UCSB LIBRARY THE BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS TUK BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION BY HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. AUTHOR OF THE "BOOK OF Til 10 FAIIM," F.TC. ROBERT SCOTT BURN ]. X G I X F, E Ft " He's got no notion about buildings : you can so seldom get hold of a man as can turn his brains to more nor one thing ; it's just as if they wore blinkers like th' horses, and could see nothing o" one side of 'em. Now, there's Mr Irwine has got notions o' building more nor most architects ; for as for th' architects .... most of "em don't know where to set a chimney so as it shan't be quarrelling with a door. My notion is, a practical builder, that's got a bit o' taste, makes the best architect for common things ; and I've ten times the pleasure i' seeing after the work when I've made the plan myself." Adam Bede, vol. iii. p. '2'2l. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLXI P E E F A C E, THE object of this work is twofold one, to establish principles upon which the planning of farm-buildings should be based the other, to concentrate correct and valuable information on the nature and use of the materials employed in constructing farm-buildings. It may astonish those of our readers who are agriculturists, to learn for the first time that principles should still be sought for in the plan- ning of farm-steadings, after so long an experience of their use. The surprise would be greatly modified were they to take into consideration the care that should be bestowed in placing the numerous apartments of steadings relatively where they should be ; and they would then discover that these are generally by no means so conveniently arranged as they might be. At any rate, it is clear that the same arrange- ment of apartments in a steading for a pastoral farm, where live- stock alone are reared, would not be suitable for a strong clay land farm, where no stock are reared at all. We contrast these two ex- treme cases to make our meaning the clearer. But, however great a difference of arrangement is required in such extreme cases, a material difference also exists in cases even more alike. It will at once be admitted that a different arrangement should be made where stock are reared from where they are not ; but even where stock are reared, it must also be conceded that considerable difference in the arrangement is required where the sorts of farming differ. For example, stock are reared on both pastoral and dairy farms, but the vi PREFACE. arrangement of apartments should be as different in these as between a pastoral and a carse farm, although the apartments themselves may be formed alike. Again, stock are reared in both dairy and mixed husbandry farms, yet the arrangement of the apartments should be quite different in such different modes of farming. Moreover, stock are fattened in both common and mixed husbandry farms, but the apartments in breeding should be quite differently placed from those in feeding farms. We may therefore safely conclude that each mode of farming requires its own arrangement of apartments in the stead- ing, so that each class of steading should have its distinguishing features. Having arrived at this conclusion, the question naturally arises, Do existing steadings really possess such distinctive character- istics i. We believe they do not. We suspect very many do not indicate at a glance the purpose for which they were constructed. And why should this be so ? In other mechanical arts we find no difficulty in distinguishing one building from another. No one would mistake a flour-mill for a spinning-mill, or a factory for a warehouse. So ought we to be able to distinguish the system of farming by the structure of the steadings, and we could do so easily were steadings really constructed in conformity with the system of farming they are intended to accommodate. It is our ambition to plan steadings that will at once tell the system of farming they are intended for. If we can do this, we conceive we would do a good thing for the agricultural community, and we believe we have done it. But we are sure we could not have done it without following principles, and those we have followed have only been apprehended after much practical thought and observation. On fol- lowing them out, convenience and economy in construction gradually developed themselves : and the entire results we here endeavour to place before our readers, accompanied with copious illustrations. The principles referred to are fully explained at p. 6, and their particular application to each sort of farming is illustrated in the Description of Plates I. to VIII. Besides steadings, the construction of farmhouses should be based upon the requirements incidental to the occupation of such a dwelling. These requirements are enumerated in pp. 54-57. The leading prin- r HE FACE. vii ciplcs are, that the working and dwelling parts of a farmhouse should be kept separate; that the working part should be, in all cases, nearly of the same dimensions, because the utensils employed and the room required for work arc nearly the same in all cases ; and that the dwelling part should be enlarged and embellished in conformity with the importance of the farm. Farm -cottages require careful consideration in their construction. We have endeavoured to evince that care in the observations we have made on that interesting class of dwellings in pp. 93, 94. The guiding principle is that farm-cottages should be made to suit the number of the family to occupy them, and not to make them all of one size. A married couple only require one room ; while the same, with a family, require at least three, and even more rooms, according to the number of the family. Wherever a hind is bound to provide a field-worker, his cottage requires one apartment more than where no such obligation exists. In drawing out the plans of farm-cottages, the principle in all cases has been rigidly adhered to, of first deciding what was required in the way of apartments, sculleries, &c., to make the cottages, when con- structed, absolutely convenient, so as to secure in the best possible manner, not the comfort merely of their inhabitants, but also to aid in the exercise of economical and orderly housewifery ; for it appeared to us axiomatic that, in order to secure household order and economy, it is essential that those constructive conveniences be supplied to all cottages by which these alone are attainable ; for it is an easy thing to demand of the labouring man's household that everything shall be in its proper place, but not so easy nay, impossible to do this if the place is not provided. The primary aim, then, of a planner of a house being to arrange it so that it shall in the fullest and widest sense of the term be fit to live in, we so endeavoured to plan the structures, without reference to what their external form would be. The plan in all cases defined the design, not the design the plan. There is an essential distinction between these two terms here italicised, which we endeavoured to keep in view. For the system, not seldom followed, of predetermining what the external form of a house shall be that is to say, how it shall look when finished and thereafter crushing into the viii PREFACE. outline thus obtained, not what should be, but what can be got into the outline in the way of apartments and conveniences, is obviously subversive of all sound attempts to obtain a thoroughly convenient house. This principle, if principle it can be called, we endeavoured to avoid. Hence, however, we do not conceal from ourselves the objections which will be made to the designs of their structure, archi- tecturally speaking. These, as indicated above, having been defined by the plan, which was carefully elaborated beforehand, do not perhaps admit of the architectural pose, so to speak, which another system of planning would perhaps have admitted of. Our aim, however, we do not hesitate to say, has been to plan houses fit to live in, rather than to design structures pretty or pleasing to look at. And yet, we believe, few will be disposed to deny that the perspective designs of farmhouses and cottages to be seen on some of the plates, founded upon the ground-plans we have given, are both pretty and ornamental. Nor, on the other hand, are we ignorant of this, that adverse criticism will be freely given as to the mere planning or arrangement of the apartments. But for this we are prepared. Some experience in the matter leads us to know that, however well arranged a house may seem, it is an easy matter to pick out faults in it, and to suggest im- provements. But as the opinions of many men are various " Many men, many minds/' says the truthful proverb and as the mere changes of which a given number of apartments are susceptible, so far as re- gards change of position, are exceedingly numerous, it would be strange indeed if one plan pleased all. It is sufficient for us to know that we have in all cases attempted, to the best of our ability, to plan struc- tures which will enable all the operations for which they are designed to be carried on with comfort and economy. So much for the first object of the work namely, the establishing of principles upon which the planning of farm -buildings should be based. With reference to the second object the concentration of information on the nature and use of the materials employed in their construction we may be permitted to say that we have endeavoured to secure this concentration, and that we believe we have in some degree practically attained it, by the adoption of a style of description which, while conveying sound information, is yet so free from all un- PREFACE. ix necessary technicalities, as to be within the easy comprehension of all not practically conversant with the various branches of construction. To aid in this, illustrations have been given, to a degree of profusion not often attempted in similar works ; and these have been specially, in the great majority of instances, designed for the purposes of this work, and drawn to scale, so as to be practically available in the work- shop of the mechanic, as well as useful in elucidating the study of the amateur in construction. We do not lay claim to having illustrated and described all the constructive appliances which inventive genius is daily elaborating and multiplying : to do this would have been impos- sible in any work within the limits of a Cyclopaedia ; and if it had been possible, it would have been unnecessary. Enough that we have embraced within the pages of our work, leading and practically useful examples of the various constructive and economical appliances of farm- buildings. Modifications of these are obviously endless ; and to have given these as it would have been easy enough to have done while they might have added to the bulk, could not have added much to the practical value of the work. At the same time, we may be allowed to say that, so far as the different branches of farm-building construction and appliances are concerned, we have concentrated within this work a vast amount of information, which, lying scattered through the pages of numerous works, many of which are, from their high pi-ice, rarity, or being clothed in foreign languages, practically inaccessible to the great majority of readers. Further, a large amount of the information and illustration in the work being specially prepared for its pages, cannot, we have reason to believe, be elsewhere met with. On the whole, viewing the copiousness of its descriptions, and the profusion of drawings and figures by which these are illustrated, we venture to hope that the work will take its place as a trustworthy guide to the mechanic who may be constructing, or the agricul- turist who may be planning, highly interesting varieties of farm- buildings, required in the various forms of agriculture practised in the United Kingdom. The description of the individual Plates affords full information of the subjects they contain. To produce a pictorial effect, the isometrical perspectives of the steadings for Carsc, Dairy, and Common farming, x PKEFACE. have been executed with the view of comparing them with the simpler, but perhaps more useful, isometrical plans. For the same reason, perspective ornamental designs of the different classes of Farm- houses and Cottages have been sketched upon the same ground-plan as the simpler designs, that a contrast might be exhibited between the simplest and the most ornamental the least costly and the most costly structure. HEXRY STEPHENS. EGBERT SCOTT BURN. EDINBURGH, June 1861. CONTENTS, I. PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT. 1. PLANS OF STEADINGS BASED UPON FIXED PRINCIPLES, . . 1 Cattle Pastoral Farming, . . 7 Sheep Pastoral Farming, . . 9 Cattle Pastoral Farming, with Arable Culture, . . . .11 Sheep Pastoral Farming, with Arable ' Culture, .... 13 Carse or Clay -land Farming, . 14 Dairy Farming (large), . .16 Dairy Farming (small), . . 19 Suburbial Farming, with Arable Cul- ture, . . . . .21 Suburbial Dairy Farming, . . 22 Common Farming, . . .24 Mixed Husbandry, . . .28 Plans of Roofs of Steadings, . . 32 2. PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS, . 38 Southhill Park, Surrey, . . 39 Drumkilbo, Forfarshire, . . 40 Morphie, Kincardineshire, . . 42 Coleshill, Berkshire, . . .44 Wark, Northumberland, . . 47 Inverquharity, Forfarshire, . . 48 3. PLANS OF FARMHOUSES, . . 52 First-class Farmhouse, . . 58 First-class Farmhouse, . . 02 First-class Farmhouse, . . 67 Second-class Farmhouse, . . 72 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES Continued. Third-class Farmhouse, . . "6 Third-class Farmhouse, . . 77 Third-class Farmhouse, . . 79 Third-class Farmhouse, . . 80 4. PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES, . 83 Single-roomed Single-storeyed Cottages, 94 Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 96 Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 96 Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 98 Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 98 Two-storeyed Cottage, Double-detached Cottages, . Single-storeyed Double-detached Cot- tages, Two-storeyed Double - detached Cot- tages, . . . .105 Single-storeyed Double-detached Cot- tages, witli Houses of different sizes, . . . .110 Two-storeyed Double -detached Cot- tages, with Houses of different sizes, 111 Improving defectively arranged Cot- tages, Composite Cottages, . Bothies, Outhouses for Single Cottages, Outhouses for Double-detached Cot- tages, Outhouses for Two Double-detached Composite Cottages, . .123 102 113 114 118 122 122 Xll CONTENTS. II. PRACTICE IN CONSTRUCTION. 1. MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUC- TION : Stones, . . .131 Brick, . . -138 Slates, Tiles, . .140 Mortar, Concrete, Beton, Hydraulic Cements, and Cements, . . 141 Exterior Finishings, Rough - casting, Stuccoing, .... 147 Finishings of Interior Walls, Plaster- ing, .... 148 Painting, . . . .149 Timber, . . . .152 Metals, . . . .159 2. SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS: General Specifications, . .165 Specification adapted to a Steading of Stone, . . . .169 Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse of Brick, . . . .181 Measurements in Specifications, . 187 Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse of Stone, . . . .191 Specifications adapted to Cottages of Brick, . . . .194 Specifications adapted to Cottages of Stone, . . . .200 Contracts, . . . .204 3. PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION : Foundations, . ' . . . 205 Stone Construction. Stone Masonry, . . . 209 Brick Construction, . . . 214 Embankments, . . . 224 Dams, Weirs, . . .233 Conduits, . . . - 237 Drains, . . .239 Dry-stone Dykes, . . .242 Farm Roads, . , . .247 Well-Sinking, . . .250 Liquid-manure Tanks, - . . 253 Horse-pond, . . ; . 259 Fittings of the Farmhouse in Stone and Brick, . ... .259 Fittings of the Steading in Stone, . 273 Pise Walls, . 276 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION Continued. Timber Construction. Joinings of Timber, . . .281 Floors, . . . .292 Partitions, .... 294 Roofs, . . . .297 Gutters, .... 321 Stairs, .... 314 Fittings of the Farmhouse in Wood, 317 Doors, . . . .317 Windows, . . . .321 Fittings of the Steading in Wood, . 333 Stables, . . . .333 Ventilators in Wood, . . 339 Byres, . . . .343 Cattle-boxes, . . . .346 Calves' Houses, . . . 348 Courts, . . . .349 Straw-barn, . . . .351 Corn-barn, .... 352 Granary Windows, . . . 354 Stackyard, . . . .355 Centres for Arches, . . . 356 Bridges of Wood, . . . 357 Sluices, . . . .360 Gates of Wood, . . .363 Timber Houses and Sheds, . . 368 Iron Construction. Iron Beams, .... 375 Iron Columns, . . . 381 Iron Roofs, .... 384 Fittings of the Farmhouse in Iron, . 402 Locks, . . . .402 Hinges, .... 405 Fastenings of Window-blinds, . 406 Fastenings for Stair-rods, . . 407 Iron Ventilators, . . 408, 417 Iron Chimney-guards, . . 408 Gas Regulators, . . .410 Bells, . . . .411 Taps and Cocks, . . .411 Traps, . . . 413, 416 Grates, . . . .414 Cooking-apparatus, . . . 414 Gas Stove, . . . .415 Fittings of the Steading in Iron, . 415 Gutters for Stables, . . .415 Gratings, .... 416 Stalls, . . .419 Feeding-troughs, . . . 422 Bridges of Iron, . . . 424 CONTENTS. PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION Continued. Sluice-valves, . . . 427 Gates of Iron, . . 4:29 Wire Fences, . . . 484 Iron Sheds, . . . .442 Combined Construction. Wood combined with Iron, . . 446 Wood combined with Stone and Brick, 4.">4 Irou combined with Concrete, . 456 Iron combined with Wood, . . 461 Iron combined with Slate, . . 462 Iron combined with Zinc, . . 462 4. MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES : Tools of the Joiner, . . . 466 Tools of the Mason, . . .468 Tools of the Smith, . . .469 Machines for the Workshop. Vertical Saw Frame for cutting Trees, 473 Endless Band Saw, . . . 474 Mortising, Boring, Tenoning Machine, 475 Sheep-fence-making Machine, . 476 Lathe, . . . .477 Drilling and Boring Machines, . 477 Useful Apparatus for the Farm. Caldrons and Furnace, . . 478 Fire-engine, .... 479 Pumps, .... 479 Hydraulic Ram, . . . 480 Steam-pump, .... 481 Cranes, .... 482 Gas Apparatus, . . . 485 5. DETACHED ERECTIONS : Isolated Byre, . . . 487 Isolated Dairy, . . . 488 Sheep-feeding Sheds, . . 489 Poultry-houses, . . . 490 DETACHED ERECTIONS Continued. Pigeon-houses, . . .491 Babbitry, . . . .492 Piggeries, . . . .492 Slaughter-house, . . . 493 Grain-drying Kilns, Sheds, and Ma- chines, .... 494 Tank Granaries, . . . 507 Brick-kilns and Drying-sheds, . 509 Drain-tile Work, . . . 510 Plans of Farm Carpenter's Shop and Smithy, . . . .510 6. FOREIGN FARM-BUILDINGS : Belgian and Dutch Steadings, . 513 American Barns, . . . 517 French Steading at Vincennes, . 525 7. ESTIMATES AND CALCULATIONS OF ARTIFICERS' WORK OF VARIOUS KINDS : Diggers' and Excavators' Work, . 526 Brickwork, . . . .526 Stone-paving, . . . 527 Carpentry and Joinery Work, . 528 Tables for Calculating the Quantity of Timber in Joists, Hoofs, Parti- tions, Roof-trusses, &c., in a given Scantling and Space Apart, . 529 Calculations of the Cubical Contents of Timber in 1 Square of 100 feet of Roofing, .... 530 Calculations of the Cubical Contents of Timber in 1 Square of 100 feet of Partition, . . . 533 Wrought-iron Girders and Beams, . 533 Weight of Round Iron Bars as Ten- sion-rods for Roof -trusses, . 534 Weight of Lead and surface covered by it of a given weight to the foot, 534 Glossary of Technical Terms, . 535 Index, . . . .547 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. ON inspecting the Plates in this volume, the reader is requested to keep in mind the following explanations regarding them. The Plans of the Steadings, from Plate I. to X., are not plans of any exist- ing steadings ; they are only illustrations of the principles upon which the Authors consider that the apartments of all steadings ought to be arranged. The principles are simple, as expressed in general terms at p. 6, and, in par- ticular, they are these : That straw, being the most bulky and most useful in- gredient in a steading in winter, should be placed at its centre, as the point most accessible to every apartment ; that the apartments required for each sort of work in the steading should be placed next each other, as it were in groups, to avoid crossings when different sorts of work are simultaneously carried on, as are inconveniently experienced in too many existing steadings ; that ample accommodation should be afforded to each sort of work to be done ; and that the groups of apartments should bear such a relation to each other as to be in strict conformity with the system of agriculture adopted on the farm. The plans, in illustration of the principles just enunciated, are the results of much thought and practical experience in the endeavour to apply them to actual use. In this endeavour, it will be observed that the apartments appropriated to arable culture such as the work-house stable, cart-shed are placed on the one side of the straw-barn, while those devoted to live stock, whether in a dairy, breeding, or feeding farm, are placed on the other side. The plans might be adopted just as they stand, or modified according to circumstances the arrangements being rather suggestive than imperative. For example, the apartments consigned to the use of the arable part of the farm may be placed on the right or the left of the straw-barn, according to convenience in relation to the fields; and the same transposition may be made as regards the apartments occupied by breeding, feeding, or dairy stock ; or any apart- ment may be larger or smaller, according to the work expected to be done in it. The attention of the reader is particularly directed to the construction of the plans, they being neither the common ground-plan, nor the isometric perspec- tive. The obvious objection to the ordinary ground-plan is, that it exhibits no more than a horizontal section of the walls at the level of the ground, which affords nothing more than a mere outline of the building. The elevated, horizontally-sectional, perspective plans here adopted, convey to the mind a clear idea of the form and capacity of each apartment, with its doors and windows, as if finished for use ; while the isometric mode of perspective, as far as it is given, affords equal facility for the measurement of the walls with the compasses as the common ground-plan, and at the same time preserves the value of a full isometrical perspective. A ground-plan, moreover, im- DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. xv parts no idea of the external form of a building, which a perfected isometric perspective certainly does ; but this, on the other hand, gives no insight into the interior arrangement of the apartments, whilst the sectional isometric here submitted, it is believed for the iiivst time to the public, not only manifests the interior arrangement, but the dotted lines above the sectional walls in conjunction with them, give as complete an idea of the exterior form of the building with its roof a.s may be desired. On account of these advantages, we think that this particular plan should be adopted for all buildings, by builders and their employers; and both the mason and the carpenter might make it their working plan. These plans of steadings are intended to suit the different kinds of farming practised in this kingdom. For Pastoral Farming there are four plans ; Carse Farming, one plan ; Dairy Farming, two plans ; Suburbial Farming, two plans ; Common Farming, one plan ; and for Mixed Husbandry, one plan : in all, eleven plans. At all the plans the Arrow points to the North. We shall now describe each Plan separately, as exhibited upon its Plates. I. PLAN OF A DETACHED PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE. Fig. 1 illustrates courts and sheds for sheltering cattle during a storm in winter on the hills. These may be constructed to any extent in one place, or at different places, where it may be most convenient to make hay. The farm may be of any extent. Fig. 2 represents the steading suitable for such a farm, and its simplest form is the single row. The farmhouse should be near the steading. I. PLAN OF A COMPACT PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE. Fig. 3 combines the courts and sheds with the apartments of the steading, which form wings to the courts and afford them shelter, one wing being devoted to the working animals, and the other to the animals useful to the house. A steading of this form necessarily limits the extent and number of the cattle-courts, and is therefore adapted to a smaller farm than Fig. 1. II. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE, WITH ARABLE CULTURE. Fig. 1 represents the first attempt to illustrate the principles enunciated in the prelimi- nary remarks, by placing the straw in the centre, supported on each side by cattle- courts, and flanked on one side with a wing containing the apartments used in arable husbandry, and on the other with a wing containing those for domestic use. The cart-horse stable contains two pairs of horses, which indicates a size of arable hill-farm of from 120 to 140 acres. II. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP, WITH ARABLE CULTURE. Fig. 2 contains the straw in the centre, flanked on either side with a wing, such as has been described above for cattle, no courts for sheltering sheep on a pastoral farm being recpiired at the steading, stells being used for that purpose, and which are represented in the body of the work by woodcuts. The cart-horse stable accommodates two pairs of horses, which will cultivate a hill-farm of from 120 to 140 acres. III. PLAN OF A CARSE FARM-STEADING. This is a steading for farming strong clay-land, which species of soil was almost solely devoted to the cultivation of the cereal crops, cattle being used chiefly for trampling down the straw, until thorough-draining came into vogue and guano was employed in raising green crops : since then cattle are fattened on turnips and naangold-wurzel, and must therefore be accommodated, which they are, in this plan, on both sides of the straw. The cart-horse stable accommodates six pairs of horses, which will cultivate a clay farm of 240 acres. IV. PLAN OF A LARGE DAIRY FARM-STEADING. A large dairy farm-steading should afford ample accommodation for a considerable number of milking cows, and for the products derived from milk, as well as for the young stock which are to replace the cows when they become aged, and for the pigs which consume xvi DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE the refuse of the dairy. No dairy farm can be conducted without some arable culture to raise roots, hay, and straw, for the stock. In this plan it will be seen that the wing appropriated to the use of the arable culture is separated from the buildings connected with the dairy by the straw-barn, which takes up its proper position between the two. The byre contains stalls for fifty-six aged cows, and others for heifers in calf. The cart-horse stable contains three pairs of horses, which will cultivate an arable farm of from 180 to 210 acres. V. PLAN OF A SMALL DAIRY FARM-STEADING. Fig. 1 is a steading for a small dairy farm, which may be somewhat differently arranged from that of a large one, inasmuch as the space is necessarily much contracted for the fewer number of apartments required, but which circumstance, on the other hand, enables them to be compactly arranged. While the separation of the arable from the dairy apartments is preserved, it will be seen from the plan that the straw still main- tains its central position, between the two separate departments of farm labour. The byre contains stalls for thirteen cows. The cart-horse stable contains three horses, which will cultivate an arable farm of 70 to 100 acres. V. PLAN OF A SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE. Fig. 2 shows how the arrangement of the apartments of a steading for a farm in the neigh- bourhood of a town may be adapted alone for arable culture, while keeping the farming and domestic apartments separate by the central position of the straw. The cart-horse stable accommodates four pairs of horses, which will cultivate an arable farm, in easy land near a town, of from 240 to 280 acres. VI. PLAN OF A SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR DAIRY. Besides arable culture, the suburbial farm the farm in the neighbourhood of a town may have a dairy, and this plan is suited for that purpose. The two great divisions of arable and dairy culture are separated by the central supply of straw and other con- veniences. The byre contains stalls for fifty cows. The cart-horse stable accom- modates five horses, which will cultivate an arable farm of easy land, near a town, of from 160 to 180 acres. VII. PLAN OF A COMMON FARM-STEADING. Fig. 1 is a steading adapted for the ordinary farming of the country, at a distance from towns, consisting of arable culture, in conjunction with the fattening of oxen purchased for the purpose. The fattening cattle'may be accommodated in three different ways, in hammels, in boxes, and in byres. The plan shows the space on each side of the straw- barn to be occupied by hammels. Fig. 2 shows the boxes which might in lieu occupy the same space ; and Fig. 3 shows the byres which may be substituted in the same place for either. The cart-horse stable contains stalls for six pairs of horses, and, according to the rotation of husbandry pursued, four to six shift, this steading will answer for 360 to 480 acres. VIII. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY. Fig. 1 is also a steading adapted for a farm at a distance from a town, like that for com- mon farming, but the stock on a farm of mixed husbandry are bred and fattened upon it. These may be accommodated here, as there, in hammels, boxes, or byres. The plan shows the adoption of the hammels, and their position is on one side of the straw- barn, while the breeding stock are accommodated on the other side. Fig. 2 contains the plan of the boxes ; and Fig. 3 that of the byre ; with Fig. 4, the plan of dung-stance and food-stores in connection with the byre. The cart-horse stable contains only six pairs of horses, in consequence of a longer stable not finding room in the Plate, but the stable may be extended to any desired length. The part of the steading appropriated to the breeding and fattening stock is intended for a farm of 500 acres, which would require seven pairs of horses, in a five-course shift. The byre contains stalls for twenty breeding cows. IX. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A FARM-STEADING FOR MlXED HUSBANDRY. This isometric perspective of the steading in Plate VIII. is introduced merely to show the extent of accommodation, and the form in the simplest style of building and roofing. These may be ornamented to any degree to please the taste of the owner ; but our opinion is, that the more simple the style of a farm-steading is, the more durable it will prove, if constructed in the most substantial manner. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. xvii PLATE X. PLANS OF THE ROOFS OF THE FARM-STEADINGS IN PLATES I. TO VIII. The roofs are all in straight lines, and terminate in Cables, in raglins against a wall, or at right angles in gutters against another roof. With one exception, in fig. 7, pavilion roofs are avoided, on account of primary expense, and after-liability to be affected by the weather. The plans of the steadings, in Plates XI. to XVI, have recently been constructed in different parts of the country, and are here introduced by way of contrast to or comparison with the principles which we here endeavour to establish. XI. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS on the property of Sir W. G. Hayter, Bart., M.P., at Soutlihill Park, Bracknell, Surrey. It will be observed that there are two apartments for straw in this steading besides the straw-barn, which at once indicates the inconvenient position of that primary and indispensable apartment. The work-horse stable contains ten stalls for horses, which number will cultivate a farm of ordinary soil of 300 to 3f>0 acres. XII. PLAN OF THE FARM-STEADING AT DRUMKILRO, FORFARSIIIRE, belonging to Lord Wharncliffe. This plan nearly illustrates the principles we have enunciated ; the straw-barn, however, being a little too far removed from some of the cattle-courts and stables. The work- horse stable contains ten stalls for horses, which should cultivate a farm of ordinary soil of 300 to 350 acres. XIII. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING AT MORPIIIE, KINCARDINESIIIRE, belonging to Barren Graham, Esq. This is an example of an entirely covered steading, a plan of but recent commendation, suggested, without doubt, by the covered stations at railways. The straw-barn here is conveniently situated for the principal feeding-byre and work-stable, but is too far removed from the other cattle-courts, and the straw has to be objectionably carried from it through one apartment into another. The cart-horse stable contains accommo- dation for six pairs of horses, which should cultivate from 360 to 420 acres of ordinary soil. XIV. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS, belonging to E. W. Moore, Esq., at Coleshill, Highworth, Berkshire. This is another illustration of a covered steading. The straw-barn is too far from the principal feeding-boxes for cattle. The pigsties, too, are nearer the straw-barn than the cattle-boxes, which should not be. The straw is, moreover, obliged to be put in one instance into another apartment. The cart-horse stable contains twelve stalls, which number of horses should cultivate from 360 to 420 acres. XV. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF COLESHILL FARM-BUILDINGS. It will be observed that the architecture of this steading is somewhat of an ornamental description, and looks very well. , XVI. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS AT WARK, COUNTY OF NORTHUMBERLAND, be- longing to the Earl of Tankerville. It will at once be observed that the straw-barn of this steading is placed at one side of the building, and far away from most of the feeding-boxes and courts ; the consequence of which inconvenience is, that a straw stack has to be built near these apartments. The cart-horse stable contains twenty-four stalls, which number of horses will culti- vate from 840 to 1200 acres. The greater number of horses on a farm will cultivate, in proportion to the number, a larger extent of land. XVII. PLAN OF A FARM- STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY, FORFARSHIRE, belonging to the Trustees of the late Charles Lyell, Esq. of Kinnordy. This is an example of converting an old into a new steading, and a good example it is. It is a partially covered-in steading, but the objectionable pavilion form of roof prevails. b DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE XVIII. FRONT ELEVATIONS OP FARMHOUSES. Fig. 1 is the front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Tudor-Gothic style. Fig. 2 is a second alternative front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Tudor-Gothic style, adapted for three storeys. Fig. 3 is an alternative front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Italian style, to the front elevation of the same style in fig. 36, p. 64 Fig. 26 is a side elevation ; fig. 27 a back elevation, p. 60 ; fig. 28 a side elevation, finished to show stone rubble walling ; and fig. 29 a longitudinal section, p. 61. A back elevation of an alternative Italian style is shown at fig. 30, p. 62. XIX. VERTICAL SAW FRAME FOR CUTTING UP TREES. Fig. 1. End elevation of the saw-frame, with the tree in cross section. Fig. 2. Side elevation of the saw-frame, with the trunk of the tree in length. XX CIRCULAR SAW FRAME. Fig. 1. Side elevation of the circular saw and frame. Fig. 2. Plan of the circular saw and frame. Fig. 3. End elevation of the circular saw and frame. XXI. ENDLESS-BAND SAW. Fig. 1. Side elevation of the endless-band saw. Fig. 2. End elevation of the endless-band saw. The plans of the steadings in Plates I. to VIII. may be regarded as working plans, without any attempt at embellishment, and even the isometrical elevation of the steading for mixed husbandry on Plate IX. exhibits but the simplest form of a perspective view that is possible to delineate; yet it is quite sufficient to con- vey to the mind the external aspect of the building, and may therefore be re- garded as a representation well suited to an architect for an accompaniment to a plan. But in order to show how easily the bare outline of the isometric eleva- tion may be converted into a picturesque form, we give in shaded isometrical perspective three of the steadings which have been described. XXII. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A CARSE FARM-STEADING. The position of the stackyard, which is always a prominent figure in a carse farm, is here given, and the road leading to it, as well as the relation of the adjoining fields, with the direction of the ridges. XXIII. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A LARGE DAIRY FARM-STEADING. Here the stackyard is of less importance and bulk than on a carse farm. The cow-byre on the other hand, and accommodation for young stock, along with pigs, demand para- mount consideration. XXIV. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A COMMON FARM-STEADIXG. The stackyard here is of considerable extent, and the accommodation for fattening cattle bears a prominent part in the arrangement of the apartments. A watering-pond for the horses is here introduced in front of the steading, as well as one for the aquatic poultry. The elevations given in the text from page 60 to 116, and in Plate XVIII. of the farmhouses and cottages, in illustration of the ground-plans, are of the simplest description, and are presented more with the view of exhibiting the different styles of architecture recommended, than as specimens of ornamen- tation. As they are, however, they will bear a favourable comparison with the very plain and very tasteless examples of farmhouses and cottages constructed in the country up to only a dozen of years ago. But the plans are capable of being illustrated with really beautiful elevations, as may be seen in Plates XXV. to XXX., more beautiful than any that have yet been erected. We give one specimen of each class of farmhouse and of each class of labourers' cottages and of a mansion-house. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. six PLATE XXV. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE. This design is reared upon the ground-plan of a first-class farmhouse in fig. 23, on page 58. A front elevation, adapted to this plan, will be found in No. 3, Plate XVIII. ; a side elevation in fig. 26, and a hack elevation in fig. 27, both on p. GO. Aside eleva- tion, somewhat ornamented in the fare of the stone, is given in fig. 29, p. 61, and a back elevation of an alternative design is given in fig. 30, p. 62. These are all in the Italian style. The perspective view in this Plate is in the Elizabethan style, which has now become fashionable, and is well adapted in picturesque effect for farmhouses. XXVI. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE. This design is reared upon the ground-plan in tig. 53, p. 73. A front elevation of it will be found in fig. 56, p. 74, and two side elevations in figs. 57 and 58, on p. 75. All the designs are in the Elizabethan style, massive and effective. Were it desired to sim- plify the front, the V and oriel windows might be taken away, and the balusters removed from above the front door. The beauty of this elevation consists of the V window in conjunction with the scrolled architrave around the upper window. XXVII. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN ix PERSPECTIVE FOR A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE. This design is reared upon the ground-plan of fig. 68, p. 81. Its front elevation is in fig. 71, p. 82. The style in the Plate is Elizabethan, that in fig. 71 Italian. The front might be simplified by removing the oriel windows. XXVIII. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE-DETACHED COT- TAGES, WITH HOUSES OF DIFFERENT SIXES. This Plate presents two such cottages. We consider that all hinds' houses on farms ought to be constructed on this principle. Such an arrangement of houses would not only look more picturesque, but they would be much more convenient for the inmates than the long rows of houses so often to be met with in the country, inasmuch as the garden behind would not only be more accessible, but the ground in front would afford an open playground for children ; or, should the entire piece of ground in front be laid out as a flower-plot, it would the more enhance the beauty of the place. We have advocated more than once the houses of farm- servants being made of different capaci- ties, to suit the number of the family who are to occupy them ; and, with this principle in view, we would place a large and small house together, in order to separate the larger families from one another. These houses could be made one-storeyed as well as two- storeyed, as seen in the Plate, and they may be ornamental or plain, as the taste and ability of the proprietor may desire. The elevations of these houses are raised upon the ground-plans of figs. Ill and 113. XXIX. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF TWO-STOREYED SINGLE-DETACHED COTTAGES. These cottages would suit a farm steward or bailiff, gamekeeper, or forester of an estate. Being two-storeyed, they would afford ample accommodation for a family; and if one storey, they would equally suit an ordinary day-labourer, such as a hedger or roadmaker. The upper cottage is in the Elizabethan, and the lower in the Rustic Gothic-style. XXX. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF A MANSION- HOUSE, OFFICES, STEADING, FARMHOUSE, AND HINDS' HOUSES. This is the Frontispiece, intended to show the relation which the proprietor's mansion should hold with the houses of his tenantry and labourers. The mansion-house is seen in the centre, flanked on the one hand by its offices, and on the other, at a greater distance, a farm-steading, farmhouse, and cottages of the farm-servants. LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 1. Simple Forms of Outside Stells, 2. Outside Stell, affording shelter in all directions, . 3. Inside Circular Stell, with Planta- tion, .... 4 Inside Circular Stell, with Hay- Stack and Backs, 5. Outside Stell, sheltered by Planta- tion on every side, 6. Upper Floor of a Steading for Cattle Pastoral Farming with Arable Culture, 7. Upper Floor of a Steading for Sheep Pastoral Farming with Arable Culture, 8. Upper Floor of a Steading for Carse Farming, 9. Upper Floor of a Steading for a Large Dairy Farm, 10. Upper Floor of a Steading for Small Dairy Farming, 11. Upper Floor of a Steading for Suburbial Farming with Arable Culture, 12. Upper Floor of a Steading for Suburbial Dairy Farming, 13. Upper Floor of a Steading for Common Farming, 14 Upper Floor of a Steading for Mixed Husbandry, 15. Isometrical Perspective of a Cov- ered Stackyard, 16. Ground-Plan of a Covered Stack- yard, .... 17. Plan of Second Floor, and Roof- Plan of Ground Floor of the Steading at Coleshill, Berkshire, 18. Elevation of a Gable in a simple Elizabethan Style, 19. Elevation of a Gable in an Orna- mental Elizabethan Style, 20. Elevation of a Gable in the Gothic Style, .... 21. Ground-Plan of a Kitchen, &c., of Farmhouse, 22. Cheese-Room, &c., of a First-Class Farmhouse, 23. Ground -Plan of a First-Class Farmhouse, 24. Chamber-Floor Plan of a First- Class Farmhouse, Page 10 Fig. 25. 10 26. 27. 11 28. 11 29. 12 30. 31. 14 16 32. 18 33. 34. 20 35. 36. 22 37. 24 27 38, 30 40. 36 41. 37 42. 43. 45 44. 45. 50 51 46. 51 47, 54 57 58 59 49. 50. 51. Page Alternative Arrangement of Part of the Chamber-Floor Plan, . 59 Side Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse, . . .60 Back Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse, . 60 Side Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse, finished to show Stone-rubble Walling, . . 61 Longitudinal Section of a First- Class Farmhouse, . . 61 Back Elevation of Alternative De- sign of a First-Class Farmhouse, 62 Vertical Section of Milk- House and Cheese-Room of a Farm- house, . . . .62 Ground-Plan of a First-Class Farm- house, . . . .63 Cellar Plan, . . .63 Alternative Cellar Plan, . . 63 Chamber-Floor Plan of a First- Class Farmhouse, . . 64 Front Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse in Italian Style, . 64 Back Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse in Italian Style, . 65 39. Side Elevations of a First- Class Farmhouse in Italian Style, . . .65, 66 Longitudinal Section of a First- Class Farmhouse, . . 66 Ground - Plan of a First - Class Farmhouse, . . .67 Chamber -Floor Plan of a First- Class Farmhouse, . . 67 Attic and Part Roof Plan, . 68 Cellar Plan, . 69 Front Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic Style, .... 70 Back Elevation of a First-Class Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic Style, .... 70 48. End Elevations of a First-Class Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic Style, .... 70 Transverse Section, . . 71 Enlarged View of Part of Front Elevation, . . .71 Enlarged View of Part of Back Elevation, . . .72 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. xxi Fig. 52. Enlarged View of Part of End Elevation, 53. Ground - Plan of a .Second-Class Farmhouse, 54. Cellar Plan, 55. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Second- Class Farmhouse, 50. Front Elevation of a Second-Class Farmhouse, 57, 58. Side Elevations of a Second- Class Farmhouse, 59. Ground-Plan of a Third - Class Farmhouse, 60. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third- Class Farmhouse, 61. Front Elevation of a Third-Class Farmhouse, 62. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class Farmhouse, 63. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third- Class Farmhouse, 64. Front Elevation of a Third-Class Farmhouse, 65. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class Farmhouse, 6G. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third- Class Farmhouse, 67. Front Elevation of a Third- Class Farmhouse, 68. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class Farmhouse, 69. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third- Class Farmhouse, 70. Cellar Plan, 71. Front Elevation of a Third-Class Farmhouse, 72. Ground - Plan of a Hind's Small House of One Room, . 73. Ground-Plan of a Hind's Large House of One Iloom, 74. Ground -Plan of a Hind's Small Hovise of Two Rooms, . 75. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed Detached Cottage, 76. Front Elevation of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 77. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed Detached Cottage, 78. Front Elevation of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, . 79. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed Detached Cottage, 80. Front Elevation of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 81. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed Detached Cottage, 82. Front Elevation of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 83. Back Elevation of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 84. Vertical Section of a Single- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 85. Ground -Plan of a Two-Storeyed Detached Cottage, 86. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Two- Storeyed Detached Cottage, 87. Front Elevation of a Two-Sto- reyed Cottage, . 89. 74 74 97. 77 ; 9S. 99. 78 100. 78 79 101. 79 102. 103. 80 104. 81 81 105. 82 106. 82 107. 94 95 108. 109. 95 110. 96 96 111. 97 112. 97 113. 98 114. 98 115. 99 116. 99 117. 118. 100 119. 120. 100 121. 122. 101 123. 102 124. 102 Page Ground -Plan of Single-Storeyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 103 Alternative Ground-Plan of Sin- gle - Storeyed Double - Detached Cottages, _ . . . 103 Front Elevation of Single-Storey- ed Double-Detached Cottages, . 103 Alternative Front Elevation of Single - Storeyed Double - De- tached Cottages, . . 104 93, 94. Alternative Ground-Plans of a Single - Storeyed Double- Detached Cottage, . 