral lines), belonged : Rodelhetm, a market-town on the Nidda 
 and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with a formerly fortified castle, and 
 2,100 inhabitants. Laubach, a town on the Wetter river, with iron-works 
 and 2,100 inhabitants. Lich, a town on the Wetter river, with 2,200 inhabi- 
 tants, and a palace of the prince of Solms-Lich. A$senheim, Hungen and 
 Miinzenberg, towns, with respectively 800, 1,100, and 900 inhabitants. 3. The 
 town of Buedingen (with 2,900 inhabitants and various manufactures) belongs 
 to the prince of Isenburg-Budingen (see above), who resides here. The town 
 of Wenings (with 1,000 inhabitants) belongs to another line of this house. 
 4. The town of Ortenberg (on the Nidder, 18 miles north-north-east of 
 Hanau, with 1,100 inhabitants), and the market-towns of Gedern (with 1,900 
 inhabitants) and Ranstadt (with 800 inhabitants), belong to the earls of Stol- 
 berg (see under the head of Prussia). 5. The town of Schlitz (near the 
 
358 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy and Landgraviate of Hesse. 
 
 Fulda river, with considerable breweries and 3,300 inhabitants) belongs to 
 the count of Schlitz, surnamed of Qortz. 6. The city of Friedberg was 
 until 1803 an imperial city, is situated in the so-called Wetterau, northward 
 and 14 miles distant from Frankfort, and has various manufactures, a remark- 
 able Gothic church, and 2,800 inhabitants. Friedberg is moreover noted for 
 its ancient castle of the same name, formerly the seat of a knighthood en- 
 dowed with substantial privileges. 
 
 X.— THE LANDGRAVIATE OF HESSE. 
 
 Area: 128 square miles. 
 Population : 26,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This little state, commonly known by the name of Hesse-Hom- 
 burg, consists of two distinct territories, situated about 55 miles 
 apart, and separated from each other by Nassau and Hesse- 
 Darmstadt. The smaller territory (43 square miles and 11,500 
 inhabitants), situated northward and 10 miles distant from 
 Frankfort on the Mayne, comprises the old landgraviate of Horn- 
 burg, while the larger territory (85 square miles and 14,500 
 inhabitants), is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, at the 
 north-western frontier of the Bavarian palatinate, and comprises 
 chiefly the ancient dominion of Meisenheim, formerly belonging 
 to the palatine principality of Zweibriicken (see page 327). 
 
 The majority of the population consists of Lutherans, and the 
 remainder of about 6,000 Calvinists, and 3,000 Catholics. The 
 soil is fertile and well cultivated. Manufactures are not lacking, 
 but in general of no great importance. The government is at 
 present a limited monarchy. The public revenue amounts to 
 about 150.000 florins annually (exclusive of 33,000 florins which 
 
GERMANY. 359 
 
 The Landgraviate of Hesse — its History and Geographical Divisions. 
 
 the private estates of the landgrave yield). To the confederal 
 army are to be furnished 229 men. 
 
 History. — When Philip the Generous divided the whole landgraviate of 
 Hesse among his four sons (see History of Hesse-Darmstadt), George obtained 
 the dominion of Homburg, together with that of Darmstadt. His son and 
 successor, Louis V. (1596-1626), who had to pay 20,000 florins annually as 
 appanage to his brother Frederic, found it more convenient to cede to him (in 
 1622) in place of the ready money, the dominion of Homburg, yet reserving 
 to Hesse-Darmstadt the seignory over it. Frederic I. died in 1638, and was 
 succeeded first by his son William Christoph (1638-1669), then George Chris- 
 tian (1669-1677), <fcc. Frederic V. was, when his father died in 1751, still 
 minor, and therefore his actual reign did not commence before the year 1768, 
 while it lasted until 1820. In 1806 Hesse- Darmstadt renewed its ancient 
 claims upon the seignory over Homburg (see above), and indeed realized 
 them in so far as this landgraviate was deprived of its political independence. 
 However, in 1817 it was restored to it, and Hesse-Homburg became an 
 actual member of ihe German confederation. Frederic V. died in 1820, and 
 was succeeded by his son Frederic VI. Joseph, who was married to the Eng- 
 lish princess Elizabeth, daughter of George III. The reigning landgrave 
 since the 7th Sept. 1848, is Ferdinand (the youngest brother of Frederic VI.), 
 born in 1783. 
 
 The landgraviate of Hesse contains : 
 
 1. In the old landgraviate of Homburg (see above) : Homburg, surnamed 
 vor der Hohe (i. e. at the foot of the Taunus), the capital of the whole land- 
 graviate and residence of its sovereign (who resides in a stately and extensive 
 castle or palace), north-westward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, has 
 4,600 inhabitants, and is noted as a watering-place much resorted to. The 
 villages of Friedrichshof and Dornholzhausen, whose inhabitants are descen- 
 dants of Waldenses (see page 101), who settled here respectively in 1687 
 and 1699, are noted for their flannel manufactures and hosieries. 
 
 2. In the ancient dominion of Meisenheim (see above) : Meisenheim, a 
 town on the Glan river, south-westward and 36 miles distant from Mentz, 
 with a remarkable Gothic church, considerable trade in natural products, and 
 
360 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany— Duchy of Nassau. 
 
 2,600 inhabitants. Merxheim, a village with vine culture and 1,400 inhabi- 
 tants. Ottweiler, a town with 1,600 inhabitants, formerly belonged to a 
 collateral line of the house of Nassau. 
 
 XI— THE DUCHY OF NASSAU. 
 
 Area : 1,708 square miles. 
 Population : 420,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated on the right bank of the Rhine, in the neighbor- 
 hood of its junction with the Mayne, is surrounded by parts of 
 the two Prussian western provinces, and is crossed by a branch 
 of the Rhine, viz., the Lahn, with its little tributaries. It com- 
 prises the chief part of the Taunus and Westerwald mountains 
 (see page 8), for which reason its surface is mostly mountain- 
 ous and hilly. Nevertheless the soil is generally fertile ; and if 
 Nassau not exactly abounds in grain, it can at least boast of its 
 vine-culture and valuable forests. Moreover the rearing of cattle 
 is very considerable, and there are mines yielding iron (more than 
 100,000 quintals per annum), lead (about 8,500 quintals), copper 
 (400 quintals), and silver (about 3,800 marks). The mineral 
 springs of Nassau are from old renowned, and its watering-places 
 (as, for instance, Wiesbaden, Ems, Schwalbach, &c.) very much 
 resorted to ; while the waters of Selters and other springs are 
 largely exported to foreign countries, and even to India. Man- 
 ufactures are various, but not very considerable ; the trade is 
 carried on at a rather great extent. 
 
 One half of the population consists of Evangelicals (see page 
 291), and the other for the most part of Catholics. The number 
 
GERMANY. 361 
 
 The Duchy of Nassau— its History. 
 
 of Jews amounts to about 7,000. With regard to the means of 
 education, there are 3 seminaries, 4 gymnasia, 658 common 
 schools, etc. (see the note, page 65). The government is a lim- 
 ited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a duke and 
 two legislative chambers. The amount of the public revenue and 
 of the expenditure, for several years has been about 1,810,000 
 florins. The public debt amounts to nearly 2.000,000 florins. 
 To the confederal army are to be furnished 4,039 men. 
 
 History. — Emperor Conrad I.'s (see page 299) brother Otto, baron of 
 Laurenburg, is to be considered as the ancestor of the house of Nassau. His 
 castle was situated on the Lahn, in the neighborhood of Dietz. His descen- 
 dants, the earls Rupert and Arnold, who lived in the first half of the 12th 
 century, still retained the name of Laurenburg ; but their sons assumed in 
 1158 the names of earls of Nassau, with reference to a castle of Nassau 
 which their fathers had reared in 1101, not far from the other. The great- 
 great-grandsons of one of them, the earls Walram and Otto, divided in 1265 
 the inherited dominions in such manner, that Walram obtained the southern 
 part (containing, among other places, Wiesbaden, Weilburg, and Idstein), and 
 Otto the northern part (with Dillenburg, Herborn, Hadamar, Ems, Ac). 
 Otto became thus the ancestor of the house of Nassau-Orange (see page 223) ; 
 while the at present reigning house of Nassau descends from Walram (whose 
 son, as may be remarked here by the way, was the emperor Adolphus, 
 elected in 1291). It would lead us too far to enter into any particulars about 
 the acquisitions made in the course of time, and about the many collateral 
 Unes of both houses, which lines, moreover, have long since become extinct ; 
 and we will only mention, that the descendants of Walram were in 1688 pro- 
 moted to the rank of princes, and that in 1806 Nassau assumed the title of a 
 duchy, while in 1803 it had been indemnified for its losses on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, by the annexation of various other territories. The reigning duke 
 since 1839, is Adolphus, born in 1817. 
 
 The present duchy of Nassau is divided into 28 bailiwicks, 
 and comprises, beside its primitive dominions, chiefly territories 
 which formerly belonged to the electorates of Treves and Mentz, 
 and were in 1803 annexed. 
 
 16 
 
362 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Duchy of Nassau. 
 
 1. The primitive dominions of Nassau contain : Wiesbaden, the capital of 
 the duchy and (since the death of the late Duke William) the ducal residence, 
 at the foot of the Taunus, and in the neighborhood of Mentz, has several 
 plendid public edifices and 13,100 inhabitants, and is highly renowned and 
 very much resorted to as a watering-place. Not far from here, on the Rhine, 
 is situated the market-town of Biebrich, with 3,100 inhabitants, and a stately 
 ualace, where the late Duke William, father of Adolphus, commonly resided. 
 CJsixgen, a town on the Usbach river, north-eastward and 20 miles distant 
 from Wiesbaden, was formerly the residence of the princes of Nassau-Usin- 
 ■^en, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Weilnau, a market-town, with iron-works, 
 and 700 inhabitants. Idstein, a town northward and 9 miles distant from 
 Wiesbaden, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its extensive ancient castle 
 and white tanneries. The once highly remarkable castle of Adolphseck was 
 reared by Emperor Adolphus of Nassau. Weilburg, a town on the Lahn, 
 and in the neighborhood of Wetzlar, has 2,500 inhabitants, a palace, formerly 
 the residence of the princes of Nassau- Weilburg. Weilmunster, a market- 
 town with 1,400 inhabitants, is noted for its iron-works and wines. Dillen- 
 »urg, a town on the Dill and on the Westerwald, northward and 46 miles 
 distant from Wiesbaden, has 2,900 inhabitants, and a remarkable castle, once 
 the residence of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg and Nassau- Orange. In 
 1567 the prince William of Orange (see page 267) resided here for a while. 
 flaiger, a town on the Dill, is noted for its iron- works, and has 1,200 inhabi- 
 tants. Herborn, a town in the neighborhood of Dillenburg, with various 
 manufactures and 2,350 inhabitants. Hadamar, a town on a branch of the 
 Lahn, northward and 28 miles distant from Wiesbaden, with 2,250 inhabi- 
 tants, iron-works and an ancient castle, once the seat of a collateral line of the 
 house of Nassau. Nassau, a town on the Lahn, north-westward and 26 miles 
 distant from Wiesbaden, is noted for the ruins of the ancestral castle of the 
 house of Nassau (see above), and has 1,200 inhabitants. Dietz, a town on the 
 Lahn, 23 miles north-north-west of Wiesbaden, has 2,500 inhabitants, was 
 once the residence of the princes of Nassau-Dietz, and is noted for its nursery- 
 garden. The village of Fachingen (with iron-mines, and 800 inhabitants) is 
 noted for its chalybeate springs, whose waters are largely exported. Hachen- 
 burg, a town on the Westerwald, 26 miles north-north-east of Coblenz, with 
 various manufactures and 1,600 inhabitants. Maxsayn, a village with iron- 
 works, and 800 inhabitants. 2. To the former Electorate of Treves (see its 
 particulars under the head of Coblenz) did belong : Limburg, a town on the 
 
GERMANY. 368 
 
 The Duchy of Nassau— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 I .aim. at present the seat of a Catholic bishop, with considerable trade and 
 8,300 inhabitants, is noted for its Gothic church. The village of Selters 
 (properly styled Nieder-Selters or Lower-Selters), northward and 18 miles dis- 
 tant from Wiesbaden, with 1,250 inhabitants, has long been renowned for its 
 mineral waters, of which about 2 million bottles are annually exported. 
 Montabaur (derived from the Latin Mons Thabor), a town on the Wester- 
 wald, 12 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, has 2,800 inhabitants, and was in 
 the middle ages frequently the residence of the electors of Treves. The vil- 
 lages of Hillscheid and Hohr (with respectively 1,150 and 1,300 inhabitants) 
 are noted for their potteries. 3. To the former Electorate of Mentz (see un- 
 der the head of Mentz) did belong : Hochst, a town on the Mayne, between 
 Frankfort and Mentz, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures 
 of snuff. In its neighborhood are situated the more or less remarkable mar- 
 ket-towns of Hatter sheim (with 1,000 inhabitants), Heddernheim (with 1,950 
 inhabitants), and Hofhetm (with 1,900 inhabitants). The market-town of Hat. 
 tenheim, on the Rhine, with 1,050 inhabitants, is noted for its excellent wines. 
 Eltville or Ellfeld, a town on the Rhine, has 2,300 inhabitants, and was for- 
 merly considered as the capital of a district along the Rhine, which is still 
 generally known by the name of Rheingau. The ancient castle of Eltville, 
 at present in ruins, was for a while inhabited by Emperor Adolphus of Nas- 
 sau, and in the 14th and 15th centuries frequently the residence of the electors 
 of Mentz. The neighboring market-town of Rauenthal (with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants), is noted for its wines. Lorch, a market-town on the Rhine, with vine 
 culture, mineral waters, and 1,950 inhabitants. Lorch, mentioned already in 
 documents from the year 832, is, besides the ruins of remarkable ancient 
 castles, noted for a steep rock known by the names of Kedrich and DeviPs 
 Ladder, to which several interesting common reports or tales have reference. 
 The market-town of Geisenheim (on the Rhine, with 2,550 inhabitants), and 
 the village of Asmannshausen (with 600 inhabitants), are noted for their 
 wines. Still more noted for their excellent wines is the town of Ruedesheim 
 (romantically situated on the Rhine, opposite Bingen, has 2,550 inhabitants), 
 and the magnificent castle of Johannisberg (in the neighborhood of Riides- 
 heim), which in 1816 became the property of the prince of Metternich. Like- 
 wise renowned for its wines is the town of Hochheim, near the Mayne and 
 the city of Mentz, with 2,150 inhabitants. Weilbach, a village with mineral 
 springs and 850 inhabitants. Oberlahnstein or Lahnstein, a town on the 
 Rhine, near its junction with the Lahn, with iron- works, mineral waters and 
 
364 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Duchy of Nassau. 
 
 1,850 inhabitants, is noted for the ruins of the ancient castle of Lahneck, reared 
 in the beginning of the 13 th century by the electors of Mentz. Konigstein, 
 a town on the Taunus, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Wiesbaden, 
 with leather manufactures and 1,350 inhabitants. Epstein, a market-town 
 between Koningstein and Wiesbaden, with 850 inhabitants, is noted for an 
 ancient castle of the same name. Kronberg, a town romantically situated 
 on the Taunus, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its nursery-gardens and 
 fruits, and much resorted to as a watering-place. 4. The formerly so-called 
 Lower Earldom of Katzenellnbogen (see page 354), which until 1813 did 
 mostly belong to Hesse-Cassel. contains : St. Goarshausen, a town on the 
 Rhine, opposite the at present Prussian town of St. Goar, 2*7 miles west-north- 
 west of Wiesbaden, with considerable trade and 950 inhabitants. Close by 
 lies on a steep hill the ancient castle of Katz, which in 1393 was reared by 
 the earl John III. of Katzenellnbogen, and subsequently called Neu- (i. e. New) 
 Katzenellnbogen, to distinguish it from Alt- (i. e. Old) Katzenellnbogen, the 
 ancestral castle of the earls of this name, who became extinct in 1479. The 
 latter is situated close by the market-town of Katzenellnbogen, with iron- 
 works, and 950 inhabitants. Not far from St. Goarshausen is in the Rhine the 
 remarkable rock of Lurley. The ancient castle of Reichenberg, reared about 
 the year 1284 by the earl William I. of Katzenellnbogen, was in the middle 
 ages one of the strongest and most remarkable castles in Germany. Schwal- 
 bach, a town situated in a deep valley, north-westward and 7 miles distant 
 from Wiesbaden, with a remarkable Gothic church, iron- works, and 2,150 in- 
 habitants, is renowned for its mineral springs, and much resorted to as a 
 watering-place. Not less noted and resorted to as a watering-place is the 
 neighboring village of Schlangenbad, with 250 inhabitants. The town of 
 Braubach, on the Rhine, with 1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its strong castle 
 of Marxburg, reared at an early period of the middle ages. The market- 
 town of Ems, in the neighborhood of Coblenz, with 2,600 inhabitants, is re- 
 nowned and very much resorted to as a watering-place. Caub or Kaub, on the 
 Rhine, opposite the Prussian town of Bacharach, with 1,500 inhabitants, did 
 formerly belong to the Electoral Palatinate (see page 342), and is noted for a 
 little castle on a rock in the Rhine, called die Pfalz (literally, the Palatinate), 
 and reared at an early period of the middle ages. 6. The dependent ancient 
 earldom of Holzappel (with which in 1641 an Austrian general, named Peter 
 Eppelmann, was invested, and which at present belongs to the Austrian arch- 
 duke Stephen), contains : Holzappel, its capital, near the Lahn, eastward and 
 
GERMANY. 365 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Limburg. 
 
 14 miles distant from Coblenz, with lead mines, and 950 inhabitants. In its 
 neighborhood are the ruins of the above mentioned ancient castle of Lauren- 
 burg (see History of Nassau). The village of Geilnau (with 300 inhabitants) 
 is noted for its mineral waters. 6. The dependent dominion of Runkel (53 
 square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), belonging to the princely house of Neu- 
 wied, contains the town of Runkel, on the Lahn, with 1,100 inhabitants, and 
 several more or less noted villages. 
 
 XII— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG, TOGETHER WITH 
 THE DUCHY OF LLMBURG. 
 
 Area : 1,395 square miles. 
 Population : 282,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The grand-duchy of Luxemburg was anciently a German earl- 
 dom, named after the castle of Luzelinburhut (Lutzelburg, Lux- 
 emburg), of which a neighboring wealthy earl, Siegfried, became 
 possessed in the 10th century. The male line of his descen- 
 dants became extinct in 1136, when the dukes of Limburg 
 inherited the earldom, which in 1354 was promoted to the rank 
 of a duchy by Emperor Henry VII., who had sprung from this 
 house (see page 301). In 1444, the duchy was purchased 
 by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and since that period it 
 formed a constituent part both of Burgundy and the Catholic 
 Netherlands (see page 264). In 1797, Austria ceded it, together 
 with the other Catholic provinces of Netherlands, to France ; and 
 in 1815 the house of Orange (see page 267) was invested with it 
 as an indemnification for domestic dominions in Nassau, which 
 had been ceded partly to Prussia, partly to the reigning house of 
 Nassau. At the same time the title of a grand-duchy was con- 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Limburg. 
 
 ferred upon Luxemburg. Since the revolution of Belgium in 
 1830, the latter made claim to the whole grand- duchy, which 
 however was divided into two parts, the western of which was an- 
 nexed to Belgium (see page 277) ; while the eastern part (1,012 
 square miles, and 188,000 inhabitants) remained with the house 
 of Orange-Nassau. But as the grand-duchy of Luxemburg had 
 since 1815 been an actual member of the German confederation, 
 it was in 1839 agreed upon that the greatest part of the former 
 Netherlandish province of Limburg, should (with the title of a 
 duchy of Limburg) supply the ceded half of Luxemburg, in its 
 political relations to Germany. 
 
 Thus the grand-duchy of Luxemburg has in its present extent 
 only an area of 1,012 square miles, and a population of 188,000 
 inhabitants, who are Roman Catholics. It forms the south-west- 
 ern extremity of Germany, on the north-east and east bordering 
 upon the Prussian Rhenish province, and on the west and south 
 bound by Belgium and France. Its chief natural products are 
 timber, iron, hemp, and flax ; the rearing of cattle is rather con- 
 siderable ; the manufactures consist of linen, leather, paper, &c. 
 The amount of the revenue and of the expenditure (in Luxemburg 
 and Limburg) for several years, has been about 1,800,000 florins. 
 The troops to be furnished to the confederal army consist of 
 2,556 men. In 1841 an order of honor ("of the oak-crown"), in 
 4 classes, has been instituted by the grand duke. The grand- 
 duchy contains : 
 
 Luxemburg (anciently in German called Lutzelburg), capital of the grand- 
 duchy, and German confederal fortress, on the Elz river, 26 miles west-south- 
 west of Treves, is noted for the strength of its fortifications, and has 12,000 
 inhabitants (exclusive the garrison). Vianden, a town on the Our, with a 
 remarkable ancient castle, leather manufactures, and 1,550 inhabitants. 
 Wilz, a town on the river of the same name, with manufactures of cloth, 
 leather, and paper, and 2,100 inhabitants. Grevemachern, a town on the 
 
GERMANY. 367 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and the Duchy of Limburg. 
 
 Moselle, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Other more or less 
 remarkable towns are : Echternach (with 4,000 inhabitants), Diekirch (with 
 2.200 inhabitants), Meersch (with 2,000 inhabitants), Remich (with 2,250 
 inhabitants), Esch (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (with 700 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 The duchy of Limburg, which, considered as a Netherlandish 
 province, has an area of 852 square miles, with 198,000 inhabi- 
 tants (although only its district of Roeremonde, having an area of 
 383£ square miles, and a population of 94,000 inhabitants, actually 
 belongs to the German Confederation), was primitively an earl- 
 dom, originated about the middle of the 10th century. Henry 
 I., earl of Limburg, who lived in the latter half of the 1 1th centu- 
 ry, was married to Judith, the only daughter and heiress of Fred- 
 eric of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (as the Netherlands 
 were styled prior to their annexation to the duchy of Burgundy) 
 and his son, Henry II., being elected duke of Lower Lorraine 
 the ducal title was conferred to the earldom of Limburg also 
 In 1280* the male line of the dukes of Limburg became extinct 
 and now the duchy was inherited by the duke, John I, of Bra 
 bant. Together with Brabant, Limburg was annexed to the 
 duchy of Burgundy, and came subsequently under the sway of 
 Spain, then under that of Austria. By the terms of the West- 
 phalian treaty of peace in 1648, one part of the duchy was ceded 
 to the republic of the united provinces of the Netherlands ; it be- 
 longs at present to the district of Roeremonde, while the remain- 
 der of the latter consists of a territory which continued to be 
 annexed to the ancient duchy of Limburg. The named district 
 (whose inhabitants are for the most part Roman Catholics) con- 
 tains : • 
 
 Roeremonde, its capital, on the Meuse at its junction with the Roer, west- 
 ward and 33 miles distant from Dusseldorf, has 5,700 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its cloth manufactures. Weerdt, a town situated amidst bogs and heaths, 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Electorate of Hesse. 
 
 northward and 34 miles distant from Mastricht, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is 
 noted in history as the birth-place of the famous Austrian general, in the 
 thirty years' war, who named himself John of Weerdt. Sittard, a town at 
 the frontier of the Prussian Rhenish province, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other 
 more or less remarkable towns are : Gennep (with 1,100 inhabitants), Suste- 
 ren (with 1,300 inhabitants), Stevens- Waerd (with 1,000 inhabitants), Wessem 
 (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Valkenburg (in French Fauquemont, has 1,650 
 inhabitants). The village of Vaels, situated in the neighborhood of Aix la 
 Chapelle, has 2,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth and needle manu- 
 factures. 
 
 XnL— THE ELECTORATE OF HESSE. 
 
 Area: 4,452 square miles. 
 Population : 750,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This state, commonly called Electoral Hesse (Kurhessen in 
 German), and formerly known by the name of Hesse-Cassel, is 
 situated between the Weser and Mayne rivers, towards the centre 
 of Germany, surrounded by Westphalia, the kingdom of Han- 
 over, the Saxon duchies, and Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 
 The majority of the population consists of Calvinists, and the 
 remainder of Lutherans and about 100,000 Catholics. The num- 
 ber of Jews amounts to about 8,500. 
 
 The surface is generally more mountainous (see pages 7 and 8) or 
 hilly than level, and the soil may even be called sterile in some 
 districts. However, sufficient corn is raised for home consump- 
 tion, and the rearing of cattle is considerable ; though the latter 
 is not everywhere of fine breed. The chief natural products are 
 timber, flax, iron, and freestone. 
 
 The manufactures consist of linen, hardware, woollen goods, 
 
GERMANY. 369 
 
 The Electorate of Hesse— its History. 
 
 etc. The inland trade is not inconsiderable. With regard to the 
 means of education, there are, besides the university at Marburg 
 (see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented by 264 students, 6 
 lycea, 6 gymnasia, 63 Latin schools (see the note, page 65), etc. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
 being vested in an elector and one legislative chamber. The 
 public revenue was in the period 1843-45, estimated at 3,892,700, 
 and the expenditure at 3,675,420 Prussian dollars per annum. 
 The public debt amounted in 1840 to 1,642,566 Prussian dollars. 
 The regular army consists of 8,657 men ; to the confederal army 
 are to be furnished 5,679 men. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor: 1. The order of the 
 Golden Lion, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1770. 2. The mili- 
 tary order of Merit, instituted in 1769. 3. The order of the Iron 
 Helmet, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1814. 
 
 History. — Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg, have one 
 common origin, and thus we are already acquainted with the remoter part of 
 Hessian history (see page 352). The eldest son of Philip the Generous, 
 William IV, obtained the largest share in the partition, viz., the greatest 
 part of the present province of Lower Hesse (with Cassel), the ancient earl- 
 dom of Ziegenhain, part of Schmalkalden, one half of the ready money, etc. 
 During his reign (1567-1592) he made fresh acquisitions of territories, mostly 
 by inheritance. His son and successor, landgrave Maurice, inherited Mar- 
 burg, etc., and other territories were annexed during the reign of his grand- 
 son, William VI. The latter's great-grandson, Frederic I. (1*730-1751), was 
 married to Ulrica Eleanor of Sweden, and thus ascended the Swedish throne 
 in 1720 ; while he, after his father's death (in 1730 ), succeeded also in Hesse- 
 Cassel, though he continued to reside in Stockholm. He died in 1751, and 
 was succeeded by his brother, landgrave William VIII., whose successor 
 (since 1760) was Frederic II, who died in 1785, and was succeeded by his son, 
 William IX., who in 1803 was indemnified for the cession of his dominions 
 on the Rhine, by the annexation of the towns of Fritzlar and Amoneburg, 
 etc. (see page 356), while at the same time he was promoted to the dignity 
 of an elector. As such he was now styled William I. In the war Napoleon 
 
 16* 
 
370 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 
 
 waged against Prussia in 1 806, the elector of Hesse endeavored to keep neu- 
 trality, but in vain ; for after the battle of Jena, Napoleon declared to him 
 that he was thoroughly acquainted with his secret hostile disposition against 
 him, so that if he had lost the battle, the elector would forthwith have at- 
 tacked the French army. Thus, the only chance was left to William I., either 
 to leave the country or to defend it against the French. As this latter would 
 have been entirely unsuccessful, he retired to Austria, while in the next year 
 his state became a constituent part of the kingdom of Westphalia (see page 
 295). In 1813 William I. returned to his dominions, acquired the territory 
 of the ancient independent bishopric of Fulda, and retained the electoral title, 
 though it had since 1806 lost its actual signification. He died in 1821, and 
 was succeeded by his son William II, who in 1830 appointed his son Fred- 
 eric William (born in 1802, and reigning elector since 1847) co-regent, and 
 died on the 20th November, 1847. 
 
 The electorate of Hesse is divided into 4 provinces, which are 
 subdivided into 21 circles, viz., the province of Lower Hesse 
 into 10, that of Upper Hesse into 4, that of Fulda into 4, and 
 the province of Hanau into 3 circles. The capitals of the prov- 
 inces will be found marked by a cross (-{-). 
 
 I. The province of Lower Hesse contains : -+-Cassel, the capital of the elec- 
 torate, and residence of the elector, on the Fulda (see page 17), south-west- 
 ward and 28 miles distant from Gottingen, with numerous manufactures, con- 
 siderable inland trade, and 32,600 inhabitants. Cassel is noted for its fine 
 and solid public and private edifices, some of which are built of freestone ; 
 as, for instance, the electoral palace, and the museum. At about 5 miles dis- 
 tance is situated, at the foot of the Habichtswald (see page 8), the electoral 
 palace of Wilhelmshohe (literally, William's Height), renowned for its gar- 
 dens, fountains, colossal statue of Hercules, etc. The town of Gross-Alme- 
 rode, eastward and 9 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,250 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its crucibles. Allendorf, a town on the Werra, with 4,400 inhabitants, 
 is already, since the 10th century, noted for its salt-springs and works. 
 Carlshafen, a town on the Weser, northward and 20 miles distant from Cas- 
 sel, with rather important trade, and 1,700 inhabitants. The town of Hof- 
 geismar, northward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with an electoral 
 
GERMANY. 371 
 
 The Electorate of Hesse— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 palace and 3,500 inhabitants, is noted and much resorted to as a watering- 
 place. The village of Geismar (near Fritzlar, with mineral waters and 900 in- 
 habitants) was in the days of Paganism noted for a millennial oak-tree kept holy, 
 which in the 8th century was cut down by Bonifacius. Hombehg, surnamed 
 in Hesse, a town on the little Efze river, southward and 22 miles distant from 
 Cassel with 3,800 inhabitants, and manufactures of linen, leather, and wool- 
 len goods. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Melsungen (south- 
 ward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with 4,050 inhabitants), Lichtenau 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Spangenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Waldkappel 
 (with 1,300 inhabitants), Borken (with 1,400 inhabitants), Grebenstein (with 
 2,500 inhabitants), Immenhausen (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zierenberg (with 
 1,600 inhabitants), Wolfhagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Qudensberg (with 
 2,100 inhabitants), Felsberg (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Niedenstein (with 
 700 inhabitants). Rotenbueg, a town on the Fulda, 28 miles south-south-east 
 of Cassel, with 3,650 inhabitants, linen and other manufactures, and a rather 
 extensive castle or palace, until 1834 the residence of the landgraves of 
 He3se-Rotenburg. These landgraves were descendants of Maurice (see 
 above), who having been married twice, bequeathed to his sons from the 
 second matrimony, the fourth part of his dominions. His eldest son and suc- 
 cessor, William V., ceded for this purpose certain cities, towns, and estates, 
 in Lower Hesse, to his step-brothers, yet reserving his supreme sovereignty. 
 The last descendant of these step-brothers was Victor Amadeus, who died in 
 1834, and with whom this collateral line became extinct. Thus, the reigning 
 house of Hesse-Cassel came again in full posssesion of the Rotenburgian 
 Quarter, as this territory was styled. Other towns of it are the following 
 Wannfeied (on the "Werra, with considerable trade, and 2,050 inhabitants), 
 Esohwege (on the "Werra, with various manufactures, and 6,050 inhabitants^ 
 Witzenhausen (on the Werra, eastward and 14 miles distant from Cassel 
 with some vine culture and 3,250 inhabitants), and Sontra (with 1,800 inhab- 
 itants). — The ancient earldom of Schaumburg (which in 1647 was inherited 
 by the house of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, its native earls having become ex- 
 tinct in 1640), along the Weser, contains: Rinteln, a town on the Weser, 
 north-westward and 72 miles distant from Cassel, and south-westward and 
 32 miles distant from Hanover, has 3,200 inhabitants, was since 1621 noted 
 for its university, which was abolished by the transitory Westphalian govern- 
 ment in 1809. Oldendorf a town on the Weser, with 1,400 inhabitants. Be- 
 tween here and Rinteln are, on a steep hill on the Weser, the ruins of the 
 
372 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 
 
 ancient castle of Schaumburg, where the earls of the same name resided. 
 Obernkirchen, a town with 1,900 inhabitants, is noted for its quarries and 
 coal mines. Rodenberg and Sachsenhagen, towns with respectively 1,350 and 
 800 inhabitants. The village of Nenndorf (with 750 inhabitants) is noted 
 and much resorted to as a watering-place. To the electorate of Mentz (see 
 above and page 355) did belong: Fritzlar, a town on the Eder river, 18 
 miles south-south-west of Cassel, with some manufactures and 3,050 inhabi- 
 tants. In the middle ages, Fritzlar was by far more noted than at present. 
 Numburg, or Naumburg, a town with 1,800 inhabitants. The town of Volk 
 marsen, north-westward and 18 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,850 inhabi- 
 tants, did formerly belong to the duchy of Westphalia (see under the head 
 of Prussia). 
 
 II. The province of Upper Hesse contains : -[-Marburg, the capital of the 
 province, on the Lahn, half-way between Cassel and Frankfort, has 8,000 in- 
 habitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287) and its 
 highly remarkable Gothic St. Elizabeth's church, whose foundation was laid 
 in the 13th century. Frankenberg, a town on the Eder river, ^th some 
 leather and cloth manufactures, and 3,250 inhabitants. Other towns are : 
 Wetter (with 1,550 inhabitants), Frankenau (with 1,050 inhabitants), Rosen- 
 thal (with 1,600 inhabitants), Gemunden (with 1,450 inhabitants), Kirchhain 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Rauschenberg (with 1,550 inhabitants), and Schweins- 
 berg (with 1,000 inhabitants). Ziegenhain, a formerly fortified town, 23 
 miles east-north-east of Marburg, and southward and 32 miles distant from 
 Cassel, with 1,750 inhabitants and an ancient castle, once the residence of the 
 earls of Ziegenhain, who became extinct in 1450, upon which Hesse-Cassel 
 inherited the earldom. Treysa, a town in the neighborhood of Ziegenhain, 
 with some manufactures and 2,550 inhabitants. Neukirchen, a town in the 
 vicinity of Ziegenhain, with various manufactures and 2,150 inhabitants. 
 Schvjarzenborn, a very ancient town, with 1,000 inhabitants. The town of 
 Amoneburg (on the Ohm, eastward and 9 miles distant from Marburg, with 
 1,200 inhabitants), and Neustadt (between Amoneburg and Ziegenhain, with 
 1,800 inhabitants), did formerly belong, together with Fritzlar, etc., to the 
 electorate of Mentz (see page 355). 
 
 III. The province of Fulda, comprising chiefly the ancient independent 
 bishopric of Fulda, and the dominion of Schmalkalden. 1. The bishopric of 
 Fulda took its origin from an abbey instituted in 744 by the holy Bonifacius, 
 and which in the course of time was endowed with various privileges, and in 
 
GERMANY. 373 
 
 The Electorate of Hesse — its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 1752 raised to the rank of an independent bishopric, which in the beginning 
 of the present century had a territory to the extent of 788 square miles, with 
 70,000 inhabitants. In 1803 it was secularized, and, by the title of a princi- 
 pality, ceded to the prince of Orange (subsequently King William I. of the 
 Netherlands). But as this prince was in 1806 general in the Prussian ser- 
 vice, Napoleon deprived him, after the battle of Jena, of the principality of 
 Fulda, and annexed it in 1809 to the grand-duchy of Frankfort (see page 294). 
 In 1815 Prussia became possessed of it, but soon ceded it to Hesse-Cassel, 
 with the exception of some districts, which were annexed to Bavaria. It 
 since bears the title of a grand-duchy, and contains : -[-Fulda, its former capi- 
 tal, and residence of the bishop, on the Fulda river, 62 miles south-south-east 
 of Cassel, with various and numerous manufactures and 9,600 inhabitants, is 
 noted for its magnificent palace and its cathedral containing the sepulchre of 
 the holy Bonifacius. The neighboring village of Salzschlierf (with 1,100 in- 
 habitants) is a watering-place. Huenfeld, a town on the high-road between 
 Fulda and Eisenach, with noted linen manufactures, and 2,150 inhabitants. 
 Burghaun, a market-town, with 1,800 inhabitants. 2. The dominion of 
 Sckmalkalden (144 square miles, and 27,300 inhabitants), which partly 
 was purchased, partly inherited by the house of Hesse-Cassel respectively 
 in 1360 and 1583, contains: Schmalkalden, a town at the Thuringer- 
 wald Mountains, about half-way between Fulda and Weimar, with 5,500 in- 
 habitants, is renowned for its cutlery, and also noted in the history of the 
 Reformation, especially with reference to the years 1531 and 1537. The 
 neighboring market-town of Klein- Schmalkalden (Little Schmalkalden), part 
 of which belongs to Saxe-Gotha, has 1,050 inhabitants, who carry on a con- 
 siderable trade in those articles fabricated at Schmalkalden. Beotterode, a 
 market-town, with manufactures of hardware and cutlery, and 2,400 inhabi- 
 tants. The villages Oberschonau (with 960 inhabitants) and Seligenthal (with 
 1,150 inhabitants), are noted for their iron- works. 3. The market-town of 
 Philippsthal (on the Werra, 30 miles north-north-east of Fulda, with 900 
 inhabitants) is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-CasseL 
 Other market-towns are Niederaula (with 1,350 inhabitants), and Heringen 
 (with 1,250 inhabitants). Hersfeld, a town on the Fulda river, northward 
 and 24 miles distant from Fulda, with manufactures of leather and woollen 
 goods, and 7,000 inhabitants. The market-town of Barchfeld, with 1,600 
 inhabitants, is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-Cassel. 
 Friedewald, a market-town, with 1,550 inhabitants. 
 
374 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 
 
 IV. The province of Hanau, comprises chiefly the ancient earldom of 
 Hanau-Munzenberg (which in 1736 was inherited by the house of Hesse- 
 Cassel), and containing: -4-Hanau, the capital of the province, on the 
 right bank of the Mayne, eastward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, with 
 numerous and various manufactures, considerable trade, and 15,300 inhabi- 
 tants. Hanau is noted for the battle on the 30th Oct., 1813, in which the Ba- 
 varian and Austrian troops were defeated by Napoleon, then retreating from 
 Leipsic. Near Hanau is the electoral palace of Philippsruhe, and the water- 
 ing-place of Wilhelrnsbad. On the left bank of the Mayne is situated the 
 palace of Rumpenheim, until 1837 the residence of the late landgrave Frede- 
 ric, father of the duchess of Cambridge. The market-town of Nauheim (with 
 1,450 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs. Bockenheim, a town on the 
 Mayne and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with 3,500 inhabitants. In its 
 vicinity is situated the market-town of Praunheim, with 700 inhabitants. 
 The market-town of Bergen, not far from Frankfort, with 2,000 inhabitants, 
 is remarkable for a victory obtained by the French in 1759. Gelnhausen, 
 anciently an imperial city and frequently the residence of Emperor Frederic 
 I. (see page 300), is situated on the Kinzig, and the high-road between Hanau 
 and Fulda, and has 4,050 inhabitants. Of the ancient imperial residence some 
 remains are still extant. Between here and Fulda is to be noticed Schluech- 
 tern, a town with 2,250 inhabitants. The town of Steinau, on the Kinzig 
 river, has 2,550 inhabitants. To the former bishopric of Fulda (see above) 
 once belonged the towns of Salmuenster (with 1,650 inhabitants) and Soden 
 (with 1,100 inhabitants). The market-town of Birstein (with a palace and 
 1,100 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Isenburg-Birstein (see page 355). 
 To other lines of the princely house of Isenburg do belong : Waechtersbach, 
 a town in the neighborhood of Salmunster, with 1,400 inhabitants, and Meer- 
 holz, a market-town, noted for its quarries, has 900 inhabitants. 
 
GERMANY. 375 
 
 The Principality of Waldeck— its History. 
 
 XIV.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. 
 
 Area : 458 square miles. 
 Population : 62,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This principality, situated between Hesse-Cassel and West- 
 phalia, consists of two detached sections about 30 miles from 
 each other. The larger section (426 square miles, and 55,000 
 inhabitants) comprises Waldeck proper ; and the by far smaller 
 section (32 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants) consists of the 
 earldom or principality of Pyrmont, and is situated on the We- 
 ser. The inhabitants, being Evangelicals (see page 291), depend 
 for subsistence chiefly on agriculture and other branches of hus- 
 bandry. The government is a somewhat limited monarchy 
 The public revenue and expenditure amount to about 250,000 
 Prussian dollars annually, and the 'public debt to 600,000 Prus- 
 sian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 519 
 men. 
 
 History. — "Waldeck was primitively an earldom, whose first historically 
 known earl was Wittekind (not to be confounded with the famous Saxon 
 duke of this name), who lived in the beginning of the 11th century. His de- 
 scendants formed several lines, most of which became extinct in the course 
 of time. In 1625 the reigning house of Waldeck inherited the earldom of 
 Pyrmont, and was respectively in 1692 and 1712 promoted to the princely 
 rank and dignity. In 1807 Waldeck became a member of the Rhenish, and 
 in 1815 of the German confederation. The reigning sovereign is prince 
 George, born in 1831. 
 
 The principality of Waldeck is divided into 4 bailiwicks, one 
 of which comprises the earldom of Pyrmont. We shall first de- 
 scribe Waldeck proper, and next to it Pyrmont. 
 
376 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Principality of Waldeck. 
 
 1. Waldeck proper (see p. 375) contains : Corbach, or Korbach, the capital 
 of the whole principality (the princely residence is in Arolsen), on the Itter 
 river, 30 miles west-south-west of Cassel, with a remarkable church, and 
 2,500 inhabitants. Arolsen, residence of the prince and seat of the govern- 
 ment, on the little Aar river, 20 miles west-north-west of Cassel, with, 2,200 
 inhabitants), various manufactures, and a remarkable and extensive princely 
 palace, founded in 1716. Wildungen (or Niederwildungen), a town south- 
 eastward and 14 miles distant from Corbach, with a remarkable church, and 
 1,850 inhabitants, is noted for its mineral waters. In the neighborhood of 
 Corbach are the ruins of the castle of Schwalenberg, ancestral seat of the 
 reigning princely house. The neighboring town of Sachsenhausen, with 1,200 
 inhabitants, is noted for its breweries. Waldeck, a town 9 miles east-south- 
 east of Corbach, with the ancient castle of the same name, and 800 inhabi- 
 tants. Other towns are : Mengeringhausen (with 1,750 inhabitants), Saclisen- 
 berg (with 1,150 inhabitants), Freienhagen (with 800 inhabitants), and Rhoden 
 (with 1,750 inhabitants). The market-town of Bergheim, with 600 inhabi- 
 tants, is the residence of the earl of Waldeck, who belongs to a collateral 
 line of the princely house. 2. The earldom, or at present principality of 
 Pyrmont (see above), contains : Pyrmont, a town on the Weser, northward 
 and 52 miles distant from Cassel, has a remarkable princely palace, and 
 3,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by 
 many strangers. 
 
 XV.— THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 
 
 Area: 5,793 square miles. 
 Population : 1,809,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The former electorate, but since 1806 kingdom of Saxony, is 
 situated towards the centre of Germany, between Bavaria and 
 Silesia, and between Bohemia and the Prussian province of 
 Saxony. 
 
GERMANY. 377 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony— its Natural Products and Manufactures. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, though the royal family 
 is Catholic since the days of Frederic Augustus I. (1694-1733). 
 In 1843 the number of Catholics (chiefly in Lusatia) in the coun- 
 try was 30,375, and that of Calvinists was 2,074, while the num- 
 ber of Jews (who are allowed only to live in Dresden and 
 Leipsic) was restricted to 882. 
 
 The surface is mostly hilly and mountainous, yet level in the 
 northern part of the" country. The principal mountain range 
 here is the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains (see page 7). The 
 Highland of Meissen is usually called Saxon Switzerland, on 
 account of its sublime natural scenery. The principal river 
 is the Elbe. 
 
 The soil is in the level and hilly parts of the country, both 
 fertile and eminently cultivated ; nevertheless corn is not suffi- 
 ciently raised for home consumption. The vine is cultivated to a 
 rather great extent, but the wines which are produced are not fit 
 for being exported. Fruits of various kinds are produced in 
 abundance. The rearing of cattle is very considerable, and vast 
 flocks of sheep are raised, the wool of which, noted for its fine- 
 ness, is largely exported. The greatest part of German wool 
 imported into England in 1828, amounting to more than 230,000 
 quintals, was Saxon wool. In 1765 Spanish sheep were intro- 
 duced for improving the native breed, and in 1829 Saxon sheep 
 were introduced in Spain to improve the Spanish breed ! Sax- 
 ony is moreover rich in metals and other minerals. In 1844 the 
 nett produce of the Saxon mines had a value of 2,197,873 Prus- 
 sian dollars, and consisted chiefly of silver (74,272 marks), lead 
 (8,940 quintals), tin (2,409 quintals), iron (at the value of more 
 than 600,000 Prussian dollars), etc. 
 
 Saxony is noted for its manufactures, which consist chiefly of 
 cotton and woollen goods, linen, lace, straw hats, etc., musical in- 
 struments and porcelain. The inland trade is very considerable, 
 
378 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Geimany. — Kingdom of Saxony, 
 
 and for several years the exports have surpassed the imports by 
 about 3 million Prussian dollars in value. 
 
 With regard to the means of education, Saxony ranks among the 
 first countries of Germany in this point. Beside the university 
 at Leipsic (see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented by 835 
 students, there are 2 so-called princely schools (arranged in a 
 similar manner, as for instance, the colleges at Eton and Win- 
 chester in England), 9 gymnasia, 9 seminaries, the renowned 
 mining academy at Freiberg, 2,155 common schools (beside nu- 
 merous private schools), etc. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- 
 berg. In the budget for the period 1846-48, the public revenue 
 was estimated at 5.798,648 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure 
 at 5,786,059 annually. The actual public debt amounted at the 
 close of the year 1846, to 13,092,600 Prussian dollars. The 
 regular army consists of 16,691 men. The troops for the con- 
 federal army, 12,000 men. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : 1 . The order of the 
 Rue Crown, instituted in 1807, in one single class. 2. The 
 military order of St. Henry, instituted in 1736, and renewed 
 respectively in 1796, and 1829, in 4 classes. 3. The civil order 
 of Merit, in 3 classes, instituted in 1815. 
 
 History. — The first historically known inhabitants of this country were the 
 Hermunduri (a Germanic tribe) ; and at a later period and until the end of 
 the 10th century, we find here the Sorbes and other Slavonic tribes predom- 
 inant. Thus, while Slavonic tribes occupied a country which at present is 
 known only by the name of Saxony, the ancient and genuine Germanic tribe 
 of the Saxons, lived at a rather great distance from it in the north-western 
 part of Germany, between the Rhine and Eider rivers (see page 298). In 
 short, the ancient Saxons (whose principal seat is in common life still fre- 
 quently called Lower Saxony) had nothing in common with the fore-mentioned 
 country ; and the latter would, but for the political alterations the ancient 
 duchy of Saxony underwent towards the end of the 12th century, perhaps 
 
GERMANY. 379 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony— its History. 
 
 have retained its primitive political name of Meissen until the present day. 
 This name was derived from that of the stronghold of Meissen, which Em- 
 peror Henry I. erected in 930 on the Elbe, to protect the eastern frontier of 
 Germany against the inroads on the part of the neighboring Slavonic tribes. 
 He annexed a territory to that place, appointed a margrave to represent him 
 here, and in this way the margraviate of Meissen came to existence. In 
 1046 Emperor Henry 1IL invested with the margraviate the earl Dedo II. 
 of Wettin, who is the ancestor of the present reigning houses in the kingdom, 
 as well as in the grand- duchy and duchies of Saxony. In the course of time 
 the margraviate was gradually enlarged, especially by the ancient landgra- 
 viate of Thuringen (see under the head of Saxe- Weimar), which was inher- 
 ited in the 13th century. Meanwhile the powerful duchy of Saxony (L e. the 
 present Hanover, Westphalia, etc., see page 299) had been dismembered 
 since the year 11*79 (when the Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, was out- 
 lawed on account of his felony), and with its north-eastern part and the elec- 
 toral privileges (see page 293), the Duke Bernard of Ascania (see under the 
 head of Anhalt) been invested. In 1422 the electoral line of the Ascanian 
 house became extinct, and Emperor Sigismund now conferred that named 
 part of the ancient duchy of Saxony and the electoral dignity upon the mar- 
 grave Frederic of Meissen, and since that period the name of a margraviate 
 of Meissen became gradually obsolete, and was supplanted by the more illus- 
 trious title of the electorate of Saxony. For the same reason that circle of 
 the German Empire which chiefly embraced this electorate, was styled the 
 Upper Saxon circle (see page 293). The Margrave Frederic, or Elector 
 Frederic I, died in 1428, and was succeeded by his son Frederic II, sur- 
 named the Meek, who resided in Altenburg, and died in 1464, leaving be- 
 hind two sons, Ernest and Albert. Ernest succeeded his father as elector, 
 and the electoral residence was henceforth usually in Wittenberg. But he 
 ceded the ancient margraviate of Meissen (comprising among others Dresden 
 and Leipsic) and part of Thuringia, to his younger brother Albert, who took 
 his residence in Dresden, and with whom, and his descendants, we have only 
 to do here. For Ernest's grandson, John Frederic, surnamed the Generous, 
 having taken up arms against the emperor, and for this reason been deposed 
 in 1547, Albert's grandson, Maurice, was invested with the electorate, how- 
 ever at the same time obliged to cede to the deposed elector and his descen- 
 dants, the districts of Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc., to which in 1554 
 was added that of Altenburg. In this way the Saxon grand-duchy and 
 
380 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. 
 
 duchies, ruled by descendants of Ernest and respectively of John Frederic, 
 came into existence. Elector Maurice died in 1553, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Augustus I, who died in 1586, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Christian I, etc. The elector Frederic Augustus I. (1694-1733) ascended 
 the Polish throne as King Augustus II. He died in 1733, and was succeeded 
 both in Saxony and Poland by his son Frederic Augustus II (Augustus III.), 
 who died in 1763. His grandson, Frederic Augustus (1763-1827), became 
 in 1806, member of the Rhenish confederation (see page 294), as king of 
 Saxony, and in the following year possessed of the duchy or grand-duchy of 
 Warsaw, created by Napoleon. He continued to be the ally of Napoleon, 
 even until the battle of Leipsic in 1813, and for this reason he was by the 
 powers allied against the French emperor, treated as prisoner, and in 1815 
 deprived of the larger half (7,961 square miles, and in 1815, with 845,218 
 inhabitants) of his kingdom, in favor of Prussia, to which this half was ceded. 
 King Frederic Augustus I. died in 1827, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Anton, who died in 1836, and was succeeded by his nephew, the at present 
 reigning king, Frederic Augustus II, born in 1797. 
 
 Until 1835 the kingdom was divided into 5 circles or provinces, 
 which since have been reduced to 4 (of Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau 
 and Bautzen), styled districts of circle directions (Kreisdirektions- 
 Bezirke). Those of Dresden, Leipsic and Zwickau comprise the 
 ancient margraviate of Meissen and part of Thuringia ; while that 
 of Bautzen comprises the greater part of the Upper Lusatia, an- 
 nexed to Saxony in 1 635. For the sake of brevity, we shall use 
 the term of provinces, whose capitals will be found marked with a 
 cross (+). 
 
 I. The province of Dresden contains : -{-Dresden, the capital of the king- 
 dom and royal residence, on both sides of the Elbe (crossed here by one of 
 the finest bridges, built of freestone, 1,380 feet long and 42 feet broad), had, 
 at the close of the year 1846, 3,706 houses and 85,707 inhabitants, exclusive 
 of the military and strangers. Dresden is noted for a great many magnifi- 
 cent or at least remarkable public buildings ; as for instance, the Catholic 
 church (reared in the period of 1739-1756), the church of Our Lady (with 
 a fine cupola), the royal palace with a steeple of 353 feet in height, the so- 
 
GERMANY. 881 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 called Japanese palace containing the royal library (see page 288), the new 
 building for the highly renowned gallery of paintings, the former palace of 
 Marcolini (where Napoleon resided in 1813), etc. Near Dresden is the beauti- 
 ful valley called Plauenscher Grund, after the village of Plauen, where it 
 ends, while it begins at the town of Tharand, with 1,800 inhabitants and an 
 academy for forest-concerns. The neighboring village of Kenselsdorf is 
 noted for a battle between the Prussians and Austro-Saxons on the 15th Dec, 
 1745. Meissen, once the capital of the ancient margraviate of Meissen, on 
 the Elbe, 13 miles below Dresden, with 8,200 inhabitants, vine culture, and a 
 college or so-called princely school (see above), instituted in 1543. Meissen 
 is at present chiefly noted for its eminent porcelain-manufactory, which in 
 1710 was established in the ancient and extensive castle, where the mar- 
 graves had resided. Another remarkable edifice is the ancient Gothic cathe- 
 dral; for Meissen was until 1587 the seat of a Catholic bishop. The neigh- 
 boring town of Lcmmatzsch (with 2,800 inhabitants) is situated in a district 
 of the same name that is highly renowned for the fertility of its well-cultivated 
 soil. Freiberg, a city near the Freiberger Mulde river, south-westward and 
 18 miles distant from Dresden, is highly renowned both for its numerous 
 mines and mining academy, which was founded in 1765 and has ever since 
 been much resorted to, even from foreign countries. The mines of Freiberg 
 were for the first time wrought in the 12th century, and have since produced 
 quantities of silver to the value of 240,000,000 Prussian dollars. Hainichen, a 
 town, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Freiberg, with numerous manu- 
 factures and 5,600 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the amiable 
 German poet Gellert. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wilsdncf 
 (with 2,150 inhabitants), Riesa (with 2,300 inhabitants), Brand (with 2,400 
 inhabitants), Sayda (with 1,250 inhabitants), Frauenstein (with 1,150 inhabi- 
 tants), Altenberg (with important tin mines, and 2.100 inhabitants), Glas- 
 hiitte (with 1,100 inhabitants), Dohna (with 1,200 inhabitants), Dippoldiswalde 
 (with 2,550 inhabitants), Grossen/iain (with 6,500 inhabitants), Radeburg 
 (noted for its corn and cattle-markets, has 2,100 inhabitants), and Radeberg 
 (with linen manufactures and 2,300 inhabitants). The town of Liebstadt, in 
 the neighborhood of Pima, with 800 inhabitants, is noted for its ancient moun- 
 tain-castle of Kukukstein. In its vicinity is situated the village of Maxen 
 where on the 21st Nov., 1759, the Prussian general Fink capitulated with 
 15,000 men. Kreischa, a market-town, between Dresden and Pima, with 
 900 inhabitants, is noted as a watering-place, and situated in a district that 
 
382 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Saxony. 
 
 may be considered as the principal seat of the Saxon straw-hat manufactures. 
 Moritzburg, a palace northward and 7 miles distant from Dresden, and 
 reared in 1542 by the elector Maurice, contains more than 220 rooms and 
 apartments, and is noted as a royal hunting-seat. The palace of Pillnitz, in 
 the neighborhood of Dresden, and noted for its gardens and park, is the resi- 
 dence of the king in the summer season. Schandau, a town on the right bank 
 of the Elbe, and near the frontier of Bohemia, with 1,650 inhabitants, may 
 be considered as the principal place of the above-mentioned Saxon Switzerland. 
 Between Schandau and Dresden is situated, on the left bank of the Elbe, the 
 town of Pirn a, with 6,000 inhabitants, noted for its quarries, and for its ancient 
 castle of Sonnenstein, standing on a high rock and at present arranged for a 
 mad house. Opposite Pima, on the right bank of the Elbe, is situated the 
 town of Konigstein, with 2,050 inhabitants, and the renowned mountain-fort 
 of the same name, which is as impregnable, for instance, as that of Gibraltar. 
 The well of this fort is 1,172 feet deep. 
 
 II. The province of Leipsic, comprising part of a district anciently well 
 known by the name of Osterland, contains : -["Leipsic (in German Leipzig), 
 a city on the Pleisse, at its junction with the Elster river, 70 miles west-north- 
 west of Dresden, had, at the close of the year 1846, 1,980 houses and 60,103 
 inhabitants. Leipsic may in some respects be considered as the centre of the 
 inland trade of Germany, and is noted not only for its great fairs, held 
 thrice a year, but also for its highly important book-trade, and its univer- 
 sity (see page 287). The most remarkable public edifices here are: the 
 Pleissenburg (celebrated as a stronghold in the thirty years' war, and erected 
 in 1549), the so called Paulinum (with a church inaugurated by Luther on 
 the 12th Aug., 1545), St. Nicholas' church, St. Thomas' church, etc. The en- 
 virons of Leipsic were the scenes of important battles in 1631, 1642, and es- 
 pecially on the 16th and 18th Oct., 1813. Grimma, a town on the Mulde 
 river, south-eastward and 17 miles distant from Leipsic, has 5,200 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its manufactures and its princely school or college (see above), 
 founded in 1543. Wurzen, a town on the rail-road between Leipsic and Dres- 
 den, is noted for its ancient cathedral (whose foundation was laid in 1114), and 
 has 4,200 inhabitants. Mutzschen, a town north-eastward and 7 miles dis- 
 tant from Grimma, with 1,650 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated 
 the palace of Hubertsburg, formerly noted as a hunting-seat, and for the 
 treaty of peace concluded here in 1763. The town of Colditz (south-east- 
 ward and 25 miles distant from Leipsic, with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 The Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 its hospital, that of Rochlitz (southward and 32 miles distant from Leipsic, 
 with 4,200 inhabitants), for its manufacture of woollen goods, and the town 
 of Waldheim (between Leipsic and Freiberg, with 3,500 inhabitants), for its 
 house of correction. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Taucha (with 
 2,100 inhabitants), Markranstiidt (with 1,050 inhabitants), Pegau (with 3,600 
 inhabitants), Zwenkau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Borna (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
 Geringswalde (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Leimig (with important manufac- 
 tures and 5,200 inhabitants). Penig, a town on the Mulde river, between 
 Leipsic and Chemnitz, with 4,100 inhabitants, is noted for its cotton manufac- 
 tures, and belongs to a collateral line of the dependent princely house of Schon- 
 burg (see under the head of the following province), together with the town 
 of Wechselburg (with 1,200 inhabitants), and the village of Rochsburg (with 
 600 inhabitants, and a remarkable ancient castle or palace). 
 
 III. The province of Zwickau, comprising among others the ancient Voigt- 
 land (which name is derived from voigt or bailiff, because the district was in 
 the middle ages under the sway of an imperial bailiff or governor), contains : 
 -J-Zwickau, the capital of the province, in a romantic valley on the Zwickauer 
 Mulde river, southward and 46 miles distant from Leipsic, has 9,000 inhabi- 
 tants and several remarkable churches, and is noted for its coal mines. 
 Zwickau carried on a very considerable trade in the middle ages, and was an 
 imperial city until 1308. The towns of Crimmitzschau (with remarkable 
 Gothic church and 5,800 inhabitants) and Werdau (with 6,300 inhabitants), 
 are noted for their woollen manufactures. Schneeberg, a noted mining town 
 in the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, southward and 12 miles distant from 
 Zwickau, with various manufactures, especially of lace, and 7,300 inhabitants. 
 Its silver mines wrought for the first time in 1411, were so productive, that 
 when in 1477 the margrave Frederic of Meissen dined in one of them, he sat 
 at a table consisting of a piece of ore, 80,000 marks of silver in value. An- 
 naberg, a likewise noted mining town near the frontier of Bohemia, is more- 
 over noted for its ribbon and lace manufactures, and has 7,850 inhabitants- 
 Other more or less remarkable mining towns are : Scheibenberg (with 1,850 
 inhabitants), Schwarzenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Aue (with 1,400 inhabi- 
 tants), Johanngeorgenstadt (John George's town, has 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Eibenstock (with 5,300 inhabitants), Geyer (with 3,600 inhabitants), Johstadt 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Elterlein (with 2,150 inhabitants), Wolkenstein (with 
 1,950 inhabitants), and Marienberg (with 4,500 inhabitants). The most im- 
 portant manufacturing town is Chemnitz, south-eastward and 50 miles distant 
 
384 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Saxony. 
 
 from Leipsic, with 28,650 inhabitants. Its manufactures consist chiefly of 
 cotton goods. Oederan, a town between Chemnitz and Freiberg, has 4,650 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of cloth, cassimere, flannel, etc. 
 Frankenberg, a town on the Zschopau river, north-eastward and 8 miles dis- 
 tant from Chemnitz, has 6,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its cotton manu- 
 factures. Gruenhain, a town between Schneeberg and Annaberg, is noted for 
 its lace, and has 1,550 inhabitants. The above-mentioned Voigtland contains: 
 Plauen, its ancient capital, on the Elster, westward and 23 miles distant from 
 Zwickau, with important manufactures of muslin, and 11,050 inhabitants. 
 Reichenbach, a town half-way between Plauen and Zwickau, has 6,800 inhab- 
 itants, and is likewise noted for its manufactures of muslin and of cloth, etc. 
 Other more or less important manufacturing towns are : Oelsnitz (with 4,250 
 inhabitants), Netzschkau (with 1,900 inhabitants), Mylau (with 2,600 inhabi- 
 tants), Elsterberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lengenfeld (with 4,050 inhabi- 
 tants), Treuen (with 4,500 inhabitants), Muhltroff (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
 and Pausa (with 2,450 inhabitants). The towns of Adorf (with 2,700 inhab- 
 itants) and Markneukirchen (with 2,750 inhabitants), are noted for their mu- 
 sical instruments. Auerbach, a town on the Golzsch river, with considerable 
 corn-markets, manufactures of black lace and pins, and 3,700 inhabitants, 
 who make much pitch and smoke-black in the neighboring pine forests. Wil- 
 denfels, a town between Zwickau and Schneeberg, with 2,400 inhabitants, 
 and a palace, the residence of the earl of Solms-Wildenfels (belonging to the 
 house of Solms, mentioned page 357). The dependent dominions of the 
 princes and earls of Schbnburg (241 square miles, and 105,300 inhabitants), 
 contain: Waldenburg, a town romantically situated on the Zwickauer Mulde 
 river, southward and 36 miles distant from Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and 
 is the residence of the prince of Schonburg- Waldenburg, to whom also do 
 belong the towns of Lichtenstein (with 3,250 inhabitants), Callenberg (with 
 2,250 inhabitants), Hartenstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Lossnitz (with 
 4,900 inhabitants). The towns of Hohenstein (with 4,700 inhabitants and con- 
 siderable manufactures of cotton goods), and Meerane (with woollen manu- 
 factures and 5,550 inhabitants), belong to the earl of Schonburg- Wechselburg. 
 Glauchau, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Chemnitz, with 8,250 
 inhabitants, is the residence of the earl of Schonburg-Hinterglauchau, and at 
 the same time the capital of the above-named dependent dominions. 
 
 IV. The province of Bautzen consists of ancient Upper Lusatia. Jjtisatia, in 
 general, was a margraviate, instituted in 931, and since the year 1370, belong- 
 
GERMANY. 8 g5 
 
 Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 ing entirely to Bohemia. In 1635, Emperor Ferdinand IL ceded (in his quality 
 as king of Bohemia) Lusatia to the electorate of Saxony, of which it has since 
 formed a constituent part. Yet in 1815 the king of Saxony was constrained to 
 cede that part known by the name of Lower Lusatia, and also part of Upper 
 Lusatia, to Prussia. The remainder of Upper Lusatia, or the present province 
 of Bautzen (969 square miles, and 282,600 inhabitants), contains : -[-Bautzen 
 (officially styled Budissin), the ancient capital of Upper Lusatia, on the Spree 
 river, eastward and 32 miles distant from Dresden, has 1 1,000 inhabitants and 
 several remarkable public buildings, and is noted for its numerous manufactures, 
 especially of linen, paper, and leather. Napoleon's victory on the 20th and 21st 
 May, 1813. Zittau, a highly renowned manufacturing city near the Neisse 
 river and the frontier of Bohemia, south-eastward and 30 miles distant from 
 Bautzen, with numerous manufactures, linen and damask, and 9,350 inhabitants. 
 To the city belong 36 villages, both industrious and populous, as, for instance, 
 Seifhennersdorf, or Hennersdorf in Seifen (with 5,600 inhabitants, and linen 
 manufactures), and Gross-Schonau, with 4,800 inhabitants, fabricating damask 
 of unparalleled beauty and fineness. A damask table-cloth, which was given 
 to the duke of Wellington by King Frederic Augustus I., was made in Gross- 
 Schonau. Camenz, a city on the Black Elster, north-westward and 12 miles 
 distant from Bautzen, has 4,450 inhabitants, and is noted for its gingerbread. 
 Lobau, a city south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Bautzen, with 2,800 
 inhabitants, and considerable trade in linen and cloth. Konigsbrueck, a town 
 on the Pulsnitz river, 14 miles north-north-east of Dresden, with a palace 
 (residence of the count of Hohenthal) and 1,750 inhabitants, is noted for its 
 potteries. Reibersdorf, a market-town in the neighborhood of Zittau, with a 
 magnificent palace of the count of Einsiedeln, and 1,000 inhabitants. Schir- 
 giswalde, a town on the Spree river, is noted for its fustian, and has 1,400 in- 
 habitants. The village of Hochkirch, south-eastward and 5 miles distant 
 from Bautzen, is noted in the history of the seven years' war, by the defeat 
 of the Prussians in the night of the 14th Oct., 1758. Herrnhut, a town at 
 the railroad between Lobau and Zittau, with 1,000 inhabitants, is remarkable 
 as the original seat of the Moravian Brethren since 1722. Other places in- 
 habited exclusively by Moravian Brethren are, Grosshennersdorf, or Markt- 
 hennersdorf (with 2,000 inhabitants), Berthehdorf (with 1,850 inhabitants), 
 and Kleinwelka (with 600 inhabitants). StoLPEN, a town on the Wesenitz, 
 eastward and 14 miles distant from Dresden, with a remarkable ancient 
 mountain castle, and 1,300 inhabitants 
 
 17 
 
386 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 XVI— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR. 
 
 Area: 1,427 square miles. 
 Population : 254,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This state, officially styled Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach, is situated 
 in the centre of Germany, surrounded by other Saxon territories. 
 The majority of the inhabitants consist of Lutherans, and the re- 
 mainder of about 10,200 Catholics, and 1,450 Jews. The surface 
 of the country is hilly ; timber and wood, iron and manganese, are 
 the chief natural products. The manufactures consist, for the 
 most part, of hardware, woollen goods and linen. Besides the 
 university of Jena (see page 287), in 1846 frequented by 419 stu- 
 dents, there are 2 gymnasia, 72 Latin schools, 445 common 
 schools, etc. The government is a limited monarchy. According" 
 to the budget for the period of 1 845-47, the public revenue was 
 estimated at 765,282, and the expenditure at 754,705 Prussian 
 dollars annually. The revenues of the grand-ducal domains 
 amount, upon an average, to 680,000 Prussian dollars per annum. 
 The public debt amounts to about 3,750.000 Prussian dollars. To 
 the confederal army are to be furnished 2,010 men. There is 
 an order of honor, viz., the Falcon order, instituted in 1732 and 
 renewed in 1815, in 3 classes. 
 
 History. — That all Saxon territories and reigning houses have one and the 
 same origin, has already been told, page 379. The electors Maurice and Au- 
 gustus I. ceded to the deposed elector, John Frederic the Generous, the dis- 
 tricts named in the history of Saxony. John Frederic kept them together, 
 but soon after his death, which occurred in 1554, his three sons divided them ; 
 which example was frequently followed by their descendants, so that in this 
 way the other Saxon duchies, Gotha, Altenburg, etc., came into existence. In 
 "Weimar succeeded duke John (grandson of the elector John Frederic), who 
 
GERMANY. 887 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Weimar— its History and Geographical Divisions. 
 
 died in 1605. In 1690 Jena with its dependencies, and in 1741 the dominion 
 or principality of Eisenach was inherited by the reigning dukes of Weimar. 
 In this way the duchy of Saxe-Weimar enlarged gradually its limits to the 
 extent of 766 6quare miles, and had in 1806 a population of 109,000 inhabi- 
 tants. In the last-named year, and after the battle of Jena, the then reigning 
 duke Charles Augustus, joined the Rhenish Confederation, but in 1813 the 
 allied powers. According to the stipulations of the Congress of Vienna in 
 1815, some districts of the kingdom of Saxony, of the electorate of Hesse, etc., 
 (together 661 square miles, with 77,000 inhabitants), were annexed to the 
 duchy, which at the same time was raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. 
 Charles Augustus died in 1828, and was succeeded by his son, the still reign- 
 ing grand-duke Charles Frederic, born in 1783. 
 
 The grand-duchy is divided into two provinces, styled princi- 
 palities, viz., the province or principality of Weimar, and the 
 province or principality of Eisenach, and is subdivided into 25 
 bailiwicks. 
 
 I. The province of Weimar contains : Weimar, capital of the grand-duchy 
 and residence of the grand-duke, on the Ilm river, eastward and 14 miles dis- 
 tant from Erfurt and south-westward and 60 miles distant from Leipsic, with 
 a magnificently-furnished grand-ducal palace, an admirably arranged public 
 library of 130,000 volumes, and 12,000 inhabitants. Weimar has frequently 
 been called German Athens on account of its having been the seat of eminent 
 authors and poets, as Gothe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland and Musaus. Jena, 
 a town romantically situated on the Saale, 12 miles east-south-east of 
 Weimar, has 6,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see page 
 287), and for the battle gained by Napoleon over the Prussians on the 14th 
 Oct, 1806. Buttstddt, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Wei- 
 mar, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. The town of 
 Apolda, with 4,600 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. Blankenhayn, a 
 town southward and 9 miles distant from Weimar, with various manufactures, 
 considerable breweries, and 1,800 inhabitants. Stadtsulza, or Suiza, a town 
 near the Saale river, has 1,250 inhabitants, and derived its name from valu- 
 able salt-springs, which were discovered in 966, but are at present the prop- 
 erty of Saxe-Meiningen. Berka, a town on the Ilm, with mineral waters, 
 quarries, and 1,300 inhabitants. Remda, a town with cotton and woollen 
 
388 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 manufactures, breweries, and 1,050 inhabitants. Allstedt, a town northward 
 and 32 miles distant from Weimar, is noted for its eminent grand-ducal stud, 
 and has 2,250 inhabitants. Allstedt is situated in a district that anciently was 
 called the Saxon Palatinate. The town of Ilmenau, at the foot of the Kick- 
 elhahn (see page 7), south-westward and 32 miles distant from Weimar, with 
 some manufactures, breweries, and 2,850 inhabitants, is situated on the terri- 
 tory of the ancient earldom of Henneberg (724 square miles, and in 1803 
 with 104,000 inhabitants), whose native earls became extinct in 1583, when it 
 was inherited by the different lines of the Saxon houses, but especially by the 
 descendants of the elector John Frederic the Generous. The eastern part of 
 this province, forming at present the circle or district of Neustadt, was in 
 1815 ceded by the king of Saxony to Saxe-Weimar, and contains : Neustadt 
 an der Orla, a town on the Orla river, south-eastward and 28 miles distant 
 from Weimar, with cloth and other manufactures, and 4,450 inhabitants. 
 Weida, a town with 4,100 inhabitants, is noted for its potteries. Other towns 
 are: Triptis (with 1,500 inhabitants), Auma (with 1,800 inhabitants), and 
 Berga (with 650 inhabitants). 
 
 II. The province of Eisenach contains : Eisenach, its capital, on the Nesse 
 and Horsel rivulets, about half-way between Weimar and Cassel, with seve- 
 ral remarkable public edifices, various manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
 At a distance of 1^ mile from here is situated, on a high mountain of the 
 Forest of Thuringia (see page 7), the highly renowned ancient castle known 
 by the name of Wartburg, erected in 1067, and at present completely re- 
 stored. Luther lived here incognito from the 4th May, 1521, to the 6th 
 March, 1622. As this castle was the residence of the landgraves of Thuringia 
 until the beginning of the 15th century, we shall give an historical sketch of 
 Thuringia in general here. The Thuringians themselves have already been 
 mentioned in the History of Germany (see page 298). They were primitively 
 ruled by native kings, the first of whom was named Merwig and lived in the 
 beginning of the 5th century. The last king, Hermannfried by name, was 
 murdered by the Franks in 530, and since the kingdom of Thuringia became 
 a prey of the Saxons, Sorbes and Franks. That part the latter took posses- 
 sion of, is until the present day known by the name of Thuringia, and Erfurt 
 (already founded in the 5th century) was considered as its capital The Car- 
 lovingians in France having been supplanted by the Capetians in 987 (see 
 page 32), the last descendant of the former, Louis, took his refuge to Empe- 
 ror Conrad II. (reigning in the period of 1024-1039), who appointed him 
 
GERMANY. 889 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Saxe- Weimar.— The Duchy of Saxe-Melningen. 
 
 earl of Thuringia. Louis was succeeded by his son, Louis surnamed the 
 Jumper, who was raised to the dignity of a landgrave. The reigning land- 
 grave since the year 1190 was Hermann, whose daughter was given in mar- 
 riage to the margrave Theodoric of Meissen, and who died in 1216, when he 
 was succeeded by his eldest son Louis IV., consort of the holy Elizabeth, and 
 father of the duchess Sophia of Brabant (see Hessian History, page 353). 
 With his brother Henry Raspe, who died in 124*7, the male line of the land- 
 graves of Thuringia became extinct, and the greatest part of the landgraviate 
 was now inherited by the house of Saxony (see page 379). Since the 16th 
 century the descendants of the elector Ernest and respectively of John 
 Frederic the Generous (see page 379) are possessed of Thuringia (and be- 
 side them, since 1815, Prussia). That part belonging to Saxe- Weimar 
 contains, beside Eisenach, the following places: Ruhla, a village with 
 1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its considerable manufacture of hardware and 
 cutlery. Ckeuzburg or Kreuzburg, a town on the Werra, with 2,250 in- 
 habitants, is noted for its salt-springs. Wilhelmsthal, a graud-ducal palace 
 with a beautiful park. Berka and Gerstungen, market-towns with respectively 
 1,250 and 1,400 inhabitants. To the ancient earldom of Henneberg (see 
 above) belonged the towns of Ostheim (southward and 45 miles distant 
 from Eisenach, is noted for its cherries, and has 2,650 inhabitants), Kalten~ 
 nordheim (with manufactures of cutlery and linen, and 1,650 inhabitants), 
 and Kaltensundheim (with 900 inhabitants). Vacha, a town south-westward 
 and 16 miles distant from Eisenach, has 2,250 inhabitants, and did until 1815 
 belong to Hesse-Cassel. The town of Qeysa, with 1,900 inhabitants, for- 
 merly belonged to the bishopric of Fulda (see page 372). 
 
 XVIL— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN. 
 
 Area : 980 square miles. 
 Population : 157,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This duchy, since 1826 officially styled Saxe-Meiningen-Hild- 
 burghausen, is situated at the northern frontier of Bavaria, at and 
 
390 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen— its History. 
 
 on the Thuringerwald (see page 7). separating Coburg from Gotha, 
 and bordering upon Weimar and Altenburg likewise. The in- 
 habitants are Lutherans, with the exception of about 1,000 Cath- 
 olics, and 1,550 Jews. On account of the thoroughly mountain- 
 ous surface of the country, the rearing of cattle is to be con- 
 sidered as rather considerable. There are extensive forests, 
 yielding valuable products for exportation. The manufactures 
 of linen and woollen goods, of hardware and wooden toys, are 
 considerable, as is likewise the inland trade. The university 
 at Jena is considered as possessed in common by Saxe-Weimar 
 and the Saxon duchies. In Saxe-Meiningen itself are 2 gymna- 
 sia, 1 seminary, 212 common, and 20 other schools. The govern- 
 ment is a limited monarchy. In the financial year, ending 1844, 
 the public revenue and expenditure amounted to 1,475,746, 
 and the public debt to 4,587,776 florins. To the confederal 
 army are to be furnished 1,150 men. The Saxon dukes have in 
 common the so-called House and Merit Order, in 4 classes, prim- 
 itively instituted in 1690 by the duke Frederic of Gotha, and 
 renewed in 1838. 
 
 History. — When Duke John, grandson of the elector John Frederic the 
 Generous (see page 386), died in 1605, he left behind 11 sons, of whom John 
 Ernest succeeded in Weimar, while the other dominions were divided among 
 the remaining 10 brothers. These died however one after the other, within 
 a rather short period, with the exception of Ernest, surnamed the Pi*us, who 
 died in 1675, leaving behind 7 sons, who divided again the dominions, which 
 their father had gradually inherited from his deceased 9 brothers. By this 
 arrangement duke Bernard (third son of Ernest) became possessed of Mein- 
 ingen, or that part of the ancient earldomo f Henneberg (see back under 
 the head of Jlmenau in Saxe-Weimar), which the ducal line of the Saxon 
 house had become possessed of in 1583. Bernard entailed upon his descend- 
 ants in direct line, the subsequently styled duchy of Meiningen. The present 
 reigning duke, like his ancestor named Bernard, and born in 1800, became 
 in 1826 possessed of the former duchy of Hildburghausen, the principality of 
 
GERMANY. 891 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Saalfeld, and some other territories, in consequence of the death of the duke 
 Frederic IV. of Gotha, in 1825 ; for the Saxon line of Gotha having become 
 extinct, this duchy was inherited by the three other ducal lines, represented by 
 the dukes of Coburg, Hildburghausen, and Meiniugen. They agreed that the 
 duke of Coburg should retain Gotha proper, and the duke of Hildburghau- 
 sen the other half of the inheritance, comprising Altenburg ; while the duke 
 of Meiningen should be indemnified by the annexation of Hildburghausen 
 and Saalfeld to his duchy. 
 
 Thus, the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen comprises, beside Mein- 
 ingen proper (which, as we have seen, in reality but forms a 
 part of the ancient earldom of Henneberg), since 1826 the 
 former duchy of Hildburghausen (whose duke exchanged it 
 at that period for Altenburg), and the former principality of 
 Saalfeld (which until 1826 belonged to the duke of Coburg). 
 
 Meiningen (anciently sometimes styled Meinungen), the capital of the 
 duchy, and residence of the duke, on the Werra, southward and 34 miles dis- 
 tant from Eisenach, and eastward and 40 miles distant from Fulda, with a 
 remarkable ducal palace (erected in 1681), various manufactures, and 6,300 
 inhabitants. Not far from here are the ruins of the castle of Henneberg, once 
 the ancestral seat of the ancient earls of this name. Wasungen, a town on 
 the Werra, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,600 inhabitants. Steinbach, 
 a market-town noted for its iron mines, has 1,500 inhabitants. Romhild, a 
 town on the Milz river, is noted for its leather manufactures, and has 1,750 
 inhabitants. Themab, a very ancient town on the Werra, south-eastward and 
 13 miles distant from Meiningen, with paper manufactures and 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants. Salzungen, a town romantically situated on the Werra, is noted for 
 its salt-springs, and has 3,100 inhabitants. Not far from here, and south- 
 ward and 10 miles distant from Eisenach, is situated the village of Mohba, 
 where Luther's father and mother lived in a house which still is extant. 
 Luther, was, it is true, born in Eisleben ; but it was only a short time before 
 that his father had moved from Mohra to Eisleben. Schweixa, a market- 
 town on the rivulet of the same name, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for 
 manufactures of carded woollen articles in the adjacent Glucksbrunn. The 
 neighboring village of Liebenxtein is noted as a watering-place, and romanti- 
 
392 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Duchies of Saxe-Meiningen aud Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
 
 cally situated in a valley of the Thuringerwald. Sonnenberg, or Sonneberg, 
 on the southern declivity of the Thuringerwald, eastward and 20 miles dis- 
 tant from Hildburghausen, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is renowned for its chil- 
 dren's toys, which are also made in the neighboring villages of Steinach 
 (with 2,100 inhabitants), Judenbach (with 900 inhabitants), and Steinheide 
 (with 650 inhabitants). Heinersdorf, a market-town, with breweries, and 
 800 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in timber. Hildburg- 
 hausen, until 1826 the capital of a duchy of the same name (see back), on 
 the Werra, south-eastward and 20 miles distant from Meiningen, with several 
 literary institutions, and 4,400 inhabitants. Eisfeld, a town on the Werra, is 
 noted for its fairs, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Heldburg, a town with 1,300 
 inhabitants. Saalfeld, until 1826 the capital of a principality of the same 
 name (see back), on the Saale river, southward and 23 miles distant from 
 Weimar, with a remarkable Gothic church, various manufactures, and 4,500 
 inhabitants. Near Saalfeld an action between the French and Prussians took 
 place on the 10th of October, 1806 (four days before the battle of Jena), in 
 which the prince Louis of Prussia was killed. Posneck, a town noted for 
 its manufactures of cloth, leather, and porcelain, has 3,800 inhabitants. 
 Ernstthcti, a little village noted for its glass manufactory. 
 
 XVIIL— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 
 
 Area : 788 square miles. 
 Population : 144,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This duchy consists of two detached sections, Coburg and 
 Gotha, separated from each other by the duchy of Saxe-Meinin- 
 gen. Coburg, situated on the south side of the Thuringerwald, 
 and at the northern frontier of Bavaria, is mountainous and rich 
 in valuable forests, with beautiful valleys and well-cultivated 
 soil ; and Gotha, situated on the northern side of the Thuringer- 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha— its History. 
 
 wald, is a fertile hilly country, with likewise well-cultivated soil.* 
 Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, and the remainder of the 
 population consists of about 2,300 Catholics, and 1,200 Jews. 
 Grain, flax, and timber, are chief staples. In the mountainous 
 part of Gotha, great quantities of pitch, tar, and smoke-black, are 
 made. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen, woollen goods, 
 and cutlery. Gotha carries on a considerable trade. Beside 
 the university at Jena (see Introduction of Saxe-Meiningen), 
 there are 3 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 35 Latin and 300 common 
 schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The amount 
 of the public revenue and of the expenditure for several years, has 
 been about 500,000 Prussian dollars. The public debt amounts 
 to nearly 1,750,000 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army 
 are to be furnished 1,116 men. For the order of honor ', see 
 under the head of Saxe-Meiningen. 
 
 History. — "When the seven sons of Ernest the Pious divided the inherited 
 dominions (see History of Saxe-Meiningen), the . second son, Duke Albert, 
 became possessed of Coburg, and the youngest son, Duke John Ernest, be- 
 came possessed of Saalfeld, to which in 1699 (when the line of Albert be- 
 came extinct), the principal part of Coburg was annexed. John Ernest 
 died in 1729, and was succeeded by his son Francis Josias, who in 1745 
 transferred his residence from Saalfeld to Coburg, and assumed the title of 
 a duke of Coburg-Saalfeld. The duke Ernest (1806-1844), having been in 
 the active military service of Prussia, was deprived of his duchy by order of 
 Napoleon, who however subsequently restored it to him in 1807. Accord- 
 ing to the stipulations of the congress at Vienna, the principality of Lich- 
 tenberg, on the left bank of the Rhine, was annexed to the duchy, but in 
 1834 ceded to Prussia (see the note below). About his acquisition concern- 
 ing Gotha, in 1826, see History of Saxe-Meiningen. He died in 1844, and 
 
 * Since 1815 the duchy contained also a small district on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, styled principality of Lichtenberg (234 square miles, with 30,000 
 inhabitants). But in 1834, the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ceded it to 
 Prussia, for an annuity of 80.000 florins. 
 
 11* 
 
394 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
 
 was succeeded by his son, the presently reigning duke Ernest II, born in 
 1818. (His brother is Prince Albert, consort of the British queen, Victoria.) 
 
 The duchy is both naturally and politically divided into the 
 above-mentioned two sections, viz., the duchy or province of 
 Coburg, and the duchy or province of Gotha. 
 
 1. The duchy or province of Coburg (192 square miles, and 43,000 inhab- 
 itants), contains : Coburg, or Koburg, its capital, and usual residence of the 
 duke (at least in the summer season), on the Itz river, 44 miles south-south- 
 east of Gotha, with a stately ducal palace, several other remarkable public 
 edifices, and 10,100 inhabitants. In the vicinity are the ducal palaces of 
 Rosenau and Kallenberg, noted for their parks and gardens. Rodach, a 
 town with a ducal stud, and 1,700 inhabitants. Neustadt an der Heide, a 
 town on the Rotha river, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its toys and 
 hops. Konigsberg, surnamed in Franken, a town in a district which is en- 
 tirely surrounded by Bavarian territory, with vine culture, and 1,100 inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 2. The duchy or province of Gotha (596 square miles, and 101,000 inhab- 
 itants), contains : Uotha, its capital, at present frequently the residence of 
 the duke of Coburg-Gotha, half-way between Eisenach and Erfurt, has 
 14,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its remarkable public edifices and liter- 
 ary institutions, and for its various manufactures. On the neighboring hill 
 of Seeberg, stands a celebrated observatory. The village of Elgersburg 
 (with 800 inhabitants) is noted as a watering-place, and for its porcelain and 
 manganese, the village of Manebach for its coal mines, and the village of 
 Krawinkel (with 1,100 inhabitants) for its millstones and musical instru- 
 ments. Waltershausen, a town on the Horsel river, south-westward and 
 *7 miles distant from Gotha, with linen and woollen manufactures, numerous 
 breweries, and 3,300 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the noted boarding-school 
 of Schnepfenthal, founded in 1185. Rheinhardsbrunn, anciently a Benedic- 
 tine monastery, at present a ducal palace. Tambach, a market-town on the 
 Thuringerwald, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen manufac- 
 tures and iron-works. Blasien-Zella, or Zella, a town at the Thuringerwald, 
 has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its iron- works and manufactures of 
 fire-arms. The town of Ohrdruf, with 4,400 inhabitants, belongs at present 
 to the house of Hohenlohe (see page 336). 
 
GERMANY. 395 
 
 The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg— ita Statistics and History. 
 
 XIX.— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-ALTENBURG. 
 
 Area : 522 square miles. 
 Population : 12*7,500 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between the kingdom of Saxony and the grand- 
 duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and comprises that part of the ancient 
 margraviate of Meissen, which in early times, was more usually 
 called the Osterland (see page 382). The inhabitants are (with 
 the exception of rather few Catholics) Lutherans. The soil is 
 very fertile, and all branches of husbandry are in a highly pros- 
 perous state. Of manufactures there are in general but few ; 
 the trade however is very considerable. Besides the university 
 at Jena, which is considered as possessed in common by the 
 Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, there are 1 lyceum, 1 gymna- 
 sium, 1 seminary, 6 Latin and numerous common schools. The 
 government is a limited monarchy. To the confederal army are 
 to be furnished 982 men. According to the budget for the 
 period of 1845-48, the public revenue was estimated at 631,940 
 Prussian dollars annually, and the expenditure at about the same 
 amount. The public debt was at that period 930,687 Prussian 
 dollars. About the order of hoTwr, in common with the other 
 Saxon duchies, see page 390. 
 
 History. — In the history of the kingdom of Saxony, it has already been 
 told, that to the districts ceded by Maurice to the deposed elector, was in 
 1554 added that of Altenburg. Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of 
 Saxe-Meiningen) inherited it in 1672, and when his 7 sons divided the do- 
 minions, the eldest, Duke Frederic of Gotha, became possessed of Altenburg. 
 Since, or in the whole period from 1680 to 1825, when the line of Frederic 
 became extinct, Gotha and Altenburg were constantly united. By the ar- 
 rangements agreed upon in 1826, on the part of the three reigning Saxon 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. 
 
 dukes (see History of Saxe-Meiningen), the duke Frederic of Hildburghau- 
 sen ceded this duchy to Saxe-Meiningen, and acquired instead of it the 
 wealthy duchy of Altenburg, whither he now transferred his residence. He 
 died in 1834, and was succeeded by his son, the still reigning duke, Joseph, 
 born in 1789. 
 
 The duchy of Saxe-Altenburg consists of two detached sec- 
 tions; the eastern one (with the capital) bordering upon the 
 kingdom of Saxony, and the western section (styled the Kahla- 
 Eisenberg circle) bordering upon the grand-duchy of Saxe- 
 Weimar. 
 
 Altenburg, the capital of the duchy and residence of the duke, near the 
 Pleisse river, southward and 28 miles distant from Leipsic, with considera- 
 ble corn trade and 15,300 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive, and in vari- 
 ous other respects, remarkable castle or ducal palace, whence in the night 
 of the 8th July, 1455, the princes Ernest and Albert, sons of Frederic the 
 Meek (see History of the kingdom of Saxony), were kidnapped by the 
 knight Kunz of Kaufungen. Lucka, a town on the Schnauder river, north- 
 ward and 10 miles distant from Altenburg, has 1,300 inhabitants, and is his- 
 torically noted for a battle in 1307, between the emperor Albert L, and the 
 margrave Frederic of Meissen. Ronneburg, a town south-eastward and 13 
 miles distant from Altenburg, with considerable corn trade, and 5,400 inhab- 
 itants. Eisenberg, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Altenburg, 
 with 4,900 inhabitants, considerable timber trade, and a ducal castle, in the 
 period of 1680-1707, the residence of Duke Christian of Eisenberg, fifth 
 son of Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of Saxe-Meiningen). Roda, a 
 town on a river of the same name, with 2,700 inhabitants. Kahla, a town 
 on the Saale, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 Orlamunde, a town near the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants. 
 
GERMANY. 397 
 
 The Principalities of Reuss.— Statistics, etc. 
 
 XX.-XXL— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF REUSS. 
 
 Area : 596 square miles. 
 Population : 108,800 inhabitants. 
 
 They are situated at the north-eastern frontier of Bavaria, and 
 at the Frankenwald (see page 7), and consist of two distinct sec- 
 tions, separated but a short distance from each other, and be- 
 longing the one to an Elder , the other to a Younger line of the 
 princely house of Reuss. The surface is partly mountainous, 
 partly hilly, yet the soil is generally fertile. The chief natural 
 products are like those of the neighboring countries, Altenburg 
 and Meiningen. The manufactures consist in substance of wool- 
 len and cotton goods. There are 1 gymnasium, 3 seminaries, 2 
 Latin, and numerous common schools. The inhabitants are Lu- 
 therans, with the exception of about 400 Jews. The government 
 is in both principalities a limited monarchy. There are but few 
 states where the public finances are so well arranged and settled 
 as in the principalities of Reuss. The taxes are at an extraordi- 
 nary low standard, and in the dominion of Gera (belonging to the 
 younger line) even lower than the above (see page 308) stated 
 ratio indicates upon an average for the whole. Some years ago 
 the public debt of the principalities amounted to 120,000 Prus- 
 sian dollars, but has since been considerably reduced by paying 
 off. The public expenditure is for a great part covered by the 
 revenues of the princely domains, amounting to respectively 
 133,400 and 140,000 Prussian dollars (Younger line), and 
 100,000 Prussian dollars annually (Elder line). To the confede- 
 ral army are to be furnished 223 men by the elder, and 522 by 
 the younger line. 
 
398 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Principalities of Reuse. 
 
 History. — The ancestor of the house of Reuss is Earl Henry I. of Glitz- 
 berg or Gleitberg, descending from the house of Luxemburg, who had his 
 estates in the present Hessian territories, and lived towards the end of the 
 11th century. By his consort, a countess of Schwarzenberg, he became pos- 
 sessed of considerable estates in the above (under the head of Saxony, page 
 388) mentioned Voigtland, and his descendants were appointed imperial 
 governors of it. One of them, Henry, Earl of Plauen (ancient capital of 
 the Voigtland), was surnamed the Rusen, or Ruzzo (an obsolete name), and 
 thus sprung up the family name of Reuss. The domestic dominions of this 
 house were since the 16th century restricted to the present territories. The 
 earls, since respectively 1778 and 1807 princes of Reuss, have for centuries 
 borne the Christian name of Henry. 
 
 There are at present only two reigning princes, viz., the prince 
 of Reuss-Greiz, representing the Elder line, and the prince of 
 Reuss-Schleiz representing the Younger line of the house of 
 Reuss. (Prior to 1848 the younger line was represented by two 
 princes.) 
 
 1. The principality of Reuss-Greiz (149 square miles, and 33,800 inhabi- 
 tants), since 1836 governed by Henry XX. (born in 1794), contains: Greiz, 
 its capital and princely residence, on the Elster, and near the frontier of 
 Saxony, has 3 princely palaces, and 7,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 cotton and woollen manufactures. Zeulenroda, a town with a remarkable 
 church, and 5,100 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. 
 
 2. The territories of the Younger line (447 square miles, and 75,000 in- 
 habitants), which latter is represented by the prince Henry LXI1. of Reuss- 
 Schleiz (born in 1785), comprise the principality of Reuss-Schleiz proper, 
 the former sovereign principality of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf, and the do- 
 minion of Gera which was until 1848 possessed in common by both princes of 
 this line. They contain : Schleiz, the capital and residence of the prince of 
 Reuss-Schleiz, on the little Wiesenthal river, south-eastward and 42 miles 
 distant from Weimar, with considerable trade, important cotton and wool- 
 len manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Ebersdorf, until 1848 the capital 
 and princely residence of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf (160 square miles, and 
 21,600 inhabitants), south-westward and 10 miles distant from Schleiz, with 
 a stately palace, various manufactures, and 1,250 inhabitants. Lobenstein, 
 
GERMANY. 399 
 
 The Principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg. 
 
 town not far from Ebersdorf, has considerable manufactures, and 2,500 in- 
 .bitants, and was until 1824 the residence of the princes of Reuss-Loben- 
 iin, which line then became extinct. The above-mentioned dominion of 
 era (149 square miles, and 32,300 inhabitants) contains: Geea, a town ro- 
 antically situated on the Elster, 38 miles south-south-west of Leipsic, is 
 le of the most industrious towns in this quarter, and has 10,000 inhabi- 
 jats. The town of Saalburg, on the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted 
 »r its iron-works. K6sTRiTZ,a village on the Elster, with 1,200 inhabitants, 
 the residence of a collateral line of the house of Reuss. 
 
 XXTX-XXIIL— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF SCHWARZBURG. 
 
 Area: 660 square miles. 
 Population: 128,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Both of these principalities, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolsladt, consist of two detached sections about 
 25 miles from each other, and situated in the centre of Germany. 
 One section, styled the Lower Dominion, is encircled by the ter- 
 ritory of the Prussian province of Saxony ; and the other sec- 
 tion, styled the Upper Dominion, is surrounded by the Saxon 
 duchies, and situated at the Thuringerwald. The former is situ- 
 ated in and near a district noted for its great fertility, and proba- 
 bly for this reason, called the Giildene Aue (golden plain or field). 
 Both principalities have a generally hilly but fertile soil. The 
 natural productions are chiefly grain, flax, timber, freestone, 
 cattle, sheep of improved breed, etc. In the forests much pitch 
 and smoke-black is made ; moreover there are iron-works, and 
 some woollen manufactures The inhabitants are (with the ex- 
 ception of about 300 Catholics and 400 Jews) LutJierans. The 
 government is in both principalities a limited monarchy. In the 
 
400 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Principalities of Schwarzburg. 
 
 principality of Sondershausen the public revenue is about 1 60,00C 
 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure upon an average much 
 less than this amount. (The revenues of the princely do- 
 mains are estimated at 230,000 Prussian dollars.) The public 
 debt was some years ago 114,000 Prussian dollars. To the con- 
 federal army are to be furnished 45 1 men. — In the principality 
 of Rudolstadt the public revenue amounted to 268,000, and the 
 expenditure to 248,541 florins in the year 1844; the public debt 
 was 100,540 florins. (The revenue of the princely domains are 
 estimated at 180,000 Prussian dollars.) To the confederal army 
 are to be furnished 539 men. 
 
 • - 
 History. — The former earls, at present princes of Schwarzburg, are de- 
 scendants of Sizzo, earl of Schwarzburg and Kafernburg. Sizzo died in 
 1195, and left behind two sons, Henry and Gunther, by whom the earldom 
 was divided. But in the beginning of the 14th century it was under the 
 sway of one single line; and to this belonged earl Gunther, who in 134*7 
 was elected Roman emperor (see History of Germany). Meanwhile the 
 earldom had been aggrandized both in the Upper and Lower Dominion 
 Earl Gunther XL., who died in 1552, left behind two sons, John Gunther 
 and Albert Anton, who divided the earldom again, and are the ancestors of 
 the present reigning lines of Sondershausen and Rudolstadt In 1697 and 
 1*710 the earls of Schwarzburg were raised to the dignity of princes. 
 
 L SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. 
 
 This principality has an extent of 330 square miles, with 
 58,000 inhabitants, and its reigning sovereign is, since 1835, 
 prince Gunther (Frederic Charles), born in 1801. It contains: 
 
 1. In the Lower Dominion: Sondershausen, the capital of the principal- 
 ity and princely residence, on the Wipper river, south-eastward and 1 miles 
 distant from Nordhausen, with an extensive palace and 5,000 inhabitants. 
 Greussen and Mhrig, towns with respectively 2,600 and 1,100 inhabitants 
 
GERMANY. 401 
 
 The Principalities of Schwarzburg. 
 
 Clingen (with 1,100 inhabitants), Ebeleben (with 1,000 inhabitants), Schern- 
 berg (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Keula (with 1,050 inhabitants). 2. In the 
 Upper Dominion : Arnstadt, a town on the Gera river, south-eastward and 
 15 mil.- distant from Gotha, with remarkable public edifices, considerable corn 
 trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Plaue, a little town with 850 inhabitants, is 
 noted for its porcelain manufactory. Gehren, a market-town with 1,800 in- 
 habitants, and the neighboring ruins of the princely ancestral castle of 
 K'afernburg. 
 
 IL SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. 
 
 This principality is exactly of the same extent as the former, 
 but its population amounts to 70,000 inhabitants. The reigning 
 sovereign since 1814, is prince Gunther (Frederic), born in 
 1793. It contains: 
 
 1. In the Upper Dominion : Rudolstadt, the capital of the principality 
 and princely residence, on the Saale, southward and 20 miles distant from 
 "Weimar, with a celebrated palace, and 5,500 inhabitants. The neighbor- 
 ing town of Blankenburg, with 1,300 inhabitants, is remarkable for the ruins 
 of an ancient castle, where Earl Gunther, who was elected German emperor, 
 was born. Paulinzelle, once a Cistercian monastery; its ruins are still 
 notable; as is also the neighboring and well-preserved ancestral castle 
 of Schioarzburg. Konigsee, a town with 2,100 inhabitants. Stadt Jim, an 
 industrious town on the Ilm river, north-westward and 10 miles distant 
 from Rudolstadt, with 2,300 inhabitants. 2. In the Lower Dominion: 
 Frankenhausen, a town on the Wipper river, eastward and 1 miles distant 
 from Sondershausen, with considerable trade in wool, and 5,000 inhabitants, 
 is noted for its salt-works. Near Frankenhausen, on the 15th May, 1525, 
 the notorious Thomas Miinzer, at the head of 8,000 rebellious peasants, was 
 defeated and taken prisoner. Not far from here are the ruins of the 
 anciently renowned castle of Kyffhausen, where the emperors of the house 
 of Hohenstaufen, especially Frederic L, frequently resided. 
 
402 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— The Duchies of Anhalt. 
 
 XXIV.-XXV.— THE DUCHIES OF ANHALT. 
 
 Area: 1,022 square miles. 
 Population: 158,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The duchies (until 1806 principalities) of Anhalt, are situated 
 along the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and are 
 almost wholly surrounded by the territory of the Prussian prov- 
 ince of Saxony. The inhabitants are (with the exception of 
 about 1,350 Catholics, and 2,450 Jews) Protestants, i. e. partly 
 Lutherans (prevailing in Anhalt-Bernburg), and partly Calvinists 
 (prevailing in Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Cothen). The duchies 
 of Anhalt rank among the most fertile countries of Germany, 
 and are especially noted for their fine breed of cattle and sheep. 
 The dairy produces excellent butter. Linen and woollen goods 
 are the staple manufactures; near the Hartz are iron-works. 
 The inland trade is very considerable. Beside numerous com- 
 mon schools, there are 4 gymnasia. The government is since 
 1848 a limited monarchy. Until recently, Anhalt-Dessau had to 
 furnish 529, Bernburg 370, and Cothen 325 men, to the federal 
 army. About the public finances, see below. In 1837 the dukes 
 of Anhalt instituted in common the order of Albert the Bear, in 
 3 classes. 
 
 History. — The territories of the present duchies of Anhalt were formerly 
 under the sway of the eastern margraves, who so early as in the 10th cen- 
 tury, had become possessed of considerable dominions along the Saale and 
 Elbe rivers. JEsico of Ascania, nearly related with these margraves, and 
 living at the end of the 10th century, is to be considered as the ancestor of 
 the house of Anhalt ; which latter name came into vogue towards the end 
 of the 12th century. Esico's grandson Otto, surnamed the Rich, was mar- 
 ried to Eilika, daughter of the duke Magnus of Saxony (i. e. of primitive 
 
GERMANY. 403 
 
 The Duchies of Anhalt— their History. 
 
 Saxony, subsequently named Lower Saxony, see page 378), while her sister 
 Wulfhild was married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, grandfather of the 
 renowned Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion. Thus, when the latter was 
 outlawed in 1179, his cousin, the earl Bernard of Anhalt, was the nearest 
 heir to the duchy of Saxony, and was indeed invested with it and the elec- 
 toral dignity (see page 379). However his son and successor, Henry I., 
 ceded both to his younger brother Albert (ancestor of the electors of Sax- 
 ony from the house of Ascania, and of the dukes of Lauenburg, who became 
 extinct in 1689), while he himself was contented with his patrimonial domin- 
 ions, and assumed the title of a prince of Anhalt. After his death, which 
 occurred in 1252, three lines of his house sprung up, two of which became 
 extinct ; but since the death of the prince Joachim Ernest of Anhalt-Zerbst 
 (reigning from 1570 to 1586), four new lines were formed by his four sons, 
 viz., the lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Cothen, and Zerbst. In 1793 the last- 
 named line (to which belonged the empress Katharine IL, of Russia) be- 
 came extinct, and its principality was divided among the three other lines, 
 that respectively in 1806 and 1807, were raised to the ducal dignity. In 
 1847 the line of Anhalt- Cothen became extinct, and since that period, its 
 duchy devolved to the remaining two reigning lines, is previously adminis- 
 tered on common account of them. 
 
 We shall first describe the duchies of Anhalt- Bernburg and 
 Anhalt- Dessau, as independent states, and lastly the former 
 duchv of Anhalt-Cdthen in 1847 devolved to both in common. 
 
 I. THE DUCHY OF ANHALT-BERNBURGh 
 
 It has an extent of 341 square miles, with 51,000 inhabitants, 
 and consists of two detached sections, the one of which, styled 
 the Lower Duchy, is situated on the Saale and Elbe, and the 
 other, styled Upper Duchy, at the Lower Hartz (see page 8). 
 The public revenue (including the revenues of the domains) 
 amounts to 450,000 florins, and much exceeds the expenditure. 
 Some years ago there was, however, a public debt to the amount 
 
404 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt-Bernburg and Anhalt-Dessau. 
 
 of 600,000 florins. The nigher ancestor of the line of Bernburg 
 is Christian, son of the above-mentioned prince Joachim Ernest. 
 The late prince Alexius, reigning since 1796, was still shortly 
 before the dissolution of the German Empire in 1806 created 
 duke by the emperor, and joined as such the Rhenish Confedera- 
 tion. He died in 1834, and was succeeded by his son, the pres- 
 ent reigning duke Alexander (Charles), born in 1805. The 
 duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg contains : 
 
 1. In the Lower Duchy : Bernburg, the capital of the duchy and seat of 
 the government (but not of the duke, who usually resides in Ballenstedt), 
 on the Saale, southward and 23 miles distant from Magdeburg, with a ducal 
 castle, 3 remarkable churches, considerable trade, and 6,200 inh. Plotzkau, 
 a town noted for a castle with a remarkable steeple. Koswick, a town on the 
 Elbe, with several public edifices, breweries, and 2,850 inhabitants. Miihlin- 
 gen, a village with ancient ducal castle, and 1,050 inhabitants. 2. In the Upper 
 Duchy : Ballenstedt, a town at the foot of the Hartz, westward and 20 
 miles distant from Bernburg, is the usual residence of the duke (his palace 
 was primitively founded in 940), is noted for its breweries, and has 3,850 
 inhabitants. Harzgerode, a town south-westward and 1 miles distant from 
 Ballenstedt, with 2,450 inhabitants. In its neighborhood are the noted 
 watering-place of Alexisbad, the important iron- works of Magdesprung, 
 and a silver mine. Near this are the ruins of the ancestral castle of Anhalt. 
 The town of Gernrode, with 2,200 inhabitants, is noted for its church and 
 manufactures of fire-arms. The town of Hoym, on the Selke river, north- 
 ward and 5 miles distant from Ballenstedt, with a ducal palace, and 2,300 
 inhabitants, is noted for its flax, and was until 1812 the seat of a collateral 
 line of the house of Anhalt. Gunthersberge is one of the most ancient 
 towns in Germany, and has 850 inhabitants. 
 
 II THE DUCHY OF ANHALT-DESSAU. 
 
 It has an extent of 362 square miles, with 65,000 inhabitants, 
 and is situated along the Elbe and Mulde (see page 16) rivers. 
 
GERMANY. 405 
 
 Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Cfithen. 
 
 The public revenue (including the considerable revenues from the 
 lucal domains) amounts to 600,000 florins, and exceeds by far 
 ,he expenditure. Nevertheless there was some years ago a public 
 iebt of 1,500,000 florins, contracted for various purposes in pub- 
 lic concerns. The nigher ancestor of the line of Dessau is John 
 George, eldest son of the above-mentioned prince Joachim Er- 
 nest. His great-grandson, John George II., who died in 1693, 
 was the father of the well-known rough swordsman, prince Leo- 
 pold, who was general in the Prussian service, and died in 1747. 
 His grandson, Leopold Frederic Francis, joined in 1807 the Rhe- 
 nish Confederation as duke. He died in 1817, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, the present reigning duke Leopold Fred- 
 eric, born in 1794. The duchy of Anhalt-Dessau contains: 
 
 Dessau, the capital of the duchy and ducal residence, on the Mulde river, 
 near its junction with the Elbe, with several beautiful public edifices (the 
 foundation of the ducal palace was laid in 1341), considerable corn and 
 wool trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Oranienbaum, a town eastward and 7 
 miles distant from Dessau, with ducal palace, and 2,100 inhabitants. Half- 
 way between Dessau and Wittenberg, is "Worlitz, with 2,000 inhabitants, 
 noted for its ducal gardens and park. Raguhn and Jessnitz, industrious 
 towns on the Mulde, with respectively 1,750 and 2,454 inhabitants. Zerbst, 
 until 1793 the capital of a principality of the same name (see History of 
 Anhalt), on the Nuthe river, north-westward and 13 miles distant from Des- 
 sau, with several public edifices, manufactures, considerable trade, and 9,500 
 inhabitants. 
 
 III. The former duchy of Anhalt- Cothen (319 square miles, 
 nnd 42,000 inhabitants), since 1847 administered on the com- 
 mon account of the remaining two reigning lines of the house 
 of Anhalt (see above), is situated chiefly between the Saale and 
 Mulde rivers, and partly on the right bank of the Elbe. (Politi- 
 cally annexed to Anhalt-Cothen are the dependent principality 
 of Fless in Silesia, to the extent of 383 square miles, with 54.000 
 
406 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt. 
 
 inhabitants, and the Ascanianova, a tract of land 320 square miles 
 in extent, in the southern part of Russia). The nigher ancestor 
 of the line of Cothen was Emanuel, grandson of the above-men- 
 tioned prince Joachim Ernest. The prince Augustus Christian 
 Frederic (1789-1812) joined in 1807 the Rhenish Confedera- 
 tion as duke. He was succeeded by his nephew Louis, who died 
 in 1818 and was succeeded by his cousin duke Ferdinand of An- 
 halt-Pless, who in 1825 turned a Roman Catholic, and died in 
 1830. Ferdinand was succeeded by his brother Henry, who died 
 on the 23d Nov., 1847, and with whom the line of Anhalt-Cothen 
 became extinct. The former duchy contains : 
 
 Cothen or Kothen, formerly its capital and ducal residence, about half- 
 way between Bernburg and Dessau, with various remarkable public edi- 
 fices, leather manufactures, considerable trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. In 
 its neighborhood is situated the village of Baasdorf, with only 400 inhabi- 
 tants, but noted for the wealth of its peasantry. Nienburg, surnamed an 
 der Saale, a town on the Saale, with considerable trade, and 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Rosslau, an industrious town near Dessau, with 1,600 inhabitants. The 
 village of Dornburg is noted for its extensive ducal palace. 
 
 XXVI.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 
 
 Area : 4,856 square miles. 
 Population: 515,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated on the Baltic Sea, between Pomerania and Hol- 
 stein, on the south separated from Hanover by the Elbe river. 
 The inhabitants are (with the exception of few Calvinists and 
 Catholics, and of about 3,350 Jews) Lutherans. 
 
 The country forms part of the extensive plain mentioned 
 
GERMANY. 40*7 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin — ita Geography, etc. 
 
 page 4 ; thus its surface is generally level, and only here and 
 there intersected by ridges of low hills. A natural curiosity, 
 somewhat similar to the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, is on the 
 3oast, the so-called Holy Causeway (Heiliger Damra), rising from 
 12 to 15 feet above the water, and of a length of nearly 2^ miles, 
 by about 1 00 feet broad. 
 
 The soil is for the most part fertile and well cultivated, while 
 other parts of the country are covered with extensive and valu- 
 able forests. All branches of husbandry are in Mecklenburg 
 managed with a skill unsurpassed in Germany. The country is 
 especially noted for the fine breed of its horses (see page 285). 
 The manufactures are rather insignificant ; but the more consid- 
 erable is the trade and commerce, which latter is carried on chiefly 
 by Rostock and Wismar. The principal exports are grain, butter, 
 cattle, horses, timber, and wool. 
 
 There are, with regard to the means of education, besides a 
 university at Rostock (see page 287), which in 1844 was fre- 
 quented by 120 students, 5 gymnasiums, 2 seminaries, 43 Latin 
 and 1,048 common schools. The government is a limited mon- 
 archy. The amount of the public revenue and of the expenditure 
 was, according to the budget for 1843-44, estimated at 3,162,751 
 Prussian dollars. The public debt amounted in 1845 to 6,962,429 
 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 
 3,580 men. 
 
 History. — The grand-ducal families, both in Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, are descended in direct male line from the last king 
 or prince of the Obotrites, Pribislav II, who died in 1181. The capital of 
 the Obotrites was named Mikelenborg (at present a village, and situated in 
 the neighborhood of Wismar), hence the name of Mecklenburg. The Obo- 
 trites belonged to the great tribe of the Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), 
 and had immigrated here since about the 5 th century. They were subdued 
 by Charlemagne, but became independent in the days of Louis the Pious, 
 
I 
 
 408 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
 
 T 
 
 and were since 820 ruled by a native prince, Ceodrag by name. In 1161 
 the country was conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony 
 and Bavaria, who however retained only a part of it, while he in 1166 
 restored the remainder to the native prince, the above-mentioned Pribislav 
 II, who embraced the Christian creed, and became in 1170 prince of the 
 German empire. The German language began since to supplant gradually 
 the Slavonic idiom Pribislav died in 1181, and was succeeded by his son 
 Borowin, whose four sons, by dividing the country, formed as many reigning 
 lines (of Mecklenburg, Rostock, Parchim, and Werle), which in the course 
 of time became extinct, with the exception of the line of Mecklenburg, that 
 in 1348 was raised to the ducal dignity by Emperor Charles IV. Subse- 
 quently there sprung up new lines, but towards the end of the 17th century 
 (in 1695), they were restrieted to two, that of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The duke Frederic of Mecklenburg-Schwerin died in 
 1785, and was succeeded by his nephew, Frederic Francis, who in 1803 
 bought back at the price of 1,200,000 dollars, from Sweden, the city of 
 Wismar (which Mecklenburg had been obliged to cede to that power in 
 1648), joined in 1807 the Rhenish, and in 1815 the German confederation, 
 as grand duke. He died in 1837, and was succeeded by his grandson, Paul 
 Frederic, who died so early as in the year 1842, and was succeeded by his 
 son, the present reigning grand duke, Frederic Francis, born in 1823. 
 
 The ancient constituent parts of the present grand-duchy are: 
 the duchies of Schwerin and Gustrow, the principality or former 
 bishopric of Schwerin, and the dominions of Rostock and Wis- 
 mar. The country is still divided into these parts, and subdi- 
 vided into 45 bailiwicks. In the following topography the for- 
 mer will be found separated from each other by dashes. The 
 first period embraces the ancient duchy and earldom of Schwerin 
 (2,598 square miles, and 268,000 inhabitants), containing : 
 
 Schwerin, the capital of the whole country and grand-ducal residence, on 
 the lake of the same name, eastward and 60 miles distant from Hamburg, 
 and south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Lubec, has several remarkable 
 public edifices (among them the cathedral founded in 1170), and 17,500 
 inhabitants. Banzkow (with 1,250 inhabitant*), Crivitz (with 2,300 inhabi- 
 
GERMANY. 409 
 
 T.'ie Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin — its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 tants), Hagenow (with 2,700 inhabitants), Wittenburg (with 2,200 inhabi- 
 tants), and Lubtheen (with 2,300 inhabitants), towns. The town of Neustadt 
 (on the Elde, a little tributary of the Elbe), with 1,900 inhabitants, is 
 remarkable for two palaces, the older of which was the residence of a col- 
 lateral line of the house of Mecklenburg from 1726 to 1735. Parchim, a 
 privileged city, on the Elde (tributary of the Elbe), south-eastward and 18 
 miles distant from Schwerin, carries on a rather considerable trade, has 
 6,500 inhabitants, and was, until 1840, the seat of the supreme tribunal of 
 Mecklenburg. Boizenburg, one of the most industrious towns of the coun- 
 try, on the Elbe, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Hamburg, with 
 considerable trade and 3,600 inhabitants. Grevisrnuhlen, a town situated 
 between two lakes, 12 miles west-south-west of Wismar, with 2,550 inhabi- 
 tants. Klutz, a market-town with 2,200 inhabitants, lies in a district of 
 nearly the same name, noted for its fertility. Gadebusch, a town on the 
 Radegast river, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Schwerin, has 
 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted for a battle between the Swedes and Danes, 
 on the 20th December, 1712. Rehna, a town in the neighborhood of Gade- 
 busch, with woollen manufactures, and 2,250 inhabitants. Doberan, a mar- 
 ket-town near the Baltic Sea and Rostock, has 2,200 inhabitants, a grand- 
 ducal palace, and a remarkable Gothic church, and is much resorted to for 
 sea-bathing. Sternberg, a town on a lake of the same name, north-eastward 
 and 16 miles distant from Schwerin, has 2,300 inhabitants. Here, alter- 
 nately with Malchin, the diets of Mecklenburg are held. The town of Gra- 
 bow (on the Elde, tributary of the Elbe, with 3,350 inhabitants) is noted for 
 its butter-markets. Ludwigslust, a market-town on the Hamburg-Berlin 
 railroad, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its grand-ducal palace, until 
 1837 the residence of the grand duke. Domitz, a somewhat fortified town 
 on the Elbe, at its junction with the Elde, with 2,250 inhabitants. — Buetzow, 
 anciently the capital of the independent bishopric of Schwerin (instituted in 
 1171, and secularized in 1648), with an extensive castle or palace, manufac- 
 tures, and 4,050 inhabitants. In 1760 a university was founded here, which 
 however in 1789 was united with that of Rostock. — Guestrow, a privileged 
 city on the Nebel (see page 17), southward and 18 miles distant from Ros- 
 tock, with several public edifices, important trade, and 9,100 inhabitants. Tete- 
 row (with 4,000 inhabitants), Stavenhagen (with 2,250 inhabitants), Warm 
 (with 5,200 inhabitants), Penzlin (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Plan (with 
 3,100 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. The town of Malchin 
 
 16 
 
410 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Strelitz. 
 
