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 A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE; 
 
 IN WHICH 
 
 ITS F0E3IS AEE ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BT THOSE OF THE 
 
 SANSKRIT, GREEK, LATIN, GOTHIC, OLD SAXON, OLD FRIESIC, 
 OLD NORSE, AND OLD HIGH -GERMAN. 
 
 By FEANCIS A. MARCH, LL.D., 
 
 PEOFESSOE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPAEATIVB PHILOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE 
 COLLEGE, ACTUOE OF " METHOn OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 187 I.
 
 ^//^. 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year i86g, by 
 
 FRANCIS A. MARCH, 
 
 In tlie Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of 
 
 Pennsylvania.
 
 \3\ 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon language has been studied at Lafayette 
 College for many years in the light of modern philology. It 
 seemed necessary to print, for the use of its students, general 
 laws of phonology and syntax, with tables of analogous para- 
 digms, prefixes, sufiixes, and idioms. In preparing this outline 
 for the press, love of the work has led me to fill it up into a 
 Comparative Grammar. Other Comparative Grammars have 
 discussed several languages, each for the illustration of all, and 
 of language in general ; this book is an Anglo-Saxon Gram- 
 mar, and uses forms of other tongues and general laws of lan- 
 guage only so far as they illustrate the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 The hope has, however, been cherished that the methods of 
 Comparative Grammar might be exemplified more fully than 
 they have yet been for our students, in connection with the 
 early forms of our mother tongue, and that in this way the 
 Anglo-Saxon might be associated with the modern Science of 
 Language, and share its honors. 
 
 If this hope should be answered, the book may serve as an 
 introduction to the masters in whose light it has grown up — 
 to Jacob GEiiiir, the greatest genius among the grammarians, 
 whose imagination and heart are as cpiick as his reason and 
 industry, and make his histories of speech as inspiring as poet- 
 ry — to Francis Bopp, impersonation of pure science, who never 
 spreads his wings, but who pursues his thread of thought with 
 unfailing sagacity till he loses it in the islands of the Pacific 
 — to Geokge Curtius, master of the new and the old, surest 
 and safest of guides — to Pott — to Kuun and his collaborators. 
 Special students of Anglo-Saxon must spend their days and 
 nights with GREiisf, whose Glossary of Anglo-Saxon Poetry 
 first made possible a thorough treatment of its grammar, and 
 to whom this work is every where indebted. Maetzner, and 
 KocHj and IIeyne liavc also been my constant companions. 
 
 1839133
 
 iv PREFACE. 
 
 Schleicher, Rumpelt, and IIoltzman I have used most in 
 phonology and etymology, Becker in syntax. 
 
 There are a good many Anglo-Saxon Grammars. The Lat- 
 in Grammar of -Cleric, written in Anglo-Saxon, is a valuable 
 Anglo-Saxon Grammar, Other grammars, to the time of Rask, 
 are mainly arrangements of the declensions and inflections on 
 the ground of external resemblances, with outlines of syntax. 
 Some of them are learned works. Rask classified on the basis 
 of the supposed stems, but with mistaken views. The real re- 
 lations of the Anglo-Saxon inflections were fixed by Bopp in 
 fixing those of the Gothic. In German, Anglo-Saxon has a 
 place in the Comparative Grammars of Grimm, Heyne, and 
 others, and in the great English Grammars of Maetzner and 
 Koch. The English still use Rask ; Hadley, in "Webster's Dic- 
 tionary, goes with Grimm. It is pleasant to remember that 
 1^ Jefferson, who started this study in our colleges in his Uni- 
 vei^ity"o"f Virginia, made an Anglo-Saxon Grammar. 
 
 Labor has not been spared to fit this book for use. The ex 
 amples have been translated; the citations made easy to verify; 
 leading rules and groups of facts have been brought together; 
 indexes have been made ; the resources of the printer freely 
 used to make every thing distinct. Paradigms and the histor- 
 ical discussion of them are kept on opposite pages, so that they 
 may lie before the eye together. The type has sometimes been 
 varied for that purpose, and spaces filled with matter not strict- 
 ly in the plan, such as the changes from Anglo-Saxon to En- 
 glish. 
 
 I wish to thank William G. MEDLicoTT,Esq., of Longmeadow, 
 • Massachusetts ; he let me take from his precious collection, and 
 use at my o^^ti home, Anglo-Saxon texts not elsewhere to be 
 had for love or money. And, finally, all those who find this 
 book of value should join me in thanks to the Trustees and 
 Faculty of Lafayette College, who were the first to unite 
 in one Professorship the study of the English language and 
 Comparative Philology, and who have set apart time for these 
 studies, and funds for the necessaiy apparatus to pursue them. 
 
 Frakcis a. March. 
 
 Easton, October 25, 1 809.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 S«tion 
 
 1, IxTRODUCTiox — Historical. 
 
 Page 
 . 1 
 
 PARI" I. 
 
 PHONOLOGY. 
 
 Section Page 
 
 General View. 
 
 10. Alphabet 4 
 
 13. Punctuation 5 
 
 14. Sounds 5 
 
 15. Accent 6 
 
 16. Classes of Vowels C 
 
 1 7. Classes of Consonants 7 
 
 18. Indo-European Vowel System.. 8 
 
 19. Consonant System 8 
 
 20. Changes of Sound 9 
 
 20. Laws of Letter Change 10 
 
 Special Discussions. 
 
 21. Classic Anglo-Saxon 11 
 
 22. Voice 11 
 
 23. Vowels — Anglo-Saxon 11 
 
 26. Northumbrian 14 
 
 27. Consonants — Anglo-Saxon 15 
 
 31. Northumbrian 18 
 
 Variatiox. 
 
 32. Euphonic Changes 19 
 
 .32. Umlaut 19 
 
 33. Breaking 20 
 
 34. Assibilation 20 
 
 Section Papj 
 
 35. Assimilation 22 
 
 36. Dissimilation 24 
 
 37. Compensation 25 
 
 Accentual Changes. 
 
 38. Gravitation 2G 
 
 38. Progression 2G 
 
 38. Precession 26 
 
 39. Ablaut 28 
 
 40. Mimetic Changes 28 
 
 EtjTnologic Changes. 
 
 41. Shifting 28 
 
 Figuration*. 
 
 43. Aphieresis SO 
 
 44. Apocope 31 
 
 45. Elision 31 
 
 46. Syncope 31 
 
 47. Ecthlipsis 31 
 
 48. Prothesis 31 
 
 49. Epithesis 31 
 
 50. Epenthesis 31 
 
 51. Metathesis 32 
 
 Contraction. 
 
 52. SynjEresis 32 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 .IS. Definitions 33 
 
 59. Classification 34 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 60. Case Endings .34 
 
 64. Declension 3G 
 
 67. Gender 37 
 
 Strong Nouns. 
 69. Declension 1. 38
 
 VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 ^'ection 
 
 88. 
 
 'J I. 
 
 rage 
 
 Declension 2 44 
 
 Ueclcnsion o 48 
 
 Northumbrian 41) 
 
 Weak Nouns. 
 
 P5. Declension 4 50 
 
 Northumbrian /< 1 
 
 100. Irregular Nouns r>2 
 
 101. TroperNames 54 
 
 102. Decay of Case Endings 55 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 104. Declension Indefinite 50 
 
 1 05. Declension Definite 58 
 
 106. Varying Forms 58 
 
 119. Participles CI 
 
 121. Northumbrian CI 
 
 132 Comparison C2 
 
 130. Pronocxs GO 
 
 138. Numerals 73 
 
 Verb. 
 
 149. Definitions 77 
 
 157. 
 158. 
 1.59. 
 1G0. 
 IGl. 
 1G2. 
 
 227. 
 228. 
 230. 
 231. 
 240. 
 24G. 
 251. 
 
 Conjugations: 78 
 
 From_A.blaut 79 
 
 From Contraction 80 
 
 From Composition 81 
 
 Tense Stems 82 
 
 Mode Suffixes 82 
 
 Section 
 
 1G3. 
 
 IGl. 
 1G9. 
 172. 
 173. 
 173. 
 176. 
 177. 
 178. 
 
 183. 
 
 187. 
 188. 
 189. 
 190. 
 
 191. 
 192. 
 197. 
 198. 
 199. 
 212. 
 225. 
 22C. 
 
 Derivation, 
 
 Definitions 118 253. 
 
 Suffixes 119 253. 
 
 Stems by Variation 122 2G0. 
 
 Formation of Substantives .... 123 262. 
 
 Adjectives 125 2G3. 
 
 A'erb . 12G 2G4. 
 
 Adverb 128 2G8. 
 
 Personal Endings 82 
 
 Paradi'jms. 
 Strong Verb. 
 
 Indicative Tenses 82 
 
 Subjunctive Tenses 8G 
 
 Imperative 8S 
 
 Infinitive 88 
 
 Participle 88 
 
 Potential 88 
 
 Other Periphrastic 89 
 
 Passive Voice 90 
 
 Weak Verb. 
 
 Active Voice 92 
 
 Passive Voice 91 
 
 Varying Presents 94 
 
 Syncopated Imperfects 95 
 
 Syncopated Participle 95 
 
 Weak and Strong. 
 
 Umlaut in the Present 96 
 
 Assimilation 96 
 
 Varying Imperfects 98 
 
 Summary of Variations 98 
 
 Table of Varying Verbs 99 
 
 Irregular Verbs 112 
 
 Northumbrian 117 
 
 Weathering of Endings 118 
 
 Preposition 130 
 
 Particles 132 
 
 Conjunctions 133 
 
 Interjections 133 
 
 Composition 134 
 
 Forms to express Gender 135 
 
 PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX 
 
 272. Simple Combinations 137 
 
 278. Sentences, Clauses 139 
 
 285. Figures of Syntax 141 
 
 Nouns. 
 Uses of Case Endings. 
 
 286. Agreement 142 297. 
 
 288. Nominative 144 302. 
 
 289. Vocative 144 .301. 
 
 290. 
 293. 
 295. 
 
 Accusative : 
 
 In Objective Combinations... 145 
 
 In Quasi-predicative 147 
 
 In Adverbial 148 
 
 Dative : 
 
 In Objective Combinations. ... 148 
 In Adverbial Combinations... 151 
 In Quasi-predicative 152
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section 
 
 306. 
 
 310. 
 314. 
 315. 
 322. 
 
 327. 
 330. 
 
 301. 
 362. 
 
 366. 
 367. 
 368. 
 374. 
 377. 
 379. 
 386. 
 393. 
 395. 
 399. 
 
 401. 
 
 Page 
 
 Instrumental 153 
 
 Genitive : 
 
 In Attributive Combinations.. 153 
 
 In Predicative Combinations. . 1 55 
 
 In Objective Combinations 155 
 
 In Adverbial Combinations... 158 
 Uses of Prepositions. 
 
 Eules 158 
 
 Table of. 159 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Agreement 172 
 
 Strong or Weak 173 
 
 Pkonouns. 
 
 Personal 174 
 
 Possessive 175 
 
 Article 175 
 
 Demonstratives 177 
 
 Interrogative 178 
 
 Relative 178 
 
 Indefinite 180 
 
 Numerals 181 
 
 Adverbs 182 
 
 Particles 184 
 
 Verbs. 
 Uses of the Verb Forms. 
 Agreement 185 
 
 Section 
 
 406. Kinds of Verbs 
 
 407. Voice 
 
 411. Tense 
 
 Mode : 
 
 420. Indicative 
 
 421. Subjunctive 
 
 In Subordinate Clauses, 
 
 422. By Attraction 
 
 423. In Substantive Clauses..., 
 
 427. In Adjective Clauses , 
 
 428. In Adverbial Clauses 
 
 435. Potential 
 
 444. Imperative 
 
 445. Infinitive 
 
 450. Gerund 
 
 455. Participles 
 
 460. Verbals , 
 
 461. Interjections - 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 402. Co-ordinate 
 
 467. Subordinate : 
 
 468. In Substantive Clauses 
 
 470. In Adjective Clauses 
 
 471. In Adverbial Clauses 
 
 478. Conjunctions omitted 
 
 482. Principal Rules of Syntax . .. 
 
 Vll 
 
 PagB 
 
 186 
 
 187 
 187 
 
 190 
 
 191 
 
 191 
 192 
 193 
 193 
 195 
 190 
 197 
 198 
 200 
 201 
 202 
 
 202 
 205 
 206 
 207 
 207 
 208 
 209 
 
 arrangement. 
 
 483. General Laws 214 
 
 484. Predicative Combinations 214 
 
 487. Attributive Combinations 216 
 
 491. Objective Combinations 218 
 
 493. Adverbial Combinations 219 
 
 Clauses : 
 
 495. Co-ordinate 220 
 
 495. Subordinate 220 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 496. Rhythm 222 
 
 498. Feet 222 
 
 499. Verse 222 
 
 501. Caesura 223 
 
 502. Rime 223 
 
 503. Alliteration 223 
 
 509. Common Narrative Verse 225 
 
 511. Riming Verses 226 
 
 512. Long Narrative Verse 227 
 
 514. Alliterative Prose 228 
 
 Indexes of Words and Subjects 229
 
 ANGLO-SAXON TEXTS 
 
 CITED IN THIS WORK, AVITH THE LESS OBVIOUS ABBRE- 
 VIATIONS. 
 
 Adrianus and Ritheus, Ettmiiller, 30. 
 
 jEdeUrirht, jEdelred, jEdelstdn, Alfred, LL., 
 Laws in Schmid. 
 
 JEdeUt&n, Alfred, verses about, Grein, i., 
 352, 35T. 
 
 jElfric, Grammar, in Somner's Dictionary. 
 
 jElfric, Colloquy, in Ttiorpe's Analecta. 
 
 Alniosen, Grein, ii.,350=;Religious Poem, Ex. 
 46T. 
 
 Analecta Aiigh-Saxmiica. B.Thorpe. Lon- 
 don, 1S46. 
 
 Andreds, Grein, ii., 9 ; Verc, i., 1. 
 
 Apollonms of Tyre. B. Thorpe. London, 
 1834. 
 
 Azarias, Grein, i., 115 ; Ex. 1S5. 
 
 St. B. = St, Basil, Hexamerou. Kev. H. W. 
 Norman. London, 1S49. 
 
 Bid. = Beda, Ilistoriae ecclesiast. Anglorum. 
 Smith. Cantab., 1T22. 
 
 Bid. ^= Beda, Historic ecclesiast. Anglorum. 
 Whelocus. Cantab., 1644. 
 
 B.=-Beovmlf, Grein, i., 255. 
 
 JSo«f.=Boe</«'M.sdeConsolationePhilosophiae. 
 Cardale. London, 1829. JWet. =;Metra in 
 Grein. 
 
 BotHchaft des Gemahls, GveiD,i., 246 = Frag- 
 ments, Ex. 472-475. 
 
 Bijrhtnoth, Grein, i., 343. 
 
 C.=Caed7non. One figure denotes the line in 
 Grein ; two, the page and line in Thorpe. 
 London, 1832. 
 
 Ch.=Chaucer. Wright. Percy Society. Lon- 
 don, 1847. 
 
 Ckrint (Cynewulf's), Grein, 149 = To Jesus 
 Christ, Ex. 1-103. 
 
 CAr. = Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon. B. Thorpe. 
 London, 1S61. 
 
 Cnut, LL. Laws in Schmid. 
 
 Codex Diplomatieim An^i.-Hax. J. M. Kem- 
 ble, for the English Historical Society. C 
 vols. Loudini, 1839-1848. 
 
 Codex Exoniensia. B. Thorpe, for the Society 
 of Antiquaries of London. London, 1842. 
 
 Codex Vercellensis. J. M. Kemble, for the ^El- 
 fric Society. London, 1843-56. 
 
 Colloquium. JEUric, in Thorpe's Analecta. 
 
 Crseftds 7nanj!(J, Grein, i., 204 = On the En- 
 dowments and Pursuits of men, Ex. 293. 
 
 C&dhert, Thorpe's Analecta, .Vi ; Hom., ii., 
 132. 
 
 Cyrus, Thorpe's Analecta, 88 ; Oros., ii., 4, 5. 
 
 Daniel, Grein, i., 94. 
 
 Deiirs Klape, Grein, i., 249=Dcor the Scald's 
 
 Complaint, Ex. 377. 
 Deuteronomy, Thwaites. 
 
 Domes dxg, Grein, i., 195=The Day of Judg- 
 ment, Ex. 445. 
 Durham Book. See Xorthumbrian. 
 
 Eddfjdr, Eddmund, Eddwine, LL. Laws in 
 Schmid. 
 
 Eddgdr, Eddmund, Poems, Grein, i., 355. 
 
 Ecnbert, Confessionale et Poenitentiale, in 
 Laws of England. B. Thorpe, for the Rec- 
 ord Commission, 1840. 
 
 Elene, Grein, ii., 105 ; Vera, ii., 1. 
 
 Ettmiiller, Ang.-Sax. poetse atque scriptorea 
 prosaici. Quedl. et Lipsise, 1850. 
 
 Ex.=iCodex Exoniensis, page and line. 
 
 Exod,::=Exodus, Thwaites. 
 
 Feeder Idrcpidds, Grein, ii., 347=A Father's 
 
 Instruction, Ex. 300. 
 Fata Apostolorum, Grein, ii., 7 ; Verc, ii., 94. 
 De Fide Catholica, Thorpe's Analecta, 03 ; 
 
 Horn., i., 274. 
 Pinnsburg Ueberfall in, Grein, i., 341. 
 
 Genesii, Thwaites. 
 
 Gnomici versus, Grein, ii., 339, 346. 
 
 Grein, Bibliothek der angelsiichsischen poc- 
 sie in kritisch bearbeiteten Texten und mit 
 vollstiindigem Glossar herausgegeben von 
 C. W. M. Grein, Dr. Phil. Cassel and Goet- 
 tingcn, 1857-1864. 
 
 Graff, E. G., Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz, 
 etymol. und grammatisch bearbeitet. Ber- 
 lin, 1834+. 
 
 St. Gregorius, Thorpe's Analecta, 44 ; Horn., 
 ii., 116. 
 
 Gnd.=GMl&c, Grein, ii., 71=The Legend of 
 St. Guthlac, Ex. 104, 107. 
 
 Sf. G.=Life of Guthlac. Goodwin. London, 
 1848. 
 
 neptateuch, Thwaites. 
 
 Uickcs, Ling.Vett. Septentrionalium Thesau- 
 rus. Oxon., 1703-1705. 
 
 Hlodare, LL. Laws in Schmid. 
 
 Hollenfahrt, Chri.tti, Grein, i., 191=The Har- 
 rowing of Hell, Ex. 4.'>9. 
 
 JJom.=Homilies of .^Elfric. B. Thorpe, for 
 the .(Elfric Society. London, 1844. 
 
 Hymns, Grein, ii., 280. 
 
 Ine, LL. Laws in Schmid. 
 
 i/o6, Thwaites; Horn., ii., 446. 
 
 John, Thiu'pe or Northumbrian. 
 
 Josue, Thwaites. 
 
 Judith, Grein, i., 120 ; Thwaites ; Thorpe's 
 
 Analecta, 141 ; il^ttmiillcr, 140. 
 Juliana, Grein, ii., 62 ; Ex. 242.
 
 Klaije dcr Fmu, Grcin, i., 245=Thc Exile's 
 
 Complaint, Ex. 441. 
 Klipstein, L. F., Analecta Ang.-Sax. 2 vols. 
 
 New York, 1S66. 
 Kveia, Das heiligc, Grein, ii., 14.3:=The Holy 
 
 Kood.Verc, ii., 815. 
 
 Layamon, Brut Madden. 3 vols. London, 
 1S47. 
 
 LL.z=Laws in Sclnnui, q. v., or Thorpe. An- 
 cient Laws and Institutes of England, etc. 
 2 vols. For the Kecord Commission, 1840. 
 
 Lcechdoms, etc. Rev. O. Cockayne. 3 vols. 
 London, 1864-66. 
 
 Bi mannii Im.^e, Grein, ii., 142=:A Fragment, 
 moral and religious, Verc, ii., 79. 
 
 Leo, H., Alt- una Angelsiichsische Sprach- 
 proben. Halle, 1838. 
 
 Luc=Lc.=Luke. Thorpe or Northumbrian. 
 
 Mrc. =Marc. Thorpe or Northumbrian. 
 
 Matthew. Thorpe, North., or Kemble. Cam- 
 bridge, 1S5S. 
 
 llenologium, Grein, ii., 1, or Hickes. 
 
 J/cf.=Alfred's Meters of Boethius, Grein, Ii., 
 295. 
 
 3[6d mannd, Grein, i., 210=Monitory Poem, 
 Ex. 313. 
 
 Seat, St., Life of, in the Hist, and Antiq. of 
 Eynesbury and St. Neot's. G. C. Gorham, 
 London, 1820. 
 
 j^'icodevnis, Gospel of, Thwaites's Hepta- 
 teuch. 
 
 Northumbrian Gospels. C. G. Bouterwek. 
 Gutersloh, 185T. Surtees, 1854-1863. 
 
 Numbers, Thwaites. 
 
 Orm.^Ormulum, K. M. White. 2 vols. Ox- 
 ford, 1852. 
 Oros.=^0rosiiis, Bosworlh. London, 1859. 
 
 Panther, Grein, 1., 233 ; Ex. 355. 
 
 Pharao, Grein, ii., 350=A Fragment, Ex. 468. 
 
 Phoenix, Grein, i., 215; Ex. 19T. 
 
 Psalms, Grein, ii., 147. 
 
 Thorpe. Oxonii, 1835. 
 
 Spelman. Londini, 1640. 
 
 Surtees Society. London, 1843-44. 
 P. T. S.=Popular Treatises of Science. T. 
 Wright. London, 1841. 
 
 R. (?.=Robcrt of Gloucester. Th. Heamc. 
 
 London, 1810. 
 liebhuhn, Grein, i., 237 = A Fragment, Ex. 
 
 365. 
 Reimlied, Grein, ii., 137=Riming Poem, Ex. 
 
 352. 
 Riehthofen, K. von., Altfriesisches Wijrter- 
 
 buch. Goettiugeu, 1840. 
 Riddles =z liaetsel, Grein, ii., 369; Ex.470, 
 
 etc. 
 Rierjer, Alt- uud angelsiichsisches Lesebuch. 
 
 Giesseu, 1861. 
 Ruine, Grein, i., 248=The Ruin, Ex. 476. 
 Runenlied, Grein, ii., 351. 
 
 Salomon und Saturn, Grein, ii, 354; J. M. 
 
 Kemble, for the iElfric Society. London, 
 
 1848. 
 Satan (Crist und Satan), Grein, i., 129. 
 Schmui, Die Gesetze der Augelsachseu. Leip- 
 zig, 1858. 
 Screadunga Ang.-Sax., K. G. Bouterwek. El- 
 
 berfeldte, 185S. 
 Seafarer (Seefahrer), Grein, i., 241, Ex. 306. 
 Seelen, Reden der, Grein, i., 198=:A departed 
 
 Soul's address to the Body, Ex. 367. 
 Somner, Dictionarium Sax.-Lat.-Angl. Ac- 
 
 cesserunt jElfriei abbatis grammatica Lat.- 
 
 Sax. Oxonii, 1659. 
 St. B.—St. Basil. See Basil. 
 St. G. See Guthldc. 
 
 Thorpe, B., The Anglo-Saxon version of the 
 
 Holy Gospels. London, 1842. See also 
 
 Analecta and LL. 
 Thwaites, Edw., Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et 
 
 evangelium Nicodemi, Historiaj Juditli 
 
 fragmentum. Oxonias, 1698. 
 Traveler's Song—V Idsid— The Scop's Tale, 
 
 Grein, i., 251, Ex. 318. 
 
 Vercellensis Codex. See Codex Verc. 
 
 Mannii pyrde, Grein, i., 207=On the various 
 Fortunes of Men, Ex. 327. 
 
 Walfisch, Grein, i., 235-Wbale, Ex. 360. 
 Wanderer, Grein, i., 2ob ; Ex. 286. 
 ir;d= Vidsid. See Traveler's Song. 
 Wuivier der Kchr'ipfung, Grein, i., 213 = The 
 Wonders of the Creation, Ex. 346. 
 
 V prefixed, marks a root ; — prefixed, marks a suffix; -suffixed, marks a prefix or stem; 
 -(- suffixed to the number of a page or section means and the following, elsewhere -\- means 
 torji'ther icith; < or > is placed between two words when one is derived from the other, 
 the angle pointing to the derived word : < may be read .from, > tohence; = means equiv- 
 alent tn; : means akin to; over words indicates that they are to be treated in some re- 
 spect as one. 
 
 LANGUAGES OFTENEST MENTIONED. See page 3. 
 
 yl .-.?.=Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 Friesic. 
 
 German. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 //.—High. 
 
 Indo-European. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 /:,.=Low. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Lettic. 
 
 Lithuanic. 
 
 >f.=Middle. 
 
 Norman. 
 
 Norse. 
 
 0.=01d. 
 
 O. Fri^s.=0]d Friesic. 
 
 0. H. G.=01d High German. 
 
 O. A'.=01d Norse. 
 
 O. S.=01d Saxon. 
 
 P. /S'.=Parent Speech. 
 
 Romaic. 
 
 Romanic. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Scandinavian. 
 
 Semi-Saxon. 
 
 Slavonic. 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Welsh.
 
 GRAMMATICAL HELPS 
 
 JE? /Vic.— Grammar, lu Somner's Dictionary. 
 
 Becker, K. F.— Organism. Fraiikf. a. M., 1841. 
 
 Benfey, T/j. — Gnechieches Wurzellexikou. 
 Berlin, 1839, 1842. 
 
 Benfey, Tfu — Sanskrit Grammar. London 
 and Berlin, 1863. 
 
 Bopp, F. — Vergleichende Grammatik. 2 
 Ausgabe. Berlin, 1857-61. 
 
 Bopp, F. — Glossarium Sanscritum. Ed. ter- 
 tia. Berlin, ISO". 
 
 Boswsrth, J.— The Elements of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Grammar. London, 1823. 
 
 Bosworth, J. — A Dictionary of the Ang.-Sas. 
 Lanraage, etc., etc., with the Essentials of 
 Anglo-Saxon Grammar. London, 1838. 
 
 Bouterwek, K. W. — Die Vier Evangelien in 
 alt-nordhumbrischer Sprache. Giitersloh, 
 1857. The Introduction has a learned dis- 
 cussion of the Northumbrian dialect. 
 
 Child, F. G.— Observations on the Langna2:e 
 of Chaucer and Gower. Mem. Amer. Acacf., 
 1862,1866, and in Ellis's Early English Pro- 
 nunciation. London, 1809. 
 
 Corssen, ir.— Kritische Beitrage zur lat For- 
 menlehre. Leipzig, 1S63. 
 
 Corssen, W. — Ueber Aussprache, Vokalismus 
 und Betonuug der lat. Sprache. Leipzig, 
 1859. 
 
 Crosby, .4.— Greek Grammar. 4th edition. 
 Boston, 1848. 
 
 Ciirtitis, Georg. — Grundziige der griechischen 
 Etymologic. 2 Auflage. Leipzig, 1860. 
 
 Curtiita, Oeorg. — De Nomiuum Griecorum 
 formatione. Berlin, 1842. 
 
 Curtius, Georg. — Griechische Schulgramma- 
 tik. 7 Auflage. Prague, 1866. 
 
 De Vere, M. Scheie. — Outlines of Comp. Phil. 
 N.Y.,1853. Studies in English. N.Y.,1866. 
 
 Diefenbachj L. — Vergleichendes Worterbuch 
 der gothischen Sprache. Frankfurt a. M., 
 1851. 
 
 Dietrich, Prof. Fr., in Hanpt's Zeitschrift. 
 
 JXez, F. — Grammatik der Romauischen Spra- 
 chen. Bonn, 1856-1860. 
 
 Ektob, Elizabeth.— The Rudiments of Gram- 
 mar for the Euglish-Saxon Tongue, first 
 given in English, etc., etc. London, 1715. 
 
 EttniUller, L.— Lexicon Auglosaxonicum cum 
 
 8YN0P8I OKAMMATICA. Quedllub. Ct LipS., 
 
 1851. 
 Fowler,W. C. —The English Language. N. 
 
 Y., 1864. 
 Orein, C. W. M. — Sprachschatz der angel- 
 
 eiichsischen Dichter. Cassel and Gottin- 
 
 gen, 1861-1864. 
 Grein,C.W.M.—k'b\!i\\t, Reduplication, etc. 
 
 Cassel and Giittingen, 1S62. 
 Grimm, ^.—Deutsche Grammatik. Gottin- 
 
 gen, 1819-1840. 
 Grimm, ^A— Gesch. der deutschen Sprache, 
 
 Leipzig, 1853. 
 Guent, ^.—English Rhythms. Lond., 1838. 
 Uadley, J. — A Greek Grammar for Schools 
 
 and Colleges. New York, 1864. 
 Uadley, J.— A brief History of the English 
 
 Language, in Webster's Dictionary, edition 
 
 of 1S65. 
 JIaldeman, S. S. — Analytic Orthography. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1860. 
 
 Uarkncss, A.~A Latin Grammar for Schools 
 and Colleges. New York, 1SG5. 
 
 Haupt, Jf.— Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Alter- 
 thum. Leipzig, 1841+. 
 
 Uei/ne, JIf.— Kurtze Laut- und Flexionslehre 
 der altgermanischen Sprachstiimme. Pa- 
 derborn, 1802. 
 
 Ilickes, G. — InstitutionesGrammaticas Anglo- 
 Saxonicse et McEso-Gothicae. Oxonioe, 1088. 
 
 Iloltzman, A.— Veher den Umlaut. Carls- 
 ruhe, 1843. 
 
 Holtzman, A. — VeheT den Ablaut. Carls- 
 ruhe, 1844. 
 
 Klipstein, L. F.—A Grammar of the xVnglo- 
 Saxon Language. New York, 1853. 
 
 Koch, C. !<'.— Historische Grammatik der eu- 
 glischen Sprache. Weimar; 1863 ; Cassel 
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 Kuhii, Adalb. — Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende 
 Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete des 
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 Berlin, 1S52-|-. 
 
 Kuhn, Adalb. — Beitr.age zur vergleichendeu 
 Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der ari- 
 schen, celtischen, und slawischen Sprachen, 
 herausgegeben von Kuhn uud Schleicher. 
 Berlin, 1868-t-. 
 
 Latham, B. &'.— The English Language. 4th 
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 Liming, H. —Die Edda. Mit altnordischer 
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 Maetzner, iTd. —Englische Grammatik. Ber- 
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 Marsh, G. P. — The English Language and its 
 early Literature. New York, 1862. 
 
 Massmann, U. F. — Ulfilas. Mit spraehlehrc, 
 etc. Stutt<rardt, 1857. 
 
 Meyer, Leo.— Vergleichende Grammatik der 
 griechischen uud lateinischen Sprache. 
 Berlin, 1861-1865. 
 
 Mailer, Max. — Lectures on the Science of 
 Language. London, 1S61. 
 
 Mailer, Max. — Second Series. London, 1S04. 
 " " A Sanskrit Grammar for Be- 
 giuucrs. London, 1866. 
 
 Pott, A. J*. — Etymologische ForschuuMU 
 auf dem Gebiete der Indo-GermauiscEeu 
 Sprachen. Lemgo, 1833+. 
 
 Ra.sk, Erasmtt-s. — A Grammar of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Tongue, etc. Transl. from the Dan- 
 ish by B. Thorpe. Copenhag., 1830 ; Lou- 
 don, 1805. 
 
 Riimpelt, H. B.— Deutsche Grammatik. Mit 
 Riicksicht auf vergleichende Sprachfor- 
 schung. ErsterTheil. Berlin, 1860. 
 
 Schleicher, Aug. — Compendium der ver- 
 gleichendeu Grammatik der Indo-Germaii- 
 ischen Sprachen. Weimar, 1802; 2d ed., 
 1806. 
 
 Schmeller,J. A. — Heliand odcr die altsiichs- 
 ische Evangelien-Harnionie. Mit Worter- 
 buch und Grammatik. Mon., Stuttg., et 
 Tubinga;,1840. 
 
 Schubert, //.— A.-S. Arte Met. Berlin, 1S70. 
 
 Somner. See Anglo-Saxon Texts. 
 
 Whitney, ]V. Z>.— Language and the Study of 
 Language. New York, 1867. 
 
 Wilson, 11. H. — Sanskrit Grammar for early 
 Students. Lo-;don, 1841.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1, During tho fifth and sixth centuries, England was conquer- 
 ed and peopled by pagans (Saxons, Angles, Jutes, etc.) from the 
 shores of the North Sea ; the center of emigration was near the 
 mouth of the Elbe. The conquerors spoke many dialects, but 
 most of them were Low German. Missionaries were sent from 
 Rome (A.D. 59V) to convert thcra to Christianity. The Roman 
 alphabetic Avriting was thus introduced, and, under the influence 
 of learned native ecclesiastics, a single tongue gradually came into 
 use as a literary language through the whole natiou. The chief 
 seat of learning down to the middle of the eighth century was 
 amonor the Amiles of Korthumberland. The lanc-uage was lona; 
 called Englisc (English), but is now called Anglo-Saxon. Its Au- 
 gustan ago was the reign of Alfred the Great, king of the West 
 Saxons (A-D. 871-901). ^It continued to be written till the col- 
 loquial dialects, through the influence of the Anglo-iSTorman, had 
 diverged so far from it as to make it unintelligible to the people ; 
 then, under the cultivation of the "Wycliflate translators of the Bi- 
 ble, and of Chaucer and his fellows, there grcAV out of these dia- 
 lects a new classic language — the English.' 
 
 2, The spelling in the manuscripts is irregular, but the North- 
 umbrian is the only well-marked dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, as 
 old as its classic period (10th century), which has yet been ex- 
 plored. The Gospels and some other works have been printed in 
 it. The common Anglo-Saxon is sometimes called West-Saxon. 
 
 3. After the period of pure Anglo-Saxon, there Avas Avritten an 
 irregular dialect called Semi-Saxon. It has few strange Avords, 
 but the inflections and syntax are broken up (12th century). 
 
 4. The former inhabitants of Britain Avere Celts, so unlike the 
 invaders in race and speech, and so despised and hated, that they 
 did not mix. There are in the Anglo-Saxon a handful of Celtic 
 common names, and a good many geographical names : the rela- 
 tion of the Celtic language to tlie Anglo-Saxon>is like that of llio 
 lanfun^-os of the aborigines of America to our present English. 
 
 A
 
 2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5. The Anglo-Saxon Avas shaped to litevavy \ise by men wlio 
 ■wrote and spoke Latin, and thought it an ideal language ; and a 
 large jjart of the literature is translated or imitated from Latin 
 authors. It is not to be doubted, therefore, that the Latin exer- 
 cised a great influence on the Anglo-Saxon : if it did not lead to 
 tlio introduction of wholly new forms, either of etymology or 
 syntax, it led to the extended and imiform use of those forms 
 which arc like the Latin, and to the disuse of others, so as to 
 draw the grammars near each otlier. There arc a considerable 
 number of words from the Latin, mostly conuected with the 
 Cliurcli ; three or four through the Celts from the elder Romans. 
 
 G, There arc many words in Anglo-Saxon more like the words 
 of the same sense ia Scandinavian than like any w*ords which we 
 fmd in the Germanic languages ; but the remains of the early dia- 
 lects arc so scant that it is hard to tell how far such words were 
 borrowed from or modified by the Scandinavians. Before A.D. 
 900 many Danes had settled in England. Danish kings afterward 
 ruled it (A.D. 1013-1042). Their laws, however, arc in Anglo- 
 Saxon. The Danes were illiterate, and learned the Anglo-Saxon. 
 Of course their pronunciation was peculiar, and they quickened 
 and modified phonetic decay. It is probable that they affected 
 the spoken dialects which have come up as English more than the 
 Avritten literary language which Ave call Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 7. The other languages sprung from the dialects of Low Ger- 
 man tribes are Friesic, Old Saxon, and, later, Dutch (and Flem- 
 ish), and Piatt Deutsch. The talk in the harbors of Antwerj), 
 Bremen, and Hamburg is said to be often mistaken by English 
 sailors for corrupt English. These Low, German languages arc 
 akin to the High German on one side, and to the Scandina- 
 vian on the other. These all, with the Moeso-Gothic, constitute 
 the Teutonic class of languages. This stands parallel with the 
 Lithuanic, the Slavonic, and the Celtic, and Avith the Italic, the 
 Hellenic, the Iranic, and the Indie, all of Avhich belong to the 
 Indo-European family of languages. The parent speech of this 
 family is lost, and has left no literary monuments. Its seat has 
 been supposed to have been on the heights of Central Asia. The 
 Sanskrit, an ancient language of India, takes its place at the head 
 of the flimily. Theoretical roots and forms of inflection are given 
 by grammarians as those of the Parent S]:)eech, on the ground 
 that they are such as might have produced the surviving roots 
 and forms by knoAvn laws of change.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 8. The following stem shows the order in which these classes 
 branched, aud their relative age and remoteness from each other. 
 At the right is given the approximate date of the oldest literary 
 remains. The lanQ;ua2;es earlier than these remains are made out 
 
 like the Parent Speech ; that is, 
 roots and forms are taken for the 
 language at each period, which 
 will give the roots and forms of 
 all the languages which branch 
 from it, but not those peculiar to 
 the other Ian2;ua2;es. 
 
 A. 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 o 
 O. 
 
 4. 
 
 G. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 Indo-European. Parent Speech. 
 Indie. B.C. 1500. Sanskrit Vedas. 
 Iranic. B.C. 1000. Bactrian Avesta. 
 Hellenic. Before B.C. 800. Greek. 
 Italic. B.C. 200. Latin. 
 Teutonic. 4th Century. JIoeso-Gothic 
 
 Bible. 
 Celtic. 8th Century. 
 Slavonic. Dth Century. Bulgarian 
 
 Bible. 
 Lithuanic. IGth Century. 
 
 9. The following stem shows the manner in which the lan- 
 guages of the Teutonic class branch after separating from the 
 Slavonic. The Gothic (Moeso-Gothic) died without issue ; the 
 Low German is nearer akin to it than the High German is. The 
 
 branches of the Scandinavian (Swedish, 
 L k. Danish, Norwegian) are not represented. 
 
 A. Teutonic. Theoretic. 
 a. Gothic. 4th Century. 
 /). Germanic. Theoretic. 
 r. Scandinavian. 13th Century. 
 
 d. High German. 8th Century. 
 
 e. Low German. Theoretic. 
 f. Friesic. 14th Century. 
 
 fj. Saxon. Tlieoretic. 
 
 k. Anglo-Saxon. 8th Century. 
 
 i. Old Saxon. 9th Century. 
 
 /.-. Piatt Deutsch. Uth Century. 
 
 /, Dutch. 13th Ccntuiy.
 
 PAET I. 
 
 PHONOLOGY. 
 
 10. Alphabet. — The Anglo-Saxon alphabet has twenty-four 
 letters. All but three are Roman characters: the variations from 
 the common form are cacographic fancies. P \> (lliorn), and P p 
 (wen), are runes. D d (edh) is a crossed d, used for the older J), 
 oftcnest in the middle and at the end of words. 
 
 Old Foniif. 
 
 Simple ] 
 
 Foniis. 
 
 nonii 
 
 Ul. 
 
 Names. 
 
 X a 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 all 
 
 je SD 
 
 JE 
 
 a; 
 
 JE 
 
 ca 
 
 a 
 
 B h 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 bay 
 
 E c 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 cay 
 
 D b 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 D 
 
 d   
 
 day 
 
 D « 
 
 D 
 
 (t 
 
 DII 
 
 dh 
 
 edh 
 
 e e 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 ay 
 
 F p 
 
 V 
 
 f 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 ef 
 
 I^ 3 
 
 G 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 gay 
 
 ]=^)^h 
 
 II 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 ii 
 
 hah 
 
 T 1 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 00 
 
 L I 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 el 
 
 CD m 
 
 M 
 
 ni 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 em 
 
 N n 
 
 N 
 
 1) 
 
 N 
 
 11 
 
 on 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 P p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 pay 
 
 Pt 11 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 or 
 
 8 r 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 s 
 
 es 
 
 T c 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 lay 
 
 Fpp 
 
 P 
 
 1> 
 
 TII 
 
 til 
 
 thorn 
 
 U " 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 oo 
 
 
 T~v 
 
 
 i VV 
 
   vv ) 
 
 A 
 
 F P 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 ( (W) (w) \ 
 
 wen 
 
 X X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 ex 
 
 ^' y 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 Y 
 
 V 
 
 ypsilon 
 
 Some of the German editors use ii for a?, cs for ib, o for e derived from 
 i, o for oe, oe for de, j for i when a semi-vowel, and v for p. Now and 
 then k, q, v, z get into the manuscripts, mostly in foreign words, and iiu 
 or u for p. The Semi-Saxon has a peculiar character for j (>).
 
 SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 
 
 5 
 
 11. Abbreviations. — The most common ave ^ = and, fj =])oet 
 (that), X = oitcte (or), and ~ for an omitted m or n ; as, l;)a=]iam. 
 
 12. An Accent (-^) is found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, 
 .but in none so regularly used as to make it an objective part of 
 an Anglo-Saxon text. It is found oftenest over a long vowel ; 
 sometimes over a vowel of peculiar sound, not long ; seldom, ex- 
 cept over syllables having stress of voice. Sometimes it seems to 
 mark nothing but stress. JVIost of the English editors represent 
 it by an acute accent ; the Germans generally print Anglo-Saxon 
 with a circumflex over all single long vowels in the stem of 
 words, and an acute over the diphthongs, as bruder, freond. In 
 tl\is book, to guide the studies of beginners, a circumflex is nsed 
 over all long vowels and diphthongs, and the acute accent (') over 
 vow^els only to denote stress. For accented consonants, see § 19. 
 
 13. Punctuation. — The Anglo-Saxons used one dot (.) at 
 the end of each clause, or each hemistich of a poem, and some- 
 times tliree dots ( :• ) at the end of a sentence. Modern point- 
 inji is Gfcncrallv used in lu'inted text. 
 
 14. Sounds of Letters. — Voicels: 
 
 a like 
 
 a in far. 
 
 i 
 
 like 
 
 i in dim. 
 
 a " 
 
 a " fall. 
 
 i 
 
 
 ee " deem. 
 
 je " 
 
 a " glad. 
 
 o 
 
 
 " v:holly. 
 
 ^ " 
 
 a " dare \n New 
 
 o 
 
 
 " holy. 
 
 
 England. 
 
 u 
 
 
 n " full. 
 
 e " 
 
 e " let. 
 
 u 
 
 
 00 " fool. 
 
 e in the breakings (not diph- 
 
 y 
 
 
 i " dim, but witli the 
 
 thongs) ea, CO, ea, eu, very 
 
 
 lips 
 
 thrust out and rounded. 
 
 light 
 
 
 
 (French u.) 
 
 c like e 
 
 in tJiey. 
 
 A 
 
 y 
 
 same sound prolonged. 
 
 Unaccented vowels are like accented in kind, but obscure. 
 
 The consonants have their common English sounds; but note 
 
 c like Z", always. i (=:j) before a vowel, like y. 
 
 hh iu v:or7c-house. 
 
 qii. 
 
 d in do. 
 
 til " other, smooth. 
 
 (J " yo, always. 
 h very distinct, 
 bp like xdc in New England. 
 
 ch 
 
 
 cp 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 <T 
 
 
 s 
 
 like 
 
 .s 
 
 in 
 
 so. 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 (C 
 
 t 
 
 1.1. 
 
 to. 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 1.1. 
 
 th 
 
 C( 
 
 thin. 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 li 
 
 v\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pl 
 
 , pi*, 
 
 aiu 
 
 1 f 
 
 nal p 
 
 nearly 
 
 close 
 
 
 the 
 
 lips 
 
 . 
 
 (German 
 
 w.) 
 
 
 X 
 
 like 
 
 ks. 
 
 
 
 

 
 Q PHONOLOGY.— CLASSES OF VOWELS. 
 
 15. Accent. — The primary accent in pronuncialiou is on the 
 first syUablc of every Avord : brod'-cr, brother ; un'-ctld, uncouth. 
 
 The first syllable is mostly the root, or a prefix defining it : but prefixes 
 of verbs and particles are relational. See ^ 41, 4. 
 
 Proof of accent comes from alliteration, rhyme, the mark (^ 12), progres- 
 sion, and other phonetic changes. 
 
 Exception 1. Proper prefixes in verbs and particles take no primary accent; 
 sucli are &, an, and, a't, be, bi, cd, for, ful, ge, geond, in, mis, oil, of, ofer, on, 
 or, to, |nirh, un, under, pid, pider, ymb, ymbe : an-gin'nan, begin; aet-gad'ere, 
 together; on-gean', again. So some parasyntheta ; onsseg'ednes, sacn^cc. 
 
 (a.) But parasyntheta from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, retain their ac- 
 cent: and'-sparian< and'sparu, answer; in'-peardlice< in'-peard, adj., I'n- 
 ward; ed'nipian< ed'nipe, renewed. Such are all verbs in and-, ed-, or-, 
 found in Anglo-Saxon poetry ; many adverbs in tai-, etc. 
 
 (i.) Many editors print as compounds adverbs + verbs, both of which re- 
 tain their accent. Such are those with aefter, bi, big, efen, eft, fore, ford, 
 from, fram, hider, mid, nider, gegn, geS,n, gen, to, up, iit,pel. 
 
 Exception 2. The inseparable prefixes S-, be- (bi-), for-, ge-, are unaccent- 
 ed : a-lys'-ing, redemption ; be-gang', course. (Parasyntheta from verbs.) 
 
 A secondary accent may fall on the tone syllable of the lighter 
 part of a compound or on a suffix: o'-fer-cum^-an, overcome ; heof- 
 on-steor'-ra, star of heaveyi ,' h'^r' end' e^hevn-'mg ; leas' ttng',]y'mg. 
 
 16. Phonology. — Classes of Vowels. 
 Peimart Vowels: — a (guttural), i (palatal), u (labial). 
 SiiOET Vowels :— a, re, e, i, o, u, y. {Open., a, ce, e, o ; close., i, u, y.) 
 Long Vowels : — a, ^, e, i, 0, il, }'• 
 Diphthongs : — ea (ia), eo (io), io. {Dialectic, ai, ei, en, oe, 6e, oi.) 
 
 Breakings: — {g-sc-row), ea (ia), eo (io), ie, ea (ia), eo (io), ie. 
 {h-l-r-roio), ea (ia)< a, eo (io)< i, ie. 
 
 a-umlaut. i-iimlaut. u-unilaut. 
 
 Umlaut: — from i, u, 
 to e, o. 
 
 n, u, ca, eo, a, o, u, ea, eo, n, i, 
 e, y, y, y, a', e, y, t, f. (o)ea, eo. 
 
 Pjrogeession : — Precession — 
 
 Descending. 1st term. Ascending. 
 
 a-series: — e i, u a, a?, o a, ^e, c 6 
 i-series: — e i la 
 
 u-series : — e o u eo, xl ca 
 
 Contraction: — from a-j-a, ca+a, ca-fu, co-fa, eo-fe, co-|-u, 
 {Reduplication, to o, a, ca, eo, c6, c6, 
 
 ^52.) fj.Q,^^ j_l_j^^ u-fa, n-fa, u-f-i, u + o, u-j-6, 
 
 to eu, o, o, u, o, 6.
 
 CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 Summary of Phonetic Groups. 
 
 A-Gkoup. 
 Weaker. Stronger. 
 
 I-G 
 Weaker. 
 
 EODP. 
 
 Stronger. 
 
 U-Gkoup. 
 Weaker. Stronger. 
 
 i 
 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 
 i t 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 e y 
 
 
 in 
 
 e 
 
 e y 
 
 A A. 
 
 e 
 
 y 
 
 
 A 
 
 y 
 
 eo ea, e 
 
 ea, 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u o 
 
 
 A 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ll 
 
 A.BLAUT : 
 
 Boot a:— 
 
 Present. 
 
 -j, e, eo. 
 
 Preterit Sing. 
 
 a, a?, en. 
 
 Plural. 
 U, JO, e. 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 e ; u, o. 
 
 
 u 
 
 a:— 
 
 -i, e, eo. 
 
 a, ffi, ea. 
 
 U. 
 
 
 n, 0. 
 
 
 (( 
 
 i:— 
 
 A 
 
 1. 
 
 a. 
 
   
 
 1. 
 
 
 i. 
 
 
 (( 
 
 u:- 
 
 - eo, a. 
 
 ea. 
 
 U. 
 
 
 o. 
 
 
 (( 
 
 a:- 
 
 - a, ea. 
 
 A 
 
 O. 
 
 A 
 
 O. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 17. Classes of Consonants. 
 
 Mutes (Explosive). 
 
 
 Smooth. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Rough. 
 
 Spirant. 
 
 Nasal. 
 
 Liquid. 
 
 
 Surd. 
 
 Sonant. 
 
 Surd. 
 
 Sonant. 
 
 Surd, fonant. 
 
 Sonant. 
 
 Sonant. 
 
 Gutturals . 
 
 T>_. 1 f. f o 1 CT 
 
 C 
 
 or 
 
 kh 
 
 gh 
 
 h 
 
 i 
 
 " u 
 
 
 iraiatais. . . 
 Linguals.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l,r 
 
 Dentals. . . 
 
 t 
 
 d 
 
 til 
 
 ah 
 
 s,i) s, d 
 
 n 
 
 (n) 
 
 Labials . . . 
 
 P 
 
 b 
 
 ph 
 
 bh 
 
 f,hp ^j, p 
 
 m 
 
 (m) 
 
 Continuous Consonants. 
 
 Notable Consonant Comhinations. 
 
 Giittuval :— el, cii, or, cp, gl, gn, gr, bl, hn, hr, hp. x = cs, gs, bs ; 
 cg=gg; ht>ct, gt. 
 
 Dental :— tr, tp, dr, dp, 1m-, l^p, so, scr, si, sra, sn, sp, spr, st, str, sp. 
 Labial :— pi, pr, bl, br, fl, fr, pi, pr, mb, bb. 
 
 Gemination from i : — bb <bi, cc < ci, eld < di, bb < fi, cg<gi, 
 IKli, inm<mi, nn<ni, ps<si. 
 
 l>t, lit, ht, mn, ntst, st, st, 
 pd, cd, lid, fn, ndst, sd, sd. 
 
 Assimilation: — <1A., ft", ss, ss, ss, tl. 
 from d}), bf, ds, ds, sr, td, 
 
 Common Changes:— d, f, g, g, li, li, r, r, t, t, p, p, p, x, x, 
 from d, b, i, h, g, c, s, 1, d, d, g, li, u, gs, lis
 
 8 
 
 Parent Speech 
 
 Sanskrit. . . . 
 Hellenic. . . . 
 
 Italic 
 
 IS, Indo-European Voicel System. 
 
 Gothic. ....-< ai, au ) 
 
 / A A 
 
 { t', O 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 i, ai 
 ei 
 
 • n 
 u 
 
 V 
 V 
 
 "i 
 
 II 
 
 u, an 
 
 ai 
 ai 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 
 ai 
 
 «t, ft, 01 
 
 ai, SQ ) 
 
 ci, i, e J 
 
 oi, oe, H 
 
 ci 
 ai 
 
 au 
 
 uu 
 
 A 
 
 o 
 
 an 
 
 OU, £U, OV 
 
 au, jju 
 au, 6 ) 
 
 tl 
 
 ill 
 
 au 
 
 Ancrlo-Saxon 
 
 \ For short vowels, see Summary of Phonetic Groups, p. 7, 
 ( For long vowels, see next table. 
 
 Teutonic Long 'Votoels. [Short voicels unsJdfted.) 
 
 Gothic u ai aa ei in, il? 
 
 Old Saxon ... a u e 6 i iu, ie, 11 
 
 -n   A A AA A A *_J^ 
 
 rriesic e o e, a a i la, tl 
 
 Anglo-Saxox . ffi o a cti i eo, }% ^ 
 
 English ee oo u, oa ca i ee, ou 
 
 Old Norse ... a u ei au i io, \', \L 
 
 Old II. German a no 6, ei 6, ou i iu, io, tl 
 
 German a u e, ei o, au ei eu, ie, au 
 
 19. Indo-European Consonant System 
 
 Parent Speech k g gh t d dh p 
 
 Sanskrit . k, kh, k', 9 g, g' gh, h 
 Hellenic . . . . c 7 x 
 
 Italic c, q g h(g) 
 
 Goth. & A.-S. h(g) k(c) g 
 
 O. II. German h(g) k(ch) g(k) 
 
 h bh 
 
 t, th d dh p, ph 1) bh 
 
 T C S^ TT ft (j) 
 
 t d d(f, b) ]) b f(b) 
 l5(d), d t d f 1) 1) 
 
 d 
 
 z t f(v, b) f b(p). 
 
 P. Speech n n 
 
 Sanskrit . ri, ii n, n 
 Hellenic . 7 r 
 
 Italic . . . n n 
 
 G.&A.-S. n(g) n 
 
 lO.II.G. . u n 
 
 ra 
 m 
 
 A' 
 m 
 
 ni 
 
 ni 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 P 
 r 
 r 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 1 
 X 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 j s, sh=s'(s') 
 J 
 
 1, J- '^ 
 
 s(z), r 
 s(r) 
 
 V 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 U, V, p 
 
 w 
 
 Grimni's Lav\ 
 
 1. From Parent Speech to Anglo-Saxon, or from Anglo-Saxon to Old H. 
 Gei~man,or from Old H. German to Parent Speech. — Change each smooth 
 mute to its rough, rough to middle, middle to smooth. 
 
 2. From Anglo-Saxon io Parent Speech, or from Parent Speech to Old 
 H. German, or from Old H. German to Anglo-Saxon. — Change each 
 smooth mute to its middle, middle to rough, rough to smooth.
 
 CHANGES OP SOUND. 9 
 
 20. Changes of Sound. 
 I. Variation : exchange of one sound with another, 
 
 1. Evphonic: through the influence of other sounds in 
 
 the same word or phrase : 
 
 fa) Qualitative : through influence of the kind of . 
 
 ^ ' ^ , , . , ^ „ ^ ( Assimilation. 
 
 sound which follows or precedes. . . . .'{ . 
 
 , s ^. ^ T ^1. 1 • /I c   ^ Dissimilation. 
 
 (rj) Ciiange of vowel through influence ot z, 
 
 w, or a in the following syllable . . . Umlaut. 
 
 (6) Change of vowel through influence of con- 
 sonants Breaking. 
 
 (c) Change of consonant through influence 
 
 of z, y Assibilation. 
 
 (J) Cliangc of consonant through influence 
 of other consonants, 
 (b) Quantitative : through the weight of sound 
 
 which follows or precedes Compensation. 
 
 (a) Change of quantity or quality. 
 
 (h) Change of accent. 
 
 2. Accentual: through influence of accent Gravitation. 
 
 (a) Strengtliening accented syllables in a certain 
 
 way Progression. 
 
 (b) Weakening unaccented syllables Precession. 
 
 Here also may be placed as appendix. 
 Changes in root vowels which, in the Teutonic 
 languages, have come to distinguish tenses of 
 the verb Ablaut. 
 
 3. Mimetic: through influence of other like words: 
 
 (a) Conforming to other words, in declension, con- 
 
 jugation, etc Conformation. 
 
 (b) Simulating etymological relations Simulation. 
 
 (c) Sundering, bifurcation, dimorphism. 
 
 4. Etymologic   uninfluenced by other sounds in the 
 
 same language ..... LmUverscMehing. Shifting. 
 
 II. Figuration: change of form without change of sense, by dropping, add- 
 ing, or changing the order of sounds. 
 
 1. Dropping- Apothesis. 
 
 (a) Beginning a word Aphaeresis. 
 
 (b) Ending Apocope. 
 
 (c) Witiiin : 
 
 (rt) Vowel before a vovrel Elision. 
 
 {Ji) Vowel before a consonant Syncope. 
 
 (c) Consonant or syllable Ecthlipsis. 
 
 2. Adding: Prosthesis. 
 
 (a) Beginning a word Prothesic. 
 
 (b) Ending I'anujofjc. Epithesis. 
 
 (c) Within Epenthesis. 
 
 .",. C/tin/ging I lie urdtr of letters Metathesis.
 
 10 LAWS OF LETTER CHANGE. 
 
 IIL Contraction: drawing together vowel sounds to avoid the hiatus, 
 
 1. Complete: 
 
 (a) Witliin a word Synaeresis. 
 
 (b) Between words Crasis. 
 
 2. Iiico»ij)lctc: a partial rhythmic union, so that the two 
 
 vowels sen'e as one syllable in poetry : 
 
 (a) Witliin a word Synizesis. 
 
 (b) Between words Syualcepha. 
 
 Z,aws of Letter Change. 
 
 1. A vowel may assimilate a vowel by "umlaut. § 32. 
 
 2. A vowel may change to its breaking before I, r, h, or p, 
 
 m, f, and after c (sc), f/, or j). § 33. 
 
 3. Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant or a 
 
 mute to a continuous. § 35, 3, 
 
 4. If a surd follows a sonant, gemination of the surd is 
 
 producecl. § 35, A. 
 
 5. If a surd precedes a sonant, the sonant is changed to a 
 
 surd of the same organ. § 35, Jj. 
 G. A mute before another consonant may change to a con- 
 tinuous of the same organ. § 35, 4, h. 
 
 7. Before n a surd or m^ite may change to its cognate nasal. 
 
 § 35, 4, c. 
 
 8. A vowel may change to a consonant of the same organ 
 
 to avoid the hiatus. § 36. 
 
 9. Between two vowels a continuous may change to a 
 
 mute. § 36, 2. 
 
 10. One of two contiguous mutes may change to a continu- 
 
 ous, one of two continuous to a mute. § 36, 3, 4, 
 
 11. A consonant may be dropped and the preceding vowel 
 
 lengthened by compensation. § 37. 
 
 12. A vowel may be dropped and the preceding consonant 
 
 doubled by compensation. § 37, 2. 
 
 13. Gemination, when final or next to a consonant, is simpli- 
 
 fied or dissimilated. § 27, 5. 
 
 14. Apothesis is found of a syllable of inflection, and of an 
 
 unaccented stem vowel final ; before a vowel ; before /, ??, 
 0' • f?, ct, St; c, //, ?», 7?, and other consonants. § 44-46. 
 
 15. Ecthlipsis is found of d, ct, s, st, before st; of n before d, 
 
 /, s ; of c7, r/, /», /, p, mostly between vowels or before a 
 liquid. § 47.
 
 VOICE— SHORT VOWELS. H 
 
 16. Epithesis, epenthesis, aud metathesis are used foi- 
 
 euphony. § 49-61. 
 
 17. Synaeresis may occur after ccthli2)sis of ^ or /i, or the 
 
 change of p to u. § 52. 
 
 21. Every classic speech is an ideal ; the folks at home do not 
 speak it. We have no direct description of the pronunciation of 
 Anglo-Saxon ; but we have Greek text Avritteu phonetically with 
 Anglo-Saxon characters (Hickes, Pref., xii.-f ), and know that they 
 were sounded nearly like the corresponding letters in the Latin 
 of the missionaries. These characters represent only the most 
 striking varieties of sound, and those vaguely. There must have 
 been very great diversity in the folkspeech. The view given in 
 ^ 14 is general or ideal, as seems suited to a practical manual. 
 An examination of the laws of the language, and its relations to 
 other languages, Avill suggest further remarks. 
 
 22. Voice. — Breath is made sonant by vibrations of the vocal 
 chords — ligaments which may be stretched across the wind-pipe. 
 The quality of a vowel depends on the general shape of the cav- 
 ity containing the vibrating column of air. For a, the tongue lies 
 flat ; for i, Ave breathe or blow into a narrow-necked bottle ; for 
 U, into a bottle without a neck. 
 
 23. Short Vowels. — The simple vowels are «, i, u. Pure a 
 may be gradually changed to i, if the tongue be slowly raised to- 
 ward the palate ; to i«, if the lips be slowly closed. Between a 
 and ^■ are a?, e; between a and it, is o; between i and w is y. 
 The vowel sounds shade into each other like colors. 
 
 In any word or stem the same short vowel is found in all the 
 Teutonic tongues, and any changes are explained by umlaut, 
 breaking, or other phonetic laws working within the language. 
 
 a, ee. — In Anglo-Saxon a is found before a single consonant 
 followed by a, o, u, e<a/ before m, «, and in some foreign words. 
 Before m, n, it also suffers assimilation to o: man'^mon; before 
 a consonant combination beginning with I, r, A, it breaks to ea : 
 aealm, psalm ; before a syllable containing i or e < ^, i-umlaut 
 changes it to e: liladan hle{de)st, to load; u-umlaut changes it 
 to ea : bealii^ bale ; in other situations, words having a in other 
 languages show a regular shifting of « to m ; thus, in monosyl- 
 lables ending in a single consonant: ^a?e, back; in polysyllables 
 before a single consonant followed by c: bwcere, baker; before
 
 12 LONG VOWELS. 
 
 consonant combinations, especially those beginning -with f or 8 : 
 crix'fl, craft. In the folkspeech the sound of « must liave varied 
 through the shades of sound from a in father nearly to a m fiat 
 on the one side, and to o in hot on the otlicr. Accented d often 
 changes in English to the sound of a in name, through progres- 
 sion, i-umlaut, or shifting : viacian > mdken > make. 
 
 e. — This is i-umlaut of «; temia^i, iMnc ; a-umlaut of ^ .• Jielp- 
 rtn<root MI}), help; or a light toneless sound which may be the 
 ghost of any sound out of which the blood has ebbed through 
 gravitation : gife, Gothic gibos, gibdi, giba, gift. The same word 
 is sometimes written with le and e, or ea and e: dseg^ cleg, day; 
 seaJi, sch, saw. In the folkspeech the sounds varied from nearly 
 a drawling dci (as in ddrth, earth), through e in met, to the light 
 sound of German final e, French mute e. 
 
 i. — Tliis simple sound holds its ground well ; but a-umlaut 
 sometimes changes it to e : p(fect, weaves, pi. pefad; u-umlaut 
 and breaking both change it to eo : Urn, limb, pi. leonm ; feohte, 
 fight. It exchanges in Avriting with y, and sometimes with ea: 
 miht, myJit, meaJit, might. Perhaps an .a-element was in some 
 Avords creeping in, as in English long i (=a+z), cniht, Northum- 
 brian cnaiht, knight. 
 
 O. — This is ti'eated as u-umlaut of a, or a-umlaut of n, or an 
 assimilation of a by in or n : roclor, Old Saxon raclur, heaven ; 
 curon, coren<icora7i, chose, chosen; comb, comb. In folkspeech 
 it varied from o in not to nearly u in fall. 
 
 U, y. — Like -i, u holds its ground. It changes in writing with 
 o on one side, and y on the other ; and probably varied in folk- 
 speech from xt in nut to nearly the French %i. y is i-umlaut of u 
 and ea, sometimes u-umlaut of i, exchanging with eo. It was a 
 favorite letter with the jjenmen, and is often found for /, and 
 sometimes for e, w : cyni?ig, king; eald, ylclest, old, oldest; 
 ceorl > cyrlisc, churlish ; lyden, leclen, Latin ; gyst-sele, gvest-sele, 
 guest-hall. 
 
 24. Long" Vowels. — Two like short vowels uttered as one 
 sound make a long vowel: aa=:u, ii = i, uui=ti. 
 
 Long vowels are produced by compensation, progression, and 
 contraction. 
 
 A long sound is, however, different in quality as well as quantity from 
 its short. The anticipation of the double utterance affects the position of 
 the organs. A given long vowel may, in fact, arise from the coming togetli- 
 er of unlike vowels: tiuCjiuv from npuoitiv; nor do two like vowels alwa3's
 
 LONG VOWELS. 13 
 
 give their long : Greek te give n, oo give ov. The Anglo-Saxon long vow- 
 els vary in kind (quality) from their short ; a prolonged is not exactly a, nor 
 e prolonged exactly e. We give the long mark, therefore, whenever the 
 quality of sound is that of the long letter, though the vowel may be unaccent- 
 ed, and the sound obscure. 
 
 Proof of length is found in accent (§ 12) and gemination in the 
 manuscripts ; presumptive evidence is also found in the origin 
 and relations of vowels, and the analogy of other languages. 
 
 That a letter is not accented is no proof that it is not long ; but when one 
 is abundantly marked in good manuscripts, it must be held long. The pro- 
 nouns me, J)e, he are abundantly marked, and therefore we give them as 
 long, though analogy is perhaps against it. These words, however alliterate 
 in poetry, fall in with a general law as to accented open syllables which has 
 a plain physiological basis, and the corresponding words are long in English, 
 and were long in Latin. 
 
 Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except enclitics and 
 proclitics, which are really affixes or prefixes to other words. 
 
 a corresponds in part to Gothic ^, in part to Gothic di, and 
 has oftenest passed into English 6 : Gothic hdim-, Anglo-Saxon 
 ham, home, Gemi. helm; in pa, a, etc., it is progression of a. It 
 varied through d in far, toall, Ger. mahnen, nearly to 6 in hoine. 
 
 2b corresponds to the same Gothic letters as d, but comes into 
 English with the sonud oi ee : Gothic sdi-, Anglo-Saxon sie, sea, 
 German see. It is i-umlaut of d, and simple shifting also, whicli 
 may be stopped by a following m, n: hdte, hvbt{e)st, hivt{e(i), call, 
 callest, calleth. 
 
 e is i-umlaut of 6: f6t,fet{e), foot, feet; simple shifting of 
 edyto-: heran, hear. It springs also from contraction of old re- 
 duplications, from lengthening of open monosyllables : me, me ; 
 /i^, he; J)^, thee; and from compensation: peii<ipcgn, thane: 
 perhaps here also fj^<.fjer, ye; pe<^pec, thee; and other such 
 pronouns. It likes in or n after it, and in such cases may stand 
 for an original a or A. It varied in folkspeech from nearly e in 
 there to ey in they, with the final y-sound {ee) pretty plain. It 
 goes over to ee completely in English. (Progression.) 
 
 i corresponcls to the i of other languages. It has risen in 
 English under the accent to the sound of d + i (§ 38, 1) : hUun, 
 bite ; drifan, drive. It exchanges in the writing with -g, and 
 must have sounded much like it. 
 
 6 corresponds to Gothic 6. It springs from contraction of 
 three a -elements, or two «- elements and a ?<- element: fa.
 
 i-i- Dli'IlTliONGS.— NOKTIIUMBKIAN VOWELS. 
 
 hmi^/o/i, catch; gefcohan^gefeon^ \'c']o\cc', from progression: 
 mona, Old IT. German 'mCtno, moon ; sona. Mid. II. German sun, 
 soon. It liad the sound of o in t07ie, with a tendency in a labial 
 direction, Avhich has brought it to English oo. § 08, 1. 
 
 U corresponds to 'd in other dialects. It is often strengthened 
 from i( under the accent: 7>?1, thou; w^, now ; sometimes springs 
 from compensation : onild, Gothic mtwps, mouth. It changes in 
 English under the accent to ou : hiis, house. (Progression.) 
 
 y is i-umlaut of •?"?, of co, and ofeil: nms, mi)s{e), mouse, mice; 
 lijge < root ledg^ lie ; hf/r{i)an < root hear, hear. § 38, 1. 
 
 25, Diphthongs. — Two unlike vowels heard in one syllable 
 make a diphthong. The forms ca (la), eo (io), ie, are generally 
 called breakings ; ed, id, eo, io, ie, are often true diphthongs, and 
 then they differ etymologically from breakings. For Breakings, 
 sec § 33. 
 
 ea, ia. = Gothic dii > a'* > ht > ed. It is found in many po-*' 
 sitions: final; before r, li, m, n, p : fred, lord; tedr, tear; hedh, 
 high ; dream, dream ; ledn, loan ; bredp, brow. It is also found 
 as a <7-.sc-breaking of d : gedfon, gave ; scedn, shone. It is an 
 unstable combination, tending to d > English or to e > English 
 ee, as more or less of the c-sound works in. The prevailing set is, 
 on the whole, to e: stedp, step-cir\, steep. 
 
 ed, io = Gothic in. It is also an assimilation of i, %, by p or 
 I: treop, Gothic triva, tree ; feol. Old H. German fUa, mud ; ap- 
 parently also by Ji, g ; but in these cases a change of h, g, to p 
 may be supposed : plhan '^ped7i, depart ; frig, freo, free. It is 
 a peculiar progression from i final (perhaps here also a labial 
 sound is to be added) : Ijeo, Old 11. German hi, bee. It often 
 also springs from contraction, especially of the reduplication, ex- 
 changing with ^. It exchanges in writing with id. It is found 
 often for ed. It changes to iX: sxipan, sup; silcan, suck. It 
 must have had a peculiar sound or sounds — an unstable combi- 
 nation, tending to w > English ic in si(2) on the one side, and to 
 ^> English ee on the other. The prevailing set is, on the whole, 
 to H. A similar sound is produced by (7-sc-breaking from 6: seed, 
 shoe ; but the e is lighter, 
 
 ie is used for ed, ed. 
 
 26. Northumbrian Vowels.— a is often used where An- 
 glo-Saxon has ea, sometimes where it has e, i, eo, u. 
 
 SB interchanges with ea: ml, eall, all, all ; vn for e is abundant; 
 e for a? frequent ; oe for e frequent. Assimilation of if^o < \oe.
 
 CONSONANTS. 15 
 
 icu < loi^ is found : tcosa, Anglo-Saxon pesan, to be ; tcictta, Au- 
 gloSaxon pitan, to know; also id<iil: 5 ?<{/*, Anglo-Saxon siJf, 
 self; sulfer^ Anglo-Saxon seolfor, Gothic silubr, silver. 
 
 a is often wi'itteu aa/ it exchanges with <'ey is a i)rogression 
 of «, ea, before liquids. © is found written aae. e is seldom 
 i-.umlaut of o, is used sometimes for eo (lautverschiebung), oft- 
 ener for ic, Gothic t^, oftenest for eel. 6e is i-umlaut of 0, or 
 represents Anglo-Saxon ^ not umlaut. 
 
 ea interchanges Avith eo, a favorite sound which displaces 
 sometimes Anglo-Saxon e, i. ea interchanges Avith eo. io for 
 eo is frequent ; ea for le. There are found ai for z, ei for e or 
 ic, eu for eop, and oi. 
 
 27. Consonants. — The stream of breath is stopped in speech 
 in three main ways : by contact bctAveen the root of the tongue 
 and the palate (a round surface against a hollow one), the tip of 
 the tongue and the teeth (a sharp against a flat surface), and the 
 upper and lower lips (two flat surfaces). If a sonant breath be 
 stopped, the sonant letters, g guttural, d dental, h labial, are j^ro- 
 duced. If we blow instead of breathe, a slight change is made 
 tlu'oughout the vocal organs : viz., the glottis is thrown open, the 
 chords no longer sound, and the shape which the organs take at 
 the places where they meet and part is varied : hence the smooth, 
 surd letters, c{k) guttural, t dental, ^j) labial. These are mutes. 
 If the breath be not wholly stopped, continuous letters, i guttu- 
 ral (palatal), d and Enghsh Z dental, (English v) and 7? labial, are 
 made; or, if the stream be blown, h guttui-al, /), 5, dental,/, ///>, 
 labial. If, when the breath is stopped, the veil be raised Vv'hich 
 separates the nose from the pharynx, the resonance of the nasal 
 cavity gives n in ng guttural, n dental, m labial ; I and r are 
 trills. Each consonant stands for two sounds: viz., the closing 
 of the organs, c^^/ and the opening of the organs, ^;a. For a 
 fourth kind of stop, see Assibilation, § 34. 
 
 1. A stop of the first kind, which will pass for a g, may be made any 
 where from the very root of the tongue forward to the middle of the mouth. 
 Some nations make their g in one place, some in another. Further for- 
 ward it becomes impossible to stop with a humped tongue, and the tip comes 
 into play. This may be touched, so as to make a d, any where from the 
 front .(/-stop, or even further back, to the meeting of the teeth. Just where 
 g and d run into each other is i consonant (English ?/). Some tribes count 
 gutturals and dentals as all one. The Sandwich Isla,nders have to be taught 
 to tell c from if, and possiI)ly the Roman populace may have had a similar 
 habit. Sec Assibilation, § 34.
 
 10 GUTTURALS. 
 
 2. h,p, ct,f. are pronounced as spirants, but are, liistorically, representa- 
 tives of c/j, til, dh, ph, which were once pronounced as separate letters (c. 
 g., ch as kh in icork-housc), and hence are called rough or aspirate mutes, 
 a name retained in historical grammar bv their representatives. See Table, 
 SS 17. 
 
 3. r is described as a trill ot the uvula in the Northumberland burr, and 
 of the tip of the tongue in English and German ; ^ as a trill of the side 
 edges of the tongue No trill is heard in English in America. In r the tip 
 of the tongue is raised and moved slightly vviiilc the breath is poured over 
 It. In I the tip is raised to the dental stop, and the breath issues freely be- 
 tween its sides and the cheeks. 
 
 4. Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Physiologically it arises 
 from an analysis of a consonant by whirli the sound made in closing the stop 
 is united with the foregoing vowel, and t'mt made by opening is united witii 
 the following vowel. Or it arises from combining two complete consonants, 
 i. e., shutting and opening the organs twice : bac^--/iitclien. The last is sel- 
 dom heard in English. Historically it springs from gravitation (^ 38) or a.s- 
 similation (^ 35). It is most common with liquids and s. A real gemination 
 can not occur at the beginning or the end of a word, nor before a second 
 mute, nor is it easy after a long vowel. For the orthographic rule in Anglo- 
 Saxon, see ^ 20, Rule 13. Double o-is written eg, double/, bb. 
 
 5. Dissimilated Gcminaiioji. — When gemination of a nasal (nz, v) v.'oulJ 
 occur before / or r, the trill calls for so much breath that we drop the nasn! 
 veil, and that changes the latter half of m into b, of n into d. In some 
 other cases a continuous consonant or vowel is dissimilated for force of utter- 
 ance : ss'^st, iwiiymp, nii^nt, t^ig, %i or p~^vp, are found ; spindcl 
 <Cspinl ; timber<^timr, Goth, timrjan. ^^28,36,81. 
 
 28. Gutturals {Palatals) : c, g, h, i, n. c has given place in 
 English before <3, ?, y, to h (a graphic change merely) or to ch 
 (Assibilation, § 34). This cJi appears in late manuscripts, and tlio 
 assibilation was doubtless begun in the folkspeech earlier; but 
 the new sound does not show in the alliteration, and should not 
 be given for Anglo-Saxon c. The assibilation of sc> English sA, 
 is excluded for similar reasons, ct^ht, § 3G ; ciycc, § 37; 
 cg = gg, § 37 ; 5C = a;, § 51. 
 
 g conies into English as g in go, give ; as clg in edge (Assibi- 
 lation, § 34) ; as y in youth. It stands in the place of J (= En- 
 glish y) of other languages in three places: (1.) Beginning the fol- 
 lowing Avords: gc, ye; fjeta\ gcr., year; gedra, yore; geoc, yoke; 
 geogud, youth ; geol, yule ; geond, yond ; geong, young ; gcsc, 
 yes ; gist, yeast ; git, yet. Compare Sanskrit juvan, Latin juvc- 
 nis, Gothic jugg, German jung, Norse <ingr, Anglo-Saxon geong, 
 iimg, English young.
 
 DENTALS. 17 
 
 (2.) "Within Avords in the place of i {=j) before a vowel in in- 
 flection : nerian = tierc/aji, to save ; inserted : hijie = h>Jige, love ; 
 ge inserted : eardian = eardigecm, to till. 
 
 (3.) Final for i: hii — hig^ they. 
 
 All these changes seem natural if g in these words be pronounced as the 
 English y. it is certain that these words were at all times often so pro- 
 nounced : we find lung in Anglo-Saxon as well as geong, nerian as well as 
 nergan. But words like geong alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poe- 
 try with words beginning with g hard, and not with other kinds of words be- 
 ginning with io, ia, or another vowel ; while in Norse the words beginning 
 with i, J, alliterate only with vowels. It seems certain, therefore, that this 
 ge sounded more like a hard g than like e or i before a vowel, which was 
 nearly the English g. It is better to accept the fact that a guttural breath- 
 ing was inserted between the vowels of lujie by those who wrote lufige, than 
 to soften out the g to try to simplify the phonology ; g and j run into each 
 other. Words in g hard in Anglo-Saxon run into y in Old English, and re- 
 turn to g in English : forgitan, foryctcn, forget ; gifan, yeven, give ; geat, 
 1/ate, gate, etc. These are dialectical variations, but real differences of 
 sound. In Anglo-Saxon g had such sounds as in modern German. 
 
 h represents the guttural rough (ch) and the simple breathing. 
 They were both in the folkspeech originally ; both are now given 
 in the dialects of England. The guttural is not, however, recog- 
 nized as separate in alliteration or otherwise in the literature of 
 the Anglo-Saxons any more than in the English, and may be omit- 
 ted from the literary, though not from the comparative grammar 
 of both. It is sounded in initial hi, /m, hr. hyg, h yp, § 35, 
 3 ; A < ^, § 35, 4, J ; ht < ct, § 36, 3 ; h dropped, Apocope, § 44 ; 
 Ecthlipsis, § 4Y. x producing breaking = hs. 
 
 i consonant goes into g, from the most forward utterances of 
 which it is distinguished by being not so tight a stop. It is found 
 sometimes, especially in foreign proper names, alliterating with g, 
 and should then be pronounced like g. 
 
 n in nc, ng (Goth, Greek gg), is the English guttural nasal. 
 
 29. Dentals {Lingucds) : t, d, J), ct, s, I, r, n. t<dd, § 3C, 
 5 ; < td, § 35, JB; st < sd ; t < d, Assimilation, § 35. 
 
 d for d between two vowels seems to indicate a disinclination 
 to begin a syllable with d: ld<ld; dd<Cdi, ^ 31 : d and J) are 
 not uniformly used in any of the manuscripts; there were cer- 
 tainly two sounds, as in English, The uniform use of7> beginning- 
 words and d elsewhere is calligraphic, not orthographic. The 
 real sounds may yet be made out; compare §§ 194, a; 41, (3), 
 English surds indicate A.-Sax, surds, unless they spring from other 
 
 B
 
 18 LABIALS.— NORTHUMBRIAN CO>SONANTS. 
 
 dialects than those Avhicli had most influenced the' Anglo-Saxon. 
 Assimilation by ?, § 35 ; breaking by /, r, § 32. 
 
 r<5, § 41 ; apocope of?*, § 44; metathesis of r, § 51. 
 
 S and z undistinguished, but see § 189, b. n, Ecthlipsis, § 47. 
 
 oO. Labials : ^^, b,f\p, m. p begins only words of foreign 
 origin, b changes to /in the middle and end of words, except 
 nib and bb < bi. The Old Saxon, Friesic, and Norse have the 
 same tendency to change the middle mute labial b to the contin^ 
 nous /"in the middle of words, i. e., not to close the mouth tight- 
 ly between two vowels. The Old Saxon and Friesic have both 
 surd and sonant continuous forms,/ and English v. This Anglo- 
 Saxon /"is written u {v) sometimes {/diicade, B., 1799), and it has 
 changed in English to v : heauoci, heafod, head ; heo/on, heaven ; 
 pulf, pidfds, wolf, wolves. The folkspeech had a sonant contin- 
 uous labial, and it may be distinguished in the weak verbs. See 
 § 189, b. The runic p is like the English lo, but must have varied 
 in the dialects as it does now in England. In 'm\t'ia\ pi, pr (often 
 parasitic), and at the end of words, it must have been spoken 
 with a nearer approach to closing the mouth. Bede represents it 
 in Latin by vm, thS Normans by gu / the parasitic v, g plainly in- 
 dicate a vigorous uttei'ance. It changes to u when final and pre- 
 ceded by a consonant : bealu, genitive becdpes, bale. Latin u and 
 11 were the same letter; the present separation of them was com- 
 pleted only in the 18th century, w is of German origin ; it had 
 come into common use in Semi-Saxon. Assimilation ofp and w, 
 § 35, 2 ; mm < mi, § 37, 2. 
 
 31. Northumbrian Consonants: 
 
 (1.) Gutturals. — C and g interchange: finger, fincer, finger; 
 dringes, he drinks; cc and p: getreuad = getiyccad / c ^ h, 
 c^ch, see h. g assimilates a preceding e or e to ei: deign, 
 Anglo-Saxon pegii, thane ; weig, Anglo-Saxon peg, way ; in such 
 cases there may be ecthlipsis of g : maiden, Anglo-Saxon onveg- 
 den, maiden ; or ^ > h : fifteUi, Anglo-Saxon fiftig, fifty ; g <ip : 
 driga, Anglo-Saxon pripa, three; g and i consonant have the 
 same relations as in Anglo-Saxon, h. — Prothesis of A is found 
 in hecdd, old, etc. ; often before / and r : hlddla, to lead ; hroue, 
 row; apothesis in Z((/e, Anglo-Saxon /iZcT/", loaf, etc. Ecthlipsis 
 between vowels is the rule, and occurs elsewhere, c^ h and 
 g^ h, with a change of the h to ch, are common at the end of 
 words: Anglo-Saxon mec^ meh, mech, me; occasional within 
 words: micil, mihil, m.ichll, much. Bcda uses ct for ht.
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— UMLAUT. 19 
 
 (2.) Dextals. — t for d is found: Jieafot^ head; apocope in 
 second singular of verbs : slvcpes dx% sleepst thou. Apocope of 
 d is common: hselen <.hpelend, savior; assimilation of Id: ma- 
 iiigfallice, manifold. There is no p; d and d interchange: 
 dagds^ dagds, days ; brodor, brodor, brother. Ecthlipsis of d 
 occurs when the pronoun dit, thou, agglutinates with its verb: 
 sjjrecestu for sprecest d\i^ thou speakest. d final changes to s: 
 ci(oedas<,ci(oedad,thej say. dyz: bezere, ha^tist. Liquids. — 
 Apocope of n is the rule in the infinitive, and frequent elsewhere; 
 ecthlipsis before d,f, s, as in Anglo-Saxon. Metathesis of r is 
 more common than in Anglo-Saxon ; ecthlipsis occurs in bg- 
 gen < byrgen, tomb ; epenthesis in efern, evening, and its com- 
 pounds. Metathesis of 1 and of n occurs, s < d, see over. 
 
 (3.) Labials. — b suffers apocope: f?»;;?, dumb, etc. ; b<f: 
 feber, Anglo-Saxon fefor., fever, f > w and ub : dioid, dioubol., 
 Anglo-Saxon deofol^ devil, where u is perhaps English v. For 
 p are written n, nu, lo. Initial p before n, and sometimes oe, is 
 left unwritten : tilfz=indf,\;o\f; oeg =icoeg^ -way. Prothesis is 
 found : tcoxo, ox ; and epenthesis : smmder, sunder. Initial /m, 
 su, do not contract with a following vowel, as in Anglo-Saxon, 
 except the parts of ciana, cnman, come. Ecthlipsis of to occurs 
 before oe : coed., quoth ; and between two vowels ; final it be- 
 comes a vowel, or drops, or changes to g. 
 
 The manuscripts are late, and the whole aspect of the dialect 
 indicates a revolutionary period of speech. 
 
 EUPIIOXIC CHANGES. 
 
 VAEIATION. 
 
 32. Umlaut is a change of vowel through the influence of 
 a, «>^, or i(, in the following syllable. 
 
 The conception of a sound tends to put the vocal organs in a position to 
 utter it. We conceive the later sounds in a word wliile yet speaking the 
 former ; hence the tendency to utter a sound between the two. No umlaut 
 shows in Gothic. Old II. German has most a-umlaut ; Norse, u-umlaut. 
 
 (1.) 2i-umlaut. — The conception of a coming a affects the ut- 
 terance of i, so as to produce the intermediate sound ey so it 
 changes u to o: helpan <.voot hilp, help; boga<iroot bug, how. 
 It sometimes changes i to eo : nid, neodan, neath ; leqfad., live.
 
 iX, 
 
 A 
 
 ", 
 
 ca, 
 
 CO, 
 
 ^, 
 
 ea, 
 
 A 
 
 eo, 
 
 &, 
 
 A 
 
 y> 
 
 y> 
 
 y» 
 
 y. 
 
 A 
 
 y» 
 
 A 
 
 y- 
 
 20 EUPHONIC CHANGES— BREAKING.— ASSIBILATION. 
 
 i-wnlaiit changes a, 
 to c, 
 
 ss, e, are between a and i; 6 is from a {^ 38) ; y is between u and i"; ca, 
 eo have parasitic « (^ 33) ; ed, eo have radical u {^ 38) ; and when the um- 
 laut was established tt was the effective sound in all. For examples, see 
 i}^ 207, 211, 208, 204, 208 (2), 208 (G), 20G, 208 (3), 20G. When an old t 
 is lost, its umlaut is called concealed: fdt,fel(i), foot, feet, ^ 84. Umlaut 
 stopped in secondary forms, whose primary have it, is ruckumlaut, § 189, d. 
 
 (3.) XL-umlaut. — A coming u, often changes a to ea (ia) (nearly 
 o m sound), i to eo (io) for iic: bealu, Old H.German balo, bale; 
 beadu, O. II. German Badu-^ battle ; rneoluc, O. II. German miluc, 
 milk ; seofun, Gothic sibun, seven. 
 
 33. Breaking is the change of one vowel to two by a conso- 
 nant. 
 
 The consonants most difficult to make, the trills /, r, and the gutturals c, 
 g, h, are often accompanied by an involuntary sympathetic movement of 
 other parts of the organs, which produces what may be called a parasitic 
 sound — the lip semi-vowel u, p, or the palatal i. Americans hear the para- 
 sitic I in the Southern cear for car, gearden for garden ; the u in hear, leer. 
 The g--5c-breakings are produced by a parasitic i>e, the A-/-r-breakings by 
 a M>o, a. The /t-/-r-breaking ea oftenest stands where there should be 
 umlaut e<^a, or shifting £e<ia, and the a of ca represents the parasitic sound. 
 Labial assimilation has the effect of u ; sometimes of i by conformation. 
 Analogous effects are traced here and there through all languages. Compare 
 ^^34,35,2,5,50. 
 
 (1.) 1, r, h, oftenest before a consonant, break foregoing a to 
 ea (ia), i to eo (io) : sealm, psalm; ear77i, arm; hleahtor, laugh- 
 ter; (second consonant dropped), eal<ieall^ all; mear<imearh^ 
 mare; (single h di'opped), sled/i <C sleahan, slay; meolc, milk; 
 eorl, earl ; leoht, light. For ea, eo, sometimes ie occurs. 
 
 (2.) m,/,p, and ?<-umlaut have the same effect, § 35, 2, a; § 32. 
 
 (3.) g-sc-breaking has a slight «-sound between c (sc), g, or 
 jP, and a vowel after it : ceaster < Latin castrum, camp ; sceo, 
 shoe; geador, together; {peota<pita, wise man). It may be 
 found before a, o, e, d, 6, e. 
 
 34. Assibilation is the assimilation of a dental or guttural 
 with a following «-sound. It gives rise, among many striking 
 facts, to a fourth set of letters, made by turning the inverted tip 
 of the tongue up to the hard palate, § 27. Such a stop, when 
 blowing, produces tsh {tch in fetch) ; when breathing, dzh {dg 
 in edge) ; if the stop be not complete, it produces, when blowing, 
 sh in sJiall; when breathing, zh {zi in glazier).
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— ASSIBILATION. 21 
 
 1. Historical. — These sounds are not recognized in the Parent Speech, 
 Latin, Greek, Gothic, or other most ancient alphabets ; and hence, though 
 they are now found almost all the world over, they are generally represented 
 by combinations of the earlier letters, and treated as compound consonants. 
 They seem as a matter of fact to have been contrivances to take the place 
 of certain difficult combinations of the simpler sounds. Among the Indo- 
 European languages, the Slavonic have most assibilation ; the descendants 
 of the Latin come next. 
 
 It was common in the folkspeech of Rome ; ci interchanges with ti be- 
 fore a, o, zi, in the oldest remains of Latin. It is not certain whether this 
 springs from a dialectic adoption of the imperfect articulation common every 
 where among children, or from some peculiarity of the Roman populace, e.^-., 
 one like that of the Sandwich Islanders (^ 27, 1). When the Germans were 
 sifted over the Romanic regions, the chaos of language favored the assibi- 
 lations, and they spread in various modifications over Europe, as far as the 
 Romanic speech had influence. 
 
 The English has the following : 
 
 Dentals. — ti^ tsh: Anglo-Saxon /(?izan> English /eic/j ; Latin qiies- 
 
 Z/on/j> English question. 
 Latin ?2aiMra > English nature. (English u=zi-\-u.) 
 ti>5/i: Latin nationis'^'EngMsh nation. 
 Qi^dzh: Latin soZJ£?arJM5> English soldier; Latin modula- 
 
 i/o?ii5> English modulation. 
 si>sA; Ijdiim pensionis'y- YingWsh. pension ; Latin 5ecw?*u5> 
 
 English sure. 
 si (=zy )^zh: Latin thesaurus > English treasure. 
 zi > zh : Anglo-Saxon grasian >• English graze '^grazier. 
 
 Gutturals. — ci^tsh: Latin ca5/?-wm ^ Anglo-Saxon ceasto- > English 
 Chester {Win-cheste)-) ; Anglo-Saxon yecian,yei2a?i]> En- 
 glish fetch. 
 ci^ sh: Latin occa?2?/5> English ocean. c^ s : Latin ct- 
 t77/5> English civil. 
 
 sce>5/i.- Anglo-Saxon scacan'^ sceacan^FjUgVish shake. 
 
 sci > s : Latin scientia > English science. 
 
 * gi>^/cA; Anglo-Saxon ecg (stem e^g-i) ^English edge; Latin 
 
 "•encn5> English gender. 
 
 gi>y: Goi\\\c gards : Anglo-Saxon ,§-ea?-(i> English T/ort?. 
 
 i^dzh: Latin iocus > Italian gioco > English jo/ic. 
 
 The beginnings of the following arc in Anglo-Saxon : sc before a and o 
 has often changed to see in the oldest manuscripts : sceacan for scacan, shake. 
 The sound of sh for sc in O. H. German first appears in the eleventh cen- 
 tury, and afterward rules in High German. As for the Low German, sh is
 
 22 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— ASSIMILATION. 
 
 not yet in Dutch, but in Phitt-Dcutsch it has become common as in Englisli. 
 There is no indication in the alhtcration that see is pronounced sh, nor can 
 it be received as current literary speech. In the Anglo-Saxon of the, elev- 
 enth century, ch for c begins to appear: chihK^cild, child. This is also 
 outside of the literary speech, and springs from foreign (French) influence. 
 The other changes are still later, and more purely Romanic in their source. 
 The only German assibilation is sh, and that is later than classic Anglo-Saxon. < 
 
 2. Physiological. — {a.) Assibilation of Dentals. — t-|-i: Hon in qucs- 
 tio7i. Trying to sound io as one syllabic tends to change i to y. In t the 
 tip of the tongue is pressed to the upper gum, and the voice blown ; in y the 
 tip of the tongue is dropped to the lower gum, and the middle is humped up 
 toward the palate, and the voice breathed. In tsh the tip is inverted and 
 turned up to tlie hard palate, and the voice blown. This is a compromise in 
 two points of view, — as to the place of the stop (between the f-stop and the 
 y-stop), and as to the kind of stop (inverted tongue against hard palate — a 
 roundish against a flatish surface ; see ^ 27) ; but it is not a mechanical re- 
 sult of an attempt to go rapidly through t-\-i/: it is a quite new way to make 
 a sound which the ear will accept as a substitute for the two. The explana- 
 tion of d-{- i {soldier) is the same, except that the voice in cl and in dzh is 
 breathed instead of blown. The explanation of s + ^ {pension), and of s-j-i 
 {grazier), is the same as that of t-\- i and d-{-i, except that in these last 
 the stop is not complete either in blowing s and sh, or breathing z and z?i. 
 In the change of see to sh, the c goes to h, and only gives strength to the 
 compromise oi s-\-y. 
 
 {b.) The English Assibilation of Gutturals, as though dentals, springs 
 from defective articulation. The root of the tongue never works as easily 
 as the more flexible tip. Children say, and Anglo-Saxon children said, tan 
 for can, tin for cin ; and chin (tshm) is a not unnatural compromise between 
 tin and cin. When the organs are placed for y, or i, or e, the back of the 
 mouth makes the narrow neck of a bottle, ^ 22, and it is hard to raise the 
 root to make a c (k) stop. Hence c (k) before y, i, e, is always unstable ; 
 and hence a child will learn to say can before cin, and will be more likely 
 to compromise on chin than chan. The most natural result, however, of the 
 difficulty of making this stop is to make an imperfect stop, and give the aspi- 
 rate h, ch, instead of c(k), and this tendency has prevailed in the Germanic 
 tongues. From this aspirate a foreign influence easily leads to the assibi- 
 lated palatals sh, zh, etc. Aphaeresis of </ takes place in geard^ yard, 
 compare § 28 ; a parasitic d (dj) precedes i, j in Latin words : possibly a 
 guttural g preceded in Italian the present sound of gi as dzh, in gioco<C 
 Latin iocus, joke ; Giove <C Latin love, Jove. Latin proper names of this 
 sort alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poetry with words in g hard. ^ 28. 
 
 35. Assimilation is the act by which letters make each other 
 alike. It includes breaking and umlaut, as well as assibilation. 
 Other chano-es of this kind are called assimilation in a narrower 
 sense.
 
 EUrilONIC CHANGES.— ASSIMILATION. 23 
 
 (1.) A vowel may assimilate with a vowel, (a.) Umlaut, § 32. 
 
 (b.) The vowels become the same : peorod, pered, crowd ; pu- 
 
 diipe, vidiia^ widow; pelerds, peolords, Gothic vairilo, lips; nal- 
 
 las, nsellces<. needles <Cne + ecdles^ not at all. 
 
 (2.) A consonant assimilates a vowel. Consonants of each or- 
 gan tend to change adjacent vowels to the vowel of that organ. 
 
 (a.) Labials put the moutli in such a position that it turns vow- 
 el sound to or toward ic. The strongest is p. It produces 
 
 a change of pa, pa, (pe), pi, pi, ap, ip, 
 
 to o ; 6 ; (po, u) ; peo ; pu, u ; cap ; eop : 
 
 cpam, epdmon > com, comon, came ; Northumbrian posa, Anglo- 
 Saxon pesan, to be ; pita ypeota, wise man ; piht ypu/it, whit ; 
 dedp, dew ; tredp, Gothic triva, tree. Compare § 52. Before m 
 (n), sometimes a>o, iyeo ; before f {p, b), ayea, iyeo: camb> 
 comb; himyheom ; e(://or>Latin apei\ho^v; g}fa> geof a, giver ; 
 compare § 32 ; -am'>-um, %1\,b. Note also the diphthongs, § 25. 
 The gutturals c (sc), g, place the organs so as to call out a 
 parasitic «-sound (breaking, § 33), while h, and the Unguals 1 
 and r, especially when followed by another consonant, had a burr 
 (•ili-sound), which brought a preceding i to eo (§ 23), Northum- 
 brian u: silfysulf, § 26. For i> eu before A, g, see § 25. 
 
 In Latin I brings in u most, — ?;?, b,p,f, sometimes: nebula, vi(l>i\r] ; 
 spatula, (TTrardXr} ; Hecuba, 'Ek(1j3i]. The dentals bring in z : machina, fii]- 
 Xavrj ; Masimssa, Maaavdaaris. The r likes e before it : camera, Kajidpa ; 
 cineris<icinis. 
 
 (3.) A vowel assimilates a consonant, (a.) Assibilation, § 34. 
 
 {p.) Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant, or 
 a mute to a continuous ; h>g, s>r, d=pyd, gyp, hpyp, byf: 
 sloh, slogon, I slew, they slew ; ceds, curon, chose ; cptved, cpscdon, 
 quoth ; bUgian, bitpian, to dwell ; habban, hafact, have, haveth ; 
 for seah, ssege, sdpe, saw, § 197. 
 
 (4.) A consonant assimilates a consonant. This occurs in An- 
 o-lo-Saxon mainly when, by composition, inflection, or apothesis, 
 two consonants are brought together which can not be easily 
 pronounced in the same syllable. The most common case is the 
 comino- to<^ether of a surd and sonant. One can not breathe and 
 blow at once. 
 
 (a.) When surd and sonant letters are brought together, the 
 surd assimilates the sonant.
 
 2i EUPHONIC CHANGES.— DISSIMILATION. 
 
 A. If the surd follows the sonant, a gemination of the surd is 
 produced. In this way Jf, ss, ss, are sometimes produced from 
 
 bf, ds, ds: qfna}i<CLai\n ob-{-fero, of- 
 fer ; bliss < bltds, blids, bliss. And by simplifying gemination 
 ( § 27, 5 ), dst > 5^, dst > st : cpidst > epist, quothest ; hledst > 
 hlest^ loadest. 
 
 Exception (1). dp is often written </(/, according to the ortho- 
 graphic rule that d is always to be used for p within a word : 
 od pe, oppe, odde, or. (2). ndst changes to 7itst, according to the 
 analogy of case J?, through the influence of the n, which supports 
 the d; gs > cs=x^ a favorite letter ; tns > ns, § 130, c. 
 
 B. If the surd precedes the sonant, the sonant is changed to 
 the nearest surd of its own organ. Thus, 
 
 cd, hd, 7?c?, fd, sr, sd, sd, td, 
 to ct, M, pt^ ft., ss, st, st, tt: socde^soete^sohte {^ SQ), 
 sought; stqyde "> stqyte, evecied ; dnf{e)dy drift, dr'iveth, ^ 194; 
 pisreypisse, of this ; cysde'yeyste, kissed ; c^sd^cpst, chooseth ; 
 gretde > grette, greeted. After this analogy, gs'^cs = x, ndst > 
 ?itst: agse'^axe, ashes; stendst^stentst, standest. 
 
 And by simplifying gemination (§ 27, 5), final td'yt, std^st: 
 blttd~ybltt, sacrificeth; hirstd^biTSt,\>wc^i^\X\', and after a con- 
 sonant: ehtde^ehte, persecuted. In st^ssin piste^pisse,\{\?,t, 
 the s is strong enough to take an explosive over to its continuous. 
 
 (5.) An explosive consonant before another consonant may 
 change to a continuous of the same organ. 
 
 1. The explosive is a complete stop, and hence it is not easy to make any 
 sound but s after it in the same syllable. 
 
 2. This fact may work Assimilation or Dissimilation, § 36, 3. 
 
 gd^hd ; gstyhst : beige, bllhst, bilhd, to be angry; ng stands. 
 cs<hs: dcsie^ dhsie, VLsk ; cd>hd: seedy sehd, seeks, Hask. 
 
 (c.) Before n a surd or an explosive may change to its cognate 
 nasal; fn^7nn, gn^ng: nefne^ nemne, unless; stefn'ystemn, 
 stem; gefrignciWy gefringan, Xo inquire. Compare («) and (J) 
 above. The veil is raised for the n an instant too soon, §§ 27, 28. 
 
 36. Dissimilation. — (l.) A vowel may change to a conso- 
 nant to avoid the hiatus with another vowel; «'></, u^p : ne- 
 riany-nergcm, to save; lirfian^lif/iga?i, lirftgean, to love; hecdu, 
 genitive bealpes, bealiipes, baleful. ComjJare § 27, 5. 
 
 (2.) Between two vowels a continuous sometimes changes to a 
 mute ; d > d: prdd, pridon, I writhed, they writhed, ? § 35, 3, b.
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— COMPENSATION. 25 
 
 (3.) The former explosive sometimes changes to a contiuuous 
 of tlic same organ. § 35, 4, h, 2. hdyfd., ctyht, (jtyht, ttyst: 
 habba7i, hcefd€,\ia.ye,ha.d', soctey so hte, sought; dgaji, dhte^ own, 
 owned; motdeymotteyinoste, must; jnttey piste, wist. 
 
 (4.) One of two continuous may become explosive; hsyx — 
 cs? (§ 28, h) : feax. Old H. German fcihs, hair ; Idyld: beald, 
 Gothic hcdps, bold ; let seldom occurs : fekt, falleth ; swld, house. 
 
 (5.) The former sonant becomes a surd in ddy{tdy)t (§ 35, 
 B) in the third singular of Acrbs (Conformation) : stenddy stoit, 
 standeth. 
 
 (6.) Successive syllables. — In Latin and English, -al and -ar in- 
 terchange to keep I or r from successive syllables : stellar, solar, 
 liberal, literal; so coerulean<,coelum. The former assibilation is 
 often smoothed in America: iwonunciation, § 34. The former 
 aspirate is not smoothed in Teutonic as it is in Greek. 
 
 87. Compensation. — (l.) A consonant is dropped and the 
 preceding vowel lengthened at the same time. 1. Before d,/, s, 
 with ecthlipsis of n, a change of a, e, i, u, y, to 6, e, i, H, i) : tod. 
 Old H. German zand, Latin dent-h, tooth ; soft, Old 11. German 
 scnfti, soft ; (jos, Old H. German Jeans, goose ; oder, other ; sod, 
 sooth ; hosu, company ; so genedan, sptd, sid,fif, ilser, cUde, Ude, 
 mUd, hUsl, '^d. 2. With ecthlipsis of g, mostly before n: pa>gn^ 
 psen, wain ; pegnypen, thane ; regnig'yremg, rainy ; pign'ypin, 
 food ; fsegr yfier, fair ; ssogde > svcde, said ; ligd > Ud, lieth ; see 
 iddeyeode, went. 3. With apocope of c, g, h, r: tneC^me, me ; 
 pecypB, thee; higyheo {?), they; feohyfeo, fee; ge {<Cger), 
 ye; me (<j«er), to me; pe {<:^per),to thee; pe (<7;>er), Ave. 
 
 (2.) A consonant is doubled and a following vowel dropped at 
 the same time ; i is dropped with gemination of a preceding b, c, 
 d,f, g, I, rn, n, s : habian~^ habban, have ; recian^reccan, to rule; 
 bidiaW^biddan, to \i\^; spefian'^ sp)ebban, to sleep; ligian^lic- 
 gan, to lie ; teliaWytellan, to tell ; fremia^i'^fremman, to frame ; 
 clgnian. > chjnnan, to clang ; cnysian > cnyssan, to knock. 
 
 (3.) After a long root syllable neuter -?« drops, and i of stem 
 -ia weakens to e, or drops : secia?i > secean, s^can, to seek. 
 
 1. Speech naturally runs in pulses; a certain length of time and a certain 
 volume of sound is pleasantcst between the pauses or accentual beats. The 
 tendency of speech to preserve this rhythm by lengthening the remaining let- 
 ters when one is dropped, or shortening all letters when a new letter is added, 
 is called Compensation, and the name is extended to all adjustments of quanti- 
 ty and accent which restore the rhythm after the adding or dropping of letters. 
 
 •2. In the pronunciation of Latin according to the English method, an ac-
 
 26 EUPHONIC CHANGES,— GRAVITATION. 
 
 cented vowel in any syllabic before tbe penult is shortened in sound, no mat- 
 ter what may have been its original quantity ; while such a vowel in the pe- 
 nult has the long sound. The same law prevails in the Homauic portion of 
 English: brief, briefer, brev'-ity ; admire, admi'-rcr, mir'-acle, mirac- 
 ulous. The whole body of words conform to what was the fact in the larger 
 number of Latin words. It shows that a long accented syllable followed by 
 two unaccented is more than the natural length of the rhythm. This force 
 of compensation is not so plain in the Anglo-Saxon portion of English, and 
 we do not know enough of the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon to trace its ef- 
 fects with accuracy. A word with an affix sometimes has a lighter vowel than 
 the kindred word without one: /c^?i, servant, /»;^nc«, maid-servant ; bera, 
 bear, hiren, bearish ; but the change may be (almost) always explained from 
 assimilation of some kind. Unaccented syllables show compensation. § 46. 
 
 3. When more voice than two short syllables follows an accented syllable, 
 the old accent often moves forward, or a second accent is given : admire, 
 admird'-tion; 7nir'-acle,mirac'-ulous ; Icg'-ible, leg'-ibil'-ity. This law 
 is to be seen most clearly in the Romanic portion of English. 
 
 4. Compensation acts in connection with Gravitation. ^ 38. 
 
 38. Gravitation is the tendency of sounds to accentual cen- 
 ters. It is seen in the lengthening of accented syllables, and the 
 lightening and final disappearance of unaccented syllables. It 
 goes on in all languages. 
 
 A. Vowels. — Rule I. Progression. — Under the accent the 
 simple vowels «, ?', u, lengthen by prefixing a and d. 
 
 Mixed vowels and breakings move to their latter element ; diphthongs ed, 
 
 eb, and all whose former vowel is long, move to their former vowel : e {a-\~i), 
 
 >z; (a+M)>z<; y (M-}-i)>i; ea, ea^d, 6; eo, eo'^u, 6; diphth. ca>e, 
 
 etc. ; eo<?, ea<iau, often go to e, ^^ 203, 204, 41, 33. 
 
 (fl.) Accentual effort opens to the a-shape the neck of the bottle shaped for i or ii, § 22; 
 too much a weakens to u or i; aaa^aati, 6, etc. ; eo<i, ea, are in unstable equilibrium. 
 
 Rule II. Precession. — In an unaccented syllable the progres- 
 sion of simple vowels is reversed ; also a goes to o, ti, or i, then 
 to ey i goes to e ; ii to o and e/ & disappears. 
 
 (1.) In the Parent Speech were the following series: 
 a, a-\-a=d, d-\-a=da. i, ai, di. u, aic, du. 
 
 In An2;lo-Saxon the followintj series are found: 
 
 a-series : 
 
 Descending. 
 
 e i, u 
 
 1st term. 
 
 a, cP, 
 
 Ascending. 
 
 a, <T., e 
 
 6 
 
 i-series : 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 u-series : e o u eo, A ea 
 
 Ascending: y^ nam ^ ?idmon, they took; hroder (Sanskrit 
 bhrdtd, Latin frdter)., brother; -y/lvegy-ldgon., liegon, they lay;
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES.— GEAVITATIOX. 27 
 
 scdn'y shone ; ■\/sci?i^ scmmi, seem, sbiue, shone ; ■\/ lug^ leogan, 
 ledg, lie, lied; ■}/ siic^ si1.can, sedc, suck, sucked; se«i> shine 
 (English t—d-\-i); mils^mouse (English ou — d-\-xi)\ ^et/>teeth 
 (ee=^) ; i?wf > tooth (oo =■?:?) ; /iyr«n>hear (eaz=i) ; w?ys>mice 
 (^>C>d4-«); ieaM>buld; e«^>all; sceotow> shoot; hedm^ 
 beam; 5eo>bee. 
 
 Descending: ■y/hif'^luf'ode, luf'dde, luf'ude, luf'ede, loved; 
 pidgcd^ptdgil, pidgel, Avide spread ; landsceap, landscipe, land- 
 scape; Apri'lis^ A'preUs, K^\A\ (Gothic ?n«m, Old H. German 
 mari) mere, mere (sea); (Sanskrit madhn) meodit'^meodo'^ Old 
 English mede'^mead. Here also belong many forms of verbs 
 now accented, but formerly unaccented : hhide, bunden<^ ■}/ hand, 
 bind, bound; for a fuller exjilanation of which, see Ablaut, 158; 
 also nearly all the affixes of declension and conjugation, for which 
 see Etymology, as referred to in the Index. 
 
 (2.) The changes in the Anglo-Saxon series may be compared with Rules 
 I. and II. and changes in other languages given on page 8, ^ 18 : «>tP, o, 
 lautverschiebung as in Greek and Latin ; dyie, e, same ; da^dii (Rule I.) 
 ><3 (Greek and Latin); ai>t, Rule I. (Latin); di>d, Rule I. (Greek); 
 aic'^H (Rule I., Latin) ; aiiy-hc (Rule I. Greek fv)~^e6 by a-umlaut in 
 stems of verbs and nouns, and by conformation elsewhere (^ 32, 40), San- 
 skrit has 6, Friesic ia ; du > a^ > a' > 'a metathesis to breaking to con- 
 form with e6 (Friesic d) . The descending series already shows itself in San- 
 skrit in changing a to u and i; i and u to e was not yet in Gothic. See 
 ^ 23, e. In Latin and the Romanic part of English, a in open syllables 
 goes to i ; before r, to e ; in close syllables, to e ; before I, io u; e often 
 goes to i, but before r or in close syllables it remains ; facio, efficio, efficient ; 
 pater, Jupiter; pario, aperio, aperient; damno, condemno, condemn; salto, 
 exsuUo,e\\i\i; lego,dUigo,*\'\\\gGni\ z?i/e?-o, infer ; correctum, coxxeci. (Lat- 
 in accent originally on the prefix. ^41, 4.) 
 
 (3.) The changes from Anglo-Saxon to English take a new start, and are 
 wholly analogous to the original series of the Parent Speech. 
 
 (4.) The first lengthening of i and u by progression is called guna (mas- 
 culine strength), a term of Sanskrit grammar; the second is called vriddhi 
 feminine increment). 
 
 (5.) The various kinds of assimilation and sound-shifting work together 
 with progression ; the result of the whole upon the vowel system of the An- 
 glo-Saxon is shown in the summary on page 7. 
 
 B. From Gravitation also springs («) the gemination of a con- 
 sonant ending an accented syllable : the common cases have been 
 mentioned under Compensation (§ 37) ; {h) also the dropping of 
 consonants in unaccented syllables, and some Aveakenings, § 41, b.
 
 28 EUniONIC CHANGES.— MIMETIC CHANGES.— SHIFTING. 
 
 39. Ablaut. — See Etymology. 
 
 40. Mimetic Changes arc those occurring through the in- 
 fluence of other words, g 158. 
 
 1. Conformation. — The words of all languages show a disposition to con- 
 form in inflection to the majority. The Anglo-Saxon nouns have gone over 
 to a single declension in English ; and the strong verbs, one after another, 
 go over to the inflection of the weak. 
 
 2. Simidation. — The feigning a connection with words of similar sound is 
 an important fact in English and other modern languages : asparagus~> spar- 
 row grass. It probably had just as full play in ancient speech, but its effects 
 can not be so surely traced. See carc-crn, ^ 229 ; frx, ^ 254. 
 
 3. Bifurcation is the separation of a word into two : borne, born ; truth, 
 troth; ivake, ivatch ; flour, jlowcr ; balsam, balm. There are hundreds of 
 words in English produced by this kind of fissiparous generation. Where it 
 is produced by a foreign word coming into English in different ways, it has 
 been called Dimorphism : ration, reason. 
 
 4. The law of contrast also operates to sunder different words of similar 
 sound, especially if one of the words have odious associations: grocer <. 
 grosser; cucumber < cowcumber ; boiKbile. 
 
 41. Shifting {Lautverschiehimg) is a change of sound not due 
 to other sounds in the language. Changes in climate or modes 
 of life, mixing nations of different stocks, ease of utterance, and 
 more obscure causes, affect the adjustment of the vocal organs to 
 the mind, and so shift the speech of nations. The current corre- 
 sponding sounds in several of the Indo-European languages are 
 given on page 8. 
 
 (1.) Vowels. — Tiiere was a gradual weakening of the vowels in 
 the ancient languages. The Sanskrit a shifts to a, t, o, in Greek, 
 and to «, 6, «*, 0, ii., in Latin ; ic shifts to o / i to e. Ease of ut- 
 terance and consonant assimilation work together for close vowels. 
 
 This movement is modified by assimilation, compensation, and gravitation, 
 but in long periods the shifting is plain ; a weakened vowel can seldom be 
 found in Sanskrit where the full form is in Greek or Latin. The short vow- 
 els are not found to shift in comparing one Teutonic tongue with another. 
 The movement of the long vowels is found on page 8. Within the Anglo- 
 Saxon we have referred to this shifting in speaking of «>«?,«>(?,«!> '<£, 
 tc > g, ed > e, CO > ^, ea>e, eo>e. 
 
 (2.) Consonants to Vowels. — In the table, ^*> 2, v>w, are noted in 
 Anglo-Saxon; they occur also in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc. ; ^]>ti and 
 /> ^ are common in the Romanic languages : Latin collum'^ French col^ 
 cou, neck ; Latin planus > Italian piano, plane. Compare § 35, 2, b. The 
 movement is sometimes reversed, as when a nation moves northward, or 
 northern peoples mix with a vowel-speaking race : Anglo-Saxon (/<Ci- ^ 34.
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES— SHIFTING. 29 
 
 (3.) Consonants to Consonants. — Regular shifting is to weak- 
 er consonants : gutturals to palatals, labials, dentals ; smooth to 
 middle ; rough to middle. Surd to sonant, mute to continuous, 
 § 35, 3, h. 
 
 A. Shifting to a co-ordinate consonant. — (a.) One smooth mute 
 to another : \vKoq., Latin liqyus, wolf, (i.) One middle to another : 
 ykvKVQ (metathesis), Latin dulcis, sweet, (c.) Rough to rough. 
 {d.) Spirant to spirant : geseah, gesepen, saw, seen (§ 35, 3, J) ; j/jut, 
 Latin semi, (e.) Liquid to liquid : Latin asimcs, Gothic asilus, 
 Anglo-Saxon esol, ass ; German kind, Anglo-Saxon did, child ; 
 Latin pnmum, Anglo-Saxon jiluina, plum. These shiftings are 
 occasional, or dialectic. 
 
 B. Shifting to another consonant of the same class : 
 
 («.) Grimm's Law, lautverschiebung by eminence (see § 19). 
 With the progress of the Teutonic tribes northwestward they 
 came to use for each smooth mute the corresponding rough, for a 
 rough the corresponding middle, for a middle the corresponding 
 smooth. This first shift is believed to have been completed dur- 
 ing the third century ; and here the Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and 
 other Low Germanic, and the Scandinavian languages rested. 
 
 The High German went on, and shifted in the same way a sec- 
 ond time ; so that since the seventh century it stands in the same 
 relation to the other Teutonic languages that they do to the rest 
 of the Indo-European family. 
 
 Guttukals : k (c) >ch (h) >g ? (h) : Lat. caput, A.-Sax. heaf 
 od, head, O. II. Ger. houpit ; ch (h) > g> k : Lat. homo, A.-Sax. 
 guma, man, O. II. Ger. komo ; g > k (c) > ch (h) : Lat. ego, A.- 
 Sax. ic, I, O. H. Ger. ih. — Dentals : t >th, dh>d : Lat. tres, 
 A.-Sax. prt, three, O. H. Ger. drt ; d > t > th ? (z) : Lat. dentis, 
 A.-Sax. tod, tooth, O. H. Ger. zand ; th (Lat. f ) >d>t : 0»/p, Lat. 
 fera, A.-Sax. deor, deer > O. H. Ger. tior. — Labials : p > f > b ? 
 (f): \^viX. pedis, A.-Sax. f of, foot, O. K. Ger. fuoz; b>p>f: 
 Lat. cannabis, A.-Sax. henep, hemp, O.H. Ger. hanaf; f >b>p : 
 Lat. f rater, A.-Sax, broder, brother, O. H. Ger. p^^uodar. 
 
 (a.) The change of rmigh, mutes to middle is a regular weakening in Bactrian, Slavonic, 
 Lithuanic, Celtic, and not infrequent in Greek and Latin. That of smooth to roiujih (the 
 use of parasitic h) is occasional in Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and abundant in Old 
 Irish. That oi middle to svvmth is a strengthening peculiar to the Teutonic, and an enig- 
 ma. Americans seem to hear foreigners use it freely in talking English. Germans and 
 Celts use more surd breath and less sonant than wc. Their r/, h, d are heard as k, p, t, 
 their k, p, t as aspirates. " K(h)ill the poys," says Fluellen (Hen. V., iv., 7). This suggests 
 the hypothesis that Celts adopted the speech of invading Teutons, that their Celtic pronun- 
 ciation of it as heard by the Teutons became current, and that climatic influences and al-
 
 30 riGUKATIOX.— AriliERESIS. 
 
 literation made the chaugo thorough. The Teutonic instinct for preserving distinctions 
 helped, ssince, when the rough weakened to middle, they would incline to change the old 
 middles to preserve the correlation. There are many exceptions to Grimm's Law: 1. A 
 letter is often lixed by combination with another: d in 7u1, Id; t in at, ht,ft. 2. Rough kh, 
 ph, often early changed to continuous h, /, and rested, § 27, 2. The whole shifting of the 
 High German gutturals and labials is thus disturbed. The corresponding letters, as oftcnest 
 found, may be seen in 5 19. 
 
 {b.) Other cases of shifting may be i > g, h > g", strengthen- 
 ings in Anglo-Saxon and elsewhere ; g > h, d > s, S > r, d > 1, 
 b>f >v, common Aveakenings. Most of the cases in Anglo- 
 Saxon have been referred to in §§ 35, 36. 
 
 (4.) Accent. — There are three systems of accentuation : 1st, 
 the grammatical, in Avhich the accent is given to that syllabic 
 which last modifies the general notion, i. e., to the affixes and pre- 
 fixes of inflection ; 2d, the rhythmical, in which the accented syl- 
 lable is determined by the number and quantity of the syllables 
 in the word ; 3d, the logical, in which the accented syllable is the 
 first of those expressing the main notion, i, e., the root syllable or 
 a prefix of composition defining it. The earliest Indo-European 
 languages are least straitened by any one system ; but the first is 
 in its greatest vigor ; the Sanskrit acute may be given to any 
 part of a word. The Greek and Latin came under the rhythmical 
 influence, and in the classical time used the acute only on one of 
 the three last syllables. The Teutonic languages became alto- 
 gether logical, § 15. This shifting of accent is a fundamental fact 
 in the explanation of Ablaut and many other phonetic facts in 
 Anglo-Saxon and all other Indo-European languages. 
 
 FIGURATION. 
 
 42. The dropping of sounds is mostly connected with gravita- 
 tion (§ 38). Adding of sounds without change of sense is rare; 
 but the shifting of accent (§ 41, 4), or the handing over a word 
 to a race with different habits of speech, or even the bringing to- 
 gether by syncope or ecthlipsis of difficult combinations of let- 
 ters occasionally calls for euiDhonic additions. Prosthesis is most- 
 ly gemination (§ 27, 4), -or parasitic (§ 33), or conformation with 
 similar words in which the added letter is significant. Metathesis 
 is mostly euphonic and dialectic. 
 
 43. Aphaeresis is found of unaccented e, ge ; of c in en; of 
 h in Jd, hn, hr, and elsewhere; of 7;* m pi, pr, pu : hisceop < Lat. 
 episcojms, bishop ; pistol < Lat. ejnstola, epistle ; gelic > like ; 
 geclddod > yclad > clad ; cneO > knee ; hl(1f> loaf; hnappung
 
 APOCOPE.— SYNCOPE.— rEOTHESIS.—EPENTHESIS. gl 
 
 > napping ; hrwfn > raven (§ 31) ; yyini < Lat. hymnus, hymn ; 
 plisj) > lisp ; protan, root. 
 
 44. Apocope is found of all syllables of inflection. The vow- 
 els go to e and drop ; c and r in the pronouns, and ^, A, m, n, s, 
 may droj"). See Declension and Conjugation. 
 
 45. Elision is found of the stem vowel e, i, and of final e Avhen 
 two words arc drawn together: scceany secan, seek; pergkmy 
 pe?*(7rtn, damn ; clyniany dynncm, clang; hiitan <ihe-\-'dtan^'\:)\xi', 
 nun <,ne+ cin^ x\oi\q; nahban < ne -\- hahhan, uol have; nies<. 
 ne -\-pces, was not. 
 
 4G. Syncope is found of an unaccented stem vowel before 
 /, n, r ; less often before f?, </, st ; sometimes before e, y, ???, p, 
 and other consonants ; oftenest when the consonant is followed 
 by a syllable of inflection : engel^ englds, angel, angels ; Jieofon^ 
 heofnes, heaven, heaven's ; pmter, pintres^ winter, winter's ; 
 dctn{e)de, deemed; hicf{e)st, licef{e)cU hast, hath; miinec^ mitnc, 
 monk ; hdllg, hulges, holy ; mdd{u)m, gem ; pid{e)pe^ widow ; 
 cpiOciic, quick (?). Syncope often brings on ecthlipsis. 
 
 47. Ecthlipsis is found of d, d, s, st, before st ; of n before 
 d,f, s; of d, g, A, ?",p, mostly between vowels or before a liquid: 
 /i^e(f?)5^, loadest ; cpi{d) st, qwothest; e?/(5)s^, choosest; bi7'{st)st, 
 burstest ; for n, //, § 37 ; fedper (Gothic fidvor), four ; pegn > 
 pen, thane ; freogan'y freon, to love; te6han'> tedn, tug; ner{i)- 
 est, savest; niUcm~;>ne-\-pillcm, to be itnwilliug. Mostly assim- 
 ilation and gemination. 
 
 48. Prothesis is found of h, i consonant (y), and p by blun- 
 der (§ 31). Apparent prothesis of h, g, ge, n, s, is found in An- 
 glo-Saxon or English, but probably springs from conformation 
 with the many words beginning with be-, by, ge-, together, an, 
 an, its, out : meltan, smeltan, melt, smelt ; nadder, adder ; Ned, 
 Edward ; Nanny, Anna. So in the French : espace < Lat. spa- 
 tium, space; conforming with words beginning with Latin ex-: 
 eclore, exclure < Lat. exclaudo, excludo, exclude. Real prothesis 
 is pretty common in Greek: 6(ppvc (Sanskrit bhri(), brow; uTrtip, 
 star, 
 
 49. Epithesis is found of e; of b after m; of d, t, after oi, I, 
 r ; of t after s, and n after a vowel. Those of e and n are con- 
 formations of declension and inflection, whidi see: lam{b), lamb; 
 tyran(t); len(d); moul(d); aftbr(d); niids(t) ; betpnx{t) ,\>QU\\xt ; 
 -s{t) second singular of verbs. See § 27, 5. 
 