104, 105 Ground-Plan of Single-Storeyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 105 Front Elevation of Single-Storey- ed Double-Detached Cottages, . 106 End Elevation, . . . 106 Vertical Section, . . . 106 Ground - Plan of Two - Storeyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 106 Chainber - Floor Plan of Two- Storeyed Double-Detached Cot- tages, . . . .107 Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed Double- Detached Cottages, . 107 End Elevation, . . . 107 Ground -Plan of Two-Sioreyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 108 Chamber -Floor Plan of Two- Storeyed Double- Detached Cot- tages, . . . .108 Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 108 Ground - Plan of Two -Storeyed Double-Detached Cottages, . 109 Chamber -Floor Plan of Two- Storeyed Double-Detached Cot- tages, . . . .109 Cellar Plan, . . .110 Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed Double- Detached Cottages, . 110 Ground - Plan of Single-Storeyed Double Cottages, consisting of Larger and Smaller Houses, . Ill Small Two- Storeyed Double Cot- tages, . . . .111 Elevation of Small Two-Storeyed Double Cottages, . . 112 Ground-Plans of Double Cottages of Different Sixes, . . 112 Chamber-Floor Plan of Double Cottages of Different Sizes, . 113 Unimproved Single-Roomed Cot- tage, . . . .113 First Improved Arrangement of Cottage,. . . 113 Second, . . . .114 Third, . . . .114 Fourth, . . . .114 Fifth, . . . .115 Composite Cottage, . . 115 End Elevation of Composite Cot- tage, . . . .116 Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, . . . .116 Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, . .117 LIST OF WOOD ENGEAVINGS. Fig. Page 125. Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, .... 117 126. Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, . . . .117 127. Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, . . 118 128. Upper Storey of Composite Cot- tage, . . . .118 129. Ground-Plan of a Two-Storeyed Bothy, . . . .119 130. Chamber Floor of a Two-Storeyed Bothy, . . . .119 131. Ground -Plan of a Single-Storeyed Bothy, . . . .120 132. Plan of Outhouse for a Single Cottage, . . .122 133. First Alternative Plan of Out- houses for Single Cottages, . 122 134. Second Alternative Plan of Out- hoxises for Single Cottages, . 122 135. Plan of Outhouses for Double- Detached Cottages, . .123 136. First Alternative Plan of Out- house for Double Cottages, . 123 137. Second Alternative Plan of Out- houses for Double Cottages, . 123 138. Third Alternative Plan of Out- houses for Double Cottages, . 124 139. Plan of Outhouses for Four Cot- tages of Two Double Composite Cottages, . . .124 140. Alternative Plan of Outhouses for Four Double Composite Cot- tages, . . . .124 141. Elevation of Front Door for Cot- tage, . . . .125 142. Three-Light Window for the Liv- ing-room of a Cottage, . . 125 143. Two-Light Window for the Bed- room of a Cottage, . .125 144. Small Two-Light Window for the Staircase of a Cottage, . . 125 145. Preparation of the Timber for Boucherie's Method of preserv- ing it, . . . 158 146. Timber prepared for Boucherie's Method of preserving it, . 158 147. Pier and Protecting Apron for Foundations, . . . 207 148. Section of Coffer-Dam, . . 207 149. Section of the Foundation of a Hind's House, . ! . .208 150. Stone Footings, . . .208 151. Plan of Stone Footings, . . 209 152. Breaking Joint with Stones, . 209 153. "Inverted Arches for Foundations, 209 154. Defective Ashlar-work, . . 210 155. Mode of Building Ashlar Walls with Rubble Fifling-in, . 210 156. Lewis for raising Blocks of Stone, 210 157. Lewis fixed in a Stone Block, . 211 158. Dowels, Joggles, and Cramps for joining Blocks of Stone, . 211 159. Joggled Joint of Stones, . .211 160. Elevation of Stone Fiuial, . 212 161. Moulding of Corbel to Chimney, 212 162. Moulding of Chimney Cap, . 212 163. String-Course, . 212 Fig. Page 164. Summer-Stone, . . .212 165. Mouldings of Jamb and Mullion of Doorway, . . . 212 166. Stone Finial, . . .212 167. Mouldings of Capping, . . 213 168. Mouldings of Window Cornice, . 213 169. 170. Stone Balcony Fronts, . 213 171. Stone Finial, . . .213 172. Drip-Stone, . . .213 173. String-Course, . . .213 174. Stone Window Cornice, . .214 175. Moulding to Chimney Cap, . 214 176. Header and Stretcher (Bricks), . 214 177. Footings for a 14-inch Brick Wall, 215 178. Plan of Lower Course of Footings, 215 179. Plan of Second Course of Footings, 215 180. Plan of Third Course of Footings, 215 181. Plan of First Course of 14-inch Wall, . . . .215 182. Old English Brick Bond, . 215 183. Flemish Bond, . . .215 184. Tyermann's Hoop-Iron Bond, . 216 185. Plan of First Course of 9-inch Wall in Old English Bond, . 217 186. Plan of Second Course of 9-inch Wall in Old English Bond, . 217 187. Plan of First Course of 9-inch WaU in Flemish Bond, . . 217 188. Plan 'of Second Course of 9-inch WaU in Flemish Bond, . 217 189. Mode of carrying up Brick Courses, 217 190. Good and Bad Methods of Setting Flooring-Joists, . . . 218 191. Mode of Fixing Beams of Upper Floors, . . . .218 192. Bearing Walls, . . .218 193. Curved Arch and Lintel, . 218 194 Flat Arch and Lintel, . . 218 195. Disposition of the Parts of an Arch, . . . .219 196. Segmental and Semicircular Arches, .... 219 197. Dearu's Hollow 9-inch Walls, . 220 198. 11-inch Walls, . . 220 199. 14-inch Walls, . . 220 200. Elevation of Dwarf WaU in Ro- berts' Hollow Brick, . .221 201. Sections of 12-inch HoUow Wall, 221 202. Section of 14-inch Hollow WaU, 221 203. Views of " External Jamb " and " Centre " Hollow Bricks, . 221 204. Views of Jamb and Chimney Hol- low Bricks, . . .221 205. Views of Partition Hollow Bricks, 222 206. Section of Partition Hollow Bricks, 222 207. 208. Hollow Brick for Door Jambs in Alternate Courses, . . 222 209, 210. Plan of Angles for Door Jambs in Alternate Courses, . . 222 211. Fireproof Floors and CeiUngs in Roberts' Hollow Bricks, . 223 212. Grooved Bricks, . . . 223 213. Norton and Borrie's HoUow Bricks, 223 214. Dean's HoUow Bricks, . . 223 215. Stewart's Partition Tile, . 223 216. Embankment and Face - Dyke against a Rivulet, . . 224 217. Section of River Embankment, . 226 * LIST OF WOOD ENGEAV1NGS. Fig. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254. 255. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. The most effectual Embankment on a Gravelly Bottom, . . 228 Cutting of River-Banks to Pre- vent Washing Away, . . '2'2S Protection of River - Banks 1 >y means of Breakwaters, . 229 Plan of River -Banks requiring Protection, . . . 229 Weirs for Protecting River-Banks, 229 Misuse of a Tree in the Protection of River-Banks, . . 230 Common Piling for River-Banks, 230 Improved Piling for River-Banks, 230 Protection of Sea-Banks, . 231 Protection by Sea Embankment, 231 Plan of Proper Inclination of the Embankment of a Dam, . 234 Embankment for a Water Reser- voir, .... 234 Section of Dam or Weir, . 235 Plan of Dam or Weir, . . 235 Section of Groin and Dam for Protecting a River- Side, . 236 Conduit or Drain with Flat Sides and Bottom, Drain with Angular Bottom, Conduit with Segmental Bottom, Elliptical or Egg-shaped Drain, . Segmental Bricks for Drains, Doulton's Patent Junction Block for Drains, . . . 239 Doulton's Invert Block, . . 239 Liquid-Manure Conduit, . 239 Spigot and Faucet Drain-Tube, . 239 Half Socket Drain-Tubes, . 240 Rabbet-jointed Drain-Tubes, . 240 Clayton's Cored-Joint for Drain- tubes, . . . .240 Section of Doulton's Lidded Drain- Tubes, . . . .241 Perspective View of Doulton's Lidded Drain-Tubes, . . 241 Perspective View of Cooper's Lid- ded Drain-Tubes and Saddles, . 241 Perspective View of Saddles for Cooper's Lidded Drain-Tubes, 242 The building a Dry-Stone Dyke, 244 Expedients for increasing the Height of Dry-Stone Dykes, . 246 Four Watering- Pools formed by Two Dykes crossing, . . 247 One Watering-Pool common to Four Fields, . . .247 A Clump of Trees within the meeting of Four Dykes, . 247 Section of Road on Strong Clay Soils, . . . .249 Section of Cross-Culvert and Under-Drains, . . . 249 Flemish Liquid-Manure Tank, . 258 Plan, .... 258 Section, .... 258 Peake's Oblong Paving-Bricks, . 259 Peake's Diamond Paving-Bricks, 259 Peake's Square Paving-Bricks, . 259 Hexagonal Paving-Tiles, . 260 Square Paving-Tiles, . . 260 Section of Paving- Tiles, . . 260 Fii,'. Page 265. Peake's Oblong Roof-Tiles, . 261 266. Peake's Roof-Tiles with Rounded Ends, . . . .261 267. Peake's Ridge-Tiles, . . 261 268. Quoined Valley-Tiles, . . 261 269. Hip-Tiles, . . .261 270. Ridge-Tiles, . . .261 271. Grooved Ridge-Tiles, . . 261 2~2. Various Ornamental Tiles to fit in Grooves of Ridge-Tiles, . 261 273. Corrugated Tile, . . 262 274. Hollow Roof-Tile, . . 262 275. Beadon's Gutter-Tiles, . . 262 276. Section of Earthenware Blocks for Staircases, . . . 264 277. Section showing mode of Heating Upper Rooms from a Kitchen Fire, .... 265 278. Section of Smoke and Ventilating Flue, .... 265 279. Plan showing mode of Heating Upper Rooms from a Kitchen Fire, .... 265 280. Plan, Elevation, and Section of Pierce's Fire-Lump Stove-Grate, 266 281. Perspective View of Pierce's Cot- tage Fire-Lump Grate, . 266 Plan of Fireclay Hearth, . 266 Section of Fireclay Hearth, . 266 Section and Plan of Chimney and Ventilating Tube, . . 267 285. Front Elevation of Chimney- Breast, showing Opening to Ventilation Tube, . .267 286. Ornamental Grating to Venti- lator, . . . .267 287. Ventilating Chimney-Tube, . 267 288. 289. Sectional Plan of Chimney and Ventilating Tube, 267, 268 290. Perspective View of Doulton's Ventilating Chimney-Tube, . 268 291. Sections of Ventilating Chimney- Tube, . . . .268 292. Looker's Tubular Ventilator,' . 268 293. Glazed Clay Scullery-Sink, . 269 294. Glazed Clay Trap, . . 269 295. Syphon-Trap, . . .269 296. Court Cesspool-Trap, . . 269 297. A Rain-Water Cistern, . . 270 298. View of Carbon Filter, . .271 299. Section of Wash-Hand Pedestal Basin, . . . .271 300. Wash-Hand Basins and Pedestals, 271 301. Jennings' Lavatory, . ' . 272 302. Closet Soil-Pan and Trap, . 272 303. Ilidgway's Pottery Water-Closet, 272 304. Closet-Pan Trap, . . . 272 305. Earthenware Closet-Pan with Trap, 273 306. Section of Jennings' Water-Closet Tube open, . . . 273 307. Section of J ennings' Water-Closet Tube closed, . . . 273 308. A Fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble, or of Wood lined with Metal, . 273 309. Perspective View of Forbes's Drainage Pavement-Bricks, . 274 310. Drainage Pavement-Bricks in Per- spective, with G utter partly un- XXIV LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323, 327, 329, 332, 334, 337, 340. 341. 342. 343. 344. 345. 346, 348. 349. 350. 351, 353. 354. 355. 356. 357. 358. 359, 361. 362. 363, 365. 366. covered to show its Connection with Pavement, Water-Troughs, . Section of a Stone Trough for a Byre, .... Section of Planks for Mould for Pise Walls, Side of Mould for PisS Walls, . Section of Mould for Pisg Walls, Plan of Joists of Mould for Pisg Walls, . Plan and ' Section of a Joist of Mould for Pise Walls, . Foot of Posts^f or Pise Walls, Top of Posts for Pisg Walls, Section showing Arrangement of Parts of Mould of Pis Walls, . Mode of filling up the Mould in Pise" Walls, Courses of a Pis Wall, . 324, 325, 326. Joining Timbers in the Direction of their Length, 328. The Half-Lap Joint, 330, 331. Scarf Joint, 333. Half-Lap Joint, 335, 336. Scarf Joint, 338, 339. Joint to resist Vertical Compression, . . 283, Mortise-and-Tenon Joint, Joint of Vertical with Horizontal Timber, Connection of King -Post with Tie-Beam, Connection of King - Post with Tie-Beam, with Wedge, Connection of King -Post with Tie-Beam, with Bolt, . Connection of King - Post with Tie-Beam, with Jibs and Cottars, 347. Dovetail Joint, Tusk Joints, Joining of Girders and Binding- Joists, .... Method of "Notching" Wall- Plates together, 352. Joining of Tie-Beam with Wall-Plate, . . 286, Joints of Timber at Right Angles, Joining of Beams crossing each other at Right Angles, Joining of Timbers at Obtuse Angles, .... Joining of Timbers crossing each other at Right Angles, . Joining of Timbers at Right Joint of Foot of Rafter with Tie- Beam, .... 360. Joining of an Inclined Beam with a Horizontal Beam, . Joint of Rafter with Tie-Beam, . Joint of Collar-Beam with Rafter, 364. Joint of Collar -Beam with Rafter, . Joints of Struts and Rafters with Heads and Feet of King- Posts and Queen-Posts, Joint of Rafter with King-Post, Page Fig. 367. 274 275 368. 369. 276 370. 277 371. 277 372. 277 373. 374. 277 375. 376, 277 278 378. 278 379. 380. 278 381. 382. 279 383. 279 384. 385. 281 386. 282 387. 282 388. 282 389. 283 390. 391. 284 392. 284 393. 394. 285 395. 285 396. 397. 285 398. 399. 285 400. 285 401. 286 402. 286 403. 404 286 405. 406. 286 407. 287 408. 287 409. 287 410. 411. 287 412. 288 413. 288 414 415. 288 416. 288 417. 289 418. 289 419. 420. 289 421. 422, 289 424 290 Page Joint of Foot of Struts with King- Post, . . . .290 Joint of Rafters with King-Post, 290 Joint of Straining Beam with Queen-Post, . . .290 Joint of Purlins to Rafters, . 290 Joint of Rafters to Wall-Plate, . 290 Bow-and-String Rafter, . . 291 End of Bow-and-String Rafter, 291 Centre of Bow-and-String Rafter, 291 Bow-and-String Rafter, . . 291 377. Method of increasing Depth of Beams, . . . 292 Single Flooring, . . . 292 Trussing of Flooring Beams, . 292 Trimming or Bridle Joists, . 292 Double Flooring, . . 293 Double-Framed Flooring, . 293 Partition for 18-feet Span, . 294 Partition, Span 28 feet, . . 295 Partition, 22-feet Span, . . 295 Partition for 18-feet Span, . 295 Partition for 20-feet Span, . 296 Trussed Partition, . . 296 Partition for 18-feet Span, . 296 Double Partition, . . 296 Lean-to and Ridge Roofs, . 297 Hipped Roofs, . . . 297 Pavilion Roof, . . .297 Conical Roof, . . .298 Ridged Roofs meeting at Right Angles, . . .298 Ridge-and- Valley Roofs, . . 298 Lean-to Roof, 12-feet Span, . 298 Lean-to Roof, 20-feet Span, . 298 Truss with Collar, 18-feet Span, 299 Truss with two Collars, 16-feet Span, .... 299 Truss for Collar-Beam Roof, . 299 Truss for a Porch, . . 300 Truss for 20-feet Span, . . 300 Truss with King-Bolt, 20-feet Span, 300 Truss for a 30-feet Span, . . 301 King- Post Truss for 25-feet Span, 301 Queen-Post Truss, for 30 to 45 feet Span, . . .301 Truss for a 30-feet Span, . 302 Truss with two Queen-Posts for 47-feet Span, . . .302 Roof with Hip-Rafter, . . 302 Dragon-Piece and Dragonal Tie to support Hip- Rafter, . . 302 Plan of Hipped Roof, . . 303 Plan of Timber of a Roof meeting at Right Angles, . . 304 Elevation of a Roof, . . 304 Side Elevation of a Roof, . 304 Joining of Hip - Rafters with Ridge-Pole, . . .305 Hip-Rafters, . . .305 Jack-Rafters, . . . 305 Truss for Flat Roof, . . 305 Flat Roof, . . .305 Mansard or Curb Roof, . . 306 423. Truss for Gothic or High- PitchedRoof, . . .306 Truss for Cambered or High- Pitched Roof, . . .307 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 425. Curved Rib Truss, 426. Plan and Elevation for "Ribs of Truss 427. Skeleton of Truss f < >r a Laminated Rib-Roof, 32-feet Span, 428. Detail of Part of Hoof-Truss, 429. Detail of Rib of Roof, 430. Part Plan of Truss of Roof for Thrashing-Mill Horse-Walk, . 431. Elevation of Truss for Thrashing- Mill Horse-Walk, 432. Plan of Walls of Horse- Walk, . 433. Plan of Hexagonal Truss, 434. Elevation of Hexagonal Roof, 435. Section of Hexagonal Roof, 436. Elevation and Section of Dormer Window, 437. Simple Gutter of Metal, . 438. Wooden Gutter, . 439. 440. Gutters at Ends of Rafters, 441. Gutter with Cantaliver, . 442. Section of Wall showing Gutter with Cantaliver, 443. Bridged Gutter, 444. Valley-Gutter, . 445. Section and Elevation of Valley- Gutter, 446. Mode of cutting out Roans or Gutters out of Solid Timber, 447. Front Elevation of Belvidere of a Farmhouse, 448. Side Elevation of Wooden Bracket for a Farmhouse, 449. Mode of laying out Steps, 450. Treads and Risers, 451. Mode of setting out Steps, 452. Plan of Platform Stairs, 453. Section of Platform Staircase, 454. Plan of Staircase with Return, . 455. Section of R,eturn Stairs, 456. Carriage-Board of a Staircase, 457. Notch-Board of a Staircase, 458. Template for marking out Steps, 459. Mode of using Template in mark- ing out Steps, . 460. Marking out Steps in String- Board, .... 461. Elevation of Balusters for Farm- house, .... 462. Section of Baluster, 463. Elevation of Baluster for Farm* house, .... 464. Ledged Door, 465. Ledged and Braced Door, 466. Framed and Braced Door, 467. Circular-Headed Door, . 468. Sash Door, 469. Four-Panel and Six-Panel Doors, 470. Stiles of a Door, . 471. Rails of Door, 472. Bottom Rail of a Door, . 473. Middle Rail of a Door, . 474. Muntins of a Door, 475. Raised Panel. Sunk Panel, 476. Bead-Butt and Flush Panel, 477. Panels of Door of Farmhouse, . 478. Panel for Door of Farmhouse, 479. Gothic Door, 480. Eight-Panel Raised Door, P.1RC | Pi S . 307 481. 308 482. 483. 31 IS 4S4. :>i is 3i S 485. 486. 309 4S7. 309 488. 309 :il() 489. 310 4! 10. 310 491, 310 493. 311 311 494. 311 495. 311 312 496. 312 31-2 497. 312 498. 312 499. 500. 313 501. 313 502. 314 314 503. 314 314 504. 315 315 505. 315 315 506. 315 316 507. 316 508. 509. 316 510. 316 511. 316 512. 316 513. 317 317 514. 317 515. 317 317 516. 317 318 517. 318 518. 318 318 519. 318 318 520. 318 319 521. 319 319 522. 319 523. Page Folding Door, . . .320 Sliding Door, . . . 320 Plan of Door Stop (door closed), 320 Plan of Door Stop (door partially dosed), . . . 320 I )( ior Stop for Bottom Rail of Door, 321 Plan of Framing for a Fixed Window, ^ . .321 Plan of Fixed Window, . . 321 Elevation and Section of Frame of a Fixed Window, . . 321 Part Section of Sash -Frame, . 322 Elevation and Section of Sash- Frame of Window. . . 322 492. Astragals of Sash Window, 322 Section and Elevation of Frame of Sliding Window, . . 323 Details of Sliding Window, . 323 The Inside Elevation of an Im- proved Window suited for Cot- tages, . . . .324 The Plan of an Improved Win- dow for Cottages, . . 325 The Vertical Section of an Im- proved Window for Cottages, . 325 Elevation of a French or Case- ment Window, . . 326 Oak-Hall Window, closed, . 326 Oak-Hall Window, open, . 326 Part Longitudinal and Vertical Section of Oak-Hull Window, 327 Part Horizontal Plan of Oak-Hall Window, . . .327 Part Elevation of Shaw's Patent Window, . . .328 Part Plan of Shaw's Patent Win- dow, .... 328 Longitudinal Section of Shaw's Patent Window, . . 328 Half Plan of Main Window of a Farmhouse . . . 329 Enlarged View of Bay Window of a Farmhouse, . . . 329 Part Plan of Bay Window, . 329 Plan of Shutters, . . 330 Part Vertical Section of Bay Win- dow, . . . .330 Part Section of Base of Bay Window, . . . 330 Side Elevation of a V Window,. 330 Part Sectional Plan of a V Win- dow, . . . .331 Plan of V Window Shutters, . 331 Plan of Shutters of Window of a Farmhouse, . . . 331 Part Plan of Bay Window of a Farmhouse, . . . 332 Plan of Bay Window Shutters, 332 Plan of Bay Window, Chamber Floor, . . . .332 Section of Architraves of a Farm- house, .... 332 Skirting and Cornice for Dining- Room of a Farmhouse, . 333 Skirting for Drawing-Room of a Farmhouse, . . . 333 Cornice for a Farmhouse, . 333 A Stall for a Work-Horse Stable, 335 LIST OF WOOD EXGKAVINGS. Fig. Page 524. Fittings of Head of Stall with Feed- ing-Passage, . . . 336 525. Stall with Cast-iron Heel-Posts, 336 526. Elevation of Ferguson's Venti- lator, . . . .339 527. Section of Ferguson's Ventilator, 339 528. Section of Sheriugham's Venti- lator with Hinged Valve, . 340 529. Section of Sheringham's Venti- lator with Suspended Valve, . 340 530. A Wooden Ventilator, . . 340 531. A Stable Window, . . 341 532. Corn-Chest for Work-Horses, . 343 533. Door through which to supply Mangers with Turnips, . 344 534. Byre Travis, Manger, Stake, and Turnip-Store, . . .345 535. A Baikie, . . .345 536. Cattle Seal or Binder, . . 346 537. Byre Window, . . .346 538. Section of Laycock's Manger for Cattle-Boxes, . . .348 539. Section of Laycock's Hack for Cattle-Boxes, . . .348 540. A Calf s-Crib Door, . . 349 541. Turnip-Trough for Courts, . 350 542. Wooden Straw-Rack for Courts, 350 543. Straw-Rack for Sheds, . .350 544. Pigsty Door, . . .351 545. Corn-Barn Door, . . 353 546. Section of Corn-Barn Floor, and Upper Barn, . . . 354 547. Granary Window and Section of Shutters, . . .355 548. A Wooden Stathel for Stacks, with Stone Supports, . . 355 549. Centre for a Door Arch, . 356 550. Centrings for Gothic and Semi- circular Arches, . . 356 551. Centres for Stone Circular Arches, 356 552. Foot-Bridge for Spanning Ditches, 357 553. Beam-Bridge for 15-feet Span, 357 554 Bridge for 14-feet Span, with Struts, . . . .357 555. Trussed-Beam Bridge, Span 8 feet, 358 556. Trussed-Girder Bridge for a Span of 32 feet, . . .358 557. King-Post Truss for Bridge, . 358 558. Queen-Post Truss for Bridge, . 358 559. Trussed Bridge Girder, . . 359 560. Elevation of Bridge of 32-feet Span, . . . .359 561. Elevation of Mid-Pier for Bridge, 359 562. Sections of Forms of Piers or Star- lings for Bridges, . . 359 563. End and Side Elevation of Cen- tral Support for Bridge, . 360 564. Italian Wooden Aqueduct for Conducting Water of Irrigation over Rivers, Ravines, &c., . 360 565. Wooden Sluice-Gate, . . 361 566. Italian mode of lifting a Sluice. Italian Sluice-Gate lifted by a Screw, . . .361 567. Wooden Sluice in Stone Grooves, 361 568. Longitudinal Section of Self -Act- ing Sluice, . . .361 569. Plan of Self-Acting Sluice, . 362 Fig- Page 570. Transverse Section of Self-Act- ing Sluice, . . . 362 571. Sluice-Pipe Valve, . . 362 572. Rectangular Gate with Diagonal Strut, . . . . 363 573. A Common Field-Gate, . . 363 574. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed Field-Gate, . . .364 575. Miles' Wooden Field-Gate with Cast-iron Heel-Post, . . 364 576. Wooden Gate suited for the Ap- proach to a Farmhouse, . 364 577. Secure mode of fastening the Hanging- Post of a Field-Gate, 366 578. Sliding-Door for Stables, . 367 579. Suspended or Hanging Gate for Courtyards, . . . 368 580. Gate for Centre of Bridge, . 368 581. Swivel-Gate for Centre of Bridge, 368 582. Frame-House Walls, . . 368 583. Foundation Balk for Frame- House, .... 369 584. Plan of Foundation Balks for Timber Shed, . . . 369 585. Side Elevation of Timber Shed, . 369 586. Elevation of Timber Shed, . 369 587. Exterior Finishing of Shed, . 369 588. 589, 590. Weather-Boarding, . 370 591. Sections of various forms of Bat- tens, . . .370 592. Eassie's mode of Joining Boards, 370 593. Rebated Battens, . . 370 594. Swedish mode of forming Walls of Frame-Houses, . . 371 595. Mode of forming Walls of Frame- Houses Fireproof, . .371 596. Timber Shelter -Shed at the Corner of Four Fields, . . 372 597. Plan of Balk Foundations of Shelter-Shed, . . .372 598. Side Elevation of Timbers of Shelter-Shed, . . . 372 599. End Elevation of Timber Shed, 372 600. Plan of Belgian Covered Dung- Shed, . . . .373 601. End Elevation and Section of Belgian Covered Dung-Pit, . 373 602. Side Elevation of Belgian Covered Dung-Shed, . . . 373 603. End Section of American Barn and Byres, . . . 373 604. Isometrical Perspective View of the Balloon Frame, . . 374 605. Elevation Section Manner of Nailing Balloon Frame, . 374 606. Upper Edge of Joist of Balloon Frame, .... 374 607. Section of Strongest Form of Cast- iron Beam, . . . 375 608. Plan of Cast-Iron Beam, . 375 609. Elevation of Cast-Iron Beam, . 375 610. "I "-Shaped Cast-Iron Beam, . 375 611. Plan and Elevation of Cast-Iron Girder for Span of 18 or 20 feet, 375 612. Section of Girder for Span of 18 or 20 feet, . . .376 613. Connection of Binding - Joists with Cast-Iron Girders, . 376 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 614. 615. 616. 617. 618. 619. 626. 627. 628. 629. 630. 631. 632. 633. 634. 635. 636. 637. 638. 639, 641. 642. 643. 644. 645. 646. 647. 648. 649. 650. 651. 652. 653. 654. 655. 656. 657. Cast-Iron Girders with " Shoes" for Joists, Connection of Cross-Beams with Girders, Suspension of Cross-Beams from Girders, Fixing of Truss-Rods of Cast-Iron Beams, .... Section of Wrought-Iron Beam, Section of Eolled Wrought- 1 run Beam, .... Section of Tie - Rods with Wrought-Iron Beams, . Fixing of Cast-iron Pillar, 623. Base of Cast-Iron Pillar, . Upper Termination of Cast-Iron Columns to receive Beam, Upper Termination of Cast-Iron Column to receive Base of Se- cond Column, . Position and Fixing of Tie- Rods, .... Joining of Girders in the Caps of Columns, Junction of Girders with Circular Neck to Columns, Junction of Girders, Junction of four Girders on Cap of Column, Junction of Wrought-Iron Beams on Cap of Column, Skeleton Truss for an Iron Roof of 18-feet Span, Section of Wrought-Iron Rafters, Rafter-Shoe for Roof, Plan of Rafter-Shoe, Side and End Elevation of Rafter- Shoe, .... Elevation and Plans of Shoe for Upper End of Rafter, . Junction of King-Bolt, Struts, Rafters, and Tie-Rods, 640. Junction of King-Bolt, Raf- ters, and Tie-Rods, Details of Tie-Rods, Junction of Struts with Rafters, Skeleton Truss of Double-Span Roof, .... Rafter- Shoes for Roof, . Skeleton Iron Truss for Span of 25 feet, Upper End of Cast-Iron Strut, . Lower Termination of Strut, Side Elevation of Strut, . Junction of Rafters, Ridge-Pole, Bracket, and Ties, Side Elevation of Rafters, Ridge- Pole, Bracket, and Ties, Shoe for Rafters, Shoe in Plan and Elevation for Securing Feet of Rafters, End View of Rafter-Shoe and Details of Tie-Rods, . Upper Termination of Strut, Lower Termination of Strut, Skeleton of Trussed Roof 30-feet Span, .... Scale for a Number of the Figures, 37 S 3so 380 381 382 382 661. (5(52. 0(53. 6(54. 005. 0(56. 0(57. 008. 009. 070. 071- 072. 383 073. 384 074. 384 075. 070. 384 077. 384 078. 384 385 079. 385 680. 081. 385 082. 385 683. 684. 386 085. 387 387 080. 388 087. 388 389 088. 089. 389 090. 389 691. 389 692. 390 093. 094. 390 695. 690. 390 097. 391 098. 699. 391 700. 391 701. 392 702. 392 703. 392 704. 392 Page Joining of Feet of Struts and King-Bolt, . . .393 Joining of Upper End of Strut with Rafter, . . . 393 Joining of Foot of Queen-Bolt with Strut, . . . 393 Plan of Tie-Bolt, . . 393 Joint of Queen-Bolt, . 394 Junction of Rafters with King- Bolt^ Head, . . . 394 Plan of King-Bolt-Head, . 394 End Elevation of King-Bolt-Head, 394 Side Elevation of Rafter-Shoe, . 395 End Elevation of Rafter-Shoe, . 395 Plan of Horse- Walk for Thrash- ing-Mill, . . . 396 Skeleton Truss for Thrashing-Mill Horse-Walk, . . . 396 Shoe for Feet of Rafters, Tie- Beam, and Tie-Rods, . . 396 King -Bolt and Rafter -Shoe in Elevation and Plan, . . 397 Shoe for receiving Lower Ends of Struts and Upper Ends of Tie- Rods, . . . -397 Junction of King-Bolt, Struts, and Tie- Rods, . . . 397 Gutter of Iron Roof, . . 398 Cast-Iron Gutter, . . 398 Cast-Iron Gutter, leading Water to Hollow of Column, . 399 Gutter for Double-Span Roof, . 399 Cast-Iron Gutter for Double-Span Roof, .... 399 Corrugated Iron Plates, . . 400 Truss for a Galvanised Iron Roof, 400 Section and Side Elevation of Rib, . . . .400 Cap of Column and Beam, . 400 Plan of Upper End of Column, . 400 Junction of Struts with Tie-Rod, 401 Connection of Corrugated Iron Plates with Central Shoe of Double-Span Roof, . . 401 Skeleton Truss for Corrugated Iron Roof of 52-feet Span, . 401 Elevations and Plan of Shoe for Upper Termination of Rafters, 402 Junction of Struts with Rafters, 402 Junction of Tie-Rods with Rafters, 402 Shoes for Tie-Rods, . . 402 6-Inch Kitchen Latch, . . 404 7-Inch Rim Lock, . . 404 5-Inch Press Lock, . . 404 6|-Ineh Mortise Lock, . . 404 Escutcheon for Key-Hole, . 404 12 J -Inch Hinge, ' . . 405 13^-Inch Hinge, . . . 405 Butt Hinges, . . . 405 Patent Hinges for Self-Shutting Doors, .... 405 Collinge's Patent Spherical Hinge, 405 Pulley-Stile, . . . 406 Window- Latch, . . . 400 Spring Pulley for Window-Blind Cord, . . . .406 Fastening of French Window- Front View, . 406 XXV111 LIST OF WOOD ENGKAVINGS. Fig. 705. Fastening for French or Casement Windows Side View, 706. Lower Bolt of Window-Fastening, 707. Upper Bolt and Catch of Win- dow-Fastening, 708. 709. Fastening for Stair-Carpet Rod, .... 710. Arnott's Ventilator, . . 711. Sheringham's Fresh -Air Venti- lator, .... 712. Top of a Chimney for Preventing the Down-Draught of Smoke, . 713. Chad wick' s Archimedean Screw Chimney-Guard with Ventilator, 714. Ball Chimney-Guard, 715. Method of Contracting the Top of a Chimney, . 716. Chimney- Valve, . 717. Elevation of Chimney-Hopper, . 718. Plan of Chimney Hopper and Bearer, 719. Cast-Iron Chimney Hopper and Bearer Combined, 720. Gas Regulator, . 721. Hart's Gas Regulator, . 722. 723. Chrimes' Water-Tap, 724. Jenning's India-rubber Tube-Cock, 412 725. Wheatcroft and Smith's Water- Tap, .... 726. 727. Pilbrow's Water Waste Pre- venter, .... 728. Lowe's Cast- Iron Trap, . 729. Bell Trap, 730. Cast-Iron Sink, . 731. Goddard's Economical Kitchen- Range, . . . . 732. American Cottage Cooking-Stove, 733. Rickett's Gas-Stove, 734 Cottam's Iron Guttering for closed Surface Stable-Drains, . 735. Barton's Stable-Drains, . 736. Juncture at Right Angles of Bar- ton's Stable-Drains, 737. Corner Junction of Barton's Stable-Drams, . 738. Drain Grating for Courts, 739. Bell's Patent Trap for Stables, . 740. Cottam's Sanitary Trap for Stables, 741. Cast-Iron Cesspool for Stables and Byres, 742. Section of Valve for admitting Fresh Air to Stables, . 743. Front View of Valve, 744. Ratchet- Valve for admitting Air, 745. Ventilator for Roof, 746. Swivel or Cowl Ventilator, 747. Muir's Four-Points Ventilator, . 748. Cottam's Hind-Posts for Stalls, . 749. Cottam's Travises or Stall Divi- sions, .... 750. Patent Manger, Water- Trough, and Wrought-Iron Rack, 751. Bruce's Improved Stable Fittings, 752. Garood's Adjustable Hay-Rack, 753. Cottam's Stable Fittings, 754. Cottam's Section of Sliding- Manger, Page Fig. Page 755. Manger and Rack, 422 406 756. Manger and Water-Trough, 422 407 757. Saddle and Harness Bracket, 422 758. Collar Holder, . 422 407 759. Pig-Troughs, with Subdivisions, to stand in an opening of the 408 outer wall of the Sty, . 423 408 760. Pig-Trough, 423 761. Hog-Trough, 423 408 762. Round Pig-Trough, to stand in a Court, 423 763. Foot-Bridge of Cast-Iron Beam, 424 764. Plan of Foot-Bridge, 424 409 765. Section and Plan of Beam, 425 409 766. Shoe for End of Beam, . 425 767. Feet of Uprights for Rails, 425 409 768. Uprights for supporting Chains 410 and Rails, 425 410 769. Studs for Chain and Rails, 426 770. Cap for receiving Rail, . 426 410 771. Section of Beams for Bridge, 426 772. Cast-Iron Beam Bridge, . 426 410 773. Section of Roadway with Three 411 Beams, .... 426 411 774. Corrugated Iron-Plate Bridge, . 427 412 775. Section of a Corrugated Plate, . 427 412 776. Front Elevation of Sluice- Valve, 427 777. Side Elevation of Sluice- Valve . 427 412 778. Jenning's Sluice-Valve, . 428 779. Brown and May's Sluice-Cock, . 428 413 780. Wheatcroft and Smith's Hydrant, 429 413 781. Elevation of Iron Sluice-Valve 413 and Rack, 429 414 782. Plan of Iron Sluice, 429 783. Iron Field-Gate with Iron Posts 414 and Stay, 430 415 784. Iron Field-Gate on the Tension 415 Principle, 430 785. Angle-Iron Field-Gate, . 431 416 786. Elements of the Bracing of a 416 Wire Field-Gate, 432 787. Wrought-Iron Side-Gate, 433 416 788. Foot-Gate for Fence, 433 789. Top of Sliding-Gate of Corru- 416 gated Iron, 433 416 790. Detail of Sliding-Gate, . 434 417 791. Mode of Hanging a Sliding-Gate, 792, 793. Details of Sliding-Gate, 434 434 417 794 Straining - Post of Wire Fence, with Sole and Stay Underground, 434 417 795. Straining-Post, with Planks Un- derground, 435 417 796. Straining-Post, with Standard 417 and Stay Aboveground, 435 417 797. A Wrought-Iron Straining-Post, 435 418 798. Block for Straightening Wires, . 439 418 799. Joining of Wires, 439 418 800. Block for Making Eyes in Wires, 439 418 801. Clambs for Twisting the Wire at the Eye, 439 419 802. Turn- Key for Wires, 440 803. Straining-Screw, 440 419 804 Collar-Vice, . . 440 420 805. Straining-Screw and Collar- Vice 420 Combined, 440 421 806. Wrought-Iron Hurdle, . 441 807. Wire-Xetting and Stake, 441 421 808. Mixed Gauze for Wire-Xetting, 442 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 809. Wire-Netting, 810. Spiral Wire- Work, 811. Elevation of Cast-Iron Girder for Sheds, .... 812. Plan of Shoe for receiving Ends of Girder, 813. Trussed Beam, or Open Girder, . 814. Elevation and Section of Shoe, 815. Termination of Central Upright, 816. Termination of Side Upright, 817. Plan of Octagonal Shed, . 818. Hoof-Truss of Octagonal Shed, . 819. Plan of Central King for Shed, . 820. End of Strut for Shed, . 821. Widened Part of Tie-Rod for Shed, 822. Section and Elevation of Wrought - Iron Columns for Sheds, 823. Section of Cast-Iron Pillars for Cattle- Boxes in Sheds, . 824. Iron Strap for Foot of King- Post, Struts, and Tie- Beams, . 825. Iron Strap for Foot of Rafter and Tie-Beam, . 826. Iron Strap for Head of King- Post and Braces, 827. Iron Strap for Collar and Pi after, 828. Iron Strap for Straining- Beam, Queen-Post, and Strut, 829. Iron Saddle for Joining Beams crossing at Right Angles, 830. Cast-iron Shoe for receiving End of Girder, 831. Cast-Iron Shoes for "Joists," "Wall-Plates," 832. Cast-Iron Shoe for the reception of Wooden Struts, 833. Shoes for King-Bolt-Heads, 834. 835. Shoe for Queen-Bolt and Strut, .... 836. Shoe for Foot of Rafter and Pole- Plate, .... 837. Shoe for "Purlins," 838. 839, 840. Trussed Beam, 841. Tmssed Beam for 12-feet Span, 842. Cross Section and Part Elevation of Flitches of Trussed Beam, 843. 844. Details of Truss Rods, 451, 845. Conder's Trussed Beam, . 846. Details of Conder's Trussed Beam, 847. Trussed Beam, 848. 849. Details of Trussed Beam, . 850. Details of King-Post Trussed Beam .... 851. Details of Queen -Post Trussed Beam, .... 852. Details of Cornice of a Farmhouse, 853. Front Elevation of Bracket of Cornice, 854. Section of Base of Principal Win- dow of a Farmhouse, 855. Section through Window-Head of a Farmhouse, 856. Plan of Mullion of Window of a Farmhouse, 857. Section of Base of Bay Window of a Farmhouse, 858. Section of Window-Head of Bay Window of a Farmhouse, Page Fijj. 442 859. 442 44:: 860. 861. 443 443 8(32. 44:; 444 444 803. 444 444 864. 444 865. 445 445 866. 446 867. 446 868. 447 869. 447 870. 871. 447 447 448 872. 448 873. 448 874. 875. 448 876. 449 877. 449 878. 449 879. 449 880. 450 450 881. 451 882, 451 452 884. 452 885. 452 453 886. 453 887. 454 888. 454 889. 454 890. 891. 455 892. 893. 455 894. 895. 455 896. 897. 456 898. 899. 456 900. 456 901. Page Cast-Iron Girders, Pillars, and Brick Arches, for Fireproof Flooring, . . . 457 Fireproof Flooring, . . 457 Fireproof Floors with Wrought- Iron Beams, . . . 457 Section of Angle Iron, and Junc- tion of Wrought-Iron Plates with Beams, . . . 458 Section of Wrought-Iron Fire- proof Flooring, . . . 458 Plan of Fireproof Flooring, . 458 Plan and Elevation of Fireproof Flooring, . . . 459 Details of Beam in System e de Mansne, . . . 459 Lore's System of Fireproof Floor- ing, . . . .460 Cheyne's Corrugated Iron Fire- proof Floor, . . . 4(50 Cross Section of Bunnett's Cel- lular Brick Arch, . .461 Longitudinal Cellular Brick Arch, 461 Part Section of Fireproof Floor, showing Tie - Rods passing through Bunnett's Cellular Bricks, . . . .461 Section showing Tie-Rod passing under Cellular Bricks, . . 461 Junction of Wooden Purlins with Iron Rafters, . . . 462 Fixing of Slates with Iron Roof, 462 Joining Rafters of Truss for Zinc Covering, . . . 462 Skeleton Truss for Shed, . 463 Plate connecting the Ends of Tie- Bolts and Struts, . . 463 Termination of Struts and Tie- Bolts, .... 463 Riveting Struts to Rafters, . 463 Attaching Sheets of Zinc to Wrought-Iron Rafters, . . 464 Fixing of Sheets of Zinc to Wood Rolls, . . .464 883. Joining of Sheets of Zinc from Wall-Plate to Ridge, . 464 Expanded Foot of Rafter, . 465 Joining Corrugated Plates of Zinc together, . . . 465 Elevation and Section of Joiner's Gauge, .... 467 Elevation of part of Joiner's Bench, .... 467 Plan of Joiner's Bench, . . 468 Joiner's Tressels or Horses, . 468 Claw-Hammer, . . . 468 Grindstone, . . . 468 Mason's Trowel, . . . 469 Mason's Level, . . . 469 Mason's Plumb-Line, . . 469 Fanners for Forge, . . 470 Details of Fanners, . . 470 Eccentric Fanners for Forge, . 470 Forge with Fanners, . . 470 Brace for Drilling Holes in Metal, 47 1 Elevation of Screw-Frame for Boring Brace, . . 471 Il>l)otson's Ratchet Brace, . 471 LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Fig. 902. Plan and Section of Fenn's Rat- chet Brace, 903. Boring Drills, 904. Screw Stocks, 905. Ibbotson's Screw-Stock, . 906. Various Views of Spanners or Screw- Keys, 907. Riveting Hammer, 908. Portable Vice, . 909. Dunn's Lifting Screw-jack, 910. Halley's Patent Lifting-Jack, . 911. Perspective View of Turner's Iron Bench for Circular Saw, . 912. Endless Band Saw Frame in Per- spective, 913. Powis's Mortising, Tenoning, and Boring Machine in Perspective, 914. Perspective View of Macpherson's Sheep-Fence-Making Machine, 915. Lathe, .... 916. Boring Machine, . 917. Breast Boring Machine, . . 918. Perspective View of Combined Caldron and Furnace, . 919. Section of Combined Caldron and Furnace, 920. Perspective View of Asphalt Cal- dron and Grate, 921. Perspective View of Fire-Engine or Liquid- Manure Pump, 922. Perspective View of Holman's Double-Action Pump, . 923. Gwynne's Farm Hand-Pump, 924. Section of Hydraulic Ram, 925. Side Elevation of Carrett's Steam- Pump and Portable Steam-Engine, 481 926. Simple Quarry Crane, 927. Complex Derrick Crane, 928. Dray's Portable Crane, . 929. Porter's Gas Apparatus for Farm Use, .... 930. Perspective View of Messrs Bridges and Aubury's Gas- Making Apparatus, 931. Plan of Isolated Cow -Byre at Corehouse, 932. 933. Plan of Isolated Dairy, 934. Plan of Upper Floor in Isolated Dairy, .... 935. Plan of Poultry-House, . 936. Elevation of Poultry-House, 937. Section of Poultry-House, 938. 939. Plans of Poultry-House, . 940. Plan of Pigeon-House, 941. Part Section of Pigeon-House, . 942. Elevation of Detached Pigeon- House, .... 943. Plan of Rabbitry, 944. 945. Plans of Detached Piggery, 492, 493 946. Ground-Plan of Detached Slaugh- ter-House, . . 947. Upper Floor of Detached Slaugh- ter-House, . . 948. Vertical Section of Detached Slaughter-House, ' ii . 949. Principle of Hot- Water Supply, . 950. Section of a Heating Apparatus for a Drying-House, . .- Page Fig. 951. 472 472 952. 472 953. 472 954. 472 955. 472 473 956. 473 473 957. 474 958. 474" 959. 475 960. 476 961. 477 477 962. 477 963. 478 964. 478 965. 478 966. 967. 479 968, 479 970. 480 480 971. 481 972. 483 483 973. 484 974. 485 975. 486 976. 487 977. 488 978. 979. 488 490 980. 490 490 981. 491 491 982. 492 983. 492 984. 492 493 985. 493 986. 493 987. 493 988. 496 989. 497 Page Plan of a Heating Apparatus for a Drying-House, . . 497 Roller for a Steam-Pipe, . 499 Expansion Drum-Joint for Steam- Pipes, . . . .500 Valved Curved Pipe for Steam, 500 Vertical Section of Hands' Dry- ing-Sheds, . . .501 Another Form or Section of Hands' Drying-Sheds, . . .501 Plan of Archimedean Screw Con- veyor, .... 505 Vertical Section of Archimedean Screw Conveyor, . . 505 Rake between the Threads of Archimedean Screw Conveyor, 506 Section of Hands' Brick-Kiln and Drying-Shed, . . .509 Plan of Drain-Tile Work at Core- house, . . . .511 Plan of Drain-Tile Kiln at Core- house, . . . .511 Transverse Vertical Section of Drain-Tile Kiln at Corehouse, 51 1 Ground-Plan of Farm Carpenter's Shop, . . . .513 Ground-Plan of Farm Smithy, . 513 Plan of Flemish Barn, . . 513 Plan of Dutch Barn, . . 514 969. Sketch -Plan of Flemish Farm-Buildings, . 514, 515 Plan of Machine-House in Flem- ish Farm, . . . 515 Elevation of Machine - House in Flemish Farm, . . 515 Plan of Steading of Britannia Farm, Belgium, . . 516 Dung-Pits and Cinder-Cellars of Britannia Farm, Belgium, . 517 Basement of American "Side- Hill Barn," . . .517 Plan of Second Floor of Ameri- can " Side-Hill " Bam, . 517 Perspective View of an American "Side-Hill" Barn, . . 518 Plan of American Barn, . . 518 Plan of Allen's American Barn, . 519 Isometrical Elevation of Allen's American Barn, . . 519 Plan of Basement of American Barn, . . . .520 Plan of Upper Floor of Ameri- can Barn, . . . 520 Plan of American Steading, . 521 Plan of Western States American Farm-Buildings, . . 522 Plan of American Cheese-Dairy Buildings, . . . 523 Plan of American "Sifting" Pig- gery, .... 524 Ground- Plan of American Poul- try-House, . . . 524 Section of an American Poultry- House, .... 524 Section of Nests behind Stairs in American Poultry-House, . 524 Plan of the Imperial Farm-Stead- ing at Vincennes, . . 525 LIST OF WOOD EXGRAVINGS. Fig. 990. Contents of Timber in Queen- Post Eoof, 991. Contents of Timber in King- Post Roof, 992. Contents of Timber in Tie-Beam Roof, .... 993. Contents of Timber in Collar- Roof, .... 994. Contents of Timber in Partition, 995. Back-Flaps, 996. Blockings, 997. Clamp, . 998. Elevation and Section of Hand- rail, .... 999. Mitre-Joint in Wood, . 1000. Fillet, . 1001. Bead or Astragal, 1002. Roman Scotia Moulding, 1003. Grecian Scotia Moulding, . 1004. Roman Ovolo Moulding, 1005. Grecian Ovolo Moulding. 100(5. Roman Cavetto or Hollow Moulding, 1007. Grecian Cavetto or Hollow Moulding, 1008. Roman Cyma-Recta Moulding, 1009. Grecian Cyma-Recta Moulding, 1010. Roman Cyma-Reversa Mould- ing, . . . . 1011. Grecian Cyma-Reversa Mould- ing, .... 1012. Ogee Moulding, 1013. Congee or Apophygee Mould- ing, . 1014. Post at Bottom of Stairs, 1015. Single Quirk in Joinery, 1016. Double Quirk in Joinery, 1017. Sash-Window, . Page 541 541 541 541 542 542 542 542 542 543 543 544 EREATA. In par. 1721, p. 495, twenty-seventh line from top, for " low temperature of hot water system,' read " low temperature hot-water system." In par. 1730, p. 501, second line from bottom, for "airing" read "using." At p. 285, in fig. 345, in the title, for "collars," read "cottars." At p. 289, in fig. 362, in the title, for " bottom beam," read " collar- beam." At p. 400, in fig. 682, in the title, for " column-beam," read " column and beam." At p. 418, in fig. 746, in the title, for " bowl," read " cowl." At p. 458, in fig. 864, in the title, for " % inch," read " % inch to the foot." THE BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS, BOOK EIRST -PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT. DIVISION FIRST. PLANS OF STEADINGS BASED UPON FIXED PRINCIPLES. 1. THE farms of this kingdom occupy every available space of ground, from the tops of the highest mountains to the lowest level of the plains. On the variety of ground implied in so wide a range, it is not to be expected that the same kind of husbandry should be followed. On the contrary, as a con- sequence of the great diversity, a different system is pursued in each variety of soil. 2. It may not therefore excite surprise when it is stated that no fewer than six kinds of farming are practised in the kingdom. The same kind is probably followed in all places of nearly similar soil and locality. Locality apparently determines the kind of farming more than the soil. The comparative influence of soil and locality in determining the kind of farming will best be understood, after considering the particulars incidental to each of the six kinds. 3. The simplest sort of farming is the pastoral. It is entirely confined to the mountains. Sheep are reared on the upper, and cattle on the lower, mountain ranges. Cattle and sheep are not always reared on the same farm : they are so only when high and low pasture-grounds unite. When the low-pasture ground lies in a valley, or along the banks of a stream, arable culture is judi- ciously introduced for the raising of winter food ; but arable culture is the excep- tion. A pastoral district is always hilly, the soil thin, poor, various, of light texture, and more suited to the growth of natiiral pasture grasses and live stock than of grain. The ordinary winter food, in most pastoral farms, is hay. Pas- toral farms are always large, containing sometimes many thousands of acres, and even miles in extent ; but from 1500 to 3000 acres may perhaps constitute one of common size. The rent is moderate. Locality thus entirely determines this kind of farming. 4. Another kind of farming is practised on carse land. In all respects a carse is quite the opposite of a pastoral district. Carse land implies a flat, clay, rich soil, capable of raising all sorts of grain, and is therefore eminently suited to arable culture, and for the same reason unsuited to pasture grasses and live A 2 PLANS OF STEADINGS stock. Soil thus entirely determines carse farming. A carse farm is all arable, requiring much labour, and is never of large extent, seldom exceeding 200 acres ; but the rent is always high. 5. A third sort of farming is the suburbial, practised in the immediate neigh- bourhood of large towns. In the vicinity of London, garden vegetables are raised on farms. In the neighbourhood of most other towns, garden vegetables are not so much raised as green crops, such as potatoes, turnips, and grass ; as also dry fodder, such as straw and hay. This kind of farming is thus entirely suited to arable culture. The extent of such farms is not large, seldom exceed- ing 300 acres, and the rent is high. Locality thus entirely determines this kind of farming. 6. A fourth kind of farming is found at a distance from towns, and is called common farming. Not being directly dependent upon towns, this kind of farm- ing follows a regular rotation of cropping with green and grain crops, and it fattens purchased cattle and sheep for the market. It is thus also suitable to arable culture. This is the most common kind of farming in the country, and being so extensively, practised, necessarily comprehends great variety of soil, the rotations on which are contracted or expanded from the common standard, as the culture of live stock or grain claims the predominance in consonance with the nature of the soil. Locality rather than soil determines this kind of. farming. The farms are not of large extent, seldom exceeding 400 acres, but some extend to 1500 acres. The rent is generally moderate. 7. A fifth sort of farming is the dairy. It directs its attention to the produc- tion of milk, and the making of butter and cheese. For these purposes it requires a considerable proportion of old pasture grass, as well as arable land for raising food for the cows in winter. It is thus suited to both arable and pastoral conditions. Its farms are of small extent, seldom exceeding 150 acres, and the rent moderate. Locality chiefly determines this sort of farming, which has reference to a proximity to good markets. 8. The sixth and last sort of farming is the mixed husbandry. It is so named because it embraces the culture of the soil in intimate connection with the rearing of live stock. The system of rotation of crops is therefore solely adapted to promoting the welfare of the live stock reared. Thus pursuing arable culture with the rearing of stock, this mode of farming cannot be prac- tised within narrow bounds. The farms are therefore large, seldom less than 500 acres, and extending to even 1500 acres. Its adoption is determined neither by locality nor soil, its mixed character affording a happy medium for adapting itself to circumstances, whether of the one or the other. 9. The causes which have operated so to diversify the systems of farming in this country, are perhaps the following : Sheep occupy the whole range of pasture from the mountain-tops to the plains. Hence the highest mountain pastures are occupied solely by sheep, and there, in consequence, pastoral farms which breed sheep only are to be found. High sheep farms are much subjected to wind and rain ; and were it not that the tops of mountains face different directions one face affording comparative shelter and warmth, whilst the opposite is confronting the fiercest blasts of the elements such farms would be unfit even for the most hardy breeds of sheep. 10. Since sheep can occupy the whole range of mountain pasture, and cattle only the secondary hills to the plains, it follows that both sheep and cattle may be reared on the same pastoral farm. This constitutes our second description of pastoral farms. Few store-masters, however, trouble themselves with breed- ing both cattle and sheep, where accommodation in steadings for stock of FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARMING. 