GIFT OF 
 
THE ORIGIN 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ENGLISH, 
 
 GERMANIC AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES, 
 
 AND NATIONS; 
 
 A SKETCH OF THEIR EARLY LITERATURE 
 
 AND SHORT CHRONOLOGICAL SPECIMENS OF 
 
 ANGLO - SAXON, FRIESIC, FLEMISH, DUTCH, GERMAN FR03I 
 
 THE MGESO-GOTHS TO THE PRESENT TIME, ICELANDIC, 
 
 NORWEGIAN, AND SWEDISH; 
 
 TRACING THE PROGRESS OF THESE LANGUAGES, AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH: 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ORIENTAL ORIGIN OF ALPHABETIC WRITING, 
 
 AND ITS EXTENSION TO THE WEST. 
 
 A MAP OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES 
 
 IS PREFIXED, 
 
 WITH NOTES, ON THE PROGRESSn'E POPULATION OF EUROPE FROM THE EAST, BY 
 
 THE IBERIANS, FINNS, CELTS, AND GERMANS, ESPECIALLY REFERRING TO 
 
 THE SETTLEMENT OF THE SAXONS IN BRITAIN. 
 
 BY 
 
 THE REV. JOSEPH BOSWORTH, D.D. F.R.S. F.S.A 
 
 DB. PHIL. OF LETDEN, ETC. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BT 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 
 M DCCCXLVIII. 
 
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r 
 
 r A « A 
 
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 NOTTraOHAM: 
 
 FEINTED Bf WILLIAM DEARDEM, 
 
 CARLTON STREET. 
 
 « 1 « 
 
 (■ I « 1 < 
 
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EXPLANATION OF THE MAP OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 vian, {see VI). — 2. The Western, Teutonic or German. The people belonging to this Teutonic 
 branch, made great conquests, having more or less influence, not only in Asia and as far south as 
 Egypt, but over the middle and south of Europe, and the north-west of Africa, as denoted on the 
 
 Map by , made more distinct by a thin line of lahe colour. The modern Gennanic 
 
 Dialects in Europe are now confined to the countries'^ tinted lake. They are separated into two 
 divisions, the Low and the High German. The LOW-German, in the flat, low, or northern part 
 of Germany, comprehends the tlialects of Courland, Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenbiu'g, Mecklin- 
 burg, Hanover, Westphalia, Gelderland, Overyssel, Flanders, Holland, (the Dutch) Friesland, 
 England, Holstein, and Sleswick (See in Map north of::: = ::: = left white in the midst of lake). Eng- 
 lish with its parent, the Anglo-Saxon, was introduced from Sleswdck into Britain by the Jutes, 
 Saxons, and Angles. 
 
 Jdtes. Angles. 
 
 1. Jutes ia Kent, &c. about a.d. 449 5. East-Auglia in Norfolk, &c. aliout A.D. 527 
 
 Saxons. 6. Bernicia in Northumberland, &c. . . 547 
 
 2. South-Saxons in Sussex . . . 491 7. Deira in Yorkshire, &c 559 
 
 3. West-Saxons in Hamjishire, &c. 519 8. Mercia in Derbyshli'e, &c 586 
 
 4. East-Saxons in Essex, &c. . . 527 
 
 The Jutes (Iotas) were from Jutland, and occupied the territory in England denoted on the Map 
 by 1. The Saxons (Seaxe), a confederacy of nations on the Elbe and Eyder, emigrated to 
 England, and were located in the south and west (.See Map 2, 3, and 4). The Saxons, left on the 
 Elbe and Eyder, were denominated Old- Saxons, and those in Britain, consisting of Angles and 
 Saxons with some Jutes, were called Anglo-Saxons. — The Angles (Engle), were from Anglen, the 
 south-east of Denmark, and had very extensive possessions in the west and north {See Map 5, 6, 7, 
 and 8). The majority of settlers in Britain, being Angles, their territory received the name of 
 Engla land the Angles" or Engles' land, contracted to England. — The HIGH-German Division is 
 in the south or hilly part of Germany, including the Upper, or High-Saxon of Meissen, the Hessian, 
 Francic (in Franconia), Rhinish, Alsacian, Bavarian, Silesian, Suabian, Alemannic, Austrian, 
 Tyrolese, Swiss, and the Moeso-Gothic, the oldest specimen of German, preserved in the version of 
 the Scriptures made by Ulphilas about a.d. 360. {See in Map south of :::~ ■■:— left white.) 
 
 VI. The Scandinavian Dialects were spoken by the great northern branch of the Gothic 
 or Germanic stock (See N.). The Scandinavians drove the Finns to the north (See H.j and 
 entered into their possessions on the shores of the Baltic, in Norway, Sweden, &c.. They, at 
 
 various times, conquered the Countries and Islands inclosed by , rendered vei-y clear by a 
 
 fine stroke of dark orange. The Languages of Scandinavian origin are now chiefly confined to the 
 countries tinted with dark oran(/e, including the Icelandic, formed from the Old Danish (Danska 
 tunga), the modern Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Greenlandish, Ferroe, Shetlandish, Orkneyan, 
 and Lowland Scotch, spoken in their respective countries and islands. 
 
 VII. The Sclavonic Dialects^ called also Slavic, or Sarmatian are spoken in Russia. 
 They are separated into two great divisions. The Eastern division has the Russian, Old Sclavonian, 
 Illyi-ian, Bulgarian, Servian, Bosnian, Dalmatian, Croatian, Carinthian, Carniolan, Stirian, and 
 Eisenbergian; — and the nv,rfer« has Bohemian, East Prussian, Polish, Upper and Lower Lusatian, 
 and Wendish. These dialects now prevail in the parts shaded yellow. 
 
 VIII. Some languages cannot be classed with the Sanscrit, such as the Basque, Turkish, &c. 
 Turkish is of Asiatic origin, and a branch of the great Tartar stock spread over the extensive and 
 elevated regions of central Asia, east of the Caspian sea. Turkish is spoken throughout Turkey 
 and Asia Minor. 
 
 An alphabetic list of places marked upon the Map with letters. 
 
 * + * + * + 
 
 Anglen a III? 1 Friesland a IV § 1 Eunamo /t XII § 24 
 
 Ansbach i X § 76 Gelderland q VI § 45 Samo.s^itia yy 
 
 Austrian States nnn Hi 5 Highlands WWW I § 19 Saxony (Lower) ggg IV § 3 
 
 Baden U II? 5 Holstein c 115 4 (Upper) jjj II § 5 
 
 Bamberg kk II? 6 Jutland (north) e IV § 41 Skauderburg c IV § 45 
 
 Bohemia XX X ? 51 (south) d III § 3 Sleswick or south Jut. d III? 1 
 
 Brandenburg s V§ 2 Liim (Gulph of) g IV § 45 Thanet(Isle of) b III? 3 
 
 Brimswick i II § 4 Wavence c II § 6 Thuringia u 
 
 Chersones. Cimb de IV Ml Mecklinburg f II § 4 Westphalia hli II? 4 
 
 Cleves d II ^ 6 Oldenbui-g b II § 4 Wibmg ./ IV § 45 
 
 Flanders p II 5 4 Overvssel r VI § 46 Wilna z 
 
 Franconia o II ^ 6 Pomerania t V § 2 Wurtemburg m II ? 5 
 
 As one dialect often gradually melts into another, it is impossible to mark with precision where 
 one terminates and another begins. So great has been the difliculty and uncertainty in delineating 
 the widest range of nations and the extent of their dialects, that several times the attempt was 
 almost relinquished. Though conscious of exposure to severe criticism, the plan has been carried 
 into eflect, only from the cf>nvietion that many will be glad to obtain, by a mere glance of the eye, 
 that local information and approximation to clear description, which required much laborious 
 research to discover, and great care to delineate, especially on a small map. 
 
 k A friend, Baron D'Ablaing van Giessenburg, who traversed the whole distance, gives the following as the western 
 boundary of the German dialects; Calais, St. Omer, Cassel, Hazebrouk, Hall, Waterloo, Tirlemont, Landeu, Warem, 
 Daelhem, Walh.— Here Low-German is mixed with High-German.— At Malmedy, mixed with Walloon.— Limmerle in 
 Luxemburg, Steinbach, Fauvillers in Belgium, Longuy and Heiseungen in France, Koselingeu on the Orue, Metz, Bet- 
 tendorf (Betlanville), Berlonhof(Berloncour), Falkenberg(FaiUgiiemont), St. Quirin, Felleringen the source of theMoselle 
 and Winkel near the Swiss frontiers.- This is only a brief outline of the accurate information, communicated in a letter 
 from my friend. As the letter was received after the Map was engraved, this note is the only way in which the informal 
 tion can now be made available. 
 
 * The italic and roman letters in this column refer to the localities on the Map. 
 
 + Tlie roman numerals refer to the ]iarts, and the Arabic figures to the paivagi-aphs of Tlu^ Ori<jln of the Oermanic and 
 Scandinavian Lamimnjcs, and the. Preface to the A.-S. Dictionnry. 
 
TO 
 
 THE MOST REVEREND WILLIAM HOWLEY, 
 
 LORD ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY: 
 
 TO THE RIGHT REVEREND JOHN KAYE, 
 
 LORD BISHOP OF LINCOLN : AND 
 
 TO THE RIGHT REVEREND THOMAS TURTON, 
 
 LORD BISHOP OF ELY ; 
 
 WITH THE GREATEST RESPECT, 
 
 THE WARMEST GRATITUDE OF 
 
 JOSEPH BOSWORTH. 
 
 iVil37o58 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Language, philosophically considered, is not only a safe g-uide in tracini:; 
 the origin and affinity of nations, but an important auxiliary in bearing 
 its testimony to the trvith of revelation. In the latter point of view, a 
 clergyman cannot be out of his legitimate province, when investigating 
 the origin and structvu'e of languages. 
 
 A constant anxiety to be as correct as possible, has led not only to the 
 examination of some of the most eminent treatises upon the languages 
 and literature of the Gothic nations, but to the submitting of each article 
 to the careful revision of one or more of the most learned men in each 
 country. The sketch of the Dutch language and literature has been 
 revised by Professor Sicgenbeek, the Danish by Professor llafn, and the 
 Friesic written by the Rev. J. H. lialbertsma. The other articles have 
 been corrected by men equally eminent, whose names would reflect 
 honour upon the author, and give additional credit to his work, if he were 
 l)ermitted to record them. After all his care, the author is too conscious 
 of his liability to err, in a work requiring so much investigation and so 
 extended a course of reading, not to fear lest he should have failed in that 
 accuracy which he has so much desired : wherever this is the case, 
 the blame must be attributed to him, and not to his friends. 
 
 This work was originally written as an introduction to the author's 
 Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, with a view of tracing the origin and progress 
 of the Germanic languages, especially Old-Saxon and Anglo-Saxon, 
 and of shewing their connexion with English ; but as he considered it 
 too long and uninteresting to appear in the whole impression, it was only 
 I)refixed to a part of it : a few copies, however, were printed in a separate 
 form, with the title, "The Origin of the GeiTnanic Languages, &c." 
 chiefly for private distribution. Copies of the Dictionary, with this long 
 preface, were so much preferred, that it was twice found necessary to 
 revise and reprint the preface. — The copies printed in a separate form, 
 being exhausted, the author was induced to add a chapter, on the origin 
 of alphabetic writing in the east, and its gradual diffusion to the west, 
 as collateral evidence of the oriental source of European po])ulation ; 
 and, after giving, in the conclusion, a brief summary of the whole work, 
 to prepare it for publication with its present title. It was then partly 
 reprinted, that it might be published at the time, and in illustration of 
 his "Compendious Anglo-Saxon and English Dictionaiy," in which he 
 was engaged. Protracted indisposition, and failing sight, delayed the 
 progi'css of the Compendious Dictionary for some years; and, of course, 
 the appearance of this work. This delay renders it necessary to notice, 
 in the folloicing page, a few eiTors, and the chief works that have appeared 
 in the interim. Though the book has again required much time and 
 care, it is at last published, with a deep consciousness that it is still 
 very imperfect. 
 
 9, Souttwmpton Street, 
 Bloomshury Square, 
 London, 1848i_ 
 
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS IN 1848. 
 
 P 10, I 14.— See Welsford's Origin, &c. of 
 the Enolish Lang'uag'e. 8vo. 1845. 
 
 COD 
 
 P 18, / 46. — Aucieat Laws and Institutes 
 of England. 2 vols. 870. 1840. 30s. AS. and 
 English, commenced by Air. Price, and finished 
 by B. Thorpe, Esq. 
 
 P 18, Z 69. — The Anglo-Saxon Version of the 
 Holy Gospels, by B. Tliorpe, F.S.A. Post 8vo. 
 1842. 12s., reduced to 8s. 
 
 P 19, I 33. — Ceedmon may now be had by 
 any F.S.A. of the Society for 6s. 
 
 P 19, / 64. — A new Ed. with some account 
 of Mrs. Elstob. 8vo. 1839. 6s.— The A.-S. text 
 is in, — Principia Saxonica, by L. Langley, 
 12mo. 1838. 2s. 6d. 
 
 P 20, I 20.— 2nd Ed. of Kemble's Beowulf, 
 with English and a valuable Glossary, 2 vols, 
 small 8vo. 1835-1837. 30s. 
 
 P 20, / 23.— Conybeare's A-S. Poetry may be 
 had by any F.S.A. of the Society for 6s. 
 
 P 20, / 23. — Registrnm Wiltunense, Saxon- 
 icum et Latinum, ab anno regis Alfredi 892, ad 
 annum 1045. Nunc demum notis illustraverunt 
 J. Ingram, S. Turner, T. D. Fosbroke, T. 
 Phillipps, Bart., R. C. Hoare, Bart. Fol. pp. 
 56, typis Nicholsianis, Londini, 1827. 
 
 P20,/29.— Analecta. 2nd Ed. 1846. 12s. 
 P 20, I 34. — Codes Diplomaticus svi Sax- 
 onici, opera J. M, Kemble. 6 vols. 8vo. 1838- 
 1848.— Ritual of the Church of Durham, 
 with an Interlinear Northumbro- Saxon Trans- 
 lation, circa a.d. 700. 8vo. Nichols and Son, 
 London, 1840. 21s. — Popular Treatises on Sci- 
 ence, in A-S., Anglo-Norman, and Engl, from 
 MSS. by T. Wright, M.A., F.S.A. 8vo. 1841. 
 — Codex Exoniensis : A collection of A-S. Poe- 
 try, &c. with Eng. and notes by B. Thorpe, 
 F.S.A. 8vo. 1842. 20s : supplied to any F.S.A. 
 at 8s. — The Homilies of yElfric, with English 
 by B. Thorpe, Esq. F.S.A. Parts I. to X. 
 1843-1846.— The Poetry of the Codex Ver- 
 cellensis, with English by J. M. Kemble, M.A. 
 Part I. The Legend of St. Andrew. 1844.— 
 Andreas und Elene von J. Grimm, Cassel, 
 1840. — Anglo-Saxon Dialogues of Salomon and 
 Saturn, by J. M. Kemble, M.A. Parts I. 
 and II. 1845-1847.— The Departing Soul's 
 Address to the Body: a Fragment of a Semi- 
 Saxon Poem, discovered and privately printed 
 by Sir Thomas Phillipps, Bart., in 1833: Re- 
 printed with an English translation by S. W. 
 Singer. 8vo. 1845. 2s. 6(/. — The Anglo-Saxon 
 \^ersion of the Life of St. Guthlac ; with a 
 translation and notes by C. W. Goodwin, M.A. 
 12mo. 1847, 5s. — The Anglo-Saxon Version 
 of the Hexameron of St. Basil, and the Saxon 
 Remains of St. Basil's Admonitio ad filium spi- 
 ritualem ; with a translation and account of the 
 author, by H. W.Norman, M.A. 8vo. 1848, 4s. 
 P 20, / 46. — For books containing a more com- 
 plete List of A-S. \Vorks, See my Compendious 
 A'S. and Englislt Dicliomirij, p. v. 
 
 P 20, / 55"^— Grimm's Deut. Gram. 3rd Ed. 
 vol.1. 1840. 
 
 P 20. / 56, Grammars. Staef-craeft : or 
 Anglo-Saxon Gr. A-S. Extracts, and a Glos- 
 sary for the use of the Academy at Ayr. 1823. 
 pp. 16, by Mr. Ebenezer Thomson, for 26 years 
 the highly esteemed Classical Master in Ayr 
 Academy.— An Anglo-Saxon Gr. and Deriva- 
 tives, &c. by William Hunter. 8vo. pp. 80. 
 London, Longman, 1832. 
 
 P 20, I 60.— A Guide to the Anglo-Saxon 
 Tongue; a Gr. after Rask, with extracts in 
 Prose and Verse, Notes, &c. by E. J. Vernon, 
 B.A. Oxon. 12mo. London, 1846. 5i.6d. 
 
 P 20, / 63. — Altsiichsische und Angelsach- 
 sische Sprachproben, von Heinrich Leo. 8vo. 
 pp.274. Halle, 1838. 
 
 P 21, / 10.— A History of English Rhythms, 
 by Edwin Guest, Esq. M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 1838. 
 This accurate work contains important remarks 
 on A-S., and its Dialects, &c. 
 
 P 21, Z 56. — Lappenberg's A-S. Kings, by 
 B.Thorpe, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1845. 
 P21,/ 58.— Messrs. Longman and Co. 1848, 
 announce. The Saxons in England ; a history 
 of the Eng. Commonwealth to the Norman 
 Conquest, by J. M. Kemble, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 P 22, I 41.— Now the Rev. J. Stevenson, of 
 Durham. 
 
 P 24, I 21. — Layamon's Brut, a Semi-Saxon 
 paraphrase of Wace's Brut, with English Notes 
 and Glossary, by Sir Frederic Madden. 3 vols, 
 royal 8vo. 1847. 42s; tea F.S.A, 21s 
 P 24, / 32, 34.— For I, read they shall. 
 P 25, / 9, 10, 1 1, 13.— For waff, read waff— 
 / 29, for Cristeff, read Cristeff. 
 
 P 27, / 55. — A Dictionary of Archaic and 
 Provincial Words, obsolete phrases, proverbs, 
 and ancient customs, from the 14th century, 
 by J. O. Halliwell, Esq. F.R.S. &c. 2 vols. 
 8vo. London, 1847. 42s. This important 
 work contains more than 50,000 words, and 
 embodies the substance of all preceding glos- 
 saries with much original matter. 
 
 P 27, I 58.— An historical sketch of the 
 provincial Dialects of England, extracted from 
 the preceding work, 8vo. 1847. 2s — Reliquiae 
 AntiquaB, 2 vols. Bvo. 1845. 24s. — A Glossary 
 of Wiltshire Provincial Words, &c. by J. 
 Yonge Akerman, Esq. F.S.A. 12mo. 1842. 3s. 
 — Poems in the Dorset dialect, with a glossary, 
 &c. by the Rev. W. Barnes, 2nd ed. 12mo. 
 London, 1848. — A Glossary of words and 
 phrases used in Teesdale, Durham, by F. T. 
 Dinsdale, LL.D. post 8vo. In the press. 
 
 P 82, / 4, 5. — See my Compendious A-S. and 
 English Dictionary, p. v. § 10, 11. Eald-Seaxe, 
 Seaxe. 
 
 P 119, / 47.— The second part of vol. II, con- 
 taining a Gothic Grammar, &c. written in Ger- 
 man, and completing this excellent Ed. of 
 Ulfilas, was published in 1846. 
 
 P 127, / 32.— For O, read Auch (Aber). 
 P 127, / 37.— For 0, read But. 
 P 138, / 44. — For the Lord, read thou Lord. 
 P 147, / 40. — The (leimskringla, translated 
 from the Icelandic of Snorro Sturleson, with 
 Dissertation, by S. Laing, Esq. 3 vols. 8vo. 
 1844. 36s. 
 
 P 158, I 15.— Frithiof, a Norwegian Story, 
 from the Swedish of Bp. Tegner, by R. G. 
 Latham, M.A. 12mo. 1838. 
 
 P 167, I 10.— One of the best English works 
 on the German system is— The English Lan- 
 guage by R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. 2nd 
 Ed. 8vo. 1848. 15s. 
 
 P 175, I 4. V. p. 281—292. Mithridates 
 Minor; or an Essay on Language, &c. by 
 Henry Welsford, Esq. 8v'o. London, 1848, 
 14s. 
 
 P 205, I 25.— For Ineia read India. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1.— THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE, &c. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS PAOKS 
 
 1 Words the instruments of thought , . . . . 
 
 2 Reason aided, and knowledge communicated, by rational language . 
 3 — 4 A close examination of languages corroborates Revelation . 
 5_6 All languages proceeded from one parent ; The diversity of tongues 
 7—13 Resemblances in language proved by the ten numerals, and other examples 3—6 
 
 13 Diversity of languages j The account of Moses more rational than the vague 
 
 theories of some modern pliilosophers ..... 6 
 
 14—17 Languages divided into classes; The Shemitic, and the languages spoken by 
 
 the descendants of Ham ....... 6—7 
 
 18—20 Japhetic languages -table of them— proof that they are all of cognate origin 
 
 ^\ith Sanscrit ........ 7 — 9 
 
 21—24 Europe peopled from the East ; The Celts arrived first, then the Teutoni or 
 
 Germans, and subsequently the Selavonians . . . .10 
 
 25 The Scandinavian and Germanic languages . . . . .11 
 
 II.— THE GERMANIC AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 1 The Germanic languages distinguished from the Scandinavian . . 11 
 
 2 The etjinology of German, Teutonic, Deutschen, Theotisc, &.e. . . 12 
 3 — 8 The Germans promoted liberty ; Their language divided into Low and High- 
 German ........ 12 — 13 
 
 9 Reason for placing the Anglo-Saxon first ..... 14 
 
 III.— THE ANGLO-SAXONS, 
 
 1 Origin of the Anglo-Saxons ....... 14 
 
 2—5 Their settlement in Britain ; The Jutes ; Saxons ; Angles . . 14 — Ki 
 
 6—7 Origin of the word £»ij;/aH(/ ; Duration of the Anglo-Saxon dominion . 16 
 
 8 The West-Saxons obtained supreme power, and fixed the standard of the 
 
 language . . . . . . . . .17 
 
 9 Anglo-Saxon authors, and a SPECIMEN of pure Anglo-Saxon . 17 — '21 
 10—18 Their Dialects; specimen of the Northumbrian Gloss, a.d. 900; of the 
 
 Rushworth Gloss; Chronicle, a.d. 1135; the Grave, a.d. 1150; OrraiUum, 
 A.D, 1180; Robert of Gloucester, a.d. 1280; Wiclif, a.d. 1380; Dialect of 
 
 Kent, a.d. 1340 21—26 
 
 19 Provincial Dialects, with a list of Glossaries .... 26 — 27 
 
 20—21 Importance of provincial Dialects ; Orthography of . . . 27 — 28 
 
 22 — 29 A Specimen of the Somersetshire Dialect; Exmoor; East- Anglian ; Derby- 
 shire ; Cheshire ; Lancashire ; Craven, Yorkshire ; Glossary of . .28 
 30 Compositive power of the Anglo-Saxon, and the extensive use of English • 33 
 
 IV.— THE FRIESIANS. 
 
 Ancient and modern Friesic compared with A.-S. ; Fricsic authors . . .35 
 
 1 — 2 Anglo-Saxon a dead language; sound of Letters not easily known . . 35 
 
 3 — 5 Diphthimgal sounds in A.-S. ; difficulty in expressing them; changeable . 63 
 
 6 — 8 Dialectic varieties ; hence variety in Spelling ; vowels interchange . 36—37 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS PAGES 
 
 9 — 10 Lye commended for giving the variety of Spelling . . . . 37 — 38 
 
 1 1 — 12 Speech fixed by the frame of the organs ; one sound chosen, the rest follow 38 
 13—26 How to discover A.-S. pronunciation; names of numerals; formation of 
 
 numerals ; the use of Gothic ; Gothic the oldest German . . 39 — 43 
 
 27 — 33 Arrangement of the Gothic tongues; Friesic like A.-S. . . . 44 — 46 
 
 34 — 36 Position of the Goths ; the Angles ; the Friesians ... 47 
 
 37 — 43 Friesian line broken ; position of the German tribes , . . 48—49 
 
 44 — 49 The Anglo-Saxons what implied in the name .... 49 — 51 
 
 50 — 56 Friesians accompanied the A.-S. to Biltain .... 52 — 55 
 
 57_84 State of A.-S. Manuscripts; MSS. of Csedmon; comparison of, &c. . 55—60 
 85 — 92 Books in Friesic; Asega-bok; Littera Brocmannoram ; Amesga-riucht ; 
 
 Keran fon Himesgena londe; Jeld and botha; Friesic- Laws; Charters 61 
 
 93 — 94 Friesic where spoken ....... 62 
 
 95 — 99 Specimen of the Asega-bok ; Brockmen's Laws .... 62 — 65 
 
 100 — 1 Hunsingo; Old Friesic of a.d. 1200 compared with Country Friesic . 65—68 
 
 102— 9 North and South Holland; East- Friesia,&c. .... 69—71 
 
 110-12 Country Friesic, stanzas by the Countess of Blessington ; Gysbert Japicx; 
 
 Hindelopian dialect ....... 71 — 74 
 
 113-19 Remaining dialects; Low- Saxon glossaries, and their use . . 75—76 
 
 120-25 Corruption of English; Friesic allied to English . . . 76—78 
 126-27 Friesic useful and English necessary in determining the pronunciation of 
 
 A.-S. ......... 78 
 
 128-32 Use of accents; the A.-S. letters were Runic .... 78—80 
 
 v.— THE SAXONS, OR OLD SAXONS. 
 
 1 — 2 The Old-Saxons spoke Low-German; occupied the north of Germany . 81 
 
 3 — 12 History of Old-Saxons; Properties of Low-German . . . 81 — 83 
 13—31 Specimens of Heliand, a.d. 840; Tatian, a.d. 890; a Chronicle, a.d. 1216; 
 a Poem, a.d. 1231; a Privilege, a.d. 1260; a Song, a.d. 1350; Spe- 
 culum Salvationis; a jomney, a.d. 1356; an Epitaph, a.d. 1459; Life 
 of the Virgin Mary, a.d. 1474; Extracts from Scriptm-e, &c. a.d. 1480- 
 
 1496; Reineke Vos, a.d. 1498; from Scripture, a.d. 1506-1578 . 84—90 
 
 32 — 38 Low- German dialects ....... 90 — 91 
 
 VI.— THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND. 
 
 1 — 3 The Origin of the Dutch ; Eminent Men ; Batavi a German race . 91 — 93 
 
 4 — 9 History of the Dutch ; Character of the Language . . . 93 — 96 
 
 10 — 35 Specimen of Psalms, a.d. 800; the Flemish, Charter of Brussels, a.d. 
 1229; Reinaert de Vos, a.d. 1250; Jacob van Maerlant, a.d. 1260; 
 Dutch, Melis Stoke, a.d. 1283 ; Charter of Leyden, a.d. 1294; Jan van 
 Heelu, a.d. 1291; the Life of Jesus, a.d. 1290; Spiegel onser behou- 
 denisse, A.D. 1424; Evangelium, a.d. 1477; Scripture, a.d. 1524-1581; 
 Jacob Cats, a.d. 1600; Hooft and Huigo de Groot, a.d. 1618; Camp- 
 huysen, about a.d. 1600; Vondel, about a.d. 1610; Dutch established 
 version of the Scriptures, A.D. 1618-1619 . . . .96 — 106 
 
 36 GreatMenin the 17th century ...... 107 
 
 37—38 Specimens of Bellamy, a.d. 1780; Bilderdijk, a.d. 1830 . . 107—109 
 
 39 — 42 Professor Siegenbeek's Orthography ; Van der Palm's version of the 
 Scriptures compared with the established version; other Dutch 
 writers ........ 109—110 
 
 43 — 46 Dutch Dialects ; the Flemish, Gelderland, Overijssel . . 110 — 112 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 xi 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 VII — THE GOTHS. 
 
 1 — 2 Goths of Asiatic origin; passed from Germany into Sweden and Norway 
 3—8 History of West-Goths; of the Ostro or East-Goths . . .114 
 
 9 — 10 Account of Ulphilas; of the Codex Argenteus .... 
 11 — 18 Editions of the Codex with a specimen, a.d. 370; Title-deed at Naples 
 A.D. o20 ; at Arczzo, a.d. 520 ; Knittel's St. Paid's Epistle to the Ro- 
 mans, A.D. 7.30 ; Angelo Mai's Fragments; Coimt Castiglione's 2nd of 
 Corinthians, part of 1st of Corinthians and Romans; Commentary 
 on St. John's Gospel by Professor Massmann 
 19 The Goths had a grammatical form for the passive voice 
 
 VIII.— THE ALEMANNI, OR SUABIANS. 
 
 1 The derivation of the name and the locality of the Alemannic 
 2 — ^1 Pccidiarities of the dialect — mode of speaking — where prevalent 
 
 3 The writers and compositions in Alemannic .... 
 
 IX.— THE FRANCS. 
 
 1 — 3 Who they were ; How and when confederated ; Extent of territory 
 4 — 5 The Carlovingian dynasty ; Pepin and his successors 
 
 6 Francic WTiters and compositions ..... 
 
 X.— HIGH-GERMAN, OR THE ALEMANNIC, SUABIAN, AND FRANCIC DIALECTS. 
 
 1 Four centuries between Ulphilas and the next German writer . 
 
 2 — 8 An exhortation to Christians, with a specimen, a.d. 720; Hildibraht, 
 A.D. 730; St. Ambrose's Hymns, a.d. 750; A Hymn to St. Peter, 
 about a.d. 760 ; Wassobnmn Prayer, a.d. 770 ; Kero, a.d. 800 
 Isidore, a.d. 800. ...... 
 
 9 Charlemagne promotes learning ..... 
 
 10 — 14 His Successors ; specimens of their oaths; Rhabanus Maurus ; Otfrid 
 a.d. 850 ; Muspilli, 8.55 ; Ludwigslied, 883, 
 
 15—16 The Saxon Emperors, from a.d. 919—1024 ; Notker, 1020. 
 
 17 — 22 Salian Francs, from a.d. 1021 — 1125; Boethius, a.d. 1024; Parable of 
 the Sower, about a.d. 10-30; Willeram, a.d. 1089; St. Anno, a.d 
 1090 ; Te Deum, a.d. 1095 ..... 
 
 23— 32 Minnesingers, from a.d, 1100 — 1300; Nibelimgen Leid, a.d. 11.50 
 Walter von der Vogclweide, a.d. 1200 ; Grave Chunrad von Kilchberg 
 or Kirchberg, a.d. 1190 ; Henry Rispach, a.d. 1207 ; Wirnt von Gra 
 fenberg, a.d. 1212; Gotfrit von Nifen, a.d. 1235; Other Poems 
 Schwaben-Spiegel, A.D. 12.50 ; The Edelstein . 
 
 33—50 Extracts from Scripture, from a.d. 1400—1530 . 
 
 51 Fonnation of High- German by Luther .... 
 
 52 — 53 Extracts from Scripture, from a.d. 154^5 — 1569 
 
 54 — 59 The Froschmauseler, a.d. 1595; the Scripture, a.d. 1752; Soltau' 
 Reineke de Vos, A.D. 1830; Goethe .... 
 
 60 — 76 High-German Provincial dialects .... 
 
 PAGES 
 
 112 
 
 -115 
 
 116 
 
 116—119 
 120 
 
 120 
 121 
 121 
 
 122 
 122 
 123 
 
 123 
 
 123- 
 
 -127 
 128 
 
 128—131 
 132 
 
 132—135 
 
 135- 
 139- 
 
 112- 
 143- 
 
 -139 
 
 ■141 
 
 141 
 
 141 
 
 -143 
 -144 
 
 XI.— THE SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE. 
 
 1 Iceland discovered in A.D. 861 ..... 
 
 2 Harald Harfager drove the Norwegian nobles to Iceland 
 3 — 5 Iceland in its pagan state; the Skalds; Saga-men 
 
 6 — 8 Saemund's Edda ; Outline of Edda ; Song of Grinmer . 
 
 9 — 10 Snorre's Sturleson's prose Edda; Njala . . . . 
 
 145 
 145—146 
 146 
 147 
 147 
 
XU CONTENTS. 
 
 PAEAGBAPHS PAGES 
 
 11 — 12 Snorre' Heimskringla; Konungsskuggsja . . : . . 147 — 148 
 
 13 — 14 The Lanclnamabok ; the Sagas ...... 148 
 
 15—16 The Royal Society of North. Antiq. ; Sagas; Historical Sagas . . 148 
 
 17 — 18 Fsereyinga Sagas ; 3Iytho-historical Sagas .... 148 
 
 19 — 20 An account of Lo<5br6karkvi<5u ; Danska tunga . . . i 149 
 
 21 — 30 Specimen of Starkad the Old before a.d. 645; the Volu-spa; Bodvar 
 Bjarke about a.d. 845 ; Bleking inscription, a.d. 770 ; specimen of 
 Lo<5br6karkvic5u, a.d. 863; inscription at Jelliuge, 900 ; ode to king 
 Olaf; Icelandic of a.d. 1150; Snorre's Edda,'A.D. 1200; Gragas, a.d. 
 1290 ......... 150—154 
 
 31—42 Danish of a.d. 1397—1450; Scripture extracts, from 1518—1827; Na- 
 tional Song; Icelandic Scriptures, from 1539— 1671 . . 155 — 157 
 43 — 49 Swedish, Old Swedish, what; King Smek, a.d. 1354; Scripture ex- 
 tracts, from 1541- 1828; Tegner's Exile; Reconciliation . .157 — 158 
 50 — 52 Dalecarlian dialect — where spoken— mixed; three branches; Lord's 
 
 Prayer in Elfdalen, Mora, Orsa ..... 159—160 
 
 57 Norwegian, what ....... 160 — 161 
 
 58 Ferroe dialect ........ 161 
 
 XII.— THE ATFINITY OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 1 All the Germanic languages spring from one source . . . 162 
 
 2—4 Example of Fish ; Identity proved by the similarity of irregular verbs, 
 
 and personal pronouns ...... 162 — 163 
 
 5 Similarity of languages, long separated, proves an original alliance . 163 
 
 XIII.— THE IMPORTANCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 1_2 Words the creation of mind ; Noims first formed, then verbs . . 164 
 
 3_6 Verbs formed from nouns in Hebrew, Greek, Welsh, in the German 
 
 languages 
 
 165—166 
 166 
 166 
 
 167—169 
 169 
 
 7 — 8 Formation of adjectives, and of adverbs .... 
 
 9 — 10 Subsequently nouns derived from verbs; the rudiments of etymology 
 11 — 13 German system of roweZs ; importance of ; summary of vowels . 
 14 — 15 System of consonants ; double consonants 
 16 — 17 Of finding the root ; what it is ...... 170 
 
 18 — 19 Formation of words by umlaut and guna; roots first perceptions . 170 
 
 20 — 22 How names arise ; Etymology shows the radical meaning . . 171 
 
 23 The German doctrine of consonants, and umlaut and guna, the soul of 
 
 etymology . . . . . . . . 171 
 
 XIV.— THE ORIENTAL ORIGIN OF ALPHABETIC WRITING. 
 
 1 — 11 Origin of writing among the Phoenicians .... 172 — 177 
 
 12 — 28 Earliest mode of writing from right to left .... 177 — 184 
 
 29—40 Boustrophedon writing ....... 185 — 189 
 
 41 — 69 Origin of European writing, and the classification of MSS. . . 189 — 200 
 
 XV.— THE CONCLUSION. 
 1 — 13 Use of Languages in historical investigation, &c. .... 201 — 208 
 
m 
 
THE ORIGIN 
 
 OK 
 
 THE ENGLISH, 
 
 GERMANIC AND SCAiNDINAVIAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AND NATIONS. 
 
 I. — THE IMPORTANCE OF A CLOSE INVESTIGATION OP LANGUAGES IN COttUO- 
 BORATING REVELATION, AND TRACING THE ORIGIN AND AFFINITY OF 
 NATIONS. — ALL LANGUAGES HAVE A DISTANT VERUAL RESEMBLANCE, INDI- 
 CATING A PRIMITIVE CONNEXION. — THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIVERSITY 
 IN THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGES, WHICH IS MOST RATIONALLY 
 ACCOUNTED FOR BY THE CONFUSION RECORDED BY MOSES. — LANGUAGES 
 ARE DIVIDED INTO CLASSES, AS THOSE SPOKEN BY THE DESCENDANTS OP 
 SHEM, HAM, AND JAPHETH. — ^THE PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES OF EUUOPB 
 WERE OF JAPHETIC ORIGIN. — THE FIRST TRIBES THAT ENTERED EUROPK 
 WERE CELTS, — THE NEXT WERE THE TEUTONI OR GERMANS, — AND THE 
 THIRD THE SCLAVONIANS, — AS WE ARE MOST CONCERNED WITH TUB 
 TEUTONIC, OR GERMAN TRIBI'lS, THEY CLAIM A PARTICULAR NOTICE. 
 
 1 . It is mind, understanding, or the power of reasoning, which is the 
 distinguishing property of man. The mind is a man's self; by it we are 
 allied to the highest intelligence. Can it then be unimportant for an 
 intellectual being to examine the operations of the mind ? But its opera- 
 tions or thou^dits are so quick and fugitive, that no real apprehension of 
 them can be obtained, except by their representatives, that is, by words. 
 These, when spoken, quickly vanish from the mind. It is only when 
 words are written, that they become tangible ; they are then the lasting 
 representatives or signs of ideas. Those, therefore, who philosophically 
 and eifectually examine the structure and the right meaning of words, 
 the instruments of thought, are most likely to have the clearest view 
 of the mental powers and their operations. 
 
 2. Words, as the instruments for expressing thoughts,* are the con- 
 stituent parts of language. It is l)y language that the feelings, experience, 
 and indeed the whole mind of individuals, can be communicated and made 
 the property of our whole species. I'he most sublime thouglits and extensive 
 
 * Wliately's Elements of Logic, Ch. ii. p. 55. 
 B 
 
2 ORIGINALLY ONE LANGUAGE. 1. 3 6. 
 
 knowledge of those who have been favoured with the highest order of 
 intellect, are in their writings concentrated and perpetuated : thus the ex- 
 alted endowment of reason is perfected by the gift of rational language. 
 
 8. The minute investigation of language is not only important in 
 examining the mental powers, but in bearing its testimony to the truth 
 of Revelation, and in tracing the origin and affinity of nations. 
 
 4. The physical history of man, the researches of the most eminent 
 geologists, the investigations of the most able philosophers, and the close 
 and patient examination of all the phenomena of nature, are so many dis- 
 tinct confirmations of the Mosaic record. At present we need only refer 
 to the physical or natural history of man.* Here every candid inquirer 
 is led to the conclusion, that all the diversities of the human race 
 originally sprang from one father and mother ; and hence we reasonably 
 infer, that this primitive pair had one primitive language. We now find 
 a great diversity of tongues. To account for this diversity, philosophers 
 have started different theories :t but there is no theory which so satis- 
 factorily accounts for the variety of languages, and yet the similarity 
 observable in their fragments, as the plain statement of facts recorded by 
 Moses. 
 
 5. '' The whole earth was of one language and one speech," or of one 
 lip,X and of like words. § " And it came to pass, as they (the families 
 of the sons of Noah) journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in 
 the land of Shinar ; and they dwelt there. '^ Because the people said, "Let 
 us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven ; and 
 let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the 
 whole earth," when the Lord had determined that they should be dis- 
 persed, and thus " replenish the earth," he " confounded their Up, lan- 
 guage, or pronunciation, that they could not understand one another's 
 speech." " Therefore is the name of it called Babel ; because the Lord 
 did there confound the language of all the earth ; and from thence did 
 the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth." (Gen. xi, 
 1, -2, 4, 7, 9.) 
 
 6. On a close examination and analysis of languages, even as we find 
 them at the present day, nearly forty-two centuries after the confusion, 
 there are, in almost every tongue, a few fragments and whole woi'ds so 
 
 * Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, by C J. Pricliard, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 
 
 t Some French naturalists and physiologists, with a few writers on history and antiqui- 
 ties in Germany, speak of the Adamic race as of one among many distinct creations. Von 
 Humboldt mentions the Americans as a distinct stock. Malte Brun has taken it for granted 
 that each part of the earth had its own race, of whose origin it was in vain to inquire. Niebuhr 
 is of the same opinion as to the early inhabitants of Italy. — Dr. Prichard's Eastern Oriyin of 
 the Celtic Nations, 8vo. Oxford, 1831. 
 
 + He!/. nnS riDii? \^"1Sn"7D TT'^I J Septtmyint Kat ijv Trdan >'/ y*) xii'Koq iv : Vulyate 
 Erat autem terra labii unius. — H^tJ? a lip, talk, maryin ; labium, sermo, ora. 
 
 § Heb. C^inS C^T^IT \ Septuagint kcu (pojinj fiia rracn : Vulyate et sermonum eorun- 
 dem. — C^inh? pi. ones, alike, the same, from THS one.- Arab. jl(\>.| j)l ones, from cVa-I 
 one. — □'^IST words, speech, from "12~T a trord, matter, thiny ■ verbum, res, aliquid. 
 
I. 7, 8. PROOFS FROM PRESENT RESEMBLANCES. 
 
 similar, as to indicate an original connexion. The great diversity in their 
 vocabularies and grammatical structure is still more apparent. The 
 facts recorded by the Hebrew legislator of one original language, the 
 subsequent confusion of lip or proniiuciation, and the conseciuont dis- 
 persion, alone account for this pervading identity or resemblance, and 
 the striking diversity.* Both these claim a brief notice. 
 
 7. First, there arc resemblances or identities still observable in the 
 severed fragments of an original language. These occur most frequently 
 in words of the commonest use. Such words, if not composed exactly 
 of the same letters, are from letters of the same organ, or from those 
 which are interchangeable. 
 
 8. A slight inspection of the ten numerals, even in a few languages, 
 will prove that they had an original connexion. 
 
 • Those who wisli to see this sulyect fully and satisfactorily discussed, are referred to 
 the admirable papers of Sharon Turner, F!sq., F.S.A. On the Jffiiiities and Diversi/ies in tin- 
 Luiiiiuuges (if the /I'orhl, and on their Primeval Cause, in tlie Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, Vol. 1. Part I. 4to. 1827. p. 17 — l'l(), and Vol. 
 II. Part II. IH'34, p. 252 — 262. lie has arranged the words used to denote Father in more 
 than five hundred languages. He has also made a similar classification of the various 
 terms to designate Mother, as wi'll as the first two numerals. Mr. Turner observes : " In 
 my letters on the first and second nunierals, it was endeavoured to show, that the words 
 winch various nations have used to expi'ess them, were either simple sounds of one sylla- 
 ble, or compound terms resolvable frequently into these simpler elements, and most pro- 
 bably always made from them ; but a more important object was to evince, that both the 
 elementai"y and the composite sounds have resemblances and connected analogies, which, 
 although used by nations that were strangers to each other, vvei'e too numerous to have 
 been accidental. 
 
 I intimated that the languages or people, among whom such similarities prevailed, 
 however disj)iirted and divergent they had been, or now were, must have had some ancient 
 and ])rimeval consanguinity. — In meditating on this sulnject, it occurred to me, that if tlie 
 mind were not pursuing an illusory idea, the same facts and the same intimation would 
 appear as strikingly in some other words, as they were visible in the numerals. This 
 imjiression, and the desire neither to mislead, nor to be misled, have induced me to ob- 
 serve, whether the words that are used in the different languages of the world to express 
 the first, the dearest, the most universal, and the most lasting rehitions of life. Father and 
 Mother, would be I'ound to confirm, or overthrow the principles suggested. The words 
 were an-anged into classes, according to their primitive or more simple elements. These 
 classes demonstrate that the common use of sounds to express the same ideas, must have 
 had some common origin, and are evidences of a common and early aftinity. ^Vhile each 
 class proves a similarity or an identity, the numerous classes indicate great diversity. 
 Identity without diversity would have proved only a common derivation, and diversity 
 without identities would disprove community of origin. But so much paitial identity 
 and resemblance rcmaininu;, at this advanced period of the world, visible amid so nmch 
 strilving ami general disparity, exactly coincides witli the Hebrew statement of an anterior 
 unity, and of a subsequent confusion, abruption, and dis])ersion. 
 
 Amongst his deductions i\Ir. Turner observes, that the " ])rimeval language has not been 
 anywhere ))reserved, but that fragments of it must, from the common origin of all, every- 
 where exist ; that these fragments will indicate the original derivation and kindredship of 
 all ; and that some direct causation of no common agency has o))erated to l)Cgin, and lias 
 so permanently aflected mankind, as to pi'odnce a striking ami universally experiiMiced 
 iliversity." A gentleman, whose erudition is universally acknowledged, and whose o]>uuons, 
 from his extensive lingual knowledge, and especially from his critical acquaintance witli 
 the oriental tongues, deserve the greatest attention, has come to this conclusion ; for he 
 has stated : The original langiuige, of which the oldest daughter is the Sanscrit, the 
 fruitful mother of so many dialects, exists no longer. (" De oorspronkelijke taal, wier 
 oudste dochter het Sanskrit is, do vruchtbare moeder van zoovele dialekten, bcstaat niet 
 mcer.") — Professor Ilamaker's Akademische voorlezingen, ^c. Leydeu, !Svo. lH3o, p. 7- 
 
3? M. 
 
 I ^ H' '. 
 
 J^ "^ 
 
 3 
 
 tR 
 
 
 
 2C 
 
 
 6a 
 
 ."3 
 
 .-3^ p 
 
 A 
 
 S- "H 
 
 ^/H 
 
 C. 3 =^ 
 
 g a 
 
 o 
 
 P C3 r^ 
 
 P s- p. 
 
 1-^ 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 5 p 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3- 
 
 s 
 S 
 
 13? fi^i^ 
 
 Si 
 
 p 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 
 ri 
 
 CD 
 3 
 
 
 3- 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 .r^ 
 
 FT 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 d a. 
 
 P CK! 
 3'p 
 
 *^ tort 
 
 3 
 
 e- 
 
 B 
 
 Oq 
 
 re. 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 CK! 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 CD 
 O 
 
 c 
 ►3 
 
 p . o . 
 '^ p 
 
 5? B 
 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 re 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 P 
 (-»■ 
 1—1 
 P 
 ►1 
 
 o P 
 
 p 
 re 
 B 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 -3 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 S ^ ^ 
 
 T *« o 
 
 H Q S 
 
 O Q C 
 
 SHI 
 
 "Q "O "O 
 T^ fh ft\ 
 
 R m ^; 
 
 
 "5 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 re 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 5' 
 p 
 
 b' 
 
 p- 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 re 
 
 o 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 *- 
 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 
 re 
 ^3 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 I— '• 
 3 
 ►a 
 C 
 
 re 
 
 c^'^ 
 
 hS 
 
 r-*- 
 
 
 r- c- 
 
 5r c 
 
 c; 
 
 »—■ 
 
 « 3 
 
 i? 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 en 
 
 S. B 
 
 E 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 fi 
 
 B 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 P- 
 
 Oq 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 o5" 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 P 
 
 re 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 o 
 
 S3 
 re 
 >-« 
 
 re 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 o 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 
 re 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 < 
 re 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 re 
 re 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 re 
 
 H 
 
 B- 
 o 
 3 
 
 a. 
 re 
 
 "-1 
 
 re 
 
 Oq 
 
 D 
 
 dq' 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 re 
 
 05 
 
 P 
 re 
 
 3- 
 
 N 
 re 
 < 
 
 re 
 3 
 
 re 
 
 -<5 
 
 re' 
 
 re' 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 o; 
 
 ^ O: 
 
 re 
 
 35 
 
 B 
 S 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 re 
 re 
 
 re' 
 
 < 
 re 
 
 P 
 P 
 
 
 re 
 
 33 
 t-; 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 re 
 B 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 3 
 P- 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 SI 
 p 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 p 
 
 CA 
 
 Cfi 
 
 35 
 
 3" 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 B3 d 
 
 I i- 
 
 hj CO 
 
 
 P_ 
 
 S' 
 
 3 
 P 
 
 s. 
 
 5' 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 B- 
 •-s 
 
 CW 
 
 3 
 
 re 
 
 B 
 
 €-•• 
 
 t— !• 
 
 oq 
 
 B 
 
 oq 
 
 3 
 B 
 
 h— 
 
 C" 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 ■fl o 
 
 CA 
 
 Ol 
 
 O w 
 
 re 
 
 C 
 
 M 3 
 
 re B 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 
 35 
 
 3 
 
 35 Ei 
 
 3 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 b' 
 
 » p. 
 
 B a 
 
 p 
 
 -; 
 P 
 (-»■ 
 N 
 P 
 
 •-5 
 
 P 
 
 re 
 
 < 
 
 P 
 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 ^^ 
 
 •-1 
 
 re 
 
 c 
 
 5' 
 
I. 9 — 11. FURTHER PROOFS. 5 
 
 9. By the common change of t into d, all the words in the different 
 languages denoting two and fhree, are evidently cognate, or from one 
 common source. The SaiK'i. chatur; Erse keathair; Pcrs. chehaur; 
 liiis. chetyre ; Grk. rerropee, inavpeQ ; JVel. pedvvar ; Laf. quatuor ; Oscnii 
 petor; Moes. fulwor ; Old High Ger. fiuuar ; A.-S. feovver; Diit. vier; 
 Dan. fire ; Eug. four, by the change of c7a, k, //, r, w, p, and /, have 
 a distant connexion.* By a slight change of lip or pronunciation, the 
 other numerals appear to be cognate. 
 
 10. Tiie Heb. Wl^ ses si.v, seems to be allied to the Sans, shash ; the 
 Chaldee ^T\'^^r\ tliti iliird, to the Sans, tritaya. Other words have 
 evidently a connexion: the Hch. TV^, bit a Iioiise, dicelling ; ^Chaldee 
 m2 but to ian-y, dwell, often used in the Targum for \T} Inn ; in Arab. 
 c:jL< bat or i,.::.,.oo beit to tarry, he situated; the Erse beith ; Wei. bydh, 
 bod; Teutonic be, been to he; and the Sans, verbal root ^ bhu, 
 whence bhavami / am, are allied. — The Heh. W'^ is ; Wei. oes he is ; 
 Erse is, as is me / am, seems connected with the Sans, verbal root 3]"^ 
 as, whence we have Sans, asmi, asi, asti sum, es, est ; Grk. eifn [to-^ui] 
 
 11. Some Coptic words are very similar to Hebrew. 
 
 Oolitic. Hebrew. 
 
 ^XhI alei to go iip, Tu^ ole to go up. 
 
 ^XoT alou a hoy, T\]! oul an infant, l^^]J oull a hoy. 
 
 ^n an not, ]"^^^ ain not. 
 
 i.rtOK anok /, ''DJ^^ anki /. 
 
 4LrtOIt anon we, iljnji^ anene,or ]J^^ anen, \1T] entiu Chi. we 
 
 A.pex areg terminus, VIJ^ arej terra, regio. 
 
 U^V^ areb a pledge, T\y^V orbe a pledge. 
 
 fi.eX bel to destroy, (1/3 ble to wear, waste away. 
 
 £.epl beri new, 
 
 ep-£.epi to renew, 
 
 CIOtX eioul a stag, T^^ ail a stag. 
 
 O^X thai a hill, /D tcl a heap. 
 
 oXuJJUL i\\\o\n furrows, tzhT\ tc\m furrows. 
 
 I^Lpo iaro a river, T^^^ lar a river. 
 
 lOJUL iom the sea, D^ im the sea. 
 
 K^LOj kash a reed, tl^p qes stuhhle, straw, Sfc. 
 
 • See the change of letters admirably proved in the erudite and invaluable work of 
 
 Dr. Prichard, On the En.stnn Orif^hi of the Critic aN^/Z/oz/.s-, p. 27— 91, Svo. Oxford, 18.'?1, 
 to whoso woik the precedui^ table is much indebted. The ro^ular inter(baiiy;c of eon- 
 sonants, and the laws that influence the vowel system, are also fully and satisfactorily 
 treated by Dr. James Grimm in his Driitxrlic Graiiiinatik, C.ottinnen, lS-22, Svo. Vol. I. p. 
 581, 584, 578; and in Professor Schmitthenner's valuable Introduction to his short German 
 Dictionary. No one who has omitted to examine what these learned and laborious authors 
 have written, ousht to reject, and much less ridicule, the systematic and regular change of 
 vowels and consonants. 
 
 f See more exam])los in Dr. Prichards Critic Nations, p. 192 — 194. 
 
 J^in bra to create. 
 
6 DIVEKSITY OF LANGUAGES. 1. 12 — 16. 
 
 12. The table of numerals, with the preceding short collection of 
 exanples, may be sufficient to show that there are many words which are 
 of cognate origin, even in languages often deemed the most dissimilar. 
 It is not contended with the ancient fathers that the Hebrew is the 
 primitive tongue, or with the modern philosophers that it is the Sanscrit ; 
 for it appears, on the evidence of Moses,* and from the conclusion of 
 eminent philologists, that the original language of oiir first parents no 
 longer exists. The similarity of the words previously cited, proves that 
 these languages originally proceeded from one common source, and they 
 thus verify that part of the Mosaic history which declares, that " the whole 
 earth was of one language." 
 
 13. It is now necessary to advert to the vast diversity of languages, 
 which is satisfactorily accounted for by the confusion of lip or pro- 
 nunciation. Those who pronounced their words in the same manner, 
 separating from those they could not understand, would naturally unite 
 together, and form distinct tribes. In addition to the passages previously 
 cited relative to the dispersion, Moses adds : " By these (the sons of 
 Japheth) were the isles of the Gentiles (Europe) divided in tljeir lands, 
 every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations. — These 
 are the sons of Ham, after their families, after tJteir tongues, in their 
 countries, and in their nations. These are the sons of Shem, after their 
 families, after their tongues, in their lands, after their nations." (Gen. x. 
 5, 20, 31.) 
 
 14. Do they, who reject these and the preceding passages of the Sacred 
 History, on account of their reference to a supernatural agency, suggest 
 that various languages existed from the beginning, and that the faculty of 
 expressing ideas by a different language was given to distinct creations 
 of men in each particular region of the earth? This would imply, " that 
 the world contained from the beginning, not three or four, as some writers 
 are willing to believe, but some hundreds, and perhaps thousands of 
 different human races."t These numerous creations must refer to 
 a supernatural agency as many times more miraculous than the event 
 recorded by Moses, as the miracle, according to their theory, was 
 numerically repeated. 
 
 15. Whatever diversity of opinion there may have been, as to the 
 origin of the great variety of tongues, the most eminent philologists have 
 generally divided languages into classes, distinguished by remarkable 
 differences in their grammatical structure and vocabularies. 
 
 16. One of these classes of languages is the Shemitic, or Semetic, so 
 called from the supposition that the race of Shem alone spoke the 
 language so denominated. Objections may be made to the term, as the 
 
 * Gen. xi. 1, 6, 7, 9 ; and Gen. x. 5, 20, 31. See § 6, note *. 
 
 t The languages of the African nations, according to Seetzen, who has made the most 
 extensive and original researches into this subject, amount to 100 or 150. In America, 
 there are said to be 1500 idioms, " notabilmente diversi." Such was the opinion of Lopez, 
 a missionary of great knowledge in the languages both of South and North America. See 
 Seetzen's Letters in I 'on Zacli's Monufliliclie Corrcspondenz^ 1810, p. 328; Hervas's Catalogo 
 (telle Lingue, p. 1 1 ; and Dr. Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 11, 
 
I. 17—19. JAPHETIC LANGUAGES. 7 
 
 Pliocnicians or Canaanites, who tool< their origin from Ham, spoke 
 a Shcmitic dialect ; but as Shemitic is in general use and well under- 
 stood, it is best to retain it. The race of Sham, wlio were much devoted 
 to a pastoral life, .spread over the finest part of jNliddle and Upper Asia, 
 over Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. The following languages, 
 distinguished by being written from right to left, and forming their gram- 
 matical connections by prclixes and postfixes, are of the Shemitic race : — 
 
 Shemitic Languages. 
 
 TT 1 S Cliaklee, 
 
 Hebrew, < ^ • 
 
 (.Synac, 
 
 Arabic, 
 
 Aram scan, &c. 
 
 17. The descendants of Hatn were seafaring men, who founded the 
 rej)ublics of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage, &c. Little appears to be known of 
 the languages used by the race of Ham. Some name the following : — 
 
 The Dialect of Ancient Egypt. 
 p . J Saliidic, 
 
 " ' \ Bashumric, 
 The numerous African dialects spoken by the Kabyles 
 of Mauritania, the Tuarik of the Great Desert, the 
 Felatahs of NigTitia, the Foidahs of the Senegal, &c. 
 
 18. Another class of idioms is the. Japhetic, by some called Caucasian, 
 from the sui)positiou that the primitive seat of this race was near Mount 
 Caucasus ; by others denominated Indo-Germanic, indicating that all the 
 Germanic tongues had an Indian origin. The compound Indo-Germanic, 
 by not including the Celtic or Welsh, an important branch of these 
 idioms, has been considered defective. A word of more extended 
 signification has been adopted, namely Indo-European,* to denote all 
 those European languages which are clearly cognate with the Sanscrit, or 
 ancient language of India. Other Etymologists have proposed Arian or 
 Persian, as it designates their origin amongst the Arians, Irenians, or 
 Persians.f As some Asiatic as well as European dialects ought to be 
 included in the name, it may be better to retain the old term Japhetic, 
 comprising all the supposed descendants of Japhcth, who diverged from 
 Shinar throughout Asia and Europe ; from tlie banks of the Ganges to 
 the Atlantic ocean, and from the shores of Iceland to the Mediterranean 
 Sea. They seem to have passed to the north of the great range of the 
 Taurus, as far as the Eastern ocean, and })robably went over Behrin'>'s 
 straits from Kamschatka to America. | 
 
 19. A tabular arrangement will best show the extent of the languages 
 of the Japhetic race. 
 
 • Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nedioits, p. U). 
 
 t Kurzos Dcutsches Wortcrbuch fur Eli/mologic, Synonymik iind Orthographie von Fried- 
 rich Schinitthenner, 8ro. Darmstadt, 1S.'54, j). 24. 
 
 X Dr. Hide's .Inalifsis of C/iro/io/ogi/, Vol. I. p. 352. 
 
 A siiiijidar coiiijruity is said to exist in all the American lansruaj^es, from the north to 
 the southern extremity of tlie continent. They may he reduced to a few great divisions, 
 several of which extend as radii fnim a coinnicm centre in the north western part near 
 Behring's straits.— Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of (lie Celtic Nations, \y. 6. 
 
» = re + 
 
 o <^ s ro 
 S.C3 a> 
 o ►I C 
 
 ^ c o.<: 
 
 5 J5 ^ re 
 
 re cOj 
 3 § •■'^ 
 o S- 1^0 
 
 o re a P 
 P 
 
 c 
 
 * 
 CD 
 
 P ^^ 
 p' 
 
 S 
 
 ta 
 
 re 
 
 i.^^ p 
 
 in;-' 
 
 g 3 S 5- 
 
 
 o 2 '^sS. 
 
 
 n go S 
 
 ft p ^. ^ 
 
 p c ~ 
 
 o 
 p 
 
 §•2 05 3 
 
 * c > S' 
 
 4:0 N c» 
 
 C ^ ^ ™ 
 
 25 « -■§ a 
 
 O *-!. -^ 
 
 2 ? ra 
 
 Si-Hre P 
 
 to C-p- o 
 
 ►-0° O 
 
 ^o? = 
 
 t^ o' ^ o 
 
 CC J- p "-^ 
 
 t,''< 
 
 a 
 
 ■-a 
 
 3 
 
 re (/3 
 
 ri — ■. ;/: 
 
 p C - 
 
 P O O _ 
 c ^ p >- 
 
 g. B 
 
 g re 
 "<3 
 
 £3 
 
 re 
 ■a j; 
 
 ««j 
 p 
 
 •^ ;^ re 
 
 p ^'5' 
 
 S re S 
 
 ^^ o 
 
 re ~^ 
 
 p p o 
 
 P n St 
 
 p p g= 
 
 £3 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 p 
 
 t3 
 ft. 
 
 p s 
 
 d , 
 
 
 ft 
 
 > 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 cr? — 
 
 QTQ 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 P" 
 
 I W3 
 
 ta 
 
 P 
 
 -4 
 
 r i^ 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 eg 2^ 
 
 2 c^ 
 
 a 5' 
 
 ST" ™ 
 
 
 ?5 -! 
 
 
 5 5- 
 
 Co n 
 
 c;» 
 
 
 J^S 
 
 2^ 
 
 & 85 
 
 fD <-»- 
 
 
 en 
 
 (J, 
 
 ^ Oq 
 
 '^ S- 
 
 
 X 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 der 
 sea 
 
 the 
 
 
 a §^ ^ -' 
 
 |i^r 
 
 2 t^ ^ 
 
 ~ !^ a; 
 
 ~-B; 
 
 S r p 
 
 ^s s 
 
 
 <■»- "-^ ^ >—• 
 
 
 2 &E »3 
 
 • rs P s 
 
 ^ ji. 
 
 5 rt- re n^ 
 
 2,- i-S K 
 
 g 'Do-?' 
 
 
 
 CC ": I-. 
 
 n fP 
 
 
 
 -^ /^ 
 
 i^V 
 
 ,S: S3 
 
 o 
 
 ' o 
 o 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 3 n 
 
 2. 
 
 o* 
 
 ,H 
 
 o 
 C 
 
 O 
 S 
 
 
 o :? ^ g g 
 
 r*. re 2 = B 
 
 p S. ~=i zi- 
 
 e E?^ s g i^ 
 
 ■" 2 ?g o 2 B 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 ors »i 
 
 P r 
 I I 
 
 s o 
 
 a ?^ 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ffi 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J? 
 
 o_ 
 
 
 pill 
 
 
 
 
 tt: 
 s 
 
 <-t- 
 
 
 tfg.H'C'i 2. 
 re p £.2^=^ '^ 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 {3 
 
 
 S' p* S' a '"5^ 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 N 
 
 P 
 
 -s 
 
 'tilfl'TJo; 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 re 
 
 (n 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? M « 
 
 S^ 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 « — . ►- 
 
 • fS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • P 
 
 <1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 I-" 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 2.&^^ 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ?&:g^ 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 2- 
 
 
 
 
 
 'sj 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^•r^ 
 
 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 p 
 
 0' 
 P 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 •2 § 
 
 ►—I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 2 
 
 § 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 •— < / 
 
 
 §^ 
 
 Cb 
 
 g 
 
 p 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 5 las 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 0' 
 
 § 
 
 S" 
 
 
 ? a S- 
 
 
 "* 
 
 
 
 ?3 
 
 
 
 <^' o' 
 
 
 55 
 
 Cfi 
 
 C^ 
 
 B 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 c/3 s s^ 
 
 
 s- 
 
 
 
 -t 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 «- " 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 ^ ^o 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 &■ ^ ^ 
 
 
 *•<. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe«a 
 
 
 
 
 -s 
 
 hd 
 
 / 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 CA i-l 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 " E^ 
 
 r o— 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (r+- 
 
 g g. 
 
 
 C4 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 H-' 13* 
 
 C* T 
 
 
 
 
 
 9r- 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 IK 1: 
 
 cr -' 
 
 \ 
 
 Sf- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Uo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •i' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^2 H 
 
 s;5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E» g- tr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ;>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P B P 
 
 
 
 
 OHSO 
 g ^ g a 
 re^p B P- 
 
 »: O! B 
 
 ajt^^ig o'g 
 5--^ b" " 2. » 
 
 re 51, B t^'J? »s 
 
 
 
 
 g' 
 
 a P 
 
 p 2. 
 
 B !» 
 
 p' 
 B 
 
 ^ r3 ^' t"-^ B" f^ 
 
 «^ S '-'- 
 
 
 
 
 
 JP 
 
 B 
 
 
 £ crq l^ 
 
 S 
 s 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 ISs 
 
 OK 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 5 
 
 Cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ s. 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr (75 
 
 « cr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ccncKc-t-' 
 
 Co 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 <■ p 5' ^ 
 2. S S re" S 
 
 c 
 
 **>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0? S.J? 2. ZL 
 p 5 3. '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-:-i r* ^ 
 
 a 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr H-. Q -^ 
 
 p'c«P '^r-' 
 
 re ^ ►-. 
 
 2 f^<? 
 
 »= 5" B P 
 
 p ^ B :: 
 
 S" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £- p r s. 
 
 5j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-oog 
 
 rs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -• «3«-.r 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 cc tc! t; n oi S3 «3 
 
 S cr K 2 ^ K M 
 -i; re cf. P *: cK !; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 B 
 
 ca B >*^ ^ ^* — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 § " g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
r. 20. 
 
 JAPHETIC LANGUAGES CONNECTED WITH SANSCRIT. 
 
 20. Little need be said here of the Asiatic nations ])roceeding from 
 Japliet : a casual remark, however, may be admitlod upon the language 
 of the Hindoos. The Sanscrit* is that ancient tongue which once 
 prevailed throughout all llindoostan, from the Gulf of Bengal to the 
 Arabian Sea, and from the southern extremity of the conntry to the 
 Himalaya JMountains on the north. The Sanscrit is the most com- 
 positive, flexible, a,nd complete language yet known. It admits of being 
 perfectly analysed, by merely reducing its compound words to simple 
 elements which exist in the language itself. It contains the roots of the 
 various European dialects, of the Latin, Greek, Celtic, German, and 
 Sclavonic. All its words are composed of its own elements, and it contains 
 no exotic terms, which proves it to be very near its primitive state. f 
 The Sanscrit is, therefore, placed at the commencement of the languages 
 here called Japhetic. That all these arc closely connected with the 
 Sanscrit, will clearly appear from a few examples. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 vsM^ upar 
 3TT^ janu 
 *TH nanam 
 •1 1*1 nama 
 «T[ no 
 f^pitr 
 ^ ^ Hiusha 
 ^^T jiigam 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 vwep 
 
 super 
 
 yovu 
 
 a^enu 
 
 veov 
 
 novum 
 
 ovoixa 
 
 nomen 
 
 VTj 
 
 non 
 
 Ttarrjp 
 
 pater 
 
 fJiVS 
 
 mus 
 
 (evyos 
 
 jugum 
 
 Persian. 
 
 J^ 
 
 aboor 
 
 Ji- zano 
 
 I new 
 
 .1. n 
 
 im 
 
 tiji neh 
 ^jj padr 
 i^t,c moosli 
 Cjj_ yogli 
 
 German. 
 
 .Vnglo-Sax. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 English. 
 
 iibcr 
 
 ofur 
 
 over 
 
 over 
 
 over 
 
 knie 
 
 cueow 
 
 knic 
 
 kn^ 
 
 knee 
 
 neu 
 
 niwc 
 
 nieuw 
 
 ny 
 
 new 
 
 name 
 
 iiiuna 
 
 naam 
 
 navn 
 
 name 
 
 nein 
 
 na 
 
 neen 
 
 nej 
 
 no 
 
 vater 
 
 fancier 
 
 vadcr 
 
 fader 
 
 father 
 
 ma us 
 
 mus 
 
 muis 
 
 muus 
 
 mouse 
 
 joeli 
 
 geoc 
 
 juk 
 
 
 yoke :J; 
 
 
 Sans. ^JTPR^ krimilam ; Grk. KUf^ir]\og ; Lai. camclum ; Heb. '7D} 
 gemel ; Ge?-. kamel ; Eitf/. camel. — Sans. ^H*T yuwiinah, young; 
 Lat. juvenis; Pers. .,1,:^ juwan ; Ccr. jung; Hch. pJI^ jnnq a suck- 
 ling, a (uig, sucker; A.-S. geong young; Plat, junk; Dut. jong ; 
 Sued. Dan. ung; fFI?/. jeuangc. — Sans. ^ \ *1 jani a woman ; Celtic 
 
 * Sanscrit, in derivation and sound, is very similar to orvyKpiros Joined fo<;cf/ifir, unifed. 
 Hence it is used for « wlmlc, so completely jjo.ssossino; all its parts, as in its union, parts, 
 or decomposition, to he finished or perfect. — Professor Hamaker's I'oorlezingcn, p. 6. 
 
 t Lieut. Col. Vans Kennedy's Researches, p. 1 96. 
 
 t See many more examples in Lieut. Col. Vans Kennedy's Researches, p. 278. 
 
iO THE CELTS AND TEUTONI — ORIGIN OF. I. 21 — 24. 
 
 gean ; 7?j/5. jena ; Grk. yur?y ; Pers. ^\ ziinne. — Sans. H |rj matre ; 
 Pers. jl)U madr ; Pus. mater ; Celtic, Erse mathair ; Grk. i^v'vp ; 
 Zat. mater; Ger. mutter; Did. moeder; A.-S. modor; Dan. Sued. 
 moder. — Sans. ^ (r| bhratre ; Pus. bralr ; Celtic, Wei. brawd ; Erse 
 brathair ; Irish brutha ; Grk. (pparrjp ; Laf. fraler ; Fr. fretre, frere ; 
 Pers. jj[jj bradr; Tar. bruder; Ger. bruder; Illoes. brothar; A.-S. 
 bro^or; But. broader; Dan. (SV'efZ. broder ; Icel. brodur; Arm, hreur; 
 Eng. brother."^ 
 
 21. The preceding remarks are by no means intended to serve as a 
 complete classification of languages ; they only afford a very superficial 
 view, for the monosyllabic, or the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, &c. are entirely 
 omitted. What is advanced relative to the inhabitants and languages of 
 Europe must be more precise. 
 
 22. Europe appears to have been gradually occupied by successive 
 streams of population from the east. Those now located most to the 
 west, the Celts, were amongst the tribes who first left Asia, and were 
 impelled westward by succeeding emigrations, and thus spread over 
 a considerable part of Europe. The Celts, or Celtoe, were a people of 
 Gaul, who, at a very early period, crossed the straits of Dover, and 
 entered the British isles. The ancient Britons were therefore Celts, 
 who were subsequentl}- conquered by the Romans, and then by the 
 Saxons, and driven into Wales and Cornwall. Britain must have been 
 inhabited even before the Trojan war, more than 1200 years before the 
 Christian era, as tin was then brought from Britain by the Phoenicians.t 
 It has been clearly proved that the Celtic dialects are of cognate origin 
 with the Sanscrit, though differing so much in structure as to be distinct 
 from the Teutonic or German. | 
 
 23. The Teutonic, German, or Gothic ti'ibes, were the second source of 
 European population. The Scandinavians proceeded from these Ger- 
 manic tribes. Like their predecessors, the Celts, these Teutonic tribes 
 came out of Asia into Europe over the Kimmerian Bosphorus, between 
 the Black sea and the sea of Azoph, but at a later period, perhaps 
 about B. c. 680. In the time of Herodotus, about b. c. 450, the 
 Teutonic tribes were on the Danube, and extended towards the south. 
 Fifty years before the Christian era, in Caesar's time, they were called 
 Teutoni or Germans, and had established themselves so far to the 
 westward as to have obliged the Celts to withdraw from the eastern 
 banks of the Rhine. In later ages they became known by the name of 
 Goths. 
 
 24. The third and most recent stream of population which flowed 
 into Europe, conveyed thither the Sclavoniau or Sarmatian nations : 
 
 * See numerous instances in Dr. Pricliard's Celtic Nations., p. 66 — 6d. 
 f See the account of Herodotus on the Phoenician commerce. 
 X Dr. Prichard's Eastern origin of the Celtic Nations. 
 
II. 1. GERMANIC AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 11 
 
 they are mentioned by Herodotus as being on the borders of Europe 
 in his time; they therefore probably entered Europe soon after 450. 
 Tliese coming last, occupied the most eastern parts, as Russia, Poland, 
 Eastern Prussia, Moravia, Bohemia, and their vicinity. From these 
 Sclavonic tribes a third genus of European languages arose, as the 
 Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Livonian, Lusatian, Moravian, Dalmatian, &c: 
 25. As the tribes of Celtic origin, the first source of European 
 population, are clearly distinguished from the Teutonic or German, 
 and as the Sclavonic or Sarmatian tribes, the third wave of population, 
 have never extended so far west as England, nor made any settlement 
 among us, no further notice will be taken of them or of their languages. 
 We are most concerned with the Teutonic, German, or Gothic, the 
 second stream of European population, and the language spoken by 
 these tribes. The language, brought into Europe by the great Gothic 
 family, is chiefly known to us in its two important branches, the 
 Germanic and Scandinavian. The Scandinavian branch includes the 
 Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, &c. The Teutonic or Ger- 
 manic branch is subdivided into Low-German and High-German. The 
 Low-German comprises not only the older languages, such as the Anglo- 
 Saxon, Friesic, and the Old-Saxon, but their immediate descendants, the 
 modern English, with all its provincial dialects, the Dutch or Nether- 
 landish, Flemish, and the present Low or Piatt German dialects, spoken 
 in the north or low and flat parts of Germany. The High-German 
 includes an account of the Moeso-Gothic, Alemanuic, and Francic, with 
 the present High-German, and its modern dialects. 
 
 II.— GERMANIC AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 L Tiie Germanic or Teutonic languages, the Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, 
 Old-Saxon, Moeso-Gothic, Alcmannic, and Francic, are easily distin- 
 guished from the Scandinavian tongues, the Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, 
 and Swedish. The Germanic languages have no passive voice, and have 
 only one definite article, which is always placed before the noun or 
 adjective : but the Scandinavians have now, and have had from the 
 earliest times, a passive form of the verb, and two definite articles — one 
 placed before nouns, and the other aflixed to them. 
 
12 CHARACTER OF THE GERMANIC TRIBES. II. 2, 3 
 
 The Germans, Teutoni* TeutscJien, Deutschen, speaking the German^ 
 Teutonic or Theotisc langiiage. 
 
 2. Each of the Teutonic tribes shirting the northern or north-easferii 
 boundary of the Roman Empire, had its own distinctive denomination. 
 Their peculiar names were unknown or disregarded by the Romans ; 
 hence these hostile bands of the Teutoni, from their martial appearance, 
 were classed together, and by the Gauls and Romans called Germani, or 
 war-men.\ We do not find in any remnant of their language, that the 
 Germans ever applied this term to themselves.^ When united as one 
 people, under Charlemagne, the Germans styled themselves Teutschen or 
 Deutschen, from the Teutoni§ mentioned by Caesar and Livy.|| These 
 Teutoni were so powerful and influential, that (b. c. 102) they, united with 
 the Cimbri, entered Italy, which was only preserved by the bravery and 
 talent of Marius. While at the present day the Germans most frequently 
 apply to themselves the name of Deutschen, they are generally called 
 Germans by Foreigners. 
 
 3. Wherever the Germanic or Gothic tribes appeared, liberty pre- 
 vailed : they thought, they acted for themselves. They would not blindly 
 follow any leader or any system : they were free. Hence Theodoric 
 encouraged Gothic literature, and induced Cassiodorus to write a history 
 of the Goths from their only records, their ancient songs. Another 
 Teutonic or Theotisc monarch, Charlemagne, gave encouragement to 
 genius. He saw and felt, that the only effectual mode of giving a full 
 establishment to his authority over those whom he had conquered, was 
 by enlightening their understandings, and influencing them by the solemn 
 sanctions of religion. These he wisely attempted to convey in the 
 vernacular idiom, convinced that his subjects loved even the language of 
 
 * See note (§) below. 
 
 t German,;)^. Germanen — an appellation used by the Gauls and Romans to designate the 
 inhabitants of Germany. The word German is Gallic, for the Gauls called the soldiers who 
 received a stipend, Gaisaten [Pint. Marius, 6, 7]. If the French gais be the Moes. gais, 
 Franc, ger a spear, then German would be a spcar-man, a spear-bcurer, — Schmitthenner's 
 Deutsehes Worterbuch sub voce, p. 102. Others say that German is the same as Wer- 
 mann, from which the Romans derived their Germanus, and the Gauls their Guerra. V^arr, 
 were, is derived from the Old Ger. uucr/)Z. uueros, wer, war, waer, bar, baro a man, brave 
 man, warrior ; vir bellator. — Rudlof's Die Sprachen der Germanen, p. 4, 28. 
 
 I Celebrant carminibns autiquis Tuistonem deum terra editum, et filium Mannum, 
 originem gentis conditoresque. Deo ortos, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos, Vandalios, affir- 
 mant ; eaque vera et antiqua nomina. Ceterum Germanee vocahuhan recens et nuper addi- 
 tum ; quoniam qui primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri, nunc 
 Germani vocati sunt. — Tacit, de Mor. Ger. 2. — Caesar, after enumerating the names of 
 several nations, adds, " qui uno nomine Germani appellantur. C'wsar. Bell. Gat. ii. 4. — 
 rvricrioi yap 6t Fepixavoi Kara Tr]v Poi/xaMv Sia\eKTov ; for Gnesioi are the Germans in the 
 Roman Language. — Strabo 7. 
 
 § The Teutoni of Ctesar, Livy, and Virgil ; Tnisto of Tacitus, or Tuisco, which, as Schmit- 
 thenner and Mone observe, is a mutilation of Tinsco or Tiusto, signifying tl>e great., the 
 •powerful. Deutsch, Old Ger. Diotisc, Diutisc, or Theotisc signify belonging to a people, from 
 Aiot people. The national name Theodisci, Theotisci, or Theudisci, was not used till the 
 time of the Carlovingian dynasty. Then all the smaller nations were united into one great 
 empire. This word, since that time, has assumed very diftiei'ent forms according to the 
 provinces where it was used, as Dutsch, Dietsch, Teutsch, Deutsch. — Schmitthenner's kurzes 
 Deutsehes Worterbuch, p. 301. Mone's geschichte des Heidenthumsa, vol. ii. p 6—8. 
 
 II Caasar 1, 33, 40 : 7, 77.— Liv. Epit. 68. 
 
II. 4 — 8. HIGH AND LOW GERMAN. 13 
 
 freedom. He used his influence to preserve tlie songs of his native land, 
 and to improve its hmguage and lix its grammar. Thus stability was 
 first given to the German tongue, from which period it has gradually 
 advanced, till it has become one of the most cultivated and important 
 languages in Europe. To ti'ace its progress, it will be necessary to enter 
 into detail, and to examine the German language in its two great divisions, 
 the Low and High German. 
 
 Divisions into Loiv and HiyJt German. 
 
 4. The Germanic or Teutonic tribes may, according to the nature of 
 their language, be separated into two divisions. The Low-German pre- 
 vailed in the low or flat provinces of ancient Germany, lying to the north 
 and west, and is used in modern Flanders, the Dutch provinces, West- 
 phalia, Oldenburg, Hanover, Brunswick, Holstein, Sleswick, Mecklen- 
 burg, Prussia, Courland, and part of Livonia, where the Low-German, or 
 Nieder or Platt-Deutsch is spoken. This dialect is more soft and flowing 
 than the High-German. It changes the High-German sch intos; the 
 harsh sz or z into t, and always delights in simple vowels. 
 
 5. The second division comprised the Upper or High German, Alemannic 
 or Suabian, which prevailed in the mountainous or southern parts of Ger- 
 many, that is, in the north of Switzerland, in Alsace, Suabia, or Baden, 
 Wurtemburg, Bavaria, the Austrian States, Silesia, Upper Saxony, and 
 Hesse. The High-German dialect is distinguished by its predilection for 
 long vowels and diphthongs and rough, hard, and aspirated consonants, 
 especially by the harsh pronunciation of sch, st, sz, and z. 
 
 6. The Francic seems to occupy an intermediate state between the 
 High and Low German ; but as it appears most inclined to the High- 
 German, it is placed in the second division. The earlier Francs inhabited 
 the banks of the Rhine, from Mayence to Cleves, the present Ilhine 
 Provinces of Prussia, Wurzburg, Bamburg, and Franconia, now part of 
 Bavaria, and they continually increased their territory till the immense 
 empire of Charlemagne was founded. 
 
 Low-Germafi. 
 
 7. The Low-German comprises — 
 
 1st. Anglo-Saxon, written by king Alfred, .Elfric, Ctedmon, &c. sec. 
 
 III. 9, note. 
 
 •2nd. Friesic, the written remains of which are found iu the Asega-buch, 
 &c. 
 
 3rd. The Old-Saxon or Platt-Deutsch, which has employed the pens of 
 many authors. Tatian's Harmony of the Gospels is translated into a sort 
 of Old-Saxun. — The Heliand is in Old-Saxon. — Reineke Vos, &c. 
 
 High- German. 
 
 8. To the High-German belong — 
 
 1st. The Mocso-Gothic, written by Ulphilas. 
 
14 THE ANGLO-SAXONS — ORIGIN OF. III. 1, 2. 
 
 2nd. The Alemannic or Suabian, written by Kero, Rhabanus Maurus, 
 Otfrid, Notker, Chunrad von Kirchberg, Gotfrit von Nifen. 
 
 3id. The Francic, or transition between High and Low, but approach- 
 ing more to the Higli-Gennan, the chief writings in which are a transla- 
 tion of Isidore, De nativitale Domini, and of Willeram's Canticum Can- 
 ticorura. 
 
 9. The nature and peculiarity of these six dialects may be best shown 
 by a short historical detail of each tribe, as an alteration in a language 
 was generally produced by some influential political change. It seems 
 impossible to say which of the Germanic tongues was first used in 
 Europe, but probably that language which was spoken by the people 
 located most to the west. If this be sufficient for priority, the Anglo- 
 Saxon will claim the first notice. 
 
 III.— THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 1. The Anglo-Saxons derived their being and name from the Angles, 
 a tribe of the Saxon confederacy, occupying Anglen in the south-east part 
 of the Duchy of Sleswick in the south of Denmark. These Saxons, like 
 all the Teuton! or Germans, were of oriental origin. They were as far 
 westward as the Elbe in the days of Ptolemy, a.d. 90 ; and therefore in 
 all probability they were amongst the first Germanic or Teutonic tribes 
 that visited Europe. Their situation, between the Elbe and the Eyder 
 in the south of Denmark, seems to indicate that they moved among the 
 foremost columns of the vast Teutonic emigration. The Saxons, when 
 first settled on the Elbe, were an inconsiderable people, but in succeeding 
 ages they increased in power and renown. About a.d. 240, the Saxons 
 united with the Francs (the free people) to oppose the progress of the 
 Romans towards the north. By this league and other means the Saxon 
 influence was increased, till they possessed the vast extent of country 
 embraced by the Elbe, the Sala, and the Rhine, in addition to their 
 ancient territory from the Elbe to the Eyder. In this tract of country 
 were several confederate nations, leagued together for mutual defence. 
 Although the Saxon name became, on the continent, the appellation of 
 this confederacy of nations, yet at first it only denoted a single state. 
 
 2. It may be satisfactory to have a brief and clear account of the 
 Germanic tribes, the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, who successively obtained 
 settlements in Britain. 
 
III. 3, 4. THE JUTES, SAXONSj AND ANGLES. 15 
 
 3. The Jutes gained the first possessions. Ilengist and Horsa, two 
 brothers from Jutland or the Cinibric Cliersonesus in Denmark, arrived in 
 three ceols or small ships at Ebbs-fleet on the Isle of Tlianet in a.d. 449. 
 These Jutes, for assisting the ]5ritons against the Picts and Scots, liad the 
 Isle of Thanet assigned to them. They subsequently obtained possession 
 of Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire. 
 
 4. The Saxons had a very extended territory. After many of them 
 had migrated to Britain, the parent stock on the continent had the name 
 of Old-Sa.vons.* The first Saxon kingdomf was established by Ella 
 in A.D. 491, under tlie name of South-Saxons, or South-Sax, now Sussex, 
 In 494, another powerful colony arrived under Cerdic, and being placed 
 west of the other kingdoms, they were, on their full establishment in 519, 
 called West-Saxons [West-Seaxe], in its fullest extent embracing the 
 north part of Hampshire, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and 
 part of Cornwall. — A third Saxon kingdom, in a.d. 527, was planted in 
 Essex, Middlesex, and the south part of Hertfordshire, under the name 
 of East-Saxons, East-Sax, or Essex. 
 
 • Mist, of Anslo-Saxons, by F. Paliyi-avc, Esq. small 8vo. 1831, p. 33 ; The Rise and Pro- 
 gress of the Eui^lish C'cuimoinvealth, by the same, 4to. 1832, p. 40. 
 
 t T/ie Sax'on Chronicle gives the following account : " An. ccccxlix. Her Martianus and 
 Valentinianus onfenffon rice, and ricsodon vii. winter. On heora dagum Hengest and 
 Horsa, from Wyrtgeorne gelaSode Brytta cyninge to fultinne, gesohton Brytene on fjam 
 sta.'Xe, fje is geneuiiicd Ypwiiies-fleot, arrest Bryttiun to fultinne, ac by eft on liy fiihton. 
 Se cing bet hi feobtan agien I'ihtas, and hi swadydan, and sige luvfdon swa hvvnr swa hi 
 comon. Hi f^a sende to Anglo, and heton heom sendan mare fiiltum, and heom seirgaii 
 Brytwalana nabtnes^e, and {jics landes cysta. Hi )ja sendon heom mare fultum, jja comou 
 {^a menn of Jjrim maegcSum Germanie, of Eald Seaxum, of Anglum, of lotum. 
 
 "Of lotinn comon Cantware andWibtware [p?et is seo niaei<5 l^e nu eardaS on Wiht.] and 
 {jaHcynn on West-Sexiun, {^e man nn <;yt bet lutna-cynn. Of Eald-Seaxnm comon l^a^^t- 
 Seaxan, and SuS-Seaxan, and West-Seaxan. Of Angle comon, se a si<5c5an stod westig 
 betwix latum and Seaxum, East- Angle, and Middel-Angl(>, and iSIearce and ealle NoriSvm- 
 bra. Heora here- togan wa^ron twegen gebro<5ra, Hengest and Horsa, \}set wreron Wibtgilses 
 suna, Wihtgils \v;es \Vitting, Witta Wecting, Wecta Wodning, Iram Jjam Wodne awoc eall 
 ure cyne-cynn and SuSan-bymbra eac." — Jiigram's Clir. pp. 13 — 15. 
 
 liedv makes nearli/ (Itr suiitr slalrnirnt. " Adveiierant autiMn de tribus Germani;r jjopulis 
 fortioribus, id est, Saxonibiis, Anglis,Jutis. De Jutarum oiigine sunt Cantuarii et Mctuarii, 
 hoc est, ea gens qua} \'ectam tenet Insulam, et ea qu^ usque bodie in provincia Occidtnta- 
 lium Saxonum Jutarum natio nominatur, posita coutraij)sam insulam Vectam. HeSaxon- 
 ibus, id est, ea iTgione (pia; ninic anti'piorum Saxonum cognominatur, venerc Orientales 
 Saxones, INIeridiani Saxones, Occidui Saxones. Porro de Anitlis, hoc est, de iha i)atria (jua? 
 Angulus dicitur et al) eo tempore usque bodie manerc desertus inter provincias Jutaruui et 
 Saxonum ]ierbil)etnr. Oiientales Angli, ."\Ie(bttrranei Angli, BI('ni,tiita Noi-(hinbynd)roruni 
 j>rogenies, id est. illanim gentium qiue ad Bcream Humliri Ibiminis inbal)i(anl caHerique 
 Anglorum populi sunt orti. Duces fuisse perbibentur eorum primi duo fratres Ilengist et 
 Horsa ; e quibus Horsa postea occisus in bello a Brittoniltus, bactenns in Orientalil)us 
 C'antiiR partibus monumentum liabet suo nomine insigne. Erant autem tilii Victgilsi, cujus 
 pater \'itta, cujus pater Vecta, cujus pater X'oden, de cujus stirjie multarum provinciar'uin 
 regium genus originem duxit." — lifdr, lib. i. cli. 1.1. p 5-2. J/frrd's Strvo/i tmnslutiun of wliir/t 
 is: •' Comon hi of firim folcum l^aui strangcstan (Jermanie, f^iet of Seaxum, and of Angle, 
 and of (leatum. Of (ieata fruman syndon Caulware, and Wibtsa?tan, {ja^t is seo fjeod j^e 
 Wiht \!ivt Ealond oneardaS. Of Seaxum |j;rt is of |jam lande \>c mon bateS Eald-Sea\an, 
 coman East-Seaxan, and SuS-Seaxan,and West-Seaxan. And of Engle coman East-Kngle 
 and Middel-Engle, and 3Iyrce, and eall NoicSiiembra cynn. is f^a-t land j^e Aiigubis is 
 nemned betwyh Geatum and Seaxum. Is sa-d of Jja-re tiile j^e lii {^aiion gewiton o<5 to da>ge 
 \>S>t hit weste wunige. Wa^ron ]pi\ iprest heora latteowas and beretngan twegen gebroiSra, 
 Hengest and Horsa. Hi \va>ron Wiblirylses suna, Jj;rs Faider wa^s [Witta liaten, |ja's f;rder 
 vvffis Wihta baten, ^;rs] fa-der wa-s Woden nenmecl, of )jaes stryude monigra magtSa cyniug 
 lyun fruman XxACiG."— Smith's Bede,fol. Cam. 1722, p. 483. 
 
16 ANGLO-SAXONS III. 5 — 7. 
 
 5. The Angles (Engle), from Sleswick in the south of Denmark, about 
 A.D. 527, settled themselves in East Anglia, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, 
 Cambridge, and part of Bedfordshire. — Ida, in A.D. 547, began to establish 
 himself in Bernicia, comprehending Norihumberland, and the south of 
 Scotland between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth. — About a.d. 559, 
 Ella conquered Deira [Deoramreg^] lying between the Humber and the 
 Tweed, including the present counties of York, Durham, Northumberland, 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. — Mercia was formed into an 
 independent state by Crida, about a.d. 586, and comprehended the counties 
 of Chester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, Rut- 
 land, Huntingdon, the north of Beds, and Hertford, Warwick, Bucks, 
 Oxon, Worcester, Hereford, Gloucester, Stafford, and Salop. Thus, one 
 Jute, three Saxon, and four Angle, altogether eight kingdoms, were 
 established in Britain, by the year 586.* 
 
 6. The Angles emigrated so numerously as to leave Anglen, their 
 original district, destitute of inhabitants. Though the Friesians are not 
 named as uniting in the first conquest of Britain, it is clear, from their 
 locality, thai many of them accompanied the other Teutonic tribes.f 
 Those now settled in Britain were denominated Anglo-Saxons to show 
 their origin ; Anglo-Saxon denoting that the people so called were 
 the Angles, a nation coming from the Saxon confederacy. Li sub- 
 sequent times, when the Angles had been alienated from the Saxon 
 confederacy by settling in Britain, they denominated that part of this 
 kingdom which they inhabited Engla-land, the land of the Angles, 
 Angle's land, which was afterwards contracted into England. 
 
 7. From the entrance of the Saxons into Britain in a.d. 449, they 
 opposed the Britons, till, on the full establishment of the Saxon power in 
 a.d. 586, the Britons were driven into Wales. As soon as the Britons 
 ceased to oppose their invaders the Saxon kingdoms began to contend 
 with each other. The West-Saxons, with varying success, gradually 
 increased in influence and territory from Cerdic their first leader in 
 a.d. 494, till 827, when Egbert, king of Wessex, defeated or made 
 tributary all the other Saxon kingdoms. Egbert, his son Ethelwulph, 
 and his grandsons Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred the Great, 
 had to contend with new and fierce opponents in the Northmen or Danes. 
 The most energetic and renowned of the West-Saxon kings was Alfred 
 the Great. He drove the Northmen from his kingdom, and found leisure 
 
 *Mr. Turner, in his Hist.of A.-S.,b. iii. ch. 5, vol. l.p. 309, observes : " This state of Bri- 
 tain has been improperly denominated the Saxon heptarchy. When all the kingdoms were 
 settled, they formed an octaixhy. Ella, supporting his invasion in Sussex, like Henofist in 
 Kent, made a Saxon duarchy before the year 500. When Cei'dic erected the state of Wessex 
 in 5 19, a triarchy appeared ; East Anglia made it a tetrarchy ; Essex a pentarchy. The suc- 
 cess of Ida, after 547, having established a sovereiy;nty of Angles in Bernicia, the island 
 beheld an hoxarchy. When the northern Ella penetrated, in 560, southward of the Tees, his 
 kingdom of Deira produced an heptarchy. In 5S6, the Angles branching from Deira into the 
 regions south of the Humber, the state of Mercia completed an Anglo-Saxon octarchy.'' 
 
 f See Friesians, iv. § 50 — 56. 
 
III. 8, 9. ANGLO-SAXON — EARLIEST WRITERS. 17 
 
 not only to encourage literature in others, but, with great success, to 
 devote himself to literary pursuits, as much as the pro])cr discharge of the 
 public affairs of his kingdom would allow. He translated into Anglo- 
 Saxon, Boethius, Orosius, and 13ede, and thus gave a pre-eminence to the 
 West-Saxon language, as well as to the West-Saxon kingdom. The 
 West-Saxons retained the government of this island till lOlG, when 
 Canute, a Dane, became king of iMigland. Canute and his two sons, 
 Harold and Hardicanute, reigned twenty-six years. The Saxon line 
 was restored in 1042, and continued till 1000, when Harold the Second 
 was slain by William duke of Normandy, commonly called William the 
 Conqueror. Thus the Anglo-Saxon dynasty terminated, after it had 
 existed in England about six hundred years. The Saxon power ceased 
 when William the Conqueror ascended the throne, but not the language ; 
 for Anglo-Saxon, after rejecting or changing many of its inflections, 
 continued to be spoken by the old inhabitants till the time of Henry the 
 Third, a.d. 1258. What was written after this period has generally so 
 great a resemblance to our present language, that it may evidently be 
 called English. 
 
 8. From the preceding short detail, it appears that the Jutes had small 
 possessions in Kent and the Isle of Wight: the Angles occupied the east 
 and north of England, with the south of Scotland : and the Saxons had 
 extensive possessions in the western and sonthern parts. The descendants 
 of these Saxons were very numerous: their power and influence became 
 most extensive under the dominion of West-Saxon kings, especially under 
 Egbert and Alfred. It was the powerful mind of Alfred that drew into 
 England the talent and literature of Europe, and induced him to benefit 
 his country by writing so much in his native tongue, the Anglo-Saxon ; 
 thus giving the West-Saxon dialect so great a predominance as to con- 
 stitute it the cultivated language of the Anglo-Saxons. This pure Anglo- 
 Saxon may be found in the works of Alfred, ^Elfric, the Anglo-Saxon 
 Laws, Ctedmon, &c. 
 
 9. Ethelbert, king of Kent, being converted to the Christian faith by 
 the preaching of Augustin, in a.d. 597, was distinguished as the author of 
 the iirst written Saxon laws which have descended to us, or are known to 
 have been established. Some think that the laws of Ethelbert are the 
 first Anglo-Saxon composition:* others give priority to Beowulf, the 
 Traveller's Song, &c. Beowulf is said to have been nearly contemporary 
 with IIengist;t but the poem contained in the Cotton MS., British Museum, 
 Vitellius, A. xv. is not so old. There occur in it Christian allusions 
 which fix this text at least at a period subsequent to a.d. 597. Some 
 eminent scholars attribute this MS. to the early part of the lOlh century. J 
 From this fine poem may be selected some early specimens of pure Anglo- 
 
 • Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, h. iii. c. <j, vol. i. p. 332. 
 
 f See the very neat edition of Beoivulf, by Mr. Kemblc, Pref. p. xx. London, 1833. 
 
 X Conybeare's JUtistrations of Aufjlo-Saxon Poetry, p. 32; Turner's Hist, of Anrjlo-Saxons, 
 h. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p. 281. 
 
 * D 
 
18 ANGLO-SAXON — EARLIEST WKITERS. III. 9. 
 
 Saxon. The Traveller's Song, in its original composition, is referred by 
 Mr. Conybeare* to about a.d. 450. It was first printed by him with 
 a literal Latin version, and a free poetical translation in English. An 
 improved Saxon text is given in Mr. Kemble's Beowulf, p. 223 — 233. 
 For an example of an early specimen of Anglo-Saxon poetry, compared 
 with one of a subsequent date, see Fktesic, § 58. As the works of 
 Alfred, .Elfric, Csedmon, the poems of Beowulf, and many of the 
 books specified in the note below,t afford ample specimens of pure 
 
 * Illustrations of A.-S. Poetrj', p. 9—29; Exeter MS. p. 84. 
 
 f A clironoloijical list of the chief works yrhited in Anc/lo-Saxon,ivith a notice of Grammars and 
 Dictionaries intended for junior students. — [1567.] ^lfric. 1. A Testimonie of autiqvitie 
 showing the auncient fajth in the Church of England touching the Sacrament of the Body 
 and Blonde of the Lord here pulilickelj' jireached, and also receiued in the Saxon's tyme, 
 above 600yeares agoe, 16mo. Imprinted at London by JohnDaye, dwelling over Aldersgate 
 beneath S. Martyns, lo67. This little book contains "A Sermon of the Paschall Lambe to be 
 spoken unto the people at Easter." Anglo-Saxon on the left-hand page, and an English trans- 
 lation on the right. It is paged only on the right to 75. Then follow 13 leaves, without being 
 paged, containing the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the X Coynmandments in Sa.von, with an 
 interlinear English translation. The whole booh, therefore, consists of 8S leaves, or 176 pages. 
 It was jmljlished again in small 4to. with LTsle's '' Treatise concerning the Old and New 
 Testament," in 1623 : the Easter Homily was printed again in the 2nd vol. ofFo.v's " Acts and 
 Monuments," and in the notes to WhelocVs " Bede," b. v. c. 22. In the year of L'Isle's death, 
 it appeared again with this title, " Divers ancient Monuments in the Saxon Tongue," &c. 4to. 
 1638. — [1568.] Laws. 2. Apxatovofxia, sive de priscis Anglorum Legibus libri, Sermone 
 Anglico, vetustate antiquissimo aliquot abhinc seculis conscripti, atque nunc demum magno 
 Jurisperitorum et amantium antiquitatis omnium commodo, e tenebris in lucem vocati, 
 Guliebno Lambardo, 4to. ex officinii Jolian. Daye, Lond. 1568. A greatly improved edition 
 was published 6?/ Whelock, in folio, Cambridge, 1644, pp. 226, 11. A still better edition, so 
 much enlarged and improred as to be considered almost a new work, was published with the fol- 
 lowing title : " Leges Anglo-Saxonicje Ecclesiastica? et Civiles, accedunt Leges Edvardi 
 Latins, Gulielmi Conquestoris GaUo-Normannicfp, et Henrici I. Latina?, subjungitm- Domini 
 Henr. Spelmanni Codex Legum Veterum Statutorum Regni AngUae, qua? ab ingressu 
 Gulielmi I. usque ad annum nonum Henr. III. edita sunt ; toti Operi pr.'emittitur Dissertatio 
 Epistolaris admodum Reverend! Domini Gulielmi Nicolsoni Episcopi, Derrensis De Jure 
 Feudali Veteiiim Saxonum, cum Codd. MSS. contulit, notas, versionem, etglossarium adjecit 
 David Wilkins, S.T.P. fol. Lond. 1721, pp. 4:34, 21. 12s. 6d. These are in Anglo-Sa.xnn, with 
 Latin translation and notes. — Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. In der Ursprache mit LTeber- 
 setzung und ErlJiuteiiingen herausgcgeben von Dr. Reinhold Schmid, Professor der Rechte 
 zu Jena, 8vo. Leipzig, 1832, pp. 304, about 8*. There are two columns in a jmge ; on the left 
 is the Anglo-Saxon text, in Roman type except the ]>, ^, and on the right a German translation. 
 The second volume has long been expected. The Record Commission have underlaJten an edition 
 with an improved Anglo-Saxon text, carefully accented, and accompanied ivith an English trans- 
 lation and notes. It was prepared, and a considerable part printed, under the superintendence 
 of the late Richard Price, Esq. whose critical acquaintance with the Anglo-Saxon has been mani- 
 fested by his crcellent edition of Warton's " Historj' of English Poetrj'." This edition of the 
 A.-S. Laws by Mr. Price, is not yet published. — [1571.] Gospels. 3. The Gospels of the 
 fowcr Euangelistes, translated in theolde Saxon tyme out of Latin into the vidgaretoung of 
 the Saxons, newly collected out of auncient moniunentes of the sayd Saxons, and now jmb- 
 lished for testimonie of the same, 4to. London, printed by John Daye, 1571. It is accompanied 
 with an English version out of the Bishop's Bible, so altered as to agree with the Saxon, and pub- 
 lished by Fox, the Martyrologist, at the Expense of Archbishop Parker. Price 3/. 3s.— Quatuor 
 D.N. Jesu Christi EvangeUorum Versiones per antiquje duae, Gothica scil. et Anglo-Saxonica : 
 quarum illam ex celeberrimo Codice Argenteo nunc primum depromsit Franciscus Junius, 
 hanc autem ex Codd. 3ISS. coUatis emendatius recudi cura\-it Thomas 3IareschaUusAuglus; 
 cujus etiam observationes in utramque versionem subnectuntm*. Accessit et Glossarium 
 Gothicum : cm pra^mittitur Alphabetum Gothicum, Runicum, ^c. opera ejusdem Francisci 
 Jimii, 4to. Dordrechti, 1665, et Amsterdam, 1684, pp. 383 — 431, 21. 8s. The Amsterdam 
 edition appears, on collation, to be made up from the old copies with new title-pages, and a reprint 
 of the first sheet in vol. ii. Moes. Gins. The Anglo-Saxon Gospels from the text of Marshall, 
 the Rushworth Gloss, MS. BocU. together with aU the A.-S. translations of the Gospels, are 
 about to appear in a quarto volume from the Pitt Press, Cambridge. — [1623.] ^lfric. 4. 
 A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament, ^^'ritten abovt the time of King 
 Edgar (700 yeares agoe) by ^Ifricvs Abbas, thought to be the same that was afterward 
 Archbishop of Canterbvrie. Whereby appeares what was the Canon of holy Scrijiture here 
 then receiued, and that the Church of England had it so long agoe in her mother-tongue. 
 