 50. Epenthesis is found of a vowel between two consonants, 
 e.g., e before ry c, o, v, before ;;v, ??, /> ,• of g, n, p, between
 
 OJj 
 
 9 METATHESIS.— CONTRACTION. 
 
 vowels ; of d after «, I (especially followed by I or r) ; of t after 
 s ; of n before </, s, d ; of/ between a consonaut and following ej 
 of r before s, M,^), and after t, d, g ; of /> between m and ?, r, or 
 a short vowel; of2> between m and ?i, s, or t: meter <^'L^i. mc- 
 trum, meter ; bosom < Jos»^, bosom ; gllsnian > glisten ; beal{o)- 
 pcs, bale's ; meoliic < meolc, milk (Latin midgeo^ Greek ajutXyw, 
 Sanskrit J?;?-.7') ; li/fi{g)cm, love ; gife{n)d, gifts' ; i?^«w > bugan, 
 biipan, inhabit (§§ 221, 224, e) ; punor y Jmnder, thunder; bal{d)- 
 sam^ balsam ; glisnia^i > glisten ; niJdegale, nightingale ; e(n)- 
 sample; Sarmende K'Lz.t. Sarmatw ; myrt(l)e ; ct?cfe > could ; 
 has, hoarse ; spadii^ swarth ; co(r)poral < French capordl Kcajy, 
 chief; cart(r)idge; part(r)idge; chal(d)ron; ir^c7/7«ma > bride- 
 groom ; timber (Gothic tiinrjan), t'lmhev ] ^zemo/ > nimble ; sco- 
 llmbos<Liiit. scolgmos, a thistle; nemney- nem2)ne (Chaucer), 
 name; glim(p)se; e»ie^/^ > empty. § 27, 5, 33. 
 
 51. Metathesis is found of Iipywh, spy^ys, gnyng, ??«> 
 5W, 5C>cK, sgyx; of a vowel with a following I or r when a 
 mute precedes ; of a vowel with a preceding I or r when a mute 
 precedes : /ip% white (graphic only) ; pvesjw, psejyse, Avasp ; peg7i, 
 peng, thane ; clmisian, chesnicm, cleanse ; Jisc yfix, fish ; dscian, 
 dxian, ask; axe (Gothic azgo), ashes; beorJit, JryA^, bright ; tdel, 
 idle (graphic) ; grves^ gxrs, grass ; osle, cusel (rare) ; so iriian, 
 
 rinnan, run. 
 
 CONTRACTION. 
 
 52. In the Teutonic languages the hiatus is not generally avoid- 
 ed by contraction, but by elision or epenthesis ; or it stands. 
 
 (1.) Synreresis is found in Anglo-Saxon after ecthlipsis of g or 
 h, and the assimilation of p to w. 
 
 When unlike vowels meet, a mixed sound is produced in which 
 the open vowel predominates : a, o, 6, with another vowel be- 
 come 6/ II, e, lengthen the preceding vowel ; i drops; a-{-a=d; 
 ii-\-a=^o ^' t-{-a=:ed {I breaks): fdhany-fon, take; gefeohany- 
 gefeon, rejoice ; gefeohe > gefeo ; teolian > teon, tug ; freogan > 
 freon, love; cpdmony cudmony comon, come; fvegeryfm', 
 fair ; sdply said, soul ; epic > cuic > cue, quick ; sleahan > sledn, 
 slay ; cpam > com > com, come ; pihan ypedn, grow. 
 
 (2.) The reduplicati'on contracts with the root of verbs; w-\-d, 
 &-\-ed, di+o, give eo, which shifts to S; vb-\-a, m-[-ea, x-]-sb, con- 
 form. See Inflection, § 159. 
 
 (3.) For traces of synizesis, synaloopha, and other contractions 
 in Anglo-Saxon poetry, see §§ 509, 510.
 
 PART II. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 I. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 53. Etymology treats of the structure and history of words. 
 It inchides classitication, inflection, and derivation. 
 
 54. A Word is an elementary integer of speech. It has a 
 mixed nature : it is thought on one side, and sound on the other. 
 
 55. Notional and Relational. — An analysis of the words 
 of the Indo-European languages gives two kinds of significant 
 sounds: (1) those co7inoting qualities: e. g., of acts, as eat, sit, 
 go, Jcnow, love; of substances, as icet, red, quick; (2) those con- 
 noting relations: e.g., of space, time, subject, object; as here, 
 there, then, me, he. The first are called notional ; the second, 
 relational. 
 
 56. Radicles are elementary relational parts of words. They 
 are generally single sounds — oftenest a consonant sound. The 
 labials connote subjective relations oftenest; the dentals, object- 
 ive and demonstrative ; the gutturals, interrogative ; the nasals 
 often connote negation ; the vowels, oftenest simple limitation. 
 Radicles are found (1) as the essential part of words which de- 
 note relation (prepositions and adverbs) : tz-p, up ; ^a-l, by ; o-f, 
 of; xa-id, with; a3-t, at; t-o, to; l>tCr, there; 2>a3?me, then ; 
 sp-<^, so ; hp-icr, where ; hp-a3wne, when ; (2) of words which de- 
 note persons or things directly as having the relation connoted 
 by the radicle (substantive pronouns) : m-^, me ; \)-ii., thou ; \\-c, 
 he ; B-eo, she ; (3) of Avords Avhich define, as having certain re- 
 lations, objects denoted by other words (adjective pronouns) : 
 VHrin, mine; J)-?«, thine; \fixit, that; sp-27c, such; hp-a??, what; 
 (4) united to roots to form stems, see § 58 ; (5) united to stems 
 of nouns or pronouns as factors of relation (case-endings or ad- 
 verbial affixes) : smides, smith's ; leaf as, leaves; JdxQ., him ; pwr, 
 there ; payinan, thence ; sec § GO ; (6) united to stems of verbs 
 as factors of relation (inflection endings): com, am; li/Jiast, 
 lovest ; lifflad, loveth. 
 
 57. A Root is an elementary notional svllablo. A few arc 
 
 C
 
 34 CLASSiriCATlON.— DlXLEXyiON UF NOUNS. 
 
 formed by onomatojic from noises ; hrlng, ring ; has, hoarse ; a 
 few from sounds naturally exjiressive of feeling: hleah-tor, laugh- 
 ter ; jyop, whoop ; or vocal gesture : st, whist ; s?a-nd ; some are 
 a growth from the radicles, and descriptive primarily of being or 
 motion in the direction or mode connoted by the radicle : 2nnian, 
 to go in ; ilti^u, to put out; ?/;>pan, to ojoe?i (=:raise v})) ; /aran, 
 to larc {=go fort/i) ; most roots are the expression of an adjust- 
 ment of the mind and vocal organs to each other, according to 
 which the mind in a certain state tends to put the vocal organs in 
 a given state. 
 
 The diffusion of the roots and radicles through all the Indo-European lan- 
 guages, and their perpetuation from the earliest ages through such complete 
 changes of the superficial appearance of these languages, shows that there 
 must be some stable adjustment of mind to organs in this family of nations. 
 A comparison with other races shows that it is an extension and modification 
 of a less definite adjustment belonging to the original constitution of man. 
 
 58. A Stem is that part of a noun to which the historical case- 
 endings, or of a verb to which the personal endings and tense 
 signs were affixed. Sometimes it is a root, but generally it is 
 formed from the root by one or more relational suffixes : -^/man, 
 think>stem mem, man; -y/sM, bear > stem su-nu, son; -\//wy*, stem 
 hifia > Ivfian, to love, lufigende, lover. For case-endings, see 
 § 60. 
 
 II. CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 59. The parts of speech are the Noun (Adjective), Pronoun 
 (Article, Numeral), Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and 
 Interjection. 
 
 III. NOUNS. 
 
 DECLENSIOX. 
 
 GO. A noun has different forms (cases) in different relations in 
 the sentence. The variable final letters of a noun are its case- 
 endings ; the rest is its theme. 
 
 61. The case-endings in Anglo-Saxon mark the relations of 
 
 (1.) Six cases : nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vo- 
 cative, instrumeyital. 
 
 (2.) Three numbers: singular (one object), lylural (more 
 than one), dual (two).
 
 CASE -ENDINGS. 35 
 
 (3.) Three genders : masculine, feminine, netiter. 
 
 62. In the Parent Speech there is only one set of case-endings, 
 as follows : 
 
 SiMGULAE. Plural. Dual. Englibu Equivalent. 
 
 Nominative.... s ) — Nominative (no 
 
 [ sas \ sign). 
 
 Vocative (Stem)) ( « — Nominative In- 
 
 [ dependent. 
 
 Accusative am ams J — Objective (no 
 
 sign). 
 
 Genitive as saxus ) — Possessive 's, or 
 
 „„„ of with the oh- 
 
 aus 
 
 jective. 
 
 Locative i svas j — in with the ob- 
 
 jective. 
 
 Dative ai ) — to or for with 
 
 |■'bhjams^ the objective. 
 
 Ablative at ) ( . . — from or out of 
 
 > thjams Avith objective. 
 Instrumental (1) a ) \.\.i„ ) ) byor withwitli 
 
 Instrumental (2) bhi f S objective. 
 
 63. The endings are formed from the radicles (^ 56), and are plainly con- 
 nected with pronouns and prepositions in Sanskrit and other languages. 
 
 (a.) The nominative s is connected with the demonstrative and article : , 
 Sanskrit sa, sa, tat ; Greek 6, »), to ; Anglo-Saxon se, seo, p&t. It is us^d 
 only with masculine and feminine nouns, and is a quasi article, as if, in An- 
 glo-Saxon, se cyning (the king) were written cyning-se^ njnings. (For 
 the use of the article to mark a subject, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 487, 
 4; Hadley, ^ 535.) A neuter t (tat) is early found. 
 
 (6.) The accusative 7n appears in the Sanskrit mdm, ma, me ; ama, this, 
 etc. ; a vivid conception of any suffering object is expressed by the same 
 sound which is used for one's self as suffering object. 
 
 (c.) The genitive s is connected with the demonstrative sa, Anglo-Saxon 
 se, and marks personality like the s of the nominative. The prepositions 
 and adverbs of this radicle oftenest mean tcith, together: Sanskrit safia, 
 sam, sa, etc., corresponding in use with Greek avv, Latin con, Anglo-Saxon 
 ge. So the genitive s marks a personal adjunct, then any adjunct. The 
 original form was perhaps .yam, which shows in the plural. 
 
 (d.) The locative i appears as in in the pronoun (Sanskrit tasm-in, in 
 that), and is connected with the preposition in; tiie plural svas is formed 
 on another pronoun : Sanskrit sva, Latin se, Greek f , self 
 
 (e.) The dative ai is connected with abhi, by, as appears from the pro- 
 noun, Sanskrit tu-hhjam, Latin ti-hi, to thee, and from the plural bhjams. 
 
 (f.) The ablative t is connected with the demonstrative ta, the, and its 
 force in prepositions and adverbs may be seen in Sanskrit, Gothic, Anglo-
 
 36 PHONETIC DECAY. 
 
 Saxon ut, out of; the Uinbrian tu, to, out of; Latin -tus {cwlilus, from 
 heaven). Variations of the dental radicle are also found in Latin -de, undc, 
 whence ; indc, tlience ; Greek -6n', from, etc. 
 
 (g.) The instrumental tt is from the demonstrative radicle a, and bhi from 
 the labial radicle: Sanskrit l)hi ; Greek -^i ; Anglo-Saxon bi, hy (^ 63, c). 
 
 (/j.) The plural sign is s, and is to be connected in sense with the prepo- 
 sition sam, together icith, mentioned in connection with the genitive. This 
 is strengthened by insertion of the pronominal am in the genitive sdms, and 
 the dative and ablative b/rjdms. The dual is a lengthening of the plural. 
 
 (i.) The genitive singular and nominative plural are head-cases. 
 
 04. Phonetic Decay. — Sounds whose meaning is not vividly felt 
 come under the influence of gravitation (^ 38) : they weaken, blend, and at 
 last slough away. When tribes speaking different dialects mix, the casc- 
 cndings are half caught, and decay is quickened. By this process the Lido- 
 European languages have been losing their inflections. As it goes on, di- 
 versity of declension arises, two causes of which may be mentioned : 
 
 (1.) Different Endings of the Stem. — Some stems end in a vowel, others 
 in a consonant. Under the operation of euphonic laws each stem has its 
 own effect on the endings. The Comparative Grammars discuss the effect 
 of many different stems (Schleicher gives fifteen sets of paradigms). In the 
 Teutonic languages the vowel stems have held the original case-endings 
 most firmly, and are called strong ; the stems in n are called "weak ; other 
 consonant stems conform (J^ 40), or are irregular. 
 
 (2.) Gender. — (a.) Names applied io females use long vowels and liquids; 
 they melt away the strong consonant endings, and attain vowel or liquid end- 
 ings. Again, all words having such endings tend to assume the habits of fem- 
 inine names throughout, and become grammatically of the feminine gender. 
 
 (5.) The separation of neuter from masculine is not so thorough-going. 
 No special form is needed to distinguish inanimate things as acting, or as ad- 
 dressed ; hence the nominative and vocative are not distinguished from the 
 accusative. We take inanimate things in the lump; hence neuters tend to 
 use no plural sign, or to use an ending like the feminine singular, as an ab- 
 stract or collective form : Greek, Latin, -ci; Anglo-Saxon, -n, etc. Latin 
 neuters plural frequently become feminine singular in the Romance lan- 
 guages ; Greek neuters plural take a singular verb. The neuter is a mascu- 
 line with the activity out; the Sanskrit grammarians call it kliva, eunuch. 
 
 (c.) Gender has two aspects : (1) it represents a tendency to use different 
 sounds for relations to males from those used for similar relations to females, 
 or to inanimate things ; (2) it represents the tendency to couple together 
 words (nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) agreeing in their terminations. 
 From the first point of view there can be but three genders ; many lan- 
 guages have but two ; some have none. From the second point of view 
 there may be as many genders as there are sets of terminations ; some lan- 
 guages have none; some, e.g., the Congoes and Caffirs, have many. 
 
 (</.) There was originally no sound as a sign of gender in the Indo-Euro- 
 pean Parent Speech. It is denoted, however, in the earliest remains by long
 
 DECLENSIONS.— RULES FOR GENDER. 37 
 
 vowels, especially il,Jd'^i, for feminine nouns; by -t in the nominative for 
 some neuters, and indirectly by other case-endings. It has been a constant 
 force, showing itself more and more through all the changes of the language, 
 and in the Anglo-Saxon affords a natural subdivision of the case-endinjis. 
 
 Co. There are two classes of Declensions of Anglo-Saxon nouns: 
 (L) Strong: those which have sprung from vowel stems. 
 (2.) Weak : that which has sprung from stems in an. 
 There are four declensions distinguished by the endings of the 
 
 Genitive Singular : 
 
 
 
 Declension 1 . Declension 2. 
 
 Declension 3. 
 
 Declension 4. 
 
 es e 
 
 a 
 
 an 
 
 6 6. SUMMARY OF CASE-ENDINGS. 
 
 Strong. Weak. 
 
 Decl. I. 
 Maac. Xeiit. ilasc. Neut. 
 Stem a a i;i i;i 
 
 Decl. II. 
 Feminine. 
 
 Ueol. III. 
 
 Slasc. Fem. 
 
 U 
 
 "A 
 
 Decl. IV. 
 
 Masc. Fem. Neut. 
 
 an an an 
 
 SiXGULAK. — 
 
 A'. & V. --eeii- u ae 
 
 Gen es es es es e e a an 
 
 Dat e e e e e e 
 
 e 
 an an 
 
 a an an an 
 
 Ace - - e e u, e e, - u an an 
 
 e 
 
 Inst T u c e e e e a an an an 
 
 Plural. — ^ ^- 
 
 N.,A.,& V. as u as u a, e e, a u, 0, a an 
 
 Gen a a a. a a, eua a, ena ena 
 
 D.& Inst.... urn um um inn um um um 
 
 A few masculines of Decl. 1st have some forms from i-stcms or u-stems, 
 ^§ 86,93. 
 
 67. Gender. General rules. For particulars, see §§ 208- 
 270. 
 
 1. Strong nouns. All masculines are of the first or third 
 declension ; all feminiues of the second or third ; all neuters of 
 the first. 
 
 2. Abstract JVbwis have their gender governed by the term- 
 inations. In derivatives the feminine gender prevails. 
 
 3. Compound Nouns follow the gender of the last part. 
 
 4. Masculine are names of males ; of the moon ; of many weeds, flow- 
 ers, winds; man, guma, man; v eland ; mona, moon; mear, horse; porn, 
 thorn; hloslma^hXassom; /^inc/, wind. 
 
 5. Feminine are names of females ; of the sun ; of many trees, rivers, 
 soft and low musical instruments : r/^c«, queen; cti, cow; Mlf-pryde; sunnu, 
 sunne, sun ; etc, oak ; Damibie, Danube ; hpistle, whistle ; hcarpe, harp.
 
 38 DECLENSION FIRST.— A-STEMS. 
 
 6. Neuter arc names of wife, child ; diminutives ; many general names ; 
 and words made an object of thought : p'lf, wife ; hearn, cild, child ; mwgden, 
 maiden; ^r.Tj, grass; q/e<, fruit; corn, corn; ^oW, gold. 
 
 7. Epicene Nouns have one grammatical gender, but are used for both 
 sexes. Such names of mammalia are masculine, except of a few little timid 
 ones : mus, mouse (feminine) ; large and fierce birds are masculine ; others 
 feminine, especially singing birds : nihtegale, nightingale ; large fishes are 
 masculine, small feminine ; insects are feminine. 
 
 G8. Cases alike. — (l.) The nominative and vocative are al- 
 ways alike. 
 
 (2.) The nominative, accusative, and vocative are alike in all 
 plurals, and in the singular of all neuters and sti'ong masculines. 
 
 {2>.) The genitive plural ends always in a or ena. 
 
 (4). The dative and instrumental plural end always in um 
 {on). The instramentals are etymologically datives, except -^, -^, 
 
 DECLENSION I. 
 Stem in a. Genitive singular in es. 
 
 CO. Here belong Masculines, — monosyllables, derivatives in 
 I, m, ?^, r,p^ic'^Oy els, rd, d, d, t, nd, sty oc, h, ng, e, ere ; Neu- 
 ters, — monosyllables, often with be- or (/e- prefixed, derivatives 
 in I, n, r,2?ytcyo, d, t, h, e, incle. 
 
 70. — I. Case-endings from stem a -{-relational suffixes. Nom- 
 inative in — . 
 
 Masculine. Neuter. 
 
 Stem. pulfa, icolf. scipa, ship. 
 
 Theme pulf, scip. 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 Nominative . . pulf, a loolf. scip. 
 
 Genitive pulfes, of a xcolf, icolfs. scipes. 
 
 Dative pulfe, to or for a icolf scipe. 
 
 Accusative .... pulf, a wolf. scip. 
 
 Vocative pulf, 0, toolf. scip. 
 
 Instrumental. . pulf^, bj/ or with a wolf. scipe. " 
 Plural. — 
 
 Nominative . . pulfds, loolves. scipw. 
 
 Genitive pulfc?, oficolves. scipa. 
 
 Dative pulft«», to or for wolves. scip^^m. 
 
 Accusative . . . pulfas, zuolves. scipt^ 
 
 Vocative pulf(?5, 0, wolves. sci^u. 
 
 Instrumental. . pulf«;«, by or loitJi, icolves. scipwm.
 
 COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY. 39 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse. 
 
 (J ( a9va, iTTTTO, equo, vulfa, wulfa, ulfa, 
 
 \ho}'se. horse. horse, wolf. wolf. wolf. 
 
 SiNGCLAR. — 
 
 Nominative., a^va-s Vn-To-f equu-s vulf-s wulf ulf-r 
 
 (tTTTro-to ) ^ „ ( wulba-s ) 
 
 Genitive a9va-sja j ..TTTrov f ^1"' ^"^^"^ 1 wulbe-s f "^^"^ 
 
 Dative dijva-j-a (Vtti^ equo vulfa wulba, e ulfi 
 
 Accusative... a9va-m 'iinro-v equu-m vulf wulf ulf 
 
 Vocative a9va 'iTrire eque vulf (^Xomin.) (Nomin.') 
 
 Instrumental a9va. 'nrTru-tpi. {Ablat.) {Dative.) -svulbu (^Dative.) 
 Plural. — 
 
 Nominative.. a9va-sas (tttto-i equ (e-i-s), i vulfo-s ■\vulb6-s, u-s ulfa-r 
 
 ( equu-m ) ,„» n « » »i^ 
 
 Genitive a9va-n-ara 'Itttj-wv j \_ i "^'ulf'-' "wulbo, a ulfa 
 
 (.equo-rum (ulfu-m 
 
 Dative... a9ve-bhja3 (Locat.) equi-s vulfa-m -wulbo-n, u-n 1 „ „, 
 
 Accusative... a9va-n(s) 'iniro-vQ equos vulfa-ns wulf6-s, a-s ulfa 
 
 The Old High German has loulf, wulfcs, iculfa, wulf,tviilfu ; ividfd,wulfo, 
 wulfwn, wulfd. The Old Friesic has fisk,fisk-is {-es),Jis/c-a (-?', -e), 
 Jisk; fisk-ar {-a), fiska, fisk-um {-on, -em),jisk-ar {-a). 
 For Parent speech, add the endings in ^ 62 to the stem. 
 
 VI. Changes in Endings, ^^ 38, G4. (a.) The stem-vowel -a in Gothic 
 and Antrlo-Saxon does not blend with the terminations as in Latin and Greek, 
 
 O 
 
 but drops. This declension is thus become analogous to the Latin and Greek 
 consonant declension (Third) ; compare the singular genitive and plural 
 nominative, and see iroiinv, homcn, § 95, a, and proper names, ^ lOl, h. 
 
 {b.) Case-endings. For original forms, see ^ 62. 
 Singular. — Nominative -s is weathered, ^^ 62, 64. Genitive -as'^-es, 
 precession, ^ 38. Dative -aj>-a>-e, precession, 1^ 38 ; sometimes -e> — ; 
 ham, home ; dceg, day. Accusative -flm> — , §^ 62, 64. Instrumental 
 -a^e, § 18, or a-hhi^ Lithuanic, Slavonic -a-mi'^ 0. H. G. -11, Goth, e 
 (in hvc, sve,l>e, hvadre, etc.)> A. S. -e, §^ 62, 63, 251, IL, b. 
 Plural. — Nominative a-s{a)s^ -as has farther precession to -a5> -es> -s 
 in late A. -Saxon and English. Genitive -(5)am(5)> -a, ^ 64. Dative 
 ■.bhja(m)sy -rajas'^ -mus'^ -mr\> -m; bJi^m nasalizing the labial as in 
 Lith. and S\diW.-mus,-mu; -am> -w??z, labial assimilation,^ 35, 2, a; pre- 
 cession to -on, -en is found. Accusative -ans'^ -as, compensation, ^ 37. 
 (c.) This declension has best preserved the original case-endings, and has 
 transmitted to English the possessive and plural signs. 
 
 72. Neuters differ from masculines in this declension in having no proper 
 plural sign, ^ 64. Their plural ending is -a in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and 
 Gothic °-u in O. Sax.,0. Fries., and A. -Sax. ; — in O. H. Ger. and O. Nor. 
 (a.) The earlier -a is sometimes found in A. -Sax. (North.) ; -0 is com- 
 mon ; sometimes the -u drops, precession, § 38 ; fidcra (w), wings ; brimo («), 
 waters : gebcdu, gcbcd, prayers. For -ra, -ru, in wgra, eggs, see § 82.
 
 40 
 
 STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I. 
 
 73. 
 
 2. Long monosyllables. 
 Stem .... j'orda, n. 
 
 word. 
 Theme . . . pord 
 Singular. — 
 N.,A.,<!^V. pord 
 
 Gen pordcs 
 
 Dat porde 
 
 Inst porde 
 
 Plural. — 
 N.,A.,6fV. pord 
 
 Gen porddi. 
 
 D. ^ Inst... pordum 
 
 STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I 
 
 3. Shifting. 
 daga, m. fata, n 
 day. vat. 
 
 diri 
 
 da-g 
 dwges 
 
 dwge 
 
 dagks 
 
 dagk 
 
 dagum 
 
 fwt 
 
 fxt 
 fxtes 
 da'ge fxle 
 fivte 
 
 fatn 
 fatk 
 fatnm 
 
 4. U-umlant. 
 hiida, n. 
 slope. 
 /did 
 
 hlid 
 hlides 
 hlide 
 hlide 
 
 hleoda (-1-) 
 hleodk {-i-) 
 hleodam (-i-) 
 
 5. Gemination. 
 terra, m. spella, n. 
 tower. speech. 
 tor spel 
 
 tor 
 
 torres 
 torre 
 torre 
 
 spel 
 spelles 
 spelle 
 spclle 
 
 tor7-As spel 
 torrk spellk 
 torrmxi spellum 
 
 Stem. . . . 
 
 G. Syncope. 
 
 tungola, m. 
 star. 
 
 tungola, n. 
 
 star 
 
 Theme. . . tungol tungol 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 N.,A.,dfV. tung-ol,-ul,-el,-l 
 
 Gen tung-oles, -ules, -eles, -les 
 
 Dat tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le 
 
 Inst tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 \ A d-V i^' ^""5'"^^^^' -w^as, -elks, -Iks 
 ^ *' ■' ^ '\n.tung-ol\i,-ol, -ul,-el,-l 
 
 Gen tung-olk, -ulk, -elk, -Ik 
 
 D. <5j- 1. tung-olam, -ulam, -clum, -lum 
 
 7. Stem in 
 
 -ga. 
 bedga, m. 
 ring. 
 beag 
 
 he dig), h 
 hedges 
 hedge 
 hedge 
 
 bcdgks 
 
 hedgk 
 hedgum 
 
 8. Stem in -ha. 
 
 mearha, m. hoJia, m. 
 horse. hough. 
 
 mearh Iwh 
 
 mear{h),g,- hoh, ho 
 meares hos 
 
 meare ho 
 
 meare ho 
 
 mearas 
 
 meark 
 mearxim 
 
 hos 
 
 hok 
 hoam 
 
 i). Stem in -pa. 
 Stem .... hearpa, m., grove. 
 Theme. • . hearu 
 Singular. — 
 N.,A., df- V. hear-u, -o 
 
 Gen bear-pes,-upes,-opes,-epes 
 
 Dat hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epe 
 
 Inst hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epe 
 
 Plural. — 
 N.,A., <Sf V. bear-pks,-upks,-opks,-epks 
 
 Gen bear-pk, -upk, -opk, -epk 
 
 D. <5f I. .... bear-pnm, -vpnm, -op\im, 
 -ep\xm. 
 
 cneopa, n.,knee. 
 cneop 
 
 cneop, cneo 
 cneo-pes, -s 
 cneo-pe, — 
 cneo-pe, — 
 
 cneo-pu, -p, - 
 cneo-pk, cned 
 
 10. Stem+er. 
 <Tga, egg. 
 mg, plur. seger 
 
 wge 
 
 leg-er-u, -ru 
 xg-er-k, -rk 
 
 cneo-pwm, -um, -m seg-ex-Mia, -rum
 
 STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I. 41 
 
 V4. (1. Common forms.) Like />M//decline strong masculines not here- 
 after otherwise described : dd, oath ; d&l, part ; stdn, stone ; cyning, king ; 
 recels, frankincense ; hldford, lord ; S7idp, snow, etc. Like scip decline 
 strong neuters not hereafter otherwise described : col, coal ; dor, door ; gcat, 
 gate ; gebod, bebod, bidding ; gebed, prayer ; gebrec, crash ; gemet, measure ; 
 gefeoht, fight, etc. 
 
 (a.) Derivatives in -ad, -ed, -els sometimes drop plural -as: monad, months; hxled, 
 heroes ; fxtels, bags ; so those in -r and -nd, §§ 87, 100. 
 (6.) For datives in -d, genitives in ^ena, see §5 93, 94, 83, c. 
 
 (c.) Stem -e- is sometimes inserted conforming with stems in -ia: fisceas<ifiscds, 
 fishes, § 85. 
 
 (rf.) Themes in -sc may suffer metathesis, especially in the plural : Jisc, fiscds^fixds, 
 fishes ; tmc, tvuxds, tusks, § 51. 
 
 75. (2. Long monosyllables, neuter, § 37, 3.) Like pord decline neu- 
 ter monosyllables long by nature or position : ban, bone ; beam, infant ; fyr, 
 fire; god, good; ^or5, horse ; leaf, leaf; lead, song; speord, sword; pif, 
 wife, etc. 
 
 V6. (3. Shifting, ^ 23, 41.) Like d.rg or fxt decline monosyllables 
 
 with root x<^a: — masculine crxft, craft; gxst, guest; hpxl, whale; mxg, 
 
 son ; fvzd, path ; stxf, staff; — neuter bxc, back ; bxd, bath ; fxc, space ; 
 
 frxd, fringe ; blxd, blade ; crxt, cart. 
 
 («.) The shifting of fi to « is stopped in the plural by the assimilating force of the 
 a or M of the ending, § 35, 1. 
 
 77. (4. U-umlaut, ^ 32, 3). Like hint decline brim, water; gehlid, 
 inclosure ; /i'm,limb, etc. This umlaut is only occasional. 
 
 78. (5. Gemination, ^ 27, 5.) Stems having gemination simplify it 
 according to Rule 13, § 20 ; bil, billes, ax, etc. 
 
 79. (6. Syncope, ^ 46, 37.) Syncopated may be words ending in an 
 unaccented short vowel before a single consonant : — masculine ensel, anfrel ; 
 caldor, elder; dryhten, lord; monad, month; heorot, stag, etc.; — neuter 
 setel, throne ; yfel, evil ; beacen, sign ; tdcen, token ; leder, leather ; pundor, 
 wonder, etc. ; — masc. and neut. heafod,, head ; segen, sign, etc. 
 
 80. (7-8. Stems in -ga and -ha.) For g'^h and h'^g, see ^^ \\,Z,b, 
 118. For ecthlipsis of h, see § 47. For contraction hods^hos, see § 52. 
 Like mearh decline feorh, plur. neut. /eo?-A, beings, etc. Like hoh decline 
 fcoh, n. fee, pi. n. fco ; hreuh, pleoh, etc. ; and with a similar contraction, 
 stems in a long vowel : ed, eds, river ; 5;£', sxs, sea, etc. See § 100. 
 
 81. (9. Stems in -pa.) Like bearu decline ealu, n., ale ; mealu, n., meal ; 
 
 etc. Like cneop decline treop, n., tree ; peop, m., servant, etc. 
 
 (a). After a consonant p final shifts to m>o,- and before a vowel may have quasi- 
 gemination in vp; this m may then have precession to o>c. Similar are Sanskrit 
 «imave8<jsunu, son ; O. II. Ger. palawe8<^palu, bale. 
 
 82. (10.) Stems strengthened by -er, ^ 228.) Like xg decline cealf, 
 
 calf; ctld, child ; lamb, lamb. 
 
 {a.) A similar interchange of stem -a with -era is found in O. H. Ger. -ira, kelb, kclb- 
 ir, calf, O. Fris. kind-er-a, children, horn-ar, horns. The -cr sometimes comes into the 
 singular : lamher, a lamb.
 
 42 
 
 STRONG NOUNS.— DECLENSION I. 
 
 83. — II. Case -endings from 
 stem -ia-}-i'clatioual suffixes. 
 
 Stem . hirdia, ni., ricia, u., 
 
 shepherd. realm. 
 
 Theme bird. ric. 
 Singular. — 
 
 JVbm. Lirde rice 
 
 hirdes rices 
 
 hirde rice 
 
 hirde rice 
 
 liirde rice 
 hirde rice 
 
 Gen. . 
 Dat.. 
 Ace 
 Voc. 
 Inst. . 
 Plueal 
 JVom. 
 Gen. . 
 Bat. . 
 Ace. 
 Voc. . 
 Inst. . 
 
 hirdas 
 hirc^c^ 
 hirdtwi 
 
 hirdas 
 
 hirdas 
 hirdtwn 
 
 YXCIO 
 
 ricc^ 
 Yicum 
 
 xicu 
 Yicicm 
 
 84. — III. Case -endings from 
 stem -1+ relational suffixes. 
 
 byri, m., foti, m., mani, m,, 
 son. foot. man. 
 
 byr fot man 
 
 byre 
 
 byres 
 
 byre 
 byre 
 byre 
 
 byre 
 
 byre, -ds 
 byre* 
 hyrum 
 byre, -ds 
 byre, -ds 
 hynwi 
 
 fut 
 
 fotes 
 
 fet, fote 
 f6t 
 fot 
 
 fet, fot^ 
 
 man 
 
 mannes 
 
 men 
 man 
 man 
 
 men. 
 
 fot, futas men 
 f6t(<l manned 
 
 f6tic7n vaa.nm(7n 
 
 fet, fotas men 
 
 fet, fotas men 
 
 fotum mannum 
 
 83, a. Latin, O. Lat. Gothic. Gothic. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse. 
 
 Stem filio, m., harja, ni., hairdja, m., kunja, n., hirdja, m., herja, m., 
 
 son. army. shepherd. land. shepJierd. army. 
 
 Sing. — 
 
 t 
 
 A'bm....filiu-s, fili(s) harji-s hairdei-s kuni hirdi her-r 
 
 Gen. ... filii, fili harji-s hairdei-s kunji-s hird-je-s, -eas her-s 
 
 Dat filio harja hairdja kunja hird-je, -ea her-i 
 
 Ace fili-um, f ili-m hari hairdi kuni hirdi her 
 
 Voc fili hari hairdi kuni hirdi 
 
 Inst..... hirdju 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 iV. ^-F. filii harj6-s hairjo-s kunja hird-j6-s(neut.-i)herja-r 
 
 Gen filiorum, filium harje hairdje kunjc hird-j6, -eo herja 
 
 D. d; I., filiis harja-ni hairdja-m kunja-m hird-ju-n herju-m 
 
 Ace filios harja-ns hairdja-ns kunja hird-jo-s(neut.-i) herja 
 
 When a single short syllable precedes the stem -ja, Gothic masculines 
 follow harja, otherwise hairdja. The O. H. German has hirti, hirtes, hirta, 
 hirti, hirtu ; hirta, hirto, hirtum, hirta; neuter kunni, kunnies (kunnes), 
 kunnje {kunne), kunni, kunnju {kunnu) ; kunni, kunnjo {kunneo, kunno). 
 kunnjum (kunnum), kunni. The O. Friesic retains of this declension only 
 a nominative e<Cja- For changes in endings, see ^^ 71, 72, 85. 
 
 8 1, a. The comparative grammar of the i-stems is reserved for the fem- 
 inine forms, §^ 88, 89. The plural -as conforms with the a-stems.
 
 STEMS IN lA, R, ND. 43 
 
 85. {Stem in ia.) — Like hirde decline masculines in -e and -ere: 
 bere, barley ; ele, oil ; ege, awe ; ende, end ; mece, sword ; spenge, 
 sponge ; freond-scipe^ friendship ; fiscere^ fisher ; huntere., hunter. 
 
 Like rice decline strong neuters in -e and diminutives in -incle : 
 pite, punishment ; yrfe, heritage ; lid incle, a little joint ; rdpincle, 
 a little rope, etc. Most neuters originally in ia conform with 
 pord, or are now masculine. 
 
 (a.) The -e of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative is by 
 precession from -id. In the earlier forms a stem -e<C-i is occasionally 
 found elsewhere : hirdeds'^hirdas, hirdea^hirdd, hirdeum^hirdum ; me- 
 ced'^mecd, etc. The i has sometimes a quasi - gemination to ig, ige, the 
 g or ge representing an opening of the organs from the f-position (^ 28, 2 ; 
 27, 5) : here (Gothic harjis), herigds, herigeds, hergds, etc., hosts. 
 
 {b.) Many words originally in -ia, which have dropped the nominative -e, 
 and a:re declined like pulf, are seen to have i-umlaut or other assimilation 
 when compared with other languages : rec<Crece (Old H. German rouch), 
 smoke; so some i-stems : gxst, gest, gyst, gist ; ^ilur. gystds, giestds, etc. ; 
 gastd, etc., guest (Gothic gasts; plur. gastcis, ^ 89). 
 
 86. {Stem in i. §§ 89-91.) — Few remains are found of mascu- 
 lines in -i. Byre ; bite, bite ; dryre, fall ; hete, hate ; sele, hall, oc- 
 cur ; cyme, coming, has a plural ; some t«-stems conform : pine, 
 friend ; hsele, man ; hyge, mind ; mere, sea. Like byre decline 
 leode, men, and compounds of -pare (called by Grein fern. plur. 
 of leod, people, pan<, state, but which seem quasi-adjectives like 
 Latin liomani) : burhpare, citizens ; Cant-pare, Kentish folks ; 
 names of peoples : Dene, Danes ; Momdne, Romans. 
 
 Umlaut. — IjWQfot decline tod, tooth; and see § 91. 
 
 87. {Stems in -r and -nd.) 
 
 SixGULAR, — r-stem. nd-stem. 
 
 J\^07n.,A.,&V. hvodoY. feond. 
 
 Gen brodor. feondes. 
 
 Dat. <& Inst. . . . breder. feonde. 
 Plural. — 
 
 ]Srom.,A.,<&iV. brodru, brodor. fj-nd, feond, -as. 
 
 Gen brodra. feonda. 
 
 Dat. & Inst... . brodrum. feondum. 
 
 The changes 6 to ^,a to e, and eo to p, are i-umlaut concealed. ^ 32, 2. 
 These irregulars conform to the f-stems. ^ 91, 4, 5. For others, see § 100. 
 
 The Gothic has hropar,brupr-s,hropr,brd])ar ; plur. (like w-stems) brop- 
 ju-s, bropr-Ci brdj/r-u-m, bropr-ii-ns. The other Teutonic tongues show pe- 
 culiar forms (often undeclined) in their r- and ?j</-stems. See ^ 100, f.
 
 44 
 
 DECLENSION II. (FEMININES). 
 
 Stem in a or i. Genitive sincrulai" i" ©• 
 
 88. — I. Case - endings iVoni 
 stem a+relational suftixes. 
 
 gif. 
 
 gift«. 
 
 Stem .... 
 Theme.. . 
 
 SiXGULAK. — 
 
 JVoTiiinative . 
 Genitive .... 
 
 Dative 
 
 Accusative . . 
 
 Vocative gif« 
 
 Instrumental. 
 Plural. — 
 Kominative . . 
 Genitive . . 
 Dative. . . . 
 Accusative . . . 
 
 Sifa,gift. 
 
 gife. 
 
 gife. 
 
 gUu, gife. 
 
 hi. 
 aifc. 
 
 gif(?, gif,2. 
 
 gifa, giiend. 
 
 gifum. 
 gif(?, gife. 
 
 Vocative S^^^i 8^^^' 
 
 Instrimiental. 
 
 88.— 1(a). 
 
 gi^wn. 
 
 II. — Case-endings from stem 
 i-f relational suffixes. 
 
 dffidi, deed. 
 dffid. 
 
 dffid. 
 
 dffide. 
 
 dffide. 
 dffid, dffide. 
 dffid. 
 
 d&de. 
 
 dtede, dffid^, 
 
 djedfl 
 
 djedwm. 
 dffide, d«dd. 
 da;de, dffid<^. 
 
 dsedi^w?. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 1 
 
 Singular. — 
 Nominative.. 
 
 Sniifknt. 
 
 a^va, 
 
 mare. 
 
 a9va, 
 
 G reck. 
 Xwpa. 
 room. 
 
 Xojpa 
 
 Genitive a9va-j-as \ojpa-Q - 
 
 Dative . 
 
 Accusative... 
 
 Vocative 
 
 Instrumental 
 Pldkal. — 
 
 Nominative . . 
 Genitive 
 
 a9vai "^ 
 
 a9va-j-ai ) 
 
 a9va-ra 
 
 a9ve 
 
 a9va-j-a 
 
 a9va-sas 
 
 acva-s 
 
 X^Jpa-v 
 Xiopa 
 {Dat.) 
 
 Latin. 
 equa, 
 mare. 
 
 equa 
 
 equa-es ~i 
 equa-i ,- 
 equae ) 
 equal ) 
 equ» ) 
 
 equa-m 
 equa 
 
 {Ahlat.) 
 
 X^pai 
 
 equas 
 equa-s 
 
 I 
 
 XojpoJv equa-rum 
 
 Gothic. 
 giba, 
 
 sift- 
 
 giba 
 gibo-s 
 
 gibai 
 
 giba 
 
 giba 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 gibci-s 
 gibo 
 
 Old Saxon, 
 geba, 
 
 wft. 
 
 geba 
 
 gebo > 
 geba ) 
 
 gebo ) 
 gebu ) 
 geba 
 (Nomin.') 
 (Dative.') 
 
 geba 
 gcbo-n-o 
 
 01(1 Norse. 
 giafa, 
 
 giof 
 giafa-r 
 
 gi6f(u) 
 
 giof 
 (Nomin.') 
 (Dative.) 
 
 giafa-r 
 giafa 
 
 / r . N ( equa-bus ") ., « 
 (Local.) < ^ > gibo-m 
 
 ( equis ) 
 
 ( a9va-n-am i 
 
 Dative a9va-blijas 
 
 Accusative... a9va-s X''^P"'C equa-s gibo-s 
 
 The Old High German hd.s geba, g'ebd {a),geb6 (u), geba, geba ; g'ebo (a), 
 gebono, g'cbom, gcbo (a). The 0. Friesic has siug.jeve; T^\nT.jeva,jevend 
 {jevd),jevum {on),jcva. 
 
 ( gebu-n ( 
 
 ( gebo-n ( 
 
 geba 
 
 gicifu-m 
 giiifo-ni 
 giafa-r
 
 STRONG FEMININES. 45 
 
 (b.) To the 1st class belong all femiuiues in v. They are few : 
 fa7'ii, ^onvney ; l>.ffu,\ove; sceamu, shame ; scohc, school ] pracii, 
 revenge j compounds in -paru {burh-paric, state, etc.). 
 
 (c.) For the Parent Speech, add the endings in § 62 to the stem. Grav- 
 itation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon case-end- 
 ings except the m of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the original bh 
 (^ 71, b) ; 71 in gifend is euphonic epenthesis (^ 50), as in Sanskrit, a con- 
 formation with the weak form in an ; m in gifum (gifdm) assimilates the a 
 (^ 35, 2, a). The plural -d suffered precession in late Anglo-Saxon to -a, 
 then to -e, which in English drops. The original -d is retained in the para- 
 digms as the classic sound. 
 
 (</.) Plural -e is a conformation with the ^-stems, influenced also perhaps 
 by the Latin. In the sixth century, Latin se^=e ; -m, -s were silent. 
 
 (e.) Root a sometimes suffers shifting to a?, or even i-umlaut to e, before 
 -e : 5acu, strife, genitive ssece ; pracu,TeYenge,ddiii\eprace,prxce,prece, 
 etc. ^^41,32. 
 
 (/.) Here also are placed nouns in -0<i-ti undeclinable in the singular, 
 from adjectives : yld-u, -o, -e (eld, age), plur. yldu, -o, -e, yldd, yldum ; plural 
 nom. and ace. in a is found : yldd (Grein),yrwirfff, miseries. So arfe/o, nobil- 
 ity ; brmdo, breadth, etc. The plural is rare. Similar words in Gothic are 
 weak : manag-eins (multitude), -ein, -ein, -ei, plur. manag-cins, -eino, -eim, 
 -eins. O. H. German has -in for -ein; O. Saxon has strong forms. The 
 A. -Saxon words conform with the a-stems. ^ 40, 1. 
 
 {g.) For duru, door ; ^e, law ; leo, bee ; ea, river ; sx, sea ; forms from 
 j'a-stems, etc., see ^ 100 ; for Northumbrian forms, see page 49. 
 
 89.— (88, II.) Stem in i. 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norae. 
 
 ( ^vi, ofi, ovi, anstai, ansti, asti, 
 
 1 slieep. sheep. sheep. love. love. love. 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 Xom rtvi-3 oft-c ovi-s anst-s anst ast 
 
 Gen avj-as opt-oc ovi-s anstai-s ansti, ensti ast-ar 
 
 Dat tivj-ai Loco^-i Loc. oy\ anstai ansti, ensti ast-u 
 
 Ace avi-m i)\i-v ove-m anst anst ast 
 
 Yoc ave oRi (Norn) anst (Nam.') (Nom.) 
 
 Inst avj-a (Dative.) Ahl. oyiid) (Dative.) (Dative.) (Dative.) 
 
 Pliirai.. — 
 
 Nom. & Yoc. dvaj-as ("fi-fc ovu-s anstci-s ansti, ensti asti-r 
 
 Gen avi-n-am opt'-wi' ovi-um anste anstjo, enste-6 ust-a 
 
 Dat avi-bhjas Zoc. ("fi-fft ovi-lms ansti-m anstju-n, enstjn-n ast-um 
 
 Ace avi-s opi-ac ovc-s ansti-ns ansti, ensti asti 
 
 The O. High German has anst, ensti anst, ensti anst, anst ; ensti, enstj-o 
 cnsteo, ensti-m, ensti. The Old Friesic has ned, nede, nede, nede ; neda, 
 ncda, ncd-d, ncdi-m<.ncdem, -urn, -on, ncda. Masc. and neut. /-stems were 
 common in the older tongues ; but few masc. survive in A. -Sax. ^^ 64, d ; 86.
 
 46 
 
 DECLENSION II.— I-STEMS. 
 
 90—11. C 
 
 Stem . 
 
 Theme 
 
 Singular 
 
 I^om. . 
 
 Gen. . . 
 
 Dot. . . 
 
 Ace. . . 
 
 Vbc. . . 
 Inst. . . 
 
 Plural.— 
 
 JVbm. . 
 Gen. . . 
 Dot, . . 
 Ace. . . 
 Vbc. . . 
 Inst. . . 
 
 Stem, 
 Theme 
 Singular 
 
 ]Vb?n. . 
 
 Gen. . 
 
 Bat. . 
 
 Ace. . 
 
 Vbc. . 
 list. . 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Gen. . 
 Dat. . 
 Ace. . 
 Vbc. . 
 Inst. . 
 
 ase-endings < stem i + rel. suffixes. Nomiuative in — . 
 
 1. dc-edi, deed. 2. pynni,/*«?j. 3. beadpi, battle. 
 d<ed. pynn. beadp (u, o), beadup. 
 
 djed. 
 diwde. 
 d&dc. 
 j dffid, 
 ( d^de. 
 died, 
 d^de. 
 
 dffide {a). 
 dffidfl 
 d^di«?2. 
 
 d&de ((?). 
 
 d&de («). 
 
 4. boci, Joo/w 
 boo. 
 
 b6c. 
 boce. 
 bee. 
 
 boc 
 
 boc. 
 bee. 
 
 bee. 
 
 hoed. 
 
 hocum. 
 bee. 
 bee. 
 
 hocum. 
 
 pynne. 
 pynnc. 
 
 pyn. 
 
 pynne. 
 
 pyn- 
 
 pynne. 
 
 j pyn. j 
 
 ( pynne. ( 
 
 beadu (o). 
 
 beadpe, beadupe. 
 
 beadpe, beadupe. 
 beadu (o), 
 beadpe, beadupe. 
 beadu (o). 
 
 beadpe, beadupe. 
 
 pynne (a), beadpe (a), beadupe (a). 
 
 pynna. beadpd, beadupa. 
 
 \yyi\num. beadpt<m, beadupto?z. 
 pynne («). beadpe (a), beadupe (d). 
 pyune (d). beadpe (a), beadupe (a). 
 
 'pymnan. headpum, beadup^^m. 
 
 5. mftsi, mouse. 
 mfts. 
 
 mils, 
 muse, 
 mys. 
 
 mils. 
 
 m<is. 
 rays. 
 
 mys. 
 
 mA^d. 
 
 ratiswm. 
 m^s. 
 mys. 
 
 ixiAmmi. 
 
 6. ceasteri, city. 
 ceaster, ceastr. 
 
 ceaster. 
 ceastre. 
 ceastre. 
 j ceaster. 
 
 { ceastve. 
 ceaster. 
 ceastre. 
 
 ceastre {d). 
 ceastrtl 
 ceastrt^m. 
 
 ceastre {d). 
 
 ceastre (d). 
 ceastrt^?^. 
 
 91. To the 2d class belong all ferainines ending in a consonant: 
 they arc simple monosyllables; derivatives in -e?, -e?i, -er ; -ung ;
 
 STRONG NOUNS (FEMININES). 47 
 
 ->ils, -nes; -es ; -oc ; -od, -ud^ d ; p-; nearly all strong feminines 
 conform. 
 
 (a.) The feminines of the first Sanskrit declension are a-stems and 
 2-stems. 
 
 {b.) The apocope of stem i in the singular nominative, accusative, and 
 vocative, is the effect of gravitation (^ 38). That short roots retain the stem 
 vowel {gifu, etc.). while long roots drop it {daid, etc.), shows compensation 
 (^ 37). Compare the feminine of the strong adjectives. 
 
 (c.) The singular accusative -e, the plural nominative, accusative, and 
 vocative -c?, and dative -nin<^-im., are conformations with the 1st class. 
 SS 40, 1. 
 
 A. (1. Common Form.) — Like dsbd decline words of this de- 
 clension ending in a syllable long by nature or position : dr, honor ; 
 Mn^ prayer ; Mr, lore ; rod, cross ; pund, wound ; pyrd, fate ; ge- 
 sammmg, assembly ; so also ides, woman, and some other words 
 in a short syllable. 
 
 (a.) Except words like hoc and mils (4, 5), and like da, cleo (^ 100). 
 (b.) Many have sometimes -d in the dative : some originally -u stems re- 
 taining it, others conforming — words in -ung oftenest. § 93, i. 
 
 B. (2. Geinination) — Like pyn decline words of this declen- 
 sion ending short in a consonant : ben, wound ; hlis, bliss ; hen, 
 lien ; hyrgen, sepulcher ; gpnen, care ; prtnis, trinity, etc. 
 
 (3. Semivowel Gemination.) — Like headu decline feminines in 
 p>t« (§ 30) : gearu, gear ; sccadu, shadow, but sceade, sceadd are 
 found; rsesu, providence; seonu, sinew. 
 
 (a.) Except syncopated forms like ceaster, and a few like d&d. 
 {b.) For the simplification of gemination pynny-pyn, see § 20, Rule 13. 
 (c.) The II of vp is made in closing the organs to^ (^ 27, 5). It may 
 suffer precession to o>e (^ 38). Final ^>i< is shifting (§ 30 ; 41, 2). 
 
 C. (4, 5. Umlaut.) — Like boc decline broc, breeches ; gds, goose. 
 Like mils decline Ms, louse ; for cit, cow ; burh, borough ; tur/, 
 turf, see § 100. Note also dohtor, speoster, moder. 
 
 (a.) The changes in the roots of boc, mus, etc., are i-umlaut concealed; 
 bec<bdci (Old Saxon boci), ^ 32, 2. 
 
 D. (6. Syncope.) — Like ceaster decline syncopated words of 
 this declension : they end in an unaccented vowel before I, n, r, 
 or sometimes other single consonants (§ 40) : sapel, soul ; stefen, 
 voice ; lifer, liver ; meoluc, milk. Unsyncopated forms occur. 
 
 E. For forms from ?a-stems ; hand, hand ; niht, night ; piht, 
 whit, see § 100. For Northumbrian forms, see page 49.
 
 48 
 
 DECLEIS'SIUN III. (U-STEMS). 
 
 92. STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 
 I. Jlcacl-cases in a Voiccl. — Genitive iu a. (Declension III.) 
 
 Case-endings < stem ii + relational suffixes. Xominative in u. 
 Feminine hand (hand) is added. 
 
 Stem 1. sunu, son. 2. handu, hand. 
 
 Theme sun. hand. 
 
 No'minative. . sun?/. hand. 
 
 Genitive sund hand^. 
 
 Dative sunc2, sunz^ liandt:?, hand. 
 
 Accusative . . . sunz^ hand. 
 
 Vocative sun?^ hand. 
 
 Instrumental. suna. handa, hand. 
 Plukal. — 
 
 nominative. . &\xmi (o), sunc^. handa. 
 
 Genitive \ ' ^ [• handd. 
 
 ( Bunewa. ) 
 
 Dative &\\\nan. handtwr. 
 
 Accusative... suni< (o), suna. handa. 
 
 Vocative sun?< (o), sun<?. liandd. 
 
 Instrumental. ^mnim. handwm. 
 
 93. To the third declension belong suniij pudu^vioo^', magu, 
 servant : and bregu, prince ; headu-, fight ; heoru, sword ; lagxi^ 
 lake; meodu, mead; salu, hall; sidu, custom, and a few others, 
 found mostly in the singular nominative and accusative, and in 
 composition. 
 
 (a.) This declension corresponds to the Latin second in so far as it con- 
 tains those masculine nouns which have their head-cases in a vowel, and so 
 is a complement of declension second. In its original stem it corresponds to 
 the Latin fourth. ^ 101, b. 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. Old Saxon. Old Noree. 
 
 f sunu, vtKv, fructu, siuiu, sunu, sonu, 
 
 btcm ) /> -^ 
 
 ( son, corpse. ji-uit. son. son, son. 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 Nominative.. sunii-s vtKv-g fructu-s sxmu-s sunu, -o £on-r 
 
 ^ . . « , . ,. A fsun(u)-o) 
 
 Genitive sunv-as viKv-oc fructu-s sunau-s S . ,- sona-r 
 
 ( sunje-s ) 
 
 Dative from ( sunau ) , (fructu-i) (sunu, -o,) 
 
 ■< . , . r v(Kv-i J ^ >■ smiau -< . >• sjtii 
 
 Locative... (. sunav-i) ( fructu) (, sunje ) 
 
 Accusative. . . sunii-m v'tKV-v fructu-m sunu sunu, -o son 
 
 Vocative sA'no vtKV (Nomin,) sunau, -u (^Nomin.) (Nomin.) 
 
 Instrumental. sunii-n-a (Dat.) {Ablat,') (^Dative.} sunju {Dative.)
 
 STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 49 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse. 
 
 „ ( sunu, vtKv, fructu, sunu, sunu, sonu. 
 
 Stem i ' . . ' ' 
 
 <- son. corpse. Jruit. son. son. son. 
 Plural. — 
 
 -.-^ . . fsunav-as) , c .'■ 
 
 Nominative, -j , . ^ viKv-ic, iructu-s suniu-s sum syni-r 
 
 ( sunv-as ) ., .1 
 
 Genitive sunii'-n-am vncv-uv fructu-um suniv-e sunj-o, -eo son-a 
 
 Dative sunu-bhjas (^Locat.') fructi-bus sunu-m sunu-n sonu-m 
 
 . . ( sunu'-n ) , ^ . 
 
 Accusative.. ^, ^ , r viKv-ag Iructu-s sunu-ns sum sonu 
 
 (. sunv-as ) ^ 
 
 The Old High German has sunu (0), suncs, sunju (sunu), sunu (0), sunju 
 (sunu) ; suni, sunjo, siinim (sunum), sunt (u). The li-declension is near- 
 ly extinct. O. Fries, sun-u (0), -a -a, -u ; -ar (-a), -a, -um, -ar (-a). 
 
 (b.) Gravitation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon 
 case-endings, except the -in of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the 
 original bh. ^ 38. 
 
 (c.) The Gothic du of the genitive and dative singular is a' progression 
 from u (sunu-as'^sundu-as^sundus),^ 38, 1. The Anglo-Saxon a nearly 
 resembles it, and is retained in the paradigms as the classic sound, though it 
 suffered precession in later times. 
 
 (d.) The instrumental sund, handd are dative forms. 
 
 (e.) The plural -u^-0 is precession : it is found also in the singular. 
 §38, 1. 
 
 (/.) The plural -d and -end conform to the second declension. 
 
 (g.) Note the umlaut and shifting in the Old Norse : 5>r, v^O, U^i/. 
 
 (h.) Hand conforms almost wholly to the first declension. 
 
 (i.) Some words originally w-stems retain the forms of this declension in 
 single cases, especially in the singular dative -a, and plural nominative, ac- 
 cusative, and vocative -u: feldd, field ; fordd, ford ; sumord, summer; pin- 
 trd, pintru, winter ; dura, door. Some words of other stems conform in the 
 same cases : peoruldd, world ; gehrodru, brothers ; dohlru, daughters ; mo- 
 dru, mothers ; gespeostru, sisters ; feminines in -ung. 
 
 (k.) For irregular forms o?pudu, magu, hand, etc., see § 100. 
 
 94. NoRTUUMBPvIAX. 
 
 Feminines, Declension II. — In words of the First Class -a is found for 
 Common Anglo-Saxon -u or -e. Feminines sometimes have -es in the geni- 
 tive singular and -as in the plural, and then may pass for masculines. 
 
 Singular. — Norn, geffl. Plural. — Nom. ge^ds. 
 
 Gen.. geks(aes). Gen., gefena. 
 
 Dat.. gefa. Dat.. gefwm. 
 
 Masculines, Declen. I. and III. — Here a for u is found : suria for sunu ; 
 also the complete descending series o(H: sicno, sune, sun, sun. §1 38, 1. 
 
 Nouns strong in Common Anglo-Saxon often have weak forms or mixed 
 strong and weak forms in Northumbrian. The genitive -end abounds. 
 
 D
 
 50 
 
 DECLENSION IV .— AN-STEMS. 
 
 05. WEAK NOUNS. 
 
 Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes. — Genitive in an 
 
 (Declension IV.) 
 
 1. Masculines. 2. Feminines. 3. Neuters. 
 hanan, tungan, eagan, 
 
 tongue. eye. 
 
 Stem . 
 
 •1 
 Theme 
 
 SlJJGULAK.- 
 
 Noin. 
 Gen. . 
 Bat. . 
 Ace. . 
 Voc. . 
 Inst. . 
 Plural. — 
 Nom. 
 Gen. . 
 Dat. . 
 Ace. . 
 Voc. . 
 Inst. . 
 
 code. 
 ban. 
 
 bana. 
 
 banavi. 
 
 hana>i. 
 banaw. 
 bana. 
 
 bana;?. 
 
 bana/i. 
 banewa. 
 
 banaw. 
 bana?*. 
 ban?<m. 
 
 tung. 
 
 tunge. 
 
 tungan. 
 
 tungaw. 
 tunga?^. 
 tunge. 
 
 tungaw. 
 
 tungan. 
 
 tungewd. 
 
 Iwn^uni. 
 tungan. 
 tungan. 
 
 tungwm. 
 
 eag. 
 
 cage. 
 
 e^i^an. 
 
 eagan. 
 eage. 
 eage. 
 
 eagan. 
 
 eagan. 
 
 eagend. 
 
 eag?(!/n. 
 eagan. 
 eaccan. 
 
 eag?«n. 
 
 Contracts. 
 
 taan, 
 
 toe. 
 
 ta. 
 
 tae, ta. 
 
 taan, tan. 
 
 taan, tan. 
 taan, tan. 
 tae, ta. 
 
 taan, tan. 
 
 taan, tan. 
 
 iaend, tana. 
 
 taum. 
 taan, tan. 
 taan, tan. 
 
 imcni. 
 
 To the weak declension belong certain monosyllable themes 
 and derivative themes in -ig, -I, -m, -n, -r, -s, -p, all adding -a or 
 -e in the nominative. 
 
 (a.) Stems in -an are of the third declension in Latin and Greek. 
 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Old Sax. 
 
 Old Norse. 
 
 Stem 1 
 
 a9man, 
 
 TTOllXll', 
 
 homen, -i, 
 
 hanan, 
 
 hanan, 
 
 hanan. 
 
 stone. 
 
 shepherd. 
 
 man. 
 
 cock. 
 
 cock. 
 
 cock. 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nominative. 
 
 a^mfi 
 
 7roipi]v 
 
 homo 
 
 hana 
 
 hano 
 
 hani 
 
 Genitive .... 
 
 agman-as 
 
 TTOlfliV-Og 
 
 liomin-is 
 
 ]ianin-s 
 
 hanun 
 
 hana 
 
 Dat. < Loc. 
 
 a^man-i 
 
 TTOlfliV-l 
 
 liomini 
 
 hanin 
 
 hanun 
 
 hana 
 
 Accusative.. 
 
 a9man-am 
 
 TTOIfltf-a 
 
 homin-em 
 
 hanan 
 
 hanun 
 
 hana 
 
 Vocative.... 
 
 a^nian 
 
 (Nomi7i.) 
 
 (Nomin.) 
 
 hana 
 
 (Nom.) 
 
 (Nom.) 
 
 Instrument. 
 "Pt ttt? at, 
 
 a9man-a 
 
 (Dative.) 
 
 (Ablat.) 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 (Bat.) 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 Nominative. 
 
 li^man-as 
 
 TToifuv-eg 
 
 liomin-L'S 
 
 lianan-s 
 
 lianun 
 
 hana-r 
 
 Genitive 
 
 a9raan-ani 
 
 TTOI/Xfr-WV 
 
 homin-um 
 
 lianan-c 
 
 hanon-o 
 
 hana 
 
 Dative 
 
 a9ma-bhjas 
 
 {Local. ) 
 
 homini-bus 
 
 hana-m 
 
 hanun 
 
 honu-m 
 
 Accusative. 
 
 a9man-as 
 
 TTOifiiv-ag 
 
 homin-es 
 
 hanan-s 
 
 hanun 
 
 hana 
 
 The Old High German has hajiv, hanin, hanm, hanun ; hanun, hanon-o, 
 hano-m. O. Fries, sing, hona ; plur. hon-a, -ana{-ona), -um, -a.
 
 WEAK NOUNS. 51 
 
 (b.) The singular case-endings are sloughed off; and, in the nominative, 
 n of the stem. In the genitive plural, d has held its ground, and gravitation 
 has modified the stem : a > e > — : arena, drnd, honor. The dative has 
 ecthlipsis of n (^ 47), and assimilative precession of am to icm (^ 35, 2, a). 
 
 (c.) Feminines in Gothic strengthen to o the a of the stem -an through- 
 out, and the d of the case-ending of the genitive plural. In Anglo-Saxon 
 all genders agree ; but feminines in the nominative, and neuters in the nom- 
 inative, accusative, and vocative, for final a take e (Precession, ^ .38). 
 
 (d.) The stem in a)l was mostly masculine, but has been going over to 
 the feminines in the Teutonic tongues (^ 67, 2). 
 
 (e.) The same peculiar gravitation which has brought the short fl-stems 
 to the form of consonant stems in declension first, has here produced a new 
 declension by sloughing away the endings and stem. This new declension 
 has been adopted by the Teutonic nations as their favorite for secondary 
 formations having the force of an adjective used as a noun, and for definite 
 adjectives ; and it has in the Teutonic tongues a historical and logical im- 
 portance coordinate with the strong forms. In English the Norman -s join- 
 ed with -5 of the Anglo-Saxon first to kill it, and oxen, with the irregular 
 children, brethren, is almost its only memorial in current speech. 
 
 96. Like hana decline all weak nouns in -a : bana, deatli ; 
 cempa, soldier ; c^rcyx^, drop ; ffiana, man; himta, huntei'; mona, 
 moon ; oxa, ox ; prcccca, exile ; nafela, navel ; hodnia^ covering ; 
 geongra, disciple; egesa^ awe; rwspa, general; gemaca, mate. 
 Some remains of stems in -icai arc found : preccea =precca, ag- 
 Idbcea^ monster, etc. 
 
 97. Like tunge decline all weak noims in -e: byrne, mail; 
 eorde, earth ; heorte, heart ; sunne, sun ; sgrce, sark ; puce, Aveek ; 
 hlsefdige, lady ; f&mne, woman ; ^iscdre, snake ; pudupe, widow. 
 
 (a.) Except the four neuters (§ 98). 
 
 (6.) Now and then forms are found in -can for -an, either remains of 
 stems in -ian, or conforming to such stems : cyrice, cyricean, church. 
 
 98. Like edge decline edre, ear ; lunge, lungs ; clype, clew. 
 
 99. Like tCt decline bed,hee,bedn, etc.; and masculine /reaa> 
 fred, freaan yfredn, lord ; tpeoa > iped, tpeoan > tpeon^ doubt. 
 
 ISToRTiiuMBRiAN. — ( WeoJc Kouns. ) 
 
 Final -n and -in drop. The a of -an often suffers precession in the 
 masculines to O or c, in the feminines and neuters to %i, 0, or e. Nouns 
 weak in Common Anglo-Saxon have often strong forms, or mixed strong 
 and weak in Northumbrian : noma (nama), name, genitive nojna, names. 
 By comparing pages 49, 61, it will be seen that the Northumbrian forms 
 vary irregularly between forms older than the Common Anglo-Saxon and 
 others modified by gravitation and conformation almost as much as the En- 
 glish. See page 1'.).
 
 52 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 100. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 Such arc Avithout case-endings (Indeclinable), or without 
 certain cases (Defective) ; or they vary in gender (Hetekogk- 
 NEOUs), in stem (Metaplasts), in case-endings (Heteroclites) ; 
 or they arc remains of dead declensions {Meliquicc, Relics) ; or 
 are disguised by iihouctic changes (Cryptoclites) . The same 
 noun may belong to several of these classes. 
 
 (a.) Indeclinable are many nouns in -li^O (^ 88,/) : wdclu, f. no- 
 bility; h:ctu, f. heat; hccVutu, f. highth, etc. ; and w, f. law; bco, hi, f. bee, 
 pi. declined. 
 
 (i.) Defective. — Without tlie pkiral are most proper, abstract, and ma- 
 terial names : Mlfred ; s^ren^rfw, f. strength ; ^oZc?, n. gold. Sometimes 
 the plural has a change of meaning : A, rites ; gifla (w), nuptials ; leode, 
 men? -pare, men 1 Without the singular are file ni, n. wings; frds, m. 
 men ; frwlpe, f. ornaments ; gearpe, f. trappings ; geatpc, f. equipment ; ge- 
 brdctor(u), m. brothers ; gespeostor, f. sisters ; gespeoru, n. hills ; getimbru, 
 n. building ; lendenu, n. loins ; niddus, men ; -paran, -paras, -pare, m. citi- 
 zens ; pel eras (-o), m. f. lips. 
 
 (c.) Heterogeneous. — Masculine and Neuter are deufol, devil ; dogor, 
 day; feorh, life ; frid, peace; gcpanc, mind ; God, m., plur. godas, m., 
 godu, n. God, idols ; gyrii, distress ; heafod, n. head, plur. sometimes heaf- 
 dus,xa..; Aeajo, heap ; hilt,\d\i\ holt, \\o\i; nrceJ, house ; tung o I, star ; p&l, 
 weel ; pesten, waste ; pam, spot ; polcen, cloud ; brim, sea ; cealf, calf 
 
 Feminine and Neuter are sebylgd, offense ; xdelu, sing, f., plur. n. nobil- 
 ity ; safest, envy ; gepeaht, counsel ; gift, dower ; grin, snare ; liget, light- 
 ning ; peostor, n., peostru, f. darkness; pwd, pwde, weeds; piht, whit. 
 
 Masculine and Feminine are ierist, resurrection ; bend, bond ; hearg, 
 grove; list, art; nedhpest,{. m. vicinage; ^a;, sea ; siel, luck; str&l, arrow; 
 sper, column ; peard, watch ; pelerds {-a), lips ; leod, f. a people, plur. m. ? 
 leode, men ; paru, f. state, plur. -pare, m. ? citizens (^ 86) ; est, love. 
 
 Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter are pred, throe ; pxstm, growth. 
 
 (d.) Metaplasts. — Forms from stems in -la, -lan, mix with others: 
 plencu, f. pomp, plur. gen. plcnced ; c&g, f. key, plur. nom. c&gid ; fisc, m. 
 fish, plur. nom. fisceds ; Ixce, m. leech, plur. nom. Iwceds; clrice, f. church, 
 plur. nom. ciricean. From w-stems : duru, pudu, magu, like sunu {^ 92), 
 also gen. dure ? pudes, plur. nom. pudds, magds ; hand, etc. (^ 93, i). To 
 some stems -cr is added : wg, egg; cealf calf; cild, child (^ 82). Stems 
 with and without quasi-gemination (^^ 81,91) : sceadu, f. shadow, dat. scea- 
 dvpc, sceadc ; fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. nom. frige, freo. Metathesis : 
 fisc, m. fish, plur. nom. fixds. Many conforming regulars, and heteroclites, 
 are metaplastic 
 
 (e.) Heteroclites. — Many beterogeneous strong nouns (1) with ]\Iascu- 
 line and Neuter endings: God, m. God, plur. m. Godds, n. Godu; heafod, 
 n. head, plur. n. heafodu, plur. m. hcafdds. (2) With Feminine and Neu-
 
 is 
 
 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 53 
 
 ter endings : skfest, envy, gen. n. &festes, pi. nom. f. xfeste ; gift, f. dower, 
 plur. nom. f. gifld, n. giftu; grin, snare, inst. grine, grine, plur. nom. grind, 
 grinu. (3) With Masculine and Feminine : hend, bond, plur. nom. bendds, 
 -a, -e ; sx, sea, gen. s&s, ssb; pelcrds, -a, lips. Many themes have both 
 weak and strong forms : heofon, heofon-e, heaven ; sunn-u, sunn-c, sun ; 
 -par-ds, -par-an, men ; but such are given as different words. Some mix : 
 cwg, f. key, gen. avgan, dat. c&ge, plur. nom. cxgid, dat. cxgum. 
 
 (/.) Relics of the r-stem are brodor, hrother (^ 87); modor, mother; 
 Jy/j^or, daughter ; iy^cos^o?-, sister ; gebrudor, gcbrudru (dual ?), brothers ; 
 gespeostor, sisters ; fasdcr, father, sing, indecl. has also gen. and pi. forms of 
 Declension Third ; of the ?ic?-stem are fcond, fiend (^ 87) ; frcond, friend ; 
 and (compound) participial nouns : ymb-sittend, neighbors, plur. nom. ; fold- 
 buend, farmers; i)lur. nom. sometimes in -ds, gen. -rd, like adjectives; of 
 other consonant stems : neaht, f. night, gen. nihte, nihtes, generally adverb- 
 ial, plur. nom. niht ; piht, f. whit, plur. nom. (piht, Grimm) pihtd, pihtu, 
 pihte; burg, f. borough, gen. byrg, bi/rig; man, man (^ 84). 
 
 {g.) Cryptoclites. — The most common obscure forms spring from 
 
 1. Concealed umlaut. See, for paradigms, Jtic, book ; 7/im5, mouse (^ 90) ; 
 fot, foot ; man, m.an (^ 84) ; brodcr, brother ; fcond, fiend {^ 87) ; like are 
 brbc, breeches ; gos, goose ; tod, tooth ; lus, louse ; mus, mouse ; cu, f. cow, 
 gen. cits (Rask), dat. cy, ace. cu, plur. nom. cy, eye {cus, Rask), gen. cund, 
 dat. cum ; burg, burh, f. borough, gen. byrig, burge, dat. byrig, byrg, plur. 
 nom. byrig, gen. burgd, dat. burgum; turf, f. turf, dat. tTjrf; modor, dolitor, 
 speostor; freond, friend. 
 
 2. Quasi-gemination of semi-vowels : paradigms of bcadu, battle (^ 90, 
 3) ; here, host {^ 85, a). Like are frxlupe (a), frcetpe (d), f. plur. orna- 
 ment ; gearpe, f. plur. trappings ; gcalpc, f. plur. equipment ; ncaru, f. nar- 
 rowness ; ra;5t(, f. providence ; scon?/, f. sinew ; ??ie/i<, n. meal ; eaZw, n. ale, 
 etc.; and fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. x\. frige, freo ; pine, m. friend, plur. 
 nom. pinds, pine, gen. pind, pinid,pinigd, pmiged, da.t. pi7ium, ace. pinds, pine. 
 
 3. Apothesis and Contraction — words in ?<>0 indeclinable (^ 100, a). 
 bi, beo, f. bee, sing, indeclinable, plur. nom. beon, gen. beond, dat. bcoum, 
 eld, f. claw, plur. nom. cldpe, dat. cJdm. [beom. 
 dry, rn. magician, dat. dry, plur. nom. dryds, gen. dryrd. 
 
 ed, f. river, gen. cd, &, cds (m.), dat. cd (ie, Rask), plur. nom. cd, cds (m.), 
 
 dat. cdm. 
 feoh, fco, n. fee, gen. f&us, dat. fco; plur. nom. fco, gen. fcona, fed 
 
 (<Cfeohd): so hreoh, pleoh, peoh, etc. 
 hoh, ho, m. bough, gen. hus, dat. ho, plur. nom. hos, gen. hud, etc. 
 hrdp, hr&p, hredp, hrd, hrcd, n. sing, and plur. nom. ace. voc. body, corpse, 
 
 gen. hriJbs {<Chr&pes), plur. nom. hr&pds, dat. hr&pum. 
 morgen, m. morning, plur. gen. morgcnd, morgnd, mornd. 
 sA, m. f sea, gen. sii:s, s&pe, sx, dat. 5a', si'pe, plur. nom. sihs, s&, dat. 
 SCO, f. pupil, gen. seon, scdn. sugu, su, f. sow, d. sue. [sxm, sxpum. 
 
 treop, treb, n. tree, gen. treopes, plur. nom. treopu, tripu, treop, treo. 
 }}red, f. m. n. throe, indeclinable, plur. dat. predum, predm.
 
 54 TROrER NAMES. 
 
 101. PROPER NAMES. 
 
 (1.) Persons. — JVames of icomen in -u or a consonant are 
 stronrf, those in -e or -a «re tcca/c. Declension II., d-stem : Begu, 
 Freaparu ; i-stem : Beadoliilcl, Ilygd, and most others. Declen- 
 sion IV.: Elene, Eve, Ada, Maria, etc., from foreign names ; 
 Pealhl)eo(p), dat. Pealhl^eun (§ 99). 
 
 Names of men in -u, -e, or a consonant are strong, those in -a 
 are xoeah. Declension III., xi-stem : Leofsiinu ? Declension I, 
 a-stem: iElfred, Beupulf, Eadmund, Sigemund {gen. also Sige- 
 inuiKle<mund,/'. iias/t) ? Poland, and -most other strong names ; 
 syncopated: Ecg]3eo(p), gen. Ecgl)e6pes, Ecg]3eues, etc.; Ongen- 
 ])eu(p); Gvende], <7e?^. Gren deles, Grendles, etc.; Hredcl ; ia- 
 stem: Ine, Hedde, Gislhere, Pulfhere, Eadpiue, Godpine, and 
 others from -here and -pine; umlaut not found: Hereman, dat. 
 lleremanne. Declension IV.: iEtla, Becca, and many others. 
 
 (a.) Foreign names sometimes retain foreign declension, or are unde- 
 clmcd, but are generally declined as above ; those in -as, -es, -us do not 
 often increase m the genitive. Those from Latin -us, Greek -oq, of the 
 second declension, sometimes drop their endings and take those of the 
 Anglo-Saxon first: Crist (< Christus), Cristes, Criste, eic. In less fa- 
 miliar ivords -us oftenest stands in the nom. and gen., but sometimes the 
 Latin and Anglo-Saxon forms mix throughout: Petrus, gen. Petrus, Petres, 
 Petri, dat. Petro, Petre, ace. Petrus, Petrum ; so -as and -es : Andreas, gen. 
 Andreas, dat. Andrea, ace. Andrews, Andream ; Herodes, Herodes, Herodc, 
 Herod-em, -es, or -e. 
 
 (b.) hi Gothic these Latin and Greek names of the second declension are 
 regiilarlij given in the u-declcnsion : Paitrus, gen. Paitraus, dat. Paitrau, 
 ace. Paitru (^ 93, a). The Anglo-Saxon genitive Petrus may be a relic 
 of the u-declension. 
 
 (2.) Peoples. — Plurals in -as a7id -e are strong, in -an iceaJc. 
 Declension I, a-stem : Brittas, Scottas, etc. ; ia-stem and i-stem : 
 Dene, ge^i. Den-a, -ia, -iga, -gea (§ 85, a) ; Romane, etc. Declen- 
 sion IV. : Gotan, Seaxan, etc. 
 
 Tlie singular is oftenest an adjective in -isc regularly declined: 
 Egyptisc \\\^w, Egrjptian man ; Egyptisc idies, Egyptian woman; 
 J)a Egyptiscan, the Egyptians, etc. Sometimes an Brit, a Briton. 
 
 Often is found a collective loith a genitive, or with an adjective, 
 or compounded : Seaxnal)e6d; Filistea folc ; Caldeacyn; Ebrea 
 peras; Sodomisc cyn ; Rom-pare (§ 86); Nord-men (§84, 3),eic. 
 Foreign names are treated as are names of persons. 
 
 (3.) CouNTKiES, — A fell} feminiyie names are found: Engel, 
 England ; Bryten, Britannia. Oftenest is found the jjeople's
 
 SUMJVIARY OF CASE-ENDINGS. 55 ' 
 
 name in the genitive with laud, rice, edel, etc.^ or in an oblique 
 case icith a preposition : Engla land ; Sodoma rice ; on East-En- 
 glum ; of Seaxum ; on Egyptum. Foreign names are treated as 
 are names of persons. 
 
 (4.) Cities. — Names found alone are regularly declined accord- 
 ing to gender and endings: Rom,/. Rome; Babylon, n. Babylo- 
 nes; Sodoma, m. Sodoman. Oftenest they are prefixed undecUned 
 to burg, ceaster, pic, dtin, ham, etc.: Luuden-pic, Roma-burg, etc.; 
 or the folk's name in the genitive followed by burg, ceaster, etc., is 
 used: Caldea burg. Foreign names treated as names of persons. 
 
 102. WEATHERING OF C AS E - E NDIN G S. 
 (1.) Anglo-Saxon : Strong. Weak. 
 
 / -^ , , A ^ 
 
 Masculine. | Neuter. | y^^. I Maso. I Masc. Fem. Neut. 
 
 Decl. I. I Decl. I. I Decl. II. I Decl. III. | Decl. IV. 
 
 Head-cases ia a consonant. j Head-cases in a vowel. | Head-cases in -an. 
 
 Stem a ia i a ia a i u an an an 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 N.&.V. -e e - e u - u a e e 
 
 Gen es es es es es e e a. an an an 
 
 Dot o e e e e e e a an an an 
 
 Ace _ e e - e u, e e, - u an an e 
 
 Inst e e e e e e e a. an an an 
 
 Plukal. — ^— V — ' 
 
 N.,A.,&jV. as as e, as u, - u a, e e, a u, 0, a an 
 
 Gen u, a a a a a, ena a, cna ena, 
 
 D. & In&t. . . um um urn iim um um um um 
 
 (2.) Layamon: , 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 N.,A.,&,V. - e, en - e e, -, en e e, en 
 
 Gen es es es es e, -, en, es e, es en, e, es 
 
 D.&Inst... e, en e, en e, en e, en e, -, en c en, e 
 
 N.,A.,& V. es, en, e e, -, es, en e, en, es e, en, es en, e, es 
 
 Gen e, ene,en,es e, en, es e, en, ene, es en, es en, ene, enen 
 
 D.&Inst.... en, e, es en, e, es en, es en, es en, e 
 
 Here is precession of all the vowels to e {^ 38) (a is found here and there) ; 
 (2), shifting of VI to n (^ 41, Zi) ; (3), a conflict everywhere between s and 
 n, the weak and strong form. In the earlier manuscript n most abounds, 
 in the later s. Norman influence, ^ 95, c. 
 
 (3.) Ormulum. — Singular, N., A.,V.,D., I. alilcc ; Genitive -ess. Plural, 
 all cases alike m -ess. Singular dative -e is found with prepositions in a 
 few phrases, and Plural genitive -e (Northern dialect). 
 
 (4.) Chaucer instead of -ess has -es or -s: king, kinges; lover, lovers. 
 The last form brings us to Modern English. Irregular forms having um- 
 laut {^ 100, g), or plural -e?i (^ 'J5, c), or indeclinable from r-stems or neu- 
 ters plural (^ 100,/), are found in Chaucer, and a few still survive.
 
 IjQ 
 
 ADJECTIVES.— INDEFINITE DECLENSION, 
 
 IV. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 INDEFINITE AND DEFINITJC DECLENSIONS. 
 
 103. An adjective in Anglo-Saxon lias one set of strong and 
 
 one of -weak endings for each gender. The latter are used when 
 
 the adjective is preceded by the definite article or some word 
 
 like it. Hence there are two declensions, the indefinite and the 
 
 definite. 
 
 10-t. — I. 27ie Indefinite Declension. 
 
 Case-endings < stem a, a, or i -|- relational suffixes. 
 
 IMasculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 <^ j blinda, Llinda, blindi, blinda, 
 
 * * ( blind. blind. blind: 
 
 Theme . blind. blind. blind. 
 
 ISTom blind blind (?<) blind 
 
 Gen blinder blindj'c bliudcs 
 
 Dat \Aiu([um blindre hYm^wn 
 
 Ace blindwe blinde blind 
 
 Voc blind blind (?/) blind 
 
 Inst blindc? blindre bl.indc 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 Nom blinde. blinde blindz* 
 
 Gen blindrc? blindrt? blindm 
 
 Dat blindM?J2 blind^<»^ blindi^»i 
 
 Ace blinde blinde bliudw 
 
 Voc blinde blinde blindw 
 
 Inst hYmdiinn hWndian hWn^uni 
 
 (a.) In other Indo-European languages the adjective is declined like the 
 substantive ; in the Teutonic it follows the pronominal declension. This 
 has been explained by supposing a composition in the Teutonic between the 
 adjective stem and a pronoun (in Sanskrit jas, jd, Jad, a relative) which it 
 is suggested must have been in the Teutonic Parent Speech j'is, ja, jata ; 
 jis, jizos, jis ; ja7nma, jizai, jamma ; jana, ja, jata ; je, jizai, je ; plural, 
 jai,j6s,ja; jize,jtz6,jize; jaim; jans,jos,ja, and have had a demonstra- 
 tive sense. Whether there has been a composition with a particular pro- 
 noun, or a conformation to the pronominal declension, must, in the absence 
 of decisive phonetic demonstration, be decided from the meaning ; and the 
 fact that this is the indefinite form, and is not used where the sense calls for 
 a demonstrative, weighs heavily against composition with a demonstrative. 
 
 (b.) We give the demonstrative pronoun from which comes the definite 
 article :
 
 THE TRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 
 
 57 
 
 Stem, 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 A.-S.1X;. ( 
 
 D.II.Ger. 
 
 IMasculine . . . 
 
 sa, ta 
 
 TO, 6, '6 
 
 to (is-to) 
 
 sa, }3a, fi 
 
 sa, fa 
 
 de,di 
 
 Feminine . . . 
 
 sa,ta 
 
 a, TCI 
 
 ta 
 
 sa, )5a, yi 
 
 sa,]3a 
 
 di,de 
 
 Neuter 
 
 ta 
 
 TO, 
 
 to 
 
 p,lpi 
 
 ]:a 
 
 da, de 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nominative, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masculine . . . 
 
 sa 
 
 0, 0-c 
 
 te (iste) 
 
 sa 
 
 se 
 
 de-r 
 
 Feminine . . . 
 
 sa 
 
 '/ 
 
 ta 
 
 so 
 
 seo 
 
 di-u 
 
 Neuter 
 
 la-t 
 
 TO, O 
 
 tu-d 
 
 fa-t-a 
 
 fffi-t 
 
 da-z 
 
 Genitive, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. & Neut 
 
 . ta'-sja 
 
 TO-IO, TOO 
 
 tius 
 
 fi-s 
 
 }:ae-s 
 
 de-s 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 ta'-sj-as 
 
 Tij-C 
 
 tius 
 
 fi-zos 
 
 ]:£e-re 
 
 de-ra 
 
 Dative, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. & Neut 
 
 ._ ta'-smai 
 
 Tlf, 
 
 ti 
 
 pa-mma 
 
 pa-m 
 
 de-mu 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 ta'-sj-ai 
 
 -V 
 
 ti 
 
 fi-zai 
 
 fK-re 
 
 de-ru 
 
 Accusative, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masculine . . 
 
 ta-m 
 
 t6-v 
 
 tu-m 
 
 ]3a-n-a 
 
 fo-nc 
 
 de-n 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 . ta-m 
 
 t!]-v 
 
 ta-m 
 
 po 
 
 ):a 
 
 di-a 
 
 Neuter. . . . 
 
 . ta-t 
 
 TO, 
 
 tu-d 
 
 pa-t-a, 
 
 }K-t 
 
 da-z 
 
 Instrumental, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. & Neut 
 
 . tc'n-a 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 (Ablat.) 
 
 fc 
 
 Fe,fy 
 
 du, di-u 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 . ta'-j-ii 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 (Ablat.) 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No7ninative, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masculine . . 
 
 te 
 
 Tol, c'l 
 
 ti 
 
 pai 
 
 ):a 
 
 di-c 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 . ta-s 
 
 Tai, a'i 
 
 taj 
 
 fos 
 
 yx 
 
 di-6 
 
 Neuter. . . . 
 
 te 
 
 TO. 
 
 ta 
 
 fo 
 
 n 
 
 di-u 
 
 Genitive, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. & Neut 
 
 . te'-s'am 
 
 TWU 
 
 to-rum 
 
 fi-ze 
 
 fd-ra 
 
 dc-ru 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 . tS,'-sam 
 
 TU-on', TUJV 
 
 ta-rum 
 
 }.M-z6 
 
 j3&-ra 
 
 de-ro 
 
 Dative, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. & Neut 
 
 . te'-bhjas 
 
 {Locat.) 
 
 tis 
 
 pai-m 
 
 ).ni-m 
 
 5 di-em, 
 
 Feminine . . 
 
 . ta'-bhjas 
 
 (Locat.) 
 
 lis 
 
 pai-m 
 
 }\i-m 
 
 ? dem 
 
 (c.) Peculiar Forms. — Nominative singular neuter f, a radicle, hav- 
 ing the same relation to ta which masculine s has to sa (^ 63, o). Geni- 
 tive feminine singular -re < .<ya5 ; r<s (^ 41, 3, S) ; e<Cjas (^ 70, ^») : the 
 inserted sj<^smi<isma<^sa-ma, this-here. Dative 7n<jnma<isniai shows 
 ccthlipsis of s, gemination, apocope (§ 38, B; ^ 44) : the inserted sm<Csma, 
 as before. Dative -re<^sjdi; r<!s, etc., as in Genitive. Accusative -ne 
 <Cna, precession ; n<^tn (^ 41, 3) ; a, euphonic epithesis, which prevailed 
 as a law in Gothic. Plural nominative pd, Gothic J)(^ <C. tai <ita-i-sas 
 (emphatic i inserted) ; compare Greek and Latin nouns in § 70. Genitive 
 pd-rd has ?'<s (^ 41, 3, b), and -d (Gothic <^, 6) as in nouns. The Old 
 Sax. endings are like the O. II. Ger., the Norse like the adjective (^ 107). 
 
 (d.) As compared with the article, the Anglo-Saxon adjective has apocope 
 of neuter -t ; has feminine singular -?/, neuter plural -w, plural -e, like strong 
 nouns; euphonic epenthesis o( u in dative -tmi. ^^ 44, 40, 50.
 
 68 ADJECTIVES.— THE DEFINITE DECLENSION. 
 
 105. — II. The Definite Declension. 
 
 Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes. 
 
 Mascdlike. Fkminine. Nedter. 
 
 Stem., blindan, W«i(?. bliudan, blindau, 
 
 Theme blind. blind. blind. 
 
 Singular. — — ~^ — ' "; — -^^ " — "^^ 
 
 Nom se blind«. seo blinde. J^rot blinde. 
 
 Gen ]3ges blindan. J)£ere blinda;?. Jjajs blinda??. 
 
 Dat l^)am blinda^i. ])a)re blindaw. })am blindaw. 
 
 Ace ]5one blinda??. })ii blinda'?^. liffit blinde. 
 
 Voc se blinda. seo blinde. l^ait blinde. 
 
 Inst ]^)y blind a?^. J)iere blinda;?. J>y blinda?z. 
 
 Plural. — *"   v 
 
 N'om J)a blinda?i. 
 
 Gen ])ara, blindeww. 
 
 Dat J)am blindz<??i. 
 
 Ace J)a blind«?i. 
 
 Voc ])a, blind a?i. 
 
 Inst J)ara blindzww. 
 
 106. — Theme ending Short {Moot Shifting). 
 
 Stem., glada, glad. glada, gladi. glada. 
 
 Theme glad > glred. glad>gl£ed. glad>gl£ed. 
 
 JVbm glsed. glad?^. glred. 
 
 Ge}i glades. gisedre. glades. 
 
 Dat gladi«?i. glrodre. gladwm. 
 
 Ace glaedwe. glade. glsed. 
 
 Voc glsed. gladt«. glted. 
 
 list glade. glaedT'e. glade. 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 JVom glade. glade. glad2^ 
 
 Ge7i gloedm. gla^dm. glcedrt?. 
 
 Dat gladt<m. gladutn. gladum. 
 
 Ace glade. glade. gladw. 
 
 Voc glade. glade. gladz«. 
 
 Inst. gladwwi. gladr«?z. glad^^m. 
 
 In the Definite Declension it has -yjglad throughout, and agrees 
 Avhollv with blind.
 
 STRONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS. 59 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Goth. O. Sax. 0.\0KC. 
 
 107. — Strong: 
 
 Singular.— Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse. | Goth. O. Sax. O. Noree. 
 
 iYow... blind-s, — , -!•; -a, — , — ; (.-ata), — , -t. 
 
 Gen.... blind-is, -as, -s ; -aizos, -aro, -rar ; -is, -as, -s. 
 
 Dat XAm^i-avtma, -umu, -tun; -ai, -aro, -ri ; -amma, -umu, -u. 
 
 ylcc. ... blind-a?!cr, -an{a), -an; -a, -a, -a; (-ata), — , -t. 
 
 Inst. .. Umd-(lJal.)-u, (Dat.); (Dat.) (Bat.) (Bat); (Bat.) -u, -u. 
 Plural. — 
 
 No7n... blind-ai, -a(-e^, -if; -us, -«(-e), -ar ; -a, (-«), — . 
 
 Ge7i. .. hllnd-aizc, -aro, -ru ; -aizu, -aro, -ru ; -aize, -aro, -rd. 
 
 Z>. &/. blind-aim, -un, -um ; -aim, -un, -urn; -aim, -un, -um. 
 
 Ace... blind-ans, -a{-c), -a; -6s, -a(-e), -ar ; -a, (-m), — . 
 
 "Weak : 
 Singular. — 
 
 Norn... blind-a, -o(-a), -i; -6, -a, -a; -6, -a, -a. 
 
 Gen blind-ins, -nn, -a; -vns, -un, -u; -ins, -un, -a. 
 
 Bat.... blind-i'n, -tin, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -in, -un, -a. 
 
 Ace blind-a??, -?»?, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -0, -a, -a. 
 
 Inst.... hYmd-(Bat.)(Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.) 
 Plural. — 
 
 Norn... blind-a?2S, -vn, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -it. 
 
 Gen blind-ane, -6n6, -u; -6n6, -6n6, -u; -ane, -6n6, -u. 
 
 B.&,I. blind-a???, -un, -u; -6m, -un, -u; -am, -un, -u. 
 
 Ace blind-a?is. -un, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -u. 
 
 In Old High German flic adjective has the same strong endings as the defi- 
 nite article (^ 104, b). The weak form has Masculine plinto, -in, -in, -un ; 
 plur. -un, -0710, -6m, -un: Feminine plinta, -un, -un, -im; plur. -un, -ono, 
 -um, -un : Neuter plinth, -in, -in, -a ; pi. -iin, -ono, -om, -un. O. Fries, has 
 strong endings like A.-Sax.,but dat. -a(-c) ; weak forms like its noun. ^ 95. 
 (a.) The Indo-European languages generally have no separate forms for the 
 definite adjective ; but the Slavonic and Lithuania have. In them it springs 
 from composition between the adjective and demonstrative ja (^ 104, a); 
 Slavonic dobrijj (good), dobraja, dobrojc, 
 
 from dobras-\-jas, dobrd-\-ja, dobrat-\-jat ; 
 Ang.-Sax. g6da-\-sc, g6de-{-se6, g6de-\-pxt. 
 
 Grimm suggests that the Teutonic adjective is compounded in a similar way 
 with the demonstrative 7am (that), English yon. Hcyse suggests a compo- 
 sition with an, one. The Teutonic weak declensions form one whole with 
 those of the a?i-stems in other Indo-European tongues : as to form, all are a 
 growth from one stem. This stem is a secondary formation by means of tlie 
 pronominal affix -an. The force of this affix may be illustrated by compar- 
 ing it with the pronouns 7aj«, an; many nouns with it are rendered in En- 
 glish by an adjective + one : pxdla, poor one ; pnrcca, wretched one ; pana, 
 defective one, etc. ; but to call the adjective a compound with cither is likely 
 to mislead. Compare the explanation of affixes in ^^ 50,03.
 
 GO ADJECTIVES. 
 
 As to the logical and historical value of the weak declension, see (} 95, c. 
 It may give a profound insight into the Teutonic mind to notice here that its 
 fundamental classification of objects is into those made definite to thought 
 and those not so. 
 
 108. The weak form is used Avhcn the adjective is preceded by 
 tlie definite article, or by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun, 
 or personal pronoun in the genitive, always with comparatives, 
 often with vocatives, instrumentals, and genitives, § 362. 
 
 (a.) For masculine present participles, see ^ 119. 
 
 109. Like blind decline adjectives ending in a long syllable, 
 participles present, weak participles past, superlatives, and adjec- 
 tive pronouns : fcest, fiist ; </6d, good ; hdt, hot ; heard, hard ; 
 hxbbende, haxiug (§ 119); gehdlgod, hallowed; hdtust, hotest ; 
 mln, mine. See § 110, a. 
 
 110. With the endings of glsed decline adjectives with a final 
 short syllable and strong participles past: caJ/r/, blessed ; Jixden, 
 heathen ; fscger, fair ; brocen, broken. 
 
 (a.) The -u of the feminine singular oftenest, and of the neuter plural 
 often, suffers precession to -0> -e> — , especially in derivatives. It drops 
 pretty regularly after a long syllable (^ 109; 91, J). A few once w-stems 
 iiold it: heard, heardu^ hcardc (Gothic hardus), hard. 
 
 111. {Shifting, §§ 73,41). — Like glccd decline short monosyllables 
 with root a >■ 93; bwr, hare; J/a?c, black ; hnsd, ready; hpiet, whetted; Ixt, 
 late ; si7ixl, small ; spser, spare ; pwr, wary. 
 
 (a.) The shifting is stopped by a following vowel, even by e which is 
 from a, and c<Cd. The nouns (dirges) have shifted further; the ad- 
 jective has throughout held stronger than the noun by the old forms. 
 
 112. {Gemination, § T8). — Rule 10, § 20, for simplification of gemi- 
 nation applies: grim, grimmes, grimre, grimmum, grimne, etc., grim. 
 
 113. {Synco2)e, §§ 46, 79). — Polysyllables in -xg, -ol (ul, el), -en, -or 
 (cr), and others liable to syncope, may drop the last vowel of the theme 
 when the ending begins with a vowel: ffeger, ia\r, fxgru, hut fcegerne ; 
 hdlig, holy, hdhgcs^hdlges, hdligan'^ hdlgan, etc, 
 
 114. (Stems in -ia, § 83). — Some adjectives once in -ia have c<^« 
 in the cases usually without endings : blktc, blithe ; gen. llutcs, bJidre,hl"ides, 
 etc. ; rarely before the endings: ecc, eternal, eccum, ecum. So decline ad- 
 jectives in -e and present participles (^ 119). 
 
 (fit.) Some show i-umlaut when compared with other words : grcnc 
 (0. 11. German griwni), green; scfte (soff), soft; strenge (strong) 
 strong. ^ 32, 2. 
 
 (b.) Some show compensative gemination: middc <^mid (Gothic 
 midis, midjia), middle. ^ 37, 2.
 
 PARTICIPLES.— NORTIIUiMBKIAN ADJECTIVE DECLEXSIOX. 61 
 
 115. {^Themes in -1). — Such may have dissimilation into jg before the 
 case-endings : fr'i, free, gen. friges, frigre, etc. The g is the parting of the 
 organs after taking the i-position. § 85, a. 
 
 lie. (^Themes in -eo). — Such may drop the vowel of case-endings: 
 frco, free, gen. freos,freore,freds, etc. §80. 
 
 117. {Themes in ^> -u > -O, § 81 ; 91, B). — Such may drop 7? 
 final after a vowel : blaa, blue, gen. bhvpes. After a consonant p final shifts 
 to u^ o ; and before a vowel may suffer quasi-gemination to iip : fealu, 
 i'a]\Q\Y,feahipe, etc. (§ 27, 5). This z(, may suffer precession to O > e ; fca- 
 lope,fealepe, etc. § 38. 
 
 118. Themes in -h, § 80). — Such may drop h final or before a close 
 ending, and before a vowel change it to g, or drop it and contract: hedh, hea 
 (Gothic hduhs, O. II. German hoh), high. 
 
 SiSGCLAn. — 
 
 Nom. hea(li) iica(h) liea(h) 
 
 Gen. hea(gc)s heiirc hea,(gc)s 
 
 Dat. hea(g)un) licarc heii(g)nni 
 
 Ace. heane licu(gc) hea(h) 
 
 T'oc. liea(h) lica(h) hea(h) 
 
 Insl. hca(ge) hcarc hca(ge) 
 
 Plural. — 
 
 Xom. hca(ge) hci'i(ge) hca(gu) 
 
 Gen. hcava heavfi hcara 
 
 I)at. licri(g)am hea(g)um hea(g)um 
 
 Ace. hea(ge) hea(ge) hea(gu) 
 
 Voc. lieag(e) hefi(ge.) liea(gu) 
 
 Inst. hea(g)um hea.(g)imi hca(g)um 
 
 The spelling of such words is irregular in the manuscripts. Sing. nom. 
 heh, accusative hcdhne, hcdnne, plur. dat. hcdhum, are found. 
 
 119. PARTICirLES. 
 
 The p.articiples have both declensions! §§ 103, 109, 110. 
 
 (a.) Present participles in the strong forms without endings have -e like 
 jfl-stems (§ 114): gtfende, giving. 
 
 (&.) Masculine present participles used substantively may take strong 
 forms after the definite article : pd Iktende or Udcnd, those sailing ; l)drd 
 ymb-sittendrd, of those dwelling around. {^ 100,/.) 
 
 (c.) The strong singular accusative of the participles is often (wrongly) 
 spelt without -n : gccorcne<Cigccoren-nc, chosen; scridend-{n)e, coming. 
 
 120. The declined infinitive (gerund) is often found in the da- 
 tive : to faranne., to fare. 
 
 121. NOKTIIUMBEIAN AdJECTIVE DeCLENSION^. 
 
 The strong declension is like Common Anglo-Saxon. The instrumental 
 in -« is very rare — the dative takes its place. The plural nominative is 
 often in -o, perhaps an older form than -e; compare Old Saxon -a and pre- 
 cession, § 38 ; perhaps merely an irregular conformation with weak forms. 
 The weak declension drops ->?, and is otherwise like that of the weak sub- 
 stantive (p. 51).
 
 62 ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON. 
 
 122. Comparison. 
 
 Comparison is a variation to denote clegvees of quantity or 
 quality. It belongs to adjectives and adverb?. 
 
 (a.) In Anglo-Saxon it is a variation of stem, and is a matter rather of 
 derivation than inllection ; but the common mode of treatment is convenient. 
 
 (5.) The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than 
 now, and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs > preposi- 
 tions, and substantives, in which compared correlative terms are implied : 
 either, other, ove?; uncle?; first, etc. 
 
 fc.) Anglo-Saxon adverbs are in brackets : (sjMe). 
 
 123. Adjectives are regularly compared by suffixing to tbc 
 theme of the positive -ir'^-er or -or for the theme of the com- 
 p)arative, and -ist > -est or -6st for the theme of the suj^erlative. 
 
 The ComjKirative has always weak endings and syncopated 
 stem. 
 
 The Sv2)erlaUve has both weak and strong endings. 
 
 Adverbs are compared like adjectives: the positive uses the 
 ending -e, the comparative and superlative have none ; -ir drops. 
 
 Strong, spid, stremcous ; spidra ; spidust. 
 'Weah, se spidal; se spidra; se spidosta. 
 
 Adverb, (spide) ; (spidor) ; (spidost). 
 
 (a.) These suffixes in the Parent Speech were comparative -jans, superla- 
 tive -jans-ta > ista, combinations of emphatic dental radicles (^ 56 ; 12G, a) : 
 
 Theme 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. <>. Saxon. O. Norse. 
 
 r mah, ntyy/iu, mag>mri, mak>nia, niik>me, mik>mei, 
 
 \great. fjrcat. (jreat. t/reat. f/reat. (jreat. 
 
 Compar. mah-i-jas f.iti-Z,ov {-]0\\) nia-jor, -jus ma-iz-a me-r-o mei-r-i 
 
 Superl. mah-is'tha fiiy-KXTO-v (see § 126, i) ma-ist-s me-st mei-st-r 
 
 The 0. H. German has me-ro, me-ist-cr, Anglo-Saxon ma-r-a, miH-st. 
 
 (b.) In Anglo-Saxon ir<^jans, tlie «<J, r<Cs are shifting (^ A\,2,b)\ 
 dropping of an, apocope from gravitation (^^ 44, 38). 6 in -or and -ost is 
 compensative progression from an {^^ 37, 38) ; the same form is in Gothic, 
 Old Saxon, Old H. German. Old Norse has a for 6. A further precession 
 took place in -ir, -or, -ist, -ost, of 2>e> — , and of o>a>a>w>e> — 
 (J^ 38). In Gothic, s has not shifted ; so pyrsa, worse (J^ 129). 
 
 (c.) The superlative -ta is suffixed to the theme of the positive in nu- 
 merals: Sanskrit s'as'-thd, sixth; Greek wpw-ro, first; Latin ^war-^o, fourth ; 
 Gothic ahtu-da-n, eighth; Anglo-Saxon prid-da, third. § 139. 
 
 124. {Umlaut, % o2, 2). — The affixes -iry-cr and -ist y -est
 
 ADJECTIVES.— RELICS. 63 
 
 may work i-umlaut, changing 
 
 a, a, ea, cu, eo > o, u, ii, 11, 
 to e, it', y>e, y, y, c, y, y: 
 
 lanff, long ; lengra (leng) ; lengest. 
 
 Strang, strenge (§ 114, a), strong; straigra; strengest. 
 
 eald, aid (§ 33), old ; yldra, eldra ; yldest, eldest. 
 
 hed\ hed, hCh, high (§§ 118, 25); h^rra, hyhra, Mrra, hedh- 
 
 ra; h^list, hehst, hedhst, hedhest, hedgost, and as nedh. 
 nedh, neh, nigh (§§ 118, 25); oi^ra (n(/r), nera {nedr), nedrra 
 
 {nior); nyst (^>i>ze), nelist, nedhst, and as hedh. 
 feor, (feor), (fyr), far ; fyrra; fyrrest. 
 geong, young; gyngra {y>i); gyngest {yyi). 
 sceort, short ; scyrtra / scyrtest. 
 
 (softe) sefte, soft (114, a) ; seftra {se/t) ; seftest. [125, 129. 
 
 edde (j/, e), easy; pdra (ea), {f/d{ed, e)) ; yr/es^, edddst. See §§ 
 
 125. {Shifting, § 110). — Eoot «>t'E of short monosyllables 
 shifts to cB unless the next syllable begins with a vowel ; such 
 words may also have forms Avith i-umlaut (§ 124) : 
 
 glaed, glad ; glwdra, gledra ; gladdst. 
 hi'sed, Tea.dy ; hrscdra, hredra ; hradost. 
 hpcet, whetted, keen ; hpsetra; hpatost. 
 ' pcei', wary ; pxrra; parost. 
 
 126. Relics are found of forms from Parent Speech Compar- 
 ative -ra, -ta-ra, Superlative -ma, -ta-ma. Of the comparative, 
 only pronouns, adverbs > prepositions, and the like : 6-de7\ other ; 
 hpveder, whether; ve-r, ere; vef-ter, after; hi-der, hither; of-er, 
 over ; iin-der, under. Of the superlative : for-ma, first ; hin- 
 dema, hindmost ; inn-ema, inmost ; Isst-ema, latest ; rned-ema, 
 midmost; ?ieV^-ema, nethermost; sid-ema,\atest; tt^ema, utmost; 
 and others with double comparison. §§ 127, 129. 
 
 (a.) Parent Speech -tara. Forms on an, that, and lea, what, English 
 other, whether: 
 Sanskrit. Crock. Latin. Gothic. O. Snxon. Anglo-Paxon. O. Norse, 
 
 an-tara t-rfpo(c) al-teru(s) an-l>ar(a-) ^-itar 6-cter ann-ar 
 
 ka-tara Ko-r£po(c) u-teru(s) hva-})ar(a-) huc-dcr hpaj-cter hva-rr 
 
 The O. H. German has andera, other ; hwedar, whether. This is a com- 
 mon form for the adjective in Sanskrit, the most common in Greek ; in 
 Latin and Teutonic only as in Anglo-Saxon. Latin, in-tcr, between ; 
 dex-tcr, right ; sims-tcr, left. ^ 122, h.
 
 64 ADJECTIVES.— DOUBLE COMrARISON.— IIETEllOCLITES. 
 
 (i.) Parent Speech -ma, -ta-ma. Forms on pra, fore; scp, seven; 
 hin, hind : 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin- Gothic. O. Saxon. Ang.-Sax. O. Nor. 
 
 in-a-tha-mii 7rpJ-j[(o(t) pri-mu(s) frii-ma for-mo ^ ^^^,^^ ^ f"""- 
 
 sap-ta-ma f/3-co-//o(c) scp-tu-mu(s) hin-du-ma hin-de-ma 
 
 The 0. H. German has/rwrni, first. This is a common form in Sanskrit; 
 in Latin, suffixed to Comparative jmis^is (^ 123, o), it makes the regu- 
 lar -issimo <iis-timo by assimilation {^ 35). After I and r it is suffixed 
 to the theme and assimilated : facil-limo, easiest ; pulcher-rimo, hand- 
 somest. In the other languages it is found only as in Anglo-Saxon. For 
 numerals, see ^ 140. 
 
 127. Double Compaeison is found chiefly -svitli relics in -der, 
 -er, and -771 (§ 126) : &-r, ere, w-r-er, -or, io-r-est; aef-ter, ssfter-ra 
 yccftera, ccf-ter-mest (Rask), vcf-tem-est; Iws, less, lazs-sa, Ices- 
 dst, -est; for-ma, fi/r-m-cst, and see § 129. 
 
 (a.) Accumulation of signs of comparison is a striking fact through all the 
 languages. (I.) Repetition of the suffix for emphasis: -raroc < to-tu, reg- 
 ular Greek superlative ; Irish ma-ma ; O. H. German bezeroro, more better 
 (Shakespeare); crercra, more sooner, etc.; Parent Speech ta-ma (^ 126, b). 
 (3.) New suffix after Relics (^ 126): Gothic af-tu-m-is-ta ; Anglo-Saxon 
 ipf-te-m-es-t ; u.itermost = af-\-ta'\-ra-{-7na-\-jans-\-ta, a heaping of radicles 
 which illustrates their force as signs of comparison (^ 123, a). Emphatic 
 double comparison abounds in early English : Shakespeare has more braver, 
 more fairer, most best, most boldest, most unkmdcst, etc. 
 
 (b.) The English superlative ending -most in aftermost, and the like, is 
 simulation of a connection with most. ^ 42, 2. 
 
 128. Heteroclitic forms abound from themes in -ir and -6r,-ist, 
 -6st: sU, good; -ra, -la, {set) ; — est, -ost ; rice, rich; ricest, rtcost ; 
 (jlwd, ghad ; glxdra, gleclra, etc. (§ 125). Some have themes Avitli 
 and without double comparison: Iset, late; Itetra; latost, late- 
 onest; sat, late; sidra {sid, sidor) ; sut-dst, -est, -mest. 
 
 129. Defective are the following. Words in capitals arc not 
 found. 
 
 (1.) 3Iixcd Roots : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 ( o-(jd ) . j betera,betra,§ 124 betst,bet6st,-ast 
 
 •'^'^^^' ] BAT \ ^P'^^ 1 ba^ttra, § 125 (bet) (bctst) 
 
 [ yfel ) (yfele) ( pyrsa, (pyrs), j pyrst, pyrresta, 
 
 had, ]pcor [ ] §123,5 ( (pyrst), (pyrrest) 
 
 ( sum- ) ( sa^mra, § 124 sajmest
 
 DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.— DECAY OF ENDINGS. 65 
 
 Positive. Compaeative. Supeklative. 
 
 Great ( ™^^^^ ) (""'^^^^ 
 
 (ma ; ( mara, (ma) m&st,§ 124; 123,0! 
 
 much^ 
 
 little, [^^^""^ (^^'0 i 
 
 ( L^s (Goth, /asifi-) Ifessa (l3es),§ 35,^ ( Ises-ast, -est, -t 
 
 (2.) From Adverbs of time and jilace (compare §§ 126, 127) 
 
 ever, 
 ere, erst, 
 
 after- 
 icard, 
 
 else, 
 
 fore, 
 far, 
 
 a-, 32- 
 
 (^r)>^rra, ) 
 
 (c^i--6r, -ur) ) 
 
 I" (cef-ter) > ajftera ] 
 
 (ell or), elra 
 
 forepeard, (fore) fyrra 
 feor, (fyr) fyrre, (fyr) 
 
 af-, £ef-=of, 
 oefterpeard 
 (elles) 
 
 ser-est 
 
 sef-tera-est 
 sefter-mest, § 127 
 
 hehind,\)^^f^^'''''^^\ (hindor) 
 ( (hmdan) * ^ ' 
 
 forth, ford:peard, (ford) (furd-or, -ur) 
 
 ) 
 
 [ 
 
 inner, innepeard, (in) inncra 
 
 . , ( middepeard, ) 
 *^''^' ] (mid) )■ 
 
 north \ ^lordepcard, }_ 
 ''^'^^^'' ] (nord) S 
 
 for-ma > (fyrmest), 
 fyrst, fruma, § 5 1 
 fyrrest (eo>y) 
 
 urd-um), 
 ford-m-est 
 
 ((fu 
 ] for 
 
 j lunduma, 
 (bii 
 
 nether. 
 
 uidepeard, 
 
 (nide) 
 tipper, Hfepeard, (up) 
 
 (nord-ur) 
 nid-ra, 
 
 binde-ma, § 126, Z» 
 inne-ma, (-m-est) 
 med-ema (-uma?) 
 mid-m-est 
 
 uord-m-est 
 ( nidema, § 126 
 
 (nid-6r,-er (i>eo) ( nide-m-est (i>eo) 
 j ufera, 
 ] (ufor) 
 
   yf(e)-m-est, § 124 
 outer, iltepcard, (ut) 
 So sUdemest, edstemest, pestemest, south-, east-, west-most 
 
 / ^,> /»** \ litema, lltmest, 
 utra, (uttor,utor) ^ ^ , ^ „ 
 
 '^ ' M Yt-(e-)m-est,§124 
 
 Decay of ENniNcs. — ( 1 ), Declension : Layamon, strong, sing. masc. 
 — , -es, -en, -ne ; fern. — , -re, -re, -c ; neut. — , -es, -en, — ; plur. -c, -re, 
 -en, -e; but n, s, r may drop. Weak, -e, -en, as in ^ 102. — Ormulum, 
 strong, sing. — , plur. -e. Wealc, -c. — Chaucer, monosyllables as in Orm., 
 others undeclined. — Shakespeare, no declension. 
 
 (2), Comparison: Layamon, Ormulum, -re, -est. — Chaucer (=:Modern 
 English), -er, -est. 
 
 E
 
 66 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 V. PRONOUNS {Relational Names, § 56). 
 130. Personal Pronouns {Relational Substantives). 
 
 Sing.— l.Z 
 
 2. thou. 
 
 3. he, 
 
 she, it. 
 
 iV^ ic 
 
 M 
 
 lie 
 
 beo bit 
 
 G. mill 
 
 l)iii 
 
 bis 
 
 hire bis 
 
 D. mo 
 
 130 
 
 bim 
 
 bire bim 
 
 A. raec, mo 
 
 3ee, ]36 
 
 bine 
 
 bie, bi, beo bit 
 
 V - 
 
 l)ft 
 
 
 
 r • 
 
 
 
 I. mo 
 
 1.6 
 
 bim 
 
 bire bim 
 
 Plukal. — 
 
 
 
 
 JSr. pe 
 
 go 
 
 bie, bi, beo 
 
 bie, bl, beo beo, bie, bi 
 
 6^. liser, tire 
 
 euper 
 
 beord, byra 
 
 beova, byra beora, byrii 
 
 D. tis 
 
 eop 
 
 bim 
 
 liiiu bim 
 
 A. tisic, {Is 
 
 eopic, cop 
 
 bie, bi, lieu 
 
 bie, bl, beo beo, bie, bi 
 
 V. 
 
 S^ 
 
 
 ' 
 
 r • 
 
 
 
 I. lis 
 
 eop 
 
 bim 
 
 liira bim 
 
 Dual. — 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. Genitive. Pi.uit. NoM. 
 
 jsr. pit 
 
 git 
 
 P. Sp. .. i-s, i-ja 
 
 , i-t i-sja aj-as 
 
 G. uncer 
 
 incer 
 
 Latin... i-s, ea, 
 
 i-d ejus ii, eae, ea 
 
 D. imc 
 
 inc 
 
 Gothic, i-s, si. 
 
 i-ta is, izos, is eis, ijos, ija 
 
 A. uncit, uuc 
 
 V. 
 
 I. uuc 
 
 incit, inc 
 
 git 
 
 inc 
 
 0. Sax., lii, siu, i-t is, ira, is sia,, sia, siu 
 
 0. II. G. i-r, siu, i-z sin, irii, is sit, sio, siu 
 
 r\ KT 1. , (bans, lien-> 
 
 O.Norse hann,hon, — < )- 
 
 i nar, — J 
 
 (a.) Other Forms. — (1 and 2), pyt ; gyt; tinge; uncer not found; us- 
 ser, ussic. (3), i>y (bad spelling) : hys, hyt, etc. ; i>eo, i>ie (breaking, 
 ^ 33) : heom, plur. (sing, prose) hierd, hiene; i>y (bad spelling) : hy ; hi 
 > hig (dissimilated gemination, ^ 85, a ; 27, 5) ; io for eo ; 16, ea, for eo (or- 
 thographic) : hiord, hio, hed. Nom. sing. fem. hie, hi, inst. sing. masc. heo 
 <ihy in heo-diPg (Latin hodie), to-day ; hird (not in Grein) >/jeora. 
 
 Northumbrian for final c has h, ch, sometimes g : ih, ich ; meh, mech, 
 mehe ; usih, usig, etc. ; for final e thus : gsk, gee, gie, etc. ; woe=uoe=pe; 
 user^urer; for eoper appear iwer, iuere, iuerrx, iurra(c) ; for eop appear 
 iuh, iowh, iouh, iwh, iu, ou; for eopic appear iuih, iuigh, iivih. Third Per- 
 son : for heo, hie appear hid, him, hiu; hire'^hir; for heord appear heard, 
 hiord, hiard. 
 
 (b.) The pronouns are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond 
 the Indo-European family ; the c {k) of ic and of Hebrew dndkt have been 
 claimed to be plainly from the same radicle ; so the dental of ^w, thou, and 
 Hebrew attdh, the guttural of he and Hebrew hH', the nasal of me and He- 
 brew dno/ii.
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 67 
 
 (c.) The mode of growth from the radicles in the Indo-European family 
 may be studied in the following : 
 
 Sing. — 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 O. Sax. 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 0. Norse. 
 
 Norn... 
 
 ah am 
 
 iyd) 
 
 
 ego 
 
 ik 
 
 ic 
 
 ih(ihha) 
 
 ek 
 
 Gen.... 
 
 ma-ma (me) 
 
 tnov 
 
 
 (mei) 
 
 (meina) 
 
 (min) 
 
 min 
 
 min 
 
 Bat.... 
 
 ma-hjam(me) 
 
 tfioiiLoc.) 
 
 
 mihi 
 
 mi-s 
 
 mi 
 
 mir 
 
 mer 
 
 Ace 
 
 ma-m, ma 
 
 tHE 
 
 
 me 
 
 mi-k 
 
 mic, mi 
 
 mih 
 
 mik 
 
 Voc... 
 
 Inst.... 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ma-ja 
 
 iLoc.) 
 
 { 
 
 iAblat.) I 
 me-d, mei 
 
 (Dat.) 
 
 (J)at.) 
 
 (^Dat.) 
 
 {Dat.-) 
 
 Norn... 
 
 asrae, vajam 
 
 ijfieTg 
 
 
 nos 
 
 veis 
 
 wi, we 
 
 -wir 
 
 ver 
 
 Gen.... 
 
 (asma'kam) nas 
 
 y'liiwv 
 
 nostrum (tri) 
 
 (unsara) 
 
 user 
 
 unsar 
 
 var (vor) 
 
 Lot.... 
 
 asma -bhjam, nas 
 
 rilTtv 
 
 
 no-bis 
 
 unsis, uns 
 
 us 
 
 uns 
 
 OSS 
 
 Ace... 
 
 asma'n, nas 
 
 yfiag 
 
 
 nos 
 
 unsis, uns 
 
 us 
 
 unsih 
 
 OSS 
 
 Dual.— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norn... 
 Gen.... 
 D.&I. 
 
 ava'm 
 
 ava-jos, nau 
 
 ava'-bhjam, nau 
 
 vd), VWl 
 
 
 
 vi-t 
 
 ugkara 
 
 ugkis 
 
 wi-t 
 
 uncero 
 
 unc 
 
 (wi-z) 
 unchar 
 (unch) 
 
 vi-t 
 olvkar 
 okkr 
 
 
 
 VIOIV 
 
 
 
 
 Ace... 
 
 ava'm, nau 
 
 VM, VUll 
 
 
 
 ugkis 
 
 unc 
 
 (unch) 
 
 okkr 
 
 In Sanskrit there are seemingly five themes : (1), ma, me ; (2), aha < 
 ma-\-ga (-^a>Sansk. -ha, -gha^^Gxeek -ye (£yw-y£)=:Gothic -A(c) is an 
 emphatic enclitic). (3), Plural, va<^ma, labial shifting, ^ 41, b; (4), 
 a-sma<jna-\-sma=l-\-he^^\ve. (5), Dual, d-va<ima-\-dva^=l-\-i\vo=^ 
 we two. Nas, nau, from masm-\-, mdv-\-, in oblique cases. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon ic<^maga by aphaeresis of m (^ 43), shifting of a>i and 
 g^c (^ 41 ; apocope, ^ 44). mirKCjnina, a possessive adjective -na: me 
 <Cmcr (compensation, ^ 37) <Cmir (-r dative sign, as in adjective, § 104, c) : 
 me<Cmec, ^ 37 (-c same as in ic ; c<iam, precession, ^ 41). Plural : 
 pe<iper (compensation, ^ 37) <ipis (shifting, § 41); -s<^sma (apocope, 
 § 44) : user <^vns-era, us<Cuns (^ 37) <C,muns (^ 43) <^mans (^^ 41) 
 <Cmasm (metathesis and dental assimilation, ^^ 51, 35) ; -rd, genitive 
 ending, ^ 104, c. Dual : pit<^pi-{-tpa, we two ; uncer is a variation of 
 unser; s=:h'^k(c): Sanskrit 5ma=Prakrit /ima; A <^- (shifting, ^ 41). 
 In uncit, -t as in pit. 
 
 (</.) Sing. — Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 O. Saxon. 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 O.N. 
 
 Nom... 
 
 tva-m 
 
 TV, (TV 
 
 tu 
 
 |,u 
 
 thu 
 
 da 
 
 J,u 
 
 Gen.... 
 
 tava (te) 
 
 nolo, ffov 
 
 (tui) 
 
 (feina) 
 
 (thin) 
 
 (din) 
 
 fin 
 
 Dot.... 
 
 tu-bhjam (tvc, to) 
 
 coi {Loe) 
 
 ti-bi 
 
 fis 
 
 thi 
 
 dir 
 
 ),er 
 
 Ace... 
 
 tva-m, tva 
 
 Tt, as 
 
 te 
 
 yik 
 
 thic, thi 
 
 dih 
 
 fik 
 
 Voc. ... 
 
 {Nominative.) 
 
 (Nom.) 
 
 {Nom.) 
 
 {Nom.) 
 
 {Nom.) 
 
 {Nom.) 
 
 {Nom.) 
 
 Inst.... 
 
 tvd-ju. 
 
 (Loe) 
 
 All. te-d, to 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 {Dat.) 
 
 Plural. 
 
 , — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nom... 
 
 jus'me, jujam 
 
 I'linc 
 
 vos 
 
 JUS 
 
 gi, g« 
 
 ler, ir 
 
 er, for 
 
 Gen.... 
 
 (jus'ma'kam) vas 
 
 vjiMV 
 
 v6strum(.tri) 
 
 izvara 
 
 iwar 
 
 iwar 
 
 3'5ar 
 
 Dat.... 
 
 jus'mabhjam, vas 
 
 VfllV 
 
   vo-bis 
 
 IZVIS 
 
 m 
 
 lU 
 
 ySr 
 
 Ace... 
 
