3 TACK 
 
 ANNEX 

 
 OF 
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWIN NORRIS. 
 
 O X F O 11 D : 
 
 \T THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, 
 il.DCCC.LTX.
 
 SKETCH 
 
 OF 
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWIN NORRIS. 
 
 OXFORD: 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 M.DCCC.LIX.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 LETTERS 3 
 
 ARTICLES 12 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES 12 
 
 ADJECTIVES 22 
 
 NUMBERS 23 
 
 PRONOUNS 26 
 
 VERBS 41 
 
 IRREGULARS 66 
 
 ADVERBS 73 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 80 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 86 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 89 
 
 2047388
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 
 
 THE following Grammatical Sketch of the Corn- 
 ish language is made up of the observations jotted 
 down by the Compiler, whilst engaged in preparing 
 a translation of the three ancient Cornish Dramas 
 entitled Ordinalia, contained in a Manuscript belong- 
 ing to the Bodleian Library. After a considerable 
 portion of that work was printed off, he was induced 
 to arrange his notes in some order, for the purpose 
 of adding them to the book as an appendix, and by 
 doing this he found himself empowered to see fur- 
 ther into the structure of the language than he 
 anticipated, and to understand many passages 
 which he had left as unintelligible ; he discovered 
 regularity in many cases where he had supposed 
 that all was disorder, and found that much of the 
 apparent confusion arose from the entire absence of 
 any system of orthography. 
 
 From the way in which this essay was compiled, 
 it is obvious that all illustrations of rules given in 
 it are drawn from the work alluded to, except 
 only in the very few cases where the Mount Cal- 
 vary has furnished data for completing the evi- 
 dence which the Ordinalia would have left imper- 
 fect. It is also a consequence of this way of pro- 
 ceeding that a form or a construction of frequent 
 occurrence is often elucidated by a single example, 
 while a rarer case will be furnished with several 
 instances hi proof, perhaps all that the compiler 
 could find; in the former case there could be no
 
 2 
 
 reason for hesitation, and consequently no motive 
 for accumulating evidence ; in the latter, infre- 
 quency produced doubt, which could not be re- 
 moved without collating all the cases in point. 
 
 It is necessary to bear in mind that, during 
 the whole work of translation, the process was 
 tentative. The translator fully acknowledges the 
 valuable aid he has received from the grammar of 
 Lhuyd and the vocabulary compiled by Tonkin, 
 which appeared under the name of Pryce ; without 
 them he could have done nothing ; but he must 
 say that his suspicion of the accuracy of these aids, 
 of the vocabulary especially, was continually on the 
 increase ; and that until he had found a word j usti- 
 fied by frequent repetition and obvious congruity, 
 he never felt confident in the value affixed to it, 
 unless it were corroborated by Welsh or Armoric 
 analogy. 
 
 The Grammar was more satisfactory, but it was 
 chiefly based on the practice of Cornish as spoken 
 in Lhuyd's day, a dialect which had lost much of 
 the character of the old language in which the best 
 monuments were written ; it was also slightly mo- 
 dified by the habit of the author, who unconsciously 
 deviated now and then into the forms of his native 
 Welsh. 
 
 After these observations, the compiler believes 
 he may offer this Essay as a useful help to a 
 reader of Cornish ; he is quite conscious that it is 
 incomplete, but he trusts that what is included in it 
 will not be found inaccurate.
 
 SKETCH OF COKNISH GEAMMAR 
 
 .1. LETTERS. 
 
 The orthography of the manuscripts is so irre- 
 gular, that it is quite impracticable, in a gram- 
 matical essay, to follow it into all its varieties ; we 
 find every word of any length written in half a 
 dozen forms, such as diuath, deweth, dyweth, 
 devyth, dyvyth, diweth, &c. &c. ; and so short a 
 word as kig is found under the forms of kyg, kyc, 
 kic, cyk, and probably more. It appears advisable 
 in this sketch to keep to one form only, and the 
 one selected will be that which most commonly 
 occurs ; if this be doubtful, then the form most 
 analogous to the Welsh or Breton. The writer of 
 the Dramas was guided merely by his ear, which 
 was variable, and in addition to this, he was un- 
 decided whether he should follow the English or 
 Welsh sounds of the letters. Very frequently too 
 the handwriting is uncertain ; and nothing but a 
 knowledge of the language will enable a reader to 
 distinguish between c and t, u and n, b and v, and 
 some others. 
 
 For this reason it seems most expedient first to 
 give a list of the sounds of the language, and then 
 to shew how they are expressed in the manu- 
 scripts; to adopt, as above stated, one form only, 
 but in quotations, to follow the original spelling in 
 all its variety. 
 
 .2. Vowels. 
 
 The vowel sounds were a, e, i, o, u, and aw. 
 The last was like our a in ' all,' a sound hardly 
 B 2
 
 4 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 known in most European tongues ; the others as 
 in Italian. 
 
 A, as in 'father/ is always made by a in the MS. 
 E, as in e there/ always by e. I, as our ee, is gene- 
 rally written y, rarely i, and now and then e, espe- 
 cially in the pronoun my, which is often written 
 me, no doubt from the influence of English ortho- 
 graphy ; in this grammar y is used. and u are 
 generally so written. Aw is, I think, always 
 written o. 
 
 Lhuyd, who wrote when the language was spoken, 
 adopted a turned upside down to express the sound 
 of aw ; he thus wrote mnz where we find mos. We 
 have hos, O 132, "a duck," which he would have 
 written hvz ; it is hoet in the ancient vocabulary, 
 and those who spelled the word by ear wrote hawz; 
 see Pryce, voc. hoet. It does not appear that aw 
 and o were etymologically distinguished, any more 
 than the vowels in the English words fall and hot ; 
 and as in the majority of cases it would now be 
 difficult to decide which sound was used, no attempt 
 is made here to represent it by a distinct character. 
 
 . 3. The vowels are liable to a modification 
 which the Germans, after Grimm, call " umlaut ;" 
 a change which brings the different syllables of a 
 word into harmony with each other. It is defined 
 as an inflection of a, o, and w, in the radical syl- 
 lable of a word, caused by the influence or attrac- 
 tion of an i or u in a subsequent servile syllable 
 expressed or understood ; a becoming e, o becom- 
 ing o, (the French eu] and u becoming u (the 
 French u). It is such an influence which makes 
 fed out of f ado in Latin, &ndfeet, men, and elder, 
 out of foot, man, old, in English. In Cornish this 
 law was strictly observed, though the unsettled or- 
 thography produced much irregularity in its ex-
 
 VOWELS. 5 
 
 pression. I think the following rule will conveni- 
 ently shew its practical operation : whenever a 
 word with a or e for its final vowel (and sometimes 
 the influence reaches a preceding vowel) receives 
 by grammatical change the addition of a syllable 
 whose vowel is i (y) or eu, the a becomes e or y, 
 and the e becomes y : thus from car, " to love," is 
 made kyrys, " loved," R 892, and kyrreugh, " ye 
 love," O 543 ; from taw, "to be silent/' comes 
 teweugh, " be ye silent," E, 669, and tywyn, " we 
 are silent," R 2527 : from gwel, " to see," gwylsyn, 
 " we saw," E, 807 : from guas, " a lad," guesyon, 
 "lads," D 1299. The letter e, in fact, is neutral, 
 and may stand either for a or y : thus we find 
 kerry, D 2240, kyrry, O 537, or kyry, D 1289, 
 " thou mayest love ;" lavaraf, 07, or levaraf, 
 1653, " I say." Even English words receive the 
 same modifications; as from handle, D 3194, we 
 have hyndlyf, R 1531. and u sometimes re- 
 main unaltered, but are more commonly changed to 
 e; as from danfon, " to send," danfeneugh, " send," 
 Ri % 594; from torr, " to break," der & , "will break," O 
 2 1 84 ; from cous, " to speak," keus, "speaks," 01676; 
 from curene, " to crown," D 2064, we find kerenys, 
 2381, kerunys, O 2391, and kurenys in a variant 
 reading of 2374 ; the difficulty of distinguishing 
 e from o in the manuscript will not let me cite 
 koroneugh of O 2347 as a still further change ; 
 arluth, "lord," makes in the plural arlythy, D 
 1900. 
 
 A termination in a does not change a root with 
 a vowel y; from pys, " to pray," we have pysaf, " I 
 pray," 1390 ; but losco from lesky occurs in R 130- 
 
 a In some former state of the language this form must 
 have had a final ', it still remains in the Irish verb.
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 .4. Consonants. 
 
 The consonantal sounds are 6, d, th (as in ' the'), 
 f, g hard, g soft, h, k, I, m, n, p, r, s, sh, ch, t, th 
 (as in 'think'), v, w, wh, z. Of these sounds b, d,f 
 h, I, m, n, p, r, s, t, are written in the MSS. regu- 
 larly with the letters above given. 
 
 Th, as in the English ' the,' is always so written 
 in the manuscript of the Ordinalia. It is the 
 aspirate form of d, and in "Welsh is made by dd ; 
 in the British Museum MS. of Mount Calvary, 
 and in the Bodleian MS. of the Creation, written 
 in 1611, it is made by a character not unlike 3 ; 
 those who wrote Cornish in its last days repre- 
 sented the sound by dh, and in the very ancient 
 Cornish vocabulary the same combination is used ; 
 for example, in the word medhec, " a physician." 
 The Armoric equivalent is 0. I would have written 
 dh in this grammar, if I had always been sure of 
 distinguishing the two sounds of th, but as this is 
 not the case, I write th; a mistake seems of less 
 consequence when indicated by a mere dot ; and 
 moreover this form is a smaller departure from the 
 orthography of the Ordinalia. But I have no doubt 
 that I have often omitted the dot when it ought 
 to be inserted. 
 
 G, as in ' gold,' is so written in the MSS. Lhuyd 
 used the Saxon 5 to distinguish this sound from the 
 following. It is now and then irregularly employed 
 as an initial instead of d, as in geyth, "a day," 
 039, instead of dyth, O 49. 
 
 6r soft, as in ' gentle, 1 is not a genuine Cornish 
 letter, but a simple corruption of s ; we thus find 
 pygy, " to pray," and gage, " to leave," instead of
 
 CONSONANTS. 7 
 
 pysy and gase. It is like the vulgarism of squeege 
 for squeeze. Lhuyd sometimes used dzh for this 
 sound, a clumsy but accurate representation. I 
 have no occasion to mention the sound in this 
 essay. 
 
 H is etymologically equivalent to the Welsh ch ; 
 it is the aspirate form of k. Colon, " heart," be- 
 comes holon, O 2135, and cowethes, "a compan- 
 ion," becomes howethes, 113. When final, it is 
 almost always made by gh, as in levereugh, " you 
 say, 11 D 781, the Welsh lafarwch. 
 
 K is made in the MSS., as in English, by c be- 
 fore consonants and a, o, and w, and by k before e, 
 i, and y. Thus car, " he loves," caradow, " be- 
 loved, 11 O 1114, kerry, "thou lovest, 11 O 2142; 
 cref, " strong, 11 D 2539, O 2222. Now and then 
 we find irregularities in this usage ; as in cemeres 
 for kemeres, 1123; krev for cref, 687 ; cen for 
 ken, D 1994. 
 
 There appears to be a trace of the Welsh aspi- 
 rate II, if I am right in supposing Behethlen, 
 2588, to be Bohellan ; to this I was led by the 
 equivalent Beheath-land, given in Pryce's list of 
 Cornish villages ; thl might be an attempt to re- 
 present the peculiar sound of the Welsh II. 
 
 No trace appears of the curious change of m 
 and n to bm and tin, the latter of which is so com- 
 mon in names of places in Cornwall, and in the 
 more recent MS. of the ' Creation/ It must have 
 crept in between 1450 and 1600, though it may 
 have existed in speaking at an earlier date. 
 
 The sound of s was probably like that of the 
 English s, varying to that of z when between 
 vowels, as in ' rose. 1 It is this last sound which I sup- 
 pose to be occasionally corrupted to g, as mentioned 
 before. Sh occurs in English words only, and is
 
 8 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 written sch or sh ; see sheft, O 2494, schapys, 
 2562. 
 
 7%, as in ' think,' is always so written in this 
 Grammar ; it is the aspirate form of t, as th is of d. 
 The frequent use of th instead of s shews that 
 the sound was not so definite as in English ; we 
 have grath, 6, instead of gras, " grace ; fath 
 for the English face, 1412; cowys, R 405, and 
 cowyth, R 410 ; sacrifyth, O 1519, and sacryfys, 
 O 1493. I 11 Natharet, D 301, for Nazareth, the 
 th is probably intended. The equivalent sound has 
 become a pure sibilant in Armoric, and is written z. 
 
 Ch is an English sound, and is used in words 
 borrowed from English, as chacys, "chased," 
 706; cherite, "charity," 1782; cher, "cheer." 
 D 1824; chyf, "chief," 2331. The sound must 
 have occurred in one genuine Celtic word chy, 
 " a house," which is written with a t in all other 
 Celtic languages. Ty is found in the ancient vo- 
 cabulary, but I think chy everywhere else. In D 
 334, if ow thy be the true reading, we have a 
 genuine case of ty with the proper mutation ; but 
 the dimculty of distinguishing c from t renders it 
 uncertain. Ch frequently occurs in the ancient 
 vocabulary where k is intended. 
 
 The sound of v is generally represented by that 
 letter, but it is also found not unfrequently ex- 
 pressed by/", as in Welsh ; unmistakeable instances 
 of this &re fenygough, "ye bless," D 2646 ; fynnaf, 
 " I will," D 2496 ; ynfras, " greatly," R 1098. 
 
 W appears to have had the English sound ; it is 
 not unfrequently confounded with u, particularly 
 after g. 
 
 Wh represents the Welsh chw, but it is often 
 confounded with w ; as in ivhylly, D 2101, wylly, 
 O 745, " thou mayest see."
 
 MUTATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 9 
 
 The consonantal sound of y is made usually by i, 
 and sometimes by a character frequently read z, 
 but certainly sounded y. We have such a character 
 in old English MSS., where we find zoung, zear, 
 sou ; it is often so printed in transcripts, but the 
 propriety of so transcribing is doubtful. 
 
 Z is not written, but is represented by s, as men- 
 tioned before. In one case alone have I found it, 
 2358 ; see the note on that line. 
 
 . 5. Mutations of Consonants. 
 
 In all the Celtic languages, many of the conso- 
 nants at the beginning of a word suffer changes 
 according to fixed rules, under certain grammatical 
 or euphonic conditions. In most of these changes 
 the Cornish coincides with the Welsh, in a few it 
 is more like the Armoric ; the fourth form, or nasal 
 change of the Welsh, is unknown. The surds p, 
 k, and t, have each two mutations, or three forms ; 
 the sonants b, g, and d have one mutation, or two 
 forms a ; m has the same change as 6. The other 
 letters are not subject to change. 
 
 The writers on Welsh grammar have given vari- 
 ous names to these several forms : what one writer 
 calls the soft form another calls light ; the same is 
 named aspirate by one and nasal by the other. I 
 therefore propose to call the radical letter the first, 
 and the two mutations, the second and the third 
 forms, as all are agreed upon the order in which 
 they come. When I wish to designate the form 
 which ought to follow any given word, I shall occa- 
 
 a The sonants have a second mutation, which will be no- 
 ticed presently ; but it is a return to the surd form, and is 
 not of the nature of the other changes. I would call it 
 negative.
 
 10 CORNISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 sionally put a little numeral over the word by way 
 of abbreviation ; writing for example oiv 3 , " my," 
 and y 2 , " his," to shew that the initial consonant of 
 the words following these possessive pronouns must 
 take the respective forms which the figures point 
 out. 
 
 The changes of the surd letters are precisely 
 those of the so-called tenues to mediae and aspiratae 
 in Greek grammar ; as TT, [3, <$>, &c. In Cornish 
 these are p, b,f; &, g, h; t, d, th. In the sonant 
 letters the one change is to what we may call the 
 aspirate sonant : b becomes v (bh), d becomes th 
 (dli), and g might have been, by analogy, made gh, 
 with a guttural sound, perhaps like that of the 
 Greek digamma ; but as gh was already employed 
 for the aspirate of c when final, and as moreover the 
 aspirate gh has in most languages shewn a ten- 
 dency to disappear, the g in this state is either left 
 out altogether, or changed to w, and more rarely 
 to wh t as in D 2156. In the same instances the 
 Welsh omits the g, and the Bretons write c'h, un- 
 less a w follow the g } in which case g is omitted, as 
 in "Welsh. M, like b, becomes v. In the sonant 
 letters the third form is like the first. 
 
 In accordance with the above described muta- 
 tions, we may form the following table : 
 
 i 2 3 
 
 P B F 
 
 K G H 
 
 T D Th 
 
 B V B 
 
 G W, or nothing G 
 
 D Th D 
 
 M V M 
 
 The cases of mutation will appear in the gram- 
 mar, but a few examples are here given :
 
 MUTATION OF CONSONANTS. 11 
 
 Ou 3 fehas (pehas), " my sins," 2257 ; y 2 das 
 (tas), " his father," 2740 ; y 2 vam (mam), " his 
 mother," 2740; agd* threys (treys), "their 
 feet," 760; ow 3 banneth, "my blessing,"" O 
 2168 ; y 2 volnogeth (bolnogetli), " his will,' 1 2352; 
 the 11 wovyn (govyri), " to ask/' D 2667 ; the ase 
 (gase), " to leave," D 2035. Once I find ch changed 
 to g : the gy (chy), " thy house," 1018. 
 
 The sonants 6, g, d, are also subject to take the 
 surd forms of p, k, t ; this initial mutation is un- 
 known to the Welsh tongue, but it is found in 
 Armoric ; Zeuss has named it provection. I mark 
 the words with which produce this change. Ex- 
 amples are, ow querthe (guerthe), " selling," D 
 1520; a pe (be), "if it were," R 1662 ; ou tos 
 (dos), " coming," O 1 65 1 ; mar kruge (gruge], " if I 
 do,"D 875 ; yn ta (da), " well," D 1905. We have 
 the singular form ou fysky (guysky), " striking," 
 1685. 
 
 In Cornish, as in Welsh and Armoric, the f suffers 
 no change. It seems however that in the latest 
 days of the existence of the language, a mutation 
 was made like that of b and m. Lhuyd mentions 
 an vordh, " the way," from forth, p. 241, as well 
 as a more peculiar change to h in the oblique case, 
 as a'n hloh, " of the child," from floh, p. 242. I 
 have not seen a trace of such mutations in the 
 manuscript. 
 
 In the Armoric, s is regularly changed to z. I 
 have found only one case of the change ; it occurs 
 in 2358. 
 
 Observe generally that the mutations are often 
 neglected in the manuscripts, and nothing must be 
 concluded from their absence. This is also the case 
 with ancient Welsh, Breton, and Irish writings, 
 though the practice is now to insert them regularly
 
 12 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 in every instance. It is most probable that they 
 were always used in speaking, however the writer 
 may have neglected to spell in accordance with the 
 pronunciation. 
 
 . 6. ARTICLES. 
 
 The definite Article is an (en) for all numbers 
 and genders ; as, an myghtern, " the king," R 104; 
 an venen, " the woman," 0516; anporthoiv, "the 
 gates," R 98. When it is in connection with a 
 preceding word ending with a vowel, the article 
 usually loses its own vowel, and the n is added to 
 the preceding word. In this work the n is divided 
 by an apostrophe, which is not found in the manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 The article has no inflection, but the cases are 
 made by prepositions: as en tas ha'n map ha'n 
 spyrys, " the Father and the Son and the Spirit," 
 4 : an mor ha'n tyryow, " the sea and the lands," 
 O 26 : tJie'n tas, " to the Father," D 626 : a'n nef, 
 "from the heaven," O 1319: war an kunys, 
 "upon the wood," 1333: the'n dor, "to the 
 ground," O 1448. 
 
 The indefinite article is un for both genders ; it 
 is rarely used. Ex. un map, "a son," 639; 
 worth un venen, " to a woman," 419. 
 
 . 7. SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 In Cornish, as in the other Celtic languages, a 
 substantive is either masculine or feminine : the 
 chief, though not the only grammatical distinction, 
 between masculine and feminine, is the change of
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 13 
 
 an initial consonant, when mutable, to one of the 
 second class, in a feminine substantive of the sin- 
 gular number. Examples are : un venen (beneri), 
 "a woman," 419 ; an venen, 0516; an dre 
 (tre), "the town," 2282; an wethen (gwethen), 
 "the tree," O 201; an bous (pous), "the robe," 
 R 1921-4. The same change distinguishes the 
 gender of an adjective used substantively ; as, an 
 casadow, m. 2119; an gasadow, f. 2691, 
 " the hated person." 
 