 (on the Peene and near the frontier of Pomerania), with linen and woollen 
 manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants. Here, alternately with Sternberg, the 
 diets of Mecklenburg are held. Dobbertin, anciently a Benedictine nunnery, 
 hut since the Reformation an establishment for ladies of rank, to which 
 belong 31 villages, is situated in the neighborhood of Goldberg (a town on a 
 lake, eastward and 27 miles distant from Schwerin, with 2,900 inhabitants). 
 The towns of Malchow (on a lake of the same name, eastward and 27 miles 
 distant from Parchim, with cloth manufactures, and 2,900 inhabitants) and 
 Ribnitz (on the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Ros- 
 tock, with fishery, and 3,350 inhabitants), are likewise noted for ancient 
 wealthy nunneries, at present establishments for ladies of rank. — Rostock, 
 a commercial city on the Warnow (see page 17), about 10 miles from the 
 Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from Schwerin, has 20,500 
 inhabitants, several celebrated churches and other public edifices, and is 
 noted for its university (see above and page 287), its manufactures, consider- 
 able shipping, and other similar business. The seaport of Rostock is War- 
 nemunde, a market-town at the mouth of the Warnow, with 1,700 inhabi- 
 tants. — "Wismar, a commercial city on the Baltic Sea, south-westward and 
 32 miles distant from Rostock, and northward and 18 miles distant from 
 Schwerin, with considerable shipping and commerce, and 11,500 inhabitants. 
 It has already been noticed, that Wismar belonged to Sweden in the period 
 from 1648 to 1803 (see above). Neuhloster, a village with 1,400 inhabitants. 
 
 XXVIL— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 
 
 Area : 1,107 square miles. 
 Population : 96,000 inhabitants 
 
 It is situated between Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Prus- 
 sian provinces of Pomerania and Brandenburg, nowhere border- 
 ing upon the sea, with the exception of a section, styled the prin- 
 cipality of Ratzeburg (144 square miles, and 16,000 inhabitants), 
 
GERMANY. 411 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz-— its History. 
 
 which lies at the north-western frontier of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 in the neighborhood of Lubec. About the surface, soil, natural 
 productions, etc., almost the same may be said as has been stated 
 under the head of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The inhabitants are 
 (with the exception of a few Catholics and about 900 Jews) Lu- 
 therans. There are 3 gymnasiums, 221 common, and several 
 other schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The 
 amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure for several 
 years, has been about 388,500 Prussian dollars. The public debt 
 amounted, some years ago, to 1,200,000 Prussian dollars. To 
 the confederal army are to be furnished 718 men. 
 
 History. — That this grand-duchy and its reigning family have had the 
 same origin as Mecklenburg-Schwerin, is already noticed in the history of 
 the latter. When since the death of the duke John Albert I. of Gustrow 
 (in 1695), the lines of the house of Mecklenburg were restricted to two, of 
 Schwerin and Strelitz, the dukes Frederic William and Adolphus Frederic, 
 then representing these lines, made in 1701 an arrangement, according to 
 which Adolphus Frederic became possessed of the duchy of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz and the principality of Ratzeburg. The successors of Adolphus 
 Frederic, who died in 1708, were : Adolphus Frederic II. (-|-in 1721), Adol- 
 phus Frederic IIL (+1752), and Adolphus Frederic IV. (+1794). The 
 last-named duke was succeeded by his brother Charles (the father of the 
 queen Louisa of Prussia, who died in 1810), who in 1808 entered the Rhe- 
 nish, and subsequently the German Confederation as grand duke. He died 
 in 1816, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning grand duke 
 George, born in 1779. 
 
 The grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz thus consists of two 
 detached sections, the one or Mecklenburg-Strelitz proper, offi- 
 cially styled the dominion of Stargard, having an area of 963 
 square miles, with 80,000 inhabitants, and the other smaller one 
 (see back), styled the principality of Ratzeburg. The former 
 contains : 
 
 New-Strelitz (in German Neu-Strelilz), the capital of the grand-duchy 
 
412 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Duchy J»f Holstein. 
 
 and grand-ducal residence, on a lake, south-eastward and 66 miles distant 
 from Schwerin, and northward and 62 miles distant from Berlin, is well-built, 
 and has 7,500 inhabitants. About 2 miles from here is Old Strelitz (Alt- 
 Strelitz), or simply Strelitz, a town noted for its horse-marts, with 3,800 
 inhabitants. New Brandenburg (in German Neubrandenburg), a privileged 
 city near a lake, 16 miles north-north-east of New Strelitz, is very regularly 
 built, and noted for wool-markets, cloth and linen manufactures, hops, etc., 
 and has 7,000 inhabitants. John I, margrave of Brandenburg, laid the 
 foundation of this city in 1248, hence its name. Stargard, an anciently 
 noted town, eastward and 5 miles distant from Neubrandenburg, with 1,600 
 inhabitants. Friedland, a town, founded in 1244 by the margraves John 
 and Otto III. of Brandenburg, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 4,700 
 inhabitahts. Fuerstenberg, a town on the Havel, is noted for its butter, 
 and has 2,800 inhabitants. The so-called principality of Ratzeburg (which 
 has but very little, or nearly nothing in common with the town of this name, 
 capital of the duchy of Lauenburg), which primitively was an independent 
 bishopric, instituted in 1058 and secularized in 1648, contains: Schonberg, a 
 town near the Baltic Sea, 12 miles east-south-east of Lubec, with a palace 
 (once the residence of the bishops of Ratzeburg), linen manufactures, and 1,550 
 inhabitants. The so-called Domhof and Pahnberg are to be considered as a 
 suburb of the town of Ratzeburg, with 350 inhabitants, subjected to the 
 grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
 
 XXVIIL— THE DUCHY OF HOLSTEIN, TOGETHER WITH THE 
 DUCHY OF LAUENBURG. 
 
 Area : 3,738 square miles. 
 Population: 524,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Holstein is the most northern state of Germany, on the west 
 washed by the North Sea, and on the east by the Baltic. On the 
 south-west and south it is by the Elbe separated from the kingdom 
 
GERMANY. 413 
 
 The Duchy of Holstein— its Statistics. 
 
 of Hanover, and its south-eastern frontier is formed by the duchy 
 of Lauenburg. The latter has an area of 404£ square miles, and 
 a population of 47,000 inhabitants ; while Holstein has an area 
 of 3,333£ square miles, and a population of 477,000 inhabitants. 
 The population in both duchies consists of Lutherans (with the 
 exception of about 650 Calvinists, 850 Catholics, 200 Mennon- 
 ites, and 3,500 Jews). — We shall first describe Holstein, and 
 after this Lauenburg. 
 
 About the rivers and lakes in Holstein see pages 11,14 and 
 17. The surface and soil of the country is much the same as in 
 the neighboring Mecklenburg. The various branches of hus- 
 bandry form the chief source for sustenance in Holstein as well 
 as in Mecklenburg; and previous to the unreasonable war against 
 Denmark so wantonly contrived and prosecuted since 1848, Hol- 
 stein was unrivalled in its wealth and prosperity. There was 
 scarcely a beggar to be found there, and even thefts very seldom 
 occurred. Agriculture was on a high scale of improvement, as 
 the rearing of cattle and horses. The latter are of the first breed, 
 and many of them were annually exported to France, for the 
 French cavalry. The butter of Holstein is renowned for its ex- 
 cellency throughout Germany, England, and other countries. 
 The fisheries, the commerce and the manufactures, all formerly 
 important, have been seriously reduced by the recent war with 
 Denmark. The university at Kiel (see page 288 ; in 1846 it was 
 frequented by 207 students), 6 gymnasiums, (in Altona, Kiel, 
 Gliickstadt, Meldorf, Plon and Rendsburg), 1 seminary for school- 
 teachers, and 1,051 common schools were in the best order. The 
 government since 1834 is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
 being vested in the king of Denmark as duke of Holstein, and in 
 a provincial assembly. To the German confederal army were 
 to be furnished 3,600 men (i. e. both from Holstein and Lauen- 
 burg). 
 
414 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 Germany.— Duchy of Holstein. 
 
 History. — The present duchy of Holstein embraces the ancient countries of 
 Holstein proper (containing among others the towns of Rendsburg, Kiel, 
 Itzehoe, Wilster, etc.), of Stormarn (with Gluckstadt, Krempe, "Wandsbeck, 
 etc.), of Dithmarschen (with Meldorf, Brunsbuttel, Lunden), of Wagrien 
 (with Plon, Oldesloe, Segeberg, Heiligenhafen, Aldenburg, Neustadt), and 
 the former dominion of Pinneberg (with Altona, Ottensen, Pinneberg). In 
 the early times of the middle ages the whole was known by the name of 
 North Albingia, or Saxony beyond the Elbe, because it was chiefly inhabited 
 by Saxons (see page 298). Charlemagne conquered it, and since the treaty 
 concluded at Verdun in 843 (see page 31), it formed a constituent part of 
 the ancient duchy of Saxony (see page 299). "With this duchy Emperor 
 Henry V. invested in 1106 the earl Lothar of Supplinburg (subsequently 
 Emperor Lothar II.; see page 300). The latter now again invested the 
 earl Adolphus of Schaumburg (belonging to that house, mentioned page 
 371) with Holstein as a fief; according to the general custom in the middle 
 ages (see pages 35 and 36). At a later period Holstein became an actual 
 independent member of the German empire, and the earls of Schaumburg 
 remained in possession of it until 1459, when the last male descendant, Earl 
 Adolphus XII., died childless. His only heiress was his sister, the countess 
 Hedwig of Oldenburg, whose eldest son, Christian, had ascended the throne 
 of Denmark in 1448, and who now, after the death of Earl Adolphus XIL, 
 in 1459, also inherited Holstein. In this way Holstein (in 1474 raised to 
 the dignity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic III.) came into connection with 
 Denmark. Unfortunately, the succeeding Danish kings did not continually 
 exercise the governmental power in Holstein directly, but by vassals (see 
 page 36), i. e. by younger princes of the royal family, who were invested 
 with the duchy as a fief. In the course of time the dukes of Holstein acted 
 almost as independent sovereigns, though their feudal dependency upon the 
 Danish crown remained unaltered. Several collateral lines originated, and 
 frequently divisions of the duchy took place, till at length all the parts were 
 reunited as a whole under the duke Frederic IV. of Holstein- Gottrop, who 
 died in 1702. He was succeeded by his son, Charles Frederic, who in 1725 
 entered into matrimony with the grand duchess Ann, eldest daughter of Pe- 
 ter L of Russia. Their son, Duke Peter, who succeeded his father in 1739, 
 ascended the Russian throne in 1762, and bequeathed his patrimonial duchy 
 of Holstein to his son Paul (subsequently emperor of Russia). Paul, as 
 heir of the most powerful empire in Europe, not liking to be at the same 
 
GERMANY. 416 
 
 Holstein— its History. 
 
 time vassal of a foreign kingdom, loosened the ties of his vassalage by re- 
 storing the duchy of Holstein to its feudal lord, the king of Denmark, in 
 1773. Since that period the duchy has been again ruled directly by the 
 kings of Denmark, without prejudice to its political connection first with the 
 German Empire, and then with the German Confederation. In short, Hol- 
 stein was in the same political condition as, for instance, Hanover was from 
 1714 (when George L ascended the British throne ; see page 233) until 1837 
 (when Ernest Augustus ascended the Hanoverian throne), during which pe- 
 riod this Electorate (since 1814 a kingdom) formed part of the German em- 
 pire, although its rulers sat on the British throne and resided in London. 
 Likewise the ruler of Holstein resided, as king of Denmark, in Copenhagen ; 
 but as duke of Holstein, he was a member of the German Empire and Con- 
 federation. No alteration in the political condition of Holstein had been 
 proposed or thought of previous to 1830. Moreover, the people of this 
 duchy did not in the least wish for it ; and indeed the prosperity of Holstein 
 was the most striking evidence of the liberal administration of the Danish 
 government. The natural and intellectual resources of the country had 
 been freely allowed to improve, and no attempt had ever been made to 
 infringe upon the liberties of the people, or to supplant the German lan- 
 guage by the Danish. But there were in Holstein and Sleswick some 
 lawyers, almost clientless, who being unable to subsist by their profession, 
 for this reason had long desired to make a living in some other way. Af- 
 ter the revolution of July, 1830, in France, they became intimate with the 
 revolutionary party in Germany, who received secret instructions from the 
 revolutionary central-union in France ; and now it was resolved upon to 
 transform both Holstein and Sleswick gradually into the head-quarters of 
 revolutionary operations in the northern states of Germany. It would lead 
 us too far, were we to describe all the intrigues and machinations employed 
 by the lawyers and their friends to instigate the quiet and happy people 
 in the duchies to sever the ties connecting them with Denmark. All their 
 exertions, however, would have been frustrated by the sound sense of the 
 people, had not the revolutions in Germany in 1848 come to their assistance. 
 Of course, they had been in the moral necessity to allege an ostensible mo- 
 tive of their exertions ; and for this purpose they brought upon the tapis 
 the fact, that the presumptive heir of the Danish crown, present (since the 
 20th of January, 1848) reigning king, Frederic VII., has hitherto been with- 
 out children, and the possibility that he may die without any. In this case 
 
416 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchy of Holstein. 
 
 the Danish throne would be inherited by a female line ; and now those in- 
 stigators pretend that not a female, but a male line of succession, and there- 
 fore especially the grand duke of Oldenburg, is entitled to the inheritance of 
 Holstein. (The claims of the dukes of Sonderburg-Augustenburg and of 
 Glticksburg have in substance only reference to Sleswick.) The futility of 
 this pretension is evinced first by the fact that King Christian L, in 1459, in- 
 herited Holstein not by the right of his father, but by the right of his 
 mother ; and secondly by the fact, that Holstein was from the years 14S1 
 and 1533 until 1773 not an independent hereditary duchy, but a fee of the 
 Banish crown, and escheated to it in the last-named year. The losses which 
 both Holstein and Sleswick have sustained since the commencement of the 
 insensate war with Denmark (in 1848), are immense. That all their public 
 resources have been ruined, their trade and commercial intercourse inter- 
 rupted, their ports blockaded, the exportation of cattle, horses and other 
 productions reduced to nothing, and their agricultural enterprises in general 
 paralyzed, has already been alluded to above. In the second place, the 
 people in the duchies have sustained incalculable direct losses, by feeding 
 the German troops and a host of adventurers, by paying war -taxes, and by 
 ravages and devastations of foreigners. The resources of the duchies have 
 until the commencement of the war been almost inexhaustible ; but if these 
 disasters continue, there will at last remain nothing more to be lost For 
 what, then, will all these losses have been sustained ? Why has a flourish- 
 ing country been transformed into a wilderness ? For what has a happy, 
 industrious, wealthy people been reduced to beggary ? For nothing but to 
 gratify the ambition of some German lawyers, — to realize the idle dreams 
 of some book-learned fancy-mongers, and to furnish the means of temporary 
 existence to sluggards and adventurers. (The historical and other particu- 
 lars about Sleswick will be found under the head of Denmark.) 
 
 The duchy of Holstein is in substance divided into its ancient 
 above-mentioned constituent parts, which are subdivided into 
 towns, bailiwicks, and various other districts. The duchy of 
 Holstein contains : 
 
 Glueckstadt, a commercial town on the Elbe, 30 miles below Hamburg, 
 is the seat of several provincial magistrates, and may for this reason be 
 considered as the capital of Holstein, though it is officially not styled so ; 
 
GERMANY. 411 
 
 The Duchy of Holstein— Us Topography. 
 
 hitherto it carried on a considerable commerce and whale-fishery, and has 
 6,000 inhabitants. Wandsbeck, a market-town north-eastward and 2 J miles 
 distant from Hamburg, was, until the commencement of the war against 
 Denmark, noted for its cotton and other manufactures, and has 3,100 inhabi- 
 tants. Rendsburg, a town on the Eider, and exactly on the frontier of Ger- 
 many and Denmark, 50 miles north-north-west of Hamburg, is noted for 
 its fortifications, and has 10,500 inhabitants. Kiel, a town on the bay of the 
 same name, forming an excellent harbor, northward and 60 miles distant 
 from Hamburg, is noted for its university (see above and page 288) and 
 annual fairs, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Itzehoe, a town on the Stoer, 
 north-westward and 33 miles distant from Hamburg, with various manufac 
 tures, trade in cattle, and 5,800 inhabitants. Wilster, a town on a little 
 river of the same name, northward and 12 miles distant from Gluckstadt, is 
 noted for its fine church, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Kellinghusen, a market- 
 town on the Stoer, north-eastward and 10 miles distant from Itzehoe, with 
 timber trade, and 1,100 inhabitants. Neumunster, a market-town at the 
 Kiel and Altona railroad, 18 miles south-south-west of Kiel, with noted 
 manufactures, and 4,200 inhabitants. Preetz, a market-town on the Schwen- 
 tine river, 22 miles south-south-east of Kiel, with manufactures, and 4,700 
 inhabitants. Ploen, a town romantically situated on the lake of the same 
 name, south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, with a stately palace, 
 once the residence of a collateral line of the dukes of Holstein, and 3,000 
 inhabitants. Oldenburg (not to be confounded with the capital of the grand- 
 duchy of Oldenburg), a town near the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 22 
 miles distant from Ploen, and 33 miles north-north-east of Lubeck, with 
 2,500 inhabitants. Heiligenhafen, a town on the Baltic Sea, opposite the 
 isle of Femern, with 2,000 inhabitants. Neuntadt, a town on the Baltic Sea 
 northward and 1 2 miles distant from Travemunde (the sea-port of Lubeck), 
 with considerable corn-trade, and 2,700 inhabitants. Lutjenburg, a town 
 near the Baltic Sea, eastward and 22 miles distant from Kiel, with 2,106 
 inhabitants. Oldesloe, a town romantically situated on the Trave, south- 
 westward and 14 miles distant from Lubeck, is noted for its salt-springs, and 
 has 2,800 inhabitants. Segeberg, a town near the Trave, northward and 30 
 miles distant from Hamburg, is noted for its gypsum, and has 3,300 inhabi- 
 tants. Northward and 9 miles distant from here, is situated the village of 
 Bornhbved, noted in history for three battles, in the years 1227, 1319, and 
 1813. Bramstedt, a market-town near the head of the Alster river, west- 
 
 18* 
 
418 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 ward and 15 miles distant from Segeberg, with 1,600 inhabitants. The pal- 
 ace of Travendahl, on the Trave river, was once frequently the residence of 
 the dukes of Holstein -Ploen, and is noted for a treaty of peace concluded 
 here between Sweden and Denmark, on the 17th August, 1700. The coun- 
 try or province of Dithmarschen (514 square miles, and 62,000 inhabitants), 
 along and towards the mouth of the Elbe, was, in the middle ages, an inde- 
 pendent state, but in 1559 conquered by the dukes of Holstein and Sleswick. 
 It contains: Meldorf, formerly the capital of all Dithmarschen, 26 miles 
 north-north-west of Gliickstadt, with corn trade, and 3,150 inhabitants. 
 Brunsbuttel, a market-town on the Elbe, opposite Cuxhafen, with 1,250 in- 
 habitants. Marne, a market-town, with considerable trade in corn and cattle, 
 and 1,250 inhabitants. Heide, the capital of the northern district of Dith- 
 marschen, northward and 7 miles distant from Meldorf, is noted for its hand- 
 some market-place, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Lunden, a town with 1,500 
 inhabitants. The ancient dominion of Pinneberg (188 square miles, and 
 40,000 inhabitants), of which in 1640 the crown of Denmark became 
 possessed, contains: Pinneberg, a market- town, north-westward and 9 miles 
 distant from Altona, with 1,100 inhabitants. Ottensen, a village near Altona, 
 is the burial-place of the German poet, Klopstock, and has 2,400 inhabi- 
 tants. Blankenese, a village on the Elbe, is noted for its considerable river- 
 navigation, and has 3,000 inhabitants, among whom are many pilots. Flott- 
 beck, a village between Ottensen and Blankenese, is noted for its botanic and 
 nursery-gardens. Wedel (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Uetersen (with 3,400 
 inhabitants), market-towns. Altona, a very important commercial city, on 
 the Elbe, only 1 mile below Hamburg, is not only noted for its commerce, 
 but also for its manufactures, and has 32,000 inhabitants. Altona was still, 
 in the 16th century a little village, but since the middle of the 17th century, 
 it became gradually an important city. The market-towns of Barmstedt 
 (with 1,700 inhabitants) and Elmshorn (with 5,400 inhabitants), belong to 
 the ancient earldom of Banzau, of which the Danish crown became pos- 
 sessed in 1731. 
 
 The Duchy of Lauenburg (404£ square miles, and 47,000 
 inhabitants) is on the north-west bordering upon Holstein, on 
 the south separated from the kingdom of Hanover by the Elbe, 
 and for the rest bound by Mecklenburg. Soil, natural produc- 
 tions, etc., are almost the same as in Holstein and Mecklenburg. 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 The Duchy of Lauenburg— its History. 
 
 The country was, together with Mecklenburg (see page 408), 
 conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, and annexed to his 
 duchy of Saxony. After he had been outlawed in 1 180, and the 
 earl Bernard of Anhalt invested with the duchy (see page 403), 
 Bernard's second son Albert became possessed of this Saxon 
 dominion, which subsequently was styled the duchy of Lauen- 
 burg. Duke Erich, of Saxe-Lauenburg, entered into a heredi- 
 tary alliance with the house of Brunswick, in 1369; and as in 
 1689 his line became extinct, the Brunswick line, subsequently 
 represented by the electors and kings of Hanover, inherited the 
 duchy of Lauenburg. It continued to form a constituent part 
 of Hanover for 120 years, when in 1814 it was ceded to Prussia. 
 Meanwhile Denmark had been deprived of Norway (with about 
 1,000,000 inhabitants), and poorly indemnified for this loss by 
 Swedish Pomerania (with about 150,000 inhabitants). But 
 Prussia desired to annex this latter country to the remainder of 
 Pomerania, and, of course, Denmark was compelled to yield to 
 this desire, by ceding Swedish Pomerania, and contenting itself 
 with the duchy of Lauenburg (whose population then fell short 
 of 40,000 inhabitants), which Prussia ceded to it in 1815, At 
 present Denmark is about to be deprived of this last poor indem- 
 nification likewise, though the duchy of Lauenburg has never had 
 anything at all in common, either with Holstein or Sleswick. 
 But the German contrivers of the war with Denmark, on account 
 of Holstein and Sleswick, are of the opinion that one act of in- 
 justice, more or less, makes no difference. The duchy of Lau- 
 enburg contains : 
 
 Ratzeburg, its capital, on a lake of the same name, northward and 25 
 miles distant from Lauenburg, with considerable inland trade and 2,400 
 inhabitants. (About the principality of Ratzeburg, see under the head 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz.) Lauenburg, once the residence of the dukes of Lau- 
 enburg, on the Elbe, 32 miles above Hamburg, with considerable trade, and 
 
420 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 
 
 3,500 inhabitants. Molln, a town on the Steckenitz, with breweries, and 
 1,800 inhabitants. Buchen, Schwarzenbek, and Aumuhle, are more or less 
 remarkable villages. 
 
 XXIX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 
 
 Area: 2,471 square miles. 
 Population : 274,050 inhabitants. 
 
 This grand-duchy consists of three distinct territories, viz. : 
 Oldenburg proper, styled the duchy of Oldenburg (on the North 
 Sea, and surrounded by the kingdom of Hanover), the principal- 
 ity of Jjubec (which has nothing in common with the city of Lu- 
 bec, though it is situated in its neighborhood), and the princi- 
 pality of Birkenfeld (on the left bank of the Rhine, and in the 
 neighborhood of Treves). They being at rather great distance 
 from each other, they must be described separately. 
 
 Oldenburg proper forms part of the extensive plain mentioned 
 page 4 ; thus its surface is generally level, and the coast as well 
 as the bank along the Weser, is sheltered against inundations by 
 vast dikes, having an aggregate length of 152 miles. The Weser 
 separates the country on the east from Hanover, and is joined 
 here by the Hunte (see page 17). The most remarkable of the 
 lakes here is the lake of Zwischenahn. Some parts of the coun- 
 try, especially along the Weser and towards the North Sea, are 
 noted for their fertility, but in the interior there is generally but 
 a poor soil. Yet, upon the whole, Oldenburg rears both cattle 
 and horses of a very fine breed, and raises amply grain, rape-seed 
 (lamp-oil made of it, is commonly used both in Germany and 
 
GERMANY. 421 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg— its Statistics and History. 
 
 other European countries, in place of train-oil), flax, and hemp. 
 There are many peat bogs which supply fuel, the more valuable 
 as wood and coal are scarce. In the sandy and heathy parts of 
 the country, the rearing of bees affords a productive source for 
 sustenance. The inland trade is rather considerable, but there 
 are but few manufactures. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants of the grand-duchy are Lutherans, 
 yet in the southern part of Oldenburg proper, and in the princi- 
 pality of Birkenfeld, there are numerous Roman Catholics (their 
 total number being about 74,800) ; the remainder of the popula- 
 tion consists of somewhat more than 2,300 Calvinists, and of 
 about 1,400 Jews. There are beside numerous common schools, 
 4 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 1 military, and 3 Latin schools. 
 
 The government was until the commotions in 1 848, an unlim- 
 ited monarchy. The amount of the public revenue and of the 
 expenditure for several years, has been about 900,000 Prussian 
 dollars annually. There is no public debt. The troops to be fur- 
 nished to the confederal army : 3,030 men, with 4 pieces of ord- 
 nance. — In 1838 an order of honor was instituted, by the name 
 of " House and Merit order of Duke Peter," etc., in 4 classes. 
 
 History. — The primitive ancestor of the reigning house of Oldenburg, was 
 the celebrated duke or king Wittekind, who led the valiant Saxons in the 
 wars with Charlemagne. One of Wittekind's descendants was earl Egilmar 
 II, of Rustringen and Ammerland, who lived in the period from 1062 to 
 1110, and whose dominions comprised in substance what at present is called 
 Oldenburg proper. Egilmar's son, Christian I., reared in 1155 the castle of 
 Oldenburg, and since, the earls of Rustringen and Ammerland named them- 
 selves earls of Oldenburg. In 1232 they became actual members of the 
 German empire. In 1247 the dominion of Delmenhorst was acquired, and 
 finally annexed to Oldenburg in 1436, by the earl Theodoric. surnamed the 
 Fortunate. It was this sovereign whose eldest son mounted in 1448 the 
 Danish throne, by the name of Christian I, and inherited the earldom (sub- 
 sequently duchy) of Holstein in 1459 (see above under the head of Holstein) ; 
 
422 EUROPE, PAST AND T RESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 
 
 while his younger son Gerard, propagated the reigning line of Oldenburg 
 Gerard acquired the districts of Varel and Neuenburg, and his great-grand- 
 son, John VI., the dominions ot Jever and Kniphausen. But in 1667, when 
 Earl Anton Giinther of Oldenburg died, this line became extinct, and now the 
 collateral line of Denmark succeeded, and acquired the earldom of Olden- 
 burg by way of inheritance. Anton Giinther's natural son Anton, earl of 
 Aldenburg, became however possessed of the lordship of Kniphausen; and 
 his nephew, a prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, became possessed of the dominion of 
 Jever. The main body of the earldom of Oldenburg continued to be in pos- 
 session of Denmark until 1773, when this crown ceded the earldom to the 
 Russian grand duke Paul, in exchange for the duchy of Holstein (see His- 
 tory of Holstein). Yet the grand duke ceded it again, in the same year, to 
 his cousin the bishop sovereign of Lubec, Frederic Augustus, belonging to a 
 younger line of the house of Holstein- Gottorp. At the same time the 
 emperor Joseph II. raised the earldom of Oldenburg to the dignity of a 
 duchy. Duke Frederic Augustus died in 1785, and as his only son and legiti- 
 mate heir, Peter Frederic William, was perturbated in mind, his brother 
 Peter (Frederic Louis) took the reins of government with sovereign power. 
 In 1803 the former sovereign bishopric of Lubec was transformed into a 
 principality and annexed to the duchy, which at the same time acquired 
 several districts of the former independent bishopric of Miinster. In Novem- 
 ber, 1806, Oldenburg was occupied by French troops, but in the following 
 year restored to the duke, who in 1808 joined the Rhenish Confederation, 
 Napoleon had meanwhile established the continental system, and as Olden- 
 burg appeared to him as affording too many opportunities for smuggling to 
 the English, he incorporated the whole country with the French empire, in 
 February, 1811. He offered the dominion of Erfurt as an indemnification to 
 the duke, who however refused it and went to Russia, where his second son, 
 George, was married to the grand duchess Catharine, in 1809. Towards the 
 end of the year 1813 he returned to Oldenburg, and entered upon its reign 
 again. By the stipulations of the Congress at Vienna, he acquired a district 
 on the left bank of the Rhine, by the name of a principality of Birkenfeld, 
 and the title of a grand duke, of which title, however, he himself made no 
 use. He died in 1829, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning 
 grand duke, Augustus Paul Frederic, born in 1783. 
 
 For the reason mentioned above, we must describe the three 
 
GERMANY. 423 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 distinct territories of the grand-duchy separately. We begin 
 with the description of 
 
 L THE DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 
 
 It has an area of 2,1 19-^- square miles, and a population of 
 223,000 inhabitants (among whom are 69,300 lloman Catholics 
 and 720 Jews), comprises the ancient earldoms of Oldenburg 
 and Delmenhorst, former districts of the ancient bishopric of 
 Munster, the dominion of Jever, and the lordship of Kuiphau- 
 sen, and contains : 
 
 Oldenburg, the capital of the grand-duchy and grand-ducal residence, 
 on the Hunte, westward and 23 miles distant from Bremen, is well-built and 
 noted for its handsome grand-ducal palace and other remarkable public edi- 
 fices, and has 8,100 inhabitants. Elsjleth, a town on the Weser, at its junc- 
 tion with the Hunte, with a landing-place for smaller vessels, and 1,600 in- 
 habitants. In the period from 1628 to 1820 Oldenburg was entitled to levy 
 a toll here, which all ships trading to Bremen were obliged to pay. Some- 
 times it amounted to 50,000 Prussian dollars annually. Neuenburg, a mar- 
 ket-town anciently noted for its fortress, has at present only 600 inhabitants. 
 The village of Rastede is noted for its grand-ducal palace and gardens. 
 Ovelgonne, a market-town near the Weser, with 1,000 inhabitants. Brake, 
 a market-town on the Weser, with a landing-place for sea-ships, and 1,300 
 inhabitants. Blexen or Blexum, a village on the Weser, opposite Bremer- 
 haven, with 400 inhabitants. Brake and Blexum are situated in a district, 
 styled Butjadingerland, and noted for the fertility of its soil. Delmenhorst, 
 a town on the little Delme river, half-way between Oldenburg and Bremen, 
 with noted horse-marts, and 1,900 inhabitants. — Wildeshausen, a town on the 
 Hunte and near the frontier of Hanover (which ceded it to Oldenburg in 
 1803), with cutlery manufactures, and 2,100 inhabitants. — Kloppenburg, a 
 town the Soeste river, westward and 14 miles distant from Wildeshausen, 
 with 950 inhabitants. This town and the towns of Friesoyte (with 1,100 in- 
 habitants), of Vechta (with 2,300 inhabitants), of Dinklage (with 1,400 in- 
 habitants), and Loningen (with 1,200 inhabitants), belonged until 1803 to the 
 
424 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 
 
 then secularized bishopric of Munster. The dominion of Jever (138 square 
 miles, and 20,300 inhabitants), forming the most northerly province of the 
 grand-duchy and situated on the North Sea, is noted both for the fertility 
 of its soil, and the excellent breed of its cattle and horses. In the middle 
 ages it was ruled by native chieftains or Barons, and in 1573 inherited by 
 the reigning house of Oldenburg. In the History of Oldenburg it has 
 already been noticed, that Earl Anton Gunther, who died in 1667, be- 
 queathed the dominion of Jever to his nephew, Prince John of Anhalt- 
 Zerbst, who entailed it upon his descendants. When, in 1793, the male line 
 of Anhalt-Zerbst became extinct (see History of Anhalt), the Russian em- 
 press Katharine II, belonging to this line, inherited the dominion of Jever 
 and entailed it upon her son and grand-children. But the emperor Alexan- 
 der ceded it in 1818 to Oldenburg, which in 1823 took formal possession of 
 it It contains : Jever, formerly its capital, near a bay of the North Sea, 
 north-westward and 34 miles distant from the city of Oldenburg, with some 
 manufactures, considerable trade, and even commerce, and 4,200 inhabi- 
 tants. The seaport of Jever is at Hooksiel, a village with 750 inhabitants. 
 Near the coast lies the isle of Wangeroog, with 400 inhabitants, and much 
 resorted to for sea-bathing. The Lordship of Kniphausen, belonging to the 
 earl of Bentink under the supremacy of the grand duke of Oldenburg, has 
 an area of only 21 square miles, and a population of 3,100 inhabitants. In 
 the history of Oldenburg we have seen, that Earl Anton Gunther, who died 
 in 1667, bequeathed this lordship to his natural son, Anton earl of Alden- 
 burg, together with the dominion of Varel, politically connected with it. By 
 way of marriage the earl William of Bentink became possessed of these 
 two dominions in 1738, and entailed them upon his descendants. When in 
 1806 the German empire was solved, the earl of Bentink attained to politi- 
 cal independency, but in 1807 he was by Napoleon subordinated to the 
 kingdom of Holland, and in 1810 to the French empire. In 1814 he re- 
 quired in vain to be admitted as actual and independent member of the 
 German Confederation, and was subordinated to the supremacy of the duke 
 or grand duke of Oldenburg, yet allowed to retain some special privileges. 
 The lordship contains, beside 3 villages (with noted horse-marts), the castle 
 of Kniphausen, seat of the dependent government. The above-mentioned 
 dominion of Varel (43 square miles, and 6,000 inhabitants), belonging likewise 
 to the earl of Bentink, contains : Varel, its capital and residence of the earl, 
 northward and 16 miles distant from Oldenburg, with noted horse-marts, 
 
GERMANY. 425 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 and 3,500 inhabitants. Dangast, a village with 250 inhabitants, is resorted 
 to for sea-bathing. 
 
 II. THE PRINCIPALITY OF LUBEC. 
 
 It has an area of 170£ square miles, and a population of 21,550 
 inhabitants, and is situated in the neighborhood of the city of Lu- 
 bec, wholly surrounded by territories of Holstein, north-eastward 
 and about 92 miles distant from the main body of the grand- 
 duchy. It consists of an undulated fertile plain, romantically 
 intersected by woods, lakes and ridges of low hills. The inhabi- 
 tants subsist almost entirely on the various branches of hus- 
 bandry The present principality of Lubec was formerly an in- 
 dependent or sovereign bishopric, primitively instituted in 948. 
 Its seat, at first in the town of Oldenburg in Holstein (see above 
 under the head of Holstein), was in the latter half of the 12th 
 century transferred to the city of Lubec, where a handsome cathe- 
 dral was reared, and in 1164 consecrated. However, the bishop 
 himself did not reside in this city, but in Eutin. Only the name 
 of Lubec rested with the bishopric, which at the end of the 12th 
 century became independent, or sovereign, The Reformation 
 brought about no alteration in its political condition, yet in 1535 
 the bishop and the chapter turned Protestants. In 1586 the 
 chapter elected for the first time a prince of the house of Holstein- 
 Gottorp their bishop, and continued to do so with other princes 
 of this house until 1756, when a Danish prince was chosen, who, 
 however, in 1773 resigned, in favor of the eldest son of the reign- 
 ing bishop Frederic Augustus, who in the same year became pos- 
 sessed of the duchy of Oldenburg (see above). In 1803 the 
 bishopric was transformed into a principality, as has already been 
 stated above. It contains : 
 
 "Eutin, its capital, romantically situated on a lake of the same name, 30 
 miles north-north-west of the city of Lubec, with a handsome grand-ducal 
 
426 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— The Grand -Duchy of Oldenburg. 
 
 palace and park, and 2,850 inhabitants. Bosau, a village with one of the 
 most ancient churches in the country, and 650 inhabitants. The village of 
 Sielbeck is noted for its romantical environs and grand-ducal palace. Schwar- 
 tau, a market-town noted for its cattle-marts, has 1,050 inhabitants. The vil- 
 lage of Rathekau (with 50 inha3bitants) is remarkable for a capitulation con- 
 cluded here on the 7th Nov., 1806, between the Prussian general, Blucher, 
 and the French general, Bernadotte. 
 
 IIL THE PRINCIPALITY OF BIRKENFELD. 
 
 It has an area of 181 square miles, and a population of 29,500 
 inhabitants (5,500 of whom are Roman Catholics), and is situated 
 on the left bank of the Rhine in the neighborhood of Treves, 
 southward and about 250 miles distant from the main body of 
 the grand-duchy. Its surface is mountainous, being traversed by 
 branches of the Hundsruck (see page 8). The Nahe river (see 
 page 16), has its sources here. There are various manufactures 
 here ; besides them iron mines are wrought, and the vine is culti- 
 vated. The present principality of Birkenfeld comprises the an- 
 cient lordship of Oberstein, since 1766 belonging to the electorate 
 of Treves ; and the ancient earldom of Sponheim, since the 15th 
 century belonging to the princes of Zweibrucken (see under the 
 head of Bavarian Palatinate). It contains : 
 
 BntKENFELD, its capital, on the Nahe, south-westward and 60 miles dis- 
 tant from Mentz, was anciently the residence of the Palatines of Zwei- 
 brucken-Birkenfeld, and has 2,100 inhabitants. Oberstein, a market-town on 
 the Nahe, is noted for cutting precious and half-precious stones, and has 
 2,300 inhabitants, ldar, a village with the same branch of industry as in 
 Oberstein, and 1,050 inhabitants. 
 
GERMANY. 427 
 
 The Principality of Lippe-Detmold— its Statistics and History. 
 
 XXX.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIPPE-DETMOLD. 
 
 Area : 447 square miles. 
 Population : 108,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This principality (whose sovereign bears the official title of 
 Prince zur Lippe) is situated on the left bank of the Weser, and 
 almost entirely surrounded by territories of the Prussian province 
 of Westphalia. The inhabitants are (with the exception of 5,100 
 Lutherans and 1,600 Roman Catholics) Calvinists. The sur- 
 face is partly hilly and woody, intersected by fertile valleys, and 
 partly traversed by the Osning (see page 8). The south-western 
 part of the country consists of an extensive heath, called the 
 Senner-Heath (Senner-Haide) and noted for the excellent breed 
 of horses reared here. Flax, timber, horses are the chief staples ; 
 cattle and sheep are likewise reared in great numbers, and of 
 good breed. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen. There 
 are 2 gymnasiums, 1 Latin school, 1 seminary, and a great many 
 common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The 
 amount of public revenue, and of the expenditure for several years, 
 has been about 490,000 florins. There is no public debt. Troops 
 to be furnished to the confederal army : 69 1 men. 
 
 History. — The ancestors of the reigning house of Lippe were wealthy ba- 
 rons or lords of the same name, who long before the 12th century had their 
 estates in the neighborhood of the Osning. One of their descendants, Ber- 
 nard VIIL, who died in 1563, bore the title of an earl, and his son, Simon 
 VI, who united all patrimonial dominions under his sway, is to be considered 
 as the nigher ancestor of the reigning houses both of Lippe-Detmold and 
 Schaumburg-Lippe. He died in 1613, and was succeeded in Lippe-Detmold 
 by his eldest son, earl Simon VII., whose earldom was in 1720 raised to the 
 dignity of a principality, though not before the year 1789 the father of the 
 present reigning prince, made use of the princely title. This sovereign died 
 
428 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Principalities of Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg-Ljppe. 
 
 in 1802, and was succeeded by his son, prince Leopold (Paul Alexander), 
 born in 1796, who until 1820 has reigned under the guardianship of his 
 mother, and since independently. 
 
 The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of 
 Lippe-Detmold, are the following : 
 
 Detmold, the capital and princely residence, on the little Werre river (not 
 to be confounded with the Werra mentioned page 17), south-westward and 
 18 miles distant from Pyrmont, and 48 miles north-north-west of Cassel, 
 with an extensive princely palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Near Detmold 
 Charlemagne obtained a victory over the Saxons in 783. Horn, a town with 
 linen manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. Blomberg, a town with various 
 manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Lemgo, a city on the Bega river, 
 northward and 7 miles distant from Detmold, with a noted gymnasium, con- 
 siderable manufactures, especially of linen, and 4,100 inhabitants. In the 
 middle ages Lemgo was both an imperial city and a member of the Hanse- 
 atic League (see page 54). Zopshorn, a princely palace, south-westward 
 and 5 miles distant from Detmold, with a renowned stud containing more 
 than 100 horses of the above-mentioned breed from the Senner-Haide, 
 Lippstadt, a city on the Lippe river, with 6 churches, various branches of 
 industry, considerable corn trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. One half of this 
 city belongs since the 17th century to the house of Brandenburg or Prussia. 
 
 XXXI— THE PRINCIPALITY OF SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE. 
 
 Area : 170 square miles. 
 Population : 30,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This principality (in common life frequently called Lippe- 
 BucTceburg) is situated on the right bank of the Weser. between 
 the city of Hanover and the Prussian city of Minden. Its main 
 body formed anciently a constituent part of the earldom of 
 
GERMANY. 429 
 
 The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe— its Statistics and History. 
 
 Schaumburg (see page 371), and for this reason this latter name 
 s officially prefixed to that of Lippe. The soil is fertile, partly 
 jovered with valuable forests, and intersected with ridges of low 
 aills. The chief staples are corn, flax and timber. Cattle of va- 
 rious kinds are raised amply. The manufactures consist chiefly 
 of linen. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 3,600 
 Calvinists and 100 Catholics) Lutherans. Besides a noted gym- 
 nasium at Buckeburg, there are several other and many common 
 schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The revenues 
 amount to about 215,000 Prussian dollars, and are principally 
 yielded by the princely domains. The expenditure is by far less ; 
 and a public debt does not exist. Troops to be furnished to the 
 confederal army : 240 men. 
 
 History. — The reigning house of Schaumburg-Lippe has one common 
 ancestor with that of Lippe-Detmold (see History of Lippe-Detmold). 
 When Earl Simon VL of Lippe died in 1613, he bequeathed to his youngest 
 son Philip some bailiwicks of the earldom. Philip's sister Elizabeth was 
 married to the earl of Schaumburg, inherited this earldom, and bequeathed 
 a considerable part of it to her brother in 1640. Philip, assuming now the 
 title of an earl of Schaumburg-Lippe, died in 1681, and was succeeded by 
 his eldest son, Frederic Christian, whose male line became extinct in 1777, 
 when Earl Philip of a collateral line succeeded. This latter died in 1787, 
 and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning (until 1807 under the 
 guardianship of his mother) prince George William, born in 1784. He as- 
 sumed the princely title in 1807, when he joined the Rhenish Confederation. 
 In 1815 he became a member of the German Confederation. 
 
 The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of 
 Schaumburg-Lippe are the following : 
 
 Bueckeburg, the capital and princely residence, 24 miles west-south-west 
 of Hanover, with a stately palace and handsome park, and 4,300 inhabi- 
 tants. Eilsen, a village noted for its mineral waters and much resorted to 
 on account of them Stadthagen, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant 
 
480 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 from Biickeburg, with an ancient remarkable castle, a well-arranged orphan 
 asylum, and 1,850 inhabitants. Steinhude, a market-town on a lake of the 
 same name, with linen manufactures, and 700 inhabitants. On this lake is 
 likewise situated a remarkable little fortress, called Wilhelmstein, and 
 reared in 1765. 
 
 XXXII.— THE KINGDOM OF HANOVER. 
 
 Area : 14,803 square miles. 
 Population: 1,790,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This kingdom, whose main body is situated between the Elbe 
 and Weser, comprises the largest part of the German North Sea 
 coast, where it encloses the main body of the grand-duchy of 
 Oldenburg, and the territory of the city of Bremen. On the 
 west it is bounded by the kingdom of the Netherlands, on the 
 north-east it is by the Elbe river separated from Holstein and 
 Mecklenburg, and on the south (where it comprises the greatest 
 part of the Hartz mountains, and encloses territories of Bruns- 
 wick) it is chiefly bound by the Prussian province of Saxony and 
 by Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; yet beside them there 
 are more than 90,000 Calvinists (prevailing in the province of 
 East Frieseland), about 230,000 Roman Catholics, 500 Mennon- 
 ites and Moravian Brethren, and more than 12,000 Jews. 
 
 The northern half of the kingdom, is a part of that extensive 
 plain mentioned page 4. Towards the south the surface is hilly, 
 and rises finally to mountains marked with the name of Hartz 
 (see page 7 and 8), besides which the Sottinger Wald, Deister, 
 Suntel (page 8), are to be noticed. 
 
GERMANY. 431 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Features and Statistics. 
 
 The tributaries of the Elbe: Ilmenan, Luhe and Schwingehwe 
 their sources in the kingdom as well as those of the Weser, viz., 
 the Alter with the Leine, the Wumme, Lesion, and Geeste (see 
 page 17). In East Frieseland is the Ems river with the Ilaase 
 (see page 17). The most remarkable lakes are the Dummer Lake 
 and the lake of Bodenteich. At the western frontier the bay of 
 Dollart (see page 9) is to be noticed. 
 
 The soil is diversified : along the coasts and the banks of the 
 principal rivers highly fertile, and in other parts rather sterile. 
 In the northern section are partly extensive peat bogs, which sup- 
 ply immense quantities of fuel, but are useless for other purposes ; 
 partly extensive heaths, the most remarkable of which are the heath 
 of Luneburg (which however in recent times is more and more 
 brought under cultivation) and the Hummling (in the province 
 of Osnabruck). 
 
 Nevertheless corn is raised sufficiently, not only for home con- 
 sumption, but even for exportation. Besides agriculture, which 
 is the chief employment, the rearing of cattle of various kinds 
 is very considerable. The black cattle along the banks of the lower 
 Weser and Elbe, in East Frieseland and in the Hartz, is of excel- 
 lent breed ; and the horses in East Frieseland and some other parts 
 of the kingdom, rival in every respect those of Mecklenburg and 
 Holstein. Sheep of improved breed are reared, especially in the 
 southern sections of the country, in great numbers. In the 
 Wcstphalian districts the rearing of hogs is considerable. In 
 the above-mentioned heaths, numerous hives of bees are kept, and 
 the trade in honey and wax yields a considerable profit annually. 
 It is still to be remarked that the flax raised in the province of 
 Luneburg, is renowned throughout Germany for its fineness. 
 The extensive forests in the mountainous districts, in the prov- 
 ince of Luneburg, etc., produce valuable timber; and a district in 
 the neighborhood of Stade, is noted for its fruits, especially cher- 
 
432 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 ries. The mijies in the Hartz are important, extensively wrought, 
 and produce on an average, annually, 50,000 marks of silver, 
 100,000 quintals of lead and litharge, 80,000 quintals of iron, and 
 between 2,000 and 3,000 quintals of copper. The produce in 
 gold is very insignificant. In Luneburg is one of the most pro- 
 ductive salt springs in Europe. Manufactures are not very flour- 
 ishing, yet linen is an important fabric, and is (inclusive flax 
 yarn) exported annually at the value of 2,500,000 Prussian dol- 
 lars. The inland trade, and even the commerce, is upon the 
 whole considerable. 
 
 The means of education are well arranged, and managed in 
 conformity with sound principles. Among them ranks first, the 
 university at Gottingen (see page 288), liberally endowed, and in 
 1846 frequented by 649 students. Besides it, there are at Grot- 
 tingen a royal society of sciences, and a philological seminary. 
 Colleges similar to that of Eton in England, are in Luneburg 
 and Ilefeld. The number of gymnasiums amounts to 15, and 
 that of common schools to 3,561 ; beside which there are rather 
 numerous other schools, as for instance, 7 seminaries, 13 Latin 
 schools, etc. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
 being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. According 
 to the budget of 1845-1846, the public revenue amounted to 
 3,996,606, and the expenditure to 3,961,058 Prussian dollars, thus 
 yielding a surplus of 35,548 Prussian dollars, beside which there 
 was still a surplus of 1,227,725 Prussian dollars extant from 
 preceding years. On the first October, 1843, the public debt was 
 at the amount of 13,496,489 Prussian dollars. 
 
 The regular army consists of 22,176 men, and the troops 
 which hitherto were to be furnished to the confederal army, 
 amounted to 13,054 men. 
 
 There are two orders of honor: 1. The order of St. George, in 
 
GERMANY. 433 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its History. 
 
 1 class, and instituted in 1839. 2. The Guelph order, instituted 
 in 1815, and since 1841 in 5 classes. 
 
 History. — The present kingdom of Hanover aud the duchy of Brunswick 
 have one and the same origin, because both formed anciently a constituent 
 part of the once so renowned duchy of Saxony (see pages 298 and 299).- A 
 duchy of Saxony, in the political meaning of this word, did not yet exist in 
 the days of Charlemagne ; as the celebrated Wittekind was to be considered 
 rather as the leader, than as the actual duke or king of the Saxons. Yet his 
 great-grandson Ludolph was raised to this dignity. He died about the year 
 870, and was succeeded as duke of Saxony by his son Otto, the father of the 
 great German emperor or king Henry I. (see History of Germany). Henry 
 retained his Saxon duchy, yet his son, Emperor Otto L (936-972), invested 
 with it a valiant Saxon noble, Hermann Billung, who moreover was already 
 possessed of wealthy estates in the southern and eastern parts of the duchy. 
 In respectively 1101 and 1106, the male line of his house became extinct, 
 and the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who died in 1106, left behind two daugh- 
 ters, Wulf hild and Eilike, as the only heiresses of the family estates. Eilike 
 was married to the earl Otto of Ballenstedt and Anhalt-, and Wulf hild was 
 married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, descended from 
 the renowned house of the Guelphs. The latter had large estates in Swabia 
 and Franconia, and were again descendants of the mighty house of Este in 
 Italy (see page 118). Henry the Black was succeeded by his son, Henry 
 surnamed the Proud, who, by Emperor Lothar II. (1125-1137), was invested 
 with the duchy of Saxony, and became in this manner the ruler of two pow- 
 erful duchies, Bavaria and Saxony. His son and successor in both duchies, 
 was the celebrated duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, who, as has already 
 been mentioned frequently (see pages 379 and 403), was, on account of his 
 felony, outlawed in 1180, and deprived of his duchies as fiefs, while he was 
 allowed to retain the above-mentioned family estates (in the present province 
 of Luneburg, in Brunswick, etc.). The duchy of Saxony (as a fief of the 
 empire) was divided and annexed to several other states of the German 
 empire ; and how the name of Saxony was subsequently transferred to the 
 margraviate of Meissen, is explained in the history of the kingdom of Saxony 
 and of Anhalt (see pages 379 and 403). Henry surnamed the Lion, died in 
 1195, and bequeathed bis family estates to his son William, who bequeathed 
 them again to his son Otto, surnamed the Child, who in 1235 surrendered 
 
 19 
 
434 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 them to Emperor Frederic II, and received them as a duchy of Brunswick, 
 and as a hereditary fief of the empire. Otto acquired moreover the cities of 
 Hanover, Gottingen, Munden, the earldom of Stade, and bequeathed when 
 he died (in 1252), his duchy considerably enlarged to his two sons, Albert 
 and John, who divided it in 1267, and from which act sprung up different 
 hues of the reigning house, until, in 1546, two principal lines were formed by 
 the two sons of Ernest, surnamed the Confessor, who died in the just-named 
 year, 1546. His eldest son, or properly his grandson, duke Augustus, 
 became the ancestor of the ducal house of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel (or 
 Brunswick proper), and his youngest son William, surnamed the Younger, 
 became the ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick-Liineburg, i. e. of 
 Hanover. William the Younger died in 1589, and left behind 8 daughters 
 and 7 sons. The latter succeeded him one after the other. Meanwhile sev- 
 eral collateral lines had sprung up, but they became gradually extinct, and all 
 their dominions were in the beginning of the 18th century reunited by the 
 principal line of Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanover. Here reigned in the 
 period from 1679 to 1698, the duke Ernest Augustus, who married the prin- 
 cess Sophia (daughter of the unfortunate elector Frederic V. of the Palati- 
 ate, who was the son-in-law of King James I., of Great Britain), and was in 
 1692 raised to the dignity of an elector. He died in 1698, and was succeeded 
 by his son George William, who io 1714 mounted the British throne as 
 George I. (see page 233). The remaining part of the history of Hanover, is 
 in substance connected with that of the reigning British royal family; and it 
 may only be added here, that George I. and his successors continued ever to 
 be the actual electors or (since 1814) kings of Hanover, though this country 
 was ruled in their name, by a special government established in the city of 
 Hanover. How it was aggrandized in the period from 1715 to 1813, shall 
 be noticed below in the topography. When in 1837, King William IV. died, 
 his niece Victoria, who succeeded him in Great Britain, could not also suc- 
 ceed him in Hanover, because the so-called Salic law prevails here, which 
 excludes all females from the throne. Thus his brother, the duke of Cumber- 
 land, Ernest Atigustus, born in 1771, succeeded him as king of Hanover. 
 
 The kingdom is since 1823 divided into 6 provinces, styled 
 Landdrosteien (or properly Landdrostei-Bezirke, because Land- 
 drostei means a provincial government), which are subdivided into 
 
GERMANY. 435 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 bailiwicks with different special names. As a seventh province 
 may be considered the mining district (Berghauptmannschaft) of 
 Clausthal, with a special government, superintending the mines, 
 etc., of the Hartz. The term of Landdrostei being rather unu- 
 sual, especially to an English reader, we shall substitute for it 
 the term of province; but as the historically settled condition of 
 the different constituent parts of the kingdom is in substance 
 left untouched, and moreover as their names still frequently 
 occur both in writings and common life, we shall follow here a 
 similar plan, as for instance in France, and combine the ancient 
 names with the modern provincial names. 
 
 1. THE PROVINCE OF HANOVER. 
 
 It comprises the ancient principality of 'Calenberg and the 
 ancient earldoms of Hoya and Diepholz. 
 
 1. The ancient principality of Calenberg contains : Hanover, the capital 
 of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Leine, south-eastward and 60 
 miles distant from Bremen, with various manufactures, considerable inland 
 trade, and 40,500 inhabitants (exclusive of the garrison). Hanover is noted 
 for its royal stables, containing among other horses of the finest breed, sev- 
 eral teams of white-born (without the least gray or black spot) and Isabella- 
 colored horses. The royal palace is a handsome building. The neighboring 
 village of Limmer (with 600 inhabitants) is noted for its mineral waters, as is 
 likewise the town of Rehburg (23 miles west-north-west of Hanover, with 
 1,600 inhabitants). The village of Loccum (with 1,500 inhabitants) is remark- 
 able for its ancient Cistercian monastery, in 1593 secularized, and at present 
 transformed into a seminary for ministers. Hatneln, a city on the Weser, 26 
 miles south-south-west of Hanover, has 6,500 inhabitants, and was until 1806 
 noted for its fortress. Not far from here is the village of HastenbecJc, noted 
 for a battle between the French and the Hanoverians, on the 26th July, 1757. 
 Wunstorf, a town near the Leine, north-westward and 12 miles distant from 
 Hanover, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its establishment for ladies 
 
436 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 of rank. Salzhemmendorf, a market-town, noted for its salt-works, has 2,050 
 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable market-towns are: Lauenau 
 (with 900 inhabitants), Grohnde (with 850 inhabitants), Polle (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), Coppenbrugge (with 1,400 inhabitants), Aerzen (with 1,500 
 inhabitants), and Lauenstein (with 1,100 inhabitants). More or less remark- 
 able towns are: Springe (with 1,950 inhabitants), Munder (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Pattensen (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bodenwerder (with 1,600 inhabi- 
 tants), Eldagsen (with 2,300 inhabitants), and Neustadt am Rubenberge (with 
 1,600 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The ancient earldom of Hoya, which in 1543 was inherited by Bruns- 
 wick- Luneburg or Hanover, contains : Nienburg, a city on the "Weser, about 
 half-way between Hanover and Bremen, has some manufactures, and 4,100 
 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its fortress. Hoya, a market-town on 
 the Weser, 14 miles below Nienburg, with linen manufactures, and 2,200 
 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mem sen is noted for its royal stud. 
 Vilsen, a market-town on the Weser, at 5 miles distance from Hoya, is noted 
 for its considerable trade, and has 1 ,050 inhabitants. Other more or less 
 remarkable towns are : Liebenau (with 2,900 inhabitants), Alt-Bruchhausen 
 (with 1,100 inhabitants), Stolzenau (with 1,800 inhabitants), Diepenau (with 
 550 inhabitants), Suhlingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Syke (with 950 inhabi- 
 tants), Uchte (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Eassum (with 1,700 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The ancient earldom of Diepholz, which in 1585 was inherited, contains : 
 Diepholz, a market-town on the Hunte river, about half-way between Osna- 
 briick and Bremen, with linen and woollen manufactures, and 2,600 inhabi- 
 tants. Lemforde, a market-town with several branches of industry, and 950 
 inhabitants. 
 
 2. THE PROVINCE OF LUNEBURG. 
 
 It comprises in substance only the ancient principality of the 
 same name, and besides it two bailiwicks of the duchy of Lauen- 
 burg (see page 418). 
 
 1. The ancient principality of Luneburg (which formed part of the family 
 estates of the above-mentioned house of Billung) contains : Lueneburg, its 
 ancient capital, and at present the seat of the provincial government, on the 
 
GERMANY. 437 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover-its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Ilmenau river, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Hamburg, has 
 12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its highly valuable salt-spring and salt- 
 works (producing annually about 800,000 quintals of salt), its lime-stone quar- 
 ries, its college (see back), and gymnasium. Bardewik, a market-town on 
 the Ilmenau river, below Luneburg, is noted for its greens and stately Gothic 
 church, and has 1,400 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Bardewik was an 
 emporium and considerable city, but was in 1189 barbarously devastated by 
 Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion. Harburg, a town on the Elbe, opposite 
 Hamburg, with an ancient castle, manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,200 
 inhabitants. Winsen an der Luhe, a town on the Luhe river, with consider- 
 able trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Soltau, an industrious town in the above- 
 mentioned heath of Luneburg, south-westward and 28 miles distant from the 
 city of Luneburg, with 1,200 inhabitants. Walsrode, a town on the Bohme 
 river, with an establishment for ladies of rank (anciently a nunnery instituted 
 in 986), and 2,100 inhabitants. Ahlden, a market-town on the Aller, with 
 800 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient castle, where in the years 
 1694-1726, Sophia Dorothea, the divorced consort of King George L, of 
 Great Britain, resided. Celle or Zelle, a city on the Aller, with various manu- 
 factures, a remarkable royal stud, and 12,200 inhabitants, is noted as the seat 
 of the supreme tribunal of the kingdom, and for its royal palace, reared in 
 1485, and until 1*705 the residence of the dukes of Luneburg. Uelzen, a town 
 on the Ilmenau, 22 miles north of Luneburg, is noted for its flax, and has 
 3,100 inhabitants. Other towns are: Burgdorf (with 2,400 inhabitants), Gif- 
 horn (with 2,500 inhabitants), Dannenberg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Hitzacker 
 (with 1,050 inhabitants), Luchow (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Wustrow (with 
 considerable linen manufactures, and 800 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The bailiwicks of Artlenburg and Neuhaus, formerly (until 1814) be- 
 longing to the duchy of Lauenburg, contain the villages of Artlenburg (on 
 the left bank of the Elbe, with 600 inhabitants), and Neuhaus (on the right 
 bank of the Elbe, with an ancient castle, and 450 inhabitants). 
 
 3. THE PROVINCE OF STADE. 
 
 It comprises the ancient duchies of Bremen and Verden, and 
 the territory of Hadeln. 
 
438 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 1. The ancient duchy of Bremen, which has at present nothing in common 
 with the city of this name, but was once chief part of the sovereign arch- 
 bishopric of Bremen, which was instituted as a bishopric by Charlemagne in 
 788. The renowned converter of pagans, Ansgarius, was the first arch- 
 bishop of Bremen. He died in 865, and among his successors, who resided 
 in this city, were several of great political authority. Since the Reforma- 
 tion, the city of Bremen and even the archbishop embraced the doctrines of 
 Protestantism, the former became independent, and the territory of the arch- 
 bishopric was secularized, and in 1648 with the title of a duchy ceded to 
 Sweden. In the northern war (1700-1702) the duchy was conquered by the 
 Danes, and, together with the duchy of Verden, sold to the electorate of 
 Hanover. In the peace concluded at Stockholm in 1720, this arrangement 
 was ratified. The duchy of Bremen contains: Stade, the capital of the 
 province, on the Schwinge, near its junction with the Elbe, about 20 miles 
 below Hamburg, with some inland trade, and 5,900 inhabitants. At the 
 mouth of the Schwinge is situated the village of Brunshausen, where Hano- 
 ver is entitled to levy a toll from the vessels passing here on their way up 
 to Hamburg. It is commonly called the toll of Stade, and yields a revenue 
 of about 40,000 Prussian dollars annually. Buxtehude, a town on the Este, 
 between Stade and Harburg, with some manufactures and trade, and 2,300 
 inhabitants. Harsefeld (with 950 inhabitants), Horncburg (with 1,300 inhabi- 
 tants), Dorum (with 750 inhabitants), Bederkesa (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
 Bremerlehe (with 1,650 inhabitants), Osterholz (with 850 inhabitants), 
 Scharmbeck (with 1,750 inhabitants), Ottersberg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and 
 Zeven (with 900 inhabitants), all market-towns. 
 
 2. The ancient principality or duchy of Verden, which originated from a 
 bishopric of the same name, instituted in 786 by Charlemagne, and since 1648 
 underwent the same political vicissitudes as the duchy of Bremen, contains : 
 Veeden, a town on the Aller, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Bre- 
 men, is noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, and has 5,000 inhabitants. 
 Rotenburg, a market-town on the Wumme river, at the high-road between 
 Bremen and Hamburg, with 1,600 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The territory of Hadeln, which until 1689 formed a constituent part of 
 the duchy of Lauenburg (see page 418), contains : Otterndorf, a town near 
 the mouth of the Elbe, with several branches of industry, and 1,800 inhabi- 
 tants. Altenbruch and Liidingworth, market-towns, with respectively 2,500 
 and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
GERMANY. 439 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 4. THE PROVINCE OF HILDESHEIM. 
 
 It comprises the ancient independent or sovereign bishopric of 
 Hildesheim, the ancient principalities of Gottingen and Grubenha- 
 gen, the so-called Lower Eichsfeld, etc. 
 
 1. The former sovereign bishopric (at present styled principality) of 
 Hildesheim was in 812 instituted by Charlemagne, and in 822 transferred 
 from its primitive seat Elze to the neighboring town of Hildesheim by Em- 
 peror Louis the Pious. The bishops acquired in the course of time a con- 
 siderable territory, which at the beginning of the present century had an 
 extent of 682 square miles. The two last bishops were at the same time 
 possessed of the sovereign bishopric of Paderborn. Both were secularized 
 in 1803 and ceded to Prussia. In 1807 they were incorporated with the 
 kingdom of Westphalia (see page 294), but restored in 1813 to Prussia, 
 which retained only Paderborn, while it ceded Hildesheim to Hanover. It 
 contains : Hildesheim, its former capital, at present the capital of the prov- 
 ince, on the Innerste river, 23 miles west-south-west of Brunswick, and 
 south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Hanover, with various manufac- 
 tures, a cathedral, and other Gothic churches, and 15,500 inhabitants. Elze, 
 a town near the Leine river, westward and 9 miles distant from Hildesheim, 
 with 2,050 inhabitants. The first Christian church in Saxony (i. e. in ancient 
 Saxony) was built here; in 786 Charlemagne resided here for a while. 
 Peina, an industrious town on the Fuse river, north-eastward and 70 miles 
 distant from Hildesheim, with considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Gronau (with 1,900 in- 
 habitants), Sarstedt (with 1,500 inhabitants), Alfeld (with 2,700 inhabitants), 
 and Bockenem (with 2,200 inhabitants). The market-town of Salzdetfurt 
 (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs and works. Though it 
 did not belong to the former bishopric of Hildesheim, we shall here mention 
 also the ancient imperial city of Goslae, in the Hartz, south-eastward and 
 24 miles distant from Hildesheim, with noted breweries, numerous manu- 
 factures, and 7,500 inhabitants. Goslar was founded by Emperor Henry I. in 
 922, and in the middle ages frequently the residence of the German em- 
 perors. In 1803 it lost its independence and came under the sway of 
 
440 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 Hanover; in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia (see page 
 294), and in 1813 restored to Hanover. 
 
 2. The ancient principality of Gottingen contains : Gottingen, its ancient 
 capital, on a branch of the Leine river, southward and 66 miles distant from 
 Hanover, has 11,500 inhabitants, various and partly important manufactures, 
 and is noted for its university (see above and page 288), its celebrated pub- 
 lic library (see page 288), observatory, botanic gardens, etc. Bovendeii, a 
 market-town, with linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Nordheim, a 
 town on the Ruhme river, northward and 12 miles distant from Gottingen, 
 has 4,600 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots and shoes 
 made in it. Munden, a town romantically situated at the head of the We- 
 ser, on the junction of the Fulda and Werra (see page 17), about half-way 
 between Gottingen and Cassel, carries on a considerable trade, is largely en- 
 gaged in manufactures, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns are : Uslar 
 (with considerable linen manufactures, and 2,150 inhabitants), Hedemunden 
 (likewise noted for its linen, has 850 inhabitants), and Moringen (with 1,700 
 inhabitants). 
 
 3. The ancient principality of Grubenhagen, contains: Eimbeck, its ancient 
 capital, near the river Leine, 22 miles north-east of Gottingen, and 43 miles 
 south of Hanover, with various manufactures, especially of linen, and 5,700 
 inhabitants. Salzderhelden,a. market-town noted for its salt-works, has 1,250 
 inhabitants. Osterode, a noted manufacturing town, at the foot of the Hartz, 
 22 miles east-south-east of Gottingen, with 5,000 inhabitants. Elbingerode, 
 a town on the Hartz, with important iron mines, considerable trade in tim- 
 ber, and 3,200 inhabitants. Herzberg, a market-town on the Hartz, has 3,500 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms. 
 
 4. The so-called Hbwer fflchsfeld, which since the year 1334 belonged to 
 the former electorate of Mentz (see page 356), and of which Prussia became 
 possessed in 1803, ceding it however to Hanover in 1813. It contains: Du- 
 derstadt, its ancient capital, on the little Hahle river, eastward and 12 miles 
 distant from Gottingen, with various manufactures, noted horse-marts, and 
 4,700 inhabitants. Gieboldehausen (with 2,200 inhabitants) and Lindau 
 (noted for its linen manufactures, has 1,100 inhabitants), market-towns. 
 
 5. The ancient earldom of Hohnstein, whose sovereigns became extinct 
 towards and in the beginning of the 17th century, when the house of Bruns- 
 wick became possessed of it. It contains : Ilfeld, a borough in the neigh- 
 borhood of Nordhausen, is noted for its college (see back), and has 700 inhab- 
 
GERMANY. 441 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 itants. Nemtadt y surnamed unterm Hohnstein, a town belonging to the earl 
 of Stolberg-Stolberg, with a stately palace, and 700 inhabitants. 
 
 5. THE PROVINCE OF OSNABRUECK. 
 
 It is situated within the limits of that extensive tract of land, 
 since the middle ages comprised by the general name of West- 
 phalia, and embraces politically and historically the former bish- 
 opric of Osnabruck, the dependent dominions of Aremberg-Meppen 
 and Betctheim, together with some other districts acquired by 
 Hanover in the present century. 
 
 1. The former sovereign bishopric (now styled principality) of Omabruck, 
 was founded by Charlemagne in 772. In 1648 it retained its political inde- 
 pendence, but the strange arrangement was made, that the chapter should 
 elect alternately a Catholic and a Protestant bishop, and the latter only from 
 among the princes of the house of Bnuiswick-Luneburg (or Hanover). The 
 last Protestant bishop was the duke Frederic of York, who died in 1827. In 
 1803 the electorate of Hanover, which until then had only occasionally by 
 one of its princes been in connection with the bishopric, became completely 
 possessed of it. It contains : Osnabrueck, its former capital, and at present 
 the capital of the province, on the Hase river, 62 miles south-south-west of 
 Bremen, and 28 miles north-east of Miinster, with various manufactures, con- 
 siderable trade, and 12,200 inhabitants. The most remarkable of its public 
 edifices are the former palace of the bishop, the cathedral, and the city -hall, 
 where the Westphalian treaty of peace (see page 303) was signed on the 
 24 Oct., 1648. The neighboring village of Borgloh is noted for its coal-mines. 
 Dissert, a market-town with a salt-spring, and 2,000 inhabitants. Fiirstenau, 
 a town with linen manufactures, and 1,300 inhabitants. Melle, a market- 
 town with linen and woollen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants. Quacken- 
 bruck, a town near the frontier of Oldenburg, with linen and other manufac- 
 tures, rather considerable trade, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ankum (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), Vorden (with 850 inhabitants), and Bramsche (with 1,600 inhab- 
 itants), market-towns. 
 
 2. The so-called lower earldom of Lingen, which since 1702 belonged to 
 
 19* 
 
442 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 Prussia, and was in 1815 ceded to Hanover, contains: Lingen, its former 
 capital, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Osnabruck, with linen, 
 woollen, and other manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. Lengerich, a hand- 
 some village, with 600 inhabitants. Schapen, a market-town, with 1,300 
 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The dependent duchy of Aremberg-Meppen, belonging to the duke of 
 Aremberg (whose ancestors lived in Belgium, and who has an annual revenue 
 of 750,000 florins), contains : Meppen, its capital, on the Ems, 48 miles south- 
 west of Oldenburg, with linen manufactures, and 2,350 inhabitants. Clemens- 
 toerth, a handsome palace of the duke. Haselunne, a town with hardware 
 manufactures, and 1,800 inhabitants. Papenburg, a township near the Ems 
 river, amidst extensive peat-bogs, has 5,200 inhabitants, who are noted for 
 industry, and even send out vessels to Brazil, etc., in commercial pursuits. 
 
 4. The dependent earldom of Bentheim, which has an annual revenue of 
 about 150,000 florins, and since 1823 is subject to Hanover, contains : Ben- 
 theim, its capital, south-westward and 16 miles distant from Lingen, with a 
 stately and highly remarkable princely palace, and 2,000 inhabitants. Sehut- 
 torf (with 1,500 inhabitants), Neuenhaus (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Nord- 
 horn (with 1,450 inhabitants). 
 
 6. THE PROVINCE OF AURICH. 
 
 It is situated on the North Sea, between Oldenburg and the 
 Netherlands, and comprises the ancient principality of East 
 Frisdand (1,129 square miles, and in 1845 with 174,284 inhabi- 
 tants), surnamed " East," in opposition to West Friseland, be- 
 longing to the kingdom of the Netherlands (see page 272). Both 
 have derived their principal name from the ancient Friselanders 
 (see page 298), who had their seat and home here. In the middle 
 ages, East Friseland was ruled by a great many chieftains, who 
 in 1430 were subjected to the sovereignty of Edzard, lord of 
 Greetsiel. Edzard's brother and successor, was in 1454 by Em- 
 peror Frederic IV., raised to the dignity of an earl, and Earl 
 Enno IV., in 1654, to the princely dignity. With prince Charles 
 
GERMANY. 443 
 
 The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 Edzard, who died in 1744, the line of the native princes became 
 extinct, and the principality was inherited by Frederic II., king 
 of Prussia. In 1806 East Friseland was annexed to the king- 
 dom of Holland, and in 1810 to the French empire. In 1813 it 
 was restored to Prussia, which however ceded it to Hanover. It 
 contains : 
 
 Aurich, its ancient capital, and at present the capital of the province, 
 north-westward and 38 miles distant from Oldenburg, has 4,500 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its extensive ancient princely palace, its horse-marts, and corn 
 trade. Emden, an important commercial city on the Dollart (see page 9), 
 south-westward and 12 miles distant from Aurich, with a fine roadstead, 
 various manufactures, and 12,400 inhabitants. Norden, the oldest city in 
 East Friseland, near the North Sea, is noted for its handsome market-place, 
 breweries, and horse-marts, and has 5,700 inhabitants. The neighboring 
 mansion of the count of In- and Kniphausen, named Lutetsburg, is noted for 
 its beautiful park. Greetaiel, a market-town near the North Sea, is remarka- 
 ble as the ancestral seat of the princely house that became extinct in 1744, 
 but has only 700 inhabitants. Leer, a town near the Ems river, is noted for 
 its commerce and horse-marts, and has 6,800 inhabitants. Esens, a town near 
 the North Sea, with a remarkable ancient church, linen manufactures, and 
 2,200 inhabitants. Wittmund, a town noted for its horse-marts, has 1,700 
 inhabitants. The isle of Norderney (with 700 inhabitants), near the coast, is 
 much resorted to for sea-bathing. 
 
 7. THE MINING DISTRICT OF CLAUSTHAL. 
 
 It comprises the Upper Hartz (see pages 7 and 8), has 213 
 square miles in extent, and had in 1845 a population of 35,055 
 inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in mining business, yet also 
 in the rearing of cattle, and some branches of common industry. 
 In this district are to be found the most valuable mines Hanover 
 is possessed of, and one of them has in the period from 1701 to 
 1808, yielded a produce of 838,000 marks of silver, 768,000 
 
444 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover and Duchy of Brunswick. 
 
 quintals of lead, and 2,380 quintals of copper, at the aggregate 
 value of 14,737,(M)0 Prussian dollars. The district contains: 
 
 Clausthal, a well-built mining town, the seat of the mining superinten- 
 dency, in the Upper Hartz, with a mining academy, some manufactures, and 
 9,100 inhabitants. Close by is the mining-town of Zellerfeld, with 4,200 
 inhabitants. Other mining towns are: Altenau (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
 Andreasberg (with 4,300 inhabitants), Grund (with 1,200 inhabitants), Lau- 
 teivthal (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Wildemann (with 1,200 inhabitants). 
 One of the most important iron-works in the Hartz, is named Konigshulte, 
 where annually more than 20,000 quintals of iron are wrought 
 
 XXXIIL— THE DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK 
 
 Area: 1,533 square miles. 
 Population : 270,100 inhabitants. 
 
 Its main body is situated about half-way between the cities of 
 Hanover and Magdeburg, while another section is enclosed by 
 southern territories of the kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 The inhabitants are (with the exception of 2,700 Catholics, 
 of about 1,600 Jews, and of rather few Calvinists and Moravian 
 Brethren) Lutherans. 
 
 Upon the whole the soil is fertile, and for the rest the natural 
 character of the country bears the same stamp as the surrounding 
 territories of Hanover. Chief staples are corn, fiaz. hops, and 
 timber; black cattle, horses, sheep, and game ; silver, copper, iron, 
 lead, peat, and sandstone. 
 
 Except in the capital, there are but few manufactures ; but the 
 inland trade is considerable. For education, there are 2 semina- 
 
GERMANY. 445 
 
 The Duchy of Brunswick— its Statistics and History. 
 
 ries, 5 gymnasiums, and 2 others, which are arranged in similar 
 manner as the English colleges; 21 Latin, and 369 common 
 schools. The former university at Helmstedt, was in 1809 abol- 
 ished by the Westphalian government (see page 294). 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy. According to the 
 budget for the period 1843-45, the public revenue and expenditure 
 was estimated at 1,250,710 Prussian dollars. The public debt, the 
 interest of which amounts to 672,700 Prussian dollars annually, 
 has since the year 1832, been increased by a loan of 2£ millions, 
 required for the rearing of a new ducal palace, as the former 
 palace was burnt down in 1830, by incendiaries. The military 
 consists of 3,181 men, 2,096 of whom, are or were to be furnished 
 to the confederal army. 
 
 In 1834, the order of Henry the Lion w&s instituted, as an 
 order of honor for civil and military officers, in 4 classes. 
 
 History. — It has already been mentioned in the history of Hanover, that 
 both this kingdom and the duchy of Brunswick have the same origin ; and 
 that the nigher ancestor of the reigning royal and ducal houses, is duke 
 Ernest, surnamed the Confessor, who died in 1546, and whose grandson 
 Aitgustus became the special ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick. 
 Until the year 1754, the ducal residence was in Wolfenbuttel, but duke 
 Charles transferred it in the just-named year, to the city of Brunswick. He 
 died in 1780, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles William Ferdinand, 
 while his younger son, Frederic Augustus, became by marriage possessed of 
 the dependent principality of Oels in Silesia, and assumed the name of Bruns- 
 wick-Oels. Duke Charles William Ferdinand, of Brunswick proper, com- 
 manded the Prussian troops in the battle of Auerstadt (which was fought on 
 the same day as the battle of Jena), in 1806, where he was severely wounded, 
 and soon after died, while the French took possession of his duchy, which in 
 the period from 1807 to 1813, formed a constituent part of the kingdom of 
 Westphalia. His grand-nephew, Frederic William of Brunswick-Oels, now 
 succeeded him as duke of Brunswick, but was on the 16th June, 1815, killed 
 in the action of Quatrebras. He left behind two sons, minors, the eldest of 
 whom, Charles, succeeded him, but was, until 1823, under the guardianship 
 
446 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Duchy of Brunswick. 
 
 of King George IV., of Great Britain and Hanover. In 1830, after the 
 French revolution of July, in Brunswick as well as elsewhere, it was for a 
 while the fashion to imitate that revolution ; Herzberg, the commander of 
 the ducal troops, made common cause with the rebels, the ducal palace was 
 set on fire, and, to be short, Peter was exchanged for Paul, and the duke's 
 brother, William (born in 1806), is since the 25th April, 1831, reigning duke. 
 Both he and his brother are yet unmarried, and should they die so, the duchy 
 will be annexed to Hanover, as its king and descendants are the next legiti- 
 mate heirs to Brunswick. 
 
 The duchy is divided into 6 districts, and subdivided into 
 bailiwicks. The districts of Brunswick, "Wolfenbuttel, Helm- 
 stedt, Gandersheim, and Holzm'inden, comprise the ancient patri- 
 monial state, styled principality of Wolfenbiittel, while the sixth 
 district consists of the principality of Blankenburg, which in 
 1599 was inherited by the ducal house of Brunswick. The most 
 remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the duchy, are the following : 
 
 Beunswick (in German Braunschweig), the capital of the duchy, and ducal 
 residence, on the Ocker river, 46 miles west- north-west of Magdeburg, and 
 south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Hanover, with 40,000 inhabitants, 
 a new and magnificent ducal palace, many literary institutions, numerous and 
 important manufactures, and considerable inland trade ; while its annual 
 fairs, formerly noted, have, since the construction of railroads throughout 
 Germany, lost their importance. Brunswick is noted for its architectural 
 monuments, among which are the St. Blasii church (with the sepulchre of 
 Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, who founded this church in 11*72), and sev- 
 eral other churches. In the middle ages, Brunswick ranked among the first 
 cities of the Hanseatic League (see page 54). Wolfenbuttel, a city next in 
 rank to Brunswick, and until 1754 the ducal residence, on the Ocker river, 
 southward and 1 miles distant from Brunswick, is noted for its highly valua- 
 ble ducal library (containing 200,000 vols., 10,000 manuscripts, a large collection 
 of bibles, etc.), for its manufactures, greens, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. The 
 neighboring village of Salsdahlum (with 700 inhabitants) is noted for its salt- 
 springs. Schbppenstedt, a town on the Altenau river, south-eastward and 14 
 miles distant from Brunswick, with linen and leather manufactures, and 
 
GERMANY. 447 
 
 The Duchy of Brunswick— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 2,400 inhabitants. Near the Hanoverian mining district of Clausthal, is the 
 renowned ducal stud of Harzburg, where also the ruins are to be found, of 
 the very ancient mountain castle of the same name, in the middle ages fre- 
 quently the residence of the German emperors. Helmstadt, a town on the 
 common high-road between Magdeburg and Brunswick, has 6,500 inhabitants, 
 and was formerly noted for its university, founded in 1576, but in 1809 abol- 
 ished by the "Westphalian government. K'dnigslutter, a town between Helm- 
 stadt and Brunswick, is noted for its breweries, and has 3,200 inhabitants. 
 The neighboring village of Suppling enburg was the ancestral seat of the 
 German emperor, Lothar II. (1125-1137). Schbningen, a town between 
 Helmstadt and Schoppenstedt, is noted for its salt-works and peat, and has 
 3,200 inhabitants. Vomfelde (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Calvorde (with 
 1,900 inhabitants), market- towns noted for hops. Gandersheim, a town 
 between Hildesheim and Gottingen, has 2,500 inhabitants. Seesen, a town 
 on the little Schildau river, is noted for a Jewish college, and has 2,300 
 inhabitants. Between here and Brunswick is situated the village of L>Mer 
 am Barenberge (with 1,300 inhabitants), noted in history for the victory the 
 imperial general Tilly obtained here over the Danes, on the 27th Aug., 1626- 
 Holzminden, a town on the Weser, westward and 18 miles distant from 
 Eimbeck, with manufactures of hardware, cutlery, pins, etc. ; iron-works, 
 considerable linen trade, and 3,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situ- 
 ated the ancient mountain castle of Furstenberg, since 1753 with a porcelain 
 manufactory. Eschersleben, a market-town noted for its flax and linen, has 
 1,300 inhabitants. Severn, a market-town in the neighborhood of Holzmin- 
 den, with 1,500 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient ducal castle, 
 in the period from 1704 to 1735, the residence of a collateral line of the 
 ducal house. Stadt Oldendorf, a town north-eastward and 12 miles distant 
 from Holzminden, with linen manufactures, quarries, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 TJiedinglumsen, a market-town on the Weser, south-eastward and 12 miles 
 distant from Bremen, with linen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants, is the 
 chief place of the bailiwick of Thedinghausen situated entirely apart 
 Blankenburg, the capital of the above-mentioned principality of the same 
 name (which has I70i square miles in extent, and a population of 22,000 
 inhabitants), at the lower Hartz, south-eastward and 37 miles distant from 
 Brunswick, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its ducal palace. In the 
 neighborhood are two remarkable caves (similar to Wyer's Cave, in Vir- 
 ginia), known by the names of Baumannshbhle and Biehteinhofde. The 
 
448 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Free City of Hamburg. 
 
 villages of Zorge (with 1,300 inhabitants), Wieda (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
 and Hohegeiss (with 1,100 inhabitants), are noted for their iron-works. 
 Hasselfelde, a town with 1,700 inhabitants. 
 
 XXXIV.— THE FREE CITY OF HAMBURG. 
 
 Area : 149 square miles. 
 Population : 168,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The city of Hamburg is situated on the right bank of the 
 river Elbe, about 84 miles from the sea, and its territory partly in 
 the immediate vicinity, partly at the mouth of the Elbe. In the 
 above-stated area and population, are included 42^ square miles, 
 and 13,000 inhabitants, as the area and population of the baili- 
 wick of Bergedorf (above Hamburg on the Elbe), of which Ham- 
 burg and Lubec are possessed in common. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; but besides them, there 
 are about 4,100 Calvinists, 3,100 Roman Catholics, 600 Mennou- 
 ites, and 8,000 Jews. 
 
 The government is a republic, the sovereign power being vested 
 in a senate and the citizenship. The public revenue amounted in 
 1845, to 5,827,000 bank-marks (3 are equal to 1 dollar), and the 
 expenditure to 5,996,000 marks. The public debt amounts to about 
 70 million bank-marks, and this rather high amount is chiefly 
 owing to a loan which became necessary, in consequence of a 
 dreadful fire in 1842, which destroyed a considerable part of the 
 city. The troops to be furnished to the confederal army, are 
 1,298 men. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec are, as ancient mem- 
 bers of the Hanseatic League (see page 54), still sometimes styled 
 
GERMANY. 449 
 
 The Free City of Hamburg. 
 
 Ilanseatic cities, both in common life and officially. — It is proba- 
 ble that Hamburg already existed before the days of Charle- 
 magne, as a city of the North Albingians (see page 298) In 
 808 this emperor reared here an imperial castle, anct in 834 
 Hamburg became the seat of an archbishopric, which, however, a 
 few years later, was transferred to Bremen. At a later period, 
 Hamburg came under the sway of the earls of Holstein, who 
 favored it with substantial privileges. In the 12th century it 
 was already a commercial city of importance, and in 1215 it was 
 raised to a sovereign imperial city by Emperor Otto IV. In 
 1241 it entered into an alliance with Lubec, laying thus the foun- 
 dation of the Hanseatic League, and in the years 1258 and 
 1269, it acquired a considerable territory. Its flourishing state 
 continued even in the period of the thirty years' war, which left 
 Hamburg unharmed ; as was likewise the case in the seven years' 
 war, and in the period of the first French revolution. But since 
 1803, Hamburg has suffered many calamities. First the Elbe 
 river was shut up by the French, and blockaded by the English ; 
 secondly, Hamburg was in 1806 occupied by French troops, and 
 had since to pay enormous war-taxes ; thirdly, it was incorporated 
 in 1810 with the French empire ; and lastly it was in 1813 occu- 
 pied by a numerous body of French troops commanded by 
 Davoust, who condemned Hamburg to a fine of 48 million francs, 
 took considerable sums of private property from the bank, and 
 transformed the city into a strong fortress, which did not surren- 
 der before the peace was concluded at Paris, on the 31st May, 
 1814. The losses in ready money Hamburg has suffered in the 
 period from 1806 to 1814, are estimated at 140 million bank- 
 marks. In 1815 Hamburg was restored to its political indepen- 
 dence, and joined the German Confederation as a free city. The 
 above-mentioned great fire in 1842, lasted from the 4th to the 
 8th of May, and destroyed 1,992 houses, which had been the 
 
450 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany. — Free City of Hamburg. 
 
 dwellings of about 30,000 inhabitants. We shall now enter into 
 some particulars of topographical description. 
 
 Hamburg lies, as has already been stated, on the right bank of the Elbe, at 
 its junction with the Alster, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Bre- 
 men, and south-westward and 40 miles distant from Lubec, is universally 
 known as the chief commercial city in Germany, and has 137,000 inhabitants. 
 Before the great fire in 1842, Hamburg was noted for its 5 fine and high 
 steeples of churches, two of which burnt down on that occasion, and are 
 about to be replaced by new churches with similar high steeples. Of the 
 three others that remained unhurt, St. Michael's church steeple is 458 feet in 
 height, thus one of the highest in the world The Merchant's Exchange is a 
 magnificent, well-arranged, and extensive edifice, in whose vaults the silver 
 ingots of the bank of Hamburg are deposited. The new post-office is like- 
 wise a stately edifice. In the suburb of St. George is the city hospital, an 
 immense building with a front of 700 feet, while each of its two wings has 
 on the inner side a length of 375 feet. Hamburg has more than 200 own 
 vessels engaged in its commerce ; and is moreover noted both for its various 
 manufactures, and its numerous literary institutions. The city library con- 
 tains about 200,000 vols. There are besides, an eminently-arranged gymna- 
 sium, and numerous other schools. In the territory belonging to Hamburg 
 exclusively, are to be noticed the handsome neighboring villages of Eppendorf, 
 Barmbeck, Hamm, and Horn, much resorted to for amusement ; and the isles 
 of Ochsenwerder (with 1,900 inhabitants), Billwerder (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
 Moorwerder (with 300 inhabitants), and Grasbrook (with 700 inhabitants), 
 between Hamburg and Harburg. At the mouth and on the left bank of the 
 Elbe are situated the boroughs of Ritzebuttel (the seat of a bailiwick of the 
 same name, has 1,700 inhabitants) and Cuxhafen (with a harbor, roadstead, 
 sea-bathing, and 800 inhabitants). 
 
 In common with Lubec, Hamburg is possessed of the bailiwick of Bcrgedorf 
 (42i square miles, and 13,000 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the 
 Elbe, between Hamburg and Lauenburg. It formerly belonged to the 
 duchy of Lauenburg, but was in the 15th century conquered by Hamburg 
 and Lubec jointly, and since the year 1420 both cities have possessed it. It 
 contains, besides the town of Bergedorf (at the Berlin and Hamburg rail- 
 road, with 2,400 inhabitants), and the village of Gcesthacht (with 1,000 inhab- 
 
GERMANY. 451 
 
 The Free City of Lubec. 
 
 itnnts), a district known by the name of Vierlande, noted for the great fer- 
 tility of its soil, for its greens, and for its excellent fruits of various kinds, 
 especially cherries. 
 
 XXXV.— THE FREE CITY OF LUBEC. 
 
 Akka: 160 square miles. 
 Population : 53,500 inhabitants. 
 
 The area and population here stated include 42£ square miles, 
 and 13,000 inhabitants, as the population of the bailiwick of 
 Bergedorf (see above). Thus, there remains H7-£ square miles 
 and 40,500 inhabitants to Lubec and its territory alone. Lubec 
 is situated on the river Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea. Most 
 of the inhabitants are Lutherans. The republican government is 
 similar to that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 1845, 
 the public revenue amounted to 834,191, and the expenditure to 
 797,733 current marks (3-f- = $1). The public debt, which in 
 1814 amounted to 11 millions, was in 1844 reduced to 5,881,041 
 current marks. There are 1 gymnasium, 1 seminary, 1 nautical 
 school, etc., and numerous private and public common schools. 
 Troops to be furnished to the confederal army : 407 men. — With 
 regard to history, the present city of Lubec was founded in 1143 
 by Earl Adolphus II. of Holstein and Schaumburg (see History 
 of Holstein), who in 1158 ceded it to the frequently-mentioned 
 duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion ; and since then Lu- 
 bec was for a while both the seat of the above (under the head 
 of Oldenburg) mentioned bishopric of this name, and under the 
 sway of the duke of Saxony. However it soon became inde- 
 pendent, being in 1226 raised to an imperial city by Emperor 
 
452 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Free City of Lubec. 
 
 Frederic II. At that period it had by its widely-extended com- 
 merce already grown wealthy and become an emporium on the 
 Baltic. But it attained to the highest pitch of commercial and 
 political authority and power since the establishment of the Han- 
 seatic League (see page 54), whose head it became. Lubec was 
 still in the beginning of the 16th century possessed of a powerful 
 navy, and had about 100,000 inhabitants. But since it went 
 gradually to decay together with that League, whose formal solu- 
 tion took place in 1632. After the battle of Jena in 1806, the 
 Prussian general Blucher took with a detached body of troops a 
 strong position in Lubec, which then was stormed by the French 
 and pillaged during three days. In 1810 the city was annexed 
 to the French empire, and formed part of the department of the 
 mouth of the Elbe, the capital of which was Hamburg In 1813 
 Lubec was restored to its political independence, and joined sub- 
 sequently the German Confederation as a free city. 
 
 Lubec (in German LubecTc) is, as has already been remarked, situated on 
 the Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 40 miles distant 
 from Hamburg, is the seat of the Supreme Tribunal for the 4 Free Cities (see 
 page 297), and had on the 1st September, 1845, a population of 25,360 in- 
 habitants, among whom were about 400 Calvinists, 300 Roman Catholics, and 
 500 Jews. The commerce of Lubec is at present not very considerable, yet 
 a regular line of steam-sliips (at least in the summer season) connects it with 
 St. Petersburg, Copenhagen, and other seaports of the Baltic. About the 
 schools see above. Lubec is noted for several remarkable ancient edifices, 
 among which rank first St. Mary's church (reared in the period of 1163-1170, 
 containing among others an admirable picture and clock, both from the be- 
 ginning of the 15th century, and whose two steeples are each 422 feet high), 
 and the enormously extensive city-hall, remarkable as the former meeting- 
 place of the representatives of the Hanseatic League. To the territory of 
 the city belongs the town of Travemunde, at the mouth of the Trave, with a 
 seaport, sea-bathing, and 1,100 inhabitants. Lubec acquired it in 1320. 
 The bailiwick of Bergedorf, possessed in common by Lubec and Hamburg } 
 is already described above. 
 
GERMANY. 453 
 
 The Free City of Bremen. 
 
 XXXVL— THE FREE CITY OF BREMEN. 
 
 Area : 106£ square miles. 
 Population: 76,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Bremen is situated on the Weser, about 46 miles from the 
 North Sea. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 
 2,000 Roman Catholics) partly Calvinists, partly Lutherans. 
 Jews are not allowed to live in the city. The government is a 
 republic, like that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 
 1845, the public revenue, amounted to 602,572 rix dollars in louis 
 d'or (1 rix dollar is equal to about 75 cents), and the expenditure 
 to 691.640 rix dollars. The deficit of 89,068 was chiefly owing 
 to the expenses occasioned by the structure of the Bremen and 
 Hanover railroad, and is long since refunded. The public debt 
 amounted to 2f million rix dollars, though upon the whole the 
 public finances of Bremen are in the best order. The troops 
 to the confederal army : 485 men. — The more ancient history 
 of the city is closely connected with that of the archbishopric of 
 Bremen (see above under the head of Hanover, page 438), where 
 we have seen that since the beginning of the Reformation the 
 city of Bremen embraced Protestantism (at first, i. e. in 1522 
 Lutheranism, and in 1562 Calvinism, which since prevailed 
 until recent times) and became independent. Its commerce 
 had long before that period been flourishing, especially since 
 the city, in 1283, had joined the Hanseatic League. In 1640 
 Bremen was endowed with the privileges of an imperial city, 
 though it actually was not allowed to make use of them be- 
 fore the year 1731. In 1810 the city was annexed to the French 
 empire as capital of the Weser mouth department, but in 1813 
 restored to its independency, and became subsequently an actual 
 
454 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Free Cities of Bremen and Frankfort. 
 
 member of the German Confederation. In 1829 it acquired from 
 Hanover a small tract of land on the right bank of the Weser, 
 where it since established the seaport of Bremerhaven. — We 
 add the following topographical and statistical particulars, 
 m 
 
 Bremen, situated on both sides of the Weser, though chiefly on its right 
 bank, about 46 miles from the sea, south-westward and 60 miles distant 
 from Hanover, is next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, 
 and has 53,000 inhabitants. Steam-ships connect Bremen with New York, 
 and merchant-vessels (more than 230 of which belong to the city itself) are 
 trading not only to New York and other ports of the United States, but also 
 to South America, the West Indies, Brazil, the chief maritime towns of the 
 Baltic, and even to Australia, etc. The inland trade is likewise very impor- 
 tant, and Bremen is noted for its tobacco, canvass, and other manufactures. 
 Besides a gymnasium, there are several other, and numerous common schools. 
 The city-hall is a magnificent Gothic edifice. The ancient cathedral, or, since 
 the Reformation, Lutheran church, is likewise a remarkable edifice, and was 
 reared in the years 1043-10*72, though some parts of it were founded in the 
 10th century. The steeple of St. Ansgarii is 324 feet high. In the territory 
 of the city are chiefly to be noticed : Vegesack, a borough on the right bank 
 of the Weser, at its junction with the Lesum or Wumme, with 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants, who are amply engaged in ship-building, and the above-mentioned 
 town of Bremerhaven, likewise on the right bank of the Weser, at its junction 
 with the Geeste, with harbor, and 2,700 inhabitants. 
 
 XXXVIL— THE FREE CITY OF FRANKFORT. 
 
 Area : 42£ square miles. 
 Population : 68,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated towards the centre of Germany, on the river 
 Mayne, about 18 miles from its junction with the Rhine, sur- 
 
GERMANY. 465 
 
 The Free City of Frankfort— its Statistics, History, etc. 
 
 rounded by Hessian territories and bordering upon the ducby of 
 Nassau. The majority of the population consist of Lutherans ; 
 there are, however, 6,500 Roman Catholics, and besides them 
 about 2,000 Calvinists. and 6,500 Jews. The government is a re- 
 public, the sovereign power being vested in a senate and a legis- 
 lative body. The amount of the public revenue, and of the 
 expenditure for several years, has been about 900,000 florins. 
 The 'public debt is 8 million florins. The troops to be furnished 
 to the confederal army : 693 men. — Frankfort was probably 
 founded as early as the 5th century by the Franks. The Fran- 
 conian dukes had in Frankfort a palace, which at a later period 
 was frequently the residence of Charlemagne. His son Louis the 
 Pious and his grandson Louis the German had for several years 
 their residence in this city, which in the 9th century became an 
 emporium of Austrasia (see page 26), and in 1254 an imperial 
 city. Since the year 1356 the German emperors were elected, 
 and since 1562 also crowned in Fraukfort, which meanwhile had 
 grown rich by its extensive inland trade and annual fairs. In 
 the beginning of the year 1806 French troops occupied the city, 
 and in 1810 it became the capital of the grand-duchy of Frank- 
 fort (see page 294). In 1813 Frankfort was restored to its for- 
 mer independency, and was in the period from 1816 to 1848 the 
 seat of the Diet of the German Confederation. — We add the fol- 
 lowing statistical particulars. 
 
 Frankfort is in German called Frankfurt, and surnamed am Main (L e. 
 on the Mayne), to distinguish it from another German city of the same name, 
 situated on the Oder river. The city itself has a population of 58,000 inhabi- 
 tants, carries on a considerable trade, and is much engaged in banking busi- 
 ness, though its annual fairs have, like those of Brunswick, lost their former 
 importance since the construction of railroads throughout Germany. Its 
 book-trade and manufactures may be considered as considerable. Frankfort 
 is noted for its numerous literary institutions, among them two public libra- 
 
456 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Germany.— Free City of Frankfort. 
 
 ries (one of which contains 80,000 volumes), a cabinet of natural curiosities, 
 a fine collection of paintings, etc. Schools are various. The most remark- 
 able of the public edifices are the city-hall, styled R'dmer (where the empe- 
 rors were elected, and which in substance was already extant in 964), and 
 the ancient Gothic St. Bartholomew's church (where the emperors were 
 crowned). Frankfort is renowned for its extensive and comfortable hotels. 
 The territory of the city contains the market-town of Bonames (with 600 in- 
 habitants), and the villages of Bornheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Niederrad 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Oberrad (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Hansen (with 
 600 inhabitants). 
 
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Area: 108,214 square miles. 
 Population: 16,100,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The kingdom of Prussia (in German Preussen) consists of two 
 distinct territories, situated about 40 miles apart, and separated 
 from each other by Hanover and Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 The eastern and larger section extends from the Russian fron- 
 tier and the Baltic, towards the centre of Germany ; while the 
 western territory extends from the banks of the Weser across the 
 Rhine, towards the French frontier. 
 
 About two thirds of the population are Evangelicals (see page 
 291), and somewhat more than one third Roman Catholics. At 
 the end of the year 1843, the population of the kingdom was 
 exactly (i. e. according to the census) 15,471,765 inhabitants. 
 Of these were 9,428,911 Evangelicals (inclusive 200,000 Mora- 
 vian Brethren), and 5,820,123 were Catholics. The remainder 
 consisted of 1,879 followers of the Greek Church, 14,313 Men- 
 nonites, 206.529 Jews, and 10 Mohammedans. The Catholics are 
 under the spiritual superintendence of 2 archbishops (of Cologne 
 and Gnesen) and 6 bishops (of Treves, Munster, Paderborn, Culm, 
 Breslau, and Ermeland). 
 
 With regard to the surface of the country, that of the eastern 
 territory is (with the exception of Upper Silesia) generally level, 
 and that of the western territory for the most part mountainous. 
 
 The chief mountain range is the Riesengebirge (see page 6), 
 besides which parts of the Hartz with the Brocken (see pages 7 
 
 20 
 
458 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Rivers, Soil, Natural Products, etc. 
 
 and 8), and of the Thuringerwald (see page 7), are to be noticed 
 in the eastern territory ; while the chief mountain ranges in the 
 western territory, are the Westerwald, Hunsrucken, Eifel, and 
 Seven Hills (see page 8). 
 
 Bays of the Baltic Sea are here, the Curische, Fresh, Great, 
 and Little Haff (see page 9). Of inland lakes is the Madue 
 Lake (see page 11) ; and of rivers, the Oder, the Elbe (with the 
 Black Lister, Saale, and Havel), the Rhine (with the Nahe, Lahn, 
 Sieg, Wupper, Lippe, Ruhr, and Moselle), the lower Vistula, the 
 Pregel, etc. (see the particulars, pages 13, 16, etc.), to be noticed. 
 Of canals may be mentioned the Netze, Finow, and MiXllrose 
 canals, connecting the Vistula, Oder, and Elbe, with each other. 
 
 The natural character of the soil is greatly diversified. The 
 most fertile province is in general the province of Saxony, where 
 at the same time the soil is exceedingly well-cultivated, especially 
 in the so-called Guldene Aue (see page 399) and the district of 
 Magdeburg. Yet in all other provinces are highly fertile dis- 
 tricts likewise, as, for instance, in the province of Prussia, those 
 of Tilsit, Marienburg, Marienwerder, Dantzick; in the province of 
 Posen, the districts along the Netze river; in Pomerania, the 
 island of Rugen, the district of Stralsund in general, and along 
 the banks of the Oder ; in Silesia, especially Lower Silesia ; in 
 Brandenburg, the districts known by the names of Lenzerwische 
 (meadow of Lenzen), Oderbruch, and Spreewald; in Westphalia, 
 the districts of Soest and Warburg; in the Rhenish province, 
 the valleys along the Moselle, Saar, and Nahe, and the districts 
 watered by the Sieg and Wupper rivers, and of Juliers. 
 
 Thus, upon the whole, corn is raised sufficiently, not only for 
 home consumption, but even for exportation. Besides grain, is 
 especially cultivated vine, in the Rhenish province, principally on 
 the banks of the Moselle, Nahe, and Ahr rivers. With the ex- 
 ception of the provinces of Saxony and Westphalia, there are 
 
PRUSSIA. 459 
 
 Natural Products, Manufactures, Trade and Commerce. 
 
 extensive forests yielding both fuel and timber, the latter in suffi- 
 cient quantities for exportation. The most remarkable forests 
 are in the province of Prussia, covering there a space of 5 ,700,000 
 Prussian acres. — The aggregate number of horses was 1 ,564,554 
 in the year 1843; and the breed reared in the royal stud of 
 Trakehnen (in East Prussia) surpasses in beauty and nicety of 
 external appearance, even the English breed. Yet, upon the 
 whole, the kingdom of Prussia is not so generally noted for its 
 horses, as for instance Mecklenburg ; and the same may be said 
 of the black cattle, of which 5,042,010 heads were numbered in 
 the year 1843. The number of sheep (about 4,200,000 of 
 which were of the finest, and nearly 8 million of half -improved 
 breed) amounted to 16,235,885, and that of hogs (especially in 
 Westphalia, Pomerania, and the province of Saxony) to 2,1 15,212. 
 The principal productions from the mineral kingdom are iron (in 
 1843 produced at the primitive value of 17,487,481 Prussian dol- 
 lars), and coal (in 1843 produced at the primitive value of 
 5,307,661 Prussian dollars) ; besides which may be mentioned lead, 
 copper, zinc, silver (of which latter, 30,152 marks were produced 
 in 1843), salt (at the value of 1,348,794 Prussian dollars, made 
 in that year), and yellow amber (only at the Baltic coast in the 
 province of Prussia). 
 
 The manvfactures are both numerous and important, especially 
 those of cloth and other woollens, of cotton goods (Elberfeld is at the 
 same time noted for its spun cotton, dyed in Turkey red), linens 
 (especially in Silesia and Westphalia), silks and velvets, and articles 
 of iron and steel. (See the remarks and statements, page 286.) 
 
 The inland trade is considerable, and though the foreign com- 
 merce does not rival that of several other European countries, 
 yet the exportation (consisting principally in grain, timber, salt, 
 wool, linen, cloth, hardware, etc.) surpass by far the imports, both 
 in quantity and value. The chief seaports are Stettin, Dant- 
 
460 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia — its Means of Education. 
 
 zick, K6nigsberg, Memel, and Stralsund; and in the inland 
 trade are principally engaged : Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, 
 Berlin, Breslau, and Frankfort on the Oder. It has been com- 
 puted that the Prussian nation, in the period prior to the year 
 1806, had by means of the various branches of industry, hus- 
 bandry, trading business, etc., upon an average, an annual income 
 of about 147 million Prussian dollars, which in 1831 had raised 
 to the amount of 321 million, and in 1843 to that of nearly 461 
 million Prussian dollars. 
 
 What has been stated, page 287, etc., about the means of education 
 in Germany, may in substance be applied to Prussia. The acad- 
 emies of sciences and fine arts in Berlin, were founded respect- 
 ively in 1701 and 1699. About the universities mt Berlin (in 
 1846 with 1,608 students), Halle (with 777 students), Breslau 
 (with 749 students), Bonn (with 667 students), and Greifswald 
 (with 212 students), see page 287. The university at Konigsberg 
 was founded in 1543, and in 1846 frequented by 317 students. 
 Formerly there were also universities at Cologne (founded in 
 1388), Erfurt, (1392), Treves (1472), Wittenberg (1502), Frank- 
 fort on the Oder (1506), Paderborn (1615), and Duisburg 
 (founded in 1655), which however, in the present century, have 
 been abolished or united with other universities. In Munster 
 and Braunsberg, are Roman Catholic theological faculties, and in 
 other places, 5 seminaries. The number of Protestant theologi- 
 cal seminaries is 9, and that of seminaries for school teachers 
 amounts to 41. Besides 117 common gymnasia, there are 6 
 paedagogia, or gymnasia arranged in a similar manner, as for 
 instance the college of Eton in England, and 3 others, styled 
 Ritteracademien. Still there are to be noticed 32 progymnasia, 
 100 higher secondary schools (in 1843 with 14,795 pupils), 658 
 common secondary schools (with 79,101 pupils), and 23,646 pri- 
 
PRUSSIA. 4ci 
 
 Government, Public Finances, Army, Orders of Honor. 
 
 raary schools, which in 1843 were frequented by 2,328,146 chil- 
 dren. 
 
 The government was until 1847 an absolute monarchy, as the 
 provincial states or deputies, introduced in 1823 and 24, had only 
 a deliberative vote. By decree issued on the 3d February, 1847, 
 a decisive vote was conferred upon them, though only in matters 
 concerning taxes and public debts. Finally the revolution in 
 Berlin, on the 18th March, 1848, was followed by a constitution 
 framed on modern political principles. 
 
 According to the budget of 1844, the public revenue amounted 
 to 57,677,194 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure was of about 
 the same amount. The public debt was on the 1st January, 1843, 
 to the amount of 138,861,087 Prussian dollars. 
 
 The regular army (guards and troops of the line) consists on 
 the peace footing of 122,897 men. But this army can in time 
 of war be increased to about 553,000 men, by 250,000 of the 
 reserve and landwehr (militia) of the first summons, and by 
 180,000 of the landwehr of the second summons. The troops 
 which Prussia had to furnish to the confederal army, amounted 
 to 79.434 men. The number of fortresses in Prussia amounts to 
 26. The sloop of war which Prussia has, is more a plaything 
 than the embryo of a navy. 
 
 There are the following orders of honor : 1. The order of the 
 Black Eagle, instituted on the 18th January, 1701, in one class. 
 2. The order of the Red Eagle, instituted in 1744, renewed in 
 1792, and since 1830 in 4 classes. 3. The order pour le Merite, 
 instituted in 1740, and since 1842, in two distinct classes. 
 
 4. The order of St. John, instituted in 1812, in one class. 
 
 5. The order of the Iron Cross, instituted in 1813, in 2, or prop- 
 erly 3 classes, but since the wars in 1813-1815, not more con- 
 ferred. 6. The order of Louisa, instituted in 1814, only for 
 ladies. 
 
462 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia— its History. 
 
 History. — The present kingdom of Prussia consists of more than 50 ancient 
 territories of the German empire, united in the last four centuries by way of 
 purchase, conquering, inheritance, etc. Brandenburg is the basis of the king- 
 dom, and was conquered by Charlemagne, who subjected it to the authority 
 of margraves. Since it was styled the margraviate of Brandenburg, which 
 latter name was derived from the city of Brandenburg, founded by Slavonian 
 tribes about the 7th century. In 1142 Albert surnamed the Bear, son of 
 Earl Otto of Ascania (mentioned in the History of Anhalt, page 402), be- 
 came possessed of the margraviate of Brandenburg, and bequeathed it to 
 his descendants, who became extinct in 1320, when the margraviate escheated 
 as a fief of the German empire to the emperor, who successively invested 
 several German princes with it, until at last the burgrave of Nuremberg, 
 Frederic VI. of Hohenzollern, became possessed both of the margraviate and 
 the electoral dignity in 1417. (See the particulars, pages 302 and 318.) 
 Frederic, as elector and margrave of Brandenburg Frederic I, died in 1440, 
 and was succeeded by the following descendants : Frederic II. (+1471), Al- 
 bert, surnamed Achilles (+1486), John, surnamed Cicero (-{-1499), Joachim I, 
 surnamed Nestor (+1535), Joachim II, surnamed Hector (+1571), John 
 George (+1598), Joachim Frederic (+1608), John Sigismund (+1619), 
 George William (1640), Frederic William (+1688) and Frederic III, who 
 reigned since 1688. Meanwhile the territory on the eastern shores of the 
 Baltic, since the 13th and 14th centuries conquered and possessed by the 
 Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336), and known by the name of Prussia, 
 had since the year 1525 been transformed into a duchy, whose second duke 
 Albert IL had as only heirs two daughters, who were married the one to the 
 elector Joachim Frederic, and the other to his grandson, the elector John 
 Sigismund of Brandenburg, who in this way inherited the duchy of Prussia 
 in 1618, and bequeathed it, beside the margraviate and electorate, to his de- 
 scendants. His grandson Frederic William, acquired moreover considerable 
 territories in Germany ; and Frederic III. (his son) having added new acqui- 
 sitions by inheritance, began to harbor the desire of adding also an inde- 
 pendent dignity to that dependent one of which he was already possessed as 
 prince of the German empire. For this purpose he transformed his duchy 
 of Prussia (which had politically nothing in common with -the German em- 
 pire) into a kingdom, and let himself be crowned at Konigsberg as King of 
 Prussia on the 18th January, 1701. He died as King Frederic I. in 1713, 
 and was succeeded by his son Frederic William I, who in some respect did 
 
PRUSSIA. 463 
 
 History of Prussia. 
 
 provide for the true welfare of his people in a more proper manner than his 
 son and successor Frederic IL When he ascended the throne, he found the 
 state deeply involved in debts and in great disorder ; the people were more 
 or less impoverished, extensive tracts of arable land lay waste, and most 
 branches of industry were in a languishing condition. Frederic William was 
 indeed neither a learned man, nor a man of the latest French fashion, but he 
 was endowed with common sense, and thus within rather few years all pub- 
 lic debts were paid, the waste tracts of land cultivated, all branches of hus- 
 bandry and industry in a flourishing state, and while in a later period the 
 public revenue had increased to 7£ million Prussian dollars annually (a very 
 considerable amount at that period), the taxes had at the same time been 
 lowered considerably. When Frederic William died (on the 31st May, 1740), 
 he left behind 9 millions of ready money in the public treasury, and a well- 
 disciplined army of 70,000 men to his eldest son and successor Frederic II, 
 whose character is too well known than that we should need to enter in any 
 particulars about it. Moreover its essential point is already alluded to in 
 the History of Europe, pages 59 and 60. But for the circumstance that 
 Charles VL died in the very year of his accession and left behind no male 
 descendants, Frederic would never have dared to raise his, by no means well- 
 founded, claims upon Silesia ; and but for the constant disunion among his 
 enemies in the field, he would not have been allowed to be finally success- 
 ful in the seven years' war. During this whole period he had continually 
 some poison in his pocket, for the purpose of suicide in case of total failure. 
 He may be considered as the author of the atheistical principles that since 
 his reign began to become fashionable and even prevailing in Germany ; and 
 he was by his contemporaries surnamed the Great, more on account of that he 
 harbored and propagated those principles, than on account of his victories on 
 the battle-field. At least indirectly, he suggested the plan for dividing Po- 
 land ; and by annexing one part of it (in 1772), beside Silesia, to his king- 
 dom, he indeed had finally enlarged the latter to an extent of 74,827 square 
 miles, with more than 6 million inhabitants. But he considered and treated 
 the people like a machinery, and put all his trust in his well-drilled army of 
 200,000 men. By this predilection for soldiery he has done great mischief 
 to Germany in general, whose other princes were induced to follow his ex- 
 ample, thus rearing an artificial political edifice which subsequently was 
 easily overturned by Napoleon. Frederic II. died in 1786, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew, Frederic William II, who died in 1797, and was sue- 
 
464 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 ceeded by his son, Frederic William III., who had to undergo many hard- 
 ships and troubles since his total defeat on the 14th October, 1806, at Jena 
 and Anerstadt, but was amply indemnified in 1814 and 15. He died on the 
 7th June, 1840, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the present reigning 
 Frederic William IV., born on the 15th October, 1795. 
 
 The kingdom of Prussia is divided in 8 provinces. Each prov- 
 ince is subdivided into governmental districts, and each of the lat- 
 ter subdivided into circles, as they are styled. Six of those prov- 
 inces (together at an extent of 71,696 square miles, with 
 12,230.000 inhabitants) formed constituent parts of the Ger- 
 man Confederation, and for this reason we shall describe them 
 first, and finally the two other provinces. (See page 310.) As 
 the governmental districts are named after their capitals, we 
 shall mark the latter with a cross (+). 
 
 I— THE PROVINCE OF BRANDENBURG. 
 
 Area: 15,634 square miles. 
 Population : 2,020,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This province, subdivided into the governmental districts of 
 Potsdam and Frankfort, and being the basis of the whole king- 
 dom (see above, page 462), comprises in substance its ancient his- 
 torical constituent parts, in common life still known by the names 
 of Mittelmark (central margraviate), Uckermark, Priegnitz, and 
 Neumark (new margraviate). 
 