 ]us ma n, vas 
 
 VjlUQ 
 
 vos 
 
 IZVIS 
 
 lU 
 
 iwih 
 
 y^r
 
 68 
 
 TRONOUNS.— REFLEXIVES. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Dpax.— 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Norn... 
 
 juva'm 
 
 CT^W, <T<pWl 
 
 Gen.... 
 
 juva-jos, vam 
 
 
 
 B.&I. 
 
 juva -blijim, vam 
 
 C(pWlV 
 
 Ace... 
 
 juva'm, vam 
 
 (T0a>, 0(pwi 
 
 -POSSESSIVES. 
 
 
 Gothic. O. Saxon. 0. 11. G. 
 
 O.N. 
 
 (ju-t) git (jiz, iz) 
 
 it, fit 
 
 igqara (incero) (inchar) 
 
 ykliur 
 
 igqis inc (incb) 
 
 ykkr 
 
 igqis inc (inch) 
 
 ykkr 
 
 Radicle stem in Parent Speech, tu<itva; plural, tu-\-sma = ihou and he; 
 dual, tu + dva = thoic + two =:yoa two. Anglo-Saxon, pu<itu (sliifting, 
 ^ 41) ; eup<ihfp<Ciu (quasi-gemination, § 117) =zju<^tu, irregular soften- 
 ing of ^ Compare assibilation, ^ 24. Other forms like those of ?c. 
 
 (e.) Three stems show in the third person, i, hi, sia. The Anglo-Saxon 
 alone has hi throughout. In English, she and they, their, them have come 
 in from the demonstrative (§ 133) hW^ li; its is a late formation. The 
 third personal pronoun is a weak demonstrative. In the cases not given 
 above, each language uses the endings of its demonstrative given on page 57. 
 
 131. Reflexives are supplied by the personal pronouns -svitli 
 5e?/'(self), or Avithout it. SeJfh^x^ strong adjective endings like 
 blind (§ 103) ; in the nominative singular also weak self a: ic self, 
 ic selfa, myself; wi??i selfes, of myself; me selfuni, me selfne, etc. ; 
 pH selfa, thyself, etc. ; he selfa, himself, etc. 
 
 (a.) Sin is the possessive of an old reflexive si, se (^ 132, h). Self, Gothic 
 .filba, is used throughout the Teutonic tongues: <Cisi-\-(lib?), life, soul; so 
 Sanskrit atman (soul) and Hebrew ncphes' are used as reflexives. 
 
 (b.) Silf is found in Anglo-Saxon : ^ self {a) (a-umlaut, § 32, 1), scolf, 
 siolf (breaking, ^ 33), sylf (graphic variation). Demonstrative sclfan is 
 found : py selfan dccge, the same day (^ 133). 
 
 132. PossEssivES are mm, pin, stn, riser, Hre, eoper, uncer, in- 
 cer. They have strong adjective endings (§ 103). Those in -er 
 are usually syncopated (§ 79). User has assimilation of r>s 
 (§ 35, B). 
 
 Sing. — 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Xcuter. 
 
 N. 6ser 6ser user 
 
 G. (fiseres) ftsses (liserre) fisse (liseres) fisses 
 
 D. (userum) ussum (userre) usse (userum) ussura 
 
 A. fiserne (usere) usse user 
 
 V. iiser user liser 
 
 /. (fisere) ussO (userre) usse (usere) usse 
 
 Northumbrian has iisenne <Cuscrne, usra. Ure is a syncopated form of 
 user. 
 
 Plur. — 
 
 Maac. & Fem. Neut. 
 
 (usere) usse (a) fiser 
 
 (iiserra) flssa 
 
 (ilserum) ussum 
 
 (iisere) usse user 
 
 (usere) usse user 
 
 (iiserum) ussum 
 
 (a.) They have the same themes as the genitives of the personal pro- 
 nouns. Analogous forms are found throughout the Indo-European family :
 
 PRONOUNS.— DEMONSTRATIVES. 
 
 69 
 
 mine, thine, his, our, your, 
 
 Sanskrit, madija tvadi'ja svadija asmadi'ja jus'madi'ja 
 
 of us two, 0/ you two, 
 
 Greek.... 
 
 tfiog 
 
 (70Q 
 
 OQ 
 
 jllitrep-os 
 
 v/xirep-OQ 
 
 Vbiirep-og 
 
 a(p(t)iTtp-o 
 
 ■J- . 
 
 mens 
 
 tuus 
 
 suus 
 
 noster 
 
 Tester 
 
 
 
 iMttn .... 
 
 
 
 Gothic... 
 
 meins 
 
 jjcins 
 
 seins 
 
 unsar 
 
 izvar 
 
 iigkar 
 
 igqar 
 
 0. Saxon 
 
 min 
 
 thin 
 
 sin 
 
 iisa 
 
 iwa 
 
 unca 
 
 inca 
 
 0. Norse 
 
 minii 
 
 finn 
 
 sinn 
 
 varr 
 
 y-Sarr 
 
 okkar 
 
 ykkar 
 
 0. H. G. 
 
 miner 
 
 diner 
 
 siner 
 
 unsarer 
 
 iwarer 
 
 
 
 The n {mei(7i)s) and r (u7isa(?-)) have been thought variations of Sanskrit 
 dental d {jna{d)'i'ja), but see 1^ 130, c. Fries, min, thin, sin, use, unser, etc. 
 
 . (b.) Sin is from obsolete se (self) found in Gothic, Old Saxon, etc., de- 
 fective like Latin sc, Greek ?. It does not cover the full meaning of the 
 possessive of the third person ; hence in Low German dialects the forma- 
 tion of new possessives : English, his, her, their, its, etc. 
 
 133. Demoxstratives. 
 
 Definite Article. 
 
 1. that and the. \ 2. this. 
 
 Kom. se seo J^oet l^es ]^)eus ]3is 
 
 Gen. l)oes ])^yq ]poes ];)isses ])isse J^isses 
 
 Bat. Jiara, ]prom ])&re J^am, Jjaem Jjissuni ])isse ])issuni 
 
 Ace. l)one Jja l^ffit Jjisnc l)as J)is 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Inst. l:)y latere 1)}^ l^e ^j^ l^isse l^ys 
 
 \__ _^ ^ 
 
 jSfom l)a • l)as 
 
 Gen J)ara, Ji^ra ]jissa 
 
 Dat l)am, ^km ];)issum 
 
 Ace . . . l^a lias 
 
 Voe 
 
 Inst l)ara, l)a3m liissum 
 
 (1. se.) — Other Forms : sing. gen. pes, pare, para? da.t. pdm, pxm, pan, 
 pon; ace. pxne, pane; inst. pi; ^ilur. gen. pcard,da.t. pan, pan. Northum- 
 brian : sing. nom. dc ; did, diu, di) ; dxt. Compare Old H. German, § 104, 
 and Old Saxon thie ; ihiu ; that. Add nom. sio, sid for sea. 
 
 (a.) The changes of stem a io se, and o are the common shiftings 
 (^ 41, 1). The lengthening of the stem in the feminine singular and 
 throughout the plural was to be expected (^ 64, 2 ; 88, c). The O. Norse 
 has sing. nom. sd, su,pat; gen. pess, peirrar, pess ; da.t. peim, peirri, 
 pvi ; ace. pann, pa, pat ; plur. nom. peir, pxr, pau ; gen. peirra ; dat. 
 peim ; ace. pa, pwr, pau. O. Fries, thi, thiu, thet ; thes, there, thes, etc.
 
 70 PRONOUNS.— RELATIVES.— INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 (i.) For forms in other languages and discussion of case-endings, see 
 ^ 104. Ilcyne gives /wra, pxm only as masculine, but pjbrd bocd, JEl- 
 fric, 2, 114 ; pxrd Jnngd, ib. 2, 130 ; see J)xm in Grein. 
 
 (3. pes.) — Other Forms: without gemination of 5 in masculine and neu- 
 ter, pises, pisiun, pise; i>y : pys, Pysscs, Jnjssc, etc. ; sing. nom. f. pios; 
 gen. and dat. f. pisere'^pisre, pisscrc ; dat. pisson, pissan, piosum ; inst. m. 
 and n. ^"'5) pise, pisse adjective form, (peos:=0. Saxon pius ; Grimm, Ett- 
 miiller, Heyne — examples given are all false readings); plur. nom. ^^s; 
 gen. piscrd, pisserd. Northumbrian: sing. nom. dirs, dius,dis ; gen. and 
 dat. f. dwsscr, disser ; dat. m. dassum; ace. diosnc, da, dis. 
 
 (a.) Pes is an emphatic demonstrative from pa-\-sja. In Gothic, the 
 same force is obtained by affixing -uh (Latin -ce, -que : hi-c, quis-que)'. 
 In the other Germanic tongues analogous forms to pes are found : O. 
 Saxon sing. nom. these, the-su (thius), thi-t ; gen. the-sas, the-sara, 
 the-sas ; dat. the-sumu, the-saru, thc-sumu; ace. the-san, the-sa, thi-t ; 
 inst. n, thius; pi. nom. ace. the-sa, thius ; gen. the-saro; dat. the-sun; 
 O. H. G. di-se-r, etc. The Anglo-Saxon has lost all the sja except -s in 
 the nominative. In pisse, pissd there has been syncope and assimila- 
 tion of r>s, as in usse, ussd ( ^ 132) ; in pisses and pissum, gemination 
 of s through gravitation. The genitive and dative masculine are writ- 
 ten pretty regularly with gemination of s — not always. 
 
 (3.) Ylc.) pylc-t spylc : ylca, same, has only weak forms ; pylc, 
 spylc, such, have only strong. (i/=i=ze.) ])7js-licypyllic, strong. 
 
 (a.) Ylc<C'>J-\-lic ; ?/<C«, demonstrative Ae; -Zzc, like; so /ly-Z/c, analogous 
 to Latin td-lis, Greek ttj-XIkoq, Sanskrit td-dr'ks'a; spy-lie, Gothic sve- 
 leiks, etc., English such. 
 
 (4.) Self., see § 131. (5.) Same, adv. same, Sanskrit pron. sama 
 {sa-{'ma), Greek o^o-c, Latin simi-lis, Gothic, Old Saxon satna, 
 Old Norse scim-r. Old II. German samo. 
 
 (6.) Geotid, adv. yon, Gothic ^ron. Jains, that (§ 255, a). 
 
 134. Relatives, — (1.) se, sco, pwt, who, which, that, is de- 
 clined as when a demonstrative (§ 133). (2.) pe used in all the 
 cases, both alone and in combination with se, seo, pset, or a per- 
 sonal pronoun, is indeclinable. (3.) spd, so, used like English as 
 and Old German so in place of a relative, is indeclinable. 
 
 135. Interrogatives are Jipd, who; hpxder, yfhich. of two; 
 hpylc, Ivdllc, of what kind. They have strong adjective endings ; 
 hpseder is syncopated (§ 84.)
 
 PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITES. 7I 
 
 oING. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fern. Keut. 
 
 Nbni. hpii bpast jSansJcrit. ka-s kti ka-t 
 
 Ge7i. hpa33 hpres Greek... Ko-£>Troe>'7r6-Srt,Trov,etc. 
 
 Dat. hpam lipam Latin . . . qui-s qujB quo-d 
 
 Ace. hpone lipajt Gothic . . bva-s hvo hva 
 
 Yoc. ' O.Saxon hue hua-t 
 
 Inst, hpam hpy 0. Norse, hva-r hva-t 
 
 Other Forms : dat. hpasm, hpan, hpon, hpam, hp&m ; ace. Iipwne ; inst. 
 hp'i, hpig, hu. Northumbrian : hud, hux, husstd, huxd. 
 
 (a.) For shifting of the stem radicle, see § 41, i?; for case-endings, ^ 105. 
 (6.) Hpwder<ihpa, comparative form, ^ 126, a. Hpylc <ihpy -\- lie like 
 pylc<ipy-\-ric,^ \ZZ,^,a. (y=:i=ze.) 0. Fries, hwa — hwet. 
 
 136. Indefinites. 
 (1.) The Indefinite Article Is 'Clin, one. 
 
 Sing. — 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Plue.- 
 
 — M.,F.,N. 
 
 JVbm. . . 
 
 an 
 
 an 
 
 an 
 
 - 
 
 ane 
 
 Gen. . . . 
 
 anes 
 
 anre 
 
 'dues 
 
 
 VLurd 
 
 Dat 
 
 aman 
 
 anrc 
 
 Vivmni 
 
 
 anwn 
 
 Ace. . . . 
 
 hnne, sbmie 
 
 dne 
 
 an 
 
 ' 
 
 ane 
 
 Voc. . . . 
 
 an 
 
 an 
 
 an 
 
 
 ape 
 
 Inst. . . . 
 
 hne 
 
 'dure 
 
 ane 
 
 
 sim(7n 
 
 A weak sing. nom. ana, ane{a), ane, is also found, and undeclined forms. 
 The vocative and plural mean sole, some, etc. See the numeral an, 
 § 137, a. 
 
 (a.) So also decline nan, none. 
 
 (2.) ^nifj, any {cm-\-i(/), and nwmg, none, are strong. (3.) 
 sum, some, one (akin to same, § 133, 5), is strong. (4.) The no- 
 tional substantives man (man) and piht (whit) have become pro- 
 nouns in certain uses; for their declension, see §§ 83; 100,/". 
 They simulate pronominal stems. Compare English one, lohit 
 (wh), thing (tb), § 40, 2. Compounds of piht f. and n. are neu- 
 ter : dpiht, iipyht, apuht > (luht > dht, opiht, aught ; ndpiht, 
 naught. Eal (all), manig (many), strong, /e^ (few), sing, indec. 
 pi. strong (§ \l1),fela (much), hjt, hpon may be added. 
 
 (5.) Compounds of hpd.^ hpxcter, -lie, decline like the simples : 
 
 (a.) From hpd : gc-hpa, each, every ; &g-hpa (d-\-ge-\-hpa), every ; elles- 
 hpd (Lat. ali-quis), any ; spd-hpd-spd, spd-hpxt-spd, whoso, whatsoever ; hpxt- 
 hpugu, -hpigu, -hugu (Lat. cum-que, ^ 133, 2, a), anything. Gchpd has fem. 
 gen. dat. gehpiire, gehpdre (gehporef), and masc. forms as feminines.
 
 72 DECAY OF PRONOMINAL ENDINGS. 
 
 (b.) From hpxder (^ 135,5): d-hpxder (any one) '^aj'ifer'^ actor, opdcr, 
 ()(/er, other, either ; nd-h]>xder{ae\t\\ev')^napder,n6pdcr, noder ; ge-hpxdcr, 
 either ; wg-hpxder {d-\-ge-\-hpxdcry^a:gder, either ; spd-hpxder-spa, which- 
 soever. 
 
 (c.) From Vic (J^ 133, 3, a) : gc-hpilc, -hpclc, -hpylc, any body ; xg-hpilc 
 {d-\-ge-\-hpi)-\-lic, § 135, b), whoever ; hpilc-hugu, hpilce-hugu, any one, any- 
 thing ; spd-hpdc-spd, whosoever , Jri/s-lic, Jjus-lic,Jji/llic,J)y-ltc, of this sort; 
 xlc (d-{-ge-\-lic), each, all : xlc, clc, ylc. 
 
 (d.) Analogous compounds arc found throughout the Teutonic tongues, 
 and to many through most of the Indo-European family. / 
 
 137. Decay of Pronominal Endings: — 
 
 (a.) Personal. — Layamon and Ormulum have Anglo-Saxon forms, also 
 Lay. ?c>ic/j>Orm. i, Chaucer sometimes ich, ik. Pu>thou,late Old En- 
 glish (§ 38, il, 1) ; g-e>Lay. :5e>ye ; eo/>>Lay. :jOM>you. Hv^,he6,hit: 
 sing. fem. nom., Ang.-Sax. chronicle (A.D. 1140+) 5caJ> Chaucer schc"^ 
 she, Northern O. Engl. scM (0. Sax. sid, O. Norse sm), Lay. :jeo, :je, Orm. 
 "^ho ; hit^Oim. itt, itj dat.>acc. Lay. Jmii, hire ^ Chancer hire (monosyl- 
 lable) > her ; plur. nom. ace. Lay. ]jc6, paie, Orm. nom. pci^-i^ > they ; gen. 
 Lay. heore, hire, Orm. pc^-^re (heorc), dat. >acc. Orm. pe'^-^m (hemm)'^ 
 them (^ 130, e) ; her, hir, here (their), hem (them), are still in Chaucer. 
 
 (b.) Posscssives. — Lay. mm^wu>my, 7;m>/j>thy, sometimes before 
 a consonapt; other endings like adjectives, § 129 +. 
 
 (c.) Demonstratives. — The definite article in Layamon retains its declen- 
 sion, except dat. nC^n and precession of a>a>o>e; but indeclinable pe 
 grows more frequent, and in Orm. is estabhshed as in Modern English. Pes 
 changes like the adjective (t^ 129+) : plur. ^as ^T'coi > those (^ 38, A, 1). 
 Ormulum sing, piss (this), plur. pisse (these) ; and sing, patt (that), plur. pa 
 (those). Chaucer this, plur. these; that, plur. tho. 
 
 (d.) Relatives. — Layamon pje, p)at throughout, also fem. and plur. Pju > 
 peo; Ormulum Jjatt (=that) throughout, as in English now. For the change 
 of who, which to relatives, see Syntax. 
 
 (e.) Interrogatives. — Layamon ivhd (^w6),whes, wham C^wdm'),ivhdn 
 (^wdn), neuter lohxt; Ormulum luhd, ivhds, dat.^acc. whamm, whatt ; 
 O. Engl. d> 6. Hpilc, hpxder, like adjectives, ^ 129+. 
 
 (y.) Indefinite an in Layamon is declined throughout, sometimes also 
 nom. dn^d, and oblique cases one. Ormulum has only masculine endings; 
 d, a, frequent. Chaucer no inflection, dn^a, as now.
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 73 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 138. NUMERALS 
 Oemulum. 
 
 1. an 
 
 an 
 
 2 J tpegen, tpa, tu ) ^^^. . 
 
 '1 <tpa 
 
 3, ]Dri, J)re6 
 
 4. feoper 
 
 5. fif 
 
 6, six 
 
 i 
 
 Ordinals. Symbols. 
 
 f forma (fruma, ^resta) | j 
 tfyrsta, §129 j 
 
 Oder 
 
 Jiriclda 
 
 feopercta (feurda) 
 fifta 
 sixta 
 
 \n-eo, ])rc 
 fowweri" 
 fif 
 sexe 
 
 7. seofon (syfone) j , J . ' | seofoda (-eda) 
 
 8. ealita ehhto 
 
 9. nigon (-en) ni^benu 
 
 10. tyn, ten tene,(tenn) 
 
 11. endleofan (ellefnc) 
 
 ealitoda (-eda) 
 nigoda (-eda) 
 teoda 
 
 ir. 
 
 HI. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Ylll. 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. 
 
 12. tpelf 
 
 13. ]3re6t5''iie 
 
 14. feopertj'ue 
 
 15. fifty ne 
 IG. sixtj^ne 
 
 17. seofontj'nc 
 
 18. eahtat^-ne 
 
 19. nigontj'ne 
 
 20. tpentig 
 
 21. an and tpentig 
 
 30. l^ritig, iDi-ittig 
 
 40. feopertig 
 
 50. fiftig 
 
 GO. sixtig 
 
 70. hundseofontig 
 
 80. hundeahtatig 
 
 90. hundnigontig 
 
 twellf 
 Jirittene 
 
 sextcue 
 
 twennti^ 
 
 l^ritti:^ 
 
 endleofta (eo>u, y, e) XL 
 
 tpelfta XII. 
 
 J)reuteoda XIII. 
 
 feoperteuda XIV. 
 
 fifteoda XV. 
 
 sixteoda XVI. 
 
 seofonteoda XVII. 
 
 eahtateoda XVIIl. 
 
 nigonteoda XIX. 
 
 tpentiguda XX. 
 J un and tpentigoda | vvt 
 
 
 
 I tpentigoda and forma. 
 
 l^i'itigoda 
 
 fowwerrti^ feopertigoda 
 
 fifFti^ fiftigoda 
 
 sexti^ sixtigoda 
 
 scofennti^ liundseofontigodia 
 hundealitatigoda 
 hundnigontigoda. 
 
 100 
 
 f hundteontig ~| 
 
 Ihund 
 
 J 
 
 liunndredd 
 
 101. hund and an 
 
 Imndteontigoda 
 
 an and Imndteonti- 
 goda 
 
 hundteontigoda and 
 forma 
 
 XXX. 
 
 XL. 
 
 L. 
 
 LX. 
 
 LXX. 
 
 LXXX. 
 
 XC. 
 
 C. 
 
 CL
 
 74 
 
 ETYiMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 
 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 Ormulum. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 Symbols. 
 
 110. 
 
 huudcudleofautig 
 
 
 hundeudlcofantigoda 
 
 ex. 
 
 120. 
 
 bundtpelftig 
 
 
 hundtpelftigoda 
 
 cxx. 
 
 130. 
 
 hund aud l)rittig 
 
 
 hund and ]^^)ritig6d:a 
 
 cxxx 
 
 200. 
 
 tpa hund 
 
 
 tpa hundteuutigoda 
 
 cc. 
 
 1000. 
 
 ]^>tlsend 
 
 J)Asennde 
 
 {not found.) 
 
 M. 
 
 (a.) The order of combined numbers is indicated by the examples. The 
 substantive defined is oftenest placed next the largest of the numbers. 
 
 (h.) Combined numbers are sometimes connected by edc (added to) or and 
 governing a dative : pridda eac tpentigum ^ 23d ; sometimes by the next 
 greater ten and pana, Ixs, or butan : dnes pana prittig, thirty less one ; ipd 
 Ixs XXX, two less than thirty ; XX bulan dn,^ 393. 
 
 (c.) For hund- from 70 to 120, see ^ 139, e ; indefinites, ^ 136, 2. 
 
 (d.) The unaccented syllables often suffer precession, sometimes syncope, 
 often cacography. 
 
 139. ETYMOLOGY.— CARDINALS. 
 
 Gothic. O. Saxon. O. Norse. 
 
 ai-n-s e-n ei-nn 
 
 tvai tue-na tvci-r 
 
 J)rei-s tbri-a l^ii-r 
 
 Parent Sp. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. 
 
 1. ai-ua? e'ka eh<£-i'-Q oi-nos>unus 
 
 2. dva dva ^m duo 
 
 3. tri tri TpE~ig<Tpi tres<tri 
 
 4. katvai* k'atva'r 
 
 , f TETTap-eQ 
 
 5. kankan 
 
 6. ? 
 
 -7. ? 
 
 8. akta 
 
 9. navan 
 vlO. dakan 
 
 1 <K£T 
 
 pank'an ttevte 
 
 s'as' U 
 
 saptun ETTTa 
 
 as't'an otcrdj 
 
 , ( irt'Eci < 
 
 navan < ^^ 
 
 (. vE[a> 
 
 dagan ci^a 
 
 ap-eg 1 
 '^,r } quatuor 
 :£T\ag) 
 
 < 
 
 ] 
 
 quinque 
 sex 
 
 septeni 
 octo 
 
 novem 
 
 decern 
 
 fidvor fiwar fior-ir 
 
 fimf 
 
 saihs 
 
 sibun 
 
 ahtau 
 
 niun 
 taihun 
 
 fif 
 
 sehs 
 
 sibun 
 
 ahto 
 
 nigun 
 
 tehan 
 
 fimni 
 sex 
 siau 
 atta 
 
 niu 
 
 tiu 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. 
 
 11. e'ka-da^an 'iv-ctKa un-decim 
 
 12. dva'-daijan dui-deica duo-decim 
 
 13. trajo-da^an TpiaKai-SiKa tre-decim 
 20. (d)viin-(da)94ti (oF)f'-KO(ri (d)vi-ginti 
 EO. trim-9at rpia-Kovra tri-ginta 
 70. sapta-(da9a)ti ilScofiy'i-Kovra septua-ginta 
 
 100. -9ata. i-Karuv -centum 
 
 120. (i?y 100+20. The ffreat hundred not used.) 
 1000. sahasra x(Xto-j mill! a 
 
 Gothic, 
 ain-lif 
 tva-lif 
 brija-taihun 
 tvai-tig-jus 
 breis-tig-jus 
 sibun-tehund 
 taihun-tehund ) 
 hund ' 
 
 (tvalif-tchund) 
 Jjusundi 
 
 Old Saxon. 
 cllif 
 tue-lif 
 
 tu en-tig 
 
 thri-tig 
 
 ant-sibunta 
 t (ant-tehunta) ] 
 (hund \ 
 
 (ant-tuelifta) 
 
 thusundig 
 
 Old Norse. 
 
 ellifu 
 
 to-lf 
 
 brcttian 
 
 tu-ttug-u 
 
 bria-tig-i 
 
 sio-tigi 
 
 ( tiu-tiu 
 
 ( hund-raj 
 tulf-tl-u 
 busund
 
 ETYxMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 75 
 
 (a.) The numerals are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond the 
 Zndo-European family. 
 
 1-10. — An (one) <^ pronominal stem z ]> ai-na'^ Sansk. ena, that ; e'ka 
 (e-(na)ka)1 § 130, b,c. Dva (two), dental radicle for addition, § 56. Tri, 
 tar, fem. tissar (titar), three < dental radicle ^ + emphatic r; compare its 
 force in comparison, ^ 123, c, and in ■\/iri, to go further. Katvar, fem. kata- 
 sar {ka-tatar), four, =:A-a {<Ceka, one) -^tpar (<^tar, titar, three) : the sym- 
 bols for four are composed of those for one and three in Sanskrit and kin- 
 dred alphabets, also in Egyptian. Kan-kan (five) is a reduplication indi- 
 cating the completion of one {ka<^eka) count — one hand. For reduplica- 
 tion as a sign of completion, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 179 ; see fur- 
 ther below. Aktan (eight) is ak (one) -{-superlative -ta (^ 123, c), the highest 
 count of fingers. Navan (nine) is akin to Sansk. nava-s, Greek vi[o-Q, Latin 
 novu-s, Gothic niu-ji-s, Ang.-Sax. 7iipe, new, now, <^nu, pronominal stem of 
 interrogation, negation, stimulation ; nine begins a new quaternion. Dakan 
 (ten) < dva-kan = 2X5. 
 
 (b.) Well-marked identity with the Semitic numerals has been claimed in 
 eka, Hebrew ek'ad ; s'as', Hebrew s'es', six ; saptan, Gothic sibun, He- 
 brew s'eba, seven. It has been said that s'es'=^s'e-{-s'e:^2-\-2, and s'eba^= 
 5'e+(ar)6fl=3-|-4 ; the -tan in saptan being a superlative, as in aktan, fin- 
 ishing the count of possibly a week. Kan in kan-kan is also like Hebrew 
 kam-es , five. The original stem for five has been also thought to be pan- 
 kan, and to be from Sanskrit ^anz, hand. 
 
 (c.) The shifting and gravitation in coming down from the Parent Speech 
 is generally regular, ^^ 41,38, tables in ^^ 18,19 ; Z;>^:>>y, ^ A\,Z,A,B; 
 i'^ig, quasi-gemination, ^ 27, 5. 
 
 {d.) 11-19. — Endleofan < a/i -j- leofan < tihan (Lithuanic, lika), ten ; 
 ^>e, precession, § 38 ; nl'^ndl, dissimilated gemination of n, the last part 
 of which changes to cl from the dropping of the nasal veil to send breath for- 
 ward for I (^ 27, 5 ; 50) ; t(<C.d)'^l, unusual shifting : 'Ocvcrcytuc^ Ulysses; 
 dingua^lingua (^ 41, b) ; h{<^k)'^f, shifting as in katvar^ Jidvor, four ; 
 kankan'^finf, five, etc., § 41, 3, A, J5; i^- eo, breaking, ^ 33; 35, 2, a. 
 TpELF < tpd + leofan = 2 -+- 10 ; threo-tyne, 3 + 10, etc., are plain. 
 
 (e.) 20-120. — TDENTiG<//jfiTen (twain)-f-/(§-<t?a^-a?i(ten), 2X 10: shift- 
 ing, § 41,3, A. Similar are the forms in -tig up to {hund)lpelftigz^l'iX 10, 
 the great hundred. 
 
 60-120. — With the forms in -tig from three-score to the great hundred is 
 joined hund. Gothic tchund (Latin -ginti, Greek -kovti, Sanskrit -rati^ <C 
 dakanta <idakan (ten) -\- -ta superlative, as in saptan, aktan : shifting, ^41, 
 3, A ; nt^nd, instead of nd, through influence of n ; «>e, progression to 
 d and shifting, ^ 18 ; a~^u, precession, ^ 38. The Gothic has sibun-tehund 
 = 7X 10, taihun-tchiind = 10 X 10, etc. The Anglo-Saxon form was once 
 hund-seofonta (decade seventh), like Old Saxon (h)ant-sibunta. The -ta 
 changed to -tig through conformation with the smaller numbers, and hund-, 
 whose meaning had faded, was retained as a sign of the second half of the
 
 76 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS. 
 
 great huiulrcd ; when countincr by the common hundred, it is omitted : an 
 hund manna and scofontig, 170 men. 
 
 C/.) 100-1000. — Hl'nd, /jM?i(/rcc?< Parent Speech dakan-dakanta,-w\\ic\\ 
 would shift in Anglo-Saxon to tihun-tihund (§ 41). It has gravitated to 
 hund^ hundred <ihundarc (Latin ccnturia) -\- d, as in eored, legion ; coped, 
 herd, etc. 1000 is expressed by so dilTerent words in the different tongues 
 that no common origin can be found, and hence it is believed not to have 
 been in the Parent Speech. The Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Teutonic, how- 
 ever, agree: hith. tukstanti; Shv. tusa7itja; Goi\\. p{isundi<^tuk-<^dakan 
 (ten) -\- santi <^kanti^ hund (hundred) = 10X 100. 
 
 140. Ordinals arc superlative forms, except oder^ second. 
 
 (a.) Fruima, /orma, first, sec ^ 126 +; odcr, second, ^ 126, a; -da, -la, 
 -da are all shiftings of superlative -ta, § 123, c; -tebda is a repetition of 
 te6da<i.tednda (tenth) ; -tigoda, Ynesic -tigosta, O. Norse -tugasti, O. H 
 German -zugosto (no examples in Gothic or Old Saxon), has conformed to 
 the smaller and more frequently recurring numbers in -tedda. The substan- 
 tives hund and Jmsend had not developed ordinals in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 {b.) The formation of ordinals is similar in principle throughout the Indo- 
 European family. j 
 
 Declension. 
 
 141. Cardinals. — 1, dn, is declined, § 13G. 
 
 N.^A.^V. 2, tpegen tpa tu<tpa 3, lKt(-y,-ie) ]3re6 J)re6 (-ia, -io) 
 
 Gen tpegra, tpcgu, J)re6ra 
 
 D.^Inst.. tpam>tpieni ]3riin (-ym) 
 
 Like tpegen decline begen, bd, btc, both. 
 
 4-19. — Cardinals from feoper to fpelf, and iv om. preo-tyne to 
 nigon-tpne, are used as indeclinable, but are also declined like i- 
 stem nouns of the First Declension {byre^ § 84), oftenest when 
 used as substantives: nom. ace. voc. /eopere, gen. Reopen?, dat. 
 in^t.feoperum. Such forms oi ealita are not found. Tpie<^te6n, 
 umlaut, § 32, 2. 
 
 {a.) Those in -tyne have also sometimes a neut. nom. and ace. in -w]>-o, 
 or -a: fiflyn-u, -o, -a (fifteen) ; preoteno (^thirteen). (^!>*>C.) 
 {b.) They are quasi-adjectives like Dene, ^ 80. 
 
 20-120. — Forms in -tig are declined as singular neuter nouns: 
 prltlg (thirty), geu. prUiges / or, as adjectives, have plural gen. 
 -rd, dat. -um : prttigrd, pritigum. 
 
 100-1000. — Ilmid, n., is declined likepon?, § 73; hundred siu(\ 
 p'dsend, like scip, § 70 ; \>\.pilsend-u, -o, -e, -a (Psa. Ixvii, 17), § 393.
 
 THE VERB. 77 
 
 142. Ordinals have always the regular weak forms of the ad- 
 jective, except oder (second), always strong. Indefinites, § 130, 2, 
 
 143. MuLTiPLiCATivES are found in -feald (fold) : dnfeald, simple : tpi- 
 feald, two-fold ; /w5en(f-7n«ZMOT,thousandfoldly. 
 
 1 44. Distributives may be expressed by repeating cardinals, or by a 
 dative : seofon and seofon, seven by seven ; bi tpdtn, by twos. 
 
 145. In answer to how often, numeral adverbs are used, or an ordinal or 
 cardinal with sid (time) : xne, once ; tp^pa {tpiga), twice ; pripa {piga), 
 thrice ; priddan side, the third time ; feoper sidum, four times. 
 
 146. For adverbs of division the cardinals are used, or ordinals with d&l : 
 on preo, in three (parts) ; seofedan diil, seventh part. 
 
 147. An ordinal before hcalf(ha,\i) numbers the whole of which the half 
 is counted : he pxs pa tpd gear and Imdde healf, he was there two years 
 and (the) tliird (year) half=2i years. The whole numbers are usually un- 
 derstood : he ricsode mgonteode heaJf gear, he reigned half the nineteenth 
 year = 18i years. A similar idiom is used in German and Scandinavian. 
 
 148. Sum, agreeing with a numeral, is indefinite, as in English: sume 
 ten gear, some ten years, more or less ; limited by the genitive of a cardinal 
 it is a partitive of eminence : code cahta sum, he went one of eights: with 
 seven attendants or companions. 
 
 VERB. 
 
 149. The notion signified by a verb root may be predicated of 
 a subject or uttered as an interjection of command, or (2) it may 
 be spoken of as a substantive fact or as descriptive of some per- 
 son or thing. In tlie first case proper verb stems are formed, or 
 auxiliaries used, to denote time, mode, and voice ; and sufiixes (per- 
 sonal endings) are used to indicate the person and number of the 
 subject: thus is made up the verb proper or finite verb. In the 
 second case a noun stem is formed, and declined in cases as a sub- 
 stantive or adjective. 
 
 150. Two Voices. — The active represents the subject as act- 
 ing, the passive as aifected by the action. The active has inflec- 
 tion endings for many forms, the passive only for a participle. 
 Other passive forms help this participle with the auxiliary verbs 
 com (am), beon^ pesan, peordan. 
 
 (w.) The middle voice represents the subject as affected by its own action. 
 It is expressed in Anglo-Saxon by adding pronouns, and needs no paradigms. 
 
 151. Six Modes. — The indicative states or asks about a fact, 
 the subjunctive a possibility ; the inqjerative commands or in-
 
 78 
 
 VERB .—CON JUG ATION.— CLASSES. 
 
 treats ; the infinitives (and gerunds) are substantives, the parti- 
 ciples adjectives. Certain forms of possibility arc expressed by 
 auxiliary modal verbs with the inlinitive. They need separate 
 discussion, and arc conveniently called a potential mode. 
 
 152. Five Tenses. — Present^ hniyer feet ^future ., perfect^ p>luper'- 
 fect. Tlie present and iraper'fect have tense stems ; the future is 
 expressed by the present, or- by aid of sceal (shall) or pille (will) ; 
 the perfect by aid of the present of hahban (have) or, with some 
 intransitives, heon (be), pesan or peorctan (be) ; the pluperTect 
 by aid of the imper'fect of hahban, heon, pesan, or peordan. 
 
 153. Two Numbers, singular and plural. 
 
 154. TiiEEE Persoxs, ^>s^, second, and third. 
 
 155. Stems and Themes. — A icwsQ-stem is that part of a verb 
 to which the signs of mode, person, and number were added in 
 that tense. The xcrh-stem is that to which the tense signs were 
 added. The theme of any part of a verb is so much of it as is un- 
 changed in the inflection. For roots, § 57. 
 
 150. The Principal Parts are the present infinitive, the im- 
 perfect indicative first persons, and the passive participle. 
 
 157. Conjugation. — Verbs are classified for conjugation by 
 the stems of the imperfect tense. 
 
 Strong Verbs express tense by varying the root vowel ; weak 
 verbs, by composition. Strong verbs in the imperfect indicative 
 singular first person have the root vowel unchanged, or changed 
 \}j progression or by contraction. The vowels are 
 
 Xo change. 
 
 Progression. 
 
 Contraction. 
 
 Comptosition 
 
 Conjugation I. 
 
 II., III., IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 a > (ae, ea) 
 
 a, ea, 6 
 
 eo>e 
 
 + de>te 
 
 158. Further subdivision gives the following classes. The Roman nu- 
 merals give Grimm's numbers. We arrange in alphabetical order of the 
 stem vowels of the imperfect. 
 
 Class 
 1, 
 
 2, 
 3, 
 
 Hoot 
 Vowel. 
 
 X.,XI. a 
 XII. a 
 VIII. i 
 
 Present. 
 
 i(>e, eo) 
 i(>e,eo) 
 i 
 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Imperfect Sing. 
 
 a(>a;,ea) 
 a(>3e,ea) 
 a 
 
 riur. 
 
 a(>fe, 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 S) 
 
 Passive Participle. 
 
 e, u>o 
 
 U>0 
 
 i 
 
 4, 
 
 IX. u 
 
 eo, u 
 
 
 ea 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 5, 
 
 VII. a 
 
 a(>ea) 
 
 
 6 
 
 A 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 6, 
 
 I.-VI. a>e 
 
 a, a, ea, te, e, 6 
 
 
 e6>e 
 
 e6>e 
 
 
 a>ea, a,ea,&,e,6 
 
 
 
 Weak (§§ 160, 165, 
 
 d). 
 
 
 
 7, 
 8, 
 
 affix -ia^ 
 affix -6> 
 
 > -ie > -e > — 
 
 .-a;-ia>-igc, 
 
 -ie 
 
 +cde>de>te 
 
 + 6de 
 
 
 -t-ed>d>t 
 +6d
 
 GROWTH OF ABLAUT. 
 
 79 
 
 (a.) The variation of letters in the five first classes is called Ablaut; it 
 sprang from gravitation (^ 38) and compensation (^ 37). Its beginnings may- 
 be seen in the other Indo-European tongues, plainest in Sanskrit. Sanskrit 
 grammars have ten conjugation classes; the present stems are, 1. V+a; 
 2.-/; 3. Reduplicated V; 4. V+i«; 5. V+»"; Q-V+a'; 7. V with n 
 inserted; 8.\/-\-u; 9.\/+ni; 10. V+cy'a. Anglo-Saxon strong verbs 
 correspond to the first or sixth class, a few to the fourth ; weak verbs to the 
 (4th 1) and tenth. Sanskrit reduplicated preterites (perfects) are formed all 
 alike from the root by prefixing its first letters. 
 
 Presents. 
 
 Sense. Root. Conj. Sanskrit. Greek. 
 
 throw. kar G. kir-vJnxi; tiT-a,'mi<.V tar, G, step over, 
 
 sit. sad C. sid-a'mi ("C-o/xai 
 
 Jcnow, go. k'it, i 1, 2. k'e't-ami, e -mi tl-jii 
 
 show. dio. G. dic-a'mi, Causal base de'9-aja iHK-vvj.11 
 
 bo'dh-ami irtvQ-onai 
 
 bhug'-a'mi, Caus. hose bho'g'-aja (pevy-iii 
 vaks'-ami 
 
 Latin. Gothic.. 
 
 sed-eoj 
 i-re ] 
 dic-o J tei 
 
 sit-an 
 
 teih-an 
 
 l:noic. 
 
 budh 
 
 1. 
 
 bend. 
 
 bhug' 
 
 6. 
 
 ■wax. 
 
 vaks' 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 
 fiig-ioj biug-an 
 vahs-jan 
 
 Perfects ]> Anglo-Saxon Imperfect. 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Sense. Root. Conj. Sing. 
 extend, tan S. ta-ta'n-a 
 
 Latin. | Gothic. 
 Sing. Plur. | Sing. Plur.. 
 
 Kit. 
 
 do. 
 
 bind. 
 
 see. 
 
 show. 
 
 bend. 
 
 tcax. 
 
 break, blirag' 
 
 bake, bhag' 
 
 6. sa-sii'd-a 
 
 I Greek. 
 
 Plur. I Sing. Plur. 
 
 .fta-tin-im;i> I ^^-.^„(j).Ka -Ka/ici/ te-tin-i, -iraus than tlicn-um 
 (.tonima ) 
 EL-d-imu sGd-i, 
 
 ead 
 
 kar 8. (P«s.) kar-6'mi kur-mas; tu-tur-jii'm<-/tar, s^cp orcr, 
 
 bandh 9. ba-bandli-a ba-bandli-imi — 
 
 vid 2. (vi)ve'd-a (vi)vid-ma 
 
 dip C. di-d6'5-a di-dif-ima 
 
 bhug' C. bu-bho'g'-a bu-bhug'-ima 
 
 vaks' 1. va-vaks'-a va-vaks'-ima 
 
 Greek Prese7it Fp>';7-n'jui 
 
 Greek Present (pwi-ai 
 
 -imus sat sut-uni 
 
 ibai 
 
 Foi5-a 
 
 6e-6cix-a, 
 
 ni-^evy-a, 
 
 g-fJpWY-a, 
 
 Vicr-jxev vid-i, 
 
 fdg-i 
 
 
 frCg-i, 
 
 band bund-um 
 -imus vait vit-um 
 
 taih t(a)ih-nin 
 
 -imus baug bug-ur.i 
 
 vohs vohs-um 
 
 -imus 
 
 jl?)(7.-.?a2;. bac-an; boc, boc-or- 
 
 (J).) The Sanskrit passive past participle in -na is accented on the afiix, 
 u.nd the root in Teutonic has precession like the imperfect plural. ^ 175. 
 
 (c.) Roots in a have conformed to the analogy of the Sanskrit Sixth Con- 
 jugation Class, those in i and xi to that of the first. Since accent opens the 
 organs, the open a must be most varied by its absence (i.e., by precession), 
 the close i and it by its presence — progression. 
 
 {d.) Comparison of Ablaut : 
 
 FiEBT Conjugation, Va. 
 
 Sanskrit i ; a, c ; i & u 
 Gothic .. i ; a, c ; i & u 
 O.Sax.. i>e; a, a ; e& u>o 
 O.Norse i>e; a, a; e&u>o 
 O.n.G. i>e; a, a; e&o 
 
 u 
 u 
 
 1 ; a, u 
 
 i ; a, u 
 
 i>e; a,u; u>0 
 
 i>e>ia; a,u; u>o 
 i>e; a,u; u>0 
 
 2nd Coxj., 
 
 V 
 
 i. 
 
 ^\ 
 
 c,i; 
 
 
 
 ei; 
 
 ai,i; 
 
 
 
 i; 
 
 e,i; 
 
 
 
 J; 
 
 ei,i; 
 
 
 
 1; 
 
 ei>c, 
 
 i; 
 
 
 Od coxj., v'n, 
 
 6 ; 6, u ; 
 
 iu ; - au, u ; 
 
 iu>io>u; o, u ; 
 iu>io>u; au, u; 
 iu>io>u; ou>6,u; 
 
 u 
 u 
 o 
 o 
 
 FocKTti Conjugation, -^/a nr a. 
 Greekt]; oj,oj; v,. Goth, a; 0,6; a.. O.S.&O.II.G. a; 6>uo,6>uo; a. O.X. a; 6,6; a>e.
 
 80 COMPARISON OF ABLAUT.— CONTRACTION. 
 
 (r.) In Sanskrit these vowel changes have no meaning, but arc mostly 
 mechanical results of the accent: yet, as the place of the accent depends on 
 the weight of the prefixes and suffixes in which the meaning resides, the 
 vowel changes come to be signs of this meaning, and, as the prefixes and 
 suffixes decay, the sole signs of it. The vowels are the vehicles of emotion 
 and harmony ; to make them signs of relation fuses thought and feeling, and 
 gives power for oratory and poetry. The Teutonic races, like the Semitic, 
 found this fusion congenial, and in tlic earliest Gothic the ablaut is already a 
 fundamental law of the language. Physiology teaches that progression may 
 spring from accent, that precession may take place in unaccented syllables 
 of course, and in accented syllables from compensation or shifting : compar- 
 ison of Anglo-Saxon and English proves these possibilities to be important 
 facts in the history of language ; the Sanskrit verb shows that they are the 
 facts from which sprang Ablaut. ^^ 37, 38, 41. The changes of the i-roots 
 and ti-roots are established in Sanskrit ; those of the a-roots are only occa- 
 sional in the present even in the sixth class, and that class is small. It 
 seems, then, that a-roots of the Sanskrit sixth class were drawn to ablaut by 
 conformation with j-roots and ?<-roots, and that a-roots of the first class con- 
 formed after ablaut was fully established, except such as attained the Fourth 
 Teutonic Conjugation, where the whole perfect conforms in progression to 
 the singular 0<a. 
 
 (/.) In Gothic, the present, the imperfect plural, and past participle have 
 the same precession or progression as in Sanskrit {^^ 18, 38). The imper- 
 fect singular has a second progression in the second, third, and fourth conju- 
 gations, because it has gravitated to a monosyllable. 
 
 ( "-.) The e of imperfect plural tcnimd is from ani, a compensative drop- 
 ping of n and lengthening of a, the result of which is modified by ^ — a 
 process in which we may see how umlaut and contraction run into each 
 other. 
 
 {h.) Imperfect plural and past participle ?(<« is in liquid and double con- 
 sonant roots. The first consonant is almost always a liquid. The effort for 
 the two consonants takes the place of accent in part. For the assimilating 
 effect of m, 71, 1, r, see ^ 35, 2. In Sanskrit, also, a goes to u in connec- 
 tion with r, m, n. 
 
 (j.) In Anglo-Saxon and the other Teutonic tongues the changes from 
 Gothic ablaut are explained by umlaut, breaking, and shifting. O. Fries., 38. 
 
 159. Contraction. — Roots incapable of progression kept the redupli- 
 cation till after the accent had shifted to it (>^ 41, 4) and it had taken pro- 
 gression (Gothic i<^di); and in Anglo-Saxon they had contracted the re- 
 duplication and root to a uniform eo or e. 
 
 (a.) Such roots are those in a-j-two consonants, and in vowels hav- 
 ing the second progression (^ 38). Add, also, a few in Gothic e, al, 
 perf. di-6 : let-an (let), Idi-lut ; lai-an (blame), Zai-/y. Hence Grimm's 
 Conjugation Classes from the vowels of the present and (im)perfect:
 
 CONTEACTIOX.— COMPOSITION. 81 
 
 Pres. Pcrf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Pevf. 
 
 Gothic... (l)a + , ai-a; (2) ai, ai-ai ; (3) au-, ai-au ; (4) e, ai-e ; "j 
 
 O.Saxon {\) 0.+, ie>e; (2) e, ie>e; (3) 6, io>ie; (4) a, ie>e;/ 
 
 0. iVorse (1) a+, e; (2) ei, e; (3) an, io; (4) a, c; 
 
 0.^. G. (l)a + , ia; (2) ei, ia; (3)ou>6, io; (4) a, ia; 
 
 Ang.Sax. (\) ii+, eO>o; (2) a, e6>e; (3) ea, e6>e; (4) cfe>e, e6<u ; j 
 
 Pres. Ferf. Pies. Perf. Pres. Perf. 
 
 Gothic... (5) ai, ai-6 ; (G) e, ai-6; ( — ) 6, ai-6. 
 
 O.Saxon 6>uo, io>ic. 
 
 0. Norse 6, e. 
 
 O.H.G. uo, io. 
 
 Ang.Sax. a. + p, ed + p; ci;>t', eO>C'; 6, e6>0. 
 
 (i.) Traces of the process of contraction are found in O. H. German 
 and in the following Anglo-Saxon words : 
 
 Gothic ^aWare, hold, jiert. hdikald ,- O.ll.G. haltan, heialtyJiialfyhialt. 
 
 Gothic stdutan, strike, perf. stdistdut ; O.H.G. stuzan, steruz (r<,st)~;:>steoz, stioz. 
 
 Goihic hditan, call, T^&rt. hdihait ; A.-Sax. hdtan, hcht<,ha!hdt. 
 
 Gothic redan, rede, perf. r air oth ; A.Sax. rxdan, re6rd<!.rii;r6d. 
 
 Gothic letan, let, perf. /aiWi; A.-Sux. Ixtan, kort (r<il, ^ il, 3, A)<l!£- 
 
 Gothic Idikan, leap, pertldildik; A.-Sax. Idcan, le6lc<laildc. [lot. 
 
   — A.-Sax. on-drsedan, on-dreord, dread. 
 
 The repeated consonants weaken, and finally fall out and let the vow- 
 els together. In the Anglo-Saxon relics the first root consonant is saved 
 by metathesis with the root vowel. These contractions at first gave 
 rise to several different vowels and diphthongs found in O. H. German. 
 Conformation in analogy with ablaut has brought them to a uniform eo 
 or e in Ang.-Saxon. § 53. O. Fries, presents a, e,e, a, 6, e; perf. i, e. 
 
 160. Composition. — Derivatives form the imperfect by suffixing to 
 the verb stem de<Cdide, imperfect of don, do : h/fo-de ^=did love. 
 
 (<z.) This formation is common to, and peculiar to, the Teutonic 
 tongues. Two suffixes of derivation appear in Anglo-Saxon verb stems: 
 -^a>^e>^>e> — (Latin -t, Conj. IV.), and -o^(ci, w)>e (Lat- 
 in -a, Conj. I.), both from an original -aja, Sanskrit Class Tenth, Greek 
 pure verbs. 
 
 Gothic, nasjan, sa.vc ; jiasi-da, ])\nr. nasi-dcdum: salbori, salve; salbo-da, 
 
 salho-dedum. 
 O. Sax., nerjan, save; neri-da, ncri-dun: scawd-n, see; scawo-da, scawo- 
 
 dun. 
 A, -Sax. neri'an, save; ncre-dc,ncrc-don; seal/ian,sa.\\e; scalf6-de,-don. 
 O. Fries, nera, save ; ner{e)-de, ner{e)-don ; salvja, salve ; salva-de, -don. 
 O.Norse telja, tell ; tal-da, tol-dum : kalla, call ; kalla-da, kollu-dum. 
 O.II.G. nor j an, save; neri-ta, neri-tumes : salpon, salve; salp6-ta, salpo- 
 
 tumes. 
 
 Gothic and 0. II. German have also a stem in -di, -c, corresponding 
 to the Latin Second Conjugation. 
 
 F
 
 82 TENSE STEMS.— I'EliSONAL ENDINGS. 
 
 (i.) Derivatives in Sanskrit have only a periphrastic perfect, one 
 form of which has kar (do) as its auxiliary enclitic ; the Greek passive 
 first aorist is compoiinilcd with 0£=:dc {i^ 108); the Latin first, second, 
 and fourth conjugations compound with fiii (be)>-r/, -ni : amd-vi, 
 doc(e)ui, audl-vi. 
 
 161. Tense Stems. — The present stem suffixes a or ia to the root. 
 The imperfect is from the old perfect, which repeated (reduplicated) the 
 root. The Parent Speech liad also an aorist stem prefixing to the root a 
 demonstrative radicle called the augment, and an imperfect prefixing a sim- 
 ilar augment to the present stem. Other tense stems were formed by com- 
 position, as s. future with as (to be) or hhu (to be). 
 
 162. Mode Suffixes. — The indicative and imperative suffix the per- 
 sonal endings to the tense stem ; the subjunctive prolonged the stem to ex- 
 press doubt or hesitation by suffixing to it a for present contingency, id or i 
 for past contingency or desire (the optative mode). The Teutonic subjunc- 
 tives are from the optative. 
 
 163. Peksonal Endings are from the same radicles as the personal 
 pronouns. ^ 130. 
 
 SiKGULAE. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 1st Person. 
 
 2d Person. 
 
 3d Person. 
 
 1st Person. 
 
 2d Person. 
 
 Gd Person. 
 
 ma, 
 
 tva >ta. 
 
 ta, 
 
 ma-t-ta, 
 
 ta-(-ta, 
 
 an+ta. 
 
 7nc. 
 
 thou. 
 
 thif, he 
 
 J+thou. 
 
 thou + thou. 
 
 he+hc. 
 
 The Sanskrit, Greek, and Gothic have a dual. ^^ 61,2; 165, c. 
 
 The usual phonetic decay has been modified by two main causes : (1) dif- 
 ferent weight of the tense stems, (2) different mode suffixes. It will be dis- 
 cussed in connection with the paradigm of a strong verb. 
 
 164. First Conjugation. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 7iima7i, to t.ako. 
 
 Pres. Infinitive. Imperfect Sing., Plur. Passive Participle. 
 
 niman ; nam, namon ; numen. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 Present (and Future) Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ic nime, I take. pe n'lmact, tee take. 
 
 l)tl nimes^, thou takest. go mmact, ye take. 
 
 he nimetf, he taketh. lii mmad, they take.
 
 PERSONAL ENDINGS.— PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 83 
 
 165. Present tense, -y/ nam; tense stem, noma. Sanskrit not yet iden- 
 tified with the others, though put with them by Pott, Benfey, Diefenbach ; 
 Latin -emo in ad-imo, etc., also put here by Bopp, Diefenbach. 
 
 Singular. — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parent Speech. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 O. Saxon. 
 
 0. Norse. 
 
 ]. nama-mi 
 
 nama-mi 
 
 vkjlixji^lll) 
 
 
 emo- 
 
 nima- 
 
 nimu- 
 
 nem- 
 
 2. nama-si 
 
 ntima-si 
 
 
 
 emi-s 
 
 nimi-s 
 
 nimi-s 
 
 nem-?- 
 
 3. nama-ti 
 
 Pr TTRAT- 
 
 nama-ti 
 
 1 vifie-Tiy 
 { vifiti 
 
 1 
 
 cmi-t 
 
 nimi-/j 
 
 nimi-rf 
 
 nem-r , 
 
 ■1. Lt^KvA-Llm 
 
 1. nama-masi 
 
 nama-mas 
 
 v'ino-ixiv 
 
 
 emi-mus 
 
 nima-?« 
 
 nima-c? 
 
 nemu-?/i 
 
 2. nama-tasi 
 
 naina-tha 
 
 VSIU-TE 
 
 
 emi-tis 
 
 mmi-J) 
 
 nima-d 
 
 nemi-rf 
 
 3. nama-nti 
 
 nama-nti   
 
 ( •viji.o-VTi > 
 
 ; I 
 1 
 
 iemo-nti>1 
 1 ^ ( 
 
 1 
 
 "- nima-nc? 
 
 nima-J 
 
 nema 
 
 K vifio-vai -".emuni ) 
 
 O. H. Ger. nim-u, -is, -it ; plur. nem-ames, -at, -ant. 0. Fries, like A.-Sax. 
 A. -Sax. plur. may be -un, -um, ^ 212 ; before a subjt., -e, and see § 170, c. 
 
 (a.) — 1. -ina>-TOi>-»»> — is gravitation, ^38: -m is found only 
 in eom, earn, am ; beom, be ; Northumbrian geseom, I see ; gedoam'^ 
 gedom, I do; also (m^n) cuedon, I quoth, etc. 2. -tva>-ta>-^i> 
 -si (lingual softening, § 41, b) ^-s^-st (lingual strengthening, ^ 49) : 
 -s is found especially in Northumbrian before dd: spreces dii, speak- 
 est thou. 3. -ta>-ii>-< (gravitation, § 38) >-f? (shifting, ^ 41, a). 
 Northumbrian -s<C-^, § 31,2; 41,5; same in plural; so in O. Norse 
 -(Z>-5>-r. Plural. — 1. -mata>-ma5i (as in 2dsing.)>-m (grav- 
 itation, ^ 38) > -d (conformation with 2d and 3d person, ^ 40, 1). 2. 
 -tata>-<a5i (as in 2d sing.) >-< (gravitation, ^ 38) >•-<? (shifting, ^ 41, 
 a). 3. -anta > -w^i > -(? (gravitation, ^ 38, and shifting, § 41, a). 
 
 (b.) Stem ending a>e or z", rare o, u, -, ^ 38. ■\/namy>nim (ablaut, 
 ^ 158). The common a-umlaut of nim^nem in the O. Saxon plural is 
 stopped by m. Labial assimilation i^eo'^7/ is found, § 35, 2, a; 23. 
 
 (c.) The Sanskrit has dual forms, -vas, -thas, -tas ; Greek, — , -tov, 
 -Tov; Gothic, -vas'^-os, -Is, — , ^ 130. 
 
 ((/.) Weak verbs suffix the same endings to the stem ia or o, ^ 160 : 
 
 Gothic. na.s-ja,-jis,-jij); -jam, -jip, -jand : sa.\h-6, -6s, -ojj ; 6m, -oJj, -ond. 
 
 ^_, ., .J.,., isca.w-6n,-6s,-6d; 1,2,3. -oi or 
 
 O. Sax. nex-ju, -IS, -id; -jad, -jad, -jad : < ... 
 
 A.-Sax. ner-ie, -est, -ed ; -iad, -iad, -iad: (sea.](-ie,(-ige),-ast,-dd; 1,2,3. 
 O. Fries. nev-e,-{i)st,-{i)lh; -alh,-ath,-alh: \ -iad or -ig(e)ad. 
 O. Nor. tel, — , -r, -r ; -jum, -id, -ja: kall-a, -ar, -ar; -um, -id, -a. 
 
 O.H.G. ner-ju,-is,-it; -jamcs, -jat,-jant: sa.]p-6m,-6s,-6t; -6mcs,-6t,-6nt. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon has ia'^ie'^e'^ — in the singular, fa>a in the plural: 
 o has been driven out by ia (conformation,^ 40; compare O.Saxon) ex- 
 cept in singular second and third o^d'^a, ^ 38. The i in ie and ia 
 often has dissimilated gemination to ig, ige. ^ 85, a. See ^^ 183-180.
 
 84 
 
 STRONG VERBS.— INDICATIVE. 
 
 Singular. 
 ic nam, I took, 
 J)ii name, tlioit tookcst. 
 he nam, he took. 
 
 ic sceal (pille) nima«. 
 J)li scealZ (pil^) nimaw. 
 ht sceal (pillf) mman. 
 
 Transitive Form. 
 Sing. I have tahen. 
 
 ic hceblbe numew. 
 J)<i hoefsi (haf(^sZ) iimnen. 
 he hoefc/ (haf(^(/) numew. 
 
 Plur. 
 pe habba^ numew. 
 ge habbac? numew. 
 hi habbaf^ numen. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Plural. 
 pe numow, we took. 
 ge namow, 2/e ZooZ;. 
 hi namo?i, ^Aey ^oo^'. 
 
 Futm-e. 
 shall or tpt'ZZ fa^e. 
 
 pe BCvXon (pillac/) niman. 
 ge sculo^i (pillar?) nimaw. 
 hi sculopi (pillttrf) nima?i. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Intransitive Form. 
 / have {am) come. 
 ic Qoni cumeji, 
 ]^)tl ear^ cume«. 
 he is cxxxnen. 
 
 pe si7id (sindon) cnmene. 
 ge Bind (sindon) cumene. 
 hi &ind (sindon) cwmene. 
 
 Pluper'fect. 
 
 Sing. I ^^^ taken. 
 
 ic haef(?e numen. 
 
 J)ti hxMest nume^z. 
 
 he haef(7e nume^i. 
 Plur. 
 
 pe hv&fdon nuvaen. 
 
 ge hviMon wxmen. 
 
 hi hdiidon numew. 
 
 / had {was) come. 
 ic pa3s cumew. 
 ]3tl p&re cumew. 
 he poes cumew.. 
 
 pe p^row cumene. 
 ge ^sbron cwmene. 
 hi pjeroJi cumewe. 
 
 Other Forms : nam, nom ; namon, -an (d'^o) ; sceal, seel ; scul-on, 'un, 
 -an; sceol-on, -un, -an; pille, pile, pilt (i'^y); hwbbe, hebbe, habbe, 
 haf-a, -u, -0 ; hafest; hwfed; hsebbad; eom,eam; is, ys ; sind, sint, 
 sindan {i'^y, ie, eo), ear-on, -un. For com may be used peorde or 
 beom ; for pxs, peard (^ 178).
 
 IMPERFECT INFLECTION, STRONG AND WEAK. 
 
 85 
 
 166. Perfect Stem na-nam^ Latin theme eni-im'^ em. 
 
 SiNGULAK. — 
 
 Parent Speech. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Saxon. O. Norse. 
 
 1. na-nam-(m)a na-nam-a ve-vsji-rjica em-i nam nam nam 
 
 !na-nan-tha, "j 
 na-nim-i-tlia> >■ vt-vtfi-rjKag 
 nem-i-thd J 
 
 vi-vEji-rjKE em-it nam nam nam 
 
 em-(is)ti nam-< nam-i nam-? 
 
 3. na-nam-(t)a na-na'm-a 
 Plukal. — 
 
 1. na-nam-masi nem-i-ma 
 
 2. na-nam-tasi nem-a 
 
 3. na-nam-anti nem-us 
 
 ve-vtu-ijKa/iev em-mius 
 ve-vtfi-i'iKaTi em-(is)tis 
 ve-vs]i-i]icd(jt 
 
 nem-wm nam-are mim-um 
 nanx-up nam-wre na,m-ud 
 em-(er)unt nt^m-im nam-ww nam-a 
 
 O. Fries, endings are 
 
 O. H. Ger. nam, nam-i, nam ; ndm-umes, -ut, -un. 
 like Ang.-Saxon, nam^nom. 
 
 A.-Sax. PLURALS have sometimes -um (§ 196), often -un, and see ^ 170, c. 
 (a.) The reduplication sets at work compensation (^ 37, 4), and all 
 the singular endings are lost except in the second person a vanishing 
 -e <^ -i. O. Sax. and O. H. Ger. have -i <C Sanskrit -i-tha, and a stem 
 like the plural. Gothic and O. Norse have -t<^-tha and the singular 
 unchanged stem ; -t is found in some Anglo-Saxon preteritive verbs : 
 scealt, etc., ^ 167. Weak verbs in Gothic have -s<^-ih<C-t, like the 
 present, and it is found in Anglo-Saxon, oftenest in the new imperfect 
 of preteritive verbs: cunnan, imp. cudes ; so ZcS^^e^, observedst ; brohtes, 
 broughtest; seaWe^, gavest, etc. (^ 168); and in Northumbrian; weak 
 verbs generally strengthen the -s > -st like the present. 
 
 Plural. — m^n is shifting (41, b) ; the second person conforms with 
 the first and third. Sanskrit -i-, Gothic -u-, connecting vowel, inserted 
 for euphony ; -u- > -o-, precession, ^ 38. 
 
 167. Future. — Sceal is a preterito-present, § 212; pille is irregular in 
 the singular after the same analogy, ^ 40 ; niman is the infinitive. For the 
 history and use of these periphrastic forms, see Syntax. 
 
 168. Perfect and Pluperfect. — Hxhhe, imperf. hs'fde, is a weak 
 verb, ^ 183; eom, imperf. /'.'ps, is irregular, ^ 213; numen is the past parti- 
 ciple. For history and use, see Syntax. 
 
 Weak Imperfect ha?fde <C-\/ haf-ia-{- dc (^ 160). 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 0. H. German. 
 
 0. Saxon. 
 
 Ang.-Sax. 
 
 0. Norse. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 nasjan, 
 
 tuon. 
 
 nerjan, 
 
 nerjan, 
 
 don, 
 
 telja, 
 
 did. 
 
 saved. 
 
 did. 
 
 saved. 
 
 saved. 
 
 did. 
 
 (old. 
 
 Sing. — dida 
 
 nasi-da 
 
 tcta 
 
 neri-ta 
 
 neri-da 
 
 dide 
 
 tal-da 
 
 dides 
 
 nasi-des 
 
 tati 
 
 neri-tos 
 
 neri-dos 
 
 dide5< 
 
 tal-dir 
 
 dida 
 
 nasi-da 
 
 ttta 
 
 ncri-ta 
 
 neri-da 
 
 dide 
 
 tal-di 
 
 Plcr. — deduOT 
 
 nasi-dcduffi 
 
 tatumei' 
 
 ncri-tu»ies 
 
 neri-dure 
 
 did ore 
 
 tol-du»» 
 
 dedu^ 
 
 nasi-dedu^ 
 
 tktut 
 
 neri-tu< 
 
 neri-dun 
 
 didora 
 
 tol-duff 
 
 dedun 
 
 nasi-dedun. 
 
 tdtun. 
 
 neri-ture 
 
 neri-duK 
 
 didora 
 
 tol-du
 
 86 
 
 STRONG VERB— SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 1G9. 
 
 Singular. 
 ic nime, (if) I take. 
 J)ft nime, (if) thou take. 
 he nim<?, {if) he take. 
 
 ic name, (if) I took. 
 J)<i name, (if) thou took. 
 he name, (if) he took. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural 
 
 pe nirae^i, (//") we take. 
 
 ge mme7i, (if) ye take. 
 
 hi mmen, (if) they take. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 pe n'dmen, (if) we took. 
 ge name«, (if) ye took. 
 hi naraen, (if) they took. 
 
 Future. 
 (//■) / shall {will) take. 
 
 ic scyle (pille) nimaw. 
 J)<i scyle (pille) mman. 
 he scyle (pille) mman. 
 
 Transitive Form. 
 Sing. (^) ^ have taken. 
 
 ic haebbe nurae^z. 
 
 J)11 hsebbe nwraen. 
 
 he haebbe numen. 
 Plur. 
 
 pe hsebbeji nwmen. 
 
 ge hsebbew wxmen. 
 
 hi hsebbe?i nume^?. 
 
 Sing. (■(/") -^ ^'^'^ ic/:cn. 
 
 ic bajMe nume?z. 
 
 J)11 hajftZie nume?2. 
 
 he hds^de numew, 
 Plur. 
 
 pe hd&^den numew. 
 
 ge hdi^den nume?i. 
 
 hi hviiden nuraew. 
 
 pe scj\en (pillew) nimaw. 
 ge scyle^i (pillew) nimaw. 
 hi scyle^z (pillew) niraaw. 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Intransitive Form. 
 {If) I have (be) come. 
 ic st cume?i. 
 ])ti st cumew. 
 he s^ cumew. 
 
 pe sm cume?2e. 
 ge sm cume^ie. 
 hi sm cume^ie. 
 
 Phiper'fect. 
 
 (If) I had (were) come. 
 ic pajre cume?i. 
 l)tl p«re cwmen. 
 he p&re cumew. 
 
 pe -p&ven cumewe. 
 ge -p&ren cumewe. 
 hi -p&ren cumewe. 
 
 Other Forms : scyle, scyl-en, -on, -an, -e (y'^i, u, co); hsebben, habban, 
 habbon ; si, sin (t^y, te, eb, ig) ; p&r-en, -an, -on (»>e). For si may 
 be bed, pese, peorde ; ^ox pxre, purde. ^ 179.
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 87 
 
 [§ 1G8. — Continued from page 85. J 
 Sanskrit da-dhd-mi <i-\/ dha, Greek ri-Gij-fit, does not occur as an inde- 
 pendent verb in Gothic, and the form is supplied by comparison. The 
 reduplication has given rise to a secondary stem, Sanskrit dadh, Gothic 
 dad, O. H. Ger. tat, from which the plural and second singular are form- 
 ed with the ablaut of the first conjugation. For second singular -s, see 
 § 166. In haf-ia-de~^hwfde, ia drops and -y/a shifts (^ 41). 
 
 IVO. Subjunctive Pkesext < Optative Ste^i nama-i (§ 162). 
 
 
 
 Parent Sp. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 O. Sax. 
 
 0. Norae. 
 
 SlNG.- 
 
 -1. 
 
 namai-m 
 
 naniej-am 
 
 vifxoi-ixi 
 
 eme-m 
 
 nimau 
 
 nime 
 
 nemi 
 
 
 2. 
 
 namai-s 
 
 name-s 
 
 7'lfiOl-C 
 
 emc-s 
 
 nimai-s 
 
 nime-s 
 
 nemi-r 
 
 
 3. 
 
 namai-t 
 
 namc'-t 
 
 vifioi- 
 
 eme-t 
 
 nimai- 
 
 nime 
 
 nemi 
 
 Plur. 
 
 — 1. 
 
 namai-mas 
 
 name-ma 
 
 venoi-ficv 
 
 eme-mus 
 
 nimai-ma 
 
 nime-ra 
 
 nemi-7» 
 
 
 2. 
 
 namai-tas 
 
 uame-ta 
 
 vinoi-Ti 
 
 eme-tis 
 
 nimai-/i 
 
 nime-7i 
 
 nemi-ct 
 
 
 3. 
 
 namai-nt 
 
 namej-us 
 
 vsfiou-v 
 
 eme-nt 
 
 nimai-rea 
 
 nime-« 
 
 nemi 
 
 O. H. Ger. neme, neme-s, ncme ; neme-mes, -t, -n. 0. Fries, nime throughout. 
 The Latin serves as a future; emtm is archaic. O. Sax. has a=e; nimdn. 
 The PLURAL in Anglo-Saxon ends often in -dn > -an, -on > -en > -e, 
 §^ 18, 38. Before a subject pronoun -e is used. 
 
 (a.) The long stem ending has vcorked like the long vowels of femi- 
 nine nouns (^ 64, 2) ; the singular is weathered of the personal endings. 
 Plural »i>n is shifting (^41, h), and the second person conforms with 
 the first and third (^ 40, 1). 
 
 (6.) The accent in the Sanskrit is the same as in the present indica- 
 tive ; and hence the root vowel is the same ; but the stem ending works 
 a-umlaut whenever there is umlaut in the plural indicative ; m stops it 
 in Saxon niman. 
 
 (c.) The plural subjunctive endings (especially -an) are sometimes 
 found in the indicative of auxiliaries, of praeterilive presents, and of im- 
 perfects, most of which have a subjunctive force. ^§ 151,40. 
 
 171. The Subjunctive Impekfect (Optative Perfect) Stesi 
 nanam-\-jd'> nemjd (§166). 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 SiKG. — 1. nemja.'-m 
 
 2. nemja'-s 
 
 3. numja'-t 
 
 Greek. 
 ve-vefi(rjKo)iT]-v 
 vt-vin(r]Ko)iT]-s 
 vi-vtii(r]Ko)lri 
 
 Gothic, 
 nemjau 
 nemjei-s 
 nemi 
 
 O. Saxon. O. Norse. 
 nami n.imi 
 
 nami-s 
 nami 
 
 na3mi-7* 
 
 nwmi 
 
 iiaimi-??i 
 
 ntumi-rf 
 
 niimi 
 
 O. H. Ger. 
 
 nami 
 
 nami-s 
 
 nami 
 
 mvan-mes 
 
 numi-< 
 
 nami-ra 
 
 Plur. — 1. nemja'-ma vs-vei.i(r]Ko)ii]-iJ.tv nemei-ma nami-?j 
 
 2. nemja-ta vt-viji(jtKoyir]-T( nimei-p nami-7j 
 
 3. nemjus ve-v(n(j]K6)ir]-Gav nemei-na nami-w 
 
 The Sanskrit is an uncommon form from the Vedas. The accent on the 
 ending leaves the root to the same changes as in the plural of tlie im- 
 perfect indicative. Anglo Saxon stem j>c is precession ; the personal 
 endings as in the present subjunctive. Conformation with the present 
 brings in the ending -an, -on ; for -c, ^ 170. O. Fries. 7wme, throughout.
 
 88 IMPERATIVE.— NOUN FORMS. 
 
 Sing. 
 2. nira, take. 
 
 172. iMPERATivfe Mode. 
 Plor. 
 xiyaxad^ take. 
 
 173. Infinitive. 
 nima??, to take. 
 
 Peesext Pakticiple. 
 mmende^ taking. 
 
 Gekund. 
 lu muxanne^ to take. 
 
 Past Paeticiple. 
 
 mune?i, taken. 
 
 174. Impekative Stem nama. 
 
 Sanski-it. Greek. Gothic. O.Saxon. O.Norgc. O.II. G. 
 
 SiNO. — niima v'nii., Latin erne nim nim nem nim 
 
 Pluk. — nama-ta vkfie-re, Latin emi-te mmi-]j nima-cZ nemi-rf nema-« 
 
 Plural -tata> /a >i (^ 38) >rf (shifting, § 41, c). O.F.=A. Sax. 
 
 175, Noux FoEMS. 
 1. Infinitive 7ia7n-\-ana; 2. Gerund. nam-\-ana-\-ja. 
 
 ^ . Cnam-anaj-a) {vEii-iiv<i-Evai\ . 
 
 1. Dative. ..< M . >ium-ara nira-a« ncm-a nem-an 
 
 \ (§79,a) H (§70,«) i 
 
 2. (§ 120), nain-anija, Latin em-endo, O.Saxon iiira-annia>-anna. nem-ewne 
 
 „ „ . , (v'suo-vr-og ) . 7^ % . 7 7 • 
 
 3. Pr.Part. nama-nt i . ) mma.-nd(a)-s nima-nd nema-?^f/-i nemn-nt-i 
 
 ( iaf. cme-nt-is ) 
 
 ■LP. Part, (bhuff-na ) CrtK-vo-v (born)) . fga-nom- 
 
 ) ° V J > numa-n-s numa-w numi-n?i -I , 
 
 {Strong.) { (bent) ) I do-nu-m (gift)) {_ an-er 
 
 '). P. Part. ( . . ,, iveu-Tj-Tv-c ) • , ^ ■, ^ . s • j j. ^ 1 
 
 ^„, , ^ ^iia(m)-ta ] .^^ nasi-/; (a) s (gi-)neri-d tal-d-r gn-ncn-i 
 
 (Weak.) ( I em(p)-tu-s ) 
 
 (a.) The dative case ending is gone in Teutonic infinitives. § 38. 
 
 (b.) Gerund -enne^-ende {^ 445, 2, nn^nd, ^ 27, 5), so in O. N. ; M. 
 H. Ger. ; Friesic, O. Sax., and O. H. Ger. have a genitive nim-annias, 
 -an-nas {-es)\ nem-ennes ; and M. II. German has gen. nem-endes. 
 
 (c.) To these stems of the participles are added suffixes contained in 
 the case endings. §^ 104-106. 
 
 id.) The Greek verbals in -t6q are not counted participles (Hadley, 
 261, c). Only weak verbs have -da, -da, in Teutonic. Few verbs have 
 the participle in -na in Sanskrit ; only relics are found in Greek and Latin, 
 but all the strong verbs use it in Teutonic. 
 
 (e.) Weak stems in -ia and -0 have i, c, ig or igc, before -an, -annc, 
 -end. ^ 165, d. 
 
 17G. Peeiphkastic Conditional Foems. 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Modal verbs magan, cunnan, motan, durran, pillan, sculan, pltari^utan, 
 may, can, must, dare, will, shall, let us.
 
 PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 89 
 
 Sing. Indicative Forms. 
 masg, can, mot, dear 
 meaht, canst, most, dearst 
 mxg, can, mot, dear 
 
 Plue. 
 mdgon, cunnon, moton, dur- 
 ron 
 
 nunaji. 
 
 Subjunctive Forms 
 
 msege, cunne, mote, durre -^ 
 msege, cunne, mote, durre 
 msege, cunne, mote, durre jj 
 
 msbgen, cunnen, moten, dur- 
 ren, utan 
 
 niman. 
 
 gjj^.Q Imperfect Tense, Indicative Forms. 
 
 meahte, ciide, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde 
 meahtest, cudest, mostest, dorstest, poldest, sc(e)oldest 
 meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc{e)olde 
 Pluk. 
 meahton, cudon, moston, dorston, poldon, sc(e)oldon 
 
 Imperfect Tense, Subjunctive Forms. 
 
 Sing, meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde 
 Plur. meahten, cuden, mosten, dorsten, polden, sc{e')oldcn 
 
 Gerundial Form. 
 I am to take = I must or ought to take or be taken. 
 
 Pluk. 
 
 niman. 
 
 niman. 
 
 Sing. 
 ic com 
 
 Jm eart ^ to nimanne. 
 he is 
 
 pe sind 
 
 ge sind ^ to nimanne. 
 
 hi sind 
 
 177. Othee Peripheastic Foems. 
 
 1. com (am) + present participle. 
 
 Present eom, eart, is ; smd nimende. 
 
 Imperfect pxs, pskre, pses ; p&ron nimende. 
 
 Future beam, bist, bid; beod nimende. 
 
 sceal pesan nimende. 
 Infinitive Future... beon nimende. 
 
 2. don (do) + infinitive, § 406, a. 
 
 Other Forms : meaht, meahte, etc. (ea'^i) ; mag-on, -urn, -un, -an ((z>aO; 
 meahtes ; mcaht-on, -um, -an, -en, -e (^^ 166,170); can, con; const; 
 cunn-on, -un, -an ; cudes ; cud-on, -an, -en ; mot-on, -um, -un, -an, -en ; 
 mot-en, -an, -e ; most-es ; most-um, -on, -an ; durre {u^y); durr-on, 
 -an; dorst-on, -en; poldes ; pold-on, -um, -un, -an, -e; sc(e)oldcs; 
 sc(e)old-on, -un, -an, -en, -e. Forms of com, peorde, and bcom inter- 
 change (^ 178).
 
 90 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 17 8. Passive Voice. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 SiNGULAK. Plural. 
 
 Present and Perfect, 7 am taken or liaoe been taken. 
 
 ic eom* (peordc) numew. 
 })t\ QViVt {pcov&est) iwixwen. 
 he is (peovda/) wnxnen. 
 
 pe sind{o7i) (peorda^;?) tmmene. 
 ge sind{o7i) (peorda^) numene. 
 hi suid{on) (peoi-dat?) numewe. 
 
 Past and Pluperfect, I ivas taken or had been taken. 
 
 ic pa;s (peard) uumew. 
 }h1 p&re (purde) numcw. 
 hu pies (peard) numen. 
 
 pG p&row (purdon) rwxraene. 
 ge pffiro?i (purdow) rxwrnene. 
 hi p^Bro?^ (purdoji) numene. 
 
 ic be6(>n)* numen. 
 })11 bis^ numen. 
 he bif? nume?i. 
 
 Future. 
 1. / shall he taken. 
 
 pe beoc^ numene. 
 ge beo^ numene. 
 hi beo^ numene. 
 
 2. I shall or ivill be taken. 
 
 ic sceal (pille) beon numen. 
 ]3ll sceal^ (pi^O ^g^'^ nume?z. 
 h6 sceal (pille) beon numen. 
 
 pe sculon (inWad) beon numene. 
 ge sculon- (pillat^) beon numene. 
 hi sculon (pillarf) beon numene. 
 
 Perfect, / have been taken. 
 
 jc com geporden numen. 
 jm eart geporden numen. 
 he IS geporden numen. 
 
 pe sind{on) gepordene numene. 
 ge sind(on') gepordene numene. 
 hi sind{on) gepordene numene. 
 
 Pluperfect, I had been taken. 
 
 tc pxs geporden numen. 
 pu pxre geporden numen. 
 he pxs geporden numen. 
 
 pe pieron gepordene numene. 
 ge pwron gepordene numene. 
 hi psivon gepordene numene. 
 
 Sing. 
 ic (l)tl, he) beo numen. 
 
 IVO. Subjunctive Mode. 
 Present. 
 (//") / he taken. 
 Plur. 
 
 pe (ge, hi) beon numene. 
 
 * The forms of/?eor(fe, eom, and beom interchange.
 
 PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 
 
 91 
 
 Sing. 
 ic Qjti, be) -psbre numm. 
 
 Past. 
 
 (If) I loere taken. 
 Pluk. 
 pe (ge, hi) -psbven numme. 
 
 180. Imperative Mode. 
 
 Sing. -Se thou taken: 
 
 pes 2)tl nvLxnen. 
 
 181. Infinitive. 
 bed;* numen, to be taken. 
 
 Plck. Be ye taken. 
 
 pesaf? ge mvaiene. 
 
 Participle. 
 nume^i, taken. 
 
 182. PePvIpheastic Conditional (§ 176). 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. Indicative Forms. 
 
 maeg (&c.) 
 
 meaht (&c.) 
 
 mseg (&c.) )- bem numen{e). 
 Plcr. 
 
 mdgon (&c.) 
 
 Subjunctive Forms. 
 mxge (&c.) "j 
 m&ge (Szc.) I 
 m&ge (&c.) > Zieore nwmen(e). 
 
 mxgen (&c.) J 
 
 Imperfect.   
 
 Sing. 
 meahte (&c.) 
 meahtest (&c.) 
 meahte (&c.) 
 
 Pluk. 
 meahton (&c.) 
 
 Jeore numen{e). 
 
 meahte (&c.) 
 meahte (&c.) 
 7neahte (&c.) 
 
 mcahien (&c.) 
 
 icon numen{e). 
 
 For ieon (infinitive) is found />e5an or peordan. The forms interchange of 
 ieo, 5J, /'ese, peorde ; of piiire, purde ; of /;e j, 5eo, peord. Bist, bid (i >y) ; 
 ieo, beud {e6<Ci6). ^Ifric's grammar has indie, prcs. coot, imperf />a.'j, 
 fut. Jeo, perf. /?«^ fulfremedllce (completely), pluperf. pxs gefyrn (for- 
 merly) ; subjunctive for a wish, pres; bed gyt (yet), imperf. p&re, pluperf. 
 pxre fulfremedllce ; for a condition, pres. eom nu (now), imperf. y^ic^, fut. 
 bed gyt (yet); imperative si; infinitive beun.
 
 92 
 
 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS. 
 
 183. WEAK VERBS. — (Conjugation VI.) 
 Active Voice. 
 
 Pres. IxFISITIVE. 
 
 neYia)i, savej 
 hyran, hear ; 
 lufzaw, love; 
 
 Impekp. Indicative. 
 
 \\jxde; 
 lufoc?e/ 
 
 Passive Participle. 
 nerec?. 
 hyrec?. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present (and Future) Tense (§ 165, d). 
 
 I save, hear, love. 
 
 Singular. 
 ic nevie, hjre, lufige. 
 \>A nevest, hyrcst, lufdst. 
 lie nercct, hjrect, lufdd. 
 
 Plural. 
 pe neviad, hyrad, \nflad. 
 go neviad, hyrad, Inf iad. 
 hi neviad, hyrad, hifiad. 
 
 Imperfect (§§ 160, 166, 168). 
 / saved, heard, loved. 
 
 ic nevede, hyvde, \ufode. 
 
 J)^ nevedest, hyvdest, lufddest. 
 
 he nevede, hyvde, lufdde. 
 
 pe neredon, hyrdon, Ixxiodon. 
 ge neredon, hyrdon, Iniodon. 
 hi neredon, hyrdon, \nfddo7i. 
 
 ic sceal (pille) 
 l^li sceal^ (pi'O 
 he sceal (pille) 
 
 Future (§167). 
 / shall (will) save, hear, love. 
 
 pc senior (pillar^) ^ nerian^ 
 ge sculori {j)i\\a(t) y hyran^ 
 hi scvi\07i (pillac/) ) Infian. 
 
 nerian, hyra7i, 
 \ufian. 
 
 Perfect (§168). 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 / have saved, heard, loved. 
 Sing. 
 
 ic hsebbe ) , , a -, 
 
 1311 hxfst, hafdst i '' j^'4 ■' 
 he hiefd, haf(«^ ) 
 Plur. 
 
 pe hahhad J 
 
 ge hahhad >■ neved, hyred, Infdd. 
 hi habbaf^ ) 
 
 Intransitive. 
 I have (am) returned. 
 
 ic eoni ^ 
 
 J)11 eart > gecyrref?. 
 
 he is ) 
 
 pe sind (sinclon) j 
 
 ge sind (sindon) > gecyrrec?e. 
 
 hi sind (sindon) ) 
 
 la, iga, igea, ga interchange, and ie, ige, ge : o'^(d, ?i)>plur. e. For va- 
 riations of auxiliaries and endings, see corresponding tenses of strong verbs.
 
 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS. 
 Pluper'fect (§168). 
 
 93 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 7 had saved, heard, loved. 
 Sing. 
 
 ic boefc/e \ 
 
 J)11 \i^Mest > nerec?, hjref?, lufoc?. 
 
 he hsefc^e ) 
 
 Plur. 
 
 pe \\X:idon \ 
 
 ge hvd^don > nerec?, hyved., lufoc?. 
 
 hi hdiidon ) 
 
 Intransitive. 
 I had (loas) returned. 
 
 ic pees J 
 
 J)t\ pare >• gecyrrec?. 
 
 be pjES ) 
 
 pe j)§ivon \ 
 
 ge psero^i >■ gecyrrecZe. 
 
 bi pasro^i ) 
 
 184. SuBjuxcTivE Mode 
 Present (§ 170). 
 (7/*) I save, hear, love. 
 Singular. 
 ic \ pe 
 
 ]3ll >■ nerze, byre, lufj^ye. 
 
 be ) 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ge \ nere'ew, hfven^ Ixxiigen. 
 bt 
 
 Imperfect (§ iTl). 
 (//") 7 saved, heard, loved. 
 
 IC 
 
 J)<i [• nerecZe, byr<?e, luKde. 
 he 
 
 ge [• nQxeden^ hynden^ \\xi6de7i. 
 hi 
 
 ic scyle (pille) , . 
 
 T.A 1 / -11 \ f nerza?i, byraw, 
 
 ^a scyle (pille) ^ ' .y 
 
 he scyle (pille) ^ ^"^''''' 
 
 Future (§ 1G7). 
 {If) I shall {will) save, hear, love. 
 
 pe scyle^i (pillew) , . , ^ 
 A „ , /■ -n \ f ner^c«^, hyr- 
 
 hi scyle^i (pillew) 
 
 an, lufi'a??. 
 
 Perfect (§168). 
 
 Transitive. 
 {If I) have saved, &c. 
 Sing, haebbe ) neref?, h5're(7, 
 
 Plur. haebbe^i ) lufwZ. 
 
 Intransitive. 
 {If I) have {be) returned. 
 
 Phiper'fect (§168). 
 
 {If 7) /jad saved, &c. 
 Sing, hoefde ) nerecZ, bj'rcf?, 
 Plur. hvsfden ) lufof?. 
 
 (7/* 7) had {were) returned. 
 
 pai 
 
 -'^ f gecyrrcc?(e).
 
 9J: CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.— WEAK PEESENTS. 
 
 185. Imperative Mode (§ 174). 
 
 Save, hear, love. 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 2. nere, bjr, Infd. ueviad, hyrad, \nUact. 
 
 186. Infinitive Mode (§ 1V5). 
 
 To save, hear, love. 
 Present, nevian^nerigan, ncrif/ean, nergcin; hyran/ lufian'^ 
 
 IwUgan, lufigean. 
 Gerund, to ncvia7ine, hyrarme, Infkmiie. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Saving, hearing, loving. 
 Present. nQviende, hyrende, Ixxilgende. 
 
 saved. heard. loved. 
 Past nerec?, hyred, (ge-) \nfod. 
 
 187. The sjpecial perij^hrastic forms and the whole passive 
 voice of weak verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliaries as 
 those of strong verbs (§§ 176-182). 
 
 188. PRESENTS (Weak). 
 
 (a.) Like neriaii inflect stems in -ia from short roots : derian., 
 Imrt ; helian., cover ; hegian, hedge ; scerian^ apportion ; spyrian^ 
 speer ; sylian, soil ; Jninian, thunder, etc. 
 
 (5.) But many stems in -ia from short roots have compensa- 
 tive gemination of their last consonant where it preceded i — 
 (throughout the present, excej^t in the indicative singular second 
 and third, and the imperative singular) ; ci > cc, di > dd, fi > hb^ 
 glycg, liyll, etc.; indicative lecge {<legie), lay, legest, leged; 
 lecgad {<legiad)', subjunctive lecge, lecgen; imperative lege^ 
 lecgad; infinitive Zec^a?^/ part. pres. ^ec^ewc?e/ part, past /eye<?. 
 So reccan, reach ; Jireddan, rescue ; hahhan, have ; seUan, give ; 
 telkm, tell ; frem'inan, frame ; clynnan, clang ; dvppan, dip; cnys- 
 san, knock ; settan, set, etc. 
 
 (c.) Like h^ran inflect stems in -^a>-e> — from long roots: 
 dixilan, deal ; deman, deem ; helwpan, leave ; msenan, mean ; 
 sprengan, spring ; styrman, storm ; cennan, bring forth ; cyssan, 
 kiss, etc. Infinitives in -ea7i occur: sec-ean, § 175, e.
 
 SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS (WEAK). 95 
 
 (d.) Like lufian inflect stems showing -6 in the imperfect : 
 drian, honor ; beorhtkm, shine ; cleopkm, call ; hojnan, hope. 
 Past participles have o, a, e; gegearp-od, -dd, -ed, prepared. 
 
 189. SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS {Weak). 
 
 («.) Stem -e < -ia is syncopated after long roots : cig-an, call, 
 cig-de j dwl-on, deal, d'M-de ; dem-coi, deem, dein-de ; dref-an, 
 trouble, dref-de ; fed-cm^ feed; Md-an, heed; li^r-mi^ hear; l&d- 
 an^ lead ; he-lwp-an, leave ; mmi-an, mean ; oi^d-an, urge ; rtd- 
 an, read ; sped-an^ speed ; sjyrejig-an^ spring, spreng-de ; hvem-an^ 
 burn, hmrn-de ; styrm-an^ storm; so sep-de and sep-te, showed. 
 
 (b.) AssniiLATiojf. — After a surd, -c? becomes surd {-t). (Surds 
 p, t, c (a;), ss, h, not f or s alone, §§ 17, 30) : r^p-an, bind, rUp- 
 te ; bet-cm, better, btt-te ; gret-mi, greet, grtt-te ; met-an, meet, 
 mtt-te ; drenc-an, drench, drenc-te ,' l^x-an, shine, lyx-te ; but Igs- 
 an, release, Igs-de; fgs-an, haste, f^s-de / ni's-an, rush, ncs-dc. 
 
 (e.) Dissimilation. — The mute c becomes continuous (A) before 
 -t : tsec-an, teach, tich-te ; eo-an, eke, eh-te and tc-te, 36, 3. 
 
 {d.) RiJCKUMLAUT. — Themes in ecg ; ecc, ell ; enc, eng ; ec ; ycg, 
 ync, i-umlaut for acg; ace, all; anc, ang ; 6c ; ucg, tine, may 
 retain a (>«/ ea ; 0); 6; icy o in syncopated imperfects (§§ 
 209-211) : lecgan, lay, liegde ; reccan, rule, reahte ; cpellan, kill, 
 fpealde ; pencan, think, polite ; brengan, bring, brohte ; rtcan, 
 reck, rohte ; bycgan,h\\y, bohte ; pyncan, sQQm, pohte. 
 
 (e.) Gemixatio^j is simplified, and mwyin (Rule 13, page 10) : 
 cewn-aw, beget, cen-de ; clypp-an, clip, clqy-te ; cyss-an,'k\?,s, cys-te; 
 dypp-an, dip, dyp-te ; eht-an, pursue, elite ; fyll-an, fill, fyl-de ; 
 gyrd-an, gird, gyrde ; hredd-an, rescue, hredde ; hyrd-an, harden, 
 hyrde ; Jiyrt-an, hearten, hyrte ; hveft-an, bind, hwfte; lecg-an, 
 lay, leg-de ; merr-an, mar, mer-de ; mynt-an, purjDose, mynte ; 
 nemn-an, name, nem-de; rest-an, rest, reste ; riht-an, right, rihte ; 
 scild-an, guard, scilde ; send-an, send, sende ; spill-an, spill, sptil- 
 de ; sett-an, set, sette ; still-an, spring, stil-de ; stylt-an, stand as- 
 tonished, stylte ; pemm-an, ?>]}o\\, pem-de. 
 
 (/.) EcTiiLiPsis occurs {g) : cegan, call, cegde, cede. See § 209. 
 
 1 90. Past Participles are syncopated like imperfects in verbs 
 having rilckumlaut, often in other verbs having a surd root (§ 189, 
 I)), less often in other verbs: sellan, give, sealde, seald ; ge-sec-an, 
 seek, ge-soh-te, gesoJit ; sett-an, set, sette, seted and set; send-an, 
 send, sende, sended and send ; hedn, raise, head, raised.
 
 96 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF UMLAUT AND ASSIMILATION. 
 
 Conjugation (I.) 
 
 dvepan, 
 
 Sing.— 1, 
 
 191. Pkesents. — Illustrations of Umlaut. 
 
 (I.) (I-) (in.) 
 
 cumrt?i, beorgaw, scMan, 
 
 come. guard. shove. 
 
 cume beorcfc sctife 
 
 Plue. — 
 
 strike. 
 
 drepe 
 ( drip (e) si 
 (drcpesi 
 idrip(e)f^ 
 i'epect 
 
 drepat? 
 
 cym{e)st j byrbsi j scjf(e)si j 
 
 cxxmest \ hcorgcst(jj){ BcMest \ 
 
 fdrip(e)f^ j cym.{e)ct j byrhrf J scyf(e)rf(0 j 
 
 (drepef^ ( cumer^ ( beorge(%)( s,cMed \ 
 
 Conjugation... (IV.) 
 ixvan, 
 fare. 
 Sing. — 1. fare 
 
 litev{e)st 
 ' (farcsi 
 
 * \^-xved 
 Pi.UE. — i^rad 
 
 cwiiwad 
 
 (IV.) 
 baca^^, 
 
 bake. 
 bace 
 
 hQCSt 
 
 baccsi 
 bec^ 
 bacet^ 
 hvicad 
 
 hcoYgad 
 
 (V.) 
 fe.allaw, 
 fall. 
 fealle 
 felsi 
 feallesi 
 Md 
 feallec^ 
 feallat? 
 
 j becsi j felsi j lacsi! j 
 ( baccsi ( feallesi ( \ixcest \ 
 
 scMad 
 (V.) 
 
 leap. 
 lace 
 Ifficsi! 
 
 j \&c{e)d 
 \ \ixced 
 \hcad 
 
 192. Illustrations of Assimilatiori. 
 
 Conjugation. 
 
 Sing.— 1. 
 
 Pluk. — 
 
 ... (L) 
 Qian, 
 eat. 
 ete 
 
 (it{e)st 
 
 letest 
 
 Cited, it 
 
 dad 
 
 (!•) 
 treda;?, 
 tread. 
 trede 
 
 (!•) 
 binda;*, 
 
 hi7id. 
 binde 
 
 (!•) 
 cped«?z, 
 
 quoth. 
 cpede 
 
 tn(de)si j bin(t)s< j cpisi 
 
 tredes? ( bindesi ( cpedesiJ 
 
 trit j bint j cpid 
 
 iYQded{i) { bindef^ ( cpedec/ 
 
 tvedar? binda/^ cpedac? 
 
 Conjugation (I.) 
 
 berstan, 
 
 Sing. — 1. berste 
 birst 
 Gvs,iest 
 
 3. 
 
 PlXE. — 
 
 (in.) 
 
 leogan, 
 
 Z«e. 
 
 leoge 
 
 j lyhs« 
 
 f birst (ef?) j \y\\d 
 (berste^ ( laoged 
 berstac/ leogat/ 
 
 fbir 
 [bei 
 
 (IV.) 
 
 slean < 
 
 sleaha?z, 
 
 slay. 
 slea 
 j slehsi (y) 
 ( &\c^gest 
 slehf/ (y) 
 slea^e<^ 
 sleat^ 
 
 (IIL) 
 fleun< 
 fleohan, 
 
 flee. 
 fleo 
 
 } flyhs« ] 
 [ flyh^ 
 
 (m.) 
 creopcMi, 
 creej). 
 creope 
 cryp(e)s« 
 creopesi 
 cryp(e)(^ 
 creupec? 
 creopac^ 
 
 (V.) 
 gr6pa?i, 
 
 groic. 
 grope 
 grepsi 
 gropes^ 
 groped 
 gr6pe<^ 
 grupac? 
 
 (I.) 
 \esan, 
 
 collect. 
 
 lese 
 
 lisi! 
 
 lesesi 
 
 lisif 
 
 lesed 
 
 Ic&ad 
 
 (I.) 
 licgaw, 
 
 lie. 
 
 liege 
 
 Wgst 
 
 licgesi 
 
 li(c)ge*^ 
 licg«f{f
 
 VARIATIONS. OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE. 97 
 
 Vabiatioxs of Present Indicative. 
 
 193. Stem 4 > -e in the singular second and third person works 
 on the root vowel differently from -« > -e of the other persons. 
 
 (1.) Root i is here unchanged, while other forms have a-um- 
 laut {i>e), § 32, or breaking (i>eo), § 33: drepan; steorfan^ 
 starve, steorfe, stirf{e)st, stirf{e)ct, steorfad ; but y, not e, is usu- 
 ally found with eo, and often incorrectly with e. 
 
 (2.) Here is i-umlaut of a, ea, eo, u, a, o, ea, eo, 1\, 
 
 to e, e(y), y, y, ^, e, e(y), y, y: 
 bacan^ feallan, slea/ian y sledn, heorgan, cuman, Mean, gropan, 
 hledpan, creopan, scilfan. § 32. 
 
 (3.) Here is shifting of aysa: far an ; a> e is rare. § 41. 
 
 194. Stem -i^-e of the singular second and third person is 
 often syncopated in. strong verbs and weak verbs of the first class- 
 Then Variation of root vowel remains, 
 
 Assimilation of consonants follows, 
 Gemination is simi^lified: etan, td^t (§ 35, J})', 
 tredan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddy t (§ 36, 5) ; hindan, ndst > ntst > 
 nst (§ 35, A), ndd>nt (§ 30, 5) ; cpedan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddy 
 d (§ 20, 13) ; lesa7i, sst>st (§ 20, 13), sdyst (§ 35, J^) ; berstan, 
 stst > st, std > Si5 ( § 35, ^) ; leogan, gst > hst, gd > hd (§ 35, J3) ; 
 drifan, drive, drif{e)st, drif{e)d or drift (§ 35, JB). 
 
 (a.) The ending of the third person -d (-p) was a surd (/) when these 
 changes were established (e.g. dd^t). Gothic grammars give -/», but -d 
 is often in the manuscripts ; Old Saxon grammars give -d, but -th is often 
 found. English has uniformly -ih = -p. In Gothic, any dental + a preced- 
 ing dental = 5i; +a preceding labial =/(,• +a preceding guttural = A^, a 
 law which illustrates the frequent appearance of final t in Anglo-Saxon. In 
 Anglo-Saxon folkspecch there was doubtless variation in the sound of this 
 ending, as in Gothic and Old Saxon ; in syncopated forms it was surd after 
 surds : cnjpd (p), creeps ; drincd (p), drinks ; sonant after sonants (rare) : 
 brined, brings (z) ; but the predominant sound was always surd, as in Gothic 
 and English. Compare liget for liged, lieth. 
 
 (S.) Of the three forms given of the singular second and third persons, the 
 syncopated (dripd) is the common prose form, the unsyncopated, unvaried, or 
 varied by i-umlaut {driped, byrged) is more frequent in poetry, the varied 
 by a-umlaut (drcpcd) is a later conformation with the other persons. 
 
 195. Vorbs from roots in -h contract (§ 52) : slecm <. sleahan ; 
 fleOn ^fleohan. 
 
 190. Stems in -ia with compensative gemination hold it except 
 
 G
 
 98 SUMMARY OF VARIATIONS IN CONJUGATION. 
 
 in the indicative singular second and third — sometimes through- 
 out; but the imperative singular has -e (§§ 188, b ; 199; 207, d) : 
 licgan < Ugian, lie, imperative lige. 
 
 197. Variatiox IX Stkong Im perfects. 
 
 cpedan, sleahan> seahan > ceosau, 
 
 quoth. slean, slay. seon, see. choose. 
 
 Sing. — cpred sloh {g) seali ceas 
 
 epajde sloge sjege, sape cure 
 
 cpted sloh ((/) seah ceas 
 
 Plue. — cpjedon slogon ssgon, sapon curon 
 
 Part. — cpedcn sl»gen sepen, segen coren : 
 
 dy d (§ 3G, 2) ; A > r7 (§ 36, 2) ; «>/'(§ 35, 3, h) ; h >p in sape 
 (Gothic salhvan) is really hp'^p (§ 35, 3, b). So inflect Itdan, 
 Idct, lido7i, sail, etc. (§ 205) ; seodan., sedd, sudon, seethe, etc. 
 (§ 206) ; tedh, tuge < teohayi, tug ; freosan, freeze (frore) ; for- 
 leosan, lose (forlorn) ; hreosan, rush ; pesaji, be, p. p. pesen, etc. 
 (§ 206). 
 
 198. Summary of Variations in Conjugation. 
 
 (rt.) The root vowel may take five forms : 
 
 (1.) Throughout the present except the indicative singular sec- 
 ond and third persons. 
 
 (2.) In the indicative singular second and third persons. 
 
 (3.) In the imperfect singular first and third persons. 
 
 (4.) In the other forms of the imperfect. 
 
 (5.) In the passive participle. 
 
 {b) Consonant assimilation works mainly on the indicative sin- 
 gular second and third persons, and on the weak imperfects and 
 passive participles. 
 
 (e.) We give the present indicative singular first, second, and 
 third persons, the imperfect indicative singular first person and 
 plural first person, and the passive participle. 
 
 id.) Only the varied syncopated forms of the present indicativfe second 
 and third persons are often given ; the other regular forms generally occur, 
 but may be easily supplied (^ 193, h). Any variation of vowel, or assimila- 
 tion of consonants, which has been given in the phonology, ar\d is here re- 
 corded as found in any verb, may be looked for with any similar verb. The 
 variations of the imperfect plural -on (^^ 166, 170) are not given. The final 
 root consonants determine the arrangement, — labials, dentals, gutturals. 
 Vowels in parenthesis after a word are variations of its root vowels.
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 99 
 
 First Coxjugatiox, y'a. 
 
 199.^1. Roots ending in a single consonant not a liquid: 
 
 Ablaut (t; a, a; i)'^(e; a;,&; e); t>e,a-umlaut; a > a?, a >c'e>e, shift- 
 ing (^^ 158, 32, 41) ; (y, ie) < f, bad spelling, is frequent ; variation of con- 
 sonants, ^ 194. Layamon and Ormulum hold the Ang.-Sax. ablaut, though 
 with varying spelling ; in Old English it is broken up, especially in the im- 
 perfect, where both numbers at last are alike. English ablaut (ce, ea; a, a; 
 ee, ea)^{t; a ov e ; i) : eat, ate (et\ eaten; for stems with ^-breaking 
 and in -ia (t; a, a; i): bid, bade, bidden; e>«, progression (^38); a;>e, 
 shifting (^ 41). Most of these verbs vary in English from their type in con- 
 formation with the forms in § 200, and with weak verbs. 
 
 Part. Past. 
 
 \ f f-^r \ Strike. 
 Uo),^200. ) 
 
 spefen, sleep. 
 
 pefen, weave. 
 
 eten, eat. 
 
 freten, eat up. 
 
 meten, mete. 
 
 cneden, knead. 
 
 trcden, tread. 
 
 cpeden, quoth. 
 
 lesen, gather. 
 
 -nesen, recover. 
 
 ge-pesen, he 
 
 sprecen, speak. 
 
 prcccn, wreak. 
 
 Lndicative Pkesent. iMrEEP. Sing. Pluk. 
 
 1st. 2d. 3d. 
 
 drepe, drip{e)st, drip{e)d (p) ; driep, dnepon ; 
 
 spefe, spif(e')st, spif{e)d{p, ; spief, sp&fon ; 
 pefe, pif{e)st, pifle)d (p, t) ; pwf, pxfon (c) ; 
 ete, it(_e)st, it ited (ij, ie, e) ; wt, eeton ; 
 frete, frit(e) st, frit frited ; frwt, fr&ton ; 
 mete, mit(e)st, mit ; msst, mseion ; 
 
 cnede, cni{de)st, cnit ; cnxd, cn&don; 
 
 trede,trist tndes, tnt tridedl ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ , 
 
 (.y, le, e) ; ) 
 
 cpede, cp'ist, cpid{y) cpeded; cpxd, cp&don; 
 lese, list, list ; lies, Ixson ; 
 
 ge-nese, -nist, -nist ; -nses, -nxson ; 
 
 {pese, pesest, pesed) rare ; pxs, pseron ; 
 
 sp{r)ece (<•»), spriest, spricd (p) ; spriec, spreecon ; 
 prece, priest, pried (p) ; prxc, prxcon ; 
 
 pege, pigst ihst), pigd (hd) ; pa;g (h), patgon (a, e) ; pegen, carry. 
 irece, see ^ 200; hpete, whet; pede, hind; j^ece, stick, are doubtful; so also 
 (Jitan, arripere ; hnipan, collabi ; gipan, hiare ; screjoe, scrape ; />e£?e, wed). 
 
 ^-breaking : i > {ie, to, eo>y); ayeay e, a > ed > e. §§ 33, 35. 
 
 gife (ie, &c.), gifst, gif(e)d (/-) ; geaf Cv, e), geafon (e) ; gifen, give. 
 for-gite (le, &c.), -gitst, -git ; -gcat {x, e), -geaton (e) ; -giten, forget. 
 
 A -breaking: iy eo, a'^eay e. §§33,35. 
 
 seohe (sco), sihst, si(h)d (i/>eo) ; seah, sAgon (e), sdpon ; ge-sepen,-g-, see. 
 ge-feohe (-fed), -fihst, -fi{h)d ; -feah {e), -fii-gon ; -fegen, rejoice. 
 
 Stems in -ia (compensative gemination, § 196), no a-umlaut,oi- late. 
 
 The imperative has -e : frige, site, but plur. picgead occurs. 
 
 fric"-e, fri!r(e)st(hst), frii^(c)d') . ^. { gefrwen} . 
 
 jrie^L,jiig^K<i)o,,y J, J a^ / V friPg,friL'gon; 1 / f >■ mquire. 
 
 (Jid,})); > <. (^)^)j > 
 
 liege, ligst, lig{e)d{t), lid (/) ; Iceg, hegon (a, e) ; Itgen, lie.
 
 100 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 ISDIOATIVB PbESENT. 
 
 lat. 2d. 3il. Imperf. Sing. Pluk. Takt. Past. 
 
 Picge, pigst, pig{e)d (Jid) ; peak (Pa/i), pxgon (a, e) ; pigen, take. 
 sitte, sit(e)st, sit ; swt, swton ; gc-setcn, sit. 
 
 I)idde, bi(de)st, bit ; bxd,bxdon; bcden, bid. 
 
 Add fccge,feah, fetch; 5/>n7/e, sprout ; {hlicce, h\a.me; snicce, sneak) 1 
 
 200. — II. Roots ending in a single liquid : 
 
 Ablaut {i; a, a; w)>(j {eo, y) ; o, 6; u) (e ; x, ai; o); i'^(eo, y), a'^o, 
 a ]> o, m-assimilation ; i > e, m > o, a-u-mlaut ; a > a', a > aj, shifting ; i >eo, 
 a^ca, r-breaking ; eo>y, i-umlaut : («, ea)>e, shifting. ^^158,35,32,41. 
 
 English ablaut {ea; a or v; o) : steal, stole, stolen; la, a, ^ 199; o 
 lengthened in the past part., conformation in the imperfect. 
 
 nime (eo, y), nim(e)st, nim{e)d; nam (o), namon (o) ; numcn, take. 
 
 cpime'^\ cim(e)st ^^ cim(e)d "^ cpam.(o)\ cpdmon(o)\ cumen} 
 
 cume } cym(e)st) cym{e)d ) com ) comon 
 cpele, cpilst, cpild; cpxl, cpMon ; 
 
 come. 
 
 ge-dpele, -dpilst, -dpiht ; 
 
 hele, hilst, hild ; 
 
 hpele, hpilst, hpild; 
 
 stele, stilst, stild; 
 
 spele, spilst, spild; 
 
 bere, birst (y), bird (y) ; 
 
 scere (eo), scirst (y), scird (y) ; 
 
 tere, tirst, tird (y) ; 
 
 ge-ppere, -ppirst, -ppird; 
 
 brece, Iricst, bricd (p) ; 
 
 -dpxl, -dpMon ; 
 hxl, h&lon; 
 hpsd, hpMon ; 
 stxl, stxlon ; 
 spxl, spxlon ; 
 bxr, bxron ; 
 scxr (ea, e), scxron ; 
 txr, txron ; 
 
 -Ppxr, -ppxron; 
 
 brxc, brabcon ; 
 
 cpolen, kill. 
 -dpolen, err. 
 Jiolen, conceal. 
 hpolen, sound. 
 stolen, steal. 
 spolen, sweal. 
 boren, bear. 
 scoren, shear. 
 toren, tear. 
 
 i-pporen^ 
 -puren >weld. 
 -Pruen, j 
 brocen, break. 
 
 201. — III. Roots ending in two consonants, the first a nasal: 
 
 Ablaut (i; a, u; u) ; i^y, bad spelling, is frequent; a^o, nasal assimi- 
 lation (^^ 158, 35) ; variation of consonants, ^ 194. 
 
 Final gemination is often preserved. Unsyncopated forms are very com- 
 mon (^ 194). English ablaut {i ; a or u ; it) : swim, swam or swum, swum; 
 but stems in -nd have progression (I,- ou; ou)=di; du; du) : find, found. 
 
 hlimme, hlimst, hlimd; hlam{o), hlummon; hlummen, 
 
 grimme, grimst, grimd; gram (o), grummon ; grummen. 
 
 spimme, spimst, spimd; spam (o), spummon ; spummen, 
 
 climbe (^ 36), dimst, cltmd; clamh (omm), clumbon ; clumben, 
 
 ge-limpe, -limpst, -limpd (p) ; -lump, -lumpon ; -lumpen, 
 
 ge-nmpe, -rimpst, -rimpd(p) ; -ramp, -rumpon ; -rumpen, 
 brinne (beorne, ^ 204), bnnst, > ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ . 
 
 brind; ) 
 
 on-ginne, -ginst, -gind; -gan, -gunnon ; -gunnen. 
 
 brunnen. 
 
 sound, 
 rage, 
 swim, 
 climb, 
 happen, 
 rumple. 
 
 burn. 
 
 begin.
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. —VARIATION. 
 
 101 
 
 b-linne, linst, lin{ni)ct; 
 rinne (eorne, § 203), rinsi 
 sinne, sinst, sinct; 
 spinne, spinst, spind; 
 
 pinne, pinst, pind; 
 
 stinte, stin(t)st, stint; 
 J)rinte, prin(t)st, print ; 
 binde, bin{t)st, bint; 
 finde, fin{t)st, fint ; 
 grinde, grin(t)st, grint ; 
 hrinde, hrin(t)st, hrint ; 
 
 spinde, spinet) st, spint ; 
 
 pinde, pin(t)st, pint ; 
 pinde, pin(t)st, pint ; 
 
 crince, crincst, crincdCp); 
 
 d-cpince, -cpincst, -cpincd (p) ; 
 
 prince, drincst, drincd (p) ; 
 for-scrince, -scrincst, -scrincd ) 
 
 since, sincst, sincd (p) ; 
 stince, stincst, stincd (p) ; 
 spince, spincst, spincd (p) ; 
 bringe {cge), bringst, bringd; 
 
 clinge, clingst, clingd; 
 
 Ian, lunnon ; 
 
 lunnen. 
 
 cease. 
 
 ', rind; ran, riinnon; 
 
 runnen. 
 
 run. 
 
 san, sunnon ; 
 
 sunnen. 
 
 think. 
 
 span, spunnon ; 
 
 spunnen. 
 
 spin. 
 
 pan, punnon ; 
 
 punnen. 
 
 (fight 
 l(win). 
 
 slant, stunton; 
 
 stunten. 
 
 stint. 
 
 prant, prunton; 
 
 prunten. 
 
 swell. 
 
 band (o), bundon ; 
 
 bunden, 
 
 bind. 
 
 (funde)fand (o), fundon ; 
 
 funden. 
 
 find. 
 
 grand, grundon ; 
 
 grunden. 
 
 grind. 
 
 hrand. hriindon; 
 
 hrunden, 
 
 push. 
 
 spand, spundon; 
 
 spunden. 
 
 (pine 
 (.(swoon). 
 
 pand, pundon; 
 
 punden. 
 
 swell. 
 
 pand, pundon ; 
 
 punden. 
 
 wind, 
 (yield 
 ((cringe). 
 
 ; crane, cruncon ; 
 
 cruncen. 
 
 -cpanc, -cpuncon; 
 
 dranc, druncon ; 
 
 -scranc, -scruncon; 
 
 sane, suncon ; 
 stanc, stuncon; 
 spanc, spuncon ; 
 
 (go out 
 -cpuncen, ||^^^^^j^^ 
 
 druncen, drink. 
 
 -scruncen, shrink. 
 
 suncen, 
 
 stuncen, 
 
 spuncen, 
 
 sink. 
 
 stink. 
 
 toil. 
 
 brang (o), brungon ; brungen, bring. 
 
 clang, clungon ; 
 
 , (wither 
 
 clungon, -J^^j.^^^^ 
 
 cringe{cge),cring{e)st,cring{e)d; crang (o), crungon; crungen, | .' 
 
 ge-fringe,-fring{e)st,-fring{e)d; -frang, -frungon; -frungen, ask. 
 
 geonge ; gang, gungon ; go. 
 
 (fall, 
 erungen, { . 
 ° ° (cringe. 
 
 gringe, gring(e)st, gring{e)d; grang, grungon; 
 
 singe, sing{c)st, sing{e)d; 
 
 sang (o), sungon; 
 
 sing. 
 
 springe, spnng{c)st, spring{c)d; sprang (o),sprungon; sprungen, spring. 
 stinge, sting{e)st, sting{e)d; slang, slungon ; stungen, sting. 
 
 spinge, sping{e)st, sping{e)d; spang (o), spungon ; spungen, swing, 
 ge-pinge, -ping{e)st, -p}ing{e)d; -pang (o), -pungon; -pungen, grow. 
 Pringe, pring{e)st, pring{e)d; prang (o), prungon ; prungen, throng. 
 
 {J>pinge, Pping{e)st, pping(e)d; ppang, Ppungon ; Ppungen), \^^^^{j.^^^^ 
 
 pringe, pring{e)st, pring{e)d; prang (o), prungon; prungen, wring. 
 Add ^crjwime, shrimp ; slincan, slink; slingan,s\'mg.
 
 102 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 202. — IV. lioot in two consonants, tlic first ^, or three con- 
 sonants ■\vitli metathesis of r : 
 
 Ablaut {i ; a, u ; it) > {c ; .t, u ; o) ; ?>?,«>«, a-umlaut {!^ 32) ; a> 
 »>e, shifting {^ 41). Umlaut and shifting stopped by n. (^^ 200,201. 
 
 Impeef. Sing. Tlur. Part. Past. 
 
 Indicativb Pkesent. 
 
 lat. 2(1. 3(1. 1 n rl ( \ 
 
 breffde } brardest} bregdcd ) brwgd ) brugdon (, '^, , ) , ., 
 
 K .?x . h , •: Tz J r? J -^irof/era, ire- S braid. 
 
 ) bnt ) brxd ) brudon i , , . „„ I 
 
 brede ) bri{t)st 
 
 ( den, i 199 ) 
 
 stregde\ strigdest\ strigded)^ strwgd '^ slrugdon slrogden 
 
 strede ) slri{t)st ) strit i strxd i 
 
 frigne\ \ \ frxg{e)n\ ~ j. 
 
 \cf\ I I I (e) Ifrugnonl frugnen 
 
 J. .' \ r   , { J-   * \ ^ \ frunon > frunen 
 
 frme J jnnsl ) fnna ) jran ) •' '' 
 
 berste, birst, birst{ed) (ie) ; bxrst, burston ; borsten, 
 
 persce, pirsccst, pirsced; pxrsc, purscon ; porscen, 
 
 I strow, 
 ( sprinkle. 
 
 I 
 
 ask. 
 
 burst, 
 thresh. 
 
 203. — V. Root in two consonants, first a trill (I or r) : 
 
 (a.) Ablaut (i ; a, u ; u)^{e; ea,u; o) ; i>e, m>o, a-umlaut (1^32); 
 a^ea (l-breaking, ^ 33)>co (irregular spelling), ox pea'^ peo, p-assimila- 
 tion (^ 35) ? Unsyncopated forms in e are common : helpest, helped. En- 
 glish ablaut {e; a, e or o; o); ea>a or c, shifting, ^ 38, A; o, ^ 200 ; but all 
 imperfects have become weak: help; {halp, help, holp), helped; (holpeh), 
 helped. 
 
 bcal, billion ; bollen, bellow. 
 
 (speal (speoll, Rask),> ,, ,, 
 
 1 .w/1. [spollen, swell. 
 
 belle, bilst, biht; 
 spelle, spilst, spild ; 
 
 helpc; hilpst (e), hilpd (p) ; 
 delfe, dilfst, dilfd; 
 melte, miltst, milt ; 
 spelte, spiltst, spilt {i^ie,y) ; 
 be-telde, -til{t)st, -tilt ; 
 melee, milcst, ?nilcd{p) ; 
 beige, bilgst (Jist), bilgd{hd) ; 
 felge, filgst (hst), filgd (hd) ; 
 
 1 spullon ; ) 
 
 healp, hulpen; holpen, help. 
 
 dealf, dulfon ; dolfen, delve. 
 
 mcalt, multon ; molten, melt. 
 
 spealt{eo?), spulton; spolten, die. 
 
 tcald, tuldon ; tolden, cover up. 
 
 mealc, mulcon ; molcen, milk. 
 
 bealg{h), bulgon; bolgen, be wroth. 
 
 fealg(h), fulgon; folgen, go into. 
 
 folgen, 
 Cspolgen ~\ 
 spelge, spilgst {hst), spilg{e)d{hd) ; spealg{h), spulgon ; I (spelgen, ^swallow 
 Add d-selce (e>eo, ea), sulk. ' Koch), 3 
 
 ^/-breaking, i>ieyy (§ 33) ; z>e is also founcl, a-uinlaut, 
 
 §§32, 194, J. 
 
 gille {e, ie, y), gilst {ie, y), gild {ie, y) ; geal, gullon ; gollen, yell. 
 gilpe {ie, y), gilpst {ie, y), gilpd {p) {ie, y) ; gealp, gulpon ; golpen, boast. 
 gilde {ie, y), g%l{t)st {ie, y), gilt {ie, y) ; geald, guidon ; golden, pay.
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 103 
 
 204. — (^>.) Before r (and h) : 
 
 Ablaut (i; a,u; u)^{eo; ea,u; o) ; i>eo, a>ea, breaking ('5> 33) ; m>o, 
 a-umlaut {^ 32). After labials {p, m, p), eo may go to u {^ 35, 2) ; y for i 
 abounds. Unsyncopated broken forms prevail : peorpest, peorped. A'^owels 
 brought before r by metathesis often retain their old umlaut: rinne'^irne ; 
 brinne^birne ; bersce, perste (^ 202). English like {a) ; eo>e, ^ 38, A. 
 
 georre, gyrst, gyrd; 
 
 gear, gurron . 
 
 gorren, 
 
 whur. 
 
 eorne (i,y), yrn{e)st {i, eo), yrn{e)ct\ {earn) am (o), \ 
 
 (i, eo) ; 3 urnon ; i 
 
 beorne{i,y), beorn(e)st {y), beorn{e)d\ beam {barn) (o), | , 
 
 (y) ; ) burnon ; i 
 
 urnen, run. 
 
 omen. 
 
 burn. 
 
 meorne («), myrnst, myrnd; 
 speorne {u, o), spyrnst, sprjrnd; 
 peorpe {u, y), pyrpst, pyrpd {p) ; 
 ceorfe, cyrfst, cyrfd; 
 deorfe, dyrfst, dyrfd; 
 hpeorfe {u, o, y), hpyrfst, hpyrfd; 
 
 steorfe, styrfst, styrfd; 
 
 speorfe, spyrfst, spyrfd {() ; 
 peorde {u, y), pyrst, pyrd{ed) ; 
 beorce, byrcsl, byrcp; 
 
 mearn, murnon , 
 
 momen, mourn. 
 
 spearn, spurnon ; spomen, spurn. 
 
 pearp, purpon ; 
 cearf, curfon; 
 dearf, durfon; 
 hpearf, hpurfon ; 
 
 stearf, sturfon ; 
 
 spearf, spurfon ; 
 peard, purdon ; 
 bearc, bureau ; 
 
 parpen, throw. 
 
 corfen, carve. 
 
 darfen, suffer. 
 
 hparfen, return, 
 tdie, 
 (starve. 
 
 sporfen, cleanse. 
 
 porden, become. 
 
 barcen, bark, 
 
 sporcen, faint. 
 
 storfen, 
 
 spearce, spyrcst, spyrcd {p) {sporced) ; spearc, spurcan ; 
 
 bearge, byrgst{hst), byrg{e)d{hd); bearg{h),burgon; borgen, guard. 
 
 feahte, fyhlst, fyht ; feaht, fuhton; fohten, fight. 
 