 Males and females have sometimes names of dif- 
 ferent origin, as den, " a man," benen, " a woman ;" 
 in many cases the name of the female differs from 
 that of the male by the addition of es ; as arluth, 
 "lord," D 1957, arlothes, "lady," 1)1965; py- 
 stryor, "a wizard," D 1767, pestryores, "a witch," 
 O 2668 ; cowyth, " a male companion," O 2043, 
 cowethes, " a female companion," 92 ; maw , " a 
 boy/' D 1794, mowes, "a girl/' D 1876. 
 
 . 8. Plural 
 
 The plural number has many forms ; one of the 
 commonest ends in ow : the Welsh au, Breton ou. 
 A few examples follow : 
 
 tassow, fathers, O 1409 from tas, O i. 
 
 dornow, hands, 01390 .. dorn, R 2178. 
 
 roow, gifts, O 2314, 2598 . . ro, O 2467. 
 
 fosow, walls, O 2320 .. fos, O 2281. 
 
 scovornow, ears, D 1361 . . scoforn, D 1144. 
 
 Icentrow, nails, D 2698 . . kenter, D 2676. 
 
 dewow, gods, O 2692 . . deu, O 2564. 
 
 lyfryow, books, D 78, 101 . . levyr, D 1157. 
 
 enevow, souls, D 144 . . enef, D 1753. 
 
 trevow, towns, D 132 . . ire (Welsh, tref.) 
 
 tyryow, lands O 26 . . tyr, D 392.
 
 14 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 A very common termination for plurals of per- 
 sonal words is ion : Welsh ion, Breton ien. These 
 generally change the final vowel : 
 
 Mebyon, sons, O 1038 from map, R 933. 
 guesyon, fellows, D 1299 . . guas, R 1824. 
 yethewon, Jews, D 2013 . . yethow, D 2003. 
 
 ^ } 
 marrouggyon, do. Oi039/ 
 
 Some adjectives used as substantives take the 
 same form : 
 
 kefyon, wise persons, D 10261 f , Q 
 
 cufyon, .......... Dio75/ 
 
 gueryon, true men, D 1305 from guyr, R 977. 
 
 Also some common nouns : 
 
 prevyon, reptiles, O 1160. 
 govegyon, sorrows, D 1062. 
 empynyon, brains, D 2120. 
 marthogyon, wonders, O 2546. 
 
 We have also laddron, "thieves," D 2255, from 
 lader, D 1174. 
 
 Many plurals end in y : this form is also found 
 in Welsh and Armoric, but not so frequently : 
 
 ysyly, limbs, D 1733. 
 
 esely . . O 2735. 
 
 mowysy, maids, D 944. mowes, D 1876. 
 
 anfugy, sins ? 01473. anfus, D 1501. 
 
 profugy, prophets, D 1480. pro/us, D 1465. 
 
 servysy, servants, O 235. 
 
 guythysy, guards, O 2038. 
 
 arlythy, lords D 1900. arluth, D 393. 
 
 mestrygy, masters Diyii.-, ^^ D fi 
 mestrigi, . . D 1047. J 
 
 In some words the plural is the stem, and the 
 singular adds the syllable en, which is here an indi- 
 vidualizing particle.
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 15 
 
 delen, a leaf, deyl, leaves, O 254 ; also dylyow, O 777. 
 gryghonen, a spark, D 2717, guryghon, sparks, D 2101. 
 guelen, a rod, O 1444, gueel, rods, O 1957. 
 guethen, a tree, O 186, gueyth, trees, O 28. 
 luhesen, a flash of lightning, R 293, luhes, lightnings, 
 R296. 
 
 In Armoric, nouns denoting the condition of men, 
 as well as names of animals, form their plural by- 
 adding ed. In Cornish the d has become s as 
 usual, and more rarely th : 
 
 eleth, angels, R 190 from el, R 787. 
 
 myrhes, daughters, O 1038 "1 i, r\ * 
 
 * l>. myrgh,Q2lz6. 
 myrghes, D 2639 J 
 
 benenes, women, O 2247 . . benen, O 256. 
 
 JfeAes, children, O 1036 j flogh)O So6. 
 
 flehas, O 1031 ; fleghas, D 1924 J 
 
 abesteleth, apostles, R 893. 
 
 bredereth, brethren, 0714"! ,, ~ 
 
 ' * }-. . broder, O 525. 
 brudereth, .... D 1430 J 
 
 puskes, fishes, O 43 . . pyslc, O 139. 
 
 bestes, beasts, 0312 .. best, O 798. 
 
 syllyes, eels, O 136. 
 
 Many words have plurals formed by a change of 
 vowel only ; this is evidently the umlaut, the Cor- 
 nish application of which is described in . 3. Thus 
 we have 
 
 trys, D 835, treys, D 2937, feet, from trous, D 860, 
 
 tros, D 2781. 
 
 meyn, stones, D 62 from men, D 3211. 
 
 breder, brothers, R 1163 . . broder, O 525. 
 deves, sheep, O 1065 . . daves, O 127. 
 
 mergh, horses, 61065 .. margh, O 124. 
 tel, holes, D 3174 . . tol, D 3170. 
 
 escarn, bones, 0*743! o^corn, R 2598. 
 yscarn, D 3173-* 
 
 Some end in n : 
 
 kuen, dogs, R 172 from ky, R 2026. 
 
 lysten, cloths, O 808. 
 
 hynwyn, names O 135 from hanow, R 1669.
 
 16 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Words from the English generally take s in the 
 plural : 
 
 persons, O no, persons. 
 
 onours, D 1627, honours. 
 
 scryptours, D 1673, scriptures. 
 
 doctours, D 1626, doctors. 
 
 syres, D 1471, sirs. 
 
 skorgys, whyppys, D 2056, scourges, whips. 
 
 chaynys, D 2060, chains. 
 
 .9. What the Welsh and Breton grammarians 
 call the dual number, viz. a compound of the nu- 
 meral with the noun, used only in the case of parts 
 of the body which are double, is common in Cornish. 
 Example: dyulef, D 2375, dule, D 2163, "the 
 hands," from luef. " hand," D 2755 5 dywscoth, D 
 3068, duscoth, D 2583, " the shoulders," from 
 scouth, D 658; dywvregh, D 3 159, "the arms,'' from 
 break, D 2753 ; dewlagas, " the eyes," D. 396 ; 
 dewlyn, 61196, deuglyn, D. 247, "the knees,' 1 
 &c. &c. 
 
 When such parts of the body are mentioned as 
 belonging to more than one person, a plural is 
 used, as dornow, " hands, 11 D 1390 ; also lagasow, 
 R 1492, " the eyes" of two men. 
 
 . 10. Cases. 
 
 With the exception of the genitive, all the cases 
 are formed, as in English, by prepositions ; as, 
 the vyghtern David, " to king David," 1929 ; yn 
 Araby, *' in Arabia, 11 O 1930 ; a'n pen, " from the 
 head," D 1743; a dre, "from home, 1 ' 02172; 
 the'n tas, "to the father, 11 O 2619. 
 
 The genitive of attribution, such as might be 
 rendered by an adjective, is, I think, usually made 
 by a 2 ; as, Arluth a ras, " Lord of grace," R 767, 
 i. e. gracious Lord ; Tas a nef, " Father of heaven, 11
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 17 
 
 " heavenly Father ;" myghtern a gallos, " king of 
 power," R 834, powerful king. This is also the 
 form of an ablative case ; as, a'y thywle, " from his 
 hands," 03153. But the ordinary genitive is made 
 by apposition only, always following the chief sub- 
 stantive ; as, myghtern yethewon, " King of the 
 Jews," D 1 998 ; mob den, " Son of man," 1 950 ; 
 coys Penryn, " wood of Penryn," 2589 ; taves 
 den, " tongue of man," O 767. Sometimes the 
 genitive suffers a mutation for no reason that I am 
 aware of, as, pen vys (mys), " the end of a month," 
 D 1646 ; pen vyghterneth (myghterneth], "head 
 of royalty," R 3 13. 
 
 I think I have been in error in printing the 
 genitive with the article a'n instead of an. I did 
 not at first see the difference between the genitive 
 of attribution and the ordinary genitive, and there- 
 fore put a'n indiscriminately ; I now should write 
 deu <n nef, " God of the heaven," 480, i. e. 
 " heavenly God," but cusil an tas, " counsel of the 
 father," O 188. 
 
 . 1 1 . One of the most interesting peculiarities 
 of the Cornish language, which distinguishes it 
 from the cognate Welsh and Armoric and connects 
 it with the Gaelic dialects, is the possession of a 
 really inflected genitive case formed by internal 
 vocalic change, of precisely the same nature as the 
 Irish genitive. It is true that I find no example of 
 this genitive in the ancient Manuscripts, but it cer- 
 tainly existed in the modern Cornish a century 
 and half ago, when Lhuyd wrote his Archaeologia 
 Britannica. The passage shewing this case is found 
 at p. 242, and I quote it here : 
 
 " They used formerly, and do yet in several 
 words, a variation of vowel (whether the first or 
 the only one) in the genitive case, &c.
 
 18 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Particularly a, I find changed into e ; as Mark, 
 A horse ; Ren verh, Horse mane ; Buzl verh, Horse 
 dung ; and e into i, y, or ey : as Merh, A daughter ; 
 An vyrh, Of the daughter ; Pen, A head ; Er dha 
 byn, Against thee, q. d. On thy head ; And Er 
 agas pyn huy, Against you ; Huel, Work ; Mein 
 hueyl, Work stones, or stones for Building ; Kres, 
 The midst ; In Tcreys an dre, In the midst of the 
 Town." 
 
 Now this is precisely the Gaelic genitive, as 
 found in the oldest Irish relics, and in the language 
 now spoken ; pyn, genitive of pen, is equivalent in 
 form and meaning to cinn, genitive of ceann ; mark, 
 genitive merh, is like clann, genitive clainn ; Jcres, 
 genitive kreys, is equal to ean, genitive ein. 
 
 In the compound preposition erbyn(hom er peri), 
 " against,"" a trace of this change is found even in 
 Welsh, though the Welsh grammarians do not 
 notice it. Lhuyd was led to the discovery of the 
 nature of this compound preposition by finding its 
 parts separated in the Cornish manuscripts, and a 
 governed pronoun inserted between them, though 
 he says nothing of its analogy to his own language, 
 or to Irish. A Cornish man would say erbyn haf, 
 " against summer," O 31, as it is in Welsh; but he 
 would say er owfyn, " against me," R 1919, 2573 ; 
 er the byn, " against thee, 11 O 1350 ; er y byn, 
 " against him," D 232 ; er agan pyn, " against us," 
 D 1663 ; er agas pyn, " against you," D 1 80 ; and 
 er agafyn, " against them/' P. 96. 4, with the re- 
 gular initial changes, shewing the nature of the 
 substantive. 
 
 The ancient Irish is perfectly analogous, though the 
 modern dialect does not appear to have retained it 
 so closely ; ar chenn, literally " to the head," means 
 " in front of," or " against ;" ar mo chiunn, is "be-
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 19 
 
 fore me ;" ar a chiunn, "before him ;" ar ar chiunn, 
 "before us," &c. &c. See Zeuss, pp. 577 and 618. 
 
 I have dwelled on this genitive at greater length 
 than might seem called for, because it is the only 
 trace of a declension in the Cymric class of lan- 
 guages, and is decidedly opposed to the theory that 
 cases were developed in Gaelic after the separation 
 of the two families ; it impugns also the classification 
 which denies to the Cymric the character of an 
 Indo-germanic tongue, on the grounds of the sup- 
 posed non-development of declension. 
 
 A substantive preceding another in the genitive 
 case never takes the article: as map deu, "the 
 Son of God," D 1951 ; both ow thas (tas), " the will 
 of my Father," R 157 ; gos ow holon (colon], " the 
 blood of my heart," R 1 66 ; gorfen beys, " the end 
 of the world," D 1704. 
 
 . 12. The dative case is formed by the 12 , or the 
 with the second form ; as the dre (tre), " to town," 
 O 906 ; the gyk (%&), " to flesh ;" the ways (goys), 
 " to blood," O 66. 
 
 The ablative also takes the second form, as 
 a vaghtyth (maghtyth), " from a virgin," D 3027. 
 
 The vocative preceded by a personal pronoun or 
 by , takes also the second form : as, a vap (map), 
 "O son," 01336; a vam (mam), "0 mother," 
 D 2949 ; ty venen (beneri), " thou woman," R 917 ; 
 ty vaow (maoui), "thou boy," O 2317. 
 
 . 13. Derivation of Substantives. 
 
 Abstract substantives are derived from adjectives 
 by adding ter after a surd consonant, and der after 
 other letters :
 
 20 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. dader, goodness, D 1296 from da, good. 
 
 guyrder, truth, 61732 .. guyr, true. 
 
 ffuander, weakness, D 2618 . . guan, weak. 
 
 yender, coldness, D 1223 . . yen, cold. 
 
 ffolowder, brilliancy, O 1413 . . golow, light. 
 tekter, beauty, D 33 . . lek, beautiful. 
 
 whekter, sweetness, O 359 . . whek, sweet. 
 
 uthekter, horror, D 2653 . . uthyk, frightful, 
 R 2340, uthek, O 798. 
 melder, sweetness, R 457 . . mel, honey. 
 
 Adjectives in s, anciently ending with t, recover 
 the t in becoming substantives ; as, 
 
 caletter, hardness, O 1524, from coles, hard, O 1525, 
 
 0927. 
 goscotter, shelter, O 361, is the probable reading from 
 
 ffuskys, O 356, the Welsh gwasgod. 
 ponvolter, trouble, O 363, from ponvos, R 1327, but 
 
 these two examples are hardly regular, the roots 
 
 having rather the value of substantives. 
 
 Other abstract substantives take eth or neth & , 
 but their simpler form is more commonly a sub- 
 stantive : 
 
 guyryoneth, truth, D 2029 from guyryon, true men. 
 
 cosoleth, rest, 01725 .. cosel, O 2073. 
 skentuleth, wisdom, D 1809. 
 bolungeth, will, D 2053. 
 
 myghterneth, royalty, R 313 myghtern, a king. 
 
 folneth, folly, R 961 . . fol, R 953, a fool. 
 
 gokyneth, stupidity, D 1808 .. ffoky, O 1 73, a fool. 
 
 muscoffhneth, madness, D 1990 .. muscok, crazed, 0961. 
 
 gowegneth, falsehood, R 906 . . gowek, a liar, R 55. 
 
 roweth, bounty, O 884 . . ro, a gift, O 2467. 
 
 Abstract substantives derived from verbs com- 
 monly end in ans : 
 
 a Welsh and Armoric analogy would require eth, but 
 Lhuyd wrote always eth. See his Grammar, p. 240.
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 21 
 
 crygyans, belief, D 1813 from crygy. 
 
 yyvyans, forgiveness, D 1816 .. gafa. 
 dysquythyans, declaration, O 1733 .. dysqmthya. 
 gorthyans, worship, 01738 .. gorthe. 
 
 bewnans, life, O 848 "1 7, . v 
 
 Y . . oewe, to Lve. 
 bewnens, . . O 701 J 
 
 mernans, death, O 1522 . . maruel. 
 
 sylwans, salvation, O 1958 . . sylwel. 
 
 sylwyans, .. R 2611. 
 
 trystyns, sadness, D 1023. 
 
 Arlottes, "a lordship," D 1614, is from arluth, 
 " a lord ;" wythres, " a work," or thing made, O 
 1069, 1853, from wyth, "the doing," 2572, 
 D 3029, is analogous to the Welsh gwaith and 
 gweithred. 
 
 A substantive signifying a doer is sometimes 
 made by adding or to a verb or noun, as tyor, " a 
 tiler," O 2486, from ty, " to cover," O 2475. See 
 also pystryor, "a wizard," D 1767, from pystry, 
 "sorcery," D 1765. 
 
 In the ancient vocabulary several such names of 
 agency end in iad or iat. Similar forms become 
 in the dramas guy thy as, " a keeper," 692 ; syl- 
 vyas. "a saviour," D 252, R 307. 
 
 We have a termination va in powesva, " rest," 
 0145; cofva, "remembrance," D 827, and dy- 
 wethva, "end," D 728. 
 
 It may be given as a rule without exception, that 
 words ending with t 6r d in Welsh or Breton, do, 
 if they exist in Cornish, turn t or d to s ; and this 
 whether genuine Celtic, or borrowed from Latin or 
 English ; as, nans, *' a valley ;" goys, " blood ;" 
 gwyls, " grass ;" guyns, " wind ;" ros, " net ;" 
 pons, " bridge ;" tas, " father ;" spyrys, " spirit," 
 corresponding with nant, gwaed, gwellt, gwynt, 
 rhwyd, pont, tad, yspryd.
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 .14. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The adjective usually follows the substantive, 
 and if the latter be a feminine singular, the ad- 
 jective takes the second form, when the initial is 
 mutable. Examples are, " gobar bras, " great re- 
 ward, 1 ' R 672; mor ruyth, " red sea, 11 O 1622; 
 merkyl tek, " fair miracle," O 1450 ; luef gleih 
 (cleth), " left hand," D 2747 ; cusyl tha {da), 
 " good advice, 11 O 2802 ; benen vas (mas), " good 
 woman," R 1697. In guyr vres, " true judgment," 
 D 5 15, and guyr gos, " true blood," D 1506, the 
 adjective precedes. 
 
 According to Lhuyd, p. 243, an adjective with y 
 for its vowel was made feminine by changing y to 
 e ; as, guyn, m. guen, f. " white ;" melyn, m. tne- 
 len, f. "yellow." I do not know sufficiently the 
 genders of nouns, and adjectives are not of very 
 frequent occurrence, so that I have not noticed the 
 change ; but it is consistent with Welsh Grammar. 
 
 The comparative and superlative degrees both 
 end in a (e) without distinction ; as, brasa, " great- 
 er," from bras, D 793 ; uhella, " highest," D 
 2189, from uhel, 805; or lelle, "more faith- 
 ful," i in, from lei. The finals ch and f(m), 
 which make a difference between the degrees in 
 Welsh and Armoric, have disappeared in Cornish, 
 though in the last days of its existence Lhuyd added 
 an apostrophe or h to shew the comparative. The 
 adjective in these stages appears to come rather 
 before than after the substantive. Example: 
 Uhella arloth, " most high Lord." D 2189 ; gokye 
 den, "most foolish man," Ri454; lacka mester, 
 "a worse master, 11 D 2275 ; lelle ethen, "more
 
 NUMBERS. 23 
 
 faithful bird," 1 1 1 1 ; tekke alter, " a fairer altar," 
 O 1177 ; brasa gallos, " greatest power," D 793 ; 
 guel guyn, " better wine," 1914 ; but we find also 
 ffuyn guella, " best wine," 1904 ; dyllas guella, 
 " best clothes," D 256. 
 
 " Than" after a comparative is made by ys, es, or 
 ages. Example : whekke ys mel, " sweeter than 
 honey," R 144 ; moy es spencer, " greater than a 
 butler," D 802 ; teke ages kyns, " fairer than be- 
 fore," D 348. 
 
 Some comparatives appear to have no root ex- 
 tant ; as, guel or guella, " better ;" gueth, " worse," 
 R 2026, and perhaps guetha, 01130; moy, O 
 1414 ; mogha, D 510 ; moghya, 0513; moghye, 
 D 514, " more or most," and perhaps a few more. 
 
 Adjectives are often made from substantives by 
 the addition of ek or yk. Examples are : 
 
 gallosek, R 752, powerful, from gallos, O 1214. 
 
 ounek, D 2158, fearful, .. oun, O 1452. 
 
 lowenek, R 1333, joyful, . . lowene, D 574. 
 
 marthusek R 1176, wonderful, .. marthys, O 756. 
 
 morethek, D 3187, mournful, . . moreth, O 358. 
 
 ponfosyk, R 1256, troubled, . . ponfos, R 1327. 
 
 anfusyk, R 1520, mischievous, . . an/us, D 1501. 
 wJiansek, D 37, desirous, . . whans, O 1806. 
 
 dyscrygyk, R 1369, incredulous, from the verb crygy, 
 to believe. 
 
 .15. NUMBERS. 
 