 The Mittelmark contains: Berlin, the metropolis of the kingdom and 
 royal residence (at least in the winter season), on the Spree, 9 miles above 
 
PRUSSIA. 465 
 
 Province of Brandenburg. 
 
 its junction with the Havel (see page 17), south-eastward and 186 miles dis- 
 tant from Hamburg, is very regularly built, and one of the finest cities in 
 Europe, and had, in the beginning of 1846, 8,384 houses, and shortly before 
 the revolution of March, 1848, a population of 420,000 inhabitants, that 
 however since has decreased by more than 100,000 inhabitants, who have 
 thence emigrated. Simultaneously the chief sources of prosperity are dried 
 up in this city, naturally poor — much more so than most of the other Euro- 
 pean capitals. Many of its factories have, since that event, been closed for 
 want of business, while others have been spoiled by the plundering mob, 
 and even by operatives ; and the effect of the disturbances on the general 
 prosperity of the city has been disastrous. The most remarkable public 
 edifices of Berlin are : the royal castle or palace (reared in the period from 
 1451 to 1716 ; it is 101 £ feet high, has 460 feet in front, and contains more 
 than 500 apartments), the arsenal (a quadrangle, 280 feet long and broad), 
 the university building (reared in 1154-1764 as palace of King Frederic IL's 
 brother Henry), the opera-house (265 feet long by 104 feet broad), the royal 
 museums, eta In short, it would take up too much room, even simply to 
 enumerate all the magnificent edifices and other curiosities of Berlin. Char- 
 lottenburg, a town in the neighborhood of Berlin, has 7,800 inhabitants, and 
 is noted for its royal palace (reared in 1705-10) and park. Other neighbor- 
 ing and more or less remarkable towns are: Teltovo (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Oranienburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bernau (with 3,800 inhabitants), Lie- 
 benwalde (with 2,600 inhabitants), Alt-Landsberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 Kopenick (with 2,750 inhabitants), and Mittenwalde (with 2,100 inhabitants). 
 -|-Potsdam, a city on the Havel, is considered as royal residence second in 
 rank, has 40,000 inhabitants, and a manufactory of fire-arms, and is noted for 
 its military orphan asylum, its so-called garrison church (with the sepulchres 
 of Frederic William L and Frederic II), its city-hall, and royal palace. 
 Close by are several other royal palaces, among them that of Sanssouci, 
 reared in 1745-47, and once the favorite residence of Frederic II. Spandau, 
 a town on the Havel, at its junction with the Spree river, is noted for its for- 
 tress, and has 9,300 inhabitants. The first three or four electors of Branden- 
 burg from the house of Hohenzollern, resided in Spandau. Fehrbellin, a 
 town at the former high-road between Berlin and Hamburg, has 1,700 inhab- 
 itants, and is noted in history for a battle in 1675. Brandenburg, ancient 
 capital of the margraviate of Brandenburg, on the Havel, westward and 
 23 miles distant from Potsdam, has 16,400 inhabitants, carries on a rather 
 
 20* 
 
466 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia. — Province of Brandenburg. 
 
 considerable trade, and is noted for several ancient edifices. Rathenow, or 
 Rathenau, a town on the Havel, with several manufactures, and 5,800 inhab- 
 itants. Werder, a town near Potsdam, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its fruits. Freienwalde, a town near the Oder, has 4,100 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for its mineral waters. Neustadt-Eberswalde, a town at the Ber- 
 lin and Stettin railroad, has 5,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral 
 waters and manufactures of hardware. Neustadt an der Dosse, a town on 
 the Dosse river, north-westward and 60 miles distant from Berlin, has only 
 1,200 inhabitants, but is noted for its manufactures of looking-glasses. Other 
 more or less remarkable towns are: Friesack (with 2,450 inhabitants), 
 Treuenbrietzen (with 4,900 inhabitants). Written (with 6,050 inhabitants), 
 Wusterhausen an der Dosse (with 2,850 inhabitants), Rheinsberg (with 2,250 
 inhabitants), and Ruppin (with cloth and woollen manufactures, and 10,000 
 inhabitants). — The Uckermark contains: Prenzlau (officially Prenzlow), its 
 ancient capital, 72 miles north-north-east of Berlin, with a remarkable 
 Gothic church, and 12,700 inhabitants. Boitzenburg, a market-town, has 800 
 inhabitants, and is noted for the magnificent mansion of the count of Arnun, 
 in recent times frequently mentioned as Prussian minister, member of the 
 legislative chamber, etc. Templin, a town on a lake of the same name, with 
 notable town-hall, manufactures, and 3,500 inhabitants. Angermunde, a 
 town on a lake, about lialf-way between Berlin and Stettin, with cloth man- 
 ufactures, hosieries, and 4,400 inhabitants. Schwedt, a town on the Oder, 28 
 miles south of Stettin, with 7,150 inhabitants, several manufactures, and an 
 ancient castle, formerly the seat of a collateral line of the reigning house of 
 Brandenburg. Lychen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Zehdenik (with 3,000 inhab- 
 itants), Vierraden (with 1,700 inhabitants), and Joachimsthal (with 1,750 
 inhabitants). — The Priegnitz (also called Vormark) contains: Peeleberg, 
 its ancient capital, near the Berlin and Hamburg railroad, 90 miles north- 
 west of Berlin, is noted for its flax and breweries, and has 6,000 inhabitants. 
 Lenzen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Havelberg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wilsnack 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pnttlitz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Kyritz (with 3,600 
 inhabitants), Pritzwalk (with 4,600 inhabitants), and Mayenburg (with 1,650 
 inhabitants), towns. Wittstock, a town on the Dosse, with cloth and linen 
 manufactures, and 6,450 inhabitants, is noted in history for a battle in 1636. 
 Beeskow, Storkow, and Buchholz, towns with respectively 4,250, 1,800, and 
 950 inhabitants. Luckenwalde, a town 30 miles south of Berlin, has 6,400 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Zinna, a town with 
 
PRUSSIA. 4C7 
 
 Province of Brandenburg. 
 
 manufactures, and 1,850 inhabitants. Juterbock, a town at the Berlin and 
 Cothen railroad, has 5,500 inhabitants, and is noted in history for two battles 
 in 1644 and 1813. Baruth, a town with 1,650 inhabitants, and a palace of 
 the count of Solms- Baruth. 
 
 The Mittelmark (see above) contains : -j-Frankfort, surnamed an der Oder, 
 a city on the Oder river, 55 miles east-south-east of Berlin, has 30,000 inhabi- 
 tants, several noted ancient public edifices, considerable trade and manufac- 
 tures, and was hitherto noted especially for its annual fairs, which are at 
 present less important than formerly. The above-mentioned university, 
 founded here in 1506, was in 1811 united with that of Breslau. Fursten- 
 walde, a town on the Spree river, westward and 20 miles distant from Frank- 
 fort, with remarkable church, woollen manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. 
 Other more or less notable towns are: Zebus (with 1,850 inhabitants), 
 Muncheberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Seelow (with 2,400 inhabitants), Mull- 
 rose (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Buckow (noted for its hops, has, 1,500 in- 
 habitants). The village of Kunnersdorf, 5 miles east of Frankfort, is noted 
 for the battle on the 22d August, 1*759, in which Frederic IL was totally de- 
 feated. — The Neumark (see above) contains : Kuestrin, its ancient capital, 
 on the Oder, at its junction with the "Warthe, northward and 18 miles dis- 
 tant from Frankfort, is noted for its fortress, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Kb- 
 nigsberg, surnamed in der Neumark, a town near the frontier of Pomerania, 
 with remarkable ancient town-hall, 2 notable churches, some manufactures, 
 and 5,200 inhabitants. The towns of Zullichau (with 5,400 inhabitants), 
 Krossen (with 7,250 inhabitants), Cottbus (with 8,500 inhabitants), and Neu- 
 damm (with 3,250 inhabitants), are noted for their cloth manufactures. Lands- 
 berg, surnamed an der Warthe, a city on the Warthe river, north-eastward 
 and 30 miles distant from Kustrin, with important corn and wool trade, and 
 12,000 inhabitants. Barwalde, a town southward and 14 miles distant from 
 Konigsberg in der Neumark, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted in history for 
 a convention concluded here on the 13th June, 1631, between Sweden and 
 France. Other towns are : Soldin (with 5,900 inhabitants), Berlinchen (with 
 3,800 inhabitants), Lippehne (with 2,850 inhabitants), Bernstein (with 1.950 
 inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 4,800 inhabitants), Driesen (with 3,900 inhabi- 
 tants), Woldenberg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Arnswalde (with 5,200 inhabi- 
 tants), and Konigswalde (with 1,450 inhabitants). Schwiebus, a town in a 
 fertile district, eastward and 40 miles distant from Frankfort, with consid- 
 erable cloth manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. — Lower Lusatia (see page 
 
468 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Provinces of Brandenburg and Pomerania. 
 
 385), which in 1815 was annexed to Prussia, contains: Luckau, ancient capi- 
 tal of Lower Lusatia, 48 miles south-south-east of Berlin, with remarkable 
 Gothic church, cloth manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. Sorau, a town 
 near the frontier of Silesia, is noted for its wax candles, and has 7,500 inhab- 
 itants. Kalau, a town on the Dober river, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for the vast amount of boots and shoes made in it. Lubben, a town on the 
 Spree river, with several remarkable churches, cloth and linen manufactures, 
 and 4,800 inhabitants. Lubbenau, a town on the Spree river, with 3,300 in- 
 habitants, and a palace of the count of Lynar. Guben, a town on the Neisse 
 river, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Other 
 more or less notable towns are: Dobriluck (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sprem- 
 berg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Forste (with 3,650 inhabitants), and Lieberose 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants). Senftenberg, Finsterwalde, and Sonnenwalde, towns 
 with respectively 1,450, 4,800, and 1,150 inhabitants. 
 
 IL— THE PROVINCE OF POMERANIA. 
 
 •i 
 Akea: 12,233 square miles. 
 Population : 1,166,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Pomerania, extending along the Baltic Sea, which here re- 
 ceives the Oder, was primitively inhabited by Germanic, and 
 since the 6th century by Slavonic tribes. However, since the 
 propagation of Christianity in this quarter, or since the 12th 
 century, many Germans settled here, and became at last predom- 
 inant. Pomerania was at first under the sway of Slavonic chiefs, 
 and subsequently ruled by one common prince. The first his- 
 torically known or remarkable prince of Pomerania was Svanti- 
 bor Z, who died in 1 107, and was succeeded by his two sons, who 
 divided the country, the elder taking the western part (since 
 known by the general name of Fore Pomerania), and the younger 
 
PRUSSIA. 469 
 
 
 Province of Pomerania. 
 
 of the eastern part (since called Back Pomerania). In 1 1 82 the 
 princes of Pomerania were by Emperor Frederic I. endowed with 
 the privileges of actual membership of the German empire, and 
 raised to the dignity of dukes. In 1325 the principality of Ru- 
 gen (comprising the island of the same name) was inherited and 
 annexed to Pomerania, which was united in one single duchy in 
 1625 by Duke Bolislav XIII. With the latter'sson and succes- 
 sor, duke Bolislav XIV., the reigning house of Pomerania became 
 extinct in 1637. According to former agreements between the 
 dukes of Pomerania and the electors of Brandenburg, the latter 
 had indeed well-founded claims upon the inheritance. However, 
 Sweden, which was to be indemnified for its losses and assistance 
 to the Protestant cause in the thirty years' war, became possessed 
 of the greatest part of Pomerania, while Brandenburg acquired 
 only parts of Back Pomerania. In 1720 Sweden ceded other 
 parts of Back Pomerania to Prussia, which in 1815 became also 
 possessed of Fore Pomerania and Bugen (see page 419). The 
 present province of Pomerania is subdivided into the govern- 
 mental districts of Stettin, Stralsund and Coslin. 
 
 Prussian Fore Pomerania (thus styled since 1720) contains: -|-Stettin, 
 ancient capital of all Pomerania, on the Oder, 94 miles north-north-east of 
 Berlin, is strongly fortified, and to be considered as the chief commercial 
 city and seaport of Prussia, is at the same time noted for its manufactures, 
 and has 45,000 inhabitants. Its royal palace, until 1637 the residence of the 
 dukes of Pomerania, is very extensive, and was reared in 1577. Swinemunde, 
 near the mouth of the Swine river into the Baltic Sea, is the actual seaport 
 of Stettin, and resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 4,200 inhabitants. Swine- 
 munde is situated on the isle of Usedom, which in the early part of the 
 middle ages was renowned for its emporium, named Vineta or Wineda. The 
 town of Wollin (with timber trade and 4,100 inhabitants) is situated on the 
 isle of the same name, and stands on the same spot where in the middle 
 ages the powerful commercial city of Julin (destroyed in 1170) stood. 
 Qarz (with 4,400 inhabitants), Damm (with 3,100 inhabitants), Politz (with 
 
470 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Pomerania. 
 
 2,600 inhabitants), and Penkuu (with 1,750 inhabitants), towns in the neigh- 
 borhood of Stettin. Anclam, Demmiii, and Jarmen, towns on the Peene 
 river, with respectively 8,500, 7,000, and 1,700 inhabitants. Demmin was 
 extant so early as in 540, and a celebrated city in the days of Charle- 
 magne. Uckermunde, a town on the Ucker river, and near the Little Half, 
 north-westward and 42 miles distant from Stettin, with a remarkable ancient 
 castle, and 3,700 inhabitants. Pasewalk, a town on the Ucker river, with 
 noted breweries, and 6,850 inhabitants. Gollnow, a town with some manu- 
 factures, and 5,600 inhabitants, was in the middle ages an actual member of 
 the Hanseatic League. — Back Pomerania contains: Stargard, its ancient 
 capital, on the Ihna river, 30 miles east-south east of Stettin, with a remarkable 
 ancient church, several important branches of industry, and 13,200 inhabi- 
 tants. Naugard, a town on a lake, with remarkable church, a house of correc- 
 tion, and 3,600 inhabitants. Greiffenberg, a town on the Rega river, north-east- 
 ward and 46 miles distant from Stettin, is noted for its linen manufactures, 
 and has 4,600 inhabitants. It is situated northward and 220 miles distant 
 from Greiffenberg in Silesia, which accidentally is likewise renowned for its 
 linens. Greiffenhagen, a town on the Reglitz river, with some cloth manu- 
 factures, and 5,300 inhabitants. Pyritz, a town in a fertile district, south- 
 eastward and 30 miles distant from Stettin, has 5,500 inhabitants, and was 
 anciently very remarkable. In a well here, the first Pomeranians who em- 
 braced the Christian creed (7,000 in number) were baptized, in 1124. Lobes 
 and Regenwalde, towns with respectively 3,350 and 2,500 inhabitants. Kam- 
 min or Cammin, a town at the mouth of the Divenow, into the Baltic Sea, 
 has 3,600 inhabitants, is noted for its churches and flax, and was until 1650 
 the seat of a sovereign bishopric, instituted in 1128. 
 
 Ancient Fore, or Swedish Pomerania (see above), contains : -J-Stralsund, 
 its ancient capital, on Strait Gellen (which separates the island of Rxigen 
 from continental Pomerania), northward and 170 miles distant from Ber- 
 lin, is fortified, and noted for its commerce, shipping business, and manu- 
 factures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Stralsund ranked among the most 
 noted members of the Hanseatic League, and is also renowned in military 
 history. Barth, a commercial town on a little bay of the Baltic, has 4,800 
 inhabitants. Other towns are : Dammgarten (with linen manufactures, and 
 1,500 inhabitants), Grimmen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Tribsees, or Trib- 
 besee (with 2,800 inhabitants). A very ancient city, at present noted for its 
 commerce and shipping business, is Wolgast, near the Baltic Sea, with 5,350 
 
PRUSSIA. 471 
 
 Province of Pomerania. 
 
 inhabitants. Greifswald, a city near the Baltic Sea, with which it is con- 
 nected by a canal, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Stralsund, has 
 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287), 
 its commerce and its salt-works. The neighboring ancient Cistercian abbey 
 of Eldena, is at present noted for its academy for political economy. — The 
 island of Rugen (426 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), the largest of 
 all German islands, is separated by a strait called Gellen, and only 1 mile 
 wide, from continental Pomerania (see above undei the head of Stralsund), 
 and is noted both for the fertility of its soil and the beauty of its natural 
 sceneries. In the early times of the middle ages, it was the chief seat of 
 idolatry on the part of Slavonic tribes, and many prisoners taken among 
 the neighboring Christians, were immolated on its bloody altars. Finally, 
 King Waldemar I. of Denmark, who in 1169 conquered the island, put an 
 end to these abominations, and since then the inhabitants embraced the 
 Christian creed. The native princes of the island continued to be vassals of 
 the Danish crown until in 1325, when they became extinct, Rugen was 
 inherited by the duke of Pomerania (see above). There are to be noticed 
 here: Bergen, ancient capital of the island, situated in its centre x was 
 founded in 1190, and has 3,150 inhabitants. Puttbus, a market-town, and 
 residence of the dependent prince of the same name, and descendant of the 
 native princes of Rugen (see above), is noted as a watering-place, and for 
 its handsome princely palace and park. Other market-towns are Gingst 
 (with 800 inhabitants), and Sagard (with 1,000 inhabitants). On a cape of 
 the western coast, at present with a lighthouse, stood anciently the renowned 
 stronghold of Arcona. The town of Garz has 1,750 inhabitants. 
 
 Back Pomerania (see above) contains : -{-Coslin, at present the capital of 
 the governmental district of the same name, near the Baltic Sea, north-east- 
 ward and 85 miles distant from Stettin, has 8,350 inhabitants. Colberg or 
 Kolberg, a strongly fortified city near the mouth of the Persante into the 
 Baltic, westward and 22 miles distant from Coslin, has 8,700 inhabitants, 
 several remarkable churches, salt-works, commerce and fishery, and is noted 
 in military history. Anciently Colberg was the capital of the duchy of Cas- 
 mben, at present only mentioned in history. Rugenwalde, a commercial 
 town near the Baltic, is noted for various branches of industry, and has 5,000 
 inhabitants. Stolpe, a maritime and commercial town, near the Baltic, north- 
 eastward and 45 miles distant from Coslin, and westward and 70 miles dis- 
 tant from Dantzick, has 9,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its articles made 
 
472 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Provinces of Pomerania and Silesia. 
 
 of yellow amber. Other more or less remarkable towns are : C'orlin (with 
 2,500 inhabitants), Bublitz (with 3,100 inhabitants), Belgard (with 3,700 in- 
 habitants), Polzin (with 3,150 inhabitants), Neustettin (with 4,300 inhabitants), 
 Tempelburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Rummelsburg (with 3,350 inhabi- 
 tants). — Schiefelbein (with 3,650 inhabitants), Dramburg (with 3,500 inhabi- 
 tants), and Callies (with 3,000 inhabitants) are towns situated within the 
 limits of the Neumark (see back). 
 
 IIL— THE PROVINCE OF SILESIA. 
 
 Area: 15,799 square miles. 
 Population : 3,065,800 inhabitants. 
 
 Silesia, situated on both sides of the river Oder, was anciently 
 inhabited by Quades and Lygians or Elysians, two Germanic 
 tribes, who about the middle of the 6th century were dispossessed 
 by Slavonic tribes. In the 10th century Silesia came under the 
 sway of the dukes of Poland, but since the year 1 163 it was ruled 
 by independent princes or dukes, descendants of King Wladislav 
 II. of Poland. There were at first three, but subsequently two 
 dukes, who reigned the one in Upper Silesia (answering to the 
 present governmental district of Oppeln), and the other in 
 Lower Silesia (comprising the remainder of Silesia, with one ex- 
 ception). In the course of time several collateral lines sprung 
 up, and since the middle of the 13th century the Silesian princes 
 submitted spontaneously to the feudal sovereignty of the kings 
 of Bohemia. How since the year 1740 Prussia became possessed 
 of Silesia, has been already alluded to (page 463). According to 
 the terms of the treaties of peace concluded in 1742, 1745 and 
 
PRUSSIA. 473 
 
 The Province of Silesia. 
 
 1763, Austria (whose sovereign was since 1440 at the same time 
 the sovereign of Bohemia) ceded Upper and Lower Silesia, to- 
 gether with the Silesian earldom of Glatz, to Prussia, and re- 
 tained only the Silesian principalities of Teschen, Troppau and 
 Jagerndorf. The present province of Silesia is subdivided into 
 the governmental districts of Breslau, Liegnitz and Oppeln. " 
 
 Lower Silesia (see above) contains : -f-I3aESLAU, ancient capital of all Sile- 
 sia, and considered as the third royal residence (see under the head of Pots- 
 dam), on the Oder, south-eastward and 220 miles distant from Berlin, and 
 north-eastward and 156 miles distant from Prague, had at the end of the 
 year 1846 a population of 112,798 inhabitants, among whom were 32,904 Ro- 
 man Catholics and 7,057 Jews, the remainder consisting of Evangelicals. 
 Breslau carries on a very extensive inland trade, especially in wool, has nu- 
 merous manufactures, and is noted for its literary institutions, among which 
 ranks first the university (see above and page 287). The Gothic cathedral, 
 and besides it the city-hall, the royal palace, etc., are very notable. The 
 neighboring village of Leuthen (with 600 inhabitants) is noted in history for 
 a battle in 1757. Brieg, a city on the Oder, 25 miles above Breslau, with a 
 remarkable ancient castle, cloth manufactures, considerable cattle marts, and 
 12,250 inhabitants. Schweidnitz, a fortified city near the Bohemian frontier, 
 south-westward and 33 miles distant from Breslau, with considerable trade, 
 and 12,700 inhabitants. Zobten, a town at the foot of the mountain of the 
 same name (see page 7), with 1,700 inhabitants. Freiburg, surnamed unterm 
 Furstenstein, a town on the Polsnitz river, with 4,100 inhabitants. The sur- 
 name of Freiburg is derived from Furstenstein, a magnificent and romantic- 
 ally situated mountain castle of the count of Hochberg-Furstenstein. The 
 village of Salzbrunn is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by 
 many strangers. Reichenbach, a manufacturing town at the Eulengebirge 
 (see page 7), with considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. Other more or 
 less remarkable towns are : Namslau (with 4,100 inhabitants), Newnarkt 
 (with 4,150 inhabitants), Olau (with 5,800 inhabitants), Strehlen (with 4,800 
 inhabitants), Nimptsch (with 2,100 inhabitants), Striegau (with 5,100 inhabi- 
 tants), Waldenburg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Wolau (with 2,500 inhabitants), 
 Steinau (with 2,700 inhabitants), and Chirau (with 3,900 inhabitants). Within 
 the limits of Upper Silesia are situated the towns of Silberberg (noted 
 
474 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 t — 1 
 
 Prussia. — Province of Silesia. 
 
 for its strong fortress, has 2,000 inhabitants), Munsterberg (with 4,600 
 inhabitants), Wartha (with 1,100 inhabitants), Frankenstein (with 6,200 in- 
 habitants), and Reichenstein (with 2,200 inhabitants). The earldom of Glalz 
 (in reality only a Silesian dominion, which in 1462 was raised to the dignity 
 of an earldom) contains: Glatz, its ancient capital on the Neisse, 60 miles 
 south-south-west of Breslau, has 10,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its for- 
 tress. Habelschwerdt, a town on the Neisse, southward and 9 miles distant 
 from Glatz, with various important manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. 
 Other towns are: Reiner z (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lewin (with 1,450 inhabi- 
 tants), and Mittelwalde (with 1,900 inhabitants). The above (under the head 
 of Brunswick) mentioned dependent principality of Oels (681 £ square miles, 
 and 100,000 inhabitants), contains : Oels, its capital, on the Oelsa river, 18 
 miles north-east of Breslau, with an extensive ducal palace, and 6,200 inhabi- 
 tants. Trebnitz, a manufacturing town, with 4,200 inhabitants. Juliusburg 
 and Bernstadt, towns with respectively 1,100 and 3,800 inhabitants. The fol- 
 lowing towns are capitals of dependent dominions of the same names, and 
 belonging to various princes : Wartenberg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Trachen- 
 berg (with 2,600 inhabitants), Militsch (with 2,800 inhabitants), Freihan (with 
 1,100 inhabitants), and Sulau (with 800 inhabitants). 
 
 Lower Silesia (see above) contains moreover : -J-Liegnitz, the capital of the 
 governmental district of the same name, on the Katzbach, westward and 36 
 miles distant from Breslau, is noted for its college styled Ritteracademie, its 
 ancient castle or palace, and greens, and has 14,200 inhabitants. On the 9th 
 April, 1241, a very bloody battle was fought in its neighborhood between the 
 Germans and the Moguls. Goldberg, a town on the Katzbach, is noted for 
 its cloth manufactures, and has 7,500 inhabitants. Glogau, a city on the 
 Oder, north-westward and 80 miles distant from Breslau, has 14,750 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its fortress, its ancient cathedral and industry. Grun- 
 berg, a city at the high-road between Breslau and Berlin, with 10,500 inhabi- 
 tants, cloth and other manufactures, and vine culture on a large scale, though 
 the wine produced is by no means of an excellent quality. Jauer, a town on 
 the Neisse and at the foot of the Riesengebirge, has 6,650 inhabitants, and 
 considerable trade in corn, and is noted for its gloves and sausages. Bunz- 
 lau, a town on the Bober, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its potteries. 
 The towns of Hirschberg (romantically situated at the northern foot of the 
 Riesengebirge, with 7,500 inhabitants), Schmiedeberg (at the foot of the 
 Schneekoppe, with 3,600 inhabitants), Lowenberg (with 4,400 inhabitants), 
 
PRUSSIA. 475 
 
 The Province of Silesia. 
 
 Oreiffenberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), and 
 Laridshut (with 4,150 inhabitants), are noted for their linens. The market- 
 town of Warmbrunn (with a handsome palace of the count of Schaffgotsch, 
 and 1,900 inhabitants), is noted and much resorted to as a watering-place. 
 The village of Stohnsdorf (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its beer. 
 Naumburg, surnamed am Quels (with 1,750 inhabitants), Bolkenhain (with 
 1,900 inhabitants), Deutsch- Wartenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hohenfried- 
 berg (with 850 inhabitants), Liebau (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Schomberg 
 (with 2,200 inhabitants), more or less noted towns. Sagan, the capital of the 
 dependent principality of the same name (since 1842 belonging to the prince 
 of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, and having 426 square miles in extent, with 41,000 
 inhabitants), on the Bober, westward and 35 miles distant from Glogau, with 
 stately palace of the prince, considerable corn trade, and 7,200 inhabitants. 
 Naumburg, surnamed am Bober (with 950 inhabitants), Priebus (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), and Freiwaldau (with 800 inhabitants), towns of this principality 
 Beuthen, a town on the Oder, 14 miles west-north-west of Glogau, with 3,800 
 inhabitants, is the capital, and Garolath (with princely palace, and 750 inhabi- 
 tants), a market-town of the dependent principality of Carolath (96 square 
 miles, and 10,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of Carolath- Be uthen. 
 That part of Upper Lusatia (see under the head of Saxony, page 385) 
 Prussia became possessed of in 1815, contains: G6aLiTz,a city on the Neisse, 
 westward and 60 miles distant from Liegnitz, and eastward and 66 miles dis- 
 tant from Dresden, has several remarkable public edifices, and 16,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its literary institutions and cloth manufactures. Lau- 
 ban, a city on the Queis river, with remarkable ancient church, some manu- 
 factures, inland trade, and 6,150 inhabitants. Hoyerswerda, a town on the 
 Black Elster, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots 
 and shoes made here. Niesky, a market-town, with a paedagogium or col- 
 lege, and 700 inhabitants, being Moravian Brethren. Muskau, a town on the 
 Neisse, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is the capital of a dependent principality 
 of the same name, since 1846 belonging to the prince Frederic of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Upper Silesia (see back) contains : -|-Oppeln, its ancient capital, on the 
 Oder, 64 miles above Breslau, with remarkable city -hall and royal palace, con- 
 siderable cattle-marts, and 7,900 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mala- 
 pane is noted for its important iron-works. Kosel, a strongly fortified town 
 on the Oder, with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants. The 
 
476 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Silesia. 
 
 village of Gnadenfeld is noted for a theological seminary of the Moravian 
 Brethren. The market-town of Schlawentzitz or Slawensik is remarkable as 
 capital of a dependent dominion of the same name, belonging to the prince 
 of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen. Ober-Glogan, a town in the neighborhood of Ko- 
 sel, with a remarkable ancient castle, and 3,750 inhabitants. Other more or 
 less remarkable towns are : Gleiwitz (with a noted iron-foundry, and 1,400 in- 
 habitants), Gross- Strehlitz (with 2,500 inhabitants), Ujest (with 2,450 inhabi- 
 tants), Lublinitz (with 2,250 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,850 inhabitants), 
 and Kreuzburg (with 3,800 inhabitants). Ratibor, a city on the Oder, 50 
 miles above Oppeln, and near the frontier of Austrian Silesia, carries on a con- 
 siderable trade, especially in grain, has 7,900 inhabitants, and is the capital 
 of a dependent principality of the same name, since 1834 belonging to the 
 prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst. Pless, a town near the frontier of Ga- 
 licia, south-eastward and 64 miles from Oppeln, has 3,550 inhabitants, and 
 is the capital of the dependent principality of the same name, mentioned un- 
 der the head of Anhalt, page 405. Beuthen (south-eastward and 48 miles 
 distant from Oppeln, with 5,150 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent do- 
 minion of the same name (298 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), belong- 
 ing to the count Henkel of Donnersmark, and within whose limits is also 
 situated the celebrated mining town of Tarnowitz (with 3,900 inhabitants). 
 Neisse, a strongly fortified city on the river of the same name, south-west- 
 ward and 34 miles distant from Oppeln, has 16,400 inhabitants, and is the 
 capital of a dependent principality of the same name (511 square miles, and 
 105,000 inhabitants), belonging to the bishop of Breslau. Other towns of 
 this princpality are : Patschkau (with linen and woollen manufactures, and 
 4,000 inhabitants), Ziegenhals (with noted linen manufactures, and 3,700 
 inhabitants), Grotkau (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ottmachau (with 2,900 
 inhabitants). The towns of Hultschin (with 2,600 inhabitants), Bauerwitz 
 (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Leobschutz (with 6,800 inhabitants), belong to 
 the prince of Liechtenstein (see page 350). The town of Katscher (with 
 linen manufactures, and 2,750 inhabitants) is situated in a district known 
 by the name of Prussian Moravia, and belonging to the archbishop of 
 Olmutz. 
 
PRUSSIA. 477 
 
 The Province of Saxony. 
 
 IV.— THE PROVINCE OF SAXONY. 
 
 Area: 9,818$ square miles. 
 Population: 1,742,500 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between the Elbe, Hartz, and Thuringerwald, is 
 subdivided into the governmental districts of Magdeburg, Merse- 
 burg, and Erfurt, and comprises in substance: 1. The northern 
 half of the kingdom of Saxony, ceded to Prussia in 1815 (see 
 page 380). 2. The so-called Altmark (historically forming a con- 
 stituent part of the ancient margraviate of Brandenburg). 
 3. The ancient duchy of Magdeburg. 4. The ancient principality 
 of Halberstadt. 5. Ancient dominions and territories of the for- 
 mer electorate of Meniz, etc. 
 
 The duchy of Magdeburg, primitively an independent archbishopric, institu- 
 ted in 967, which in 1648 was secularized, and in 1680 annexed to the elec- 
 torate of Brandenburg (i. e. to the present Prussia, by the title of a duchy), 
 contains : -|-Magdeburg, the capital of the province, on the left bank of the 
 Elbe, 110 miles south-west of Berlin, and 130 miles south-east of Hamburg, 
 has 68,500 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and is highly renowned, not only 
 for its extensive inland trade and manufactures, but also for its architectural 
 monuments, among which ranks first the very handsome Gothic cathedral, 
 reared in the period from 1211 to 1363. It was one of the few buildings 
 that remained unhurt in the conflagration occasioned by the storming of 
 Magdeburg on the 10th May, 1631. Burg, a city on the Bile river, 14 miles 
 north-north-east of Magdeburg, has 14,800 inhabitants, and is noted for 
 its cloth manufactures. Neuhaldensleben (a town, with 4,800 inhabitants) and 
 Althaldensleben (a village, with 2,000 inhabitants) are noted for their numer- 
 ous and various manufactures. Schdnebeck, a town at the railroad between 
 Magdeburg and Cothen, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works 
 and chemical articles. The neighboring town of Gross-Salze, with 2,700 
 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its salt-springs, and much resorted to for 
 bathing. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Kalbe (with noted man- 
 
478 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Saxony. 
 
 ufactures, and 5,750 inhabitants), Wanzleben (with 3,200 inhabitants), Aken 
 (with 4,400 inhabitants), Stassfurth (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wollmirstadt 
 (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Genthin (with 2,500 inhabitants).— The above- 
 mentioned so-called Altmark contains : Stendal, its ancient capital, on the 
 left bank of the Elbe, northward and 40 miles distant from Magdeburg, with 
 remarkable ancient churches, woollen manufactures, and 6,700 inhabitants. 
 Salzwedel, a city near the frontier of Hanover, with celebrated ancient 
 churches, noted cloth manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Tangermunde, 
 a town on the Elbe, at its junction with the Tanger river, has 4,400 inhabi- 
 tants, and noted breweries, and is distinguished in history for its having been 
 the residence of the first elector of Brandenburg from the house of Hohen- 
 zollern, whose son, the elector Frederic IL, was born here in 1413. Other 
 more or less remarkable towns are: Ameburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bis- 
 mark (with 1,800 inhabitants), Osterburg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Werben 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), Arendsee (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Gardelegen 
 (with 5,400 inhabitants). — The ancient principality of Halberstadt primitively 
 an independent bishopric, instituted in 814, and secularized in 1648, when it 
 was, by the title of principality, annexed to the electorate of Brandenburg, 
 contains: Halberstadt, its ancient capital, on the Holzemme river, south- 
 westward and 30 miles distant from Magdeburg, is noted for its Gothic 
 ancient cathedral, and other architectural monuments, is considerably engaged 
 in manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. The neighboring village of 
 Strobeck (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for the skill of its peasantry in 
 playing at chess. Aschersleben, a city on the Eine river, south-eastward and 
 18 miles distant from Halberstadt, with noted woollen manufactures, and 
 11,600 inhabitants. Until the year 1319, Aschersleben was the capital of 
 the earldom of Ascania (see page 402). Oschersleben (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Wegeleben (with 2,600 inhabitants), Osterwiek (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
 Derenburg (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Schwanebeck (with 2,150 inhabitants), 
 more or less notable towns. — Quedlinbueg, a city on the Bode river, south- 
 eastward and 9 miles distant from Halberstadt, with 14,000 inhabitants, con- 
 siderable corn trade, various manufactures, and a highly celebrated and 
 extensive ancient castle, with the sepulchre of Emperor Henry I, who in 
 920 founded Quedlinburg, which was until 1803 the seat of an indepen- 
 dent or sovereign female abbey of the same name. — Wernigerode, a town 
 at the foot of the Brocken (see page 8), has 5,500 inhabitants, and an exten- 
 sive and remarkable mountain castle, the residence of the earl of Stolberg- 
 
PRUSSIA. 479 
 
 The Province of Saxony. 
 
 Wernigerode, who, until 1807, was an independent sovereign of the earldom 
 of Wernigerode (106 square miles, and 18,000 inhabitants), which then 
 became dependent, and was as such annexed to Prussia in 1815. llsenburg, 
 a market-town, with iron-works, and 2,400 inhabitants. — Barby, anciently 
 the capital of an earldom, which, from 1659 to 1815, did belong to the elec- 
 torate (at present kingdom) of Saxony, is situated on the Elbe, and has 
 3,500 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town of Gnadau (with 600 
 inhabitants) is a settlement of Moravian Brethren. 
 
 The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Saxony, and in 
 1815 ceded to Prussia, contains: -[-Merseburg, presently the capital of the 
 governmental district of the same name, on the Saale, about half-way 
 between Halle and Leipsic, is noted for its ancient cathedral and other archi- 
 tectural monuments, and for its excellent beer, and has 11,500 inhabitants. 
 Lutzen, a town at the high-road between Leipsic and Weimar, 13 miles 
 west-south-west of Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted in history for 
 the battle on the 16th Nov., 1632, in which Gustavus Adolphus, the renowned 
 king of Sweden, was killed. Other towns are Schkenditz (with 2,800 inhabi- 
 tants), Lauchstadt (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Schaafstadt (with 2,000 
 inhabitants). Naumburg, a city on the Saale, between Weimar and Leipsic, 
 with a remarkable ancient cathedral, various manufactures, annual fairs 
 (which however are at present rather unimportant), and 13,200 inhabitants. 
 Zeitz, a city on the Elster, south-westward and 24 miles distant from Leip- 
 sic, with woollen and other manufactures, a remarkable ancient castle, and 
 11,200 inhabitants. Querfurt, a town south-westward and 18 miles distant 
 from Halle, with rather considerable trade, and 3,800 inhabitants. Heldrun- 
 gen, a town with 1,850 inhabitants. Mansfeld, formerly the capital of an 
 earldom of the same name, 25 miles west-north-west of Halle, with 1,600 
 inhabitants. Eisleben, a town near two lakes, with several architectural 
 monuments, etc. (among them the house where Luther was born, on the 10th 
 Nov., 1483), various branches of industry, and 9,000 inhabitants. Witten- 
 berg, a strongly fortified city on the Elbe, 44 miles north-north-east of Leip- 
 sic, and 58 miles south-south-west of Berlin, with 11,300 inhabitants, a remark- 
 able ancient castle (once the residence of the electors of Saxony, and whose 
 church it was where Luther affixed his 95 positions, on the 31st Oct, 1517, 
 and where he and Melanchthon are buried), and several higher schools. The 
 once so renowned university, founded in 1602, was in 1817 united with that 
 of Halle Zahna (with 2,300 inhabitants), Pretsch (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 
480 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Saxony. 
 
 Ziebenwerda (with 2,260 inhabitants), Bitter/eld (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
 Grdfenhainchen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Schweinitz (with 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants), towns. Eilenburg, a city on the Mulde, north-eastward and 9 miles 
 distant from Leipsic, is noted for its hops, and has 9,000 inhabitanta De- 
 litzsch, a town with some manufactures, breweries, and 5,000 inhabitants. 
 Duben and Zorbig, towns with respectively 4,700 and 3,000 inhabitants. 
 Torgau, fortified city on the Elbe, 46 miles below Dresden, with a remarka- 
 ble ancient castle, and 9,200 inhabitants. Muhlberg, a town on the Elbe, 
 about half-way between Torgau and Dresden, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is 
 remarkable in history for a battle on the 24th April, 1547, in which the elector 
 John Frederic the Generous (see page 379) was taken prisoner by the troops 
 of Emperor Charles V. Schilda and Elsterwerda, towns with respectively 
 1,750, and 1,400 inhabitants. Weissenfels, a city on the Saale, below 
 Naumburg and Lutzen, with various important manufactures, considerable 
 timber trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Schulpforta, or Pforta, a village in the 
 neighborhood of Naumburg, is noted for its highly celebrated college. The 
 village of Kosen is noted for its salt-springs and works. Eckardtsberga, a 
 town between "Weimar and Naumburg, with 2,000 inhabitants. In its neigh- 
 borhood is situated the village of Auerstddt, where on the very day of the 
 battle of Jena, another chief body of the Prussian army was defeated by the 
 French marshal Davoust. The village of Mernmleben, 9 miles north-north- 
 west of Eckardtsberga, was once the seat of a celebrated Benedictine monas- 
 tery, where the German emperors, Henry I. and Otto I., died. Sanger hau- 
 sen, a town on the little Gonna river, with various important branches of 
 industry, and 6,250 inhabitants. North-westward and 7 miles distant from 
 "Weissenfels, is situated the village of Rossbach, noted in history for the battle 
 on the 5th Nov., 1757. — The ancient duchy of Magdeburg (see above) con- 
 tains, within the limits of the governmental district of Merseburg : Halle, a 
 city on the Saale, and at the Magdeburg and Leipsic Railroad, north-west- 
 ward and 20 miles distant from Leipsic, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its university (see above, and page 287), its considerable salt-works, and 
 its orphan asylum, in an enormous edifice, whose foundation was laid on the 
 13th July, 1698, by a faithful follower of Christ, Augustus Hermann Franlce, 
 by name. The neighboring royal estate of Giebichenstein was in the middle 
 ages highly remarkable for its mountain castle, at present in ruins. Wettin, 
 a town on the Saale, with important coal mines, and 3,400 inhabitants. 
 
 The former territories of the electorate of Mentz (see page 355), within 
 
PRUSSIA. 481 
 
 The Province of Saxony. 
 
 the limits of this province, contain : -{-Erfurt, ancient capital of Thuringia, 
 exactly half-way between Gotha and Weimar, has 82,000 inhabitants, carries 
 on a rather considerable inland trade, is engaged in various branches of indus- 
 try, and noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, several other ancient churches, 
 and its fortifications. The ancient Augustine monastery, in which Luther 
 lived since 1505. is yet extant, as an orphan asylum. Erfurt was in the mid- 
 dle ages an emporium, and since 741 the seat of a bishopric, whose ecclesias- 
 tical authority was in a later period exercised by the electors, archbishops of 
 Mentz, who subsequently became also possessed of the city. In 1806 the 
 French acquired it, and in 1813 Erfurt was restored to Prussia, to which it 
 had been ceded in 1803. The ancient territory of Erfurt contains, among 
 others, the town of Sommerda (with manufactures of hardware and fire-arms, 
 and 3,500 inhabitants), and the market-town of Gross- Vargula (with 1,000 
 inhabitants). Heiligenstadt, ancient capital of the so-called Eichsfeld (see 
 page 440), on the Leine river, 34 miles east-north- east of Cassel, with several 
 remarkable churches, manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Worbis, a town 
 with 2,200 inhabitants. — The Prussian part of the ancient earldom of Hohn- 
 stein (see page 440) contains : Ellrich, its ancient capital, at the foot of the 
 Hartz, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Nordhausen, with several 
 branches of industry, and 3,250 inhabitants. Sachsa, Bleicherode, and Ben- 
 neckenstein, towns with respectively 1,800, 3,000, and 3,800 inhabitants. 
 Muehlhausen (a city half-way between Erfurt and Gottingen, with Gothic 
 churches, rather important manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants) and Nord- 
 hausen (a city at the Giildene Aue, westward and 60 miles distant from 
 Halle, with considerable corn trade, and 13,800 inhabitants), were until 1803 
 imperial cities. — The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Sax- 
 ony, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia, contain, within the limits of this govern- 
 mental district: Langensalza, a city on the Salza, north-westward and 18 
 miles distant from Erfurt, with a remarkable Gothic church, several manu- 
 factures, and 8,300 inhabitants. Tennstadt (with 3,200 inhabitants), Weissen- 
 see (with 2,800 inhabitants), Kindelbruck (with 1,900 inhabitants), Gebesee 
 (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Treffurt (with 2,200 inhabitants). The town 
 of Schleusingen (on the Thuringerwald, 40 miles south-south-west of 
 Erfurt, with a noted gymnasium, and 3,500 inhabitants) was anciently the 
 residence of the princes of Henneberg (see page 388). Suhl, an important 
 manufacturing town, 9 miles north-north-west of Schleusingen, is noted for 
 its fire-arms and hardware manufactures, aud has 8,400 inhabitants. Zie- 
 
 21 
 
482 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Provinces of Saxony and Westphalia. 
 
 genrueck, a town on the Saale, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from 
 Erfurt, with linen manufactures, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Rahnis, 
 a town with 1,300 inhabitants. 
 
 V.— THE PROVINCE OF WESTPHALIA. 
 
 Area : 7,838£ square miles. 
 Population : 1,445,700 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between the Weser and Rhine rivers, on the 
 west bound by the kingdom of the Netherlands, and on the east 
 bordering upon Hesse-Cassel. That Westphalia is no political, 
 but a general name for a tract of land once inhabited by the 
 Westphalians, one of the Saxon tribes, is already alluded to, 
 pages 298 and 441. The present Prussian province of West- 
 phalia bears its name, for the very reason that its political con- 
 stituent parts (as the ancient independent bishoprics of Minister 
 and Paderborn, duchy of Westphalia, earldoms of Mark, Ravens- 
 berg, and Tecklenburg, etc.) are situated within the limits of 
 Westphalia It is subdivided into the governmental districts of 
 Miinster, Minden, and Arnsberg. 
 
 The ancient sovereign bishopric of Munster (instituted in 802 by Charlemagne 
 and secularized in 1 803, when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : -}-Muen- 
 ster, its ancient capital, at present the capital of the province, near the Ems 
 river, northeastward and 70 miles distant from Diisseldorf, and 120 miles 
 east-south-east of Amsterdam, with 25,000 inhabitants, an extensive palace 
 (formerly the residence of the sovereign bishop), a celebrated Gothic cathe- 
 dral, and numerous other architectural monuments, a Gothic city -hall (where 
 the Westphalian peace was concluded in 1648), a Catholic theological faculty 
 
PRUSSIA. 483 
 
 The Province of Westphalia. 
 
 (see above, page 460), various manufactures, and a considerable trade, espe- 
 cially in excellent hams. Telgte (with 2,300 inhabitants), Warendorf (with 
 4,500 inhabitants), Beckum (with 2,200 inhabitants), Ludinghausen (with 
 1,850 inhabitants), and Werne (with 2,000 inhabitants), more or less remark- 
 able towns. Other former territories of the bishopric are, since 1803, de- 
 pendent dominions, chiefly belonging to the princes of Salm, and contain 
 among others : Koesfeld or Coesfeld, a town on the Berkel river, westward 
 and 18 miles distant from Munster, with 2 palaces, paper manufactures, and 
 3,700 inhabitants. Horstmar, a town with 1 ,300 inhabitants. Billerbeck, a 
 town with linen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Aahaus, a town on 
 the Aa river, with princely palace, linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. 
 Bocholt, a town on the Aa, with princely palace, a haudsome Gothic church, 
 various manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. Borken (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
 Stadtlohn (with 2,500 inhabitants), Wreden (with 2,750 inhabitants), towns 
 noted for their linens. Duelmen, a town south-westward and 18 miles dis- 
 tant from Munster, with 3,300 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and a palace 
 of the duke of Croy-Dulmen. Rheina, a town 24 miles north-north-west of 
 Munster, linen, woollen and other manufactures, and 2,600 inhabitants. — To 
 the electorate of Cologne formerly belonged : Recklinghausen (a town south- 
 westward and 9 miles distant from Munster, with linen manufactures, brew- 
 eries, and 3,700 inhabitants), Dorsten (a town with linen and cloth manufac- 
 tures, and 3,100 inhabitants), Anholt (a town south-westward and 60 miles 
 distant from Munster, with 2,100 inhabitants, and an extensive palace of the 
 prince of Salm-Salm), and Steinfurt (a town with 2,900 inhabitants). — Teck- 
 lenburg, ancient capital of an earldom of the same name (which in 1707 was 
 inherited by Prussia), between Munster and Osnabruck, with linen manufac- 
 tures, and 1,400 inhabitants. Lengerich, a town near Tecklenburg, with linen 
 manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Ibbenburen, a town on the Plane river, 
 with linen manufactures, coal mines, and 2,200 inhabitants. 
 
 The ancient independent bishopric of Minden (instituted in 780 by Charle- 
 magne, and secularized in 1648, when the elector of Brandenburg became 
 possessed of it by the title of a principality) contains : -{-Minden, its ancient 
 capital, on the left bank of the Weser, 70 miles above Bremen, and westward 
 and 40 miles distant from Hanover, has 12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for 
 its ancient cathedral, its manufactures, inland trade, and fortress. Minden 
 is one of the most ancient cities of Germany ; Emperor Henry III. was born, 
 and his son Henry IV. resided here for a while. Petershagen (with 2,200 
 
484 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Westphalia. 
 
 inhabitants), and Lubbecke (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Hausberge (with 
 linen manufactures, and 900 inhabitants), Schlusselburg (with linen manufac- 
 tures, and 1,000 inhabitants), and Rahden (with linen manufactures, and 2,300 
 inhabitants), market-towns. — The former independent or sovereign bishopric 
 of Paderborn (instituted in 780 by Charlemagne, and secularized in 1803, 
 when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : Paderborn, its ancient capi- 
 tal, on the little Pader river, southward and 44 miles distant from Minden, 
 with a highly remarkable cathedral, a Catholic theological seminary, brewe- 
 ries, and 9,500 inhabitants. Warburg, a town in one of the most fertile dis- 
 tricts of Westphalia, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Paderborn, 
 with linen manufactures, considerable trade, and 3,600 inhabitants. Driburg, 
 a town noted for its mineral waters, has 2,250 inhabitants. Other more or 
 less notable towns are : Delbruck (with 1,300 inhabitants), Buren (with a 
 handsome Gothic church, and 1,800 inhabitants), Salzkotten (with 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Brakel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lugde or Lude (with 2,200 inhabi- 
 tants). — Corvey, an ancient and extensive castle on the "Weser, south-east- 
 ward and 44 miles distant from Minden, was until 1803 the residence of an 
 independent abbot, whose abbey had been instituted by Louis the Pious in 
 the 9th century. The territory of the abbey, endowed with the title of a de- 
 pendent principality, belongs at present to the dependent prince of Hoheu- 
 lohe-Schillingsfurst, and contains (beside that castle and some villages) the 
 town of H'dxter, on the Weser, and in the neighborhood of the castle of Cor- 
 vey, with important branches of industry, and 3,800 inhabitants. — The ancieut 
 earldom of Ravensberg, which in 1666 was inherited by the elector of Bran- 
 denburg, contains: Bielefeld, its ancient capital, south-westward and 27 
 miles distant from Minden, and south-eastward and 30 miles distant from 
 Osnabriick, is highly renowned for its excellent linens, and has 10,500 inhabi- 
 tants. The neighboring villages of Brackwede (with 1,200 inhabitants) and 
 Jssellvorst (with 1,200 inhabitants), the market-town of Schildesche (with 2,500 
 inhabitants), and the towns of Werther (with 2,100 inhabitants), Versmold 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants), Borgholzhausen (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Bunde 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their linen manufactures. 
 Herford, a city north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Bielefeld, with va- 
 rious manufactures, some literary institutions, and 8,800 inhabitants. En- 
 ger, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted in history as having been 
 once the seat of the celebrated Saxon duke Wittekind. Rheda (with noted 
 linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants), and Rietberg (with important 
 
PRUSSIA. 485 
 
 The Province of Westphalia. 
 
 linen manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants), are the capitals of dependent 
 principalities of the same names. 
 
 The ancient duchy of Westphalia was primitively nothing but part of West- 
 phalia in general, and thus belonged to the ancient duchy of Saxony. After 
 Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, having been outlawed in 1180, this part of 
 his duchy was, by the title of a duchy of Westphalia, given and annexed to 
 the archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. In 1803 Hesse-Darmstadt, and 
 in 1816 Prussia became possessed of it. It contains: -{-Abnsberg, its for- 
 mer capital on the Ruhr, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Miin- 
 ster, with the ruins of an anciently very remarkable mountain castle, and 
 4,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages Arnsberg was a member of the Han- 
 seatic League. Brilon, a town at the high-road between Arnsberg and Cas- 
 seL with some manufactures of hardware, and 3/700 inhabitants. In the 
 middle ages Brilon belonged to the Hanseatic League as actual member. 
 Other more or less remarkable towns are : Olpe (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Neheim (with 2,200 inhabitants), Marsberg, also named Stadtberg (with 
 3,600 inhabitants), Meschede (with 2,200 inhabitants), Gesecke (with 3,550 in- 
 habitants,) Mmden (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Werl (anciently noted for 
 its trade, at present for its salt-works, has 3,900 inhabitants). — The ancient 
 earldom of Mark (whose native earls became extinct in 1609, when the elec- 
 tor of Brandenburg became possessed of it by way of inheritance) contains: 
 Hamm, its ancient capital, on the Lippe river, north-westward and 23 miles 
 distant from Arnsberg, and south-eastward and 24 miles distant from Miin- 
 ster, with linen manufactures, linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Iserlohn, 
 an important manufacturing town in a mountainous district, westward and 
 23 miles distant from Arnsberg, is especially noted for its hardware, and has 
 11,100 inhabitants. Similar articles, as in Iserlohn, are fabricated in the 
 neighboring manufacturing town of Altena, with 4,900 inhabitants. Other 
 towns noted for their manufactures, are : Bockum (with 4,400 inhabitants), 
 Hattingen (with 4,500 inhabitants), Ludenscheid (with 4,000 inhabitants), Ha- 
 gen (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Schwelm (with 4,400 inhabitants). The 
 town of Unna (between Arnsberg and Hamm, with 5,500 inhabitants), is 
 noted for its salt-works. The town of Horde (with 2,200 inhabitants) is 
 noted for its coal mines. Soest, a city in one of the most fertile districts of 
 Westphalia, is chiefly engaged in linen manufacturing and corn trade, has 
 8,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages a renowned member of the 
 Hanseatic League. — Dortmund, a city in a fertile district, north-westward 
 
486 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia. — Province of Westphalia and Rhenish Province. 
 
 and 32 miles distant from Arnsberg, with considerable manufactures and 
 trade, and 7,900 inhabitants, was, like Soest, a renowned member of the 
 Hanseatic League, and traded to Nowgorod, in Russia, as well as to London, 
 etc. — The former principality of Nassau Siegen (which in 1806 was annexed 
 to the grand-duchy of Berg, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia) contains : Siegen, 
 its ancient capital, on the Sieg river, 46 miles east-south-east of Cologne, and 
 southward and 45 miles distant from Arnsberg, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its iron mines and manufactures. Hilchenbach, a town at the foot 
 of the Westerwald, 7 miles north-north-east of Siegen, with various manu- 
 factures, iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. The neighboring village of 
 Grund is remarkable as the birth-place of the pious, and among faithful 
 Christians, well-known Jung-Stilling. — Berleburg (south- eastward and 30 
 miles distant from Arnsberg, with a handsome princely palace, iron-works, 
 and 2,400 inhabitants) and Laasphe (southward and 9 miles distant from 
 Berleburg, with 2,200 inhabitants, cloth manufactures, iron-works, and a 
 stately princely palace), are capitals of the dependent principalities of Witt- 
 genstein. 
 
 VL— THE RHENISH PROVINCE. 
 
 Area : 10,373 square miles. 
 Population : 2,763,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This province (formerly consisting of two provinces, viz., Ju- 
 lich-Cleve-Berg and Lower Rhine) has been thus styled on ac- 
 count of its being situated on both sides (though chiefly on the 
 left bank) of the Rhine, and comprises (with the exception of the 
 ancient duchies of Cleve and Geldern, and principality of Moers) 
 only newly acquired (i. e. since 1815) territories, the most notable 
 of which are the former electorates of Treves and Cologne, the 
 duchies of Berg and Juliers, etc. In the beginning of the present 
 
PRUSSIA. 487 
 
 The Rhenish Province. 
 
 century there were about 100 independent dominions of the Ger- 
 man empire in the present Rhenish province, which is subdivided 
 into the 5 governmental districts of Coblenz, Treves, Aix la Cha- 
 pelle, Cologne and Dusseldorf. 
 
 The former independent or sovereign archbishopric and electorate of Treves 
 is of very ancient origin ; its first bishop, Agritius by name, being appointed 
 as early as in 327 by the Roman emperor Constantine. He took his seat in 
 the city of Treves, and his successors, raised to the dignity of archbishops and 
 electors, became in the course of time possessed of considerable territories. 
 According to the terms of the treaty concluded at Luneville in 1801, the ter- 
 ritories situated on the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France ; while 
 the remainder, on the right bank of this river, was in 1803 given to Nassau- 
 What in 1814 France restored, Prussia became possessed of, together with a 
 little district on the right bank of the Rhine. The territories of the electorate 
 within the limits of the following governmental district contain : -+-Coblenz, 
 a fortified city, and formerly the residence of the elector archbishop of 
 Treves, on the left bank of the Rhine (crossed here by a bridge of boats 
 1,100 feet long), at its junction with the Moselle (crossed by a beautiful 
 Gothic bridge, reared in the middle of the 14th century and thoroughly 
 built of freestone), about half-way between Mentz and Cologne, with vari- 
 ous and important manufactures, considerable trade, and 23,000 inhabitants. 
 Coblenz, at present the capital of the Rhenish province, is noted for several 
 literary institutions, the former electoral palace, several remarkable ancient 
 churches, and for its fortifications, among which ranks first the very strong 
 fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Co- 
 blenz, and standing on a high rock, at the foot of which is situated the town 
 of Thai- Ehrenbreitstein, with 4,200 inhabitants. Vallendar, a town on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, with important leather manufactures, and 3,400 
 inhabitants. Boppard, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, with vine cul- 
 ture, noted potteries, and 4,200 inhabitants. Oberwesel, a town on the Rhine, 
 with vine culture, and 2,850 inhabitants. Stolzenfels, a remarkable Gothic 
 mountain castle, at present arranged as the private palace of the king of 
 Prussia. Kochheim and Zell, towns on the Moselle, with vine culture, and 
 respectively 2,700 and 2,300 inhabitants. — The territories of the former elec- 
 torate of Cologne (see forward under the head of Cologne), within the limits 
 of this governmental district, contain : Andebnach, a town on the left bank of 
 
488 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Rhenish Province. 
 
 the Rhine, 14 miles below Coblenz, with considerable trade, and 3,800 in- 
 habitants. Rhense, a market-town on the Rhine, 5 miles above Coblenz, 
 has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its anciently celebrated king's seat 
 (Konigsstuhl), an open building resting on 9 pillars. The market-towns of 
 Unkel (with 900 inhabitants) and Erpel (with 900 inhabitants), are noted for 
 their wines. Ahrweiler, a town on the Ahr river, has 2,600 inhabitants, and 
 is renowned for its wines. Linz, a town on the Rhine, 30 miles below Co- 
 blenz, and north-westward and nearly 400 miles distant from Linz in Aus- 
 tria, with vine culture, and 2,650 inhabitants. — To various territories formerly 
 belonged : St. Goar, ancient capital of the lower earldom of Katzenellnbo- 
 gen (see page 364), on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St. Goarshausen 
 (in Nassau), with important leather manufactures, and 1,100 inhabitants. 
 Remagen (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Sinzig (with 2.000 inhabitants), towns 
 formerly belonging to the duchy of Juliers Bacharach, a town on the 
 Rhine, with vine culture, and 1,750 inhabitants. Kreuznach, a town on the 
 Nahe river, southward and 9 miles distant from Bingen, with important lea- 
 ther manufactures and vine culture, salt-works, bathing, and 9,400 inhabitants. 
 Simmern, formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, on the 
 Hunsruck, with leather and other manufactures, iron-works, and 3,300 inhabi- 
 tants. Sobernheim, a town with vine culture, and 2,700 inhabitants. Kirn, 
 a town on the Nahe river, with coal mines, and 1,950 inhabitants. Wetzlar, 
 formerly an imperial city, and from 1691 to 1806 the seat of the Supreme 
 Tribunal of the German Empire (see page 293), romantically situated on the 
 Lahn river, 46 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, and north-westward and 33 
 miles distant from Frankfort, with remarkable ancient cathedral, and 5,700 
 inhabitants. — Neuwied, the capital of the dependent principality or earl- 
 dom of Wied, on the Rhine (right bank), 10 miles below Coblenz, with a 
 magnificent princely palace, various higher schools, numerous manufactures, 
 and 6,250 inhabitants, among whom are many Moravian Brethren. Braun- 
 fels (near Wetzlar, with 1,800 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent 
 dominion belonging to the prince of Solms-Braunfels. 
 
 The territories of the former electorate of Treves, within the limits of the 
 following governmental district, contain : -{-Treves (in German Trier), for- 
 merly the capital of the electorate, on the Moselle (crossed by a bridge 
 built of freestone, and 690 feet long), south-westward and 60 miles distant 
 from Coblenz, has 20,000 inhabitants, various manufactures and vine culture, 
 and is renowned for its very ancient cathedral and numerous other architec- 
 
PRUSSIA. 489 
 
 The Rhenish Province. 
 
 tural monuments. Treves is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, and 
 was frequently the temporary residence of the Roman emperors, subse- 
 quently also the seat of the Roman governor of Gaul. The market-town 
 of Pfalzel (with 1,300 inhabitants), and the villages of Piesport (with 600 
 inhabitants), Dusemond (with 700 inhabitants), and Guns (with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants), situated on the Moselle, are noted for their wines. More or less 
 celebrated towns are: Bernkastel (with 2,400 inhabitants), Wittlich (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Merzig (with 3,700 inhabitants), and Saarburg (with 
 2,200 inhabitants). The town of St. Wendel (on the Blies river, south-east- 
 ward and 82 miles distant from Treves, with 2,800 inhabitants) was until 
 1884 the capital of the principality of Lichtenberg, which then was ceded 
 by Saxe-Gotha to Prussia (see page 393). To various other territories did 
 formerly belong: Saarbbueck, until 1801 the capital of an earldom belong- 
 ing to the princely house of Nassau, on the Saar, south-westward and 80 
 miles distant from Treves, has 8,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- 
 factures and coal mines. Ottweiler, a town on the Blies river, with some 
 manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Pbuem, a town at the foot of the 
 Eifel, north-eastward, and 34 miles distant from Treves, with important 
 leather manufactures, and 2,500 inhabitants. Bitburg, a town between 
 Prum and Treves, with 2,200 inhabitants, and Neuerburg, market-town, with 
 1,7000 inhabitants, formerly belonged to the duchy of Luxemburg. Veldenz, 
 a village with 800 inhabitants, is noted for its mines and iron-works. Saar- 
 louis, strongly fortified town on the Saar river, southward and 30 miles 
 distant from Treves, with various manufactures, and 7,200 inhabitants. Saar- 
 louis, founded by Louis XIV., did until 1815 belong to France. 
 
 The formerly imperial city of Aix-la-Chapelle, founded or at least embel- 
 lished by Charlemagne, was for a long while considered as the capital of the 
 German empire. In the period from 813 to 1558, the emperors were usu- 
 ally crowned here. Towards the close of the last century, the city was 
 occupied by the French, and in 1801 formally ceded to France. In 1815 
 Prussia became possessed of it. We thus describe : -j- Aix-la-Chapelle (in 
 German Aachen), at present the capital of a governmental district of the 
 same name, close by the Netherlandish frontier, eastward and 18 miles dis- 
 tant from Mastricht, and westward and 40 miles distant from Cologne, has 
 48,600 inhabitants, and is renowned for its numerous and important manu- 
 factures of fine cloth, cassimere, pins, needles, and various other articles, for 
 its mineral waters and baths, and finally for its numerous architectural mon- 
 
490 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia. — Rhenish Province. 
 
 uments, among which ranks first the very ancient Gothic cathedral (founded 
 in 796 by Charlemagne, who lies buried here), with many historical curios- 
 ities, and next to it the Gothic city-hall, reared in 1353, and standing upon 
 the same spot where the palace of Charlemagne was. The neighboring 
 town of Burtscheid (with 5,700 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth, cassimere, 
 and needle manufactures, and its hot sulphur baths. — The ancient duchy of 
 Juliers (whose native sovereigns became extinct in 1423, when the duchy 
 was inherited by the dukes of Berg; from 1666 to the end of last century, 
 the electors of the Palatinate were possessed of it, and in 1815 it was ceded 
 to Prussia) contains, within the limits of this governmental district : Juliers 
 (in German Jiilich), its ancient capital, on the Roer, north-eastward and 18 
 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is fortified, and has 4,400 inhabitants. 
 JDuren, a city on the Roer, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- 
 factures of cloth, cassimere, etc., of hardware and various other articles. 
 Stollberg, important manufacturing town, eastward and 7 miles distant from 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its various 
 and numerous articles made of brass. Montjoie, a noted manufacturing 
 town, near the head of the Roer, southward and 18 miles distant from Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, and is renowned for its fine cloth and cassimere. Eschweiler, a man- 
 ufacturing town on the Inde river, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 silks, woollens, etc., and for its coal mines. Imgenbroich, a village with con- 
 siderable manufactures of cloth and cassimere, and 900 inhabitants. — To 
 various other territories formerly belonged : Eupen (in French Ne.au), a noted 
 manufacturing town, romantically situated on the little Wenze river, south- 
 ward and 12 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, has 12,400 inhabitants, and 
 is noted especially for its superfine cloth and cassimere. Herzogenrath (in 
 French Rolduc, or Rode le Due), a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its coal mines and quarries. 
 Schleiden, a market-town on the Eifel, south-eastward and 24 miles distant 
 from Aix-la-Chapelle, with manufactures of woollens, etc., iron-works, and 
 750 inhabitants. Malmedy, a town on the Warge river, southward and 23 
 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the most important leather manu- 
 factures in Prussia, mineral waters, and 4,300 inhabitants. Corneliwmunster, 
 a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix-la-Chapelle, with cloth and cassi- 
 mere manufactures, quarries, lead mines, and 800 inhabitants. 
 
 The former archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. As first bishop of 
 Cologne, is considered Maternus, who lived about the year 314 ; this bishop- 
 
PRUSSIA. 4 91 
 
 The Rhenish Province. 
 
 ric was in 745 raised to the dignity of an archbishopric. The archbishop 
 Heribert (997-1021) was invested with the electoral privileges, and in the 
 course of time, considerable dominions were acquired, especially in West- 
 phalia, since Duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion, had been outlawed 
 (see before, under Westphalia). Since the year 1263, the archbishops, elec- 
 tors, resided usually in Bonn or in Bruhl, and not more in Cologne, on 
 account of altercations with this city, that relied upon its privileges as impe- 
 rial city, and was not willing to be unconditionally subjected to the author- 
 ity of the archbishop. It may be mentioned here by the way, that arch- 
 bishop Guebhard of Waldburg, who occupied the see in the period of 
 1577-83, turned Protestant, being enamored of the fair countess, Agnes of 
 Mansfeld, whom he married. However his chapter chose instantly another 
 archbishop in his place. Since the end of the last century, the electorate 
 underwent the same vicissitudes as the electorate of Treves. Its territories, 
 within the limits of the following governmental district, contained : -{-Co- 
 logne (in German Coin), the largest city in the Rhenish province, on the 
 Rhine (left bank), crossed here by a bridge of boats, had, at the close of the 
 year 1846, 9,020 habitations, 227 public edifices (among them 25 churches 
 and 8 chapels), and 95,202 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and highly famed 
 for its important trade and commerce, its numerous manufactures (univer- 
 sally known is the excellent Cologne-water), its literary institutions, and for 
 its vast number of interesting monuments of Gothic architecture. Among 
 the latter ranks first the sublime edifice of the cathedral, which was founded 
 in 1248, and since the days of the Reformation left unfinished, thoifgh at 
 present the completion of the work is projected. In the middle ages Cologne 
 was a powerful and far-renowned commercial and manufacturing city, num- 
 bered 30,000 warriors, and had a population of more than 150,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Opposite Cologne, is situated on the Rhine, the town of Deutz, with 
 various manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. Bruhl, a market-town roman- 
 tically situated at the foot of the Eifel, southward and 5 miles distant from 
 Cologne, with 1,600 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace and park. The 
 archbishops of Cologne resided here in the summer season. Bonn, a city on 
 the Rhine, formerly the usual residence of the electors of Cologne, 14 miles 
 above Cologne, has 18,000 inhabitants, and is since 1818 noted for its univer- 
 sity (see above and page 287), to which is ceded the former palace of the 
 electors. Zulpich, a town in a fertile and romantic plain, south-westward 
 and 23 miles distant from Cologne, has 1,400 inhabitants, and is historically 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Rhenish Province. 
 
 remarkable for a decisive victory obtained here by King Clovis over the Ale- 
 manni, in 496. Konigswinter, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and at the 
 foot of the Seven Hills (see page 8), has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for 
 its quarries. The market-town of Bedburg (with 700 inhabitants) is noted 
 for its college. — The towns of Munstereifel (with woollen manufactures, and 
 2,100 inhabitants) and Euskirchen (with 3,250 inhabitants), belonged to the 
 ancient duchy of Juliers. — The ancient duchy of Berg (see below) contains, 
 within the limits of this governmental district: Siegburg, a town on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, and on the Sieg river, with a madhouse, and 3,200 
 inhabitants. Muhlheim am Ehein, a town on the Rhine, opposite Cologne, 
 with important manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. The 
 village of Bensberg (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its military academy. 
 The village of Waldbroel (with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its iron-works. 
 Wipperfurt, a town on the Wupper, below Elberfeld, with woollen manu- 
 factures, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The ancient duchy of Berg (whose native sovereigns became extinct in the 
 17th century, when the Palatines became possessed of it by way of inher- 
 itance; in 1806 it was ceded to France by the king of Bavaria, from the 
 Palatine house, and in 1815 to Prussia) contains: -(-Duesseldorf, its ancient 
 capital, on the Rhine (right bank), between Cologne and Wesel, north-east- 
 ward and 46 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is at present the capital of 
 a governmental district of the same name (2,087 square miles, and 892,500 
 inhabitants), carries on a considerable trade, especially to Holland, has a 
 vast number of various and important manufactures, and 28,000 inhabitants, 
 and is famed for its literary and artistical institutions. (About the gallery 
 of paintings, which was here until 1806, see page 288.) The neighboring 
 village of Pempelfort (with 2,300 inhabitants) is noted for its greens. In 
 the neighboring Dusselthal (formerly a Carthusian monastery) was founded in 
 1819, an institution for educating disorderly children. Ratingen and Gerres- 
 heim, towns with respectively 4,200 and 1,500 inhabitants. Elberfeld, one of 
 the moBt important manufacturing and trading towns in the kingdom, on the 
 Wupper, eastward and 19 miles distant from Diisseldorf, has 38,250 inhabi- 
 tants, and is famed especially for its cotton and silk articles, ribbons, and 
 dyeing in Turkish red. The whole valley along the Wupper, upwards to and 
 beyond Barmen (with 34,950 inhabitants), is covered with factories of various 
 kinds, and the density of population is 471 on a square mile, in the neigh- 
 borhood of Elberfeld and Barmen. Solingen, likewise a very important 
 
PRUSSIA. 493 
 
 The Rhenish Province. 
 
 manufacturing town, on the Wupper, 10 miles below Elberfeld, is from old 
 renowned for its sword-blades and cutleries, and has 6,300 inhabitants. 
 Remscheid, a manufacturing town in the neighborhood of Elberfeld, is famed 
 for its steel and iron-works, especially for its farming utensils. Its township 
 has 12,100 inhabitants. Lennep, a manufacturing town on a little river of 
 the same name, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Elberfeld, has 
 6,900 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and other woollen articles. 
 Other towns noted for their manufactures of cotton goods, woollens, cutlery, 
 hardware, etc., are : Burscheid and Leichlingen (united and together, with 
 11,000 inhabitants), Opladen and Neukirchen (united and together, with 
 8,400 inhabitants), Graf rath (with 4,400 inhabitants), Wulfrath (with 1,200 
 inhabitants), Hohscheid (with 11,650 inhabitants), Ronsdorf (with 7,000 
 inhabitants), Huckeswagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wald (with 4,650 inhabi- 
 tants), Rode vor dem Wald (with 1,300 inhabitants), Luttringhausen (with 
 1,100 inhabitants), Neviges (with 1,500 inhabitants), Langenberg (with 2,500 
 inhabitants), and Mettmann (with 2,800 inhabitants). The city of Muhlheim 
 an der Ruhr, situated on the river Ruhr, between Dusseldorf and Wesel, 
 with 10,000 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its manufactures, but especially 
 for its coal mines. — The former territories of the electorate of Cologne (see 
 back) contain, within the limits of this governmental district : Kempen, a 
 town on the Niers river, westward and 9 miles from Crefeld, has 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its linens and flax. The Christian author, Thomas 
 Hammerken, universally known by the name of Thomas a Kempis, was born 
 here in 1380. Neuss, a city on the Erft, near its junction with the Rhine, 7 
 miles above Dusseldorf, is noted for its Gothic church (founded in 825), its 
 cloth and cassimere manufactures, and considerable corn trade, and has 
 9,800 inhabitants. The towns of Uerdingen, (with 3,100 inhabitants), Wevel- 
 inghoven (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Odenkirchen (with 1,550 inhabitants), 
 are noted- for their manufactures, especially of cotton goods. — To the ancient 
 duchy of Juliers (see above) belonged: Gladbach, a town near the Mers 
 river, westward and 17 miles distant from Dusseldorf, is famed for its excel- 
 lent linens, and has 3,300 inhabitants. Grevenbroich, a town on the Erft, 
 with manufactures of woollens and hardware, and 1,000 inhabitants. Dulken, 
 a town with 2,500 inhabitants, is noted for its flax. Dahlen, a town with 
 considerable linen trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Rheidt, a manufacturing 
 town, with 3,800 inhabitants. — To various other dominions formerly belonged : 
 Kaiserswerth, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and in the neighborhood of 
 
494 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia. — Rhenish Province. 
 
 Diisseldorf, with 2,100 inhabitants. Essen, a city on the Berne river, south- 
 eastward and 24 miles distant from Wesel, with a remarkable ancient church, 
 manufactures of hardware, etc., coal mines, and 7,300 inhabitants. Werden, 
 a city on the Ruhr, with cloth and other manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. 
 Ketlwig, a town with 2,800 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. 
 — The ancient duchy of Cleve (whose native dukes became extinct in the 17 th 
 century, when Brandenburg or Prussia became possessed of it) contains : 
 Cleve, its former capital, near the Rhine, 46 miles north-north-west of Diis- 
 seldorf, with a renowned ancient castle, some manufactures, and 7,700 inhab- 
 itants. Calcar, a market- town, with flannel manufactures, and 1,900 inhabi- 
 tants. Goch, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, with cotton manufactures, 
 and 3,900 inhabitants. Cranenburg, a market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. 
 Xanten, a town on the Rhine (left bank), has 3,200 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its Gothic church, and cloth, cassimere, and other manufactures. Orsoy, a 
 town on the Rhine, with woollen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Rees, 
 a town on the Rhine (right bank), below Wesel, with 3,700 inhabitants, who 
 are largely engaged in agricultural business. Anciently tins town was noted 
 for its fortress. Emmerich, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and close by 
 the Netherlandish frontier, with rather important manufactures, and 6,500 
 inhabitants. Isselburg, or Ysselburg, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, 
 with foundries, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Wesel, a strongly fortified 
 city on the Rhine (right bank), at its junction with the Lippe, with numerous 
 manufactures, and 16,000 inhabitants. Duisbicrg, a city on the Ruhr, 2£ 
 miles from its junction with the Rhine, with numerous manufactures, and 
 7,700 inhabitants, was in the period from 1655 to 1802 the seat of a univer- 
 sity. Ruhrort, a town on the Ruhr, at its junction with the Rhine, is noted 
 for its coal trade, and has 3,400 inhabitants. Dinslaken, a town near the 
 Rhine, with cotton manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. — The ancient duchy 
 of Geldern (since 1543 forming part of the duchy of Burgundy, until in 
 1713 one part was ceded to the republic of the Netherlands, and the other 
 to Prussia) contains : Geldern, its ancient capital, 23 miles south-south-east 
 of Cleve, with cloth and flannel manufactures, breweries, and 3,850 inhabi- 
 tants. Viersen, a noted manufacturing town, with 5,250 inhabitants. — The 
 ancient principality of Moers (whose native princes became extinct in 1488, 
 when it was inherited by the princely house of Nassau, while in the begin- 
 ning of last century, Prussia became possessed of it by way of inheritance) 
 contains : Moers, or Meurs, its ancient capital, near the Rhine (left bank), 
 
PRUSSIA. 495 
 
 Prussia.— Province of Prussia. 
 
 with 3,200 inhabitants, and manufactures of silks, woollens, and cotton goods. 
 Yet the most important city of the ancient principality is Kkefeld, situated 
 on a fertile plain, about 5 miles from the Rhine, north-westward and 12 
 miles distant from Diisseldorf, has 30,000 inhabitants, and is highly renowned 
 for its silks and velvet, moreover for its cloth, cassimere, and various other 
 articles. 
 
 Vn.— THE PROVINCE OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Area : 25,091 square miles. 
 Population : 2,499,400 inhabitants. 
 
 This province has derived its name from the ancient Prussians, 
 a mixed Germanic and Slavonic tribe, who respectively since the 
 3d and 6th centuries of the Christian era had settled in the 
 country. They were fanatic pagans, and evinced their hatred 
 against Christianity on numerous occasions. Especially in Po- 
 land they made frequent plundering incursions, by which at last 
 the sovereign of this country was induced to require the assist- 
 ance of the Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336). That thi3 
 order conquered the country of the Prussians (which had the 
 same extent as the present province), and that in 1525 it was 
 transformed into a duchy, and in 1618 inherited by the reigning 
 house of Brandenburg, is already related above in the general 
 history of Prussia. Formerly the present province of Prussia 
 consisted of two, styled East and West Prussia, and their names 
 occur still in common life ; but at present they are imited into 
 one, which is subdivided into the 4 governmental districts of 
 Konigsberg, Gumbinnen (formerly constituting the. province of 
 
496 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Its Governmental Districts. 
 
 East Prussia), Danlzic and Marienweirler (these two latter consti- 
 tuted formerly the province of West Prussia.) 
 
 +K6nigsberg, the capital of the province, and considered as the third 
 royal residence, on the Pregel (see page 13), north-eastward and 360 miles 
 distant from Berlin, and south-westward and 550 miles distant from St. Pe- 
 tersburg, has 7*7,100 inhabitants, carries on a considerable commerce, and 
 is noted not only for its university (see page 460), but also its remark- 
 able ancient ducal, at present royal palace, 333 feet long by 213 feet wide, 
 and containing many historical curiosities, and for several other architectural 
 monuments. The seaport of Konigsberg is at Pillau, a fortified town at 
 the entrance into the Fresh Haff, with commerce, and 4,700 inhabitants. 
 Memel, a maritime town on the Baltic, and the Russian frontier, northward 
 and 96 miles distant from Konigsberg, with considerable trade (especially 
 in timber) and commerce, and 10,250 inhabitants. The towns of Eylau (prop- 
 erly styled Preussisch Eylau, is situated southward and 23 miles distant from 
 Konigsberg, and has 2,800 inhabitants) and Friedland (south-eastward and 
 32 miles distant from Konigsberg, with 2,650 inhabitants) are noted for bat- 
 tles fought here respectively on the 7th and 8th February, and on the 14th 
 June, 1807. Braunsberg, a city on the Passarge, with various manufactures, 
 rather considerable trade, noted high schools, and 9,100 inhabitants. Frau- 
 enburg, a town on the Fresh Haff, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of 
 Ermeland, and has 2,500 inhabitants. The celebrated astronomer Nicholas 
 Copernicus died here in 1543. Other more or less remarkable towns are: 
 Welau (with 4,200 inhabitants), Tapiau (with 3,400 inhabitants), Heiligenbeil 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Schippenbeil (with 2,650 inhabitants), Bartenstein 
 (with 4,200 inhabitants), Rastenburg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Gerdauen 
 (with 2,500 inhabitants), Wormditt (with 3,550 inhabitants), Mehlsack (with 
 3,100 inhabitants), Heilsberg (with 4,600 inhabitants), Allenstein (with 3,600 
 inhabitants), Preussisch-Holland (with 3,600 inhabitants), Mohrungen (with 
 2,900 inhabitants), Neidenburg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soldau (with 2,000 
 inhabitants), and Ortelsburg (with 1,750 inhabitants). South-eastward and 
 65 miles distant from Konigsberg is situated, in the neighborhood of Rasten- 
 burg, the celebrated Catholic convent of Heilige Linde (holy linden), a place 
 of great report for pilgrims, to visit its holy shrine. 
 
 -}-GuMBiNNEN, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, 
 eastward and 66 miles distant from Konigsberg, and northward and 170 
 
PRUSSIA. 497 
 
 The Province of Prussia. 
 
 miles distant from Warsaw, is well built, carries on a considerable corn trade, 
 and has 6,800 inhabitants. Insterburg, a city on the Inster river, westward 
 and 16 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with notable stud, corn trade, and 
 9,700 inhabitants. Stallupdhnen, a town near the Russian frontier, eastward 
 and 17 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with cattle trade, and 3,150 inhabi- 
 tants. South-eastward and 7 miles from here is the highly noted royal stud 
 of Trakehnen. Southward and 72 miles distant from Insterburg is situ- 
 ated the town of Johannisburg (with a historically remarkable castle, and 
 2,100 inhabitants), near the extensive forest of the same name, and 30 miles 
 in length. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Angerburg (with 
 3,600 inhabitants), Goldapp (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lyck (with 3,550 in- 
 habitants), Oletzko (with 3,100 inhabitants), Sensburg (with 2,400 inhabi- 
 tants), Nikolaiken (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lotzen (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Ragnit (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bialla (with 1,300 inhabitants), Schirwind 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Pillkallen (with 1,900 inhabitants), and Darkehmen 
 (with 2,400 inhabitants). Tilsit, a city on the Memel river, north-eastward 
 and 74 miles distant from Konigsberg, with noted horse-marts, considerable 
 trade, and 13,900 inhabitants. Historically remarkable is this city for the 
 treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th of July, 1807. 
 
 -{-Dantzick. (in German Danzig), the capital of a governmental district 
 of the same name, on a branch of the Vistula, 5 miles from the Baltic Sea, 
 120 miles west-south-west of Konigsberg, is one of the first maritime and 
 commercial cities of the kingdom, engaged in numerous branches of indus- 
 try, and strongly fortified, has 66,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for 
 several of its Gothic churches and other architectural monuments. Dant- 
 zick is of very ancient origin, and was already in the 6th century a very nota- 
 ble place ; in 1310 it came under the sway of the Teutonic order, and in 1454 
 under that of Poland, until in 1793 Prussia became possessed of it. The 
 actual seaport of Dantzick is at Neufahrwasser and Weichselmunde, on the 
 Baltic Sea. Oliva, a market-town in the neighborhood of Dantzick, with 
 1,400 inhabitants, and an ancient Cistercian abbey, noted in history for a 
 treaty of peace concluded here on the 3d of May, 1660, between Prussia and 
 Poland. Elbing, a city in a fertile district near the Fresh Haff, 40 miles 
 east-south-east of Dantzick, has 20,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its char- 
 ities for the poor, its commerce and manufactures. Marienburg, a city on 
 the Nogat, south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Dantzick, has 6,600 in- 
 habitants, and is famed for its having been anciently the chief seat of the 
 
498 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia.— Its Governmental Districts. 
 
 Teutonic Order, whose master resided here in an extensive and admirable 
 Gothic castle, which in recent times is completely restored. Tolkemit, a 
 town on the Fresh Haff, is noted for its fishing and fowling, and has 2,300 
 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : Putzig (with 2,300 in- 
 habitants), Berent (with 2,300 inhabitants), Schbneck (with 2,200 inhabi 
 tants), Dirschau (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Carthaus (with 600 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 -{-Marienwerder, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, 
 in a fertile plain near the Vistula, 64 miles south-south-east of Dantzick, with 
 an extensive ancient castle, a remarkable Gothic church, corn trade, and 
 6,250 inhabitants. Culm, a city near the Vistula, southward and 76 miles 
 distant from Dantzick, with a military academy, some woollen manufactures, 
 and 6,800 inhabitants. In the middle ages Culm was an important member 
 of the Hanseatic League, and famed for its cloth manufactures. Graudenz, 
 a city on the Vistula (crossed here by a bridge of boats, 2,700 feet long), 18 
 miles south-south-west of Marienwerder, has 8,700 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its strong fortress. Thorn, a strongly fortified city, on the Vistula, north- 
 westward and 125 miles distant from Warsaw, has 12,000 inhabitants, and 
 is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Nicholas 
 Copernicus (born in 1473), and noted for its gingerbread, corn, and timber 
 trade. Christburg, a town on the Sorge river, with cloth and linen manu- 
 factures, and 2,700 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Stuhmsdorf is 
 remarkable in history for a convention concluded here on the 9th September, 
 1635, between Sweden and Poland. Lobau, a town south-eastward and 43 
 miles distant from Marienwerder, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 linen and flax Other more or less notable towns are : Stuhm (with 1,300 
 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Riesenburg (with 3,600 in- 
 habitants), Gollup (with 2,300 inhabitants), Oulmsee (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
 Briesen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Schwetz (with 3,200 inhabitants), Conitz 
 (with 4,100 inhabitants), Schlochau (with 2,100 inhabitants), Deutsch-Crone 
 (with 3,900 inhabitants), Hammerstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), Jasirow (with 
 3,750 inhabitants), Flatow (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Zempelburg (with 
 3,500 inhabitants). 
 
PRUSSIA. 499 
 
 The Province of Posen. 
 
 VHL— THE PROVINCE OF POSEN. 
 
 Area: 11,417 square miles. 
 Population : 1,364,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This province was until 1795, when Prussia took possession of 
 it, a constituent part of the ancient kingdom of Poland ; it was in 
 1807 annexed to the then created grand-duchy of Warsaw, and 
 in 1814 restored to Prussia. (About its other historical particu- 
 lars see history of Poland under the head of Russia.) The title 
 of a grand-duchy conferred upon this province, is but seldom 
 used. It is subdivided into the two governmental districts of 
 Posen and Bromberg, and contains : 
 
 -[-Posen, the capital of the province, on the Warthe river, about half-way 
 between Berlin and Warsaw, is at present strongly fortified, has 40,500 in- 
 habitants (of whom 18,500 are Roman Catholics, 12,000 Protestants, and 
 10,000 Jews), and is noted for its handsome cathedral and several other 
 churches, its remarkable city-hall, its literary institutions, manufactures, and 
 considerable trade. Posen was in the middle ages for a long while the 
 residence of the Polish sovereigns. Fraustadt (in Polish Wschowa), a city 
 near the frontier of Silesia, with noted cloth and linen manufactures, consid- 
 erable corn trade, and 6,100 inhabitants. Other cities and towns noted for 
 their manufactures of various articles are : Lissa (with 9,300 inhabitants), 
 Rawicz (with 10,200 inhabitants), Krotoszin (with 7,600 inhabitants), Mese- 
 ritz (with 4,800 inhabitants), Tirschtiegel (with 2,500 inhabitants), Zduny 
 (with 3,600 inhabitants), Bratz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Rogasen (with 4,900 
 inhabitants), and Pleszew (with 5,150 inhabitants). Still may be noticed the 
 towns of Samter (with 2,850 inhabitants), Reisen (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
 Storchnest or Osieczno (with 1,550 inhabitants), Bojanowo (with 3,000 inhab- 
 itants), Schrimm (with 3,850 inhabitants), and Kurnik (with 2,850 inhab- 
 itants). 
 
 -j-Bromberg, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on 
 
500 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Prussia. — Province of Posen. 
 
 the Brahe river, north-eastward and 72 miles distant from the city of Posen, 
 with several high schools, manufactures, considerable trade, and 9,800 inhab- 
 itants. Gnesen, a very ancient and once renowned city, 45 miles south- 
 south-west of Bromberg, with a highly remarkable cathedral, considerable 
 manufactures, noted cattle- and horse-marts, and 7,350 inhabitants. In the 
 earlier period of the middle ages the Polish kings were crowned here. 
 Inowraclaw (in German Jung-Breslau), a town in a fertile plain, with con- 
 siderable trade, and 5,800 inhabitants. The town of Kruschwitz has at 
 present only 450 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important city. 
 Other more or less remarkable towns are : Fordon (with 2,250 inhabitants), 
 Czarnikow (with 3,700 inhabitants), Schonlanke (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 Filehne (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Schneidemuhl or Pila (with 4,400 in- 
 habitants). 
 
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Area : 258,262 square miles. 
 Population: 37,850,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The Austrian Empire is situated between Germany and Tur- 
 key, and between Italy and Russia, and embraces four principal 
 constituent parts, which with reference to the nationality of their 
 inhabitants are styled German, Polish. Hungarian and Italian 
 Provinces, and whose common sovereign is the Emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 The above-stated area and population is distributed as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 German provinces (see p. 309) 16,147 sq. m. and 12,700,000 inh. 
 
 *** - i»5t2gsj 32 > 908 - - •* *>™ : 
 
 Hungarian" j g^^ffiS [ 129 ' 696 " " and 14,900,000 « 
 Italia « j and 1 Is a tHa y_VeniCe \ 19 ' 511 " " and 5 > 300 > 000 " 
 
 In point of religion the Roman Catholic is prevailing, and the 
 particulars may be learned from the official statements of the year 
 1842, when the total population of the empire was 35,804,152 in- 
 habitants. Of these were 24,874,139 Roman Catholics (with 12 
 archbishops and 61 bishops), more than 3£ million conformed (i. e. 
 to the Roman Catholic church) and nearly 3 million nonconformed 
 Greek Christians ; 1,207,309 Lutherans, and 2,037,479 Calvinists; 
 the remainder consisting (beside 668,906 Jews) of Unitarians, etc. 
 
 In point of origin, there are somewhat more than 7 million 
 
502 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria — its Mountains, Rivers, Soil, etc. 
 
 inhabitants belonging to the Germanic tribe, about 18 millions 
 belonging to the Slavonic tribe (as Poles, Bohemians proper, 
 Slowacks, Slavonians, etc.), nearly 5£ millions belonging to the 
 Romanic tribe, and about 5 million Magyars (see pages 18 and 
 19), besides about 700,000 Jews, etc. 
 
 With regard to the surface, it may generally be said that in 
 the western section of the empire high mountains, and in the east- 
 ern section level plains prevail ; with the exception, however, of a 
 level plain in Lombardy, and mountain ranges in Transylvania. 
 
 The chief mountain ranges within the limits of the Austrian 
 empire are: eastern branches of the Alps (see page 4) ; the Car- 
 pathian Mountains (see page 5), the Bohmerwald, Erzgebirge, and 
 part of the Sudetic Mountains (see pages 6 and 7). 
 
 The shores of the south-western section of the empire are 
 washed by the Adriatic Sea (see page 10). — The most notable 
 lakes are the Maggiore and Garda lakes in Lombardy, the Ba- 
 laton and Neusiedl lakes in Hungary, and the Gmunden, Ossiach, 
 Clagenfurt and Cirknitz lakes in the German provinces (see page 
 11). — The chief rivers and tributaries are: the Danube (with 
 the Inn, Ens, March, Trasen, Waag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, 
 Raab, Drave and Save (see page 16) ; the Elbe (with the Mol- 
 dau and Egcr (see page 16) ; the Po (with the Adda, Oglio, 
 Mincio, Tagliamenlo, Piaveand Brenta (see page 15) ; the Adige 
 (see page 15), and the sources of the Vistula (see page 13). 
 
 The soil is generally very fertile, especially most of the plains 
 in Hungary and Slavonia. Yet not only the most fertile, but at 
 the same time best-cultivated districts of the empire, are the 
 valley of the Danube, in the Austrian arch-duchy, and the plain 
 along the Po, in Lombardy and Venice. Bohemia, Moravia, and 
 Galicia, are likewise favored with a fertile soil ; while the exten- 
 sive heaths of Ketskemet and Debreczin in Hungary, are sterile 
 wastes. 
 
AUSTRIA. fiOS 
 
 The Natural Products of Austria. 
 
 Of the total area above stated, 218,431 square miles are com- 
 puted to be arable land, distributed as follows: 82,090 square 
 miles, appropriated to agriculture, 3,855 square miles to vine cul- 
 ture, 234 square miles to rice culture (in Lombardy), 25,816 
 square miles, consisting of meadows and gardens, and 27,945 
 square miles of common pastures ; the remainder being covered 
 with forests, and partly appropriated to the cultivation of various 
 fruits. 
 
 From this it may easily be inferred, that grain is raised far 
 more than what is required for home consumption. The same 
 may be said with reference to the rearing of cattle. In 1842, the 
 whole empire had an aggregate number of more than 14,000,000 
 heads of black cattle (the most valuable breed is reared in the dis- 
 tricts of the Alps, in the German provinces in general, and in 
 Hungary and Galicia), about 2,800,000 horses (the finest breed in 
 Hungary, Transylvania, but also in the northern German prov- 
 inces), nearly 34,000 mules (reared in Lombardy and Venice and 
 in Dalmatia), 32,000,000 sheep (three fifths of them of improved 
 breed), and 5,345,000 hogs (especially in Hungary, but also in 
 other provinces of the empire). The produce of the silkworm 
 (for which Lombardy and Venice, the southern part of Tyrol, 
 Istria, etc., are noted) amounted in 1841 to about 4 million 
 pounds of raw silk. Game of various kinds is to be found abun- 
 dantly in most of the provinces. The mining products in 1841, 
 had a value of 26,058,802 florins (more than $9,827,000), and 
 consisted of gold (6,213 marks: Transylvania and Hungary 
 proper), silver (97,329 marks : Hungary proper, Bohemia, Tran- 
 sylvania, etc.), quicksilver (2,973 quintals, chiefly from the mines 
 of Istria), tin (877 quintals, only in Bohemia), copper (49,157 
 quintals, chiefly in Hungary), lead for the marts (72,028 quintals: 
 Carinthia and Carniola, moreover in Hungary, etc.), lead ore 
 (20,629 quintals, only in Bohemia), zinc (4,060 quintals, in Hun- 
 
504 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria— its Natural Products, Mauufacttures and Commerce. 
 
 gary and Tyrol), iron of every description (2.649,632 quintals, 
 chiefly in Styria, but also in Illyria, Hungary, Bohemia, etc.), 
 and coal (9,353,939 quintals, chiefly in Bohemia, but also in 
 Moravia, Lower Austria, etc.). Austria abounds in salt of every 
 description, and in 1841 the rock-salt mines in Galicia, Transyl- 
 vania, Hungary proper, Upper Austria, and Styria, produced 
 3,031,079 quintals, the salt-springs (in Upper Austria, Salzburg, 
 Galicia, etc.) 2,011,616 quintals, and in the seaports 733,942 
 quintals of salt were made. The Austrian empire has the most 
 valuable, and next to Russia, the most extensive forests in Europe, 
 yielding both timber and fuel in immense quantities. 
 
 Since the days of the celebrated empress Maria Theresa, the 
 manufactures in Austria have made immense progress, and at 
 present they rival those of England and France. Yet only the 
 German and Italian provinces excel in them, while in the Hunga- 
 rian and Polish provinces, the manufactures are in a backward 
 state. The principal articles of manufacture are glass (for which 
 Bohemia is famed), looking-glasses (Venice and Lower Austria), 
 shawls (Vienna is universally noted for them), cloth (chiefly in 
 Moravia), linens (Bohemia, Austrian / ilesia, Lombardy, etc.), 
 silks and velvet (Vienna, Milan, Venice, etc.), farming utensils 
 (Styria), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms, etc. (Lower Austria, 
 Venice, Lombardy, Bohemia, etc.), cotton goods (in the German 
 provinces and Lombardy), besides paper, porcelain, lace, etc. 
 
 The inland trade ( Vienna, Prague, Pesth, Brody, Botzen, Lem- 
 burg, Kronstadt, and Brunn, are chiefly noted for it) as well as 
 the commerce [Trieste ranks first among the seaports on the Adri- 
 atic), is very considerable. The chief exports (in 1842 at the 
 value of 124,075,107 florins, or about $46,794,000) are silk and 
 silks, wool and woollens, glass of every description, cutlery, hard- 
 ware, farming utensils, leather articles, furniture, tobacco, wine, 
 grain, olive oil, and timber. The principal imports (in 1842 at 
 
AUSTRIA. 605 
 
 The Means of Education and Forms of Government. 
 
 the value of 126,510,526 florins, or about $47,712,500) are: cot- 
 ton, tropical produce, hides and furs. 
 
 In the means of education Austria rivals any other European 
 country, and it is distinguished both for eminence in literature 
 and science, and for the general diffusion of knowledge, with the 
 only exception of Hungary, where the Austrian government was 
 hitherto prevented by the jealousy of the privileged classes in 
 that country from exercising any substantial direct influence on 
 school education. There are 9 universities in the Austrian 
 empire, viz , at Prague (founded in 1348, and in 1842 with 2,741 
 students), Vienna (founded in 1365, and in 1842 with 5,395 stu- 
 dents), Olmutz (founded in 1581, and in 1842 with 559 students), 
 Grdlz (founded in 1486, and in 1842 with 942 students), Inns- 
 bruck (founded in 1672, and in 1842 with 416 students), Padua 
 (founded in 1228, and in 1842 with 1,825 students), Pavia 
 (founded in 1361, and in 1842 with 1,484 students), Lemberg 
 (founded in 1784, and in 1842 with 1,182 students), and at Pesth 
 (founded in 1465, and in 1842 with 1,250 students). Besides 
 these there are 37 academies or higher special schools, 77 theo- 
 logical and 78 philosophical faculties, 31 lycea, 283 gymnasia, 
 1,428 seminaries, etc. The total number of common schools was in 
 1842, in the German, Italian, and Polish provinces (thus exclu- 
 sive the Hungarian provinces), 31,436, that were then frequented 
 by 2,427,857 children. 
 
 With regard to the government, it was until 1848 partly a lim- 
 ited, partly an unlimited monarchy. In Dalmatia and the Mili- 
 tary Frontier the power of the emperor was absolute, in the Ger- 
 man, Italian and Polish provinces limited by provincial diets, and 
 in the kingdom of Hungary and in Transylvania the executive 
 power was by the legislative power of an aristocratic body of no- 
 bles, prelates and representatives of privileged towns so restricted, 
 that it was almost reduced to nothing. The sovereign of the 
 
 22 
 
506 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria — its Government, Finances, Army, etc. 
 
 Austrian empire bears since the 11th August, 1804, the title of 
 hereditary Emperor of Austria ; for the imperial title borne by the 
 Austrian sovereign since the days of Albert II., as elected emperors 
 of Germany, kad nothing in common with their patrimonial domin- 
 ions. The plenary title runs thus : Emperor of Austria, King 
 of Hungary and Bohemia, King of Lombardy and Venice, of 
 Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria and Illyria ; 
 Arch-Duke of Austria, Grand Duke of Transylvania, etc., etc. 
 As king of Hungary the sovereign has since 1758 the predicate 
 of " Apostolic Majesty." 
 
 The public revenue for several years anterior to the commotions 
 in 1848 were about 152,000,000 florins (including 4,395,000 
 florins raised as taxes in Hungary), and the public expenditure 
 amounted to only 125,000,000 florins. The revenue and expen- 
 diture thus yielded a surplus 'of 27 million, which was appropri- 
 ated to the sinking fund and paying interest of the public debt 
 that in 1841 amounted to 822 million florins. 
 
 The regular army on the peace footing consisted prior to the 
 year 1848 of about 230,000 men, and can in time of war be in- 
 creased to 750,000 men. — The navy consisted, beside 8 unrigged 
 ships of the line, of 8 frigates, 4 sloops of war, 6 brigs, 7 schooners 
 and other smaller vessels. 
 
 Besides the order of the Golden Fleece (see page 83), there are 
 the following other orders of honor: 1. The military order of 
 Maria Theresa, instituted in 1757, and in 3 classes. 2. The order 
 of Elizabeth Theresa, instituted in 1750, and renewed in 1771. 
 3. The Hungarian order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1764, and in 
 3 classes. 4. The order of Leopold, instituted in 1808, and in 3 
 classes. 5. The order of the Iron Crown, instituted in 1805 by 
 Napoleon and renewed in 1816 by Emperor Francis, in 3 classes. 
 
 History. — The basis of the Austrian empire is the Avarian mark men- 
 tioned page 31, and which was erected by Charlemagne in 788-801 as a 
 
AUSTRIA. 507 
 
 The History of Austria. 
 
 bulwark against the Avares (see page 29), who had settled in this quarter since 
 the 6th century. In a later period that name had been supported by the 
 name of Eastern mark or orientalis regio, from which was finally derived 
 the name of Austria. Leopold, earl of Babenberg (whose ancestral castle 
 was close by the city of Bamberg on the Mayne), appointed in 944, was the 
 first hereditary margrave of Austria. In 1156 the district at present known 
 by the general name of Upper Austria (between the Inn and the Ens rivers) 
 was annexed to the margraviate of Austria, and the latter raised to the dig- 
 nity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic I Duke Leopold VI. inherited tStyria 
 in 1186, and his son and successor, Frederic II., Carniola in 1232. With 
 Duke Frederic II. the male line of the house of Babenberg became extinct, 
 and now his brother-in-law, King Ottokar of Bohemia, took possession of 
 Austria in 1260 ; he was, however, deprived of it in 1276 by emperor Rodolph 
 of Hapsburg, who then invested his sons with the Austrian dominions, and 
 whose descendants are still possessed of them (see History of Germany, 
 page 301). To Austria, Styria and Carniola (see above) were annexed in 
 1331 Carinthia, and in 1365 Tyrol, by way of inheritance. Duke Rodolph 
 IV. (-f-1365) assumed the archducal title, which was since 1453 an official 
 one. The general history of Austria being since the days of Rodolph of 
 Hapsburg more or less closely connected with the general history of Ger 
 many, the most remarkable particulars of it are to be found in the latter ; 
 and we have only to add some few others. In 1740 the male line of the 
 house of Hapsburg became extinct with the German emperor Charles VL, 
 and as his daughter Maria Theresa, who succeeded him in the patrimonial 
 dominions, was married to Duke Francis of Lorraine, the reigning house is 
 frequently styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. Emperor Francis I. (as emperor of 
 Germany Francis II.) died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand 
 I., who resigned in November, 1848, and was succeeded by his nephew, the 
 present reigning emperor Francis Joseph Charles, born in 1 830. 
 
 As has already been mentioned above, the Austrian empire 
 embraces four principal constituent parts, styled the German, 
 Polish, Hungarian and Italian provinces. Yet by the term of 
 Hungarian Provinces, the Austrian statistics indicate all coun- 
 tries under the imperial sway, which form part neither of the 
 German, nor of the Polish, nor of the Italian provinces ; and thus 
 
508 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria— its Geographical Divisions. 
 
 under this head are comprised the kingdom of Hungary as well 
 as Transylvania, the Military Frontier, and even Dalmatia, though 
 the latter has no administrative connection with all the other 
 provinces just named, while the Military Frontier has thoroughly 
 a military organization, and Transylvania has likewise no admin- 
 istrative connection with the kingdom of Hungary. Thus they 
 are to be described separately, and we shall give the topographi- 
 cal description in the following order of succession : I. The Ger- 
 man Provinces ; II. The Kingdom of Galicia ; III. The King- 
 dom of Hungary ; IV. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania ; V. 
 The Military Frontier; VI. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, and 
 VII. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 L— THE GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA 
 
 Area : 76,147 square miles. 
 Population: 12,700,000 inhabitants. 
 
 They comprise, as has already been stated, page 309, the arch- 
 duchy of Austria, Styria, lllyria, Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, and 
 Austrian Silesia, and finally the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. 
 
 1. The Arch-duchy of Austria (15,070 square miles, and 2,400,000 
 inhabitants), situated on both sides of the Danube, between Bavaria and 
 Hungary proper, and is officially divided into 4 districts, styled circles, two 
 of which embrace the eastern half, in common life named Lower Austria, 
 while the western half is commonly named Upper Austria. Lower Austria 
 contains: Vienna (in German Wien), the metropolis of the empire and 
 imperial residence, on the right bank of the Danube, 360 miles south-south- 
 
AUSTRIA. 509 
 
 The German Provinces of Austria. 
 
 east of Berlin, north-eastward and 284 miles distant from Venice, and north- 
 westward and 1,070 miles distant from Constantinople, is at present strongly 
 fortified, and had in the beginning of the year 1846, 8,776 habitations, and 
 429,500 inhabitants. Vienna, already extant in the days of the ancient 
 Romans, and a flourishing emporium in the ear her period of the middle ages, 
 is at present the first trading and manufacturing city of the empire, and is 
 besides this, highly renowned for its vast number of literary and scientific 
 establishments (see page 288), of stately palaces and public edifices (the 
 most remarkable among the latter is St Stephen's cathedral, whose steeple 
 is 435 J feet high), for its handsome public gardens (as Prater, Angarten, etc.), 
 and for its wealth. There are dwelling-houses in Vienna with more than 
 1,500 inhabitants, and yielding an annual house-rent of 100,000 florins. The 
 number of magnificent and extensive palaces (besides those of the emperor) 
 amounted to 123 some years ago. Vienna consists of the principal city and 
 34 suburbs, as they are styled, though they are more regularly built than 
 the city itself. The neighboring imperial palaces of Schonbrunn and Lax- 
 enburg, are noted for their beautiful parks and other curiosities. Baden, a 
 town on the Schwechat, 14 miles south-south-west of Vienna, has 4,000 
 inhabitants, and is highly famed, and much resorted to as a watering-place 
 Wienerisch-Neustadt, a city on a canal, southward and 28 miles distant from 
 Vienna, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its military academy and 
 manufactures. Schwechat, a market-town on the river of the same name, 
 and at the high-road to Hungary, with cotton manufactures, and 2,500 inhab- 
 itants. Pottendorf, a market-town near the Hungarian frontier, is noted for 
 its cotton manufactures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. St. Polten, a town on 
 the Trasen river, westward and 33 miles distant from Vienna, with various 
 manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Mblk, or Melk, a market-town on the 
 Danube, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted for its magnificent Benedictine 
 abbey, instituted in 984. Krems, a town on the Danube, 88 miles west- 
 north-west of Vienna, with various higher schools, manufactures, and 5,000 
 inhabitants. The village of Maria Taferl is a place of great resort for pil- 
 grims, to visit its holy shrine. Korneuburg, a town on the Danube, north- 
 ward and 9 miles distant from Vienna, with 2,600 inhabitants. The neigh- 
 boring villages of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram, are remarkable for battles 
 fought here in 1809, between the Austrians and French — Upper Austria 
 contains: Linz, its capital, on the Danube, westward and 112 miles distant 
 from Vienna, has 25,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for its 
 
610 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— The German Provinces of Austria and Styria. 
 
 manufactures and important inland trade. Stcyer, a city on the Ens, south- 
 eastward and 18 miles distant from Linz, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is, on 
 account of its numerous and important hardware manufactures, sometimes 
 called the Austrian Birmingham. St. Florian, a market-town, with 900 
 inhabitants, is situated in a district noted for the fertility of its soil, and for 
 the wealth of its peasantry. In this district is also situated the market-town 
 of Kremsrnunster (with 1,050 inhabitants), highly renowned for its Benedic- 
 tine abbey, instituted in 772. Ischl, a market-town on the Traun river, 
 south-westward and 48 miles distant from Linz, and eastward and 28 miles 
 distant from Salzburg, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-springs 
 and baths. Ischl is the chief place of a district styled Salzkammergut (salt- 
 domain), on account of the vast quantities of salt made here. Wels, a town 
 on the Traun river, south-westward and 14 miles distant from Linz, with 
 various manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabitants. Hied, a 
 market-town on two little rivers, westward and 28 miles distant from "Wels, 
 with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. JBraunau, a town 
 on the Inn, and at the frontier of Bavaria, westward and 60 miles distant 
 from Linz, with various manufactures, numerous breweries, and 2,500 inhab- 
 itants. — The former independent or sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg (it 
 had before its secularization an extent of 3,706 square miles, with 250,000 
 inhabitants, was instituted in 716, in 1801 secularized and given to the grand 
 duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph, in 1805 ceded to Austria, in 1809 to 
 Bavaria, and in 1815 restored to Austria) contains: Salzburg, its former 
 capital very romantically situated on the Salzach river, and near the Bava- 
 rian frontier, 160 miles west-south-west of Vienna, has 13,400 inhabitants, is 
 famed for its cathedral and numerous other architectural monuments, and 
 for its manufactures and inland trade. Close by the city towers on a steep 
 rock, 440 feet high, the remarkable ancient fortress of Hohensalzburg. 
 Southward and 48 miles distant from Salzburg is situated the market-town 
 of Gastrin (with 600 inhabitants), highly famed and much resorted to as a 
 watering-place. Hallein, a town on the Salzach river, southward and 9 miles 
 distant from Salzburg, has 4,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its important 
 gait-works. Nearly the whole territory of the ancient bishopric of Salzburg 
 is distinguished for the wild and sublime character of its sceneries. 
 
 2. The Duchy of Styria, in German Steiermark (8,690 square miles, and 
 1,000,000 inhabitants), on the south side of the former province, contains : 
 Graetz or Gratz, its capital, romantically situated on the Mur river, with 
 
AUSTRIA. 611 
 
 The German Provinces of Styria, Carniola and Carinthia. 
 
 numerous manufactures, noted annual fairs, several Gothic and remarkable 
 churches, a university (see above) and other literary and scientific institu- 
 tions, and 50,000 inhabitants. Marburg, a city on the Drave, 40 miles south- 
 south-east of Gratz, with noted manufactures, considerable trade, and 6,200 
 inhabitants. Luttenberg, a market-town, with 850 inhabitants, is noted for its 
 vine culture. Cilli, a town on the San river, southward and 56 miles distant 
 from Gratz, with Roman antiquities, corn and wine trade, and 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Judenburg, a town on the Mur river, westward and 40 miles distant 
 from Gratz, with remarkable ancient castle, iron-works, and 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Brack, a town on the Mur, 25 miles north-north-west of Gratz, has 
 1,850 inhabitants, and is noted for its hardware. Leoben, a town, south- 
 westward and 90 miles distant from Vienna, with hardware manufactures, 
 considerable trade in iron, and 3,200 inhabitants. Mariazell, a market- 
 town on the Salza river, south-westward and 64 miles distant from Vienna, 
 has 1,100 inhabitants, and has long been a place of great resort for pilgrims, 
 to visit its holy shrine. 
 
 3. The Kingdom of Illyria (9,052£ square miles, and 1,357,000 inhabi- 
 tants) is situated between Styria and the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 
 on the south bordering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the period from 1809 to 
 1814 it was under the sway of Napoleon, and embraces the ancient duchies 
 of Carniola and Carinthia, the so-called Littorale, Austrian Friaul, Austrian 
 Istria, and the former Venetian Istria, (which two latter districts have, how- 
 ever, no political connection with Germany). — The ancient duchy of Carni- 
 ola (in German Krain) contains : Laibach or Laybach, its ancient capital, 
 and at present the capital of the kingdom of Illyria, on a river of the same 
 name, south-westward and 190 miles distant from Vienna, with remarkable 
 cathedral, important inland trade, and 19,000 inhabitants. Neustadtl, a town 
 on the Gurk river, with 1,600 inhabitants. Adelsberg, a market-town south- 
 westward and 24 miles distant from Laibach, with important horse-marts, 
 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the remarkable caves in the neighboring 
 rocks. — The ancient duchy of Carinthia (in German Karnthen) contains: 
 Klagenfurt, its ancient capital, near the lake of the same name, 43 miles 
 north-north-west of Laibach, ha3 13,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 white lead and other manufactures, for its ancient castle, and several remark- 
 able churches. The neighboring very ancient castle of Tanzenberg is re- 
 markable as the birth place of Emperor Maximilian L St. Veit, a town on 
 the Glan river, northward and 9 miles distant from Klagenfurt, has 2,000 in- 
 
512 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— The German Provinces of Littorale, Friaul, etc. 
 
 habitants, and is noted for its horse-marts and considerable trade in iron and 
 hardware. Villach, a town on the Drave, westward and 24 miles distant 
 from Klagenfurt, with iron works, considerable trade in mining products, 
 and 3,200 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Bleiberg is famed for its 
 important lead mines. The so-called Littorale contains : Trieste (in Ger- 
 man Triest), next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, in some 
 respects rivalling Bremen, on the Adriatic Sea, south-westward and 240 miles 
 distant from Vienna, has 7 6,000 inhabitants, and is noted not only for its ex- 
 tensive commerce, but also for its manufactures and several architectural 
 monuments. The neighboring village of Prosecco is renowned for its wines. 
 Aquileja, a town near the Adriatic Sea, about half-way between Trieste and 
 Venice, has at present only 1,800 inhabitants, but was in the days of the 
 ancient Romans a celebrated city with 100,000 inhabitants, when in 452 of 
 the Christian era it was almost totally destroyed by the Huns under Attila. — 
 Austrian Friaul (see page 31) contains : Gorz (in Italian Gorizia), a city on 
 the Isonzo river, 24 miles north-north-west of Trieste, with remarkable 
 mountain castle, and cathedral, various manufactures, and 9,600 inhabitants. 
 Gradisca, a fortified town on the Isonzo, with remarkable mountain castle, 
 and 1,000 inhabitants. Idria, a mining town in a mountainous district, north- 
 eastward and 28 miles distant from Trieste, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is 
 universally noted for its quicksilver mines. — The Austrian and former Vene- 
 tian Jstria (which, as has already been noticed, do not belong politically to 
 the German provinces) contain : Mitterburg (in Italian Pisino), a town to- 
 wards the centre of the Istrian peninsula, south-eastward and 40 miles dis- 
 tant from Trieste, with remarkable ancient mountain castle, vine culture, and 
 2,700 inhabitants. Capodistria, ancient capital of Venetian Istria, on the 
 Adriatic Sea, southward and 9 miles distant from Trieste, with magnificent 
 cathedral, noted manufactures, considerable commerce, and 7,000 inhabitants. 
 Isola, a market-town on the sea, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
 wines. Pola, a maritime town, southward and 72 miles distant from Trieste, 
 has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 9th cen- 
 tury) and Roman antiquities. Pola was anciently a station of the Roman 
 navy. Rovigno, a city on the Adriatic, with considerable commerce, and 
 11,000 inhabitants. Pirano, a city on the Adriatic, westward and 7 miles 
 distant from Capodistria, is noted for its salt-works, and has 8,600 inhabi- 
 tants. I/ussin Piccolo, a maritime town on the isle of Osero, is noted for its 
 commerce, and has 3,600 inhabitants. 
 
AUSTRIA. 513 
 
 The German Province of Tyrol. 
 
 4. The princely Earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 in- 
 habitants), a thorough mountainous country, between Switzerland and Up- 
 per Austria (see above), and between Bavaria and Italy, is crossed by 
 branches of the Alps, and by the rivers Inn, Adige and Eisack. Tyrol 
 came in the 6 th century under the sway of the Bavarian dukes, and in a 
 later period under that of the native dukes of Meran, and of the independent 
 or sovereign bishops of Brixen and Trent. When in 1248 the male line of 
 the duke of Meran became extinct, the earls of Tyrol became possessed of 
 their dominions, and in 1365 the latter were inherited by the dukes of Aus- 
 tria. The named independent bishoprics were secularized in 1803, and sub- 
 jected to the sovereignty of Austria. In 1805 Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria, 
 but in 1814 restored to Austria. It contains: Innspruck, its capital, on the 
 Inn river, 60 miles south-south-west of Munich, and north-eastward and 
 170 miles distant from Milan, with considerable inland trade, a university 
 (see above), and 14,000 inhabitants, is famed for its numerous remarkable 
 ancient public edifices, among which ranks first the imperial castle, once the 
 residence of the sovereigns of TyroL The neighboring town of Hall (with 
 5,000 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-works. Schwatz, a market-town on 
 the Inn, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Innspruck, has 4,100 in- 
 habitants, and is noted for its iron and copper mines. Kuf stein, a town on 
 the Inn, with 1,700 inhabitants, is noted for its fortress. Botzen (in Italian 
 Bolzano), the emporium of Tyrol, on the Eisack river, with linen and silk 
 manufactures, noted annual fairs, and 8,600 inhabitants. Tramin, a market- 
 town, with 1,400 inhabitants, is noted for its wines. Meran, a town on the 
 Adige, 48 miles south-south-west of Innspruck, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is 
 much resorted to as a watering-place, and was anciently the residence of the 
 dukes of Meran (see above). The neighboring castle of Tyrol was the an- 
 cestral seat of the earls of this name (see above). Roveredo (in German 
 Rovereith), a city near the Adige, north-westward and 12 miles distant from 
 Venice, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its silk manufactures, and 
 considerable trade. — Trent (in German Trient), formerly the capital of a 
 sovereign bishopric of the same name (see above), on the Adige and near 
 the Italian frontier, with 15,000 inhabitants, an extensive Gothic castle (for- 
 merly the residence of the sovereign bishop), remarkable churches (among 
 which that where the noted council in the period from 1545 to 1563 was 
 held), important manufactures, and considerable trade. — Brixen (in Italian 
 Bressanone), formerly the capital of a sovereign bishopric of the same name 
 
514 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria. — The German Provinces of Tyrol and Bohemia. 
 