III. 9. ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. 10 
 
 Anglo-saxon, it will not be necessary to occupy much space with quo- 
 tations. One extract will be sufficient, and, lor facility of comparison, 
 
 Now first pvblishecl in print with English of our times by William L'Isle of Wilbvrghani, 
 Esquier for the King's bodie : the original! remaining still to be seene in S' Robert Cotton's 
 Librarie, at the end of liis lesser Coj>ie of the Saxon Pentateveh. And herevnto is added 
 ovt of the Homilies and Epistles of the fore said .Elfrievs, a seeond edition of ,1 Ttstimonic 
 of Antiiiuitk, ,yr. touchintj the SacrarAent of the Body and liliiud of tliv LoiU), here ))ul)likely 
 preaehed and reeeiued in the Saxons' time, &:c. London, printed bv John llaviland for Ilenrie 
 Seile, dwelling in Paul's Chureh yard, at the signc of the 'I'yger's head, 1()2;J, small -Ito. 
 The Dedication, Prefaee, ^c. contain 30 leaves, the paragraphs numbered, but not the payes; 
 then follow 13 leaves of the Treatise of the Old and New Testament, Saxon on the hjt, and 
 English on the right-hand ])age. The first I "2 leaves are without numbers, ]'-i is jilaeed at the 
 head of the Sa.ron on the left, and also at the head of the English on the right jxKj'', the same 
 numeral sei'vingfor two pages. The Testimony of Antiquity, &e. has D leaves of I'rtfuee, \e. 
 \i leaves, with double numerals, of "A Sermon of the Pasehall Lambe, &.e. ;" then follow 11 
 leaves unpaged, containing the words of Elfrikc Abbot, and the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and X 
 Commandments, in Saxon, with an interlinear English version,''M)-\-A'-i-\-\)-\-\A-\-\\z=.\{)l 
 leaves, or '2[ I pages. — [l(i40.] Psalms. 5. Psalterium DaviiUs Latino-Saxonieum Vetus, a 
 Johanne Spelmanno, 1). Hen. til. editum, Ito. Londini, UilO, 1/. ls.~ Libri I'salmoriim ver- 
 sio antiqua Latina; eimiparaj)hrasi Anglo- Saxoniea, partim soluta oratione, partim metriee 
 composita, nune primum e cod. MS. in Bibl. Kegia Parisiensi adservato, deseripsitet edidit 
 Benjamin Thoqje, F.A.S. Soc. lAt. Isl. Haln. Soc. Hon. 8vo. Oxonii, 183o. — [1644.] Bede. 
 ti. Beda> Yenerabilis Historia Ecelesiastiea Anglorum, Anglo-Saxoniee ex versione ^'I'^lfredi 
 Magni Gentis et Latins, aecessere Chronologia Saxoniea {The Sa.von Chronicle, see 9.) et 
 Leges Anglo-Saxoniee cum inteqiretatione Latina, cura Abrahami Wheloei, fol. Cantabrigiap, 
 lt)44. .1 much improved and splendid edition was published with the following title : " Beda? 
 Historia Ecelesiastiea, Latinect Saxonice; una cum reliquis ejus operilmsHistorieis Latine, 
 cura et studio Johannis Smith, S.T.P. fol. Cantabrigi;p, 1722, pp. 823, 2/. His. — [Ki.j.j.] 
 CjED.mon. 7. Cjedmonis Monachi Parajjhrasis Poetiea Gcnesios ac pr:rcipuarum sacrae 
 pagina^ historiarum, abhinc annos ji.lxx. Anglo-Saxoniee conseri)>ta, et nune primum edita 
 a Francisco Junio, Amst. \(i.').j, j)p. 11(5. \l. — Ca>(lmon's Bletrieal l'araj)hrase of Parts of the 
 Holy Scri])tures, in Anglo-Saxon, with an English translation, notes, and a verl)al index, 
 by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. London, lfS32, pp. 341, 1/. Is. — [Ki.J'.t.J iF'.i.iuic. 8. 
 .^ll'rici abbatis Ciramniatici vulgo dieti Grammatica liatino-Saxonica, ^c. Guliel. Somne- 
 rus, fol. Oxon. 1059, pp. o2. This is a Latin Grammar written in Anglo-Saxon for the use of 
 those Saxon youths who were studying Latin. It is appended to Somner's A.-S. Dictionary, see 
 22. — [UJ!t2.] Chuonicle. 9. Chronologiea .Anglo- Saxoniea, cura Abrahami Wheloei, fol. 
 CantabrigiiP, 1644. Appended to Wheloch's edition of Bede, seeBide,G. — Chrouicon Saxoni- 
 cum; sen Anmiles Rcrum in Anglia praxipue gestaruni ad annum mci.iv. ; cum indice 
 rerum ehronologico. Aecedunt regiila* ad investigandas nominum locorum origines; et 
 nominum locorum et riromm in Chronico memoratorum explicatio; Latins ct Anglo-Sax- 
 tiuieu cum notis Edmundi Gibson, 4to. Oxon. 1692, 2/. 8s. — The Saxon Chronicle, with an 
 English translation, and notes, critical and explanatory^, and chronological, topographical, 
 and glossarial indexes ; a short Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language, by the llev. James 
 Ingram, B.D.; a new map of England during the Heptarchy, plates of Coins, 4to. 1823, j)p. 
 I(>3, 3/. 13s. 6rf. The Saxon Chronicle has been translated into English, and j)rinted with an 
 improved A.-S. text, carefully accented from 3JSS. by the late liichard Price, Esq. for the 
 Record Commission. It is not yet published. Miss Gurney printed and circjilaied privately 
 among her friends a very useful work entitled "A literal Translation of the Saxon Chronicle, 
 12mo. Nonvich, 1819, pp. 324, with 48 }iages of Index. — [1()98.] iELiiuc's Bible. 10. Hep- 
 tateuchus, Liber Job, et Evangelium Nicodemi, Anglo-Saxonici'. Historia' Judith Frag- 
 mentum ; Dano-Saxonice, edidit nune jjrimum ex MSS. Codicibus Edvardus Thwaites, 8vo. 
 Oxon. 1698, pp. 168 + 30:= 198, 1/. Is. The first seven books of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon. — 
 [ 1698.] .Alfred's Boethius. 11. Boethii (.\n. I\lanl. Sever.) Consolationis PhilosophiiP libri 
 v. Anglo-Saxonicfe redditi ab .lElfredo ; ad Apograj)hum Junianum expresses edidit Cliris- 
 tojjhorus Rawlinson, 8vo. Oxon. 1698, 1/. 8s. — King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Boe- 
 thius, de Consolatione Philosojjhia^ ; with an English translation and notes, by J. S. Car- 
 <l:de, 8vo. London, 1829, pp. 42-3, 1/. .js. — King Alfred's .Anglo-Saxon version of the ."Metres 
 of Boethius, with an English translation and notes, by the Rev. vSanuu-l I'ox, IM.A. N\(t. 
 London, 1835, pp. 144, 12s.— [1709.] Elstod's Horn. 12. An English-Saxon Homily on 
 the Birth-day of St Gregorj-, anciently used in the English-Saxon Church, giving an ac- 
 count of the Conversion of the English from Paganism to Christianity ; translated into 
 modem English, with Notes, ^e. by Eli/abcth Elstid), 8vo. London, 17(l!>, ]ip. Pret'ace, Ix. 
 44+ lO + 49=r 103, 1/. 4s. This worh is in Anglo-Saxon and English. Ibis author als<i 
 printed some sheets in folio of Anglo-Saxon flomilies, ivitli an English translation. Eor reasons 
 now unknown the press was stopped. A copy of the portion printed is in the British Musiitm. — 
 [1773.] Alfred's Ores. 13. The Anglo-Saxon version from tlie histcuian Orosius, by .Alfred 
 the Great, together with an EngUsh translation from the Anglo-Saxon, (by Daines Barring 
 
20 ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. III. 9. 
 
 the parable of the Sower is selected from Marshall's Gospels, Dordrecht^ 
 1605. 
 
 ton), 8vo. London, 1773 ; Anglo-Saxon, pp. 242, English translation and notes, pp. 259, 
 about 1/. 5s.— Alfred's Will. 14. ^lired's Will, in Anglo-Saxon, with a literal and also a 
 free English translation, a Latin version, and notes, by the Rev. Owen Manning,) royal 4to. 
 Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1788, pp. 51, about 7s. The same, reprinted from the Ox- 
 ford edition of 1788, with a preiace and additional notes, (by Mr. Cardale), London, Picker- 
 ing, Combe, Leicester, 8to. 1828, pp. 32, price 5s. — [1815.] Beowulf. 15. De Danorum 
 Rebus Gestis Secul. III. et IV. Poema Danicum, Dialecto Anglo- Saxonica, ex Bibliotheca 
 Cottoniana Musa^i Britannici edidit versione Latina et indicibus, auxit, Grim Johnson 
 'i'horkelin. Dr. J. V. &c. 4to. Havnis, 181.5, jip. 299, 14s. — An analysis of this fine poem, and 
 an English translation of a considerable part of it, has been (fiven by Mr. Turner in his History 
 of the Anglo Saxons, b. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p. 280-301. — A still more complete analysis is given, 
 with free translations in English verse, and a literal Latin version of the text formed from a 
 careful eollalion with the MS. in Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, p. 30-167. 
 — 4 very neat edition ofllieAnglo-Sason text has appeared, entitled " The Anglo-Saxon Poems 
 of Beowulf; the Traveller's Song, and the Battle of Finnes-burh, edited, together with a 
 (ilossary of the more diflicidt words, and an historical Preface, by John M. Kemble, Esq. 
 M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge," small 8vo. London, 1833, jip. 259, I3s. A second edi- 
 tion, with an English translalion and a complete Glossary, is ontheeve of publieation. — [1826.} 
 Conybeare's Poetry. 16. Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, by the Rev. John Josias 
 Conybeare, M.A. late Anglo-Saxon Professor, &c. at Oxford, edited bv his brother the Rev. 
 W. 1). Conybeare, M.A.\<cc. 8vo. London, 1826, pp. 286, 18s.— [1830.] Fox's Menol. 17. 
 Menologium, seu Calendarium Poeticum, ex Hickesiano Thesauro : or, The Poetical Calen- 
 dar of the Anglo-Saxons, with an English translation and notes, by the Rev. Samuel Fox, 
 M.A. 8vo. London, 1830, pp. 64, 6s.— [1834.] Thorpe's Analeet. 18. Analecta Anglo-Sax- 
 onica. A selection, in prose and verse, from Anglo-Saxon authors of various ages, with a 
 Glossary; designed chiefly as a first book for students, by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. 
 T,ondon, 1834, jjp. 266, 20s. This work gives specimens of Anglo Saxon from its purest to its 
 most corrupt slate. As some of the sjJeeimens have been taken from 31 SS. and are printed for 
 the first time, this useful book has properly a. place here. — [1834.] Thorpe's Apoll. 19. The 
 Anglo-Saxon version of the story of Apollonius of Tyre, upon which is founded the play ol" 
 Pericles, attributed to Shakspeare; from a MS. in the Library of C.C.C. Cambridge, with 
 a literal translation, &c. by Benjamin Thor])e, F.S.A. 12mo. London, 1834, pj). 92, Qs. — 20. 
 A MORE minute account of works printed in Anglo-Saxon, especially of smaller detached pieces, 
 may be found in p. 134 of Hickes's Institutiones Grammatic£e Anglo-Saxonica;, 4to. Oxoni^, 
 1680 ; and in Wanley's Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon MSS. forming the Zrd. vol of Hickess The- 
 saurus, p. 325. A short notice of the principal A.-S. MSS. may be found in Hickess Institu- 
 tiones, from p. 13.5 to 176, hut a minute ai connt of all the A.-S. MSS. with many very interest- 
 ing and valuable extracts, will be found in Wanley's Catalogue, which, as the 3rd. vol. of Hickes's 
 Thesaurus, has the following title: "Antique Litcraturte Septentrionahs I,iber alter, seu 
 Humpliredi Wanleii Librorum Vetem.m Septentrionalium qui in Anglia? Bibliothecis extant, 
 uec non midtorum Veteruin Codicvim Septentrionalium alilji extantium Catalogus Historico- 
 Criticus, cumtotius Thesauri liinguarum Septentrionalium sex Indicibus, fol. Oxonia^, 1705. 
 — An arranged Catalogue of all the extent relics of A.-S. j)oetry is given in Conybeare's Illus- 
 trations of A.-S. Poetry, p. Ixxvi — Ixxxvi. 
 
 21. Gramjiars. I. Hickes's Institutiones Gram. A.-S. 4to. Oxon. 1689, 21. — 2. Hickes's 
 Thesaurus, 3 vols. fol. Oxon. 1705, 12/.— 3. (Thwaites's) Gram. A.-S. ex Hickesiano, 8vo. 
 jip. 48, 2/. — 1. Elstob's (Eliz.) Gram, of Enghsh-Saxon tongue, 4to. Lond. 1715, 1/.— 5. 
 Henley's Gram, of Anglo-Saxon, Lond. 1726, pp. 61, 4s. — 6. Lye's Gram. Anglo-Saxon, 
 prefixed to Junius's Etymologicum, fol. Oxon. 1743. — 7. Manning's Gram. Anglo-Saxon et 
 Mceso-Goth. prefixed to his edition of Lye's A.-S. Diet. 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772. — 8. Rask's 
 Angelsaksish Sproglsre, 8vo. Stockholm, 1817, pp. 168; Mr. Thorpe's Translation of ditto, 
 8vo. Copenhagen, 1830, 15.9. 6f/.— 9. Sisson's Elements of A.-S. Gram. 12mo. Leeds, 1819, 
 pp. 84, 5s. — 10. Dr. Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols. 8vo. Gottingen, 1822, 
 1826, 1831. This is a Grammar (f all the Germanic languages ; it is the 2nd edit. — 11. Bos- 
 worth's Elements of A.-S. Gram. 8vo. 1823, pp. 330, I6s. — Bosworth's Compendious Gram, 
 of Primitive Eng. or A.-S.'Svo. 1826, pp. 84. 5s. — 12. Ingram's Short Gram, of A.-S. prefixed 
 to his edition of the Saxon Chronicle, 4to. 1823, pp. 8. — 13. G-nilt's Rudiments of A.-S. 8vo. 
 Lond. 1829, pp. 56, 6s. 
 
 22. Dictionaries. Somner's Diet. Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum, folio, Oxon. 1659,8/. — 2. 
 Benson's Vocabidarium A.-S. 8vo. Oxon. 1701, 1/. 4s. — 3. Lye's Dictionarium Saxonico et 
 (iothico-Latinum, published by Manning, in 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772, 71. 17s. 6^. 
 
 Works relating to Anglo-Saxon. — [1650] 23. Casauboni (Merici) de Lingua Saxonica etde 
 Iiiugua Hel)raica Commentarius ; accesserunt Guliclmi Somneri ad verba vetera Germanics 
 liipsiana uotiB, small 8vo. Londini, 1650, 8s. 6(7.— [1678.] Alfred's Life. 24. jElfredi Magni 
 Vita, a Joanne Spelman, plates, folio, Oxon. 1678, about 16s. — [1709.] Alfred's Life, by Sir 
 John Spelman, Knt. from the original manuscript in the Bodleian Library, with considerable 
 
III. 10. ANGLO-SAXON DIALECTS. 21 
 
 Mk, iv. 3—8. 
 3. Gehyra^, Ute eode se saedere hys sued to sawenne. 4. And l^a he sew, sum 
 feoll wiS ]>om weg, and fiigelas comon and hyt frajton. 5. Sum Iboll ofer stans- 
 cvligean, fax hyt nsefdc mycel eoi-^an, and sona up-eode, forj^am fe hyt nasfde 
 eoi-^an J^iccnesse. 6. pa hyt up-eode, seo sunne hyt forswiulds, and hyt forscranc, 
 for|?am hyt wirtruman najfde. 7. And sum feoll on j^ornas, J;a stigon ]>a J^ornas 
 and foi"^rysmodon Jjtet, and hyt wsestm ne beer. 8. And sum feoll on god land, 
 and hyt sealde, upstigende and wexende, waestm, and an brohte J^rittig-fealdne, sum 
 syxtigfealdne, sum hundfealdne. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Dialects. 
 
 10. The Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, had probably some little differ- 
 ence of dialect when they arrived iu Britain. Distant tribes, from the 
 disturbed state of the country, and the difficulties of travelling, could 
 have very limited intercourse. The Jutes were few in number, and could 
 not have much influence, especially as it regards the language. The 
 descendants of the Angles were very numerous, and occupied the country 
 north of the Thames : they settled iu East-Anglia, Northumbria, south of 
 Scotland, &c. Their language was more broad and liarsh than the 
 West-Saxon, and was formerly called the Dano-Saxon dialect. It may, 
 
 additions, and several historical remarks, by the publisher Thomas Ileame, M. A. small 8to. 
 Oxford, 1709, about Rs. — Ijil'e of Alfred or Alured, by Robert Powell, 18mo. 16;34, about os. — 
 YElfredi Regis pra>fatio ad Pastorale Sancti Gregorii, e Codd. MS. Jun. \A\\. Saxon and Latin. 
 See Asserii Mcneien. Vita /El/redi, ]). 81. — [17i2.] Asserii Menevensis Annales Rerum Gesta- 
 rum iElfredi 3Iagni, recensuit Franciseus Wise, M.A. smiUl 8vo. Oxon. 1722, about Os. — Mr. 
 TiuTicrs Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, b. iv. c. (i — 11, and b. v. e. 1 — 6. — [1708.] Wotton's View. 
 25. Linguarum veterum Septentrionidium Thesauri Grammatieo-Criticiet Archa?ologici aue- 
 tore Georgio Hiekesio, Consjjectus brevis, cum notis, Guliehno Wotton, 12mo. 12,s. — [1708.] 
 Wotton's Short View of George Iliekes's (iramnuitieo-Critieal and Areheological 'I'reasui-y 
 of the Ancient Northern Jianguages, translated, with notes, by Maurice Shelton, 4to. London, 
 1737. — [171.J.] ELsTou's5a.ioK Devotion. 2(). Publick Ottice of daily and nightly devotion for 
 the seven canonical hours of prayer, used in the Anglo-Saxon Churdi, with a translation and 
 notes, together witli the Rev. Dr. George Hickes's Controversial Discoiu-ses, by W. Elstob, 
 1 vol. 8vo. 1705, London, os.; the same, 2 vols. 8vo. 16s. 171o-27. — [1720.] Gavelkind. 27. 
 Somners (William) Treatise of Gavelkind, both name and thing, showing the 'i'rue Etjnno- 
 logie and Derivation of the One, tlie Nature, Antiquity, and Original of the t)thcr. To 
 which is added the Life of the Author, by Bisliop White Kennett, 4to. London, 172(). 17*. — 
 [1798. J Henshall. 28. The Saxon and llnglisii Languages recij)rocaIly illustrative of each 
 other; the impracticability of accpuring an acciu-ate knowledge of Saxon Literature through 
 the medium of Latin Phraseology, exemplified in the errors of Hickes, Wilkins, (jil)s(m, and 
 other scholars ; and a new mode suggested of radically studying the Saxon and English 
 Languages, by Samuel Henshall, I\LA. 4to. London, 1798, pj). 60. 'js. — [1807.] Ixgua.m. 29. 
 An Inaugural Lecture on the utility of Anglo-Saxon Literature; to which is added the 
 (ieography of Europe, by King Alfred, including his account of tin- Discovery of tiie North 
 Cape in the 9th century, by the Rev. James Ingram, 31. A. Ito. Oxford, 1807, j)]). 1 12. 10s. 
 6d. — [1807.] Henshall. 30. The Etymological Organic Reasoner; with part of tiie Gothic 
 Gospel of St. iMatthew, from the Codex Argenteus (Cent. IV.), and from the Saxon Durham 
 Book (Cent. VIII.), with an Englisii Version, 8vo. 1807. ;3s.— [1S22.] Silver. 31. A Lecture 
 on the Study of the Anglo-Saxon, (i)y tlie Rev. Tlionias Silver, D.D.), Mvo. Oxford, 1S22. 3s. 
 — [1830.] 32. Mone's (Franz Josej))!) (iucllcu und Forscliungcii /ur Geschichte der Teut- 
 schen Lit. und Sprache, 8vo. Leipzig, 1^30, lOs.— [lH:i3.] :ii. Collen's (George William) 
 Britannia Saxonica, a 3Iap of Britain during tiie Octarchy, 4to. London, 1833, 12s. — [1799- 
 1834.] 34. TiuNERs (Sharon) History of the Anglo-Saxons; comprising the History of 
 England from the earliest period to the Norman Conquest, 3 vols. Hvo. oth edit. London, 
 I8;i4, 2/. .JA-.— Palokwes (Sir Francis) Hist, of A.-S. Kimo. Lond. 1H3I, i)p. .391, .Js.— Pal 
 grave's Rise and Progress of the Englisii Commonwealth, Ito. London, 18.31, 3/. 3.v. Mr. 
 Turner and Sir F. Pulgrave's importnnt n-orhs must he carefuUij read by every A.-S. student. 
 These for History, and liask and Grimm for Pltiloloi/y, are rich sources of information for 
 those who are interested in the Anr/h-Sa.ion lanyuatje and literature. 
 
22 ANGLO-SAXON — DURHAM BOOK, A.D. 900 III. 11. 
 
 however, probably be rather denominated, from its locality,* the Nor- 
 thumbrian or East-Anglian dialect. As this is not the place to enter 
 minutely into the subject of dialects, a few extracts are only given, that 
 they may be compared with the specimen of pure Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 11. The parable of the Sower, from the Northumbrian Gloss or 
 Durham Book, written about a.d, 900,t and now preserved in the British 
 Museum, London, Cotton MSS. Nero, D. IV. fol. 100. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3—8. 
 .3. beono eode <5e sawende 1 sedere to sawenne 4. and miS<5s geseuw, 
 
 3. Ecce exiit seminans ad seminandum. 4. et dum seminal, 
 
 oSer i sfi feoU ymb Sa stret, and cwomon flegendo and fretton 1 eton <5£et 
 aliud cecidit circa via, et venerunt volucres et comederunt illud. 
 
 5 sum ec feoU of stener, <5er ne htefde eorSu michel f menig; and hrseSe 
 5. aliud vero cecidit super petrosa, ubi non habuit terram multam ; et statim 
 
 upp iornende wjes 1 arisen w^s f cSon niefde heanisse eorSes : 6. and t5a 
 
 exortum est, quoniam non habebat altitudinem teiTcE : 6. et quando 
 
 arisen 1 »Sa upp eode wss sunna, gedrugade 1 fbernde; f ^on niefde 
 
 exortus est sol, exsestuavit ; eo quod non haberet 
 
 wyrtruma, gedrugade. 7. and sum feoll in <5ornum, and astigon i upp eodun ^ornas, 
 radicem, exaruit. 7. et aliud cecidit in spinis, et ascenderunt spinse, 
 
 * Mr. Cardale has well remarked: — " Ptire Anglo-Saxon and Dano-Saxon were the two 
 great dialects of the language. The pure A.-S. was used, as Hickes observes, in the southern 
 and western parts of England; and the Dano-Saxon, in the north of England and south of 
 Scotland. It is entirely a gratuitous supposition, to imagine that either of these dialects 
 commenced at a much later period than the other. Each was probably as old as the time of 
 Egbert. . . .The Saxons were predominant in the southern and western parts, and the Angles 
 in the northern. As these nations were distinct in their original seats on the continent, so 
 they arrived at different times, and brought -^-ith them cUfterent dialects. This variety of 
 speech continued till the Norman conquest, and even afterwards .... These two great dialects 
 of the A.-S. continued substanticilly distinct, as long as the language itself was in use. . . . 
 that the Dano-Saxon, in short, never superseded the A.-S.... They were not consecutive, 
 but contem^ovaTy." — Notes jjrefixed to Mi-. Cardale s elegant edition of Boethius. 
 
 Another gentleman, to whom A.-S. literature is also much indebted, thus states his 
 opinion : " Saxon MSS. ought to be locally classed, before any attempt be made at chrono- 
 logical arrangement ; nor will this appear strange when we consider, that in early times the 
 several tU visions of the kingdom were, comparatively speaking, almost hke foreign countries 
 to each other ; that in some parts the Saxon must ha^e continued uniniiuenced by foreign 
 idioms much longer than in others ; that the various provincial dialects must have been much 
 more strongly marked than they are at present, and that they were all equally employed in 
 literary composition." — Mr. Thorpes Preface to Cadmon, pp. xii. xiii. 
 
 Mr. Thorpe mentions IMr. Joseph Stephenson, of the British jMuseum, as the gentleman 
 from whom we may hope for a local classification of our Saxon MSS. Perhaps it would be 
 difficult to find one more competent for so arduous a work, if we form a judgment of Mr. 
 Stephenson's qualifications only from the valuable matter collected from old BISS. and 
 juchciously inserted by liim in the first two parts of Boucher's Enghsh Glossary of Archaic 
 and Provincial Words, 4to. 1832-1833. 
 
 f This is one of the finest specimens of Saxon writing. The Vulgate Latin text of the 
 Four Gospels was written by Eadfrid Bishop of Lindisfame, about a.d. 680 ; the interlinear 
 Anglo-Saxon gloss was added by Alched, probably about 900. For a fidl account of this 
 MS. see Mareschalli Observationes in Versionem Anglo-Saxonicam, Dordrechti, 4to. 1665, 
 p. 492 : Wanley's Catalogue, p. 2.52: HenshaU's Etymological Organic Reasoner, p. 54: 
 Ingram's Inaugural Lecture on Saxon Literature, p. 43 : and Baljer's Historical account of 
 the Saxon and Enghsh Versions of the Scriptures, befi)re the opening of the fifteenth cen- 
 tiuy, prefixed to his edition of Wichf s Gospels, 4to. 1810, p. Ux. For facsimiles of the 
 beautiful writing in this splendid Durham Book, see Astle's Origin and Progress of Writing, 
 4to. 1803, p. 96; and my Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 8vo. 1823, p. 18. 
 
III. 12, 13. ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE, 1135. 23 
 
 and under dulfon f'.Tt and wrestm ne salde. 8. and oXcr feoll on eoriSu 
 et suilbcaverunt illud, et fructum iion dedit. 8, et aliud cecidit in terram 
 
 tjodu, and salde wjpstm stiq:cnde, and Wi-Bxende, and to brohte enncian 
 bonam, et dabat fructum ascendenteui, et crescentem, et adlerebat uiiuin 
 
 Srittig and im sexdig and an hundraS. 
 triginta et unum sexagenta, et unum centum.* 
 
 12. The parable of the Sower, from the Rushworth Gloss, which is 
 an Anglo-Saxon gloss or version of the lOlh century, written at Hare- 
 wood or Harwood [act Harawuda], over St. Jerome's Latin of the Four 
 Gospels. The Latin text is about the same age as the Latin of the 
 Durham Book, being written towards the close of the 7th century. MS. 
 Bibl. Bodl. D. 24. No. 3940, now (1835) D. 2. 19. Aiict.f 
 
 Mk. IV. 3—8. 
 
 3. GeherSe; heonii eode Xe sedere i sawend to sawend. 4. and mit5t5y giseow 
 3. Audite ; ecce exiit seminans ad semiiiandu. 4. et dum seminat, 
 
 oicT i sum gifeol ymb Sa strete, and comun flcgende, and frctan i ctan iSajt. 
 aliud decidit circa viam, et venerunt volucres, et comederunt illud. 
 
 5. o^er i sum soSlice gifeol ofer stajnere, iSer ne ha'fde eorSo, and hrse^e 
 
 6. aliud vero cecidit super petrosa, ubi non habuit terram, et statim 
 
 up iornende waes, forSon ne ha^fde heonisse eorXo. 6. and iSa 
 
 exortum est, quoniam non habebat altitudine tenfc. 6. et quando 
 
 aras i upamende wa?s sunne, and drygde fbernde ; and for )5on ne hajfde 
 exortus est sol, exeestuavit ; et ex eo quod non haberet 
 
 wyrtruma, adrugade. 7. and o^er gifeol in {jornas, and asligun iupeadun c5ornas 
 radicem, exaruit. 7. Et aliud cecidit in spinas, et ascenderunt spiure 
 
 and under dulfun ^aet, and wasstem ne salde. 8. and o^ro gifeol on eoriSo 
 et suffocaverunt illud, et fructum non dedit. 8. et aliud cecidit in terram 
 
 gode ; and salde wasstem stigende, and wexende and tobrohtc an 1 ennc 
 bona ; et dabat fructum ascendentem, et crescentem, et adferebat imum 
 
 iSritig, and an sextig and an hundrecS. 
 XXX., et unum lx. et unum c.t 
 
 13. An extract from tlie Saxon Chronicle of the year 1135, will show 
 how much the language was then corrupted in its idiom, inflections, and 
 orthography. 
 
 An. Mcxxxv. On jjis gcre for se king Henri ofer sa^ aet te Lammasse. and fwt 
 o^er dei. fa he lui an slep in scip. )7a ]^estrede ]>e da^i ouer all landes. and uuard fc 
 sunne swilc als it uuare )ire-niht-ald mone. an sterres abutcn him at midda^i. 
 WurS'en men swi'S'e ofsvuudred and ofdred. and sadden fmt micel ]>ing sculde cumme 
 
 * For the accurate collation of this extract with the MS. wc are indebted to the polite 
 attention of Sir IIcnr>- Ellis, of the British JMuseum. 
 
 t For a further account of this MS. see MareschaUi Obsen-. in Versionera A.-S. p. 492 : 
 Wanlcy's t'atidogue, )). Nl, H-2 : HenslinH's Ktyni. Orgnnic Hcasoncr, p. (5:3, 64 : Astle's 
 Origin and Progress of Writing, p. !)*J : l}al)cr s l^rcf. to U'iclif's 'I'cst. p. IX. 
 
 X The transcript of this extract was obligingly compared with the MS. by a well known 
 Saxon scholar, Dr. Ingram, President of Trinity College, Oxford, and editor of the Saxon 
 Chronicle, with an English translation, notes, ice. see note to § i), No. 9. 
 
24 ANGLO-SAXON — ORMULUM, 1180. III. 14, 15. 
 
 her efter. swa dide. for ]>set ilc gser war^ ]7e king ded. j^set o^er dsei efter s. 
 Andreas massedsei. on Normandi. pa wes tre sona }ias landes. for seuric man 
 sone raeuede o^er J^e mihte. pa namen his siine and his freud and brohten his lie 
 to Engle-land. and bebiriend in Reding. God man he wes. and mice! seie wes of 
 him. Durste nan man misdon wi^ o^er on his time. Pais he makede men 
 and dfer. Wua sua bare his byi"^en gold and silure. durste nan man sei to him 
 naht bute god. — Ingram's Saxon Chronicle, p. 364. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 An. 1 135. In this year went the king Henry over sea at the Lammas ; and the 
 next day, as he lay asleep on ship, darkened the day over all lands, and was the 
 ■sun so as it were a three-night-old-moon, and the stars about him at mid-day. 
 Men were very much astonished and terrified, and said that a great event should 
 come hereafter. So it did ; for that same year was the king dead, the next day after 
 St. Andrew's mass-day, in Normandy. Then was tribulation soon in the land ; 
 for every man that inight, soon robbed another. Then his sons and his friends 
 took his body, and brought it to England, and buried it at Reading. A good 
 man he was ; and there was great dread of him. No man durst do wrong with 
 another in his time. Peace he made for man and beast. Whoso bare his burthen 
 of gold and silver, durst no man say ought to him but good. 
 
 14. The Grave, a fragment. It is found in the margin of Semi-Saxon 
 Homilies in the Bodleian Library,* and is supposed by Wanley to be 
 written about the year 1150. 
 
 SEMI-SAXON. LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 De wes bold gebvld For thee was a house built 
 
 er \VL iboren were ; Ere thou wert born ; 
 
 ^e wes molde imynt For thee was a mould appointed 
 
 er ^u of moder come ; Ere thou of mother earnest; 
 
 ac hit nes no idiht, But it is not prepared, 
 
 ne \eo deopnes imeten; Nor the deepness meted ; 
 
 nes g)-t iloced. Nor is yet seen, 
 
 hu long hit \e were : How long for thee it were : 
 
 Nu me \e bringse^ Now I bring thee 
 
 l^er '^u beon scealt. Where thou shalt be, 
 
 nu me sceal \e meten. Now I shall thee measure, 
 
 and ^a mold seo^^a, &c. And then earth afterwards. 
 
 15. The Orraulum is a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels and Acts, in 
 lines of fifteen syllables, written in Serai-Saxon by an ecclesiastic named 
 Orm, probably in the north of England, about the year llSO.f The 
 author gives the following reason for the name of the work: 
 
 This book is named Ormulum, for that Orm made it. 
 
 piffboe iffnemmnedd Orrmulum, forr]?i jjset Orrm itt wrohhte. — Preface. 
 
 Mr. Thorpe observes, that the author seems to have been a critic in his 
 mother-tongue ; and from his idea of doubling the consonant after a short 
 
 * Bibl. Bodl. Codex NE. F. 4. 12, Wanley, p. lo.— Mr. Conybeare's Illustration of A.-S. 
 Poetry, p. 270, for the first printed text with a verbal Latin and English translation. Mr. 
 Thorpes Analerta, p. 142, for an improved text. 
 
 f Wanley's Catalogue, p. 59—63 : Conybeare"s Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, Introd. p. Isvii : 
 Turnei's Hist, of Eng. Middle Ages, b. ix. 1, vol. v. p. 435, 436 : Mr. Thoi-pe's Analecta, Pref". 
 p. ix : Baber's Wiclif, Pref. p. Ixiv. 
 
III. 16, 17. ANGLO-SAXON — WICLIF, A.D. ] 380. 25 
 
 vowel, as in Gonuan, we are enabled to form some tolerably accurate 
 ijolioiis as to tlie proiiuncialioii of our fbrefatlicrs. Tlius lie writes wi/i and 
 uin with a single u only, and ///"with a single /', because tlie f is long, as 
 in i/iinc, nine, and lije. On the other liand, wheri;v(!r the; consonant is 
 doubled, the vowel preceding" is short and sharp, as iriint, ])ron(tunced win, 
 not wine. Orni's dialect merits, if any, to be called JJano-Sa.\on : Lis 
 name also betrays a Scandinaviau descent.* 
 
 Up]K) ])ti |iiid(]e dagg bilaiiini]), swa sininn ]>e Coddspcll kijnj'j?, 
 
 JjuU i |ie land oirGuiile walfan bridalc garrkcdd ; 
 
 And itl wali'garrkedd inn an Uni )iutt wall' Caua g(!liatonn, 
 
 and Crisleff muderr Marge wall' all tall brulalcss stele. 
 
 And Crist wass cle])edd tUl j^alL Inis wi}?}? liise krninng t iiiLliless. 
 
 And teggre win wafrch'uunkenn .swa jcull Ucr nass y.i na mare. 
 
 \\ anil II, |> 62. -f- 
 
 VtUBAL liNGlISH. 
 
 Upon the third day fit) happened, as some nf tlie Gospels say, 
 
 tlial in the land ol' Galilee was a bridal pn.-pared; 
 
 And il was piajjared in a town tlial was Cana called, 
 
 and Chri.>l's mulher, Marv, was at thai bridal's seal. 
 
 And Christ was invited lo that house wilh his discijjle.s. 
 
 And their wiiie was drunk, so that there was not then any more. 
 
 1(). Robert of (jloiicester| was a monk belonging lo the abbey at 
 CiUmcester, \\ho wrote a histoiy of Knglaiid in rhyming verse about 
 A.D. I"2i^0. lie declares that he saw the ecli])se wliich liappened in 1"2()4, 
 on the day of the battle at Kvesh.un, and thus describes it: 
 
 As in J^e Nur]? West a derk weder }7er aros, 
 
 Sodeiiiliche snarl inon, jial mani man agrus, 
 
 And ouer caste it }n)5ie al }jiil loud, J;at me mi^tc viine^e ise, 
 
 Grisluker weder ];an it was ne niijle an erj^e be. 
 
 An vewe drojjes ot reine }'er vcUe grete inon. 
 
 pis lokninge vel in Jjis hmd, j'o me jjis men slou 
 
 Wor Jjretii mile {jamie. f^is isei Robcrd, 
 
 [nit vcrsl l^is hue made, and was wel sure aferd. 
 
 17. John de ^Viclif was born about 13*24, at Wiclif, a village on the 
 l>anks of tlie river 'J'ees, near Kichnujud, Yoikshire. lie Iransluted the 
 Bible and Testament, and even the A])ocryphal books, friun Latin into 
 I-jiglish, in the year 1380. Though Wiclif's writings may be called Old 
 l:ingli.>h, yet a s])ecimen from the ])arabl(^ of the Sower is given, that it 
 may be coiniiaied wilh the preceding translations. 
 
 • Anaiccta, Prff. p. ix. 
 
 f IJoiUeian I.ibrarv, CkiI. Juiiii, i. j). 330. 
 
 X Turner's Hist of Enq Mitlrl/c A<i s, 1». viii. 1, vol. V. p. -217; ix. 2, vol. v. p. ^ !-. - 
 Warton's Umt.nj Emj. l^udry, 8vo. \hZ\, \u\. i. p. .'yl. 
 
26 ANGLO-SAXON— SEMI-SAXON OF KENT, 1340. III. 18, 19. 
 
 Mk. IV. 3— 8. 
 
 Here ye, lo a man sowinge goitb out to sowe, and the while he sowith sum seed 
 fel aboute tlie weye, and briddis of hevene camen and eeten it. other I'elde doun on 
 stony places where it hadde not myche erthe, and anoon it sprong up ; for it hadde 
 not depnesse of erthe, and whanne the sunne roos up it welewide for bete, and it 
 driede up, for it hadde no roote. And other fel doun into thomes : and thornes 
 spriingen up and strangliden it, and it gaf not fruyt : And othere felde doun into 
 good lond : and it gaf fruyt spryngyng up and wexinge, and oon brougbte thritty 
 fold, and oon sixty fold, and oon an hnndrid fold. 
 
 18. Semi-Saxon, in the dialect of Kent, written a.d. 1340. 
 
 Nou ich wille J^et ye ywyte hou bit if yvvent 
 
 pet Jiif boc if ywrile mid engliff of Kent. 
 
 pif boc if ymad uor lewede men | 
 
 Vor uader | and uor moder j and uor oj^er ken } 
 
 Ham uor to ber3e uram alle manyere zen | 
 
 pet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen. 
 
 Huo afe god if bif name yzed [ 
 
 pet J^if hoc made God him yeue J?et bread j 
 
 Of anglef of heuene and Jjerto his red | 
 
 And onderuonge hif zaule huanne J^et he if dyad. Amen. 
 
 Ymende. pet J;if hoc if uolueld ine ])e eue of ]7e holy apoftlef Symon an Judaf 
 I of ane brojjer of]>e choyftre of faynt Austin of Canterberi | Ine jje yeare of oure 
 ] hordes beringe. 1340, — Arundel MSS. No. 57, British Museum.* 
 
 19. It is evident from the preceding extracts, that the pure West- 
 Saxon did not ever prevail over the whole of England, and that in 
 process of time the language approached more or less to the present 
 English, according to its relative position to the West-Saxons. In early 
 limes there was, clearly, considerable dialectic variety in the writings of 
 men residing in different provinces. This will be evident by comparing 
 the short specimens from the Northumbrian and Rushvvorth glosses,t and 
 the extract from the Saxon Chronicle,! with the quotation from Marshall's 
 Anglo-Saxon Gospels, |j and other works in pure Anglo-Saxon. The 
 difference observable in the language of the most cultivated classes would 
 be still more marked and apparent in the mass of population, or the less 
 educated community. These, from their agricultural pursuits, had little 
 communication with the inhabitants of other provinces ; and having few 
 opportunities and little inducement to leave their own neighbourhood, 
 they intermarried among eacli other, and, from their limited acquaintance 
 and circumscribed views, they would naturally be much attached to their 
 old manners, customs, and language- The same cause operating from 
 age to age would keep united the greater part of the population, or the 
 families of the middle stations of life, it may, therefore, be well expected that 
 much of the peculiarity of dialect prevalent in Anglo-Saxon times, is pre- 
 served even to the present day in the provincial dialects of the same districts. 
 
 * Itfr. Thorpe's Pre/, to Cadmon, p. xii. 
 
 t § 1 1 and 12. + § 13. || § 9. 
 
III. 20. ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF ENGLISH PROVINCIAL GLOSSARIES. 27 
 
 In these local dialects, then, remnants of the Anglo-Saxon tongue may bo 
 found in its least altered, most uncorrupt, and therefore its purest state. 
 Having a strong and expressive language of tlieir own, they had little 
 desire and few opportunities to adopt foreign idioms or ])ronuuciation, 
 and thus to corrupt the purity of their ancient language. Our present 
 polislied pln'ase and fashionable ])ronunciation are often new, and, as 
 deviating from primitive usage, faulty and corrupt. We are, therefore, 
 much indebted to those zealous and patriotic individuals who have referred 
 us to the archaisms of our nervous language, by publishing provincial 
 glossaries, and giving specimens of their dialects.* 
 
 The present English jyrovincial Dialects are most nearly allied to 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 20. So much has been advanced with the view of showing, that what is 
 generally termed " vulgar language," deserves some notice, and claims 
 our respect from its direct descent from our high-spirited Anglo-Saxon 
 ancestors, and from its power of expression. It is not asserted that any 
 provincial dialect has issued in a full and uncontaminated stream from the 
 pure Anglo-Saxon fountain; but in every province some streamlets flow 
 down from the fountain-head, retaining their original purity and flavour, 
 though not now relished perhaps by fastidious palates. None can boast 
 that they retain the language of their early forefathers unimpaired, but all 
 may prove that they possess strong traces of it.f 
 
 • The following is a list of the principal provincial Glossaries: — 1. A Collection of Eng- 
 lish Words not generally uscd,^c. bv John Ray, F.R.S. :3rd edit. fSvo. London, 17:37, pp. 1.50, 
 price about As. — '2. An Hxmoor Scolding, and also an Exuioor Courtship, with a Glossary', 
 7th edit. 8vo. Exon. 1771, pp. (K), ])rice \)d. — :5. The Lancashire Dialect, with a (ilossary. 
 Poems, ^^c. by Tim Bobbin, Esq. (3Ir. John Collier, Schoolmaster at jMilnrow, near Roch- 
 dale,) i2mo. Manchester, 1775; London, 1818, pp. 212, price 3s. — t. A Provincial GlossaiT, 
 with a Collection of Local Proverbs, ^^e. by Francis Grose, Esq. F.A.S. 2nd edit. 12mo. Z.oh- 
 don, I7!)0, price os. — o. Anecdotes of the English Language, chiefly regarding the Local 
 Dialect of London and its environs, which have not corrupted the language of their ances- 
 tors, London, 180:3, 8vo. 2nd edit. 1814. — (i. An Etjnnological Dictionary of the Scottish 
 Language, ^kc. by John Jamieson, D.D. F.R.S.E. &^c. 2 vols. 4to. 1808, lu/infiiiri/h ,- 2 vols. 
 4to. Supplement, 182.5. — 7. A list of ancient Words at present used in the mountainous 
 Districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, by Robert Willan, M.D. F.R.S. and S. A. 1811 ; 
 ArehiPologia, vol. xvii. 1814, pp. 2!). — 8. An Attempt at a Glossary of some Words used in 
 Cheshire, by Roger Wilbraliam, Esq. F.R.S. and S.A. 1817; Archa^ologia, vol. xix. 2nd 
 edit. Rodd, London, 12mo. i82(i, jjrice 6s. \>p. 1 17 ; The Hallamshire (Glossary, 8vo. })]). 11)2^ 
 by the Rev. Joseph Hunter. — !>. Sullolk words and Phrases, by I^dward i\Ioor, F.R.S. F.A.S. 
 &e. 12mo. Woodbridye, 182:3. — 10. Hora? Momenta Cravena?, or, the Craven Dialect: to 
 which is annexed a copious Glossary by a native of Craven, (the Rev. W. Carr.) I2mo. Lon- 
 don, 1824, pp. 12.3, price 4*. This is a wry va/twh/e little hook, the ivork of a scholar : 2nd edit, 
 much enlarged, 2 vols, post 8vo. London, 1828. — 11. A Glossary of North Country Words in 
 use, by John 'Protter Brockett, F.S.A. London and Newcastle, 8vo. Ncnrnstle-ujion-Ti/ne, 
 l82.j, pp. 24:3, price 10s. (id. — 12. Observations on some of the Dialects in the ^Vest of Eng- 
 land, particularly Somersetshire, with a Cilossary of Words now in use there, and poems and 
 other pieces exemplifying the Dialect, by James Jennings, H<morary Secretar\^ of the 3Ietro- 
 politan Litcrar\' Institution, London, 12mo. London, 182.}, ])]). 191, price 7*. — 1:3. The 
 Vocabidary of East- Anglia ; an attem])t to record the vulgar tongue of the twin-sister coun- 
 ties, Norfolk and Suffolk, as it existed in the last twenty years of the I8t]i centur}', and still 
 exists; with proofs of its anti(iuitv from etymology and authority, by the late Rev. Robert 
 Forby, Rector of Fincham, Nori'olk, 2 vols. 12mo. /,oh^/</", is:i(i, ])rice 1/. Is. — 14. A Glossary 
 of .\rchaie and Provincial U'ords, i)y the late Rev. Jonathan Boucher, F.S..A. Vicar of lOp- 
 som, efhted jointly by the Rev. Joseph Hunter, F.S.A. and Joseph Stevenson, Esq. part I. 
 18:32, part XL 18:3:3, 4to. A far more comjiletc list of Provincial (ilossaries will be found in 
 the following very carefully compiled and valuabh' little work. — A Bibliographical list of the 
 works that have i)een pul)iished, towards illustrating the Provincial Dialects of England, by 
 John Russell Smith, 12mo. London, 183!>, i)p. 24. 
 
 f Forby's East- Anglia, vol. i. p. 18. 
 
2S ANGLO'SAXON EXISTS IN THE SOMERSET DIALECT. III. 21, 22. 
 
 21. A few specimens of provincial flialects are given, beginning: with 
 extracts from Mr. Jennings's neat and valuable little work, being the 
 present dialect of tliat part where the West-Saxon or pnre Anglo-Saxon 
 was once spoken, and llicn proceeding to East-Anglia, and terminating 
 with the broad dialect of Craven in Yorkshire. In attempting to give tlie 
 exact pronunciation of each district, some words are so disguised as, at 
 llie first view, to be scarcely recognised, and occasionally two or more 
 words are pronounced, and therefore written, as one word. This is an 
 ambiguity which could not be entirely avoided; but an ample com- 
 pensation i'^ made for it bv giving the words, as far as possible, in the 
 pronunciation of the several provincial districts. 
 
 Dirtlecfs of the West of England, particnlarly Somersetshire. 
 
 22. The following are some of the peculiarities observable in the West 
 of England. 
 
 The people of Somersetshire, east of the river Parret, make the third person sin- 
 gular of the indicative mood, present tense, to end in th or elh ; thus for he loves, 
 he reads, thev muformly sav, he lov'fk, he reaiVth. Thev use Ise for I, er for he, 
 and her for she. — They sound a as rt in father ; and e as the French e, or as the 
 English a in cane, fane, &c. — Tti is sounded as d : for thread thev say dread or 
 dird ; for through dro, thrash drasli : s as z, Zummerzet for Somerset, &c. — They 
 invert the order of some consonants : for thrush, brush, rush, they say dirsh, birsh, 
 hirsh; for clasp, hasp, asp, they use claps, haps, aps, — They annex y to the in- 
 finitive mood, and some otlier parts of manv of the common verbs, / can't seivy, 
 he can't reapy, to sewy, to nursy : Xhex also prefix letters : for lost, gone, bought, 
 they say alost, ayone, abought. — They often make dissyllables of monosyllables: 
 tor air, both, fair, fire, sure, cScc. they sav ayer, boodth, fayer, shower, ^c. — / be, 
 thou beest or bist, thee beest, we be, they or thd be, are commonly heard ; but 
 rarely or never he be, but he is. — War is ab\avs used for was and were ; as / war, 
 thee or thou tvart, he war, we war, tlieyov l/id ivar. — We often hear we'm, you'm, 
 they'm, f<ir we are, you are, thev are. — Thev use thic for that ; as thic house, thic 
 man, for that house, that man. — The diphthong o'l is often pronounced ivi : for spoil, 
 boil, point, soil, we have spw'de, bwile, pwint, swile, ^c. — In and, d is often 
 omitted, as yon an I. — In the present participle and other words in ing, y is omitted ; 
 for loving, hearing, singing, lightning, they say (ovin, hearin or hirin, zingin, 
 lightnin. 
 
 As specimens of the Somerset dialect, a dedication in vQj-se, and a short 
 dialogue in prose, will be sufficient. 
 
 TO THA nWELLKRS o' THE WKST. 
 
 Tha fruit o' longvul labour, vears. 
 
 In theaze veo leaves at last appears, 
 
 Ta you, tha Dwellers o' tha West, 
 
 I'm pleas'd that tha shood be addresst: 
 
 Vor thaw I now in Lunniui dwell, 
 
 I mine ye still — I love ye well ; 
 
 An niver, niver sholl vorget 
 
 I viist draw'd breath in Ziuumerzet ; 
 
 Amaugst ye liv'd, an left ye zorry. 
 
 As you'll knaw when you hire my stovry. 
 
 Tlieaze little book then take o' me ; 
 
 'Tis ail 1 lia jist now ta gee. 
 
III. 23. ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THF FXM( OR niAMCT. 29 
 
 FARMER BKNNF.T AX JAN TJPK. 
 
 A Dia/oijiip. 
 
 Fiifinn- lii'intrf. Jan ! wliv (Iwon't ve liuli' mv p1ioo< ? 
 
 J«« L/V/r. 15in, iiuu'ster 'tis zaw cawld, I can't work wi' tha lacker at all ; I've 
 n brawk il ten linies I'm shower, ta da — da vreaze za ln-rd. A\'hv, Hester hani^ed 
 (Hit a kitile-sniock ta f'rowy, an in dree niinits a war a vranr as slifl'as a pasNker ; 
 an I can't avoord ta keep a good vier — I wi^li I cood — I'd zoon riglit vour slioes 
 an withers too — I'd zoon yarn znni moiK^v, I warnt ye. Can't ye vine zmn work 
 vor me, niaester, theiize hord times — I'll do any tlieiig ta sar a ])einiy. I can drasli 
 — I cati cleave l)rans — I can make spars — I can thatchy — I can shear diich, an \ 
 can j'ripy too, bit da vreaze za hord. I can winiiuy — I can messy or milkv nil 
 ther be need o't. I ood'n mine dreavin ])longh or any theng. 
 
 Farmer Bennet. I've a got nothin vor ye ta do, .Jan ; hit Mister Boord hanehond 
 ta 1 jist now that tha wargwain ta wimniy, an that tha wanted ziunbo.lv ta help 'em. 
 
 Jan Lidc. Aw, I'm glad o't. I "11 him anver an zee where I can't hel]i 'em ; 
 bit I han't a bin alliin tha drashel o' Maester Boord "s door vor a longfiil tinu-, bin I 
 thawt that missis did'n nse [Jester well ; but 1 dwon't bear malice, an zaw I'll goo. 
 
 Fjrmer Deinief. What did JMissis Boord za or do ta Hester, than ? 
 
 Jan Lull'. Why, Hesier, a-ma-be, war znmmet ta blame too; vor she war one 
 o'm, d've zee, that rawd Skinunerton — thic mu-game that frnnted znm o' tha gen- 
 nelvawk. Tha zed 'twar lime to a done wi" jilch lifer, or jitch stiifl', or I dwon 
 knaw what iha call'd il ; bit tha war a fnmted wi' Hester abont it ; an J zed nil tlia 
 war a fnuited wi' Hester, tha mid be a frnnted wi' I. This zet missis's back np, an 
 Hester han't a bin a choorin there zunz. Bit 'tis niver-thc-near ta bear malice ; 
 and zaw I'll goo auver an zee which wii tha wine da blaw. 
 
 Tlic F.vmoor Dialect. 
 23. Kxmoor is in the north of l^omersetsliite and Devonsliire; it is so 
 called, being the forest or inoor in which the river Exe rises. 
 
 AN EXMOOR COURTSHIP. 
 
 Andri'ir. Well, cozen IMacjerv, cham triad von're come ayren. 
 
 Margery. Wnll }e eat a cronst o' brid and chezee, cozen Andra ? 
 
 Jlndreiv. No, es thankee, cozen JNlagery ; vor es eat a crnb as es come aloni; ; 
 bezides es went to dinner jest avore. — Well, bet, cozen jMagery, whot onser desl 
 gi' ma to tha qnesson es])nt vore now-reert. 
 
 Manjenj. What quesson was et ? 
 
 Jludrew. Why, zure, ya bant zo vorgetvul. Why, tha que.ssou es ])nt a little 
 rather. 
 
 Margery. Es dont know what qiiesson ye meean ; es begit what quesson twos. 
 
 ^ndreir. "NMiy, to tell tha vlat and jilane airen, twos thes: Wnt ha' ma, av or no? 
 
 Jllargeri/. Whol ! marrv to Karteen ? — K» gee tha zame onser es geed avore, 
 es wndent marry the best man in oil Ingland. Es cud aniorst zwear clmd ne'er 
 marry at oil. And move and zo, cozen Andra, cham a told ya keep company wev 
 Tamzen Hosegood, And nif ya keep hare company, es'll ha no more to zev to tha. 
 
 Andrew. Ay, theses Jo Hosegood's flim-flam. — Oh! tha very vengance out o'en. 
 
 Margery. No, no; tes none of Jo Hosegood's flim-flam. 
 
 Andrew. Well, well, cozen IMagery, bet how twull, whot caree J ? — And zo, 
 good-buy, good-buy l' e, cozen IMagery. — Nif voaken be jealous avore they be 
 married, zo they mey arter. Zo good-buy, cozen Magery. Chell net trouble ye 
 agon vor wone while chell warndv. 
 
30 ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE DERBYSHIRE DIALECT. III. 24, 25. 
 
 Margenj. [ Calling after him.'] Bet hearky, hearky a bit, cozen Andra ! Es 
 wuclent ha ye go away angry nether; zure and zure you wont deny to see me drenk ? 
 Why ya hant a tasted our cyder yet. [Andreiv returns.1 Come, cozen Andra, 
 here's t'ye. 
 
 Andrew. Na, vor that matter, es owe no ill-will to enny kessou, net I. — Bet es 
 wont drenk, nether, except ya vurst kiss and vriends. 
 
 The Dialect of East-Anglia, or Norfolk and Suffolk. 
 
 24. " The most general and pervading characteristic of East-Anglian 
 pronunciation," says Mr. Forby, " is a narrowness and tenuity, precisely 
 the reverse of the round, sonorous, ' niouth-iilliag' tones of the north of 
 England. The broad and open sounds of vowels, the rich and full tones 
 of diphthongs, are generally thus reduced. Generally — not universally. 
 Some few words become broader, but they become also harsher and 
 coarser. This narrowness of utterance is, in some parts, rendered still 
 more offensive by being delivered in a sort of shrill whining recitative. 
 This prevails chiefly in Suffolk, so as to be called in Norfolk the ' Suffolk 
 whine.' The voice of the speaker (or singer) is perpetually running up 
 and down through half or a whole octave of sharp notes, with now and 
 then a most queridous cadence.* 
 
 The following are a few of the common contractions and changes : Dujfus for 
 dove or pigeon-house ; vmddus wood-house ; shant shall not ; cant cannot ; ont, 
 wont will not ; dhit did not ; shunt should not ; want would not ; mant may not ; 
 warnt were not ; eent is not ; aint is not ; heent has not ; hant had not. — Tut is 
 used for to it ; dut do it; wut with it ; het have it ; tebhin it has been. — We hear 
 cup for come up ; gup go up ; gout go out ; gin go in ; giz give us. — The follow- 
 ing are very peculiar : k'ye here, or k'ere : k'ye there ; k'ye hinder, or k'inder ; 
 k'ye thinder, for look ye here, there, and yonder. — Words are often jumbled 
 together, as iu this sentence : M'aunt bod me g'into lliarchard, and call m'uncle 
 into house. 
 
 Derbyshire Dialect. 
 
 25. This dialect is remarkable for its broad pronunciation. In me the 
 e is pronounced long and broad, as mee. The I is often omitted after a or o, 
 as aw for all, catv call, boivd bold, coud cold. — Words in ing generally 
 omit the g, but sometimes it is changed into k; as thi)}k for thing, 
 lovi7i for loving. They use con for can ; cornier for cannot ; sJianner for 
 shall not ; wool, wooner for will, and will not ; yo for you, &c. 
 
 A Dialogue between Farmer Bennet and Tummus Lide. 
 
 Farmer Bennet. Tummus, whoi dunner yo mend meh shoon ? 
 
 Tummus Lide. Becoz, mester 'tis zo cood, oi conner work wee the tachin at 
 aw ; oiv' brockn it ten toimes oim shur to de — it freezes zo hard. Whoi, Hester 
 hung out a smock-frock to droi, an in three minits it wor frozzen as stiff as a proker, 
 an oi Conner afford to keep a good fire — Oi wish oi cud — Oid soon mend yore 
 shoon, an uthers tow. — Oid soon yarn sum munney, oi warrant ye. Conner yo 
 find sum vrork for m', mester, these hard toimes ? — Oil doc onny think to addle a 
 
 * Vocabulary of East-Anglia, Introduction, p. 82. 
 
III. 26, 27. ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE LANCASHIRE DIALECT. 31 
 
 penny. Oi con thresh — Oi con split wood — Oi con mak spars — Oi con thack. Oi 
 con skower a dike, an oi con trench tow, bur it freezes zo liard. Oi con winner — 
 Oi con fother, or milk, if there be need on't. Oi woodner nioind drivin plow, or 
 onny think. 
 
 Farmer B. Oi banner gotnothin for ye to doo, Tumnins ; bur INIester Boord 
 towdniee jist now that they wor gooin to winner, an that they shud want sumbody 
 to help 'em. 
 
 Tummus L. O, oim t;lad on't. Oil run oor an zee whether oi con help 'em ; 
 bur oi banner bin weein the threshold ov JNIesler Boord's doer for a nation toime, 
 becoz oi thoot misses didner use Hester well, bur oi dnnner bear malice, an zooil goo. 
 
 Farmer B. What did Misses Boord za or doo to Hester then ? 
 
 Tummus L. Woi, Hester may-be wor summet to bleme too ; for her wor won on 
 'em, de ve zee, that jawd Skiuinienon, — the mak-gam that fronted zum o' the gente- 
 fook. Thev said 'twor toinic to dun wee sich litter, or sich stufl", or oi dnnner know 
 what they cawd it ; bur they wor fruuted wee Hester bout it ; an oi said, if they wor 
 fnmted wee Hester, they mid bee frunted wee mee. This set missis's back up, an 
 Hester banner bin a charrin there sin. But 'tis no use to bear malice ; an zo oil 
 goo oor, and zee which we the winde blows. 
 
 Clieshire Dialect. 
 
 26. One peculiarity in the province is to change, or soften, the pro- 
 nunciation of many words in the middle of vvliich the letter I is preceded 
 by a or o. 
 
 Thus in common discourse we pronounce hairk for balk, can f (or calf, haufht 
 half, irawk for walk, fo/ce for folk, and St. Aivhinis for St. Albans ; but in the 
 Cheshire dialect, as in all the north, the custom of substituting the o for the a, and 
 the double ee for the igh, prevails in a still greater degree : thus we call all aio; 
 ixlways awtcays ; bold bowel; calf caw/"; call catv ; can con; cold coivd ; colt 
 cowl; fold fowd ; gold yo?tY/; false /rn^se ; foul fuw; ioo\ foo; U\\\ foo ; fine fain ; 
 \\o\A howd ; \\o\i howl ; hnUhauf; ha\l\)cnny hawpenuy ; haW haiv ; lou^ hen j; 
 man man ; many monij ; manner mo nner ; might ;/u'c/ ; mold mowd ; ])ull /)oo ; 
 soft saff; bright hreet ; scald scaivd ; stool stoo ; right reel; twine twoin; flight 
 fleet ; \aneloan or lone; mol mal ; sight see ; sit seet ; such sich. 
 
 The Lancashire Dialect. 
 
 27. Observations on the Lancashire dialect. All and al are generally 
 sounded broad, as aw or o : thus, awl Jiaw or ho, awUia for all, liall, always. 
 — In words ending in ing, k is used for g, as think, wooink, for thing, 
 wooing, &c. — At the end of words d and ed are often changed into / ; thus 
 behint, nynt, aictert, for behind, wind, awkward. — The d is sometimes 
 omitted in and, for which they say an. — It is common, in some places, 
 to sound OH and ow as a ; thus, tha, ka or ca, for thou, cow. In other 
 places, OH and ow have the sound catc ; thus, for thou, cow, house, mouse, 
 they say theaw, keaic, heaicse, meause. — In some parts o is used for a, 
 and (I for ; thus, for part, hand, they say port, hont ; and instead of for, 
 short, they say far, shart. — The syllable ew or ^n is generally used in the 
 plural of verbs, &c. as JiaVn, lor''n, think'n. — In Lancashire they generally 
 speak quick and short, and omit many letters, and often pronounce two or 
 three words together ; as, III gut' or I'll gnC for I'll go to ; runV for run 
 
32 ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN TUE CKAVEN DIALtCT. III. 28, 29- 
 
 to ; Jioost for slie shall ; inile or inCll for if tliou will ; / troudidcrn for 
 i wish yuu would. 
 
 Tummus and Meary. 
 
 Tummus. Ocld.s me ! iMearv, wliooa llie dickons wou'd o thowt o' leetini^ o tliee 
 here so sovne tliis luurijiug ? Where luis to bin ? Tiieaw'rt aw on a swat, I think; 
 for theaw looks primely. 
 
 Meary. Beleeuiy, Tummus. I welly lost my wynt ; for I've had sitch o'lraunce 
 this morniiiu as eh neer had e' meh live : for J went to Jone's o'Flarry's o'lung 
 Jones, lor'i borrow their ihible, to slur ih' furmetry weh, an his wife had lent it to 
 Bet o' uiv t;ronuv's; so I skeawrt eend-wey, an' when eh coom there, hoo'd lent it 
 Kester o' Dick's, an the dule steawnd 'im for a brindl't cur, he"d mede it ini' shoon 
 pegs ! Neaw wou'd iiaw sitch o moon-shine traunce potter any body's plucks ? 
 
 Tummus. Mark whot e tell the, iMeary; for 1 think lunger ot fok liv'n an' th' 
 moor mischoances they ban. 
 
 .Mean/. Not awlus. — But whot meys o't' sowgh, on seem so dane-kest ? For 
 I coll tt'U o" I'd I'eiie see o' whick an hearty. 
 
 Tummus. Whick an heartv tool oddzo, but 1 con tell thee whot, its moor in 
 bargin ut I'm oaiber whick or hearty, Ibr'twur seign ])eawiid t'a tuiipunny jannock, 
 I'd bill OS deeod os o dur nele be this awer; (or th' last oandurtii boh one me 
 measter had lik't o kilU meh: on just neaw, os shore os thee and me ar stonning 
 liere, I'ui actilly running meh country. 
 
 The Dialect of Craven. 
 
 28. The Deanery of Craven is in the West Kiding of Yoiksliire. 
 A sliorl specimen will be sufficient. 
 
 Dialogue between Farmer Giles and his neighbour Bridget. 
 
 Giles. Good momin to thee, Bridget, how isto ? 
 
 Bridget. Deltly as out, and as cobby as a lop, ihanksto. 
 
 Giles. Wlia, marry, thou looks i gay good fettle. 
 
 Bridget. What ihinksto o't' weather ? Awr house is vara unrid and grimy, 
 t'chimld smudges an reeks seea, an mackst' reckon, at used to shimmer andglissen, 
 iiowght bud soote an muck. 
 
 Giles. It's now a vara lithe day, bud there war a girt roak, an a rag o't' fells at 
 delleel, an it looked fearfid heavisome. 
 
 Bridget. I oft think a donky, mislin, deggy mornin is a sign o't" ])ride o't' 
 weather, for it oft wors^ds up, an is maar to be liked ner t' eleiuent full o' thunner 
 packs er a breet, scaumy sky. 
 
 Giles. Wha, when't bent's snod, bask, cranchin an slaaj), it's a Strang sign of a 
 pash. 
 
 Bridget. I've oft obsarved there hes been a downfaw soon efter ; bud for sure, 
 I cannot gaum niich be ouer chiinla at prisent, it's seea smoored up wi mull an 
 brash. Yusterday about noon, t' summer-goose flackered at naya lile rate, an t' 
 element, at edge o' dark, wor feaful full of filly tails an hen scrattins. — Thou kuavvs 
 that's a sartaiii sign ov a change, sometimes I've knaan it sile and teem efter. 
 
 All Alphahetical Glossary of the peculiar Words used in the preceding 
 
 specimens of Provincial Dialects- 
 
 29. S.-mk-hQ as may he, perltaps : s. Axiex after : e. Avwer over: s. 
 Aw all: d. Awlus aluaijs : I. — Bauehund to intimate: s. Becoz 
 
III. 30. ANGLO-SAXON— GLOSSARY TO THE PKOVINCIAL DIALECTS. 33 
 
 because: d. Begit to forf/et : e. Jlvans bra nth, ^re-trood : a. Brash 
 rash, impetuous: c. J^\\\• hut : d. — Cixwd called : d. Cham / am ; e. 
 Cha.Y\in Jobbing : d. Chel I shall : e. Chovr'm J obb hi (/ : s. Cobby 
 lirelij : c. Connev can }iot: d. Good cold : d. Citinchiu scranchiiif/, 
 graidi/ig, cracklincj : c. Crub a crumb : t\— Deggy foggy : c. De 
 day: d. Deftly decently, icell: c. Dickons, Deuce the devil: d. 
 'Don]iy wet, dark, gloomy : c. Drasli to thrash: s. Dnnnex do not : d. 
 Dwon't don't, do not : s.^—Es, ise /, is: e. — Fettle condition : c. Fok 
 fulk: I. Foiiier to fodder : d. — Gaum to know, distinguish : c. Gee 
 to give: e. Girt great, friendly : c. Gripy to cut in gripes, to cut 
 a trench : s. — Wkhave : s. Han hare: I. Wnnnor has ov hare not : d. 
 Hask dry, parched: c. H'lrn to run: s. lIooW her had,she had : I. — 
 Jaimock oat cake, bread 7nade of oatmeal : I. J awd scolded: d. .Jitcli 
 such : s. — Kesson Christian : e. Kittle-smock a smock-frock : s. — Lile 
 little: c. Lithe blithe, mild: c. Lop a flea: c. — Marry tridy : c. 
 Mess, messy to serve cattle : s. Mine to mind, regard : s. Mislin misty, 
 small rain : c. Mul dust or refuse of turf or peat : c. — Nation great, 
 very : d. Never-the-near useless : s. Now-reert noiv right, just noic : e. 
 — d'of: s. Oandwxih after noon : I. Odd^ me bless me : I. Ood\\ would 
 not: s. — Fa^h a fall of rain : c. Vndcfineness: c. Proker a poker : d. 
 — Rag 77iist : c. Eather soon, early : e. Reckon, reek on icliat is smoked 
 on, an iron bar over the fire to support a boiling pot : c. Reek to 
 smoke : c. Roak a reek, smoke : c. — Sar to earn : s. Seign seven : I. 
 Shimmer to shine : c. Shoon shoes : d. SWe to pour icith rain : c. Sin 
 since : d. Skeawr to make haste : I. Slaap slippery : c. Smoored 
 smothered : c. Snod smooth: c. Sowgh to sigh: I. Spars pointed 
 sticks, doubled and ticisted in the middle to fasten thatch upon a roof: s. 
 Summet somewhat : d. — Tacker : s. tachin : d. a waxed thread. Teem 
 to pour out : c, Tha they : s. Thack to thatch : d. Thaw though : s. 
 ThesLW thou : I. Theaze these, this: s. Thibble a thin piece of wood 
 to stir meat in a pot : I. Tliink tiling: d. Towd told: d. Traunce 
 a troublesome Journey: I. 'TwaiV it teas : s. TwuW as it ivill : e. — Vine 
 to find: s. — Warnt to warrant, assure: s. Whick quick, alive: I. 
 Wimmy to tcinnow : s. Wine wind: s. Withers others: s. Wood- 
 iier would not : d. Worsel to wrestle : c. Wynt wind : I. — Ya you : e. 
 Yarn to earn : s. Yo you : d. Yore your : d. — Zaw so : s. Zo so : d. 
 Zunz since : s. 
 
 Contractions, c. Craven, d. Derbyshire, e. Exmoor. I. Lancashire, 
 s. Somerset. 
 
 30. Many expressive Anglo-Saxon words, which arc no longer in use 
 among tlie refined, have been retained in tlie provincial dialects. Tliese 
 then ought not to be neglected. The facility and simplicity of combining 
 several short indigenous words to express any complex idea, practised by 
 the Anglo-Saxons and other Gothic nations, is now too seldom used. 
 Instead of adopting technical terms from other languages, or Ibrming 
 them from tlie Greek or Latin, as is the present English custom, our 
 
34 ANGLO-SAXON — EXTENT OF ENGLISH. III. 30, 
 
 Anglo-Saxon forefathers formed words equally expressive by composing 
 them from their own radical terms. For our literature they used boc- 
 cra;ft hook-craft, from boc a hook, crseft art, science ; for arithmetic 
 rimcraDft, from rim a numher, crseft art ; for astronomy tungelcrgeft, from 
 tungel a star, &c. If, however, we have lost in simplicity, we have gained 
 in copiousnes and euphony. In collecting from other languages, the 
 English have appropriated what \^ as best adapted to their purpose, and 
 thus greatly enriched their language. Like bees they have diligently 
 gathered honey from every flower.* They have now a language which, 
 for copiousness, power, and extensive use, can scarcely be surpassed. It 
 is not only used in England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in the whole 
 of North America and Australia : it prevails in the West Indies, and is 
 more or less spoken incur vast possessions in the east. Indeed, wherever 
 civilization, science, and literature prevail, there the English language is 
 understood and spoken. 
 
 * Camden observes : " Wliereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The Italian is 
 pleasant, but without sinewes, as a stiU fleeting water. The French delicate, but even nice 
 as a woman, scarce daring to open her hppes, for fear of marring her countenance. The 
 Spanish majesticall, but fulsome, running too much on the o, and terrible like the Divell in 
 a play. The Dutch manlike, but withall very liarsh, as one ready at every word to picke 
 a quarrell. Now ^e, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian; 
 the full sound of words to the French ; the variety of terminations to tlie Spanish ; and the 
 mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch ; and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good 
 properties, and leave the dregs to they selves. And thus, when substantialnesse combineth 
 with delightfulnesse, fullnesse with finesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and currentnesse 
 with staydnesse, how can the language which consisteth of all these, soimd other than full 
 of all sweetnesse ?" — Camden's Remains, p. 38, edit, q/1623. 
 
 In the following comparison of the Anglo-Saxon with the ancient and 
 modern Friesic, though there may be, in some minor points, a little 
 diversity of opinion between the author and his friend the Rev. J. H. 
 Halbertsma, yet it would be unjust to make alterations. Mr. Halbertsraa 
 has, therefore, been always permitted to speak for himself, and to give his 
 reasons in his own way. Where opinions vary, the author has generally 
 referred to both statements, leaving it to the reader to form his own 
 conclusions from the evidence adduced. Considering this the most 
 equitable mode of treatment, he has adopted it, not onl^^ in regard to the 
 valuable Essay of Mr. Halbertsma, but in reference to the works of those 
 from whom he may differ far more widely. He is too conscious of his own 
 liability to err, to be over confident in his own views. He has given his 
 reasons or authorities, and all that he can confidently assert is, that it has 
 been his constant and earnest wish and endeavour to avoid the natural 
 bias towards the idol self, or that of any party, and to discover and follow 
 truth, whether it favour his own previous opinions, or those of others. 
 Perhaps he may have failed even here. If he have, he will, as soon as 
 it is pointed out, gladly make every acknowledgement and reparation in 
 bis power. 
 
35 
 
 IV.— FRIESIC* 
 Ancient and Modein Friesicf compared with Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 1. Anglo-Saxon being one of those languages called dead, a knowledge 
 of its pronunciation cannot be obtained from the people themselves. Of 
 course, all information in these matters depends upon th3 written letters, 
 and upon determining the sound of those letters. 
 
 2. This, however, is a very difficult task. There is no co!inexion at 
 all between visible marks and audible sounds: the letters serva more to 
 indicate the genus, than the species of the sounds, and use alone can 
 teach us the shades (nuances) of pronunciation. 
 
 * " In comjiaring kindrcil lanji;uages with each other, the scholar will generally start from 
 the point where he was born. Kask usually refers tlie A.-S. to the Scandinavian tongues, 
 especially to the Icelandic, (iernians have chiefly recourse to the Thcotisc, and what is 
 called by them Saxon. Others will bring it back to the dialects of their country ; all with the 
 same aim of elucitlating the grammar, or discovering the sounds in A..-S. The reason of this 
 IS evidently the intimate acquiiintance each of them has with the old and modern dialects of 
 his own country, and most likely the scholar would compare the A.-S. with another class of 
 dialects, il' all the tongues ol' the Germanic branch were as thoroughly known to him as those 
 of his native country. Being a native Friesian, and comparing the A.-S. chiefly with the 
 Friesic, I could scarcely escape the suspicion of having yielded to the same influence as 
 others, if I did not explain my reasons. This, I hope, will be a suflicient excuse for my 
 entering into some details about the primitive relationship between the Anglo-Saxons and the 
 Friesians. 
 
 " As every scholar has his own point dc vuv in matters of language, I beg leave to have mine. 
 Kmy principles were unknown to my readers, my rides depending on these ])rinciples, would, 
 as void of foundation, be unintelligible. It is for this reason that I have here inserted some 
 of my ojjinions about the j)edigree and comparison of languages, appearing properly to 
 belong more to general grammar than to my ])rcscnt subject. 
 
 "As historv' often fails in showing the full truth of my ojtinion about the relationship between 
 the Angles and the Friesians, 1 had recourse to tiie languages. Hence a view of the 
 remnants of the Friesic both dead and still flourij-hing is here presented, and compared with 
 the English and A.-S. it pleases not the muse of history to speak but late, and then in 
 a very confused manner. Yes, she often deceives, and before she is come to maturity, she 
 seldom distinctly tells the truth. Language never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, 
 though removed to a far higher antiquity. 
 
 " ft is at the re<picst of my dear friend Bosworth that I wTite in English, a language in 
 which I have not l)een i'avoured w ith any instruction. I j)ossess only some dim feeling of 
 analogy between its manner of speaking and my native tongue. I, therefore, grant to my 
 English readers the full freedom of smiling at my thousand and one Friesianisms, while 
 I shall have reached my aim if I am only understood. 
 
 "J. H. Halbertsma." 
 Deventer, Augufit lOth, 1834. 
 
 f Mr. Halbertsma, to promote Friesian hteraturc, amongst other works, has published 
 Hulde aanGysbert Japiks,2 vols. 8vo. Bolsward, 1«24 1)S27. — I)e Lapekoerfen GabeScroar, 
 12mo. Dimter, 1H:J4. — Friesche SpeUing, 18mo. 1H.'5.J. — The inllowing arc by other hands: 
 Dr. Epkema published (iysbert Japicx Friesche Rijmlerye, Ito. l.jcauwert, 1821. — Woor- 
 denboek op de gedichten van Japicx, Ito. id. 1N24. — Mr. Postunius translated into Friesic 
 two of Shakespeare's plays, entitled, J)e Keai)nian fen Vcnctieii in Julius Cesar, 8vo. Grintz, 
 1829. — Jonkh. i\Ir. Montanus Hettcma has shown his patriotism by giving to the public the 
 following viduable works: — Emsigcr Landrecht Beknopte handleidi.ig om de oude Friesche 
 taal, 8vo. Leeuwarden, 1829. — Proeve van een Friesch en Ncderhindsch Woordenboek, 8vo. 
 Leeuwarden, 1832. — I'rieschc Spraakleer van 11. Rask, 8vo. id. 1832. — Jurisprudentia Frisica, 
 of Friesche Regtkennis, cen handschrift uit de vijftiendc ecuw, Hvo. id. 1H34-3.J, 2 p;irts, 
 &c. &.C. Many more Friesians ought to be named as great i)ronu)tcrs oftiieir literature. — 
 Professors Wassenburg, Hoekstra, Mr. Hoeuflt, Wielinga Huber, Scheltema, Beaker 
 Andreae, van Halmael, and others. See paiagraphs 86 — 102, for an account of ancient 
 Friesic works. 
 
36 FRIESIC — DIALECTS OF. IV. 3—6. 
 
 .3. The simple sounds we assign to letters, bears no proportion to the 
 diphthongal nature of almost every sound in A.-S. 
 
 The inhabitants of Hindelopen still retain some A.-S. sounds undefiled. When 
 I first heard some old people speak in this little town, I was quite astonished how 
 sounds so compounded and diphthongal as those could he pronounced with so much 
 ease and fluency. What is more simple in writing than the words leod, A.-S. leod 
 people ; neugen, A.-S. nigen nine? When you hear these words at Hindelopen, 
 you will find that the pronunciation baffles every effort of the grammarian to invent 
 signs giving an adequate idea of its nature. In the eu you hear first the y, then the 
 eu blended with the French ou, ending in oi. Such words as leod people, and 
 neugenend-neugentig nine-and-ninety, are, for this reason, Hindelopean shibbo- 
 leths above all imitation of their own countrymen, the other Friesians. 
 
 4. Besides this, the sounds of letters are in restless fluctuation. If we 
 could trace the changes in the sound of letters, our success would exceed 
 our hopes ; but even this discovery could not give an adequate idea of the 
 sound of letters in use at any period, for sounds are altered when the 
 letters remain still unchanged. The English and French languages give 
 full proof of this truth. 
 
 When they enter into the class of dead languages, there will still be gi'eater 
 difficulties in ascertaining the pronunciation of chateau, and eschew. ' When, after 
 lung investigation, you discover tliat chateau ought to be pronounced ka-te-au, as 
 the Picardiaus pronounce it at this very day, you find that by the tyranny of cus- 
 tom it is enervated to sya-to ; when also you discover that the English first pro- 
 nounced eschew, and afterwards es-tshow {ou French), how few readers will be- 
 lieve your assertions, seeing that these words remain expressed by the same letters. 
 
 5. The sounds of a language, like other things, are, by time, subject 
 to mutations, and these changes are homogeneous or heterogeneous, 
 according as the cause of change is internal or external. In this way, 
 diphthongs become vowels, and vowels again diphthongs. An elaborate 
 treatise would point out the changes in a language, if an uninterrupted 
 succession of MSS. of different ages could be procured. 
 
 6. Independently of these succeeding general changes of the whole 
 language, there are diversities existing at the same time, called dialects. 
 The A.-S. is subject to these diversities in the highest degree, and with 
 a free people it could not be otherwise. When a nation easily submits to 
 an absolute sway, individuals have little attachment to what is their own 
 in character and opinions, and easily suffer themselves to be modelled in 
 one general mould of the court or priesthood. On the other hand, when 
 a nation, as the Angles and Friesians, is jealous of its liberty, and will 
 only submit to the law enacted for the public good, while every individual 
 regulates his private affairs for himself, the slightest peculiarity of cha- 
 racter, unrestrained by the assumed power of any mortal, developes itself 
 freely in the proper expressions, and every individuality is preserved. 
 This I believe is the reason why in the province of Friesia are more 
 peculiarities than in the other six proviuces of the present kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, and more in England alone than in the whole of Europe. 
 
IV. 7— 9. FRIESIC DIVKRSITY— IRREGULARITY IN SI'ELLING A.-S. WORDS. 37 
 
 Applying this principle in language, the very mirror of the soul, we find 
 the same variety ; so that among a people so fond of liberty as the Angles 
 and Friesians, not only every district, but every village, nay, every hamlet, 
 must have a dialect of its own. The diversity of dialects since the French 
 Revolution of 1795, is much decreasing by the centralisation of power 
 taking daily more effect in the Netherlands : the former republic, by 
 leaving to every village the management of its domestic affairs, preserved 
 every dialect unimpaired. Nevertheless, at this very time, those living on 
 the coast of Easimahorn, in Friesia, do not understand the people of 
 Schiennonikooff, a little island with one village of the same name, almost 
 in sight of the coast. The Hindehp/ans speak a dialect uninlclligible to 
 those living at the distance of four miles from them. Nay, the Friesians 
 have still dialects within a dialect. 
 
 In the village where 1 was born, we saitl indiscriminately, after, efter, and aifter, 
 .5.-.S. softer; tar, and ta;r, ^.-S. tare ; par, and paer, .i.-S. ])eva ; tarre, and tiure 
 consumere, A.-S. teran ; kar, and ktcv, A.-S. eyre; hi lei, and hi lai, ^.-.S'. Ia3g; 
 perfect tense of ik lizz', hi leit, Jl.-S, liege, li^; smarre, and sma;re,^.-S'. smerian ; 
 wane and wajre, warge and wasrge, A.-S. weran, werian tueri, resistere. On this 
 matter I can produce a very striking example in the centre of Friesian nationality. 
 It is now, I believe, sixteen years since I spoke to an old woman at Molqucnim, 
 a village now almost lying in ruins, but still divided into seven little islands, called 
 PoZ/en, joined to each other by (breggen .i.-.S'. bricgas) little bridges. Now the 
 good woman told me in bor homely style, tliut when she was a child, every island 
 had its peculiar way of ])ronouncing, and that when an inhabitant of any of the 
 villages entered her mother's house, she could easily ascertain to which Pol the 
 person belonged, merely by some peculiarity of s])eech. Dependence may be 
 placed on this fact, as I have ascertained its truth by strict incpiiry. I have no 
 doubt the same peculiarity was observable in almost every village of the Anglo- 
 Saxons. Every Englishman who notices the diversity of dialects to be found in 
 Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, or Lancashire, and by these 
 judges of the rest, and considers what they have formerly been, will perhaps enter, 
 in some measure, into my views. 
 
 7. This fact fully accounts for the discrepancies in the forms of words, 
 occurring nearly in every page of a genuine A.-S. author. Not writing 
 by established, often arbitrary rules of grammar, he wrote just as he 
 spoke ; his writing was, therefore, the true representation of his dialect. 
 
 8. There still exists another cause, which, though not less productive 
 of variety in writing, ought to be carefully distinguished from variety of 
 dialect. The diphthongal uatiu-e of the whole system of A.-S. vowels made 
 it difficult for every writer to know by what letters to indicate the proper 
 sounds of his words. Unable to satisfy himself, he often interchanged 
 kindred vowels in the same words, at one time putting a or eo, and after- 
 wards w and I/. Diversities arising from this cause are of the most 
 frequent occurrence even in the oldest Anglo-Saxon MSS. 
 
 9. This diversity in the spelling of a word is of the greatest importance 
 to one who would ascertain the true pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 ^Yhile the writer is groping about him for proper letters, we guess the 
 
38 fRIESIC — LAWS OF SPEECH. IV. 10—12. 
 
 sound lie wished to express by assuming some middle sound between ibe 
 letters be employs. This advantage would have been totally lost to us if 
 the orthography of the Anglo-Saxon could boast of the same uniformity 
 as that of the English recorded in Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary. 
 
 10. In this respect we owe a thousand thanks to Lye, v/ho gives us 
 the Anglo-Saxon words as he found them, and never alters the orthography 
 to suit his own views. 
 
 At the head of bis articles he occasionally attributes to the word a vowel which 
 it has not. For instance, be puts the a in staf and lat, which these words have 
 only when a second syllable is added, as in late, stafa : when monosyllables, they 
 are written stsef a staff, laet late. Whether he considered the vowel he inserts as- 
 the primitive one, or did not know the laws of permutation in Anglo-Saxon vowels, 
 matters not, as it is impossible to be misled by them, standing alone and without 
 any authority. He moreover rectifies his faults by his citations, in which neither 
 staf nor lat occms. Such trifling mistakes should not obscure bis immense merits 
 in faithfully giving us the vowels of the Anglo-Saxon authors, with all their odd 
 and lawless exertions to express the sounds they heard. 
 
 11. I fear that those who credit what I have stated about the diversity 
 of Anglo-Saxon and Friesian dialects, will consider these infinite variations 
 as the curse of Babel. They will, however, permit me to say, that human 
 speech in general has its mechanical rules fixed by the frame of the organs 
 of speech, to which all tongues submit. This frame admits modifications 
 to which every nation yields. These modifications admit of farther modi- 
 fications, to which not only districts, but even villages are liable. There- 
 fore, every language is of necessity what it is, and it is not in the power of 
 fancy or choice to obey or disobey these laws. From this cause proceeds 
 much of the diversity in language. 
 
 12. From the sounds which can be pronounced, every nation selects 
 those which are best adapted to the frame of his organs, and the feelings 
 he endeavours to express. 
 
 Now this choice, in which we are free, opens an immense field for diversities in 
 tongues ; but, whatever the choice may be, the first grasp decides all the rest : every 
 consonant brings its corresponding consonant, and the vowel its corresponding vowel. 
 In a word, every language is a compact, well-framed whole, in which all the parts 
 sympathize with each other. Insult one of its essential properties, and the disgrace 
 will be felt through the whole system. Remove one series from its original place, 
 and all the others will follow the motion. What is true of any language may be 
 asserted of any of its branches or dialects. Reason and never-failing experience 
 vindicate the justice of these conclusions. The dialect corresponds to itself in 
 its dialects, and the principle on which the form of a word is framed, is always 
 followed in similar cases. If this analogy be unobserved, it is not the fault of the 
 dialect, but of the dim sight of the observer. The majority of grammarians deem 
 dialects lawless deviations in the speech of the dull mob, to which they attach all 
 that is coarse, vulgar, confused, and ridiculous. Indeed, the chaos of tongues then 
 begins, when gi'ammarians, ignorant of the operations of the mind, and its exer- 
 tions to express its thoughts, obtrude their arbitrary rules,* and, by heterogeneous 
 
 * This assertion may be verified by many examples in English. On this point, the 467th 
 paragraph of the Principles prelixed to Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, is very striking. 
 
IV. 13, 14. FRIESIC — HOW TO DISCOVER THE A.-S. PRONUNCIATION. 39 
 
 mixtures, ever fertile in producing others, set the well-framed system of sounds in 
 inextricable confusion. Regardless of the interior structure, wholly unknown to 
 eves gliding over the surface of things, they use language as the rich but ignoraut 
 man his library, who, deeming it to be a niatter of chief importance that his books 
 should be of the same size, ordered them all to be cut to 8vo. and 12mo. The 
 public is not generally expert in forming a judgment on these matters : weighing 
 no argument, it regards only the tone of the pro])oser, and places its confidence in 
 him who is the boldest in his assertions, though he is generally the most ignorant — 
 for the greatest ignorance is ever accompanied with the greatest assurance. How- 
 ever men may sufler themselves to be imposed upon, nature still defends her rights. 
 As our bodies have hidden resources and expedients, to remove the obstacles which 
 the verv art of the physician often puts in its way, so language, ruled by an in- 
 domitable inward principle, triumphs in some degree over the folly of grammarians. 
 Look at the English, jiolluted by Danish and Norman con(piests, distorted in its 
 genuine and noble features by old and recent endeavours to mould it after the 
 French fashion, invaded by a hostile entrance of Greek and Latin words, threatening 
 by increasing hosts to overwhelm the indigenous terms; in these long contests 
 against the combined might of so many forcible enemies, the language, it is true, has 
 lost some of its power of inversion in the structure of sentences, the means of de- 
 noting the differences of gender, and the nice distinctions by inflexion and termina- 
 tion — almost every word is attacked by the spasm of the accent and the drawing of 
 consonants to wrong positions ; yet the old English jirinciple is not overpowered. 
 Trampled down by the ignoble feet of strangers, its spring still retains force enough 
 to restore itself; it lives and plays through all the veins of the language, it impreg- 
 nates the inninnerablc strangers entering its dominions with its temper, and stains 
 them with its colour, not unlike the Greek, which in taking up oriental words 
 stripped them of their foreign costume, and bid them appear as native Greeks. 
 
 13. But to return. — In human language, as in the wliole creation, tlie 
 great law of beauty and liappiness is this — variety in nnity. Though there 
 are great diffictillies in discovering the true pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon, 
 we have still left to us two means of investigation. First, the comparison 
 of its vowels and consonants with those of a kindred dialect existing at 
 a more remote period ; and secondly, the same comparison with a kindred 
 dialect of posterior age, both as it is written and still spoken— for, however 
 altered in some of its features, it must still retain genuine trails of its 
 original countenance. The Gothic or Moeso-Gothic* will answer for tlie 
 first, and the Friesic the second ; two languages combining the advantage 
 that the nations who spoke them bordered on the Anglo-Saxons, the 
 Moeso-Goths on the north, and the Fricsiaus on the south, and by 
 enclosing the Anglo-Saxons, limit their influence, both as it respects their 
 geography and language. 
 
 14. It is evident that all the tongues spoken by the great people which 
 the Romans called Germani, considered on a large scale, appear as 
 dialects all issuing from one common source. There was a time when all 
 tliese languages were one. If we could mount sufTiciently high in the 
 scale of time, we should arrive at the period when the progenitors of all 
 the tribes were gathered within the compass of a little camp under a few 
 
 • See \1I. §. 1, aud note 2, 
 
40 FRIESIC— NAMES OF NUMBERS. IV. 15, 16. 
 
 tents, and spoke one language, containing the germs of all the diversities 
 by which the dialects of their posterity were distinguished. The nearer 
 we approach this time and place, the more will all the Germanic tongues 
 become similar to each other, and their boundaries vanish by which at 
 present they are enclosed. For this reason, the oldest and best poet of 
 the Greeks, retaining symptoms of a particular dialect, blends in his poems 
 all the dialects of Greece. In regard to antiquity, the Gothic of Ulphilas. 
 being written about a.d. 360, has the precedence of any Anglo-Saxon 
 MSS. by four or five hundred years. In comparing the Anglo-Saxon 
 with the Gothic, we shall have the double advantage of measuring by 
 a standard approaching nearest the genuine dimensions, and of approach- 
 ing to a nearer contact with those kindred tongues which subsequently 
 developed themselves into more striking differences. 
 
 15. The nearer we approach the source, the more pure will be the 
 water. If the developement of language were left to its natural course, 
 without any disturbing shock or foreign influence, all things would change 
 according to the established rules of nature, and every word bear in its 
 changes some resemblance to its primitive state. But every age brings 
 on some disturbance of the system, and the intermixture of foreign ingre- 
 dients, originating in wars, migrations, revolutions, and other causes, 
 introduces so many changes, that in some respects the rule is overthrown 
 by the exceptions, and the language rendered quite unfit for comparison. 
 A suflicient reason can be given for the present state of disorder only by 
 ascending to the period of order, and not by a comparison of the dialects 
 lying in their present confusion. Now the higher the step on which we 
 can observe the language, the less it is disturbed in its original structure, 
 and the better adapted for the standard of comparison. It is the high 
 age of the Gothic, and its real character, known by what is remaining of 
 it, which in these respects stamps its value. Spoken by one unmixed 
 tribe of warriors, it appears on the stage fresh and unpolluted, quite 
 original and sui generis, with members of due proportion, and dressed in 
 its own native costume, without a shred of foreign ornament. 
 
 J 6. The advantages derived from a comparison with a language of this 
 sort, may be exemplified by some names of the numbers. 
 
 The EngHsb having composed eleven and ttvelve from en^ twe, and lifen, you 
 would conclude that they would express unus, duo, by en, twe ; but no, they say 
 one, two. The Dutchman says twaalf, veertien, horn twa and veer ; but his simple 
 numbers are twe, vier. The German has his zwanzig twenty, and zwei two. 
 The country Friesian uses olwe, toalf, tretjen, with manifest indication of Runic 
 admixture, from ellefu eleven, tolf twelve, Jirettan thirteen, from the Icelandic tveir 
 and }'rir. Their twenty has the sound of tweintich — ought they not to say also to 
 two, trae three, one one, as the Hindelopians do ? Rather incongruously the}' use 
 len, twa, trye : and having {]om\ ex four, they compose tsjien with vier into fjirtjen 
 fourteen. Hence, when the numbers were composed, the English had the Dutch en 
 and twe; the Dutch had the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and modern Friesic twa, with 
 the Germans ; the country Friesianshad the one, two, of the English. Would not 
 
IV. 17, 18. FRIESIC — FORMATION OF NUMERALS. 4l 
 
 these toncjnes, when taken as a basis for analogical research, lead info a thousand 
 mistakes ? If in English the number e/crere were unknown to you, would 3-ou not 
 say, from analogy, that it was formed from one, on-leven contracted into olven ? It 
 is not known in Gothic, but we may be sure that ai in ains one, will not be dis- 
 owned in ainlif, as twa is not in twalif, nor twaim duobus in twaintigum {d. pi.) 
 tioenty. In the same analogical manner the Anglo-Saxons compose words, \xeo 
 three, \xeo\yr\e thirteen, twegen two, originally twen, twonluf contracted to twelf; 
 dn by pushing the accent ajn-d-lufan. Does not Kcro make, from zuene two, 
 zuelifin twelve F In Off rid, from zuei two, zueinzlg ? Finally, does not the old 
 Friesian, from twia twice, or twi, ,^b. 1, 93 ; thrc three, Ab. 177, trae Hindcloj)ian ; 
 fiuweryb?/;-, flower, Ab. 1, 5, 87, form analogically twilif twelve, Ab. 14; thred- 
 tine thirteen, Ab. 19, 93; ^wwexime fourteen, Ab. 19, 94 ? 
 
 17. There still exists another anomaly in the numerals. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans, counting only by tens, com|)osed their numbers from 
 ten to twenty with cetca, deccm ten ; kvczKa, nndecim eleven; Ivm^ekci, duodecim 
 twelve. The German tribes form the same numerals in a similar manner, except 
 eleven and twelve, which were com))osed with Ger. lif ; A.~S. lacfan, lif, lef, I'f, in 
 other dialects. But as this anomaly entered our numeral system in a jiej'iod 
 anterior to the history of our tongues, and is common to all the Germanic lan- 
 guages, the analogy between the kindred dialects is not disturbed by these irre"-u- 
 larities, but rather advanced. 
 
 18. The cause of this disturbance lies in the old practice of using both 
 ten and itcelve as fundamental numbers. 
 
 The advance was by ten, thus J^rittig, Country Friesic triuch ; feowertig, Ab. 2, 
 &c. but on an-iving at sixty the series was finished, and another begun, denoted bv 
 prefixing bund. This second series proceeded to one hundred and twenty, thus : 
 hundnigoiitig ninety ; hundteontig a hundred ; hundenlufoutig a hundred and ten ; 
 hundtwelftig rt hundred and twenty : here the second series concluded. It thus 
 appears, that the Anglo-Saxons did not know our hundred = 100, as the chief 
 division of numbers ; and, though they counted from ten to ten, they, at the same 
 time, chose the number twelve as the basis of the chief divisions. As we say 
 5 X 10 = 50, 10 X 10= 100, they multiplied 5 and 10 by 12, and produced 60 
 and 120. ^Yhen the Scandinavians adopted a hundred as a chief division [100 
 = 10 X lOj, they still retained one hundred and twenty ; and calliu"" both those 
 numbers liundred, they distinguished them by the cpilhcls little or ten hundred, 
 lill-hundrad or hundrad tiracd, and great or the twelve number hundred, stor-hun- 
 drade or hundrad tolfrajd. The Danes count to forty by tens, thus, tredive thirty 
 fyrretyvc forty ; and then commence by twenties, thus, halvtrediesindstyve, liter- 
 ally in A.-S. )^ridda healf si>)'on twentig* [two twenties], and the third twenhi 
 half, i. c. fifty. The Icelanders call 2500 half Jjridie {^usand, [Dut. derdehalf- 
 duizend,] x. e. two thousand, awd the third thousand half; firesindtvve \fuur- 
 times twenty'] eighty, and so on to a hundred. The Francs, behig a mixture of 
 kindred nations from the middle of Germany, when they entered Gallia, partly 
 
 • The ellipsis of the two twenties is supplied in the expression twa peare and Jjridde healf 
 trvn ycarx and half the Ihirrl j/ear. Hterallv in Frs.r. twajier in 't treddc heal, but custom con- 
 tracts it to tredde heal jier. Hiekes compares this ellipsis with the Seoteh expression lialf 
 tf),, whieh is also the lint, halftien, but in this he is not accurate. The Country Friesians 
 not having' this ellipsis, iirove that it must be supplied in another way. They say, Iieahvei 
 Isiienen half naij of thepresetit hour to ten o'clock. Dr. Dorow has also fallen" into the same 
 mistake, j). 127, Denkmiihr, I. 2 and 3. 
 