3 both kinds is very limited, and where variety of winter provender is not over- abundant. But where good haugh or holm land exists, and a thick soil on the adjacent slopes, a commodious steading may be set down with advantage for both cattle and sheep breeding. Cattle and sheep may be reared Avith advant- age on the same pasture, inasmuch as sheep bite the grass closer and dis- tribute their manure better than cattle, and the cropped grass thereby springs up afresh more readily. 11. Upon the slopes and undulations of the ground from the foot of the secondary mountains into the plains, are found the sites of many kinds of farming. The soil generally in these slopes and undulations rests on trap alone, or on sandstone alone, or on mountain limestone containing projecting emin- ences of trap. Such formations are eminently suited for raising turnips, and, accordingly, we there find prevailing the mixed, the dairy, and the common farming. 12. On the plains, towns and villages are found on the margins of rivers which are making their way to the sea or to an estuary. The soil is either thin clay or gravel, both travelled materials, and resting upon diluvial clay. The farming here is determined by the immediate demands from these towns and villages, and hence arises the suburlial farming. 13. Where the plain extends to the banks of a large river or wide estuary, the soil is often a uniform deposit of strong alluvial clay, upon which is prac- tised the carse farming. 14. Such are the physical causes Avhich have given rise to the different kinds of farming practised in this country. It is obvious that no change can be introduced into pastoral farming, except in the extension of arable culture, for the purpose of raising an increased and sufficient supply of winter food for live stock. Carse farming can only be materially altered by raising turnips where none were raised before, by means of thorough drainage. Suburbial farms must preserve their peculiar characteristics until the demand ceases from the towns for the peculiar products which they consume. As long as milk, and butter, and cheese, are wanted, dairy-f&rmmg must be pursued. The only material change that can be effected in the general farming of the country is the transference of the common farming at a distance from towns to that of the mixed husbandry. This change would involve the breeding and rearing of live stock upon the farm, instead of their being purchased at markets. What then would become of the live stock reared in the pastoral districts, when there would be no purchasers in the low country ? But purchasers would be found by increasing the culture of turnips in the neighbourhood of towns beyond the town demand, and also by increasing them on carse farms by means of thorough drainage, on which classes of farms live stock cannot be reared. Such a change might probably afford accommodation for all the cast stock from the pastoral districts, in every successive year. Any change that- could be effected on the mixed husbandry, could only be by purchasing live stock instead of breeding them, and such a change would be a retrograde one for the farmer. 15. The general condition of all the sorts of farming referred to above, may be modified materially by the following incidents : The land may be on too steep an inclination. The soil may be too tenacious or too loose ; too wet or too dry ; naturally poor or naturally rich. The fields may want water in summer. The fences may be injudiciously placed. The position of the farms may be exposed or sheltered ; they may be far or near from coal, lime, markets, and railroads. The roads may be difficult or easy to traverse, or be in good or bad repair. 4 PLANS OF STEADINGS 16. Seeing there are so many kinds of farming, it may reasonably be as- sumed that, for their accommodation, there should be a corresponding diversity in the size and arrangement of the fields and of the buildings on the farm. When the farming is limited in extent, such as in a dairy district, it is not to be supposed that the fields should be as large, in following a regular rota- tion of crops, as in a farm of mixed husbandry, or that the stable accommo- dation in the steading should be as extensive as in a carse farm. Although errors in judgment in constructing steadings may not be committed to such extremes as these cases indicate, errors too often prevail in that particu- lar, by neglect of the essential consideration that the steading about to be erected is for the use of a special system of husbandry, and not for every system. 17. But this consideration, essential as it is, does not imply that no gen- eral rule or principle can be found which would apply to the construction of all steadings. Such a general rule may and does exist, and it is applicable, and is fit to be a guide, in the construction of steadings for every diversity of husbandry in which straw is used. Were the rule kept steadily in view in their construc- tion, steadings would present much uniformity of aspect, whilst, at the same time, the arrangement of their apartments might be so modified as to suit each diversity of farming. It is one of the objects of this work to lay down such a general rule, and to show its applicability to the construction of steadings for every variety of arable husbandry in practice. 18. But before explaining this general rule, and applying it to construction, it seems necessary, as a preliminary investigation, to ascertain the particulars which constitute the most proper site which the steading of the farm should occupy. 19. Were theory alone to determine the site of the steading, it would be at the centre, as being the point equidistant from the circumference of a circular farm. But, for the sake of practice, farms should not be laid out in the circular form, because their circumference, or lines of boundary with other farms, would not be in straight lines ; and not being in straight lines, much space would be lost for culture in the place where every four farms met. Such spaces might indeed afford good shelter, were they planted ; but sufficient shelter can be better obtained from judiciously-placed large plantations on inferior soils, though at a greater distance and elevation. Farms are therefore laid out in the quad- rangular form, having straight sides, wherever practicable, that is, where no rivulet occurs, the course of which is always obliged to be followed. The centre of such a quadrangle is the proper site for the steading, and from its centre alone, it is obvious that a farm can be most economically conducted. 20. Difficulties, however, of a physical nature often interfere with the choice of the centre as the most proper site. The centre may be very much elevated above the other parts, or it may be a low marsh or a lake. In either case, the steading cannot be placed in the centre of the farm. 21. When the farm contains both permanent pastoral and low arable land, the steading should be placed upon, and at the centre of, the arable portion, whether that be the centre of the farm or not. 22. Convenience often decides the site of a steading. Command of water- power is a strong incentive to place it by the side of a river. But it is worthy of consideration at first, whether the river is capable of affording a constant supply of water throughout all the seasons. If it does, then the steading will be economically placed near the river, though that may not be at the centre of the farm ; but if the water be deficient in quantity, if it affords a sufficiency AND THEIR PROPER SITES. 5 only in winter, then it is more economical to place the steading near the centre of the farm, and erect a steam-power there. 23. A good road to a market-town or railway-station, is a natural inducement to place the steading beside it. But this advantage, natural as it is, may be purchased by the sacrifice of a greater. Should the steading be placed, in consequence, at the extreme angle of the farm, such a sacrifice would be made. We know a large steading which is thus inconveniently placed, for the sake of a good road and the command of water-power ; but these advantages were obtained at the additional expense of maintaining a man and pair of horses with their implements, to work the most distant fields of the farm. Better make a good farm-road to the turnpike from the centre of a farm, and erect steam-power, than place a steading at its utmost corner. 24. Good shelter induces the placing of a steading in it. A warm and com- fortable situation in winter conduces much to the well-being of the stock lodged in a steading. But this desideratum alone should not induce the placing of a steading at a point whence the farm would have to be worked at increased cost. 25. A pleasant view from the farmhouse may naturally induce the placing of a steading a short distance away from the centre of a farm. 26. There are particular spots which should be avoided as sites for steadings. A rocky knoll presents difficulties in making a foundation for buildings, and it is unsuited to proper drainage from a steading. Close to a river or lake, on a level with its banks, renders drainage from a steading impracticable, and should be avoided on account of the dampness of such a situation. A bed of dry loose sand is unsuitable for a secure foundation to a steading, though the difficulty might be overcome by artificial means. There is no necessity, how- ever, of incurring an obviously unnecessary expense in forming a foundation for a steading. A clayey substratum in front of a rising ground is not an eligible position for the site of a steading, inasmuch as it will always retain dampness, whatever may be the drainage. A very exposed spot in a gap between two hills, is an uncomfortable position for a steading, both for man and beast. 27. It is a question whether or riot it is more economical to place the steading at the higher or lower part of an inclining arable farm. If situate at the higher part, all the produce of grain, turnips, and potatoes, has to be carried up-hill ; and if on the lower, the manure is subject to the same inconvenience. Where the surface of a farm forms a round-backed ridge sloping both ways, the apex of the ridge is the most economical site for the steading, and the case is the same when the steading is placed in the centre of a long slope of land. It should not be forgotten that loads have to be carried both to and from a steading, so that the high or low position will answer, provided there be no steep ascent or descent immediately at the steading. When both high and low situations are equally circumstanced, reason and experience would prefer the low. 28. One essential consideration should be given to all sites, which is, whether pump water is obtainable or riot. Where it is abundant, some inconvenience may be submitted to ; but if scanty, the most eligible site ought to be abandoned at once. 29. It is desirable that the farmhouse should be situated so as to command a view of the fields of the farm, and also be near the steading ; and if any sacri- fice of position on the part of either is necessary, the house should give way to the steading. 30. Having thus pointed out the best position for the steading to occupy on a farm, our next endeavour shall be to lay down the general principle which should guide the construction of steadings for every variety of arable husbandly. 6 PLANS OF STEADINGS 31. Straw being the most bulky article in the steading, and in great and daily use by all the stock, and having, though heavy and unwieldy, to be distributed in every apartment by manual labour, it should, of necessity, be placed centri- cally, and at the shortest distance from the stock. Bearing the relations of these particulars in mind, it is obvious that they constitute the principle upon which the construction of steadings should be based ; and as the centre is the nearest point to the circumference, it is also obvious that the original receptacle for the straw should occupy the central point of the steading. There can be no exception to this rule for every variety of farming where straw is in use. Every apartment occupied by stock should thus encircle the straw-barn. Different classes and ages of stock require different quantities and kinds of straw, so that those which require the most should be placed nearest the straw-barn; and in ah 1 cases straw should be carried short distances, and not at all from any other apartment than direct from the straw-barn. 32. The thrashing-machine supplies the straw at once to the straw-barn : that machine should therefore be erected nearest to it. The stackyard supplies the corn direct to the thrashing-machine, and should thus be contiguous to it ; and as the corn and straw are thrashed most easily and quickly in a straight line, it follows that the stackyard, thrashing-machine, arid straw-bam, should be in a straight line ; and it also follows that as the straw-barn should be in the centre of the steading, and as the thrashing-machine intervenes between it and the stackyard, the stackyard should be placed on the outside of the steading. Another important corollary, as regards the construction of the steading, follows from these premises. The sun is an important source of warmth, and, in con- sequence, of comfort to the animals in a steading in the winter season. Every facility should therefore be allowed the sun to enter, and the removal of one obstruction to the greatest amount of sunshine is, placing the length of the central straw-bam north and south; and in settling this point, the straw-barn, thrashing-machine, and stackyard, will as a consequence be in a line north and south. This being the case, the building required to accommodate the thrashing- machine, and its accompanying corn-barn, being always two-storeyed, a con- venient position for the granaries will be to place them east and west, where they will form a good screen from the north wind. Here, then, we have fixed a principle in the construction of steadings which is indisputable, namely, that the straw-barn should occupy the centre ; that the thrashing-machine should be nearest to it and in a line with it ; that the stackyard should be near the thrashing-machine ; and that all three should be in a line north and south. And as all steadings for arable culture have straw-barn, thrashing-machine, and stackyard, it follows that this principle is applicable to all steadings erected for that purpose. 33. It shall now be our endeavour to illustrate this principle in its application to all classes of steadings. Cattle fattening, whether in haminels, boxes, or byres, requiring most straw, should be placed nearest the straw-bam. Younger cattle, being lighter, require less straw, whether for fodder or litter, and should be placed either at a greater distance from the straw-barn than the fattening cattle, or at the same distance on the other side of it. Horses and cows requir- ing the least straw, may be placed at the greatest distance from the straw-barn. 34. The leading principle involved in the above arrangement is comprehen- sive and simple, and is obviously applicable to every size and kind of steading. But indisputably correct as the principle is, it is very seldom adopted in prac- tice ; and we may safely assert that, the greater the deviation from it, the less commodious are steadings as habitations for stock in winter. FOR CATTLE PASTORAL FARMING. 7 35. One reason why steadings are not constructed on this principle is, that possibly architects are not conversant with the use of the respective apartments iu steadings, and they seem to bestow most attention on outward symmetrical proportions, and on constructing them at the least possible expense, and within the smallest space of ground, as if a few square yards more or less were of great value in the country. Xo doubt economy is enforced on architects by reluctant proprietors, at whose cost the buildings are to be erected ; but economy is a secondary consideration when the proper accommodation of stock comes into competition with it. For, let us suppose that, by inadequate accommodation, cattle thrive by 10s. a-head less than they would have done by the best, the loss on 60 cattle would be 30, which, as an annual loss, is equivalent to a loss of 570 in the course of 19 years, besides interest a sum much larger than would have been required to make the steading complete in this respect at the outset. So little is such a loss anticipated, that in too many parts of the country the cattle are placed in courts within a small quadrangle, the southern range of which prevents the sun ever penetrating to them in winter; and on account of that peculiar form the chill air rushes over the corners of the roofs into the courts in whirlwinds, which, if accompanied with rain or sleet, is sure to engender in the cattle the most insidious diseases. Into a large quadrangle, however, the sun does find its way. 36. It is now time to describe the steadings suitable to the different sorts of farming, and to apply the ruling principle propounded above to those in which straw is used. We have seen that there are six different modes of farming practised in the country namely, 1. PASTORAL farming, either simply or in connection with arable culture; 2. CAKSE farming; 3. DAIRY fanning; 4. SUHURBIAL farming, or that practised in the immediate neighbourhood of towns ; 5. COM- MON farming, or that practised at a distance from towns ; and, G. MIXED hus- bandry. We shall take these in the order named. 37. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING OR ONSTEAD, OR FARMERY, AND STELLS FOR PASTORAL FARMING. Pastoral farming is that which is simply so, or in connec- tion with arable culture. Simple pastoral farming embraces the breeding and rearing of cattle or of sheep, or of both combined ; and that, sort of farming, combined with arable culture, devotes itself to the same ends. 38. Cattle pastoral farming. On a pure pastoral farm on which cattle are bred and reared, the steading required on it is simply a protection in winter for the cows, and this being the case, the rule propounded above does not apply to it particularly. The cows suckle their calves during the summer, and after the calves are weaned, they are put under protection in winter when the weather is severe, or the ground covered with snow, and supplied with hay and water, or let out to the water to drink every day. Such a steading may be erected in any convenient place detached or near, as desired, to the farmhouse and herd's house. A plan of such a steading is given at fig. ], Plate I., where it is named "Detached pastoral farm-steading for rearing cattle:" a b, c d, each 30 feet long, and 18 feet in width, are the sheds for the shelter of the stock, and e, /, g, h are their respective courts, each 30 feet square. The entrances to both sheds and courts should be 9 feet in width. The entrance to the sheds i i i i may be arched overhead if built of stone and lime, or have a flat wooden lintel. The walls should be 8 feet in height above the ground. The roof may consist of trees placed in the breadth across the walls, and covered with broom, whin, fern, or branches of spruce, all of which materials will last several years. But, 8 PLANS OF STEADINGS if desired, the roof may be made of ordinary couples of timber and slated. The courts should be provided with water-troughs, one trough to two courts, an arched opening being made in the common wall at k k. Gates are placed at the openings I III. The completed roof and the flat lintels over the doorways may be seen by the dotted lines of the isometrical perspective over the sheds abed. The walls may be made of dry stone rubble, toothed or pointed with lime on the outside ; or they may be made of wood where timber is plentiful on the estate. But the best and most durable materials are stone and lime, where these can be procured. 39. Such a plan may be contracted or enlarged according to the wants and extent of the farm, and several may be erected on the same farm at places convenient for the making of hay, to save the carrying of that fodder to a distance. Cows in calf and calves will be well sheltered in such a steading in wet stormy weather, or when snow covers the ground ; and even year-olds may be accommodated on an emergency, or on a much-exposed farm. From the dimensions given, it is easy for farmers to estimate the number of cattle, at their respective ages, which could be accommodated in the sheds. 40. Besides this accommodation for the breeding stock, a pastoral farm requires a steading for various other purposes. The farmer must have a horse and a gig to take him and his family to church and market. One or two work-horses are required to bring corn, provisions, and artificial food to the farm, as well as to carry a carcass to the butcher, and hay to the stacks. The farmer must have a cow or two for his family and those of his herds, and fowls arid pigs. 41. Such a steading is represented by fig. 2, Plate I. It is the most easily and economically erected in a long straight building in which the apartments are conveniently arranged, a is the killing-house, which is a necessary apart- ment in a pastoral steading, for when a beast is taken ill, and not likely to recover, it must be killed : it is 18 feet in width, and 20 feet in length, with a window in front and door at the back ; b is an outhouse in which implements and other articles may be locked up, 18 by 25 feet, with a window and door in front ; c the gig-house, 18 by 9 feet, with a wide door in front ; d the riding- horse stable of two stalls, 18 by 12 feet, with a window and door in front ; e the hay -house, in which the corn-chest may be placed to contain the corn for all the horses, 18 by 15 feet, with a window and door in front; / the cart-horse stable, furnished with three stalls, to accommodate a strange horse when it comes, 18 by 18 feet, with a window and door in front ; g the byre or shippen, 18 feet by 20, with a window and door in front, and four divisions for 8 cows, if as many are wanted, if not, it can be made proportionally smaller ; h the hen-house, 18 by 8 feet, with a window in front and a door at the back, and a bole with steps leading up to it by the side of the door ; and i is the cart-shed, 18 by 12 feet, with a 9-feet opening. The stables arid byre, being most in use, are placed at the centre of the building, while the less used apartments are at the outer ends. The hay-house may have internal doors leading into the riding and work stables, but in a small steading such as this it is unnecessary to incur the expense. The walls should be 9 feet above the ground, and the roof made of good couples of wood, and slated. The steading may be placed near the cattle-sheds, fig. 1, or at a distance, as most convenient for both sheds and steading. The dotted lines show the structure of the walls and roof, and the positions and forms of the doors and windows. 42. The farmhouse and cottages for the herds should be near the steading. 43. The scale for figs. 1 and 2, Plate I., is as half an inch to the foot. 44. The extreme length over walls of fig. 1, Plate I., is 125 feet; the extreme FOR SHEEP PASTOEAL FAEMING. 9 breadth, 51 feet ; and the "width of the sheds is 18 feet within -walls. The length of fig. 2 over walls is 153 feet, and the width of the apartments within walls is 18 feet. 45. The arrow indicates the direction of north. 46. It may be deemed desirable to have the cattle-sheds connected with the steading. Such a plan is represented by fig. 3, Plate I., where it is denominated " Compact pastoral farm-steading for rearing cattle," and where the central part of the building is occupied by the cattle-sheds abed, each 30 feet by 18, with their respective courtyards e f y //, each 30 feet square. With the sheds here, the apartments of the steading are not in a straight line, as in the above case, but are thrown into the form of wings, the lower one in the plate being devoted to the operations of the farm, and the upper one to those of the house. The lower wing is occupied by z", the riding-horse stable with three stalls, 18 feet by 18, with a window and door in front ; k the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, in which a large corn-chest for all the horses may be placed, with a door and window in front; I the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, furnished with three stalls, and a door and window in front. The hay-house being placed between the two stables, internal doors of communication may be made if desired. The gig-house m, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door in front. The litter-house , 18 by 24 feet, is provided with a window and door in front, as well as a door at the back, to allow the litter to be carried either way, as required. 47. The upper wing contains o, the hen-house, 18 feet by 10, with a door in front, and a window and bole with steps at the side. There is another hay- house here at p, 18 feet by 10, for the use of the byre q, which is 18 feet by 20, furnished with four divisions for two cows in each. Both the hay-house and byre or shippen have a window and door in front. The outhouse r is 18 feet by 18, with a window and door in front ; s the killing-house, 18 feet by 26, with a door and two windows in front, and may be used for other purposes. 48. The walls are 9 feet in height from the floor, and the dotted lines show the structure of the walls, windows, doors, and roof; the roof being made of wooden couples, and slated. 49. The extreme length over walls of fig. 3, Plate I., is 164 feet. The length of the upper wing is 91 feet, and that of the lower 91 feet. The width of the sheds and courts over walls is 52 feet. The width of the apartments and sheds within walls is 18 feet. 50. The scale of fig. 3, Plate I., is in the proportion of three-eighths and a third of an inch to the foot. 51. The farmhouse and cottages for the herds should be placed near the steading, which should be erected in the most accessible part of the farm. 52. The arrow shows the direction of north. 53. Sheep Pastoral Farming. Sheep in pastoral farms are never housed in a steading in winter, although in modern agriculture in the low country they are not unfrequently fed in sheds erected beside the steading. Nevertheless, sheep are at times protected in a certain class of buildings, named stells, in the upper pastoral districts. In a pastoral farm where a ewe stock is kept such stells are of much use in stormy weather, and when the ground is covered with snow, to afford both protection and food to the ewes in lamb. Where ewes are kept, a certain proportion of the ewe lambs are retained, to maintain the number of the flock, and these lambs, when weaned and then termed hoggs, require shelter as well as the ewes themselves. Most of the lambs, and all the old cast 10 PLANS OF STEADINGS ewes, are sold off every year. Where no ewe stock is kept, weaned lambs or hoggs are bought from the breeders, and they require shelter at times in winter. 54. Stells are of various forms, and generally constructed of dry stones, though better of stone and lime, and sometimes they are made entirely ot grassy turf. 55. The site of a stell should be in a sheltered situation, and, at the same time, not be subject to be overwhelmed with snow. 56. An example of the simplest form of stells is given in fig. 1, where a Fig. 1. F:g. 2. Fig. 3. is the arc of a circle, affording shelter at a against the blast on the opposite face of the fence ; b is of two inverted arcs of circles touching, and they afford shelter on either side, as also in the spaces between the curves ; c has two parallel walls connected by a wall between them, and these afford equal shelter at c and c. 57. Another simple form of stell is in the meeting of four arcs of a circle, as in fig. 2, affording shelter in all the curves, according to the direction whence the blast comes. 58. A circular stell, with a simple fence, very common in use, is an ob- jectionable form, inasmuch as its in- terior is apt to be blown up with snow. 59. A circular stell, however, sur- rounded by a plantation, affords ex- cellent shelter and protection, as seen in fig. 3, where a is the space within for shelter, provided with an entrance b through the planting, which should be parallel and winding, and not as shown in the figure, which is the common form of entrance, but which is bad, inasmuch as the sheep, crowding in, are apt to be jammed at the inner narrow point. Such a stell would occupy a consider- able space of ground, according to the size of the flock, and it may be reared in the most exposed situation. A num- ber of them might be made on the same farm. 60. Fig. 4 represents an inside stell of 18 yards diameter within, surrounded by a wall 6 feet in height, the lower 3 feet of which may be built of stone, and the upper 3 feet IN9IDE CIRCULAR STKLr,. WI PLANTATION. FOR CATTLE PASTORAL FARMING WITH ARABLE CULTURE. 11 of turf. It contains a hay-stack, protected by hurdles, and racks for hay against the wall round the inside. Its site should he in a sheltered place, Fia. -I. where deep snow cannot cover it up. The opening- into it should be from the side towards the rising ground, or it should be on the sheltered side when the stell stands upon a knoll. 61. An outside stell of large dimen- sions is represented by fig. 5, where a curved fence of reversed circular form encircles the plantation, and affords shelter from every quarter. It might be erected in the most exposed situations, and multiplied in any number in the same farm or district. Such a form of stell would be an ornament to the coun- try, besides a means of shelter at all ( -J times. 62. Cattle Pastoral Farming with Arable Culture. Every pastoral farm that has much ground in its lower part, in a valley or on the banks of a rivulet, has arable culture connected with it ; and every pastoral farmer is desirous of having as much arable laud on his farm as will produce corn for the support of his family and servants and horses, and supply straw and turnips for the use of his stock in winter. Such a farm re- quires an adequate steading, and such a steading is necessarily provided with a thrashing-machine and straw-barn. Wherever these requisites are available, the principle we have advanced above, in par. 32, is applicable in the construc- tion of the steading. 63. Fig. 1, Plate II., presents such a steading, where the central part is occupied with the thrashing-machine and straw-barn in a line north and south of a range of building having apartments in the upper wing connected with the operations of the arable part, and in the lower one, with the pastoral department of the farm : The corn-barn a is 18 feet by 26, with a door at the back to the stackyard, and a window looking into the cattle-court p ; b is the site of the thrashing-machine, c the chaff-house, 5 feet wide, with an internal door to the straw-barn and a window into the cattle-court p ; d the straw-barn, 18 feet by 21, has four doors, two to cattle-courts, and two outside them, to the stables and byre ; e the cart-shed, 18 feet by 22, with two 12 PLANS OF STEADINGS port-holes; /the gig-house, 18 feet by 9; and h the horse-course, 26 feet in diameter. To the right of the central range of buildings are the cattle-sheds I and m, 18 feet by 30 each, with their respective courts p and , 20 feet by 5, having a window at the end. The chimney-stalk, 50 feet in height, is seen at the end of the boiler-house g; i is a shed for cattle, 18 feet by 30, and 1: a court, 30 feet by 30, connected with it; I is a shed for cattle, 18 by 38 feet, and in its court, 38 feet by 30 ; n and o are the turnip-stores for the respective cattle-courts, n being 24 feet 9 inches by 7 feet, and o, 26 feet 9 inches by 7 feet. These apartments consti- tute the central portion of the steading. 85. In the right wing are these apartments : p, a loose-box, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; q, the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door in front; r, a hay -house, 18 by 20 feet, with a window and door in front, and an internal door into the cart-horse stable s s, 18 by 78 feet ; t is a central door to bring the straw from the straw-barn into the stalls, and in front are a dpor and four windows; u is another hay-house, 18 by 14 feet, with a window in front and a door at the back ; and v is the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window, and an internal door to the hay-house u. 86. In the left wing are the following apartments : w is the hen-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and a bole at the back; x x the cart-shed, 18 feet by 55, with six arched ports ; y the cow-byre or shippen, 18 by 40 feet, w r ith 8 double-stalls for 16 cows, should the hinds have a cow's keep as part of their wages, with a door and two windows in front; z an implement- house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; a' an outhouse, 18 feet by 15, with a door and Aviudow in front; and I' another outhouse for any purpose, with a door and window in front. 87. The pigs may share the sheds and courts with the cattle, but a pig-sty for feeding them for domestic use may be erected as a lean-to against the gable of the boiling-house e. 88. The dotted lines show the construction of the building and the style of roofing, with the positions of the doors, and windows, and chimneys. 89. They also show the highest part of the building, which consists of two floors or storeys. The upper storey contains the apartments an shown in fig. 8, where a a is the upper barn immediately above the corn-barn and steam- engirie room, with a bole for air o ; &, the site of the thrashing-machine with its gearing, drum, and shakers ; c, the dotted lines, the beams of wood which support the thrashing-machine ; cZ, the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stack- yard, from which the sheaves are brought from the stack either on wheel-barrows, or by carts loaded at the stack arid placed right under this door, and the sheaves forked into the barn ; e, the sky-light in the roof for giving light to the barn ; /, a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, for passing the roughs of grain from the corn- barn, to be again thrashed by the mill when elevators are not appended to the mill ; g a bole, 4 feet by 3, communicating with the straw-barn, through which to fork any straw that may require to go again through the mill ; h the straw- barn ; / one granary, 18 feet by 45, entered from the corn-barn by a stair through the engine-room, with three windows on one side and two on the other, and one at the gable, and k is another granary, 18 feet by 61, entered by a stair direct 16 PLANS OF STEADINGS from the corn-barn, with three windows on each side and one at the gable ; I a cock-loft or gangway over the boiling-house, entered by a fixed trap-stair in Fig. 8. UPPER FLOOR OF A STEAKINO FOR CARSE FARMINO. that house ; and m is a good place of warmth from the boiler for a pigeon-house, 18 feet by 6, up to the roof, and the pigeons to enter through the gable. 90. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of f and -| of an inch very nearly to the foot. The scale of fig. 8 will be found in Plate III. 91. The extreme outside length of the principal east and west range of the building is 145 feet ; the length of the middle range north and south is 83 feet ; the length of the right wing is 169 feet, that of the left 170 feet. The width of all the apartments within walls is 18 feet. 92. The arrow shows the direction of north. 93. The farm and hinds' houses should be placed near the steading. 94. On looking at the plan on Plate III., with the view of amendment, it would make a more compact arrangement to push the hay-houses and cart- horse stable up to the loose-box p, and place the gig-house q at the end of the building on this side of the riding-stable, with its wide door looking this way. 95. DESCRIPTION OP STEADINGS FOR DAIRY FARMING. Dairy farming is conducted on two scales, large and small. A large dairy requires ample accom- modation for live stock, a considerable extent of arable land, as well as perma- nent pasture, and can only be prosecuted by targe capitalists. A small dairy may be conducted by farmers of small capital. Each of the scales requires a different arrangement. 96. Large Dairy Farming. A large dairy farm comprehends four distinct ope- rations for which accommodation must be provided. The first is, arable culture to produce food for the stock summer and winter ; 2. The dairy, comprehending the making of butter and cheese ; 3. The breeding of stock in as far as to replen- ish the stock of cows ; and, 4. The rearing and feeding of pigs. 97. The plan of a steading in Plate IV. comprises all these requisites. The FOE LARGE DAIRY FARMING. 17 two right wings of the steading are devoted to the use of arable husbandry, the broad division in the centre accommodates the operations of the dairy ; while the left wing comprehends the breeding and rearing of heifers and pigs. 98. In the lower one of the two right wings is the corn-barn a, 18 feet by 30, with a door and window at the back and a window in front, and in which is the space for the thrashing-machine b and chaff-house c, with a door leading into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 40, which has two doors, and a straw-cutter placed in it moved by power; e is a turnip-store, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window facing the byre. At the outside of the gable, as a to-fall or lean-to, are the hammels for young horses, with their sheds//, 12 feet by 9 each, and courts g g, 10 feet by 9 each; h is the steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a trap-door to the boiler-house /, 24 feet by 10, with a door and window. The coal-store is at , 24 feet by 5, with a door from the boiler-house and a window at the farther end. The boiler-house and coal-store are covered by a lean-to roof, and the chimney-stalk, 50 feet in height, is close to the boiler-house ; m is the cart-shed, 18 feet by 44 feet 6 inches, with five arched port-holes arid a door at the back at Z, to give access to the stackyard; n is the implement-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window. 99. In the upper right wing is the cart-horse stable o, 18 feet by 36, with a door and two windows in front, and provided with a loose box, 18 feet by 8, with an internal door to the stable ; p is the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and two internal doors, one leading to the cart-horse and the other to the riding-horse stable ; q is the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, with three stalls, and a door and window in front ; r is the gig -house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door ; and s is the boiling-house for preparing food for the horses and pigs, 18 feet by 20, with a door in front and window at the back, and provided with two boilers. A small pigeon-house could be placed in the couples of this apartment, where the pigeons would derive warmth from the boilers. 100. In the dairy department, t is the hay-house, 18 feet by 22, with a door and window in front, and in which the hay-cutter is placed and moved by power; u is the turnip-cutting-machine room, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, where the machine is moved by power ; v is the churn-room, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a window at the back, and an internal door leading into the cheese-press room : the churn is moved by power, the entire milk being churned at a time ; w is the cheese-press room, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a window at the back and a door opposite leading into the cow's boiling-house, and an internal door into the milk-house; x is the milk-house, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with two windows at the back and an internal door from the cheese-press room, and provided all round with stone shelving ; y is the wash-house for cleaning the dairy-utensils in, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a window in the side wall and a door opposite leading into the cow boiling -house, and is furnished with a boiler and a separate chimney- stalk ; z is the cow boiling-house, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a door into the wash-house, another into the cheese-press room, and a third, that of entrance, from the passage e'; it is provided with two boilers for preparing the food for the cows, from which a double chimney-stalk rises up separately ; a' is a turnip- store, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a door and window in front, and a door to the passage, by which the turnips are carried to the boilers in the boil- ing-house z. The continuation of this range is the cow-byre or shippen, 98 feet by 55, divided into two great heads for the milking-cows, of which B 18 PLANS OF STEADINGS b' b' and c c' are the cleansing passages and grapes ; d d\ e e', f f, the feeding passages, 4 feet in -width ; g g is the part of the byre in which the heifers to- be transferred into the cow-stock are lodged. The cleansing passages are furnished with a door at each end for ingress into the byre and egress for the dung, and the feeding passages with a window at each end for light. The roof is provided with ventilators. From e e to ff'i& a passage, 4 feet wide, down the middle of the byre, to allow the food to be brought in the cooler from the boiling-house to the ends of their respective feeding passages. 101. In the left wing, in the stock department, are the following apartments : h' h' the hammels for bulls, 18 feet by 8 in the sheds, and the same dimen- sions in the courts i' i', with a port to each shed and a gate to each court ; k' k' k' are the hammels for heifers, 18 feet by 14 in the sheds, and the courts i i i of the same dimensions, with a port to each shed and a gate to each court ; m is a hammel for yearling heifers, 18 feet by 14 in the shed, and a court of the same dimensions ; o' is a small turnip- store, 8 feet by 4 ; and 1? is a larger turnip-store, 14 feet by 7 ; p' is the hen-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and a bole at the back of the ' range ; q is an outhouse, 18 feet by 16 feet 6 inches, with a door and window in front ; r' is the calves- house, 1 8 feet by 32, with a door and two windows, and capable of containing 22 calves ; s' s' s' are piggeries, each sty 10 feet by 6 in the shed, and 8 feet by 6 in the court, with a door and window in front, and provided with a passage along the back of all the sties, of 4 feet in width ; u' is a covered dung-stance, 18 feet by 28, with a door in front, and a wide door for a cart at the back. 102. The dotted lines give the form of all the roofs, doors, windows, and chimney-stalks. 103. The highest part of this steading is confined to the extreme right of the principal range, with the spur at right angles containing the straw-barn and turnip-store, the principal range being divided into two floors, the upper one containing the apartments as shown in fig. 9, where a is the upper barn im- mediately above the corn- barn and the steam-engine room ; b the site of the thrashing-machine, with its gearing, drum, and shakers ; e the beams of wood which support the thrashing-ma- chine ; d the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stack- yard, from which the sheaves of the stacks are brought into the barn, either on wheelbarrows or on carts loaded at the stack, and then placed right under this door, to be forked into the barn ; c the sky-light in the roof, to give light to the barn ; f a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of grain from the corn-barn below, to be rethrashed where no elevators are appended to the mill ; g, a bole, 4 feet by 3|, UPPER JLOOR OF A 8TEADINO FOR A I.AROF. DAIRT. FOE SMALL DAIRY FARMING. 19 communicating with the straw-barn for the purpose of forking up any straw that may require to be again passed through the mill; h is the straw-barn, and i the granary, 18 feet by 63, entered by a stair direct from the corn-barn, with four windows on one side arid three on the other, and one in the gable ; and 1c is the cheese-room, 18 feet by 24, with two windows on each side, and entered by a fixed trap-stair in the turnip-store below. 104. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of and -*- of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 9 will be found in Plate IV. 105. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 304 feet, the length of the upper right wing is 138 feet, the length of the lower right wing is 101 feet, the length of the byre division is 121 feet ; and the length of the left wing 149 feet. The width of all the apartments within walls is 18 feet. 106. The arrow shows the direction of north. 107. The farm-house and the hinds' and dairymaids' cottages should be near the steading. 108. Small Dairy Farming. Small dairy farming, as well as the large, is practised at a distance from towns, and hence the small system may be regarded as an epitome of the larger one just described. It might therefore be concluded that a reduced scale of the larger steading described above would answer for the smaller system ; but such a conclusion is not always a correct one as re- gards the arrangement of a steading. Many of the apartments of a small steading require to be as commodious as those of a large, while other apart- ments might be contracted ; and hence, that both classes of apartments may bear the same relation to each other, it is necessary to modify somewhat their relative positions in steadings of different sizes. 109. For this reason, the plan of a small dairy steading, given at fig. 1, in Plate V., has a different arrangement from that of the large dairy farm in Plate IV. While the distinctive division of the arable from the dairy portion is pre- served, the spare space between the wings is conveniently occupied with the necessary adjuncts of the dairy. 110. The centre is still devoted to the purposes of the straw, where a is the corn-barn, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window at the back in the stackyard, including the space appropriated to the thrashing-machine at &, and the chaff- house at c, 5 feet wide, with a window in front, and an internal door leading into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 24, with a door in front and one at the back into the stackyard ; e is the horse-course, 27 feet diameter, in which a two-horse power driving-gear is fixed. 111. In the right wing is/, the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, for three stalls, and with a door and window in front; g cart-shed, 18 feet by 18, with two port-holes ; h the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 12, with a door and win- dow in front, and furnished with two stalls ; i is the gig-house, 18 feet by 9, with a wide door ; k the implement-house, 18 feet by 10 feet 6 inches, with a door and window in front ; Z, an outhouse, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front ; and m, a bull's hammel, 18 feet by 11, with a door and window in front. 112. In the centre and left wing, connected with the dairy, are the following apartments : o is the churning-room, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; q is the food-store and cheese-press room, 18 feet by 12, with a window and door in front ; r the milk-house, 18 feet by 25, with a door in front and two windows at the back, and furnished with stone shelving all round ; s the byre for heifers, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window in front ; t t the cow-byre or shippen, 18 feet by 56, having seven double-stalls, each 8 feet wide ; and u is 20 PLANS OF STEADINGS the hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door at the back, a window in the gable, and a bole in front. 113. In the space between the wings are these apartments : v the hay-house for supplying hay to the stables and byres, 18 feet by 24, with a window, and with a door on each side ; w the wash-house, 18 feet by 12, with a window and door, and boiler for cleansing the dairy utensils ; x the boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door on one side and a window on the other, and two boilers for preparing food for the cows, horses, and pigs ; and y y y are pig- sties, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet each, with courts z z z, the central one being 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, and the two extreme ones each 6 feet by 5. These sties are covered with a lean-to roof against the gable of the adjoining boiling -house. 