 The following list of cardinal numbers is partly 
 from the Manuscripts, and where no authority is 
 cited, from the list published by Pryce ; the words 
 between brackets are intended as corrections of
 
 24 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the loose forms given in Pryce's list, made by the 
 analogies of Welsh and Armoric. 
 
 1. un, D. 160, 446, with a substantive. 
 onan, O 3. onon, R 1403, alone. 
 
 2. deu, D 2577. dyw, O 1690. dew, R 315. 
 
 3. try, m. R 374, 870. 
 
 tyr, f. O 828. tyyr, f. O 1729. ter, f. D 147. 
 
 4. peswar, m. R 563. 
 pedyr, f. O 772. 
 
 5. pymp, D 505. pym, R 867. 
 
 6. wAe, D 351. 
 
 7. seyA, O 599. syA, R 2494. 
 
 8. eath, (eyth.) 
 
 9. naw, R 661. 
 
 10. dek, D 574. 
 
 11. ednack, (unnek.) 
 
 12. dewthek, D 228. 
 
 13. tardhak, trethek. 
 
 14. puzwarthack, (peswar thek.) 
 
 15. pymthek, P. 228, i. 
 
 1 6. huettag, whettak, (whethek.) 
 
 17. seitag, (seytek.) 
 
 1 8. caffl^r, (eythek.) 
 
 19. nawnzack, (naunthek.) 
 
 20. iganz, (ugens.) 
 
 21. wonnan war iganz, (onan war ugens.) 
 
 30. dek warnugens, D sg^. dek warnugans, 01554. 
 
 40. e?ew ugens, D 45. rfew hugens, R 2437. 
 
 46. rfew w^rews ^a wAe, D 351. 
 
 50. rf$7 fea duganz, (dek ha deugans) 
 or hauler cans, O 957. 
 
 60. n iganz, (try ugens}, P 227, 3. 
 
 70. (?ry M^rens Aa deA:.) 
 
 80. padgwar iganz, (peswar ugens.) 
 
 90. padgwar iganz ha dek, (peswar ugens ha dek) 
 100. cans, D 506. can, R 515. 
 200. dew cans, O 657. 
 300. try cans, D 536. trey hans, O 1996. 
 
 fry hans, O 955. 
 500. pymp cans, D 505. 
 700. si/JA cans, R 2494. 
 900. naw cans, C. p. 142.
 
 NUMBERS. 25 
 
 1000. myl, D 212. R 348. 
 
 dek can, D 574. 
 5000. pymp myl, P 227, 2. 
 7000. syth myl, R 2494. 
 100,000. cans vyl, O 1614. 
 1,000,000. myl vyl, R 132. 
 mylyon, R 2258. 
 
 It will be observed that the awkward composition 
 of numbers between ten and fifteen used in Welsh 
 is avoided in Cornish as it is in Armoric ; though 
 it is retained in numbers above twenty. The sin- 
 gular Welsh mode of making the numbers between 
 fifteen and twenty is unknown here. The Cornish 
 has retained the distinction of genders in the nu- 
 merals three and four, but in " two" it seems to 
 have been lost, though retained in Welsh and 
 Armoric. 
 
 We have the plural of myl in the Creation, p. 54, 
 moy es millyow a bynsow, " more than thousands 
 of pounds." 
 
 Substantives following the numerals are put in 
 the singular number ; as, naw ahveth, " nine keys/' 
 II 66 1 ; deu ladar, "two thieves," D 2577; dew 
 ugens dyth, "forty days,' 1 O 1027. 
 
 When numbers are compounded, the substantive 
 is placed after the first ; as, dew ugens blythen ha 
 whe, "forty and six years/' D 351. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, after the earlier ones, are 
 formed by adding ves to the cardinals; ves is 
 clearly the Armoric ved and Welsh fed; it may 
 have been a corruption of guyth, "a time/' in 
 Welsh gwaith. 
 
 ist. kensa, D 795. 
 2nd. secund, O 17. 
 
 nessa in Pryce's list. 
 
 3rd. tresse, O 25. trege, R 339. tryge, R 452. 
 4th. peswere, O 33. pyswere, D 2851. 
 5th. pympes, O 41.
 
 26 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6th. whefes, O 49. 
 7th. seythves, O 144. 
 8th. eathas, (eythves.) 
 pth. nawas. 
 loth, degves, O 426. 
 
 All the rest have vas in the lists ; the analogy of 
 the Welsh and Armoric, and the seythves of the 
 MS. for seithvas of the list, show ves to be the true 
 form. 
 
 . 16. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns may be practically considered 
 as indeclinable ; it is true that some of them have 
 two forms, but the second of these is not so much 
 that of an accusative case, as a changed form re- 
 quired by position in respect to its regimen ; in the 
 same way the French moi and toi are not so much 
 the accusative cases of je and tu, as the forms used 
 when they are less closely connected with a verb 
 than those called exclusively nominatives ; it is true 
 that je and tu are nominatives, and that moi and 
 toi are generally accusatives ; but these are also 
 sometimes nominatives, and this is the case with 
 Cornish personal pronouns. These two forms I 
 would name the first and second states. When 
 personal pronouns follow certain particles ending 
 with vowels, they are abbreviated and otherwise 
 altered ; this I would call a third state : when con- 
 nected with a preposition, they are also abbre- 
 viated, but in a different way, which may be termed
 
 PRONOUNS. 27 
 
 a fourth state. It will be more intelligible if all the 
 forms be put together in a table, to which it will be 
 convenient to add the possessive pronoun, because 
 the strictly personal pronouns sometimes put on the 
 possessive form. 
 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 possess. 
 
 I 
 
 my, me 
 
 vy 
 
 'M 
 
 '/,' 
 
 ow; 3 
 
 Thou 
 
 ty 
 
 sy,gy 
 
 'd, 'th 
 
 's 
 
 Me2 
 
 He 
 
 ef 
 
 ef,e 
 
 'n 
 
 'o 
 
 y2 
 
 She 
 
 hy 
 
 hy,y 
 
 's 
 
 'y 
 
 y* 
 
 We 
 
 ny 
 
 ny 
 
 'n 
 
 'n 
 
 agan 
 
 You 
 
 why 
 
 why 
 
 's 
 
 'ugh 
 
 agas 
 
 They 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 's 
 
 'e 
 
 aga s 
 
 When a personal pronoun is used alone, or when 
 it is the subject of a verb, it is put in the first 
 state: as, 
 
 my a vyn, I will, O 2283. 
 
 me re goskes, I have slept, R 511. 
 
 ha my ynno ef, and I in him, R 2387. 
 
 ty yu, thou art, R 751. 
 
 a ty lacob, O thou James, R 1007. 
 
 ty re wruk, thou hast done, O 2243. 
 
 ty ha'th wrek, thee and thy wife, D 685. 
 
 ef a vyn, he will, O 2427. 
 
 ef hag ol, he and all, D 636. 
 
 hy a torse, she would break, O 2174. 
 
 ny a'n tregh, we will cut it, O 2533. 
 
 why a'n pren, you shall pay it, R 621. 
 
 why losels, you rogues, D 2589. 
 
 y a'n guanas, they pierced him, R 1117. 
 
 Hy sometimes stands for the neuter, where in English 
 we should use ' it ;' as, kyns hy bos nos, " before it be 
 night," O 2769. 
 
 When the personal pronouns come after verbs, 
 they take the second state ; in most of the following 
 examples they come after imperatives : as, 
 
 gas vy, let me, O 2703. 
 guyth vy, preserve me, R 1564. 
 
 C 2
 
 28 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the naghe gy, to deny thee, R 1156. 
 
 kychough ef, catch him, D 1007. 
 
 gorreugh ef, put him, R 2077. 
 
 synsew e, hold him, D 1086. 
 
 lath e, kill him, D 2356. 
 
 hertheugh hy, thrust her, R 2295. 
 
 lath ny, kill us, O 972. 
 
 na blamyowg ny, do not blame us, R 649. 
 
 ffor y, put them, O 334. 
 
 gura y, make them, D 2674. 
 
 In the following examples they follow verbs used 
 as conditionals or subjunctives, or they are used by 
 way of emphasis, or perhaps merely from the neces- 
 sities of metre : as, 
 
 ny welafvy, I do not see, R 1962. 
 
 ma thyllyfvy, that I go, R 182. 
 
 may fy the gy, that thou mayest be, O 1327. 
 
 prag y whruste sy, why didst thou? O 277. 
 
 may tebbro ef, that he may eat, O 200. 
 
 bysmay cothe hy, until she fall, O 2718. 
 
 fat el wrussyn ny, how that we did, R 1341. 
 
 dun ny, let us go, O 2325. 
 
 ny wreugh why, ye do not, O 317. 
 
 may fewg why, that ye may be, O 1163. 
 
 may fens y, that they may be, O 1833. 
 
 may fans y, that they may be, O 2424. 
 
 When the personal pronoun is the object of a 
 verb in the indicative or subjunctive mood, in which 
 case the verb is usually preceded by a particle 
 ending with a vowel, the pronoun is abbreviated as 
 in the third column, and affixed to the particle, 
 making one word with it. In this book the particle 
 is separated from the pronoun by an apostrophe for 
 the guidance of the reader, as is done in Welsh, 
 though no such division is found in the Manuscripts. 
 Examples : 
 
 del y'm kyrry, as thou lovest me, O 2403. 
 aban y'm sawyas, since he healed me, O 1774.
 
 PRONOUNS. 29 
 
 me a'th cusyl, I advise thee, R 1130. 
 
 my a'dpys, I pray thee, O 2521. 
 
 an laddron a'n dyalas, the thieves mocked him, R 1426. 
 
 ha re'n dros, and hast brought him, O 282. 
 
 my ny'n guylys, I did not see him, D 1286. 
 
 my a's guy sk, I will strike her, O 2709. 
 
 my a's henow, I name her, O 1 14. 
 
 hag a'n doro, and will bring us, O 225. 
 
 re'n sawye, may it save us, O 1088. 
 
 mar a's guel, if he see you, D 1003. 
 
 my a's gueres, I will cure you, O 2017. 
 
 me a's ygor, I will open them, R 638. 
 
 mar ny's cafaf, if I find them not, R 647. 
 
 homma re's holhas, she has washed them, D 520. 
 
 There is an indeterminateness about the pronouns 
 in this state, n signifying " him" as well as " us," 
 and s belonging to three different persons ; this 
 has probably led writers in most cases to take the 
 possessive forms, either directly or with some modi- 
 fication, in the first and second persons plural ; as, 
 ef a gan formyas, " he created us," R 2430 ; a 
 gan gruk, "who made us all," R 1975; y gen 
 lowenhas, " he gladdened us," R 1444 ; my a gas 
 pys, " I pray you," O 2346 ; re ges bo, " be it on 
 you," 2585 ; ma gys byth, " that there be to 
 you," 348. 
 
 When a personal pronoun comes before a verb as 
 its complement, without such particle as is men- 
 tioned in the preceding paragraph, it takes the 
 form of the possessive. Examples : 
 
 re ruk ow tholle (tolle), hath deceived me, O 286. 
 
 the rewardye my a ra, I will reward thee, O 2310. 
 
 me ny fynnaf y grygy (crygy\ I will not believe it, R 
 
 1047. 
 
 greugh y tenne, do ye drag him, R 2232. 
 worth hy thempte (temple), to tempt her, O 303. 
 hyfrenne (prenne), to take it, R 2234. 
 worth agan dry alemma, for carrying us hence, R 151.
 
 30 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ef a ruk agan dyfen, he did forbid us, O 182. 
 agan cuthe guren, let us cover ourselves, O 254. 
 pan wruge ages danvon, when I did send you, 0913. 
 war beyn agas bos lethys, on pain that you be killed, 
 
 O 2556. 
 
 my a vyn aga threhy (trehy), I will cut them, O 1735. 
 ago guelas o trueth, to see them was pitiful, R 899. 
 
 These pronouns may in fact be considered as 
 possessives, coming as they do before infinitives, 
 which are really verbal nouns. 
 
 .17. Pronouns with Prepositions. 
 
 Many prepositions coalesce with the pronouns 
 which they govern, forming with them one word. 
 In this case some euphonic artifice is used to unite 
 the two elements into a well-sounding compound : a 
 consonant is doubled or omitted, or a syllable is 
 added, and the vowels undergo the changes de- 
 scribed in .3. I give here examples of the various 
 modes ; and it will be seen that the pronouns are 
 represented in these compounds by the following 
 letters: m or/, "me;" s, "thee;" o, "him;" y, 
 "her;" n, "us;" ugh, "you;" e, "them," as 
 given in the fourth column of the table in the pre- 
 ceding section. 
 
 The prepositions exemplified are yn, " in ;" rag, 
 " for, before ;" dre, " by, through ;" gans, " by, 
 with;" war, "upon;" a, "from;" the, "to;" 
 orth or worth, "towards." 
 
 yn, in. rag, for, before. 
 
 ynnof, in me, R 707. ragof, for me, O 139. 
 
 ynnos, in thee, R 757. ragos, for thee, O 260. 
 
 ynno, in him, D 2157. ragtho, for him, R 1251. 
 
 ynny, in her, D 2164. ragthy, for her. 
 
 ynnon, in us, R 1321. ragon, for us, D 174.
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 31 
 
 ynnough, in you. 
 
 ynne, in them, O 2457. 
 
 dre, by, through. 
 
 drethof, by me, O 134. 
 dr ethos, by thee, R 2220. 
 dretho, by him, R 1756. 
 dry thy, by her, O 1668. 
 drethon, by us. 
 drethough, by you. 
 drethe, by them, O 1958. 
 
 ragough, for you, D 27. 
 ragthe, for them, O 2456. 
 
 ro^ras in O 1723, 1724, D 
 265, &c. has certainly no- 
 thing to do with ray, but 
 is contracted from re agas. 
 
 gans, by, with. 
 
 genef, by or with me, O 2192. 
 genes, . . with thee, O 2169. 
 ganso, . . with him, R 744. 
 gynsy, . , with her, O 2764. 
 genen, . . with us, O 2378. 
 geneugh,,. with you, R 1797. 
 ganse, .. with them, O 1613. 
 
 gynef, D 564. gynen, Ri347- 
 genaf, O 672. genogh, D 184. 
 gynes, D 191. gansse, 01373. 
 
 war, upon. 
 
 warnaf, upon me, O 1344. 
 warnas, upon thee, O 1015. 
 warnotho, upon him, O 1539. 
 warnethy, upon her, O 775. 
 warnan, upon us, O 1700. 
 warnough, upon you, R 1535. 
 warnethe, upon them, D 2686. 
 
 warnogh, D 2626. 
 
 thym, 
 
 thys, 
 
 thotho, 
 
 thethy, 
 
 thyn, 
 
 theugh, 
 
 thethe, 
 
 the, to. 
 
 O 2286. 
 R 1473. 
 O 2500. 
 O 2755. 
 R 1483. 
 D 2500. 
 O 1824. 
 
 a, from, of. 
 
 ahanaf, from me, 
 ahanas, from thee, 
 anotho, from him, 
 anethy, from her, 
 ahanan, from us, 
 ahanough, from you, 
 annethe, from them, 
 
 ahanes, O 406. 
 annotho, O 200. 
 annethy, O 218. 
 
 dym, D 741, to me. 
 dys, O 1969, to thee. 
 dotho, R 1445, to him. 
 dethy, D 2202, to her. 
 dyn, R 2361, to us. 
 deugh, to you. 
 
 dethe, R 2600, to them. 
 
 D 306. 
 R 1408. 
 R743. 
 0923. 
 O 1101. 
 R 1500. 
 1952. 
 
 thyugh, O 2399, theygh, D 4; thy, D 2246, dy, D 124.
 
 32 CORXISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 worth, orth, at, to, against. 
 
 worthy/, O 170. orthyf, O 2524, to me. 
 
 worthys, R 1570. orthys, to thee. 
 
 worto, O 222. orto, R 1343, to him. 
 
 worty, O 293, 03069. orfy, O 2173, to her. 
 
 worthy n, R 1211. orthyn, O 212, to us. 
 
 worthough, R 1171. ortheugh, R 195, to you. 
 
 toorfe, O 2476. orte, to them. 
 
 Some of these forms receive an additional syl- 
 lable, either by way of emphasis, or for filling up a 
 line ; we have thymmo, 2256, or thymo, 2333, 
 "to me;" thyso, 2433, or dyso, 2191, "to 
 thee ;" thynny, " to us," R 626. Sometimes the 
 pronoun is repeated in the second state, as thymmo 
 vy, R 446 ; thyso gy, O 2246 ; dyso sy, O 842 ; 
 ynno ef, R 2387 ; worty hy } 269 ; thynny ny, 
 R 568 ; theugwhy why, 02209; annethe y, O 
 1952. 
 
 .18. Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 These pronouns are placed in the last column of 
 the table in p. 27, but are repeated here for con- 
 venience : ow*, " my ;" the 11 , " thy ;" y*-, " his ;" 
 y 3 , " her ;" agan, " our ;" agas, " your ;" ago?, 
 " their ;" and the pronoun of the second state may 
 or may not follow the noun. 
 
 ou thermyn (termyn), my time, O 2344. 
 
 owferyl (peryl) vy, my peril, O 197. 
 
 the vap (map), thy son, O 2341. 
 
 y gorf (corf), his body, O 2367. 
 
 y voth (both) ef, his will, O 483. 
 
 y feghas (peghas), her sins, D 528. 
 
 hy huth (cuth) hy, her affliction, O 297. 
 
 agan lef, our voice, O 2027. 
 
 agan arluth ny, our Lord, R 1655. 
 
 agen ehen, our class, O 2066.
 
 PRONOUNS. 33 
 
 agas myghtern, your king, O 2348. 
 agys crygyans, your belief, R 2389. 
 ages ancow, your death, R 612. 
 ages guyth why, your keeping, R 651. 
 aga threys (treys}, their feet, O 760. 
 
 The possessive, like the personal pronouns, com- 
 bine with certain prepositions : chiefly a, " of " or 
 " from ;" yn, " in/' and the, " to ;" also with the 
 conjunction ha, "and;" ow is then changed to m, 
 making thu'm, " to my/' (distinct from thym, " to 
 me/') y'm, "in my;" a'm, "of my;" ha'm, "and 
 my." The, " thy/' throws away the vowel in the 
 same cases; the other possessives, beginning with 
 vowels, suffer no change, except that agas and agan 
 may lose the initial vowel. I do not know whether 
 agan, "of our," agas, "of your," should be so 
 written, or a gan, a gas; they should be joined 
 perhaps in the ordinary genitive, which requires 
 no preposition, and divided where a means rather 
 " out of" or " from." See p. 1 6. 
 
 Thum gulas, to my country, R 879. 
 
 y'm colon, in my heart, R 760. 
 
 a'm offryn, of my offering, O 530. 
 
 a'm cleves, of my malady, O 2631. 
 
 ha'm gorty, and my husband, O 181. 
 
 the'th corf, to thy body, R 487. 
 
 a'dpehosow, of thy sins, O 2259. 
 
 y'th tour, in thy palace, O 2389. 
 
 ha'th vaw (maw), and thy boy, D 2236. 
 
 a'y passon, of his passion, R 759. 
 
 th'y wleth (guleth), to his kingdom, O 2370. 
 
 th'y thyskyblon (dyskyblon), to his disciples, R 794. 
 
 ha'y volnogeth (bolnogeth), and his will, O 2352. 
 
 ha'y avalow, and its fruits, O 176. 
 
 th'agan dysyr, to our desire, R 1206. 
 
 d'agan arluth, to our lord, O 2580. 
 
 y gen lyfryow, in our books, R 2411. 
 
 a gys company, of your company, D 868. 
 
 y ges golok, into your sight, R 1861. 
 
 3
 
 34 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 war gasflehes, on your children, D 2643. 
 h'agas myghtern, and your king, O 2348. 
 Vaga hynwyn, and their names, O 35. 
 
 A possessive followed by Jionan (honon) becomes 
 the more intense personality which we render by 
 " myself, himself," &c. I do not think it is ever 
 the reflected pronoun. 
 
 my a vyn mos ow hon^n, I will go myself, D 87. 
 
 ow colon ow honan, my heart of myself, or my own 
 
 heart, R 2042. 
 the honan, thyself, O 1455. 
 the honyn, thyself, O 345. 
 y honan, himself, R 2065, 2073. 
 agan honan, ourselves, O 16. 
 agas honon, yourselves, D 545. 
 ages honan, yourselves, R 642. 
 
 . 19. Demonstratives. 
 