 (see back), on the Eisack river, 42 miles south-south-east of Inuspruck, with 
 handsome cathedral, mineral waters, and 3,500 inhabitants. — The dominions 
 of Voralberg (which were acquired by Austria since the 14th century, but 
 had politically nothing in common with the earldom of Tyrol) contain : Bre- 
 genz, a town on the lake of Constance, opposite the city of Constance, with 
 notable branches of industry, and 3,000 inhabitants. Feldkirch (in Italian 
 Campo di San Pietro), a town southward and 18 miles distant from Bregenz, 
 with considerable inland trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. Hohenembs, a market- 
 town, with 2,200 inhabitants. 
 
 5. The Kingdom of Bohemia (20,096£ square miles, and 4,600,000 inhabi- 
 tants), forming the most northern and north-western part of the Austrian 
 empire. It has derived its name from a Celtic tribe that in 589 before the 
 Christian era immigrated here from Gaul. In the 6th century of the Chris- 
 tian era the Celtic inhabitants of the country were subdued, and since gradu- 
 ally removed by Slavonian tribes who had emigrated from the present Cro- 
 atia, headed by a chief named Czech, which name was subsequently adopted 
 by the Slavonian inhabitants of Bohemia. The latter was in a later period 
 ruled by native dukes, whose ancestor was Primizl, but became extinct in 
 1306 with Wenceslaus III., grandson of King Ottocar II. (see History of 
 Germany, page 301). Bohemia had meanwhile become a constituent part 
 of the German empire (since the 9th, or rather since the 10th century), and 
 in 1061 been raised to the dignity of a kingdom. After the death of Wen- 
 ceslaus III., the Bohemians elected princes from the house of Luxemburg 
 their kings, and since 1440 for the most part princes from the house of Haps- 
 burg or Austria, until in 1547 Ferdinand of Austria (subsequently German 
 emperor) became hereditary king of Bohemia. The kingdom contains : Prague 
 (in German Prag), its capital, on the Moldau river, 80 miles south- south-east 
 of Dresden, and north-westward and 160 miles distant from Vienna, is forti- 
 fied, and has 114,000 inhabitants, and is one of the most important trading 
 and manufacturing cities in the Austrian empire, and highly renowned for its 
 magnificent public and private buildings, its literary and scientific institu- 
 tions (about its university see above), and its wealth. The most remarkable 
 among the public edifices are the royal castle, styled ffradschin, containing 
 440 saloons and other splendidly furnished rooms, — the cathedral (reared in 
 the middle of the 14th century, and containing among others the remains of 
 the holy John of Nepomuk in a cofiin of pure silver, 5,000 marks in weight), 
 —the ancient Gothic city-hall, eta Wischehrad, a town in the neighborhood 
 
AUSTRIA. 515 
 
 The Province of Bohemia. 
 
 of Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and was anciently renowned for its strong 
 mountain castle, which in 1420 was destroyed by the Hussites. Kollin, a 
 town on the Elbe, eastward and 36 miles distant from Prague, with cotton 
 manufactures, iron-works, and 6,500 inhabitants, is remarkable for a battle on 
 the 18th June, 1757, in which the Prussians were defeated. Jankau, or Jan- 
 kowitz, a market-town south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Prague, 
 with only 500 inhabitants, but remarkable in history for the victory gained 
 by the Swedes on the 24th February, 1645. Beraun, a town south-west- 
 ward and 18 miles distant from Prague, with noted potteries, cotton manu- 
 factures, and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Carl- 
 stein, reared in 1348, is highly remarkable. Purglitz, or Burglitz, is likewise 
 a remarkable mountain castle, and was reared in 1110. Pihen, a city at the 
 junction of several little rivers, 60 miles west-south-west of Prague, with a 
 magnificent church, noted manufactures, considerable inland trade, important 
 coal and iron mines, and 10,000 inhabitants. The town of Tepl (south-west- 
 ward and 66 miles distant from Teplitz, with 2,000 inhabitants) is noted for 
 its ancient and wealthy Premonstrant abbey, and for the neighboring water- 
 ing-place of MarienbacL The town of Ellbogen, on the Eger river, 80 miles 
 west-north-west of Prague, is noted for its porcelain, and has 2,500 inhabi- 
 tants. In its neighborhood is situated the long since as a watering-place re- 
 nowned town of Carlsbad, with 3,700 inhabitants, and numerous manufac- 
 tures. Eger, a city on the river of the same name, and near the Bavarian 
 frontier, north-westward and 54 miles distant from Pilsen, with numerous 
 and important manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. The house where Wal- 
 lenstein was murdered on the 25th February, 1634, is still extant. Near 
 Eger is the noted watering-place of Franzensbrunnen. The mining town of 
 Joachimsthal (14 miles north-north-east of Ellbogen, with various manufac- 
 tures, and 4,750 inhabitants) was formerly noted for its silver mines. Leit- 
 meritz, a town romantically situated on the Elbe, 40 miles north-north-west 
 of Prague, with remarkable cathedral, important manufactures, considerable 
 corn trade, vine culture, and 4,700 inhabitants. Teplitz, or Toplitz, a town 
 romantically situated in a valley, southward and 34 miles distant from Dres- 
 den, and 50 miles north-north-west of Prague, is highly renowned and much 
 resorted to as a watering-place, and has 3,500 inhabitants. Tetschen, a town 
 near the Saxon frontier, carries on a considerable trade, and has 1,600 inhabi- 
 tants. Melnik, a town on the Elbe, northward and 24 miles distant from 
 Prague, is noted for its wines, and has 1,750 inhabitants. Munchengratz, a 
 
,-- 
 
 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria. — The German Provinces of Bohemia and Moravia. 
 
 town on the Little Iser river, north-eastward and 40 miles distant from 
 Prague, with a remarkable palace, a church with the sepulchre of Wallen- 
 stein, cotton manufactures, and 3,000 inhabitants. Reichstadt, a market- 
 town northward and 48 miles distant from Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and 
 was until 1832 the capital of a dependent duchy of young Napoleon, who 
 died in that year. Reichenberg, one of the most important manufacturing 
 towns in Bohemia, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Prague, is noted 
 especially for its cloth, linen, hosieries, and cotton goods, and has 12,000 in- 
 habitants. Friedland, a town on the Wittich river, 72 miles north-north-east 
 of Prague, has 3,600 inhabitants, and was anciently the capital of a duchy 
 belonging to "Wallenstein. Koniggratz, a fortified city on the Elbe, 70 miles 
 east-north-east of Prague, with scientific institutions, manufactures, and 8,000 
 inhabitants. Chrudim, a town on the Chrudimka, 64 miles east-south-east of 
 Prague, has 6,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. Kuttenberg, 
 a mining town, 40 miles east-south-east of Prague, has 10,000 inhabitants, and 
 is noted for its silver mines. Budweis, a town on the Moldau river, with cloth 
 manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 8,200 inhabitants. 
 
 6. The Margraviate of Moravia, and Austrian Silesia (total area: 10,607 
 square miles; total population: 2,310,000 inhabitants), situated between Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary. Moravia (8,616 square miles, and 1,833,200 inhabi- 
 tants) was in the 8th century a powerful kingdom, which, beside the present 
 margraviate, comprised also considerable parts of Hungaria and Austria 
 proper. About the year 871 King Swatopluk or Zwentibold reigned and re- 
 sided in "Welehrad (at present a Cistercian monastery, 44 miles south-south- 
 east of Olmutz). During the reign of his son, Swatobog, or since the year 
 908, the kingdom became mostly a prey of the Hungarians, Poles, and Ger- 
 mans, and of the present margraviate the duke of Bohemia became pos- 
 sessed. In 11C2 Emperor Frederic L conferred the title of a margraviate 
 upon the country, which since the year 1293 has constantly been united with 
 Bohemia. It is at present noted for its important manufactures, and con- 
 tains: Bruenn, its capital, on the Schwarzawa river, northward and 64 
 miles distant from Vienna, and south-eastward and 120 miles distant from 
 Prague, has 42,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and leather manu- 
 factures, its considerable inland trade, its cathedral and Gothic St. James' 
 church, and its citadel named Spielberg. Eastward and 14 miles distant 
 from Brunn is situated the town of Austerlitz (with a magnificent palace of 
 the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and 3,300 inhabitants), historically noted for 
 
AUSTRIA. 517 
 
 The German Provinces of Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 
 
 the battle on the 2d December, 1805. Msgrub, a market-town, half-way be- 
 tween Briinn and Vienna, has 2,200 inhabitants, and is famed for the palace 
 and one of the finest parks and gardens in Europe, belonging to the prince of 
 Liechtenstein. Nikolsburg, a town in a fertile district, and near the frontier 
 of Austria proper, has 8,150 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade, 
 and is noted for a stately palace of the prince of Dietrichstein. Olmuetz, 
 formerly the capital of Moravia, on the March river, 42 miles north-north- 
 east of Briinn, has 18,300 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for the 
 magnificent palace of the archbishop of Olmutz, for several highly remark- 
 able churches, and for its cattle-marts. Znaym, a town on the Thaya, 48 
 miles north-north-west of Vienna, with ancient castle, once the residence of 
 the margraves of Moravia, cloth manufactures, vine culture, and 6,400 inhab- 
 itants. Iglau, a city near the frontier of Bohemia, with a remarkable Gothic 
 church, noted cloth manufactures, considerable trade, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
 Kremsier, a town southward and 18 miles distant from Olmutz, with a costly 
 palace of the archbishop of Olmutz, and 6,400 inhabitants. Neu-Titschein 
 (eastward and 35 miles distant from Olmutz, with cloth and other manufac- 
 tures, considerable trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), and Fulnek (with cloth and 
 other woollen manufactures, and 3,900 inhabitants), towns situated in a fer- 
 tile grazing district, named Kuhlandchen (literally, Little Cow-land). — Aus- 
 trian Silesia (1,991 square miles, and 4*76,800 inhabitants), which is nothing 
 else but a Silesian section retained by Austria according to the treaties of 
 peace concluded with Prussia in 1742, 1745 and 1763, contains : Teschen, the 
 capital of a dependent principality belonging to the Austrian archduke 
 Charles, at the northern foot of the Beskides (see page 5), south-eastward 
 and 120 miles distant from Breslau, and 72 miles east-north-east of Olmutz, 
 with notable manufactures, considerable trade, and 7,600 inhabitants. Trop- 
 pau, the capital of a dependent principality belonging to the prince of Liech- 
 tenstein (see page 350), on the Oppa river, north-westward and 38 miles 
 distant from Teschen, with a Gothic church and several other architectural 
 monuments, cloth and linen manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Jae- 
 gerndorf, the capital of a dependent principality, which likewise belongs 
 to the prince of Liechtenstein, north-westward and 12 miles distant from 
 Troppau, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Zuck- 
 mantel, a town with various manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Freiwal- 
 dau, a town in a mountainous district, south-westward and 48 miles distant 
 from Oppeln (in Prussian Silesia), with woollen manufactures, and 2,500 in- 
 
518 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Galicia and Lodomeria. 
 
 habitants. In its neighborhood is situated the village of Grdfenberg, re- 
 nowned as a watering-place. 
 
 7. The Duchies of Auschwitz and Zatoe (1,491 square miles, and 365,000 
 inhabitants), situated between Teschen and Cracow. Since the year 1179 
 they formed a constituent part of Silesia, but were in the latter half of the 
 15th century ceded to Poland. In 1772 Austria became possessed of them, 
 together with Galicia. They contain : Auschwitz, the capital of the duchy 
 of the same name, on the Vistula, westward and 32 miles distant from Cra- 
 cow, with 2,400 inhabitants. Binla, a town on the river of the same name, 
 with cloth manufactures, and 4,400 inhabitants. Wadomce, a town with 
 2,800 inhabitants. Zator, the capital of the duchy of the same name, with 
 1,800 inhabitants. Andrichau, a town with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 H— THE KINGDOM OF GALICIA 
 
 Area: 32,908 square miles. 
 Population : 4,950,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is officially styled the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria 
 (as for the reason see below), and was primitively a constituent 
 part of Russia, at which period it was named Red Russia. In 
 the year 1019-1054 it was ruled by Jaroslav I., son of the Rus- 
 sian grand duke Wladimir the Great ; his sons divided it, and 
 thus one part of it was since called Halicz or Galicia, and the 
 other Wladimir or Lodomeria. Since the year 1084 and the lat- 
 ter half of the 13th century, the kings of Hungary became pos- 
 sessed of the present kingdom of Galicia. but in 1390 it was 
 wrested from them by the Poles, who retained it until 1772, when 
 the first partition of Poland took place and Galicia was ceded to 
 Austria. When in 1795 Poland was divided for the third time, 
 
AUSTRIA. 519 
 
 The Province of Galicia. 
 
 Austria became possessed, besides other Polish districts, of the 
 city of Cracow, which, however, from the period 1815 to 1846 
 was a republic (at the extent of 447 square miles, with nearly 
 150,000 inhabitants); but in the last-named year, having contin- 
 ually been a central seat of rebellion, and thus endangering the 
 peace and order in the neighboring states, Austria took posses- 
 sion of it again, and it now forms one of the circles, into which 
 the kingdom of Galicia is divided. The latter contains : 
 
 Lemberg, its capital, on a branch of the Bug river, eastward and 190 
 miles distant from Cracow, and north-eastward and 386 miles distant from 
 Vienna, has 75,000 inhabitants (among them more than 20,000 Jews), is in 
 general well built, and noted for its university (see before, page 505) and its 
 considerable inland trade. Cracow (see above), a city on the Vistula, west- 
 ward and 190 miles distant from Lemberg, south-eastward and 156 miles 
 distant from Breslau, and 166 miles south-south-west of Warsaw, has 45,000 
 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, and is highly renowned for its 
 many architectural monuments, especially for its churches and extensive 
 castle, anciently the residence of the Polish king for a long while. In 1343 
 a university was founded here, which in 1843 was frequented by 149 stu- 
 dents. Bochnia, a town near the Raba river, 24 miles east-south-east of Cra- 
 cow, with rock-salt mines (wrought since the year 1251), and 6,300 inhabi- 
 tants. But far more renowned for its rock-salt mines (wrought since the 
 year 1250) is the town of Wieliczka, at 5 miles distance from Cracow, with 
 7,000 inhabitants. The annual produce of these mines is upon an average 
 about 700,000 quintals salt Podgorze, a town on the Vistula, opposite Cra- 
 cow, with considerable trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Tarnoio, a town on the 
 Biala river, with remarkable ancient church, linen manufactures, and 6,500 
 inhabitants. Dukla, a town near the Hungarian frontier, with considerable 
 trade in Hungarian wines, and 2,500 inhabitants. Jaroslaw, a town on the 
 San river, with noted cloth manufactures, and 9,000 inhabitants. Brody, the 
 emporium of Galicia, near the Russian frontier, 58 miles east-north-east of 
 Lemberg, has 25,000 inhabitants (five sixths of them are Jews), and is not 
 only noted for its important inland trade to Russia, Poland and Turkey, but 
 also for its variety of manufactures. Tarnopol, a city on the Sereth river, 
 86 miles east-south-east of Lemberg, is noted for its important horse-marts, 
 
520 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Galicia and Hungary. 
 
 and has 14,000 inhabitants. — The Btjkowina, administratively belonging to 
 the kingdom of Galicia, was since 1482 a constituent part of Moldavia, but 
 was in 1174 conquered by Russia, and then ceded to Austria. It has an ex- 
 tent of 4,047 square miles, with 350,000 inhabitants, and contains : Czerno- 
 witz, its ancient capital, near the Pruth river, south-eastward and 172 miles 
 distant from Lemberg, with considerable trade, and 11,500 inhabitants. Se- 
 reth, a town noted for its horse-marts, has 4,200 inhabitants. Suczawa, a 
 town with various manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 6,500 inhabi- 
 tants, was anciently the capital of Moldavia, and had in the 14th century not 
 less than 16,000 dwelling-houses. 
 
 m— THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY. 
 
 Area : 88,267 square miles. 
 Population: 11,017,600 inhabitants. 
 
 Referring to our remarks above, page 508, it needs only to 
 be noticed here, that what is styled kingdom of Hungary, com- 
 prises Hungary proper (officially styled Provincial Hungary), 
 Croatia and Slavonia. That the two latter constituent parts 
 bear the title of kingdoms, makes no difference, as this title has 
 only a historical meaning. More than 5 millions of the above- 
 stated population belong to the Slavonic tribe (see pages 18 and 
 19), about 4 millions are Magyars (see page 19), and the re- 
 mainder consists chiefly of Germans (immigrated here since the 
 12th century). It deserves to be noticed that the Latin lan- 
 guage is very much in use among nearly all classes of society. 
 About the natural features of the country see page 502. The 
 immense forest of Bakonya (having 55 miles in length and from 
 9 to 24 miles in width) extends between Comorn and the lake 
 
AUSTRIA. 521 
 
 Provincial Hungary. 
 
 of Balaton. Not unlike the prairies in the western part of the 
 United States are the so-called Puszten, or extensive pasture- 
 grounds, especially in Lower Hungary. Of the number of horses, 
 sheep, etc., stated page 503, 5 million heads of black cattle, 1 mil- 
 lion horses and 17 million sheep were in the kingdom of Hun- 
 gary, where moreover in the named year (1842) 23,400,000 quar- 
 ters of grain, and 394,418,600 gallons of wine were produced. 
 Nothing is known of the early history of Hungary until the 
 time of the Romans. The latter, who conquered the country, 
 called part of Upper Hungary (including Transylvania) Dacia, 
 and the remainder Pannonia. The native population consisted 
 chiefly of Jazyges and Pannoni. At the end of the 3d century 
 of the Christian era, the Vandals (see page 24) took possession 
 of Pannonia (while Dacia came soon after under the sway of the 
 Huns), in the next century the Groths (see pages 18 and 23), 
 and after them the Avares (see page 29), who maintained them- 
 selves here for several centuries, till they by degrees melted 
 away among the surrounding Slavonic tribes. It was chiefly the 
 latter tribes who occupied Pannonia and rDacia, when suddenly 
 towards the end of the 9th century (in 889) a people, until then 
 entirely unknown in Europe, appeared in that quarter. This 
 people were the Magyars, a Tartar tribe, who, by the Petschene- 
 gri (another Tartar tribe), had been forced to leave their primi- 
 tive home in Jugria, on the eastern side of the Ural river, and 
 in the neighborhood of the Caspian lake. As a Nomadic nation, 
 they had with them their families, horses and cattle, wandering 
 along the banks of the Volga and Don rivers, and then along the 
 northern coast of the Black Sea, from one pasture-ground to the 
 other, till they at last directed their attention towards the fertile 
 countries skirting the Danube. They were then ruled by seven 
 chieftains or dukes, and numbered at that time 260,000 armed 
 horsemen, who were bold warriors, though armed only with bows 
 
522 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— The History of Hungary. 
 
 and arrows. To make it short, soon after they had entered Pan- 
 nonia, they conquered it, and made since plundering incursions 
 into Italy, and especially into Germany (see page 299). Here 
 they were called Huns, because, by their atrocities, they called to 
 remembrance the ancient Huns, who under Attila devastated so 
 many countries of Europe in the 5th century. Since that time 
 the names Hungarians and Hungary, applied to the Magyars 
 and their country, have come into use. In the latter half of the 
 10th century Christianity began to take root among the Magyars, 
 and at the same time they became acquainted with agriculture, 
 or at least applied themselves to it with more inclination than be- 
 fore, and in this way they gradually left off their former Nomadic 
 habits. When they had entered Pannonia the chief among their 
 dukes was Arpad, whose descendants became in a later period the 
 only rulers of the country. The most renowned of them was 
 duke Stephen, who in the year 1000 assumed the royal title, and 
 may be considered as the founder of the political and adminis- 
 trative organization and institutions of Hungary.. He conquered 
 Transylvania, checked^ the nobles in their pretensions and en- 
 croachments, and reigned with energy and justice. Unfortu- 
 nately one of his successors, Andrew II, engaged himself in a 
 crusade (in 1217), and during his long stay in Palestine the no- 
 bility and clergy in Hungary took advantage of this opportunity 
 to extend their rights and privileges, and after his return he saw 
 himself contrived to acquiesce in their encroachments. Thus in 
 1222 that above (page 505) mentioned aristocratic constitution 
 was framed which has since limited the power of the Hungarian 
 kings and reduced it to almost nothing, only tending to invest the 
 nobles and prelates (who in general are likewise nobles by birth) 
 with the actual power. In the year 1301 the race of the Arpa- 
 dians (or descendants of the above-named Duke Arpad) became 
 extinct, and Hungary was since for about two hundred years 
 
AUSTRIA. 523 
 
 The History of Hungary. 
 
 ruled (with one single exception) by kings of foreign princely 
 families. By treaties concluded in the years 1463 and 1506 be- 
 tween the Hungarians and Austria, the hereditary right of succes- 
 sion in Hungary was insured to the House of Hapsburg, in male 
 and female lines. The first Hungarian king of this house was 
 Ferdinand Z, subsequently ^emperor of Germany; he was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Maximilian, and in this way the house of Haps- 
 burg or Austria has reigned in Hungary uninterruptedly for 
 more than three ceuturfes. That in Hungary the various 
 branches of husbandry and industry, as well as the general means 
 of education, are in a backward state, has already been alluded to 
 in the preceding statements concerning the Austrian empire. In- 
 stead of that, they would long since have been in the same flour- 
 ishing state as in the German and Italian provinces, had not the 
 Hungarian aristocracy incessantly counteracted the benevolent 
 design of the Austrian government in favor of the lower classes, 
 that were, until recent times, kept in bondage and treated with 
 the utmost contempt by those aristocrats. According to authen- 
 tic statements of the year 1843, Hungary numbered not less 
 than 275,600 nobles, thus having 3£ nobles to a square mile ! (In 
 Transylvania, where the majority of the population consists of 
 Germans, this proportion is less, there being at that time only 
 28,000 nobles ; yet this body is numerous enough too.) For more 
 than six hundred years they have enjoyed the most substantial 
 privileges, and only when the last revolution was at work, re- 
 nounced them by words and letters on the paper. Now, we leave 
 it entirely to our readers to judge for themselves by these facts, whe- 
 ther it would appear probable that, in case the last revolution had 
 proved successful, a Hungarian Republic would have both been 
 3stablished and permanently rested on the same principles as 
 ,he republic of the United States 1 We have neither any pred- 
 iction nor antipathy in political matters, but as a historian we 
 
624 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Provincial Hungary. 
 
 are under the obligation to state the facts as they actually are, 
 and not as the one or other political party would like to have 
 them. — We shall describe first Provincial Hungary (or Hungary 
 proper), and then Croatia and Slavonia. 
 
 1. Provincial Hungary (80,940 square miles, and 10,133,400 inhabitants), 
 on the north separated from Galicia by the Carpathian Mountains, on the 
 east bordering upon Transylvania, and on the west upon the German Prov- 
 inces, while on the south it is separated froaa Turkey by Croatia, Slavonia, 
 and the MiHtary Frontier. In common life the western half of the country is 
 called Lower Hungary, and the eastern, more mountainous half, Upper Hun- 
 gary. Officially, Lower Hungary is divided into two circles (styled on 
 this side, and on the other side of the Danube), and Upper Hungary also into 
 two circles (styled on this side, and on the other side of the Theiss) ; and these 
 circles are subdivided into 46 shires, or counties (24 in Lower Hungary, and 
 22 in Upper Hungary ; Croatia and Slavonia are divided into 6 : thus there are 
 52 counties in the kingdom of Hungary). Beside these counties, there are 4 
 privileged districts in Provincial Hungary : Great and Little Kumania, the dis- 
 trict of the Hajduks, and that of the Jazyges. Until 1*784 Pressburg was the 
 capital of Hungary proper, but since that time Buda has ranked as such. As 
 however the Diets have since continued to be held at Pressburg, and for other 
 reasons, we shall begin with this city in the following description. Lower 
 Hungary contains : Pressburg (in Magyar language named Poso7iy), a city 
 on the Danube, below or eastward, and 34 miles distant from Vienna, has 
 45,000 inhabitants, is remarkable for that the kings of Hungary have, in the 
 last centuries, usually been crowned, and the diets held here, and is noted for 
 several ancient churches and for its manufactures. Tymau, a city on a river 
 of the same name, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, with 
 several higher schools, manufactures, and 1,000 inhabitants. Galantha, a 
 market-town near the "Waag, eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, 
 with 1,900 inhabitants, and a palace of the prince of Ester hazy. Within the 
 limits of the county of Pressburg is situated the isle of Schutt (54 miles long, 
 and 34 miles wide), formed by two arms of the Danube, noted for the fertility 
 of its soil, and containing the fortress of Komorn (see below), and the mar- 
 ket-towns of Sommerein and Wajka, with respectively 3,000 and 1,100 in- 
 habitants. Another neighboring isle of the same name is called the Little 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 Provincial Hungary. 
 
 Schutt, to distinguish it from the former. Ncuhausel, a market-town, with 
 7,000 inhabitants, was anciently noted for its strong fortress. Trencsin, a 
 city on the Waag, 72 miles north-north-east of Pressburg, with a notable an- 
 cient mountain castle, and 3,600 inhabitants. Gran, the ecclesiastical metrop- 
 olis of Hungary, on the Danube, 80 miles east-south-east of Pressburg, is noted 
 for its handsome churches and other public edifices, and has 13,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Kremnitz, a noted mining town, north-eastward and 96 miles distant 
 from Pressburg, is highly famed for its silver, and especially gold mines, and 
 has 6,000 inhabitants. Still more famed for its gold, but especially silver mines, 
 is Schemnitz, the largest mining town in Hungary, southward and 16 miles 
 distant from Kremnitz, with a mining academy, and (inclusive the suburbs) 
 20,000 inhabitants. Buda (in German Oferi), with 45,000 inhabitants, and 
 Pest, with 90,000 inhabitants, situated on opposite sides of the Danube 
 (Buda on the right, and Pest on the left side), and joined together by a bridge, 
 thus forming, as it were, one single city, yet with some difference, in so far as 
 Pest is the emporium of the country, and at the same time noted for its nu- 
 merous and important manufactures, while Buda is chiefly noted for its exten- 
 sive royal castle and considerable vine culture. However, upon the whole, 
 the one city is as remarkable as the other. About the university see above, 
 page 505. It may finally be noticed, that Pest and Buda are situated south- 
 eastward and 150 miles distant from Vienna. The neighboring market- town 
 of Vissegrad (in German Plintenburg), with 1,100 inhabitants, was, in the 
 middle ages, renowned for its splendid and majestic royal castle. Waitzen 
 (in Magyarian Vacz), a city on the Danube. 18 miles above Pest, with a mag- 
 nificent cathedral, and 13,000 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle-marts and 
 vine culture. Kolocsa, a city near the Danube, is the seat of an archbishop 
 (who resides in an extensive ancient palace), and has 8,200 inhabitants. 
 Kecskemet, or Ketskemet, is the largest market-town in Hungary, having 
 40,000 inhabitants (who are largely engaged in various branches of hus- 
 bandry), and is situated on the extensive heath of the same name (see above, 
 page 502), south-eastward and 118 miles distant from Pest. Zombor, or Som- 
 bor, a city near the Danube, southward and 125 miles distant from Pest and 
 Buda, with considerable trade in corn, etc., and 22,500 inhabitants. Theresien- 
 stadt, a city on an extensive and fertile plain (noted for its cattle), 110 miles 
 south-south-east of Pest, with leather manufactures, considerable trade, and 
 44,000 inhabitants. Neusatz, a city on the Danube, 160 miles south-south- 
 east of Pest, and north-westward and 46 miles distant from Belgrad (in 
 
626 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Provincial Hungary. 
 
 Turkey), is the emporium in this quarter, and has 22,000 inhabitants. Bacs y 
 or Batsch, a market-town, 34 miles north-north-west of Neusatz, carries on a 
 considerable trade likewise, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Zentha, a market- 
 town on the Theiss, 120 miles south-south-east of Pest, has 14,000 inhabitants, 
 and is noted in history for the victory obtained here by the Austrians over the 
 Turks, on the 11th September, 1696. Funfkirchen (literally, Five Churches; 
 in Magyar ian named Pecs), a city near the Slavonian frontier, 112 miles 
 south-south-west of Buda, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, for its 
 leather manufactures, and considerable trade, and has 15,500 inhabitants. 
 Mohacz, a market-town on the Danube, southward and 112 miles distant from 
 Buda, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable in history for two battles, in 
 1526 (when the Turks were victorious) and 168*7 (when the Turks were de- 
 feated). Szigethvar, or Zigeth, a fortified market-town on the Almasch river, 
 westward and 24 miles distant from Funfkirchen, has 4,000 inhabitants, and 
 is noted for its gallant defence in 1566 against the Turks. Eisenburg (in 
 Magyarian Vasvar), a market-town, 90 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with 
 2,600 inhabitants. Guns, a city on a river of the same name, with a remark- 
 able castle of the prince of Esterhazy, vine culture, and 6,500 inhabitants. 
 Papa, a market- town, south-eastward and 52 miles distant from Oedenburg, 
 with a costly palace of the earl of Esterhazy, and 15,000 inhabitants. Vess- 
 prim, a city on the Sed river, eastward and 54 miles distant from Eisenburg, 
 with a remarkable mountain castle, considerable trade in corn and wine, and 
 11,800 inhabitants. Stuhlweissenburg (in Magyarian Szekes-Fejervar), a city 
 south-eastward and 120 miles distant from Vienna, and south-westward and 
 36 miles distant from Buda, with many remarkable architectural monuments, 
 various manufactures, and 22,000 inhabitants. Komom, or Comorn, a strongly 
 fortified city on the Danube, at its junction with the Waag, south-eastward and 
 62 miles distant from Pressburg, 94 miles east- south-east of Vienna, and east- 
 ward and 25 miles distant from Raab, is situated on the eastern extremity of 
 the isle of Schiitt (see above), and has 19,500 inhabitants, who carry on a 
 considerable trade in corn, wine, and timber. The neighboring market-town 
 of Dotis (or Tata), with 12,500 inhabitants, is noted for a palace of the earl 
 of Esterhazy, with handsome park, and for its woollen blankets. Raab, a for- 
 tified city on the Raab river, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Press- 
 burg, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, its horse-marts and con- 
 siderable corn trade, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Battle on the 14th June 
 1809, between the French and Austrians. Oedenburg (in Magyarian Soprony), 
 
AUSTRIA. 627 
 
 Provincial Hungary. 
 
 a city near the lake of Neusiedl, 36 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with a 
 collegiate church whose steeple is the highest in Hungary, considerable cat- 
 tle trade, and 14,800 inhabitants. The neighboring town of Russt (with 
 1,200 inhabitants) is noted for its wines. Near the lake of Neusiedl is situa- 
 ted Estcrhaz, the highly remarkable and magnificent ancestral castle of the 
 princes and earls of Esterhazy. The chief of this family has annual revenues 
 to the amount of 2,000,000 florins. Eisenstadt, a city southward and 24 
 miles distant from Vienna, has 5,800 inhabitants, and is famed for the stately 
 palace and handsome park and gardens of the prince of Esterhazy. In the 
 neighboring princely mountain castle of Forchtenstein is the family treasure 
 of the princes of Esterhazy, containing a vast number of precious stones, 
 pearls, plate, etc. Wieselburg- (in Magyarian Mosony), a market-town with 
 considerable corn trade, and 3,300 inhabitants. — Upper Hungary contains: 
 Kaschau, a city on the Hernad river, north-eastward and 150 miles distant 
 from Pest, and south-westward and 164 miles distant from Lemberg, is con- 
 sidered as the capital of Upper Hungary, carries on a very considerable 
 trade, is noted for its extensive and remarkable cathedral, and has 14,500 in- 
 habitants. Leutschau (in Magyarian Zocse), a city on a little river of the same 
 name, 124 miles north-north-east of Pest, with remarkable ancient city-hall and 
 Gothic church, noted breweries of mead, and 5,800 inhabitants. Kesmark,or 
 Kasmark, a city near the Carpathes, with handsome city-hall, considerable 
 trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Zipserhaus 
 (in Magyarian Szepes- Var) is noted in history. Erlau (in Magyarian Eger), a 
 city on the river Erlau, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Pest, with 
 a magnificent cathedral, vine culture, and 20,000 inhabitants. Szolnok, a mar- 
 ket-town on the Theiss, with considerable salt depot, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
 Eperies, a city on the Tarcza river, 156 miles north-north-east of Pest, is noted 
 for its considerable trade, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Bart/eld, a city on the 
 Tepel river, with noted mineral waters and baths, considerable trade in wine, 
 corn, eta, and 6,700 inhabitants. Satorallya Ujhely, a market-town at the 
 foot of the Hegyallya Hills (noted for vine culture), north-eastward and 146 
 miles distant from Pest, with vine culture, and 7,000 inhabitants. Tokay, a 
 market-town on the Theiss, at 60 miles distance from the Transylvanian 
 frontier, and eastward and 240 miles distant from Vienna, is famed for its 
 excellent wines, and has 4,700 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town 
 of Tarczal (with 3,200 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. The same 
 is to be said of Bodrog-Keresstxir, Maad, and Tallya, market-towns, with re- 
 
528 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Provincial Hungary. 
 
 spectively 2,000, 5,700, and 5,400 inhabitants. Munkacs, a market-town on 
 the Latorcza river, with a remarkable mountain castle, and 5,800 inhabitants. 
 Szigeth, a market-town on the Theiss, towards the frontiers of Transylvania 
 and Galicia, with considerable salt depots, and 10,500 inhabitants. Nagy- 
 Karoly, a market-town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with 
 stately palace and handsome park of the earl of Karoly, vine culture, and 
 12,000 inhabitants. Szathmar-Nemet, a city on the Szamos, with several 
 seminaries and other schools, potteries, vine culture, and 18,000 inhabitants. 
 Nagy-Banya, a mining town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with 
 gold, silver, and lead mines, a mint, various branches of industry, and 5,300 
 inhabitants. Gross Wardein (in Magyarian Nagy Varad, which means 
 Great Wardein), a city on the river Sebes Koros, 28 miles from the Transyl- 
 vanian frontier, and 146 miles east-south-east of Pest, with a stately palace 
 of the bishop, who resides here, a highly remarkable cathedral, various 
 branches of industry, hot mineral baths, and 1*7,000 inhabitants. Debreczin, 
 next to Pest the largest city in Hungary, 38 miles north-north-west of 
 Grosswardein, and eastward and 120 miles distant from Pest, is noted for 
 its academy, for its soap, Zischmen, or Hungarian slippers, and for numerous 
 other branches of national industry, and has 60,000 Magyarian inhabitants, 
 The neighboring village of Hagos (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its 
 weekly markets held there every Sunday, and at which vast numbers of hogs 
 are sold. Szegedin, a fortified city on the Theiss, south-eastward and 100 miles 
 distant from Pest, with numerous branches of national industry, considerable 
 trade, and 35,000 inhabitants. Csongrad, Szentes, and Vasarhely, large 
 market-towns, with respectively 15,500, 22,000, and 32,500 inhabitants. Arad, 
 a fortified city on the Maros river, 64 miles east-south -south of Szegedin, and 
 140 miles north-north-east of Belgrad, with considerable trade, and 18,000 in- 
 habitants. — The south-eastern section of Provincial Hungary, comprising 3 coun- 
 ties, is commonly named Banat, and contains : Temesvar, a strongly fortified 
 city on a canal, south-eastward and 170 miles distant from Pest, is considered 
 as the capital of Banat, carries on a considerable trade, and has 18,500 in- 
 habitants. Nagy-Szent-Miklos (literally, Great St. Nicholas), a market-town 
 with 15,000 inhabitants. — The above-mentioned 4 privileged districts are 
 (with one exception) situated within the limits of Upper Hungary, have an 
 aggregate area of 2,215 square miles, and a total population of 263,200 in- 
 habitants. Those in Upper Hungary are : Great Rumania (whose capital is 
 Kardsschag- Uj-Szallas, at the high-road between Pest and Debreczin, with 
 
AUSTRIA. 529 
 
 Provincial Hungary, Croatia and Slavonia. 
 
 13,000 inhabitants) ; Jazygia, or the District of the Jazyges (whose capital is 
 Jass-Bereny, eastward and 38 miles distant from Pest, with 17,300 inhabitants) 
 and the Hajduks' District (whose capital is Bossormeny, northward and 9 
 miles distant from Debreczin, with 16,000 inhabitants). Within the limits of 
 Lower Hungary is situated Little Rumania (whose capital is Felegyhaza, at 
 the high-road between Pest and Szegedin, with 16,000 inhabitants). 
 
 2. The kingdom of Croatia (3,674 square jniles, and 531,500 inhabitants), 
 separated from Provincial Hungary by the Drave, and on the south-west bor- 
 dering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the days of the ancient Romans Croatia 
 was a constituent part of Pannonia ; in a later period it was under the sway 
 of the Frankish kings, and since 867 under that of the Greek emperors, until 
 since the close of the 10th century it was ruled by native kings, who became 
 extinct towards the end of the 11th century, when Croatia was annexed to 
 the kingdom of Hungary. It may still be noticed that the inhabitants of 
 Croatia (with the exception of comparatively few Germans) belong thoroughly 
 to the Slavonic tribe. The country contains : Agram, the capital of Croatia, 
 and residence of the royal Banus or Governor of Croatia and Slavonia, near the 
 Save, eastward and 120 miles distant from Trieste, southward and 175 miles 
 distant from Vienna, and south-westward aud 190 miles distant fromBuda, is 
 noted for its higher schools, its remarkable cathedral, and considerable trade, 
 and has 20,000 inhabitants. Carlstadt, a city on the Kulpa river, is noted for 
 its fortress and considerable trade, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Warasdin, a 
 city on the Drave, with vine culture, and 9,500 inhabitants. Szissek, a mar- 
 ket-town on the Drave, at its junction with the Kulpa, with considerable 
 corn trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. Fiume, a commercial city on the Adriatic 
 Sea, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Trieste, with notable manufac- 
 tures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Buccari and Porto Re, maritime towns, with 
 respectively 1,700 and 1,200 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The kingdom of Slavonia (3,653 square miles, and 352,700 inhabitants), 
 situated on the right bank of the Drave and Danube rivers, on the west bor- 
 dering upon Croatia. In remote ages Slavonia underwent the same vicissi- 
 tudes as Croatia, during the 9th and 10th centuries it formed a constituent 
 part of the ancient kingdom of Servia, in 1079 it was annexed to the king- 
 dom of Hungary, in 1526 it was ceded to Turkey, but in 1699 restored. 
 Among the inhabitants are but few Magyars, all the rest being genuine Sla- 
 vonians. The country contains : Essek, strongly fortified capital of Slavonia, 
 on the Drave, and at the frontier of Provincial Hungary, eastward and 12 
 
580 EUROPE, TAST AND TRESENT. 
 
 Austria. — Slavonia and Transylvania. 
 
 miles distant from Agram, is especially noted for its fortress, but also for 
 its considerable trade, and has 12,500 inhabitants. Verocze (with vine cul- 
 ture, and 4,500 inhabitants), Csepin (with 2,000 inhabitants), Diakovar 
 (with 2,100 inhabitants), Dalya (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Valpo (with 
 2,400 inhabitants), market-towns. Posega, a city on a branch of the Save, 
 48 miles west-south-west of Essek, is noted for its tobacco and wines, and 
 has 5,000 inhabitants. Pacracz, a market-town, with vine culture, and 1,100 
 inhabitants. Vukovar and Jllok, market-towns, with respectively 6,200 and 
 3,500 inhabitants. 
 
 IV.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TRANSYLVANIA. 
 
 Area: 21,269 square miles. 
 Population: 2,212,400 inhabitants. 
 
 Transylvania (in Maygarian Erdely, and in German Sieben- 
 bilrgen) is situated between Provincial Hungary and Moldavia, 
 bordering on the south upon Wallachia. Transylvania, anciently 
 called Dacia, and in the 9th century conquered by the Magyars, 
 was in 1002 by King Stephen I. of Hungary completely subdued 
 and annexed to this kingdom. It was since ruled by Hungarian 
 governors, who, however, made themselves independent in the 
 beginning of the 16th century. John of Zapolya, Stephen Balory, 
 RaJcoczy, and Bethlen Gabor were the most noted of the indepen- 
 dent princes of Transylvania. Finally, in 1687 Emperor Leo- 
 pold I. subdued the country again, which in 1765 was by Maria 
 Theresa raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. The political 
 constitution of Transylvania was framed on the same principles 
 as that of the kingdom of Hungary, yet the Transylvanian Diet 
 had for the rest nothing in common with the Hungarian. — Tran- 
 
AUSTRIA. 631 
 
 The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. 
 
 sylvania is inhabited by three distinct tribes, or nations, viz., 
 Magyars, Szekler (a kindred Magyarian tribe) and Germans (here, 
 by way of eminence, named Saxons, though they are immigrated 
 since the I Oth century from various parts of Germany), and for 
 this reason is it divided into the Country of the Magyars, the 
 Country of the, Szekler, and the Country of the Saxons, which are 
 subdivided into counties. 
 
 1. The Country of tfie Magyars (inhabited by about 500,000 Magyars) con- 
 tains : Klausenburg (in Magyarian Kolosvar), its capital, and likewise the 
 capital of Transylvania, 220 miles east-south-east of Pest, and north-westward 
 and 220 miles distant from Bukarest (in Wallachia), has 20,000 inhabitants, 
 and is noted for several churches, literary institutions, and for its horse-marts. 
 Szamos Ujvar (in German Armenierstadt), with vine culture, trade in cattle, 
 and 4,000 inhabitants. Carlsburg, a fortified city on the Maros, southward and 
 54 miles distant from Klausenburg, was anciently the capital of Transylva- 
 nia and called Weissenburg, receiving its present from Emperor Charles VL 
 It is noted for its remarkable cathedral, its mint and wines, and has 12,000 
 inhabitants. Gorgeny Szent Imreh, a market-town, with glass and paper 
 manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Gorgeny, once the resi- 
 dence of the Transylvanian princes. Other more or less remarkable market- 
 towns are : Dees or Des (with 5,400 inhabitants), Thorda (with noted rock-salt 
 mines, and 8,000 inhabitants), Nagy Enyed, in German Egidstadt (with 5,500 
 inhabitants), Abrudbanya, in German Gross- Schlatten (with important gold 
 mines, and 4,200 inhabitants), Zalathna, in German Klein- Schlatten (with 
 productive gold and silver mines, and 5,000 inhabitants), Balasfalva, in Ger- 
 man Blasendorf (with 4,000 inhabitants), JDeva (with 3,800 inhabitants), 
 K'drbsbanya (with 1,700 inhabitants), Somlyo (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 Krasna (with 1,000 inhabitants), Nagy Falu (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zilah, 
 in German Wallenberg (with 9,000 inhabitants), Sibo (with 1,200 inhabi- 
 tants), Tasnad, in German Trestenburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Fagaras 
 (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Kapnik-Banya (with important gold, silver, 
 and lead mines). Maros Ujvar, a village on the Maros, is noted for its rock- 
 salt mines, producing 500,000 quintals of salt annually. Vajda Hunyad, a 
 market-town, noted for its important iron-works, and for its very ancient and 
 historicallv renowned mountain castle. 
 
632 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. 
 
 2. The Country of the Szekler, whose counties are styled Stools, contains: 
 Maros Vasarhely (or Szekely Vasarhely), its capital, on the Maros, 54 miles 
 east-south-east of Klausenburg, is noted for its literary institutions, its to- 
 bacco and wines, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Udvarhely, a market-town, 
 south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Maros Vasarhely, and northward 
 and 54 miles distant from Kronstadt, with noted leather manufactures, trade 
 in tobacco and honey, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable 
 market-towns are : Szekely Keresstur (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sepsi Szent 
 Gyorgy (with mineral waters), and Felvincz (remarkable for gypsies, who 
 have permanently settled here, and are engaged in various branches of hus- 
 bandry). 
 
 3. The Country of the Saxons, whose counties are likewise styled Stools, 
 contains : Hermannstadt, its capital, on the Zibia, 76 miles south-south-east 
 of Klausenburg, is the finest city in Transylvania, noted for several Gothic 
 and in other respects remarkable churches, literary institutions, for its im- 
 portant manufactures and inland trade, and has 21,000 inhabitants. The 
 neighboring village of Heltau is noted for its woollens and fruits, and has 
 3,000 inhabitants. Schassburg, a city on the Great Kokel, north-eastward 
 and 48 miles distant from Hermannstadt, with some manufactures, and 6,500 
 inhabitants. Mediasch, or Medwisch, a city with vine culture, and 6,200 in- 
 habitants. Muhlenbach, a city with some manufactures, vine culture, and 
 5,000 inhabitants. Reps (with mineral waters, and 2,200 inhabitants). 
 Lbschkirch (with 1,000 inhabitants), Broos, or Sachsenstadt, in Magyarian 
 Szassvaros (with 3,500 inhabitants), Marienburg, in Magyarian Foldvar 
 (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zeiden (noted for its fine flax, has 3,600 inhabitants), 
 and Rosenau or Rosnyo (with 3,800 inhabitants). Bistritz, a city on the 
 river of the same name, northward and 120 miles distant from Hermann- 
 stadt, is noted for its Gothic Lutheran church with high steeple, and for its 
 corn trade, and has 6,600 inhabitants. Kronstadt, the chief manufacturing 
 city and emporium of Transylvania, in a fertile valley, 16 miles east-south- 
 east of Hermannstadt, and 100 miles north-north west of Bukarest (in Wal- 
 lachia), is, beside its manufactures and extensive inland trade, noted for its 
 handsome Gothic Lutheran church, its city-hall, etc., and has 30,000 inhab- 
 itants. 
 
AUSTRIA. 533 
 
 The Military Frontier. 
 
 V.^THE MILITARY FRONTIER. 
 
 Area : 15,208 square miles. 
 Population : 1,248,100 inhabitants. 
 
 It extends along the Turkish frontier from the Adriatic Sea 
 eastward up to Moldavia, and consists of nothing else but parts 
 of Croatia, Slavonia, Provincial Hungary and Transylvania, 
 which since the end of the 17th, but chiefly in the course of the 
 last and present centuries, have been organized on a thorough 
 military footing. The object of this organization has been to se- 
 cure the Austrian empire against the inroads of the Turks, and 
 subsequently against the intrusion of the plague. All grown 
 male inhabitants are bound to military service, in lieu of taxes, 
 and in case of danger the whole frontier can, by means of signal 
 poles, be alarmed within four hours. — The Military Frontier is 
 divided into four principal sections. 
 
 1. The Croatian Military Frontier contains : Carlopago, a maritime town 
 on the Adriatic Sea, 62 miles south-south-east of Fiume, with 900 inhabitants. 
 Gospich,& market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. Other more or less notable 
 market-towns are : Ogulin (with 2,300 inhabitants), Glina (with 1,600 inhabi- 
 tants), Dubitza (with 3,200 inhabitants), Jassenovacz (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
 and St. Georgen (with 3,600 inhabitants). The maritime town of Zengg, on the 
 Adriatic, with 3,100 inhabitants, is noted for its handsome cathedral. Petrinia 
 and Kosstainicza towns with respectively 4,200 and 3,200 inhabitants. 
 
 2. The Slavonian Military Frontier contains : Peterwardein, a city noted 
 as one of the strongest fortresses of the Austrian empire, on the Danube (right 
 bank), 212 miles east-south-east of Agram, with remarkable arsenal, and 
 6,500 inhabitants. Carlowitz, a city on the Danube, 5 miles below Peter- 
 wardein, is noted for its wines, fisheries, and inland trade, and has 6,400 in- 
 habitants. In 1699 a treaty of peace with Turkey was concluded here. 
 Semlin, a city on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, opposite the 
 
634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— The Military Frontier and Kingdom of Dalmatia. 
 
 Turkish city of Belgrad, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Peterwar- 
 dein, is the chief seat of the trade of Austria with Turkey, and has 10,500 
 inhabitants. Mitrovicz, a market-town on the Save, with Roman antiquities, 
 and 3,500 inhabitants. Old Pazna, a village noted for its agricultural pur- 
 suits, has 4,000 inhabitants. Brood, a town on the Save, is noted for its for- 
 tress, and has 2,400 inhabitants. New Gradisca, a market-town, with 1,600 
 inhabitants. Old Gradisca, a fortified town on the Save, with 2,200 inhabi- 
 tants. Tittel, a market-town on the Theiss, near its junction with the Danube, 
 with 2,300 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The Hungarian Military Frontier contains : Pancsova, a town near the 
 Danube, and in the neighborhood of Semlin, with considerable trade, and 
 10,000 inhabitants. Karansebes, a market-town, with vine culture, and 3,500 
 inhabitants. Mehadia, a market-town in a beautiful valley, is from old highly 
 famed as a watering place, and has 1,700 inhabitants. Old Orsova, a fortified 
 market-town on the Danube, with 1,000 inhabitants. Fejer Templom (in Ger- 
 man Weisskirchen), a town eastward and 40 miles distant from Pancsova, 
 with vine culture, considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 
 
 4. The Transylvanian Military Frontier contains : Kezdi Vasarhely, a mar- 
 ket-town noted for its numerous branches of national industry, has 4,900 in- 
 habitants. Gyergyb Szent Miklos, a market-town with considerable trade, 
 and 5,100 inhabitants. Hatzeg, a market-town westward and 60 miles distant 
 from Hermannstadt, with vine culture. Still is to be noticed the mountain 
 pass known by the name of Rother Thurm (red tower), southward and 9 miles 
 distant from Hermannstadt. 
 
 VI— THE KINGDOM OF DALMATIA. 
 
 Area: 4,952 square miles. 
 Population : 421,300 inhabitants. 
 
 Dalmatia is a strip of country, in some places only 2 or 3 
 miles wide, extending along the Adriatic, on the north bordering 
 
AUSTRIA. 535 
 
 History and Geographical Description of Dalmatia. 
 
 upon the Croatian Military Frontier, and for the rest surrounded 
 by Turkish territories. The inhabitants, mostly belonging to the 
 Slavonic tribe, speak a peculiar idiom known by the name of 
 lllyrian or Serbian language. In the days of the ancient Romans 
 Dalmatia formed a constituent part of Illyricum, subsequently of 
 the Eastern, or Greek Empire. In the 7th century Slavonian 
 tribes settled here, ruled by native chieftains, who, in the 10th 
 century acknowledged the sovereignty of the Republic of Venice, 
 though in the period from 1357 to 1420 the country was under the 
 sway of Hungary. Since the last-named period Venice was 
 (with the exception of two short intervals) continually possessed 
 of Dalmatia until 1797, when, in conformity to the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, it was ceded to Austria, that, in 1805, ceded it to 
 Napoleon, and became possessed of it again in 1814. — Dalmatia 
 is divided into 4 counties, styled circles, which are subdivided into 
 26 districts. 
 
 Zara, the fortified capital of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, opposite the city 
 of Ancona (in the States of the Church), 136 miles south-south-east of Trieste, 
 is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 13th century), its literary institutions, 
 and its cordials (known by the name of Rosoglio), and has 7,400 inhabitants. 
 Pago, a town on an isle of the same name, with salt-works, vine culture, and 
 2,600 inhabitants. Sebenico, a maritime town, with the finest cathedral in 
 Dalmatia, is moreover noted for its wines and cordials, and has 5,200 inhabi- 
 tants. Knin, a market-town with a mountain castle, and 700 inhabitants. 
 Spalato, or Spalatro, a city on the Adriatic, south-eastward and 70 miles 
 distant from Zara, is noted for its remarkable Roman antiquities, mineral 
 baths, commerce, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. Fort Opus, a market-town 
 with 800 inhabitants, who are widely engaged in the exportation of leeches. 
 Brazza, Lesina, and Lissa, islands near the coast, noted for their wines, figs, 
 oranges, and other similar fruits. Cattaro, a fortified town at the south-east- 
 ern extremity of Dalmatia, and on the Adriatic, with remarkable cathedral, 
 noted leather manufactures, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ragusa, until 1807 the 
 capital of a republic of the same name, on the Adriatic, north-westward and 
 28 miles distant from Cattaro, is fortified, and noted for its cathedral and 
 
536 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Dalmatia and Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 other churches, its literary institutions, manufactures, ship-building, etc., and 
 6,000 inhabitants. The republic of Ragusa originated in the 13th century, 
 was since 1357 under the protection of Hungary, subsequently under that 
 of Turkey, was in 1807 subjected by the French, and kept by them until 
 1814, when Austria became possessed of it. 
 
 VII— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. 
 
 Area: 17,594 square miles. 
 Population : 5,068,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It comprises nearly the whole eastern half of Upper Italy (see 
 page 103), on the west separated by the Ticino river from the 
 continental part of Sardinia, and on the south separated by the 
 Po river from Parma, Modena, and the States of the Church. 
 The name of Lombardy, derived from the Lombards (see page 
 28), has at present no actual political meaning, but is a general 
 name adapted to the ancient duchies of Milan and Mantua, etc. 
 Referring to the history of Europe, $§ 6, 7, 9 and 14, and to the 
 history of Italy, page 102, with regard to historical particulars 
 of Lombardy in general, we shall simply premise here, that the 
 duchies of Milan and Mantua, and the principality of Castig- 
 lione have already since respectively 1706, 1707 and 1773 be- 
 longed to Austria, while former territories of Grisons (in Swit- 
 zerland), and those of the ancient republic of Venice, have not 
 before the year 1814 been permanently annexed to the Austrian 
 empire. (About the historical particulars see below.) — The 
 kingdom is divided into 2 governments, styled gubernia, those of 
 
AUSTRIA. 537 
 
 Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 Milan and Venice, and subdivided into 17 provinces, styled dele- 
 gations. 
 
 (a.) The government (gubernium) of Milan or of Lombardy comprises, be- 
 side the above-mentioned duchies and principality of Milan, Mantua and 
 Castiglione, former territories of the present Swiss canton of Grisons, viz., the 
 dominions of Veltlin, Bormio, and Chiavenna, and part of the former territo- 
 ries of the republic of Venice. — 1. The ancient duchy of Milan took existence 
 in the beginning of the 14th century. The city of Milan had until then been 
 formally under the sway of the German emperors, but actually been inde- 
 pendent. A native nobleman, Matthew Visconti, in 1313 usurped authority 
 in the city and its territory, was acknowledged as its ruler by Emperor 
 Henry VII., and his grandson, John Galeazzo Visconti, was in 1395 by Empe- 
 ror Wenceslaus raised to the dignity of duke. His daughter was married to 
 the duke Louis of Orleans, hence the subsequent claims of France upon the 
 duchy. About the middle of the 15th century the male line of the ducal 
 house became extinct, and now the son-in-law of the last duke, Francis 
 Sforza, was elected duke of Milan. But in the beginning of the 16th cen- 
 tury King Francis I. of France raised claims upon the duchy, while Emperor 
 Charles V. reclaimed it as an escheated fief of the German empire. After a 
 long contest the emperor prevailed against Francis I., and in 1540 he in- 
 vested his son Philip (subsequently king of Spain) with the duchy of Milan, 
 which since formed a constituent part of Spain until 1706, when Austria took 
 possession of it, while in 1714 it was formally ceded to this power (see page 
 85). In 1797 Austria renounced it, after it having been transformed into a Cis- 
 alpinian republic; since 1805 it formed the principal constituent part of the 
 kingdom of Italy, and in 1815 it was restored to Austria. It contains: Mi- 
 lan (in German Mailand, and in Italian Milano), its ancient capital, at present 
 the capital of the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, on the Olona, and in a 
 fertile and beautiful plain, between the Tessino and Adda rivers, northward 
 and 80 miles distant from Genoa, and westward and 160 miles distant from 
 Venice, had in 1845 a population of 205,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed 
 for its numerous and splendid public buildings (of which the cathedral is one 
 of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture, and adorned with about 4,000 
 statues) and private palaces, for its valuable public libraries and literary in- 
 stitutions, for its charities for the poor and sick, for its exceedingly important 
 manufactures, and its considerable inland trade. The city was founded in 
 
538 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 359 B. C. by the ancient Gauls, and has since that period been more than 
 forty times besieged, more than twenty times taken, and four times destroyed 
 (for the last time in 1162) and rebuilt. The neighboring market-town of 
 Rho is noted for its mineral waters and baths. Monza, a city on the Lam- 
 bro, 9 miles north-east of Milan, with very ancient remarkable church, a 
 splendid palace of the viceroy of Lombardy and Venice, silk and cotton man- 
 ufactures, and 17,300 inhabitants. Marignano, a town on the Lambro, south- 
 ward and 9 miles distant from Milan, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted in 
 history for the battle on the 13th and 14th September, 1515, in which the 
 Swiss were defeated by the French. Pa via, a city on the Ticino, south- 
 ward and 18 miles distant from Milan, once the residence of the Lombardian 
 kings (the last of them, King Desiderius, was in 774 taken prisoner here by 
 Charlemagne), has 24,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see 
 above, page 505) and other literary institutions, for its cathedral and other 
 remarkable churches, and for its considerable trade. In 218 B. C. Hannibal 
 defeated here the Romans; and in 1525 King Francis L was taken prisoner 
 by the troops of Charles V. in a neighboring park. Lodi, a city on the Adda 
 (crossed here by a bridge noted as a central point in the battle on the 10th 
 May, 1796), south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Milan, with numerous 
 potteries and delf-ware manufactures, and 18,000 inhabitants. Codogno, a 
 market-town eastward and 24 miles distant from Milan, has 8,400 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its cheese. Cremona, a city on the Po, south- 
 eastward and 48 miles distant from Milan, has 28,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral, its literary institutions, charities 
 for the poor and sick, and for its excellent violins. Cased Maggiore and Piz- 
 zighettone, towns with respectively 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Como, a 
 city on the lake of the same name, northward and 28 miles distant from Mi- 
 lan, with beautiful and remarkable cathedral, numerous and important man- 
 ufactures, and 17,000 inhabitants. The neighboring Villa a" Este was in the 
 year 1816-18 the residence of the princess Carolina, consort to King George 
 IV. of England. Varese, a town on the Olone, eastward and 12 miles distant 
 from Como, with numerous palaces and villas, silk manufactures, and 8,500 
 inhabitants. Lecco, a market-town on the lake of Como, with iron-works, 
 and 2,200 inhabitants. Treviglio, a market-town on the Adda, is noted for 
 its silks, and has 6,200 inhabitants. — 2. The ancient duchy of Mantua was 
 since the year 1328 under the sway of princes from the house of Gonzaga, 
 who in 1432 were by the German emperor Sigismund raised to the dignity 
 
AUSTRIA. 639 
 
 Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 of margraves, and by Emperor Charles V. to that of dukes. In the war of 
 succession (see page 85) Duke Charles IV. of Mantua took up arms against 
 the emperor, upon which he was outlawed for felony, while in 170*7 Austria 
 became possessed of this duchy and kept it since (with the exception of the 
 period from 1796 to 1814). It contains: Mantua, its ancient capital, on a 
 lake, 80 miles east-south-east of Milan, with a strong fortress, a remarkable 
 palace, a beautiful cathedral, several literary institutions, important manu- 
 factures, considerable trade, and 28,000 inhabitants Gonzaga, a market- 
 town noted for the ancestral castle of the ancient dukes of Mantua, has 
 13,500 inhabitants. Viadana, a market-town noted for its linens, with 14,000 
 inhabitants. — 3. The ancient principality of Castiglione, which was under 
 the sway of princes of the house of Gonzaga, until in 1773 Austria became 
 possessed of it, contains : Castiglione, its ancient capital, at the Milan 
 and Venice railroad, with 5,500 inhabitants. Solferino, a market-town, 
 with 1,300 inhabitants. — 4. The former territories of Veltlin, JBormio, and 
 Chiavenna (see above) were primitively under the sway of the bishop of 
 Chur (see page 161), who in 1637 ceded them to the Swiss canton of Gri- 
 sons, from which they were wrested by the rulers of the transitory Cis- 
 alpinian republic (see above under the head of Milan), and subsequently 
 annexed to the kingdom of Italy. In this way Austria became possessed of 
 them in 1814. They contain : SoNDRio,the former capital of Veltlin, on the 
 Adda, 64 miles north-north-east of Milan, with 4,100 inhabitants. Tirano 
 and Morbegno, market-towns, with respectively 2,800 and 2,300 inhabitants. 
 Bormio, a market-town near the head of the Adda, 90 miles north-north-east 
 of Milan, with 1,200 inhabitants. Chiavenna (in German Cleven), a town on 
 the Maira, north-westward and 34 miles distant from Sondrio, with manufac- 
 tures, considerable trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. In its neighborhood was 
 situated the wealthy town of Plurs, which in 1618 was totally buried under 
 the fragments of the adjacent Mount Con to. — 5. The former territories of 
 the ancient republic of Venice (see forward), within the limits of this govern- 
 ment, contain : BaEsciA, a city at the Milan and Venice railroad, eastward 
 and 54 miles distant from Milan, and 110 miles west-north-west of Venice, 
 has 28,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for its manufactures of fire-arms, 
 cutleries, etc., and is moreover noted for its architectural monuments, pal- 
 aces, and literary institutions. Salo, a market-town on the Garda lake, is 
 noted for its silk, and has 4,600 inhabitants. Desenzano, on the Garda lake, 
 is noted for its excellent wines, and has 3,700 inhabitants. Other more or 
 
540 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria.— Lombardy and Venice ; History of Venice. 
 
 less notable market-towns are: Montechiaro (with 6,600 inhabitants), 67a- 
 ari (with 9,000 inhabitants), Toscolano (with 2,400 inhabitants), Gargnano 
 (with 3,400 inhabitant?), Verola Nuova (with 4,000 inhabitants), Orzi Nuovi 
 (with 4,700 inhabitants), Pontevico (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bagolino (with 
 3,700 inhabitants), Gardone (with 1,400 inhabitants), Casienedolo (with 4,500 
 inhabitants), Lonato (with 6,000 inhabitants), Iseo (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
 Lovere (with 4,100 inhabitants), Martinengo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Bre or 
 Breno (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Romano (with 3,000 inhabitants). Ber- 
 gamo, a city between the Serio and Brembo rivers, north-eastward and 34 
 miles distant from Milan, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its annual 
 fairs, considerable tr^de and manufactures, for several remarkable churches, 
 literary institutions, etc. Cbema, a city on the Serio, north-eastward and 9 
 miles distant from Lodi, has 9,000 inhabitants, is noted for its wines and flax, 
 and carries on a considerable trade. 
 
 (b.) The government (gubernium) of Venice comprises nothing but former 
 territories of the ancient Republic of Venice. Venice has derived its name 
 from the ancient Venetes (see page 102), who had their chief seat on the 
 Italian continent, but in 452 when the Huns under Attila invaded Italy, fled 
 to the neighboring islands, settled there, and supported themselves by fishing, 
 making salt, and subsequently by commerce. They were joined by other 
 Italian tribes, their commerce flourished more and more, in 697 they elected 
 their first duke, styled Doge, as head of their republic, which in 1172 was 
 decidedly founded on aristocratic principles, and at that period Venice had 
 already become one of the most powerful states. (Some interesting particu- 
 lars about its commerce and manufactures are given in the History of Eu- 
 rope.) Its wealth and power had attained the highest pitch, when suddenly 
 the discovery of America and of the way to India by sea (see pages 56 and 
 57) changed the state of things throughout Europe, and soon proved to be a 
 hard blow to the commerce of Venice. Since the republic was more or less 
 in a lingering condition, and at the first shock in 1797, the whole artificial 
 political structure was overturned. At that period its territories, comprising 
 those on the Italian continent (including the greatest part of Istria), the 
 Ionian Islands, and Dalmatia, had an extent of 13,312 square mile3, with a 
 population of 3,000,000 inhabitants. The public revenue was estimated at 
 5 J millions Venetian ducats (about $3,000,000), and the navy consisted in 
 1783 of 24 ships of the line and 56 other vessels. It cannot be left unnoticed, 
 that history knows of but few instances where a more despotic governmental 
 
AUSTRIA. 541 
 
 Geographical Description of Lorabardy and Venice. 
 
 system was established, than in the mock republic of Venice, whose actual 
 rulers were exclusively chosen from a body of 1,500 nobles. According to 
 the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at CampoFormio in 1797, Austria 
 became possessed of the Italian territories of the republic; in 1805 it ceded 
 them to France, and in 1814 they were restored to Austria. We now 
 describe : Venice (in Italian Venezia, and in German Venedig), ancient capital 
 of the former republic, built upon 136 islands joined together by 450 bridges, 
 at the head of the gulf of Venice, or Adriatic Sea, had in 1842 94,177 in- 
 habitants, but in 1846, a population of 120,000 inhabitants (among them 
 were only 6,380 persons considered as notoriously poor). There are few 
 cities in the world that have so great a number of historically remarkable 
 public and private edifices and buildings as Venice. St. Mark's cathedral, 
 the ancient palace of the Doge, the naval depots, the Ponte Rialto, St. 
 Mark's place, the Campanile, etc., are but few intimations of the numerous 
 remarkable objects of this city, which is also still noted for its various 
 important manufactures and commerce. The island of Murano is noted for 
 its manufactures of looking-glasses. Chioggia, or Chiozza, a city on an island 
 of the same name, with salt-works, and 25,500 inhabitants. Mestre, a mar- 
 ket-town on the continent, with considerable trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. 
 Padua, a city on the Bachiglione, and near the Brenta river, westward and 
 24 miles distant from Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its uni- 
 versity (see above, page 505) and other remarkable literary institutions, its 
 cathedral and other churches, its manufactures and annual fairs. Monselice, 
 a market-town noted for its silk, quarries, and considerable trade, has 8,000 
 inhabitants. Abbano (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Battaglia (with 2,700 inhab- 
 itants), market-towns noted for their mineral waters and baths. Este, a town 
 on a canal, 14 miles south-south-west of Padua, is remarkable as the ances- 
 tral place of the renowned house of Este (see pages 118 and 433), and has 9,000 
 inhabitants. Montagnana, a town on the Fiumicello, is noted for its hemp, 
 and has 8,700 inhabitants. Rovigo, a city on the Adigetto, a branch of the 
 Adige, south-westward and 38 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable 
 cathedral and several other handsome edifices, and 9,000 inhabitants. Adria, 
 a city in the neighborhood of Rovigo, on a branch of the Po, 14 miles from 
 the Adriatic Sea (whose name is derived from that of the city, which stood an- 
 ciently close by the sea and was an emporium), with a remarkable museum, 
 considerable trade in corn, cattle, etc., vine culture, and 10,400 inhabitants. 
 Lendinara and Badia, market-towns, with respectively 5,000 and 3,600 in- 
 
542 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Austria. — Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 
 
 habitants. Verona, a strongly fortified city on the Adige, half-way between 
 Milan and Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is renowned for the vast num- 
 ber of well-conserved remains of ancient Roman edifices (among which a 
 vast amphitheatre having room for 22,000 spectators, and 1,331 feet in circuit), 
 for its many literary institutions, scientific societies, for its important silk 
 manufactures, annual fairs, etc. Legnago, a fortified town on the Adige, is 
 noted for its rice, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Vicenza, a city on the Bacchi- 
 glione, 42 miles west-north-west of Venice, with numerous magnificent public 
 edifices, silk manufactures, trade in greens and cattle, and 33,500 inhabitants. 
 Bassano, a city on the Brenta, north-westward and 38 miles distant from Ven- 
 ice, with 25 churches and chapels, charities for the poor and sick, considerable 
 trade in wine, silk, etc., and 13,000 inhabitants. Schio, a market- town, with 
 6,700 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. Treviso, a city at the 
 high-road between Venice and Tyrol, northward and 18 miles distant from 
 Venice, with several Gothic churches, a remarkable city-hall, a public library, 
 botanic garden, etc., various and important manufactures, annual fairs, and 
 20,000 inhabitants. Ceneda, a town with paper and leather manufactures, 
 mineral waters, and 5,100 inhabitants. Serravalle and Castelfranco, market- 
 towns, wiih respectively 4,800 and 4,000 inhabitants. Belluno, a city on the 
 Piave, northward and 54 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable cathe- 
 dral, timber trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. Feltre, a city near the frontier 
 of Tyrol, with considerable trade in silk, wine, and olive oil, and 5,200 in- 
 habitants. Cadore, a market-town on the Piave, is remarkable as the birth- 
 place of the renowned painter, Titian, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Agordo, a 
 market-town in the neighborhood of Belluno, with important copper mines, 
 and 2,400 inhabitants. The market-town of Auronzo (with 3,100 inhabitants) 
 is noted for its lead mines. — The former Venetian Friaul (see above) con- 
 tains : Udine, its ancient capital, on the Roja, north-eastward and 64 miles 
 distant from Venice, with a cathedral and 12 other churches, charities for the 
 poor and sick, silk manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. South-westward 
 and 5 miles distant from here is situated the village of Campo Formio, 
 with a castle, where on the 17th October, 1797, the noted treaty of peace be- 
 tween France and Austria was concluded. Palmanova, a strongly fortified 
 town at the frontier of Illyria, with silk manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. 
 Cividale, a town on the Natissone, with linen manufactures, dyeing in Turkish 
 red, and 3,600 inhabitants. Sacile (with 4,200 inhabitants), Pordenone (with 
 5,000 inhabitants), Latisana (with 3,200 inhabitants) and Tolmezzo (with 
 1,200 inhabitants), market-towns. 
 
DENMARK. 
 
 Area: 49,927 square miles. 
 Population: 1,800,000 inhabitants. 
 
 This kingdom comprises the continent and islands between the 
 North and Baltic Seas to the north of the Lower Elbe and its 
 mouth ; and beside them, the Faroe Isles and the island of Ice- 
 land in the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The continental part of the kingdom is on the north separated 
 from Norway by the Skagerrack, and on the east from Sweden by 
 the Cattegat (see page 9) ; while the Sound separates Zealand 
 from Sweden, and the Great and Litth Belt (see page 9) separate 
 the two largest Danish islands from each other, and from the 
 Danish peninsula. 
 
 The above-stated area and population are distributed as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Danish Islands, between the ) „ m . „ , MAlUt ,, , ,. L 
 
 v 5,005 square miles, and 780,000 inhabitants. 
 Cattegat and Baltic Sea, ) 
 
 Jutland, 
 
 . 9,574 
 
 « 
 
 " 
 
 ■ 
 
 570,000 
 
 Sleswick, 
 
 . 3,482 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 «( 
 
 370,000 
 
 Iceland, 
 
 . 30,716 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 a 
 
 70,500 
 
 Faroe Isles, . 
 
 . 1,150 
 
 « 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 9,500 
 
 Total, . . 49,927 " " " 1,800,000 
 
 Adding 3,738 square miles and 515,000 inhabitants, as the area 
 and population of the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg (see 
 page 413), the whole kingdom would have a total area of 53.665 
 
544 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark— its Natural Features and Products. 
 
 square miles, and a total population of 2,315,000 inhabitants. 
 (About the Danish Colonies, see below ) 
 
 The established church in Denmark is the Lutheran, under the 
 church authority of 9 Lutheran bishops, viz., of Zealand, Funen, 
 Laaland-Falster, Aalborg, Wiborg, Aarhuus, Kibe, Alsen-Aeroe, 
 and Iceland, beside 2 superintendents-general (in Sleswick and 
 Holstein), &c, &c. The number of parishes (including Iceland 
 and the Faroe Isles) is 2,156. On the 1st February, 1840, there 
 were throughout the whole kingdom only 1,693 Calvinists and 
 2,233 Roman Catholics, beside 7,809 Jews. The Lutheran bishops 
 in Denmark have about the same authority as the bishops of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 As the natural features of Iceland and the Faroe Isles have a 
 peculiar character, entirely differing from those of the main body 
 of the kingdom, the following particulars have reference only to 
 the latter. 
 
 The surface of the country is generally level, with the excep- 
 tion of a range of low hills in the peninsula of Jutland, with the 
 Himmelsberg, only 536 feet in height. The coast of Jutland and 
 the Danish Islands is indented with numerous bays, styled Fjords, 
 the widest and most remarkable of which are the Lymfjord in 
 Jutland, and the Isefjord in Zealand. 
 
 The climate is moderate, and generally wholesome, and the 
 soil is, upon the whole, exceedingly fertile in grain and pasturage. 
 Corn is raised in such quantities that the annual exports of it 
 are very considerable. The rearing of cattle and horses is at the 
 same high pitch of improvement as agriculture. The Danish 
 breed of horses (about 700,000 in the kingdom) is widely famed 
 for its excellence, and the same may be said of the breed of black 
 cattle (more than 1,500,000 heads in aggregate number), 
 especially in Jutland. There are about 2,000,000 sheep, but only 
 part of them is of improved breed. Vast numbers of hogs and 
 
DENMARK 545 
 
 Commerce, Means of Education, Government. 
 
 geese are both in the continental part and the islands. Beside 
 coal on the island of Bornholm, the mineral kingdom yields in 
 Denmark almost nothing but peat, which is generally the only 
 fuel used here. 
 
 While the manufactures consist chiefly of lace and gloves (for 
 which Denmark is noted), of linen and canvass, and are almost 
 restricted to Copenhagen, and a few other cities, the commerce is the 
 more considerable and important, and extends to the West Indies 
 and Africa, as well as to India and China. The chief exports 
 are corn, black cattle, horses, beef, butter, etc. About 10,000 
 horses are annually exported. Of fattened black cattle were in 
 1845 exported 45,000 heads of oxen, calves and cows (in 1840 
 alone 33,500 heads of fattened oxen) ; of salted and smoked beef 
 250.000 quintals, of butter 190,000 quintals, of sheep, etc. 14,000 
 heads, of wool 16,000 quintals, of hogs, 17,000 heads, of bacon 
 60,000 quintals, and of wax about 80,000 pounds. 
 
 The means of education are in the best order, and very properly 
 arranged. In 1837 the number of common schools was 3,644, of 
 which 697 were in Sleswick, and the remainder in Jutland and 
 the Danish Islands. (About the schools in Holstein and Lauen- 
 burg, see page 413.) Beside these there are 6 seminaries for 
 school-teachers (the seventh is in Holstein), 27 gymnasiums (4 of 
 them in Sleswick), 26 Latin schools, 7 academies and similar other 
 higher schools, and one university at Copenhagen (founded in 
 1479, and in 1841 frequented by 1,260 students: its valuable 
 library contains more than 100,000 volumes). About the univer- 
 sity at Kiel, see page 413. 
 
 The government was since 1660. and until recent times, an un- 
 limited monarchy, that, however, had not the slightest infusion of 
 that despotic character, as, for instance, the French government 
 had in the days of Louis XIV. Since the years 1831 and 34 
 the government was somewhat limited by provincial diets with 
 
516 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark — its Finances, Army and Navy. 
 
 deliberative votes. But at present the government is limited by 
 a constitution like those in other states of western Europe. 
 
 According to the budget of 1846, the public revenue amounted 
 to 16,008,440 Riksbankdollars (or about $8,000,000, one Riks- 
 bankdollar being equal to 50 cents), and the public expenditure to 
 15,935,053 Riksbankdollars. The toll levied at Elsinore (on 
 the Sound) from the ships which trade to the Baltic Sea, yields 
 annually about 2 million of Riksbankdollars (or $1,000,000). 
 The public debt, amounting to 1 14,194,806 Riksbankdollars on the 
 1st January 1843, was in the following year reduced to 112,619,- 
 154 by paying off; but has of course since, on account of the in- 
 tervening unprovoked war (see page 415), considerably increased 
 again. 
 
 The regular army consisted hitherto of 24,823 men on the 
 peace footing, and of about 100,000 men on the war footing. 
 Formerly Denmark ranked high as a maritime power, and even 
 so late as in 1806 her navy consisted of 20 ships of the line, 16 
 frigates, 9 brigs, 1 schooner, and 52 gun-boats and other vessels. 
 Most of them were first rate men-of-war, and England had long 
 since had an appetite for them. Suddenly in 1807, towards fall, 
 the English surprised Denmark — which was then in peace with Eng- 
 land, and all other nations — with a powerful fleet and a numerous 
 body of landing troops, bombarded Copenhagen in a frightful 
 manner during four days (on which occasion 2,400 dwelling- 
 houses were destroyed, 400 of which totally, and more than 2,000 
 inoffensive inhabitants killed), and simultaneously attacked the 
 Danish navy with far superior forces ; and in this way indeed 
 they finally succeeded in enforcing a capitulation, signed on the 
 7th September. By this convention it was stipulated, that Den- 
 mark should surrender her navy to the English, who on their 
 part engaged themselves, according to the terms of this very 
 convention, to restore it immediately after the conclusion of a gen- 
 
DENMARK. 547 
 
 History of Denmark. 
 
 eral peace. The latter was concluded in 1814 — but England did 
 never restore even so much as a single ship to Denmark ! In 
 1846 the Danish navy consisted of 7 ships of the line, 8 frigates, 
 5 sloops of war, 4 brigs, 4 steamers, and 6 other vessels, beside 
 82 gun-boats, etc. 
 
 There are the following Orders of honor : 1. The Elephant 
 order, instituted so early as in the 12th century, and renewed in 
 1458 : it is only conferred on princes or persons of the highest 
 rank; 2. the Danebrog order, instituted in 1219, renewed in 1671, 
 and in 4 classes. 
 
 History. — That Denmark was, simultaneously with the other Scandinavian 
 countries, chiefly peopled by the German tribe of the Goths, about the be- 
 ginning of the Christian era, has already been alluded to, page 30. Accord- 
 ing to an ancient tale, a Gothic prince, named Odin, or Oden, founded in 
 that period the city of Odense on the island of Funen, and then removing to 
 Sweden, left behind his son Skjold, who thus became the ancestor of the first 
 reigning dynasty in Denmark, known in history by the name of Skjoldunger. 
 The country was, however, for centuries not under the sway of one single 
 king, but under that of several princes, until in 883 Gorm, surnamed the Old, 
 united the different parts into one kingdom. That prior to this period the 
 war against Charlemagne had in 810 been terminated by a treaty of peace, 
 which fixed the Eider river as the boundary between the Danes and Franks 
 (subsequently between Denmark and the German empire), has already been 
 related, page 31. During the reign of Harald VIII. (931-981), surnamed 
 Blaatand (literally, blue tooth), Christianity began to be propagated in Den- 
 mark ; and his grandson Sven conquered both England (see page 32) and 
 Norway. With King Hardicanute, who died in 1041, the male line of the 
 Skjoldunger became extinct, and now Sven Estridson (son of Hardicanute's 
 aunt) succeeded, but also his male line became extinct in 1376 with king 
 Waldemar III. Waldemar's only daughter Margareth (married to a Nor- 
 wegian prince) succeeded him, and was in 1397 acknowledged as reigning 
 queen of all the Scandinavian kingdoms (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). 
 With Christoph III., who died in 1448, the race of the Skjoldunger became 
 totally extinct, and now the earl Christian of Oldenburg was elected heredi- 
 tary king of Denmark, and mounted the Danish throne as Christian 1. (see 
 
548 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark— its History and Geographical Divisions. 
 
 History of Holstein, page 414). He died in 1481, and had the following suc- 
 cessors : John (1481-1513), Christian II. (1513-1523), Frederic I. (1523-1533), 
 Christian III. (1533-1559), Frederic II. (1559-1588), Christian IV. (1588- 
 1648), Frederic III. (1648-1670), Christian V. (16*70-1699), Frederic IV. 
 (1699-1730), Christian VI. (1730-1746), Frederic V. (1746-1766), Christian 
 VIL (1766-1808), and Frederic VI. (1808-1839). That in 1807 Denmark was 
 deprived of its navy by the English, has already been mentioned above, and 
 that in 181 3 Norway was wrested from the kingdom by Sweden, and that final- 
 ly it was indemnified by the duchy of Lauenburg, has been related, page 419 ; 
 while in the History of Holstein the real motives of the endeavors to wrest 
 also the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg from Denmark have 
 been fully explained. (The historical particulars with reference to Sleswick 
 see below.) King Frederic VI. died in 1839, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
 Christian VIII, who died on the 20th January, 1848, and was succeeded by 
 his son, the present reigning king, Frederic VIL, born on the 6th October, 
 1808. In case the latter should die childless, his next heir and successor 
 would be his uncle, Prince Ferdinand (born in 1792, and childless), and then 
 first would succeed Prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, whose mother Char- 
 lotte is sister of Ferdinand and the late king Christian VIII. 
 
 The Danish Islands (between the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea) 
 and Jutland are divided in 19 bailiwicks, while Sleswick is di- 
 vided into 15 bailiwicks and 40 privileged districts, cities, etc., 
 in a similar manner as Holstein. In the following topography 
 we shall, however, describe these islands separately, under one 
 single head, only denoting the capitals of the bailiwicks with 
 this sign, +. The remaining sections to be described separately 
 are : Jutland, Sleswick, Faroe Isles, and Iceland. 
 
DENMARK. 549 
 
 Danish Islands. 
 
 1.— THE DANISH ISLANDS. 
 
 Area : 5,005 square miles. 
 Population: 780,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Under this head are comprised the islands situated between 
 the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea, excluding the few that are con- 
 sidered as annexed to Jutland and Sleswick. 
 
 The island of Zealand (2,705 square miles, and 480,000 inhabitants), sep- 
 arated from Sweden by the Sound, contains : -[-Copenhagen (in Danish 
 Kjbbenhavn), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, is one of the 
 most handsome cities in Europe, and strongly fortified, has 125,000 inhabi- 
 tants, a good harbor, with considerable commerce, and is noted for many 
 magnificent public edifices and private buildings, its university (see above), 
 and numerous literary institutions, its vast docks, and important manufac- 
 tures. The royal library here (which is not to be confounded with that of 
 the university) contains 500,000 volumes. Roeskilde, a city near the south- 
 ern extremity of the above-mentioned Isefjord, 18 miles west-south-west of 
 Copenhagen, has at present only 3,000 inhabitants, but was in the middle 
 ages a renowned city (see page 38). The neighboring village of Leire was 
 until the 10th century the principal seat of the Danish kings. Kjoge, a 
 maritime town on the eastern coast, with remarkable town-hall, and 2,000 
 inhabitants. -|-Hiller6d, a town on an inland lake, 21 miles north-north- 
 west of Copenhagen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the extensive 
 and magnificent Gothic castle of Frederiksbcrrg, in whose church the kings 
 of Denmark use to be crowned. The neighboring royal palace of Fredens- 
 borg is remarkable in history for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 
 3d July, 1720. Frederikswerk, a market-town on a lake, with 600 inhabi- 
 tants, is noted for its cannon-foundry. Helsingor, or Flsenor, a maritime 
 :own on the Sound, with some manufactures, commerce, sea-bathing, and 7,500 
 nhabitants. The toll levied here (see above), yielded in 1840 the sum of 
 i,140,360 Riksbankdollars ($1,070,180), paid by 17,332 passing vessels. 
 Jlose by the town is situated the citadel or fortified castle of Kronborg, 
 eared in the years 1577-85. The Sound is here only 4,443 yards wide. 
 
550 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark— Islands of Zealand, Bornholm, etc. 
 
 The neighboring village of Hellebeck is noted for a fire-arms manufactory. 
 Frederikssund, a maritime town, with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 -fHoLBEK, a maritime town, on the Isefjord, with corn trade, and 2,000 in- 
 habitants. Nykjbbing, a town on the Isefjord, with some woollen manufac- 
 tures, and 950 inhabitants. Kallundborg, a rather important maritime and 
 commercial town at the northern entrance into the Great Belt, with 2,500 in- 
 habitants. -(-Soroe, a town on ar lake of the same name, south-westward and 
 44 miles distant from Copenhagen, has 900 inhabitants, and is renowned for its 
 academy founded in 1586. The neighboring and very ancient town of Ring- 
 sled (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its church, reared in the 11th cen- 
 tury, and containing the sepulchres of Waldemar L and II. and other Skjol- 
 dungers. Slagelse, Skjelskoer, and Korsoer, more or less remarkable towns 
 near and on the Great Belt, with respectively 3,000, 1,000, and 1,500 inhabi- 
 tants. -j-Praestoe, a maritime town in the southern extremity of Zealand, 
 48 miles south-south-west of Copenhagen, with fine harbor, corn trade, and 
 900 inhabitants. Nestved, a town romantically situated, is noted for its con- 
 siderable corn trade, and has 2,500 inhabitants. Wordingborg, a maritime 
 town, with 1,600 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Samsoe, between Jutland and Zealand, at the northern en- 
 trance into the Great Belt, has a very fertile soil, 42 square miles in extent, 
 and 6,000 inhabitants, who are noted for their wealth. 
 
 The island of Moen (85 square miles, and 12,000 inhabitants), near the 
 south-eastern extremity of Zealand, is noted for the fertility of its soil in 
 grain, for its valuable forests, and the wealth of its population, and contains 
 the town of Stege, with light- house, and 1,700 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Bornholm (213 square miles, and 25,000 inhabitants), situa- 
 ted in the Baltic Sea, about 80 miles east of Zealand, is in the interior fertile 
 in grazing, and noted for its quarries and coal mines. It contains : Bonne, or 
 fiottum, a town on the western coast, with rather considerable commerce, 
 manufactures of clocks, numerous potteries, and 4,000 inhabitants. Aakirke, 
 a town towards the centre of the island, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its fine church, built of black marble. Other towns are Nexbe (with 1,600 
 inhabitants), Svanike (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Hasle (with 700 inhabi- 
 tants). 
 
 The island of Laaland (458 square miles, and 50,000 inhabitants), situated 
 between Zealand and Holstein, has an exceedingly fertile soil, and its in- 
 habitants are generally very wealthy. It contains : Mariboe, a town on a 
 
DENMARK. 551 
 
 Islands of Fulster, Funen, Thaasinge, and Langeland. 
 
 lake of the same name, with corn trade, and 1,400 inhabitants, Nysted (with 
 1,000 inhabitants), Saxkjobing (with 800 inhabitants), Nakskop (with 2,500 
 inhabitants), and R'ddby (with 1,200 inhabitants), maritime towns more or 
 less noted for their corn trade. 
 
 The island of Falster (181 square miles, and 21,000 inhabitants), situated 
 close by the former island, is noted for its fruits, and in common life fre- 
 quently called the orchard of Denmark. Much grain is likewise raised, and 
 the forests here yield valuable timber. It contains : Nykjobing, a very ancient 
 chief town, on the Strait that separates the island from Laaland, with ancient 
 royal palace, considerable corn trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. Stubbekjbbing, 
 a town with 900 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Funen (in Danish Fyen) is next to Zealand the largest 
 among the Danish islands, having an area of 1,193 square miles, with 
 154,000 inhabitants, and is by the Great Belt separated from Zealand, and 
 by the Little Belt from Sleswick. The soil is thoroughly very fertile in 
 grain and grazing, and not only the black cattle, but especially the horses 
 are of excellent breed. There are more than 100 large and wealthy estates 
 on the island, which contains : -j-Odense, its very ancient capital (see above 
 in the History of Denmark), on a bay of the northern coast, with 9,000 in- 
 habitants, 4 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in the 
 11th century), a notable public library, manufactures of gloves, and consider- 
 able commerce. Middelfart, a town on the Little Belt, is noted for its fishe- 
 ries, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable maritime towns 
 ire : Bogense (with 1,250 inhabitants), Assens (with 2,500 inhabitants), and 
 Kjerteminde (with 1,700 inhabitants). -(-Svendborg, a maritime and com- 
 nercial town on the southern coast, with remarkable church, various manu- 
 actures, and 3,800 inhabitants. Nyborg, a fortified town and naval station, 
 m the Great Belt, with remarkable town-hall, rather considerable commerce, 
 nd 3,200 inhabitants. Faaborg, a maritime and commercial town on the 
 outhern coast, with 1,800 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Taasinge (also named Thorsenge), only 28 square miles in 
 xtent, with 4,000 inhabitants, is situated near the southern coast of Funen, 
 nd contains : Troense, a market-town with harbor, some commerce, and 
 00 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Langeland (106 square miles, and 16,000 inhabitants), near 
 le former island, is noted fo the fertility of its soil, and contains Rudkjobing, 
 town with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 
552 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark— Province of Jutland. 
 
 2._^JUTLAND. 
 
 Area : 9,5*74 square miles. 
 Population: 5*70,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It comprises the northern and larger part of the Danish pen- 
 insula, and is by the Danes themselves generally called North 
 Jutland^ to distinguish it from Sleswick, for which they have re- 
 tained its primitive name of South Jutland. — Jutland contains : 
 
 -{-Aalboeg, a city on the Lymfjord (see above), southward and 58 miles 
 distant from the promontory of Skagen (the northern extremity of the pen- 
 insula), with 8,000 inhabitants, considerable commerce, leather and other 
 manufactures, a noted nautical school, and an ancient royal castle, remarkable 
 in history, by the name of Aalborghuus. The town of Nibe, on the Lymfjord, 
 •with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted for its fisheries. -|-Hjorring, a town north- 
 ward and 30 miles distant from Aalborg, with 1,200 inhabitants. Skagen, a 
 town at the northern extremity of the peninsula, on the Skagerrack, with 
 light-house (reared in 1*751, and 64 feet high), and 1,500 inhabitants. Freder- 
 ikshavn, a town on the Cattegat, is commonly called Fladstrand (which is the 
 name of its citadel), and has 1,300 inhabitants. Saby, a town on the Catte- 
 gat. with trade in chalk of very good description, and 850 inhabitants. Lasoe, 
 au isle in the Cattegat, 46 square miles in extent, with 2,300 inhabitants, sub- 
 sisting on fishing and agriculture. -J-Thisted, a town on the Lymfjord, west- 
 ward and 46 miles distant from Aalborg, with corn trade, and 1,750 inhabi- 
 tants. The island of Mors, in the Lymfjord, has 128 square miles in extent, 
 and 12,000 inhabitants, with a generally fertile soil, and containing the town 
 of Nykjbbing, with 1,150 inhabitants. -j-Wiborg, a city south-westward and 
 44 miles distant from Aalborg, is one of the most ancient cities in the king- 
 dom, and in some respects considered as the capital of Jutland, is noted for 
 its remarkable cathedral (reared in 1169) and its annual fairs, and has 3,700 
 inhabitants. Skive, a very ancient town, on the Lymfjord, with considerable 
 cattle-marts, fishery and corn trade, and 1,100 inhabitants. -4-Aarhuus, a 
 
DENMARK 653 
 
 Geographical Description of Jutland. 
 
 city on the Cattegat, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Wiborg, with 
 3 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in 1201), a tract 
 society and foreign missions, important manufactures, and annual fairs, con- 
 siderable commerce, and 7,000 inhabitants. -j-Randers, a city on the river 
 Guden, northward and 18 miles distant from Aarhuus, with various and im- 
 portant branches of industry, commerce, and 6,500 inhabitants. Mariager 
 (with 900 inhabitants), Hobro (with 800 inhabitants), Grenaa (with 1,500 in- 
 habitants), and Ebeltoft (with 950 inhabitants), more or less remarkable 
 towns. The isle of Anholt, in the Cattegat, has only 21 square miles in ex- 
 tent, and 200 inhabitants, who subsist entirely on fishing. -J-Skanderborg, a 
 town romantically situated on a lake of the same name, south-westward and 
 16 miles distant from Aarhuus, with 1,000 inhabitants. Horsens, a maritime 
 town on a bay, and in a fertile district, with considerable commerce, iron- 
 works, and 5,000 inhabitants. -f~^ IBE ( m German Ripen), a city in a dis- 
 trict surrounded by territories of Sleswick, at 5 miles distance from the North 
 Sea, south-westward and 86 miles distant from Aarhuus, with a very remark- 
 able cathedral, considerable trade in corn, fattened black cattle, etc., and 
 3,000 inhabitants. 'Warde, a town with noted potteries, corn trade, and 1,500 
 inhabitants. Fande and Amrum are isles in the North Sea, near the coast 
 of Jutland, with respectively 2,500 and 450 inhabitants. -j-Ringkjobing, a 
 maritime town on the North Sea, westward and 85 miles distant from 
 Aarhuus, with manufactures, considerable commerce, and 1,600 inhabitants. 
 Holstebro and Letnvig, towns with respectively 1,250 and 800 inhabitants. 
 -[-Weile, a maritime town on a bay of the Cattegat, 44 miles south-south- 
 west of Aarhuus, with remarkable ancient town-hall, considerable commerce, 
 and 2,500 inhabitants. Fridericia, a fortified city at the northern entrance 
 into the Little Belt, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Weile, with 2 
 Lutheran churches, 1 Reformist church, and 1 Roman Catholic chapel, cloth 
 manufactures, cattle-marts, and 4,500 inhabitants. Fridericia was founded in 
 1615 by King Frederic III., and named after him. Kolding, a town on a 
 bay of the same name, which separates it from Sleswick, with 2 churches, 
 cloth manufactures, corn and cattle trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 
 24 
 
554 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark. — Duchy of Sleswick. 
 
 3.— THE DUCHY OF SLESWICK. 
 
 Area : 3,482 square miles. 
 Population : 370,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Sleswick (in German Schleswig) comprises the southern part 
 of the Danish peninsula, and has, for this reason, from old been 
 called South Jutland (until the middle of the 15th century this 
 name was exclusively, and since at least very frequently used). 
 On the south it is separated from Holstein by the Eider river 
 (see above, and page 31). It has ever formed a constituent 
 part of the Danish kingdom, and would never have been named 
 Sleswick or South Jutland, nor styled a duchy, but, together 
 with the northern part of the peninsula, would have been com- 
 prised under the general name of Jutland, if the political blunder 
 had not been made by Queen Margaret, in 1386 (see History 
 of.Denmark), of investing the earl Gerhard VI. of Holstein with 
 South Jutland. She had not the slightest political ground to 
 make any difference between North and South Jutland, which 
 latter could quite as well as other provinces of the kingdom have 
 been ruled by a governor appointed by the Danish government, 
 and did not want an extraordinary ruler in the person of a vassal 
 of the Danish crown, as Gerhard VI. now became. It was this 
 earl, who, assuming the title of a duke, of Sleswick, arbitrarily 
 altered the name of South Jutland. When the male line of the 
 earls of Schaumburg in Holstein became extinct, in 1459 (see 
 History of Holstein), the duchy of Sleswick, as it now was styled, 
 escheated, of course, to the Danish crown as a now vacant fee, while 
 this same crown became possessed of the earldom (since 1474 
 duchy) of Holstein by way of inheritance. This occurred during 
 
DENMARK. 655 
 
 History of Sleswick. 
 
 the reign of Christian I., as we have seen in the History of 
 Holstein ; and to this king was thus afforded the best opportunity 
 not only to redress the blunder committed by Queen Margaret, 
 but also to increase the actual power and authority of the reign- 
 ing house of Denmark, by retaining the direct government of 
 Holstein j as for instance, King George I. of England and his 
 successors did with regard to Hanover. But Christian I. and 
 his successors were prepossessed with the then prevailing wrong 
 principles of dividing territories among brothers of the reigning 
 sovereign, instead of endowing them with appanages, as is now long 
 since the custom. Thus, while Christian I. invested his second 
 son, Frederic, with Sleswick and Holstein as fees of the Danish 
 crown, his grandson Christian III. (see History of Denmark) in- 
 vested with them partly his own son, John (who thus became the 
 ancestor of the collateral line of Sonderburg), partly his brother 
 Adolphus (the ancestor of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, men- 
 tioned in the History of Holstein). The reigning sovereign had, 
 however, retained some territories both in Sleswick and Holstein, 
 and, as in the so-called northern war, between Sweden and Den- 
 mark (Russia and Poland were likewise engaged in it), the dukes 
 of Sleswick made common cause with the enemy of Denmark, 
 and surrendered spontaneously the fortress of Tondern to the 
 Swedes, thus committing an evident act of felony ', and forfeiting 
 their territories in the duchy (see page 36), these latter were, of 
 course, withdrawn from them by the Danish crown, in 1713. In 
 the treaty of peace concluded at Fredensborg on the 5th of July, 
 1720, Sweden, England, and France recognized explicitly this act 
 as a just one. Since that period (i. e. since 1713) Sleswick has 
 ever continued to form an actual constituent part of the Danish 
 kingdom, as it did primitively, and for centuries in the middle 
 ages. The only mistake with regard to it has been, that Sleswick 
 was by the Danish crown placed under one and the same provin- 
 
556 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark.— Historical and Geographical Description of Sleswick. 
 
 cial government with Holstein, this being the surest way to extend 
 the plots generated in Holstein and Germany also to Sleswick. 
 (About other historical particulars, see History of Holstein.) The 
 soil of Sleswick is quite as rich and fertile as in Holstein, and 
 like the latter country, Sleswick was, prior to the war with Den- 
 mark, highly noted for its wealth and prosperity. Its adminis- 
 trative division has already been noticed. It contains : 
 
 Sleswick (in German Schleswig), its capital, on a bay of the Baltic Sea, 
 (known by the name of Schlei), north-westward and 24 miles distant from 
 Kiel, with 11,700 inhabitants, 3 churches (among them the remarkable St. 
 Peter's church, reared in 1260), considerable fisheries, and the extensive and 
 magnificent castle of Gottorp, once the residence of the dukes of Sleswick. 
 The city of Sleswick was in the earlier period of the middle ages an empo- 
 rium in this quarter. Flensburg, a noted commercial city, on a bay of the 
 Baltic Sea, northward and 18 miles distant from the city of Sleswick, with 
 important manufactures, and 15,700 inhabitants. Apenrade, a city on a 
 bay of the Baltic Sea, northward and 16 miles distant from Flensburg, with 
 a spacious harbor, considerable commerce (at least before the war with Den- 
 mark), and 4,200 inhabitants. Hadersleben. the most northerly city of 
 Sleswick, romantically situated on a bay of the Little Belt, northward and 
 18 miles distant from Apenrade, with manufactures, commerce, and 6,400 
 inhabitants. Tondern, a city on the Widaae, 7 miles from the North Sea, 
 north-westward and 24 miles distant from Flensburg, has 3,000 inhabitants, 
 and was until 1750 noted for its fortress. Husum, a maritime town on a 
 bay of the North Sea, westward and 18 miles distant from Sleswick, with a 
 remarkable ancient castle, and 4,200 inhabitants. Frederikstad, a maritime 
 town on the Treene, at its junction with the Eider, has a spacious harbor, 
 and 2,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its mustard. Tonning, a mari- 
 time and commercial town on the Eider, 2 miles from the North Sea, with 
 2,500 inhabitants. Gar ding, a town with corn and wool trade, and 1,500 
 inhabitants. Eckernforde, a city on a bay of the Baltic Sea, 14 miles east- 
 south-east of Sleswick, and north-westward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, 
 with commerce, and 4,300 inhabitants. Frederiksort, a little fortress at the 
 entrance of the bay of Kiel, northward and 7 miles distant from this city. 
 Gravenstein, a market-town on the bay of Flensburg, with 500 inhabitants, 
 
DENMARK. 557 
 
 Geographical Description of Sleswick. 
 
 and a palace of the duke of Angustenburg. Aaroe, a fertile little island in 
 the Little Belt. Lygumkloster, a market-town, northward and 9 miles dis- 
 tant from Tondern, with noted cattle and horse-marts, and 1,400 inhabitants. 
 Fohr, an island in the North Sea, near the coast of Sleswick, with 4,500 in- 
 habitants, considerable fowling, and the market-town of Wyk, noted for sea- 
 bathing. Numerous other isles in the neighborhood of Fohr are known by 
 the general name of Halligen. Gluecksburg, a market-town near the bay 
 of Flensburg, has 850 inhabitants, and is noted for its castle or palace, which 
 was in the period of 1622-1778 the residence of the dukes of Holstein- 
 Glucksburg. — The island of Alsen (128 square miles, and 22,000 inhabi- 
 tants), situated in the Little Belt, and one of the most beautiful and fertile 
 islands in the Baltic, contains: Sonderburg, its capital, on the strait that 
 separates the island from continental Sleswick, with 3,500 inhabitants, a 
 fine harbor, commerce, and an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the 
 duke of Angustenburg. Norburg, a market-town, with 1,200 inhabitants. 
 Augustenburg, a market-town, 5 miles east north-east of Sonderburg, has 
 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its stud and a magnificent palace, formerly 
 the residence of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Angustenburg. — The 
 island of Aeroe or Arr'de (32 square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), situated 
 at the southern entrance of the Little Belt, eastward and 9 miles distant 
 from Alsen, is noted for its fowl, and contains the town of Aeroeskjbbing 
 (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the market-town of Mar stall (with 2,300 inhab- 
 itants). — The island of Femern (64 square miles, and 9,000 inhabitants), sit- 
 uated in the Baltic, opposite the coast of Holstein, with a rather sterile soil, 
 containing the town of Burg (with 2,000 inhabitants), and the village of Pe- 
 tersdorf (with 750 inhabitants), beside some other places. 
 
 4.— THE FAROE ISLES. 
 
 Area: 1,150 square miles. 
 Population : 9,500 inhabitants. 
 
 This group, consisting of 17 inhabited and 8 uninhabited isles, 
 is situated in the Atlantic Ocean and in about the 60th degree 
 
558 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark.— Faroe Isles. 
 
 of north latitude, west by south and 550 miles distant from 
 Drontheim, in Norway. They are generally rocky, and, upon the 
 whole, barren, yet the inhabited isles are here and there covered 
 with mould fertile in grazing, and even in grain, that is raised 
 here at a rather considerable amount. The climate of the 
 isles is in general mild. Black cattle, sheep with coarse wool, 
 and horses, are likewise reared ; yet the inhabitants subsist 
 chiefly on fishing and catching of sea-fowl, vast numbers of which 
 have their resort here. Knitted stockings and other woollen 
 articles, eider-down, goose-feathers, salted mutton, tallow, etc., are 
 largely exported from the isles. The inhabitants are of Norwe- 
 gian origin, and King Harald Haarfager of Norway it was who, 
 towards the end of the 9th century, took possession of the Faroe 
 Isles, at the same time when the Hebrides and Shetland Islands 
 were conquered. Since the year 1026 the Faroe Isles formed 
 permanently a constituent part of the kingdom of Norway and 
 consequently of the kingdom of Denmark, which retained them 
 in 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden. 
 
 The principal island is Stromoe (138 square miles, and 2,500 inhabitants), 
 containing the highest mountain of the group, named Skiellingsfield, and 
 2,400 feet high, and moreover the little town of Thorshavn, the seat of the 
 Danish governor, with a Latin school, a hospital, and 1,000 inhabitants, being 
 at the same time the principal mart of the isles. — The island of Oesteroe 
 has 85 square miles in extent, and 1,600 inhabitants, and a good harbor at 
 Kongshavn. — The island of Soderoe (42 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), 
 is the most southern of the inhabited isles. 
 
DENMARK. 559 
 
 Geographical Description of Iceland. 
 
 6.— ICELAND. 
 
 Area: 30,716 square miles. 
 Population : 70,500 inhabitants. 
 
 This island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, on the borders 
 of the frigid zone, between 63° 21' and 66° 34' north latitude, 
 at 160 miles distance from Greenland, and at 700 miles distance 
 from Norway. On account of the prevailing wild and barren 
 rocky character of its surface, only about 4,200 square miles of 
 the whole island are inhabited, and the main body of the popula- 
 tion is settled in the south-western coasting tract. About the 
 most remarkable mountains of Iceland see page 8, and beside the 
 Hecla noticed there, 1 8 other volcanoes are constantly burning, 
 among them the Krabla. The so-called Geisers are hot springs, 
 which throw up large columns of boiling water, to the height of 
 50 or 60 to 100 feet. It has already been noticed, page 56, that 
 in the middle ages not only the spirit of poetry was most success- 
 fully improved with the Icelanders, but that also the island itself 
 was then a fertile and well-cultivated country. The subterra- 
 nean fire having since burst forth in devastating lava-streams, 
 and at the same time immense masses of ice from the North Pole 
 accumulated at Iceland's shores, the vegetation of this island has 
 substantially degenerated. Iceland is, however, yet noted for the 
 exceedingly beautiful green of its pastures and meadows, which 
 afford to the inhabitants ample means for rearing both cattle 
 and horses. The branches of industry are in general the same 
 as on the Faroe Isles. — A Norwegian pirate, named Naddok, is 
 said to have discovered Iceland in 861, which, however, was 
 already inhabited by tribes perhaps from Ireland ; while on the 
 
560 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Denmark.— Geographical Description of Iceland. 
 
 other hand, the island of Thule, mentioned by ancient Roman 
 authors, was probably identical with Iceland. Be this as it may, 
 in short, the aborigines were gradually supplanted by Norwe- 
 gians, who settled here since the year 874 or 875, established a 
 kind of republic, but were in 1261 subjected to the sovereignty 
 of Norway, and in this manner Denmark became possessed of 
 the island. — The Icelanders, who consequently are of Norwegian 
 origin, are noted not only for their fine shape and features, but 
 also for their rigid morality and piety, and for love of learning. 
 It is a fact, first that crimes are never heard of as committed by 
 any Icelander, and secondly that even the peasantry frequently 
 spend the longer winter evenings by reading ancient Roman au- 
 thors in the original. In point of religion, the Icelanders are 
 Lutherans, under the church authority of a bishop residing in 
 Reikiavik. The aggregate number of churches in Iceland is 
 321, with 154 ministers. — The island, divided into 21 districts, 
 contains : 
 
 Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on a bay of the south-western coast, is 
 the seat of the Danish governor, of the bishop, of a scientific, a bible, and a 
 tract society, and has 700 inhabitants, a cathedral built of stone, a gymnasium, 
 an observatory, a public library containing 6,000 volumes, and an apothecary's 
 shop. Bessestad, in the neighborhood of Reikiavik, was once the dwelling- 
 place of the renowned poet Snorre Sturleson (who lived in the latter half 
 of the 13th century), and has a gymnasium, where, among others, the Hebrew, 
 Greek, Latin, and mathematics are taught. In Leiria is a printing-office. 
 East of Reikiavik is situated Skalholt, with the largest church on the island. 
 Hraundalur, Skagastrand, and Husavik are trading places. Holum, at pres- 
 ent only with rather few dwelling-houses, and a church, was in the period 
 from 1106 to 1797 the seat of a bishop, and so early as in 1530 endowed 
 with a printing-office and a gymnasium. 
 
 About the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, see page 412. 
 The Danish Colonies are the following : 
 
DENMARK. 561 
 
 The Danish Colonies. 
 
 1. In America : settlements on the western coast of Greenland^ 
 and the West Indian islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. 
 Johns. 
 
 2. In Africa : settlements in Upper Guinea. 
 
 3. In Asia : presently only the Nicobar Islands, as the colonies 
 of Tranquebar and Serampore have been sold in 1845 to the 
 British East India Company. 
 
 The total area of these colonies is estimated at 4,686 square 
 miles (inclusive 3,962 square miles in Greenland), with a popula- 
 tion of 110,000 inhabitants. 
 
 24* 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 Akea : 293,280 square miles. 
 Population : 4,650,000 inhabitants. 
 
 These two countries, frequently mentioned under the general 
 name of Scandinavian Peninsula, and at the same time politically 
 united in so far as they are under the sway of one and the same 
 sovereign, extend from 55° 20' to 71° 11' north latitude, and are 
 situated between the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea, at the 
 north-eastern extremity bordering upon Russia. — From Denmark 
 they are separated by the Skagerrak, the Cattegat, and Sound, and 
 from Russia by the Gulf of Bothnia (see page 9). — About the 
 Scandinavian Mountains, see pages 5 and 6 ; about the lakes see 
 page 11, and about the principal rivers see pages 13 and 14. — 
 Sweden is noted for the Gota- Canal that crosses the country in a 
 westerly direction, thus connecting the Cattegat with the Baltic. 
 — The climate, though severe in winter, is in general very whole- 
 some. Both countries abound in sublime and romantic scenery. 
 
 The northern provinces are either mostly barren, as in Norway, 
 or covered with extensive forests, as in Sweden, and in both coun- 
 tries thinly covered ; while the southern are much more fertile, 
 and in Sweden both well-cultivated and thickly settled. Sufficient 
 corn is raised in Sweden for home consumption, but not in Nor- 
 way, where, in 1838, more than 1,500,000 bushels of grain were 
 to be imported. The surplus products of both countries are iron, 
 copper, limber, and fish. The Swedish iron mines yield, upon an 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 568 
 
 Natural Products and Manufactures. 
 
 average, more than 1,600,000 quintals of iron, in some respects 
 of the best quality in the world. Those of Norway are not so 
 productive, yielding about 150,000 quintals annually. The an- 
 nual produce of the copper mines in Sweden is about 18,300 quin- 
 tals, and in Norway, upon an average, 9,000 quintals of copper. 
 On the other hand, Norway is noted for its silver mines at Kongs- 
 berg, which, in 1842, produced 21,088, and in 1834 more than 
 27,000 marks of silver. Beside these metals, are to be noticed 
 alum, porphyry, and coal (the latter in the Swedish province of 
 Skone). Sweden is noted for its mineral waters, and its water- 
 ing-places of Medewi, Ramlosa, Loka, etc., are in the summer 
 season crowded with strangers. Salt is totally wanting in both 
 countries, and thus to be imported. — As both Sweden and Nor- 
 way have extensive forests, which, in Sweden alone, cover nearly 
 16,700,000 acres, the exports of timber (moreover, of tar, pitch, 
 and smoke black) are very considerable. — Cattle are reared at a 
 rather great extent, though their breed is but middle-sized. In 
 1830 both countries numbered about 2,000,000 heads of black cattle, 
 1,500.000 sheep, 600.000 hogs, 170,000 goats, and 600,000 horses. 
 The latter, in so far as they belong to the original breed of the 
 countries, are but small, yet swift runners, and exceedingly en- 
 during. The deer and other game abound ; and even the elk is 
 still to be found. The Laplanders keep considerable herds of 
 reindeer. Of wild animals, the bear, wolf, lynx, and glutton 
 are to be noticed. 
 
 The manufactures of Norway are of no great importance, but 
 the more considerable in Sweden, which is distinguished for its 
 hardware, cutleries, fire-arms and porphyry vessels ; and whose 
 cloth, glass, and delf manufactures are likewise noted, while its 
 silks and cotton goods want still some more improvement in colors 
 and patterns. At Motala is a renowned manufactory of steam- 
 engines ; and in ship-building and mining the Swedes are sur- 
 
564 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway — their Commerce, etc. 
 
 passed by no other nation. The only reason that Norway has 
 but few manufactures is the fact, that this country is, upon the 
 whole, not qualified for them, on account of its peculiar local and 
 social condition. For the rest, all farming utensils, tools, furni- 
 ture, etc., are made by the peasantry themselves, both in Norway 
 and Sweden ; and linen, for instance, is made in almost every vil- 
 lage and family ; and some descriptions of this linen are not only 
 distinguished for their fineness, but are also widely exported. 
 
 The commerce is very considerable, and in general the exports 
 surpass the imports in value. In 1842 the exports of Sweden 
 amounted to 23,373,550 Bankrixdollars (one Swedish Bankdollar 
 is equal to about 40 cents), and the imports only to 19,511,800 
 Bankrixdollars in value. In Norway the annual exports may be 
 estimated at 7 millions, and the imports at 6 millions in value. 
 The chief exports of both countries are iron and steel, timber, 
 pitch, tar, cordage, canvass, anchors, etc., dried and pickled fish, 
 furs, copper, alum, potash, etc. In the Swedish and Norwegian 
 docks are numerous vessels and steamers built for foreign ac- 
 count. The merchant vessels belonging to Sweden amounted in 
 1839 to 994, of the burthen of 109,314 tons, exclusive of 36 
 steamers ; and the Norwegian merchant vessels amounted in 
 1837 to 2,373, of the burthen of 158,556 tons. 
 
 Both the Swedes and Norwegians belong to the Germanic 
 tribe (see pages 18 and 19), with the exception of about 7,000 
 Finlanders and 9,100 Laplanders, that belong to a peculiar or 
 mixed tribe commonly comprised by the general name of Finnish 
 tribe. Jews are not allowed to dwell in Norway, while in 
 Sweden they are not permitted to settle elsewhere than in the 
 cities of Stockholm, Gottenburg and Norrkoping. — In point of 
 religion, the established church in Sweden and Norway is the 
 Lutheran, arranged and founded on similar principles as the 
 church of England. In Sweden are 12 bishops (including the 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 565 
 
 Means of Education, Government, Army and Navy. 
 
 archbishop of Upsala) and 2,400 parishes, and in Norway 5 
 bishops and 342 parishes. 
 
 There are 3 universities, viz., two in Sweden (at Upsala, 
 founded in 1476, and in 1845 frequented by 1,367 students; and 
 at Lund, founded in 1668, and in 1845 with 645 students), and 
 one in Norway, at Christiania (founded in 1811, and in 1841 
 with 693 students). Beside these, there are 18 gymnasiums (14 
 in Sweden and 4 in Norway), 23 seminaries, 148 secondary, and 
 2,994 primary schools. Only few of the peasantry are unable to 
 read, as education is general. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, both in Sweden and 
 Norway. Each kingdom has its particular constitution, its own 
 laws, and a national legislature ; and yet with reference to the 
 executive power both are under the control of the same sove- 
 reign. The public finances are in good order. In Sweden the 
 amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure, for several 
 years has been about 11 millions Bankrixdollars (or about 
 $4,400,000) ;— in Norway about $3,000,000. Sweden has no 
 public debt, while that of Norway on the 1st January, 1839, 
 amounted only to $1,163,000. 
 
 The regular army consists in Sweden of nearly 40,000, and in 
 Norway of 12,000 men, and can in time of war be reinforced by 
 80,000 men of militia and troops of reserve. 
 
 The Swedish navy consists of 10 ships of the line, 14 frigates 
 and sloops of war, 10 brigs, several steamers, and more than 300 
 gun-boats. Norway had in 1835 a little navy of 1 frigate, 1 
 sloop of war, 2 brigs, and 43 gun-boats. 
 
 There are the following Swedish (for Norway has none) orders 
 of honor : 1. The Seraphim order, the highest, and in one class ; 
 instituted in 1333, and renewed in 1748. 2. The Sword order, 
 instituted in 1523, and renewed in 1748, in 3 classes. 3. The 
 North-star order, instituted in 1748, and in 2 classes. 4. The 
 

 566 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway— their History. 
 
 Warn order, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1772, and 5. The 
 order of Charles XIII., instituted by this king in 1811, and only 
 conferred on free-masons. 
 