 * G 
 
42 
 
 FRIESIC — THE USE OF GOTHIC. 
 
 IV. 19—22. 
 
 A.-S. gripan to gripe ; 
 Moes. greipan to gripe ; 
 A.-S. arisaii to arise ; 
 Moes. reisan to arise ; 
 A.-S. spiwaii to vomit; 
 Moes. speiwan to spit ; 
 
 grap, gripon. 
 graip, gripiim. 
 aras, arison.- 
 rais, risiim. 
 spaw, spiwun. 
 
 adopted the Anglo-Saxon mode of numeration, and partly that of the Danes, and 
 thev afterwards translated verbally their vernacular names of the numerals by Latin 
 words. From twenty to fifty it proceeds in the usual manner, vingt, trente, 
 qnarante, cinquante, soixants ; but having arrived at seventy, the same place where 
 the Anglo-Saxons commenced with hund, hundseofontig, it uses soixantedix, 
 quatrevingt, just as the Danes express eighty by firesindstyve four times twenty. 
 As it appears that the old Germans had two fundamental numbers, ten and twelve, 
 it follows that eleven and twelve are the last two numerals of the twelve series, and 
 \\\& first two in the ten series; hence perhaps came the use of the termination lif 
 or luf, in eleven and tivelve. 
 
 19. Let us still add another example. 
 
 The conjugation of the Anglo-Saxon verb stigan ascendere, and the Gothic 
 steigan, is thus inflected : ic stige, steiga ; he stilv^, steigith he ascends ; he stah, 
 staig he ascended; we stigon, stigum we ascended. Here it appears, that the 
 Gothic ei corresponds with the A.-S. i ; ai with a ; i with i. Now I conclude, if 
 the evolution of both languages was regulated by the same principle, there must be 
 an analogy between the vowels in similar instances. Indeed we do observe the 
 same analogy preserved in verbs of the same class. Let us take, for instance, 
 gripan, arisan, and spiwan 
 
 gripe, gri])^ ; 
 
 greipa, greipith : 
 
 arise, orist ; 
 
 reisa, reisith ; 
 
 spiwe, spiw'S; 
 
 speiwa, speiwith ; spaiw, spiwum. 
 
 20. These instances are all regular, but as soon as ever the accustomed 
 evolution is disturbed in its course, the analogy is gone. 
 
 Thus, the verb scinan to shine, ic seine / shine, he scin^' he shines, we scinon 
 we shone, corresponds to skeinan, skeina, skeinith, skinum. The long a, however, 
 in scan, Gothic skain, by some erroi' being changed into short a, this short a is 
 converted into ea and forms scean shone. It has already been observed, that every 
 dialect corresponds in its several parts, and that a certain form in the present tense 
 brings on a certain form in the perfect tense. Of course the practice of some gram- 
 marians, in forming the conjugation of a verb out of the present tense of one dialect, 
 and the perfect tense of another dialect, is contrary to the first rule of sound analogy. 
 If any dialect had scunan or sceonan, tlie perfect tense scean would not be an ex- 
 ception, as it is when appertaining to scinan. 
 
 21. It is a most happy circumstance, that the Gothic, and not the 
 Tbeotisc, had the advantage of being recorded in the oldest monument of 
 Germanic literature. Though much of the coincidence of this language 
 with all its kindred dialects may be owing to its age, it owes still more in 
 this respect to its locality in the genealogy of language. 
 
 22. It is hardly necessary to observe, that there is scarcely a single 
 word in the A.-S. which we do not also find in all the kindred German 
 dialects. We do not ask whether an A.-S. word can be found in the 
 language of the Scandinavians, the Goths, or Theotiscans, but, to which 
 of these it has the nearest relationship ? In an etymological point of view, 
 the great point is to ascertain the species, and not merely the genus ; to 
 discover to which particular dialect a word is most closely allied, and not 
 to be satisfied with pointing out to what sort of language it belongs. 
 
IV. 23 — 26. FRIKSIC — GOTHIC TIIK OLDEST GERMAN. 43. 
 
 23. There are three chief species, of which the Anglo-Saxon and the 
 Friesic take the left side, the Theotisc or Aleniannic the right side, and. 
 the Icelandic, MoBso-Gothic, Weslphalian or Saxon, and Netherlandish, 
 the middle : that is, so far as the vowels and consonants are concerned. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon agrees in the consonants with the middle series, represented 
 by the Moeso-Gothic, but in some important points it dillers from the Ma'so-Gothic 
 and the Theotisc in its vowels, and has a system of its own. On the other hand, 
 the Tlieotisc agrees with the Gothic in its vowels, having regard to tlie lapse of lime 
 and dialectic variations. In the consonants, the Theotisc is as dilferent from Gothic 
 and Anglo-Saxon, as the Anglo-Saxon is in its vowels from the Gothic and Theo- 
 tisc, and I venture to say still more original ; for, the consonants have not only 
 quitted their old ranks, but tht)se into wliich they have entered are also disorbed. 
 The Gothic, then, being allied to the consonants of the Anglo-Saxon and the 
 vowels of the Tlieotisc, is thus the proper standard of comparison for all the Gothic 
 tongues, having been, from its locality, connected with them all. Thus the Gothic 
 diups deep is allied by the vowels iu to the Theotisc tiuf, and by the consonants 
 d and p to the Anglo-Saxon deop. 
 
 24. The Gothic has some peculiarities, wliich, whether they arise from 
 its place in the pedigree of tongues, or its seniority, exemplify similar 
 peculiaiities in other languages. 
 
 For instance, the Icelandic is noted for the termination r or ur, which, in kin- 
 dred tongues, changes into one of the vowels, and these vowels again into the lean 
 sheva e; thus, diupr deep, A.-S. deop, or deope. For the r the Gothic uses s, as 
 the Latin arbos, honos, for arbor, honor ; thus Goth, diups deep ; A.-S. wieg, 
 geard; Theotisc wee, karto ; Gothic wigs, gards, are in Icelandic vegr and gardr. 
 
 25. These observations may account for the different opinions of 
 philologers in determining the just relations of the Germanic tongues. 
 The reducing them all to Gothic origin was an exuberant spring of error. 
 The Gothic is not of such antiquity as to boast in being the mother of all 
 Germanic tongues with which we became acquainted in a latter period. 
 In the age of Ulphilas, it was a dialect of Germanic lineage, having other 
 dialects by its side, as the Anglo-Saxon, which in the fourth century 
 differed less from the Gothic than iu the 9tli century. It will be enough 
 for my purpose to observe, that all critics do not agree in arranging the 
 pedigree of the Gothic. The reason is evident. 
 
 20. The Gothic or Mceso-Gothic is a language of transition or 
 passage. If you consider the vowels of a word, you make it of Gothic 
 origin: another, only looking at the consonants, will assert it has nothing 
 to do with the Gothic. Some, only keeping in view grammatical forms^ 
 discover similarity of structure in the language of the Ileliand ; while 
 others, neglecting vowels, consonants, and grammatical forms, will only fix 
 their attention on the etymological meaning of the word, and will find 
 another filiation. 
 
 It is evident that the A.-S. mot a coin* as to the vowel, is nearer the Gothic 
 * q. Trit)ute money, nuinisma census, vectigal.— J. B. 
 
44 FRIESIC — ARRANGEMENT OF GOTHIC TONGUES. IV. 27. 
 
 mota custom-house* than Ger. maut custom-house ; but, as to etymological sense, 
 maut is nearer to the Gothic mota; and though the word mota may be older and 
 more complete than the A.-S. mot, the signification o^ coin was anterior to that of 
 custom-house. In this case, the Icelandic and Friesic still mount a step higher 
 than the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, or German, e. g. the Icel. mota insculpo, typico, 
 and mot typus ; Frs. c. moet an impression, gives origin to the idea of a coin, as 
 coin does of the house where the tax-money was gathered. — The Theotisc mahal 
 concio, curia, agrees with the Moes. mathls forum, as to the vowel and significa- 
 tion, but the A.-S. me'Sel sermo as to the consonant ^ : we find also Moes. mathlei 
 sermo, which agrees with A.-S. me'S'el, both in the consonants and the signification. 
 — Feawajlew, pauci, has the w of Moes. fawai pauci, but the Theotisc fahe few, 
 the vowel. If we consider the a in Icel. vargr furiosus, it is nearer the Moes. 
 wargjan damnare, than the A.-S. wergean to curse, maledicere, but in the signifi- 
 cation the A.-S. draws nearer. Let us take an English example : the word abb 
 the yarn on a iveavers icarp. The w (pronounced nearly as Eng. v) being the 
 aspiration of the lips, is often changed into h, the aspiration of the throat, as fahe 
 for fawai. The Moes. biwaibjan to surround, encompass, from waips a garland, 
 sertum, A.-S. wefan to tveave, Theotisc uueban, Grk. v(j)aEiv, from vfeiv. The 
 Scandinavians cast away both these aspirations in the perf. of eg vef / weave, 
 saying vof, vaf, and of, hence of tela in use by the Scandinavians. In abb, then, 
 the a is Icelandic, from vaf, and without the w in of texebam ; but the b changes 
 into/, or remains a b, as in the Moes. and in the A.-S. web ; Frs. c. wob ; both 
 e and o originating from a. 
 
 27. From these few examples, it is evident that a word may have as 
 many affinities as the points of view from which it may be observed. 
 The Gothic was a tongue of transmigration, and all Germanic languages 
 coming in contact with it in some point or other, it was very easily 
 imagined to be the mother of the whole race. I may lastly add, on the 
 ground of my own experience, that, having regard only to vowels and 
 consonants, I cannot arrive at the common source of the Germanic tongues, 
 as we trace back human kind to one common father in paradise. History 
 begins too late to permit us to trace, with any satisfaction, even the first 
 half of the period. Let us, therefore, not attempt what is impracticable j 
 but, keeping in mind the seniority of the class at the head of each column, 
 let us range them all in one line, as dialects of the same language. 
 Finding, 1st. the Anglo-Saxon older than the English, the Old Friesic 
 than the Country Friesic, — 2ndly, the Moeso-Gothic older than the 
 Swedish, — 3rdly, the Theotisc or Alemannic older than the present 
 German ; and considering how much of grammatical forms, in the present 
 languages, time may have destroyed, as to the vowels and consonants, the 
 languages must be classified in the following order: — 
 
 * Teloiiium. 
 
IV. 28, 
 
 FKIESIC — TABLE OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 45 
 
 ANGLO-SiVXON, 
 
 by the intermixing 
 of Old Danish, Nor- 
 man French, Latin, 
 Greek, ^c. is formed 
 into 
 
 Enylish, 
 Scottish, &c. ♦ 
 Friesic, 
 at present divided 
 into 
 
 Ilindelopian, 
 Count ry Friesic, 
 Sc/iicnnonniA-ogian, 
 Sdtcriandif, 
 North Fricxic, 
 [A small part of the 
 Dutehy of Skswick] 
 All these dialects are 
 more or less tainted 
 by the languages of 
 the respective sur- 
 rounding people. 
 
 MOESO-GOTHIC, 
 
 Old and Modern, 
 
 Icelandic, 
 mixed with Ger- 
 man, Saxon, &e. 
 forms the present 
 Swedish, 
 Danish, jfc. 
 
 Saxon or Westphalian 
 language of the po- 
 em Heliand,\ Low- 
 Suxon.\ 
 
 [Reineke de Vos,\\ of 
 Henry van Alhnar, 
 Lulu'li, 1 198.] 
 From the Province 
 of Overysscl, along 
 the whole coast of 
 the North-Sea to 
 Sleswick, the Baltic, 
 &e. 
 
 Netherlandish [Coren 
 van der stat van 
 Bruessele, 1229.§] 
 Statutes of the town 
 of Brussels. 
 Dutch, now daily be- 
 coming more defiled 
 by Gallicisms and 
 Germanisms. 
 
 THEOTISC, 
 [Tianguage of Kero 
 of the xxvi Hymns,% 
 
 Hiijh-Gennan, 
 Ilavarian, 
 Austrian, and 
 other (liidccts. 
 German, a mixture of 
 High-German and 
 some Saxon, [Low 
 German] as esta- 
 blished by tlie ver- 
 sion of the Bible by 
 Martin Luther, and 
 since adopted as the 
 general language 
 through the whole 
 of Germany, a.d. 
 1555.** 
 
 • See Jamieson's opinion of the origin of the Scottish in Table I. i 19, p. viii. 
 
 + Heliand oder die altsiichsische Evaiipclien-Hannonie. Hciauspcgeben von J. Andreas Schmeller, Monachii 
 sumptibus J. G. Cotta', 18:30. The Cottonian MS. of Die Heliand is of the <Jth century. The MS. of Bamberg 
 is a century later. With the Heliand compare Denkmaler, alter sprache und kunst von Dr. Uorow, I. 2ud and 
 3rd part, Berlin, 1824, where are explained some admirable specimens of the dialect spoken between Munsterand 
 Paderborn in the 10th centuj-y. It is a list of the rents of the convent Freckehorst near Warendorf. 
 
 t Nieilersachsisch, Platt-dcutch [Low-deutch] in German as opposed to Hir/Zi-flciitch. See the history of these 
 dialects in Geschichte der Niedersachsisehen sprache von J. F. A. Kinderliug, Magdeburg, 1800. 
 
 n See VI. 13—18. 
 
 S First published in a treatise entitled VerhandcUnfi over de Nederdiiytsche tael en Lctterkiinde opziijtelyk de 
 zuydclyku provintien der Neilerlanden dour J. F. WUlenis, Antuerpen^ 1819, torn. i. p. 1:33. This piece Inking tho 
 oldest specimen of Netherlandish now extant, fully proves that the present Dutch is mere Brabantish, and that 
 the strongly marked dialectic diversities of tliese two sisters were fonned when the Netherlandish was cultivated 
 in the seven United Provinces. The Netherlandish was called the Vlaemsche tael ; the Flemish tongue, la lanyuc 
 Flaviande, as long as the southern part of the Netherlands was the most lloiuishiiig, and Flanders tlie chief 
 province. It was called Hollandish (Dutch) after the Spanish revolution, when the northern part was becomo 
 a powerful republic, and the province of Holland a ruling province. To be a language or dialect, is often merely 
 a question of predominant inlluence. See VI. 11,20. 
 
 IT Hymnorum veteris ecclesite XXVI. interpretatio Theotisca, ed. Jacobus Grimm, Gottings;, 1830. 
 
 •• See X. 51. 
 
 28. Considering the frame of the whole, I take no notice of the little 
 interchanges between the columns — for instance, that the Friesic is nearer 
 to the Icelandic than the Anglo-Saxon. All the three columns are 
 considered as proceeding together, and developing them.selves in succeed- 
 ing ages with more or less facility.* An attempt shall subsequently be 
 made to show the locality of the Germanic languages in a higher period, 
 and how they developed themselves in advancing to the station of the 
 Mocso-Gothic. 
 
 • This hvfiothesis must be regulated l)y a due attention to the fact, that the first appear- 
 ance of tile Anglo Saxon in the orbit of languages, is some centuries later than the IMoeso- 
 Gothie, which has, therefore, its phases more advanced than the Anglo-Saxon. This con- 
 sideration is of common appUcation, 
 
46 FRIESIC MOST LIKE ANGLO-SAXON. IV. 29 — 35. 
 
 29. It must be observed, that the monuments of Friesian literature are 
 of a far more recent date than the Anglo-Saxon ; but the development of 
 language does not always depend upon its age. The Friesians, encom- 
 passed on the one side by the sea, and on the other by the Saxons, owe 
 it to their geographical position that they have experienced no mutations 
 but those of a Saxon origin, and in many respects homogeneous with 
 their own language. I do not recollect any intermixture of a foreign 
 language with the Friesian, except what was caused by the frequent 
 inroads of Normans, and by the settlement of some bands of the same 
 race among the Friesians, 
 
 30. Add to this, that the language of the Friesians never felt the 
 shock caused by migrations. From the time of Caesar to this very day, 
 amongst the endless revolutions of nations, they have never changed their 
 name or the place of their residence, and they are noted as an exception 
 to the locomotive temper of the Germanic race.* 
 
 31. These causes would render the language so stationary, that it would 
 be less altered in the 12th century, than others in the 10th. In the 
 following comparison, many instances will occur of true Anglo-Saxon 
 sounds still flourishing in Friesland. What I consider still more impor- 
 tant, the development of some vowels has produced now the same result 
 as it did eight centuries ago — a convincing proof that the germ of both 
 languages must be homogeneous. 
 
 32. Discovering such striking features of likeness, after a separation 
 of almost fourteen centuries, a complete separation by the ocean, by the 
 adventures and the diversity of their means of subsistence, and of the land 
 they occupied, I conclude, that at the time of their union, about the 
 middle of the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxon was distinguished from the 
 Friesic only by slight differences of dialect. We do not become acquainted 
 with the A.-S. before the 8th or 9th century, and with the Friesian not 
 before the 12lh or 13th century, about four and eight hundred years after 
 their separation. The series of evolutions each tongue has sustained, 
 affords a full account of the chief discrepancies then existing.f 
 
 33. As this whole matter can be proved by a strict comparison, we 
 need, not seek for authorities. 
 
 If authority were wanted, that of Francis Junius would be amply sufficient. After 
 a long scrutiny of the whole Germanic antiquity in regard to languages ; after the 
 compilation of glossaries of almost every dialect of the race, unparalleled in labour 
 and accuracy; after a stay of two years [1652-1654] in those parts of Friesia 
 noted as tenacious of their old manners and language, this scholar has always 
 declared it as his opinion, that, of all the Germanic tongues, none approached so 
 closely to the Anglo-Saxon as the Friesian. This decision will, I trust, outweigh 
 all contrary opinions. As there are few in this century even deserving to march 
 by the side of Junius, so I do not think any one can he vain enough to imagine he 
 is superior, 
 
 * Precis de la Geographic Univcrselle,yar M, Malte-Brun, Paris, 1810, vol. i. p. 344, 
 t See § 14, 58, &c. 
 
IV. 34 — 36. NEIGHBOURS OF THE FRIESIANS. 47 
 
 34. The geographical position of this people in question coincides with 
 their philological pedigree. Let us begin with the Goths, taking care 
 that the epithet Moesian, coupled with their name, does not deceive the 
 common reader. 
 
 Some fragments of the Periphis of Pvtheas, the renowned navigator from ]\Iar- 
 seilles, inform ns, that he, being in search of the amber coasts in the liallic, doubled 
 the cape of Jutland, and sailed about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Gnttones 
 and Teutones, through the gulf Mentonomon [Kattegat, Belt, &c..] This was 
 about 325 years before the Christian era. The Geutones or Goths, seated in Jut- 
 laud, descended afterwards to their brethren at the southern coast of the Baltic,* 
 for the chief seat of the race was on the banks of tlie Vistula [Weichsel]. After a 
 part was gone into Scandinavia, the great bulk moved thence to the banks of the 
 Danube [Donau] in Dacia [INIoldavia and Wallacliia, about A. d. 180], A part 
 of the Goths, called West-Goths, pushed on by the Huns, retired, about a. d. 377, 
 into MoDsia [Servia and Bulgaria], and hence these Western-Goths obtained the 
 name of Mocso-Goths. It was to this people that Ulphilas, the renowned transla- 
 tor of the Scriptures, was bishop. 
 
 35. On the southern borders of the ancient Goths were seated the 
 Angles, spreading southward perhaps to the banks of the Eider. The 
 chief town of these people at a later date was Haddeby or Hailhaby, 
 A.-S. Ha3^e in Schlcswig, or Sleswick. 
 
 36. While the Angles filled nearly the whole of the Chersonesus Cim- 
 bricus, they were bordered on the west by another people of their kindred. 
 These were the Friesians, whose posterity still live in the district of Bred- 
 stedt near the coast of the sea, and whose dialect will afford some words 
 for comparison. 
 
 Hence the Friesians spread themselves in one uninten'upted line along the coast 
 of the German sea to the mouth of the Scheld ;-|- thougli tlie extremities of this 
 line were very distant from each other, and the people subdivided into sections de- 
 nominated Brocmans, Segelterlanders, Rustringcr, Hunsingoer, and Emlander, each 
 people ruling its own section by its own private statutes ; still they were one peo- 
 ple, and spoke the same language, and ruled by the same common law, as a close 
 examination of its Vetus jus FrWionum will prove. We remark that the Friesians 
 lived close to the coast, as if allured by some magic attraction of the water ; and 
 though, when exigencies required it, they sometimes extended into the interior 
 parts, ihey never spread far in breadth, and even in their partial extension they soon 
 
 • SeeVn. § l,&c. 
 
 t The learned S. Turner eitessix lines of I\Ielis Stoke, in whiih theelironicler asserts that 
 J.oner Saxniitf has been eontined by the Schekl. 'I'his acem-ate historian would not ])laee any 
 confidenec in these words, ifhe had been aecjnainted with tiie rollowinu: edition of the Rhvmer: 
 Riimkronijk van .^J^^/is Stoke, met aanmcrkitujin door lUiltlmzdr I Itiydiropcr, toni. iii. (Svo. Ley- 
 den, 1772; i. p. 9. Sec Lex Frisionum edila it notis illiistrata a Sihrando Siccama; Franc- 
 ker<B, 1617. — Van [Vijn, hijvocijzi'ls in aanmerkini^i-n op dt; Vaderl-Gexchivdenix van Waijenaar, 
 torn. i. — iv. p. 83—90. The same remark is of still more foreible applieation on a jtassage of 
 Colijn, also eited by ."Mr. Turner. C'olijnus is a supjjosititious ehild. Hislon/ nl thi- Autjlo- 
 Saxovx, i. p. .'V2S and I.jO, London, Hvo. Is-is. In the history of Friesia after the time of 
 Charlema!j;ne, those Friesians who u;overned by their own laws, and sjxikc Friesie, must be 
 carefully distint,'uished from the surrounding j)eople, who are also called Friesians because 
 the political division of countries refers them to Friesia. The blending of these two races 
 has been the source of endless errors in history. 
 
48 FRIESIC LINE BROKEN. IV. 37—39. 
 
 relinquished their internal possessions. The historian, recollecting these facts, will 
 not overlook the importance of the Friesians, though they only inhabited the 
 borders of the continent, and the little islands 'by which the coast of the German 
 ocean is covered. 
 
 37. This Friesian line was early broken in two places by two mighty 
 nations — one making its appearance from the continent, the other from 
 the ocean. 
 
 Between the Ems and the Weser were settled the Chmici Minores, and between 
 the Weser and the Elbe the Chauci Majores. It is reported by Tacitus, that this 
 immense extension of land, even from the borders of Hessia, was not only under 
 the dominion, but was inhabited by the Chauci, bnt, he adds, they only kept some 
 part of the strand, leaving the Friesians for the most part in their old possessions. 
 The Chauci, entering into alliance with other people against the declining power of 
 Rome, and assuming the name of Francs, left this country, and their name, being 
 absorbed in that of the Francs, disappears from historic record. The Friesians 
 availed themselves of this opportunity to occupy the vacated possessions of the 
 Chauci, it not being unusual for a steady people like the Friesians to make use of 
 the changes produced by the roving disposition of their neighbours to increase their 
 own territory. 
 
 38. Two descriptions of the Chauci are given by Tacitus. He first 
 records some facts, and then, in the thirty-fifth chapter Ve Morihus 
 Germanorum, he draws their portrait. 
 
 In the record of the facts,* the Chauci appear cruel oppressors of the feeble, 
 vindictive pirates, and to be prone to foreign military expedition, and also to make 
 inroads on their neighbours. In delineating their character, f it is said that they 
 wish to support their grandeur by justice, being free from covetousness, masters of 
 themselves, calm, modest, and retired. They never excite wars, nor harass their 
 neighbours by predatory excursions or highway robbery. It is deemed the strong- 
 est proof of their bravery and might, that they act as superiors, and never pursue 
 anything by injustice. Nevertheless, every one is ready to take up anus, and, in 
 case of exigency, to unite in forming an army. They have plenty of men and 
 horses, and their placitude detracts nothing from their valour. Had Tacitus first 
 given this desci'iption, and afterwards recoixled the facts, one might have supposed 
 that he was misled through ignorance of the facts ; but how he could contradict 
 known facts related by himself, is hardly to be conceived. It must be clear to all 
 who know the Friesians and their disposition, that the character ascribed to the 
 Chauci agrees even in the least particulars with that of the Friesians. Is it then 
 impossible that Tacitus at a distant period, and misled by later reports, should blend 
 two neighbouring people together, and attribute to the Chauci what was alone ap- 
 plicable to the Friesians ? 
 
 39. The line of the Friesian tribes was broken again in a second place, 
 to the north of the Elbe. 
 
 The Saxons, occupying only some islands, such as Nordstrand, and some points 
 on the continent to the westward and south of the Angles, and their western neigh- 
 bours the strand Friesians, were in time so increased that they descended from their 
 
 * TacHi Annales xi. 18, 19. Dion. Cans. ix. 30. Tac. Ann. xiii. 55. Didius Jiilianus re- 
 stitit iis Belgicam aggredientibiis, Sjjai-tianus in Did. Jul. I. 
 
 + Taciti Germania, cap. 36. It is said that lie wrote his Germnnia later than his Annalcs 
 or Histor;/. Whether this be true or not, the facts and the description must api^ly to difler- 
 ent people. 
 
IV. 40 — 44. FRIESIC — POSITION OF THE GERMAN TRIBES. 45) 
 
 nan'ow abodes, and spread along the northern hanks of tlie Elbe, and filled up the 
 whole extent of country between tliis river and the land of the Angles.* This 
 second breach, being near and enlarging that of the Chauci, was never entirely 
 filled u]) again ; and where it was afterwards, either by the de]mrture of the Chauci, 
 or the expeditions of the Saxons, the bishops of Bremen and Hamburg determined, 
 by their jiower and spiritual influence, to destroy the Friesic spirit-of freedom, by 
 subjugating the Friesians to their sway in government, religion, and language. 
 
 40. Hence two divisions of Friesia originated at an early date : the 
 soutliern part began at the mouth of the Weser, and tcnninated at the 
 uioiilli of the Scheld ; the northern part from the west strand of Schleswig 
 [Sleswick,] towards the mouth of the Elbe, nnicli loss than the southern 
 part, and for this reason called Friesia Minor. In tbe 13tli century, this 
 small territory had power to raise for the king of Denmark an army of 
 sixty thousand men.f 
 
 41. The Moeso-Goths are traced to their first position in the northern 
 parts of Chersonesus Cimbricus [Jutland, Denmark] ; the Angles in the 
 narrower part and to the banks of the Eider ; the Friesians extended on 
 the sea-coasts by the side of the Angles to the mouth of the VAho. We 
 intend to place our ])hilological comparison in the same order j first the 
 Gothic, then the Anglo-Saxon, and finally \\\q Friesic. 
 
 42. It must not be overlooked, that the geographical position of the 
 whole Germanic race coincides with the arrangement of the preceding 
 table of their languages. Going from the Baltic to the Netherlands, you 
 pass through the original seats of the Icelandic, Ma>so-Gof/iic, IVest- 
 phalian, Netherlandish ; on the right you find the Angles and Friesians ; 
 and on the left voii have the Aleniannic or Theotisc race.^ 
 
 43. This position may, perhaps, afford some idea of the order in 
 whicii the respective tribes marched from the orient to the west of Europe. 
 
 The foremost were the Anglo-Friesic race, who, being pushed forward by follow- 
 ing tribes, did not halt till they arrived on the shore of the German ocean. The 
 Goths with their attendants followed, and the train of the Germani was closed by 
 the Theotisc race. The coast of the German ocean, along which the Anglo-Friesic 
 race was forced to spread itself, was the basis of the direction in which tbe two fol- 
 lowing races took their position, and were placed nearly in three ])arallels from 
 north-east to south-west. These parallels are crossed and disturbed in a thousand 
 ways by migrations and wars, but their general direction manifests itself to tliis 
 very day in the remnants of the respective old languages. 
 
 44. The adventurers who subdued Britain are called Anglo-Saxons ; 
 but here an important question arises — what is implied in this name ? 
 First, it is to be observed, that this people never called themselves Anglo- 
 Saxons; but this name is given them by historians. Paulas Diaconns 
 
 * As the Saxons were unknown to Tacitus, tlie irruption of the Chauci was, of course, 
 anterior to that of the Saxons. 
 
 f " Iniperutor Otto, Holsutiam sibi subigere volebat, contra quern venit rex Waldemarus 
 cum excrcitu copioso, habens secuni de solis Frisionibus scxaginta millia homiuum." — Ericm 
 Rtfx,adann. 1215. •. t § 27. 
 
 * H 
 
50 FRIESIC — THE SAXONS POWERFUL. IV. 45, 46. 
 
 called them Angli-Saxones ;* Codoaldun, rex Anglorinn-Saxonmn ;t 
 and, inverting tlie construction of llie words, he says, Hermelinda ex 
 Saxonum-Anglorum genere.X They did not call themselves by these 
 compound names, but indiscriminately, Angles or Saxons. Anglorum, 
 sive Saxonum gens.^ The case seems to me as follows. 
 
 45. After the Goths had evacuated the Chersonesus Cimbricus, and 
 left only their name to the country, colonies of the neighbouring Angles 
 succeeded in their place, and assumed the name of the Country Geatas, 
 Eotas, Ytas. 
 
 The Scandinavians, and more partioularly the Danes, were quite distinct from 
 these Jiiths,^ being their mortal enemies, and being distinguished from them by 
 some strong features in the respective languages. Neither did the Danes originally 
 possess any jjart of the Chersonesus Cimbricus, unless it was the very northern 
 point. In later ages they succeeded in gradual]}^ sidxluing the popidation of the 
 Chersonesus, and mingling their language with thai of the innates ; but this very 
 mixture proves by its ingredients, now visible, that nearly the whole ))eninsula was 
 before ])opulated by a race different to the Danes, and similar to tlie Angles. The 
 definite article the, both in Danish and Icelandic, is placed after the noun and 
 made to coalesce with it, while in the Anglo-Saxon and the kindred tongues it is 
 always set before the noun : thus .^.-S. seo street the street ; Ice/, strajlit ; A.-S. 
 se strand the strand ; Icel. strondin ; ^^.-S. se man the man ; Dan. manden, gen. 
 mandens of the man.% This peculiarity of the Danish idiom is not to be found 
 in the dialect of the Jutes, however Danish it may be. If you draw a line from 
 Skanderburg to Wiliurg, and to the gulph of Liim, what lies south and west of this 
 line, Thysted not excepted, retains stdl the remains of its Anglo-Saxon, or rather 
 its antiscandinavian origin.* -• 
 
 46. The combined power of the Angles and Jutes was easily overcome 
 by that of their southern neighbours; for such was the number, the 
 power, and the extent of the Saxons along and above the northern banks 
 of the Elbe, that all the surrounding jjeople, whether Friesians, Angles, 
 or Jutes, were considered by foreigners as subdivisions of the Saxons; 
 even what was effected by a union of all these tribes, was often ascribed 
 to the Saxons alone. 
 
 It is likely that the Saxons were the most prominent, and therefore attracted the 
 greatest attention from southern scholars, while the Friesians, Angles, and Jutes 
 were less observed on the strand or the inner ])art of the peninsula. It is known, 
 from their geographical position, that the Angles constituted a jsart, and being the 
 chief actors, ])robablya great part of the migrating allies; so that, on their depar- 
 ture, their native soil was left nearly destitute of inhabitants.-] i The Angles, how- 
 ever, were considered a subdivision of the more powerful Saxons, and took a share 
 
 * De gestis Longobard. iv. 23. f Td. vi. 15. + Id. v. 37. || Bede, i. 15. 
 
 § " Guti cum veniunt suscipi debent, et protegi in reofiio isto siciit conjm-ati fratres, siciit 
 propinqui et projtrii cives regni hujus. Exierunt enim qiKindam de nobili sanguine Anglo- 
 rum, scilicet (le Engra civitate, et Anglici de sanguine illorum, et semjjer efficiimtur popiilus 
 unus et gens una." — Leges Edtmrdi, WitJiins, p. 206. 
 
 ^ See II. § 1. 
 
 ** See tbis position defended by a Danish gentleman, Dr. C. Paulsen, in the Nordisk 
 Review, No. I. p. 2G1, Copeidiagen, 1833. 
 tt See III. § 5, 6. 
 
IV. 47 — 49. FRIESIC — WHO WEIIE THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 51 
 
 in their expedition : this union is correctly expressed in the denomination Anglo- 
 Saxons. For, whether this word be considered as German or Latin, the first ]iart 
 denotes the species, and the second the genus, and the whole implies the tribe of 
 the Angles belonging to the Saxon confederacy. The Angles bore the chief and 
 leading part in the expedition to Britain, though considered as only a part of the 
 Saxon confederacy, and llierefore denominated Anglo-Saxo7i.* Time has done 
 justice to the Angles; for while the name of Saxons has either comjiletely disap- 
 peared, or has only a faint vestige in such words as Essex, (East-Saxons,) Mid- 
 dlesex, Ss'c, the name ol' the Angles is still embodied in England and Hnglishmcnj 
 and is hi full vigour and known from pole to j^ole ; nor will it ever die, unless the 
 declining empires of Germanic race should be washed away by a flood of barbari- 
 ans, as the Roman empire was by the Germanic. 
 
 47. It has already been shown that Anglo-Saxon is a word formed hy 
 old Latin aulliors, and not by the Saxons themselves. Independently of 
 historical proof, the foreign descent of the word is proved by its formation. 
 
 Thus we say, in the Latin form, Anglo-Saxones, Hiberno-Anglus, Polono- 
 Russus, whether we take Anglo, lliberno, Polono, for substantives or adverbs; but 
 in ex])ressing these words in the Germanic tongues, we should say English Saxon, 
 Polish Russian; in German, Englischer Sachse, Rtissischer Pole. Thus the 
 Dutch poet jNLierlanl, Dus werden heren dingelsche sassen. Thus the English 
 Saxons lamed rulers, (iii. 29.) This Germanic form is verbally translated by 
 Paulus Diaconus, (iv. 15,) Angli-Saxones. 
 
 48. It is often stated that the word Seaxan Saxons is derived from seax 
 a sword ; in East Fricsia, saeghs a Utile sabre. 
 
 If this be true, there is some reason for the su])position that the kindred nations 
 derived their names from the weapon which they chiefly used. Thus, Franc, from 
 franca a javelin ; Cierman, from gar jaculum ; Dul. Kil. gheer fuscina ; and man 
 a man, that is, a darl man. Angle the Angles, from angel aculcus hamalus. The 
 
 word seax is nothing else but Moes. ahs spica ; Sans. 3fX^ asi a sivord, ensis ; 
 
 A.-S. aechir, ear an ear ; <ex, eax an axe, an inslrtimenl consisting of a metal 
 head with a sharp edge, preceded by the sibilant s ; and perhaps gar is the same 
 word as (ar) ear; Duf. aar, air, aev arista, preceded by the guttural g ; Dut. Kil. 
 anghel an ear or spike of corn — all proving the idea of something pointed. The 
 word franca is seen in G'er. fram, projierly the sharp end of an instrument, the be- 
 ginning of any thing, and hence the preposition from, agreeing in signification with 
 the .Moes. fram. Fram fruma, {Moes. Jn. 15, 27,) is on that account ])ro])erlv 
 the edge, commencement of the beginning, that is, from tlie beginning. Is ii not 
 also possible that the Brondingas, {Deo. K, p. 37, 11,) are so called from Icel. 
 brandr lamina ensis. 
 
 49. In the comparison of languages, care should be taken not to be 
 misled by mere names. The Saxons increased so nnich in ]iower, as to 
 dare to oppose the hosts of Charlemagne, and at last they occupied an 
 immense territory abont the Elbe and the Weser, which, after their name, 
 was called Saxony. This Saxony was subsequently occupied by oilier 
 
 • It is remarkable that king Ine, who commenced his reign in a.d. 700, calls himself, at the 
 becfinning of his laws, a Wist-Saxon. (o Iiic, mid (ii kU's gyfe West-Scaxana cvning, / luc, fn/ 
 God's (/race kimj of lite IVvst-iia.vons. Hut tlu' iieojilc ol' liis kingdom lie denominates fliuiHsh- 
 men. Gif wite- j^eow Englise mon hine forstalige, if an Enujllsliman rondemned to slavery steal. 
 In. 24. Gif Englise mon steals, if an Emjlishnum steal, In. Hi : o4 : 74. An Englisiiman, 
 in all the paragraplis, is opposed to Wealli a WcUhman. 
 
52 FKIESIC — JOHNSON'S DICTIONARY. IV. 50. 
 
 tribes, whose system of vowels approached to that of the Theotisc race, 
 and therefore differed very much from the Anglo-Saxon sounds. These 
 tribes, taking the name of Saxons from the country they inhabited, their 
 language is also called Saxon. I need not remark, that we can neither 
 compare Anglo-Saxon nor the English to this Saxon, as their nearest 
 relative, if the mistakes of the most celebrated philologists did not render 
 it necessary.* 
 
 Dr. Johnson did not regard this rule, and therefore he often compares English 
 words with the most remote German. "After cat vou first find Teuton katz (read 
 katze), then French chat, and afterwards A.-S. cat ; while A.-S. cat, Frs. and Dut. 
 kat, being the proper form of the word, ought to have stood first." Some hundred 
 examples of this sort, and worse, may be quoted from this celebrated lexicographer ; 
 his errors, instead of being removed by his editor, Mr. Todd, are in this respect, and 
 some others, increased : added to this, that many words are not to be found in the 
 languages referred to. In tbe article hay, the Icel. hey is also said to be Did., while 
 the Dut. word is hooi ; and thus in ahnost every page. An impartial judge, con- 
 sidering the medley of materials, the blunders, the negligeuce or typographical errors 
 occurring in deducing words from their originals, will conclude that the etymolo- 
 gical part of Johnson's Dictionary, even in the edition of 1827, is not deserving of 
 the expense and the labour bestowed upon it, and is cpiite unworthy of the nation of 
 whose language it is the chief interpreter, if not the uncontrolled lawgiver. The 
 English etymologist will only meet with the proper forms of its words by consult- 
 ing the nearest relatives of the English language. We may illustrate this by the 
 preceding example of hay. Here we find the same change of ^ Xoy in the Country 
 Friesian as in the English — a change which is not to be found so often in any other 
 Germanic tongue. A.-S. beg, in Frs. c. is hea; but have {Italian a) to make 
 hay, agrees with hay, having both a, as Moes. hawi. So also A.-S. mseg potest, 
 dseg dies, weg via, cseg clavis, were changed into may, day, way, key,oi which the 
 Englishman will scarcely discover instances, unless he goes to his nearest kinsmen 
 the Friesians, Frs. c. mei, dei, wei, kai, {Italian a).-\ 
 
 50. It may be asked whether, when the Anglo-Saxons left their native 
 
 soil, any of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied them, and whether 
 
 any intercourse was subsequently maintained between the separated 
 
 brethren ?t 
 
 * It has already been observed, (§22,) that the question is not whether a word exists in one 
 of the Germanic languages, which is general!}' the case, but whether the proper form of the 
 word is to be found in the nearest kindred dialect. When we cannot tliscover it in this dia- 
 lect, then only we may apply to languages of more remote relationship. The question, for 
 instance, is not whether the word cat exists in other Germanic tongues, but whether it is 
 found in A.-S., Frs. or Dut. 
 
 f There is another class of Germanic words inti'oduced in tliis century, or the two pre- 
 ceding, and making no jDart of the original frame of the language. The correct derivation of 
 these words depends more upon an extensive knowledge of many thousand terms in modem 
 tongues, than upon analogical acuteness : I should wish to bestow more praise upon this part 
 of Johnson's Dictionary, but it is not better than the other. One example will be sufficient 
 What can be more simjile than the derivation of the word tattoe, the beat of a drum 
 naming soldieis to their quarters., from the Dut. tapeto, id. properly signiAing tapping shut, 
 the taps or f/inshops shut from the soldiers ? Even in the last edition of Johnson, by Todd, 
 it is derived from Fr. tapotez tons. 
 
 + The old Chroniclers are at a loss whether to make Hengist a Friesian or a Saxon. 
 Maerlant speaks of him thus : 
 
 Een hiet Engistus een vriese, een sas, 
 
 Die vten lande verdreuen was; 
 
 One was named ^A.-S. het] Engist, a Friesian or a Saxon, 
 
 Who was driven away out of his land. — Spiegel Historial, c. xv, p. 16. 
 
IV. 51, 52. FRIESIANS ACCOMPANIED THE SAXONS. 53 
 
 Upon which I would remark, that the faces of the Anglo-Saxon and the Friesic 
 lanii;iiages would have the more marked and decided likeness to each other, when the 
 separation was the most complete. If a continued intercourse between the I'rie- 
 sians on the continent, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, had been maintained, the 
 Anglo-Saxon would have been supplied with Friesian ingredients of a later date, in 
 such a way as languages not otherwise homogeneous may form a distant similitude; 
 but when there are innumerable resemblances between Anglo-Saxon and the Frie- 
 sian of this very day, originating in the latter part of the fiftli centur}', without being 
 increased by a subsequeut intercourse, it is a proof that this striking similitude must 
 have been laid in the basis of the languages. I feel much inclined to think that this 
 is the truth, while I allow that many of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied the 
 Anglo-Saxons in their expedition. 
 
 51. It is true that the Friesian is noted for his tenacity to his native 
 soil. His residence about the mouths of tlie Ems and the Rhine for 
 centuries before our era, in the midst of a wandering people, is a sufficient 
 proof of this character. 
 
 The Friesians on the confines of the Angles were not of such quiet and sedentary 
 habits as those on the Ems and the Rhine. They acquired the restless habits of 
 their neighbours. Suppose then a portion of the Saxons, many thousand Jutes, 
 and nearly all the ^//y/es, leaving their country for glory and riches; would it not 
 be a miracle, if the Friesians in the neighbourhood of the moving tribes were alone 
 insensible of the general impulse ? This is on the supposition that the movement 
 was voluntary; but, considering the subsequent emigration of the Cimhrians, the 
 Goths, and Angles, from the same peninsula, 1 cannot help retaining the supposi- 
 tion, that some cause, now unknown, might operate to produce these migrations. 
 This cause, whether famine,* or inroads from the Scandinavians, being general, 
 would have the same influence upon the Friesians as upon their neighbours. 
 
 52. I am aware that inquiry will be made, why Bede, in enumerating 
 the tribes who peopled Britain, omitted tlie Friesians.f 
 
 As well may we inquire why Frocopius omits the Saxons, and names the Frie- 
 sians. Bede was born about a.d. 672, and died in 735. Tliough he was well ac- 
 
 Thus agiun : 
 
 Engistus wart dus onteert 
 Ende is in Vrieseland gekeert, 
 
 Engist was thus disgraced, 
 
 And is into Fricsia returned. — torn. iii. p. 29. 
 
 The Chronicle of Maerlant is founded upon the Speculum Historiale of Monk Vincentius, 
 who wrote about a.d. 121.5. 
 
 * Nennius says, that the fu'st settlers arrived in three vessels, and that Hengist and Horsa 
 were exiles: this intimates sonic internal eombustion in Gothland. In those nations averse to 
 the sedentary occupation of" agricuhurc, I'aniinc was always the most edicicnt and genenU 
 cause of emigration. 'I'liis was at least the case with tlic Scandinavians, who, pressed by 
 dearth, determined by lot who slu)uld emigrate. It is likely that the Scandinavians fell upon 
 the Jutes, wiio. being settled in the corner of the peninsula, were the first prey of the hungry 
 invaders. The Jutes fell upon Britain, antl were the tirstSaxonsettlers in Kent and Wight. The 
 Scandinavians then descended further to the south on the Angles and Saxons, and induced 
 the tribes to comply with the rcipicst of Ilengist and other leaders to come to Britain. The 
 northern pirates, stiil dcsceiidiny; further, ravai^ed the whole coast of the German sea: the 
 Friesians were, therefore, the never-ceasing objects of tiicir jjiratical incursions. In still 
 later times they settled in France, and ultimately reached the descendants of the same tribes 
 of the Anglo- Siuxons, who, in the two i)receding centuries, were exilctl from their native soil. 
 See on this subject, Normitnnvrncs soto<je ofj deres nvdsaltclse i Franltcrifj llistorih Frvmstillet af 
 G. B. Depping vud adikitligc furundringcroversat of N.M. Peter sen Kubeuhavn, lb3U,p. ol,et seq. 
 
 t Bede i. 15. 
 
54 FPvIESIC PROPER NAMES LIKE A.-S. IV. 53, 54. 
 
 quainted with the affairs of England in his time, he never left his native land. Proco- 
 pius was a Greek of Ctesarea, and after the year 535 the secretary of Belisarius, the 
 companion of his general in his exjjeditions against the Vandals and Goths, and of 
 course well actpiainted with the general circiunstances and relations of the Germanic 
 tribes. He was also two hundred years nearer the Saxon ex])editiou to Britain 
 than Bede. This Procopius stales in his foiulh book on the Gothic war, that 
 Britain was ])eo]jled liy three nations, the Brilons, the Angles, and the Friesians, 
 AfyyiXoL Kcu ^piaaovsQ. Could Procopius be mistaken or misled in an historical 
 fact of such notoriety as the overthrow of an im]Jortanl island by swarms from the 
 continent, an event in which the political interests of his master Justinian, as to the 
 influence of its example, were highly concerned ? Ii was to Procopius a com- 
 paratively recent event, ha])pening al)out 449, and therefore only about a hundred 
 years before he wrote his history. If he were misled, how is it that he does not 
 mention some iiation of wider fame, and is satisfied to select the Angles and the 
 remote tribe of the Friesians to be the inhabitants of Britain P 
 
 53. I cannot omil to raentiou, that the leaders of the Anglo-Saxons bear 
 names whicli are now in use by the Friesians, thougli by time a little 
 altered or abbreviated. 
 
 They have Horlse, Hengst/- Witle, Wiggele, Eske, Tsjlsse, Tsjerk, False, 
 Hessel ; for A.-S. Horsa, Hengest, Witta, Wihlgil, Chr. Ing. p. 15 ; JEsc. Cissa, 
 Chr. Ing. p. 16; Cerdic, Elesa, Chr. Ing. p. 17. Also Leiise, Timeii, File, for 
 »/5.-i>'. Wlencing, Cymen, ^lle, \^Icel. ?l[ eWAdu ignemfacere ; A.-S. qWqw, virtus, 
 robur,'\ Chr. Ing. 16 ; Lie, Ide, Offe, for ^.-.S. Ine, Ide, Offa. There are indeed^ 
 but few A.-S. names which may not be found in use with the present Friesians. 
 
 54. The story of Geoffrey of Monmontb about Voritgcrn Q.ud Rouin^ 
 or Rotcen, daughter of llengisl, is kuovvii. She welcomed him with, 
 " Lauerd kiug, wacht lieil," Lord king, ivail for my hailing draught. 
 lie, by the help of au interpreter, answered, " Driuc beil," Drink hail 
 to me.y 
 
 I intend not to discuss the verity of the history, but only to allude to the cere- 
 mony which was observed. The Friesian Chronicles represent Rowen as drinking 
 the whole, in compliance with the royal command, " Drink hail !" and then taking 
 the right hand of the king in hers and kissing him, while she oflered him the cup 
 with her left hand. This is quite a Friesian custom, t The female is not named 
 Rouin by the Friesian Chronicle, as the text of Geoffrey badly states, but Ronixa, 
 a name still in use with us, though, by an analogical permutation of consonants, it 
 is written Reonts. 
 
 * See § 50, note +. 
 
 -j- Galfredi Monumetensis Historia Regum Britanitiae, iv. 12. 
 
 + Est prEeterea etalia quam pro lege vel quasi obsen^ant (Frisii) ut videlicet quoties alicui 
 patlieram vel pocuhim vino, vel cerevisia plenum projiinant, turn cUcunt sua materna lingua, 
 Hetgilt, ele frye Frieze ! [It concerns tliy hail, 0/rec Friesian .'] et nou tradunt patheram 
 sive poculum, nisi datis dexteris, cujuscumque etiam concUtiunis, aut sexus fuerunt, quique 
 turn accipientes prjecUctiun poculum respondent eadem lingua, " Fare wal, ele frye Frieze ! 
 [^Fareivelt, free Friesians !~\ Etsi personae dissimiles fuerint, aut utrasque feminei sexus 
 nihUominus acidito oscido idem perficiunt ; quern etiam morem in himc usque diem Frisii 
 pertinaciter retentiuu observant. ~De oriy. silu, (jualit. et quant. Frisia, M. Com. Kempio 
 authore, Colonice Ayr. 1588. 
 
 " Respondens deinde Vortegimus, Drinc heU jussit puellam potare, cepitque de manu ipsius 
 scyphum et osculatus est earn et potavit." — Galfredus Monum, vi. 12. The maiden's taking 
 hold of the kings hand and kissing him, is reported by Winsemius Frieseke Historien, p. 43, 
 and others, v/ho may be compared with Geoffrey of Monmouth. See Junii Etytnol. Anglic, 
 in voce Wait. 
 
IV. 55 — 57. FRIESIC — STATE OF ANGLO-SAXON MSS. 55 
 
 55. Whatever may be (lie truth of the story, it is most certain that 
 "Wachthail" is changed into Wasmil ; iha.t irrtssatl-citp \s sometimes 
 used at feasts and on New-year's day in England ; and that its origin is 
 traced bach to the supposed meeting of Vortigern and llonixa. 
 
 What has particularly struck me is, that the ligiu-o of the old English wassail- 
 bowl is exactly the same as the silver (•ui)s in wl)ich, at weddings, the Friesiaus 
 offer to the guests hraudy with raisins, [spiq/ wassel-bow/]. 'i'his cup i)asses from 
 the married c()U]ile to their guests on their left-hand, and from them to their left- 
 hand neighbour, as in the corporation festivals iu Englaud. The li([uor is called 
 in the Friesian tongue, "breid's trieuen " bride's tears, alludiug to her reluctant 
 willingness to enier into wedlock. 
 
 56. I will only add that the Danes were the connnon enemies of the 
 Friesians and Angles, and as much opposed by national hatred, as the 
 Friesians and Angles were united by the ties of national sym])athy. 
 
 The Saxon Chronicle records, iu the year a.d. 897. thai the Friesians and Angles 
 fought under ilie command of king Alfred against the Danes, who were defeated 
 near Exmouth, Devonshire. The Fiiesians were of some repute, or the names of 
 three of them would not have been preserved from oblivion iu this record: Mhhe, 
 Frs. c. Eblie ; ^'Selere, Frs. c. Eldert ; Widfheard, Frs. c. Oll'ert. Were these 
 Friesians the allies of Alfred, recently come to his assistance from the banks of the 
 Elbe or Rhine, or his subjects settled in England ? 
 
 Before entering upon the comparison of the Friesic with the Anglo- 
 Saxon, it will be necessary to form accurate ideas about the state in which 
 the Anglo-Saxon language has reached oin' time. 
 
 57. One connnon fate accompanied all the AFSS. of tlie middle ages, 
 that the text was modernized, and therefore S|)oiled when copied by a 
 person who spoke the same language, and nothing but the ignorance of 
 the scribe could give security from this perversion. Not understanding 
 the JMS. he was compelled to copy literally, and bis errors, whether 
 arising from inadvertence or the indistinctness of the old letters, are easily 
 rectified by the critic. The fact is, that the copyist, considering the words 
 only as a vehicle of the sense, did not care about the language. Every 
 scribe, therefore, changed the language of his MS. into the dialect of his 
 own time and dwelling-place. 
 
 In this way Ihe Roman dn Renard,'"' which can be traced to the time between 
 the first and second crusade, is come dc»wu lo us iu the lanauacje of the 13th cen- 
 tnry, a.d. 1288, 12!)0, 1292. It is on this account thai Mr. Roberts observes— 
 " Avant r invention de 1' imimmerie le style ne conduit qu' imparfailement a re- 
 
 * Le lioman dii Ttenartl piihlii; par M.D.3I. Mcon, Paris, 182^. This poem was the basis of 
 ii poem in the hin2:iia2:e of Fhinders, van den Vos Rcynaerde, a.d. NU4. This was followed 
 bv the Dutch Utnard in prose, Gouila, 1 17!), and this au:tiin by the renowned lieiurlie ile Cos-of 
 Henri van M/tmar, LiibcA; 1498, tlie i)arent of all later Huropean versions. Ca.rton's folio 
 edition of I 181, was a translation of tiie work published at Gouda. 'I'o tiie researches (tf 
 recent scholars, we owe lieinardus T'«///('s, canmn ejiiciiin seciilis i\. et xii. conscrijitnm : ad 
 fidem rodd. .11 SS. ed.et annofationilms i/liislriiril, Fr. .Jan. A/one, cdilio jirincepSfHYo. pj). :3;36. 
 It is proved bv comparison, that tliis Latin poem has given rise to tlie very Roman du Renart, 
 
 [mblished by Mr. JMeon, and also that tlie author was an inhabitant of the Belgie Nether- 
 ands, to the localities of which, allusion is often made. See VI. § 13 — 17. 
 
56 FRIESIC — MSS. OF C^DMON. IV. 58. 
 
 connoitre la difference des temps. Les copistes ne se bornoient pas a transcrire ; 
 ils corrigeoient 1' orthographe substituoient des vers nouveaux a ceux qu' ils avoient 
 sous les yeux, et des expressions nouvelles a celles qui tomboient si rapidement en 
 desuetude. La langue, qui cbangeoit d' un jour a I'autre devoit les engager a mul- 
 tiplier ces alterations que le peu de severite de 1' art poetique rendoit alors si 
 faciles."* The scribe, however, found some restraint in the alliteration, which was 
 observed by Cfedmon and other poets. In those MSS. where there was little except 
 the rhyme to indicate the mechanism of the verses, or where the MS. was in prose, 
 the scribe had more liberty to change. This was the fate of the oldest Dutch poet, 
 Maerlant. Some leaves of parchment containing fragments of his Spiegel His- 
 torial, much older than the MS. from which the edition of 1785 was printed, 
 afford conclusive evidence, that neither the construction of the words, nor the man- 
 ner of spelling in the MS. used in printing this edition, was that of Maerlant 
 himself. Therefore, the question about language during the middle ages, is re- 
 duced to the question of the time and place of the MS. 
 
 58. The same fate attended the most ancient pieces of Anglo-Saxon 
 poetry, not to speak of prose. Let me exemplify my assertions by the 
 poems of Caedmon. The MS. of the Csedmon on which Mr. Thorpef 
 founds his text, is apparently of the 10th century, and it strictly expresses 
 the language of that period. Caedmon, the author of the poem, died about 
 A.D. 680. He was first a cowherd at Whitby, and afterwards became a 
 monk. Would it not be a little strange to assert, that a man brought up 
 in his station of life, especially in the uncivilized northern parts of Eng- 
 land, and in the 7th century, bas spoken the same dialect as the far more 
 civilized inhabitants of southern England two centuries later ? This too 
 in an age, when some parts of England had as little communication with 
 each other, as with foreign countries. In this case, Anglo-Saxon would be 
 an exception in the history of languages ; it would be without dialect, time, 
 and place, having produced no change in its forms. How far an assertion 
 of this sort is distant from truth, is proved by the oldest remnant of Anglo- 
 Saxon poetry now extant, compared with its appearance two and three 
 centuries later. In a codex referred by Wanley to a.d. 737,| we read a 
 few lines of Casdmon which are translated into Latin by Bede§, and we 
 have the same lines as they are modernized by Alfred in his Anglo-Saxon 
 version of Bede, about two hundred years after Csedmon. Let us com- 
 pare these two specimens with each other : — 
 
 * Fables inedites des xii., xiii., etxi\. siecles, par A. C. M. Robert, Paris, 1825, p. cxxii. 
 
 f Ccedmon's Metrical Paraphrase in Anglo- Saxon, with an English translation, notes, and a 
 verbal index, by Benjamin Thorpe, London, 1832. 
 
 + " Hisce pene omuibus in a.d. 737, conciurentibus, verisimile mihi videtur hunc ipsum 
 codicem eodein anno, Ceolwulio adhuc regnante, seu saltern ante Eadberhti inaugurationem, 
 duobus quoque airuis post Bedse obitum, in Wiremuthensi monasterio fuisse scriptum." — 
 Wanley, p. 288. 
 
 § Bede, lib. iv. cap. 24. 
 
IV. 58. 
 
 FRIESIC— EARLIEST SPECIMEN OF A.-S. 
 
 5t 
 
 C(pdmon died A.T).GSO : this About 4.D. 885, brj King 
 
 MS. is of A.v. 737. Alfred. 
 
 Cod. MSS. ^Epis. Norivi- MS. C.C.C. Oxon. 
 
 ceyisis* Wanlei/,p. 287. Thorpe Pre/. Ccrdm.xxu. 
 
 Nil scvlun liergan 
 bellien ricaes uard 
 
 Metiulajs mrecti* 
 end his mod gidanc 
 uerc imldiir tlidiiv 
 
 Nil wo soeolaii liorian.'^ 
 heofon-rices weard. 
 
 metodcs niihtc. 
 
 and his mod-gejionc.^ 
 
 wera** wuldor-ficder. 
 
 sue lie luindra gihuaes swa he wundra' gehwpcs. 
 
 eci driotin'' 
 or astt'lidcB. 
 He ccrisl" scop 
 elda barnuiii 
 heben til hiofe 
 haleg scepen 
 tha'' niiddiin gcard 
 uion ovnn3es uard 
 eci diyctiu 
 aefter tiadae 
 firum fohlu^ 
 
 frea alhuectig. 
 
 cce drvhteii.J 
 oord*" onstealde.' 
 he ccrest gesceop." 
 eorc^an bcanuim. 
 heofun lo hrofc." 
 halig scyppend. 
 ]>d iniddan gcard. 
 mou cyiines weard. 
 ece dryhten." 
 softer teode. 
 firuin fold an. 
 frea fclinihtis. 
 
 Literal English Versioiu 
 
 Now must we ])raise 
 the guardian of heaven's 
 
 kingdom, 
 the creator's might, 
 and his mind's thought, 
 glorious Father of men 
 as of every wonder he. 
 Lord eternal, 
 formed the beginning. 
 He first framed 
 for the children of earth 
 the heavens as a roof ; 
 holy Creator ! 
 then mid-earth, 
 the guardian of mankind, 
 the eternal Lord, 
 afterwards produced ; 
 the earth for men. 
 Lord Almighty ! 
 
 Primo cantavit Cccdtnon islud carmen. 
 
 • maecti. 
 *> abtst. 
 " roll'. 
 
 ^ dryctin. 
 ' wuUh'es. 
 ° (h'ihtne. 
 
 <= aerist. <* fja. "^ fold? ^ herigean. e gefjanc. 
 J drihten, ^ ord. ' asteakle R. ^ gescop. 
 
 Various readings in Smith's vdilion of Bade., 597, 20. 
 
 Whether the reference of the MS. Episc. JVorwicensis to the preciseyear a.d. 737^ 
 be correct or not, every one will agree with Wanley, that it is far before the age of 
 Alfred, f and is by no means a re-translation of the Latin words of Bede. King Alfred 
 strictly follows the lines and the words of the MS. Episc. Norivicensis. The obser- 
 vation of Bedo,t that he followed the sense of Cadmon, and not the construction of 
 his words, a])plies particularly to the latter jiart of the MS. Episc. jVorwicensis, 
 and is an additional proof that Bede found his original almost in the same form as it is 
 presented to us in MS. Episc. jVorwicensis. Alfred seems convinced that he had the 
 true song of Caidmon before him, as in his Anglo-Saxon translation, he not onlv 
 omits Bede's remark about giving merely the sense, and not iIk; same collocation of 
 words, but immediately before the insertion of this Anglo-Saxon song, he asserts, 
 " l^ara endebyrdnes pis is " the order oj" which is this.^ 
 
 • Codex ]\IS. oraninm vctustissimus nnn ita pridcm crat penes CGrrcgium ilium litcrarum 
 fiiutoTvm Joannem Morum Episcopuui iiiiper Klieiiscm, liodiecjuc in Bibliothoca Uegia, Canta- 
 f>ri()i(e assenatur, Smith's ISede, Cantnhriyiw, folio, 1722, Piif. p. 3. The MS. named by 
 Wanley in note [+ p. .jfi,] described in his CataIoQ:ue as Cod. MSS. Epismpi Nnrwiccnsis, p. 
 2h,S, is tiie same as that mentioned by Smitli in this note. T)r. John Maorc was bishop of 
 Norwiili whi'n Wanley made his Catalogue; he was afterwards bisliop of Ely ; after his 
 (leatli, kim^ (leorge tlie First j)ureliased this I\IS. witli the Doctors library, wJiieh he ])re- 
 seuted to the University of Cambridge, where the MS. is now preserved in the Public 
 Library. — J. B. 
 
 t Ego iterum publicandum censeo, tanquam omnium qu;p in nostra Lingua etiamnura 
 extent monumentorum pene vetustissiinum. — Wanley, p. 287. 
 
 I Hie est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verbornm qua^ dormiens illecancbat; ncque cnim 
 possunt earmina, quamvis (>i)time eomposita, ex alia in aliam linguam, ad verbum, sine 
 detrimento sui decoris ac dignitatis transferri. — Jlede 4, 24; .S'm. p. 171, 10. 
 
 § Rede Sni. p. 597, 19, and just afterwards, 1. 2(5, adds, "And fiam worduni sona monig 
 word in |p£et ylce gemet, (rode wyrSes songes toge}jeodde," and t> those words soon joined 
 many words of song worthy of God, in the same measure. — J. B. 
 
 * I 
 
58 FRIESIC— CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. IV. 59 — 70. 
 
 59. Having bere the same words written in different ages, it is my 
 intention to notice the discrepancies, that the changes the language under- 
 went in the interval may be clearly seen. 
 
 60. In the MS. Episc. JVorivicensis, we find no characters for ]> and p, the one 
 being designated by u, the other by d, as in gidanc, or by tb, as in tba for pa. In the 
 same MS. casula is translated hearth for hear^. Hence may it not be inferred, that 
 the \ and ip were introduced later than the date of the MS.? Or was the \ a letter of 
 the heathen Rimic alphabet, and for that reason was not admitted amongst the letters 
 of the holy Roman church ? 
 
 61. The (B is divided into its compounds a and e, as in hefaen, ricaes, in which a 
 long rt seems to be implied. Mr. Thorpe, in his second edition, p. 22, follows neither 
 Wanley nor Suiith, having hefsen, metudaes, for hefaen, metudses ; but in this. Smith 
 also differs from Wanley, who puts msecti for Smith's maecti. 
 
 62. The c, when it had the sound of ch was not yet changed into h, as in maecti, 
 drictin ; hut in later times became mihte, dryhten. 
 
 63. We find here two forms of heaven, the one written with h, and the other with 
 f, hefaen ricaes and heben ;* and in the Veins Jus Frisicum, which is about four 
 centuries older than the oldest laws written in Friesic, we have (Tit. iii.) thivbda for 
 thiaftha, when the inscription is not from the hand of any Francic-Theotisc lawyer 
 under Charlemagne. 
 
 64. The resolving of a into <g was not yet accomplished, we have fadiir for feeder; 
 Frs.feder, Asg. bk. 2, Ch. 1. 389, 475, 612, contracted, Frs. h. feer; 
 
 65. The g in the termination of the infinili\e liad not yet undergone any change; 
 hergan cekbrarewas changed by Alfred into herian, and to supply the hiatus, replaced 
 the g, and changed a into ea, making herigean. 
 
 66. The a was already changed into e, where the more modern A.-S. still retains 
 the a, as in end, sue, scepen, for and, swa, scapen. This was, perhaps, something 
 pecidiar to the Northumbrian dialect, agreeing with the Friesic in scepene clather 
 made clothes, {Asg. bk. 84), but not in and and, (Asg. bk. 1 ) ; nor in Old Frs. and 
 Frs. V. sa thus. Later in the Frs. I. we find ende like the above. They probably 
 pronounced the words thus, eand, suea, sceapeu. 
 
 67. The a changed into e was not yet gone into /', as mectig, but at a later period 
 mihtig ; with ce, as in meecti later mihte. Ileliand has belag holy, MS. Episc. Nor- 
 wicensis haleg, not yet halig ; on the contrary, Heliand mahtig, and of course MS. 
 Episc. Norwicensis mectig. It further appears, from the exxhange of e for ce, that ce 
 had nearly the sound of e, and of course like the Fr. ai. In terminations we find 
 also (e used for e. 
 
 68. The vowel has undergone a different change in the enclytic gi. Moes. ga 
 produces the usual A.-S. <;e, when pronounced broad and like a diphthong,yebecomes 
 gi ; as, gidanc, gihuaes, for gejjonc, gehwtcs. 
 
 69. The Vowel in the terminations of words and in all syllables unaccented, is 
 sounded as indistinctly as the short e or Heb. sheva [ : ]. It is a proof that a 
 dialect has some antiquity, when these unaccented syllables have not entirely lost a 
 distinguishing feature. The MS. Episc. Norivicensis has ricaes, metudees, astelidae, 
 moncynnges, tiadcC,for rices, metudes,astelide, moncynnes, tiade; and mtccti, drictin, 
 for raascte, dricten. 
 
 70. It is a principle in English pronunciation, that the vowel before r in termina- 
 tions takes the sound of w, [Walker's Pron. Diet. § 98, 418] . In MS. Episc. Kor- 
 
 * Lilce h in A.-S. lybban vivcrc, Axq. hit. libl)a; in Frs. v. libben vita ; Frs. v. libje vivere, 
 and AS. lyfan vivere ; Asg. bk, 1S9, lif lije. 
 
IV. 71 — 77. FRIESIC — CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. 59 
 
 wicensis we have, uuldur, fadur, for uiildov, fader. Before n the a is also changed 
 into u, as foldT or foldiin, midduii, for foldan, middaii. 
 
 71. The a was not yet resolved into ea, as ward, barnum, for weard, bearnum ; 
 nor the o into eo, as scop [O/rf. Dut. schoep ; Moes. gaskop creabal'] for gesceop 
 agreeing with the present Dut. schiep. 
 
 72. The e, which has its origin in /, and was afterwards changed into eo, remained 
 unaltered in heben, hefaen for hoofon. It seems that eo has produced o in -fon.in 
 the same manner as (e proceeded from e, and affords an instance of some assimilation 
 of vowels in two succeeding syllables. 1 must add, however, that it is questionable 
 whether the vowel of the latter syllable operates upon that of the former, or the 
 former upon (hat of the latter. If the vowel of the former syllable depend upon that 
 of the latter, tlien -fncn and -fon were changed before he- and heo-; but if the latter 
 upon that of the former, then he- and heo- before -fsen and -fon. I do not lay much 
 stress upon this observation, as languages in their most ancient state have not this 
 kind of assimilation ; it seems, however, to rest in the mind on the same foundation 
 as alliteration, both being a feeling for rhythm. For whatever may be the assimilation 
 of one syllable to another in the same word, the same relation one word has to another 
 in two successive lines of poetry. This assunilation of vowels is called by German 
 grammarians umlaut. 
 
 73. The ia being proper to the old Westi^halian and Zelandic, undergo no change 
 in tiada;; the i being changed into e, the a ought to follow the impulse and pass too, 
 and make teode from teon prodnccre; to hape tiathen unumconveniunl,Asg. bk.^'iQ', 
 tya ducere, Em. I. 88 ; ixo^Si ducehat ; led. tiadi, id. The Moes. tiuhan ducere ; 
 tauch ducebat ; hence the Frs. v. teach, taech,F?"s. l. 79, 81 : but there wasonce an 
 Old Frs. imperfect tiade, as the Dut. tijde. 
 
 74. So i had not yet passed to e, nor « to o, in metudses, later nietodes. 
 
 75. The imperfect astelidse was not yet contracted to astealdc. 
 
 76. It is clear that the earliest languages consisted of single words, and 
 that tvA'o separate ideas were expressed by two separate words ; but, by 
 being constantly used together, at last united in one idea and one word. 
 Tlie adjective, in this process, passing from adjectives, separately existing, 
 to the first and specifying component of the word, loses the adjective 
 termination, by doubling its accent on tlie principal vowel, and looks like 
 an adverb or preposition compounded with a word. 
 
 Thus, on eakklagum olim, originally on ealdum dagum olbn ; Dut. ecrtyds, 
 originally eeres tijds in fonner times. Dut. oud\uder j Gcr. altvater a patriarch, 
 formerly oude vader, and alte vater. In the MS. Episc. Norivic. v;e meet with an 
 instance in which the meaning of such a compound appears, but the grammatical form 
 is not yet developed. The compound aelda baniuni appears as two words, yet aelda 
 is not in the dat. as it ougb.t to be when separate, and it only requires the process 
 of time to become one wordaeldbarnum, the same as Ger. altvater. Aelda banium 
 does not signify antiquis liber is, but children of old ; and thus it has the whole 
 meaning of the compound, but only half its grammatical form. Alfred, finding the 
 phrase a little anticpiated, used eor'San bearnum filiis terra. There could be no 
 objection to the form, because, in Alfred's time, ealda-fasder, ealde-moder, and ealde- 
 wita, were sometimes used for ealdficder arus, caldmoder avia, ealdwita senior 
 ecclesiffi. 
 
 77. The pronoun we was omitted before scylun ivc must, precisely as the Moes. 
 skulum debemus, Lie. xviii. 1. 
 
60 FRIESIC ALLIED TO EARLY S.\XON. IV. 78 — 84. 
 
 78. In this word the u had not yet been changed into eo. From Jl/oes. skulum was 
 derived A.-S. scylun, the more modern sceolon. 
 
 79. As a had not yet gone over into ea, or o into eo, or e into eo, so also e had 
 not yet been changed into ea : thus we find astelidse for astealde. 
 
 80. This comparison affords a few important deductions. As there 
 appears to be no mixture of the dialect of the Northmen, the MS. must be 
 of a date anterior to their conquest of Northumberland, which agrees with 
 the statements of Wauley. 
 
 81. lu it we find also many analogies with cognate languages not 
 apparent in the writings of Alfred, and this affords a further proof of the 
 antiquity of the MS.; for we have already observed, that the resemblance 
 of languages is greater in proportion to their age, and, on the other hand, 
 that dialect differs most which has most diverged from the parent stock.* 
 
 82. The development of the diphthongs ea and eo from simple vowels, 
 was the result of nearly two centuries between the date of the MS. Episc. 
 Nortcic. and the time of Alfred ; for no one, I believe, will pretend that 
 the simple vowel in these instances was a dialectic variation peculiar to 
 Northumberland, as these diphthongs are still distinctly pronounced there, 
 like death in Yorkshire. The diphthong was of course developed in the 
 north, as well as in the south of England. If we now go back still 
 further, from the time of the MS. Episc. Norwic. to the descent of the 
 Anglo-Saxons on Britain, [from 737 to 449,] and if we suppose that during 
 this period the cognate languages approached nearer to the A.-S. in the 
 same proportion as they did from Alfred to Caedmou, then indeed we 
 have a clear conception how all these tribes of Jutes, Angles, Saxons, and 
 Friesians, whose languages some centuries later were quite unintelligible 
 to one another, could, at their departure from their native shores to 
 Britain, as men of one speech, unite in council and action. 
 
 83. This comparison iuiplies further, that the peculiarities by which 
 the A.-S. is distinguished, relate to the state in which this tongue has 
 come down to us. 
 
 84. I have nothing more to add about the Moeso-Gothic, to what 
 I stated in the fourteenth and fifteenth paragraphs. The peculiar cha- 
 racter of the A.-S., as distinguished from the Moeso-Gothic, would for the 
 most part be removed, if we could trace the A.-S. to the time of the 
 Moeso-Gothic, about the middle of the 4th century. The means of 
 comparison are greatly increased by the exertions of Angelo Mai, Count 
 Castiglione and Massmann.f The stores within the reach of Junius were 
 exhausted by him, for comparison with the A.-S. in almost every word of 
 his Glossarium Gothicum, in many articles of his Etvmologicon Anglica- 
 num, and in his other Dictionaries, still sleeping, to the common shame 
 of the English and Friesians, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The first 
 that made a classification and comparison of the Gothic languages was 
 Lambert ten Kate, a Dutchman. The foundation laid by him has more 
 
 § 14. t See VII. 7— 11. 
 
IV. 85 — 90. FRIESIC BOOKS. 61 
 
 receutlybeen greatly extended by the unwearied toil of Rask and Grimm. 
 I need not boast that I have done the same, for it requires no genius — the 
 labour is purely mechanical. Some will present you with the oldest form 
 of a word, but this is not right, when it has to be compared with a subse- 
 quent and more advanced development. For my part, I shall not hesitate 
 to avail myself of the labours of my predecessors, and to cite parallel 
 words in different cases and times, when I think it does not affect the 
 vowel or consonant to be compared. 
 
 85. I do not know any A.-S. scholar, w^ho has instituted a comparison 
 between the Anglo-Saxon and Friesic so minute as their near relationship 
 claims. Some did not see the force of the comparison, and all wanted 
 materials. A brief account of the materials I have used may not be 
 uninteresting. 
 
 86. The Asega-hok* the book of the judge, contains the laws of the 
 Rustringian Friesians located around the gulf of the Jade, as far as the 
 southern banks of the Weser. Its date may be about a. d. 1'212-1250. 
 
 87. Littera B)ocmaniwri()7i,f the letter, i.e. the written law of the 
 Brucmen, Friesians bordering on the sea in the western part of East- 
 Friesia, [Diit. Oostvriesland]. Its date is reckoned between a.d. 1276 
 and 1340. 
 
 88. The Amesga-riuclit^X ^be code of the country of the Ems, con- 
 taining registers of the mulcts for the Friesians situated about the eastern 
 banks of the Ems, a.d. 1276-1312. 
 
 89. The Reran fon Hunenijena londe,% [Dut. Het Hunsingoer land- 
 recht,] the statutes of the country of Hunsingo, a.d. 1252, revised and 
 corrected, but as to their origin of a far earlier date. This most remark- 
 able monument of Friesian antiquity is published in the Verhandelhujen 
 vail het genootschap pro exxolendo jure patrio, torn. ii. Groningen, 
 1778, but iu a manner so negligent, that I deem it matter of great danger 
 for a critic to cite words from this edition. I, however, entertain the 
 pleasing hope, that this defect will soon be redressed by one of my friends, 
 who intends to publish a second edition, founded on an excellent codex 
 within our reach, as soon as the literary public feel inclined to defray the 
 costs of the press. 
 
 90. Jeld and botha,\\ the value of the money and the mulcts, to be 
 
 * Asega-buch ein Alt-friesisches gesetzbuch der Rustringer, herausgegebcn, iibersetzt und 
 erlautert von F. D. Umrt/a, Berlin, 1805. 
 
 f Willkiircn der Brockmanner eines freyen Friesischen volkes, hcrausgegeben von F. D. 
 W tarda, Berlin, iHiO. 
 
 X Het Emsigerlandregt vanhetjaar, 1312. Leeuwarden, 18:30, published by il/r./ZeWtHW. 
 
 § Verbandelingen ter nasporinge van de wetten en gesteldheid onzes vaderlands door een 
 genootsehap te Groningen, pro exeolendo jure jjatrio, torn. v. (ironingen, 1773-1828. 
 
 II Groot plataat en Charterboek van Vriesland, verzamelt door G. F. /fflrow tlioe Schwart- 
 zenberg en Hohenlansberg, 5 vols, folio; Lccuwarden, I7H8-1793. The pages .59 — 461, 
 containing a catalogue of the ecclesiastical estates in Friesia, made up by order of Charles V. 
 though already printed, are suppressed in the 3rd volume, and replaced by other materials. 
 A great number of the estates, after the Spanish revolution, having fallen into unjust hands, 
 it was feared that the publication woidd be an inducement to endless curses and persecutions 
 against the aristocracy. The 6th tome is also printed, but not yet pui)lished,for the greater 
 part of the copies was burnt during the disorders of the French Revolution. 
 
62 FRIESIC — WHERE SPOKEN. IV. 91 — 95. 
 
 observed in several parts of the country of Friesia, forming a part of the 
 present kingdom of the Netherlands. This piece is of a.d. 1276, and 
 published in the Groot placaat en Charterboek van Vriesland, tom. i. 
 p. 97, together \yith a great many little records of latter times in the 
 Friesian tongue. 
 
 91. The most complete system of Friesian laws,* though of a more 
 recent date than the foregoing, is contained in the Old Friesian Laws, 
 published by two eminent Friesian lawyers, P. Wierdsma and Brantsma, 
 whose commentary bears witness to the depth and extent of their erudi- 
 tion. The laws in this collection, as well as those found in the Charter- 
 boek, had force chiefly within the limits of the country of Friesia in the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 92. To the same country belongs also the collection of charters 
 dispersed in the history of its capital Leeuwarden, by Gabbema.f They 
 are all of a recent date, when the Friesic was about to be disused in 
 public charters. In the enumeration of these laws and records, I have 
 descended from the north to the south, beginning at the Wezer and 
 ending at old Friesia, situate at the mouth of the Rhine. But let us now 
 ascend still higher, beginning with the Friesiaus conterminous with the 
 Angles. 
 
 93. Friesic is still spoken in a tract of country bordering the coast of 
 the German sea, in the district of Bredsted, dutchy of Schleswig. It is 
 strongly tainted with Danish; but a coru-merchant of my native village, 
 [Friesia, part of the Netherlands,] on going there to buy rapeseed, was 
 not a little surprised that he and the peasants could understand each 
 other in their respective mother-tongues. The late Reverend N. Outzen 
 has left a glossary of the Friesic dialect, which for some years has been in 
 the press, at the expense of the Royal Society of Copenhagen. The first 
 eighty-eight pages, \\hich were intended for me by my friend the late 
 Professor Rask, and sent to me through the courteous attention of Professor 
 Rafn, have fully convinced me of the identity of this dialect with the 
 other branches of the Friesic. 
 
 94. Of the language of the Ditmarsian Friesians, and those living 
 between the Elbe and Wezer, nothing remains. Their long and obstinate 
 struggle against the aggressions of the Danish kings, Bremish bishops, or 
 dukes of Oldenburg,! terminating with the extinction of their liberty and 
 language, has long since effaced the last trace of the Friesian tongue and 
 nationality, and destroyed the MSS. of their ancient laws. 
 
 95. A more lucky fate was allotted to the land between the Wezer and 
 
 * Oude Friesche wetten met eene Nederdiutsche vertaling en ophelderende aantekeningen 
 voorzien. Part I. Campen en Leeuwarden, 1782. The Preface and Part II., though pre- 
 jiared by the publishers, were lost after the death of Wierdsma. 
 
 f Verhaal van de stad Leeuwaarden-beschreeven van Simon A bbes Gabbema, Franeker, 1701 . 
 
 X U. Emmius, Hist. Fries, 143, 588, &.c. Wiarda, Ostfrisische geschichte, I. 202. 
 
IV. 95. 
 
 FRIESIC OF THE ASEGA-BOK, A.D, 
 
 12Q0. 
 
 G3 
 
 the Ems. The latter subjugation of this country has caused the preserv- 
 ing of a single codex of the Asega-bok in the archives of Oldenburg. I 
 here give a specimen of its language. 
 
 thet hi hus-barne. and wif nedgie 
 man sle and gadis bus barne 
 
 Thit is thet twintegoste londriucht. 
 Sa hwersa nortlimann an thet loud hla- 
 path. and hia enncmnn fath. and bindatl). 
 an ut of lande Icdath. and eft witbir to 
 londe brangath and liini ther to twingath 
 
 and 
 and bwed 
 
 sa hi to lethe dwa mi. alsa hi thenne 
 imdfliiich ieftlia lescd worth, and withir 
 to londo kunith. and to liodon sinon. 
 sa willath him tha liode thing to seka. 
 and sinne opa werpa* truch thet ginte" 
 morth ther hi er niith tha witsingon'^ 
 efreniith'' heth. Sa mire thenne afara 
 thene warf gunga. and iechta mire tala. 
 
 This is the twentieth landright (law). 
 When any Northman leaps on the land 
 {shore), and lie takes a man, and binds 
 andleads (/»;«) out of tlieland.and brings 
 {him) after (wards) again to the land 
 {ashore) and forces him to this, that he 
 burns houses and violates wives, and slays 
 men and burns God'shouses, and whathe 
 may do to harm, (A.-S. la^e.) When he 
 then flees away or is loosed, and again 
 comes to land, and his lede ^{is restored 
 to his land and kindred). U then the 
 court of justice of the people will seek 
 him {prosecute him), and his relations 
 intend to charge him with the horrible 
 
 enne eth hach^ hi thenne opa tha heligon murder which he has ere (fonnerhj) 
 
 framed (committed) with the pirates; he 
 may then go {appear) before the court, 
 and he may tell {confess) known and 
 proved facts; he ought then to swear an 
 oath by the saints, that he did it all by 
 need {^force), as his lord bade him, be- 
 skalk*" skolde dwa alsa him sin hera bad cause he was a man not wielding his life 
 truch thes Hues willa. — Ascga-UCtk,\).^l. {body) and members. In this case, nei- 
 ther the lede {people), nor the king's 
 attorney, nor his relations, are allowed to seek him {harass him) with fetters, through 
 {because) that the attoniey might not ( was unable) to secure him his safety. The 
 servantshould do as his lord bade him through will of the life (for the sake of his life). 
 
 to swerande. thet hit al dede bi thore 
 nede. alsa him sin hera bad. ther hi was 
 Hues, and lelhanas en unweldich mon. 
 Sa ne thuruon^ him tha liode ne fraua. 
 to haldaseka ni sinna truch thetthi frana 
 ne muchle him thes fretha' waria.' thi 
 
 » A.-S. wcoqian, weq)an, /acen-. ^ Lede people, Jan. Et. Ant/I. 
 
 = ginte Wiarda translates yonder. I deem it to be horrible, tremendous murder, whicli 
 aijrees ^^ itli tlie liUW-Saxon version of tlie Asega-bok, w liich has rjreaf, enormous murder. 
 Tliis word is eonneeted witli the A.-S. ginian, of eourse yawninf/, enoriiiously vast, horrible. 
 In tliis way, the Englisli adj. huge vast, great even to drforniitij, explains tlie meaning a{ Icel. 
 n2j terror, whenec ugly; of A.-S. oge, whence Frs. v. [ouw-lik] onjouwlik horrible, all de- 
 rived from the idea of wide vastuess, still a])j)arent in Moes. aidin, Smd. ogn, ugn. 
 
 ^ A.-S. wwiivj; pi r^i fa. The c l)y the Friesie and English being ehanged into tsh, wieing 
 becomes witsing. Thus ,^ .-.V. eercne, Frs. c. tsher'nc or tsjerne, Fny. churn. Sometimes the 
 Frs. V. retains botli forms witli some shade of the signification: Frs. v. katje to tallt, but 
 tsjattcije to ehat, (hatter. From A.-S. eidan, ])n iperly to r.iuhe a noise us an inharmonious bird, 
 and hence to ipiarret, the Frs. v. has onl\ tsjitte to mahc a noise as quarreUinq spnrrons and 
 nwnen. The original signifieatii>n, now lost in Enu:lish, was very well known in the old 
 English. "The swalowes ehi/ferid and songe." — (jlolden Legend, L U'o. Frs. v. I)e 
 swcalen tsjittcne in s(uii;en. — It is dubious whether wieing is to be derived from wie-cing 
 sinus vel rip<e nude insidiahanlur pirafn, re.v, or from wig-cing the hinrj o/ slaughter. 
 
 e A.-S. fremad. Wiarda not knowing this Anglo Sax>m word, deems efrcnuth to be spu- 
 rious; for this word docs not occur elsewhere. This instance may teach us how casilv the 
 most ditiicult wonls are explained in Anglo-Saxon and Friesie, when aided l)y each otlicr. 
 
 ' W\.possidt:t, proprie, vinctusest, of the verb agan. B A.-S. liSa. 
 
 •• The Anglo-Saxon has the Friesian form in this verb thurfon. 
 
 ' A-.S. Miian proleijere, (rii pax. i /I.-*', wari an rawn?. ^ A -S. scenic sermts. 
 
64 FRIKSIC OF BROCMEN'S LAWS, A.D. 1280. IV. 96 — 98. 
 
 96. Let it be remarked, that tlie u having the }30\ver of on in 
 Fr. doux, or Eng. cube, is changed by the Frs. v. into o ; undfliuch, 
 unweldich, mucht, truch, gunga, are now pronounced ontfiyucht, 
 onweldich, mocJit, troch, gouge. 
 
 97. Brncraen kiasath thet to enre Brocmen choose {made) this to a 
 kere* thet ther iiene hurga and mura'' statute, that there no borough [castle) 
 and nannen hach sten hus ne mota and wall, and no high house of stone 
 wesa hi achta mercum. and hoc redieua must he by {the mulct) of eight marks: 
 thit naud ne kerth and efter naud ne and whatsoever rede - giver {counsel, 
 dele leith. sa geie"= hi mith achta mercum judge) hinders not this, and after {being 
 and mitha huse \vit[h]liude. hine bidlt) lays not {pitlls) down, he may 
 skiriene*^ fon. and werther aeng mon atone for it with eight marks, and with the 
 [h]agera sa tuelef ier[d]foda hac[h] house with (/Ae) lede (po/;/e), unless he 
 andre" tiuke, and wasa welle makia enne clears himself. And turns {builds) any 
 szelnre sa mot hi ne makia vr tua feke.*^ man higher than twelve earth-feet {a 
 ief hi welle. audre thiuke. and makath measure) high to the roof, and who will 
 aeng otheres sa geie hi mith achta mer- {intends to) make a cellar, he must not 
 cuuijS thi ther otheres wercth. and tha make over {above) two stories. If he 
 nya redieua skelin hit onfa,*" efter tham will {i7itends) to the roof and makes any 
 ther tha erra' thene frethe vt kethelJ hi {thing), otherwise let him atone for it 
 alsa denre geie. Stenslek'' hwile efter al with eight marks, who works otherwise, 
 tha londe buta muuekum and godes And the new judges shall accept it after 
 husen bi alsa denre geie. — Statutes of the former ( judges) have proclaimed the 
 the Brocmen, ^. 130. peace {this statute for the public securi- 
 ty) by the mulct mentioned. Let stone- 
 cutting cease through all the land, but {except in building) monks' and God's 
 houses by the mulct mentioned. 
 
 98. From this example it may be seen that the text is corrupt, and 
 cannot be cited without employing some criticism. It suffices, however, to 
 show tlie extreme jealousy of a free people for their liberty, so as even not 
 to allow the building of a house of stone, or of more than two stories 
 above a cellar, that the possessor might not thence annoy his countrymen, 
 and use his house as an instrument of tyranny. Building their churches 
 alone of stone, they fortified them at the same time, together with the 
 surrounding parishes ; and this forming a single connected stronghold, they 
 retired there after the loss of a battle, and defended at the same moment 
 the two dearest possessions of mankind, their liberty and their altars, 
 against the insults of oppression. It is for this reason that Friesland does 
 not offer any ruins of castles of the middle age to the eye of the antiquary, 
 which are of so frequent occurrence on the borders of the Rhine and 
 almost in every part of Europe. They still retain their ground, name. 
 
 * A.S. curan tUgere. ^ A.-S. mur mums. 
 
 "= Icel. geigr offensa, clades. ^ A.-S. scir jnir us, 
 
 "= An there. ^ A.-S. fasc spatium. s A.-S. mearc moneta qucBdam. 
 
 ^ A.-S. smASovi accipere. ' ^.-5. jprra, sera prior. i A.-S. cy^^-w notum facer e. 
 
 •* A.-S. stsen lapis, slasge ictus, %\&cgG malleus major. Frs. v. slei malleus major ligneus. 
 
IV. 99, 100. FRIESIC OF HUiNSINGO. 65 
 
 language and national character, the only remnant of Fiiesian antiquity 
 unknown to the travelling anti(iuavv, whose eyes are attracted by the 
 more glaring objects of old walls, palaces, tombs, and castles. It is most 
 likely that we are indebted to these statutes for the absence of any vaulted 
 cellar in Friesia. What castles there are, owe their origin to the fatal 
 internal wars of the Schieringers and Vetkopers in the 14th and loth 
 centuries. The Friesians, however, stood not in want of cellars as they 
 do not like any salted vegetables, or vegetables at all; flour, peas and beans, 
 salted meat in the winter, and some fresh in summer, being their ordinary 
 food, they do not lay up any provisions. I speak from the experience of 
 my own childhood, when every one, in winter as well as summer, daily 
 bought what he wanted, and a single cellar was amongst the curiosities 
 of the village and its neighbourhood. 
 
 99. § VI. Tlier ne mot nen mon There must no man sell the goods 
 siner wiwe god wrkai)ie* er diet hia (bona^wsse.ss/ows) of his wife before they 
 kinder^ to hape"^ tein** hebbatli. — have reared children. 
 Amasga-riucht, p. 59. 
 
 § LXV. Hvasa'' annen vnscheldigen Whoso arrests an unguilty (//mocewO 
 
 mon feth sunder that rediewe willa sa man without the will {auHiorlty) o{ \\\e 
 
 breckt hi en gi"at mere anda alsa ful to judge, lie so breaks [forfeits) a great 
 
 bote.*^ — p. 84. mark {to the judge) and as much to tlie 
 
 injured person. 
 
 § LXXI. Ther ne mey nen muuik There may no monk, as he is with- 
 
 nene erfnisse ieftba lawa fagie alsa hi drawn {from theivorld), fetch {accept) 
 
 biiewen is fon feider uocb fon modcr, fon aninhcvitanceorleaviugs(it'//;/t'.s7.s) from 
 
 suster nocb fou broder noch fon sine father or from mother, from sister or 
 
 friundem; nen god wither eruies ther hi from brother, or from his friends; (on 
 
 innath'' claster brocht heth ieftba inna the contrary) also let nobody give, by 
 
 claster wunuen heth. — p. 89. way of legacy, any possession he has 
 
 brought into {won in) the cloister. 
 
 100. Let us now pass over the Ems in the northern part of the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands, called the province of Groningen [en de Ommelau- 
 den], containing close to the sea the district of Hunsingo. 
 
 Prima Pelitio. 
 Thet is thiu forme kcst end' thes This is the first statute and the gift 
 kenenges Kerles jeft end' riucht alra' of king Charles, and the right of all 
 
 * A.-S. ceapian emere et vcndere ; Frs, v. kcapje emere, forkeapje vendere, hero wrkapie. 
 
 '' A.-S. ct'iiiu'd luitici, iirodnrtiif!, contracti'd to ci'ii'd, kind rliild, like beam Jilius, from 
 hvTa.n/cnT ittcro, liio keiine<5 or bcrcS sunn jiarivt Jilium. li. Alt. I, 21. 
 
 ' A.-S. heapum 6i/ troops ,• to liape in a simjlv Iwap, i. e. together. 
 
 ^ Tia produccrv, jtart. tec^en, coiitr. tiin jiroductus ; A.-S. teon ducere, part, tegen vel togen. 
 
 « A.-S. swa hwyleman swa quicutntjue lioino. 
 
 f Bote, A.-S. bote reparation [of ttie harm] to the injured person. But A.-S. brecan to 
 hrealt, relates to the breaking of the law, and indicates the mulct to be paid to the representer 
 of the law, the judj^e. 
 
 8 A.-S. }Tf, erf, picus, liona, htereditas. l> Inna ith. 
 
 ' Hwelic, contr. A.S. hwelc, omnium hominum quisqiie, alra monna hwelic. 
 
 * K 
 
66 
 
 FRIESIC- 
 
 -OLD-FRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A.D. 
 
 1200. IV. 10 J. 
 
 Fresena thet alra monna hwelic and Friesians, that every one occupies his 
 sine gode bisitte* alsa longe saret*" unfor- possessions as long as he has not for- 
 werkat'' hebbe. — p. 2. feited them. 
 
 Decima 
 Thet is thiu tiande kest thet Fresan 
 ni thuren nene hereferd*^ firra fara sa 
 aster tore^ Wisere and wester to tha 
 Fli be thiu thet hia hira lond bihelde*^ 
 wither thet hef§ and wither there he- 
 thena here. Tha bed thi kenenk Kerl 
 thet hia firra tha hereferd fore aster til 
 Hiddes'' eckere ande wester til cinc- 
 fallum.' tha bihelden hit tha liude wither 
 thene keneng thet hia nene hereferd 
 firra fara ne thorste sa aster til there 
 wisere and wester to tha Fli. truch thet 
 sa scelen alle Fresa fon tha North liudem 
 friJ wesa. — Reran fon Hunesgena londe, 
 p. 6. 
 
 Petitio. 
 
 This is the tenth statute, that the 
 Friesians need not follow a campaign 
 further eastward than to the Weser, and 
 westward to the Flie ; that they may 
 hold their land against the sea, and 
 against the host of the heathens [North- 
 men). Then king Charles bade that they 
 should fare {foUoiv) the campaign further 
 eastward to Hitsakker, and westward to 
 Sinkfal. Then the people maintained 
 their right against the king, that they 
 needed not fare [folloiv) the campaign 
 further eastward than to the Weser, and 
 westward to the Flie. Through this all 
 Friesians shall be free {protected, se- 
 cured) from the north. 
 
 101. Over the river Lauwers, now but a brook, we pass into Old- 
 Friesia, properly so called. 
 
 Old-Friesian Laws. 
 
 Dat oder landriucht is. 
 hweerso dyo moder her 
 kyndes eerwe foerkapet, 
 jefta foerwixled'' mit her 
 fryonda reed eer dat kind' 
 jerich is; als hit jerich se 
 likje him di kaep so halde 
 
 Country-Friesian. 
 
 Dat oareloan-riuchtis: 
 hwersa dy moar™ hjar 
 herns erfscip forkeapet of 
 forwixeltmei hjar freonen 
 ried foar 't it bern jirrich 
 is ; as it jirrich is, liket" 
 him dy keap, sa halde hy 
 
 land right is : 
 
 English 
 The other 
 whenever the mother sells 
 the inheritance of her 
 child, or exchanges {it) 
 with rede {counsel) of her 
 friends {kindred), before 
 the child is of age ; when 
 
 » A.-S. besittan possidere. b ga er het. 
 
 "^ A.-S. wyrcan facere. A.-S. {orwy rcan faciendo pcrdere, amittere, mulctari. 
 
 ^ A.-S. here exercitus, fere iter. Thus the ^4.-5'. heregang irruptio, far an ire. 
 
 e To there. ^ A.-S. behealdan custodire. 
 
 E ^.-5'. ofer heafo super mare, Beow. Ed. Kemble, 1833, p. 171. 
 
 ^ A little town or village near Danneberg, close to the Elbe— at present, Hitzacker. 
 
 • Sinkfal close to the mouth of the Schelde. See Van Wijn and Siccama, cited § 36. It 
 is now called het Zwin and het Hazegat. 
 
 J Frisian protegere. 
 
 ^ The word wixelje, whose theme wix or wex, is obrious nearly in all kinth-ed dialects ; 
 it sounds in A.-S. wrix. A.-S. vfVYsiao. jwrmutare. The Scots, however, use to whissle. 
 
 1 Kynd is unknown in the Country-Friesic, as in the A.-S. and Eng. 
 
 ™ Moar is now used in contempt, or to incUcate the mother of a beast. The term equal to 
 mother is mem. 
 
 » Lykje and A.-S. Ucian are neuter verbs with the regimen of a dative, like the Lat. in 
 placet mihi, mannum lycaS hominibus placet. In Enghsh, the neuter signification has 
 nearly degenerated into the active ; for to like signifies more to approve with preference, than 
 to please. 
 
IV. 101. 
 
 FRIESIC — CLD-FRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A.D. 1200. 
 
 67 
 
 hitten' ende liker*' biin 't him, in lykke er him 
 
 naet so fare hit" oea syn net sa farre hy it oan syn 
 
 ayn eerwe sender stryd ein erfscip sender striid in 
 
 endc sender schulde. sender scild. 
 
 So hwaso dat kind bi- 
 fincht jefta birawet op syn 
 ayn eerwe so breckt hy 
 tyen lyoedmerck ende to 
 jens dine frana^ dat sint 
 XXI schillingen : ende alle 
 da lyoed agen liim to 
 helpen ende di frana, dat 
 hy comme op syn ayn 
 eerwe, deer hy eer bi 
 riuchta aechte : hit ne se 
 dat hioet*' seld habbe jef 
 seth, jef wixled truch dera 
 tria haudneda een, deer 
 hio dis kyndes des lives 
 mede hulp. Dyo forme 
 need is : hweerso een 
 kynd jong is fmsen endc 
 litered noerd wr hef, jefta 
 suther wr birgh/ see meet 
 dio moder her kyndes 
 eerwe setta ende sella 
 ende her kvnd lesa ende 
 des lives bihelpa. Dioe 
 oder need is jef da jere 
 diore wirdet ende di beta 
 honger wr dat land faert 
 ende dat kynd honger 
 stera wil, so meet dio 
 moder her kvndes eerwe 
 setta ende sella ende capia 
 her bem kiis ende ev'' 
 
 Hwasa it bem befiucht 
 of bestelt op syn eigen erf 
 sa brekt hy tsjien Ijomerk 
 in tsjin de frana binne dat 
 ienintweintichsceljen, in 
 al de Ijohawwe de frana in 
 him to helpjen, dat hy op 
 syn ein erf komt der 't 
 him eren nei riuchten ta- 
 kaem, as it net is dat hja 
 it forkoft het, of forset, 
 of wixle troch (en fen de 
 trye haedneden, der hja it 
 berns libben mei liolp. 
 Dy eerste need is : hwersa 
 ien bern jong is finsen 
 in fitere noard oer se of 
 suwdlik oer berch, sa 
 mat de moar hjar berns 
 erfscip forsette in forkeap- 
 je, in hjar bem losse 
 in it libben beholpje (be- 
 warje). De oare need 
 is : as de jirren djoer 
 wirde in de lijitte honger 
 oer it loan fart in it 
 bern fen honger stjeiTe 
 wol, sa mat de moar 
 hjar berns erfscip forsette 
 in forkeapje, in keapje 
 hjar bern ky' in eikes 
 (sciep) in koarn der me 
 
 he is of age, likes he the 
 bargain, let him hold it {to 
 the purchaser), and does 
 he not like it, let him fare 
 {enter) on his own inheri- 
 tance without strife and 
 without debts. 
 