 The adjectival demonstrative pronouns are ma 
 (me) and na (ne), suffixed to the substantive they 
 refer to. I have, in the text, divided them from 
 their substantives with a hyphen, but in the Manu- 
 script they are written in one word. There is no 
 distinction between singular and plural. Example : 
 
 yn bys-ma, in this world, O 1886. 
 an guel-ma, these rods, O 1739. 
 yn ur-na, in that hour, D 1899. 
 yn wlas-na, in that country, R 2461. 
 yn uur-ne, in that hour, D 1372. 
 
 Sometimes Teeth is added, to make the demon- 
 strative more definite, as, 
 
 an keth den-ma, this very man, D 1590. 
 an keth deu-na, that same God, O 1485. 
 an keth re-na, those very (persons), O 1879. 
 
 Sometimes the m is doubled, as in dremme, "this 
 town/' O 2284; dremma, "these places," 2771 ;
 
 PRONOUNS. 35 
 
 chymma, D 66 j, chemma, R 1397, " this house j" 
 and a lemma, " from this place," 446. Alemma, 
 " from this place/' and alena, " from that place/' 
 are in frequent use as adverbs, meaning " hence" 
 and " thence." 
 
 The substantive demonstratives distinguish the 
 masculine from the feminine : 
 
 hem or hemma, m. horn or homma, f., this. 
 hen or henna, m. hon or honna, f., that. 
 
 Examples 
 
 hem yu marth, this is a miracle, R 654. 
 
 me a dyp bos hemma, I swear this is, R 2508. 
 
 homma keffrys, this (woman) also, D 519. 
 
 hen yu ffuyr, that is true, R 977. 
 
 y volnogeth yu henna, his will is that, O 2352. 
 
 hon yu cusylfyn, that is fine advice, O 2041. 
 
 guyr vres yu honna, a true judgment is that, D 515. 
 
 honna yw ol the vlamye, she is all to blame, O 266. 
 
 . 20. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 The Interrogative Pronouns are all resolvable to 
 py and pa, " who/' " what." 
 
 pan vernans, what (is) the death ? R 2047. pa + an. 
 
 pa han pleyt, what (is) the plight ? R 2058. 
 
 pandra wylly, what dost thou see ? O 801. =pa + an + dra. 
 
 pendra wreth, what wilt thou do ? R 203. 
 
 py nyl a mogha sengys, which one was most bound t 
 
 Dgio. 
 py gymmys hys, what amount of length ? O 2104. 
 
 When the pronoun ' who ' comes without addition, 
 it appears to be rendered by pyu, or pyw, either in 
 the nominative or the accusative, as, 
 
 pyu a ylta gy bones, who canst thou be ? R 2511. 
 pyw a whyleugh, whom seek ye ? D 1109.
 
 36 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 but generally pyu is equivalent to py yu, " who is," 
 as, 
 
 pyu myghtern a lowene, who is the King of joy ? R 106. 
 pyu henna, who is that ? R 2487. 
 
 The addition of pynag makes the pronoun inde- 
 finite : 
 
 py penag vo, whatever it be, O 1154. 
 pe penag vo, whatever it be, O 662. 
 py le penag, whatever place, D 1551. 
 pyu penagh a len grysso, whoever faithfully believes, R 
 2466. 
 
 This receives sometimes the addition of ol, " all." 
 
 py penag ol a sconyo, whoever may object, O 2388. 
 py penag ol a wharf o, whatever may happen, R 671. 
 
 When the p is doubled, as in puppenagol, peppenagol, 
 I think the first syllable is pup or peb, "all." 
 
 Now and then pynag comes alone, as, 
 
 pynag a wharf o an cas, whatever may be the case, 1698. 
 
 pynag afo, whatever it be, R 2000. 
 
 pynak vo lettrys py lek, whoever he be, lettered or lay, 
 
 D68t. 
 penag a wryllyf amme, whomsoever I shall kiss, D 1084. 
 
 . 21. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 The Relative Pronoun is represented by a and 
 nep (neb] ; as, 
 
 a fue genys, who was born, D 1652. 
 
 a wruk Moyses the planse, which Moyses did plant, 
 
 O 1946. 
 
 tas a wruk nef, the Father who made heaven, O 1785. 
 Urry nep o marrek len, Uriah, who was a trusty knight, 
 
 O 2338. 
 
 neb a glewsys, whom thou didst hear, O 224. 
 the nep yu toy ow colon, thou who art the joy of my heart, 
 
 R456.
 
 PRONOUNS. 37 
 
 Nep often includes the antecedent, like the Latin 
 qui : 
 
 neb yu moghya, he who is greatest, D 792. 
 
 ha nep na'n gruk, and he who has not done it, R 158. 
 
 When the relative is in the accusative case, or is 
 governed by a preposition, a personal pronoun in 
 the required case is sometimes put after the verb, 
 as in the Semitic languages : " whom I saw" is 
 made " who I saw him ;" " to whom I spoke," 
 " who I spoke to him :" as, 
 
 a thanfonas e, whom he sent, D 1692. 
 
 py gansse, by whom, D 1373 (i. e. who by them). 
 
 The relative is often omitted, as in English : 
 
 ou thus us gene, my people who are with me, D 1122. 
 the vap Ysac yw the ioy, thy son Isaac, who is thy joy, 
 
 o 1374- 
 
 yn le na fue den bythqueth, in a place where man never 
 was, D 3135. 
 
 Nep is also an indefinite pronoun : 
 yn nep f os, in any wall, O 2458. 
 
 See also nep peyth a oel a vercy, " some of the 
 oil of mercy/' 0327; nebes, in D 208, 495, is pro- 
 bably a mere contraction of nep peyth. 
 
 Myns may be considered as a relative pronoun, 
 including in itself the antecedent * all,' like our 
 word ' whatever.' 
 
 keusyns den myns a vynno, let a man say all that he will, 
 
 R 2448. 
 
 hag ol myns o, and every thing that was, R 127. 
 myns yu guyryon, whoever are innocent, R 763. 
 rak kuthe myns us formyys, to cover all that is created, 
 
 O 22. 
 
 ty a fyth mens a vynny, thou shalt have whatever thou 
 wilt, D 590. 
 
 j kymmys, " as many as/' or " whoso-
 
 38 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ever, 11 the Armoric kement and Welsh cymmaint, 
 is frequently used : 
 
 kemmys re wruk both ow thas, as many as have done the 
 
 will of my father, R 157. 
 Jcemmys na greysa, whoever believes not, R 176. 
 
 It is used as a substantive in py gymmys hys, 
 "what amount of length/ 1 2104. 
 
 Kynyver is like kemmys : kynyver peyn us yn 
 beys, " any punishment there is in the world," 
 R 2055 ; kynyver best us yn tyr, " as many beasts 
 as are in the world/' 1215 ; see O 1029. 
 
 Suel is another relative rarely used ; the "Welsh 
 sawl. I find only one case of its employment : py 
 suel a vynnyth, " whatever thou wilt/' D 592. 
 
 It is possible that sul a the'n nef'm R 136,, (sul 
 for suel,} which I have made " going up to heaven," 
 may be " who is going to heaven." In Mount Cal- 
 vary suel is used at least three times: in 2. i. a 
 and 79. 2, where we have suell a vynno, it means 
 " he who ;" in 119. 4, suel a ivresse, " that which. 11 
 
 . 22. Miscellaneous Pronouns, 
 
 The following have been observed in going over 
 the text, but it is not believed that these are all. 
 
 "The one" and "the other/' when opposed, are 
 sometimes made by nyl and gyle : an nyl a delle 
 pymp cans, ha hanter cans y gyle, " the one owed 
 five hundred, and a half hundred the other/' D 
 504, 506 ; me a gylm an nyl, ha me a gylm y gyle, 
 " I will bind the one, and I will bind the other/' 
 D 2785, 2788. 
 
 a Misprinted cuell, which misled Zeuss.
 
 PRONOUNS. 39 
 
 Sometimes "the other" is made by aral, in 
 plural erel: an nyl torn y fyth re hyr, tres aral 
 re got, " at one hand it is too long, by the other too 
 short/' O 2548, 2549. 
 
 Aral is always used with a substantive : 
 
 ioseph ha tus erel, Joseph and other persons, R.3- 
 en thyu grous erel, the two other crosses, D 2820. 
 pie kefyr dyu grous aral, where may two other crosses be 
 found, D 2576. 
 
 In this last example aral may be put in the sin- 
 gular for the sake of the rhyme ; this would be ad- 
 missible in consequence of the singular form of the 
 preceding word after a numeral ; as also in lyes 
 pro/us aral, "many other prophets," R 1485. 
 
 In Armoric. eben is used for " the other," when 
 feminine ; and I believe the following lines contain 
 cases of a similar pronoun in Cornish : 
 
 My a dyl tol rak hybeen, " I will bore a hole for 
 the other," D 2749, follows a line by another 
 speaker, me a teyl tol rag an nyl, " I will bore a 
 hole for the one," D 2743. As the allusion is to 
 the feminine noun luef, "the hand," there cannot 
 be much doubt in the case. 
 
 In why drehevough ybeyn, "you raise the other," 
 D 2826, the case is not so sure, because the allu- 
 sion may be either to the man or the cross ; both 
 are mentioned, but crous is a feminine noun. 
 
 In the third case, ty a theg a neyl pen, cachaf 
 yben, " thou carry one end, I will seize the other," 
 2816, pen is masculine ; so that either the Corn- 
 ish does not follow the Armoric, or the last clause 
 will awkwardly mean " I will seize its end."" 
 
 The word ken, which is usually a conjunction, 
 as in D 481, is also used for ( other ;' as, 
 
 nag us ken deu agesos, there is no other God than thou, 
 R 2477-
 
 40 CORXISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 a wylsta ken, dost them see any other thing, O 795- 
 the ken pow, to another country, R 2218. 
 yn ken lyw, in another colour, R 2534. 
 
 "Any" is made by nep, which is placed before 
 the substantive it refers to ; as, 
 yn nep maner, in any way, R 497. 
 yn neb gulas, in any land, O 1120. 
 yn nep f os, in any wall, O 2458. 
 
 " Any " may also be made by by th, placed after 
 the substantive ; as, 
 
 den vyth, O 2457, or dwfyth, any man, D 1481. 
 trumeth vyth, any mercy, O 1650. 
 
 mar quren fiogh vyth denythy, if we do any children pro- 
 duce, O 390. 
 
 01 added to byth makes it more indefinite, as, 
 
 den byth ol, any man whatever, R2i69- 
 onan vyth ol, any one of them, O 1697. 
 mar pyth drok vyth ol gureys, if any evil is done, O 601. 
 
 Pup, " all," is used alone, or with a substantive ; 
 and sometimes with the addition of ol : 
 yn pup tra, in all things, O 2354. 
 guetyeugh pup y worthye, take care all to worship it, O 
 
 2555. 
 
 pup den ol, all men, O 1043, D 1905. 
 war pep ol marnas ty, over all but thee, O 948. 
 gans pup ol, by every body, R 1096. 
 pup huny, every one, O 969, 2017. 
 
 01 is used in the same way : 
 gulan yu ol, all are clean, D 864. 
 ol the chy, all thy house, O 2340. 
 arluth dres ol an bys-ma, lord above all this world, 01683. 
 
 Kettep, " every :" 
 
 marow vethyn kettep pen, dead we shall be every head, 
 
 O 1655. 
 
 yn kettep pen, every head, D 762. 
 kettep onan, every one, D 2821.
 
 VERBS. 41 
 
 Lyes, lues, "many," is used with a substantive 
 singular : 
 
 yn lyes le, in many places, D 749. 
 
 ynno lues trygva, in it many dwellings, O 951. 
 
 lyes prof us oral, many other prophets, R 1485. 
 
 Re is like a substantive, meaning "persons" or 
 " things :" 
 
 an re-ma yu oberys, these (things) are made, O 15. 
 cafus re me a vyn, take those (persons) I will, R 184. 
 an Jceth re-na, these same (men), O 1897. 
 the wruthyl gans an re-na, to do with them, D 182. 
 
 . 23. VERBS. 
 
 The Cornish verb, in conjugation, in forms, and 
 in the number and use of its tenses, approaches 
 more nearly to the Armoric than to the Welsh verb, 
 though some of its forms are more like those of the 
 latter dialect. 
 
 Every verb may be conjugated in three different 
 modes ; in the first, which I call the Inflected con- 
 jugation, every tense and person has its own form, 
 as in Latin and Greek, and it is equally rare to find 
 a personal pronoun used as it is in those languages ; 
 it is not done unless emphasis be required ; as, my 
 ny gresaf, " I will not believe (if you do), R 904. 
 
 The present tense of the verb care, " to love," 
 is in this mode of conjugating made, caraf, keryth, 
 car, keryn, carough, carans. 
 
 In the second mode, which Breton grammarians 
 call the Impersonal conjugation, the third person
 
 42 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 singular is taken for the whole tense, and the 
 persons are distinguished by the added pronoun, as 
 in English and French. The present tense is thus, 
 my a gar, ty a gar, ef a gar, ny a gar, why a 
 gar, y a gar ; car becomes gar by the influence of 
 the affirmative a 2 , used when the subject precedes 
 the verb. 
 
 In the third mode, which may be conveniently 
 called the Compound conjugation, the auxiliary 
 " to do" accompanies the verb to be conjugated, 
 precisely in the same manner as is done in the 
 English, " I do love/' &c. The sole difference is, 
 that the Cornish extends this addition of the auxi- 
 liary verb to cases where we do not use it ; saying 
 not only " I do love" and " I did love," but also 
 " I will do love." The first tense would thus be 
 generally, my a wra care, " I do love," ty a wra 
 care, " thou dost love ;" and if used personally, 
 which is less frequently done, guraf care, gureth 
 care, &c. 
 
 There can be no doubt that these various modes 
 show a corruption in the language, which the more 
 classical Welsh would disdain ; but it appears prac- 
 tically to have conferred facilities in the expres- 
 sion of certain modifications of meaning, akin to 
 those we find in English from the use of ' might/ 
 ' could/ ' would/ ' should/ &c., which the stiffer 
 forms of Latin, or even German, would hardly ad- 
 mit of. 
 
 . 24. We may here notice what are called by 
 Zeuss the verbal particles, y 2 , a 2 , and re"-. Y and 
 a are used only in affirmative sentences, and the 
 chief difference I find between them is that a is 
 used where the nominative case precedes the verb, 
 as in me a wra [gura], " I will do," R 1755 ; efa
 
 TENSES. 43 
 
 vynse (mynse), " he would have wished," 2224 ; 
 urry afyth (byth) lethys, " Uriah shall be killed," 
 O 2 1 23 ; and y where the nominative either follows 
 or is omitted ; as, y fyen lethys, " I should be 
 killed," 2120; y ma moyses pel gyltys, " Moses 
 is gone far," 1682. 
 
 I did not discover until a good deal of the work 
 was printed, that yth, which frequently occurs, is a 
 mere euphonic change of y before a vowel : see yth 
 argliaf, " I command," 6381; yth ymwanas, " he 
 stabbed himself," R 2065 ; yth emwyskys, " he 
 smote himself," R 2067 ; yth of, " I will go," R 
 2400, &c. &c. In ythanwaf (=yth hanwaf,) O 
 123, and ytheuel, 19, an h is omitted; see yth 
 heuel, R 2491. In like manner the participal ow 3 
 (see below, in the participles,) may become owth 
 before a vowel, as in outh emloth, D 2509, owth 
 ysethe, D 2342, outh ymwethe, ("craving," from 
 the "Welsh ymhwedd) R 1170, owth egery, "open- 
 ing," D 2999 ; and the conjecture hazarded in the 
 note on D 932 will be well founded. As in the 
 case of y, there is the omission of h in outhenwel 
 (=outh henwel), 2729. 
 
 The use of the particle re will be given under 
 the Third tense 
 
 .25. Tenses. 
 
 There are five tenses, analogous in form, though 
 slightly differing in value, to those of Welsh and 
 Armoric verbs. I distinguish them by numbers, to 
 avoid any ambiguity which might attend the vary- 
 ing practice of writers on Celtic grammar. No 
 distinct division of moods is made here, because 
 many of the forms are used as indicatives as well as 
 subjunctives.
 
 44 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 The First tense is used for present or future time. 
 The termination of the first person was of in the 
 three languages, though the Bretons now write 
 arm. The Welsh use this tense almost always as a 
 future, expressing the present by a periphrasis : 
 the Bretons keep to the present time, and use the 
 Fifth tense as a future ; in Cornish it is most com- 
 monly used for present time : the frequent use of 
 the Compound conjugation enabled the Cornishman 
 to make a separate future, though he still continued 
 to use the First tense for future time occasionally. 
 Taking the verb care, " to love," as our example, 
 the present tense is 
 
 caraf, keryth, car: keryn, carough, carons. 
 
 The Second tense is the imperfect of Welsh and 
 Breton grammarians ; Zeuss named it the secondary 
 present. It is sometimes used as an indicative, 
 sometimes as an optative or subjunctive, a potential 
 Or a conditional. This vagueness is unnecessary in 
 Cornish, because the Compound conjugation gives a 
 fair conditional ; but the Cornish writers neverthe- 
 less retained the variety of meaning occasionally 
 with the simple form, and even confounded it with 
 the Fourth tense. The first person ends with en in 
 Cornish, enn in Arrnoric, and wn in Welsh. The 
 whole tense is made 
 
 caren, cares, care (cara) : caren, careugh, carens. 
 
 The Third tense is the Preterite, and its use is 
 the same in the three languages. The first person 
 ends in ys in Cornish, ais in Welsh, and iz in 
 Armoric. The whole tense is 
 
 kerys, kersys, caras : kersyn, carsough, carsons(ans). 
 
 The Fourth tense is named the Preterpluperfect 
 in Welsh and Armoric ; Zeuss called it the second- 
 ary perfect. Its use in those languages is in ac-
 
 TENSES. 45 
 
 cordance with its name, but it is more commonly 
 employed as a subjunctive or conditional. In Corn- 
 ish, so far as I have observed, it is used as a con- 
 ditional only, and it is frequently confounded with 
 the second tense. The first person in Cornish ends 
 with sen, in Welsh with swn, in Armoric zenn. The 
 whole tense is 
 
 carsen, curses, carse : carsen, carseugh, carsens. 
 
 The Fifth tense is a subjunctive present or future 
 in Cornish, and in Welsh, I believe, rather future 
 than present ; in Armoric it is the Future indica- 
 tive. The respective terminations of the first person 
 are yf, wyf, if (inn}. The plural of this tense is 
 often confounded with that of the Second tense, and 
 it will be seen generally that there is a good deal 
 of irregularity in the inflections, which makes the 
 paradigm given rather theoretically than practically 
 exact. The whole tense is 
 
 kyryf, kyry, caro : kyryn, kyreugh, carons. 
 
 The Imperative is 
 
 car, cares or carens : caren, careugh, carens. 
 
 The infinitive takes many forms ; sometimes it is 
 the simple root, sometimes a vowel is added to the 
 root, and sometimes el, es, &c. In the example 
 given here, the termination is e, as care. 
 
 The active participle is made by prefixing ow, 
 changing a sonant initial to its surd form ; as in 
 Armoric, where o talea, " delaying," is from dalea, 
 " to delay." 
 
 The passive participle ends in ys, as kyrys. 
 
 The passive verb ends in er or yr, which by 
 Welsh analogy should designate the present and 
 future tenses ; but I find no difference in their use ; 
 er is far more frequent than yr; the past tense 
 ends in as, and a conditional is found in ser.
 
 46 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 . 26. As the above enumeration differs in some 
 degree from the plan of Lhuyd, I shall give several 
 examples of each form used, when there is any 
 doubt. 
 
 I. Tense. First person : gowegneth ny garaf 
 (caraf), "I do not love falsehood," R 906; lava- 
 raf theugli newothow, " I will tell you news/' R 
 894. In this person /is sometimes omitted for the 
 sake of rhyme ; as, ny vynna, " I will not," 
 1330 ; a wela, " I see/' 1396 : lavara, " I say/' 
 O 1645, D i. 
 
 Second person : ny geusyth (keusyth, from 
 cous], " thou dost not speak/' D 2181 ; ny a'n 
 tregh del levereth, " we will cut it as thou sayest," 
 
 2533 ; ny'm guelyth arte, " thou shalt not see 
 me again," 244. 
 