 History. — Sweden, as whose aborigines may be considered the Finlanders 
 and Laplanders, was at an early period occupied by the Germanic tribes of 
 the Goths and Sueones, who were under the native chieftains or petty kings. 
 It was the same case with Norway. Odin (see History of Denmark) having 
 returned to Sweden, became here the ancestor of the dynasty of the 
 Ynglingar, who were succeeded by the Ifwarian race, that reigned until the 
 middle of the 11th century. In Norway had meantime the valiant king 
 Harald Horfagar (the latter surname means " handsome hair," for which he 
 was distinguished) put an end to the petty kingdoms, and in 875 subjected 
 them to his sway, thus transforming Norway into one single kingdom, which, 
 however, did not keep its independence, but continued to be annexed to 
 Denmark since the days of Queen Margareth (see History of Denmark), or 
 since the year 139*7. In Sweden the Ifwarian race was since 1053 succeeded 
 by several other dynasties, until finally the kingdom was in 1397, together 
 with Norway and Denmark, united under the sway of the just-named queen. 
 The Danish sway lasted in substance until 1521, when Gustavus, belonging 
 to the renowned noble family of Wasa, ascended the Swedish throne. His 
 youngest son, Charles IX., reigning from 1599 to 1611, was the father of the 
 celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, whose sister Catherine was married to the 
 palatine John Kasimir of Zweibrucken (see page 327), whose son mounted 
 the Swedish throne in 1654 by the name of Charles X. Gustavus, his cousin, 
 Queen Christiana (only daughter of Gustavus Adolphus) having abdicated. 
 The son and successor of Charles X. Gustavus, King Charles XL (1660-1697), 
 left behind the great warrior Charles XII. and two daughters, who were 
 married, the one to a prince of Hesse-Cassel, and the other to a duke of Hol- 
 stein-Gottorp. Thus, when Charles XII. died in 1718 (he was insidiously 
 shot from behind by his own aid-de-camp, a Frenchman named Siquier), he 
 was succeeded first by his brother-in-law, Frederic L (see History of Hesse- 
 Cassel), and next to him by a prince from the house of Holstein-Gottorp, 
 Adolphus Frederic (1751-1771). The latter was succeeded by his son Gus- 
 tavus III, who was shot at a masquerade, in 1792, and was succeeded by his 
 son Gustavus IV. Adolphus. This king committed so many political blun- 
 ders, that some contemporaries have thought proper to impute them to a 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 567 
 
 History of both Countries, and Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 disorder in his brains ; in short, lie behaved in such a manner that at last his 
 subjects were compelled to dethrone him. This took place in 1809, when 
 the king's uncle, Charles XIII., succeeded him ; but as the latter was child- 
 less, first the Danish prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- 
 gustenburg (related to the royal Swedish family), and then (as this prince 
 died suddenly in 1810) the French marshal Bernadotte was declared crown- 
 prince of Sweden. In 1818, when Charles XIII. died, Bernadotte succeeded 
 him by* the name of Charles XIV. John. He died in 1844, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, the present reigning king Oscar, born on the 4th of July, 
 1799. That in 1814 Norway was annexed to Sweden, has already been 
 stated in the History of Denmark, and page 419. On the other hand, Fin- 
 land was in 1809 wrested from Sweden by Russia, which had unprovokedly 
 been challenged by King Gustavus IV. Adolphus in an inexcusable manner. 
 
 We shall now give a topographical description of each kingdom 
 separately. 
 
 A.— THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN. 
 
 Area: 170,528 square miles. 
 Population : 3,300,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It embraces the eastern and larger half of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, and is officially divided into 24 counties, styled Lane. 
 Yet as the ancient historical division into as many provinces is in 
 substance left unaltered, and moreover the names of these prov- 
 inces occur continually in common life, history and other read- 
 ing, we shall in the ensuing description follow a similar course as 
 in France, Spain, and other countries. 
 
 The following 5 provinces are comprised by the general name of Svea- 
 rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the Sueones (see above in 
 history) : 
 
568 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 1. Upland, containing : Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom and royal 
 residence, built on several small islands and peninsulas, near the entrance of 
 Lake Malar into the Baltic Sea, has 88,000 inhabitants, and is a handsome 
 city, noted for its magnificent royal palace and architectural monuments, its 
 literary institutions, manufactures, extensive commerce, and safe and commo- 
 dious harbor. The great iron warehouse, is remarkable for the immense 
 quantity of that article deposited in it. The most notable of the churches 
 (22 in number) is that of Riddarholm, containing the sepulchres of nearly 
 all the kings of the house of "Wasa. Drottningholm, Haga, Rosendal, and Ul- 
 riksdal, are romantically situated royal palaces and parks, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Stockholm. Waxholm, a. town on an isle of the same name, at the 
 entrance into the harbor of Stockholm, is noted for its citadel, and has 1,200 
 inhabitants. Norrtelge, a maritime town on the Baltic, northward and 46 
 miles distant from Stockholm, with 1,500 inhabitants, and manufactures of 
 fire-arms and cloth Oeregrund, a maritime town on the Baltic, with good 
 harbor, and 900 inhabitants. Bjork'6, an* island in the lake Malar, westward 
 and 18 miles distant from Stockholm, is remarkable for its having once been 
 the seat of the emporium of the same name (see page 38). Sigtuna, on the 
 lake Malar, at present a town with only 600 inhabitants, but in the middle 
 ages the capital of the kingdom, with magnificent churches and convents. 
 Rosersberg, a stately royal palace on the lake Malar, with beautiful park. 
 Upsala, a city on the river Fyris, northward and 54 miles distant from 
 Stockholm, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above), 
 to which belong a library containing more than 100,000 volumes, a remark- 
 able botanic garden, a valuable collection of coins, an observatory, etc. ; for 
 its cathedral, reared in the 13th century, and for its magnificent royal pal- 
 ace, reared in the middle of the 16th century, by King Gustavus I. Skoklos- 
 ter, an estate of the count of Brahe, romantically situated on the lake 
 Malar, with an extensive and splendid Gothic palace, anciently a convent, 
 reared in the 13th century. Dannemora, at about 28 miles distance from 
 Upsala, is famed for its higly important iron mines, and the neighboring places 
 of Oesterby, Lofsta, and Soderfors, are noted for their iron- works. JEJnkdping, 
 a town on the lake Malar, north-westward and 56 miles distant from Stock- 
 holm, with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 2. Sodermanland contains : Nykoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic 
 Sea, south-westward and 88 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, 
 important manufactures of cloth, cotton goods, etc., iron-works, and 3,200 in- 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 569 
 
 Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 habitants. Trosa, a maritime town on the Baltic, with considerable corn trade, 
 fisheries, and 800 inhabitants. Tullgarn, a valuable royal private domain, 
 with stately palace. Marie/red, a town on the lake Malar, westward and 44 
 miles distant from Stockholm, with 800 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is 
 situated, on two isles of the lake, the highly remarkable Gothic royal castle 
 of Grips/tolm, reared in the 13th century, and containing splendidly fur- 
 nished apartments. Strengnas, a town on the lake Malar, with Gothic cathe- 
 dral (reared in 1291), corn trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Eskilstuna, the 
 chief manufacturing town in Sweden, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 
 86 miles distant from Stockholm, is noted especially for its cutleries, sword- 
 blades, and fire-arms, and has 2,600 inhabitanta Thorshalla, a very ancient 
 town, near Lake Malar, and in the neighborhood of Eskilstuna, has 800 inhabi- 
 tants, and is noted for its Gothic church, whose steeple is 306 feet high. 
 Sodertelge, a maritime town on a bay of the Baltic, with hosieries, and 1,200 
 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is the little seaport of Elfsnabben, or 
 Hjelmsnabben, where Gustavus Adolphus embarked in 1630 with his army 
 for Germany. 
 
 3. Nerike, between the Malar and Wener lakes, contains : Oerebbo, its 
 capital, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 146 miles distant from Stock- 
 holm, with an ancient, historically remarkable castle, a Gothic church, a no- 
 table town-hall, various and important manufactures, and 4,600 inhabitants. 
 The neighboring ancient castle of Goksholm, on the Hjelmar lake, is highly 
 remarkable. Askersund, a mining town on the Wetter lake, with literary 
 institutions, iron trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. 
 
 4. Westmanland, between Upland and Nerike, contains : Westeroas, its 
 capital, on the Malar lake, 64 miles west-north-west of Stockholm, with re- 
 markable ancient castle, notable cathedral, a renowned gymnasium, and va- 
 rious other schools, considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Sala, 
 a mining town, north-westward and 86 miles distant from Stockholm, has 
 3,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its silver mines, which, how- 
 ever, are at present rather unproductive. Arboga (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 Koping (with 1,500 inhabitants), Lindesberg (with 800 inhabitants), and Nora 
 (with 900 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Loka is a watering- 
 place much resorted to. 
 
 5. Dalarne, or DcUekarlien, whose inhabitants have from old been distin- 
 guished for their uprightness and loyalty, contains : Falun, its capital, and 
 the chief mining town in Sweden, 176 miles east-north-east of Christiania 
 
570 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 (in Norway), and north-westward and 166 miles distant from Stockholm, has 
 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its valuable copper mines (see 
 above), but moreover for its distinguished mining academy, and its various 
 and important manufactures. Sdter, Hedemora, and Avesta, towns with re- 
 spectively 700, 1,100, and 800 inhabitants. 
 
 The following 11 provinces are comprised by the general name of Gotha- 
 rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the immigrated Goths 
 (see past, in History) : 
 
 1. Oester- Gothland, between the Wetter lake, and the Baltic Sea, con- 
 tains : Norrkoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic, south-westward and 
 130 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, several schools and char- 
 ities for the poor and sick, a noted iron foundry, important manufactures of 
 cloth, linen, etc., considerable commerce, and 13,000 inhabitants. Soderkop- 
 ing, a town near the Baltic Sea, with stately town-house, mineral waters, and 
 1,100 inhabitants. Linkoping, a city situated in the centre of the province, 
 has 4,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in 1138-51), its 
 ancient castle, its gymnasium, and city-hall. Wadstena, a town romantically 
 situated on the Wetter lake, south-westward and 140 miles distant from 
 Stockholm, with an ancient, and once highly renowned nunnery (whose 
 building was reared in the middle of the 13 th century), linen manufactures, 
 and 2,500 inhabitants. Medewi, the most frequented watering-place in Sweden, 
 is very romantically situated on the Wetter lake. Finspong is noted for its 
 iron-works, and Motala (on the Wetter lake) for its manufactory of steam- 
 engines. Skeninge, a town, with 1,100 inhabitants. 
 
 2. Smoaland, along the Baltic coast, contains : Calmar, its capital, on the 
 Calmar Sound (that separates the island of Oeland from the Swedish conti- 
 nent), 280 miles south-south-west of Stockholm, and 46 miles north-north-east 
 of Carlskrona, with an ancient castle (where, in 1397, the convention was 
 signed, according to which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united under 
 the sway of Queen Margaret), a handsome cathedral, important manufac- 
 tures, considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. The little place of 
 Brbmsebro, at the frontier of Bleking, southward and 33 miles distant from 
 Calmar, is noted in history for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1645, be- 
 tween Sweden and Denmark. Wimmerby and Ekesj'6, towns with respectively 
 1,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. Wexio, a town on a lake, westward and 56 
 miles distant from Calmar, is noted for its gymnasium, and has 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Westervik, a maritime town, on a bay of the Baltic, with rather con- 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 671 
 
 Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 tiderable commerce, and 3,600 inhabitants. Jonkoping, a city on the Wetter 
 lake, north-westward and 146 miles distant from Calmar, with 3 churches, 
 fire-arms, and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Grenna, a town 
 on the Wetter lake, with a celebrated church, considerable trade in cattle, and 
 1,200 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The island of Oeland (596 square miles, and 35,000 inhabitants), situ- 
 ated in the Baltic Sea, opposite the city of Calmar (see above), is noted for 
 its cattle, and alum mines, and contains, among other places, the town of 
 Borgholm, with 700 inhabitants. 
 
 4. The island of Gottland (895 square miles, and 42,000 inhabitants), 
 situated in the Baltic Sea, north-eastward from the former, and southward 
 and about 100 miles distant from Stockholm, is upon the whole fertile, was, 
 in the period from 1448 to 1645, possessed by the Danes, and contains: 
 Wisby, its capital, on the western shore, with a Gothic cathedral (reared in 
 the beginning of the 13th century), leather and other manufactures, consider- 
 able trade, and 4,600 inhabitants. That Wisby was, in the middle ages, a 
 renowned emporium, has already been stated, page 50. Jlosendal, a hand- 
 some estate, with beautiful park and gardens. 
 
 5. Bleking, a province along the southern coast of the Swedish continent, 
 contains: Carlskrona, fortified capital, and chief station of the Swedish 
 navy, on the Baltic Sea, 46 miles west-south-west of Calmar, has 14,000 in- 
 habitants, and is noted for its vast docks, its naval depots and arsenal, and its 
 extensive fortifications. The neighboring market-town of Rbnneby is noted for 
 its wealth and industry. Carlshamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, west- 
 ward and 28 miles distant from, Carlskrona, with canvass and leather manu- 
 factures, commerce, and 4,500 inhabitants. Christianopel and Sblvitsborg, 
 maritime towns, with respectively 950 and 1,600 inhabitants. 
 
 6. Skane (to be pronounced Scoane), the most level and fertile province, 
 on the Sound and Baltic Sea, contains : Malmo, its capital, on the Souud, 
 opposite Copenhagen, is a well-built city, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for several handsome public edifices and private buildings, its numerous 
 manufactures, and corn trade. Lund, a very ancient city, situated in the in- 
 terior of the province, at 14 miles distance from Malmo, has 4,500 inhabitants, 
 and is noted both for its university (see above) and its highly remarkable 
 cathedral (reared in the middle ages) and other architectural monuments. 
 In the middle ages this city was densely peopled, and had not less than 22 
 churches. Ystad, a maritime town on the Baltic, is the station of packets for 
 
572 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 Stralsund (in Prussia), and has 4,400 inhabitants. Landskrona, a maritime 
 town on the Sound, between Malmo and Helsingborg, with a good harbor, 
 various manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants. Opposite the town, in the 
 Sound, is situated the little island of liven, with 500 inhabitants, and histori- 
 cally remarkable for that the noted astronomer Tycho de Brahe (-fin 1601) 
 dwelt here for several years, until 1597. He had here two observatories. 
 Helsingborg, a maritime town on the Sound, right opposite Elsenor (in 
 Zealand), with noted potteries, sea-bathing, and 3,000 inhabitants. In its 
 neighborhood is the watering-place of Ramlosa, much resorted to. Near 
 Kvllen, northward and 9 miles distant from Helsingborg, are important coal 
 mines. Christianstad, a fortified city on the river Helge, with manufactures 
 of woollens and gloves, a handsome church, and 4,500 inhabitants. Cimbris- 
 hamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, with 850 inhabitants. JSngelholm, a 
 maritime town on the Cattegat, with coal trade, and 900 inhabitants. 
 
 7. Holland, along the Cattegat, contains : Halmstad, its capital, on the Cat- 
 tegat, with noted salmon-fishery, woollen manufactures, sea-bathing, com- 
 merce, and 2,000 inhabitants. Other maritime towns on the Cattegat are : 
 Laholm (with 1,000 inhabitants), Falkenberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), Warberg 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Kongsbacka (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
 
 8. Wester- Gothland, between the "Wetter lake and the Cattegat, contains: 
 Gottenburg (in Swedish Gotheborg), the first commercial city in Sweden 
 next to Stockholm, on the Gotha river (left bank), about 9 miles from the 
 Cattegat, has 30,000 inhabitants, is handsomely built, and abounds in magnifi- 
 cent dwelling-houses, and is noted for its extensive commerce, various and 
 important manufactures, its schools, splendid cathedral, and its Gothic Ger- 
 man church, with high steeple. Opposite the city, on the other side of the 
 named river, is the island of Hisingen, of 30 miles in circuit, and with 10 
 parishes. The very strong little fortress of Nya (New) Mfsborg, near the 
 mouth of the Gotha river, was reared in 1644. Wenersborg, a town at the 
 southern extremity of the Wener lake, northward and 58 miles distant from 
 Gottenburg, with considerable transit trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. The 
 neighboring village of Trollhatta is noted for the Falls of the Gotha river. 
 Ailing sos, a town on the river Safve, about half-way between Wenersborg 
 and Gottenburg, is noted for its manufactures of cloth and silk stockings, and 
 has 1,000 inhabitants. Boros and Ulricehamn, towns with respectively 2,500 
 and 1,800 inhabitants. Skara, a town in a well-cultivated plain, north-east- 
 ward and 72 miles distant from Gottenburg, with remarkable Gothic cathe- 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 673 
 
 Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 dral, reared in the 11th century, a noted gymnasium, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 Skofde (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hjo (pronounced like you, has 700 inhabi- 
 tants), Falkoping (with 800 inhabitants), Lidkoping (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
 and Mariestad (with 2,600 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. 
 Carlsborg, a strong fortress on the Wetter lake, reared in 1809. 
 
 9. Wermland, on the north side of the Weuer lake, contains : Carlstad, its 
 capital, at the mouth of the Clara river into the Wener lake, with a hand- 
 some cathedral, a famed gymnasium, extensive iron and copper trade, noted 
 fairs, and 3,400 inhabitants. Christinehamn, an important trading town on 
 the Wener lake, with considerable iron trade, noted annual fairs, and 2,000 
 inhabitants. Philipstad, a mining town, with iron trade, and 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 10. Dalsland, between the Wener lake and Norway, contains : Amoal, its 
 capital, on the Wener lake, northward and 100 miles distant from Gottenburg, 
 with considerable trade in iron, timber, and tar, and 1,600 inhabitants. Bil- 
 lingfors and Kollero are noted for their iron-works. 
 
 11. Boh us, between Gottenburg and Norway, on the Cat tegat, contains : 
 Kongelf, its capital, on the Gotha river, northward and 14 miles distant 
 from Gottenburg, has at present only 850 inhabitants, but was in the middle 
 ages a considerable city, and the residence of several kings of Norway, to 
 which Bohus then belonged. Marstrand, a very ancient town on an island 
 in the Cattegat, has 1,400 inhabitants, and a fine harbor, and is noted for its 
 strong fortress of Carlsten. Uddewalla, a maritime town on the bay of the 
 Cattegat, with some manufactures, considerable commerce, and 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Stromstad, a maritime town near the frontier of Norway, with con- 
 siderable fishery, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
 
 The following 7 provinces are comprised by the general name of Norr- 
 land, because they are situated to the north of Svearike and Gotharike : 
 
 1. Gestrikland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, contains: Gefle, its capital, and at 
 the same time the capital of Norrland, on a bay of the Gulf of Bothnia, north- 
 ward and 96 miles distant from Stockholm, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is 
 noted for its extensive trade in iron, timber, etc., and commerce, its impor- 
 tant manufactures, considerable fisheries, and its very handsome city-halL 
 In the neighborhood is the watering-place of Hillehrunn. 
 
 2. Helsingland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the south bounded by 
 Gestrikland, is famed for its excellent linens, and noted for its vast number 
 of mountain-cocks and grouses, of which in winter whole sled-loads are sent 
 
5H EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 to Stockholm. It contains : Hudirswall, its capital, on the Gulf of Bothnia, 
 with considerable linen manufactures, extensive trade in timber, flax (100,000 
 pounds of which are annually exported), linen (200,000 yards exported an- 
 nually), butter, fowl, etc., good harbor, and 2,000 inhabitants. Soderhamn, a 
 maritime town on the Gulf of Bothnia, is likewise noted for its linen manu- 
 factures and linen trade, moreover for the finest church in Norrland, and 
 1,800 inhabitants. 
 
 3. Herjedalen, between Helsingland and Norway, contains : Ljusnedal, its 
 capital, has only 350 inhabitants, but is noted, for its iron and copper mines, 
 and iron-works. 
 
 4. Medelpad, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and bounded on the south by Hel- 
 singland, is noted for its extensive forests, which harbor the elk, reindeer, 
 lynx, beaver, and vast numbers of wild fowl, and contains : Sundswall, its 
 capital, on the named gulf, with some woollen manufactures, considerable 
 trade in timber, tar, hides, etc., and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 5. Jemtland, at the frontier of Norway, contains : Oestersund, its capital, 
 on the Stor lake, with considerable inland trade, and 100 inhabitants. 
 
 6. Angermanland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, bounded on the south by Me- 
 delpad, contains : Hernosand, its capital, on the named gulf, northward and 
 230 miles distant from Stockholm, with 2,500 inhabitants, a noted gymna- 
 sium, considerable linen trade and fairs, fishery, and a printing-office, where 
 books are printed in the language of the Laplanders. 
 
 *l. Westerbottn, comprising the most northerly Swedish coasting tract along 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, and containing: Umea, its capital, on the named gulf, 
 140 miles north-north-east of Hernosand, is regularly laid out^and has 1,500 
 inhabitants, engaged in trading and fishing business. Pitea and Lulea, mari- 
 time towns, each with 1,200 inhabitants. 
 
 Lapland in general belongs partly to Sweden, partly to Norway, and 
 partly to Russia, is a cold, desolate region, and lying north of the Arctic 
 circle, extends eastward to the White Sea, and westward to the Ocean. The 
 Swedish Lapland is, however, situated in the interior of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, and separated by Norway from the ocean, and by the Tor- 
 nea river from Russian Lapland, Its area is estimated at about 40,000 
 square miles, and its population at 12,000 inhabitants, among them only 
 4,000 Laplanders, while the remainder consists of Swedish, Finlandish, and 
 even German settlers. For the rest, the Swedish Lapland is noted for the 
 immense quantities of iron ores, and many districts there are distinguished 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 575 
 
 Geographical Description of Sweden. 
 
 for the wild and sublime character of the scenery. The Laplanders have 
 been nearly all converted to Christianity, and are, generally, attached to its 
 duties. Great crimes are unknown among them. In short, they are a simple, 
 harmless people, greatly attached to their native country. They are of short 
 stature, being generally under five feet in height. Their chief wealth is in 
 the reindeer, which yields them food and clothing, and transports them in 
 sledges over the snow. The Laplanders move about from place to place, 
 with their herds of reindeer, and seldom reside in towns. In summer they 
 live in tents, and in winter in rude huts, formed of stones and earth, and 
 covered with turf. The villages are very small seldom containing more than 
 100 or 200 inhabitants. The most remarkable among them (but not exclu- 
 sively inhabited by Laplanders) are : Juckasjarwi, a village on the Tornea 
 river, in 67° 51' north latitude, with the most northerly church in Europe; 
 Kengis, with the most northerly iron- works existing ; Jochnioch, with church, 
 school, and 1,400 inhabitants, and Asele, a village on the Angerman river, 
 with church and school. 
 
 The only foreign colony Sweden is possessed of, is the island of 
 St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, which was ceded to Swe- 
 den in 1784, by France. 
 
 B.— THE KINGDOM OF NORWAY. 
 
 Area: 122,752 square miles. 
 Population : 1,350,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It embraces the western, and smaller half of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, and is divided into 1 7 bailiwicks, that are subdivided 
 in 45 smaller districts, and 66 townships, or Sorenskriverier, as 
 they are styled. The ancient and historical division into 4 sec- 
 
576 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Norway. 
 
 tions, styled stifter (chapters), being at the same time the dioceses 
 of as many bishops, is in common life still frequently alluded to ; 
 and for this reason we shall, in the following topographical de- 
 scription of Norway, denote the capitals of sections (bearing the 
 same names) thus : +. 
 
 -f-CHRisTiANiA, the capital of Norway, and residence of the royal governor, 
 on a bay of the Cattegat, known by the name of Christianiafjord, northward 
 and 172 miles distant from Gottenburg, is regularly laid out, while most of 
 the dwelling-houses and all public edifices are built of free-stone, has 27,000 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see back ; the library contains 
 112,000 volumes), and several other higher schools and literary institutions, 
 its remarkable cathedral, its important manufactures, and considerable com- 
 merce. After the ancient mountain castle of Aggerhuus, the section, or 
 " stift" (see above) of Christiania is sometimes named. Moss, a maritime 
 town on the Christianiafjord (see above), is noted for its iron-works and saw- 
 mills, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Drammen, a city on a bay, connected with 
 that of Christiania, south-westward and 30 miles distant from Christiania, is 
 the centre for the Norwegian timber and lumber trade, is moreover noted 
 for its iron-works, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Laurvig, a maritime town at 
 the entrance into Christianiafjord (see above), 72 miles south-south-west of 
 Christiania, is noted for its considerable iron trade, and has 3,600 inhabitants. 
 Close by stands the fortress of Frederiksvarn. The maritime town of 
 Tonsberg (with timber trade, and 2,200 inhabitants) was, in the middle ages, 
 a densely populated city, containing, among others, 9 churches. The neigh- 
 boring ancient castle of Jarlsberg is noted in history. Skeen, a town on a 
 river of the samo name, with numerous saw-mills, timber trade, and 2,000 
 inhabitants. Frederiksstad and Frederikshald are fortified and remarkable 
 maritime towns near the Swedish frontier, with respectively 3,000 and 
 6,300 inhabitants. Near the latter stands, on a steep rock, 350 feet high, the 
 strong fortress of Frederikssteen, which, in 1718, was besieged by the Swedes, 
 on which occasion Charles XII. was assassinated (see History of Sweden). 
 In the valley, known by the name of Nummedalen, is situated the important 
 mining town of Kongsberg, with 4,400 inhabitants, and noted not only for its 
 silver mines (see above), but also for its mining academy, and various manu- 
 factures. (-Chrtstiansand, a city on a very spacious bay of the Skagerrak, 
 
 with a cathedral vast docks, considerable trade in timber and corn, and 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 57*7 
 
 Geographical Description of Norway. 
 
 8,300 inhabitants. Mandal, a maritime town with 2,400 inhabitants, is noted 
 for its pickled and smoked salmon, of which considerable quantities are ex- 
 ported. Arendal, a town romantically situated on a bay of the Skagerrak, 
 is noted for its iron mines, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Oesteriisber and Stavan- 
 ger, noted maritime and commercial towns, with respectively 2,000 and 4,300 
 
 inhabitants. (-Bergen, a commercial city on a bay of the North Sea, 166 
 
 miles west-north-west of Christiania, with a spacious and commodious har- 
 bor, 7 churches (among which one is for Germans), vast docks, the most con- 
 siderable commerce in Norway, various manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. 
 Bergen, founded in 1069, was, in the middle ages, a city with more than 30 
 churches and convents, and for a long period the centre of the commerce car- 
 ried on by the Hanseatic League in the northern countries of Europe. — 
 -j-Drontheim (in Norwegian Trondhiem), a city on a bay of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, northward and 250 miles distant from Christiania, with a scientific 
 society, a remarkable cathedral (where the kings of Norway are crowned), 
 a gymnasium, seminary for Laplanders, various manufactures, considerable 
 commerce, and 14,000 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their hospitality 
 and polite manners. Drontheim was, in the middle ages, a famous city, with 
 10 churches, 5 convents, etc. In its neighborhood are many iron- works, 
 among them those of Leerfoss deserve to be noticed. Roeraas, a mining 
 town in a very desolate mountainous district, 60 miles south-south-east of 
 Drontheim, is famed for its considerable copper mines (see back), and has 
 3,200 inhabitants. Christiansund and Molle, maritime towns on the Atlantic 
 Ocean, with respectively 2,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. — The section, or chap- 
 ter (stift; see back) of Nordland, embracing the most northern part of 
 Norway, comprises Nordland proper, and the Norwegian Lapland. To the 
 former belongs the group of the Lofoden isles, near the western coast, among 
 which are to be noticed the isle of Rost (the most southern, in about 66° 15' 
 north latitude), anol the isle of Mosken, noted for the Moskenas-Strommen, 
 as the Norwegians name the Mahlstrom, of which formerly, in other European 
 countries, the opinion was entertained, as if it was a terrific whirlpool, draw- 
 ing in sometimes ships, as well as whales, and other animals, and dash- 
 ing them on the rocks beneath. That is, however, not at all the case ; on 
 the contrary, the Mahlstrom is annually in the months of February and March 
 the meeting-place of 3,000 or 4,000 fishing-boats, and at that period some- 
 times 16 million cod-fishes, haddocks, etc., are caught here. Bodoe, a town on 
 a bay, named Sattenfjord, in 66° 15' north latitude, is noted for its seaport 
 
 25 
 
618 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Norway. 
 
 of Hundholm, where a considerable barter is kept up with the neighboring 
 fishermen. Altstahaug is the seat of the bishop of Nordland. — The Norwe- 
 gian Lapland, styled Finmarken (about the Laplanders, see under the head 
 of Sweden), contains Hammer f est, a town on an island in the Arctic Ocean, 
 in 70° 38' north latitude, has 400 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for 
 trade and barter, especially by Russians. In the neighborhood are rich cop- 
 per mines, at which 1,100 workmen are employed. About the North Cape, 
 see page 3. Tromsoe, a town on an island of the same name (north latitude 
 68° 36'), with a church, and 800 inhabitants. 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 
 
 Area : 2,099,903 square miles. 
 Population: 62,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is almost universally known, that Russia is by no means re- 
 stricted to Europe, but that it comprises also a considerable part 
 of Asia, and even part of North America. Considered in this 
 view it is styled the Russian empire, whose total area is estimated 
 at not less than 8,552,700 square miles, with a total population 
 of 67,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 As this hook treats only of Europe, we must in substance re- 
 strict ourselves to the description of European Russia, though it 
 is almost impossible to avoid frequent digressions into Asiatic 
 Russia, which contains several of the chief sources of the public 
 revenues of the Russian empire. 
 
 European Russia, on the north bounded by the Arctic Ocean 
 (with the White Sea, see page 9), and on the south by the Black 
 Sea, etc. (see page 10), is on the east by the Ural Mountains (and 
 Ural river), and on the south by the Caucasus Mountains (see 
 page 8) separated from Asiatic Russia, and borders on the south- 
 west and west upon European Turkey, the Austrian empire, and 
 the kingdom of Prussia. — Its principal lakes and rivers are noticed 
 on pages 10, 11,12, and 13 j and about the Tauric Mountains and 
 Wolchonsky Forest, see page 8. 
 
 The great majority of the population, or more than sixty mil- 
 lion inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race ; while the Lap- 
 
680 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia— its Population in point of Origin, Religion, etc. 
 
 landers, the aboriginal Finns (not to be confounded with the pre- 
 dominant inhabitants of Finland, who are of Swedish origin), the 
 Samojedes, Kalmucks, and partly the Baschhirs belong to the Mon- 
 golian race. 
 
 As to their origin, the Russians proper and the Poles belong 
 to the great tribe of Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), whose 
 total number in the Russian empire amounted in 1837 to 
 48,000.000, including 4 millions Lettonians, Bulgarians, etc. 
 The number of Germans in Russia (whose chief seat is in the 
 Baltic provinces), is estimated at 800,000 ; that of Jews at 
 1,600,000 (chiefly in the Polish provinces). More than 6 mil- 
 lions are of Tartarian origin (not to be confounded with the Mon- 
 golian race, as all genuine Tartarian tribes, for instance, the 
 Turks, Magyars, etc., belong decidedly to the Caucasian race) ; 
 and the remainder consists of Greek, Persian, and other oriental 
 tribes, Gypsies, and the above-mentioned people : Laplanders, 
 Samojedes, Kalmucks, etc.* 
 
 In regard to religion, the established church is the Greek, and 
 generally all Russians are Greek Christians ; while nearly all 
 Poles are Roman Catholics, and most of the Germans Lutherans. 
 The Tartarian and other kindred tribes in the southern and 
 south-eastern provinces of European Russia are for the most 
 part Mohammedans. About the Jews, see above. 
 
 The Russian nation is divided into three classes, the nobility, 
 citizens, and peasantry. (About the same distinction is estab- 
 lished in Poland, while in the Baltic provinces the social condi- 
 tion of the population bears a strong resemblance to that of Ger- 
 many.) There is an essential distinction between hereditary and 
 
 * The Cossacks are not peradvcnture a separate tribe, but genuine Rus- 
 sians, with the only difference, tliat since the 17th century they are endowed 
 with various privileges, and (on the other hand) in lieu of paying taxes, are 
 required to act as soldiers in time of war. 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 581 
 
 The Russian Nobility, Peasantry, etc. 
 
 personal nobility. The number of nobles by birth (or of those 
 who belong to the hereditary nobility) in the whole Russian em- 
 fire (thus including the Polish, Bulgarian, Tartarian and other 
 nobles), was some years ago about 551,000 ; while the personal 
 nobility (i. e. for lifetime only) is conferred upon the higher 
 classes of the clergy and citizens, and upon the civil and military 
 public officers (provided that they are not already nobles by 
 birth). The nobles, as well as the commoners, are exempted 
 from the poll-tax (land-taxes, excises, and other similar taxes they 
 have to pay), and cannot be compelled to enter the army, though 
 a great many of them enter it voluntarily. By the term of cit- 
 izens is to be understood all free inhabitants of cities and towns, 
 who are engaged in commerce, trade, manufacturing, and other 
 branches of industry. They are divided into 6 classes, styled 
 guilds (compare pages 52 and 53), and about 4,500,000 in num- 
 ber. The peasantry comprises freeholders (about 700,000), 
 peasants of the crown (more than 17,500,000), who at present are to 
 be considered as personally free men, and thirdly, bondsmen (com- 
 pare page 36), about 21,000,000 in number, and for the most part 
 on the estates of the nobility. Thus two thirds of the population 
 are free men, and moreover the emperor, Nicholas, has in recent 
 times provided by the law for the gradual emancipation of the 
 remaining third also. To emancipate them at once, would have 
 been a hard blow to the bondsmen themselves, for it is a fact, that 
 they generally are in a better and more comfortable condition 
 than many free men, at least among the lower classes, who not 
 seldom endure great distress, while the bondsmen, so to say, are 
 never suffered to starve, their masters being compelled by the 
 law to provide for their wants, in cases of necessity (sickness, 
 weakness from age, etc.). It has frequently occurred, that 
 bondsmen, emancipated by their masters, have spontaneously re- 
 turned into their former condition of servitude. They not only 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia— its Soil aud Natural Products. 
 
 till the ground (two days in the week for their own account), but 
 are employed in various other manners : as mechanics, operatives, 
 servants, coachmen, etc., and have ample opportunity to earn suf- 
 ficient money for their redemption from bondage. Hundreds of 
 them are annually levied as recruits, and they are at once free, 
 for themselves and their descendants, as soon as they enter the 
 army. 
 
 The surface of European Russia is generally level ; its chief 
 features being vast plains and large rivers, with numerous lakes 
 in the north-western quarter. In the northern provinces, it is 
 intensely cold in winter, while in the southern, the climate is 
 mild and pleasant. 
 
 The soil is, in general, highly productive, though in the most 
 northern provinces the cold climate and the short summer pre- 
 vent the full development of the natural fertility of the soil. In 
 the southern and some other parts of the country more or less ex- 
 tensive steppes are to be found, the most remarkable of which are 
 those of the Kirgises, in Bessarabia, near the Don and Dnieper, the 
 Nogaian, of Azow, etc. Nearly 300 millions of acres are appro- 
 priated to agriculture, yielding annually about 1 52,750,000 quarters 
 of wheat, rye, and other descriptions of grain, of which more than 
 9,500,000 are exported. In 1841 corn was exported to the 
 value of 10,382,509 rubles in silver; in 1842 to the value of 
 12,191,529 rubles; and in 1843 to the value of 12,899,911 ru- 
 bles in silver. Of flax were, in 1843, exported 965,953 quintals, 
 and of hemp 739,324 quintals. In Bessarabia, Tauria, Crimea, 
 and on the banks of the Don even the vine is cultivated, and the 
 annual produce of very good wines is estimated at about 2,200,- 
 000 gallons. Vast forests abound in various parts of Russia, and 
 they furnish the seaports with large supplies of timber, pitch, tar, 
 etc., for exportation. Black cattle are reared in immense num- 
 bers ; the finest breed is to be found in Podolia, Volhynia, and 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 588 
 
 Natural Products and Manufactures. 
 
 Ukraine, from which provinces thousands of heads are annually 
 exported. Horses are likewise reared in vast numbers, and of 
 various breed ; they are in general distinguished for their swift- 
 ness and endurance. The total number of sheep in the Russian 
 empire is estimated at 60,000,000 ; they are of different breed. 
 European Russia numbered 4,000,000 of improved breed in 1843, 
 when 169,491 quintals of their wool was exported. The above- 
 mentioned extensive forests (i. e. those in the northern provinces, 
 and especially in Siberia) abound in wild animals that are eagerly 
 hunted for their valuable furs, as the sable, ermine, black fox, etc. 
 Yet the bear, wolf, and other beasts of prey are likewise very 
 common. The sturgeon, etc. fisheries of the river Volga, and of 
 the Caspian Sea, are extensive and very productive. Upwards 
 of 10,000 fishing^ooats are employed on the Volga alone. Rus- 
 sia is noted for its precious metals, of which gold and platina are 
 found in the Ural Mountains, also in the Siberian province of 
 Jeniseisk, and silver in Siberia, while copper, iron, and lead are 
 met with in various quarters. In the five years' period of 1842- 
 1846, the Russian gold mines in the Ural Mountains yielded a 
 total produce of gold, which was, in England, estimated at £12,- 
 784,808. In the one year of 1843, they produced 724,640 ounces 
 of gold. Of platina were, in the same year, 71,680 ounces pro- 
 duced. The annual produce in silver is, upon an average, esti- 
 mated at 84,000 marks ; of copper, at 86,000 quintals ; of lead, at 
 14,350 quintals, and of iron, at 3,500.000 quintals. The Ural 
 Mountains contain also diamonds, emeralds, and other precious 
 stones. — Salt is extensively made, especially in the southern 
 provinces. 
 
 The manufactures, which, during the greater part of the last 
 century almost restricted to those of the noted Russia leather, 
 have, since the reign of the empress Katharine II., and especially 
 since that of the emperors Alexander and Nicholas, made aston- 
 
584 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia— its Manufactures and Commerce. 
 
 ishing progress. In 1812 the Russian empire numbered 2,332 
 manufactories, with 119,093 operatives ; in 1835, 6,045 manufac- 
 tories, with 279,673 operatives ; in 1839 the former had increased 
 to 6,855, and the latter to 412,931 ; and since the manufactures 
 have increased to such an extent that they furnish the country 
 with almost sufficient supplies, of which only about one sixth is 
 imported from foreign countries. The various articles manufac- 
 tured in 1843 had a value of nearly 103 millions of rubles in sil- 
 ver, while those which were imported in the same year, had only 
 the value of 18 millions. The chief manufacturiDg district is in 
 and around Moscow, where in the just-named year cotton goods 
 were manufactured to the value of 20,163,174, and silks to the 
 value of 1,367,331 rubles in silver. Of other articles are to be 
 noticed cloth, canvass, cutleries and harduMre, leather, glass- 
 ware, etc. 
 
 The commerce is very extensive, and increasing almost every 
 year. In 1843 the exports were to the value of 82,565,600, and 
 the imports to the value of 75,028,399 rubles in silver ; thus, the 
 former surpassing the latter by 7,537,201 rubles in value. The 
 exports consist chiefly of tallow, corn, hemp, flax, linseed, hemp-seed, 
 timber, wool, canvass, iron, copper, Russian leather, furs (in 1843 
 exported to the amount of 2,205,000 silver rubles in value), wax, 
 hog's bristles, candles, soap, etc. Great fairs are held in different 
 places, which attract vast crowds of merchants and traders from 
 all parts. The inland commerce is much facilitated by the nu- 
 merous rivers, canals, and lakes ; and by the snow, in the winter 
 season, over which sleighs travel with great rapidity. The chief 
 internal trade is with China, Independent Tartary, Persia, and 
 Germany. With regard to the canals in European Russia, it is 
 doubtful whether they, in general, do not afford more practical ad- 
 vantages than those in Great Britain. At least, it is a fact, that 
 by these canals the White, Black, Caspian, and Baltic Seas have 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 585 
 
 The Russian Commerce, Schools and Government. 
 
 been brought into connection with each other, and thus navigable 
 internal lines, of enormous length, been established. The canals 
 of Wisnei- Wolotsschok, Tichwin, Ladoga, and Nowgorod unite 
 the Caspian Sea with the Baltic ; the canals of Kubenski and 
 Katharine, unite the Caspian with the White Sea ; and the canals 
 of Beresina, Oginski, and Machawez unite the Black Sea with the 
 Baltic, while on the other hand, a direct connection between these 
 canals themselves is established likewise. 
 
 With regard to general diffusion of knowledge, and to common- 
 school education, Russia has hitherto been greatly behind other 
 European countries, yet is at present advancing in this particular, 
 as well as in others. Considerable exertions are made by the 
 government to introduce schools and instruct the lower classes of 
 the people. In the period from 1837 to 1845 not less than 4,924 
 common schools have been founded among the peasantry of the 
 crown. They were in the last-named year frequented by 271,262 
 children. In the higher branches of knowledge Russia rivals the 
 rest of Europe. Beside several scientific societies, and public and 
 private libraries, each of which contains from 100,000 to 450,000 
 volumes, there are 7 universities (those of Warsaw and Wilna have 
 been abolished in 1832), viz., at Dorpat (founded in 1632, and in 
 1844 frequented by 484 students), at Moscow (founded in 1705 and 
 in 1844 with 836 students), at Kasan (founded in 1803, and in 1844 
 with 359 students), at Charkow (founded in 1803, and in 1844 
 with 410 students), at St. Petersburg (founded in 1819, and in 
 1844 with 557 students), at Helsingfors (founded in 1640 by 
 Queen Christiana of Sweden, in Abo, in 1827 transferred to Hel- 
 singfors, and in 1843 with 463 students), and at Kiew (founded 
 in 1833, and in 1844 with 320 students). Every governmental or 
 provincial capital contains a gymnasium ; in those of Irkutsk 
 and Kiachta the Japan and Chinese languages are taught. 
 
 The government is an absolute monarchy. All power emanates 
 
586 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia— its Finances and Army. 
 
 from the Emperor, who is the head of the state and (Greek) 
 church, and styled the Autocrat of all the Russias. 
 
 The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for several 
 years has been about $81,000,000. One of the chief sources of 
 the revenues are the customs, or duties, on goods imported from 
 foreign countries. The public debt amounted in 1843 to 290,- 
 434,155 rubles in silver, thus being far less than that not only 
 of Great Britain, but also of France or Spain. 
 
 The Russian army numbers at present not less than 1,000,000 
 men in the war department, and is arranged into six main bodies, 
 the general reserve, and the several corps of Cossacks. The six 
 main bodies of the army are the following : 1. The great movable 
 European army of operation, consisting of 465,720 men, with 1.200 
 pieces of ordnance. 2. The European army of reserve, numbering 
 202,480 men, with 472 pieces of artillery. 3. The Caucasian 
 army, consisting of 150,167 men, with 302 pieces. 4. The main 
 body of the army in Finland, numbering 16,000 men, with 16 
 cannons. 5. That of Orenburg, consisting of 64,000 men, with 
 16 pieces ; and 6. The main body of the army in Siberia, con- 
 sisting of 16,000 men, with 16 pieces of artillery. The several 
 regular corps of Cossacks (see note back) amount to 50,000 
 men. Other Cossacks, generally forming irregular troops, have 
 to guard the frontiers of the empire from inroads, etc. Thus 
 the disposable forces Russia is entitled to send in the field in 
 time of war, amount to about 800,000 men. Of course they con- 
 sist only of the European armies of operation and reserve, and 
 of the regiments of Cossacks ; because the main bodies of army 
 in Caucasian Russia, in the province of Orenburg, etc., must keep 
 their stations for the maintaining of internal peace and order 
 there, and for the safety of the frontiers. As for the garrisons 
 in other parts of the interior, and especially in the Polish prov- 
 inces, they are easily provided for by the general reserve, whose 
 
RUSSIA. IN EUROPE. 587 
 
 The Russian Army and Navy. 
 
 amount depends on the urgency of the circumstances, and for the 
 most part comprise the troops trained up in the military colonies. 
 The latter were established in 1 820 with the view partly to save a 
 large amount of the expenses for the army, and partly to allevi- 
 ate the burden of the recruiting. They number about 400,000 
 soldiers. In 1831 they underwent some reforms, and are now 
 styled districts of farmer-soldiers. Since that period the system 
 of recruiting the army by the conscription or a general levy pre- 
 vails again. Liable to conscription are particularly the sons of 
 tradesmen and peasantry, and usually two out of one hun- 
 dred are levied. The merchants, professors, artists, physicians, 
 civil officers, lawyers, etc., are not liable to the duty of military 
 service ; and that bondsmen become free men as soon as they 
 enter the army, is already noticed above. 
 
 The navy consisted in 1840 of 56 ships of the line, carrying 
 from 74 to 1 20 guns, 48 frigates, carrying from 44 to 60 guns, 
 and an adequate number of sloops of war, brigs, and steamers. 
 Of the ships of the line 31, and of the frigates 30, were stationed 
 in the Baltic Sea (where Kronstadt and Reval are the chief sta- 
 tions), and the remainder in the Black Sea, where the chief sta- 
 tions of the navy are Sevastopol, Cherson, and Nicolajew. Ships of 
 war of smaller size are stationed in the Caspian and White Seas. 
 
 There are the following Orders of honor: 1. The order of St. 
 Andrew, in one class, and instituted in 1698. 2. The Alexan- 
 der Newsky order, in one class, and instituted in 1722. 3. The 
 White Eagle order, primitively a Polish order, instituted in 1335, 
 and renewed in 1705, in one class. 4. The St. Ann order, primi- 
 tively a Holsteinian order, instituted in 1735, and in 4 classes. 
 5. The St. Stanislaus order, primitively a Polish order, instituted 
 in 1765, and in 3 classes. 6. The order of St. George, a military 
 order of merit, instituted in 1769, and in 4 classes. 7. The 
 order of St. Wladimir, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1782; and 
 
588 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia— its History. 
 
 8. The St. Katharine order, only for ladies, in 2 classes, and in- 
 stituted in 1714. 
 
 History. — The ancient inhabitants of European Russia were but very little 
 known to the Greeks and Romans, and comprised either by the general name 
 Scythians, or by that of Sarmatians. They belonged to the Slavonic tribe 
 as well as those who settled in the country at a later period (see page 29). 
 They founded two subsequently renowned states of Novgorod (compare 
 page 52) and Kiew ; yet for the rest, they were almost constantly engaged 
 in civil wars. To put an end to them, the people of Novgorod and other pow- 
 erful tribes sent in 862 of the Christian era, an embassy to the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, which then already was noted for valiant and prudent men, and 
 asked for one of them to become their sovereign. Three brothers, named 
 Rurik, Snio and Truvor, and belonging to the family of Russ (hence subse- 
 quently the name of Russia), followed the invitation, and Rurik, the eldest 
 of them, became thus the ancestor of the still reigning dynasty of Russia. 
 He founded the grand-duchy of Great Russia, whose capital was first Nov- 
 gorod, but then Kiew. One of Rurik's descendants and successors, "Wladimir, 
 surnamed the Great, married a daughter of the Greek emperor in 988, and 
 as she was a Christian, he not only himself, but also his people, were con- 
 verted to Christianity. In the course of time not less than 400 churches 
 were built in Kiew, which at the same time became a city of such extent 
 and splendor, that it used to be called a second Constantinople. At a later 
 period a second grand-duchy took existence, viz., that of Wladimir ; and be- 
 side it there were 50 principalities, which indeed nominally, yet for the most 
 part not actually, were subjected to the sovereignty of the grand dukes. 
 This being the state of things, Russia was an easy prey to the Mongolians, 
 who in 1238 invaded the country and conquered it, with the exception of the 
 city and republic of Novgorod. They suffered, however, the Russian grand 
 dukes to continue reigning, though they were considered as their vassals and 
 had to pay tribute to them ; and restricted their immediate authority and 
 government to the kingdoms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time com- 
 prised by the name of Kaptshak. In 1328 the grand-duchy of Wladimir 
 was united with that of Moscow, in 1480 the yoke of the Mongolians thrown 
 off, and in the years 1552 and 54 their last possessions in Russia, Kaptshak, 
 re-conquered. Meanwhile, the grand duke Ivan, surnamed the Great, and 
 reigning from 1462 to 1505, had subjected all dependent principalities to his 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 589 
 
 History of Russia. 
 
 authority, and thus established one single and united empire, upon which he 
 assumed the title of Czar (which means nothing else but king). In 1598 the 
 male line of the house of Rurik became extinct, and now a period of fifteen 
 years ensued, during which both the Poles and Swedes wrested several prov- 
 inces from the empire, which at that time was the scene of civil wars. 
 At last the Russians regained strength, and driving away the enemies from 
 abroad, elected Michael Romanow (whose mother belonged to the house of 
 Rurik) their king, in 1613. King Michael died in 1645, and was succeeded 
 by his son Alexei (1645-1676), who was succeeded by Ins grandson, Feodor 
 IIL (1676-1682). All three were distinguished for their governmental skill 
 and virtues. When Feodor IIL died in 1682, he was succeeded by his two 
 sons, Ivan and Peter, at once. Yet the latter (born on the 20th June, 1672), 
 leaving to his brother only the title of Czar, ascended in 1689 the throne as 
 autocrat, by the name of Peter I, and was subsequently surnamed the Great. 
 In the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), he wrested the provinces of 
 Ingria, Esthnia, and Livonia from Sweden, and in the wars with the Turks 
 he extended the Russian boundaries to the Sea of Azof. In 1722 he assumed 
 the title of Emperor of all the Russias. He died in 1725, and was succeeded 
 first by his consort, the empress Katharine L, then by his grandson, Peter 
 IL, with whom the male line of the house of Romanow became extinc£, in 
 1730. Yet Peter L had left behind two daughters, Ann (married to the 
 duke Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp), and Elizabeth ; and his brother 
 Ivan (4- in 1696) had likewise left behind two daughters, Katharine (duchess 
 of Mecklenburg), and Ann (duchess of Kurland). The latter ascended first 
 the throne as reigning empress, and was in 1740 succeeded by her niece 
 (daughter of her sister Katharine), who, however, was removed in 1741, 
 and succeeded by the reigning empress Elizabeth (daughter of Peter I.), who 
 died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. (son of her sister 
 Ann, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp; see History of Holstein), whose reign, 
 however, did not last longer than six months, when he was succeeded by his 
 consort, the empress Katharine II. (1762-1796). The latter was succeeded 
 by her son, Paul I. (1796-1801), who was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. 
 The present reigning emperor, since 1825, is Alexander's brother, Nicholas 
 Z, born on the 7th July, 1796 
 
 The Russian empire is divided into about 60 counties, styled 
 governments, which are subdivided into districts, styled circles. 
 
590 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Great Russia. 
 
 Into 50 of these governments is European Russia divided ; but 
 as it embraces, beside Russia proper, various constituent parts, 
 whose names continually occur in history and other reading, and 
 which therefore require to be described separately, we shall 
 give the topographical description of European Russia in the fol- 
 lowing order of succession : I. Great Russia ; II. Little Russia ; 
 III. The Baltic Provinces ; IV. The Grand-duchy of Finland ; 
 V. West or Polish Russia ; VI. The Kingdom of Poland ; VII. 
 The Kingdom of Kasan ; VIII. The Kingdom of Astrachaii, 
 and IX. South Russia. — The governmental capitals will be found 
 denoted thus, +. 
 
 L— GREAT RUSSIA. 
 
 Area : 852,000 square miles. 
 Population : 24,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It comprises the centre of European Russia, extending north- 
 ward to the Arctic Ocean, has from old retained the above-stated 
 name, and contains : 
 
 -f-Moscow, the old capital, by eminence, of the Russian empire, and until 
 1720 the imperial residence (the emperors are, for the rest, yet crowned 
 here), in a beautiful and fertile plain, on the Moskwa (a branch of the Oka, 
 which is a tributary of the Volga), south-eastward and 500 miles distant from 
 St. Petersburg, and about 1,000 miles east-north-east of Berlin ; had, in 1840, 
 15,275 dwelling-houses, and in 1843 a population of 375,200 inhabitants. In 
 the great conflagration in 1812, which lasted from the 14th to the 21st Sep- 
 tember, 6,500 buildings were destroyed. The long since rebuilt city contains 
 a vast number of highly remarkable, and partly very magnificent public and 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 591 
 
 Geographical Description of Great Russia. 
 
 private edifices and palaces ; for it is in the winter season the chief residence 
 of the Russian nobles. Among the public edifices ranks first the Kremlin, a 
 very extensive castle, being 5 or 7 miles in circuit, and surrounded by a wall 
 60 feet in height, and with numerous Gothic towers. The Kremlin comprises, 
 beside the Gothic ancient palace of the Russian Czars, several convents, and 
 not less than 32 churches, among which are to be noticed St. Mary's Ascen- 
 sion's church (where the emperors are crowned), St Michael's cathedral, with 
 the sepulchres of Ivan the Great, and the church steeple, named Ivan Veliki, 
 containing 22 bells, the largest of which weighs 1,400 quintals (not to be con- 
 founded with another bell, founded in 1734, which is 67 feet round, 19 feet 
 high, weighs 2,250 quintals, and is to be considered as the largest bell in 
 the world). The aggregate number of churches in Moscow is 400, beside 
 637 chapels. The church of St. Basil is remarkable for the peculiar style of 
 its architecture. Moscow is not only the centre of the inland trade of Rus- 
 sia, but at the same time noted for its exceedingly great wealth. Its mer- 
 chants and tradesmen display much luxury, and rival, in this point, the rich 
 nobles ; except they are on business tours, they are seldom seen in the streets 
 but in coach-and-four or six horses. About the important manufactures of 
 Moscow see above, and about its history, see page 38. Troizkoi Sergiev, a 
 market-town noted for its wealthy convent and remarkable cathedral, is situ- 
 ated south-eastward and 44 miles distant from Moscow. Mosaisk, a town 
 on the Moskwa, westward and 60 miles distant from Moscow, has 4,500 in- 
 habitants, and is remarkable for the battle on the 7th September, 1812. 
 -{-Smolensk, a city on the Dnieper, 240 miles west-south-west of Moscow, 
 with silk, linen, and leather manufactures, noted horse-marts, considerable 
 trade, and 14,700 inhabitants. -{-Kaluga, a city on the Oka, south-westward 
 and 106 miles distant from Moscow, with numerous and important manufac- 
 tures, considerable trade, and 35,500 inhabitants. Borowsk, a town on the 
 Protwa, is noted for its greens, and has 8,200 inhabitants. -{-Tula, an impor- 
 tant manufacturing city, on the Upa (a branch of the Volga), southward and 
 120 miles distant from Moscow, has 52,400 inhabitants, and is especially noted 
 for its great manufactory of fire-arms and hardware, its numerous cloth and 
 other manufactures, and its extensive trade. Bjelew, a town on the Oka, is 
 likewise noted for hardware, etc., manufactures, and has 8,900 inhabitants. 
 -{-Orel, a city on the Oka, 220 miles south-south-west of Moscow, has 32,800 
 inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp, considerable trade and manufactures 
 of silk, linens, and leather. Brjansk, a town on the Desna, with a great can- 
 
592 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Great Russia. 
 
 non-foundry, extensive trade in timber, and 8,550 inhabitants. -{-Kursk, a city 
 on the Kura and Tuskara, southward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, 
 has 24,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its distinguished theological seminary, 
 its leather manufactures, and annual fairs in its immediate neighborhood. 
 Belgorod and Michaelovka, towns with respectively 11,100 and 6,000 inhabi- 
 tants. -{-Woronesh, a city near the Don, 312 miles south-south-east of Mos- 
 cow, with considerable cloth manufactures, extensive trade and commerce, 
 and 45,000 inhabitants. Pawlovsk, a fortified town on the Don, is noted for 
 its garden fruits, and has 3,500 inhabitants. -|-Tambow, a city near the Oka, 
 south-eastward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, is noted for its cloth and 
 canvass manufactures, and has 21,000 inhabitants. Jelatma, a town on the 
 Oka, with trade in corn and hemp, and 6,500 inhabitants. In its neighbor- 
 hood are considerable iron-works, especially at Ujensk. -j-Rjaesan, a city 
 on the Trubesh, south-eastward and 113 miles distant from Moscow, with 
 cloth, canvass, linen, and other manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. Kasi- 
 mov, a city on the Oka, is noted for its considerable fur trade, and has 10,000 
 inhabitants, among whom are many Mohammedan Tartars. -|-Nishnei-Nov- 
 gorod, a city on the Volga, at its junction with the Oka, and at the high- 
 road between Moscow and Siberia, is highly famed for its annual fair (at all 
 events, the most important throughout Europe), and has 28,000 inhabitants. 
 It lies 580 miles east-south-east of Novgorod, noticed above in History, with 
 which it is not to be confounded. Liscowo, a market- town on the Volga, is 
 famed for its linens and horse-marts, and has 4,000 inhabitants. -{-"Wladimir, 
 a city on the Kljasma, eastward and 116 miles distant from Moscow, with 
 a noted theological seminary and gymnasium, considerable culture of garden 
 and other fruits, with silk manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Wladimir 
 was, in the period from 1157 to 1328, the capital of a Russian grand-duchy 
 (see above, in History). Ivanovo, an extensive village, noted for its consider- 
 able manufactures, especially of cotton goods, with 6,000 inhabitants. -{-Kos- 
 troma, a city on the Volga, north-eastward and 180 miles distant from 
 Moscow, with considerable leather and other manufactures, and 14,000 inhabi- 
 tants. -4-Jaroslav, a city on tHe Volga, 170 miles north-north-east of Moscow, 
 is noted for its academy, and considerable manufactures, and has 33,200 in- 
 habitants. Rostow, a very ancient city, on a lake of the same name, with a 
 remarkable ancient cathedral, considerable inland trade, noted fairs, and 
 7,800 inhabitants. Rybinsk, a town on the Volga, 46 miles above Jaroslav, 
 is an emporium of the Russian bland trade, and the centre for the inland 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 693 
 
 Geographical Description of Great Russia. 
 
 navigation, is moreover noted for its linen manufactures, and has 7,500 in- 
 habitants. -j-Twer, a city on the Volga, north-westward and 94 miles dis- 
 tant from Moscow, with considerable trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. -j-Ples- 
 kow, or Pskow, a city near the Peipus lake, south-westward and 156 miles 
 distant from St Petersburg, was, in the middle ages, 'an emporium (see page 
 50), is at present noted for its Russian leather manufactures and annual fair, 
 and has 1 2,000 inhabitants. -{-Novgorod, a city on the Hmen lake, south- 
 ward and about 100 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has at present only 
 15,000 inhabitants, but was, in the middle ages, a renowned commercial city 
 and republic (see above, in History, and page 50). -j-Petrosawodsk, a city 
 on the lake Onega, north-eastward and 190 miles distant from St. Peters- 
 burg, is noted for its cannon-foundry, copper and iron- works, and has 7,000 
 inhabitants. Olonetz, a town on the Ladoga lake, with iron and copper 
 mines, and 3,000 inhabitants. -f-WoLOGDA, a city on a river of the same 
 name, eastward and 360 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous 
 manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 16,400 inhabitants. Ustjug- Weliki, 
 a city at the high-road between Archangel and Siberia, with numerous and 
 noted manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants. + Arch- 
 angel, an important commercial city, on the Dwina, 38 miles from the White 
 Sea, north-eastward and nearly 300 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with 
 numerous manufactures, docks, etc., and 22,000 inhabitants. Archangel was 
 founded in 1584. Kola, the most northern town in European Russia, near 
 the Arctic Ocean, 380 miles north-north-west of Archangel, with considerable 
 fisheries, and 1,500 inhabitants. The island of Nova Zembla, the largest in 
 the Arctic Ocean, having nearly 95,000 square miles in extent, is situated 
 near the northern extremity of European Russia, yet northward of the Arctic 
 circle, in about 72° north latitude. Being dreary and mostly covered with 
 masses of snow and ice, it has no permanent inhabitants, yet is in the sum- 
 mer season resorted to by a great many Russian hunters and fishermen, for 
 the island abounds with white bears, white foxes, reindeer, seals, etc. The 
 group of the Spitzbergen islands belongs likewise to Russia, lies in the 
 Arctic Ocean, between 76° 80' and 80° 40' north latitude, and between 70° 
 and 24° longitude east from Greenwich, is resorted to by whalers and Rus- 
 sian hunters, and has in recent times become the seat of a hunting and fish- 
 ing settlement^ consisting of about 25 Norwegians and Laplanders. 
 
594 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Little Russia. 
 
 IL— LITTLE RUSSIA. 
 
 Area : 76,680 square miles. 
 
 Population : 6,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 t 
 It is situated on the south-west side of Great Russia, and both 
 in history and common life usually named Ukraine ; is, in some 
 respect, to be considered as the basis of the Russian empire (as 
 may be derived from the History above), and was until 1674 the 
 chief seat of those warlike Russians, who since have, by way of 
 eminence, been called Cossacks (see the note back). It con- 
 tains : 
 
 -4-Kiew, or Kiev, its former capital, and in the period of SSO-llSY the resi- 
 dence of the Russian grand dukes (see History, above), on the Dnieper, south- 
 ward and 336 miles distant from Smolensk, and south-eastward and 450 miles 
 distant from Warsaw, with 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Lutheran, and 25 Greek 
 churches (among the latter are the cathedral and St. Andrew's church highly 
 remarkable), 9 convents (among which that of Petscheri is noted for its ex- 
 tensive vaults and sepulchres), a university (see above), important annual 
 fairs, and 48,000 inhabitants. Uman, a city on the Umanka, with consider- 
 able trade in cattle, and 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring estate of Sofi- 
 ovka is famed for its extensive and handsome gardens and park Lisianka, 
 a town noted as a watering-place, has 3,000 inhabitants. -{-Czernigow, a city 
 on the Desna, with various branches of industry, and 11,100 inhabitants. 
 Krolewetz, a town noted for its important annual fairs, has 6,200 inhabitants. 
 4-Pultawa, or Poltawa, a city on the Pultawka, south-eastward and 200 
 miles distant from Kiew, has 15,600 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive in- 
 land trade, and remarkable in history for the battle in 1709, in which 
 Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by the Russians. The neighboring 
 former village of Retshitilova is at present a city, with 11,000 inhabitants. 
 -|-Charkow, a city on the Donetz, 86 miles east-north-east of Pultawa, is 
 noted for its university (see back), its important annual fairs, and consider- 
 able inland trade, and has 34,000 inhabitants. Achtyrka, a city on a river 
 of the same name, is noted for its fruits, and has 1 6,000 inhabitants. 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 695 
 
 Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 
 
 III.— THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 
 
 Abba : 55,380 square miles. 
 Population : 3,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 They comprise the four provinces of Ingria, Esthnia, Livonia, 
 and Curlandj the three first-named of which were conquered and 
 wrested from Sweden in the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), 
 while Curland was not before the year 1795 annexed to the Rus- 
 sian empire. The majority of the population are Germans, or of 
 German origin, beside aboriginal tribes, while but rather few 
 Russians proper are to be met with here. 
 
 1. Ingria (18,531 square miles, and 1,350,000 inhabitants), situated at the 
 head of the Gulf of Finland, and on the Ladoga lake, already in the 13th 
 century belonged to Russia, but was in 1617 ceded to Sweden, and occupied 
 again in 1703, contains: +St. Petersburg, imperial residence, and officially 
 second capital of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Newa (which river 
 is 1.200 feet wide here), north-westward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, 
 with (in 1843) 8,956, and (in 1846) 473,000 inhabitants. St. Petersburg is 
 the most regularly-built and splendid city in the world, and is highly famed 
 for its vast number of magnificent palaces and public edifices. It is at the 
 same time the principal place of commerce for the empire, and the seat of 
 its learning and science. (Concerning its university, see back.) The imperial 
 public library contains 450,000, and that of the university 100,000 volumes. 
 The imperial winter palace has 721 feet in front, and contains in its first floor 
 alone about 1 00 saloons and apartments. St. Isaac's cathedral is one of the 
 finest churches in the world, and with its handsome cupola, 317 feet in height. 
 The annual traffic of the principal mercantile houses of St. Petersburg (Stieg- 
 litz & Co., I. Thomas & Co., G. Loder <fe Co., etc.), may be estimated at 30, 
 25, and 20 millions rubles. Zarskqje-Selo, a city connected by a railroad with 
 St. Petersburg, has 10,400 inhabitants, and is famed for its magnificent impe- 
 rial palace (1,200 feet in front) and very extensive and remarkable park. 
 
596 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 
 
 Gatachina, a town southward and 28 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has 
 5,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its handsome imperial palace, where Em- 
 peror Paul resided before his accession to the throne. Kronstadt, a strongly 
 fortified city on an island of the Gulf of Finland, westward and 28 miles dis- 
 tant from St. Petersburg, is the chief station of the Russian navy in the Bal- 
 tic, and has three distinct harbors, vast docks, considerable naval depots, 
 arsenal, etc., and 55,000 inhabitants. Narva, the ancient capital of Ingria, 
 near the Gulf of Finland, has 5,000 inhabitants, is fortified, and noted in his- 
 tory for the victory Charles XII. of Sweden obtained here over the Russians 
 on the 30th November, 1700. 
 
 2. Esthnia, (7,242 square miles, and 350,000 inhabitants), on the south side 
 of the Gulf of Finland, and on the west bounded by the Baltic Sea, was in 
 1217 conquered by the Knights of the order of the Sword (instituted in the 
 latter half of the 12th century, having the same aim in view as the Teutonic 
 order, and joining the latter in 1237), in the 16th century annexed to the 
 kingdom of Sweden, and in the beginning of the 18th century conquered by 
 the Russians. It contains : -}-Reval, its ancient capital, on a bay of the Gulf 
 of Finland, westward and 220 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has 30,000 
 inhabitants (for the most part Germans), a spacious and commodious harbor, 
 where part of the Russian navy is stationed, 21 churches of several denomi- 
 nations, a noted gymnasium, and other higher schools and literary institu- 
 tions, and considerable commerce. Reval, founded in the 13th century, was 
 subsequently a very active member of the Hanseatic League. Habsal, Weis- 
 senstein, and Wesenberg, towns with respectively 1,600, 3,100, and 1,300 
 inhabitants. Near the coast of Esthnia is situated the island of Dago (309 
 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its sheep of improved breed, 
 and for cloth manufactures), and the isles of Worms and JV^ucko. 
 
 3. Livonia (18,744 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants), between Esthnia 
 and Curland, on the Gulf of Riga (see page 9). It was conquered about the close 
 of the 12th century by the above-mentioned knights of the order of the Sword, 
 who since retained it, until in the 16th century their grand-master, Gotthard 
 Kettler, ceded it to the king of Poland, who, in compensation for it, invested 
 him with Curland as a duchy. In 1660 Poland was compelled by the Swedes, 
 to cede Livonia to them, which in the Northern war (1700-21) was con- 
 quered by Russia and annexed to it. It contains : -|-Riga, its ancient capi- 
 tal, on the Duna, 7 miles from the sea, south-west and 340 miles distant from 
 St. Petersburg, is next to this latter city the most important commercial 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 697 
 
 Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 
 
 place and seaport of the Russian empire (in 1843 its exports were 16,178,633 
 silver rubles in value) ; has 72,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, bears in 
 the architectural style of its buildings, and in the customs and manners of its 
 inhabitants, the stamp of a German city, and is noted not only for its exten- 
 sive commerce, but also for its important manufactures, literary institutions, 
 its magnificent city -hall, churches (the steeple of St. Peter's is 440 feet in 
 height), etc Riga was founded in the year 1200, chiefly by merchants from 
 Bremen, who already in 1186 had established a trading settlement in the 
 neighboring village of Uexkull. Dorp at, a city on the Embach, north-east- 
 ward and 145 miles distant from Riga, is noted for its university (see above) 
 and its considerable inland trade, and has 14,000 inhabitants, who for the 
 most part consist of Germans. Wenden (with 2,700 inhabitants), Wolmar 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Lemsal (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Fellin (with 
 1,800 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Pernau, a commercial and 
 maritime town on the Gulf of Riga, with extensive commerce, and 6,000 in- 
 habitants. Near the coast of Livonia is situated the highly fertile island of 
 Oesel (1,917 square miles, and 35,000 inhabitants), containing, among other 
 places, the town of Arensburg, with 1,600 inhabitants. 
 
 4. Curland (10,863 square miles, and 500,000 inhabitants), on the south 
 side of Livonia, and on the west bounded by the Baltic Ocean. It was a 
 constituent part of Poland until in 1561 the former grand-master of the 
 knights of the order of the Sword, Gotthard Kettler, was invested with it as 
 a hereditary duchy (see above). One of his descendants and successors was 
 in 1710 married with the Russian grand duchess Ann (see History of Rus- 
 sia), but died childless in the following year. His widow having mounted 
 the Russian throne in 1730, caused the state of Curland to elect her lord 
 high chamberlain, Count Ernest John of Biron, their duke, with which they 
 complied. Thus he became duke of Curland, and was in 1770, when he 
 died, succeeded by his son Peter, who reigned until 1795, when the Russian 
 empress, Katharine II., caused the states of Curland to subject the duchy to 
 the sovereignty of the Russian empire. Since that period it has formed a 
 constituent part of the latter. It contains : -j-Mietau, its ancient capital, on 
 the river Aa, 28 miles south-south west of Riga, and 190 miles north-north- 
 east of Konigsberg (in Prussia), with a former ducal palace, 10 churches for 
 several denominations, a noted gymnasium, important annual fairs, and 29,000 
 inhabitants, a great part of whom being Germans. Bauske (with 2,300 in- 
 habitants), Seelburg (with 900 inhabitants), Friedricltstadt (with 2,500 inhabi- 
 
698 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Curland and Finland. 
 
 tants), Jakobstadt (with 4,000 inhabitants), Goldingen (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Grubin (with 900 inhabitants), and Tukum (with 1,800 inhabitants), more or 
 less remarkable towns. Libau, a very important commercial city on the 
 Baltic Sea, with 12,000 inhabitants. Windau, a maritime town on the Bal- 
 tic, with rather considerable commerce, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 IV.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF FINLAND. 
 
 Area: 136,320 square miles. 
 Population : 1,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It extends from the neighborhood of St. Petersburg north- 
 ward to the Arctic Ocean, is on the west bounded by Norway, 
 Sweden, and the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the south by the Gulf 
 of Finland. In the period from 1157 to 1293 Finland was con- 
 quered by the Swedes, who in 1339 ceded the first part, in 1722 
 a second, in 1743 a third part, and in 1809 (by the treaty of peace 
 concluded at Frederikshamn on the 17th September of that year) 
 the whole remainder of Finland to Russia. It contains 
 
 -{-Abo, its ancient capital, at the entrance into the Gulf of Bothnia, with 
 some literary institutions, noted manufactures, docks, commerce, and 15,000 
 inhabitants. Nystad, a commercial and maritime town on the Gulf of Both- 
 nia, with various branches of industry, and 2,500 inhabitants. Bjorneborg, a 
 maritime town on the Gulf of Bothnia, with noted docks, rather considerable 
 trade and commerce, and 5,000 inhabitants. Ramea, a very ancient mari- 
 time town on the named gulf, with 2,000 inhabitants. Near Abo is situated, 
 in the Gulf of Bothnia, the group of the Aland Isles, 80 of which are inhab 
 ited, having an aggregate population of 15,000 inhabitants, who subsist on hus- 
 bandry, fishing, fowling, hunting (several of the islands are covered with for- 
 ests abounding with wild animals), etc. The principal island is named 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 699 
 
 Geographical Description of Finland. 
 
 Aland. -{-Helsingfors, a maritime commercial city on the Gulf of Finland, 
 with a university (see above), a strongly fortified and commodious harbor, 
 docks, linen and canvass manufactures, considerable commerce, and 16,000 
 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated, on seven islands, the fortress of 
 Sveaborg, frequently called the " Northern Gibraltar," on account of its ex- 
 traordinary strength, with vast docks, and 3,500 inhabitants. Ekenas, a 
 maritime town on the Gulf of Finland, with 1,600 inhabitants. -(-Tavaste- 
 hus, a town on a lake, northward and 56 miles distant from Helsingfors, 
 with noted fairs, and 2,000 inhabitants. -{-Wiborg, a fortified town at the 
 north-eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, north-westward and 84 miles dis- 
 tant from St. Petersburg, with rather considerable commerce, and 7,000 in- 
 habitants. It was formerly the capital of Carelia, as the eastern section 
 of Finland was named. -\-Lovisa (with 3,000 inhabitants), Frederikshamn 
 (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Borgo (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less 
 important commercial towns on the Gulf of Finland. -\-Kuopio, a town on 
 a lake in the interior of the country, with 800 inhabitants. -{-Wasa, a 
 commercial town on the Gulf of Bothnia, northward and 190 miles distant 
 from Abo, with harbors, docks, and 4,000 inhabitants. Other more or less 
 important commercial towns on the Gulf of Bothnia are : Christinestad 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Ny and Omnia Carleby (New and Old Carleby ; 
 with respectively 900 and 2,500 inhabitants), Jacobstad (i. e. Jamestown ; has 
 1,500 inhabitants), and Brahestad (with 1,500 inhabitants). -j-Uleabokg, a 
 commercial city on the Gulf of Bothnia, 350 miles north-north-east of Abo, 
 is regularly laid out, carries on a considerable trade in tar, pitch, timber, but- 
 ter, etc., and has 5,000 inhabitants. Tornea, a town on a river of the same 
 name (see page 13), and at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, with 2 churches, 
 a harbor, and 750 inhabitants. — The most remarkable villages, or rather 
 parishes, in Russian Lapland (see Lapland, under the head of Sweden) are 
 Kusamo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Kemitrask (with 1,800 inhabitants), and 
 Enontekis (with 600 inhabitants, who are trading especially to Tornea). 
 
600 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of West Russia. 
 
 V.— WEST, OR POLISH RU' 
 
 Area: 159,750 square miles. 
 Population : 8,500,000 inhabitant 
 
 Lying between Great Russia and the kingdom of Poland, it 
 comprises former Polish provinces acquired and annexed to Rus- 
 sia in the period from 1772 to 1809. Thus, the inhabitants are 
 for the most part Poles, beside numerous Jews. The soil is very 
 fertile in corn and grazing. The principal section of Polish Rus- 
 sia consists of Lithuania, and three other sections are generally 
 known by the names of Podlachia, Volhynia, and Podolia, though 
 they officially are styled governments, and bear the names of their 
 respective chief towns, or capitals. % 
 
 Lithuania (112,890 square miles, and 5,000,000 inhabitants), once a power- 
 ful grand-duchy, taking existence in the beginning of the 13th century, and 
 being united with the kingdom of Poland in 1386, in this way that Grand- 
 duke Jagello of Lithuania married Queen Hedwig of Poland, contains: 
 -f- Wilna, the ancient capital of Lithuania, on the Wilia, at its junction with 
 the Wilenka, north-eastward and 250 miles distant from Warsaw, has 54,000 
 inhabitants, and is noted for several highly remarkable churches, for its lite- 
 rary institutions, its medical academy (the university founded here in 1570, 
 was in 1832 abolished), and its considerable trade. Braslaw (with 2,000 in- 
 habitants), Smorgoni (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Troki (with 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants), more or less remarkable towns. -)-Kowno, a city on the Wilia, 60 
 miles west-north-west of Wilna, is noted for its mead, carries on a consider- 
 able trade, and has 9,000 inhabitants. -|-Grodno, a city on the Niemen, 
 south-westward and 86 miles distant from Wilna, has 15,600 inhabitants 
 (three fourths of them are Jews), carries on a considerable trade, and is noted 
 for its annual fairs. Formerly every third Polish Diet was held here. The 
 little town of Mereczowszczisa is remarkable as the birth-place of Kosciuszko 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 601 
 
 Geographical Description of West Russia. 
 
 (born on the 12th February, 1746). — Within the limits of the former princi 
 pality of Samogitia, wrested from the Teutonic Order in 1408, and then an 
 nexed to Lithuania, are situated the towns of Rosienie (once its capital, ha 
 6,300 inhabitants), Afiedniki (with 1,800 inhabitants) Jurburg (with 4,00 
 inhabitants), Polangen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Tauroggen (with 2,000 inhabi 
 tant), and Kieydani (with 5,000 inhabitants). — The following cities and town? 
 until the next dash, are situated within the limits of a Lithuanian section 
 which, both in history and other writing, frequently occurs by the name ot 
 White Russia, viz., -f-MomxEW, a city on the Dnieper, with noted leathei 
 manufactures, considerable culture of fruits and greens, a very extensive trade 
 and commerce, and 23,200 inhabitants. Homel, a town on the Sosha, wit] 
 noted horse-marts, considerable trade, and 6,000 inhabitants, -j- Witebsk, : 
 city on the Duna, eastward and 200 miles distant from Wilna, and 90 mile 
 west-north-west of Smolensk, carries on a considerable trade, is noted for it 
 mead, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Polozk, a town on the Duna, north-west 
 ward and 60 miles distant from Witebsk, with considerable trade in grai; 
 and other natural products, and 10,300 inhabitants. Dunaburg, a strongh 
 fortified town on the Duna, with 7,200 inhabitants. -(-Minsk, a city on the 
 Swislocz, south-eastward and 110 miles distant from Wilna, with ahandsomt 
 Catholic cathedral, renowned annual fairs, styled contracts, and 22,500 inhabi 
 tants. Bobruisk, a city on the Beresina, has 21,000 inhabitants, and is note 
 for its remarkably strong fortress. — Nowogeodek, a town 72 miles west 
 south-west of Minsk, with 3,800 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of tha 
 section of Lithuania, known by the name of Black Russia. The village of 
 Bialowieza is situated in the centre of the forest of the same name that i 
 115 miles in circuit, and harbors not only the elk, bear, wolf, lynx, etc., bu 
 also about 900 or 1,000 heads of wild oxen (anciently to be found in vas'. 
 numbers throughout Central Europe, and known there by the name of owres 
 or ure oxen). Slonim and Sfuzk, towns with respectively 7,600 and 8,40( 
 inhabitants. — Brzesc, surnamed Litewski, a strongly fortified city on the Bug- 
 and at the "frontier of Poland, eastward and 120 miles distant from Warsaw 
 has 11,400 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, is noted for a military 
 school and a Jewish academy, and was formerly the capital of that sectio; 
 of Lithuania, known by the name of Polesia, and to which did belong, more 
 over, the towns of Pruschani (with 4,000 inhabitants), Kobryn (with 5,80*: 
 inhabitants), Davidow (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Pinsk (with noted man- 
 ufactures of Russian leather, and 7,400 inhabitants). 
 
602 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of West Russia. 
 
 The sections of Podlachia, Volhynia, and Podolia were formerly constitu- 
 ent parts of what was styled Little Poland (which, together with Great 
 Poland and Lithuania, constituted the ancient kingdom of Poland), a. In 
 Podlachia are to be noticed : Drohyczyn, its former capital, on the Bug, 
 and within the limits of the present government of Grodno, eastward and 
 76 miles distant from Warsaw, with 2,000 inhabitants Bjalystock, a city 
 on the Biala, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from Warsaw, is 
 handsomely and partly magnificently built, so that it has been styled " Pod- 
 lachian Versailles," carries on an important trade, and has 10,700 inhabitants. 
 Bielsk, a town on the Biala, 100 miles east-north-east of Warsaw, with 2,500 
 inhabitants. Knyszyn and Siemiatyce, towns with respectively 1,600 and 
 4,000 inhabitants, b. In Volhynia are to be noticed : Luzk, its former cap- 
 ital, on the Styr, 75 miles north-north-east of Lemberg (in Galicia), with 
 7,000 inhabitants. -{-Schitomir, or Zytomierz, a city on the Teterow, with 
 leather and other manufactures, extensive trade in corn, wine, etc., and 27,000 
 inhabitants. Krzemieniec, a city on the Ikva, with a noted gymnasium, and 
 10,300 inhabitants. Ostrog, a city on the Wilia, with an extensive Greek 
 monastery, important trade, and 9,700 inhabitants. Berdyczew, a city on 
 the Guilopiat, eastward and 18 miles distant from Brody (in Galicia), is the 
 centre of the Russian trade with Germany by Brody, especially in furs, is 
 moreover noted for its horse-marts, and has 34,100 inhabitants. Radzivilov, 
 a town at the frontier of Galicia, with considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants, c. In Podolia are to be noticed : -j-Kamixikc, suruamed Podohki, its 
 capital, on the Dniester, south-eastward and 140 miles distant from Lemberg 
 (in Galicia), with a Greek and a Catholic cathedral, some manufactures, trade, 
 and 1 6,000 inhabitants. Bar, a town noted in history for a confederacy concluded 
 here in 1768, against the then reigning king of Poland, and has 7,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Mohilow (with 9,300 inhabitants), Miethyborz (with 4,000 inhabitants) 
 Janepol (with 2,000 inhabitants), Braclaw (with 3,600 inhabitants), Targowicl 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), Tulczin (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Niemirow (with 
 8,000 inhabitants), more or less important manufacturing and trading towns. 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 608 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Poland. 
 
 VL— THE KINGDOM OF POLAND. 
 
 Area : 48,990 square miles. 
 Population: 5,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is the most westerly constituent part of the Russian empire, 
 on the east connected with West, or Polish Russia, and for the 
 rest surrounded by Prussian and Austrian territories. The ma- 
 jority of the population consists both of Poles and Roman Cath- 
 olics ; there are, however, beside them, many Polish Dissenters, 
 about 250,000 Protestants, and nearly 500,000 Jews, though in 
 recent times a great part of the latter have contrived to settle in 
 other Russian provinces. In the cities and towns are to be found 
 many Germans. — At present the manufactures in Poland have 
 attained a high pitch of improvement, and its inland trade is now 
 greatly facilitated by common high-roads and railroads. — With 
 regard to its history, it has already been remarked, page 29, that 
 the main body of the Slavonians remained in Russia and Poland. 
 The latter name came at first into vogue iu the 9th century. In 
 840 the Poles elected a simple peasant, named Plasty their duke, 
 and his dynasty continued reigning for more than five centuries 
 (via , until 1370). Duke Mieceslav embraced the Christian re- 
 ligion in 955. and his son, Boleslav I., surnamed Chrobri, was 
 crowned King of Poland in 1024. With Kiug Casimir the 
 Great, who died in 1370, the male line of the Piasts became ex- 
 tiuct, and his only sister being married to the king of Hungary, 
 the Polish magnates, vayvodes, and bishops agreed upon the suc- 
 cession of Casimir's nephew, Louis of Hungary, who died in 1385, 
 and was succeeded by his only daughter Hedwig. who was mar- 
 ried to the graud duke Jagello of Lithuania (see above, under the 
 
604 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe. — History of Poland. 
 
 head of Lithuania). Jagello now mounted the throne of tho 
 united kingdom of Poland, by the name of Vladislav II During 
 the reign of his dynasty, Poland became gradually the most 
 powerful kingdom of Europe, which extended from the Baltic to 
 the Black Sea, and from beyond the Dnieper to the Oder river. 
 In the 15th and 1 6th centuries it had an area of more than 
 383,400 square miles, thus being as large as all France and 
 Spain put together. Yet its internal strength had been weak- 
 ened by the continued encroaching upon the prerogatives of the 
 crown on the part of the Polish nobles, who at the same time 
 wrested gradually nearly all political rights from the middle 
 classes (the peasantry were from of old, the bondsmen of the 
 nobility) ; so that at last the majority of the Polish people were 
 to be considered as entirely subject to the sway of the nobles, 
 who were indeed the actual rulers of the kingdom, especially 
 since the dynasty of the Jagellos had become extinct in 1572, and 
 the kings hereafter been elected. It was a matter of course, that 
 as soon as the nobles had attained their aim, the most violent 
 quarrels and dissensions arose among themselves ; and it would 
 have been a fact unprecedented in history, if under such cir- 
 cumstances Poland had continued forever to be an independ- 
 ent state. For want of room, we cannot enter into any further 
 particulars with regard to the three divisions of Poland between 
 the neighboring powers. The first division took place in 1772, 
 when Russia became possessed of White Russia (see above, un- 
 der the head of Lithuania), Austria of Galicia, and Prussia of 
 the subsequent provinces of West Prussia. The second division 
 took place in 1793, when the greatest part of Great Poland 
 fell to the share of Prussia, and the remainder of Lithuania to 
 that of Russia, while Austria did at this time acquire nothing. 
 The third division took place in 1795, when Prussia became pos- 
 sessed of the remainder of Great Poland, together with Podlachia, 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 605 
 
 The History and Geographical Description of Poland. 
 
 while the remainder of the kingdom was divived between Rus- 
 sia and Austria. In 1807 Napoleon restored Great Poland to 
 political independency, and appointed the king of Saxony its 
 sovereign, with grand-ducal title. This grand-duchy was divided 
 into 6 departments (of Warsaw, Posen, Kalisch, Bromberg, 
 Plock, and Lomza), and had, at the close of the year 1808, a 
 population of 2,371,826 inhabitants, and an extent of about 
 38,000 square miles. In 1815 its western part was restored to 
 Prussia, anrd to the remainder, which Russia retained, the title of 
 a kingdom, and a constitution was conferred, which latter it for- 
 feited in consequence of a revolution in 1830-31. It may still 
 be noticed, with regard to the ancient kingdom of Poland (i. e., as 
 it was previous to 1772), that its north western part used to be 
 styled Great Poland, its southern or south-eastern part Little 
 Poland, and the remainder Lithuania. — The kingdom of Poland 
 is at present divided into the 5 governments of Warsaw, Plock 
 (both within the limits of Great Poland), Augustovo (situated 
 within the limits of Lithuania), Radom, and Lublin (within the 
 limits of Little Poland), and contains : 
 
 -{-Warsaw, ancient capital of Poland, on the Vistule (left bank, while on 
 the opposite side of the river Warsaw's suburb Praga is situated), ranks 
 at present among the finest cities in Europe, containing numerous palaces 
 and other magnificent public and private buildings, is at the same time the 
 centre of Polish industry and commerce, and noted for its strong fortifica- 
 tions (among which ranks first the extensive citadel of Alexander, reared in 
 1832 and the following years), and had at the close of the year 1845 a popu- 
 lation of 156,073 inhabitants. Rava (with 3,200 inhabitants), Lowicz (with 
 noted horse-marts, and 7,100 inhabitants), Tomaszov (with considerable cloth 
 manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants), Ozorkov (with cloth manufactures, and 
 8,000 inhabitants), and Brzesk, surnamed Cujavski (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
 towns. Kalish, a handsome city, on the Prosna, and near the frontier of Po- 
 sen, with important linen and cloth manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 
 12,000 inhabitants. Sieradz (with 2,700 inhabitants), Czenstochau (with 7,000 
 
606 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Poland. 
 
 inhabitants), Zdunska Wola (with 9,000 inhabitants), Lask (with 2,000 in- 
 habitants), and Petrikau (with 4,500 inhabitants), more or less notable towns. 
 -j-Plock, a city on the Vistule, 60 miles below Warsaw, with a remarkable 
 cathedral, various manufactures, considerable trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Modlin, at present officially named Novo-Gcorgievsk, a very strong fortress 
 on the Vistule, at its junction with the Bug. Pultusk, a town on the Narew, 
 northward and 32 miles distant from Warsaw, with 4,000 inhabitants, is 
 noted in history for battles in 1703 and 1806. Ostrolenka, a town on the Na- 
 rew, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Warsaw, with 1,800 inhabitants. 
 Battle on the 26th May, 1831, between the Russians and Poles. -j-Suwalki, 
 chief town of the above-mentioned government of Augustovo, at the high- 
 road between Warsaw and St Petersburg, is regularly and handsomely 
 built, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Lomza, a fortified town on the Narew, with 
 3,500 inhabitants. Augustovo, a town on a lake, southward and 18 miles 
 distant from Suwalki, with noted cattle and horse-marts, and 3,400 inhabi- 
 tants. -}-Radom, a town on the Radomka, southward and 56 miles distant 
 from Warsaw, with 1,000 inhabitants. Sandomir, a town on the Vistule, at 
 its junction with the San, with inland trade, and 4,500 inhabitants. Staszov 
 (with 3,200 inhabitants), Konskie (with 3,400 inhabitants), Szydlowiec (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Opatow (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Zawichost (with 
 2,400 inhabitants), towns. Kielce, until recent times chief town of a gov- 
 ernment, at present united with that of Radom, north-eastward and 64 miles 
 distant from Cracow, with considerable iron-works and iron trade, and 6,000 
 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Chenceny (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), Zarki (with 2,800 inhabitants), Pilica (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Olkusz (with 1,500 inhabitants), Miechow (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
 Slavkov (with 2,200 inhabitants), Pinczow (with 4,200 inhabitants), Schidlow 
 (with 1,800 inhabitants), Wislitza (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Siewierz 
 (with 1,500 inhabitants), which latter was once the capital of the ancient 
 duchy of Severia, that for a long period belonged to Silesia. -f-LuBLm, a 
 city in a beautiful and fertile district, on a lake, south-eastward and 116 
 miles distant from Warsaw, with 18 churches (among them a remarkable 
 cathedral), 12 monasteries, and 6 nunneries, several magnificent palaces, con- 
 siderable inland trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. Pulawy, a town on the Vis- 
 tule, with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for the splendid mansion of the prince 
 of CzartoryskL Siedlce, a town eastward and 56 miles distant from War- 
 saw, with 5,000 inhabitants. Zamosk, a town on a little lake, and at the 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 607 
 
 Geographical Description of Poland and the Kingdom of Kasan. 
 
 high-road between Warsaw and Lemberg, has 4,800 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its strong fortress. Dubienka (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lenzna (wilh 2,600 
 inhabitants), Chelm (with 800 inhabitants), Tamaszow (with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Hrubieszow (with 4,000 inhabitants), Kock (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
 Lukow (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Miedzerzyce (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 more or less notable towns. 
 
 VII— THE KINGDOM OF KASAN. 
 
 Area: 251,340 square miles. 
 Population : 6,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between Great Russia and Siberia, and among its 
 population are many Tartars, Kalmucks, Mordwines, and other 
 tribes. It was since the latter half of the 13th century under 
 the sway of the Mongoles, until in 1552 the Russians conquered 
 it. It contains : 
 
 -{-Kasan, its capital, on the Kasanka, near its junction with the Volga, east- 
 ward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, has 45,500 inhabitants, and is noted 
 for its university (see ante), its numerous and important manufactures, and 
 its extensive inland trade, especially to Siberia. Tetinschi (with 3,000 inhab- 
 itants), Swiask (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Tsheboksar (with 5,200 inhab- 
 itants), more or less notable towns. -{-Perm, a city on the Kama, north-east- 
 ward and 340 miles distant from Kasan, and westward and 240 miles distant 
 from Tobolsk, has 27,000 inhabitants, carries on considerable inland trade, and 
 is noted for its productive copper and iron mines. Near Kungur (a town with 
 8,400 inhabitants), are likewise such mines. Solikamsk, a town on the Kama, 
 with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted for its fur trade and salt-works. Katharin- 
 burg, or Jekaterinburg, a fortified city at the foot of the Ural Mountains, and 
 in the centre of the gold and platina mining district, with various manufac- 
 tures, and 16,000 inhabitants. Werchoturie (with 3,000 inhabitants), and 
 
608 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of the Kingdoms of Kasau and Astrachan. 
 
 Nishnei-Tagihk (with 20,000 inhabitants), are noted mining towns. The 
 town of Irbit, between Katharinburg and Tobolsk, with 4,000 inhabitants, is 
 noted for its important annual faira -[-Wjatka, a city on the river Wjatka, 
 northward and 200 miles distant from Kasan, with a handsome cathedral, 
 considerable trade, especially in grain, and 11,000 inhabitants. Ish, or Ish- 
 cvski-Zavod, a noted manufacturing town, on the river Ish, with 12,000 in- 
 habitants. Sarapul, a town, with various manufactures, salt and corn trade, 
 and 6,000 inhabitants. Slobosk, or Slobodskoi, a town on the Wjatka, has 
 0,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its considerable iron-works. Jebaluga, a 
 town near the Kama, with leather and other manufactures, considerable 
 trade, and 4,700 inhabitants. -{"Simbirsk, a city on the Volga, southward 
 and 116 miles distant from Kasan, with various branches of industry, inland 
 trade, and 18,000 inhabitants. Syzran, a city on the Volga, with 13,000 in- 
 habitants, is noted for its cattle fairs. Samara, a city on the Volga, with 
 considerable trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. -j-Pknsa, a city on the Sura 
 (branch of the Volga), south-eastward and 370 miles distant from Moscow, 
 has 20,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather and linen manufactures. 
 Saransk (with 10,200 inhabitants), Insara (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nishnij 
 Lomov (with 7,000 inhabitants), Werchi Lomov (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Kerensk (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Mokshansk (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 more or less notable towns. 
 
 VIIL— THE KINGDOM OF ASTRACHAN. 
 
 Area : 329,837 square miles. 
 Population : 4,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It is situated between the kingdom of Kasan and the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and among its population are many Kalmucks, Bash- 
 kirs, Kirguises, etc. It was in 1554 conquered by the Russians, 
 having until then been under the sway of the Mongoles, like the 
 kingdom of Kasan. It contains : 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 609 
 
 Geographical Description of the Kingdom of Astrachan. 
 
 -f-AsTRACHAN, its capital, on an island of the Volga, and at about 60 miles 
 distance from the mouths of this river, southward and 700 miles distant from 
 Kasan, and south-eastward and 900 miles distant from Moscow, has 48,000 
 inhabitants, and is not only one of the first commercial cities of the Russian 
 empire, but also renowned for its sturgeon fisheries, which latter yield an im- 
 mense revenue. The commerce and trade of Astrachan extend so far as even 
 to India. The town of Krasnoi-Jar, with 3,000 inhabitants, is the residence 
 of a Kalmuck Khan. Tshernoi-Jar is a fortified town, with 3,500 inhabitants. 
 -j-Saratow, a city on the Volga, northward and 420 miles distant from As- 
 trachan, with canvass, leather, and other manufactures, considerable inland 
 trade, and 45,000 inhabitants. "Within the limits of the Saratow government 
 are more than one hundred German settlements, among them Sarepta, founded 
 in 1765 by Moravian Brethren, and being a very handsome and industrious 
 town, with 3,500 inhabitants. Other notable towns are : Zaritzin (with 5,000 
 inhabitants), Petrovsk (with 7,000 inhabitants), Kamyshin (with 7,300 inhab 
 itants), Kusnetzk (with 10,700 inhabitants), and Wolsk (with 15,600 inhab- 
 itants). The government of Orenburg, the most extensive in European 
 Russia, contains among others : -|-Oufa, a city on the Bilaja (branch of the 
 Volga), eastward and 300 miles distant from Kasan, is the seat of a Mufti 
 for the Mohammedans in Russia, and has 1 3,000 inhabitants. Orenburg, a for- 
 tified city on the Ural river, north-eastward and 530 miles distant from As- 
 trachan, and south-eastward and 1,600 miles distant from St Petersburg, is 
 the emporium for the Russian trade with Central Asia, and at the same time 
 a chief military station in this quarter, and has 16,000 inhabitants. Uralsk, 
 formerly called Jaik, a fortified town on the Ural river, with important fish- 
 ery, considerable trade, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
 26* 
 
6 10 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of South Russia. 
 
 IX.— SOUTH RUSSIA. 
 
 Area : 189,570 square miles. 
 Population : 3,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 It embraces, for the most part, former territories of Turkey, 
 wrested from this power in the course of the last and in the 
 beginning of this century, and is divided into 6 governments 
 and provinces, which are to be described separately. 
 
 1. The government of Tauris. comprising the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea 
 proper), and the Nogyan Steppe. The former, or Crimea proper, consists 
 of a peninsula projecting into the Black Sea, and connected with the main 
 land only by an isthmus not more than four miles broad. The Tauric Moun- 
 tains (see page 8) are covered with valuable forests, and intersected with 
 beautiful and densely-peopled valleys. The peninsula in general is noted for 
 the fertility of its soil and the mildness of its climate. In the 6th century 
 before the Christian era, Greeks from Asia Minor began to establish colonies 
 in Crimea, where since flourishing commercial towns arose. Respectively 
 in 1774 and 1783, Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. It contains: 
 -J-Simferopol, a city at the northern foot of the Tauric Mountains, with 5 
 churches, 4 mosques, a seminary for Tartars, a botanic garden, and 8,600 in- 
 habitants. JBaktshisarai, once the capital of Crimea, in a romantic valley, 
 with a remarkable ancient palace of the Tartar Khans, who ruled the coun- 
 try, 32 mosques, 2 churches, manufactures of fire-arms and cutlery, and 
 12,800 inhabitants. Sevastopol, a city on a bay of the south-west coast, 
 is noted for one of the finest and most spacious harbors in Europe, where 
 the Russian fleets in the Black Sea have their chief station, and has 
 44,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is situated the maritime town of Ba- 
 laklava, with 2,000 inhabitants. Kaffa, or Feodosia, a maritime town on 
 the south coast, with several literary institutions, considerable fishery, and 
 7,000 inhabitants. Kaffa belonged in the period of 1262-1475 to the Gen- 
 oese, and was at that time a noted commercial city, with 80,000 inhabitants. 
 Karasu, a city in the centre of the peninsula, with noted leather and other 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 611 
 
 Geographical Description of South Russia. 
 
 manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Koslow, or Jewpatoria, a maritime 
 town on the west coast, with considerable commerce, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Other maritime towns are Jalta (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Kertsh (with 
 4,000 inhabitants). — The above-mentioned Nogayan Steppe (to which, for the 
 rest, the name of Crimea is frequently extended) contains: Nogayzg, the 
 chief place of the Nogayan Tartars, near the Sea of Azov, with 1,300 inhab- 
 itants. Aleshki, a fortified town on the Dnieper, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Berdjansk, a maritime town on the Sea of Azov, with considerable commerce, 
 and 8,000 inhabitants. 
 
 2. The government of Clierson, noted for the fertility of its soil contains : 
 -{-Chebson, a city on the Gulf of Liman (see page 12), with a commodious 
 harbor, where part of the Russian fleets in the Black Sea are stationed, a 
 very strong citadel, considerable industry and commerce, and 30,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Nikolajew, a city at the mouth of the Bog, with a fine harbor, which 
 is the third station of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, vast docks, hand- 
 some houses, and 29,600 inhabitants. Elisabethgrad (with 12,000 inhabitants), 
 Olviopol (with 2,600 inhabitants), Novo Mirgorod (with 2,500 inhabitants), and 
 Wosnosensk (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less notable towns. Odessa, a 
 commercial city on a bay of the Black Sea, is the Russian emporium in 
 this quarter, and at the same time one of the finest cities in Russia, with 
 80,000 inhabitants. In 1844 the exports of Odessa were at the value of 
 18,209,699 silver rubles, and the imports of the value of 5,870,986 rubles. 
 Odessa was founded in 1792. Oczakow, a town on the Gulf of Liman, was 
 formerly noted for its strong fortress, and had more than 50,000 inhabitants, 
 but was in 1788 taken by storm, and has since fallen greatly in decay. At 
 present it has only 4,600 inhabitants. Ovidiopol, Tiraspol, and Grigoriopol, 
 towns with respectively 3,000, 6,600, and 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The province of Bessarabia, separated from Moldavia (of which it formed 
 part until 1812) by the river Pruth, and from the government of Cherson 
 by the Dniester. This country is noted in ancient history by the name of 
 Scythian Desert, and for the abortive expedition of Darius against the Soyth- 
 ians in 514 B. C. The province of Bessarabia contains : -[-Kishenev, a city on 
 the Bikul river, eastward and 70 miles distant from Jassy (in Moldavia), is 
 noted for its culture of fruits, and has 43,000 inhabitants. Ismail, a forti- 
 fied city on the Danube, with numerous leather and other manufactures, con- 
 siderable commerce, and 22,000 inhabitants. Kilia, a fortified town at the 
 mouth of the Danube, with provision trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Akjer- 
 
6 12 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 
 
 Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of South Russia. 
 
 man, a fortified city at the mouth of the Dniester, with vine culture, fishery, 
 considerable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Reny (anciently called Dino- 
 getia), a fortified town at the mouth of the Pruth, with 6,000 inhabitants. 
 Other more or less remarkable towns are : Belzi (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Orghei (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chotin (with 11,100 inhabitants), and Soroka 
 (with 2,000 inhabitants). Bender, a fortified city on the Dniester, north- 
 westward and 70 miles distant from Odessa, with important leather manu- 
 factures, and 10,000 inhabitants. Charles XII. of Sweden lived here from 
 1709 to 1711. 
 
 4. The government of Jekaterinoslav, comprising only older Russian terri- 
 tories, contains: -(-Jekaterinoslav, a city on the Dnieper, 170 miles above 
 Cherson, with silk stocking and cloth manufactures, and 1 2,500 inhabitants. 
 Bachmut, a town on the Bachmuta, is noted for its horse-marts and tallow 
 trade, and has 4,000 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : 
 Alexandrowsk (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mariupol (with 3,700 inhabitants), 
 Nachitschewan (with 13,000 inhabitants), and St. Dmitria Rostovskaja (with 
 9,100 inhabitants), Azov, a town near the mouth of the Don, has at present 
 only 1,000 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important commercial 
 city. Taganrog, a city on the Sea of Azov, has 22,500 inhabitants, and is at 
 present the emporium for the trade with the provinces along the Don river. 
 On the 1st December, 1825, Emperor Alexander I. died here. 
 
 5. The land of the Cossacks of the Don, situated on both sides of this 
 river, on the east bounded by the kingdom of Astrachan. Its area is estimated 
 at 60,700 square miles, and the population at 640,500 inhabitants. The gen- 
 erally fertile soil is rather well cultivated, and even vine culture is carried on 
 extensively. About the Cossacks see above, page 580. Those of the Don 
 differ from other Cossacks (as, for instance, of the Ural, of Tshernomorsk, etc. 
 Cossacks), only by some attainments in industry, and a more general 
 diffusion of knowledge. -j-Nowoi-Tsherkask, at present their capital, is 
 situated near the Don, about 40 miles above Azov, has 18,000 inhabitants, 8 
 churches, a gymnasium, a literary society, various manufactures, trade, etc. 
 The former capital was Staroi Tsherkask (i. e. Old Tsherkask), situated on an 
 island of the Don, with 15,000 inhabitants, vine culture, considerable fishery, 
 and 7 churches, one of which is noted for its rich ornaments in gold, silver, 
 pearls, and precious stones. 
 
 6. The land of the Cossacks of Tshernomorsk (L e. of the Black Sea), on 
 tha Sea of Azov and the Strait of Jenikale (see page 10), formerly known by 
 
RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 613 
 
 Geographical Description of South Russia. 
 
 the name of Kuban, and annexed to Russia in 1782. It contains : -{-Jek.a.~ 
 terinador, a town on the Kuban river, southward and 150 miles distant 
 from Azov, with noted annual fairs, a gymnasium, and 3,000 inhabitants. 
 The island of Taman, lying before the mouth of the Kuban, was in aucient 
 times noted by the name of Phanagoria, and its chief town Tmutarakan 
 (with 1,000 inhabitants), was in the middle ages a flourishing commercial 
 city. 
 
THE IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 Area: 1,108 square miles. 
 Population : 220,000 inhabitants. 
 
 These islands, 7 in number, and lying in the Ionian Sea (see 
 page 10), at the entrance into the Adriatic, are an aristocratic 
 republic, under the protection of Great Britain, whose sovereign 
 appoints the lord high commissioner, who is at the head of the 
 government, or, properly said, the actual ruler. 
 
 The inhabitants are, for the most part, Greeks ; but beside 
 them are many Italians, English, etc. The Greek population is 
 divided into three classes, the nobility, burghers, and peasantry. 
 The nobility is not only possessed of nearly all the real estate, 
 but occupy also the higher political and ecclesiastical offices. 
 
 The surface of the islands is more or less mountainous ; earth- 
 quakes occur frequently ; the climate is unusually mild. The 
 soil is comparatively rich in the fruits and products of southern 
 Europe, especially in olives, currants, and vine. The rearing of 
 cattle is rather insignificant. — The fabricating industry is re- 
 stricted to some manufactures of silks, cottons, and linen. — The 
 commerce is very considerable; of currants alone, nearly 20,- 
 000,000 pounds are annually exported, -^The schools are in a 
 very good condition. In 18^3 a university was founded at Corfu, 
 which is frequented by 350 or 300 students annually ; and beside 
 it, there are 2 gymnasiums, more than 60 elementary schools, etc. 
 
 The government is, as has already been stated, an aristocratic 
 republic,, u,nder &e_ control of the British lord high commissioner. 
 
THE IONIAN ISLANDS. 615 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of the Islands. 
 
 The legislative power is vested in an assembly of 40 members 
 (11 of whom are life-members), and the executive power in a 
 senate composed of 6 members of the legislative assembly, and 
 a secretary of state, appointed by the lord high commissioner. 
 The public revenue was in 1838 to the amount of £157,989, but 
 is at present far less (by about £27,000). The public debt was 
 in the named year £154,450. — Beside 1,600 men of Greek mili- 
 tia, there are 4,000 men regular troops that are kept here by 
 Great Britain. Corfu is a chief station for the British fleets 
 in this part of the Mediterranean. 
 
 History. — In the flourishing days of ancient Greece, the Ionian islands 
 were independent states, and took little notice of what passed on the Greek 
 continent Subsequently they shared the latter's political fate, were sub- 
 jected by the Romans, and for a long period formed a constituent part of 
 the Eastern empire. In the 13th century the Neapolitans, and in the 14th 
 the Venetians took possession of them, and retained them until 1797, when 
 first the French, and in 1799 the then allied Russians and Turks occupied the 
 islands, which in 1800 were by Emperor Paul transformed into a republic, 
 under the protection of the Ottoman Porte. In 1807 the French took pos- 
 session of them again, but in 1815 the republic was restored and placed un- 
 der the protection of Great Britain. 
 
 The population stated in the following description of the 7 
 islands, is according to the census of 1846. The most northern 
 island is Corfu, and the most southern, Cerigo. 
 
 1. The island of Corfu (224 square miles, and 64,566 inhabitants), by 
 Homer called Phaeakia, but by the ancients generally named Corcyra. It 
 contains : Corfu, fortified capital of the whole group, and the residence of 
 the British lord high commissioner, with the above-mentioned university, a 
 gymnasium, considerable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Peritia, a town 
 with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 2. The island of Paxo (32 square miles, and 5,017 inhabitants), noted for 
 its extensive olive culture, containing : San Nikolo, or Porto Gai, chief town, 
 
616 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Ionian Islands. — Geographical Description of these Islands. 
 
 with 1,500 inhabitants. The neighboring isle of Antipaxo is very fertile in 
 grain and southern fruits, but only inhabited by fishermen. 
 
 3. The island of Santa Maura (181 square miles, and 18,676 inhabitants), 
 anciently called Leucadia, and productive in olive oil, wines, etc., contains : 
 Amaxichi, or Amakuki, chief town, with 14 churches, 2 monasteries, and 
 6,000 inhabitants. Porto Drapano has the finest harbor of the island. To 
 St. Alaura belong the little isles of Sessola and Meganisi. 
 
 4. The island of Cephalonia (35 li square miles, and 69,984 inhabitants), 
 is highly noted for its pleasant climate, and for the enterprising spirit of its 
 inhabitants, who rank among the best sailors in the Mediterranean. Chief 
 town is Argostoli, with a handsome convent of Franciscans, considerable 
 commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. Lixuri, a town, with vine culture, cotton 
 plantations, and 5,000 inhabitants. Livato, a town with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 
 5. The island of Theaei (43 square miles, and 10,821 inhabitants), an- 
 ciently known by the name of Ithaka, and at present noted for its excellent 
 wines, currants, and olives, containing : Vathi, chief town, with houses mostly 
 built of free-stone, considerable commerce, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 
 6. The island of Zante (159£ square miles, and 88,929 inhabitants) is the 
 most fertile of the whole group ; the annual produce in currants being esti- 
 mated at nearly 100,000 quintals, in wines at 10,000 hogsheads, and in olive 
 oil at 55,000 barrels ; beside oranges, and other southern fruits. Its capital, 
 Zante, is handsomely built (the dwelling-houses are 4 or 5 stories high), 
 carries on a very considerable commerce, and has 20,000 inhabitants. The 
 Strophades, or Strivali Isles, belonging to Zante, are likewise productive in 
 fruits, eta 
 
 7. The island of Ceeigo (117 square miles, and 11,694 inhabitants), lying 
 near the southern extremity of Morea, and anciently known by the name of 
 Gythera, has a fertile soil in the valleys of the interior, and contains : Kap~ 
 sali, or Cerigo, chief town, with no inconsiderable commerce, and 1,500 in- 
 liabitants. The isle of Cerigotto, with 300 inhabitants, belongs to Cerigo. 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 
 
 Area: 19,149 square miles. 
 Population : 1,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Lying at the south-eastern extremity of Europe, between the 
 Ionian Sea and the Archipelago (see page 10), it is on the north 
 bounded by European Turkey, of which it formed a constituent 
 part, in the period from 1458 to respectively 1827 and 1829. 
 
 As modern kingdom, it took existence in 1832, and, as such, it 
 comprises ancient Greece south of Thessaly and Epirus, together 
 with those islands in the Archipelago, called the Cyclades, and 
 the northern Sporades. 
 
 The inhabitants may be called descendants of the ancient 
 Greeks, just as well as the modern Italians might be called de- 
 scendants of the ancient Romans. But whether those renowned 
 people of antiquity would recognize their modern namesakes as 
 their genuine offspring, is another question, and at all events, 
 very doubtful. Without mentioning the gradual, and after the 
 first centuries of the Christian era, rapid and total degeneration 
 of the Greeks, it is an historical fact, that the country underwent 
 nearly as many vicissitudes as Italy ; and especially since the es- 
 tablishment of the Turkish sway, the Greek inhabitants have 
 been thus intermingled with Slavonian tribes, that they, except 
 the name, have nothing more in common with the ancient 
 Greeks. 
 
 The established religion is that of the Greek Church. There 
 are however, about 25,000 Roman Catholics, chiefly on the 
 islands. 
 
618 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Kingdom of Greece.— Its Natural Products, Commerce, etc. 
 
 Notwithstanding the prevailing mountainous character of the 
 surface, beautiful plains and districts with fertile soil are not 
 lacking. Five millions acres are computed as being adapted to 
 agriculture (the soil is however still badly cultivated) ; 1,750,000 
 acres as woodland ; 180,000 as vineyards, and 4,500 acres as cur- 
 rant-plantations. The number of olive-trees amounted in 1845, 
 to 723,101. — The number of black cattle was. in the same year, 
 only 110,114 heads; of horses (of small breed, but enduring), 
 84,723 ; of mules, 23,956 ; of common asses, 63,754 ; of hogs ; 
 78,292; of goats, 1,876,269, and of sheep, 2,442,769. The rear- 
 ing; of the silk-worm and of bees is considerable. 
 
 The manufactures are small in amount, and consist chiefly of 
 carpets, canvass, and morocco leather. 
 
 The more considerable is both the commerce and shipping. In 
 1840 the imports were at the aggregate value of $13,507,000, and 
 the exports at the value of $13,848,000. In 1841 were, among 
 other articles (as currants, olive-oil and wines, which are the chief 
 staples), exported figs to the value of $43,333 ; almonds to that 
 of $35,641 ; galls to that of $26,667 ; honey to that of $5,833 
 and raw silk to the value of about $167,000. The Greek mer 
 chant vessels amounted, in 1843, to 3,169 of the burthen of 137,508 
 tons, and were navigated by 19,000 men. In 1845 they had in 
 creased to 3,314, which were navigated by 40,000 men. The 
 Greeks are the best sailors in the Mediterranean, and in the art 
 of ship-building they are likewise highly skilled. 
 
 Until recent times, the means of education were in the most 
 miserable state, with the exception of some islands where several 
 British and American missionaries had their labor-field, an<? 
 founded several excellent schools. But in 1832, and the follow 
 ing years, a great many German scholars came to the country 
 and their endeavors for the general diffusion of knowledge anc 
 for school education, were soon met with the happiest success 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 619 
 
 Government, Finances, and History of Greece. 
 
 In 1837 a university was founded at Athens, on the same plan as 
 those of Germany ; and in 1841 it was already frequented by 292 
 students. Beside this university, a gymnasium was founded in 
 the same city ; 3 others are in Nauplia, Patras, and Syra. The 
 total number of secondary schools amounted, in 1846, to 37, and 
 that of primary schools to 301. 
 
 The government is a constitutional monarchy, and Prince Otho 
 of Bavaria (born on the 1st June, 1815, and brother of the 
 presently reiguing king of Bavaria) is the first king (since 1832). 
 
 According to the budget for 1845-46, the public revenue was 
 estimated at 14,486,300 drachms ($2,414,365), and the expendi- 
 ture at 14,786, 546 drachms ($2,464,405), thus with a deficit of 
 300,246 drachms (or $50,040). The public debt amounts to about 
 96,000,000 drachms (nearly $16,000,000). 
 
 The army consists of 4,060 men, and the navy of 33 vessels, 
 among which are 2 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 2 steamers, 12 gun- 
 boats, etc. 
 
 King Otho has, in 1845, instituted the Order of the Redeemer, 
 in 5 classes. 
 
 History. — The continental part of the present kingdom of Greece was in 
 antiquity called Hellas, and the peninsula of Morea known by the name of 
 Peloponnesus. In Hellas were Attica, Boeotia, and Aetolia — in the Pelopon- 
 nesus, Laconia, Messenia, Arcadia, and Achaia, the most remarkable states. 
 It would partly lead us too far, and partly be superfluous to enter into any 
 particulars of ancient Grecian history here ; and it may only be remarked, 
 that in 146 B. C. it was, when Greece was formally annexed to the Roman 
 empire. Since the year 395 A. D. forming a constituent part of the Eastern 
 empire, it shared its fate, and was in 1458 subdued by the Turks, under 
 whose sway it continued to be nearly four centuries. Several endeavors 
 made in the latter half of the last century to stir up the people, having 
 failed, it was not before 1821, when the first beginning of an insurrection 
 actually took place. The leaders behaved, however, with so little skill and 
 circumspection, that while the rage and fanaticism of the Turks were roused, 
 
620 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Kingdom of Greece.— Geographical Description of Greece. 
 
 nothing was won for the cause of the Greeks ; and the latter would have 
 succumbed if England, France, and Russia had not taken their part. First a 
 combined fleet of these powers destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of 
 Navarino, on the 20th October, 1827, and then a French body of troops 
 landed in Greece, and compelled the Turks to evacuate it In the peace con- 
 cluded at Adrianople on the 14th September, 1829, between Russia and the 
 Ottoman Porte, the independence of Greece was recognized by the latter. 
 Meanwhile Count Kapodistrias, a Greek from Corfu, and a distinguished 
 statesman, had in 1827 been elected president of the provisional Greek gov- 
 ernment, but on the 9th October, 1831, he was murdered by his own country- 
 men, who generally have but little conception of rational freedom. Upon 
 this Prince Otho, of Bavaria (see back), was elected hereditary king of 
 Greece. 
 
 The kingdom of Greece is divided into 10 provinces, styled 
 nomos, or nomarchies, which are subdivided into 47 districts, or 
 eparchies. Of the three principal sections of the kingdom, that 
 of Hellas, at present called Livadia, is divided into 3 nomos ; 
 Peloponnesus, or Morea, is divided into 5, and the Islands into 2 
 nomos. The capitals of the nomos will be found denoted with 
 this sign: +. 
 