 Whoever fights or be- 
 reaves the child on his own 
 ground, he forfeits ten lede- 
 marks (marks to be paid to 
 the people as wronged), 
 and to the king's attorney** 
 the mulct is xxi shillings; 
 and all the lede {people) 
 ought to help him and the 
 king's attorney, that he 
 may come to his own in- 
 heritance, which he owned 
 before by right ; unless she 
 has sold, or set {paivned), 
 or exchanged it through 
 one of the three head needs 
 {necessities) by which she 
 helped the life of the child. 
 The first need is : when- 
 ever a child is made prison- 
 er and fetteredJ northward 
 over the sea, or southward 
 over the mountains, the 
 mother must set {paivn) 
 and sell her child's inherit- 
 ance, and release her child 
 and save its life. The 
 other need is : if the years 
 become dear, and sharp 
 hunger goes over the land, 
 and the child will starve'' 
 of hunger, then the mother 
 
 » Hi it him. b Like er. ' Hi it. 
 
 ** Froin/rff, properly the first, frea dominus, and frana the lord, i. e. the king's attorney in 
 the court of justice; siunmus, princcps, i.e. judex populi, § 48. 
 
 * Hioe it, efler hjoe it. ^ A.-S. beorh, bjTg collis, arx, civitas } borough. 
 
 8 Ku con: Of ku pi. Lf. 91, 93, 152. A.-S. cu, coiv, pi. eu, gen. cuna. 
 
 ^ A.-S. Eowu oris matrix ; enc. 
 
 ' Kou con; pi. ky ; >j sounds Ukc e in me, or Uke the Dut. ij in mij. J A.-S. feter pedica. 
 
 ^ Starve is not to be derived from Dut. stenen to die, I)ut from Ic. at star fulahorarc, CErinn- 
 nis premi. For to st;me, is to sufl'er all sorts of miser), in use chiefly that of iiungcr; for 
 this reason sfarvvUntj, properly ceriimnosus, is used in tlie sense o{ hungry, lean, pining. Lye 
 has steartian without authority ; but steorfa pestis is in Lup. I., where Lye projierly cites the 
 Enghsh phrase, A stai'fe take you, tc pestis per dat. Dut. stenen to die, is not the first, but the 
 second meaning. 
 
68 
 
 FRIESIC — OLD-FRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A.D. 1200. IV. 101. 
 
 ende coem, deerma da 
 kinde des Hues mede 
 helpe. Dyo tredde need 
 is : als dat kynd is al 
 stocknaken* jefta huus- 
 laes, ende dan di tiues- 
 tera** neviP ende calda 
 winter oencomt, so faert 
 aller manick oen syn hof"^ 
 ende oen syn huis ende 
 an waranne^ gaten, ende 
 da wylda dier seket dyn 
 holla baem ende der 
 birgha hly, aldeer hit syn 
 lyf oen bihalda me}'; sa 
 weinel'^ ende scryt^ dat 
 onjeriga kind ende wyst*" 
 dan syn nakena lyae ende 
 syn huuslaes ende syn 
 fader deer him reda schuld 
 to jenst dyn honger ende 
 winter nevil cald dat hi 
 so diepe ende dimme 
 niitta flower neylen is 
 onder eke ende onder 
 
 it hern mei yn 't libben 
 helpt(halt). De tredde 
 need is : as it bern alle- 
 heelstoakneakenof huws- 
 leas is, in den de tsjus- 
 tere nevel in de kalde 
 winter oankomt, sa fart 
 (tsjocht) alle man yn syn 
 hoaf in yn syn huws in 
 yn warjende gatten, in 
 de wylde djier siikje de 
 holle beam in de lyte 
 fen de bergen, der it 
 syn liif 3'n behalde mei ; 
 sa weint in scriemt it 
 onjirrige bern in wiist 
 den syn ueakene lea in 
 syn huwsleazens, in syn 
 faer, der him rede scoe 
 tsjin de honger in de 
 winter-nevel-kalde, that 
 hy sa djip in dimster 
 (tsiuster) mei de fjouwer 
 neilen onder de iik in onder 
 de ierde is besletten in be- 
 
 must set {paivn) and sell 
 her child's inheritance, and 
 buy her child cows and 
 ewes and com, wherewith 
 the life of the child is 
 helped [preserved) . The 
 third need is : when the 
 child is stark-naked, or 
 houseless, and then the 
 dark fog and the cold 
 winter come on, when 
 every man fares [enters) 
 his house and its appurte- 
 nances, and lurking holes, 
 and the wild deer [beasts) 
 seek the hollow beam ( tree) 
 and the lee' of the moun- 
 tains, where it may save 
 its life ; then moans and 
 weeps the minor child, and 
 shows his naked limbs and 
 his being houseless, and 
 [points at] his father, who 
 should provide for him 
 against hunger and the 
 
 » A.-S. stoc stipes, truncus ; stock. ^ A.-S. Jjeoster dark. 
 
 « A.-S. newelnvs nuhes. ^ A.-S. hof dmmis, speltinca. 
 
 e A.-S. warian to defend, wariande, by assimilation, waranne, part. pres. act. defending 
 Wara, inf. Sell. 103, a. to defend. The first stronghold was an enelosiire, and tlie root of the 
 signification of the verb is in A.-S. wsr septum. Wera or wer hedge, fence, Lf 204. 
 
 ( A.-S. Wanian plorare. Weine is in Frs. v. to moan like a sick man, sc. to croon. 
 
 g Likewise scria to weep, from Icel. kria quceri ; Icel. at krita minurire, or rather from to 
 cry, also to scream: Frs. v. scrieme to weep, from A.-S. hreman. 
 
 ^ A.-S. wasian to show, obvious in weather-wiser. 
 
 ' The root hie and le exists in A.-S. hligan : pe jsec men hligaS which incline thee to man ; 
 where the reading of hniga<5 for liliga^ is to no pmi^ose at all, Cd- 235, 2o, Ed. Thorpe. 
 The Icelanders have the same root in their hlickr obliquitas, curvarnen. To this is perhaps 
 also related y^.-.S'. ligan, (inclinare) cuhare, jacere, (tcgere) nientiri. Moes. hlig^tahernacidum, 
 shows that the aspiration originally belonged to Moes. Ugan jacere. The other form, Moes. 
 laugnjan, nearly equivalent to Goth, liugan (tegei-c) mentiri et u.vorem ducere, whence A.-S. 
 leogan to He, signifies to hide and to deny, in which the same transition of the sense is obser- 
 vable. In the same manner, A.-S. {^acian tegere, and Aloes. Gott. thahan tacere. 
 
 The second form is furnislied with a d in Icel. at hlida inclinare, cedere, obedire, from Icel. 
 hlid devexitas vel latus montis, whence also Dan. en fjeldlie. Lida, besides the h, takes also 
 s and g in to sUde and to glide, per devexa labi. To cover bv inclining, hence A.-S. hlid 
 covering, pot/id ; Ems. Land. 8, 82, lilid eyelid ,• Frs. v. eachlid, lid potlid ; Icel. hlid ostium, 
 porta (the cover of the entrance). Tlie Goths had likewise this form in their hleithvan tent. 
 
 I return to le without a final consonant, A.-S. hleo covering, shelter, refuge ; Ab. 86, place 
 sheltered from the wind. The lee side, Dut. de lij (a sea term) f/(f side of the ship not exposed to 
 the wind. As the sailor must determine the situation of surrounding objects from the relative 
 position of his vessel, the coast opposite to his lee-side is called by him the lee-shore, though 
 it is the shore towards which the wind blows, and necessai-ily must blow. The sailor does 
 not regard the position of the shore as to the wind, but as to the sides of his vessel, and lee 
 in this phrase denotes too, calm, quiet. I was induced to make these remarks to silence an 
 objection of Dr. Jamiesou, who concludes, from the signification of lee-shore, that lee, Sent. 
 le, cannot be sheltered from the imnd, and derives the word from Icel. la, lea. See Todd's 
 Johnson in loco, Jamieson in loco. 
 
IV. 102, 103. 
 
 FRIESIC— SOUTH HOLLAND. 
 
 69 
 
 da eerda bisloten* ende 
 bitacht;'' so moet dio 
 moder her kindes eerwe 
 setta ende sella, om dat 
 hio da bihield" habbe 
 ende biwaer also lang so 
 hit onjerich is, dat hit 
 ocn ibrste ner oen hoen- 
 ger naet lorfare.'^ 
 
 ditsen ; sa mat de moar 
 lijar berns erfscip forsette 
 in forkeapje, om dat bja 
 it opsicbt het in de be- 
 Wirring sa lung as it on- 
 jirrich is, dat it oan froast 
 of oan honger net for- 
 farre (forreisgje, stjerre). 
 
 wintry fog-cold, that he 
 so deep and dim {dark) is 
 locked up and covered un- 
 der the oak and under the 
 earth with four nails {spikes 
 to fasten the coffin ) : so the 
 mother must set {pawn) 
 and sell her child's inherit- 
 ance, since she has the 
 keeping and guarding as 
 long as [the child] is under 
 age, that it dies not from 
 frost or from hunger. 
 
 102. Let us now pass over the Zuiderzee, formerly the northern 
 outlet of the Rhine, and by the irruptions of the German ocean enlarged 
 to a mediterranean sea. The Friesians living on that side were ever the 
 object of the tyranny of the Dutch counts, [Hollandsche Graven,] and 
 after a furious struggle of three hundred years, in which their love of 
 freedom and undaunted bravery recalled the days of Greece, they were at 
 last subdued by the united forces of the Count and Emperor. Political 
 power, assisted by the influence of the priests, soon triumphed in spoiling 
 their national language and character. The country is, however, in some 
 maps still marked Westfriesland, now called Noordholland ; and when at 
 Amsterdam you pass the Y, a narrow water separating this town from 
 Westfriesland, you perceive distinctly that you are amongst another 
 people. The peculiarities of Zaandam, Broek, and other villages by 
 which the inhabitants of Nortli Holland are distinguished from other 
 Dutchmen, are too well known to be recorded here. I will only mention 
 the particular, that the peasants of Waterland spoke Friesic till the 
 middle of the 17th century. 
 
 103. We pass from North to South Holland. As we proceed and 
 approach nearer to Sincfallq,, (now the Swiu or Hazegat, on the left side 
 of the mouth of the Scheld,) the ancient southern border of Friesia, we 
 find the Friesians, who were thinly scattered along the coasts, were the 
 earlier blended with their more powerful neighbours. Nor are any 
 traces of their tongue and character to be found, except in a iaw names of 
 villages. It, however, deserves our attention, that the Flemish tongue 
 
 » Read l)isk'ttcn, part, prnft. pass, of the verb bisluta to enclose. Hence the Scot- to slott/o 
 bolt. Tile rodt is Maes, iind A.-S. lukan to close, preeeded by the sibihitimi. 
 
 *> Bitekka to cover, bitaeht covered. A.-S. I^eeean to cover, jjeaht covered. Hence takere 
 the case which covers and holds the feathers of a hed. Takeres jeftii the sum paid by the bride to 
 her brother-in-law for ceding her his half in the bed of her man, Frs. I. 29. Tlie Dutch in full 
 beddttijA; and l)y ellipsis tijA; like the Enu;. tick ; Frs. r. teek, from A.-S. Jjecan. It is singu- 
 lar that the Emj. thatch, and the Frs. v. tek, have passed both in the special sis^nification of 
 straw laid upon the top of a house to keep out the weather. 
 
 <^ A. S. behcoldan custodire, despicere ,■ to behold. The Frs. v. have behalda to keep, to have; 
 but not in the signification of to view. 
 
 "^ A.-S. forfaran pcrire, compounded of for and faran to (jo, as perire of per and ire. 
 
70 FEIESIC— FRIESIA PROPER. IV. 104—108. 
 
 now in use in that part of Belgium, bordering the southern frontier of 
 Friesia, has retained a great many Friesian forms of words. 
 
 104. It is for the third time that I return to Jutland, to investigate the 
 relics of the Friesian tongue, still existing in some dialects. 
 
 105. The remains of the Friesic on the western coast, conterminous to 
 that of the Angles, have been mentioned, § 93. 
 
 106. East-Friesia, lying between the Ems and the Jade, has forfeited 
 all its claims to Friesian nationality. About the end of the 17th 
 century, the people still spoke Friesic, though greatly corrupted by broad 
 Low-Saxon. I am in possession of the celebrated Memoriale Linguce 
 Friesicis, exhibiting the state of this language in 1691, composed by 
 Johannes Cadovius Muller, the clergyman of Stedesdorf 
 
 107. On the east side of East-Friesia, lies a small tract of country 
 enclosed by the Ems and the Lee, which from its marshy ground is in- 
 accessible during several months of the year ; it is called Sagelterland, or 
 Saterland, where Friesic is still spoken. In this retired spot, which has 
 no way of access, and offers no allurements to strangers in hopes of gain, 
 many thousand words represent the true sounds of Friesian speech. 
 
 Amongst these many bear a striking resemblance to English words, not apparent 
 in the present Country-Friesic. For instance, Sagel, ji ; Frs. v. ja ;• Eng. yes ; 
 ^.-S. gise. Sagel.]iex; Frs. v.]\ev; Eng. year; jl.-S.geav. Sagel. liddel; Frs. 
 V. lyts ; Frs. h. lyk ; Eng. little. Sagel. noase ; Frs. v. noas ; Eng. nose ; A-.S. 
 nose. Sagel. queden ; Eng. imperf. quoth ; A.-S. cwe^an. Sagel. slepen ; Frs. v. 
 sliepe ; Eng. to sleep. Sagel. two ; Frs. v. twa ; Eng. tw o ; A.-S. twa. Sagel. 
 fiam'tin ; Frs. v. fjirtjin; Eng. fourteen: and as to the shades of signification in 
 such words as Sagel. miede meadoiv ; Frs. v. miede hayland. Saterland, forming 
 part of the kingdom of Hanover, has the same king as England. 
 
 108. We lastly enter Friesia, properly so called, which is surrounded 
 on the north, west, and south, by the Zuiderzee, forming almost a penin- 
 sula, and frequented little by strangers, unless it be for the sake of 
 commerce. Here the Friesians have manifested their national feelings ; 
 here Tacitus and his contemporaries fixed their residence ; here the Frie- 
 sians dwelt in past ages, and, through all the vicissitudes of time, here 
 they remain to the present day. It is for this reason that the French 
 geographer observes : " Dixhuit siecles out vu le Rhin changer son cours et 
 I'ocean engloutir ses rivages ; la nation Frisonne est restee debout comme 
 un monument historique, digne d'interesser egalement les descendans des 
 Francs, des Anglo-Saxons, et des Scandinaves."* This country bears the 
 simple name of Friesia [Friesland], which has continued unaltered through 
 all ages, and was respected even by Napoleon himself, who altered all 
 other names. The surrounding parts are named according to their relative 
 position with regard to this centre ; hence the name of East-Friesia 
 ;)etween the Ems and the Jade, and West-Friesia on the opposite coast of 
 ,he Zuiderzee. 
 
 * Precis de la Geographic Universelle, par M. Malte-Brun, torn. i. p. 344, Paris, 1810. 
 
IV. 109, 110. 
 
 COUiXTRY-FRIESIC OF 1834. 
 
 71 
 
 109. It is, however, not merely the name which distinguishes Old- 
 Friesia in tlic present day, it is also the language of its inhabitants, 
 wliich, from the circumstance of its being unintelligible to the Dutch, still 
 proves itself to be Friesian. At least a hundred thousand persons speak 
 the language commonly called Country-Fricsic, which on comparison 
 will be found to possess more true Anglo-Saxon sounds than any other 
 dialect. In § 101, I have already given a specimen of the Old-Friesic of 
 the 13th century, with a Country-Friesic version. I shall now add 
 another specimen, being a literal version of some stanzas by the Countess 
 of Blessington, occurring in the Book of Beauty of the year 1834. 
 
 110. This and the other specimen (§ 101) exhibit the Country-Friesic 
 in its present state. 
 
 Country-Friesic. 
 Hwat bist doii, libben ?' 
 len wirch^stribjen" 
 
 Fen pine, noccP in search ; 
 Lange oeren fen smerte. 
 In nocbton^ — bo koart ! 
 
 Det fordwine de moarns. 
 
 Stanzas by the Countess of Blessington. 
 What art thou. Life ?" 
 A weary strife 
 
 Of pain, care,* and sorrow ; 
 Long hours of grief,*^ 
 And joys — bow brief ! 
 
 That vanish the morrow. 
 
 Dead, hwat bist dou, 
 Ta hwaem alien buwgje. 
 
 Fen de sceptcrde kening ta de slawc ? 
 De Icttste, ba;ste freon,'' 
 Om iiws soargen to ciugjen, 
 
 Dyn gcbiet is yn 't gi'a;f. 
 
 Wenneer se alien binne fled 
 Jouwst dou ien bajd, 
 
 Waer wy kalm yn sliepe : 
 De wounen alle hele, 
 De digerige eagen segele, 
 
 Dy laiig diene'' wekje in gepje.' 
 
 Death, what art thou. 
 To whom all bow. 
 
 From sceptred king to slave P 
 The last, best friend. 
 Our cares to end. 
 
 Thy empire is in the grave. 
 
 When all have fled 
 Thou giv'st a bed. 
 
 Wherein we calmly' sleep : 
 The wounds all beal'd. 
 The dimJ eyes seal'd, 
 
 Tluit long did wake and weep. 
 
 » & <= As strife is to stribjen, so is life to libben, § 63. 
 
 •> From wirich, A.S. wmgfatigatus, by contraction wirch. ^ Noed solicitude, risJi. 
 
 * Moes. A.S. car, and Kni). care, all sic^nifvincr cura, find their original signification in the 
 Frs. V. kar choice. For as the Out. proverb says, Keus Ijuart angst in optionv cura. 
 
 f The word grief is Eikj. and Dut., whence the Fr. grief. It is not from gravis, but from 
 Dut. grieven to stab ; the same with greva to diij, Frs. I. 303 ; Dut. graven, whence Eng. 
 grave; A.S. ^jpit scidiitura ; A.-S.gx?oi; Frs. v. gnvi' grave. 
 
 S Nocht pleasure, projierly plenty, from noach, A.S. nob enough, or noachje to satisfg.] 
 
 •" The Old-Friesic has friond, Aug. Ik. 20, itl ; Frs. /. 102, and friund, being part. act. of 
 the verb fria to love, court. The Frs. v. agrees with the A.-S. frcoud in freon, pronounced 
 also frjeun. Friend is the Dut. form vriend. 
 
 ' Calm. Tile analogy of the consonants points out yaXr)vr] as the same word, but the de- 
 rivation cannot be pursued further, imless in the Greek itself. 
 
 J Dimme obscure, Asg. bh. 87, b. 
 
 •^ Diene. A literal version, contrarv' to the genius of the Fricsic, which forms its imp. 
 like the .-l.-.S. \\itliout the auxiliary vcrl) to do. l.ow-Saxon characters, however, offer often 
 the words, liier doet men liet niwasschen, mangelcn, &.c., literally Here jnen (iwople) do 
 calendering, &.C., for calender, calenders. 
 
 ' Gepje. This word is not Frs. v., it is Ilindelopian, putting g for n: 
 
72 
 
 COUNTRY-FRIESIC OF A.D. 1650. 
 
 IV. 111. 
 
 111. The following specimen shows what the same dialect was about 
 1650, nearly two centuries earlier. It is a rustic song composed by 
 Gysbert Japicx, supposed to be sung by a peasant on his return from a 
 
 wedding-feast. 
 
 1 
 
 Swiet,* ja swiet is 't, oer 'e miete'' 
 'T Boaskien f6ar"= 'e jonge lie ;" 
 Kveftich swiet is 't, sizz' ik jiette/ 
 As it glet* mei alders rie.^ 
 
 Mar oars tiget 'et to 'n pleach 
 As ik oan myu geafeiut seach.^ 
 
 1 
 
 Sweet, yes sweet is over (beyond) measure 
 The marrying for the yomig lede (people) ; 
 Most sweet is it, I say yet (o7ice more), 
 When it goes with the rede (counsel) of the 
 
 elders. 
 But otherwise it tends to a plague (ctirse), 
 As I saw on (by the example of ) my village 
 
 fellow. 
 
 Goune swohke, lit uws pearje, 
 Bea hy her laiei mylde stemm, 
 Ofke, sei se, ho scoe 'k it klearje !^ 
 
 Wist dus rie to heite in mem ? 
 Ljeaf,'' dat nim ik to myn Isest. 
 
 Dear mey wier dy knote' faest. 
 
 Golden Swohke, let us pair. 
 
 He hade her with a mild voice, 
 
 Ofke, she said, how should (would) 1 clear 
 
 it ! (free from obstacles) 
 Knowest thou rede, with father and mother ? 
 (My) love! I nim (take) this to my last 
 
 (charge) ; 
 Therewith the knot was fast. 
 
 Da dit pear to gcar'J scoe ite 
 In hjae hiene nin gewin, 
 Heite ^ seach, as woe hy bite, 
 
 Mem wier stjoersch in lef fen sin. 
 
 When this pair should (tvould) eat together. 
 
 And they had no gain (livelihood) , 
 
 Father (the husband) saw as if he would 
 
 hite (looked angry) ; 
 Mother (the wife) was stern and cross of 
 humour. 
 
 a It is the genius of tlie Anglo-Friesic, 1st, to change the ?t after s, obvious in all other 
 dialects, into the consonant m ; thus suet becomes swet : 2nd. to change the e into i ; swet, 
 A.-S. swete, whether WTitten or not witli i, is pronounced like i. In the same way, lede 
 people, rede counsel, were pronounced lide, ride, by contraction Frs. v. lie, rie. 
 
 ^ Miete, at present Frs. v. mjitte. <= Foar, at present Frs. v. foar. 
 
 ^ Yet present Frs. v. just as it is pronounced in English. It is the Anglo-Friesic fashion 
 to change g into y in many instances where all other dialects retain the g. Thus Old Eng. 
 yern readily ; Frs. v. jern ; jerne, Asg. hk. 2, b ; A.-S. georn. Yesterday, Frs. v. jister ; A.-S. 
 gistra. Old Eng. to yet to pour- • Frs. v. jitte ; A.-S. geotan. Yet adhuc, Frs. v. yet ; A.-S. 
 gyt. Yond ihi, Frs. v. jinder ; A.-S. geond. The German-Saxon dialect uses jot for gott. 
 
 « Seach saw, sea-gen videbant ; A.-S. seah videbat ; A.-S. seagon videbant. 
 
 f Klearje, at present kljerje. 
 
 g This du is now become dou, as the A.- S. ]>\x sounds in the present Eng. thou. Tongues 
 of the same original frame show the same development in their consonants as in their vowels. 
 
 •' Ljeaf, A.-S. leof charus. 
 
 ' Kno-te, present Frs. v. knotte, an ellipsis for love-hiot. It was a knotted handkerchief 
 in which was a coin ; when presented by the woer and accepted by the maiden, the knot 
 was fastened. 
 
 JTo geare, now to gjerre, contr. for A.-S. geader to gatlier ; compounded of ge and eader 
 septum, septa includi, i. e., conjunctim ; together, to encompass. 
 
 " This word heite father is Frs. v. and Moes. atta pater, aithei mater. I wonder that the 
 word is neither in the Old-Friesic nor in the A.-S. 
 
 
IV. 111. 
 
 COUNTRY-FRIESIC OF A.D. 1650. 
 
 73 
 
 Ofke, sei se, elk jieiien bern . . . 
 VVier ik faem!' Ik woe 'l so jern.'' 
 
 Ofke, she said, each [every) year a child. . . 
 Were I maiden ! I would {wish) il so yeru 
 (so willimjhj). 
 
 Hoite in Hoatske'^ ^neins** to keamer 
 Mekken '( mei elkoarme klear. 
 Tetke krigge Sjolle-krcainer' 
 To >^iut Eal by wyii in bjear. 
 Nu rint elk om as icn slet/ 
 In bekleye 'i : mar to let. 
 
 o 
 Oeds die better nei ik achtje 
 Da^ by Saals syn iron'' tosei ; 
 Hy liet de alders even plachtje' 
 Hwet se oan elke ichJ joene mei. 
 
 Nu besit '.'Y buws in scbuwr'. 
 In syn bern fleane alle man iiwr. 
 
 Ork, myn soan, wok du bedye,'' 
 Rin naet oan allyk ien moll'!' 
 Jeld in rie lit mei cly frye, 
 Bern, so gean' Jyn saken wol ; 
 Den scil de himel uwr Ayn dwaen 
 
 Lok in mylde seining' jaen.™ 
 
 Hoile and 1 Toatske ever}' Sunday in the inn 
 IMade ii dear {settled il) with each other. 
 Tetke got Sjolle tlio pedlar 
 To St. Alofs fair unto wine and bear. 
 Now each vans about as a slut. 
 And complains {of) it, but too late. 
 
 Oeds did better in my o])inion 
 When he said {(juve) liis troth to Sfets ; 
 He let the elders even plight {contract) 
 What they on each edge {side) gave with 
 
 {the married couple). 
 Now be possesses house and barn. 
 And his children outdo all men. 
 
 6 
 Ork, my son, wouldst thou prosper. 
 Run not on all like a mole ; 
 Let age and rede {good counsel) woo thee. 
 Child, then thy affairs go well ; 
 Then the heaven shall {ivill) give over thy 
 
 doings 
 I.uck {fortune) and mild {liberal) blessings. 
 
 * Faem, in the 'lisdecl of [Tindeli >|ien, faen maiden; A.-S.fxmna. virgo. 'The common 
 Greek 71ICT7 is a enrniption of tlie Doric Saco, enrrcspi mdinuf witii tlie Lat. fieraina, ami the 
 Atujlo-Frii-sir fana ; foi" tlie Greek j3 corresponils witli tlie Ger. p. sometimes yoinj over to/, 
 I wondei" this word, ol)vious in A.-S. and Friesic, is totaUj lost in £ng. 
 
 ^ See note f'^) al |). Ixxii. on jiette. 
 
 « Hoatse, the jiroper name of :t man, becomes tliat of a female by a<l(liniT kc, Hoatske, at 
 present lloatse ami Ifoalske. A c^reat many of these propo- names of tlie Friesians are 
 become tamihar names in Enj^. by addinu,' son. Thus, Watse, Ritse, flodse, Gihhe, Friesian 
 projjcr names, become VVatse-son, Ritse-son, Ifodse-son, (lihhe-son; in the Friesian syntax, 
 the son of VVatsc, &.e. hv contraction, VVatson, Ritson, Hodson, Gihhscm (Gihb'm). 
 
 "^ Snein .S'((iu/rt)/, Senen-dei, bv contraction 8ncen-dei, and ca^tinaf away dei, Sneen, whence 
 Snien and Snein. The I Fiiidelopians still say Senne-dei or Sendei. Gahhema, p. 'M), lias 
 Sonemlei ; and the Charter hoek, 1. p. 'y-H, ■'y.ii't, Snaynde dies soUs : dei is also cast away in 
 file, and JPi-s. v. freed Friday. Correct, Junius, Gloss. Goth. p. 310. 
 
 e From Frs. v. kreara, Srot. craim c hierrkant's siall, is t leri ved kreamcr c nwrrhauf in o stall . 
 
 f The ctymoloi;y of .</«/' is not ajijirehunded either hy Johnson, Jamiison, or Tooke. From 
 A.-S. sliihin to s/idf ; Out. sleden talii, iraherr, comes sledde tralia, now sled. The other 
 form is sletan or slutan, producing Frs. r. slet c float, ion-el, a dirty n-omun, and Kng. sku a 
 dirty woman. The Friesians in the same way form sleep c slut, from Frs. v. slcepjc tralmrv. 
 
 8 A. S>. ,<i\, the same as Frs. v. da Ihcn, is not in Ftif/. 
 
 ■■ Ttou fidelity ; A.-S. treowa, treowiS ; Srol. trouth Irulli ; Scot, to trow to believe. 
 
 ' Plachtje to plead, bargain. It is the same word as A.-S. plihtan tpondere, oppignorare. 
 
 J ,-l.-.S'. ecu^e forms hy assimilation eafCfe, .Asg. bit. 273, edge (of a sirord) ; iy:u;e, Asg. hh. 3'>.>, 
 IprE[e or ich means here side, pari, as in Xeot. the edge of ii hill, llw side and tin- top of a liill. 
 
 I' For be the A.-S. used ge, as ge-;>ean to tfirive ; the e pronounced like i, thia in Friesic, 
 whence di-ja, t. e. dye. 
 
 ' 3b)le is an ellipsis for mouldwarp, i.e. A. S. middweorji, as molle is for tin; common 
 Frs. V. mol-wrot, from inoldc terra, and A.S. wrutaii, Frs. t: wrottc mslrn rrrsare. Tiie Scots 
 use hy inversion of letters mawdiwart and moudiewort. The F.ng. mouldwarji has warp from 
 the A. S. wand-wyrp, properly the turn-cast, i.e. nho easts up mould by turning it. 
 
 " Frs. t'. jaen to give, Frs. I. 26, 28, and ja to give, Frs. I, o3, 101, for Scot, ga' to give. 
 * L 
 
74 
 
 FRIESIC OF HINDELOPEN. 
 
 IV. 112. 
 
 112. To give some idea of the Hiudelopian dialect, I shall add a few 
 Knes which I found written above the months of January, February, and 
 May, in a Hindelopian calendar for seamen. The Hindelopians were 
 formerly all seamen, even in the beginning of the present centurj'. 
 
 Januarius het xxxi deggen. 
 Nyje deggen,* nyje winscen, 
 Nyje re'' fan nyje niinschen ! 
 Weer us livven ek" su ny 
 Sunden wardven lichst'' fan fry. 
 
 Februarius het xxviii deggen. 
 Silers'' meye winters reste/ 
 Thus tu blieuwen miit jerm leste ; 
 Lots men iertske surg mer stan 
 Mengwar'' scoe men better dwan. 
 
 Majus het xxxl deggen. 
 As we tommelje oeuwer 't wetter' 
 
 January has xxxi days. 
 New days, new wishes, 
 New rede {counsel) of new men. 
 Were our Hfe {conduct) eke so {also as) new 
 We gi-ew lightly free from sins. 
 
 February has xxviii days. 
 Sailors may rest in winter. 
 To stay at home ( to house) must please them. 
 (//) one let earthly sorrow more stand {he) 
 Many times we should {woicld) do better. 
 
 May has xxxi days. 
 As we tumble {are tossed) over the water 
 HeuweJ 't slim'' en soms hwet better, {Then) we have it slim {bad^) and some- 
 times {then) what {a little) better. 
 Su 's de wrald ek as de se. So the world is eke {also) as the sea, 
 
 Soms fol kurje,' soms fol ne. Sometimes full of delight, sometimes full of 
 
 need. 
 
 a As we have had in the preceding laest for last a burden, fsest for fast, let for late, so here 
 deggen for daggen. The ^4.-9. used also fsest, djpg : but what may be the reason why the 
 Eng. in a thousand such words WTite a, although they have ever retained the old pronuncia- 
 tion of e ? Does this oddity date from the time when a, losing entirely its genuine meaning, 
 was called e ? 
 
 ^ Re, contraction of the Old Eng. rede counsel. 
 
 <= Frs. V. eak ; A.-S. eac ; Hindi, ek, contr. of Old Eng. eke also. 
 
 ^ It is a very remarkahle property of the Hindi, dialect to insert « between ch and t ; liohst 
 for licht ligld ; ansichst visage ; suchst sickliness ; for ansicht {A.-S. onsien vultus , sight) sucht. 
 
 ^ I have not found this word in the particular signification of a seaman anj'where but in 
 Eng. and Hindi. In Did. een zeiler is a sailing vessel ; and in Frs. v. siler is a swimmer. 
 
 f We have u in the Ger. ruhe and the Diet, rust, but e, originating from u, in the Anglo- 
 Friesic rest. 
 
 g Lot let ; Frs. v. lit. 
 
 t Meng-war is a compound of menig (men-ig) many ; and A.-S. hweorf (i^KS et reditus) 
 vices, many times. 
 
 » Wetter: in this word the Eng. is inconsequent by retaining the broad a in the pronunciation. 
 
 J Heuwe we have ,• Frs. v. wy hawwe. 
 
 k SUm bad, wrong ; properly curved, crooked ; Dut. Kil. slimvoet loripes ; slim distortus. In 
 the same way, wrong (derived from ^4.-.S'. WTingan, Frs. v. wringe to wring) is properly tortus. 
 This primary signification of wringing is likewise in A.-S. slincan, shngan to sling; whence the 
 frequentative form Frs. v. shngerje, and in slang a snake. In Dut. as in the north of England, 
 sUm tortuous has the analogical signification of sly. But sKm denotes also weak and thin of 
 shape in Eng. In Feel, lam is a fracture, \a.ma./ractus viribus, whence at slfema (as Eng. slim 
 from lim linius) debilitare ; Eng. sUm weak, slight. It is not impossible that A.-S. Um limb, as 
 a fracture, division, or member, belongs to this class. Further we find A.-S. hljene /eaH,and 
 with the sibilant instead of the aspirate : Dut. Frs. v. slank thi7i of shape, opposed to the 
 swelling of an inflamed wound. Frs. v. linkje to grow less in bulk. Slink furrow between banks 
 in sea. Eng. slim slender, thin of shape. 
 
 1 Kurje security and peace. From A.-S. cyse or eyre electio; kar in the Swed. laws is full 
 freedom in his actions, and security against all violence in his house. In the same way, Frs. v. 
 wald, and A.-S. v.elafelicity, is from Dut. walen and welen eligere. 
 
 n> The form of this word is one of the most ancient extant in the Eng. language not to 
 
 be found in A.-S. nor any Germanic tongue, but only in the Persian Jj bad malignus ; in the 
 Mogid language badd. The European form is wad, from A.-S. wedan ; Dut. woeden insanire, 
 /were — whence Dut. k-waad, kwaad bad. 
 
IV. 113 — 117. FRIESIC— LOW-SAXON GLOSSARIES. 75 
 
 113. The never-ceasing floods of Germans at last overwliclmed the 
 Friesians and their nationality. Had the Fricsians sought lor some 
 refuge in the heart of the ocean, like their l^^nglish brethren, they would 
 have braved tlie combined force of all the continental tyrants, whether 
 crowned, or representing the hydra of dem.ocracy. Only the North-Friesic, 
 Saterlandic, Sciermonnikoogian, Country-Friesic, and Ilindclopian remain 
 as fragments that have resisted the influence of invaders to the present 
 day. 
 
 114. Low-Saxon has prevailed in all the country between Schleswic 
 and the Dutch Zuiderzee, once possessed by the Friesians: it varies 
 indeed in its dialects being always aflected by tlie tongue of the bordering 
 people ; in one ])art smooth and fluent, in another broad and coarse, as in 
 the province of Groningen. All, however, are of an homogeneous nature, 
 so that a person acquainted with one of them easily understands all the 
 others. 
 
 115. Glossaries of all these dialects have been formed. 
 
 Of the dialect of Holstein by J. F. Schutze in his Holsleinisches Idiotikon, 4 
 torn. Hamburg, 1800 ; — of the dialect of Hamburg by Michael Richey, in his 
 Idioticon Hambiirgense, Hamburg, 1754; — of that of Bremen and Werden bv Kelp, 
 on which notes are to be found in the Collectanea Etymoloyica of Leibnitz I. p. 
 33, Hanover, 1717; and not only of the dialect of Bremen, but also of the Low- 
 Saxon in general, by a society of Bremish philologists in their Versuch eines 
 Bremisch-Niederscichsischen IVorterbuchs, Bremen, 1767, 5 voh; it will be un- 
 necessary to cite more. I must, however, add, that a specimen of the present East- 
 Friesic is to be found in the Sanghfona, a collection of songs and poetry, printed at 
 Emden, 1828, Woortman. 
 
 116. While these dialects prevail in those parts of Old-Friesia extend- 
 ing from Schleswic nearly to the northern coasts of the Zuiderzee, Dutch 
 is spoken in North Holland, South Holland, and Zealand, and Flemish in 
 the country surrounding Antwerp, and in Flanders. 
 
 117. 1 beg leave to draw the attention of the Anglo-Saxon scholar to 
 the Low-Saxon glossaries above mentioned. INIany hundred Anglo-Saxon 
 words will be elucidated, as to their form and meaning, by closely comparing 
 them with the Low-Saxon. Low-Saxon has all the appearance of German 
 grafted on an Anglo-Friesic tree. The words are Anglo-Friesic with 
 German vowels, as if the Friesians, in adopting the German, retained the 
 consonants of the old language. This observation may with still greater 
 propriety be applied to the syntax and phraseology, that is, to the mental 
 part or soul of the language. They continued to think in Anglo-Friesic 
 forms, whilst their organs adopted the vowels and some other mechanical 
 parts of the German. LLence there is scarcely a single expression or 
 phrase extant in Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, or Dutch, of which the parallel is 
 not to be found in the Low-Saxon glossaries. In short, it is the Anglo- 
 Friesic idiom, with words of Germanic form. This observation also 
 explains another phenomenon, which is, that scarcely a single scholar, a 
 native of any place on the coast of the German sea, where Low-Saxon is 
 
76 FRIESIC — CORRUPTION OF ENGLISH. IV. 118 — 120. 
 
 the mother-toDgiie, possesses the true Genius of the German language. 
 Though Klopstock was born at Plamburg, yet I venture to affirm that no 
 scholar of the stamp of T. D. Wiarda is acquainted with the true spirit of 
 the German tongue. 
 
 118. It is for this reason, that any one who intends to compose a syntax 
 of the Anglo-Saxon, after having thoroughly investigated the Friesic and 
 Dutch, must not omit to compare almost every part with the Low-Saxon 
 glossaries. This is an important and almost a new task. To this day the 
 syntax of the Anglo-Saxon, requiring a deep insight into the hidden 
 springs of speech, has been but rudely developed, only hinted at even by 
 Rask, while the different forms of conjugation and declension have been 
 analyzed with the most minute attention. 
 
 119. Moreover, if the syntax of the Anglo-Saxon be the basis of the 
 English syntax, as 1 think it is, notwitlistanding a partial degeneration 
 since the Norman conquest by a mixture with French,* the absurdity is 
 felt of modelling the construction of the English according to that of 
 corrupt Latin, known by the name of French. The construction of the 
 French language, is as regularly arranged as the pipes of an organ, while 
 the most diversified inversion, exceeded only by that of the Latin and 
 Greek, cliaracterizes the Anglo-Saxon and Friesic ; and the more the 
 English is made to differ from this standard of propriety, the more it 
 deviates from its original form and its very nature. The diction and 
 idiom, forming the mirror of the soul of nations, are in English and 
 French as widely different as the character of the respective people. 
 Hence the phenomenon, that when a foreigner well acquainted with the 
 French easily understands an English author, it is certain that this writer 
 is not possessed of the true genius of the English language. Addison 
 may be deemed neat, pure, elegant, and fluent — but he is not English. 
 Shakspeare wrote English ; in him the English tongue and genius are 
 represented. 
 
 120. Great clamours have arisen about the total corruption of the 
 English language by the mixture of French and other foreign words, and 
 I readily grant that a rich language, possessed of the power of forming 
 compound words from simples, wants no foreign words to express even 
 new objects and ideas. But permit me to observe, that the deficiency 
 lias not hitherto been supplied .with due consideration and taste. For 
 when an author (the translator of the Lord's Prayer for instance) uses 
 a certain number of foreign words, it is no proof that the English 
 language had not words of its own to express the same ideas. The 
 fact is, that many thousand foreign words have been introduced when 
 native terms already existed, and the English has, in this way, been 
 endowed with the power of expressing the same idea by two different 
 
 * " Children in scolo against tlie usage and manir of all othir nations beeth compelled for 
 to leve hire owne langage, and for to construe hir lessons and hir thynges in Frenche." — 
 Trc'visa's Translation of Hijgdens Polychronicon. See " The causes of the corruption of the 
 English language," Bouchvr's Glossary, London, 1832, Introd. p. 39, 40. 
 
IV. 121 — 124. FEIESIC — ANALOGY OF, WITH ENGLISH. 77 
 
 words — or, what is of still greater value, of appropriating this new word to 
 mark some modification in the meaning of tlie indigenous word. In the 
 phrases " Forgive ns our debts, lead us not into temptation, but deliver us 
 irom evil," could there not be found amongst all the stores of the English 
 language some words to express the ideas of debt, ieniptalion, and deliver ^ 
 If these words now bear significations somewhat different from those of the 
 foreign ones, if foreign v/ords liave usurped tlie office of native ones, this is 
 no argument that at all affects the richness and proper essence of the 
 language. 
 
 121. For a proof of what I have advanced, 1 beg to refer the English 
 reader to the Friesic pieces I have translated into English: this, however 
 imperfect, will not J hope be entirely disregarded. 
 
 j\ly object was to show the analogy LeUveen the two languages, by translating them 
 
 as literally as possible; and th(^ coguati' words in English which do not perfectly agree 
 
 with the Friesic in sense, I have explained by others in parentheses. In 1200 words 
 
 I have only had recourse to -jO which are not of Saxon origin — v nimaber which 
 
 might be greatly diminishec' by a scholar thoroughly acquainted with the original 
 
 stores of the English language. At this rale, about every twenty-fourth word of 
 
 the original fmul of the language is lost. In 12'J words in parentheses, I used 
 
 •50 foreign words : iiere one word is lost out of every 21-. The number of words 
 
 was 1200; add the v/ords in parentheses 12o, it makes a total of 1325. The 
 
 foreign words in 1200 were 50, and in parentheses, 50, making the sum of 100. Then 
 
 1325 
 
 — — = 13.1 ; shows thai there is one foreign word for every thirteen English. 
 
 122. The stanzas of the Countess ot Clessington contain seventy-seven 
 words, of which eight are of foreign origin, namely, j)ain, Jiotirs, joy, 
 seaPd, raiiish, sceplred, empire, brief. Tluis in nine and a half English 
 terms, one word is exotic. 
 
 123. The foreign words in the English language are, for the most part, 
 used to express scientific or abstract ideas, and were introduced from the 
 French. Tliese ternjs, however, do not suit the feelings of the poet; he 
 involuntarily has recourse to the original stores of his native tongue — to 
 the varied construction, and the energetic and picturesque diction of the 
 Anglo-Saxon — a language forn)ed by his valiant forefathers in tlieir savage, 
 that is, poetical state. Tliis remark fidly accounts for the phenomenon, 
 that a reader wlio is a little acquainted with Frencli and Latin, easily under- 
 stands the writings of an English lawyer, divine, or philosoplier, while he 
 boggles at every sentence of the poets, whose Anglo-Saxon words and 
 construction are equally unknown to him. 
 
 124. The Anglo-Saxon appears greatly disfigured as it is at present 
 represented in the English. But as the granting of citizenship to foreign 
 words, and the moulding of them to an English form, have led to funda- 
 mental laws in the English language, every one will allow the great 
 advantage that results from such a change, \rhile all the stores of the 
 numberless tongues on the globe became perfectly English when in- 
 troduced into England, the Dutch, on the contrary, which may boast of 
 
78 FKIESIC— ENGLISH DIALECTS PRESERVE A.-S. SOUNDS. IV. 125—128. 
 
 exquisite purity, cannot adopt a single word without its bearing the mark 
 of its foreign origin. 
 
 125. Finally, it scarcely needs be mentioned, that as genuine English 
 words are for the most part Anglo-Saxon, an agreement of Friesic with 
 English naturally implies an agreement of Friesic with Anglo-Saxon. 
 It is for this reason, that the parallel Anglo-Saxon words are not always 
 cited in the specimens in §§ 95, 97, &c. This comparison would also have 
 taken too much time to pay due attention to the different degrees of 
 development by which words of the same age are often distinguished from 
 one another. 
 
 126. All that has been said about the analogy between the Anglo- 
 Saxon and Friesic, tends to prove that the Friesic tongue is absolutely 
 indispensable in determining, as far as it is now possible, the genuine 
 pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon ; and that preceding writers, in passing 
 over the Friesic, overlooked an important source of knowledge. 
 
 127. What is less pardonable in modern Anglo-Saxon scholars, is 
 their complete neglect of English in this respect. Their ignorance of the 
 English, as of the Friesic, will not, I hope, be alleged as an excuse. Is 
 not the English tongue, as to its descent and substance, still a genuine 
 daughter of the Anglo-Saxon ? Does she not bear to this very day some 
 features of her fair mother, notwithstanding her foreign ornaments ? Do 
 not many Anglo-Saxon vowels still exist in Yorkshire, in Scotland, and in 
 other provincial dialects of England? May not the English alone boast 
 of having preserved the true sound of the old etch (\ ihj, which has 
 disappeared from the whole continent of Europe, so as not even to leave 
 the means of forming a faint idea of the sound of this consonant, without 
 the aid of the English ? Why should we consult only the Gothic, or the 
 Icelandic, which is still more remote from the Anglo-Saxon ? Why 
 should that which is unknown be sought amongst the unknown, rather 
 than in that which is known in the remains of the old sounds of the 
 language? With a competent knowledge of the subject, and fair induction, 
 I presume that no source can afford so much light in the pronunciation 
 and other peculiarities of the Anglo-Saxon as the English. 
 
 128. Of late, the accent by which some Anglo-Saxon MSS. are 
 marked, is held as one of the most efficient means of ascertaining the true 
 pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon, and Wilkins and other publishers are 
 to be blamed for omitting them. It is here necessary to state my opinion 
 on this subject. A mark of accent, in modern tongues, may have three 
 applications: — 1st. It may denote the stress of the voice on a certain 
 syllable, and this is perhaps the only purpose for which the accent (') 
 may be lawfully used. 2nd. But, improperly and contrary to its original 
 design, it may denote the very nature of the sound of the vowel. 
 And 3rd. it may be used to designate the lengthening of a short vowel, 
 without altering the nature of its sound. 
 
 In above and comfort, you hear the short sound of o, and in ghost, potent, loiv, wo 
 have the long soiuid; but in loose, the very nature of the sound is changed and 
 
t 
 
 % 
 
 IV. 129, 130. FRIESIC — ACCENTS IN ANGLO-SAXON. 79 
 
 varies from o to the French on, and in for to au. Suppose potent to be noted by 
 the accent, and the sound of the o to be unknown to you : what will this accent 
 then mean ? Will it signify simply the lengthening of the short o ? or one of the 
 four or five modifications of the sound of o ? and which of the modifications ? Or 
 does it mean that po in potent has the stress ? If no one can ascertain to which of 
 these six or seven purposes this single mark is applied, of what use can it be in set- 
 tling the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon ? 
 
 129. Let us endeavour to illustrate the subject by some instances from 
 Caidmon, published by Mr. Thorpe. 
 
 Is the a longin]7a then, {Cd. Th.yt. 20, 11,) [\ia, 20, 6,] contrary to the short 
 a in Frs. v. da; Moes. than ; Dtit. dan then, and agree with the Icelandic J^a tune, 
 pronounced thmc or tav P Or does it denote a inclining to o ? Or does it mean 
 a modified a little by i ? Is a long in naman, {Cd. Th. p. 9, 11,) contrary to 
 Moes. namo; Frs. v. namme; Icel. naran and nafn, which have all short a ? Or 
 does it mean au inclination of the a to the sound of the old o in ovofxa and nomen ? 
 The same question maybe applied to ham, {Cd. Th. p. 108, 33,) Eng. home ; and 
 we further ask if the accent, in this instance, can also signify the verging of a to 
 (ai) apparent in Moes. haim abode; Icel. heimr domus ; Hesychius El/jtadeg 
 Troip.Eviov olKiai; Frs. v. hiem homestead or the land Just around a farm-house, en- 
 closed by a ditch. What is the pronunciation of engel, ( Cd. Th. p. 137, 1,) written 
 engel, p. 137, 23 ? If the e is long, then it is pronounced eengel, contrary to the 
 pronunciation of the continental descendants of the J^nglo-Saxons, but agi'eeing 
 with that of their direct posterity the English in their angel ? What is the sound 
 of y in Jjysne this, {Cd. Th. p. 52, G) ? Is it long, and opposed to the present 
 En J. this, and Frs. v. disse, Asg. hk. 2, 3,271, 278, thesse; Frs. I. 2, 5, disse ? 
 Tell me also the meaning of the accent in life, {Cd. Th. p. 103, 4). Is the vowel 
 only lengthened, and life pronounced liife ? Or has it the di])hthongal nature of the 
 Eng. i in life ? Or is it ])erhai)s like ij in But. lijf body ? If the / in witan to 
 reproach, {Cd. Th. p. 51, 9,) in wile-hiis torture-house, (p. 3, 21,) differ in its 
 sound from i in witan to know, Frs. v. wite, like feel, vita reprehendere from Icel. 
 vit ratio, has the i then a long sound as wiitan, or like the Dut. ij in wijten m- 
 putare, or ei in weitan ? — What do you say of 6 in nom cepit P Must the if only 
 be made long, as noom, or is the o modified as if united with a, as in Frs. v. noam ? 
 Is the 6 long in bord shield, {Cd. Th. p. 193, 28,) contrary to Icel. bord, Dut. 
 bord, both being short like Moes. baurd ? Or is it something similar to the Frs. v. 
 ou, or Frs. v. oe in boerd ? What is the sound of 6 in wordum ivilh words P Is the 
 long as in Dut. woord, opposed to Moes. waurd ; Frs. r. wird ; Icel. ord ? Or is it 
 pronounced like woarden, as the inhabitants of the Friesian towns speak ? Or does 
 it denote the stress of the voice falling upon wor ? Is on, {Cd. Th.\y. 64, 1,) pro- 
 nounced oon, contrary to Moes. ana [short a] and Eng. on ? Or does it agree with 
 Dut. aan, Frs. v. oan ? Finally, what does the accent mean above rd^d narration, 
 derived from short a in Moes. rathan numerare, A.-S. rajdan to readp Is the vowel 
 Ion" ? Or is some sound like Fr. ai in mais designated ? As soon as Anirlo- 
 Saxon scholars will answer these questions, and show me the rule which regulates the 
 application of this single mark, in every particular instance, I will gladly observe 
 every accent found in the MSS., and in the mean time I beg to be allowed my owii 
 opinion. 
 
 130. Far* from depreciating the use of marks of accents, I am fully 
 
 * As the sounds were mure numerous tlian tlie letters, espceially in the earliest state of 
 the language, when the system of the vowels was more developed, and the letters fewer, being 
 
80 FRIESIC — ANGLO-SAXON LETTERS WERE RUNIC. IV. 131, 132. 
 
 convinced of their being indispensable in the dead languages; but if two 
 marks are used to denote tlie spiritus, and three the accent, in Greek, 
 j-. , , v-j — j^j^j tliese are far from conveying a just idea of the pronuncia- 
 tion of this language — how could a single mark effect this in Anglo-Saxon ? 
 And how is this single mark used ? It is sometimes inserted, and some- 
 times omitted, even in MSS. hoasting of some accuracy in this respect, as 
 the MSS. of Csedmon. I veill not mention other MSS., as Beowulf in the 
 British Museum, Vitellius A. xv., in which three marks [' ^ ~] are em- 
 ployed with so much confusion, that the grammariau, in using them, has 
 not only <;oufounded the ideas of emphasis, the nature of sound, and the 
 simple lengthening of sound, as ]jerhaps all who have used the arcents in 
 Anglo-Saxon MSS. have done, but i)e has often misapplied the marks. 
 Several attempts have been made in our day to invent proper signs, and 
 to define the true force of each ; but, as if it were to increase the confu- 
 sion, the two principal advocates of accents, Rask and Grimm, differ in 
 the import they ascribe to the same sign. 
 
 131. It may be here asked, whether the authoi's themselves made use 
 of accents, or tlieir copiers, or if a later liand added them ? Finally, 
 whether it was the hand of a genuine Anglo-Saxon, or whether, after the 
 Danish conquest, it was some writer who had a strong tincture of Danish 
 pronunciation that accented the AISS. Should I liv^e to make my intended 
 inquiries on the changes of tlie vowels, I may perhaps throw some light on 
 the subject. 
 
 132. Since the pronunciation of the old languages depends on the 
 sound of tlie letters, it is important to inquire what these letters were. 
 
 I answer, that the old Saxon letters were Runic. Rhabanus Maurus 
 has left a Runic aljihabet of the Marcomanni, called by some Nordmamii 
 and Northalbingii,* located on tlie northern banks of the Elbe, and thus 
 on the same spot that the allies of the Angles, the Saxons, inhabited. 
 On comparing the form of these letters with the Runic alphabet of the 
 Anglo-Saxons,t we shall perceive, on the whole, a striking resemblance, 
 which is to me a convincing proof that the Anglo-Saxons brought with 
 them the Runic alphabet into Britain. That these letters were once in 
 common use among them, has been lately proved by the discovery of two 
 sepulchral stones at Hartle})Ool,| bearing Runic inscriptions.§ 
 
 only sixteen Runes, it is evident that many letters must have had a double and even a trijjle 
 sound. When, in iiroeess of time, the sonnils whicli were sensibly distinct apjiroached each 
 other, the evil became still worse. Thus thee in red hecame in time the representative of eo 
 in reod arimdo: of w in read ruber, and of a in vxd, Old Eng. rede consilium. This fully 
 proves the necessity of marks to guide the pronunciation. 
 
 * Considt Ueber Deutsche Runen von W. C. Grimm, Gcittingen, 1821, in general, and 
 p. 149 in particular. 
 
 f Hickes's Gram. Goth, et Anglo- Saxonica, in the Thes. L. L. Sept. torn. i. p. 135, 136. 
 
 + An accurate delineation of these stones is to be found in the Gentleman's Magazine, 
 Sept. 1833, p. -219. 
 
 § Annuente Deo, Mr. Halbertsma intends to add in another publication, a second and 
 third part to what is here given : the second on the sound of each Anglo-Saxon Letter — and 
 the third part on the practical application of tlie preceding rides relative to the vowels, 
 diphthongs, and Consonants. 
 
81 
 
 v.— THE SAXONS, OR OLD SAXONS. 
 
 1. The Saxons* spoke the Old-Saxon, now called Low-German, oi 
 Platt-Deutsch. 
 
 2. The German confederacy, known under the name of Saxons, 
 occupied the greater part of Low, Piatt, or Northern Germany. They 
 were divided into — 1 . Eastpltalianf;, on the eastern borders of the Weser ; 
 2. JVestphalians, on the Western borders of the Weser down to the 
 Rhine and the North Sea; 3. Angriimrians, situated between the 
 Eastphalians and Westphalians, and the borders of the North Sea ; 
 
 4. Noi-th-Albi)Kjians, from the north of the river Elbe to Denmark ; 
 
 5. Trans-Alhbujians, comprising the whole country from the Elbe to the 
 river Oder, with the exception of those districts occupied by the Wends 
 or Serbians, near the Baltic, and in the neighbourhood of the Oder. 
 These Saxons, or Old-Saxons, chiefly remaining in their ancient localities, 
 retained their low, soft, or Old-Saxon dialect in great purity. The Anglo- 
 Saxons, a branch of the Old-Saxons, wrote and matured their language 
 in England ; hence it differs from the tongue of their continental progeni- 
 tors. The Old-Saxon, now called Low or Platt-German, seems to have 
 descended to the present day with iew alterations, and those only such 
 as time always produces ; but as we have no specimen of it earlier 
 than the Heliand in the 9th century, we do not know tlie exact form of 
 the Old-Saxon from which the Anglo-Saxon was derived. This Low- 
 German, so called from being the vernacular language of Piatt, or Low- 
 Germany, or of the common people, is, even in the present day, very 
 extensive, being spoken by the lower classes in the greater part of West- 
 phalia, in Hanover, Holstein, Sleswick, a part of Jutland, in Mecklen- 
 burg, Magdenburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, the kingdom of Prussia, 
 and as far north as Livonia and Esthonia.f 
 
 3. The origin and ancient history of the Saxons are enveloped in much 
 darkness. The Fosi mentioned by TacitusJ were most likely Saxons, 
 
 * Those who wish for a full view of FiOw German literature, may consult — Geschichtc der 
 Nieder-Sachsistlien odor Plattdeutstiien Sprathe von i\l. Joh. I-'ricd. AuE:ust Kinderlini;, 
 Mairdebur^', 1800. — Biicherkunde der Sassisch-Niederdeutschen Sprathe, von Dr. Karl, F..\. 
 Scheller, Braunschweig, l!S2G. 
 
 f Melis Stoke says, Virhul Enqlish, 
 
 Oude Booktn horie tjhcwaghcn, Old books hear I nuntioning, 
 
 Dat al tlant, boneden Nimaghen, That all the land l)eIow Nimeguen, 
 
 VVilen Neder Zasscn hict ; Formerly (wax) ealled Low-Saxony. 
 
 Also alst do stroem versoiet So as the stream Hows 
 
 Vander 3Ia/.en efi vanden Rinc. Of the Maas, and of the Rhine. 
 
 Die Scelt was dat Westende sine, The Sciicld that was its western end (Aoinu/rtry), 
 
 Also als si valt in de zee. So as it falls into the sea, 
 
 Oest streckende min no mee. Eastward stretching less or more 
 
 Dan totor Laveccn of ter Elvcn. (Than) to the Laveccn or the Elbe. 
 
 Htiydecoper's edition, lib. i. v. 41, p. 9. 
 I De Moribus Ger. cap. xxxvi. 
 
 M 
 
82 LOW-GERMAN, DIFFERENCE IN. V. 4 — 8. 
 
 for Ptolemy * who wrote in the beginning of the 2nd century, mentions 
 the Saxons, and assigns to them nearly the same situation as Tacitus. 
 
 4. The Anglo-Saxons, as has just been stated, were a branch of the 
 Saxons, who, for distinction, are denominated Old-Saxons.t In the 
 short account of the Anglo-SaxonsJ will be found most of what is known 
 concerning the origin and progress of this people. It is there ascertained 
 that the Saxons were a confederacy of different tribes united for mutual 
 defence against the Romans. Two of these were the Angles and Jutes^ 
 who, in A.D. 449, were among the first and chief settlers in Britain. 
 
 5. Subsequently to this emigration, the Saxons, remaining on the con- 
 tinent, were in a constant state of warfare with the Francs. These Old- 
 Saxons preserved their freedom till about a.d. 785, when, after a gallant 
 opposition of thirty-three years, they were subdued by Charlemagne, who, 
 by much cruelty, forced them to embrace Christianity. Charlemagne 
 would scarcely have succeeded in inducing the Saxons to submit, if their 
 celebrated duke Wittekind, who was never entirely subdued, had not ter- 
 minated the cruelties of Charlemagne by consenting to be baptized. Wit- 
 tekind, by treaty, remained in possession of the greater part of Saxony 
 till his death in 807. 
 
 6. From Wittekind, not only the German Emperors of the Saxon line, 
 Henry I., Otto I. and II., and Henry II., from a.d. 918 to 1024, and the 
 house of Hanover, the royal family of Great Britain, but also the present 
 king of Saxony, and the other princes of the house of Saxony, take their 
 origin. 
 
 7. The most flourishing period of the Platt-Deutsch was just before 
 the Reformation. Luther was accustomed to speak and write in High- 
 German, in which dialect appeared his version of the Scriptures. As 
 Luther's translation soon came into general use throughout Germany, the 
 high dialect of his translation was not long before it prevailed over all the 
 Low-German dialects. The influence of the Reformation in preventing 
 the further cultivation of the Piatt or Low-German, and in confining its 
 use only to the lower orders, is regretted by all who are acquainted with 
 its beauties. The most learned agree, that while the Low-German or 
 Platt-Deutsch is equal to the High in strength and compositive power, the 
 Piatt is much softer and richer. The true old German freedom, sincerity, 
 and honesty, can have no better medium to express its full mental and 
 political independence, its genuine and confidential feelings of the heart, 
 than its old, unsophisticated, open, Low-German dialect. 
 
 8. Where the High-German is obliged to employ most of the organs 
 of speech to pronounce words, such as ochse ox, flachsj^«:r, wachs waa:, 
 the Platt-German with the greatest ease says oss, flass, wass. The High- 
 
 * Cellarius, lib. II. cap. v. p. 303. 
 f Anglo-Saxon, Eald-Seaxan Old-Saxons, Chr. 449, Ing. p. 14, 22. See also the Anglo- 
 Saxon Dictionary, under the word Sea.ran. 
 X III. § 1-8. 
 
 -1 
 
V. 9 — 12. LOW-GERMAiN — CHANGE OF LETTERS. 83 
 
 German pfeifcr pfeif aiif, is in Piatt, like the English, piper pip up 
 piper pipe up. The Low-German and Dutch pio\ eibs are nearly all the 
 same, both equally expressive, and in phraseology like English. 
 
 As dat beer is in den man 
 Is de vvyshet in de kan. 
 
 As (when) the beer is in the man 
 The wisdom is in the kan. 
 
 9. From the great extent of the territory in which the Low-German is 
 spoken, it may be easily conceived that this dialect does not always as- 
 sume the same shape. Mr. Kiuderling,* in his history of the Low-Ger- 
 man or Platt-Deutsch language, names all the minute peculiarities ; here 
 the most essential need only be noticed. 
 
 10. It is generally acknowledged that the purest Low-German, or Platt- 
 Deutsch dialect, is spoken in Holstein and Sleswick, particularly in the 
 neighbourhood of Kiel. The Brunswick and Hanoverian dialect is broad 
 and coarse. In the south-east of Westphalia, it mixes with the High- 
 German, while on the borders of the Netherlands it melts into Dutch. 
 Tlie dialect of Gelderland and Overyssel preserves many Piatt forms, as 
 the Dutch gout, zout, liout, gold, salty wood, is golt, zolt, holt ; the u, 
 written w, is pronounced like the Piatt and High-Ger. ii, Eng. oo. 
 
 1 1. The Plait changes the High-Ger. au into oo and u ; as, auge eye, cog (o in 
 no) ; auch also, ook (o in no); aui' up, Platt up ; bauch belly, stomach, in Piatt 
 makes buuk (the uii pronounced like the Eng. oo in wood). The High-Ger. a is 
 changed into oo ; as, alt old, Platt cold. The High-Ger. ei into y and ee; as, niein, 
 dein, sein, mine, thine, his. Plait myn ; geist spirit, Platt geest. The High-Ger. 
 i very often changes into e ; as, wissen to know into weten; — ie into ee or a ; as, 
 lieb dear, Platt leev ; viel much, Platt val ; — i inio jii ; as, imnier always, Platt 
 jiimmer. The High-Ger. o often changes into a long and broad a ; as, oben aboie^ 
 bawen. High-Ger. alt, Platt old, like the Eng. in signification and pronunciation. 
 The High-Ger. u or ne changes into 6; as, vergniigt content, vergnogt; — the u 
 into ; as, zu at, Platt to ; riifen to call, roopen (pronounced ropen) ; gut good. 
 
 12. Change of the consonants. — b often changes into^and v, tv ; as, dieb thie/, 
 deef; lieb dear, leev; — ch changes into k; as, ich /, ik or ick; — ch intoy; as, 
 mich me, my (pronounced like the Eng. me) ; — r into y ; as, mir to me, my (pro- 
 nounced mee) ; dir to thee, dy (pronounced dee) ; — ss into t ; as, wasser ivatet , 
 water; — chs into ss; as, flachs^aa', flass. The ch with the s preceding is often 
 omitted ; as, schlagen to beat, slagen ; schweigen to be silent, swigen ; schwimnien 
 to swim, swimmen. The Low-Ger. in this respect has great correspondence with 
 the old High-Ger. which avoids this unpleasant hissing sound in all those words 
 where it is omitted in \\x(i Low-Ger. as, High-Ger. schwester sister; Old High-Ger, 
 suester; Platt-Ger. suster; Sanscrit suasr ; A.-S. suster, sweoster ; High-Ger. 
 schweiss sj^ea< ; Plait sv/et. In some parts of Holstein and Sleswick, particu- 
 larly near the borders of Jutland, the sch is changed into sk ; as, schuld debit um; 
 Plait skuld ; Old High-Ger. sculd; Dan. skyld ; A.-S. scyld. The auxiliary 
 verb shall is in High-Ger. sollen ; Moes. skulan, skallan ; Dut. zullen, in 
 Platt. commonly schuUen, siillen, or like the Icvl. skal ; High-Gcr. suche 
 
 • See note (♦), § 1. 
 
84 LOW-GERMAN — HELIAND, A.D. 840. — TATIAN'S HAR. A.D. 890. V. 13, 14. 
 
 changes into Piatt syke; sicher suremio seker; — t very often changes into d ; as, 
 teufel devil, diivel ; Xieideep, deep ; Gott God ; gut good ; tod death, dod ; tochter 
 daughter, dochter; — v, with a few exceptions, is used instead of the High-Ger.f; 
 — IV is used and pronounced like the High-Ger. iv ; — z occurs only in a few in- 
 stances, and is pronounced softer than the High-Ger. z, which in Piatt is mostly 
 changed into t; as, zu to, at, to; zichen to pull, ten; zwey two, twe; zeichen 
 token, teken ; zeit time, tyd ; zoll toll, toll. The High-Ger. pf always changes 
 into a single p ; as, ^^^n^ plough, ploog ; pfanne pan, pann ; pflanze plant, plant ; 
 pfund pound, pund ; pflaume plum, plum ; pfeife pipe, pipe ; pflucken to pluck, 
 pliikken. 
 
 13. Heliand. An unlinown author, in the early part of the 9th 
 century, wrote, in alliterative lines, a Harmony of the Gospels in tlie Old- 
 Saxon dialect. The MSS. are preserved at Munich, and in the British 
 Museum, London. Some extracts were published under the name of 
 Franco-Theotisc in Hickes's Then, vol, ii. p. 101, and also by A^v/er?^/? 
 at Copenhagen, 1787. The entire work was well edited, and splendidly 
 published, with the following title : — 
 
 Heliand ; Poema Saxonicum seculi noni. Accurate expressum ad 
 exemplar Monacense insertis e Cottoniano Londiuensi supplementis nee 
 non adjecta lectionum varietate, nunc primum edidit J. Andreas 
 Schmeller, Bibliothecae Regise Monacensis Gustos, &c., Monachii, 1830. 
 PARABLE OF THE SOWER, Mt. xiii. 3 — 6 ; MA', iv. I — 4 ; Lk. viii. 4 — 6. 
 
 Huat ik iu seggean mag quad he- gesidos mine, huo imu en erl bi- 
 gan* an erdu sehan* hren corni mid is handun. Sum it an hardan 
 sten* obanuuardan fel* erdon ni habda. that it thar mahti uuahsan* 
 eftha uurteo gifahau. kinan eftha bicliben. ac uuard that corn 
 farloren. that thar an theru leian gilag. — Heliand, p. 73, 1. 6 — 10. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Was ich euch sagenmochte, sprach er,Genossen meine, wie sich ein Landmann be- 
 gann in die Erde zu saen rein Korn mit sein' Handen ; Etliches aber auf harten 
 Stein oberwarts fiel, Erde nicht hatte, dass es da konnte wachsen, 
 oder Wurzel erfassen, keimen oder bekleiben, auch ward (ging) das Korn 
 verloren, das da auf der strasse lag. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 What (noiv) I may say (tell) you, quoth he, my companions, how a farmer be- 
 gan on earth to sow clean corn with his hands. Some of it on hard 
 stone fell, had not earth that it there might wax (grow), 
 or roots take, germinate, or stick, and that com was 
 lost, that there on the road lay. 
 
 14. Tatian's Harmony. An unknown author, about a.d. 890, trans- 
 lated Tatian's Harmony of the Gospels into a softer dialect than the 
 Alemannic and Bavarian : this translation contains words peculiar to the 
 Old-Saxon dialect, and may be considered a sort of transition between 
 Low and High-German, MSS. are preserved at Oxford and St. Gallon. 
 This Harmony was first printed with this title : Tatiani Harmonia Evan- 
 gelica e Latina Victoris Capuani versione translata in linguam Theotiscam 
 antiquissimam per Jo. Phil. Palthenius, 4to, 1706 ; and again in Schilter's 
 Thes. vol. ii. towards the end. 
 
V. 15, 10. LOW-GERMAN — OLD-SAXON CHRONICLE, A.D. 1216. 85 
 
 THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. 
 
 Matt. xiii. 3. — Senu gieng tho uz line thur sauuit, zi sauucniic saiuon sinan. 4. 
 JMitthiii her tho sata, sumiu fielun iiah themo uuege, inti uurdun furtretanu, inti 
 quamun fugala himiles, inti frazun thin. 5. Andaru fielun in steinaht lant, thar nih 
 habeta niihhila erda, inti sliumo giengun uf, uiianla sie ni habetun erda tiufi. 
 6. Ufganteru sunnon furbrantiu nuirdini, inti bithiu sie ni habetun nurzala, fur- 
 thorretun. — Schiller's Thcs. vol. ii. p. 54, towards the end. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 ]\Iatt. xiii. 3. — Sieh, es gieng da aus, der da saet, zu saen Samen seinen. 4. In- 
 deni er da saete, etliche ( Samen) fielen nach dcm Wege, und wurden vertreten ; und 
 (es) kamen die Vogel des Himmels, und frassen diese. 5. Andere fielen in steiuig 
 Land, wo (es) nicbt hatte (gab) vielc Erde ; und schleunig giengen sie auf, weil 
 sienicht hatten Erde tiele. 6. (Bey) aufgehender Sonne, wurden sie verbrannt ; 
 und da sie nicht batten Wurzeln, vcrdoiTten sie. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Matt. xiii. 3. — See now, there went out (he) who there soweth, to sow his seed. 
 4. While he there sowed some fell on the way, and was trodden down, and came 
 the fowls of heaven and devoured it. 5. Others fell on stony land, there had not 
 much earth, and quickly went (grew) up, for they (it) had not deep earth ; 6. 
 (By) risen sun were burnt, and, because they had not roots, withered. 
 
 15. An Old-Saxon Chronicle in Rhyme of the year 1216, published 
 in J. G. Leuckfeld's Antiquitates Gandersh. in Leibnitii Scriptores 
 Rerum Brunsv., and in Harenberg Historia Gandersh. with the following 
 title, " Battle of Henry I. the Saxon, against the Huns." 
 
 Na by der Oveker lag konhig Hinrik : 
 
 Up hov he sek an der naten nagt alse ein dagen ; 
 
 He en shuwede dusternisse nog den ragen. 
 
 Dog folgeden ome kume halv de dar waren. — Scheller, p. 9. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Near by the shore lay King Henry, 
 
 Exposed to the wet night as a hero ; 
 
 He did not shun darkness nor the rain. 
 
 But scarcely half those who were there followed him. 
 
 16. An ALLEGORICAL Old-Saxon Poem, on love and fidelity, of the 
 year 1231. Published in Eschenburg's Denkmale altdeut : Dichtkunst, 
 Berlin. 1792. 
 
 FIDELITY. 
 
 Mine truwe folget or alleine. 
 
 For alien frouwen is se here, 
 
 Ik wil nemandcs syn wan ere. 
 
 God geve or sulven sinen sagen, 
 
 Unde dusend iingele, de or plagen. — Scheller, p. 13. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 My fidelity follows her alone. 
 Above all ladies she is noble, 
 I will be nobody's bat hers. 
 May God give her his blessing, 
 And a thousand angels attend her. 
 
86 LOW-GERMAN — THE CATELNBUKG SONG, A.D. 1350. V. 17 — 19. 
 
 17. The Privilege conferred upon the citizens of Itzehoe in Holstein, 
 in the year 1260, by Counts John and Gerhard of Holstein, about the 
 Staple-right, from Westphalen's Monumenta Inedita, &c. vol. iv., and 
 Halthaus's Glossarium, under the word Stapel,-p. 1730. 
 
 Dat alle de Schiphern — ere kopenschop schullen affleggen vnde lieden den Bor- 
 geren vnde Gesten to Itseho de to verkopende. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 That all the shippers shall deposit and offer their merchandise to the burghers and 
 guests of Itzehoe to sale. 
 
 18. The Catelnburg Song, made in 1350, on the rebuilding of the 
 convent of that name, published in Letzner's Chronica of Dassel and 
 Eimbeck, vol. ii. 
 
 THE CATELNBURG SONG. 
 
 Dat kloster ward gebuwet fyn 
 
 Edt gifft nu einen nien scyn. 
 
 Help Godt van Himelricke, 
 
 Dat wol geraden ore swyn 
 
 Vnnd werden vvedder ricke. — Scheller, p. 36. 
 
 literal ENGLISH. 
 
 The cloister was built fine. 
 It gives now a new shine ; 
 God help from heaven on high. 
 That prosper well their swine. 
 And so grow rich thereby. 
 
 19. A Low-German translation of the Speculum Humanae Salvationis 
 of the 14th century, published in E. Nyerup's Specim. Literat. Teuton, 
 p. 446—454. 
 
 Dit buk is den vnghelerden bereyt, 
 
 Vnde het en spegel der mynsliken salicheit, 
 
 Dar in mag man prouen, dor wat sake 
 
 Got den raynschen wolde maken, 
 
 Unde wo de mynsche vordomet wart, 
 
 Unde wo dat god wedder vmme heft ghekart. 
 
 Lucifer houarde tegen gode synen heylant, 
 
 Dar vmme warp he ene in dat afgrunde altohant. 
 
 Kinderling, p. 296. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 This book is for the unlearned prepared. 
 
 And is called a mirror of human happiness. 
 
 Therein may one learn, by what means 
 
 God would make man, 
 
 And how man was condemned. 
 
 And how God again that has changed. 
 
 Lucifer boasted against God his Saviour, 
 
 Therefore threw he him into the gulph instantly. 
 
V. 20 — 2-2. LOW-GERMAN — LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY, A.D. 1474. 87 
 
 20. A JOURNEY to the Holy Land made in the year 1356, written in 
 Low-Saxon probably by Ludolfs, and copied from a MS. in 1471, by 
 Nicliolas Culenborch. The MS. in possession of Kindcrling. 
 
 In alien (guden) Dingen de eyn mynsche deyt edder wil vullcn bringlien, schal 
 dar tho bidden bcvoren god, de den mynscben heft vterkoren, so bUft dat warck un 
 verloren. — Kinderling, p. 341. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 In all good things which a man does or will perform, he shall before pray to 
 God, who has chosen man, then this work will not be lost. 
 
 21. A I<ow-Saxon epitaph on the Duke Adolph of Sleswick and 
 Holstein, in the year 1159. In Arnkiel's Cimbrischen Heidentlium 
 (Cimbric Paganism), vol. iii, p. 400. 
 
 Da man schref ein Ring von der Taschen (cio) 
 
 Und veer Hangen van einer Flaschen, (cccc) 
 
 Vief Duven Fot vnd negen I (xxxxxiiiiiiin) 
 
 Dar denk man Hartoch Adolf by, 
 
 Twiscben Barber vnde Niclas Dagen, 
 
 web der jamnierliken Klagen ! 
 
 Do ward manch Og gewenet roth 
 
 Wol imi des edlen Forsten Dod. — Kinderling, p. 158. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 As men wrote a ring of a pocket (cid) 
 
 And fom- hangers (handles) of a flask, (cccc) 
 
 Five doves feet and nhie I (xxxxxiiiiiiiii) 
 
 Thereby think men on Duke Adolf, 
 
 Between Barbara and St. Nicholas days (Dec. 4.) 
 
 Alas for the grievous son'ows ! 
 
 When many an eye was red with weeping 
 
 For the noble Prince's death. 
 
 22. The life of the holy Virgin Mary, from a MS. of the year 1474, in 
 the Low-Saxon dialect, in possession of Kinderling, partly published in 
 Adelung's Magazine for the German Language, vol. ii. No, I. p. 63, and 
 in the Deutsches Museum, Oct. 1788, p. 340. 
 
 THE VIRGIN MARY. 
 
 Se was de schoneste aller wyue 
 
 Se was scbone wyt vnde blanck, 
 
 Se was nicht kort, to mate lanck. 
 
 Ore Hende weren wyt gevar 
 
 Ane aller hande wandels gar. 
 
 Gel vnde goltvar was er bar. — Kinderling, p. 343. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 She was the most beautiful of all wives. 
 
 She was fine white and blank. 
 
 She was not short, nor too lank. 
 
 Her hands were of a white appearance. 
 
 Entirely without any kind of defect. 
 
 Yellow and of a gold colour was her hair. 
 
88 
 
 LOW-GERMAN — REINEKE VOS, PRINTED, A.D. 1498. V. 23 — 26. 
 
 23. A Bible printed at Cologne, 1480, folio. ■^•I 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hort, de dar seyet, de is uitgegaen to seyen. En do he seyede, 
 
 dat eyn vyl by den wech. en de vogel des hemels quemen en eten dat. 
 
 24. A Bible printed at Lubeck, 1494, folio. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet. seet de dar seyet is vtghegan to seyende. vn do he seyede. 
 dath ene vyl by dewech. vn de voghele des hemmels quemen vn eten dat. 
 
 25. Mirror for the Laymen (Speygel der Leyen), printed at Lubeck, 
 1496. This work is quoted in Brun's Old Platt-Ger. Poems, Berlin, 1798. 
 
 Der leyen speygel heft hyr eyn ende. 
 
 Den les gherne in desseme elende 
 
 Uppe dat god dy syne gnade sende, 
 
 Vn eynt leste dyme sele entfange in syne hende. 
 
 De dyt boek leeth maken. vnde ok de dar inne lesen, 
 
 Leue here god vvyl den io gnedig wesen. Amen. 
 
 Anno dm. mccccxcvi, Lubeck. — Scheller, p. 107. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 The laick mirror has here an end. 
 Read it willingly in this distress 
 That God to thee his blessing send. 
 And at last thy soul receive into his hand. 
 (He) who this book made and also those who read in it. 
 Dear Lord God, be merciful to them. Amen. 
 Anno Domini 1496, Lubeck. 
 
 26. Reineke Vos,* an allegorical and satirical Poem in the Low- 
 Saxon dialect, by Hinreck van Alkmar, founded and for the greater part 
 literally translated from the Flemish original of Willem van Utenlioven. 
 The first edition of this Low-Saxon poem was printed at Lubeck, 1 498. 
 In the years 1517 and 1522, two other editions accompanied with remarks 
 were published by Nicholas Baumann, and printed by Lewis Dietz at 
 Rostock. All the numerous subsequent editions are founded on these 
 
 three. 
 
 Dat erste bok. 
 Dat erste kapittel. 
 Wo de louwe, konnink aller deren, let utkrejeren unde vasten vrede utropen 
 unde let beden alien deren to synem hove to komen. 
 
 It geschach up enen pinkstedach, 
 
 dat men de wolde un velde sach 
 
 grone stan mit lof un gras, 
 
 un mannich vogel vrolik was 
 
 mit sange in hageu un up bomen ; 
 
 de kriide sproten un de blomen, 
 
 de wol roken hier un dar : 
 
 * See Netherland, or Holland, VI. § 17, and High-German, X. § 56, 57. 
 
V. '26. LOW-GERMAN — llEINEKE VOS, 1498. 89 
 
 dc dach was schone, dat weder klar. 
 Nobel de konnink van alien dcren 
 helt hof uu let den utkrejcren 
 syn lant dorch over al. 
 dar queinen vele heren mit grotem schal, 
 ok (jncmen to hove vele stoker gesellen, 
 de men nicht alle konde tcllen : 
 Liitke de kron iin Marquart de hegger, 
 ja, desse weren dar alle degger ; 
 wente de konnink mit synen heren 
 mende to holden hof mit eren, 
 
 mit vroiulen un mit grotem love, 
 
 un hadde vorbodet dar to hove 
 
 alle de dere grot un klene 
 
 sunder Reinken den vos allene. 
 
 he hadde in dem hof so vele misdan, 
 
 dat he dar nicht en dorste komen noch gan. 
 
 de quat deit, de schuwet gem dat licht, 
 
 also dede ok Reinke de bosewicht, 
 
 he schuwede sere des konninges hof, 
 
 darin he hadde ser kranken lof. 
 
 Reineke Vos, p. 1.* 
 
 LITERAL EXeLISH. 
 
 The First Book. 
 The First Chapter. 
 How the lion, king of all animals, ordered to be proclaimed and published a 
 fast peace, and commanded all animals to come to his court. 
 It happened on a Whitsunday, 
 That men saw the woods and fields 
 Green, standing with leaves and grass. 
 And man}' a fowl joyful was. 
 With song in hedges and on trees ; 
 The herbs and the blooms sprouted. 
 Which well perfumed here and there : 
 The day was fine, the weather clear. 
 Nobel the king of all beasts 
 Held a court, and had it proclaimed 
 Throughout his land every where. 
 There came many lords with great noise 
 Also came to the court many stately fellows 
 Whom men could not all tell. 
 Lutke the crane, and Marcpiart the magjue. 
 Yes, these were there altogether ; 
 For the king, with his lords. 
 Meant to hold court with splendour. 
 With rejoicing and with great honour, 
 And had summoned there to the court, 
 
 • Reineke Vos. Nach der Liibecker aus2;abe vom jalire, 1498. Mit einleitung, glossar und 
 aninerkungen von Ilollinann von Fallcrsleben. Breslau, 1834. 
 
 * N 
 
90 LOW-GERMAN — DIALECT OF HAMBURGH, &C. 1827. V. 27—36. 
 
 All the beasts great and small 
 Except Renard the fox alone. 
 He had at court so much misdone 
 That he there durst not go or come. 
 Who does a wrong shuns much the light. 
 So did Renard, the wicked wight. 
 He shimned much the king's court 
 Wherein he had a sad report. 
 
 27. The book of the holy Gospels, Lessons, Prophets, and Epistles, 
 &c. Brunswick, 1506, fol. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. He ghink vth de dar seyede sin saet vn do he seyede do vil des 
 sades ein deel hi de wech vn wart ghetreden van den luden vnd de voghele des 
 hemels ethen yd vp. 
 
 28. A Bible printed at Halberstadt, 1522, fol. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet, seet, de dar seyet, ys uthgegan tho seyende. Und do he 
 seyede, dat eyn veyl by den wech, und de voghele des hymels quemen, und eten dat. 
 
 29. The New Testament, printed at Cologne, 1525. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hoort toe, siet, het ginck een Saeyman wt om te saeyen. Ende 
 bet gescyede als hi saeyde dat Saet, dat somige viel by den Wech, doen quamen 
 die Vogelen onder den Hemel, ende aten dat op. 
 
 30. A Bible— Lubeck, 1533, fol. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. seth, Ein sadtseyer ginck vth tho seyende. Vnde 
 ydt begaff syck, jn dem alse he seyede, veil etlick an den wech : do quemen de 
 vogel vnder den hemmel, vnde fretent vp. 
 
 31. Bugenhagen's Bible, Magdeburg, 1578. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. Seet, Eyn Saedtseyer gynck vth tho seyende, Vnde 
 ydt begaff sick, yn deme alse he seyede, veil etlyck an den Wech, Do quemen de 
 Vogele vnder dem Hemmel, vnde fretent vp. 
 
 Low-German Dialects. 
 
 32. The following are specimens of the provincial dialects, spoken in 
 Low, or North-Germany, as collected and written down in 1 827. 
 
 33. The provincial dialect spoken about Nienhurg, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hort to : Seeth En seyer giink ut to seyen. Un et begaff sick, 
 nnner't Seyen vull etlick an de Wech, do kemen de Vagels unner'n Himmel un 
 fretent up. 
 
 34. Platt-German dialect spoken about Hanover, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hart tau, et gunk ein Sagemann ut, tau sagen. Und et begaf 
 seek, weil hei sogte, fellen edliche Koren en den Weg ; da keimen dei Vogeln 
 under dem Himmel und fratten sei up. 
 
 35. Platt-Ger. dialect of the Old Mark oi Brandenburg, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horch tau, et gink en Buer up't Feld turn seen. Un (et begap 
 sick) indem he seete, fohl wat an der Side (oder: ob de Halve) ; da kamen de 
 Vogel von Himmel (oder : von boben) un fratent up. 
 
 36. Platt-Ger. dialect oi Hamburgh, 1827. 
 
 Mk.iv.^ — 4. Hor't to : Een Buhr giing ut, sien Saat to say'n : As he nu 
 say't, full een Deel von de Saat by den Wegg, un wurr von de Vagel unnern 
 Himmel oppfreten. 
 
VI. 1. DUTCH — HOLLAND. 01 
 
 37. Brunswick dialect, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tau ! Slili et gung en Saiemann ut to saien, Un et begaf 
 sik, bi den Saien, fell wat an den Weg; do kaimen de Voggel under den Hinunel 
 un Ireiten et up. 
 
 38. Mecklenburg-Schwerin dialect, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hiiret to : Sii, dar gink ecn Sajer uut, to sajen. Un et begav 
 sik, as he sajete, feel week (wat) an de Straat, dar kemen de Viigel unner deu 
 Hewen, un freten't iijip. 
 
 VI. — THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND. * 
 
 1. Hollandf is as remarkable for its origin, as for the intellectual energy 
 of its inhabitants. About fifty years before the christian era, Ciesar speaks 
 
 ♦ The autlior has hcen very anxious to be correct. He has generally cited his authorities^ 
 and to secure as much accuracy as possible, he has consulted his friends, amongst whom he 
 ought to mention Professor Sicgenbeek, with gratitude for his kindness in correcting the 
 manuscript. Tiiose who wish lor a more minute accjuaintance with the Dutch language and 
 literature, will find ample infornuition in the following works : — Bcknopte Gcschiedcnis der 
 Nederlandsche Lettcrkunde, door Professor 31. Sieyenbcih, 8vo. Haarlem, 1826. — J. de 
 's Gravenweert, Essai sur 1' Histoirc de la Tiittirature Neerlandaise, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1830. — 
 Beknopte Gescliiedenis der Nederlandsche taJe, door Profvssor A . Ypey, 2 vols. 8vo. Utrecht, 
 1812 1832. — CoUot d'Esctiry Hollands roem in kunsten en wetenschappen, 6 vols. Hague, 
 1824-1833. — Proeve eener Geschiedcnis der Nedcrduitsche Dichtkunst, door J. de Vrics, 
 2 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 180!). — i}ekiu)pte Geschiedcnis der Letteren en Wetenschapj)cu in 
 Je Nederlanden, door iV. G. van Kamjien, 3 vols. 8vo. Hague, 1821-1826.— Biogruphisch, 
 Anthologisch.cn Critisch Woordenboek der Ncdcrduitsche Dichters, door P. G. Witsi'n 
 Giijsheek, 6 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1821-1827. — Verhandelingoverde Nedcrduytsdie Taalen 
 Lettcrkunde, opzigtelyk de zuydclykc Provintien der Nederlanden, door J. F. WilUvis, 8vo. 
 Autweqien, 1819. — Over de Hollandscbe en Vlaemsche Schryfwjzcn van bet Nedcrduitsch, 
 diior J. F. l\ illeiiis, 8vo. Ant\\eii)en, 1824. — Batavian Anthology, /n/ JnhnBonring and Flurry 
 S. Kin DijJt, 12ini>. I,(indon, 1824. — Sketch of the Language and Literature of Hollaiul, by 
 John Bunriny, 12mo. Amsterdam, 1820. — Van Wijn's Huiszittcnd Levcn ; also van Uijn's 
 Historischc en Lctterkundige Avondstonden, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1800. — Aeideiding tot de 
 Kennisse van bet Verhevene Deel der Nederduitsche Sprake, door Lambert ten Kate, 2 vols. 
 4to. Amsterdam, 1723. 
 
 f Mr. Halbcrtsma observes, that the name of Holland, applied to the Netherlands, is not 
 heard (»f before the elevcntii century [10G4]. The meaning of Holland exactly suits the 
 fenny and Ooyijy soil which it designates. The oldest Dutch authors write it ollant. Thus 
 Mtterlant says — 
 
 "Doe wart coninc Loduwike 
 Karel die caluwe, die wcl geraecte, 
 Die eerst graue jn ollant maectc." 
 
 Vol. iu. p. 13, V. 8. 
 And again, " Comes de OUandia," a Connt of Holland. Sec Huydecoper on Mebs Stoke, vol. 
 i. p. ;J24. liook for this word in the Tenthonista of van der Schucrcn, and you w ill tlnd 
 ** Bcven daveren als cyn ollant, Sratere," tremble under the feet as a marshy (jronnd. 
 
 Tile word <;/, in tlie sense of dirty or ylutinous matter, mud, does not ajjpcar in Anglo-Saxon, 
 but it is lound in a tUrived signilicatiou. 01, occasionally changed to hoi, signilies calumnia. 
 Wachtcndonlc, in his Rhyme Chronicle, observes: 
 
 " Hollant, ecn nieuwe naem, (Ue schijnt 't lant te passen, 
 ^\lsoo hct meest bestact in veenen en mocrassen. ' 
 
 Malthaus de Nobilitatc, p. 50. 
 
92 DUTCH — THEIR ORIGIN, INTELLECTUAL VIGOUR. VI. I. 
 
 of the Batavi* the first inhabitants on record, as being located towards 
 the mouths of the Rhine, between the Whaal,t the most southerly stream 
 of the Rhine, and the other branches to the north: thus the dominions of 
 the Batavi appear to have extended from Dordrecht to about Haarlem. 
 The country is generally low and marshy, and seems formed or enriched 
 by the alluvial deposits brought down by the various streams into which 
 the Rhine was divided as it approached the sea. Pliny, the naturalist, 
 about a century after Caesar, gives a minute description of it as a land, 
 where, " the ocean pours in its flood twice every day, and produces 
 a perpetual uncertainty whether the country may be considered as a part 
 of the continent or the sea."| The genius and industry of men have 
 prevailed. The Hollanders or Dutch have originally taken their pos- 
 sessions from the dominion of the deep ; and the exercise of the perpetual 
 thought, care, and industry, necessary first to raise, and then keep up such 
 mighty embankments as defend them from their constant assailant the 
 raging sea, has educated a people, adventurous, brave, and cautious. 
 The Dutch, applying these habits to the cultivation of their intellectual 
 powers, have thus taken the first rank in polite literature, and have also 
 been successful cultivators of the arts and sciences. We are indebted to 
 the Dutch not only for the discovery of oil painting,§ but for the finest 
 specimens of the art : they were also the inventors of printing,|| painting 
 on glass, and, as some say, of the pendulum, the microscope, &c. 
 
 * Bataver is thought by many to be contracted from Bat-auwers, that is, inhabitants of 
 f/ood or fruitful land, from bat, bet good (still found in beter), and auwe ground or country. 
 It is supposed that the name is preserved in a part of Gelderland, the Betiwiefruitful country, 
 in opposition to Veluwe had Land, from vale falling, defective, and ouwe land, country. — Hist, 
 of Dut. Language, by Ypey. 
 
 f Cffisar's Comment, lib. iv. 10. 
 
 + Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xvi. 
 
 § By John van Eyck, better known by the name of John of Bruges, in 1410. Korte 
 leevensschets der Graaven van Holland, door Ludolf Smids, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. 
 
 II At Haarlem, hy Laurence Koster, about 1423. His real name w&sLourens Janszooti Kos- 
 ter, a celebrated citizen of Haarlem, born about 1370, He was treasiirerof the city, and held 
 other important offices. I once thought that Gutenburg of Mayence was the inventor of 
 printing in 1440, (Elements of Anglo-Saxon Gr. p. 16) ; but every impartial person, upon a 
 close investigation of the evidence produced in recent works, must ascribe the honour of the 
 invention to Koster. Amjjle proof will be found in Verhandeling van Koning over den 
 oorsprong, de uitvinding, verbetering en volmaking der Boekdrukkunst te Haarlem, 1816, 
 bij Loosjes. Gedenkschriften wegens het vierde eeuwgetijde van de uitvinding der Boek- 
 drukkunst door Lourens Janszoon Koster van stadswege gevierd te Haarlem den 10 en 11 
 Julij 1823, bijeenverzameld door Vincent Loosjes, te Haarlem 1824. Mr. Jacobus Scheltema's 
 geschied en Letterkundig Mengelwerk, vol. v. vi. One authority, among many others, is so 
 strong in favour of Holland, that it cannot be omitted. A German Chronicle of the year 1499, 
 acknowledges that though Mayence imi)roved the art, it was first known in H olland. " Item 
 wie wail die kunst is \ onden tzo Blentz, als vm"sz up die vrsse, als dan nu gemeynlich ge- 
 bruicht wirt, so is doch die ejTste vmbyklung ^•onden in Hollant uyss den Donateu, die 
 daeselft'st vur der tzjt gedruckt svn. Ind van ind uyss den is genommen dat begyiine der 
 vursz kunst. Ind is vill meysterlicher ind subtilicher vonden, dan die selve manier was, imd 
 ye langer ye mere kunstlicher wurden." Item, though this art was found (out) as aforesaid 
 at Mayence, in that manner in which it is now commonly practised, yet the first idea was 
 taken in HoUand from the Donates which were there published before that time. And from 
 and out of them is taken the beginning of the aforesaid art. And is much more masterly and 
 neatly i)erfi)rmed than the former manner v^as, and llie longer (it has continued) tlie more 
 ])eri'ect it has become. — Cronira van der hilliger stat v ' Cnelle. Gedrukt te Keulen, by Johannes 
 Koelhoff, in den jare 1499. Gedenkschriften van de uitvinchng der Boekdrukkunst, p. 437. 
 
VI. 2 — 4. DUTCH — EMINET4T MEN. 93 
 
 2. This country has had more than its sliarc of eminent men. It 
 has produced an Erasmus, a J'ossius, Lipsius, Junius, Grotius, 
 Heinsius, van Dyk, Reinhrandt-, Boerhave,van Letinep, and Bihlerdijk. 
 Ten Kate developed the grammatical principles which liave been so 
 fully and ably illustrated by Dr. J. Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik. 
 Let it also be ever remembered that this land of freedom has not only 
 fostered native talent, but supported and encouraged it wherever it was 
 found. Here Lifiiucus formed and matured liis Sijstema Naturte : here 
 Hallcr studied, Descartes fast received encouraging support, and at 
 Gouda Locke finished his immortal work on Human Understanding. 
 From Holland has also flowed a stream of classical erudition, conveyed 
 in pure Latinity, and benefited the whole of Europe by the accurate and 
 beautiful specimens of typography which issued from the press of the 
 Elzevirs, IVetsteins, and other eminent printers. While, for their skill 
 in the learned languages, their classical scholars have acquired European 
 fame, the native tongue, which informed the mind and warmed the heart 
 of the Hollander, has been either entirely unknown or disregarded by 
 other nations, though it is a language of Teutonic origin, and well de- 
 serves the attention of the philologor, being one of the purest, most 
 nervous, and expressive of the Gothic root. 
 
 3. We have no evidence of the language which was spoken by the 
 Batavi in Caesar's time ; but, as they were a German race, it must have had 
 a Teutonic origin. That this language has undergone some mutations, will 
 be evident from a very short view of tlie political changes which have taken 
 place. Such changes as affected the language arose from tribes of Teutonic 
 origin ; their language, therefore, was only altered by some small dialectic 
 variations, and still remained Teutonic. 
 
 4. The Batavi were allies of the Romans, who constantly eulogize 
 Batavian bravery and fidelity ; but about the end of the 3rd century the 
 Batavi were much oppressed by other Gothic nations, as the Saxons, 
 Salian Francs, and other hordes, which forcibly obtained the settlements 
 of the Batavi. Thus the country became inliabited by a mixture of 
 Germanic tribes,* which were subject to the Francic power till the time 
 of Charlemagne and his sons. 
 
 Vincent lionsjcs, Haarlem, 1821. A learned Italian, Tomniaso Tonclli of Florence, after 
 visitin;;? Holland, and niakin;^ minute and personal inijuiries eoneernini^ the diseo\ery of 
 printin!":, unhesitatin>,dy declares that the invention must be ascribed to Lawrence Koster. — 
 Antoldijia di Firenze, Vol. 11, Jan. — April, 1831. 
 
 * That the present Dutch are descended from the Batavi, is tlie opinion of some learned 
 Dutch authors, such as Erasnnis, Junius, Dousa, (Jrotius, and Seriverius. (irotius asserts 
 boldly, [/>t.' A)ili(jiti((ilc lieipuliUrtc Hdtnricw, c. iii. ad tinein,] that the ever-sueceedintf in- 
 vaders of the Iiisiilii ISalaroyum were swallow cd up in the hulk ol'tlK' Hatavian pojiulation, and 
 that of course the present Dutch are the i^enuinc oll'sprinf; of the liatavians. Such was the 
 importance of the Batavian sujiport, that even the insurrection of the Batavi under Civilis 
 could not prevent their restoration to the fricndshij) of the ])roud contjuerors of the world. 
 As loniir as their name appears in history, the I5atavi were the allies of the Romans. But 
 that the present Dutch are the direct otl'sprin;,' of the IJatavi, is still a controverted jioint ; for 
 the Batavians were exhausted by the never-ceasini; levies of troops, and by the bloody battles 
 of the Romans, often decided by Batavian valour, and beinpthe last sup])orts of thetotterinp; 
 empire, they were crushed and almost annihilated by its downjal. The Germanic crowds of 
 
94 DUTCH — HISTORY OF HOLLAND. VI. 5, 6. 
 
 5. These pagan inhabitants and the Friesians did not listen to the 
 preaching of the Francic monks. The Anglo-Saxons being more allied to 
 the old Dutch, their missionaries had greater success. Willihrordy* with 
 eleven Anglo-Saxon associates, in a.d. 692, left England, as missionaries 
 to Heligoland, Friesland, Holland, Zealand, &c. They were coun- 
 tenanced by Pepin, Duke of the Franks.f Willibrord exerted himself so 
 much, and was so successful, that he became the first bishop of Utrecht 
 in A.D. 697.t 
 
 6. In the lOth century this country had its own particular sovereigns, 
 known by the name of Counts. Diederik^ was the first raised to the 
 dignity of Count of Holland, in a.d. 903. There was a succession of 
 thirty-six Counts, prior to Philip II. king of Spain in 1581, who was the 
 last Count.ll Philip being a bigoted catholic, and infringing the rights 
 of Holland and the neighbouring states, Holland united with four other 
 provinces, at Utrecht in 1579, to resist the Spanish oppression. Soon 
 after, in 1581, two other states joined, and constituted The Seven United 
 Provinces, which solemnly renounced the authority of Philip. William, 
 Prince of Orange and Nassau, first held the dignity of Stadtholder under 
 the authority of Philip. After the rejection of Philip, it was determined 
 that William should be elevated to the chief power over the Netherlands, 
 under the title of Count of Holland : all preliminary steps were taken, and 
 there was nothing wanted but the solemn inauguration, when he was 
 assassinated at Delft in 1584. His sons, Maurice and Frederic Heniy, 
 
 Saxons, Francs, and Cauchi, rushing on the borders of the Roman empire, could not suffer 
 these socii, these amici et sodalas jxipuli Romani, to dwell with them on the same spot. After- 
 wards the Insula Batavorum is reported to be inhabited by the Francs, and the name of Batavi 
 is never mentioned again in all the changes their country underwent. In succeeding j^eriods 
 the Insida Batavorum was occupied by the Chamari ; [a.d. 287], by the Salii [a.d. 358], 
 shortly after by the Guadi (read perliaps Cauchi) and in the re^jorts of the battles of the Ro- 
 mans against these invaders, or of the invaders against each other, the name of Batavi is never 
 mentioned. Eumenius states, that towards the end of the third centuiy, tlie Insula Batavorum 
 was possessed by Francic tribes. At last, about a.d. 470, the name of Batavi disappears for 
 ever from history, and on this period it is justly observed by tbc Dutch historian Wagenaar, 
 " This nation (the Batavi) seems to have been partly slain in the Roman armies, partly 
 transplanted by tlie Romans, partly killed by foreign adventurers, or drawn away from their 
 native soil, and partly blended amongst the Francs, the Saxons, and the Friesians, so as soon 
 to obliterate even their name in this country." Now if the Batavi were extinguished in the 
 fifth century, it will be diliicidtto discover much of Batavian blood in those who occupy their 
 territories in the nineteenth century. See Waiienaar Vaderlandsclie historie, tom. i. p. 243, 
 244, 251, 295, 29f>. Nalfziur/en oi> de Nfderlandsche Geschiedenis, tom. i. p. 93, 97. Inleiding 
 tot de geschiedenis van Gelderland door W. A. van Spaan, tom. iii. p. 2. Eumenius Pane- 
 gyricus Constant. August, c. v. Leibnitz rerum Brunswicensium Scriptores, I. 26. — The 
 substance of this note is taken from a communication of the Rev. J. H. Halbertsma; it rests 
 on his authority and that of the authors he has quoted. 
 