 Lhuyd makes i the termination ; but this is the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 Third person : neb may fe moghya geffys, a 
 gar (car] moghye, " he who is forgiven most, loves 
 most," D 513 ; mar kyf carynnyas y tryg, "if he 
 finds carrion he will stay/' O 1103, 4. 
 
 It is seen by these examples that some verbs make no 
 change in this form, as car; while others, as kyf from 
 caf, are subject to the rule of . 3, notwithstanding 
 the absence of a final i, which is quite lost in the 
 Cymric dialects, though it existed in the old Irish, as 
 cairi, " he loves." 
 
 First person plural : ny gemeryn (kemeryn) nep 
 lowene, " we take not any pleasure," R 2365 ; 
 amen pigyn, " Amen, we pray," D 1 99 ; leveryn 
 
 01 thotho, "we will all say to him," D 2880. 
 
 Lhuyd makes this termination on. 
 
 Second person plural : ny wothough (gothough]
 
 TENSES. 47 
 
 ow gorthyby, "ye knew not how to answer me," 
 D 1484 ; prag yth hembrenkygh, " why do ye 
 lead ? D 204. 
 
 Lhuyd ends this in oh. 
 
 Third person plural : ny wothons (gothons) py 
 nyl a wrons, " they know not what they do," D 
 2774 ; ny'n cresons ef neffre, " they will never 
 believe it," O 1440. 
 Lhuyd writes am. 
 
 II. Tense. First person ; Indicative : ny wo- 
 thyen (gothyeii) man, " I did not know at all," 
 R 2559 ; byth ny wylyn (guylyri), I did not see 
 any thing," R 434. 
 
 Subjunctive: a's dysken, "if I take it off," R 
 1941 ; a quellen (guelleii) wyth, "if I could see 
 once," 685 ; py le penag y's kyffyn, "wherever 
 I find a place," D 1551. 
 
 Conditional : ru'm fay a'n caffen, " by my faith 
 I would take him," R 289. 
 
 Second person; Indicative: nywothas (gotTias), 
 "thou didst not know," D 2181 ; why lyes, "thou 
 wast seeking," R 1680. 
 
 Subjunctive, &c. : a trycJces yn tre, " if thou 
 hadst stayed at home," Ri38i; (confusion of tense) 
 ny wothes (gothes) wheth, " thou mayest not know 
 yet," D 848 ; beys vynytha y ivharthes (guar- 
 thes), "for ever thou wouldst laugh," 153. 
 See also D 2862, 2864, for conditionals ending 
 in ys. 
 
 Third person : hacre mernans ny gaffe den, 
 " a more cruel death a man may not find," R 2074 ; 
 byth wel cusyl a lavarre, " any better advice who 
 can tell," R 422 ; ru'm gorre ttiy wlas, " may he 
 bring me to his country," 53 2 ; py ptas y thy lie, 
 " where he may go," D 635 ; kyn y'n carra,
 
 48 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "though he may love him," R 1897 ; pan dre- 
 menna an bys-ma, "when this life may pass, O 
 875 ; me a'n gafse a menne gelwel, " I would for- 
 give him if he would ask," D 1816; war Uiesu 
 me a cryas thymmo gafe, "I cried to Jesus that 
 he would forgive me," R noo; golow na wella 
 (guella), "that he may not see light," R 2003. 
 
 First person plural : na wrellen buthy, " that 
 we be not drowned," 1048 ; bys venytha na sor- 
 ren, "nor should we be troubled for ever," O 220. 
 
 Such forms as wreny, D 190, and veny, D 604, are 
 probably orthographical variations of wren ny and 
 ven ny. 
 
 Second person plural: mas y'm gorthebeugh, 
 " unless ye answer me," R 47 ; pysough na en- 
 treugh yn temptacyon, "pray that ye enter not 
 into temptation," D 1059. 
 
 Third person plural : avorow thifs may teffens, 
 " that they come to thee to-morrow," 2417 ; me 
 a vynse a talfens, " I would they were worth," 
 D 211. 
 
 I believe this is the tense which Lhuyd makes mai huel- 
 lam, huellaz, huello, huellan, huelloh, huellanz, with 
 the exception of huello. 
 
 III. Tense. First person : ol an tekter a wylys 
 (guylys), "all the beauty that I saw," 0766; 
 worto y keusys, " I spoke to him," R 897 ; y vyrys 
 y wolyow, '' I saw his wounds," R 898. 
 
 Second person : tersys an bara, " thou didst 
 break the bread," R 1318 ; mab deu o neb a wyl- 
 sys (gylsys], "the Son of God it was whom thou 
 sawest," O 809. 
 
 Lhuyd makes this termination yst, which is Welsh 
 rather than Cornish ; the Armoric agrees with the 
 Cornish in the insertion of a sibilant.
 
 TENSES. 49 
 
 Third person : clewas agan lef, " he heard our 
 voice," 2027 ; un marrek an lathas, " a horse- 
 man slew him/' 2226. 
 
 I am inclined to think that dorrasa, in pan dorrasa an 
 aval, " when he plucked the apple," O 879, is a 
 subjunctive form of this tense, as in the irregulars 
 wruge and thuhe. 
 
 First person plural : leveryn del wylsyn (guyl- 
 syii) ny, " let us speak as we saw/' R 807 ; an 
 corf a worsyn (gorsyri) yn beth, " the body which 
 we placed in the tomb/' R 49. 
 
 Second person plural : an onor a wrussough 
 (grussougli) thy'mmo, " the honour which you did 
 to me/' 0312; corf a worseugh (gorseugh] why, 
 "the body which you placed," R 43. 
 
 Third person plural : -pan y'n lathsons, " when 
 they killed him," D 3098 ; ny torsans chy, " they 
 did not break the house/' R 662. 
 
 The addition of the word re 2 , corresponding 
 with the old Welsh ry, re, now seldom, if ever, 
 used, (see Williams's Dosparth, &c. Llandovery, 
 1856, pp. 130,131, and Zeuss, p. 420,) turns this 
 tense into the preterperfect, and was of frequent 
 use in Cornish : - 
 
 ef re gollas an plas, he hath lost the place, O 420. 
 
 an sarf re ruk ou tholle, the serpent hath deceived me, 
 
 O286. 
 
 my re wruk prenne, I have redeemed, R 2622. 
 hy re gafes, she has found, O 1143. 
 
 Re is also frequently found with the third person 
 singular of the Second or Fifth tense, in the impera- 
 tive or optative sense ; as, re'n kergho an dewolow, 
 " let the devils fetch him," R, 2277 ; re wronntyo, 
 "let him grant," 1726; re bo, "let him be/ r 
 R 2417; re by gorthys, "be he worshipped," R
 
 50 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2523; ru'm gorre, "may he bring me, 55 0532. 
 It often occurs in the phrase ragas bo, for re agas 
 bo, and once, O 1724, in ragas guytho. In O 2585 
 it is written re ges bo. The verb eth, " he went/ 5 
 takes s after re: see re seth, D 1027, 
 
 IV. Tense. First person : guelas ow map y 
 carsen, " I would love to see my son/' R 442 ; 
 desefsen merwel, "I would have desired to die/' 
 R 1771 ; mensen, "I would wish," R444. 
 
 In R 289, 290, we have an example of the confusion be- 
 tween this and the Third tense : a'n caffen, y^n toulsen, 
 " I would take him, I would cast him." It is pos- 
 sible, however, that the reading may be cafsen. 
 
 Second person : the'n nefgrusses yskynne, " to 
 heaven thou wouldst ascend/ 5 O 156. 
 
 Third person : ny garse pelle bewe, " he would 
 not like to live longer/ 5 738 ; yn tridyth y'n dre- 
 afse, " in three days he would rebuild it/ 5 D 366. 
 
 First person plural : ny ny'n drosen thy'so gy, 
 "we would not have brought him to thee/ 5 D 
 1976. 
 
 Second person plural : pan cleuseugh cous, 
 "when ye heard speak/ 5 D 1338, (may be the 
 Third tense). 
 
 Third person plural : ny wrussens (grussens) 
 ow dystrewy, "they would not have destroyed 
 me/ 5 D 2777. 
 
 Lhuyd gives a tense corresponding with this in form : 
 guelzen, guelzez, guelze : guelzen, guelze', guelzenz, or 
 
 a This verb, in all its forms beginning with a vowel, takes 
 s, or its equivalent th, after the conjunction mar and some 
 others. In this it is like the vocalic forms of the verb sub- 
 stantive, as well as in its frequent accompaniment of yth.
 
 TENSES. 51 
 
 guelazzenz : he makes it the preter-pluperfect tense. 
 He also gives a subjunctive future, guylfym, guylfydh, 
 guylyf; guylfon, guelfo, guylfym : this is certainly 
 one of the compounds of the verh substantive, of 
 which there are many in the other dialects as well as 
 in Cornish : adnabod in Welsh and anavout in Armo- 
 ric are instances. I think I find clewfyf, " I should 
 feel," in O 1351 ; clewfo, "that he may hear," is cer- 
 tainly the reading of D 3063. The Breton makes the 
 conditional infenn, zenn, and/ewre, indiscriminately. 
 A Cornish future in fyth (wyth, vyth) is often found 
 impersonal : ty a wylfyth (guylfyth], " thou shalt 
 see," O 1449; gothfyth, "I shall know," O 1400; 
 me a'n carvyth, " I will love him," D 1703; ef a'th 
 carvyth, "he will love thee," D 1846; ny a'n guyl- 
 fyth, "we shall see it," R53, &c. &c. 
 
 V. Tense. First person: worto pan ivofynnyf 
 (9fy nn yf>) "f him when I ask/' D 1855; bys 
 may thyllyf, " until I enter," D 726 ; guel ha 
 gyllyf, "the best that I can/' D 3012. 
 
 Second person : me a'th conjor may leverry, 
 "I adjure thee that thou tell/' D 1323 ; gueyt 
 may tanfenny, (danfenny], "take care that thou 
 send/' R 1630. 
 
 Third person : pyu penagh a len grysso 
 (crysso), " whosoever shall faithfully believe/' R 
 2466 ; a gutho (cutho) ol an nor beys, " which 
 shall cover all the face of the earth/' 982 ; kettyl 
 y'n geffo (keffo) a'n bay, " when he shall find him, 
 he will kiss him/' D 986. 
 
 I think I find this form used in the indicative : my a's 
 dyllo, "I will send her," O 1101. We have also 
 doro as a future in D 1471 ; but as we find doro in 
 the imperative mood in O 1904, it may also be the 
 First tense. It is possible that dyllo may be in the 
 same case, but I have no evidence. 
 
 First person plural : mar kefyn den, " if we 
 D 2
 
 52 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 find a man," D 647 ; pan deffyn ny, " when we 
 come," R 773- 
 
 These do not differ in form from the First tense, and we 
 might be justified in looking upon the distinction of 
 forms here as not going beyond the singular number. 
 At the same time we have mar kyf, "if he finds," 
 O 1103; mar a's guel, "if he sees you," D 1003; 
 and many other instances, where there is a different 
 form for the two tenses. 
 
 Second person plural : del y'm fcyrreugh, " as 
 ye love me," O 543 ; pan y'n guyllough, " when 
 you shall see him," R 1912. 
 
 Third person plural : mar a'n kefons, " if they 
 find him," D 582 ; kyn teffons, " though they 
 come," R 392 ; may teffons omma, "that they 
 come here," 2408. 
 
 It is not unfrequent to find the vowel a or e suf- 
 fixed to a verb in the second person singular in an 
 interrogative or subjunctive construction ; the fol- 
 lowing examples shew the practice : 
 
 Interrogative. 
 
 prag ytheta, why goest thou ? R 241. 
 pendra wreta, what doest thou? D 1185, 2981. 
 pendra vynta, what wilt thou? O 1311. 
 pie cleusta, where didst thou hear ? O 2642. 
 pan a wrusta, what didst thou ? D 2007. 
 a garsesta, wouldst thou love ? D 2838. 
 a welte, seest thou ? D 2925. 
 pendra ny vente, why wilt thou not ? D 1775. 
 pefeste, where wast thou ? O 467. 
 fattel thuthte, how didst thou come ? R 260. 
 prag y tolste, why didst thou deceive ? O 302. 
 a alsesta (galsesta], wouldst thou be able ? R 862. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 mar ny wreta, if thou dost not, R 1088. 
 na venta, that thou wilt not, D 1293. 
 pan leverta, since thou sayest, D 2017.
 
 TENSES. 53 
 
 a'n guelesta, if thou shouldst see him, R 861. 
 
 mar a cruste (gruste] leverel, if thou didst say, D 1759- 
 
 aban golste, since thou hearkenedst, O 269. 
 
 In a few cases we find similarly the vowel a 
 after a verb in the first person, and then the vowel 
 is preceded by m ; as, pendra wrama, what shall I 
 do, R 679, D 856 ; ellas pan fema gynys, alas ! 
 that I was born ! R 2207 ; aban oma dasserghys, 
 since I am risen, R 2436 ; hedre vyma ou pygy> 
 whilst I am praying, D 1013. See 1. 1020. 
 
 I compare this to the addition of a vowel in such 
 expressions as ywe, ose, usy, wruge, &c., where 
 some kind of contingency or uncertainty is implied. 
 We must for this suppose that the final m, as found 
 in Irish, and in the oldest Welsh glosses, for the first 
 person singular, is restored, as well as the st for 
 the second person of the preterite, in cleusta, feste, 
 as in the Welsh ceraist. In the second person of 
 the First tense the dental yet remains, though 
 weakened to th d . 
 
 . 27. Imperative. Second person : lavar, 
 
 a I had supposed at first that ma and ta in these cases 
 were the personal pronouns my and ty in an altered form ; 
 but the observation of an able philological friend has satisfied 
 me that the explanation in the text is the true one. The 
 grammatical value of the final vowel, when a verb follows 
 certain conjunctions, such as pan or mar, is clear from the 
 forms gruge and duthe instead of gruk and duth in O 423, 
 D 524, and other passages. We are not bound to consider 
 ta, in such words as venta and leverta, as necessarily ad- 
 ditional to the verb ; I look at venta and leverta as equiva- 
 lent to vennyth + a and leveryth + a rather than to venny + ta 
 and levery + ta ; wrama, too, seems to be more probably 
 wram + a than wraf+ ma. There does not appear to be any 
 reason for changing my and ty to ma and ta, whereas the 
 annexation of a or e to a verb in a phrase denoting contin- 
 gency is in accordance with the usage of the language.
 
 54 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "say," D 965; treyl, "turn," D 1155; saf, 
 "stand/' O 65. 
 
 Third person: guereses, "let him help," O 
 2781 ; gylwes, "let him call," 2774; guyskyns, 
 "let him strike," D 2766; tommans, "let him 
 warm," D 833. 
 
 First person plural :fystynyn, " let us hasten," 
 D 645 ; leveryn, " let us say," R 806 ; guren, " let 
 us do," D 644. 
 
 Second person plural : levereugh, " say ye," D 
 1109 ; gueresough, "help ye," D 1143. 
 
 Third person plural : kelmyns, " let them tie," 
 
 .28. Infinitive: care, "to love," 1126, D 
 511; leverel, " to say," D 1759 ; dybry, " to eat," 
 264; danfon, "to send," D 1615; keusel, "to 
 speak," 01276; kyrTias, "to fetch," 02371; 
 myras, 1399, myres, 1412, "to see." 
 
 Participle, active or present. Examples are nu- 
 merous : the following are selected for the purpose 
 of shewing the conversion of the sonant initial : 
 ou corthye (gorthye), "worshipping," 1616; ou 
 cul (gul], " making," 1556 ; ow kelwel (gelwel), 
 " calling," O 2430 ; ow querthe (guerthe), " sell- 
 ing," D 1520; ou tos (dos), "coming," O 1651; 
 ou tysputye, " disputing,"" D 1628. It is more like 
 a neuter participle in pan us gueyth ou tesehe, 
 '' when the trees are drying," 1 128. 
 
 Participle, passive or past : kyrys, " loved," R 
 892; lythys, "killed," R 903; offrynnys, "offered," 
 O 1327 ; gorrys, " placed," R 430. 
 
 . 29. Passives. First tense : aban na gefyr
 
 TENSES. 55 
 
 (kefyr) ken, " since no other is found/' O 2503 ; 
 pie kefyr dyu grous aral, " where may two other 
 crosses be found," D 2576, compare py %efer 
 pren, D 2535 " del redyer in lyes le, " as it is read 
 in many places," D 1168 ; mcCn gueller a ver ter- 
 myn, " as will be seen in a short time," D 1940. 
 
 When the auxiliary verb is passive, the passive 
 sense is transferred to the principal verb : 
 
 mar ny wrer (gurer}y wythe, if he be not guarded, R34I. 
 mar Jceller (getter) y wythe, if he can be kept, D 3058. 
 n y yltyr (ffyttyr) re the worthe, thou canst not be too much 
 honoured, O 1852. 
 
 Third tense : Zeuss, in p. 525, makes a passive 
 in as analogous to the old Welsh and Armoric at 
 (now id. W. and ed, Arm.). His examples are 
 yn della y re thyskas, "thus they have been 
 taught," P. 80. 3, and y torras (printed dorras) 
 an veyn, "the stones were broken," P. 209. 4. 
 The old translators took this for the active third 
 person, and rendered the phrases given by " as 
 them others taught," and " they broke the stones ;" 
 but an example from our book confirms the view of 
 Zeuss : pan dorras queth an tempel, " when the 
 vail of the temple was rent," D 3088 : we may 
 perhaps cite also fethas yu cas, "the cause was 
 gained," R 579, and uthyk yw clewas y lef, "loud 
 was heard his voice," R 2340. 
 
 I have found very few instances of a passive verb used 
 in any other than the third person. In O i and D 
 873, we have y'm gylwyr, " I am called;" and in O 
 1924, may haller agas cuthe, "that you may be 
 covered :" see also O 1852, quoted above. These 
 are in accordance with Welsh ; but it is difficult to 
 consider them precisely passives, because the pro- 
 noun, which ought to be the subject of the verb if 
 passive, is in the state especially employed when it is 
 the object. The view of Legonidec, the Breton grtai-
 
 56 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 marian, who calls these verbs Impersonate, and ren- 
 ders them by the pronoun on, as ore m'appelle, appears 
 the most suitable. 
 
 Fourth tense : ha re-na galser the rey, " and 
 those might have been given," D 537. 
 
 It may be as well to give a complete paradigm 
 here, and the verb selected is care, "to love."" 
 The most regular forms are set down, but others 
 will be found in the manuscript. 
 
 First tense : ' I love 1 or ' shall love.' 
 
 caraf, keryth, car : keryn, carough, carons. 
 
 Second tense : ' I was loving ' or ' would love ' 
 or ' should love.' 
 
 caren, cares, care or cara : caren, careugh, 
 carens. 
 
 Third tense : ' I loved.' 
 
 Jcerys, kersys, caras : kersyn, carsough, carsons 
 or carsans. 
 
 Fourth tense : ' I had loved ' or ' would have 
 loved/ 
 careen* carses, carse : carsen, carseugh, carsens. 
 
 Fifth tense : ' If I love.' 
 
 fy r yf> kyry, caro : kyryn, kyreugh, carons. 
 
 Imperative : ' Love thou. 1 
 
 car, cares or carens : caren, careugh, carens. 
 Infinitive : care, " to love." 
 Participles : ou care, " loving ;" kyrys, " loved." 
 Passive, present and future : carer, keryr, 
 " is," or " shall be loved. 1 ' 
 
 Conditional : carser, " would be loved." 
 Past : caras, " was loved."
 
 VERBS. 57 
 
 As a general rule, whenever a question is asked, 
 where there is not some interrogative pronoun or 
 adverb, the letter a is put at the beginning ; as, 
 a ny vynta obeye, " wilt thou not obey ?" 1505. 
 Sometimes a is added when there is already an 
 interrogative particle, probably to fill up the metre ; 
 as, a pyth yu an keth deu-na, " what is that same 
 God?" 1485. 
 
 A negative is indicated by placing m/ 2 or na' 2 
 before a verb ; as, 
 
 ny thue arte, it will not come again, O 1102. 
 na allaf sparie, that I cannot spare, O 946. 
 na wrello, that it may not do, O 1092. 
 
 Na is usually employed with imperatives and sub- 
 junctives. 
 
 . 30. Impersonal Conjugation. 
 