114. Gearing may be erected for driving a straw-cutter in the straw-barn d, and the churn in the chuming-room o ; and the gearing might be extended in front, under-ground, into the hay-house t>, for driving a hay-cutter there. 115. The dotted lines show the structure of the building, and the position of the windows, doors, and chimneys. 116. The highest part of this steading is confined to the principal range, which is divided into an upper and lower floor. The upper one contains the apartments shown in fig. 10, where a is the upper barn immediately above Fig. 10. UPPER BTO the corn-barn ; b the site of the thrashing-machine, with its gearing, drum, and shakers. It would be better to have the mill near the power, in which case the positions of the corn-barn a, in Plate V., fig. 1, and the mill b and chaff-house c should be reversed, c the door, 6 feet wide, for receiving the sheaves ; d a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of grain from the corn -barn below to be rethrashed by the mill ; e a bole, 4 feet by 3^, communicating with the straw-barn to allow any of the straw to be forked up to be again passed through the mill, if necessary ; /the straw-barn ; g the granary, 18 feet by 35, entered by a stair from the straw-barn, to which direct access is given by the back-door of the straw-barn from the corn-barn ; and h is the cheese-room, 18 feet by 15, with a window on each side, and one in the gable, and entered by a stair from the cheese-press room below. 117. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of f and J of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 10 will be found at fig. 1, Plate V. 118. The extreme length of the central range over walls is 103 feet, that of the right and left wings 119 feet, and that of the intermediate range 71 feet. The width within walls of all the apartments is 18 feet. 119. The houses for the farmer and servants should be near. 120. The arrow points to the north. 121. DESCRIPTION OP A STEADING FOR SUBURBIAL FARMING. The ground in the immediate vicinity of all towns is devoted to the cultivation of vegetables for the domestic use of their inhabitants. Around large towns this garden culture may extend for a mile or so, and beyond that distance commences what we have FOE SUBUEBIAL FARMING AVITH AEABLE CULTUEE. 21 denominated Suburbial Farming, the object of which is to supply those products to the inhabitants which are not afforded by the garden, such as straw, hay, turnips, forage, potatoes, milk, &c. Suburbial farming is therefore either entirely arable or entirely dairy, each of which requires a different arrangement. 122. Suburbial Farming with Arable Culture. The plan of a steading appli- cable to a farm of this description is given at fig. 2, Plate V. It has its central portion occupied by the straw, and the right wing is devoted to arable culture, while the left is appropriated to domestic purposes. In the central range is the corn-barn a, 18 feet by 30, with a window in front, and a door and window at the back, in the stackyard. The barn includes the space for the thrashing- machine 6, and the chaff-house c, 5 feet by 9, with a window in front, and an internal door leading into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 40, with one door in the front, another on the opposite side leading into the cattle-court z<, and a third into the space in front of the cow-byre z ; /is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 20, with a door and window in front ; g is the steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a trap-door at the back entering at level of the top of the boiler, and leading by steps to the floor of the. engine-room ; h is the boiler-house, 20 feet by 7, with a door in front and a window at the end, and an internal door into the coal-store z, 20 feet by 4, having a window at the end. The chimney-stalk is seen rising 50 feet in height from the base- ment. The cart-shed Z, 18 feet by 38, has four arched port-holes, with a door at the back at &, leading into the stackyard. At the inner end of the cart-shed are three open pig-sties, each 13 feet by 5 feet 3 inches, with a door to each. 123. In the right wing are the following apartments : n the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 50, for eight stalls, with two doors and a window in front and a window at the end; q a hay-house, 18 feet by 9, with a door in front, and two internal doors, one leading to the cart-horse, the other to the riding-horse stable ; r the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, having three stalls and a door and window in front, and an internal door to the hay-house ; and s the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door in front. 124. In the centre and left wing are these apartments : t a shed for cattle under the principal range, 18 feet by 32, with an arched port 9 feet wide, and outside a courtyard u, 45 feet 9 inches by 26 feet, having a gate to the space outside, and a door to the straw-barn ; v the hen-house, 18 feet by 13, with a door and window in front ; w outhouse, 18 feet by 10, with a door and window in front ; x implement-house, 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in front ; y turnip-store, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window at the back; and z cow- byre, 18 feet by 31, with a door and window at the back. 125. The dotted lines show the structure of the buildings, the position of the doors and windows, and of the chimney-stalks. 126. The highest part of this steading is along the principal range and the south projection as far as the straw-barn, and the range is divided into two floors or storeys, the upper one containing the apartments as shown in fig. 11, where a is the upper or feeding-in barn, immediately above the corn-barn ; b the site of the thrashing-machine, with gearing, drum, and shakers ; c the beams of wood which support the thrashing-machine ; d the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stack- yard, from which the sheaves are brought from the stack to the barn, either on wheel-barrows or on carts loaded at the stack, and then placed under this door to be forked into the barn ; /sky-light in the roof over the head of the man that feeds the sheaves into the mill ; e a hatch, 3^ feet by 3, in the floor, for passing the roughs of grain to be rethrashed by the mill when no elevators are appended 22 PLANS OF STEADINGS to it; g a bole, 4 feet high by 3J feet wide, communicating with the straw-barn, for allowing any straw to be forked that requires to be again passed through the mill ; h is the straw-barn ; k one granary, 18 feet by 64, with four windows on each side, and entered by a stair direct from the corn-barn ; i another granary, Fig. 11. 3FPER 8TORET Of A STEADrSO TOS. SC ITH ARABLE CULTURE. 18 feet by 62, with five windows on one side and four on the other, and entered from the corn-barn by a stair through the engine-room ; and I the pigeon-house, 18 feet by 6, entered by a trap-stair from the hen-house below. 127. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of nearly f of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 11 will be found at fig. 2, Plate V. 128. The extreme length of the principal range over walls is 158 feet, that of the right and left wings 95 feet, that of the middle range 64 feet, and all apartments 18 feet in width within walls. 129. The farmhouse and servants' cottages should be near the steading. 130. The arrow points to the north. 131. Suburbial Dairy Farming. In suburbial dairy farming the chief object is the production of new milk for immediate consumption in towns. For this purpose a large accommodation should be provided for cows, and for the preparation of their food. At the same time, there should be liberty to convert some of the milk into butter, and even into cheese. There must always be arable culture in connec- tion with dairy husbandry, and in case the entire arable products should not be con- sumed on the farm, the surplus is sent to market. It will thus be easily understood that suburbial dairy farming should be conducted on a somewhat large scale, and that the size of the steading should bear an adequate proportion to the extent of the farming. The cows in a suburbial dairy being purchased, either calved or about to calve, in-the weekly markets, no accommodation is required for the rearing of young stock ; nor are hammels for bulls needed in such farming, as the cows are allowed to yield milk as long as they can, and are then disposed of to the butcher in fair condition. 132. The plan in Plate VI. affords the accommodation required in a steading for suburbial dairy farming, where the centre is occupied by the straw, and one wing is devoted to arable and the other to dairy operations. 133. In the central range is the corn barn a, 18 feet by 31, with a window in FOE SUBTJB.BIAL DAIRY FARMING. 23 front, and a door and window at the hack in the stackyard ; b is the space occu- pied by the thrashing-machine, and c, that by the chaff-house, 8 feet by 5, with its window in front, and an internal door leading to the straw-ham d d, 18 feet by 39, with a door on both sides near the thrashing-machine ; h is the steam- engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a trap-door at the back leading into the boiler-house /, 24 feet by 7, having a door in front and a window at the end, and an internal door to the coal-store , 24 feet by 5, with its window at the end. The chimney- stalk, 50 feet high, is seen to rise from its basement; e is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door in front and window at the back, and two boilers in the corners ; /is a large turnip-store, 18 feet by 23, with a door and window in front, and an internal door leading into the boiling-house e - feet high, for allowing straw to be forked np from the straw-barn, when desired to pass it again through the mill ; h the straw-barn ; i wool-room, 18 feet by 18, with a window in each side, and an entrance-door by the gable, reached by an outside stone stair: k granary, 18 feet by 55, with three win- dows to the north and four to the south, and a stair direct from the corn-barn; I a granary, 18 feet by 47, with two windows to the north and three to the south, and a stair from the corn-barn across the engine-room; and m the pigeon-house, 18 feet by six, partitioned from the granary /, with a trap-stair from the cattle-shed r below, and an entrance for the pigeons through the gable at c" . 178. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of rather more than 2. of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 14 will be found in Plate VIII. 179. The extreme length over walls of the principal range of this steading is 431 feet, that of the central range 104 feet, and that of the lower left range 218 feet. The width within walls of the principal range, the middle range, and the lower left range, is 18 feet. The length of the cart-shed t', &c., is 91 feet, and width 38 feet, over walls. The length over walls of each row of hammels is 91 feet, and width 32 feet. The length of the cattle-boxes over walls, in fig. 2, is 69 feet, and width 52 feet. The length of the cattle-byre over walls, in fig. 3, is 58 feet, and width 56 feet. The length of fig. 4 over walls is 100 feet, and width 42 feet. The length of the dung-stance q' over walls is 25 feet, the width 20 feet. 180. The servants' houses should be near the steading : the farmhouse may be at a little distance. 181. The arrow points to the north. 182. In Plate IX. is given an isometrical elevation of the steading just described, and although only in outline, it is a good representation of what the steading should appear to the eye. A shaded one would have given a more picturesque effect, but not more accurate. It will be observed that all the apartments occupied by the animals have their fronts presented to the sun's light, which is an essentially good feature in winter in any steading. The ham- mels, in this respect, bear a favourable comparison, to either boxes or byres, in as far as the cheerfulness and health, and, in consequence, the well-being, of the animals inhabiting them, are concerned. Not only the hammels, but the courts and sheds of the young cattle, the byres, the stables, and the accommo- dation for the minor animals, are as favourably situated as to sunlight ; while those for the straw, the carts, and the manure, are placed in the shade, as they should be. 183. The isometrical elevation is a common and graphic mode of representing steadings; but the combination of the isometrical and the ground-plan, as given in Plate VIII., is a still more satisfactory method of representing such a build- ing in a drawing. The names of the various apartments are marked as distinctly as in the ground-plan, while the horizontal section of the walls at three feet above the ground, gives such a reality to the form of each apartment, with its doors and windows, as at once to indicate its size and use ; and the dotted lines above the sectioned walls afford a correct and distinct enough idea of the building as it should appear in a complete isometrical perspective. We would therefore re- commend this combined method of representation for all plans of steadings, even for the working places for masons, as the most useful and satisfactory. And farther, this style of perspective affords equal facilities for taking measurements 32 PLANS OF STEADINGS from the ordinary scale, with ground-plans drawn in the usual way. This is the first instance that we are aware of in which this combined method of perspec- tive and plan has been presented to the notice of the public.* 184 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANS OF THE EOOFS OF THE STEADINGS DESCRIBED IN PLATES I. TO VIII. As the roofs of buildings are an expensive item in their construction, it is desirable they should be made in the simplest form. This remark applies forcibly to the roofs of steadings, inasmuch as ornamental work is excusable in many cases in houses and cottages as a matter of taste ; whereas in steadings, which are exclusively devoted to rough and common pur- poses, ornamental roofs seem unsuited to their use. It should therefore be the aim to give the roofs of steadings the simplest form consistent with strength and durability. Now, there cannot be a simpler form of roof than a long stretch, nor a more durable one than when the stretch terminates at both ends at a gable. There should therefore be nothing but stretches, and as few breaks in the roofs of steadings as possible. 185. Another point, as a principle, is, that at the turns of a roof, it is stronger for one stretch to terminate in a gable, and in the other to join the roof, than to make the turn in the form of a pavilion ; because a pavilion is always made at a sacrifice of timber, and timber is more expensive than ordinary rubble masonry. A pavilion-roof is only excusable in a steading when the apart- ment is of extraordinary width ; because were gables raised in a proportionate height to inordinate breadth they would seem incongruous and out of propor- tion to the rest of the building. Some apartments are better for being of great width, as an ox or cow byre in a large establishment, where many animals can be concentrated in a comparatively small space, and view r ed and tended with ease and little expense. Now that trussed-roofs of iron are successfully used at railway-stations, pavilion-roofs may be dispensed with altogether, and a series of roofs running parallel with one another, in the form of " ridge and valley," substi- tuted ; but it must be remembered that such a form has the disadvantage of having as many rows of iron pillars in the interior of the apartment as there are rows of roofs. 186. An important consideration in the economical construction of the roofs of steadings is the making all the apartments of one width, because the same scantlings or couples will answer for all the apartments, whether in a two or one storey ed building ; and when a small steading is pulled down for a larger, the old couples will answer for the new walls, or when an addition is built, the new piece joins in neatly with the old. When animals have to be attended to, ample room in the apartments is a great convenience. Experi- ence has proved that a less width than 18 feet is too little for a stable, a cow- byre, a corn-barn, an upper barn, straw-barn, or a granary ; and, as a conse- quence, that width should be adopted in all the working apartments of every steading, and we have adopted that width accordingly in all the steadings described above. 187. Turns in the roofs of steadings are necessary; for were the apartments of the wings placed in a line with the principal range, those in the two ex- tremities of a large steading would be at too great a distance from each other for one cattleman to undertake all his duties. Instead of one very long stretch, which would certainly give the simplest form of roof, a turn at one or both ends * Those unacquainted with the method of throwing ordinary plans into isometrical perspective, will find the subject fully treated of in a small work, price only two shillings, intituled Isome- trical Drawing, by Robert Scott Burn, forming a part of " Chambers's Educational Course." ROOF-PLANS OF STEADINGS. 33 is necessary to concentrate the work within a space consistent with economy of labour. Hence, a principal range with wings is a desirable form of steading; but, as we have said above, the turns of the wings should be at gables, not as pavilions, for the sake of economy in construction. Besides, wings afford shelter, and, along with the principal range and the projection of the central one, screen the courts from the north, east, and west winds. 188. We have endeavoured to follow those principles in the construction of the roofs of the steadings treated of in the foregoing pages, and, in order to show their application, we have given, in Plate X., a plan of the roofs of each of the steadings described in Plates I. to YLIL, and we shall now proceed to describe those roofs in detail. 189. Plate X., fig. 1, represents the roof-plan of a cattle-shed in a "Detached Pastoral Farm for rearing Cattle." The roof consists of a simple stretch from a to b, terminating at the gables a and b. The plan of the shed, of which this is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 1, Plate I. 190. Fig. 2 is the roof-plan of a steading for a " Detached Pastoral Farm for rearing Cattle," containing its various apartments. The roof also consists of a single stretch from a to 6, terminating at the gables a and b. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is shown at fig. 2, Plate I. 191. Fig. 3 represents the roof-plan of a " Compact Pastoral Farm-Steading for rearing Cattle." The roof consists of a principal range a b, and two wings a c and b d, the principal terminating at the gables a and 5, and the wings at the gables c and d. The wings join in level with the roof of the principal range, gutters being made in the line of junctions at e and e, to carry off rain- water. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is shown at fig. 3, Plate I. 192. Fig. 4 is a roof -plan for a " Pastoral Farm -Steading for rearing Cattle, with arable culture." Here the principal range a b is intercepted by the central one c d, which is two-storeyed, and containing the thrashing-machine and straw-barn. The parts of the principal range a c and c i, and the wings a e and &/, are on the same level, and are one-storeyed, and their junction is of the same form as at a and &, fig. 3. The roofs of the principal range a c and c b terminate in gables at a arid &, but are let in at the other end in the walls of the central range c d by means of raglins at g c/. The wings a e and b f ter- minate in gables at e and /, and the central range c d terminates in gables at c and d; 7* is the circular roof of the horse-course. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is shown at fig. 1, Plate IT. 193. Fig. 5 is the roof-plan for a "Pastoral Farm-Steading for Sheep, with arable culture." This plan has the principal range a b in two storeys, and which elevates its ridge above the level of the wings c and d. The principal range terminates in gables at a and ft, and the wings terminate in gables at c and d, and are at the other end let into the wall of the principal range by means of raglins at e e ; /is the circular roof of the horse-course. The plan of the stead- ing, of which this is the roof -plan, is shown at fig. 2, Plate II. 194. Fig. 6 represents the roof-plan for a " Carse Farm-Steading." The principal range a & is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a arid b. The central range c is also two-storeyed, terminating in the gable at c, and on a level with the ridge of the principal range, having the rain-gutters at the corners // The wings d and e terminate in gables at d and e, and are let into the wall of the principal range by means of raglins at g g. The roof at h is a lean-to covering the boiler-house and coal-store. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof- plan, is given in Plate III. c 34 PLANS OF STEADINGS. 195. Fig. 7 is the roof-plan for a " Large Dairy Farm- Steading." The principal range a b is interrupted at c, from whence to c b it is two-storeyed, and the central range e d is also two-storeyed and on a level with c b. The principal range terminates in gables at a, c, and 5, and the central range in a gable at rf, and in the roof of c b at e e. The wing bf terminates at f in a gable, and at g is let into the wall of c b by means of a raglin. The wing a h terminates at h in a gable, and at a on the roof of a c, having the rain-gutters i i ; k k is a wide pavilion-roof covering the cow-byre ; Us a lean-to roof cover- ing the boiler-house and coal-store ; and m is also a lean-to roof against the gable d. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given in Plate IV. 196. Fig. 8 is the roof-plan for a " Small Dairy Farm- Steading." The princi- pal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a and b. The wings a c and b d terminate in gables at c and rf, and are let into the wall of a b by means of raglins at e and e. The central and detached range / terminates in gables at /and g, and A is a lean-to roof against the gable g. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 1, Plate V. 197. Fig. 9 represents the roof-plan for a " Suburbial Farm-Steading, with arable culture." The principal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a and b. The central range c is also two-storeyed, terminating in a gable at c, and in the roof of a &, with the rain-gutters d d. The wings a e and b /terminate in gables at e and/ and are let in the wall of a b by means of raglins at g and g ; h is a lean-to roof covering the boiler-house and coal-store. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 2, Plate V. 198. Fig. 10 represents the roof -plan for a "Suburbia! Farm -Steading, with Dairy." The principal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a and J. The central range e d is also two-storeyed from e to c, terminating in a gable at c, and joining the roof of a b with the rain-gutters e e. The re- mainder of the central range from c to d is one-storeyed, terminating in the gable at rf, and against the gable c, by means of a raglin. The wing b g ter- minates in the gable at g, and in the wall of a b by means of a raglin at/. The wing h terminates in a gable at h, and in the wall of a b by means of a raglin at i; k is a detached cow-byre, having ridge-and-valley roofs, terminating at each end in gables ; I is a lean-to roof, covering the boiler-house and coal-store, and m is a lean-to roof against the gable g. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given in Plate VI. 199. Fig. 11 represents the roof-plan for a "Common Farm-Steading." The principal range a b is two-storeyed from c to c?, and so is the central range f e\ c d terminates in a gable at c and rf, and f e terminates in a gable at e, and in the roof of c d, with the rain-gutters //. The one-storeyed part of a b terminates in a gable at a and 5, and in the gables c and d by means of raglins. The right wing h g terminates in a gable at g, and joins the roof of d b, with the rain-gutters at h. The left wing k i terminates in a gable at /, and joins the roof of a c, with the rain-gutters at k ; I m n o are hammels, having their respective roofs terminating in a gable at each end ; p is feeding-boxes, having their roof terminating at each end in a gable ; q is a feeding-byre, having its roof terminating at each end in a gable ; and r is a dung-stance, having its roof terminating at each end in a gable ; s is a lean-to roof covering the boiler-house and coal-store. The plan of this steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given in Plate VII. 200. Fig. 12 represents the roof-plan of a steading for " Mixed husbandry." EOOFED STACKYARD. 35 The principal range a b is two-storeyed from c to d, and so is the central range fe;cd terminates in a gable at r and c/, and/c terminates in a gable at e, and in the roof of c d, with the rain-gutters at f f. The one-storeyed parts of a 5 terminate in gables at a and ft, and at gables c and t/, let in by means of raglins. The roof of the hammels g h terminates in a gable at y 18, furnished with three stalls: the riding- horse stable and all the loose-boxes are within the work-horse stable ; u gig- house, 18 feet by 10, with a 7 -feet door; v hay-house, 18 feet by 15, with a 9- feet door in front, and an internal one leading into the straw-barn, arid another into the feeding-byre /* ; w iv w cart-sheds, one 18 feet by 27, with three 8-feet port-holes; another, 18 feet by 1G, with two 8-feet port-holes; arid a third, 18 feet by 9, with one 8-feet port-hole, which last may be a loose-box if desired, having an internal door into the adjoining cart-shed, and another into the tool- house ; x tool-house, 18 feet by 22 feet G inches, with a door in front ; y cattle- shed, or court, 42 feet by 30 feet G inches; z a turnip-shed, 11 feet by 14, with an 8-feet door in front, and an internal one to the cattle-court ?/; a' pig-sty, 11 feet by 11, with a door in front; b' poultry-house, 18 feet by 15, with a door in front; c guano-house, 11 feet by 10, with a door in front; ^'carpenter's shop, 18 feet by 10, with a door in front; c! boiling-house, 11 feet by 11, with a door in front, and boiler and furnace at a back corner; /' potato-house, 9 feet by 11, with a door in front; g' privy, in the corner of the cattle- court ?/, with a door from a cart-shed ; h' the water-cistern for the steam-boiler. 23G. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 220 feet and width 79 feet. The length of the projection backwards is 93 feet by 23. 237. The steading is entirely under cover, divided into three ranges, the central being 37 feet in width, flanked on each side by a range of 18 feet in width, within walls. The ranges terminate in gables at each end, as seen by the front elevation in Plate XIII. The projection is two storeys, with the upper barn above the corn-barn, and one granary, above the other, is roofed in by itself. The boiler-house, engine-room, and boiling and potato houses are roofed in by themselves, and so is the chaff-house. The front of the calves' byre o is elevated into a gable for ornament, and there the pigeon-house may be situated. 238. The scale of this ground-plan is in the proportion of a little more than f of an inch to the foot. 239. It will be observed, in the arrangement of the apartments of this stead- ing, that the straw-barn is quite at hand to the feeding-byre h, and convenient for the stables, and loose-boxes, and cattle-sheds i k I. The cattle-sheds at y are a little out of the way of the straw-barn. It is a good idea to place the granaries in two floors, and to project them into the stackyard, but in that case a door will be required on each side of the upper barn to receive the sheaves from either side of the stackyard. The want of a high range east and west along the north side, to screen the buildings from the north wind, is not felt in this case, where all the apartments are under cover. 240. Still there are some inconveniences in the arrangement. The feeding- byre h is made a thoroughfare for the straw from the barn d. The cattle-sheds z, k, /, and ?/, the stables q and t, the loose-boxes r and s, the cow and calves' byres n and o, cannot be reached from the straw-barn but through the feeding- byre h ; and the cattle-shed ?/, in particular, must have its straw carried through the work-horse stable and boxes besides. The carpenter's shop should, we conceive, never form an integral part of any steading. Upon the whole, this is a compact convenient steading. 241. The arrow points to the north. 242. On the policy of placing all the apartments and courts of a steading under a series of roofs, there maybe difference of opinion. The entire covering has a protective, snug, comfortable appearance from the outside, but the comfort 44 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS within is more apparent than real. Every animal there is entirely excluded from the sunshine, and this is a positive privation in winter ; for the general warmth of sunshine is agreeable to every living creature. There is not a win- dow in all the outside walls of the main part of the building, so that the apartments must necessarily be lighted, if lighted at all, from the roof, and the more numerous such lights the more chances of rain-droppings therefrom. There are, besides, a great many outside doors, and when these must necessarily be placed in opposite walls, on account of the structure of the building, strong and cold draughts of air will be generated. The unpleasant sensation created by such draughts may be sensibly felt by any one who has had to wait for a train on the platform of a large covered rail way- station. In such a draught cattle cannot feel comfortable ; and where doors are numerous, and the traffic to apart- ments frequent, the chances are that some of them will be left open in opposite directions at the same time, and a constant draught generated and maintained. 243. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING AT COLESHILL, Highworth, Berkshire, belonging to and arranged by E. W. Moore, Esq. In Plate XIV. is the ground-plan of this steading, wherein, in the principle range, are : a the corn-barn, 24 feet by 44, with a door and two windows in front ; b root and food store, 24 feet by 44, with a door and two windows in front; c loose-box, 15 feet by 11, with a door and window in front; d riding-horse stable, 15 feet by 18, of three stalls, and with a door and large window in front; e harness-room off the stable, 15 feet by 5, with a fireplace, and a window in front, and an internal door to the stable and another to the gig-house; /gig-house, 15 feet by 16, with a large door and window in front ; g the office, 15 feet by 15, with a fireplace, and door and window in front, and a stair to the floor above ; h an open shed, 16 feet by 21, with a door at back to a stair down to the waggon-arches; ii cart-shed, 19 feet by 14, with two port-holes ; k waggon-arches, five in number, each 20 feet by 10 ; the steam-engine room, 26 feet by 9, is at the back of the corn-barn. 244. In the central range are : I a passage, 14 feet by 45, across the building; m the straw-barn, 18 feet by 33, with a door and window in front, a door to the passage I, and a door to the steaming and mixing rooms ; n the steaming-room, 18 feet by 16, having two boilers, with a door to the passage Z, and two windows in front, and a door to the straw-barn ; o mixing room, 18 feet by 16, having two vats, with a door to the straw-barn and to the steaming room, and a window in front ; p cattle-stalls, 18 feet by 62, having stalls for twelve cattle ; q fatting pig-boxes, 10 feet by 62, in two divisions of two boxes each ; r breeding-sow sties, 8 feet by 62, in six divisions, with a yard to each, 18 feet long ; s cattle- sheds, 20 feet by 68, in four divisions, with a yard to each, 16 feet by 23 ; t bulls' staUs, 18 feet by 18 ; u shed, 20 feet by 48, with a cow-yard, 46 feet by 31 ; v cow-yard, 30 feet by 38 ; w cattle-boxes, 26 feet by 182, in thirty-eight boxes, of 10 feet by 10, with two doors and two windows into the yards o' o', and a door at the left gable ; and another division, 21 feet by 43, in eight boxes, of 10 feet by 10. 245. In the right wing are : x cow-stalls, 11 feet by 100, in eighteen stalls, with an internal door to the calf-house ; y cow-boxes, 12 feet by 100, in ten boxes, with a door and three windows in front ; z calf-house, 10 feet by 29, in twelve cribs, with an internal door to the cow-stalls ; a! hay-house, 18 feet by 29, with an outer door, and an internal one to the cow-boxes, and a window in front. 246. In the left wing are : b' b' loose-boxes, 16 feet by 10, with a door and a window to each ; d c' cart-horse stable, 16 feet by 88, in twelve stalls, with two doors and four windows in front, and two windows at the back ; d' hay- AT COLESHILL, BERKSHIRE. 45 house and corn-room, 16 feet by 15, with a door in front, and a stair to a room above this and the harness-room ; , 14 feet by 9 feet, and 9 in height, with a fireplace /and window, and closet c. This might be occupied as a sitting-room and bedroom by the housekeeper, if the services of such a person are required ; if not, it might be a large store-room, with a fireplace, which would be useful for various purposes. The room d, 14 feet by 8 feet 3 inches, and 9 in height, having a window in it, but no fireplace, might be a bedroom for occasional stranger servants. It has a closet a in it, 3 feet by 2 in depth. 297. At the end of the passage is a water-closet z, lighted by a window in the gable of the jamb. It is 5 feet 3 inches by 3-| feet. It has water from the same cistern that supplies the sink in the scullery, and its soil-pipe descends in an appropriate recess in the wall. Its window could give light to the passage g by a glass window above the door, or light might be obtained by a cupola in the roof, or from the cheese-room h by windows in the lath-and-plaster wall. 298. The entire space above the kitchen-pantry and milk-house may be appro- priated to a cheese-room /;, 29 feet 2 inches by 12 feet, and 9 in height, with 3 windows. Besides the floor, proper shelving m m would afford accommodation to the cheese, in its various stages towards maturity ; and the lower halves of the windows provided with Venetian shutters, outside the glass, to regulate the air into the room when the windows are opened. Except in dairy farms, the milk- house and cheese-room are most conveniently placed within the farmhouse. 299. If there is sufficient room in the roof above these various apartments for a garret, access can be obtained to it by a stair at /, which would have to return upon itself in ascending the 9 feet, the height of the storey ; and both this stair and the one k down to the kitchen could be lighted by a long window at n. If there is no garret, then the cheese-room will be 32 feet 3 inches in length, by dispensing with the stair Z, as also with the window n. 300. These dimensions of kitchen and other apartments would be suited to the farmhouse of a farm of from f)00 to 1000 acres, under the Mixed husbandry. "The rnilk-house may, perhaps, be large enough for a small dairy-farm; but should it be preferred in the farmhouse, and it be too small for that purpose, it might easily be enlarged by increasing the length and breadth of the building. 58 PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES. 301. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Farmhouses. We BOW proceed to give illustrations of farmhouses of various sizes and in different styles. In fig. 23 we give a ground-plan of a first-class farmhouse : a the entrance steps ; b the ante-hall, 7 feet wide, with steat c ; d library, office, or study, 12 feet square. There are two doors to this room -one, the public, entering from the ante-hall b, the other leading to the hall e e, 7 feet wide ; // drawing-room, 20 feet by 16 ; g g the dining-room, 20 feet by 16 ; h h store-room, 16 feet by 12 ; i i stairs to second floor, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; k k kitchen, 16 feet square ; I kitchen-pantry, 10 feet 6 inches by 8 feet ; m m milk-house, 25 feet by 16, with closet n, 8 feet by 5 feet 6 inches. A lift o is placed in this closet, by Fig. 23. OKOONO-PLiN OP FA which articles are conveyed to the cheese-room above; p p scullery, 14 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, with pantry q, wash-boiler r, and slop-stone s. The back stairs to servants' bedroom are at t t; u u a passage, 3 feet wide, leading to back- entrance v ; w a water-closet, 3 feet 6 inches wide. 302. In the upper floor, fig. 24, a a, b b are the principal bedrooms, 20 feet by 16 ; c c small bedroom, 12 feet square ; d d nursery, 16 feet by 12 ; PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FAKMHOUSE. 59 e linen-closet, 7 feet square ; / water-closet, 3 feet wide ; g g servants' bed- room, 16 feet square ; h h cheese-room, ,'><} feet 9 inches by 1C feet ; i lift ; k k roof of scullery. 303. Fig. 25 shows an alternative arrangement of part of chamber-floor storey, in which a corre- i -j.1 Fig- 25. spends with g g, fig. 24 ; a passage b being taken off it, to give entrance to a bedroom c built over the scullery k k, fig. 24, or p p and pantry g, fig. 23 ; d cheese-room ; e a room. 304. In Plate XVIII., fig. 1, we give a drawing of front elevation in the Tudor Gothic style ; 60 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. fig. 3 being an alternative design in the Italian style ; fig. 2 being a second alternative design, adapted for three storeys, in the Tudor Gothic style. 305. In fig. 26 we give a side elevation (left hand in plan fig. 23) ; in fig. 27 back elevation (along the back of the plan, fig. 23) ; in fig. 28 side elevation (right- hand side of plan in fig. 23), finished to show stone-rubble walling ; in fig. 29, Fig. 27. longitudinal section in the line A B, fig. 23 ; in fig. 30 back elevation of alter- native design in same style as fig. 3, Plate XVIII. ; in fig. 31 a vertical section of milk-house m m, fig. 23, and above it cheese-room h h, fig. 24 PLAN OF A FIEST- CLASS FABMHOUSE. l f > [CD c a it n ill I.ONOITODIN. PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. 306. Second Design for First- Class Farmhouse. In fig. 32 we give ground-plan, and in figs. 33 and 34 cellar plan, and alternative cellar plan, and in fig. 35 chamber or first-floor plan of a farmhouse, designed in the Italian style, with campanile tower. 307. Ground-Plan. In fig. 32, a is the entrance-hall, 8 feet square ; b b drawing-room, 16 feet by 12 ; c c parlour or dining-room, 15 feet by 12 ; d d the kitchen, 15 feet by 12 ; e the scullery, 12 feet by 10 ; / the larder, 6 feet square ; g the china-pantry, 6 feet square ; h the cen- tral lobby, 4 feet wide ; i i staircase, 6 feet wide ; k water-closet and place for hats, 3 feet wide ; 1 1 milk- house, 25 feet by 12 ; mm cheese-room, 25 feet by 12. 308. Cellar Plan.Yig. 33 shows the cellar ar- rangement under the kitchen, where the " cheese-room " and "milk-house" are not in the ground floor, and where a is the stair, 3 feet wide ; b the coal-store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; c the beer and wine store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; d d milk-house, 24 feet by 11. In this arrangement the bedroom d, fig. 35, is taken as the cheese-room. In fig. 34 the cellar plan is shown as under the milk-house I I, and cheese-room m m, fig. 32. In fig. 34 the part a a is arranged, as in fig. 33, with coal and beer stores, as there indicated ; b b being a general store- cellar. 309. Chamber Plan. Fig. 35 : a a bedroom, 12 feet square ; b balcony ; c c bedroom, 15 feet by 12 ; d bedroom, 12 feet by 11 ; e e bedroom, 12 feet by 10 at widest, and 6 feet at narrowest part ; // bedroom, 12 feet by 10 ; g bath-room, 8 feet square ; h balcony. 310. Elevations and Section of Farmhouse, of which plans are given in figs. 32, 33, 34, and 35. Front elevation in fig. 36 ; back elevation in fig. 37 ; elevation of side towards left hand in ground-plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 38 ; the elevation of side towards right hand in plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 39 ; a transverse section on the line A B in ground-plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 40. The scale to which these drawings are constructed is given in fig. 32. SECTION OF MILK-HOUSE ESE-ROOM, FIO. 23 AND 24. PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE. Fig. 33. C4 PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES. CHAMBER-FLOOR PLAN OF FARMHOUSE IN ITALIAN STYLE SCALE IN FIQ. 32. Fig. 36. FRONT ELEVATION OF F4HMHOCS3 IN ITALIAN STTLI OROCND-PLAN AND SCALE IN FIO. 32. PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE EL n Fi-'. 38 66 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. Fig 39. IDE ELEVATION IN THS ITALIAN STYLE SCALE LN FIQ. 32. Fig. 40. LONOITUDINA 32 SCALE IN FIO. 32. PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE. 67 311. Third Design for a Firxt-C/aas Farmhouse. We now present a third set of plans of a farmhouse in tlio Tudor-Gothic style, the arrangement of the apart- ments of which present some claims to consideration. The plans are reduced from designs in Mr Scott Burn's work, Model Designs for Villas. 312. Ground-Plan. In fig. 41 we give a sketch of the ground-plan, with scale attached, in which a is the hall, 7 feet G inches wide ; b b the drawing-room, 16 feet 6 inches square; c c the dining-room, 16 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; dd breakfast-room, 12 feet 9 inches square ; e e kitchen, 12 feet 9 inches square ; / scullery, 8 feet 5 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; g pantry, 6 feet by 4 feet 9 inches ; h staircase, 3 feet wide. 68 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. Fig. 43. 313. Chamber or First Floor Plan, fig. 42. a a principal bedroom, 16 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 9 inches, from which is entered the dressing-room b, 5 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 3 inches ; c the flat over window, 4 feet wide ; d flat over door, 4 feet wide ; e e front bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; // back bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; g bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 3 inches ; h bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 3 inches ; i bath-room, 8 feet by 5 feet ; k water-closet, 3 feet wide ; Z well-hole ; m stairs. 314. Plan of Attic or Third Storey, fig. 43. a landing, 6 feet 6 inches wide ; b stairs, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c servants' bed- room, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet ; d second bedroom or store- room, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet ; e e plan of roof over apart- ments g and h in fig. 42; //plan of roof over apartments a a, b, i, k, in fig. 42. 315. Cellar Plan, fig. 44. The cellar occupies the part un- der the apartments d d, e e, /, and c c, in fig. 41. In fig. 44 a a is the staircase, 3 feet wide, entered from the point i, in fig. 41 ; b the landing, 5 feet wide ; c the cellar or store-room, 12 feet 9 inches square ; d beer-cellar, 12 feet 9 inches by 6 feet ; e wine-cellar, same dimensions ; / and g milk-rooms, each 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet. 316. Elevations and Sections. In fig. 45 we give sketch of front elevation ; in fig. 46 back elevation ; in fig. 47 end elevation towards apartments e e and /, fig. 41 ; in ' fig. 48 end elevation towards apartments b b and g, fig. 41 ; in fig. 49 transverse sec- tion on the line A B, fig. 41. 317. Enlarged Drawings and Details. From the small scale to which the eleva- tions now given are drawn, the peculiarities of window and door ornamentation are not observable ; to show these, we now give, in fig. 50, enlarged drawings of part of the front elevation in fig. 45, in which is the front entrance-door and window to breakfast- room d d, fig. 41. In fig. 51 we give ele- vation of gable above the apartment e e in fig. 42, showing barge-board, attic window, and one chimney-shaft. In fig. 52 we give the elevation of two of the three windows in end elevation, fig. 48, to the apartments c c and / in fig. 41. Fig. 44. ELLAK PLAN O* SCALE IN FIO. 41. PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE. 69 318. It may be objected to the designs which we have given for first-class farmhouses that they are too ornate, arid would involve in their erection a far greater sum than the ordinary circumstances of farming economy would warrant or justify. While conceiving it to be our duty to give each design complete, with the peculiar ornament fitted to its style leaving this to be adopted or not as desired we have endeavoured to meet the above objection by giving plans in which the picturesque effect, which should be striven after in all rural struc- tures, can be obtained by the outline of the buildings rather than by the orna- PLANS OF FAKMHOUSES. Fig. 47. END ELEVATION OF TtTDOS EOO8E JCALE IN FIG. 41. Fig. 48. BUD BLEVATION OF TDDOR HOUSE SCALE IN FIO. 41. ments by which their exteriors may be decorated. It is possible, nay, a matter of easy attainment, to erect a house in which large sums may be expended in the exterior decoration of its doors, windows, &c., and yet a bald, tame, and anything but picturesque effect will be produced ; while, on the other hand, a house may be erected with its exterior positively destitute of decoration, and yet presenting to the eye of the beholder a pleasing picturesqueness of outline. In the one case, the outline or general design of the building has been bald and tame tea-box fashion, so to speak attributes which no amount of external decoration could overcome ; while, in the other case, general design has been PLAN OF A FIBST- CLASS FARMHOUSE. 71 calculated to produce a picturesque effect, by the variety of outline or projection calling into existence the effect of light and shade, and producing an effect, which the lack of ornament does not diminish, and yet, if added thereto, would at the same time be perfectly appropriate, and tend to give it a more perfect because more finished appearance. 319. The scale to which figs. 50, 51, 52 refer is | of an inch to the foot. 72 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. Fig. 51. Fix. 52. ELEVATION, FIO. 46 SC AN INCH TO THE FOOT. fATION OF FICJ. 48 SCALE, .N INCH TO THZ FOOT. 320. The minimum of internal accommodation being determined on, it may be considered as axiomatic that a picturesque outline which will embrace this accommodation will be obtained as cheaply, at least very nearly so, as One which in its tameness will ever be a blot on the landscape and an eyesore to the man of taste. A pleasing building does not depend on its external deco- ration for effect, but, as we have already said, upon its general design or variety of outline. The external decoration appropriate to the style doubtless gives a finish to the building, but it may be dispensed with without in any degree marring the effect of the structure. We have deemed it best to give the approximative cost with, and without, decoration, leaving the parties interested to decide on its adoption or otherwise. 321. Approximative cost of fig. 1, Plate XVIII., a front elevation in the Tudor-Gothic style, with exterior decoration, and first-class interior fittings, is 1800. Without exterior decoration that is, the window and door voids, &c., without dressing, &c. the cost will be reduced to 1600. This again will be lessened by adopting a plainer style than first-class for the interior fittings, grates, paper hangings, &c. 322. The approximative cost of the house 'with three storeys, as in fig. 2, Plate XVIII., will be 2000 with, and 1800 without, exterior decorations. 323. The approximative cost of the second design of a first-class farmhouse in the Italian style, of which fig. 3, Plate XVIII., is a front elevation, may be set down at 1700 with, and 1600 without, decoration. 324. The approximative cost of the third design of a first-class farmhouse, illustrated by figs. 45 to 49, may be set down at 900 with, and 700 without, decorations. 