 * Alcuin. Vita WiUibr. Die sprachen der Germanen von Dr. T. G. Radlof, p. 4. 
 
 f Advenissent ad Pippinum Ducem Francorum, Bd. v. 10, 11 ; Sm. p. 192, J). 
 
 + Historia Ejiiscopatuum Foederati Belgii, utpote Metropolitan! Ultrajectini, &c, folio, 
 Antverpiae, 1755, p. 1. 
 
 § Some refer the origin of the Counts of Holland to the time of Charlemagne, Holland 
 being one of the feudal grants of tliis emperor. " Noverint universi, quod serenissimus 
 Dominus Rex Albertus Romanorum semper invictus, vacantem Hollandiai Principatum, (jneiti 
 Carolm Imperator olim mafpius Theodorico (Diederik) Comiti concessit in beneficium feudale, 
 tarn jure, quam gladio ad Sacrum Romanum intcndit revocare iniperium. Trithemius Chr. 
 Hirsaug. ad a. 1300. Struvii Corpus Hist. Germanice, Pcriodus nana, § 8, note 33, vol. i. p. 574. 
 
 II Smids's Graven van Holland, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. 
 
VI. 7, 8, DUTCH — rOLITICAL CHANGES. 95 
 
 held the dignity of Stadtholder in succession till 1G47, when William II. 
 son of Frederic Henry, was invested with this authority. 
 
 7. The Stadtholder fled in 1795, and Holland became a more demo- 
 cratic republic. In 1806, Lewis Buonaparte, by the powerful influence 
 of his brother Napoleon, was ])roclaimed king of Holland, This prince 
 abdicated in 1810, and Holland was united to the French empire. In 
 1815, Belgium was joined to Holland, and the Prince of Orange-Nassau 
 was inaugurated King of the Netherlands under the name of William I. 
 Belgium revolted in 1830. On the abdication of William I. in 1840, his 
 son, William II. ascended the throne. 
 
 From these political changes the language, especially in early times, 
 must have been afiected. A few specimens will best show the mutations 
 and the progress of the Duich tongue ; but, before these are introduced, 
 a few remarks upon its nature and character may not be useless. 
 
 8. The distinguishing characteristic of the Dutch language,* is de- 
 scriptive energy. If it be not soft and musical, it is dignified, sonorous, 
 and emphatic. It has great compositive power ; all technical terms, which 
 the English borrow from exotic sources, from the Latin and Greek, are 
 composed by the Dutch from their own indigenous roots. Almost every 
 polysyllabic word is descriptive of the object which it designates. In this 
 respect the Dutch is much superior to the present English.f There is, 
 however, a striking affinity between our language and the Dutch. Take as 
 instances a Dutch proverb, and a short extract from Spieghel. 
 
 A DUTCH PROVERB. 
 
 "Als do wyn is in de man. 
 Is de wysheid in de kan." 
 
 Tuinman's Sprkw. JValz. p. 19. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 As (tvhen) the wine is in the man. 
 Is tlie wisdom in the can. — Bowring. 
 " Parnassus is te wijd ; hier is geen Helicon, 
 Maar duinen, bosch en beek, een lucht, een zelfde zon, 
 Dit water, dit land, beek, veld, stroom en boomgodinnen. 
 Met maghteloose liefd wij liavtelijk beminnen." 
 
 Hart Spiegel, I. 127—130. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Parnassus is too wide ; liere is no Helicon, 
 
 But downs, wood, and beck, one air, one selfsame sun. 
 
 This water, this land, beck, field, stream, and wood-goddesses. 
 
 With mightless love we heartily admire. J 
 
 * I cannot omit a remark on the importance of lancfuai^e, in designating; the mental powers 
 of a nation, \^Tittcn by a leai'ned and truly jiatriotic Dutchman. " Elk volk hccht prijs aan 
 heteigendommclijke van /ijn karaktcr, aan hctgeen, waarin het zijne scedclijkc waardc, het 
 uitmuntendc van zijne verstandsvcrmogens acht te bcstaan ; het moet dus, hij wettig gevolg, 
 belang in die Taal stellen, wdkc lut van alle volken onderscheidt." — Collot d'Escury Hollands 
 Tocm ill liutistcn en wctrnsch. iii. 1)1. !•. 
 
 f Astronomy is in Dutch stcrrckunde, from stcr a star, kundc hion-ledijc, science ; or licmd- 
 loopkunde, from hcmel heaven, loop « course, kunde science. — Taalkundc ffra7nmar,[nnn taal 
 lanyuar/e, kunde science. — Telkunst arithmetic, from tel a nuviher, kunst science, art. — Aard- 
 rijkskunde yeography, from ••xhtAh earth, rijk realm, kunde science, &.c. 
 
 X BowTings Batavian Anthology, 12mo. London, l.s;Jl, from which interesting little work 
 these translations and some other poetic versions are taJien. 
 
96 DUTCH RESEMBLES ENGLISH. VI. 9—11. 
 
 9. The correct and emphatic version of the Scriptures, which owes its 
 origin to the Synod of Dordrecht 1618 — 1619, affords a fine specimen of 
 the expressive powers of the Dutch language. It is one of the best 
 established versions, and the language of this translation is well calculated 
 to express the devout and dignified emotions of the Christian. 
 
 10. The earlier the specimens of the Teutonic languages, the more 
 striking are their affinity and analogy, which prove that they originally 
 sprung from one source. The oldest compositions in Dutch are very 
 similar to Low-German (Platt-Deutsch.) 
 
 The first specimen of the Dutch language is taken from a trans- 
 lation of the Psalms made about a.d. 800. These Low-German Psalms, 
 written in the time of the dynasty of Charlemagne, were published for the 
 first time by F. H. von der Hagen Breslaw, 1816.* The manuscript of 
 this translation is first mentioned in a letter of Lipsius to his friend 
 Schottius, at Antwerp, dated Louvain, January 14th, 1599.t Professor 
 A. Ypey of Groningen claims this fragment as a specimen of the old Low- 
 German or Dutch. (Nederduitsch.)X 
 
 Psalm Ivi. 2 — 5. 
 
 2. Ginathi mi got ginathi mi. uuanda an thi gitruot sila min. In an scado 
 fitheraco tliinro sal ic gitruon untis farliet iinreht. 
 
 3. Ruopen sal ik te gode hoista. got thia uuala dida mi. 
 
 4. Sanda fan himele in ginereda mi. gaf an bismere te tradon mi. 
 
 5. Santa got ginatha sina in uuarheit sina. in generida sela mina fan mitton 
 uuelpo leono. slip ik gidruouit. Kint manno tende iro geuuepene in sceifte. in 
 tunga iro suert scarp. 
 
 THE SAME IN MODERN DUTCH. 
 
 2. Begenadig mij, God! Begenadig mij ; want op U vertrouwt mijne ziel. En 
 in de scbaduw uwer vederen zalik vertrouwen tot dat het onregt moge voorbijgaan. 
 
 3. Roepen zal ik tot den hoogsteu God, God die mij wel deed. 
 
 4. Hij zond van den bemel en verloste mij ; Hij gaf aan den smaad over, die 
 mij vertraden. 
 
 5. God zond zijne genade en waarheid ; en Hij verloste mijne ziel van het 
 midden der leeuwen welpen. Ik sliep ongerust. Kinderen der menschen ; hunne 
 tanden ( waren ) wapenen en scbicbten en hunne tong een scberp zwaard. 
 
 11. The Flemish is so closely allied to the Dutch, that it may, 
 especially in its earliest form, be considered the same language. In the 
 thirteenth century, because of the flourishing state of the Flemings, and 
 the care of their writers to observe great purity in their diction, and to 
 express correctly the gender and inflection of words, this improved form 
 of the Dutch language was denominated Flemish. Even at the present 
 day Flemish appears to be nothing more than the Dutch of the preceding 
 century. 
 
 * Niederdeutsche Psalmen aus der Karolinger Zeit, ziun ersten mahl herausgegeben von 
 Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen, 8vo. Breslau, 1816. 
 f Opera omnia Justi Lipsii, vol. ii. p. 986, Vesalije, 1675. 
 % A. de Jager, Taalkundig Magazijn, No. I. p. 65, Rotterdam, 1833. 
 
VI. 12, 13. DUTCH OR FLEMISH CHARTER OF BRUSSELS, A.D. 1229. 97 
 12. A LITERAL COPY OF THE CHARTER OF BRUSSELS in A.D. 1229, 
 
 from the Book of Privileges, called the Book with the Hairs (Boek met 
 den Halve}} ) from Verhandeluuj over de Nedevduytsclie iael en Leitcv- 
 kunde, opz'ujtehjk de zuydelyke Pvovintien dev Xederlanden, door 
 J. F. Willems, Antwerpeu, 2 vols. 8vo. 1819—1824. 
 
 " Ic heinric bi der gratien goeds liortoghe van Brabant, Ende ic heinric sijn 
 oudste sone \vi doen u cent dit gliescrifte alien dengenen dienu syn ende die naco- 
 mende sijn. dat \vi ovevniids vroeden rade onscr mannen en der scepenen en der 
 gesworne van bruesele desen corcn liebben geset-binnen Bruesele bi trouwen en de 
 bi eede onser manne ende genieinleec den poerteren van Bruesele Desen core te 
 houden cm gemeine orbore ende vordane meer in deser manieren." — Willems' 
 Verhandeling, p. 133. 
 
 MODERN DUTCH. 
 
 " Ik Hendrik, bij de gratie Gods, hertog van Braband, en ik Ilendrik, zijn oudste 
 zoon, wij doen u weten dit geschrift aan al degenen, die nu zijn, en die nakomende 
 zijn, dat wij, ten gevolgen van wijzen raad onzer mannen en der scbepenen en der 
 gezworenen van Brussel, deze keuren hebben gezet binnen Brussel door trouw en 
 door ede onzer mannen, en gemeenlijk de Poorteren (Burgers) van Brussel deze 
 keuren te houden tot algemeen gemak en voortaan meer op deze wijze." 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 " I Henry, by the gi-ace of God, Duke of Brabant, and I Henry, bis eldest son, 
 we make (to) you known this writing to ail those who now are, and who are to come, 
 that we, in consequence of the wise counsel of our men, and of the sheriffs, and of 
 the sworn of Brussels, these statutes have established in Brussels through the fidelity 
 and oath of our men, and commonly the citizens (Burghers) of Brussels these 
 statutes to keep, for general convenience, and for the future more in this wise." 
 
 13. Reinaert de Vos, an allegorical and satirical poem, is one of the 
 most popular works ever published. The story soon spread over the 
 whole of Europe, by translations in almost every language. The poem 
 was first written in the old Flemish dialect, affording a fine and very early- 
 specimen of the language. The Flemish manuscript is undoubtedly the 
 original of which the famous Low-Saxon Reineke Vos, published at 
 Lubeck, 1498, is a free translation. The old prose editions of Reineke 
 Vos, printed at Goitda, 1479, and Delft, 1485, appear to be only a neg- 
 ligent translation of the Flemish poem, even preserving, in many instances, 
 the metre and rhyme of the original. The English version, by William 
 Caxton, 1481, was made from the Gouda edition, [jy the indefatigable 
 researches of Mr. J. F. Willems, it ajjpears that the first part of the 
 Flemish Reinaert was written about 1150, and by recent inquiries, as 
 well as by the preface to his modernized Flemish Reinaert de Vos naer 
 de oudste beryming, Eecloo, 1834, it is concluded that JVillem van 
 Uten/iovevi, a priest of Aerdenburg, was the real author* of the second 
 
 • Madok was not the author, for tlic name of sucli a writer cannot be found. In the 
 passivgc where Jladok occurs, it cannot be the name of a man ; f(ir, as Matrlant obsenes, it 
 merely designates a poem, (Hoftinann's //o»ff fip/jT i. 21, by the fertile and learned writer 
 
98 DUTCH OR FLEMISH— REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. VI. 14, l5. 
 
 part which was composed about the year 1250. Jacob van Maerlant, the 
 father of the Flemish chroniclers and Poets, so early as 1270, complains 
 of the alterations and additions made by copyists of Reinaert's boerden, 
 merry jests and tricks. 
 
 14. That some of the materials of this fine poem are taken from 
 French works, is confessed by Willem van Utenhoven himself: 
 
 Daerom dedi de vite soeken, 
 
 Ende heeftse uten vvalschen boeken 
 
 In dietsche aldus begonnen. — Willems Pref. p. xiv. 1. 7. 
 
 Therefore did he the tricks {of the fox) seek. 
 And has them out of Welsh {foreign) books 
 In Dutch thus begun. 
 
 15. There have been manv editions of this work. We have the 
 erudite volume of Reinardus Vulpes, Carmen epicum seciiUs ix e^ xii 
 conscriptum, ad fidem Codd. MSS. edidit et adnotationibus illustravit 
 Franciscus Joseplms Mone, Stuttgardice et Tuhing(e, 1832; also 
 Mr. O. M. Meon^s highly interesting edition of nearly all the parts of 
 the fables and tales of the Fox, treated by Piere de St. Cloudy Richard 
 de LisoUy Marie de France, &c. which appeared under the title Le 
 Roman du Retiard, publie d'apres les MSS. de la Bibliotheque du Roi 
 des XIII. XIV. et xv. siecles, Paris, 1826, chez Treuttel et Wiirz, 4 vols. 
 8vo. avec figures. The indefatigable researches of the learned Professor, 
 J. Grimm are published under the title Reinhart Fiichs, Berlin, 1834. 
 These and other numerous editions, as well as the complaint of Waltherus 
 de Coinsi, Prior of Vic sur Aisne in his Louanges de nostre Dame, and 
 Miracles de la Vierge, that Renard was preferred to the reading of 
 legends, sufficiently show how many pens it has occupied, and at what 
 an early period this celebrated poem served for entertainment and in- 
 struction. A slight comparison of all these productions with the Flemish 
 Reinaert de Vos must lead to the conviction, that whatever use its author 
 may have made of the works of his predecesssors, he has far surpassed 
 them all, and has composed a work fully deserving the praises which the 
 most competent judges have bestowed upon it. It is important both for 
 matter and composition ; and if it were the only interesting and valuable 
 work existing in the old Dutch, it alone would fully repay the trouble of 
 learning that language. This poem gives a true picture of the world, 
 with all its orders, states, conditions, passions, and characters, in an easy 
 
 Hoffmann von Fallersleben, to whom we are indebted for a verj' correct edition of Reineke 
 Vos, from the Lubeck edition of 1498, with a valuable glossary). Besides, the article de is 
 never used before Dutch proper names. That all may judge for themselves, the passage i» 
 here cited : — 
 
 " Willem die Bladok maecte " Willem, who wrote (made) Madok, 
 
 Daer hi dicken omme waecte About which he was much awake, 
 
 Hem vernoide so haerde Annoyed himself so much . 
 
 Dat die geeste van Reinaerde That the actions of Reinaerde 1 j 
 
 Niet te recht en es geschreven." Were not correctly written." *' 
 
 Willems' Reinaert de Vos, p. xiii. 
 
VI. 16, ] 7. DUTCH OR FLEMISH — REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250, 99 
 
 and flowing versification, in a rich, powerful, and sonorous language, 
 Litherto, for want of knowing its powers, not so valued as it deserves. 
 
 16, Professor Grimm's invaluable Reinhart Fuchs is a rich mine of 
 philology, history, and general information, that cannot fail to revive 
 a love for the old Dutch or Flemish, which, notwithstanding all en- 
 deavours to suppress it, has still preserved its pristine vigour and 
 strength. In the present age, the Flemish owes much to the patriotic 
 feeling and well-directed energy of a native Fleming, J. F, Willems^Esq. 
 whose exertions are above all praise.* 
 
 17. The first example is taken from Grimni's Reinhart Fuchs, Berlin, 
 1834, printed from the Codex Comburgensis, an old Flemish manuscript 
 preserved at Stuttgardt. There is still a manuscript of it at Antwerp ; 
 there was also one at Amsterdam, which a i^w years ago was sold to an 
 Englishman. t The other example is taken from the modernised Flemish 
 edition hy J. F. Willems 12mo. Eecloo, 1834. These may serve to show 
 the great affinity of the Flemish dialect with the English : 
 
 OLD FLEMISH. 
 
 Het was in enen piuxen daglie, 
 
 dat bade bosch ende haghe 
 
 met gi'oenen loveren waren bevaen. 
 
 Nobel die coninc liadde ghedaen 
 
 sin hof craicren over al, 
 
 dat hi waende, hadde bis gbeval, 
 
 houden ten wel groten love. 
 
 Doe quamen tes coninx hove 
 
 alle die diere, grot ende clene, 
 
 sonder vos Reinaert allene. 
 
 hi hadde te hove so vele niesdaen, 
 
 dat hire niet dorste gaen : 
 
 die hem besculdich kent, onsiet. 
 
 also was Reinaerde gbesciet : 
 
 ende bier omme scuwedi sconinx hof,' 
 
 daer hi in hadde cranken lof. 
 
 Grimm's Reinhart Fuchs, p. 116, 
 
 MODERNISED FLEMISH VERSION. 
 
 'T was omtrent de Sinxendagen. 
 Over bosscben over bagen 
 Hing bet gi'oene lenteloof. 
 Koning Nobel riep ten boov' 
 
 • Verhandeling over de Nederduitsclie tael en letterkunde opzigtelyk de zuydelyke 
 Provintien der Nederlanden, J. F. WilU'ms, Anttverjxni, 1819. — Willems' over de hollaaidsehe 
 en vlaemsehe schrjfwyzen van het Nederduitseh, Antivtrpen, 1824, 8vo. 
 
 f Mr. Heber, at whose sale, as I am ini'ormed by the friendly communieation of 3Ir. 
 Willems, it was purchased by the Belpfian government, and jirinted under the learned and 
 judicious superintendence of Mr. Willems, in royal 8vo. eontaining 352 pages, a glossary of 
 the antiquated words, and 13 well-executed lithograpliic plates, with a short specimen of the 
 MS. in each plate. Its title is — Reinaert de Vos Episch Fabeldicht van de twaelfde en 
 dertiende eeuw, met aenmerkingen en ophelderingen van J. F. Willems, G'enf, IS3G. A 
 wanu interest for the early literature of the Belgians has been revived, not oidy by the well 
 edited works of 3Ir. Willems, but by 'l'!ieoi)hihis, a Flemish poem of the 1-itIi century, and 
 other pieces, published by Mr, Blommuert of Gent. 
 
100 DUTCH OR FLEMISH— REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. VI. 18, 13, 
 
 Al wie hy, om hof te houden, 
 
 Roepen kon uit veld en wouden. 
 
 Vele dieren kwamen daer, 
 
 Groot en klein, een bonle schaer. 
 
 Reinaert Vos, vol slimme treken, 
 
 Bleef alleen het hof ontweken ; 
 
 Want hy had te veel misdaen 
 
 Om er heen te durven gaen. 
 
 Die zich schuldig kent wil vluchten. 
 
 Reinaert had er veel te duchten ; 
 
 Daerom schuwde hy het hof, 
 
 En dit bracht hem kranken lof. — Willems, p. 1. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 It was upon a Whitsunday, 
 
 When over hedge and bush so gay 
 
 Waved the greeny leaves of spring. 
 
 At the command of Nobel, king. 
 
 To his court they did convene 
 
 All whom he did faithful ween. 
 
 Bowing with submission true. 
 
 Then to the royal court there drew 
 
 All the beasts, both great and small. 
 
 But one was missing of them all, 
 
 Renard whose misdeeds were so great 
 
 He durst no more approach the gate : 
 
 A guilty conscience shuns the light. 
 
 And such was Renard's evil plight. 
 
 That to the court no more he came. 
 
 Where he did bear so ill a name.* — Morrell. 
 
 18. Jacob van Maerlant is the father of the Dutch Poets. He 
 was born at Damme in Flanders, a.d. 1235, and died in 1300. Maerlant 
 was a layman, and distinguished as a philosopher and orator. He trans- 
 lated several works into Dutch rhyme, such as The Beauties of Aristotle, 
 of which 
 
 MAERLANT SATS : 
 
 Dese bloemen hebben wi besocht 
 En uten Lathie in Dietsche brocht 
 Ute Aristotiles boeken. 
 
 imitated in the ENGLISH OF CHAUCER. 
 
 All these beauties haue we soughte. 
 And out of Latin to Dutche broughte. 
 From the bookes of Aristotle. 
 
 19. His famous work is, " Spiegel Historiael," or " Historic Mirror." 
 In his Leven van Franciscus, he makes the following apology for using 
 Flemish words. 
 
 * For the German of this passage, see FlighGerman, § 56, 57; and Low German, § 26. 
 
VI. 20, 21. DUTCH — MELIS STOKE, A.D. 1283. 101 
 
 maerlant's franciscus. 
 
 Ende, omdat ic Vlaminc ben. 
 Met goeder herte biddic hen, 
 Die dit Dietschc sullen lesen, 
 Dat si inyns genadich wesen ; 
 Ende lesen sire in soraich woort, 
 Dat in her land es ongehoort. 
 Men moet om de rime soiiken, 
 Misselike tonghe in bouken. 
 
 IMITATED IN THE STYLE OF CHAUCER. 
 
 For I am Flemysh, I you beseche 
 Of youre courtesye, al and eche. 
 That shal thys Doche chaunce peruse. 
 Unto me nat yoiirc grace refuse ; 
 And yf ye fynden any worde 
 In youre countrey that ys unherde, 
 Thynketh that clerkys for her ryme 
 Taken an estrange worde somt}'me. 
 
 Bowring's Batav. Anthol. p. 25. 
 
 20. In power, extent, and population, Holland soon became the 
 predominant province ; and after the Union, the States-General was held 
 at the Hague in this district : hence, the language of Holland became 
 the language of the government, the learned, and the press — in short, the 
 arbiter of what was to be considered true Dutch, and it is therefore often 
 denominated Hollandsche taal or Hollandsch. 
 
 21. Melis Stoke began his "Rijmkronijk," or " Poetical Chro- 
 nicle,^'' before the year 1296, perhaps about 1283, as it was dedicated to 
 Count Floris the Fifth, who died in 1296.* This Chronicle was pub- 
 lished in 1591, and again in .3 vols. 4to. 1772, by Hiiydecoper, with 
 valuable notes. This last is by far the best edition.f 
 
 MEIilS store's dedication. 
 
 Dese pine ende dit ghepens 
 Send ic u, Heer Grave Florens, 
 Dat ghi moghet sien ende horen 
 Wanen dat ghi sijt gheboren, 
 Ende bi wat redenen ghi in bant 
 Hebbet Zeelant ende Hollant; 
 Ende bi wat redenen dat ghi soect 
 Vrieslant, dat u so sere vloect. 
 
 Huydecoper's Melis Stoke, b. i. v. 27. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 The fruit of my pains, and thoughts also. 
 Sir Count Florens, send I to you ; 
 
 * Ypev's Beknopte geschiedenis der NederlancLsche Taal, Utrecht, O. S. van Paddenbunr, 
 1812, vol. i. p. 334. " 
 
 t B. Huydccoper Rijmkronijk van Melis Stoke, met Historic- Oiulheid en Taalkundigc 
 aanmerkingcn, Leyden, Joliaunes Le Mair, 1772. 
 

 102 
 
 DUTCH — JAN VAN HEELU, A.D. 1291. 
 
 VL. 22, 23, 
 
 That you might see, and also hear. 
 From whence they came that did you bear. 
 And by what right, within your hand. 
 You hold both Zealand and eke Holland, 
 And by what right you seek yet more 
 Friesland, that curses you so sore. 
 
 Morrell. 
 
 22. Charter of Leyden, a.d. 1294. 
 
 In het Jaar, 1294. 
 Wy Florens, Grave van HoUant, van Zelant, ende Here van Vrieslant, maken 
 cont alle den ghenen, die desen brief sullen sien, of horen lesen, dat wi hebben 
 whegheven Rutghere den Scomakere, ende Kerstanse sinen broder, derdalf morghens 
 Lants in eghindoem, die ligghen alrenast der Burch van Leiden, ende dat vorseide 
 Lant hevet Daniel van den Warde quite gheschouden, als dat hy't held van ons te lene. 
 Ghegheven alsmen scrivet vire ende neghentie. 
 
 Handvesteti der Stad Leyden, folio, Leyden, 1759, p. 478. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 In the year 1294. 
 We Florens, Countof Holland, of Zealand, and Lord of Friesland, make known 
 to all those who this letter shall see, or hear read, that we have given to Rutghere 
 the Shoemaker, and Kerstanse his brother, two and a half acres of land, in property, 
 which lie nearest the castle of Leyden, and this aforesaid land has Daniel van den 
 Warde quite paid, so as he held it from us in fief. 
 Given, as men date, four and ninety. 
 
 Jan van Heelu. 
 
 23. Jan van Heelu, or van Leeuwe, so called from the name of the 
 place in Brabant where he dwelt. About 1291 he wrote the chronicle of 
 the feats of Jan I. Duke of Brabant,* which has just appeared in a splendid 
 edition with this title " Rijmkronijk van Jan van Heelu," &c. van J. F. 
 Willems Lid der Koninglijke Academic van Brussel. 4to. 1836. 
 
 JAN VAN HEELU. 
 
 Want, gelyc dat die Euerzwyn, 
 Daer si moede gejaget zyn, 
 Verbeiden spieten ende sweert, 
 Alsoe drongen si, onuerueert, 
 Jeghen die Brabantre weder, 
 Dat si doen dan Hertoghe neder 
 Twee orsen onder hem staken. 
 
 a version in the LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 
 
 As the furious boare, pursued 
 By the daring hunter rude, 
 Teares the earth, and, raging loudlie. 
 Rushes on the hunter proudlie, 
 So the fierce Brabanter then 
 Driues the Hertoch back agen. 
 Under him two horses stagger. 
 
 * Professor Siegenl)eek's Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandschc Lctterkunde, 8vo. 
 1826, p. 27. 
 
VI. 24—26. DUTCH — EVANGELIUM, A.D. 1477. 103 
 
 24. The Life of Jesus, an interesting and a very useful harmony of 
 the Gospels, most probably formed from the Vulgate, as the parables and 
 other parts are in Dntcli prose, and almost a literal Dutch translation from 
 the Latin of this celebrated version. This early Harmony of the Gospels 
 must be interesting to divines, while the philologist will rejoice at the 
 discovery of this pure specimen of ancient Teutonic. The MS., written on 
 one hundred and two leaves of coarse parcliraent, was preserved in the 
 Abbey of St. Trend, and presented to Dr, Meijer, in 1828, while he was 
 professor in the University of Louvain. It is the opinion of his friend, 
 Professor F. J. Mono, and of Mr. Willoms of Ghent, as well as his own, 
 that this MS. is a composition of the latter part of the 13th century. It 
 was published with the following title : 
 
 Het Leven van Jesus. — Een Nederlandsch Handschrift uit de dertiende eeuw, 
 met taalkundige aanteekeningen, voor het eerst, uitgegeven door G. J. Meijer, 
 Hoogleeraar te Groningen. — To Groningoi bij J. Oomkens, Svo. 1835, pp. 431. 
 
 A very short specimen from the parable of the sower will be sufficient. 
 
 Een sayere ghinc ut sayen syn saet. en alse hi sayde so uil som dat saet neuen 
 
 den weglie. Aldarwardt vertorden. en de voghele quamen en atent op. (Chap. 89, 
 p. 77, 1. 9.) 
 
 25. SriEGEL ONSER BEHOUDENissE. This is one of the first books 
 printed at Haarlem by Laurens Janszoon Koster ; it is in the old German 
 character, and in a quarto form, consisting of sixty-two pages. The 
 printing is only on one side of the leaf, the blank sides being pasted 
 together, and the pages are without numbers. Many of the letters stand 
 out of their connexion, and irregularly in the lines. The book has not 
 any title, but its object is to illustrate Scripture history by means of wood- 
 cuts. It is without date, but supposed to have been printed about the 
 year 1424. The introductory sentence will be an interesting specimen of 
 the Dutch language about the time when it was printed : 
 
 SPIEGEL ONSER BEHOUDENISSE. 
 
 Dit is die prologhe vader spieghel onser beboudenisse so wie ter rechtuaerdichet 
 vele mcsche lere selle blencke alse sterre in die ewighe ewichhede. Hier om ist 
 dat ic tott' lerlge vele mesche dit boek heb aegedacht tc vgaderen (vergaderen). 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 This is the prologue of the miiTor of our redemption, such as for justification, 
 many men shall teach to shine as stars in the everlasting eternity. Therefore it is 
 that I, to the instruction of many men, this book have meditated to compose. 
 
 26. EvANGELiUM, is a translation from the Latin Vulgate, a monument 
 of the Dutch language, and a fine specimen of typography : it was printed 
 at Gouda, 1477, in 4to. The Evangclium was just preceded by Nedcr- 
 duitscJie Byhcl, Delft, Jacob Jacobsz (van dcr Mecr) en Mauritius 
 Yeraantsz van Middelborch, 10 Jan. 1477, small fol. 
 
104 
 
 DUTCH- 
 
 -JACOB CATS, A.D. 
 
 1600. 
 
 VI. 27—30. 
 
 Lk. viii. 4, 6. 
 4, In dien tiden doe ene grote scare vergaderde, ende uten steden quame to the 
 seide hi bi ghelikenisse. 5. Hi ghinc wt saeyen die syn saet saeyet Ende als hyt 
 saeyet. sommic hviel biden weghe. ende het wort vertreden ende die voghelen des 
 hemels atent. 
 
 27. Dat niewe Testament, Delft, 1524, 8vo. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
 
 3, 4. Hoert toe Siet, een sayer ginc wt om te sayen, ende het geboerde onder 
 tsaye, dattet soommich saet viel bij den wech, ende die vogele des hemels syn 
 gecomen, ende hebbe dat oi^gegete. 
 
 28. Dat gheheel Nyeuwe Testament, Thantwerpe, 1527, Bvo. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
 3, 4. Hoor toe, siet, een sayer ghinc wt om te sayen. En tgebuerde onder 
 tsayen, datt et sommich saeyt viel bey den wech, ende die vogelen des Hemels zijn 
 gecomen ende hebben dat opgegeten. 
 
 29. BiBLiA, tot Leyden, 1581. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
 3, 4. Hoort, siet een Zaeyer ginck wt om te zaeyen. Ende het gheschiede 
 dat als hy zaeyde, een deel (des zaets) viel by den weech, ende de voghelen des 
 hemels qiiamen ende aten dat op. 
 
 30. Jacob Cats, generally styled Father Cats, was born at Brouvvers- 
 Iiaven, a small town in Zealand, 1577, and died 1660. He is the poet 
 of the people : everywhere practical and useful, everywhere original, and 
 often sublime. Bilderdijk says — 
 
 Goede, dierbre Vader Cats, 
 
 Wat behelst ge niet al schats ! 
 
 Good, beloved Father Cats, 
 
 How much treasure dost thou contain ! 
 
 Gij, daerom, geeft uw liefde niet 
 
 Aen ieder die u liefde biet ; 
 
 Maer eerst op alle saecken let 
 
 Eer dat gij sucht of gunste set ; " 
 
 Want die te licht een vrient verkiest, 
 
 Wei licht sijn vrient en al verliest. 
 
 Minne en Sinnebeelden, I. D. p. 133, 1828. 
 
 Then love not each who offers thee 
 
 In seeming truth his amity ; 
 
 But first take heed, and weigh with care, 
 
 Eve he thy love and favour shave ; 
 
 For those who friends too lichtlv choose. 
 
 Soon friends und ail besides may lose. 
 
 Geluckigh is de mensch die gelt en hooge staten 
 Kan hebben buijteu sucht, en willigh achterlaten ; 
 Kan seggen tot de pracht, tot eer, en tot de lust, 
 Al ben ick sondev u, soo ben ick toch gevust. 
 
 Sflegel van den ouden en nieuwen tijt, 1. D. p. -539. 1828. 
 
VI. 31 — 33. DUTCH— HUGO DE GKOOT, A.D. 1618. 105 
 
 Oh ! happy, happy lie, whose generous soul can rise 
 Above the dross of wealth, or pomp, or vanities — 
 Scorn splendour, pleasure, fi\me ; and say with honest pride, 
 I have ye not indeed, but yet am satisfied. — Bowring. 
 
 31. PiETER Cornelius IIooft, born at Amsterdam, March IGtli, 
 1581, and died 16-47. Vondel said of him — 
 
 Dat Doorluchtig Hooft der Hollandsche Poetcn. 
 Of Holland's poets most illustrious head. 
 
 He was also so eminent a prose writer as to obtain the appellation of 
 the Tacitus of Holland. 
 
 32. Hugo de Groot, better tnown by his Latinised name Hugo 
 Grotius, was born at Delft in 1583. He had extraordinary and preco- 
 cious talents, and was a zealous Anninian. Grotius was one of those 
 whose iniluence excited some of that universal attention to religion so 
 prevalent in Holland. ^V"hcn imprisoned at Loevesteyn, lie wrote his 
 most celebrated poem in Dutch, " Beicijs van de icare Godsdicnst^'' 
 Evidences of the true Religion.* Though he was one of the most learned 
 men Holland ever produced, and is deservedly eulogised for his critical 
 as well as for his historical writings, his reputation as a poet is not very 
 great. One short specimen is given from the conclusion of his Evidences. 
 
 Neeint niet onwaerdig aen dit werkstuk mijner handen, 
 
 O des aerdbodems markt, o bloem der Nederlanden, 
 
 Schoon Holland : laet dit sijn in plaets van mij bij n 
 
 Mijn koningin : ik toon soo als ik kan noch nu 
 
 De liefde die ik heb altijd tot u gedragen 
 
 En draeg en dragen sal voorts alle mijne dagen. — p. 13G. 1728. 
 
 ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Receive not with disdain this product from my hand, 
 O mart of all the world ! flower of Netherland ! 
 Fair Holland ! Let this live, tho' I may not, with thee, 
 INIy bosom's (jueeii ! I show e'en now how fervently 
 I've loved thee thro' all change — thy good and evil days — 
 And love, and still will love, till life itself decays. 
 
 33. Dirk Rafael Camphuysen, a disciple of the famous Arminius, 
 was a native of Gorkum, born in 1586, and died in 1626. He wrote a 
 ]iaraplirase on the Psalms, and much religious poetry. One of the most 
 popular pieces of the Dutch poets is Camphuijsen^s " May Mornifii/." 
 
 Wat is de Meester wijs en goed. 
 Die alles heeft gebouwt. 
 En noch in wezen blijven doet: 
 Wat's mcnschen oog aanschouwt. 
 
 • Better known in Encfland by its Latin title, De Veritate Rdigionis Christinn(r. He wrote 
 tliis work in Dutch verse lor Jisliormen, and sailers on lonu^ vrnaujcs. The Kev. J. Flalbirtsma 
 says," I liave often beard old Friesian sailors recitinc; Mhole i)ap;es from tliis hook, (irotiiis 
 was afterwards induced liy the learned to translate it into Latin, and it has been since trans- 
 lated into almost all the lanijuages of" Eumite, and I believe into Arabic."' 
 
 ^ P 
 
106 DUTCH AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE BIBLE, A.D. 1619. VI. 34, 35, 
 
 Ach ! wareii alle Menschen wijs. 
 En wilden daar bij wel ! 
 De Aard' waar haar een Paradijs, 
 Nu is ze meest een Hel, 
 
 Stichtelyke Rymen, 1121 , p. 639. 
 
 What love, what wisdom, God displays 
 
 On earth, and sea, and sky. 
 Where all that fades and all that stays 
 
 Proclaim his Majesty ! 
 
 Ah ! were the human race but wise. 
 
 And would they reason well. 
 That earth would be a paradise. 
 
 Which folly makes a hell. 
 
 A line is often quoted from his Lawful Amusement, [Spels Mate] : 
 
 *T is wel, goedheyts fonteyn, 't is wel al wat gy doet. 
 Fountain of goodness Thou — and all thou dost is well. 
 
 34. JoosT VAN DEN VoNDEL was boin in 1587, and lived to the age 
 of ninety-one. He is the Dutch Shakspeare in his Tragedies: his 
 "Lucifer" is one of the finest poems in the language, and is compared to 
 Milton's " Paradise Lost." 
 
 VONDEL's LUCIFER. 
 
 O noit volprezen 
 
 Van al wat leeft, of niet en leeft, 
 Noit uitgesproken, noch te spreecken ; 
 Vergeef het ons, en schelt ons quijt 
 Dat geen verbeelding, toug, noch teken 
 U melden kan. Ghij waert, ghij zijt, 
 Ghij blijft de zelve. 
 
 A FREE TRANSLATION. 
 
 Forgive the praise — too mean and low — 
 
 Or from the living or the dead. 
 No tongue thy peerless name hath spoken. 
 
 No space can hold that awful name ; 
 The aspiring spirit's wing is broken; — 
 
 Thou wilt be, wert, and art the same ! 
 
 35. The Established Dutch Version, according to the Synod of 
 Dordrecht, 1618-1619. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3—8. 
 3. Hoort toe, Ziet, een zaeijer gingh uyt om te zaeijen. 4. Ende het geschiedde 
 in het zaeijen, dat het een \_deel zaets] viel by den wegh, ende de vogelen des hemels 
 quanien, ende aten het op. 5. Ende het ander viel op het steenachtige, daer het niet 
 veel aerde en hadde : ende het gingh terstont op, om dat het geen diepte van aerde 
 en hadde. 6. Maer als de sonne opgegaen was, soo is het verbrant geworden, ende 
 om dat het geen wortel en hadde soo is het verdoiTet. 7. Ende het ander viel in de 
 
VI. 36, 37. DUTCH — JACOBUS BELLAMY, A.D. 1780. 107 
 
 doornen, ende de doornen wiessen op, ende verstickten het selve, ende het en gaf 
 geen vrucht. 8. Ende het ander viol in de goede aerde, ende gaf vriicbt : die 
 opgingh ende wies, ende het een droegh dcrtigh, ende het ander scstigh, ende het 
 ander hondert [voutl. 
 
 36. As the chief object of this short account of the Dutch language 
 and literature is philological, to show the close analogy betueen all the 
 Teutonic languages, especially in their earliest form, very little of more 
 recent literature can with propriety be introduced; but the 17th century 
 is so splendid an era, that a few remarks and extracts must be excused in 
 this period, and even one or two in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 
 17th century, Holland had its heroes in De Ruller and Tramp: its 
 statesmen in Barnei-eldt and the De Wits. Its learned writers arc Hugo 
 de Groot [Grotius], Daniel and Nicolaas Heins [Heinsius], P. Schryicr 
 [Schriverius], John Frederick GroenlioJ [Gronovius], Casper van Baerle 
 [Barlaeus], Gerard Vos [Vossius],* and many other eminent classics. For 
 science, Hiiygens, Leeiiwenhoek^ Ruysch, Tnlp, Swammerdam. For 
 its painters, it had Rubens, Van Dyk, Rembrandt, Mierevelt, the 
 Tenicrs, the Van de Veldes, Jordaans, Kuyp, the Ostades, Gerard 
 Douw, jMieris, John and Philip IVouwerman, Metsu, Berchem, Paul 
 Potter, Pynaker, the Ruysdaels, Van Huysem, Wynants, Steen ; and 
 during this period the Universities at Groninyen in 1614, Utrecht in 
 1636, and Gelderland, 1648, and the celebrated school at Amsterdam in 
 162t),t were established. " The age of which we speak," says the 
 learned Professor Sieyenbeek, " and more especially the earlier part of it, 
 was, in every point of view, so glorious to the Dutch nation, that it would 
 be difficult to discover, in the history of any other people, a period of 
 such resplendent fame and greatness."| 
 
 37. "Jacobus Bellamy, born at Flushingin 1757, after gaining much 
 applause, died at Utrecht at the early age of twenty-nine.§ A ballad of his 
 [Roosje] is perhaps the most touchingly told story which the Dutch possess. 
 It is of a maid — a beloved maid — born at her mother's death — bred up 
 amidst the tears and kisses of her father — prattling thoughtlessly about 
 her mother — every one's admiration for beauty, cleverness, and virtue — 
 gentle as the moon shining on the downs. Her name was to be seen 
 written again and again on the sands by the Zealand youths — and scarcely 
 a beautiful flower bloomed but was gathered for her. Now in Zealand,. 
 
 • Of whom Vondel said — 
 
 " Al wat in boeken steekt is in zyn hrcin gevarcn." 
 Whatever is anchored in books, foated about in his brain. 
 
 f The University of Leyden was founded in 1574. 
 
 X BowTingr's Batavian Anthology, p. 15. 
 
 J I Sonic of the beautiful Uttle poems of frt»i Alphcn ought to be given, but want of room will 
 y admit of a short cidogj' from the pen of Dr. Bowring. " Van Alphen's Poems fur Children 
 (Gedichtjes voor de Jeugd) are among tlie best that were ever written. They are a i)reeious 
 inheritance for the youth oi the Netherlands. Tlicy teach virtue in simi)lc ch)(|uence, and. 
 are better known in Holland, than are the hymns of Dr. Watts or Mrs. Barbaidd lierc." — 
 Sketch of the Lang, and Lit. of Holland, ]). "!». 
 
108 
 
 DUTCH — JACOBUS BELLAMY, A.D. 1780. 
 
 VI. 38. 
 
 when the south winds of summer come, there comes too a delicate fish, 
 which hides itself in the sand, and which is dug out as a luxury by the 
 young people. It is the time of sport and gaiety — and they venture far, 
 far over the flat coast into the sea. The boys drag the girls among the 
 waves — and Roosje was so dragged, notwithstanding many appeals. 
 " A kiss, a kiss, or you go farther," cried her conductor — she fled — he 
 followed, both laughing : — " Into the sea — into the sea," said all their 
 companions ; he pushes her on — it is deeper, and deeper — she shrieks — 
 she sinks — they sink together — the sands were faithless — there was no 
 succour — the waves rolled over them — there was stillness and death. The 
 terrified playmates looked — 
 
 Bellamy's roosje. 
 De jeugd ging, zvvijgend, van het strand. 
 
 En zag gedurig cm : 
 Een ieders hart was vol gevoel, — 
 
 Maar ieders tong was stem I 
 
 De maan klom stil en statig op. 
 
 En scheen op 't aaklig graf 
 Waarin het lieve, jonge paar 
 
 Het laatste zuchtje gaf. 
 
 De wind stak hevig op uit zee 
 
 De golven beukten 't strand ; 
 En schielijk was de droeve maar 
 
 Verspreid door 't gansche land. 
 
 FREE TRANSLATION. 
 
 All silently — they look'd again — 
 
 And silently sped home ; 
 And every heart was bursting theuj 
 
 But every tongue was dumb. 
 
 And still and stately o'er the wave. 
 
 The mom'nful moon arose, 
 Hinging pale beams upon the grave. 
 
 Where they in peace repose. 
 
 The wind glanced o'er the voiceless sea„ 
 
 The billows kissed the strand ; 
 And one sad dirge of misery 
 
 Filled all the mourning land. 
 
 Bowring's Batavian Anthol. p. 75 — 77. 
 
 38. WiLLEM BiLDERDiJK, born at Amsterdam, 1756, and died at 
 Haarlem, December 18th, 1831, was educated for the law. He was a 
 giant in literature and intellectual strength, the most fertile of the Dutch 
 writers. Willem Bilderdijk is the Samuel Johnson of the Dutch. 
 
VI. 39, 40, DUTCH — WILLEM BILDERDIJK, A.D. 1830. 109 
 
 Bildcrdijk wrote on almost every subject, but poetry was his forte, and be 
 stands in the foremost rank of tbe Dutch poets.* 
 
 PRAISE OF SPEECH. 
 
 vloelbar klanken, waai*, met d' adem uitgegoten, 
 De ziel (uls Godlijk licht, in sU'alen afgeschotcii,) 
 Zich-zclve in meedeelt ! Meer dan licht of melody ; 
 JMaar schepsel van 't gevoel in de engste hannony 
 Die 't stofloos met het stof vereenigt en vermengelt ! 
 Door wie zich 't hart ontlast, verademt, en verengelt ! 
 Gij, hand der wezens ; en geen ijdel kunstgewrocht. 
 Door arheidzaam verstand met moeite en vlijt gezocht, 
 Maar goddelijke gift, met d' adeintocht van 't leven, 
 Aan 't schepsel ingestort zoo verr' er geesten zweven. 
 
 liilderdijk's De Dieren, p. 19. 
 
 LITEKAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Ye flowing sounds, in which, with hreath pour'd forth, 
 
 (Like Godlike light in rays) the soul imparts 
 
 Itself! surpassing light or melody ; 
 
 Deep feeling's olfspriug, in close harmony. 
 
 Spirit and matter blending and uniting ! 
 
 Thro' which the soul, unburden'd, breathes and lives 
 
 The life of angels ! Thou blest tie of beings ; 
 
 No vain attempt of human skill art thou. 
 
 By toilsome minds with pains and care sought out. 
 
 But heaven's own gift, breathed with breath of life. 
 
 Shed thro' creation, far as mind pervades. — Morrell. 
 
 39. Tbe services of Professor Siegenbeek, in restoring and remodeling 
 the Dutch language, have been so highly estimated by his country, tliat 
 his system of Orthography obtained the sanction of tbe Dutch government 
 in 180C. Since this time, for tbe sake of uniformity in expressing words, 
 it is required that every public document should be written in strict 
 accordance with tbe Professor's orthographical system. 
 
 40. A free translation of the whole Scriptures, in tbe modern Dutch 
 style and orthography, was made by the learned and eloquent Professor 
 van der Palm, of Leyden. It was published in 4to. in 1825; and, 
 though it has not the sanction of the States-General, nor is it adopted in 
 the churches, it is greatly esteemed, and in general use. Tbe following 
 extract may serve as a specimen. 
 
 MK.iv. 3—8. 
 
 3. Hoort toe! ziet, een zaaijer ging nit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde, 
 terwijl hij zaaide, viel ecndeel ( van hcl zaad) op den weg ; en de vogelen des hemels 
 
 • Though livino: authors scarcely come within the scope of this work, ToUens cannot he 
 omitted. He is styled, "tlie most ajirreeahlc, the most popular living poet of Holland." An 
 edition often thousand cojjics of three volumes of iiis poetry was promptly sold among a 
 population of no more than three millions of peojdc. This "itself is no small praise, and 
 implies no small merit, to have so luii)j)ily toueiied the feelings of an entire nation. His 
 power is descriptive, his characteristic is originality.— See more in Dr. Bowring's Shtch,\». 98. 
 
110 DUTCH — VAN DER PALM's VERSION. VI. 41 — 43. 
 
 kwamen, en aten het op. 5. En een ander deel viel in steenachtigen grond, waar het 
 niet veel aarde had ; en het school terstond op, omdat het geen diepte van aarde had. 
 6. Doch toen dezon opging, verhvandde het, en omdat het geen'wortel had, verdorde 
 het. 7. En een ander deel viel onder de doornen ; en de doornen wiessen op en 
 verstikten het; en het bragt geen vrucht voort. 8. En een ander deel viel in de 
 goede aarde, en hragt vrucht voort, die uitbottede en opwies ; en het een droeg 
 dertig, en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd. 
 
 41. The established version of the Scriptures, made according to the 
 regulations of the Synod of Dort, 1618-1619, and first published at 
 Leyden in 1637, had its orthography modernised, according to the system 
 of Professor Siegenbeek, by the Rev. Henry Cats, minister of the Dutch 
 Reformed Church at Leyden. Mr. Cats dying before the work was 
 completed, it was finished by Professor van Hengel, and published in 4to. 
 by Thieme of Arnhem, in 1834, The same passage is selected as in the 
 last paragraph, for facility of comparison with Professor van der Palm's 
 translation, and with the old orthography in the 35th paragraph. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3—8. 
 
 3. Hoort toe ! ziet, een zaaijer ging uit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde 
 in het zaaijen, dat het eene {deel zaads'\ viel bij den weg ; en de vogelen des 
 hemels kwamen, en aten het op. 5. En het andere viel op het steenachtige, waar 
 het niet veel aarde had ; en het ging terstond op, omdat het geene diepte van arde 
 had. 6. Maar als de zon opgegaan was, zoo is het verhrand geworden, en 
 omdat het geen' wortel had, zoo is het verdord. 7. En het andere viel in de 
 doornen, en de doornen wiessen op, en verstikten hetzelve, en het gaf geene 
 vrucht. 8. En het andere deel viel in de goede aarde, en het 6ene droeg dertig, 
 en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd \^voudig'\, 
 
 42. It is difficult to pass over many of the fine passages to be found in 
 Feith'sOld Age, \^Ouderdom~\ ; The Grave, [^Het Graf], &c.; Helmers's 
 Dutch Nation, [Hollandsche Nalie], &c. ; and also in the works of many 
 of the old as well as the modern Dutch poets. It would be gratifying to 
 mention their divines, philosophers, and those numerous individuals ex- 
 celling in science and literature ; but even a list of their names would far 
 exceed the limits of this brief sketch. A reference can therefore, only be 
 made to those, who have professedly treated the subject more fully.* 
 Enough has been probably advanced to prove that Holland has cast more 
 than her share into the intellectual treasury of the world, and this must 
 suffice for the present. 
 
 Dutch Dialects. 
 
 43. There are several dialects of the Dutch language, such as the 
 Flemish, the Gelderic, &c. The Friesic need not be here named, as the 
 peculiarities of the country and town Friesic are both pointed out and 
 compared with Anglo-Saxon in IV. page 35. 
 
 * See note to § 1, page 91. 
 
VI. 44, 45. DUTCH DIALECTS — FLEMISH. Ill 
 
 44. The modern Flemish dialect, according to Mr. J. F. Willems* 
 is distinguislied from the Dntch, — First, by a too far-fetched inclination to 
 express the distinctions and shades of all varying sounds and significations 
 of words, united with a careful endeavour to preserve in the pronunciation 
 the radical syllabic. For this reason the Flemings not only double the 
 long e and o, but when doubled they also accentuate them, as e6, ee, and 
 00. They indeavour, in all inflections of words, constantly to write ae 
 or ee, as plaegen lo plague ; verdraegen, beklaegen, neemen, geeven, 
 graeven ; from plaeg pliKjiic, verdraegt he ayrecs!, klaegt he complains. 
 They also try to distinguish, by orthography, all words of the same sound, 
 but diiferent in signification; as, wagen to hazard., waegcn to wehjh, 
 leven life.) leeven to live. They distinguish compound words by always 
 uniting them with a hyphen, as spraek-konst, grond-word, haeg-appcl- 
 boom, aen-nemen, aen-te-nemen. 
 
 Secondly. — The long sound of the vowels a, e, 2, and ?/, is expressed 
 by immediately adding an e in syllables where the vowel is followed by 
 a consonant. Some words are exceptions ; as, vader father ; nader 
 nearer ; vergaderen to gather ; "kamex chamber; SLvevechis preposterous ; 
 where the single vowel is considered as sufiicient. The y is considered 
 a real vowel, and thus the Flemings have a vowel more than the Dutch. 
 The is not lengthened by the additional e. These two letters are pro- 
 nounced short, like the French ou, or the German u. 
 
 Thirdly. — By the particular pronunciation of the ei or ee in beer, Dut. 
 bier beer ; peerd, Dut. paard a horse ; peerel, Dut. paarel or parol 
 a pearl ; geerne, Dut. gaarne, gaarn wilUnghj, readily ; rechtveerdig, 
 Dut. regtvaardig righteous, just ; weerd, Dut. waard dear. To 
 this pronunciation the Dutch object, and call it the blaetende, bleating 
 sound, though in reality it appears to be the true pronunciation of the 
 Low-Saxon. 
 
 The modernised Fleinish version of the extract from Reinaert de Vos 
 will serve as a specimen. f 
 
 45. The dialect of Gelderland will be sufficiently illustrated by the 
 following extract, which will serve both as a specimen and an explanation 
 of its peculiarities. Slichtenhorst, the writer, lived in the ICth century. 
 
 GEIDERSCHE TAAL. 
 
 Geene spraek van Nederl.ind, en koemt de Diiitsse moeder-tael naerder dan de 
 Geldersse,als de welke 't eenemael mannelijk is, en de woorden volkomcn wtbrengt : 
 wtgezonderd daar de ingezeetcnen aen 't Stichtvan Utrecht of Holland belenden, die 
 een better taelhebben dan de binncn-landers. Want daar men hier golt, holt, zolt, 
 zeght, gebruijkeu de anderen gout, hout, zout, breekende de woorden op zijn Frans, 
 die de letter I, vooral in woorden van 't Latijn herkomsdgh, ofte smelten ofte 't eene- 
 mael verzwijghen,gelijk in hauit,altus,/ioo^/j, assault en anderemcer is te speuren. — 
 Slichtenhorst, over dc Gcldcrsche Taal. Gclderschc Volks-Almanak, 1835, p. 69. 
 
 * Over fie Hollaudsche en Vlaemscbe Schrvfwyzen van hct Nedcrduitscb, Antwerpcn, 
 1824, pp. (J6. 
 t See § 17, page 99. 
 
112 DUTCH DIALECTS — GELDERLAND. VII. 1. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 {Dialect of Gelderland.) 
 No dialect of the Netherlands comes nearer to the German mother-tongue than 
 that of Gelderland, which is singularly strong, and pronounces the words fully, 
 except where the inhabitants border the provinces of Utrecht or Holland, who have 
 a blunter dialect than those of the interior. For where we here (in Gelderland) say, 
 golt gold, holt wood, zo\t salt, the others use gout, bout, zout, pronouncing the 
 words according to the French, who, particularly in words derived from the Latin, 
 either melt (soften) or entirely omit the letter /, as in hault altus high, assault, and 
 more that may be found. 
 
 Non vox, sed votum; 
 Non musica chordula, sed cor ; 
 Non clamor, sed amor, 
 Clangit in aure Dei. 
 Niet de stemmen klaer en soet, 
 Maar de such ten van 't gemoet ; 
 Niet muzijk van 't snaeren-spel, 
 Maar bet hart oprecht en wel ; 
 Niet 't geroep, maar liefde en min 
 Klinkt tot Godes ooren in. 
 Sluijter,\660,Geldersche Volks-Almanak,lS35, ■p. J 24. 
 
 46. The peculiarities of the Overijssel Dialect, with many useful 
 documents, and a Dictionary of the chief words, are given by the Rev. 
 J. H. Halberlsma in Overijsselche Almanak voor Oudheid en Letteren, 
 1836, published by J. de Lange, at Deventer. Want of room prevents 
 quotations from this very interesting work. 
 
 VII.— THE GOTHS.* 
 
 1. The Goths were of Asiatic origin, and it is supposed that they 
 formed a part of the second wave of European population. Many cen- 
 turies before our era the Goths must have been in Europe, though 
 Pytheas,t the famous navigator born at Marseilles, is the first who 
 
 * That great pains have been taken to give an accurate and succinct account of the Goths 
 and their literature, will be evident, when it is known that, besides many alterations, this 
 short and still imperfect abstract has been transcribed four times. A large volume might 
 easily have been wTitten ; the difficulty has been in attempting to give a clear epitome. 
 Those who wish for further information may considt, " Historia Gothorum, Vandalorum, et 
 Langobardorum al) //«.(/. Grotio, partim versa, partim in ordinem digesta. Prsemissa sunt 
 ejusdem prolegomena, ubi Regum Gothorum ordo et chronologia cum elogiis. Accedunt 
 noniina apiiellativa, et verba Gothica, Vandalica, Longobardica, cum explicatione. Amstel- 
 odami, 1655, ingr. 8vo." This is an invaluable work. See also the works cited in the fol- 
 lowing abstract. There is an article which deserves attention in Schiltcr's Thesaurus, vol. 
 iii. p. 395, sub voce Gothe. 
 
 t Strabo I. 23. 
 
VII. 2. GOTHIC — THE GOTHS WERE GERMANS. 113 
 
 mentions them by name. Strabo* assures us, that Pytlieas, about 325 
 before Christ, undertook a voyage to explore tlie amber coasts in the 
 Baltic. He sailed to Thule, probably Telleuiark on the west borders of 
 Norway, then turned southward and passed the cape of Jutland, and 
 proceeded eastward along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones, If 
 credit be given to this account of Pytheas, the Goths, at this early period, 
 liad extended far over Europe, and had arrived on the coast of the Baltic. 
 We know, upon the better authority of Tacitus,t who wrote with great 
 precision towards the end of the first century in the christian era, that in 
 his time the Goths were near tlio mouth of the Vistula. 
 
 2. According to the opinion of many Scandinavian antiquaries, the 
 Goths who overran the Roman empire, came from Scandinavia or 
 Sweden ;t but Tacitus§ speaks of no Goths in Scandinavia, and only 
 of Suiones, which is the same name that the Swen-skar (SivedesJ apply- 
 to themselves at the present day. It is therefore more probable, as some 
 learned Svvedes|| acknowledge, that when the Goths wandered towards the 
 west and south of Europe, some of them, in early times, crossed the Baltic 
 and established themselves in the south of Sweden and the island of Goth- 
 land. U We know from Tacitus, just cited, that the Goths were in Pome- 
 
 • Strabo, the Greek geoajrapher, who died about a.d. 2.:>, is the chief writer recording 
 Jiarticuhirs and giving quotations from the lost works of Pytlieas. Strabo I. 63 ; II. 1 M. — 
 Pliny also mentions P>theas, Nat. Hist, xxxvii. 2; iv. 13. 
 
 f Annal. II. (i-2 ; De Mor. Ger. 43. 
 
 X They support their assertion by the traditions of Jornandes. Cassiodorus, the learned 
 minister of Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy in the fith century, was the first who attempted 
 to write a history of the Goths. This history consisted of twelve books, compiled from old 
 chronicles and songs. The work of Cassiodorus is lost, and all that remains is an imj)crfect 
 abridgment by Jornandes, bishop of Ravenna, who states that tlie (Joths were from Scan- 
 dinavia, or the present Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. {Jornandes de Getarum sive Gotho- 
 rum Origine, et rebus gestis, ad Castalium, cap. 3, 4, 13, &ic., Leyden, 15i)o, Hvo. ; GlUxnVs 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, cap. 10.) They traced the genealogies of their 
 hereditary princes up to the race of Odin, called ^^sir, [irsir pi. of the Icel. as an Asiatic ; 
 vir Asiaticus, — Jornandes,'-}, &c. ; fntjtinfja Saga. Wheaton's Hist. p. 110.] or Asiatic Odin, and 
 his followers are su])posed to have come from the banks of the Tanais or Don. At the 
 present day we find in Sweden, East, West, and South Gotldand, and the island near the 
 east coast of Sweden is still called Gothland. From the south of Sweden the Goths crossed 
 the Baltic, and settled on the coast of Prussia, about the mouth of the Viptula. We are in- 
 formed by some fragments of Pytheas, that he, being in search of the amber coasts, sailed 
 about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones, through the li^ulphof J\Icn- 
 tonomon [Kattet,rat, Belt, ^^c] to Baltia, the Baltic. (Plin. /fist. Nut. xxxvii. 2; iv. 13 ; 
 Uarhter's Gloss, (hr. Pref. § XliV.) Al)out the time of the Antonines, a.d. INO, [Ptolemy 
 II.] from some unknown cause or other, the Goths, in vast hordes, leaving the mouth of the 
 Vistula, .and other parts, followed the course of this river, and migrated to the northern 
 coast of the Black Sea: hence they made inroads into the Roman emi)irc. In this way 
 Gibbon, following Jornandes, brings the Goths in contact with tlie Ronuuis. — See Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Enipire, chap. 10. 
 
 § Tacitus de 3Ior. Ger. 44, 4.5. See the judicious dissertation of Mr. Griiherq de Ilemso, 
 written in Italian and entitled " Su la Falsita dcU' Origine Scandiuava data di Popoli detti 
 Barbari chi distrussero I'lmpero di Roma," Pisa, 181.5. 
 
 II A. W. de ScJilcgel sur I'Origine des Ilindous.— r;a?isac</on» of the Royal Society of 
 Literature, vol. II. part ii. p. \()>i. 
 
 % In the preface to" Historisrh Antiqxtarische iMitlieilunqen,'' published by the Cojienhagcn 
 Royal Society of Northern Antiquities, it is said, that " The Goths were found not only in 
 Scandinavia, but (Jermany; they are, therefore, properly desiii^nated by GothoGcrnians 
 (Gotho-(icrmanen). The old northern Sagas acknowledge that Odin and his Asas first 
 occupied and ]Hi)pled Saxony, Wcstplialin, and ditTerent other German provinces, before 
 they founded their government in Denmark and Sweden." — Pre/, p. iii. 1835. 
 
ii4 GOTHIC — EAST AND WEST GOTHS. VII. 3 — 6. 
 
 ralia and Prussia, near the Vistula, about a.d. 80, and in the time of the 
 Antonines, a.d. 180. The Vandals and Burgundians are considered as 
 belonging to this race. After conquering different smaller nations in the 
 east of Germany and the present Poland, the Goths, sword in hand, opened 
 themselves a way to the Lower Danube. They took possession of all the 
 northern coasts of the Black Sea, and made inroads into the neighbouring 
 countries, particularly into Dacia, where they settled, and divided them- 
 selves into the East and West Goths.* The Visi-Gothi, Visigoths, Vese- 
 gothfe, or Wisigothi, West-Goths, had their name from their western sit- 
 uation ; but they are now more generally called Moeso-Goths, from their 
 residence in Moesia. The East-Goths were denominated, from their 
 eastern locality, the Ostro, or Austro-Gothi. 
 
 3. The Goths having conquered and occupied the country on the north 
 of the Black Sea, where, according to Herodotus, the Scythians had 
 dwelt, were often called Scythians by Greek and Roman writers, to the 
 great confusion of history. 
 
 4. The West-Goths must have been numerous on the west of the Black 
 Sea, and have made inroads into the Roman empire, as we find them so 
 powerful in Thracia in the time of Decius, a.d. 250, that they took and 
 sacked Philippolis.f Even before this period, about a.d.. 180, these 
 Goths had so far increased as to occupy Dacia, the present Transylvania, 
 Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. 
 
 5. The Getse, a Thracian race, who had previously inhabited Dacia,, 
 were, with the Romans still remaining in the country, amalgamised with 
 their conquerors, the West-Goths. As the East-Goths had been con- 
 founded with the Scythians, their predecessors, so there are some who 
 suppose that the West- Goths and the Getfe were the same nation, 
 because they found these Golhs occupying the same territory, formerly 
 inhabited by the Getge. Jornandes, by birth a Goth, probably with the 
 view of e.^alting his nation by attributing to them all that was done by the 
 Getas, makes the Goths and the Getae to be the same people. Had he 
 only been guided by the languages of these nations, he would have seen 
 that the Gela3 must have a different origin to the Goths. :f 
 
 6. When the West-Goths settled in Dacia, they not only found rem- 
 nants of Roman civilisation, but Christianity established. § The mild but 
 powerful influence of the christian religion soon prevailed over their cruel 
 heathen rites; for as early as the Council of Nice, in a.d. 325, the 
 
 * Zahn's Ulphilas, p. 2; Adelung's .^Iteste Geschichete der Deutschen, p. 202. 
 
 f Ammianns, 31, 5; Aurelius Victor, 29. 
 
 + Herodotus, Strabo, and Menander who was a Getian by birtli, and many others, declare 
 that the Gette were of" Thracian origin. Stephanus of Byzantium says expressly, " Terta, tj 
 X^P^ T''"' TeTwy. EcTTt Be ©paKiKov eOvos Getia, the country of the Getce. It is a Thracian 
 nation. — Sub voce TETIA, p. 207; Virg. Mn. iii. 3o; Ovid. Trisf. v. 7; Epist. Pont. lib. iv. 
 Ep. xiii. 17. Strabo declares that the Getae and Thracians spoke the same language, and 
 that the Thracian and the Gothic or Old-German are quite distinct languages. See Zahn, 
 p. 4, note a. In Adelung's Geschichte der Deutschen there is a long list of Thracian words, 
 jiiot one of which has the least resemblance to German, p. 284 — 290. 
 
 § Sozomen's Eccl. Flist. Ub. ii. C>. 
 
VII. 7, 8. GOTHIC— EXTENT OF EAST AND WEST GOTHS. 115 
 
 christian Goths liad their bisliop, Tlieophilus, whose signature appears 
 in tlie records of this celebrated council. The Ostro or Eastern Goths, 
 having no such advantages, remained for a long time heathens. In the 
 latter part of" the 4lh century, the whole of the Goths were governed by 
 Ermanneric, one of their greatest conquerors, who subdued the western 
 nations, and extended his empire from the river Don, through Sarmatia to 
 the Vistula, and even to the Baltic. 
 
 7. The Visigoths or West-Goths being greatly oppressed by the Huns 
 from the north of China or Tartary, induced Ulphilas,* their bishop, to 
 implore the protection of the Roman emperor, Valeus, in a.d. 376. He 
 pleaded their cause successfully, and the province of JNloesia was assigned 
 to them ; their innumerable tribes were then permitted to pass over the 
 Danube. t Tt was from the residence which Valens gave them in Moesia, 
 now Servia and Bulgaria, south of the Danube, that the Visigoths obtained 
 the name of Moeso-Goths. Considering themselves oppressed in Moesia, 
 the Goths revolted, gained several victories over the Romans, and at last 
 under Alaric desolated the Illyrian provinces, and in a.d. 409 took and 
 pillaged Rome. In 412 they established themselves in the south of 
 France, and crossing the Pyrenees, fixed the seat of their empire in 
 Spain, where they reigned nearly three hundred years. They were first 
 weakened by the Francs, and finally subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 8. The Ostro or East-Goths, though they applied to Valens, were not 
 permitted to enter Moesia, and were therefore subjugated by the Huns ; 
 but after liberating themselves, they embraced Christianity, and were 
 received into Panuouia in a.d. 456, following the ^'isi or West-Goths 
 into Moesia. The emperor Theodoric the Great, the hero of this nation, 
 conquered Italy, and in a.d. 493 became the founder of a new monarchy 
 at Ravenna. The Gothic government continued in Italy till the year 554,. 
 when it was terminated by Belisarius and Narsus under Justinian, emperor 
 of the east. Cassiodorus,;]; the minister of Theodoric, wrote a history of 
 the Goths, which was abridged by his secretary Jornandes. 
 
 • This name has jreat variety in its orthography : we find Ulphilas, Urphilas, IJrphilus,. 
 Gilfidas, (iiidillas, Galfilas, Gulfilas, Ulphias, Ulpias, GuKias, riulllas, WiiHila, ^^cc. 
 It is written DSb'^cblS Aiilpilas by R. Abraham in his work entitled D*>'Tl22n ''libtt?*' 
 It is inflceted nom. I'lphihis ; g. UlpliiliB, exactly as j^i^neas, ^nea», &e. after the Greek ibrni 
 Ov\(piAas {Socrates' Hist. Eccles. IT. 11 ; IV. 33;" Thvodorit. IV.3;3; Epist. lOt; /'/(«7o.sMI. ,">; 
 Sozomen Hist, Ecclis. VI. 37.) Some of tlie most eminent German scholars iia\ c recently 
 adopted a new orthofjTapby, or as tliey aflirni, reverted to tlie old 'I'entonic sjiellinfi^, anil 
 write it Ullila from V\ ultila « ^('<//f «o//, Jbrmed from Movs. wnlis a m>tJ',{Mt. \n. l.j,) in 
 the same manner as vaaj^nXa. puvrulus, {Jn. vi. 9,) from matins juitcr, and thediminntivefiskila 
 pisrirn/iis, from the root tisk piscis. {Grimm's Deut. Gramm. Vol. I. p. o7, .58. '2u(l Edition, 
 Is2-i : and p. fitili. '2nd Edition of Vol. iii. I.S31). This, accordinu; to the Moeso-diothie idiom 
 ap])ears ipiite coiTcct as it rei;ards the termination ; bnt if a close adherence to the JMoeso- 
 Gotliie word be tbllowed, it ouijht to be as precise in the connnenceinent as in the termi- 
 nation, and to be written WuUila, not Ulfila. Rather than adopt tiic new mode, which 
 ai)pears incorrect in this particular, the old spelling is here retained, and the word is 
 written Ulphilas Ou\<pi\as, as received from the Greek ecclesiastical historians. Canzlcr, in 
 his Deutsche Vor tind Znnnamcn, thinks that l.'llilr., Huliias, &e. has some aflinity with .1.-5'. 
 ulph: Plat. \\n\\i: /)»f. hulp: f/cr. hiilfe : Old-Ger. hilfa: Dan. hja^lp: S/iW. " hjclii : led. 
 hialp— all denoting hc/]i, aid, assistance. 'I'hcn, with the addition of the diminutive ila, wc 
 have Hulpila, or Ultila, a little help, infantine aid. 
 
 t Jornandes, 25, 26. + See § 2, note (t). 
 
116 GOTHIC — ULPHILAS AND HIS TRANSLATION, A.D. 370. VII. 9 — 11, 
 
 9. UJphilas,* born of Cappadocian parents about a.d. 318,t was made 
 bishop of the West or Moeso-Goths about a.d. .360, and died in a.d. 388. 
 He was so eminent in his talents, learning, and prudence, that he had the 
 greatest influence amongst the Goths, and thence originated the proverb 
 " Whatever is done by Ulphilas is well done." They received with im- 
 plicit confidence the doctrines of the gospel which he enforced by a 
 blameless life. That he might lead them to the fountain of his doctrine, 
 he translated the Bible from the Greek into the language of the Moeso- 
 Goths, between a.d. 360 and 380. Those who are best acquainted with 
 the subject J declare that the language of this ancient translation ought 
 not to be called Moeso-Gothic, as this name leads to the erroneous suppo- 
 sition that this dialect was formed in Moesia. The language of Ulphilas's 
 version is, in fact, the pure German of the period in which it was written, 
 and which the West-Goths brought with them into Moesia. The term 
 Moeso-Gothic is still retained in this work, as it at once shows that the 
 words to which Moeii. or Moeso-Gothic is applied are taken from the 
 version of Ulphilas, while however the Moeso-Gothic is considered as 
 the earliest German dialect now in existence. 
 
 10. Several fragments of Ulphilas's celebrated translation have been 
 discovered. The most famous is Tlie Codex Argenteus, or Silver Book, 
 so called from being transmitted to us in letters of a silver hue. The 
 words appear to be formed on vellum by metallic characters heated, and 
 then impressed on silver foil, which is attached to the vellum by some 
 glutinous substance, somewhat in the manner that bookbinders now letter 
 and ornament the backs of books.§ This document, containing fragments 
 of the four gospels, is supposed to be of the 5th century, and made in 
 Italy. II It was preserved for many centuries, in the monastery of Werden 
 on the river Rhur, in Westphalia. In the 17th century it was transmitted 
 for safety to Prague ; but Count Konigsmark, taking this city, the Codex 
 Argenteus came into the possession of the Swedes, who deposited it in the 
 library at Stockholm. Vossius, in 1655, when visiting Sweden, became 
 possessed of it, and brought it to Holland ; but PufFendorf, as he travelled 
 through Holland in 1662, found ii in the custody of Vossius, and purchased 
 it for Count de la Gardie, who, after having it bound in silver, presented 
 it to the Royal Library at Upsal, where it is still preserved. 
 
 1 1 . This mutilated copy of the Four Gospels was first printed from a beautiful fac- 
 simile manuscript made by Derrer, but now lost, and ])ublished with a Glossary by 
 Junius and Marshall, in 2 vols. 4to. at Dort, 1665. There are two columns in each 
 page, Gothic on the left column, and Anglo-Saxon on the right, both in their ori- 
 ginal characters, the types for which were cast at Dort. The same book, apparently 
 
 * See § 7, note (*). 
 
 f Theodoret, iv. 37 ; Sozomen, vi. 37 ; Socrates, iv. 33. Gabelentz, and Loebe's Ulfilas, 
 Tol. i. p. 360, and Addenda, 4to. 1836. 
 
 + See Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 1st edit. 1819, pref. xlv. xlvi. 
 
 § Ihre's Ulpliilas Illustratus, edited by Biisching, Berlin, 1773; Meerman's Origines Typo- 
 graphicas, Hag. Comit. 2 vols. 4to. 1765, vol. i. p. 2, cap. 2. 
 
 II In Italia scriptus fuit — Ulpliilfe partiiim ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab 
 AngeloMaio repertaium Specimen, 4to. pp. 1—36. Mediolani, 1819, Pref. p. iv. 12. 
 
VII. 12. GOTHIC — TITLE-DEED AT NAPLES, A.D. 520. 117 
 
 published with new titles, and a re]mnt of the first sheet in Vol. II. or Glossary, 
 appeared ag:ain at Amsterdam in 1084. Stienihelm sent forth an edition in Gothic, 
 Icelandic, Swedish, German, and Latin, 4lo. Stockholm, 1671. A new one was 
 prepared by Dr. Eric Benzelius, and published by Lye, 4to. Oxford, 1750, with a 
 Latin translation, and notes below the Gothic : a short Gothic granmiar is ])refixed 
 bv Lye. A learned Swede, Ihre, a native of L'])sal, and afterwards professor, in 1753 
 favoured the literati with his remarks upon the editions of Junius, Stienihelm, and 
 Lye. He had constant access to the Codex, and his criticisms and remarks upon the 
 editors' deviations from it are very valuable. All Professor Ihre's treatises on the 
 Gothic version, and other tracts connected with the subject, were ])ublishcd under 
 the following title: — J. ab Ihre scripta versionem Ulphilanam et linguam Moeso- 
 Gothicaui illustrantia, edita ab Anton. Frid. Biisching, Berolini, 4to. 1773. The 
 Codex was again prepared and printed in Roman characters, after the corrected text 
 of Ihre, with a literal interlineal Latin translation, and a more free Latin version in 
 the margin, with a Grammar and Glossary by F. K. Fulda. The Glossary revised 
 and the text corrected by W. F. H. Reinwald, published by J. C. Zaha, Weissen- 
 fels and Leipzig, 4to. 1805. One short specimen will be sufficient. 
 
 THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Hauseith. sai. urrann sa saiands du saian fraiwa seinamma. 
 4. Jail warth miththanei saiso. sum raihtis gadraus faur wig. jali quemuu fuglos, 
 jah fretun thata. — Zahns Edition, p. 45. 
 
 Title-deed at Naples. 
 
 12. This docttment was discovered in modern times, and is now 
 preserved in the archives of the cliurch of St. Annunciata at Naples. 
 It is defective, and written in very corrupt Latin, hearing no date, but 
 appearing to have been written in the beginning of the 6th centurv, soon 
 after the arrival of tlie Goths in Italy. According to this title-deed, the 
 clergymen of the chiircli of St. Anastasia, sell some land, and ratify the 
 sale in several Latin attestations, with four in Gothic. These four sub- 
 scriptions are, as regards the language, of no importance, for they contain 
 no new Gothic words ; but they are highly valuable as affording an incon- 
 testable proof that the language and writing of the Codex Argenteus are 
 genuine Gothic. Some have questioned whether this Codex be Gothic, 
 but it is in the same language and the same character as these attestations, 
 and they are written, at the period of Gothic infltience in Italy, in the 
 Gothic language and character by Gothic priests, having Gothic names ; 
 therefore the Codex Argenteus must also be Gothic. 
 
 The title-deed preserved at Naples was minutely copied b}' Professor 
 Massmann. As all the published copies are very defective, he has pro- 
 mised shortly to give to the world a faithful facsimile.* 
 
 One attestation will be a sufficient specimen of the language. 
 
 Ik winjaifrithas diakou handu meinai ufmelida jah (andnemum) skilliggans. I. 
 Ego Winefridus Diaconus manu mea subscripsi et accepimus solidos 60 
 
 • Sec Zahn's Gothic- Gospels, p. 77; Massmann's St. John, pref. p. ix. : a facsimile is 
 given by Sierakowskj, |K|0, also in Marini's tab. 1 18. 
 
118 
 
 GOTHIC — AREZZO, KNITTEL, MAI. 
 
 VII. 13— l6i. 
 
 jah faurthis tliairh kawtsjoii mith diakoii(a) (ala) inyda unsaramma jah mith- 
 et antea per cautionem cum Diacono nostro et con- 
 
 gahlaibaim unsaraim andnemum skilliggans. RK. Avairth thize saiwe. 
 minisiris nostris accepimus solidos 120 pretium horum paludum. 
 
 Title-deed at Arezzo. 
 
 13. This is a contract written on Egyptian papyrus. A deacon, Gott- 
 lieb, sells to another deacon, Alamud, an estate with some buildings. This 
 document is written in barbarous Latin, and only contains one Gothic 
 attestation. It is contemporary with the Neapolitan document, and of 
 equal importance : the original MS. is unfortunately lost, but the following 
 is copied from Zahn.* 
 
 Ik guthilub' dkn' the frabauhta boka fram mis gawaurhta thus dkn^ 
 Ego Gottlieb Diaconus hcec vendidi llbnim a me feci tihi Diacone 
 
 alamoda fidwor unkjana hugsis kaballarja jah killiggans' RLG' andnahm jah 
 Alamod quatuor uncias fundi Caballaria et solidos 133 accepi et 
 ufmelida. 
 subscripsi. 
 
 14. Knittel, Archdeacon of Wolfenbuttel, in the Dutchy of Brunswick, 
 found a palimpsestf manuscript of the 8th century, containing part of the 
 11th and following chapters, as far as the 13th verse of the xvth chapter 
 of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, in Gothic and Latin. 
 
 This document is denominated Codex Carolinus, from Charles, Duke of Bruns- 
 wick, who enabled Knittel to give his work to the world. He published it in 
 twelve plates, 4to. 1761.t Republished by Ihre in Roman characters, with Latin 
 version, notes, index, &c. pp. 90, Upsal, 1763. Again, by Manning, in the Ap- 
 pendix to his edition of Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 2 vols, folio, 1772. And 
 by Biisching, Berlin, 4to. 1773. 
 
 15. Angelo Mai, while keeper of the Ambrosian Library at Milan, 
 discovered some fragments of Gothic in palimpsest manuscripts, and, 
 with Count Castiglione, published the following extracts : — 
 
 Esdras ii. 28—42 : Nehem. v. 13—18 ; vi. 14—19 ; vii. 1—3 : Mt.xxv. 38—46 ; 
 xxvi. 1—3 ; 65—75; xxvii. 1 : Philip, ii. 22— 30; iii. 1—16: Titus i. 1 — 16; ii. 1 : 
 
 » A more circumstantial description of botli these documents is given in Zahn's preface, 
 p. 77, 78, and in the following works : — Versuch einer Erlauterung der Gothischen Sprachii- 
 berreste in Ncapel und Arezo als eine Einladungsschrift nnd Beilage zum Ulphilas, von 
 J. C. Zahn, Braunschweig, 1804. Antoiiius Francisciis Gorius was the first who, in the year 
 1731, published the document of Arezzo in the following work: J. B. Doni Inscriptiones 
 antiqusi nunc primum editag notisque illustratae, &;c. ab A. F. Govo, Florent. 1731, folio. 
 Professor H. F. 3Iassmann observes, that, notwithstanding the most minute investigation, 
 he has not been able to discover the Gothic document of Arezzo. (Preface to the Gothic 
 
 Firenze, 1833, 4to. 
 
 f Rescript, from iraXiv ayain, and ypaco to wipe or cleanse. For an interesting account of 
 the discoveries made in palimpsest 3ISS. see a paper by the venerable Archdeacon Nares in 
 the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literatui-e, Vol. 1. part i. p. 122. 
 
 + Friedrich Adolph Ebert, late librarian of the King of Saxony, has declared, after having 
 collated it in the most minute manner, that this edition is the most correct copy of the MS. 
 For want of sale many copies were used as -waste paper, and the copper- plates were sold for 
 old copper : it is therefore become very scarce. See Allgemeines bibUographisches Lexicon 
 von F. A, Ebert, vol. ii. p. 992, Leipzig, F. A. Broekhaus, 1830, 4to. 
 
VII. 10 — 18. GOTHIC — CASTIGLIONE, MASSMANN. 119 
 
 Philera. i. 11 — 23 ; — A page from a Homily — A fragment of a Gothic Calemlar. 
 He concludes his small volume wiih a Glossary and two plates. The Gothic frag- 
 ments are accompanied with a Latin version, and in the parts taken from the Scrip- 
 tures the Greek te-xt is given. This work was published with the following title : 
 — Ulphihc partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palim]isestis ab Angelo Maio re- 
 pertarum specimen conjunctis curis ejusdem Maii et Caroli Octavii Castilliona;i 
 editum. iMediolaiii, 4to. 1819, pp. 1 — 36, Pref.'xxiv.* 
 
 16. Count Castiglionc again proved his zeal for Gothic literature hy 
 publishing — 
 
 Ulphilaj Gothica versio, epistoUt; Divi Pauli ad Corinthios secundtc quam ex 
 Ambrosiana) Bibliothecae palimpsestis depromptam cum interpretatione adnotatio- 
 nibus, glossario edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionams, Mediolani, 4to. 1829. 
 
 17. Count Castiglione, rather than increase suspense by delay, most 
 generonsly determined to satisfy at once the anxious wishes of the learned 
 world, by publishing the text of the following work without preface or 
 glossary : — 
 
 Gothicse versionis epistolarum Divi Pauli ad Romanos, ad Corinthios primae, 
 ad Ephesios, quse supersunt ex Ambrosiana) Bibliothecae palimpsestis deprompta 
 cum adnotationibus edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionaeus, Mediolani, Regiis typis, 
 1834, 4to. p. 64. 
 
 18. A commentary on parts of the Gospel according to St. John, 
 written in Moeso-Gothie, has been published in Germany by Dr. H. 
 Massmann, from a MS. in the Vatican. 
 
 It is a 4to. vol. of 182 pages, to which is prefixed a dedication and an account of 
 the manuscript, in 17 pages. Then follow 34 pages of two columns in a page of the 
 Commentaiy in Moeso-Gotbic, printed in facsimile types. Immediately afterwards 
 is given in 15 pages the same Moeso-Gotbic, text in Roman type, in one column, and 
 a literal Latin version in the other, with notes at the foot of the page. Then succeed 
 an account of the proposed emendations of the MS., a short notice of the life of 
 Ulphilas, and a complete Glossary of all the Moes. words not only in the text of the 
 Commentary, but those found in Castiglione's extracts from St. Paul's Episde to the 
 Romans, first of Corinthians, and the Ephesians mentioned in the last paragraph. 
 At the end is a copper-plate containing several facsimiles of MSS.f The full title 
 of the work is, Skeirein's Aiwaggeljons thairh .lohannen : Auslegung des Evan- 
 gelii Jobannis in gotbischer Sprachc. Aus romischen und maylandischen Hand- 
 schriften nebst lateinischer Uebersetzung, belegenden Anmerkunsen, geschicht- 
 licher Untersuchung, gothisch-lateinischem Worterbuche und Schriftproben. Im 
 Auftrage seiner Koniglichen Hoheit des Kronprinzen Maximilian von Biiyern 
 erlesen, erliiutert und zum erstcn Male herausgegeben von H, F. Massmann, Doctor 
 der Philosophie, Professor der alteren deutschen Sprache, etc. 4to. JMlinchen, 1834. 
 
 • Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Vol. I. part i. p. 129. 
 
 f All that is discovered of Ulphilas's translation of the Scriptures has been published 
 with this title: t7/j/rt.s-, veteriset novi tcstanicnti versionis (Jotiiie;c lrai;:nienta (juip sii])crsunt 
 —cum ^lossiirio ct ijrainniatiea, edid. //. C. dc Gabeleiitz it Dr. J. l.oche, -2 torn. 4to. niaj. 
 Altenl)uru;i, Sehnui)hase. I/oiKhni ai)U(l 151aek et Arnistronfj-, IH:J(>. 'I'lie first part of vol. II, 
 containing: the Glossary with explanations in (Jerinan, was pubhshed in l!S4;i, Lipsiir apud 
 F. A. Hroekhaus. This is a very important work, by far the I)est edition of llpbilas. 'I'iie 
 1st vol. contains a corrected text of tlie !\loeso-(i()thic, jjrintcd in Roman t\~[w, below is a 
 Latin translation, and under this translation are vcit useful notes, written in Latin. At the 
 end of this 1st vol. are two plates: the first plate contains a facsimile of the CoJex Argiii- 
 teus, and the second a facsimile from the Codex Am/jrosianiis, and Codex Carolinus. 
 
120 
 
 HIGH GERMAN — ALEMANNI. 
 
 VIII. 1. 
 
 The Gothic begins thus: 
 saei frathjai aiththau 
 
 sokjai Guth. 
 Allai usvaiididedum. 
 saniana uiibrukjai vaurthun, 
 jah jii uf daulhaus 
 
 atdrusun stauai. 
 
 Latin version. 
 si est intelligens aut 
 
 requirens Deum. 
 Omnes declinaverunt. 
 
 simul inutiles facti sunt, 
 ac jam sub mortis 
 
 inciderant judicium. — p. 37. 
 
 19. With the extinction of the Gothic dynasties, this jjure and rich 
 German tongue, though vestiges still remain, ceased to be a prevailing 
 dialect. Like the Scandinavian branches, the Gothic retained a distinct 
 form for the passive voice. The Scandinavians, having little interruption 
 from other nations, would most likely retain their grammatical forms much 
 longer than the southern German tribes, who (from the 4th century, when 
 the Moeso-Gothic Gospels were written, to the 8th, when we find the 
 next earliest specimen of German) must have lost many of the old formSj 
 and with them probably the passive voice. 
 
 VIII. —THE ALEMANNI OR SUABIANS. 
 
 1. There are various opinions about the derivation of the word 
 Alemamn. It was a name given to the Suabians,* who appear to have 
 come from the shores of the Baltic to the southern part of Germany. This 
 locality of the Suabians is, in some measure, confirmed by the ancient 
 name of the Baltic, Mare Suevicum, Suavian, or Suabian Sea. In the 
 beginning of the 3rd century, the Suabians assembled in great numbers 
 on the borders of the Roman empire, between the Danube, Rhine, and 
 Main,t and united with other tribes. To denote this coalition or union 
 of various nations, they were called Alemanni various men, all men.% 
 
 * Schwaben (Suavi) according to Schmittlienner, Schwabe, m. pi. Schwaben, in Old High- 
 Gur. Suab, pL Suaba, and signifies the wise, the intelligent, a person full of understandinrf and 
 discernment, from tbe Old Hi<ih-Ger. sueban to perceive, understand, hnoiv, discern, comprehend. 
 
 f Walafridus Strabo de Vita B. Galli apud Goldastum, torn. I, rer Alemann. p. 143 : 
 Igitur quia niixti Aleniannis Suevi partem Germania3 ultra Danubium, partem Retiaj inter 
 Alpes et Histriam, partemque Galliaa circa Ararim obsederunt. — Jornandes de rebus Geticis, 
 cap. Iv. : Theodemir Gotborum rex emenso Danubio, Suevis improvisus a tergo apparuit. 
 Nam regio ilia Suevorum ab oriente Baiobaros habet, ab occidente Francos, a meridie Bur- 
 gundiones, a septentrione Tburingos. Quibus Suevis tunc juncti Alemanni etiam aderantj 
 ipsique alpes erectas omnino regentes. 
 
 J Ger. allerley various, different : mann man. Schmittlienner says from the Old-Ger. allo- 
 man each, in the plural alamanna many, a nation, community. —Von Schmid in his Suavian 
 Dictionary, sub Alb, alp, informs us thatalm,almand,oralmang, denoted not only « annmon, 
 a pasture, hut a mountain ; hence the people dwelling on the mountains in Austria, Tyrol, &t. 
 
VIII. 2 — 5. HIGH-GERMAN — ALEMANNIC DIALECT, PECULIARITIES OF. 121 
 
 Thus increased in power, they soon ventured to maT<e formidable inroads 
 into the Roman territory, and not only entered the plains of Lombardy, 
 but advanced almost in sight of Rome. They were repelled, and, in 
 a new attack, vanquished by Aurelian.* The term Alemanni was used 
 by foreigners as synonymous with Germans,t and, while in English they 
 are called Germans, in French and Spanish they are to this day denomi- 
 nated Alcmanns. This great confederacy terminated in a.d. 49G, by 
 a bloody victory of the Francic king, Clovis, (Chlodovasus,) at Tolbiac, 
 near Cologne on the Rhine, the present Zullich or Zulpich. 
 
 2. The peculiarities of the Suabian or Alemannic dialect are these : 
 
 The first vowel a very much prevails, and the final n of verbs is omitted : thus they 
 sav, saga for sagen to say ; fraga for fragen to ask. They change the Ger. o into 
 an, and use braut for brot bread ; grauss for gro^s great. For the Ger. st, they put 
 scht (slit) ; they use du bischt, kannscht, for du bist thou art ; kannst canst. They 
 fonn diminutives in //, le, as herzli for Ger. herzchen a little heart. In the inflec- 
 tions of soUen shall, wollon will, the I is generally omitted ; as, du sottascht di 
 doi-li schema, for du solltest dich doch schamen thoic shouldst he ashamed. The 
 oldest Suabian and Upper German dialect contained very few rough hissing sounds. 
 In old documents, and till the time of Emperor Maximilian I. the sch is rarely 
 found. The hissing sounds begin on the borders of Italy and France, diminish 
 in the middle of Germany, and nearly disappear in North or Low-Gennany. 
 
 3. The Suabians of the present day speak in a lively and quick 
 manner. 
 
 4. The Alemannic or Suabian dialect prevails in the north of Switzer- 
 land, in Alsace, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and the western part of 
 the Austrian States. 
 
 5. Some of the authors who are generally said to have written in 
 Alemannic, and some of the early compositions in this dialect, are — 
 
 An exhortation to Christians, a.d. 720 (x. 2).— Kero, a.d. 800 (x. 7). — Rlia- 
 banus Maurus, a.d. 850 (x. 1 1 ).— Otfrid, a.d. 860 (x. 12).— Notker, a.d. 1020 
 (x. Ui). — Nibelungen Lied, a.d. 1150 (x. 24). — Walter von der Vogelweide, 
 a.d. 1190 (x. 2-5). — Chunrad von Kirchberg, a.d. 1195 (x. 26). — Gotfrit von 
 Nifen, a.d. 1235 (x. 29).— Schwaben- Spiegel, a.d. 1250 (x. 31), &c. 
 
 were called Alemanni. Oi 5i Wa/navoi tlye XPV Acriviw KovaSpaTco fTrecrdat, avSpi ItoAicdtt?, 
 Kai Ttt FfpfxaviKa es to uKpifies avaypaipafxeviij ^vvrjXiSts (ktiv avBpcoiroi Kai /xi-yoSes" Kat 
 rovTo Svvarai avrois v i-Kwi'vfxia. .'Menianni, si Asinio (iuadrato tides, viro Italo et Cut- 
 manicaruni renun exacto Scrii)tori, coninuines sunt variis e nationibus collecti, id ipsum 
 apud eos eonsigniticante vocabiilo. — Ayathias, lib. i. IJisl. p. 7. 
 
 * (jibbon, eh. xi. 
 
 t Nota, tiund partes vieiniores Ttalieis, sicut sunt Bavaria, Suevia, dieta^ fucrint, ab Italis 
 primo .•\leniannia, et bnmines dieebantur .41emanni, nnta secundum Ornsium et Solinuni, 
 quod tunc teinjioris Gerniania et -Aleniania lial)ebantur jiro uno et eodein. Nam I'nfjaria 
 diecbatur I'annnnia, et ab rngaria us(|ue ad Uliennm ([ieet)atur Gcrmania, vel Alcinania, 
 et ultra Rlienum Gallia. — Auctor flint. Ltinrli/rni-. Tliiir. c. vi. j Struvii Corpus Hist. Ger. § 1 ; 
 de Ger. tirifj. ((c. p. 10, n. 22. — See II. § 2, and note (f). 
 
 *- 
 
 R 
 
122 
 
 IX.— THE FRANCS. 
 
 1. The Francs,* or Freemen, were a confederacy of high-spirited and 
 independent German tribes, dwelling between the Rhine and Elbe. 
 They were composed of the Tencteri, Catti, Sali, Bructeri, Chamavi, 
 Chauci, &c. who occupied the modern Prussian provinces on the Rhine, 
 Zwey-Briicken or Deux-Ponts, part of Hesse, the south of Saxony, and 
 the northern part of Bavaria. The Francs lying to the north-east were 
 called Salian Francs from the river Sala, and those on the Rhine were, 
 from their situation, denominated Ripuarian Francs. 
 
 2. This confederation was known, under the denomination of Francs, 
 about A.D. 240.t According to Schilter,$ the Francs were first men- 
 tioned by Eumenius, a Latin orator, born at Autun in France, at the 
 beginning of the 4th century. They had been harassed by the Romans ; 
 and having felt the importance of union for self-defence, they, when 
 united, soon discovered not only an ability to resist their enemies, but 
 in turn to invade some of the Roman territories. In the beginning of the 
 5th century they took possession of the west bank of the Rhine, and began 
 to make incursions into Gaul. 
 
 3. About A.D. 420, their power extended from the Rhine nearly over 
 the whole of Gaul, and they founded the Merovingian dynasty, under 
 Phararaond their king, who, according to their custom, was elected by 
 the chiefs of the nation, constituting the Francic confederacy. The 
 Merovingian line continued for 323 years through a succession of twenty- 
 two kings, from a.d. 428 to 751 . One of the Merovingian kings, Clodwig, 
 Chlothovecus, Clovis, Ludewig, or Lewis, subdued the Alemanni in 
 A.D. 496; and, immediately after this conquest, he and many of his 
 subjects made a public profession of the Christian faith by being baptized 
 at Rheims. 
 
 4. After the Merovingian succeeded the Carlovingian family, which 
 supplied eleven kings, who held the reins of the Francic government for 
 236 years; then succeeded in France the Capetian line, which needs not 
 be farther noticed, as it would lead to a history of France beyond the 
 object of this notice. 
 
 5. Pepin, the first king of the Carlovingian race, seized the Francic 
 crown in A.D. 751, and divided the kingdom between his two sons, 
 Charlemagne and Carloman. After the death of his brother, Charlemagne 
 became sole possessor of the kingdom in 768. As some short historical 
 
 * Frank, according to Schmitthenner, signifies originally, preceding, bold, upright, free ; 
 hence, der Fraiike the Franc. ; Old Ger. franho ; Id. frackr m. francus, liber, generosus, 
 elatus, tumidus. Frackar »«. pi. Francones, Franci; fracki m. virtuusus,potens. 
 
 f Gibbon, ch. x. Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, bk. 2, ch. iii. 
 
 + Schiller's, Gloss, to Thes. vol. iii. p. 316. 
 
X. 1, 2. HIGH-GERMAN — EXHORTATION TO CHRISTIANS, ABOUT A. D. 720. 123 
 
 remarks* will be made when specimens of the language are introduced, 
 it will only be necessary to observe here, that Charlemagne, after showing 
 himself one of the greatest men that ever reigned over a most extensive 
 empire, died in a.d. 814. 
 
 6. It is difficult to name with minuteness and precision all the writers 
 and the compositions in the Francic dialect ; but the following are gene- 
 rally considered as written in this idiom : — 
 
 A translation of Isidore, a.d. 800 (x. 8). — Hildibraht and Hadubrant, a.d. 730 
 (x. 3). — Ludwigslied, a.d. 883 (x. 14). — A Translation of Boethius, a.d. 950 (x. 
 18). — Willeram's Paraphrase, a.d. 1070 (x. 20). — The Praise of St. Anno, a.d. 
 1075 (X. 21), &c. 
 
 X.— HIGH-GER3IAN, OR THE ALEMANNIC, SUABIAN, AND 
 FRANCIC DL\LECTS. 
 
 1. The translation of the Scriptures by Bishop Ulphilas, about a.d. 360, 
 affords the earliest specimen of German. Almost four centuries elapsed 
 between the writings of Ulphilas, and the composition of the following 
 exhortation. When the Francs and Alemanni were converted to Chris- 
 tianity, their instructors not only wrote prayers, exhortations, sermons, 
 hymns, and commentaries on the Scriptures, but also composed glossaries ; 
 thus preserving specimens of the German language in the 7th and 8th 
 centuries. 
 
 2. An EXHORTATION TO CHRISTIANS (Exhortatio ad plebem Christianam) 
 is taken from a MS. of the early part of the 8th century, originally pre- 
 served in the bishoprick of Freisingen in Bavaria, and Fulde in Hesse, 
 but now in jNIunich and Kassel. It was published in Hotiin(jer\s His- 
 toria Ecclesiastica, vol. viii. p. 1220 ; in B. J. Doceii's Miscellaneen, 
 vol. i. p. 4 — 8 ; and in WackernageVs Altdeutsches Lesebuch, Svo. 
 Basel, 1835. 
 
 EXHORTATIO. 
 
 Hloset ir, cliindo liupostnn, rihtida thera galaupa the ir in herzin kahucclicho 
 hapen sculut, ir den christaunn namun intfangan eigut, thaz ist chundidaiuuerera 
 christanheili, fona demo truhtine in man gaplasau, fona sin selpes jungiron kasezzit. 
 — WackernageVs Altdeut. Les.]). 6. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Lauschet ihr. Kinder liebsten, der zucbt des Glaubens, den ihr im Herzen 
 behiitlich haben sollet, (svenn) ihr den Christemiamcn empfangen habt, das ist 
 Kunde eurer Christenheit, von dem Herrn eingeblasen, von scincn eigenen Jiin- 
 gern gesetzt. 
 
 • Sec X. § 9, 10. 
 
124 HIGH-GERMAN — HILDIBRAHT AND HADUBRANT, A.D. 730. X. 3. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Listen ye, cliildren dear, to the instruction of the belief, which you shall preserve 
 in your hearts, (when) you have received the Christian name, that is, the knowledge 
 of your Christianity, inspired by the Lord, (and) established by his own disciples. 
 
 p 3, The heroic Song, relating the comhat hetween HildihraJit and 
 Haduhrant. The language of this song is Francic, with a great inter- 
 mixture of the Low-German dialect. Bouterweck considers it just what 
 one would expect from the attempt of a Low-Saxon to write Francic. 
 Like the Wessobrunn Prayer, it is alliterative,* and ascribed to the 8th 
 century. It was first published by Eckard, in Commentariis de rebus 
 Francorum, vol. i. p. 864, from theFulda manuscript, now kept at Kassel, 
 by Grimm, at Kassel, 1812, and in his Altdeutsche Walder, vol. ii. p. 97. 
 A lithogi'aphic specimen of the fragment preserved at Gottingen was given 
 by Professor Grimm in 1830. An edition appeared in 1833, by Lachmann, 
 An explanation of the difficult passages by W. Mohr, in 12mo. pp. 16, 
 Marburg, 1836. 
 