 The Impersonal conjugation is generally em- 
 ployed when the nominative case precedes the 
 verb directly, more especially when the nomina- 
 tive is a personal pronoun ; the subject is generally 
 followed by the particle a, and the initial of the 
 verb takes the second form ; the verb is always in 
 the third person singular. This conjugation is so 
 simple that it will be required merely to give a few 
 examples of each case, to enable a student to under- 
 stand it fully : 
 
 me a lever, I say, R 1061. 
 
 me a sorras, I was angry, D 1421. 
 
 me a vynse (mynse), I would wish, D 2 1 1 . 
 
 me re behas (pehas], 1 have sinned, O 249. 
 
 ty a wor (gor), thou wilt know, R 256. 
 
 ty a tev), thou wilt be silent, R 984. 
 
 ty a'n nahas, thou deniedst him, R 1351. 
 
 ty ru'm tullas, thou hast deceived me, O 252. 
 
 ty a'n guelse, thou wouldst have seen him, R 1382.
 
 58 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ef 're gollas, he has lost, O 420. 
 
 ny a bys (pys}, we pray, O 1072. 
 
 ny a dryg (tryg), we will remain, O 2112. 
 
 ny a gafas (cafas), we found, R 1474. 
 
 ny a'n recevas, we received him, R2339- 
 
 ny a geusys (keusys), we spoke, R 1373. 
 
 why a gyf (kyf), you will find, D 176. 
 
 y a nyg, they fly, O 1068. 
 
 y afyth (byth), they are, R 1477. 
 
 .31. Compound Conjugation. 
 
 The Compound conjugation is made by putting 
 the auxiliary verb "to do" before the infinitive 
 mood, as " I do love/' " he does know," &c. in 
 English. Sometimes the comes between the auxili- 
 ary and the infinitive. As this verb is irregular it 
 is necessary to give the paradigm : 
 
 TO DO. 
 
 Infinitive : 
 
 gruthyl, D 198, 61004; guthyl, 61952; guthul, R 
 2252 ; or, gul, O 1174. 
 
 First tense : 
 
 ffuraf, I do, O 1988. guren, we do, O 1146. 
 
 gureth, thou dost, R 459. gureugh, ye do, O 912. 
 gura, he does, 1376. gurons, they do, D 2775. 
 
 We have guregh, D 814, for gureugh. 
 
 Second tense : 
 gurellyn, I was doing, or, I would do, O 445. 
 
 gurelles, R 445 \ thou wert doing or wou id st do. 
 gures, R45I J 
 gure, R 6, D 1309 ~] 
 gurefe, D 1316 
 
 was doin or would do ' 
 
 gurella, D 1958 
 
 gureva, D 2882 J 
 
 gurellen we were doing or would do, O 183. 
 
 gurelleugh, ye were doing. 
 
 gurellens, they were doing.
 
 VERBS. 59 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 gurys (?) I did. 
 grussys, thou didst, O 222. 
 gruk, he did, R 158. 
 grussyn, we did. 
 
 grussough, R 40 "1 ,., 
 > ye did. 
 grussyugh, O 2792 J J 
 
 grussons, they did, O 337. 
 
 When a conjunction comes before the third person 
 singular, the form of the verb is generally gruge, 
 a true subjunctive ; as, pan wruge, O 423, 2250, 
 
 Fourth tense : 
 
 grussen, I would have done, O 163. 
 grusses, thou wouldst have done, O 156. 
 grusse, he would have done, O 152. 
 grussyn, we would have done, R 2624. 
 grusseugh, ye would have done. 
 grussens, they would have done. 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 guryllyf, that I may do, O 531. 
 gurylly, that thou mayst do, O 1784. 
 gurello, that he may do, R 498. 
 gurellen, that we may do, O 1048. 
 gurylleugh, that ye may do, D 8n. 
 grons, that they may do, O 2034. 
 
 Imperative mood : 
 
 guren, let us do, O 1170. 
 gura, do thou, D 1957. greugh, do ye, R 2232. 
 
 gurens, O 1093, -i 
 
 T^ > let him do. gurens, let them do. 
 
 grens, D 371, J 
 
 Participle active : 
 ou cul, doing, O 1556. 
 
 Participle passive : 
 gurys, O 431, gures, done, O 988. 
 
 Passive : 
 gurer, it is done, O 1936, R34I.
 
 60 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Note that gu in this verb is equivalent to g only : it 
 does not make an additional syllable, and its muta- 
 tions are those of g : we have thus russe, O 152, 
 and wrussen, O 163. 
 
 The following example will suffice to shew the 
 manner of using this conjugation : 
 
 First tense : 
 
 daggrow tyn guraf dyvere, bitter tears I shall shed, O 402. 
 an guel guraf the drehy, the rods I will cut, O 1988. 
 pan wreth agan dysky, when thou dost teach us, D 36. 
 an gorhel guren dyscuthy, the ark we will uncover, 01146. 
 ny wreugh why try ye, ye shall not remain, O 317. 
 y wrons clamdere, they will faint, O 400. 
 
 Impersonal : 
 
 y cuthe me a wra, cover him I will, D 1376. 
 my a ray dybry, I will eat it, O 248. 
 hy a wra aspye, she will look, O 1115. 
 the verkye my a gura, mark thee I will, O 602. 
 ef a wra dynythy, he shall produce, O 638. 
 aga gora ty a wra, put them thou shall, O 991. 
 goef a ra the serry, unhappy he who angers thee, O 1016. 
 
 This is the most ordinary way of making the future 
 tense in Cornish. 
 
 Second tense : 
 
 leverel gura na wrella dampnye, do say that he condemn 
 
 not, D 1958. 
 
 na wrellen dybbry, that we should not eat, O 183. 
 an temple y wre terry, the temple he would destroy, D 1309. 
 y wrefe y threhevel, he would rebuild it, D 1316. 
 
 The conditional is generally made by this tense. 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 pan wrussys cole, that thou didst hearken, O 222. 
 an sarf re rule ow tholle, the serpent hath deceived me, 
 O 286. 
 
 Imperative : 
 gura ou gorthyby, answer me, O 301.
 
 VERBS. 61 
 
 agan cuthe guren, let us cover ourselves, O 254. 
 greugh y tei\ne mes a'n dour, draw him out of the water, 
 R 2232. 
 
 Infinitive : 
 
 dre wul trogh, through breaking, O 298. 
 
 .32. Passive Verb, made by the Verb substantive. 
 
 It is much more usual to make up the passive 
 verb by the verb substantive, as is done in most of 
 the modern languages of Europe, than to use the 
 passive inflection as explained in p. 45. For this 
 purpose the paradigm of the verb substantive is re- 
 quired: 
 
 Verb substantive. 
 
 The verb substantive in Cornish, as in other 
 Indo-Germanic languages, has two roots ; one of 
 these appears to have been the letter s, and the 
 other was the consonant b, interchanging with f 
 and w. Examples of the first in Latin and English 
 are sum, es, est, and am, art, is ; of the second, 
 fui, fore, and be, was. The Cornish, in some of its 
 forms, has lost the initial s, but it regains the sibi- 
 lant after mar, nyn, and some other words. 
 
 First division. 
 Present tense : 
 
 of, I am, O 2049. on, we are, O 2024. 
 
 os, thou art, R 1822. ough, you are, R 196. 
 
 yu, he is, R 389. yns, O 1691, 
 
 The third person singular is varied to yw, D 2952 ; eu, 
 O 2214; ew, O 2572. All receive occasionally an ad- 
 dition at the beginning, becoming assof, yssof, ythof, 
 esof, sof, thof, &c. ; in the first three forms I see no 
 difference in signification, and the additions in such 
 cases are, I think, only variations of the verbal particles
 
 62 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 a and y. Examples are, asson whansek, " we are de- 
 sirous," D 37 ; huhel ythos ysethys, "high thou art 
 seated," D 93 ; yn ou colon asyw bern, " in my heart 
 is sorrow," D 2932 ; yssyw hemma trueth bras, " this 
 is great sorrow," 03182. I now believe that esof, 
 esos, &c. are merely variations of these, though I have 
 rendered them usually by the past tense : see D 931, 
 2511, R 1291. Sof, sos, syu, and thof, thos, thyu, &c. 
 follow certain particles, as mar, nyn, &c. 
 There are some other forms for the present tense ; ma, 
 "is," scarcely differs from yu: see O 1316, 2561, 
 2633, R 2059. Us is like ma, but often implies 'who :' 
 O 628, 1059, D 1410, 1425, R2o6oj perhaps eus of 
 R3i6 may be the same word. We have usy in O 
 2692. Yma signifies 'there is/ O 410, 526, 775, 
 R 400, 1216; mons, O 2091, and ymons, O 1687, 
 2084, are the plurals of ma and yma. 
 
 Imperfect tense : 
 
 esen, I was, O 213. esen, we were, R 1169, 2395. 
 
 eses, thou wast, O 900. esough, ye were, D 332, R 2434. 
 ese, he was, O 1089. ens, they were, D 2681, 2694*. 
 
 Preterite tense : 
 
 o, "he was," O 706, 809, R 1096, 2007. 
 
 The forms oma, "I am," 0755; osa, D 1324, ose, D 
 1290, oge, O 1767, "thou art;" ywe, O 1822, ugy, 
 R 1636, " he is ;" and I think, ony, " we are," O 59; 
 all these are either interrogative, or else they imply 
 contingencies such as belong to the subjunctive 
 mood. 
 
 Second division, 
 bones, 2299, bos, D 2494, "to be." 
 
 First tense : 
 bythaf, D 1932 -. 
 bethaf, 2 in } 
 
 a I believe the real paradigm of the Present tense would 
 be of, os, yu : on, ough, yns ; and of the Imperfect, en, es, e .- 
 en, eugh, ens; but both tenses affected rather to lengthen
 
 VERBS. 63 
 
 bethyth, 01465 l thousha i tbe . 
 bythyth, O 1510 J 
 byth, he shall be, D 772. 
 bethyn, we shall be, O 1655. 
 bytheuyh, you shall be, D 767. 
 
 bethens, O 2307 i 
 
 T .7 r ^ they shall be. 
 
 bythons, 03093 J J 
 
 As there is a present tense in the first division, this 
 tense is always, I think, future. 
 
 Second tense : 
 
 bef, I should be, &c., O 2193. 
 bes, thou shouldst be, R 2442. 
 
 bethe, O 232 > 
 
 j, *j. r Q r ne should be. 
 by the, D 1948 J 
 
 fiera, we should be, R 2423. 
 beuffh, ye should be, D 5, 28. 
 bens, they should be, D 852. 
 
 The forms as well as the signification of this tense are 
 confounded with those of the Fifth tense, and even of 
 the Fourth. I cannot satisfy myself with any division 
 of them. 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 buf, buef, I was, R 1540, 2150. 
 bus, thou wast, D 1999. 
 
 bue, O 880, R 1443 -I 
 
 7 /- f T\ r he was. 
 
 be, 02657, D 1154 J 
 
 buen, we were, O 709, R 1823. 
 beugh, buyh, you were, R 192, 2243. 
 bons, they were, D 521. 
 
 Fourth tense : 
 
 by en, I should be, O 2120, R 1942. 
 byes, thou shouldst be, D 2683. 
 bye, he should be, D 846, 1592. 
 byen, we should be, 
 
 their forms in actual use. In a similar way the Greeks added 
 a syllable to the shorter forms of their verb substantive, 
 writing elaQa and rjvda for ? and T/S. Perhaps the Latin 
 esto and estate originated in a like principle.
 
 64 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 byeugh, ye should be, O 177. 
 byens, they should be. 
 
 The forms gyfye, " would take," R 966, and thotkye, 
 "will" or " would go," R 2450, seem to be imitations 
 of this tense. 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 
 byf, beyf, I may or shall be, D 847, 2008. 
 
 by, thou mayst be, O 245, 2203. 
 
 bo, O 42, R 90 i 
 
 66,0396,1112 } he may or shall be. 
 
 ben, been, beyn, we may be, D 41, O 1973, 2699. 
 
 beugh, you may be, D 627. 
 
 bons, they may be, D 844, 899, 1546. 
 
 The same observation as is made above at the close of 
 the first division will apply here, in regard to the 
 forms byma, D 1013, befe, O 2220, befa, D 905, beva, 
 D 690, bova, D 620, buve, O 864, bythe, O 1327, byse, 
 D 2908 ; and some others. Perhaps such additions 
 are sometimes made merely to fill up a verse, as in 
 bosa for bos, D 1120. 
 
 >-let him be. 
 
 Imperative : 
 
 byth, be thou, O 1341, 2616. 
 
 bethens, D 2374 
 
 bythens, D 794 
 
 bethon, let us be, 
 
 bethough, be ye, D 879. 
 
 bethens, let them be, 
 
 Throughout the second division of this verb I have 
 made the initial b but it occurs in the manuscript 
 much more frequently written with a v or f from the 
 influence of particles requiring a mutation, and fre- 
 quently where I see no reason for such change ; unless 
 it be that a particle is implied though not expressed, 
 as it is, I believe, the case in Welsh. 
 
 Examples of the passive verb made by help of 
 the verb substantive : 
 
 a'n nef of danfenys, from heaven I am sent, O 1372. 
 
 yth os ysethys, thou art seated, D 93. 
 
 yu gorhemmynnys tky'n, it is commanded to us, O 1049.
 
 VERBS. 65 
 
 buthys on ny, we are drowned, O 1705. 
 
 yns plynsys, they are planted, O 2092. 
 
 bethaf lethys, 1 shall be killed, O 596. 
 
 ny fythyth sylwys, thou shalt not be saved, O 1510. 
 
 y fethons gorrys, they shall be put, O 342. 
 
 guynys may fuef, where I was pierced, R 1540. 
 
 helhys warbarth afuen, we were driven together, O 709. 
 
 y fyen lethys, I should be killed, O 2120. 
 
 may fen guythys, that we may be preserved, D 41. 
 
 bos desesys, to be hurt, D 97. 
 
 bos rewardyys, to be rewarded, O 2201. 
 
 . 33. A reflected verb is made, as in Welsh, by 
 prefixing the syllable ym 2 (em, cm). The equiva- 
 lent in Armoric is en em. 
 
 Examples are frequent : ymwanas, " he stabbed 
 himself," R. 2065, from the root guan ; emwyskys, 
 "he smote himself," R 2067, root guasJc ; ym den, 
 "withdraw," 01377, root ten ; ny y lions ymwe- 
 res, " cannot help themselves," 1420, root gue- 
 res ; mar ny wreth ymamendye, "if thou do not 
 amend thyself," O 1526. Embloth, in O 1661, 
 meaning " to fight," is probably from the verb 
 lathe, " to kill," something like the French se bat- 
 tre ; though we have emlathe y honan, "to kill 
 himself," in R 2073, where the writer perhaps 
 added the pronoun y honan to avoid the ambiguity 
 which might arise from the use of emlathe, mean- 
 ing " to fight ;" as a Frenchman might say, il s'est 
 battu lui-meme, meaning "he has beaten himself," 
 while he would say, il s'est battu, when he wished 
 to be understood, " he fought."
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 .34. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 There are in Cornish some verbs irregular, which 
 are generally irregular in Welsh and Armoric also. 
 In going through the translation, I have jotted 
 down a good many words which were at the time 
 doubtful, and out of them I have been able to form 
 the following incomplete paradigms : they might 
 perhaps be completed by Welsh and Breton ana- 
 logy, and no doubt several additional forms may 
 be found, if the Cornish books be read through for 
 the purpose ; but I had no intention of venturing 
 on a Grammar when the work was begun, and have 
 not been able to supply the deficiencies since. I 
 have consequently only incomplete results to offer ; 
 but in the case of every word set down, one pass- 
 age at least is cited in which it occurs. 
 
 TO GIVE. 
 
 Ry, O iSoij 2606; rey, D 537. 
 First tense : 
 
 rof, I give, RSsy. ren, (we give) D 2406. 
 
 reth, O 1814 -i 
 
 } thou S lvest ' 
 
 , 674 -i . 
 
 ~ > he gives. 
 
 , O 2770 J 
 
 re, R 387, 674 
 
 ~ 
 ree or rea, O 2770 
 
 Second tense : 
 ren, I would give(?) O 2739. 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 res, D 2495 -i 
 
 -. > I gave. 
 
 rys, O 320 J 
 
 ryssys, thou gavest, D 522. 
 
 ros, he gave, D 1384, R 165. rosons, they gave, R 2601.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 67 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 
 rollo, that he may give, O 1823. 
 rollons, that they may give, O 40. 
 
 Imperative : 
 
 ro, give thou, O 2010, R 83. 
 roy, let him give, O 680, 0712. 
 ren, let us give, D 1389. 
 reugh, give ye, D 1362. 
 
 Participle present : 
 ou ry, giving, O 2316. 
 
 Participle past : 
 reys, given, D 1574. 
 
 TO BRING. 
 
 Dry, D 16, 273, 596. 
 
 First tense : 
 drow, 03121 
 
 Second tense : 
 dregha, he would bring, R 403. 
 
 Third tense : 
 dros, he brought, O in. 
 
 Fourth tense : 
 drosen, we would have brought, D 1976. 
 
 Imperative : 
 
 dro, O 1947 v 
 
 j r\ r bnng thou. 
 
 doro, O 1904 J 
 
 drens, let him bring, O 1933. 
 dreugh, bring ye, O 1066, D 2329. 
 
 Participle past : 
 dreys, brought, D 2447, R 2328.
 
 68 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 TO COME. 
 
 Dones, 791; dos, R 570. 
 First tense : 
 
 dueth, R 1178 1 ., 
 
 j ,1. r> oo r thou comest. 
 
 duth, R 882 J 
 
 due, it comes, D 2961, R 2273. 
 desons, they come, D 1247. 
 
 Second tense : 
 dogha, that it may come, D 2912. 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 duyth. D 2022 1 T 
 
 > I came. 
 dueyth, R 1661 J 
 
 duthys, R 2^68 "I ., 
 
 > thou earnest. 
 dues, (J 155 J 
 
 , R 2587 1 , 
 
 ' he came. 
 
 , R 234 
 dutheugh, ye came, R 193. 
 
 We have aban duthe, "since I came," 0517,524, a 
 subjunctive mood, as in gruge . see the verb gruthyl 
 in p. 59. 
 
 Imperative : 
 
 dus, O 2779 > 
 dues, R 308 } cometllou - 
 dun, let us come, R23O5. 
 dengh, come ye, R 156, 1761. 
 
 Participle : 
 des, come, D 352. 
 
 TO GO. 
 
 Mones, O 2030, D 232 ; mos, O 1603. 
 First tense : 
 of, I go, 0339.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 69 
 
 eth, thou goest, O 2295, R 851. 
 a, he goes, R2ip7. 
 en, we go, D 2997, R 2391. 
 wgh* Y e go, 02185. 
 
 Generally, ythaf, ytheth, &c. 
 
 Second tense : 
 
 een, O 364 > 
 
 dlen, 02193 j lshould g- 
 
 Third tense : 
 
 yth, I went, O 260, D 145. 
 etheugh, ye went, O 2086. 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 ello, (when) he shall go, R 1563. 
 
 Imperative : 
 
 fee, go thou, D 649. 
 eugh, go ye, R 179. 
 ens, let them go, D 173, R 2644. 
 
 TO BEAR or CARRY. 
 Don, D 2584, R 1226, 1241; degy, D 2313. 
 
 First tense : 
 dek, R 2235, deg, O 903, 2814, he shall carry. 
 
 Third tense : 
 dug, O 268, duk, O 2244, R 2554, he carried. 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 dogo, that he may carry, 
 
 Imperative : 
 dok, D 1272, 2616 -I 
 dog, O 1945, 2200 y carry thou. 
 doga, O 1298 
 
 degyns, let him carry, O 32, 1052, 1591. 
 degeuyh, carry ye, O 2810, R 2184.
 
 70 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Participle present : 
 
 ou toon, O 2820 
 outon,08 9 2 
 
 Past: 
 
 /s, carried, O 1315. 
 
 TO KNOW. 
 
 gothfos, R468; gothfes, R 195; gothvos, 62098; govos, 
 O 2102. 
 
 Present tense : 
 
 gon, I know, R 1547. 
 gor, he knows, R 256. 
 gothough, ye know, R 2445. 
 gothons, they know, D 2774. 
 
 Future tense : 
 
 gothfythy, thou shalt know, R 2381. 
 gothvyth,T)8 49 -\ he sball know . 
 govyth, O 188 J 
 gothfetheugJi, ye shall know, R 1574. 
 
 These tenses are separated as in Welsh, where we have 
 gwn, gwr, as a present tense, and gwybydd,gwybyddwch, 
 as a future. They are analogous to the two divisions 
 of the verb substantive. 
 