325. The approximative cost of the design of a second-class farmhouse, illus- trated in figs. 56 to 58, may be set down at 800 with, and 660 without, decorations. 326. Design for a Second-Class Farmhouse. We now present a set of draw- ings illustrative of the arrangements and decoration of a farmhouse, giving less accommodation than those preceding. 327. Ground-Plan, fig. 53. a entrance-lobby, 6 feet wide ; b b dining- room, 16 feet by 14 ; cc parlour, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches; dd kitchen, 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; e scullery, 10 feet by 9 ; /pantry, or store- room, 9 feet by 5 feet 3 inches ; g stair, 3 feet wide ; h back-passage, 3 feet 4 inches wide. PLAN OF A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE. 73 328. Cellar-Plan, fig. 54. a stair, 3 feet wide, entered from the back- passage h, fig. 53, by a door at the point /; b the landing-place, 6 feet wide; c c beer and wine cellar, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; d d store or general cellar, 16 feet by 14 feet. 10 I.') 20 25 '? Ft. Flit. 54. 74 329. by 14; 7 feet PLANS OF FARMHOUSES. Chamber or First Floor Plan, fig. 55. a a principal bedroom, 16 feet b b bedroom, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; c linen-closet, 6 feet by 6 inches ; d d nursery or back bedroom, 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet Fig. 55. ft.UBER-PI.AK- OF A SI-CONE-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE IS FIO. 53. PLAN OF A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE. 75 6 inches, with closet <>, 3 feet by 4 feet 9 inches ; /servants' bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 9 feet ; g closet, 3 feet by 4 feet 3 inches ; h water-closet or bath, 6 feet by 3 feet 4 inches. 330. Elevations, fig. 56. Front elevation. Fig. 57, side elevation towards apartments c and d in fig. 53. Fig. 58, side elevation towards apartments 6, A, and /in fig. 53. Vis. 57. SIDE ELEVATION OF Fig. 58. 76 PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES. 331. First Design for a Third-Class Farmhouse. In fig. 59 we give ground- Fig. 59. OROUND-FLAN Or A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE, OF AN INCH TO Fig. 60. plan, and in fig. 60 chamber or first floor plan, of a two-storeyed farmhouse. The scale to which these plans are constructed is fy of an inch to the foot. 332. Ground-Plan, fig. 59. a the entrance- passage, 4 feet 3 inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 3 inches ; c c stair- case, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; d d bedroom, 14 feet 3 inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; e e kitchen, 12 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 3 inches ; / scul- lery, 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches. 333. Chamber - Plan, fig. 60. a a the land- ing, 3 feet wide ; b b front bedroom, 14 feet 3 inches by 11 feet 9 inches ; c c nursery or back bedroom, 14 feet 3 inches by 12 feet 6 inches; dd bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 3 inches ; e servants' bedroom, 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches ; / linen- closet, 4 feet 3 inches square. 334. Of this house we give the following as the front elevation. CHAMBER-FLOOR PLAN OF A THIHD-OLA8S FARMHODS: SCALE, INCH TO THK FOOT. PLAN OF A THIED- CLASS FAEMHOUSE. 77 I'ig. lil. 335. Second Design for a Third- Class Farmhouse. In fig. 62 we give ground- plan, and in fig. 63 chamber-plan, of another two-storeyed small farmhouse. Fig. 62. PLANS OF FABMHOUSES. 336. Ground-Plan, fig. 62. a entrance-passage, 5 feet 6 inches wide ; b stair- case, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c living-room, 14 feet square ; d d office or parlour, 14 feet by 10 feet 3 inches ; e e back-passage, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; f f kitchen, 14 feet by 12 ; g scullery, 11 feet by 9 ; h pantry or store-closet, 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches. 337. Chamber-Plan, fig. 63. a a landing-place, 5 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet 6 inches wide ; b b front bedroom, 14 feet square ; c c nursery, 14 feet by 12 ; Fig. 63. I <:/ LUB1 L-l U-CI.A3S FARMHC d c? bedroom, 14 feet by 10 ; e servants' bedroom, 11 feet by 9 ; /linen-closet, 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; g water-closet, 6 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. 338. Of this house we give front elevation in fig. 64. I I Fig- 64. PLAX OF A THIRD- CLASS FARMHOUSE. 79 339. Third Design for a Third-Clays Farmhouse. In fig. 65 wo give ground- plan, and in fig. 66 chamber-plan, of a two-storeyed farmhouse. 340. Ground-Plan, fig. 65. a entrance-porch, 5 feet wide ; b staircase, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c living-room, 15 feet by 13 with boiler and sink ; d bedroom, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches ; /small bed-closet, 8 feet by 5 feet ; g pantry, entering from scullery, 4 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 9 inches ; h closet, entering from living-room, 4 feet 6 inches by 4 feet ; z coal- house, entering from out- side, 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, and it may also enter from the scullery e. ; k privy or water-closet, 4 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches ; I store-room, 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 9 inches, entering better, perhaps, from the living-room c than from the outside ; m con- cealed bed. 341. Chamber-Floor, fig. 66. a landing-place, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; b b e scullery, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, 80 PLANS OF FABMHOUSES. front bedroom, 15 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; c bed-closet, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, with closet d, 8 feet by 5 ; e bed-closet, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches ; / closet, 4 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 6 inches ; g light store-room, 10 feet by 8 at the widest part, or it may be a bed-closet. 342. Of this house we give the front elevation in fig. 67. Fig. 67. i r DD DO DD - 1 ' i r ) FRONT ELEVATION OP A THIRD-CLASS FA 343. Fourth Design for a Third-Glass Farmhouse. In fig. 68 we give ground- plan, in fig. 69 chamber-plan, and in fig. 70 cellar-plan, of a two-storeyed small farmhouse. 344. Ground-Plan, fig. 68. a a passage or lobby, 5 feet wide ; b b dining- room, 16 feet square ; c c parlour, 14 feet by 12 ; d stairs, 2 feet 9 inches wide ; e kitchen, 13 feet by 12 ; / scullery, 9 feet by 6 ; g pantry, 2 feet 9 inches by 2 feet ; h h bedroom, 16 feet by 14. 345. Chamber-Plan, fig. 69. a a landing, 2 feet 6 inches and 5 feet wide ; b[b front bedroom, 16 feet by 14 ; c linen-closet, 9 feet by 5 ; d d bedroom, 14 feet by 12 ; e bedroom, 13 feet by 12 ; / closet, 12 feet by 6 ; g g bedroom or nursery, 16 feet by 14. 346. Cellar-Plan, fig. 70. a landing, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; the part b, 5 feet wide, may be fitted up with shelves for larder ; c c cellar or store, 14 feet by 12 ; d beer-cellar, 12 feet by 4. 347. Of this house the front elevation is given in fig. 71. PL AX OF A THIRD-CLASS F ABM 110 USE. 81 El? 82 PLANS OF FAKMHOUSES. Fig. 70. CELLAR-PLAN OP A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE IX FI 1 OQ 7ATIOS OF A THIRD-CLASS FAK1IHOC8E SCALE IN FIO 348. Plans of farmhouses, large and small, could be given in endless variety ; so the above plans are given more as suggestive ones for such structures than as perfect of their respective classes. Convenient arrangement of apartments, and ample room in those of them which are constantly occupied, are requisites as necessary in the farmhouse as in the farm-steading. But how often do we see in the laying-out of a farmhouse the large space sacrificed, and the constant inconvenience in consequence experienced, by making one or two large bed- rooms for the accommodation of friends who only pay a visit once a-year, or not so often. It would surely be a wiser plan that a friend who stays only a PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 83 few nights, should put up with a moderately-sized bedroom, than that the whole family be inconvenienced for want of adequate room throughout the year. 349. It is a nice adaptation of tilings to circumstances to see the farmhouse in every respect in keeping with the extent and value of the farm. It would be quite incongruous to tind a large, handsome, and ornamental house upon a poor small farm in an obscure part of the country ; and it would be equally incongruous to see a mean, tasteless house set down upon a valuable farm in a richly-cultivated district. The former incongruity is seldom, if ever, met with; but the latter is not so rare as it should be. Ample accommodation in his house is due to every farmer ; but a large ornate house should only be expected to be occupied by a tenant who pays 1000 of rent and upwards. No farmhouse should consist of less than two storeys, in order to distinguish betwixt the farmer and the farm-steward or bailiff, who. if fulfilling a high position as to management, or having a large family, might justly lay claim to a two-storeyed house, though it should not be as ornate as that occupied by a tenant. In the variety of houses we have given above, and which are still to follow, we hope that no difficulty will arise in choosing one fit for a tenant and another for a bailiff. DIVISION FOURTH. PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 350. OF the various schemes brought forward during the last fifteen or twenty years a period fruitful in philanthropic projects for the improve- ment of the social condition of our agricultural labourers, none perhaps has met with so much notice, and obtained such general favour, as that having for its object the improvement of their dwelling-houses. The labours of the press, of associated bodies, and of isolated individuals, possessed at once of interest in the question and influence in furthering its practical development, have all aided in placing the subject on a broad and permanent basis ; and in a space of time marvellously short in the history of any social movement, have raised it from a position humble in the extreme to one comparatively high in the estimation of the public. 351. But while gladly admitting that much practical advance has been made in this department of social progress, a full and candidly carried out investiga- tion of the agricultural districts of Great Britain shows, nevertheless, that more remains yet to be done. In truth, what has been bears a miserably small pro- portion to that which has yet to be effected, in bringing the house-accommoda- tion of our labouring population into that condition which sanitary science shows us to be needful, before we can secure the full and healthy development of their working capabilities. It needs but a limited inspection to convince us that, as dens in the city street, so hovels in the country hamlet, stare us in the face as of old. The biting blasts of winter blow fiercely through the chinks and crevices of dilapidated dwellings ; the rain soaks through the roof-tree and battered wall ; green-hued pools and reeking masses of filth pollute the air around ; and this not in the close alleys of the city, but in the purer air and brighter skies of the country. While in many districts we yet find that the homes provided for the labourers of the farm may be described by the pithy sentence, " floor, walls, and roof" and these, too, of the worst materials, put together in the most slovenly of ways we see on the same farm the utmost attention paid to the housing of the cattle reared on them, as if the bone and sinew of the inferior 84 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. animals were of infinitely more importance than the health and comfort of those who were hired to attend upon them. This indifference to the physical wants and moral necessities of the agricultural labourer, strange as it is in its philo- sophical phases, is unfortunately as deplorable in its social results. 352. The following, although written some years ago, may be taken as a type of the condition of the cottages of the agricultural labourer in many of our farming districts more particularly perhaps in England of the cottages of a district of which (Northumberland) one sentence is in fact a description : " The general character of the best of the old-fashioned hinds' cottages in the neigh- bourhood is bad at the best. They have to bring everything with them parti- tions, window-frames, fixtures of all kinds, grates, and a substitute for ceiling ; for they are, as I have already called them, mere sheds. They have no byre for their cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or comfort. The average size of these sheds is about 24 feet by 16. They are dark and unwholesome. The windows do not open, and many of them are not larger than 20 inches by 16. Into this space within the shed are crowded eight, ten, and even twelve persons. How they lie down to rest, how they sleep, how they can preserve common decency, how unutterable horrors are avoided, is beyond all conception. The case is aggravated when there is a young woman to be lodged in this confined space, who is not a member of the family, but is hired to do the field-work, for which every hind is bound to pro- vide a female. It shocks every feeling of propriety to think that, in a room, and within such a space as I have been describing, civilised beings should be herding together, without a decent separation of age and sex. So long as the agricultural system in this district requires the hind to find room for a fellow- servant of the other sex in his cabin, the least that morality and decency can demand is, that he should have a second apartment, where the unmarried female, and those of a tender age, should sleep apart from him and his wife." " If we follow," says another writer, " the agricultural labourer (in Bedfordshire) into his miserable dwelling, we shall find it consist of two rooms only. The day- room, in addition to the family, contains the cooking utensils, the washing apparatus, agricultural implements, and dirty clothes ; the windows broken and stuffed full of rags. In the sleeping apartment, the parents and their children, boys and girls, are indiscriminately mixed, and frequently a lodger sleeping in the same and only room : generally no window the openings in the half-thatched roof admit light, and expose the family to every vicissitude of the weather. The liability of the children so situated to contagious maladies frequently plunges the family in the greatest misery." 353. But lest our readers should deem these to be descriptions of the hovels of bygone times, we quote from the description of recent writers accounts of the present condition of the houses of labourers in many of our agricultural districts : " Look," says a graphic writer* one who has widely and practically investi- gated the subject in all its bearings " at those structures called cottages. They are mere hovels of mud, or of ' wattle and daub,' or of rubble stone set in mud, or of rude timber frames filled in with mud, or with brick, or with stone, or with other material. The timber is rotten ; the mud, bricks, and stones are damp in wet weather, and dusty in dry weather. Look at the site probably a hole not unfrequently a swamp several feet below the adjoining road, the slope being towards the door. If on an elevation, the ground is unformed, rugged, abrupt, uneven, and neglected. Many of these hovels are only one storey in * Mr R. Rawlinson. On House Accommodation: its social bearing, individually and nationally. A Paper read before the Society of Arts, Feb. 3, 1858. PLANS OF FAFtM COTTAGES. 85 height, the side walls arc very low from three to six feet up to the square few are vertical, and some are supported l>y buttresses or by props. Many are half-buried against a hill-side, or against a bank which is wet. Then the roof : this is of thatch, of heather, or of straw ; or is formed of turf, of sods, of shingle, of tile, or of slate. If of thatch, the material is rotten with age, and green with fungoid vegetation; if of shingle, the timber is decayed; if of slates, they are broken and in holes. Doors and windows match the structure, and the floor is of native mud the space enclosed being common to bipeds and to quadrupeds alike. The floor is not only very dirty, but the walls, furniture, and roof, are the colour of grimy dirt. Amongst the rafters, spiders and other insects abound. Outside, animal refuse is stored in some hollow where liquid permanently rests, so as to keep up evaporation and an evolution of gases highly injurious to human life; and if this refuse does not actually surround the hovel, it is fre- quently so situated that the prevailing winds shall drive the gases of decom- position into and through the habitation. The arrangements for disease, misery, and premature death are ample, adequate, and complete. The hovel is crowded by males and by females of all ages without means of separation, so that the arrangements for sin and misery are also complete." 354. Another well-known philanthropist, the l\ev. Harry Stuart, of Oathlaw, in Forfarshire, thus remarks on the present condition of the labourers' houses : " Very many families get as yet but one damp ill-aired apartment to accom- modate them. I have seen such suffering, such ill, and such deaths from this, that I feel I should greatly fail in duty did I lose this opportunity of giving it the greatest condemnation in my power ; and even where they have a spare bed-closet for a visitor, the bed in it is always damp And to what do they owe all their severe sufferings in old age from rheumatic pains, and rickets, and scrofula, and ringworm, and itch among their children but to their damp ill-aired hovels." 355. But if this character is so true of the houses of the married, as bad a one is given by the same writer of those of the unmarried labourers in many districts. The "bothy," for such is the name given to the shelter it would almost be a desecration of the sacred name of home to call it such is " very seldom more than an ill-built small house of one apartment, having no in-door, no lath, no plaster, no floor, hardly a window, and a vent (chimney) that will hardly draw. No chair, no table ; an old broken stool or two, two or three rickety bedsteads, one iron pot, and one iron large spoon or ladle, a water- bucket, and a litter of fuel and filth." This is " all the accommodation and furniture that some half-dozen or a dozen constantly and heavily toiled men have to make themselves comfortable with from one year's end to the other." " If any man," says the same author, " is entitled to a comfortable resting- place to recruit his strength, it is the agricultural labourer, by far, according to Dr Adam Smith, the most productive of all labourers. And on the bare question of thews arid sinews only -if there be any truth in the principles and findings of animal chemistry, on which you now house, and bed, curry, and feed your cattle such refreshing places would pay you the best of any." " Damp, nasty, and unwholesome habitations depress the spirits and enfeeble the exertions not only of man but of brute animals ; yet such, I venture to assert, are the habitations of nine-tenths of the ploughmen of Scotland." 356. Seeing, then, that so much remains yet to be done in combating the indif- ference and in awakening the interest of those connected with agriculture in this great social question, we may perhaps be permitted to enter somewhat 86 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. fully into a consideration of the chief points connected with what may here be called the philosophy of the subject. These resolve themselves into two divi- sions, the physical and the moral. 357. And first, as to the physical evils resulting from ill-arranged and badly- constructed houses for the poor. Take, for instance, the damp, defective drain- age and bad air as perhaps the most potent influence acting for evil in and around the houses of the poor, and let us trace briefly their effects on the health of the population. 358. As to the first of these, damp, the following is trustworthy evidence : " When experienced medical officers see rows of houses springing up on a foundation of deep retentive clay, indifferently drained, they foretell the certain appearance among the inhabitants of catarrh, rheumatism, scrofula, and other diseases, the consequence of an excess of damp, which break out more exten- sively and in severer forms in the cottages of the poor who have insufficient means to purchase the larger quantities of fuel, or to obtain the other appliances by which the rich greatly counteract the effects of dampness." (Report to the Board of Health on Suburban Drainage.} The Rev. Mr Stuart, in his well- known pamphlet, which we have already quoted, has some forcible remarks on the evils arising from the damp houses of the agricultural labourers, which space does not permit of us giving here, but of which the following is the concluding portion : " Oh, it is hard to see, as I have seen, the delicate mother of a numerous young family lingering out a consumption, and blaming, unheeded, the damp of their house for it all, and no way of getting her removed out of it. And I have now in my eye, but niouldering in the dust, some of the finest specimens of country-labourer youths, both as to body and as to mind, that we would wish to see, who blamed nothing else for cutting short their days but their living in some ' damp hole,' as they called it. A son or daughter comes home sick, and nowhere to put them but into a damp closet." It is needless here to multiply evidence as tD the bad effects of damp cottages on the health of those inhabiting them. Very little consideration, indeed, is necessary to show how potent an influence it is in inciting a variety of diseases, and of that class, too, which rapidly and effectually prevents the labourer from exercising his fullest strength. 359. Turning now our attention to the physical evils resulting from the presence of drainage matters in the immediate neighbourhood of cottages, that which " Floats a nauseous mass of all obscene, corrupt, offensive things," we shall find that they are not less marked in their influence on the health ot those subjected to them. 360. " The presence of impurity," says an able authority, "produced by the de- composition of animal and vegetable matter, is now established as a constant concomitant of the excessive ravages of typhus and other epidemic diseases in towns, and a proportionate exemption from such maladies has marked the re- moval of the sources of aerial pollution. In proportion as perfect cleanliness has been obtained in prisons, the gaol fever has ceased to exist, and a compara- tive exemption from the entire class of zymotic diseases has followed the pro- gress of purification in every description of inhabitants." 361. Dr Southwood Smith says, that he believes the "immediate and direct cause of fevers to be a poison generated by the decomposition of animal and vegetable matters." Dr Arnott, also, on this point, remarks, that the localities where " fever first breaks out, and in which it becomes prevalent and fatal, are invari- PLAXS OF FA1LM COTTAGES. 87 ably those in the immediate neighbourhood of uncovered sewers, stagnant ditches and ponds, gutters full of putrifying matters, nightrnen's yards arid privies, the soil of which lies openly exposed, and is seldom or never removed/' From malaria produced by these noisome places, too frequently met with in connection with cottages in rural districts, oilier diseases are induced; "diarrhoea, and a long catalogue of strumous affections, are some of them. The former disease is sometimes very severe in those localities, and in the autumn prevails in the epidemic form. It is now ascertained beyond a doubt that open sewers, stag- nant ponds, and masses of vegetable matter, furnish the chief sources of the disease called English cholera/' 362. It would be easy to add evidence to evidence in proof of the fact that "dirt makes disease," as it was by some one pithily said, but surely there is little need of it. " History, daily experience alike teach us," as Ave have elsewhere remarked, " that the haunts of fever have always been amongst the houses of filth ; " and that the converse holds equally true, that cleanliness of houses and of persons has always acted as the best preventive of disease. These diseases so caused are not an essential part of our social condition ; if so, however much we might deplore their presence amongst us, we could do nothing effectually to remove them, and nothing would remain for us but to cross the hands of patience, and with the Turk in his fatalism exclaim, "Allah el Allah," God is merciful. But things are not so with us. Those maladies, we fear, which come under the influence of filth, are "self-imposed; they are the annoyances of our culpable ignorance, neglect, and folly. It is in our power to avert them, and we know the certain means of doing so. There is no typhus fever where there is absolute cleanli- ness ; but it is in our power to make our villages, towns, and dwellings, ab- solutely clean ; it is therefore in our power to prevent the existence of this plague. Wherever we have drained our marshes, ague or intermittent fever has disappeared, and when we shall have thoroughly purified our towns and houses, typhus fever will equally cease to exist. By enforcing scrupulous cleanliness, we have for some time banished this disease from our union workhouses and from prisons ; and now, by giving to the houses of the industrious classes effi- cient drainage, the ready means of removing solid refuse, a good supply of water, and water-closets instead of cesspools, we have placed a barrier around those dwellings which the mortal pest of our towns and cities has not been able to pass." 363. Glancing for a brief space at the evils of deficient ventilation, we find that they are not less marked than those arising from defective drainage. Indeed, recent experience goes to prove that impure air from the respiratory organs has a more deleterious influence on health than the malaria arising from putrid drainage matters. Thus " In the Dublin Lying-in Hospital, of 7650 children born within a given period, 2944 died within fourteen days of their birth ; but on the hospital being ventilated, the mortality fell to a proportion which proved that 2000 out of the 2944 children who had died had fallen a sacrifice to the poisoned air of the hospital." Dr Simon, medical officer to the Corporation of London, tracing in an elaborate report the evils of deficient ventilation, states it to be " one of the chief causes not only of many definite diseases, but of a general deterioration of health in large numbers of the community. It is the prime agent in the organisation and propagation of that scourge of our clime consumption. a cause of mortality the more jealously to be guarded against that it perpetu- ates itself from generation to generation." .... " The tendency to tubercu- lar disease is one which transmits itself from parent to child ; and thus, if in any one generation the disease be artificially engendered or increased, that mis- 88 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. fortune does not confine its consequences to the generation which first suffers them. Whatever tends to increase tubercular disease among the adult members of a population must be regarded as assuredly tending to produce a progressive de- generation of race" 364. Considerations such as those we have briefly laid before our readers open up a question of the highest importance to us all. Apart from its humani- tarian aspect, it is well to consider the importance of its pecuniary or partly commercial one. For it must be obvious to the meanest comprehension, that un- necessary death and disease must be a loss to the community. All the misery which exists by a neglect of sanitary arrangements must be paid for ; every death involves the loss of a certain amount of money which must in some shape or other be drawn from the survivors who are able to pay, and this, whether collected in the name of poor-rates or prison-rates, or on any of the numerous pleas by which money is obtained either for supporting wretchedness, or en- deavouring to prevent or to punish crime. If it is true that " a wrong to the individual is a wrong to the state," it is equally true, " that shortness of life," from whatever cause, " among individuals, is a heavy calamity to the com- munity at large." On this point an able writer has the following : " The more closely the subject of the evils affecting the sanitary condition of the labouring population is investigated, the more widely do their effects appear to be ramified. The pecuniary cost of noxious agencies is measured by data within the province of the actuary, by the charges attendant on the reduced duration of life, and by the reduction of the periods of working ability, or reduction by sickness. The cost would include also much of the public charge of attendant vice and crime, which come within the province of the police, as well as of the destitution which comes within the province of the administration of relief. To whatever extent the probable duration of the life of working men is diminished by noxious agencies, I repeat a truism in stating that, to some extent, so much productive power is lost, and, in the case of destitute widowhood and orphanage, burthens are created and cast either on the industrious survivors belonging to the family, or on the contributors to the poor-rates, during the whole period of the failure of such ability." 365. These considerations are further and ably enforced in the following sentence : " The health of the people is the chief wealth of a nation ; for health is life, and without a strong vitality no community can be prosperous or power- ful. The vigour of the Anglo-Saxon race is the true source of Britain's great- ness, of her freedom and industry at home, of her marvellous success as a colo- niser, and of the respect and envy with which she is regarded by other nations. But her advance in power and civilisation is attended with dangers that threaten its very continuance. Emigration drafts off many of the strongest members of the community, wars in various portions of our widespread empire draw away thousands of men in the flower and prime of manhood, of whom large numbers return no more, and at home disease and privation enfeeble vast masses in town and country. And all these causes tend to the deterioration of the parent stock of that extraordinary race to which in this latter day the dominion of the earth seems to have been given. For the prevention of such a result, it becomes the statesman and the moralist, no less than the sanitary reformer, to labour. From the investigations of the latter, it plainly appears that most of the evils which assail the health of the community have their root among the masses living under conditions unfavourable to the development of an average degree of vital vigour. There they are ripened to fatality, and thence they spread through the PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 89 entire body social. The conclusion of the poet is equally applicable to physical as to moral health 366. We have yet to notice the mural effects resulting from defective house- arrangement ; and but little investigation is required to show that these exer- cise an amazingly powerful influence fur evil. If the arrangements of houses are subversive of Avhat are acknowledged by all as the principles of decency and morality, and are calculated to engender habits of carelessness in personal and household appearances, it is axiomatic that the reflex influence on their inhabitants will be to degrade and lower them in the social scale. The con- verse of the case needs not to be stated. We can scarcely conceive of a neighbourhood in which there are good, however cheap, convenient and decently-arranged houses, very remarkable either for the depravity of their inhabitants, or the uncleanliness of its exterior thoroughfares ; at least the experience of the last few years shows that the reverse of this is to be expected. Before the minds and habits of the people can be improved, it is imperatively necessary that their physical amendment should precede all other measures. The physical condition of the labouring classes lias been called by Mr Mills "the great economic question of the day,'' and "in no other way can it be so efficiently ameliorated as by the improvement of their houses." 367. " When," says one who knew the poor well, and the temptations to which they are subjected, " the mind has become habituated to filth, and has lost the taste of a comfortable dwelling, the supply of money goes only to satisfy the appetites that remain. What these are, how gross and debasing, we need not stop to inquire." u The universal influence of filth and discomfort," says an- other authority, "has never been sufficiently attended to. That influence is, in the highest degree, anti-social. The wretched state of a man's house is one of the most powerful causes which induce a man to spend his money in strictly selfish gratifications. He comes home tired and exhausted ; he wants quiet, needs refreshment ; filth, squalor, and discomfort in every shape around him, he naturally gets away from it if he can." One who possessed a wide and intimate acquaintance with the house-condition of the labouring poor, expresses his surprise that the moral evils are not more marked than they really are. " I must confess," he says, " that the wonder to me is, not that so many of the labouring classes crowd to the gin-shop, but that so many are to be found struggling to make their wretched abodes a home for their families." This remark, however, applies to the farm-labourer of England, and not to that of Scotland, who is riot addicted to go either to the beer or gin shop. Yet even in Scotland we cannot forget that " in these wretched dwellings all ages and all sexes fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, grown-up brothers arid sisters, stranger adult males and females, and swarms of children, the sick, the dying, and the dead are huddled together with a proximity and a mutual pressure which brutes would resist, where it is physically impossible to pre- serve the ordinary decencies of life, where all sense of propriety and self- respect must be lost, to be replaced only by a recklessness of demeanour which necessarily results from vitiated minds." As the houses so the people ; with depressing influences we cannot expect to find elevating thoughts decency with dirt, piety with pollution the sanctities of privacy with the temptations of publicity. " From a ministerial experience," says the Eev. J. Puckle, incumbent of St Mary's, Dover, " of thirteen years, I am perfectly 90 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. satisfied of the close connection subsisting between the sanitary and moral condition of our poorer classes. I have found, without any exception, the worst demoralisation in the worst constituted dwellings and neighbour- hoods; the one being traceable from the other directly, as effect from cause. To what extent we may succeed in raising the moral tone of our poor people's habits of life, time can only show ; but I affirm that, to raise them while they live in such places and under such circumstances is impossible." Another clergyman thus gives his opinion : " The poor man when fatigued cannot be expected to remain in his house if his wearied senses are to be oppressed by noisome stenches and disgusting objects. He naturally seeks the beer-shop as a refuge, and his wife and family are left to seek relief under such circumstances as they may. Thus the domestic bond is loosened, if not severed : he ceases to regard his family, and they cease to respect him ; and so a generation of reckless and unprincipled persons is by these means turned out upon society." Strange inconsistency it surely is in those who believe the family tie to be a divine institution, and the influence of the hearth and the home to be potent for good if rightly directed, to do all they can to sever the tie and weaken the influence. Still more inconsistent is it to allow the publichouse-keeper to be the successful caterer for fireside comforts which the poor man cannot obtain at his own home, and which we take special care, or are careless of altogether, not to supply in another and a more innocent direction. 368. We have made bold thus to place some points before the reader in behalf of a class who have not many opportunities to say much for themselves. We are no advocates of that sickly sentimentality which would do all for the labourer, and allow him or ask him to do nothing for himself. There must be a mutuality of effort as well as of interest in all matters of social progress ; the labourer must do his part as well as the landlord his. But in some things the labourer is powerless for all action, and this matter of house improvement is one of them. Hence, from the hopelessness of any movement being made by the poor them- selves, arises the earnestness of those who ask the assistance of landlords and men of influence to aid this great social movement by practical efforts, and to impress upon those who have property, with its attendant rights and privileges, the importance of taking the initiative in this great question of social reform. As well might we expect a private individual to initiate and carry out a public undertaking, such as a canal or a railway, as expect poor men to build houses, pave streets, lay down pipes to bring in the pure, and drains to carry off the foul, water. Are we who have some legislative influence, and possessed of some pecuniary power, so quick at perceiving the disadvantages of some social abuse, and in getting the remedy applied, that we have any right to expect that the poor, with no influence, shall at once see the disadvantages under which they labour, and, with their lack of pecuniary power, resolve at once to get rid of them ? We are a conservative people, truly. But, if property has its privileges, it has its duties also, and these will have, one day or other, to be accounted for. The dictates of the religion we profess, and the impulses of a benevolence we admire, equally demand that we, who have the opportunities of place or power afforded us, shall do all we can to remedy the evils which press so hard upon our labouring poor evils which, if unremedied, may nay, assuredly will bring about a state of matters pregnant with infinite danger to the welfare of the state. Better to go about this question of "remedy" with the grace of a ready compli- ance, than to allow the evils to increase till the question of "right" shall be mooted. " Why," it has been eloquently asked, " should persons be allowed to erect human habitations in situations and in construction so palpably at variance PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 91 with every principle of health or convenience? What right has any man to crowd human beings, poor though they be, into a space utterly incompatible with wholesome, not to say comfortable, existence? Upon what ground does any one presume to confine thi.s less fortunate portion of his species within limits infinitely too small, and obviously insufficient for the maintenance of the healthy functions of vitality ? Y\ hat avail public generosity and private benevo- lence, our hospitals and dispensaries, if their funds are to be expended and their wards are to be peopled with the inmates of those dens and hovels of infection! It is sacrificing the charity of the many to the cupidity and reck- lessness of the few; it is catering for the victims of a sordid and unprincipled speculation. If prevention be better than cure, precautionary means wiser than remedial arrangements, the counteraction of existing and immediate mischief more judicious than its subsequent and tardy correction, then it is the duty, as we doubt not it will be the wisdom, of the legislature to enact laws, and rec- tify, so far as may be, the abuses of the past." 369. An objection commonly made by those who profess to have an interest in the social movement whose claims to the notice of the landlord we have been advocating is, that cottages with improved arrangements do not pay. On this point we are half inclined to say, that those who enter into the matter, careful only as to the paying consideration, had better not enter into it at all. We do not say that the " per-centage " obtained for outlay is not to be considered ; on the contrary, it is a fair and legitimate hope, on the part of any capitalist who builds superior houses, that he shall be in fair measure repaid for the outlay. But this matter of repayment is not, we hold, the only point to be considered. What these are cannot be better placed before the reader than in the words of a letter addressed by the Duke of Bedford a nobleman who has always evinced a high degree of interest in the welfare of his peasantry to the Earl of Chi- chester. " Cottage buildings," says his Grace, " except to a cottage speculator, who exacts immoderate rents for scanty and defective habitations, is, we all know, a bad investment of money; but this is not the light in which such a subject should be viewed by landlords, from whom it surely is not too much to expect that, while they are building and improving farmhouses, homesteads, and cattle-sheds, they will also build and improve dwellings for their labourers, in sufficient number to meet the improved and improving cultivation of the land. To improve the dwellings of the labouring class, and afford them the means of greater cleanliness, health, and comfort in their own homes to extend education, and thus raise the social and moral habits of those most valuable members of the community are among the first duties, and ought to be amongst the truest pleasures, of every landlord. While he thus cares for those whom Providence has committed to his charge, he will teach them that reliance on the exertion of the faculties with which they are endowed is the surest way to their own independence and the well-being of their families. I shall not dwell, as I might, on the tindeniable advantages of making the rural population con- tented with their condition, and of promoting that mutual goodwill between the landed proprietor and the tenants and laboxirers on his estate which sound policy and the higher motives of humanity alike recommend." 370. As far as the farm is concerned, the question of the cost of erecting cot- tages to be occupied by farm-servants is quite irrelevant. A farm can no more be conveniently tenanted without servants' houses than without a farmhouse or a farm-steading. No landlord ever dreams of asking a rent for the farmhouse or the steading separate from that of the farm, and why should any difference 92 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. be made in this respect as regards the servants' houses ? When a farmer offers for the farm he wishes to occupy, his offer has reference to the state of the farmhouse, the steading, and the servants' houses, as well as to the state of the land. Whichever of the houses he finds in bad order, and is obliged to repair them himself, his offer for the farm is proportionately of less amount than when they are all in good order ; or he stipulates for the landlord to undertake the repairs or the rebuilding of them. Whatever may be the case of detached cottages, occupied by other labourers than farm-servants, whether or not they are objects of good or bad investment of money, that consideration should in no case have reference to the necessary dwellings of the servants of the farm. Farm-servants must be accommodated with dwellings suitable to their condi- tion and wants, as well as the farmer himself; and should those dwellings be inadequate for their purposes, the landlord alone must be the loser, in the diminished rent of the farm. Hence the cost of erecting cottages for farm- servants is a question which should never be raised they being a necessity. 371. Upon this subject the Quarterly Review for April 1860, in its article on " Labourers' Houses," quotes with approbation the following remarks of a writer in the Associated Architectural Societies' Eeports for 1851 : "The land- lord proprietor," says the writer, " must be content to look for his return from improved cottages just (only in a higher sense, and I may say, too, in a more direct way) as he does from improved farm-buildings and farmhouses viz. in the general and permanent amelioration of his estate thereby. Nor does this apply only to our magnates in land : no proprietor would be expected to pro- vide more cottages than his estate will fairly support, any more than he would be expected to build barns and sheds beyond the requirements of his farm ; but with less than this he cannot expect either labourer or tenant will be satisfied. The fact is, that it is this very non-remuneration of cottage-building that is the landed proprietor's greatest safeguard. If good cottages could really be built at a paying price, every parish in the country that had an acre of ground, inde- pendent of the great proprietor, would soon swa"rm with them. But the natural constructive faculty which leads every man to build who can afford it the love of independence of having a house of one's own, and the privileges of a county vote there would always be on the look-out, as indeed there now is, a herd of small builders ready to invest their capital, if they have it if riot, their labour in this precarious but most tempting kind of property. I own, then, that the day of well-paying cottages is a day I never wish to see. The present state is one of those ' burdens upon land ' which the proprietor may with good heart make up his mind to bear. While I would advocate the strictest economy in cottage building looking upon all ornament for the sake of ornament as, in this place, the most offensive of all, and the worst of shams I cannot but rejoice rather than grieve, that the unprofitableness of this kind of building necessarily throws it on the shoulders of those best able to bear it, and thus keeps up that kindly dependence of the labourer upon his master, which I, for one, never wish to see broken up ; while at the same time it gives the landlord a fair claim to interfere in the economy of the cottage, and to lay down such rules with respect to lodgers, &c., which, even in the best built cottages, are necessary to protect the poor against themselves, and prevent those crowded bedrooms which are the greatest evil we have now to contend with. If cottages paid as remuner- atively as other houses, I don't see how the landlord could prefer this claim." 372. The tendency of these observations leads the reviewer himself to ex- press the opinion that " there can be no doubt in the minds of those who have the welfare of the poor at heart, that there can be no greater blessing to them PLAXS OF FAini COTTAGES. 93 than to keep them out of the hands of speculative builders of small capital, the hardest of all landlords, and to make them the tenants neither of shopkeeper or farmer, but of the proprietor of the land.'' Had the opinion been confined to the propriety of the owner of cottages, occupied by independent labourers, being the landlord, we would readily assent to it. But if the owner is to be the landlord also of the cottages occupied by farm-servants, we must protest against the proposition, because such an arrangement would render farming impracti- cable ; for where would the farmer lodge his new servants, should the old ones, whose services are no longer required, retain possession of their cottages on the plea that they are tenants of the proprietor and not of the farmer? The farmer therefore must be the landlord of his own servants, and his servants' cottages must be as free as the farmhouse and steading, if farming is to be conducted in peace and happiness. 