 Old German. 
 
 Literal Modern German. Literal English. 
 
 Ik gihorta dhat seggen, Ich horte das sagen. 
 
 I heard it said 
 
 dhat sih wrhettun 
 
 enon muotin 
 Hiltibrahtjoh i/adubrant 
 
 untar Aerjun tvem. 
 sunufatarungos 
 
 iro saro rihtun, 
 
 ^arutun se iro ^udhamun, 
 
 (/urtun sill svert ana, 
 /telidos, ubar /tringa, 
 
 do sie tidero Ailtju ritun 
 Hiltibraht gimahalta : 
 
 er was /ieroro man, 
 yerahes/i'otoro : 
 
 er/ragen gistuont 
 y6hem wortum 
 
 hver sin /liter wari 
 yireo inyblche. 
 
 dass sich herausforderten 
 
 einstimmig 
 
 Hildebrandund Hadubrand 
 
 unter einander. 
 
 Sohn und Vater, wie 
 
 sie ihren Kampfplatz be- 
 
 stimmt 
 thaten sie ihre Kriegshem- 
 
 den an 
 giirteten sich ihr Schwert 
 
 urn 
 die Helden zum Ringen 
 
 (Kampf ) 
 da sie zum Kampf ri( ten. 
 sprach Hildebrand : 
 er war ein hehrer Mann 
 Geistes weise : 
 er fragen that 
 rait wenigen Worten 
 wer sein Vater ware 
 im Manner Volke, 
 
 that tliltibraht and Hadu- 
 hrant 
 with one voice 
 challenged 
 one another. 
 Son and father, when 
 the (combat) place they 
 
 fixed, 
 their coat of war they put 
 
 on, 
 girded their sword on. 
 
 the heroes for the fight. 
 
 when they to comhat rode. 
 Hiltibraht spoke : 
 he was a stately man, 
 of a prudent {ivise) mind : 
 he did ask 
 with few words 
 who his father was 
 among the race of men. 
 
 eddo hvelihhes cnuosles oder welches Stammes du or of what family {he was) 
 du sis. seyst. thou art. 
 
 Wackernagel, p. 14. 
 
 * The alliteration in the example is denoted by italic letters. 
 
X. 4, 5. HIGH-GERMAN — ST. AMBROSE'S HYMNS, ABOUT A.D. 750. 125 
 
 4. The following Latin hymns are ascribed to St. Ambrose, who was 
 Bishop of Milan from a.d. 374 to 397. The German translations, made 
 by an unknown hand, are thought to be of the 8lh century. They are 
 found iu IVackernayers Altdeutches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. 
 
 The Original Latin. 
 Deus qui cocli hnnen es 
 satorqiie lucis, qui polum 
 patenio fultum brachio 
 prajclara pandis dextera. 
 
 Aurora Stellas jam tegit 
 riibrum siistollens gurgitera, 
 huniectis namqiio flatibus 
 terrani baptizans roribus. 
 Wackernagel, p. 7. 
 
 The Original Latin. 
 Te Deum laudamus. 
 te doininiim confitemur. 
 te Internum patrem 
 omnis ten'a veneratur. 
 
 Tibi omnes angeli, tibi coeli 
 et universai potestates, 
 tibi cherubim et seraphim 
 incessabili voce proclamant. 
 
 Sanctus sanctus sanctus 
 dominus deus sabaoth. 
 pleni sunt coeli et terra 
 maj estate glorias tuic 
 
 Old German Translation. 
 cot du dcr biniiles leobt pist 
 saio job Icobtes du der bimil 
 faterlichcmu arspriuztan arme 
 durubeitareru spreitis zesauun. 
 
 tagarod sterna giu dechit 
 rotan ufpurrenti uuak 
 fuhtem kauuisso plastim 
 erda taufauter tauum. 
 
 TE DETJM.* 
 
 Old German Translation. 
 thih cot lopemes 
 thih ti'ubtnan gebemes 
 ibih euuigan fater 
 eokiuuelih erda uuirdit (eret). 
 
 thir alle engila thir himila 
 inti alio kiuualtido 
 thir cherubim inti seraphim 
 unbilibanlicheru stimmo forhai'ent. 
 
 uulher uuiher uuiher 
 truhtiu cot herro 
 folliu sint himila inti erda 
 thera meginchrefti tiurida thinera. 
 
 Wackernagel,!^. II. 
 
 5. A HYMN to the honour of St. Peter, by an anonymous author of the 
 8th century, published from a MS. of Freisingen, in Docen's Miscellaneen, 
 2 vols. Munich, 1809 : Hoffmann's Fundgruben, 8vo. 1 vol. Breslau, 1830. 
 
 Vnsar trohtin hat farsalt sancte petre ginualt, 
 
 daz er mac ginerian ze imo dingenten man. 
 
 Kyrie eleyson. Christe eleyson. 
 
 Er hapet cub mit vuortum himilrichcs portun, 
 
 dar in mach er skerian, den er uuili nerian. 
 
 Kirie eleison. Christe (eleison). 
 
 Fundgruben, p. 1. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Unser Herr hat verliehen St. Peter gewalt, 
 
 das er kann erhalten (den) zu ihm bittenden mann. 
 Kupie i\Ei](TOV, XpiffTE iXerjcrov. 
 Er hat audi mit worten (dcs) himmclreiches pforten, 
 dahin kann er bringen den er will erhalten. 
 KvpiE i\Er](Toy, Xpiare eXerjrrot'. 
 
 * For a specimen of the Tc Dcum, in German of the I2lh ccnturj', sec § 22. 
 
126 
 
 HIGH-GERMAN — WESSOBRUNN PRAYER, ABOUT A.D. 770. X. 6, 7. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Our Lord has given St, Peter power, 
 
 that he may preserve, the man that prays to him. 
 Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy. 
 He also keeps, with words, the portals of heaven's kingdom 
 wherein he may take, whom he will preserve. 
 Lord have mercy. Christ have mercy. 
 
 6. The Wessobrunn Prayer, so called from the MS. being first dis- 
 covered in the monastery of Wessobrunn, in Bavaria. The MS. is of the 
 latter part of the 8th century ; it was published by Professor J. Grimm 
 at Kassel, 1812, by Massmann at Berlin, 1824, and in WackernageVs 
 Altdeutsches Lesebuch, Svo. Basel, 1835. The alliteration is denoted 
 by italic letters. 
 
 Old German. Literal Modern German. 
 
 Dat ga/i'egin ih mit/ira- Das horte ich bey Men- 
 
 him 
 
 yiriwizzo meista, 
 dat ero ni was 
 
 noh wfhimil, 
 noh j»aum nohheinig 
 
 noh pereg ni was ; 
 ni 
 
 noh sunn a ni scein 
 noh mkno ni liuhta 
 
 noh der mareoseo. 
 do dar ni«t7iht ni wa,^ 
 
 enteo ni tuewieo, 
 enti do was der cino 
 
 almahtico cot, &c. 
 
 schen 
 mit Fiirwitz meistem, 
 dass Erde nicht war 
 noch Aufhimmel, 
 noch Baum eiuiger 
 noch Berg nicht war ; 
 
 nicht 
 
 noch Sonne nicht schien 
 noch Mond nicht leuchtete 
 noch der Meersee. 
 Als da Nichts nicht war 
 Ende noch Wende 
 mid da war der eine 
 allmachtige Gott, &c. 
 
 Literal English. 
 This I heard from men 
 
 of most curiosity, 
 
 that {the) earth was not 
 
 nor heaven, 
 
 nor any tree 
 
 nor mountain was ; 
 
 not 
 
 nor sun did shine 
 nor moon gave light 
 nor the main {sea). 
 when there was no wi2,ht 
 end nor wend {turn), 
 and then was the one 
 Almighty God, &c. 
 
 Wackernagel, p. 1 7. 
 
 7. Kero, a monk in the abbey of St. Galleu in Switzerland, made 
 a German translation of the Rules of St. Benedict, about a.d. 800, under 
 the title, Interpretatio Regulss Sancti Benedicti Thetisca, Schilter''s Thes. 
 at the end of vol. i. p. 25, and a part of it in Grajfs Althochdeutscher 
 Sprachschatz. 
 
 De Taciturnitate, chap. VI. 
 Tuamees. daz qhuad vvizzago qhuad ih kehalte vveka mine daz nalles 
 Faciamus quod ait Propheta : Dixi, custodiam vias meas, ut non 
 missitue in zungun mineru sazta munde minemu kehaltida ertumheta indi 
 delinqam in lingua mea : Posui ori meo custodiam : Obmutui et 
 kedeomuatit pirn indi suuiketa fona cuateem hiar keaugit uuizzago ibu fona 
 humiliatus sum, et silui a bonis; hie ostendit propheta, si a 
 cuateem sprahhom ofto duruh suuigalii sculi suuigeen huueo meer 
 bonis eloquiis interdum propter taciturnitatem debet taceri. Quanta magis 
 
 fona vbileem vvortum duruh vvizzi dera sunta sculi pilinnan. 
 a malis verbis propter poenam peccati debet cessari P 
 
 Graff, p. xlviii. 
 
X. 8. HIGH-GERMAN — ISIDORE, ABOUT A.D. 800. 127 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Thuen wir das, was der Weissager sagt : ich habe gesagt, ich werde bewachen, 
 die Wege mein, dass ich nichts missethue niit meiner Zuiige ; ich setzte dem 
 Munde mein eine Wache, ich bin versUimmt, und gedemiithiget und schvveige von 
 den Guten. Heir zeigt der Weissager, vvenn von guten Reden oft wegen der 
 Verschwicgenheit soil geschwiegen werden, wie viel mehr von iibeln Worten wegen 
 der Strafe der SLinde soil geschwiegen werden. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Let US do what the saver {Prophet) saith : I have said I will keep my ways, 
 that I nothing misdo with my tongue : I have set a watch over my mouth, I was 
 dumb, and humbled, and silent (even) from good; here the wise-sayer shows, if 
 from good speeches often for taciturnity we should be silent, how much more from 
 evil words should we cease for punishment of the sin. 
 
 \ 8. Isidore, born at Cartilage, was archbishop of Seville, from 600 
 to 636. Amongst other works, he wrote a treatise, De Naiiviiate Domini^ 
 of which a Franc is supposed to have made a translation. Tiie MS. is 
 preserved at Paris. It was published by Jo. Phil. Palfhen, at Greifswald, 
 1706, and again in ScJiilter\^ Tlies. at the end of vol. i. Ulm, 1728 : it 
 was also inserted by Rostgaard in the Danish Bibliotheca, No. 2, Copen- 
 hagen, 1738. 
 
 The following specimen of Isidore is from Graff^s AUhochdeutschen 
 Sprachscltatz, vol. i. p. xlv. Berlin, 1834,* most carefully collated by this 
 indefatigable scholar with the original MS. at Paris. It is to be found 
 also in Sc7ulier\s Thes. p. 4 of vol. i., Isidore, ch. iv. 1. 
 
 Hear quhidit umbi dhea Bauhnunga. dhero dhrio heideo gotes. 
 Araugitist in dhes aldin uuizssodes boohhum. dbazs (liter endi sunu endi heilac 
 geist got sii. Oh dhes sindun uuchilaubun iiideo liudi. dhazs sunu endi heilac 
 gheist got sii. bi dhiu huuanda sie chihordon gotes stimna hluda in sina berge 
 quhedhenda. Chihori dhu israhel druhtin got dhin. ist eino got, 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Hier wird gesprochen von der bedeutung der Dreieinigkeit Gottes. 
 Sichtbar ist in den alien bundes blichern, dass Vater und Sohn und heiliger Geist 
 Gott seyn. O der siindigen (thorichlen) Juden leule, unglaubig dass Sohn und 
 heiliger Geist Gott seyn, darum weil sie horten Gottes stimme laut auf dem berge 
 Sinai sprechend : Hore du Israel der Herr dein Gott ist einge Gott. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Here is spoken about the signification of the Trinity of God. 
 It is nsible, in the books of the Old Testament, that the Father and Son and 
 Holy Ghost is God. O the sinful Jewish people, disbelieving that the Son and 
 the Holy Ghost is God, because they heard God's voice loud on mount Sinai, 
 saying. Hear thou, Israel, the Lord thy God is one God. 
 
 • In the preface to this laborious and learned work, from p. xxxiii,to Ixxiii, there is a very 
 valuable account of old (Jer. 3ISS. Some specimens are cfiven of un])ublished glossaries and 
 fr.iijments of a translation of hoetius de consolatione philosophiir, supjiosed to be Notkers 
 work (in cod. .J, ijall. N2.j) of ."\Iart Cai)ella de Nuptiis IMereurii et Pbilologia^, (in cod. 6, 
 gall. .S7-2,) and of Aristotle's Organon (in cod. .j, gall. 81H). The glossaries are from the 7th 
 to the 9th century. To give a true idea of the quality and state of the MSS. Grafl' has very 
 properly given them with all their faults, &e. exactly as he found them. 
 
128 HIGH-GERMAN — CHARLES's OATH, A.D. 842. X. 9, 10, 
 
 9. Charlemagne,* who reigned from 768—814, united the German 
 tribes, the Francs, Alemanni, Bavarians, Thuringians, Saxons, Longo- 
 hards, Burgundians, &c. into one mighty empire, and governed all the 
 nations from the Eider in the north of Germany, to the Ehro in Spain — 
 from the Baltic sea to the Tiber in Italy. Arts and sciences declined 
 more and more after the time of Gregory the Great, in 604, who himself 
 discouraged scientific pursuits so much, that at the time of Charlemagne 
 there was scarcely a trace of science or literature on the continent. Charle- 
 magne arose, and obtained the aid of the most learned men of his time for 
 the improvement of his mighty empire. A few of these eminent men may 
 be named. Alknin^ an Anglo-Saxon monk, born about 732, educated at 
 York, was well versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, theology, rhetoric, 
 poetry, and mathematics, and was also distinguished for his piety. He 
 died, abbot of Tours, in 804. Theodulph died 821, bishop of Orleans. 
 Eginhard, born in Odenwalde, South Germany, wrote the History of 
 Charlemagne, and died in 839. Schools were also established in different 
 parts of the empire. By these means science and literature were sup- 
 ported in the 9th and following centuries. Charlemagne enjoined the 
 clergy to preach in German, and to translate homilies into that language. 
 He himself attempted to form a German Grammar, and ordered a col- 
 lection of the national songs to be made, which unfortunately are lost, but 
 we may form some judgment of them from the Hildibraht, a remarkable 
 fragment of early German. 
 
 10. The successors of Charlemagne inherited his empire, but not his- 
 talents. The second son of Charlemagne, Ltidwig or Lewis the pious, in 
 the year 843, divided the empire among his three sons: — 1. Leii'is hdidi 
 Germany, which comprised Suabia, East Franconia, Bavaria, Thuringia, 
 Saxony. Germany, from this early period to the present day, has pre- 
 served its language, its customs, and independence. 2. To Charles, Gallia 
 was assigned. 3. Lothar received for his portion, Dauphine, Alsace, 
 and Burgundy. 
 
 At first the Francs, in Gallia under Charles, spoke German, but they 
 soon mixed it with the language of the subdued Gauls. The oaths which 
 Charles and Lewis and their subjects took near Strasburg in 842, to 
 protect their empire against Lothar, their eldest brother, are preserved. 
 The grandson of Charlemagne, Abbot Nidhart, who died 853, in his 
 history of the disputes of the sons, has preserved the form of the oath in 
 German and French. It is a curious specimen of both languages at this 
 early period. f 
 
 Charles's Oath in Fruncic, or Old German. 
 
 In godes minna ind in thes chrjstianes folclies ind unser bedhero gehaltnissi, fon 
 thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mirgot geuuizci indi mahd furgibit, so haldih 
 
 * Eginharti de Vita Carolimagni commentariis, cum annotationibus Ger. Nicolai Heerkens, 
 Groningice, 12mo. 17d5. Histoire de Charlemagne par Gaillard, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1819. 
 
 f Roquefort gloss, de la langue romane, torn. i. disc. prel. p. xx. Wackernagel's Altdeutsches 
 Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1 835, p. 26. 
 
X. 10. HIGH-GERMAN — LEWIS'S OATH, A.D. 842. 129 
 
 tesan niiiian bniodher soso man niit rehtu sinan bruodher seal, in thiii thaz er mig 
 so soma duo, indi mit Ludherem in noliheiniu tiling ne gegangu, theminanuuillon 
 imo ce scadhen werdhen. 
 
 LITERAL GKRMAV. 
 
 In Gottes Minne uud in (wegen) des christlichen Volkes und iinser beider Er- 
 haltung von diesem Tage fortan, so fern so mir Gott Weisheit und Macht giebt, 
 so balte ich diesen meinen Bruder, so wie man mit Recht seinen Bruder soil, imd 
 dass er mir auch so tlum imd mit Ludherem (will ich) in keine Sache nichtgehen, 
 mit meiucm Willen ihm zu Schaden warden, 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 In God's love and for the christian folk and our common preservation, from this 
 day henceforth, so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so hold I {shall I pre- 
 serve) this my brother, so as one {man) by right his brother should {preserve) 
 and that he to me also so may do, and with Lothar I (will) not enter into any 
 thing, with my will, to be an injury to him. 
 
 The Oath of Lewis, in the Romanic, or French. 
 
 Pro deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in 
 avant, in quant deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo 
 et in adjudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o 
 quid il mi altresi fazet, et ab Ludhcr nul plaid nunquam prindrai, qui meon vol 
 cist meon fradre Karle in dam no sit. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 For God's love and for the christian people and our common preservation from 
 this day and henceforth, in so far as God gives me w isdom and powder, so shall I assist 
 this my brother Charles, and in assistance and in any cause so as one {man) by 
 right his brotlier ought to assist in such a manner as he may do to me; and with 
 Lothar I will not enter into any treaty {placitum) which to me, or to this my 
 brother Charles, can be an injury. 
 
 Oath of Charles's army, in Romanic or Old French. 
 
 Si Lodhuvigs sagrament quae son fradre Karlo jurat conservat, et Karlus meos 
 sendra de suo part non lo stanit, si io returnar non lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo 
 returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li iver. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 If Lewis keeps the oath which to his brother Charles he swore, and Charles my 
 Seignior (Lord) on his part does not keep it, if I cannot prevent him, neither I, 
 nor any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance against Lewis. 
 
 Oath of Lewis's army, in Francic or Old German. 
 
 Oha Karl then eid, then cr sinemo bruodher Ludhuuuige gesuor geleistit, indi 
 Ludhuuuig min herro then er imo gesuor fovbrihchit, ob ih inan es iruucndon ne 
 mag, noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es iruuenden mag, uuidhai" Karle imo ce 
 follusti ne uuirdhu. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Wenn Karl den Eid, den er seincm Bruder Ludwig schwur, leistet (halt) und 
 Lndwig, mein Hen* (den Eid), den er ihm schwur, bricht, wenn ich ihn davou 
 abwenden (abhalten),nicht kann, (so) werden weder ich, noch deren einer, den ich 
 davon abwenden (abhalten}_kann ihm wider Knrl zu Hiilfe nicht seyn (beistelin). 
 
130 HIGH-GERMAN — OTFRID, A.D. 850. X. 11, 12. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 If Charles keeps the oath, vrhich he swore (to) his hrother Lewis, and Lewis my 
 Lord breaks the (oath) which he swore (to) him, in case I cannot prevent him, 
 (then) neither I, nor any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance 
 against Charles. 
 
 11. Rhabanus Maurus, born at Mayence in 776, became a celebrated 
 teacher at Fulda. His attention was attracted to the German language, 
 and, in a council at Mayence, a.d. 848, he succeeded in passing a canon 
 that in future the clergy should preach in Romanic [French) or Theotisc 
 [German). He died, Archbishop of Mayence, Feb. 4th, 856. Rhabanus 
 Maurus compiled Glossce Latino harharicce de partihns humani corporis 
 Goldast script, rerum Alemannic, vol. i.p. 66 — QQ. — Glossarium Latino 
 Theodiscum in totd Bihlid V. et N, Test. Goldast. id. 
 
 12, Otfrid belonged to the Alemanni or Suabians, and was educated 
 at Fulda under Rhabanus Maurus. He was a Benedictine monk at 
 Weissenburg in Alsace, a learned theologian, philosopher, orator, and 
 poet, who flourished between 840 and 870. Otfrid wrote in rhyme 
 a poetical paraphrase of the Gospels in Alemannic, his native language, 
 to banish the profane songs of the common people. In this work there 
 is a disregard of chronological order, for the poet seems to have written 
 down the circumstances as they came into his mind. The MS. was first 
 discovered by Beatus Rhenanus in the monastery of Freisingen, near 
 Munich ; there are two other MSS., one at Heidelburg, and the other 
 at Vienna. It was first published by Flaccius flllericus), at Basle, 1571, 
 in ScJiilter''s Thes. vol. i. with Scherz's annotations ; also at Bonn in 4to. 
 Bonner Bruchstuche vom Otfried, durch H. Hojfmann von Fallerslehen, 
 1821. Again in 4to. by E. G. Graff, Konigsherg, 1831, under the title 
 of Krist. 
 
 Otfrid' s Krist. 
 Sehet these fogala. thie hiar fliagent ohana. 
 
 zi akare sie ni gangent. ioh ouh uuiht ni spinnent 
 Thoh ni bristit in thes. zi uuaru thoh ginuages. 
 
 rii sie sih ginerien. ioh scono giuuerien. 
 Biginnet ana scouuon. thie fronisgon bluomon. 
 
 thar liiiti after uuege gent, thie in themo akare stent. 
 Salomon ther richo. ni uuatta sih gilicho. 
 
 thaz sagen ih iu in ala uuar. so ein thero bluomono thar. 
 
 Krist hij Graff, ii. 22, 9 : p. 165, 9. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Sehet diese vogel, die hier fliegen oben. 
 
 Zum acker sie nicht gehen, und auch nichts nicht spinnen, 
 
 Doch nicht fehlt ihnen etwas, furwahr zum geniigen, 
 
 Nicht sie sich ernahren, mid schon gewahren. 
 
 Beginnet anzuschauen, die herrlichen blumen 
 
 (Wo leute nach wege gehen) di in dem acker stehen : 
 
 Salomon der reiche, nicht kleidete (wattete) sich gleich massig 
 
 Das sage ich ench in aller wahrheit, so wie eine der blumen dar. 
 
X. 13, 14. HIGH-GERMAN — LUDWIGSLIED, A.D. 883. 131 
 
 LITEKAL ENGLISH. 
 
 See these fowls, which hero fly above. 
 
 To the field they go not (i. e. Ihey till not), and also nothing sphi. 
 
 Yet want not any thing, they truly have enough. 
 
 They do not nourish themselves, nor make fine. 
 
 Begin to look on tlic splendid flowers 
 
 (After which people go) standhig in the field : 
 
 Solomon, the rich, did not dress (wodded) himself like 
 
 (That say I to you, in all truth) one of the flowers there. 
 
 13. MuspiLLi, a fragment of an old High-German alliterative Poem on 
 the end of the world, from a MS. of the middle of the 9th century, in 
 the Royal Lihrary at Munich, published by J. A. Schmeller, Munich^ 
 1832. 
 
 . . . Dar ni mac denne mak andremo 
 helfan* uora demo niuspille* denne* daz 
 preita uuasal allaz uar prinnit' enti uugir 
 enti luft iz allaz arfurpit ; uuar ist denne 
 diu marha dar man dar heo" mit sinen ma 
 gon piehc ; 
 
 Thus arranged and corrected by Schmeller. 
 Dar ni mac denne mak andremo helfan vora demo Muspille, 
 
 Denne daz preita wasal allaz varprinnit, 
 
 enti viur enti luft iz allaz arfurpit, 
 
 war ist denne diu marha, dar man dar eo mit sinen magon piehc i* 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 : . . Da mag Kein Mage dcm anderen 
 helfen vor dem Muspille wenn die 
 breite Erdfliiche ganz verbrennet, und Feuer 
 und Luft ist ganz vervvorfen ; wo ist dann 
 die marke, darum man hier mit seinen niagen strit ? 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 . . . Then may no kindred assist the other 
 for the Muspille. When the 
 broad surface of the earth all is burning, and fire 
 and air are all cast away ; where is then 
 the mark about which one has been quaiTelling here with his relatives i* 
 
 14. LuDWiGSLiED, a German heroic song by an unknown author, in 
 praise of the East-Francic King Lewis III. in the year a. d. 883. The 
 MS. was originally at St. Amand, near Tournay, but it is now lost. It 
 was published first in Schilter\s TIics., then by Doccn, Munich, 1813, and 
 in 1835 in IVackernagePs Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, p. 40. 
 
 HEROIC SONG. 
 
 Sang uuas gesungen. Thar vaht thegeno gelih, 
 
 Uuig uuas bigunnen : Nichein so so Hluduuig : 
 
 Bluot skein in uuangon, Snel indi kuoni, 
 
 Spilod under vrankon. Thaz uuas imo gckunui. 
 
132 HIGH-GERMAN— NOTKEK, 1020. X. 15 — 17. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Sang war gesungen. Da focht Degen (heroes) gleich 
 
 Kampf war begonnen, Keiner so me Ludwig, 
 
 Blut schien in Wangen Schnell nnd kiihn, 
 
 Kampfender Franken. Das war ihm angeboren. 
 
 Schiller, Thes. vol. ii. p. 17. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Song was sung, There fought like a hero 
 
 Fight was begun : Not one so as Lewis, 
 
 Blood shone in the cheeks Quick and bold, 
 
 Of fighting Francs. Which was in him inborn. 
 
 15. Saxon Emperoes. During the reign of the Saxon emperors, from 
 919 till 1024, literature and science made some progress. The Otloes 
 valued and loved the sciences, and patronised Gerbert, the most learned 
 man of their time. Gerbert became pope under the name Silvester II. 
 and died 1003. 
 
 16. NoTKER wrote in the period of the Saxon emperors. The only- 
 important monument in High-German literature of this age, is a translation 
 and commentary on the Psalms by this learned monk, Notker of St. Gallen. 
 He was called Labeo, from his broad lips. His Alemannic translation is 
 free and natural ; and, as it respects power and strength of expression, it 
 equals the best modern translation. Notker died in 1022. His work 
 was published in Schilter''s Thes. vol. i. 
 
 Psalm i. 
 1. Beatus vir qui non ahiit in consilio impiorum, 
 Der man ist salig, der in dero argon rat ne gegieng. 
 
 So Adam teta, do er dero chenun rates folgeta uuider Goto, Sicut adam 
 fecit, cum mulieris consilium sequeretur adversus Deum. 
 Et in via peccatorum non stetit. 
 
 Noh an dero sundigon uuege ne stuont. 
 
 So er teta. Er cham dar ana, er cham an den breiten uueg ter ze hello 
 gat, unde stuont dar ana, uuanda er hangta sinero geluste. Heugendo 
 stuont er. Sicut idem fecit. Processit eo, processitadviam latam qui ad 
 Infernum ducit, et stetit ibi, namque pendebat d concupiscentid sua. 
 Pendulus stetit. 
 Et in cathedra pestilentice non stetit. 
 Noh an demo suhtstuole ne saz. 
 
 Ill meino daz er richeson ne uuolta, uuanda diu suht sturet sie nah alle. 
 So sie adamen teta, do er Got uuolta uuerden. Pestis chit latine pecora 
 stemens (fieo niderslahinde) so pestis sih kebreitet, so ist iz pestilentia, 
 i.e. late peruagata pestis (uuito uuallonde sterbo) . Intelligo, quodguber- 
 nare, (pro tribunali) noUet. JVamqiie h(sc pestis corripuit fere omnes, 
 sicut Adamo fecit, quum vellet Deus fieri. Pestis dicitur Latine, quasi 
 pecora stemens. Quando pestis se dilatat, dicitur Pestilentia, i. e. late 
 pervagata pestis. 
 
 17. After the extinction of the Saxon emperors, the line of Saltan 
 Francs governed in Germany from a.d. 1024 to 1125. The authors of 
 this period generally wrote in Latin. Adam, called Bremcnsis, born 
 
X. 18, 10. HIGH-GERMAN— BOETHIUS, 1024. 133 
 
 at Meissen, Canon at Bremen, wrote in Latin a History of the Church 
 wliicli gives an account of Hamburg and Bremen, from the time of 
 Charlemagne to Henry IV. It is of great value for the history of North 
 Germany. 
 F" 18. German literature had very few monuments in the time of the 
 Salian Francs : the language is very stiff and mixed with Latin. The 
 few specimens of German, in this period, are translations, such as the 
 version of Boethius and Aristotle, by an unknown monk of St. Gallon, 
 and tlie paraphrase of Canlicum Canticorum by Willcram. E. G. Graff, 
 in his Allhochdeutschen Sprachschatz, vol. i. No. I. pref p. xxxvi. 4to. 
 Berlin, 1834, mentions a St. Gallon MS. of the 10th and 11th century, 
 containing an old High-German translation of Boethius Cons. Philos., 
 and gives a specimen of this translation. The following extract is in- 
 teresting, from the additions which the monk makes to the Latin text of 
 Boethius,* showing the astronomical knowledge of his time. 
 
 Boethius. 
 Uuir uuizen. daztia erda daz uuazer umbe gat. unde der fierdo toil nahor obenan 
 erbarot ist. an demo sizzent tie mennisken. Ter himelleret unsih. taz iz ter fierdo 
 teil ist. Alle die astronomiam cbunnen. diebecbennent taz icquinoctialis zona den 
 himel rehto in zuei teilet. unde fone iro ze dien uzerosten polis iouueder halb 6ben 
 filo ist ih meino ze demo septentrionali. unde ze demo australi. So ist tiu erda 
 sinuuelbiu. unde ist uns unchunt. ube si. undenan erbarot si. obenan dar si erbarot 
 ist. tar sizzent tie liute ab ajtbiopico oceano. usque ad scitbicum oceanum. Tie 
 ferrost sizzent ad austrum. die sizzent in ajtbiopicis insulis. tien ist tiu sunna obe 
 houbete. so si gat uzer ariete in uenio tempore, unde so si beginnet kan in libram 
 in autumno. — Graffs Sprachschatz, pref, p. xxxvi. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 We know that the water goes round the earth, and the fourth part above is bare ; 
 on it sit the men. The heaven learns {teaches) us that it is the fourth part. All, 
 who know astronomy, confess that the equinoctial zone divides the heaven right in 
 two, and that from it to the ntteraiost pole of each half is an equal distance, 1 mean 
 to the north, and to the south. So is the earth round, and it is to us unknown, if it 
 be bare undeniealb; above, where it is bare, there sit the people from the Ethiopian 
 ocean to tlie Scythian ocean. The farthest sitting to the south, they sit in Ethiopian 
 islands ; to those is the sun over head, when he goes out of Aries in the spring, and 
 when he begins to go into Libra in autumn. 
 
 19. Parable of tlie Sower, in old High-German, taken from MS. 
 fragments of Homilies in the Imperial liibrary at Vienna, written at the 
 beginning of the 11th century, and printed in iMmbccsii Commeniariis, 
 &c. 2nd edit. 1. 11, p. 550 : ScJiilter, vol. i. p. 76, at the end. 
 
 Lk. 8. — Unser Herro der almahtige Got der spricbet in desmi Euangelio, suenne 
 der acchirman sait sinen samen, so fellit sumelicbis pi demo uuege, unde uuirdit 
 firtretin, oder is essant die uogile. 
 
 • Boethius de consolatione pliilosophia", 12mo. Lugd. Batavorum, 16.j6, p. 42, Prosa7. — 
 King AliVed's Anglo-Saxon Translation, with an excellent English Version by Cardale, 
 ch. xviii. 1, p. 95. 
 
134 
 
 HIGH-GERMAN— ST. ANNO, A.D. 1090. 
 
 X. 20, 21. 
 
 \'- 
 
 20. WiLLERAM was educated at Fulda. He died 1085, abbot of the 
 monastery Ebersberg in Bavaria, and probably composed his Paraphrase 
 between 1070 and 1084. MSS. are preserved at Vienna, Breslaw, 
 Stuttgard, Einsiedeln, published with this title, Willerami Ahhatis in 
 Canticum Canticorum paraphrasis, Latina et veteri lingua Francica, ed. 
 P. Merula, Leyden, 1598, and by F. Vogelin, Worms, 1631, and in 
 Schiller's Thes. Also by Hoffman, Breslaw, 1827. 
 
 Sage mir uuine rnin. uua du dine scaf luieidenes. uua du ruouues umbe mitten dag. 
 Uinbe uuaz biten ih des ? Daz ih niet irre ne beginne gen. unter den corteron dinero 
 o-esellon. Kunde mir o sponse. den ih mit alien chreften minno. uuer die uerae fidei 
 doctores sin. die dine scaf uuisen ad pascua uitse. unte die solich sin. daz du in iro 
 herzen dir hereberga macbest. uute sie beskirmes ab omni feruore temptationis. — 
 Schilter's Thes. vol. i. p. 6, i7i fine. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Sage mir, mein Geliebter, wo du deine Schafe weidest, wo du ruhest urn Mittag. 
 Warum warte icb dessen ? dass icb nichtirre nocbfehl gebe unter den Hiirden deiner 
 Gesellen. Verkiinde mir, o Gespons, den icb aus alien Kraften liebe, wer die verae 
 fidei doctores sind, die deine Scbafe weisen ad pascua vitse, und die solche sind, dass 
 du in ihren Herzen Herberge macbest und sie beschirmstab omni fervoretemptationis. 
 
 VERBAI, ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Say to me, my beloved, where thou pasturest thy sheep, where thou restest at 
 midday. For what ask I this ? That I may not err, nor begin to go among the 
 number of thy companions. Inform me, bridegroom, whom I love with all might, 
 who are the teachers of true faith, who show thy sheep to the pastures of life, and 
 who are such that you make dwellings in their hearts, and shelter them from all heat 
 of temptation. 
 
 21. St. Anno. The praise of the archbishop of Cologne, St. Anno, 
 who died 1075, concludes this period. The writer is unknown, but this 
 poem was probably composed, soon after St. Anno's death, before the end of 
 the 11 th century. It is in rhyme, and consists of forty-nine stanzas, written, 
 as Herzog says, in the Loiv-Rhinish or Francic dialect (Nieder Rhinisch). 
 Meusel calls it Alemannic. Fragments of this poem were first published 
 by Martin Opitz, 1639, who discovered them at Breslaw. The MS. is 
 lost. It was printed by Schiller and others, and in 1816 by Goldmann. 
 All the latter editions depend on the first incorrect publication. 
 
 MAN S INGRATITUDE, 
 
 Mit bluomin cierint sich diu lant, 
 mit loube dekkit sich der wait ; 
 daz wilt habit den sinin ganc, 
 scone ist der vogd sane : 
 ein iwelich ding die e noch havit, 
 diemi got van erist virgab : 
 newsere die zuei gescephte, 
 di her gescuoph die bezziste, 
 die virkerten sich in die dobeheit : 
 dannin huobin sich diu leith. 
 
 Wackernagel, p. 117. 
 
 LITERAL GERMAN. 
 
 Mit Blumen zieren sich die Lande, 
 
 Mit Laube decket sich der Wald, 
 
 Das Wild hat seinen Gang 
 
 Schon ist der Vogelsang ; 
 
 Ein jeglich Ding das Gesetz noch hat. 
 
 Das ihm Gott zuerst gab. 
 
 Nur die zwei Geschopfe, 
 
 Die er schuf die besten. 
 
 Die verkehrten sich in die Tollheit, 
 
 Davon erhub sich das Leid. 
 
X. 22 — 24. HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, NIBELUNGEN, A.D. 1150. 135 
 
 POETICAL VERSION. 
 
 The flow'rs adorn the fields. Save the two latest born. 
 
 Green leaves bedeck the groves, Whom noblest, best, he framed ; 
 
 The beasts their courses run. They spurn his high command. 
 
 Soft rings the sweet bird's song: And turn to folly's course. 
 
 All things obey tlie laws From hence began the pain.* 
 That God creating gave, 
 
 22. Te Deum of the 12th century.^ 
 
 Prof. Grafl" observes tliat the MS. is of the 12th century. It was 
 originally the properly of the monastery of St. Maria at Windberg, and 
 contains many very rare words and expressions. The following extract 
 is from the MS. in the Royal Library at Munich. It is inserted in the 
 Diuiiska of Prof. C. G. Graff, vol. iii. No. III. p. 459. 
 
 Daz lobesanch dere saligen bischoue den si sungen 
 
 Yinuus beatorum episcoporum Ambrosii et Augustini qttem cantaverunt 
 
 deme herren wehsellichen unter in lure die becherde des uileheiteren lerares 
 
 domino vicissim inter se pro conversione preclari doctoris 
 
 unde uateres. Dih got wir loben Dih herren wir ueriehen dih ewigen 
 et patrisAugiistini. Te deum laudanms te dominum confitemur. Te ceternum 
 
 uater elliu diu erde erwiitlit. Dir alle engile dir die himile unde alle 
 patrem omnis terra veneratiir. Tibi omnes angeli tibi ccvll et univtrsce 
 
 yualte Dir die guizzeneuolle. unde die minnetiurige mit untuallicher stimme 
 
 potestates. Tibi cherubim et seraphim incessabili voce 
 
 furruolFent. Heiliger heiliger heiliger herro got dere here. Voile sint himile 
 proclamant. Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus dominus deus sabaoth. Pleni sunt cceli 
 unde erde dere magenchrefte eren diner. 
 
 et terra maiestatis gloria tu<e. 
 
 Minnesingers. I 
 
 23. German national jioetry and prose compositions, from the l'2th 
 to the I4:th century. The Hohenstauflfen or Suabian race of German 
 emperors were great admirers and promoters of literature. Frederic I., 
 Henry VI., Frederic II. and Conrad IV. were themselves poets, as well as 
 the patrons of Minnesingers. A few of the chief Minnesingers and other 
 authors will now be mentioned. 
 
 24. Tlie Nihehingen Lied, or Song of the Nibelungen, is one of the 
 most ancient and perfect Suabian epic poems. Pelegrin, bishop of Passaii, 
 who died in 991, is supposed to have collected the story oi ihc Nibeliinyen, 
 and to have written it in Latin by the aid of his scribe Conrad. The 
 present poem is probably founded upon the Latin, and apparently written 
 by Henry of Ofterdingen, about the middle of the 12lh century. The 
 following specimen and the l^nglish version are from the interesting 
 
 * This flowinsf and spirited translation, with some others that follow, is taken from 
 Lays of the Minmsitiffer.t, 8vo. Lonjifman, London, 182.5, a valuable little work, whitli is 
 full of interesting: information respecting the i\Iinnesingers, and contains many beautifid 
 specimens of their poetry. 
 
 t See § 1, for a specimen of the Te Deum in German of the 8th centurj'. 
 
 * Minne love Sanger singer. 
 
136 HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, RISPACH, A.D. 1207. X. 25 — 27. 
 
 work, ^^ Lays of the Minnesingers^'' p. 114: the substance of the extract 
 will be found in the edition of van der Hagen, 8vo. Berlin, 1807, p. 47, 
 verse 1145. 
 
 SONG OF THE NIBELUNGEN. 
 
 Sain der liehte mane 
 Vor der sternen stat, 
 Der schin so luterliche 
 Ab' den wolchen gat, 
 Dem stunt si nu geliche 
 Vor maneger vrowen gut. 
 Des wart da wol gehohet 
 Den zieren belden der mut. 
 
 FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 And as the beaming moon 
 Rides high the stars among, 
 And moves with lustre mild 
 The mirky clouds along ; 
 So, midst her maiden throng. 
 Up rose that matchless fair ; 
 And higher swell'd the soul 
 Of many a hero there. 
 
 25. Walter ron der Vogelweide, of Thurgau in Switzerland, flourished 
 from 1190 to 1227. 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 Do der sumer komen was, 
 Und die bluomen dur das gras 
 Wunneklich entsprungen, 
 Und die vogel sungen, &c. 
 
 X 
 
 FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 'Twas summer — through the opening grass 
 The joyous flowers up sprang. 
 The birds in all their diffrent tribes 
 Loud in the woodlands sang. 
 
 Minnesingers, p. 206. 
 
 26. Grave Chunrad von Kilchherg or Kirchherg, of Suabia, wrote in 
 the latter part of the I2th century. 
 
 ON MAY. 
 
 Meige ist komen in du lant, 
 
 Der ims ie von sorgen bant : 
 
 Kinder, kinder, sint gemant ! 
 
 Wir sun schouwen wunne manigvalde ; 
 
 Uf der liehten heide breit 
 
 Da bat er uns fur gespreit 
 
 Manig bluemelin gemeit. 
 
 Erst bezeiget in dem gruenen walde ; 
 
 Da hort man die nahtegal, 
 
 Uf dem bluenden rise, 
 
 Singen lobelichen schal, &c. 
 
 FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 May, sweet May, again is come. 
 May that frees the land from gloom ; 
 Children, children, up and see 
 All her stores of jollity ! 
 On the laughing hedgerow's side 
 She hath spread her treasures wide ', 
 She is in the greenwood shade, 
 Where the nightingale hath made 
 Every branch and every tree 
 Ring with her sweet melody. 
 
 Minnesingers, p. 141. 
 
 27. Henry Rispach, commonly 
 virtuous Clerk, lived about 1207. 
 
 THE lover's LAMENT. 
 
 Es ist in den wait gesungen 
 Das ich ir genaden klage 
 Du mill hei'ze hat betwungen 
 Und nob twinget alle tage. 
 
 Mi ist sam der nahtegal, 
 Du so vil vergebne sin get, 
 Und ir dob ze leste bringet 
 Niht wan schaden ir suezer schal. 
 
 styled Der tugendhafte Schreiber the 
 
 FREE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. 
 
 The woodlands with my songs resound, 
 
 As still I seek to gahi 
 The favours of that lady fair 
 
 Who causeth all my pain. 
 
 My fate is like the nightingale's 
 
 That singeth all night long. 
 While still the woodlands mournfully 
 
 But echo back her song. 
 
 Minnesingers, p. 144. 
 
X. 28 — 30. HIGH-GERMAN— MINNESINGERS, NIFEN, 1235. 
 
 137 
 
 28. WiRNT VON Grafenberg wrote a poem styled, Wigalois^ about 
 1212. MSS. are preserved at Cologne, Leyden, Bremen, and Hamburg, 
 A very valuable edition was published in Svo. by Bcnecke^ Berlin, 
 1819. 
 
 Artus Hofhaltung. 
 Ez was hie vor, so man seit, 
 Ein Kunech der ie nach Erenstrcit ; 
 Des Name witen was evkant. 
 Britanie hiez sin Lant ; 
 Selbc hicz er Artus. 
 Ze Karidol da het er Hus. 
 INIit solhen Freuden stunt ez do, 
 Daz uns daz nu machet fro. 
 
 Court of King Arthur. 
 Heretofore there was, as men say, 
 A king who always for honour fought. 
 Whose name was widely known. 
 Britain was called bis land. 
 He himself was called Arthur. 
 At Karidol there had he a house. 
 With such delights it stood there 
 That it now gives us pleasure. 
 
 Herzog, p. 79. 
 
 29. GoTFRiT VON NiFEN, a Suabian nobleman, wrote about the year 
 1235. The following specimen is taken from Benecke's AddUions to 
 Bodmer^s Versuche iiber die alte schuabische Poesie, Zurich, 1748. 
 
 SPRING. 
 
 Nu woluf ! griissen 
 Wir den siissen, 
 Der uns biissen 
 Wil des winters pin ; 
 Der uns wil bringen 
 Vogelin singen, 
 Bliimen springen, 
 Und der sunnen schin. 
 Da man sach e 
 Den kalten sue, 
 Da siht man gras. 
 Von touwe nas, 
 Bruevent das 
 Blumen unde der kle. 
 
 FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Up, up, let us greet 
 
 The season so sweet, 
 
 For winter is gone ; 
 And the flowers are springing. 
 And little birds singing. 
 Their soft notes ringing. 
 
 And bright is the sun ! 
 
 Where all was drest 
 
 In a snowy vest, 
 There grass is gi'owing. 
 With dew-drops glowing. 
 
 And flowers are seen 
 
 On beds so green. 
 
 Minnesingers, p. 155. 
 
 30. A NOTICE of the following didactic poems in tbe old High-German 
 dialect cannot be omitted. 1. Der Ktinig Tyrol von Schotten und seiii 
 sohn Fridebrant, Ki/i(/ Tyrol of Scotland and his son Fridchrant. 
 2. Der Winsbeke an sinen sun, Winsheke to his son. 3. Du(i) Wins- 
 bekin an ir Tohter, Winshekin to her daughter . These three are by 
 unknown authors, but they most likely belong to the beginning (^{ the 
 13lh century. Tliey are printed in Schiltcr, vol. ii. ; and in Alnnesse^s 
 Co/lection. 4. Frigedanks Bescheidenheit, Sentiments and Sentences. 
 Whether Frigedank be the real or fictitious name of the author, is very- 
 doubtful. The poem was written before 1230. Published by Sebastian 
 Brand, Strasburg, 1508, 4to., and lately by IV. Grimm. These didactic 
 poems, particularly the latter, are distinguished by elevated and philo- 
 sophical views of life. 
 
 * 
 
138 HIGH-GERMAN — SCHWABEN-SPIEGEL, 1250. X. 31. 
 
 DER WINSBEKE. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Sun ellu wisheit ist ein wiht. Son all wisdom is nothing, 
 
 Dii lierze sin ertrahten kan, (Thy heart can do without it) 
 
 Hat er ze Gote minne niht. If to God it has no love, 
 
 Vnd siht in niht mit vorhten an. And do not look to him in fear. 
 
 Schilters Thes. vol. ii. p. 20, in fine. 
 
 FRIGEDANKS BESCHEIDENHEIT. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Gote dienen ane Wank God serving without in'esolution 
 
 Deist aller Wisheit Anvank. That is of all wisdom the beginning. 
 
 Der hat sich selben betrogen He has deceived himself 
 
 Und zimbert uf den Regenbogen. Who builds upon the rainbow. 
 
 31. Schwaben-Spiegel, or Suahian Mirror, the Alemannic provincial 
 law, probably compiled in the 13tli century. Published in Schilter^s 
 Thes. vol. ii. 
 
 Introduction to the Laws. 
 Herre Got himelischer Vater, durch din milte gute geschufte du den men- 
 schen mit drivaltiger wirdikeit. 
 
 2. Diu erst ist daz er nach dir gebildet ist. 
 
 3. Daz ist auch ain alz groz uuirdikeit, der dir allez menschen kunne ymmer 
 sunderlichen danken sol, uuan dez haben uuir groz reht, Vil lieber heiTe himelis- 
 cher Vater sit du unz zu diner hohen gothait also unirdiciich geedelt hast. 
 
 4. Diu ander uuirdikeit ist da du Herr almachtiger Schopfer den menschen zu 
 geschaffen hast, daz du alle die uuelt die sunnen und den maun die sterne und diu 
 vier elemente, fiur, uuazzer, luft, erde, die vogel in den luften, die vische in dem 
 uuage, diu tier in dem uualde, die uuurme in der erde, golt, silber, edelgestain und 
 der edeln uuurtze suzzer smak, der plumen liehtiu varuue, der baume frucht korn 
 und alle creatur, daz haust du herre allez dem menschen ze nutze und ze dienst 
 geschaffen durch die triuuue und durch die minne die du zu dem menschen hetest. 
 
 5. Diu dritt uuirdikait ist da du Herr den menschen mit geedelt hast, daz ist 
 diu daz der mensche die uuirde und ere und freude und uuunn die du selb hist 
 vmmer mit dir euuiclich niezzen sol. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Lord God, heavenly father, by thy kind goodness, creates! thou man with 
 threefold dignity. 
 
 2. The first is, that he after thee is foraied. 
 
 3. That is such a gi'eat dignity, for which all mankind always particularly shall 
 thank thee, for which we have great right (obligation), much beloved Lord, heavenly 
 father, since thou to thy high Godhead hast so honourably ennobled us. 
 
 4. The second dignity to which thou. Lord, almighty Creator, hast formed man, 
 is that thou, all the world, the sun and moon, the stars, and the four elements, fire, 
 water, air, earth, the fowls in the air, the fish in the waves, the animals in the wood, 
 the worms on the earth, gold, silver, and precious stones, and the sweet flavour 
 of costly spices, the shining colour of flowers, the fruit of the trees, corn, and all 
 creatures, hast, the Lord, created for the use and service of man, by the favour 
 and love which thou badst to man. 
 
 5. The third dignity with which thou. Lord, hast ennobled man is this, that 
 man shall enjoy the dignity and honour and pleasure and delight which thou thy- 
 self art (hast) always and eternally with thee. 
 
X. 32—38. HIGH-GEKMAN — PARABLE OF THE SOWER, 1462. 139 
 
 32. The Edelstein, or the Gem, a collection of fables by Boner, 
 a Dominican monk whose name is often mentioned in documents from 
 1321 — 134J). An excellent edition of the Edelstein, with a Glossary, is 
 given by Prof. G. F. Beiielce, of Gottingen, published at Berlin, 181G, 
 8vo. 
 
 Von einem Hund und cinem Esel. Of a Dog and an Ass. 
 
 ( Von unbedachter JVarre/ceit.) ( Unthinking folly.) 
 
 Wei rechter Tore desbegert. He (is) a complete fool, who asks 
 
 Des sin Nature in nicht gewert. What his nature does not grant, 
 
 Der mag des wol entgelten. He may for it well suffer. 
 
 Dar zu sol man in schelten. Besides that we shall hlame him, 
 
 Der sich des Dinges nimet an, Who undertakes a thing, 
 
 Das sin Geslechte nie gewau. Which his species never acquired. 
 
 Was du Nature hat gegeben, What nature has given 
 
 Dam mag der Mensch kmn wider stre- Man may hardly oppose. 
 
 hen. Herzog, p. 144. 
 
 33. The following specimens show, from the year 1400, the gradual 
 formation of the modern German. As best indicating the change in the 
 language, the extracts are chiefly given from the same passage of the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 34. The Gospels {Evangelien iiher al daz Jar) from a MS. at 
 Munich of the 13th century. 
 
 Lk. viii. 3. — (Do einmichel Menig chom zu Jesu, und von den Steteneilten zu 
 im, do sprach er ei Bispel:) Der Ackerman gi aus seen sinen Samen. — 4. Und do 
 er ge seet, do viel eiu Sam pi dem Weg und ward vertreten und gazzen in di Vogel. 
 
 35. The Epistles and Gospels in High-German (Hoch-Teutsch), 
 " Lectio7ies, Epistoloi et Evangelia per annum^'' a.d. 1431, from a MS. 
 at Munich. 
 
 Lk. viii. 3. — (Do ain raichel menig cham zue iesu vnd von den stetten eilten zv 
 ira do sprach er ain peichspill) der Akchcrman gic aus siien seinen samen. — 4. Vnd 
 do er gesciett, do viell aiu sam peij dem weg vnd ward vertreten und azzn in auch 
 die vogel. 
 
 36. Gospels for every day of the year {Evangelien auf alle Tage des 
 Jahres), from a MS. at Munich, about 1450. Domin. Sexagesima. 
 
 Lk. viii. 3. — Do ein michl menig chom zu jhm vnd vo de stetn eylten zu jm do 
 sprach er ein peyspill d' ackerman gye aus sand sein same, — 4. vnd do er gesat do 
 viel ein same pey de weg vnd wart vertretten vnd gassn jn auch die vogl. 
 
 37. Ain Postil uher dij Evangelij, from a MS. at Munich, about 14G0. 
 Lk. viii. 3. — (Vnd da das volck nu chom zu im da hueb er auf und sagt in ain 
 
 peyspil vnd sprach) Es gie ain man aus zu ainen zeitn vnd sat, 4. vnd da er nu 
 ward seen da viel ain sam zu dem weg vnd der ward vertreten vnd dartzu komcn 
 die vogel und assn den samen. 
 
 38. Bible in High-German {teutsche Blbel). One of the earliest 
 Bibles, but without date; some say it was printed at Mayence, 1462, 
 others at Strasburg, 1466. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hurt secht der Seer gieng aus ze seen. 4. Vnd do er sect : der ein. 
 viel bey dem Weg, vnd die Vogel des Himels kamen vnd assen jn. 
 
140 HIGH-GERMAN — PARABLE OF THE SOWER, 15Q2. X. 39 — 48. 
 
 89. A Plenarium {Sammlung der Episteln und Evangelien), Augs- 
 burg, 1473. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Er get auss der da saen will seinen samen vn sat, 4. Vnd als er 
 saet, das ein felt in den weg. vnd wirt vertratten, vnd die Vogel des hymels die 
 essent es auff. 
 
 40. Plenarium, Augsburg, 1474. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Der ist aussgangen der daseetzu seen seinen somen, — 4. Vn als er 
 seet da ist einer gefallen an den weg vnnd ist getretten worden, vnnd auch die vogel 
 des himels habendt den gegessen. 
 
 41. Bible iteiitsch), Augsburg, 1476. 
 
 Mk. iv. — Hort secht d' da seet der ist aussgegange ze seen. Vnd da er seet. 
 der ein viel bey dem weg vn die vogel des hymels kamen vnd assen in. 
 
 42. Bible {teutsch), Augsburg, 1487. 
 
 Mk. iv. — Hort. secht. der do seet, der ist aussgegangen ze seen. Vnd do er 
 seet. der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnd assen jn. 
 
 43. Bible, printed by H. Scbonsperger, Augsburg, 1490. 
 
 Mk. iv. — Hort. sehet. der da saet. d' ist aussgegangen ze saen. Vnnd da er 
 saet. der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnnd assen jn. 
 
 44. Gospels, Strasburg, 1517. 
 
 Lk. viii. — Do zuomal als vil volcks gesamme kam zu Jesu, vn v5 de stette zu 
 im ylte. Jn der zeit da sagt er ine ein gleichniss Der da seiet d' ist vssgangen zu 
 seen seinen some. Vn als der seet da ist etlichs gefalle in de weg, vn ist zertrette 
 worden vn die vogel des himels haben es gessen. 
 
 45. Dr. Keiserssberg's Postil, Strasburg, 1522. 
 
 Am Sonnentag Sexagesima3. Horet (sprach der her) nement war, der d' do 
 seyet ist vssgange zu seyen seine some. Vn so er seyt, ist d' ander som gefalle vffde 
 weg. (secus via, nit neben den weg. er wer sust I de acker gefalle) vn ist zertrette 
 worde v6 den wadleren, vn die fogel des himels seind kumen vn habendden vfFgessen. 
 
 46. New Testament, Zurich, 1524. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Horend zu, sich es gieng ein sayer vss zu sayen, vn es begab sich 
 in dem er sayet, hel etlichs an den weg, do koraend die vogel vnder dem himel 
 vnd frassends vfF. 
 
 47. Bible, by Dr. I. Eck, Ingolstadt, 1537. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Horet zu, Sihe, Ainer der da saiet, gieg auss : zu saien : — 4. Vnd 
 in dem er saiet. fiel etlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel des lufts vnd frassens auf. 
 
 48. New Testament {Deutssch), Wittenberg, 1522. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Horet zu, Sihe, Es, gieng eyn seeman aus zu seen, — 4. vnd es 
 begab sich, ynn dem er seet, fiel ettlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel vnter dem 
 hymel vnd frassens auf. 
 
X. 49 — 53. HIGH-GERMAN — LUTHER's BIBLE, 1545. 141 
 
 49. History of the Gospels {Eiangelisch Hijstori), by Otlimaien 
 Nachtgall, Augsburg, 1525. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Es was ainer ausgegangen zu seen seynen Somen, — 4. Vnnder dem 
 ainer gefallen was aufT den Weg, vn, zertretten worden, audi hetten in die Vogel 
 des Hymels auflgesseu. 
 
 50. Bible, Zurich, 1530. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Horend zu, siho, es gieng ein Siiycr auss ze sayen, — 4. vnd es 
 begab sich in dem er sayet. Gel elliches an den wag, do kamend die vogel vnder dem 
 himel vnd frassends auf. 
 
 51. The present German language* (Hoch-Deutsch) has a greater 
 affinity to the Aleraannic and Francic than to the Platt-Deutsch. This 
 inclination towards the High-German, or southerly branch of the German 
 dialects, arose from the influence of Luther at the Reformation. Luther 
 was Professor of Divinity at Wittenherg, where the high dialect prevailed, 
 and in which he wrote his translation of the Bible. The New Testament, 
 first published in 1523, and the old Testament, from 1523 to 1534, was 
 revised, and the whole Bible published, from 1541 to 1545. This revised 
 translation soon became generally known, and the numerous students that 
 crowded Wittenberg to benefit by the lectures of Luther, and subse- 
 quently dispersed into the different provinces, carried with them this 
 High-German version, and a predilection for this dialect. Thus High- 
 German became generally known, and was adopted as the language of 
 the church, the learned, and the press. This tongue spread with the 
 Reformation, and as it advanced in extent it increased in perfection, till 
 it has become one of the most cultivated and extensive of all the Gothic 
 or Teutonic dialects. It not only prevails in the German confederacy, 
 but in the north of Switzerland, Alsace, in a great part of Hungary, 
 Transylvania, Bohemia, the kingdom of Prussia, in Sleswick, part of 
 Jutland, and in Russia as far north as Courland. Amongst the Germans 
 are writers of the first order in every branch of literature and science : 
 they are most prolific in the production of new works, nor can any easily 
 exceed them in freedom of inquiry, in labour, or erudition. 
 
 52. Bible, by Dr. M, Luther, Wittenberg, 1545. 
 
 INIk. iv. 3. — Horet zu ! Sihe, es gieng ein Seeman aus zu seen. — 4. Vnd es 
 begab sich, in dem er seet, fiel etlichs an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel unter dem 
 Hiniel vnd frassens aufT. 
 
 53. Der Layex Biblia, by J. Freydang, Frankfort, 1569. 
 Lk. viii. — Es gieng ein Siiemann auss seim Hauss, 
 
 Zu saen seinen Samen auss, 
 Vnd etlichs fiel an weges gstetn. 
 Das wurd gentzlich in slaub vertretn, 
 
 Vnd die Vogel vnder dem Himml 
 Frassen das auff mit eiui gewiuibl : 
 
 AufT den Felsen fiel elliches. 
 Da es aullgieng verdorrct es. 
 
 • For the origin of the Germans and their name, see § II. 1 , 2, .3, note (f ). 
 
142 HIGH-GERMAN— REINEKE DE VOS, 1830. X. 54 — 57. 
 
 54. The Froschmauseler, oder der Frosch und Mause wunderbare 
 Hoflialtung, The court of ilie frogs and mice, Magdeburg, 1595, 8vo. is 
 one of the most remarkable epic poems. It was written by George Rol- 
 lenbagen, who was born 1542, at Bernau in Brandenburg, and died 1609, 
 when rector of the Latin school of Magdeburg. He attempts to describe 
 eternity in the following striking allegory. 
 
 ETERNITY. ENGLISH VERSION. 
 
 Evvig, Ewig, ist lange Zeit. For ever and ever is a long time. 
 
 Wer ein Saudberg uns vorgestelt. Were a heap of sand before our eyes, 
 
 Viel grosser denn die gantze Welt, Exceeding the whole ■world in size, 
 
 Und ein Vogel all tausend lahr kem, And abirdevry thousand years should come, 
 
 Auff einmahl nur ein Kornlein nem, To take hut a single grain therefrom, 
 
 Und Gott uns denn erlosen wolt, And God would grant deliverance 
 
 Wenn er das letzte Kornlein holt. When the last grain were taken thence, 
 
 So wer HofFuung das uns elende, We might have hope that our wretched state,, 
 
 Zwar langsam, aberdoch het einende. Tho' long, might yet still terminate. 
 
 Nun bleiben wir in Gottes Zorn But now beneath God's wrath we lie 
 
 Ohn all Hoffnung ewig verlora. Lost, without hope, eternally. 
 
 Chap. xiii. Morrell. 
 
 55. Bible, Nuremberg, 1703, 1708, &c. 
 
 Me. iv. 3. — Horet zu, Sihe, es gieng ein Sae-Mann aus zu saen. — 4. Und es 
 begab sich, in dem er saete, fiel etliches an den Weg, da kauien die Vogel unter 
 dem Himmel, und frassens auf. 
 
 56. New Testament, translated by J. Maria, Passau, in Bavaria, 1752. 
 Mk. iv. 3. Horet : siehe, es gieng ein Samann aus zu saen. — 4. Und es begab 
 
 sich, indem er saete, fiel ein Theil an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel, und frassen 
 es auf. 
 
 57. A High-German translation of Reineke de Vos in the same metre 
 as the Low-German of Henry van Alkmar, by Dietrich IVilhelm Soltau, 
 Liineburg, 1830. This extract will not only serve as a specimen of 
 modern High-German, but as an example of the difference in the 
 dialects.* 
 
 REINEKE DE VOS. 
 
 Es war an einem Mayentag, Und Marks der Haher kamen sogar ; 
 Wie Blum' und Laub die Knospen brack ; Denn Nobel wollte Herr'n und Sassen 
 
 Die Krauter sprossten ; froh erklang Ein frohes Gastmahl fey em lassen ; 
 
 Im Hain der Vogel Lobgesang; Darum er alles her berief, 
 
 Der Tag war schon, und Balsamduft Was ging, was kroch, was flog, was lief, 
 
 Erfiillte weit umber die Luft ; Thier' und Gevogel, gross und klein, 
 
 Als Konig Nobel, der machtige Leu, Bis auf Reinhard den Fuchs allein, 
 
 Ein Fest gab, und Hess mit Geschrey Der sich so frevelhaft benommen, 
 
 Hoftag verkiinden iiberall. Dass er nicht durft' nach Hofe kommen.. 
 Da kamen bin mit grossem Schall Wer Boses thut, der scheu't das Licht; 
 
 Viel edle Herr'n und stolze Gesellen ; So ging's auch diesem falschen Wicht; 
 
 Es war kaum moglich sie zu zahlen. Er hatt' am Hofe schlimmen Geruch, 
 
 Der Kranich Liitke, Matz der Staar Drum er zu kommen Bedenken trug. 
 
 * See Dutch, VI. 17; and Low-German, V. 26. 
 
X. 58 — 66. HIGH-GERMAN — PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. 143 
 
 58. A free High-German translation of Henry van AUimar's Reineke 
 de Vos by Goethe. 
 
 Pfingsten, das liebliche Fcst, war gekommen ; Es griintcn und bllithen 
 
 Feld und Wald ; auf Hiigeln und Holm, in Biischen und Hecken 
 
 Uebten ein frohliches Lied die neuennunterten Vogel ; 
 
 Jedo Wiese sprosste von Blunien in duftcnden Griinden, 
 
 Festlich heiter glanzte der Himmcl und farbig die Evd. 
 
 Nobel, der Konig, versannnelt den Hof ; und seine Vasallcn 
 
 Eilen gorufen herbey niit grosseni Geprange ; da kommen 
 
 Viele stolze Gesellen von alien Seiten und Enden, 
 
 Liitke, der Kranich, und Markart der Haher und alle die Besten. 
 
 Denn der Konig gedenkt mit alien seinen Baronen 
 
 Hof zu halten in Feyer und Pracht ; er lasst sie berufen 
 
 Alle mit cinander, so gut die grossen als kleinen. 
 
 Niemand sollte feblen ! und dennoch fehlte der eine, 
 
 Reinecke Fuchs, der Scbelm ! der viel began genen Frevels 
 
 Halben des Hofs sich enthielt. So scheuet das bose Gewissen 
 
 Licht und Tag, es scheute der Fuchs die versammleten Herren. 
 
 59. The Modern German of 1835 only differs in orthography from 
 the first edition of Luther's Bible of 1545.* 
 
 Higli-German Provincial Dialects. 
 
 60. The following are a ^e\\ specimens of the various provincial dialects 
 spoken in Upper Germany in 1827. 
 
 61. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton ZuricJi, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Losiituf, asiscbt en Ackhersma uilsFald ganga ge saen. — 4. Und da 
 er gsat hat, ischt obbis a d' Strass gfallii, da sind d' Vogel cho und hands ufgi'assa. 
 
 62. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton Uri, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hort zuo, ksoscht, a Ma ischt iissganga. go sa'ia; 4. und wie 'ne sail, 
 falt'n opis an die Strass, da sind die Vogel cho, und hand's aweg gefrassa. 
 
 63. SuABiAN provincial dialect near the Alps, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Losat und 1 uogad, as Ischt a Sayer ussi ganga z' saiid ; — 4. Und wie 
 ear g'sait heat, Ischt a Doal uf a Weag, g'falla, den henn-da d' Vogel g'noh', und 
 ufg'freassa. 
 
 64. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Stuttgard, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hohret me an: A Bauer ischt zum siia naus ganga ufs Feld. — 
 4. Abbes vom rumg' streuta Sohmii ischt uf da Weeg g'falla, do sind d' Vogel 
 komma, und hends g'fressa. 
 
 65. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Ulm, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hairet zue, scand, es ischt a Scenia ausganga z' s^a. — 4. Und wia 
 
 ler g'scut haut, do ischt a Thoil an Weag g'falla, da send d' Vegel komma und hannds 
 aufg' fressa. 
 
 66. Alsacian dialect about Strashurg, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. .3. — Hurt, siet der Ackersmann esch iissgange zu'm Siiije. — 4. Un wie er 
 g'saijit hiitt, esch eins (ebbs) ouf de Waij g'falle ; da sind d' Vogel konnne ounterin 
 Himmel, un bans ouflg'frasse. 
 
 • See § 51, 52. 
 
144 HIGH-GERMAN— PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. X. 67 — 76. 
 
 67. Saltzburg dialect, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hoscht's : Schau, os gang a Samon aus zum San. — 4. Und bs gab 
 si, indem a sat, void a Doal an dem Wog, da kaman d' Vogl und frass'ns auf. 
 
 68. Tyrolese dialect, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — D a hearts a Mai zue ; as ischt a Mai a Paur ze san aussi gangn. — 
 4. und as ischt g'schochn, wie ear g' sant hat, ischt oan Thail affn Wog g' fall'n, 
 und da hann d' Fogl kemmen, und hab'ns affg'lVossen. 
 
 69. Bavarian dialect about Eichstadt, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Iza schau ! a Baur is zum san ganga. — 4. Und do, wi-a gsat hat, 
 iss epas an Weg hing'falln ; des habn d' Vogl wek g'fressn. 
 
 70. Bavarian dialect about Munich, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Lossts enk sogng ! a Moi is a Baur aufs Sahn' nans ganga. — 
 4. Und wia r-a denn do g'saht hot, is earn a Thoai Samma-r-ann Weg no gfoin ; 
 do sann d' Vogl vonn Himmi ro kemma, und hammatn aufg'frossn. 
 
 71. Bavarian dialect about Nuremberg, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hoirt zou segt, es iss a Bauer (a Saemoh) ausganga z'saea. — 
 4. Und dau hauls es si zoutragn, woi er g'sat haut, iss etli's an Weeg g'falln ; da 
 senn die Viigel unterm Himmel kuinina, und habens afg'fressn. 
 
 72. Dialect about Frankfort on the Maine, (Sacbsenbausen), 1827. 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hihrt zou, Sich, es gung e Mol a Sihmann enausser z' sihn. — 
 
 4. Unn do hot sech's beg'awwe, wai er gesiht hot, fail Epas d'rvun an'n Wag ; do 
 senn (sain) diVigel unnerm Hemmel kumme, unn hawwe's uffgefresse. 
 
 73. Dialect of Wetteravia^ or the district enclosed by the Sahn, 
 Rhine, and Maine, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hirt zou ! Sich, es geng e mohl e Sehmann naus, der wuUt sihe, — 
 4. Onn wei e set', do feil a Dal uf de Wek; da kohme de Vigel onnerm Himmel 
 onn frossens uf. 
 
 74. Hessian dialect about Kassel, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hehrtzu, sich, es gink en Sehmann us zesehen. 4. Un es begab 
 sich, wie ba (he) sehte, fiel etliches uf den Wak ; do kamen de Vaggel unner dem 
 Himmel und frassens uf. 
 
 75. High-Saxon dialect about Leipsic, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, — Hurt zu saht ! 's gung a mal a Siamann aus zu sian. — 4. Un da ha 
 siate, da feel eeniges an'n Wag; da kamen de Vegel (Veggel) unggern Himmel, 
 un frassens uf. 
 
 76. High-Saxon dialect about Anshach, 1827. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3. — Hart zu ! sich, es gieng a SoamS aufs Soa aus. — 4. und es iss 
 g' seheg'n, indemm ehr sate, fiel Etlichs an den Weeg. Doa kamm die Viegel 
 unt'rn Himmel und frassens auf. 
 
]45 
 
 XL- SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE,* INCLUDING A SKETCH OF THE LAN 
 GUAGES OF ICELAND, DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. 
 
 1. Iceland has been supposed to be the remote Tliulef of Virgil, 
 Pliny, and other classical authors ; but it is more probable, that when 
 they mention Thule, they refer to part of South Norway, probably the 
 province of TcUemark. It is denominated Tlnjle % by king Alfred in 
 his translation of Boethius, and Thila § in his Orosius. The islands 
 called Ferroes were discovered by Scandinavian navigators at an early 
 period, and in A. D. 801, Naddod, a Norwegian, was driven by storms on 
 the coast of Iceland, which, from the snow, he named Snoeland. Soon 
 after, Gardar Svnrfarson, a Swede, by circumnavigation, ascertained it 
 to be an island, and named it Gardarshohn, or the island of Gardar ; || 
 it has, however, become generally known by the descriptive name 
 Icelatid.^ 
 
 2. Harald Harfager, or the fairhaired, subduing all the petty kings 
 of Norway, obtained the supreme power about a. d. 863, and continued 
 king of Norway till his death in 034. Some of the independent and high- 
 spirited nobles spurned the usurped authority of Harald, and when, in 
 their deadly feuds, they had slain an adversary, or in some other way 
 broken the laws, rather than submit to Harald, they fled to Iceland, 
 a land of prodigies, whei*e subterraneous fires burst through the frozen 
 soil, and boiling springs shoot up amidst eternal snows; where the 
 powerful genius of liberty, and the no less powerful genius of poetry, have 
 given most brilliant proofs of the energies of the human mind at the 
 remotest confines of animated nature.** Among those who first fled to 
 this land of freedom, we have, in 874, a record of Ingolf, the son of 
 a Norwegian Javl, Comes, or Earl, and his brother-in-law Hjorleif, who 
 landed on the promontory on the south-east coast, still called Ingolf- 
 shodi. In the next century, Thornrald with his son Erik, surnaraed 
 liaudi or the red,tt escaped to Iceland. In the space of 50 or 60 years 
 
 • This short sketch is much indebted to the important works published by The Royal 
 SociF.TY OF NoRTHKRN Antiqi ARiKs, COPENHAGEN, a Socictv which claims the especial 
 attention of Eniiclishnicn. While too much praise cannot be g:iven to the Professors Finn 
 ]\Ia!,niiiscn and Rafn, as well as to the late Professor Rask, and the other active members of 
 this institution, for their erudite i)ublications, feelings of the highest respect and the warmest 
 gratitude must ever be excited, when the author recollects the constant literary communica- 
 tions, and the verv' friendly assistance of Dr. Rafn and Dr. Rask. An account of part of 
 Professor Rafn's valuable works will l)e found in § 17, 18, and 19. 
 
 f The ultima Thule of Virgil, Georrj. i. 30, and Pliny, iv. IG. 
 
 + Bt. -20, 3 ; Card. p. 166, \. ' § Ors. 1, 1 ; Bar. p. 31, I. 
 
 I| Islands Landnamabok, sive Liber originum Islandiap, I. 1 . 1'slendinga Siigur, I. p. 25, 26. 
 Scnoening, Norges Rigcs, Historic, vol. ii. p. 101. Wheatim's Hist, of Northmen, p. 17. 
 
 5T ■/(■/. is ice, land land. Dr. Ingram thinks, in Orosius, Rar. 2'), 1, Ira-land o\ight to be Isa- 
 land. Inaurjural Led. p. 79, note 7.— Isa land is the reading adopted by Professor Rask. 
 
 ** Malte Ilriin'x Genrj. vol. v. p. 08. 
 
 ft Landni'imaboh, i. 6—8. Schoining, vol. i. p. 107. Malte Brun's Gcng. vol. v. p. 98. 
 
 * U 
 
146 SCANDINAVIAN — ICELANDIC SKALDS. XL 3 — 5. 
 
 the inhabitable parts of Iceland were occupied by refugees from Norway, 
 who brought with them their families and a numerous retinue of depen- 
 dants. Here they were amply repaid for their hardships and toil, in this 
 severe clime, by the full enjoyment of liberty and independence ; hither 
 they transported their language, the old Danish, their rites of heathen 
 worship, and their civ il institutions. They established a great national 
 assembly, held annually, where all freeholders had a right to be present. 
 This assembly bore a great resemblance to the Anglo-Saxon Witena- 
 gemot, and was called AlJ?ing.* The president of this meeting was 
 elected for life, and was denominated Ldgsogum,a^r\ or Promulgator of 
 the law. Iceland continued this species of government, or republic, for 
 about three centuries, that is, till a.d. 1275, when it became subject to 
 the kings of Norway. Christianity was introduced into Iceland about the 
 end of the 10th century, and was established in 1016. 
 
 3. Iceland, in its pagan state, had a literature, a poetry, and mytho- 
 logy, peculiarly its own. The Icelanders preserved their learning and 
 history in oral tradition, by means of their Skalds, X who were at once 
 poets and historians. These Skalds were a sort of travelling minstrels, 
 who composed and recited the praises of kings and heroes in verse, and 
 continually migrated from one northern country to another. They were 
 the chroniclers, and often the companions of kings, attended them in their 
 conflicts, and thus, from their presence at the scenes they had to record, 
 they were able to give a lively and faithful description. In the Icelandic 
 language a list is kept of the 230 chief Skalds or poetical historians from 
 Ragnar Lodhrok to Valdemar II. amongst whom are several crowned 
 heads, and celebrated warriors. || 
 
 4. A Saga-man § recalled the memory of past events in prose narratives 
 as the Skalds did in verse. The memory of past transactions was thus 
 transmitted from age to age by the poets or Skalds, and the Saga-men or 
 story-tellers, till the introduction of writing, gave them a fixed and durable 
 record. 
 
 5. The literature, mythology, and history of the Icelanders, and the 
 old Scandinavians in general, in their pagan and early christian state, are 
 chiefly preserved in the poetic or elder Edda,^ the prose or younger 
 Edda, and the Sagas, the Njdla, the Heimskrlngla, the Ko/uingsskuggsjd, 
 and the Landndmahok. A short account of these works, and their 
 various editions, may be useful.** 
 
 * ping in Icelandic signifies forum, conventus, a court of justice, an assize ; and aljjing a 
 general meeting, or assize. 
 
 f Logsaga/. [gen. logsiigu) recitatio legum, from log law ; saga a telling, speaking ; ma<5r 
 a man, the man propounding the law. 
 
 + Skald from Icl. skalld a poet. \\ Wlieaton's History of Northmen, p. 51. 
 
 § Saga historia, narratio ; maSr gen. manns, ace. mann man, that is, a story-teller. 
 
 51 Edda a grandmother, quasi prima mater ethnicas religionis. 
 
 ** A minute account of the Icelandic works which are published may be found in " Lexicon 
 Islandico- Latino- Danicur.1 Biornonis Haldersonii, cura R. K. Raskii, editiim Havnice," 4to. 1 B14. 
 
XI. 6 — 11. SCANDINAVIAN — S^MUND's AND SNORRE'S EDDAS. 147 
 
 6. S/Emund Sigfussen, a clergyman, born in Iceland in 1056, was the 
 first compiler of the Poetic Edda. He api)cars to have written some of 
 these poetic eflusious from the recital of couten}porary Skalds, and to have 
 collected others from manuscripts. 
 
 The Icelandic text of the poetic Edda was published in 4to. at Copenhagen in 
 1787, with a Latin translation, notes, and glossary. A second volume was not 
 printed till 1818, and a third in 1828, by Professor Finn Maguuseu. Professor 
 Rask and the Rev. Mr. Afzclius, in 1818, published, at Stockholm, the original of 
 this Edda, carefully accented, and distinguishing i from J, u from v, and 6 from o. 
 
 7. The Poetic Edda contains the Yolu-spd,* which gives an account of the 
 creation of the universe, and the gods and men who inhabited it. The Grou-galdr 
 or Groa's JNIagic Song. The Solarljo^ or Song of the Sun which is almost entirely 
 Siomund's own composition, containing ideas of a future life, evidently derived from 
 a christian source. Vafprii^nis-mdl, which is a sort of poetic dialogue between 
 Odin and a famous giant. 
 
 8. The Grimnis-ma'l, or the Song of Grimner, describing the habitations of the 
 deities. The Alvis-mdl, Hyndlii-ljo^, &c., HymnisquvSa, or the Song of Hymer, 
 kc. Many of these poems can be ti'aced back to the 10th, or even the 9th century. 
 
 9. The Prose or younger Edda was written by the famous Snorre 
 Sti<rleso?i, who was born of a noble family in 1178, at Hvamm, on the 
 west coast of Iceland, and was murdered in 1241. The Prose Edda was, 
 therefore, more than a century later than the Poetic. 
 
 Tlie first edition of the Prose Edda was published in an abridged form at Copen- 
 hagen in 1665, by Resenius, in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. He appended to this 
 edition the Volu-spa and Hava-mal, two poems from the Poetic Edda. A complete 
 edition of the original text of the Prose Edda was published at Stockholm in 1818, 
 by Professor Rask. The Prose Edda is a course of poetical lectures, drawn up for 
 those young Icelanders Avho intended to become Skalds or poets. It consists of two 
 parts. The first part, properly called the Edda, explains the mythology of the- 
 Poetic Edda, and fonns a complete northern Pantheon in the form of fables. The 
 second part is the Skalda or Poetics, which is the art of poetry adopted by the 
 Skalds. It contains a dictionary of poetic synonymes, and the whole art of versi- 
 fication, alliteration, species of verse, &c. In explaining the mythology, and illus- 
 trating the diiferent species of versification, Snorre extracted the most interesting 
 parts of the Poetic Edda, and thus contrived in the form of dialogues to give the 
 substance of it in a more intelligible form. 
 
 10. Nja'la, or life of the celebrated Icelander, Njall porgeirsson, and his sons. 
 It is beautiful in style, and correct in its statements. The Icelandic text was pub- 
 hshed at Copenhagen, 1772, in 4to. and a Latin verion in 1809. 
 
 11. Snorre ma.\ be justly called the Herodotus of the north, if we 
 only consider his great historical work, Heimskr'ntgla,\ or Annals of the 
 Norwegian kings from Odin.| 
 
 • Volu-spa ilie oracle or projihecy of vala, gen. vijlu. 
 
 f Heims-kringla orbis terrantm ; hciiiir mtindus, kringla orbis. 
 
 X In this account of the Edda and other Icelandic works, much use has been made of 
 Whcaton's Hist, of Northmen, where more satisfactory inlnrmation will he found. In 31allet's 
 Northern Anti(iuilies there is an English translation of the Prose Edda, and many useful 
 notes, with the Icelandic text, and an English translation of five pieces of Runic poetrj-,. 
 amongst which is Kagnar Lodbrok. 
 
148 SCANDINAVIAN — SAGAS. XI. 12 — 18. 
 
 It was published by Peringskjold, with a Latin and Swedish ti'anslation, in 2 
 vols. fol. Stockholm, 1697, and with a Latin and Danish translation by Schoning 
 and TJiorlaciiis, in 3 vols. fol. Copenhagen, 1777 — 1783, and continued by the 
 younger Thorlacius and Werlaujf, in 3 vols. 1813 — 1826.* 
 
 12. K6nungsskuggsja',-|- or Royal MiiTor. This is supposed to be the work 
 of Sverre, king of Norway. It is in the form of dialogue, and gives a view of 
 human life, with practical rules for different stations. It was published in Icelandic, 
 Danish, and Latin, by Half dan Einarsen, in 4to. 1768, Soro. 
 
 13. The Landna'mabok is an account of the most remarkable events connected 
 with the first settlement of Iceland, its revolutions, and the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. This history commences in the 9th, and extends to the 12th century. It 
 was begun by Are Frodi, and continued by other hands. Are Frodi was born in 
 Iceland in 1067; he was the friend and fellow-student of Ssemund. His work is 
 remarkable as being the earliest historical composition written in the Old Danish 
 or northern tongue, which still remains the living language of Iceland. Only a 
 few fi'agments of his works are remaining, which have been published under the 
 title oi SchedaX and Landndmabok.^ 
 
 14. The Sagas are very numerous. These were popular narratives, 
 recording the lives of kings, chieftains, and noble families. To aid the 
 memory of tiie Saga-man or Story-teller, he contrived to introduce the 
 most striking metrical passages from the poems of the Skalds. 
 
 15. Under tlie well-directed patronage of The Royal Society of Northern 
 Antiquaries at Copenhagen, the following works have appeared. || 
 
 FoRNMANNA Sogur, vol. i. — xi. ; Oldiiordiske Sagaer, vol. i. — xi. ; Scripta His- 
 torica Islandorum, vol. i. — •vii. containing — of the historical Sagas, recording events 
 out of Iceland — the history of the Norwegian kings from Olaf Tryggvason to 
 Magnus Lagabcetir, and of the Danish kings {Knytlinga) from Harald Blue- 
 tooth to Canute VI., or the period between the middle of the 10th century, and 
 the year 1274 ; in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. 
 
 16. I'sLENDiXGA SoGUR, vol. i. ii. Containing — of the historical Sagas, recording 
 events in Iceland itself — Are Frodi's Schedte, Landndmabok,^ and Hei^arviga-, 
 Ljosvetninga, Svarfdcela-, Vallnaljots-, Vemundar ok Viga-Skutu, and Viga-Glums 
 Sagas, in Icelandic. 
 
 17. The following works are edited by the learned Secretary of the Society, 
 Professor Rafn : — Fcercyinga Saga, or the histoiy of the inhabitants of the Farroes ; 
 in Icelandic, the Farroe dialect, and Danish, and with a map of the islands. 
 
 18. FoRNALDAR Sogur Nor^rlanda, vol. i. — iii. ; JVordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. 
 i. — ^iii., being a complete edition of the mytho-historical Sagas, recording events m 
 
 * Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thoqie, pref. p. iv. note 1. 
 
 f Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thorite, pref. p. iv. note 2. Kongr a king; skuggsia a mirror, 
 speculum. 
 
 + Are Frocli's Sched^e were published by C. Wormius, Oxford, 1716; by A. Buss;eus> 
 Copenhagen, 1733; but most correctly by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at 
 Copenhagen in Islendinc/a Siigiir, vol. i. 
 
 § Wheaton's Northmen, p. .59, 99. Miiller, Saga bibliothek, i. p. 34. Schedte Ara Prestz 
 Froda urn I'sland, was published in 4to. pjj. 26, Skalholt, 1688 ; Sagan Landnama, in 4to. 
 pp. 182, Skalholt, 1688. Again with a Latin version, index, &c. under the title Islands Land- 
 ndmabok, 4to. pp. -510, Copenhagen, 1774; and in Islendinga Sogur, vol. i. See § 16. 
 
 II See Annual Report for 1834. 
 
 tjj See § 13 for the particulars of this work. 
 
XI. 19,20. SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH. 149 
 
 the north, assignable to the period anterior to the colonization of Iceland, or the 
 era of authentic history; in Icelandic and Danish. 
 
 19. Kra'kuma'l, sire Epicedium Ragnaris Lodhroci,- or Ode on the heroic 
 deeds and death of the Danish king, Ragnai" Lodbruk, in England ; in Icelelandic, 
 Danish, Latin, and French. This Krdkumdl is by some called La^brokarkvv^u, 
 or the Death-song of Ragnar Lodbrok, who is said to have reigned in Denmark and 
 Sweden in the latter part of the 8th century. f Ragnar invaded Northumbria, and 
 was opposed by Ella, king of Deira. This fact ascertains the date of the event, as 
 Ella usurped the Northumbrian crown in 862, and perished in 867. Ragnar was 
 taken prisoner, and Ella ordered him to be cast into a dungeon, where he might 
 perish by venomous snakes. ;}: This song is sometimes quoted as the composition 
 of Ragnar. § It is probable that the first twenty-three verses constituted the war- 
 song of Ragnar and his followers. The remaining six strophes may have been 
 composed after the khig's death by his queen Aslaga, or Kraka, or by some of the 
 contemporary or later skalds, || This song celebrates the fifty-one depredations of 
 Ragnar in various countries. The death of Ragnar is not only important in an 
 historical point of view, causing his sons Halfden, Ingwar, and Ubbo to undertake 
 an invasion which destroyed the Octarchy of England, and, for a time, dethroned 
 Alfred ; but if the song were composed by him or in his time, it will serve as a 
 very early specimen of the Scandinavian language. 51 
 
 20. From the Old Danish [Dajiska tunga) or Scandinavian {Norrecna), 
 spring those languages and dialects which are spoken from the coasts of 
 Greenland to those of Finland, from the Frozen Ocean to the Eider.** 
 This Old Danish was, in its purest state, carried into Iceland by the first 
 Norwegian refugees in the 9th century. Hence the Icelandic is the same 
 language as the Old Danish, and the Icelanders, fiom their insular and 
 high northern locality, have retained the Old Danisli in such purity and 
 with such slight variations, that it may still be considered the living 
 language of Iceland. There is so little difference between the present 
 writings and the most ancient records, that modern Icelandic scholars can 
 read the oldest documents with the greatest facility. 
 
 * It was tirst printed in Ito. at Copenhagen, 16;3(j, in tlie work of Olaus Wormins, in liis 
 Kiinir sen Daniia titeralura antiquissima, vulgo Gothica dicta. It was afterwards printed six 
 times more bv different persons in various ibrms before it ajjpeared in the originid, with an 
 English translation, entitled '■^ Five pieris of Runic Poetry t) unstated from the Icelandic lan- 
 tjua(/e," London, fSvo. 17():3. Tliese pieces were translated l)y Dr. 'I'liomas Percy, bishop of 
 Dromore, and inserted at the end of the 2nd vol. of his translation of Mallet's Northern Anti- 
 (piities. The Hfteenth time of its ap])earance was in l"inio. witli the title of Lodbroliur-Quida ; 
 or, the Death-somj of Lodbroc, tritli a free Eni/lish translation, an Islando- Latino (jlussury, and 
 explanatory notes, by James Johnstone, printed [at Copenhagen, by Any. Ferd. Steen^ 1782. 
 The twenty-seventh form in which this celebrated song has appeared is the most splendid 
 and complete. This is by far the i)est edition; Ibllowetl by a Latin and rreuch translation, 
 and a complete critical ai)paratiis, with a minute account of every edition, and a facsinnle 
 of the tirst page of a manuscript found in the Koyal 3Iuseum, Copenhagen, 1M21. The title 
 of this work is " Kn'tknmal, sive Epiredium Reynaris Lodbroci Reyis Danice.'' — Vide Forniddar 
 Sogur NortSrlaudi, i. p. 305 ; Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, i. p. 282. 
 
 f Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, p. l.JO. 
 
 X Turners Hist, of A.-S. bk. iv. eh. iii. Langb. 277. 
 
 § Asby, Wormins, Bartholin, Stephanius, ^c; Turner, bk. iv. ch. iii. note 37. 
 
 II Wheaton's Hist, of Nortlimen, p. 153. 
 
 % See the specimen, § 25. 
 
 •* Rasks Gr. of the Anglo-Saxon tongue, translated into Englisli l>y Thorpe, p. 42. 
 
150 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN — DANISH LONG BEFORE A.D. 645. XI. 21 — 23. 
 
 Specimens of Old Danish and its dialects, from the earliest age to 
 
 the present time. 
 
 21. A specimen of Old Danish composed by Starkad the Old, whose 
 verses are supposed to be the most ancient of all the specimens of the 
 Danska Tunga that are still extant, but the precise age of which is not 
 ascertained,* though it was long before a.d. 645. 
 
 OLD DANISH. MODERN DANISH. 
 
 pann liefi ek manna Ham bar jeg blandt Mseud 
 
 mennskra fundit af Menneske-Herkomst, 
 
 bring heyjanda blandt Stridsmeend fundet 
 
 branimastan at afli. stterkest af Kraefter. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Him have I among men among warriors, found 
 
 of tbe human race,-|- the strongest of body. 
 
 22. A specimen of Old Danish, composed at so remote a period iu 
 heathen times, that it is impossible now to ascertain its age. It is from 
 the Poetic Edda. 
 
 The first verse of the Volu-spd.t 
 
 OLD DANISH. 
 
 HIJ6J7S bij) ek allar 
 
 belgar kindir, 
 meiri ok minni 
 mogu Heim}7allar ; 
 vildo'at ek ValfoJ^ur 
 vel framteljak, 
 fornspjoll fira, 
 )7au ek fremst of-nam. 
 
 Silentium rogo omnia 
 Sacra entia ; 
 Majores et minores 
 Posteros Heimdalli. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Lytter til min Tale, 
 alle bellige Va3sener, 
 storre og mindre 
 af Heimdals Slsegt ; 
 jeg vil fortselle 
 Valfaders Bedrifter 
 Mtends gamle Sagn, 
 de forste jeg Iserte. 
 
 Finn Magnusen, p. 3 1 . 
 
 Velim coelestis patris 
 Facinora enanare. 
 Antiques hominum sermones, 
 Quos primes recorder. 
 
 23. A specimen of Old Danish, composed probably during the former 
 part of the 7th century, being the beginning of the Bjarka-mdl hinfornu, 
 so called after Bodvar Bjarke, one of king Rolf Krake's warriors, a song 
 sung before a battle. § 
 
 * Halfdani Einari Hist. Lit. Islandias, p. 49. This specimen is from the Snorra Edda 
 asamt Skdldu, edited by Rask, p. 311, 312. 
 
 f i.e. not of the Aser race. 
 
 + From the Edda Swmundar hins Fro^a ex recensione E. C. Rask, Holmijp, 1818, p. 1. 
 See the edition of the same, at the expense of the Arna-Magnaean Commissioners, by Prof. 
 Finn Magnusen, as also his modern Danish version of it, under the title of Den celdre Edda, 
 vol. i. p. 31. 
 
 § Published by Professor Rafn in the Fornaldar Sogur Nor^rlanda, vol. i. p. 110. See his 
 modern Danish version in the Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. i. p. 103. This ancient song was 
 sung at dawn of the day of the great battle of Stiklestad, a.d. 1030, in which king Olal' fell ; 
 vide Fornmanna Sogur, vol. v. p. 59, 60, and the Latin version by S. Egilsson in the Scripta 
 historica hlandorum, vol. v. p. 64. 
 
XL 24. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, A.D. 770. 
 
 151 
 
 OLD DANISH. 
 
 Dagr er iippkominn, 
 dynja liana f ja^rar, 
 nial er vilmogum 
 at vinna erfi^'i ; 
 vaki ok ae vaki 
 viiia-hofu'S', 
 alliv hiiiir aiztu 
 Adels ofsinnar. 
 
 Har hiiiu har^greipi, 
 Hrolfr skjotandi, 
 £Ettg6-^ir menn, 
 J?eir er ekki fiyja ! 
 vekjat y%'r at vini 
 ne at vifs runum, 
 heldr vek ek y^r at horS'uin 
 Hildar leiki. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Dies exortus est, 
 penna; galli strepimt, 
 teinpus est, ut servi 
 
 opus incipiant ; 
 vigilant, semper vigilent 
 
 aniicorum capita, 
 prtiistantissimi qnique 
 
 Adilsis comites. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Solen er oprunden, 
 rvste Hanens Fja;dre, 
 Tid er nu for Drenge 
 til Daad at gange ; 
 vaager, stedse vaager, 
 Venner kjtere, 
 alle I ypperste 
 Adils Hofsinder. 
 
 Har bin liaardl'ore, 
 Rolf den Skytte, 
 setgode Mfend, som 
 Flugt ei kjende ! 
 eder jeg va:kker ei til Viin, 
 ikke til Kvinders Tale, 
 men jeg eder til Hildes 
 haarde Leg nu vaekker. 
 
 Har, manu fortis, 
 Rolvus jaculator, 
 genere praestantes viri, 
 qui non fugiunt ! 
 Ad vina vos non excito, 
 neque ad puellarum colloquia, 
 sed excito vos ad durum 
 Bellonae ludum. 
 
 24. A specimen of old Danish of about the year 770, cut in Runic 
 characters in a flat rock at Runamo, in the parish of Iloby in Bleking, 
 now a province of Sweden, but formerly of Denmark, as interpreted by 
 
 Professor Finn Magnusen.* 
 
 OLD DANISH. 
 
 Hiiltekinn riki nam, 
 GarJ^r in hio. 
 
 U'li eit gaf 
 
 0> 
 
 Vlgl 
 
 Hringr fai 
 
 m ruiiar 
 
 r I 
 
 MODERN ICELANDIC. 
 
 Hildikinn riki nam, 
 Gar'S'r inn hjo, 
 O'li ei^ gaf .... 
 vigi O'^inn runar ! 
 Hringr fai 
 
 * The Danish kinsf Valdemar the First, sent, prohably at the siiijtjestion of the historian 
 Saxo (Jrainmatifiis, some individuals skilled in Runes to Blekintf, between tlie years 1157 
 and 1 1S2, witli tlie view of havinaj this inseription deciphered. His emissaries, iiowever, 
 failed to accomplish the object of tiieir mission. Subsciiuentlv , and especially during the last 
 century or two, the attcmi)t from time to time was renewed under the auspices of some of the 
 most learned men of the day, but their endeavours led to no more satisfactory results. It was 
 reserved for the great Archaeologist and Runologist Finn Mnguuscn, nl'ter a personal inspection 
 of the inscription on the spot, ti> interpret in its entire state in 3Iay ISt.Vt, and to determine 
 the form of verse (the ancient Forniir^alag) in which it was written. Professor Magnusen's 
 remarks upon this sulijcct are inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Northern 
 Antiipiaries, Snrdi.sk Tidsshrift for Oldkijndighfd, vol. ii.p. •27() — 304; and in Historisck-Aiiti- 
 (jHarisrhi- Mitfhci/unf/en. herausgegcben von der Kiiniglichen Gesellschaft fiir Nordische Al- 
 terthumskunde, Kopenhagen, ikV), pp. 109—1 17. In p. 1 1 1 of the latter work, it is recorded 
 that Professor Finn Magnusen for more than ten montiis tried in vain to decipher the 
 inscription. On the "J-Jud of IMay, ls:51. by attempting to read from rigiit to left, he 
 immediately succeeded in deciphering the first three words, and in less than two hours he 
 explained the whole inscription. 
 
152 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, A.D. 863. 
 
 XI. 2 
 
 o. 
 
 fall a mold ! . . . . 
 A'lfar, astago^ 
 O'la (fjai) ; 
 O'pin ok Frei 
 ok A'sakun 
 fari (fari) 
 fiandum varuin, 
 unni Haraldi 
 serin sigr ! 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Hildekind modtog Riget, 
 Gard indhug (Runerne), 
 Ole aflagde Ed .... 
 Odin vie Rmierne ! 
 Gid Ring faae 
 Fald paa Muld ! 
 Alfer Elskovsguder 
 Ole (forlade) ! 
 Odin og Freij 
 og Asers Slaegt 
 odela3gge (odelaegge) 
 vore Fjender, 
 unde Harald 
 fuldstpendig Seier ! 
 
 fall a mold ! 
 A'lfar, A'stago'^ 
 O'la fjai (hati) 
 O'^inn, og Frey 
 og A'sakyn 
 fari, fari 
 fjandum vorum, 
 unni Haraldi 
 
 ssrmn sigr : 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Hildekinn received the kingdom, 
 
 Gard hewed out (these characters), 
 
 Ole took the oath .... 
 
 Odin consecrate these Runes ! 
 
 May Ring get 
 
 a fall on the mould ; 
 
 Elves, gods of love, 
 
 Ole hate ! 
 
 Odin and Frey 
 
 and the Aser-race 
 
 destroy (destroy) 
 
 our enemies, 
 
 grant to Harald 
 
 a great victory ! 
 
 25. A specimen of old Danish from Krakuraal, or the Death-song of 
 Ragnar Lodbrok,* probably composed between a.d. 862 and 867. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 OLD DANISH. 
 
 Hjuggu ver me^ hjorvi ! 
 hdr^ kom hri^ a skjoldu, 
 nar fell ni^r til jar'Sar 
 a Nor^imhralandi ; 
 varat um eina ottu 
 oldum J^orf at fryja 
 Hildar leik, Jjar er hvassir 
 hjalmstofn bitu skjomar; 
 ho'S'mana sa ek bresta, 
 bra J^vi fira lifi. 
 
 Krdkumdl Str. 14. 
 
 LITERAL LATIN. 
 
 Percussimus nos cum gladio 
 
 Dura venit procella in scuta, 
 
 cadaver cecidit deorsum ad terram 
 
 in Northumbvia terra. 
 
 Non erat, tempore matutino, 
 
 viris opus, ciere. 
 
 Ad Bellonse ludum ibi anhelant. 
 
 Svunge vi med Svaerdet ! 
 stormede Regn mod Skjolde, 
 Lig i Nordhumberland da 
 laae paa Jorden stroede ; 
 man ei nodtes den Morgen 
 Maend til Strid at egge, 
 der hvor skarjje Kaarder 
 skare Hjelmens Flade ; 
 Kampmaaner saae jeg kloves, 
 Ksemperne misted Livet. 
 
 Rafn, p. 13. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 We hewed with swords ! 
 
 Hard came the storm on our shields, 
 
 dead they fell down on the earth, 
 
 in Noithnmberland. 
 
 None, on that morning, 
 
 needed men to incite. 
 
 For Bellona's sharp sport, 
 galeae fulcrum mordebant fnlgores, the glittering sword split the steel-capt skull, 
 peltas lunatas vidi ego confractas, the moon-round shield saw I broken, 
 invertit ideo virorum vita. and thus men's lives were lost. 
 
 * See § 19. 
 
XI. 26 — 28. SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 900 — 1150. 153 
 
 26. A specimen of Old Danish of the lOtli century, being the Runic 
 inscriptions at Jellinge in Jutland, on the tumulus of King Gorm the Old, 
 and his consort Thyre, as interpreted by Professor Finn Magnusen. 
 
 OLD DANISH. MODERN ICELANDIC, 
 
 Gurmr kunugr gerj7ikubl|?usieftpurvi Gonnr konungr gei-^1 kumbl l^essi 
 
 kunu sina Danmaikar-but. eflir pyri konu sina Danniarkarbot. 
 