 205. Second Conjugation, ^/i. 
 
 Ablaut {i; a; i; i) ; i'>y, I'^y, bad spelling ; .sc-breaking or A-breaking 
 a>ea (i>io.?), t>eo ("^ 33) ; a >», shifting. English ablaut (i; d; i) = 
 (di ; 6; i) ; i^di, d^o, progression {^ 38) : drive, drove, driven. 
 
 dptne, dpin{e)st, dpin{e)d; 
 gine, gin{e)st, gin{e)d; 
 hrtne, hrin{e)st, hrin{e)d; 
 hptne, hpin{e)st, hpin{e)d; 
 seine, scin{e)st, sctn{e)d; 
 gripe, grip{e)st, gnp{c)d (/) ; 
 nipe, nip{e)st, nip{e)d {p) ; 
 ripe, rip{c)st, rip{e)d {p) ; 
 to-slipan, -srip{e)st, -slip{e)d{p) 
 be-Vife, -ljf{e)st, -lif{e)d; 
 clife, cltf{e)st, clif{e)d; 
 drifc, d/if{c)st, dnf{e)d {ft) ; 
 scr'ife, serif {e)st, serif {e)d ; 
 
 slifc, slif{e)st, slif{e)d; 
 
 dpdn, dpinan ; 
 
 dpincn, 
 
 dwindle 
 
 gdn, ginan ; 
 
 ginen, 
 
 yawn. 
 
 hrdn, hrinan ; 
 
 hrinen. 
 
 touch. 
 
 hpdn, hpinon; 
 
 hpincn. 
 
 whiz. 
 
 scdn {ed), scinon {to) ; 
 
 ; scinen. 
 
 shine. 
 
 grdp, gripon ; 
 
 gripen. 
 
 gripe. 
 
 ndp, nipon ; 
 
 nipen. 
 
 darken. 
 
 rap, ripon ; 
 
 ripen. 
 
 reap. 
 
 -slap, -slipon; 
 
 -slipen. 
 
 dissolve, 
 
 -Idf, -lifon; 
 
 -lifen. 
 
 remain. 
 
 cldf, clifon; 
 
 clifen. 
 
 cleave. 
 
 druf, drifon; 
 
 drifcn, 
 
 drive. 
 
 scrdf, serif on; 
 
 serif en, 
 
 shrive. 
 
 sldf, slifon ; 
 
 slifc n. 
 
 (split, 
 (sliver.
 
 10-i 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION.— VAlilATION. 
 
 Indicative riiESEUT. 
 1st. 2ii. 3cl. 
 
 sp'ife, spif{c)st, spif{c)d; 
 
 spipe, sjnp{c)st, sptp{e)(t ; 
 bite, hU{e)st, b1t{cd) ; 
 
 jfltte, fiit{e)st, Jilt ; 
 
 hnitc, hnit{c)st, hnit ; 
 slite, slit{c)st, slit ; 
 smite, smU{c)st, smit ; 
 ppite, Ppit{e)st, ppit{ed) ; 
 pile, pit(e)st, pit(eit); subj. pitan, 
 y-putanyutan, §§ 176, 224, c. 
 plite, prit{e)st, plit{ed) ; 
 prite, prit{e)st, prit{ed) ; 
 llde, hidcst {ht{t)st), bided {bit) ; bad, bidon ; 
 
 Imperfect 
 SiNo. Pluk. 
 spcif, spifon ; 
 
 spap {an), spipon ; 
 but, hiton; 
 
 fiat, fiiton ; 
 
 hnat, hniton ; 
 slat, sliton ; 
 smdt, smiton; 
 ppdt, ppiton (eo) ; 
 
 V pat, piton; 
 
 plat, pliton ; 
 prat, priton ; 
 
 cide, ci{t)st, cit ; 
 (?) lide, list, tided lid; 
 glide, glist, glit ; 
 gnide, gnist, gmt ; 
 hlide, Mist, hlit ; 
 ride, rist, rit ; 
 slide, slist, slit ; 
 stride, strist, strit ; 
 pride, prist, prit ; 
 lide, U{de)st, lid{ed) ; 
 mide, mist, mid;   
 scride, scrist, scrid; 
 slide, sli{de)st, slid; 
 snide, snist, snid; 
 pride, prist, prid; 
 pride, prist, prid; 
 
 cad, cidon (cidde) ; 
 lad, lidon ; 
 glad, glidon; 
 gnud, gnidon ; 
 lildd, hlidon ; 
 rdd, ridon (io) 1 ; 
 sldd, slidon ; 
 strdd, stridon ; 
 prdd, pridon ; 
 lad, lidon; 
 vxdd, midon; 
 scrdd, scridon ; 
 sldd, slidon; 
 sndd, snidon ; 
 prdd, pridon {d) ; 
 prdd, pridon ; 
 -grus, -grison; 
 rus, rison; 
 bide, blicon ; 
 sac, sicon; 
 suae, snicon ; 
 
 a-grise, -grist, -grist ; 
 
 rise, rise St (rist), rised (rist) ; 
 
 blice, blic(e)st, blic(e)d (p) ; 
 
 sice, sic(e)st, sic(e)d (p) ; 
 
 snice, snic(e)st, snic(e)d (p) ; 
 
 strice, stric(e)st, stric(e)d (p); strdc, stricon; 
 
 spice, spic(e)st, spic(e)d (p) ; spdc, spicon; 
 
 pice, pic(e)st, pic(e)d (]J) ; pdc, picon ; 
 
 hnige,hnig(c)st(hst),hnis:(e)d} , ^, , v , . 
 (hd); ^^ ' "^ hnah(g), hmg 
 
 mige, mihst, mihd; mdh, migon ; 
 
 sige, sihst, sihd; sail, sigon; 
 
 stige, sfihst, stihd; stdh, stigon ; 
 
 Takt. Past. 
 spifen, 
 
 spipen, 
 bit en, 
 
 fliten, 
 
 hniten, 
 sliten, 
 smilen, 
 ppiten, 
 
 pilen, 
 
 pliten, 
 
 priten, 
 
 biden, 
 
 ciden, 
 
 liden, 
 
 gliden, 
 
 gniden, 
 
 hliden, 
 
 riden, 
 
 sliden, 
 
 striden, 
 
 priden, 
 
 liden, 
 
 miden. 
 
 (sweep, 
 (turn. 
 
 spew. 
 
 bite, 
 (flitc, 
 (strive. 
 
 butt. 
 
 slit. 
 
 smite. 
 
 cut off. 
 (see, visit, 
 umpute. 
 
 look. 
 
 write. 
 
 bide. 
 
 chide. 
 
 grow. 
 
 glide. 
 
 rub. 
 
 cover. 
 
 ride. 
 
 slide. 
 
 stride. 
 
 bud, grow. 
 
 sail. 
 
 hide. 
 
 scriden(d), go. 
 
 sliden, 
 
 sniden, 
 
 priden, 
 
 priden, 
 
 -grisen, 
 
 risen, 
 
 blicen, 
 
 sicen, 
 
 snicen, 
 
 stricen, 
 
 spicen, 
 
 picen, 
 
 hnigen, 
 
 slit.. 
 
 cut. 
 
 wreathe. 
 
 bud, grow. 
 
 dread. 
 
 rise. 
 
 shine. 
 
 sigh. 
 
 sneak. 
 
 go, streak. 
 
 deceive. 
 
 yield. 
 
 nod. 
 
 ((miuffo), 
 miff en, k ^ ° ' 
 * (water. 
 
 sigen, sink. 
 
 stigen, ascend.
 
 THIED CONJUGATION.— VAEIATION. 
 
 105 
 
 p'tge , pihst, pthd ; pah, pigon ; 
 
 like, Uhie)st, lih{e)d (y) ; Idh {ed) {lag), Itgon ; 
 sihe (seo), sih{e)st, sih{e)d; sdh, sigon (Ji) ; 
 iihe {ted), tikst {y), tihd{y) ; tdh {ed), {tigon?) ; 
 
 Jnhe, pihst, pihd ; pdh {])dg,}d:h) , 
 
 pigen. 
 It gen. 
 
 fight. 
 lend, give. 
 
 sigen{h), strain. 
 tigcn, accuse. 
 
 -I 
 
 {Peo, ^ 206) 
 
 prthe, prihst, prihd; 
 
 prdh, prigon ; 
 
 { {preu, ^ 20G) 
 prigcn, i ^ 
 -^ * ( cover. 
 
 Add spine, swoon ; sntpe, snow ; prife, thrive 1 sci-ie, shriek. 
 
 206. TlIIKD COXJUG'ATION, -y/ U. 
 
 Ablaut (m(i/); ed,u; u)^{e6{{i); cd,u; o) ; iu^io~^eo, m>o, a-um- 
 laut (§^ 32; 38,2); ea>c, shifting {^ 41); eo>y, M>y, i-umlaut {^ 32). 
 Ormulum ablaut (e, (m) ; &, u; o), Old English {e, {u) ; e, o or e; o), En- 
 glish {ee, ea, ob, u; ee, e, o, o; o, b, ee, e). The imperfect becoming like 
 the present by the shifting of eo'^e and ed'^e, is distinguished anew by 
 conforming with the 6 of the participle, by shortening its vowel (e, 5), or by 
 taking a weak ending : seethe; seeth-ed,sbd; seeth-ed, sodden ; cleave; clove, 
 clef-t ; cloven, clef -t; choose; chose; chosen; 5(7/?, weak. ^^25,200. 
 
 Variation of consonants, § 194. 
 
 creope, cryp{e)st {ed), cryp{e)d > ^ 
 
 {eo){p){ I creap,crupon; 
 
 dreope, drypst, drypd {p) ; dredp, drupon ; 
 
 geope, gypst, gypd {p) ; gedp, gupon ; 
 
 slupe,slyp{e)st{u),slyp{e)d{u){p)\ sledp, slupon ; 
 
 cropcn, creep. 
 
 dropen, drop. 
 gopen, take up. 
 
 supe, sypst, sypd {p) ; 
 cleofe, clyfst, clyfd; 
 dufe, dyfst, dyfd; 
 scufe, scyfst, scyfd {ft) ; 
 
 hreofe, , ; 
 
 leofe, lyfst, lyfd; 
 reofe, ryfst, ryft; 
 breope, brypst, brrjpd; 
 cedpe, cypst, cypd; 
 hreope, hrypst, hrypd ; 
 preope, pnjpst, prypd; 
 
 seap, supon ; 
 cledf, cliifon ; 
 deaf, dufon ; 
 scedf, scitfon ; 
 
 dissolve. 
 
 sup. 
 
 cleave. 
 
 dive. 
 
 shove. 
 
 leaf, lufon ; 
 redf, rufon ; 
 bredp, brupon ; 
 ceap, cupon ; 
 hredp, hrupon ; 
 J)redp, prupen ; 
 bredte, bryt{e)st (eo), bryt {ed) {eo) ; brcut, bruton ; 
 
 fleote, flytst, flyt ; 
 geote, gytst, gyt ; 
 gredle, gryt{e)st, gryt ; 
 hleote, hleotest {hlylsl), hlyt; 
 hrute, hrytst, hryt ; 
 Kite, lytst, luted {lyt) ; 
 neote {lo), nytst, neotcd {nyt) ; 
 redte, rytst, redted {ryt) ; 
 sceote, scytst, sceoted {scyt) ; 
 spredte, sprytst, spryt ; 
 
 feat, fiuton ; 
 gedt (e), guton ; 
 great, gruton ; 
 Meat, hluton ; 
 hredt, hruton; 
 ledt, luton ; 
 neat, nuton ; 
 real, rulon ; 
 scedt (e), scuton; 
 spredt, spruton ; 
 
 si open, 
 sopen, 
 clofen, 
 dofen, 
 scofen, 
 be-hrofen, (?) 
 lofen, love. 
 rofen, 
 bropen, 
 copen, 
 hropen, 
 propen, 
 broten, 
 floten, 
 goten, 
 gruten, 
 hloten, 
 hroten, 
 lotcn, 
 noten, 
 roten, 
 scoten, 
 sproten, sprout. 
 
 reave. 
 
 brew. 
 
 chew. 
 
 rue. 
 
 throe. 
 
 break. 
 
 float. 
 
 pour. 
 
 greet. 
 
 cast lots. 
 
 rustle, snore. 
 
 lout. 
 
 enjoy. 
 
 weep, cry. 
 
 shoot.
 
 lOG 
 
 TIIIIU) CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 luDIOATIVB PBKSENT. IMPERFECT 
 
 1st. 2d. 3d. Sing. Tlub. 
 
 peote, Pytst, pf/t ; J)edt, Jmton ; 
 
 d-preolc, -prytst, -prcoted {-pryt) ; -prcdt, -pruton ; 
 beodejio) deadest (5^(0^0, ''^o-l^^. ^^^^^ 
 
 dea (byt) ; ) 
 
 encode, cny{t)st, cnyt ; cnedd, cnudon ; 
 
 creode («), cry(()st, cryded cryt; credd, crudon; 
 
 Ic6de{i6), ly{t)st, lyt; ledd, ludon ; 
 
 reode, ry{t)st, ryt ; redd, rudon ; 
 
 strudc, stry{i)st, struded {slryt) ; stredd, slrudon ; 
 d-breude, -breodest {-bryst), -breo-'t 
 
 ded {-bryd) ; ) " 
 
 d-hude, -hyst, -hyd; -head, -hudon ;. -hoden, spoil. 
 
 hreode, hryst, hryd; hredd {d),hrudon; hrodcn, adorn. 
 seode, seodest (sysi), seoded (syd) ; sedd, sudon ; soden, seethe 
 
 cease, ceosest {cyst), ceased {cyst) ; ceds {c), curon ; 
 
 Part. Past. 
 
 Pwtcn, howl. 
 
 -proton, irks, loathe. 
 
 boden, bid. 
 
 cnoden, knot. 
 
 croden, crowd. 
 
 laden, grow. 
 
 roden, redden. 
 
 stroden, despoil. 
 
 -bredd, -brudon ; -broden, worsen. 
 
 drease, dryst, dreosed {dryst) ; drcds, di'uron ; 
 
 freose, fryst, fryst ; 
 be-greose, -gryst, -gryst ; 
 hrease, hryst, hryst ; 
 for-leose, -lyst, -lyst ; 
 bruce, brucest {brycst), bruced > 
 ^ {brycd {p)); i 
 
 luce, lycst, lycd {p) ; 
 reoce, rycst, rycd {p) ; 
 smeoce, smycst, smycd {p) ; 
 Slice, sycst, sycd {p) {c<^g) ; 
 
 freds, fruron ; 
 -greds, -gruron; 
 hreds, hruron ; 
 -leas, -luron ; 
 
 bredc, brucon ; 
 
 leac, lucon ; 
 rede, rucon ; 
 smedc, smucon ; 
 scdc, sucon ; 
 
 coren, choose. 
 
 droren, \ 
 
 (mourn. 
 
 froren, freeze. 
 
 -groren, frighten. 
 
 hroren, rush. 
 
 -loren, lose. 
 
 brocen, brook, use. 
 
 locen, lock. 
 
 rocen, reek. 
 
 smocen, smoke. 
 
 socen, suck. 
 
 bow. 
 
 bdge {eo), bugest {byhst {g)), biU .^ . . . 
 
 ged {byhd {g)) ; j ^^'^'^ ^^^' ^"^on , bogen, 
 
 dredge, dreogest {dryhst), dreo-) , ^,/ \ , , a- 
 
 ged{dryhd); '^ dreah{g),dnigon; drogen, suffer. 
 
 fledge,jleogest{yhst),fleugcd{yhd);fledh {eg), fiugon; fiagen, fly. 
 
 leoge, lyhst, lyhd; ledh{e){g),lugan; logen, lie. 
 
 smuge, smyhst, smyhd; smedh, smtigon ; smogen, creep. 
 
 jleohe{fleo),fiyhst,flyhd; plur. ") n ^, j, n a 
 
 fleod; ^fleah,flugon; flogen, flee. 
 
 teohe {tea), tyhst, tyhd{id); plur. 
 teod; 
 
 pea, pyhst, pyhd ; 
 
 y tedh (e) {g), tiigon ; togen, tug. 
 
 prco, pryst, pryhd; 
 
 pedh, pmgon ; 
 prcdh, prugon ; 
 
 , ({<bihe,2Q5) 
 
 pogen, -J ^ -^ ' 
 
 (thrive. 
 
 ((<pAhe,205) 
 progen, ' ' 
 
 (cover. 
 Add »ed, strain ; ico, accuse, ^ 205, Heyne ; fneose, sneeze 1
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 107 
 
 207. FouiiTu Conjugation, -v/a or a. 
 
 Ablaut (a; 6, 6; a); a>ig, shifting; a>e, i-umlaut, infrequent (^ 32). 
 English ablaut (a; o or oo ; a) = {e; o or u; e) ; a>e, progression and 
 i-umlaut {^^ 38, 32); o>w, progression (^ 38): wake, ivoke, lodken; take, 
 took, taken. Variation of consonants, ^ 194. 
 
 ale, wl{e)st{e,a), ssl{e)d {e,a); 6l,olon; alen, shine. 
 gale, gwl(e)st, gml{e)d; gol, golon ; galen, sing. 
 fare, fxr{e)st, fxr{e)ct; for, for on; faren, fare. 
 stape, stwp{e)st, stsep{e)(t{p); stop, st6po?i ; stapen, step. 
 ; ; ge-dafen, behoove. 
 
 grafe, grxf{e)st, gra}f{c)d; grofgrofon; {ll^,!2ln, \s^^^^^^^&- 
 
 rafe, rxf{e)st, rxf{e)d; ruf, rofon ; rafen, rob. 
 
 Made, hladest (hlest), hladed } n, \'' , n/ \-< , n ? /\i j 
 
 ., ' , ^ ' )- hl{e)od, hl{e)odon ; nladen {a"), load. 
 
 pade,padest{j>a'st),paded{pmd); pod, podon; paden, wade, go. 
 
 ace, xc{e)st, icc{e)d {p) ; oc, ocon ; acen, ache. 
 
 l/ace, ba;c{e)st(e),bieced{e), ^191; boc, bocon ; bacen, bake. 
 
 sace, sxc{e)st, sxc(e)d (p) ; soc, socon ; sacen, fight. 
 
 tace, tmc{e)st, t3ec{e)d{p) ; toc,tocon; tacen, take. 
 
 pace, pxc{e)st, pxc{e)d (//) ; poc, pocon ; pacen, wake. 
 
 pasce, piesc{e)st, pxsc{e)d (p) ; pose {x), poscon (x) ; pxscen, wash. 
 
 draffe,drx^(e)st(hst),drxff(e)d) , -., / \ , /. , j 
 
 ° ., °^ ' ^ ' °^ ' y dron{g), drogon; dragen, drag. 
 
 gnage, gmeg(e)st (hsl), gnce- -} ^, 
 
 g(e)dthd), '^ gnoh, gnogon ; gnagen, gnaw. 
 
 Add pape, thaw. 
 (6.) 5C-breakiug, § 33 ; A-breaking, § 33 ; ea^y., § 32. 
 
 scie)ade,sc{e)adest{scxst),sc{e)a-"> /%/-, /\^, /\+ ^i 
 
 \ , , ,, ' \i y sc(e)od,sc(e)odon: sciejaden, scathe. 
 
 ded iscxd) ; j \ / 7 \ / 7 v / 7 
 
 sc(e)ace,scie)acest(scxst),sc{e)a-^ -,^ , ^^ ,, / \ 1 1 
 
 . , ,\ Y sc(c)oc, sc(e)ocon ; sciejacen (a'), shake. 
 
 ced {scxd); ) \ / ' \ / \ ' \ " 
 
 sceppe{y), scyp{pe)st, scyp{pe)d; sc{e)6p, sc{e)opon; sc{e)apen{e), create. 
 
 scafe (eaf), sc;if{c)st, scxf{c)d; scuf{eo?),scofon; scafen, shave. 
 
 leahe {led), lehst {y), lehd (y) ; ' loh {g), logon ; leahen {lean), blame. 
 
 sleahe {sled), slehst (y), slchd (y) ; sloh {g), slogan ; slagen {x, e), slay. 
 
 pped, ppehst (y), ppehd (y) ; l)poh, pjpogon ; ppegen, wash. 
 
 peaxe, pexest, pcaxcd, pex{e)d; p{e)ox, p{e)oxon; pcaxen, wax. 
 
 Add^ea, flay. 
 
 (c.) 7i-assirailation, ay o, % 35. 
 
 spane, span{e)st, span{e)d{x); sp{e)6n, sp{c)onon ; spanen{o), allure. 
 slande {0), slandest {stentst),') ,.,,., ,t <^,„s 
 
 standed {stent (y)) ; | '^"^^ *'^^'" ^^ ^16). standen, stand.
 
 108 FIFTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 ((?.) Stems in -ia^ § 196. Imperative in -e: spere, stepe, hefe. 
 
 Indicative Pbf.8e:nt. Imperfect 
 
 1st. '2d. 3d. SiNo. Plub. Part. Past. 
 
 sper-ie{-{i)g€), sperest, spered; spor,sp6ron; sporen, swear. 
 
 sceppe<CscaJic, ^ 207, b; sci/ppe<CsceaJie, ^ 32. 
 
 steppe i'Cstapie), step{e)st, stcp{e)d{Jj); stop, stupo7i ; stapen, step. 
 
 hebbe{a'){<.hafie),hcf{e)st,hcf{e)d; hof, kofon; hafen(x), heave. 
 hlchhe {<hlahie) {i, y, ea), hlchst {t, y),| j^^. ^^. ^^^^^^^^^ ^,^ ^ j^^ 
 
 hlehd{i,y); i ' * ' v /. & 
 
 Add scedde, shed. 
 208. Fifth Conjugation. — Contract. Imperfect in eo, e {id). 
 
 (1..) Root in a + two consonants; «>ea, 1-breaking (§ 33), Um- 
 laut i/<ea or €<a (§ 32). English co>e, shifting (§ 41); 
 aid y old, progression (§ 38): fall, fell, fallen ; hold, held, 
 hdlden. 
 
 ^Tf\tfddy^ ^^^^''^'-^'""^^^'^'^Ifoolilh/eoUon; ge-feallen, fall. 
 
 pealle,peallest {pylst), peal{l)ed {pyld) ; pe6l{l),pe6Uon; peallen, well. 
 pealte,pealtest (pylst),pealted (pylt) ; peolt, peolton ; pealten, fall. 
 fealde fealdest {fylst), /'^"^'^"^ | y,^;^, y,^;^,„ . f.alden, fold. 
 
 h{c)alde healdest {hylsl), healdedi ^^^.^^^^ . ^^^^^^^^^ j^^j^^ 
 
 {hylt) ; > 
 
 stcalde, stealdest (stylst), stealded} , /-; > . ^i; ; ,77 
 
 . , ,. \ -< " L steoLd.steuldon; stealden, possess. 
 
 {sty id) ; ) 
 
 v(e)alde, pcaldest (pylst), pealded'} ^,, ^,, ,, 
 
 '^^.'^ .,/ "-^ -^ > peold, peoldon ; pealden, govern. 
 
 {pylt) ; > 
 
 pealce, pealc{e)st ipylcst), peal-} ^, ^, , ,, 
 
 /\^/ 7 i / 1\\ > peulc, peolco7i ; pealcen, walk. 
 
 (5.) n-assimilation, « >.o (§35). 
 
 banne, ban{ne)st {benst), '' , - / \ / "x 7 " / "x j. / \ 1 
 
 , / N ^ /7 ^s r oerafn) (eo), oerawon (eo) ; oanne«(o), order. 
 
 / ban{ne)d {bend) ; j \ / v / 
 
 sparine, span{ne)st {spenst),) ' / \ , '\ 1 / /iv 
 
 .;,an(n;)rf {spend) ; I ^^'"^^^^ ^^''^' '^^'^"'"^ ^^'^ ' '^'^"'^^"' 'P=^"- 
 
 blande {0), blandest {blcn{t)d),') ,,^ 7/ /-v 77/^ 7 / /^\ 77 > / \ 1 1 j 
 77 7\f/7 7 .\ y blend {co),blcndon{eo); olande)i{o), hlend. 
 
 blanded {blent) ; ) 
 
 fo {<Cfahe), fe{h)st {&), fe{h)d') r'^ , s r" r /\\ 
 
 {^'fJ.fod; \' '^' \ feng {cg)Jengon; fangen (o),| ^^^^^_ 
 
 infin./on; imperat. /o(A), /o<f. ) 
 
 gd {<ga-gd-mi, km g&st gM,^ plur. > ^.^ ^.^^ . ^^^ . 
 
 ^a«; imperat. ^a, g-fla; innn. ^a?i; ). ° ° 
 
 gauge {o){cg), gangest (0), } . ,.^ ^ ^ ■. , . 
 
 ganged {oi v^gangad{o); \ ^^"^ ^''^ ^^' ^^>' -'''^' ^«"^^" (")' ^g«- 
 infin. gangan (0) ; imperat. ^a??o- (d) ; p. pr. gangende (0) {geon- 
 
 gan, k 201 ; gengan, weak).
 
 FIFTH CONJUGATION.— VAKIATION. 109 
 
 ^"pl^^S?' ^'^^^'' ^'^^' '^'^^^'^^^^'l heng, hengon; hangen (o),| ^^^^ 
 infin. Aore {<Chdhan) ; imperat. ho{h), hod. ) 
 
 (2.) Root in a; i-umlaut d>^ (§ 32). English Cip^dw, pro- 
 gression and labial assimilation (§§ 38, 35) ; eop > ew = M, shift- 
 ing and labial assimilation (§§ 41, 35) : hloio, bleio^ hloxon. 
 
 spape, spdp(e)st (spsep(e)st), spdp(e)ct ) ^ ^ 
 
 isp!&p{e)ct (^)) ; ^ ^ j- ^pea;;, .;..o;7on ; spapen, sweep. 
 
 ge-ndpe,-ndpest{-na;pst),-ndped(-7i&pp); -neop, -neopon; -ndpen, whelm, 
 
 for-spdfe, -speefst, -spa}f{e)d; -speof, -speofon; -spdfen, drive. 
 
 hldpe, bldp{e)st (bleep(e)st), bldp(e)d ^ ,, ^ ,, ^ ,,, ,, 
 
 (hi- Mn- -r\ / /» ^\/ I lleop, bleupon ; blapcn, blow. 
 
 cndpe, cndpest{cnsepst),cndped{cn&pd); cneop,cneopon; cndpcn, know. 
 
 crape, crdpest (crwpst), crdped (crsepd); creop, creopon ; crdpen, crow. 
 
 mdpe, mdpest (meepst), mdped (m^pd) ; mcop, meopon ; mdpen, mow. 
 
 sdpe, sdpest {sxpst), sdped {s^pd) ; se6p,seopon; sdpen, sow. 
 
 jjrdpe, prdpest{pr&pst), (jrdped (pri'pd) ; preop, preopon; prdpen, throw. 
 
 pape, pdpest {pxp[e)st), pdped {p&p{e)d) ; peop, peopon ; ■w^-l^^g\ | blow. 
 
 Mate, bldtest (blebtst), Mated (bliet) ; Mct{eo),blkon; bldten, pale. 
 
 hate, hdtest (Ji&tst) , hdted {h&t) ; i he{h)t (^ 159,"> ,^ , 
 
 /ja«e (aj), passive, ^ 219. I b) , he{h)ton ; ^ ' 
 
 hndte,hndtest{hnsbtst),hndted{hnM); -j , /' > hndten, knock. 
 
 sc{e)dde, sc{e)ddest, sc{e)dded; \ ^} "', [■ 5c(e)a(f en, divide. 
 
 {}) strdde, strddest {stne{t)si), strdded}{strcd{eo),stre-\ ^, ., 
 
 (5<ra'0 ; . H don ; | * '"« ^"> 
 
 ,.\ ^ (sccon, scionon) , . 
 
 (;) sca/ie, , ; i , ^^ r , shine. 
 
 lace, ldc{e)st{l;acst), Idced {laicdQj)); \ ^^„ ,x ,^ > Idcen, leap. 
 
 (3.) Root ea. Syncopated forms not found in poetry. 
 
 hedfe, hedfcst {hyfsl), hcdfcd {hyfd)t ; heof, hcofon ; hedfcn, weep. 
 hledpe, hledp{e)st (y), hledpcd (hlypd {p) ; hleop, hleopon ; hledpen, leap. 
 
 d-hnedpe -hnedp{c)st {-hnypst), -hned-l .;,„,^ /,„,j ,^. .Unedpen, sever. 
 
 p{e)d{-hnypd{p)); ) 
 
 hedpe, hedpest{hypst), heaped {hypd); hcuj), hcopon ; hcdpcn, hew. 
 
 bedte,bedtest{bytst),bedted{byl)~;. beot,bcoLon; beaten, heat. 
 
 bredte, bredtest (jbrytst), bredted (bryt) ; 5reo<, breoton ; bredten, break. 
 
 ^e-.cea<e, -scedtest {-scytst), sccdted I . ^^^^. _^^^. ^^,1 ^^ 
 
 (-5cy/);^ . . -^ 
 
 dedge, dcds[{e)st (dyhst), dcds;{e)d ) j " j ^ t ^„^„ ;i„„ 
 
 /.-> ^x /,,\ r deoi^, deo2;on ; deas^en, dye. 
 
 (,dygd){hp)- ^ o' a
 
 110 SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. 
 
 (4.) Root ae> English ce, shifting (§ 41). 
 
 Indicative Present. Impekfeot 
 
 1st. 2d. 3d. SiNo. Pluk. Pakt. Past. 
 
 sid'pe {a,c), slivp{c)st, shep{e)d; slcp, slcpon ; slijbpen, sleep. 
 
 grwtc, gr:L't{c)st, gnit{ed) ; gret, grclon ; gr&ten, greet. 
 
 iMe, l&t{e)st, lM{ed) i^) ; \Ut\fto^^' ^^' ^''''' } ^'-S'^"' '^t. 
 
 on-dr&dc, -dr&(t)st, -dnvded > j ^ , > , .. ,v , ^ , , , , , , 
 
 (j..-,f\. \ -dreord{-drcd),-dredon; -drmden, dread. 
 
 rM{e), nvd{c)st {r&{t)st), rx- ) (.reord (^ 159, h), red ned) ., , 
 
 ded {rM) ; S l(M.Gloss.), reordon (?);[' 
 
 (5.) Root e > English ee, shifting (§41). 
 
 {hrepe, hrep{e)st, hrcp{c)d ; hrcop, hreopon; hrepen)? cry. 
 pepe, pep(e)st, ptp{e)d; peup, peopon ; pcpcn, weep. 
 
 (0.) Root 6 ; i-umlaut 6>c {% 32). English eop > eio (§ 208, 2) : 
 
 groio^ greio, groicn, 
 
 hrope,hr6pest (hrepsl),hr6ped{hrepd{p)); hreup, hreopon ; hropen, cry. 
 
 Iipope, hpopest{hpepst),hp6ped{hpepd{p)) ; hpeop, hpeopon ; hpopen, whoop. 
 
 lilope, hlopest (blepst), blopcd (blcpd) ; hlcop, bleopon ; blopen, blow. 
 
 Jlope, Jlopest {Jicpst), Jlopcd (flcpd) ; fledp, fieopon ; jlopen, flow. 
 
 grope, gropest (grepst), groped (grepd) ; greop, greopon; gropen, grow. 
 
 Mope, hlopest (hlepst), Moped {hlej'd) ; hleop., hleopon ; Mopen, low. 
 
 rope, rope St {reps t), roped (repd) ; rcop, reo{po)n ; ropen, row. 
 
 spope, spopest (spepst), spoped{spepd) ; spcup, speopon ; spopen, speed. 
 
 blole, blotest (bletst), bloted (blel) ; bleot, bleoton ; bloten, \ n 
 
 {\) prole, protest {prelst), pr6tcd{prel); preot, preolon ; protcn, root. 
 
 spoge, spogest (spehst), spogcd(spe/td); < ■' _*'' -' r spogen, sough. 
 
 209. Sixth Conjugation. — Stem in -ia. Weak. 
 
 No ablaut. Certain verbs, having their -ia syncopated in the imperfect 
 and past participle, drop their umlaut in those forms. The imperative sin- 
 gular of these verbs has umlaut without gemination, and the ending -e 
 (^ 188, b). The imperfect singular second person is often found in -es 
 (^ 166, a). 
 
 V'a. 
 
 (a.) Theme in cg<^gi, compensative gemination (^ 188, b). Order of 
 vowels, (e; a?, ^b; s); a >e, i-umlaut (^^ 32); a >cT, shifting (^ 41) ; mg'^ 
 ^. eg>e, §37,2. 
 
 lecge, leg{e)st {hst), leg{e)d (hd), } Lrgde (e), ) Lrgdon (e), ] ge-lsegd {e),\, 
 Y>]nr. lecgad; Uedc, Uedon ; S geled, i^'
 
 SIXTH CONJUGATION.— VARIATION. m 
 
 secge {a>), seg{e)st (a?) {eg), seg{e)ct "] swgde (e),") sxgdon {e),\ swgd,\ 
 {se){cg),-p\\iT:.secg{e)ad{te). Jm- 1 s&de, > saidon ; ) said, ) ^' 
 perat.5eo-e(a;),plur. secg{e)ad{a'). > 
 For sagdst, sagud, saga, see sa- \ 
 
 (b.) Theme in cc<Cci, U<^li, compensative gemination (^ 188, Z»). Or- 
 der of vowels, (e; ea,ea; ea); a>e, i-umlaut {^ 32); a^ea, ^-/-breaking 
 (^ 33); cd'^ht, ^ 189, c. English vowels, (e; u; 5); fa>a (OrmuIum)> 
 6, progression {^ 38) : sell, sold, sold. 
 
 cpelle, cpel{e)st, cpel{e)d; cpeal-de, -don ; -j '^ , ^' > kill. 
 
 dpelle, dpel{e)st, dpel{e)d; dpeal-de,-don(dpelede); \ j ' > err. 
 
 felle (y < ea, ^ 32),fel{e)st,l ^ ^ . .,^. . Sfeald, \ 
 
 fel{e)d,fyllest,fyllcd; ^ J^ai ae, aon^yLde) , (y^;^,^^ j tell. 
 
 selle (y = t<Ciea,(s 32), se-\ ,-.,,, ,, ^ i,s • 
 
 lestiy, i), selediy, i) ; I '^'^""^-^'^ "^^'^ ' ^'«^^' ^^'^"^ Sivc 
 
 u-stelle, -stelest, -stel{l)ed ; -steal-de, -don ; -steald, station. 
 
 telle, tele St, teled; teal-de, -donitelcde); -{ ^ , ,'- \ }| \ 
 
 ^ "^ iteled{se),) [couni. 
 
 cpecce,cpec{e)st,cpec{e)d{p); {Ji)cpeah-te,-ton{cpehte); {^)cpeaht,y^ , 
 
 drr{n)lit, vex. 
 
 drecce, drec(e)st, drec(e)d } , , \ , , 
 
 U^;^luT.drece{e)ad; \ dre{a)h-te, -ton; 
 
 lecce,lec{e)st,lec{e)d{p)\ leoh-te, -ton (caf e); hoht{c), leak, wet. 
 
 recce, rec{c){e)st, rec{e)d{p) ; reah-te, -ton (a, cT, c) ; rcaht, rule. 
 
 slrecce, strec(e)st, strec(e)d} ,/m, , .j^ ,^1. 
 
 . , y stre{a)h-te, -ton ; streaht, stretch. 
 
 l>ccce, ])ec{e)st, pec{e)d{lj); pe{a)h-tc, -ton; pcaht, thatch. 
 
 peace, pec{e)st,pec{c){e)d(p); pe{a)h-te, -ton; pe{a)ht, wake. 
 
 precce,prec{e)st,prec[e)d{])); preh-te,-ton {ea?) pre{a)ht, wake. 
 
 (c.) Theme in a nasal {nc,ng). Order of vowels, {e; o,o; o); a^c, 
 i-umlaut (^ 32) ; a >o, nasal assimilation ('^35). English order, (i; ou; ou); 
 I comes from bringan (^ 201), pincan (^ 211); o'^ ouz=au, progression 
 (i^ 38) : bring, brought, brought. 
 
 brenge, breng{e)st, breng{e)d{cp); broh-te, -ton ; hroht, bring. 
 l^ence, pene{e)st penc{e)d{p),} _^^^^ ^^^.^^^^ 
 
 lA\xt.penc{e)ad; ) ^ ' / > 
 
 210.— V6. 
 
 Theme in c; cd'^ht (^ 189, r). Order of vowels, (e; o,o; o); o>e, 
 i-umlaut {^ 32). English order, (ec; ou; ou); ou=:du, progression (^38): 
 seek, sought, sought. 
 
 rece, recst, recd{})), recced; roh-te, -ton; roht, reck.
 
 112 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS.— VARIATION. 
 
 Indicative Pkessnt. Impeefect 
 
 1st. 2u. 3d. Sing. Pluu. Tart. Past. 
 
 sece, secest, sccccf, plur. scc{c)a(/,'\ suh-tc, -ton; suht, seek. 
 
 subj. plur. sec{e)an (ai, co), part. - 
 
 pres. sec{c)ende. 
 
 i 
 
 211. — Vu. 
 
 Theme in a guttural (5-, c); cgd'^ht, ncd^ht (^ 194, a). Order of 
 vowels, {{11)1/(1); o,o;o); M>y, i-umlaut (^32); y>z, shifting or bad 
 spelling {^ 41); M>Goth. au^o, A-r-breaking (^ 33). English order, 
 (y; ou; ou) \ y {i)yy = ai, o^ou = du, progression (^38): bu^, bought, 
 bought. 
 
 bycge{t) {<C_buirie, (s 188, b), bys^est,} , ,. , , , 
 
 byo-ed; '^' ^* ^ '^ boh-te, -ton ; boht, buy. 
 
 hycs;e (/), hiis;est, hygeit, plur. hyc-} , , , , ^ , / ^ . , 
 
 g{e)a't; -^* ' ^* ' ^ ^ \ hog-de, -don; ge.hug6d{o), mind. 
 
 {hoh-te is not found. Conformation with the common weak forms led 
 to hogde'^hog-ede, -dde, -ode, and finally to a present hogie.) 
 
 hynceh), /jync{e)st{i), Jwnc{e)d{i)} , , , , , , 
 
 (/), plur:yc(V/ ' lM-te,-ton; ge-Jmht, seem. 
 
 pyrce {eo,i,e), pyrc{e)st{e), pyrc-\ / \7 , , ,, , 
 
 {e)d{i), plur. pyrc{e)ad; \ por{n)h-te,-ton; ge-porht, work. 
 
 212. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 I. PRiETERiTivE PRESENTS. — The Completion of certain acts is the be- 
 ginning of states ; perfects of verbs denoting such acts get to be used as 
 presents denoting the states: Sansk. ve'da, Greek foi^a, Ang.-Sax. /ai, 7 
 have seen > / know. About a dozen such verbs are common to the Teu- 
 tonic tongues. They retain antiquated personal endings and other forms, 
 have peculiar syntactical relations, and the original notion of their verb has 
 often given place to a varying modal force, in which case they become aux- 
 iliary verbs. The old presents are obsolete. New weak imperfects are 
 formed. 
 
 ■\/ vid, see. Parent Speech, perfect vi-vaid-{m)a, plur. vi-vid-masi (^ 166). 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 0. Saxon. 
 
 Ang.-Sax. 
 
 0. Norse. 
 
 ve'd-a 
 
 [oiS-a 
 
 vid-i 
 
 vait 
 
 wet 
 
 pat 
 
 veit 
 
 ve't-tha 
 
 foi(T-9a 
 
 vid-is-ti 
 
 vais-< 
 
 ■wes-<- 
 
 pds-t 
 
 veiz-t 
 
 ve'd-a 
 
 poio-t 
 
 vid-i-t 
 
 vait 
 
 ■yvet 
 
 pat 
 
 veit 
 
 vid-ma 
 
 fl'ff-^£V 
 
 vid-i-mus 
 
 vit-M-m 
 
 Wit-W-TC 
 
 jnt-o-n 
 
 vit-M-7ft 
 
 vid- a 
 
 ft(7-r£ 
 
 vid-is-tis 
 
 vit-M-^ 
 
 ■w'lt-u-n 
 
 pit-o-n 
 
 vit-M-f? 
 
 vid-us 
 
 fi(r-d(Ti 
 
 vid-er-unt 
 
 \\t-u-n 
 
 wit-w-w 
 
 pit-o-n 
 
 vit-M 
 
 O.H.German has weiz, tveiz-t, ivciz, plur. iviz-a-mcs, wiz-u-t, iviz-u-n. 
 The other forms use the vowel of ablaut which appears in the plural of the
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 113 
 
 new present. It may be varied by umlaut, or other assimilation. The per- 
 sonal endings have all the variation mentioned in ^^ 165, 166, 170 : mag-um, 
 -un, -on, -en, -c, -an ; meahtes. In canst, gemanst, dhst, -t is strengthened 
 to -st (^^ 50 ; 40, 1). The grammars give unne, cunne, durre, purfe, age, 
 duge as regular indie, pres. sing. 2d ; but their examples are subjunctive. 
 
 First Conjugation. — V^i 
 
 megan, beneohan, innan, cmnan, ge-minan, scelan, deorran<^deorsan (Goth, dair- 
 
 san), peorfan, not found. 
 Indicative Sing. 
 _ 1st & 3d. 2d. Plur. Subjunctive. Imperat. Infin. Part. 
 
 (6?i99'20oi"!'"^°''"^^^*''^'^' ""'oO« («)(«) ; m&g-e,-en;   ; mag-an(u); ; 
 
 Imperf. meah-te{i),meah-ion{i); -te,-ten; am strong, (may), <have grown. 
 
 Pres. (^199). he-neah, ; be-mtgon; beniig-e,-en; ; benugan? ; ; 
 
 Imperf. be-noh-te, -ton {^2\\); -te,-ten; hold and use<have come to. 
 
 Pres. (^201). cn(o), ; unnon; unne, -en; ; unn-an ; (ge)unn-en ,- 
 
 Imperf. w-rfe, -f^on (Goth. ^ irregular), ^37; -de, -den; favor<have given. 
 
 Pres. (^201). can (o), canst (o); cunnon ; cnnne,-en; ; cunn-an; ; 
 
 Imperf. cu-de, -don (Goi\i. kunpa),^Zl; -de, -den; knovv<have got. cude. 
 
 Pres. (^201). ge-man{o), -manst ; -munon; -e,-en; gemun,-ad; gemun-an; ; 
 
 Imperf. gc-mimde, -don; -de, -den; remembcr<have called to mind. 
 
 C scul-€ en "^ 
 Pres. (^203). sc(e)al(sceT), sc(e)alt; scul-on(eo); < , ' \.\ '■> sculan; ; 
 
 Imperf. sc{e)ol-de iio), -don; -de, -den; 6liall<ouglit<have got in debt. 
 
 Pres. (^204). d{e)ar, d{e)arst ; durr-on; -e,-en{y); ; durran; ; 
 
 Imperf. dors-te, -ton (Goth, daurs-ta) ; -tc, -ten; dare<have fought. 
 
 FTes.{^20l). pic)arf,p{e)arf-t; purf-on; purf-e, -enQ/y, ; purf-an ; ; 
 
 Imperf. porf-te, -ton; -te,-ten; need< have worked (opus est). 
 
 Second Conjugation (^205). — V^i igan,not found,pitan,^ 205. 
 
 Pies. ... ah, dhst; agon; ag-e,-en; ; dgan, -ne ; dgendc ; 
 
 Imperf.. dh-te, -ton; -tc, -ten; own<have earned or taken. 
 
 ndh:={ne-{-dh), &c., not own. 
 
 Pres. ... pat, past (u:) ; piton; pit-c,-en; pit-e,-ad; pitan(ij)-ne; piten,-de ; 
 
 c pis-se, -son,'", 
 
 *^^36,3:35,M V "' i know<have seen. 
 I ( -ten. -sen : ) 
 , pestar 
 
 Fies. ... ndt{—ne-{-pdt),nj/ton(c); nyt-e,-en; ; nitan{tj); nyten,-de; 
 
 Imperf. nyste,nysse ; nyston {&c.); not know. 
 
 Cpis-se,-son,^ 
 Imperf.. pis-te{y), -ton; j ^^36,3; 35, J { _^^^ J^^ . j know<hs 
 
 IB, pestan; 3 ' ' 
 
 Third Conjugation (§206). — -y/u; </(/^aw not found. 
 
 Pres.... dcdhig), ; diigon; dug-e,-en; ; dugan ; dugende ; 
 
 lm])erL. doh-tc, -ton {^2\l); -te,-ten; is fat<has grown. 
 
 II
 
 114 lUUEGULAli VEKn?>. 
 
 Fourth Conjugation (^ 207). — V a ; matan not found. 
 
 Indicative Sing. 
 
 1st & 3d. 2d. riur. .''ubj. Imp. Infill. Part. 
 
 Pres. ... mot, most; moton; mot-e,-en; ; molan; 
 
 Imperf.. mos-te, -ton (^ 36, 3) ; -tc, -ten; is nicet<lias met. 
 
 Grimm takes bco, be, for a praeteritive present from a buan, to dwell, of 
 the Fifth Conjugation. 
 
 From an imperfect subjunctive of the Second Conjugation (Goth. viljau<C 
 y ft/, inflected like ncmjau, ^ 171) arise 
 
 Vxes. ... piUc, pilt ; pillad{y)\ j>ill-e,-e7i; -c,-ad; pill-an; -ende; 
 Imperf.. pol-dc, -don (Goth, vilda) ; -de, -den ; will<[have wished. 
 
 Pros.... nclle,nelt; neUad{7/,i); -e, -en ; -c,-ad; -an; -ende; 
 
 Imperf.. 7iol-de, -don, &c. ■ne-{-piUe, will not. 
 
 pi'^po, assimilation {^ 35, 2, a) ; 2>r, a-umlaut ; pi^y, ^^ 32,23 ; //>/. 
 
 213. — II. Verbs without Connecting A'owel (Relics of Sanskrit 2d 
 Class, ^ 158) : 
 
 (I.) The common forms of t!ic substantive verb are from three roots: 
 '\/ as, ^Z bhti, y/ vas. 
 
 \fl-) Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sajcon. Anglo-Saxon. O.Norso. 
 
 Stem, as, s eo- cs, s is, s is, s is, ir, s ; ar er 
 
 Sing.— 1. as-mi el-iii^etr-nt *s-u-m i-m<ls-m eo-m ea-m e-m<er-m 
 
 2. fis-(s)i ia-ai, £1 es- is- ear-t er-t 
 
 D. as-ti ea-Ti es-t is-t is-t is- . er- 
 
 Plue.— 1. *s-mas ia-^iv *s-u-mu3   *s-in(l *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u-m 
 
 2. *s-th4 ka-re es-tis *s-ind *s-iud(on) ear-oa er-u--5 
 
 3. *s-auti £-uai, c-lffi "s-uut Vind ''s-iod(uD) *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u 
 
 As'^s, compensation, gravitation {^^ 37, 38) ; as >25, precession (^ 38) ; 
 ys<j.s, bad spelling ; 5>r, shifting (^ 41, 3, h) ; irm'^ (corm)^ eom, arm'^ 
 (earm) cam, breaking (^ 33); second person -5 and -t (^ 165); nt^nd, 
 shifting {^ 19), nt is often found. Scond-on, -tin (le, y), u-umlaut? (^ 32) ; 
 -on in earon (O. Norse cr-u-ni) (^ 1G6, a) ; in sind-on, a double plural throurh 
 conformation (^ 40) ; aron, earon, are rare in West Saxon. 
 
 The subjunctive (Sansk. *s-jd-m, Greek i*-'h]-v, Lat. *s-ie-m'^sm, Goth. 
 *s-ija-u, O. II. Ger., O. Sax., Ang.-Sax. *s-l, O. Norse *s-e) is inflected 
 like the imperfect given in ^ 171. Anglo-Saxon has also si^sig (dissim- 
 ilated gemination, ^ 27) '^ste, seo (a peculiar progression, ^ 25) >sy (bad 
 spelling); so plur. stn, sjen, seon, syn. The subjunctive often has the force 
 of an imperative, and is given as the imperative in .^Ifric's grammar. 
 
 (i.) -y/ hhu, be. Sansk. hhav-dmi, Greek (pv-w, Lat. fu-i, correspond in 
 form to Goth, hau-an, Ang.-Sax. hu-an, dwell. From the same root are 
 found forms without a connecting vowel in Ang.-Sax., O. Sax., O. H. Ger. 
 In O. Sax. are only hiii-m, bi-st; in O. H. Ger. pi-m, pi-s, — , plur. pi-rumes, 
 pt-rut, pi-run {r<^s<i-\/as). Ang.-Sax. has beo-{m) (id), bi-st (y), bi-d (?/), 
 plur. bead (io), and a present subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, with the
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS, 
 
 115 
 
 common endings ; eo'^y^y'^i, umlaut, precession, and shifting (^^ 32, 38, 
 41). Sing. 3d ^eo£? occurs (conformation). 
 
 (c.) -y/ vas'^vis (ablaut) is inflected in the First Conjugation, ^^ 199, 197, 
 but the present indicative forms are so rare that they are not given in the 
 grammars. 
 
 Paradigms for Practical Use (pp. 84,90,91). 
 Present : 
 
 Sing. — indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. 
 
 ic eom, be6{m) ; si, beo, pese ; 
 
 SI, beo, pese ; beo, pes ; 
 
 SI, beo, pese ; 
 
 Infinitive. Participle. 
 
 J/u eart, bist ; 
 he IS, bid; 
 Plur. — 
 pe sind{on),beod; sin, beon, pesen ; 
 ge sind{on),.beod; sin, beon, pesen ; beod, pesad; 
 lit sind{on),bc6d; sin, beon, pesen ; 
 
 beon, 
 
 or 
 
 pesan ; 
 
 pesende. 
 
 Imperfect : 
 Sing. — 
 ic pxs ; pizre ; 
 
 pu p&re ; psbre ; 
 
 he pxs ; pxrc ; ge-pesen. 
 
 Plur. — 
 pe, ge, hi pseron ; p&ren ; 
 
 The negative ne often unites with forms beginning with a vowel or p: 
 neom = ne -\- eom ; nis ; nxs ^ne-\- pxs, p. p. nxrende <C ne pxrende, etc. 
 
 (2.) -y/ dha, place : Sansk. da-dhd-mi, Greek ri-Oij-fii, Goth. — , O. Sax. 
 do-n, O. H. Ger. tuo-n, do. Anglo-Saxon imperfect from reduplicated theme 
 dad; a^-x (ablaut, § 199) '^y'^i, irregular weakening. ^ 168. 
 
 Indicative Sing. Plur. Subj. Imperat. Infin. Participle. 
 
 Pres. .. do, de-st, de-d; do-d ; do, -n ; do, -d ; do-n; do-?ide. 
 
 Imperf. did-e{y),-cst,-e ; -on{:r); -c{x),n; do-n, de-n. 
 
 (3.) '[Z ga, go : Sansk. g'i-gd-mi, Greek /3i-/3jj-/zt, Goth, gaggan, O. Sax. 
 gd-n, O. H. Ger. gc-7i. Imperfect from -y/i (Sansk. e'-mi, Greek d-fii, Lat. 
 t-rc, go, ^ 158, a)>Goth. i-ddja, weak form strengthened. 
 
 Pres. .. gd,gx-sf,gx-d; gad; gd,-n; gd,-d; gd-n; 
 
 Imperf. eo-de, -dcst, -de; -don (^37) ; ge-gd-n. 
 
 From the same root are the nasalized forms gangan, imperf. geong, geng, 
 gieng (^ 208, b) ; geongan (§ 201) ; and gengan, imperf. gengdc. 
 
 214. Reduplicate Presents (Relics of Sanskrit 3d Class, ^ 158) : 
 gangan <,y/ga > ga-gd-mi, go (^ 213) ; so hangan, standan, ^ 210). 
 
 215. Stems in -ia of strong verbs (Relics of Sanskrit 4th Class, ^ 158) : 
 fricge, inquire, etc. (^ 199) ; speric, swear, etc. (^ 207, d).
 
 11(5 IRREGULAK VERBS. 
 
 216. Stems with n inserted (Relics of Sanskrit 7th Class, ^ 158) : 
 
 fo<,fdhcy {fd{n)gan), fcng, etc., catch {^ 208, b). 
 ga{}i)ga)i<Cga-ga, go (^ 214). 
 
 ho < hdhc > {hd{n)gan), haig, etc., hang (^ 208, b). 
 sta{n)dan, stod, etc. (^ 207, c). 
 
 brc{n)gan, hrohte, bring; J)e{n)can, polite., think ; py{n)can, puhte, seem 
 (^^ 209, c,- 211). 
 
 217. Stem in y/ Artia (Relic of Sanskrit 9th Class): frignan, ask 
 (^ 202), shows itself of this formation in Gothic, but is consolidated in An- 
 glo-Saxon. 
 
 218. Relics of Reduplication (»5» 159, i) : hdlan, cd.\\, heht ; Idcan, 
 leap, hole (^ 208,2) ; l&tan, let, leort; ondr&dan, dread, ondreord; nvdan, 
 rede, reord (^ 208, 4) ; and see ^214. 
 
 219. Relic of Passive : hdtan, call, is called (^ 208,2) ; passive indie, 
 pres. sing. 1, hdt-te {&), I am called ; 3, hdt-te, he is called. Imperf. sing. 
 1,3, hdt-te ; plur. hat-ton. Hdtte^^ Gothic haitada: -te, Goth, -da (baira- 
 da), Greek -rat (<psp£-rai), Sansk. -tc (bhdra-te) <^ta-tiy>Fa.rent Speech -tai 
 (bhara-tai). Compare t^i 163 : (2J>a>e, precession, § 38 ; i > rf, shifting, 
 § 19 ; it?> tt, assimilation, § 35, B. 
 
 220. Verbs with Mixed Ablaut : drepan, strike, p. p. drepen and 
 dropen (^ 199) ; bregdan, braid (^ 202) ; .s^eZ^an, swallow {^ 203) ; sthan, 
 seon, strain ; tthaji, teon, accuse ; Jnhan, peon, grow ; prihan, preon, cover 
 (^^ 205, 206) ; but these eight last should be treated as separate verbs. 
 
 221. Verbs with Mixed Strong and Weak Forms : Jinde, find, im- 
 perf. /an«? QXiA funde {^ 201); iwaji, inhabit ; imperf. bu-de ; p. p. g-eiw-ra ; 
 buian, bugian, biipian are other variations ; cidan, ciiide, cad, cidde. 
 
 222. Verbs with Mixed Weak Forms in -ia and o {^^ 160; 165, d; 
 183). The same theme often has forms from both stems ; but they are best 
 given under diflferent verbs : 
 
 Theme Z;/ has imperfects lif-de «stem lifia) and lifo-de (y, eo) «stem 
 lifo). Hence two verbs, libban<^lifian by compensative gemination {^ 188, 
 b), and lifian like lufian (^ 183). 
 
 With libban are put indie, pres. {libbe, plur. libbad, not in Grein) imperf. 
 lifde, lifdon. 
 
 With lifian, pres. lif(i)ge, leofdst, lifdd {eo,y), plur. lif-iad {-igad, -gad, 
 -igead) ; imperative leofd; p. p. lifiende ; imperf. lifode (y, eo). The z of 
 ia has its usual variations in the infinitive and participle {ig, ige, ge, g), 
 § 175 ; i^eo, a-umlaut, ^ 32. 
 
 Hahban (<t), have, <^hafian, has, besides full forms from -ia, indie, sing. 1 
 haf-a,-o,-u; 2,.haf-ast; 3,haf-dd; imperative Aa/'d. For other forms, 
 see pages 84, 85, 86.
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 117 
 
 Secgan, say (^ 209), has sagdst, sagatt, saga to put with a sagian ; so 
 tcllan and talian, tell {^ 209) ; hycgan and hogian, mind (^ 211), etc. 
 
 223. Weak Verbs with Ruckumlaut : bycge, buy, bohte, etc. {^ 211). 
 
 224. Forms disguised by ecthlipsis and the like. 
 (a.) Ecthlipsis of ^, h, ox p: 
 
 bregdan'^ brede, hraid ; slrcgdan'^ stredc, strow; frignan'^frine, 
 ask, etc., vowel e, i kept short by ablaut (^ 202) ; lecgan, lay, im- 
 perf. legde^lede ; sxgde'^s&de, said, etc. (^ 209); sjngian, be si- 
 lent, sptgad^ spiad, etc. ; bogan > bod, boasts. 
 fo<ifdhe, catch; ho<ihdhe, hang, etc. {^ 208, b) ; seu<^sihe, etc. 
 
 (§ 205) ; and many others, strong and weak. 
 gerpan {ie, y, i, ea, a?), equip ; imperf. gyrede, p. p. gegyrped, gyred, 
 serpan (y), contrive ; indie, pres. plur. syrpad, syrepad; imperf. syr- 
 p{e)de, syr{e)de (e) ; p. p. gesyrped. 
 {b.) DissiMiLATED GEMINATION : p^up'^cp (^ 117); {i^tg^ige, 
 regular, ^ 183); syrepad <C syrpan, contrive; gefrxtepod <igefrxtpian, 
 adorn. ComT^d.xe poruhte<^porhtfi<^pyrcan,'woxk (^211). 
 
 (c.) Assimilation: po^u; pi'^u; pperan, weld, p.p. gcpporen^ge- 
 puren {\ 200) ; spigian (y), be silent, imperf. si/gode, sptgodc (^ 224, a). 
 
 (d.) Shifting oif,p to u: begrauen<ibegrafen<^grafen, grave (^207); 
 bi-pdune <^pdpen<ipdpan, blow (^ 208, 2). 
 
 (e.) Interchange of g, i, and p : (h and g regular (^^ 197, 118)) ; buian, 
 bugian, bupian, inhabit (^ 221) ; herian, herig(e)an, herpan (y), blaspheme; 
 and many more. For scon, see, seah, ssbgon, (ge)sepen, ^ 197. 
 
 (/.) Metathesis: frignan^fringan, ask (^<^ 201,202) ; gepruen<Cge- 
 pperen, weld (^ 200), etc. 
 
 225. lsrOETHUMBKlA:N-. — INFLECTION.— Indic. pres. sing. : l,-o; 2, 
 -est; 3, -cd'^ -cs ; plur. -at? > -as. Subjunctive: sing. -e; plur. -en>-e. 
 Infinitive : -an (rare) >-a>-aj>-e. Imperfect plur. -un, -on drops 7i be- 
 fore a subject ivoe (pe), we, or gie (gc), ye, and -u, -o may go to e or i. 
 
 Variation. — The vowels of ablaut and other variation may change as in 
 ^ 26. The first form of ablaut {^^ 199, 200) has present ea, eo ; imperf. 
 sing, .r, oc, e ; plur. oe, e. The contracted imperfects (^ 208) have e, ei. 
 ca. Weak verbs with stem -ia {^ IGO) in the present drop i with compensa- 
 tive gemination {^ 188, b). Stem e remains often in the imperfect, and oft- 
 enest in the p. p., except in verbs having ruckumlaut (^ 189, d). Stem 6 
 goes to a. Participle pres. often in -and. 
 
 Irregular Verbs. — (For first person -m, see § 165, a) : 
 
 T^Vosa = Ang.-Sax. pesan: Pres. indic. 1, am, eom ; 2, ard ; 3, is; 
 plur. aron, sind, sindon. Subjunctive, sie. Pres. indic. 1, bium 
 (om) ; 2, bist ; 3, bid; plur. bidon. Imperf. u\rs ; plur. woerun. 
 GAA = Ang.-Sax. gdn, go : Pres. indic. 1, gA (geongo) ; 2, gi&s ; 3, 
 g&ct; plur. gdad (gad). Imperf. edde.
 
 118 IRREGULAR VERBS.— DERIVATION. 
 
 DdA=Ang.-Sax. don, do : Pres. indie. 1, dom (do) ; 2, does ; 3, docd ; 
 
 plur. doad {doed). Subj. do. Inipcrf. di/dc. 
 Wa//a = Ang.-Sax. pillan, will ; Pros, indie. I, loillo ; 2, wilt ; 3, ivil ; 
 
 plur. ivallad. Iinperf. loalde. Other forms generally agree with the 
 
 West Saxon. 
 
 226. Weathering of Inflection Endings. — (For variation of root 
 vowel, see ^^ 199-211) : 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative Present. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ang.-Sax. 
 S. W. 
 
 Layamon. 
 S. W. 
 
 Ormulura. 
 S. & W. 
 
 Chaucer. 
 S. & W. 
 
 Shakeppeare. 
 S. & W. 
 
 SlNG.- 
 
 -1. 
 
 e ie 
 
 e ie 
 
 e 
 
 e,— 
 
 — 
 
 Plur.- 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 est dst 
 ed(p) dd(p) 
 ad{p) iad[p) 
 
 est est 
 ed{p) ed(p) 
 ed{p) iedip) 
 
 I 
 
 esst 
 
 epp 
 enn 
 
 mperfect. 
 
 est 
 
 eth, es 
 
 eth, en, e 
 
 est 
 eth, s 
 
 SlNG.- 
 
 -1. 
 
 — e 
 
 — e 
 
 — e 
 
 — e, — 
 
 — 
 
 
 2. 
 
 e est 
 
 e est 
 
 e est, e 
 
 e, — , est est 
 
 est 
 
 
 3. 
 
 — e 
 
 — e 
 
 — c 
 
 — e,— 
 
 — 
 
 Pluk. 
 
 — 
 
 on on 
 
 en en 
 
 enn enn 
 
 en,e, — en,e,- 
 
 - — 
 
 Subjunctive sing, e, plur. en, e, stands to Chaucer, is gone in Shakespeare. 
 Imperative sing, e, a, plur. ed, ad, weathers like the indicative. 
 Infinitive an, Layamon en, Ormulum enn, Chaucer en, e, — , Shakesp. — . 
 Participle present en</e > Layaiifion ende, inde, inge, Chaucer end, and, 
 
 yng, Shakespeare ing, conforming with verbal nouns in in^<Ang.-Sax. 
 
 ung, ing. 
 Participle past en'^n; od^ad^ ed. The prefix ge- > Layamon i- is 
 
 rare in Ormulum ; Chaucer often uses i- or y-, but with this participle 
 
 only ; Shakespeare ridicules it. 
 
 VII. DERIVATION. 
 
 22Y. Word steins are made from roots and radicles (§§ 56, 57). 
 The Parent Speech made stems by suffixing a radicle to a root or 
 stem, (2) by change of a root vowel (progression), (3) by redupli- 
 cation, (4) by combining stems. 
 
 (a.) The last class are called compound, the others simple. 
 
 (jb.) Words having stems formed from verb stems are called verbals; from 
 noun stems, denominatives. 
 
 (c.) The radicle makes more definite the indefinite notion of a root by in- 
 dicating a particular relation in which it is to be conceived. It often brings 
 it under some one of the parts of speech. 
 
 The vowel change has a similar force symbolically.
 
 DEKIVATION. 119 
 
 Composition or coalescence combines two notions. 
 
 (d.) Certain notional stems used as the latter part of compounds lose their 
 notional force, and become in effect relational suffixes. It is not easy al- 
 ways to separate these from suffixes springing directly from radicles. 
 
 228. Suffixes fkom Radicles (§ 56). 
 
 The suffixes of the Anglo-Saxon nominative or present are at the left. . 
 Small letters above the line have dropped. Latin stems in o- are of the 
 second declension, and imply a nominative in -us, -urn, or -er {^ 70,). 
 
 Suffix. 
 
 1. Vowels. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Anglo-iSaxon. 
 
 — '^<a: jug-d, yoke, Vjuff,]o'm ; ^vy-u-v; j^g-o-; juk-^s ; iuk^. 
 
 e<a(verb): hhdr-d-mi, 1 hear ; (p'tp-m; fi^-o ; bair-a; ber-e. 
 
 ^<-'- r^tv"te?'''i *«">«-"> >^-«-- r's^f's^^--- 
 
 — '<i: «A-?, snake, •/ a^^, sin ; tx-t-C ; angu-i-s ; J "'_ \cpen^. 
 
 y f ftf-w', quick, V ok, to ] , , | ac-u-s, f hand-u, V ( kand^', 
 
 ( be sharp ; ) ' (needle; \ hantk, ca.teh\{ hand. 
 
 e<ja: mddh-Ja, middle; fikaaov<iyLi^-jo-v; med-io-; mid-ji-s; midd<Cmide, 
 
 a"<jan: Lat. ^f-^-iore-w, legion ; Goth. maMriAr-^a**, murderer ; Ang-Sax. murctr-a^. 
 
 ; ., _ ivid-ja, wit, Vvid,see; j uff<Ta<ifuic-ja,^ in-sid-ia,sit-^band-i, { bend^, 
 
 ^"^ \j^i'-r, goddess ; ( voice, -/ml-; i ting in wait; (-/Jane/; (bond. 
 
 ie, 6 < aja in verb stems, see § 160. 
 
 a -.^ ^ [Zt'"'"'T"\0.U.G.n.agat.i, j '"f'^'^^'f 
 
 ena<ja(+na): child,<Ka.(0-c, ..^^41,^^!^ <n^^^'f, 
 
 [ child; ; I maul. 
 
 2. Semi-vowels. 
 
 p'' (u, o)<va: .. e'-ra, going, V t, go ; at- f wv, time ; x-vo- ; ai-v^-s; d-p'^. 
 
 pu< vu, p' (u, o) ) f far-bu Q-jni), color ; 
 
 <vja: ) ( 6ea(f-M, battle. 
 
 „ ^ {ghar-md, heat, V ghar, \ ^ . ■, ^ j. n n 
 
 in'*<ma: Y ' "' > 3£|0-/*o-s, not ; /or-mo- ; var-rnr ; pear-m^. 
 
 n , ((g)na-man, name, ] , . . a, ^ „ 
 
 ma" < man: ....{, ' ( yvoti-uov-oc : (n)no-m€n: na-m,u(-man); na-ma". 
 
 I V gna, know ; ; 
 
 For ma, ra, as sufDxcs of comparison, see §§ 123, 126. 
 
 f«^'-ra, field, 'v/o^, go; dy-p6-Q; ag-ro- ; ak-r^-s; ac-(e')r^. 
 
 j.a 1 a ^ J.O . ) 
 
 ' ' '■ \sddyra,sea.t,V sad, — ; 'iS-pa; sel-la{d>r); sii-l^-s ; set-(e)l'^. 
 
 Here put e?-^)*, or<^i ', «r^> *, er-e {<,-ja), al^-j^, el^j ^, ol'^i''', ul^th el-e (_<C-ja'). 
 r. (-7jpo + to), La 
 at. libr-dr-w-(ius' 
 buock-er-i (art). 
 J-dn, water, ( Tip 
 /vad, wet. I tiK- 
 For more of -an, see §§ 95, 105, a; for infinitive -ana, p. p. -na, § 175. 
 
 . rGr. (-rjpo + io), Lat. (^-dii+id), Goth, (-ar+ja), (Bopp gives -ar-ja<.iar-ja). 
 ILat. libr-dr-io-(ius'), book-man ; Goth, bok-ar-ei-s, Ang.-Sax. boc-er-e, O.H.G. 
 buock-er-i (art). 
 ,j jj f«(Z-ara, water, ( rfp-£v-oe, smooth; j ^cc<-<:n, comb ; ( vat-6(-in-s),{ pxt-a^. 
 
 ' \V vad, -wet. I fi'/c-ov-oc, likeness ; I ec^wi-w, eater ; ( water. \ pxt-e-'^^.
 
 120 DERIVATION, 
 
 Sevii-voioels — 
 
 Continued. 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Aug. -Sax. 
 
 „ ^ (svap-Tui, sleep, ) „ f soin-nu-s<, \ har-n'^, i spcf-(c)7i'^, 
 
 i V svap, sleep ; ) ( sojmio-s ; I bairn ; I sleep. 
 
 , „ (phali-nd, i KtSpi-vo-c, ( fraxi-no, { silubrei-n^s, ] .,. 
 
 (e)u'^: <„ . , . 1 , "1 7 1 -1 ( silfre-'nr. 
 
 ^ -^ Ifruit-bearing; ( cedarn ; C ashcu; I silvern; J •' 
 
 ; ^ . («'?-»*', fire, 1 ~ .,   • J- ( lihai-ni, i leof-(e)n\ 
 
 "' < "> = { Vaj; i '^"■"-^' "''*^ ' '^■'""' '" ' i victuals ; I Vlif, live. 
 
 fSM-n?L son, ) . ,, . , , ■, f su-nu-s, ] 
 
 nu: i , , _ C S-pjy-vu-C, stool ; wo-nii-s, band ; S   s«-nw, son. 
 
 \ V 5Wj D6ur 5 J (. son ^ ) 
 
 , , ^ /, T (" S'i-atva, goddess ; r re(7-ma, queen, ( O.H.Ger. i , „. 
 
 no ^. .A clndr-ani, In- \, ,^. ' \ ^ , s \ .   «r. avd-en"'^, 
 
 enne<a.nja:...{^^,^- /3a.«W« <reM-), ^«'-f ^ r^oddess! 
 
 l queen (v V <!;;); l king; (. goddess; ; 
 
 , . f Lat. (exter-no), extranco-, belonging to ( 0. H. Ger. vst-r-ijni. \ , 
 
 erne < ar-a-nja : { ., . . / eo mo i. ion on 1 * I east-erne. 
 
 \ ihdX extra; (-er, §§ 122, o; 129, 2) ; ( eastern; ) 
 
 3. Dentals. 
 
 I For p. p. -ta, Gotb. -da, -tha, § 175, 5; for -ta-ra, -ta-ma, -ta-ta in compar- 
 
 *^* \ ison, §126. 
 
 Here belong Ang.-Sax. -ff« (ad^, dd"; ndd"'), -d^ {od", ud^, ed% -t^ (ot^, et"). 
 
 r pi-tar, father, ) 7ra-r£p-oe ; pa-ter ; fa-der; fxd-er. 
 
 der, der, dl^ < \ ^ p^, feed ; I ^^a, Gr. vt, Lat. «e>(needle) Jie-thla; nw-dli 
 
 ' &/ir«'- to-, brother ; 0pa-7op-of ; frd-ter; hro-thar; hro-dor. 
 
 estre^ <as-ta-ra( Latin sa?-(?-as<ro-, deafish; ) o i ^ -nt) r 11.1 
 
 <^ . , , Ang.-Sax. oa?c-e5<r-e"'f, female baker. 
 
 ( + an) : ( French poet-astre, petty poet ; ; 
 
 ,; ,; • . {ma-ti, ravoA, \ ^ ,. .,• {myn-d'', 
 
 ctS d>, ti<ti: ...J . ^, .' Miij-Ti-c; men-ti-s; mun-t¥-s;\ ". .' 
 
 ' (V ma-n, think ; V ( _^^^ _^»^ 
 
 ( sta-tii-s ; (-tu-ti, 1 ddu-ihu-s, r ded-d'^ ; 
 fswa-<M-TO, stand, f f acr-ri;, cit3' ; \ , ^ ,,•)•,,, I , 7 ./, 
 
 tu: < / ,^ . {\ ^ V <-tu-dm,-tu-din, < death, Iqe-hoh-i^, 
 
 \ Vstka, stand ; \ (-..-.,< -r.-.,) ; | ^^^_^ . ] ^^^^^^^^_^ . ] ^j^^^^^^^^_ 
 
 nes^^ (nis^\ nys^*) ) | gudji-nassu-s, \ gud-ne^^, 
 
 <na+as+tu: ) ( priest-hood; (goodness, 
 
 ende<ant: § 175, 3. 
 
 eg-esd'^, 
 
 , , V iqan-as, genus, ) , . ( aa-is^, ( 
 
 es-a°<as(+an):{'' . ' (ytv-o-g; gen-us, -er-is ; < 1 / r 
 
 <■ V gen, hear ; ) ' ^' j ^ > ( awe; (Va^r, fear. 
 
 ere pu (_ ; 'JGoth. -iza, O.H.G.-ira, A.-S. -eruy-ru in plurals ivg-ru, eggs, etc. (§82, a). 
 (e)ru: } 7^1 
 
 els^ ) t al + sa 1 0. H. G. fuot-isal'^, fodder ; 0. Norse foed-sla ,- Ang.-Sax. fed-ek^, -esl^^. 
 
 esPi (as+la)O.H. G. ra<-mZ<^, riddle; Swedish ?vcrf-eZse; Ang.-Sax. nid-ek^. 
 
 4. Gutturals. 
 
 ih^ iga<ka- /'5'*''^^^'"-^'«' Uoy<-/c(5-c, of {belli-co., oi \0^-''<^-(i-^-«,\ .^-a^ 
 
 '   '" Ifrom^S'tWAu; ( %os; ( war; ( greedy; ) 
 
 Here put h'^, oc^' ', uc*? i. 
 ., . „ ^ ^^ ^ . , i steina-ka, ( stiin-ih-f^ , 
 
 ^^^ • O.H. Ger. .tem-oH stony; \ ^^^^^. \ ^^^^.^^
 
 SUFFIXES.— QUASI-SUFFIXES. 121 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Ang.-Sax. 
 
 . „ . , _ ( Traic-i(jKo-Q, f scutr-isco-, ') barn-hk^-^, f ., , . ^ 
 
 isc'^<i(s)ka: ,.,,, , ., , / « x < ,..n w > , ., - , -i cild-isc^. 
 
 ^ -^ ( little child (77-aic-) ; ] little plate ; i c^^iluish ; 
 
 Syr-isco; [ 
 
 Ent/l-isc'^, 
 
 [^ a Syrian ; / 1^ English, 
 
 ing^<i(n)g^: 0. H.G. ec?t7-fnc<^, noble-man ; A.-Sa.x. wdel-ing'^ ; Elis-ing'^, 
 
 son of Elisha. 
 
 1-ing'^ : O. H. G. junJd-linc^ , a youth ; A. -Sax. geong-ling^ <^geong, 
 
 young. 
 
 ung\ing': O.H.G. warn-unga, wa.rmng ; A.Sax. j^carri-icng'^ (-ing^) 
 
 {pearn-ian, to warn). 
 iucle : Lat. Jootm-jz-cu-Zo, little house {domo-)\ O.H.G. csil-inchilin, 
 
 little ass; A. -Sax. Ms-MzcZe, little house. 
 
 For suffixes of pronouns and numerals, see ^§ 130-140 ; for those of com- 
 parison, §^ 122-129. The endings of adverbs are mostly from case-endings. 
 
 229. QUASI-SUFFIXES FROM ISTOTIONAL STE:irs. 
 
 eern, em, house; Goth, razn, O.Norse rann : shep-ern, sleeping-room; 
 hors-ern, stable. Often mixed with Latin radicle suffix -ern : Lat. lat- 
 ern-a, lucerna, A. -Sax. hldc-ern, lant-ern ; Lat. tab-erna, A. -Sax. gxst- 
 ern, tav-ern ; Lat. career, A.-Sax. earc-ern, prison ; A. -Sax. cpeart-ern, 
 quarters. 
 
 b^re, bearing ; Lat. -ferus, 0. H. G. pari, O. Nor. hibr : lust-hxre, lust-y, 
 joyous. 
 
 cund, kind ; Gr. -yev-t'ic, Lat. -gena, Goth, kunds, 0. H. G. chund : dcofol- 
 cund, devil-ish ; god-cund, god-like. 
 
 cragft, craft; 0. Sax. -Jcraft, O. H. G. -ehraft: stwf-crxft, (letter -craft) 
 
 grammar. 
 cyn, kind ; Lat. gen-us, Goth, kuni, O. Sax. kunni, 0. Nor. ki/nni, O. H. 
 
 G. chunni : treop-eyn, (tree-kind) wood ; man-cyn, man-kind. 
 
 daeg, day ; Goth, dags, O. Sax. dag, 0. Nor. dagr, O. H. G. tac : gear-dxg, 
 (yore-days) formerly. 
 
 dom, judgment, authority, dominion ; O. Nor. -domr, 0. H. G. -tuotn, Ger. 
 
 -thum : cyning-dom, kingdom, 
 faest, fast ; O. Nor. -fastr, M. H. G. -vesle, Ger. -fest : dr-fxst, honorable ; 
 
 st&de-fxst, stead-fast. 
 feald,' fold ; Goth, faiths, 0. Nor. -faldr, O. IL G. -fait : mxnig-fcald, 
 
 manifold. 
 
 ful, full ; Goth, fulls, O. Sax. -ful, 0. Nor. -fullr, 0. IL G. -fol : dr-ful, 
 honorable. Sansk. pur, Gr. ttXI-wc, Lat. ple-nus. 
 
 had, character, state, rank; O.H.G. -heit : hrodor-hdd, brother - hood ; 
 m&den-hdd, maidcn-hcad.
 
 122 QUASI-SUFFIXES.— ABLAUT. 
 
 lieaio, .''.pvd ; Goth, hard-u-s, O. Nor. -hardr, O. II. G. -harl, O. French 
 
 -ard: mx^n-heard, (might-hanl) very mighty ; ilrunk-ard ; bragg-art. 
 Iko, sport, gift ; Oc^.Idiks^ O. Nor. hikr, O. H. G. -Icih : fcoht-lde, fight ; 
 
 O. Eng. lovc-laih, love ; know-ledge ; ped-ldc, wed-lock. 
 leks, loose from ; Goth. -Idus, O. Sax. -los, O. Nor. -laus, O. II. G. -laos, 
 
 -las : dr-lcds, (honor-less) dishonorable ; god-lcds, god-less. 
 lie, like ; Goth, -leiks, O. Nor. -likr, -legr, O. H. G. -Wi : dr-ltc, (honor-like) 
 
 honorable ; god-lic, god-ly. Sansk. -drk, Gr. -\ik, Lat. -lie. 
 mail, man ; Goth, mans, O. Sax. -7nan, O. Nor. -madr, 0. H. G. -man: 
 
 glco-man, glee-man ; plf-man, wo-man. 
 
 m^l.^time ; Goth, -mcl, O. Sax. -mahal, O. Nor. -7ndl, O. H. G. -mahal, 
 mdl{i): undern-mskl,noon-\AmG; stijcce-mxlum, -piece-meal. 
 
 r^den (Lat. ratio), mode, fashion : freond-r&den, friend-ship ; mwg-r&den, 
 kind-red. 
 
 red, reed, counsel, condition ; O. N. -rdd, 0. II. G. -rdt : ht-red, (hive-con- 
 dition) family.- 
 
 rice, prince ; Goth, -rei/cs, 0. Nor. rc/cr, O. H. G. -rih, Sansk. rd'g'an, Lat. 
 
 rex : sige-rice, victorious. (2) —dom, cyne-rice, kingdom. 
 ^ sceaft, shape, manner ; 0. Sax. -scaft, O. H. G. (10th century) scaft. 
 i scipe (y), shape, manner ; O. Sax. -scepi, O. Nor. seapr, O. H. G. seaf: 
 
 freond-scipe, friend-ship ; hyge-sceaft, mind-state ; land-seeap (scipe), 
 
 land-scape (-skip). 
 
 smid, smith; 0. Nor. -smidr, O.H. G. -smid : ptg-smid, warrior; Goth. -a. 
 staef, staff; O. Nor. -stafr, O. II. G. -stap : fdcen-stsef, wickedness ; dr- 
 stccf, honor. 
 
 sum, same, like ; O. Nor. -sam'>', O. H. G. -sam : pyn-sum, winsome, joyous. 
 teme(y) = sum: luf-tyme,\oye\y ; hejig-ty77ie, troublesome; ppeorh-teme, 
 perverse. 
 
 pare, men; Goth, vair, O. Sax. luer : Rom-pare, Romans. Sansk. vir-a-s, 
 Gr. rjp-ioQ, Lat. vir. 
 
 peard, becoming, tending to; Goth, -vairths, O.H. G. -wert, -wart: hdm- 
 peard, home-ward. Sansk. vrt, Lat. vert-ere. 
 
 pis, wise ; O. Sax. -whi ; O. Nor. -vts ; M. H. G. wise : riht-pis, (wise as 
 to rights) righteous, -y/ viA, ^ 212. 
 
 230. New Stems pkom Vaeiation of Eoot Vowel. 
 
 Ablaut. — The vowel of the present denotes the act or an object suited to 
 act ; those of the past denote result, the plural being more abstract. But in 
 many derivatives this force is lost. 
 
 First Conjugation, (e(eo); s;{ea); &{d); e; ^199): beran (bcoran), hear, 
 >• beord, birth ; here, barley ; beam, child ; b&r, bier, (i ; a, u ; u ; ^ 201) : 
 singan, sing, >5an^, song, song ; grindan, grind, ^grund, ground.
 
 UMLAUT.— FORMATION OF NOUNS. 123 
 
 Second Conjugation, (i ; a, i; i; ^ 205) : drifan, drive, '^ draf, drove ; 
 bttan, bite, > bit, bit ; bitei; bitter ; bat, bait. 
 
 Third Conjugation, (eo(w) ; ed, u; o ; § 206) : beogan, hexid,'^bf.dn, ring ; 
 boga, bow ; teohan, tug, > ieam, team ; toga, duke ; tyht, c^uide. 
 
 Fourth Conjugation, (a (ea) ; 0,0; a(ea); §207): grafan, gra.ve,^ grwf, 
 grave ; ^/"q/", ditch ; sceapaii, shape, > scop, shaper, poet. 
 
 Umlaut. — The same stem may occur with and without umlaut or break- 
 ing, but this variation does not make a new word, though it may be the be- 
 ginning of bifurcation (§ 40,3). Since the ablaut became irregular (§ 199) 
 new words have been formed in large numbers by irregular bifurcation. 
 
 Suffixes aeeanged according to their Use. 
 Formation of Substantives. 
 
 231. Indefinite Noun-signs : u<«, — ^</, — ^<^jd, u, — ''<a, e< 
 ja, a.<^an, e<Can. 
 
 These combine with the case-endings {\}^ 69-95), and are abundantly used 
 as secondary suffixes ; — * is found oftenest with names of actions and qual- 
 ities, u with names of qualities, e and a with agents. 
 
 gif-u (gif-an, give), gift. drinc'^ {drinc-an, drink), drink. 
 
 d&d^ {don, do), deed. hird-e (Goth, haird-ei-s), bird. 
 
 jnjn^^ (O. Sax. wunnia), fun. han-a'^ (-y/can, sing), cock. 
 
 mag-u {mag-an, get), son. tung-e, -an, tongue. 
 
 232. Agent. — Masculine a, end, ere, o<ija, F (e/«, oZ«, uio-), cter, 
 
 der, ter. 
 Feminine e<an, en"^,estre, — <ii, id, isse (Lat. issa). 
 Listruments and means: els^, ele, el*^, dP, or^ (cr^). 
 
 (e)n^ 
 Quasi-suffix, smid. 
 
 dem-a {dem-an, deem), judge. myr-e, -an (mearh, horse), mare. 
 
 dem-end {dem-an, deem), judge. fix-en, enne (fox), vixen. 
 
 dem-ere {dem-an, deem), judge. sang-estre {sing-an, sing), songster. 
 
 sang-ere {sing-an, sing), singer. fcd-cls {fed-an, feed), victuals. 
 
 pin-e (V pin, love), friend. nct-ele (Vna, sew)"? nettle. 
 
 fore-rin-el {rinn-an,x\xvi), fore-run- sct-l^^, n. {sitlan, sit), settle. 
 
 ner. mt-dl^ (V^^^i sew), needle. 
 
 fx-der (-y/pa, feed), father. fod-or^ {J'kl-an, feed), fodder. 
 
 bro-der (-y/bliar, support), brother, leof-cri}' {lif-an, live), victuals. 
 
 speos-ter, f. (sva-su-tar, connected byg-els, bow ; ham-or^, hammer. 
 
 woman; -y/su, bear). /j/,g--5mic^ (war-smith), warrior. 
 abbud-isse, abbess.
 
 124 
 
 DERIVATION. —SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 233. Action. — Masculine and Neuter t^ {oic, ct"), d^ {ad, od, nad). 
 Feminine iiig*, uiigS \\ le*^'* (e/e, ole, ulc). 
 '^^\ Quasi-suffix, lac. 
 
 d-rts-t (?-w^an7 rise), resurrection. 
 bxrn-et {beorn-an, burn), burning. 
 hunt-ad (Jiunt-ian, hunt), hunting. 
 hunt-ud {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting. 
 hunt-nad {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting. 
 
 hern-ing {beorn-an, burn), burning. 
 bwrn-ung {bcorn-an, burn), burning. 
 
 sping-cl'' I {sj)ing-an, sconrge), scourg- 
 sping-elc ' ing. 
 bcadu-lac^ (fight-sport), fighting. 
 jnf-ldc, marriage. 
 
 234. Result. — Masculine m^ (eni<^, ?«?z«), ma", n^^, ct<^</zi, t^<^tu. 
 
 Neuter n^. 
 
 Feminine (e)n^. 
 cpeal-m^ {cpell-an, kill), death. 
 pxs-t-m^ {peax-an, wax), fruit. 
 blo-maP' {blop-an, blow), bloom. 
 heof-en^ {hebb-an, heave), heaven. 
 
 dcd-d^ (-y/ dau, die), death. 
 gc-J)oh-t^ {pinc-an, think), counsel. 
 bcar-n^ {ber-an, bear), child. 
 sel-en^ {sell-an, give), gift. 
 
 235. Quality and objects named from it. — 
 
 Feminine u {o, eo), nes'^' {nis, nys), (u)d«, d^ t''. 
 Neuter tt^^, d^, t^, used instead of di, d^, t^ when ge- or 
 
 other prefix is used with an abstract. 
 Masculine ing*^- 
 
 Quasi-sufRxes, craeft, cyn, dom, had, man, r£d, rfed- 
 en, rice, sceaft, sceap, scipe, steef. 
 
 hvbt-u {hdt, hot), heat. 
 streng-u, -o, -eo, strength. 
 ge-ltc-nes^^, like-ness, 
 mild-heort-nes^^, mercy. 
 streng-d^, strength. 
 ge-cyn-d^, nature. 
 pit-leds-f', wit-lessness. 
 gyme-lys-f, heed-lessness. 
 geog-ud^ {geong), youth. 
 ge-ping-d'^, honor. 
 ge-cyn-d^, nature. 
 ge-pih-t^ {peg-an, weigh), weight. 
 xdel-tng^, noble-man. 
 
 liece-crivft^, m. leech-craft. 
 l&ce-cyn^, n. (leec!i-kind), doctors. 
 l&ce-dom^, m. leech-craft. 
 pis-dom {pis, wise), wisdom. 
 cild-hdd^, m. child-hood. 
 pcop-hdd, serf-dom. 
 sud-man, m. Southerner. 
 hi-red'', f. (hive-state), family. 
 fremd-raiden' , f. friendship. 
 hyge-sceaff', f. (mind -state), thinking. 
 Ia7id-sceap, n., -scipe, m., land-scape, 
 dr-stwf^, m. honor. l-skip. 
 
 btsceop-rice, n., bishopric. 
 
 23G, Diminutives: c (?/ca, oc^), 1 (Z«<(t)/a),le<2^-}-a;i, ling, incle'«, 
 
 en^ <Cjd-\-na. 
 k (questioning; ^ 56) and 1 (trilling) are suited to express diminution.
 
 DERIVATION.— ADJECTIVES. 125 
 
 The Sanskrit diminutive is k; Greek, w, (jk; Latin, /, c-l ; Goth., O. H.G., 
 I most ; Low German, k most. Anglo-Saxon words in uca, el, le are rel- 
 ics ; ling is growing into use. The English uses ock, ling. 
 
 bull-uca"'-, bull-ock. geong-ling'^, m. young-ling. 
 
 cyrn-el^, n. (corn, corn), kernel. rdp-incle, n. (rap, rope), string. 
 
 meop-le, f. (Goth, mavi, virgin ; ma- cijc-en^, n. (coc, cock), chicken. 
 
 vilo, little girl), girl. mwgd-en^, n. {m&gd, maid), maiden. 
 
 237. Patronymics: ing^. 
 
 JElfred Mdclpulf-ing^^, Alfred son of ^thelwulf. 
 
 238. Gentiles: e<^ia, an, isc, ing^ (^ 101,2). 
 
 Quasi-suffix, pare. 
 Engl-e (§ 83), English. Englisc, adj., English. 
 
 Got-an, Goths. Pyr-ing-ds, Thyringians, descendants 
 
 Rom-pare, Romans. of Thyr. 
 
 239. Place : en«, ene«". Time : 
 
 Quasi-suffix, ern (wrn), etc. (^ 101). . . dsg, mal. 
 
 midl-en^, n. midst. dom-ern^, n. {dom, doom), judgment- 
 
 cyc-ene, f. (coc, cook), kitchen. hors-ern, n. horse-stable. [hall. 
 
 gedr-dxg, m. (yore-day), antiquity. undern-miU, n. noon-time. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 240. Indefinite Suffixes combining with case-endings: — '^, u<:^a, 
 — ^, a<^an, e<ian. 
 
 Any adjective theme may have stems in all these endings (§^ 103-114). 
 
 241. Characteristic, connoting quality of the object denoted by the 
 stem : isc. 
 
 Quasi-suffixes, cund, lie (with nouns). 
 
 cild-isc (cild, child), child-ish. J'^f-li''' (p'lf, woman), having the qual- 
 
 deofol-cund, (devil-kind) devil-ish. itics of a woman, womanly. 
 
 (a.) Patrial isc also connotes origin from a place or stock : Romdn-isc, 
 Roman ; Lunden-isc, Londonish ; Engl-isc, English. 
 
 242. Fitness or disposition for the act or state denoted by the theme : 
 ol, or. 
 
 Quasi-suffixes, fus, lie (with verbs), sum, tyme, pis. 
 j;?rec-oZ(5;jrec-an, speak), talk-ativc. bealo-fus, disposed to Ja/e, wicked : 
 bit-or, -er {bit-an, bite), bitter. O. Nor./w^, O. II. G. funs, ready.
 
 126 DERIVATION.— VERBS. 
 
 forgifend-lic, to be forgiven. luf-sum, disposed to love. 
 
 xin-gesepen-lic, (unseen-) invisible. lof-sum, worthy to be praised. 
 
 un-gclxrcd-Uc, (unlearned-) unlearn- luf-tpme, fitted for love. 
 
 ed. riht-pls, knowing right, righteous. 
 
 243. Fullness, connoting possession of an object denoted by the stem ; 
 e<y«, ig, iht, ed. 
 
 Quasi-suffixes, b^re, fasst, ful, heard, leas. 
 
 pjjnt-c (pcord, worth), worth-y. pxstm-bu^re {pxstm, fruit), fruit-ful. 
 
 stdn-ig {stall, stone), stony, abound- hlys-hwrc {lilysa, fame), famous. 
 
 ing in stones {£). dr-faast (dr, honor), honorable. 
 
 pcl-ig (pela, wealth), rich. cear-ful {cearu, care), care-ful. 
 
 sldn-iht, stony (;&). mirgeii-hcard, might-y. 
 
 ge-hyrn-ed {horn, horn), horned. ccar-leus {ccaru, care), careless. 
 
 244. Material, (e)n^ : slxn-en {stdn, stone), made of stone. 
 
 gyld-en {gold, gold), golden. 
 
 245. Place, erne : siid-erne, southern ; nord-erne, northern. 
 
 peard : siid-peard, southward ; nord-peard, northward. 
 
 For Pronouns, see i^^ 130-137 ; comparatives and superl., ^§ 122-129. 
 For Numeral -feald, -ode, -tig, etc., see §^ 139-148. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 246. Strong Verb Suffixes: a, ia<ya (^^158, a; 215). 
 
 These are suffixed to a root. 
 nim-a-n, take ; sper-ia-n, swear; sittan<Csit-ia-n, sit. 
 
 247. Weak Verb Suffixes: ia <a;a, 6 <o;a (^ 160). 
 
 (a.) aja is a secondary suffix = a -\-ja, a belonging to a simpler word. 
 In aja > ia, a drops ; aja > ajd ^ ady u, progression and contraction 
 (§^ 38, 52). 
 
 {b.) Variations : ia, iga, igea, ga, ea, a, ie, ige, ge, e, — ; 
 
 6, d, a, u, e, precession and dissimilated gemination 
 (^§38; 27,5). 
 
 ner-ia-n, ner-e-de, save ; infinitive ner-ia-n, ner-iga-n, ner-igea-n, ner- 
 ga-n; feg-a-n, feg-ea-n, ioin, feg-{e)-de ; indicative present ner-ie, 
 ner-ige, ner-ge, ner-e. 
 
 sealf-ia-n, salve, sealf-o-de, sealf-u-dc, sealf-a-de, scalf-e-dc. 
 
 247*. Infinitive an is contracted from aa. dgan, ahan ; on from d/ian, 
 bhan: gdn {gaan), go; smeagan'^ smedn, consider ; slcahan^ sledn, shy , 
 fun <if ahan, catch ; gcfeon<Cgefeohan, rpjoice ; icon < ieuhan. tug.
 
 NOTEWORTHY WEAK VERBS. 127 
 
 Noteworthy Weak Verbs. 
 
 248 — I, Causatives and Transitives, relics of the Sanskrit causative. 
 They have the highest progression of the root (lilce the strong imperfect 
 singular), and i-umlaut. 
 
 CoNJ. 1. — ■y' a : -y/ sad, sit; Sansk. std-ami, sit, causative sdd-djd-mi, 
 set ; Goth, sit-an, sat-ja-n ; O. Sax. sittian, settian ; O. Nor. sit-ia, 
 set-ia. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, e (^^ 199-204, 32). 
 
 sittan<^sit-ia-n, sit; imp. swt{a) ; settan<^sat-ia-n, set. 
 
 licgan<ilig-ia-n, lie; imp. la?g {a) ; lecgan<^lag-ia-n, lay. 
 
 beorn-an, burn; imp. bai-n; bern-a-n, cause to burn. 
 
 drinc-an, drink ; imp. dranc ; drenc-a-n, cause to drink. 
 
 CoNJ. 2. — V^'- V^'f) show; Sansk. causative (Zep-o/a-mj; Goth, teih-an, 
 tdik-ns, token. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, & (^^ 205, 32). 
 
 lih-an, point at; imp. tdh ; t&c-a-n, teach. 
 
 drif-an, drive ; imp. drdf; dr&f-a-n, disperse. 
 
 lid-an, go (by sea) ; imp. lad; hed-a-n, lead. 
 
 ns-an, arise ; imp. rds ; rxr-a-n, raise, rear. 
 
 CoNJ. 3. — -y/u: -y/i/a/o-', bend ; Sansk. causative bhug'-djd-mi {^ 158). 
 Highest progression, ed ; i-umlaut, y (^^ 206, 32) ; e often occurs. 
 
 bug-an, bow, bend ; imp. bedh ; byg-a-n, cause to bend. 
 Jleog-an, flee ; imp. fledh ; fi/g-a-n, put to flight. 
 
 CoNJ. 4. — V^) ^- V P^^^ Sansk. causative joar-4?a-OT?) accomplish. High- 
 est progression, u; i-umlaut, c ((^^ 207, 32) ; or, progression, a; umlaut, 
 e : Goth, far-an, far-Ja-n, but gal-an, sing, gol-ja-n (compare ^ 158, e). 
 
 far-an, go ; imp. for ; fer-a-n, go ; far-ia-n, carry. 
 
 />ac-a«, wake ; imp. /'oc; />eccaw<]jpac-z'a-?2, awaken. 
 
 pac-ia-n, watch, is also found — a later denominative. 
 
 Here belong many verbs apparently formed from nouns or participles by 
 i-umlaut of the root vowel : hyld-an, to make bent (heald) ; hyn-an, to make 
 lowly (hcdn) ; hrym-an, to cry (hredm) ; pyrc-an, to work (peorc) ; pyrm- 
 an, to warm (pearm) ; yld-an, to delay {cald, old) ; yrm-an, to make wretch- 
 ed {eai-m) ; ypp-an, to lay open (up) ; yt-an, to drive out {iit) ; words in 
 -fyld-an: prt-fyld-an, to triple {fcald, fold), etc. 
 
 249. — n. Denominatives without Umlaut, from adjectives. 
 Such arc oftencst neuter, but with ge- oftencst transitive. 
 
 micl-ia-n, to grow great (micel) ; ge-miclian, to make great. 
 litl-ia-n, to grow little ; ge-litlian, to make little. 
 
 hdt-ia-n, to grow hot (hat) ; compare hiit-an, to make hot. 
 pearm-ia-n, to grow warm; compare pyrm-an, to make warm.
 
 128 ADVERBS.— NOTIONAL STEMS. 
 
 250. — III. Denominative Suffixes grown Verbals: -c-, -g-, -n-, 
 -S-, ettaiK^atian (^ 188, b), l^can : 
 
 hyr-c-n-ian, hark, hearken {hyr-an, hear) ; syn-g-ian, to sin ; mier-s-ian, 
 to make more ; plt-n-ian, to punish ; hdl-etlan, -etan, -etian, hail ; 
 sunior-ldican, summer is near. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 251. Adverbial suffixes are mostly from case-endings. 
 
 Notional Stems (Nouns), 
 
 I. Living Case-endings, with and without prepositions: gen. es, a; 
 dat. a, e, um ; ace. — , ne ; instrum. e, e ; weak an. 
 
 es : dxg-es, by day ; icLvg-es, (now)-a-days ; eall-es, wholly ; micl-es, 
 much ; to-midd-es, amidst ; neaht-es, by night ; ned-es, needs ; son-es, 
 (eft-)soons; /a?2C-c5, willingly; s>fter-peard-es, a.fterwa.rds; hdm-peard- 
 C5, homewards, a: g^cf/r-a, of yore (o-ear, year). 
 
 Adverbial -es is found with nouns having their genitive in -c : nealU-c, 
 ned-e, etc. ; sin-neahtes, eternall3^ 
 
 a, dative feminine (^ 93, i) : dcarn-ung-a, -inga, -enga, O. Sax. darn- 
 ung-o (^ 88, a), O. H. G. tarnunk-un ((J = Goth, o, ^ 95, c), secretly : 
 deorcung-a, in the gloaming ; Scotch darklings, darkling ; eallung-a, 
 wholly ; kvcling-a, 0. Eng. backlings, on 'the back ; so O. Eng. nose- 
 ling, side-ling'^ sidelong (§ 40, 3), headlong, on the nose, side, head. 
 This is often thought genitive plural ; but feminine abstracts in -ung 
 seldom use the plural, and they retain the old dative in -a (^ 77, i) ; 
 while the O. H. G. can not be a genitive plural. 
 
 um, dative plural : hpU-um, -on, whilom ; on-sundr-on, asunder ; pundr- 
 lun, wondrously ; stycce-mM-um, piece-meal ; seld-iim, -on, -an, sel- 
 dom ; litl-um, little ; micl-um, much. 
 
 e, e, dative and instrumental : wfr-e,e\ex; heodieg{e), to-day ; to-dmg-e, 
 to-day ; to-nihte, to-night ; to-ealdre, always ; inicle md, much more ; 
 to-gxdere, together, an : to-cdc-an, moreover. 
 
 — , accusative : ham, home ; east, east ; pest, west ; ealne peg, always ; 
 on peg, away ; on bxc, back ; on-gedn, against ; eal, all ; nedh, nigh ; 
 hdmpeard, homeward ; on idcl, in vain ; and comparatives and super- 
 latives (^ 123). ne : eal-ne peg, always ; sum-ne d&l, O. Eng. some 
 deal, somewhat. 
 
 II. Obscure Endings, a, e. 
 
 {a.) a : Goth, -a, 0. Sax. -a, O. II. G. -a, perhaps from instrumental -a 
 (^63,^). 
 
 {!).) The common adverbial ending from adjectives is -e : O. Sax. -o,
 
 RELATIONAL STEMS. 129 
 
 O. Nor. -a, O. H. G. -o, Goth, -o, some say -la. Gothic -ba, -6 are prob- 
 ably akin to instrumental -bhi and -a {^ 63, g). Bopp thinks -6 an ablative 
 ending like Greek -(og<^-ojT, Latin -u and -e<C-ed, but in Teutonic the in- 
 strumentals have a history analogous to that of the ablative in Greek and 
 Latin ; the Anglo-Saxon instrumental has been kept alive by the influence 
 of this adverb. Grimm thinks -e a weak singular accusative neuter. 
 
 (c.) So many adverbs are formed from adjectives in -lie, that -lic-e > 
 Eng. -ly is established as an ending ; so Icelandic -liga, M. H. G. liche. 
 
 fel-a, much ; gen-a, again ; get-a, yet ; s6n-a, soon ; tel-a, well ; feor^ 
 {Goth, fairra), far; nedh'^ (Goth, nchva), nigh; ofi^ (Goth, vfta), oft; 
 j?el^ (Goth. vaila),we]l; pid-e, widely ; deop-e, dee-ply ; heage <C^hedh, 
 highly; ?2ear/>e<^nea?-M, narrowly ; s<ra??o--;?c-e, strongly ; sceort-lic-e, 
 shortly, etc., etc. For h^g, p^u, see ^^ 117, 118. 
 
 252. Relational Stems (Pronouns and Prepositions). 
 L Correlatives of Place : 
 
 ■where, whither, whence ; there, thither, thence ; here, hither, hence. 
 
 A.-Sas.. hpxr, hpider, hpanan ; 7-';i''", pider., panan; liir, hider, keonan. 
 
 O.SsiK.. huar,huar(pd),huanan; thar, thar{pd'}, thanan; her, her(od), hinan. 
 
 O.H.G. hwdr,hwar-a,-ut,hwanana; dar, dar-a,-vt, danana; hiar, ker-a, -6t, hinana. 
 
 O. Nor., kvar, kvert, hvadan ; P^ar, padra, pjodan; her, hedra, hedan. 
 
 Goth hvar, hva-p, -dre, kvapru; par, padei, pjapjro; her, hidre, (Jiepru). 
 
 Greek... ttov, ttoT, tto^iv; tv^a,tv^ac(, tvBtv; Lat. 7wc, hue, citro, hinc. 
 
 Sansk... hu-tra, Icii-tra, hu-tas; ta-tni, id-tra, ta-tas; d-ira, d-ira, d-tas. 
 
 (a.) For the stem radicles (interrogative hp, demonstrative J), h), ^^ 135, 
 133, 104, 130 : lipAr, p&r (;&, x, a), Ormulum &. 
 
 <Jj.) Ang. -Saxon endings, -r, -der, -nan (-a?0 ; -d (5a?not?,Goth. sama-P)) : 
 
 -r<^ locative -77 <^ comparative -ra (^^ 120, G2) : Sansk. wj»a-n, Greek 
 iiTc-p, Lat. s-upe-r, Goth, ufa-r^ O. H. G. uba-r, O. Sax. obha-r, Ang.~ 
 Sax. ofe-r, over. 
 
 -der, -dcr, Goth, -drc, Sansk. -lra<C-ird, is the instrumental of a com- 
 parative in -ta-ra {^^ 120, 62) : some think this -tra weathers to -r in 
 hpxr, etc. ; -d, probably comparative, ^ 255 (Sansk. samanli). 
 
 -nan, -nannc, an oblique case of the repeated adjective sufRx -?za, belong- 
 ing to (^ 228, 2) : Lat. super-no-, belonging (super) above ; whence ab- 
 lative adverb supcr-nc, from above ; belonging to and coming from are 
 near akin, but the lost case-ending gives the turn io from. Goth, ze- 
 nana, within ; utana, without; hindana, hehxnd, etc., do not have the 
 plain sense from. Pott suggests composition with a preposition (Let- 
 tisch no, from). Here belong cdst-an, from the cast ; pcst-an, from 
 the west, etc. ; also ipft-an, aft; fcorr-an, from far; for-an, before ; 
 hind-an, from behind ; inn-an, within ; ncdn, from nigh ; neod-an, from 
 beneath ; vf-an, from above ; ut-an, from out, and their compounds. 
 
 I
 
 130 DERIVATION.— PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 
 
 II. Correlatives ov Time: Manner: 
 
 when ; then ; now ; once. how ; thus ; so. 
 
 A.-S. hpanne; panne {w,o,e), J)d; nu; iu,geu. hu<^hpi ; pus,])xs; spa. 
 
 Goth, hvan; pan, {O.H.G. do; nu; ju, giu. huieo),hvdiva; svah, sve. 
 
 Lat... quum; turn; nimc ; ja77i<^S:ins\i. ja. quo-modo; tarn, ila; sic, ut. 
 
 Gr.... TzoTi; Tort; vv,7wv(Siansk.nu); v!i<i<Jjd. ■n-wg; rw£ ; wg. 
 
 hpannc, accusative masculine ; pa, feminine ; hu, hpt, instrumental ; pus, 
 genitive, <^ppis, or instrumental pu-\-s, O. Sax. thiu-s (^ 133, 2); 
 pms, genitive ; spa, Goth, sve, instrumental ; the endings in tlie other 
 languages are not all analogous. 
 
 III. Prepositions =:= adverbs : ccftcr, hi, for, in, mid, on, of, to, purh, 
 under, up, ofer, piit, with many derivatives and compounds. See ^^ 253- 
 259. 
 
 IV. Derivatives in e, denoting rest in, probably a dative : Goth, -a, O. 
 Sax. -a, O. Nor. -i, O.H.G. -a. 
 
 inn-e, within ; ut-e, without ; ifan-c, over, etc. 
 
 V. Comparatives and Superlatives. ^^ 123-129, 2. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 
 
 253. — I. Those denoting simple relations generally take their signifi- 
 cance from a single consonant {^ 50). Contrasted space relations are pri- 
 marily denoted. This contrast is often further brought out by endings of 
 comparison (^^ 122-129). The relation is sometimes made more definite 
 by case-endings and other suffixes. Most inseparable prefixes have a sim- 
 ilar etymology. 
 
 II. Many prepositions and prefixes of later growth are from nouns or 
 verbs, and have an etymology like adverbs. 
 
 254. Prepositions and prefixes with a single consonant. A few others 
 are added to better illustrate their etymology. 
 
 1. Semi-vowels. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. II. G. 
 
 a-(^), privitive: ... dvisyas? t^? ex? see or; d- ; er- ; d<,ar-. 
 
 OX- — d: dvisy^us? ; ; 2is- ; ; ur,dr-; ur-. 
 
 ea-C, besides : dva; av-(jiQ);   ; du-h ; o-h ; au-h; au-h. 
 
 pid, agamst, -with : ot, seeto; ; vi-, ve- ; vi-pra ; wi-d; vi-ct; lei-dar. 
 
 ne, n-, negative: .. na; I'jy- ; ne, ne ; ni ; ni, ne ; we; ni, tie. 
 
 an (on, d-), on : and; dvd; an-; ana; an; d; ana. 
 
 and (pnd,(jd),a.n-: dn-ti; dv-ri ; an-ie; an-d; an-d;-t; an-d; an-t. 
 
 in, in, on: and, an-; tw, iv ; in; in; inna; mn,i; in. 
 
 un-(w»), vin-: an-, a-; uv-,d-; in-; un-; un-; d-; un-.
 
 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 131 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. Ger. 
 
 mi-d, with : mi-thas; /.te-Tci ; ; mi-p; mi-d ; me-d; mi-t(i). 
 
 mis-, mis- : akin to mid, Goth, mi'sso, mutually ; missa-; mis-; miss-; mis-. 
 
 a- (w, apa, o), ever : eva-s'? alfd; xvum ; div ; eo; ae ; eo. 
 
 2. Labials (p, b, f ). 
 
 up, adv., up : lipa; vtto, vTrip ; s-uh, s-vper ; iup ; up; upp ! 4/* 
 
 hi (be, biff), be-, hy: abhi; -0t ; (ti)-bi ; U; hi, be-; ; pi. 
 
 ymb(e), CTw6(c), about : a6Aj; afi^i; amb- ; ; wnbi ; um ; umpi. 
 
 of (ir/^), of, off: apa; otto; ab ; af; af; of; aba. 
 
 for-, for-(bid): pd-rd ; -irapd, irdp ; per- ; /"fa-; fiir-; for-; far-. 
 
 for, for : purds ; TrdpoQ ; prss ? faur ; fur{i) ; fyr(i) ; furi. 
 
 fore, fore- : purds; ■Trdpog ; por ; faura; for(a); for-; fora. 
 
 feor, adv. adj., far : ^ira; Trspa ; pei'-; fair-ra; fer; fiarri; fer. 
 
 , . ,„ ^^ (pari: Trepi ; per-; \ mixed; probably a simulation of Lat. 
 
 fr&- (/rea-), very : r ^, ' -^ ' } '^ a e .>• ' >-s An ')\ 
 
 Kjira ; Trpo ; pro, prw ; ) prm by compounds of frea (,§ 40, 1). 
 
 fram, from : pd-ra-m; Tripav ; peren-; fram; fratn; fram; fram. 
 
 3. Dentals (t, d, J), d, s). 
 
 aet, at : ddlii ; (o-y^i; ad; at; at; at; az. 
 
 6(t, unto : ddhi? ; ; and,und; unt; unz ; unt-. 
 
 to, to : ddhi? -ct; ; du ; t6,te; ; zuo, zi. 
 
 to-, in two: (cZ)fj- C§ 130, 2) ; Sid; dis- ; di^- ; te- ; ; ze(f),za{r). 
 
 ut, out : tit; va-npOQ; ; ut ; ut ; ut ; «3. 
 
 ed-, back : i-tara, oth&c ? ; i-terum? id-; id-ur; id-; it-. 
 
 hurh, through : .... tirds ; ; trans; pair-li ; thurh ; ; durak. 
 
 sam-, together: ... sa-md' ; ajjia; sim-ul ; sama; sama ; sam- ; sama. 
 
 sam-, half: sd-mi-; »//t"- ; semi-; ; sam-; ; sdmi-. 
 
 sin-, ever : sa-nd'; tVo-c ; sem-(^per') ; sin-steins') ; sin- ; si-; sin-. 
 
 4. Gutturals. 
 
 ge-, together : (sd-ycdm? ^uv? cum, co-? ga-; gi- ; g- ; ka-, etc. 
 
 iles—d-^ge, ever : . 0. H. G. ed-ga (§ 13C, 5). 
 
 (a.) For shifting of letters, see ^^ 18, 19, 41 ; for precession and weather- 
 ing of endings, ^ 38. « <ar, 6d<^and, ^ 37 ; ymbe <C,abhi, and<^ddhi, (} 27, 
 5 ; A in Jmrh, c in edc, ^ 133, 2, a. 
 
 (5.) Most of the Sanskrit forms look like vowel pronominal bases with 
 suffixes and case-endings: a-hhi, a-pa^ a-pa-ra'^ gen. purds, locative 
 pari, ace. pdram, instrum. pdrd. ^ 62. 
 
 255. Comparative Forms : er, r, ter, der, cter, ct, d. ^^ 122-129. 
 
 of-cr, over ; ipf-ter, after ; un-der, under ; pi-dcr, wither-(nam) ; to-pi- 
 
 dere, against ; ni-der, neath ; pi-d, with ; mi-d, with ; fo-r, for ; fo-re, 
 
 before ; f-rvk, very ; gcon-d, yond ; hin-d-an, behind ; samo-d, together. 
 
 (b.) The above are formed on of; af; a?i>Sansk. an{a)-tara; pi; ni, 
 
 akin to in, Sansk. ani^ni, down, Gr. tvt-poi, O. H. G. ni-dar; mi<^ma; 
 
 f—<C.pa; gcon, Goth. jdins<Cja-na ; hin = heon{an) (i^ 252) ; sam.
 
 132 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.— PARTICLES. 
 
 256. Superlative m (!^ 120) : fra-m, from ; pdram, ir'epav, peren- seem 
 to be accusatives, and in so far not analogous to from. 
 
 257. Adverbial -an (^252), mostly compounds: be-, b-, pid-wfl-an ; 
 for-an ; xt-, bi-, on-, to-, pid-for-an ; geond-an ; be-, pid-geond-an ; be- 
 heon-an ; bc-hind-an ; inn-an ; b-, on-, pid-inn-an ; neod-an ; be-, under- 
 neod-an ; uf-an ; b-, d-b-, on-uf-an ; upp-an ; on-upp-an ; ut-an ; b-, on-b-, 
 put-, ymb-ut-an ; English before ; beyond ; behind ; within ; be-, under- 
 neath ; above ; a-b-, with-out. 
 
 258. From Substantives, mostly compounds with prepositions : to- 
 edcan, besides; a-, on-gegn, to-gegnes, against; ge-mong, on-gemong, 
 among ; on-efn (German n-eben), even with, beside, an-ent ; in-middum, 
 td-middes, amidst ; be-tpeon-um, -an, between ; be-tpeo-h-s, be-tpeox, be- 
 twixt ; so English be-side<^5e sidan; down <^d-dune, from a hill; a-loft 
 (ShakespeareX o?i li/fte, in the air; and the like, hand-, § 267,11. 
 
 259. From Adjectives = adverbs (see ^^ 254, 229) : &r, ere ; fear, 
 far from ; ge-hende, handy to ; la;s, less ; nedh, near, nehst, nedh-hand, 
 nigh to ; til (Northumbrian), to ; peard, td-peard, toward ; pana, less ; ge- 
 long, and-long, along; n-efne, n-emne (compare on-efn, § 258), except; 
 sid (late), since. Prefixes : eal- {pi-, el-), all ; efen-, co- ; ful-, full ; mis-, 
 mis- ; sdm-, serai- ; sin-, ever ; pan-, less ; pel-, well. 
 
 Particles of Interrogation, Affirmation, Negation. 
 
 260. Interrogation. — (a.) Adverbial forms of the pronominal ^/>, whose 
 derivation has been explained : hpxder, hpxr, hpider, hpanan, hpy, hu, and 
 compounds, for-hpam, etc. 
 
 (b.) Intensives: ne, ^ 254 ; ac (ach, ah), ^ 262 ; hu, ^ 252 ; Id, § 263. 
 (c.) Conjunctions in indirect questions : gif, if, ^ 262. 
 
 261. Affirmation and Negation. — (a.) From relational stems: 
 
 gea, ia, yea<ya (^ 107, a) ; Goth, ja, jai ; O. Sax., 0. Nor., O. H. G. ia. 
 ge-se, yes ; gea-\--se<^si, let it be. 
 
 ne (^ 254), n-a, n-6, nay, no ; Goth, ne div, O. H. G. ni-eo, not ever, 
 ne-se, like gese : n-dn, Ger. n-etn, Lat. n-on, not one ; ncalles, nalass, nies 
 
 {ne ealles), not at all ; n-d-piht, nbhl, not a whit. 
 
 (6.) Regular adverbial forms : sodlke, pitodlice, verily.
 
 DERIVATION.— CONJUNCTIONS.— INTERJECTIONSo 133 
 
 262. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 In their formation they are similar to prepositions. 
 
 I. From relational stems. — (a.) Not before explained: 
 
 Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. G. 
 
 and, ond, and ; (dti ; tn ; et) ? ; andi ; ; anti (u). 
 
 ano, ono, an = if; (<aMa); dv; an; an; O.K.G. eno, inu<!.an+nu. 
 
 gif, if; ja-d (j'a-pi) ; (I; s-i; ja-bai ; (ef; ef; ihu). 
 
 ac (ch, A), but ; (akin to edc, § 251 ?) ; ak ; ac ; ; oh. 
 
 ge, and ; (< ja, § 252 ; Srj < SJd ; ja-ni) ; ja-h ; ja, ja-c ; oh ? ioh. 
 
 gyt, ffeta, yet ; <igeo, ^252; ; ; ju-pan; ; M. H. G. ie-zuo. 
 
 })en-den, whilst ; compare Latin tan-dem ; pan-de ; ; ; dan-ta. 
 
 J)eah {peh), though ; see for -uh § 133, 2, a ; pa-uh ; thih ; po ; doh. 
 
 odde (edda, pe), or; utha, but; ; at; ip, aip-pau; ettha; eda; eddo (p-"). 
 
 eac, also; sam, samo-d, as well as; ne — ne, neither — nor; nu — nu, 
 
 now — then, have been given with adverbs or prefixes. 
 and may be akin with and<Canti (^ 254). ano is all doubtful ; ja^ja- 
 bai and i > Goth, i-ba = O. H. G. i-bu, are kindred stems ; gif, O. 
 Friesic je/, Lithuanic jet-J, go with ja-bai i^^ 107, a; 63,^) ; ge might 
 be ge- (^ 254) ; -den in pen-den, -pan in ju-pan, are the demonstrative 
 ta (^ 104, b) ; Goth, tp > ed, ap > od is akin to ed- {^^ 254, 3 ; 38). 
 {b.) Many other pronominal adverbs, whose etymology has been explained, 
 and whose meaning and use belong in syntax : liii, how ; spa, so ; spxjlce, 
 such ; pidcr, panan, pa, pij, pe, pxs, ponne, p&r ; hpi-der, whither ; hpx-der, 
 whether ; elles, else ; O. H. G. albs, alies, gen., Lat. alias, al-, ^ 216. 
 
 II. From notional stems, a few oblique cases of nouns. 
 
 hpile, hpil-iim — hpUum, sometimes — sometimes. 
 
 263. INTERJECTIONS. 
 (1.) Imitation of cries, or sound-gestures : ed, eie, edp, oh ; pa, pea, wo; 
 Za, lo; Aa, ha; hd,\\o.; compounds — ea-^a, mixed with French Ae-/a5 (Lat. 
 lassus, weary), alas, corrupt alack ; pd-ld, pd-ld-pd, welaway, corrupt wel- 
 aday, etc. ; liig. Jug, Lat. o, a, iElfrc. Coll. 
 
 Somewhat similar quasi-words are wide-spread, but they can be iden- 
 tified only when steadied by true words formed from them : Greek ba, 
 ovai, Lat. vcB, Goth, vdi, O. Sax. we, Swed. ve, O. II. G. we, wo ; O. 
 II. G. ivc-la, etc. Such words were doubtless as numerous in the an- 
 cient languages as in English, but are not preserved in books. 
 (2.) True words used as cries or gestures have nothing peculiar in their 
 etymology : hpxt, what ; /ui,how ; pel, well ; peg Id— pel W,well done, etc. ; 
 cfne, Lat. eccc, lo.
 
 134 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 264. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 Composition proper combines word-stems so as to express a new notion. 
 Coalescence is the running together of whole words with such change 
 of accent as to make a new word. 
 
 (a.) Parasyntheta are derivatives from compounds. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 265. — I. Form. — Nouns final in compounds retain their stems and end- 
 ings: elsewhere only their theme, except substantives in e<^ia, e<^t, and 
 u(o): gum-a, ma,n ; gum-cyn, ma-nkind ; eald-fxdcr, gra.ndfa.ther ; gryre, 
 horror ; gryre-hpil, time of horror ; lagu, lake ; lagu-flod, river. Coales- 
 cence takes place of prefixes and some genitives with a following noun : 
 Sxternes-dwg, Saturday; M6nan-da?g, Monday; Oxend-ford, Oxford; 
 daeges-ege, daisy ; and-sparu, answer ; un-treopd, untruth ; un-pis, un- 
 wise, etc. Words with quasi-sufRxes are compounds in form. § 229. 
 
 266. — II. Relation of Stems to each other. — (1.) Attributive 
 (substantive + substantive) — appositive : dc-treo, oak-tree ; pif-man, wo- 
 man ; compare peop-boren, born a slave ; descriptive : gdr-ledc, spear- 
 leek, garlick ; heafod-man,\\ea,d-man; genitive: god-spel, God's mes- 
 sage; (adjective -f substantive) : mid-da:g, mid-da.y ; 7icdh-bur, neigh-hour. 
 Adjective parasyntheta from the last are called Possessives : cl&n-hcort, 
 possessing a clean heart ; dn-hendc, one-handed ; dn-edge and dn-eged, 
 one-eyed ; bwr-fot, bare-foot, bare-footed. 
 
 (2.) Objective. — (Substantive -f-noun, between which an accusative end- 
 ing or preposition would express the relation) — accusative : man-cpellere, 
 man-killer ; dd-sparing, oath-swearing ; blod-geote, shedding of blood : gen- 
 itive : cear-ful, full of care ; dative : god-Uc, like to God. 
 
 (3.) Adverbial {noun or particle + adjective) : scl-meahtig, all-mighty ; 
 manig-feald, manifold ; blod-redd, blood-red ; sndp-hpit, snow-white ; un- 
 clesne, unclean ; {noun or particle -\- substantive) — space relations : land- 
 man, man living on the land, farmer ; time : niht-hnrfn, raven flying by 
 night ; cause : hand-gepeorc, hand-iwork ; purpose : ort-geard, orchard, 
 yard for vegetables ; ealo-fxt, vat for ale ; edg-sealf, eye-salve ; with an 
 infinitive, hpet-stdn, stone to whet ; put-boc, writing-book ; material : stdn- 
 peal, wall of stone ; is-gicel, icicle ; gold-smid, worker in gold. 
 
 (a.) Attributive compound nouns not possessives and adverbially com- 
 pound adjectives are called Determinatives. 
 
 (5.) Collectives have copulate parts : per-polf, man and wolf, were- 
 wolf; preo-tyne, three and ten. 
 
 267. Verbs. 
 I. For the terminations springing from composition, see § 160.
 
 FORIVLVTION OF WOKDS TO EXPllESS GENDER. I35 
 
 II. Verbs with proper compound stems are parasyntheta from compound 
 nouns. But note hand-sellan, put in hand; ful-fyllan, etc., below. 
 
 III. Compound verbs are directly formed by coalescence with preposi- 
 tions and prefixes : ofer-fleopan, over'flow ; d-pacan, a-wake ; mis-don, 
 mis-do ; ful-fijllan, fulfill ; pcl-don, do well ; efen-peoi'can, co-operate. 
 
 {a.) For prepositions and prefixes, see ^^ 15, 254. 
 
 {b.) Composition has the same laws throughout the Indo-European lan- 
 guages. Ill some of them so many of the stem-endings conform with the 
 most common one that it comes to be regarded as a sign of composition 
 (Gr. -0-, Lat. -i-,Goth. -a-) ; traces of this are in Anglo-Saxon : mht-e-gale, 
 night-in-gale. 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS TO EXPRESS GENDER. 
 