373. Farm-labourers consist of two classes those who are constantly cm- ployed in the daily operations of the farm, and those who occasionally work on a farm, but principally support themselves by independent labour. Farm-servants are stewards or bailiffs, ploughmen, shepherds, cattle-men, hedgers, and field- workers, who are hired by the year or half-year, and are lodged on the farm ; at least such is the practice in Scotland, although it is otherwise in many parts of England, where they have to walk long distances to and from their houses in villages, thereby inflicting an undue strain upon their physical powers. The obvious remedy for this strain is to build cottages near the steading. It has often been a source of wonder to us to what cause may be ascribed the practice of placing the dwellings of farm-servants at a distance from the scene of their labours. One should suppose that common sense would fix the lodging of a man who has worked ten hours in the day with a pair of horses upon the farm itself, in which he might rest his wearied body, and from which he might easily tend the animals intrusted to his care, rather than farther to fatigue him by a long journey after the labours of the day had ceased, and at the same time to remove him entirely from the animals under his charge. The payment of weekly money-wages entices the English farm-servant into the beer-shop of the village in which he dwells, rather than spend his leisure hours with his family. The Scotch farm-servant, who is paid greatly from the produce of the farm, and lives upon the spot where his horses are, feels an interest in the welfare of the farm, and has no temptation to waste his hours in imbibing liquor. 374. Independent labourers are hired by the day; and, as the scene of their work may frequently be changed, it is no inconvenience for them to live in villages. 375. The dwellings of both these classes of labourers may be of the same description, although it shall be our special duty to describe such arrangements in the apartments of cottages as shall be most suitable to farm-servants. 376. Arrangement of Cottages for Farm- Servants having Large, or Small Families. While deprecating the fault of too limited accommodation, we, on the other hand, conceive it necessary to warn our readers against the fault on the opposite side of giving too much. This caution we deem all the more necessary, inas- much as we see a desire on the part of many landlords manifesting itself for building very fine large cottages. On this point, perhaps, the following con- siderations will be useful : 377. A larger house than a hind can well furnish is a burden to him ; and 94 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. whatever part lie cannot furnish, becomes a dirty lumber-room, or is let to some stranger in the capacity of a boarder a very objectionable class of persons on any farm. A house that will just accommodate the number of persons of his household, is what the hind wants, and the object can only be attained by building cottages of different sizes. The usual practice, when building cottages for farm-servants, is to adopt a uniform plan, upon which all are built. The practice is not founded upon sound principle, nor even on consistency ; because it implies that families consisting of very different numbers should, nevertheless, be accommodated with similar spaces. Instead, therefore, of a family accom- modating itself to the size of the cottage, the cottage ought to be adapted to the size of the family ; and there is no way of fixing the proportions between the cottages and their inmates but by building them with different extents of accommodation, for families of different numbers. This is the only rational course to pursue ; and, in pursuance of it, it is as easy to build a given number of cottages on different plans, as on the same plan. Following out this princi- ple, we shall give a number of plans, suited to families of different sizes, taken from practical examples, but modified, in some instances, to suit our own notions of the conveniences, comforts, and means of cleanliness which such dwellings should possess. 378. Single-Roomed Single- Stor eyed Cottages. Objections have been made to accommodating a family in one room ; but the force of the objections entirely depends upon the number of the family. In some parts of the country the hind's family may consist of himself and wife only, in which case a single room and a single bed will suffice for their accommodation. In other parts the hind is obliged to supply the farmer with a female to work in the fields, when a bed must be procured for her. In this case, at least two beds are required in the house ; and even these may be accommodated in one room. Fig. 72 shows the manner of accommodating two beds in one room : a is the door of entrance ; b the porch ; c the door into the room d ; e is the fireplace ; / the window of the room ; g the plate-rack for holding the crockery, &c. ; h the dresser ; i and k are the two beds, i entering from the room d, and k from the small room n, provided with a window, which is divided by a partition between this room and the store-room I, which is entered from the porch by the door m. The apartment n has a door hinged on the corner of the bed fc, if a box-bed, and on the wall if not so. If the beds are box-beds, which is the most common form, the inmates at night will be sufficiently separated, the married couple entering the bed i from the apartment d, and the field-worker k from the small chamber n. Should the beds be of the tent-bed form, with curtains, farther separation might be effected by a wooden partition between the two beds, and at the ends of k next I and d, and at the back of i next L Such a cottage measures 22 feet in length, and 15 in breadth giving the floor of d a space of 15 feet by 11|, which is enough for three adult persons. 379. Even three beds might be accommodated in one room, as shown in fig. 73, where a is the entrance-door ; b the porch ; c the door of the apartment d ; e the fireplace ; / the window of the room ; g the plate-rack ; h the dresser ; Fig. 72. PLANS OF SINGLE -EOOMED FARM COTTAGES. 95 i m n are throe beds, so arranged that in enters from the room cZ, i from the small closet entered by the door /, and having- the window k divided between it and the store-room o, which is entered by the pas- sage _p, where is a door, and lias a bed in it, n. Box-beds would make a complete separation of their occupants by being so arranged. Tent-beds would require wooden partitions to separate m from n and i would require one along- the back next p, and at the end next o. If this cottage were of the same si/c as fig. 72 that is, 22 feet by 15 the room d would bo equally large, but that tin- lobby b is taken oil' it, to make up for which the size should be extended 2G feet in length, and If) in breadth. 380. Box-beds are objected to by medical men, as they are too confined and inconvenient in form when any of the family are sick. Modifications in their form may be effected, chiefly by having the back and ends to open on hinges, and the top made movable, to promote ventilation, as well as to allow freer access to the patient. Curtains suspended from movable rods, made to draw forward in front, instead of sliding panels, have been recommended, to screen the person dressing and undressing, when the beds do not occupy separate apartments ; but were the beds arranged in the manner represented in figs. 72 and 73, such a contrivance with the curtains would not be required. It is questionable, however, that box-beds will be voluntarily relinquished by farm- servants, and certainly not so until every cottage is accommodated Avith fixed beds or separate bedrooms ; and if the fixed beds have the alcove form, which most of them have, they are equally inconvenient for a sick patient as the box- bed itself. 381. But it must be owned that, where more than one bed is required in a hind's house, a separate room for it is better than any arrangement that can be made with the beds within one room, and the feeling of security and separation is more satisfactory in the second apartment. Fig. 74 gives the ground - plan of such a cottage, where a is the entrance-porch, 3 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches ; b the apartment, 15 feet by 1 4, with a window ; c the bedroom, 10 feet square, with a window ; d a light pantry, 4 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 6 inches ; e e are fireplaces, 4^ feet by 3^- feet ; and f a wall-press, 3 feet wide. One bed can stand against the back wall of b for the hind and his wife, and another if required for two children ; and one bed might be put into the room c, for the field-worker, and another for two children, if required. Thus three adult persons can well be accommodated in such a house, along with four children, if required. 382. In such a house as fig. 74 tent-beds and curtains would look neat and be appropriate. Iron bedsteads are now quite common, and, for convenience of 96 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. putting up and taking down, and avoiding fracture, they are much better adapted for hinds than wooden ones. They also possess the advantage of giving no shelter to bugs. The curtains of beds to be used in such houses ought to be made of wool to resist fire, and not of cotton, which would, in the circumstances, only be a little less dangerous than a covering of tinder. 383. Design for a Single- Stor eyed Detached Cottage : Ground-Plan, In fig. 75 we give the ground-plan of a single- storeyed detached cot- tage : a the porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 4 feet ; c c liv- ing-room, 15 feet by 11, having a cupboard d d at each side of the fireplace. A bed may be placed at the part e ; // bed- room (with fireplace), 9 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 9 inches ; g a bed or store closet, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet ; h scullery, with, slop-stone or sink, and boiler, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 6 inches. 384. Front Eleva- tion. In fig. 76 we give a front eleva- tion of the cottage of which, in preceding figure, we have given the ground-plan. 385. Second Design for a Single-Storeyed Detached Cottage. In fig. 77 we give ground-plan of an- other example of a one-storeyed cottage, in which a is the en- trance-porch, 4 feet PLAN OF A SINGLE -STOEEYED DETACHED COTTAGE. 97 square ; b a pantry, entering from porch, 4 feet by 3 feet G inches ; c c living- room, 14 feet by 12 ; d pantry entering from living-room, 4 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 9 inches; e e bedroom, entering from porch, 10 feet by 8 \f scullery, 8 feet square, provided with sink and boiler. 386. Front Elevation. In fig. 78 we give front elevation of the cottage of which, in preceding figure, we have given ground-plan. The sketch to the left shows the side elevation of the porch door. 98 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. 387. Third Design for a Single- Stor eyed Detached Cottage. In fig. 79 we give ground-plan of a cottage in which a is the entrance -porch, 3 feet 6 inches square ; b b the lobby or passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; c c bedroom, 13 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; d d bedroom, 10 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 6 inches ; e e nursery or bedroom, 12 feet by 9, with closet/ off it, 3 feet 6 inches square ; g store-room or office, 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet ; h h living-room, 16 feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; i scullery, 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. This cottage would do for a farm-bailiff or steward. Fig. 79. GROUND-FLAN OP A SINGLE -STORIYED EETACHED COTTAGE SCALE, f-g OF Ail INCH TO THE FOO 388. Front elevation of this plan is given in fig. 80. Fig. 80. PBONT ELEVATION OP A 8INOLZ-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE SCALE IN FIG. 79. 389. Fourth Design for a Single- Stor eyed Cottage. Ground-Plan, fig. 81. a the entrance-porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 6 inches ; b b living-room, 15 PLAN OF A SINGLE- STOKE YED DETACHED COTTAGE. 99 feet square ; c c bedroom, 12 feet by 10 ; d d kitchen, 12 feet square ; e scullery, 8 feet by 6 feet 9 inches ; f closet or store-room, 7 feet by 3 ; g stairs to cellars the cellars being under the kitchen d d, scullery e, and closet/. This is a cot- tage which would accommodate the bailiif of a large farm. I I 1 I I I'M Ft. 390. In fig. 82 is the front elevation of the cottage, the ground-plan of which is in fig. 81. 100 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. 391. In fig. 83 is the back elevation of the cottage, the ground-plan of which is in fig. 81. Fig. 83. IK ELEVATION OP A SINOLE-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE SCi 392. Fig. 84 gives a vertical section of the cottage of which the ground-plan is fig. 81, in the line of A B of fig. 81. Fig. 84. VBRTICAI. SECTION OF A 8INOLE-3TORKYED tSTACHED COTTAGE SCALE IN FIQ 81. PLAN OF A TWO-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE. 101 393. A more correct idea now prevails in regard to the extent of accommo- dation absolutely required by a farm-servant and his family. It is deemed proper that a man and his wife should have a bedroom to themselves; and as he is the head of the house, and works harder than any of the family, he should have the principal and most comfortable bedroom in the house. When a sepa- rate room from the living-room is offered him for that purpose, he prefers to have his bed near the warm fire, that he may turn into bed with the least trouble and exposure to cold. The girls of the family must have a bedroom for them- selves, and so must the boys. Thus three bedrooms at the least are required for a ploughman and his family. If he consent to occupy a separate bedroom, then there must be four rooms in his house. But if he is moreover obliged to supply a field-worker for the farm, then another room is required for her, for such a person is generally a woman. So that in these circumstances five rooms will be required in a hind's house. 394. Such an extent of accommodation in the ground-plan would imply a large and expensive roof, which is the most costly part of house building. A two-storey house is thus necessitated to be made, and many proprietors now prefer that plan for accommodating a large family. 395. It should, however, be held in remembrance that a second sitting-room in a hind's house is an unnecessary appendage to it ; it will never be used as such. When in the second storey it will be converted into a sleeping-room : and when on the ground-floor, into a meal or potato store, beside the beds that may be put into it. The fire will never be kindled in it, and it will consequently become damp and cold. It is only when the la- bourer is a fixed resident, holding directly under the landlord, that he will furnish his second room in the ground-floor comfortably, and warm it by occasional fii es. 396. Design for a Two-Storeyed Detached Cottage. In fig. 85 we give ground-plan, and in fig. 80 chamber or bedroom plan of a single two-storeyed cottage. 397. Ground-Plan. a entrance- porch, 5 feet by 2 feet 9 inches ; b a pantry or store-closet, 5 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 3 inches ; c c stairs to second storey, 2 feet 6 inches wide; d d living-room, 12 feet square, with cupboard e on one side of fireplace ; /scullery, 8 feet square ; y store-closet, 8 feet by 3feet 6 inches. 398. Chamber-Plan, in fig. 86. a a stairs ; b b landing, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c front bedroom, 12 feet square, with closet d off it, 5 feet by 3 ; e e back bed- room, 8 feet by 9 feet 3 inches ; /linen or clothes closet, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches. 399. Front elevation of cottage, of which the preceding are the plans, is given in fig. 87. The scale to which all the figures are drawn of this example is the same as given in fig. 75. 102 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. 400. Double-Detached Cottages, Labourers' cottages are most commonly built in long rows, and when several are required for a large farm, they frequently assume the form of three sides of a square. When outhouses are afforded, which ought always to be, much inconvenience is expe- rienced by the inhabitants living in long rows of houses, in going to and from them. This row form originated, no doubt, because of a larger number of houses being erected at the same expense, than in any other form, and economy of the ground taken up by them had also entered into the calcula- tion. For comfort and conveni- ence combined, no form is equal to the double - detached house, having entrances at. different parts, and the fireplaces in the centre of the build- ing. Of this class of cot- tage we now proceed to give examples, dividing them, as in the cases of the single - storeyed de- tached class of cottages, into single and two-storey- ed cottages. 401. Single-Storey ed Double - Detached Cottage. Ground -Plan, fig. 88. a a passage or lobby, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living- room, 12 feet by 12, with space for bed at c ; d scul- lery, 7 feet 9 inches, by 5 feet 6 inches ; e pantry, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches ; / coal-closet, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet ; g press, 3 feet by 2 feet ; h h back bedroom, 12 feet by 11 feet 6 inches ; i i front bedroom, 12 feet by 8 feet 3 inches. 402. Alternative Plan, fig. 89. a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide, with locker PLAN OF SINGLE -STOEEYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 103 seat & ; c e kitchen, 15 feet by 32 feet G inches, with space for Led d, 6 feet by 3 feet 9 inches; e e back bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; //front bedroom, 11 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; g scullery, 12 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, with coal-bunker h. Fi K . SO. 403. Front Elevation. In fig. 90 we give front elevation for above plans, with an alternative design in fig. 91 ; the front wall for this having sets-off at the points a b, as shown in part of the ground-plan of wall in fig. 91. The scale for all these drawings is given in fig. 88. 104 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 404. In fig. 91 is the alternative front elevation to the front elevation in fig. 90. Fig. 91. ALTERNAT 405. Alternative Plans. In figs. 92, 93, and 94 we give alternative plans of house in fig. 88. In fig. 92 a a is the passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b liv- ing-room, 14 feet by 12 ; c scullery, 7 feet 6 inches by 6 feet, with pantry d. entering off it, 3 feet wide ; e e bed-closet, 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet ; f f back bedroom, 11 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; g g front bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches. Fig. 92. ILTERNATIVE GROUND-PLAN TO OROUNU-PL. 406. In fig. 93, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; c scullery, 7 feet by 6 feet, with pantry d, entering from it, 3 feet wide; e bed-closet, 9 feet 3 inches by 7 feet; /bedroom, 12 feet by 11 feet at the broadest, and 9 feet at the narrowest part. Fig. 93. AX.TERNAT PLAN OF TWO-STOEEYEJ) DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 105 407. In fig. 94, a a passage, 3 feet G inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet by 12, with c space for bed, G feet by 4 feet G inches ; d scxillery, 8 feet 6 inches by 6 feet ; e pantry, 6 feet by -5 feet (> inches ; /back bedroom, 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; g front bedroom, 12 feet by 11, with space for bed h; i privy ; k coal-cellar. The scale to which figs. 92, 93, and 94 are made is given in fig. 94. 408. We give another example of this class of cottages in figs. 95 to 98. 409. Ground-Plan. Fig. 95, a a passage, 3 feet wide, with pantry b entering from it ; c c living-room, 12 feet by 12 ; d bed-closet, 8 feet G inches by 7 feet 6 inches ; e scullery, 8 feet G inches by 5 feet, with pantry h entering from it, 3 feet by 5 ; //back bedroom, 12 feet square ; g g front bedroom, 13 feet by 8 feet 6 inches. FiR. 95. 410. Elevations and Section. In fig. 96 we give front elevation, in fig. 97 end elevation, and in fig. 98 transverse section. The scale to which figs. 95 to 98 are drawn, is given in fig. 9G. 41.1. Two-Storeyed Double- Detached Cottages. In figs. 99 to 109 inclusive we give drawings of two-storeyed double-detached cottages. 412. Ground-Plan. In fig. 99, a a passage, 3 feet G inches wide ; b b stairs ; c c living-room, 13 feet by 12 ; d scullery, 9 feet by 7, with back door protected by porch e ; / pantry, entering from scullery, 5 feet by 3 feet 6 inches ; gg bed- room, 11 feet, and 7 feet wide by 10 feet 6 inches, and 7 feet long ; h coal-cellar. 106 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. 413. Chamber-Plan, fig. 100. a stairs ; b landing ; c front bedroom, 17 feet 4 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; d back bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet ; e bed- closet, 5 feet 6 inches square. i FRONT ELEVATION OF SINGLE -STOREYED DODBLE-DBTACHED COTTAO Ft, Fig. 97. Fig, \ERTiCAIj SECTION. Fig. 99. OKODNU-PLAN OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE-CBTACHED COTTAOKS. PLAN OF TWO-STOKEYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 107 414. Elevations. In fig. 101 we give front elevation, and in fig. 102 end elevation both adapted for brick, and rising two steps from ground-line. Fit,'. 101. T END ELEVATION OF COTTAGES IN FIO. P9, 108 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 415. Ground-Plan, fig. 103. a porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet ; b stairs ; c living-room, 15 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, with two pantries d d entering from it ; e pantry, entering from scullery ; / scullery, 7 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; g coal- closet ; h bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; i privy ; k pig-sty ; I ash-pit. Fig. 103. 416. Chamber-Plan, fig. 104. a landing : b b closets ; c c bedroom, 13 feet square ; dd bedroom, 13 feet by 11. Fig. 104. CHAMBEU-FLOOR PLAN OF FI3. 103 417. Elevation. In fig. 105 we give front elevation. Fig. 105. PLAN OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 109 418. Ground-Plan, fig. 106. a porch, 6 feet by 5 ; b lobby, 6 feet 4 inches wide ; c stairs, 3 feet wide ; d d living-room, 16 feet by 15 ; e scullery, 12 feet by 10; // bedroom, 10 feet by 12 ; g closet, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; h entrance to cellar under bedroom//; i privy, 3 feet wide ; k ash-pit, 3 feet wide. 419. Chamber-Plan, fig. 107. a a stairs ; b landing ; c c front bedroom, 16 feet by 15, with closet d, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; e e back bedroom, 16 feet by 12, with closet/, 2 feet G inches wide; g g small bedroom, 12 feet by 10, less " set-off" to admit of entrance to bedrooms c c and e e beinc; obtained. Fit:. 107. >N^-i'~T^^n I i L ~"~~ c ^ t 5 s e c CHAMHER-FLOOK PLAN OP COT 420. Cellar-Plan, fig. 108. a stairs, entering at h from bedroom //, in fig. 106 ; b b store-cellar, 16 feet by 12. It might be the better arrangement to enter cellar b b from living-room d d, in fig. 106. In fig. 108 c is the stair, entering from lobby b, in fig. 106 ; d coal-cellar, 12 feet by 10. 110 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. Pig. 108. CKLHAK-PLAN OF OOTT 421. Elevation. In fig. 109 we give a sketch of front elevation. Fig. 109. FROMT ELEVATION OF COTTAGES IS FIG. 106. 422. In the plans of the double cottages given above, the houses are of the same size, so that families of the same number would have to occupy the same double cottage ; but, as we have already said, cottages for work-people should be planned of different sizes, so that a larger or smaller family should have the cottage that best suited their number. With this view we now give plans of double cottages containing houses of different sizes ; and as we are of opinion that large families should not be associated together, the numbers of their persons being too many in one cottage, we have arranged the plans so as to unite a large and small house together in each cottage. 423. Small Single- Storey ed Double- Detached Cottages, with Houses of different sizes. In fig. 110 we give a ground-plan of such a cottage, of which on the right hand is the smaller house, where a is the entrance-porch, 4 feet wide ; b the living-room, 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; c bedroom, 12 feet by 14 ; d scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and e coal-house, 4 feet by 3. 424. In the larger house on the left hand, / is the entrance-porch, 4 feet wide ; g the living-room, 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; h front bedroom, 12 feet PLAN OF TWO-STOEEYED DOUBLE-DETACHED COTTAGES. Ill by 14 ; i back bedroom, 12 feet by 14 ; k scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and coal-house Z, 4 feet by 3. It would perhaps be more acceptable to the inmates were the bedrooms c and h to enter from their respective living-rooms instead of from their respective entrance-porches. INI II II I I I I I 425. Small Two-Storeyed Double Cottages Detached, with Houses of different sizes. Instead of having the sleeping apartments upon the ground-floor, they may be placed in a storey above. Fig. Ill shows such an arrangement, in which a is the entrance-porch of a small house ; b the staircase leading to the upper storey ; c the living-room, entering from the porch a, having a window, a fireplace, and wall- press, and continuing on to a back kitchen d, having a window, a boiler, and a back door. This apartment is useful for wash- ing clothes in, and doing such things as to leave the sitting-room c always clean and comfortable. One large or two small bed- rooms are placed over the sitting-room c. 426. A larger house has an entrance- porch e, fig. Ill, which is also the stair- case for the upper storey ; g is the sitting-room, entering from the porch, 112 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. Fig. 112. and having two windows, a fireplace, a pantry fc, and passing into the back kitchen A, which has a window, boiler, and back door, and enters to a light closet i. The light closet / enters from the porch e. Two large or three small bedrooms are placed over the apartments g and h, and the closets i and k. 427. Fig. 112 represents the elevation of the houses whose ground-plans are given in fig. 111. 428. Ground-Plan. Fig. 113 gives the ground-plan of a double cottage containing a small house and a large house. Thus, the small house contains ~ an entrance-porch a. 4 feet wide ; a ELEVATION OF SMALL TWO-S1OBEIED DOUBLE COTTAGES. L ' ' living-room i, 17 feet by 14 ; a bedroom c, 12 feet by 14 ; a scullery d, 4 feet by 7 ; and a coal-house e, 4 feet by 3. 429. The larger house contains the ground-floor and entrance-porch/, 4 feet Fig. 113. wide; a living-room g, 17 feet by 14 ; h the scullery, 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ; the coal-house z, 4 feet by 7, and the staircase Tc leading up to the upper floor. 430. Chamber-Floor Plan. Fig. 114 is the chamber-floor plan of the larger cottage, in which the landing is at a, and from it access is had to a small bed- room J, 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; another bedroom c, 14 feet by 12, and to the larger bedrooms d and e, each 17 feet by 14. This house would contain a man and his wife with a large family, the boys and girls having separate bed- rooms, and a separate one for the field- worker ; the heads of the family having also a separate bedroom, and the living-room being common to them all. PLANS FOB IMPEOVING DEFECTIVE COTTAGES. 113 IER-FLOOtt TE 431. On improving defectively arranged Cottages. A few remarks, with illus- trative examples, may here be useful, as showing how cottages, when defective or meagre, may be altered to give ampler accommodation. 432. In fig. 115 we give an example of the one-roomed cottage so often met with in agricultural districts, and possessing few or none of those requirements which are indispensable where a family is maintained. Here a a is the apart- ment, lighted with one window only, e, and entered at once from the open air at 5, without the intervention of a porch, and with the fireplace d at one side. Fig. 116 shows how still retaining the main part of the building as given in fig. Fig. 115. II ! I I 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I . | | I | | Ft. 115 accommodation of a superior quality may be obtained at comparatively small expense. Here a is the living-room as before, with window c, door , and fireplace d; a door e gives admission to a bed-closet /, while another door g, at the opposite side of the fireplace, gives admission to the scidlery ^, from which is entered a pantry i ; with an additional window opposite the fireplace d. 114 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. Fig. 117. f^ - '_ $%*** i a e L c 1 d * 6 1 _. ID . V SECOND IMPROVED ARRANGEMENT OF COTTAO Fig. 118. 433. Fig. 117 shows how, retaining the old building in fig. 115, still more ample accommodation may be obtained : a a is the living-room, as before ; b scul- lery ; c bedroom ; d bedroom ; e pantry. 434. Fig. 118 shows further accommodation : a a living- room, as before ; b b bedroom ; c and d bed-closets ; e scul- lery ; f pantry ; g coal-house, entered from outside. 435. Fig. 119 shows another arrangement, in which the entrance-porch is secured at a, the scullery b being entered from the porch, and independ- ent entrances obtained to the living-room c c, and bedroom d d ; e a pantry entering from living-room ; / small bedroom entering from living-room. 436. Fig. 120 illustrates a simple modification of fig. 115, in which an entrance-porch is secured at a the window and door b c in fig. 115 being blocked up, and two windows placed at b and c, as in fig. 1 20 ; c c is the living-room ; d is the scullery, entering from living-room c c ; e a, pantry, entering from porch a ; f f bedroom, with fireplace g. Fig. 119. % nflj 3B1H IMPHOVII 437. Composite Cottages. We deem it likely to be useful to give sketches illustrative of what has been termed composite cottages that is, two- storeyed cottages, but of which the upper and lower storeys form independent houses with separate entrances, the upper house being generally entered from the back. 438. In fig. 121 we give part plan show- ing upper house over that given in fig. 81 : a a is the entrance-passage, corresponding to the closet or store-room / in fig. 81, reached by the outside stair b ; c the pas- sage corresponding to cellar-stair g, in fig. 81 ; d scullery over scullery e, in fig. 81 ; e e bedroom over bedroom c c, in fig. 81 ; //bedroom over bedroom d d, in fig. 81 ; g g living-room over living-room b Z, in fig. 81. The other parts of the plan being exactly similar to those in fig. 81, PLANS OF COMPOSITE COTTAGES. 115 space is not here taken tip by completing- the sketch. The scale is in the pro- portion of -j 3 ^- of an inch to the foot. 439. In fig. 122 we give the end elevation of this composite cottage, showing outside stair a ; b is the window of the bedroom c, in fig. 81 ; c that of bedroom e e, in fig. 121. The porch a in fig. 81 is only carried up to the level of second storey ; it might, however, be carried up to roof-line, when it would afford space for a small closet, which might enter either from bedroom e e or living-room g g, fig. 121. Scale -f$ of an inch to the foot. 440. In fig. 123 we give sketch of plan of house over that given in fig. 75 : a a outside stairs ; b porch, giving entrance to kitchen c c this room corre- sponding to the apartment marked f f in fig. 75. The scullery d is entered from kitchen d corresponding to the apartment h in fig. 75 ; the closet /, fig. 123, to porch a in fig. 75 ; e e living-room corresponding to same apartment c c in fig. 75 ; bed-closet g g to that marked g in fig. 75. 116 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. Fig. 122. -OL MB ELEVATION OV COMPOSITE COTTAGE IN FIO8. SI AND 121. Fig. 123. UPPER SrORKTOfr COMPOSITE COTTAGE APPLIED TO FIO. 75 SCALE tM FIO. PLANS OF COMPOSITE COTTAGES. 117 441. In fig. 124 we give plan of house over that in fig. 77 : a a outside stairs ; b porch ; c c living-room over same apartment c c in fig. 77 ; d scullery over apartment / in fig. 77; c c bedroom over same apartment e e in fig." 77 ; /pantry or store-closet over the entrance-lobby of fig. 77. a 442. In fig. 125 we give part plan of cottage over that in fig. 117 : a a out- side stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d bed-closet over d in fig. 117; e e living-room ; the scullery and bed-closet correspond in size and position to apartments marked b and c in fig. 117. 443. In fig. 126 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 118 : a a outside stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d coal-closet ; e e living-room, corresponding to a a in fig. 118 ; f bed-closet over the same at d in fig. 118. The scullery and second bed-closet are entered from living-room a a, as in fig. 118, occupying the same position as e and c in fig. 118 ; g g is the bedroom corresponding to b b in fig. 118. Fig. 125. Fie;. 120. 1. 118 SCALE IN FiO. 116. 118 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. 444. In fig. 127 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 120 : a a outside stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d d living-room ; e scullery ; //bedroom. . 445. In fig. 128 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 119 : a outside stairs ; b porch ; c scullery ; d d living-room ; e closet entering from the liv- ing-room ; //bedroom ; g bed-closet. Fig. 128. Fig. 127. DPPEB PLAN OF COMPO CFPBR PLAN OP COMPOSIIE COTTAGE APPLIEIJ TO FIG. 119 SCALE IN FIG. 115. 446. Arrangement of Bothies. This structure of the farm has given rise to much discussion some utterly condemning, others as loudly praising it. Never- theless, taking the description of their general peculiarities which we have given at the beginning of this section as correct, it will be difficult, we think, for any one to defend the use of a structure of this kind as at all likely to conduce either to the physical or moral well-being of their inhabitants. The Kov. Mr Stuart has made this subject exclusively his own, and to his pamphlet we recommend the reader, where he will find all the evils of the bothy system, unimproved, fully detailed. The same gentleman has been at much pains to devise arrangements which shall give comfort to the inhabitants of the bothy, and enable them to carry out, in some measure, the requirements of decent and orderly living. To avoid the evils of the bothy as generally arranged, Mr Stuart recommends that every one " ought to have a cooking and a sleeping apartment ; the one furnished with a strong table and chairs with high backs, well bolted and stayed with iron rods, and the other with small iron bedsteads one for each man both these apartments of healthful dimensions and construction. The sleeping apartment floored with wood, well lathed on the walls, quite free of damp, yet well venti- lated with ventilating flues. Giving each man his own bed, I am confident, would of itself work a mighty reformation in the habits of ploughmen, as it cer- tainly did in the habits of our soldiers, when each of them wholly got a bed to himself." 447. In the pamphlet above referred to Mr Stuart gives plans illustrative of an improved arrangement of bothy. We prefer, however, to give those plans containing the results of his whole experience as published in the " Third Annual Eeport of the Scottish Association for Improving the Dwellings and Do- mestic Condition of Agricultural Labourers." Of this the ground-plan is given in fig. 129, and upper floor plan in fig. 130, where a a are the beds. PLAN OF A TWO-STOEEYED BOTHY. 119 r a low wooden feet above the Ft. 448. The dimensions of the whole structure are 22 feet by 16 ; the side-walls being 14 feet in height, measured from the sole of the outer door. The thick- ness of the walls is 20 inches, but. those of the lower storey are lined with the Fi s- 129 - hollow tiles (hereafter described). A fire-brick sink is placed in the lobby , fig. 129 a foul air flue being carried up from this into the chimney or ' vent " of the wash-closet b. This has a tire- place in it, so that it can be used as a spare room when any of the men are sick. The dimensions of this apart- ment are 12 feet by 5. Under the stairs c space is obtained for coals. In the kitchen d there is space for a resting bed e. " The side of the bed next the door, finished and protected from its draught by screen rising about 2 surface of the bed. I have visited this bothy," says Mr Stuart, " at night, and found several of the men reclining on this bed, and declaring it to be a grand improvement." 449. " The stair c is made to ascend from the living-room, purposely to pre- vent any man taking to his bed-closet any company his comrades may not see and approve of. For the same reason, when proposed, I objected to locks being put on the bed-closet doors. This would have tended to make the occupant independent of the visits of those who have an interest in seeing that at all times he keeps all right in his own cabin. They can well enough secure all the property they have in their own trunks, and by locking the entry door. Four of the bed-closets on the upper floor average 10J feet by 5i| feet, or nearly so. It was very difficult to place a stair easy of access, so as not to sacrifice room, and hence one of the closets is of smaller area than the other five, but it has a fine exposure, and is well ventilated. The windows are all sashes, the upper half hung on pulleys, and the smallest of them 1-J by 3^ feet high. At each window a board is placed as a writing- desk. The partitions of the bed-closets are of f -inch white wood, grooved and tongued, strongly framed, and carried close up to the ceiling. The closet doors are of the same, also strongly framed. In short, everything is purposely made so as to bear the roughest usage, and need no repairs for generations to come. The beds are strong wooden frames, having a wooden screen about 2 feet high at the head and foot. 450. " To secure the sleeping-closets against severe alternations between cold and heat, lath was put on the upper edge of the baulks, and a coat of plaster be- tween it and them before putting the ceiling lath and plaster on the lower edge. O T H Y 3 C AT.E 120 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. Fig. 131. This cost lOd. a-yard additional, but I considered it a great matter for the health of the occupants ; and I cannot too strongly condemn making but small sleeping berths for those hard- wrought men, like so many nests among the couples of the bothy garret only, and all to save a few pounds in raising the walls 5 or 6 feet higher. If such a stunted way of giving each man his own bed and bed-closet is pursued, it will soon bring the movement into disrepute. To form ventilating flues for the bed-closets, the kitchen vent was formed of fire-brick vent-lining ; and in the gable-top, around this lining, four fire-brick pipes, each of 4 inches bore, were placed in the kitchen vent-lining, carried some inches above the chimney-top ; and, to prevent soot falling into them, a round bonnet of fire-brick was placed in the kitchen vent-lining, carried some 9 inches above the chimney- top. This round screen has of course a round hole in its centre, equal in dia- meter to that of the vent-lining ; and on the upper side a division of vent-lining 1 foot high, to carry off the smoke. These four small pipes, being laid hard on the kitchen vent, will become hot, and thus cause a draught in them upward, and by means of other pipes, made of thin yellow pine deal, the draught of these pipes was thus brought to bear upon the foul air above the beds in the closets, so that, between these and the windows, I should think the ventilation will be good." 451. In fig. 131 we give a plan of bothy for two men, designed also by Mr Stuart : a kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 4 inches, with sink b ; resting bed c; d and e bed-closets, 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet; ff meal-binns in the kitchen. 452. In some districts the bothy system cannot, under present circumstances, be got rid of, but it behoves the parties having interest in these localities to see that they are improved so far as to secure jcomfort to their occupants. The advantages obtained in healthier workmen would amply repay the cost incurred in this way. There can be no doubt of the fact that the numbers of comfort- less bothies throughout the country exercise a most injurious influence on the physical condition of the farm-labourers who live in them. In the words of one who knows the subject well, it is " sad enough to think of the after effects of these on the constitution of the ploughmen compelled to sit in their drenched clothes at night, with no fire to dry at, and again to have them to draw on in the morning, not dry, but merely ' weel dreeppit.' The constitutional coughs, and the irremediable rheumatism which prevail among elderly ploughmen, are clearly traceable to such a mode of treatment." 453. A few remarks of our own on the origin of the bothy system, and of the possibility of putting an end to it, may perhaps prove not unacceptable to our readers. 454. No difficulty ever occurred in accommodating married hinds on a farm, for they must have their cottage and garden ; but it has been a question in different parts of the country of the best manner of lodging unmarried men. There are just three modes of doing it. One is to lodge them in the farmhouse ; another is to provide a house for them to live in together ; and the third is to lodge them in the houses of married men. 455. In primitive times the farm lads used to take their meals in the farmer's kitchen, at the table of which the farmer and his wife presided. As far as the quality of the food they received, and their personal comfort during the day OROUND-PUOJ OF A 8INOLZ-ST THE BOTHY SYSTEM. 121 was concerned, they were well fed, and passed their time happily in such an arrangement. But there were drawbacks to it nevertheless. In wet weather the lads could not easily have their clothes dried at the kitchen lire, and at night they had to go to a loft in the work-horse stable to sleep, and to which place they were naturally prohibited taking a light with them, for fear of fire. At length when the farmer preferred his own snug parlour in the company of his family, as the progress of refinement advanced, to the kitchen and its inmates, such an arrangement could not be continued. Left to themselves thus in the kitchen in the evening, all the servants did not conduct themselves with propriety, so that the farmer was glad to purge his house of its unruly inmates. He provided a house for the young men to live in together, near the steading. 456. Such a house was called the bothy. The change was an agreeable one to both parties ; to the farmer, inasmuch as it restored order and quietness to his house ; and to the men, because they were freed from the surveillance of the farmer's wife ; and their bed in a bothy Avas more comfortable than .the one in the stable. They had now, however, to cook their own victuals ; and to render that task as easy as possible in the circumstances, they were obliged to select articles of food of the simplest description to live, in short, on oatmeal brose and porridge, while the farmer provided the milk. But, like all cases of compromise, the bothy system has not worked advantageously for either party. The farmer finds idle company congregating in the bothy in the evenings, given to drinking, card-playing, and other evil work, lie hears that some of the men wander from home most of the night, and he observes them, in consequence, unable to do their duty next day as it should be done. He is annoyed at their leaving their service every half-year, and it is evident to him, from the general tenor of their conduct, that they feel no interest in the farm or its operations. The men, on the other hand, feel that the farmer takes no interest in their personal comfort. Mated with disagreeable companions, they are induced to visit neighbouring farms in the evening. They complain that their food and fuel are not so good as they should be, and that their bed-clothes are scanty and too long of being changed. They thus believe that a change of place may improve their condition, and after trying many changes, they discover that all places are very much alike. 457. The bothy system has thus proved a failure, and yet where that system is in greatest force, it is believed that it cannot be put down, but has now to be endured as a necessary evil. But in truth no such necessity exists ; it can be abolished as completely in every district, as in those parts of the country where the system has never existed. In those parts, the primitive plan of lodging in the farmer's kitchen was also pursued in regard to unmarried men, but when that plan was abandoned, as explained above, the young men were not put into bothies, but continued in their parents' and friends' houses, and took service when so lodged. When a hind finds himself advancing in years, he is glad to have one of his sons to remain with him, and obtain a double-binding for him from his master; and if the relationship is 'not so near as that of a father, a young man who has lost his parents may obtain a hinding along with an uncle or a cousin, or he may have a hinding for himself, and occupy the house, with an aunt or a sister. As lodgers in the houses of married men, young men find themselves infinitely more comfortable and enjoyable in every respect than in any bothy. 458. The remedy for the bothy system is thus obvious : Let cottages be built in every farm where the bothy system exists, to be occupied by married men. They will soon be crowded by the bothy men, anxious to marry and 122 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES. settle in life, or as inmates with their relations. The change from the confused crowd of a bothy to the peaceful quiet of one's own house, will soon work a marked change for the better in the character of the young men. They will then have no desire to change their service. There will then be no loss of time and work every half-year ; no hiring-market will then be frequented for a bad purpose, and the outcry against them, and the bothy system itself, will cease for ever.. This is no inferential result, but one established from our own expe- rience. 459. Outhouses of Cottages. Although, in some of the examples of cottage arrangement which we have given, we have shown the privy or water-closet, connected with the house, we would recommend the space to be used in some other way, as a closet for coals, pantry, &c. This will necessitate having the privy apart from the house, an arrangement which is in every way better. The separate structure should be placed in the garden at a considerable distance from the house, and should also comprise a place for coals and a pig-sty. We now propose to give a few plans suggestive of the arrangements of outhouse structures adapted to the different classes of cottages we have already given. 460. Outhouses for a Single Cottage. In fig. 132 we give plan of the arrange- Fig. 133. Fig. 132. _j n i o J r b THOUSE FOR A SINGLE CO1 1NOH TO THE FOOT. IRST ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOriS SCALE IN FIO. 132. INGLE COTTAGE Fig. 134. ment suggested, in which a is the coal or fuel store, 5 feet by 6 feet ; b the privy or water-closet, 3 feet by 6 ; c pig-sty, 4 feet by 6. Alternative Plan, fig. 133, in which a is the fuel-store, 5 feet by 6 ; b privy, 3 feet by 6 ; c pig-sty, 4 feet by 6 ; d a food-store, 3 feet by 6. Second Alternative Plan, fig. 134, in which the accommodation of cow-byre is given ; a a the cow-byre, 18 feet by 6 ; b coal- store, 6 feet by 6 ; c water- closet, 3 feet by 6 ; d pig-sty, 4 feet by 6 ; e food-store, 3 feet by 6. 461. Outhouses for Double- Detached Cottages, fig. 135, in which a and b are the two coal- stores, each 3 feet by 6 ; c and d the water-closets, same dimensions ; e and / SECOND ALTERNATIVE PL OF OUTHOUSES FOR A SINGLE COTTAGE iLE IN FIG. 133. PLANS OF OUTHOUSES FOR COTTAGES. 