 Second tense : 
 gothen, I did know, O 363. 
 9 othe S ,-D8 4 8 l thoudidstknow< 
 gothas, D 2181 J 
 
 guythen, we did know, D 1914. 
 
 
 
 Fourth tense : 
 
 gothfen, (if) we had known, R 2542. 
 gothfons, (if) they had known, D 2776. 
 
 Fifth tense : 
 
 gothefaf, (if) I know, (?) R 719. 
 yothfo, (if) he know, O 190.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 71 
 
 In re woffe, " may he know/ 1 O 530, we have the 
 fifth, or second tense, converted into an imperative 
 or optative by the verbal particle re. See p. 49. 
 Woffe \s,gothfe. 
 
 TO HAVE. 
 
 There is no verb in the Celtic language gene- 
 rally corresponding with the verb, " to have ;" in 
 Cornish as in Welsh, the deficiency is sometimes 
 supplied by cafus, " to take or find ;" but the 
 more usual substitute is like the Latin est pro 
 habeo. We find thus yma thy'mmo (est mihi), " I 
 have," D 494; mar a'm be (si mihifuerit), "if I 
 have," O 396 ; na'm byth cres (non mihi est pax), 
 "I have no peace," Rii33. In most cases the 
 verb is in the form fyth, the first tense of bos, as in 
 my a fyth, ty a fyth, D 128, " I shall have, thou 
 shalt have," &c. The Rev. R. Williams suggests 
 that this may be " I possess," &c. from a root meth, 
 the Welsh meddu ; and this would be probable, the 
 mutation of m and b being equally forv; but the 
 explanation will not suffice for the cases where the 
 form is byth. I am inclined to think that the root 
 is always bos ; that frequently the pronoun in the 
 third form (. 16. p. 27) was added to that in the 
 first form, as in why a's byth (vos vobis erii), "you 
 shall have," 2586, D 3075, R 612, 672, ny'm 
 bes (=ny'm byth, non mihi est}, "I have not," 
 6171 ', and that the sentiment of the real value of 
 the word was sometimes lost, so that ambyth and 
 asbyth were used like new verbs, as in why asbe- 
 theyth, " you shall have," D 33, and ny ambyth, "we 
 shall have," 1714. I suppose ny'm bus, R 1517, 
 22 10, "I have not," to be a variant spelling of
 
 72 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ny'm byth; na'm bes, O 1 884, to be the same, with 
 a change of the negative; and a'mbues, D 2392, 
 to be a'mbyth (mihi est) ; as bues, 01970, and 
 agas bus, R 2154, "you have," will be a's byth. 
 Am been, " which I have," O 2613, and ma'm 
 vethen, "that I may have," O 1958, are doubtful; 
 my a'n byth, " I will have it," D j 187, may be read 
 vyth, from meth, to possess ;" the v and b are very 
 much alike in the Manuscript. I cannot explain ny 
 gen byen ny, "we should not have," of R 1029, 
 except by reading bye for byen. A bew of D 2853, 
 and a's pew, D 2855, 2858, are probably cognate 
 with the Welsh piau, " to own ;" as also ty a bew, 
 " thou shalt have," 974, which I have translated 
 incorrectly. A bywfy, " which thou possessest," 
 0581, and a bewe, "which he possessed," O 
 2393, are probably from the same verb. 
 
 Another substitute for the verb "to have" is 
 found in ny's teve, O 2597, D 508, na's teve, 
 D 2647, ny's tevyth, O 300, 399, 1808, 1816, 
 a's tefo, D 788, a's tevyt, O 2328. In all these 
 I think the root is tefor tev, 'to grow' or 'come/ 
 with the pronoun " her" or " them ;" and that 
 if the meaning were " he shall have," instead of 
 "she or they shall have," we should find a'n te- 
 fyth; but this does not occur. In my note to 
 O 2597, vol. I. p. 197, the conjecture about ceve 
 appears wrong, and the version is far from literal : 
 tus, meaning "men," is always considered gram- 
 matically as a feminine singular, and s of ny's 
 agrees with it ; I should therefore have rendered, 
 " not have come to any man." The curious de- 
 fective Armoric verb devout, " to have," is clearly 
 analogous to that under consideration, and its forms 
 defe and deuz or devezo, are related to teve and 
 tevyth. See Legonidec's Grammar, p. 82.
 
 ADVERBS. 73 
 
 ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, and CON- 
 JUNCTIONS. 
 
 The following list of Adverbs, Prepositions, and 
 Conjunctions is incomplete, but it is hoped that it 
 will be found useful ; phrases from the Ordinalia, 
 exemplifying the use of each particle, are added in 
 every case. 
 
 . 35. ADVERBS. 
 coul, cowal, quite. 
 
 marrow cowal ty a vyth, killed quite thou shalt be, O 2702. 
 bones an temple coul wrys, the temple to be quite done, 
 O 2581. 
 
 kepar, " like, as," takes ha with a substantive, and 
 del with a verb. 
 
 kepar ha kuen, like dogs, R 172. 
 kepar ha deu, like a god, O 290. 
 kepar ha my, like me, O 2350. 
 kepar del ve, as it was, O 872. 
 kepar del vynny, as thou wilt, 1046. 
 
 But we find 
 
 kepar hag on, as we are, 894. 
 kepar ha me a welas, as I saw, R 1076. 
 
 and in one case, 
 kepar ha del leverys, as I said, D 2690. 
 
 fattel 2 , fatel, fettel, fettyl, how. 
 
 fattel duthys yn ban, how didst thou come up? R 2568. 
 ny won fatel yl wharfos, I know not how it can be, R 229. 
 fettel allaf vy crygy, how can I believe ? R 1423. 
 prederys peb fettyl otto gorfenne, let all think how it can 
 end, O 228. 
 
 prak, prag, pragh, why. 
 
 prak y wreta thymmo amme, why dost thou kiss me? 
 
 Diio5. 
 
 prak y's guy sky th, why dost thou wear it ? R 2549. 
 
 E
 
 74 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pragh yth hembrenkygk, why do ye lead ? D 204. 
 prag yth yu the thyllas ruth, why are thy garments red ? 
 R 2567. 
 
 may a-, maga , as. 
 
 maga whyn (guyn) avel an leth, as white as the milk, 
 
 u 3138- 
 
 maga tek bythqueth delfue, as fair as ever he was, R 1659. 
 maga ta, "as well-,'* is used in the sense of "also," 
 
 as in English : 
 
 den ha best magata, man and beast also, O 995. 
 ha war the treys magata, and on thy feet also, D 488. 
 
 nannia, almost. 
 
 namnag of pur thai, I am almost quite blind, O 1056. 
 namna'n dallas, almost blinded us, R 42. 
 
 ken, else. 
 
 ken ef a wra ou shyndye, else he will spit at me, O 2133. 
 
 bo ken deaul yw, or else he is a devil, R 2104. 
 
 When the sentence is negative, we find nahen (na ken), 
 although the negation be otherwise expressed ; as 
 nahen na grys, think not otherwise, R 2038. See 
 also R 1126. 
 
 ot, ota, otte, wetta, weUe, see, behold. 
 
 ot omma meneth huhel, see here a high mountain, D 125. 
 
 ot omme an guas, see here the fellow, R 1803. 
 
 ota saw bos, see the load of food, O 1053. 
 
 otte the earn, behold thy mother, D 2928. 
 
 ow ottoma*, see with me (?) R 2177. 
 
 a wetta ny, dost thou see us ? D 2050. 
 
 a welte theflogh, seest thou thy son ? D 2925. 
 
 The occurrence of these last forms shews the derivation 
 from the verb. 
 
 yn weth> yn weyth, also. 
 
 ha nefyn weth, and heaven also, D 290. 
 map deu os ha den yn weyth, son, of God thou art and man 
 likewise, D 278. 
 
 a See the note to O 882, in p. 207 of the Ordinalia, vol. II.
 
 ADVERBS. 75 
 
 stesen, perhaps. 
 
 yn ur-na martesen, in that hour perhaps, D 2870. 
 
 See the note to this passage in p. 213, vol. II. Ordinalia. 
 
 bytegyns, bytygyns, nevertheless. 
 
 saw bytygyns cresough why, but nevertheless believe ye, 
 
 R 1300. 
 saw bytegyns ragon ny, but nevertheless for us, R 980. 
 
 See also R 1016. 
 
 re 2 , too much. 
 
 thotho byny vye re, for him never would it be too much, 
 
 R 2056. 
 
 re hyr, too long, O 2548. 
 re got (cot), too short, O 2549. 
 
 moghya, moghye, moghe, most. 
 
 neb may fe moghya geffys, he who is forgiven most, D 513. 
 See D 510, 514. 
 
 ketella, kettella, so. 
 
 nep a rella yn ketella, whoever has done so, O 2240. 
 yn kettella ny a vyn, so we will, D 243. 
 
 mar-, so. 
 
 mar tha (da), so good, O 912. 
 mar ger (ker), so dear, O 612. 
 
 pe feste mar bel (pel), where hast thou been so long, 
 477 . 
 
 pwr 2 , very. 
 
 pur tha (da), very good, O 2572. 
 pur thai (dal), very blind, O 1056. 
 pur wyr (guyr), very true, R 1004. 
 
 bras, very, used after the adjective. 
 
 del yu ef aallosek bras, as he is very powerful, () 1494. 
 the colon yw cales bras, thy heart is very hard, 1525. 
 
 fest, very, also after the adjective. 
 
 wolcumfest, very welcome, D 1207. 
 yeynfest yu an awel, very cold is the weather, D 1209. 
 E 2
 
 76 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Adverbs of place, 
 oinma, omme, umma, here. 
 
 fatel thutheugh why omma, how did ye come here, R 193. 
 ot omme an guas, see here the fellow, R 1803. 
 Adam ottensy umma, Adam, behold her here, O 102. 
 
 ena, eno, there. 
 
 ena yn dour, there in the water, R 2196. 
 
 eno ny a'n recevas, there we received him, R 2339. 
 
 pie (=pa le), where. 
 
 ny won pie fe, I know not where it may be, O 1112. 
 pie me, where is it ? R 46. 
 
 a ves, outside. 
 agy. inside. 
 
 aves hag agy, without and within, O 953. 
 
 lies (ves), the AVelsh maes, forms also the following ad- 
 verbs : 
 
 the ves, away. 
 yn mes, out. 
 
 gallas an glow the ves, the rain is gone away, O 1097. 
 
 da yu yn mes dyllo bran, it is good to send out a crow, 
 O 1099. 
 
 alena, alene, thence. 
 alemma, hence. 
 
 These adverbs are really phrases meaning " from that 
 place," and " from this place," and I have often so 
 divided them, though they are not distinguished in 
 that way in the Manuscript. See R 2138, D 649, 
 O 1945. 
 
 aber, aberth, aberveth, berth, within. 
 
 th'y worre aber yn beth, to put him within the grave 
 
 R 2108. 
 
 aberth yn beyth, within the grave, R 2083. 
 dun aberveth, let us come inside, O 1062. 
 berth yn bys-ma, within this world, R 860.
 
 ADVERBS. 77 
 
 adro, around. 
 
 tra ny vyth yn pow adro, there is not a thing in the 
 
 country round, O 189. 
 o'n beis ol adro, of the world all around, O 404. 
 
 adrus, adrues, athwart, across, against. 
 
 ftdrus musury, measure athwart, O 393. 
 
 tresters ty a pyn adrus, beams thou shall nail across, 
 
 9 6 4 . 
 kyn whrylly cous adrues, though thou do speak against it, 
 
 Ri7 9 2. 
 
 a hys, a lieys, along. 
 
 yroweth a hys, lie at length, O 653. 
 groweth a keys, lie along, O 1334. 
 
 oges, near. 
 
 na mos oges the'n wet hen, nor go near to the tree, O 184. 
 na nyl oges nag yn pel, not one near nor at a distance, 
 O 1141. 
 
 pel } far. 
 
 yma moyses pel gyllys, Moses is far gone, O 1682. 
 
 a rag, in front. 
 
 war an brest a rag, on the hreast in front, O 2717. 
 
 yn rag, forward, forth. 
 
 deuyh yn rag ketep onan, come forward every one, O 2683. 
 dus yn rag, come forth, O 2403. 
 
 yn keryh, on, away. 
 
 ke yn kergh dywhans, go away quickly, R 116. 
 
 a'n beth yn kergh gyllys, gone away from the tomb, R 809. 
 
 yn ban, up. 
 
 bynyfha na thue yn ban, he will never come up, R 2139. 
 Adam saf yn ban, Adam, stand up, O 65.
 
 78 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Adverbs of time, 
 ytho, now, then. 
 
 ytho pyth yu the citsyl, now what is thy advice ? R 25. 
 
 ytho thy'rn lavar, now tell me, R 787. 
 
 ytho thy'nny yth hevel, then to us it appears, D 1489. 
 
 This appears to be rather the conjunction equivalent to 
 the French or, than the true adverb of time : as in the 
 Scripture phrase, " Now it came to pass." I am not 
 quite sure that this is not the ease often with the fol- 
 lowing also. 
 
 itmyn, lenimyn, lemman, now. 
 
 lemmyn a abesteleth, now, O apostles ! R 893. 
 
 lemyn sur yth yu eun hys, now, surely it is the right 
 
 length, O 2525. 
 
 lemyn ef yu agan guas, now he is our fellow, O 910. 
 lemman warbarth ow jleghys, now together, my children, 
 
 0307. 
 
 yn tor-ma, in this time, now. 
 
 na vo marow yn tor-ma, that he be not killed now, D 2446. 
 
 agensow, agynsow, lately, just now. 
 
 me a'n guelas agynsow, I saw him recently, R 896. 
 agensow my a'n guelas, I saw him recently, R 9 1 1 . 
 
 avar, early. 
 dewetheS) late. 
 
 ha dewethes hag avar, both late and early, O 629. 
 ha deug avar, and come early, D 3239. 
 
 by nary, betiary, for ever. 
 
 yn ponvotter venary, in trouble for ever, O 898. 
 
 ny'th ty nahafbynary, I will not deny thee ever, D 907. 
 
 bynytha, never more. 
 
 bynytha ny thue yn ban, never will he come up, R 2139. 
 my ny vennaf growethe bynytha, I will never more lie 
 down, O 625.
 
 ADVERBS. 79 
 
 nefre, neffre, ever. 
 
 nefre y fyth avey, ever shall be enmity, 0314. 
 
 nefre thy so re bo, ever be it on thee, O 46 1 . 
 
 the gous a bref neffre, thy speech proves ever, D 1408. 
 
 avorow, to-morrow. 
 
 gueytyeugh bones avorow, take care to be to-morrow, 
 
 O 2299. 
 deug avar avorow, come early to-morrow, D 3240. 
 
 hytheu, hythew, to-day. 
 
 na moy cous thy'm hythew, no more talk to me to-day, 
 
 R 1940. 
 wheth bys hythew, yet till to-day, R 1550. 
 
 uthesempys, dyssempys, &c., immediately. 
 
 athysempys thu'm tage, immediately to choak me, D 1528. 
 
 toth, touth, haste. 
 
 This word appears to be a noun, used in combination 
 
 adverbially. 
 ow treyle thotho touth da, turning from him speedily, 
 
 (i. e. good haste) D 558. 
 
 heeth ou bool touth ta, reach my axe quickly, O 1001. 
 Mo'm gurek ha'm flehes totta, to my wife and children 
 
 speedily, O 1036. (Totta = toth ta.) 
 
 cowyth dun toth da, companion, let us come quickly, 
 D643- 
 
 In D 660 we have gans touth bras, " with great haste," 
 shewing that the word is a substantive; and in D 662 
 toth men, of the same meaning, but which I do not 
 understand. 
 
 kettoth, ketoth, as soon as. 
 
 kettoth an ger, as soon as the word, O 1908. 
 kettoth ha'n ger, as soon as the word, R 1970. 
 ketoth ha'n ger, as soon as the word, O 2272. 
 
 arte, again. 
 
 gorryn ef yn beth arte, let us put him into the grave again, 
 
 R 2100. 
 ny'm guelyth arte, thou shalt not see me again, O 244.
 
 80 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 solathyth, solabrys, some time ago. 
 
 I 'find this compound adverb half a dozen times ; the 
 root is clearly sol, and the addition is prys, " time," 
 or dyth, " day." See solabrys, O 2322 ; solabreys, 
 O 2747; sollabreys, D 746; solathyth,O 2612; sola- 
 theth, R 1929, and sollathyth, R 2380. 
 
 kyns, before. 
 
 teke ages kyns y van, fairer than it stood before, D 348. 
 
 y fue kyns y vos gurys, there were, before it was done, 
 
 D 3 5o. 
 warlergh, afterwards. 
 
 sou me warlergh drehevel, but I, risen afterwards, D 896. 
 
 whare, wharre, soon. 
 
 ha whare a, and will soon go, O 642. 
 
 may tewe an tan wharre > that the fire may light soon, D 1 22 1 . 
 
 yn makes an adverb of a substantive or adjective ; 
 sometimes it is yn^, sometimes yn, and sometimes 
 no change is made. 
 yn sur, surely, R 529. 
 yn teffry, really, R 565. 
 yn pur deffry, very really, D 300. 
 yn tyen, entirely, O 2589. 
 yn guyr, truly, O 2541. 
 yn len, faithfully, O 2608. 
 yn ta, well, O 2523. 
 
 the ierusalem ynfen, to Jerusalem quite, O 1948. 
 ynfen guren ny, quite let us do, R 1242. 
 
 [ynfen = to the end.] 
 ynfelen, as a felon, O 2653. 
 yn kettep guas, every fellow, D 1350. 
 
 . 36. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 a?, of or from. (See . 17, p. 31.) 
 
 luen a byte (pyte), full of pity, O 2369. 
 
 a pup squythens y sawye, from all weariness cure him, 
 
 D 4 77- 
 
 terrys ol a'y le, broken all from its place, D 356.
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 81 
 
 adre, adres, adro, around. 
 
 adres pow, around the country, R 1477. 
 adre thelhe, around them, O 2097. 
 adro thotho, around it, O 2101. 
 adro thethy, around it (feminine), O 778. 
 
 agy, agey, within ; (followed by the.) 
 
 agy the lyst, in the lists, R 223. 
 
 ayy the ewhe an geyth, within the evening of the day. 
 
 11275. 
 agey the'n cyte, within the city, D 627. 
 
 athyworth, thy worth, theworth, from. 
 
 kyns denas athyworto, before withdrawing from it, O 1401. 
 my a's pren thyworthys, I will buy it of thee, D 1555. 
 thyworth ow pen, from my head, D 1145. 
 theworth urry re thuk, hast taken from Uriah, O 2244. 
 
 athyrag, in presence of. 
 
 athyragough me a pys, before you I pray, D 1414. 
 athyragof my re weles, I have seen before me, O 1955. 
 
 a-ugh, over. 
 
 nyg a-ugh lues pow, fly over many countries, O 1136. 
 
 the tacky' e a-ugh y pen, to fasten it over his head, D 2808. 
 
 avel, as, like. 
 
 avel gos, like blood, R 2500. 
 avel dewow, like gods, O 178. 
 avel servant, like a servant, D 804. 
 
 awos, notwithstanding, because of. 
 
 awos ol ow yallos, notwithstanding all my power, D 53. 
 awos the then na'y vestry, notwithstanding thy god and his 
 
 power, O 2738. 
 
 ny yl bos awos an beys, it cannot be for the world, R 247 r . 
 awos deu, for God's sake, O 2564. 
 
 bys, as far as. 
 
 bys yn ierusalem ke, unto Jerusalem go, O 1928. 
 bys yn y chy, even to his house, D 648. 
 bys dethfyn, till the last day, D 724. 
 
 E 3
 
 82 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 dan, under. 
 
 yn dan gen, under the chin, O 2712. 
 
 a than the glok, from under thy cloak, D 2682. 
 
 yn dan an chek, under the kettle, R 139. 
 
 dre, for, by, through. (See . 17, p. 31.) 
 
 hy a'n gruk dre kerense, she did it for love, D 549. 
 dre owfynys, through my pains, D 45. 
 dre un venen wharvethys, wrought by a woman, O 620. 
 kentrow dre ow thrys, nails through my feet, R 2587. 
 
 dres, dreys, over, beyond. 
 
 dres dyfen ou arluth ker, beyond the prohibition of my dear 
 
 Lord, O 172. 
 
 ou; mos dres pow, going over the country, R 1511. 
 dreys dour tyber, through the river Tiber, R 2214. 
 
 er, by. 
 
 er an treys, by the feet, R 2082. 
 erthefyth, on thy faith, O 1441. 
 er an thewen, by the gods, O 2651. 
 