 268. — I. Animals. — A. Words with pairs of endings (Mobile) : 
 Masculine, — < a ; a <[ an ; ere. 
 
 Feminine, — <C*> e<Can; e, ige <1 ie <^ ian ,• en<Cenni; estre. 
 1. ( — <Ca and — <C0) umlaut, ^ 32: gat, -es, g&t, -e, he-goat, she-goat; 
 m&g, -es, -e, kins-man, -woman ; pulf,pylf, he-, she-wolf. — 2. (a and e) : 
 ass-a, -e, he-, she-ass ; mdg-a, -e, kins-man, -woman ; nef-a, -e, nephew, 
 niece ; rxg-a, -e, hart, roe ; peop-a, -e, man-, maid-servant ; pebh-a, -e, 
 weaver; picc-a, -e, witch; pudup-a, -e, widow-er. — 3. ( — <^a and e, 
 ige) : mearh, merige, mere, myre, horse, mare ; hldford, hldf{or)d-ige, 
 lord, lady. — 4. (a and — <^i)   han-a, hen, cock, hen. — 5. ( — <^a and 
 en) : xlf, -en, elf; fox,fixen, fox, vi.xen ; god, gyd-en, god-dess ; muncc, 
 -en, monk, nun ; Jicop, -en, pegen, pign-en, pealh, pyl-en, servant ; add 
 manna, mennen, servant; cdsere, cdser-n, emperor, empress. — 6. (ere 
 and estre) : bxc-ere, bxc-cstre, baker, bakster ; hearp-ere, -estre, harper ; 
 hopp-ere, -estre, dancer ; red-ere, -estre, reader ; sang-ere, -estre, singer ; 
 sedm-erc, -estre, seam-ster ; pebb-ere, -estre, weaver, webster ; fidcl-erc, 
 -estre, fiddler. — 7. (Relics): gos <^gans, gandra (^^ 37; 41, Z»; 50), 
 goose, gander; cyning, open {-\/ cpan^ cun^ cyn, ^^ 35, 32, 38, 24), 
 king, queen ; abbud, -isse (Lat. abbatissa, Gr. -laaa), abbot, abbess ; speor, 
 speger (Goth, svaihr-a, -6, Lat. socer, socrus, Gr. tKvp-oQ, -d, Sansk. 
 fvagura, fva^ru), father-, mother-in-law. 
 
 B. Compounds whose first part marks sex, last part gender : 
 
 Masculine, pxpned, pstp-, p&pen-, weaponed ; carl, hyse, man, guma. 
 Feminine, pif, wife ; mwgden, maid ; cpcn, woman. 
 
 piipned-man, m., -beam, n., cild, n., -pifestre, f., man, boy, hermaphrodite ; 
 hyse-cild, n., boy; man-cild, n., man-child ; man-csnc, m., man-servant; 
 gum-man, man ; gum-pegn, man ; carl-cat, m., -fugol, m., tom-cat, -bird ; 
 pif-man"^ pimman, m., woman; ptf-pegn, m., servant; plf-freohd, m., 
 friend; m&den-cild, n., -f&mnc, f., -man, m., female child, maid; cpcn-
 
 136 rOKMATION OF WOKDS TO EXPRESS GENDER. 
 
 fugol, m., bird; add sperc-healf, f., spindl-healf, f., spcar-lialf = male 
 side, spindle-half = female side. 
 
 C. Male and female have names from different roots. Such names 
 abound for man and the domestic animals. They are old and widespread. 
 
 Man : guma, per, husbonda, hod, secg, hxle{d), rinc, hcorn, carl ; plur. 
 
 firds; f:cmmine,fu;m7ic, ides, bryd,f6slre, meople, mwged, m&g, open; 
 
 neuter, beam, cild, child ; pif, wife. Pairs of kindred : fxder, modor ; 
 
 sunu, dohtar ; brodor, spcostor; cam, mudrigc, uncle, aunt ; god-fxder, 
 
 god-modor. 
 Horse: hcngcst, steda,fola; feminine, 7?zcn7ic. Ox: oxa, steorc, fearh, 
 
 bulluca; fern. cu,heafre. Sheep: ram,pedcr; {em.c6p{ii). Swine: 
 
 bar, eofor, bearh ; fem. sugu. Goat: bucca, hirfcr; fern, rdh, rd. 
 
 Deer : heart, m., hmd, f. Dog : hu7id, m., bicce, f. Hen : coc, m., 
 
 hen, f. Bee : drdn, m., beo, f. Neuter : hors, picg, horse ; swtn, 
 
 swine; 7n«7, mule ; f/cor, wild beast, deer ; cea//, calf ; lamb; scedp, 
 
 sheep. 
 
 Names of other animals are epicene {^ 67). Neuter names of young ani- 
 mals often add -ir-, -er- in the plural : cild, cild-er-u, child, children 
 (^ 82). Nothing else peculiar in tiic formation. 
 
 269. — II. Things without Sex, and abstracts. For general rules, 
 ^ 67 (gender of the endings, ^^ 231-239). It is often not easy to tell how 
 far personification, and how far phonetic laws, determine the gender (^ 64, 
 2). The same object often has names of different genders : see, f., logo, 
 m., brim, n., cgor, n., sea. The Teutonic tongues generally agree. But 
 note Neuters (German masculine) mod, mood, muth; tpig, twig, zwei"-; 
 pin, wine, wein ; (German feminine) clif, cliff, klippe ; ear, ear, dhre ; 
 fxsten, fastness, feste ; lie, corps, leiche ; sAd, seed, saat ; sceorp, scarf, 
 schdrpe ; pxpen, weapon, waffe ; pesten, n.,m., v,-a,ste,witsic ; Masculines 
 (German feminine), crwft, craft, kraft; lust, lust; tear, tear, zdhre ; (Ger- 
 man neuter) ende, end ; feld, field ; here, army, heer ; sal, cord, seil ; Fem- 
 ININES (German masculine), turf, turf, torf; piht, wight, wicht ; (German 
 neuter) blxd, blade, blatt ; boc, book, buch ; Imlu, health, heil ; heorlc, 
 heart, herz ; gesihd, sight, gesicht. 
 
 270. — III. Derivatives from foreign names retain their gender, except 
 Feminines > masculines : ancor, anchor ; Joo?, box-wood ; ^cr^uc, peach 
 pistol, epistle ; regal, rule ; >neuters : non, noon ; NEUTERS>masculines 
 balsam ; crcda, creed ; >feminines : ceaster, city ; lilie, lily ; palant, palace 
 timpane, ^n\m1
 
 PART III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 271. Syntax is tlie doctrine of grammatical combinations of 
 tcords. It treats of the use of the etymological forms in dis- 
 course — their agreement, government, and arrangement. 
 
 SIMPLE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 272. There are four simple combinations: the pi'edic'ative, at- 
 trib'utive, objective, and adverbial. 
 
 273.— I. Predicative 
 
 = 7i0)mnative substantive -\- agreeing verb , 
 =)io77iinative substantive-^- agreeing 2^redicate noim; 
 =znominative substantive -\-23redicate advei-b. 
 
 gold glisnad, gold glistens ; gold is heorht, gold is bright ; 
 JElfred pses cyning, Alfred was king ; ic com her, I am here. 
 
 (a.) This is a combination between a 
 subject, of which something is said {=zgold, JElfred, ic), and a 
 predicate, which is said of the subject {:= glisndct, beorht, cyning, her'). 
 
 (S.) Copula. — The sign of predication is the stem-ending of a notional 
 verb (=:a in glisnud^, or is a relaiional verb (is, pses, eom). The substan- 
 tive verb, when so used, is called the copula — a good name for any sign of 
 predication. Copulative verbs take a predicate noun. 
 
 (c.) Quasi-predicative is the relation between the implied subject and 
 predicate in a quasi-clause. ^ 278, d. 
 
 274. — 11. AXXrihutiw e=agreeing noun-^ substantive ; 
 
 ^.genitive substantive-\- substantive. 
 
 god cyning, good king ; JElfred xdcling, Alfred the prince ; 
 Engld land, land of the Angles. 
 
 (a.) This combination expresses the relation of subject + attribute as 
 taken for granted. The leading substantive is called the 
 
 subject, that to which the attribute belongs {cyning, JElfred, land) ; 
 an attributive is the agreeing adjective {god), or genit. substantive {Engld) ; 
 an appositive is the agreeing substantive {xdeling). 
 
 {b.) The sign of this relation is the agreeing case-endings, or the attribu- 
 tive genitive ending, or a preposition {^ 277,2).
 
 lo8 SYNTAX.— SIMPLE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 275. — III. Objective = verb + governed noun. 
 
 = adjective + governed noun. 
 
 ic huntige heortds, I hunt harts ; he syld him hors, he sells him a 
 horse ; gilpes pu gyrnest, thou wishest fame ; p&re fabhde he ge- 
 feah, he rejoiced at the vengeance ; hi macad hme (to) njmnge, 
 they make him king ; hpi scgst Pu me godnc, why callest thou me 
 good 1 bead gcmindige Lodes jnfes, remember Lot's wife. 
 
 (a.) This combination expresses the relation of an act or quality to its 
 completing notional object. 
 
 Objective verbs or adjectives are those which need such object {huntige, etc.). 
 Subjective need no such object {ic sl&pc, I sleep). 
 Transitive verbs have a suflcring object {huntige, syld, macad, etc.). 
 Intransitive have no suffering object {gyrnest, gcfeah). ' 
 
 The completing object may be 
 suffering {=dtrect),an accusative merely affected {heortds, hors, hine,mc); 
 dative {=indirectz=personal), a receiver to or for whom is the act {him) ; 
 genitive, suggesting or exciting the act {gilpes, f&hdc, p'lfes) ; 
 factitive, a product or result in fact or thought {cyninge, godne). 
 
 {b.) The sign of relation is the case-ending or a preposition. 
 
 (c.) Many Anglo-Saxon verbs require an object, when the English by 
 which we translate them do not. Many objects conceived as cxcitinp- in 
 Anglo-Saxon are conceived as suffering in English ; many as merely ad- 
 verbial. 
 
 {d.) The factitive object often has a quasi-predicative relation to the suf- 
 fering object, agreeing with it like a predicate noun {me + godne). Such 
 clauses are nearly equivalent to two (why sayest thou that I am good?). 
 
 276. — IV. A6.vevhidl=verh+ adverb ov adverbial phrase. 
 
 — adjective -\- adverb or adverbial 2')hrase. 
 =adverb-\- adverb or adverbial i^lirase. 
 
 ic gd ut, I go out ; ic singe sclce dwg, I sing each day ; pe sprecad 
 gepemmodlice, we speak corruptly ; he com mid pa f&mnan, he 
 came with the woman ; mid sorgum libban, to live having cares ; 
 hpi fandige ge mm, why tempt ye me ? micle md man is scedpc 
 betera, man is much (more) better than a sheep. 
 
 (a.) This combination is between an act or quality and its unessential 
 relations. The most common relations are place {ul), time {xlce dxg), 
 manner {gepemmodlice), co-existence {mid fwmnan, mid sorgum), cause 
 {hpi), intensity {micle, md, scedpc). 
 
 {h.) The sign is an adverbial ending, case-ending, or preposition. 
 
 (c.) The adverbial combination is given by Becker as a subdivision of 
 the objective, hni the linguistic sense of the Indo-European races unifora.iy 
 recognizes the adverb as a separate part of speech.
 
 EQUIVALENTS.— SENTENCES. 139 
 
 277. Equivalents of the Noun and Adverb iu the com- 
 binations : 
 
 (1.) For a, Substantive may be used a substantive noun or 
 pi'onoic7i, an adjective or any of its equivalents, an infinitive, a 
 clause,) any word or phrase viewed merely as a thing. 
 
 (2.) For an Adjective may be used an adjective noun or joj-o- 
 noun, an article (attributively), a ^jar^zc/^^e, a genitive substan- 
 tive, an adverb, a preposition loith its case, a relative clause. 
 
 (3.) For an Adverb may be used an oblique case of a noun 
 with or without a preposition, a 2}hrase, a clause. 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 278. A Sentence is a thought in words. It may be 
 
 declarative, an assertion, indicative, subjunctive, or potential ; 
 interrogative, a question, indicative, subjunctive, or potential; 
 imperative, a command, exhortation, entreaty ; a species of 
 exclamatory, an expanded interjection. ^"^ 149-151. 
 
 (a.) A clause is one Jinite verb with its subject, objects, and all their at- 
 tributives and adjuncts. Its essential part is its predicative combination. 
 The {grammatical) subject of the predicative combination, its attributives 
 and adjuncts, make up the logical subject of the clause ; the grammatical 
 predicate and its objects with their attributives and adjuncts make up the 
 logical predicate. 
 
 (6.) A subordinate clause enters into grammatical combination with 
 some word in another (principal) clause ; co-ordinate clauses are coupled 
 as wholes. 
 
 (c.) The sign of relation between clauses is a relative or conjunction. 
 
 (<f.) Quasi-clauses. — (1) Infinitives, participles, and factitive objects 
 mark quasi-predicative combinations, and each has its quaai-clause. (2) Li- 
 terjections and vocatives are exclamatory quasi-clauses. 
 
 279. A Sentence is simple, complex, or compound. 
 
 280. A simple sentence is one indipendent clause. 
 
 I. A predicative combination. 
 
 Verb for predicate: fisceras fisciad, fishers yjs/j. 
 
 Adjective : God is god, God is good. 
 
 Genitive : tol C&sares is, tribute is Cxsar''s. 
 
 Substantive : Cicdmon pxs leodpyrhta, Ca^dmon was a poet. 
 
 Adverb : pe sind her, we are here. 
 
 Adverbial : God is in heofenum, God is in heaven. 
 
 Subject indefinite : (Jiit) sntpd, it snows ; me Jiyrst, me it tliirstcth.
 
 140 SENTENCES. 
 
 II. Clause with attributive combination. 
 Adjective attribute : god gold glisndd, good gold glistens. 
 Genitive : folces stemn is Godes stemn, foWs voice is God^s voice. 
 Appositive : pe cildra sind ungelairede, we children arc untaught. 
 
 III. Clause with objective combination. 
 Direct object : Cccdmon porhte leudsangds, Caedmon made poems. 
 Dative : l&n me prthlcifus, give me three loaves. 
 
 Genitive : pxt pif dhloh drihtnes, the woman laughed at the lord. 
 Factitive : Simonem he nemde Petrum, Simon he named Peter. 
 
 IV. Clause with adverbial combination. 
 Place : ic gd ut, I go out. 
 
 Time : ic gd ut on dxgred, I go out at daion. 
 Manner : se cyning scryt me pel, the king clothes me well. 
 Co-existence : mid sorgum ic libbe, I live with cares. 
 Cause : he has is for cylde, he is hoarse from cold ; se cnapa pypdd 
 oxan mid gadisene, the boy drives oxen with an iron goad. 
 
 281. — V. Abridged complex sentence. Clause containing a 
 quasi-clause. § 278, d. 
 
 Infinitive : tsbc us sprecan, teach us to speak. 
 
 Factitive : hpt segst pu me godne, why callest thou me (to be) good? 
 
 Participle (adjectival) : ic hcbhe sumrie cnapan, Jjypendne oxan, I have a 
 boy, {driving) who drives oxen; (adverbial, gerund), Boetius gebxd 
 singende, Boethius prayed singing ; (absolute), pinre durd beloccnre, 
 bide pinne fseder, thy door having been locked, pray thy father. 
 
 282. — VI. Abridged compound sentence (§ 284), Verbs>verb. 
 
 Compound subject : he and seo singad, he and she sing. 
 Compound predicate : he is god and pis, he is good and wise ; seo lu- 
 fdd hine and me, she loves hi^n and me. 
 
 283. A complex sentence is one principal clause Avith its 
 
 subordinate clause or clauses. § 278, h. The subordinate may 
 
 be a 
 
 Substantive : (subject), is sxgd pxt he com, that he came is said ; (ob- 
 ject), ic pal pxt he com, I wot that he came ; (appositive), tc com to 
 pam, pxt he pxre gefulpod, I came for this, that he might be baptized. 
 
 Adjective : sixf-crxft is seo cxg, pe pxrd hoed andgit unlycd, grammar 
 is the key, that unlocks the sense of the books. 
 
 Adverb : (place), hpider pu gxst, ic gd, I go lohither thou goest; (time), 
 tc gd hpxnne pu gxst, I go when thou goest; (manner), ^m sprxce spd 
 spa an stunt p'lf, thou spakest as a stupid ivoman speaks; (intensity).
 
 ft 
 
 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 141 
 
 heud gleapc spa iixdran, be wise as serpents ; leofre is hlehhan ponne 
 gr&tan, it is better to laugh than cry ; (cause = efficient, motive, means, 
 argument, condition [protasis to an apodosis], concession, purpose) : 
 kit punrdd forpam God pilt, it thunders because God wills; paciad^for- 
 pam pe ge nyton pone dceg, watch, because ye know not the day ; On- 
 send Higeldce, gif mec hild nime, (protasis) if me battle take, (apodosis) 
 send to Higelac, etc. Co-existence is usually in an abridged participial 
 clause (^281). 
 
 284. A compound sentence is a number of co-ordinate 
 clauses. § 278, h. 
 
 Copulative : ic ga ut and ic geocie oxan, I go out and I yoke oxen. 
 Adversative : fyr is god pcgn, ac is frecne frea, fire is a good servant, 
 
 hut is a bad master; ne nom he ma, Peak he monige geseah, he took no 
 
 more, though he saw many. 
 Disjunctive : ic singe odde ic r&de, I sing or I read. 
 Causal : forpy ge ne gehyrad, forjjam pe ge ne synd of Gode, therefore 
 
 ye do not hear, {for this that) because ye are not of God. 
 
 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 285. A complete sentence has every part of all its combina- 
 tions expressed. 
 
 A normal sentence is complete, and has its parts expressed 
 and arranged according to the general laws of the language. 
 
 Figures of Syntax are deviations from the normal sen- 
 tence. 
 
 I. Ellipsis, omission. This may be of a conjunction (asyn'deton), of 
 a word to have been repeated (brachyl'ogy), of a verb somewhat like one 
 in a corresponding clause (zeugma), of the latter part of a clause not to be 
 supplied from the corresponding part of other clauses (aposiope'sis). See 
 also anacoluthon (below. III.). 
 
 II. Pleonasm, too many words. There may be too many conjunctions 
 (polysyndeton), two nouns and a conjunction for a noun and attributive 
 (hendi'adis). 
 
 III. Enallage, substitution. Of one part of speech for another (anti- 
 meri'a), of one case for another (hypal'lage), of a different scheme of con- 
 .struction for the one in which a sentence begins (anacolu'tliou). Syn'- 
 esis is a construction according to sense and not grammatical form. 
 
 lY. Hyper'baton, transposition. Of words (anas' trophe), of clauses 
 (hys'teron-prot'eron).
 
 142 USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS. 
 
 USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 Agreement of Endings. 
 
 286. — I. Predicative Combination. — A predicate noim 
 deaotiug the same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it 
 in case. 
 
 (a.) Also in gender, if it varies for gender, and oftenest in number; but 
 copulate singulars and a plural agree : ic eom peg, I am the way (John, 
 xiv, 6) ; he is mm sunn, he is my son (Luke, ix, 38) ; he and seo sind 
 freondds, he and she are friends. Nouns of multitude take Synesis. 
 
 {b.) The rule applies to quasi-predicatives (^ 278, d) : God het pa fxst- 
 nisse heofenan, God called the Jirma7nent heaven (Gen., i, 8). But pred- 
 icate-accusative substantives are rare in Anglo-Saxon. The Latin and 
 Greek accusative + infinitive is generally represented by a clause with 
 pxt (that), and the factitive depends on to (to) or for, as does often the 
 common predicate : J)u pyrcst pe to Gode, thou makest thyself (to) God 
 (John, X, 33) ; me p&ron mine tedrus for hldfds, to me my tears were 
 (for) bread (Psa., xlii, 3). 
 
 (c.) The rule is called for oftenest in clauses having the verb be {eom, 
 pesan, beon), become {pcordan), stand, lie, etc. {standan, licgan, etc.), go, 
 remain {gdn, punian), seem, prove {pyncan, profian) ; and passives of 
 naming, calling {hdtan, nemnan), seeing, thinking, telling {seon, tellan), 
 making, appointing, choosing {macian, gcsceapan, gesettan, geberan, ge- 
 ceosan, etc.). The predicate noun is oftenest an adjective: pa bedmds d 
 grene stondad, the trees stand ever grceji (C. Ex., 200, 4) ; mm cnapa ltd 
 lama, my hoy lies lame (Matt., viii, 6); peos poruld puna.t gchdl, this world 
 remaineth ivhole (St. B., 14) ; me pxt riht ne p)ynced, to me that seems not 
 right (C, 289) ; leoht pxs dxg genemned, light icas called day (C, 129) ; 
 lytel he pies gesepen, he was seen (as) little (Horn., i, 138) ; he ptes blind 
 acenned, he was born blind (John, ix, 20) ; Saxulf pxs gecoren to biscop, 
 Saxulf it'as chosen (to) bishop (Chr., 656). See b. 
 
 287. — II. Attributive Combination. — Au appositive 
 
 agrees in case Avith its subject. 
 
 Often also in gender and number. It is an undeveloped adjective clause, 
 generally marked as such by tone and punctuation ; but in titles it some- 
 times makes with its subject a kind of compound noun in English (see be- 
 low, e) : pe, cildra, we, (who are) children {JEM.) ; seo drpyrde f&mne 
 Ecgburh ahbodisse, Aldpulfes dohtor J)xs cyninges, sende pam drpyrdan 
 pere Gudldce leddene pruh, the venerable maid Ecgburh abbess, Aldvvulf's 
 daughter the king('s), sent to the venerable man Guthl^'c a leaden coffin 
 (St. G., 18) ; Dryhten sylf, heofend hcdhcyning, the Lord himself, heaven's
 
 APPOSITIVES. 143 
 
 high king (And., 6) ; pxs sum Jus scipes-man, pxs foresprecenan Adel- 
 baldes, there was one, his boatman, the aforesaid Athelbald's (St. G., 22) ; 
 freondscipe si betpux imc, mc and pe, friendship be betwixt us, mc and 
 thee (G., 31, 44) ; pid Blxdlan and Atlilan, Hand cyningum, against Bled- 
 la and Attila, kings of the Huns (Bed., 1,13); spa her men dod, geonge 
 and ealde, so here men do, young and old (C, 1206) ; hi pegniad, xlc, 
 odrum, they serve, each the others (Met., 25, 12). The appositive is some- 
 times 
 descriptive, giving kind, condition, etc., of its subject (cildra, abbodisse, 
 
 dohtor, cyninges, hedhcyning, scipes-man, etc., in examples above) ; 
 definitive, a specific name after a general description, very common in 
 Anglo-Saxon {Ecgburh, Gudldc, Adelbaldes), emphatic (sylf). {Repeat- 
 ed Subject. — A pronoun-|-a name, and a name-j-a pronoun, where the 
 seeming attributive is really a repetition of the subject for clearer syntax, 
 are very common : se Heelend, hefwste, the Saviour, he fasted, St. G., 9) ; 
 partitive, giving parts of its subject, or its whole {mc and pe, cyningum, 
 geonge and ealde). Examples are introduced by spa spa (Latin wf, Ger- 
 man als) : sume bead langspeoredc, spa spa spands, some (birds) are 
 long-necked, as swans (St. B., 14) ; 
 distributive {mlc). 
 
 {a.) Adjectives are often appositives {geonge and ealde), so pronouns. 
 
 {b.) Sentences are often appositives, oftenest definitives beginning with 
 pxt, after hit, pxt, ping, or the like indefinite subject : 'pcet gelamp, pxt 
 picr com sum man, it happened, that there came a man (St. G., 9) ; hit 
 (20) ; pmg (19). 
 
 (c.) Appositive for partitive genitive is found after sum: pa cp&don 
 sume pa bocerds, then quoth some (of) {the) scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ; sume, 
 hi comon, some (of them) they came (Mc, viii, 3). Rask gives tpcgcn 
 marc gold, two marks (uf) gold. I have not found such forms in Anglo- 
 Saxon ; but they are common in Old English, after the inflections had de- 
 cayed (Lang.,1, 174; Ch.,7328). So German masse geld, pfund Jleisch, 
 etc. The reverse, gold, two marhs, is in Sanskrit, and down to English. 
 
 {d.) Genitive for appositive of material or place : ccaslra Natzarcdes 
 for ceastre Nazareth, i. e. City of Nazareth := City Nazareth, i^ 313. 
 
 (e.) Genitives in apposition all have their endings, where in Old English 
 all hut one drop it : cyninges Aldpulfes dohtor, king('s) Aldwulf's daugh- 
 ter. See above. 
 
 (/.) An appositive often fails to agree with its subject from anacoluthon : 
 mtnum hldforde * * * Alfpold cyning (nominative), to my lord — King Alf- 
 wold (St. G., Pro].) ; se rica and se heuna * * * ealle hi gelice sc slranga 
 dead forgrlpcd, the rich and the poor (nominative) — all these alike strong 
 death gripeth (St. G., 19). 
 
 {g.) Number. Note cyningum, selc, above. After a dual the name of 
 the second person is used alone partitivcly : pit Scilliiig soi^g dhofan, we, 
 (T and) Scilling, raised a song (C. Ex., 324, 31) ; xinc Adamc, to us, (me
 
 U-1 NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 
 
 and) Adam (C, 387) ; git lohannis, ye, (thou and) John (C. Ex., 467, 7). 
 This idiom is found in O. H. German, is common in O. Norse. 
 
 (A.) Gender. Synesis. Substantives agree in natural rather than in 
 grammatical gender: JEIJhud., pxt maiden, A.\^c<\,i\\c maiden (Horn., ii, 150). 
 
 NOMIXATIVE. 
 
 288. Tlio subject of fi finite. verb is put in the nomina- 
 tive. 
 
 JElfred cpsed, Alfred said ; God is god, God is good. 
 
 {a.) Nominative independent. The subject of quasi-clauses of enun- 
 ciation is put in the nominative. Such are names and titles containing no 
 predicative combination : pxt godspel wfter lohannes gerecednysse, the 
 Gospel according to John. Anacoluthon, ^ 387,/. Absolute, § 295. 
 
 {b.) Repeated subject. See ^ 287, definitive. 
 
 (c.) Predicate nominative. See ^ 286. 
 
 {d.) Attributive nominative. See ^ 287. 
 
 (c.) Factitive object. A nominative of enunciation is often used in- 
 stead of a factitive object after verbs of naming, calling, and the like : cly- 
 pode God his gefylsta, he called God his ''helper'''' (Hom., 2, 82) ; hdtad 
 hine xfensiiorra, they call it " evening star'"' (Met., 29, 30) ; ge clypiad me 
 Ldreop and Dryhten, ye call me " Master" and " Lord" (John, xiii, 13). 
 This use of ihe. oratio dirccta is the common form in Sanskrit, and has 
 doubtless been common in all folkspeech. It is in the Greek of the Nevi^ 
 Testament ; the Latin Vulgate in such cases uses the vocative, as does the 
 Greek sometimes. It is in the Gothic (O. H. German T) and M, H. Ger- 
 man. Compare ^^ 289, d ; 29 i. 
 
 Vocative. 
 
 289. A compellative is put in the vocative. 
 
 Ldreop, sege ponne. Lord, speak then (Luke, vii, 40) ; ed Id geonga, O 
 young man (Luke, vii, 14) ; Id pu licetere, thou hypocrite (Matt., vii, 
 5) ; hldford cyning, lord king (Ap., 7) ; Fxder iire, pu pe eart on heo- 
 fenum., our Father, thou that art in the heavens (Matt., vi, 9) ; rnin, 
 se spetesla sunnan scima, lulidna, my (the) sweetest sunshine, Juli- 
 ana (Ju., 166) ; Hcrra, se goda, Lord, the good (C. (G.), 678). 
 
 (a.) A compellative is the subject of a quasi-clause of address. The ad- 
 dress may be formal, a simple call, or an emphatic judgment {pu licetere). 
 The vocative may have an interjection with it, or not ; it may enter into at- 
 tributive combination with adjectives, appositives, clauses, etc. Note the 
 use of an appositive with the definite article : Herra, se goda ; min, se spe- 
 tesla ; and compare French Monseigneur Varchevesque, etc. 
 
 {h.) The weak form of the adjective is often used in the vocative without 
 a definitive : leofa Beopulf, dear Beowulf (B., 1854).
 
 ACCUSATIVE.— IMPERSOXALS. 145 
 
 (c.) Latin vocatives are sometimes used : Thaliarche, Apolloni (Ap., 5, 
 7,9). 
 
 {d.) Quasi-clause. The vocative (with or without attributives) may en- 
 ter into combinations as a clause. It may be a direct object : manige 
 cpedatl, Dryhten, Dryhten, many shall say, Lord, Lord (Matt., vii, 22) ; 
 factitive object : hpi clypige ge me Dryhten, Dryhten, why call ye me 
 Lord, Lord? (Luke, vi, 46). Compare ^ 288, e. 
 
 (e.) The native grammarians in Sanskrit do not separate the vocative 
 from the nominative, but think it a slightly modified form for address. Its 
 syntax is nearly the same in all our languages. 
 
 Accusative. 
 
 290. Objective Combinations. — L The direct object 
 
 of a verb is put in the accusative. It may be 
 
 L A material object moved, hit, or changed, or produced as an effect, 
 by a transitive verb : pone maddum hyred, he bears the treasure (B., 
 2055) ; stormus stdnchfu beutan, storms beat cliffs (Seaf., 23) ; ic 
 dhyrde heortan, I will harden his heart (Exod., iv, 21) ; scip pyrcan, 
 to build a ship (C, 1302). {Madm^ maddum, Orm. maddmess.) 
 
 (a.) Persons and abstractions may also be conceived as material objects 
 of act or thought : se pxt picg byrd, he whom that horse bears (El., 1196) ; 
 ic bere dryhtnes domds, I bear the lord's commands (D., 744). 
 
 (b.) Transitive verbs express an exercise of the appetites (eat, drink, 
 etc.), the senses (see, hear, etc.), the sensibilities (love, hate, etc.), the in- 
 tellect (know, think, etc.) ; movements — moving an object, or keeping it 
 from moving (set, lay, raise, carry, heave, have, hold, marry, catch, take, 
 give, lead, throw, drive, call forth, send forth, speak, etc.), hitting or moving 
 towards it (strike, follow, etc.), changing its form or condition (break, tear, 
 harden, cover, sprinkle, etc.), making an object (do, make, work, build, etc.), 
 causative acts. Verbs expressing these notions as affecting the whole of a 
 material object govern the accusative throughout the Indo-European tongues. 
 
 (c.) Persons may be conceived as suffering objects of their appetites. 
 
 Impersonals of aiopetite or passio7i govern an accusative 
 
 of the person suffering. 
 
 Me pyrste, it thirsted me = I suffered thirst (Matt., xxv, 35); me hin- 
 grede, I suffered hunger (Matt., xxv, 35) ; hine lystc, it listed him== 
 he suffered list (B., 1793) ; mcc longdde, I longed (Kl., 14) ; me apryt, 
 it irks me, dpreotan pegn (Sch.,21) ; us pldtad,v.-e loathe (Num., 21, 5). 
 So hreopan, rue (C, 1276) ; gcmsktan, dream (D., 122) ; eglian, ail (?) 
 (Bosworth, Ett. their example a mistake) ; tinclan, tickle (?), it tikclcth 
 me (Chaucer, C. T., 6053). Koch says passives of these impersonals 
 take an accusative ; so Grcin, his mandryhten (ace.) gemxted peard 
 
 K
 
 140 KEFLEXIVES.— COGNATES.— TWO OBJECTS. 
 
 (D., 157) ; but dryhtcn is nom., " his lord (was) had dreamed ;" so pxs 
 inonig gdystcd (Met., 1,U) ; ic pxs ofpyrsted (Seel., 40) ; ic eom of- 
 longdd (Kl.,29) ; no accusatives found. 
 
 {d.) Reflexives. — Many verbs may take an accusative of the reflexive pro- 
 noun : hine sylfm dhcng, he hung himself (Matt., xxvii, 5) ; dpende hine 
 sylfne to Gode, he turned himself to God (Chr., 1067). Sylf, self, is not fre- 
 quent in early Anglo-Saxon. Some verbs get to have a reflexive sense 
 without the pronoun : he gebcalh hine, he swelled himself = he was wrathful 
 (Luc, XV, 28) ; ge belgad, ye are wrathful (John, vii, 23) ; he hcpohle hine, 
 he bethought him (Luc, xv, 17) ; gxst hine fysed, the spirit hastens (it- 
 self) (Ex., 178, 7) ; ic me reste, I rest me (Ex., 494, 8) ; resle pict folc hit, 
 the people rested (itself) (Exod., xvi, 30) ; gegadorode miccl folc hit, 
 much people gathered itself (Chr., 921) ; parniad evp, beware (yourself) 
 (Matt., vii, 15) ; pene pec, wont thee (Fath., G2) ; se H&lend bcpende 
 ilnnc), the Saviour went (him) (Matt., ix, 22; Mc, v, 30). In Sanskrit 
 the reflexive is incorporated with the verb, and makes a middle voice (§ 150, 
 a). So in Greek, but not in Latin. Traces of the middle are found in 
 Gothic, but in the main it and the other Teutonic tongues work like the An- 
 slo-Saxon. Intransitives take a dative reflexive, as do some of the above 
 sometimes. See § 298, c. 
 
 291. — n. A definitive object repeating more specifically the notion 
 of the verb : (cognate accusative), dcniad rihtne dam, judge righteous 
 judgment (John, vii., 24) ; (more specific), sang hildeleod, it sang a 
 war-song (Jud., 211). 
 
 (a.) The verb may be transitive or intransitive. 
 
 {b.) The simple cognate alone is tautological. An adjective + definitive 
 = adverb. The transition from the effect to the cognate is easy, and is al- 
 ready made in Sanskrit. The definitive has a widely extended use in Greek, 
 and in German and English is co-ordinate in importance with the material 
 object. 
 
 292. Double Object. — Some verbs of asking and teach- 
 ing may have two accusatives, one of a person and the other 
 of a thing. 
 
 (a.) So in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, 0. H. German, etc 
 {b.) Asking. Verbs of asking may have the second object cognate (ask 
 him questions), exciting (ask him z. favor) or (ask him about Vishnu). The 
 third form is the common one in Sanskrit ; the first and second in Greek, 
 Latin, O. H. German : hig hine ne dorston eenig ping dcsian, they durst not 
 ask him any question (Luke, xx, 40) ; hig hine pxt bigspel dcsodon, they 
 asked him about the parable (Mc, iv, 10) ; hi hine bissen gefrugnum 
 (same, vii, 17, Northumbrian) ; spa hpxt spa heo hine bebde, whatever favor 
 she might ask him (Matt., xiv, 7). This construction is rare in Anglo-
 
 SUBJECT ACCUSATIVE.— FACTITIVES. I47 
 
 Saxon; generally we have accusative of person-}- genitive of thing (+ da- 
 tive of person for whom) ; or (2d) ace. of pers. -|- infinitive (or clause) ; or 
 (3d) ace. of pers. -\-ymbe, be, softer (concerning), and an ace. of thing ; or 
 (4th) the person follows to or !Bt, the thing is an ace. or gen. 
 ' (c.) Teach is a causative of /earre in Sanskrit {^jA/a^'a. Causatives gov- 
 ern an accusative -|- the case of the included verb : ne meahton pe gel&ran 
 Icofne peoden ried ienigne, we might not teach the dear lord any counsel 
 (B., 3079). Txcan, teach, takes the accusative of thing -j- dative of person. 
 {d.) The passives seem not to take an accusative in Anglo-Saxon, as they 
 do in Greek, Latin, English, etc. 
 
 293. Quasi-predicative Combinations. — I. The sub- 
 ject of an infinitive is put in the accusative. 
 
 Secgnd hine libban, they say that he lives (Luke, xxiv, 23) ; 
 geseah stream ut brecan, he saw a stream break out (B., 2546). 
 
 (a.) This accusative is grammatically the object of the preceding verb; 
 but after verbs oi perceiving and declaring, ivishing and expressing a wish, 
 and some others, the logical object is the infinitive clause, and grammarians 
 use this rule. Cases to which it applies are not found in Sanskrit, have a 
 wide range in Greek and Latin, are rare in Anglo-Saxon. See § 286, b. 
 
 294. — II. A predicate noun denoting the same person or thing as its 
 subject agrees with it in case (^ 286) : pc pitun pi bilepitne pcsan, we 
 know thee to be gentle (^Elfc). Under this rule come some 
 
 Factitives. — («.) Some verbs of making, naming, re- 
 garding may have Um accusatives of the same person or thing. 
 
 He his englds did sedele gdstas, he makes noble souls his angels (Psa., 
 ciii, 5) ; seo ea, pa per as Eufrdlin nemnad, the river, which men 
 name Euphrates (C, 234); tocneopon Crist sodne man, they recog- 
 nized Christ as a true man (Horn., i, 106) ; hi hine purdodon sodne God, 
 they worshipped him as true God (Hom.,i, 108). 
 
 (b.) Verbs of making, naming, regarding, perceiving, finding, having, leav- 
 ing, and the like, may take an accusative adjective as a factitive object. 
 For Anglo-Saxon verbs, see passives in ^ 286, c. 
 
 (c.) Verbs of making (choosing, etc.) in Sanskrit may have two accu- 
 satives, but usually the factitive is a locative. So in Anglo-Saxon it is usu- 
 ally construed with to or for. See ^ 286, b. 
 
 (d.) Verbs of naming. See ^ 288, e. 
 
 (e.) Verbs of regarding have two accusatives in Sanskrit and after. 
 
 (/•) When the factitive is in the accusative, it is drawn into agreement 
 with its quasi-subject, the direct object of the verb.
 
 148 DATIVE.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 295. Adverbial Combinations. — The extent of time 
 and space is put iu the accusative after verbs. 
 
 (a.) So in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc. 
 
 H,vfdon sumne dM pegcs gefarcn, they had gone some part of the way 
 (Gen., xliv, 4) ; ealle niht spmcende, all night toiling (Luc, v, 5). 
 
 {b.) Excess of measure (dative) : dnne stwpefurdor, one step further (Jos., 
 X, 12) ; — instrument: grws ungrene, not green with grass (C, 117, 812) ; — 
 absolute : dag scridende, day dawning (Gu., 1011 ; C, 183, nom. abs. ?), ^ 
 304, d. Milton's me overthrown (Sam. Ag.,463) is classic affectation. 
 
 (c.) The accusative is used with prepositions to denote an 
 object towards which, or to, on, or over which an action 
 extends. For examples, see Prepositions. 
 
 Dative. 
 
 296. The dative in Anglo-Saxon denotes relations of four old 
 cases : 
 
 1. Dative, the person to whom something is given, or for whom some- 
 thing is or is done. 
 
 2. Instnimental, that with which an act is done or associated. 
 
 3. Ablative, that from which something is separated or distinguished. 
 
 4. Locative, the time or place in which. 
 
 Objective Combinatio7is. 
 
 297. An object of influence or interest is put in the da- 
 tive. 
 
 I. Object of Influence, the person to whom something is given. The 
 giving may be figurative ; material objects or abstractions may be con- 
 ceived as persons. The object given may be expressed as an accusa- 
 tive, or implied in the governing word. 
 
 (a.) This dative is oftenest found after verbs of 
 
 giving (paying, offering, loaning, etc.) : ealle pas ic sylle J)e, all these I 
 give thee (Matt., iv, 9); so gifan, foigifan, li&nan, lednian, dgyldan, 
 geunnan, tidian, ordthan, pi/rnan, forpyrnan, etc. ; 
 
 address = giving words (say, bid, forbid, answer, thank, chide, judge, prom- 
 ise, advise, etc.) : ic secge pe, I say to thee (Matt., xvi, 18) ; so cydan, 
 hebeodan, comma,n(\, f or beodan, ansparian, pancian, cidan, deman, rsedan; 
 
 gesture : bedcnian,hec]ion, bugan, bow, hnigan, lutan, stupian, odypan, etc. ; 
 
 obeying = giving thought (listen to, obey, follow, etc.) : hig hlyston him, 
 let them listen to them (Luc, xvi, 29) ; that which is obeyed is often 
 conceived as personal : minum Idrum hyre, hear to my precepts (C, 105, 
 8); so gehyrsumian,fylgian,heorcnian. So exciting thought (seeming.
 
 DOUBLE OBJECT. 149 
 
 etc.) : manegum men pyncd, it seems to many a man (Boet., 29, 1) ; me 
 pyncd, methinks (Boat., 33, 1), etc. 
 giving feeling (pity, mourn, honor, trust, etc.) : gemiltsd minum sund, 
 (give) pity (to) my son (Matt., xvii, 14) ; dr a pinum feeder, (give) honor 
 (to) thy father (^^If. L., 1, 4) ; so besdrgian, treopian, treopsian, gely- 
 fan. Here also giving ^exciting (please, soothe, still, etc.) : pam folce 
 gecpeman, to please the people (Mc, xv, 15); so stillan, oleccan, and 
 impersonals : him ne sceamode, it did not shame him (Gen., ii., 25) ; 
 ofpuhte (Sat., 247) ; langad (B., 1879), etc. 
 giving aid (help, serve, defend, injure, etc.) : pu monegum helpst, thou 
 helpest many (Hy., vii, 44) ; heo him penode, she ministered to them (Mc, 
 i, 31); so fremian, peopian, derian, fylstan, styran, chastise, etc.: hi 
 me pa dydan, they did me woe (Psa., cxviii, 138) ; do pel pdm, do well 
 to those (Psa., cxxiv, 4). 
 
 (5.) Adjectives of the above senses, especially of thought and feeling: 
 dnum gehyrsum, obedient to one (Matt., vi, 24) ; getrype hldforde minum, 
 true to my lord (^Ifrc) ; pam bisceope cud, known to the bishop (John, xviii, 
 15) ; leof Gode, dear to God (C, xvi, 17) ; fremde, strange (B., 1691). 
 ' (c.) Some of these words may take a genitive of the non-personal ob- 
 ject : hlyst his pordd, listen to his words (Nic, 3) ; or even of a personal 
 object ; so helpan, gelyfan, pidsacan, pancian, treopian, miltsian, gefeon, 
 sceamian, etc. See under Genitive. The notion of the verb may be con- 
 ceived as given to the object, or as had as belonging to, or excited by 
 him, e. g. gelyfan=give confidence to him (dative) or have confidence in 
 him (genitive) ; helpan=give help to him or be his help. In Sanskrit the 
 genitive may be used for most datives of this kind. The early Greek has 
 much of the same freedom. The Latin is more fixed than the Gothic, O. 
 II. German, or Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 {(I) Double Object.— Verbs of granting, refusing, and 
 thanking may take a dative ami genitive. 
 
 Ic f cores pe unnan pille, I will grant (to) thee (of) life (Ex., 254, 4) ; so 
 onlihan, pyrnan, tldian ; me pxs forpyrnde paldend, the lord refused 
 me that (C, 2219) ; pancian his dryhtne pxs lednes, to thank his lord 
 for the gift (C, 257). See under Genitive. 
 
 298. — II. Object of Interest, the person for whom something is or is 
 done. 
 
 (a.) Dative of advantage or disadvantage (verbs) : bxd him hldfds 
 pyrcan, bade make loaves for him (Sat., 673) ; polde hire bur dtimbran, 
 wished to build a bower /or herself (R., 30, 5) ; him hedhcymng pif dpeahle, 
 for him (Adam) the high king a wife raised up (C, 172) ; (adjectives) : 
 Pe is betcre pxt an Jnnrd limd forpeorde, it is better for thee that one of 
 thy limbs perish (Matt., v, 29) ; n7jttre him p&re, it would be better for 
 him (Luc, xvii, 2).
 
 150 ASSOCIATION.— MASTERY. 
 
 (i.) Dative of Possessor: him pxs gcpcald, to him was (=hc had) 
 power (Cri., 228) ; pxin nc byd nuncs godes pana, to them is lack of no 
 good (Psa., xxxiii, 9) ; Gode si puldor, to God be glory (Luc, ii, 14) ; pd 
 byd pam, woe is to him (Ex., 414, 25) ; so after interjections : pd pdm 
 men, woe to the man (Matt., xviii, 7) ; pel pierc hcordc, well for the herd 
 (LctT. Cnut., ii, 84, 2). A favorite in Greek and Latin ; not so in Teutonic. 
 The Sanskrit thus uses a genitive. A second dative takes a preposition. 
 
 (c.) Reflexive, after verbs meaning take : nim Jjc pis ofiet on hand, 
 takc/tir thcc this fruit in hand (C, 518) ; be, remain, etc. : pubron him on 
 Cent, they were for themselves in Kent (Chr., 1009) ; beod eop stille, be 
 still for yourselves (Exod., xiv, 14) ; so stod, stood (Gen., xviii, 8) ; sxt, 
 sat (Gen., xxi, 16), etc. ; move, go, etc. : gcpdl him, he departed /o?- Am- 
 sclf=^\\Q was off with himself (C, 2884); so cyrde (Chr., lOlG) ; ferde 
 (1009) ; trxd (B., 1881) ; gd (An., 1350) ; hpearf (C, 447) ; sometimes 
 pende (Chr., 1016 ; ^ 290, d) ; fear, etc. : ondrcd he him, he feared for 
 himself (John, xix, 8) ; so with pile, wish (Ex., 450, 18) ; piste, knew (C, 
 445) ; hleodrede (Ex., 185, 3) ; hxfde, had ; gelyfed, believeth ; peaxan, 
 grow, etc. (Grein, s. v.). These are substitutes for the middle voice. See 
 \ 290, d. Many of them resemble the ethical dative. Most would be ex- 
 pletive in English. 
 
 299. Association. — Words of nearness and likeness 
 govern the dative. 
 
 He pam huse genedhlxhte, he came near to the house (Luc, xv, 25) ; 
 gelic pdm leohtum steorriun, like the bright stars (C, 17, 7). 
 
 (a.) Here belong some words of meeting, association, contention, and the 
 like ; of bringing near, receiving, touch ; of imitation, agreement, etc. : 
 geefenlsecan, pidstandan, forstandan, pidpinnan, tidan, hrinan, onfon; 
 impersouals : hit licode He'rode, it was suited to Herod (Matt., xiv, 6) ; 
 so becyme, becometh (Mc. (D.), xiv, 31) ; gedafenad (Luc, iv, 43) ; 
 gerised (Ex., 1, 5) ; gebyrad (John, x, 13). 
 
 (5.) This relation takes the instrumental (or genitive, nearness sometimes 
 the locative) in Sanskrit ; the dative in Greek, Latin, Gothic, etc. Some 
 of the words may govern in other relations an accusative, genitive, or in- 
 strumental : hrinan, onfon. 
 
 300. Mastery (use). — The instrumental or dative may 
 
 denote an object of mastery: 
 
 pdm p&pnum pealdan, to have power over the weapons (B., 2038) ; 
 
 py ponge pealdan, to have the mastery of the field (Guth., 674) ; 
 
 peold Hunum, ruled the Huns (Wid., 18) ; py rice r&dan, to rule the 
 realm (Dan., 8, 688). Ruling may be conceived as transitive, or as 
 giving law or direction to a dative, or as being master of a genitive, 
 or as being strong by means of an instrumental: /ea/<fflra> English
 
 ADVEREIxVL COMBINATIONS.— INSTRUMENTALS. 151 
 
 wield governs the dative in Gothic and O. Norse, the genitive in O. H. 
 German, in Anglo-Saxon, like Latin potior, the ace., gen. (dat.), instr. ; 
 rwdan governs the gen. in 0. Saxon and M. H. German, in Anglo-Saxon 
 often the instrumental or dative, the dative elsewhere ; brucaii (Lat. 
 fruor), use (Bed., 4, 19) ; neutan, use (An., 811), take the ace, gen., 
 instr., dat. 
 
 301. Separation. — Some verbs of separation may take 
 an object from which in the dative or instrumental. 
 
 (a.) Transitive verbs of this kind take an accusative + a dative: mec 
 bescyrede eallum, he deprived me of all (Rid., 41, 101) ; passive : scyl- 
 dum bescyredne, deprived of shields (Mod., 8) ; + instrumental : hi rihte 
 bcnxman, to rob them of their right (C, 129, 32) ; hine heafde becearf, he 
 cut him off from his head (B., 1590) ; bed&lan, deprive (B.,721). 
 
 (b.) Intransitives : hi feondum odfaren hxfdon, they had escaped the 
 fiends (Exod.,64). So adjectives : drihtnefrem.de, far from God (C, 105). 
 
 (c.) The old case here is the ablative, which is retained in Latin. The 
 Greek uses the genitive. The Anglo-Saxon has oftenest the genitive,' then 
 the instrumental, sometimes a dative. 
 
 Adverbial Combinations. 
 
 302. — I. Instrumentals. — (a.) The instrumental or da- 
 tive may denote instrument, means, manner, or cause : 
 
 spebban speorde, to kill with sword (B., G79) ; edgum geseah, saw with 
 eyes (C, 51, 2) ; pordum herian, to praise with words (C, 1, 4) ; 
 cognate of manner : gefullode pam fulluhte, baptized in the baptism 
 (that I am) (Mc, x, 39) ; lustfulUan pxs biscopes pordum, to rejoice 
 because of the bishop's words (Bed., 2, 9) ; adjectives : fedrum snell, 
 swift with wings (Ex., 206, 7) ; ancrum fxste, fast by means of an- 
 chors (El., 252) ; fedrum strong, strong in respect of wings (Ex., 
 203,18); mundum fre6rig,ixeezmg in my hands (An., 491). Greek 
 dative, Latin ablative represent these old instrumentals. 
 
 (J.) Dative of the Agent. Passive verbs take the agent with a prep- 
 osition {fram, purh, etc.) : gescaldc fram miniim fxder, given by my fa- 
 ther (Matt., xi, 27) ; gecpeden purh pone pitegan (ace), spoken by the 
 prophet (Matt., iii., 3). The dative after some verbals might be put here : 
 Gode sind mihtelice pa ping, to God the things are possible (Luc, xviii, 27). 
 Sanskrit here uses the instrumental regularly ; Greek often, Latin some- 
 times, a dative without a preposition. 
 
 (c.) The instrumental or dative may denote price: 
 
 dnum prnningc gcboht, bought witli one penny (Matt. (D.), x, 29) ; usu- 
 ally after pid or to, or a genitive.
 
 152 DATIVE.— ADVERBIAL. 
 
 (d.) The instrumental or dative may denote measure of 
 difference : 
 
 sponne lengra pxre pryhy longer than the coffin hy a span (Bed., 4, 11) ; 
 miclc md sccdpc bctera, better than r. sheep by much more (Matt., xii, 
 12) ; so micclum (Greg.) ; micclre (Bed., iv, 13). 
 
 (e.) The instrumental or dative may denote an object 
 sworn by : 
 
 mec pine life hedlsode, he swore me by thy life (B., 2131) ; oftenest after 
 purh or for. 
 
 303. — II. Ablatives. — The comparative degree may gov- 
 ern a dative. 
 
 Mara lohanne fulluhtere, greater than John the Baptist (Matt., xi, 11) ; 
 hetera manegum spearpum, better than many sparrows (Luc., xii, 7). 
 The nominative, with ponne, than, is more common. The instrumental 
 is found. The Sanskrit uses the ablative, sometimes the instrumental ; 
 the Greek the genitive ; the Latin the ablative ; other Teutonic tongues 
 are like Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 304. — III. Locatives. — («.) The dative may denote time 
 when or place where. 
 
 Odrum daege hine hyngrode, the second day he hungered (Mc, xi, 12) ; 
 pam priddan dxge he drist, the third day he arises (Matt., xx, 19) ; 
 so instrumental: py syxtan monde, on the sixth month (Bed., i, 3). 
 
 {b.) It may denote a repetition of times : on dxg seofen sidum syngad, 
 sinneth seven times a day (Luc, xvii, 4). 
 (c.) The dative of place takes a preposition. 
 
 Quasi-predicative Combination. 
 
 {d.) Dative absolute.— A substantive and participle in 
 the dative may make an adverbial clause of time, cause, 
 
 or coexistence (§ 278, (Z, § 295, b, time with be, bi, § 334). 
 Him spreccndum, hig comon, they came, while he was speaking (Mc, v, 
 35) ; pinre dura belocenre, bide, thy door having been locked, pray 
 (Matt., vi, G), so still a dative in WyclifFe. Sanskrit uses thus 
 different cases to denote different relations ; the locative is the most 
 common. The Greek has the genitive oftenest; the Latin the abla- 
 tive. The Teutonic languages use this construction seldom. Time 
 when, not absolute, is put in tlie dative in Greek. 
 
 .305. With Prepositions. — The dative with a preposi- 
 tion may denote an object of influence or interest, asso-
 
 INSTRUMENTAL.— GENITIVE. 153 
 
 elation, mastery, or separation ; or an instrumental, 
 
 ablative, or locative adverbial relation. For examples, see 
 Prepositions. 
 
 Insteumental. 
 
 306.— I. The Proper Instrumental. See §§ 299, 300, 302. 
 
 The plural instrumental endings are lost wholly, the singular nearly. 
 The dative generally takes their place. The surviving endings are found 
 sometimes in ablative and locative uses. They are lost also in Greek and 
 Latin (^^ 302, 70, a). O. H. German and O. Saxon have a few singular 
 examples, Gothic only pronouns. 
 
 307.— II. Ablative uses. See §§ 301, 303. 
 308. — III. Locative uses. See § 304. 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 309. The Anglo-Saxon genitive denotes relations of four old 
 cases : 
 
 1. The genitive, the possessor and personal adjunct. 
 
 2. The ablative, that from which any thing is separated. 
 
 3. The instrumental, by which any thing is or is done. 
 
 4. The locative, the time or place in which. The genitive is already 
 in the Sanskrit loosely used for all the other oblique cases. 
 
 Attributive Combinations. 
 
 310. — I. Possessive. — An attributive genitive may de- 
 dote the possessor or author of its siibject. 
 
 The subject may be 
 
 material wealth : his speorde, his sword (Mc, xiv, 47) ; 
 
 quality : enghs hip, angel's beauty (Jul., 244) ; 
 
 persons had or related : Godes pcopas, God's servants (LL. In., 1) ; Of- 
 fan dohtor, Offa's daughter (Chr., 787) ; Ines irodor, Ine's brother (Chr., 
 718) ; ofBcers : Cantpard cyning, Kentish men's king (Chr., 827). 
 
 Any thing conceived as belonging to another : Apollonies hand, Apollonius' 
 hand (Ap., 21) ; pdrd apostold Idre, the apostles' lore (Bed., 4, 25) ; JElf- 
 rcdcs domds, Alfred's laws ; huscs duru, house's door (St. G., 1). 
 
 311. — 11. An attributive genitive may denote the sub- 
 ject or object of a verbal. 
 
 Subjective genitive : Godes gife, God's gift (LL. In., Prcam.) ; tpegrd 
 mannd gcpilncs, two men's testimony (John, viii, 17) ; cyninges hies, 
 king's command (C, 8, 14).
 
 15-i GENITIVE— PAKTITIVE, CHARACTERISTIC. 
 
 Objective genitive: Godes egsa, fear of God (Ex., 244, 30) ; synnd 
 forgifcnnes, forgiveness of sins (Matt., xxvi, 28) ; huntunge hcorta, 
 hunting of harts (Bed., 1, 1). 
 
 312. — III. Partitive. — An attributive genitive may de- 
 note the whole of which its subject is part. 
 
 Se norddi&l middangeardes, the north part of the earrth (Bed., 1, 1) ; 
 reste dxges wfene, the evening of the Sabbath (Matt., xxviii, 1). 
 
 {a.) The subject a pronoun : hpxt godes do ic, what of good do 1 1 
 (iMatt., xix, 10) ; /ij'ivt pcorccs, what sort of work (^If.) ; so hpxder, hpylc, 
 cal, sum, ivlc, gehpd, gchpylc, dinig,piht, ndht, etc. ; — pair, adv. (C, 284, 24). 
 
 {h.) The subject a numeral : an his cnihld, one of his disciples (Luc, 
 xi, 1) ; iiifcsl ealrd, first of all (C, 4, 32). Compare d, below. 
 
 (c.) The subject a superlative : sAdd hcst, least of seeds (Matt., xiii, 
 32) ; husd sclcst, best of houses (B., 146). Very common is ealra-\-a su- 
 perlative; ealrd rtcost, richest of all, etc., whence old English aWerfirst, 
 aZt?erliefest, etc. (Ch. Sh.). 
 
 (d.) The subject an aggregation or measure of objects or material : 
 mycele 7nanegeofiid, a great crowd of fishes (Luc, v, 6) ; heard spijnd, herd 
 of swine (viii, 32) ; hund mittend hp&tes, a hundred of measures of wheat 
 (xvi, 7) ; pusend pundd goldes, a thousand of pounds of gold (LL. ^thd., 
 II, 7, 2). This should be distinguished from the characteristic genitive of 
 material (^ 313, b). This is very common, that rare ; this is Sanskrit gen. 
 
 (e.) A cognate genitive may denote the eminence of its subject : cy- 
 ningd cyning, king of kings (Ex., 9, 17) ; drcdmd dream, joy of joys (30, 
 22) ; heofond heofonds, heaven of heavens (Psa., cxlviii, 4) ; and so abun- 
 dantly in Anglo-Saxon, 0. Norse. 
 
 313. — IV. Characteristic. — An attributive genitive 
 may denote a characteristic of its subject. 
 
 In Sanskrit a characteristic takes the instrumental, in Greek (rare) the 
 genitive, in Latin (frequent) the ablative or genitive. 
 
 {a.) Quality : fcgeres hipes men, men of fair aspect (Horn., ii, 120). 
 
 (6.) Material: scennum sciran goldes, patens of pure gold (B., 1694) ; 
 rare : material as characteristic is almost always expressed by an adjective 
 {gylden, golden), or a compound {goldfwt. gold vessel), or a preposition 
 {reuf of h&rum, garment of hair (Matt., iii, 4)). Compare ^ 312, d. 
 
 (c.) Age : lamb dnes gedres, lamb of one year (Horn., ii, 262). 
 
 (d.) Size : fen unmsitre mycelncsse, fen of immense size (St. G., 3) ; 
 so -weight, value, and the like: pencgd peorde, pennies-worth (John,vi, 7). 
 
 (c.) Name : hit ofetes noman dgan sccolde, it the name (of) apple must 
 have (C, 719) ; he forleort ceastra Natzaredes, he left the city (of) Naza- 
 reth (Northumbrian Matt., iv, 13). The West Saxon uses the appositive 
 Nazarcd. Bntene igland, island (of) Britain (Chr., 1 ; Bed., 1), is doubt-
 
 PREDICATIVE— EXCITING OBJECT. 155 
 
 fill. The Greek and Latin used this genitive sometimes, the French often, 
 and it became common in Semi-Saxon. 
 
 Predicative Combinations. 
 
 314. A predicate substantive may be put iu the genitive 
 to denote a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or 
 a whole of wliicli it is part. 
 
 Possessor: Dryhtnes sind pa rtcu, the kingdoms are the Lord's (Psa., 
 xxi, 26) ; ge Cristes sind, ye are Christ's (Mc, ix, 41). Character- 
 istic : pa pseron ongrisliccs andplitan, they were of grisly counte- 
 nance (Bed., 5, 13) ; he pxs scearpre gleapnesse, he was of sharp 
 wit (5, 19) ; seo pass micelre br&do, it was of great breadth (5, 12) ; 
 he lifes p&.re, (if) he were (of life) alive (LL. ^thd., H, 9, 3) ; he X 
 pintrd ste, he may be of ten years (LL. H. & Ed., 6). Partitive : se 
 abbot pass goderd manna, the abbot was of good men (Chr., 1066). 
 (a.) The predicate genitive may be used perhaps in all the relations of 
 the attributive genitive. Compare the Latin and Greek Grammars (Had- 
 ley, 57-2). 
 
 (b.) Quasi-predicative. The genitive may be used for a predicate- 
 accusative adjective (^ 294) : Hig gesdpon pone sittan gescrydne and hales 
 modes, they saw him sit clothed and of sound mind (Mc, v, 15). 
 
 Objective Combinations. 
 
 These are mostly secondary, either abridged or acquired. In most of 
 them one of the common relations of the attributive genitive may be con- 
 ceived between the genitive and the notion of the verb or adjective with 
 which it combines: he fears i7 = he has /car of it ; he remembers it ^ho 
 has remembrance of it. 
 
 315. Exciting Object. — The genitive may denote an ex- 
 citing object. 
 
 That which suggests or excites a mental state or an act is its exciting 
 object. The most common states or acts taking this object are 
 
 L Feelings — joy, sorrow, pride, shame, longing, love, hope, fear, care, won- 
 der, etc. Verbs: peodncs gefegon, they joyed in the lord (B., 1627); 
 mordres gylped, he exults at murder (B., 2055) ; piire fcohgiflc scami- 
 gan, to be ashamed of the gift (B., 1026) ; gilpes pu girncst, thou yearn- 
 est for fame (Boeth., 32) ; ondrcd he pa-s, he feared that (John, xix, 8) ; 
 pibpna nc reccd, he recks not of weapons (B., 434) ; pxmdrigc fullcs mo- 
 nan, wonder at the full moon (Met., 28, 40) ; so begym (Luc, x, 35) ; 
 pilnian (An., 1130); pyscad (Guth., 194), and see § 297, c. Adjec- 
 tives : frgcn sides, glad of the journey (An., 1013) ; sides pcrig, weary 
 of the journey (B., 579) ; godes gr&dig, greedy of good (Sol., 344).
 
 156 GENITIVE— rAllTITIVE.— SEPARATION. 
 
 II. Intellectual states — remember, forget, think of, listen, ete. Verbs : 
 gcmun pines pordes, remember thy word (Psa., cxviii, 49); Godes hi 
 forgcdton, thoy forgot God (Psa., cv, 18); Jwncc pe nuncs yfcles, we 
 think no evil (Gen., xhi, ;J1) ; hlyst his pordci, listen to his words (Nic., 
 3). Adjectives : gcmyndige Lodes pifcs, mindful of Lot's wife (Luc, 
 xvii, 31) ; iinpis pxs nainan, ignorant of the name (Bed., 4, 13). 
 
 III. Acts related with such states of mind — laugh, pray, help, try, watch, 
 remind, etc. : p:i't pif dhluh dnhlncs, the woman laughed at the lord (C., 
 2380); jlxsces hi babdon, they prayed for flesh (Psa., civ, 35); Itdan 
 pines iftci/mcs, watch for thy return (Ex., 466, 33) ; help mm, help me 
 (Psa., Ix, 1) ; llpi fandige ge min, why tempt ye me? (Matt., xxii, 19) ; 
 min cos lude, tried after me (B.,2084). Adjectives: gcaro (Jul., 49). 
 (a.) Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding may take an 
 
 accusative and genitive (§§ 292, 297, a) : 
 
 pe hiddan dure bene, to ask thee of one thing (B., 427) ; dcsian (Bed., 4, 
 3); tyhd me untreopdd, accuseth me of untruths (C, 36, 33); usic 
 pdrd lednd gcmonian, to remind us of the loans (Ex., 333, 19). 
 
 (5.) Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take 
 a dative and genitive. See § 297, d. 
 
 (c.) Impersonals may take a genitive and an accusative or dative 
 of the person excited : hme ietes lysted, he longs for food, ^ 290, c (Wal., 
 52) ; him pxs ne sceamode, it did not shame him of that, ^ 297, a (Gen., 
 ii, 25). 
 
 {d.) Reflexives may take the reflexive pronoun and a genitive : on- 
 dred he him pxs, he dreaded (him) of that (John, xix, 8). 
 
 (e.) In Sanskrit the exciting object is regularly an ablative, but many of 
 the verb notions here specified already take a genitive ; in Greek the geni- 
 tive is established, in Latin frequent ; in Teutonic, genitives, datives (instru- 
 mentals), and accusatives combine often with the same verb, 
 
 316. Partitive. — The genitive may denote an object af- 
 fected in part. 
 
 After verbs of sharing and touch : gcnam pxs ofxtes, he took of the 
 fruit (C, 493) ; wt pisses ofxtes, he ate of this fruit (C., 500, 564) ; pxs 
 pxstmes onbdt, bit of the fruit (C., 470) ; ic hxbbe his her, I have (some) 
 of it (the fruit) here (C, 678); his hrtnan, to take hold of it (C., 616); 
 pxpnd onfon, to take hold of weapons (C, 2040). So in other languages. 
 In the Romanic tongues, and sometimes in Anglo-Saxon, a preposition is 
 used. See of. 
 
 "17. Separation (ablative). — The genitive may denote an 
 object of separation. (Conii)are § 301.) 
 
 (rt.) Many transitive verbs of separation take an accusative of the
 
 RULE.— MATERLU..— MEASURE.— ADJUXCT. 157 
 
 person and a genitive : benwman Crist rices, to deprive Christ of the 
 kingdom (C.,286, 3) ; fata hine bereafian, rob him of his goods (Matt., xii, 
 29) ; hine ganges getpseman, to hinder him from flight (B., 967) ; getp&- 
 fed (B., 1763) ; ged&nsa (Ps. C, 112) ; berxdde (An., 1328). 
 
 [b.) Intransitives — cease, need, miss, etc. : God gespdc his peorces, 
 God ceased from his work (Gen., ii, 3) ; ealdres linnan, to be deprived of 
 life (B., 2443) ; pinga bepurfon, have need of things (Matt., vi, 32) ; beho- 
 fatt (Bed., 4, 23) ; miste mercelses, missed the mark (B., 2439) ; pacs sodes 
 ansaced, deviate from the truth (Sol., 182). Adjectives: buendrd leas, 
 empty of inhabitants (C.,6, 16) ; fdcnes cMne, clean of crime (Ex., 276, 13); 
 dnes pana fiftig, fifty less one (An., 1042) ; bed&led, p. p. (C, 276, 9). 
 
 318. Supremacy. — The genitive may denote an object of 
 supremacy or use. 
 
 God pealded manna ct/nnes, God rules the race of men (Psa., Iviii, 13). 
 See § 300. 
 
 319. Material.— The genitive or instrumental may de- 
 note the material of Avhich any thing is made or full. Com- 
 pare § 302, a. 
 
 Pietfxt leddes gefylde, filled the vessel with lead (Ex., 277, 10) ; ofx- 
 ies gehlxdene, laden with fruit (C, 461) ; peos eordc is berende fuge- 
 Id, the land is full (bearing) of birds (Bed., 1, 1) ; adjectives : fxtful 
 ecedes, vessel full of vinegar (John, xix, 29) ; gdste (Luc, iv, 1). 
 
 (a.) The material after a verb of making takes a preposition. ^ 294, c. 
 
 (b.) The material is put in the genitive in some other relations. ^ 324. 
 
 320. Measure- — The genitive in combination Avith acljec- 
 tives may denote measure. Compare §§ 295, 302. 
 
 (a.) Space, dimension : fifliges fot-gemearces lang, fifty paces long 
 (B., 3043) ; fiftend monnes elnd deop, fifteen man's ells deep (C, 1397). 
 
 {b.) Time : he pxs hundnigontiges pintrd eald, he was (of) ninety (of) 
 winters old (Bed., 3, 27) ; oftenest English {twelve) years old is in Anglo- 
 Saxon a compound adjective (tpelf) pintre (Luc.,ii, 42 ; viii,42 ; Gen., v,6). 
 
 (c.) Price, value : six peiiingd pyrde, sixpence worth (Rask) ; is pyrde 
 his mctcs, is worthy of his meat (Matt., x, 10). Compare ^^ 302, 313, d. 
 
 (d.) Crime : mordrcs scyldig, guilty of murder (B., 1083) ; deddes scyl- 
 dig, deserving of death (Matt., xxvi, 66). Also dative and instrumental. 
 
 321. Adjunct. — The genitive in combination with adjec- 
 tives may denote the jxi^'^ oi' rekitio?i in w^hich tlie quality is 
 conceived. 
 
 Modes bltde, blithe of mind (B., 430) ; mcrgcnes streng, strong of might 
 (B., 1844). For instrumentals, see ^ 302.
 
 158 GENITIVE— ADVERBIAL.— niEPOSITIONS. 
 
 Adverbial Combinations. 
 
 IMost examples are relics of the time when the genitive was more freely 
 used in the adverbial relations than we find it in the literary remains. See 
 further § 251. 
 
 322, Space. — The genitive may tienote by what way : 
 
 pendon him pa oitres peges hdmpcard, they return homeward by another 
 
 way (Chr., 1000), Gr. r»)c oSov, Ger. deincsj.ocg€S. 
 How far from (?) : IV mild from pam mialan, four miles from the 
 
 mouth (Chr., 893 ; so Maetzner), but four of miles is better {^ 295). 
 
 323. Time. — The genitive may denote the time when : 
 
 pintrcs and sumcrcs pudu bid gclice gehongcn, winter and summer the 
 wood is alike hung (with fruits) (Ph., 37) ; pxs pintrcs, that winter 
 (Chr., 878) ; dnes dceges, one day (Job, 165) ; dwges and nihtcs, by 
 day and night (B., 2269) ; Jns pics feordes gcdres, this was on the 
 fourth year (Chr., 47). Note also pxs, thereafter. 
 
 32 1. Means. — The genitive may denote means or cause: 
 
 pxteres peorpan, to sprinkle with water (Dom., 78) ; glxd pines, jolly 
 with wine (B., 2791). 
 
 325. Manner. — The genitive may denote manner: 
 
 hiigan spilces gcongordomes, bow in such vassalage (C, 283) ; gepeal- 
 des monnan ofsled, intentionally slay a man (LL. Alf., Intr., 13) ; so- 
 des ic pe secge, of a truth I say to you (Matt., v, 26) ; peaxad self- 
 pilles, grow of their own accord (Lev., xxv, 5). 
 
 32G. With Prepositions. — The genitive with a prep- 
 osition is sometimes used to denote instrumental, abla- 
 tive, or locative adverbial relations. See Prepositions. 
 
 USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 327. A preposition governs a substantive, and shows its 
 relation to some other Avord in the clause. 
 
 (a.) This relation is oftenest adverbial, but may be attributive, pred- 
 icative, or objective : sxton he pam strande, sat by the strand (Matt., 
 xiii, 48) ; — attributive : redf of hxrum, garment of hair (Matt., iii, 4) ; — 
 predicative : he pxs fram Bedsdida, he was from Bethsaida (John, i, 44) ; 
 — objective : on his dgenum feder are gescedpian, render honor to his fa- 
 ther (C, 1580). 
 
 (b.) A preposition may merely define a verb. It is then said to be in 
 complete composition, if phonetically united with it, otherwise in incomplete.
 
 GENERAL RULES.— AND, ANDLONG, ^FTER. 159 
 
 328. Preijositions expressing extent take the accusative, 
 others the dative and instrumental. 
 
 Ace. Signs: geond, ud, purh, y7nb{c)^=cmb{e). 
 
 Ace. sometimes: and, ivj'ler, xt, for, fore, foran, in, innan, mid, on, to, 
 ofer, uppan, under, pid. 
 
 (a.) Prepositions expressing position, or a place of rest before or after 
 motion, take a dative. The same preposition may express extension with 
 one verb and rest after another. (Study the examples.) The dative also 
 has taken up the instrumental and ablative relations, and all others ex- 
 cept plain accusatives. Occasional instrumentals and genitives occur, and 
 are given under their prepositions. 
 
 {b.) Prepositions compounded with adverbs generally retain their case. 
 Ace. ymb-utan, and sometimes on-butan, on-foran, on-uppan, ongegn, on- 
 gemong, pid-geondan, pid-xflan, pid-innan 1 Grain. 
 
 329. The genitive is sometimes used with purh, pict, of, to, 
 innan, Utati, pana, — mostly in old phrases. (Compare § 322.) 
 
 (a.) Prepositions compounded with nouns may take a genitive originally 
 an attributive with the noun : and-lang, to-middes, be-ipeonum. 
 
 Table of Prepositions. 
 
 330. and (§ 254) ; + dative or + accusative : Gothic ace. 
 
 I. Dative — number: eahta niht and feoperum, eight nights and four 
 (Men., 211). 
 
 II. Accusative — place : and eordan, on the earth (Met., 20, 123) ; and 
 ordfruman, in presence of their creator (C, 13). 
 
 and-long, -lang (^^ 259, 329, a) + gen. : rtdcnde andlang pxs pcstcncs, 
 pursuing along the wilderness (Jos.,viii, 16) ; up andlong (Chr.,882) ; ny- 
 dcr andlang, down along (Lev., i, 15). 
 
 331. gefter (§ 255), more aft; + dative or (rare) accusative. 
 Goth, afar + dat., ace. ; O. Sax., O. II. Ger. aftar; O. N. C2)tir. 
 
 I. Dative. 
 Place — position : cumnd orfler me, come further back than I =: follow me 
 
 (Matt., iv, 19) ; — extent : siiton wfter bcorgum, they sat dispersed through 
 
 the hills (C, 191, 9). Latin secundum. 
 Time — point: vrflcr prym dagum ic arise, after three days I arise (Matt., 
 
 xxvii, G3) ; — extent: .rflcr poruldstundum, during this life (El., 3G3) ; — 
 
 repetition: pundor arfter pundrc, wonder after wonder (B.,93I). 
 Cause : panian wfter headospate, melt because of the hot blood (B., 1606) ; 
 
 — end : acsode wfter him, asked after him (Psa., xxxvi, 35) ; grof wfter 
 
 goldc, grub after gold (Met., 8, 57). Compare /or.
 
 160 TRErOSITIONS.— iEFT, MR, JET, iETFORAN, BI. 
 
 Likeness : geporhtnc scfter his onVicnessc, made after his likeness (C.,25, 
 18) ; a'ftcr Engld lagc, according to English law (iE(lr., 1). See bi. 
 
 II. Accusative. 
 Place : he eordan xflcr pxter sctte, he set the earth upon the waters (Psa., 
 cxxxv, G). 
 
 eeit = a-flcr (rare) : irft mcc, (come) after me (Matt., iv, 19, Northumbr.) ; 
 wft sunnan sctlgangc, after sunset (Gen., xxviii, 1 1). O. Eng. eft, cft-soons. 
 
 332. ffir (§ 259) + dative. Nortbura. ace. aud gen., Golli, gou. 
 
 Time : xr sumeres cyme, before summer's coming (El., 1228) ; hatede me 
 &r eop, hated me before (it hated) you (John, xv, 18) ; &r pam, pon,py, 
 Lat. priusquam, before that. 
 
 333. aet (§ 254, 3) + dative or (rare) ace. Gothic dat., ace, gen. 
 
 I. Dative. 
 
 Place — position : p&ron at Exanceastre, were at Exeter (^ds. VI) ; xt 
 ham, at home (B., 1248) ; — direction : comon ict me, came to me (Matt., 
 XXV, 43); — departure: dnimad pxt pund wt him, take the pound from 
 beside him (Matt., xxv, 28) ; onfeng pallium wt papan, he received the 
 pallium at the hands of the pope (Chr., 1026) ; so with learn, hear, take, 
 etc. wt =: of, from. So in Gothic, O. Norse. Compare Gr. Trapa and 
 the dative of separation (^ 301). Often strengthened hy gelang (B., 1377). 
 
 Time — point : wt middan sumere, at midsummer (Bed., 5,23) ; wt atreslan, 
 for the first time (Ex., 51, 30). 
 
 Specification (Lat. quoad) : wt vite speop, got along as to eating (B.,3026). 
 
 Opposition : wt me gepyrcean, work against me (Psa., cxxviii, 1). 
 
 State — circumstance : stande set gehede, stand praying (Psa., v, 3) ; swt 
 mt pine, sat at the wine (Rid., 47, 1). 
 
 II. Accusative — space: wt swstredmds gebruiddest, extendest even to 
 the sea-streams (Psa., Ixxix, 11). 
 
 eet-foran (+ dative or (rare) ace.) : — place : wtforan pam folce, (go) in 
 front of the people (Jos., iii, 6) ; — person : gepcmmed wtforan Gode, cor- 
 rupt before God (Gen., vi, 11) ; — time : wtforan mwssan, before (St. An- 
 drew's) mass-day (Chr., 1010). II. Ace. : wtforan edgan pine, before thine 
 eyes (Psa., v, 5 ; Ettm.). 
 
 334. bi, be (§ 254, 2) ; + dative (iustr.) : Gothic ace. and dat. 
 
 Place — immediate juxtaposition : hi swton be pam strandc, they sat by the 
 strand (Matt., xiii, 48) ; dledon he mwste, laid him by the mast (B., 36) ; 
 for be pam lande, sailed along by the land (Ores., 1,1); be pege, by the 
 way (Mc, viii, 3) ; — part handled : genam be feaxe, took him by the hair 
 (Jud., 99).
 
 B^FTAN, BE-EASTAN, , BE-TPIHS. 161 
 
 Time : be dxgcs leohte, by daylight (Rid., 28, 17) ; — dative absolute : Jm 
 ne dl&te be pe lifigendum, permit thou not, while thou livest (B.,2665). 
 
 Cause — means : hangad he praide, hangs by a thread (Boeth., 29) ; — source : 
 sunu dgan be bryde jAnre, have a son by thy wife (C, 2326) ; — theme : 
 sungon be Godes bearnc, sung of God's son (EL, 562) ; dcsiad be pam 
 cilde, ask about the child (Matt., ii, 8) ; be pam dcege nan man ndt, of 
 that day no man knoweth (Mc, xiii, 32) ; — command : ferde be his hld- 
 fordes h&se, went by his lord's command (Gen., xxiv, 10) ; — agent (rare, 
 if ever) : forhvd be pam lygenum, seduced by him by lies (C, 598) ; so 
 Msetzner, 1, 404, and Grein under lygcn, but better by the lies (means). 
 Goth, bi is not so used. In Middle English (Wycliffe) first common. 
 
 Manner: be fullan, fully (Psa., xxx, 27) ; be sumum dsele, partly (Met., 
 20, 96) ; — succession, likeness : pord be porde, word for word (Boeth., 
 Pref.) ; — proportion : be gcpyrhtum, according to their works (An., 1613) ; 
 — accompaniment: be hearpan singan, sing to the harp (Bed., 4, 24). 
 
 Measure of difference (^ 302, d) : mare be dnum stsefe, more by one let- 
 ter (Nic, 33). 
 
 b-aeftan (+dat.) : gang bxftan me, get behind (by) me (Matt., xvi, 23) ; 
 
 bxftan pam hldforde, except with the owner (Exod., xxii, 14). 
 be-eastaa, -pestan, etc. (4-dat.) : be-edstan Rinc, east of the Rhine 
 
 (Oros, 1, 1 ; where also -pestan, etc.). 
 be-foran (+dat. or ace.) : — place : him bcforan, before him (C, 183, 17) ; 
 
 — time (Psa., civ, 15). Ace, place : beforan pone cyning, in sight of 
 
 the king (Boeth., 16, 2). 
 be-geondan (-|-dat. or ace.) : he pxs begeondan lorddne, he was over 
 
 by Jordan (John, iii, 26). Ace. : com begeondan lorddnen, came by 
 
 past Jordan (Matt., 19, 1). 
 be-healfe (4-dat.) : hchcalfe minum hlujordc, beside of my lord (By., 
 
 318). 
 be-heonan (+dat.) : beheonan s&, this side the sea (Chr., 878). 
 be-liindan (+dat.) : him bchindan, behind him (Met., 29, 52). 
 b-innan (4-dat.) : — place: hinnan pam dice, within the dike (Bed., 1, 
 
 11) ; — time : hinnan prym dagum, within three days (John, ii, 19). 
 be-neoctan (4-dat.) : beneodan cneope, below the knee (.^If. LL., 63). 
 b-ufan (4-dat.): bufan Jjiem elnbogan, above the elbow (54); a-b-ove 
 
 <Orm. d-b-ufenn has not been found in Anglo-Saxon. 
 b(e)-utan {a, o) (4-dat.) : buton burgum, out of towns (Edg.,IV, 2,3) ; 
 
 buton ende, without end (Sat., 315) ; biiton dnum, except one (B., 705). 
 be-tpeonum, -tpdm, -tpynan (-|-dat. or ace.) : be stem tpeonum, by two 
 seas (B., 858) ; him betpyndn, among them (Job, 166). Ace. : be-tpeonum 
 peallds, (ledcst) between walls (Psa. cv, 9). Genitive : Rid., 30, 2. 
 be-tpili-(s), -tpeox, Layamon bctwixte (+dat. or ace.) : bctpcox pc and 
 
 pam pife, betwixt thee and the woman (Gen., iii, 15). Ace. : betpeox 
 
 his mdgds, (sought him) among his kindred (Luc, ii, 44). 
 
 L
 
 162 EAC, FEOR, rOK, FOIJE, FKAM. 
 
 335. eac (§ 254, 1) + dative, Goth. adv. couj. 
 
 Number : /^ priddan geare cac tpentigum, the third year in addition to 
 twenty (Bed., 1, 13) ; freond i&nigne edc pissu77i idcsum, any friend be- 
 sides these women (C, 2500) ; cdc pam {pan, jjon), thereupon, more- 
 over (Met., 1, 41). 
 
 336. feor (§ 259) + dative. 
 
 Place : fcor urum mynstrc, far from our monastery (B6d., 5, 4) ; fcor his 
 fxder, far from his father (Luc., xv, 20) ; unfcor (vii, 6). 
 
 337. for (§ 254, 2) + dat, or instr., or ace. Gotb. ace. 
 
 fore (§ 254, 2) + dat. or ace. Gotb. dat. {for- =frdi-.) 
 
 I. Dative and instrumental : {for-: for-manig, very many, By., 230). 
 Place : for his edgum, before his eyes (C.,2420) ; fore edgum (Cri., 1324) ; 
 
 for Abrahamc, before Abraham (C.,2778) ; fore (Cri., 1233). 
 
 Time : for pintrd fela, many winters before (C, 2199) ; fore (Cri., 1031). 
 
 Cause — motive: propode for manna lufan, suffered for love of men (Men., 
 86) ; fore (Hell., 110) ; — occasion : for guman synnan, suffered for man's 
 sin (Kr., 146); fore (Cri., 1095) ; — exciting object : for his life lyt sor- 
 gedon, they cared little for his life (Ex., IIG, 18) ; fore (B., 1442) ; — da- 
 tive of advantage : for us gepropode, suffered for us (Sat., 665) ; fore 
 (Cri., 1202) ; — theme : s&don for manegum yfclum daidum, spoke of many 
 evil deeds (Nic, 2) ; fore (Pa., 34) ; — oath : for drihine, for God's sake 
 (Met., 1, 64) ; fore (Jul., 540) ; — reason : for J>am {an, on),forpy, there- 
 fore ; for hpam {an, on), for hpi, wherefore; — exchange: feounge for 
 lufan, hate for love (Psa. cviii, 4) ; for ealhim Jjissum, in spite of all that 
 (Chr., 1006) ; for intingan, for the sake of (Bed., 3, 8). 
 
 Manner : for his peldaidum, according to his good works (Psa.,- Ixxvi, 7) ; 
 — order : gyfe for gyfc, gift after gift (John, i, 16). 
 
 II. Accusative. 
 
 Place — after motion: gdn for Jje andpeardnc, go before thee (C, 871); 
 fore (An., 1030). 
 
 Time : for ealle men, (acted) before all men (Kr., 93) ; fore preo niht, be- 
 fore three nights (An., 185). 
 
 Cause — motive: for plcnco, for pride (B., 1206); — advantage = dative : 
 for ehterds and tsklendum, pray for persecutors and calumniators (Matt., 
 V, 44) ; — exchange: tod for tod, tooth for tooth (Matt., v, 38). 
 
 Factitive Object {^ 286, b) : hine hsefde for fulne cyning, held him for 
 (as) full king (Chr., 1013). 
 
 338. frain,/wm (§ 254, 2) + ablative>dat. (instr.). Gotb. dat. 
 
 Place whence motion : comon fram edst-dable, came from the east (Matt., 
 ii,l).
 
 GEHEXDE, GEOND, IN, ON. 163 
 
 Time : fram cLvges orde, from daybreak (EL, 140). 
 
 Conditions and relations whence separation : drds he fram slmpe, he arose 
 from sleep (Bed., 4, 24); fram synnum, from sins (EL, 1309) ; feor 
 fram me, (their heart) far from me (Mc, vii, 6). Instrumental: fram. 
 
 ' Pys ptg-plegan, (turn) from this war-play (By., 316). 
 
 Cause — source : fram pam hit naman onfeng, from whom it took name 
 (Bed., 1, 1) ; — agent with the passive : costnod fram deofle, tempted by 
 the devil (Matt., iv, 1) ; — theme : fram ellendstdum secgan hyrde, heard 
 tell of hero-deeds (B., 875). 
 
 339. gehende (§ 259) + dative. O. Sax, at handum. 
 Place : gehende pam scype, handy (near) to the ship (John, vi, 19). 
 
 340. geoud {io) (§ 255), thitber+acc. of that intervening. 
 
 Place : go, geond pcgds, go through the highways (Luc, xiv, 23) ; geond 
 />M<^M, through the wood (In., 20) ; geond pa peude, among the people (An., 
 25) ; geond stopd, through the places, all about (Luc, xxi, 11). 
 
 Time: geond feopertig dagd, after forty (of) days (Num., xiii, 22). 
 
 341. in (§ 254, l) + clat., instr., ace. Goth, dat., ace., genitive. 
 on (§ 254, l) + dat., ace. Goth, dat., ace. 
 
 In Old Saxon in is not found, nor in the Anglo-Saxon of Alfred's Meters, 
 the Runes, or Byrhtnod ; it is twice in the Psalms, three times in Caedmon's 
 Genesis ; elsewhere in the Anglo-Saxon poetry in and on freely inter- 
 change ; but in prevails in the North, on in the South. The distinctive 
 on has a vertical element {icp or down), which easily runs to against or 
 near. (See Grein, 2, 140.) 
 
 I. Dative, Instrumental. 
 
 Place where: in tune ofsleah, slay (a man) in town (^db., 5); on py 
 cynericc, in the kingdom (Chr., 871) ; in hcafde hpite loccds, on the head 
 white locks (Rid., 41, 98) ; on has also : on picge, on horse-back (B., 
 286) ; on Temesan, winter quarters on (along) the Thames (Chr., 1009) ; 
 — person : on hym sy gefylled, in them is fulfilled (the prophecy) (Matt., 
 xiii, 14) ; on pfum, (blessed) among women (Luc, i, 28) ; — after verbs 
 of taking away : blxdd name on telgum, took fruit from the branches 
 (C, 892). Compare xt. 
 
 Time when : in gcdr-dagum, in old days (B., 1) ; — on : on pam cahtodan 
 dxgc, on the eighth day (Job, 104) ; — how long : on six dagum, in six 
 days (he made the earth) (C, 266, 1) ; on py ylcan gedre, in the same 
 year (Chr., 896). 
 
 Cause — theme : think on (Psa. cxvii, 8) ; — end : on forgifcnnisse, for for- 
 giveness of sins (Ilom., ii, 268) ; — exciting object : pundredon on his Idrc, 
 wondered at his lore (Mc, vi,2) ; trust in (Psa. li, 6 ; ace, cxxiv, 1). 
 
 Means or instrument : se pxs hcorht on bhedum, that was bright witli
 
 16-i INNAN, ON-BUTAN, ON-EFN, OX-FOEAN, ON-GEGN. 
 
 flowers (Dan., 500); ic on mhimn mmte andctlc, I confess, with my 
 mouth (Psa., cviii, 29) ; simgon on tympanis, they sang to the accompa- 
 niment of drums (Psa., Ixvii, 24) ; psaltcrio, hearpe (cxliii, 10). 
 
 Material : on pdm tclgum iimbran, to work upon the branches (Pli., 188). 
 
 Marnier: conion on Jmm Jloccum, came in three companies (Job, 1G5) ; — 
 condition: in gebcde he 5/oc?, he stood in prayer (Bed., 5, 12) ; on (B., 
 1739) ; on onlicnesse purde,gie\v into likeness (C.,2564). 
 
 II. Accusative. 
 
 Place whither : heo hine in pxt mynstre onfeng, she took him into the 
 monastery (Bed., 4, 24) ; — on : fcollon on pornds, fell (down) on thorns 
 (Matt., xiii, 7) ; hvdde hine on viunt, led him (up) on a mount (Matt., iv, 
 8) ; datives are found in this sense : on heofenum cuman, to come into 
 heaven (Job, IGG) ; — persons: com hungur on Bryttds, hunger came 
 among the Britons (Bed., 1, 14) ; he on hi feaht, he fought against them 
 (2,9). 
 
 Time how long: in ealle tid, for all time (Pa., 17) ; on pa xfentid, at 
 eventide (Kr., 68). 
 
 Cause — purpose : gdn on Jixod, go a fishing (John, xxi, 3) ; — price : be- 
 bohte on seolfres sine, sold for a treasure of silver (C, 301, 7). 
 
 Manner: 07i Scyttisc, in Scottish (tongue) (Bed., 3, 27) ; — condition: on- 
 paxned in lif, awakeneth into life (Ph., 649). 
 
 Factitive : he up drxrde redde stredmds in rand-gebeorh, he reared the 
 red streams into (as) side defences (C, 196, 24). 
 
 innan (§ 257, Goth. adv.) + dat., ace, gen. Dat. : he sxt innan hUse, 
 he sat in the house (Matt., ix, 10) ; — ace. : feal innan pa saa, fall into 
 the sea (xxi, 22) ; — gen.: gdst innan hrcdres, soul within the body 
 (Psa. cxlii, 4). So time ; Dat. (Chr., 806) ; Ace. (Chr., 693). 
 
 on-butan (rare), dbutan (§ 257) + dat. or ace. : seteoped abutan psere 
 sunnan, (ring) visible around the sun (Chr., 806) ; onbutan pxre sun- 
 nan (Chr., 1104) ; — ace. (Exod., xix, 12). Number : dbutan feoper 
 hund mannd, about four hundred men (Chr., 1055). 
 
 on-efn (0. Sax., O. H. Ger., § 258) + dat. : him on-efn liged, anent (= 
 beside) him lies (B., 2903). Ace. (Grein) ; gen. (Gen., xvi, 12). 
 
 on-foran (^ 257) + dat. (rare, see be-foran) : onforan pinter, before win- 
 ter (Chr., 894). 
 
 on-gegn, d-gen, -gedn (^ 258)+dat., ace. Place : pdm d&lum ongegen, 
 (Britain lies) opposite the regions (of Europe) (Bed., 1, 1) ; ongen eop, 
 opposite you (Matt., xxi, 2) ; — hostility : ongedn gramum, (go) against 
 the fiends (B., 1034) ; ongedn his lustum, fight against his lusts (Job, 
 167)=/>/(A Ace. — place : dgcn hine arn, ran to him (Luc, xv, 20) ; 
 — hostility: cuman ongedn hine, come against him (Boet., 35, 6). 
 Time: ongedn pinter hdm tugon, against winter went home (Chr., 
 109G). 
 
 on-(ge)mong(e) (^ 258 ; O. Sax. an^ima??^)+dat. Place : Godum on-
 
 IN INNAN, , IN-TO.— L^S, MID, NEAH. 165 
 
 gemonge, stood among the Gods (Psa., Ixxxi, l)=beipuh, on middum. 
 
 Time : onmang pam gepinnan, during the fight (Chr., 1106). 
 in innan {inne), on innan (inne) (^ 257)4-dat., ace. : ofne on hman, in 
 
 the oven (Dan., 259). Ace. : in pone ofn innan, into the oven (Dan., 
 
 238). 
 on-middan, -middum {i^ 258) + dat. : on-middan pam hpxte, amidst the 
 
 wheat (Matt., xiii, 25) ; omiddan sceafum, amid your sheafs (Gen., 
 
 xxxvii, 7). See to-middes. 
 on ufan (^ 257) + ace. Place : locad ufan on hcUe, looketh from above 
 
 on hell (A. R., 25). Time: o?j-M/a« Aar/>esi, after harvest (Chr., 923). 
 on-uppan (^ 257)-|-dat. : on-iippan pam assan, rode upon the ass (John, 
 
 xii, 14). 
 in-to (^ 254, 1, 3)4-dat. : com into healle, came into the hall (Matt., ix, 
 
 23) ; into him, went unto him (Bed., 3, 12) ; into heom, locked the 
 
 doors onto them (Chr., 1083). 
 
 342. Ises (§ 259) + dat. (instr.) : 
 
 Number : tpd Ixs XXX {prittigum ) gedi'd, two less (than) thirty (of) 
 years (Chr., 642). 
 
 343. mid (§ 254, 1) + tlat. (instr.), ace. Goth. dat. 
 
 I. Dative (instr.). 
 
 Place — among whom : ic pxs mid Hunum, I was among the Huns (Trav., 
 57) ; — near whom : mid Eormanrtce, I was with Ermanric (Trav., 88). 
 
 Time : mid &rdxgc, with the dawn (B., 126). 
 
 Manner : mid gefedn, joyfully (An., 868) ; mid rihte, rightfully (Jud., 97). 
 
 Co-existence : se mid Idciim com, he came with gifts (C, 2103) ; perds 
 mid pifum, men with their wives (C, 1738) ; (instrumental) gcpdt him 
 ham mid py here-tedme, got himself home with the booty (C, 2162). 
 
 Cause — means : mid his handum gesceop, with his hands made (C, 251) ; 
 (instrumental) py hungre, with hunger (Soul, 31) ; — instr. : mid py hilli, 
 with the sword (C, 2931). 
 
 II. Accusative. 
 
 Place : puna mid usic, dwell among us (C, 2722) ; mid aldor, lived with 
 
 their lord (C, 20). 
 Co-existence : gcpdt mid cyning, he departed with the king (C, 1210). 
 Cause : sluh mid hdlige hand, smote with holy hand (C, 208, 18). 
 Object of address or discrimination : sprwc mid hine, spoke with him 
 
 (Bed., 2, 13) ; demd mid unc tpih, judge between us two (C, 2253). 
 
 344. neah, weA, n&h; near; nehst (§ 259)+ dat. Goth. dat. 
 
 Place : seo cd flopeit nedh l)xre ccastre peaUe^ the river flows nigh the 
 town's wall (Bed., 1,7); pille ic pam lige near, I will go nearer to the 
 fire (C, 760) ; nehst pvbre caxe, (the nave) turns nearest the axle (Boet., 
 39,7).
 
 166 NEFNE, NEODAN, UD, OF, OFER. 
 
 345. nefne, oiemne {ne gif ne^ Lat. non nisi? but sec § 259) 
 + dative. 
 
 Separation: c all e for nam ncmnc fcdum unum, took off all except a few 
 (B.,1081). 
 
 340. neodan (§ 257) + ace. ? See hc-neodan^ xindcr-neodan. 
 
 He peard purhscoten neodan J)xt otter breost, he was shot through be- 
 neath the other breast (Oros, 3, 9) ; so Koch, but the texts have under- 
 neoitan. The 0. H.Ger. nida is used as a prep., as is 0. Norse nedan 
 \\'\i\\fyr, but I have not found neodan so used. 
 
 347. od (§ 254, 3) 4- acc, (rare) dat. Goth, ace, dat. 
 
 Space — extent to : ealne od pone peal genuman, they took all as far as to 
 
 the wall (Bed., 1, 12). 
 Time: od pone dwg, until that day (B., 2399). Dative: od pisum dxgc, 
 
 unto this day (Horn., ii, 132). 
 Effect: unrot od dead, sorrowful unto death (Mc, xiv, 34). 
 Degree : ealrd od nytenu, (slew the first-born of the Egyptians) of all even 
 
 to the cattle (Psa., cxxxiv, 8). 
 
 348. of (§ 254, 2) + dat. Gothic <?/ translates ano, fram oft- 
 ener vvo ; in space and time relations they interchange ; in causal, 
 of is material cause, fram is efficient ; both take a dative. 
 
 Place whence: he dstdh of pam pxtere, he came out of the water (Matt., 
 iii, 16). 
 
 Time : of pam d<Tge, from that day (John, xi, 53). 
 
 State or circumstances : of sld'pe onpoc, awoke from sleep (C, 249, 2) ; 
 dli/s us of yfle, deliver us from evil (Matt., vi, 13) ; — any object of sepa- 
 ration (^ 301) : hdl of pysum, whole of this (Mc, v, 34 ; Luc, vii, 21). 
 
 Partitive : an of pysum, one of these (Matt., vi, 29). 
 
 Cause — material: of eordan geporht, made of earth (C, 365); dfedde 
 of fixum, fed with fishes (An., 589) ; redf of hedrum, garment of hair 
 (Matt., iii, 4) ; — source : of Geatd fruman syndon Cantpare, from the 
 Geats are the people of Kent (Bed., 483, 21); — author: gehyrde ofGode, 
 heard from God (John, viii, 40) ; I do nothing of myself, of me sylfum 
 (viii, 28); — agent: pxs of My r cum gecoren, was chosen by the Mer- 
 cians (Chr., 925). 
 
 349. ofer (§ 252, h) + dat., acc. Gothic dat., acc. 
 
 I. Dative. 
 Place — point higher than : ofer since salo hlifian, over the treasure a hall 
 stand (C, 2403); — surface on which: pind ofer ydum, wind upon the 
 waves (B., 1907).
 
 ox, TIL, t6. 167 
 
 Time : ofer pam dnum gedre, (live) over (^ longer than) the one year 
 
 (Horn., ii, 14G). 
 Degree: ofcr snupe sctnende, shining above (= brighter than) snow (Psa. 
 
 C, 75). 
 Rule : ofer deofium pealded, rules over devils (Dan., 7G5). 
 
 Accusative senses are frequently found with datives. 
 
 II. Accusatives, often used where geond or ssfter might be. 
 
 Place — motion or presence from side to side of an object: ofer ssi gcpi- 
 ton, over sea they went (Chr., 885) ; pieron pystru ofer ealle eordan, 
 there was darkness over all the earth (Matt., xxvii,45) ; — above it : hlypp 
 ofer heafod, (my sin) is gone over my head (Psa., xxxvii, 4) ; ofer peal, 
 got over a wall (Psa., xvii, 28) ; standende ofcr hig, standing over her 
 (Luc, iv, 39). Dative senses : ofer hrof hand scedpedon, showed the 
 hand above the roof (B., 983). 
 
 Time — extent : ofer ealne dwg, through the whole day (Jud., 28). Dative 
 sense: ofer midne dxg, after mid-day (C, 853), common. 
 
 Degree : ofcr ynce, over an inch (^(Ib., G7) ; — eminence : an steorra ofcr 
 odre bcorht, a star bright above others (Met., 29, 19). 
 
 Rule : pealded ofer eal manna cyn, ruleth over all mankind (Psa.,lxv, 6). 
 
 Conflict : ofer drihtnes pord, against the lord's command (C, 593) ; ofer 
 pillan, against the will (B., 2409). 
 
 Separation: ofer peepen, without a weapon (B., 685). 
 
 Exciting Object {^ 315) : ic hlissige ofer phire spreece,! rejoice over thy 
 speech (Psa., cxviii, 162). 
 
 Theme : he ofer benne sprxc, he talked about the wounds (B., 2724). 
 
 On and compounds, see in. 
 
 350. Samod (^ 255)+dat. : samod ^rdage, with dawn (B., 1311). 
 
 351. til, Northumbrian sometimes for to (§ 259) + dat. Goth., 
 Ang.-Sax. adjective; O.Norse preposition-fgen. 
 
 Cped til him, said to them (Matt., xxvi, 31); infinitive: til eotanne, to 
 eat (Matt., xxvi, 17); so in Orm. — common in Chaucer, WyclifTe ; often 
 with to or into; used in time, place, and dative relations as late as 
 Spenser. 
 
 352. to (§ 254, 3) + dat. (rave ace, gen., instr.). Goth, dat. 
 (rare ace). 
 
 Place — end of motion or extent: he to healle geung, he to the hall went 
 (B., 925) ; hu hedh to hefone, how high to heaven (Boet., 35, 4) ; bcseoh 
 to me, look at me (Psa., xii, 3)=on+acc. ; — after verbs of seeking, ask- 
 ing : sxcce secean tu Ilcorote, seek a fight at Heorot (B., 1990) ; dhsodc 
 to Frysum, asked among the Frisians (B., 1207) ^i^from. Compare ,rt, on. 
 
 Time — end of duration: 30000 /^m/ra to ptnum dedddipge, 30000 years tu
 
 168 TO, TO-EACAN, TU-PEAKD. 
 
 thy death-day (Soul, 37); — when: to cl.vgc Jnssum, to-day (C, 1031); 
 to mn-tidc, at noon-tide (Mc, xv, 31) ; — how long : to langrc hpllc, for 
 a long time (C, 489). 
 
 Degree : ge ctad to fyllc, ye shall eat to fullness (Lev., xxvi, 5). 
 
 Price : geseald to prim hund penegum, sold for three hundred pence (Mc., 
 xiv, 5). 
 
 Order: hchstne to him, highest next to him (C, 254). 
 
 Likeness : God gcsccop man to his anllcncsse, God made man in his like- 
 ness (Gen., i, 27). 
 
 End of action — object added to : to his anltcnessc, (add an ell) to his stat- 
 ure (Luc, xii, 25) ; gccleofod to mtnum gommn, cleaved to my gums 
 (Psa., xxi, 13) ; — of address or gesture : cpxct to him, said to him (Matt., 
 viii, 7) ; gebuge to, bow to a worse God (Jul., 361) ; — condition : dgeaf 
 pif to gepealde, gave a wife into his power (C, 1867) ; — act prepared 
 for : to gefeohte gearu, ready for fight (Num., xxi, 33) ; — purpose : lig to 
 prxce sende, sent fire for vengeance (C, 2584). Factitives : ceorfon 
 to sticcon, cut to pieces (Lev., i, 6) ; pe hahhad Abraham, to fmder, we 
 have Abraham as father (Matt., iii, 9) ; hine to sylfcpale nemnad, name 
 him a suicide (Ex., 330, 24). 
 IL Accusatives (rare). 
 
 Place: gojigan to Galileam, go to Galilee (Sat., 527). Time: to mor- 
 gen, this morning (C, 2438) ; to dxg, to-day (Psa., ii, 7). Condition: 
 to dead dcman, doom to death (Gu., 521). To ham faran, go home (B., 
 124) ; to honda, at hand (Gu., 102) ; to gepeald? (Jul., 86) ; to sod, in 
 truth ; and some other adverbial phrases are possibly accusatives. 
 in. Genitives — mostly with pxs, hpiss, middes : to pxs, to such a de- 
 gree (B., 1610), thither (B., 2410) ; to hpxs, whither (C. Exod., 192) ; to 
 
 middes dwges, at mid-day (Psa., xxxvi, 6). 
 
 IV. Instrumental : to hpi, wherefore (Hom., ii, 134). 
 
 V. Infinitive — purpose or end : mxl is me to feran, it is time for me 
 to go (B., 316). Gerund: he com cordan to demanne, he came to judge 
 the earth (Psa., xcvii, 8). 
 
 to-eacan {^ 258)--t-dat. : to-edcan pam, in addition to these (Boet., 26, 2). 
 
 to-foran (^ 257) + dat. Place : toforan him gegaderode, gathered be- 
 fore him (Matt., xxv, 32). Time : toforan pam dxge, before the day 
 (Chr.,1106). 
 
 to-gegnes, -genes, -gednes (^ 258)-t-dat., ace. : him togednes rdd, rode 
 against him (B., 1893). Time : togednes Edstron, against Easter 
 (Chr., 1095). Ace. (Gen., xiv, 17). See further ongegn. 
 
 to-middes (^ 258)-}- gen., dat. : to-middes heard, in the midst of them 
 (John, viii, 3). Dative : to-middes pmm pxtsrum, amidst the waters 
 (Gen., i, 6). 
 
 to-peard, -peardes (^^ 259; 251, 1): topard Huntendune, lie toward 
 Huntingdon (Chr., 656) ; ferdon topardes Ou, went towards Ou (Chr., 
 1094).
 
 PURH, UFAN, UNDER. 169 
 
 t6-pi(lere (^^ 255, 359) + clat., ace: prddum topidere, answer to ( = 
 against) enemies (Cri., 185) ; pig topidere, to hold against a fight (Ex., 
 341, 20). 
 
 353. l)urh (§ 253, 3) +acc. (rare dat., gen.). Goth. ace. 
 
 Place — motion into and out at the opposite side : gan piirh unre n&dle 
 ^%6>go through a needle's eye (Luc.,xviii, 25) ; purh heard midlen,\\ent 
 through their midst (Luc, iv, 30) ; — simple extent {=^gconcl) : Ixrende 
 purh ealle /M^eam, teaching throughout all Judea (Luc, xxiii, 5). 
 
 Time : purh ealne dxg, through the whole day (Psa., Ixxiii, 21) ; Jnirh 
 sleep, (spoke to him) during sleep (C, 2641). 
 
 Cause — agent; pxs geporht purh hme, was made by him (John, i, 10); 
 — means : Jjurh dryhtnes pord, (light was named day) by God's word (C, 
 130); — motive: purh femdscipe, through hatred (C, 610) ; lust (Ex., 
 23, 15); — reason: purh Jjxt, Lat. propter hoc, for that reason (Gen., 
 xxxvii, 5) ; oath (Lat. per) : ic sperige purh me silfne, I swear by my- 
 self (Gen., xxii, 16). See on. 
 
 Manner : purh endebyrdnesse singan, sing in order (Bed., 4, 24) ; deman 
 purh his d&da,\\xAge according to his deeds (Sat., 623). Co-existence : 
 cennan purh sdr inicel sunu, to bring forth with pain many a son (C, 924). 
 n. Dative — place : perh hiord middum, went through their midst (North. 
 
 Luc. iv, 30) ; means : jmrh costnungum gepenian, seduce by temptations 
 
 (Job, 165). 
 
 IIL Genitive — means : geclainsode purh pxs huselganges, purified by the 
 sacrament (Horn., ii, 206). 
 
 ut }>urh> Semi-Sax. Jnirh w<>Eng. throughout is common. 
 
 354. ufan, adv. See hiifan, onufan, 
 
 355. under (§ 255) -j-dat., ace. Gotb. Mnf7ar, + aec; undaro^ 
 + dat. O. Sax, i«n£?ar, -6?- y O.ll.QQwuntar ; O. 'N ovsq imdr. 
 
 Place — where its object would fall, or overshadow : pu pxre under Jjam fic- 
 treope, thou wast under the fig-tree (John, i, 48) ; under beorge, at the foot 
 of the mountain (B.,2559) ; — or cover, or enclose : under hearmlocon, un- 
 der lock=in prison (El., 695 ; C., 6, 19) ; — dress : under helmc, helmeted 
 (B., 342, 2539) ; under gyldnum ledge, wearing a golden diadem (B., 
 1103). 
 
 Time : under pdm, Lat. inter hxc, in the midst of these things (Chr., 876) ; 
 so in O. Sax. 
 
 Personal — rank, rule : pcgnds under mc, servants under me (INIatt., viii, 9) ; 
 under Northmannum, under the rule of the Northmen (Chr., 942) ; under 
 on/JcaWe, under authority (901). 
 IL Accusative. 
 
 Place — after motion : under hrufgcfur, went under a roof (C, 1360) ; — di-
 
 170 UNDER-NEOBAN, UPPAN, UTAN, PANA, PID. 
 
 rcction : under bwc, backwards (C.,2562) ; — extent like a dative : under 
 roderd rum, under the expanse of the heavens (C, 1166). 
 Personal: tinder helle cin, amontj the race of hell (Ex., 99, 5), so O. Sax- 
 on ; under hand sj>sordcs, (give) to the sword (sunder the hand ofj (Psa., 
 Ixii, 8). 
 
 under-neoJan (+clat). Xot in Layamon, Orm.; rare O. 
 
 Enrjlish. 
 
 pxs undernxden hisfote, (support which) was underneath his foot (Chr., 
 1070). 
 
 356. uppan (§ 257) +dat., ace. Goth, iupa, adv.; O. Saxon 
 V2)pcm,-en; O. Norse upd ; O. H. G.'d/an. Perhaps tw^o words, 
 derivative i<j':>7:)«?i<t<^, and comiDouiul w_p-f-07i, have mixed. 
 
 Place — on a high object : ge-offrd hine uppon dure dune, offer him upon a 
 
 hill (Gen.,xxii, 2) ; uppan assene,xiAe upon an ass (Matt.,xxi, 5) ; — over: 
 
 him uppan, above him the cross was raised (El., 886). 
 Time: uppon Edstron,Si{teT Easter (Chr., 1095). 
 Separation : uppon him genum,en hxfde, had taken from them (Ciir., 1 106). 
 
 II. Accusative. 
 Place — after motion : me dhof uppon hedhne stdn, raised me upon a high 
 
 stone (Psa., xxvi, 6) ; but dat. and ace. mix (Exod., xxxiv, 2). 
 Time : uppon Pentecosten, a.t Pentecost (Chr., 1095) ; — succession: segdcr 
 
 uppon oderne, one upon another (Chr., 1094). 
 Opposition : uppon pone eorl pan, fought against the earl (Chr., 1095) ; 
 
 tealde, charged against the king (Chr., 1094). 
 
 357. utan (§ 257) +genilive. Goth. ?<toia+ gen. 
 
 Place : innon landes odde uton landes, W\i\i\n or out of the land {JEds,\\, 
 8, 2). See b-utan, on-b-utan, pid-utan, ymb-utan. 
 
 358. pana (§ 259) -f genitive. Goih. vans ; O. N. ■yanr, adj. 
 
 dnes pana prittigum, thirty less one (Bed., 1,1). Same idiom in Gothic, 
 etc. See ^317, J. 
 
 359. pid (§ 254, 1) +acc., dat., gen. Goth, vipra 4-acc. ; O. 
 Norse ace, dat. In senses analogous to Latin contra^ opposite ; 
 but gradually absorbing mid, § 343. The accusative and dative 
 are not Avholly separable in sense; they often interchange in the 
 same passage. 
 
 I. Accusative. 
 Space — beside, along : sum feol pid pone peg, some (seed) fell along the 
 way (Luc, viii, 5) ; code pid pa sic, went along the sea-side (Matt., iv, IB) ;
 
 PIDER, PIB-^FTAN, PIB-EASTAN. 171 
 
 pid peal, (set their shields) against the wall (B., 326) ; pid pxs H&lendes 
 fct, (sat) by the Savior's feet (Luc, x, 39) 
 Other Relations — association: he pid pulf, he with the wolf (stripped the 
 dead) (B.,3027) ; hagol pid fyr gemenged, hail with fire mixed (Exod., 
 ix, 24) ; — conversation : pid Abraham sprecan, to talk with Abraham (C, 
 2405) ; — comparison : pid sunnan leoht, (the brightness of the stars is not 
 to be set) beside sunlight (Met., 6, 7) ; — hostility : pan pid paldend, fought 
 against the lord (C, 303) ; yrre pid me, angry against me (Gen., xli, 10) ; 
 — defence : unc pid hronfixds perian, to guard us against whales (B., 540) ; 
 pid hearm, against harm (C, 245, 6) ; — friendship, agreement: beo pid 
 Gcdtds glxd,he with the Geats friendly (B., 1173) ; acordedan pid hine, 
 they agreed with him (Chr., 1120). 
 
 II. Dative. 
 
 Place — position opposite : sxpeal uplang gestod pid Israhelum, the sea- 
 wall stood upright next to the Israelites (C, 197, 8) ; — from far to near 
 (^ 299) : tedh hine pid hijre peard, drew him toward her (Jud., 99) ; so 
 after go near (Sat., 249); grasp after (B., 439); strike against (B., 
 1566) ; — from union to near : gesundrode leoht pid peostrum, separated 
 light from darkness (C, 127). 
 
 Other Relations — association : teofanude wghpylc pid odrum, associated 
 each with the others (Sch., 44) ; mengan lige pid si)de, mingle falsehood 
 Avith truth (El., 307) ; — conversation : pid Abrahame sprwc, talked with 
 Abraham (C, 2303) ; — exchange : he -sealde &lcon senne penig pid hys 
 dxges peorce,he paid to each a penny for his day'^ work (Matt., xx, 2) ; 
 
 . — opposition: pid Gcde punnon, fight against God (B., 113); put pinde 
 roped, rows against the wind (Ex., 345, 12) ; pid rihte, against right (B., 
 144) ; — defence : helpan pid lige, help against fire (B., 2341) ; pid cpealme 
 gebearh cnihtum,s\i\e[A the youths from death (C.,246,7); — separation; 
 mod pid dredmum gedxldc, mind from enjoyments sundered (Ex., 146, 18). 
 
 III. Genitive. 
 
 Place — towards an object exciting desire or dread (see ^ 315) : bescah un- 
 derbade pid pxs pifes, (Orpheus) looked hack after the woman (Eurydice) 
 (Boet., 35, 6) ; let jleogan hafoc pid pxs holies, let the hawk fly to the 
 wood (By., 8) ; pid pxs fiestengeates folc onette, toward the city gate 
 folks hastened (Jud., 162); hndh dledt pid pxs engles, looted low before 
 the angel (Num.,xxii, 31). 
 
 Abstract — defence : hied pid hungrcs, protection against hunger (EI., G16) ; 
 pid yfcld gefreo us, deliver us from evils (Ily., 6, 31). 
 
 pider (§ 255)+acc. : pider me pxron, they were against me (Psa., \\\ 
 
 5). See tb-pidere. 
 pi(t-aeftan (^ 257)-(-acc. : pid-xftan Ais/e/, behind at his feet (Luc.,vii, 
 
 38 ; Mrc, v, 27). Better pid xflan. 
 piil-eastau, -nordan, -sudan, -\-a.cc., dat. : next eastward of, etc. (Oros., 
 
 1,1).
 
 1 72 PID-F0RAN.—YMB(E).- ADJECTIVE. 
 
 piit-foran (^ 257)+acc. : pidforan pd sunnan, before the sun (Boat., 
 39, 13). 
 
 pid-geondan (^ ii5T)+acc. : jmtgcondan lorddncn, beyond Jordan (Matt., 
 iii, 5). 
 
 pid-innan (^ 257) + ace.: pidinnan pintan-ceastra, within Winchester 
 
 (Chr.,nG3). 
 pid-utan {^ 257)+acc., dat. Place : pidutan pa pkstopc, without tlie 
 
 camp (Lev., xxiv, 14). Dat. (Oros., 2, 4, G) ;— maimer : iilcon pxpnon, 
 
 without any weapons (Chr., 1087). 
 pid peard (separate) : pid hcofonds peard, towards heaven (Horn., i, 
 
 4G) ; pid hire peard, towards her (Jud., 99). 
 
 3C0. ymb(e), emh(e) (§ 254, 2) +acc. (rare dat.). O. Sax. ace; 
 O. Norse ace, dat. 
 
 Place : gyrdel ymhe lendcnu, girdle around his loins (Matt., iii, 4) ; ymb 
 
 hine sxt, (a multitude) sat around him (Mc, iii, 32). 
 Time : (1) ymb dntid, about the first hour (B., 219) ; (2) ymh pucan, after 
 
 a week (C, 2769); (3) ymb dne niht, v/ithin one night (Chr., 878) ; 
 
 (4) ymb preo niht, three nights before (Sat., 426). 
 Theme : ford sprecan ymb Grendel, to speak about Grendel (B., 2070) ; 
 
 ymb pd fyrde pencean, to think about the expedition (C.,408). So after 
 
 to wonder (EL, 959) ; care (B., 1536) ; strive (Gn. C.,55); and the like ; 
 
 hig dydon ymbe hyne, they acted about him=they did to him (Matt., xvii, 
 
 12). 
 
 Dative (generally after its case) : him ymle gestodon, around him stood (B., 
 2597) ; sprxc ymb his msege, spoke of his kinsman (Hell., 25). 
 ymb-utan (^ 257)+acc. ; — place : licgad me ymbutan, lieth round about 
 
 me (C, 382) ; ymbiitan eop, (why seek) without you (what is within) 
 
 (Boet., 11, 2) 
 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 361. An Adjective agrees with its Substantive in gender, 
 number, and case. 
 
 (a.) This rule applies to the articles, adjective pronouns, and participles. 
 
 (J).) An infinitive or clause may take an adjective in the neuter singular : 
 leofre is us gefonjisc, to catch fish is pleasanter to us (^If.) ; gbd is pmt ic 
 on God hyht sctte, it is good that I hope in God (Psa., Ixxii, 23). 
 
 (c.) Indefinite. An adjective is often used indefinitely in the masculine 
 for a person, or neuter for a thing : se blinda, gif he blindne hit, the blind, 
 if he lead the blind (Matt., xv, 14) ; me pijrse gelamp,2, worse thing hap- 
 pened to me (Sat., 175). 
 
 {d) Noun understood : Englisc ne cude, did not know English (speech) 
 (Bed., 3, 3) ; ptn spydre, thy right (hand) (Matt., vi, 3).
 
 ADJECTIVE, STRONG OR WEAK. 173 
 
 (e.) Collectives singular may take a plural by synesis : seo heard 
 purdon dd rune ene, the herd were drowned (Mc.,5, 13). 
 
 (/.) Copulative singulars may take a plural, or have a repeated singu- 
 lar understood : p&ron gehdlgode Eadhxd, and Bosa and Edta, Edhed, and 
 Bosa, and Eata were consecrated (Bed., 4, 12); eddig is se innod, and pd 
 breost, blessed is the womb, and the breast (Lc, 11, 27). 
 
 (g.) Partitives. Neuter partitives may be used for agreeing adjectives 
 (^ 312, a) : ndn ping grenes, nothing green (Exod., 10, 15). 
 
 Steong or Weak, §§ 103+. 
 
 362. The weak forms are used after the definite article, demon- 
 stratives, and possessives ; and often in attributive vocatives, in- 
 strumentals, and genitives. The comparative forms are all weak : 
 
 1. Article : se ofermoda cyning, the proud king (C.,338). Exceptions 
 are rare: sio hdlig roc?, the holy rood (El., 720); se Gder,\\\e other 
 (B., 2061). For present participles, see ^ 119, b. 
 
 The article is sometimes omitted before the weak form of a current epi- 
 thet, especially in epic forms: hrefn blaca,h\z.ck raven (B., 1801); 
 7nihtigan dryhtne, mighty lord (B., 1398). 
 
 Demonstrative : of pissmn Ionian life, in this long life (C, 1211). 
 Exceptions occur : on pissumlsenum life (Kt., 109). 
 
 2. Possessive : minne strongUcan stol, my strong throne (C, 366). 
 The article is often inserted : min se heofenlica fxder, my heavenly 
 father (Matt., xviii, 35). Strong forms are frequent: minne spelne 
 hldf, my sweet bread (Psa., ci, 4). His, and other possessives of the 
 the third person, are regularly followed by a strong form or inserted 
 article : mid his dgenum redfe, with his own robe (Matt, xxvii., 31) ; 
 his se deora snnu, his dear son (Sat., 243) ; stnne driorigne (B., 2789). 
 
 3. Vocative : blindan latteopds, blind guides (Matt., xxiii, 16); ge 
 blindan, ye blind; ge dysigan, ye foolish (Matt., xxiii, 17). For 
 other examples, and inserted article, see ^ 289. 
 
 4. Instrumental : leuhtan speorde,\v\ih. a bright sword (B., 2492). 
 
 5. Genitive : Ixnan lifes, (end) of a long life (B., 2845); so C, 1, 13 ; 
 231,13; Ex., 4, 25; 11,4. 
 
 6. Comparatives : ludran landscipc, (I never saw a) loathlicr landscape 
 (C, 370) ; pxs bctcra Jjonne ic, he was better than I (B., 409). 
 
 363. In other cases strong forms are used. 
 
 1. No definitive : Jju cart heard man, thou are a hard man (Matt, xxv, 
 24); — vocative: pu riht cyning, thou true king (Ex., 2, 13); — instru- 
 mental: rcdde lege, with red flame (C, 44); — genitive: mihtiges 
 Godes mod, mighty God's wrath (C, 403); — predicate: Eddige synd 
 /)«, blessed are they (Matt., v, 3); — superlative : se pxs lcofdst,hQ was 
 dearest (B., 1296). For exceptions, see over, ^ 302.
 
 174 TERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 3. With the indefinite article : of slogan ainne Bryttiscnc cyning, slew 
 
 a British king (Chr.,508) ; Anne leofestne sunu, (he had) a dearest son 
 
 (Mrc, 12, 6). 
 
 3G4. These uses are establislicd in Gothic, except tliat with the possess- 
 
 ives, and perhaps the demonstratives, of some of which examples do not 
 
 occur. The weak form has spread in High German. See § 107. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 365. A Substantive Pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
 in gender, number, and person. 
 
 8GQ. — I.Peesonal Pkonouns, §§ 13 0+. 
 
 1. Omitted subject: — imperative (regular) : arts, arise (thou) (Matt., ii, 
 20) ; — repeated in a concessive clause : punige peer he punige, dwell 
 (he) where he may dwell (^ctr., 5, 6) ; — reflexives: pende hine, (he) 
 turned him (C.,34, 33); — other cases (rare): ndt Jjufare, (I) know not 
 whether thou come (C, 34, 2) ; bist ful Iidlgan hyhtes, (thou) art full 
 of holy joy (Ex., 4, 24). 
 
 2. Repeated subject : § 287, definitive. 
 
 3. First person plural for singular by authors and preachers : nu pille 
 pe reccaw, now will we (I) recount (Oros., 1, 1, 11); — so (Horn., 2, 446). 
 Kings say ic, or pe for themselves and council : ic JEdelstdn cyning 
 (LL., 1) ; pe (LL. Ina. 1, 1), but Beowulf used the plural majestatis 
 (B., 958, 1652) ; in Norman French nous (LL. William, 1, 41). Ye 
 and you as pronomen reverentiae appear first in Old English. 
 