 1. Livadia, or ancient Hellas, contains : -{-Athens, capital of the kingdom 
 and royal residence, near the Gulf of Egina, and in Attica, was, as is univer- 
 sally known, one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity, that lay subse- 
 quently for centuries almost in ruins, but is now reviving so rapidly, that it 
 in 1845 had a population of 31,700 inhabitants. It is laid out in conformity 
 to a regular plan, and contains, beside a magnificent royal palace, many 
 other handsome public edifices and private buildings ; a university (see 
 above), a military academy, a gymnasium, several other schools, 15 churches, 
 10 or 12 printing-offices, a theatre, hackney-coaches and stages, in short, 
 the various accessories of civilization. Athens carries on a considerable 
 commerce, and is by a fine road connected with its seaport Pyrdus (in 1842 
 with 450 houses, and 2,275 inhabitants). Megara, a town on the isthmus of 
 Corinth, and near the Gulf of Egina, with 2,000 inhabitants. In the just- 
 named gulf are situated the isles of Egina (21 square miles, and 11,000 in- 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 621 
 
 Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 
 
 habitants), and Salamis, or Koluri (32 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants). 
 LrvADiA, at present chief town of Boeotia, north-westward and 50 miles dis- 
 tant from Athens, with various branches of industry, and 6,000 inhabitants. 
 Not far from here is the village of Kaprena, anciently so renowned by the 
 name of Cheronea. The ancient capital of Boeotia, Thebes, bears at present 
 the name of Thiva, and has only 3,000 inhabitants. -j-Amphissa, or Salona, 
 a town near the Parnassus, and in the beautiful district of Lokris, north-west- 
 ward and 80 miles distant from Athens, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is at 
 present the capital of the nomos of Phthiotis (with Lokris) and Phokis. 
 On the Gulf of Lepanto is situated the commercial town of Galaxidi, with 
 2,000 inhabitants. Amurani, a town in a valley, with 1,500 inhabitants. 
 Lidoriki, a city on the Cephissus, west-north-west and 60 miles distant from 
 Thebes, with trade in olive oil, cotton and silk, and 15,000 inhabitants. In 
 the neighborhood is the village of Kastri, once renowned by the name of 
 Delphi. On the Gulf of Zeitun (that separates the northern extremity of 
 Negropont from the Greek continent) is situated the fortified commercial 
 town of Zeitun, or Lamia, with 4,000 inhabitants. Patradschik, or New Pa- 
 trae, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. Atalante, or Talanti, a town near the 
 Gulf of Talanti (that separates Negropont from the Greek continent), with 
 3,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the pass of Thermopylae. -+-Vrach- 
 ori (anciently Trichonium), at present the capital of the nomo3 of Aetolia 
 and Acarnania, north-westward and 28 miles distant from Lepanto, and 
 north-eastward and 18 miles distant from Missolonghi, with considerable 
 trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. Lepanto, or Naupaktos, a town on the Gulf of 
 Lepanto, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the victory the 
 Spaniards obtained here over the Turkish fleet in 1571. Missolonghi, a 
 fortified town on the Gulf of Patras, westward and 23 miles distant from 
 Lepanto, with considerable commerce, and 4,000 inhabitants. Dragomestre 
 (anciently Astakos), a maritime town on the Ionian Sea, with 1,500 inhab- 
 itants. Vonitza, a town on the Gulf of Arta, with 1,000 inhabitants. Not 
 far from here is the promontory, anciently called Actium, and noted for the 
 victory Octavianus obtained here in 31 B. C. 
 
 2. Mobka, or ancient Peloponnesus, contains : -[-Cobinth, once a magnifi- 
 cent city, with 300,000 inhabitants, is at present reduced to a town with 
 2,000 inhabitants. Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, a city on the gulf of 
 the same name, southward and 28 miles distant from Corinth, was until 
 1835 the capital of modern Greece, carries on a considerable commerce, 
 
622 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 The Kingdom of Greece. — Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 
 
 has 14,000 inhabitants, and contains many houses built in European style. 
 The neighboring town of Pronia, founded in recent times and considered 
 as the suburb of Nauplia, has already a population of 1 3,000 inhabitants. 
 Argos, a town north-westward and 7 miles distant from Nauplia, with 6,000 
 inhabitants. The isle of Spezzia has only 21 square miles in extent, but a 
 population of 7,000 inhabitants, who are considerably engaged in commerce 
 and shipping. The isle of Hydra (58£ square miles, and 30,000 inhabitants) 
 is noted not only for the enterprising spirit of its inhabitants, who are very 
 expert sailors, but also for its handsome city, one of the finest in Greece, 
 containing 50 churches and several other more or less magnificent public edi- 
 fices, and 18,000 inhabitants, who are much engaged in manufactures, and 
 carry on an extensive commerce. The isle of Poros, anciently Kalauria (21 
 square miles, and 3,000 inhabitants), has a harbor where part of the Greek 
 navy is stationed. On this isle it was, where Demosthenes poisoned himself 
 in 322 B. C. -j-Patras, or Patrae, a fortified capital of the nomos of Achaia 
 and Elis, near the entrance to the Gulf of Lepanto, opposite the Ionian 
 islands of Cephalouia and Ithaka, with extensive commerce, and 10,000 in- 
 habitants. Aegion, or Vostizza, a town on the Gulf of Lepanto, is noted for 
 its fruits, and has 2,000 inhabitants. KalavrHa, a town with 3,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Pyrgos, or Lctrini, a maritime town on the Ionian Sea, with 1,500 
 inhabitants (formerly and until 1325 with 10,000 inhabitants). -[-Arcadia, 
 at present called Kyparlssa, the capital of the nomos of Messenia, on the 
 Gulf of Arcadia, with considerable provision trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. 
 Phanari (anciently Phigalia), a town with 2,000 inhabitants. Androssa, a 
 maritime town with 1,500 inhabitants. Navariiw (anciently Pylos), a forti- 
 fied maritime town at the south-western extremity of Morea, has a very 
 spacious and commodious harbor, and 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for 
 the above-mentioned battle in 1827. Modon (anciently Mtthone), a fortified 
 maritime town, southward and 9 miles distant from Navarino, with 7,000 
 inhabitants. Koron, a fortified maritime town, with commerce, and 5,000 
 inhabitants. -(-Tripolizza, the capital of the nomos of Arcadia (not to be 
 confounded with the above-mentioned town of the same name), in the centre 
 of Morea, with 8,000 inhabitants. Karytene, a town in a valley, is noted for 
 its cattle, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Londari, a town, with 1,000 inhabi- 
 tants, -f Sparta, the capital of the nomos of Laconia, is founded recently 
 on the spot of ancient Sparta, and has already 6,000 inhabitants. Napoli di 
 
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 623 
 
 Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 
 
 Malvasia (anciently Epidanrus Limera), a maritime town, noted for its excel- 
 lent wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. 
 
 3. The principal Islands are the following : Negropont, anciently called 
 Euboza, has an extent of 1,480 square miles, and a population of 60,000 in- 
 habitants, has a fertile soil, and is in some places thickly wooded, and con- 
 tains : -\-Chalkis, or Egribos, the capital of the island, and of the nomos of 
 Euboea, with 6,000 inhabitants, and Karystos, a town with 2,000 inhabitants 
 The northern Sporades, belonging to this nomos, comprise the 4 isles of 
 Skyros (with 2,000 inhabitants), Skopelos (with 3,000 inhabitants), Skiathos 
 and Halonesus. The group of the Cyclades comprise 21 islands in the 
 Archipelago, the most remarkable of which are : The island of Syra (48 
 square miles, and 42,000 inhabitants), productive in grain, wine, olive-oil, 
 fruits, etc., and containing : -\-Hermopolis, a very important commercial city, 
 and in some respect the emporium of modern Greece, with 30,000 inhabitants. 
 The islands of Tinos, or Tenos (85 square miles, and 20,000 inhabitants), and 
 Andros (90 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), both noted for their silk, 
 fruits, wine, etc. The island of Milo (64 square miles, and 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants) productive in grain, cotton, fruits, etc., and containing the town of the 
 same name, with a very fine harbor, considerable commerce and shipping, 
 and 5,000 inhabitants.. The island of Paros (85 square mile?, an \ 3,000 in- 
 habitants), is noted for its fine marble. The little isle of Delos is at present 
 inhabited. The island of Naxia, or Naxos (106 square miles, and 14,000 in- 
 habitants), is noted for the fertility of its soiL The island of T/iera, or 
 Santorin (57 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), is noted for its excellent 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 
 
 Area : 209,422 square miles. 
 Population: 12,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 European Turkey comprises nearly the whole of the large 
 south-eastern peninsula of Europe, situated between the Adriatic 
 and the Black Sea, on the north bounded by the Austrian and 
 Russian empires, and on the south by Greece and the Archipel- 
 ago. (That the Turkish or Ottoman empire extends its sway 
 also over the western part of Asia, and nominally, even over 
 Egypt, etc., is a well-known fact ; we now, however, refer only to 
 Turkey in Europe.) 
 
 The ruling people are the Turks, or (as they call themselves 
 after their first sultan, Osman, who reigned from 1299 to 1326) 
 Osmanlis ; but they constitute only about one eighteenth of the 
 population, numbering little more than 700,000. They belong 
 to the Tartarian tribe, and have their primitive home in Turk- 
 istan. The majority of the population consists of Bulgarians 
 Bosniacs, Servians, Wallachians, and other Slavonic tribes, and 
 the remainder of Albanians (a mixed tribe, like the Greeks ; th< 
 latter are about 1,180,000, and the Albanians about 1,000,000 ii 
 number), Armenians (200,000), Jews (300,000), Gypsies (80,00 
 and Franks., as the foreigners from other European countries us. 
 to be called in Turkey (50,000). 
 
 In point of religion, not only the Turks, but also a great pai 
 of the Albanians, Bosniacs, and Bulgarians are Mohammedan 
 and the other nations (except the Jews and Gypsies) are Chn 
 tians of different denominations. 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 625 
 
 Natural Products, Manufactures, and Commerce. 
 
 For description of the mountains and rivers in European 
 Turkey, see pages 6, 15 and 16. 
 
 The climate is generally very mild and pleasant, and the soil, 
 with the exception of some mountainous districts, very fertile, 
 aud produces, though badly and negligently cultivated, far more 
 than what is required for home consumption. The products are 
 Indian corn, wheat, barley, and rice, cotton (in Macedonia are an- 
 nually about 70.000 bales produced), tobacco (of fine quality, es- 
 pecially in Macedonia, where the annual produce is at the value 
 of more than $250,000), and madder, poppy (very much in de- 
 mand to make opium of it), saffron, wine (in Wallachia and Mol- 
 davia, but also in other provinces), olives, and immense quantities 
 of timber, the northern and western provinces being covered with 
 extensive forests, among which the forest of Belgrad, beginning 
 in the neighborhood of Constantinople, has a length of 115 miles. 
 The horses are generally of very fine breed ; the same may be 
 said of the cattle, but less of the sheep, whose wool is, for the 
 most part, rather coarse ; hogs are only reared in the northern 
 provinces, as pork is prohibited by the Koran. Though the 
 mountains contain valuable ores, they are of no avail, as the min- 
 ing pursuits are neglected. Only in Servia the mines are wrought. 
 Salt is made in great quantities, especially in Moldavia and Wal- 
 lachia. 
 
 The manufactures are in some branches distinguished, especially 
 those of leather, carpets, and cotton goods. Ambelakia, Larissa, 
 etc., are noted for their dyeries in Turkish red. 
 
 The commerce is considerable, as well as the inland trade, but 
 the former is chiefly carried on by foreigners, and mostly confined 
 to the port of Constantinople, and the latter is in the hands of 
 Greeks, Armenians, Jews, etc. The principal articles of export 
 are cotton, grain, tobacco, silk, wines, mastich, galls, horses, and 
 cattle. The imports consist chiefly of manufactured goods. The 
 
 27 
 
626 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey— its Schools, Government, Army, etc. 
 
 chief commercial intercourse is entertained with Austria, Rus- 
 sia, Italy, Eugland, France, and the United States. 
 
 Among the Turks common school education is more widely ex- 
 tended than among the other nations in European Turkey. Some 
 years ago there were in Constantinople alone. 1,653 Mohammedan 
 elementary schools, beside 515 colleges, etc. On the 1st Sep- 
 tember, 1846, the sultan has founded a university on the plan 
 of other European institutions of the kind. Many Turks of the 
 better class have, in recent times, made their studies in Vienna, 
 Berlin, and Paris. 
 
 The government is absolutely despotic in form, but at present, 
 in consequence of the political reforms introduced by the late 
 sultan, as well as by the present, actually limited. The sovereign 
 is commonly called Sultan, or Grand Signior, sometimes also, 
 Turkish emperor. The prime minister is (or, properly said, was) 
 called the Grand Vizier, and the court of the sultan, the Porte, 
 or Sublime Porte. The Mufti is the chief interpreter of the law, 
 and ranks next in dignity to the sultan as is also the case with 
 the Grand Vizier. Governors of provinces are called Pachas or 
 Bashaws, and are of three different ranks, denoted by the num- 
 ber of horses' tails on their standard. 
 
 The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are estimated at 
 $10,000,000 to $15,000,000; and the public debt to about 
 $36,000,000. 
 
 Tbe regular army consists of 124,000 men, but it can, by the ir- 
 regular troops, be increased to 218.000 men. The navy consists 
 of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, and a certain number of other 
 vessels. 
 
 There are two Orders of honor, viz., 1. The order of Fame, in- 
 stituted in 1831, and in 4 classes; and 2. The order of the Cris- 
 cent, instituted in 1799, but at present seldom conferred upon 
 any one. 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 627 
 
 History of Turkey. 
 
 History. — Most of the Turkish provinces in Europe were anciently inhab- 
 ited by people, whom the Greeks comprised under the common term of Bar- 
 barians. Thessalia was frequently considered as belonging to ancient Greece ; 
 Macedonia had with the latter nothing in common, until the reign of King 
 Philip and of Alexander the Great. At an earlier period Greek culture had 
 been introduced in Epirus (Albania). All the other provinces were civilized 
 chiefly by the Romans, who since respectively 196 and 146 B.C., gradually 
 extended their sway over the whole peninsula that since the year 396 A. D., 
 formed the basis of the Eastern or Greek empire. The history, if not of this 
 empire in general, but of its court, is almost a continual succession of the 
 most horrible cruelties. Blinding, cutting off noses, cutting out tongues, 
 and similar barbarities followed the frequent revolutions of the state. 
 Meanwhile the Arabs wrested gradually all African and Asiatic provinces 
 from the empire. The Turks having, under their sultan, Osman (1299- 
 1326) and hi9 son and successor, Orchan, conquered Asia Minor, passed 
 over the Dardanelles, and took possession of Gallipoli, and subsequently 
 of other places and districts on the European side. Sultan Murad L (1360- 
 1389) made Adrianople his residence, and in 1453 (on the 26th May) Con- 
 stantinople, the last remnant of the Eastern or Greek empire, was con- 
 quered by Sultan Mohammed II. Henceforth the Turks were the terror 
 of Christian Europe, and in the 16th century they were at the height 
 of their power. But since they have been more and more declining, and 
 but for the jealousy between the European powers, they would have long 
 since been driven out from Europe. The presently reigning sultan is Abdul 
 Meshid, born on the 19th April, 1823, and on the throne since the 1st 
 July, 1839. 
 
 European Turkey is divided into 4 provinces, styled Ejalets, 
 w hich are subdivided into districts, styled Livas, or Sandjaks. 
 But a more natural and historical division, adopted by most 
 of the European geographers, is the following : I. Roumelia ; 
 II. Bulgaria; III. Macedonia; IV. Tliessalia ; V. The Islands ; 
 VI. Albania; VII. Bosnia; and VIII. Tributary Provinces. 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey.— The Province of Roumelia. 
 
 I —ROUMELIA. 
 
 It was anciently called Thracia, came in 71 B. C. under the 
 sway of the Romans, and contains : 
 
 Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman empire, and residence of the 
 sultan, is built on seven hills, and beautifully situated on the Bosphorus, 
 which here forms a fine harbor, with 88,000 houses and (according to the 
 census taken in 1844) 900,000 inhabitants, more than one half of whom are 
 Turks. The city appears magnificently at a distance, the gilded domes and 
 elegant minarets of its 485 mosques rising everywhere from the bosom of 
 beautiful groves ; but on entering the narrow, crooked, and ill-paved streets, 
 bordered by low and gloomy houses, the delusion soon vanishes. Some of 
 the mosques are superb structures, as those of Sultan Suleyman (reared in 
 the years 1550-55) and of Sultan Achmet (founded in 1610) ; but the most 
 remarkable is the mosque of St. Sophia, until the Turkish sway a Greek 
 cathedral, reared in the years 632-38 by Emperor Justinan I. Its cupola is 
 165 feet high, and rests on 110 pillars. The seraglio is an assemblage of 
 palaces, inhabited by the sultan and his court. Constantinople often suffers 
 from desolating fires, and from the plague. More than 2,000 merchant ves- 
 sels are annually visiting this port. The city is about 14 miles in circuit, and 
 has 18 suburbs, two of which (Scutari, one of them, has 60,000 inhabitants) 
 are situated on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. Gallipoli, a city on the 
 Dardanelles, and near the Sea of Marmora, is noted for its morocco leather, 
 carries on a considerable commerce, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Rodosto, a 
 city on the Marmora Sea, with vine culture, considerable commerce, and 
 16,000 inhabitants. Other cities or towns on this sea are Silivri (with 8,000 
 inhabitants), and Erekli, anciently Heraclea (with 3,000 inhabitants). The 
 Prince Isles in the Marmora Sea, 9 in number, are noted for their fertility 
 and beautiful sceneries, and have a total population of 5,000 inhabitants. 
 Enos and Kumurdshina, maritime towns, with respectively 8,000 and 12,000 
 inhabitants. Adrianople, the second city in European Turkey, on the Ma- 
 rissa, north-westward and 140 miles distant from Constantinople, with 10 
 churches, 40 mosques (among which are the superb mosques of Sultan Selim* 
 II. and Murad II), noted leather and other manufactures, considerable in- 
 land trade, 30,000 houses, and 140,000 inhabitants. In the period from 1 360 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 629 
 
 Geographical Description of Roumelia and Bulgaria. 
 
 to 1453 Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish Sultans, and on the 14th 
 September, 1829, a peace was concluded here between Russia and the Otto- 
 man Porte. Philippople, a city on the Marissa, with leather, silk, and other 
 manufactures, important inland trade, and 40,000 inliabitants. Other more 
 or less notable cities and towns are: Demotica (with 15,000 inhabitants), 
 Tatar Basardshik (with 10,000 inhabitants), Eskisagra (with 20,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Selimnia (with 20,000 inhabitants), Kirkilissa (with 16,000 inhabi- 
 tants), Sizeboli (with 8,000 inhabitants), Eskibaba (with 8,000 inhabitants), 
 and Burgas (on the Black Sea, with 5,000 inhabitants). 
 
 II— BULGARIA. 
 
 It was by the ancient Romans called Lower Moesia, is situated 
 between the Balkan and the Danube, has derived its name from 
 the Bulgarians, who, having their primitive seat between the 
 Volga and the Ural, immigrated here in the beginning of the 
 5th century, and contains : 
 
 Sophia (anciently Sardica), its capital, at the foot of a pass in the Balkan 
 Mountains, on the road from Constantinople to Belgrade, with 23 mosques, 
 noted leather and other manufactures, important inland trade, mineral baths, 
 and 50,000 inhabitants. Ternova, formerly the capital of Bulgaria, at present 
 the centre of its trade, is moreover noted for its rose oil and rose water, and 
 has 12,000 inhabitants. Widdin, a city and strong fortress, on the Danube, 
 at about 54 miles distance from the Hungarian Military Frontier (see above, 
 under the head of Austria), with 25,000 inhabitants. Nicopoli, a city on the 
 Danube, carries on a considerable trade with Wallachia and Moldavia, is 
 much engaged in vine culture, and has 10,000 inhabitants. In 1396 Sultan 
 Bajazet obtained here a victory over King Sigismund of Hungary. Sistova, 
 a city on the Danube, with considerable vine culture and. wine trade, and 
 21,000 inhabitants. Bustschuk, a city and fortress on the Danube, with noted 
 leather, linen, cotton, and other manufactures, considerable trade, and 
 30,000 inhabitants. Silistria, or Dristra, a city and fortress, on the Danube, 
 with considerable trade, and 20,000 inhabitants. Bassova, a fortified town 
 on the Danube, 40 miles below Silistria, with 8,000 inhabitants. Shumla, a 
 
630 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey.— The Provinces of Bulgaria and Macedonia. 
 
 fortified city at the foot of the principal pass into the Balkan Mountains, 200 
 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, and 220 miles east-south-east of 
 Widdin, with various branches of industry, silk manufactures, considerable 
 inland trade, and 30,000 inhabitants. Ratzgrad, or Hesargrad, a fortified 
 city on the Lorn river, with 16,000 inhabitants. Varna, a fortified city on 
 the Black Sea, 180 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, with a very 
 commodious harbor, highly important commerce, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
 Mangalia (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Kostandshi (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
 maritime towns on the Black Sea. Basardshik and Babadagh, cities with 
 respectively 12,000 and 1 0,000 inhabitants. Hirsova, or Kersova, a town on 
 the Danube, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
 
 III.— MACEDONIA. 
 
 Between Roumelia and Thessalia, is the finest province of 
 European Turkey, surpassing in fertility of the soil even the 
 island of Sicily, and contains : 
 
 Salonica, anciently Thessalonica, its capital, on the gulf of the same name, 
 is next to Constantinople the most important seaport in European Turkey, 
 with many Roman and Greek antiquities, noted dyeries and manufactures, 
 extensive commerce, and 70,000 inhabitants. The primitive name of the 
 city was Halia, or Therma, and its subsequent name is derived from that of 
 Alexander the Great's sister, Thessalonica. Philip and Alexander of Mace- 
 donia did not, however, reside here, but in Pella, at present called Jenidshe. 
 Vardar, a town north-westward and 30 miles distant from Salonica, is noted 
 for its tobacco, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Vodina, anciently JSdessa, a city 
 on the Vistritza, north-westward and 42 miles distant from Salonica, with 
 12,000 inhabitants. Near the frontier of Roumelia is situated the fortified 
 town of Drama, noted for its tobacco, with 8,000 inhabitants. The neigh- 
 boring village of Filibe was anciently noted by the name of Philippi, where 
 in 42 B. C. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antonius and Octavianus, 
 and where at a later period St. Paul preached the gospel (Acts xvi. 12, 13, 
 etc.). Near the frontier of Roumelia is also situated Kavala, a town Avith 
 8,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of Mehemet Ali, the late 
 pacha of Egypt, and is noted for its tobacco. Seres, a city on the Strymon, 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. C31 
 
 Geographical Description of Macedonia, Thessalia, and the Islands. 
 
 and in a district noted for its cotton plantations, with cotton manufactures, 
 considerable commerce, and 30,000 inhabitants. Or/an, a maritime town on 
 the Gulf of Contessa, with important trade in cotton, and 3,000 inhabitants. 
 Between here and Salonica is the remarkable mount Athos, with numerous 
 Greek convents, churches, and chapels. Karaveria, or Veria (anciently Be- 
 roea), a city on the Ferina, with 8,000 inhabitants. Kostendil, a city at the 
 southern foot of the Balkan, with warm sulphur baths, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
 
 IV.— THESSALIA. 
 
 It is situated between Macedonia and the kingdom of Greece, 
 has an area of 3.514 square miles, and more than 300,000 Greek 
 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their industry, and con- 
 tains : 
 
 Larissa, its capital, on the Peneus, or Salambria river, 80 miles from the 
 Gulf of Salonica, with noted dyeries and manufactures, vine culture, con- 
 siderable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Ambelakia, a town at the en- 
 trance into the romantic valley of Tempe, with dyeries in Turkish red, trade 
 in cotton, and 4,000 inhabitants. IWnovo, a town on the Salambria, and in 
 the valley of Tempe, with cotton and silk manufactures, and 4,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Trikala, a city on the Salambria, with dyeries in Turkish red, and 
 12,000 inhabitants. Farsa, anciently Pharsalus, a town in a well-cultivated 
 plain, southward and 24 miles distaut from Larissa, has 5,000 inhabitants, 
 and is noted in history for the victory Caesar obtained here over Pompejus in 
 48 B. C. Vblo, a maritime town on the Gulf of Volo, with corn and silk 
 trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
 
 V.— THE ISLANDS. 
 
 The islands in the Archipelago and in the Mediterranean, 
 which are considered as belonging to European Turkey, are the 
 following : 
 
 1. The island of Candia, anciently known by the name of Creta, is situated 
 in the Mediterranean, near the entrance into the Archipelago, and has an ex- 
 
632 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey.— The Turkish Islands and Albania. 
 
 tent of 4,008 square miles, and a population of 140,000 inhabitants, one half 
 of whom consists of Turks, and the remainder of Greeks (among them about 
 8,000 Sphakiotes), Armenians, Jews, and 6,000 Abadiotes (of Arabian origin). 
 The island is very productive, especially in cotton, olive oil, wine, fruits, 
 grain, etc. The island came in 68 B. C. under the sway of the Romans, and 
 in 823 A. D. under that of the Arabs. Subsequently it often changed hands, 
 until in 1 669 the Turks became possessed of it. Its fortified capital, Candia, 
 is situated on the northern coast, and has 12,000 inhabitants. The ancient re- 
 nowned city of Kydonia bears at present the name of Canea, carries on a 
 considerable commerce, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Rettimo, anciently 
 Rhitymna, a maritime town, with 6,000 inhabitants. /Sphakia, a town noted 
 for its vine culture, has 1,800 inhabitants. — 2. The island of Lemnos (160 
 square miles, and 8,000 inhabitants) is situated in the Archipelago, opposite 
 the coast of Macedonia, is also called Stalimene, and is noted for the Lemnian 
 earth. — 3. The island of Thasos, or Taso (85 square miles, and 6,000 inhab- 
 itants), near the coasts of Macedonia and Roumelia, is noted for its wines and 
 marble. — 4. The island of Samothraki, anciently Samothracia (36 square 
 miles, and 1,500 inhabitants), has fertile valleys and an industrious popula- 
 tion. — 5. The island of Imbro, or Imbros (85 square miles, and 4,000 inhab- 
 itants), is wooded, with fertile valleys. 
 
 VI.— ALBANIA. 
 
 It was anciently called Epirus, and is situated along the Ionian 
 and Adriatic Seas. Having been ruled for several centuries by 
 native kings, Epirus was, in 148 B. C. annexed to the Roman 
 empire, and in the latter half of the 15th century it was con- 
 quered by the Turks. Concerning the Albanians, see back. Alba- 
 nia contains : 
 
 Scutari, its capital, on a lake of the same name, at 14 miles distance from 
 the Adriatic, south-eastward and 270 miles distant from Zara (in Dalmatia), 
 is the centre of the inland trade of Albania and Bosnia, and has 20,000 in- 
 habitants. Durazzo, anciently Dyrrachium, a maritime town on the Adriatic, 
 with considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less nota- 
 ble maritime towns on the Adriatic are : Dulcigno, or Olgun (with 6,000 in- 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 633 
 
 Geographical Description of Albania and Bosnia. 
 
 habitants), Antivari (with 6,000 inhabitants), Croja (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
 Alezsio (with 3,000 inhabitants), Avlona or Valona (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
 Butrinto (with 1,800 inhabitants), Delvino (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
 Parga (with a strong fortress, and 4,000 inhabitants). Prevesa, a fortified 
 town on the Gulf of Arta, with provision trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Arta, 
 a maritime town near the Gulf of the same name, with commerce and inland 
 trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Joanina, a fortified town in the interior, and 
 on a lake, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from the Gulf of Arta, has at 
 present only 5,000 inhabitants, but had, in the time when Ali Pacha (who 
 was executed in 1822) resided here, a population of 40,000 inhabitants. 
 Ochrida, a town near the frontier of Macedonia, with 6,500 inhabitants. Per- 
 serin, a town at the foot of a mountain pass, is noted for its strong fortress, 
 and has 5,000 inhabitants. Herat, or Arnaut Beligrad, a city in a fertile 
 plain, with 11,000 inhabitants. Argyrokastro, or JErgi Kastri, a town noted 
 for its snuff, has 4,000 inhabitants. The most northern part of Albania is 
 known by the name of Montenegro, and inhabited by a people that belong 
 to the Slavonic tribe, and enjoy several substantial political privileges. 
 
 VII— BOSNIA. 
 
 It comprises the north-western part of European Turkey, did, 
 in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Pan- 
 noma, is for the most part inhabited by the Bosniacs, who belong 
 to the Slavonic tribe, and who already, in the 9th century, were 
 settled here. Many of them are Mohammedans, but the majority 
 consists of Greek Christians. In the 12th century Bosnia came 
 under the sway of Hungary, but since the year 1376 it was an 
 independent kingdom, until in 1528, the Turks conquered it. It 
 contains : 
 
 Bosna Serai, its capital, situated in the centre of the province, south- 
 westward and 130 miles distant from Belgrade, is the emporium of Bosnia, 
 and has 68,000 inhabitants. The neighboring villages of Visoko and Varesh 
 are noted for their iron-works and mines. Travnik, a city on the Lashva, 45 
 miles west-north-west of Bosna Serai, with 12,000 inhabitants. Banjaluka, 
 
 27* 
 
634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey.— Geographical Description of Bosnia and Servia. 
 
 a strongly fortified city on the Verbas, with mineral springs, considerable 
 trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. Zwornik, or Swornik, a strongly fortified city 
 on the Drina, with considerable inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants. Jaitza, 
 a town with 2,000 inhabitants. Bihacz (with 3,000 inhabitants), Biograd, or 
 Beligrad. (with 2,500 inhabitants), Dubitza (with 6,000 inhabitants), Berbir, 
 or Turkish Gradisca (with 1,000 inhabitants), Stari Maidar (with 4,000 in- 
 habitants), and Kamengrad (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less notable 
 towns in that part of the province, which is sometimes called Turkish 
 Croatia. The cities and towns of Mostar (with 10,000 inhabitants), Potshi- 
 tatz (with 12,000 inhabitants), Gabela (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nevesigna 
 (with 3,000 inhabitants), Livno (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Trebigno (with 
 10,000 inhabitants), are situated in that part of the province, which frequently 
 is called Herzegovina, or Turkish Dalmatia. 
 
 VIII.— TRIBUTARY PROVINCES. 
 
 They consist of the three mediate principalities of Servia,, 
 Wallachia, and Moldavia, forming the north-western and north- 
 ern section of European Turkey. They are governed by their 
 own princes, who are, as nearly all inhabitants, Greek Christians, 
 and are independent in local affairs, except that they, as nominal 
 vassals of the Porte, pay an annual fixed tribute to the sultan. 
 
 1. Servia (12,780 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), situated along 
 the right bank of the Danube, between Bulgaria and Bosnia, was, by the an- 
 cient Romans, named Upper Moesia, and its population consists mostly of 
 Servians proper, who belong to the Slavonian tribe, and to the Greek church. 
 Servia was since the 10th century an independent kingdom, but respectively 
 in 1389 and 1449, the Turks took possession of it. The Servians were long 
 since tired of the Turkish sway, when, in 1801, one of them, named Czerny 
 Georg, incited them to open revolt, in which they for the present failed ; yet 
 finally they succeeded in so far, that foreign powers interfered in their favor, 
 especially Russia, that induced the Porte, in 1815, to grant to Servia the 
 privileges it enjoys now (see above). The annual tribute it has to pay to the 
 sultan is fixed at about $18,600 annually. The reigning mediate prince since 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 635 
 
 Geographical Description of Servia and Wallachia. 
 
 1843, is Alexander Kara Georgetoitch, a relation of the above-mentioned 
 Czerny Georg. Servia is a very fertile country, and carries on an extensive 
 and considerable inland trade, especially with Austria. It contains : Bel- 
 grade, strongly fortified capital, on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, 
 opposite the Austrian city of Semlin, is the Turkish emporium in this quarter, 
 is at the same time noted for its numerous manufactures, and has 30,000 in- 
 habitants. Kraoujewatz, fortified town and residence of the reigning prince, 
 on a branch of the Morava river, 120 miles south-south-east of Belgrade, with 
 2,500 inhabitants. Topola, a village remarkable as the birth and burial- 
 place of the above-mentioned Czerny Georg, who was born in 1770, and in 
 1817 seized by the Turks and beheaded. Schabacz, a fortified town on the 
 Save, westward and 60 miles distant from Belgrade, with vine culture, con- 
 siderable inland trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Semendria, a fortified city on 
 the Danube, 18 miles below Belgrade, was anciently the residence of the 
 kings of Servia, is noted for its excellent wines and considerable trade, and 
 has 10,000 inhabitants. Eastward and 14 miles distant from here, is situated 
 near the Danube, the fortified town of Passarovitz (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
 noted in history for the treaty concluded here in 1718, between Austria and 
 Turkey. Poretsh, a fortified town on an island of the Danube, with vine cul- 
 ture, and 3,000 inhabitants. Usicza, a fortified town in a mountainous dis- 
 trict, with a gymnasium, a public kbrary, considerable trade, and 14,000 in- 
 habitants. Other fortified towns are: Waljewo (with 4,500 inhabitants), 
 Novibasar, or Jenibazar (with 15,000 inhabitants), Jagodina (with 3,000 in- 
 habitants), and Nixm (with 10,000 inhabitants). Pristina, a fortified town, 
 near the frontier of Albania and Macedonia, 170 miles south-south-east of 
 Belgrade, is noted in history as the birth-place of the Greek emperor, Justinian 
 L (who reigned from 527 to 565), and has 10,000 inhabitants. Northward 
 from here extends a fertile plain, by European historians commonly called 
 Blackbird Field, being remarkable in history for two decisive battles won by 
 the Turks in 1389 and 1449. Orsova, or New Orsova (to distinguish it from 
 Austrian Orsova, see page 534), a fortress on an island of the Danube, oppo- 
 site the just-mentioned Austrian market- town. 
 
 2. Wallachia (27,690 square miles, and 2,188,000 inhabitants), situated 
 along the left bank of the Danube, between Transylvania and Bulgaria, did, 
 in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Dacia (see 
 History of Hungary), and is chiefly inhabited by Wallachians proper, a pecu- 
 liar mixed people, tliat, however, in substance belong to the Slavonic tribe, 
 
EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 European Turkey. — Geographical Description of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
 
 and to the Greek church. Wallachia having changed hands in the earlier 
 period of the middle ages, was since the 13th century ruled by native princes, 
 but in 1386, subjected to the sovereignty of Poland, and in 1529, to that of 
 the Porte. The Poles tried frequently to re-conquer Wallachia, and finally 
 they renounced their claims upon it, by the treaty concluded at Carlowitz in 
 1699. The sultan allowed, however, the country to be ruled by native 
 princes, as formerly, though he appointed them arbitrarily. By the media- 
 tion of Russia, however, the political condition of Wallachia is settled on 
 similar terms and principles as in Servia, moreover, with the prerogative 
 that no Turk is permitted to settle in Wallachia. The reigning princes, 
 styled Hospodars, are appointed for lifetime, and the tribute which they pay 
 to the sultan is fixed at about $15,000 annually. In 1843 George Demetrius 
 Bibesco was appointed prince, or hospodar. Wallachia carries on a very con- 
 siderable trade and commerce, and its public revenues are estimated at nearly 
 $1,000,000. It contains : Bukarest, its capital and princely residence, on 
 the Dumbewitza, 300 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, has 100,000 
 inhabitants, and many stately public edifices and palaces, but is upon the 
 whole a dirty city, built in a swamp, and its streets, instead of being paved 
 in the usual way, are covered with planks and trunks. Yet its commerce 
 and trade, especially in corn, wool, tallow, wax, etc., is very extensive. Tir- 
 govist (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kimpolung (with 4,000 inhabitants), Buseo 
 with 4,500 inhabitants), Pitest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Rimnik (with 
 3,000 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Fokshan, a town on the 
 frontier of Moldavia (to which belongs one half of it), with noted vine cul- 
 ture, considerable cattle and corn trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Braila, or 
 Jbrahil, a fortified commercial city on the Danube, north-eastward and 96 
 miles distant from Bukarest, with considerable commerce, and 30,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Giurgewo, a fortified city on the Danube, southward and 38 miles dis- 
 tant from Bukarest, with considerable inland and transit trade, and 18,000 in- 
 habitants. Krajova, a city on the Shy 11 river, westward and 125 miles 
 distant from Bukarest, has 10,000 inhabitants, who carry on a rather ex- 
 tensive inland trade, and is the chief place of the so-called Little Wallachia. 
 3. Moldavia (12/780 square miles, and 1,500,000 inhabitants), situated on 
 the north side of Wallachia, separated by the Pruth river from Russia, in 
 the days of the ancient Romans formed a constituent part of Dacia (see Wal- 
 lachia), and is chiefly inhabited by Moldavians proper (of nearly the same 
 origin as the WaUachians), but beside them by many Jews, Gypsies, Hunga- 
 
EUROPEAN TURKEY. 637 
 
 Geographical Description of Moldavia. 
 
 rians, Servians, Bulgarians, Armenians, Poles, Russians, and Germans. Most 
 of the inhabitants are Greek Christians. The soil is very fertile, but negli- 
 gently cultivated. The rearing of black cattle and horses, together with vine 
 culture, is, however, carried on to a rather great extent. The inland trade is 
 almost as considerable as in Wallachia. With regard to history, Moldavia 
 underwent nearly the same vicissitudes as Wallachia ; and its political condi- 
 tion is likewise similar to that of the latter. In 1834 Prince Michael Stourdza 
 was appointed Hospodar. Moldavia contains : Jassy, its capital and princely 
 residence, about 200 miles north-north-east of Bukarest, with a stately 
 princely palace, 2 Lutheran and Catholic, and 43 Greek churches and 
 chapels, dirty and unpaved streets, considerable inland trade, however, and 
 noted annual fairs, and 60,000 inhabitants. Galacz, a commercial city on the 
 Danube, at its junction with the Pruth, is in some respects to be considered 
 as the emporium of Moldavia and Wallachia, and has 36,000 inhabitants. 
 Roman, a town on the Sereth, with 1,500 inhabitants. Botushan, or Bot- 
 toshani, a town on a river of the same name, with considerable inland trade, 
 noted annual fairs, and 4,000 inhabitants. Okna, a town noted for its rock- 
 salt mines. Dorohoe, a town, 76 miles north-north-west of Jassy, with 8,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aacta, 338 
 
 Aachen, 489 
 
 Aahaus, 483 
 
 Aakirke, 550 
 
 Aalborg, 552 
 
 Aalborghuus, 552 
 
 Aalen, 336 
 
 Aalst, 280 
 
 Aarau, 156 
 
 Aarberg, 159 
 
 Aarburg, 156 
 
 Aardenburg, 271 
 
 Aargau, 156 
 
 Aarhuus, 552 
 
 Aarde, 557 
 
 Aarwangen, 158 
 
 Abadiotes, 632 
 
 Abbano, 541 
 
 Abbeville, 188 
 
 Abenberg, 322 
 
 Abensberg, 316 
 
 Aberbrothik, 252 
 
 Aberconway, 246 
 
 Aberdeen, 252 
 
 Aberdeenshire, 252 
 
 Abergavenny, 240 
 
 Abernethy, 253 
 
 Aberystwith, 216 
 
 Abo, 598 
 
 Abundance, 109 
 
 Abrantes, 72 
 
 Abrudbanya, 531 
 Abruzzi, 5, 143 
 
 Abruzzo, 143 
 
 Abtsgemund, 335 
 
 Acarnania, 621 
 
 Acerenza, 145 
 
 Acerra, 142 
 
 Achaia, 622 
 
 Acher, 338 
 
 Achern, 341 
 
 Achtyrka, 594 
 
 Aci Reale, 148 
 
 Acquapendente 133 
 
 Acquaria, 119 
 
 Acquaviva, 136 
 
 Acqui, 110 
 
 Ac! in m, 621 
 
 Adda, 15 
 
 Addiscorabe, 235 
 
 Adelsberg, 5 1 1 
 
 Adelsheim, 344 
 
 Adige, 15 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Adolphseck, 362 
 
 Adolzfurth, 337 
 
 Adorf, 384 
 
 Adour, 16 
 
 Adria, 541 
 
 Adrianople, 628 
 
 Adriatic Sea, 10 
 
 Aegades, 147 
 Aegadian Islands, 147 
 
 Aegeri, 168 
 
 Aegion, 622 
 
 Aelen, 168 
 
 Aeolian Islands, 148 
 
 Aeioe, 557 
 
 Aeroeskjobing, 557 
 
 Aerschot, 278 
 
 Aerzen, 436 
 
 Aetolia, 621 
 
 Affenthal, 341 
 
 Affoltern, 169 
 
 Aurde, 220 
 
 Agen, 215 
 
 Agenois, 215 
 
 Aggerhuus, 576 
 
 Agincourt, 189 
 
 Aglie, 108 
 
 Agno, 165 
 
 Agnone, 145 
 
 Agordo, 542 
 
 Agosta, 148 
 
 Agrapha Mts., 6 
 
 Agrigent, 147 
 
 Agram, 529 
 
 Ahlden, 437 
 
 Ahrweiler, 488 
 
 A h .in. 212 
 
 Ai, 192 
 
 Aichach, 315 
 
 Aichstetten, 334 
 
 Aigle, 168 
 
 Aigueperse, 213 
 
 Aiguesbelles, 109 
 
 Aigues Mortes, 221 
 
 Aiguillon, 215 
 
 Ailb.ru 109 
 
 Ailly, 186 
 
 Ailsa, 252 
 
 JAime, 110 
 A in Department, 201 
 [Aire, 189,217 
 
 Airolo, 165 
 Aisne Department, 185 
 
 iAbc, 223 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Uix (in Savoy), 109 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 489 
 
 Ajaccio, 225 
 
 Ajuda, 71 
 
 lAken, 478 
 {Akjerraan, 611, 612 
 
 iAlagna, 111 
 
 Alais. 221 
 
 Aland, 599 
 
 Aland Isles, 598 
 Alans, 23,24 
 Aliiric, king of 
 
 the Visigoths, 24 
 
 Alassio, 113 
 
 Alava, 98 
 
 Alba, 108 
 
 Albacete, 94 
 
 Alba de Tonnes, 90 
 
 Albania, 632 
 
 Albanians, 624 
 
 Albano, 132 
 
 Albarracin, 94 
 
 Albenga, 113 
 
 Albert the Bear, 462 
 
 Albertville, 109 
 
 Albigenses, 220 
 
 Albigeois, 220 
 
 Albizola, 113 
 
 Alboin, 28 
 Albret, 216, 217 
 
 Albufeira, 74 
 
 Alby, 220 
 Alcala de Henares, 87 
 
 Alcala la Real, 93 
 
 Alcamo, 146 
 
 Alcailiz, 94 
 
 Alcantara, 91 
 
 Alcaraz, 88 
 
 Alcaudete, 93 
 
 Alcira, 96 
 
 Alcobaca, 72 
 
 Alcoy, 96 
 
 Alcudia, 96 
 
 Alderney, 247 
 
 Alegria, 97 
 
 Alemtejo, 73 
 
 Alencon, 187 
 
 Aleria, 225 
 
 Ales, 114 
 
 Aleshki, 611 
 
 Alessio, 633 
 
 Alet, 220 
 
 Alessandria, HI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alexandrowsk, 612 
 
 Aiexisbad, 404 
 
 Alfaques, 95 
 
 Alfeld, 439 
 Alfred the Great, H 
 
 Algarve, 73 
 
 Algesheim, 356 
 
 Algeziras, 92 
 
 Alghero, 114 
 
 Alghieri, 114 
 
 Alhama, 93 
 
 Alhambra, 93 
 
 Alicante, 96 
 
 Alicata, 147 
 
 Alkmaar, 269 
 
 Allemanni, 298 
 
 Allemont, 222 
 
 Allendorf, 370 
 Allendorf an der 
 
 Lumda, 357 
 
 Allenstein, 496 
 
 Aller, 17 
 
 Allstedt, 388 
 
 Allier, 15 
 All ier Departmen t,2() 1 
 
 Allingsos, 572 
 
 Alloa, 251 
 
 Allobrogi, 161 
 
 Allodium, 35 
 
 Alloway, 251 
 
 Almada, 72 
 
 Almaden, 88 
 
 Almagro, 88 
 
 Almansa, 94 
 
 Almaraz, 91 
 
 Almeida, 72 
 
 Almelo, 272 
 
 Almeria, 94 
 
 Alnwick, 244 
 
 Alost, 280 
 
 Alp, 7 
 
 , Franconian, 7 
 
 , Rauhe, 7 
 
 , Rough, 7 
 
 , Swabian, 7 
 
 Alpirspacb, 333 
 
 Alpnach, 166 
 
 Alps, 4 
 
 Alpujarras, 5 
 
 Alsace, 196 
 
 Alsen, 557 
 
 Alsfeld, 357 
 
 Alsheim, 356 
 
640 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGK| 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alstahaug, 578 
 
 Androssa, 
 
 622 
 
 Arc en Barrois, 
 
 202 
 
 Arpadians, 
 
 522 
 
 Alster, 17 
 
 Androssan, 
 
 250 
 
 Archangel, 
 
 593 
 
 Arpino, 
 
 142 
 
 Alta Comba, 109 
 
 ;Andujar, 
 
 93 
 
 Arch-duchy of 
 
 
 Arran, 
 
 252 
 
 Altamura, 144 
 
 Anduze, 
 
 221 
 
 Austria, 
 
 508 
 
 Arras, 
 
 189 
 
 Alt-Breisach, 345 
 
 i Anet, 
 
 185 
 
 Archettes, 
 
 195 
 
 Arrde, 
 
 557 
 
 Alt-Bruchhausen, 436 
 
 Angerburg, 
 
 497 
 
 Archipelago, 
 
 10 
 
 Arroux, 
 
 15 
 
 Altdorf, 321 
 
 Angermanland, 
 
 574 
 
 Arcis sur Aube, 
 
 191 
 
 Arta, 
 
 633 
 
 Altena, 485 
 
 Angermiinde, 
 
 466 
 
 Arcona, 
 
 471 
 
 Arth, 
 
 164 
 
 Alteuau, 444 
 
 Angers, 
 
 207 
 
 Arcos de la Fron- 
 
 Artlenburg, 
 
 437 
 
 Altenberg, 381 
 
 Angles, 
 
 25 
 
 tera, 
 
 92 
 
 Artois, 
 
 189 
 
 Altenbruch, 438 
 
 Anghiari, 
 
 124 
 
 Ardeche, 
 
 15 
 
 Ascania, 
 
 402 
 
 Alienburg, 396 
 
 Anglesea, 
 
 246 
 
 Ardeche Depart- 
 
 
 Ascanianova, 
 
 406 
 
 Altenryf, 159 
 
 Angouleme, 
 
 211 
 
 ment, 
 
 221 
 
 A8Chaffenburg, 
 
 323 
 
 Altensteig, 333 
 
 Angoumais, 
 
 211 
 
 Ardee, 
 
 257 
 
 Aschersleben, 
 
 478 
 
 Althaldensleben, 477 
 
 Angra, 
 
 75 i Ardennes, 
 
 6 
 
 A8Coli, 
 
 134 
 
 Althorp, 241 
 
 Angus, 
 
 252 
 
 Ardennes Depart- 
 
 A8Coli di Satriano, 144 
 
 Alt-Katzenellnbo- 
 
 Anhalt, ancestral 
 
 ment, 
 
 192 
 
 Ascona, 
 
 165 
 
 gen, 364 
 
 castle of, 
 
 404 
 
 Ardres, 
 
 189 
 
 Asele, 
 
 575 
 
 Altkirch, 199 
 
 Anhalt, duchies of, 402 
 
 Arelatian king- 
 
 
 Ash ton under Line,243 
 
 Altkonig, 8 
 
 Anhalt-Bernburg, 403 
 
 dom, 
 
 200 
 
 Askersund, 
 
 569 
 
 AU-Landsberg, 465 
 
 Anhalt-Cothen, 
 
 405 
 
 Aremberg, 
 
 442 
 
 Asmannshausen 
 
 363 
 
 Altmark, 477, 478 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, 
 
 404 
 
 Aremberg-Mep- 
 
 
 Asperg, 
 
 331 
 
 Altmiihl, 16 
 
 Anholt, 
 
 483 
 
 pen, 
 
 442 
 
 Asperen, 
 
 270 
 
 Altnacht, 166 
 
 Anholt (isle of), 
 
 553 
 
 Arendal, 
 
 577 
 
 Aspern, 
 
 509 
 
 Altomonte, 145 
 
 Anjou, 
 Ankum, 
 
 206 
 
 Arendonk, 
 
 279 
 
 Assen, 
 
 273 
 
 Altona, 418 
 
 441 
 
 Arendsee, 
 
 478 
 
 Assenheim, 
 
 357 
 
 Altorf, 166 
 
 Annaberg, 
 
 383 
 
 Arensburg, 
 
 597 
 
 Assens, 
 
 551 
 
 Alt-Strelitz, 412 
 
 Annan, 
 
 250 
 
 Arens de Mar, 
 
 95 
 
 Assisi, 
 
 133 
 
 Altvater, 6 
 
 Anana, 
 
 98 
 
 Arenzano, 
 
 112 
 
 Astakos, 
 
 621 
 
 Aluta, 16 
 
 Annecy, 
 
 109 
 
 Arevalo, 
 
 89 
 
 Asti, 
 
 108 
 
 Alzey, 356 
 
 Annonay, 
 
 221 
 
 Arezzo, 
 
 124 
 
 Astorga, 
 
 89 
 
 Amakuki, 616 
 
 Annweiler, 
 
 328 
 
 Argeles, 
 
 217 
 
 Astrachan, 608, 609 
 
 Amalfi, 142 
 
 Ansbach, 
 
 320 
 
 Argentan, 
 
 187 
 
 Asturias, 
 
 90 
 
 Amalfi(Hist.of),39,48 
 
 Ansgarius, 
 
 438 
 
 Argenteuil, 
 
 184 
 
 Atalaute, 
 
 621 
 
 Amantra, 145 
 
 Anspach, 
 
 320 
 
 Argonnes, 
 
 6 
 
 Ath, 
 
 281 
 
 Amarante. 73 
 
 Antequera, 
 
 94 
 
 Argos, 
 
 622 
 
 Athens, 
 
 620 
 
 Amaxichi, 616 
 
 Antibes, 
 
 224 
 
 Argostoli, 
 
 616 
 
 Athlone, 257, 25 
 
 Ambelakia, 631 
 
 Antipaxo, 
 
 616 
 
 Argyleshire, 
 
 253 
 
 Athos, 
 
 631 
 
 Amberg, 317 
 
 Antivari, 
 
 633 
 
 Argyrokastro, 
 
 633 
 
 Athy, 
 
 257 
 
 Ambert, 213 
 
 Antrim, 257 
 
 ,258 
 
 Arvillers, 
 
 109 
 
 Atri, 
 
 143 
 
 Ambleteuse, 190 
 
 Antwerp, 
 
 279 
 
 Ariano, 
 
 142 
 
 Atribaldo, 
 
 143 
 
 Amboise, 206 
 
 Auxur, 
 
 133 
 
 Ariege Depart- 
 
 
 Atripalda, 
 
 143 
 
 Ameland, 272 
 
 Anzin, 
 
 190 
 
 ment, 
 
 218 
 
 Attila, king of the 
 
 Amersfoort, 271 
 
 Aosta, 
 
 108 
 
 Aritzu, 
 
 114 
 
 Huns, 
 
 25 
 
 Amiens, 188 
 
 Apennines, 
 
 5 
 
 Arklow, 
 
 256 
 
 Au, 
 
 314 
 
 Amoal, 573 
 
 Apenrade, 
 
 556 
 
 Arlaut, 
 
 213 
 
 Aub, 
 
 323 
 
 Amoneburg, 372 
 
 Apingadatn, 
 
 273 
 
 Aries, 
 
 223 
 
 Aubagne, 
 
 224 
 
 Amurbach, 323 
 
 Apokla, 
 
 387 
 
 Arlesheim, 
 
 157 
 
 Aube, 
 
 15 
 
 Amphissa, 621 
 
 Appenzell, 156, 157 
 
 Arlon, 
 
 283 
 
 Aube Departmental 
 
 Amrura, 553 
 
 Appin, 
 
 253 
 
 Armagh, 
 
 258 
 
 Aubenas, 
 
 221 
 
 Amsterdam, 268 
 
 Appleby, 
 
 244 
 
 Armagnac, 
 
 216 
 
 Aubenton, 
 
 188 
 
 Amurani, 621 
 
 Apt, 
 
 224 
 
 Armenierstadt, 
 
 531 
 
 Aubeterre, 
 
 212 
 
 Ancenis, 210 
 
 Apulia, 
 
 143 
 
 Armentieres, 
 
 190 
 
 Aubin, 
 
 216 
 
 Anclam, 470 
 
 Aquila, 
 
 143 
 
 Annorica, 
 
 203 
 
 Aubonne, 
 
 163 
 
 Ancona, 134 
 
 Aquileja, 
 
 512 
 
 Armoricans, 
 
 26 
 
 Aubusson, 
 
 212 
 
 Andalusia, 91 
 
 Aquino, 
 
 142 
 
 Arnaut Beligrad, 
 
 633 
 
 Auch, 
 
 216 
 
 Andelflngen, 169 
 
 Aquitauia, 
 
 214 
 
 A may le Due, 
 
 201 
 
 Aude, 
 
 15 
 
 Audelys, les, 186 
 
 Arabs, 
 
 28 
 
 Arneburg, 
 
 478 
 
 Aude Department,220 
 
 Andenne, 282 
 
 Arad, 
 
 528 
 
 Arnemuyden, 
 
 270 
 
 Aue, 
 
 383 
 
 Andermatt, 167 
 
 Aragon, 
 
 94 
 
 Arnheim, 
 
 271 
 
 Auerbach, 
 
 384 
 
 Andernach, 487 
 
 Aiagon River, 
 
 14 
 
 Arnhem, 
 
 27l[Auerstiidti 
 
 480 
 
 Anderno, 148 
 
 Aragona(inSicily 
 
 ,147 
 
 Arno, 
 
 15 Augsburg, 
 
 324 
 
 Andorno, 108] Arahda de Duerb 
 
 88 
 
 Arnsberg, 
 
 485 Augustenburg, 
 
 557 
 
 Andorra, 218| Aranjuez, 
 
 87 1 Arnstadt, 
 
 401 Augustovo, 
 
 606 
 
 Audorre, 218 Ai-boga, 
 
 569 Arnstein, 
 
 323 Aulla, 
 
 119 
 
 Andorre la vieille, 219 Arbofs, 
 
 203|Aruswalde, 
 
 467 Ault, 
 
 188 
 
 Andreasberg, 444 A rbon, 
 
 166 j Arolsen, 
 
 376 Auma, 
 
 388 
 
 Andrichau, 518 Arbroath, 
 
 252 Arona, 
 
 llllAumale, 
 
 186 
 
 AndroB, 623; 
 
 Arcadia, 
 
 622 1 
 
 Arpad, 
 
 522, 
 
 Aumiihle, 
 
 420 
 
INDEX. 
 
 641 
 
 
 PAOC 
 
 PAGK] 
 
 PAGBl 
 
 PAGK 
 
 Aunis, 
 
 211 
 
 Bacs, 
 
 526'Banzkow, 
 
 408 Bavay, , . 
 
 191 
 
 Auray, 
 
 209 
 
 Badajoz, 
 
 91 
 
 Bapaume, 
 
 189|Bavl, 
 
 111 
 
 Aurich, 442, 4- 
 
 Baden (city in the 
 
 Bar, 
 
 602 Bay of Biscay, 
 
 10 
 
 Aurigny, 
 
 247 
 
 grand-duchy of 
 
 
 Bar (Lorraine), 
 
 lt'5 Bavern, 
 
 311 
 
 Aurillac, 
 
 213 
 
 Baden), 
 
 341 
 
 Bar sur Aube, 
 
 191 
 
 1 Bayeux, 
 
 187 
 
 Auriol, 
 
 224 
 
 Baden, grand-du 
 
 
 Bar le Due, 
 
 195 
 
 B.ivouuB, 
 
 217 
 
 Auronzo, 
 
 542 
 
 chy of, 
 
 337 
 
 Bar sur Seme, 
 
 209 
 
 Baylen, 
 
 03 
 
 Auschwitz, 
 
 518 
 
 Baden (in Austria) 509 
 
 Barbastro, 
 
 91 
 
 Bayreuth, 318,319 
 
 Ausonians, 
 
 102 Baden (in Swit 
 
 
 Barbezieux, 
 
 211 
 
 Bayreuth, High- 
 
 
 Ausser-Rhoden, 
 
 157 
 
 zerland), 
 
 156 
 
 Barby, 
 
 479 
 
 land of, 
 
 319 
 
 Austerlitz, 
 
 516 
 
 Baden-Baden, 
 
 340 
 
 Barcellona (in Si 
 
 
 Bayreuth, Low- 
 
 
 Austrasia, 
 
 26 
 
 Baden-Ourlach, 
 
 340 
 
 cily), 
 
 148 
 
 land of, 320, 321 
 
 Austria, 
 
 501 
 
 Badenweiler, 
 
 345 
 
 Barceilos, 
 
 73 
 
 Baza, 
 
 93 
 
 Austria, arch-du 
 
 
 Badia, 
 
 541 
 
 Barcelonetta, 
 
 95 
 
 Bazadois, 
 
 215 
 
 chy of, 
 
 508 
 
 Baena, 
 
 93 
 
 Barcelonette, 
 
 221 Bazas, 
 
 215 
 
 Austrian circle, 
 
 292 
 
 Baetica, 
 
 84 
 
 Barcelona, 
 
 95 Beam, 
 
 218 
 
 Austrian empire, 
 
 501 
 
 Baeza, 
 
 93 
 
 Barchfeld, 
 
 373 Beaucaire, 
 
 221 
 
 Austrian Nether 
 
 
 Bagne, valley of, 
 
 167 
 
 Bard, 
 
 109 Beaucourt, 
 
 199 
 
 lands, 
 
 277 
 
 Bagnerea de Bi 
 
 
 Bardewik, 
 
 437 1 Beaufort, 
 
 207 
 
 Austrian Silesia, 
 
 517 
 
 gorre, 
 
 217 
 
 Bardo, 
 
 109 Beauge, 
 
 207 
 
 Autun, 
 
 201 
 
 Bagne res de Lu 
 
 
 Bareges, 
 
 2l7!Beaugency, 
 
 205 
 
 Auvergne, 
 
 212 
 
 chon, 
 
 219 
 
 Barga, 
 
 125'Beaujeu, 
 
 214 
 
 Auvergne Mts., 
 
 6 
 
 Bagni, 
 
 126 
 
 Barge, 
 
 107|Beaujolais, 
 
 214 
 
 Auxerre, 
 
 201 
 
 Bagno alia Villa, 
 
 126 
 
 Bari, 
 
 144; Beaumaris, 
 
 247 
 
 Auxonne, 
 
 201 
 
 Bagnols, 
 
 221 
 
 Barletta, 
 
 144 > Beaumont, 
 
 281 
 
 Avalanches, 
 
 152 
 
 Bagolino, 
 
 540 
 
 Barmbeck, 
 
 450 Beaune, 
 
 201 
 
 Avallon, 
 
 201 
 
 Baiersdorf, 
 
 321 
 
 Barmen, 
 
 492 Beaupreau, 
 
 207 
 
 Avares, 29, 521 
 
 Bagnols, 
 
 221 
 
 Barmstedt, 
 
 418 1 Beau vais, 
 
 184 
 
 Avarian mark, 
 
 31 
 
 Bailleul, 
 
 190 
 
 Barnstable, 
 
 238 Beauvoir sur Mer, 210 
 
 Aveiro, 
 
 72 
 
 Bajuarians, 
 
 298 
 
 Barolo, 
 
 108|Bechtheim, 
 
 357 
 
 Avellino, 
 
 142 
 
 Bakonya Forest, 
 
 520 
 
 Baron Hill, 
 
 247 Beckum, 
 
 483 
 
 Avenches, 
 
 168 
 
 Baktshisarai, 
 
 610 
 
 Barr, 
 
 197 Bedarieux, 
 
 220 
 
 A versa, 
 
 142 Bala, 
 
 246 
 
 Barrow, 
 
 14 Bed burg, 
 
 492 
 
 Avesnes, 
 
 l91|Balaguer, 
 
 95 
 
 Barsac, 
 
 215IBederkesa, 
 
 438 
 
 Avesta, 
 
 570 
 
 Balaklava, 
 
 610 
 
 Bartenstein, 337 
 
 ,496 Bedford, 
 
 237 
 
 Aveyron Depart- 
 
 Balasfalva, 
 
 531 
 
 Bartfeld, 
 
 527 1 Bedfordshire, 
 
 237 
 
 ment, 
 
 216 
 
 Balaton Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Barth, 
 
 470 Beerbersr, 
 
 7 
 
 Avezzano, 
 
 143 
 
 Balearic Islands, 
 
 96 
 
 Baruth, 
 
 467 
 
 Beeskow, 
 
 466 
 
 Avigliana, 
 
 107 
 
 Balerno, 
 
 165 
 
 Barwalde, 
 
 467 
 
 Befort, 
 
 199 
 
 Avignon, 
 
 224 
 
 Balingen, 
 
 333 
 
 Basardshik, 
 
 630 
 
 Beierberg, 
 
 7 
 
 Avila, 
 
 89 
 
 Balkan, 
 
 6 
 
 Baschkirs, 
 
 580 
 
 Beilngries, 
 
 322 
 
 Aviles, 
 
 90 
 
 Ballenberg, 
 
 344 
 
 Bashaw, 
 
 626 
 
 Beira, 
 
 72 
 
 Avlona, 
 
 633 
 
 Ballenstedt, 
 
 404 
 
 Basle, 
 
 157 
 
 Beja, 
 
 73 
 
 Avola, 
 
 148 
 
 Balleyma, 
 
 258 
 
 , Little, 
 
 157 
 
 Bejar, 
 
 90 
 
 Avranches, 
 
 187 
 
 Ballina, 
 
 259 
 
 Basques, 19, 76 
 
 Belchen, 
 
 7 
 
 Ax, 
 
 218 
 
 Ballinasloe, 
 
 259 
 
 Basques, country 
 
 Belem, 
 
 71 
 
 Axel, 
 
 271 
 
 Ballinrobe, 
 
 259 
 
 of the, 
 
 216 
 
 Belfast, 
 
 257 
 
 Axius, 
 
 15 
 
 Ballon d' Alsace, 
 
 6 
 
 Basque Provinces, 97 
 
 Belfort, 
 
 199 
 
 Ayamonte, 
 
 92 
 
 Ballon de Sulz, 
 
 6 
 
 Bassano, 
 
 542 
 
 Belgard, 
 
 472 
 
 Aylesbury, 
 
 235 
 
 Ballstall, 
 
 164 
 
 Bassum, 
 
 436 
 
 Belgians, 
 
 263 
 
 Ayr, 
 
 250 
 
 Ballycastle, 
 
 258 
 
 Bastia, 
 
 225 
 
 Belgium, 
 
 275 
 
 Ayrshire, 
 
 250 
 
 Ballysbannon, 
 
 258 
 
 Bastide de Clar- 
 
 
 Belgorod, 
 
 592 
 
 Azof Sea, 
 
 10 
 
 Balme, La, 
 
 222 
 
 ence, 
 
 218 
 
 Belgrade, 
 
 635 
 
 Azore Islands, 
 
 74 
 
 Baltic Provinces 
 
 
 Bastogne, 
 
 283 
 
 Beligrad, 
 
 634 
 
 Azores, 
 
 74 
 
 of Russia, 
 
 595 
 
 Batalha, 
 
 72 
 
 Bellac, 
 
 212 
 
 Azov, 
 
 612 
 
 Baltic Sea, 
 
 9 
 
 Batavians, 
 
 263 
 
 Belle Isle, 
 
 209 
 
 Azpeytia, 
 
 97 
 
 Balzers, 
 
 351 
 
 Bath, 
 
 239 
 
 Belleville, 
 
 214 
 
 
 
 Bamberg, 
 
 319 
 
 Bath (Dutch fort) 
 
 ,270 
 
 Belley, 
 
 201 
 
 Baar (Switzerland) 16 
 
 Banagher, 
 
 257 
 
 Bathgate, 
 
 249 
 
 Bellinzona, 
 
 165 
 
 Baasdorf, 
 
 406 Banat, 
 
 528 Batsch, 
 
 526 
 
 Bellowerth, 
 
 164 
 
 Babadagh, 
 
 630 1 Banbury, 
 
 237JBattaglia, 
 
 541 
 
 Bellrock, 
 
 252 
 
 Babenberg, 
 
 319 Ban de la Roche, 
 
 197 Battenberg, 
 
 357 
 
 Belluno, 
 
 542 
 
 Babenhausen, 326, 35 1 ! Bandon, 
 
 259 Bauerwitz, 
 
 476 
 
 Belt, Great, 
 
 9 
 
 Babia Gura, 
 
 5 Banff, 
 
 253! Baumannshohle, 
 
 447 
 
 , Little, 
 
 9 
 
 Baccanello, 
 
 117 
 
 Banffshire, 
 
 •J.">:i B.-iume les Dames, 203 Belturbet, ' 
 
 258 
 
 Baccarat, 
 
 195 
 
 Bangor, 246 
 
 258 Bauske, 
 
 597 Bel voir, 
 
 242 
 
 Bacharach, 
 
 488 
 
 Banjaluka, 
 
 ti:i:i Bautzen, 
 
 385Belzi, 
 
 612 
 
 Bachmut, 
 
 612 
 
 Bannockburn, 
 
 251 {Bavaria, 311 
 
 314 Bembibre, 
 
 89 
 
 Backnang, 
 
 331 
 
 Banos de Ebro, 
 
 981 
 
 Bavarian circle, 
 
 292l 
 
 Bemposta, 
 
 71 
 
642 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAOK 
 
 612 
 351 
 
 Bender, 
 Benduren, 
 Bene, 108 
 Benetutti, 114 
 Benevento, 135 
 Benidorme, 96 
 Ben Lawer9, B 
 Ben Novi9, 6 
 Benneckensteiu, 481 
 Bennfelden, 19? 
 Bensberg, 492 
 Bentheim, 442 
 Bentink, earl of, 424 
 Berat, 633 
 Beraun, 
 Berbir, 
 Berching, 322 
 Berchtesgaden, 315 
 Berdjansk, 611 
 Berdyczew, 602 
 Berent, 498 
 Beresina, 12 
 Berg, duchy of, 492 
 Berg, grand-du- 
 chy of, 294 
 Berga, 388 
 Bergamo, 540 
 Bergara, 97 
 Bergedorf, 450 
 Bergen, 577 
 Bergen (in Bel- 
 gium), 281 
 Bergen (in Hesse- 
 
 Cassel), 374 
 Bergen (on the 
 
 island of Riigen), 471 
 
 Bergen op Zoom, 274 
 
 Bergerac, 215 
 
 Bergheim, 376 
 
 Bergstrasse, 7 
 
 Bergues, 190 
 
 Bergzabern, 328 
 
 Berka, 387, 389 
 
 Berkeley, 240 
 
 Berkshire, 235 
 
 Berleburg, 486 
 
 Berlin, 464 
 
 Berlinchen, 467 
 
 Bermeo, 97 
 
 Bernalda, 145 
 
 Bernaldo, 145 
 
 Bernau, 465 
 
 Bernay, 186 
 
 Bernburg, 404 
 
 Berne, 158 
 
 Berneck, 319 
 
 Berner Oberland, 158 
 
 Berukastel, * 489 
 
 Bernstadt, 474 
 
 Bernstein, 467 
 
 Beroea, 631 
 
 Berre, 223 
 
 Berry, 204 
 
 Berthelsdorf, 385 
 
 Bervie, 252 
 
 Berwick, 244 
 
 Berwickshire, 249 
 
 Besancou, 202 
 
 Besigheim, 331 
 
 Beskides, 
 Bessarabia, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 5 
 611 
 213 
 560 
 
 Betanzos, 90 
 
 Bethune, L8U 
 
 Bettiiigen, 157 
 
 Betzenstein, 320 
 
 Beutelsbach, 336 
 
 Beuthen, 475, 476 
 
 Beveren, 280 
 
 Beverley, 243 
 
 Bevern, 447 
 
 Bex, 168 
 
 Beziers, 220 
 
 Biala, 518 
 
 Bialla, 497 
 
 Bialowieza, 601 
 
 Bialystock, 602 
 
 Biancavilla, 148 
 
 Bibbiena, 124 
 
 Biberach, 334 
 
 Biddeford, 238 
 
 Bihacz, 634 
 
 Biebrich, 362 
 
 Biedenkopf, 357 
 
 Biel, 159 
 
 Biel, Lake of, 11 
 
 Bielefeld, 484 
 
 Biella, 108 
 
 Bielsk, 602 
 Bielsteinhohle, 447 
 
 Bienne, 159 
 
 Bietigheim, 331 
 
 Biervliet, 271 
 
 Bilbao, 97 
 Bill of Portland, 238 
 
 Biilerbeck, 483 
 
 Billingfors, 573 
 
 Billom, 213 
 Hi Hung. Hermann, 433 
 
 BiHwerder, 450 
 
 Bilsen, 283 
 
 Bilston, 241 
 
 Binche, 281 
 
 Bingen, 356 
 
 Binic, 209 
 
 Biograd, 634 
 
 Birkenfeld, 426 
 
 Birmingham, 241 
 
 Birr, 257 
 
 Birstein, 374 
 
 Bisanz, 202 
 
 Biscari, 148 
 
 Biscay, 97 
 
 Bisceglia, 144 
 Bischofsheim, 342, 344 
 
 Bischofsheim vor 
 
 der Rhon, 323 
 
 Bischofszell, 166 
 
 Bischweiler, 198 
 
 Bismark, 478 
 
 Bistritz, 532 
 
 Bitburg, 489 
 
 Bitonto, 144 
 
 Bitsch, 196 
 
 Bitterfeld, 480 
 
 Bivona, 147 
 
 Bjelew, 591 
 
 PAGK[ 
 
 Bjorko, 38, 568; 
 
 Bjorneborg, 598. 
 
 Blackbird Field, 635 
 
 Blackburn, 243 
 
 Black Elster, 16 
 
 Black Forest, 7 
 Black Forest circle 332 
 
 Black Russia, 601 
 
 Black Sea, 10 
 
 Blankenberghe, 281 
 
 Blankenburg, 401, 447 
 
 I Blankenese, 418 
 
 JBlankenhayn, 387 
 
 Blasendorf, 531 
 
 Blasien-Zella, 394 
 
 jBlaubeuren, 335 
 
 Blaye, 215 
 
 Bleiberg, 512 
 
 Bleicherode, 481 
 
 Bleking, 571 
 
 Blendheim, 326 
 
 Blexen, 423 
 
 Blexum, 423 
 
 Blieskastel, 328 
 
 Blindheim, 326 
 
 Blocksberg, 8 
 
 Blois, 206 
 
 Blomberg, 428 
 
 Blumfeld, 347 
 
 Bobbio, 111 
 
 Bober, 13 
 
 Boblingen, 331 
 
 Bobruisk, 601 
 
 Bochnia, 519 
 
 Bocholt, 483 
 
 Bockenem, 439 
 
 Bockenheim, 374 
 
 Bockum, 485 
 Bodenteich Lake, 43 1 
 
 Bodenwerder, 436 
 
 Bodoe, 577 
 Bodrog-Keresstur, 527 
 
 Bog, 12 
 
 Bogense, 551 
 
 Bohemia, 514 
 
 Boehmerwald Mts., 7 
 
 Boh us, 573 
 
 Boisbelle, 205 
 
 Bois le Due, 273 
 
 Boitzenburg, 466 
 
 Bojano, 145 
 
 Bojanowo, 499 
 
 Bolbec, 186 
 
 Bolkenhain, 475 
 
 Bollenz, 165 
 
 Bologna, 135 
 
 Bolognese, 131 
 
 Boise i m, 133 
 
 Bolsward, 272 
 
 Bolton, 243 
 
 Bolzano, 513 
 
 Bommel, 272 
 
 Bonames, 456 
 
 Bondage, 36 
 
 Boness, 249 
 
 Boniface VIIL, 41 
 
 Bonifacio, 225 
 
 Bonn, 491 
 
 Bonneville, 109, 159 
 
 Bonnigheim, 331 
 
 Bootia, 621 
 
 Bopflngen, 336 
 
 Boppard, 487 
 
 Bora Mis., 6 
 
 Borchloen, 283 
 
 Bordeaux, 215 
 
 Borgholm, 571 
 
 Borgholzhausen, 484 
 
 Borgloh, 441 
 Borgo, 126, 509 
 
 Borgomanero, 1 1 1 
 
 Borgomasino, 108 
 Borgo Sandonnino 117 
 Borgo San Sepol- 
 
 cro, 124 
 
 Borgosesia, 11 1 
 
 Borgo Taro, 117 
 
 Borja, 94 
 
 Borkelo, 272 
 Borken, 371, 483 
 
 Bonnio, 539 
 
 Borua, 383 
 
 Bomheim, 456 
 
 Bornholm, 550 
 
 Boros, 572 
 
 Borowsk, 591 
 
 Borromean Isles, 1 ] 1 
 Borrowstownuess, 249 
 
 Borysthenes, 12 
 
 Borzonasca, 113 
 
 Bosa, 1 14 
 
 Bosau, 426 
 
 Bosco, 111 
 
 Bosna Serai, 633 
 
 Bosnia, 633 
 
 Bosniacs, 633 
 
 Bosphorus, 10 
 
 B ossormeny, 529 
 
 Boston, 237 
 
 Bothnia Gulf, 9 
 
 Bottoshani, 637 
 
 Botushan, 637 
 
 Botzen, 513 
 
 Bouchain, 190 
 
 Boudry, 163 
 
 Bouillon, 283 
 
 Bouin, 210 
 
 Boulogne, 189 
 
 Boulonnais, 189 
 
 Bourbon, 203 
 Bourbon l'Archam- 
 
 bault, 204 
 Bourbonne les 
 
 Bains, 192 
 
 Bourbon Lancy, 201 
 
 Bourbonnais, 203 
 
 Bourbon Vendee, 210 
 
 Bourdelois, 215 
 
 Bourg, 215 
 
 Bourgain, 222 
 
 Bourganeuf, 212 
 
 Bourg en Bresse, 201 
 
 Bourges, 204 
 Bourges les Bains, 204 
 
 Bourg la Reine, 183 
 
 Bourgneuf, 210 
 
 Bourgogne, 199 
 Bourg St. Andeol, 221 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 613 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bourmont. 19fi 
 
 Boussac, ' 212 
 
 Bouvignes, 282 
 
 Boiiviues, 190 
 
 Bovenden, 410 
 
 Bove9, 108 
 
 Boviuo, 144 
 
 Bo vines, 190 
 
 B ixherg, 344 
 
 Boyle, 259 
 
 Bra, 108 
 
 Brabant, 278 
 
 Brackenheim, 331 
 
 Brackwede, 484 
 
 Braclaw, 602 
 Bradford, 239, 244 
 
 Bradley, 241 
 
 Bniga," 73 
 
 Braganza, 73 
 
 Brahestad, 599 
 
 Braila, 636 
 
 Braine-Lalleu, 279 
 
 Braiae le Comte, 281 
 
 Brake, 423 
 
 Brake!, 484 
 
 Bramsche, 441 
 
 Bramsledt, 417 
 
 Brand, 381 
 Brandenburg, city 
 
 of, 465, 
 Brandenburg, pro- 
 vince of, 464 
 Braslaw, 600 
 B iitz, 499 
 Braubach", 364 1 
 Braunau, 510' 
 Braunfels, 488 
 Braunlingen, 347| 
 Braunsberg, 49(5 
 Braunschweig, 416 
 Bray, 256 | 
 Bray sur Seine, 193 
 Brazza, 535. 
 Bre, 540 J 
 Brechin, 252 | 
 BreckniKsk, 246 
 Brecknockshire, 246 
 Brecon, 246 
 Breda, 273 
 Bregenz, 514 
 Breisach, 345 
 Breisgau, 344 
 Bremen, 453, 454 
 Bremen, duchy of, 438 
 Bremerhaven, 454 
 Bremerlebe, 438 
 Bremgarten, 156 
 Breno, 540 
 Brenta River, 15 
 Brescello, 119 
 Brescia, 539 
 Breslau, 473 
 Bressanone, 513 
 Bresse, 201 
 Bressuire, 210 
 Brest. 209 
 Bretagne, La, 908 
 Bretten, 342 
 Breyzards, 1711 
 
 PAGE | 
 
 Brianeon, 222 
 Brians 205 
 Bridgenorth, 24-2 
 Bridgewater, 239 
 Bridlington, 243 
 Bridporl, 238 
 Brie, 191, 193, 
 Brie Champenoise l!)3 
 Brie Compte Ro- 
 bert, 1841 
 Brie Francoise, 184 
 Brie sur Yeres, 184 
 Brieg, 473 
 Briel, 270 
 Brienne, 192 
 Briesen, 498 1 
 Briey, 196 j 
 Brig, 167 
 Briga, 110 
 Brighton, 23(5 
 Brihuega, 88 
 Brignolles, 224} 
 Brilon, 485! 
 Briudisi, 144 J 
 Brioude, 213 1 
 Bristol, 239 
 Bristol Channel, 10 
 Britannia, 24 
 Brittany, 208 
 BrivelaGaillarde, 212 
 Briviesca, 88 
 Brixen, 513 
 Brjiinsk, 901! 
 Brecada, 117 j 
 Brocken, 8 
 Brody, 519 
 Bruek in't Water- 
 land, 2(58 
 Bromberg, 49!) 
 Bromsebro, 570 
 Bronte, 148 
 Brood, 534 
 Broos, 532 
 Bro9eley, 242 
 Brotterode, 373 
 Brouage, 21 1 
 Brouwershaven, 270 
 Brozzi, 123 
 Bruchsal, 341 
 Brack, 156, 511 
 Briickenau, 323 
 Bruges, 280 
 Brugg, 156 
 Briihl, 491 
 Brundusium, 144 
 Brunetta, 107 
 Briinn, 516 
 Brunsbiittel, 418 
 Brunshausen, 438 
 Brunswick, city, 446 
 Brunswick, duchy 
 
 of, 444 
 
 Brunswick-Oels, 445 
 
 Brussels, 278 
 
 Brzesk Cujavski, 605 
 
 Brzesc Litewski, 601 
 
 Bublitz, 472 
 
 Buccari, 529 
 
 Buch, 215 
 
 1 
 
 PAOK 
 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Buchanan, 
 
 251 
 
 Biitzow, 
 
 409 
 
 Buchau, 
 
 334 
 
 Butzbach, 
 
 357 
 
 Buchen, 
 
 341 
 
 Hullsta. ll, 
 
 387 
 
 Bin-hen, 
 
 420 
 
 B.itrinto, 
 
 633 
 
 Baciiholz, 
 
 466 
 
 Buxtehude, 
 
 438 
 
 Buchhorn, 
 
 334 
 
 Buxton, 
 
 242 
 
 Bacha, 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 Buchsweiler, 
 
 198 
 
 Cabras, 
 
 114 
 
 Bucina, 
 
 114 
 
 Cabrera (isle of) 
 
 97 
 
 Biickeburg, 
 
 429 
 
 Caceres, 
 
 91 
 
 Buckingham, 
 
 235 
 
 Cadaques, 
 
 95 
 
 Bucki nghamshire, 235 
 
 Cader Idria, 
 
 8 
 
 Buckow, 
 
 467 
 
 Cadiz, 
 
 92 
 
 Bucks, 
 
 235 
 
 Cadore, 
 
 542 
 
 Buda, 
 
 525 
 
 Caen, 
 
 186 
 
 Budesheim, 
 
 356 j Caermarthen, 
 
 245 
 
 Biidingen, 
 
 357 Caermarthenshire, 245 
 
 Bitdissiu, 
 
 385 
 
 Caernarvon, 
 
 216 
 
 Budweis, 
 
 516 
 
 Caernarvonshire, 
 
 246 
 
 Buelach, 
 
 169 
 
 Cagliari, 
 
 114 
 
 Buen Retiro, 
 
 87 
 
 Cahors, 
 
 215 
 
 Bueren, 
 
 158 
 
 Cairgorm, 
 
 8 
 
 Bug, 
 
 13 
 
 Caithness, 
 
 254 
 
 Bugey, 
 
 202 
 
 Cajazzo, 
 
 142 
 
 Biial, 
 
 341 Calabria, 
 
 145 
 
 Bujalance, 
 
 93 Calahorra, 
 
 88 
 
 Bukarest, 
 
 636 j Calais, 
 
 189 
 
 Bukowiua, 
 
 520jCalataflmi, 
 
 146 
 
 Bulach, 
 
 333 Calatayud, 
 
 94 
 
 Bulgaria, 
 
 629 Calatrava, 
 
 88 
 
 Bulgarians, 
 
 29, 629lCalcar, 
 
 494 
 
 Biiude, 
 
 484|Caldano, 
 
 126 
 
 Bunzlau, 
 
 474 Caledonians, 
 
 248 
 
 Biiren, 
 
 484|Calenberg, 
 
 435 
 
 Burg, 
 Burgas, 
 
 477, 557 Cal lata bellata, 
 629 Callenberg, 
 
 5 
 384 
 
 Burgau, 
 
 325 
 
 Callies, 
 
 472 
 
 Burgdurf, 
 
 437 
 
 Calmar, 
 
 570 
 
 Burgdorf (Switzer- 
 
 Calne, 
 
 239 
 
 land), 
 
 158 
 
 Caltagirone, 
 
 148 
 
 Burghaslach, 
 
 322 
 
 Caltanisetta, 
 
 147 
 
 Burghaun, 
 
 373 
 
 Caluso, 
 
 108 
 
 Burghausen, 
 
 315 
 
 Calvados Depart 
 
 
 Burglitz, 
 
 515 
 
 ment, 
 
 186 
 
 Burgos, 
 
 88 
 
 Calvi, 
 
 225 
 
 Burgraviate of Nu- 
 
 Calvorde, 
 
 447 
 
 remberg, 
 
 318 
 
 Calw, 
 
 333 
 
 Burgundian circle, 292 
 
 Camajore, 
 
 126 
 
 Btirguudians, 
 
 24, 199 
 
 Camaldoli, 
 
 124 
 
 Burgundy, 
 
 27, 199 
 
 Camargue, 
 
 15 
 
 Burgundy, earl- 
 
 Cam bray, 
 
 190 
 
 dom of, 
 
 202 
 
 Carnbresis, 
 
 190 
 
 Burken, 
 
 344 Cambridge, 
 345; Cambridgeshire, 
 
 237 
 
 Burkheim, 
 
 237 
 
 Burladingen, 
 
 350 j Cambusneath, 
 
 251 
 
 Burntisland, 
 
 252 Camenz, 
 
 385 
 
 Burscheid, 
 
 493|Caraerino, 
 
 134 
 
 Burslem, 
 
 241 Cameryk, 
 
 190 
 
 Burton upon Trent 241 Cam mi n, 
 
 470 
 
 Burtscheid, 
 
 490Camogli, 
 
 112 
 
 Bury, 
 
 243 Campagna, 
 
 142 
 
 B in St. Edmunds, 236 C.impagua di Ro- 
 
 Busachi, 
 
 114 ma, 
 
 132 
 
 Busachino, 
 
 145 Campan, 
 
 217 
 
 Busca, 
 
 107 Campanians, 
 
 102 
 
 Busco, 
 
 636 Campbelltown, 
 
 253 
 
 Bute, 
 
 252 Campen, 
 
 272 
 
 Buteshire, 
 
 252 Campobasso, 
 
 144 
 
 Butjadiugerland, 423 
 
 Campo Formio, 
 
 542 
 
644 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE; 
 
 Cam po Mayor, 73]Carlstein, 
 Campo di San Pie- jCarlsten, 
 
 tro, 514 ( Carmagnola, 
 
 Cainpredon, 95 Carmona, 
 
 Cancale, 208 Carniola, 
 
 Cancaio, bay of, 208 Carolath, 
 Candia, 631, 632 Carolina, 
 
 Canea, 632jCarouge, 
 
 Can gas de Onis, 90 Carpathes, 
 
 PAGEj PAGE 
 
 515 'Castle Rushen, 247 Chamouny, 
 573 Castleton, 242, 247 Champagne, 
 107 Castres, 215, 220 Chantilly, 
 
 Canigou 
 Canino, 
 Canna, 
 Cannae, 
 Canne, 
 Cannes, 
 Cannicatti, 
 Canobbio, 
 Canosa, 
 Canossa, 
 Cans tat t, 
 Cantabria Mts., 
 Cantal Depart- 
 ment, 
 Cantavieja, 
 Canterbury, 
 Can tyre, 
 Capaccio, 
 Cape Lizard, 
 Cape Trafalgar, 
 Cape St. Vincent, 
 Capetians, 
 Capetingians, 
 Capodisiria, 
 Caponnori, 
 Cappel, 
 Capraja, 
 Caprera, 
 Capri, 
 Capua, 
 Carcarente, 
 Carcassouue, 
 Cardiff, 
 Cardigan, 
 Cardiganshire, 
 C.i nl( ma, 
 Carelia, 
 Carliaix, 
 Caritcnan, 
 Carignano, 
 Carini, 
 Carinthia, 
 Carlebv, Gamla, 
 
 ,Ny, 
 
 Carlingford, 
 
 Carlisle, 
 
 Carh .forte, 
 
 Carlopago, 
 
 Carlovingians, 
 
 Carlow, 
 
 Carlowitz, 
 
 Carlsbad, 
 
 Carls bo rg, 
 
 Carlsburg, 
 
 Carlshafen, 
 
 Carlshamn, 
 
 Carlskrona, 
 
 Carlsruhe, 
 
 Carlstad, 
 
 Carlstadt, 
 
 5 Carpathes proper, 5 Catalaunum 
 133 Carpentras, 225, Catalonia, 
 
 255 Carpi, 
 144 1 Carrara, 
 144 Carrick fergus, 
 224 Carrickmacross, 
 147 Carrick on Shan- 
 Ill non, 
 
 144 Carrick on Suire, 
 119 Carron, 
 331 Carthagena, 
 5 Carthageniensis, 
 
 Carthaus, 
 213 Casale, 
 94 Casale de Grecchi, 147 
 236 Casal Maggiore, 538 
 253 Caselle, 
 142 Casentino, 
 
 Caserta, 
 
 Caserta Nuova, 
 
 Cashel, 
 
 Cassano, 
 
 92 Castro del Rio 
 511 Castro Giovanni 
 475 Castronuovo, 
 
 93 Castroreale, 
 161jCastrovillari, 
 
 5 Catalaunian Fielda 102 Charkow, 
 
 192 Charlemagne. 
 94 Charlemont, 
 
 93 Charente 
 
 147 Charente Depart 
 146 incut, 
 
 148 Chsrenton, 
 145 Charite, La, 
 
 14.-. 
 
 370 
 
 Cassel (in France) 190 
 
 Cassis, 
 
 Cassiterides, 
 
 Cassonay, 
 
 119 Catanea, 
 119 Catania, 
 257jCatanzaro, 
 
 258 Catharinburg, 
 Catherlagh, 
 
 259 Caiheta, 
 2W Catholic Nether- 
 251 1 lands, 
 
 94jCatolica, 
 84'Cattaro, 
 
 Cattegat, 
 
 Caub, 
 
 Caudebec, 
 
 Caudinian Passes, 
 
 Cauterets, 
 
 Cava, 
 
 Cavaillon, 
 
 Cavan, 
 
 Cavoux, 
 
 Cefalu, 
 
 Celano, 
 
 Celle, 
 
 Celts, 
 
 Ceneda, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 110 
 
 191 
 
 1&5 
 
 16 
 
 211 
 183 
 
 204 
 594 
 
 30 
 191 
 281 
 
 27 
 193 
 201 
 465 
 205 
 
 110 
 
 224 
 
 23;) 
 
 471 
 
 Castel (in Bava- 
 
 Castel franco, 
 Castel Gandolfo, 
 Castelguelfo, 
 Castell, 
 Castellamare, 141,146 
 Castellamonte, 108 
 Castel lane, 
 Castel Una Marit- 
 
 tima, 
 Castello, 
 
 224 
 
 Castello de Ampu- 
 
 rias, 
 Castellobranco, 
 Castellon de la 
 
 Plana, 
 Castel uaudary, 2 
 Castelnuovo, 1 
 
 Castel nuovo di 
 
 Garfajjna, 
 Castel Sardo, 
 Castel Sarrazin, 
 Castelvetrano, 
 
 573 i Castenedolo, 
 
 531|CastiKlione, 
 
 370lCastiJe, 
 
 571|Castilians, 
 
 148 Charleroi, 
 
 148 Charles Martell, 
 
 145 Charleville, 
 3 Charolles, 
 
 257 Charlottenburg, 
 75 Chartres, 
 
 Chartreuse, 
 277 ! Grande, 222 
 
 147 Chasseron, 6 
 
 535 Chatam, 236 
 
 9 Chateaubriand, 210 
 364 Chateau Cambre- 
 186 sis, 190 
 
 142 Chateau-Chinon, 204 
 217 Chateau duBourg, 211 
 
 142 Chateaudun, 205 
 225 Cbateau-Gonthier, 207 
 
 258 Chateaulin, 209 
 107 Chateau du Loir, 207 
 
 146 Chateauneuf, 207 
 
 143 Chateauneuf de 
 
 437i Random, 221 
 
 19 Chateau Regnaud, 13 
 
 542 Chateau-Renard, 224 
 
 Central Franconia,320 Chateauroux, 
 
 Central Italy, 
 
 Cento, | 
 
 Cephalonia, 
 
 Cerdagne, 
 
 Ceret, 
 
 Cerigo, 
 
 Cerigotto, 
 
 Cerlier, 
 
 Cernay, 
 
 Cers, 
 
 Certaldo, 
 
 Cervera, 
 
 Cervia, 
 
 Cesana, 
 
 Cesena, 
 
 Cette, 
 
 Ceva, 
 
 Cevio, * 
 
 Cezimbra, 
 
 Chabeuil, 
 
 Chablais, 
 
 Chablis, 
 
 Chalkis, 
 
 Chalonnes, 
 
 205 
 195 
 193 
 210 
 
 Chalons sur Marne 192Chenceny, 
 
 57 1 1 Castillon, 
 340 Castlebar, 
 573 Castle Comer, 
 323,529 ! Castlereagh, 
 
 119 
 
 114 
 2-21 
 148 
 541) 
 539|Chalu8, 
 
 87 1 Cham, 
 
 76 Cham (Switzer- 
 215 land), 
 259! Cham bery, 
 257 Chambord, 
 259'Chambra, 
 
 103 Chateau Salins, 
 135 Chateau Thierry 
 616 Chatelleraut, 
 219Chatillon sur 
 2191 Marne, 192 
 
 610 Chat il Ion sur 
 6161 Seine, 201 
 
 158'Chatillonles 
 199' Dombes, 202 
 
 247!Chatillon(in Italy) 109 
 123 Chatts, 297 
 
 95, 96Chatsworth, 
 135 \ Chaudes- Aigues, 
 
 107 [ Chaudfontaiue, 
 135 Chaumont, 
 220 Chauny, 
 
 108 Chaux de Fonda, 
 165 Chaves, 
 
 72lChelm, 
 222 Chelm ford, 
 
 109 Chelsea, 
 193 Cheltenham, 
 623 Chemille, 
 207; Chemnitz, 
 
 24-3 
 213 
 282 
 193 
 185 
 163 
 73 
 007 
 936 
 23.-) 
 240 
 207 
 383 
 606 
 Chalons sur Sadne 201 jChene le populeux 193 
 
 212 Chepstow, 240 
 
 317 Cher, 15 
 I Cher Department, 204 
 
 168jCherasco, 108 
 
 109 1 Cherbourg, 187 
 
 206Cheronea, 621 
 
 150]Cherson, 611 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Cherusks, 
 Cheshire, 
 Chester, 
 Chesterfield, 
 Cheviot Hills, 
 Chiaramontc, 
 Chiari, 
 Chiasso, 
 Cliiavari, 
 Chiavenna, 
 Chichester, 
 Chiclana, 
 Chiem Lake, 
 Chieri, 
 Chieti, 
 Chi may, 
 Chinchilla, 
 Chi action, 
 Chilian, 
 Chiny, 
 Chioggia, 
 Chiozza, 
 Chippenham, 
 Chiusa, 
 Chiusi, 
 Chivalry, 
 Chivasso, 
 Choi let, 
 Clioper, 
 Chotin, 
 Christburg, 
 Chrislchurch, 
 Christian ia, 
 Christianiafjord, 
 Christianopel, 
 Curistiansand, 
 Christianstad, 
 Christiansund, 
 Cliristinehamn, 
 Christinestad, 
 Chrudin, 
 Chur, 
 Ciablese, 
 Cid, the 
 Cilli, 
 
 Cimbrians, 
 Ciinbrishamn, 
 Cinesi, 
 Cinosa, 
 Circe, 
 
 Cinque Ports, 
 Cinto, 
 Cintra, 
 Ciotat, La, 
 Cirey, 
 
 Cirknitz Lake, 
 Cisjuranian Bur- 
 gundy, 
 Cistercium, 
 Cita di Cistello, 
 Cita della Pieve, 
 Citeaux, 
 Citta Vechia, 
 Ciudadela, 
 Ciudad Real, 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, 
 Cividale, 
 
 paok | 
 297 ;Ci vita Ducalo, 
 242 Civitadi Penne 
 242 Civita Vecchia, 
 242 Ci vitella del 
 
 8 Tronto, 
 148 Civray, 
 540 Clackmannan, 
 
 165 Clackmannanshire 251: Como Lake 
 1 13 Clagenfurt Lake, J 1 IComorn, 
 539 Clairvaux, 192, 307!Compiegne, 
 2U4 ! Concarneau, 
 
 13 1 Conches, 
 260 Concordia, 
 443, 444 Conde, 
 
 143 Comarca diRoma, 132 
 143 Comino, 150 
 
 133 jCoiiiinotto, 
 
 Coiniso, 
 143 J Com mercy, 
 210;Commiues, 
 251! Como, 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Cossacks, 580 
 
 Cossacks of the 
 Don, 612 
 
 148,C6ted'Or, 6 
 
 195 Cdte d'Or Dopart- 
 
 190, 2801 mt-nt, 201 
 
 53HiC6ihen, 406 
 
 11 DotroM, 145 
 
 526Cotlbus, 467 
 
 184|Cottian Alps, 4 
 
 209jCoulungesles Vi- 
 
 186 neuses, 201 
 
 119 Coulommiers, 11)3 
 
 190 1 Council at Con- 
 
 442 CmHlesurNoireaul87| stance, 302 
 
 213 Condom, 2J6iCouncil at Trent, 302 
 
 Condomois, 216lCountry of Cam 
 
 236 Clamecy, 
 
 92 Clara River. 
 
 11 Clare, 
 107 Clausthal, 
 143 Cleraenswerth, 
 28 J Clermont, 
 
 94 Clermont en Au- 
 
 89j vergne, 213|Condrieu, bresi? 
 
 203 1 Clermont en Beau- 
 283 vaisis, 1^4 Conflans, 
 
 541 Clermont-Ferrand 213 Cont'oleus, 
 541 Clermont l'Herault220;Coni, 
 239 < Icrmont-Lodeve, 220iConil, 
 
 106 Clermont-Oise, 184JConitz, 
 124 Clery, 205 Connaught, 258 
 
 46Cleve, 494 J Constance, 346 
 
 107 Cleven, 530 Constance, Lake of, 1 1 
 207|Clingen, 401 Constantinople, 628 
 
 12iClonmel, 259, Constantinople 
 
 612 Clovis, king of the (Hist.), 
 
 Conference Island 217 Courmayeur 
 109 Course u I e, 
 212!Courtesoii, 
 107lCourtray, 
 92|Coutances, 
 498 Coutras, 
 
 498 Franks, 
 
 238|Clugny, 
 
 576|Clumber Park, 
 
 576jCluny, 
 
 57l|Cluse, 
 
 576 
 
 572 
 
 577 
 
 573 
 
 MS 
 
 CI uses, 110 
 
 Clusium, 124 
 
 Clusone, valley of, 107 
 Clyde, 14 
 
 599|Clvdesdale, 250 
 
 516 Clyde Iron Works, 251 
 
 16-2 Coblenz, 
 109|Coburg, 
 88 Cocconato, 
 
 Codogno, 
 
 Coe, 
 
 Coesfeld, 
 
 Cognac, 
 
 Cogoleto, 
 
 Coimbra, 
 
 Col berg, 
 
 Colchester, 
 
 Colditz, 
 ■> Coldstream, 
 195IColebrookdale, 
 11 
 
 511 
 307 
 573 
 140 
 
 147 
 107 
 •23H 
 5 
 71 
 233 
 
 26 1 Contessa, 
 201 Conti, 
 
 Conza, 
 
 Copa, 
 
 Copenhagen, 
 
 Coppenbriigge, 
 
 Coppet, 
 
 Corbach, 
 
 Corbeil, 
 
 Corcyra, 
 
 Cordova, 
 
 Corfu, 
 
 Cori, 
 108Coria, 
 538 Corigliano, 
 253 Corinth, 
 483 Cork, 
 211 Corleone, 
 113;C6rlin, 
 72 1 Cormaggiore, 
 
 38,39 
 147 
 
 I IK) 
 [00 
 188 
 •J-23 
 280 
 187 
 •215 
 350 
 •210 
 
 :-2 
 
 510 
 
 Cove, 
 Coventry, 
 Covilhao, 
 Cracow, 
 
 Crailsheim, 336 
 
 Cranach, 320 
 
 Crane n burg, 494 
 
 Craonne, 185 
 
 142|Crecy, 188 
 
 12|Creetown, 250 
 
 549 Creglingen, 336 
 
 436 Creil, 185 
 
 168Crema, 540 
 
 376 Cremona, 538 
 
 184 Crescentino, 108 
 
 615|Crepy, 184 
 92 Crespy en Laonais 185 
 615 Crespy en Valois, 184 
 
 133 Cressy, 
 91 Crest, 
 145 Creta, 
 621 Creuse-Depart- 
 259| ment, 
 J46 Creux du Vent, 
 472 Creuzburg, 
 109 Creuzot, 
 
 471 jCorneliusmiinster, 490 Crevecoeuer, 
 
 Civita Cistellana, 133 Columbretes, 
 Civita di Chieti, 143i Comacchiu, 
 
 Coleraine, 
 Coll, 
 300 Colle, 
 201 Collioure, 
 134|Colmar, 
 134 1 Col mars, 
 201 Coin, 
 
 150 Cologne, ancient 
 97; archbishopric of, 490 Cortina, 
 
 881 , city of, 491 Corvey, 
 
 90iColomba, 97Corvo, 
 
 512 Cofc >mo, 117 Cosenza, 
 
 9-. Coal n, 
 135 Cosue, 
 
 236iCorneto, 
 382 { Corn igliano, 
 249 Cornwall, 
 342iCorreggio, 
 258JCorreze Depart- 
 255 ment, 
 124 1 Corsica, 
 219iCorsignano, 
 198iCortaillod, 
 224Corte, 
 491 Cortona, 
 (Cortryk, 
 
 ]88 
 
 212 
 I 
 389 
 201 
 190 
 246 
 610 
 383 
 408 
 
 133 Crickhowel, 
 112 Crimea, 
 238 Crimmitzsch.au, 
 119 Crivitz, 
 
 jCroates, 29 
 
 212 Croatia, 529 
 
 225 Croce Mosso, 108 
 
 124 Croja, 633 
 
 163 Croix Rousse, La, 214 
 
 225 Cromartv, 
 124 Cromwell, 
 280 Crosic, Le, 
 
 90 Croton, 
 484 Crotoy, 
 
 75 Croydon, 
 145 Crusades, 
 471 Csepin, 
 204 Csongrad, 
 
 254 
 233 
 210 
 145 
 188 
 235 
 45 
 530 
 528 
 
646 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE | 
 
 Cucarro, 
 
 Cuccio, 
 
 Cud i Hero, 
 
 Cuenca, 
 
 Cuglieri, 
 
 Cuilly, 
 
 Cnllen, 
 
 Cully, 
 
 Culm, 
 
 Culm bach, 
 
 Culmsee, 
 
 Cumberland) 
 
 Cum brays, 
 
 Cumbrede Mulha 
 
 ceu, 
 < ' imiaini, 
 Cuueo, 
 Cans, 
 Cuorgne, 
 Cupar, 
 
 Curishe Haff, 
 Curland, 
 Cusel, 
 Cuxhafen, 
 Cyclades, 
 Cylhera, 
 Czar, 
 
 Czarnikow, 
 Czech, 
 
 Czenstochau, 
 Czernigow, 
 Czernowitz, 
 Czerny Georg, 
 
 Dacia,521,530,635,630 
 
 PAGK| 
 
 Ill Davos, 
 
 5 Davidow, 6(11 
 
 90 Dax, 217 
 
 88 Debreczin, 528 
 
 114|Debreczin Heath, 502 
 
 168 Dees, 
 253 Deggendorf, 
 168 Deidesheim 
 49Speinach, 
 319!Deister, 
 498 Delbriick, 
 244 Delemont, 
 252 1 Delft, 
 pelfzyl, 
 
 5|Delitzch, 
 107lDelmenhorst, 
 107!Delos, 
 4*9 Dei phi, 
 lOHpelsberg, 
 251 Delvino, 
 
 9 Demmin, 
 597 Demonte, 
 328!Demotica, 
 450 Denain, 
 
 Dago, 
 
 Dahlen, 
 
 Dal River, 
 
 Dalarue, 
 
 Dalekarlien, 
 
 Dalhem, 
 
 Dalkeith, 
 
 Dalmatia, 
 
 D;i Island, 
 
 Dalya, 
 
 Dana, 
 
 Dam bach, 
 
 I), i in m, 
 
 Dammersfeld, 
 
 Dammgarten, 
 
 Damvilliers, 
 
 Daniistris, 
 
 Daugast, 
 
 Danish Islands 
 
 Dannemoia, 
 
 Daiineiilierg, 
 
 D.uiizick, 
 
 Danube, 
 
 Danube circle, 
 
 Danzig, 
 
 Dardanelles, 
 
 Darkehmen, 
 
 Darlington, 
 
 Darmstadt, 
 
 Daroca, 
 
 Dartmouth, 
 
 Dauphins of Vien 
 
 note, 
 Dauphiny, 
 
 Denbigh, 
 Denbighshire, 
 Dender, 
 Dendermonde, 
 Denia, 
 Denmark, 
 Deptt'ord, 
 Derby, 
 Derbyshire, 
 Derenburg, 
 Derry, 
 Des, 
 
 Desenzano, 
 Desna, 
 Dessau, 
 Detmold, 
 Deitelbach, 
 Detlingen, 
 Deutichem, 
 Deutsch-Crone, 
 Deutsch- Wallen- 
 berg, 
 Deutz, 
 Deux-Ponts, 
 Deva, 
 Deventer, 
 Devil's Bridge, 
 Devil's Ladder, 
 Devonport, 
 Devonshire, 
 
 Deynse, 
 
 Diakovar, 
 
 Diauo, 
 
 Die, 
 
 Diedenhofen, 
 497|Dieburg, 
 10 Diekirch, 
 497Diepenau, 
 244 Diepholz, 
 354 I Dieppe, 
 MJDieagtMiuofen, 
 238;Diust, 
 
 Dietftirt, 
 222 Dietz, 
 22^. Die u (island), 
 
 531 
 316 
 327 
 333 
 8 
 484 
 150 
 269 
 273 
 480 
 42.1 
 623 
 RSI 
 158 
 633 
 47(1 
 
 roe 
 
 v.n 
 M6 
 MB 
 
 10 
 
 no 
 
 06 
 543 
 336 
 
 242 
 478 
 
 sse 
 
 S3] 
 
 53 » 
 
 12 
 (05 
 
 438 
 
 32! 
 333 
 
 272 
 498 
 
 47.". 
 491 
 338 
 531 
 272 
 106 
 983 
 
 530 
 142 
 222 1 
 196 
 355 
 367 
 436 
 436 
 184 
 166 
 278 
 3 17 
 369 
 210 
 
 Dieu le Fit, 
 
 jDieuze, 
 Digne, 
 Dijon, 
 J Di I len burg, 
 jDillingen, 
 Dinan, 
 Dinant, 
 ! Dingle, 
 i Dingwall, 
 iDinkelsbiihl, 
 jDinklage, 
 iDinogetia, 
 Dinslaken, 
 Dippoldiswalde. 
 Diischau, 
 Disenlis, 
 Dissen, 
 
 PAGE) 
 
 222 Dortmund, 
 
 195 Dorum, 
 
 224 Dotis, 
 
 201 Douai, 
 
 362 Doubs Depart- 
 
 325 meut, 
 
 209 Done, 
 
 282 Doutflas, 
 
 260 Doullens, 
 
 254 Douro, 
 
 321 Dover, 
 
 423 Dovre-fjeld, 
 
 612 Down, 
 
 494 Downham, 
 
 381 Downpatrick, 
 
 498 Dragomestre, 
 
 162;Dragonera, 
 
 441!Draguignan, 
 
 Dithmarschen 414,418 Drama, 
 
 Divenow, 
 Dixmuyden, 
 Dnieper, 
 Dniester, 
 Dobbertin, 
 ; Doberan, 
 ! Dobriluck, 
 Doesburg, 
 
 13 Dramburg, 
 281 Dram men, 
 
 121 Drave, 
 
 12 Dreieicherhain, 
 410iDrenthe, 
 409 1 Dresden, 
 408 Dreux, 
 272|Dreysam, 
 
 Doge (of Venice), 540jDriburg, 
 
 Dohna 
 
 Dokkum, 
 
 Dole, 
 
 Dolgelly, 
 
 Dollart, 
 
 Dombes, 
 
 Domburg, 
 
 Dom front, 
 
 Dornhof, 
 
 Domino, 
 
 Domitz, 
 
 Domndossola, 
 
 Domo d'Ossola, 
 
 Domremy, 
 
 Don, 
 
 Donaghadee, 
 
 Donaueschingen, 
 
 Donaustauf, 
 
 Donauworth, 
 
 Donegal, 
 
 Donez, 
 
 Dongio, 
 
 Doornik, 
 
 Dora Baltea, 
 
 Dora Riparia, 
 
 Dorat, 
 
 Dorchester, 
 
 Dordogne, 
 
 Dordogue Depart 
 
 merit, 
 Durgali, 
 Dornburg, 
 Dornhan, 
 Dornholzhaustm, 
 Dornoch, 
 Durnstetten, 
 Dorohoe, 
 Dorpat, 
 Dorsetshire, 
 D.irsteu, 
 Dorl, 
 
 381 Driesen, 
 
 272 
 
 6, 203 
 
 246 
 
 270 
 
 Drin, 
 Dristra, 
 Drogheda, 
 Dmhyczyn, 
 Droitwich, 
 Drome, 
 
 D.dine Depart- 
 ment, 
 Dronero, 
 Drottningholm, 
 Drontheim, 
 Diiben, 
 Dubienka, 
 Dubitza, 
 Dublin, 
 Duderstadt 
 Dudley, 
 Duern, 
 Duisburg, 
 Dukeries, 
 Dukla, 
 Dulcigno, 
 Dulken, 
 Diilmen, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 485 
 438 
 526 
 190 
 
 202 
 207 
 247 
 188 
 
 14 
 236 
 5 
 258 
 237 
 258 
 621 
 
 97 
 224 
 630 
 472 
 576 
 
 16 
 355 
 273 
 380 
 185 
 338 
 484 
 467 
 
 15 
 629 
 257 
 602 
 240 
 
 15 
 
 222 
 108 
 568 
 577 
 480 
 607 
 533, 634 
 256 
 440 
 240 
 14 
 494 
 242 
 519 
 632 
 493 
 483 
 251 
 
 212|Dumbarton, 
 
 238 1 Dumbartonshire, 251 
 
 15! Dumfries, 250 
 
 [Dumfriesshire, 250 
 
 215] Dummer Lake, 431 
 
 114 puna, 13 
 
 406lDunaburg, 601 
 
 333| Dunbar, 249 
 
 359Dundalk, 257 
 
 254! Dundee, 252 
 
 333: Dunfermline, 252 
 
 637!Dui.gann..n, 258 
 
 5:)7|Dunuaivau, 259 
 
 3S8|DanktfM, 253 
 
 4831 Dunkirk, 191 
 
 269iDanse, 249 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 647 
 
 Dunsinan, 
 
 Durance, 
 
 Durango, 
 
 Durazzo, 
 
 Diiren, 
 
 Durham, 
 
 D irhamshire, 
 
 Diirkheim, 
 
 Durlach, 
 
 Durtal, 
 
 Dusemond, 
 
 Diisseldorf, 
 
 Dii-i-rltll.il, 
 
 Dutch, the 
 Dutch Flanders, 
 Dwrna, 
 
 D'Yeu (island), 
 Dyrrachium, 
 
 Eaglesham. 
 East Flanders, 
 K ist Friseland, 
 East Galloway, 
 East Luthian, 
 East Meath, 
 Eastphalians, 
 East Prussia, 
 East Pyrenees De- 
 partment, 
 Eist Riding, 
 Eaize, 
 Ebeleben, 
 Ebeltoft, 
 Eberbach, 
 Ebermanustadt, 
 Ebern, 
 Ebersdorf, 
 f'bingen, 
 Eboli, 
 Ebro, 
 Echallens, 
 Eehelles, 
 Echternach, 
 Ecija, 
 
 Eckardtsberga, 
 Eckernforde, 
 Ecktniihl, 
 Eel use, 
 Eeouen, 
 Edam, 
 
 EdlerachylUa, 
 Eddy stone, 
 Edenkoben, 
 Ede-theitn, 
 BduMB, 
 Edinburgh, 
 Edinburghshire, 
 Ef»cloo, 
 Eger (city), 
 Eger Hn Hungary) 527 BttrUle 
 Eger River, 16 Klvas, 
 
 rxocl PAOI 
 
 253 Ehningen, 333 
 
 15 Ehrenbreitstein, 487 
 97 Ehrig, 400 
 
 63-2 Eibenstock, 383 
 
 490 Eichsfeld, 481 
 
 244 Eichsfeld, Lower, 440 
 
 244 Eichstiidt, 
 
 388 Eider, 
 
 340 Eifel, 
 
 207 Eilenburg, 
 
 489 Eilsen, 
 
 492 Eimbeck, 
 
 492 Eindhoven 
 
 2ii5 Einsiedeln, 
 
 270 Eisenach, 
 12 Eisenberg. 
 
 210 Eisenburg, 
 
 632 Eisenstadt, 
 iEisfeld, 
 
 251 Eisgrub, 
 
 279 Eisleben, 
 
 442 Ekenas, 
 
 250 Ekesjo, 
 
 249 Elba, 
 
 257 Elbe, 
 
 298 Elberfeld, 
 
 495 Elbeuf, 
 Elbing, 
 
 PAOK 
 
 158 
 , 364 
 17 
 98 
 345 
 162 
 
 ma 
 
 572 
 
 484 
 298 
 281 
 234 
 
 219 Elbingerode, 
 
 243 El burg, 
 
 2l6Elche, 
 
 401 Eldagsen, 
 
 553 Eldena, 
 
 314 Electoral Hesse, 368 
 
 319 Electoral Palat- 
 
 333 inate, 327, 312 
 
 393 Electors of the an- 
 
 333 j cient German 
 
 142 1 empire, 
 
 14 Ellsborg, 
 168 Elfs-iabben, 
 109 Elgersburg, 
 367 Elgin. 
 
 92l Elginshire, 
 483! El is, 
 
 5561 Elisabethgrad 
 3lfi|Eilfeld, 
 270 Ellbogen, 
 184iEllg, 
 SOU Ellinsren, 
 254 Ellrich, 
 338 Ellwaugen, 
 327 Blmshorn, 
 327 Rtmntftr, 
 630 Elsfleth, 
 241) Eisterben?, 
 349 Elsterwerda, 
 380 Elterlein, 
 515 EH mum, 
 
 If. 
 
 272 
 
 4t> 
 
 72 
 221 
 527 
 192 
 
 Egglofotein, 
 Egidatadt, 
 
 Egina. 
 
 Egisheim, 
 
 Eglisau, 
 
 Egribos, 
 
 Ehenheim, 
 
 Ehingeu, 
 
 32) | Ely, 
 
 5:11 E'.vaiaus, 
 
 820 Blxaeh, 
 
 198 Elza, 
 
 r; » Bmbrun, 
 
 633 Bindeo, 
 
 197 r'mmendingen, 
 
 3 ■;."» Emmerich, 
 
 Emme-valley, 
 
 Ems (in Nassau). 
 