123 pig-sties, 4 feet by 6. Alternative Plan, fig. ]?>(!, in which a and b are the two coal-stores, 5 feet by 6 ; c and d the water-closets, 3 feet by 6 ; e and/ pig- sties, 4 feet by 6. Second Altcrtiatlre Plan, icilJt cow-byres, fig. 137 : a and a the cow-byres, 18 feet by G ; b and b privies, 3 feet by 4 ; c and c pig-sties, 8 feet by 3 ; d and d food-stores, 3 feet by 4. Tltird Alternative Plan, fig. 138 : a and a coal-stores, 7 feet 4| inches by (5 feet ; b and b pig-sties, 4 feet by 6 ; c and c privies, 3 feet by 6 ; d and d food-stores, 3 feet by 4. Fi- IMC,. o ^^71 E b i= / Pi rJZ (t ;. >t '. c 462. Outhouses for Two Double- Detached Composite Cottages, fig. 139 : a a, a a coal-stores, each 4 feet by 6 ; b b, b b privies, each 3 feet by 6 ; c c, c c pig- sties, 4 feet by 6 each. Alternative Plan, fig. 140 : a a, a a privies ; b b, b b coal-stores, 4 feet square ; c c pig-sties, two at the ends of the coal-stores b b, not shown in the figure, 4 feet by 6. 124 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. THIRD ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOOSE6 FOR DOUBLE COTTAGES SCALE IN 113. 132. Fig. 139. o o o o PLAN OF ODTHOU6E8 FOB FOUK COTTAGES, TWO DOUBLE COMPOSITE COTTAQES SCALE IN FIQ. 133. ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOUSES TOR FOUR DOUBLE COMPOSITE COTTA023- SCAI 2 IN FIO. 133. DOOES AND WINDOWS FOE COTTAGES. 125 463. Doors and Windows. Windows and a door for cottages are given in sketches as follow, to larger scale. In fig. 141 we give elevation of front door, showing dressings, &c. ; in lig. 142 ele- vation of three-light window to living- room ; in fig. 143 an elevation of two- light window to bedrooms ; and in fig. 144 an elevation of small two-light window for staircase. 464. The following remarks on win- dows in the article on Labourers' Homes, which has just appeared in the Quarterly Review for April 1860, deserve attention. " It is the windows, however," says the writer, "that give the character to every building, and mark its style ; and this to the cottage as much as to the palace. From old association we should regret the substitution of the sash for the case- ment-window ; but, in fact, the latter, if of three lights, and opening outwards in the centre, is also more convenient for the cottage, being much more easily re-- paired when out of order, and its interior sill serving as a useful shelf. If lead lattice is objected to, the best casement is a wooden frame with sqiiare lights. Large diamond frames never look well, and are particularly ugly either in wood or cast iron. If the windows are suffi- ciently large, there can be no objection to small lead lattice, as a cottage window is not wanted to look in or oiit of, but simply for transmission of light. When near the road, large frames render the interior too public. A single sash-window can never be made proportionate to a low room; for all low buildings the windows should run in horizontal, not vertical length. Good proportion for cottage win- dow-lights are 4 feet high by 18 inches wide, or 2 feet 9 inches by 15 inches." Fig. 143. r '.- 144 - 142. / \ \ f \ \ 1 WINDOW FOR, BEDKOOM OF A COTTA 126 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 465. Allotments. There can be no doubt that a man who has part of his family able to work with him in the field, may live more comfortably, and be better enabled to earn money on a piece of land within the power of their com- bined labour, and possessed at a moderate rent, than if he were a farm-servant. A piece of land so occupied is called an allotment. To render it capable of being occupied by a family, it must have a dwelling-house and a set of offices suited to the extent of the ground occupied. 466. Allotment land must be cultivated with the spade and other hand imple- ments. When the extent of the allotment is less than the occupier and his family can easily cultivate, part of their 'labouring power is thrown away, and when its extent is beyond their physical power to cultivate it properly, the pro- duction of the whole allotment is suppressed. In either case loss is incurred. It is, therefore, of the utmost advantage both to the occupier and the proprietor to have the power of labour and the extent of the ground proportioned to each other. 467. Unfortunately the proportion betwixt labour and the soil cultivated is less attended to than it should be, for commonly the allotment is larger than is the power of the occupier to cultivate it in a proper manner, and the natural consequence is that allotments are not so well cultivated as farms. It is rare to find an allotment in a high state of cultivation. Besides shortcomings in labour, there are shortcomings in capital, and labour alone is not a substitute for capital in the cultivation of the soil. It is then an important consideration for the landlord, when engaging with an occupier, to be assured that both ade- quate labour and capital are to be brought upon the allotment with the new occupier. 468. But, on the other hand, the occupier should be satisfied that the dwelling- house, the offices, the roads, and the fences are in good order. The house may be a single-storey cottage if the family is small ; but if large, a two-storey one will be required. The outhouses should consist of a byre, a barn, a hen-house, and outhouses to contain sundry hand implements, and some light machines. Amongst the many plans of cottages we have given, one may easily be chosen suitable for an allotment. 469. We have nothing more to say on the subject of allotments, and shall conclude by appending the following paragraph by the writer in the Quarterly Review, formerly referred to. " There is yet one matter," he says, "in which our landed proprietors might most serviceably aid in cottage improvement. In many parishes the manorial tenure is often the sole obstacle to better dwellings, where encroachments on the waste have given uncertain ownerships, and the parish, the lord of the manor, and the occupier dispute rather whose property it is not than whose it is. This is the most hopeless case, for even repairs are not eifected, much less improvement ; and too often the tenement, which none think worth an outlay, becomes, when the blood of proprietorship is once up, a bone of contention between parties who can little afford to be at variance. The end is that the poor man is either heartlessly swept away from the home of his fathers, or gains the short-lived and disastrous triumph of retaining the paltry prize in the teeth of those to whom he must look for his bread. Few parishes are without some of this bitter experience, but in many the nature of the soil, and prevalence of copyhold, have made it the rule. These huts and hovels take the place of houses, and, like the mother's pet, are clung to all the more for their weakness and worthlessness. No kinder act could be done to the rural poor than the compulsory commutation of these questionable tenures into freeholds. Often it would be better that the landlord should have them, sometimes it would be fairest to assign them at once to the servant ; but as there is no root of PEOPOETION OF POWER AND ACCOMMODATION IN A FARM. 127 revolution so deep as the agrarian one, it would be well to cut off, before it lias too widely spread itself in tlie social soil, an evil which is daily fostering dis- content and defiance among the tillers of the land, and for which they might fairly expect the law to find an easy and equitable remedy. When the work of landed accumulation is going on so fast, a few thousand additional small free- holds would be a political gain, not to the landed interest only, but to the whole state. But the jealousy which is felt towards the cottage freeholder by the farmer, and still more by the steward, can only be appreciated by those who have lived among them. Legislation is not likely to be speeded in this direc- tion. It is a gentleman's question, to be taken into his own hands ; and he that can have the heart to abate the jots and tittles of his feudal claims, and not only enfranchise his copyholder, but, if the case requires it, set him up with means to make his new freehold respectable, may be assured that in strengthening the state of his poor neighbour's property he has not weakened his own/' 470. The proportion of power and accommodation to the acreage of the farm. The amount of power required to cultivate land depends on the nature of the soil, and the rotation of crops under which it is cultivated. Strong soils require a greater amount of power to cultivate them than weak soils. Strong clays, fitted chiefly to grow wheat, require a greater number of horses to work them than loams, and still more so than gravelly soils. Hence carse clays require a greater force than sharp turnip soils. Perhaps 40 acres of carse clay are as much as a pair of horses can work, whereas 70 acres of turnip soil might be overtaken by the same force. On farms of equal extent, it is thus evident that nearly double the accommodation for horses will be required in the steading of a carse farm than on a farm of gravelly soil. 471. By a parity of reasoning in farms of the same extent and same kind of soil, one rotation of cropping will require a greater number of horses to cultivate it than under another rotation. For example, under a rotation of fours, three- fourths of the land is under arable culture ; whereas, in a system of sixes, one half only of the land is under the plough. Less extent, therefore, of accommoda- tion for horses is required in a farm where the six course is pursued, than where is the four course. 472. The difference of force required to cultivate clay soils in comparison with weak soils, is not on account of any difference in the manner of rising the implements of culture, but solely on account of the greater physical power required to labour the clay soil in every operation. Xot only is a greater force required to work any implement used in clay soils than in light, but a greater variety and heavier class of implements are required to reduce the clay soil to the same degree of pulverisation. 473. From all these considerations, we must come to the conclusion which we have stated at the outset, that the extent and accommodation to be given to farm-buildings must be regulated by the kind of farming to be pursued on the soil which forms the staple of the farm. 474. State of Farming in Scotland in the Middle Ages. Perhaps an appropriate conclusion may be given to this part of our work by taking a glance at the state of agriculture in Scotland in the thirteenth century. Tir the middle ages the monks were the great promoters of agriculture and gardening, and the breeding and rearing of cattle and sheep. It may prove interesting to our readers to give them a slight sketch of the condition of the farms, farm- buildings, and farm-labourers of that period, and which we can do satisfactorily 128 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES. from the pages of Mr Cosmo Innes, in his Scotland in the Middle Ages, an in- teresting work which has just recently appeared. 475. Of the condition of pastoral farming Mr Innes says, " The monasteries of Teviotdale had necessarily a great extent of pasture-land ; and the minute and careful arrangement of folds on their mountain pastures for sheep, and byres for cattle, and of the lodges and temporary dwellings for their keepers and attend- ants, shows that they paid the greatest attention to this part of their extensive farming." 476. In regard to arable husbandry, great attention was p^,id to agriculture from the earliest period of our records. The same corn was grown as is now used. Wheat was grown even in Morayshire in the thirteenth century. We find everywhere strict rules for the protection of growing corns and hay-meadows. " In the reign of Alexander II., the monks of Melrose purchased the right of straightening a stream that bounded their lands of Bele in East Lothian, on account of the frequent injury done by its inundations to the hay-meadows and growing corns of the abbey." 477. "On the estates of the monasteries, water-mills and wind-mills were used for grinding corn in the thirteenth century, and previously, though the rude process of the hand-mill kept its ground in some districts of Scotland to a recent period." 478. " At the end of the thirteenth century (A.D. 1290), and probably always, the monks held a great part of their ample lands and baronies in their own hands, and cultivated them by their villeins from the several granges. The grange itself, the chief house of each of the abbey baronies, must have been a spacious farm-steading. In it were gathered the cattle, implements, and stores needed for the cultivation of their demesne lands or mains, their corn and pro- duce, the serfs or carls who cultivated it, and their women and families." 479. "Adjoining the grange was the mill, with all its pertinents and appear- ance and reality of comfort, and a hamlet occupied by the cottars, sometimes from thirty to forty families in number. The situation of these was far above the class now known by that name. Under, the monks of Kelso, each cottar occupied from 1 to 9 acres of land along with his cottage. Their rents varied from one to six shillings yearly, with services not exceeding nine days' labour. The tenants of twenty-one cottages at Clarilaw, having each 3 acres of land, minus a rood, and pasture for two cows, paid each 2 bolls of meal yearly, and were bound to shear the whole corn of the abbey grange of Newton." 480. " Beyond the hamlet or cottar town, were scattered in small groups the farm-steadings of the husbandi or husbandmen, the next class of the rural popu- lation. Each of these held of the abbey a definite quantity of land, called a husbandland. Each tenant of a husbandland kept two oxen, and six united their oxen to work the common plough. The Scotch plough of the thirteenth century was a ponderous machine, drawn, when the team was complete, by twelve oxen. The husbandland was estimated long ago in the Merse, as 26 acres, ' where scythe and plough may gang.' The husbandmen were bound to keep good neighbourhood, the first point of which consisted in contributing sufficient oxen and service to the common plough." 481. "I have said that, of the inhabitants of the grange the lowest in the scale was the carl, bond, serf, or villein, who was transferred like the land on which he laboured, and who might be caught and brought back, if he attempted to escape, like a stray ox or sheep. Their legal name of nativus or neyf, which I have not found but in Britain, seems to point to their origin in the native race, the original possessors of the soil." " We learn of the price of the serf from the FAEMIXG IX SCOTLAND IX THE MIDDLE AGES. 129 efforts made by the Church for their manumission The Abbey of Coldingham purchased the freedom of Joseph, the son of Etwald, and all his posterity, for the price of three inerks ; of Uoger Fit/ Walker, and all his pos- terity, for two merks." 482. "Above the class of husbandmen was that of the yeoman or bonnet- laird, as he is now called in primitive parts of Scotland He no doubt paid for his hereditary right to the lands, and felt himself much above the husbandmen whose little was precarious." 483. " Still higher in the scale were the great Church vassals, who held a place only second to the baronage and freeholders of the crown. These gener- ally had their lands free of all service, and paid only a nominal quit-rent." 484. " No service is imposed on women, except harvest-work, and I believe agriculturists will agree that we have a still more decided proof of advancing civilisation in the fact, that at the period of the rental, the whole services were in process of being commuted for money." 485. " As to the rent of land, each husbandland paid Gs. 8d. of money-rent, but to this were added considerable services in harvest and sheep-shearing, in. carrying peats and carting wool, and fetching the abbot's commodities. These stipulations are exceedingly precise, fixing even the service in which the husbandman was to have his food from the abbey, and where he was to maintain himself." 486. " Eoads appear to have been frequent, and although some are called the green road, viridis via, and by other names indicating rather a track for cattle; others, bearing the style of 'high-way,' alta via, ' the king's road,' via regia, via regalis, and still more, the caulsey or calwia, must have been of more careful construction, and some of them fit for wheel carriages. A right of way was frequently bargained for, and even purchased at a considerable price. The road leading south of Inverness is called via Scoticana in a charter in 1376." 487. " We find agricultural carriages of various names and descriptions during the thirteenth century plaustrum, quadriga, charete, carecta, biga arid not only for harvest and for carriage of peats from the moss, but for carrying wool of the monastery to the seaport, and bringing in in exchange, salt, coals, and sea-borne commodities." 488. " The immense number and variety of agricultural transactions/' con- cludes Mr Innes this part of his subject, " the frequent transference of lands, the disputes and settlements regarding marches, the precision and evident care of leases, the very occurrence so frequently of the names of field divisions, and of the boundaries between farms, settled by King David in person, show an enlightened attention and interest in agricultural affairs, that seem to have spread from the monarchy and reached the whole population during that period of natural peace and good government, which was so rudely terminated by the War of the Succession." BOOK SECOND PBACHCE IN GONSTEUC1ION. DIVISION FIRST. MATERIALS EMPLOYED IX CONSTRUCTION. 489. SECTION FIRST Stones. Stones useful for the building purposes of the farm may be divided into three great classes namely, the tiilicious, the Cal- careous, and the Argillaceous. The silicious are represented by the granites, traps, and sandstones ; the calcareous are comprised in the limestones ; the argillaceous, being peculiarly liable to atmospheric influences, are by no means durable enough for building purposes, but, being slaty in their structure, they are employed in the construction of roofs. 490. Granite. This, in its several varieties, is the most durable of all the building-stones. Its constituents are quartz, which is nearly pure silica, and forms the greater part of the rock ; felspar, which imparts to granite its peculi- arities of character ; and mica, which occurs in shining plates of greater or less size. The best granites are obtained in Scotland ; they are known as the red and the grey varieties. They are more durable than the granites of the coun- ties of Devon and Cornwall in England. 491. The granular arrangement of felspar, hornblende, and quartz, known as sienite or syenite, forms a species of granite, the hornblende appearing instead of the mica, and is one of the most durable of the building-stones known. The two substances, hornblende and mica, resemble each other closely in com- position hornblende having, however, a much greater proportion of the black oxide of iron. Syenite is as capable of being worked in large blocks as granite, although, from its hardness, like common granite, it is not easily tooled. The durability of this class of building-stones (the granites), in which felspar is present, depends much on the composition of this ingredient. From the potash contained in it, it is more or less obnoxious to atmospheric influences. Care, therefore, should be taken to ascertain the composition of the stones of this class, where large and important works are to be carried on. 492. Trap or Greenstone is a very hard and durable stone ; it is composed of hornblende and felspar. Although a valuable building-stone, its uses are restricted, from the small size and irregular form of the concretions in which it is frequently found. It is also found in some localities in amorphous masses, when it may be raised in large blocks. For cottages and rural structures, when used in conjunction with white stone-facings or dressings to the windows, doors, and corners, and with white mortar, it is well adapted, and presents a pleasing appearance. Basalt, of the same composition as greenstone, but with a larger proportion of iron, is also a durable material as a building -stone ; but it 132 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. occurs in columnar masses and in still smaller concretions than greenstone, and, being harder, is more difficult of being tooled. Trap-rocks are all liable to what is termed " sweating " in damp weather. 493. Sandstones, belonging to the silicious class, are composed of grains derived from the wearing down of the silicious rocks, and bound or cemented together by natural cement of an argillaceous, silicious, or calcareous character. Sand- stones present a wide range of character, from a state almost as durable as granite, to that but little better than hardened clay. Where the silicious par- ticles are held together chiefly by an argillaceous cement, they rapidly disinte- grate under the influence of the weather. 494. Sandstones are easily worked, and divide readily into convenient blocks. From the ease with which it is worked, indeed, some workmen term it " free- stone." The best sandstone is that obtained from Craigleith quarry, near Edin- burgh : it is in high repute. The grey-coloured sandstones of Forfarshire are very durable. The Yorkshire sandstones are much esteemed for flagging, being hard, durable, and easily worked. A greenish sandstone, known as Kentish rag, is very durable. 495. In choosing sandstone, preference should be given to that purely silicious; when argillaceous matter is present, the atmosphere will affect its durability. Although generally esteemed from its variegated appearance, sandstone with coloured stripes should be avoided. These coloured parts, arising from the presence of iron, are speedily affected by water, and decay of the stone is thereby hastened. When mica is present in minute quantity, it determines more specifically the stratified character of sandstone, and the stone is then easily worked in blocks. 496. Limestones. This, the last class of stones suitable for the buildings of the farm we have here to notice, is an important one, and presents a large variety of kinds, characterised by as great diversities of composition as the sandstones. The principal constituent of stones of this class is lime. Lime- stones are impure carbonates, the impurities present giving that diversity of appearance which characterises many varieties, as marble. Any limestone susceptible of a high polish is termed marble, and of this there are many varieties. The oolite limestones, a new formation, afford the limestones chiefly used for building purposes. Magnesian limestones afford some superior building material, as well as the mountain limestone. 497. In determining the qualities of building- stone, its cohesiveness, or resist- ance to a crushing power, and its absorbent power, or that which represents its capability to resist atmospheric influences, are the two points principally consi- dered. In the Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to investigate the qualities of the stone to be used for the Houses of Parliament, a valuable table is given, which we here append. This affords information on the above two points in connection with the most celebrated of the building-stones of the kingdom. In another column the number of grains disintegrated from each specimen is given. The amount of disintegration was ascertained by subject- ing all the specimens simultaneously for eight days to Brard's process, which closely resembles the action of the usual atmospheric influences on stone. The absorbent column exhibits the bulk of water absorbed by specimens one cubic inch in size, while the cohesive column exhibits the weight necessary to crush two-inch cubes, or blocks of eight cubic inches. Of the two columns of specific gravities, the first exhibits the ordinary specific, gravity, the second shows the specific gravity of the solid particles of which each specimen is com- STONES. 133 posed, on the supposition that the water will take the place of the air which occupied the pores before the atmospheric pressure was removed. Classes and Names of Stones. Specific ( iravities. Absorbing Power. Disintegra- tion. Cohesive Power. SANDSTONES. Craigleith Darley Dale . Heddou 2.232 2.G2S 2.229 2.646 2.993 2.643 0.143 0.121 0.156 0.6 0.121 10.1 28.083 25.300 14.168 Kenton 2.247 2.625 0.143 7.9 17.710 Mansfield 2.G3S 2.756 0.151 7.1 18.216 Park Spring . Morley Moor 2.3-21 2.053 2.615 2.G87 0.112 0.221 5.0 0.9 27.071 10.879 MAGNESIAS LIMESTONES. Bolsover 2.316 2.833 0.182 1.5 29.G01 Huddlestone 2.147 2.867 0.239 1.9 15.433 lloche Abbey Park Nook . 2.134 2.138 2.840 2.847 0.248 0.249 0.6 1.8 13.915 15.433 Cadeby Jackdaw Crag Bramliam Moor 1.951 2.070 2.008 2.846 2.634 2.059 0.310 0.200 0.244 6.4 3.1 0.7 15.180 16.951 22.011 OOLITES. Ancaster 2.182 2.687 0.1 SO 7.1 8.349 Bath Box 1.839 2.675 0.312 10.0 5.313 Portland 2.145 2.702 0.20G 2.7 7.590 Ketton 2.045 2.70G 0.244 3.3 9.108 LIMESTONES. Barnack 2.090 2.G27 0.204 16.6 6.325 Chilmark 2.481 2.621 0.053 9.8 25.553 Ham Hill . 2.260 2.695 0.147 9.5 14.421 498. " If the stones be divided," say Professor Daniell and Wheatstone, who conducted the above experiments, " according 1 to their chemical composition, it will be found that, in all stones of the same class, there exists generally a close relation between their various physical qualities. Thus it will be observed that the specimen which has the greatest specific gravity possesses the greatest cohesive strength, absorbs the least quantity of water, and disintegrates the least by the process which imitates the effects of the weather. A comparison of all the experiments shows this to be the general rule, though it is liable to individual exceptions. But this will not enable us to compare stones of diffe- rent classes together. The sandstones absorb the least quantity of water, but they disintegrate more than the magnesian limestones, which, considering their compactness, absorb a great deal." 499. In practice stones are chiefly subjected to compression, rarely to a tensile force, or a transverse strain ; and as the weight to which they are subjected, in the generality of cases, is far beneath the crushing force, or the point at which the particles part asunder, the principal point to be attended to in the selection of a stone is its capability to resist the influences of the weather. Where, how- ever, it is desirable to know the strength of a stone, or its resistance to a crush- ing weight, it is the safest plan to institute direct experiment. 500. The following, extracted from the Eeport which we have already alluded to, will afford some practical information as to the various causes of decay in the different classes of stone : " As regards the sandstones that are usually employed for building purposes, and which are generally composed of either 134 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. quartz or silicious grains, cemented by silicious, argillaceous, calcareous, or other matter, their decomposition is effected according to the nature of the cementing substance, the grains being comparatively indestructible. With respect to limestones composed of carbonate of lime, or the carbonate of lime and magnesia, either nearly pure, or mixed with variable proportions of foreign matter, their decomposition depends, under similar circumstances, upon the mode in which their component parts are aggregated ; those which are most crystalline being found to be the most durable ; while those which partake least of that character suffer most from exposure to atmospheric influences. The varieties of limestone termed oolites (or roestones), composed of oviform bodies cemented by calcareous matter of varied character, will, of necessity, suffer unequal decomposition, unless such oviform bodies, and the cement, be equally coherent, and of the same chemical composition. The limestones which are usually termed shelly, from their being formed of broken or perfect fossil shells, cemented by calcareous matter, suffer decomposition in an unequal manner in consequence of the shells, which, being for the most part crystalline, offer the greatest amount of resistance to the decomposing effects of the atmosphere. Sandstones, from the mode of their formation, are veiy frequently laminated, more especially when micaceous, the plates of mica being generally deposited in planes parallel to their beds. Hence, if such stone be placed in buildings with the planes of lamination in a vertical position, it will decompose in flakes according to the thickness of the laminae ; whereas, if it be placed so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, which is most common in its natural (or quarry] bed, the amount of decomposition will be comparatively immaterial. Limestones, such at least as are usually employed for building purposes, are not liable to the kinds of lamination observable in sandstone, nevertheless varieties exist, especially those commonly called shelly, which have a coarse laminated structure generally parallel to the planes of their beds ; and there- fore the same precaution in placing such stone in buildings, so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, is as necessary as with sandstones, above noticed. 501. " The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of the sandstones, according to the amount of surface exposed to it. The chemical action due to atmospheric causes occasions either a removal or disruption of the exposed par- ticles, the former by means of powerful winds and driving rains, and the latter by the congelation of water forced into, or absorbed by, the external portions of the stone. These effects are reciprocal, chemical action rendering the stone liable to be more easily affected by mechanical action ; which latter, by constantly presenting new surfaces, accelerates the disintegrating effects of the former. 502. " Buildings in this climate are generally found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their southern, south-western, and western fronts, arising, doubtless, from the prevalence of winds and rains from these quarters ; hence it is desirable that stones of great durability should at least be employed in fronts with such aspects. Buildings situated in the country appear to pos- sess a great advantage over those in populous and smoky towns, owing to lichens, with which they almost invariably become covered in such situations, and which, when firmly established over their entire surface, seem to exercise a protective influence against the ordinary causes of the decomposition of the stone upon which they grow." 503. With regard to the kind of stone which should be employed in the build- ing of a steading, it must be determined by the mineral product of the locality STONES. 135 in which it is proposed to erect it. In all localities where stone is accessible, it should be preferred to every other material ; but where its carriage is distant, and of course expensive, other materials, such as brick or clay, must be taken. In large flat tracts of country, stone is generally at too great a distance ; but in those situations, clay being abundant, brick may be easily made, and it makes an excellent building material for walls, and far superior to the old-fashioned clay walls which were in vogue before brick became so universally used for building. Of stone, any kind may be used that is nearest at hand, though some rocks are much better adapted for building purposes than others. 504. We have already given a description of the most important of these building rocks, and now finally point out that the worst sort of building-stone are land-fast boulders of the primitive and trap-rocks, which, although reduci- ble by gunpowder, and manageable by cleavage into convenient-shaped stones, incur great labour in their preparation for building ; and even after the stones are prepared in the best manner they are capable, their beds are frequently very rough, and jointings coarse, and the variety of texture and colour exhibited by them render them at the best unsightly objects in a building. They are equally unsuitable for dry-stone dykes or walls as for buildings ; for in the case of dykes, they must be used very nearly in their natural state, as the usual charge for such work will not bear labour being bestowed on the preparation of the material. They form very good foundation-stones for dry-stone walls. Still, after all, if no better material for building houses is near at hand than those boulders, they must be taken as the only natural product the country affords. There is a class of boulders composed chiefly of micaceous sandstone, found in banks of gravel, which answer admirably for dry-stone walls, splitting with ease with a hand-pick into thin layers, and exhibiting a rough surface on the bed, very favourable to their adherence together in the wall. This species of building material is abundant in Forfarshire, where specimens of dry-stone building may be seen of a superior order. 505. In. the following remarks on the general choice of building-stones by Mr G. Smith, architect in Edinburgh, there is much truth : " The engineer and architect," says he, " go differently to work in choosing their stones. The former, in making his experiments for his piers and bridges, selects the strongest and hardest as most suited to resist great pressure. The latter, for all architectural decorations, chooses not only the most beautiful as to texture and uniformity of colour, but those which may be easily cut into the most deli- cate mouldings, and which, moreover, will stand the winter's frost and the summer's heat. It may be remarked, that the hardest stones are not always those which hold out the best against the effects of weather." 506. Preservation of Stone : Kuhlmanris Method. Various methods are now adopted to prevent the decay of stone. The following is a description of the method used at the Louvre, Notre Dame, and other places in France, with marked success : " Two and a quarter parts of silica (flint or clean sand) are fused with one part of potash ; it is then dissolved by boiling under pressure, in from eight to ten times its weight of water. The stonework of old buildings is thoroughly cleansed of all that might prejudice its absorbing qualities. Troughs nugged with clay are placed against the part of the building intended to be silicated, so as to collect the solution, which is applied with a syringe at intervals of three or four hours for about four days, or till the stone (when dry) ceases to absorb. It is considered desirable that this process should be repeated, but to a less ex- tent, the following year. The colour of the stone is riot materially changed, provided the absorption is tolerably equal, and the silicalisation effected by a 136 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. number of applications of weak solutions, both of which conditions are necessary to success." . 507. M. Kuhlrnann thus explains the rationale of the process of induration thus effected : " The carbonic acid of the atmosphere separates the silica from the potash, leaving it deposited in the pores of the stone, when, should the carbonate of lime be present (as in limestone), it combines with it, and forms the silicate of lime, while the soluble salt viz. the potash is removed by the rain or other means." The cost of the process in France is stated by Mr H. H. Burnell to be Is. 3d. per superficial yard, 508. Daines' Method. Mr Daines, who has devoted considerable attention to the causes of decay in stone, states it to be his opinion that " alkaline efflor- escence is the primary cause of decay in stonework. This efflorescence is the result of chemical agency, not the least of which will be found in the cement or mortar employed for ' bedding,' .or jointing, the work, as in all cases it may be observed that crystals are found commencing at the angles or joints of the work before the walls are thoroughly dry ; and, in the first instance, the disin- tegration which follows proceeds from the alkaline matter contained in all ce- ments and mortars now in general use. In many cases it is accelerated by the employment of sea or salt sand, which is too often used, as the damp developed on the internal walls of many of our buildings plainly testifies. If pieces of Bath or Caen stone, one inch thick, be set with a layer of Koman cement be- tween, and be exposed to the action of the air, it will be found, in the course of three or four years, that the cement will have so acted upon the stone as to render it incapable of being crushed by pressure between the thumb and finger in consequence of its decomposition by the chemical action of the cement. A proof of the destructive effect of salt upon stonework may be observed in any seaport town. The stone-buildings which are exposed to the sea-breezes show plainly this effect. ... In certain localities where the atmosphere is com- paratively free from that influence, vegetation may be observed as accelerating the progress of decay." The most obvious effect of salt on stones is to be seen on the walls of salt-works situate on the sea-shore. 509. As to the remedy for the decay of stone, Mr Daines states, that he em- ploys a " solution of one part by weight of sublimed sulphur in eight parts of linseed oil, heated in a sand-bath to a temperature of 278 Fahr, by which pro- cess the vegetable mucus of the oil is precipitated, and the watery particles evaporated, and their place supplied by the sulphur, which is readily taken up by the oil at the above temperature. The solution is applied with a common painter's brush to the surface of the stone until it will absorb no more. Sulphur is stated by ancient and modern chemists to be insoluble in water, and to suffer no change by exposure to air ; and farther, it is known to be a decided foe to vegetation. . . . For these reasons," says Mr Daines, " I have selected itas : the basis of the indurating medium. The stone so heated becomes extremely hard, almost equal to granite ; and so far as I have been able to test its preserv- ing qualities, a period of four years shows, not only that no decay has taken place, but time actually seems to increase its hardness." 510. Ransomes Method of Preserving Stone. Mr Frederick Eansome, of Ips- wich, has introduced a mode of preserving stone by the application of a "wash," or substance applied after the manner of paint, by which he states that "the softest and most friable stone can be rendered impervious and imperishable." , The method employed consists in applying to the stone surface a solution of silicate of soda, allowing this to be absorbed, and finally applying a solution of the muriate of lime. These two substances, exercising a chemical reaction, fill STONES. 137 Tip the pores of the stone with an insoluble; substance, the silicate of lime. Ob- jections have been made to this mode of preserving- stone, on account of the whitewashed appearance it sometimes gives to stone subjected to the process, and also from the liability of the particles of silicate of lime, which become pulverulent when dried, to be washed out by the action of the rain. Mr Ean- some, however, it is right to state, has answered these objections. A very ex- tended trial of the method is, while we write, being made at the Baptist Chapel at Bloomsbury, the result of which will place its capabilities before the public. oil. The following is the method to be adopted, as recommended by the patentee : "The surface of the stone, f pi*e /muses arc finished in two ways these are, rough-cast and stucco. Rough-cast consists of a small quantity of mortar diluted with water in a tub ; to this a trowelful of pure lime is added, so as to make the whole of the thickness of cream. To finish the Avails with greater expedition, the joist-holes may be left not filled up ; into these, joists may be inserted, on which to place scaffolding to bear the operatives. The "walls are prepared for plastering by indenting them all over from top to bottom with numerous hammer or pick marks: the closer these arc to each other the better. The rough-cast is laid on as follows : The indentations in the wall being first carefully swept, the wall being sprinkled witli water, the workman takes his brush filled with rough-cast mortar and dashes it against the wall. The in- dentations in the wall give the appearance of the ordinary rough-cast with peb- bles in it. The scaffolding being placed at the top of the wall, he lowers his scaffold, takes out the joists, fills up the holes with bricks, mortar, &c., and, fastening his scaffold lower down, proceeds as before. 564. Stucco for outside work is made with one bushel of unslaked lime to six bushels of clean sharp sand. Stucco-finishing is laid on as follows : The walls being previously indented, swept, and sprinkled with water, the workman places some mortar on a flat piece of board 12 inches square, provided with a handle, and with a plastering-trowel lays this on the wall, pressing it closely between the indentations, and working the surface, finally, fair and level, it being sprinkled at the same time by means of a brush with some of the thin mortar, the poorer the mortar the better the stucco. Lime-wash is vised as a final covering to the stuccoed wall. This is made by dissolving some unslaked lime in clear water, and sprinkling it on the wall before the stucco is dry. When applied in this manner the stucco sets very hard, and the white colour of the wash is so incorporated with it that it will never wash off, although no size or oil is used indeed, the using of these renders the white dead and less brilliant ; whereas, if the lime-wash is alone used, the colour will remain -natu- rally as long white as the plaster lasts. All the plastering should be done at one time : new plastering never sets well with old. It is absolutely essential that the walls shall be thoroughly dry before the plaster is laid on. If this is not attended to, the plaster will inevitably scale and blister off, leaving un- seemly spots. 565. The method of Rough- Casting Riiblle Stone or Brick Walls is as follows: First wash the earth from the gravel or coarse sand, and bring it to a uniform size by sifting it, or passing it through a screen ; mix the gravel with newly- slaked lime and water, to the consistence of thick cream. Having cleaned the part of the wall to be operated on with a rough brush, a coat of lime and hair is laid on smooth, and, as fast as some two or three square yards are finished, the rough-cast is thrown upon it. Some recommend the first coat of lime and hair to be allowed to dry, and a second coat put on, upon which the rough-cast is finally thrown. Instead of throwing the rough-cast on, small pebbles may be stuck in the mortar while yet in a soft state. This, however, is a tedious process. 566. Mr Downing recommends a strong and durable stucco for the finishing of the outside of rough brick and stone walls, as follows : " Take stone lime fresh from the kiln, and of the best quality, such as is known to make a strong and durable mortar. Slake it by sprinkling or pouring over it just water enough to leave it, when slaked, in the condition of a fine dry powder, and not a paste. Set up a ^-inch wire-screen at an inclined plane, and throw this powder against 148 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. it. What passes through is fit for use ; that which remains behind contains the core, which would spoil the stucco, and must be rejected. Having obtained the sharpest sand to be had, and having washed it so that not a particle of the mud and dirt (which destroy the tenacity of most stuccoes) remains, and screened it, to give some uniformity to the size, mix it with the lime in powder, in the propor- tion of two parts sand to one part lime. This is the best proportion of lime stucco. More lime would make a stronger stucco, but one by no means so hard and hardness and tenacity are both needed. The mortar must now be made by add- ing water, and working it thoroughly. On the tempering of the mortar greatly depends its tenacity. The wall to be stuccoed should be first prepared by clearing off all loose dirt, mortar, &c., with a stiff broom. Then apply the mor- tar in two coats : the first a rough coat, to cover the inequalities of the wall, the second as a finishing coat. The latter, however, should be put on before the former is dry, and as soon, indeed, as the first coat is sufficiently firm to receive it : the whole should then be well floated, trowelled, and marked off ; and if it is to be coloured in water-colour, the wash should be applied so as to set with the stucco. 567. Whitewash for External Walls. A cheap wash for the outside of wood cottages, outbuildings, &c., is made by slaking fresh quicklime with boiling water, and adding some sulphate of zinc sufficient water being put in to bring the whole to the consistence of cream. The addition of the sulphate of zinc tends to harden the wash, and make it more durable. The addition of a little sulphate of iron will give the wash a warm tint, which will be much more agreeable to the eye than the pure white resulting from the above. 568. A wash useful for brick and stone walls, rongh-casted or stuccoed, is made by mixing equal quantities of clean, sharp, and rather coarse sand, and of fresh-burnt lime, in 6 or 8 gallons of water. This is to be laid on the walls with a brush, care being taken to stir the mixture up each time the brush is dipt into it, so as to mix the sand well up. 569. The following is the recipe for making the celebrated stucco white- wash used in the President's house at Washington, United States : " Take half a bushel of good unslaked lime, slake it with boiling water, covering it during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the liquor through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of clean salt previously dissolved in warm water ; three pounds of good rice, ground to a thin paste, and stirred in while boiling hot ; half-a-pound of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean glue, which has been previously dissolved by first soaking it well, and then hanging it over a slow fire in a small kettle, within a large one filled with water. Add 5 gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand a few days covered from dirt. It should be put on quite hot : for this purpose it can be kept in a kettle on a portable furnace. It is said that one pint of this mixture will cover a square yard upon the outside of a house, if properly applied. .... It retains its brilliancy for years. Any required tinge can be given to the pre- paration by the addition of colouring matter." 570. A fawn colour may be made by mixing four parts of amber, one of Indian red, and half a part of lamp-black, previously dissolved in alcohol. 571. SECTION SIXTH. Finishing of Interior Walls Plastering. In many cot- tages, &c., the stucco already described as useful for outside may be adopted for inside walls, partitions, &c. Plaster proper is made of gypsum, or sulphate of lime ; this is burned or calcined in a simple rectangular kiln or enclosure, formed of brick walls. The largest lumps or stones of lime are placed on the floor of INTEUIOII FINISHINGS. . 149 tlie kiln, in such a way as to form, as it were, a series of arches, into the space of which the firewood or fuel used in calcining 1 is put, the smaller stones being placed above. After being calcined, the time lor which operation varies according to the quantity of lime to be burnt, the lime is powdered either by hand or a mill, after which it is protected from the atmosphere until ready to be prepared for plaster. This is done by slaking the powder with water, the quantity of water depending on the degree of stiffness required in the plaster. 