 Er appears to be identical with or and war j see note to 
 D 202, vol. I. p. 236. 
 
 erbyn, against, towards. (Lat. obviam.} 
 
 erbyn a laha, against law, D 572. 
 erbyn haf, against summer, 031. 
 
 Erbyn, with a pronoun, receives the pronoun between 
 er and byn, making the usual mutations ; as er owfyn, 
 R2573; erybyn,D23$. See . n. p. 18. 
 
 gans, with, (accompanying.) (See . 17, p. 31.) 
 
 gans ow tas, with my father, D 727. 
 
 lanters gans golow, lanterns with light, D 609. 
 
 gans, by, with, (instrument, manner, cause, agency.) 
 
 gans ow deu lagas me a wel, with my eyes I see, D 410. 
 gans myyn gureugh hy knoukye, with stones strike her, 
 O 2694. 
 
 gans peder ha iowan parys, by Peter and John prepared, 
 
 D 700. 
 gans touth bras, with great speed, D 660.
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 83 
 
 hep*-. 
 
 y a treniyn hep thanger, they shall pass without danger, 
 
 O 1615. 
 
 hep thout, without doubt, O 2668. 
 hep worfcn, without end, D 1562. 
 
 herwyth, herweth, according to. 
 
 herwyth y volungeth ef, according to his will, O 1320. 
 herweth the grath, according to thy grace, O 2253. 
 
 kyns-, before. 
 
 kyns pen try dyth, before the end of three days, D 347. 
 kyns vyttyn, before morning, O 1644. 
 
 lemmyn, except. 
 
 nag ens deu byth lemnfyn ef, there are no gods except him, 
 
 mamas, except. 
 
 war pep ol mamas ty, over all but thee, O 948. 
 
 mes, yn mes, out of. 
 greugh y tenne mes a'n dour, drag him out of the water, 
 
 R 2232. 
 tynneugh yn mes agan temple, drag out of our temple, 
 
 O 2693. 
 mar seugh mes a dre, if you go from home, O 2185. 
 
 rag, rak, for, because of. (See . 17, p. 30.) 
 rak eun kerenge, for real love, D 483. 
 rak ow anclythyas, for my burial, D 548. 
 rak the servys, for thy service, D 613. 
 teweugh rak meth, silence for shame, R 1495. 
 yw ou colon trogh rag agas cows, my heart is broken be- 
 
 cause of your talk, R 1365. 
 rag the offryn ker, because of thy dear offering, O 567. 
 
 rag, from. 
 
 guythys rak an bylen, preserved from the evil one, D 41. 
 guyth vy rak an ioul, preserve me from the devil, R 1564. 
 guythe ef rag tarofvan, preserve it from fantoms, O 2364. 
 
 a rak, before, in presence of. 
 
 a rak pilat, before Pilate, R 2593. 
 
 a rak agan lagasow, before our eyes, R 1492.
 
 84 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 re, by, (swearing.) 
 
 re iovyn, by Jove, O 1532. 
 
 re synt iovyn, by Saint Jove, R 349. 
 
 re deu an tas, by God the Father, O 1919. 
 
 ryp, beside, near. 
 
 ryp ihesu cryst gorrys, put beside Jesus Christ, R 266. 
 me a gosk ryp y pen, I will sleep by his head, R 418. 
 In the line yn plas us omma rybon, D 460, we have 
 clearly the preposition ryp joined to the pronoun of 
 the ist pers. plural : rybon, " beside us." 
 
 saw, except, without. 
 
 saw y ober ha'y thyskes, without his work and his teaching, 
 
 D57- 
 
 ny hynwys thy'm saw pedar, he named none to me except 
 
 Peter, R 916. 
 
 tan, by. 
 
 tan oufeth, on my faith, O 2534. 
 (Not found elsewhere.) 
 
 the, to. (See . 17, p. 31.) 
 
 thyworth, theworth, from. See athyworth. 
 
 trogha, troha, towards. 
 stop an wethen trogha'n dor, bend the tree towards the 
 
 ground, O 201. 
 
 fystyn trogha par athys, hasten towards Paradise, O 332. 
 troha ken pow, towards another country, O 344. 
 fystynyuyh troha 'n daras, hasten towards the door, O 349. 
 
 war 12 , upon. (See . 17, p. 31.) 
 
 war veneth (meneth), upon a mountain, O 1281. 
 war beyn (peyn) cregy, on pain of hanging, O 2280. 
 war thu (du), to God, D 40, 357. 
 war tyr veneges, on blessed ground, O 1407. 
 
 warlergh, after, according to, (receives a governed 
 pronoun in the middle, like erbyn.) 
 
 warlergh the gussullyow, after thy counsels, O 2269. 
 war the lergh owth ymwethe, craving after thee, R 1170. 
 war aga lergh fy sty nyn, after them let us hasten, O 1641.
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 85 
 
 worth, at, to, against. (See . 17^.32.) 
 
 the tros ivorth men, thy foot against a stone, D 98. 
 worth an trey tor, to the traitor, D 1449. 
 
 wose, woge, after. 
 
 sythyn wose hemma, a week after this, O 1026. 
 woge soper, after supper, D 834. 
 
 wos. (Not found elsewhere.) 
 wostalleth na wosteweth, at first, nor at last, O 2762. 
 
 This may be equivalent to war + dalleth, and war + de- 
 weth ; compare wor tyweth, D 1818. 
 
 yn, in, into. (See . 1 7, p. 30.) 
 
 nyn sa yn agas ganow, it goes not into your mouth, 
 
 01913. 
 
 yn ou enef, in my soul, D 1022. 
 yn pup termyn, at all times, D 1040. 
 
 yntre, ynter, among, between. 
 
 yntre y thyns (dyns) ha'y davas (tavas), between his teeth 
 
 and his tongue, O 826. 
 yntre an mor ha'n tyryow, between the sea and the lands, 
 
 O 26. 
 
 yntre and ynter take th before a pronoun, like the pre- 
 positions enumerated in . 17. 
 yntretho ha'y gowethe, between him and his companions* 
 
 DJ288. 
 yntrethe gasaf ow ras, among them I leave my grace, 
 
 R 1584. 
 
 yntrethon, between us, O 936. 
 ol ores yntrethough, all peace among you, R 2433. 
 me a thybarth ynterthoyh, I will divide between ye, D 2325.
 
 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 . 37. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 aban, since, because. 
 
 aban ywe yh della, since it is so, D 1953. 
 
 aban golste worty hy, because thou hearkenedst to her, 
 
 0269. 
 aban na vynta cresy, since thou wilt not believe, O 241. 
 
 ages, es, ys, eys, than. 
 
 teke ages kyns, fairer than before, D 348. 
 
 tekke alter es del us genen, a fairer altar than such as is 
 with us, O 1179. 
 
 yueth ys ky, worse than a dog, R 2026. 
 
 hacre mernans eys emlathe, a more cruel death than self- 
 killing, R 2073. 
 
 Es and ages take suffixed pronouns, as do the prepo- 
 sitions enumerated in . 17. 
 ken deu agesos, another God than thou, R 2477. 
 ken arluth agesso ef, another Lord than him, O 1789. 
 y fynnaf vy mos pella esough, I will go further than you, 
 
 R 1299. 
 ken agesough, other than you, O 2357. 
 
 bo, or. 
 
 bo ken deaul yw, or else he is a devil, R 2104. 
 
 drefen, because. 
 
 drefen na fynnyth crygy, because thou wilt not believe, 
 
 Rno6. 
 drefen un ivyth the henwel, because of once calling on thee, 
 
 O 2724. 
 
 erna, until. 
 
 erna wrello tremene, until she be dead, O 2695. 
 erna'n prenny, until thou pay for it, O 2653. 
 
 ha, and. 
 
 map ha tas, Son and Father, D 297. 
 
 ou tus hammy (ha my), my people and me, O 971. 
 
 Takes g before a vowel, as, hag yn tyr, and in the earth, 
 O 27 ; hag ef ha kemmys, both he and as many as, 
 R 1760.
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 87 
 
 re, whilst, as long as. 
 
 hedre vyyn ou predery, whilst I am considering, O 2035. 
 hedre veyn beu, as long as I am living, D 115. 
 hedre vy may fo anken, until it be that death is, O 276. 
 hedre vo yn (he herwyth, as long as it is in thy power, 
 
 O 1464. 
 
 hedre vyuyh byu, as long as ye are living, O 2349. 
 hedre vyns y yn ou gulas, as long as they shall be in my 
 
 kingdom, O 1503. 
 
 /, ken, though. 
 kynfe terrys, though it be broken, D 354. 
 ken nag of guy w, though I am not worthy, D 481. 
 kyn wrello son, though he should make a noise, R 2016. 
 
 kettel, when. 
 
 kettel tersys an bar a, when thou didst break the bread, 
 
 Ri 3 i8. 
 kettel thueth er agan pyn, when he came to meet us, 
 
 lemmyn, but. 
 
 nyn syu gulan lemmyn mostys, it is not clean but dirty, 
 
 lemmyn yn tan bos cuthys, but in fire to be covered, R 2326. 
 
 in<i, that. 
 
 pys e ma'n danfonno, pray him that he send him, R 1620. 
 ma na wothfo gorthyby, that he may not know how to re- 
 
 ply, D 1660. 
 ma gas bo, that it be to you (that you may have), D 226. 
 
 mar", mara , if. 
 
 mar qureugh (gureugh] ou wylas, if ye do seek me, D nil. 
 
 mar a'n pesaf ef, if I pray him, D 1 166. 
 
 mara keusysfalsury, if I spoke falsehood, D 1271. 
 
 mara pet he (bethe) lei iuggys, if he be fairly judged, D 1344. 
 
 mara qureta (gureta), if thou dost, D 1385. 
 
 Before the verb substantive, and some others with an 
 initial vowel, mar takes s or th, which apparently had 
 nearly the same sound; (see .4. p. 8); as mar syu, 
 "if he is," R 520; mar sos, "if thou art," D 60 ; 
 mar seth, "if thou go," O 2652 ; mar seugh, "if you 
 go," O 2185 ; mar thes, " if thou be," O 608. Mara
 
 88 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 is frequently used in this case : mara syw, " if it be," 
 O 2563, R828 ; mara setke, " if he he gone," R 538. 
 The Manuscript is not constant in dividing the words, 
 and I have also been very uncertain about it in the 
 text : I should now be inclined to join the * or th to 
 the verb, considering it, in the verb-substantive at 
 least, to be a restoration of the original sibilant. See 
 
 P-93- 
 
 Perhaps we should always write mar a divided; the 
 division is complete in R 2542, two words inter- 
 vening : mar fur torment a cothfen, "if we had known 
 the cruel torment." 
 marnes, mars, unless. 
 
 marnes drethos vernona, unless by thee Veronica, R 2220. 
 mars dre mur our, unless by much gold, R 1964. 
 mars cryst a weres, unless Christ helps, R 2132. 
 mas in R 47 and O 1504 may be put for mars. 
 
 may, that. 
 
 may tewe an tan wharre, that the fire may kindle soon, 
 
 Dl22I. 
 
 mes, but. 
 
 mes mara keusys yn lei, but if I have spoken truly, D 1273. 
 
 pan 2 , when, since. 
 
 han vyrwyf (myrwyf), when I die, D 227. 
 pan cam worthybys, when he answered rudely, D 1403. 
 pan theugh marfreth, when you come so bold, D ni5. a 
 Pan appears to be used also in the way of deprecation, 
 
 as, 
 
 govy pan y'n gruga, wo is me that I did it ! D 1434. 
 ellas vyth pan ruk cole, alas ! that I ever listened, O 626. 
 
 rag, rak, raah, for, because. 
 
 rag pur tha ew, for it is very good, O 2572. 
 
 ragh map an pla, for the son of evil, D 10. 
 
 rak the vones dyvytfiys, for that thou art come, D 280. 
 
 py, or. 
 
 pynak vo lettrys py lek, whether he be lettered or lay, 
 D68i. 
 
 a This is probably a present tense of the verb dones, ' to 
 come.'
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 89 
 
 yn nep bos tewl py yn sorn, in some hush, hole, or in a 
 
 corner, R 539. 
 nep a serf py a tlieber, he who serves, or who eats, D 799. 
 
 sau, saw, but. 
 
 sau dystogh hy a vyth due, but soon it will be done, O 2178. 
 sau an ethyn byneges, but the blessed birds, O 1067. 
 saw bytegyns ragon ny, but nevertheless for us, R 980. 
 
 . 38. CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The few observations collected while making the 
 version of the Dramas are too desultory to admit of 
 the name of Syntax ; much of what might pass 
 under that name is incorporated with the preceding- 
 pages, and the few remaining observations are set 
 down here without much pretension to system. It 
 may be observed once for all, that the exigencies of 
 metre have apparently compelled the author of 
 these Dramatic Writings to such inversions and ir- 
 regularities as are met with in all earlier attempts 
 at metrical composition. 
 
 When a transitive verb governs an accusative 
 substantive, the pronoun corresponding with the 
 substantive is often added, as, me a's ygor an dar- 
 asoWy R 638, literally, " I will open them the 
 doors;" an mernans me a'n kymmer, 1332, " the 
 death I will take it ;" ha henna ny a'n guylvyth, 
 R 53, fi and that we shall see it ;" an gorhel my 
 a'n gura, 966, " the ship I will make it." 
 
 When a verb which has a plural subject comes 
 before the subject, it does not agree with it, but is 
 put in the singular : as, y fifth agati enefow, " our 
 souls shall be," D 75 ; re'n kergho an dewolow, 
 "may the devils fetch him," R 2277.
 
 90 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 When a verb in the infinitive mood follows a 
 verb implying motion, it is commonly preceded by 
 the, as in English by the corresponding particle 
 "to:" as, 
 
 dun ny the veras, let us come to see, O 2325. 
 dun the gyrhas, let us come to fetch, O 2371. 
 mos the vyras, to go to see, D 1399. 
 eugh th'y drehy, go to cut it, O 2505. 
 deu cCm danfonas the wofyn, God sent me to ask, O 1431. 
 But we have also ray, as in dun rag offrynna, " let us 
 come to offer," O 1307. Dun, 'come,' in these cases is 
 like the English ' come along,' where other languages 
 use ' go.' 
 
 When the infinitive expresses the object or aim 
 of a verb going before, it is preceded by rag, corre- 
 sponding with the French pour, and our own vulgar 
 "for:" as, 
 
 gorre an prynner rag lesky an sacryfys, put the wood 
 
 (for) to burn the sacrifice, O 1324. 
 lafurye a wra rak dry den, he will labour to bring man, 
 
 Di6. 
 
 ny a vyn mos rak y worthe, we will go to worship him, 
 D2 3 6, 
 
 After an auxiliary verb the infinitive comes im- 
 mediately, without any preposition : as, 
 
 mar mynnyth hy dystrewy, if thou wilt destroy her, O 2675. 
 ny vennaf cafus le, I will not take less, D 594. 
 na allaf kerthes, nor can I go on, O 374. 
 ma yllyn mos, that we may go, D 708. 
 
 But we have also 
 mennaf the terry, I will break, D 485. 
 
 and sometimes there is no preposition where we 
 should expect to find the ; as, 
 
 me a'th pys agan sawye, I pray thee to save us, D 272. 
 
 Instead of using the conjunction "that" with 
 another verb in the indicative mood, as in most 
 European languages, it is usual to put the second
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 91 
 
 verb in the infinitive, preceded by the persona] pro- 
 noun, as is common in Latin : 
 
 ha cons ef the thasserhy, and say that he has risen, R 24. 
 marth a'm hues ty the leverel folneth, it is a wonder to, me 
 
 that thou shouldst speak folly, R 961. 
 nyn sa y'm colon why the geusel, it goes not into my heart, 
 
 (i.e. I do not believe) that you have spoken, R 1481. 
 del won the bos, as I know thee to be, R 859. 
 
 The subjunctive mood is used in its natural signi- 
 fication : that is to say, whenever the verb expresses 
 an uncertainty, or expectation, or contingency of 
 any sort, without regard to any conjunction pre- 
 ceding ; thus Mary Magdalene says, ken nag of 
 guyw, "though I am not worthy," D 481, in the 
 indicative mood, acknowledging her own unworthi- 
 ness ; but the gaoler directs his servant to put 
 Pilate in prison, kyn wrello son, " though he may 
 make a noise," R 2016; and this notwithstanding 
 both verbs are preceded by the same conjunction : the 
 French language would use the subjunctive in both 
 cases ; quoiqueje sois^ and quoiqu'ilfasse. So del 
 os luen a ras, " as thou art full of grace," 1 06, 
 in the indicative, expressing a full belief, and del 
 y'm kyrry, "as thou lovest me," 537, in the sub- 
 junctive, where a doubt is implied. This is however 
 not always observed; the Cornish writers were 
 hardly skilled enough in composition to be always 
 accurately guided, and rhyme or metre was fre- 
 quently exigent. The following examples of the 
 subjunctive mood will suffice to give an insight into 
 its use. 
 
 er na wrello tremene, (beat her) until she be dead, O 2695. 
 
 er na'n prenny, (thou shalt not get away) until thou pay for 
 it, O 2653. 
 
 kynfe an temple dyswrys, though the temple were destroy- 
 ed, D 365.
 
 92 CORNISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 may hyllyfy lathe, (give me a sword) that I may kill him, 
 
 R 1969. 
 pys e thy'm ma'n danfonno, pray him that he send him to 
 
 me, R 1620. 
 
 ma na wothfo, that he shall not know, D 1660. 
 dre clethe nep a vewo, he who lives by the sword, D 1 158. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 Since the preceding sheets were printed, the following forms 
 have been noticed in the irregular verbs : 
 
 In p. 68. ist tense, deugh, ye come, D 1115. 
 
 dethons, they come, Pas. 258, i. 
 Imperative, deug, come ye, R 3239. 
 In p. 70. 2d tense, gothyen, I knew, R 2544, 2559. 
 
 gothye, he knew, Pas. 101, 2. 
 ? got ham, Pas. 245. 3. 
 4th tense, gothfes, thou knewest. O 151. 
 5th tense, gothfy, thou shall know, D 1042. 
 Participle, gothvethys, known, O 1520. 
 In p. 63, apparently in the 4th tense of the verb sub- 
 stantive, beyn, D 115. 
 
 byyn, O 2035. qu. plural. 
 byugh, O 2349. 
 byns, O 1503.
 
 93 
 
 The following forms of Irregular Verbs may be 
 added to the preceding ; they have been found 
 since the others were printed. 
 
 dora, I should bring, R 1789. 
 drew, bring ye, D 178. 
 drewh, bring ye, R 1776. 
 druth, brought, R 2492. 
 druyth, brought, O 1621. 
 dres, brought, D 1569.' 
 dues, to come, R 647. 
 deve, I come, R 2620. 
 de, will come, O 2431, D 541. 
 dy, will come, D 1654. 
 dufe, (if) he come, R 7. 
 den, let us come, 2543. 
 deugh, ye come, D 1115. 
 ditegh, come ye, R 323. 
 dens, let them come, D 694. 
 dothe, may come, O 1744. 
 dothye,1 R 2450. 
 ow tos, coming, D 370, R 145. 
 eth, he went, 3rd tense, R 835. 
 ytty, thou shalt go, 5th tense, R 2452. 
 ou mos, going, R 2298. 
 gothyen, I knew, 2nd tense, R 2544, 2559. 
 gothyan, I knew, 2nd tense, R 2614. 
 gothfen, I should know, 4th tense, D 1287. 
 gothjye, he would know, 4th tense, D 490. 
 gothfough, ye should know, 4th tense, D 2156. 
 gother, the passive, O 2332. 
 guren, I would do, 2nd tense, D 1622, R 1894. 
 gurefa, he may do, 2nd tense, R 2473. 
 p
 
 94 
 
 gurell&ugh, you may do, 2nd tense, D 2196. 
 grussyn, we did, 3rd tense, R 1341. 
 gruga (that) I did, 3rd tense, D 1434. 
 
 When the present participle governs a pronoun, it is 
 made by orth or worth, instead of ou or ow : as ymons 
 y orth y sywe, they are following him, 1688 ; y these 
 gans Ihesu worth y servye, he was with Jesus serving 
 him, D 1406. See also D 342, 442, 1141, 1333, 2994.
 
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