 4. Dual: — interchange with plural: gelyfe gyt, — pirniad pxt ge ne 
 5£?co-o«, believe ye * * take heed that ye tell not (Matt., ix, 28-30) ; — 
 strengthened by bu, bu tu, bd, bd tpd {^ 141) : pit bu druncon, we two 
 both drank (Bed., 5, 3) ; — with single appositive : unc, Adame, to us, 
 (me and) Adam (C, 387, see ^ 287, g). 
 
 5. Hit may represent a definite object of any gender or person : etad 
 pisne hldf, hit is min lichama, eat this bread, it is my body (Horn., 2, 
 266) ; hit {seo sunne) pssre birnende stdn, it (the sun) is burning stone 
 (A. R. Ett., 39) ; ic hit earn, I am it = he (Matt., xiv, 27) ; ic sylf hit 
 com (Luc, xxiv, 39) ; pit hit cart (Matt., xiv, 28) ; — or a clause : hit is 
 upriten, ne costnu pu, it is written. Do not thou tempt (Matt, iv, 7) ; — 
 an indefinite subject — an operation of nature or chance : hit sntpd, it 
 snows (^If. Gr., 24) ; hit gdimpcd, it happens (B., 1753) ; — a date : hit 
 pxs pinter, it was winter (John x, 22) ; hit iifenl&cp, it is evening (Luc, 
 xxiv, 29); — appetites, notions, and the like: (rare) hit Itcode Hcrode, 
 it pleased Herod (Matt., xiv, 6). 
 
 6. Indefinite persons are denoted by hi: ponne hig pyr'iad eo/>, when 
 men shall revile you (Matt.,v, II).
 
 POSSESSIVES.— DEMONSTRATIVES. 175 
 
 7. Cases mix, dative me with accusatiA^e mec, pe with pec, us with usic, 
 cup with eopic. The dative finally displaced the accusative ; so also 
 liave him and them in English. Nominatives also give place to the 
 oblique cases : he is strongra pon m.ec, he is stronger than me = I 
 (Matt., iii, 11, Northum.) ; h'wiself, etc., see ^ 306, 10. 
 
 8. Personal pronouns are often reflexives : ic me resle, I rest myself 
 (Ex., 494, 8) ; restad eup, rest yourselves OElfd., 3) ; gegadorode miccl 
 folc hit, a great crowd gathered itself (Chr., 921). See 10. 
 
 9. Personals reciprocals : hig hetpeox him cpsiidon, they said among 
 themselves (Mrc, 1,27). 
 
 10. Strengthened by agen, an, self CCor declensions, see ^^ iSl-f-) : Jnn 
 ugen beam, thy own child (C, 144, 27) ; hire dgen beam, her own 
 child (158, 6); pinum agnum fotum (173, 2) ; ic ana atbxrst,! alone 
 escaped (Job, 165); ic selfa,! myself (C, 35, II); pii seZ/iz, thyself 
 (36, 12) ; pm sxjlfa, feminine (Ex. 262, 32) ; ge sylfe (John, iii, 28) ; he 
 i-y// (C, 35, 18). Accusative for nominative: pe sy If cyme, ihyseli 
 come (Ex., 8, 8) ; Pilatus hym sylf uprdt, Pilate himself wrote all this 
 (Nic, 34) ; — reflexive : lufd pinne nchstan spa pe sylfne, love thy 
 neighbor as thyself (Matt., xix, 19) ; — possessive : Pun sylfes beam, thy 
 own child (C. 176, 34); hire sclfre sund,\\er own sons (B.,1115); — 
 pronoun omitted : scolfcs bhedum, its own shoots (C, 248, 17). 
 
 11. Personals with pe as relatives, see relatives. 
 
 Possessive s, § 13 2. 
 
 oG7. — 1. The possessives couple with a demonstrative without weak 
 flexion : Jjcs min sunu pxs dead, this my son was dead (Luc. xv, 24) ; 
 min se gccorena sunu, my chosen son (Matt., iii, 17). 
 
 2. Sin and his : his hearran, drihtcn sinne, his lord (C, 19, 20). See 
 
 ^ 132,5. 
 
 3. For genitive ending : Enac his cynryn, Anak's children (Num., xiii, 
 29) ; Gode his naman c'igdan, call on God his name (Psa. xcviii, 6), 
 doubtful ; common in Layamon and Old English, where also her: Pallas 
 her glass=:Pallas''s glass (Bacon). 
 
 4. Omitted : mid handum, (T can work) with my hands (C, 18, 27). 
 
 5. Without its substantive : ealle mine synd ^me, all mine are thine 
 (John, xvii, 10); heard is heofenan, rice, theirs is heaven's kingdom 
 (Matt., v, 10). In Layamon, /2eorcn>01d Engl. /ieru?i>Engl. hers; 
 ourun^ours, etc. 
 
 D E M O N S T K A T I V E S, § 13 3. 
 
 1. Se, seo, l)cet, as an article. 
 368. The definite article marks its object, 
 
 (a.) As before mentioned or well knovrn : porhte fen, and smyrede 
 mid pjam fcnne,he made clay, and anointed with the clay (John, ix, 6) ; se
 
 176 THE ARTICLE USED, OMITTED. 
 
 Hd'lcnd, the Savior (Luc, x, 38) ; piere eordan, the earth (John, viii, 6) ; — 
 proper names : Hloitpiges sunu. Se Hlodpig pxs Carles hrudor (Chr., 885) ; 
 Pxnc lie rode in, tho (rainous) Ilcrod (Matt., ii, 22). 
 
 (6.) As further described, hy a clause : pam hurc par hco Jnnc Lrg, the 
 bower wherein she hiy (Ap., 1) ; se Bcopulf, se pe pid Brecan punne, the 
 Beowulf, who fought with Breca (B., 50G); — by an appositive : pxs muntes 
 Syon,i\\G mount Sion (Psa., xlvii, 2) ; — by an adjective: pxt betste hors, 
 the best horse (Bed., 3, 14) ; sc hdlga Gudldc, the holy Guthlac (St. G., 4) ; 
 seo Magdalenisce Maria, the Mary called Magdalene (Matt., xxvii, 56) ; — 
 by a possessive : pam hlaforde pxs huses, the lord of the house (Bed., 3, 
 10) ; — by relation to other objects mentioned (often possessive) : gefyldon 
 pa ud pone brerd, they filled it to the (=its) brim (John, ii, 7) ; pjam geate, 
 (into the sheepfold) at the (=its) gate (John, x, 1). 
 
 (c.) As a definite whole : pa ludeds, the Jews (John, vii, 1) ; pd clxn- 
 /ico?-^«?i, blessed are the pure in heart (Matt., v, 8); — a personified abstract: 
 se ;>i5t?o»j, Wisdom (Boet., 3, 3). 
 
 309. The article is often omitted where it might be used. It is i;sed less in Anglo- 
 Saxon than in Gothic or Old High German, and very rarely in the oldest poetry, e. g., 
 twice in the Traveler's Song, 19 times in the first 537 lines of Beo\vnlf, 12 times in 268 lines 
 of Cffidmon (Grimm D. G., 4, 420). The steadiest uses are those in 368, b. Proper names 
 of places and times, which are compounded with or described by appellatives, often take 
 the article without further reason. Folk names under c varj'. 
 
 (a.) Marked cases of the omission of articles are (1) after a genitive, (2) with an object 
 compared, (3) with a negative, (4) superlatives, (.5) copulative or disjunctive singulars mean- 
 ing many, (6) a repeated word in correlation, (7) predicate nominative, (8) factitive object, 
 (9), after prepositions with names of places, parts of a house, parts of the body, (10), before 
 an attributive adjective, genitive, or appositive. 
 
 (1) Mid Godes gife, by God's gift (In. LL. 1) ; pxs folces priterds, the 
 scribes of the people (Matt., ii, 4, so oftenest) ; pxre Godes liifan, the love 
 of God (St. G., 2) ; ^ 367, 1 ; (2) strengre panne ruse, more fragrant than 
 (the) rose (Rid., 41, 24) ; {^) peof ne cymd,thie? comes not (John x, 10) ; 
 (4) idesd scenost, fairest of women (C, G26) ; (5) berad bord and ord, 
 (chosen men) bear shield and spear (El., 1187); {(S) pxs adxled pxtcr of 
 pxtrum, then was parted (the) water from (the) waters (C, 152) ; (7) be 
 pxs man-slaga, he was (a) murderer (John, viii, 44) ; (8) hine heold for 
 fulne cyning, took him for full king (Chr., 1013) ; to hlaforde (921) ; (9) 
 on sx, on (the) sea (Ap., 19) ; on sande (C, 242) ; xt huse, at home (Psa., 
 cxi, 3) ; lit of healle, out of (the) hall (B., 663) ; beforan durd, before (the) 
 door (Mc, 11,4); on bed gdn, go to bed (C, 2234) ; cpxdan on heortan, 
 said in heart (Psa., Ixxiii, 8) ; xt fotum (B., 500) ; on cncopum (C., 227, 2), 
 etc., abundantly ; (10) hxfdon langne speoran, they had (a) long neck (St. 
 G., 5) ; cli/piendcs stcfn, the voice of one crying (Matt., iii, 3) ; JElfred 
 cynf?)^-, Alfred king (Chr., 894). 
 
 370. The article vT-ith an adjective is frequent, to point out persons: 
 se dumba sprxc, the dumb spake (Matt., ix, 33) ; — or things (rare) : Phi 
 topeardan, the future things (St. G., 13) ; — in apposition with a proper 
 name: Sidroc sc geonga, Sidroc the younger (Chr., 871) ; — so also: hellc
 
 DEMONSTRATIVES. 177 
 
 pxre hdtan,hG\\ the hot (C, 362). Just so participles: pa timhriendan, 
 those building (Matt., xxi, 42) ; for pdm gecorenum, for the chosen (xxiv, 
 22) ; pa geladodan, those invited (xxii, 3). 
 
 371. With a numeral : Pm tpclfe,the twelve (Mc, 4, 10) ; pjxt an (Matt., 
 V, 47) ; 56 eahtoda dxg, the eighth day (St. G., 3). 
 
 372. With pronouns : /a odre, the others (I\Iatt., xxvii, 49) ; 56 pe, the 
 which (Bed., 2, 5) ; calpxt land, all the land (Matt., ix, 26) ; butu pa scypu, 
 both the ships (Luc, v, 7) ; so : healfne pone speoran, half the neck (Jud., 
 105) ; — possessives, see § 367. 
 
 373. The article is repeated with copulative words oftener than in En- 
 glish : pxt gold and pxt seolfor, the gold and the silver (Apol., 14) ; — some- 
 times a plural is used with two singulars : hyre pa leofstan hlaford and sunu, 
 her (the) dearest lord and son (Chr., 1093). 
 
 Se, seo, l:)a3t; ]pes, Jdcus, jpis, § 133. 
 
 374. Se is less emphatic than ]5es. Both deuote the near ob- 
 ject, or an antecedent to a relative. 
 
 1. Se is often nearly the third pronoun : spungon Mg pone, and forleton 
 hine, they beat that one (him), and sent him away (Mc, xii, 3). Note seo 
 >Eng. 5Ae, ^a>Eng. they ; Lat. hie. 
 
 2. pxt and pis are often used without agreement in gender or number : 
 Jjxt pxs god cyning, that was a good king (B., 11) ; pjxt pxron pa &restan 
 scipu, that (those) were the first ships (Chr., 787) ; pis is seo eorde, this is 
 the earth (C, 1787) ; pis sint pa bebodu, this (these) are the statutes (Lev., 
 xxvi,46). Compare /m^, ^ 366, 5. German cs smt?. 
 
 3. Antecedent : se pe bryde hxfd, se is brydguma, he is bridegroom, 
 (the which), who has the bride (John, iii, 29) ; pxt pe dcenned is of flxsce, 
 pxt is floisc, that is flesh, the which is born of the flesh (iii, 6) ; rare with 
 pes (John, i, 15, North.). 
 
 4. 6d Pjis,i\\\ now (Bas. Hex.,G) ; but generally these two ycars=:nu tpa 
 gear (Gen.,xlv, 6). 
 
 5. This and that^the former, the latter, are not expressed by pns,pxt; 
 but se xrra, se xflera (Bed., 4, 23). A discriminated remoter object is 
 rare. 
 
 6. Pyy md, Lat. eo magis, more by that (so much the more) (C, 54, 33) ; 
 Pry hcardra, the harder=:harder by that (80, 8) ; § 302, d. 
 
 ?Ab.ylc,pylc, spylc (^ 133, 3). Ylc couples with the article or demon- 
 strative ; pylc and spylc may be used as adjectives or substantives ; pxt ylce 
 leoht,the same light (C, 301, 34) ; such (Luc, ix, 9) ; PjylUc, such (Boet., 
 39, 3 ; Matt., xviii, 5) ; spylc, such (Mc, iv, 33 ; Boet., 38, 2). 
 
 376. SelfC^ 131), with personal pronouns (^ 366, 10), with substantives: 
 pxre sylfan stipe, the same place (John, xi, G) ; se cyning sylfa, the king 
 himself (Ex., 2, 1) ; se peoden self, the Lord himself (C, 9, 10) ; on pxt 
 dxgred sylf, at the dawn exactly (Jud., 204). 
 
 M
 
 178 SYNTAX.— INTERKOGATIVES. 
 
 Inteekogatives. 
 
 377. Hpa, hprct (§ 135). 
 
 Ilpd asks mostly for persons : hpa prat hocstafds xrcst, who wrote letters 
 first? (A. R., 40). 
 
 Hpxt asks (1) for neuters, (2) for an answer without regard to gender or 
 number, (3) for a special character or part of an object : 
 
 (1) Hpxt nxddercynna si on eordan, what of snake kind are on the 
 earth? (A. R., 41) ; (2) hpxt syndon ^-tjwhat (who) are you? (B., 237) ; 
 hpxt is se cynmg, who is the king (of glory)? (Psa., xxiii, 10) : com- 
 pare pxt,pis (^ 374, 2); (3) hpmt godes do ic, what (of) good thing 
 must I do? (Matt., xix, 16) ; hpxt nipes, what of new? (Ex., 441, 22) ; 
 hpxt peorces, \vha.t kind of work? (^lf)>01d English adjective use: 
 whatt weorrc (Orm., 1833). 
 (a.) Hpxt is se pe me xthrdn, what is he who touched me (=cmphatic 
 ivho), Lat. quis est qui (Luc, viii, 45). 
 
 (b.) Interjection, opening poems, etc., Hpxt! pe Gdr-Dcnd (B.). 
 (c.) Hpxne secgad men pxt sy m,annes 5m?im, whom say men that the Son 
 of Man may be? Hpxne (Thorpe), North, huelcne is used for hpxt of other 
 A. Sax. versions in imitation of the Latin Qucm dicunt homijics esse Filium 
 hominis (Matt., xvi, 13), making anacoluthon, ^ 293. 
 
 378. Hpseder (which of two), and lipilc (what kind of, which among 
 like), may agree as adjectives, or govern a genitive : hpxder uncer tpegd, 
 which of us two (B., 2530 ; Matt., xxi, 31 ; A. R., 39) ; hpylc man (A. R., 
 <40) ; hpilc manna (.^Elfc). 
 
 For interrogatives as indefinites and relatives, see ^^ 382, 390. 
 
 Relatives, § 13 4. 
 
 379. Relative clauses in the Teutouic tongues are oftencst con- 
 structed like leading clauses with a demonstrative, j^ersonal, or 
 interrogative pronoun. Tliey are made relative, i. e., subordinate 
 adjective, by tone alone, or by a relative particle 7^6 added. The 
 Sanskrit and Greek have jDcculiar forms for the relative ; the 
 Latin qui is from the interrogative >2'?a's. 
 
 380 — A. Demonstrative Forms. 
 
 1. <Sc, SCO, pxt alone : pd feng Nero to rice, se forlct Britene, then came 
 Nero to the kingdom, who (that one) lost Britain (Chr.,47) ; se purhpunad, 
 se byd hdl, who endureth, he shall be saved (Matt., x, 22) ; — antecedent 
 omitted : pxt ge gehyrad, bodiad, that ye hear, preach (it) (Matt., x, 27). 
 
 2. pxt pxt, whatever: pxt pxt lator bid, pxt hxfd angin, whatever later 
 is, that has beginning (Hom., i, 284). 
 
 3. Se, se6,pxt with indeclinable sign pe : Augustinum, pone pe hi gecoren 
 hxfdon, Augustine, whom (the one that) they had chosen (Bed., 1, 23) ; pd 
 ungeledfsuman, pdrd pe hi pd gereorde ne cMan, the unbelievers, of whom
 
 RELATIVES. I79 
 
 they the speech did not know (Bed., 1, 23) ; pxt pe^lmtte may refer to a. 
 sentence (Bed., 2, 7). 
 
 i. pe alone: se stun, ptc,i\\Q stone, that (the builders rejected) (INIc, xii, 
 10) ; pa mdctmas, pe, the treasures, that (thou gavest me) (B., 1482) ; — an 
 'antecedent omitted : nu synd fordfarene pe sohton, now are gone (those) who 
 sought (Matt., ii, 20). 
 
 From 7;e a preposition is usually separated : Jjxt bed,pe se lama on Ixg, 
 the bed that the lame one on lay (Mc, ii, 4). 
 
 5. Spylc — spylc : he sice spylcne hldford, spylcne he pille, he may seek 
 such a lord, as he may choose (^ds., v, 1, 1) ; spylce burh, spylce seo pies, 
 such a city, as it was (Oros., ii, 4, 5). 
 
 6. Spa : spylcrd yrmdd, spa pu unc &r serif e, of such miseries, as thou 
 to us before assigned (Ex., 373, 2). Compare German so, Engl, as, and 
 §382,2. 
 
 381. — B. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. Alone. In O. H. German, clauses with the personal pronouns are 
 made relative without further sign : Fatcr unser du pist in himilum, our 
 Father, who (thou) art in heaven (Schade, 8; Grimm, iii, 17). 
 
 2. Personals -witli indeclinable pe or se : hpxt ic hdtte, pc ic land 
 redfige, what am I called, who (i. e. I) the land ravage? (Rid., 13, 14) ; se 
 mec, whom (i. e. me) (Ex., 144, 9) ; Jie pe, (we) who (Cri., 25) ; Fxdcr 
 ure,pu pe earl on Jieofenum, our Father, who (thou) art in heaven (Matt., 
 vi, 9); /e Jju, (Hy., 8, 13); 7;e he (Psa., Ixvii, 4); pe his, whpse (Psa., 
 xxxix, 4) ; pe him, to whom (Psa., cxlv, 4)^se him (C, 201, 31) ; — Jje sep- 
 arated : hpxt se god pxre,pe pis his bedcen pxs, of what sort the god was, 
 that this was his sign=:whose sign this was (El., 162). The German re- 
 tains this idiom, du, der du hist, etc. The Gothic uses ikei (ik-\-ei), puti, 
 izei. 
 
 3. Pergonals -with se pe : se bid Jeofust, se pe him God sylcd, he is 
 dearest, (he) to whom God giveth (Vid., 132). Compare § 384, a. 
 
 382 — C. Interrogatives. 
 
 1. Hpxt; — indirect interrogativc>relativc : ne rxdde ge pxt hpxt Dauid 
 dyde, have ye not read (that) what David did (Luc, vi, 3) ; nxfdon hpxt 
 hig xton, they had not what they might eat (Mc, viii, 1). 
 
 Hpd (who) appears as a proper relative first in its dative warn, loan in 
 Layamon (2, G32 ; 3, 50), in its genitive whas and dative loham in Or- 
 mulum (3425, 10370). The nominative who is found sometimes with 
 a pronominal antecedent in WyclifTc, A.D. 1382-3 (Isa., 1, 10), and be- 
 comes common as a full relative in Berners' Froissart, A.D. 1523. 
 
 2. Spd hpd spd, spd hpxt spa, spd hpylc (spd), whosoever, whatsoever, 
 whichsoever : Isete ic hine, spd hpd spd cymed, I will let him, whosoever 
 cometh (sit by me) (C, 28, 20) ; spd hpxt spd (Matt., xvi, 19) ; spd hpylc 
 spd (Matt., X, 42 ; Bed., 2, 2) ; spa hpylc (Psa., cxxxvii, 4). 
 
 Hpylc (which) appears by itself as a relative in Layamon. 
 
 383. Attraction, {a.) The relative is sometimes attracted to the case
 
 180 RELATIVES. —INDEFINITES. 
 
 of its antecedent : haligu trcop, seo pu healdest, ho]y troth, which thou bold- 
 est (C, 2II!1). But see ^ 384, a. 
 
 (i.) The relative is sometimes attracted to the gender of a noun in its own 
 clause : fulpiht-tid, pxne (M) Tpelfta-da>g hdtad, baptism-time, which they 
 Twelfth-day call (Men., 13). 
 
 (c.) For relative adverbs, sec ^^ 396-398. 
 
 384. Incorporation. The same word may represent both antecedent 
 and relative. It may have the case (a.) of the antecedent: gebyrgde pxs 
 gepeoXjtz.sieA. of what grew (C, 483); such cases are frequent, /a"5=/>a;5 
 pe. Those in ^ 383, a, may be similar, seo^seo pe, seo appositive with 
 treop. Compare ^ 381, 3. {b.) Of the relative : hi rnefdon hpxt lug xton, 
 they had not what they might eat (Mc, 8, 1). Here the clause hpxt h'lg 
 3&ton is the object of nxfdon. (c.) The case of /e is not discriminated. 
 For examples, see ^ 380, 4. 
 
 885. Omission. Phrases of naming often lack their subject : an mimac, 
 Bnhtnod pxs gehdten, a monk (who) was called Brihtnoth (Chr.,963); 
 sealde dne peopene, Bala hdtte, gave her a maid, (who) was called Bilhah 
 =01d Eng. Bilhah hight (Gen. xxix, 29). M. H. German used the same 
 idiom. Similar phrases sometimes have a relative expressed, sometimes a 
 personal pronoun : se pxs hdten Penpald, who was called Penwald (St. G., 
 1) ; Agado he pxs gehdten (Chr.,675). Com\t^.xe gefor JElfred, pxs gerefa, 
 Alfred died (who) was sheriff (Chr., 90G). But the Anglo-Saxon does not 
 omit the relative freely, like the English. 
 
 Indefinites, § 136. 
 
 386. An: — indefinite article: an man hxfde tpegen sund, sl man had 
 two sons (Matt.,xxi, 28) ; dstdh on hine spa an culfre, (the Spirit) descended 
 on him, like a dove (Luc, iii, 22) ; seldom, if ever, in poetry ; but a pretty 
 indefinite an after its noun occurs ; he eordsele dnne pisse, he knew a cav- 
 ern (B., 2410) ; — with numeral or measure : an fiftlg sealmds, a fifty 
 psalms (iEds., 5, 3) ; dne healfe tide, a half time (W. P. T., 12); an gear 
 an man, they ruled a year a man=:each man one year (Oros., 2, 2, 3) ; 
 dne fedpa pordd, a few words (Nic, 11), dne is plural and means only. 
 
 (a.) The English aw>a has several shades of meaning. A nurse said, "a spoonful an 
 hour is a dose for a child till a doctor co7nes"=:A certain nurse said, "one spoonful each 
 hour is tchat 'is called dose for any child till some doctor comes." The first, second, and 
 third of these uses are sometimes found in Anglo-Saxon, as in Latin (unus). Our sec- 
 ond example is nearly the fourth use, which is the most characteristic use of the proper 
 article, i. e., simple sign of a singular use of a generic term : but compare it is a dove 
 with it is like a dove. Nan means not any : is nun cam, is there not any care ? (Mc, 10, 
 40). The Goth, ains translates Gr. Jt; sums, tic. O. Norse einns is sometimes pro- 
 clitic, so Germ, einer. See sum. 
 
 {b.) An (indefinite pronoun) is adjective or substantive. Peculiar uses : 
 (1) his dncs crxft, his own power (C, 272) ; — {2)puhte pe dnum, it seemed to 
 thy se//(Sat., 55) ; — (3) an xfter dnum (Sal., 385)=anne and dnne (Oros., 
 2, 3)=a« xfter eallum (B., 2268)=a« xfler odrum (Sat., 26)=:dnes and
 
 NUMEEALS. 181 
 
 \ 
 
 odres (Met., 25, 52), one after another; — (4) butan pdm dnum, except the 
 ones (Sat., 147) ; for unc dnum tpdm, for us two alone (Rid., 61, 15) ; — 
 (5) dn Slum, only son (Rid., 81, 10) ; — (6) pxt pxs an cyning, that was a 
 (true) king (B., 1885); — (7) dnrd with indefinite pronouns: dnrd gehpylc, 
 each one «of ones) (Matt., xxvi, 22) ; so sbghpylc (Gu., 4) ; hpd, gehpd, 
 etc., compare gehpylc Jjegnd, each of thanes=each thane (B., 1673) ; — (8) 
 dnes fipxt, somewhat, in any degree (Boet., 18, 3) ; — (9) 07i dn, in one, to- 
 gether, once for all (Psa., cxxxii, 1 ; Ixxxii, 9 ; lii, 4). 
 
 38V. Nan, a;nig, nxnig have both substantive and adjective syntax. 
 
 388. Sum; (I) indefinite article=art; sum man hxfde tpegen sund, a 
 man had two sons (Luc, xv, 11), see § 386 ; — (2) pronoun : dnum he sealde 
 fif pund, sumuin tpd, to one he gave five pounds, to another two (Matt., 
 XXV, 15) ; — (3) eode eahta sum, he went one of eight (B., 3123) ; — (4) sum 
 feol, some (seed) fell by the way (Mc, 4, 4); — (5) sume pd bocerds, some 
 (of) the scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ; sume ge, some of you (John, vi, 64), see ^ 
 287, c ; — (6) sume ten gear, some ten years (Boet., 38, 1), see ^ 148. 
 
 389. Man, pilit, dpiht, ndpiht : gif mon pif ofsled, if one a woman 
 slay (^If. B., 9) ; l&de mon hider, some one led hither (Bed., 2, 2) ; lades 
 piht, anything of pain (painful) (Ex., 144, 1); opiht elles, anything else, 
 something (Bed., 3, 22) ; nopiht yfeles, nothing evil (Bed., 2, 12) ; so nun 
 pmg grenes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15). 
 
 390. Hpd and compounds : hpd^=-m,an, any one (Matt., xxi, 3 ; Mrc, 12, 
 19) ; spylces hpxt, some what (B., 880), summ whatt appears in Orm, 958 ; 
 gehpd, each (Mc, 15, 24); wghpd, each (Rid., 66, 2); hpxt-hugu, some 
 what (Bed., 1, 27). 
 
 891. Gehpxder, each of two, dhpxder, any, are substantive, xghpxder, 
 either of two (Bed., 2, 3; 1,7), of many (B., 1636), subst. and adj. 
 
 392. Compounds of -lie arc used substantively and adjectively : xlc, 
 each, every (Matt., vii, 17 ; xx, 2), xuer xlc'^everyche'^every appears in 
 Layamon, 2814 ; selc with oder, are both inflected : hi cp&don selc to odrum, 
 they said, each to the others (Mc, 4, 41) ; xlc odres fet, each wash the 
 other's feet (John, xiii, 14) ; spike pr't, some three (Luc, 1, 56). 
 
 Numerals, §§ 13 8-14 8. 
 
 393. Cardinals : oftenest substantive with gen. : feopertig dagd, forty 
 (of) (Jays (C, 1351); with of: dn of pisum, one of these (Matt.,v, 19); 
 — apposition: dn fftig sealmds, a fifty psalms (^(Is., 5, 3); — with 
 pronoun : hi pry, they three (Ex., 190, 11) ; — alone : pd forman tpd, the 
 first two (^pair), Adam and Eve (C, 194) ; — adjective : mid L scipum, 
 with fifty ships (Chr., 1052) ; tyn pusend, ten thousand (Matt., xviii, 
 24). Compounds with and : six and fif tig, 56 (Bed., 2, 5) ; — with Ixs, 
 pana, butan: tpd Ixs XXX, 28 (Chr., 641); dnes pana prittigum, 
 thirty less one (Bed., 1, 1) ; tpentig butan dn, 19 (Bed., 5, 19) ; numerals 
 with sum, see § 388, and compare French quclque, Gr. ns.
 
 182 NUMERALS.— ADVERBS. 
 
 For ordinal dates: sixtigum jnntrd, 60 years (=GOth year) B.C. (Bed., 
 1, 2) ; — multiplicative : six spa micc.l, six times as much (LL., p. 398) ; 
 — distributive: ipam, by twos (Lc, 10, 1); divic and dnnc, one by one 
 (Oros., 2, 3, 4); — how often: sixtyne shium, IG times (An., 490); — 
 division : on tpd, in two (Ap. 11). 
 
 394. Ordinals. Adjective, witli or without an article : se cahtoda dxg, 
 the eighth day (St. G., 3) ; priddan divgc, the third day (Lc, 9, 22) ; — 
 with of (rare) : oder of his leorning-cnihtum, a second of his disciples 
 (Matt., viii, 21), an operr appears in Orm., 5778 ; — compounds : (1) or- 
 dmal-^-ordinal : p>j ipentigdan and pij fcontan, the 24th (day of Sep- 
 tember) (Bed., 4, 5); (2) cardinal+ordinal : an and tpcntigudan, 2lst 
 (Exod., xii, 18); (3) ordinal 4-cardinal : sixta edc f e opcr tigu7n, idth 
 (Bed., 1, 15). 
 
 Division: seofedan dihl, seventh part (Ores., 2, 4, 6); before heaJf (^ 
 147) : nigonteode healf gear, 18V years (Chr.,855) ; feurde healf hund 
 scipe, 350 ships (Chr., 851). 
 
 395. Indefinites (1.) eal : eal here, the whole mob (C, 150, 12) ; perod 
 eal, the host all (C, 184, 1) ; eal seo &, all the law (Matt., xxii, 40) ; 
 uninflected (B., 2042, and often when parted from its noun) ; — with 
 pronouns : pe ealle, we all (C, 268, 27) ; ealles pxs, all that (186, 25) ; 
 hig ealle, they all (Matt., xiv, 20) ; — substantive : eallum gumend 
 cijnnes, all of mankind (B., 1057) ; georndst ealles, eagerest of all (Psa., 
 83, 12) ; Iipxt ealles, what on the whole (cxix, 3) ; calrd ricost, richest 
 of all (Vid. 15, ^ 312, c) ; tpelfd ealrd, twelve in all (B.,3171). 
 
 - (2.) Manig ; — adjective : manige men, many men (B., 337) ; rinc manig, 
 many (a) man. Germ, mancher tnann, Lat. multus vir (An., 1118); 
 many enne king, many a king, appears in Layamon (6591). Note the 
 noun mxnigeo, a crowd (Matt., viii, 18; iv, 25) ; and often OShake- 
 speare's the rank-scented many, a great many ; — substantive : moniges 
 pintrd, many (of) winters (C, 1230). 
 
 (3.) Micel, much ; md, mdrd, more. 
 
 (4.) Feapa, few ; fed{p)um dnum, few only, a few (B., 1081) ; fcd{pe)rd 
 sumne, one of few=with few companions (B., 3061). 
 
 (5.) Lyt : hjt freondd,{evi (of) friends (C, 2626) ; cynnes lyt-hpon,ie\v 
 of the race (Jud.,31]). For hpon, see Grein. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 395*. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 Adverbs could for the most part be parsed as cases of nouns, as they were, 
 ^251. They make 
 Adverbial combinations : he peup biterlice, he wept bitterly (Matt., 
 xxvi, 75) ; spa geongum, so young (B., 1843) ; spa miceles gepdh, he 
 throve so greatly (C, 186, 24).
 
 INTERROGATIVE.— DEMONSTRATIVE. 183 
 
 Predicative, mostly adverbs of place : hps^r is se luded cynmg, where 
 is the Jews' king'? (Matt., ii, 2) ; pe her bedn,we are here (Mc, 9, 5) ; 
 p£r ic eom, there I am (Matt., xviii, 20) ; — expletives, so called, //;£■/• 
 peard geporden mycel eontbifung, there was a great earthquake 
 (Matt., xxviii, 2). 
 
 Attributive, rare : min lu magtster, my of-yore master (Bed., 5, 10). 
 
 396. Interrogative and demoustrative adverbs may be used like 
 their pronouns, §§ 252, 2G0. 
 
 A. To govern a case : hp&r eordan Abel pxre, where (:=in what part) 
 of the earth Abel was (C, 1003) ; hpider (Jul., 700) : — governed : sell pxr 
 pu on sitest, seat where on thou sittest (Hy., 7, 41), so other prep, often. 
 
 B. To introduce clauses. 
 
 3 9 7. — I. Leading Clauses. 
 Declarative : Jjxr may introduce a clause like an indefinite hit (^ 365, 
 5) : pie?' peard geporden mycel eordbifung, there was a great earthquake, 
 Germ, es geschah em gross erdbeben, Gr. ffeiapiug iysvtro, Lat. terra: motus 
 f actus est (Matt., xxviii, 2) ; hence English so-called expletive there. 
 
 Interrogative. — Interrogation may relate to the general affirmation of 
 a sentence, or to some particular point connected with it, the subject, ob- 
 ject, time, place, mayiner. 
 
 (1.) General questions are expressed by inversion or tone: hwfst pu 
 hafoc, hast thou a hawk? (^Ifc.) ; — by hpxdcr with the subjunctive: 
 hpxder ge nu pillen psedan, will ye now hunt? (Met., 19, 15). 
 (3.) Particular questions are expressed by interrogative pronouns or 
 adverbs : hpier is heord God, where is their God ? (Psa., cxiii, 10) ; 
 hpider, wh'iihexl: (C, 2269); ^anon, whence ? (B., 333). For pro- 
 nouns, see ^ 377-8. 
 (a.) Negative questions add ne : ne drincst pu, pin, dost thou not drink 
 wine? (^Ifc). 
 
 (b.) Tlic particles ac, ah, hit, Id, are used to strengthen ques- 
 tions. 
 
 ■Ac for hpam, wherefore then? (Sal., 342) ; ah ne pe fordrifon, did we 
 not cast out (devils) ? Matt., vii, 22 ; North.) ; hit ne synd ge selran, 
 are not ye better? (Matt., vi, 20) ; hpxt is pis Id mannd, who is this 
 (Id) man? (El., 903) ; so are used forms of secgan and cpedan, say : 
 segst pu msrg se blinda pone blindan Ididan, (sayst thou) can the blind 
 lead the blind? (Luc, vi, 39) ; cpcde ge hscbbe gc sufol, (say ye) have 
 ye any meat? (John, xxi, 5) ; cpede pe ys jjes Dauidcs sunu, (say we) 
 is this David's son? (Matt., xii, 24). 
 
 (3.) Disjunctive questions may have inverted clauses, or the sign 
 hpxdcr: ys hit riht pxt man pam Casere gafol syllc, pe nd, is it right 
 to give tribute to Caesar, or no? (Luc. xx, 21) ; hpxdcr first: hpxdcr 
 IS mdre,pe Jjwt gold,pe tempi, which is greater, the gold or the temple ?
 
 184 ADVERBS.— rAKTICLES. 
 
 (Matt., xxiii, 17) ; — before secontl clause : pxs Johannes fulluht of 
 /icofone, hpxdcr ])c of mannum, was John's baptism of heaven, or of 
 men? (Luc., xx, 4). 
 
 3 9 8. — II. SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 1. Indirect questions: frwgn, hp&r Abel pxre, asked where Abel was 
 (C, 1003). Sec furtlicr, ^^ 424, 425. 
 
 2. Relative clauses : has, panon ic ut code, house whence (=from 
 which) I went out (Matt., xii, 44) ; /la dagds, ponne se hrydguma byd 
 afyrred, the days when the bridegroom shall be taken away (Lc, 5, 35) ; 
 on st&nihte, p;tr hyt ncpfde mycle eordan, on stony ground, where it had not 
 much earth (Matt., xiii, 5). 
 
 (a.) The relative adverb is often made a conjunction by incorporation 
 (^ 384) : ne mage ge cuman pider ic fare, ye may not come whither I go 
 (John, viii, 21). 
 
 Paeticles of Affirmation and Negation, § 261. 
 
 399. Answers. The particles gea, gese, ne, nese, na, in 
 answer to general questions, have the syntax of declarative 
 clauses. (Other tongues have particles of like syntax.) 
 
 (a.) They are quasi-clauses, ^ 278, J.- lufdst pu me? ged, lovest thou me. 
 Yea (=1 love thee) (John, xxi, 16) ; gise, Id gese, yes, O yes (Boet., 16, 
 4) ; — object of a verb : ne, secge ic eop, I say to you, no (Luc, xii, 51) ; nd 
 (xiii, 3) ; nese (i, 60) ; cpyst pu, eart pu of Pyses leorning-cnihium ? nic, ne 
 com ic, art thou of his disciples? Not I, I am not (John, xviii, 17). 
 
 400, Negative Adverbs. Repeated negatives strengthen 
 the negation. (So in old Teutonic and Greek, not in Latin.) 
 
 1. General negation is expressed by ne. It may be repeated before the 
 verb, subject, object, adverb : ne on mode ne mum, do not mourn in mind 
 (An., 99) ; ndn spile ne cpom, none such comes (Cri., 290) ; ne ndn ne 
 dorste ndn ping dcsian, no one durst ask him anything (Matt., xxii, 46) ; ne 
 pep pu nd, weep not at all (Lc, 7, 13). 
 
 (a.) A positive word of emphasis may be added : ic ne forhtige piht, 
 I shall not fear a whit (Psa., Ixi, 2) ; often ndpiht (Matt., xxvii, 24) ; so 
 French point, pas. 
 
 2. Particular negation is expressed by un-, -Icds, nd, nalxs, noht: nalws 
 ridende on horse, ac on his fotum gangende, not riding on horseback, but 
 going on his feet (Bed., 3, 28) ; nalxs micelre tide, no long time (4, 6) ; heo 
 tiliad to cpemanne Gode mid pordum, nxs jnid peorcum, they try to please 
 God with words, not with works (Psa.,xlviii, 12) ; noht feor, not far (4, 3).
 
 SYNTAX.— VERB. 185 
 
 USES OF THE VERB-FORMS. 
 
 Peksonal Endings. 
 
 Agreeme7it. 
 
 401. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
 person. 
 
 (a.) Participles in compound tenses agree ; — passives : pes pu gehletsod, 
 be thou blest (An., 540) ; pesad ge gebletsdde, be ye blest (Psa., cxiii, 23) ; 
 — perfect : her syndon geferede, here have come (B., 361). After habban, 
 transitive participles agree with the object, intransitives have no ending : 
 he hsefit mon geporhtne, he has man made (C, 25, 18) ; hie gcgdn hcrfdon, 
 they had gone (Jud., 140). But the endings early fell away. See further 
 examples, ^^ 412-419. 
 
 402. Simple Subject. — 1. Its forms. 1. A substantive. 2. An adjec- 
 tive used as a substantive. 3. A pronoun. 4. A numeral, 5. An infin- 
 itive. G. Any word or phrase as such. 7. A clause, or clauses. So in all 
 tongues. Impersonals generally have their subject hit. For examples, 
 see ^ 366, 5. See /at;-, ^ 397. Indefinite personals (man, etc)., see ^§ 
 389, 390. 
 
 2. Collectives singular may take a plural verb by synesis : se here 
 gebrohton, the army brought (their ships) (Chr., 1016) ; — a singular and 
 plural : past folc swt * *, and drison, the people sat, and they arose (Exod., 
 xxxii, 6) ; se here spar pxt hie poldon, the army swore that they would 
 (Chr., 921) ; pin ofspring sceal dgan heord feondd gata, ihy offspring shall 
 possess the gates oi their foes (Gen., xxii, 17). 
 
 3. Numerals plural may take a singular verb, generally before them : 
 pa pxs dgan V pinlrd, then was gone 5000 years (Chr., 616, 655). Com- 
 pare him gelkdde hire pedpds, him pleased her manners (?) (Chr., 10G7). 
 
 403. Compound subject, ^ 283. 
 
 Copulate singulars take a plural (1) after them regularly: Maria and 
 Martha p&ron tpd gespi/slru, Mary and Martha were two sisters (Hom., 1, 
 ]30); — before them sometimes: pa cp&don Annanias, Azarias, Misahel, 
 then said Ilananiah, Azariah, Mishael (Hom., 2, 18) ;— oftener : pd peard 
 he gedrcfed, and eal Hierosolim-paru, then was he troubled, and all Jeru- 
 salem folks (Matt, iii, 2). 
 
 (fl.) Copulate words may be really a simple subject, 1, a repetition of 
 the same notion, often a climax : ?nm sdpl and mm mind is spydc gedrcfed, 
 my soul and my mind is greatly troubled (Psa., vi, 2 ; Milton, P. L., 1, 139) ; 
 — 2, complements of one notion : jlvbsc and blud ne xtedpde pe, flesh and 
 blood hath not showed to thee (Matt., xvi, 17, North. ; so Lat., Greek, etc.) ; 
 tor and burh stod, tower and burg stood (C, 102, 17 ; Milton, P. L., 2, 495 ; 
 6, 814, etc.). 
 
 ip.) Logical copulates connected by a preposition may take a plural by
 
 186 VERB.— AGREEMENT. —KINDS. 
 
 eynesis : sc fcond mid his gefcrum fcollon. the fiend with (=:an(]) his 
 mates fell (C, 300). JSo in Latin, Greek, and elsewhere. 
 
 404. Agreement -with a predicate may take place 
 
 1. When the subject is pis or pxt : pis synt pa bcbodu, these are the 
 statutes (Lev., xxvi, 4G) ; Jjxt poiron pa iurestan scipu, those were the first 
 ships (Chr., 787). 
 
 2. When the subject is remote : gyf pxt Icoht 7;e on pe ys, synt pystru, 
 if the light that is in thee is darkness, Lat, tencbra sunt (Matt., vi, 23), and 
 in other cases when the predicate is the more important to the thought. 
 
 405. Omission of the subject occurs (1) with imperatives, (2) where 
 it would be repeated, (3) with reflexives, (4) in other rare cases, mostly of 
 the first and second persons (for examples, see § 3GG) ; — of the verb : 
 (1) the verb to be in exclamatory claus^^s : pa eop,'woe (be) to you (Matt., 
 xxiii, 13, Cambridge) ; pel gesund, Apolloni, (may you be) very well, Apol- 
 lonius (Ap., 7) ; — elsewhere (rare) : p&r Icoht and lif, in heaven, where (is) 
 light and life (C, 212, 26) ; (2) to give in certain phrases: edge for edge, 
 and tod for tod, an eye (must be given) for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth 
 (Matt., V, 38). For hpxt, what, ^ 377, b. For omission of the infinitive 
 with auxiliaries, §^ 435-443. Answers, ^ 399. 
 
 40G. The Kinds of Vekbs. 
 Notional, § 55. 
 
 Intransitive, ^ 275, a. 
 Transitive, ^^ 275, a ; 290, h. 
 Copulative, ^^ 273, b ; 286, c. 
 
 Impersonal, ^^ 290, c; 299, a; 366,5. 
 
 Reflexive, ^^ 150, a; 290, d; 298, c. 
 
 Factitive, ^^ 275, a ; 294, a. 
 
 Causative, § 292, c. 
 
 Relational, §§ 150-152; 176; 212; 435-443. 
 
 (a.) The emphatic form in do (^ 177, 2) : spa dod nu pa pe astro pidstan- 
 dan, (as a great rock withstands), so does now the darkness withstand 
 (Boet., 6). This perhaps never occurs in Anglo-Saxon except as a repeti- 
 tion of a verb just used. See a possible example (Psa., cxviii, 25) Grein. 
 But do+an object clause occurs as an emphatic form : ne do pu &fre, Prxt 
 pu oncyrre^^ne avertas, do not (thou ever, that thou) turn away (Psa., 
 cxxxi, lO) ; so cxviii, 97, 174, 170, etc. 
 
 (ft.) The same verb may be in the same author notional in one connection, relational in 
 another ; so also transitive and intransitive, reflexive and not, causative and not, and the 
 like. 
 
 (c.) Historically verbs change from one kind to another; especially from notional to 
 relational, from intransitive to transitive (causal), from transitive to intransitive. They 
 acquire factitive, reflexive, or passive senses, or drop them. Snch changes may be noted 
 in comparing Anglo-Saxon verbs with their English descendants. See impersonal and 
 reflexive examples at the §5 referred to above.
 
 VOICES.— TENSES. 
 
 187 
 
 Voices, § 15 0. 
 
 407. A transitive verb may take two forms as the agent or the object is 
 made more prominent. 
 
 408. Active. The active voice is used to make tlie agent 
 liie subject of predication. 
 
 (a.) It is the common form of all verbs. 
 
 409. Passive. The passive voice is used to make the direct 
 object of the action the subject of predicatiou. 
 
 For its forms, see ^§ 1T8-182, and tenses, ^§ 412-416. 
 
 (a.) The agent is expressed with passive verbs by an oblique case after 
 fram, purh, or the like : fram Siluestre l&rde p&ron, they were taught by 
 Silvester (El., 190). 
 
 (J.) A factitive object becomes a predicate nominative : Crist pxs 
 Hxlend gehdten, Christ was called HMend (Saviour) (Men., 4) ; but if 
 expressed with a preposition, it is unchanged : pxs to pdpan geset, was 
 made (to a) pope (Chr., 1058). 
 
 (c.) Other objects are unchanged with passives : (dative) pws skrende 
 cedelum cempurn dboden, the message was given to the noble knights (An., 
 230); — impersonals : is me gepuht^^me Pyncd, it seems to me (Ex., 163, 
 6) ; — genitive : bedmds p&ron ofxtes gehlxdene, trees were laden with fruit 
 (C, 30, 4) ; — instrumental : lohannes pxs heafde becorfen, John was cut 
 off from his head (Bed., 1, 27). 
 
 410. Middle. For middle forms, see ^^ 150, a ; 290, d; 298, c. 
 
 Tense, § 15 2. 
 411. In relation to time action is represented by A. -Sax. verbs 
 as in its own nature indefinite, continued, or completed ; and in 
 regard to the time of speaking ^% present, 'past, or future. 
 
 Present 
 
 Indefinite. 
 nime, 
 take. 
 
 Future 
 
 Past 
 
 5 ic 
 \l 
 
 c ic nime, 
 
 < ic sceal (pillc) niman, 
 
 f I 
 
 Continued. 
 ic eom nimende, 
 I am taking. 
 ic bed nimende, 
 I shall be taking, 
 shall (will) take. 
 ic nam, 
 I took. 
 
 For subordinate clauses, see ^ 418. 
 
 412. The endings of the Anglo-Saxon verb discriminate only- 
 past time from other time. 
 
 1. The so-called present tense is used for present and future acts. 
 
 2. The so-called imperfect is used for all past acts. 
 
 ic pxs nimende, 
 I was takinjr. 
 
 Completed. 
 ic hxbbe numen, 
 I have taken. 
 
 I shall have taken. 
 
 ic hxfde numen, 
 I had taken.
 
 188 I^'DICATIVE TENSES. 
 
 3. Compound forms in wliich the auxiliary has the present form discrim- 
 inate varieties oi present a.nd future action. 
 
 4. Compound forms in which the auxiliary has the imperfect form dis- 
 criminate varieties o? past action. 
 
 (a.) The present, future, and perfect are called principal tenses ; the 
 imperfect and pluperfect, historical tenses. 
 
 Indicative Tenses. 
 
 413. The Present expresses 
 
 (1.) What exists or is taking place now : pone maditum byred, he bears 
 the treasure (B., 2055) ; — progressive : peos corde is berende, the land 
 is bearing (=produces) (diverse birds) (Bed., 1, 1) ; — passive: ic eom 
 gelufod, I am loved (^If. Gr., 26) ; corde is gecpeden Godes fot- 
 sceamel, earth is called God's foot-stool (Horn., 2, 448) ; pyrd bereafdd 
 (Met., 28,42) ; bead fangene (Bed., 1, 1). 
 
 (2.) Customs and truths : p^r pin goldheord zs, peer is pin heorte, where 
 thy treasure is, there is thy heart (Matt., vi, 21). 
 
 (3.) Author's language : se pitega lis mandd, the prophet exhorts us 
 (Horn., 2, 124, rare). 
 
 (4.) Future : cvfter prim dagon ic arise, after three days I shall arise 
 (Matt., xxvii, 63) ; ne givst pu panone, wr pu agilde, thou shalt not go 
 thence, till thou shalt have paid (Matt., v, 26). 
 
 (5.) Imperative : six dagds pu pircst, § 430, c. 
 
 (6.) Narrative clause dependent on a past tenss : hpi noldest pu secgan 
 Jjxt hco pin plf is, why didst thou not say that she is thy wife? (Gen., 
 xii, 18, frequent). ^ 419, III. 
 
 414. The Imperfect (preterit) expresses 
 
 (1.) What took place or was occurring in time fully past: he sxgde, 
 he said (they were magicians) (Jul., 301) ; — progressive: spa ic xr 
 secgende pxs, as I was saying before (An., 951); — passive: ic pxs 
 gelufod, I was loved (^If. Gr., 2G) ; pd pxs pridpord sprecen, then a 
 mighty word was spoken (B., 642) ; pur don heofends ontynede, the 
 heavens were opened (Matt., iii, 16). 
 
 (2.) Perfect : nu Pm Ixtst Jnnne peop, forpam mine eagan gesdpon P»ne 
 hxle, now lettest thou thy servant depart, for mine eyes have seen thy 
 salvation (Luc, 2, 30). 
 
 (3.) Pluperfect : pd hi Jjxt gebod gehyrdon, pd ferdon lug, when they had 
 heard the command, they went (Matt., ii, 9). 
 
 415. The Future is expressed (1.) by the present, ^ 412 (future perfect, 
 § 413, 4) ; — progressive : bead feohtende, will be fighting (Jos., x, 25) ; 
 — passive: ic beo gelufod, I shall be loved (^If. Gr., 26) ; xlc trcop 
 byd forcorfcn, each tree shall be hewn down (Matt, iii, 10 ; Luc, 6, 38) ; 
 pyrd him pile gegearpod, punishment shall be prepared for them (C, 
 28, 6).
 
 INDICATIVE TENSES. 189 
 
 (2.) By seed : ic pe sceal mine gelxstan freode, I shall keep my regard 
 for thee (B., 1706) ; J)u scealt peordan, thou shalt be (=wilt be) a 
 comfort to the people (B., 1707) ; sceal gar pesan hxfen on handd, 
 spear shall be raised in hand (B., 3021) ; he sceal pesan Ismahel hdten, 
 he shall be called Ishmael (C.,2286); sceal pesan prutende (C, 17C2). 
 
 (3.) By pille: pene ic pxt he gyldan pille, I think that he will pay (B., 
 1184); pu pill secgan, thou, wilt say (Met., 24, 48); Northumb. has 
 often uuillo in the first person (Matt., xii, 44 ; x, 33). 
 
 (4.) By gd : he gxd rsedan, Lat. pergit lectum, he is going to read (^Elf. 
 Gr., 25), Fr. Je vais lire. See ^ 445, 6, and uton, ^ 443. 
 
 (5.) By hsp-bhe : pone calic pe ic to drincenne hxbbe. North, done ic drinca 
 uuillo, the cup that I have to (=: shall) drink of, Lat. iibiturus sum 
 (Matt.,xx, 22) ; rare. See i^ 453, a. So in Goth., Romanic. 
 
 (6.) By eom : Mannes Sunu is to syllenne. North, sunu monnes gesald 
 bid, the Son of Man is to (^ shall) be betrayed, Lat. tradendus est 
 (Matt., xvii, 22). See ^451. The three last forms perhaps give no 
 pure futures in the Anglo-Saxon literature. 
 
 (7.) The future perfect is not discriminated. In its place may be a fu- 
 ture : ser pu dgilde, thou shalt not go thence, before (=till) thou shalt 
 have paid (Matt., v, 26) ; a perfect: pit eft cumad siddan pit dgifen 
 habbad, we will come again, after we (shall) have completed (C, 174, 
 25). 
 
 (a.) The future forms are sometimes imperative, ^ 420, c. 
 
 (b.) Pure futures in sceal and pille are not sure in large numbers, and the 
 English distinction between the persons is not made out. 
 
 41G. The Perfect represents an action as now come to completion. It 
 is denoted 
 
 (1.) By hwbbe : he hxfd mon geporhtne, he has made man (C, 25, 18) ; 
 pe habbad lydre gefcred, we have got along badly (Sat., 62). 
 
 (2.) By eom, with a few intransitives mostly of being and going: ic eom 
 hider gefered, I am (have) hither journeyed (C, 498) ; so synd ford- 
 farene, have departed (died) (Matt., ii, 20) ; dgdn, gone (El., 1227) ; 
 geporden, geseten, urnen, 
 
 Passive: eom + pp. of transitives : ealle ping me synd gesealde, all 
 things have been given me (Matt., xi, 27) ; — eom geporden-{-p. p. : nii 
 syndon hi gepordene tolysde (Psa., Ixxii, 15; ic pxs fulfremedlke 
 gehifod:=amatus sum (iElf. Gr., 26). 
 
 417. The Pluperfect represents an action as completed at some definite 
 past time. It is denoted 
 
 (1.) By hsefde: hxfde hine geporhtne, he had made him (C, 17,4); 
 gefaren h.rfdon, they had gone (Bed., 1, 23). 
 
 (2.) By pxs with such as liave a perfect in eom: pxs pd Icnctcn dgdn, 
 spring had gone (El., 1227). Passive : — pxs-^-^^. p. of transitives : J)d 
 se Hdilend gefullod pxs, he dsldh, when the Saviour had been baptized, 
 he came up (Matt., iii, 10) ; — pxs gepordcn-\-i>. p. : ccaru pxs genipod
 
 190 TENSES— MODES. 
 
 gcpordcn, care had been renewed (B., 1304) ; ic pxs gefyrn gelufdd= 
 Lat. amatus cram (/Elf. Gr., 20). 
 
 Subjunctive Tenses. 
 
 418. The tenses follow in general those of the indicative, but 
 time is indefinitely expressed in relation to the speaker. Futurity 
 runs with doubtful possibility. In indirect sentences the time is 
 to be taken in relation to that of the principal verb. 
 
 The Imperfect often expresses time as future from a past of the prin- 
 cipal verb : ic spor pxt ic hine ham brohte, I swore that I ivould bring him 
 home (Gen., xliv, 32) ; — with auxihary : pohtan pxt hit ofergdn sceolde, 
 they thought that it would po by (Chr., 1053) ; pold Jhvt sceoldon bodian, 
 wished that ihey should preach (Horn., 2, 20) ; — Future perfect: pxt polde 
 pijncan pundorlic, gif sbnig sbr pam ssbde pmt hit spa gepurdan sceolde, that 
 would have seemed wonderful if any before that had said that it should so 
 happen (Chr., 1052). 
 
 Sequence of Tenses. 
 
 419. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses; historical on 
 historical. 
 
 Exceptions. — I. Present + Past, (a.) A present narration or question of 
 a past fact : cart pu se mon pe p&re afed, art thou the man who was fed ? 
 (Boet., 3, 1) ; — comparison of present and past : he is gen spa he pxs,he is 
 still as he was (Ex., 334, 5). II. Perfect + Past : pii hsefst forgiten para 
 poipnd pe ic pe sealde, thou hast forgotten the weapons that I gave thee 
 (Boet., 3, 1). III. Past 4- Present ; — a truth in narrative: pa Sciddeds, pje 
 on odre healfe bugiad, ne geheordon, the Scythians, who live on the other 
 side, had not heard (the Roman name) (Boet., 18, 2); — quasi oratio directa 
 in past narration : ^ 413, 6. Compare ^ 288, c. 
 
 MODES. 
 The Indicative, § 151. 
 420. The indicative is used in assertions, questions, and 
 assumptions to express simple predication. 
 
 (a.) Primary. It is the primary form, to be used every where unless 
 there is reason for some other. 
 
 {b.) Real. — Since there is a special mode for what may be and might be, 
 the indicative is used in contrast to speak of things as real ox fact. So in 
 a protasis, ^431. 
 
 (c.) Imperative. — Tiie indicative future may be used for the imperative : 
 six dagds pu pircst, six days shalt thou labor (Exod., xxxi, 15) ; ne pylt pu
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 191 
 
 me gcsajndan, Lat. noli me confundere, please not confound me (Psa., 
 cxviii, 31). So in Greek (Hadley, 710) and Latin (Harkness, 470). 
 
 The Subjunctive, § 151. 
 
 421. The subjunctive is used to express mere possibil- 
 ity, doubt, or wish. 
 
 The Teutonic subjunctive has the general range of the Latin subjunctive, 
 together with the infinitive having a subject accusative. Compare ^ 293, a. 
 
 1. In declarative sentences (hypothetical): mere mm briutor dead, ray 
 brother would not have died (Joh., xi, 21) ; punigc pxr he punige, he may 
 dwell where he may dvvell=wherever he may dwell (^ctr., vi, 3, 1). So 
 in Greek (Hadley, 722) and Latin (Harkness, 48G). 
 
 2. Interrogative sentences (doubt) : fipd nc m&ge pdfian, who can fail 
 to wonder'? (Met., 28, 43) ; hpi pu xfre polde, how couldst thou ever wish 1 
 (Met., 4, 33). So in Greek (Hadley, 720, c) and Latin (Harkness, 486). 
 
 3. Imperative sentences ; 1st person (exhortation or request) : fare pe 
 on tunas, go we to the towns (Mc, i, 38) ; up-dhebben pe his naman, exalt 
 we his name (Psa., xxxiii, 3) ; ulon gdn, let us go (Mc, 14, 42) ;— 2d 
 person (comn^and) : ne sperigen ge, swear not (/Elf. LL. 48) ; nellon ge 
 pesan, do not be (Matt., vi, 16);— 3d person (wish, demand) : si Gode lof, 
 praise be to God (Chr., 1009) ; sib si mid eopic, peace be with you (Ex., 
 282, 25) ; beon gegaderode pa pxteru, let the waters be gathered (Gen., i, 
 9). So in Greek (Hadley, 720, a) and Latin (Harkness, 487). 
 
 4. Exclamatory (wish, abridged subordinates) : Ed la ! Jjxt hit purdc, 
 Oh ! that it might be (Met., 8, 39) ; Ed Id ! gif ic moste geefenl&can, Oh ! 
 if I might imitate (the blessed Lawrence) (Horn., 1, 432) ; Ed Id! gif pu 
 p&re hund, Ah ! if (=would) thou wert a dog (Horn., 2, 308). So in Greek 
 (Hadley, 721) and Latin (Harkness, 488, 1). 
 
 5. Li Co-ordinate and Subordinate clauses the subjunctive may every 
 
 where be used as in the above examples to express a separate possibility, 
 
 doubt, or wish. Disjunctives (doubt) : sam pe pillan, sam pe nyllan, 
 
 whether we will, or nill (Boet., 34, 12) ; 5/ hit man, si hit nyten, be it man, 
 
 be it beast (Exod., xix, 13). For adversatives, ^ 432 ; for causals, 
 
 ^ 433. 
 
 (rt.) Subordinates share in the general posBibility, donbt, or desire of their sentence, 
 and take the subjunctive iu many cases where it is not obviously the expression of either. 
 Hence the following discussion, §§ 422-434. 
 
 The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses. 
 
 422. The subjunctive maybe used by attraction in clauses 
 subordiuate to a subjunctive. 
 
 (a.) Cases of so-called attraction are mostly better explained as illogical 
 conformation with some of the other rules : ponne pu &nig ping bcgite pxs 
 pe ]m pene pxt me licige, when thou any thing mayst take of that thou
 
 192 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 maijst know {=knowcst) tliat may please vie (=/ like) (Gen., xxvii, 3). 
 Compare Latin (llarkness, 5'37), Greek (lladley, 738). 
 
 A. Substantive Clauses,§ 283. 
 
 423. The subjunctive may be used in a substantive clause 
 expressing something said^ asked, ViougJit, ioished, or do7ie. 
 
 (a.) The indicative is used iu the same clauses to emphasize reality or fact, § 420, 6. 
 
 (6.) These clauses ofteuest represent an inlinitive with a subject accusative in Latin and 
 Greek, but sometimes in them also the subjunctive is used (Harkness, 549-558 • Hadley 
 703+). 
 
 424 — I. The clause may be a subject, oftenest of a copula, impersonal 
 or passive. 
 
 (a.) An indirect assertion or question : hit is sxd pmt he dhofe, it is said 
 that he raised (up his hands) (Bed., 3, 16) ; ne pses me cud, hpxder egesa 
 piire, it was not known to me, whether there was fear (of God) (C, 2710). 
 
 (b.) Something cognized: puhte him pxt fxgre stode pudubcam,it seem- 
 ed to him that a forest tree stood fair (C, 247, 17). 
 
 (c.) Something to be desired, as fit, necessary, enough, pleasant, etc. : 
 Jje ys betere,pxt an Jnnrd forpeorde, it is better for thee that one of thy 
 members perish (Matt., v, 30) ; gedafenad pxt hi heard Idre gymon, it be- 
 seems (priests) that they their lore heed (Horn., 2, 342). 
 
 425. — II. The clause may be an object. 
 
 {a.) An indirect assertion or question: cpedad pxt pu sie hlxfdige, they 
 say that thou art a lady (Ex., 18, 15) ; sseged pxt hit come, he says that it 
 came (from God) (C, 683) ; he sxgde pxt Sarra his speostor p&re, he said 
 that Sarah was his sister (C, 158, 27) ; — hpxt secge ge pxt ic stg, what say 
 ye that I am? (Matt., xvi, 15); Gregorius befran hpxder folc Cristen 
 pd've, pe hwden, Gregory asked whether the people Christian were or 
 heathen (Horn., 2, 120) ; frxgn gif him pxre, asked if to him were (a 
 pleasant night) (B., 1319). 
 
 {b.) Object of cognition : pende pxt se mxsta dxl pxre, weened that the 
 most was (aboard) (Chr., 911) ; gelyfe pxt hit come, I believe that it came 
 (from God) (C, 679). 
 
 (c.) Object of desire or fear {hope, heed, doubt, pray, etc.), see § 315: 
 ic pylle pxt he punige, I will that he wait (John, xxi, 22) ; hopode pxt he 
 gesdpe, hoped that he might see (Luc, 23, 8) ; so onegan, fear (C, 110, 1) ; 
 begymad, heed (Matt., vi, 1) ; biddad, pray (Exod., ix, 28), etc. 
 
 {d.) Object done : d8 symble pxt ic m pine metige, I do continually that I 
 meditate thy law=English emphatic form I do meditate (Psa., cxviii, 174); 
 see further ^ 406, a. 
 
 426. — III. The clause may limit a noun or adjective : sylle panne ddpjxt 
 he nclle pcof be6n,ta.'ke the oath that he will not a thief be (LL. Cnut.,ii, 
 21) ; heo geornast bid pxt heo dfxre fleogan, she is earnest to (that she) 
 frighten flies (Ps., 89, 10).
 
 IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.— ADVEKBIAI.. 193 
 
 (a.) The clause is an appositive or genitive; in most cases might be conceived as ad- 
 verbial of purpose or result. The same modal idea is here in a noun or adjective which in 
 I. and II. ia in the verb. 
 
 B. Adjective Clauses, § 28 3. 
 
 427. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adjective 
 clauses. 
 
 Hypothetical lelative sentence (Harkness, 501 ; Hadley, 757) : syle 
 pam pe pe bidde, give to him that asketh thee=if any one ask (Matt., v, 42) ; 
 gehyre se pe edran hxbbe, let him hear who has ears (Mc., 4, 9) ; pyrce 
 hpd pxt pazt he pyrce, odde do pset pset he do, one may work that, that (what- 
 ever) he may work, or do that, that he may do (Boat., 37, 2). 
 
 C. Adverbial Clauses, §28 3. 
 
 428. — I. Clauses of Place. The subjunctive may be 
 
 used iu indefinite adverbial clauses of place. Compare § 427. 
 Far, p&r pu freondd pene, go where thou hopest for friends (GH., 262) ; 
 hafd Uetsunge pmr Pufere, take a blessing wherever thou goest (An., 224) ; 
 pic geceos pxr pe leofost sie, choose a residence where to thee pleasantest 
 may be (C, 2723). Oftenest indicative : puna p&r ]je leofost ys, dwell 
 where to thee pleasantest is (Gen., xx, 15); so with spa hpdr spa, wher- 
 ever (Chr., 1130) ; spa hpider spa, whithersoever (Mc, 14, 14). 
 
 429.— II. Clauses of Time. 
 
 The subjunctive may be used iu adverbial clauses of future 
 or indefinite time. (Compare Hark., 518-523 ; Hadley, 769.) 
 
 (a.) Future: ne gxst pu panone xr pii dgylde, i\\ou. goest not thence 
 before thou shalt pay (Matt., v, 26) ; ic pxs &r pam pe Abraham p&re, 
 I was before Abraham was (Jolin, viii, 58) ; gesprxc Beopulf, &r he stige, 
 Beowulf said before he mounted (B., 076) ; pmiiact par 6d pset ge iitgdn, 
 stay there till ye depart (Mc, 6, 10) ; he sohte 6d he funde, he sought till 
 he found (the cup) (Gen., xliv, 12). In Greek, vpiv with an infinitive, 
 Hadley, 769. 
 
 (b.) Indefinite : ponrie pii fxsle, smyrd Inn heafod, when thou fastest, 
 anoint thy head (Matt., vi, 17) ; bad, hponne peard reste dgedfe, waited, 
 (for the time) when the Lord should give rest (C, 1428) ; so with penden, 
 until (B., 1224) ; spd lange spa (Deut., xxii, 29); ]m hpile pe (LL. ^Edr., 
 vi, 12). 
 
 430. — III. Clauses of Manner (intensity). 
 
 The subjunctive may be used in clauses of comparison 
 expressing that -which is imagined or indefinite, or descrip- 
 tive of a force (Hark,, 501, 4). 
 
 (a.) pass se muna, spilcc he pxre mid blade hegoten, the moon was as if 
 it were with blood washed (Chr., 734) ; bete spd hit riht sie, let him pay as 
 
 N
 
 19-i SUBJUNCTIVE.— CONDITIONAL.— CONCESSIVE.— FINAL. 
 
 it may be right (LL. JE\L, 38) ; strciigrc ponne rose sy, (I am) more fra- 
 grant tlian any rose may be (Ex., 423, 19) ; }m gesyhst mare Jjonne pis sy, 
 thou shalt SCO more than this is (John, i, 50), an extreme case. 
 
 {b.) Consecutive clauses, descriptive of a force: sj>d stcarc pinter pxt ic 
 durre lulian, winter so severe that I dare to stay at home (.^Ifc. Col.). 
 Compare ^ 434. 
 
 431. — IV. Conditional Clauses, § 283, jx 141. 
 
 The subjunctive is used iu n, protasis when proposed as 
 possible, the inqjer/ect when assumed as tmrcal. (So iu Latin 
 nud Greek, Hark., 502+ ; Had., 744+.) 
 
 (The indicative proposes as real : gif gi AbraJiamcs learn synd, since ye Abraham's chil- 
 dren are (do his works) (John, viii, 39).) 
 
 (a.) Present : gif mec hild nime, onscnd Higeluce, if me battle take, 
 send to Iligelac (B., 452). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, G, c. 
 
 {b.) Imperfect : gif pu pivre her, nxre min brodor dead, if thou hadst 
 been here, my brother had not died (John, xi, 32). 
 
 (c.) So with on pxt gerdd pa:t, on condition that (Chr., 945) ; pid pam pe, 
 same (Gen., xxix, 27). 
 
 (fZ.) Negative condition : liUon hpd beo ednipan gecenned, unless one be 
 born again (he shall not see God's kingdom) (John, iii, 3) ; so nefne (B., 
 1056); nemne (Ex., 124, 12) ; nymde (C, 205, 19) ; butan pxnne, {pa) ex- 
 cept when (Men., 32; Sat., 391). 
 
 432. — V. Concessive Clauses. 
 
 The subjunctive may be used iu a concessive clause. 
 
 Hpxt fremad, peak he gcstryne, what profiteth it, though he gain (the 
 whole world) (Matt., xvi, 26); pu scealt dreogan, pcuh pin pit duge, thou 
 shalt suffer, though thy wit is good (B., 589) ; peak pu to hanan purde, 
 though thou wast a murderer (B., 587). For inverted clauses, ^ 485, 6, c. 
 
 (a.) The indicative is used in similar clauses. The English discrimination between the 
 first and second examples was growing. 
 (6.) So in Latin (Hark., 514+) ; for Greek, see Iladley, 8T4. 
 
 433. — VI. Final Clauses. The subjunctive is used iu 
 ckauses expressing purpose. (So in Latin and Greek, Hark., 
 500+ ; Had., 739 + .) 
 
 (a.) Present : sete p/ine hand ofcr hlg, pxt hco hdl sy and libhe, lay thy 
 hand upon her, that she may be whole and live (Mc, 5, 23). 
 
 (b.) Imperfect : genam pmt pif pxt he bespice, (the devil) took the woman 
 (as aid) that he might deceive (the man) (Job, 166). 
 
 (c.) Negative clauses with py hrs, Lat. quo-minns, or py Ixs /e>Eng. 
 lest : ssblde scip, py Ixs ydd prym forprecan mcahte, fastened the ship, 
 lest the waves' force might wreck it (B., 1918) ; heron, py Ixs pe pin fot 
 xtsporne, they bear (thee), lest (so that less by that) thy foot may dash 
 against (a stone) (Matt., iv, 6).
 
 POTENTIAL, 195 
 
 434.— VII. Consecutive Clauses. 
 
 The subjunctive may be used to express a result. 
 
 Gifmon sie dumb odde deaf geboren, J)wt he ne mxge his synnd onsec- 
 ,gan, if one be born dumb or deaf, so that he can not deny his crimes {JE\t\ 
 LL., 14). Consecutive modal clauses in spa pxt, see § 430, b. So in Lat., 
 Hark., 501 ; in Greek, wort with an infinitive (Hadley, 770). 
 
 The Potential, §§ 151, 1V6. 
 
 435. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission, 
 necessity, or duty. 
 
 {a.) In some cases it is only a periphrastic form of the subjunctive or im« 
 perative ; in most cases it adds a distinct notion of power in some form. 
 
 (b.) The indicative form of the auxiliary sometimes takes the place of the 
 subjunctive ending of the principal verb, but generally a subjunctive clause 
 retains the subjunctive form of the auxiliary, making a doubly-expressed 
 possibility, or doubt, or ivish : ic nu syllan polde, I now would wish to give 
 (B., 2729). 
 
 (c.) The principal verb takes the infinitive, except after com and habban, 
 where the gerund is used. 
 
 (d.) The principal verb is often omitted, especially a verb of motion before 
 an adverb of place. Examples under each. 
 
 430. — 1. Mceg (^^ 176, 212), physical power; — declarative: ic mmg 
 pesan God, I can be God (C, 18, 35) ; — (hypothetical), ecide mihte Crist 
 pum'an, easily might Christ have dwelt (Horn., 1, 164) ; — subordinate clauses, 
 e. g. conditional ; gifheo meahtc, if she might, (she chose) (Bed., 4, 23) ; — 
 final: heo polde hire edel forlMen, pxt heo meahte geearnian, she would 
 give up her estate, that she might earn (one in heaven) (same) ; — principal 
 verb omitted : helle gatu ne mdgon ongedn pa, hell's gates can not (prevail) 
 against it (Matt,, xvi, 18). 
 
 437. — 2. Can (^^ 176, 212) : ne can ic cop, I know you not (Matt., xxv, 
 12; frequent). Intellectual power; — declarative: ic can eop l&ran,\ can 
 teach you (Sat., 250) ; — subordinate clauses; — conditional: ponne he ne can 
 ongitan, if he can not understand (Boet., 39, 2) ; — principal verb omitted : 
 saga, gifpil cunne, say, if thou can (say) (El., 857) ; dydon spa hie cudon, 
 did as they could (do) (C, 232, 11). 
 
 438. — 3. Mot {^^ 176, 212), possibility through permission : pxr ic sittan 
 mot sumorlangne dxg, there I may sit the summer-long day (Ex., 443, 28) ; 
 — duty : mot ic him forgifan, should I forgive him (seven times)'? (Matt., 
 xviii, 21) ; — necessity (rare) : eallc pe inoton speltan,a.ll we must die (Exod., 
 xii, 33) ; — subordinate clauses ; — object: bxd pxt he moste niman, besought 
 that he might take (away the body) (John, xix, 38) ; — omission of principal 
 verb: gif{pe) Jtidcr moton, i(\vc thither might (go) (Sat., 302). 
 
 439. — 4. Dear, dorsle (^^ 176, 212), power of will in danger: ne dear
 
 196 rOTENTIAL.— IMPERATIVE. 
 
 ford gan, I dare not go forth (C, 54, 1) ; subordinate clauses ; — result : hit 
 pxs to-gefultumiende, pxt him vion noht hefigcs gedon dorste, Lat. ipse 
 juvans, ne qui (iis) quicquam molesticE inferrct, he was helping, so that 
 no one might (dare) do anything grievous to them (Bed., 5, 11); rarely 
 auxiliary. 
 
 440. — 5. pille (<^^ 176, 212). Present; — declarative future indicative, 
 see ^ 415 ; — imperative : ne pille pu pepan, Lat. noli plorare (Hark., 538), 
 please not weep (Bed., 4,29) ; ne pylt Jm, same (Psa., cii, 2). Imperfect : 
 — declarative : ic sund minum syllan polde, I to my son would give (if I had 
 one) (B., 2729). Subordinate clauses; — purpose, result ; pses gepunod pxt 
 he polde gan to s», was wont to go to the sea (Horn., 2, 138) ; — principal 
 verb omitted : hpxnne pu me pyllc to, when thou wilt (come) to me (Psa., 
 c, 1, and often). 
 
 441. — 6. Sceal, sceolde (^^ 176, 212) : hu miccl scealt pu, how much 
 owest thou? (Luc, 16,5. Matt.,xviii, 24) ; — necessity under law or external 
 force : be ure x he sceal speltan, by our law he ought to die (John, xix, 7) ; 
 — necessity for a purpose : ic hie sceal wrest gepinnian,pxt ic siddan mxge, 
 I must first dispel them, that I afterward may (bring light (Boet., 5, 3) ; — a 
 future sign, see § 415 ; — imperative : ge sculon herigean, IjZ.t. laudate, ]pra.ise 
 ye (the name of the Lord) (Psa., cxii, 3). Imperfect: spijlc sceolde sccg 
 pesan pegn, snch a warrior should a thane be (B.,2708); — subordinate 
 clauses: he cpxd pxt helle healdan sceolde, he said that he should inhabit 
 hell (C, 530) ; — passive : forhtian pxt he gelxded heon sceolde,to fear that 
 he should be led (to hell) (Bed., 3, 13) ; — result : nyd pxt he hrxdllcur feran 
 sceolde, need that he should travel more rapidly (Bed., 3, 14) ; — principal 
 verb omitted : ic him xfter sceal,! shall (go) after him (B.,2816). 
 
 442. — 7. ])earf, need (^^ 176, 212), common as a notional verb, rare as 
 an auxiliary : syle me pxt pxter,pxt me ne pyrste, ne ic nepurfe her feccan, 
 Lat. ut non sitiam neque veniam hue haurire, give me the water, that I may 
 not thirst, nor need {co7ne) here to draw (John, iv, 15). 
 
 443. — 8. TSton, putun, O. Saxon wita (^^ 176, 224, c), pres. subj. plur. 
 1st o{ pitan, to go. Compare Lat. camus, age, It. andiamo, Fr. allons ; — 
 imperative clauses : putun gangan to, let us advance (B., 2648) ; utan to- 
 brecan, let us break (their bonds) (Psa., ii, 3) ; uten is in Layamon, but the 
 common form is the subjunctive with we : lete we peos ferde bilxue, and 
 speke we of Ar dure, let we this host remain, and speak we of Arthur (25407). 
 The English pure auxiliary let is later yet. 
 
 For potential eom, i^^ 451 ; 415, 6. For heebbe, W 453, a ; 415, 5. 
 
 The Imperative, §§ 149,151. 
 
 444. The imperative is used in commands. 
 
 Gd, go (Mc, 5, 8) ; gayig pu, go thou (Matt., iv, 10) ; gad, go ye (Exod., 
 V, 18); 7ie beod ge,he not yc (C, 194, 11).
 
 INFINITIVE AND GERUND.— INFINITIVE. I97 
 
 {a.) In hypotlietical sentences : secad and ge hitfindad, seek and (=if 
 ye seek) ye shall find (Matt., vii, 7). 
 
 (e.) Subjunctive for imperative, ^ 421, 3. 
 Indicative for imperative, ^ 420, c. 
 Potential, /?j7/e, ^ 440; sculon, § 441. 
 (c.) So through the Indo-European tongues. 
 
 The Infinitive and Gekund. 
 
 445. Their forms, §§ 173-175, 177, 181, 352, V. 
 
 1. The infinitive in an rarely uses to : micel is to secgan, there is much 
 to say (Gii., 502) ; dfijsed bid to secan, it is prepared to seek (Ph., 275) ; so 
 B., 316 ; C, 220, 25 ; Ex. 187, 27, etc. Grein. 
 
 2. The gerund in -ende appears in the later manuscripts of the Chronicle, 
 and spreads: Nero dgan to rixiende,'Ne):o began to rule (Chr., 49) he 
 sende to hodiende, he sent to preach (604) ; coman Crist to purdiende, they 
 came to honor Christ (2). See ^ 4G0. So in ^Ifric's Grammar. 
 
 3. The infinitive and gerund sometimes interchange in most of their uses, 
 if not all. 
 
 4. Tlie progressive future is rare : ongedte hine hahbende Icon, he knew 
 himself to be about having, Lat. se fuisse habiturum (Bed., 5, 8). 
 
 5. Future passive : ne tpeoge ic me gelibded beon, I did not doubt myself 
 about to be led, Lat. me rapiendum esse (Bed., 3, 13). 
 
 6. jElfric gives as the Latin future active amatum ire vel amaturum esse, 
 Anglo-Saxon /aran liifian, to be going to love ; vis doctum ire, pilt j)u gdn 
 leornian, will you go to learning (^If. Gram., p. 25). The English is a 
 true future=«o be about to love. Sure examples o{ faran or gdn, without 
 notional force, are needed from Anglo-Saxon literature. See ^^ 443 ; 415, 4. 
 
 Infinitive, §§ 149, 151. 
 
 446. The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun. (So in 
 other tongues : Latin, Hark., 548 ; Greek, Had., 762 + .) 
 
 447. — 1. A subject: hine ridan lyste, to ride pleases him (Boet., 34, 
 7) ; dlyfd on Reste-dagum pel don, is to do well lawful on Sabbath days ? 
 (Luc, 6, 9) ; sometimes with to : is dlyfed on Reste-dagum pel to donne, it 
 is lawful on Sabbath days to do well (Matt., xii, 12). 
 
 448. — 2. Direct object.— (1)" Of beginning and ending (acts exerted 
 on other acts) : ongunnon rsbran riht, began to establish right (C, 2, 17) ; 
 Romune blunnun ricsian, Romans ceased to rule (Bed., 1, 11) ;— (2) of 
 motive (acts moving to other acts — desire, seek, intend, expect, dare, dread, 
 etc.) : pille faran, I wish to go (Hom., 2, 372) ; secad to (John, viii, 40) ; 
 pencad (C.,243G); myntan (B.,712); ne dear ic faran, I dare not go 
 (Gen., xliv, 34) ; ceara (C, 2279) ;— (3) definitive object of ability, duty, 
 habit (acts and states defined by acts) : ic mxg secgan, 1 am able to say
 
 198 INFINITIVE.- GERUND. 
 
 (Cri., 317) ; cmton don, were able to do (C, 189) ; he sceal spellan, he 
 ought to die (John, xix, 7) ; gcpunedon moder cygean, they were wont to 
 call (her) mother (Bed., 4, 23) ; — (1) general motion defined by specific 
 motion : /Icon gcpat, he went to fly =: he flew away (C, 136, 23) ; com 
 flcogan, came flying (89, 10); com gojigau (B., 710); co?n drifan, came 
 driving=fell (on a rock) (Bed., 5, 6) ; so with faran,feran, glldan, ndan, 
 scrktan, s'ldian, tredan, etc. See further under Participles, § 458, 2. 
 (a.) These forms niu to periphrastic forms of the future and potential, see §§ 415, 435+. 
 
 449. — 3. The infinitive is used as a final object to express 
 an act of the first object. 
 
 This occurs oftenest after verbs of 
 
 {a.) Cognition : geseah rincd manigc spefan, saw many heroes sleep 
 (B., 729); leode secgan hyrde, heard people say (B., 1340); ongeate hinc 
 liahbende beon, he knew (himself to be having) that he should have (this 
 number of years) (Bed., 5, 8); so after seon, gehyran, gefrignan, findan, 
 {d)fandian, geinetan, etc. The direct object is sometimes omitted : secgan 
 hyrde, I heard say (B., 582). Teaching : Ixr us gebiddan, teach us to 
 pray (Luc, 11, 1). 
 
 (6.) Bidding : hxd hine faran, bade him go (Chr., 1050) ; hutan men 
 gcpyrcean, ordered men to build (B., G9) ; so with {be)he(}dan, forbeodan, 
 etc. Direct object omitted : hM fealdan ]jxt segl, orders to furl the sail 
 (Boat., 41,3). 
 
 (c.) Let: Iclon holm bcran,\et the sea bear him (B., 48) ; lictad pd 
 Itjilingds to me cummi, suffer the little ones to come to me (Luc, 18, IG). 
 So forlMan, alyfan. 
 
 (d.) Make : dcd hi calle beofian, makes it all tremble (Psa., ciii, 30). 
 
 (a, b, c.) With passives : pws gcsepen Mod peallan, blood was seen to 
 spring from the ground (Chr., 1100) ; hard and spyn synt forbodene to 
 xt-hrinenne, hares and swine are forbidden to touch (Lev., xi, 6-8) ; — wish- 
 ing : polde hyne genemnedne beon, he wished him to be named (Luc, 1, 
 62). 
 
 Note — This construction gives rise to the accusative before the infinitive, for which see 
 § 293. 
 
 Gerund, §§ 173, 175. 
 
 450. The so-called gerund usually answers to the Latin gerund, supine, 
 or ut with the subjunctive. But see \ 445, 3. 
 
 451. — I. The gerund after the copula expresses what must, 
 may, or should be done. 
 
 Mannes sunu is to syllanne, the Son of Man must be delivered up (Matt., 
 xvii, 22) ; his apostolds to farenne pseron, his apostles were to go (LL. 
 -a^lf,49, 1) ; seo lufu is dd on mode to hcaldanne,love should always 
 be kept in mind (Bed., 1, 27).
 
 GERUND.— ATTRIBUTIVE.— OBJECTIVE.— ADVERBIAL. 199 
 
 (a.) The act may be done to or hy the subject. 
 
 (6.) Latin periphrastic conjugations in -rus and -dus (Hark., §§ 227-233). 
 
 452. — II. Attributive. The gerund is sometimes used to 
 describe or define a noun. 
 
 Nedd is to donne, there is need of acting (LL. JE,&r., vi, 42) ; gepeald 
 to gyrpanne, power of working (C, 280) ; m&l to feran, time to go 
 (B., 31G) ; mihte to forlxtenne, power to forgive (John, xix, 10 ; Mc, 
 2,10). 
 
 (a.) Latin genitive of the gerund (Hark., 563). v 
 
 453.— III. Objective. The gerund may be used as a final 
 object to exj^ress an act on the first object. 
 
 After verbs of having and giving : ic hwbbe mete to etanne,! have meat 
 to eat (John, iv, 32) ; si/ht mc hlaf to etenne, gives me bread to eat 
 (Gen.,xxviii,20) ; ic sende fl&sc to etanne,\ send flesh to eat (Exod., 
 xvi, 12). 
 
 Note nim past ic pe to sillenne hahle, take that I to thee to give have, 
 
 (Ap., 12) ; ic hsshhe pe to secgenne sum pjing, I have something to say 
 
 to thee (Luc, 7, 40), Lat. hac dicere habeo (Cic. N. D., 3, 39), Ov^iv 
 
 avTUTTUv ix(a (^sch. Prom., 51); — direct object omitted: hire syllan 
 
 etan, to give to her to eat, Lat. hihere dart (Liv., 40, 47), SoOijvai ^aytiv 
 
 (Luc, 8, 55). 
 
 (a.) Hence a periphrastic future I have to drink = I shall drink, 5 415, 5. 
 (6.) The gerund as genitive object is pretty common : ondred to faranne, dreaded to go 
 (Matt., ii, 22) ; wished to see (siii, IT.) Other objects occur, § 448, 2). 
 
 454. — IV. Adverbial, l. The gerund is used to denote 
 the purpose of motion. 
 
 tit code se saidcre to sapenne, the sower went out to sow (Mc, 4, 3) ; so 
 often without to: gretan eode, went to greet (C, 146, 31); gepat 
 neosean, went to see (B., 115) ; sonde bodian, sent to preach (Bed., 3, 
 22). 
 (a.) The Latin supine in -um (Hark., 509). 
 
 2, The gerund with an adjective may express an act for 
 which any thing is ready. 
 
 Hracte Mud to dgeotanne, ready to shed blood (Psa., xiii, 6) ; fuse to 
 farenne, ready to go (B., 1805); so gearu, rcope, spict, etc. Compare 
 hii pit;rc pu dyrslig ofstician bar, how could you be daring (=how 
 dared you) stab a boar? (^Ifrc), ^ 448, 2; gcarpe gehyran,rea.(iy to 
 hear (iillfrc.). 
 
 (a.) Latin supine in -u, and infinitive (Hark., §§ 570, 552, 3). 
 
 3. The gerund with an adjective may express an act in 
 respect to whicli smy thing is pleasa7it,u7i2}leasaiit,€asi/^worth9/^ 
 
 §§ 321, 302.
 
 200 rARTlCIl'LES. 
 
 Gladii on to locicnnc, pleasant to look on (Boet.,G) ; grimllc to geseonnc, 
 grisly to sec (Ex., 57, 15) ; tVc on to findannc, easy to find (Psa.,lxxvi, 
 16) > pyrde to alditcnne, worthy to receive pardon (C, 6:22 ; Matt., iii, 
 11). 
 
 (a.) The Latiu supine in -«, for which often au infinitive (Hark., 570). 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 455, The Melation of the Forms. 
 
 1. The -nd of the present denotes continuance; the -en, -d of the past 
 denote completion. The completed acts are naturally used to describe the 
 things completed, i. e., are passive. 
 
 (a.) A few past participles are active, druncen, foisporen, gesprecen, 
 etc.: beoj-e druncen, drunken with beer (B., 531, and o^ten) ; foisporen, 
 forsworn, perjured (Gen., xxiv, 8, and elsewhere) ; keom pus gesprecenum., 
 they thus having spoken (Nic, 27, and elsewhere) ; gchjfed folc, people 
 having believed (Horn., 1, 144) ; so Gothic (Mc, xv, 28), Lat. potus,jura- 
 tus, etc. 
 
 (2.) The participles have (1) adjective endings, and agree with nouns ; but the dif- 
 ference is so slight between an act asserted as done by the agent, and as descriptive of the 
 agent, that the participles are used (2) like infinitives, and (3) as abridged clauses. 
 The two last uses are less common in Anglo-Saxon than in Latin or Greek (Harkness, 5T1- 
 581 ; Hadley, 7S5-S0C). 
 
 (3.) Weak and strong forms, see §§ 362, 119, b. 
 
 The Comhmations. 
 
 456. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender, 
 niimher, and case, § 361. 
 A participle may govern the case of its verb. 
 
 I. Attributive : man rihtpls and ondrMende God, a man righteous and 
 fearing God (Horn., 3, 446) ; seo foresMe hoc, the aforesaid book (Horn., 
 2,118). 
 
 (a.) Abridged. — Here belong many abridged clauses, ^ 281 : onhjht 
 xlcne man cumendne to pysum middanearde, hghteth every man coming 
 (who comes) to this world (W. P. T., 4). 
 
 (b.) Subject omitted : — persons : ealrd libbendrd mbdor, mother of all 
 living (Gen., iii, 20) ; Godes gecorcnan, God's chosen (Hom., 2, 454) ; — 
 things : frumrlpan gongcndes and peaxendes, first fruits of that going and 
 growing (LL. ^If., 38). 
 
 (c.) Compounds with im- abound in the Teutonic tongues. 
 
 45'7. — II. Predicative : ic secgende pms,l was saying (An., 951) ; pies 
 first agdn, the time was gone (An., 147) ; fct sint gebundenc, feet are
 
 VERBALS. 201 
 
 bound (C, 24, 18) ; paldend licgad dredme bedrorene, the powerful lie be- 
 
 reft of joy (Ex., 291,8). 
 
 (a.) Hence the progressive forms, §§ 177, 411 ; the perfect of intransitives, 55 16S, 416; the 
 passives, §§ 17S, 409. 
 
 458. — III. Objective: (1.) direct object after verbs o^ beginning and 
 ending: geendude bebeodende, he stopped giving commands (Matt., xi, 1)., 
 
 (2.) Definitive after verbs of motion : com ridende, came riding (Horn., 
 2, 134) ; com gangende (Matt., xiv, 25, and often) ; cj?o?n gefered (Sal., 
 178 ; perhaps never exactly the Germ, kam gegangen) ; pind pedende fxrcd, 
 (El., 1274) ; purhpunedon acsicnde, they continued asking (John, viii, 7). 
 
 (3.) Genitive object after verbs of emotion : ondredon June dcsigendc, 
 dreaded asking him, i<poj3ovvro tizipwTuaai (Mc.,ix, 32) ; pundredon geseondc 
 dumbe specende, they wondered to see the dumb speaking (Matt., xv, 31). 
 
 (4.) Final object after verbs of cognition : hine geseah sittendnc, saw 
 him sitting (Luc.,xxii, 56) ; geseah his hus dfylled, saw his house filled (St. 
 G., G) ; gehyrdon hine specende, heard him speaking (John, i, 37). 
 
 (5.) Final after having : he hsofde hine geporhtne, he had him wrought 
 (C, 17,4). Hence tbe perfect in Teutonic, Romanic, Romaic, rare Gr., Lat. 
 
 (a.) TTiese correspond with infinitives, §§ 44S, 449, 453. 
 
 459. — IV. Adverbial. (1.) Time: ha pxccende geseah, he, when he 
 waited, saw (St. G., 4) ; nolde, gcladod, sidian, he would not, when invited, 
 go (Hom., 1, 128). 
 
 (2.) Cause: dyde aigder to dnum, tupurpende feondscipds, made both at 
 one by abolishing enmities (Ilom., 1, 106). 
 
 (3.) Concession : syllad, nan ping gehyhtende, lend, though hoping 
 nothing (Luc, vi, 35). 
 
 (4.) Co-existence : gccyrdon pa hyrdas puldrigcnde and herigcnde God, 
 the shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God (Horn., 1,33). 
 
 (a.) Such constructions are often abridged clauses, § 2S1. 
 (&.) For the absolute construction, see §§ 304, d; 295, b. 
 
 Verbals. 
 
 4G0. 1. The Anglo-Saxon verbal in -ung, -ing (^ 233), is a true noun, 
 e. g., governed by a preposition : ic pxs on huntunge'^'EiUgX. I was a hunt- 
 ing (iElfc). 
 
 2. The gerund in -ende (^ 445, 2) changed to -ing (Layamon, 2G47), 
 and hence the old English use of the form in -ing as a verb : / am to ac- 
 cusinge you (John, v, 45, Wycliffc, Oxford edition). 
 
 3. The present participle in -ende changed to -ing; and, in English, 
 noun, participle, adjective, and infinitive (gerund) mix.
 
 202 INTERJECTIONS.— CONJUNCTIONS.— COPULATIVES. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS,^ 263. 
 401. The interjection has the syntax of a clause, § 278, c?. 
 (a.) Compare vocative, (} 289, d; answers, ^^ 39'J. 
 (Zi.) For the dative after so-called interjections, see ^ 298, b. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS,^ 262. 
 
 Co-OEDINATE C O X J U N CT I N S. 
 
 402. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences and 
 like parts of a sentence. 
 
 40 3. Copulatives. 
 
 1. And connects like clauses ; cum and geseok, come and see (John, 
 i, 40) ; words, often an emphatic repetition : litlan and litlan, by littles 
 and littles (Chr., 1110) ; sputor and spidor,worse and worse (Chr., 108G) ; — 
 correlatives : feor and nidh, far and nigh (C, 177, 27). 
 
 It is a general sign of connected discourse ; — introductory to a sentence : 
 And ne forseoh pit cyrliscne man, (Hail to thee, Apollonius). And do not 
 neglect a plain man (Ap., 7) ; so Shakespeare, "Yet ask^ "And shall I 
 havef^ (Rich. II., iv, 1) ; and often beginning a lyric, Southey, Moore ; so 
 in German, Goethe. 
 
 Strengthened : sunu and fxder mgder, son and father hoth (Hy., 7, 42) ; 
 and butu, and both (Ex., 125, 8) ; and edc, and also (Chr., 894) ; and cue 
 spa (896) ; and edc spa ilce (same), and also (Psa., xxx, 10; El., 1278) ; 
 and ealspd, and likewise (Luc, v, 33) ; and samod, and together (C, 456) ; 
 and sodlice, and verily (Matt., ii, 9) ; and to, (nine hundred), and (seventy) 
 too (C, 1224). 
 
 Correlative: and .... and,hoih. .... and (John, xii, 28) ; so Wycliffe, 
 Mc, ix, 21, and often). 
 
 &gder (ge) .... and (edc) both .... and (By., 224) ; bn {bdtpa) .... 
 and,hoi\i .... and (Ex., 64, 12). 
 
 ge . . . . and, both .... and (C, 40, 31) ; samod .... and, both .... 
 and (C. 239, 27). 
 
 (a.) As a general connective, and may connect clauses having various 
 logical relations, and with or without other specific conjunctions. 
 
 Adversative : God geseah pone deofol, and se deofol spd-peah pses 
 bcdihled Godes gesihde, God saw the devil, and the devil though was 
 deprived of the sight of God (Hom., 3, 448) ; and nd pe Iws, and never- 
 theless (Chr., 1011) ; ic pylle 7nild-hcortnysse, and nd onssegdnyssc, 
 I wish mercy, and not sacrifice (Matt., xii, 7) ; so beginning a sentence
 
 COPULATIVES. 203 
 
 to enforce a contrast : And do you now put on your best attire? (Shake- 
 speare, J. C, i, 1). 
 Causal : gelyf, and heo hid hdl, believe, and she shall be whole (Luc, 
 
 viii, 50) ; and for pon 7ie, and not for that (Deut., i, 32). 
 Distributive : ipa/n and tpdm, by two and two (Mc, vi, 7). See ^ 392. 
 (i.) And is often an emphatic particle (Gr. /cai) : sc pe nxfd, and pxt 
 Pe he hsefd, him bid xtbroden, whosoever hath not, even that which he hath, 
 from him shall be taken away (Matt., xiii, 13) ; And pu pxre mid pjam Gali- 
 leiscean, thou also wast with the Galilean (INIatt., xxvi, 69) ; so in Wycliffe : 
 Go and yee, go ye also (Matt., xx, 4, and often) ; not in use now. 
 
 2. Bu, correlative with and; which see. 
 
 3. Eac, ec, eke ; — with like clauses : eordan porhte,ltf eac gesccop, God 
 earth wrought, life also created (B., 97). It is also used as an emphatic 
 particle alone, and with and, ge, hpiedre, ne, odde, spa, spilce, Jjcdh. 
 
 Eal spa, see spa. 
 
 Eornostlice, see sudlice, ^ 463, 8. 
 
 4. Ge ; — with like clauses : siv brxc ge stcorran forlcton, the sea broke, 
 and the stars ceased their light (Ex., 70, 33, rare) ; — words : ealde ge 
 geonge, old and young (Jud., 166). 
 
 Strengthened : xghpseder ge, both (^(ts. LL., 1) ; butu ge, both (C, 46, 
 30) ; ge edc, and also (Cri., 1170); ge edc spd same, and also likewise 
 (Met., 11, 10) ; somod gc, at once both (Bed., 2, 9) ; ge spylce, and so also 
 (B., 22.58). 
 
 Correlative: ge . . . ge, both . . . and (B., 1864) ; xgdcr ge . .'. ge, 
 hoth . . . and (Job., XV, 24) ; ge . . . G?i^, both . . . and (C, 752), see and. 
 
 5. Gelice, likewise ; — he pundrode, and ealle ; gelice Iacdbum,i. e. laco- 
 bus, he wondered, and all (that were with him) ; likewise James (Luc, v, 9). 
 
 6. Ne, ne, with like clauses : heorgds pxr ne muntds stedpe ne siondad, 
 there hills 7ior mountains steep stand (Ex., 199, 6) ; — general connective : 
 Ne ne eton ge, neither do you eat (Exod., xii, 8). 
 
 Correlative : ne . . . ne, not . . . nor (Gii., 670). 
 ndder ne . . . ne (ne), neither . . . nor (Levit., iii, 17; Psa.,xxxiv, 12). 
 nddor . . . ne, neither . . . nor (Matt., vi, 20) . . . nor (repeated). 
 ne . . . ne edc ?je, not , . . nor (also not) (Boet., 16, 1). 
 nd {nalxs) pxt an . . . ac edc spylce (spa) ; and nalxs Jmt an l)xt him 
 pa fugelds, ac edc spd pd fixds, and not only that the birds (were sub- 
 ject) to him, but also the fishes (St. G., 9) ; so Goth., ni pat ain . . . ac 
 jah (I Tim., v, 13). 
 
 Strengthenings, see § 400. Note piston and ne pendon, knew (not) and 
 hoped not (that they should see) (B., 1604). 
 
 7. Sam : bid oferfrorcn, sam hit sy sumor sam pintcr, is frozen over 
 both when it is summer and winter (Oros., 1, 1,23), compare ^ 464, 5; spd 
 same spd, see after, spd. 
 
 Samod, see and. 
 
 8. Sodlice ; — general sign of connected discourse : Sudlice Philippus
 
 204 DISJUNCTIVES.— AD VEllSATIVES. 
 
 ;w5, Now Philip was (from Bctlisaida) (Jolin, i, 41), see under and; simi- 
 lar are cornostlke (Matt., ii, 1) ; pitodlicc (iii, 11). 
 
 9. Spa, correlative : sprccan spa yfel spa god, to speak as well evil as 
 good (Nic.,6); for other uses o? spa, see ^ 473 ; spa same spa, hea.sts have 
 these natures the same as men (Boet., 33, 4) ; eal spa, also (Matt., xxi, 
 30). 
 
 10. To, sec under and ; pitodlice, see sodllcc. 
 
 46 4. Disjunctives, § 2G2. 
 
 1. Aj)cter, mtcr, strengthens or/(/c, which see. 
 
 2. Elles : bcgymad ; cllcs nxbbe ge mtdc, take heed ; else ye have no 
 reward (Matt., vi, 1). ^ 262, b. 
 
 3. Hpaeder : correlative with pe and oddc, which see. See also § 397. 
 
 4. Ottde; — alternative clauses: hi nc mihton, odde Id noldon, they 
 could not, or they would not (Chr., 1052) ; — -words : fcor odde nca/i, 
 far or nigh (C, 1029 ; B., 2870). 
 
 Strengthened : dder odde on boclande odde on folclande, either on hook- 
 land or on folkland (LL. Edw., 1, 2) ; odde euc, or also (Psa., cxvii, 12) ; 
 oddc hpxder (Gen., xliii, 27). 
 Correlatives: odde . . . o^e, either ... or ; odde gcmeian,oMe getellan, 
 odde dpegan, either measure, or count, or weigh (LL. iE(ts., 1) ; 
 cuter . . . odde, either ... or (Hy., 10, 42) ; 
 hpxdcr . . . 0(/i:?e, whether ... or (Num., xiii, 20) ; 
 
 hpxder . . . odde hpxder, whether . . . or whether (Gen.,xliii, 27) ; 
 uder tpegd . . . odde, other of two (^either) ... or (By., 208). 
 
 5. Sam: sa7n pe pillan, sum pe nyllan, whether we will or nill (Boet., 
 34, 12). 
 
 G. 2>e, or ; — alternative clauses : is hit dlyfed pe nd, is it lawful or no ? 
 (Matt, xxii, 17) ;^words : p'lfhddes pe peres, of female or male (Ph., 
 357). 
 
 Strengthened : geh&lan hpxdcr pe forspillan, to heal (whether) or to de- 
 stroy (Mc, iii, 4). 
 
 Correlatives : pe . . . /e, whether ... or (Mc, xiii, 35) : hpxdcr . . . pe 
 (Ex., 95, 8); hpxder pe . . . pe (Matt, xxiii, 17) ; hpxder . . . hpxder 
 /e, whether ... or whether (Joh.,vii, 17). 
 
 465. Ad VERS ATI VES, § 262. 
 
 1. Ac, ach, ah, but ;— contrasted clauses : nis pis mseden dead, ac heo 
 slxpdiP) (Mc.,v,39). 
 
 Strengthened : ac spidur, but rather (Ap., 20) ; ac nddcmd, but none the 
 more (Chr., 11^7) ; ac pedh hpxdere, but however (Horn., 1, 276). 
 
 2. Butan, see § 431, c/. 
 
 3. Git, yet, correlative with concessive pedh is not yet found in Anglo- 
 Saxon.
 
 CAUSAL.— ILLATIVE.— SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 205 
 
 4. Ono /ipxt, hut yet (Bed., 3, 24, Smith's ed.). 
 
 5. }^)eali, yet ; — contrasted clauses : lir ne ciuton ; peak hie fela piston, 
 tliey did not know before ; yet they knew many things (C, 179, 16). 
 
 Strengthened: and ne code pedh «i, and (=but) he did not go in though 
 (John, XX, 5) ; and spa pedh, Goth, sve pauh, and yet even so (Horn., 2, 
 448) ; emn spa pedh (Met., 9, 38) ; spa pedh hpxdere, yet however (Psa., 
 cxviii, 157); spd'^se (Gu., 934, and often) ; ac pedh hpxdere, see ac. 
 Correlative oftenest with a concessive although. 
 
 pedh (pe) . . . pedh, although ... yet (Boet., 1G,3). 
 spa . . . spa pedh, although . . . yet (El., 498). 
 
 6. And na ])e lees (Chr., 1011) ; ac nd Jte md (Chr., 1127). nevertheless; 
 /or ^on, notwithstanding (Deut., i, 32). 
 
 4 6 6. Causal. — Illative. 
 
 1. Nu, now that, since ; — causal : pu me ne forpyrne, nu ic pus fcorran 
 com, (I pray) that thou wilt not deny me, since I thus far have come 
 (B., 430) ; nu pe, since that (An., 485). 
 
 2. Jia, since (causal) ; pa hie ofgifen hxfde, (now he could replenish the 
 earth) since they had given it up (C.,9C), see ^ 252,11. 
 
 3. Be })am l)e, by this that; because: ongist pu hi be pam P)e heo on 
 nihte seined, thou mayst know it because it shineth in the night 
 (Mandr.). 
 
 4. For ]3am ]j3 {pam^pan, pon), causal: for pam pe Drihten lehet 
 god, we will do thee good,/o?- this that (=because) the Lord has 
 promised good (Num., x, 29). 
 
 For l^am (causal) : because (Boet., 19) ; — illative : therefore (C, 97). 
 
 5. bonne, since (causal) : hpd sccal to his rice fon, ponne he broder 
 ntrfd, who shall to his throne succeed, since he has no brother (or chil- 
 dren) (Horn., 2, 146). 
 
 G. l)y, therefore (illative) (C.,34, 21) ; pij /-e, because (Chr., 836). 
 Correlative : p^J       Pll pe, on this account . . . because (Chr., 836). 
 7. For J-)y {ln,pe) ; — causal (John, vii, 22). 
 
 Correlative : for pi . . . for pan pe, for this reason . . . because 
 (Horn., 1,288). 
 
 Subokdixate Con .t unctions. 
 
 467. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate 
 
 clause and the word Avith whicli it combines, § 278, h. 
 
 (a.) Most are really relative adverbs, or adverbial phrases modifying a word in tlie prin- 
 cipal and another in the subordinate clause. 
 
 (().) The same word or phrase may denote different logical relations between different 
 pairs of phrases, but we will follow our usual analysis of the subordinate clauses, § 283.
 
 206 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.— DECLARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A. Substantive Clauses. 
 4GS. Declaeative Conjunctions. 
 
 1. ])det, substantive sign (the article of a clause). 
 
 1. With a subject clause: pAr gccijdcd pcard pxt God helpe gefrc- 
 mede, there was made known that God help gave (An., 91); — cor- 
 relative pxt or hit : nis pxt fcor hconon paU sc mere storidcd, it is 
 not far hence that the mere stands (B., 13G2) ; hit gelamp pxt (hie) 
 
 cpomon, it happened that they came (El., 272); — quasi-appositive : 
 pedtdcen pxt hie gesohton, the fatal sign (was spread) that they 
 should seek (his death) (An., 1123). 
 
 2. With an object clause (a) accusative : ic put Jixt pii eart, I know 
 that thou art (El., 815) ;-:— correlative pxt or hit: pxt gecyded 
 mxnig pxt P}xt gepeorded, tliat the multitude shall show that it shall 
 happen (An., 1439); — apposition: P)d peddxd to prxce ne settc, 
 pxt hie berxddon, he would not avenge the wicked dccd^ that they 
 deprived (of life the guiltless) (El., 496). 
 
 {b.) Dative : to pam arod, pxt he nedde, ready for this, that he ventured 
 (Jud.,275). 
 
 (c.) Genitive: gcmyndig pxt hio gcsohte, mindful that she sought (EI., 
 268) ; — correlative ^a?5 ; pe pxs sculon hycgan, pxt pc,we should strive for 
 this, that we, etc. (C, 398) ;— appositive : crxftes, pxt pa me gct&hte, I 
 would ask knowledge, that thou teach me (An., 485). 
 
 {d.) jjaet is also used in final clauses, ^ 433 ; modal, ^ 473 ; consecutive, 
 ^ 434 ; to introduce a wish or lamentation, ^ 421, 4. 
 
 The uses oi pxt correspond with those of Goth. Jjatei, O. H. Ger. daz, 
 and generally with Lat. iit, quod, Gr. on, Cjq, 'iva, and uttojq, Sa.ns\i.jat,jdthd. 
 
 2. ]}cette<ipxt pc has the same uses as pjxt ; for examples, see Grein. 
 
 3. 2)aet is, introduces an explanatory clause: ongunnoa hi pxt apostoUce 
 Uf onhyrigean, pxt is, on singalum gebedum Drihtne peopdon, they began 
 to imitate the apostolic life, that is, they served the Lord in continual pray- 
 ers (Bed., 1, 26) ; mid fcdpiim brodrum, pxt is, scofenum odde eahtum, (he 
 lived) with few brothers, that is, seven or eight (Bed., 4, 3). 
 
 Nemlice is given by Koch and Thorpe for Lat. videlicet,\\\ie English 
 namely ; but it does not occur in the passages cited by them. ^Ifric 
 translates videlicet by pitodllce. Gram., p. 40. 
 
 4. Hu, how, object of cognition : pe gehyrdon hu ge ofslogon„Vie heard 
 how (that) ye slew (two kings) (Jos., ii, 10) ; gesdpon hu he pxs astigende, 
 we saw how (that) he ascended into heaven (Nic, 18), frequent. 
 
 Prepositions sometimes govern clauses : siod ofer pxr pxt cild pxs, stood 
 over where the child was (Matt., ii, 9).
 
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES— ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 207 
 
 •» 4G9. Intereogative Conjunctions. 
 
 1. Hpaeder: he f ran hpmder folc Cristenp&re, asked whether the people 
 were Christian (Horn., 2, 120). 
 
 2. Gif : Jrxgn gif h'lm pivre, asked if to him were (B., 1319). 
 
 3. Similar is the use of hpanon, whence; hpai7\ where; hpxnne, when; 
 hpider, whither ; hu, how, and tiie like, see ^ 397-8. 
 
 4. For ne, ac, ah, hu, Id, as strengthening particles, see ^ 397. 
 
 470. — B. Adjective Clauses. 
 
 These are connected to their substantive, 
 
 1. By relative pronouns, "^^ 379-385, 427. 
 
 2. By relative adverbs, ^ 398, 2. 
 
 (a.) Adverbs of place connect to names of places ; of time, to names of 
 time, etc. ; on sumum dxge, pa pd Godes englds comon, on a day when 
 God's angels came (Horn., 2, 440). 
 
 C. Adverbial Clauses. 
 
 471. — L Place. — The connectives are relative adverbs : pxr, where 
 (^ 428); pxr pxr, North, sua hucr, wherever (John, xii, 26) ; ne mxge ge 
 cuman pyder ic fare, ye can not come whither I go (John, viii, 21) ; huer, 
 where (North., Matt., vi, 21) ; spa hpdr 5/;«, wherever (^ 428); spa hpider 
 spd, whithersoever {^ 428). 
 
 Correlative /;£?• . . . /a-b?- (Matt., vi, 21). 
 
 472. — n. Time. 1. Adverbial conjunctives mentioned under the sub- 
 junctive, ^ 429 : ^r pon pxt (John, iv, 49, North.), xr pon pe (Jud., 252), 
 ier Pjon (C, 2, 20), xr, before (B., 676) ; wr . . . xr (B., 1370) ;— oct Jjxt, 
 od, till (^ 429, a) •,—})onne, hponnc, pcndcn, spa lange spa, pd hp'de pd 
 (^ 429, h). 
 
 2. Others with prepositions : aefter pam pje ic arise, ic cume, after I arise 
 I will come (Mc, xiv, 28) ; mid pam pc (Horn., 2, 130), mid pij pc (Matt., 
 xxvii, 12), mid pfj, whilst (Bed., 1, 1) ;— of pon, since (Mc, ix. 20, North.) ; 
 — oa-mang (dmang) pam pe he Jmr pxs, while he was there (Chr., 1091), 
 on pam pe, while (Chr., 1050) ;— sict pan, since (B., 656), as soon as (604), 
 after that (100) ; siddon pat (Chr., 1128) ;— to pon pxt, until (B., 2591). 
 
 3. Without prepositions, — pronominal: l)a, when (B.,632); pd . . . pd 
 (Matt., ii, 3), /;a pd . . . pd (Matt., iv, 2), pd pe . . . pd (Chr., 1013), 
 when . . . tlien ; — mid pam pe . . . pd (Hom., 2, 450), mid pij pe . . . pd 
 (Ap., 5), on pam pe . . . pd (Chr., 1049), dmang pam pc . . . pd (Nic, 15), 
 whilst . . . then ; on sumum dxge . . . pd, on a day . . . then (Horn., 2, 
 446) ; sona pxs pe . . . pd, as soon after as . . . then (Bed., 1, 12) ; — J)ass 
 pe, after that (Bed., 1, 11); — nu (with causal shade), now that (Sat, 387) ; 
 nu . . . nu,x\o\v . . . since (C,,403).
 
 208 ADVERBDVL CLAUSES.— CONJUNCTIONS OMITTED. 
 
 4. From nouns: hpllum (-on, -a?i) . . . hpllum (Ex., 15G, 30), hplle 
 . . . hp'ilc (Hy.,3,44, 45), sometimes . . . sometimes; lid liplle pe . . . pa 
 hp'ilc , \\\\\\c . . . then (Oros., 2, 4, 5) ; — sona spa . . . spa, as soon as . . . 
 so soon (Bed., 1, 1); sona pxs Jje . . . Jid, iis soon (;iftcr) as . . . then (Bed., 
 1, 12). 
 
 473. — III. Maimer : esfter pam pc, after the manner that (Luc, ii, 24) ; 
 — eal spa, see spa; — on efn, efen jr/^a, likewise (Ps., 138, G) ; — gelice : 
 elpendes hyd pyle drincan pxtan gclic6 and spinge ded, elephant's hide 
 will soak up water like (as) a sponge doth (Oros., 5, 7, 2) ; spylce gelice and 
 seo p&re, such as if she were (Oros., 2, 4, 6) ; — hu, see § 468, 4 ; — spa : 
 hcod gledpe spa nxddran, be wise as serpents (Matt., x, 16) ; spa spa, so as 
 (Horn., 2, 452) ; gelicost spa, most as if (Ex., 53, 15) ; eal spa, wholly as 
 (iElfrc.); spa . . .pa, as soon as . . . then (Ex., 200, 16) ; spa spa . . . 
 spa, as ... so (Horn., 2, 450). Before and after an adjective or adverb : 
 spa fela spa, so many as (^Ifrc.) ; spa lange spa, so long as (Mc, ii, 19) ; 
 spa same spa, just as (Oros., 2, 4, 8) ; etc. Interrogatives : spa hp&r spa, 
 (to such place as)=wheresoever (Matt., xxiv, 28) ; — with comparatives : spa 
 he hyd yldrd, spa he faegerra hyd, as it becomes older, so it becomes fairer 
 (Bed., 1, 1) ;— spilce, as if (^ 430). 
 
 (a.) Intensity : {to) pxs jjxt, to such a degree that (Bed., 4, 28) ; {to) pxs 
 pe, so far as (B., 2410, 1350) \ py . .   py '■ hid py heardra, pe spidor hedtad, 
 it becomes the harder, the stronger they beat against it (C, 80, 8), 
 
 {b.) Comparison: J:)onne : seo sdpul is ma ponne se lichama,i\ie soul is 
 more than the body (Luc, xii, 23). 
 
 (c.) Consecutive : spa, ^ 430, b ; pxt ; spd pxt, ^ 434. 
 
 474.— IV. Causal, ^ 466. 
 
 475. — V. Conditional: gif, on pxt gerdd, pid pam pe, and the nega- 
 tive huton, nefne, nemne, nymde, bulayi pxnne, butan pd, are illustrated in 
 § 431 ; — pxr, if (C, 797) ; sc pe pille, whoever will, spd hpd spa, who- 
 ever, see hypothetical relatives, ^ 427) ; — nxre pxt, if it were not that (Chr., 
 943) ; ono nu, if now (Bed., 1, 27) ; ono gif, same ; compare gelice and, 
 ^ 473, III ; an and and for if occur in Layamon, and are common in old 
 English. 
 
 476. — VI. Concessive : pedh, though, see § 432 ; spd : forg'ifus gyltds, 
 spd pe pidpe oft dbylgead, forgive us our debts, though we against thee often 
 sin (Hy., 6, 23). 
 
 477. — VII. Final: pxt, and the negative Py Ixs pe, see ^ 433; to pam 
 pxt, to the end that (John, i, 31). 
 
 Conjunctions Omitted. 
 
 478. Copulatives are often omitted. 
 
 1. Where clauses are numbered by adverbs : first . . . secondly, etc 
 
 2. Where recurring words mark the related clauses : edld, pxt ic earn 
 ealles leds . . ., pxt ic ne mxg gerxcan, Alas, that /am of all bereft
 
 rKlJsCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 209 
 
 that /may not reach (heaven) (C, 275, 7) ; singad, singad, sing, sing 
 (Psa., xlvi, 6) ; not so common as in English. 
 
 3. Between circumstances closely related, especially a climax : he is 
 rmegnd sped, heafod ealrd hedhgesceaftd,frea xbnihtig, he is of power 
 the essence, head of all high creatures. Lord Almighty (C, 3). 
 
 4. Between antithetic clauses or words : pudu bxr sunu,fxder fyr, wood 
 the son bore, the father fire (C, 2887). 
 
 (a.) Sometimes they are omitted from part only of a row of copulates : 
 fijr,forst, hcvgel, and sndp, fire, frost, hail, and snow (Ps., cxlviii, 8); — 
 especially between sets of pairs : frige and peope, sedele and unxdele, free 
 and serf, noble and unnoble (Ap., 12). 
 
 479. Disjunctives are seldom omitted. 
 
 Sometimes between sets of pairs : gif pind cymd pestan odde edsian, 
 Sudan odde nordan, if wind come from west or east, (or) from south or 
 north (C.,50, 10). 
 
 480. Adversatives are often omitted. 
 
 Between antithetic clauses or words, especially between a positive and 
 negative : ne gelyfe pe . . . pe sylfe gehyrdon, we do not believe (on 
 your report), we ourselves heard (John, iv, 42). 
 
 481. Causals aud illatives are very often omitted, John, ii, 
 25 ; Gen,, xi, 30. 
 
 482. PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Substantives. 
 
 Agreement. 
 
 I. A predicate noun denoting tlie same person or thing as its subject, 
 agrees with it in case, § 286. 
 
 II. An appositive agrees in case with its subject, § 287. 
 
 Nominative Case. 
 
 III. The subject oio, finite verb is put in the nominative, § 288. 
 
 Vocative Case. 
 
 IV. A compellative is put in the vocative, § 289. 
 
 Accusative Case. 
 Objective Combinations. 
 
 V. The direct object of a verb is put in the accusative, § 290. 
 
 VI. Impersonals of appetite or 2}(ission govern an accusative of the 
 person suffering, § 290, c. 
 
 o
 
 210 rRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 VII. Some verbs of asking and teaching may have two accusatives, 
 one of a person, and the other of a thing, § 293. 
 
 Quasi-predicative Combinations. 
 Vin. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative, § 293. 
 
 IX. Some verbs of making, naming, and regarding may have two 
 accusatives of the same person or thing, § 294. 
 
 Adverbial Combinations. 
 
 X. The accusative is used to express extent of time and space after 
 verbs, § 295. 
 
 XI. The accusative is used with prepositions, § 295, c. 
 
 Dative and Instrumental Cases. 
 Objective Co?nbinations. 
 
 XII. An object of influence or interest is put in the dative, § 297. 
 
 XIII. Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dative 
 and genitive, § 297, d. 
 
 XIV. Words of nearness and likeness govern the dative, § 299. 
 
 XV. The instnimental or dative may denote an object of mastery, 
 §300. 
 
 XVI. Some words of separation may take an object from which in 
 the dative or instrumental, § 301. 
 
 Adverbial Combinations. 
 
 XVII. The instrumental or dative may denote instrument, means, 
 manner, or cause, § 302. 
 
 XVII. The instrumental or dative may denote price, § 302, c. 
 
 XVIII. The instrumental or dative may denote measure of differ- 
 ence, § 302, d. 
 
 XIX. Tlie instrumental or dative may denote an object svj-orn by, 
 § 302, e. 
 
 XX. The comparative degree may govern a dative, § 303. 
 
 XXI. The dative may denote time when or place where, § 304. 
 
 XXII. A substantive and participle in the dative may make an ad- 
 verbial clause of time, cause, or co-existence, § 304, d. 
 
 XXni. The dative with a preposition may denote an object of influ- 
 ence or interest, association, mastery, or sejoaration ; or an instrumental, 
 ablative, or locative adverbial relation, § 305. Instrumental, §§ 306-308.
 
 FKINCirAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 Attributive Combinations. 
 
 XXIV. An attributive genitive may denote the possessor or author 
 of its subject, § 310. 
 
 XXV. An attributive genitive may denote tlie subject or object of 
 a verbal, § 311. 
 
 XXVI. An attributive genitive may denote tlie ■whole of which, its 
 subject is part, § 312. 
 
 XXVn. An attributive genitive may denote a characteristic of its 
 subject, § 313. 
 
 Predicative Combinations. 
 XXVin. A predicate substantive may be put ia the genitive to de- 
 note a possessor or characteristic of the subject, or the whole of 
 which it is part, § 314. 
 
 Objective Combinations. 
 
 XXIX. The genitive may denote an exciting object, § 315. 
 
 XXX. Verbs of asking, accusing, reminding, may take an accusative 
 and genitive, § 315, «. 
 
 XXXI. Verbs of granting, refusing, and thanking may take a dative 
 and genitive, § 315, 5. 
 
 XXXn. The genitive may denote an object affected in part, § 316. 
 
 XXXIII. The genitive may denote an object of separation, § 317. 
 
 XXXIV. The genitive may denote an object of supremacy or use, 
 §318. 
 
 XXXV. The genitive or instrumental may denote the material of 
 which any thing is made or full, § 319. 
 
 XXXVI. The genitive in combination with adjectives may denote 
 measure, § 320. 
 
 XXXVII. The genitive in combination with adjectives may denote the 
 part or relation in which the quality is conceived, § 321. 
 
 Adverbial Combinations. 
 
 XXXVIII. The genitive may denote by what way, § 322. 
 
 XXXIX. The genitive may denote time when, § 323. 
 
 XL. The genitive may denote means, cause, or manner, §§ 324, 
 325. 
 
 XLI. The genitive with a preposition is sometimes used to denote in- 
 strumental, ablative, or locative adverbial relations, § 326.
 
 212 PRINCIPAL EULES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Peepositions. 
 XLII. A preposition govems a substantive, aud shows its relation 
 to some other word in the clause, § 337. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 XLIII. Au adjective agrees with its substantive in gender, number, 
 and case, § 361. 
 
 XLIV. The Tveak forms are used after the definite article, demon- 
 stratives, and possessives ; and often in attributive vocatives, instru- 
 mentals, aud genitives. Comparative forms arc all weak, § 363. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 XLV. A substantive pronoun agrees -with its antecedent in gender, 
 mimier, and person, § 365. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 XL VI. Adverbs modify veris, adjectives, and other adveu'ls, § 395. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Agreement. 
 