 Ems River, 
 
 Encartaiiones, 
 
 Endingen, 
 
 Eug.idin, 
 
 Engelberg, 
 
 Eugelholm, 
 
 Enger, 
 
 Engers, 
 
 Enghien, 
 
 England, 
 
 English Channel, 
 
 Enkhuyzen, 
 
 Biikoping, 
 
 Ennis, 
 
 Enniscorthy, 
 
 Enniskillen, 
 
 Enontekis, 
 
 Enos, 
 
 Ens, 
 
 Enschede, 
 
 Ensigns armorial 
 
 Enstsheim, 
 
 Entre Minlio e 
 
 Douro, 
 Entrevaux, 
 Eperies, 
 Eperuay, 
 
 Epidaurus Limera623 
 Epinal, 
 Epirus, 
 Eppendorf, 
 Eppiagen, 
 Epsom, 
 Epstein, 
 Erbach, 
 Exole, 
 Enlely, 
 
 Enlely Highland, 
 Erding, 
 En-kli, 
 Erfurt, 
 Ergi Kastri, 
 Erlacii, 
 Erlangen, 
 Erlau, 
 Erlier, 
 E<-ma:ingen, 
 Ermeland, 
 Enistthal, 
 Erpel, 
 Erzgebirge, 
 E<ch, 
 
 E«chenbach, 
 Eschersleben, 
 E<chwege, 
 E«;hweiler, 
 Escurial, 
 
 Es.'ns, 
 
 Eskibnba, 
 EitiUtutiOi 
 
 Eskisagra, 
 Espali.ui, 
 Espinosa de los 
 
 Monteros, 
 Esqueira, 
 E«ek, 
 Essen, 
 
 pack 
 236 
 509 
 332 
 159 
 541 
 118 
 97 
 527 
 596 
 
 Esslinj?, 
 
 Esslingen, 
 
 Estavayer, 
 
 E-te, 
 
 Este, house of, 
 
 Estelh, 
 
 Esterhaz, 
 
 Bothnia, 
 
 jEstremadura, in 
 
 [ Portugal, 
 
 Estremadura (in 
 Spain), 
 
 Estremoz, 
 
 Eta m pes, 
 
 Etaples, 
 
 Etholone, 
 
 Etna, 
 
 Eton, 
 
 Etruria, 
 
 Etruria (England), 241 
 
 Etruscan Apen- 
 nines, 5 
 
 Etruscans, 102 
 
 Ettenheim, 346 
 
 Ettenhei ininunster 345 
 
 71 
 
 91 
 73 
 
 184 
 
 5 
 
 235 
 122 
 
 195 
 
 632 
 45!) 
 342 
 335 
 
 364 
 
 355 
 
 125 
 
 530 
 5 
 315 
 B38 
 481 
 633 
 158 
 331 
 537 
 158 
 166 
 
 ton 
 
 393 
 488 
 
 7 
 317 
 
 3n 
 
 417 
 371 
 
 490 
 
 a 
 
 •14? 
 03 i 
 563 
 639 
 
 3J6 
 
 PS 
 
 72 
 529 
 494; 
 
 Etllingen, 
 Eu, 
 
 Euboca, 
 Eulen-Gebirge 
 Eupen, 
 Eure, 
 
 Eure Department, 186 
 Eure and Loir De- 
 partment, 205 
 European Russia, 579 
 
 341 
 1*6 
 623 
 
 7 
 
 490 
 
 15 
 
 Euskirchen, 
 
 492 
 
 Eutin, 
 
 425 
 
 Eviau, 
 
 1H9 
 
 Evora, 
 
 73 
 
 Evreux, 
 
 1R6 
 
 Exeter, 
 
 238 
 
 Exideuil, 
 
 215 
 
 Exilles, 
 
 107 
 
 Eyjaflalle-Joekul, 
 
 8 
 
 Eylau, 
 
 496 
 
 Eyraoutiers, 
 
 212 
 
 Faaborar, 
 
 551 
 
 Fabriauo, 
 
 134 
 
 Fachingen, 
 
 362 
 
 Faemund Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Faenza, 
 
 135 
 
 Faetano, 
 
 136 
 
 Fagaras, 
 
 531 
 
 Falaise, 
 
 187 
 
 Falkenberg, 196,572 
 
 Falkirk, 
 
 251 
 
 Falmouth, 
 
 239 
 
 Falkdpmg, 
 
 573 
 
 Falser, 
 Falun, 
 
 Si 
 
 F.wio, 
 
 134 
 
 FanoL', 
 
 553 
 
 Faro, 
 
 74 
 
 Faroe Isles, 
 
 557 
 
 F-irsa, 
 
 031 
 
 Faucigny, 
 
 199 
 
 Faulquemont, 
 
 196 
 
648 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAQKj 
 
 FAOKl paok( pagk 
 
 Fauquemont, 
 
 368:Fivizzano, 
 
 125JFrankenau, 
 
 372 Fridericia, 
 
 553 
 
 Favara, 
 
 147 
 
 Fladstrand, 
 
 552 Frankenberg, 372, 384 Friesoyte, 
 
 423 
 
 Faverges, 
 
 109 
 
 Fladungen, 
 
 323 ! Frankenhauseu, 
 
 401 
 
 rriedberg, 
 
 358 
 
 Faviere, 
 
 160 
 
 Flanders, 279, 28 
 
 474 
 
 Friedberg (in Ba 
 
 
 Favignana, 
 
 147 
 
 Flatow, 
 
 498'Frankenthal, 
 
 327 
 
 varia), 
 
 315 
 
 Fayal, 
 
 75 
 
 Flemings, 19, 275 Fran ken wald, 
 
 7 
 
 Friedeberg, 467 
 
 ,475 
 
 Fecamp, 
 
 186 
 
 Flensburg, 
 
 556 Frankfort, grand- 
 
 
 Friedewald, 
 
 373 
 
 Feder Lake, 
 
 329 
 
 Fleurus, 
 
 281 j ducliyof, 
 
 294 
 
 Fried ingeu, 
 
 332 
 
 Fees, 
 
 36 Flint, 
 
 246, Frank fort on the 
 
 
 Friedlaud, 496 
 
 , 516 
 
 Feglio, 
 
 136 Flintshire, 
 
 246 Mayne, 454 
 
 455 ' Friedrichshafen, 
 
 334 
 
 Fehrbellin, 
 
 465 Florae, 
 
 221 Frankfort on the 
 
 Fried richshof, 
 
 359 
 
 Fejer Templom, 
 
 5341 Florence, 
 
 123 1 Oder, 
 
 467 Fried richstadt, 
 
 597 
 
 Feldberg, 
 
 7JFU>res, 
 
 75 Frankish circle, 
 
 292 Friesack, 
 
 466 
 
 Feldberg, Great, 
 
 8JFloridia, 
 
 1 18 ' Friinkisch-Kruin- 
 
 IFrieses, 
 
 263 
 
 Feldkirch, 
 
 514lFlottbeck, 
 
 418| bach, 
 
 353 Friesland, 
 
 272 
 
 Felegyhaza, 
 
 529 
 
 Fluelen, 
 
 Kit; Franks (Germau 
 
 iFrieslunders, 
 
 298 
 
 Felicudi, 
 
 149 
 
 Flushing, 
 
 270 
 
 tribe), 
 
 26 Frignano, 
 
 119 
 
 Felletin, 
 
 212 
 
 Fochabers, 
 
 253 
 
 Franks (in Tur- 
 
 Fritzlar, 
 
 372 
 
 Fellin, 
 
 597 
 
 Foehn, 
 
 152 
 
 key), 
 
 624 Frontignan, 
 
 220 
 
 Felsberg, 
 
 371 
 
 Foggia, 
 
 144 
 
 Franks, Ripuarian 298 Froome, 
 
 239 
 
 Feltre, 
 
 542 
 
 Fohr, 
 
 557 
 
 , Salic, 
 
 298 Frosinoue, 
 
 133 
 
 Felvincz, 
 
 532 
 
 Foix, 
 
 218 
 
 Franzensbrunn, 
 
 515 Frutingen, 
 
 158 
 
 Femern, 
 
 557 
 
 Fokshan, 
 
 636 
 
 Frascati, 
 
 132 Fuente Ovejuna, 
 
 93 
 
 Fene9trelle, 
 
 107 
 
 Fdldvar, 
 
 532 
 
 Frasersburgh, 
 
 252 Fuenterabia, 
 
 97 
 
 Feodosia, 
 
 610 
 
 Foligno, 
 
 134 
 
 Frauenburg, 
 
 496 Fugger, princes 
 
 
 Ferrara, 
 
 135 
 
 Fondi, 
 
 142 
 
 Frauenfeld, 
 
 165i and earls of, 
 
 326 
 
 Fere Champenoise, 
 
 Fonni, 
 
 114 
 
 Frauenstein, 
 
 381 Fulda (city), 
 
 373 
 
 La, 
 
 192 
 
 Fontenay, 
 
 281 
 
 Fraustadt, 
 
 499 Fulda (Hessian 
 
 
 Fermanagh, 
 
 258 
 
 Fontenay le Comte 110 
 
 Fredensborg, 
 
 549 i province), 
 
 372 
 
 Fermo, 
 
 134 
 
 Fontainebleau, 
 
 184 
 
 Frederic the Great 46 
 
 17 
 
 Fermoselle, 
 
 90 
 
 Fontaine rEveque281 
 
 Frederiksborg, 
 
 549 Fulnek, 
 
 517 
 
 Fermoy, 
 
 259 
 
 Fontaine Fran- 
 
 
 Frederikshald, 
 
 576 Fumay, 
 
 191 
 
 Feruey, 
 
 202 
 
 caise, 
 
 201 
 
 Frederishamn, 
 
 599 Funen, 
 
 551 
 
 Ferrol, 
 
 90 
 
 Foradada, 
 
 97 
 
 Frederikshavn, 
 
 552 FUnfkirchen, 
 
 526 
 
 Ferte Bernard, La 207 
 
 Forcalquier, 
 
 224 
 
 Frederiksoort, 
 
 273 Furnas, 
 
 75 
 
 Ferte sous Jouarre, 193 
 
 Forchheim, 
 
 320 
 
 Frederiksort, 
 
 556 Furnes, 
 
 281 
 
 Feuchtwang, 
 
 320 
 
 Forchtenberg, 
 
 337 
 
 Frederiksstad, 
 
 576 Fiirstenau, 
 
 441 
 
 Feudal System, 
 
 35 
 
 Forchteustein, 
 
 527 
 
 Frederikstad, 
 
 556 Furstenberg, 412, 44 
 
 Fichtelberg, Great, 7 
 
 Fordon, 
 
 500 
 
 Frederikssteen, 
 
 576 Furstenberg, prij 
 
 . 
 
 Little, 
 
 7 
 
 Forest of Thurin 
 
 
 Frederikssund, 
 
 550 ces of, 346 
 
 ,347 
 
 Fichtel-Gebirge, 
 
 7 
 
 g'a, 
 
 7 
 
 Frederiksviirn, 
 
 576 Furstenberg, town 
 
 Fiesole, 
 
 123 
 
 Forez, 
 
 214 
 
 Frederikswerk, 
 
 549 of, 
 
 347 
 
 File, 
 
 251 
 
 Forfax, 
 
 252 
 
 Free Cities, 
 
 51 FUrstenstein, 
 
 473 
 
 Fifeshire, 
 
 251 
 
 Forfaxshire, 
 
 252 
 
 Freiberg, 
 
 381 
 
 Fiirstenwalde, 
 
 467 
 
 Figeac, 
 
 216 
 
 Forli, 
 
 135 
 
 Freiburg in Breis 
 
 
 Furth, 
 
 320 
 
 Figline 
 
 123 
 
 Formentera, 
 
 97 
 
 gau, 344 
 
 ,345 
 
 Fiissen, 
 
 325 
 
 Figueira do Mon- 
 
 Fornovo, 
 
 117 
 
 Freiburg (in Swit 
 
 
 Fyen, 
 
 551 
 
 dego, 
 
 72 
 
 Forres, 
 
 253 
 
 zerland), 
 
 159 
 
 
 
 Figueras, 
 
 95 
 
 Forst, 
 
 327 
 
 Freiburg unterm 
 
 
 Gadebiisch, 
 
 409 
 
 Filehne, 
 
 500 
 
 Forste, 
 
 468 
 
 FUrstenstein, 
 
 473 Gabela, 
 
 634 
 
 Filibe, 
 
 630 
 
 Fort Louis, 
 
 198 
 
 Freienhagen, 
 
 376'Gaeta, 
 
 112 
 
 Finale, 
 
 113 
 
 Fort Opus, 
 
 535 
 
 Freienwalde, 
 
 466 Gaels, 
 
 19 
 
 Finale (iu Mode- 
 
 Fort Vauban, 
 
 198 
 
 Freihan, 
 
 474 Gai bach, 
 
 : J 23 
 
 na), 
 
 119 
 
 Forth, 
 
 14 
 
 Freising, 
 
 315 Gaillac, 
 
 220 
 
 Findhorn, 
 
 253 
 
 Fosdinovo, 
 
 119 
 
 Freiwaldau, 475 
 
 , 517 Gailinipi, 
 
 
 Fingal'8 Cave, 
 
 254 
 
 Fossano, 
 
 108 
 
 Frejus, 
 
 224 Gainsborough, 
 
 2)7 
 
 Finisterre Depart- 
 
 Fossigny, 
 
 109 
 
 French Flanders, 
 
 190 Gais, 
 
 157 
 
 ment, 
 
 209 
 
 Fossombrone, 
 
 134 
 
 French Nether- 
 
 i Galacz, 
 
 637 
 
 Finland, 
 
 598 
 
 Fotheringay, 
 
 241 
 
 lands, 
 
 190!Galanlha, 
 
 524 
 
 Finland Gulf, 
 
 9 
 
 Fougeres, 
 
 208 
 
 French Switzer- 
 
 |Galaxidi, 
 
 621 
 
 Finnan, 
 
 252 
 
 Fraga, 
 
 94 
 
 land, 
 
 167 Galenstock, 
 
 166 
 
 Finnish tribe, 
 
 564 
 
 Francavilla, 
 
 145 
 
 Fresh Haff, 
 
 9 Galicia (Austrian) 518 
 
 Finnmarken, 
 
 578 
 
 France, 
 
 170 
 
 Freudenstadt, 
 
 333 Galicia (in Spaiu ; 
 
 , 90 
 
 Finspong, 
 
 570 
 
 Franche 
 
 
 Freudenberg, 
 
 314 Gallaecia, 
 
 84 
 
 Finsteraarhorn, 
 
 4 
 
 Comte, 200, 202 
 
 Freystadt, 
 
 318 Gallego. 14, 77 
 
 Finsterwalde, 
 
 468 
 
 Franconi a, 
 
 
 Friaul, 31 
 
 512 Gallipoli, 144 
 
 ,628 
 
 Fiorenzuola, 
 
 117 
 
 318,320,322 
 
 Friaul, Venetian, 
 
 542 .Galloway, East, 
 
 250 
 
 Fiume, 
 
 529 
 
 Franconiau Alps, 
 
 7 
 
 Friburg, 
 
 159 New. 
 
 2.30 
 
 Fiumicino, 
 
 133 
 
 Franeker, 
 
 272 
 
 Frick, 
 
 156 
 
 , West, 
 
 250 
 
INDEX. 
 
 64T 
 
 Galium, 
 
 Galoshields, 
 
 Galway, 
 
 Gamertingen, 
 
 Gamla Carle by, 
 
 Gandersheim, 
 
 Gandia, 
 
 Ganges, 
 
 G an nat, 
 
 Gap, 
 
 Gard. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 114 
 
 250 
 259 
 349 
 
 Gerabronn, 
 Gerace, 
 Gerardraer, 
 .__ Gerdauen, 
 599iGeringswalde, 
 447|Gerlachsheim, 
 96 German Empire, 
 220 1 the ancient, 
 204 Germanes, 
 222|Germania, 297 
 
 15 Germanic Confed- 
 
 PAG«| PAUK 
 
 336 Glatz, 474 
 
 145 1 Glatz, earldom of, 474 
 
 Gard Department, 220 1 eration 
 Garda Lake, 1 1 Germany 
 
 Gardanne, 
 
 Gardelegen, 
 
 Garding, 
 
 Gardone, 
 
 Garfagna, 
 
 Garfagna Grandu 
 
 cale, 
 Gargnano, 
 Garigliano, 
 Garmisch, 
 Garmouth, 
 Garonne, 
 Garter, the, 
 Garz, 
 Garz (on the island 
 
 224 Germersheim 
 478 Gernrode, 
 556 Gernsbach, 
 540 Gernsheim, 
 119 Gerolzhofen, 
 
 | Gerona, 
 125 Gerresheim, 
 540 Gers, 
 
 195 Glauchau, 
 
 496:Gleiwitz, 
 
 383 Glen-Coe, 
 
 344 Glina, 
 Glogau, 
 
 291|Glommen, 
 18, 19 Glons, 
 Glott. 
 
 Gloucester, 
 Gloucestershire, 
 Gliicksbrunu, 
 
 3-27 Gliicksburg 
 
 GlUckstadt, 
 
 Gmiind, 
 
 Gmunden Lake, 
 
 Gnadau, 
 _ Gnadenfeld, 
 492 Gnesen, 
 15Goch, 
 
 404 
 341 
 354 
 323 
 95 
 
 15 Gers Department, 216 Goes, 
 315 Gersau, 164 1 Goeschenen 
 
 253 Gerstungen, 
 
 15 Gertruidenberg. 
 232 Gesecke 
 
 389iGoetzenbruck 
 274G6ksholm, 
 485|Goldapp, 
 158iGoIdau, 
 
 of Riigen), 
 Gascony, 
 G ostein, 
 Gatshina, 
 Gaualgesheim, 
 Gaul, 
 Gebeaee, 
 Gebweiler, 
 Gedern, 
 Geertsberghen, 
 Geeste, 
 Geeslhacht, 
 Gefle, 
 Gehren, 
 Geilnau, 
 Geisenbeim, 
 Geiser, 
 Geisingen, 
 Geislingen, 
 Geismar, 
 Gelderland, 
 Geldern, 
 Geldern (in Prus- 
 
 G rand pre, 
 Grand Signior, 
 1 Gessenay, 158iGoldau, 164; Grandson, 
 
 Gvstrikland, 573 Goldberg, 410, 474 Grand Vizier, 
 
 165 Golden Bull, 301 Grangemouth, 
 
 202| Golden Fleece, 83, 506 Gran River, 
 
 Gellen, 
 
 Gellbeim, 
 
 Gelnhausen, 
 
 Gembloux, 
 
 Gemiinden, 
 
 Generalife, 
 
 Geneva, 
 
 Geneva Lake, 
 
 Genevese, 
 
 Genevois, 
 
 Gengenbach, 
 
 Gennargentu, 
 
 Gennep, 
 
 Genoa, 
 
 Genthin, 
 
 Gepides, 
 
 Gera, 
 
 471 Gevio, 
 216 Gex, 
 510 Geyer, 
 596 Geysa, 
 
 356 Gheel, 
 26 Ghent, 
 
 481 Giant's Causeway, 258 
 198 Giants' Mts., 
 
 357 Gianuti, 
 280 Giare, 
 
 17 Giaveno, 
 450 Gibraltar, 
 573 Giebichenstein, 
 401 Gieboldehausen, 
 365 Gien, 
 363 Giencen, 
 559 Gieasen, 
 347 Gifhorn, 
 334 Gigantiuu, 
 371 Giglio, 
 271 Gijon, 
 271 Gilgenberg, 
 
 |Gingst, 
 494 Giornico, 
 471 Giovenazzo, 
 328 Girgenti, 
 374 Gironde, 
 282Gironde Depart- 
 323, 372; ment, 
 
 93 Gisborough, 
 160Giurgewo, 
 
 11 Givet, 
 109Givors. 
 109| Glaciers, 
 341 Gladbach, 
 5 Glammis, 
 368 Glamorganshire, 
 111,112 Glarus, 
 478 Glasgow, 
 
 24 Glashutle, 
 399 Glastonbury, 
 
 384 
 476 
 253 
 533 
 474 
 
 14 
 282 
 326 
 240 
 240 
 391 
 557 
 416 
 336 
 
 11 
 479 
 476' 
 500i 
 4114 
 270 
 l(i(i 
 19.-) 
 5(59 
 497 
 164 
 474! 
 
 II 
 
 Gournay, 
 
 Govone, 
 
 Gozzo, 
 
 Graben, 
 
 Grabfeld, 
 
 Grabow, 
 
 Graciosa, 
 
 Gradisca, 
 
 Gradisca, New, 
 
 , Old, 
 
 Grafenau, 
 Grafenberg, 
 Grafenberg (in Ba 
 
 varia), 
 Griifenhainchen, 
 Griifrath, 
 Grammont, 
 Grampian Hills, 
 Gran, 
 Granada, 
 Granard, 
 Grand Colombier, 
 Grand Donnon, 
 Grand Chartreuse, 22 
 
 10 
 
 32f> 
 32 
 
 40f; 
 
 51; 
 53 i 
 
 53 
 
 3K 
 518 
 
 4:.. 
 W 
 
 S3 
 9:< 
 •Jo: 
 
 383 Goldingen, 
 389 Goldkronach, 
 279 Gollheim, 
 279 Gollnow, 
 
 Gollup, 
 
 Gondreville, 
 
 Gonten, 
 
 Gonzaga, 
 
 Goole, 
 
 Goppingen, 
 
 Goree, 
 
 Gorgeny, 
 
 Gorgeny-Szent- 
 Imreh, 
 
 Gorgona, 
 
 Gorizia, 
 
 Gorkum, 
 
 Gorlitz, 
 
 Gortz-Schlitz, 
 
 Gorz, 
 
 Goslar, 
 
 Gospich, 
 
 Gosport, 
 
 Gossau, 
 
 Gota-Canal, 
 
 Gotha, 
 
 Gotha River, 
 
 Gotharike, 
 
 Gdtheborg, 
 
 Gothic style in ar 
 chitecture, 
 152 Goths, 
 493 Gottenburg, 
 253 Gdttingen, 
 245 Gottland, 
 161 Gottlieben, 
 256 Gottorp, 
 381 Gouda, 
 239 Gourdon, 
 
 28 
 
 596 
 319 
 328 
 470 
 498 
 195 J 
 157 
 539 
 243 
 335! 
 270j 
 5311 
 
 531 
 125 
 
 512 
 270 
 475 
 358 
 512! 
 439! 
 533 1 
 238 
 169 
 562 
 394 
 13 
 570 
 572 
 
 44 
 18,23 
 572 
 440 
 571 
 165 
 556 
 270 
 216 
 
 193 
 6-26 
 
 251 
 16 
 
 Gran Sasso d'ltalia, 5 
 
 168 
 187 
 93 
 450 
 221 
 
 Gran see, 
 Granville, 
 Grao, 
 
 Grasbrook, 
 Grasse, 
 Grasse, La, 
 Gratz, 
 Gratz, 
 Graudenz, 
 Graulhet, 
 Grave, 
 Gravelines, 
 Gravelingen, 
 s'Gravenhaag, 
 Gravenstein, 
 Gravesand, 
 Gray, 
 Gray Alps, 
 Gray le Pre, 
 Great Belt, 
 Great Britain, 
 Great Feldberg, 
 Great Greece, 
 Great Hall', 
 Great-Island, 
 Great Rumania, 
 Great Poland, 
 Great Rad, 
 Great Russia, 
 Great Schneeberg, 6 
 Grebenstein, 371 
 
 Grecian Archipel- 
 ago, 10 
 Greding, 322 
 Greece, 617 
 Greek Church, 20 
 Greeks, 19 
 Greenlaw, 249 
 
 510 
 510 
 498 
 220 
 274 
 190 
 190 
 269 
 556 
 230 
 203 
 4 
 
 8 
 10C 
 
 9 
 259 
 528 
 
 6o;» 
 
 7 
 980 
 
650 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE' 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Greenock, 
 
 251 Guden, 
 
 14 
 
 Halifax, 
 
 243 
 
 Hauptweil, 
 
 166 
 
 Greenwich, 
 
 236 Gudensberg, 
 
 371 
 
 Hall, 335, 513 
 
 Hausach, 
 
 312 
 
 Greetsiel, 
 
 443 Guelphs, 
 
 433 
 
 Halland, 
 
 572 
 
 Hausberge, 
 
 484 
 
 Gregory VII., 
 
 41,Guerande, 
 
 210 
 
 Halle, 
 
 480 
 
 Hausen, 342, 345, 3' 
 
 Greiffenberg, 
 
 470JGuerche, La, 
 
 208 
 
 Halle (inBelgiun 
 
 )278 
 
 Haute Combe, 
 
 109 
 
 Greiffenberg (in 
 
 |Gueret, 
 
 212 
 
 Hallein, 
 
 510 
 
 Hauterive, 
 
 159 
 
 Silesia), 
 
 475 j Guernsey, 
 
 247 Halligen, 
 
 557 
 
 Hautpoul, 
 
 220 
 
 Greiffenhagen, 
 
 470jGuetaria, 
 
 97 
 
 Halmstad, 
 
 572 
 
 Havel, 
 
 17 
 
 Greifswald, 
 
 471:Gugglingen, 
 
 331 
 
 Ham, 
 
 188 
 
 Havelberg, 
 Haverfordwest, 
 
 466 
 
 Greiz, 
 
 398 Guibray, 
 
 187 
 
 Hambach, 
 
 327 
 
 245 
 
 Grenaa, 
 
 553; Guildford, 
 
 235 
 
 Hamburg, 448, 450 
 
 Havre de Grace, 
 
 186 
 
 Grenchen, 
 
 164 i Guildhall in Lon 
 
 
 Haraeln, 
 
 435 
 
 Hawick, 
 
 249 
 
 Grenna, 
 
 571 don (History of), 54 
 
 Hamilton, 
 
 251 
 
 Hay barn Mts., 
 
 7 
 
 Grenoble, 
 
 222 Guilds, 52, 53 
 
 Hamra, 450, 4£ 
 
 Hazebrouk, 
 
 190 
 
 Gretna Green, 
 
 250 Guillotiere, La, 
 
 214 
 
 Ham me, 
 
 280 
 
 Heath of Debrec- 
 
 
 Greussen, 
 
 400 Guimaraes, 
 
 73 
 
 Hammelburg, 
 
 323 
 
 zin, 
 
 502 
 
 Grevemachern, 
 
 366 Guingamp, 
 
 209 
 
 Hammerfest, 
 
 578 
 
 Heath of Ketske- 
 
 
 Grevenbroich, 
 
 493 Guiole, 
 
 216 
 
 Hammers tein, 
 
 498 
 
 met, 
 
 502 
 
 Grevismiihlen, 
 
 409 Guipuzcoa, 
 
 97 
 
 Hampshire, 
 
 238 
 
 Heaths Depart- 
 
 
 Greyerz, 
 
 159 G oldene Aue, 399, 458 
 
 Hampton Court, 
 
 235 
 
 ment, 
 
 217 
 
 Grigoriopol, 
 
 611 Gulf of Genoa, 
 
 10 
 
 Hanau, 
 
 373 
 
 Hebrides, 
 
 254 
 
 Grimby, 
 
 237 Gulf of Lyons, 
 
 10 
 
 Hanau-Lich ten- 
 
 
 Hechingen, 
 
 349 
 
 Grimrna, 
 
 382 1 Gulf of Riga, 
 
 9 
 
 berg, 
 
 328 
 
 Hecla, 
 
 8 
 
 Grim men, 
 
 470 i Gulf of Taranto, 
 
 10 
 
 Hanover, city, 
 
 435 
 
 Heddernheim, 
 
 363 
 
 Gripsholm, 
 
 569j Gumbinnen, 
 
 496 
 
 Hanover, Kingdom 
 
 Hedemora, 
 
 570 
 
 Grisons, 
 
 161 Gundelfingen, 
 
 326 
 
 of, 
 
 430 
 
 Hedemiinden, 
 
 440 
 
 Grodno, 
 
 600 Gundelsheim, 
 
 332 
 
 Hanschuchsheim 
 
 343 
 
 Heerenveen, 
 
 272 
 
 Groenlo, 
 
 2721 Guns, 
 
 526 
 
 Hauseatic cities, 
 
 447 
 
 Hegendorf, 
 
 164 
 
 Grohnde, 
 
 436; Guntersblum, 
 
 357 
 
 Hanseatic League, 54 
 
 Hegyallya Hills, 
 Heide, 
 
 527 
 
 Groix, 
 
 209iGUnthersberge, 
 
 404 
 
 Hants, 
 
 238 
 
 418 
 
 Grol, 
 
 272|Gunzburg, 
 
 325jHanut, 
 
 283 
 
 Heidelberg, 
 
 343 
 
 Gronau, 
 
 439 Gunzenhausen, 
 
 321|Hapsburg, 
 
 156 
 
 Heidelsheim, 
 
 342 
 
 Gronenbach, 
 
 325 Gurau, 
 
 473iHapsburg, House 
 
 
 Heidenheim, 32C 
 
 ,337 
 
 Groningen, 
 
 273 Guspini, 
 
 114J of, 30] 
 
 ,507 
 
 Heilbronn, 
 
 332 
 
 Gross- Almerode, 
 
 370 Giistrow, 
 
 409 
 
 Hapsburg-Lor- 
 
 
 Heilige Linde, 
 
 496 
 
 Grossbottwar, 
 
 331 
 
 Guyenne, 
 
 214 
 
 raine, 303, 507 
 
 Heiligenbeil, 
 
 496 
 
 Grosselflngen, 
 
 350 
 
 Gyergyo Szent 
 
 
 Harburg, 
 
 437 
 
 Heiligenberg, 
 
 347 
 
 Grossenhain, 
 
 381 
 
 Miklos, 
 
 534 
 
 Hardenberg, 
 
 272 
 
 Heiligenhafen, 
 
 417 
 
 Grossetto, 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 Harderwvk, 
 
 271 
 
 Heiligenstadt, 
 
 481 
 
 Grossgerau, 
 
 354 
 
 Haarlem, 
 
 269|Hardt Mountains 
 
 6 
 
 Heiliger Damm, 
 
 407 
 
 Grosshennersdorf, 385 Haarlem Lake, 
 
 11 Harfleur, 
 
 186 Heilsberg, 
 
 496 
 
 Gross-Linden, 
 
 357 Haarlingen, 
 
 272 i Harlech, 
 
 246 
 
 Heilsbronn, 
 
 320 
 
 Gross-Salze, 
 
 477 Haase, 
 
 17iHarleigh, 
 
 246 
 
 Heinersdorf, 
 
 392 
 
 Gross-Schlatten, 
 
 531 Habelschwerdt, 
 
 474 
 
 Harrowgate, 
 
 244 
 
 Heitersheim, 
 
 346 
 
 Gross-Schonau, 
 
 385 Habelschwerdt 
 
 
 Harsefeld, 
 
 438 
 
 Heldburg, 
 
 392 
 
 Gross-Strehlitz, 
 
 476 Mountains, 
 
 7 
 
 Hartenstein, 
 
 384 
 
 Helder, 
 
 269 
 
 Gross-Vargula, 
 
 481 Habichtswald, 
 
 8 
 
 Hartz, 
 
 7,8 
 
 Heldrungen, 
 
 479 
 
 Gross-Wardein, 
 
 528 Habsal, 
 
 596 
 
 Harwich, 
 
 236 
 
 Helensburgh, 
 
 251 
 
 Grotkau, 
 
 476 Hachenburg, 
 
 362 
 
 Harzburg, 
 
 447 
 
 Heligoland, 
 
 247 
 
 Grotzi ngen, 333, 340 Had amar, 
 
 362 
 
 Harzgerode, 
 
 404 
 
 Hellas, 61fl 
 
 ,620 
 
 Grouaix, 
 
 209 1 Haddington, 
 
 249 
 
 Haseiiinne, 
 
 442 
 
 Hellebeck, 
 
 550 
 
 Grubenhagen, 
 
 440| Haddingtonshire, 
 
 249 
 
 Haslach, 
 
 342 
 
 Helmond, 
 
 274 
 
 Grubin, 
 
 598 Hadeln, 
 
 438 
 
 Hasle, 
 
 550 
 
 Helmstadt, 
 
 447 
 
 Grueningen, 
 
 169 Hadersleben, 
 
 556 
 
 Haslithal, 
 
 158 
 
 Helsingborg, 
 
 572 
 
 Giunberg, 357 
 
 , 474IHaemus, 
 
 6 
 
 Hasparon, 
 
 217 
 
 Helsingfors, 
 
 5SI9 
 
 Grund, 444, 486 1 Hafnerzell, 
 
 316 
 
 Hasparren, 
 
 217 
 
 Helsingland, 
 
 573 
 
 GiUnhain, 
 
 384 
 
 Haga, 
 
 568 
 
 Hasselfelde, 
 
 448 
 
 Helsingor, 
 
 594 
 
 Griinsfeld, 
 
 344 
 
 Hagen, 
 
 485 
 
 Hasselt, 272, 283 
 
 Heltau, 
 
 532 
 
 Griinstadt, 
 
 328 
 
 Hagenau, 
 
 197 
 
 Has8furt, 
 
 323 
 
 Helvetia, 
 
 151 
 
 Gruyeres, 
 
 159 
 
 Hagenow, 
 
 409 
 
 Hass-Gebirge, 
 
 7|Helvetic Republi 
 
 c 153 
 
 Guadalaviar, 
 
 14 
 
 Hagos, 
 
 528 
 
 Hastenbeck, 
 
 435 
 
 Helvoetsluin, 
 
 270 
 
 Guadalaxara, 
 
 88 
 
 Hague, the, 
 
 269 
 
 Hastings, 
 
 236 
 
 Henneberg, ancient 
 
 Guadalquivir, 
 
 14 
 
 Haiger, 
 
 362 
 
 Hattem, 
 
 272 
 
 castle of, 
 
 391 
 
 Gnadiana, 
 
 J4iHaigerloch, 
 
 349 
 
 Hattenheim, 
 
 363 
 
 Heunebcrg, earl- 
 
 
 Guadix, 
 
 93|Haiiiault, 
 
 281 
 
 Hattei>heim, 
 
 363 
 
 dom of, 
 
 388 
 
 Guardamar, 
 
 96 Hainichen, 
 
 381 
 
 Hatiingen, 
 
 485 
 
 Hennebon, 
 
 209 
 
 Guastalla, 
 
 117 Hajduks' District 
 
 529 
 
 Hatzeg, 
 
 534 
 
 Hennersdoif in 
 
 
 Gubbio, 
 
 134jHalberstadt, 
 
 478 
 
 Hatzleld, 
 
 357 
 
 Seifen, 
 
 385 
 
 Guben, 
 
 468 
 
 Halin, 
 
 630 
 
 Haulx, 
 
 278 
 
 Henricbemont, 
 
 205 
 
INDEX. 
 
 651 
 
 
 PAOB | 
 
 PAOB[ 
 
 PAOt' 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Henry the Lion, 
 
 433 Hillebrunn, 
 
 573 
 
 Holstein, 
 
 41 -2 Humber, 
 
 14 
 
 Heppeuheim, 
 
 334 Hillerod, 
 
 549 
 
 Holsteiu-Gottorp 
 
 .til HUmmling, 
 
 431 
 
 Heptarchy, 
 
 25 Hillscheid, 
 
 363 
 
 Holum, 
 
 530 Hundholm, 
 
 578 
 
 Heraclea, 
 
 628lHilpoltstein, 
 
 317 
 
 Holy Causeway, 
 
 407 Hundsruck, 
 
 8 
 
 Herault, 
 
 15 Hilsbach, 
 
 344 
 
 Holyhead, 
 
 247 Hundwyl, 
 7 Hiinfeld, 
 
 157 
 
 Herault Depart- 
 
 Himmelsberg, 
 
 544 
 
 Holy Kreuzberg, 
 
 373 
 
 ment, 
 
 220 Hindelopen, 
 
 27-2 
 
 Holy River, 
 
 12 Hungary, 
 
 520 
 
 Herbolzheim, 
 
 345 Hirschau, 31" 
 
 ,333 
 
 Holy Roman Em 
 
 Hungen, 
 
 357 
 
 Herborn, 
 
 388 Hirschberg, 
 
 474 
 
 pire, 
 
 2S>1 Hliningen, 
 
 199 
 
 Herculanum, 
 
 141 1 lirscli horn, 
 
 355 
 
 Holyrood, 
 
 249 Huns, 
 
 25 
 
 Hereford, 
 
 240 Hirsova, 
 
 630 
 
 Holywell, 
 
 246 Hunsriicken, 
 
 8 
 
 Herefordshire, 
 
 240 Hisingen, 
 
 572 Holzappel, 
 
 364 Hunte, 
 
 17 
 
 Herentals, 
 
 279 Hispania citerior, 
 
 84 Holzminden, 
 
 447 Huntingdon, 
 
 237 
 
 Herford, 
 
 484 Hispania ulterior 
 
 , 84iHotnberg in Hesse, 371 Huntingdonshire 
 
 , 237 
 
 Hericourt, 
 
 203 Hitzacker, 
 
 437 
 
 Horn berg an der 
 
 Husavik, 
 
 560 
 
 Hering, 
 
 355 Hjelmar Lake, 
 373 Hjelmsnabben, 
 
 11 
 
 Ohm, 
 
 357 Husum, 
 
 556 
 
 Heringen, 
 
 569 
 
 Homburg (in Bava- Huttweil, 
 
 158 
 
 Hurisau, 
 
 157 Hjo, 
 
 573 
 
 ria), 
 
 328 Hutwyl, 
 
 158 
 
 Herjedalen, 
 
 574 Hjorring, 
 
 552 
 
 Homburg vor der Huy, 
 
 2-!2 
 
 Herlisheim, 
 
 198 Hobro, 
 
 553 
 
 Hohe, 
 
 359 Hven, 
 
 572 
 
 Hermannstadt, 
 
 532 Hochberg, 
 
 345 
 
 Homel, 
 
 601 Hydra, 
 
 622 
 
 Hermopolis, 
 
 623 Hochheim, 
 
 363jHonfleur, 
 
 186 Hyeres, 
 
 224 
 
 Herraunduri, 
 
 378 Hochkirch, 
 
 385Hoogstraten, 
 
 279 Hyerian Islands, 
 
 224 
 
 Hernosand, 
 
 574 Hochst, 
 
 363|Hooksiel, 
 
 424 Hypanis, 
 
 12 
 
 Herrenberg, 
 
 333 Hocbstadt, 319, 326|Hoorn, 
 
 269 Hythe, 
 
 236 
 
 Herrieden, 
 
 322 Hodimont, 
 
 2S3 Hdpital, 
 
 109 
 
 
 Herrnhut, 
 
 385 Hoegaerden, 
 
 279 Horb, 
 
 332 Ibbenbiiren, 
 
 483 
 
 Hersbruck, 
 
 321 Hof, 
 
 319 1 Horde, 
 
 485 Iberian Mountains, 5 
 
 Hersfeld, 
 
 373 Hofgeismar, 
 
 370 
 
 Hordic, 
 
 209 Iberians, 
 
 19 
 
 Hera tall, 
 
 282 Hofheim, 
 
 363 
 
 Horgen, 
 
 169 Ibrahil, 
 
 636 
 
 Hertford, 
 
 237 Hofwyl, 
 
 158 
 
 Horn, 428, 45 
 
 559 
 
 Hertfordshire, 
 
 237 Hogue, La, 
 
 187 
 
 Horn berg, 
 
 346 Icolmkill, 
 
 254 
 
 Hertogenbosch, 
 
 273 ! Hone Eule, 
 
 7 
 
 Horneburg, 
 
 438 Idar, 
 
 426 
 
 Heruli, 
 
 25 Hohegeiss, 
 
 448 
 
 Horsens, 
 
 553 Idarkopf, 
 
 8 
 
 Herve, 
 
 283 Hohr, 
 
 an 
 
 Horstmar, 
 
 483Idria, 
 
 512 
 
 H«rzberg, 
 
 440 Hohscheid, 
 
 493 
 
 Horla, 
 
 75 Idstein, 
 
 362 
 
 Herzegovina, 
 
 634Hohenasperg, 
 
 331 
 
 Hospodars, 
 
 636 Ifferten, 
 
 168 
 
 Herzogenrath, 
 
 490 Hohenberg, 
 
 332 
 
 Hostalrich, 
 
 95 Iglau, 
 
 517 
 
 Herzogenaurach, 
 
 320 Hohenembs, 
 
 514i Houat, 
 
 209 Iglesias, 
 
 114 
 
 Hesargrad, 
 
 630 Hohenfried berg, 
 
 475 House of Bourbon, 180 Igualada, 
 
 95 
 
 Hesdin, 
 
 189 1 Hohenheben, 
 
 347 House of Bragau- jlianz, 
 
 162 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, 
 
 368Hohenklingen, 
 
 164 za, 
 
 69'Ilfeld, 
 
 440 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 
 351 Hohenkriihen, 
 
 347 1 House of Este, 
 
 1 18 ' Hie and Vilaine De- 
 
 Hesse, electorate of 368 i Hohenlindeu, 
 
 314! House of Hano vei 
 
 ■,233| partment, 
 
 208 
 
 Hesse, grand-duchy iHohenlohe, 
 
 336 House of Medici, 
 
 122 Iller, 
 
 16 
 
 of, 
 
 351 1 Hohenlohe-Schil- 
 
 
 House of Stuart, 
 
 233 Illertissen, 
 
 325 
 
 Hesse-Homburg, 
 
 358 
 
 lingsfurst, 
 
 322 
 
 House of Tudor, 
 
 233 Illok, 
 
 530 
 
 Hesse, landgravi 
 
 
 Hohensalzburg, 
 
 510 
 
 House of Witteis- 
 
 Dlyria, 
 
 511 
 
 ate of, 
 
 358 
 
 Hohensch wangau 
 
 ,314 
 
 bach, 
 
 313llllyrians, 
 
 102 
 
 Hesse and at 
 
 
 Hohenstaufen, 
 
 
 Howden, 
 
 243 Ilmen Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Rhine, 
 
 351 
 
 324,33 
 
 H oxter, 
 
 484.11menau, 
 
 388 
 
 Het Loo, 
 
 271 
 
 Hohenstein, 
 
 384 
 
 Hoya, 
 
 436 II raenau River, 
 
 17 
 
 Hettingen, 
 
 349 
 
 HohenstofTeln, 
 
 347 
 
 Hoyerswerda, 
 
 475 Usen burg, 
 
 479 
 
 Heubach, Klein, 
 
 323 
 
 Hohentwiel, 
 
 333 
 
 Hoym, 
 
 404 Imbro, 
 
 632 
 
 Heuscheuer Ge- 
 
 
 Hohenzollera, an- 
 
 
 Hradschin, 
 
 514 Imbros, 
 
 632 
 
 birge, 
 
 7 
 
 cestral castle of, 
 
 349 
 
 Hraundalur, 
 
 560 1 Imgenbroich, 
 
 490 
 
 Heusden, 
 
 274 
 
 Hohenzollern, the 
 
 
 Hrubieszow, 
 
 607 lmmediateness ( 
 
 n 
 
 Hexham, 
 
 244 
 
 principalities of, 347 
 
 Hubertsburg, 
 
 382 Germany), 
 
 51 
 
 Highland of Bay 
 
 
 Hohenzollern-He 
 
 
 Hiickeswagen, 
 
 493 Immenhausen, 
 
 371 
 
 reuth, 
 
 319 
 
 chingen, 
 
 349 
 
 Huddersfield, 
 
 243 
 
 Immeustadt, 
 
 325 
 
 Highlands of 
 
 
 Hohenzollern-Sig 
 
 
 Hudikswall, 
 
 574 
 
 Imola, 
 
 135 
 
 Berne, 
 
 158 
 
 maringen, 
 
 349 
 
 Huelva, 
 
 92 
 
 Indre, 
 
 15 
 
 Highland of Meis- 
 
 
 Hohnstein, 
 
 440 
 
 Huesca, 
 
 94 
 
 lndre Department 2t 
 
 sen, 
 
 376 
 
 Hohnstein, ancient 
 
 Hiiringen, 
 
 347 
 
 Indre and Loire 
 
 
 Highlands of Scot- 
 
 earldom of, 
 
 481 Huissen, 
 
 272 
 
 Department, 
 
 206 
 
 land, 
 
 253 
 
 Holbek, 
 
 550 Hull, 
 
 243 
 
 Ingelflngen, 
 
 336 
 
 Hilchenbach, 
 
 4fifi 
 
 Holland, 
 
 208 Hulonesus, 
 
 623 
 
 (ngelheim, 
 
 356 
 
 Hildhiircrhnusen, 
 
 393 
 
 llollleld, 
 
 320 II ulst, 
 
 271 
 
 In^rleboroiiifh, 
 
 8 
 
 Hildeshciin, 
 
 439 
 
 Holstebro, 
 
 553 
 
 Hultschin, 
 
 476 
 
 Ingolstadt, 
 
 314 
 
652 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 VMiK 
 
 PAGK f PAGK 
 
 
 pads 
 
 lnsrrnnde, 
 
 207 
 
 Itzehoe, 
 
 417 Judenbach, 392 
 
 Kji(zont'linbo}re7 
 
 , 
 
 Injuria, 
 
 595 
 
 Ivanovo, 
 
 592 Judenburg, 511 
 
 3o4, 3G4 
 
 Inn River, 
 
 16 
 
 Iverdun, 
 
 168jJugria, 521 
 
 Kntzeiielhibogei) 
 
 
 Innerleithen, 
 
 250 
 
 Ivica, 
 
 97 Jiilich, 490 
 
 (town), 
 
 364 
 
 Inner-Rhoden, 
 
 157 
 
 [vrea, 
 
 108|Juliers, 490 
 
 Kaub, 
 
 364 
 
 Innucentus III., 
 
 41 
 
 Ivrv, 
 
 l86Julin, 469 
 
 jKaufbeuren, 
 
 334 
 
 Innspruck, 
 
 513i 
 
 (Jung-Breslau, 500 
 
 K aval a, 
 
 630 
 
 Inuwraclaw, 
 
 500Jaca, 
 
 94;Jungfrau, 4 
 
 Kecskemet, 
 
 525 
 
 lnsara, 
 
 608|Jacobstad, 
 7jJacobstadt, 
 
 599 Jung-Stilling, 486 
 
 Kedrich, 
 
 363 
 
 Inselsberg, 
 
 598 Jura Department, 203 
 
 Kehl, 
 
 341 
 
 Insterburg, 
 
 497 | Jaen. 
 
 93 Jura (island), 254 
 
 Keighley, 
 
 244 
 
 Interamnia, 
 
 143|Jagello, 
 
 600 Jura Mts., 6 
 
 Kelheim, 
 
 316 
 
 Interlachen, 
 
 158 Jagerndorf, 
 
 517 Jurburg, 601 
 
 Kellinghusen, 
 
 417 
 
 Interlaken, 
 
 158 Jagodina, 
 
 635 Jussev, 203 
 
 Kells, 
 
 257 
 
 Intra, 
 
 llljJaik, 
 
 609 Justinian, 26 
 
 Kelso, 
 
 249 
 
 Inverbervie, 
 
 252 Jaitza, 
 
 634 Jiiterbock, 467 
 
 Kemi, 
 
 13 
 
 Inverary, 
 
 253;jalta, 
 
 611 Jutland, 552 
 
 Kemitrilsk, 
 
 599 
 
 Inverlochy Castle, 253 Janepol, 
 
 602 
 
 Kemnath, 
 
 317 
 
 Inverness, 
 
 253 Jankau, 
 
 515 Kadolzburg, 321 
 
 Kempen, 
 
 493 
 
 Inverness-shire, 
 
 253,Jankowitz, 
 
 515 Kaferloh, 314 
 
 Kempten, 
 
 324 
 
 Iona, 
 
 254 Jaonina, 
 
 633 Kiifernburg, 401 
 
 Kendal, 
 
 245 
 
 Ionian Islands, 
 
 6l4|Jarlsberg, 
 
 576 Kaffa, 610 
 
 Kengis, 
 
 575 
 
 Ionian Sea, 
 
 10 Jarmen, 
 
 470 Kahla, 396 
 
 Kenilworth, 
 
 240 
 
 Iperia, 
 
 ISOJarnac, 
 
 211 Kaisersberg, 198 
 
 Kent, 
 
 236 
 
 Ipswich, 
 
 236|jaroslav, 519, 592 
 
 Kensington, 
 
 235 
 
 Irbit, 
 
 608 Jass-Bereny, 
 
 529 Kaisersreuth, 336 
 
 Kenzingen, 
 
 345 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 256 Jasseno vacz, 
 
 533 Kaiserswerth, 493 
 
 Keraes, 
 
 209 
 
 Irnis, 
 
 165,Jassy, 
 
 637 Kalau, 468 
 
 Kerensk, 
 
 608 
 
 Irwin, 
 
 250 Jastrow, 
 
 498 Kalauria, 622; Kerns, 
 
 166 
 
 Isar, 
 
 16 
 
 Jauer, 
 
 474 Kalavrito, 622 i Kernwald, 
 
 166 
 
 Ischia, 
 
 141 
 
 Jaxt, 
 
 329 Kalbe, 477 Kerry, 
 
 260 
 
 Ischl, 
 
 510 
 
 Jaxtberg, 
 
 337 Kalish, 605|Ker8Ova, 
 
 630 
 
 Isefjord, 
 
 544 
 
 Jaxt circle, 
 
 335 Kallenberg, 394|Kertsh, 
 
 611 
 
 Iseghem, 
 
 281 
 
 Jazyges, 521, 529 Kallraiinz, 17 Kesmark, 
 
 527 
 
 Isenburg, 
 
 355 
 
 Jazygia, 
 
 529iKallundborg, 550 
 
 Kesselsdorf, 
 
 381 
 
 Isenburg-Biidin- 
 
 
 Jebaluga, 
 
 608 Kalmucks, 580 
 
 Keswick, 
 
 244 
 
 gen, 
 
 357 
 
 Jedburgh, 
 
 249 Kaltennordheim, 389 
 
 Ketskemet, 
 
 525 
 
 Iseo, 
 
 540 
 
 Jekaterinador, 
 
 613'Kaltensundheim, 389 
 
 Ketskemet Heath, 50i 
 
 Isere Department, 222 
 
 Jekaterinburg, 
 
 607 Kaluga, 591 
 
 Kettwig, 
 
 494 
 
 Iserlohn, 
 
 485 
 
 Jekaterinoslav, 
 
 612 Kama, 12 
 
 Keula, 
 
 401 
 
 Isernia, 
 
 144 
 
 Jelatma, 
 
 592 Kamengrad, 634 
 
 Kezdi Vasarhely, 
 
 534 
 
 Ish, 
 
 608 
 
 Jemappes, 
 
 281 
 
 Kaminiec Podol- 
 
 Kickelhahn, 
 
 7 
 
 Ishevski-Zavod, 
 
 608 
 
 Jemtland, 
 
 574 
 
 ski, 602 
 
 Kidderminster, 
 
 240 
 
 BT' 
 
 187 
 
 Jena, 
 
 387 
 
 Kammin, 470 
 
 Kidwelly, 
 
 245 
 
 114 
 
 Jenibazar, 
 
 635 
 
 Kamyshin, 609 
 Kandern, 345 
 
 Kiel, 
 
 417 
 
 isim 
 
 254 
 
 Jenidshe, 
 
 630 
 
 Kielce, 
 
 606 
 
 Isla de Leon, 
 
 92 
 
 Jersey, 
 
 247 
 
 Kapnik Banya, 531 
 
 Kiev, 
 
 594 
 
 Islay, 
 
 254 
 
 Jeschken, 
 
 7 
 
 Kaprena, 621 
 
 Kiew, 
 Kieydani, 
 
 594 
 
 Isle de France, 
 
 182 
 
 Jesi, 
 
 134 
 
 Kapsali, 616 
 
 601 
 
 Ismail, 
 
 611 
 
 Jessnitz, 
 
 405 
 
 Kaptshak, 588 
 
 Kilbarchan, 
 
 251 
 
 Isny, 
 
 334 
 
 Jever, 
 
 424 
 
 Karansebes, 534 
 
 Kildare, 
 
 257 
 
 Isola, 
 
 512 
 
 Jewpatoria, 
 
 611 
 
 Karasu, 15, 610 
 
 Kilia, 
 
 611 
 
 Isola bella, 
 
 111 
 
 Joachimsthal, 466, 515 
 
 Karaveria, 631 
 
 Killala, 
 
 259 
 
 Isola mad re, 
 
 111 
 
 Jockmock, 
 
 575 
 
 Kardsschag-Uj- 
 
 Killalve, 
 
 260 
 
 Isola dei Pescatori 111 
 
 Johanngeorgen- 
 
 
 Szallas, 528 
 
 Killarney, 
 
 260 
 
 Isole de Tremiti, 
 
 144 
 
 stadt, 
 
 383 
 
 Kiirnthen, 511 
 
 Killkenny, 
 
 256 
 
 Isselburg, 
 
 494 
 
 Johannisberg, 
 
 363 
 
 Karystoa, 623 
 
 Kilmarnock, 
 
 250 
 
 Isselhorst, 
 
 484 
 
 Johannisburg, 
 
 497 
 
 Karytone, 622 
 
 Kimpolung, 
 Kindelbriick, 
 
 636 
 
 Issengeaux, 
 
 221 
 
 John O'Groat's 
 
 
 Kasan, 607 
 
 481 
 
 Issoire, 
 
 213 
 
 house, 
 
 254 
 
 Kaschau, 527 
 
 King's County, 
 
 257 
 
 Issoudun, 
 
 205 
 
 Johnstown, 
 
 251 
 
 Kasimov, 592 
 
 Kingston, 235, 256 
 
 Istres, 
 
 223 
 
 Johstadt, 
 
 383 
 
 Kasmark, 527 
 
 Kincardine, 
 
 252 
 
 Istria, 
 
 512 
 
 Joigny, 
 
 193 
 
 Kastel, 356 
 
 Kinnaird's Head, 
 
 252 
 
 Issnrtille, 
 Italian Switzer- 
 land, 
 Italy, 
 Ithaca, 
 Itter, 
 
 201 
 
 Joinville, 
 Jonkdping, 
 
 192 
 571 
 
 Kastri, 621 
 Katarinburg, 607 
 
 Kinross, 
 Kinross-shire, 
 
 252 
 252 
 
 165 
 
 Jonzac, 
 
 211 
 
 Katscher, 476 
 
 Kinsale, 
 
 259 
 
 99 
 616 
 
 Joux, 
 
 Joux, valley of, 
 
 203 
 
 168 
 
 Katz, 364 
 Katzbach, 13 
 
 Kirchberg, 
 Kircbhain, 
 
 336 
 372 
 
 357 
 
 Jucka9jarwi, 
 
 575 
 
 Katzenbuckel, 7 
 
 Kirchheim, 
 
 326 
 
INDEX. 
 
 653 
 
 PA.GC 
 
 Kirchheim unter 
 
 Teck, 335 
 Kirdorf, 357 
 Kirkaldy, 25? 
 Kirkcudbright, 250 
 Kirkcudbright- 
 shire, 250 
 K rkilissa, 629 
 Kirkwall, 255 
 Kirn, 4*8 
 Kishinev, fil 1 
 Kissingen, 322 
 Klagenfurt, 511 
 Klausenhurg, 531 
 Klein-Heubach, 3231 
 Kleinhueningen, 157 1 
 Klein-Schlatten, 531 
 Klein-Schmalkal- 
 
 den, 373 
 
 Kleinwelka, 385 
 
 Klettgau, 346 
 
 Klingenberg, 323 
 
 Klingenthal, 197 
 
 Klingnau, 156 
 
 Klodnitz, 13 
 
 Kloppenburg, 423 ! 
 
 Klundert, 274 
 
 Klutz, 409 
 
 Knaresborongh, 244 
 Knights of St. John, 46 
 Knights of the Or- 
 der of the Sword 596 
 Knights Templars, 46 
 
 Knin, 535 
 
 Kniphiiusen, 424 
 
 Knyszyn, 602 
 
 Kobryn, 601 
 
 Koburg, 394 
 
 Kocher, 329 
 
 Kochheim, 487 
 
 Kock, 607 
 
 Koenigsfelden, 156 
 
 Koesfeld, 483 
 
 Koevoerden, 273 
 
 Kola, 593 
 
 Kolberg, 471 
 
 Kolding, 553 
 
 Kolen, 5 
 
 Kollero, 573 
 
 Kollin, 515 
 
 Kolocsa, 525 
 
 Kolosvar, 531 
 
 Koluri, 621 
 
 Komorn, 526 
 
 Kongelf, 573 
 
 Kongsbacka, 572 
 
 Kongsberg, 576 
 
 Kongshavn, 558 
 
 Koniggratz, 516 
 
 Konigheim, 344 
 
 Konigsberg, 496 
 Konigsherg in 
 
 Franken, 394 
 Konigsberg in der 
 
 Neumark, 467 
 
 Konigsbronn, 337 
 
 Konigsbriick, 385 
 
 Kdnigsee, 401 
 Kduigshofen, 322, 344 
 
 MM 
 
 PAOKl 
 
 Konigshiitte, 
 
 444 
 
 Kiinzelsau, 
 
 337 
 
 Konigslutter, 
 
 447 
 
 Kuopio, 
 
 599 
 
 Konigstein, 364 
 
 ,382 
 
 Kupferberg, 
 
 320 
 
 Konigsstuhl, 
 
 488 
 
 Kupferzell, 
 
 337 
 
 Kdnigswalde, 
 
 467 
 
 Kurnbach, 340, 355 
 
 Konigswinter, 
 
 492 
 
 Kurnik, 
 
 499 
 
 Konskie, 
 
 606 
 
 Kursk, 
 
 592 
 
 Kopenick, 
 
 465 
 
 Kusamo, 
 
 599 
 
 Kdping, 
 
 569 
 
 Kusnetzk 
 
 609 
 
 Korbach, 
 
 376 
 
 Kustrin, 
 
 467 
 
 Korneuburg, 
 
 509 
 
 Kuttenberg, 
 
 516 
 
 Koron, 
 
 622 
 
 Kuylenburg, 
 
 272 
 
 Korosbanya, 
 
 531 
 
 Kyburg, 
 
 169 
 
 Korsoer, 
 
 550 
 
 Kydonia, 
 
 632 
 
 Kortgene, 
 
 270 
 
 Kyfifhausen, 
 
 401 
 
 Kosel, 
 
 475 
 
 Kyparissa, 
 
 622 
 
 Kosen, 
 
 480 
 
 Kyritz, 
 
 466 
 
 Koslow, 
 
 611 
 
 Kj'»rteminde, 
 
 551 
 
 Kosstainicza, 
 
 533 
 
 Kjobenhavn, 
 
 549 
 
 Kostandschi, 
 
 630 
 
 Kjoge, 
 
 549 
 
 Kostendil, 
 
 631 
 
 
 i 
 
 Kostritz, 
 
 399 
 
 Laaland, 
 
 550 
 
 Kostroma, 12, 592 
 
 Laasphe, 
 
 486 
 
 Knswick, 
 
 404 
 
 La Balme, 
 
 222 
 
 Kothen, 
 
 406 
 
 La Bastide de Clar- 
 
 Knwno, 
 
 600 
 
 ence, 
 
 218 
 
 Krabln, 
 
 559 
 
 Labea, 
 
 470 
 
 Kragnjewatz, 
 
 635 
 
 Labour, 
 
 216 
 
 Krailsheitn, 
 
 336 
 
 La Charite, 
 
 204 1 
 
 Krain, 
 
 511 
 
 La Chatre, 
 
 205 
 
 Krajova, 
 
 636 
 
 Lachen, 
 
 164 
 
 Kranichstein, 
 
 354 
 
 La Chiusa, 
 
 108 
 
 Krasna, 
 
 531 
 
 La Ciotat, 
 
 223 
 
 Krasnoi-Jar, 
 
 609 
 
 Laconia, 
 
 622 
 
 Krautheim, 
 
 344 
 
 Ladenburg, 
 
 343 
 
 Krawinkel, 
 
 394 
 
 Ladinian, 
 
 151 
 
 Krefeld, 
 
 495 
 
 Ladoga Lake, 
 
 10 
 
 Kreischa, 
 
 3«1 
 
 La Fere, 
 
 188 
 
 Kremlin, 
 
 591 
 
 La Fere Champe- 
 
 Kremnitz, 
 
 525 
 
 noise, 
 
 192 1 
 
 K reins, 
 
 509 1 La Ferte Bernard 
 
 ,207 
 
 Kremsier, 
 
 517 
 
 La Ferte sous Jou- 
 
 Kremsmiinster, 
 
 510 
 
 arre, 
 
 193! 
 
 Kreut, 
 
 315 
 
 La Ferte Milon, 
 
 185 
 
 Kreuzburg, 389 
 
 ,476 
 
 La Fleche, 
 
 207! 
 
 Kreuznach, 
 
 488 
 
 La Foce, 
 
 112 
 
 Kreuz-Wertheim 
 
 323 
 
 Lages, 
 
 75 
 
 Krivan, 
 
 5 
 
 Lagnieu, 
 
 202 
 
 Krolewetz, 
 
 594 
 
 Lagonegro, 
 
 145 
 
 Kronach, 
 
 320|Lngonero, 
 
 145 1 
 
 Kronberg, 
 
 364 [Lagos, 
 
 74 
 
 Kronborg, 
 
 549 LaGranja, 
 
 89 
 
 Kronstadt, 532, 596 i La Grasse, 
 
 224 
 
 Krossen, 
 
 467 La Guerche, 
 
 208 
 
 Krotoszin, 
 
 499 La Guillotiere, 
 
 214 
 
 Krumbach, 
 
 325 La Haye, 
 
 206 
 
 Kruschwitz, 
 
 500,Lahn, 
 
 16 
 
 Krzemieniec, 
 
 602lLahneck, 
 
 364 > 
 
 Kuban, 12,613 Lahr 
 
 363 
 
 Kufstein, 
 
 513 La Hogue, 
 
 187 
 
 Kuhlandchen, 
 
 517 Laholm, 
 
 572 
 
 Kukukstein, 
 
 381 Lahr, 
 
 342 
 
 Kullen, 
 
 572 Lai bach, 
 
 511 
 
 Kiilsheim, 
 
 344 L'Aigle, 
 
 1871 
 
 Rumania, Great, 
 
 528 Laigueglia, 
 
 113! 
 
 , Little, 
 
 529 Lake circle, 
 
 346 
 
 Knmurdshina, 
 
 6-2-* Lake of Constance, 11 
 
 Knngur. 
 
 607 Lake di Card a, 
 
 11 
 
 Kuunersdorf, 
 
 467 
 
 Lake of Geneva, 
 
 11 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Lake Maggiore, 11 
 
 La Mancha, 88 
 
 La Marche, 212 
 
 Lamballe, 209 
 
 Lambesc, 223 
 
 Lamego, 72 
 
 Lamia, 621 
 
 Lam lash, 252 
 Lamothe-Fenelon, 215 
 
 Lampedusa, 147 
 
 Lampione, 147 
 
 Lanark, 250 
 
 Lanarkshire, 250 
 
 Lancashire, 242 
 
 Lancaster, 242 
 
 Lanciano, 143 
 
 Landau, 327 
 
 Landen, 283 
 
 Landernau, 209 
 
 Landeron, 163 
 
 Landes, 216 
 
 Landrecies, 191 
 
 Landsberg, 315 
 Landsberg an der 
 
 Warthe, 467 
 Land's End, 239 
 Landshut, 315 
 Landshut (in Sile- 
 sia), 475 
 Landskrona, 572 
 Landstuhl, 328 
 Lanesborough, 257 
 Langeac, 213 
 Laugeland, 551 
 Langenargen, 335 
 Langennerg, 493 
 Langenburg, 336 
 Langensalza, 481 
 Langenthal, 158 
 Langholm, 250 
 Langnau, 158 
 Langogne, 221 
 Langon, 215 
 Langres, 192 
 Languedoe, 219 
 Langueglia, 113 
 Lannion, 209 
 Lans-le-Bourg, 110 
 Lanusei, 114 
 Lanzo, 107 
 Laon, 185 
 La Palisse, 204 
 Lapland, 574 
 Laplanders, 574 
 liaredo, 88 
 La Reole, 215 
 Largentieres, 221 
 Larissa, 631 
 Larne, 258 
 La Roche, 283 
 La Rochefoucauld 212 
 La Rochelle, 211 
 Laruns, 218 
 Las Cabezas de San 
 
 Juan, 92 
 
 La Seyne, 224 
 
 Lask, 606 
 
 Lasde, 552 
 
 La Superga, 107 
 
654 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 La Teste de Buch, 215 Leicester, 
 Latins, 102 Leicestershire, 
 
 Latisana, 542 Leichlingen, 
 
 Latium, 132jLeirnen, 
 
 La Tour de Peils, 168;Leine, 
 La Tour du Pin, 222] Leiningen, 
 La Trappe, 208j Leiningen, earl 
 
 Laubach, 357 dom^of, 
 
 Laubar., 475 Leinster, 
 
 Lauchheim, 336 Leipsic, 
 
 Lauchstadt, 479 Lei pzig, 
 
 Lauda, 344|Leire, 
 
 Laudenbach, 343 j Lei ria, 
 
 Lauenau, 436jLeisnig, 
 
 Lauenburg, 413, 418, | Lei th, 
 
 4l9jLeitha, 
 Lauenstein, 436 Leitmeritz, 
 
 Lauf, 321 Leitrim, 
 
 Laufen, 159, 169 JLe Mans, 
 
 Laufen (in Bavaria) 31 5 [ Lemberg, 
 Lauffen, 331;Lemforde, 
 
 156 Lemgo. 
 
 Lauffenburg, 
 
 Lauingen, 
 
 Lauis, 
 
 Launceston, 
 
 Laupen, 
 
 Laurenbunr, 
 
 Lawrencekirk. 
 
 Laurvig, 
 
 Lausanne, 
 
 Lausche, 
 
 Lautenthal, 
 
 Lauterbach, 
 
 Lauterbrunnen, 
 
 Lauterburg, 
 
 Lautereck, 
 
 Lautrec, 
 
 Lavagna, 
 
 Laval, 
 
 La Valetta, 
 
 Lavaur, 
 
 Lavedan, 
 
 La Veneria, 
 
 Lavenza, 
 
 Lav is, 
 
 La Voulte, 
 
 Laxenburg, 
 
 Laybach, 
 
 Lazzaroni, 
 
 Leadhills, 
 
 Leamington, 
 
 Le Blanc, 
 
 Lebus, 
 
 Lecce, 
 
 Lecco, 
 
 Loch, 
 
 Leek, 
 
 Le Crosic, 
 
 Lectoure, 
 
 Ledesma, 
 
 Leeds, 
 
 Leer, 
 
 Leerdara, 
 
 Leerfoss, 
 
 Leeuwarden, 
 
 Leghorn, 
 
 Legnago, 
 
 Legue St. Brieuc 
 
 326 
 165 
 239 
 158 
 301, 364 
 , 252 
 576 
 167 
 7 
 444 
 357 
 158 
 198 
 327 
 220 
 113 
 207 
 150 
 220 
 217 
 107 
 119 
 165 
 221 
 SOB 
 511 
 141 
 25 1 
 241 
 MS 
 407 
 143 
 536 
 J 6 
 
 n 
 
 210 
 210 
 90 
 243 
 443 
 270 
 577 
 27-2 
 125 
 542 
 
 Lernnos, 
 
 Lempster, 
 
 Lemsal, 
 
 Lemvigr, 
 
 Lendinara, 
 
 Lengenfeld, 
 
 Lengerich, 
 
 Lennep, 
 
 Lens, 
 
 Lentini, 
 
 Lenzburg, 
 
 Lenzen, 
 
 Lenzerwische, 
 
 Lenzna, 
 
 Leoben, 
 
 Leobschiitz, 
 
 Leominster, 
 
 Leon, 
 
 Leonberg, 
 
 Leonforte, 
 
 Leopoldshafen 
 
 Le panto, 
 
 Lepontine Alps, 
 
 PAGE I 
 
 24 1 Levanto, 
 241 1 Levanzo, 
 493 Le Vigan, 
 343Levroux, 
 
 17 Lewin, 
 328j Lewis (island) 
 
 Leyden, 
 357: Li ban, 
 256 Libourne, 
 382 Licata, 
 
 382 Lich, 
 549 Lichfield, 
 
 72, 560 Lichtenau, 
 
 383 Lich ten berg, 
 249 Lichtenberg (Al- 
 
 16j sace), 
 515 Lichtenberg, prin 
 259 cipality of, 
 207 Lich tenfels, 
 519 Lichtensteig, 
 436 Lichtenstein, 
 428 Lichtervelde, 
 632 Lidkbping, 
 240 Lidoriki, 
 597 Liebau, 
 553 Liebenau, 
 541 Liebenstein, 
 
 384 Liebenwalde, 
 442, 483 Liebenwerda, 
 
 493 Liebenzell, 
 189 Lieberose, 
 148 Liebstadt, 
 156,LiechstalI, 
 
 PAGEl PAGE 
 
 1 13 Lines of Weissen- 
 147 burg, 198 
 
 221 Lingen, earldom 
 205 of, 441 
 
 474 1 Lingen, town, 442 
 255 Linkoping, 570 
 
 Linlithgow, . 249 
 
 Linlithgowshire, 249 
 
 2li'.i 
 598 
 215 
 147 
 357 
 241 
 342, 371 
 
 Linz, 509 
 
 Linz (in Prussia), 48-* 
 Li pari, 14ft 
 
 Lipari Islands, 118 
 Lippe-Biickeburg, 428 
 Li ppe-Detmold, 427 
 
 Lippe River, 
 
 Lippehne, 
 
 Lippstadt, 
 
 Liria, 
 
 Lisboa, 
 
 Lisbon, 
 
 Lisburn, 
 
 Liscowo, 
 
 573jLisianka, 
 
 621 Lisieux, 
 
 475 L'Isle, 
 
 -\t - 
 
 16 
 
 467 
 
 428 
 
 96 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 258 
 
 592 
 
 594 
 
 187 
 
 225 
 
 259 
 
 499, 535 
 
 600 
 
 436 Lismore, 
 391JLissa, 
 465! Lithuania, 
 480 Little Belt, 9 
 
 333 [Little Brittany, 208 
 468; Little England, 258 
 381 Little Haff, 9 
 
 157 Little Poland, 602,605 
 466 : Liechtenstein, 350, 351 j Little Russia, 594 
 
 458Liege, 282 Little Schiitt, 524,525 
 
 607 ( Liegnitz, 474 1 Little Wallachia, 636 
 
 Le Puy en Velay, 221 lie, 
 
 511 Lier, 
 476Liestall, 
 240JLifford, 
 89jLigne, 
 331 Ligny, 
 
 148,Ligny (Lorraine), 
 340 Ligurian Apen- 
 621 nines, 
 4 1 Ligurian Repub- 
 
 279|Littorale, 
 
 Le Quesnoy, 
 
 Lerici, 
 
 Lerida, 
 
 Lerinian Islands, 
 
 Lerwick, 
 
 Les Andelys, 
 
 Lesina, 
 
 Lesparre, 
 
 Les Sables d'Ol- 
 
 onne, 
 Lessines, 
 Lesum River, 
 Letrini, 
 Leucadia, 
 Leucate, 
 Leuchtenberg, 
 Leuk, 
 
 Leutershausen, 
 Leuthen, 
 Leutkirch, 
 Leutschau, 
 Leuze, 
 
 191 Lili, 
 
 208, 2091 Levauti na, 
 
 113 
 
 95 
 
 224 
 
 255 
 180 
 535 
 215 
 
 210 
 981 
 
 17 
 022 
 Oil) 
 330 
 31ft 
 107 
 321 
 473 
 334 
 527 
 2ft I 
 163 
 
 Lille, 
 
 Lillebonne, 
 
 Lilybaeum, 
 
 Limagne, 
 
 Liman Gulf, 
 
 Limburg (town in 
 Belgium), 
 
 Limburg (in Nas- 
 sau), 
 
 Limburg, duchy 
 of, 274, 365, 367 
 
 Limerick, 
 
 Limmer, 
 
 Limoges, 
 
 Limousin, 
 
 Limoux, 
 
 Linares, 
 
 Lincoln, 
 
 Lincolnshire, 
 
 Lindau, 
 
 Lindenfels, 
 
 Lindesberg, 
 
 260 
 435 
 212 
 212 
 220 
 93 
 237 
 237 
 324, 440 
 355 
 
 Livadia, 
 
 Livato, 
 
 Liverpool, 
 
 Livno, 
 
 Livonia, 
 
 Livorno, 
 
 Lixuri, 
 
 Lizard Point, 
 
 Ljusnedal, 
 
 Llandaff, 
 
 Llanelly, 
 
 Llanydloes, 
 
 Llerena, 
 
 Loano, 
 
 Lbbau, 
 
 Lobenstein, 
 
 Locana, 
 
 Locarno, 
 
 T.,occum, 
 
 Loch Awe, 
 
 Lochem, 
 
 Loches, 
 
 Loch Katerine 
 
 Loch Lomond, 
 
 Loch Ness, 
 
 Locle, 
 
 LOcse, 
 
 Lodeve, 
 
 Lodi, 
 
 Lodomeria, 
 
 Loffingen, 
 
 Lofoden, 
 
 512 
 620, 621 
 616 
 243 
 634 
 596 
 125 
 616 
 239 
 574 
 245 
 245 
 246 
 
 91 
 113 
 385, 498 
 398 
 108 
 lfi5 
 435 
 
 12 
 272 
 20« 
 253 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 163 
 527 
 220 
 538 
 518 
 347 
 577 
 
INDEX. 
 
 655 
 
 
 PAGE* PAGE I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ltifsta, 
 
 568 Lowenstein- Wer- Lucon, 
 88 theim, 324 Lude, 
 
 210 
 
 Lya, 
 
 16 
 
 Logrofio, 
 
 484 
 
 
 
 Lohr, 
 
 323 Lower Alps De- Lihienscheid, 
 
 485 
 
 Maad, 
 
 527 
 
 Loir and Cher De- partmerit, 224 Liidinghausen, 
 
 483 
 
 Maaseyk, 
 
 2*3 
 
 pnrtment, 
 
 206 Lower Alsace, 197 Liidingworth, 
 
 438 
 
 Maassluis, 
 
 270 
 
 Loire, 
 
 15 Lower Austria, 508 Ludlow, 
 
 242 
 
 Macclesfield, 
 
 242 
 
 Loire Depart- 
 
 Lower Bavaria, 315 Ludwigsburg, 
 
 331 
 
 Macedonia, 
 
 630 
 
 ment, 
 
 214 Lower Charente Ludwigslust, 
 
 409|Macerata, 
 
 134 
 
 Loiret Depart- 
 
 | Department, 211 Ludwigstadt, 
 
 319 Macon, 
 
 2ul 
 
 ment, 
 
 205 Lower Eichsfeld, 440 Lugano, 
 
 165 
 
 Maddalena, 
 
 II t 
 
 Loka, 
 
 569 Lower Franconia, 322 Lugano Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Maddaloni, 
 
 142 
 
 Lokeren, 
 
 280 Lower Hesse (of iLiigde, 
 
 484 
 
 Madrid, 
 
 bl 
 
 Lokris, 
 
 631 Hesse-Casael), 370 Lugo, 
 
 91 
 
 Mad ue Lake, 
 
 . 11 
 
 Lombards, 
 
 28 Lower Hungary, 524 Luhe, 
 
 17 
 
 Maelar Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Lombardy, 536, 537 Lower Ingefheim, 35(5 Luik, 
 
 282 
 
 Maenzingen, 
 
 146 
 
 Lombardy and Ve- | Lower Italy, 103 Lukow, 
 
 607 
 
 Maestricht, 
 
 274 
 
 nice, 
 
 536 Lower Lake, 11 Lulea, 
 
 574 
 
 Mafra, 
 
 71 
 
 Lorabez, 
 
 216 Lower Loire De- 
 
 Lumello, 
 
 111 
 
 Magdalena, 
 
 75 
 
 Lommatzsch, 
 
 381 partment, 209 
 
 Lund, 
 
 571 
 
 Magdeburg, 
 
 477 
 
 Lomnitzer Spitze, 5 Lower Lusatia, 46? 
 
 Lunden, 
 
 418 
 
 Miigdesprung, 
 
 404 
 
 Lomza, 
 
 606 Lower Margra- 
 
 Liineburg, 
 
 436 
 
 Maggiora, 
 
 111 
 
 Lonato, 
 
 540 viate, 310 Liineburg Heath, 
 
 431 
 
 Maggiore Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Londari, 
 
 622 Lower Moesia, 629 jLunel, 
 
 220 
 
 Magliano, 
 
 133 
 
 London, 
 
 234 Lower Palatinate, 342|Luneville, 
 
 194 
 
 Magna Graecia, 
 
 102 
 
 London (History 
 
 , 38 Lower Pyrenees Lunigiana, 11{ 
 
 ,125 
 
 Magnac Laval, 
 
 212 
 
 Londonderry, 
 
 25« Department, 218 
 
 Lupodanum, 
 
 343 
 
 Magyars, 19, 52C 
 
 ,521 
 
 Longford, 239, 257 Lower Rhenish 
 
 Lupodum, 
 
 343 
 
 Mali 1 berg, 
 
 346 
 
 Longobuco, 
 
 145 circle, 292 
 
 Lure, 
 
 203 
 
 Mahlstrom, 
 
 577 
 
 Longwy, 
 
 196 
 
 Lower Rhine cir- 
 
 Lurgan, 
 
 258 
 
 Mahon, 
 
 96 
 
 Longy, 
 
 247 
 
 cle, 342 
 
 Lnrley, 
 
 364 
 
 Maidstone, 
 
 236 
 
 Loningen, 
 
 423 
 
 Lower Rhine De- 
 
 Lus, 
 
 217 
 
 Mai land, 
 
 537 
 
 Lons le Saulnier, 
 
 203 
 
 partment, 197 
 
 Lusatia, 
 
 384 
 
 Maine, 
 
 207 
 
 Loo, het, 
 
 271 
 
 Lower Saxon cir- 
 
 Lusatia, Lower, 
 
 467 
 
 Maine and Loire 
 
 
 Looz, 
 
 283 
 
 cle, 293 
 
 Lusatia, Upper, 
 Lusatian Mis.. 
 
 475 
 
 Department, 
 
 206 
 
 Lopshorn, 
 
 428 
 
 Lower Saxony, 378 
 
 7 
 
 Mainland, 
 
 255 
 
 Lorca, 
 
 94 
 
 Lower Seine De- 
 
 Lusatian Neisse, 
 
 13 
 
 Maiutenon, 
 
 205 
 
 Lorch, 337 
 
 ,363 
 
 partment, 185 
 
 Lusignan, 
 
 210 
 
 Mainz, 
 
 356 
 
 Loreto, 
 
 134 
 
 Lower Selters, 363 
 
 Lusitania, 
 
 84 
 
 Maisenthal, 
 
 195 
 
 Loretto, 
 
 134 
 
 Lower Silesia, 474 
 
 Luso, 
 
 127 
 
 Majorca, 
 
 96 
 
 Lorient, 
 
 209 
 
 Lower Stamm- 
 
 Lussin Piccolo, 
 
 512 
 
 Majores-domus, 
 
 27 
 
 Lorrach, 
 
 345 
 
 heim, 169 
 
 Lustri, 
 
 168 
 
 Ma'ladetta, 
 
 4 
 
 Lorraine, 
 
 193 
 
 Lower Valais, 167 
 
 Lutetia, 
 
 183 
 
 Malaga, 
 
 93 
 
 Lorsch, 
 
 354 
 
 Lowestoff, 236 
 
 Liitetsburg, 
 
 443 
 
 Malapane, 13, 47; 
 
 Loschkirch, 
 
 532 
 
 Lowicz, 605 
 
 Liitjenburg, 
 
 417 
 
 Malaria, 
 
 100 
 
 Los Passages, 
 
 97 
 
 Lowlands of Scot- 
 
 Lutry, 
 
 168 
 
 Malchen, 
 
 7 
 
 Lossnitz, 
 
 384 
 
 land, 249 
 
 Luttenberg, 
 
 511 
 
 Malchin, 
 
 409 
 
 Lot, 
 
 15 
 
 Loxa, 93 
 
 Lutter am Baren 
 
 
 Malchin Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Lot Department, 
 
 215 
 
 Lozere, 6 
 
 berge, 
 
 447 
 
 Malchow, 
 
 410 
 
 Lot and Garonne 
 
 
 Lozere Depart- 
 
 Lutterworth, 
 
 241 
 
 Mallow, 
 
 259 
 
 Department, 
 
 215 
 
 ment, 221 
 
 Liittringhausen, 
 
 493 
 
 Malmaison, 
 
 184 
 
 Lothians, 
 
 249 
 
 Liibbecke, 484 
 
 Liitzelburg, 365, 36(5 
 
 Malmedy, 
 
 490 
 
 Lotzen, 
 
 497 
 
 Liibben, 468 
 
 Liitzen, 
 
 479 
 
 Malmo, 
 
 571 
 
 Loudeac, 
 
 209 
 
 Liibbenau, 468 
 
 Luxeuil, 
 
 203 
 
 Malplaquet, 
 
 191 
 
 Loudun, 
 
 210 
 
 Lubec, 451, 452 
 
 Luxemburg (Bel- 
 
 
 iMalta, 14S 
 
 , 150 
 
 Loueche, 
 
 167 
 
 Lubec, principality 
 
 gian), 
 
 283 
 
 Mamers, 
 
 207 
 
 Loughborough, 
 
 242 
 
 of, 4-25 
 
 Luxemburg (city) 
 
 ,366 
 
 Man, 
 
 247 
 
 Lough Neagh, 
 
 12 
 
 Liibeck, 452 
 
 Luxemburg, grand- 
 
 Man with the iron 
 
 Loughrea, 
 
 259 
 
 Lublin, 605 
 
 duchy of, 
 
 365 
 
 mask, 
 
 224 
 
 Louhans, 
 
 201 
 
 Lublinitz, 47(5 Luzerne, 
 
 162 
 
 Mancha, La, 
 
 88 
 
 Lourdea, 
 
 217 
 
 Liibtheen, 40'.) Luzerne, Lake of 
 
 11 
 
 Ifaoehe Depart- 
 
 
 Louth, 
 
 257 
 
 Lucania, 145 L izk, 
 
 602 
 
 ment, 
 
 187 
 
 Louvain, 
 
 278 
 
 Lucca, 125 Lychen, 
 
 466 .Manchester, 
 
 243 
 
 Louven, 
 
 14 
 
 Lucena, 93 Lyck, 
 
 497 Mumlal, 
 
 577 
 
 Louviers, 
 
 186 
 
 Lucera, 1 M Lygians, 
 
 472 Manebach, 
 
 394 
 
 Louvre, 
 
 182 
 
 Lucerna, valley of, 107< Lygumkloster, 
 
 557 Maulrednnia, 
 
 144 
 
 Lovere, 
 
 540 
 
 Liichow, 4:57 Lymfjord, 
 
 5-14 Maugulia, 
 
 630 
 
 Lovisa, 
 
 5<>9 
 
 Lucka, 39<i Lynn R-'gis, 
 
 237 Mannheim, 
 
 343 
 
 Lowenberg, 
 
 474 
 
 Luckiu. 4i'i7 Lyons, 
 
 214 Mano-njue, 
 
 224 
 
 Lowenstein, 
 
 33-2 
 
 Luckeuwalde, 4<>() 
 
 Lyonnais, 
 
 2131 
 
 Manresa, 
 
 95 
 
656 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mansfeld, 479 
 Mansfield, 242 
 Mantes, 184 
 Mantua, city of, 539 
 , ancient duchy 
 
 of, 
 
 Manxmen, 
 
 Manzanares, 
 
 Marans, 
 
 Marbach, 
 
 Marbella, 
 
 Marbore, 
 
 Marourg, 
 
 Marburg (in Aus- 
 tria), 
 
 March River, 
 
 Marche, La, 
 
 Marche en Fa- 
 mine, 
 
 Marcomans, 
 
 Marco Polo, 
 
 Maremma, 
 
 Marengo, 
 
 Marennes, 
 
 Maretimo, 
 
 Margate, 
 
 Mariager, 
 
 Maria Taferl, 
 
 Mariazell, 
 
 Mariboe, 
 
 Mariefred, 
 
 Marienbad, 
 
 Marienberg, 
 
 Marseilles, 
 
 Mars tall, 
 
 Marstrand, 
 
 Marthalen, 
 
 Martigny, 
 
 Martigues, 
 
 Martinach, 
 
 Martinengo, 
 
 Martorell, 
 
 Martos, 
 
 Marvejols, 
 
 Marville, 
 
 Marxburg, 
 
 Maryborough, 
 
 Mary port, 
 
 Mascoli, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 223 
 557 
 573 
 169 
 167 
 223 
 167 
 540 
 95 
 93 
 221 
 195 
 364 
 257 
 244 
 148 
 119 
 119 
 
 Massa-Carrara, 
 283 Massa di Marema, 124 
 297 Masserano, 108 
 
 55 Mataro, 95 
 
 120 Matera, 145 
 
 111 Matlok, 242 
 
 211 Maubeuge, 191 
 
 147 Maulbronn, 
 236 Mauleon, 
 553 Maupertuis, 
 509 Mauriac, 
 511 Maurizio, San 
 550|Maurs, 
 569iMauze, 
 5l5JMaxen, 
 383 Maxsayn. 
 
 Meersch, 
 
 Meganisi, 
 
 Megara, 
 
 Mehadia, 
 
 Mehlsack, 
 
 Mehun, 
 
 Meilen, 
 
 Meinau, 
 
 Meiningen, 
 
 Meinungen, 
 
 Meisenheim, 
 
 Meissen, 
 
 Melazzo, 
 
 Melchthal, 
 
 Meldorf, 
 
 Mele, 
 
 Melfi, 
 
 Melibocus, 
 
 Melite, 
 
 Melk, 
 
 Melle, 
 
 Mellrichstadt, 
 
 Melnik, 
 
 Meloria, 
 331 Melrose, 
 217 Melsungen, 
 210 Melton Mowbray, 242 
 
 PAGE 
 
 367 
 
 205 
 169 
 347 
 391 
 391 
 359 
 
 379, 381 
 148 
 166 
 418 
 112 
 145 
 7 
 150 
 509 
 
 210, 441 
 323 
 515 
 1-25 
 24! I 
 371 
 
 Marienburg, 497, 532jMayenburg 
 Marienburg (in Bel- JMayence, 
 
 gium), 
 Marienwerder, 
 Mariestad, 
 Marignano, 
 Marino, San, 
 Maringuea, 
 Marissa, 
 Maritime Alps, 
 Maritimo, 
 Mariupol, 
 Mark, ancient earl 
 
 dom of, 
 Markdorf, 
 Markgroningen, 
 Markirch, 
 
 Markneukirchen, 384 
 Markolsheim, 197 
 
 Markranstadt, 383 
 Markt-Einersheim 322 
 I.larkt-Erlbach, 321 
 
 282|Mayenne 
 498 j Mayenne Depart- 
 573 ment, 
 538!Mayne, 
 136 j Maynooth, 
 21 3 j Mayo, 
 15iMazamet, 
 4 1 Mazzara, 
 
 213 Melun, 184 
 
 107 Memel (city), 496 
 
 213 Memel River, 13 
 
 210 Memmingen, 324 
 
 381|Memmleben, 480 
 
 362 Memsen, 436 
 
 466 Menai Strait, 246 
 
 356;Mende, 221 
 
 15, 207iMenden, 485 
 
 Mendris, 165 
 
 207'Mendrisio, 165 
 
 16JMengen, 335 
 257 Mengeringhausen, 376 
 
 259lMenin, 281 
 220 Mentone, 
 
 Mazzarino, 
 
 Mearns, 
 
 Meath, 
 
 Meaux, 
 346 j Mechlin, 
 331 Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, 
 
 Mecklenburg-Stre- 
 litz, 
 
 Medelpad, 
 
 Medemblik, 
 
 Medewi, 
 
 Mentz, city, 
 , ancient elec- 
 torate, 
 
 257JMeppel, 
 ~~ Meppen, 
 
 Mequinenza, 
 
 Meran, 
 
 Mereczowszczisa, 
 
 Mereville, 
 4lO|Mergeutheim, 
 574 Merida, 
 
 40li 
 
 Markthennersdorf, 385: Mediasch, 
 
 Marly, 183! Medici, House of, 122 
 Marmande, 215 Medicina, 135 
 I larmora Sea, 10| Medina Celi, 
 Marne, 15, 418 Medina Sidonia, 
 Marne Depart- 
 ment, 192 
 Maros Ujvar, 531 
 Maros Vasarhely, 532 
 Marrac, 217 
 Marsac, 213 
 Marsala, 147 
 Marsan, 2 
 Marsberg, 
 
 269j Merionetshire, 
 570|Merkendorf, 
 532 j Merovingians, 
 
 Medina del Rio 
 
 seco, 89 
 Mediterranean Sea, 10 
 
 Medoc, 215 
 
 Medwisch, 532 
 
 Meenen, 281 
 
 Meerane, 384 
 
 Meerholz, 374 
 
 485 l Meersburg, 346 
 
 Merse, 
 
 Merseburg, 
 
 Merthyr Tydvil, 
 
 Merwe, 
 
 Merxheim, 
 
 Merzich, 
 
 Meschede, 
 
 Meseritz, 
 
 Messenia, 
 
 Messina, 
 
 Mesto, 
 
 Mestre, 
 
 Methone, 
 
 110 
 35(3 
 
 355 
 273 
 442 
 
 94 
 513 
 600 
 184 
 336 
 
 91 
 246 
 320 
 
 26 
 249 
 479 
 245 
 
 16 
 360 
 489 
 485 
 499 
 622 
 148 
 
 15 
 541 
 622 
 
 Mettmann, 
 
 Metz, 
 
 Metzingen unter 
 Urach, 
 
 Meudon, 
 
 Meulebeke, 
 
 Meung, 
 
 Meurs, 
 
 Meurthe Depart- 
 ment, 
 
 Me use, 
 
 Meuse Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Meyenfeld, 
 
 Meynthal, 
 
 Meyringen, 
 
 Mezen, 
 
 Mezieres, 
 
 Mezin, 
 
 Mezzafuso, 
 
 Mezzovo Mts., 
 
 Michailovka, 
 
 Michelstadt, 
 
 Micheltown, 
 
 Middelburg, 
 
 Middelfart, 
 
 Middle Rhine cir 
 cle, 
 
 Middlesex, 
 
 Mid-Lothian, 
 
 Miechow, 
 
 Miedniki, 
 
 Miedzerzyce, 
 
 Miedzyborz, 
 
 Mietau, 
 
 Migration of na- 
 tions, 
 
 Mjos Lake, 
 
 Milan, 
 
 Milano, 
 
 Milazzo, 
 
 Milden, 
 
 Milford, 
 
 Milhaud, 
 
 196 
 
 333 
 184 
 
 281 
 205 
 494 
 
 194 
 16 
 
 195 
 162 
 165 
 158 
 12 
 192 
 
 6 
 147 
 
 6 
 592 
 355 
 259 
 270 
 551 
 
 340 
 234 
 249 
 
 607 
 602 
 597 
 
 23,24 
 11 
 537 
 537 
 148 
 168 
 245 
 216 
 
 Military Frontier, 533 
 
 Militsch, 
 
 Millesimo, 
 
 Milo, 
 
 Miltenberg, 
 
 Mincio, 
 
 Mindelheim, 
 
 Minden, 
 
 Mineo, 
 
 Minho, 
 
 Minnesingers, 
 
 Minorca, 
 
 Minsk, 
 
 474 
 
 108 
 
 623 
 
 323 
 
 15 
 
 325 
 
 483 
 
 148 
 
 14 
 
 56 
 
 96 
 
 601 
 
 Miranda de Douro, 73 
 
 Mirande, 
 
 Mirandella, 
 
 Mirandola, 
 
 Mirecourt, 
 
 Missolonghi, 
 
 Mistretta, 
 
 Mitrovicz, 
 
 Mittelmark, 
 
 Mittelwalde, 
 
 Mittenwakl, 
 
 Mittenwalde, 
 
 216 
 73 
 119 
 195 
 621 
 148 
 534 
 464, 467 
 474 
 315 
 465 
 
INDEX. 
 
 657 
 
 Mitterburg, 
 
 Mockmiihl, 
 
 Modane, 
 
 Modejares, 
 
 Modena, 
 
 Modica, 
 
 Modtgliano, 
 
 Modlin, 
 
 Modon, 
 
 Moen, 
 
 Moers, 
 
 Moesia, Lower, 
 
 Moesia, Upper, 
 
 Moffat, 
 
 Moguer, 
 
 Mohacz, 
 
 Mohammedans, 
 
 Mohilew, 
 
 Mohilow, 
 
 Mohra, 
 
 Miihringen, 
 
 Mohrungen, 
 
 Moissac, 
 
 Mokshansk, 
 
 Mola di Bari, 
 
 Mold, 
 
 Moldau River, 
 
 Moldavia, 
 
 Molfetta, 
 
 Molina, 
 
 Molk, 
 
 Molle, 
 
 Mollis, 
 
 Molln, 
 
 Mologa, 
 
 Molsheim, 
 
 Mommelliano, 
 
 Mompelgard, 
 
 Monaco, 
 
 Monaghan, 
 
 Moncaiieri, 
 
 Monchiqne, 
 
 Mondonedo, 
 
 Mondovi, 
 
 Mondragon, 
 
 Moneins, 
 
 Monheim, 
 
 Monistrol, 
 
 Monmouth, 
 
 Monmouthshire, 
 
 Monnikendam, 
 
 Monopoli, 
 
 Monreale, 
 
 Mons, 
 
 Monselice, 
 
 Monsheim, 
 
 Monstiers, 
 
 Montabaur, 
 
 Montasrnana, 
 
 Montaigu, 
 
 Montalban, 
 
 Montalcino, 
 
 Montalto, 
 
 Montargis, 
 
 Montauban, 
 
 Montbard, 
 
 Montbeliard, 
 
 Mont Blanc, 
 
 Montbrison, 
 
 PAQK 
 
 512 
 331 
 110 
 76 
 117, 118 
 148 
 
 123 
 606 
 622 
 550 
 494 
 629 
 634 
 250 
 92 
 
 391! 
 347 
 496 
 216 
 608 
 144! 
 246 
 
 16 
 636 
 144 
 
 88 
 509 
 577 
 161 
 420 
 
 12 
 197 
 109 
 203 
 110 
 258 
 106 
 
 74 
 
 91 
 108 
 
 97 
 218 
 326 
 221 
 240 
 240 
 269 
 144 
 146 
 281 
 541 
 357 
 110 
 363 
 541 
 278 
 
 94 
 124 
 133,134 
 205 
 216 
 201 
 203 
 4 
 214 
 
 63!} 
 112 
 149 
 
 124 
 
 H3 
 
 113 
 5 
 
 144 
 
 114 
 
 5 
 
 113 
 
 110 
 
 Mont-Cassel, 
 Mont Dauphin, 
 Montdidier, 
 Mont Dore, 
 Montecalieri, 
 Monte Cassino, 
 Montechiaro, 
 Monte Christo, 
 Monte Cimone, 
 Montefarchio, 
 Monteflascone, 
 Montefusco, 
 Monte Gibello, 
 Monte Giuliano, 
 Monteleone, 
 Montelimart, 
 Monte Negro (near 
 
 Leghorn), 
 Montenegro (in 
 
 Turkey), 
 Montenotte, 
 Monte peloso, 
 Montepulciano, 
 Montereau fault 
 
 Yonne, 
 Monterosso, 
 Monte Rotondo, 
 Monte Sant' An- 
 Mgelo, 
 Muntesanto, 
 Monte di Sibylla, 
 Montferrand, 
 Montferrat, 
 Montfort, 208,271 
 Montgomery, 246 
 Montgomeryshire, 246 
 Montherhausen, 195 
 Monthey, 
 Montiers, 
 Monti I la, 
 Montivilliers, 
 Montjoie, 
 Mont- Louis, 
 Montlucon, 
 Monti uel, 
 Mont de Marsan, 
 Montmedy, 
 Montmelian, 
 Montm trail, 
 Montmorency, 
 M out inori lion, 
 Montpellier, 
 Montpensier, 
 Mont Perdu, 
 Montreale, 
 Montreuil, 
 Montrose, 
 Mont St. Michel, 
 Montserrat, 
 Mont Tendre, 
 Mont de Tonnere, 
 Monts de Faucille, 6 
 Monza, 538 
 
 Monzon, 94 
 
 Mook, heath of, 271 
 Moors, 28, 33 
 
 Moorslede, 281 
 
 Moorzele, 281 
 
 Moorwerder, 450 
 
 28 1 
 
 FA OR | 
 
 190;Moo8burg, 
 2-2-2 Morat, 
 188j Moravia, 
 
 6 1 Moravian Mts., 
 106 Morawa, 
 142; Moray, 
 540 Morbegno. 
 
 Morbihan Depart 
 ment, 
 
 Mordwines, 
 
 Morea, 
 
 Morella, 
 
 Morez, 
 
 Morgarten, 
 
 Morges, 
 
 Moringen, 
 
 Moritzburg, 
 
 Morlaix, 
 
 Morpeth, 
 
 Mors, 
 
 Morsburg, 
 
 Morsee, 
 
 Mortagne, 
 
 Mortain, 
 
 Mortara, 
 
 Morwan Mts., 
 
 Mosaisk, 
 
 Mosbach, 
 
 Moscow, 
 
 Moselle, 
 
 Moselle Depart- 
 ment, 
 
 Mosken, 
 
 Moskenas-Strom- 
 men, 
 
 Moskirch, 
 
 Mosony, 
 
 167 
 110 
 83 
 
 1«!-) 
 40.) 
 
 319 
 
 204 
 202 
 217 
 195 
 109 
 199 
 184 
 210 
 220 
 213 
 4 
 148 
 189 
 252 
 181 
 •J.") 
 
 i 
 
 PAOK 
 
 315 
 159 
 516 
 7 
 16 
 253 
 539 
 
 Mostar, 
 
 Motala, 
 
 Motril, 
 
 Mottlau, 
 
 Moudon, 
 
 Moulins, 
 
 Mount Edge- 
 combe, 
 
 Mount Hecla, 
 
 Mount Mellick, 
 
 Mountrath, 
 
 Mount Rosa, 
 
 Moura, 
 
 Monzon, 
 
 Moyenvic, 
 
 Mucidan, 
 
 Mufflon, 
 
 Mufti, 
 
 Muggendorf, 
 
 Muhlberg, 
 
 MUhldorf, 
 
 MUhlenbach, 
 
 Miihlhausen, 
 
 MUhlhausen (Al- 
 sace), 
 
 Miihlheim am 
 Rhein, 
 
 Miihlheim 
 Ruhr, 
 
 Muhlingen. 
 
 Miihltroff, 
 
 203 
 168 
 168 
 440 
 382 
 209 
 244 
 552 
 346 
 168 
 190,208 
 187 
 111 
 6 
 591 
 344 
 590 
 16 
 
 188 
 
 577 
 
 577 
 347 
 527 
 57ti 
 831 
 570 
 03 
 13 
 168 
 204 
 
 8 
 257 
 887 
 
 4 
 73 
 193! 
 195 
 215 
 113 
 6261 
 319 
 480 
 315 
 532 
 481 
 
 der 
 
 402 
 
 493 
 
 401 
 
 Muiden, 
 
 268 
 
 Mulde, 
 
 16 
 
 Mull, 
 
 254 
 
 Mijllheim, 
 
 345 
 
 Mullingar, 
 
 257 
 
 Miillrose, 
 
 467 
 
 Mummel Lake, 
 
 338 
 
 Munch berg, 
 
 319 
 
 Muncheberg, 
 
 467 
 
 Miinchen, 
 
 314 
 
 Miinchengratz, 
 
 515 
 
 M iinden, 
 
 440 
 
 Miinder, 
 
 436 
 
 Munderkingen, 
 
 335 
 
 Munich, 
 
 314 
 
 Munkacs, 
 
 528 
 
 Mii nncrs tadt, 
 
 323 
 
 Munsingen, 
 
 335 
 
 Munster, 
 
 259 
 
 MUnster, 
 
 482 
 
 Minister imGrego- 
 
 rienthal, ' 
 
 108 
 
 Miinsterberg, 
 
 474 
 
 Miinstereifel, 
 
 492 
 
 Miinzenberg, 
 
 357 
 
 Munzthal, 
 
 195 
 
 Murano, 
 
 541 
 
 Marat, 
 
 213 
 
 Murcia, 
 
 94 
 
 Mures, 
 
 90 
 
 Muret, 
 
 217 
 
 Murg, 
 
 338 
 
 Muri, 
 
 156 
 
 Muritz Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Murrhard, 
 
 331 
 
 Murten, 
 
 159 
 
 Murviedro, 
 
 96 
 
 Muskau, 
 
 475 
 
 Musselburgh, 
 
 249 
 
 Muttenz, 
 
 158 
 
 Mutzig, 
 
 197 
 
 Mutzschen, 
 
 3*2 
 
 Muyden, 
 
 268 
 
 Mylau, 
 
 384 
 
 Naarden, 
 
 269 
 
 Naas, 
 
 257 
 
 Nab, 
 
 16 
 
 Nabburg, 
 
 317 
 
 Nachitschevan, 
 
 612 
 
 Naefels, 
 
 161 
 
 tfagold, 
 
 333 
 
 Nagy-Banya, 
 
 528 
 
 Nagy Enyed, 
 
 531 
 
 Nagy Falu, 
 
 531 
 
 Nagy-Karoly, 
 
 528 
 
 Nas?y-Szent-Mik- 
 
 
 los, 
 
 528 
 
 Nagy Varad, 
 
 528 
 
 Nahe, 
 
 16 
 
 Naila, 
 
 319 
 
 Nairn, 
 
 253 
 
 Nairnshire, 
 
 253 
 
 V tk-kop, 
 
 551 
 
 Nam. mi, 
 
 281 
 
 Vamslau, 
 
 473 
 
 tfamur, 
 
 281 
 
 Nancy, 
 Nangis, 
 
 194 
 184 
 
658 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PA6K| PAGKj 
 
 PAGEI PAGE 
 
 Nantes, 
 
 209 (Netherlands, king- |Neustadtl, 
 
 51l!Nieuwport, 280 
 
 Nantua, 
 
 202| domofthe, 265 Neustettin, 
 
 472Nievre, 15 
 
 Nautwicb, 
 
 242; Netherlander, 265 Neu-Strelitz, 
 
 41l|Nievre Depart- 
 
 Naples, 
 
 141 Netze, 13Neustria, 
 
 27 ment, 204 
 
 Napoli di Malva- 
 
 
 Netzschkau, 384jNeu-Titschein, 
 
 517|Nikolaiken, 497 
 
 sia, 622, 623 
 
 Neubrandenburg, 412 
 
 Neuveville, 
 
 159|Nikolajew, 611 
 
 Napoli di Roma- 
 
 
 Neuburg on the 
 
 Neuwied, 
 
 488;Nikolsburg, 517 
 
 nia, 
 
 621 
 
 Danube, 326 
 
 Nevers, 
 
 204iNimeguen, 271 
 
 Narbonne, 
 
 220 
 
 Neuchatel, 162, 163 
 
 Nevesigna, 
 
 634|Nimes, 220 
 
 Narenta, 
 
 15 
 
 Neuchatel (in 
 
 Neviges, 
 
 493 
 
 Nimptsch, 473 
 
 Narni, 
 
 133 
 
 France), 186 
 
 Newa, 
 
 13 
 
 Ninove, 280 
 
 Naro, 
 
 147 
 
 Neudamm, 467 
 
 Newark, 
 
 242 
 
 Niort, 210 
 
 Narva, 
 
 596 
 
 Neudenau, 344 
 
 New Branden- 
 
 
 Nishnei-Novgo- 
 
 Nassau, duchy, 
 
 360 
 
 Neuenburg, 423 
 
 burg, 
 
 412 
 
 rod, 592 
 
 Nassau (town), 
 
 362 
 
 Neuenburg, 333 
 
 New Breisach, 
 
 198 
 
 Nishnei-Tagilsk, 608 
 
 Nassau-Siegen, 
 
 486 
 
 Neuenhaus, 442 
 
 Newbury, 
 
 235 
 
 Nishnij Lomov, 608 
 
 Naters, 
 
 167 
 
 Neuenstadt, 159 Nt 
 
 87 
 
 Nisida, 141 
 
 Naugard, 
 
 470 
 
 Neuenstein, 337 
 
 Newcastle under 
 
 
 Nissa, 635 
 
 Nauheim, 
 
 374 
 
 Neuerburg, 489 
 
 Lyne, 
 
 241 
 
 Nivelles, 278 
 
 Naumburg, 
 
 479 
 
 Neufahrwasser, 497 
 
 Newcastle upon 
 
 
 Nivernais, 204 
 
 Naumburg am Bo- 
 
 Neufchaieau, 195,283 
 
 Tyne, 
 
 244 
 
 NizzadellaPaglia, 111 
 
 ber, 
 
 475 
 
 Neufchatel Lake, 11 
 
 New Galloway, 
 
 250 
 
 Nobility (history), 46 
 
 Naumburg (in 
 
 
 Neuffen, 333 
 
 New Gradisca, 
 
 534 
 
 Nocera, 134, 142 
 
 Hesse-Cassel), 
 
 372 
 
 Neuhaldensleben, 477 
 
 New Katzenellnbo- 
 
 Nogat, 13 
 
 Naumburg am 
 
 
 Neuhaus, 437 
 
 gen, 
 
 364 
 
 Nogayzg, 611 
 
 Queis, 
 
 475 
 
 Neuhausel, 525 
 
 New Lanark, 
 
 250 
 
 Nogayan Steppe, 611 
 
 Naupaktos, 
 
 621 
 
 Neuilly, 183 
 
 Newlands, 
 
 250 
 
 Nogent le Roi, 192 
 
 Nauplia, 
 
 621 
 
 Neukirch, 164 
 
 Newmarket, 
 
 237 
 
 Nogent le Rotrou, 208 
 
 Navia, 
 
 90 
 
 Neukirchen, 372,493 
 
 New Orsova, 
 
 635 
 
 Nogent sur Seine, 192 
 
 Navan, 
 
 257 
 
 Neukloster, 410 
 
 New Patrae, 
 
 621 
 
 Noirmoutier, 210 
 
 Navarino, 
 
 622 
 
 Neumark, 464, 467 
 
 Newport, 
 
 240 
 
 Nola, 142 
 
 Navarre (in 
 
 
 Neumarkt, 317, 473 
 
 New Radnor, 
 
 246 
 
 Noli, 113 
 
 France), 
 
 218 
 
 Neumiinster, 169, 417 
 
 New Ross, 
 
 256 
 
 Nonnenmattwei- 
 
 Navarre (in 
 
 
 Neunburg vordem 
 
 Newry, 
 
 258 
 
 her, 338 
 
 Spain), 
 
 97 
 
 Walde, 317 
 
 Newstead Abbey, 242 
 
 Nontron, 215 
 
 Navarre (palace 
 
 
 Neusatz, 525 
 
 New Strelitz, 
 
 411 
 
 Noord-Beveland, 270 
 
 of), 
 
 186 
 
 Neusiedl Lake, 11 
 
 Newton upon Ayr, 250 
 
 Nora, 569 
 
 Naxia, 
 
 623 
 
 Neuss, 168, 493 
 
 Newton Stuart, 
 
 250 
 
 Norburg, 557 
 
 Naxos, 
 
 623 
 
 Neustadt (in Hol- 
 
 NexOe, 
 
 550 
 
 Nord Department, 190 
 
 Neapolitan Apen- 
 
 stein), 417 
 
 Nibe, 
 
 552 
 
 Norden, 443 
 
 nines, 
 
 5 
 
 Neustadt (in Meck- 
 
 Nicastro, 
 
 145 
 
 Norderney, 443 
 
 Neath, 
 
 245 
 
 lenburg), 409 
 
 Nice, 
 
 110 
 
 Nordhausen, * 481 
 
 Neau, 
 
 490 
 
 Neustadt an der 
 
 Nicolas de Port, 
 
 195 
 
 Nordheim, 440 
 
 Nebel, 
 
 17 
 
 Aisch, 321 
 
 Nicolosi, 
 
 148 
 
 Nordhorn, 442 
 
 Necessidades, 
 
 7] 
 
 Neustadt am Culm 318 
 
 Nicopoli, 
 
 629 
 
 Nord land, 577 
 
 Neckar, 16, 329 
 
 Neustadt an der 
 
 Nicosia, 
 
 148 
 
 Nordlingen, 324 
 
 Neckar-Biscbof- 
 
 
 Dosse, 466 
 
 Nidau, 
 
 158 
 
 Norfolk, 236 
 
 sheim, 
 
 344 
 
 Neustadt-Ebers- 
 
 Nidda, 
 
 357 
 
 Noricum, 297 
 
 Neckar Circle, 
 
 331 
 
 walde, 466 
 
 Nidwalden, 
 
 166 
 
 Norma, 133 
 
 Neckargemiind, 
 
 343 
 
 Neustadt an der 
 
 Niebla, 
 
 92 
 
 Normandy, 185 
 
 Neckarsteinach, 
 
 355 
 
 Haardt, 327 
 
 Niedenstein, 
 
 371 
 
 Norman Islands, 247 
 
 Neckarsulm, 
 
 332 
 
 Neustadt an der 
 
 Niederaula, 
 
 373 
 
 Normans, 30 
 
 Negropont, 
 
 623 
 
 Heide, 394jNiederbronn, 
 
 198 
 
 Norrkoping, 570 
 
 Neheim, 
 
 485 
 
 Neustadt (in Hesse- [Niedernhall, 
 
 337 
 
 Norrland, 573 
 
 Neidenau, 
 
 344 
 
 Cassel), 372 Niederrad, 
 
 456 
 
 Norrtelge, 508 
 
 Neidenburg, 
 
 496 
 
 Neustadt unterm Nieder-Selters, 
 
 363 
 
 North Albingia, 414 
 
 Neisse, 
 
 476 
 
 Hohnstein, 441 ' Niederstetten, 
 
 337 
 
 North Albingians, 298 
 
 Neisse River, 
 
 13 
 
 Neustadt an der INiederwildungen 
 
 376 
 
 Northampton, 241 
 
 Neitra, 
 
 16 
 
 Linde, 331[Niemen, 
 
 13 
 
 Northampton- 
 
 Nemours, 
 
 184 
 
 Neustadt an der Niemirow, 
 
 602 
 
 shire, 241 
 
 Nenndorf, 
 
 372 
 
 Orla, 388Nienburg, 
 
 436 
 
 North Brabant, 273 
 
 Nerac, 
 
 217 
 
 Neustadt in der iNienburg an der 
 
 
 North Cape, 3, 578 
 
 Nerike, 
 
 569 
 
 Rosenau, 355] Saale, 
 
 406 North Channel, 10 
 
 Nervi, 
 
 112 
 
 Neustadt am RU- INierstein, 
 
 356, North Coasts De- 
 
 Nestved, 
 
 550 
 
 benberge, 436 Niesky, 
 
 475! partment, 20b 
 
 Netherlands, 
 
 261 
 
 STeustadt an der Nieuport, 
 
 280 Northgau, 197 
 
 , Austrian, 
 
 277 
 
 Saale, 323 Nieuwe Dien, 
 
 2C,9 North Holland, 268 
 
 , Catholic, 
 
 277 Neustadt an der Nieuwfcerk," 
 
 272 Northumberland. 244 
 
 , Spanish, 
 
 277, 
 
 Waldnab, 318 
 
 Sieuwpoort, 
 
 210 
 
 Vorlh Jutland, 552 
 
INDEX. 
 
 659 
 
 
 PAOK 
 
 PAOE 
 
 PAOK 
 
 PAOK 
 
 North Riding, 
 
 24: 
 
 1 Oberwesel, 
 
 48' 
 
 ' Old Orsova, 
 
 5U 
 
 Ortenau, 
 
 341 
 
 North Sea, 
 
 £ 
 
 Obidoa, 
 
 72 Old Pazna, 
 
 534 
 
 Ortenberg, 
 
 357 
 
 North Shields, 
 
 244 
 
 Obotrites, 
 
 40" 
 
 Old Rhine, 
 
 H 
 
 Ortenburg, 
 Orthez, 
 
 316 
 
 North Uist, 
 
 255 
 
 Obwalden, 
 
 16C 
 
 Old Strelitz, 
 
 41S 
 
 218 
 
 North Wales, 
 
 24« 
 
 Ocana, 
 
 8- 
 
 Oleggio, 
 
 ill 
 
 Ortles, 
 
 4 
 
 North wich, 
 
 24-. 
 
 Occhieppo supe- 
 
 Oleron, 211, 21* 
 
 Ortona a Mare, 
 
 143 
 
 Norway, 
 
 575 
 
 riore, 
 
 10£ 
 
 Oletzko, 
 
 497 
 
 Orvieto, 
 
 133 
 
 Norwegian Lap- 
 
 
 Ochsenfurt, 
 
 323 Olgun, 
 
 635 
 
 Orzi Nuovi, 
 
 540 
 
 land, 
 
 578 
 
 Ochsenkopf, 
 
 7 
 
 Olite, 
 
 97 
 
 Oschereleben, 
 
 478 
 
 Norwich, 
 
 236 
 
 Ochsenwerder, 
 
 450 
 
 Oliva, 
 
 497 
 
 Oschiri, 
 
 114 
 
 Noto, 
 
 148 
 
 Ochrida, 
 
 63: 
 
 Olivenca, 
 
 91 
 
 Osieczno, 
 
 499 
 
 Nottingham, 
 
 242 
 
 Oczakow, 
 
 611 
 
 Olkusz,' 
 
 606 
 
 Osilo, 
 
 114 
 
 Nottinghamshire 
 
 , 242 
 
 Odeu, 
 
 547 
 
 Ollioules, 
 
 224 
 
 Osimo, 
 
 134 
 
 Novara, 
 
 111 
 
 Odenkirchen, 
 
 493 
 
 Olmiitz, 
 
 517 
 
 Osma, 
 
 89 
 
 Nova Zembla, 
 
 593 
 
 Odense, 
 
 551 
 
 Olonetz, 
 
 593 
 
 Osmanlis, 
 
 624 
 
 Novel lara, 
 
 119 
 
 Odenwald, 
 
 7 
 
 Oloron, 
 
 218 
 
 Osnabriick, 
 
 441 
 
 Novgorod, 
 
 593 
 
 Oder, 
 
 13 
 
 Olpe, 
 
 485 
 
 Osning, 
 
 8 
 
 Novi, 
 
 112 
 
 Oderbruch, 
 
 458 
 
 Olsa, 
 
 13 
 
 Ossa, 
 
 13 
 
 Novibasar, 
 
 635 
 
 Odernheim, 
 
 356 
 
 Otten, 
 
 164 
 
 Ossiach Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Novo Georgievsk, 606 
 
 Odessa, 
 
 611 
 
 Olviopol, 
 Omagh, 
 
 611 
 
 Ossuna, 
 
 92 
 
 Novogorod, 
 
 50 Odin, 
 
 547 
 
 258 
 
 Ostende, 
 
 280 
 
 Novo Mirgorod, 
 Nowogrodek, 
 
 611 Odoacer, 
 
 45 
 
 Orabrone, 
 
 120 
 
 Osterburg, 
 
 478 
 
 60] Oedenburg, 
 
 526 
 
 Ommen, 
 
 272 
 
 Osterburken, 
 
 344 
 
 Nowoi-Tsherkask, 612;Oederan, 
 
 384 
 
 Onate, 
 
 "93 
 
 Osterhofen, 
 
 316 
 
 Nozay, 
 
 210 Oehringen, 
 
 336 
 
 Onega Lake, 
 
 10 
 
 Osterholz, 
 
 438 
 
 Nucko, 
 
 596 Oeland, 
 
 571 
 
 Onega River, 
 
 13 
 
 Osterhout, 
 
 274 
 
 Nuits, 
 
 201 Oels, 445,4 
 
 Oneglia, 
 
 110 Osterland, 382. 395 
 
 Numantia, 
 
 89 Oelsnitz, 
 
 384 
 
 Onolzbaeb, 
 
 320 Osterode, 
 
 440 
 
 Numburg, 
 
 372 Oeraefe-Joekul, 
 
 8 
 
 Oostburg, 
 
 27HOsterwiek, 
 
 478 
 
 Nummedalen, 
 
 576 Oerebro, 
 
 569 Opatow, 
 
 606 Ostheim, 
 
 389 
 
 Nuremberg, 
 
 321jOeregrund, 
 
 568 
 
 Opladen, 
 
 493|Osthofen, 
 
 356 
 
 Niirnberg, 
 
 321 1 Oeresound, 
 
 9 
 
 Oporto, 
 
 72 
 
 Ostra, 
 
 132 
 
 Nuoro, 
 
 114 Oesel, 
 
 597 
 
 Oppa, 
 
 13 
 
 Ostrach, 
 
 349 
 
 Nurri, 
 
 114 Oesterby, 
 333'Oester-G6thland, 
 
 568 
 
 Oppeln, 
 
 475 
 
 Ostrog, 
 
 602 
 
 Niirtingen, 
 
 570 
 
 Oppenau, 
 
 341 
 
 Ostrogoths, 
 
 23 
 
 Nusloch, 
 
 343 Oesteriisoer, 
 
 577 
 
 Oppenheim, 
 
 356 
 
 Ostrolenka, 
 
 606 
 
 Nya Elfsborg, 
 
 572 Oester-Joekul, 
 
 8 
 
 Oppidolo, 
 
 147 Oswestry, 
 
 242 
 
 Nyborg, 
 
 551 Oesteroe, 
 
 558 
 
 Orange, 
 
 223|Otranto, 
 
 143 
 
 Ny Carleby, 
 
 599 Oestersund, 
 
 574 
 
 Oranienbaum, 
 
 405jOttensen, 
 
 418 
 
 Nykjobing 
 
 550,!OetMng,Old, 
 
 315 
 
 Oranienburg, 
 
 465 Otterbersr, 
 
 327 
 
 551 
 
 , 552 Oettingen, 
 
 326 
 
 Orb, 
 
 323 Otterndorf, 
 
 438 
 
 Nykoping, 
 
 568 Ofen, 
 
 525 
 
 Orbach, 
 
 168 Ottersberg, 
 
 438 
 
 Nymphenburg, 
 
 314 Offenbach, 
 
 355 
 
 Orbe, 
 
 168 
 
 Ottmachau, 
 
 476 
 
 Nyon, 
 
 168 Offen burg, 
 
 341 
 
 Orbitello, 
 
 125 
 
 Ottobeuren, 
 
 325 
 
 Nyons, 
 
 223 Oggersheira, 
 
 327 
 
 Ordufia, 
 
 97 
 
 Ottweiler, 360, 489 
 
 Nystad, 
 
 598!Ogliastra, 
 
 114 
 
 Ore Mountains, 
 
 7 
 
 Oudenaarde, 279, 280 
 
 Nysted, 
 
 551 Oglio, 
 
 15 
 
 Orel, 
 
 591 
 
 Oudewater, 
 
 270 
 
 Nyvel, 
 
 278 
 
 Ogulin, 
 
 533 
 
 Orenburg, 
 
 609 
 
 Ouessant, 
 
 209 
 
 
 
 Ogygia, 
 
 150 
 
 Orense, 
 
 91 
 
 Oufa, 
 
 609 
 
 Oakham, 
 
 241 
 
 Ohlau, 
 
 13 
 
 Orfan, 
 
 631 
 
 Oulx, 
 
 107 
 
 Ober-Aargau, 
 
 158 Ohrdruf, 
 
 394 
 
 Orghei, 
 
 612 
 
 Ourem, 
 
 72 
 
 Oberbaden, 
 
 156iOhrnbau, 
 
 322 
 
 Orgon, 
 
 224 
 
 Ourique, 
 
 73 
 
 Ober-Glogau, 
 
 476 Oise, 
 
 15 
 
 Orgosola, 
 
 114 
 
 Ourthe, 
 
 16 
 
 Obergiinzburg, 
 
 325 
 
 Oise Department, 
 
 184 
 
 Orihuela, 
 
 96 Otise, 
 
 14 
 
 Ober-Hohenberg, 
 
 7 
 
 Oka, 
 
 12 
 
 Dristano, 
 
 114|Ovar, 
 
 72 
 
 Oberkirch, 
 
 341 
 
 Okna, 
 
 637 
 
 Orkney Islands, 
 
 255jOvelgonne, 
 
 423 
 
 Ober-Kulm, 
 
 156 
 
 Olau, 
 
 473 
 
 Drkneys, 
 
 255|Over-Flakke, 
 
 27D 
 
 Oberlahnstein, 
 
 363 
 
 Oldenburg, city of, 423 
 
 )rlamiinde, 
 
 396 
 
 Overyssel, 
 
 272 
 
 Obermoschel, 
 
 328 
 
 Oldenburg, Grand- 
 
 3rleanais, 
 
 205 
 
 Ovidiopol, 
 
 611 
 
 Obernay, 
 
 197 
 
 duchy of, 
 
 420 
 
 Orleans, 
 
 205 
 
 Dviedo, 
 
 90 
 
 Obernburg, 
 
 323 
 
 Oldenburg (in 
 
 
 Drnans, 
 
 303 
 
 >wl Mountains, 
 
 7 
 
 Oberndorf, 
 
 332 
 
 Holstein), 
 
 417 
 
 Orne, 
 
 15 < 
 
 Dxford, 
 
 237 
 
 Obernkirchen, 
 
 372 Old Castile, 
 
 88 
 
 >ne Department, 187 1 Oxfordshire, 
 
 237 
 
 Oberrad, 
 
 456 Oldendorf, 
 
 371 
 
 Dropa, 
 
 108 1 >vonnar, 
 
 202 
 
 Oberramstadt, 
 
 354 Oldenzaal, 
 
 272 
 
 )rosei, 
 
 1 14 Ozieri, 
 
 114 
 
 Ober-Rossbach, 
 
 357 Oldesloe, 
 
 417 
 
 )rsova. 
 