 Haraldr kumigr ba|7 giorva kiibl |H)si Haraldr konungr ba-^ gjorva kinnbl 
 
 eft gurm fajjiiv sin ok eft piurvi imi|;ur Jjessi eftir Gorm fec^ur sinn eg el'tir pyri, 
 
 sina; sa Haraldr ies van Daniuork ala mo'Sur sina; sa Haraldr, er (es) vaiin 
 
 ok Nurvieg ok tok kristno. Danmork alia og Norveg ok tok kristni. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Kong Gorm gjorde denne Hoi efter King Gorm raised this barrow after 
 sin Kone Thyre Danmarks-Bod. (in memory of) bis queen Thyre Dan- 
 
 marksbod ( the improver of Denmark ) . 
 Kong Harald bad (bod) gjore denne King Harald bade make this baiTow 
 Hoi efter Gorm, sin Fader og efter Tliyre for his father Gorm and his mother 
 sin Moder ; den Harald som vandt al Thyre, the same Harald who conquered 
 Danniark og Norge, og antog Christen- all Denmark and Norway, and embraced 
 dommen. Christianity. 
 
 Antiquariske Annaler, vol. iv. p. 110 — 112. 
 
 27. A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic of the former part of the 
 II th century, from Ottar Svarte's ode on king St. Olaf. 
 
 OLD DANISH OK ICELANDIC. MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Komtu i land ok lendir, Landbeskytter ! du alter 
 
 ladvoi-^r ! A'S'alra'S'i, Adelraad til sit Rige 
 
 J) in naut rekka reynir forte, sligt dig Folkets 
 
 riki efldr at sliku ; majgtige Fyrste skijider ; 
 
 harS'r var fundr, sa er faeru^ haardt var Slaget, da Edmunds 
 
 fri^land a vit ni^ja Arving du indsatte 
 
 re^ ajttstudill a'S'an i det fredede Rige, 
 
 Eatmundar J^ar gruudu. for behersket af Sla;gten. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 TeiTcC custos, valens potentia ! Durus erat conflictus, quo 
 
 Venisti in terram, et Adalradum nepotem Jatmundi ])acato 
 
 in regmnn restituisli ; tua ope reddidisti regno ; huic terrec 
 
 est usus bac in re virorum amicus. avita proles imperaverat antea.* 
 
 28. A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic, written before 1150, 
 according to the opinion of Professor Rafu.f 
 
 OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. MODERN FERROE DIALECT. 
 
 Ma^r er nefndr Grimr kamban, hann Ajn Miivur er nevndur Grujmur Kam- 
 
 bygb'i fyrstr F'screyjar a dogum Haralds ban, ban fowr fistur atbiggja Forjar, meni 
 
 bins hiirfagra ; \k fly^u fyrir bans ofriki Haraldur liin lidrfagri var a Dtivun ; tu 
 
 fjoldi manna, settust sumir i Ftereyjum, flujddi liri Owdomi hansara mengur iNIii- 
 
 ok bygSu )>ar, en sumir leitu^u til an- vur; summir settu se uj Forjunogbigdu 
 
 narra ey^ilanda. bar, men summir lajtavu til annur Oju- 
 
 lond. 
 
 * Fornmanna Silsjvir, vol. iv. p. oO, and vol. xi. p. 18.>; OldiKjrdiske Sagaer, vol. iv. p. J7, 
 and vol. xi. p. Itil ; Scrijtta historica Ishmdonmi, mA. iv. j). i;>. 
 
 f See Fa^reyinita 8aa;a, p. 1. Imi)r(ipcrly, l)y a jtlconasni, called Ferroe Island.s, — Islands 
 beinij unnecessary, as Ferroe is derived I'rom fair or faar, c. a xherp, ovis ; ij, c. an is/and, 
 insula, pi. oer islands, insula?; Fyeroeme or Faaroer ovium insular, in Danish commonly 
 called the Fa?r6er. 
 
154 SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 1200 — 1290. XI. 29, 30. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. MODERN BANISH. 
 
 A man named Grim Kamban culti- Grim Kamban bed en Mand ; ban be- 
 
 vated first the Fser islands in tbe time byggede forst Faeroerne i Harald Haarfa- 
 
 ofHarald tbefair-baired; tben {when) gers Dage. Der rare den Gang mange, 
 
 many fled from bis tyranny, some som flyede for Kongens Her-skesyge, af 
 
 settled on tbe Faer islands, and built bvilke uogle nedsatte sig paa Fteroerne, 
 
 houses, and some sought for other un- og toge sig der Bopeel, men nogle sogte 
 
 cultivated lands. til andre ode Lande. 
 
 29. A specimen of Icelandic, written about a.d. 1200, from Snorre's 
 Edda. 
 
 ICELANDIC, 
 
 Almattigr gu^ skapa^i i uppbafi himin ok jord ok alia }»a luti er peim fylgja, ok 
 si^arst menn tva, er settir eru fra komnar, Adam ok Evo, ok fjolga^ist Jjeirra 
 kynslo'S', ok dreif^ist um heim allan. En er fram li^u stundir, ]7a ujafna'^ist mann- 
 folki^, voru sumir go^ir ok rett-trua'Sir, en miklu fleiri snerust ]>a eptir girndum 
 heimsins, ok ursektu gu^s honors'. — Snorra-Edda, Rask, Stockholm, 1818, p. 1. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Den alrasegtige Gud skabte i Begyndelsen Himlen og Jorden og alle de Ting 
 som dertil bore, og tilsidst to Mennesker, fra hvem Slsegter nedstamme, Adam og 
 Eva, og deres Stamme formerede sig, og udbredtes over hele Verden. Men da Ti- 
 derne lede from, blev Menneskeslsegten ulig, nogle vare gode og rettroende, men 
 langt flere vendte sig efter Verdens Begjerligbeder, og forsomte Guds Bud. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 The Almighty God created, in the beginning, heaven and earth, and all the things 
 which thereto belong, and at last, men from whom families sprung forth, Adam and 
 Eve, and their race increased themselves and spread over all the world. But as 
 time passed {led) on, the race of men became different {unlike), some were good 
 and right believing, but far more turned themselves to {after) the desires {lusts) 
 of the world, and neglected God's commandment. 
 
 30. A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic, as written towards the 
 close of the 13th century, but dating from an earlier period, the year 
 A.D. 1117, being an extract from the ancient Icelandic Law-book, entitled 
 the Gragas fThe Gray-goose).'^ 
 
 OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. LATIN. 
 
 Ef utlendir menn verj^a vegnir a landi Si exteri, Dani, Sveii, vel Norvegi e 
 
 her, danskir e\x sonskir ej^r norronir, or tribus illorum regum imperils, quae lin- 
 
 jjeirra konga veldi III. er var tunga er, gua nostra utuntur, oriundi his in terris 
 
 'ipsx eigo fra3ndr {jeirra Jjasr sakir, ef \qiv interfecti fuerint, csesi propinqui si ad- 
 
 eru ut her, en af olluni tungum o])rum fuerint actionem caedis suscipere liceat. 
 
 enn af danskri tungo, J^a a engima];rher Sedalia quam Danica lingua utentium 
 
 vigsok at sokja af fraendsemis sokum, nemo propinquitatis nomhie, caedis cau- 
 
 nema fajjir e\x sonr e\x brojjir, oc \\'\ at sam hie agendi jure gaudeat, nisi pater, 
 
 einojjeir, ef Jjeir hof}7oheraj7rvi]7kennzt. filius vel frater, iique tantummodo, si 
 
 hie antea noti fuerint. 
 
 * See Hill forna Ibghok I'slendinga sem nefnist Gragas. Codex juris Islandorum antiquis- 
 simus qui nominatur Gragas, Hafniic, 1829, at the expense of the Arna-Magnsan Coimiiis- 
 sioners, Pait II. p. 71, 72. 
 
XL 31 — 35. SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 1397 — 1589. 155 
 
 31. Old Danish before the Calmav Union in a.d. 1397. 
 
 OLD DANISH. ICKLANDIC. 
 
 Satlccr war rajt thiDiine .... tvem win- Settr var rcttr {^essi tvcim vctrum oc 
 trum oc faem ukum^ si'daen Ro war wniiin fiinin vikiiin, sibau Ru var uiuiiii til 
 til Cristendoms af Waldemar kunungi, Cristindoms af Valdiniar konungi, oc 
 00 laght til Sjalanzs biscopsd6m(s) af log^ til Sjalanz biskiipsdoms af Val- 
 Waldeuiare kunungi oc Alexander pane, dimari konungi oc Alexandri paua. 
 Rusk's Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxii. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Set was this law, two winters and five weeks ; since peace was bestowed on Chris- 
 tianity by Waldemar the king, and a law made for Sjalans bishoprick by Walde- 
 mar the king, and Alexander the pope. 
 
 32. Danish in 1433. 
 
 DANISH. ENGLISH, 
 
 WiiErickmethguthsnatheDanmarks, We Erick, by God's grace, king of 
 Suerghes, Norghes-koning gore witerlikt Denmark, Sweden, Norway, make known 
 alle the, thette bretf see eller bore, at wi to all, who see or hear this letter, that 
 af vor serdelis Nadhe for Hr Erick- we by our peculiar grace for Mr. Erick 
 Nielssons wor elschelike tro mans oc Nielsons, our beloved faithful man and 
 radhs bon sculd sva oc for troscap oc counsellor, praying, and for fidelity and 
 willich tieniste unne oc giue hanum . . . willing ser vices, have conferred and given 
 friihet oc frelsse med suadane wapen . , . him . . . liberty and franchisement with 
 som her vnder nedhen vtmaledh sta . . . such coat of aims as here under beneath, 
 
 painted stand. 
 Datum 1433. Given 1433. 
 
 Rusk's Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxi. 
 
 33. Old Danish, from a MS. of Homilies, or meditations, belonging to 
 the Royal Swedish Historiographer of Hallenberg. It is without date, 
 but appears to be about a.d. 1450. 
 
 DANISH. ENGLISH. 
 
 Ther a^fTther drogh Nichodemus then Hereafter drew Nichodemus the other 
 
 annen spiger pa vinstra) handh, oc fa:-k nail from the left hand, and gave it in the 
 
 lian sammeledes lohannes. Sidhen foor same manner to John. Afterwards 
 
 Nichodemus nether, oc foor op at ien Nichodemus went nearer, and went upon 
 
 liden stige, och togh spigene af fodaema), the small steps, and drew the nails from 
 
 maedajn iosep hiolt pa ligommeet. the feet, while Joseph held the corpse. 
 
 Rask's Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xviii. 
 
 34. A few examples of Danish are given from the Scriptures, to faci- 
 litate the comparison, and thus shew the connexion of this tongue with 
 those of Teutonic origin. The first example is from the Danish Epistles 
 and Gospels, Leipsic, 1518, fol. 
 
 INI K . iv. 3, 6. — En mand gick wd ath saa sin Sscd. Som ha saadc da fait somt aff 
 komed boss vegn. Oc det bleff traad bort oc sorapt der aiT ode fuglene i va^red. 
 
 35. Bible, Copenhagen, 1589, fol. 
 
 j\Ik. iv. 3, 4. — Horer til ! See, der gick en Saemand ud ad saa. Oc dot skede, 
 i det hand saade, at noget fait boss Vcyen : Da komme Fulene under Himmelea 
 oc ode det. 
 
156 SCANDINAVIAN— OLD DANISH, FKOM A.D. 1647 — 1775. XI. 36 — 39. 
 
 36. Bible, 1647, 8vo. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Horer til ; See, der gik en SfEdemarid ud at saae. Og det skede 
 i det band saaede, at noget faldt hos Vejen; og der komme Himmelens Fugle og 
 aaede det op. 
 
 37. New Testament, Copenhagen, 1717, 8vo. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Hdrer (til) : see, en Sasdemand gik ut at saae. Og det skede, i 
 det hand saade, at noget faldt hos Veyen, og Himmelens Fugle kom og aad det op. 
 
 38. New Testament, London, 1827, 8ro. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Horer til ; see, en Ssederaand gik ud at saae. Og det skede, i det 
 han saaede, at noget faldt ved Veien, og Himmelens Fugle kom, og aad det op. 
 
 39. As a specimen of the present Danish, a better cannot be selected 
 than the following Naval Song, which is to the Danes what "Rule 
 Britannia" is to the English. It was written by Johannes Evald, a poet 
 who flourished in the latter part of the last century. (Born 1 743, died 
 
 1781).* 
 
 Kong Christian stod ved hoien Mast King Christian stood by the lofty mast 
 
 I Rog og Damp. In mist and smoke. 
 
 Hans Vaevge hamrede saa fast. His sword was hammering so fast. 
 
 At Gotbeus Hielm og Hierne brast. Through Gothic helm and brain it passed. 
 
 Da sank bver fiendtligt Speil og Mast Then sank each hostile bulk and mast 
 
 I Rog og Damp. In mist and smoke. 
 
 Flye, skreg de, flye, bvad flygte kan ! Fly, shouted they, fly, be who can ! 
 
 Hvo staaer for Danmarks Christian Who braves of Denmark's Christian 
 
 I Kamp ? The stroke ? 
 
 Niels Juel gav Agt paa Stormens Brag : Niels Juel gave heed to the tempest's roar ; 
 
 Nu er det Tid ! Now is the hour ! 
 
 Han beisede det rode Flag, He hoisted his blood-red flag once more, 
 
 Og slog paa Fienden Slag i Slag. And smote the foe of the Dane full sore.f 
 
 Da skreg de boitblant Stormens Brag: And shouted loud through the tempest's 
 
 roar : 
 
 Nu er det Tid ! Now is the hour ! 
 
 Flye, skreg de, bver, some veed et Skiul ! Fly, shouted they, for shelter fly ! 
 
 Hvo kan bestaae for Danmarks Juel Of Denmark's Juel who can defy 
 
 I strid ? The power ? 
 
 Nordhav, Glimt, af Vessel brod North Sea ! a glimpse of Wessel rent 
 
 Din morke Skye : Thy murky sky ! 
 
 Da tyede Ksemper til dit Skiod ; Then champions to thine arms were sent; 
 
 Tbi med bam lynte Skraek og Dod ; Terror and death glared where be went; 
 
 Fra Vallen bortes Vraal, som brod From the waves was beard a wail, that rent 
 
 Din Skye : Thy murky sky ! 
 
 Fra Danmark lyner Tordenskiold ; From Denmark thunders Tordenskiol'; 
 
 Hver give sig i Himlens Void, Let each to heaven commend bis soul, 
 
 Og flye ! And fly ! 
 
 * For this piece and the translation, I am indebted to my friend, H. W. Longfellow, Esq. 
 M.A. Professor of Belles Lettres in Harvard University, Cambridge, America, Nov. 1835. 
 f " And smote upon the foe full sore." 
 
XI. 40 — 44. SCANDINAVIAN — ICELANDIC AND SWEDISH. 157 
 
 Du Danskes Vei til Roes og Magt, Path of the Dane to fame and might, 
 
 Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! 
 
 Modtag din Ven, som uforsagt Receive thy friend, who scorning flight 
 
 Tor mode Faren med Foragt, Goes to meet danger with despite, 
 
 Saa stolt, som du, mod Stormens Magt, Proudly as thou meetest the tempest's 
 
 might, 
 Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! 
 
 Og rask igiennem Larm og Spil, And amid pleasures and alarms 
 
 Og Kamp og Seier foer mig til And war and victory, be thine anns 
 
 Min Grav ! My gi'ave ! 
 
 40. The Icelandic, here called Norrceni. For facility of comparison, 
 a few extracts are given from the Icelandic Scriptures. Nach : Thetta 
 er hid nye Testament Jesu Christi, &c. utlogd a Norrrcni, &c. or The 
 Neiv Testament in the Norrcenn, northern, Old Danish, or Icelandic 
 tongue, limo. 1539. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine predikan, tha sagdi han til thra. Heyre thier, siaet ! 
 ein sadsaedare gieck vt at saa. Thad vard tha han sadi, at sumt fiell vtan hia vegi- 
 num^ og tha komu fuglar loptzins og atu thad vpp. 
 
 41. Biblia thad er, 611 Heilcig Ilituing vtlogd a Norrasnu, med for- 
 nialtim Mart. Lutheri, Prentad a Holum, af lone lonas Syne, fol. 1584, 
 or The Bible, in Norse or Icelandic, after the version of Luther. Bible, 
 Stockholm, 1584, fol. 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine Predikan, tha sagde han til thra, Heyre thier, Sia : 
 Eirn saadsjcdare gieck ut at sa. Og thad vard tha han sade, at sumt fiell utan hia 
 veigenum, og thar komu fuglar Lopisins og aatu thad vpp. 
 
 42. Stiernhelm's Gospels of Ulphilas, in Moes., Icel., Swed.j Ger.^ and 
 Latin, 4to. Stockholm, 1G71.* 
 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Heyred til. Sia, eirn Sadmadur gieck ut ad saa. Og thad vard 
 i thui han saade, ad sumt fiell utann hia Veigenum ; og tha komu Fuglar under 
 Himnenum, og aatu thad upp. 
 
 43. Old Swedish can scarcely be distinguished from Danish; and Nor- 
 wegian has been, from the earliest times on record, and is now, identical 
 with Danish ; but as more modern Swedish dilfers a little from the Danish, 
 a few specimens may be desirable. 
 
 44. A specimen of Swedish from a document issued by king Magnus 
 Smek in 1354. 
 
 SWEDISH. ENGLISH. 
 
 Wi magnus, med guds nadh Sverikis We Magnus, by the grace of God, king 
 
 konung, norghis oc skanc, wiliom at of Sweden, Nonvay, and Scania, will that 
 
 thet seal allom mannom witerlikt wara, it shall be known to all men that we by 
 
 at wi aft' wara serdelis nadh hafwm vnt our jieculiar grace have conceded to 
 
 bergxmannomen a noreberge thajnna^ Bergxman (miner) of Noreberge the 
 
 raet oc stadhga, som hpcr ajpter folger : right and power as hereafter follows : 
 
 fi^irst hafwm wi stat oc skipat, at tolfT first have we constituted and ordained, 
 
 skulu wara the som fore bergheno sculu that twelve shall be the sum, Sec. 
 
 standa oc thera raeajt wacria oc fulfol- 
 
 ghia i allom lutom, &c. 
 
 » See Gothic, § 11. 
 
158 SCANDINAVIAN — SWEDISH, FROM A.D. 1541 — 1832. XI, 45 — 49. 
 
 45. Swedish Bible, Upsal, 1541, fol. 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Horer til. Sij, en Sadhesman gick vth til at saa. Och hende 
 
 sigh widh ban sadde, foil somt widh waghen, och foghlanar vnder himmelen komo, 
 och ato ihet vp. 
 
 46. The Swedish, from the Gospels of Uli^hilas, Stockholm * 1671. 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Hover til ; sy en Sadesman gik uth, til at saa. Och hende sigh wid 
 
 ban sadde, foil somt wid Wagen, og Foglarna under Himmelen komo, och ato 
 that up. 
 
 47. Bible, 8vo. London, 1828. 
 Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Horer til: Si, en Sadesman gick ut, til at sa. Och hande sig„ 
 
 wid han sadde, foil somt wid wagen, och foglarne under himmelen kommo, och ato 
 thet up. 
 
 48. One of the most eminent of modern Swedish poets is Bishop Tegner. 
 He took the story of Frithiof from one of the old Sagas, and under the title 
 of Frithiof's Saga, he has written in flowing verse a most interesting story 
 of royal affection. The following extract is from the Exile of Frithiof ,m 
 the original Swedish, in the Norwegian or Danish translation, and with 
 a poetical version of the Rev. W. Strong, London, 1833. 
 
 SWEDISH. DANISH. ENGLISH. 
 
 Nu sol gar opp Nu Sol gaaer op The orb of day, 
 
 bak fj aliens topp. Bag Fjeldets Top ; Now tints the spray ; 
 
 och vinden Ijuder Landvinden lyder. From piping heights, 
 
 fran land och bjuder Hver Vove byder The breeze invites 
 
 hvar vag till dans Den op til Dands Each beam and wave, 
 
 i morgonglans. I Morgenglands. To dance and lave. 
 
 Pa boljans toppar Paa Bolgetoppe O'er the gay group, 
 
 Ellida hoppar Assted de hoppe Ellida's poop 
 
 i frojd astad, Saa fro og glad. Bounds light along ; 
 
 men Frithiof qvad. Men Frithjof qvad. To Frithiof's wilder song. 
 
 Tegner, cant. xiv. p. 113. Foss, p. 135. Strong, p. 187. 
 
 49. A fine passage from The Reconciliation, cannot be omitted : it is. 
 a description of Balder the good. 
 
 SWEDISH. 
 
 Frid var bans harski, harlek var bans blanka svard, 
 
 och oskuld satt som dufva pa bans silfverhjelm. • ^ 
 
 From lefde ban och larde, dog han och forlat, fji 
 
 och under fjerran palmer star bans graf i Ijus. 
 
 Hans I'ara, sags det, vandrar ifran dal till dal, 
 
 fbrsmalter harda hjertan, I'agger hand i band, 
 
 och bygger fridens rike pa forsonad jord. — Tegner, p. 164. 
 
 DANISH. 
 
 Fred var bans Hserraab, Kjerligbed bans blanke Svajrd, 
 Og Uskyld sad som Due paa bans Solverbjelm. ':i 
 
 Fromt leved han og la3rte, dode og tilgav, 
 Og under fjerne Palmer staaer bans Grav i Lys. 
 Hans leere, siges der, gaaer vidt fra Dal til Dal, 
 Samsmelter haarde Hjerter, Isegger Haand i Haand, 
 Og bygger Fredens Rige paa forsonet Jord. — Foss, p. 194. 
 * See § 42, and Gothic, § 11. 
 
XL 50, 51. SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. 159 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 His war-cry, peace, good-will : love was his two-edged sword ; 
 
 Crest of his silver helm, sat dove-like innocence ; 
 
 Grace mark'd his life, his word : his death-sigh breath'd ' Forgive.' 
 
 In light 'noath distant jmlms, far pilgrims seek his tomb. 
 
 'Tis said his tidings walk, peace-shod from dale to dale, 
 
 jNIelling the flinty heart, cementing man to man. 
 
 Building of living stones, a temple to this God. — Strong, p. 303. 
 
 Dialect of Dalecarlia.* 
 
 50. The principal dialect t of Sweden is the Dalecarlian. The Dalcarls 
 arc spoken of as the Swedish Highlanders. Inhabiting that secluded region 
 which stretches westward from the Silian Ijake to the Alps of Norway, they 
 have preserved comparatively unchanged the manners, customs, and lan- 
 guage of their Gothic forefathers. 
 
 " Here," says Serenius,| " are the only remains in Sweden of the ancient Gothic 
 stock, whereof the aspiration of the letters / and iv bears witness upon their tongues, 
 an infallible characteristic of the Moeso-Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and Icelandic." In 
 another place, speaking of the guttm'al or aspirated /, he says : " Germans and Danes 
 cannot pronounce it, no more than the aspirated iv, for which reason this was a 
 fatal letter three hundred years ago in these nations, when Engelbrect, a born Dal- 
 carl, set it up for a shibboleth, and whoever could not say Tlivid hest i Korngulff, 
 was taken for a foreigner, because he could not aspirate the iv, nor utter the guttural 
 /." § It is even asserted, that with their ancient customs and language the Dalcarls 
 have preserved the use of the old Runic alphabet, although from feelings of religious 
 superstition it was prohibited by Olaf Shiitkonung at the beginning of the llth 
 century, and discontinued in all other parts of Sweden. This is mentioned on the 
 authority of Nasman, who wrote in the first half of the last century. || 
 
 51. The Dalecarlian dialect is spoken in its greatest purity in Elfdalen, 
 Mora, and Orsa, parishes of East Dalecarlia. 
 
 In West Dalecarlia it is mingled with the dialects of the Norwegian mountains, 
 and bears the name oi Mahlungs Skinnarmdl. The peculiarities of this jargon are 
 these : — 1. Prefixing the letter v to all monosyllables which begin with a vowel, as 
 vom for om if; vord for ord a tvord, &c. 2. The transposition of syllables, as 
 jasel for selja to sell ; lata for tala to speak, Sec. Thus they say — 
 
 Kan du lata ta) korba, so kimi du lavi ? 
 
 Kan du tala Xx baka, so miki du villi ? 
 
 Canst thou speak backwards, as much as thou ivilt P 
 
 « Professor liOnErfcllow, of Harvard University, Cainl)ri(l<^e, America, who has recently 
 returned from Sweden, was so obliging as to draw up this notice of the Dalecarlian diidcet, 
 October, 183.5. 
 
 f Bidbi and ^lalte Firun make two gi-eat divisions in tlie Swedish. T. Sircdish proper, 
 spoken in the nortii and east ; and II. Mixhrn Gothic, used in Gothland to the soiitii. — 
 I. Swedish puoi>kr, suixlivicled into I. The dialect of I'pland, '2. Norland, ;3, Kastem 
 Dalecarlian, and 4, the dialect of Finland. II. JIodkrn Gotuu, divided into I. West 
 Gothic, 2. East Gothic, 3. \\ erneland, 1. Smoland, and j. Runajin Livonia. — HaWi's Alias, 
 Table xiii.; Maltc liritn, bk. xevi. vol. vi. p. 109. 
 
 * J. Serenius' English and Swedish Dictionary, 4to. Nykoping, 1757, Prcf. p. iii. 
 
 § Ibid. p. ii. 
 
 i| Nasman (R. E.) Historiola Lingua* Didekarlica?, -Ito. I'psalia^, 173:3, p. 30. 
 
e 
 
 160 SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. XL 52 — 57. 
 
 52. The inhabitants of the town of Sarna, on the borders of the Nor- 
 wegian Alps in East Dalecarlia, speak a mixed dialect of Dalecarlian and 
 Norwegian ; and it is said, that they understood the language spoken by 
 certain Dutchmen, ^vho were in the habit of visiting those mountains for 
 the purpose of taking falcons, then used in hunting.* We are also told 
 of a Dalecarlian boy who was taken by a Swedish ambassador to England, 
 and who easily understood the language of the peasants of the northern 
 couuties.f 
 
 53. The three branches of the Dalecarlian dialect, as spoken in Elf- 
 dalen, Mora, and Orsa, differ from each other not only in the change of 
 letters and the inflexion of words, but also in accent and pronunciation. 
 Between those of Elfdalen and Mora the difference is not, however, very 
 great. That of Orsa stands more apart, as may be seen by the following 
 versions of the Lord's Prayer. 
 
 54. Dialect of Elfdalen. 
 
 Fad uoer, so ir i himbluma. 
 
 Hielit ir dastt nam. Tilkum dsett riki. 
 
 Ski dsenn uilja, so i himblum sa a jordi. 
 
 Uott dagli brod giaef oss i dag. 
 
 Og firilat OSS uorter skullda^r. 
 
 Soss uir firilatum diom so i oss nod skilldug. 
 
 Lsed int uoss i nan jselok frsestilsse 
 
 Aula los oss fra uondu. Amen. 
 
 55. Dialect of Mora. 
 
 Fad ufer so ir i himmelim. 
 
 Hsellit 86 dsett nam. Tilkum dett rikise. 
 
 Ska daenn iiilli so i himmelim so a jordi. 
 
 Uott dagli brod giaef huass i dag. 
 
 Firilat huass huavfer skuUdur. 
 
 Sos huir firilatum diom sa ee huass na skillda. 
 
 Led int huass i nan uondan frsestilsse. 
 
 Int' at frsels huass fra illu. Amen. 
 
 56. Dialect of Orsa. 
 
 Falla orn, sa ir i himblim. 
 Hselgat Uceri dsett nam. Tilksemi dsett rikia. 
 Ski dseina uilju, sa i himblum sa a jordi. 
 Ort dagliga brod gia huass i dag. 
 
 o 
 
 A farlat huass orser skuUdaer, 
 
 Skai sa ui fserlatum dsem huass skilldugser ira. 
 
 A inled huoss int 1 frsestilse. 
 
 Mseld frsels huass fra uandu. Amen. 
 
 Norwegian. 
 
 57. For several centuries, and especially since the Danish became 
 a fixed and regular tongue, Norwegian has been identical with Danish. 
 
 * Nasinan, p. 12. f Ibid. p. 17. 
 
XL 58. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN — FERROE DIALECT. 
 
 161 
 
 Tliis common dialect has perhaps been as much settled and polished by 
 Norwegians as by natives of Denmark.* As there is this identity in the 
 Danish and Norwegian, the copious examples of the J)aiish(t iihif/a pre- 
 viously given, will serve also for the Norwegian, and will render further 
 remarks unnecessary. 
 
 Ferroe Dialect. 
 
 58. A specimen of early Ferroe taken from Professor Rafn's Fasreyinga 
 Saga, Pref. p. iv. Thrand was one of the first inhabitants of Ferroe. 
 Many religious verses are ascribed to him, and are still preserved by oral 
 tradition among the inhabitants of the Ferroes. The following Creed, 
 written down by a native Ferroe clergyman. Pastor Schrciler, now- 
 Emeritus, who translated the Gospel of St. Matthew,t will serve as an 
 example of this dialect. 
 
 FERROE DIALECT. 
 
 Gjivnir eru Ajnglar gowir [af Gudi] 
 
 Aj gengji e ajna udi, 
 
 Ferun miijimn filgja 
 
 Fim Guds Ajnglar; 
 
 Bije e firi mar Bon, 
 
 Bera tajr ta [Bon] firi Kriste. 
 
 Singje e Salmana sjej, 
 
 Sar Gild til Saluna mujna ! 
 
 MODERN FERROE DIALECT. 
 
 Gengji e aj ajna ut, 
 fujra mar filgja, 
 fim Guds Ajnglar, 
 beri e Bon firi niiir, 
 Bon firi Krist, 
 singji e Salma sjej, 
 sjaji Gud til Lutamujn ! 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Go I not alone out. 
 Four me follow. 
 Five God's angels, 
 I pray a prayer for me, 
 A prayer for Christ. 
 I sing seven Psalms, 
 God will see for my lot ! 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH. 
 
 Good angels are given by God, 
 I go not alone. 
 My steps follow 
 Five angels of God ; 
 Pray I for me a jjrayer. 
 They bear it to Christ. 
 Sing I seven Psalms, 
 Sees God for my soul ! 
 
 OLD ICELANDIC 
 
 Gangat ek einn ut, 
 fjorir mer fylgja, 
 fimm gu^s einglar ; 
 ber ok bnen fvrir mer, 
 baen fyrir Kristi, 
 syng ek salraa sj6, 
 sjai gu^ hluta minn ! 
 
 Written about a.d. 1 150. 
 
 MODERN DANISH. 
 
 Ene jeg ei gaaer ud, 
 
 fire mig folge, 
 
 fern Guds Engle, 
 
 Bon for niigjeg frembtcrer 
 
 Bon for Christus. 
 
 syv Salmer jeg synger, 
 
 Sorge Gud for mit Bedste ! 
 
 * See § 43, and Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Mr. Thorpe, p. xvi. 
 
 f Evangelium St JIattha?«ssa a Faerciisk o Dansk, Randers, 1823—8. 
 
162 
 
 XII.— THE AFFINITY OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 1. The Germanic languages, comprehending not only the Low and 
 High-German, but also the Scandinavian, have a striking similarity, and 
 are evidently of cognate origin. The short history of each language, 
 accompanied with extracts, and a detail of their most evident peculiarities, 
 have occupied so much space, and engaged the attention so long, that it 
 may be desirable to advert again to their similarity. They appear as 
 dialects of one extensive language, branches of one vigorous stock, or 
 streams from the same copious fountain. A recollection of this will, in 
 some degree, restore to order the confusion of Babel, and therefore very 
 much facilitate the acquisition of languages.* An appeal to the Germanic 
 languages will be a sufficient proof, not only of their similarity, but of their 
 identity. This likeness and close relationship will be clearly manifest by 
 a few examples from their grammatical inflections and vocabularies. 
 
 2. In the following examples, the v in the Dutch visch has exactly 
 the same sound as the English/"; hence fish has the same name in all the 
 Germanic languages. 
 
 Eng. J.-S. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Moes. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Sived. 
 
 Icel. 
 
 a fish fisc 
 
 visch 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisch 
 
 fisk-s 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk-r 
 
 a fish's fisc-es 
 
 visch-est fisk-es 
 
 fisch-es 
 
 fisk-is 
 
 fisk-s 
 
 fisk-s 
 
 fisk-s 
 
 to a fish fisc-e 
 
 visch-e 
 
 fisk-e 
 
 fisch-e 
 
 fisk-a 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk-i 
 
 a fish fisc 
 
 visch 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisch 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk 
 
 fisk 
 
 fishes fisc-as 
 
 visch -en 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fisch-e 
 
 fisk-os 
 
 fisk-e 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fishes' fisc-a 
 
 visch-en 
 
 fisk-a 
 
 fisch-e 
 
 fisk-e 
 
 fisk-es 
 
 fisk-ars 
 
 fisk-a 
 
 to fishes fisc-um 
 
 visch-en 
 
 fisk-um 
 
 fisch-en 
 
 fisk-en 
 
 fisk-e 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fisk-um 
 
 fishes fisc-as 
 
 visch-en 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fisch-e 
 
 fisk-ans 
 
 fisk-e 
 
 fisk-ar 
 
 fisk-a. 
 
 3. The identity of the Germanic languages will be still more evident if 
 a few examples be taken from what has been generally called the irregular 
 parts of these languages. It may be useful to remark, that the Moes. A.-S. 
 and Enff. ]> or th, in Dut. Dan. and Swed. is changed into d. The Dan. 
 jeg and mig are pronounced yih and mih: the Swed. jag and mig are 
 sounded yih and mih. 
 
 * Classification and association are of the utmost importance in learning languages. The 
 greater part of European tongues in the south and west are those of Germanic, and those 
 of Roman origin. The Germanic class embraces the modern English, German, Dutch, Danish, 
 Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, &c. ; the Roman or Latin comprises the Spanish, Italian, 
 Portuguese, French, &c. To this subject has been drawn the attention of an old friend, the 
 Rev. W. Pulling, M.A., A.S.L. Rector of Dymchurch, Kent. He was induced to deliver in 
 the University of Cambridge " A course of Lectures on the French, Italian, Spanish, and 
 Portuguese languages, and their chief dialects, Cambridge, 1834." These interesting and 
 valuable Lectures deserve attention, and it is greatly to be wished that Mr. Pulling may 
 receive sufficient encouragement to carry into efl'ect his intention of publishing a volume 
 containing short grammars of the languages of Roman origin, to be followed by another 
 volume comprising grammars of the Germanic tongues. 
 
 f The Dutch, &c. now generiilly use prepositions instead of the old terminations : thus, 
 Dut. van een visch of a fish, instead of visches. 
 
XII. 4, 5. AFFINITY OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 163 
 
 Eng. I am, be : A.-S. ic eom, beo : Plat, ick bin, em : Dut. ik bin, em : Frs. ik 
 ben : Moes. ik im : Ger. ich bin : Icel. ek er, em : Dan. jeg er : Swed. jag iir. — 
 Eng. I was : A.-S. ic wses : Frs. ik was: P/«/. ick was : Dut. ik was: Moes. ik 
 was : Ger. ich war : /ce/. er var : Dan. jeg var : Swed. jag vas. — Eng. come, ^. 
 came, pp. come : .^.-S. cume, p. com, ;?;>. cumen : Frs. kcm, ;j.,kom, ;?/>. kemen-: 
 P/«/. kom, />. kwam, pp. gekomen : Dut. kome, p. kwam, /)/>. gekomen : Moes. 
 quima, JO. (\\\a.m., pp. qiuinian(s) : Ger. komnie, p. kam, ;);>. (ge)komnien: Icel. 
 kem, p. kom, pp. kominn : Dan. kommer, /). kam, pp. kmnmen : Sired, kommer, 
 ^;. koni, ;;/>. kommen. — Eng. thou: A.-S. ]7U : Frs. thu : Plat, thu : Flem. du : 
 Moes. thu : Ger. du : Icel. ]>n : Dan. du : Sioed. du. — Eng. who : A.-S. hwa : Frs. 
 hwa : P/(j^. huie : Dut. wie: .Moes. hwa(s) : Ger. wer : /ce/. hwa(r) : Dan. hwo : 
 iSh'<?(/. ho. — Eng. good, better, best : A.-S. god (bet), betra, betst : Frs. god, bet- 
 tre, (betere), beste : Dut. goed, beter, best : Moes. goths (god(s) or bats), batiza, 
 batist(s) : Ger. gut, besser, beste: Icel. g6d(r) bettri, bestr : Dan. god, bedre, 
 beste : Swed. god, biittre, bast. 
 
 4. If these examples do not convince the reader that these languages 
 are mere dialectic variations of one ancient tongue, perhaps the following 
 declension of the pronoun of the first person may produce full conviction. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 A.-S. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Frs. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Moes. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Swed. 
 
 Icel. 
 
 I 
 
 ic 
 
 ik 
 
 ik 
 
 ich 
 
 ik 
 
 jeg 
 
 jag 
 
 ek 
 
 mine 
 
 min 
 
 mins 
 
 min 
 
 mein 
 
 meina 
 
 min 
 
 min 
 
 min 
 
 to me 
 
 me 
 
 mij 
 
 mi 
 
 mir 
 
 mis 
 
 mig 
 
 mig 
 
 mer 
 
 me 
 
 me 
 
 mij 
 
 mi 
 
 mich 
 
 mik 
 
 mig 
 
 mig 
 
 mik 
 
 we 
 
 we 
 
 wij 
 
 wi 
 
 wir 
 
 weis 
 
 wi 
 
 wi 
 
 wer 
 
 our 
 
 ure 
 
 onzer 
 
 use 
 
 unser 
 
 unsara 
 
 vor 
 
 war 
 
 war 
 
 to us 
 
 us 
 
 ons 
 
 us 
 
 uns 
 
 uns 
 
 OS 
 
 OSS 
 
 OSS 
 
 us 
 
 us 
 
 ons 
 
 us 
 
 uns 
 
 uns 
 
 OS 
 
 OSS 
 
 OSS. 
 
 5. In the most irregular parts of the Germanic languages, even at the 
 present day, there is a complete correspondence, which shows that there 
 must have been a time when the nations of Germanic origin were all 
 united in one tribe. Some branches of this great Gothic family have not 
 had any close intercourse or alliance for many centuries ; the present simi- 
 larity of their languages must then have arisen from a close anterior 
 connexion. The period of this connexion it is not easy to specify ; but it 
 must have been very early and intimate, as the similarity is most evident 
 in the words which designate what was most necessary, in the rudest state 
 of society, and in those verbs generally called irregular,* and which are 
 even now most in use. This early connexion it is very important to observe, 
 and it is the part of scientific etymology to show it in the clearest light. 
 
 Ten Kate's AnleiJing tot de Kennisse van de Nederduitscbe Sprake, vol. ii. p. 12, § XI. 
 
164 
 
 XIII. -THE IMPORTANCE OF ETYMOLOGY,* THE MANNER OF FORMING 
 WORDS, AND AN OUTLINE OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM. 
 
 1. Words are the creation of mind. As the true philosopher looks 
 with humble adoration, from the variety and perfection of God's visible 
 creation to the power and goodness of the Creator, so the philosophic 
 etymologist is constantly led, from the various forms and applications of 
 words, to contemplate the intellectual powers in which man most resembles 
 bis Creator. The true and judicious etymologist is anxious to obtain the 
 right meaning and application of words, and thus a good etymologist is 
 most likely to become the best metaphysician. He is not satisfied with 
 the common and external signification of words received from popular use, 
 but he examines their structure, their radical, that is, their real and 
 internal meaning, and thus endeavours to discover the reason of the 
 application of the terra. When the understanding is thus called into 
 exercise in the formation of words, precision is not only given to ex- 
 pression, but the higher faculty of reason lends its powerful aid to the 
 memory, and greatly facilitates the acquisition of a language. The ety- 
 mology of a word being understood, and thus the sanction of reason 
 obtained, neither that word nor any of its family can scarcely ever escape 
 from the memory. The use of etymology will, however, be best proved by 
 a few plain examples, showing the real meaning of some common words. 
 
 Acorn, A.-S. seceren, secern, from aec, ac an oak ; cern or corn corn, the corn or 
 fruit of the oak. — Childhood, A.-S. cildhad, from cild a child, had a condition, 
 state, a child's condition. — Kingdom, .^.-.S'. cyngdom, cyningdom, from cyning, 
 cyng a king ; Horn power, jurisdiction, a kinfs jurisdiction, or dominion. — Island, 
 A.-S. ealand, from ea ivater, land land ; ivater-land, land surrounded tvith water, 
 — Sheriff, or shirereeve, A.-S. scir-gerefa, from scir a share, division, shire, county ; 
 gerefa a reeve, governor, a governor of a shire. — Neighbour, A.-S. neah-hur, from 
 neah near ; bur a bower, dwelling, one who has a dwelling near. — Righteous, 
 A.-S. rihtwis, from nht right, just; whivise, right tmse, honest, virtuous. — Foster- 
 child, ^.-S. fostercild, from foster yborf, nowris/iwiew^; cild a child, a child that 
 receives food from a person who is not its parent, S^c. 
 
 2. Tn looking at the first formation of words in the origin of language, 
 it may be observed, that a knowledge of things appears to be conveyed to 
 the mind through the medium of the five senses, especially by the sight. 
 An idea or image of a visible object is formed in the mind by means of 
 the eye ; and the word which, when written or spoken, conveys this image 
 
 * Etymology is thus defined:— Optime Cicero irvfioXoyiav, Latine vertit verUoquium ; 
 eumque merito defendit Martinius : certe verbotim non potiiit melius Cicero. Nam certum 
 est, quod sTVfxov sit verum : et irvjioAoyos, qui to irvfiov Aeyet. Scaliger taraen Etymologiam 
 sic definit, taiiquam esset a \oyos ratio. Etymologia, inquit, est vocis ratio, id est vis, qua 
 vox a voce generatur. — Wacfitei's Glos. Germ. Prolegom, VII. 
 
XIII. 3, 4. NOUNS THE PRIMITIVE WORDS. 165 
 
 to the mind, is called a noun. If it be most probable that the general 
 appearance of a material thing would be impressed on the mind before 
 any particular part or action of the thing, then nouns* must be the primi- 
 tive words in language. Every noun or thing which has an existence, 
 must have either an action or state of being, and the word which expresses 
 that action or state of being is denominated a verh. If, after the general 
 outline of an object was formed in the mind, the attention were fixed upon 
 its action or state of being, then verbs were formed subsequently to nouns. 
 Thus all things material were first designated by the noun^ while the 
 subsequent motions of these objects were indicated by the verh in its 
 simplest forin.f 
 
 3. This reasoning is corroborated by the structure not only of the 
 Germanic languages but of the Shemitic. 
 
 A few examples may be first cited from the Hebrew, where the roots of words 
 have been generally sujjposed to exist only in the verb, from which nouns were always 
 said to be formed. The following verbs, however, evidently spring from nouns. 
 From t:S ath a stooping, ni23 nethe to incline, boiv down ; — bs aipoiver, strength, 
 nbs file to exercise power in injuring, to curse ; — ]S an labour, pS ancn to be 
 faint with labour, to complain ; — r|W up heat, anger, HDW ape to operate as heat, to 
 bake ; — ~1N ar a river, what flows, n~)S are to be floivhig off, to crop, "nM arer 
 to flow or take from, to curse ; — ti?S as ^re, ti?C7S ases to he fired, angry, or 
 grieved ; — ns at a sign, thou, the substance of a thing, nns ate to come, come 
 near, to approach ; — 12 bed what is separate, a branch, desert, n^ beded to be 
 alone; — ]n bcu a so», n33 bene to build, to build up, to continue, as a son 
 builds up or continues the family or line of his father ; — "T"^ id a hand, m^ ide 
 to put forth, to extend ; — yv oj a tree, HI^V oje to be as a tree, to make firm or 
 steady. 
 
 4. In Greek some verbs appear also to be formed from nouns. 
 
 ^aXog agitation of the sea, the sea, aaXivio I sea, I act as the sea, 1 shake, or agi- 
 tate : — ayyfXoqa messenger, angel, ayytXXw I act as a messenger, I bring infor- 
 
 * Kimkhi expressly declares C27n?3 Ml^"' b3?Dn ^'"' i'^'"'' proceeds from the noun. See 
 Professor J.ee\i Heb. Gram. Svo. London, 2nd edit. 1«:}2, Leet. VI. Art. 1 J-1, 14tJ; and Leet. X. 
 Art. 182, § 2, note, for some interesting? Ikets on this subject. " In Burman, verbs are nothing- 
 more than nouns conjugated witli the pronouns." — Id. liCct. VI. Art. 144, § 1, note (*). See 
 also my Compendious Gram, of t/ic A/it/lo-Saxon /.anijuac/e, 8vo. London, l!S2(), ch. VII. p. o7. 
 
 Locke says, " I doubt not, if we could trace words to their sources, we should find, in all 
 lanc^uages, the names that stand for t/iinr/s that fall not under our senses, to have had their 
 first rise from sensil)le objects. — On Human Inderslandimj, I)k. :J, ch. I. 
 
 Notioncs verborum propria^ omnes sunt coq)orc;c, sive ad res pertincntcs, qua; sensus nos- 
 tros feriunt. — Ian Lennep, p. 7. Nee alias esse (verborum signiiicationes) nisi corporeas, 
 sive eas, nuibus i-es, svnsi/ius, extcrius expos ita, designantur. — Id. Anal. p. 41. Air. Richardson 
 in Gents. Mag. .April, lH:Ui, p. 373. 
 
 The (icrmanic literati dill'er in ojiinion on this subject. Many eminent etymologists de 
 flare that the roots of all words were originally verbs. Professor J. Crinini, though of the 
 same (i]tinion, uses a more cautious expression, and says verl)s appear to be tlie Ibundation 
 of all worils. (Deutsche Gram. II. .J.) It is true that many words originate from verbs; but 
 it is crrneous to attempt to trace all words to verbs as their root. Professor Grimm, on the 
 supposition that all roots were verbs, has quoted a great numl)er of verl)s ns lost whicli pro- 
 bably never existed : this great investigator, adds Schmittiicnncr, is cerlainl;/ led aslrai/ by a 
 false supposition. (Schmillhenner's Etijmol. Darmstadt, 8vo. 1833, p. 20 — 2.3.) In § 17 he 
 says, " the root is neither a noun nor a verb, but what precedes both," &e. 
 
 f Sir Graves C. Haughton's " Inquiry into the nature of Language," prefixed to his cla 
 borate and very learned Dictionary of Bengali and {>anshrit, Ito. London, 1833, p. 1. 
 
166 VERBS ARE DERIVED FROM NOUNS. XIII. 5 — 9. 
 
 mation, I tell : — aywv, -u^voq a combat, battle, ayuvia a conflict of mind, distress, 
 agony, ayioviao) I am in agony, am distressed : — a£0Xoe, ddXoe a combat, aedXevo), 
 adXevu) IJight, combat : — ai^a, -arog, the effusion of blood, aifiae, -adog blood 
 streaming from a tvound, ainaaaw I stain ivith blood: — cuxuri a spear, atj^^a^w 
 IJight ivith a spear, brandish : — aKpt) the point, top, maturity, aKfxal^d) I grow up 
 to maturity, ripen, 8^c. 
 
 5. The root or origin of a verb in Welsh is, as the learned Dr. Davies 
 remarked, for the most part, a noun, as dysc doctrina ; d^-scais docui ; 
 car amicus, carav amo, vel amabo. This substantive, adds the same 
 writer, is generally identical with the third person singular of the future 
 indicative, (as in Hebrew the third of the preterite is the root,) or with 
 the second of the imperative, which forms are generally the same.* 
 
 6. The Germanic languages afford many examples of verbs evidently 
 derived from nouns. 
 
 From A.-S. deel : Plat. But. deel : Frs. del : Moes. dails : Ger. tlieil: Old Ger. 
 deil : Icel. deil : Dan. deel : Swed. del a part, pai's ; we have the following verbs in 
 A.-S. dael-an : Plat, del-en : Dut. deel-en : Frs. del-a : Moes. dail-jan : Old Ger. 
 deil-an : Icel. deil-a : Dan. deel-e : and Swed. del-a to give a part, to separate, 
 divide. — From A.-S. meolc, mile : Plat. Dut. melk : Ger. milch : Old Ger. milub, 
 milich : Icel. miolk : Dan. malk: and Swed. mjolk mixk, lac, we have the fol- 
 lowing verbs in A.-S. meolc-ean : Plat. Dut. melk-en : Ger. melk-en : Old Ger. 
 melk-an : Icel. miolk-a : Dan. malk-e : and Swed. m]o\k-a to afford or give milk, 
 to milk, to draw milk ; mulgere. — From A.-S. rec : Plat. Dut. rook : Frs. rec, rek : 
 Ger. raucb : Icel. reykr : Dan. rog: and Swed. rok smoke, exlialatio ; we have the 
 following verbs in A.-S. rec-an : Plat. Dut. rook-e\i : Frs. rek-a to smoke, dwell in, 
 inhabit : Ger. rauch-en : Icel. reyk-ia : Dan. rog-e : and Swed. rok-a to give a 
 smoke, to smoke, to reek ; fumare, exhalare. 
 
 7. Both nouns and verbs are formed into adjectives. 
 
 Some nouns are used as adjectives without any alteration ; but adjectives in A.-S. 
 are generally fonned by annexing to the noun or verb, -en, -ig, -isc, from an, unnan, 
 ican or ecan to give, add, eke ; also, -bajr bearing, producing ; — cund born, a kind, 
 sort; -ece eternal ; -ende', -fcest fast, Jirm ; -iuW full, plenty ; -Uc like ; -sum 
 some, part, &c. — As la^ n. evil, mischief; la^ adj. evil, pernicious ; gold gold, 
 -en add, add or join something, as golden Jirred golden thread ; blod blood, blodig 
 bloody; wit mind, tvit, vfitlg witty ; iolcfolk, folcisc like the people, plebeian ; 
 aeppelbser apple-bearing; leohtbser light-bearing; eoi-^cund earthly; godcund 
 divine; efenece coeternal ; cennan to bear, cennende bearing ; drincan to drink, 
 drincende drinking ; faran, feran to go, krende going ; aa laiv ; ssfasst fast in the 
 law, firm, religious ; tungfuiy"«iZ of tongue, talkative; eot^ earth, eoi'S'lic earth- 
 like, earthly; lufu love, luflic lovelike, lovely; lang long, langsum longsome, 
 lasting ; wyn pleasure, wynsmn some pleasure, pleasant. 
 
 8. Adverbs are often formed by frequently using nouns in certain 
 cases. 
 
 Thus hwilum awhile, noiv, d. of hvvil time, space ; ]?onces of gratitude, jjonce 
 with gratitude, gratefully, thankfully, g. and d. of \ouc favour , &c. 
 
 9. The remarks in paragraphs 3 and 4 can only refer to words in 
 their first formation. In a subsequent stage of language, many nouns 
 have evidently had their origin from verbs, adjectives, &c. 
 
 * See Dr. Davies' Antiquae Linguae Britannic* Rudimenta, and Dr. Prichard's Celtic 
 Nations, p. 178. 
 
XIII. 10, 11. GERMAN ETYMOLOGISTS. 1G7 
 
 Thus hurita^ a hunting, chase, from huntian to hunt ; fisco^ ajishing, from fiscian 
 tojish; gelicnes likeness, from gelic like ; hncdnes readiness, from hracd ready ; 
 hxic^Mcnysreadiness, Irom hricdlic ready, quick ; blawunga blowing, from blawan 
 to blow ; bul healthy, sound ; halig holy, haligan to consecrate; haligdom a sanc- 
 tuary ; haligiies holiness ; halgung, gehalgung a hallowing, consecration, ^c. 
 
 10. All that is here stated, as well as what is advanced in the preceding 
 paragraphs, is the mere threshold of etymology, that which is the most 
 evident and palpahle ; but perhaps it may have appeared that even this 
 incipient knowledge is not destitute of utility. Should there be a desire 
 to enter into the arcana of etymology, or to fathom its deep abyss, much 
 time and attention must be devoted to the works of German philologists,* 
 as the etymology of the Teutonic languages has been carried to great 
 extent by some of the most able men in Germany. They have adopted 
 the principle, and introduced much of the refinement discovered and 
 applied by Sanscrit grammarians. Every one who investigates the subject 
 must acknowledge there is much metaphysical nicety in their mode of 
 treating it, and much laborious exertion to make it intelligible. Though 
 such talents and industry certainly deserve attention, yet the great question 
 is, whether in the western tongues these metaphysical subtleties can be 
 made available to practical utility. The learned and indefatigable Dr. 
 Becker, in his German Grammar for Englishmen, with many of his coun- 
 trymen, asserts that their system is found most efficient in practice. It is, 
 therefore, only common justice to let these erudite Germans speak for 
 themselves, or rather to allow one to explain for the whole. A recent 
 writer, and one of the least diffuse and most able after Professor Boppf 
 and Grimm, is Professor Schmitthenner, from whose Introduction to the 
 Short Germa?i DiciionaryX the following abstract of the German lan- 
 guage is taken. The substance is only given, but where it is translated 
 the version is as close as possible. 
 
 1 1. Of VOWELS. The modern German has five simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u. 
 
 Three of these are radical vowels, a, i, u. The two others, e and o, are only shades 
 of a, i, u. The y of the A.-S. and the old northern dialects, has something analogous 
 in a soft u, but it is unknown to the other German dialects. It is borrowed from the 
 
 * See Von der Wortbildung, in vol. ii. p. 1 — 923 of Professor J. Grimm's Deutsche Gram- 
 matik, 8vo. Gottingen, 1826. — Die Deutsche Wortbildiinff von Dr. Becker, 8vo. Franki'urt 
 am Main, 1824, and all the other valuable pubUcations of Der frankfurtischen Gclehrten- 
 vereinigimg fiir deutsche Sprache, Herman, Frankfurt, &e. 
 
 f Though Professor Bopj), whose general erudition, and critical knowledge of Sanscrit in 
 particidar, are universally admitted, was so obliging as to send the author a copy of his 
 V'orrt/is>nK.v immediately on publication; it is impossible to give a clear abstract of so learned 
 and profound a work in the short space which can be here devoted to the suljject. Those, 
 therefore, who read German, must peruse and reperuse Vocalismus,o(ler Sprachvcrgleichaide 
 Kritihin iiber J. Grimm's deutsche Grammatik, mid Graff's altliochdtutdini Spracltscliatz, mit 
 Hvf/riindiiiuj einer neucn Thcorie des ablauts von Franz Bopj), Nvo. litrlin, l8:i(i. An F.iiglish 
 translation of this work would be a most acccptal)le boon to the public. Professor Hopp 
 goes at once to the orientid source, and with a new theory of the ablaut, opposed to Dr. 
 Grimm, (see S 11) he shows how much the vocidism of the Germanic languiiges may be 
 philosophically explained by the system oi' Indian grammarians, and ])rovcs that the ablaut, 
 or change of the radical vowel, is influenced by the vowel of the termination. 
 
 + Kurzes Dcutschcs Wivrterbuch fiir Etymologic, Synonymik, and Orthographic von 
 Friedrich Schmitthenner, Darmstadt, 8vo. 1831. 
 
168 THE RADICAL VOWELS, GUNA, &C. XIII. 12. 
 
 Greek; but in earlier times it was also used in some original German words to 
 express L It must be ascribed to tlie fonn of the epiglottis, that there can only be 
 three original vowels, though in a variety of shades and colouring. This is a natural 
 fact in language and grammar. All other vowels are only considered as shades and 
 approximations. Of these three,* the vowel a is the easiest, most simple, and 
 universal sound, — The radical vowels undergo various changes in the declension and 
 formation of words. — 1. By a shade changing the i into e, and the u into o ; as Moes. 
 niman, Ger. nehmen to take : Moes. giban, Ger. geben to give : Moes. ufto, Ger. oft 
 often: Moes. fugls, Ger. vogel a bird. — 2. By upsound (auflaut) or thinning of the 
 vowel or sound, by earlier etymologists called (umlaut). If, for instance, in the 
 inflection or formation of a radical syllable which has a, o, or ti, and consequently 
 a strong full vowel, an i is added, but which in the new German is changed into e, or 
 entirely omitted ; then these three vowels change into a higher but weaker sound, the 
 a into a. or e, the o into o, and the u into ii ; as adel, edel : Old Ger. adal, edili : ast 
 a branch, seste branches : Gott God, gotter gods : Old Ger. kot, kotier : blut, 
 bliitig, and blutig : Old Ger. pluot, pluotic, or pluotac. — 3. By change of vowels 
 (umlaut), or change of one vowel into another, by some etymologists improperly 
 called offsound (ablaut). In the formation of a word it thus happens that some 
 roots of a go over into i and u, as binde, band, gebunden, properly band, binde, 
 gebunden. — 4. By insound (inlaut), in the Sanscrit called Guna, that is, in the for- 
 mation of a word another vowel is placed before the radical vowel, like an internal 
 augment, to denote the change which an idea undergoes. From the nature of the 
 vowels the following law is deduced, — that the insound or guna can only proceed 
 in the following order, a, i, u. A can be placed before a {a-\~a), before i {a-\-i), 
 and «. {a-\-^i) ; i only before i {i-\-i), and before ^l {i-\-w), and u only before u 
 {it-\-u). — According to the radical vowels, or what we call organic sounds, there 
 can, in reality, only exist the following six diphthongs, aa, ai, au, ii, iu, uu. — In 
 the reverse series, the vowels may be also compounded, but they fonn, as the pro- 
 nunciation directly shows, no simple diphthongs. The diphthongs in the new High- 
 German are formed partly by shades which the radical vowels or sounds suffer, and 
 partly according to the peculiarity of the dialect which is become the written lan- 
 guage, as u, (6), ai, au, (6), ei, eu, and ie. — In pronunciation and writing, the m 
 as a diphthong is put aside ; but it ought to have the power of a-\-a in the expla- 
 nation of words. The three simple vowels a, i, u, with the gunaf aaj ai, an, ii, iu, 
 uu, are partly the natural and partly the historical normal sounds, and the original 
 type of vocalism. 
 
 12. In the different dialects, the vowels, by upsound, shading, disorgani- 
 zation, &c. are softened and tinged different ways, but all in a certain order 
 and according to determined rules. Thus, as the comparative zoologist is 
 able to recognise the type of the genus in all deviations of ihe form of the 
 single animal, so the comparative etymologist must be able to reduce the vo- 
 calism of the dialect to its original type, and thus comprehend it, for other- 
 wise his perception is dark, and his whole proceeding uncertain, and vain 
 error. Some complain that the doctrine of the guna is difficult, but nothing 
 is more simple. In the diphthong we have only to consider the first letter 
 as a prefix, denoting the formation, an inserted vowel equal to the insound 
 
 * A table of the changes of the radical vowels in the Germanic tongues will be found in Dr. 
 Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. i. .573, 575 ; a table of the long vowels in p. 578. 
 
 f A table of the vowel fonns, by the application of guna, in the Germanic languages may 
 be seen in p. 59 of Sclimitthenner's Deutsche Etymologic, 12mo, Darmstadt, 1833. 
 
XIII. 13 — 15. CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 169 
 
 (inlaut), and the last letter as the radical vowel. In some cases, only ie 
 makes an exception. 
 
 13. The modern German has the following sounds : J, a = ae ; ai=a -\- i ; 
 au = a-\-u : E = a, c, ei, e : Ei = ai, i {i -\- i) : En = iu : I = old in, io, at, 
 ei : 0=.u; 6 — au, old uo, a ; 6 = the increased sound of o : U, u = gunited 
 a ; ii the upsound of ^i and u. — 4. By the preceding, it is clear there are only 
 three radical vowels from which the others take their origin ; thus from 'A origi- 
 nate 0, ii, e, i, (e), u, (o), u, 6 ; I goes over into e, ei, {ai), ie : U changes into o, 
 ie, eu, au. — Hence it is very easy, in a great number of cases, to recognize the 
 radical vowel in a word, especially by comparing it with other words of the same 
 family. We often find the root in verbs, as soon as the vowel of the perfect tense 
 is divested of all its changes by guna and upsound. From binde, band, bund bind, 
 bound, bound, we find band is the root. From ritt rode, reiten to ride, is the root 
 rit a riding. From fliege, i\o(^Jltj,yieiv is the root Aug a/light. 
 
 14. Of consonants. The natural articulation of the consonants ac- 
 cording to the organs, is represented in the following table. 
 
 a- b. c. 
 
 labial. lingual. palatal. 
 
 A. Half mute sounds. w h j 
 
 {Breathing sound, 
 Spirans. ) 
 
 B. The sibilant (sibilans) f, s. 
 
 C. The liquids m 1 nr 
 
 D. The mutes (mut.e). 
 
 c,. , (soft b d e 
 
 aa. bimple. \ , , ° 
 
 (hard p t k 
 
 V (dh) _ 
 
 f (th) ch 
 
 — sz — 
 
 It is evident, by this table, that in the modem Ger. the asjjirated palatal and the 
 sibilant labial sounds are wanting, while it has a double aspirated labial and a 
 double sibilant lingual sound. The y is a double letter. The s possesses a double 
 sound, the one is expressed by s, and the other by sh. 
 
 15. No root or radical word has originally a double consonant of the same kind. 
 An original i in the derivation has given rise to gemination or hardening of the 
 sound, which is found nearly in all words of the same family. In this manner ori- 
 ginated 
 
 bb. Aspirate, j 
 cc. Sibilant. ] 
 
 nun from 
 11 
 
 ■nij 
 
 Ii 
 
 as schemmen 
 — holle 
 
 from suamjan 
 — helja 
 
 nn — 
 
 nj 
 
 — rennen 
 
 — ranjau 
 
 rr — 
 
 pf (OWGVrpph) 
 tz (zz) — 
 ck {Old Ger. cch) 
 
 ri'j 
 
 zj (ij) 
 kj or hj 
 
 — sperren 
 
 — hiipfen 
 
 — setzen 
 
 — zicke 
 
 — sparjan 
 
 — huphjan 
 
 — satjan 
 
 — zikja. 
 
 This law is of great importance in etymology, showing how to reduce words with 
 a double final letter to their roots. Instead of the double letter, we ought to put tiie 
 soft simple letter; and, instead of the upsound, originated by the derivative i, there 
 nuist be a full original vowel. Thus, for example, from kennen to know, comes the 
 
 z 
 
170 THE ROOT OF WORDS. XIII. 16 — 19. 
 
 root kan ; Old Ger. chan ; from fallen to fall, the root fal. Old Ger. val ; from 
 biicken to bow, the root bug — by guna biegen to bend {Old Ger. puk — piokan) ; 
 from ricke a doe, reh (instead of rih), &c. In the old as well as in the modem 
 Ger. language, a double consonant is used in writing only to express the sharpening 
 of the consonant. 
 
 16. Of the root. The root is the simple syllable which designates 
 the first conception of a thing. According to its signification it has 
 a simple vowel a, i, u, and a single consonant. It is often very easy to 
 discover the root, for we need only take from the word the vowel forming 
 the umlaut, and the guna (inlaut) ; the gemination, and the terminating 
 syllables. 
 
 For example, let us take from the verb leuchten to light, the guna e, and the post- 
 fixed syllable ten ; then will remain luch. Old Ger. luh, Lat. luc-ere. — From 
 fuhr {Old Ger. vuor) take the guna, then remains fahr {Old Ger. var), &c. In 
 general, a comparison with the old form is quite necessary. 
 
 17. According to its signification the root is neither a noun nor a verb, 
 but it is what precedes both. It is the expression of the simplest intuition 
 by a sound, without determining any associate idea of the gender, the 
 time, &c. 
 
 Let us take the appearance of blau, — then the root is blu,y. Lat. fulvus (which, 
 however, signifies something else,) and by guna blau the expression of the sound 
 instead of it without any further determination, whether it be a thing, a cjuality, or 
 only a relation. But being in reality a quality, it is afterwards used as an adjec- 
 tive, and the principal word or noun blaue bhieness, and the verb blauen to blue or 
 to make blue, are only derived from it by additional letters. In the same manner 
 let us take the impression which the cry of chickens or crows produces on the ear; 
 the simplest expression of the sound will be kra. Old Ger. chra. As this impres- 
 sion quickly vanishes, there is directly foraied the verb krahen to crow. Old Ger. 
 chrahan ; present tense ich krahe / crow, Old Ger. chra-hu, and krahte. Old Ger. 
 chra-ta / crew, and also in the same manner the noun das krahen the crowing. Old 
 Ger. chra-t ; die krahe the croiv, Old Ger. chra-ja, &c. In this manner language 
 springs up everywhere full of fine signification and inexhaustible life. 
 
 Of the formation of words hy umlaut and inlaut, or hy change of 
 
 voicels and by guna. 
 
 18. This takes place when, for the designation of the gender, case, or 
 time, vowels or sounds are added. The transition of the root into different 
 words is in all cases easily understood. Let us take the root luh, A'6'^^; Ger. 
 hell clear, light, then by guna (inlaut) and an added /, is formed lioht, 
 New Ger. licht (instead ofliechl) the clearness, light ; and also the adj. 
 licht light, &c. 
 
 The determination of the signification of words and roots. 
 
 19. Language generally originates from the most simple perception of 
 our senses. The appearances which offer themselves to the sight, not 
 yet dimmed by any reflection, are the qualities and the relation of things 
 
XIII. 20 — 23. IMrORTANCE OF UMLAUT AND GUNA. 171 
 
 in time and space, such as, light, dark: — black, uJiiie : — great, small: 
 — standing, running — to rise, to fall, &c. 
 
 20. These appearances are ini mediately determined or marked by the 
 language, whether tliey are resting quaHties, as ; blue, yelloxv, great, 
 small, &.C., or a temporal relation, as, Jlous, stands, burns, smokes. Sec. 
 or only relations of space and number, as; bg, at, for — 07ie, two, &c. 
 Things, of which the appearance only shows the special situation, the 
 number and their relation, can only be designated by language in such 
 a manner that it either points to their situation in space, by which pro- 
 nouns originate, as, /, he, his, that, &c., or it describes them by nominating 
 their qualities and their temporal relation, as, the bird, thejluating in air. 
 Tims originate the names of things, and each name is originally a short 
 description. 
 
 21. It is the task of etymology to pursue the signification now in use, 
 through all changes, till we come to the radical signification. So we are 
 led to a proper knowledge of the language, as a clear conception of the 
 common signification can, in general, be only discovered in the light of 
 the radical meaning. 
 
 22. Easy as it may be, in most cases, to find the form of the root by 
 decomposing the words, yet it is often difficult to ascertain the original 
 signification. Where it remains perceptible to the senses, it is imme- 
 diately discovered : thus, fliessen tojlow, from the moving on of the fluid ; 
 wehen to hloiv, from the soft movement of the air ; blau blue, from a colour, 
 &c. In other cases there are difliculties which can only be overcome by 
 close investigation. 
 
 23. The doctrine of the interchange of consonants,* and that of umlautf 
 and gnna| are the two gates which lead into the sanctuary of etymology. 
 The former opens the insight into the true nature of the consonants, the 
 latter into that of the vowels. He, then, who has a clear view of these 
 two doctrines, has received the consecration, and can look into the interior 
 of the sanctuary. II 
 
 • § 11. t § 11,-3. +§ 11,-4.; § 12, l.^ 
 
 II It oui;;ht to be acknowledged ai!:ain, that this is a very imperfect view, but the shortest 
 ajid best that coidd be found. Those who would enter fiilly into the subject, must consult 
 the orii^inal authorities (juoted tliroughout this al)stract, and'especially Professor J. Grimm's 
 invahiable Deutsclie (irammatik, ;3 vols. 8vo. Gottint!;en : liopp's Vocalismus, with the works 
 of Schmeller, Becker, Wiillner, Grafl", &c. See xiii. § 10. 
 
]72 
 
 XIV.— THE ORIENTAL ORIGIN OF ALPHABETIC WRITING, AND ITS 
 PROGRESSIVE EXTENSION TO THE WEST. 
 
 1. Hitherto the History, the Affinity and the Etymology of the Ger- 
 manic or Teutonic languages have claimed almost the sole attention. 
 Proofs have been adduced to shew that these languages, even in the 
 present day, are not only very similar ; but that, in early times, they 
 were almost identical, and that the veidely extended nations, who now 
 speak them, were originally of the same tribe, and probably inclosed in 
 one encampment, when they first migrated out of Asia into Europe, on 
 the north of the Euxine and from the vicinity of the Caspian Sea. Some 
 collateral evidence of the oriental origin of European population, may 
 now be gathered from the invention of alphabetic writing in the east, 
 and its gradual diffusion to the west, as well as from the affinity and 
 etymology of their languages, previously discussed. 
 
 2. As the Germanic tribes were free, they extended, with their power, 
 a spirit of liberty, — a manly independent feeling, over the north and west 
 of Europe; so the cultivated and scientific Phoenicians awakened the 
 dormant faculties of the mind, and excited a love for the arts and sciences, 
 when they planted their colonies in the Mediterranean and the west. 
 Thus, Europe not only received her population from Asia; but the lights 
 of science and literature dawned upon her from the east : — while our 
 liberty and energy sprang from the north east, — our civilization, our 
 intellectual culture, and the art of writing — of rendering thoughts visible, 
 and thus conveying them to distant climes and ages, were of south-eastern 
 introduction. 
 
 3. It will not be difficult to prove, not only that the art of Alphabetic 
 writing was received from the Phoenicians, but that the European 
 alphabets were derived from the Phoenicians or ancient Hebrews. This, 
 at first sight, may appear improbable, as the Hebrevvs wrote from right 
 to left, while Europeans write from left to right ; but a short investiga- 
 tion and a few specimens of early writing will remove all doubt. Those 
 which will be produced to prove the oriental origin of European letters, 
 and the gradual introduction of writing in our present manner, from left to 
 
XIV. 4. WHITING — DISCOVERY OF. 173 
 
 right, will be taken from inscriptions on stones and coins. These are the 
 best evidence that can be given, as they are upon durable materials, such 
 as stone or metal, and not easily counterfeited or altered :— they may have 
 been lost sight of or buried for ages ; but when brought to light they 
 speak in an antiquated dialect, of what happened in primeval days, and 
 infallibly shew the mode of writing, and the form of the letters in those 
 early times. With this last object in view, an appeal will be made to the 
 legends of these oldest literary remains ; but before this can be done, it 
 will be necessary to allude to the historical notices which relate to the 
 discovery and progress of alphabetic writing. 
 
 4. The first direct historical record of writing, is anterior to the giving 
 of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai, B.C. 1491. Before the Israelites 
 arrived at Sinai, when they had defeated the Araalekites near Horeb, 
 Moses is commanded to " IVrite this (for) a memorial in a hooky 
 No intimation is given, that writing, by which past events and the various 
 conceptions of the mind are exhibited to the sight by a small number of 
 elementary characters or letters, was then used for the first time. Moses 
 did not express any difficulty in comprehending the command, or of 
 writing in a book ; it may, therefore, be inferred that he was acquainted 
 with the art of writing. If credit could be given to Sanchoniathon, the 
 Phoenician Historian,'' the origin of writing might be traced to a much 
 earlier period. He intimates that Taaut, the son of Mizraim, invented 
 letters in Phoenicia, ten years before the migration of Mizraim into 
 Egypt or about B.C. 2178. If the testimony of Sanchoniathon should not 
 be admitted, we have still presumptive evidence, that writing was known 
 at an earlier date than that w hich he specifies. It is manifest that astro- 
 nomical observations could not be accurately recorded without the aid of 
 writing ; and Callisthenes," the philosopher, who accompanied Alexander 
 the Great to Babylon, wrote to Aristotle, about 3.30 B.C. that the Chaldeans 
 had a series of observations which went back 1903 years, from that time. 
 The Chaldeans must, therefore, have possessed the art of writing 2233 
 years before the Christian era.'' It is most probable then, as stated by 
 Diodorus,^ that the Phoenicians were not the inventors of letters, but that 
 
 ' :~l2Dn "I'l'nDT nST nriD E.rodiMXvii. 14. nn^ To enyrave, marJt, n-rite.—n^^ A 
 register roll or i^olunte, hook. The Septuaf/int has Koto ypa\f/ov rnvro fls /ivrmdavvoy (is 
 0i€\loy or \v ^i^Kiqi. The Vuhjate, snys, .Scril)t' lioc- ol) iiioiiiinciituni in libro. 
 
 *> He wrote a work, in his own lanuruase, nearly 1:300 years b.c. on tlie antiquity of the Phoe- 
 nicians, which was translated into Greek l)y Philo of Hi/blus. Only a Irapfment of this 
 translation has heen preserved by Enxebius in his Pra^jiaratio Kvanirelica. See Phoenician 
 Keeords, Apud. Ihisch. Pra'p. Kvanir. 1. !•, 10, by (I . Whiston, M.A. in his Essay to restore 
 the true text of the Old 'I'estanient, Nvo. London, M'ZZ. — Also Plu>enieian History translated 
 from the 1st Book of Eusebius De Preparatione Evangeiiea, by The Right Rev. Richard 
 Cumberland, D.D. Hvo. London, 1720. 
 
 « Simjiliciits, in his Commentary on Aristotle, De enelo. II. com. 4fi, p. 1'23. — Fasti Helie- 
 niei : the Civil and Literary Chronoloijy of (Jreeee, 5^e. by Henry Fijnex Clinton, M.A. .'J vols. 
 4to. Oxford, l!-i31: vol. i. j). •2H[.—l'hilolof/irnl Miiseum,'vo\. i. :iS.— ShucAford's Saered and 
 Profane Historv' Connected, Hvo. 1731 ; vol. i. bk. iv. p. 19L 
 
 ^ Clintons Fasti Helleniei, vol. i. p. 2H1, 282; iii. p. rtOo ; and i. p. ^Gfi, noter. 
 
 <^ Diodorus says expressly, that the Syrians (Assyrians) were the inventors of letters, 
 (Lib. V.) and that the Phoenicians learned them from tlie Syrians, and afterwards sailed 
 with Cadnnis into Europe, and taught them to the Greeks. Eusebius assents to this, 
 
174 M-RITING — KNOWN 1491 YEARS B.C. XIV. 5. 
 
 tliey obtained a knowledge of alphabetic writing from the more easterly 
 nations, the Chaldeans, or Assyrians. It was the current opinion of an- 
 tiquity, that the Phoenicians conveyed the art of writing in their voyages 
 for commercial purposes ; thus letters being first learned from them, would 
 naturally lead Europeans to the conclusion, that they were a Phoenician 
 discovery : while, in fact, the Phoenicians only appear to have been the 
 medium, through which a knowledge of letters was transmitted from Asia 
 to Europe. But whatever doubt may exist, as to the acquaintance of the 
 Chaldeans with the art, at this early period, there can be none as to that 
 of Moses, who was well versed in alphabetic writing, seven hundred years 
 after, that is in the year 1491 B.C. when the Law was given. It is clear 
 also, from some of the acrostic or alphabetic Psalms, ascribed to David, 
 such as the cxix Psalm, the paragraphs of which are arranged according 
 to the Hebrew alphabet, that the present names and order of the letters 
 were iixed in David's time, more than 1014 years B.C.; and more than 
 1062 B.C. if we take for our authority xxxiv. Psalm, which is alphabetic^, 
 and was written by David, when he changed his behaviour before Achish.^ 
 5. The father of Grecian history, Herodotus, about the year 445 B.C. 
 ascribed to the Phoenicians the honour of introducing alphabetic writing 
 into Europe. Speaking from the general opinion, prevalent in his days, 
 and from the best testimonies then in existence, he declares, " the Phoe- 
 nicians, who came with Cadmus, B.C. ISoT,*" as they brought other know- 
 ledge into Greece, so they likewise introduced letters, which, it aj^pears to 
 me, were not in Greece before."' Subsequently, Pliny bears the same tes- 
 timony : " Cadmus brought from Phoenicia into Greece sixteen letters.-"" 
 He also declares that, " The Pelasgi (the most ancient Greeks) brought 
 letters into Latium ;"'' it is, however, probable that the Etruscans, who 
 were from Lydia, and derived their alphabet immediately from the Phoe- 
 nicians, imparted a knowledge of their letters to Latium. From whomso- 
 ever the Romans received letters they never failed to extend the know- 
 ledge of them to the utmost bounds of their vast dominions, reaching from 
 the Highlands of Scotland, to the deserts of Africa, and from the Eu- 
 
 {Prtep. Erang. x.) and thinks the Syrians, who first invented letters, were Hehrews. It is 
 true, the ancient Hebrews had the same tongue and letters as the Canaanites or Phoeni- 
 cians, — nay, all the nations in these parts, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Samaritans, and proba- 
 bly the AssjTians, for some ages, spoke and wrote alike. Shucltforii's Sac. and Prof. Hist. 
 Connected, vol. i, bk. iv. p. 228. — Mitford supposes a still higher origin ofletters : He says: 
 " The failure of all notice, in the Sacred Book, that the use of letters was a novelty at the 
 deUvery of the Decalogue, seems a powerful indication, that it was not so. Nothing, then, 
 appears to me so probable, as that it was derived from the antediluvian vrorld. History of 
 Greece, 8 vols. 8vo. 1839; vol. i. chap. ii. sec. 3; p. 122. 
 
 f The other alphabetic or acrostic poems, in Hebrew, are Psalms xxv., xxxvii., cxi., exii., 
 cxlv : Prov. xxxi. 10 — 33 : Lamen. i. ii. iii. and iv. The same order of the letters is aJways 
 found in the verses or clauses of these portions of Scripture, with only few and unim- 
 portant variations. 
 
 g 1 Samuel, xxi. 
 
 ^ Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, vol. i. p. 368, note r. 
 
 ' OlioiviKis, 01 aw KaSixcfi airiKOtxevoi iff-fiyayov SiSafr/caAia h tov'! "EWrim!, Koi Si) Koi 
 
 ypdfj.ij.aTa, ovK iSvra TrpiV'EAAjjiTi, ws ifj.ol SoKinv. Herod, v. uH. 
 
 J In Graeciam intulisse e Phoenice Cadmum sedecim numero. Pliny vli. 56. 
 ^ In Latium cas (litcras) attulerunt Pelasgi, Id. 
 
XIV. 6. PHOENICIANS BROUGHT LETTERS TO EUROPE. 175 
 
 phrates to the Atlantic ocean : tlie Roman alphabet thus became exten- 
 sively known, and it has long prevailed over the greatest part of Europe. 
 
 6. The few authorities' already cited, will be sufficient to prove that 
 the ancients generally ascribed the introduction of letters into Europe to 
 the Phoenicians, who had tliem from Assyria, and that they imparted their 
 knowledge of writing to the Pelasgi, who were of Japhetic or Tndo-Euro- 
 pean origin, and the primitive stock from which sprang all the Greeks."" 
 Not only the Pelasgi or ancient Greeks, but also the Romans, were 
 Japlietic or Indo-European, and were quite a distinct race, from llie Phoe- 
 nicians or Canaanitcs, who, though descended from Ham, had a language 
 closely allied to the Hebrew. The Phoenician or Hebrew alphabet could 
 but imperfectly denote the sounds in Greek, it being, for tliis language, 
 both deficient and redundant. Grecian words might be intelligible, when 
 written in Phoenician letters, but this alphabet was incapable of express- 
 ing the peculiar and more delicate sounds in the language of Greece. 
 To supply this deficiency in the Phoenician alphabet, alterations and 
 additions were necessary, and they were well made by the great talent 
 and taste of the Greeks. Such Phoenician letters as were redundant, or 
 denoted sounds not in Greek, being useless as letters, were retained only 
 as numerals." It is said that Palamedes introduced 6, S, <l>, and X ; and 
 Simonides added Z, H, ■*^, audil"; but it is more probable they were 
 earlier in use, as the long vowels are found on coins, before the time of 
 Simonides, in the seventh century, b.c.p The double letters and long 
 vowels were all well known in the days of Callias, B.C. 500, both the 
 names and order of the Greek letters have continued precisely the same 
 from that time to the present, as will be subsequently proved.'' After 
 these alterations had taken place, so great a similarity still remained, iu 
 the names, the oi'der, and the numerical value of the letters, as to shew 
 most clearly that the Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician. 
 Herodotus, alluding to these changes, says : " At first, indeed," (the let- 
 ters introduced among the Greeks were) " those which all the Phoeni- 
 cians use, but then, in process of time, they changed the form of the let- 
 ters to the sound.'" 
 
 ' See more in Bocharti opera omnia, Ley<len, lf>92; Piiakcf et Canaan, col. 118. 
 
 "• Dr. Prichard's lleseartlics into liie Physical Hist, of Mankind, vol. iii. pp. 486 — 497. 
 
 " The Bishop of St. David's expresses this very clearly : " Several ehanc;es were necessary 
 to adapt the Eastern characters to a foreip;n and totally different lanc;uaf(e: 'I'he powers of 
 those which were unsuited to the Greek organs were exchanged for others which were 
 wanting in the Phoenician al]>halu't : some elements were finally rejected from the written 
 language as superJluous, tlioui;h they were retained lor tiie purpose of numeration ; and in 
 process of time, the j)eculiar demands of the Greek language were satistied by tlie invention 
 of some new signs.'' — History of Greece, hy the Rev. Connop Thir/watl, I\J..'i. Fellow of Trin. 
 Colt. Cambridge, in Cabinet Cyclojxedia, iH.i.j, \ol. i. p. 238. 
 
 See § 44.— Pliny vii. .06. 
 
 P The Analytical Essay on the Greek alphabet, by R. P. Knight, Ito. 1791, mentions the 
 coins of Lesbos in particular, p. 18, 19 : Also his Prolegomena in Homerum, 8vo. 1820, pp. 
 38, 39. 
 
 1 See § 9. 
 
 ■■ VlpivTa fxiv. ToriTj Kai airavTts XP*''"'''''" 'f'oii'iKfs' /xera St, ■)(p6vov voo€aivovro5, i/xa tj; 
 <pov7J, ^exff oAof Kot rhf 'pvdfj.bv twv ypafifjiiTuiv, llerud. v. o8. 
 
176 
 
 PHOENICIAN AND GREEK ALPHABET ALIKE. XIV. 7, 8. 
 
 7. A mere glance at these alphabets, given below, will tend to convince 
 every one of their original very close connexion ; since, after the lapse of 
 so many ages, the names of the letters, their order, and their numerical 
 value', still remain so similar. The Hebrew or Phoenician has, Aleph, 
 Beth. Gimel, Daleth, &c. A, B, G, D, &c.: the Greek, Alpha, Beta, 
 Gamma, Delta, &c. A, B, G, D, &c. From the alphabetic Psalms, we 
 know that the present order of the Hebrew alphabet has existed for nearly 
 3000 years". There is not only a striking resemblance in the names, and 
 in the order, but in the numerical value of the Hebrew and Greek letters : 
 i^5 D) )) Tj denote 1, 2, 3, 4 ; the Greek letters a, /3', y, ^, express the 
 same series. The Hebrew ^, 3, and the Greek i, k', represent the same 
 numbers, 10, 20. All these will be very evident from the following 
 alphabets, which, for that purpose, are placed in juxta-position. 
 
 8. Meaning. Name. 
 
 An OX, a leader P]bN Aleph 
 
 A house, BOOTH n'^S Beth 
 
 A CAMEL ba:i Gimel 
 
 A door nbl Daleth 
 
 A hollow sn He 
 
 A book ' IT Vau 
 
 A weapon, shield 'j'^T Zain 
 
 A wall, fence iT^n Heth 
 
 A curve, scroll iT'IS Teth 
 
 A hand IV Yod 
 
 A hollow, CUP Pir) Caph 
 
 An ox goad lab Lamed 
 
 Water DD Mem 
 
 A fish ]13 Nun 
 
 A prop, basis *7aD Samech 
 
 An eye \'^V Oin 
 
 A mouth n2 ^ Pe 
 A screech owl 
 An ape 
 
 A head 2?^ Resh 
 
 A tooth pa; Shin 
 
 A cross in Tau 
 
 Form. 
 N 
 
 2 
 
 :i 
 1 
 n 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 13 
 
 •'T!? iladi 
 F]ip Quoph 
 
 13 
 b 
 
 Da 
 
 P 
 D 
 
 V 
 
 p 100 
 -1 200 
 W 300 
 
 n 400 
 
 Number. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 
 » Vau and Koppa, two Hebrew letters, and 
 Sanpi are used by the Greeks only as nume- 
 rals, they do not, therefore, call them ffroix^Ta 
 letters, but eirlaijua, murks, signs, or numbers. 
 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 
 Form. 
 Aa 
 B€ 
 
 ry 
 
 AS 
 
 ETTiarjfiov bav 
 
 Name. 
 "AX^a 
 B»7ra 
 Tafifia 
 AAra 
 'E ;//i\o»' 
 €c 
 
 Zrjra 
 'Hra 
 Qfjra 
 
 Ka' 
 
 TTTra 
 
 ee 
 It 
 
 Kk 
 
 AX Adfi€da 
 
 Mfx Mv 
 
 Nv N5 
 
 Oo 'O fJllKpOP 
 
 Utt m 
 
 ^ETT i.irrjiJ.ot' KOTTTra ' 
 3 eTri(7T]fiov ^ acivTCi 
 Pp 'P(5 
 
 Tr 
 Yv 
 
 4)0 
 
 2iyjua 
 Tav 
 
 'Y -^iKov 
 *T 
 XT 
 
 Slu) 'li fxiya 
 
 The form of the letters might be also named, but it is omitted, as the similarity of the 
 Greek to the Phoenician or old Hebrew letters will be treated of in § 41 ; where the most 
 ancient alphabet will be given from coins and inscriptions. The common printing Hebrew 
 or Chaldee letters are here used for convenience ; see the old Hebrew, Samaritan, or Phoe- 
 nician, in § 12. No 1. 
 
 " B.C. 1062+1844=2906, See § 4. 
 
XIV. 9, 12. GREEK ALPIIAHET 500 B.C. 177 
 
 9. The Greek alphabet has retained its present order and names of tlic 
 letters, at least for 2,344 years. Callias, a comic poet of Athens, who 
 wrote nearly 500 years n.c, in his Theory of Grammar or letters, gives the 
 order of the Greek alphabet thus, "^ Alplia, bf-ta, gamma, delta, t'la, thrta, 
 el, is used for god (Aj)ollo), iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xu, (omicron is) 
 ou, ro, sigma, tau, (upsilon) u next, phi, chi, and to psi to (omega) 0. — He 
 then shews the formation of syllables, — Beta alpha ba, beta ei be, beta c 
 be, brta iota bi, beta oil bo, beta u bu, beta o bo. 
 
 10. The Phoenician, or ancient Hebrew alphabet has internal evidence 
 of being discovered by those who spoke a Sliemitic dialect, because the 
 name and meaning of every letter can only be found in the Shemilic Ian 
 guages, and this alpliabet is perfectly adapted to this family of languages, 
 but to this lamily alone, having distinct letters or marks for all the sounds 
 peculiar to Shemitic tongues. Though it certainly is deficient in signs 
 for sounds, found in other languages, as for instance, in Greek, yet the 
 Phoenician has never recourse to joining different letters to express a 
 simple sound, such as, ch, sh, like other nations, who have received from 
 foreigners an alphabet not adapted to the sounds of their language." 
 
 11. We have already touched upon the early discovery of alphabetic 
 writing in the East, by those who spoke a Shemitic dialect, and the com- 
 munication of this discovery by the Phoenicians, ancient Hebrews, or Sa- 
 maritans to the Greeks and Romans ; we have also spoken of the order 
 and numerical value of the Phoenician and Greek letters, as well as the 
 meaning of the names of the letters, and their peculiar adaptation to the 
 Shemilic family of languages, and to them only. It is now desirable, 
 before we advert to the particular forms of letters, that some reference 
 should be made to the earliest mode of writing by oriental nations, i)ar- 
 ticularly by the Phoenicians. 
 
 12. The Plioenicians, ancient Hebrews, or Samaritans wrote from 
 right to left, and most probably without the spacing now used to divide 
 writing into words.' Their mode of writing will be best shewn by a 
 short example. 
 
 " T' ak(pa, f »/Ta, yafxjxa, SeArn, ^ra, 0i')t«, 6iov yap fl ye, Iwra, Ka-Kira, KaufSa, f/.v, vv, |C; to 
 oD, iri, ^w, (Tiyixa, rav, v -Kaphv, (pT, %? t€ r(f xpl, fls rh w. — Bfjra h.K<pa i-a, f^ra et (-€, ^TJra t] 
 t7), fTJra lira €t, Qy\ra 6v So, €f)Ta v fu, iriTa co fw. Schneif/hacuser t/iiis f/irrs it in Latin — 
 Alplia, beeUi, f,Minina, delta, etta, theeta : Deo enini sacra ei ; iota, eappa, laiuhda, nu, ny, 
 xy, eleiuenUnn ou, pi, rho, sigina, tau, y proximum litenR phi et ehi, (proxiniuui) r^ \>s\, 
 usque rh w. — Beeta alpha ba, beeta ei be, beeta ee bee (nempe, bceta t} Qti) beeta iota bi, 
 bceta ou l)o, bceta y by, beeta a> iw : (id est, beeta oo boo).— This is from Tpaix/xaTiKr) efwnla: 
 by Callias, preserved by Athciupus in his Aen:vo(To(piffral, that is: Eruditi eonyivi;p ; I'.ruditi 
 viri eoenantes; iW convivales doetoriun viroruni serniones, or n.» ne say: Literary Table- 
 talk.— A(7>. X. cap. "JO: Srhircii/haeitstr, p. 1()2. Sio. Vol. IV. (Casauhon p. Lj:}) An/cutorati- 
 ex ti/pofjiaphia Sorii/alis Uipoutinw, Anno XII (1801) : where more may be found to eorrobo, 
 rate the statement of the preceding extract. Callias wrote in verse ; and to preserve the metre, 
 words are added, as Qeov yap; and J, for epsilon, put out of its place : /.eta is omitted, pro- 
 bably I)v the scribe, who transcribed in prose, what Callias wrote in verse.— All the writings 
 of Ca/li'as are lost, except the fraL,Mnents cjuoted by Atlwnwus. 
 
 ^ Professor Kn-ald's Hebrew Gram. § l:3.'i. 
 
 V On consulting one of our most eminent oriental scholars, /Af Hev. S. /.cc, D.D., F.Ti.S.L., 
 Reqius Profissorof Ihhren- in the fnivcrsit;/ of Camliriih/p, whether the Ancient Hel)rews 
 anil Samaritans divided their text into words, he observed :— " On some of the (dd shekels 
 no division appears ; but whether this was tlie case in books, is not known. It has been 
 
 2 A 
 
I78 SAMARITAN AND HEBREW WRITING. XIV. 13, 14, 
 
 Samaritan or Ancient Hebrew, read from right to left. 
 
 The same in Chaldee or Modern Hehreic character. 
 
 Both expressed in Roman characters, read from right to left. 
 
 RUAIEIURUAIEIMIELARMAIU 
 ANDGODSAIDLETTHEREBELIGHTANDTHEREWASLIGHT. Gen. i. 3. 
 
 13. The pi'eceding specimens are in the common Samaritan and He- 
 brew characters used in printing. They are introduced merely to shew the 
 manner of writing from right to left, without any division into words. It 
 may, however, be observed, that the dialects of the Shemitic family, from 
 the time we have any certain knowledge of them, were written in twa 
 very different characters, the Western and Eastern. The Western cha- 
 racter was long used by the Hebrews ; and always by the Phoenicians, 
 and by the Samaritans'' from the earliest ages to the present times : it is 
 this from which the earliest Greek was derived. No. I is the Western or 
 Samaritan character, and in the improved printing letter still called Sa- 
 maritan. The earliest form of these letters, taken from inscriptions, will 
 be found in the table of alphabets.'' — The Eastern character universally 
 prevailed in Babylonia, and in the other countries on the Euphrates and 
 Tigris : it was much more regular and beautiful than the Western, that is 
 than the Samaritan character ; the Eastern or Chaldee letter, therefore, 
 gained the ascendency. After the return of the Jews from the captivity 
 in Babylon, it is said to have been adopted by Ezra ; and, on their re- 
 turn to Judea, to have become gradually established, and sacred among 
 the Jews. In this fine bold Eastern or Chaldee character all the manu- 
 scripts of the Hebrew scriptures, even the oldest, are written, and it has 
 continued to be used by the Jews to the present day. An example of 
 this Eastern, Chaldee, or modern Hebrew character in the printing letter, 
 is given in No. 2. St. Jerome assures us that, in his time, the fourih and 
 fifth centuries, the Samaritan Pentateuch^' agreed word for word with the 
 Jewish, differing only in the form of the letters, but not in their order, 
 number, or names. 
 
 14. The attention must now be recalled from the form of alphabetic 
 characters, to the manner of writing them. The preceding specimens 
 are examples of the primitive manner of writing from right to left. — In 
 
 conjectured, that some various readings may be accounted for on the supposition of no di- 
 vision having been made ; and, by adopting a new division, some difficult passages have 
 been made plain and easy. There is a probability, therefore, that this was the case, and to 
 this I incline. Some of the old inscriptions, too, on the ruins of Palmyra, &c., favour this 
 opinion. 
 
 z More particulars are given of the old Samaritan character in § 42. 
 
 a See § 41. 
 
 ^ See Professor Lee's Heb. Gr. Art. 7, and Professor EwalcPs § I'V*. 
 
XIV. 15. GREEK READ FROM THK RIGHT. 179 
 
 the oriental languages, even at llic present lime, this mode of writing 
 pievails. It was adopted by the nations that derived their alphabets from 
 the Phoenicians. Thus the lonians, Athenians, lOtruscans, Ike, wrote, 
 in the earliest ages, from right to left. A few examples, taken from coins 
 and inscriptions, will be a satisfactory proof of this assertion. I'licre is 
 a coin oi Athens with the inscription 30A read from right to left: it is 
 thus described, ^^ Caput Palladis galea tectum: Noctua ex adierso 
 stans, inter duos oleos ramos, omnia in quadrato incusoJ'^ A Sicilian 
 coin of Leontini is preserved with the legend beginning on the right 
 M0MITI/I03s^ and described Eques midus ; Hians leonis rictus 
 inter quatuor liordei grana.^ 
 
 15. The next is an inscription on a painted Terra-cotta or fictile vase. 
 It was discovered by Thomas Bmgon, Esquire, of Smyrna, in 181.3, 
 when making an excavation in search of antiquities, near Athens, on the 
 left of the road leading from that city to Thebes.*" Vessels of such fran- 
 gible, though otherwise of most durable materials, are seldon) found 
 entire, except in tombs which were held sacred. Some remains of burnt 
 bones were in it, which proved that it had served for funeral pur])Oses. 
 Its neck and base are narrow, but its greatest circumference is nearly 
 four feet and a half. It is two feet high, and has two handles; its form 
 is that of an Amphora, and it is made of a fine yellowish clay, on which 
 the figures are painted black with accessaries of red and white. "^ On one 
 side, before the figure of jMinerva, is the following inscription, written 
 vertically, instead of horizontally, and from right to left. The letters 
 are black upon a yellowish ground, the form of the letters, mode of wri- 
 ting, and the material as well as the character of the vase, indicate the 
 date of its fabrication to be about COO B.C. if not earlier: but the material 
 alene is a proof of its antiquity, for it is supposed that the manufacture 
 of painted vases ceased, at least, a century prior to the establishment of 
 the Ixoman empire.^ 
 
 <^ See Vetcrum Populorum ct Regum Numi, qui in Bluseo Britannieo adservantur T,on- 
 <lini MDCCC'XIV 'I'ayfor Covibc, j). 125, No. 7. There is an eitgnnin;/ of t/iin coin in I'lih. 
 X. Fi(j lis, of Nuiiunorum vetenim Populoriun et l^rbiuni, qui in Museo Guliclmi Hunter 
 Jisservantur, destriptis, figuris illustrata, opere et studio Caruli Comoe, Ito. Londini, 1762. 
 
 •^ Taylor Combe, p. 67, No. 4. 
 
 e Aneient Unedited 3Ionunients by James Millingen, fol. London, 1826, j). 1. 
 
 f For a full deserintion of this vase. See, Dr. E. D. ClarAe'sTrairls I'art 2/if/. Section -hd. 
 Vol. Ith, Svo. 18 IM, J'ref. />. X. XII. — Inseriptiones Gnrea^ vestustissiniae, Hu>jo Jacohus Rose, 
 8vo. C'antahrigiaj MDCCCXXV. p. 34« : — But espeeialh il/r. ;l/»//niv(»i'* splendid work. 
 Ancient Unedited Monuments, p. 1, &c. Besides an ami)le deseription Mr. JMilliugen 
 gives three beautiful drawings of this vase: Plate I, j). I, has the inserii)tion and the tigurc 
 of 3Iiuerva of a lan^e size: Plate 11, p. 7, is the i)ielure of the same size, on the other side 
 tlie vase, representing a eharioteer sitting in his ear, drawn by two horses in full s]ieed. 
 Plate 3, p. i>, represents the whole vase redueed to about one sixth, with tlie figure oi Mi- 
 nerva, and the inscription, given in plate 1, equally redueed. 
 
 s MilUttfjens Ancient Unedited Monuments, Pref. j). VII. 
 
180 INSCPJP. ON BURGONIAN VASE, FEOM RIGHT. XV. 15. 
 
 Inscription on the Burgonian Vase, read from Rir/ht to Left.* 
 1. IM3:vlO\/OAvi03 V130AV10T 
 
 The same in Modern Greek capitals, read from Left to Right. 
 
 2. TONAGENEONAeAON : EMI 
 
 3. Toy ^AOivEov uQXov e'jut, that is 
 
 4. Twv 'A6i]i'iu)v adXov tlfjn' y 
 
 Literally. 
 
 5. Athenarum prcemiuin sum ; 
 
 Or better, 
 
 6. Proemium sum ab urbe Alhenis datum. 
 
 If 'AQi]vtov mean the Festival^ then it ivould be — 
 
 7. Twv Adrjvaiitiv aOXov el/jii . 
 
 8. I am a prize of the Atheniea. 
 
 * A Greek inscription, written entirely from right to left, was found, on a broken tomb a-f 
 marble, in Corfu, near the site of ancient Corcyra, in October, 1843. The Rev. Dr. Hawtrey 
 has given a facsimile of this inscription, and made some judicious and learned illustrative re- 
 marks upon it, in The Proveedinf/s of the PhiUAayical Society, for Dec. Sth, 1843, Vol. I, No. 
 14,/). 149. After filling up the lacunEe, from conjecture, in smaller letters, he presents the 
 inscription in the following six Terses, to be read in the usual manner from the left in 
 .modern letters. 
 
 #. HYIOT TAA2IAF0 MENEKPATE02 TOAE 2AMA, 
 
 OIAN0EO2 TENEAN- TOAE A ATTOI AAM02 EHOIEr 
 E2 TAP nPOHENFOS AAMOV *IA02- AAA ENI nONTos 
 OAETO- AAM02I0N AE KAGjkEto Trheos tKCiffToV 
 nPAHOIENES A ATT02 yaias KYIO DATFIAOS EN0ON 
 2TN AAMOI TOAE 2AMA KASIPNETOIO nONEOE. 
 Another inscription has been found on the bronze figure of a hare, discovered in the 
 neighbourhood of Priene, a maratime town of Ionia, in Asia Minor. It consists of four 
 lines, all of which are written from right to left, in characters of the common form, 
 and the usual mode of reading the inscription is, TQI AnOAAflNI T£i\ ITPIHAHI 
 M' ANE0HKEN H^AHTmN. Colonel Lmh; in a very erudite paper, read May 17tli, 1826, 
 published in The Trans'nrtions of the Royal Societi/ of Literature, has fidly explained this 
 inscription, and given a facsimile of it within the drawing of the hare. See Vol. I. Part II. 
 p. 1—4. 
 