 XLVII. A finite verb agrees with its subject in mmler and 2^srson, 
 §401. 
 
 Voices. 
 
 XLVin. The active voice is used to make the agent the subject of 
 predication, § 408. 
 
 XLIX. The passive voice is used to make the direct olject of the action 
 the sulject of predication, § 409. 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 L. Principal tenses depend on principal tenses, historical on histor- 
 ical, § 419. 
 
 Modes. 
 
 LI. The indicative is used in assertions, questions, and assumptions to 
 express simple predication, § 430. 
 
 LII. The subjunctive is used to express mere possibility, doubt, or 
 wish, § 431. 
 
 LIII. Tlie subjunctive may be used by attraction in clauses subor- 
 dinate to a subjunctive, § 43fi.
 
 PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 213 
 
 LIV. The subjunctive may be used in a substantive clause express- 
 ing something said, asked, thozight, icished, or done, § 423. 
 
 LV. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adjective cUiuses, 
 ,§ 427. 
 
 ,' L"\T!. The subjunctive may be used in indefinite adverbial clauses 
 of place, § 428. 
 
 LVII. The subjunctive may be used in adverbial clauses of future or 
 indefinite time, § 429. 
 
 LVIII. The subjunctive may be used in clauses of comparison ex- 
 pressing that which is imagined or indefinite, or descriptive of a force. 
 
 LIX. The subjunctive is used in a protasis when i)roposed as pos- 
 sible, the imperfect when assumed as tinreal, § 431. 
 
 LX. The subjunctive may be used in a concessive clause, § 432. 
 
 LXI. The subjunctive is used in clauses expressing purpose, § 433. 
 
 LXII. The subjunctive may express a result, § 434. 
 
 LXin. The potential expresses power, liberty, permission, necessity, 
 or duty, § 435. 
 
 LXIV. The imperative is used in commands, § 444. 
 
 XLV. The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun, § 446. 
 
 XL VI. The gerund after the copula expresses what must, mat/, or 
 should be done, § 451. 
 
 LXVII. The gerund is sometimes used to describe or define a noun, 
 §453. 
 
 LXVni. The gerund may bo used as a final object to express an act 
 on the first object, § 453. 
 
 LXIX. The gerund is used to denote the purpose of motion, § 454. 
 
 LXX. The gerund with an adjective may express an act for which 
 any thing is ready, or in respect to which any thing is pleasant, tinp)leas- 
 ant, easy, icortliy, § 454. 
 
 LXXI. A participle agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and 
 case, § 456. 
 
 LXXII. A participle may govern the case of its verb, § 456. 
 
 Interjections. 
 LXXIII. The interjection has the syntax of a clause, § 46L 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 LXXIV. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sentences or like parts 
 of a sentence, § 4G2. 
 
 LXXV. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause 
 and the word with which it combines, § 467.
 
 214 AlUi.VXGElIENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES. 
 
 483. General rules for the arrangement of words and clauses are found 
 in every language. 
 
 The Latin order is, 1. subject; 2. attributives; 3. adverbial factors; 4. 
 objective factors ; 5. verb. 
 
 Tlie German is, 1. attributives; 2. subject; 3. adverbial factors; 4. ob- 
 jective factors ; 5. verb. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon is, 1. attributives ; 2. subject ; 3. verb ; 4. objective fac- 
 tors ; 5. adverbial. 
 
 Deviation from the general rules is frequent in all languages. This is 
 either rhetorical or poetical, for perspicuity, emphasis, or euphony, or 
 historical, preserving relics of old habits of the language. When any word 
 is removed from its normal place, its attraction may take other words from 
 their places. 
 
 (a.) These deviations are generally freest in the early literature of early nations. Objects 
 are there presented concretely with many attributes picturesquely grouped, and inverted 
 constructions and unusual combinations are sought as part of the art of the poet and ora- 
 tor. There is hardly a conceivable collocation of which examples may not be found in the 
 Anglo-Saxon poetry, and the artificial meters and ornate periods of the Greeks and Komans. 
 Very much of this freedom is still retained by the English poets and ornate prose writers. 
 But the tendency of advancing speech is to an analysis of objects of thought, and to the use 
 of simple clauses, orderly arranged. 
 
 The inflected languages allow more freedom in the placing of adjectives. In other com- 
 binations, the separable signs of inversion and of specific relations, possessed by the later 
 analytic languages, would seem to leave them freer. 
 
 (&.) The additions of Alfred to Orosius, and his prefaces, have been specially studied as 
 models of natural arrangement in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Predicative Combinations. 
 
 484. — 1. The subject precedes the predicate. 
 
 (a.) So throughout the Indo-Eiu-opean tongues ; in the Semitic the verb leads. 
 (6.) The rule holds for quasi-clauses, § 281. 
 
 2. The copulative verb or auxiliary precedes the predicative noun or verb. 
 
 485. Exc€2otions. 
 1. Declarative clauses. 
 
 (a.) Emphasis. The verb or predicative noun may begin a clause for 
 emphasis : (verb very common in poetry, rare in prose) stod se j>rada boda, 
 stood the fell envoy (C.,686); pxs se feond ful nedh, w&sihe fiend full nigh 
 (C.,688); — (noun, not very common even in poetry) mycel ts se fxder, 
 great is the father (St. Bas. 6) ; para pxron six stxl-hrdnds, of these were 
 six decoy deers (Oros., 1, 1, 15). 
 
 (J).) Attraction. When an object or adverbial factor begins a clause, the 
 predicate is often drawn before the subject: (direct object) /eZa spclld him 
 sdidon pa Beormds, many tales to him told the Beorms (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ; —
 
 PKEDICATIVE COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS. 215 
 
 (dative) and him pxs a. pid see, to him was always a wide sea (1, 1, 13) ; — 
 (adverb) ne mette he &r nan gehun land, not met he before any inhabited 
 land (1, 1, 13) ; pa for he nordrihte, then went he northward (1, 1, 13) ; peer 
 sceal beon ^e6?n?jc, there shall be drinking (1, 1, 21); p&r is 7nid Estum 
 pedp, there is among the Esthonians a custom (1, 1, 21) ; on pdm morum 
 eardiad Finnds, in the moors dwell Finns (1, 1, 16). 
 
 (c.) Inserted clauses are often inverted : tc pat, cpxd Orosius, I know, 
 quoth Orosius (5, 1, 1, and often ; but in Alfred's own narration, he cpxd, 1, 
 1, 16). See also correlatives, ^ 485, 5, a. 
 
 2. Interrogative clauses. 
 
 In interrogative clauses the verb regularly precedes the subject, unless the 
 subject contains the interrogative pronoun (so in other tongues) : lufdst 
 pu Tne, lovest thou me? (John, xxi, 15) ; but with an interrogative par- 
 ticle there is often no inversion. See, for examples, ^^ 397-399. 
 Questions of suggestion with no interrogative particle occur : odde pe 
 odres sceolon abidan, or we for another shall look ? (Matt., xi, 3). 
 
 3. Exclamatory clauses. 
 
 Exclamations with interrogative words often have the verb before the 
 subject : ed Id ! hu unprest is pela, alas ! how unstable is wealth (Chr., 
 1087) ; often : ed Id, hu egeslic peos stop is, how awful this place is 
 (Gen., xxviii, 17) ; so in other tongues, ^ 421, 4. 
 
 4. Imperative clauses. 
 
 In imperative clauses the verb precedes the subject (so in other tongues) : 
 hdl p&s pit, be thou whole (Matt., xxvii, 29) ; purde god se ende, may 
 the end be good (Chr., 1006). The subject sometimes precedes a sub- 
 junctive form : sib si mid eopic, peace be with you (Ex., 282, 25) ; for 
 other examples, sec ^ 421, 3. 
 
 5. Co-ordinate clauses. 
 
 The verb often follows next to the conjunction: and licgad pilde moras 
 
 pid edstan, and lie wuld moors eastward (Oros., 1, 1, 16) ; and berad 
 
 pa Cpends hyrd scypu ofer land, and the Cwens bear their ships over 
 
 land (1, 1, 17) ; ac him pxs peste land,h\it. to him was waste land (1, 1, 
 
 13). Compare ^ 485, b. 
 
 (a.) Correlatives often have the second clause inverted : ponnc his ges- 
 treon bebd pus eal dspended, panne hyrd man hine ut, when his wealth 
 is thus all spent, then beareth one him out (1, 1,22). Parallelism is 
 a marked feature of poetry ; the second clause is often inverted : gdr- 
 secg hlynedc, beulon brimstredmus, ocean roared, beat the sea waves 
 (An., 239). 
 
 6. Subordinate clauses. 
 
 (a.) Substantive clauses generally have the subject first, even though 
 an interrogative (in oralio obliqua) : he dxode hu p&re peode nama p&re,\iQ 
 asked what the people's name might be (Horn., 2, 120).
 
 216 ARRANGEMENT.— ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 {[>.) Adjective clauses are inverted when the relative is governed by -d 
 preposition : eal fix.sc, on pam pe is lifes gdst, all flesh in which is the 
 breath of life (Gen., vi, 17) ; — sometimes with no preposition: &nne,])am 
 pxs ludas nama, one, to whom was Judas a name (El., 584). 
 
 (c.) Adverbial clauses of place and time are rarely inverted : ponne 
 p&r bid man dead, he lid, when there is one dead, he lieth (Oros., 1, 1, 21) ; 
 — modal sometimes : spa stod se deofol spa spa dcd se hlinde, so stood the 
 devil as doth the blind man (Horn., 2, 446) ; — conditional and conces- 
 .sive, if without sign : hid se tor pyrel, be the door opened (Jul., 402) ; 
 ■nxfde he nsefre spa mycel yfel gedon, had he never so much evil done 
 (=though he had) (Chr., 1087); — sometimes with: nsefde he peak, he had 
 not though (Oros., 1, 1, 15). 
 
 7. Quasi-clauses. 
 
 (a.) Participles sometimes precede their subjects : ealle niht spincende 
 pe, all night toiling, we (took nothing) (Luc, v, 5) ; — absolute : rixiendum 
 Eddbaldum, Eadbald ruling, (Mellitus departed) (Chr., 616). 
 
 {b.) Factitives sometimes precede for emphasis : bearnleasne ge hahbad 
 me gedonnc, childless ye have made me (Gen., xlii, 36). 
 
 486. Exceptions to the second rule are frequent, § 484, 2. 
 
 Gefaren hxfdon, they had gone (Bed., 1, 23) ; he gyldan pille, he will 
 pay (B., 1184) ; oferseon m&ge, may look over (Oros., 1, 1, 18) ; cal 
 pxl his mun erian mxg, all that his man may till (1, 1, 16) ; pser hit 
 smaUst p&re, wherever it smallest were (1, 1, 16); odde hyt eal died 
 but, till it all laid is (1, 1, 22) ; polde hyne genemnedne beon, wished 
 him to be named (Luc, i, 62). So in the old French and other early 
 Romanic tongues (Diez, 3, 439). 
 
 At'teibutive Combinations. 
 
 487. Attributive adjectives or genitives stand next before their 
 substantive, appositives or preposi.tions with their cases next 
 after. 
 
 So in the Teutonic tongues. In Latin, attributives generally follow their substantive. 
 The Greek is freer. The old Komanic were free, the new have different habits for 
 different words (Diez, 3, 433). 
 
 1. Before. Descriptives : pilde moras, wild rnoors (Oros., 1, 1, 16); 
 hpxles Jarae, whale's bone (1,1,15); — definitives, pronominal : on 
 sumum stopum, in some places (1,1, 16) ; heard spedd, their wealth 
 (1,1, 15) ; — numerals : ipd7n pucum, in two weeks (1, 1, 16). 
 
 2. After. Appositive : his hldforde JElfrede, (said to) his lord, Alfred 
 (1, 1, 13) ; Sidroc, se geonga, Sidroc, the young (Chr., 871), so in 
 Romanic (Diez, 3, 431); — with preposition: red/ of hserum, garment 
 of hair (Matt., iii, 4). 
 
 488. A definitive precedes a descriptive.
 
 ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATIONS.— EXCEPTIONS. 217 
 
 -Se hetsta hpxl-huntad, the best whale hunting (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ; pa pildan 
 hrdnds,i\ie wild rein-deer (1, 1, 15) ; an mycel ed, a great river (1, 1, 
 13) ; J)one ylcan s&s earm, (they have) the same sea's arm (1, 1, 12) ; 
 frarn his dgnum hdme, from his own home (1, 1, 13). So in other 
 tongues. 
 
 489. Of definitives, quantitatives precede dcmonsti'atives,"wbicli 
 precede possessives, -which precede articles, which precede nu- 
 merals. 
 
 Quantitatives: eal peus jwruld, all this world (C, 604); ealle Jus 
 spedd, all his goods (Oros., 1, 1, 22) ; ealle pd men, all the men (1, 1, 
 22) ; hutu pd scypu, both the ships (Luc, v, 7) ; healfne pone speoran, 
 half the neck (Jud., 105; Mc, vi, 23) ; sume pd bocerds, some of the 
 scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ; mid fedpum pdm getrypestum, mannum, with 
 a few of the truest men (Ap., 6) ; xnig oder ping, any other thing 
 (John, X, 29). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 438). 
 Demonstratives : l)ds mine pord, these my words (Matt., vii, 24). 
 Possessives : mhi se gecorena sunu, my (the) chosen son (Matt., iii, 
 
 17). 
 Articles : on p&re dnre mile, in the one mile (Oros., 1,1, 22) ; on p&m 
 odrum prim dagum, in the second three days (Oros., 1, 1, 13 ; Chr., 
 897). So in Romanic (Diez, 3, 436). 
 {a.) Forma (first) and oder (second, other) are sometimes used in the 
 plural describing a class, and are then arranged as descriptives, ^ 488 ; pd 
 preo forman gebedu, the three first prayers (Hom., 1, 270) ; tpegen odre 
 mdnfulle, two other malefactors (Luc, xxiii, 32), so in other languages ; 
 iiTTu. TUQ iaxurac, Lat. septem novissimas, the seven last (plagues) (English 
 Bible, Rev., xv, 1 ; xxi, 9) ; I read to Albert the three first cantos of the 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel (Queen Victoria, Life in the Highlands, p. 40) ; 
 our two eldest children (Same, 76, 234) ; tivo other keepers (Same, 70) ; 
 in den scchs erstcn conjugationen (J. Grimm, D. G., 1, 1038) ; les onze pre- 
 miers chapitres, the eleven first chapters (Renan, Hist. Sem. Lang., 1, 27) ; 
 las dos primeras partes (Don Carlos, quoted in Motley, R. D. R., iii, 193) ; 
 las cuatro primeras (Don Quijote, 352) ; i died primi libri (Diez, 3, 436). 
 
 (6.) The English a, an, after many, such, half, too (great), so (great), how (great), as (great), 
 etc., is in the Old English, but not in Anglo-Sason: manig burh, many (a) town (Oros., 1, 
 1, 20), etc. 
 
 490. JEJxcejytlons. 
 
 1. Descriptive adjectives sometimes follow. 
 
 (a.) Two descriptives the substantive often stands between (so in the 
 Romanic tongues [Diez, 3, 435]) : spide micle merds fersce, very large seas 
 fresh (Oros., 1, 1, 17) ; tamrd deora unbebohtrd, tame deer unbought (1, 1, 
 1.5); — often with a conjunction: god man and chbne, good man and pure 
 (Chr., 105G) ; — sometimes both precede: pam fwgerestan reddan hlpc, o^
 
 218 ARRANGEMENT.— OBJECTIVE COMBINATIONS. 
 
 the fairest red hue (Gt. G., 1); for p&m mistlicum and manigfealdum 
 peoruld-bisgum, for tlie various and manifold secular occupations (Boat., 
 Prof.) ; — sometimes both follow : calru pingd, gesepenllcrd and ungesepen- 
 licrd, of all things seen and unseen (Horn., 1,274). 
 
 (i.) In poetry: gUd-egesa gri77i, fue-har grim (B., 2650); magopegn 
 modig, hero spirited (B., 2757) ; mlhtig (1519), etc. Poetic inversion is 
 used in all languages (Dicz, 3, 430). 
 
 2. Definitives often follow, 
 
 (fl.) Quantitatives : Jjxr bid. medo genoh, there is mead enough (Oros., 1, 
 1, 20) ; J)ds land eal hyrad, those lands all belong (to Denmark) (1, 1, 20) ; 
 land eal, all lands (Sal., 185) ; ure ealrd moder, mother of us all (Bas. Hex., 
 11); ?«a^orfnA;mzce/, great youth-throng (B., 67); manig (B., 838) ; heard 
 legrd edgan, eyes of them both (Gen., iii, 7) ; — (b.) possessives, in poetry 
 often: peoden min, master mine (B., 365); hldford Jnnnc, loxi thine (B., 
 267); stnne, his (B., 2789); userne, our (B., 3107) ; eo/'erwe, your (B., 
 2889) ; — (c.) numerals, rare {pd?n wdelestum ceastrum dnes pana prittigum, 
 with the noblest towns, thirty less one (Bed., 1, 1). So sometimes Romanic 
 derivatives of totus, tantus, talis, and possessives (Diez, 3, 436, 437). 
 
 3. Genitives partitive aud characteristic freely follow. 
 Numerals (regularly) : tpentig scedpd, twenty of sheep (Oros., 1, 1, 15) ;— 
 
 other words (occasionally) : on ktre healfe psus mores, on the other side of 
 the moor (1, 1, 17) ; ndn ping grenes, nothing green (Exod., x, 15) ; fevper 
 circulds hpites hipes, four circles of white hue (Chr., 1104) ; — possessive and 
 other genitives may sometimes follow, ^^ 310-313, 
 
 4. Appositives in the genitive are often separated by a governing word : 
 Aldpulfes dohtor pxs ajninges, dvLUghter of Aldwulf the king (St. G., 18): 
 this was common as late as the Morte d'Arthure. 
 
 5. Any attributive may be separated by words which modify it, from its subject. Poetry 
 allows the interposition of parenthetic clauses even, between the adjective and noun. 
 
 6. For participles and adjectives in quasi-predicative combinations, see 4S4, b. 
 
 491, Objective Combinations. 
 
 1, Objects follow the verb ox iwedicate adjective. 
 
 2, A genitive follows a dative which follows an accusative. 
 For. the factitive object, see §§ 484, h ; 485, 7, h. 
 
 Hi brohton sume pscm cyninge, they brought some to the king (Oros,, 1, 
 1,14); beneeman nergendne Crist roderd rices, io deprive the Savior 
 Christ of heaven's kingdom (C, 286, 3) ; ondred he him ]ms, he took 
 dread to himself at that (John, xix, 8). A dative and genitive are seldom 
 found after the same verb, ^ 492, 3. See after adjectives, §^ 315-319. 
 
 492, Exceptions. 
 
 1. Emphasis. An object often begins a clause for emphasis : /a deor hi 
 hdlad hrdnds, those deer they call rein-deer (Oros., 1, 1, 15) ; sometimes
 
 ADVERBIAL COJIBINATIOXS. 219 
 
 a repeating pronoun follows : pd ted hi brohton sume pxin cyninge, 
 these teeth they brought some (of) to the king (1, 1, 15). 
 (a.) So the interrogative regularly : hpxt godes do ic, what good must I 
 do"? (Matt., xix, 16). 
 
 2. Relics. In German objects precede their verb, and their order is (1) 
 dative, (2) accusative, (3) genitive. 
 
 (a.) A genitive object very often immediately precedes the verb or adjec- 
 tive. For examples, see ^^ 315-319. 
 
 (b.) The dative of the personal pronoun generally precedes impersonals 
 and copulatives : him puhte, it seemed to him (Oros., 1, 1, 14) ; him pxs, to 
 him was (=he had) (1, 1, 13). 
 
 (c.) A direct object often stands between the subject and verb : pe hit 
 pilon,we it knew (Oros., 1, 1, 11) ; pe spyf teste hors habbad, who swiftest 
 horses have (1, 1,22). 
 
 (rf.) An object often stands between the auxiliary and verb : Hi magon 
 cyle gepyrcan, they can cold produce (Oros., 1,1, 23). 
 
 3. Attraction. Inversion of one part of the predicate draws others. 
 Two objects very often precede the verb : fela spelld him sxdon, many 
 tales to him told (they) (Ores., 1, 1, 14). See more examples, ^^ 297„ a, 
 315, a, i. 
 
 (a.) The relative is regularly attracted to the beginning of its clause : 
 gdrsecg, pe man Cpen-sai heet, the sea, which one calls Cwen-sea (Oros., 1, 
 1, 11) ; gafole, pe pd Finnds him gyldad, tribute, which the Finns to them 
 pay (1,1,15). 
 
 493. Adveebial Combinations. 
 
 1. An adverb follows its verJ, but precedes its adjective or 
 adverb. 
 
 2. A preposition with its following (attributives +) Hotin 
 follows next the word to which it shows the relation. 
 
 494, Exceptions. 
 
 1. Emphasis. Any adverbial factor may begin its clause for emphasis. 
 On p&m landum eardodon Engle, in those lands dwelt Angles (Oros., 
 1, 1, 19) ; Edsteperd hit mcvg bion syxtig mild brad, eastward it may 
 
 < be si.\ty miles broad (1, 1, 16) ; Ne mette he, he met not (1, 1, 13). 
 
 (a.) Adverbs of time, place, order, very often begin a clause : pdfor he, 
 then went he (I, 1, 13) ; pyder,he c/^^pt^, thither, he said (1, I, 18); panne 
 xrnad hi ealle, next run they all (1, 1, 22). 
 
 {b.) Interrogatives regularly begin their clause : hp&r is heard God, 
 where is their God"? (Psa.,cxiii, 10). 
 
 2. Perspicuity. When two or more adverbial factors modify the same 
 word, their order is free. They are usually some before and some after 
 the word : pd he piderpcard scglude fram Sciringes heale, when he 
 
 k
 
 220 ARRANGEMENT.— ADVERBIAL COMBINATIONS. 
 
 thither sailed from Sciringsheal (Oros., 1, 1, 19) ; ealle pa hpile he sceal 
 
 scglian be lande, all the while he must sail along the land (1, 1, 18). 
 
 {a.) In German the order is (1) timr, (2) place, (3) cause, (4) co-existence, (5) modality or ne- 
 gation, (G) mamicr, all before the verb. There is more or less approach to the same order 
 in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 3. Old habits, (a.) Adverbial factors are very often found betvreen 
 the subject and verb : pa hpxl-huntan fyrrest farad, the whale hunters 
 furthest go (Oros., 1, 1, 13) ; he from his dgnum home for, he from his 
 own home went (1, 1, 13) ; so regularly the negative : hy ne dors Ion, 
 they durst not (1, 1, 13). 
 
 {b.) Adverbial factors are very often found between an auxiliary and its 
 t^crb, or the copula and predicate : he mihtc onfeoper dagum geseglian, he 
 might in four days sail (1, 1, 13, and everywhere) ; pmt land is eastepeard 
 hrddost, the land is eastward broadest (1,1, 16). 
 
 (c.) The adverb before its adjective or adverb is regular : hyrd hyd but 
 spate god, their hide is very good (1, 1, 14). 
 
 {d) The preposition is sometimes separated from its case to take the 
 place of an adverb : Se here him fiedh beforan, the army him flee before 
 (Cjir., 1016) ; pe he on bude, vjh.ich. he dwelt on (Oros., 1, 1, 18) ; pe heora 
 spcdd on bead, which their riches are in (1, 1, 15; 1, 1, 22). Sometimes 
 it follows its case : hi pyrcad pone cyle hine on, they produce cold on 
 him (1, 1,23) ; ne dorston p&r on cuman,they durst n-ot there on come (I, 
 1, 13). 
 
 4. Attraction. Relative adverbs begin their clause : hus,panon ic code, 
 house whence I went (Matt., xii, 44). For other cases, see § 485, b, 
 and examples in ^ 494, 2. 
 
 495. Akeangement of Clauses. 
 
 1. Co-ordinate clauses are free to follow the order of thought. 
 
 {a.) Courtesy. — Copulate subjects of different persons should have the 
 first person follow the third, and the third follow the second. 
 
 A royal speaker may perhaps be an exception : " I and the girls," " I 
 and Alice" (Queen Vict., Life in Highlands, 173). 
 
 Subordinate Clauses. 
 
 1. Substantive clauses regularly follow their leading clause. For ex- 
 amples, see § 468. 
 
 2. Adjective clauses regularly follow the word they describe. For ex- 
 
 amples, see ^ 470, and sections there referred to. 
 
 3. Adverbial clauses freely take any place in the sentence according to 
 the demands of emphasis, perspicuity, or euphony. They incline to the 
 order of adverbial factors of a clause, ^^ 493, 494. 
 
 (a.) Conditional and concessive clauses oftenest precede. Examples, 
 ^^431,432.
 
 CLAUSES. 221 
 
 (6.) Insertion. — Leading clauses are sometimes inserted in subordinates : 
 and nordepeard, he cpxd,p&r hit smalost p&re, pxt hit mihte heon, etc., and 
 northward, he said, where it was narrowest, that it might be (three miles 
 broad) (Oros., 1, 1, 16). 
 
 (c.) Variations are found with substantive and adjective clauses after the 
 analogy of substantives and adjectives, ^^ 485-490.
 
 PAET IV. 
 
 PEOSODY. 
 
 49G. Prosody treats of the rhythm of Poetry. 
 
 497. Rhythm is an orderly succession of beats of sound. 
 
 This beat is called an ictus or arsis, and the syllable on which it falls is 
 also called the arsis. The alternate rennission of voice, and the sylla- 
 bles so uttered, are called the thesis. 
 
 498. Feet are the elementary combinations of syllables in verse. 
 
 (a.) Feet are named from the order and make of their arsis and thesis. A monosyllabic 
 arsis-\-A. monosj'llabic Ui£tiis is a trochee ; -fa dissyllabic thesis is a dactyle, etc. 
 
 Stress. In Anglo-Saxon these depend on the accented syllables, which are deter- 
 mined by the stress they would, if the passage were prose, receive to distinguish 
 them from other syllables of the same word, or from other words in the sentence. 
 
 Accent is therefore verbal, syntactical, or rhetorical. An unemphatic dissyllable may 
 count as two unaccented syllables, like the second part of a compound. Secondary 
 accents may take the arsis. 
 
 1. A tonic is a single accented syllable-fa pause. 
 
 2. A trochee is an accented+an unaccented syllable. 
 
 3. A dactyle is an accented+two unaccented syllables. 
 
 4. A paeon is an accented+three unaccented syllables. 
 
 5. A pyrrhic is two unaccented syllables ; a spondee is two accented ; 
 an iambus is an unaccented+an accented ; an anapaest is two unac- 
 cented-fan accented ; a tribrach is three unaccented ; a single unac- 
 cented syllable is called an atonic; and unaccented syllables prelim- 
 inary to the normal feet of a line are called an anacrusis (striking up) 
 or base. 
 
 (6.) Time. The time from each ictus to the next is the same in any section. It is 
 not always filled up with sound. More time is given to an accented than an unac- 
 cented syllable. 
 
 (c.) Pitch. The English and most other Indo-Europeans raise the pitch vrtth the 
 verbal accent ; the Scots lower it. With the rhetorical accent the pitch varies every 
 way. 
 
 (d.) Expression. Feet of two syllables are most conversational; those of three are 
 more ornate ; those of one syllable are emphatic, like a thtui or the blows of a ham- 
 mer. The trochee, dactyle, and pseon, in which the accented syllable precedes, have 
 more ease, grace, and vivacity. Those feet in which the accented syllable comes last 
 have more decision, emphasis, and strength (Crosby, § 095). The Anglo-Saxon me- 
 ters are trochaic and dactylic ; the English oftener iambic and anapsstic. 
 
 499. A verse is an elementary division of a j^oera.
 
 VEESE.— C^SUKA.— RIME. 223 
 
 It has a twofold nature ; it is a series of feet, and also a series 
 of words. 
 
 (a.) As a series of feet, it is a sing-song of regular nps and downs, snch as children 
 sometimes give in repeating rhymes. 
 
 As a series of words, each word and pause would be the same as if it were prose, as 
 persons who do not catch the meter often read poetry. 
 
 The cantilation never is the same as the prose utterance ; lines in which it should be 
 would be prosaic. 
 
 The art of versification consists' ia so arranging the prose speech in the ideal frame- 
 work of the line that the reader may adjust one to the other without obscuring ei- 
 ther, and with continual happy variety. 
 
 (6.) The manner of adapting the arsis and tliesis to the prose pronunciation is different 
 in different languages. In Sanskrit, and classical Greek and Latin, the arsis was 
 laid on syllables having a long sound, and variety was found in the play of the prose 
 accent. In other languages, including modern Greek and Latin, the arsis is made to 
 fall on accented syllables, and free play is given to long and short vowel sounds, and 
 combinations of consonants. The Sanskrit and Greek varied farther from prose 
 speech in the recitation of poetry than modem habits and ears allow. The Hindoos 
 still repeat Sanskrit poetry in recitative. 
 
 500. Verses are named from the prevailing foot trochaic, dactylic, la^n- 
 bic,a.ni anapcBstic, etc. 
 
 Verses are named from the number of feet. A monometer is a verse 
 of one foot ; a dimeter of two ; a trimeter of three ; a tetrameter 
 of four ; a pentameter of five ; a hexameter of six ; a heptameter 
 of seven ; an octometer of eight. 
 (a.) A verse is catalectic when it wants a syllable, acatalectie when complete, liypercata- 
 lectic when redundant. 
 
 501. Caesura. — Anglo-Saxon verses are made in two sections or hemi- 
 stichs. The pause between these sections is called the caesura. A foot 
 ccESura is made by the cutting of afoot by the end of a ivord. 
 
 (a.) Expression. The character of versification depends much on the management 
 of the cMsuras. When the weight of a verse precedes the caesura, the movement has 
 more vivacity ; when it follows, more gravity. 
 
 502. Rime. — Rime is the rhythmical repetition of letters. 
 
 Nations who unite arsis and prose accent need to mark off their verses 
 plainly. They do it by rime. Other nations shun rime. 
 
 1. When the riming letters begin their words, it is called alliteration. 
 
 2. When the accented vowels and following letters arc alike, it is called 
 perfect rime (= rhyme). 
 
 3. When only the consonants are alike, it is called half rime. 
 
 4. When the accented syllable is final, the rime is smgle ; when one un- 
 accented syllable follows, the rime is double ; when two, it is triple. 
 
 (a.) Line-rime is between two words in the same section. Final-rime 
 between the last words of two sections or verses. 
 
 503. Alliteration is the recurrence of the same initial sound 
 
 in the first accented syllables of words. 
 
 1. Consonants. — The first initial consonant of alliterating syllables must 
 be the same, the other consonants of a combination need not be;
 
 22-1 ALLITERATION. 
 
 Beopulf: bremeWhhid (B., 18) ; Caines : cynne'.'.cpealm (107) ; Crls- 
 tenrdwCyriacus (El., 1069); cudeWcniht {B., 372) ; funden::frdfrc 
 {!) ; frxtpum : fiet (2054); geong : gear dum:: God (13); geogodc:: 
 gleapost (C, 221, 1); grimma : gxst (B., 102); heofenum : hlceste 
 (52); hxledd : hryre'.'.hpate (2052); hn'UanWhrmgum (Rid., 87, 4) : 
 sijdlice'.'.speotolan (B., 141); scearp : scyldwscdd (288); scridende :: 
 sceapum (Trav., 135) ; Scottdwscip (Chr., 938) ; peodwprym (B., 2) ; 
 pen : plcnco'.'.prxc (338). 
 2. Vowels. — A perfect vowel alliteration demands different vowels : 
 isig:utfus::xdelinges (B., 33) ; — sometimes the same vowels repeat: 
 eorld : eordan : : eoper (B., 248). 
 (a.) sc, sp, or st seldom alliterate without repeating the whole combina- 
 tion ; but: scyppend:: serif en (B., 106); spere : sprengde:: sprang (By., 
 137); str&ld : storm:: strengum (B.,3117). 
 
 {h.) Words in ia-, io-, iu-, Hie-, alliterate with those in g-. They are 
 mostly foreign proper names. See ^^ 28, 34. 
 
 Iacobes::gode (Psa.,lxxxvi, 1, and often) ; lafed : gumrtncum (C.,1552) ; 
 Iorda7je::grene (C, 1931) ; lobes:: God (Met., 26, 47) ; goda : gedsne 
 ::ludas (El., 924); Iuded::God (El., 209); gledp : Godc::luhana 
 (Jul., 131, and often); gomen : geardum::iu (B., 2459), so frequently 
 iu^geo, gio (formerly) and its compounds; Hierusolme:: God (Ps. C, 
 GO, 134) ; gongad : gegnunga : : Hierusalem (Giith., 785) ; written gold : 
 Gerusalem:: luded (C.,260, 11). 
 (c.) It is said that p may alliterate with s by Dietrich (Haupt Zeit., x, 
 323, 362). No sure examples found. C, 287, 23, is a defective line. 
 
 504. A perfect Anglo-Saxon verse has three alliterating sylla- 
 bles, two in the first section, the other in the second. 
 
 Yrum'\sceaft'' \ Yir'\d^ || Yeorr'\arC \ recc'\an' (B., 91). 
 the origin of men from far relate. 
 
 (a.) The repeated letter is called the rtme-htter ; the one in the second 
 couplet the chief-letter, the others the sub-letters. The F o^feorran 
 in the line above is the chief-letter ; the F in frumsceaft and frd the 
 sub-letters. 
 
 (b.) One of the sub-letters is often wanting. 
 
 (c.) Four or more rime-letters are sometimes found. 
 
 Itednes . . "Leohte . . || . . liete . . "Lange (C, 258). 
 
 In pairs : Pxt' he \ God'e \ pold'\e' \\ geong'\ra^ \ peord'\an\ 
 
 that he to God would a vassal be (C, 277), where g- 
 and p both rime, and so often. 
 
 505. The Anglo-Saxons used line-rime and final-rime as an oc- 
 casional ffrace of verse. See §511. 
 
 506. Verse in which alliteration is essential, and other rime ornamental, is the pre- 
 vailing form in Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Old Saxon. Specimens are found in Old High
 
 COMMON NARRATIVE VERSE. 225 
 
 German. Alliteration in these languages even ran into prose, and is one of the causes 
 of the thoroughness with which the shifting of the initial consonants has affected the 
 whole speech, § 41, B. 
 
 50 / . Verse with final rime, and with alliteration as an occasional grace, is the common 
 form in English and the modern Germanic and Romanic languages. It is common in the 
 Low-Latin verses of the Anglo-Saxon poets, and it is by many supposed to have spread 
 from the Celtic. 
 
 CoMiroN Nakkative Vekse. 
 
 508. Beda says of rhythm: "It is a modulated composition of words, not according 
 to the laws of meter, but adapted in the number of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, 
 as are the verses of our vulgar poets. *   • Yet, for the most part, you may find, by a sort 
 of chance, some rule in rhythm; but this is not from an artificial government of the syl- 
 lables. It arises because the sound and the modulation lead to it. The vulgar poets efi'ect 
 this rustically, the skillful attain it by their skill." — Bed., 1, 57. These remarks on the 
 native poets are doubtless applicable to their Anglo-Saxon verses as well as their Latin ; 
 and whatever general rules we may find running through these poems, we may expect to 
 find many exceptional lines, which belong in their places only because they can be recited 
 with a cadence somewhat like the verses around them. 
 
 509. The common narrative verse has four feet in each section. 
 
 A. 1. An arsis /a//5 on every prose accent, § 15, and the last syllable of 
 every section. But note contractions below, 7. 
 
 2. At least one arsis on a primary accent, or two on other syllables follow 
 the chief alliterating letter, ^ 504. 
 
 3. An arsis should fall on the former of two unaccented syllables after an 
 accented long (the vowel long or followed by two consonants), and on the 
 latter after an accented short. 
 
 acyld'\wn bi\acer' e\de\ || acynd'\an' ge\ner'e\de' (Rime Song, 84). 
 
 4. An arsis should not fall on an unaccented proper prefix {a-, he-, ge-, 
 etc.,'^ 15), or proclitic monosyllables {be, se,pe, etc.), or short endings of 
 dissyllabic particles {nefne, odite, ponne, etc.), or short tense-endings between 
 two accented shorts in the same section. 
 
 5. An arsis may fall on a long, on a short between two accents (after a 
 long frequent, after a short, less so), on the former of two unaccented shorts. 
 
 grorn' | torn \ ^rsef'\ed\ || ^rwft' \ rxft' hxf\ect' (Rime Song, 6G). 
 
 spylc'e I gi' | gant'' | as' \Pa' pid \ God'e \punn' \ on' (B., 11'3). 
 
 ■xiip'\e' I niht'-\peard'' || nyd'\e'' \ sceol'\de^ (C, 185, 1). 
 
 pord' purd'\i' \ an. || Veol \ him' on \ inn' | mi^ (C, 353). 
 
 burh' \ tim'\bre' \ de^ (C, 2840). Rare with short penult of trisyllable. 
 
 B. 6. The thesis is mute or monosyllabic ; but syncope, elision, synizesis, 
 or synaloepha is often needed to reduce two syllables. 
 
 7. An anacrusis may introduce any section. It is of one syllable, rarely 
 two, sometimes apparently three, with the same contractions as t'he tkesis. 
 Let'on I p(d) ofer \ fif'el \ pxg' \\ fdm'\i'ge | scrur\an' (El., 237). 
 puld'or\-cyn'ing\es'' \ pord' || ge)peot'an \ pa Jm \ pit'(S)gan \ pry \ An., 802). 
 Bpic'dd\{e) ymb' pa \ sap'\le' \\pe) hire \ &r' pa \ aien'ie) on\ldh' (C, 607). 
 
 P
 
 22G COMMON NARRATIVE N'KKSE. 
 
 Synizesis oi -annc,-lic,-scipe,pendt'n,-A\\([ the like. Sj/nalaepha oi' ge-, 
 pc, and the lilcc. 
 
 Borh' is I me' to | Becg'\an7ie^ \\ on' \ scf'an \ mhi'\u7n' (B., 473). . 
 
 prxtlic'ne \ pund' or\-ma(td'\ran'' || (B.,2171). 
 
 {yrd'\-scar'o | fus' \ lieu' \\ (B., 23-2J. 
 
 eaht'lo'don | eor/'|-5Cijoe^ || (B., 3174). 
 
 pcs'an \pend'en ic \peald'\e'' || (B., 1859). 
 
 pegn'ds I synd'on ge\-ppivr'\c' || (B., 1230). 
 
 /lar'a Jjc \ piit spa \ inic'\lum^ \\ (C, 2095). 
 
 pxt niifre )Grrend'\cr spa \fel'\a' || ^ry'\ra' ge\frem'e \ de" (B., 591). 
 So we find hpsedere (B., 573), dissyllabic ; hine (B., 688), ofer (B., 1273), 
 monosyllabic ; and many anomalous slurs in the thesis or anacrusis. 
 
 8. The order of the feet is free, varying with the sense. In later poetry, 
 as more particles are used, the fuller thesis grows more common. 
 
 9. The Anglo-Saxons like to end a sentence at the cfcsura. So Chaucer and his French 
 masters stop at the end of the first line of a rhyming conplet. So Milton says that "true 
 musical delight" is to be found in having the sense " variously drawn out from one verse 
 into another." 
 
 10. The two alliterating feet in the first section, and the corresponding pair in the sec- 
 ond section, are chief feet. Some read all the rest as thesis. 
 
 510. Irregular sections are found with three feet, or two. 
 
 1. Sections with contracted words where the full form would complete the 
 four feet. 
 
 hedn huses^^hea\han' \ hu'\ses^ (B., 116). 
 deddpic seuii=^dedd'\pic^ \ seo'\haii (B., 1275). 
 
 2. Sections with three feet and a thesis : 
 
 prym' \ {ge)\-frun'\on' (B.,2). 
 Uf i edc' I {ge)\scedp' (B., 97). 
 Heyne finds in Beowulf feet of this kind with a-, xt-, be-, for-, ge-, of-, 
 on-, to-, purh-. Similar sections with proclitic particles are found : men' \ 
 {ne)\cunn'\on' (B., 50); (be)\yd'\ldfW (B., 566); Let' \ {se)\heard"\a' (B., 
 2977) ; {pe)\him' \ pxt' \ pif (C.,707). 
 
 3. Sections with Proper Names. Foreign Names are irregular : 
 
 Semf I and' \ Chain' \ (C, 1551), and so often. 
 
 4. Sections with two feet and a thesis : 
 
 man \ {ge)\pe6n (B., 25). Loth' \ {on)\fm (C, 1938). 
 
 51L. Rhyme is found occasionally in most Anglo-Saxon poems. A few- 
 contain rhyming passages of some length. One has been found which is 
 plainly a Task Poem to display riming skill. All sorts of rimes are crowded 
 together in it. It has eighty-seven verses. 
 
 LINE-RIME. 
 
 Half-rime : sar' | and' \ BOx'\ge''; || siisl' \J)rop'\ed'\on\ 
 
 pain and sorrow ; sulphur suffered they (C.,75).
 
 LONG NARRATIVE VERSE. 227 
 
 Perfect-rime : 
 
 Single : Jidh' \ mdh' \fiit'\ed\ \\jian \ man' | hpU'\ed\ [62). 
 
 foul fiend fighteth, darts the devil whetteth (Rime-song, 
 gdst'\d'' \peard'\urn. || HiBfd'\on' \ gleam and | dream', 
 
 They had light and joy (C, 
 Double : /rod'jne" and \ o-od'jne' || feeder \ 'Un'\pen'\es\ [12). 
 
 wise and good father of Unwen (Trav., 114). 
 Triple : /er'iedje' and | jier'ejde". |1 Ftf\ten\a' \ stod'—, 
 (God) led and saved (C, 1397). 
 
 FINAL-RIME. 
 
 Half-rime : spd' \ lif | spa \ dea.&' , \\ spa Mm \ le6f'\re' \ bi&'. 
 
 either life or death, as to him liefer be (Ex., 
 37, 20 ; Crist., 596, and a riming passage). 
 Perfect-rime : 
 
 Single : ne' \forst'\es'' j/nsest', || ne \fyr'\es'' blesst', 
 
 no frost's rage, nor fire's blast, 
 Double: ne) hasgl'les' \ hryT'\e\\\ ne) hrim'\es' \ rfryr'le', 
 
 nor hail's fall, nor rime's descent (Phoenix, 15, 
 
 16 ; Ex., 198, 25, where see more). 
 Triple: hlud'\e' \ hlyn'e\de^; || hledd'\o7-^ \ dyn'e\de\ 
 (The harp) loud sounded ; the sound dinned (Rime-song, 28). 
 
 Long Narrative Verse. 
 
 512. The common narrative verse is varied by occasional passages in 
 longer verses. The alliteration and general structure of the long verse is 
 the same as of the common ; but the length of the section is six feet. Feet 
 are oftenest added between the two alliterating syllables of the first section, 
 and before the alliterating syllable of the second section. 
 
 Spa \ cpxit \ anott'\or on \ mod'\e\ || 
 
 ge) swl' I him' | sund'\or^ set \ run'\e\ {| 
 TiY' bid 1 se'pe his \ tre6p'\e' ge\heald'\ed\- \\ 
 
 ne) sceaV \ n&f're his \ torn' to \ ryce\ne'' 
 heorn' \ of his | 'bre6st'\u7n' d\cyd'\an\ 
 
 nemd e he \ xr' pa \ \i6l'\e' \ cunn'\e\ 
 eorl' I mid' \ eln'\e' gefremm'\an : 
 
 pel' bid I pam' pe him \ a/je* | sec'\ed\ 
 frdf'\re^ to | F<W|er' on \ hcof'on\um\ 
 
 peer | us^ \ eal' seo \ {.vst'nung \ 5/«7j<i |erf' (Wanderer, 11 1+). 
 
 (a.) Sometimes a section of four feet is coupled with one of six : 
 ge) pinn'les^ | pid' | heor'd | pald\end^ \\ pit'\e^ \ pol'\iad^ (C.,323). 
 
 (6.) Four or more alliterative letters are found oftener than in common 
 verse. Three seldom fail. A secondary weak alliteration is some- 
 times found in one of the sections.
 
 228 ENGLISH PROSE RHYTHM. 
 
 Cc.) This verse is rather a variety of the Common Narrative than another 
 kind. 
 
 513. The Common Narrative is the regular Old Germanic verse. 
 Rules 1, 2, 8, 4, 6, 7, of § 509, are rules of that verse. In the 5th 
 tlie Anglo-Saxon uses greater freedom. It also corresponds with 
 the Old ^ orse /orni/7'clala^. In it Old English alliterating poems 
 are wi-itten. 
 
 /;*' a I som er \ sea'|on* || whan) soft' | ivas' the \ so?m'|e^ 
 /) shape I me in \ shroud'\es^ {| as) I a | shep'e \ wer'\e'' 
 In) hab'ite \ as' an \ hcr'c\mite^ \\ un)hol'\7/ of \ work'\es'' 
 Went' I wyd'e \ in pis \ ivorld' || ivond'\res'' to \ her'\e\ 
 Ac) on a | May' \ morn yng\e^ || ori) Mal'\uerne \ hull'\es' 
 Me' by\fel' a \fer\h/ || of) fair' \i/ me \ thou-^t'\e\ 
 
 Piers the Plowman, 1-6. 
 (a.) The anacrusis has a tendency to unite with the following accented 
 syllable, and start an iambic or anapastic movement. The change of 
 inflection endings for prepositions and auxiliaries has also favored the 
 same movement. In Oht English it often runs through the verses. 
 See Final perfect-rime,^ 511. 
 
 Alliteeative Pkose, 
 
 514. Some of the Anglo-Saxon prose has a striking rhythm, and frequent 
 alliteration, though not divided by it into verses. Some of the Homilies of 
 ^Ifric are so written (St. Cudbert). Parts of the Chronicle have mixed 
 line-rime and alliteration. 
 
 515. Verses with the same general form as the Anglo-Saxon continued 
 to be written in English to the middle of the fifteenth century. Alliteration 
 is still found as an ornament of our poetry, and the old dactylic cadence runs 
 through all racy Anglo-Saxon English style. 
 
 So they went | up to the | Mountains I! to be|hoId the | gardens and | orchards, 
 
 The I vineyards and | fountains of | water; II where | also they | drank and | washed themselves, 
 
 And did | freely | eat of the | vineyards, p Now there | were on the | tops of those | Mountains, 
 
 Shepherds feeding their fioclcs ; and they stood by the highway side. 
 
 The pilgrims therefore went to them, and leaning upon their staffs. 
 
 As is common with weary pilgrims, wlien they stand to talk with any by the way, 
 
 They asked, Whose Delectable Mountains are these? 
 
 And whose be the sheep, that feed upon them ? — Buntan, Pilgrim's Progress,
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 For COMPOUNDS, look at the simples. 
 [The figures refer to sections. V prefixed, marks a root ; — prefixed, marks a suffix ; — 
 suffixed, marks a prefix ; < or > is placed between two words when one is derived 
 from the other, the angle pointing to the derived word ; = means equivalent to.] 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 a, 14, 16, 23. 
 
 — <a, 228, 240, 26S. 
 
 —a<an, 228, 240, 268. 
 
 —a<jan, 228. 
 
 —a, 246. 
 
 — «, 251. 
 
 «, 24. 
 
 —a, 251. 
 
 d—, 15, 254. 
 
 d, 129, 254. 
 
 abbudisHC, 232, 26S. 
 
 abu/an, 25T, 334. 
 
 db&tan, 341. 
 
 ac, 260, 262, 397, 465. 
 
 aean, 207. 
 
 cu;h, see ac. 
 
 dcsian, 292. 
 
 dctreo, 266. 
 
 ddiine, 258. 
 
 —ad, 228. 
 
 dder,4U. 
 
 ddsparing, 26C. 
 
 a/, 129. 
 
 dgan, 212. 
 
 tigegn, 258. 
 
 (igen, 366. 
 
 dgeii, 341. 
 
 dgyldan, 297. 
 
 n)i, see ac. 
 
 rtA, 212. 
 
 dhsie, 35. 
 
 flfti, 136. 
 
 dfcte, 36, 212. 
 
 dhpxder, 136, 391. 
 
 —al, 228. 
 
 «?an, 207. 
 
 dinang, 341. 
 
 —an, 251, 257. 
 
 an.—, 15. 
 
 an, 254. 
 
 aiKCunnan, 212. 
 
 — <in, 247. 
 
 «n, 136, 138, 366, 386. 
 
 — ana, 175. 
 
 aricor, 270. 
 
 aJMf-,15, 254,328, 330. 
 
 anrf, 138, 139, 262, 394, 46.3. 
 
 andlong, 2.W, 329, 330. 
 
 and nd pi Ixk, 405. 
 
 andspar-ian, 15, 297 ; — w, 2C5. 
 
 dnedge, 266. 
 
 dn^-ged, 266. 
 
 rin/iewJe, 260. 
 
 dn«, 262. 
 
 Aprelis, 38. 
 «?7irsf, 229, 243. 
 ('«•/«;, 229. 
 (ir?an, 297. 
 drtst, 233. 
 <lriea.s, 229. 
 arn<CJrnan. 
 aron, 213. 
 drste/, 229, 235. 
 ass-a, — c, 268. 
 dstellan, 189. 
 <Jf , 228. 
 <i/'a, 254. 
 apacan, 267. 
 ({/■rfer, 136, 464. 
 dpiht, 136, 389. 
 axe, 35. 
 
 X, 14, 16, 23. 
 
 ^,24. 
 
 &, 100. 
 
 ;?, 129, 203. 
 
 &—, 254. 
 
 a-rcr, 228. 
 
 xdeling, 228, 235. 
 
 jEdelpulfing, 237. 
 
 a?/—, 129, 254. 
 
 ;g/re, 251. 
 
 a-/t, .331. 
 
 a/ton, 252. 
 
 a'/temest, 12Y. 
 
 a/f^r, 15, 126, 129, 255, 328, 331, 
 
 472, 473. 
 mftera, 127. 
 ff/ter/jcardfjs, 251. 
 ^Bjr, a;(7rM, 82, 228. 
 &g—, 254 ; —hp&, —lipxcter, 
 
 etc., 136, 390, 391, 403. 
 ^qder, 136, 463. 
 a-'l—, 259. 
 ^?<;, 130, 392. 
 lelf, —en, 268. 
 xlmeahtig, 266. 
 i8n«, 14.5. 
 
 *n?(/, 136, 387, 489. 
 ar, 126, 259, 332, 472. 
 d:reHt, 127, 129. 
 a-rn, 229. 
 
 xt, 15, 2.%4, 328, 333. 
 a-t— , 257. 
 a;<<c<an. 
 setforan, 333. 
 
 &, 27, 30. 
 
 M, 141. 
 
 fcacan, 158, 191,207. 
 
 hdd<Cbidan. 
 
 bal(d)sam, 50, 270. 
 
 hannan, 208. 
 
 fc«<, 230. 
 
 bxc-ere, —estre, 208, 228. 
 
 bxclinga, 251. 
 
 bsed<^biadan. 
 
 bscftan, 257, 334. 
 
 6^r, 230. 
 
 — 6^re, 229, 243. 
 
 bxrfot, 266. 
 
 biern-et, — Mn<7, 233. 
 
 bedcnian, 297. 
 
 bead?*, 32, 90, 228. 
 
 beaduldc, 233. 
 
 6e«/i<b?(jan. 
 
 6e«/(, 230. 
 
 6ca?tf, 36. 
 
 bealu, 30, 32, 30 ; —ffcs, 242. 
 
 6car», 230, 234, 203. 
 
 bedtan, 208. 
 
 bexftan, 257. 
 
 bebeodan, 207. 
 
 becijme, 299. 
 
 be-edstan, —foran, -^eontlcui. 
 
 — healfe, etc., 334. 
 tecre?!, 141, 490. 
 be-heanan, — hindan, —neodan, 
 
 257, 334. 
 helgan, 203, 290. 
 6e»an, 203. 
 6e?wf, 228. 
 6eo, 100. 
 beudan, 206. 
 bedgan<^b ligan. 
 bedn, 177-182, 213, 286, 298, 
 
 415. 
 ieoran<^6eran. 
 beord, 230. 
 beorgan, 191, 204. 
 beornan, 204. 
 bep&ctc, 1S9. 
 
 6er-an, 200, 319 ; — e, 22a 
 bere, 230. 
 berga7}=benrgan. 
 bernan, 24S. 
 berninq, 233. 
 berstan, 192, 202. 
 bcKt'trgian., 297. 
 be.'itdan, 258. 
 6efra, 6c«a«, 129. 
 be<te, 189. 
 betpcdhs {x), —tpeonum, 258, 
 
 329, 334. 
 bctpuxt, 49.
 
 230 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 he f)am pr, 4G6. 
 
 M., bi, be, 15, 4S, 25J, 25T ; com- 
 pounds lit 3S4. 
 biiian, 205, 315. 
 biddan, 19a. 
 6'-7<6i. 
 biUiS, 35. 
 bindan, 102, 201. 
 binman, 257, 334. 
 f/jrW — bergan. 
 birst, 35. 
 
 biHceop, 43 ; — J'wre, 235. 
 h!7, 230. 
 fc?,ton, 205. 
 tjter, 230. 
 bitm; 242. 
 bl&cern, 229. 
 blandan, 208. 
 bl&tan, 208. 
 bl&pan, 208. 
 ftLsi/, 269. 
 fc/et, 35, 208. 
 Uii'an, 205. 
 /y/We, 321. 
 /;/mii, 104, 105. 
 Uinnan, 201. 
 fcjfss, 35. 
 blddredd, 266. 
 fc;6mo, 234. 
 fctetan, 208. 
 btopan, 208. 
 
 66^ 90, 100, 269. 
 ioccre, 228. 
 fcoja, 32, 230. 
 bogan, bod, 224. 
 
 Wife, 189. 
 
 bonnan<Cbannan. 
 
 hdn<Cjbdgan. 
 
 bdsom, 50. 
 
 box, 270. 
 
 brsegdan, brtedan, 202. 
 
 bredtan, 208. 
 
 fcrcran, 199, 200. 
 
 bredan, 202, 224. 
 
 bregdan, 202, 220, 224. 
 
 brengan, 209, 210. 
 
 breodan, 206. 
 
 breomu, 11. 
 
 breotan, 206. 
 
 breopan, 206. 
 
 brimo, 77. 
 
 bringan, 201. 
 
 brinnan, 201, 204. 
 
 frrop, 91, 100. 
 
 broccn <^brecan. 
 
 l)rocen<^brucan. 
 
 bidder, 41, 87, 100, 228, 232; 
 
 — /!<irf, 229. 
 brohtc<^bringan. 
 brohtes, 160. 
 br'ucan, 206, 300. 
 fcw, D66, 463. 
 fcw/a??, 257, 334. 
 b'ngan, 206. 
 b-arpaii, bugav, bfikm, hf(pian, 
 
 b^'in, bum, 221, 224. 
 huUuca, 236. 
 (vi/ri;, 100, 101. 
 
 6^i«f«i, 45, 257, 334, 393, 4S1, 4C5. 
 ?;?/.«?/, 360 ; ^d, 489. 
 hj/cgmi, 211. 
 t^j/a", 243. 
 7)7/(7(;?K, 232. 
 h'jrd<Cheran. 
 
 byre, 84, 86. 
 bJ/r/ian<6«o«ian. 
 
 c, 27, 28. 
 
 ;— , 250. 
 can, 176, 212, 437. 
 ■arcern, 229. 
 
 rarJ— , — ca«, —fugol, etc., £6S. 
 (•<}«ern, 268. 
 <;a«, 268. 
 cealf, 82. 
 
 ccar-ful, —le&s, 243, 266. 
 e*(?d.s 35. 
 
 tv««ter,'33, 90, 101, 270. 
 cede, 189. 
 
 ccnnan, cende, 183, 189. 
 ceorfan, 204. 
 cc6sa«, 197, 206, 286. 
 ceopan, 206. 
 rfrfan, 205, 297. 
 cild, child, 34, 41, 82, 268 ; 
 
 —had, 235 ; —isc, 228, 241. 
 <-Zd, 100. 
 cWnheort, 2CG. 
 clcofan, 200. 
 eh/, 269. 
 clt/an, 205. 
 climban, 201. 
 clingan, 201. 
 cZ?p«e, 189. 
 clipuian, 188. 
 clype, 98. 
 cnapan, 208. 
 cnedan, 199. 
 cneodan, 206. 
 cnyssan, 188. 
 coin, 35. 
 cor^M^ceosan. 
 gecoren{n)e, 119, 107. 
 corfcn<^ceorfan. 
 crdpan, 208. 
 era;/*, 229, 269. 
 credo, 270. 
 crebdan, 206. 
 crcopan, 191, 200. 
 criiiean, 201. 
 cringan, {eg), 201. 
 cr^pp, 194. 
 «>, 91, 100. 
 cwrf, 297. 
 
 c?M(?, 37, 176, 212. 
 cWes, 166. 
 cuman, 191, 200. 
 —cund, 229, 241. 
 eunnan, 212. 
 euron, 35, 197. 
 cp&don, 197. 
 epealde, 189. 
 epeahn, 234. 
 cpeartcrn, 229. 
 cpeccan, 209. 
 cpcden<jspedan. 
 cpedan, 192, 199, 397. 
 (•/ie7( te<Cepeccan, 
 cpelan, 200. 
 cpellan, 209. 
 ge-cpeman, 297. 
 cpert, 228, 268. 
 cpiman, 200. 
 cpincan, 201. 
 t-pisi, 35. 
 
 c/)om gefered, 458. 
 cycen, 230. 
 cycene, 239. 
 cydde<Cji-ydan, 297. 
 cymeni^cuman. 
 cyn, 101,229. 
 
 gecynd, 235. 
 iryiierlce, 229, 235. 
 cyning, 268 ; — dom, 229. 
 fi/rde, 298. 
 cyrnel, 236. 
 cyssan, 188. 
 •^.s^ 35. 
 f}/ste, 35, 189. 
 
 d, 27, 29. 
 
 — d, nomi, 228. 
 
 — d, comp., 255. 
 
 — d, verb, 455. 
 
 dn/aji, 207. 
 
 ge-dafcnad, 299. 
 
 dar=:dea»". 
 
 d^d, 90,231. 
 
 ge-d&de<Cd6n. 
 
 'dag, 71, 229 ; — cs, 251. 
 
 dicgesege, 265. 
 
 d«(irf, 228, 234. 
 
 dc&f<Cdvfcm. 
 
 dedg, {h)<jdugan. 
 
 dear, 176, 212, 439. 
 
 dearnvnga, 251. 
 
 delfan, 203. 
 
 denian, 297. 
 
 de?n — a. — end, — cr<", 232. 
 
 ge-denra^don. 
 
 'dcofolcund, 229, 241. 
 
 de6g<^dedgan. 
 
 dedj)c, 251. 
 
 dcor, 41. 
 
 deorcunga, 251. 
 
 deor/an, 204. 
 
 — der, 228, 252, 255. 
 
 derian, 188, 297. 
 
 dn/p, {y)<^d6n. 
 
 ilipjian, 188. 
 
 — d(, 228. 
 
 dohte<^dugan. 
 
 dohtor, 100 ; —I'M, 93. 
 
 —ddm, 229. 
 
 dow, 160, 168, 17T, 213, 225, 29T, 
 
 406. 
 dors^e^dMrmn. 
 dragan, 207. 
 dranc<jlrincan. 
 dr<J/-,230. 
 dr^dan, 208, 218. 
 dr^/an, 248. 
 dreahte, 189. 
 dreccan, 209. 
 drencan, 248. 
 drenctc, 189. 
 dreogan, 206. 
 drebjMn, 206. 
 drebrd<^dr&dan. 
 dreosan, 206. 
 drepan, 191, 199, 220. 
 drlf-an, —t, 193, 205. 
 dWnc, 231. 
 
 drinc-an, — /), 194, 201. 
 dropen<Cdrepan. 
 druncen, 455. 
 drurun <jireusan. 
 drii, 100. 
 d?//a?), 206. 
 dugan, 212. 
 diin, 101. 
 dMr(J, 93. 
 
 durran, 176, 212, 439. 
 dpealde-ddpellan. 
 dpelan, 200. 
 dpellan, 209. 
 dpinan, 205.
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 231 
 
 dyde<Cd6n. 
 dypte, 1S9. 
 d'jrstig, 454. 
 
 C, 14, 16, 23. 
 
 —e<a, 22S. 
 
 — e<a, verb, 164. 
 
 —c<CJa, 22S, 243, 2C5. 
 
 — c<i, 265. 
 
 — e<2a, verb, 160. 
 
 g f ost. 
 
 — e<'aM, 22S, 240, 263. 
 
 ed, 100. 
 
 «'«, oh, 263. 
 
 edt, 254, 262, 335, 394, 463. 
 
 e(tde^=edde. etide, 1'24. 
 
 f djs, 95. 
 
 euyaealf, 266. 
 
 eaTifa, 13S, 139. 
 
 eal, 33, 136, 251, 259, 395, 490. 
 
 cd Id, 263. 
 
 eald, 124 ; —fxder, 265. 
 
 Miies, 251. 
 
 eallunga, 251. 
 
 cai/ie /"ejif, 251. 
 
 ealofxt, 265. 
 
 ea?J!P<J, 463, 473. 
 
 eaJ jb<i, 483. 
 
 eam=^eom. 
 
 ear, 269. 
 
 eardigean, 28. 
 
 e<ire, 98. 
 
 earni, 33. 
 
 earn<^irnan. 
 
 eart<ji(ym. 
 
 ednt, 251 ; —an, 252 ; — emcs^ 
 
 129; —erne, 228. 
 cdp, 263. 
 ejfe, 189. 
 
 ed — , 15, 254 ; —nipian, 15. 
 —ed, 22S, 243. 
 cdda, 262. 
 c ;ei, 101. 
 efen, 15, 259; —peorcan, 267; 
 
 — l&can, 299. 
 (■f/j^, 263. 
 c/f, 15. 
 fif/csa, 228. 
 dVite, 35, 189. 
 «<-,259. 
 — ei, 22S. 
 —ele, 228. 
 ElUitig, 223. 
 
 c«ie«, 129, 262, 464; — 7(f «, 136. 
 —eU, 223. 
 embc, 328, 360. 
 —en, 228, 268, 455. 
 — tvia, 244. 
 ende, 269. 
 
 — e?id«, 228, 4-15, 400. 
 endleofan, 138. 
 ii«firi-e, 86, 238 ; —isc, 228, 238 
 
 241. 
 eode, 37, 213, 225. 
 eum, 168, 177, 213, 225, 066, 298, 
 
 314,416,451. 
 e(rrnad<^irnan. 
 eornosiltce, 463. 
 eop, 130, .".60. 
 edper, 132, 490. 
 eo/Jic, 130, 366. 
 —er, compar., 122-129, 255. 
 —er, 228. 
 —ere, 228, 268. 
 — ern«, 228, 245. 
 —eru, 228. 
 — es, gen., 62, 251. 
 
 —es, verb, 166, 225. 
 — c«, 228. 
 — e«a, 228. 
 —esl, 228. 
 esoJ, 41. 
 
 —estre, 228, 268. 
 — cf, 228. 
 etan, 192, 169. 
 —ettan, 260. 
 
 /, 27, 30, 41. 
 faccnstscf, 229. 
 fdhai\>fun. 
 fa)id<Jindan. 
 fangan, 216. 
 /ara;i, 191, 207, 445. 
 /ar6M, 228. 
 fxder, 228, 232. 
 f£gon<^fcdH. 
 Mr, 37. 
 
 — /iPSt, 229, 243. 
 fiesten, 269. 
 /a-^, 73. 
 fedlK^feoil. 
 feald, 209. 
 — /mJtZ, 143, 229, 245. 
 fealdan, 208. 
 /(■aide, 1S9, 209. 
 fealh<Cf(lga-n: 
 feallan, 191. 
 fealupe, 117. 
 fed(pa), 136, 395, 489. 
 /ea.(;, 36. 
 
 /eccan<C.fecian, 34. 
 fecgan, 199. 
 fed{cd), 190. 
 /e'ieis, 228, 232. 
 feg-an, — can, 247. 
 /ck, 129, 186, '251. 
 feld, 269. 
 /cZdfJ, 93. 
 /cW, 36. 
 fclqan, 203. 
 fcllan, 209. 
 
 /CO, 37. 
 
 /c6^, 100. 
 
 fcohan, 109. 
 
 feohtan, 204. 
 
 /eohtldr, 229. 
 
 fcoK^fcallan. 
 
 fedl, 25. 
 
 feold-Cfealdan. 
 
 fediK^fcultan, 199, 247, 29T. 
 
 fcdn<C^feogan, weak. 
 
 /c6)id, 87, 100. 
 
 /cor, 124, 129, 251, 254, 259, 336, 
 
 feorran, 252. 
 
 /coper, 47, 138+. 
 
 fera7i, 248, 297. 
 
 /esf, fet<i/dn. 
 
 fidel-ere, -estre, 26S. 
 
 /rferw, 100. 
 
 /if, 37, 13S+. 
 
 )?«/fa?!, 201.221. 
 
 /iras, 100, 208. 
 
 fitan, 109. 
 
 /Ji;en, 232, 268. 
 
 Jledh<Cflt'<'>n. 
 
 jUdt<Jlcbtan. 
 
 Jleogan^fleon, 206. 
 
 fleohanyjledn, 192, 200. 
 
 fle?ihin, 200. 
 
 jU'op<C fli'ipan. 
 
 jntan, wr>. 
 
 jlidnzrzjlcdn. 
 
 fiopan, 208. 
 
 flugon, 206. 
 
 'iWgan, 248. 
 
 yo(ior, 232. 
 
 fofc, 101. 
 
 /(W, 208, 210, 224, 247. 
 
 f<md<^fuulan. 
 
 for, 15, 254, 255, 328, 337. 
 
 for—, 15, 254, 265; —beodan, 
 297 ; —gifan, 207 ; —gifemi- 
 lia, 242 ; —gitan, 28 ; — Jco- 
 sa», 197 ; — standan, 299 ; 
 — s/iorcn, 455; — pt/rjian, 297. 
 
 fm-an, 252, 257, 328. 
 
 /ord(i, 93. 
 
 fwd, 15, 129. 
 
 /ure, 15, 129, 254, 255, 328, 337. 
 
 fore-rinel, 232. 
 
 fore-peard, 129. 
 
 for hpam, 260. 
 
 /or intingan, 337. 
 
 form^a, 126 ; — e«i, 127. 
 
 /or /jam /)c, 460. 
 
 for Pii, 466. 
 
 ./■(■/f, 41, 84, 100. 
 
 fox, 268. 
 
 /ram, 15, 254, 338, 409. 
 
 fr&, 254, 255. 
 
 frxipe, 100. 
 
 frxtpian, 224. 
 
 fremian, 297. 
 
 freinman, 188. 
 
 freogaii^frcdn, 47. 
 
 freogan^reon, weak</rt. 
 
 freo'nd, 87, 100 ; -^Men, 229, 
 235 ; —scijje, 229. 
 
 frebsan, 197. 
 
 fretan, 199. 
 
 /rt, 115. 
 
 fricgan, 199, 215. 
 
 frtdan (Grein) ? 
 
 frignan, 202, 217. 
 
 frinan, 202, 224. 
 
 fringan, 35, 201. 
 
 from^raTn, 15. 
 
 ge-frngen (i), 199. 
 
 fruma, 129, 140. 
 
 fugol, 79 : carl-fugol, 268. 
 
 /?««, 15, 259 ; —fyilan, 267. 
 
 — /m!, 229, 243. 
 
 ftmdorK^fuidan. 
 
 furdor, 129. 
 
 — ms, 242. 
 
 /(/k/c, 189. 
 
 fijlgian, 297. 
 
 fijtstan, 297. 
 
 ///rra, 129. 
 
 fys-an, — rfe, 189. 
 
 <7, 28, 34, .503. 
 —J—, 250. 
 .(/(J, 298, 41.5. 
 
 gaf<.gifan. 
 
 galan, 207. 
 
 ,7<ira, 208, 213, 225, 247, 286, 445. 
 
 (jandra, 26S. 
 
 gangan, 208, 213, 214, 210. 
 
 gdrledc, 266. 
 
 5r<i«, 208. 
 
 .(;^rf, 208. 
 
 .^.TSf, 85 ; — cr?), 229. 
 
 <7^<, 268. 
 
 j/c— , 15, 254, 262, 403; — frnV 
 rfrw, 77, 100 ; —cynd, 235 
 —/icnrfc, 250, 339; — /tP(5,13fi 
 —hpxder, 391 ; —hpilc, IVM 
 -lie, 299 ; — ite, 463, 473 ;
 
 232 
 
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 
 
 —lienes, 2X5 ; —litlian, 249 ; 
 — lomi, 259; —Ujfed, 29S ; 
 — nticlian, 249 ; — iiiAinn, 258 ; 
 — n&taii, 37 ; — Ki/irf,' 2C9 ; 
 — mlit, 190; — sprcfen, 455; 
 — Kpeoru, 100; — ,v:;>eos^r«, 9ii, 
 100 ; —timbru, 100 ; —pingct, 
 235; —jbo/if, 228,234; — /)«'/if, 
 409; —piht, 235; — pi'i, 29S. 
 For otiiei' words in ge—, 
 drop ge — , aud look for the 
 rest. 
 
 re, 24, 2S, 3T, 130, 3C6. 
 
 'g,d, 261, 399. 
 
 veaf<i_gifan. 
 
 gcatp<^gilpan. 
 
 gcdn, 15. 
 
 'qc<'ip<ige6pan.. 
 
 '.■/a'n-, 28; — da!(7, 229, 239. 
 
 r/Cficrf, 23, 251. 
 
 (jenrpc, 100, 454. 
 
 prar, 28. 
 
 gcatpan<^geatpe, 100. 
 
 J/c.'/'i, 15. 
 
 gen, 15. 
 
 f?<i/ia, 251. 
 
 ^e«<7,213. 
 
 genoli, 490. 
 
 <7c6, 252. 
 
 J7e6f , 28. 
 
 gcogud, 28, 235. 
 
 (;coi, 28. 
 
 geond, 15, 28, 133, 255, 32S, 340. 
 
 geondan, 257. 
 
 geovff, 28, 124, 22S. 
 
 f/eo ng<C_ ganga n. 
 
 iieiingan, 201. 
 
 aeiingling, 228, 236. 
 
 gidpan, 206. 
 
 gcvrran, 204. 
 
 'gevtan, 206. 
 
 ■frer, 28. 
 
 (/e.w, 28, 261, 399. 
 
 jyt'ta, 251. 
 
 f//c, 225. 
 
 gielan, 203. 
 
 gieng, 213. 
 
 (7?y, 260, 262, 469, 475. 
 
 (7)/a?i (i«, eo, io, y), £8, 199, 297, 
 
 'gifta, 100. 
 
 o)f», 88, 228, 231. 
 
 'yihlan (ie, y), 203, 297. 
 
 gillan, 203. 
 
 gilpan {ic, ij), 203. 
 
 giltan, weak. 
 
 ginan, 205. 
 
 ginnan, 201. 
 
 gwng-^gangan. 
 
 gipan, 199. 
 
 girranz=georran. 
 
 girpan, 224. 
 
 <7!.sf, 28. 
 
 ;?)?, 28, 465. 
 
 f/!^, pron., 130, 287, 360. 
 
 gitan (ie, y), 199. 
 
 f!lAd<^qli'dan. 
 
 (/(/Tf/, 106, 125. 
 
 glcdman, 229. 
 
 gl'idan, 205. 
 
 gnagan, 207. 
 
 gnidan, 205. 
 
 P'V, 129 ; — »!es, 228. 
 
 god-cund, 229 ; — Ze<i«, 229 ; 
 
 — /fc, 229, 266 ; — «pei, 266. 
 golclfmt, 31.^ 
 goldsmid, 260. 
 
 ;7<"w, 37, 91,100, 208. 
 
 GV?rt», 2:!8. 
 
 grafaii, 207. 
 
 graiioi, 2U4. 
 
 gr.i'da)!, to cry, slionld be per 
 
 haps iu 208. 
 f?r^d/(r, 228, 315. 
 gra-f, 230. 
 .lycavs, 51. 
 grStan, 208. 
 grrdiian, 200. 
 grcdtaii, 200. 
 grc('>p<^gr6pan. 
 grettc, 35, 189. 
 grimman, 201. 
 griiidan, 201. 
 gringan, 201. 
 gripan, 205. 
 grtsan, 205. 
 f/ro/, 230. 
 grdpan, 191, 208. 
 grund, 230. 
 gryndan, weak. 
 gryrehptl, 265. 
 gulpon<C.gilpan. 
 guma, 41, 268. 
 yum-cyn, 265 ; —man,. 208 : 
 
 —pegn, 268. 
 gurron<^girran. 
 gy+, see f;i+. 
 ffjy(7en., 228, 268. 
 £/^/ide?!, 244, 313. 
 gl/meli/st, 235. 
 i/'/rdc, 189. 
 J7i/«, 262. 
 
 7i, 14, 27, 28, 31, S3, 35+. 
 
 — 7t, 228. 
 
 /w, /«/, 263. 
 
 habban, 37, 168, 222. 
 
 — /«M, 229. 
 
 haldan, 208. 
 
 halettan, 250. 
 
 /(dm, 71,101,251. 
 
 hdm-peard, 229, 251 ; —peardes, 
 
 251. 
 /tawrt, 95, 231, 208. 
 /jflSJid, 92, 228, 267; —gepeorc, 
 
 266 ; —sellan, 207. 
 hanyan, 203, 216, 224. 
 /(as, 50, 57. 
 /idtaJi, 208, 280. 
 hdtian, 249. 
 /(dMf 219. 
 
 /(a-fiftc, 108, 169, 415, 410, 453. 
 /ia-/de, 108, il7. 
 /ia-Zte, 189. 
 Aa-^p, 86. 
 /(&■;?<, 269. 
 Iid'nt<^hd!i. 
 hditan, 249. 
 /(a*<!{, 235. 
 /(e, 24, 130. 
 hedfan, 208. 
 
 heafod, 41, 79 ; —^nan, 266. 
 hedge, 251. 
 /(ca/i, 118, 124. 
 healdan, 208. 
 /iea?/, 147, 394. 
 heal J lie pone, 489. 
 heal p<ihel pan. 
 
 hedri^hedd, -pp. to exalt (weak). 
 —heard, 229, 243. 
 hearp-ere, — e«trc, 268. 
 heauod, 30. 
 hedpan, 208. 
 
 hehban, 207. 
 
 /ic/erf, 207. 
 
 heflgtpvie, 229. 
 
 hcgian, 188. 
 
 /ic/if, 159, 218. 
 
 /tcia/!, 200. 
 
 helian, 188. 
 
 /ic?j)an, 32, 203, 297. 
 
 /jcn, 208. 
 
 hcnep, 41. 
 
 heng<^hangan, hOn, 
 
 hcd, 37, 130. 
 
 /(CO dajjfe, 251. 
 
 hedf<^hcafan. 
 
 hen/en, 234. 
 
 hculd<^hcaldan. 
 
 heonan, 252. 
 
 lieorcnian, 297. 
 
 /icorfc, 209. 
 
 hc6p<Jieapan. 
 
 her, 252. 
 
 /i(;rf, 209. 
 
 lierian, 224. 
 
 horpan, 224. 
 
 hest<Jtdn. 
 
 hi, 306. 
 
 hicgan ijj), 211. 
 
 /ij'der, 15, 252=/i2(fer, 12G. 
 
 H^■c— , 503. 
 
 h'ig—hii, 28. 
 
 /i?'!;, 203. 
 
 hindan, 252, 255. 
 
 hindenia, 120. 
 
 /imc/e?-, 129. 
 
 /(!>(/«, S3, 231. 
 
 /(tz-ei, 229, 235. 
 A?s, 307. 
 
 Art, 130, 287, 300. 
 hlmlan, 207. 
 hldf-dige, —ord, 208. 
 hleahtor, 33, 57. 
 hledpan, 208. 
 hledt'dhleOtan. 
 hlehhan (i, y) (6, a), 20T. 
 hleudrcdc, 298. 
 hleuiK^hlcopan, warm. 
 /(^potaM, 206. 
 /(/e^f, 35. 
 hliccan, 199. 
 hlidan, 205. 
 hllgan, weak. 
 Idimmcm, 201. 
 hlbpan, 208. 
 AZijtoH, 206. 
 hhjsb^re, 243. 
 hlijstan, 297. 
 hndtan, 208. 
 hncdp>an, 208. 
 hnigan, 205, 297. 
 hnipan, 199. 
 hnttan, 205. 
 hoqode, 211, 222. 
 /io/i, 100. 
 
 /(<irt, 208, 216, 224. 
 hoppcstre, 268. 
 horsern, 229, 239. 
 //().<i«, 37. 
 hrade, 454. 
 hrankjirinan. 
 hrdp, 100. 
 /(/•a-rf, 125. 
 hreds<^hreusan. 
 hrcddan, 188, 189. 
 hrcodan, hrcodeii, 200. 
 hrcofan, 200. 
 hrcosan, 197, 200. 
 hreopan, 200.
 
 INDEX OF WOEDS. 
 
 2ot> 
 
 hrgpan, Ons. 
 
 hrinan, 2(i5, 293. 
 
 hrindan, 201. 
 
 lirvpan, 20S. 
 
 hroren<^hrebxan. 
 
 hruron<^hredsan. 
 
 hriitan, 206. 
 
 hrpman, 248. 
 
 M, 252, 2G0, 262, 397, 46S, 4C9. 
 
 hit, Interj., 263. 
 
 htcdan, hxidon, 200. 
 
 —hitgu, 136. 
 
 hnlic, 135. 
 
 lmlpon<Chelpan. 
 
 huiid, 13S+. 
 
 hunt-ad, — btt, — nad, 233. 
 
 hCtsincle, 22S. 
 
 AiMi, 37. 
 
 hpA, 135, 377, 382, 390. 
 
 —hpd, 13G, 390. 
 
 hpanan, 252, 260, 4G9. 
 
 h panne, 252, 469. 
 
 hpxder, 126, 135, 260, 878, 4W, 
 
 469. 
 A/>^)-, 252, 260, 469. 
 hpxt, 125. 
 
 ///-a^i, 135, 263, 377, 382. 
 hpset godes, 312. 
 hpxthiigu, 136, 390. 
 hpelati, 200. 
 hpeorfan, 204. 
 hpetan, 199. 
 hpetstdn, 266. 
 /'/'i, 135, 252, 260. 
 /(/-Wer, 252, 260, 262, 409. 
 A/'i/e, 262. 
 
 hptlum, 251, 262, 472. 
 Iipiiutn, 205. 
 7t/'0M, 135, 395. 
 hpopan, 208. 
 hpnrfon<Jipeorfan. 
 hpylc, 135, 378, 332. 
 hi/cgan, 211, 222. 
 fti/ffc, 86 ; —sceaft, 220, 235. 
 hijldan, 248. 
 J)(/>mu, 248. 
 hpran, 183, 1S9, 297. 
 hyrcnian, 250. 
 ge-hymed, 243. 
 ge-h^rsum-ian, 297. 
 A!/rte, 1S9. 
 hyse-cild, 268. 
 
 1, 23. 
 
 2,24. 
 
 — <?, 22S, 240, 263. 
 
 — <Oa, 228. 
 
 ia^zea, 33. 
 
 — ta, 246, 247. 
 
 m— , ."503 
 
 w, 261. 
 
 ?<i, 25. 
 
 w, 41, 130, 306. 
 
 idxges, 251. 
 
 jdc«, 101. 
 
 - j</, 164. 
 
 f^=e<i, e5, 25. 
 
 —ie^aja, 228. 
 
 — ?jr, 228, 243. 
 
 — iffe, 268. 
 
 —ih, 228. 
 
 — ?Vi^ 228, 243. 
 
 in, IS, 2.'S4, 328,341. 
 
 iVf, iivcer, inrit, 130, 132. 
 
 —ing (verbal), 228, 460. 
 
 —iiig, 228, 237. 
 
 in viiddum, 258. 
 
 innan, 252, 257, 32S, 329, 341. 1 
 
 inne, 252. 
 
 innema, 126. 
 
 imiera, 129. 
 
 innian, 57. 
 
 mW, 341. 
 
 inpeardlice, 15. 
 
 io=eo, 33. 
 
 to—, 503. 
 
 '/o, 25. 
 
 irnan, 204. 
 
 iS<[«om, 
 
 — wc, 228, 241. 
 
 tsgicel, 200. 
 
 Mt— , 503. 
 
 iw, 252, 390. 
 
 n(i-, 228. 
 
 jM/ir/, 28. 
 
 ;, 27, 29, 33, 35. 
 —l<ra, 228. 
 Id, 260, 263, 397. 
 —Ide, 229. 
 ?«ca?!, 101, 208. 
 ldd<^ltdan. 
 ldgon<ilir<ian. 
 laguflod, 205. 
 
 lamb, 82, 268. 
 
 lamp'CJimjmn. 
 
 land, 101 ; — «ia)), 26G; — sceap, 
 
 229, 235 ; —scipc, 38, 205. 
 ?an7, 124. 
 langad, 297. 
 /^(•an, 250. 
 
 I^ce-cra-ft, — cyn, — dom, 235. 
 l^dan, 248. 
 l^g<licgan. 
 l£hte<j&can. 
 l&nan, 207. 
 i/gran, 292. 
 ?2;.s, 259, 342, 393. 
 Ixssa, 127, 129. 
 mstes, 166. 
 ?a•^ 128. 
 ?a>^a« (e), 208. 
 Ixtema, 126. 
 ledg<Cle6gan, 3S. 
 leahan, 207. 
 ifdji, 207. 
 lednian, 297. 
 — ie<iN, 229, 243, 400. 
 lcdt<Cliitan. 
 leccan, 209. 
 iccgan, 188, 209, 248. 
 Z^tJ*-, 189, 209, 224. 
 iegrde, 189. 
 lendenu, 100. 
 leddan, 200. 
 ;«fldc, 86. 
 ;(-'<V, 297. 
 ;<;()/•«/», 206. 
 ico/rtrf, 222. 
 leofen, 228, 232. 
 ?P07an, 192, 194, 20C. 
 lenhte, 189, 209. 
 leolr, 159, 208, 218. 
 leomd, 77. 
 icwcf, l.')9, 208, 218. 
 fnr-leosan, 197, 200. 
 ^(■o^ 208. 
 laian, 192. 
 ?««, 208. 
 letan, 208. 
 Uhhan, 222. 
 itr, 269. 
 — ifc, 133, 130, 229, 241, 242, 302. 
 
 —lice, 251. 
 
 qe-lice and, 473. 
 
 ^icorfc, 299. 
 
 licgan {licgcan), 102, 199, 248, 
 
 286. 
 Jldan, 205. 
 ;Won, 197. 
 lid, 37. 
 ;j<ia«, 205. 
 it/an, 205. 
 lifian, 222. 
 liget<Clicgan, 193. 
 +(i/ian, 205, 297. 
 ?!«(■«;, 270. 
 limpan, 201. 
 — i?H<7, 228. 
 h-Unnan, 201. 
 litlian, 249. 
 litlum, 251. 
 lofsuni, 242. 
 lomp<Clvmpan. 
 lucan, 200. 
 Ziz/ede, 38. 
 
 luf-ian, 1S3 ; —igmn, 3G. 
 luf-sum, 242 ; —t^mc, 229, 242. 
 Lundenisc, 241. 
 lunge, 97. 
 
 iws, 91, 100. 
 
 ;j<.s«, 209 ; — fc^rc, 229. 
 
 iittaJi, 206. 
 
 hjccan (Grein) ? 
 
 gelj/fan, 297. 
 
 ?2/.si«e. 290. 
 
 Zi/i, 129, 136, 3C5. 
 
 /yte?, 129. 
 
 i^sde, 189. 
 
 ?^a;«e, 189. 
 
 «!, 27, 30, 33, 35, 44. 
 
 — m<[r/ta, 228. 
 
 — ma<Cman, 22S. 
 
 mi«, 129, 2.'il. 
 
 viacian, 286. 
 
 mddm, maddum, 290. 
 
 ■mdg-a, —e, 208. 
 
 magan, 212. 
 
 vidgon, 212. 
 
 magu, 231. 
 
 r/i«n, 84, 100, 101, 136, 389 ; 
 
 — cjW, 208; —cyn, 229; 
 
 — cpelere, 260 ; — c«»u;, 208. 
 ge-man, 212. 
 — jjidJi, 229. 
 rnanfj/, 136, 395, 489, 490 ; 
 
 —feald, 229, 266. 
 indra, 129. 
 mdpan, 208. 
 m&den-cild, —fifmme, — iJiovi, 
 
 269; —hdd,2'l9. 
 mxg, 176, 212, 436. 
 mdig, 208. 
 m^gden, 228, 236. 
 7»i^i/rf, 228. 
 
 nuegenheard, 229, 243. 
 m&gr&den, 229. 
 — TO/gi, 229. 
 mSraian, 250. 
 rjii^st, 129. 
 ge-mittan, 290. 
 »!«, 24, 37, 130, 366. 
 meahte, 176, 212. 
 Micarft, 33, 80, 268. 
 TO«c, 130, 366. 
 medema, 126. 
 melcan, 203. 
 meltan, 203.
 
 234: 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 viemicn, 2GS. , 
 
 tiu'odo, 3S. 
 
 mtoiuc, 32, 50. 
 
 vieornan, 204. 
 
 tiwople, 230. 
 
 merde, 189. 
 
 i/i(>re, 38. 
 
 ')tu'r-e, — inc, — ihe, 2G3. 
 
 iiieritje, 2(is. 
 
 vittan, 199. 
 
 ntetor, 50. 
 
 •»«■«(•, 1S9. 
 
 1)1^ pincp, 297. 
 
 •Mifoc;, 129, 394, 490. 
 
 9«iV?e i)i(J, 251. 
 
 'inifUan, 249. 
 
 miclum, 251. 
 
 -)»/(/, 15, 254, 255, 323, 343, 472. 
 
 «(«(?, 228. 
 
 iiiidde, 114. 
 
 iiiid-dxg, 20G. 
 
 midlen, 239. 
 
 mutan, 205. 
 
 mi^an, 205. 
 
 mi'hte, 212. 
 
 mildheortnes, 235. 
 
 ge-miltsian, 297. 
 
 iHi/i, 130, 132, 367, 490. 
 
 7)1 i« sc, 4S9. 
 
 1/iiS, 15, 254, 250. 
 
 iniadon, 267. 
 
 ?»(>'/, 269. 
 
 vwdor, 100. 
 
 Monandasg, 2C5. 
 morgen, 100. 
 wkXsJc, 30, 176, 212. 
 motan, 176, 212, 433. 
 7(i?frf, 24, 37. 
 viugan (a), 212. 
 inuiiec, — c?i, 268. 
 iiiurctra, 228. 
 «i((s, 90, 100. 
 ■)ii.///^rf, 22S. 
 mgnte, 189. 
 lii^J'c, 232. 
 
 n, 27, 28, 29, 35, 42-51. 
 
 n— , 254. 
 
 — n— , 250. 
 
 w<na, 228. 
 
 «<;i2, 228. 
 
 — JW, 175, 228. 
 
 nu, 261, 399, 400. 
 
 nabban, 45. 
 
 —warf, 22S. 
 
 lu'igan, 212. 
 
 «<i/iff, 212. 
 
 linia-s, 201, 400. 
 
 7iarn, 166. 
 
 naTMfl, 228. 
 
 IJMOlfi, 171. 
 
 '))driM7i, 166. 
 
 — ?t«M, 252. 
 
 «««, 45, 261, 387. 
 
 ge-ndpan, 203. 
 
 napilit, 261, 389, 400, 
 
 «i:'(ii, 228, 232. 
 
 n^h, 344. 
 
 n^ /«■(/, 136, 387. 
 
 nxrende, 213. 
 
 iiigre pxt, 475. 
 
 ?ias, 45, 213, 261. 
 
 ~nd, 455. 
 
 ne, 261, 262, 397, 399, 400. 
 
 ~)le, 251. 
 
 ne—, 254. 
 
 w*!, 463. 
 
 ««■<*/(, 124, 251, 259, 341. 
 
 be-nrali, 212. 
 
 nciVibiir, 266. 
 
 nedlilmnd, 259. 
 
 neahlsbhtc, 299. 
 
 neahtes, 251. 
 
 nealles, 261. 
 
 nedn, 252. 
 
 ne<Jr, 344. 
 
 ncarpc, 251. 
 
 nodes, 251. 
 
 ge-nedan, 37. 
 
 «p/-a, — c, 268. 
 
 «(•//!«, 259, 345. 
 
 Ji€/t, tielist, 344. 
 
 nclla7i=znrllan. 
 
 ■mmde, 189, 280. 
 
 tiemlice, 408. 
 
 nemn<?,35, 259, 431. 
 
 neodan, 252, 257, 340. 
 
 motan, 206, 300. 
 
 »wr-e, — ecte, — (7«n, — law, — ?c, 
 
 — ?>/aw, — igean, 28, 36, 160, 
 
 165, 1S3, 247. 
 — w*"*, 228. 
 ge-nesan, 199. 
 Wse, 261, 399. 
 ne^eie, 232. 
 wirfe, 129. 
 nidema, 126. 
 ni<^er, 15, 255. 
 ntgan (Greiu) ? 
 nigon, 138-}-. 
 nihtcgalc, 267. 
 niht-'hnvfen, 260. 
 nillan, 212. 
 nim, 172, 298. 
 nimaii, 173, 200, 246. 
 nimanrw, 173. 
 m7n«, 104, 170. 
 nimcnde, 173. 
 niotan, 200. 
 ntpan, 205. 
 niton (e, V), 212. 
 no, 201. 
 no/j?, 261, 400. 
 iioht.c<^>uah, 212. 
 noWc<ii?'Han. 
 Mom=?iam. 
 won, 270. 
 n(w-rf,l29; —frjic, 245; —peard, 
 
 245. 
 — nw, 228. 
 
 nw, w(/, 24, 252, 262, 406, 472. 
 nw?ne»i, 173. 
 nymde, 431. 
 mjtan, 212. 
 
 0,23. 
 
 — o<w, 205. 
 
 — o<«a, 228. 
 
 — o<iy<i, 228. 
 
 6,24. 
 
 —d<aja, 228, 247. 
 
 o— , 254. 
 
 — oc, 228. 
 
 oc^aoaw. 
 
 —od, 228. 
 
 orf, 15, 254, 328, 347, 472. 
 
 —nd, 228. 
 
 odde, 35, 202, 404. 
 
 — 6rfe, 245. 
 
 Oder, 37, 126, 136, 140, 142. 
 
 6d!/pan, 297. 
 
 o/, 15, 254, 329, 348, 473. 
 
 ofer, 15, 126, 252, 255, 328, 349. 
 
 nferflcopan, 207. 
 dlfrian, 35. 
 o/t, 251. 
 of-puhte, 297. 
 — oi, 228. 
 
 oleccan, 297. 
 
 on<^?(?i/tan. 
 
 on, 15, 254, 257, 323, 341, 350; 
 —bxc, 251 ; bi(t<tn, 257, 323, 
 341 ; —dred, 298 ; —ef(fi)n, 
 258, 341, 473; —foran, 328, 
 341 ; — /oii, 299 ; —gcdn, 251 ; 
 —gegn, 253, 323, 341 ; — '/c- 
 nionjr, 258, 328, 341 ; —in- 
 nan, 257, 341; —lihan, 297 
 — liifte, 258 ; — Viang, 341 
 472 ; — niiddan, 341 ; — .swn- 
 rfron, 251 ; — vfan, 257, 341 
 — Mppan,257,328,341; —pxg, 
 251. 
 
 — 6;i, 247. 
 
 ond, 202. 
 
 ono, 202, 405. 
 
 ono nu ; ono gif, 475. 
 
 or—, 15, 254. 
 
 —or, 228, 242. 
 
 ortgcard, 266. 
 
 6.s<re, 270. 
 
 — o<, 228. 
 
 ox'rt, 97. 
 
 Oxendford, 205. 
 
 J>, 27, 30. 
 palant, 270. 
 persuc, 270. 
 ^n'stoi, 43, 270. 
 pluma, 41. 
 pri'jfian, 280. 
 
 ?-, 27, 29. 
 
 — r<ra, 223. 
 
 —r<:h, 252. 
 
 — ra, compar., 120, 255. 
 
 rafan, 207. 
 rarK^rinnan. 
 rdpinde, 236. 
 JV?.s<^rt,'*rt/i. 
 ri:>(/an, 203, 297, 300. 
 ri&dels, 223. 
 —rMen, 229. 
 j%-a, — e, 263. 
 j-^2)te, 189. 
 r^ran, 243. 
 r^sf?«, 189. 
 reahte<yeccan. 
 rec, 85. 
 
 rccaji, 189, 210. 
 reccan, 209. 
 -red («), 229. 
 rfld (x)<jrebrd. 
 redestrc, 263. 
 rer/oi, 270. 
 reocan, 206. 
 reodan, 206. 
 rcofan, 206. 
 rcbn<Crcdpon, 203. 
 reord, 159, 203. 
 reotan, 206. 
 >-es«e, 189. 
 — rtce, 229. 
 
 rioe, S3, 101, adj., 12S. 
 ridan, 205. 
 9-i7t<e, 189. 
 rihtpU, 229, 242. 
 +ri7JijJ«n'j 201.
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 235 
 
 rinnan, 51, 201. 
 
 scridon<iscrldan. 
 
 rlpmi, 205. 
 
 scridan, 205. 
 
 rtsan, 205. 
 
 serictend{n)e, 119. 
 
 [te-rhect, 299. 
 
 serif mi, 205. 
 
 rdhte<Creca7i. 
 
 scrincan, 201. 
 
 Jiomdne, S6. 
 
 sciifan, 191, 200. 
 
 Jtomdnisc, 241. 
 
 sadan, 212. 
 
 Jiompare, 229, 233. 
 
 sc^de<Csceoa. 
 
 rdpan, 20S. 
 
 aeyle, 169. 
 
 
 scyppan, 207. 
 
 s, 2T, 29. 
 
 se, 133, 134, 308+. 
 
 — s— , 250. 
 
 se /)e /'iHe, 475. 
 
 srtoan, 207. 
 
 — sc, 261. 
 
 nagian, 222. 
 
 se, 132. 
 
 S(i/t<st/taj!. 
 
 sedc, 38. 
 
 sai, 2G9. 
 
 seacf<s«6rfa»i. 
 
 mm, 254, 262, 463, 4G4. 
 
 seaTi, 199. 
 
 ««»!, 129. 
 
 seaid, 190. 
 
 «(iw— , 254, 259. 
 
 sealdes, 166. 
 
 same, 133. 
 
 sealju', 1G5. 
 
 sa?nod, 255, 202, 350, 4C3. 
 
 sealfode, 160, 247. 
 
 sang<jiin(jan. 
 
 sealm, 33. 
 
 nanff, 230. 
 
 sedmestre, 268. 
 
 sang-ere, —estre, 282, 2C8. 
 
 .5ec(c)a}i, 37, 45, 210. 
 
 sdpan, 203. 
 
 secean, 188. 
 
 Kdpon, 197. 
 
 sec(7a/i, 209, 297, 397. 
 
 s^, 24, 100. 
 
 «e/(e, 114. 
 
 ssbcan, 210. 
 
 se«, 128. 
 
 .s«cc, 8S. 
 
 seldwm, 251. 
 
 sxcgean, 200. 
 
 s«;e, 86. 
 
 «a?(/, 209. 
 
 se?e?8, 234. 
 
 iigde, 37, 209, 224. 
 
 se?/, 131, 133, 366, 376. 
 
 Ka^f/de, 209, 224. 
 
 seZiaw, 188, 189, 209. 
 
 s£gon, 197. 
 
 sencan, caus. of suican. 
 
 «a;i(f, 36. 
 
 .sende, 189. 
 
 fact, 199, 24S, 293. 
 
 send(cd),190. 
 
 Sseternesdseg, 265. 
 
 seo, pnpil, 100. 
 
 8c(ioa>i>sceacan. 
 
 ,seo>she, 133, 368+. 
 
 scddan, 208. 
 
 seo, see, 199. 
 
 scafan, 207. 
 
 SCO, verb, 205, 206. 
 
 .sedji, 38, 205.   
 
 SCO, be, 169. 
 
 scdnan, 208. 
 
 se6can<isucan. 
 
 scapan^sceapan. 
 
 seodan, 206. 
 
 scsecen, 207. 
 
 seo/MJi, 32, 138+. 
 
 scignan, weak. 
 
 sco/te, 199. 
 
 sca;r<sc(;ran. 
 
 SCO?!, 197, 199, 286. 
 
 sceacan, 207. 
 
 seow, 220, 205, 206. 
 
 sceddan, 20S. 
 
 sprede<^scrpan. 
 
 8ceadan, 207. 
 
 serpan, 224. 
 
 —sceaft, 229. 
 
 se«, 190. 
 
 se«ai, 212,415,441. 
 
 se«ed, 190. 
 
 sceaZf, 166, 167. 
 
 sctl, 228, 232. 
 
 scedn<^sctnan. 
 
 .se«a?», 188, 189, 243. 
 
 sceamode, 297. 
 
 ge-Hcttan, 286. 
 
 gesceapan, 280. 
 
 sc/ien, 197. 
 
 scedtan, 208. 
 
 sep-tc, -de, 189. 
 
 6ce6d<sfiertrfan. 
 
 St, 169, 213. 
 
 8ceodc<sc«6)i. 
 
 sid=seb, 133. 
 
 sceolde, 176, 441. 
 
 sican, 205. 
 
 sccon, weak. 
 
 .^t;/^, 37, 128, 259, 4T2. 
 
 Hceoran, 200. 
 
 si'Man, 472. 
 
 ficeorp, 269. 
 
 sideraa, 126. 
 
 sofor^, 124. 
 
 8*5, 213. 
 
 xccor^iJcc, 251. 
 
 sigan, 205. 
 
 scedtan, 206. 
 
 sigcrtce, 229. 
 
 sceppan, 207. 
 
 sihan, 205. 
 
 Rceran, 200. 
 
 silfren, 228. 
 
 scerian, 183. 
 
 sj)i— , 254, 259. 
 
 fi(n7d«, 189. 
 
 s?», 131, 132, 367, 490. 
 
 scinan, 205. 
 
 sincan, 201 . 
 
 scioide, 212. 
 
 8ind{on), 213. 
 
 «6'j(>non<«cJ)ian. 
 
 singan, 201. 
 
 «ci», 70. 
 —mpe, 229. 
 
 sinnan, 201. 
 
 sinneaMes, 251. 
 
 ,<if«c<«cacart. 
 
 «rn«, 213. 
 
 «r(/p, 230. 
 
 stYc, 199. 
 
 Kcorc)!, 200. 
 
 «!«a», 190, 2<S, 
 
 8ij;, 138+. 
 
 slagen (Wj, e), 207. 
 
 slxpan {a, e), 203. 
 
 slSpern, 229. 
 
 sie(i, 192. 
 
 .sZcafte, 207. 
 
 sZfi<i«, 33, 192, 197, 207, 247. 
 
 slidan, 205. 
 
 sltdan, 205. 
 
 slt/an, 205. 
 
 sllpan, 205. 
 
 slitan, 205. 
 
 sl6g{on), 35, 197, 207. 
 
 sWA, 35. 
 
 slupan, 200. 
 
 si?K;(ido7t<.sniea(;(;on<smcan. 
 
 smeagan, 247. 
 
 •S7n«att, 247. 
 
 smeocan, 206. 
 
 +s»H"-rf, 229. 
 
 smttan, 205. 
 
 sm&gan, 206. 
 
 snadan, snod, ? B., 1944. 
 
 8H«/> 7i/>if, 266. 
 
 sntean, 205. 
 
 fsntdan, 205. 
 
 snlpd, weak, 366. 
 
 .9oceM<^si<can. 
 
 wrf, 37. 
 
 sodllce, 261, 463. 
 
 «o/;e, 37, 124. 
 
 qe-sbht, 190. 
 
 softte, 35, 36, 1S9, 210. 
 
 •sona, 24, 251, 472. 
 
 60wes, 251. 
 
 stmjr, 230. 
 
 xpanan, 207. 
 
 npan7ian, 208. 
 
 Kpecan<^sprecan. 
 
 speon<j,pannan, 
 
 xpeornan, 204. 
 
 sperehea}/, 269. 
 
 ■spiZde, 189. 
 
 spindlhcalf, 268. 
 
 xpinnan, 201. 
 
 Kpipan, 20.5. 
 
 "popan, 208. 
 
 xprxcan, 199. 
 
 fiprecan, 199. 
 
 xprecol, 242. 
 
 springan, 201 . 
 
 ^virian, 188. 
 
 «^ 57. 
 
 sW/t (g)y>stigan. 
 
 standan, 207, 216, 280, 
 
 stdiir-ig, —iht, 243. 
 
 litdnpeal, 26G. 
 
 >itapan, 207. 
 
 st&defxM, 229. 
 
 +8to/, 229. 
 
 Miffcrxft, 229. 
 
 st£nen, 243. 
 
 st^niht, 228. 
 
 stcaldan, 208. 
 
 fitealde<jitellan, 
 
 stelan, 200. 
 
 stellan, 209. 
 
 ntcmn, 35. 
 
 ««e«<, 36. 
 
 nt&ntst, 35. 
 
 stcorfan, 204. 
 
 steppan, 207. 
 
 stepte, 35. 
 
 sllgan, 205. 
 
 8'2/irf, 20.5. 
 
 .s'jVfie, 189. 
 
 stillan, 297.
 
 236 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 stincan, 201. 
 
 gtiniian, 201. 
 
 .stiii'tnn, '201. 
 
 Mod, 207, 29S. 
 
 Monde, 207. 
 
 sU'if), 207. 
 
 stradau, 20S. 
 
 straiKj, 124. 
 
 stranijlUe, 251. 
 
 Strcrcan, 200. 
 
 Mredan, 202. 
 
 streijdan, 202. 
 
 Mrc'hh; 200. 
 
 streng(t, 235. 
 
 streiiije, 114, 124. 
 
 strcmju, 235. 
 
 stricati, 205. 
 
 Ktrtdan, 205. 
 
 siriidan, 20C. 
 
 Htiipian, 297. 
 
 stiicccmMum, 229, 251. 
 
 s/.'/'^c, 1S9. 
 
 sf!int<^standan. 
 
 sti)ran, 297. 
 
 sj/caH, 206. 
 
 sndon, 197. 
 
 sndemest, 129. 
 
 siiderne, 245. 
 
 sfidman, 235. 
 
 siidpeard, 245. 
 
 siigan, 206. 
 
 sit()udc<j<piriian. 
 
 sum, 136, 148, 3SS. 
 
 — .SM7H, 229, 242. 
 
 swme /)a, 489. 
 
 sunme dxl, 251. 
 
 sumord, 93. 
 
 smnorlwcan, 250. 
 
 SKHM, 92, 228. 
 
 si'ipan, 206. 
 
 •s/jfJ, 134, 252, 262, 380, 430, 434, 
 
 463, 473, 476. 
 spa-hpd-spd, 136, 382, 475. 
 s/>(i /(/'"'■ ^r") 471. 
 «;'a hpider spa, 471. 
 .s;;a ^/>?7c .«/'«, 136, 382. 
 .<t;>(i .s/>«, 287. 
 spApan, 208. 
 updfan, 208. 
 sp^fan, weak. 
 spefan, 199. 
 s/jfiOi, 228. 
 uperier, 263. 
 spe'lan, 200. 
 apelgan, 203, 220, 
 spellan, 203. 
 Kpeltan, 203. 
 .sycor, 268. 
 speorcan, 204. 
 speorfan, 204. 
 upeoMor, 100, 232. 
 sperian, 207. 
 sptan<jipi;jian, 224. 
 spican, 205. 
 ^'/jm/, 37, 123. 
 sptfan, 205. 
 aplfjian, 'i'ii. 
 spile (i)), 133, 375. 
 spjfcc, 262, 380, 392, 473, 463. 
 spimman, 201. 
 spinean, 201. 
 spindan, 201. 
 spinean, 201. 
 npinpel, —e, 233. 
 spogan, 208. 
 fpi'ii/ian—xptgian. 
 epTjlc=Kpilc. 
 
 s{}—ste=seo. 
 nil!/, 290. 
 Ki/Uan, 188. 
 ,s}/i?a«, 209, 297. 
 .lyngiaii, 250. 
 
 .'iJ/?l<=,SMld. 
 
 syrpan, 224. 
 
 ^ 27, 34, 41, 50. 
 — (, 228. 
 —t<tpa, 130. 
 —to, 126, 228. 
 f<t, 95. 
 ta(;a?i, 207. 
 
 taimn, 222. 
 —iania, 126, 228. 
 —torn, 126, 228. 
 — toto, 126, 228. 
 /'igcaw, 248, 292. 
 ^^/i^e, 189. 
 
 ^caWf, 209. 
 
 feam, 230. 
 
 <(!(ir, 269. 
 
 feia, 251. 
 
 be-teldan, 203. 
 
 ieZton, 188, 189, 209, 222, 2S6. 
 
 —time, 229. 
 
 ^en, 138+. 
 
 —tedda, 140. 
 
 teon<Ctlhan. 
 
 tcon, 206, 247. 
 
 <c6h, weak. 
 
 — <e/-, 255. 
 
 ?eran, 200. 
 
 «rfa?i, 299. 
 
 <?<<M?)., 297. 
 
 —/?>/, 245. 
 
 il'fjroi, 205. 
 
 — tigoda, 140. 
 
 ii/iaji, 205, 220. 
 
 tihd<^tihan. 
 
 til, 259, 351. 
 
 timber, 50. 
 
 timpan, 270. 
 
 te, 15, 254, 328, 329, 852, 463, 472, 
 
 473. 
 ^')— , 254. 
 to-dsege, 251. 
 to-edcan, 251, 258, 352. 
 to-ealdre, 251. 
 to-foran, 257, 352. 
 to-giedere, 251. 
 to-geqiwn, 258, 352. 
 to-middes, 251, 258, 329, 352. 
 to-nihte, 251. 
 to-peard, 259, 352. 
 to-pidere, 255, 352. 
 
 ?6rf, 37, 41, 86,100. 
 tojra, 230. 
 togen<Ctcdn, 200. 
 frWrf, 199, 298. 
 tredan, 199. 
 <r€o;j, 100. 
 treopcyn, 229. 
 tredpian, 297. 
 treopsian, 297. 
 frwcs (/c, 7/), 199. 
 ge-tri/pe, 297. 
 — ?tf, 228. 
 ??e^p, 197, 206. 
 <«?!,r7e, 95, 231. 
 <«r/, 100, 269. 
 fpa, 138+. 
 
 ipenen, 13S+. 
 <;'e//, 138+. 
 tpentig, 138+. 
 f;>i!;, 269. 
 ^/'i/ia, 145. 
 ry/irf, 206. 
 ^//t^ 230. 
 — ^^r/ic, 229, 242. 
 f^M, 138+. 
 — «^»ic, 138+. 
 
 i&, rf, 10, 14, 27, 29, 194. 
 
 — /), rf, 194, 228. 
 
 /)«, 252, 262, 406, 472. 
 
 /)a /irfo forman, 4S9. 
 
 pah<^l>icgan. 
 
 pdk {g)<ipilMn. 
 
 panan, 252, 262. 
 
 pances, 251. 
 
 patician, 297. 
 
 pand<^pindan, 201. 
 
 panne, 252. 
 
 /)a?-/, 212, 442. 
 
 /)(is rai/ie, 489. 
 
 p&h<^pihan. 
 
 p&tn bdrivm, prim, 489. 
 
 /)^r, 252, 262, 397, 471, 475. 
 
 pxrsc<iperscan. 
 
 pxs, 252, 262, 323. 
 
 /)a;f, 133, 134, 287, 368-380, 434, 
 
 468, 473, 477. 
 /)«< IS, 468. 
 j6^«c, 468. 
 /)e, rel., 134, 380. 
 i&f, conj., 262, 464. 
 j&e, 24, 37, 366. 
 ^e, 262. 
 
 peah<Cipicgan. 
 pt'dk, 262, 476. 
 pedlK^pebn. 
 peahte<^ peccan. 
 pearf, 212, 442. 
 pec, 37, 130, 366. 
 peccan, 209. 
 pegon<^ picijan. 
 pen, 37. 
 
 penc{e)«n, 209, 216, 
 pendeii. 202. 
 penian, 297. 
 ge-peoht, 228. 
 /)e<)», 206, 220. 
 pe6n<ipedpan. 
 peos, 374. 
 pebtan, 206. 
 
 /)€o;>, —a, — e, —en, 208. 
 pebpan {p, e, i), weak. 
 pebp-boren, 2&Ij; — /wJrf, 235, 
 pebpian, 297. 
 — rfer, 228. 
 perscan, 202. 
 j6es, 133, 374. 
 picg{e)an, 199. 
 /)«er, 252, 262, 471. 
 pigcn, 199. 
 piqnen, 268. 
 /)j'/!a?!, 205, 220. 
 /)tn, 37, 132. 
 pincan, 211. 
 pindan, 201. 
 /»mflr, 287. 
 pingan, 201. 
 pibn=pebn, 20C, 
 /)is, 133, 374. 
 /w'sse, 35. 
 pohte<^ pencan. 
 ponne, 262, 466, 473. 
 /)or/<f, 212.
 
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 
 
 237 
 
 prupan, 20S. 
 
 prcd, 100. 
 
 preddes-Cpredgan. 
 
 preAoan > predn, preupie, 35, 
 
 weak. 
 pre6<iprt. 
 preotan, 206. 
 preiUyw, 138, 141, 200. 
 prei'>p<iprdpan. 
 preopan, 206. 
 /)rt, 41, 13S, 139,141. 
 prifi/ldan, 24S. 
 pritidanz=printan. 
 pringan, 201. 
 prititan, 201. 
 pripa, 145. 
 pruen<Cpperan. 
 pit, 24, 130. 
 pulite<CPjj7u:aiu 
 punder, 50. 
 punian, 188. 
 puren<^pperan. 
 pur/an, 212. 
 
 /)wr/i, 15, 254, 32S, 329, 353, 409. 
 ^M-S 252. 
 pusend, 138+. 
 ppeahan^ppedn, 207. 
 ppegen<^ pped n. 
 ppehd<Q}peahan. 
 ppeorhtertie, 229. 
 ppeoton<CppUan. 
 pperan, 200, 224. 
 ppiiige, 201. 
 ppttan, 205. 
 pp6h{g)<Cppe&n. 
 pporeiK^ pperan. 
 py, 133, 262, 3T4, 466, 473. 
 /)^ tes /)P, 477. 
 /)j/rfer, 471. 
 ;)!/fc, 133, 375. 
 ^i/Jen, 268. 
 /)i/??c, 136. 
 ^(/iiJo, 133, 375. 
 pijncan, 211, 216, 286. 
 pyringds, 238. 
 /)?/«?«;, 136. 
 pppan^zpeopan. 
 
 n, 14, 22, 23, 32, 35, 50. 
 
 —u (0), 228, 205. 
 
 — w, 228. 
 
 — <M, 228. 
 
 —u<d, 228, 240. 
 
 —u<vid, 228. 
 
 ?«, 24, 32. 
 
 —uc, 228. 
 
 — ?<d, 228. 
 
 <>rfe,37,212. 
 
 7i/an, 252, 257, 354. 
 
 t//aJi«, 252. 
 
 -ul, 228. 
 
 — Mm, 251 . 
 
 mi, 15, 242, 254, 400, 456. 
 
 nnc, 130, 287, 300. 
 
 nncer, 132. 
 
 nncli^ne, 266. 
 
 7uider, 15, 126, 255, 328, 355. 
 
 under neokan, 257, 355. 
 
 7i7idermnM, 229, 239. 
 
 — Mnjr, 228, 400. 
 
 gc-unnan, 212, 297. 
 
 untreupd, 205. 
 
 itnpis, 205. 
 
 i«;j, 15, 2.'>4. 
 
 vppan, 257, 328, 35C. 
 
 —Mr, 228. 
 
 Are, 130, 132. 
 
 iix, 130, 3C6. 
 
 i!(ser, 37, 130, 132. 
 
 iiserne, 490. 
 
 //.SMT, 130, 306. 
 
 ut, 15, 254 ; —an, 252, 257, 329, 
 
 357; — e, 252; -ewa, 126. 
 utan, 205, 224, 443. 
 vtcpearcl, 129. 
 ittian, 57. 
 M<on=Mian. 
 
 ;), 10, 14, 27, 30, 31, 35, 2, a. 
 
 —p<va, 228. 
 
 —p<vjd, 228. 
 
 —pa<p, 228. 
 
 ;>(«, 263, 29S. 
 
 paean, 207. 
 
 pacian, 248. 
 
 ;>ada7j, 207. 
 
 pdgon.'Cpegan. 
 
 walla, 225. 
 
 7>nn— , 259. 
 
 pana, 107, 259, 328, 358, 393, 
 —pare, 80, 101, 229. 
 paJican=zpaxan, 207. 
 pdt<^pUan. 
 
 pdum-Cpapan, 208, 224, d. 
 psedla, 107. 
 pxf<ipefan. 
 p^n, 37. 
 
 pstpned {pdtpcii—, pip—) 
 — ma?j, — did, etc., 268, 209. 
 parr, 125. 
 
 psbre, 109-<pc«rtn. 
 pies<^pesan, 168, 417. 
 pxstm, 234 ; —b&re, 243. 
 pxt-a, — e, 228. 
 pe, 37, 130, 300. 
 pea, 263. 
 
 pe{a)hte<^peccan. 
 pealcan, 208. 
 pealdan, 208, 300. 
 peallan, 208. 
 
 —peard, 229, 245, 259, 359. 
 peard<^ peordan. 
 pearm, 228. 
 pearmian, 249. 
 pearnung, 228. 
 pettxan, 207, 298. 
 pebb-a, —e, —ere, —estre, 268, 
 peccan, 1S9, 209. 
 pedldc, 229. 
 p«/an, 199. 
 pegr i(i, 263. 
 pegan, 199. 
 pekte<^peccan. 
 pel, 251, 259, 263, 298. 
 peifKn, 267. 
 pelerds, 100. 
 peh'gr, 243. 
 pernde, 1S9. 
 pem/«, 298. 
 peolc-C pealcan. 
 peop<Cpepan. 
 pew, 129. 
 peorc{e)an, 211. 
 peordan, 204, 286, 415. 
 peorpan, 204. 
 peoruldd, 93. 
 pepan, 208. 
 percan<^ pyrcan. 
 pergan, 45. 
 per-pnlf, 206. 
 
 pesaH, 197, 199, 213, 225, 286. 
 pe,«<, 251 : — a?;, 252 ; — emeat, 
 129 ; p^teJi, 269. 
 
 pexp<C.peaxan. 
 
 pic, 101. 
 
 pican, 205. 
 
 picc-a, — e, 268. 
 
 pMe, 251. 
 
 pidgil, 38. 
 
 pzrf, 15, 254, 255, 328, 329, 359, 
 
 compounds, — seftan, — fo- 
 
 ran, etc., 257, 328, 329, 359 ; 
 
 — sacan, 297; — standan, 299 ; 
 
 ^pinnan, 299. 
 pider, 15, 255. 
 pi/, 208 ; —freond, 208 ; —?«(?, 
 
 233 ; -He, 241 ; —Tiian, 229, 
 
 260; —pegn, 2GS. 
 pi/estre, 268. 
 ptgan, 205. 
 pigsviid, 229, 232. 
 (ge)piht, 136, 235, 269, 389,400. 
 pi7e 298. 
 
 piiicwi, 167, 212, 415, 440. 
 pimman, 268. 
 pirt, 269. 
 pindan, 201. 
 pMie, SO, 100, 232. 
 pinna7i, 201. 
 pintrd, 93. 
 pircan, 211. 
 —pis, 229, 242. 
 pisdom, 235. 
 pisse, 35, 212. 
 p!.s<c, 35, 212, 298. 
 piY, 287. 
 pitan, 212. 
 pitoJi, 205, 212. 
 pitledst, 235. 
 pitnian, 250. 
 pitodlice, 261, 463. 
 plitan, pldt, 205. 
 poc-i^pacan. 
 poldes, 176. 
 pop, 57. 
 porri, 73. 
 
 porden<Cpeordan. 
 por{u)hte<^pyrcan. 
 priec<^precan. 
 prxcca, 107. 
 prwee, 88. 
 predh<^preun. 
 precan, 199. 
 preccan, 209. 
 prehte<^pre.ccan. 
 precm, 206, 220. 
 prtdan, 205. 
 pridon, 36. 
 pridan, 205. 
 prthan, 205, 220. 
 pringan, 201. 
 prtt'an, 205. 
 pritbuc, 26."). 
 prolan, 208. 
 — pw, 228. 
 
 pudnp-e, 35 ; — ot, 263. 
 pM?/, 70, 208. 
 pundrum, 251. 
 punian, 286. 
 purpe<C peorpan. 
 put-an, — on, — itH, 176, 224. 
 P!/«/, 268. 
 pyllan=zpillan. 
 pyn, 91,231. 
 pyrMtim, 229. 
 pyrcan, 211, 224, 24S. 
 pyrde, 243. 
 pyrvian, 248, 249. 
 pyrnan, 297. 
 pi/rs, 129.
 
 J.OO 
 
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 
 
 ?/, 14, 23, 32. 
 
 I>, 24, 3-.'. 
 
 i/can, 1S9. 
 
 ■//(t, 37, 124. 
 
 lUfel, 129. 
 
 ^hte<J)can. 
 
 ylc, 133, 130, 3T5. 
 
 vMan, 248. 
 
 ymbifi), 15, 25-1, 202, 32S, SCO: 
 
 —iitan, 257, 300. 
 ijmn, 43. 
 ■jlppaii, 57, 243. 
 yrman, 248. 
 
 i/faJi, 24S. 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 «, 18. 
 
 —a, 71, T2, 22S. 
 
 — «<— (/ or — ba, 251. 
 
 — a>A.-Sax. — c, 262. 
 
 — «— , 267. 
 
 a.f (()/), 254, 348. 
 
 afar {after), 331. 
 
 aftumista, 127. 
 
 ((,f7M, 22S. 
 
 <ilit,iu, 130. 
 
 ulititdan, 123. 
 
 «!, 18, 33. 
 
 — «?', 160. 
 
 <h', 18, 24, 158, 150. 
 
 ^tinlif, 139. 
 
 t'lins, 1.39. 
 
 <;?> (;?r), 332. 
 
 aip-paii, 202. 
 
 </!(', 254, 261. 
 
 (livs, 228. 
 
 a/;, 262. 
 
 ntrs, 228. 
 
 an, 262. 
 
 anfi (on), 254, 341. 
 
 and, 254, 330, 347. 
 
 ansts, declined, 89. 
 
 anpara—, 126. 
 
 — arja, 228. 
 
 rt« (xt), 254, 333. 
 
 aw, IS, 33. 
 
 —an-, 211. 
 
 <>«, IS, 25, 93, 15S, 159. 
 
 I'luk {edc), 254, 335. 
 
 az'jo, 51. 
 
 fc, 19. 
 —ba, 251. 
 baira{da), 219, 228. 
 /'((?/).?, 36. 
 /«(/«/, 158. 
 /;a/td!', 228. 
 ham, 228. 
 barnisks, 228. 
 bdimn, 213. 
 fcfhf(7, 158. 
 fc?, 254, 334. 
 hmgan, 158. 
 blinds, declined, 107. 
 hdkurcis, 228. 
 brothar, 228. 
 buiinm, 15S. 
 Uundum, 168. 
 
 </, 19. 
 — </a, 219. 
 rfarf, 168. 
 oVffls, 229. 
 daiman, 212. 
 daursta, 212. 
 
 (hiuthus, 228. 
 
 (fj'rfa, iuttectcd, 168. 
 
 rfAs— , 254. 
 
 — drA 252. 
 
 dw (to), 284, S52. 
 
 <', 18, 24, 26, 71, 168, 100. 
 ci, 18, 168. 
 Cis, 130. 
 
 /, 19. 
 
 ./•rtdf r, 228. 
 
 fairra (fcor), 129, 251, 254, 336, 
 
 falps, 229. 
 
 faran, 248. 
 
 farjan, 248. 
 
 /«(>.)• (/or), 254, 337. 
 
 /"rtwra (.foj-f), 129, 254, 337. 
 
 fidvor, 47, 139. 
 
 /ir)(/, 139. 
 
 .fm— , 254. 
 
 fram, 254. 
 
 frunia, 126. 
 
 — /«, 194. 
 
 /ttiis, 229. 
 
 (J'J^n{g), 19, 28. 
 f/a— , 254. 
 gaggan, 213. 
 galan, 248. 
 firard.s, 34. 
 
 i^ift-a, — (ii, —65, 23, 228; de- 
 clined, 88. 
 goljan, 248. 
 gredags, 228. 
 gudjinassuB, 228. 
 
 /(., 19, 33. 
 
 ImihAit, 159. 
 
 hdiliald, 159. 
 
 hdim, 24. 
 
 hairdeis, declined, 63, 231. 
 
 hiHtada, 219. 
 
 hnitan, 159. 
 
 haldan, 159. 
 
 /iaJMt, declined, 95. 
 
 kandu, 228. 
 
 hardiis, 110, 229. 
 
 harjis, declined, 83. 
 
 hciulis, lis. 
 
 /!(3r, 252. 
 
 hepro, 252. 
 
 /iidre, 252. 
 
 hindana, 252. 
 
 hindunia, 126. 
 
 /irre, 135. 
 
 hvadre, 71, 252. 
 