 635 Ozorkov, 
 
 605 
 
 Oberschonau, 
 
 3" A Old Gradisca, 
 
 5:14 
 
 Orsova, Old, 
 
 5:i f 
 
 
 Oberstein, 
 
 428 Oldham, 
 
 2411 
 
 )rsoy, 
 Ortelsburg, 
 
 494! Pacha, 
 
 626 
 
 Obersteut'eld, 
 
 332! 
 
 Old Oetting, 
 
 3151 
 
 490 1 
 
 ^uchino, 
 
 148 
 
660 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pacracz, 
 
 Paderborn, 
 
 Padua, 
 
 Paestum, 
 
 Pagalia Orba, 
 
 Pago, 
 
 Puimpont, 
 
 Paisley, 
 
 Palais, 
 
 Palais Royal, 
 
 Palatinate, Bava- 
 rian, 
 
 Palatinate of Ches- 
 ter, 
 
 Palatinate, Elec- 
 
 PAGE 
 
 530 
 484 
 541 
 142 
 5 
 535 
 208 
 251 
 209 
 182 
 
 :vjr, 
 
 Patricians, 
 Patschkau, 
 Pattada, 
 Patlensen, 
 Patti, 
 Pau, 
 Paula, 
 Paulinzelle, 
 Paulilatino, 
 Paulliac, 
 Pausa, 
 Pavia, 
 Pavullo, 
 242|Pawlovsk, 
 Paxo, 
 
 toral, 342 Pay erne, 
 
 Palati nate of Lan- | Pecs, 
 
 caster, 242 1 Peebles, 
 
 Palatinate, Up- | Peeblesshire, 
 
 per, 316, 317 Peene, 
 
 Pal a ti nes, 342 1 Pegau, 
 
 Palazzo Adriano, 147 Pegli, 
 
 Pilencia. 
 
 Palenzerthal, 
 
 Palermo, 
 
 Palestrina, 
 
 Palisse, La, 
 
 Pallauza, 
 
 Palma, 
 
 Palmajola, 
 
 Palmanova, 
 
 Palm aria, 
 
 Palmi, 
 
 Painters, 
 un pel una, 
 
 Pancorvo, 
 
 Pancsova, 
 
 Paunonia, 
 
 Pantalaria, 
 
 Pantaleu, 
 
 Pantelaria, 
 
 Paola, 
 
 Papa, 
 
 Papenburg, 
 
 Pappenheim 
 
 Parchim, 
 
 Pardo, el, 
 
 Parga, 
 
 Paris, 
 
 Parisians, 
 
 Parma, 
 
 Paros, 
 
 Parsberg, 
 
 Parsonslown, 
 
 Partenkirchen, 
 
 Parthenay, 
 
 Parthenope, 
 
 Pas de Calais De- 
 partment, 
 
 Pasewalk, 
 
 Passages, Los, 
 
 Passarge, 
 
 Passarovitz, 
 
 Passau, 
 
 Passy, 
 
 Paterno, 
 
 Patradschik, 
 
 Patrae, 
 
 Patras, 
 
 89 Peina, 
 165|Pelagio, 
 146:Pelasgians, 
 1 32^11^ 
 
 204 1 Peloponnesus, 619, 621 
 llljPelvouxde Val- 
 96, 147 louise, 
 125! Pembroke, 
 542 j Pembrokeshire, 
 113 Pempelfort, 
 
 Penig, 
 
 Peniscola, 
 
 Penkun, 
 
 Penne, 
 
 Pennine Alps, 
 
 Penrith, 
 
 Penryn, 
 
 Pensa, 
 
 Penthievre, 
 
 Pentland Frith, 
 
 Penzance, 
 
 Penzlin, 
 
 Pepin of Herstall 
 
 Pepin the Little, 
 
 Perche, 
 
 Perigord, 
 
 Perigueux, 
 
 Peritia, 
 
 Perleberg, 
 
 Perm, 
 
 Pernau, 
 
 Peronne, 
 
 Peroso, valley «f, 
 
 Perpignan, 
 
 Persante, 
 
 Perserin, 
 
 Perth, 
 
 Perthshire, 
 
 Perugia, 
 
 Perugia Lake, 
 
 Pesaro, 
 
 Pescara, 
 
 Pescia, 
 
 Pesco Pagano, 
 
 Peso da Regoa, 
 
 Pest, 
 
 Peterborough, 
 
 145 
 218 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 534 
 
 521, 633 
 
 147 
 
 97 
 14 
 145 
 526 
 442 
 322 
 409 
 
 87 
 633 
 182 
 183 
 115, 116 
 623 
 317 
 257 
 315 
 210 
 141 
 
 PAGE( 
 
 51 Peterhead, 
 476 Peterlingen, 
 114 Petersburg, 
 436Petersdorf, 
 148;Petershagen, 
 218 j Peterwardein, 
 145Petrikau, 
 401 Petri nia, 
 114 Petrosawodsk, 
 215 Petrovsk, 
 384 l Petschenegri, 
 538 Petschora, 
 119 Pezenas, 
 592;Pi'affenhofen, 
 615Pfalz, die, 
 168'Pfalzburg, 
 526:Pfalzel, 
 250 Pfeddersheim, 
 250 Pfeffers, 
 
 13 Pt'effikon, 
 383 Pflnz, 
 112 Pforta, 
 439 Pforzheim, 
 29IPfreimdt, 
 102!Pfullendorf, 
 630 Pfullingen, 
 
 Phdakia, 
 
 Phanagoria, 
 
 Phanari, 
 
 Pharsalus, 
 245! Pheasant Island, 
 492JPhigalia, 
 383 1 Philippe ville, 
 96|Philippi, 
 470 Philippine, 
 143 Philippople, 
 
 4|Philippsburg, 
 244Philipseich, 
 239 Philippsruhe, 
 608 Philipstad, 
 " Philippsthal, 
 
 Philipstown, 
 
 Phokis, 
 
 Phthiotis, 
 
 Piacenza, 
 
 Piana, 
 
 Piano de'Greci, 
 
 Pianosa, Isle of, 
 
 Piast, 
 
 Piave, 
 
 Piazza, 
 
 Picacho de Veleta, 
 
 Picardy, 
 
 Piclong, 
 
 Pico, 
 
 Pico las Posets, 
 
 Picts, 
 
 Piedimonte, 
 
 Piedmont, 
 
 Piedrahita, 
 
 Pienza, 
 
 Piesport, 
 
 Pietrasanta, 
 
 Picnerol, 
 
 PiFa, 
 
 Pilat, 
 
 Pilica, 
 
 Pilier, 
 
 PUlau, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 252 
 168 
 595 
 557 
 483 
 533 
 G06 
 533 
 593 
 609 
 521 
 12 
 220 
 315 
 364 
 198 
 489 
 356 
 160 
 169 
 338 
 480 
 340 
 318 
 346 
 333 
 615 
 613 
 622 
 631 
 217 
 622 
 282 
 630 
 271 
 
 25.-. 
 239 
 
 409 
 27 
 27 
 207 
 215 
 215 
 615 
 400 
 (HIT 
 597 
 188 
 107 
 219 
 13 
 033 
 253 
 253 
 
 iaa 
 
 ii 
 
 134 
 143 
 133 
 
 14-2 
 
 73 
 
 525 
 
 241 
 
 iPilkallen, 
 
 Pillnitz, 
 
 Pilsen, 
 jPmczow, 
 (Pindus, 
 ■ Pinega, 
 jPinerolo, 
 
 Pinhel, 
 
 Pinneberg, 
 ! Pi nek, 
 | Pinto, 
 iPiombino, 
 jPirano, 
 
 Piraus, 
 
 Pinnasenz, 
 
 Pima, 
 
 Pisa, 
 
 Pisino, 
 
 Pistoja, 
 
 Pitea, 
 
 Pitest, 
 
 Pithiviers, 
 
 Pithyusian Islands, 97 
 
 PAGE 
 
 497 
 382 
 515 
 606 
 6 
 12 
 107 
 72 
 414, 418 
 601 
 150 
 125 
 512 
 620 
 328 
 382 
 124 
 512 
 123 
 574 
 636 
 205 
 
 Pitigliano, 
 
 Pizzighettone. 
 
 Pizzo, 
 
 Piaisance, 
 
 Plantagenet, 
 
 Plaeencia, 
 
 Plattenberg, 
 
 Platten See, 
 
 Plan, 
 
 Plaue, 
 
 Plauen, 
 
 Plauenscher 
 
 Grund, 
 Pleissenburg, 
 Pleskow, 
 Pless, 
 
 124 
 
 538 
 
 145 
 
 117 
 
 232 
 
 91,97 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 409 
 
 401 
 
 381,384 
 
 381 
 382 
 
 50. 593 
 405, 476 
 
 jPlessis les Tours, 206 
 
 jPleszew, 
 
 iPlinteiiburg, 
 
 IPlock, 
 
 iPloen Lake, 
 
 Ploermel, 
 
 Plomb de Cantal, 
 
 Plombieres, 
 
 Plon, 
 
 Plotzkau, 
 
 PIUl-8, 
 
 Plymouth, 
 
 Po, 
 
 Podensac, 
 
 Podestas, 
 
 Podgorze, 
 
 Podlachia, 
 
 Podolia, 
 
 Poggio a Cajano, 
 
 13,606 
 210 
 
 499 
 525 
 606 
 
 II 
 209 
 6 
 195 
 417 
 404 
 539 
 238 
 
 15 
 215 
 
 5t 
 519 
 
 mi 
 
 602 
 123 
 
 Poggio Imperiale, 12.1 
 
 Poissy, 
 
 Poitiers, 
 
 Poitou, 
 
 Pola, 
 
 Poland, 
 
 Polangen, 
 
 Polenzo, 
 
 Polese, 
 
 Polesia, 
 
 Polignac, 
 
 184 
 210 
 210 
 512 
 603 
 601 
 108 
 165 
 601 
 221 
 
INDEX. 
 
 661 
 
 PAOIC 
 
 Policrny, 203 
 
 Polish Russia, 600 
 
 Poitz, 46it 
 
 Polizzi, 1 Ki 
 
 Poiie, 43t> 
 
 Pollove, 10* 
 
 Polozk, 601 
 
 Poltawa, 594 
 
 Polzin, 47-2 
 
 Pombal, 72 
 
 Pomerania, 468 
 
 , Back 409, 470, 471 
 
 , Fore, 468, 469 
 
 , Swedish, 470 
 
 Pommard, 201 
 
 Pommersfelden, 320 
 
 Pomona, 255 
 
 Pompadour, 212 
 
 Pompeii, 141 
 
 Pontac, 218 
 
 Pontd'Ain, 20-2 
 
 PoDtarlier, 201 J 
 
 Pout Audemer, 186 
 
 Pont Beauvoisie, 222 j 
 
 Pont Beauvoisin, 109 
 
 PontdeCe, 207 
 
 Pont du Chateau, 213, 
 
 Pont I'Eveque, 187; 
 
 PontduGard, 221 
 
 Pont a Mousson, 195 
 
 Pont St. Esprit, 221, 
 
 Pont sur Seine, 192 
 
 Pont de Vaux, 202 
 
 PontdeVeyle, 202 
 
 Poute, 108 t 
 
 P.mte Bodio, 133 ' 
 
 Pontocorvo, 133 
 Ponte di Lugo 
 
 Scuro, 135 
 
 Ponte de Lima, 73 
 
 Ponte a Seraglio, 126 
 
 Ponte Tresa, 165 
 
 Pontevedra, 91 
 
 Pontevico, 540 
 
 Pontine Isles, 142 
 
 Pontine Marshes, 127 
 
 Pontivy, 209 
 
 Pontoise, 184 
 
 Pontremoli, 125 
 
 Ponza Isles, 142 
 
 Poole, 238 
 
 Popedom, 127 
 
 Poperingen, 281 
 
 Pordenone, 542 
 
 Porentruy, 159 
 
 Poretsh, 635 
 
 Pon.s, 622 
 
 Port Ghvgow, 25 1 1 
 
 Port Louis, 209 
 
 Port Mahon, 96 
 
 Port Patrick, 250 
 
 Port Vendre, 219 
 
 Portalegie, 73 
 
 Porte, 626 
 
 Portici, 141 
 
 Portland, Bill of, 23H 
 
 Porto, 72 
 
 Porto (Azores), 75 
 
 Porto Corsini, 135 
 
 
 paoc 
 
 
 paob 
 
 Porto Drapano, 
 
 61t>[Privas, 
 
 221 
 
 Porto Fermo, 
 
 134|Procida, 
 
 141 
 
 Porto Ferrajo, 
 
 126{Pronia, 
 
 622 
 
 Porto Gai, 
 
 615 Prosecco, 
 
 512 
 
 Porto Longone, 
 
 126 Provence, 
 
 223 
 
 Porto Mauritio, 
 
 113 
 
 Provence, King- 
 
 
 Porto San Mauri- 
 
 
 dom or, 
 
 200| 
 
 zio, 
 
 113 
 
 Provincial Hun- 
 
 
 Porto Re, 
 
 529 
 
 gary, 520, 524 
 
 Porto Torres, 
 
 114 
 
 Provins, 
 
 193 
 
 Porto Vechio, 
 
 225 
 
 Prozelten, 
 
 323 
 
 Portovenere, 
 
 113 
 
 Priim, 
 
 489 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 238 
 
 Pruntrut, 
 
 159 
 
 Portsoy, 
 
 253 
 
 Pruschani, 
 
 601 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 62 
 
 Prussia, Kingdom 
 
 Portugaleto, 
 
 97 
 
 of, 
 
 457 
 
 Posada, 
 
 114 
 
 Prussia, Province 
 
 
 Poschiavo, 
 
 162 
 
 of, 
 
 495 
 
 Posega, 
 
 530 
 
 Prussian Moravia, 476 
 
 Posen, 
 
 499 
 
 Prussians, 
 
 495 
 
 Posneck, 
 
 392 
 
 Pruth, 
 
 16 
 
 Posony, 
 
 524 
 
 Pskow, 50, 593 
 
 Potenza, 
 
 145 
 
 Puerto Real, 
 
 92 
 
 Pottendorf, 
 
 509 
 
 Puerto de Santa 
 
 
 Pottenstein, 
 
 320 
 
 Maria, 
 
 92 
 
 Potteries, 
 
 241 
 
 Puigcerda, 
 
 95 
 
 Potsdam, 
 
 465 Pulawy, 
 
 606 
 
 Potshitatz, 
 
 634 Pultawa, 
 
 534 
 
 Pouance, 
 
 207,Pultusk, 
 
 606 
 
 Pouilly, 
 
 204jPuntaDelgada, 
 
 74 
 
 Pra, 
 
 112|Purgaturo, 
 
 141 
 
 Prades, 
 
 219 
 
 Piirglitz, 
 
 515 
 
 Praeneste, 
 
 132 
 
 Purmerend, 
 
 269 
 
 Prag, 
 
 514 
 
 Puscblaf, 
 
 162 
 
 Praga, 
 
 605 
 
 Puszten, 
 
 521 
 
 Prague, 
 
 514 
 
 Puttbus, 
 
 471 
 
 Prastoe, 
 
 550 
 
 Puttlitz, 
 
 466 
 
 Prato, 
 
 123 
 
 Putzig, 
 
 498 
 
 Pratolino, 
 
 123 
 
 Puycerda, 
 
 95 
 
 Praunheim, 
 
 374 
 
 Puy de D6me, 
 
 6 
 
 Praya, 
 
 75 Puy de Dome De- 
 
 Preetz, 
 
 417 
 
 partment, 
 
 213 
 
 Pregel, 
 
 13 
 
 Puy de Saucy, 
 
 6 
 
 Premontre, 
 
 185 
 
 Pylos, 
 
 622 
 
 Prenzlau, 
 
 406 
 
 Pyrenean Penin- 
 
 
 Prenzlow, 
 
 466 
 
 sula, 
 
 76 
 
 Prescot, 
 
 243 
 
 Pyrenees, 
 
 4 
 
 Presidios, 
 
 98 
 
 Pyrgos, 
 
 622 
 
 Pressburg, 
 
 524 
 
 Pyritz, 
 
 470 
 
 Presteign, 
 
 246 
 
 Pyrmont, 
 
 376 
 
 Preston, 
 
 243 
 
 
 
 Preston pans, 
 
 249 
 
 Quackenbriick, 
 
 441 
 
 Pretsch, 
 
 479 
 
 Quades, 
 
 472 
 
 Prettigau, 
 
 162 
 
 Quarto, 
 
 114 
 
 Preussen, 
 
 457 
 
 duedlinburg, 
 
 478 
 
 Preussisch Eylau 
 
 , 496 
 
 Queen's County, 
 
 257 
 
 Preussisch-Hol- 
 
 
 Queenstown, 
 
 257 
 
 land, 
 
 490 
 
 Utieltiz, 
 
 71 
 
 Prevesa, 
 
 633 
 
 Que rand e, 
 
 210 
 
 Prevorst, 
 
 332 
 
 Quercy, 
 
 215 
 
 Pria, 
 
 112 Ciuerfurt, 
 
 479 
 
 Priebns, 
 
 475|Quesnoy, Le, 
 
 19] 
 
 Priegnitz, 
 
 46tiJQiiiberon, 
 
 '203 
 
 Priego, 
 
 9 1 Quilleboeuf, 
 
 184 
 
 Primizl, 
 
 5l4|Quimper, 
 
 209 
 
 Prince Isles, 
 
 628' Corenlin, 
 
 
 Pripet, 
 
 l2lQnimperle, 
 
 209 
 
 Pristina, 
 
 635 Quinary, 
 
 203 
 
 Pritzwalk, 
 
 466 
 
 Quinlin, 
 
 209 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Raab, 526 
 
 Raab River, 16 
 
 Rabastens, 220 
 
 Rabatto, 150 
 
 Racconigi, 107 
 
 Radeberg, 381 
 
 Radeburg, 381 
 Rade vor dem 
 
 Wald, 493 
 Radicofani, 124 
 Radnor, 246 
 Radnorshire, 246 
 Radolphzell, 346 
 Radom, 606 
 Radzivilov, 602 
 Ragatz, 160 
 Ragland Castle, 240 
 Ragnit, 497 
 Raguhn, 405 
 Ragusa, 535 
 Ragusa (in Sicily), 148 
 Rahden, 484 
 Rahnis, 482 
 Rain, 315 
 Rambervillers, 195 
 Rambouillet, 184 
 Ramea, 598 
 Ramlosa, 572 
 Ramsay, 247 
 Ramsgate, 236 
 Rnndazzo, 148 
 Randers, 553 
 Ranstadt, 357 
 Kanzau, 418 
 Rapallo, 113 
 Rapperschweil, 160 
 Rapper8wyl, 160 
 Rappoltsweiler, 198 
 Rassova, 629 
 Rastadt, 341 
 Rastede, 423 
 Rastenburg, 496 
 Rathdrura, 256 
 Rathekau, 426 
 Rathenau, 466 
 Rathenow, 466 
 Ratibor, 476 
 Ratingen, 492 
 Ratisbon, 316 
 Ratzeburg, 419 
 Ratzeburg, princi- 
 pality of, 412 
 Ratzgrad, 630 
 Rauenthal, 363 
 Ran he Alp, 7 
 Rauschenberg, 372 
 Rava, 605 
 Ravenna, 135 
 Ravensberg, 484 
 Ravensburg, 334 
 Ravensteen, 274 
 Riwick, 499 
 Re (island), 211 
 Reading, 235 
 Recklinghausen, 483 
 Reonlet, 6 
 Redon, 208 
 Re'inndela. 91 
 Red Russia, 518 
 
662 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Reeckem, 
 
 Rees, 
 
 Rega, 
 
 Regalmnto, 
 
 Regen River, 
 
 Regensburg, 
 
 Regenstauf, 
 
 Regenwalde, 
 
 Reggio, 
 
 Reggio (in Mo- 
 dena), 119 
 
 Rehau, 319 
 
 Rehburg, 435 
 
 Rehna, 409 
 
 Reibersdorf, 385 
 
 Reichenau, 346 
 
 Reichenbach, 384, 473 
 
 Reichenberg, 364, 516 
 
 Reichenhall, 
 
 Reichenstein, 
 
 Reichstadt, 
 
 Reikiavik, 
 
 Reinerz, 
 
 Reinheira, 
 
 Reisen, 
 
 Remagen, 
 
 Remda, 
 
 Remich, 
 
 Remiremont, 
 
 Remoulins, 
 
 Remscheid, 
 
 Renaix, 
 
 Renchen, 
 
 Rendsburg, 
 
 Renfrew, 
 
 Renfrewshire, 
 
 Rennes, 
 
 Reny, 
 
 Reole, La, 
 
 Reps, 
 
 Requena, 
 
 Resina, 
 
 Rethel, 
 
 Retshitilova, 
 
 Rettimo, 
 
 Reus, 
 
 Reuss, principali- 
 ties of, 397 
 
 Reuss-Greiz, 398 
 
 Reuss- Lobenstein- 
 Ebersdorf, 398 
 
 Reuss-Schleiz, 
 
 Reutlingen, 
 
 Reval, 
 
 Revin, 
 
 Rbaetia, 
 
 Rheda, 
 
 Rheidt, 
 
 Rheims, 
 
 Rheina, 
 
 Rhein-Bischofa 
 heim, 
 
 Rheineck, 
 
 Rheinfelden, 
 
 Rheingau, 
 
 212 
 
 PAOKI PAGE PAGK 
 
 283 Rhenish Confed- Rochefort (in Bel- 
 
 494| eration, 294 1 gium), 282 
 
 13|Rhenish Hesse, 355 Rochefoucauld, 
 147 1 Rhenish League, 54 1 La, 
 10 1 Rhenish province, 486 iRochelle, La, 
 488lRocbemaure, 
 
 16 1 Rochester, 
 632|Rochlitz, 
 538Rochsburg, 
 376 1 Rockenhausen, 
 
 Rosieres aux Sa- 
 
 PAOE 
 
 316 Rherise, 
 317! Rhine, 
 470 Rhitymna. 
 145 Rho, 
 
 Rhoden, 
 
 Rhoen-Gebirge, 
 
 Rhone, 
 
 Rhone Depart- 
 ment, 
 
 214 
 
 Rhone-mouths De- 
 
 partment, 
 
 Ribadeo, 
 
 Ribe, 
 3]4jRibeauviller, 
 474;Ribeira Grande, 
 516lRiberac, 
 560|Ribnitz, 
 474 Riceys, 
 
 354 
 499 
 488 
 387 
 367 
 195 
 221 
 493 
 280 
 341 
 417 
 251 
 251 
 208 
 612 
 215 
 532 
 
 88 
 141 
 193 
 594 
 632 
 
 95 
 
 386 
 838 
 508 
 
 191 
 397 
 
 484 
 493 
 
 19-2 
 483 
 
 342 
 
 Richelieu, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Richtenschweil, 
 
 Ried, 
 
 Riedenburg, 
 
 Riedlingen, 
 
 Riehen, 
 
 Ries, 
 
 Riesa, 
 
 Riesenburg, 
 
 Riesengebirge, 
 
 Riesenkoppe, 
 
 Rietberg, 
 
 Rieti, 
 
 Riez, 
 
 Riga, 
 
 Riga Gulf, 
 
 Rki, 
 
 Rimini, 
 
 Rimnik, 
 
 Ringkjobing, 
 
 Ringsted, 
 
 Rinteln, 
 
 Rioja, 
 
 Rioin, 
 
 Ripa Transone, 
 
 Ripen, 
 
 223 
 91 
 553 
 198 
 
 75 
 215 
 41(1 
 192 
 207 
 243 
 169 
 510 
 317 
 335 
 157 
 325 
 381 
 
 Rocroy, 
 
 Roda, 
 
 Rodach, 
 
 Rod by, 
 
 Rode le Due, 
 
 Rodelheim, 
 
 Rodenberg, 
 
 Rodenstein, 
 
 Rodez, 
 
 Roding, 
 
 Rodolph of Haps- 
 burg, 
 
 Rodosto, 
 
 Roer, 
 
 Roeraas, 
 
 Roeremonde, 
 
 Roeskilde, 
 
 Rogasen, 
 
 Roggenburg, 
 
 Rohan, 
 
 Rolduc, 
 
 Romagna, 
 
 Romainmoustiers, 168 
 
 Roman, 637 
 
 Roman Apennines, 5 
 
 Roman German 
 Empire, 291 
 
 Romanians, 18, 19 
 
 Romans, 222 
 
 Romano, 540 
 
 Romanow, House 
 of, 589 
 
 Rome, 132 
 
 Romhild, 391 
 
 Romney, 236 
 
 Romont, 159 
 
 Romorantin, 
 213lRoncevalles, 
 134JRonciglioue, 
 553 Ronda, 
 
 lines, 
 
 Rosnyo, 
 
 Ross, 
 21l|Rossano, 
 221 Rossbach, 
 236 Rosslau, 
 
 Rost, 
 
 Rostock, 
 
 Rostow, 
 
 Rotenburg, 
 
 Rotenburg (in 
 Hesse), 
 
 Rotenburgian 
 Quarter, 
 
 Rothenburg an 
 der Tauber, 
 
 Rother Thurm, 
 
 Roth say, 
 
 Rotten burg, 
 
 Rotterdam, 
 
 Rottum, 
 
 Rottweil, 
 
 Roubaix, 
 
 Rouen, 
 
 Rouergue, 
 
 Rouffac, 
 
 Rough Alp, 
 
 Roulers, 
 
 Roulx, 
 
 Roumelia, 
 
 Rousselaer, 
 
 Roussillon, 
 
 Roveredo, 
 
 Rovereith, 
 
 Rovigno, 
 
 Rovigo, 
 
 Roxant, Cape, 
 
 Roxburghshire, 
 
 Royan, 
 
 Rubicon, 
 
 Riidesheim, 
 
 Rudkjobing, 
 
 Rudolstadt, 
 
 Rue, 
 
 Rueil, 
 
 195 
 
 532 
 
 240, 254 
 
 145 
 
 301 
 628 
 16 
 577 
 367 
 38,549 
 499 
 325 
 209 
 490 
 131 
 
 480 
 406 
 577 
 410 
 592 
 438 
 
 371 
 
 371 
 
 321 
 534 
 252 
 332 
 269 
 273,550 
 332 
 190 
 185 
 215 
 198 
 7 
 280 
 281 
 628 
 280 
 219 
 513 
 513 
 512 
 541 
 3 
 
 206 
 
 Ri puarian Franks, 298 1 Ronne, 
 Ritzebiittel, 450JRonneburg, 
 
 Rivara, 
 
 Rivarolo, 
 
 Rive de Gier, 
 
 Rives, 
 
 Rivesaltes, 
 
 Riviera, 
 
 Rivoli, 
 
 Rjiisan, 
 
 Roanne, 
 
 Rocca bruna, 
 160 1 Roccal umera, 
 156 1 Rocamadour, 
 
 107|Ronneby, 
 107 Ronsdorf, 
 
 214 
 222 
 219 
 165 
 
 107 
 592 
 '214 
 110 
 148 
 216 
 
 363 Rocca San Felice, 143 
 Rheinhardsbrunn, 394 'Rochdale, 
 Rheinsberg, 466 i Roche sur Yon, 
 
 Rheinzabern, 327jRochechouart, 
 Rhenen, 271 1 Rochefort, 
 
 Ronse 
 
 Roquefort de Mar- 
 
 san, 
 Roquemaure, 
 Rorschach, 
 Rosas, 
 
 Roscommon, 
 Rosenau, 
 Rosenberg, 
 Rosendal, 
 Rosenthal, 
 
 217 
 221 
 
 95 
 259 
 394, 532 
 476, 498 
 568, 571 
 372 
 243 Rosersberg, 568 
 210|Roses, war of the, 233|Russia, 
 21 1 j Rosheim, 197 j Russia, Great, 
 21llRosienie, 601 ' , Little, 
 
 Rufach, 
 Ruffec, 
 Rugby, 
 Riigen, 
 Rugenwalde, 
 Rugles, 
 Ruhla, 
 Ruhr, 
 Ruhrort, 
 Rum, 
 Ruinilly, 
 Rummelsburg, 
 60 Rumpeuheim, 
 Rilnkel, 
 Rupel, 
 
 Rupelmonde, 
 Ruppin, 
 Rurik, 
 
 Ruska Poyana, 
 Russberg, 
 
 211 
 127 
 363 
 551 
 401 
 188 
 184 
 198 
 212 
 241 
 469, 471 
 471 
 
 186 
 
 494 
 255 
 109 
 472 
 374 
 365 
 16 
 280 
 466 
 588 
 5 
 164 
 579 
 590 
 594 
 
INDEX. 
 
 663 
 
 
 PAOK ! 
 
 PAO« 
 
 PAOK] 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Russian Lapl 
 
 iiul. ."«.>'. i Salvatierra, 
 
 98 
 
 San Pietro (isle) 
 
 , 144 «t. Helier, 
 
 247 
 
 Russt, 
 
 BtUzbrunii) 
 
 473 
 
 San Pietro d'Are- |St. Hippolyte, 202,22 
 
 Rustschuk, 
 
 629 Salzburg, 
 
 510 
 
 na, 
 
 112 St. Hubert, 
 
 283 
 
 Ruthin, 
 
 246 Salzdahlum, 
 
 44( 
 
 San Remo, 
 
 113 St. Ives, 
 
 237 
 
 Rutland, 
 
 241 Salzderhelden, 
 
 440 
 
 San Rocco, 
 
 117 St. Jago deCom 
 
 
 Ruvo, 
 
 144 Salzdetiurt, 
 
 439 San Roque, 
 
 92 postella. 
 
 90 
 
 Rybinsk, 
 
 5 ( J2 Salzhemmendorf, 436 San Russore, 
 
 125 St. Jean d'Angely, 211 
 97 St. Jean d'Aulp-. \W 
 
 Rye, 
 
 236 Salzkammergut, 
 
 5 10 ! San Sebastian, 
 
 Ryssel, 
 
 190 Salzkotten, 
 
 484 1 San Severo, 
 
 144 St. Jean de Loan 
 
 e,20l 
 
 Ryswick, 
 
 269 Salzschlierf, 
 
 373 
 
 San Stefano, 
 
 1 ■-'■') St.. I. -.u i de Luz, 
 
 217 
 
 
 Salzungen, 
 
 391 
 
 St. Affrique, 
 
 216 St. Jean de Mau- 
 
 
 Saalburg, 
 
 39y Salzwedel, 
 
 478 
 
 St. Aignan, 
 
 205 rienne, 
 
 110 
 
 Saale, 
 
 16 Samara, 12, 608 
 
 St. Albans, 
 
 237 St. Jean Pied de 
 
 
 Saalfeld, 
 
 392 Sainbre, 
 
 16 
 
 St. Amand, 190, 2 
 
 218 
 
 Saanen, 
 
 158 Samnites, 
 
 102 
 
 St. Amand, Mon 
 
 St. Junien, 
 
 212 
 
 Saaralbe, 
 
 196 Samogitia, 
 
 601 
 
 troud, 
 
 204 St. Kilda, 
 
 255 
 
 Saarbriick, 
 
 4*9 Samojedes, 
 
 580 
 
 St. Amarin, 
 
 199 St. Lamberthal, 
 
 282 
 
 Saarburg, 
 
 195, 489 Samothracia, 
 
 839 St. Amour, 
 
 203 St. Laurent de 
 
 
 Saardam, 
 
 268 Samothraki, 
 
 632 Si. Andrews, 
 
 251 1 Cerdaus, 
 
 219 
 
 Saargemiind, 
 
 195 Samsoe, 
 
 550 St. Asaph, 
 
 24ti St. Laurent de 
 
 
 Saarlouis, 
 
 489 Samter, 
 
 499 St. Aubin, 
 
 247 Medoc, 
 
 215 
 
 Saar-Union, 
 
 198 San, 
 
 13 St. Avoid, 
 
 196 Si. Laurent les 
 
 
 Sabines, 
 
 102 Sancerre, 
 
 204 St. Barjols, 
 
 224 Var, 
 
 224 
 
 Sable, 
 
 207 Sandomir, 
 
 606 
 
 St. Beat, 
 
 21 71 St. Leonard, 
 
 212 
 
 Sables d'Olonne, 2J0 Sandwich, 
 
 236 
 
 St. Bernard, Great, 167 1 St. L6, 
 
 187 
 
 Siiby, 
 
 552 Sangerhausen, 
 
 480 
 
 St. Bertrand de 
 
 St. Maixent, 
 
 210 
 
 Sachsa, 
 
 481 Sanguesa, 
 
 97 
 
 Comminges, 
 
 217 St. Malo, 
 
 208 
 
 Sachseln, 
 
 166; Sanquhar, 
 
 250 St. Blasien, 
 
 345 St. Malzeville, 
 
 195 
 
 Sachsenberg, 
 
 376 Sanssouci, 
 
 465 j St. Brietic, 
 
 906 St. Marcellin, 
 
 222 
 
 Sachsenhagen 
 
 , 372 San tana. 
 
 88 St. Brieux, 
 
 906 St Marie aux 
 
 
 Sachsenhausen, antander, 
 
 88 
 
 St. Calais, 
 
 207| Mines, 
 
 199 
 
 Sachsenstadt, 
 
 532 Santarem, 
 
 72 
 
 St. Chamas, 
 
 22:* St. Martensdyk, 
 
 270 
 
 Sacile, 
 
 542Santhia, 
 
 108 
 
 St. Chamond, 
 
 214 St. Martory, 
 
 217 
 
 Siickingen, 
 
 345 
 
 Santillana, 
 
 88 
 
 St. Claude, 
 
 203 St. Maurice, 
 
 167 
 
 Sagan, 
 
 • 475 
 
 Santorin, 
 
 623 
 
 St. Cloud, 
 
 183 St. Maximin, 
 
 224 
 
 Sagard, 
 
 471 
 
 San Ambrogio, 
 
 107 
 
 St. Cyr, 
 
 183 St. Menehould, 
 
 192 
 
 Sagres, — 
 Sagunt, • ™ 
 
 74 
 
 San Carlo, 
 
 95 
 
 St. David's, 
 
 245 St. Michel, 
 
 195 
 
 96 
 
 San Casciano, 
 
 124 
 
 St. Denis, 
 
 183 St. Mihiel, 
 
 195 
 
 Sahagun, 
 
 89 
 
 San Cipriano, 
 
 112 
 
 St. Die, 
 
 1951 St. Moritz, 
 
 167 
 
 Saima Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 San Damiano, 
 
 108 
 
 St. Dizier, 
 
 199 St. \azaire, 
 
 210 
 
 Sainte Marguerite, 2-24 
 
 San Felipe, 
 
 96 
 
 St. Dmitria Ros- 
 
 |St. Nikolas, 
 
 280 
 
 Saintes, 
 
 211 
 
 San Fernando, 92, 95 
 
 tovskaja, 
 
 612 St. Oraer, 
 
 189 
 
 Saintonge, 
 
 211 
 
 San Filippo, 
 
 124 
 
 St. Etienne, 
 
 214| St. Palais, 
 
 218 
 
 Sala, 
 
 117, 569 
 
 San Filippo d'Ar 
 
 
 St. Fergus, 
 
 253 
 
 St. Peray, 
 
 221 
 
 Salamanca, 
 
 90 
 
 gy°' 
 
 148 
 
 St. Florent, 
 
 225 
 
 St. Petersburg, 
 
 595 
 
 Salamis, 
 
 621 
 
 San Fiorenzo, 
 
 225 
 
 St. Florentin, 
 
 193 
 
 St. Peter's Port, 
 
 247 
 
 Saldana, 
 
 89 
 
 San Germano, 
 
 142 
 
 St. Florian, 
 
 510 
 
 St. Philibert, 
 
 210 
 
 Salemi, 
 
 146 
 
 San Geronimo de 
 
 
 St. Flour, 
 
 213 
 
 St. Pierre, 180, 247 
 
 Salency, 
 
 184 
 
 Juste, 
 
 91 
 
 St. Gall, 159, 16 
 
 St. Pierre d'Al- 
 
 
 Salerno, 
 
 142 
 
 San Gervasio, 
 
 110 
 
 St. Galmier, 
 
 214 
 
 bigny, 
 
 109 
 
 Salers, 
 
 213 
 
 San Giorgio, 108 
 
 ,117 
 
 St. Gaudens, 
 
 217 
 
 St. Pol, 
 
 189 
 
 Salic Franks, 
 
 298 
 
 San Giovanni, 
 
 110 
 
 St. Geniez, 
 
 216 
 
 St. Pol de Leon, 
 
 209 
 
 Salies, 
 
 2 18 1 San Ildefonso, 
 
 89 
 
 St. Geniez de Rive- 
 
 St. Polten. 
 
 599 
 
 Salina, 
 
 149 San Jorge, 
 
 75 
 
 dolt, 
 
 216 
 
 St. Pons de To- 
 
 
 Sal ins, 
 
 203 San Lucar de Bar- 
 
 St. Genis-Laval, 
 
 214 
 
 rn iers, 
 
 220 
 
 Salisbury, 
 
 239 rameda, 
 
 91 
 
 St. George, 
 
 75 
 
 St. Pourcain, 
 
 204 
 
 Sallanche, 
 
 110 San Marino, 
 
 136 
 
 St. George's Chan- 
 
 St. Quentin, 
 
 188 
 
 Sallenche, 
 
 110 
 
 San Marti no, 
 
 146 
 
 nel, 
 
 10 
 
 St. Quirin, 
 
 195 
 
 Salm, 
 
 283,483 
 
 San Marti no, val- 
 
 
 St. Georgen, 
 
 533 
 
 St. Rambert, 
 
 202 
 
 Salmiinster, 
 
 374 
 
 ley of, 
 
 107 
 
 St. Germain en 
 
 
 St. Remy, 213, 223 
 
 Salo, 
 
 539 
 
 San Maurizio, 
 
 107 
 
 Laye, 
 
 183 St. Roca, 
 
 75 
 
 Salon, 
 
 223 
 
 San Michael, 
 
 74 
 
 St. Gervais, 
 
 110 1st. Saphorin, 
 
 168 
 
 Salona, 
 
 621 
 
 San Miguel, 
 
 74 
 
 St. Gilles, 
 
 221 St. Savin, 
 
 210 
 
 Siilonica, 
 
 630 
 
 San Miniato, 
 
 123 St. Girons, 
 
 218 St. Servan, 
 
 208 
 
 Salop, 
 
 242 San Nicola, 
 
 144 St. Goar, 
 
 488 SL Sever, 
 
 217 
 
 Salou, 
 
 95 San Nikolo, 
 
 615; St. Goarshausen, 
 
 364 i St. Sophia, 
 
 628 
 
 Sall-Bommel, 
 
 272 
 
 San Pedro de Car- |St. Gobain, 
 
 188 St. S> mphorien de 
 
 Saltcoats, 
 
 250 
 
 dena, 
 
 88! St. Gothard, 
 
 166 Lay, 
 
 214 
 
 Saluzzo, 
 
 107 
 
 San Piar d' Arena, 1121 
 
 St. Helen's, 
 
 243 
 
 St. Tron, 
 
 283 
 
664 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE page] 
 
 PAOKf 
 
 PAGE 
 
 St. Tropez, 
 
 224 
 
 Saxe-Lauenburg, 
 
 419|Schmalkalden, 
 
 373|Schwelm, 
 
 485 
 
 St. Trujen, 
 
 283 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen, 
 
 389|Schmiedeberg, 
 
 474 Schwerin, 
 
 408 
 
 St. Ubes, 
 
 72 
 
 Saxe-Weimar, 
 
 386 Schneeberg, 
 
 383 Schwerin Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 St. Ursanne, 
 
 159 
 
 Saxeln, 
 
 166 Schneeberg (Mt.) 
 
 , 7jSchwetz, 
 
 498 
 
 St. Ursitz, 
 
 ]59 
 
 Saxkjobing, 
 
 551 Schneekopf, 
 
 7|Schwetzing«n, 
 
 343 
 
 St. Valery, 
 
 188 
 
 Saxon Palatinate 
 
 , 388 Schneekoppe, 
 
 6,Schwiebu8, 
 
 467 
 
 St. Valery en 
 
 
 Saxon Switzer- 
 
 Schneidemiihl, 
 
 500 Schwinge, 
 
 17 
 
 Caux, 
 
 186 
 
 land, 376, 3821 Schnellerts, 
 
 355'Schwyz, 
 
 164 
 
 St. Veit, 
 
 511 
 
 Saxons, the, 25, 30, 298iSchnepfenthal, 
 
 394 Sciacca, 
 
 147 
 
 St. Vincenzo, 
 
 109 
 
 Saxony, Kingdom Schbmberg, 
 
 475 Sciglio, 
 
 145 
 
 St. Wendel, 
 
 489 
 
 of, 
 
 376 ; Schonau, 343, 345 Scilly Isles, 
 
 239 
 
 St. Ya, 
 
 108 
 
 Saxony, Prussian 
 
 |Schonebeck, 
 
 477 Scone, 
 
 253 
 
 St. Yrieix, 
 
 212 
 
 province of, 
 
 477 Schonborn, 
 
 323 Scotland, 
 
 248 
 
 Santa Cruz, 
 
 75 
 
 Sayda, 
 
 381|Schonbrunn, 
 
 509 Scots, 
 
 248 
 
 Sia. Maria, 
 
 75 
 
 Scalds, 
 
 56 Schonburg, Princes 1 Scrivia, 
 
 15 
 
 Santa Maria Mag- 
 
 Scandinavian coun- | and Earls of, 
 
 384 Scudery, 
 
 5 
 
 giore, 
 
 142 
 
 tries, 
 
 30 Schoneck, 
 
 498 Scutari, 
 
 632 
 
 Santa Maura, 
 
 616 
 
 Scandinavian Mts 
 
 ., 5;Schoenenwerth, 
 
 164 Scylla, 
 
 145 
 
 Santa Severina, 
 
 145 
 
 Scandinavian Pen- |Schongau, 
 
 315 
 
 Scythian Desert, 
 
 611 
 
 Saone, 
 
 15 
 
 insula, 
 
 562:Schoningen, 
 
 447 
 
 Scythians, 
 
 588 
 
 Sa6ne and Loire 
 
 
 Scarborough, 
 
 243 Schonlanke, 
 
 500 
 
 Sea of Azof, 
 
 10 
 
 Department, 
 
 201 
 
 Scarlino, 
 
 126 Schonsee, 
 
 318 
 
 Seaford, 
 
 236 
 
 Saragossa, 
 
 94 
 
 Scarne, 
 
 le.Schoonhoven, 
 
 270 
 
 Sebenico, 
 
 535 
 
 Saransk, 
 
 608 Scea'ux, 
 
 183 Schopfheim, 
 
 345 
 
 Sedan, 
 
 193 
 
 Sarapul, 
 
 608 Schaafstadt, 
 
 479 
 
 Schoppenstedt, 
 
 446 
 
 See berg, 
 
 394 
 
 Saratow, 
 
 609 
 
 Schabacz, 
 
 635 
 
 Schorndorf, 
 
 337 
 
 Seeland (Switzer 
 
 
 Sardara, 
 
 114 
 
 Schaechenthal, 
 
 166 
 
 Schotten, 
 
 357 
 
 land), 
 
 158 
 
 Sardica, 
 
 629 
 
 Schafberg, 
 
 7 
 
 Schouwen, 
 
 270 
 
 Seel burg, 
 
 597 
 
 Sardinia, island, 
 
 U3jSchafhausen, 163 
 
 ,164 
 
 Schramberg, 
 
 332 
 
 Seelow, 
 
 467 
 
 , kingdom, 
 
 103 Schandau, 
 
 382 
 
 Schreckhorn, 
 
 4 
 
 Seesen, 
 
 447 
 
 Sarepta, 
 
 609 Schapen, 
 
 442 
 
 Schrimm, 
 
 499 
 
 Seez, 
 
 187 
 
 Sargans, 
 
 160 Sch arm beck, 
 
 438 
 
 Schrobenhausen, 
 
 315 
 
 Segeberg, 
 
 417 
 
 Sark, 
 
 247 Schassburg, 
 
 532 
 
 Schrock, 
 
 340 
 
 Segorbe, 
 
 96 
 
 Sarlat, 
 
 215 Schaumburg, 371 
 
 ,372 
 
 Sch ul plbrta, 
 
 480 
 
 Segovia, 
 
 89 
 
 Sar mates, 
 
 19:Schaumburg- 
 
 
 Schutt, 
 
 524 
 
 Segre; 
 
 207 
 
 Sarmatians, 
 
 588 Lippe, 
 
 428 
 
 Schuttorf, 
 
 442 
 
 Segro, 
 
 14 
 
 Sarnen, 
 
 166 Scheibenberg, 
 
 383 
 
 Schwabach, 
 
 320 
 
 Segura, % 
 Seifhennersdorf, 
 
 14 
 
 Sarno, 
 
 142 Scheldt, 
 
 16 
 
 Schwabeck, 
 
 325 
 
 385 
 
 Sarralbe, 
 
 196 Schellenberg, 
 
 351 
 
 Schwabisch 
 
 
 Sein, 
 
 209 
 
 Sarrebourg, 
 
 195 Schemberg, 
 
 332 
 
 Gmiind, 
 
 336 
 
 Seine, 
 
 15 
 
 Sarreguemines, 
 
 195 Schemnitz, 
 
 525 
 
 Schwabisch Hall 
 
 335 
 
 Seine Depart- 
 
 
 Sarstedt, 
 
 439 Schernberg, 
 
 401 
 
 Schwaieern, 
 
 332 
 
 ment, 
 
 182 
 
 Sartene, 
 
 225 Scherpenheuvel, 
 
 278 Schwalbach, 
 
 361 
 
 Seine and Marne 
 
 
 Sarthe Depart- 
 
 Scheveningen, 
 
 269 ; Sch walen berg, 
 
 376 
 
 Department, 
 
 184 
 
 ment, 
 
 207 Schidlow, 
 
 606 Schwanden, 
 
 161 
 
 Seine and Oise 
 
 
 Sarzana, 
 
 113 Schiedam, 
 
 270 Schwanebeck, 
 
 478 
 
 Department, 
 
 183 
 
 Sarzeau, 
 
 209 Schiefelbein. 
 
 472|Schwartau, 
 
 426 
 
 Selb, 
 
 319 
 
 Sas van Gent, 
 
 271 Schiermounikoog 
 
 , 272 Schwarzburg (an 
 
 
 Seligenstadt, 
 
 355 
 
 Sasbach, 
 
 341 Schilda, 
 
 480 cestral castle), 
 
 401 
 
 Seligenthal, 
 
 373 
 
 Sassari, 
 
 114 Schildesche, 
 
 484 Schwarzburg, Prin- 
 
 Selimnia, 
 
 629 
 
 Sassenage, 
 
 222 Schiltach, 
 
 346 1 cipalities of, 
 
 399 
 
 Selkirk, 
 
 250 
 
 Sassuolo, 
 
 118 Schio, 
 
 542 Sch warzburg-Ru- 
 
 
 Selkirkshire, 
 
 250 
 
 Siiter, 
 
 570 Schippenbeil, 
 
 496 dolstadt, 
 
 401 
 
 Selters, 
 
 363 
 
 Satorallya Ujhely 
 
 , 5-27 Schirgiswalde, 
 
 385 Sch warzburg-Son- 
 
 Semendria, 
 
 635 
 
 Saulgau, 
 
 335 Schiiwind, 
 
 497 dershausen, 
 
 400 
 
 Seminara, 
 
 145 
 
 Saulieu, 
 
 201 Schitomir, 
 
 602 Sch warzenbek, 
 
 420 
 
 Semlin, 
 
 533 
 
 Saumur, 
 
 207 Schkeuditz, 
 
 479 Schwarzen- 
 
 
 Sempach, 
 
 162 
 
 Sausenberg, 
 
 345 Schlangenbad, 
 
 3(i4 beig, 322,383 
 
 Semuren Auxois, 201 
 
 Sauxillanges, 
 
 213 Schlawentzitz, 
 
 476 Sch warzenborn, 
 
 372 
 
 Semuren Brion- 
 
 
 Save, 
 
 16 Schlei. 
 
 556 Sch warzwald, 
 
 7 
 
 nais, 
 
 201 
 
 Savenay, 
 
 210 Schleiden, 
 
 490 Schwatz, 
 
 513 
 
 Senarica, 
 
 143 
 
 Saverne, 
 
 197 Schleiz, 
 
 398 Schwechat, 
 
 509 
 
 Senftenberg, 
 
 468 
 
 Savigliano, 
 
 107 Schleswig, 554 
 
 556 Sch wed I, 
 
 466 Senlis, 
 
 185 
 
 Savigny sur Braye206 Schlettstadt, 
 
 im Scliweidi.itz, 
 
 473 Senner Haide, 
 
 427 
 
 Savona, 
 
 112 Schleusiugen, 
 
 481 Scliweina, 
 
 391 Senner Heath, 
 
 427 
 
 Savoy, 
 
 109 Schlitz, 
 
 357 Scliweinfurt, 
 
 323 Sennheim, 
 
 199 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg, 
 
 395 Schlochau, 
 
 4!)rf Schweinilz, 
 
 480 Sens, 
 
 193 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Go- 
 
 Schliichtern, 
 
 371 Schweinsberg, 
 
 372 SensburR, 
 
 497 
 
 tha, 
 
 392 
 
 Schliisselburg, 
 
 4S4 
 
 Schweiz, 155 
 
 164 
 
 Sepino, 
 
 145 
 
INDEX. 
 
 665 
 
 
 PAOKl 
 
 page] 
 
 TA.au 
 
 PAOE 
 
 Sepsi Szent Gy- 
 
 Sierra de Guada- 
 
 Slavkov, 
 
 606 
 
 Sophia, 
 
 629 
 
 dn?y, 
 
 532 1 lupe, 
 
 5 Slavonia, 
 
 529 
 
 Soprony, 
 
 526 
 
 Septi mania, 
 
 214 ! Sierra de Guada- 
 
 Slavonians, 
 
 8, 19 
 
 Sorau, 
 
 468 
 
 Septmoncel, 
 
 203! rama, 
 
 5 Slawensik, 
 
 476 
 
 Sorbes, 
 
 378 
 
 Bavaallo, 
 
 628 Sierra Monchique, 
 
 Soreze, 
 
 220 
 
 Serai ng, 
 
 288 Bierra Morena, 
 
 5Sligo, 
 
 259 
 
 Sorgono, 
 
 114 
 
 Serchio, 
 
 190 Sierra Nevada, 
 
 5|Slobodskoi, 
 
 60S 
 
 Sori, 
 
 112 
 
 Sereg, 
 
 247 Sierra de Ronda, 
 
 5 Slobosk, 
 
 608 
 
 Soria, 
 
 89 
 
 Seres, 
 
 630 Siewierz, 
 
 606|Slonira, 
 
 601 
 
 Soroe, . 
 
 550 
 
 Sereth, 16, 520 Sinmaringen, 
 
 349 Slough, 
 
 235 
 
 Soroka, 
 
 612 
 
 Serpa, 
 
 73|Signa, 
 
 123 Sluis, 
 
 270 
 
 Sorrento, 
 
 141 
 
 Serravalle, 
 
 IStgtuna, 
 
 568 Sluzk, 
 
 601 
 
 Sorromastro, 
 
 97 
 
 111, 136, 542 Siguenza, 
 
 88 Smoiland, 
 
 570 
 
 Sorso, 
 
 114 
 
 Serravezza, 
 
 195 Sijean, 
 634JSilberberg, 
 
 220 Smolensk, 
 
 591 
 
 Sospello, 
 
 110 
 
 Servia, 
 
 473 Smorgoni, 
 
 600 Souillac, 
 
 216 
 
 Servians, 
 
 29 Silesia, 
 
 472 Sneek, 
 
 272 'Sound, 
 
 9 
 
 Servitude, 
 
 36 Silesia, Austrian, 
 
 517 Snoehiltta, 
 
 6 Southampton, 
 
 238 
 
 Sesia, 
 
 15 Silesia, Lower, 
 
 'Snowdon, 
 
 8 South Brabant, 
 
 278 
 
 Sessa, 
 
 1421 472, 473, 474 Soana, 
 
 124 South Holland, 
 
 269 
 
 Sessola, 
 
 616J , Upper, 472 
 
 , 475 Sobernheim, 
 
 488 ! South Jutland, 
 
 554 
 
 Sestri di Le- 
 
 ISilesian Neisse, 
 
 13 Soden, 
 
 374 \ South Russia, 
 
 610 
 
 vante, 
 
 113 Silistria, 
 
 629 So.lerfors, 
 
 568 South Shields, 
 
 244 
 
 di Pouente, 
 
 112 Silivri, 
 
 628 Soderhamn, 
 
 574 South Hist, 
 
 255 
 
 Setubal, 
 
 72SiljaLake, 
 
 11 Sod erko ping, 
 
 570 'South Wales, 
 
 245 
 
 Seu d'Urgel, 
 
 95 Sillery, 
 
 192 Soderraauland, 
 
 568 S uithwark, 234,2 
 
 Sevastopol, 
 
 610 Silves, 
 
 74 Soderde, 
 
 558|Sovana, 
 
 124 
 
 Sevenaer, 
 
 272 Simaneas, 
 
 90 Sodertelge, 
 
 569; Spa, 
 
 282 
 
 Seven Hills, 
 
 8 Simbirsk, 
 
 608 Sodor, 
 
 247 Spaccaforno, 
 
 148 
 
 Sevennes, 
 
 6 Simferopol, 
 
 610 Soest, 
 
 485 
 
 Spaccafurno, 
 
 148 
 
 Severn, 
 
 14 Simmenthal, 
 
 158 Soflovka, 
 
 594 
 
 Spaichingen, 
 
 332 
 
 Severia, 
 
 606 Simmern, 
 
 488 Soho, 
 
 241 
 
 Spain, 
 
 76 
 
 Seville, 
 
 91 Simplon, 
 
 167 Soignies, 
 
 281 
 
 Spalato, 
 
 535 
 
 Sevre Nantaise, 
 
 15 Sindelflngen, 
 
 331 Soissons, 
 
 185 
 
 Spalatro, 
 
 535 
 
 Sevre Niortaise, 
 
 16 Sindringeu, 
 
 337 Solano, 
 
 77 
 
 Spalding, 
 
 237 
 
 Sevres, 
 
 184 Sines, 
 
 73 Sold au, 
 
 496 
 
 Spalt, 
 
 322 
 
 Seyne, 
 
 224 'Sinigaglia, 
 
 134 Soldi n, 
 
 467 
 
 Spandau, 
 
 465 
 
 Seyssel, 
 
 202 Siniscola, 
 
 114 Soleure, 
 
 164 
 
 Spaneenberg, 
 
 371 
 
 Sezanne, 
 
 193 Sinsheim, 
 
 344 Solferino, 
 
 539 
 
 Spanish mark, 
 
 31 
 
 Sforza, 
 
 537 Sinzig, 
 
 488 Solikamsk, 
 
 607 
 
 Spanish Nether- 
 
 
 Shaftsbury, 
 
 238 Sion, 
 
 167Solingen, 
 
 492 
 
 lands, 
 
 277 
 
 Shannon, 
 
 14 Siroceo, 
 
 100 Soller, 
 
 96 
 
 Sparta, 
 
 622 
 
 Sheffield, 
 
 244 Sissach, 
 
 157 Sollinger Wald, 
 
 8 
 
 Spello, 
 
 134 
 
 Shetland, 
 
 255 1 Sisteron, 
 
 224iSolm8, Princes and 
 
 Sperlinga, 
 
 148 
 
 Shetland Islands. 
 
 255 Sistova, 
 
 629 1 Earls of, 
 
 357 
 
 Spessart, 
 
 7 
 
 Shields, 
 
 244Sittard, 
 
 368 Solms-Braunfels, 
 
 488 Spezia, 
 
 113 
 
 Shi final, 
 
 242 Sitten, 
 
 167 Solnhofen, 
 
 326JSpezzia, 113,622 
 
 Shrewsbury, 
 
 242 Skagastoeltind, 
 
 6 Solofra, 
 
 142 
 
 Sphakia, 
 
 632 
 
 Shropshire, 
 
 242 Skagastrand, 
 
 560 Solsona, 
 
 95 
 
 Sphakiotes, 
 
 632 
 
 Shumla, 
 
 629 Skagen, 
 
 552'Soltau, 
 
 437 
 
 Spielberg, 
 
 516 
 
 Si bo, 
 
 531 Skagerack, 
 
 9 Solvitsborg, 
 
 571 
 
 Spire, 
 
 3*27 
 
 Sicilian Vespers, 
 
 139 Skalbolt, 
 
 560Sombor, 
 
 525 
 
 Spithead, 
 
 238 
 
 Sicily, 
 
 146Skane, 
 
 571 1 Somersetshire, 
 
 239 
 
 Spitzbergen, 
 
 593 
 
 Siculians, 
 
 102 Skanderborg, 
 
 553 
 
 Somlyo, 
 
 531 
 
 Spluaren, 
 
 162 
 
 Sidroouth, 
 
 238 Skara, 
 
 572 
 
 Somme, 
 
 15 
 
 Spoleto, 
 
 133 
 
 Siebenbiinjen, 
 
 530 Skeen, 
 
 576 
 
 Somme Depart- 
 
 
 Sporades, 
 
 623 
 
 Siebcngebirge, 
 
 8 Skeninge, 
 
 570 
 
 ment, 
 
 188 
 
 Spree wald, 
 
 458 
 
 Sieders, 
 
 167Skiathos, 
 
 623 
 
 Sommerda, 
 
 481 
 
 Spremberg, 
 
 468 
 
 Siedlce, 
 
 606 Skiellingsfjeld, 
 
 558 
 
 Sommerein, 
 
 524 
 
 Springe, 
 
 436 
 
 Si eg River, 
 
 16 Skive, 
 
 552 
 
 Soramieres, 
 
 221 
 
 Squillace, 
 
 145 
 
 Siegburg, 
 
 492 Skjelskder, 
 
 550 
 
 Somorrostro, 
 
 97 
 
 Staatsflanders, 
 
 270 
 
 Siegen, 
 
 486 Skjold, 
 
 547jSonderburg, 
 
 557 
 
 Stabio, 
 
 165 
 
 Sielbeck, 
 
 426 Skjoldunger, 
 
 547 1 Sondershausen, 
 
 400 
 
 Stablo, 
 
 283 
 
 Siemiatyce, 
 
 602 Skofde, 
 
 573 Sondrio, 
 
 539 
 
 Stade, 437, 4: 
 
 Siena, 
 
 124 Skokloster, 
 
 568JSonneberg, 
 
 392 
 
 Sladtamhof, 
 
 317 
 
 Sieradz, 
 
 605 Skopelos, 
 
 623, Sonne nberg, 
 
 392 
 
 Stadtberg, 
 
 485 
 
 Sierk, 
 
 196 Skyros, 
 
 623|Sonnenstein, 
 
 382 
 
 Stadthagen, 
 
 429 
 
 Sierques, 
 
 196 Slagelse, 
 
 550 Sonnen walde, 
 
 468 
 
 Stadt Urn, 
 
 401 
 
 Sierra de Cuenca, 5 Slaves (tribe of 
 
 Sonnenwirbel, 
 
 7 
 
 Stadtlohn, 
 
 483 
 
 Sierra de Estrella, 631 the), 
 
 19 
 
 Sontra, 
 
 371 
 
 Stadt Oldendorf, 
 
 447 
 
G66 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGEI 
 
 pagk! 
 
 PAGKl 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stadtsteinach, 
 
 320 Stohnsdorf, 
 
 475 Sulphur-districts 
 
 
 Tagus, 
 
 14 
 
 Stadtsulza, 
 
 387|StolIbersr, 
 
 490| (in Sicily), 
 
 147 
 
 Tain, 222, 254 
 
 Staefa, 
 
 169 jStoll berg- Werni 
 
 Sultan, 
 
 626 
 
 Talanti, 
 
 621 
 
 Staefis, 
 
 159 gerode, 478,479iSulz, 199,333 
 
 Talavera de la 
 
 
 Staffa, 
 
 254lStolpen, 
 
 385 Suiza, 
 
 387 
 
 Reyna, 
 
 87 
 
 Btaffarda, 
 
 107|Stolzenau, 
 
 436 Sulzbach, 
 
 317 
 
 Tallya, 
 
 527 
 
 Staffelstein, 
 
 320|Stolzenfels, 
 
 487 Sunderland, 
 
 244 
 
 Taman, 
 
 613 
 
 Stafford, 
 
 241 Stonehaven, 
 
 252|Sundgau, 
 
 197 
 
 Tamaszov, 
 
 607 
 
 Staffordshire, 
 
 241 Stonehouse, 
 
 238Sundswall, 
 
 574 
 
 Tambach, 
 
 394 
 
 Stali mene, 
 
 632 Storchnest, 
 
 499!Suntel, 
 
 8 
 
 Tarn bow, 
 
 592 
 
 Stallupohnen, 
 
 497Storkow, 
 
 466 Superga, La, 
 
 107 
 
 Tamina Valley, 
 
 160 
 
 Stamford, 237 
 
 , 241 Stor Lake, 
 
 ll'Supplingenburg, 
 
 447 
 
 Tarn worth, 
 
 241 
 
 Stammheim, 
 
 169 Stormam, 
 
 414'Sura, 
 
 12 
 
 Tanais, 
 
 12 
 
 Stansstadt, 
 
 166 Stornoway, 
 
 255 [Surrey, 
 
 235 
 
 Tanaro, 
 
 15 
 
 Stanz, 
 
 166 Stourbridge, 
 
 240|Sursee, 
 
 162 
 
 Tangermiinde, 
 
 478 
 
 Stanzstad, 
 
 166 Strabane, 
 
 258,Susa, 
 
 107 
 
 Tanninges, 
 
 110 
 
 Starenberg Lake 
 
 11 Strait of Bonifacio, 10 Sussex, 
 
 236 
 
 Tanzenberg, 
 
 511 
 
 Stargard, 
 
 470 Strait of Dover, 
 
 9 Siisteren, 
 
 368 
 
 Taormina, 
 
 148 
 
 Standard (in Meek- [Strait of Gibraltar, 10 1 Sutherland, 
 
 254 Tapiau, 
 606 Taranto, 
 
 496 
 
 lenburg-Strelitz) 412; Strait of Jenikale 
 
 >, 10 Suwalki, 
 
 144 
 
 Stari Matdar, 
 
 634 Strait of Messina, 10 Svanike, 
 
 550 
 
 Tarare, 
 
 >,214 
 
 Starkenburg, 
 
 354 Strait of Otranto 
 
 10 Sveaborg, 
 
 599 
 
 Tarascon, 218, 223 
 
 Staroi-Tsherkask 
 
 , 612 Stralsund, 
 
 470iSvearike, 
 
 567 
 
 Tarbes, 
 
 216* 
 
 Stassfurth, 
 
 478 Strangford, 
 
 258 Svendborg, 
 
 551 
 
 Tarczal, 
 
 527 
 
 Staszov, 
 
 606 Stranraer, 
 
 250 Swabia, 
 
 324 
 
 Tarentaise, 
 
 110 
 
 States of the 
 
 iStranrawer, 
 
 250 Swabian Alps, 
 
 7 
 
 Targowicz, 
 
 602 
 
 Church, 
 
 127|Strasburg, 
 
 197 Swabian Austria, 
 
 334 
 
 Tar i fa, 
 
 92 
 
 Stato degli Pre- 
 
 Strassberg, 
 
 349 Swabian Circle, 
 
 292 
 
 Tarn, 
 
 15 
 
 sidii, 
 
 125 Stratford, 
 
 240 j Swabian League, 
 
 54 
 
 Tarn Department, 220 
 Tarn and Garonne 
 
 Statt holder, 
 
 267 Straubing, 
 
 316 Swaffham, 
 
 237 
 
 Staubbach, 
 
 158 Strehlen, 
 
 473 j Swansea, 
 
 245 
 
 Department, 
 
 216 
 
 Staufen, 
 
 345jStrelitz, 
 
 412 [Sweden, 
 
 567 
 
 Tarnopol, 
 
 519 
 
 Staufenberg, 
 
 357StrengntLs. 
 
 569 jSweden and Nor- 
 
 
 Tarnow, 
 
 519 
 
 Stavanger, 
 
 577:Striegau, 
 
 473 way, 
 
 562 
 
 Tarnowitz, 
 
 476 
 
 Stavenhagen, 
 
 409 Strivali Isles, 
 
 616 ] Swedish Lapland 
 
 ,574 
 
 Tarraconensis, 
 
 84 
 
 Staveren, 
 
 272JStrobeck, 
 
 478jSwiask, 
 
 607 
 
 Tarragona, 
 
 95 
 
 Steckbora, 
 
 166 Stromboli, 
 
 149 Swine, 
 
 13 
 
 Tarrasa, 
 
 95 
 
 Steckenitz, 
 
 17 Stromness, 
 
 255 ! Swinemunde, 
 
 469 
 
 Tarrazona, 
 
 94 
 
 Steenberyen, 
 
 274iStr6m6e, 
 
 558 Switzerland, 
 
 151 
 
 Tarshish, 
 
 84 
 
 Steenwyk, 
 
 272|Str6mstad, 
 
 573 Sword-law (his- 
 
 
 Tasnad, 
 
 531 
 
 Stege, 
 
 550 
 
 Strom za, 
 
 15 tory), 
 
 54 
 
 Taso, 
 
 632 
 
 Steiermark, 
 Steigerwald, 
 
 510 
 
 Strophades, 
 
 616 Swornik, 
 
 634 
 
 Tata, 
 
 526 
 
 7 
 
 Stroud, 
 
 240 Syberona, 
 
 145 
 
 Tatar Basardshik 
 
 , 629 
 
 Stein, 
 
 164 
 
 Struma, 
 
 15 Svke, 
 
 436 
 
 Tatarians, 
 
 580 
 
 Stein am Rhein, 
 
 164 
 
 Strymon, 
 
 15 
 
 Syra, 
 
 623 
 
 Tatra Mountains, 
 
 5 
 
 Steinau, 374, 473 
 
 Stuart, House of, 
 
 233 
 
 Syracuse, 
 
 147 
 
 Tauber-Bischofs- 
 
 
 Steinbach, 341 
 
 ,391 
 
 Stubbekjobing, 
 
 551 
 
 Sysran, 
 
 608 
 
 heim, 
 
 344 
 
 Steinfurt, 
 
 483 
 
 Stiihlingen, 
 
 347 
 
 Szamos Ujvar, 
 
 531 
 
 Taucha, 
 
 383 
 
 Steinheide, 
 
 392 
 
 Stuhlweissenburg 
 
 ',526 
 
 Szassvaros, 
 
 532 
 
 Taunton, 
 
 239 
 
 Steinheim, 
 
 355 
 
 Stuhm, 
 
 498 
 
 Szathmar-Nemet, 
 
 528 
 
 Taunus, 
 
 8 
 
 Steinhude, 
 
 430 
 
 Stuhmsdorf, 
 
 498 
 
 Szegedin, 
 
 528 
 
 Tauric Chersonese 61 
 
 Steinthal, 
 
 197 
 
 Stupinigi, 
 
 106 
 
 Szekoly Keresstur, 532 
 
 Tauric Mts., 
 
 8 
 
 Stendal, 
 
 478 
 
 Sturmhaube, Great 6 
 
 Szekely Vasarhelj 
 
 -532 
 
 Tauris, 
 
 610 
 
 Steppes in Russia, 582 
 
 , Little, 
 
 6,7 
 
 Szekes-Fejeryar, 
 Szekler, 531 
 
 526 
 
 Tauroggen, 
 
 601 
 
 Sternberg, 
 
 409 
 
 Stuttgart, 
 
 331 
 
 ,532 
 
 Tavastehus, 
 
 599 
 
 Stetten, 
 
 349 
 
 Styria, 
 
 510 
 
 Szentes, 
 
 528 
 
 Tavira, 
 
 74 
 
 Stettin, 
 
 469 
 
 Subiaco, 
 
 132 
 
 Szepes-Var, 
 
 527 
 
 Tavistock, 
 
 238 
 
 Stevens-Waerd, 
 
 368 
 
 Sublime Porte, 
 
 626 
 
 Szigeth, 
 
 528 
 
 Tavolara, 
 
 114 
 
 Steyer, 
 
 510 
 
 Suczawa, 
 
 520 
 
 Szigethvar, 
 
 526 
 
 Tay, 
 
 14 
 
 Stia, 
 
 124 
 
 Sudbury, 
 
 236 
 
 Szissek, 
 
 529 
 
 Teate, 
 
 143 
 
 Stilo, 
 
 145 
 
 Sudetic Mts., 
 
 6 
 
 Szolnok, 
 
 527 
 
 Teck, 
 
 335 
 
 Stirling, 
 
 251 
 
 Sueones, 
 
 566 
 
 Szydlowiec, 
 
 606 
 
 Tecklenburg, 
 
 483 
 
 Stirlingshire, 
 
 251 
 
 Sueves, 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 Tegern Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Stober, 
 
 13 
 
 Suffolk, 
 
 236 
 
 Taasinge, 
 
 551 
 
 Tegernsee, 
 
 315 
 
 Stockach, 
 
 346 
 
 Suhl, 
 
 481 
 
 Taeyingen, 
 
 164 
 
 Teignmouth, 
 
 238 
 
 Stockholm, 
 
 568 
 
 Suhlingen, 
 
 436 
 
 Tafalla, 
 
 97 
 
 Teisendorf, 
 
 315 
 
 Stockport, 
 
 242 
 
 Sulau, 
 
 474 
 
 Taganrog, 
 
 612|Tejo, 
 
 14 
 
 Stockton, 
 
 244 
 
 Sulitelma, 
 
 6 
 
 Tagliacozzo, 
 
 143Te'lgte, 
 
 483 
 
 Stoer, 
 
 17 
 
 Sulmona, 
 
 143 
 
 Tagliamento, 
 
 151 
 
 Teltow, 
 
 465 
 
INDEX. 
 
 667 
 
 
 PAQK1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PAQEl 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Temesvar, 
 
 528!Thiengen, 
 
 340 
 
 Tondern, 
 
 556 Treuen, 
 
 384 
 
 Tempelburg, 
 
 472|Thiers, 
 
 213 
 
 Tongem, 
 
 2^:1 Treuenbrietzen, 
 
 466 
 
 Teinpio, 
 
 114 Thionville, 
 
 196 
 
 Tonnay-Charente, 21 1 jTreves, ancient 
 
 
 Tempi in, 
 
 460 Thirty years' 
 
 
 Tonneins, 
 
 215 archbishopric 
 
 
 Tence, 
 
 2-21 war, 58, 31 
 
 Tonne re, 
 
 193 of, 
 
 487 
 
 Tenda, 
 
 HOiThisted, 
 
 552 
 
 Tunning, 
 
 556! , city of, 
 
 488 
 
 Tennstadt, 
 
 481Thiva, 
 
 621 
 
 Tonsberg, 
 
 576 Treviglio, 
 
 538 
 
 Tenos, 
 
 623 Tholen, 
 
 270 
 
 Toplitz, 
 
 515 Treviso, 
 
 542 
 
 Tenremonde, 
 
 28l» Thomar, 
 
 72 
 
 Topo, 
 
 75 Trevoux, 
 
 202 
 
 Tepl, 
 
 515 Thomas a Kempis 493 
 
 Topola, 
 
 635 Treysa, 
 
 372 
 
 Teplitz, 
 
 515 Thonon, 
 
 109 
 
 Tordesillas, 
 
 89 Trianon, 
 
 183 
 
 Teramo, 
 
 143 Thorda, 
 
 531 
 
 Torgau, 
 
 480 Tribbesee, 
 
 470 
 
 Terceira, 
 
 75 Thorn, 
 
 498 
 
 Tornea, 
 
 13 Triberg, 
 
 345 
 
 Terek, 
 
 12 Thorout, 
 
 281 
 
 Tornea (town), 
 
 599 Tribsees, 
 
 470 
 
 Terglou, 
 
 4 Thorsenge, 
 
 551Toro, 
 
 90 Trichonium, 
 
 621 
 
 Terlizzi* 
 
 144 Thorshiilla, 
 
 569JTorquemada, 
 
 89 Trient, 
 
 513 
 
 Termignon, 
 
 110 Thorshavn, 
 
 558 Torre de Moncorvo 73 Trier, 
 
 4*4 
 
 Termini, 
 
 146 Thouars, 
 
 210 
 
 Torre dell' Annun- | Triesen, 
 
 351 
 
 Termonde, 
 
 28U Thracia, 
 
 628 
 
 ziata, 
 
 141 Triest, 
 
 512 
 
 Ter Neuse, 
 
 271|Thuin, 
 
 281 
 
 Torres Vedras, 
 
 71 Trieste, 
 
 512 
 
 Tend, 
 
 133 Thule, 
 
 560 
 
 Torriglia, 
 
 112 Trifels, 
 
 328 
 
 .Ternova, 
 
 629 Thun, 
 
 158 
 
 Tortoli, 
 
 114 Trikala, 
 
 631 
 
 Terracina, 
 
 133 Tii an, Lake of, 
 
 11 
 
 Tortona, 
 
 111 Trim, 
 
 257 
 
 Terra di Lavoro, 
 
 HliThurgau, 
 
 165 
 
 Tortosa, 
 
 95 Trimmbach, 
 
 164 
 
 Terranova, 11< 
 
 , 147 Thuringia, ancient 
 
 Toscolano, 
 
 540 Trino, 
 
 108 
 
 Terschelling, 
 
 269 landgraviate of, 388 
 
 Touraine, 
 
 206 Tripoli zza, 
 
 622 
 
 Teruel, 
 
 94 Thuringians, 
 
 298Toul, 
 
 196 Triptis, 
 
 MB 
 
 Teschen, 
 
 517 Thuringerwald, 
 
 7 Toulon, 
 
 224 Trivento, 
 
 144 
 
 Ti'SJIlO, 
 
 164 Thurles, 
 
 260 Toulouse, 
 
 219 Trivieren Dorabes202 
 
 Teste de Buch, 
 
 215 Thurnau, 
 
 320 Tourcoing, 
 
 190 Trivier sur Mog- 
 
 
 Tele de Flandres, 
 
 280 Thurn and Taxis, 
 
 317 Tournaments, 
 
 46 I nand, 
 
 202 
 
 Tete d'Ours, 
 
 6 Thurso, 
 
 254 Tournay, 
 
 23llTrochtelflngen, 
 
 349 
 
 Teie de Rang, 
 
 6 Thusis, 
 
 162 Tournon, 
 
 221 Troense, 
 
 551 
 
 Teterow, 
 
 409 Tiber River, 
 
 15jTournus, 
 
 201 Trogen, 
 
 157 
 
 Tetinschi, 
 
 607 Ti bur, 
 
 132 Tours, 
 
 206 Troizkoi Sergiev, 
 
 591 
 
 Telschen, 
 
 515 Ticino, 
 
 15 Trachenberg, 
 
 474|Trbki, 
 
 600 
 
 Teaming, 
 
 335 Tienen, 
 
 278 Trafalgar, 
 
 92 Troll hiitta, 
 
 572 
 
 Teuffen, 
 
 157 Til burg, 
 
 274 Trankehnen, 
 
 497Tromsoe, 
 
 578 
 
 Ttsischnitz, 
 
 3-20 Tillicoultry, 
 
 251 
 
 Tralee, 
 
 260 Trondhiem, 
 
 577 
 
 T.mtoburger Wald, H 
 
 497 
 
 Tramin, 
 
 513 Tropea, 
 
 145 
 
 Teutoues, 
 
 297 Tinchebray, 
 
 187 
 
 Trani, 
 
 144|Troppau, 
 
 517 
 
 Teutonic Order 46, 3:] 
 
 113 
 
 Transjuranian Bur- |Trosa, 
 
 569 
 
 Teviotdale, 
 
 219 Tin-Islands, 
 
 239 
 
 gundy, 
 
 200 Troubadours, 
 
 K 
 
 Tewkesbury, 
 
 240 Tino, 
 
 113 Transylvania, 
 
 530 Troyes, 
 
 191 
 
 Texe), 
 
 269,Tinos, 
 
 623]Trapani, 
 
 146 Truro, 
 
 239 
 
 Thal-Ehrenbreit- 
 
 iTi ntern Abbey, 
 
 240 Trappe, La, 
 
 906 Tr.ixillo, 
 
 91 
 
 8tein, 
 
 487 Tipperary, 
 
 260 Trasen, 
 
 16 (Try berg, 
 
 345 
 
 Tlmlitler, 
 
 357 Tirano, 
 
 539 Traun, 
 
 16 Tschadyrdagh, 
 
 8 
 
 Thames, 
 
 14 Tiraspol, 
 
 611 Traunstein, 
 
 314lTscherlitz, 
 
 168 
 
 Thanu, 
 
 199 
 
 Tirgovist, 
 
 636 T.uusnitz, 
 
 316 
 
 Tsheboksar, 
 
 607 
 
 Tharand, 
 
 381 
 
 Tirlemont, 
 
 278 Trave, 
 
 17 
 
 Tshernoi-Jar, 
 
 609 
 
 Tnasoa, 
 
 832 
 
 Tirschenreuth, 
 
 317 Travemiinde, 
 
 452 
 
 Tshernomorsk (Cos- 
 
 Theaki, 
 
 616 
 
 Tirschtiegel, 
 
 499 Travendahl, 
 
 418 
 
 sacks, 
 
 612 
 
 Tueate, 
 
 143 
 
 Tittel, 
 
 534 Travera, 
 
 163|Tuam, 
 
 259 
 
 Thebes, 
 
 621 
 
 Tittmoning. 
 
 315 Travnik, 
 
 6331 Tubingen, 
 
 :w2 
 
 Thedinghausen, 
 
 447 
 
 Tiverton, 
 
 238 Traz os Montes, 
 
 73 Tubize, 
 
 279 
 
 Theiss, 
 
 16 
 
 Tivoli, 
 
 132 Trebigno, 
 
 634 Tudela, 89, 97 
 
 Tliemar, 
 
 391 
 
 Tmutarakan, 
 
 613 Trebnitz, 
 
 474 
 
 Tudor, house of, 
 
 233 
 
 Theodoric, king of 
 
 Todlnau, 
 
 315 Trebur, 
 
 354 
 
 Tuiieries, 
 
 189 
 
 the Ostrogoths, 
 
 25 
 
 Tosgenbaig, 
 
 160 Treffurt, 
 
 481 
 
 Tukum, 
 
 598 
 
 Thera, 
 
 623 
 
 Toissey, 
 
 202 Treguier, 
 
 209 
 
 Tula, 
 
 591 
 
 Theresienstadt, 
 
 525 
 
 Tokay, 
 
 527 Treisen, 
 
 351 
 
 Tulczin, 
 
 602 
 
 Therma, 
 
 630 
 
 Toledo, 
 
 87 Tremiti, 
 
 144iTullamore, 
 
 257 
 
 Thermopylae, 
 
 621 
 
 Tolentino, 
 
 134 Tremitian Isles, 
 
 144 Tulle, 
 
 212 
 
 Thessalia, 
 
 631 
 
 Tolfa, 
 
 133 Tremouille, 
 
 210 Tullgarn, 
 
 569 
 
 Thessalouica, 
 
 630 
 
 Tolkemit, 
 
 498 Trencsin, 
 
 525 Tullow, 
 
 257 
 
 Theux, 
 
 282 
 
 Tol mezzo, 
 
 542 Trent, 14 
 
 ,5l3|Tunbridge, 
 
 236 
 
 Thiel, 
 
 271 
 
 Tolosa, 
 
 97 Treport, 
 
 186 1 Tun bridge Wells, 
 
 236 
 
 Thielt, 
 
 281 
 
 Tomaszov, 
 
 605 
 
 Trestenburg, 
 
 531 
 
 Turbia, 
 
 110 
 
608 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGET 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PARE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Turenne, 
 
 212 Unterseen, 
 
 158 
 
 Vacha, 
 
 389 
 
 Venezia, 
 
 541 
 
 Turin, 
 
 106 Unterwalden, 
 
 166 
 
 Vacz, 
 
 525 
 
 Venice, city of, 
 
 541 
 
 Turkey, 
 
 624 1 Upland, 
 
 568 
 
 Vado, 
 
 113 
 
 , ancient Re- 
 
 Turkheim 198,325,328 
 
 Upper Alps Depart- 
 
 Vadutz, 
 
 351 
 
 public of, 
 
 540 
 
 Turkish Croatia, 
 
 634 
 
 ment, 
 
 222 
 
 Vaels, 
 
 308 
 
 Venloo, 
 
 274 
 
 Turkish Dalma- 
 
 
 Upper Alsace, 197, 198 
 
 Vaihingen, 
 
 331 
 
 Venosa, 
 
 145 
 
 tia. 
 
 634 
 
 Upper Andalu- 
 sia, 
 
 
 Vaison, 
 
 225 
 
 Ventimiglia, 
 
 113 
 
 Turkish Gradis- 
 
 
 93 
 
 Vajda Hunyad, 
 
 531 
 
 Vercelli, 
 
 108 
 
 ca, 
 
 634 
 
 Upper Austria, 
 
 509 
 
 Valais, 
 
 167 
 
 Verden, 
 
 438 
 
 Turks, 
 
 ]9 
 
 Upper Bavaria, 
 
 314 
 
 Valangin, 
 
 163 
 
 Verdun, 
 
 196 
 
 Turnovo, 
 
 631 
 
 Upper Franconia, 318 
 
 Valdepenas, 
 
 88 
 
 Veria, 
 
 631 
 
 Tursi, 
 
 145 
 
 Upper Garonne 
 
 
 Valdieri, 
 
 108 
 
 Verneuil, 
 
 186 
 
 Tuscany, 
 
 120 
 
 Department, 
 
 219 
 
 Valencai, 
 
 205 
 
 Vernon, 
 
 186 
 
 Tuscia, 
 
 122 
 
 Upper Hesse, 
 
 357 
 
 Valence, 
 
 222 
 
 Vernoux, 
 
 221 
 
 Tusculum, 
 
 132 
 
 Upper Hesse (of 
 Hesse-Cassel), 
 
 
 Valencia, 95, 96 
 
 Verocze, 
 
 530 
 
 Tuttliugen, 
 
 333 
 
 372 
 
 Valenciennes, 
 
 190 
 
 Verola Nuova, 
 
 540 
 
 Tuy, 
 
 91 
 
 Upper Hungary, 
 
 527 
 
 Valenza, 
 
 111 
 
 Verona, 
 
 542 
 
 Tweeddale, 
 
 250 
 
 Upper Ingelheim 
 
 , 356 
 
 Valkenburg, 
 
 368 
 
 Versailles, 
 
 183 
 
 Twer, 
 
 593 
 
 Upper Italy, 
 
 103 
 
 Valladolid, 
 
 89 
 
 Versmold, 
 
 484 
 
 Two Sicilies, 
 
 137 
 
 Upper Loire De- 
 
 
 Vallendar, 
 
 487 
 
 Versoix, 
 
 161 
 
 Two Sevres De- 
 
 
 partment, 
 
 221 
 
 Valli di Comac- 
 
 
 Versoy, 
 
 161 
 
 partment, 
 
 210 
 
 Upper Lorraine, 
 
 194 
 
 chio, 
 
 127 
 
 Verviers, 
 
 282 
 
 Tynemouth, 
 
 244 
 
 Upper Lusa- 
 
 
 Vails, 
 
 95 
 
 Vervins, 
 
 188 
 
 Tyras, 
 
 12 
 
 tia, 385, 475 
 
 Valogne, 
 
 187 
 
 Vesoul, 
 
 203 
 
 Tyrconel, 
 
 258 
 
 Upper Marne De 
 
 
 Valona, 
 
 633 
 
 Vesprim, 
 
 5-26 
 
 Tyree, 
 
 255 
 
 partment, 192, 20: 
 
 Valpo, 
 
 530 
 
 Vesuvius, 
 
 5 
 
 Tyrnau, 
 
 524 
 
 Upper Moesia, 
 
 634 
 
 Vals, 
 
 221 
 
 Veurne, 
 
 281 
 
 Tyrol, 
 
 513 
 
 Upper Palatin- 
 
 
 Vandals, 
 
 24 
 
 Vevay, 
 
 168 
 
 Tyrone, 
 
 258 
 
 ate, 316, 317 
 
 Vannes, 
 
 209 
 
 Vezelay, 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 Upper Pyrenees 
 Department, 
 
 
 Var, 
 
 15 
 
 Viadana, 
 
 539 
 
 Ubede, 
 
 93 
 
 216 
 
 Var Department, 
 
 224 
 
 Vial as, 
 
 221 
 
 Uchte, 
 
 436 
 
 Upper Rhenish 
 
 
 Varallo, 
 
 111 
 
 Viana, 73, 97 
 
 Uckermark, 
 
 466 
 
 circle, 
 
 292 
 
 Varazze, 
 
 113 
 
 Vianden, 
 
 366 
 
 Uckermiinde, 
 
 470 
 
 Upper Rhine cir- 
 cle (of Baden), 
 
 
 Vardanes, 
 
 12 
 
 Vianen, 
 
 270 
 
 Uddewalla, 
 
 573 
 
 344 
 
 Vardar, 15, 630 
 
 Viareggio, 
 
 126 
 
 Udine, 
 
 542 
 
 Upper Rhine De- 
 
 
 Varel, 
 
 424 
 
 Vic, 
 
 195 
 
 Udvarhely, 
 
 532 
 
 partment, 
 
 198 
 
 Varennes, 
 
 195 
 
 Vic sur Cere, 
 
 213 
 
 Ueberlingen, 
 
 346 
 
 Upper Saxon cir- 
 
 
 Varese, 113, 538 
 
 Vicenza, 
 
 542 
 
 Ueberlingen Lake, 1 1 
 
 cle, 
 
 293 
 
 Varesh, 
 
 633 
 
 Vich, 
 
 95 
 
 Uelzen, 
 
 437 
 
 Upper Silesia, 472, 475 
 
 Varigotti, 
 
 113 
 
 Viel Salm, 
 
 283 
 
 Uerdingen, 
 
 493 
 
 Upper Stamm- 
 
 
 Varna, 
 
 630 
 
 Vienna, 
 
 508 
 
 Uetersen, 
 
 418 
 
 heim, 
 
 169 
 
 Vasarhely, 
 
 528 
 
 Vienne, 
 
 222 
 
 UexkUIl, 
 
 597 
 
 Upper Valais, 
 
 167 
 
 Vassals, 
 
 36 
 
 Vien le Chateau, 
 
 192 
 
 Uflfenheim, 
 
 320 
 
 Upper Vienne De 
 
 - 
 
 Vassy, 
 
 192 
 
 Vienne Depart- 
 
 
 Ugbrook, 
 
 238 
 
 partment, 
 
 212 
 
 Vasvar, 
 
 526 
 
 ment, 
 
 210 
 
 Ugine, 
 
 109 
 
 Uppingham, 
 
 241 
 
 Vathi, 
 
 616 
 
 Vienne River, 
 
 15 
 
 Uist, North, 
 
 255 
 
 Upsala, 
 
 568 
 
 Vaucluse Depart- 
 
 
 Vierlande, 
 
 451 
 
 , South, 
 
 255 
 
 Urach, 
 
 333 
 
 ment, 
 
 224 
 
 Vierraden, 
 
 466 
 
 Ujensk, 
 
 592 
 
 Uralsk, 
 
 609 
 
 Vaucouleurs, 
 
 193 
 
 Viersen, 
 
 494 
 
 Ujest, 
 
 476 
 
 Urbino, 
 
 134 
 
 Vaud, 
 
 167 
 
 Vierzon, 
 
 205 
 
 Ukraine, 
 
 594 
 
 Urgel, 
 
 95 
 
 Vechta, 
 
 423 
 
 Viesti, - 
 
 144 
 
 Uleaborg, 
 
 599 
 
 Uri, 
 
 166 
 
 Veere, 
 
 270 
 
 Vif, 
 
 222 
 
 Ulm, 
 
 333 
 
 Urnaesch, 
 
 157 
 
 Vegesack, 
 
 454 
 
 Vigan, Le, 
 
 221 
 
 Ulricehamn, 
 
 572 
 
 Ursberg, 
 
 325 
 
 Velas, 
 
 75 
 
 Vigevano, 
 
 111 
 
 Ulrichslein, 
 
 357 
 
 Urseren, 
 
 167 
 
 Veldenz, 
 
 489 
 
 Vignemale, 
 
 5 
 
 Ulriksdal, 
 
 568 
 
 Usedom, 
 
 469 
 
 Velez Malaga, 
 
 93 
 
 Vigo, 
 
 91 
 
 Ulster, 
 
 257 
 
 Usicza, 
 
 635 
 
 Velez el Rubio, 
 
 94 
 
 Vigone, 
 
 107 
 
 Uman, 
 
 594 
 
 Usingen, 
 
 362 
 
 Velletri, 
 
 133 
 
 Vilaine, 
 
 16 
 
 Umbrians, 
 
 102 
 
 Uslar, 
 
 440 
 
 Veltlin, 
 
 539 
 
 Ville Dois sous 
 
 
 Uinea, 
 
 574 
 
 Uso, 
 
 127 
 
 Venaissin, 224, 225 
 
 Belley, 
 
 202 
 
 Uinstadt, 
 
 355 
 
 Usseglio, 
 
 107 
 
 Venasque, 
 
 225 
 
 Villena, 
 
 94 
 
 Ungstein, 
 
 327 
 
 Ussel, 
 
 212 
 
 Vendee Depart- 
 
 
 Villedieu les 
 
 
 Universities, found- 
 
 Uster, 
 
 169 
 
 ment, 
 
 210 
 
 Pneles, 
 
 187 
 
 ed in Europe, 
 
 42 
 
 Ustica, 
 
 146 
 
 Vendee River, 
 
 16 
 
 Villefort, 
 
 221 
 
 Unkel, 
 
 488 
 
 Ustjug-Weliki, 
 
 593 
 
 Venddme, 
 
 206 
 
 Villefranche, 
 
 
 Unna, 
 
 485 
 
 Utrecht, 
 
 271 
 
 Venedig, 
 
 541 
 
 214, 216, 21 
 
 Unst, 
 
 255 
 
 Utrera, 
 
 91 
 
 Veneria, La, 
 
 107 
 
 Villeneuve, 
 
 168 
 
 Unter-Hallau, 
 
 164|Uxijar, 
 
 93 
 
 Venetes, 102, 540 
 
 Villeneuve 
 
 
 Unter-Kulm, 
 
 156 
 
 Uzes, 
 
 221 
 
 Venetian Friaul, 
 
 542 
 
 d'Agen, 
 
 215 
 

 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 669 
 
 
 PAOK 
 
 PAOK 
 
 PAOK' 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Villeneuve l'Ar- 
 
 
 Vohenstrauss, 
 
 318 Waldkirch, 
 
 345 
 
 Weikersheim, 
 
 337 
 
 cheveque, 
 
 193 
 
 Vohrenbach, 
 
 347 Waldiniinchen, 
 
 317 
 
 Weilbach, 
 
 363 
 
 Villeneuve d' Avig- 
 
 Vohringen, 
 
 349 Waldsassen, 
 
 317 
 
 Weilburg, 
 
 362 
 
 non. 
 
 221 
 
 Voigtland 383,384,3! 
 
 335 
 
 Weil, 
 
 332 
 
 Villeneuve de 
 
 
 Voiron, 
 
 222 Waldshut, 
 
 345 
 
 Weile, 
 
 553 
 
 Berg, 
 
 221 
 
 Volcanello, 
 
 149 Wales, 
 
 245 
 
 Weilheim, 
 
 315 
 
 Villeneuve le Roy, 193 
 
 Volcano, 
 
 149 Walhalla, 
 
 317 
 
 Weilmunster, 
 
 362 
 
 Villingen, 
 
 347 
 
 Volenay, 
 
 201 Waljewo, 
 12 Wallachia, 
 
 635 
 
 Weilnau, 
 
 362 
 
 Villmergen, 
 
 156 
 
 Volga, 
 
 635 
 
 Weimar, 
 
 387 
 
 Vilsen, 
 
 436 
 
 Volhynia, 
 
 602 Wallachia, Little 
 
 , 636 
 
 Weinfelden, 
 
 166 
 
 Vilshofen, 
 
 316 
 
 Volkach, 
 
 323 Walldiirn, 
 
 344 
 
 Weingarten, 
 
 334 
 
 Vilvorden, 
 
 278 
 
 Volkmarsen, 
 
 372 Wallenstadt, 
 
 160 
 
 Wemheim, 
 
 343 
 
 Villach, 
 
 512 
 
 Vollenhoven, 
 
 272 Wallerstein, 
 
 326 
 
 Weiusberi{, 
 
 331 
 
 Villacidro, 
 
 114 
 
 Vol.., 
 
 631 Walloons, 
 
 275|Weissbad, 
 
 157 
 
 Villa do Conde, 
 
 73 
 
 Volsci, 
 
 10-2 Walsall, 
 
 241 j Weissenbure:, 198, 531 
 
 Villa Demidof, 
 
 123 
 
 Volterra, 
 
 123 Walsrode, 
 
 437|Weissenburg im 
 
 
 Villa d'Este, 
 
 538 
 
 Voltri, 
 
 112 Waltenberg, 
 
 5311 Nordgau, 
 
 321 
 
 Villi! Traiica, 
 
 110 
 
 Volluruo, 
 
 15 Waltershausen, 
 
 394 Weissenlels, 
 
 4S0 
 
 Villafraucade Pa 
 
 
 Volvic, 
 
 213 Wandsbeck, 
 
 417 Weissenhorn, 
 
 326 
 
 nades, 
 
 95 
 
 Vonitza, 
 
 621 Wangen, 158, 334jWeissensee, 
 
 4S1 
 
 Villafrauca di Pie- 
 
 Voorae, 
 
 270 Wangeroog, 
 
 424 Weissenst vdt, 
 
 319 
 
 munte, 
 
 107 
 
 Voralberg, 
 
 514 Wanlockhead, 
 
 250 Weissenstein, 
 
 596 
 
 Villanueva, 
 
 95 
 
 Vorden, 
 
 441 Wanfried, 
 
 371 
 
 Weisskit-meu, 
 
 534 
 
 Villareal, 
 
 73 
 
 Vormark, 
 
 460 Wanzleben, 
 
 478 
 
 Weissmain, 
 
 320 
 
 Villareal de San 
 
 
 Vorsfelde, 
 
 447 War of succession, 
 
 Welau, 
 
 496 
 
 Antonio, 
 
 74 
 
 Vosges, 
 
 6 the Spanish, 
 
 85 
 
 Welbeck Abbey, 
 
 242 
 
 Villa viciosa, 
 
 87 
 
 Vosges Depart- 
 
 Warasdin, 
 
 529 
 
 Welehrad, 
 
 516 
 
 Villa viciosa (in 
 
 
 ment, 
 
 195 Warberg, 
 
 572 
 
 Wells, 
 
 239 
 
 Asturias), 
 
 90 
 
 Vostizza, 
 
 622 Warburg, 
 
 484 
 
 Wels, 
 
 510 
 
 Villa Vicosa, 
 
 73 
 
 Voulte, La, 
 
 221 Warde, 
 
 553 
 
 Welshpool, 
 
 246 
 
 Vimieira, 
 
 71 
 
 Vouziers, 
 
 193 Waren, 
 
 409 
 
 Welzheim, 
 
 337 
 
 Vimoutiers, 
 
 187 
 
 Vrachori, 
 
 621 Warendorf, 
 
 483 
 
 Weuden, 
 
 597 
 
 Vinadeo, 
 
 108 
 
 Vukovar, 
 
 530 Warmbrunn, 
 
 475 
 
 Weuer Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Vinaroz, 
 
 96 
 
 
 Warnemunde, 
 
 410 
 
 Wenersborg, 
 
 572 
 
 Vincennes, 
 
 183 
 
 Waag, 
 
 16 Warneton, 
 
 281 
 
 Wenings, 
 
 357 
 
 Vindelicia, 
 
 297 
 
 Waal, 
 
 16 Warnow River, 
 
 17 
 
 Werben, 
 
 478 
 
 Vineta, 
 
 469 
 
 Wachenheim, 
 
 327 Warrington, 
 
 243 
 
 Werchi Lomov, 
 
 608 
 
 Viniimiglia, 
 
 113 
 
 Wachtersbach, 
 
 374 Warsaw, 
 
 605 
 
 Werchoturie, 
 
 007 
 
 Vique, 
 
 95 
 
 Wadowice, 
 
 518 Wartburg, 
 
 388 
 
 Werdau, 
 
 383 
 
 Vire, 
 
 187 
 
 Wadstena, 
 
 570 Wartenberg, 
 
 474 
 
 Werden, 
 
 494 
 
 Visconti, 
 
 537 
 
 Waedenschwyl, 
 
 169 Wartha, 
 
 474 
 
 Werdenberg, 
 
 160 
 
 Vise, 
 
 283 
 
 Waedensweil, 
 
 169 Warthe, 
 
 13 
 
 Werder, 
 
 466 
 
 Viseu, 
 
 72 
 
 Waerschot, 
 
 280 Warwick, 
 
 240 
 
 Werl, 
 
 485 
 
 Visigoths, 23, 28 
 
 Waesland, 
 
 280 Warwick Castle, 
 
 240 
 
 Wermland, 
 
 573 
 
 Visoko, 
 
 6311 
 
 Waesten, 
 
 281 Warwickshire, 
 
 240 
 
 Werne, 
 
 483 
 
 Vissegrad, 
 
 525 
 
 Waga, 
 
 12 Wasa, 
 
 599 
 
 Wernigerode, 
 
 478 
 
 Vistula, 
 
 13 
 
 Wageningen, 
 
 272 Wasa, House of, 
 
 566 
 
 Werra, 
 
 17 
 
 Viterbo, 
 
 133 
 
 Waging, 
 
 315 Wasselnheim, 
 
 197 
 
 Wertheira, 
 
 344 
 
 Vitre, 
 
 208 
 
 Wagram, 
 
 509 Wasselonne, 
 
 197 
 
 Werther, 
 
 484 
 
 Vitry le Francais 
 
 , 192 
 
 Waiblingen, 
 
 331 Wasseralfingen, 
 
 335 
 
 Werwick (in Bel 
 
 
 Vittoria, 
 
 98|Waibstadt, 
 
 344 Wasserburg, 
 
 315 
 
 gium), 
 
 281 
 
 Vittoria (in Si- 
 
 Waitzen, 
 
 525 Wassertrudingen 
 
 320 
 
 Wesel, 
 
 494 
 
 cily), 
 
 148,Wajka, 
 1 07 i Wakefield, 
 
 524 Wasungen, 
 
 391 
 
 Wesenberg, 
 
 596 
 
 Viu, 
 
 244 Waterford, 
 
 259 
 
 Weser, 
 
 17 
 
 Vivarais, 
 
 221)Walcheren, 
 
 270 Waterloo, 
 
 278 
 
 Wesergebirge, 
 
 8 
 
 Viverro, 
 
 91 Walchwyl, 
 
 168 Watweiler, 
 
 198 
 
 Weser Mountains, ( 
 
 Viviers, 
 
 22l|Walcourt, 
 
 282 Watzmann, 
 
 4 
 
 Weset, 
 
 283 
 
 Vivis, 
 
 168Wald, 169, 493 Wavre, 
 
 278 
 
 Wessem, 
 
 368 
 
 Vizeu, 
 
 7-2 Waldbach, 
 
 193 Waxholm, 
 
 568 
 
 Wesserling, 
 
 199 
 
 Vizille, 
 
 2-22 Waldbroel, 
 
 492 Wearmouth, 
 
 244 
 
 West Flanders, 
 
 280 
 
 Vizzini, 
 
 148 Waldburg, 
 
 334 Wechselburg, 
 
 383 
 
 West Friesland, 
 
 272 
 
 Vlaamsch-Hoofd, 
 
 280 Waldeck, Princi- 
 
 Wedel, 
 
 418 
 
 West Galloway, 
 
 250 
 
 Vlaardingen, 
 
 2T0 pality of, 
 
 37.1 Wednesbury, 
 
 241 
 
 Westhofen, 
 
 356 
 
 Vlieland, 
 
 209 Waldeck (town) 
 
 376 Weerdt, 
 
 367jWestkapellen, 
 
 270 
 
 Vodable, 
 
 213 Waldeuburg, 157 
 
 , 337, Weesp, 
 
 960 West Lothian, 
 
 249 
 
 Vodina, 
 
 630 384, 473 Wegeleben, 
 
 478 Wesimanland, 
 
 589 
 
 Vogelsberg, 
 
 7 Waldenses, 10 
 
 , 107 Weichselrniinde, 
 
 497 West Meath, 
 
 257 
 
 Voghera, 
 
 111 Waldheim, 
 
 :K3 Weida, 
 
 383! Westminster, 
 
 234 
 
 VugOglia, 
 
 111 
 
 Waldkappel. 
 
 371 Weideu, 
 
 317 
 
 Westmoreland, 
 
 244 
 

 670 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGK! 
 
 PAGE' 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 PAfJK 
 
 Westphalia, duchy Wildungen, 
 
 376 Wolgast, 
 374 Wolkenstein, 
 
 470!Ypres, 
 
 280 
 
 of, 
 
 485 Wilhelmsbad, 
 
 383!Ysendyk, 
 
 271 
 
 Westphalia, king 
 
 Wilhelmshohe, 
 
 370 Wollin, 
 
 469|Yssel, 
 
 16 
 
 dom of, 
 
 294 Wilhelmstein, 
 
 430 Wollmirstadt, 
 
 478 Ysselburg, 
 
 494 
 
 Westphalia, Prus- Wilhelmsthal, 
 
 389|Wolmar, 
 
 597 
 
 Ysselstein, 
 
 271 
 
 sian province of, 482 Willemstadt, 
 
 274 
 
 Wologda, 
 
 593 
 
 Yssingeaux, 
 
 221 
 
 Westphalian 
 
 .William the Con- 
 
 Wolsk, 
 
 609 
 
 Ystad, 
 
 571 
 
 circle, 
 
 293 queror, 
 
 33 
 
 Wolverhampton, 
 
 241 
 
 Yverdun, 
 
 168 
 
 Westphalian Treaty Wil Ham Tell, 
 
 155 
 
 Wood bridge, 
 
 236 
 
 Yvetot, 
 
 186 
 
 of peace, 
 
 303 Willisau, 
 
 162 
 
 Woodstock, 
 
 237 
 
 
 
 Westphalians, 
 
 298 Wilna, 
 
 600 Woolsthorpe, 
 
 237 
 
 Z a an I am, 
 
 268 
 
 West Prussia, 
 
 495 Wilsdruf, 
 
 381 
 
 Woolwich, 
 
 236 
 
 Zabern, 
 
 197 
 
 West Riding, 
 
 243 Wilsnack, 
 
 466 
 
 Worbis, 
 
 481 
 
 Zafra, 
 
 91 
 
 West Russia, 
 
 600 Wilster, 
 
 417 
 
 Worcester, 
 
 240 Zahara, 
 
 92 
 
 Westerbottn, 
 
 574 Wilton, 
 
 239 
 
 Worcestershire, 
 
 240 Zahna, 
 
 479 
 
 Wester-Gothland 
 
 , 572 Wilton house, 
 
 239 
 
 Wordingborg, 
 
 550 
 
 Zahringen, castle 
 
 Westeroas, 
 
 569 Wilts, 
 
 239 
 
 Workington, 
 
 244 
 
 of, 
 
 345 
 
 Westervik, 
 
 570 Wiltshire, 
 
 239 
 
 Worksop, 
 
 242 
 
 Zahringians, 
 
 339 
 
 Westerwald, 
 
 S^ilz, 
 
 366 
 
 Worksop Manor, 
 
 242 
 
 Zalathna, 
 
 531 
 
 Western High- 
 
 Wimmerby, 
 
 570 
 
 Workum, 27S 
 
 ,274 
 
 Zamora, 
 
 90 
 
 lands, 
 
 253 Wimmis, 
 
 158 
 
 Worlitz, 
 
 405 
 
 Zamosk, 
 
 606 
 
 Western Islands, 
 
 Wimpfen, 
 
 355 
 
 Wormditt, 
 
 496 
 
 Zante, 
 
 616 
 
 74 
 
 254 Winander Lake, 
 
 12 
 
 Worms, 
 
 356 
 
 Zara, 
 
 535 
 
 Wetluga, 
 
 12 Winchelsea, 
 
 236 
 
 Worms (Russian 
 
 
 Zaritzin, 
 
 609 
 
 Wettenhausen, 
 
 325 Winchester, 
 
 238 
 
 isle), 
 
 596 
 
 Zarki, 
 
 606 
 
 Wetter, 
 
 372|Windau, 
 
 598 
 
 Woronesh, 
 
 592 
 
 Zarskoje-Selo, 
 
 595 
 
 Wetter Lake, 
 
 11 Windisch, 
 
 156 
 
 Worth, 
 
 317 
 
 Zator, 
 
 518 
 
 Wetteren, 
 
 280;Windsbach, 
 
 320 
 
 Wosnosensk, 
 
 611 
 
 Zawichost, 
 
 606 
 
 Wettin, 
 
 480iWindsheim, 
 
 321 
 
 Wreden, 
 
 483 
 
 Zealand, 270, 54! 
 
 Wettingen, 
 
 156 Windsor, 
 
 235 
 
 Wrexham, 
 
 246 
 
 Zebug, 
 
 150 
 
 Wetzlar, 
 
 488jWineda, 
 
 469 
 
 Wriezen, 
 
 466 
 
 Zdunska Wola, 
 
 606 
 
 Wevelinghoven, 
 
 493,Winnenden, 
 
 331 
 
 Wschowa, 
 
 499 
 
 Zduny, 
 
 499 
 
 Wexford, 
 
 256 Winnweiler, 
 
 328 
 
 Wiilfrath, 
 
 493 
 
 Zehdenik, 
 
 466 
 
 Wexid, 
 
 570 Winschoten, 
 
 273 
 
 Wumme, 
 
 17 
 
 Zeiden, 
 
 532 
 
 Weymouth, 
 
 238,Winsen an der 
 
 
 Wunsiedel, 
 
 319 
 
 Zeitun, 
 
 621 
 
 Wharnside, 
 
 8 Luhe, 
 
 437 
 
 Wunstorf, 
 
 435 
 
 Zeitz, 
 
 479 
 
 Whitby, 
 
 243 Winterstetten- 
 
 
 Wupper, 
 
 16 
 
 Zele, 
 
 280 
 
 Whitehaven, 
 
 244 atadt, 
 
 334 
 
 Wiiritemberg, 
 
 329 
 
 Zell, 345, 487 
 
 White Russia, 
 
 601 Winterthur, 
 
 169 
 
 Wurzach, 
 
 334 
 
 Zell am Hammers- 
 
 White Sea, 
 
 9 Wipperfurt, 
 
 492 
 
 Wiirzburg, 
 
 322 
 
 bach, 
 
 341 
 
 Wiborg, 552 
 
 , 599lWirtemberg, 
 
 329 
 
 WUrzburg, grand 
 
 
 Zella, 
 
 394 
 
 Wick, 
 
 254 Wisbeach, 
 
 237 
 
 duchy of, 
 
 294 
 
 Zelle, 
 
 437 
 
 Wicklow, 
 
 256 Wisby, 
 
 571 
 
 Wurzen, 
 
 382 
 
 Zeller Lake, 
 
 11 
 
 Widdem, 
 
 331 Wisby (history) 
 
 50 
 
 Wusterhausen an 
 
 i 
 
 Zellerfeld, 
 
 444 
 
 Widdin, 
 
 629|Wischehrad, 
 
 514 
 
 der Dosse, 
 
 466 
 
 Zempelburg, 
 
 498 
 
 Wied, 
 
 488 Wislitza, 
 
 606 
 
 Wustrow, 
 
 437 
 
 Zengg, 
 
 533 
 
 Wieda, 
 
 448 Wismar, 
 
 410 
 
 Wyk, 
 
 557 
 
 Zentha, 
 
 526 
 
 Wieliczka, 
 
 519 
 
 Witebsk, 
 
 601 
 
 WykteDuurstede271 
 
 Zerbst, 
 
 405 
 
 Wien, 
 
 508 
 
 Wittelsbach, House 
 
 Wyl, 
 Wytschegda, 
 
 160 
 
 Zeulenroda, 
 
 398 
 
 Wienerisch-Neu- 
 
 
 of, 
 
 313 
 
 12 
 
 Zeven, 
 
 438 
 
 stadt, 
 
 509 
 
 Wittenberg, 
 
 479 
 
 Xanten, 494 
 Xativa, 96 
 Xeres de los Caval- 
 
 Zevenaer, 
 
 272 
 
 Wieprz, 
 
 13 
 
 Wittenburg, 
 
 409 
 
 Zeyst, 
 
 271 
 
 Wiesbaden, 
 Wiese, 
 
 362 
 338 
 
 Wittgenstein, 
 Wittlich, 
 
 486 
 489 
 
 Ziegenhain, 
 Ziegenhala, 
 
 372 
 
 476 
 
 Wieselburg, 
 
 527 
 
 Wittmund, 
 
 443 
 
 leros, 
 Xeres de la Fron 
 
 a± 
 
 Ziegenruck, 481 
 
 ,482 
 
 Wiesentheid, 
 
 323|Wittstock, 
 
 466 
 
 92 
 14 
 
 Zierenberg, 
 
 371 
 
 Wiesloch, 343, 344 Witzenhausen, 
 
 371 
 
 tera, 
 Xucar, 
 
 Zieriksee, 
 
 270 
 
 Wifflisburg, 
 
 168 Wjatka, 
 243|Wladimir, 
 
 608 
 
 Zigeth, 
 
 526 
 
 Wigan, 
 
 592 
 
 Yarmouth, 
 
 237 
 
 Zilah, 
 
 531 
 
 Wight, isle of, 
 
 238iWoburn, 
 
 238 
 
 Yell, 
 
 255 
 
 Zinna, 
 
 466 
 
 Wigton, 
 
 250 Woburn Abbey, 
 
 238iYenne, 
 
 109 
 
 Zipserhaus, 
 
 527 
 
 Wii^tonshire, 
 
 250jWoerden, 
 
 271 Ynglingar, 
 
 566 
 
 Zittau, 
 
 385 
 
 Wilchingen, 
 
 164 Wolau, 
 
 473 : Yonne, 
 
 15 
 
 Zizers, 
 
 162 
 
 Wild bad, 
 
 333 IWolchonsky Forest 8;Yonne Depart- 
 
 
 Znaym, 
 
 517 
 
 Wildemann, 
 
 444 Woldenberg, 
 
 467 ment, 
 
 201 
 
 Zobten, 
 
 473 
 
 Wildenfela, 
 
 384 Wdlfach, 
 
 342 York, 
 
 243 
 
 Zobteuberg, 
 
 7 
 
 Wilder Lake, 
 
 3:58 Wolfenbuttel, 
 
 446 Yorkshire, 
 
 243 
 
 /ofinffen, 
 
 156 
 
 WUdeshauseOi 
 
 4*1 Wolfhagen, 
 
 37' Youghall, 
 
 259 
 
 /oinl.or, 
 
 525 
 
 Wildhaus, 
 
 160 
 
 \V r oili>teiii, 
 
 3*7 
 
 Ypern, 
 
 280 ; 
 
 Ziirbig, 
 
 480 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 671 
 
 Zorge, 
 
 Zorrica, 
 
 Zuckmantel, 
 
 Zug, 
 
 Zuid-Beveland, 
 
 Ziillichau, 
 
 PAOKI 
 
 448 Ziilpich, 
 
 150 Zum Stein, 
 
 517 Zurich, 
 
 1681 Zurich, Lake of, 
 
 270|Zurzach, 
 
 467iZiitphen, 
 
 PAOKI FAOK I 
 
 491 1 Zuyder Zee, 9 Zwischenahn 
 
 157!Zuyd-Voonie, 270; Lake, 
 168| Zweibriickeu, 327, 328 1 Zwoll, 
 
 11 Zwenkau, 383 Z worn ik, 
 
 156 Zwickau, 383 Zwyndrecht, 
 
 271 j Z wingenbefg, 354 1 Z y tomierz, 
 
 420 
 272 
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 THE BERBER; OR THE MOUNTAINEER OF* THE A 
 
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