 ^ Dr. E. D. Clarke observes, " This vase, as is evident, was a prize obtained at Athens, because 
 it bears the ' arms and crest ' of the city, in the image of Minerva and the Orvl. Probably 
 it was gained at the festival when competitors came from all parts of Greece, and the victors 
 received vdplai filled with o(7, which were vessels made of terra-cotta, and painted, as it ap- 
 pears from the following curioiis passage of Pindar, thus rendered by the Author's learned 
 friend, the Rev. Charles James Blonijietd (now, 1845, Bishop of London), when corresijond- 
 ing with him upon the subject of this truly archaic inscription, in 1815 : ' The songs have 
 twice proclaimed him victur in the festivals of the Athenians : and the j)rodiice of the olive 
 contained in burned earth, has come to Argos in the varieqated circximference of Vases. (Nem. 
 X. 67.) — It is not unlikely that the word A0ENEON alludes to this great festival, called 
 Athenaa, before the title of ra 'Ad'fivaia was changed to rot Tlavad-i^vaia. This happened after 
 the time of Theseus or Ericthonius. (Ister in Harpocrat. v. WavaQi]vaia, ct Pausanias VIII., 
 2. See Meursius Panath. p. 2, ct Schol. Platan, p. 39. Plutarch in Solone.) According to Mr. 
 Blomfield, the word in question, is the old genitive, from ' kdr)vai,. See Horn. Od. y, 278. 
 Aristoph. Null. 400. [Parson's Cidl. of the MSS. Harl.p. 14.] S.ovviov &Kpov'A6riv(aiv. Eu- 
 phario ap. Hcrmoy. II. c. p. 248, arpia hrjfxov' Mr\vai HIS. Caio Gonv. ^Adrii'aicov,i.c. 'A6r]veo>v 
 which is the true reading. Yet it must be observed, that the use of A0AON Avith the geni- 
 tive of a city is very unusual j and another learned .^t'//tMisr, R. P. Knight, Esq., believes 
 
V. 
 
 XIV. 10. UMBRIANS, ETRUSCANS, OSCANS, &.C. 181 
 
 This appears to be (he most salis/aclonj translation, as the article tCjv has its 
 full anil definite meaning, which it has not in the translations 5 and G. 
 
 16. lieforo introducing specimens of writing from right to left, found 
 on coins and monuments discovered in Italy, it may be necessary to ad- 
 vert to the liistory of the earliest inhabitants and languages of this 
 country. It is scarcely possible to ascertain, with certainty, to which 
 European nation the Phoenicians first communicated the art of ali)habetic 
 writing, probably to those nearest the coast of Asia Minor, the people of 
 Greece, and Sicily, being nearest to Tyre their principal city. Their inscrip- 
 tions, written in the oriental manner, have, therefore, claimed our fast notice, 
 in the 14th and 15th paragraphs. But the Umbrians and Etruscans, who, 
 like the Phoenicians, wrote from right to left, had certainly acquired the 
 art of writing at a very early period. The Umbrians, esteemed the most 
 ancient inhabitants of Italy, were a great and powerful nation, that ex- 
 tended far over the north of the country, before the Etruscans, as the Si- 
 culians, Oscans, the Sabines and the Latins did over the south. We know 
 that Ameria, one of the Umbiiau cities, was built according to Cato 
 1134 B.C.' We hear next of the Pelasgi, who entered Europe from Asia 
 Minor, and not only spread over Greece, but subdued the greater part 
 of the Umbrians, and extended over most of Italy. Subsequently the 
 Tuscans or Etruscans, one of the most interesting nations of an- 
 tiquity, subjugated the Pelasgians, and the remaining Umbrians, and 
 possessed nearly the whole of Italy from the Alps to the Sicilian straits. 
 These Etruscans were equal to the most polished of the Greeks, in the 
 advancement they had made in civilization and the arts. They successfully 
 cultivated literature, and the physical sciences, — they had historical re- 
 cord.s, — sacred books or rituals in which they registered the commence' 
 raent of their years, — and an astronomical cycle which was exceedingly 
 accurate. The remains of architecture, and of sculpture found in Etruria, 
 
 that it was never thus usfd, nor in any other 'AywvoOeT-ns. Travels, Svo. 181S, Vo/. 7, />. .\7/ 
 — .V/r. — /I'osf, in liis Inscriptiones Gra^eir, intimates tliat the point is, wlit'ther 'A0;;i/eaji/ 
 eouUl be put lor 'Adrivaicoi', I'roiu to. 'A9iivata. Elmsley cites many autiu)rities for tlie ehana;o 
 
 of e into ai. See Elms. Jlacr. ;i;J7, and Jl(i<ic p. I-J. M. Ramtl Roclwtlv, in Journal ties 
 
 Havans ; Aont IH'Jo, thinks that Adei/eov ous;iit to l)e AOei'iOev, as the i)enuhiniate letter of tlie 
 second word is 0, and not O, and that it siioukl liave been followed l)y E, and be read Twv 
 "Adrtu-qOfv SLdXicv eifxi, I am (one) of the prizes (ijiven bi/) tliose of Athens or the Athmians. — 
 In eontirniation of this oj)inion, he adduces a Vase discovered at Nola, and l)elon!;iny; to 
 General Koller, tin \\hich ."Minerva is represented in the same attitude, as on the Vase I'ouud 
 by .Air. Bur<;on, and with this inscription TONA0ENE0ENAt)VON (See Rose's Insrrip. 
 Qracce p. (v) precedintj the Preface.) The similarity of the two \'ascs seems to favour the 
 correction ; but their origin, one at Athens and the other in the north of Itdy, might pro- 
 duce a ditfcrcnce in the inscription, as well as the mode of writing, which, on tlie Nola 
 Vase, is from Kft to right. In early monuments too, and O are often confounded, lie- 
 sides may not 'Ad-nvrjdfv be put for the idd Attic form of the genitive 'Adlji'i^s Athenis or 
 ]\/inerra. As the inscription, on the Athenian Vase, is l)efore the long n canu' into use, it 
 might be &dKov or &0\u>v. If &.d\ov, adding a noun, probably aywfuv, imjilicd hy tlie article 
 Twv. the sentence would be to)!/ arydivoiv 'Adi]inr]dey (i.e. 'A0i7C7js) b.d\ov, A /irize of the (fames 
 (in honour) of Minerva. The ()lymj)ian games are called Aws a.*/(i)v by Pindar, Nrm. If. 37. 
 If 'A9\'2y be preferred, it might inijily the festival itself. — If the reading be 'AOeveou, i.e. 
 'Ad-qyfwy it must i)e the festival called the .Athena>a, and not the Athenian people." — See 
 I\Jillingen's .-Indent Unedited Monuments, Additions p. 93 ,• Rose's Inscriptiones GrcEca, p. lo ; 
 and p. ( V) prt''t;dinfi the Prefaec. 
 
 ' Plin. Hist. Nat. III. I'J : Sicbuhr's Hist, of Rome by Hare and Thirlicall, 8vo. Cambridge, 
 1S-J8. 
 
182 COINS EEAD FROM EIGHT TO LEFT. XIV. 17~li). 
 
 are indubitable proofs that there existed among its people *' a cultivated 
 taste, a refinement of manners, and much of that splendour and luxury, 
 considered to be characteristic of a high state of civilization."-' They had 
 reached the summit of their greatness nearly 500 B.C.,'' when the founda- 
 tion of Rome had scarcely been laid two centuries and a half. It is, there- 
 fore, more than probable, on this account, as well as from the form of the 
 Etruscan letters, and the habit of writing from right to left, but especially 
 from omitting the short vowels, and from the practice of noting double 
 consonants by single letters, after the manner of the Phoenicians, that the 
 Etruscans had the use of alphabetic writing before the time of Romulus. 
 
 17. It may be observed, that the Sicilian, the Sabine, the old Latin, 
 the Oscan, and the Umbrian are merely dialects of one parent language: 
 though closely allied to the Greek they are not derived immediately from 
 it, but from the common source of Greek or Pelasgic and of the whole 
 Japhetic or Indo-European race. The Etruscan language is also Ja- 
 phetic, but different from Latin and Greek. 
 
 18. It is thus evident that the earliest languages of Italy were closely 
 allied to each other, and it is probable that the mode of writing was 
 similar. We have seen from coins and an inscription, that the Greeks, 
 in their earliest specimens, wrote like the Phoenicians, from right to left. 
 The oldest coins and inscriptions found in Italy are written in the same 
 manner. The form of the Oscan letters, which are only a modification of 
 the Etruscan, and the manner of writing them from right to left, both 
 prove the direct descent of Oscan letters from the Phoenician.' A few 
 examples from coins and inscriptions will now be adduced as evidence 
 that the oldest writing in Italy was from right to left. The Umbrian and 
 Etruscan being the oldest, will be given first. 
 
 19. There are many coins of Tuder, or Tudertia, an ancient town of 
 Umbria, in the north of Italy, with the legend beginning on the right. 
 Arigonus places these coins amongst Nummi urbium et populorum He- 
 triiricB antiquissimi. Combe" thus describes one, with the legend Tutede : 
 Manns ccestu armata, in area quatuor glohuU — 3a3TVT inter clavas 
 ditas scripiiwi, in area quatuor glohnli. 
 
 J Prichard's Physical Hist, of Mankind, Vol. III. p. 233. 
 
 ^ Id. p. 117 : — Niebuhr's Hist, of Rome by Hare and Thirlwall, p. 1 19. 
 
 1 Gesenius gives the following opinion as to the parentage of Oscan letters and writing : 
 " Pra?cipua Scripturas genera et matre Phoenicia deinceps prognata hsec sunt : — Iiuo. An- 
 tiqiiissima Gracorum Scriptura (§ 46 — 48), in qua antiquissimas atque nativas Phoenicum 
 literas servatas esse supra observavimus (§ 15, 17, 18, 28), ut jure suo harum sorormn natu 
 maxima vocetm*. Ex ea deincejis emanarunt Etrusca (cum Umbrica, Oscar, Samnitica, 
 Celtiberica) et vetus Romana. See p. 63, § 45, compared with the table in p. 64 of Scrip- 
 tura, linguceque Phoenica moniimenta quotquot s^ipersunt, edita et inedita, ad autographorum 
 vptimorumqiu- exemplorum fideni edidit additisqite de scriptura et lingua Pkoenicum commen- 
 tariis illustravit. Guil. Gesoti us, 4to. Lepsia, iS37, pp. 482. F&ts I. ma. Palwographiain 
 Phteniciam, inscrijdiones, et numos Phcenices. Pars II. da. Duos posteriores de numis et dc 
 lingua Phcenicum libros. Pars III. tia. Quadraginta sex tabulas lapidi inscriptas, continens. — 
 Niebithr is in favour of the view I have taken in the text. See Dr. Prichard's Phys. Hist. 
 Vol. III. p. 251. 
 
 ™ Combe, Vet. Pop. et Reg. Numi p. 16, No. 1 and 5. — Figures of many of these coins are 
 given in Numismata Arigoni, Fol. Tarvisii, 1741, vol. III. Tab. IV., fig. 4,5 : V. 6, 7, 9, 10 : 
 XI. 46, 48, 49, 50, 51 : XII. 62.— Dempster de Etruria Regali, curante, Thoma Coke, 2 vols, 
 fol. Floreutia-, 1724, Vol. I. p. 350, Tab, Ix. Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 
 
XIV. 20 — 25. UMBRIAN, KTRUSCAN, &C. FROM RIGHT. 183 
 
 20. Avellino gives a coin of Irjurlum, now Guhio, a town of Umhria, 
 on the Via Flaminia, with the inscription 1 1/1 HV Ml, Ikufini." 
 
 21. Also one of Teiinum in Campania, in Oscan characters, on one 
 side qVI/II^FT TiANun and on the reverse below the figure of a bull, 
 VI/llMmi, IniKiNu." 
 
 2-2. Another of Capua, the capital of Campania, in Oscan letters. 
 TFIAM This is figured in Arigoni Numismata,'' and described by Combe'' 
 as of Capua : Caput Jovis laureatum^ retro duo astra, (Uteris OscisJ 
 Diana in citis biffis, supra duo astra. Another niNK described by 
 Combe with a drawing :"■ also nflNM •' 
 
 23. A coin of Melapontum in Lucania in the south of Italy, has this 
 inscription, AT3M Spica.^ 
 
 24. Two other coins found in the south of Italy may be mentioned : 
 
 one of Cauhmia /Wf^AKwiL.- The other of A7Ae^^V?;^ l/IO I/I 1333 
 Regixox.'' 
 
 25. The Umbrian, Oscan, and Etruscan characters differ very little 
 from each other. The longest specimen of the Umbrian language and 
 character is in the seven Iguvine or Eugubian tables. The first five in- 
 scriptions are in the Etruscan character, and written from right to left, 
 about 500 B.C.: one word will be sufficient to shew the character of these 
 inscriptions, >l 3 1/I/IV I/I I Inumek." The sixth and seventh inscriptions 
 which are the longest, are in Koman, and written from left to right, about 
 300 B.C. These tables were discovered, in 14-14, in the ruins of a temple 
 at the foot of the Apennines, between Ugubbio and Cortona, in the 
 Duchy of Urbino and the territory of Umbria. They are published at 
 large in Dempster's Etruria Regalis,^ partly by Gruterus,'' Gorius,=' Pas- 
 seri,'' Lanzi,'' but Mliller," Lassen,** Lepsius,*^ and Grotefend,'^ have afforded 
 
 " Oiniscnli Divcrsi, di F. M. Avdlino, 3 vols. 8vo,Napoli, lS33,Tnl.2, p. 8, Tav. 1, Fij^. 2. 
 
 " III. vol. I[. p. .54. Tav. 3, tt{,^ 12. p Vol. III. Tab. XIV. fig. 76. " 
 
 <i Vet. Pop. et Reg. Numi p. 21, No. 1. 
 
 ^ Id. Tab. ir. 10 : also in Arlfioni Numis. Vol. ITT. Tab. XTV. 59—79. 
 
 ' Combi', p. 21, 22, No, 1—13. ' Id. p. 67, No. 2,3. 
 
 " Cnmhe p. 50, No. J. v Id. p. 54, No. 1, Tab. III. fig. 27. 
 
 * See Tab. I. line 2, in Dempster mentioned in the next note. 
 
 * Thonue Dimpsteri de Etruria Regali, Libri VII. nunc primumediti, eurante ThomA Cohe 
 2 vols. Fol. Florentise, 1724. — Tabuhr Eugubinae, vol. 1. p. 91. 
 
 y ./(/)(/ Gniteri Corj)ns Inserij)tionuni, eum annotationibus Joannis Georgii GrcEvii, 4 vols. 
 Fol. Anistehedanii, 1707 ; Tol. I. p. txlii. 
 
 z 3Iuseum Etruscum, Autonii Francisci Gorii, 2 vols. Fol. FlorentiaB, 1737 : also Vol II p 
 387—389. ■ ^ ■ 
 
 a Passeri Pict. Etruscas. 
 
 *> Lanzi di Lingua Etrusca, 3 vols. 12rao. Rome, 1789. 
 <^ Otfr'ud Mullcr's Etrusker, Einleitung, ^c. 
 
 '^ Beitragc zur Deutung der Euu:uliinistlien Tafeln, in the Rhein. Mus. for 1833.— Do?j- 
 aldsnn's Varronianus, 8vo. Cambridge, 1844 j p. 47 — 59. 
 
 •^ Dr. C. R. Lfpsiitf, I)e tabuiis Eu^nibinis, Herolini, 1833. 
 
 f Dr. Groteiend's Rudimenta Linyfua' Iniljric^, ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodafa. Par- 
 tiiula I. Ito, pp. 1— 22 Ilannovenv -MDCCCXXXV:— Partie. II. pp. 1—34— and Partic 
 III. pp. 1—28, .MDCC'CXXXVl: Partie. IV. pp. 1—28, and Partic. V. pp. 1—32, 
 3II)CCCXXXVII: Partie. VI. pp. 1—32, and Partie. VII. pp. I— 40, MDCCCXXXVIII • 
 Partie. VIU. pp. 1—40, MDCCCXXXIX. 
 
184 BOUSTEOPHEDON WRITING. XIV. 28, 29. 
 
 the best illustrations of this valuable specimen of the Umbrian language 
 and character. A very clear and satisfactory summary of what has been 
 done by these learned Germans is given by Dr. Prichard in his " Re- 
 searches into the Physical History of Mankind.''^ 
 
 26. The largest specimen of the genuine Etruscan language and cha- 
 racters was discovered on a stone pillar in 1822, at Perusia, now Perugia, 
 one of the most ancient cities of Etruria. It has been published by Yer- 
 miglioli.'^ The first two words in the eighth line are V\3 1333 esci 
 
 EPL. 
 
 27. As the Umbrian and Etruscan predominated in the north, the 
 Oscan prevailed in all the south of Italy, till it was supplanted by the 
 Latin. Oscan was in use at the Christian era, in a.d. 79, when Pompeii 
 was destroyed.! Many coins and inscriptions have been discovered in 
 the Oscan language^ and character; the most important are the inscrip- 
 tions of Abella, and of Bantia. The former was found in Oscan charac- 
 ters, on a stone in the ruins of Abella, near Nola in Campania : the 
 other, wliich is on a brazen tablet, and in Roman letters, was discovered 
 in 1793, in the ruins of Bantia, a town of Lucania; it is now in the 
 Museum of Herculaneum.'' Tlie Abellane inscription has been pub- 
 lished by Lanzi' and Grotefend ; the Bantine by Rosini," by Klenze," and 
 Grotefend,° who has also collected and published all the most important 
 relicts of the Oscan language. Oscan coins have their legends in Oscan 
 letters, but sometimes in Greek ; and inscriptions are generally in the 
 Oscan character, and written from right to left, as that of Abella: some- 
 times in the Roman, as the Bantine inscription, which is in the Oscan 
 language on one side, and Latin on the other, but both sides in Roman 
 letters,!' and written from left to right. — What is written, in the oriental 
 manner, from right to left, can only be properly noticed here, and a word 
 from the Abellane table, may be sufficient to shew the character : 
 8I-3V>I3S3B Herekleis, Hercules."^ 
 
 s Third Edit. 8vo, 1841 ; Vol. III. pp. 224—229. 
 
 ^ Saggio di Congetture suUa grande Iscrizione Etrusca, scoperta Nell' anno 1822, e 
 riposta nel Gabinetto de monumenti Antichi, della Universita' di Perugia, semplicemento 
 proposto, da Gio Battista VermicjlioU, 4to, pp. 96, Perugia, 1824. A plate of the inscription 
 is inserted at the beginning. — Also, Antiehe Iscrizioni Perugine, raccolte dichiarate e publi- 
 cate, da Gio Battista VermiyVioli, edizione seconda, 4to, Perugia, Vol.1, 1833: Vol. II, 1834. 
 See Vol. I, p. 83, for the same engraving of the inscription as in the preceding 4to pamphlet. 
 — Dr. Prichard^s Phys. Hist. Vol. III. 234, note *. — Donaldson's Varronianus, p. 101 — 13o. 
 
 ' GeZ/'s Pompeiana Vol. II. Appa. 119: 206. Also, Dr. Groff/eHfZ's Rudimenta Lingute 
 OscEe, 4to, Hannovera?, 1839j Tab. II. 
 
 J Donaldson's Varronianus, p. 72 — 97. ^ Dr. Prichard' s Phys. Hist. Vol. HI. p. 217. 
 
 1 Lanzi Saggio di Lingua Etrusca, 3 vols, 12mo, Romae, 1789. 
 
 "> CrtroZi i?o«nit Dissert.isag.ad Hercidanensium voluminiun explanat. Neap. 1797, p. 1, 
 Tab V. 
 
 " Kleme's Philologische Abhandlungen by Lachmann, Berlin, 12mo, 1839, p. 1 — 54. 
 Table at the end, p. 196. 
 
 Rudimenta Lingua; Oscae ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodata ; scripsit Dr. G. F. Gro- 
 tefend, Hannovera;, MDCCCXXXIX, 4to, pp. 1—58. 
 
 P See Engravdngs in the works of Posini, p. 1, Tab. V., Klenze, p. 196, Tab. I., Grotefend, 
 p. 58, Tab. I., which are mentioned in the preceding notes, i, •", and ". 
 
 1 See Grotefend' s Rud. Ling. Oscae, Tab. II., Sax. Abellan I. line 5. 
 
XIV. -28 — 30. BOUSTKOPHIiDON BEGINNING ON THE RIGHT. 185 
 
 28. It must be evident from tlie preceding examples from coins and 
 monuments, short as they are, that in very early ages, the inhabitants of 
 Greece, as well as of Italy, the Greeks, Sicilians, Unibrians, Etruscans, 
 Oscans, and Romans, wrote, like the Phoenicians, from right to left. 
 
 29. Another mode of writing was subsequently adopted both by Greeks 
 and the early settlers in Italy. They began on the right, and wrote to 
 the left side of the page, and thou returned from the left to right; and 
 thus continued to write backward and forward, as the ox ploughs, and 
 hence, this mode of writing was called fiovtrrpoipiicbi',^ from ioovq, an ox, and 
 9Tpo(p^, a iuniiiuj. — Of this writing there were two kinds : the most 
 ancient commencing after the eastern manner on the right ; and the 
 other, like the European method, beginning on the left. 
 
 •30. The following is a specimen of the most ancient Boustrophedou 
 writing: 
 
 Tlie Amyclean^ Inscriptlou, in BousiropkedoM, beginning on the Right* 
 
 h^ >1 3 03 KK 
 
 M 3 ^ 3 
 
 The first line is read from right to left : the two characters at the begin- 
 uing arc monograms, or characters containing several letters. The first 
 monogram contains the letters YAAOi;, and the second, MAN. The 
 
 f Hanc vocem Hesi/chius ita ex])licat: "6vtws eKeyov, (ttw dixoiws to7s aporpiajiri ^ovalriis 
 a.v7taTfiO(pas Trotrj ris' (Xeyov Se 'eirj tov ypacp^iv rpoTrw tolovtw. IIh Ojipi'lliihiint (jiitnido 
 iiislar arantiian bourn Jit rcyns/ius, (/nod nsu)[)atum, (/iiia vo vwdn scrihehiitur. lude est 
 quod linea; vocantur versus, si Isidoro credimus, Oriff Vf, 13. f'ersus, inquit, vulgo vocati, 
 quia sir scrilitbunt antiqui, sicut aratur terra. A sinisti-n tnim ad de.rtram primum duccliant 
 stylum : deiude convprtclxilur ah infiriore, et rursum ad dcitram versus ; quns ct hodih rustici 
 versus vacant, lioiharti Opera, I'haley et Canaan, Luijd. Bat, 1G92, Col. -l.J3. 
 
 « This verj' ancieut inscription is said to have been discovered by the Abbe Founnont, 
 Altm. de I Acad, dcs fnscr., t. 15, p. 40U— 410. Its date is attributed to nearly 1100 years 
 H.c. For its ijreat antiquity we have only the opinions of connoisseurs, chiefly French. R. 
 P. Kni (jht viilh il a l'ory;ery. !^ee his Analytical Essni/ on Greek Alphabets, p. Ill — 130, 
 London, 1791, 4t(). This marble is preserved in the Royal Library at Paris. It was disco- 
 vered under the ruins of the temple of Apollo at Amychn in Peloponnesus, which was built 
 by Amyclas, the son of Iiaceda>mon about 1400 years before the Christian era. See Bib- 
 liotheca MS. Stownsis, by Dr. O'Conor, Vol. I. ]). 393. 
 
 * As there exists a doubt, relative to the authenticity of the Amyclean inscription, it is 
 necessary to introduce the t'risscan, though its accuracy has also l)een inipuu:ned. The latter 
 inscrijition was found I)y Mr. Groj)ius, at Crisso, near the site of the ancient Crissa on the 
 nortlit rn shore of the Corinthian bay. A facsimile was taken by i\Ir. Gropius and given by him 
 to tlie Rev. Thos. Smart Hvighes, \^ho, in his Travels in Sicily, Greece, and .Albania, '2 Vols. 
 4to 18-20; in Vol. 1, p. 369, says : " The inscription is so curious from its extreme anticjuity 
 as to warrant my insertion of it in this place. It has occu])ied the attention of many 
 learned men in this country, but no one has succeeded in developinsf the sliijhtest jiart of its 
 signification. TIt.' Houstro]>hedon mode of writ ng and the digamiua, which it ai)])ears to 
 contain, are additional ])roofs of its high antiquity." liishop Marsh mentions it, in his 
 Horce Pe/asf/ic(e p. 74. — Rose, who has given a facsimile of it, [Insrrip. Grcec p. 32.5] ob- 
 serves: "i\lulta? quidem e literis vix Grjpcarum litcrarum fornuim referre videntur, (juarc 
 spurium esse audacter dicerem nisi Grrpcarum litcrarum imj)eritum esse Gropium intel- 
 lexissem." — In defence of Gropius, Hoeckius savs : "Hoc apographum quum confecerit 
 
 2 U 
 
186 AMYCLEAN AND CEISSEAN INSCRIPTIONS. XIV. 31 — 33. 
 
 second line is read from left to right, and the eighth character counting 
 from the left is a monogram, and contains the letters YA. The third line 
 is read from right to left. The whole will then stand thus : 
 
 TAAOS MANE0EKEN API2T0KYAES N0E2EN 
 
 III the common Greek style. 
 
 "YXXoc fx aviBrjictv, ApiaroKvlriq vorjaEV 
 
 A verbal Translation. 
 
 Hyllus me posuit (dedicavit) : — Aristocydes finxit. 
 
 i.e. Hyllus placed (dedicated) me :— Aristocydes made (me). 
 
 31. Legends found from right to left on some coins, and the same 
 legend written from left to right on others, may be considered as belong- 
 ing to the Boustrophedon writing. A coin of Athens and another of 
 Leontini have been mentioned in the 14th paragraph as written from the 
 right: these are also found written from the left, thus: — AOE' and 
 LEONTINON." 
 
 32. Specimens of the other mode of fDovrrTpofrtdoy writing, beginning, 
 after the European manner, on the left are more common. Boustrophedon 
 legends are found on coins, as well as in inscriptions. 
 
 33. A Sicilian coin of Agrigentum has the legend thus : 
 
 AKRAC ] , ., 
 
 ___ . . k^CRAG-ANTOS : Aquila sfatis.^ 
 
 Oropius, Graece parum doctus, seel delineandi peritns." Pref. p. xx. Professor Dobree also 
 states, that, " Mr. W. J. Bankes saw a stone resemblis^ BIr. Gropius's drawina:, and with 
 characters upon it apparently ancient 3 but this was in the dusk of the evening, and he 
 could not see to read them. He does not remember to have heard anything which would 
 w'arrant a suspicion of forgery against Gropius." Rose's Inscrip. Greec. in a letter from 
 Professor Dohree, May ]Oth, 1824, p. 400 — 418. — In the splendid work, Cor;)«.s Inscriptionnm 
 GrcBcanim edirlit Auf/ustus BoecA-ius, Berolini, }828 — 1843; 2 Vols. Fol: Vol. 1. p. 2 and 3, 
 and in preface p. xx. — xxv. a facsimile is given, and conjectural emendations : it occupies 
 the first place, in this work of Boeckius, being considered by him the most ancient Greek 
 inscription known. 
 
 The Crissean Inscription, becfmning on the right. 
 
 13 3IAMOTieiAMOH3IV3MOT3'/ 
 
 AF:MMTONME©EKEKAITEBOIAKAIKA 
 
 Osf\ ©MOHM3'q r-lVeA3SllVlAT 
 
 Here (\/| is found as the old form of ^ ; and H for F or the aspirate : read from left to 
 right, it will then he, 
 
 [AJETOZFVIEFOZAneiTOZAIEEl 
 [APIJSSTONZEeEKEKAITEBOIAKAIh[A] 
 TAZieEA0YrATPEZFOZ<I)IAO[l] 
 
 Thai is, 
 [A rjTOvs vie, os ti.(pdtTos aiel et' 
 [Api](rTWj' aedrjKe /cat re Bo/a koI 
 K[o]Tao"i9€a Bvyarpes, ois (piXoi, 
 A literal Latin version, 
 Latonse fili, qui immortalis semper es : 
 Ariston te posuit, atque etiam filiae lejus'] 
 Boea et Catasithea, ut dilecti [ApoUini.] 
 * Comhe's Vet. Pop. &c., p. 125, No. 1—3. « Id. p. 67, No. 1, 3. 
 
 " See Taylor Combs s Vet. Pop. &c., p. .58, No. 2, and a figure of the coin in Recueil de 
 Medailles Par Pdlerin, 4to. Paris, 1763, Vol. II. Plate CVJII,, No. 7, p. 100. 
 
XIV. 34. 
 
 BOUSTKOPUEBON BEGINNING ON THE LEFT. 
 
 187 
 
 34. The celebrated Sigeian inscription is of an early date, probably- 
 more than 500 years B.C. : it is so called from the promontory and town 
 of Sigeium, near ancient Troy, where the stone on which it is engraved 
 was found. It was brought over to England by Lord Elgin, and placed 
 by him, with his collection of marbles in the British museum about 1816." 
 The inscription is very much obliterated by a superstitious practice of the 
 Sigeians. When any one was afflicted with the ague, a common disease 
 in the low country about Sigeium, the Greek priest ordered him to be 
 rolled on this stone containing the inscription, the characters of which 
 were supposed to possess a ])owerful charm.'' Before it was thus injured, 
 copies had been taken of it and sent to England, first by Homer, a 
 Turkish dragoman, then by the Rev. S. Lisle, who succeeded Dr. Chis- 
 hull, as British Chaplain at Smyrna. From their facsimiles Dr. ChishuU 
 first published a reduced engraving in 1721, with an explanation of the 
 inscription, in Latin.*' It was republished in 1728, with a new reduced 
 engraving, corrected by the Rev. Bernard Mould, Chaplain at Smyrna, 
 and a specimen of the letters the same size as on the stone, about an inch 
 high. As many other inscriptions were inserted in the work, it was then 
 
 THE SIGEIAN INSCRIPTION IN BOUSTROPHEDON, BEGINNING 
 
 ON THE LEFT. 
 
 (J)Af^OAIKO:£l/^lTOH 
 0>\0<inoJ:lOTA<\^0'^']3 
 r^eZ\0: KAAO-.KPAT^PA 
 M@3H- l/i>l :^0TAT2nA>l 
 OJ^-.^ZrPVTAt^eiOMiK 
 
 ^^Zl: EAKAETir/Zf 
 
 .to 
 
 !5 
 
 1 foot, 6 inchea broad. 
 
 mim 
 
 lOJlh in. thick. 
 
 ' See The Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, IMarch 1.5th, 1816, 
 marked R. 53, in Appendix II. of the Catahic:ue of the Marhles added to the Report. 
 
 ' See Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkev, by Robert Walpolc, M.A. 4to. 
 1817, London, p. 97.— Roses Inscrip. Gnie. Vctust. p. 1. " 
 
 T Inscriptio Si^ea antiqnissima ^ovtrrpoiprthov exarata comnientario cam historieo, pram- 
 matico, critico, illustravit Edmund ChishuU, H.T.B. Regiae Majestati a Sacris, Fol. Londini, 
 
388 BOUSTEOPHEDON— SIGEIAN ZNSCRIFTION. XIV. 35, SG, 
 
 entitled Antiqiiitates Asiaticcs.'' Many subsequent engravings of it have 
 appeared, but the neatest and most accurate is in Dr. Chandler's Inscrip- 
 iiones Antiqim'' from Chishull, corrected by a minute facsimile by Revett. 
 
 35. The first line is read from left to right, and the second from right 
 to left, and the othei-s alternately from left to right, and from right to left. 
 The whole will then be read, in common Greek characters, thus: 
 
 In common Greek characters. In common Greek style. 
 
 *ANOAIKO : EIMI : TO H (^avoSUov hfxl rcw 'Ep- 
 
 EPM0KPAT02 : TO nPOKO fioKparovs rov irpoKov^ 
 
 WEXIO: KArO: KPATEPA : vnaiov KayiiKparripa 
 
 KAni2TATON: KAI HE0]Vf KairiffTaTov, koi tiO/jl- 
 
 ON: E2 nPTTANEION: E hv is wpvTwelov e- 
 
 AOKA: MNEMA: SIFE- Sco/ca fj.V7Ji.ia 'Siyei- 
 
 ET2I : EAN AE TI OASX- sdar iav Se ri vdffxcf, 
 
 O MEAEAAINEN : (M)E O fieXeSaivetv fie S> 
 
 2irEIE2: KAI MEHO- 2jye»js- km. fi eW- 
 
 EI2EN: HAI20n02: KAI U(Tev A'l(TajTros Koi 
 
 HAAEA*OI. ei.Se\<poi. 
 
 Verbal Translation, The same in English^ 
 
 Phanodici sum, Jilii I am the statue of Phanodicus, 
 
 Hermocratis Procoiine- the son of Hermocrates the Procon- 
 
 sii. Et ego craterem nesian. I gave a cup, a saucer, 
 
 et crateris basin et and a strainer, to serve 
 
 Col urn ad Prytaneium as a monument in the 
 
 dedi memoriae ergo Si- Council-House. If I meet with 
 
 geis. Siquid vero patiar any accident, it belongs 
 
 curare me jiibeo to you, O Sigeians, to 
 
 Sigeios. Et fecit repair me. I am the v^rork 
 
 me Hffisopus atque fralres. of Heesop and his brethren. 
 
 36. The BovuTpofjjdov mode of writing was very seldom used after the 
 lime of Solon, who is supposed to have written the Athenian laws in 
 this manner to give them an air of antiquity.^ 
 
 1721, pp. 1 — 30, also Leyden, 8ro. 1727. Dr. Bentley wrote a critieism on Dr. Chishull's 
 explanation, which elicited a reply of 15 closely printed pages from Dr. C, who appended 
 it to the unsold copies of his work. Dr. Bentley's letter is printed first in 4to. London, 
 1807, by Dr. C. Barney vrith this title " Richardi Bentleii et doctomm virorum epistol^e 
 pailim mutus'. Accedit Richardi Dawesii ad Joannem Taylorum epistola singularis ; p. 259. 
 Reprinted at Leipsic, 1825, 1 vol. 8vo. p. 212 — 225. — Again in Rose's Inscrip. Grsec, Vetust. 
 Appendix I. pp. 337 — 347; and in Bentley's Correspondence, p. 581. London. 1842. — A 
 most clear and satisfactory account of all the circumstances relative to this letter, will be 
 found in Bishop Monk's Life of Dr. Bentley, London, 4to. 1830, pp. 437 — 460. 
 
 z Antiquitates Asiatics Christianamceramantecedentes; exprimariismonumentisGrjeeis 
 descriptas, Latinae versjp, notisque et commentariis illustratae, &c., per Edmundum Chishull, 
 S.T.B., Fol. Londini, 1728. 
 
 a Inscriptiones Antiquas in Asia Minori et Gnecia, Fol. Oxonii, 1774, p. 3. — Shuckford's 
 Sac. and Prof. Hist. Connected, Vol. I. bk. iv. p. 264. — Antiquae Inscriptiones, olim a Mar- 
 quardo Guido Collectas, nuper a Joanne Koolio, edits a Francisco Hesselio, Fol. Leovardiae 
 1731. An engraving in large letters in the ajipendix to the preface. — Bluratori Novns The- 
 saurus vetenim Inscriptionum, 4 vols. Mediolani, 1739 — 1742. Vol. IV., p. MMCIIL, 
 MMCXVIL, plate p. MMCX. — Nouveau Traite de Diplomatique, par les Benedictins, Paris, 
 6 vols. 4to. 1750—1765. The Sigeian inscription. Vol. I. p. 626, copied from Chishull's edi- 
 tion of 1728. 
 
 b Boustrophedon writing was used by the Irish at a much later period : they denomi- 
 nated it, Cionnfd eite. 
 
XIV. .'^7—41. BOUSTROrHEDON INSCRiniONS. 189 
 
 37. A beautiful Sicilian fictile vase, two feet bigli, and one foot four 
 inches in diameter, was found at Agrigenturn. On one side are the por- 
 traits of Alca^us and Sajjlio, the parents of lyric poetry. On the left over 
 his head is written AVKAI<p^, on the right, and over her left slioulder, is 
 inscribed ^A<|>0. — On the other side of the vase are two figures. The 
 male figure is on the left, and has issuing from his mouth KAV^'^, that 
 is vaXoe, beautiful. Tlie female stands on the right and has the same 
 word before her mouth, written from right to left, thus : ^Q^A>I. — Its 
 age cannot be less than about 450 B.C." 
 
 38. Another Sicilian vase of the same material, and about the same 
 date, was found in the neiglibourhood of Agrigentum. On one side are 
 painted the figures of Achilles and Hector, the principal heroes of the 
 Iliad, with their names thus -written, AKLEEV^, and just below 
 QOTMBH.^ 
 
 39. There are many coins of Italy written in the Boustrophedon 
 manner. The first cited is an Etrurian coin of Volaterra.* On the ob- 
 verse is a bust to the right, surrounded with this legend, read from left to 
 right, FEVAOAI \ on the reverse is a dolpliin surrounded with the same 
 legend, but read from right to left, thus: lAOAVB-l Felatiidi. 
 
 40. In the south of Italy specimens of the following coins have been 
 found with legends beginning on the left: one of Metapontum (V>ETA 
 Meta:' another of Caulonia KAVA Kaul,« and another of PH TIN UN 
 Retinon.'' Examples of other coins of the same places, and legends, 
 have been previously given in paragraphs 23 and 24. 
 
 41. The preceding examples of the Boustrophedon mode of writing, 
 will be sufRcient to prove that it was used both in Greece and Italy. 
 The lonians, Atlienians, and other Grecians, as well as the nations of 
 Italy, began to write generally from left to right after writing in Boworpo- 
 ipr]cov; and from the following specimen it will be seen that the old Greek 
 alpliabet is only the Phoenician inverted and written from left to riglit ; 
 and that the Greek alphabet must, therefore, have been derived from the 
 Phoenician. 
 
 <= MiUingcns Ancient Unedited Monuments, p. 81—85, Plate XXXIIT. and XXXIV. 
 <l Millingen. p. lo. 
 
 « Opuscoli diversi di F. M. Aiellino, 3 vols. 8vo. ; Napoli, 1833. Vol. II. p. 0. Tav. l,fig. 1. 
 f Taylor Comljvs Vet. Pop. Reg. Numi, p. 38, No. 1, 4, o, 7, 8. i Id. p. 50, No. 1. 
 
 •> Id. p. 51, No. 6. 
 
190 TABLE OF ALPHABETS. XIV. 42. 
 
 The Greek, Roman, and other Alphabets derived from the Phoenician. 
 
 
 Phoenician written 
 >m right to left. 
 
 cs.r 
 •3 5 
 
 o o 
 
 O 
 
 Latin, more than four 
 ituries before Christ. 
 
 The Roman in the Gth 
 d following centuries, 
 netinies called Anglo- 
 xon. From these, the 
 rious forms of modern 
 man and Italic capitals 
 d small letters are easily 
 rived. 
 
 '\ 
 
 f5 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 • ,u* 
 
 ci 
 
 «■ 
 
 -*" 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A AKKb. 
 
 B 
 
 d 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 B Bbh 
 
 GorC 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 r 
 
 TIC CC 
 
 D 
 
 <1 
 
 A 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 D DOKhh 
 
 E 
 
 3. 
 
 5 
 
 E 
 
 e: 
 
 E Eeee 
 
 ForV 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 1^ 
 
 F 
 
 F FT^ 
 
 G 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 C CQS^^ 
 
 Z 
 
 J 
 
 • 
 
 ■ 
 
 z 
 
 Z Z ^ 
 
 H 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H r?hTili 
 
 TH 
 
 * 
 
 e 
 
 © 
 
 e 
 
 • r{i\y 
 
 I 
 
 / 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 I Ji 
 
 K 
 
 T 
 
 >i 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 K Kk 
 
 L 
 
 A 
 
 >i 
 
 y 
 
 A 
 
 L LH 
 
 M 
 
 ia 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 M 
 
 M n^nriTn 
 
 N 
 
 id 
 
 ^ 
 
 )V 
 
 N 
 
 A/ Niin 
 
 X 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 j"™" 
 
 « • 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o o 
 
 p 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 r 
 
 TT 
 
 p Pp 
 
 Q 
 
 p 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ? 
 
 a • 
 
 R 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 BR "RI^T^IV 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 4 
 
 £ 
 
 s sxrrv 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 T TTrc 
 
 U,Y,&W 
 
 
 y 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 VY pYp^ 
 
 PH 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 CH 
 
 
 + 
 
 -h 
 
 X 
 
 X X 
 
 PS 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ^ 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 • • 
 
 42. The first alphabet' is chiefly taken fi-om coins and inscriptions : it 
 is the oldest form of the Phoenician, Canaanitish, Samaritan, Punic, 
 
 JS^^Vh"^ of the letters is only given here, for want of room. All the various shapes 
 of the Phoemcian letters found on stones and coins, are given in Scripture LinquJque 
 PhoemcicB, GiiiL Gesenii, p. 19—49. ' o i "= ^myuwijue 
 
XIV. 43, 44. ORIGIN OF THE GREEK ALPHABET. 191 
 
 western or ancient Hebrew letters, \yitli unimportant variations, this 
 alphabet was used in Tyre and Sidon, in all the regions from Egypt to 
 Assyria, and on the south and west shores of the Mediterranean : it was 
 that which liing Solomon employed when he wrote to Ilirani kiugof Tyre. 
 It was the alphabet which the ten tribes of Israel used in their Penta- 
 teuch, before and after the destruction of Samaria, before and after their 
 separation under Rehoboam, and that which the Jews used down to the 
 Babylonish captivity, in their Pentateuch, on their coins, and sacred 
 monuments. The new coins of the ITasmoufcans afford sufhcient evidence 
 that this ancient character was still in use, in the century preceding the 
 Christian era, though the Chaldce or modern Hebrew was then most 
 prevalent.^ It cannot be asserted, that all alphabets sprang from this old 
 Phoenician; still, it was the parent of a most numerous progeny. It 
 gave existence and form not only to oriental alphabets,'' but to the Pelas- 
 gic or earliest Greek, the Umbrian, and Etruscan written in the eastern 
 manner, from right to left ; and the Attic and Ionic Greek, written from 
 left to right, like the present Europeans. Herodotus says, "I myself saw 
 Phoenician (Cadmean) letters . . . engraved on Tri])ods, very much like 
 the Ionic (Greek).' Pliny and Tacitus testify' that the Iloman letters 
 were the same as the old Greek." The Ionic and Attic Greek were the 
 source from which was derived the Armenian, the Russian, the Coptic, 
 the Ethiopic, the Mceso-Gothic, the Latin or Roman, and many other 
 al})habets. 
 
 43. The second alphabet is Greek, copied from the Sigean inscription, 
 and written from the right : it is very similar to the Plioenician. — The 
 third is the same ancient Greek, written from the left : it is merely the 
 preceding alphabet. No. 2, turned over to the right hand. 
 
 44. The fourth is the Attic Greek alphabet, probably derived from the 
 preceding. Pliny" says that originally the Greeks had only sixteen 
 letters, and that Palamedes° introduced O, $ X, S, the first three of which 
 
 J The gradual introduction of the Chaldee or modern Hebrew characters is spoken of in 
 § 13. See also Prof. Emdd's Hvb. Or. § 13(5. 
 
 i' Gesenius in his Scijiturw Liiifjutefjue PhocniritB gives the following genealogy of 
 writing derived from the I'hoenician : — Prircipua autcm scriptural genera ex inatre Phoe- 
 nicia deinceps j)r()gnata lia-c sunt — A Antit/itis.si^iia Grnrtinnn scriplura, (sec note 1, § 18) 
 B. Prison I'visarum scriptura. — C HvbrcEorum littcratura in nuniis, \\x\i\i: Samaritance litera- 
 tura" varia^ species prodierunt. — 1). Scriplnrn Araiiucn in inonumcntis .'Egyjjtiacis conspicua, 
 multanun ne])()tum fecunda mater, ex qua i)rognata est, Pulmynna, ex hac (puidrata, ct 
 varia; scripturic veteris Si/rcr, Pcrsica; Araliliw species, (^ucniadnioduin autiiii in prisca 
 GriPca scripturu anti<pussinia' ct principes Phocnicum tigur;p coniparcnt, ita in lianc tran- 
 sicrunt rccentiorcs a?tatis ligura^ (jua una re rd'cllitur pra'postera ilia dc littcris apud Si/ros 
 Jiahjiluniosfiuc, non apud Phocniccs, inventis conjcctura. — E.S(riptitra Phocn'uia rcccntior, 
 s. Piiniro-Niimidica, si tamen hanc a matre diversam cogitabis. — F. Scripturu veins Arabica. 
 s. Ilinijaritica. ex (|ua nata est A'.thiopica. j). (53, (51. 
 
 ' iSor hvrhs KaS/xTjia ypdfj.fj.aTa - - - - in\ rpiTrotrt iyKfKO\afj.fj.eva, to woWa bfioia roicrt 
 'IwviKolffi, lleriid, I . o!*. 
 
 m Vetcrcs tJra'cas I'uisse easdem penf; qua? nunc sunt Latin;r, Plimj VII., 06. Et forma 
 Uteris Latinis. (piaj vctcrriniis (ir;pcoruni, Tacit. Annal. II. 
 
 " Pliny VI I. .j(5. — Also ; see before in § (5. 
 
 o The Rev. Dr. O'Conor in his liibUufhem MS. Stonensis, vol. i. p. 394, observes. The 
 Greek letters, said to have been added to the sixteen original bv Palanicdes and Sinionidcs, 
 were used before their times; for they are in the Amyclean inscription, ^^hilil is believed 
 to have been written 1(50 u'ars before the 'I'rojan war, or 1311 bel'nre C'lirist : tliev are also 
 in the Eugubian. See Bartlielemi's Menioir, in the Am'/, dis //ivvrr., t. 3!>; ^'vuviau Traiti 
 de Diplom. par Ics Benedicti/is, t. I, p. 615 — 626, and Gori's Eugubian Tables. 
 
192 ORIGIN OF THE ROMAN ALPHABET. XIV. 45 — 48. 
 
 are only T, 11, and K aspirated, and were probably at first written TH, IIH, 
 and KH ; but S is composed of KS or r^ or XS. Simonides is said to 
 have added Z, H, ^, and £1. These are only two letters put together : Z 
 is composed of SA or AZ:, H of EE, '^ of 112 or BS, and ii of 00. 
 Though the Greeks certainly had double letters before the times of Pala- 
 medes, or Simonides,? these celebrated men might have brought them 
 into more general use. 
 
 45. The fifth is the Latin or Roman alphabet. The Romans derived their 
 letters from the Greek, and wrote from left to right some centuries before 
 Christ. All the Greeks did not write and make their letters exactly of the 
 same form ; and hence the old Greek A was written A. The T or C in 
 quick writing had the angle cut off, and was made C ; A also lost one angle, 
 and was written D. The C, at first, was supplied by C, which stands in 
 its place ; then K was in use with the Romans ; but after C was added, 
 or rather after C had a small blot at the bottom to denote the sound of the 
 Greek f, then C was pronounced hard, and supplied the place of K- The 
 Romans, finding the K useless, the sound being denoted by C, rejected it 
 from their alphabet. The V was written L; from P was formed R; S 
 was written S, and V, Y. With these few mutations the Roman alphabet 
 was derived from the Greek.i For the Cursive or Italic letters see § 67. 
 
 46. The sixth column and the following are what have been generally 
 called Anglo-Saxon : they were formed immediately from the Latin."^ 
 
 47. The Etruscan alphabet^ is so similar to the old Phoenician, No. 1, 
 from which it was immediately derived, that little need be said upon it, 
 especially as the inscriptions in paragraphs 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, and 
 27, will shew the form of the Etruscan letters. The Umbrian and 
 Oscan letters are so similar to the Etruscan, that they may be compre- 
 hended in one alphabet, as will be manifest by referring to the paragraphs 
 just cited. 
 
 48. All the preceding examples of writing, in the distant ages, of 
 which we have spoken, have necessarily been taken from inscriptions on 
 stone, or metal. Records, on less durable substances, have naturally 
 perished with the decay of the materials on which they were written. 
 There is one happy excepiion which enables us to read manuscripts 
 written in or before the middle of the first century of the Christian era — 
 at the time when Rome was in the zenith of her power ; and an hundred 
 provinces, from the confines of Ethiopia and Arabia to the western ocean, 
 and to the mountains of Caledonia, flourished under the wise govern- 
 
 P See § 6. 
 
 1 For very early specimens of the Old Roman or Latin lana:uaa;e, see Donaldson's Varro- 
 nianus Chap. VI., p. 137 — 184. — For the Analysis of the Latin Alphabet, id. chap. VII., p. 
 188—223, 
 
 r About the year 1567 John Daye, who was patronized by Archbishop Parker, cut the 
 first Saxon types used in Ensrland. In this year Asserius Mcnevensis was published by the 
 direction of the archbishop in these characters ; and in the same year Archbishop ^Ifric's 
 Paschal Homily ; and in 1571 the Saxon gospels. Daye's Saxon types far excel in neatness 
 and beauty any which have been since made, not excepting the neat tj^pcs cast for F. 
 Junius at Dort for his Saxon and Moeso-Gothic gospels, published in a.d. 1665. These 
 types were given by him to the University of Oxford. Astle, p. 223. 
 
 s The Etruscan alphabet may be seen in Dempsteri addita, 209. — Lanzi ; see § 25, note b. — 
 The Umbrian in Grote/end's Ling. Umb. See § 25, note f. 
 
XIV. 49. HERCULANEAN MSS. ON PAPYRUS. 193 
 
 ment and gentle sway of the benevolent Titus.' It will at once be per- 
 ceived that we allude to the discovery of Ilerculaneuni and Pompeii : the 
 former in A.D. 1713, from 40 to (50 feet below the surface of the earth, 
 by labourers sinking a well ; and Pompeii Ibrly years after, about 1'2 
 feet under ground. These cities were overwhelmed by an eruption of 
 Vesuvius on the Soth of August, a.u. 79. Tlie streets and buildings 
 have, in some measure, been cleared from the soil, ashes, and lava, with 
 which they were covered. We are thus enabled to go back more than 
 seventeen centuries and a half — to enter the houses, the baths, and public 
 buildings of the refined and luxurious Romans, — to observe the arrange- 
 ment of their rooms, and to see their furniture, their statues, and even 
 their frescoes and paintings as they existed when Rome and her cities 
 were in all their glory. Tlie manuscripts to which an allusion has been 
 made are the works written on the rolls of papyrus, a sort of ])aper formed 
 from the lamina? of a species of rush, or the Cyperus Papyrus placed 
 transversely, and glued together by the muddy waters of the Nile. In 
 A.D. 1752, an excavation was made in a garden at Resina, a town Luilt 
 over the ruins of Ilerculaneum, and there, in a house supposed to have 
 belonged to L. Piso, was found a great number of volumes or rolls of 
 papijnis.'^ The room in which these manuscripts lay, though it remained 
 untouched, was completely covered with ashes, over which had flowed a 
 stream of lava. The pnpijri exposed to this kind of heat, were not burnt, 
 though they became carbonized.'' Many of these carbonized volumes 
 have been unrolled. Accurate facsimiles of many Greek and a few Latin 
 manuscripts may be seen in Herculanenfiium Voluminum, quoe super- 
 siint,'" and other works on the subject. The writing on these papyri is 
 so similar to the inscriptions on the walls, mentioned in the next and fol- 
 lowing paragraphs, that examples are not necessary. 
 
 49. Amongst tlie many valuable remains of anlicpiity which deserved 
 and obtained general attention at Pompeii, another kind of manuscript 
 of much interest, had been entirely overlooked, till brought into notice 
 
 * Ilereulanensia; or archcoloi^ical and philolop^ical dissertations, containing; a mannscript 
 found among the ruins of HercuJaneum, by Sir W. Drummond and the Rev. lio/nit Walputc, 
 London, 4to. 1«I0; pp. 198. Pref.p.XW. 
 
 * IManuscripts have only been found at Hcreulancum. — Tn a letter of 177.3, from Signor 
 Paderni, keeper of tlie Royal 3Iuseutn at Naples, inserted in I'he Philosopliieal Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society of London, there is a short account of the discovery of a room, 
 paved with Mosaic, and containing: presses, in w hich were ."io-i vols., of which eighteen 
 were Latin. The whole number found was from I.JOO to 1800, principally Greek. Many 
 fell to pieces, and some were destroyed, before their value was discovered; for tliey gene- 
 rally bore the appearance of burnt or carboni/cd pieces of wood, about two inches in 
 diameter, and from six to eight inches long. The writing is in one row of columns, side 
 by side, beginning in the centre of the roll, and containing from twenty to thirty short lines 
 in a column. Ponipeiana : The tojior/mph)/, edijicvs, and ornaments uf Pompeii, by Sir 
 William (iell, F.Ii.S., F.S.A., and John P. {iitndi/, arrhileet, 1 vol. 8fo., London 1817 — 1819, 
 pref. p. XIV. — Id. London, 2 vols, 8vo. 18:32; the result of excavations since 1819. 
 
 » Ilercidaneuni R(dls: Correspondence relative to a proposition made by Dr. Sirhtcr of 
 Hildehiiri/hannen, upon the subject of their development. London, printed by J. Barlield, 
 Wardour- street, printer to his H.R.H. the Prince Regent, 1817 ; p. 23. 
 
 * Folio, Neapoli : ex regia typographia, vol. L, 1793 — vol. VI. 18.39.— A iso, Hcrculanen- 
 sium voluminum; Pars prima. Oxonii sumi)tibus typographei Clarendmiiani lithograjdiice 
 excudebat A'. Whittork, 1824, 8ro. pp. 1.03. — Pars secunda, 182o, pp. 15.3. 
 
 2 c 
 
194 GREEK INSCRIPTION ON A WALL AT POMPEII. XIV. 50 
 
 by one of our most eminent classical scholars, — -a gentleman who has the 
 happy art of blending so many interesting circumstances, and personal 
 adventures with his erudition and criticism, as to render the deciphering 
 and illustrating of ancient inscriptions attractive and amusing.^ We 
 allude to Dr. Wordsworth who, while he did not neglect any object of 
 interest at Pompeii, judiciously directed his particular attention to the 
 inscriptions on the walls of the buildings. He not only deciphered, but 
 took accurate facsimiles of the most imporfant of the numerous inscrip- 
 tions, which, he observes, are " for the most part scratched with a pointed 
 stylus on the hard red stucco with which the buildings, at Pompeii, are 
 covered. It is owing to the exceeding solidity of this material, that the 
 words carelessly traced upon it by hands, which have now withered and 
 crumbled in the dust for more than seventeen hundred years, are still, in 
 many cases as legible as these printed characters which are now before you." 
 Dr. Wordsworth published many of these inscriptions in a very neat and 
 interesting little work entitled Inscriptiones PompeianiB^ and it is through 
 his liberality that we are enabled to give a few specimens of his facsimiles. 
 These engravings, at the same time that they illustrate the chief subject 
 before us, cannot fail to raise the reader's desire to procure a work, which 
 is most strongly recommended to every lover of Grecian or Roman litera- 
 ture, as it is full of chaste criticism, and interesting classical allusions. 
 
 50. Our first facsimile is in Greek characters : Dr. Wordsworth says, 
 " as far as I am aware," it is the only Greek to be found on the walls of 
 
 A IC^<4.AA/T0C 
 AACu IVVQ C 
 HAIOACO POC 
 
 A 10 rE/VHC 
 
 ATTO K Co A CO P C 
 ATT KON\0C 
 
 Kit A rA OGC 
 
 == Amongst other works by the same author, the following are particularly referred to : — 
 Greece, Pictorial, DescriptiVe, and Historical, by Christopher Wordsworth, D.D., late Fellow 
 of Trill. Coll. and Public Orator in the University of Cambridge ; Member of the Archoeolo- 
 (jica Institute of Rome, ?fc.,8vo. London, 1839, 31s. 6rf.— Athens and Attica: Journal of a 
 Residence there, 8to. 2nd edit. 12s.— Diary in France, mainly on topics concerning educa- 
 tion and the Church, by Christopher Wordsworth, D.D., Canon of St. Peter's, Westminster, 
 12mo. London, 1845. 
 
 y Inscriptiones Pompeianae ; or specimens and facsimiles of ancient inscriptions disco- 
 vered on the walls of buildings at Pompeii, London, 1837, 8vo ; pp. 33. price 5s. 
 
XIV. 51—53. LATIN INSCRirXIONS ON THE WALLS AT POMPEII. 195 
 
 Pompeii. The inscription is on tlie outside of the stage wall of the 
 larger theatre, towards the Forum Nundinarium. It consists of names, 
 probably of persons connected with the theatre. 
 
 Atw^aiToc [sic] 
 Acwyios 
 
 Atoy£>'»;c 
 
 'ATToXo/^wpoc [sic} 
 'AttoXovioq [sic] 
 'ETTciyadoc 
 
 The sigma is in every case here made circular, as it is also in Greek, 
 written on papyrus. 
 
 51. Onr next facsimile is from the Basilica, or the Law Court of 
 Pompeii. The two following lines, familiar to us from our childhood, 
 are found twice inscribed on the right hand wall, near the principal 
 entrance. 
 
 Quid poie tarn durum saxso, aid quid mollius nndd ? 
 Dura tamen molli saxsa cavantur aqua. 
 
 The variation of Quid pote tarn, from the poet's Quid magis est, is a 
 curious Grfficism : observe also saxso for saxo. 
 
 52. At a little distance we have four lines from two different poets : — 
 
 i^iroK ySil S^>JVTi 9H {6iAe rs ia q^^Ari.v.x^/^ 
 
 Surda sit oranti tuajanua, laxafcrcnti: 
 Audiat exclusi verba rcceptus avians. 
 
 Ovid, Amor VIII., 77. 
 Janitor ad dantis rigilet, si fid sat inanis 
 Surdus in ohductam somniet usque scram. 
 
 Proper tius, IV., 47. 
 
 Observe the orthography of the accusative damtis ; the printed copies 
 h&ve pulset. 
 
 53. We pass from Ovid to Germanicus, the patron of his Fasti. The 
 following date, scratched on the wall carries us back to a.d. 18. 
 
196 CLAvSSIFICATION OF MSS. XIV. 54 — 56. 
 
 Dr. Wordsworth justly remarks : " This inscription remained visible for 
 sixty years after it was here first written ; it was then buried for seventeen 
 hundred by the ashes of Vesuvius, and promises to survive as many more. 
 It is, I apprehend, the oldest Latin MS. in existence." 
 
 54. The following warning against the use of calidi fonies, to persons 
 in peculiar circumstances, is the last inscription we shall give from the 
 walls of the Basilica. 
 
 Qiiisquis amat, calidis non debet fontihus iiti ; 
 Nam nemojiammis ustus amare potest.'' 
 
 55. A Roman inscription, belonging to the latter end of the 3rd century, 
 was copied from the marble capital of a pillar, found at Alexandria Troas, 
 in Mysia. Galerius Aurelius Valerius Maximianus, to whom the inscrip- 
 tion refers, was consul in a.d. 294. The title of Caesar was conferred 
 upon hiui by Diocletian. 
 
 FORTISSIMOETJNVICTISS 
 IMOCAESARIDNGALER 
 AVRVALMAXIMIANO 
 PRINCIPI IVBENTVTJS 
 
 That is, without contractions, 
 
 Fortissimo et invictissimo 
 Csesari Domino Galerio 
 Aurelio Valerio Maximiano 
 Principi juventutis. 
 
 DN is the usual contraction for Dominas, and the title Princeps Juhen- 
 tutis or Juventutis was used in the time of the Republic, and by the 
 Emperors till Constantine; as Symbolum futurse successionis." 
 
 56. As we are now come to manuscripts of a later date, which deviate 
 much from the original form of letters, a hvr observations on an easy 
 mode of classifying them may be useful. — Every manuscript is denomi- 
 nated according to the shape and size of the letters in which it is written. 
 There ai'e, according to some, four classes of letters, called Capitals^ 
 Uncials, Minuscule, and Cursive. These may be subdivided into more 
 or less legible, elegant, or adorned, but all belong to these four divi- 
 sions. Of these divisions, some letters are common: for instance; the 
 letters C I K X Z, which can hardly admit of alteration. These may 
 be small, slanting, and united by hair strokes ; and then they belong to 
 the cursive, joined, or running-hand : in every other respect they are 
 
 » Inscriptiones Pompeian.T, p. 25. 
 ^Travels by E. D. Clarke, LL.D., 8vo. London, 1817, vol. III. p. 220, 
 
XIV. 57 — 60. MSS. IN CAPITALS. 197 
 
 common lo all the classes. The letters A D E G H M Q T U, when 
 rounded, are peculiar to the Uncial: the other letters are common to 
 Uncials and Capitals. 
 
 57. Before speaking of each class of letters separately, it may he ob- 
 served, that all ancient inscriptions on stones, marbles, and coins, and tlie 
 oldest MSS. are in Capitals. — Uncials were used in more recent MSS. 
 — MinusculiB, or small and Cursive letters were employed for charters, 
 grants, and general business. 
 
 58. Capitals. — From the discovery of letters to some centuries after 
 Christ, writing was usually in capitals, without any space between the 
 words. The specimen of the modern Hebrew cliaracter in paragraph 12, 
 and of Greek, &c., in paragraphs 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 2 4, 25, 20, 
 and 27, will serve as examples of the oriental method ; — of Boustro- 
 phedon from paragraph 30 to 40. — For an illustration of the European 
 manner of writing in capitals, see paragraph 55, and the following ex- 
 amples: the first is in Greek and the next in Latin. 
 
 59. The first is a brief extract from the famous Codex Alexandrinus,'' 
 said to have been written at Alexandria about the end of the 5tli cen- 
 tury. This valuable MS. was sent by Cyril, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 to king Charles the First, about the year 1028: it is now preserved iu 
 the British Museum. 
 
 The Codex Alexandrinus, prohahly written in the 5th century. 
 
 TTepHMCDNOGNTOSCOVMOlO 
 XriACOi STCDTOOKIOMACOV' 
 
 nEP^nATEP)HMnN O EN T0I5 0TN0I2 (0TPAN0I2) 
 ArL\20HTn TO ONOMA SOT. 
 
 OURFATHERWHICIIARTINHEAVEN, 
 HALLO WEDBETHYNAME -.—Si. Luke, xi. 2. 
 
 60. The following example is taken from the MS. Palatine Virgil in 
 the Vatican Library at Rome (No. 1031), written in Roman Capitals in 
 the 3rd century ; but with the Uncial U, instead of the Capital Y ; also 
 T and M, verging towards Uncial. 
 
 ^ The New Testament from this BIS. was published in facsimile characters with this title : 
 Novum Testameutum Gnrcum e codice iMS. Alexandrino, cjiii Lnudini in Hihliotlicia 
 Musei Uritannici assenatur, descriptum CV;n(/o <■»■(«/(//'/•(■</« Il.;ir/t' 8. 'I'll. D. S<ic-. Uc>;. et 
 Anticj. Load. .Sec., Londini, Ex Prtlo Johannis Nichols Tvpis Jacksonianis .AIDCCLXXXVI, 
 Fol. 3Iattli. XXV. G to Apocal. xxii. 21 ; Preface, pp. i. — xxxii ; ISotes, jij). I— fS9. TJie re- 
 maining part of this MS. was published in the same manner with the followinc^ title : Vctus 
 Testamentum Gra?cum e codiee MS. Alexandrino tpii Londini in Bil)lii)tluca .^Insii Hrit- 
 annici asser^atur, tvpis ad similitudincm ijisins codicis si riiitiinr lldeliter descriptinn, cura 
 et laborc Hcnrici llvrvcii lUihir, A.lNf. Ileir. Socict. J.ond. et Uei^. Ai-ad. H(>it;i' Socii : 
 ^cclesia; Ancliianap Presbyteri, et ."\Iusei Hritannici Bibliotiiccarii. Tomus Priuius: — 
 Londini, ex prelo Ricardi et Arthuri 'I'aylor MDCCCXVl. 1 to 276 leaves. Gen I. to 
 Paralip. xxvi. -l^i. — Tomus secundus 3II)Ct'C'XlX., Hos. 1 to 4; Mace. .wiii. 20—21: 
 leaves 277 to o22.— Tomus Tertius MDCC'CXXI ; leaves 523 to G3!>5 Notes p. 1. to 2G1 : 
 Psal i. to Ecelus. li. 30, 
 
198 MSS. IN UXCIAL LETTERS. XIV. 61 — 64. 
 
 A Facsimile of the Palatine Virgil," ici-itteji in the Srd Century. 
 
 TtQV0QlI£MA6N7\lAlJS£]XE: 
 A1ZM0:RANX)ICAIS1£7VL\35 
 
 Te quoque, magna Pales, et te memorande canemus — , 
 
 We will sing about thee also, O great Pales, and thee O memorable — , 
 
 Georg. lib. iii. I. 1. 
 
 61. The next is from the famous Florence Virgil, written towards the 
 end of the 5th century, mostly in Roman Capitals : it may be considered 
 as a transition from Capitals to Uncials, having the Uncial a and u. 
 
 A Facsimile of the Florence Virgil,^ written in the 5th centurg. 
 CALL0CWlV3XM0R:T?VKT\fMA\ 1 H iCRF^ClTl NJ KOR^S 
 
 VOS HJEC FACIETIS 
 
 Gallo, cujds amor tantum mihi crescit in moras, 
 Quantum vere novo, viridis se subicit (subjicit) alnus. 
 
 Ye will do these things 
 For Gallus,for ivhom my love grows as much every hour 
 As the green alder shoots up in the infancy of spring. 
 
 Eel. X. 72. 
 
 62. Greek was generally written in capitals, and without any division 
 of icords till the 7th century. Greek MSS. were usually written in 
 capitals till the 8th century and some so late as the 9th. 
 
 63. Roman capitals were used from the earliest times, till the middle 
 of the 5th century, though smaller characters were employed for ordinary 
 subjects that required despatch. 
 
 64. Uncial is applied to the form of letters, nnccB literce which must 
 be round and somewhat hooked at the extremities. Uncials are especially 
 adapted for MSS. When writing in capitals, the angular letters which 
 
 c In the original MS. these two lines are included in one, extending the width of a quarto 
 page. The line is divided to accommodate it to this octavo page ; but you will have a cor- 
 rect idea of the original by imagining the second line to be joined to the tirst. thus : 
 
 TEQUOQCEJIAGNAPALESETTEMEMORANDECANEMUS. 
 
 ^ The observations made upon the preceding will also apply to this MS. A connect idea 
 of the original Florence Vii-gil will be formed, by considering this quotation to be written 
 in the character of the facsimile, and in length of lines, thus : 
 
 VOSH^C FACIETIS GALLOCUIUSAMOR.TANTUM 
 
 MIHICRESCITINHORAS.OU'ANTUMVERENOVO.VIUIDISSESUBICITALNUS 
 
XIV. 65, 66. MINUSCUL.E AND CURSIVE LETTERS. 199 
 
 were well adapted for engraving in hard substances, would be found to 
 impede the scribes ; and therefore to remove this inconvenience they 
 would naturally make the letters less angular till they assumed a circular 
 form. Uncial writing may easily be distinguished from what is written 
 in pure Capitals, by the roundness of the following letters, a d e ^ li m q 
 t V ; the other letters are common to both Uncials and Capitals. Un- 
 cial letters were introduced about the end of the 3rd century, prevailed in 
 the 6th, 7th, and 8th, and continued till the 9th ; but they did not en- 
 tirely cease till the l-2th. 
 
 65. A very hx'xc^ facsimile of a manuscript written in Roman Uncials 
 is here given. The MS. from which this specimen is taken, Pope Gre- 
 gory sent into England by St. Augustin in the Gih century. It was care- 
 fully preserved in St. Augustin's abbey at Canterbury, and was always 
 considered the book of St. Augustin, as the annals of that church clearly 
 testify. After the dissolution of religious houses, it fell into the hands of 
 Lord Hatton, and was placed by him in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. 
 
 Roman Uncials of the 6ih century. 
 
 '-i}"\^jm.-)-H CI pi OCR ATT 
 
 ei7ueJiPtra)eK3tT^P^^ 
 6cn; 
 
 In principio erat 
 
 VERliUM; 
 
 et verbum erat apud 
 D'E (Deum). 
 
 In the beginning teas 
 
 the icord ; 
 and the ivord ivas with 
 
 God. St. John, i. 1. 
 
 66. MiNUSCUL>E, or small letters had their origin in the despatch that 
 was required, when writing came into more general use, and was applied 
 to ordinary concerns. Tiiey were gradually formed by rounding the 
 corners and diminishing tlie size of Capitals and Uncials, not only 
 for the greater ease of writing upon vellum, papyrus and other soft sub- 
 stances, but also for economy in the consumption of writing materials. 
 The gradual manner in which the Minuscula; were formed mav l)e seen 
 in the table of alphabets No. 6, paragraph 41 ; and in the facsimiles of 
 inscriptions on the walls of Pom])eii, from Paragraph 50 to 54. — Before 
 the middle of the 4th century, Minuscnla; were very rarely used : before 
 the 8th they were common ; in the 8lh they began to prevail over Capitals 
 
200 CURSIVE OR ALDINE LETTERS. XlV. 67 — 69. 
 
 and Uncials, which till then had been the ruling forms: in the 9th they 
 were in general use, and in the 10th they were universally adopted, and 
 Capitals only employed for titles, and for distinguishing particular words. 
 — Greek, written in and since the 11th century, is in small letters. Many 
 contractions are found in Greek, written between the lOlh and 15th 
 centuries. 
 
 67. Cursive, or joined letters were formed to be easily joined together, 
 and to enable the writer to run on from letter to letter, and thus to finish 
 a word without removing the pen from the vellum, paper, or material on 
 which he was writing. As the Minuscule were formed and simplified 
 from Capitals and Uncials, for the sake of despatch and economy, so 
 Cursive letters gradually took such a shape from the Minusculte, as to 
 promote these objects in the greatest degree. Cursive is, therefore, the 
 most recent, the least exact, and the most expeditious mode of writing. 
 Specimens of a very distant approach to this union of letters may be 
 seen in inscriptions of the first century from the walls of Pompeii, given 
 in paragraphs 50, &c. 
 
 68. What has been already said, relative to the classification of MSS. 
 is rather beyond the province of this work, and to give examples of Cur- 
 sive writing from the earliest times to the discovery of printing at Haar- 
 lem, by Laurence Koster, about 1423, would lead us farther astray, we 
 therefore, leave the subject, only remarking, that to assimilate the Roman 
 letters to manuscript, Aldus Manutius, a printer at Venice, invented the 
 Italic character. He used these characters in printing about a.d. 1501. 
 This italic letter is sometimes called Aldine, from its inventor: it is 
 also denominated Cursive, from its near approach to running-hand. The 
 Italic character is only the Roman formed for the greater facility in writing, 
 as the common character now used in writing is only the Italic altered so 
 far as to admit of the letters being more easily joined together. 
 
 69. Referring to what has been advanced as to the derivation of 
 European alphabets from the Phoenician, we may conclude with Dr. 
 O'Conor, when he says — " I think that a very striking resemblance of all 
 the ancient alphabets to one another, in their order, number, powers, 
 figures, and names, supplies clear proof of a common origin ; that when 
 History lends her aid to this evidence, both mutually supporting each 
 other, both showing an antiquity approaching to the Deluge, and pointing 
 to an oriental descent, the mind is compelled to acquiesce in the scrip- 
 tural history of the origin and progress of the human race, even indepen- 
 dently of the proofs which are supplied by revelation.'' 
 
201 
 
 XV.— THE CONCLUSION. 
 
 1. Words are the creation of mind." An idea is conceived, but it is 
 invisible, and cannot be communicated, till a word is formed, by tlic 
 creative power of the human mind, to represent that idea. Words, being 
 the production of man's mind or intellect, that exalted endowment by 
 which the Creator has distinguished his vicegerent on earth, were formed 
 on reasonable principles, and they originally denoted the form, nature, or 
 property of the object designated. There was a reason then, for the 
 application of words, and that reason was seen both by those who spoke 
 and those who heard them. Words constitute the principles of Laiujnagc. 
 The high intellectual endowments of man are displayed not only in the 
 formation of words, but in connecting those words in language to express 
 all his thoughts and feelings. Who does not acknowledge the importance 
 of language! Man thinks or reflects in language, — reasons in language, 
 and tells the result of his reasoning in language. Language is the 
 medium of communicating mind to mind : it is that which binds man to 
 uian in heart and soul. The soul, though not visible, is thus audible. 
 
 2. The best proof of a close or an original connexion of nations, more 
 or less separated, is the alliance or similarity of their languages. No 
 characteristic is so marked, — no bond of union so strong, — no feeling 
 so lively and affecting as that of identity of language. The warmest 
 feelings of the heart, — the whole soul can only be communicated in one's 
 native tongue : it flows freely from the invisible fountain of a warm heart, 
 and never fails to reach and aflect it. How strong then must have been 
 the bond of union between men, when the " whole earth was of one 
 language and of one speech ! " '' 
 
 3. The cause'' which led to the dispersion of mankind need not be 
 repeated : the fact cannot be controverted. Identity of language was so 
 strong a lie, that it could not be entirely loosened by the dis])ersion. 
 Those who understood each other, separating from those they could not 
 comprehend, naturally united together " after tlieir tongues."'^ 
 
 4. The Bible, independently of its inspiration, is our earliest authentic 
 history. Though there are occasional historical notices of nations, who 
 had more or less intercourse with the Jews, yet the only direct account of 
 the dispersion of mankind is given by Moses, in the Xltli Cliapter of 
 Genesis, B.C. 2247. It was from the land of Shinar, in the southern parts 
 of Meso])otamia on the Euphrates, a little to the west of the ancient 
 Iranian or modern Persian einjiire, that men were scattered abroad " ujjou 
 the face of all the earth."" I'liere is a great and dark chasm of 18U2 
 
 * God fonnod ivcry beast of tlic field, and ivciy fowl of the air; and brought tlicin unto 
 Adam to >.t'f what he woi ld cai.i, thk.m. — GVn. II. li>. 
 
 b Gen. XI. 1. <: Sec p. 2, § .5; and p. (i, § l:J. J Sec p. rt, § 13: Gen. X. .3, 20, 31. 
 
 « Gen. XI. I,S. 
 
 c 2 
 
202 GOTHS KNOWN TO BE GERMANS BY THEIR LANGUAGE. XV. 5, 6. 
 
 years, between this authentic record of the Jewish legislator, and the 
 publication of Herodotus, the first credible heathen historian. This 
 celebrated Grecian recited his history at the Olympic games, in the year 
 445, B.C. In this dark period, and in subsequent ages, language is our 
 chief clew to guide us in discovering the connexion and migration of 
 nations. Where history is dark or contradictory, the similarity or 
 diversity of languages may often solve the difficulty. Language appears 
 to be the safer guide, for historians may be influenced by national feelings 
 or personal interest to give a biased statement, while it cannot be sup- 
 posed, that whole communities would, from such motives, change their 
 language. 
 
 5. Many examples might be produced, where an examination of 
 languages has corrected the biased record of historians. One instance 
 will suffice. Though it is an example late in date, it is best adapted to 
 our purpose, referring as it does to the Goths, an early Germanic race. 
 The Gothic historian Jornandes makes the Getse and the Goths to be the 
 same people, probably with the view of exalting his own nation by attri- 
 buting to the Goths all the glory of the Getse. Most of the writers 
 of that era followed Jornandes, and some modern historians have been 
 influenced by his authority, and the fact that Goths occupied the territory 
 previously inhabited by the Getaj. The real origin of the Goths, who 
 subjugated the Roman Empire, could not have been ascertained, if ample 
 specimens of their language had not been found in some title-deeds, and 
 in the translation of the Gospels from Greek into Gothic or old German 
 by Ulphilas. By these we learn that the Goths were not Getae or 
 Thracians and allied to the Greeks, but a Germanic race. The title-deeds 
 just mentioned have Gothic attestations written at Naples during the 
 period of Gothic influence in Italy, by Gothic priests, having Gothic 
 names : written also in the same language and character as the Gospels 
 of Ulphilas. These attestations, therefore, are the same as the translation 
 of the Gospels by Ulphilas, that is, Gothic or old German. 
 
 6. In the preceding example, the translation of Ulphilas was ascer- 
 tained to be old German by comparing the words and the grammatical 
 forms of his version, with those in the compositions of an early date, 
 known to be written by Germans. We believe, it may be safely 
 admitted, that when there is an evident analogy in grammatical forms or 
 the mechanism of language, and a close resemblance of words designating 
 the parts of the body,— family relations, — and the most palpable objects of 
 the material world,— as; head, feet, mouth, eyes, nose, ears,— mother, 
 father, brother, sister, — earth, sun, moon ; also, the numerals up to ten or 
 twenty ; verbs of the most common occurrence, such as to eat, drink, 
 sleep, see, hear; — and pronouns I, mine, me ; we, our, us, &c,, we repeat, 
 it may be admitted that languages corresponding in these particulars, 
 however diff'ering in some others, were originally one speech, the idiom 
 
 of one people.^ 
 
 f See VII. 5, 9— 12.— Z)r. Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 5. 
 6 See, Prichard's Phys. Hist. Vol. III. 9, 10 : Celtic nations, p. 10, § 3; and p. 12, 13, 
 
XV. 7, 8. EUROPEAN LANGUAGES ALLIED TO SANSCIMT AND ZEND. 203 
 
 7. Guided by the foregoing rule not only tlie Germanic and Scandi- 
 navian langnages and people, tlie Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, Flemish, Dutch, 
 Moeso-Gothic, German, — the Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, and Swe- 
 dish, — but the Celtic, and other European languages and nations arc 
 clearly traced up to the Sanscrit and its sister the Zend, which is the old 
 language of Persia, and the direct parent of the present Persian, the 
 German, and some other tongues in the north and west of Europe. 
 Following the clew which language legitimately affords, we are, after the 
 lapse of more than forty centuries, gradually led from the extreme west, till 
 we arrive nearly at the same eastern locality, which the sacred historian 
 designates the land of Shinar, from whence men were " scattered abroad." 
 By the same clew, the close alliance of the oriental languages from Persia 
 to the Ganges, may be satisfactorily traced to the Sanscrit and Zend. 
 Thus by the evidence which the analogy of languages alone affords, we 
 ascertain that all the idioms between the mouth of the Ganges on the east, 
 and the extreme parts of Europe on the west are cognate, and spread east 
 and west from a region in or near the boundary of modern Persia.'' 
 
 8. One of the most accomplished scholars, and most eminent linguists 
 of the last century, after a very close investigation, came to the conclusion 
 just expressed, relative to the centre from which the population of the 
 earth diverged. Let us observe, says Sir William Jones, the central 
 position of Iran which is bounded by Arabia, by Tartary, and by India, 
 but is remote from Tartary and divided even from the skirls of India by a 
 considerable gulf. No country, therefore, but Persia seems likely to have 
 sent forth its colonies to all the kingdoms of Asia. The Brahmans couUl 
 not have migrated from India because forbidden by their laws. Mankind 
 
 '' Dr. Prichard illustrates tliis subject more fully. — " When we survey the relative positions 
 and comj)are the piiysieal, moral, and national characters of the dili'erent families of nu'u 
 sjircad over the Great Continent of Europe and Asia in the earliest times, we are led to 
 remark a variety of phenomena wliich indicate a very aneiait separation and a stroni; 
 distinction of some of these races from others. By an attentive intpiiry into the nature of 
 these indications we are enabled to recognise traces of events, one of which is the dispersion 
 over an immense space of the nations which beloncfs to the liulo-lhirojjcan stock from somo 
 common centre, where it would ap])ear that they must have remained duriny; a lout; period 
 in juxtajjosition with each other, and, if we i^o back to still earlier times, whence they 
 originated as the branches of one primitive stem. The prineij)al ground, on which we 
 consider a common origin !)etween these (Indo-European) nations estat)lis]icd, is the near 
 and essential affinity of their languages, 'i'his extends to all the dialects spoken in the 
 countries which lie between the mnuth i>f the (iinnjis and the ejireine jiarts «/' .\orn-ai/ and 
 Ireland. There is likewise some additional cvidincc, dcri\cd I'rom other considerations, 
 which, though it would by itself be insufficient to cstai)lisli tlie fact, tends to strengthen our 
 conviction, that all the nations of this Indo-Euroj)ean group, formed as they a])]»ear to ha\e 
 been, during the early periods of their developement, in similar hahits, and ever retaining 
 a certain resemblance in tlieir social and intellectual, as well as their jihysieal character, 
 must have had one origin. The era of their dispersion must have ]treceded I)y manv ages 
 the commencement of European history, and ])erhaps of all history ]»re^ervcd liy nearly 
 contemporary records. The ])eriod, for instance, must have l)cen very remote wlirn the 
 idioms of the Hindoos, the 3Ic(les and Persians, the (Jrccks and Latins, the Letts and 
 Slaves, the Goths and Germans, the IJritons and the Gael, began to assume their peculiar 
 characters or were first developed from common elements. The original seat of the whole 
 race may be conjectured with a probability of near approxinnition t(» tlic truth. The 
 primitive j)osition of the Indo-Eunipean trii)es nnist have been some country hctween the 
 extreme points of their dispersion. it is generally inuigincd to Iiavc l)ccn witliin the 
 ancient Iranian empire." — Dr Prnhnrd's Phys. Hi>t. of mankind, ;5rd Edn. l^oiulon 1(S14. 
 Vol. IV. pp. 6U"2— 603: also, his Celtic Nations, p. IT. 
 
204 ALPHABETIC WRITING FROM THE EAST. XV. 9, 10. 
 
 emerged from Iran as from a common country : and thus, the Saxon 
 Chronicle, ' I presume on good authority, brings the first inhabitants of 
 Britain from Armenia. A very learned writer concludes, after all his 
 laborious researches, that the Goths and Scythians came from Persia. 
 Another contends, with great force, that both the Irish and old Britons 
 proceeded severally from the borders of the Caspian ; a coincidence of 
 conclusions from different media, by persons wholly unconnected, which 
 could scarcely have happened, if they were not grounded on solid prin- 
 ciples. We may therefore hold this proposition firmly established, that 
 Iran or Persia, in its largest sense, was the centre of population, of 
 Icnowledge, of languages and of arts ; which instead of travelling west- 
 ward only has expanded, in all directions, to all the regions of the 
 
 world.^ 
 
 9. Some collateral evidence of the oriental origin of European popu- 
 lation, may be gathered, from the invention of Alphabetic writing in 
 Chaldea or Assyria, and its progressive extension to the west by the 
 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans. The Phoenicians wrote in the 
 oriental manner, from right to left, and in their voyages of trading specu- 
 lations, they introduced from Asia into Greece and Italy, not only their 
 alphabet, but their mode of writing from the right. The earliest 
 specimens of this art by the inhabitants of Greece and Italy, are also 
 from the right. They wrote alternately from right to left, and left to 
 right, and subsequently adopted our present mode from the left, a know- 
 ledge of which the Romans extended with tlieir empire, to the western 
 boundaries of Europe. We, therefore, not only derived population from 
 Asia; but in after ages, we received our intellectual culture from the 
 same quarter: — the light of science and literature, — the art of writing, — 
 of communicating knowledge, and of rendering thoughts visible, passed 
 from east to west to illumine, warm, and cheer the intellectual world, as 
 the sun does the successive regions of the earths 
 
 10. The oriental origin of Europeans has been long strenuously main- 
 tained. Sir William Jones cites the Saxon Chronicle, as well as other 
 authorities to prove that the first inhabitants of Britain, or the Celts were 
 from the neighbourhood of Iran, or Armenia. From the earliest ages. 
 Authors of the greatest I'epute have, in succession, given this locality as 
 the especial source from which the Germanic nations issued. In 
 Germany this was the current opinion in the eleventh century; for in a 
 poem written in praise of St. Anno^ Archbishop of Cologne, who died 
 
 ' yErost wa^ron bugencl jjyses landes Bryttas, jia. comon of Armenia, and gesjeton 
 suSanwearde Brytene terost. First, the inhabitants of this Innd were Britons, who came from 
 Armenia, aiid first peopled Britain southn-ard. Saxon Chronicle, p. I. — Some suppose 
 Armenia to be a mistake of the scril3e for Arraorica, since Bede, in bit. I. ch. 1 of his Eccl. 
 Hist, has De tractu Armoricano, wliieh, in the Saxon translation is, Fram Armorieano jjtere 
 maegeSe. — Smith's Bede, p. 474, line 7. 
 
 J See, Sir William Jones's, Sixth Discourse to the Society at Calcutta, on the Antiquities 
 of Asia. 
 
 1^ 'I'he XIV Chapter, on the origin and progress of alphabetic writing is the substance of 
 a, longer essay on the subject. 
 
 i See Uefoi-e, in X, 21, p. 134. 
 
i XV. 11. THK ORDF.U IN WHICH EUROPE WAS TEOPLED. 205 
 
 1075, it is said, tliey "came a long time ago from noble Armenia, 
 
 tliere are men who speak German, towarjs India, a great way oti'.""° 
 
 11. As the Gothic and Scandinavian languages and nations, have been 
 traced to Iran or Persia, it may be desirable to state as briclly as possible, 
 the order in which Europe ajjpears to have been peo])led by successive 
 [ tribes from the east, and thus to ascertain the relative position of the 
 Goths and Scandinavians, and the probable time of their arrival. Ascend- 
 ing to the highest antiquity, we find in the South West, traces of the 
 Iberians or Euskarians, who ap])ear to have been a pastoral race; and in 
 the north west the Jolunes, Ugrians, or Finns. In the course of time, as 
 the Iberians were driven to the foot of the Pyrenees, or Biscay, by the 
 Celts," so the Finns were compelled to llee into the hills and fastnesses 
 of the north by the invading Scandinavians. The Celts in their turn, 
 were afterwards pushed forward to the west by succeeding Germanic 
 hordes, and these were again pressed westward by the Sclavouiaus. The 
 
 " Rhythinus de S. Annonc, Coloniense Archiepiscopo, XX, 310. 
 
 Derc gcslelite quam wilin «h-e Cujus irenus indc vcnit olim 
 
 Von Armonic der hcrin, De Armeiiiii iu)l)ili, 
 
 Del Noe dz der arkiii S't'iic:, Ubi Noe ex area ivit, 
 
 Diior diz uliziii von der tuven intfieng. Qiium oliva' folium a eolumba accepit. 
 
 Iri ceicliin noeli din arelia liavit Indieia sua adluu' area habet, 
 
 Ul'den beri^in Ararat. In niontanis Ararat. 
 
 Man saijit daz dar in halvin noch sin Dieitur, (juod ibi in suinniitatil)us montinm 
 
 Die dir Diutschin spreebin, Qui (Jermaniei- loijuantur, [adiiue sint, 
 
 Ingegin Ineia vili verro. Versus Indiani valde procul. 
 
 Schilttri Tlifsanrns, Svriis moHumcntnrum parlix sfrunihr, Tomi primi IX. p. lo. — DciUsches 
 lASflnich Von Wilhclin Wachernatjel, Tlivil \. j). ll',>, 20. 
 
 " Dr. Prichard has treated this subject more elaborately and satisfactorily, in the 
 foUowinu; quotation. — " A series of cvenis leads us back to the history of the world many 
 asjes prior to the dispersion of the Iranian nations. As the dill'ercnt oll'sets of tlic Indo- 
 llurojiean stock spread themselves in various directions and formed colonies in remote parts 
 of the world, it a])pears that they found many countries j)re\iously occupied by races of 
 ])eoi)le, who were rci^ardcd by them and looked upon themselves, as aborifiinal inhal)itants. 
 But even these earlier tribes of the remote borders of Europe and Asia, when their history, 
 manners and lani^^uai^cs are carefully examined, are found to l)ear indicati<ins of a common 
 oritfin, but of one distinct, in the sense in which we have used that ix])rcssion, from tbat of 
 the Fndo lOuropeans. In many instances we have collected proofs, more or liss decisive, of 
 their descent from the fi^reat pastoral nations of Central Asia. Thus, all the tribes belonging 
 to the i'</rian race, (Sec, Kxitlamitidn nf the Map) were sjjrcad, in remote times, over the 
 northern parts of Europe, w here under the names of Finns and Lappc.s, they oj)j)oscd the 
 progress of Gothic or (ierman tribes in the western i)arts : and where, in the east, T.sihndi'n 
 and Oiirjns, retired before the Slaves, to the northward of tlie Waldai nnuintains and to the 
 Uralian forests. 
 
 The Finnish nations were probably far spread in the north west of Europe before the 
 earliest appearance of the 'I'cutonic tribes, who concpicred and supplanted tlicm. As the 
 Cflt.t apjiarently i)rcceded the German race in advancing towards the nortii and west, it is 
 probable that tluy first came into contact and c<dlision with the Finns or the Finno Lappitnic 
 tribes. To the south-west, in (iaul and Sjiain, the Celtic invaders found the I'.uskarian 
 nations in previous possession of the country. Hetween the llirrians or Kushnrians and 
 tile northern border, which afterwards liecamc the scene of warfare lutween the (ierman 
 nations and the j-'inns, there is a wide space, and it is not likely that all tliis region was 
 found by the Celtic tribes destitute of earlier inhabitants. ^\ bo were these earlier inliabi- 
 tants, and did the Celts, or, perhaps, rather the jiriestly and military classes, who alone among 
 the Celts may have been of Indo Euroj)ean origin, exterminate tiicm or only reduce tlieni 
 to vassahu^e and ultimately form one nation with them'.' These are (juestions wliieli it is 
 ditficult to answer. We only know, that in th"- Ciltic ronntrics there always existed a hnver 
 caste, a tribe deprived of all civil rights and lookid upon as mere ser/s or slaves, while 
 among the Teutonic nations, who were of a jnire Indo llurojiean race, there n-ns perfect 
 cfiualiti/ and the people nvrc krek." — Dr. Prichard's I'hys. Hist, of Mankind, 3ra Edn. 
 l.ondob, iS41, Vol. IV. pp. (502— (JOB. 
 
206 IMMORALITY OF THE ROMANS. XV. 12. 
 
 Greeks and Romans, at an earlier date, migrated from Asia in a more 
 southerly direction. The locality'- and the nature of European languages 
 being our guide, it may probably be concluded, that Europe was, in this 
 manner, peopled by successive migration from Iran or Persia. On the 
 north are the Finnish dialects, on the west the Basque and Celtic, on the 
 South and west the Latin, and on the east the Sclavonic, in the middle 
 and most important part of Europe, we have the Germanic and Scandi- 
 navian, 
 
 12. An attempt has been made to shew the origin of Language, — that 
 it is so close a bond of union — that, even in the confusion of tongues, it 
 united men into tribes, — that it aids the Historian — for the Goths were 
 only ascertained to be Germans by their language, — that there are rules 
 in tracing the analogy of languages, by means of which the languages, 
 from the Ganges to the west of Europe, are proved to be allied to the 
 Sanscrit and Zend, and to have originated in Persia, — that the most 
 learned men, as Sir William Jones, Dr. Prichard, &c. are of this opinion, 
 — that the discovery of writing in the east, and its gradual extension to 
 the west, affords additional evidence — that the Germanic nations were 
 from Persia or Armenia, we have not only the preceding testimony but a 
 proof that it continued to be the general opinion in the eleventh and 
 subsequent centuries, — that, having traced the origin of the Germans and 
 Scandinavians to Persia, their arrival, and their relative position, will 
 appear by a reference to the order in which the different nations came 
 and settled in Europe. First, the Iberians, Finns, Celts, Greeks, and 
 Romans; then, the Gothic tribes, the Germans and Scandinavians. The 
 Germanic nations are located in the middle and most favoured, culti- 
 vated, and intellectual quarter of the world. The period of their arrival 
 cannot be ascertained with precision, but there are intimations" which 
 lead to the supposition that they were in Europe about the seventh 
 century before our Era. The time of their arrival is not of such 
 consequence as the character of this hardy race. With the name of 
 Goths has been constantly associated every species of ignorance, cruelty 
 and barbarity, without considering, that we are indebted to their descen- 
 dants for our strong bodily frame, our nervous language, our unequalled 
 freedom under our glorious constitution ; — and that they still live in our 
 popular traditions, civil institutions and perpetual discourse. But let us 
 examine the real character of the Goths, which will be most striking 
 when contrasted with that of the Romans in the latter days of the 
 empire. Its state immediately before its subversion by the Goths 
 is thus described by Salvian^ a contemporary: '"In all the cities, 
 municipia, and villages, there are as many tyrants as there are officers of 
 the government ; they devonr the bowels of the citizens, and their widows 
 and orphans; public burthens are made the means of private plunder; 
 the collection of the national revenue is made the instrument of indi- 
 
 o See I. § 23, p. 10; and Explanation of Map, V. 
 
 p Salvian, an ecclesiastic of Marseilles, in his work, De gubernafione Dei, v. Ma§^. 
 Biblioth. Patr. Vol. V. — Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p. 182—185. 
 
XV. 13. THE GOTHS INTRODUCE FREEDOM AND MORALITY. 207 
 
 vidual peculation; none are safe from the devastations of these depopu- 
 lating robbers. The public taxation is partially imposed and arbitrarily 
 levied : hence many desert their farms and duellings to escape the 
 violence of the exactors. — There is but one wish among all the Romans, 
 that they might dwell under the barbarian government. Thus our 
 brethren not only refuse to leave these nations for tlieir own, but tliey llv 
 from us to them. Can we then wonder tliat the Goths are not conquered 
 by us, when the people would rather become Goths with thcin than 
 Romans with us.'"' The immoral and profligate state of the Roman 
 cities will be best described by the same eye witness. " He saw them 
 full of the most dissolute luxury, and of the foulest vices and debauchery. 
 It was even the fashion for the men to dress themselves as women, and 
 to pass for such. In this state of evil, the Goths and Vandals like a 
 torrent, over-ran the Roman Empire and settled in their cities and 
 towns: their speedy corruption was anticipated in a population so aban- 
 doned ; but, to the astonishment of the empire, instead of degenerating 
 into the universal depravity, they became its moral reformers. The 
 luxuries and vices that surrounded them, excited their disgust and 
 abhorrence. Their own native customs were so modest, that instead of 
 imitating they despised, and punished with all their fierce severity, the 
 impurities they witnessed. They made adultery a capital crime, and so 
 sternly punished personal debauchery, that a great moral change took 
 place in all the provinces they conquered." We may, therefore, well 
 conclude with the author of the Spirit of Laws ; — " What ougiit to 
 recommend the Germanic race beyond every people upon earth, is, that 
 they afforded the great resource to the liberty of Europe, that is, to 
 almost all the liberty that is among men. Jornandes, the Goth, calls the 
 north of Europe ' The Forge of ^Mankind,' — I should rather call it, the 
 forge of those instruments which broke the fetters manufactured in the 
 South. It was there, those valiant nations were bred, who left their 
 native climes to destroy tyrants and liberate slaves, and to teach men 
 that nature having made them equal, no reason could be assigned for 
 their becoming dependent, but their mutual happiness." — Under the in- 
 fluence of these noble feelings, and of this genuine freedom, has been 
 educated a race most energetic, reflective, and persevering, with a 
 corporeal frame the most dignified and perfect, and with the fullest 
 developement of all the mental faculties. To tliem numy valual)le inven- 
 tions owed their origin : we only name Printing, — the discovery of tlie 
 mighty power of Steam, and its application to the arts, and to speed in 
 navigation, as well as on railways ; — and, besides many others, the dis- 
 covery of Gas, and its adaptation to the use and comfort of man. 
 
 13. The English are an oflset from this influential and distinguished 
 race. The Angles and Saxons bore the chief and leading part in the 
 expedition to Britain, all tlic confederate tribes were, therefore, denomi- 
 nated Anglo-Saxons.' The Angles predominated, and time has done 
 
 1 Salvian : p. 89, 91, 92. ' See, III, ) , 4, 5, 6. 
 
208 ENGLISH INFLUENCE AND EXTENT OF LANGUAGE. XV. 13. 
 
 them ample justice; for, while the name of Saxons has either completely 
 disappeared, or has only a faint vestige in such words as Essex, Middle- 
 sex, &c., the name of the Angles (Engle) is still embodied in England' 
 and Englishmen, and is in full vigour and known from pole to pole. The 
 power and influence of England are felt in every quarter of the world. 
 Her vast colonial possessions extend to every region of the earth, and so 
 widely is her language spread, that the sun ever shines on some favoured 
 land where English is spoken. If population increase at its present 
 mighty ratio, in America, in Australia, in the East, and in South Africa, 
 as well as in our other colonies, English will probably, in a few centuries, 
 be spoken by one fourth of the human race. This extensive sway, and 
 increasing use of our language seem to have been permitted by Pro- 
 vidence, that the most distant lands might freely participate in the 
 religious and civil privileges, England so fully enjoys. However the 
 mind may be clouded by superstition, and degraded by the dominion of 
 animal passions, man still retains the impress of his high origin ; — a 
 divine principle is within him, — a mind capable of communion with that 
 eternal Being, in whose image he was formed. Deeply convinced of this, 
 and that the truths of Revelation are not only the source of all morality 
 and social order, but the most powerful means of expanding and elevating 
 the mental powers, — for Revelation is only another name for the perfec- 
 tion of reason, — the benevolent have formed Societies,' for sending to the 
 heathen the heralds of salvation, to teach those scriptural principles, which 
 must convince men that they are born, and are living for eternity, — that, 
 hereafter, they will be rewarded according to their works. This gene- 
 rates that steady and reflective state of mind, and that quiet perseverance 
 by which the treasures of nature are drawn forth to supply their physical 
 wants, and to administer to their comforts. Thus Religion evidently 
 raises men, in this world, into a superior state of existence and of social 
 happiness. The extended influence and the nervous language of England, 
 cannot, then, be better employed than in proclaiming, to the utmost parts 
 of her dominions, the glad tidings of salvation, — in re-echoing, as a mes- 
 senger of heaven, — "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, 
 good will toward men." 
 
 ^ Eugla laud, the Angles' or Engles' land. See III, § 6 ; and Explanation of Map, V. 
 
 t The first of these was The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 
 incorporated by Royal Charter in 170 1. All the ordinances of religion, in their fuU integ- 
 rity, have been happily communicated to many of our colonies by means of a well-devised 
 and efficient plan, proposed in 1841 for raising a fund, " by voluntary contribution, for the 
 endowment of Bishoprics in the Colonies, and distant dependences of the British Crown." 
 
 THE END. 
 
 W. UEARDEX, PRINTER, CARLTON STREET, NOTTINGHAM. 
 
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