 Iivi'iica, 262. 
 
 //(■((», 262. 
 
 /(Del)', 262. 
 
 /luas, 135. 
 
 7ty«/), — j-5, 252. 
 
 hvapara, 126. 
 
 /ti-e, 71. 
 
 /tfw, 135. 
 
 !, IS, 33, 158. 
 ?>(}?■, 159. 
 )6a, 262. 
 «— , 254. 
 nWja, 213. 
 igqar, 132. 
 i'gq-ara, —is, 130. 
 ?ya, 130. 
 
 rfc, declined, 130. 
 iX-ei, 3S1. 
 
 jw, inflected, 213. 
 in, 254, 341. 
 innanOj 252. 
 is, declined, 130. 
 is, verb, 213. 
 ite, declined, 130. 
 ip, 262. 
 J'w, 18, 158. 
 mp, 254; —a, .3.56. 
 —iza, 228; izei, 3Sl. 
 izvar, 132. 
 izv-ara, —is, 130. 
 
 J, 19. 
 ja, 201. 
 jafcat, 262. 
 jah, 202. 
 ;Vi?, 261. 
 jdim, 133, 255. 
 /«<;<7, 28. 
 jttks, 228. 
 JM.s, 130. 
 7M<, 130. 
 jitpan, 202. 
 
 t, 19. 
 —k, 130. 
 kimds, 229. 
 fc^tni, declined, 83. 
 ^•^/?^^a, 212. 
 ^re;i,s, 228. 
 
 /, 19. 
 —1, 230. 
 Idian, 159. 
 Idikan, 159. 
 ;«?X-,s, 229. 
 Idildik, 159. 
 Za?7o, 159. 
 Idilot, 159. 
 lasivs, 129. 
 —Idus, 229. 
 — ierfcs, 229. 
 ?e?aw, 159. 
 Ubaini, 228. 
 
 w,19. 
 
 md-ists, —iza, 123. 
 wiajis, 229. 
 marei, 38. 
 tneina, 130. 
 meins, 132. 
 —we?, 229. 
 m?"'7;!a, 114. 
 ™?V(;!S, 114, 228. 
 mifc, 130. 
 «iM, 130. 
 
 m.issa — , misso, 254. 
 -(?!,?/) (mM), 254, 343. 
 munps, 24, 228. 
 
 w, 19. 
 
 wim, inflected, 100. 
 
 namo, 228. 
 
 nasida, inflected, 168. 
 
 nasip{a)s, 175. 
 
 nasja, inflected, 165. 
 
 nas-jan, —ida, —idedum, 100. 
 
 »J(? «iw, 201. 
 
 )!e/iy {ncdk), 344. 
 
 nehva, 261. 
 
 »?e»«j(iM, inflected, 171. 
 
 w^/)ia, 228. 
 
 mi, 254. 
 
 nim, inflected, 174. 
 
 nima, inflected, 105. 
 
 niman, 175.
 
 INDEX OF WOKDS. 
 
 239 
 
 ■iiiman(l{a)v, 175. 
 
 /(«;i, verb, 158. 
 
 af, 254 ; handum, 32 
 
 nimdu, iutlccled, 1T(\ 
 
 /(an, 252. 
 
 
 iiiujis, 139. 
 
 /jawrfe, 262. 
 
 &>/, 30. 
 
 niun, 139. 
 
 par, 252. 
 
 be, 254. 
 
 numaiis, 175. 
 
 /)afa, decliued, 103. 
 
 6?, 254. 
 
 
 patei, 468. 
 
 bist, 213. 
 
 o, IS, 24, 95, l&S, 159. 
 
 /la^ro, 252. 
 
 6ra»i, 213. 
 
 — o, 251. 
 
 pauh, 202. 
 
 6h'?i<?, decliued, 107 
 
 — fV, 123. 
 
 ^<', 71. 
 
 boci, 91. 
 
 —Ost, 123. 
 
 beitia, 130. 
 
 
 
 /)etm!, 132. 
 
 — <Z= —th, 194. 
 
 /J, 19, 30. 
 
 peiium, 158. 
 
 c/aj-, 229. 
 
 tailnis, declined, 101. 
 
 /)!l-, 130. 
 
 darnungo, 251. 
 
 
 />!.s, 130. 
 
 tfon, 213. 
 
 q=kv. 
 
 /jrci's, 139 ; —tinjus, 139. 
 
 
 
 prijataihnn, VJJ. 
 
 ei=<i, 170. 
 
 r, 19, 33. 
 
 pii, declined, 13'J. 
 
 ef, 202. 
 
 rail dp, 159. 
 
 puei, 381. 
 
 f i^!/, 139. 
 
 razn, 229. 
 
 puhtxis, 228. 
 
 6)1, 139. 
 
 redan, 169. 
 
 piisuruli, 139. 
 
 eo, 254. 
 
 —reikis, 22l>. 
 
 !«, IS, 23, 158. 
 
 e«/ta, 202. 
 
 », 19, 123. 
 
 — u— , 106. 
 
 f<b, 30. 
 
 — s<— «/i<— ?, IOC. 
 
 «., IS. 
 
 /ar, 254. 
 
 id, declined, ItJl. 
 
 «./■((>• (o/rr), 252, 349. 
 
 ./«r, 254. 
 
 «ii— , 24. 
 
 nfta, 251. 
 
 /if, 139. 
 
 saiha, 139. 
 
 urjkar, 132. 
 
 fiwar, 139. 
 
 milivan, ll,'7. 
 
 ur/k-ara, — i.s, 130. 
 
 .fora, 254. 
 
 aulio-n, — U((, —deJum, ICO. 
 
 — uh, 133. 
 
 forvw, 126. 
 
 wi/iw, inflected, 105. 
 
 M?i— , 254. 
 
 /ratJi, 254. 
 
 «ama, 133, 254. 
 
 undar, 355. 
 
 —/Mi, 229. 
 
 samap, 252, 350. 
 
 M?!.s, — aj-a, — W, 100. 
 
 /uri, 254. 
 
 sai, 15S. 
 
 unsar, 132. 
 
 • 
 
 saOa.-i, 24S. 
 
 M)!/)a, not foiiud, 212. 
 
 tjun, 213. 
 
 si, 132. 
 
 ifs— , 254. 
 
 i/e, 130. 
 
 se»w, 132. 
 
 !7f, 63, 254. 
 
 n'cba, decliued, 88. 
 
 getum, 158. 
 
 iitana, 252, 35T. 
 
 i/i, 130. 
 
 «!, declined, 130. 
 
 
 gi- 254. 
 
 «i6wn, 35, 139. 
 
 r,19. 
 
 (jinerid, 175. 
 
 fnbuntehund, 139. 
 
 vahnjan, 153. 
 
 fifrt, 130. 
 
 sijatt, 213. 
 
 vdi, 263. 
 
 
 silba, 131. 
 
 fai7n, 251. 
 
 (a<)^ajid«.m,339. 
 
 silubr, 26. 
 
 ya?V, 229. 
 
 /ia;io, declined, 95. 
 
 mlubreins, 22S. 
 
 oairj!)*, 229 
 
 her, 252. 
 
 sind, 213. 
 
 vdit, 158. 
 
 /tcrod, 252. 
 
 sinteins, 254. 
 
 valdan, 300. 
 
 /tj'cdi, declined, S3. 
 
 «iYan, 158, 24S. 
 
 vaw.s, 358. 
 
 Iiitian, 252. 
 
 ««8, 228. 
 
 tiarwi, 228. 
 
 huanan, 252. 
 
 so, declined, 103. 
 
 — va.<C>—os, 105. 
 
 /(«ar, 252. 
 
 — «f, 194. 
 
 mtt, 228. 
 
 /iwarod, 252. 
 
 xtuistiiut, 159. 
 
 I'eis, 130. 
 
 hiiat, 135. 
 
 sWwtan, 169. 
 
 vilda, 212. 
 
 /«(«, 135. 
 
 ateinaha, 228. 
 
 viljdu, 212. 
 
 hiuider, 120. 
 
 Kunits, decliued, 93, 228. 
 
 «i/, 130. 
 
 /iwnd, 139. 
 
 svah, 252. 
 
 rj'twm, 153. 
 
 
 svaihra, 263. 
 
 ?)?/)ra, 254, 359. 
 vohs, — um, 158. 
 
 —i-C—itha, 100. 
 
 ei-(l.71,252. 
 
 !a, 261. 
 
 evileiks, 133. 
 
 vulfs, declined, 70. 
 
 ?'(!, declined, 130. 
 
 iihtr 9,54- 
 
 ^ln. 
 
 — «<—(/(«, 100. 
 
 OLD SAXON. 
 
 inc, 1,30. 
 /rwa, 132. 
 
 taih,—xmi, 168. 
 
 -a, 251, 252. 
 
 rnna, 254. 
 
 taihun, i;'.9. 
 
 a-, 254. 
 
 ira, 130. 
 
 fih'itjis, 24-S. 
 
 d=e, 170. 
 
 ?s, inflected, 213. 
 
 tehund, 139. 
 
 ax-, 262. 
 
 m, 130. 
 
 ft'iftaw, 158, 24S. 
 
 drfnr, 12G. 
 
 iwa, 132. 
 
 f(7, 351. 
 
 of, 254. 
 
 ticar, 130. 
 
 timrjan, CO. 
 
 a/tar, 331. 
 
 
 (ciea, 25, 35. 
 
 a/(^"», 139. 
 
 ja, 262. 
 
 — rs, 105. 
 
 ail, 254. 
 
 jac, 262. 
 
 n-tii, 139 ; —tiajus, 130. 
 
 and, 254. 
 
 
 a'ai?/, 139 ; —lehuM, 13D. 
 
 aiuJi, 202. 
 
 -^-)-n/^ 229, 
 
 
 anrjimaiifl, 341. 
 
 kunni, 229. 
 
 /., 19. 
 
 axA-f, decliued, 89. 
 
 
 — /», 194. 
 
 a)l^ 254. 
 
 -3<)«, 229. 
 
 piulei,2r,2. 
 
 anf.-Hilninfa, —lehunta, —tue- 
 
 
 pairh {purh), 254, 353. 
 
 Ufta, 139. 
 
 —mahal, 229.
 
 240 
 
 INDEX OF WOEDS. 
 
 — wiOJii 229. 
 mero, 123. 
 viext, Vl'i. 
 «il, lao. 
 tniil, '.'54. 
 
 viik(mic),V23,U0. 
 W4", 130, 132. 
 mis—, 2W. 
 
 »ia»i, inflected, ICC. 
 
 7i<?»i), iullected, 171. 
 
 w, 2M. 
 
 ■ncn'da, iuflected, 16S. 
 
 iicr-jan, — ida, — idun, ICO. 
 
 oieriii, iullected, 105. 
 
 vi, 25i. 
 
 nigtm, 139. 
 
 w(»i, iuflected, 174. 
 
 viman, 175. 
 
 itimand, 175. 
 
 itimannias, 175. 
 
 »M"7>i«, inflected, 170. 
 
 «»««, inflected, 105. 
 
 numan, 175. 
 
 — o, 251. 
 obhar, 252. 
 oA-, 251. 
 — wr, 123. 
 — 6s(, 123. 
 
 radur, 23. 
 
 .S 213. 
 
 .stn/i — , 254. 
 
 sama, 133, 254. 
 
 —scaft, 229. 
 
 scaic6-da, —dun, IGO. 
 
 scrtM'ow, ICO; iuflected, 1G5. 
 
 -scepi, 229. 
 
 .Stf, 132. 
 
 sWi.s, 139. 
 
 settian, 24S. 
 
 s?<r, 137. 
 
 s?'i)K/», 139. 
 
 {(tnt)sibu7ita, 139. 
 
 s/)i— , 254. 
 
 stn, 132. 
 
 sind, 213. 
 
 sinduin, 213. 
 
 sittian, 24S. 
 
 s?//m, declined, 93. 
 
 ?f, 254. 
 ?(?— , 254. 
 ^f /tan, 139. 
 to, 254. 
 ^je^y, 139. 
 (ant)tiu-lifta, 139. 
 rce/ia, 139. 
 tuentig, 139. 
 
 l)=th. 
 
 -th=—d,19-L 
 
 thatian, 252. 
 
 ?/iar, — orf, 252. 
 
 </)(■«-<■, — M, declined, 133. 
 
 « 4,130. 
 
 //(?c,130. 
 
 thin, 130. 
 
 thit, declined, 133. 
 
 thoh, 202. 
 
 tliria, 139. 
 
 thr'Uip, 139. 
 
 /A«, declined, 130. 
 
 thurh, 254. 
 
 thuaundig, 139. 
 
 — ?«, neuter, 72. 
 ?/nifc?, 254, 360. 
 tin—, 254. 
 
 ?»!<■, 130. 
 unca, 132. 
 unccr, —o, ISO. 
 mular, 355. 
 ^!)i^ 254. 
 //;>, 254. 
 ?>*•, 130. 
 i>.vrt, 132. 
 uner, 130. 
 !(<, 254. 
 
 we, 203. 
 
 «e, pronouu, 130. 
 
 wer, 229. 
 
 H•(<^ iuflected, 212. 
 
 wi, 1.30. 
 
 ?«!rf, 254. 
 
 -lotsi, 229. 
 
 M)i'«, 130. 
 
 H'M?/, declined, 70. 
 
 wuimia, 231. 
 
 OLD FRIESIC. 
 
 6>/, 30. 
 
 6ii«d, declension, 107. 
 
 —e<C—ja, S3. 
 
 .^si, declined, 70. 
 
 hona, decliued, 95. 
 hornar, 82. 
 Iiica, hwct, 135. 
 
 7>/, 202. 
 
 jeve, decliued, S8. 
 
 kindera, S2. 
 
 iierf, declined, SO. 
 
 SMnw, decliued, 93. 
 
 ■tigosta; 140. 
 
 ■w, neuter, 72. 
 
 OLD NORSE. 
 
 a, adv., 251. 
 a, 254. 
 a<>, 254. 
 of, 254. 
 ajid, 254. 
 annar, 126. 
 — ar, 123. 
 
 a«f, 123. 
 ust, declined, 89. 
 at, 254. 
 dtta, 139. 
 a?<fc, 254. 
 
 ?)>.f, 30. 
 h^r, 229. 
 bh'wd, declined, 107. 
 
 dagr, 229. 
 rfomr, 229 
 
 eda, 260. 
 
 einn, 139. 
 
 eA-, declined, 130. 
 
 cllifu, 139. 
 
 —enne>—e)ide, 175. 
 
 (7J<!r, 331. 
 
 er, 130. 
 
 er—, 254. 
 
 —faldr, 229. 
 —fantr, 229. 
 fiarri, 254. 
 Jimm, 139. 
 /ynV, 139. 
 /or—, 254. 
 /ram, 254. 
 /rum, 126. 
 —fuUr, 229. 
 ./■««, 242. 
 /^r?, 254. 
 
 i7- 254. 
 
 fliiVj/; declined, 88. 
 
 /tam', decliued, 95. 
 /lar-f/r, 229. 
 hedan, 252. 
 /ierfra, 252. 
 /(i5r, 252. 
 
 /tt'rr, declined, S3. 
 hundrad, 139. 
 hvadan, 252. 
 /(war, 135, 252. 
 /ii-'iJrr, 126. 
 /i«a<, 135. 
 /iDcr<, 252. 
 
 — ?, adv., 2E2. 
 », 254. 
 ?a, 201. 
 id—, 254. 
 ?'n»i, 254. 
 it, 130. 
 
 fcai^a, 160 ; inflected, 165. 
 kallada, 160. 
 kolludum, ICO. 
 kynni, 229. 
 
 —laus, 229. 
 Zefl-r, 229. 
 ;ca-r, 229. 
 itir, 229. 
 
 —madr, 229. 
 — 77i(ii, 229. 
 TTiaf, 254. 
 vieiri, 123. 
 ineistr, 123. 
 mcr, 130. 
 mik'^vxei, 123. 
 wi?A;, 130. 
 min, 130. 
 minn, 132. 
 mm — , 254. 
 
 naw, inflected, 1C6. 
 naimi, iuflected, 171. 
 ne, 254. 
 iiedan, 34G. 
 ?j«m, inflected, 165. 
 nf7?i, imperative, 174. 
 nema, 175. 
 nemandi, 175. 
 w^-mi, inflected, 170. 
 niw, 139. 
 numian, 175.
 
 IXDEX OF "VVOKDS. 
 
 241 
 
 ok, 262. 
 
 okkar, 130, 132. 
 okkr, 130. 
 ir, 254. 
 OSS, 130. 
 
 —rad, 229. 
 rann^ 2'29. 
 — «iT, 2^0. 
 
 s«, declined, 133. 
 *a»>i — , 254. 
 samr, 133, 229. 
 scapr, 229. 
 sefia, 248. 
 sex, 139. 
 *i, 254. 
 s/aw, 139. 
 sinn, 132. 
 si'dtvji, 139. 
 A/<?a, 248. 
 sntjrfc, 229. 
 so7ir, decliued,93. 
 —staff, 229. 
 sw, decliued, 133. 
 
 fnWn, IGO; inHected, 1C3. 
 
 ?aZrfr, 1 75. 
 
 tel, inflected, 1C5. 
 
 ielja, IGO. 
 
 til, 351. 
 
 «i(,139; — ?i!f, 139. 
 
 t'ddum, ICO. 
 
 «//, 139 ; —tilt, 139. 
 
 tugasti, 140. 
 
 tutt^(gu, 139. 
 
 «yei>, 139. 
 
 padan, 252. 
 
 /)«f//vj, 252. 
 
 /)«(-, 252. 
 
 /)af, decliued, 133. 
 
 /«;r, 130. 
 
 jb/X-, 130. 
 
 pin, 130. 
 
 pinn, 132. 
 
 /)!Y, 1.30. 
 
 /)«, 200. 
 
 prettian, 139. 
 
 priatigi, 139. 
 
 A>-Ir, 139. 
 
 />«, declined, 130. 
 
 pic^und, 139. 
 
 ?7— , 2i54. 
 
 m//c, decliued, 70. 
 
 urn (ymbe), 254, 300. 
 
 iMidr, 355. 
 
 {tngr, 28. 
 
 i(»iz, 254. 
 
 vpA, 35G. 
 
 •7'/)j>, 254. 
 
 IT-, 254. 
 
 I'lt, 254. 
 
 f«nr, .353. 
 xt'tr, 130. 
 Jt'jrr, 132. 
 I'e, Swed., 263. 
 ver, i;{0. 
 w?rf, 254, 359. 
 —tU, 229. 
 l»V, 130. 
 
 i'rfar,!. '50,132. 
 itdr, 130. 
 vA-tor, 130, 132. 
 ykkr, 130. 
 
 HIGH GERMAN, 
 
 MOCTLY 
 
 OLD HIGH GERMAN. 
 
 —a, 251, 252. 
 d<ar—, 254. 
 afcn, 254. 
 aftar, 331. 
 «/ir<?, 209. 
 a«, 262. 
 ana, 254. 
 andera. 12C. 
 «ni, 254. 
 awW, 202. 
 «m/!, 254. 
 az, 254. 
 
 6?, 25. 
 Dadu — , 32. 
 halo, 32. 
 bezcrroro, 127. 
 i?a?f, 269. 
 buck, 209. 
 buocheri, 22S. 
 
 cA, see ^•. 
 
 danana, 252. 
 
 daiita, 202. 
 
 (/<(/-, 252. 
 
 (tai--(t ,• —of, 252. 
 
 rfflz, decliued, 104. 
 
 daz, 46S. 
 
 (Zer, decliued, 104. 
 
 diner, 132. 
 
 dtser, 133. 
 
 rf/", declined, 104. 
 
 do, 25'.'. 
 
 (/o/i, 262. 
 
 dri, 41. 
 
 rf«, declined, ICO. 
 
 durah, 254. 
 
 crff/o, 262. 
 I'dilinc, 223. 
 fJio, 262. 
 CO, 254. 
 ciigar, 254. 
 esilinchilin, 228. 
 
 /n/is, 36. 
 — r«;?, 229. 
 /«r, 2.53. 
 fater unscr, 381. 
 /f r, 254. 
 festc, 269. 
 /tia, 25. 
 —M, 2-29. 
 /ora, 254. 
 fram, 254. 
 fnimi, 126. 
 /u»w, 242. 
 fuotisal, 223. 
 /t(oz, 41. 
 /mW, 253. 
 
 gancrit, 1 75. 
 gnnmnaner, 175. 
 (/«/!, 213. 
 gcsicht, 269. 
 i7m, 252. 
 grwmi, 114. 
 gutin, 228. 
 
 /m^taJ?, 1.59. 
 
 liana/, 41. 
 
 /(((HO, declined, 95. 
 
 —hart, 229. 
 
 ftfej-, 269. 
 
 heialt, 150. 
 
 /i(;i7, 269. 
 
 /ie?'7?i, 24. 
 
 — ZiCjY, 229. 
 
 /i(;ra, 252. 
 
 /wrof, 252. 
 
 /(crr, 269. 
 
 7«'aZf, 159. 
 
 /nar, 262. 
 
 hinana, 252. 
 
 /ijrff, decliued, 83, a. 
 
 hoh, 118. 
 
 hottpit, 41. 
 
 huieo, 262. 
 
 hxcaiiana, 252. 
 
 Incur, 252. 
 
 hwar-a ; — of, 252. 
 
 /(Mctz, 135. 
 
 hwcdar, 126. 
 
 /iit'er, 135. 
 
 — •(•< — 277ia, 106. 
 j'a, 261. 
 ffcM, 262. 
 iezito, 262. 
 ?7i, 41. 
 in, 254. 
 mw, 262. 
 2o/i, 202. 
 —ira, 82, 223. 
 ?■«- , 254. 
 iwarer, 132. 
 
 jfM, 252. 
 jiing, 28. 
 junkilinc, 223. 
 
 A:a— , 25.3. 
 
 te7w, 37. 
 
 /;ei&, — H-, 32. 
 
 kind, 41. 
 
 ^■^^>pc, 269. 
 
 komo, 41. 
 
 tr«/«(f/i7Y(fO, 229, 269. 
 
 c/ijfnc?, 229. 
 
 cliunni, 2'J9. 
 
 kunni, decliued, 83, a. 
 
 —I, 236. 
 — ?aos, 229. 
 leiche, 269. 
 — Zej/i, 229. 
 — i?7j, 229. 
 —liche, 251. 
 
 viagati, 22S. 
 -^lahal, 229. 
 — maJi, 229. 
 T>i(t«fl, 24. 
 ■mari, 38. 
 viiliw, 32. 
 w?J!e>', 132. 
 mis—, 254. 
 Diif (■, 254. 
 TOM</t, 209. 
 
 «aw, inflected, 1C6. 
 iidmi, iuflected, 171. 
 ne, 254. 
 7ieben, 2>'5S. 
 ?i€i«, 261. 
 neman, 17.'). 
 nemanti, M!i. 
 neme, inflected, 170. 
 nerita, inflected, 16S. 
 
 Q
 
 242 
 
 INDEX OF WOEDS. 
 
 ncri-ta, —tinnes, IGO. 
 
 nerjan, If.d. 
 
 ■iifi-jv, iuUccteil, 105. 
 
 ■iii, '154. 
 
 vidar, 255. 
 
 tiieo, '201. 
 
 ■nim, inflected, 174. 
 
 ■nimu, inilected, 105. 
 
 nu, 26-2, 202. 
 
 o. 251. 
 od—, 202. 
 oh, 262. 
 —or, 12.^ 
 —bst, 123. 
 ostroni, 228. 
 
 7)rtZ-M, —aioes, 61. 
 
 yjrfn, 229. 
 
 /;t, 254. 
 
 jiim, inflected, 213. 
 
 plint, declined, 107. 
 
 —rat, 229. 
 
 r&mal, 22S. 
 —rlh, 229. 
 
 .sa«f, 209. 
 
 salpu-n, ota, — tume/i, ICO. 
 
 — sam, 229. 
 
 sama, 2.54. 
 
 .srtwn', 2.54. 
 
 .samio, 133. 
 
 «««, 24. 
 
 sc:=sh, 34. 
 
 w;ff/^ 229. 
 
 schdrpe, 209. 
 
 sci7, 209. 
 
 senfti, 37. 
 
 .Si, 213. 
 
 sf'n— , 254. 
 
 slner, 132. 
 
 —sniid, 229. 
 
 so, 134. 
 
 — s?aj;i, 229. 
 
 steinoht, 228. 
 
 steoz, 159. 
 
 steroz, 159. 
 
 «<!'o?, 159. 
 
 stozan, 150. 
 
 ««>iM, declined, 93. 
 
 iac, 229. 
 
 tarnunkiin, 251. 
 to«, 108. 
 
 teto, inflected, IGS. 
 <?>;>•, 41. 
 torf, 209. 
 —tuom, 229. 
 <?<0H, 213. 
 
 M, 71. 
 M&ar, 252. 
 i''f, 254 
 <V/a»i, 356. 
 umpi, 254. 
 Mil—, 254. 
 unsarer, 132. 
 itMi — , 254. 
 untar, 3.55. 
 ■!/»•—, 254. 
 «■«, 254. 
 
 —veste or. II. G.), 229. 
 
 7/.-, 30. 
 xmjfc, 209. 
 
 imrmmfja, 228. 
 
 —wart, 2'29. 
 
 »t", 203. 
 
 iocj/i, 269. 
 
 «wr, inflected, 212. 
 
 wela, 203. 
 
 — urr?, 229. 
 
 »'?'(7(Y, 209. 
 
 iridar, 254. 
 
 toise (M. II. G.), 229. 
 
 intlf, deoliued, TO. 
 
 wi'tste, 209. 
 
 zdhie,2C,0. 
 
 Zand, 37, 41. 
 zar, 2.54. 
 ^fic, 254. 
 zi, 254. 
 zur/osto, 140. 
 2«o, 254. 
 zweig, 209. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 a, IS, 38, 2. 
 
 — a, neuter, 64, 72. 
 
 —a<a, 228. 
 
 a, 18. 
 
 — 1'«— , 160. 
 
 ab, 2.54. 
 
 abbati.isa, 268. 
 
 (£<;m.s, 228. 
 
 CM?, 254. 
 
 admir-e, —or, — ation, 87. 
 
 rt!, 18. 
 
 cevo—, 228, 254. 
 
 age, 443. 
 
 ni/j-o— , 228. 
 
 ai, 18. 
 
 — a;=ar, 36. 
 
 aliqids, 130. 
 
 a?Zons (Fr.),443. 
 
 alter^ts, 120. 
 
 aviatum ire, 445. 
 
 amatii.rum esse, 445. 
 
 amavi, 100. 
 
 (M?(6 — , 254. 
 
 f«i, 254. 
 
 a« — , 254. 
 
 ancora {ancor), 270. 
 
 andiamo (Ital.), 443. 
 
 ^n*-c<is, declined, 101. 
 
 — dneo — , 228. 
 
 anguia, 228. 
 
 ante, 2.54. 
 
 aper, 35. 
 
 aperio, 38. 
 
 Aprtlis, 38. 
 
 — ar= — aZ, 36. 
 
 — ard (O. Fi-.), 229. 
 
 —dri-i-io, 228. 
 
 -As, 101. 
 
 asinvji, 41. 
 
 —a.*?™—, 228. 
 
 aw, IS. 
 
 audlvi, ICO. 
 
 ?>, 19, 3,5. 
 
 baUannim (.balsam), 270. 
 
 bellieo—, 228. 
 
 —6?, 63, 2.5-1. 
 
 6i6ere dar?, 453. 
 
 bibitiirvn sum, 415. 
 
 brevity, 37. 
 
 brief, — er, 37. 
 
 buxus, 270. 
 
 (!,19. 
 
 c=(, 27. 
 
 camera, 35. 
 
 cannabis, 41. 
 
 capwf, 41. 
 
 career, 229. 
 
 casti-iim {ceaste)-),53, 34, 270. 
 
 — fc, 133. 
 
 centum, 1.39. 
 
 centuria, 139. 
 
 Christits, deciiucd, 101. 
 
 cineris, 35. 
 
 criro, 252. 
 
 civilis, 34. 
 
 — c-i, 236. 
 
 CO—, 254. 
 
 —CO, 228. 
 
 ccelitus, 63. 
 
 cceheMi~>cenileau, 36. 
 
 collum^cuu, 41. 
 
 com, 63. 
 
 condemiw, 38. 
 
 contra, 359. 
 
 correctum, 38. 
 
 credo (crerfa), 270. 
 
 C16TO, 254. 
 
 — CM?lg«C, 130. 
 
 (7,19. 
 
 da«wo, 38. 
 — dc, 63. 
 decern, 139. 
 dentis, 37, 41. 
 dexter, 120. 
 dtOT, 158. 
 diligo, 38. 
 dingua, 139. 
 dw, 254. 
 docMz, 100. 
 doctum ire, 445. 
 domo—, 228. 
 domunculo — , 228. 
 donum, 175. 
 dulcis, 41. 
 — dwm esse, 445. 
 diio, 139. 
 duodeci'm, 139. 
 — dt(«, 451. 
 
 c,18. 
 
 e,18. 
 
 —6, ablative, 251. 
 
 cc^m«s, 443. 
 
 edo»iW, 228. 
 
 efficio, 38. 
 
 ei/o, 41 ; declined, 130. 
 
 «:, 18. 
 
 e7»i«, inflected, 1 74. 
 
 emem, inflected, 170. 
 
 emcndo, 175. 
 
 cmcntis, 175. 
 
 emt, inflected, 100. 
 
 cnio, 105. 
 
 emptvs, 175. 
 
 — c?i<; — aw, 228. 
 
 CO magis, 374. 
 
 episcopiis, 43. 
 
 epistola {pistol), 43. 
 
 equus, declined, 70. 
 
 — er, 122, 129, 228. 
 
 — cr<os, 228. 
 
 — crn, 229. 
 
 — cs,101. 
 
 espaee (Ft.), 48. 
 
 est, 213. 
 
 et, 262. 
 
 ca:, 254. 
 
 ca;— ,48.
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 243 
 
 exclude, 4S. 
 exsulto, 38. 
 externo—, 22S. 
 extra, 228. 
 extrdneo—, 22S. 
 
 /, 19, 35. 
 
 facio, 38. 
 
 facillimo — , 12C. 
 
 fera, 41. 
 
 fcro, 228. 
 
 —ferits, 229. 
 
 /ints, decliued, SC. 
 
 forvio — , 228. 
 
 /rater, 38, 41, 228. 
 
 fraxino—, 228. 
 
 fregt, — imiis, 15S. 
 
 fructiis, decliued, 93. 
 
 //•uor, 300. 
 
 fii(ia, 228. 
 
 /%?, —imus, 158. 
 
 fuqio. 15S. 
 
 /«j, 160, 213. 
 
 /uisse habiturum, 4A5. 
 
 f/, 19. 
 
 —yena, 229. 
 
 —gen-US, —eris, 34, 22S, 229. 
 
 — (;m«?", 139. 
 
 ((;)>w?)ie«, 228. 
 
 A, 19. 
 
 Itabeo, perfect, 458. 
 
 luec dicere habco, 453. 
 
 Hecuba, 35. 
 
 Herodes, declined, 101. 
 
 hie, 133, 252, 374. 
 
 hinc, 252. 
 
 /jotfie, 130. 
 
 Aomo, 41, 71 ; decliued, 95. 
 
 hiic, 252. 
 
 Iiymnus, 43. 
 
 ?, 18, 228. 
 
 i<jd, 228. 
 
 t, 18. 
 
 — t— ,160; — i— ,267. 
 
 ignis, 228. 
 
 in, 254. 
 
 »»— , 254. 
 
 — ina<jS,nja, 228. 
 
 tndc, 63. 
 
 infero, 38. 
 
 insidia, 228. 
 
 inter, 120 ; /j«ec, 355. 
 
 —io<ja, 223. 
 
 — ion<^jaii, 228. 
 
 — ?or, 123. 
 
 xce, 158. 
 
 — !«co— , 228. 
 
 — f8S«, 232. 
 
 — issimo—, 126. 
 
 j«te, declined, 103. 
 
 ita, 2.52. 
 
 iterum, 254. 
 
 .7, 19. 
 
 jam, 252, 262. 
 jocuiC>gioco, 34. 
 Jove'^Oiove, 34. 
 jiigo—, 228. 
 jfwra<JM, 455. 
 juvenis, 28. 
 
 «, 19, .^5. 
 — i, 236. 
 — Ja, 228. 
 
 laterna, 229. 
 
 legionis, 228. 
 ?C70, 38. 
 Icgionis, 228. 
 liberal, 36. 
 librdrio—, 228. 
 -;rc, 229. 
 lilimii (iilie), 270. 
 — (/'/)iO — , l'J6. 
 lingua, 139. 
 literal, 36. 
 lucerna, 229. 
 Uqms, 41. 
 
 Mi, 19, 35. 
 machina, 35. 
 mayor, — ws, 123. 
 maniw, 22S. 
 Jfassinisna, 35. 
 mip, 130. 
 med'^rne, 130. 
 viedio — , 228. 
 Hi*?", 130i 
 
 —■»ic«<— «!«??, 228. 
 mentis, 228. 
 metrum, 50. 
 metis, 132. 
 nuVi?', 130. 
 viillia, 139. 
 mirac-Ie, —ulcus, 37. 
 — »(o, 228. 
 modnlationis, 34. 
 mulgco, 50. 
 niulHcd vir, 394. 
 
 «, 19. 
 
 •nationis, 34. 
 natura, 34. 
 — jj^-Mfo — , 228. 
 Ji^", 254. 
 ?(c— , 228. 
 we, 254. 
 nebula, 35. 
 — «f, 228. 
 —no, 228. 
 «o6)S, 130. 
 ?M??, auxil.,420. 
 (g)nomen, 228. 
 ?io?!, 201 ; Jf?*?, 345. 
 nfljia (i!o«.), 270. 
 «os, 130. 
 luistcr, 132. 
 nostr-i, — M7?!, 130. 
 nous (Ft.), 366. 
 vioypm, 139. 
 novus, 139. 
 — »i«, 228. 
 —nu<:i—na, 228. 
 w«»ic, '.'52. 
 
 0,18. 
 
 — 0, noun. 228. 
 
 — o, verb, 228. 
 
 o, 18. 
 
 — o, ablative, 251. 
 
 ob-{-fcro, .'!5. 
 
 ureanvs, 34. 
 
 oc^*, 139. 
 
 oe, IS. 
 
 0?', 18. 
 
 oinf>s^nnu8, 139. 
 
 <jn<^—an, 228. 
 
 o^Kvs c«?, 212. 
 
 ;), 19, .-!.•>. 
 
 palatitim {palant), 270. 
 
 /larj'o, 38. 
 
 pater, 38, 228. 
 pecten, 228. 
 jJcA'.s, 41. 
 pensionis, 34. 
 i)«-, 254. 
 per—, 254. 
 pcren—, 254. 
 jpej-(7i< lectum, 415. 
 pemicus {persuc), 270. 
 Petrus, declined, 101. 
 planus^piano, 41. 
 plenus, 229. 
 poetastre (Fr.), 228. 
 porro, 254. 
 potior, 300. 
 jMtus, 455. 
 l^ro-, 40, 254. 
 primus, 126. 
 priusquam, 332. 
 pro, 254. 
 jjrununi, 41. 
 pulcherrimo — , 126. 
 
 <r,19. 
 5Mee, 135. 
 
 qualisque'^quclque, 143, 
 quarto—, 123. 
 quatum; 139. 
 — g?/e, 133. 
 questionis, 34. 
 5i«', 379. 
 qtiinqut, 139. 
 5!H's, 135, 379. 
 quisque, 133. 
 5Moa(/, 333. 
 r/twfZ, 135, 4CS. 
 quomodo, 252. 
 5Mt{«i, 252. 
 
 r,19. 
 
 rapiendum esse, 445. 
 
 regina, 228. 
 
 regula (rcgol), 270. 
 
 rfa;, 228. 
 
 —TO, 228. 
 
 —i-us, 451. 
 
 .5, 19. 
 
 .sYfite, 38. 
 
 Sarmatce, 50. 
 
 scientia, 34. 
 
 scolynws, 50. 
 
 scutrisco — , 228. 
 
 se, 63, 132. 
 
 secundum, 331. 
 
 securus, 34. 
 
 sccfco, 158. 
 
 «ed-2, — j'witts, 158. 
 
 se^a, 228. 
 
 scm(pcr), 2.54. 
 
 .sc?«?, 41, 254. 
 
 septem, 139, 489. 
 
 septuaginta, 1 39. 
 
 septumus, 120. 
 
 sea;, 139. 
 
 «;, 254. 
 
 .seV, 252. 
 
 s<?«, 213. 
 
 similis, 133. 
 
 simul, 254. 
 
 sinister, 126. 
 
 soccr, 208. 
 
 Hocrus, 208. 
 
 solar, 36. 
 
 solidariuJi, .'?4. 
 
 smnmia, 228. 
 
 spatium, 43. »
 
 2-14 
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 spatula, ."5. 
 sfatufi, 22S. 
 stellar, 30. 
 
 .■iit-m, inllectcd, 213. 
 Huper, '25-.', 254. 
 miper-iw, — no — , 252. 
 xtirdastro—, 22S. 
 .si(w,s 132. 
 i><jrisco—, 22S. 
 
 ^19. 
 
 taberna, 229. 
 
 fa^j's, 133, 490. 
 
 torn, 252. 
 
 tandem, 262. 
 
 faji«!(.s, 490. 
 
 f ?, 130. 
 
 rJO-fe- 130. 
 
 —ter, 22S. 
 
 tetini, — nius, 15S. 
 
 thesaurus, 34. 
 
 — h", 228. 
 
 <iii, 63, 130. 
 
 f'fjMS, 490. 
 
 trans, 254. 
 
 tredccim, 139. 
 
 fr«s, 41, 139. 
 
 trifjinta, 139. 
 
 —fit (Umbriau), 63. 
 
 — ti«, — don, —din, 22S. 
 
 *ii, declined, 130. 
 
 <i«— , 130. 
 
 turn, 252. 
 
 — turn ire, 445. 
 
 — turum esse, —fuisse, 445. 
 
 — titrufi sum, 415. 
 
 — ««s, 63. 
 
 —tiiti, 22S. 
 
 /t(MS, 132. 
 
 tympanum {tim2)ane), 270. 
 
 «, 18, .3.5. 
 n=^v, .30. 
 — ?/, 4.54. 
 «, IS. 
 
 —ui<fui, 160. 
 Uli/sses, 139. 
 WJirfe, 03. 
 undecim, 139. 
 vmis, 386. 
 -.MS, 101, 228. 
 tJf, 252, 468. 
 wterMS, 126. 
 
 V, 19, 30. 
 
 ve, 254. 
 
 vertere, 229. 
 
 resfer, 132. 
 
 t)i, 254. 
 
 vi-Cful, ICfl. 
 
 videlicet, 468. 
 
 t)W?', inflected, 212. 
 
 vidimu.% 15S. 
 
 {dyviijinti, 139. 
 
 t'ir, 229. 
 
 — vo< — t'a, 22Sk 
 
 w6i!S, 130. 
 
 vos, 130. 
 
 w«<r-f, — Mm, 130. 
 
 vu—p, 30. 
 
 GREEK, 
 a, 18 
 
 a—, 254 
 
 — u, neuter, 64. 
 
 <r, 18,3S. 
 u7()of , 22s>. 
 ai, 18. 
 ^t, 18. 
 alFei, 254. 
 alFttJi', 228. 
 — aiva, 228. 
 ci/ia, 254. 
 u/itA7(o, 50. 
 ufi<j>i, 254. 
 ;ii', 202. 
 ui/— , 25 1. 
 til/a, 254. 
 ui-Ti, 254. 
 c'.7r6, 254, 348. 
 uffTijp, 48. 
 FaiTTi/, 228. 
 til', 18, 38. 
 ai<(Tif), 254. 
 
 /3, 19. 
 
 /3a(7t\(i'V'a, 223. 
 I3ifi„fii, 213. 
 
 76, 130. 
 
 — yevtp, 220. 
 
 ^ei-or, 228. 
 
 'yXuKiT, 41. 
 
 7i/w/UOi'09,228. 
 
 d, 19. 
 —be, 254. 
 
 dibttxa, — net', 15$. 
 deiKfVfjLi, 158. 
 dtKa, 139. 
 
 6)';, 252,202. 
 d((<, 254. 
 a.-o, 139. 
 (<)F)eiKOCTi, 139. 
 duJdeKa, 139. 
 
 e, 18. 
 
 — e<— ac, 228. 
 e, 03, 132. 
 t/Sdojaoc, 120. 
 ij36o)xi]KovTa, 139. 
 eye'i^eTo, 397. 
 t7u>, declined, 130. 
 e^pa, 228. 
 e£>ei, 21. 
 t^o^ta(, 157. 
 ei, 18,24. 
 ej, 262. 
 eif]!', 213. 
 e(Kai'09, 228. 
 
 (c!F)£i(iO(7i, 130. 
 
 el/i.', inflected, 213. 
 clfii, 158,213. 
 e;t<ti'5, 139, 3S0. 
 'EK(i/3ri, 35. 
 tKaTOf, 139. 
 tKif/jo?, 208. 
 t/io?, 132. 
 ^/loi^, 130. 
 61/, 254. 
 —ev, 228. 
 fcV6e«a, 139. 
 feVepoi, 255. 
 f v&a, 252. 
 f^««^e, 252. 
 '^vtiiv, 252. 
 tw, 254. 
 eyvea, 139. 
 evos-, 254. 
 tf, 254. 
 
 ^f, 139. 
 
 tTTTa, 131). 
 
 tCTi, 213. 
 trepoc, I2G. 
 t-'rt, 202. 
 tx'«, 228. 
 eu, 18,38. 
 
 ?, 19. 
 Cuyoi/, 228. 
 
 ti, 18, 38. 
 — »l, 228. 
 
 .'/.declined, 103, 03. 
 II, declined, 103. 
 rj ; a), (0 ; ij, 158. 
 
 r/,18. 
 
 ti/ueir, 130. 
 >;jUfT£pof, 132. 
 fl)Ui — , 41, 254. 
 — Dpo-f-io, 228. 
 ripwv, 229. 
 nv, 18. 
 
 6*, 19. 
 
 ye>W0nM', IGO. 
 Seaii/a, 228. 
 — yei^, 03. 
 t^epMot, 223. 
 W,p,41. 
 t*privus, 228. 
 (5)yj, 254. 
 
 1,18. 
 
 — i, 228. 
 
 f, 18. 
 
 iVa, 408. 
 
 — 11-^,228. 
 
 — (o<ja, 228. 
 
 tVwoe, declined, 70. 
 
 FtV/iei', 158. 
 
 — <o-Ko, 228. 
 
 — (cr(7a,208. 
 
 K, 19. 
 
 KujLiupa, 3"). 
 KtSpif or, 228. 
 -no, 228. 
 Kiir, 135. 
 KOVTf, 139. 
 
 KOT^pOS, 120. 
 
 \, 19. 
 
 — XiK, 229. 
 X071K69, 228. 
 \l'K09, 41. 
 
 M,19. 
 
 Maa'afatTO'nc, 35. 
 /ifc7({rT0i', 123. 
 /uei^oi', 123. 
 fiiaaon, 228. 
 fiera, 254. 
 /uiinf, 228. 
 /uJJTif, 228. 
 /urixai't'/, 35. 
 —MO, 228. 
 — yuoi', 228. 
 
 1/6,228. 
 Ptfav, 139. 
 
 vfKi/r, declined, 93. 
 i'i>e, inflected, 174. 
 I't'/ueii', 175. 
 ve/iriTut, 175.
 
 INDEX OF WORDS. 
 
 245 
 
 vt>oi;Mi, inflected, 170. 
 I't-'/ioi'To?, 175. 
 vefioi, — fjLi, inflected, 1G5. 
 I'ti't'/ifiKa, inflected, IGG. 
 i'ei'6^i(tiKo)itii', inflected, 171. 
 «: For, 139. 
 i/e^e\n, 35. 
 vn— ,2.54. 
 — vi,22S. 
 iv<.vj, 228. 
 —vo, 228. 
 —vv, 228. 
 rvv, 252. 
 fu), 130. 
 •vail, 130. 
 I'otiTepor, 132. 
 
 fuv, 254. 
 
 o, 18,38. 
 
 — o— , 228, 2G7. 
 
 6,^, TO, declined, 63, 103. 
 
 o, declined, 103. 
 
 oa, 2G3. 
 
 oaoi;, 322. 
 
 'Odvatreu^, 139. 
 
 oi, 18. 
 
 Foi6a, 1.58; inflected, 212. 
 
 oFir, declined, 89. 
 
 FoK-ja, 228. 
 
 OKTIU, 139. 
 
 ofior, 133. 
 — oi/, 228. 
 owo)?, 4G8. 
 
 —09,101. 
 
 Of, ri, '6, declined, 103. 
 
 or, 132. 
 
 oa<Ta, 228. 
 
 St<,4G8. 
 
 ou, 18. 
 
 oi;<^oo,24. 
 
 ovaif 2G2. 
 
 litppv^, 48, 
 
 TT, 19. 
 
 n-aiSioi/, 228. 
 Traidt'crKor, 228. 
 7rar(6)9, 228. 
 TTtip, 254. 
 Trapd, 254, 333. 
 TTtipor, 254. 
 TTefTC, 139. 
 7rt"06V7a, — /icy, 158. 
 ^f<pu>ta, — nev, 158. 
 TTfpa, 254. 
 wepai/, 254. 
 wepi, 254. 
 ireiitfo^aij 158. 
 TrXtur, 229. 
 ndOev, 2-52. 
 TTotfl, 135. 
 TTor, 252. 
 
 •JTOlflirV, 71. 
 
 iroiniji', declined, 95, 
 
 •no'^i 13.5, 
 jroTt, 252, 
 TTov, 135,252, 
 TTpo, 254. 
 7rpo/io9, 120, 
 irpwTo, 123. 
 TToir, 252. 
 
 p,19. 
 —pa, 228. 
 fpijfuufxiy 158. 
 — po, 228. 
 
 <r, 19. 
 cror, 132. 
 CTTraTtiXr), 35. 
 <T<J<iiij, 228. 
 — o-(To,228. 
 CTu, declined, 130. 
 
 avv, 63. 
 
 — (Tum, 228. 
 
 ocjxo, a(puii, inflected, 130. 
 
 cr<pojiT€poi-f 132. 
 
 T, 19, 
 
 — rat, 219. 
 — TOTor, 127. 
 T^KVOV, 1 75, 
 —rep, 228. 
 Tfpei/of, 228. 
 TfTa(i')/ia, — fiiv, 158, 
 TtTTaper, 139, 
 TrjXiKor, 133. 
 Tt}<; odov, 322, 
 — T(, 228. 
 Wy„^i,213. 
 Tifji-donev, — S/Mev, 24. 
 T<c, 148,386. 
 TO, 63, 103. 
 — rop, 228. 
 
 T09, 175. 
 
 T^Te, 2.52. 
 Tptic, 139, 
 rptutioi'Ta, 139. 
 TptaKaideKaj 139, 
 Ti', declined, 130. 
 — Ti/, 228. 
 Toir, 252, 
 
 •/, 18. 
 
 — u, 228, 
 
 il, 18. 
 
 F,18. 
 
 Fa, Foi5a, etc. See u, oi&a, etc. 
 
 I'juc'f, declined, 1.30. 
 
 I'^teTepor, 132. 
 
 i'7r<;p,252,254. 
 
 I'TTi/or, 228. 
 
 i/TTci, 254,348. 
 
 i'O-Tepor, 254. 
 
 0,19. 
 
 (ptperai^ 219. 
 0(->a), 22K. 
 0er;7a>, 158. 
 (ppdropo^, 228. 
 01/7^,228, 
 0t''u>, 213. 
 tptoytOj 158. 
 
 X, 19. 
 
 X'Xioi, 139. 
 xwpcf, declined, 88, 
 
 u, 18, 38, 
 
 w, ablaut, 158, 
 
 oj, 18, 
 
 wKiif, 228, 
 
 — «)r<^ — <i)T, 251, 
 
 wc, 252, 408, 
 
 SANSKRIT 
 
 AM) 
 
 IXDO- EUROPEAN PA- 
 RENT SPEECH. 
 [Parent Spttch in i^oman.] 
 a, a, 18, 41. 
 — a, neuter, 72. 
 
 —a, —a, 223. 
 
 a—, 254. 
 
 — ai>(S, 18, 02. 
 
 v/ak, 228, 
 
 Vag, 228, 
 
 ar/iK, 228, 
 
 ■/agh, 228, 
 
 «;;'ra, 228. 
 
 —at, 62, 
 
 atas, 252, 
 
 «f?, 202, 
 
 ittra, 252. 
 
 <Ufta, 262. 
 
 adhi, 254, 
 
 an—, 254. 
 
 —an, 228, 
 
 ami, 254, 262. 
 
 ani>n7, 255. 
 
 an-j-ta, 103. 
 
 antard, 120, 
 
 aj)(«r<ana-tara, 255. 
 
 &pa, 254. 
 
 «6A(, 254, 
 
 —am, 62, 
 
 ama, 63, 
 
 — ams, 62. 
 
 —aja, 22S. 
 
 — ardnja, 223, 
 
 «t'a, 254, 
 
 ai'<i'7«, declined, 130, 
 
 avis, declined, 89. 
 
 Armd, declined. P."?. 
 
 «C*i'a^, declined, 70. 
 
 dcvu, declined, 88. 
 
 mhtdn, 139, 
 
 — a.s, 228; — ap,62. 
 
 asmadl'ja, 132, 
 
 asnid'kam, 130, 
 
 asmti'n, 130. 
 
 c/.sm?, inflected, Sl.'J. 
 
 asnie', 130, 
 
 aha, 130, 
 
 aluim, declined, 130, 
 
 «/it, 228. 
 
 d, A, 18. 
 
 — ^<, 228. 
 
 -a, 02. 
 
 dtvu'm, 131. 
 
 — (i9i«<— auj:*i, 223. 
 
 dv'is, 254. 
 
 «iM, 22S. 
 
 i, i, IS. 
 i>aina, 139. 
 y/i, 158, 213, 228. 
 — ?, 228. 
 'itara, 254, 
 IndrdnV, 228, 
 t, i, 18, 
 -i<-jd, 228. 
 
 ««, u, 18. 
 -«,228. 
 H*, 63, 254, 
 udcin, 228, 
 /i'/;a, 254. 
 updri, 252, 
 r<, -u, 18, 
 
 e<ai, IS. 
 
 e'ka, 139 ; —dacan, V.i?. 
 
 ena, 139. 
 
 e'mr, 158, 213. 
 
 e'va, 228. 
 
 ^»as, 254.
 
 246 
 
 INDEX OF AVOKUS. 
 
 di, M, 18. 
 ()<aii, IS. 
 du, iiu, 18. 
 
 I:, k, 19. 
 
 —k, 23G. 
 kd, 135. 
 —ka, 228. 
 kat, 135. 
 Aator*';, 126. 
 katatar, 139. 
 Vkar, 158, 160. 
 karo'mi, 15S. 
 itw, i:!5. 
 hrd'mi, 158. 
 kiitas, kittra, 252. 
 kiirmds, 15S. 
 i'iti'a, C-t. 
 
 iA<k,]9. 
 
 r?, g, 19, 
 -ga,130.   
 V9<i>f/'i9cimi, 213. 
 v/j/en, 223. 
 jrww, 38. 
 Vena, 223. 
 gnd'man, 22S. 
 
 ;7/<gh, 19. 
 — ^flf/id, 130. 
 Vghar, 223. 
 gliarma, 228. 
 
 ?■;, u, 19. 
 
 /.:'(=ch)<:i^, 19. 
 k'atvdr, 1B9. 
 A/fc'J^ 15S. 
 k'e'tami, 158. 
 
 *7<^•'<k, 19. 
 
 j;'(Englishj)<g,19. 
 ^dnas, 228. 
 g'igdmi, 213. 
 
 i?'/i<g,91. 
 •>7<n. 
 <,?/i<t. • 
 rf, dA<d. 
 n<n. 
 
 i<t, 19, 
 
 —to, 139, 163, 223. 
 
 tof, 63; declined, 104. 
 
 to,to, 163. 
 
 tata'iut, 153. 
 
 ta'-tas, —tra, 252. 
 
 tatinimd, 158. 
 
 Vtan, 158. 
 
 — to-Wd, 126. 
 
 tar, 139. 
 
 —Car, 228. 
 
 —tara, 12G. 
 
 —fas, 165. 
 
 tasmdi, 104. 
 
 ta-smin, 63. 
 
 to.ya, 104. 
 
 tdilr'ks'a, 133. 
 
 Ctiva, 130. 
 
 — ti, 228. 
 
 Hrd'mi, 158. 
 
 'iros, 254. 
 
 'issar, 139. 
 
 — C», 228. 
 tuturjd'm, 158. 
 tublijam, 03, 130. 
 — f(', 219. 
 C<'<ta, 104. 
 ^'<tva, 130. 
 f<=/ir(, 104. 
 teirinu'i, 158. 
 ti'bhjm, 104. 
 ten'ain, 104. 
 — C)-a<— Ira, 252. 
 trajudacan, 139. 
 /)•!', 139. 
 •/?)•?", 139. 
 trim(;at, 139. 
 — Ccrt>— ta, 103. 
 tvadi'ja, 132. 
 Cz'awi, 130. 
 Ct'iyVJ, IBO. 
 /re, 130. 
 
 c;i<t, 10. 
 —tlias, 165. 
 
 rf, d, 19. 
 dakan, 139. 
 dakauta, 139. 
 dadhdvii, 213. 
 ddcan, 139. 
 didifima, 158. 
 dide'ca, 158. 
 \/rfrC 158, 243. 
 dii'd'mi, 153. 
 -/r/t, 229. 
 'i««i', 228. 
 de'iuja, 158. 
 degdjaTni, 245. 
 !?wa, 130, 139. 
 dvd'dacan, 139. 
 ((2)«?:, 254. 
 {d)vim.{da,)cdti, 139. 
 
 tt<dh, 19. 
 
 /), n, 19. 
 
 (M — , 254. 
 
 — m^ 1T5, 228. 
 
 nanama, inflected, 16i>. 
 
 iianamma, inflected, IGG. 
 
 ndma, inflected, 174. 
 
 ndmandja, 175. 
 
 ndmantja, 175. 
 
 ndmant, 175. 
 
 ndmdmi, inflected, 105. 
 
 namami, inflected, 165. 
 
 namaim, inflected, 170. 
 
 ndmejam, inflected, 170. 
 
 im{m)td, 175. 
 
 ndvan, 139. 
 
 navas, 130. 
 
 nas, 130. 
 
 /((««, 130. 
 
 —ni, 228, 255. 
 
 — Mt«, 228. 
 
 mi, 252. 
 
 nemimd, inflected, IGO. 
 
 nemjd'm, inflected, 171. 
 
 P, P, 19. 
 
 Vpa, 228. 
 pank'dn, 139. 
 yj(^ra, 254. 
 pdram, 2.54. 
 yjtfr^^, 254. 
 /^''r?', 254. 
 v'jo'i'', 248. 
 pdrdjdmi, 243. 
 iJiWr, 228. 
 
 pwrcls, 254. 
 pur, 220. 
 ;«•«, 254. 
 prathamd, 126. 
 /)/<!), 19. 
 phalind, 228. 
 
 fc, b, 19. 
 ■\/bandh, 158. 
 i;«f></w(;/ta,153. 
 habandhimu, 158. 
 Vbudh, 158. 
 bubhug'itnd, 158. 
 6«6A6''(7'a, 158. 
 bd'dli&mi, 158. 
 
 &/J, bh, 19. 
 \/bhag', 158. 
 bhavdmi, 213. 
 bhdrate, 219. 
 bhdrdmi, 228. 
 — 6/i?, 63. 
 6/m'.s, 62. 
 bhvgna, 175. 
 Vl'liug', 158, 223, 243. 
 bhug'd', 228. 
 bimg'd'mi, 158. 
 biw'g'aja, 158. 
 bhOg'djdini, 248. 
 bhjavts, 63. 
 blijdms, 63. 
 V'bhrag', 158. 
 bhrd'tar, 228. 
 
 m, m, m, 19. 
 ma, 130. 
 — ))i«, 103. 
 — »ia, 120, 223. 
 — wireia, 103. 
 itt('<<?, 228. 
 madi'ja, 132. 
 madhu, 38. 
 madhjd', 228. 
 — 5na9i, 223. 
 y/man, 228. 
 mdina, 130. 
 vidhWt'ha, 123. 
 mdhljams, 123. 
 mdhjam, 130. 
 Wfi, 03, 130. 
 7Ji(J7)i, 03, 130. 
 mithds, 254, 
 ■mrig', 50. 
 ?n^, 130. 
 
 /a, 252. 
 
 >, 262. 
 
 — ;a, 228. 
 
 ./aC, 463. 
 
 /a?/((/, 403. 
 jrtf/, 104. 
 
 ?■«(/, 262. 
 
 — iare, 223. 
 jajji, 262. 
 .;a.b-, 104. 
 Ja, 104. 
 
 — ;«>i, 228. 
 
 7)f,7a, 228. 
 
 jujdm, 130. 
 
 juvan, 23. 
 
 juvd'm, declined, 130. 
 
 jm'madi'ja, 132. 
 
 jus'me', declined, 130. 
 
 r, r<r, 19. 
 — J-a, 126, 228.
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 247 
 
 ?,1?, 19. 
 
 V, V, 19. 
 va, 130. 
 ^vaks', 15S. 
 vdks'dmi, 15S. 
 V»ari, 228. 
 t>dm, 130. 
 vajdm, 130. 
 vavdks'a, 15S. 
 vavaks'irnd, 15S. 
 ras, 130. 
 — vas, 1G5. 
 t-i— , 254. 
 Vl"'rf, 15S. 
 
 vidmd, inflected, 212. 
 vidjd't 228. 
 {d)i}im{da)cati, 139. 
 vividmd, 15S. 
 vividmasi, 212. 
 rivaidmd, 212. 
 vive'da, 15S. 
 rtras, 229. 
 > e'f/a, iuflected, 212. 
 ijnY, 229. 
 vi'iddhi, 3S. 
 
 — tyd, 228. 
 
 f<k,19. 
 
 — in^'i, 139. 
 —faff, 139. 
 f vafwra, 203. 
 trafrw, 208. 
 
 .s'=s/^<s, 19. 
 s'rts', 189. 
 s'as'tha, 1'23. 
 
 s, s, 19. 
 — s, 62. 
 
 sa, 63; cleclincd, 104. 
 sa— , 03. 
 y/sad, 15S, 2-i -i. 
 sdddjdmi, 2mS. 
 «at/r«, 22S. 
 sniui', 254. 
 sapta{da':a)t'i, 139. 
 saptdn, 139. 
 saptamd, 120. 
 ,saj;j, 63. 
 srtTOrt, 133. 
 jaiJitV, 254. 
 
 — sas, 62. 
 
 sasdda, 15S. 
 
 sa/itf, 63. 
 
 .sakasra, 139. 
 
 ,>.■«, 63, 104. 
 
 .s<iA;(h7i, 254. 
 
 xdrni — , 254. 
 
 — sums, 02. 
 
 —sds, 62. 
 
 Sind/m, —ka, 228. 
 
 sidd'mi, 158, 248. 
 
 sedimd, 158. 
 
 v/.s«, 228; 
 
 sinins, declined, 93, 22S. 
 
 Vs«/i^, 228; —turn, 223. 
 
 S7na, 130. 
 
 .5m«.s, iuflected, 213. 
 
 sjdm, 213. 
 
 .sea, 63. 
 
 svadija, 132. 
 
 v/si-«p, 228. 
 
 svdpna, 228. 
 
 — 6i'a«, G2. 
 
 7i<gh, 19. 
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 a, how made ; rule for use of. 
 history of. 11, 12, aud sec in- 
 dex of words. 
 
 a-group of letters, 7, 20. 
 
 «-stems, see stem. 
 
 n-umlaut, see uvilant. 
 
 d, history of, 12. See index of 
 words. 
 
 «-stems, see stem. 
 
 abbreviations, 5. 
 
 ability, +iiitinitive, 197. 
 
 ablative, 35, 129, 148, 151, 152, 
 153, 154, 157. 
 
 ablaut, table, 7, 9, 23; hist, and 
 comp.etym. 79-80; conjuga- 
 tions, 83, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 
 107; mixed,116; stems from, 
 122. 
 
 above, 161. 
 
 abridged sentences, 140; clau- 
 ses, 200. 
 
 absolute case, comp. sj-ntax, 
 152, 201. 
 
 abstracts, gender of, 37; de- 
 clension of, 45, 53. 
 
 acatalectic, 223. 
 
 accent, rules for; proof of, 0; 
 variation from, 9; hist, of, 
 in Sanskrit, Greek, etc., 30; 
 kinds of, 30 ; in prosody, 222. 
 
 accents written, 5; with con- 
 sonants, li». 
 
 accompaniment, see assoeior 
 tion. 
 
 accusative, 34; syntax of, 145 
 -148; cndinsr, 35; predicate, 
 142, 147; -t-in)initive, 142, 
 147, 198 ; two accusatives, 
 146, 147 ; -t-genitivc, LW ; 
 +dative, 151 ; in adverbial 
 combinations, 148 ; after 
 nearness, l.W ; compounds, 
 134; with propositions, 148, 
 1.59; >dative, 175; arrange- 
 ment of, 218. 
 
 [The figures refer to pages.] 
 
 accuse, syntax of, 150. 
 
 action, siiftixes of, 124 ; with 
 subjunctive, 192. 
 
 active voice, 77, S3-|-, 1S7. 
 
 address, with dative, 14S. 
 
 adjective, 34; declension: def- 
 inite, indefinite, 50 ; weak, 
 strong, 50, 58, 59, 00, 173; 
 paradigms, 50, 5S, 59 ; hist, 
 of, 57, 59 ; Northumbrian, 
 01 ; comparison, 02, 05 ; suf- 
 fixes, 125, 120 ; prepositions 
 aud prefixes from, 132 ; 
 equivalents of, 139 ; predi- 
 cate, 142 ; appositive, 143 ; 
 with dative, 149, 151 ; with 
 genitive, 155, 150, 157 ; use of 
 forms, 173 ; agreement of, 
 aud other syntax, 172-174 ; 
 article with, 170; with ger- 
 und, 199; arrau^'eraeut,'21S, 
 219. 
 
 adjective clause, 140; si;bjunc- 
 tive in, 193 ; conjunction in, 
 207 ; arrangement, 210, 220. 
 
 adjunct, 157. 
 
 advantage, with dative, 149. 
 
 adverbs," 34 ; comparison of, 
 02 ; numeral, 77, 1S2 ; from 
 radicles, 33; derivation, 128, 
 129; correlative, comp. cty- 
 mol., 129, 130 ; equivalents 
 of, 139 ; syntax of, 182 -|- ; 
 pred., attrib., interrog., de- 
 mons., expletive, emphat- 
 ic, 183; adverbial conjunc- 
 tions, IS-t ; negatives, 184 ; 
 arrangement, 219, 220. 
 
 adverbial combination, de- 
 fined, 137, 138, 140 ; accusa- 
 tive in, 148; dative in, 161, 
 1.52 ; genitive in, 158 ; ar- 
 rangement of, 219, 220. 
 
 adverbial clauses, MO; mode 
 in, 193+ ; conjunction in, 
 
 207,208; arrangement, 216, 
 220. 
 
 adverbial compounds, 134. 
 
 adversative sentence, 141 ; 
 —conjunctions, 202, 204, 205, 
 200. 
 
 X, 11, and see other index. 
 
 e8, 13, and see other index. 
 
 .(Elfric's futures, 197. 
 
 affirmation, particles of, 132, 
 184. 
 
 age, syntax of, 154, 157. 
 
 agent, forms to express the, 
 123 ; dative of, 151. 
 
 aggregation, syntax of, 1.54. 
 
 agreement, of case -endings, 
 " 142-1- ; adjectives, 172; pro- 
 noun, 174; verb, 185, 180; 
 participles, 200. 
 
 ai=i, 15. 
 
 aid, syntax of, 149. 
 
 alas, 133. 
 
 alder-, 154. 
 
 Alfred, 1. 
 
 alliteration, 223 -|-; conso- 
 nants, 223 ; vowels, 224 ; 
 comp. hist, of, 224 ; in prose, 
 22.5, 228; of R<i, 17; affect- 
 ed shifting, 225; secondary, 
 227 : in English, 228. 
 
 aljihabet, 4. 
 
 am, 114, 115; as future sign, 
 189; as perf. and pluperf., 
 189 ; passive, 187, 1S9 ; peri- 
 phrastic, 89. 
 
 an, history of, ISO. 
 
 a7t-stcms,"see stems. 
 
 anacolutlion, 141, 143. 
 
 anacrusis, 222, 225. 
 
 anapiest, 222, 223. 
 
 anastropbe, 141. 
 
 Antrles, 1. 
 
 Anglo-Norman, 1. 
 
 Anu'lo-Saxon, history of, 1 f ; 
 classic, 11.
 
 248 
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 animals, gender, 135. 
 
 nnteccdcilt, 17y, ISl). 
 
 antinieria, 141. 
 
 aorist, S2. 
 
 a phoresis, 9, 30, C7. 
 
 apocope, y, IS, lt», 31, 47, 57, 
 G7. 
 
 npodosis, 141. 
 
 aposiopesis, 141. 
 
 apothesis, '•>, 10, 53. 
 
 appetite, syntax of, 145. 
 
 appositive, i:i7, 14'i ; rules, ex- 
 amples, and comp. syntax. 
 143, 144 ; compounds, 134 ; 
 with vocative, 144; names 
 1.'54 ; article with, 17G ; ar- 
 rangement, 210. 
 
 OT-c, 114, 115. 
 
 arrangement of words, 214- 
 2-JO ; —of clauses, 220, 221. 
 
 arsis, 222, 223, 225. 
 
 articles, 34 ; paradigms, 57, 69, 
 71 ; comp. etym., 69 ; syntax 
 with adjective, 173 ; comp 
 syntax, 174; general syntax 
 of the def. article, 170, 177 ; 
 omission of, 176; indetiiiite, 
 discussion of, 180 ; arrange- 
 ment, 217. 
 
 «•<!, relative, 179. 
 
 ask, syntax of, 146, 147, 156. 
 
 aspirates, IG; =roHgh, 7, 17. 
 
 assibilation, defined, 9, 20 ; his- 
 torjr of, 21, 22. 
 
 assimilation, examples, 7, 39, 
 117; defined, 9, 22, 23, 24; 
 labial, 20, S3, 109 ; guttural, 
 20 ; by p, 14, IS, 114, 102 ; I, 
 
 14, IS, 19, 80; m, 11, 12, 13, 
 
 15, 51, 80, S3, 87, 100; n, 11, 
 12, 13, 107, 108; r, 20, SO; s, 
 24, 67, 70 ; with progression, 
 27 ; ecthlipsis, 31 ; in imper- 
 fects, 95 ; in presents, 96, 97 ; 
 shifting stopped by, 41. 
 
 association, with dative, 150. 
 
 asyndeton, 141. 
 
 atonic, 222. 
 
 attraction, 179, 191 ; in ar- 
 rangement, 214, 219, 220. 
 
 attributive combination, de- 
 fined, 137, 140, 142 ; nomina- 
 tive, 144 ; genitive, 153 ; ar- 
 ticle with, 176; participles, 
 200 ; arrangement of, 216, 
 218, 219 ; compounds, 134. 
 
 augment, 82. 
 
 author, genitive of, 153; pres- 
 ent tense, 188. 
 
 auxiliaries, 84, 86, 87, 89, 195 ; 
 arrangement of, 214, 216,219, 
 220 ; relation to verse, 225. 
 
 h, how made, 15 ; hist, of, IS, 
 30, and see index of words. 
 
 hackliiigs, 128. 
 
 Bactrian, 3. 
 
 hnsez^anacrusis. 
 
 bbz=flr, 16. 
 
 he, dative after, 150 ; omitted, 
 186. 
 
 hef, 136. 
 
 begin-f-infinitivc, 197 ; +par- 
 ticiple, 201. 
 
 htttvixt-e, 161. 
 
 I>h:>ni, 39, 45, 49. 
 
 bid-|-inflnitive, 198. 
 
 bifurcation, 28, 123. 
 
 brachylogy, 141. 
 
 hnujimrt, ii'i. 
 
 breakiug, defined, 9, 14; cuu 
 merated, 20 ; cases of, 11, IS, 
 6G, 75, 95, 97, 99. 1(10, 102, 1(13 
 107,108,111,112,114; stems 
 from, 123. 
 
 hnitherlumi, 121. 
 
 Bulgarian, 3. 
 
 c, described, 15, 16, IS ; theme 
 in. 111, and see other index. 
 
 cajsura, 223. 
 
 Caffirs, 36. 
 
 can, 195. 
 
 cardinals, 73, 74, 75, 76 ; syn- 
 tax, ISl, 217. 
 
 case, 34 ; hist, of endings, 35, 
 39, 55 ; summary, 55 ; ad- 
 verbs from, 128+ ; agree- 
 ment of, 142+ ; cases mix- 
 ed, 175. 
 
 catalectic, 223. 
 
 causal bases, 79 ; compounds, 
 134; sentences, 141 ; parti- 
 ciples, 201 ; conjunctions, 
 205, 207, 209. 
 
 causative verbs, 127, ISG. 
 
 cause, dative of, 151. 
 
 cease, syntax of, 157. 
 
 Celtic, 1, 3 ; rime in, 225. 
 
 eg, 16, 110. 
 
 ch, 16, 18. 
 
 changes of sound, table of, 
 9; laws of, 10, and see the 
 names of the several chau 
 ges. 
 
 characteristic, 12!i, 154. 
 
 Chaucer, 1, 55, 05, 72, 118, 167, 
 225. 
 
 chief letter, 224. 
 
 chords, vocal, 11. 
 
 circumflex, use of, in this 
 book, 13. 
 
 cities, names of, declined, 55. 
 
 classic speech ideal, 11. 
 
 clause, defined, 139; principal, 
 CO - ordinate, subordinate, 
 quasi -clauses, 139, 140, 14.5, 
 172, 184, 216; arraugemeut 
 of, 220, 221. 
 
 clean, syntax of, 157. 
 
 close vowels, 6. 
 
 coalescence, 119, 1.^4. 
 
 coexistence, 141, 201. 
 
 cognate letters, 29 ; accusa- 
 tive, 146 ; dative, 151 ; geni- 
 tive, 154. 
 
 cognition, with subjunctive, 
 192 ; with infinitive, 19S ; 
 with participle, 201. 
 
 collectives, 134, 173, 185. 
 
 combinations of letters, 7, 16, 
 17 ; of words, 137, and see 
 adverbial, attributive, objec- 
 tive, predicative. 
 
 command, 196. 
 
 comparative, 62-f , 173. 
 
 comparison, 62-(- ; double, (54 ; 
 defective, 64, (JS; endings of, 
 in prepositions, 131, 132 ; 
 S3'ntax in, 152. 
 
 compensation (compensative 
 gemination), 9, 10, 13, 14, 2.5, 
 47, 0(1, 07, 80, 85, 04, 97, 91), 
 110,111,114. 
 
 complete sentence, 141 ; com- 
 position, 158. 
 
 complex sentence, 139, 140. 
 
 composition, 78, US, 119 ; — de- 
 fined, 134; nouns, 134; verbs, 
 134, 135, 15S ; in teuse, 81, 82 ; 
 with un-, 200. 
 
 compounds, gender of, 37; de- 
 fined, lis. 
 
 compound sentence, 139, 140, 
 141 ; subject, 1S5. 
 
 concessive clauses, 174, 194, 
 201, 208, 216, 220. 
 
 conditional clauses, 194, 216, 
 220; mode, 89; conjunction, 
 208. 
 
 conformation, 9, 28, 47, 75, S3, 
 85, 87. 
 
 Congoes, 36. 
 
 conjugation, 78; first, R2+, 
 99+, 113, 122, 127; second, 
 103, 113,123,127; third, 10,5, 
 113, 127 ; fourth, 107, 114, 123, 
 127; fifth, lOS ; sixth, 110; 
 Grimm's, 78 ; Sanskrit, 79. 
 
 conjunctions, 34; etym., 133; 
 syntax, 184; co-ordinate,202 
 -205 ; subordinate, 205-20S ; 
 omitted, 20S, 209. 
 
 connecting vowel, 8.5, 114, 115. 
 
 consecutive clauses, 194, 195. 
 
 consonants, tables of, 7, 8; de- 
 scription of, 15+, and see 
 names of classes of conso- 
 nants, changes, and stems. 
 
 contention, 150. 
 
 continuous consonants, 7, 10, 
 15, 24, 95. 
 
 contraction, 6, 10, 13, 14, 32, r.O, 
 53, 7S, 97; related to ablaut, 
 80, SI. 
 
 co-ordinate letters, 29 ; clau- 
 ses, 139, 191, 215; conjunc- 
 tions, 202-205. 
 
 copula, 137, 198, 214, 220. 
 
 copulate, nouns, 142, 173, 176, 
 185, 220. 
 
 copulative verbs, 137, 142, ISO; 
 sentences, 141 ; conjunc- 
 tions, 202-204, 208. 
 
 correlatives, adverbs, 129, 130; 
 repeated, 176; arrangement, 
 215. 
 
 countries, names of, declined, 
 54. 
 
 crasis, 10, 32. 
 
 crime, syntax of, 157. 
 
 cryptoclites, 52, 53. 
 
 customs, syntax of, ISS. 
 
 d, 15, 17, 19, 30, 75, 95, and see 
 other index. 
 
 dactyle, 222, 225 ; in English, 
 228. 
 
 Danes, 2. 
 
 (Jarklinrj, 128. 
 
 dative, 34, 35; in — /<,41; com- 
 pounds, 134 ; object, 138 ; 
 syntax of, 148-153 ; of influ- 
 ence, 14S ; + genitive, 149, 
 156 ; of interest, 149 ; pos- 
 sessor, 150; reflexive, 150; 
 ethical, 1.50 ; expletive, 150 ; 
 nearness, 150; use, mastery, 
 150 ; separation, 151 ; ad- 
 verbial, Wl, 1.^.3; with prep- 
 osition, 152, 159 ; absolute,
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 2i9 
 
 IM ; for accusative, 175; 
 after iuterjection, 202; ar- 
 rangement of, 218, 219, aud 
 fee under each declemion. 
 
 decay, phonetic, 36, 55, 65, 72. 
 
 declarative sentence, 139, 191 ; 
 arrangement of, 214; con- 
 junction, 200. 
 
 declension, table of substan- 
 tive, 37 ; first, 3S+, 49 ; sec- 
 ond, 44+, 49; third, 4S+, 49; 
 fourth, 50-f ; proper names, 
 54+ ; adjectives, 50+ ; de- 
 monstrative and article, 57 ; 
 participles, 01; infinitive, 61, 
 SS; pronouns, 06+ ; North- 
 umbrian, 49, 61, 01 ; English, 
 55, 65, 72. 
 
 (Jeer, 136. 
 
 defective nouns, 52 ; verbs, 
 112+. 
 
 definite declension, 50 ; see 
 article. 
 
 definitive, 143; object, 146, 216, 
 21T, 218. 
 
 demonstrative pronouns, 57, 
 09, 70, 72, 173, 170, 217 ; ad- 
 verb, 183. 
 
 denominatives, IIS, 127, 128. 
 
 dental, 7, 15, 17, 19, 29 ; =lin- 
 gual of many grammars. 
 
 derivation, nouns, 11S+, 1.S5; 
 adjectives, 125+ ; verbs, 
 120-|-; adverbs, 12S+; prep- 
 ositions and prefixes, ISO-)-; 
 particles, 132 ; coujuctious, 
 133; interjections, 133. 
 
 descriptives,143: arrangement 
 of, 210,217; compounds, 134. 
 
 determinatives, 134. 
 
 dh=rf, 17 : >d, 19, 29 ; >s, 19. 
 
 dialects, 1, 17+. 
 
 dimeter, 223. 
 
 diminutives, 124, 125. 
 
 dimorphism, 2S. 
 
 diphthong, 0, 14. 
 
 direct object, 13S, 197, 201 ; ar- 
 rangement of, 214, 218. 
 
 disjunctive, 141, 183, 204, 209. 
 
 disposition, sulHx of, 125. 
 
 dissimilated gemination, 10, 
 66,75,83,117. 
 
 dissimilation, 9, 24, 95. 
 
 distributives, 77, 143. 
 
 do, 89. 
 
 dog, 13C. 
 
 — rfom, 121. 
 
 double object, 140. 
 
 urunkard, 122. 
 
 dual, 34+, 00+, 82, S3 ; appos- 
 iiive with, 143, 144; other 
 syntax, 174. 
 
 dutv, syntax of, 197. 
 
 Dutch, 3. 
 
 e,ll,12; =a',ea,12; >y,12. 
 
 «:■, 13, 15. 
 
 ea,>i,12;>e, 12; >y,12, 20; 
 
 =eo, 15. 
 ca, 14. 
 
 easy, syntax with, 199. 
 ecthlipsis, 9, 10, 18, 19, 31, 51 
 
 .57,117. 
 eftsoom, 128, 100. 
 ei, 15. 
 
 Egyptian numerals, 75. 
 elision, 9, 31. 
 
 ellipsis, 141. 
 
 else, 128. 
 
 emotion+genitive, 1E5; +in- 
 fiuitive,iy7;+i)articiple,201. 
 
 emphasis, arrangement for, 
 214, 218, 219. 
 
 emphatic verb, 186. 
 
 empty+genitive, 157. 
 
 enallagej"l41. 
 
 enclitic, 13. 
 
 end, +infinitive, 197; +parti- 
 ciple, 201. 
 
 endings, see case, inflection, 
 stem, tense. 
 
 Englisc, 1. 
 
 English, 1; relation to Anglo- 
 Saxon, 1, 17 ; assibilation, 
 21 ; precession in, 27 ; com- 
 pensation, 26; case-endings 
 in, 55; comparison, 04; de- 
 clension of adjective, 05; 
 pronouns, 72 ; ablaut, 99, 
 100, 102, 103, 105, 107 ; con- 
 tracted reduplication, 108, 
 109,110; weak verb, 111, 112; 
 diminutive, 125; future, 189 ; 
 verbals, 201 ; verse 225, 228. 
 
 eo>y,12. 
 
 eo, 14, 15. 
 
 epenthesis, 9, 11, 19, Dl, 45, 57. 
 
 epicene, 38, 130. 
 
 epithesis, 9, 11,31,57. 
 
 equivalents, grammatical, 139. 
 
 —em, 121. 
 
 ethical dative, 150. 
 
 etymology, 33+. 
 
 Etymology, comparative. (At 
 each reference are discuss- 
 ed the forms in Sanslcrit, 
 Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old 
 Saxon, Old Norse, Old High 
 German.) The letters, 8; 
 NouiiS) a- stems, 39; ia- 
 stenis, 42; a -stems, 44; i- 
 stems, 45+; n- stems, 48; 
 an-stems, 50, 51 ; Adjec- 
 tives, 57, 59; comparison, 
 02-04; Pronoun, person- 
 al, 66, 67; possessive, 69; de- 
 monstrative, 70, 57 : article, 
 57; interrogative, 71 ; Nu- 
 merals, 74+ ; "Verb, ab- 
 laut, 79; contracted imper- 
 fect, 81 ; compound imper- 
 fect, 81 ; active ind. present, 
 83 ; (im)perfect, 85 ; sub- 
 junctive present, 87; (im)- 
 perfect, 87 ; imperative, in- 
 finitive, gerund, participles, 
 88: i)r;uteritive verbs, 112; 
 substantive verb, 114; pas- 
 sive, 116 ; Suffixes, 110- 
 122: diminutives, 12.'); Ad- 
 verbs, 129, 130 ; Prepo- 
 sitions and prefixes, 130- 
 132; Ooiij 11 netions, 
 133; IiiterjeetionSjl33; 
 Composition, 135. 
 
 eu, 1.5. 
 
 euphonic variation, 9. 
 
 every, 181. 
 
 exciting object, IS-^ISO, 201. 
 
 exclamatory sentence, 139,191, 
 21.''.. 
 
 expletive })a-r, 1 S3 ; dative, 150. 
 
 explosive consonants, 7. 
 
 expression in verse, 222, 223. 
 
 f, 8, 15, IS, 19, 20, 23. 
 
 factitive object, 138, 130, 140, 
 142, 144, 147, 16S, 170; ar- 
 rangement of, 216; verb,lSO. 
 
 —fmt,vn. 
 
 fear, with dative, 150; witll 
 subjunctive, 192. 
 
 feeling, with genitive, 149,1. "5; 
 dative, 149. 
 
 feet in verse, 222 ; order of, 
 226. 
 
 feminine, see gender. 
 
 figuration, 9, 30. 
 
 final clause, 1U4, 20S ; object, 
 198,199,201. 
 
 fitness, syntax with, 125, 192. 
 
 Flemish,' 2. 
 
 —fold,Vl\. 
 
 foreign proper names, 51+. 
 
 forget, syntax with, 150. 
 
 French, appositive,144: verse, 
 225 ; see Norman. 
 
 friendship, 122. 
 
 (Old) Friesic, 3, S, IS; comp. 
 etym., 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 49, .' 0, 
 59 ; pron., 09, 71 ; num., 70 
 verb, 80, 81, S3, 85, 87, SS ; 
 conj., 133. 
 
 Froissart, 179. 
 
 —ft, origin of, 97. 
 
 —full, 121. 
 
 fullness, syntax with, 157. 
 
 future, 78, 84, 85, 86 ; auxilia- 
 ries, 188 ; for imperative, 
 189; syntax, ISS, 189 ; pas- 
 sive, 197. 
 
 future perfect, 1S9. 
 
 g,15,16;<i, 17; <h,/.,lS,19, 
 breaking, 20 ; shifting, 29+. 
 
 gg=ng, IT'; eg, 10. 
 
 gemination, 7,10, rule for 10; 
 examples. 25, 30, 31 , 41 , 40, PT', 
 60, 95, 97, 100 ; quasi -gem., 
 43, 53, 75, S3 ; 666 dissimila- 
 ted. 
 
 gender, 35; history of, 36; foni- 
 ines<neuters, 36; rules for, 
 37; comparative, 136; forms 
 to express, 135 ; derivatives, 
 136; of appositives, 144. 
 
 genitive, 34, 35, 37, conijiounds, 
 134; object, 138; syntax, gen- 
 eral discussion, l'53-158; at- 
 tributive, 153, 154; predica- 
 tive, 155; objective, 1.5."), 1.50, 
 157; adverbial, 15S; for da- 
 tive, 149 ; dative+gen., 149, 
 156 ; nearness, 1.50 '; separa- 
 tion, 151, absolute,1.52; snb 
 jective, 153 ; objective, 1.5 1 ; 
 partitive, 143, 1.54, 150 ; with 
 prepositions, 159 : adjective 
 with, 173; possessive foi', 
 175; article omitted, 170; ar- 
 rangement, 21S, 219, aud ^ee 
 under each defleimon. 
 
 gentile derivatives, 125. 
 
 German, 3; printinL'()f.\ni:lo- 
 Saxon,4; Old Ili^di, letters, 
 8; w, 18; umlaut, 19; as- 
 sibilation, 21 ; shifting, 2'.'; 
 u>aw, 41 ; neuter -era, 41 . 
 abstr.acts in -in, 45: rime in, 
 224, 225, 227, aud see eti/riKiUi- 
 (jjl, comparative, and siintax, 
 comparative.
 
 250 
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 (Low) Gei-., n, 20, 125. 
 
 geniud, <S, 88, 89 ; s} ntax, 197, 
 198, 199. 
 
 pesturc, with dative, 14S. 
 
 •,'ive-)-dativc, 148 ; -f geruud, 
 199; omitted, ISO. 
 
 fjhviiHUi, 122. 
 
 "go, with dative, 150; as future 
 sign, 189. 
 
 (inat, 130. 
 
 imilcss, qodhi, 122. 
 
 "Gothic "(MoBso-), 3; letters, S; 
 breaking, 20; shil'tiui:, 29; 
 r-stems, }u(-steni?, 4M ; ab- 
 stracts in -ein,45; au<u,49, 
 proper names, 54 ; rullex- 
 ive.«, OS ; dual, 82, S3 ; law 
 of liual consonants, 9T, and 
 see eti/molagi/, cowparative, 
 and si/ntax, comparative. 
 
 grant, with dat. and geu., 149, 
 150. 
 
 gravitation, 9, 20, 30, 30, 45, 47, 
 49, 51, 8;i, 114. 
 
 Greek, 3; letters, 8; accent, 30; 
 neuters, 30 ; proper names, 
 54 ; versification, 223, and 
 see ctymolorjij, cmnparativc, 
 and Hijntax, comparative. 
 
 Grimm's law, 8, 29; weak ad- 
 jectives, 59; conjugation, 78. 
 
 Sii<P, IS. 
 
 guua, 9, 27. 
 
 gutturals, 6, 7, 15, 16, 23, 112. 
 
 h, 1"; >g, ;), IS, 117 : break- 
 ing, 20, 103 ; shifting, 29. 
 30. 
 
 habit+infinitive, 197. 
 
 have, sign for future, perfect, 
 pluperf., ISO, 201 ; -hgerund, 
 199; -f participle, 201. 
 
 —head, 121. 
 
 Jicadlonri, 128. 
 
 hcalf, with numerals, 77, 182. 
 
 Hebrew, 60, 08, 75. 
 
 Hellenic, .3, 8. 
 
 help-fgeuitive, 150. 
 
 hemistich, 223. 
 
 hen, 130. 
 
 heudiadis, 141. 
 
 heptameter, 223. 
 
 her, 69, 175; hern, hcorun, 175. 
 
 heteroclites, 52, 04. 
 
 heterogeneous, 52. 
 
 hexameter, 223. 
 
 llevse, 59. 
 
 hi<iht, ISO. 
 
 /iiN, 09, 175. 
 
 hit, it, syntax, 174, 14.'!. 
 
 himit, 128 ; -ward, 122. 
 
 -hood, 121. 
 
 horse, 130. 
 
 how often, 77. 
 
 —7(^ origin of, 97, 112. 
 
 hundred, the great, 70. 
 
 hypallage, 141. 
 
 hyperbaton, 141. 
 
 hypercatalectic, 223. 
 
 hyi)othetic relative, 1 93 ; 
 clause, 197. 
 
 hysteron proteron, 141. 
 
 i, how made, 11 ; >ra, y, 12 ; 
 umlaut, 19; breaking, 20,75; 
 consonant, 15, 17 ; shifting, 
 30; change with n, p, 117. 
 
 !'-stems, w-stenis, see ntcm. 
 
 V-unilaut, see xmilaut. 
 
 i, 13. 
 
 ia=ca. 
 
 ia, 14. 
 
 iambus, 222, 223. 
 
 Icelandic verse, 224. 
 
 ictus, 222. 
 
 ie, 14. 
 
 i-group of letters, 7, 20. 
 
 illative conjunction, 205,209. 
 
 imitatiou-)-dative, 1.50. 
 
 imperative, 77, 78 ; i-i-stem, 99, 
 108,110; sentence, 139; syn- 
 tax, 174, 188, 197 ; indicative 
 for, 189,190 ; subjunctive for, 
 191 ; arrangement of, 215. 
 
 imperfect, 7S ; ablaut, 80 ; con- 
 tract, 81 ; compound, 81 ; in- 
 flection indie, 84, 85, 90, 92, 
 95, 98 ; subjunctive, 86, 87, 
 91, 93 ; potential, 89, 91 ; 
 svncopated, 95 ; irregulars, 
 112-f ; 2d sing, in -c.s, 110; 
 syntax, 187, 188, 190, 194. 
 
 imjiersouals-j-accusative, 145; 
 -fdative, 150 ; -f genitivc-f- 
 dative, 156; subject of, 185, 
 1S7. 
 
 incorporation of relative, 180. 
 
 indeclinable nouns, 52. 
 
 indefinite declension, 56-}- ; 
 pronoun, 71, 72, 174, ISO; 
 suffixes, 123, 125; adjective, 
 172; article, 174, 180; numer- 
 al, 1S2 ; verb, 185, 193. 
 
 independent nominative, 144; 
 particles, 184. 
 
 Indie, 3, 8. 
 
 indicative, 77; strong active, 
 82-85 ; passive, 90 ; weak 
 active, 83 ; form of poten- 
 tial, 89, 91 ; syntax, tenses 
 of, lSS-1- ; mode, 190. 
 
 indirect object, 138 ; asser- 
 tion, 192 ; question, 192 ; 
 command, 197. 
 
 Indo-European, 3 ; vowel sys- 
 tem, consonant system, S. 
 
 infinitive, 78, 88; in -cnu, 94; 
 syntax, 139, 140 ; accusa- 
 tive-f-, 142, 147; general dis- 
 cussion, 197-t- ; adjective 
 with, 172. 
 
 inflection, by vowel changes, 
 79-82 ; mode sufBxes, "82 ; 
 personal endings, 82-|- ; in- 
 die, present, 83, 84 : imperf., 
 84, 85 ; strong verb, 82-91 ; 
 weak verb, 92-95 ; variation 
 in jjresent, 96, 97 ; in imper- 
 fect, 98; tables of variation, 
 97-118; irregular, 112-118; 
 Northumbrian, 117 ; decay 
 of endings, English, 118; re- 
 lation to versification, 228. 
 
 influence, object of, 148, 149. 
 
 in.separablc prefixes, 6. 
 
 inserted clauses, arrangement 
 in, 215. 
 
 instrument, suflix of, 123. 
 
 instrumental case, 35, 38, 39, 
 129; syntax of, 14S, 150-154, 
 17.3. 
 
 intellectual states, syntax 
 with, 150. See cn(jriition. 
 
 interest, nb'ect of, 149. 
 
 iiitcrjerlion, 'M, 133; syntax, 
 
 139,178,2(12. 
 interrogative pronoun, 70, 71, 
 
 72, 132 ; adverbs, 1S3, 184 ; 
 
 syntax, 178, 179 ; sentence, 
 
 139, 191 ; conjunction, 207 ; 
 
 o))jecl in, 219; arrangement, 
 
 215,219. 
 intransitive verb, 1.38; perf., 
 
 pluperf., 80, 201 ; syntax, 157, 
 
 180, 189. 
 io=eo. 
 i<">, 14. 
 Iranic, 3. 
 Irish, 29, 04. 
 irregular nouns, 52 ; verbs, 
 
 112-1-. 
 )Y, ?Ys, 68, 69 ; syntax, 174. 
 Italic, 3, 8. 
 iteratives, see how often. 
 
 j, peculiar character for, 4 ; 
 
 and see i-cousouant. 
 Jutes, 1. 
 
 —tew?, 121. 
 kindred, 122. 
 knowledge, 122. 
 
 ], T, 15, 16, 18 ; iiKjl, 15 ; met- 
 athesis, 19 ; <d, 30, 75. 
 
 labial, 0, 7, 15, 18, 23, 29, S9, 103. 
 
 landscapic, 122. 
 
 lantern, 121. 
 
 Latin, 2; r)M=p, 18; assibila- 
 tion, 21; accent, 30; neu- 
 ters>feminines, 36 ; proper 
 names, 54 ; perfects, 82 ; ab- 
 latives, 129; arsis and the- 
 sis, 223 ; rime in Low Latin, 
 225 ; verses of Anglo-Saxon 
 poets, 225; and see ctijmul- 
 orjii, comparative, and syn- 
 tax, comparative. 
 
 laugh, syntax with, l.'iO. 
 
 lantvcrschichunri^ii\\\i\\Vi^. 
 
 Layamon, declension in, 5,'i ; 
 adjective, 65; comparison, 
 65 ; pronouns, 72 ; verbs, 99, 
 118; jirepoi-^itions, 101, 170; 
 u'ho, 1 79 ; hpylc, 179; evcnich, 
 181 ; verbals, 201. 
 
 less, svntax with, 105. 
 
 let, 190, 198. 
 
 letters, 4; sounds of, 5. 
 
 like (— ;?c), 70, 122, 181. 
 
 likeness, syntax with, 150. 
 
 lingual, 7, 23. 
 
 liquid, 7. 
 
 listen, synta.x with, 150. 
 
 Lithuauic, 3 ; instrumental, 
 39 ; weak adjective, 59 ; 
 thousand, 70. 
 
 local, see place.. 
 
 locative case, 3.5, 39, 4.5, 49, 50, 
 57,67,148,150, 152,153. 
 
 logical subject; predicate, 139. 
 
 long vowels, ; nature, origin, 
 12; proof of, 13; monosylla- 
 bles, 13, 41 . See prorireiitiion, 
 einnpciination, and the vow- 
 els. 
 
 —lU, 129. 
 
 m, 7, 8, 11, 1.5, 83 ; <bh, 45, 49. 
 make, syntax with, 147, 198. 
 man, 130.
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 251 
 
 «w)!, 34, 4?, 53,*ri, is;. 
 
 manner, adverbs of, 130; syn- 
 tax of, 151, 15S; subjunctive 
 in clauses of, 193 ; connect- 
 ives, 208 ; arrangement, 210. 
 
 masculine, 37. See gender. 
 
 mastery, syntax with, 150, 151 . 
 
 material, suffix of, 126; com- 
 pounds of, 134; syntax of, 
 154, 15T. 
 
 vHiy (mseg), 195. 
 
 means, suffix of, 123 ; syntax, 
 151, 16S. 
 
 measure.syntax of,152,154,157. 
 
 meet, syntax with, 150. 
 
 mental action, syntax with, 
 155. See cognition, /eelinff. 
 
 metaplast, 52. 
 
 metathesis, 9, 11, IS, 19, 30, 32, 
 41, CT, 103, 111. 
 
 meter, 223. 
 
 middle mutes, 7, S, 29 ; voice, 
 146, 150, 1S7. 
 
 Milton, verse, 148, 22G. 
 
 mimetic variation, 9, 2S. 
 
 miss, syntax with, 157. 
 
 mode, 77, 82; syntax, 190-202. 
 
 Moeso-Gothic, see Gothic. 
 
 monometer, 223. 
 
 monosyllables, long, 13, 41. 
 
 viot, 195. 
 
 move, sjTitax with, 150, 201. 
 
 multiplicatives, 77. 
 
 multitude, noun of, 142. 
 
 mutes, 7, 24, 29, 95. 
 
 n,7, 8, 15; >f7,16; >?, w, 29 ; 
 stops umlaut and shifting, 
 102. 
 
 name, appositive of, 154 ; syn- 
 tax with, 147. 
 
 narrative, syntax with, 188. 
 See verse. 
 
 nasals, 7, 15, 24 ; nasalizing, 
 4.\ 49, 100, 111. 
 
 nc, 17. 
 
 -nd<-nt, 75. 
 
 J!</-stcms, see ste^n. 
 
 nearness, syntax with, 150. 
 
 need, syntax with, 157. 
 
 needs, 128. 
 
 negation, particles of, 132 : 
 geu'r'l, particular, strength- 
 
 • ened,lS3, 1S4; rcpcatcd,lS4; 
 condition, 194; article with, 
 170. 
 
 neuter, 30, 39; strengthened 
 by -er, 41 ; weak, 50; -t, 57 ; 
 ■>feminiue, 36. 
 
 nominative, 35; syntax of, 
 144; yields, 175. 
 
 normal sentence, 141. 
 
 Norman <ju<ip, IS ; — «, 51. 
 
 (Old) Norse, b>f, 18 ; umlaut, 
 19, and see etymology, com^ 
 parafivc, and syntax, com- 
 parative. 
 
 Northumbrian, 1 ; vowel 
 sounds, 14 ; gutturals, 18 ; 
 dentals, 99 ; ecthlipsis, met 
 nthesis, epenthesis, prost he 
 sis, 19 ; labials, 19 ; dcchui 
 sion, strong, 49; weak, 51 ; 
 irregularities, 51 ; pronoun, 
 fiO; possessive, C8 ; article, 
 C9; demonstrative, 70; in- 
 terrogative, 71 ; verb, 117 ; 
 
 iudic. present, S3 ; imperf.,! 
 
 85. 
 noscling, 128. 
 notional, 33, 119, 186. 
 noun, 34, 134 : of multitude, 
 
 142 ; -uuderstood, 172. See 
 
 strong iwuns, iveak nm^ns, 
 
 substantive, adjective. 
 number, 34, 78, 143. 
 numerals, 73-77 ; syntax, 154, 
 
 177,181,185; arrangement, 
 
 216, 218. 
 
 o, 11, 12. 
 
 6, 13. 
 
 obey, svntax with, 148. 
 
 object, direct, 145, 197, 201 ; de- 
 tinitive, 146, 201 ; double, 
 146 ; of influence, 148, 149 ; 
 interest, 149 ; genitive (ex- 
 citing), 156, 201 ; partitive, 
 156 ; separation, 156, 157 ; 
 with passives, 187; of cog- 
 nition, 102; desire,192; final, 
 IPS ; arrangement, 21S,- 219. 
 See factitive. 
 
 objective combinations, 137, 
 138, 140, 145, 148, 1.W, 218 ; 
 componuds, 134 ; verb, 138 ; 
 genitive,154 ; participle,201. 
 
 officers, syntax of, 153. 
 
 oi, 15. 
 
 omission of substanlive, 172, 
 186; article, 176; relative, 
 ISO ; verb, 186, 195 ; coujuuc- 
 tion, 208, 209. 
 
 one, 59, 71. 
 
 ouomatope, 34. 
 
 open vowels, 6. 
 
 opposition (contention), 150. 
 
 optative, 82, 87. 
 
 ordinals, 73, 76, 77 ; syntax, 
 182. 
 
 Ormulum, declension in, 55 ; 
 adjective, 65; comparison, 
 65; pronouns, 72; numerals, 
 73 ; conjugation, strons.', 99, 
 105 ; weak. 111 ; endings, 
 118; prepositions, 101, 107, 
 170 ; niiatt, 178; iclio, 179. 
 
 orthography, 4. 
 
 ox, 136; oxen, 51. 
 
 p, IS, 18,29. 
 
 paeon, 222, 225. 
 
 palatal, 0, 7. See guttural. 
 
 Ijaragoge, 9. 
 
 parallelism, 21.5. 
 
 parasitic sounds, 20, 30 ; g, p, 
 18 ; ?, 11, 20 ; h, 29. 
 
 parasyiithcta, 6, 134. 
 
 I'arenl Speech, 3, 8 ; case-end- 
 ings, :',5; gender, 36; Teu- 
 tonic, 50 ; declension of j/.s, 
 jn, jixta, 56; comparison in, 
 02,03,64; pronouns in, 66, 
 67, 68 ; numerals, 75, 76 ; 
 tense stems in, 82 : para- 
 digm of indie, present, S3; 
 of imperfect, 85 ; subjunc- 
 tive pres., 87 ; passive, 116 ; 
 derivation in, 118-)-. 
 
 parts of speech, 3^1. 
 
 Ijarticiples, 78, S8, 95; svntax, 
 1.39, 140, IS.'i, 200, 201,210. 
 
 particles of interrogalioi), ne- 
 gatior, etc., 132. 
 
 particular interrog., 183 ; ne- 
 gation, 184. 
 
 partitive appositive, 143 ; gen- 
 itive, 154, 150; =acijecuve, 
 173. 
 
 passive voice, 90, 91, 116, 187, 
 ISS-f ; origin of form, 201. 
 
 patrial adjective, 125. 
 
 patronymics, 125. 
 
 pentameter, 223. 
 
 people's names declined, 54. 
 
 perfect, 7S, 82 ; transitive, 84^ 
 85,86; intrans., 84, 86; syn- 
 tax, 189; origin ofform,2iil. 
 
 periphrastic perf., 82 ; condi- 
 tional, 89; future, 198. 
 
 person, 7S ; endings of, 82' 
 proper names, 54. 
 
 personal pronouns, see 'pn,- 
 nouns; object, 138. 
 
 perspicuity affecting arrange- 
 ment, 219. 
 
 phonetic decay, 36, 82. 
 
 phonolosry, 6-32. 
 
 pitch, 222. 
 
 place, nouns of, 125; adjec- 
 tives of, 120 ; adverbs, cor- 
 relative, 129; in compounds, 
 134; syntax, accusative of, 
 148; d'at. of, 152; gen., 1.57, 
 158; mode, 193; connectives 
 of, 207 ; arrangement, 216, 
 219, and see locative. 
 
 Piatt Deutsch, 3. 
 
 pleasant, syntax of, 199. 
 
 l)leonasm,"l41. 
 
 pluperfect, 78, 84. S.''), SO ; 8\-n- 
 tax, 188, 189, origin of form, 
 201. 
 
 plural endiugs, 30, 82 ; for sin- 
 gular, 174. 
 
 polysyndeton, 141. 
 
 possessive, 68, 69; compounds, 
 134; arrangement, 218. 
 
 possessor, dative of, 150 ; gen- 
 itive of, 153. 
 
 potential mode, 78,83,89; syn- 
 tax, 19.5, 197. 
 
 Prakrit, 67. 
 
 pray, syntax of, 150. 
 
 precession, 0, 9, 20, 27; exam- 
 ples, 45, 57, 67, 75, 83, 85, 114, 
 131, etc. 
 
 predicate, 137; grammatical, 
 logical, 139; agreement of, 
 142 ; nominative, 144, 170 ; 
 accusative, 147 ; genitive, 
 155; adverb, 183. 
 
 predicative combination, de- 
 fined, 137, 139 ; agreement 
 in, 142; participles, 200; ar- 
 rangement, 214 ; quasi — , 
 137,^142, 152, 155. 
 
 jireflxes, 6, 130+. 
 
 preposition, 33, 34, 1.30-1- ; svn- 
 tax, 158-172 ; article aficr, 
 170 ; arrangement of, 210, 
 219, 220 ; relation to verse, 
 22!5. 
 
 present, 78; active indie, 83; 
 subjunctive, 80, 87 ; weak, 
 94, 90, 97; reduplicate, 115; 
 forms of, 187-)-. 
 
 preteritive verb, S."?, 112-114. 
 
 price, syntax of, 151, 1.57. 
 
 principal parts of verb, 78. 
 
 procliiics, 13.
 
 252 
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 prosrressioii, 6, 9, 2.), T?, 100, 
 lOi, lOS, Kiit, 111,11-2, lU. 
 
 progressive forms, 18S-)-, 197 ; 
 origin of, •101. 
 
 prouoineii revereutise, 174. 
 
 pronouns, i!;!, ;u, 174; person- 
 :il, C6, 7-2, 174, 17.% 179 : pos- 
 sessive, OS, 09, 72, 17o, 175, 
 and see deinoiistratice, relcv- 
 tive, intcrrofjative, indefinite. 
 
 proper names, 54. 
 
 prosody, '222-2-28. 
 
 Jjrosthesis, 9, 30. 
 
 jirotasis, 194. 
 
 pi-othesis,9, 18, 19, ol. 
 
 jjunctiiation, 5. 
 
 piirpose,134; S3'utax with, 199. 
 
 pyrrhic, 223. 
 
 (\\\—cp, 5. 
 
 (luality, 12, 13: suffix of, 124; 
 syntax, 1.53, 154. 
 
 quantity, 12, 13, 222, 223. 
 
 quantitatives, 217, 21S. 
 
 quasi-clauses, quasi feet, qua- 
 si-predicative, quasi-suliix- 
 cs, see clause., feet, etc. 
 
 questions, 183, 184; strengtli- 
 eued by cpedan, sccfjan, etc., 
 183; indirect, 192. See in- 
 tcrrogativcs. 
 
 r, 7. S, 15, 16, IS. See breaking, 
 s'em. 
 
 radicle, 33 ; in pronouns, Co ; 
 numerals, 75 ; derivation, 
 118; suffixes, 119. 
 
 ready, sjTitax, 199. 
 
 reality, 190. 
 
 receive, syntax, 150. 
 
 reciprocals, 175. 
 
 reduplication, 6; contracted, 
 13, 14, 32 ; in numerals, 75 ; 
 verbs. 82, 85, 108, 109 ; pres- 
 ents, il5, 116; iu derivation, 
 
 lis. 
 
 reflexive, 68 ; syntax, 146, 150, 
 1.50,174,175,186. 
 
 refuse, syntax, 149, 156. 
 
 regard, syntax, 147. 
 
 relational, 33, 1-29 ; genitive, 
 153; verb, 186. 
 
 relative pronoun, 70, 72 ; s}ti- 
 tax, — personal as, 175, 179, 
 178-180 ; demonstrative as, 
 178 : interrog., 179 : incor- 
 poration, ISO, omission, ISO; 
 order, 219, 220. 
 
 relative clauses, adverbs iu, 
 184; subjunctive in, 193. 
 
 relics,49,53, 68, 116. 
 
 remain, syntax, 150. 
 
 remember, 156. 
 
 repeated subject, 114, 174. 
 
 repetition, 152. 
 
 respect of, 151, 199. 
 
 result, suffix, 124, mode, 193, 
 195. See consecutice. 
 
 Rhyming Poem, 226. 
 
 rnythni, 222, 225. 
 
 rliythmical accent, 30. 
 
 ri'/htemis, 122. 
 
 riine (rhyme), 223; letters, 224. 
 
 }{omau populace, 1.5. 
 
 Romanic, 156, 216, 218, 22.5. 
 
 roots, 33, 34; mixed, 64; iu -ft, 
 97; — fi— , 100; liquid, 100; 
 
 nasal, 100 ; two consonants, 
 102,103,108; — !— ,103; — u— , 
 105, —a—, —a—, 107, 108, 
 109 ; —d—, — ea— , — ^-, 
 — e— , — (>— , —a— 109, 110; 
 —('>—, 111: — u— , 112; iu de- 
 rivation, lis. 
 
 rough mutes, 7. 
 
 riickumlaut, see uvilaut. 
 
 runes, 4, 18. 
 
 s, 5, 8,15 ; <rf, 19, 30, 83 ; >r, 30 ; 
 
 >st, 83 ; =z, IS. 
 
 — s, Norman, 51. 
 
 same, 70. 
 
 Sandwich Islanders, 15. 
 
 Sanskrit, 3; letters, S; accent 
 in, 30; «>a(.'j 41 ; reflexive, 
 68; conjugation classes, 79, 
 114-116; beginnings of ab- 
 laut, 79-|- ; assimiTation by 
 m, n, I, r, SO; periphrastic 
 perfect in kar, 82; dual, 8-2, 
 83; causative, 79, 127; versi- 
 fication, 223 ; and see etymol- 
 o(jii,covi.parative, and syntax, 
 comparative. 
 
 Saxon, 1, 3: Old Saxon, 2, 3; 
 vowels, 8; labials, 18; ab- 
 stracts (=Goth. -eins), 45 ; 
 verse, 224, 227. See cti/molo- 
 (jy, comparative, and syntax, 
 comparative. See also Semi- 
 Saxon, M'est Saxon, Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 sc, 16, 21+ ; breaking, 20. 
 
 Scandinavian, 3, 29. See Ice- 
 landic, Norse. 
 
 section, in verse, 223. 
 
 seldom, 128. 
 
 self, 70, 177. 
 
 Semi-Saxon, 1, 4 ; j, 4, and see 
 Layamon,Ormulum. 
 
 Semitic, 75, vowel change in 
 inflection, SO ; syntax, 214 ; 
 and see Hebrew. 
 
 semi- vowel (/', g; u, p), gemi- 
 nation, 47,61. 
 
 sensation, syntax of, 145. 
 
 sentence, kinds of, 139 ; 
 abridged, 140 . and see cknise. 
 
 separation, syntax of, 151, 156, 
 157. 
 
 sex, 136. 
 
 Shakespeare, double compari- 
 son, 64 ; adjective endings, 
 65; verb endings, 118; pre- 
 fix ge-, lis. 
 
 shall, 189, 196. 
 
 sharing, syntax of, 156. 
 
 she, 6S,"177. 
 
 sheep, 13(i. 
 
 shifting (Jautverschiebrmg), de- 
 fined, 9, '28, 29 ; vowels > 
 vowels, 2S ; ayx, 11, 27, 41, 
 45, 58, 60, 63, 97, 99, 197 ; «> 
 xyc, 100, 102; rt>o, 27; «>(, 
 67 ; «><'&>e, 27, 60, 103, 110 : 
 ca>e, 13, 14, 105 ; f'fl>e, 14, 
 1.5, 10.5, lOS, 109; ?/>l, 112; 
 vowels>consonants, 29: i> 
 g, 30 ; u>v, 41 ; consonants 
 >vowels, 28, 29 ; consonants 
 >co- ordinate consonants, 
 '29; consonants to cognate 
 consonants (Grimm's law), 
 '29, 07, 75. 83, 85, S7, 88 ; f<>/ 
 
 >f. 30, 117; ff>?, .30, 75; f,'> 
 >(., 30; A->/, 75; ■)/!>«, 67; 6/t 
 >«i, 45, 49 ; rf>s, z, 19, 30, 
 83 ; s>r, 30. 
 
 short vowels, 6, 8, 11. 
 
 sideling, 128. 
 
 simple words, 118 ; sentences, 
 139; subject, 185. 
 
 simulatiou, 9, '28, 131. 
 
 singular, 78, 142, 185. 
 
 size, syntax of, 154. 
 
 Slavonic, 3 ; assibilation, 21 ; 
 instrumental, 39 ; weak ad- 
 jective, 59 ; thousand, 76. 
 
 smooth mutes, 7. 
 
 some (sum), with numerals,77 ; 
 s\aitax, 143, 181 ; some deal, 
 123. 
 
 sonants, 7, 15, 23 ; rules for 
 change of, 10. 
 
 source, syntax of, 163, 166. 
 
 space, syntax of, 148; 157, 159. 
 See place. 
 
 specification (adjunct), 151, 157. 
 
 spirant, 7. 
 
 spondee, 222. 
 
 —St, law for, 97. 
 
 steadfast, 121. 
 
 stem (nouns), deflned,34; end- 
 ings, 36; iu -a, 39+, 57; -ia, 
 41,4-2,43,47,60; -ga, 41; -ha, 
 41, 61 ; -pa, 41, 61 ; -d, 44, 
 45 ; -?, 42-17, 57 ; -M, 48, 49, 
 60, 54, 47 ; -an, 50, 51, 59 ; -r, 
 43,53; -nd, 43,53; relics of 
 other consonant stems, 53. 
 VERB-stems, 78 ; with gem- 
 ination, 97 ; iu -ia, 99, 108, 
 115; tense stems, 82; n In- 
 8erted,116; reduplicated,11.5, 
 116 ; relational adverbial, 
 129. See tlieme. 
 
 strengthening s to st,8Z ; stems 
 by -er, 41 ; pronouns, 175 ; 
 negatives, interrogatives, 
 183. 
 
 stress, "22. 
 
 strong nouns, 36, 49 ; adjec- 
 tives, 56 ; syntax, 173 ; verbs, 
 78,S3+,98, 1'26. 
 
 subject, 137; grammatical, log- 
 ical, 139; repeated,143; nom- 
 inative, 144 ; accusative, 147 : 
 simple,185; compound, cop- 
 ulate, 185; omitted, 186; ar- 
 rangement of, 214, 220. 
 
 subjective verb, 138 ; genitive, 
 153. 
 
 subjunctive, 77; present, im- 
 perfect, 86, 87 ; endings iu 
 auxiliaries, 87 ; potential, 89, 
 syntax, 190 +; iu leading 
 clauses, 191; insubordinate 
 substantive, 192 ; adjective, 
 193 ; adverb, 193-195 ; for im- 
 perative, 197. 
 
 sub-letters, 224. 
 
 subordinate clause, 139 ; ques- 
 tions in, 184 ; subjunctive 
 in, 192-195 ; arrangement of, 
 21.5,220; conjunctions, 20.5- 
 208. 
 
 substantives, equivalents of, 
 139; clauses, 140, 192, W,-. 
 arrangement of, 215, 220. See 
 voun. 
 
 stich, 70.
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 'Aoo 
 
 suffering object, 13S. 
 
 suffixes, relational, 33 ; of com- 
 parison, 62-|- ; mode, 82 ; de- 
 rivation, 121, 122, 123-12S. 
 
 superlative, 62-64 ; in numer- 
 als, 75, 76; prepositions and 
 prefixes, 132; sj-ntax, l&l . 
 176. 
 
 supremacy, syntax of, 157. 
 
 surd, 7, 15, 23 ;" rules for change. 
 10; roots, 95. 
 
 swearing, sjTitax of 152. 
 
 swine, 136. 
 
 synseresis, 10, 11, 32. 
 
 synalepha, 10, 32. 
 
 sj-ncope, 9, 30, 31, 41, 47, 60, 70 : 
 in imperfects and p. -part., 95. 
 
 eynesis, 141, 142, 144, 173,.1S5-|-. 
 
 svnizesis, 10, Sfi. 
 
 syn tax, 137-221 ; figures of,141. 
 
 syntax, comparative, api»os- 
 itlve (Sansk., Lat., Ger.. 
 O. H. G., O. Nor., Fr.), l43, 
 144; Nominative, facti- 
 tive (Sansk., Gr., Goth., M. 
 H. G.), 144; Vocative, 
 (Sansk., Lat, Fr.), 144, 145; 
 Accusative reflexive 
 (Sansk., Gr., Goth.), 146; cog- 
 iiate(San8k.,Gr.,Ger.,Eng.); 
 double object (Sansk., Gr. 
 Lat., Goth., O. H. G.),146, 147 
 with infinitive (Sansk., Gr., 
 Lat.), 147 ; factitive (Sansk.), 
 147 ; in adverbial combina- 
 tions (Sansk., Greek, Lat. 
 Goth.), 148; Dative, of in. 
 fluence (Sansk., Greek, Lat., 
 Goth., O. H. G.), 149 ; of pos- 
 sessor (Sansk., Greek, Lat.), 
 150; nearness (Sansk., Gr 
 Lat., Goth.), 150 ; mastery! 
 use (Lat., Goth., O. Sax., < 
 Norse,O.H.G.,M.H.G.),].':i ; 
 separation (Lat., Gr.), 151 ; 
 adverbial (Sansk., Gr., Lat- 
 in), 151 ; agent (Sansk., Gr., 
 Lat.), 151 ; after compara- 
 tives (Sansk., Gr., Lat., Teu 
 tonic), 152 ; absolute (San- 
 skrit, Gr., Lat., Teut)., 152 ; 
 Instrumental (Sansk.. 
 Gr., Lat., Goth,, O. Sax., O. 
 IL Ger.), 153 ; Ccuitive, 
 general (Sanskr.), 153; cog- 
 nate (O. Norse), 154 ; aggre- 
 gation (Sansk.), 154 ; char- 
 acteristic (Sansk., Gr., Lat.), 
 154; of name (Gr., Lat., Fr., 
 Semi-Sax.), 155; predicative 
 (Gr., Lat.), 155; exciting ob- 
 ject (Sansk., Gr., Lat., Teut.), 
 156; partitive (Romanic), 
 156; Prepositions 
 iGoth., O. IL G., O. Norse, O. 
 Sax., Lat., Greek, Layamon, 
 Orra., Chaucer, Wydiffe, 
 Spenser), 1159-172 ; Adjec- 
 tive (Goth., IL Ger.), 174; 
 Pronoun (Nonnan,O.IL 
 <;., O. Norso), 174, 144; pos- 
 i^essivc (Layamon, English). 
 175; demimstr. and article 
 (Goth., O. IL G., Lat., (ier.), 
 1T6, 177 ; iuterrog. (Onn., 
 
 Lat.), 178 ; relative (Sansk., 
 Gr., Lat., Goth., 0,H.G.,Ger., 
 Semi-Sax., Engl.), 178, 179; 
 article (Gr,, Lat., Goth., Ger,, 
 O, Norse), ISO ; Adverbs 
 (Gr., Lat., Teut.), 183, 1S4 ; 
 Verb, subject of (Lat., Gr., 
 Engl., etc), 185, 186; voice 
 (Sansk,, Greek, Lat., Goth., 
 Teut.), 77, 146, 15(l,lS7 ; tense 
 (Lat., Engl.), 189, 190; mode 
 (Gr., Latm), 190-201 ; Ar- 
 rangement of words 
 (Lat., Ger.), 214; predicative 
 comb, (Indo-Europ., Semi- 
 tic), 214, (French, Romanic) 
 216; attrib. comb, (Gr,, Lat, 
 Teut., Romanic), 216, (Gr., 
 Lat, Engl., Ger., Fr., Span., 
 It), 217, (Romanic) 218 ; ob- 
 jective comb, (Germanic), 
 219; adverbial comb, (Ger- 
 manic), 220. 
 
 t, T, 8, 15, 29 ; <d, 19 ; Gothic, 
 97, 
 
 — t, neuter ending, 37, 57, 
 
 take, syntax, 150. 
 
 tavern, 121. 
 
 teach, sjTitax, 146, 147, 193. 
 
 tenses, 78 ; stems in Parent 
 Speech, 82; sj'ntax, 187; pro- 
 gressive, 188 ; sequence, 190. 
 
 tetrameter, 223. 
 
 Teutonic, 3, 29, 30, 76, 129, 152. 
 
 th=/>, 17; rf, 97. 
 
 thank, sjmtax, 149, 156. 
 
 the more, 177, 
 
 theme, 34 ; of nouns in -ad, 
 -ed, -els, -sc, 41 ; plurals in 
 -er, 41 ; -wirr< 47 ; i, eo, pyv 
 >o, h, 61 , verb, 78 ; in -cc, 
 -II, -c. 111 ; nasal, 111 ; gut- 
 tural, 112. 
 
 thesis, 222, 223, 225. 
 
 they, their, them, C8, C9, 177, 
 
 thousand, 76. 
 
 till, 1G7. 
 
 time, sufiix of, 1^5; adverbs, 
 130; compounds, 134; svu- 
 tax, 152, 157, 153, 201, 207: 
 subjunctive in clauses of, 
 19.3, ; arrangement, 216 ; in 
 verse, 222 ; and see terntc. 
 
 ?o, 167-1- ; with the infinitive, 
 197: -r/av, 128, 
 
 tonic, 222, 225. 
 
 touch, syntax, 1.5G. 
 
 transitive verbs, 138, 14.'), 156, 
 186; i)erfect, ])luperfect, 86, 
 201. See direct object. 
 
 tribrach, 222. 
 
 trills, 16. 
 
 trimeter, 223. 
 
 trochee, 222, 223, 225. 
 
 truth, 1S8. 
 
 U, 5, 0,7,8,11,12; >.'/,!•:!; e<'> 
 14; —V,\S; yar,vp,i\ 4~. 
 
 M-dedeusion for Latin, Greek 
 a-decl,,54, 
 
 jz-trroup, 7, 26, 
 
 umlaut, 0, 19, 23; rule, 10; in 
 verl)s,96-f ; stems from, 123: 
 concealed, riickumlaut, 95 ; 
 
 stopped l:y n, 102 ; n-um- 
 laut, examples, 12, 19. 83, 97, 
 99, lUO, 102, 103, 105, 114 ; !- 
 umlaut, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 43, 
 45, 47, 60, 02, 97, 100, 105, 1C7, 
 108, 109, 110, 111, 112; v-nm- 
 laut, 11,12,20,41. 
 
 underneath, 170, 
 
 use, syntax, 150, 151, 157. 
 
 v=u, IS. 
 
 value, syntax, 154. 
 
 variation, 9, 97, 98 ; table of, in 
 verbs, 99-103, 117. 
 
 verb, 34, 77 ; conjugation, see ; 
 preteritive, see ; irregular, 
 114-118; thesubstantive,114; 
 derivation, lis ; compound, 
 134 ; syntax, 185-201 ; kinds 
 of, 186 ; agreement, 185, 186 ; 
 omission, 186 ; arrangement, 
 214, 218, 
 
 verbal, in -ung, -ivff, -ende, 201 ; 
 syntax, 153,' 201 ; accent, 222, 
 
 verse, 222, 223 ; common nar- 
 rative, 225 ; long, 227, 
 
 vocal chords,ll; utterauce,11. 
 
 vocative, 34, 35 ; syntax, 139, 
 144,145,173, 
 
 voice,77; middle, 14C, 150, 187; 
 syntax, 187, 
 
 vowels, 6 ; Indo-European ta- 
 ble, 8; groups, C, 7; Anglo- 
 Saxon, 11-15 ; changes, 19- 
 32. See each vowel. 
 
 vriddhi, 27. 
 
 W</',1S,19. 
 
 want:=Ji«crf, 157. 
 
 watch, s}^ltax, l.'iC. 
 
 way, sj-utax, 158. 
 
 weak nouns, 36, 50 • adjectives, 
 
 56, 59, 60, 173 ; verlis, 78, 63, 
 
 85, 92-1-, 94 ; mixed, irreg,,- 
 
 116, 117, 120, 127, 
 wealth, syntax, 153. 
 weathering of endings, 36, 55, 
 
 65,72,118,131. 
 wedlock, 122. 
 weight, syntax, 154. 
 weladnii, 133. ^ 
 
 West Saxons, 1. 
 what, 178. 
 u'hilom, 128. 
 ivho, 179. 
 
 whole, see partitive. 
 wilt, 189, 190. 
 wintii/vic, 122, 
 wish, syntax, 1.50, 
 woman, 122, 
 word, 33. 
 
 worthv, syntax, 199. 
 VVydiffile, 1, 179. 
 
 X, .5, 7, 17. 
 
 V, 11 : <u, ea, eo, i, e, tc, 12. 
 
 i/, 14. 
 !llc, 70. 
 lion, .59. 
 oiyore, 128. 
 
 z,7, IS, 19. 
 zeugma, 141. 
 
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