572. The first coat is laid on the walls in a thinnish state, and left rough to take on the next coat, which must be laid on stiff, and smoothed up with a hand-trowel, the surface being levelled with a flat rule. For ordinary work, a plaster termed " coarse stuff" may be made of common mortar mixed with coarse hair cattle or horse, from the tanyard and thoroughly incorporated. In laying this on brick or stone walls, the first coat, which is termed " render- ing," is to be crossed or made rough with the trowel, in order to form a key to the next coat. This not done where the work is " two coats " only. 573. In this case the first coat or " rendering" is left smooth; the second coat is then put above this the material for the second coat being of pure lime slaked with a small quantity of water, more being finally added to bring it to the thickness of cream. After being allowed to settle, the water is poured off, and the lime allowed to remain, till, by the evaporation, it is brought to a proper thickness for working. Where fine stuff is used for ceilings, a little hair is mixed with it, the colour of this being white. 574. Three-coat work is executed by first laying on a coat of coarse stuff, crossing it with the trowel ; then above this another coat, smooth and floated with a rule, and then finished with a "set," or smooth coat of fine stuff. 575. In partitions where laths are placed across the timbers, and in ceilings where only one coat of coarse stuff is laid on between the laths, the operation is termed " lath and plaster." A more finished method, where laths are used, is by first laying on a coat (leaving it crossed) of coarse stuff, thereafter a coat of fine stuff; a still higher kind of finish being first, a coat of rough stuff, crossed ; next, a second coat, smoothed ; lastly, a coat of fine stuff. 576. The tools used in plastering are simple a variety of trowels, a small square board on which to place a quantity of plaster while working, a handle being placed on its lower side by which it is held. The float is a rule which may be long enough to be worked by two men it is used for levelling the surface. 577. Painting Distemper. Plastered walls may be painted in distemper that is, by colours worked up with size instead of oil. The size is formed of a solu- tion of glue. A good substitute for this size can be made by preparing potato- starch, adding some of it to a mixture of whiting and water. This colour has no smell, and makes a beautiful white colouring-wash for ceilings. Where whit- ing cannot be procured, chalk may be pounded very fine, and washed with pure water. In mixing up whiting and size for this kind of painting, any desired tint may be given by adding the colour finely ground. It must be borne in mind, however, that the colour will dry on the walls of a lighter tint than when mixed up ready to be used. The proper tint can be easily decided on by painting a piece of paper, and allowing it to dry. Two coats must be given in painting distemper. 578. Where old plastered walls become stained, and it is desired to have them painted in distemper, the surface of the wall should be cleaned, and one coat of white lead in oil, with a little turpentine, given to it : after it is dry, the water- colour will be taken on smoothly. 150 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. 579. Painting in Oil. The basis generally used in preparing colours is white lead. The oil used for mixing the colours is linseed the dilution being effected by spirits of turpentine. Litharge, sugar of lead, &c., are added to facilitate the drying. The following recipe is for white paint, used for exterior woodwork : seventy-eight parts of white lead, ground in oil, nine parts of boiled oil, nine parts of raw oil, and four parts of spirit of turpentine. For a stone colour for the exteriors of buildings, window and door facings, &c. : white, lamp-black, and a little Venetian red, ground in oil, and mixed with white lead and boiled lin- seed-oil. For a fawn-colour : white, yellow-ochre, and Spanish brown. For a drab : white, Venetian red, burnt amber, and a little black. A green paint, useful for outside doors, &c., is made with 1 Ib. of verdigris, and 2 lb. of white lead, ground and diluted in common linseed-oil the wood being first painted with white, and the green in two coats. 580. In painting in oil, " when bright colours, as white and grey, are ground and diluted in oil, it is advisable to make use of the oil of walnuts ; but if the colours be dark, such as chestnut, or olive, or brown, you must make use of a pure linseed-oil." 581. In painting wood- work, it is necessary to kill the knots which, in pine especially, are frequently met with. This is effected by covering them with fresh-slaked liine this being rubbed off after twenty-four hours, and painted over with white or red lead. The knots will also be prepared to take on the colour properly by first giving them a coat of oil mixed with the litharge. The priming coat of white and red lead, well diluted in oil, is next to be put on, previously filling up the nail and other holes with putty, composed of whiting and linseed-oil. The first coat of white is next to be laid on, which, after it is dried, is to be rubbed down with a pumice-stone, to prepare it for the next coat. If the final colour is not to be white, the second coat should have some of the intended colour mixed up with it. The third coat is of the requisite colour. 582. In painting plastered walls, it is absolutely necessary that they should be dry : in no case will the work be satisfactory if this is not attended to. As plaster will take eighteen months or two years to dry, according to circum- stances, it will be as well to paint them in distemper first, washing this off whenever the walls are judged sufficiently dry. In painting with oils, the walls must be first primed : this is done by giving two or three coats, to harden the plaster ; thereafter lay on two coats of ochre, ground and diluted in linseed-oil ; finish with the paint of the desired colour, one or two coats as may be considered desirable. 583. A paint which dries quicker than oil-paint, and has no smell, may be made of milk and lime as follows : " Take of skim-milk nearly 2 quarts, of fresh-slaked lime about 6 ounces, of linseed-oil 4 ounces, and of whiting 3 lb. ; put the lime in a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to form a mixture resembling thin cream ; then add the oil, a little at a time, stirring it with a small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and lastly the whiting. The milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pieces in water, out of which it is to be immediately taken, and left to slake in the air. For fine white paint the oil of carraway is the best, because colourless ; but with ochres, the commonest oils may be used. The oil, when mixed with the oil and lime, entirely disappears, and is totally dissolved by the lime forming a calcareous soap. The whiting or ochre is to be gently crumbed on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually imbibes, and at last sinks : at this period it must be well stirred in. This paint may be coloured like distemper or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow-ochre, &c., and used in the same PAINTS. 151 manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover 20 square yards with the first coat, and will cost three halfpence a-yard. The same paint will do for outdoor work, by the addition of '2 ounces of slaked lime, 2 ounces of linseed- oil, and 2 ounces of white Burgundy pitch the pitch to be melted in a gentle heat with the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk and lime. In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its co-operation with the milk." (SMITH'S Art of House-Painting.} 584. The following is a very durable paint more so than the ordinary oil recommended by Mr Downing for cottage-work its hardness increasing by time : " Take freshly-burned unslaked lime, and reduce it to powder. To 1 peck or bushel of this add the same quantity of line white sand, or line coal-ashes, and twice as much fresh wood-ashes, all these being sifted through a fine sieve. They should then be thoroughly mixed when dry. Afterwards mix them with as much common linseed-oil as will make the whole thin enough to work freely with a painter's brush. This will make a paint of a light-grey stone-colour, nearly white. To make it fawn or drab, add yellow-ochre and Indian red ; if drab is desired, add burnt amber, Indian red, and a little black ; if dark stone- colour, add lamp-black ; or if brown stone, then add Spanish brown. All these colours should of course be mixed in oil, and then added. This paint is very much cheaper than common oil-paint. It is equally well suited to wood, brick, or stone. It is better to apply it in two coats the first thin, the second thick." 585. The interior woodwork of cottages may be beautifully stained to re- semble oak and walnut, by washing the cleaned surface with diluted sulphuric acid (1 ounce of sulphuric acid to a pint of warm water) ; this to be washed, when warm, evenly on the surface of the wood to be stained. The next opera- tion is washing over the surface so prepared with a tobacco stain, made by boil- ing a quantity of tobacco with as much water as will cover it, allowing this to get dissolved to the consistence of a syrup by gentle boiling this being strained before using. The stain is laid on with a sponge. When the wood is thoroughly dry, it is to be brushed over with 8 ounces of bees'-wax, ^ pint of linseed-oil, and double the quantity of boiled linseed-oil. 586. A varnish for finally covering the surface of the wood thus stained is prepared by dissolving in a pint of spirits of wine a |- Ib. of seed-lac. Varnishes had better be procured ready-made. 587. Outside work may be stained by adopting Mr Wheeler's mode : " Take best rosin tar, or pitch, in the proportion of 1 gallon to every 4 gallons of the following turpentine 1^ gallon, seed-lac dissolved in alcohol (in the proportion of 1 Ib. to 1 quart) 2 quarts, cold linseed-oil i gallon, boiled oil I gallon, bees'- wax 6 Ib., ox-gall 1 Ib. ; mix all these together, and add the rosin tar first named. Lay it on with a large flat brush." 588. We would recommend the emigrant to provide himself with a quantity of Stephens' dyes for staining wood : they stain the wood beautifully. The oak, mahogany, and satin-wood colours are 8s. per Ib., and are simply dissolved in water : this quantity will make a gallon of stain. Being in powder, they are easily carried. Address Mr Henry Stephens, 54 Stamford Street, Blackfriars, London. 589. A Durable Paint for Outdoor Work. Any quantity of charcoal powdered, a sufficient quantity of litharge as a drier, to be well levigated with linseed-oil, and when used to be thinned with well-boiled linseed-oil. The above forms a good black paint, and by adding yellow-ochre an excellent green is produced, which is preferable to the bright green used by painters for all garden work, and does not fade with the sun. This composition was first used by Dr Parry of 152 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. Bath, on some spouts, which, on being examined fourteen years afterwards, were found to be as perfect as when first put up. 590. SECTION SEVENTH. Timber. All the varieties of Fir timber imported into the country are employed in the construction of farm-buildings, and those kinds are most used in localities which are obtained from the nearest seaports. For example, along the east coast of this country, Memel logs and Baltic battens are used for all such purposes, while on the west coast no timber is to be seen in the construction of farm-buildings but what is brought from America. 591. Norway and St Petersburg battens, being cut to proper lengths and breadths, form cheap and very durable timber for all farm purposes. The red or white wood battens make excellent floors, and plain deal doors for inside use. Such flooring is beautifully dressed by planing machinery such as at the mills at Leith. 592. Memel logs are admirably fitted for joisting, windows, outside doors, and all outside work, it being composed of strong and durable fibre, surrounded with resinous matter. The greatest objection to its use for small purposes is its knottiness, on which account the Norway battens make handier small scant- lings and cleaner door- work. 593. The American red pine is excellent timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. It is seldom or never of so large dimensions as Memel log. It is fitted for beams, joists, scantlings, windows, and outside doors. 594. American yellow pine is well suited to all inside work, and especially that which requires the highest finish, such as bound-doors, window-fittings, and mantelpieces. There is no wood that receives paint so well. The logs are generally of immense sizes, affording great economy of timber in cutting them up. 595. Swedish 11-inch plank is good and useful timber, but its scantlings are not very suitable for farm-buildings. Stout joists for granaries are made of it, with a f draught taken off the side for sarking. It forms excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for gangways. 596. In the interior of the country, at a distance from seaports, home timber is much used in farm-buildings. Larch forms good scantlings and joists, and is a durable timber for rough work ; and so does well-grown Scotch fir of good age, and cut down in the proper season ; but in its ordinary state its durability is not equal to larch or generally any good foreign timber, for rough purposes.* 597. All the timber referred to is derived from the trees belonging to the natural order of Coniferos, or cone-bearing trees. The Scotch fir, Pinus syl- vestris, is a well-known tree in the forests of this country, and few new plan- tations are made without its aid, as a nurse for hardwood trees. In favourable situations it grows to a large size, as is evidenced in the Memel log, which is just the produce of the Scotch fir from the forests of Lithuania. Aged Scotch fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, was of as good quality and useful sizes as the best Memel. 598. The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies excelsa or communis, a tree which, as it is treated in this country, comes to little value, being rough and full of knots. Inspection of a cargo from Sweden, which arrived at Hull in 1808, convinced Mr Pontey that the white deal, which fetched at that time * In voL ix. p. 165, of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society will be found a long account of the larch plantations of Atholl, drawn up from the papers of the late Duke of Atholl ; and in vol. xii. p. 122, of the same work, is an account of the native pine forests of the north of Scotland, by Mr John Grigor, Forres. TIMBER. 153 from 14 to 15, 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common spruce, the planks having been recently sawn, and a small branch left attached to one of them.* 599. Whether the Norway pine is the same species as the pine found in some of the forests of the north of Scotland, we do not know. Some writer's speak of the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce, called by them Pinus Abies. It may be that the white-wood battens are derived from that tree ; but the red-wood kind has very probably the same origin as the red- wood of the north of Scotland, which is from a variety of the Pinus sylrcsfris or horizontalis of Don.-j- 600. The red pine of Canada is the Pinus resinusa. 601. The yellow pine is the Pinus rariabilis or Pinus in/'tis of Michaux, which towers in lofty height far above its compeers. It grows to the gigantic height of 150 feet, and must require great labour to square it to the sizes found in the British market, large as these sizes unquestionably are. 602. The larch, Larix EuropcKa, is a native of the ravines of the Alps of the Tyrol and Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a rush, to a great height. 603. Some of the pines of California are highly spoken of as yielding good timber for useful purposes, but as yet we have no experience of them as timber. 604. For agricultural implements two kinds of wood are principally used oak and ash ; oak chiefly in England, ash in Scotland, possibly from ash being cheaper in Scotland than oak. Experiments go to prove the superiority of ash for purposes where sudden shocks and severe strains are given to the implements. 605. Oak. The common English oak, Qucrcus rnlur, is deemed the best for construction. The grain is straight and fine, and well adapted for purposes where stiffness is required. It splits easily into laths. The Sessile oak is considered, from its elasticity and toughness, best for ship-building purposes, but is somewhat liable to warp and split. It is not. so fine-grained as the Robur oak, and is darker in colour. These English oaks take a long period to come to maturity nearly 100 -years. The American oak is of more rapid growth than the English, but is not so durable. The red Canadian oak is deemed of little constructive value. 606. Oak is adapted to a vast variety of purposes, and when kept in a dry situation it may be termed practically imperishable. Even in situations of alternate wetness and dryness, it is more durable than other wood used for construction. The colour of the best quality is a light brown ; when it approaches to red, the quality is not so valuable. The heaviest wood is always the strongest, and that grown on. clay soil more valuable than that on light. 607. Ash. A hard wood, of compact texture and brownish colour, easily worked when young, but tough and hard when seasoned. Its durability is great when kept dry, but alternations of wetness and dryness cause it to decay. Notwithstanding this defect, it is greatly used for purposes where it is sub- jected to severe strains and shocks, from its superiority in toughness and elasticity. 608. The Tree. If we examine the transverse section of the trunk of a full- grown tree, we will find it divided into three parts the heart, which is the * PONTEY'S Profitable Planter, p. 41, 4th edition, 1814 ; and at p. 56 he relates an anecdote of a person who, though long accustomed to attend on sawyers, was deceived by some Scotch fir, which he considered excellent foreign plank. t See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530. 154 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. centre part ; the sap-wood, which surrounds the heart ; and the bark, which forms the outer covering. Of these the heart is the valuable part for con- structive purposes, the sap-wood having little strength, and being very liable to decay from the amount of fermenting matter contained in it. 609. The tree should not be felled till it has attained its maturity ; if cut before, the timber will not be so strong ; if cut after decay has set in, it will be less durable and strong than when cut as above mentioned. The commence- ment of the decline of a tree is indicated by the decay of the top and the topmost branches. There are differences of opinion as to the period of the year when timber should be felled this having reference to the time when the sap is not in circulation. If the tree should be felled while this circulates, the decay of the tree will be hastened from the highly fermentable nature of the sap. The winter months, and the month of July, are considered the best for felling, as the sap is then believed to be dormant. The researches, however, of M. Boucherie, a gentleman who has devoted much time to investigating the properties of timber, point to midsummer and autumn as the time when the sap is least active. 610. Seasoning of Timber. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of this part of the duties of the machine and implement maker. Unseasoned tim- ber, from shrinking and warping, may cause material injury to important struc- tures and implements. There are a variety of methods now introduced to effect this important purpose. We shall notice three of these : Natural seasoning ; Water seasoning ; Hot-air desiccation. 611. Natural Seasoning. On felling, the bark and small branches are to be removed, and the timber as soon as possible cut into balks of convenient size of scantling. These are to be removed at once, and piled under drying sheds, where they are subjected to the free circulation of the air, yet protected from the direct action of the sun, wind, and rain. The great object to be attained is uniform drying of the whole timber ; all partial and unequal drying only causes warping and shrinking. No timber should be used for constructive purposes until it has been subjected at least two years to this seasoning process. For the usual purposes of the carpenter, timber is considered sufficiently seasoned when it loses about one-fifth of its weight when green. 612. Water Seasoning. This consists in placing the timber in water, with a view to use the latter as a medium to carry off the soluble matter, which is the principal cause of decay. Although much recommended by some, it is consi- dered by good authorities of doubtful utility. 613. Hot-air Desiccation. The best process, and one which has proved itself thoroughly successful, is that introduced by Messrs Davison and Symington. The following is a brief description of it : The timber to be dried is placed in proper positions in a close chamber, into which is forced, by means of fanners, a powerful current of highly heated air. This air is heated by passing through a series of pipes, which are arched over, and form the upper part of the furnace. Some idea may be formed of the complete nature of the process, when we men- tion that a violin, which had been in use for many years, and was considered thoroughly dry, lost a considerable per-centage of its weight when subjected to the action of the currents of heated air. The same result was obtained in sub- jecting a piece of wood, which had lain for a great number of years exactly over a smith's forge, which had been in constant use. 614. Preservation of Wood. In regard to the composition of wood, and its chemical properties, " it is considered by chemists that dry timber consists, on an average, of 96 parts of fibrous and 4 of soluble matter in 100, but that their TIMBER 155 proportions vary somewhat with the seasons, the soils, and the plant. All kinds of wood sink in water when placed in a basin of it under the exhausted receiver of an air-punip, showing their specific gravity to be greater than 1.000," and varying from 1.46 (pine] to l..">3 (oaJS) " Wood becomes snow- white when exposed to the action of chlorine ; digested with sulphuric acid it is transformed first into gum, and, by ebullition with water, afterwards into grape sugar Authenreith stated, some years ago, that he found that fine sawdust, mixed with a sufficient quantity of wheat Hour, made a cohesive dough with water, which formed an excellent food for pigs ; apparently showing that the digestive organs of this animal could operate the same sort of change upon wood as sulphuric acid does The composition of wood has been examined by Messrs Gr'ay-Ltissae and Thenard, and Dr Front. According to Dr Prout, the oxygen and hydrogen are in the exact proportions to form pure water; according to the others, the hydrogen is in excess."* 615. "When minutely divided fragments of a trunk or branch of a tree," as M. Easpail observes, "have been treated by cold or boiling water, alcohol, ether, diluted acids and alkalies, there remains a spongy substance, of a snow-white colour when pure, which none of these reagents have acted on, while they have removed the soluble substances that were associated with it. It is this that has been called woody matter, a substance which possesses all the physical and chemical properties of cotton, of the fibre of flax, or of hemp." 616. " On observing this vegetable caput inortinun with the microscope, it is perceived to be altogether composed of the cells or vessels which formed the basis or skeleton of the living organs of the vegetable. They are cither cells which, by pressing against each other, give rise; to a network with pentagonal or hexagonal meshes ; or cells with square surfaces ; or else tubes of greater or less length, more or less flattened or contracted by drying ; sometimes free and isolated, at other times agglomerated, and connected to each other by a tissue of elongated, flattened, and equilateral cells ; or, lastly, tubes of indefinite length, each containing within it another tube formed of a single filament spirally rolled up against its sides, and capable of being unrolled under the eye of the observer simply by tearing the tube which serves to support it. We find the first in all young organs, in annual and tender stems, in the pith of those vegetables that have a pith, and always in that of the monocotyledons. It is in similar cells that the fecula is contained in the potato. The second is met with in all the trunks and woody branches of trees. The tubes and the spirals (tracheae) are found in all the phanerogamous plants. These are the organs which constitute the fibre of hemp, of flax," &c. 617. " Experiment, in accordance with the testimony of history, proves that, if excluded from the contact of moist air, woody matter, like most of the other organised substances, may be preserved for an indefinite period." The plants found in coal-mines, the wood, linen cloths, bandages, and herbs and seeds found in the coffins of Egyptian mummies, have all their characters undecayed, and yet these tombs are in many cases nearly 3000 years old. " But if the woody matter be not protected against the action of air and moisture, the case is very different. By degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged, and the carbon predominates more and more. Thus the particles of the texture are dis- integrated gradually, their white colour fades, and passes through all the shades till it becomes jet-black ; and if this altered woody matter be exposed to heat, it is carbonised without flame, because it does not contain a sufficient quantity of hydrogen. Observe also, that the cells of woody matter contain different sorts * URE'S Dictionary of the Arts art. " Wood." 156 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. of substances tending to organise, and that these are mixed and modified in many different ways." ..." Woody matter, such as I have defined it, being formed of 1 atom of carbon and 1 atom of water, as soon as it is submitted to the action of a somewhat elevated temperature, without the contact of air, expe- riences an internal reaction, which tends to separate the atom of water from the atom of carbon. The water is vaporised, and the carbon remains in the form of a black arid granular residue."* 618. Ryan's Process. Now, if any means could be devised by which the substances in the cells of woody matter could be deprived of their tendency to organise when in contact with common air, wood might be rendered as perma- nently durable as the grains of wheat which have been found undecayed in Egyptian mummies, and even more so. This discovery seems to have been made by Mr Kyan. In contemplating the probability of the use of home tim- ber being much extended in the construction of steadings, when the young woods at present growing shall have attained their full growth, it may be proper that the growers of wood, and the farmers on the estates on which wood is grown, be made aware of this mode, and of others, of preventing timber being affected by the dry-rot. What the true cause of dry-rot is, has never yet been determined, but it frequently shows itself by a species of mildew which covers the timber, and the action of which apparently causes the wood to decay, and crumble down into powder. The mildew, however, is neither the dry-rot nor its cause, but its effect. It is distinctly seen by the microscope to be a fungus ; and as the fungus itself is so minute as to require the aid of the microscope to be distinctly seen, its seeds or spores may be supposed to be so very minute as to be taken up by the spongioles of trees. 619. The principle upon which the chemical action of the corrosive sublimate the substance used by Mr Kyan upon vegetable matter preserves the timber, is easily explained. All plants are composed of cellular tissues, whether in the bark, alburnum, or wood. The tissue consists of various-shaped cells ; and although they may not pass uninterruptedly along the 'whole length of the plant, as M. de Candolle maintains, yet air, water, or a solution of any- thing, may be made to pass through the cells in their longitudinal direction. Experiments with the air-pump have proved this beyond dispute. Those cells, and particularly those of the alburnum, contain the sap of the trees which, in its circulation, reaches the leaves, where its watery particles fly off, and the enlarging matter of the tree, called the albumen, remains. Albumen is the nearest approach in vegetables to animal matter, and is therefore, when by any natural means deprived of vitality, very liable to decomposition, particularly that which is connected with the alburnum or sap-wood. Now, corrosive sub- limate has long been known to preserve animal matter from decay, being used to preserve anatomical preparations ; and even the delicate texture of the brain is preserved by it in a firm state. The analogy between animal and vegetable albumen being established, there seems no reason to doubt the possibility of corrosive sublimate preserving both substances from decay ; and, accordingly, the experiments of Mr Kyan with it on albuminous and saccharine solutions have confirmed the correctness of this conjecture. The prior experiments of Fourcroy, and especially those of Berzelius, in 1813, had established the same conclusions, though neither of these eminent chemists had thought of their practical application to the preservation of timber. Berzelius found that the addition of the bichloride (corrosive sublimate) to an albuminous solution, pro- duced a protochloride of mercury (calomel), which readily combined with albu- * RASPAIL'S Organic Chemistry, translated by Henderson, p. 141-164. TIMBER. 157 men, and produced an insoluble precipitate. This precipitate fills up all the cellular interstices of the wood, and becomes as hard as the fibres. 620. Ventilation of Timber in Dwellings, Even after timber has been subjected to this process, it is requisite to give the air free access to it by means of ven- tilation, and for that purpose, where timber is covered up, which it is not likely to be in a steading, small openings, covered and protected by cast-iron gratings in frames, should be made through the outside walls. 621. Other plans for preserving timber have been introduced, of which the four most important are known as Burnett's, Bethell's, Payne's, and Bou- cherie's : of these we offer a short description. 622. Burnett's Process. The process patented in 1842 by Sir William Bur- nett consists in impregnating the timber with a solution of the chloride of zinc. From recorded experiments, the process seems to be efficient. The solution is prepared in the proportion of 1 pound of chloride of /inc to 10 gallons of water. 623. Bethell's Process. In Bethell's process, oil of tar, and other bituminous matters containing creosote, are used to impregnate tiie wood. The wood is not only immersed in the solution, but it is forced into the fibres by pressure. The wood to be impregnated is placed in close tanks filled with the solution ; the tanks are then closed up, and the air exhausted from their interior ; more solu- tion is then pumped in for a period of six or seven hours. The wood is finally taken out thoroughly saturated with the solution, and weighing considerably heavier. The process is said to perfectly coagulate " the albumen in the sap, thus preventing its putrefaction." In using the oil of tar it is necessary to deprive it of its ammonia, otherwise the wood becomes brown and soon decays. 624. Timber for farm purposes may be simply Bethellised by painting the surface over with the hot oil of tar, or by immersing it in a tank of the hot solu- tion. This will not give such beneficial results as when impregnated under pressure, but will nevertheless tend to preserve the timber for a considerable time from atmospheric influences. The cost of the oil, as sold by the patentee, is stated at 4d. per gallon. 625. Payne's Process. In Payne's process (patented 1841) the wood is im- pregnated by pressure with a solution of earthy or metallic substances ; and these substances, by chemical decomposition, preserved within the material in an insoluble state. Thus, if a solution of sulphate of iron is forced into the wood, a second solution is forced in of any of the carbonate alkalies, which " decomposes the salt, and renders the iron insoluble."'' 626. Boucherie's Process. This process consists essentially of impregnating the wood with a preservative solution. The solution which is found to answer best is sulphate of copper, or the blue vitriol of commerce, one by weight of which is dissolved in 100 by weight of water. The peculiarity of the process, how- ever, consists in the method of impregnating the wood with a solution a method which is simple, and easily and inexpensively carried out. The method has two objects in view one the impregnating of the wood with the salt, and one the driving out of the natural sap the salt taking the place of the sap. This latter constitutes not the least valuable part of the process ; for in other systems the sap the fermentation of which is the chief cause of decay in wood is allowed to remain, while the Boucherie process expells it thoroughly, cleansing the tubes or pores from all fermenting matter. The importance of having the sap of timber expelled, and its place occupied by the preserving solu- tion, has long been recognised ; and attempts have been made to secure the ad- * See Transactions of the Highland and Ayrirultura! Society for 1857, p. 12 art. " The Preser- vation of Timber." 158 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. vantages of this mode of treatment ; but the expensiveness of the methods pro- posed have completely precluded all prospect of their being generally adopted. It has remained for M. Boucherie, as the result of many years' experimenting on the nature of woods, to introduce a mode as simple as it is ingenious and philo- sophical. The long series of experiments which M. Boucherie instituted resulted in proving that, although the structure of trees is tubular, there is no lateral communication between the tubes. To show how completely isolated each tube is from the others surrounding it, and how perfect is the longitudinal connection of the tube, M. Boucherie has shut off certain tubes at one end of a tree, leaving these exposed to form a certain word, and, by means of a coloured liquid forced along the tubes, has transferred the word or name from the one end of the tube to the other. And so completely is the flow of the liquid through the tubes carried out that, at whatever part of the tree a section is made, there the name is found. The following is the method of conducting the process : " Soon after the tree is felled a saw-cut is made in the centre, through about 9-10ths of its section. The tree is then slightly raised by a lever or wedge at its centre, and the saw-cut is then partially opened, as in fig. 145. A piece of string is Fig. 145. PREPARATION OF THE TIMBER FOR BOTJCHE 1 PB.E8ERVIKQ IT. TIMBER PREPARED FOR BOUCHERIE'S METHOD OP PRESERVING IT. then placed round the saw-cut, close to the outer circumference of the tree ; the support is then withdrawn, and the saw-cut closes on the string, thereby making a water-tight joint. An auger hole is then bored obliquely into the saw-cut in the direction shown at a, fig. 1 46 ; a wooden tube 6, fig. 146, is then driven into the hole, the conical end of which is attached to a flexible pipe c, which is in connection with a cistern or reservoir at an elevation of from 30 to 40 feet above the tree intended to be preserved. In the case of very long trees the foregoing method is slightly modified. When the timber is under operation, the sap runs out from the ends in a clear stream, showing the amazing quantity of this fluid which it contains ; in fact, the preserving fluid will traverse a tree 12 feet in length with less pressure than is required to force it laterally through a plank three-quarters of an inch in thickness. As the sap is forced out the preservative fluid follows it, and its presence at the ends of the wood is ascertained by a chemical test. Thus the sap and fermenting juices are completely expelled, and the timber im- pregnated throughout its length with the preserving fluid." 627. One great advantage possessed by the process, so far as the interest of our readers is concerned, is that the least costly woods are the best for the METALS. 159 operation. Thus woods which at present arc the refuse or least valuable may, by the process, be raised to the value of first-class home timbers. From the Eeports of the French engineers who investigated the process at the request of the government, the following extract is given : " Those kinds of wood which possess most moisture, and, of the same kind, those which have grown in the dampest soils, are most easily penetrated. It follows that the least esteemed kinds of timber, and consequently the cheapest, are precisely those which afford the best results when injected with the sulphate of copper." They also give the following examples, showing the increase of weight in various woods after impregnation : Beech, . Oak (sappy part only), Hornbeam, Birch, Poplar, Alder, Ash, Scotch Fir, White Fir, increased 209 Ib. per 35 ft. cube. 5,5 Ib. 4(3 Ib. 2 Ib. 10 oz. 70 Ib. 50 Ib. 15(3 Ib. 50 Ib. 127 Ib. 53 Ib. 628. The sooner the trees are subjected to the process after being cut down the better ; no time therefore is lost, or expense incurred, in drying or seasoning the timber. Trees felled any time from November to May may be prepared in May; but if they are cut down in May, or any month from May to November, they ought to be prepared within three weeks from the time of being felled. 629. .From statements furnished by the agent of the company, it appears that the cost of the gutta-percha tubing, with every appliance necessary to operate upon fifteen trees at once, is 6 ; on thirty trees, 11, 5s. Full information as to prices, &c., may be obtained at the office of the Permanent Way Company, 26 Great George Street, Westminster, London. 630. SECTION EIGHTH, Metals. The metals used in construction are iron, copper, brass, zinc, and lead. 631. Iron. The two varieties of this material are cast-iron and wrought-iron. 632. Cast-iron is generally divided into two classes, grey and white, between which there exist very marked differences. When of good quality, grey cast- iron is slightly malleable, and files easily when the skin or outer crust is removed. The fracture presents a granular appearance grey in colour, and metallic in lustre, as if grains of lead were on the surface. Grey is smoother and tougher than white cast-iron. 633. White cast-iron, when broken, presents a fracture of a distinctly-marked crystalline character, the colour white, and instead of a metallic it possesses a vitreous lustre, or a light somewhat similar to that reflected from a series of small crystals. This quality of iron is hard and brittle. 634. The colour and lustre of iron is usually taken as a test of its strength. Where the colour is dark grey, with a high metallic lustre, the iron is of a valu- able quality. Where the lustre is less decided, the softness and weakness are increased. Where the colour is a light grey, with a high metallic lustre, the metal is hard and tenacious. The hardness and brittleness of cast-iron become more marked as the colour becomes whiter, and the lustre changes from metallic to vitreous. The extreme of the grey variety is where the colour is dark and mottled this gives the softest and weakest iron of this class ; and of the white 160 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. variety, where the colour is of a dull greyish-white, with a high vitreous lustre this giving the hardest and most brittle of this class. 635. But while colour and lustre are taken as tests of strength, a good autho- rity does not think them admissible as tests of the chemical constituents of iron; for though dark-coloured iron is usually weak, grey strong, and white brittle, yet black iron, when chilled, becomes white, although it must be sup- posed to contain the same quantity of carbon. We therefore conclude that the colour of iron indicates the treatment to which it has been subjected, and in some cases only the quantity of carbon. 636. As a general rule, the grey cast-iron is most suitable where strength is requisite, the white where hardness is required. The best test of the quality is to strike the edge of a casting with a hammer. If the blow produces fracture, the iron is brittle and comparatively weak ; if the blow indents without break- ing, the iron is of good quality. 637. The strength of cast-iron depends upon the quantity of carbon which it contains, and its freedom from impurities. In addition to carbon, cast-iron in this country contains silica, lime, magnesia, alumina, and occasionally some of the phosphates and other admixtures. The iron made from the magnetic ores is the best 638. When cast-iron contains 3 per cent of carbon, it is considered to be of the strongest quality ; if it contains more than this amount, it is soft and weak ; if less, it is hard and brittle. 639. The quality of iron produced at the iron-works throughout the country varies considerably, although, taking an average of the whole, some approach to a uniform standard is obtained. As a mixture of the various irons is understood to produce the best cast-iron, it is of some practical importance to know the " mixtures " recommended by experienced engineers. The object in mixing the different varieties is to obtain the proportion of carbon which gives the greatest strength with the requisite degree of fluidity ; and this proportion is regulated by the appearance of the fracture of the several varieties proposed to be used for the mixture. 640. Mr Fairbairn of Manchester, one of our highest practical authorities, gives the following as the best mixture, independently of price : Lowmoor, No. 3, . . . .30 per cent. Blaina, or Yorkshire, No. 2, . . . 25 Shropshire or Derbyshire, No. 3, . 25 Good old scrap-iron, . . . . . 20 100 For large and small castings Mr M. Stirling gives the following mixtures : For a heavy casting, several inches in thickness and several hundredweight, a mixture of two proportions of No. 3 to one of No. 1 may be used. When the casting is thin and light (say 2 or 3 cwt.), a larger proportion of No. 1 and a smaller proportion of No. 3 may be used. It is difficult to estimate exactly the quantity of the various irons from their numbers, as these are very arbitrary, the No. 1 of one district differing considerably from the No. 1 of another. Attention should therefore be paid to the appearance of fracture of each quality ; and where great nicety is required, it would be advisable to test the strength of each by direct experiment. The London mixture, which by the metropolitan founders is considered to be stronger than country mixtures, is equal propor- tions, or nearly so, of No. 3 old scrap and No. 1 Scotch hot-blast. Another METALS. 161 mixture recommended is, equal proportions of hot-blast iron, old iron, and Blaenavon Welsh iron. 641. Mr M. Stirling's patented mixture of wrought-iron and cast-iron gives "considerably increased powers of resistance to every description of strain, when compared with the unmixed irons." This process of toughening cast- iron consists in fusing simultaneously wrought-iron and cast-iron in a cupola or air-furnace. The result of a series of experiments made in connection with this toughened iron, showed that the relative value, as regards strength, of the un- prepared iron and the prepared was 1 : 1.36 the mean breaking- weight of the unprepared being 38.3, and of the prepared 52.3. Other experiments showed a higher value, however, than this. Mr Fairbairn reports very favourably upon this mixture, arid says that, when "judiciously managed and duly proportioned," it " increases the strength about one-third above that of the ordinary cast-iron." With regard to the proportions, Mr Stirling says that " the place from whence the iron comes regulates, to a certain extent, the quality, as a general rule. Scotch iron, generally speaking, requires more, Staffordshire less, and Welsh least of all. The proportions which I should recommend for No. 1 Scotch hot- blast, vary from 24 Ib. (of wrought-iron) contained in the cwt, to 40 lb., accord- ing to the richness of the iron. No. 2 requires a smaller proportion, say from 20 lb. to 30 lb., also according to its quality. No. 3, generally, I do not recom- mend for mixture, as it is very often uncertain in itself, and its mixtures are not so certain as the toughened mixtures Nos. 1 and 2. No. 3, Scotch hot-blast, makes an excellent mixture with from 15 to 20 per cent of malleable iron for large castings. The Staffordshire No. 1 will not bear so much as the Scotch, and in the same proportion with Nos. 2 and 3 ; 20 lb. to 30 lb. would be a high proportion for Welsh No. 1. With Staffordshire No. 2, a small proportion in the same falling ratio as in the Scotch ; and with Welsh No. 2, 10 lb. to 15 lb. per cwt. would be sufficient." 642. From the commercial results obtained in the manufacture of cast-iron by the use of the hot-blast, the process is now very generally adopted. The question, therefore, is possessed of considerable interest to the mechanic, Is the strength of cast-iron prepared by the hot-blast less than that prepared by the cold '? On this point considerable diversity of opinion exists. An interesting series of experiments was carried out by Messrs Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, to determine the relative strength of hot and cold blast. " From these it was found that the hot-blast irons, when taken collectively from a number of works in England, Scotland, and Wales, gave results rather in favour of the hot-blast ; whereas the cold-blast iron, when taken separately, and compared with others, indicated a superior quality of iron to those obtained from the hot-blast." Tak- ing the mean of four kinds of iron experimented upon to ascertain the number of pounds required to tear asunder a bar 1 inch square, it was found that, while the cold took 16,801 lb., the hot-blast took 15,342 lb. ; and that, taking the strength of cold-blast as represented by 1000, the ratio of the strength of the hot-blast to it was 928. Again, in ascertaining the force in pounds reqiiired to crush a prism an inch square on its base, and 1^ inch high, it was found (taking the mean of four) that while the cold-blast took 99,238 lb., the hot- blast iron took 102,777 lb., the ratio of strength being (cold-blast 1000) as 1000 to 1028. And in the experiments made to ascertain the transverse strength of rectangular bars 1 inch square, laid on supports 4| feet wide, and broken by a weight in the middle, it was found (taking a mean of eight), that while the cold- blast took 456 lb., the hot-blast took 453 lb., the ratio of strength being as 1000 to 996. " On the whole," says Mr Fairbairn, with reference to the point now 162 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. under consideration, " I am of opinion that the hot-blast does not improve the quality of the Welsh and English irons, but, judging from the experiments, and other indications since these experiments were made, that its application to the Scotch furnaces in the reduction of the blackband ores is an improvement. I am the more confirmed in this opinion from the fact, that although the Scotch irons are not injured by the hot-blast, both the English and the Welsh suffer considerably, as may be seen in the case of the Elsicar, Milton, and Buffery irons." As to the effect produced by the hot-blast in the manufacture of iron, the same authority remarks, that " it varies considerably with the quality of the ore and the fuel, and I believe much depends upon the quantity of sulphur present in the coal or coke used. The chemical constituents of the fuel and foreign mixtures in the mine, are considerations of importance in the use and application of the hot- blast ; but, generally speaking, I should infer that it has a tendency rather 1 to weaken the iron than otherwise." A large number of experiments were made by the well-known engineer, the late Mr Robert Stephenson, at the High-level Bridge, Newcastle, to test the merits of the various qualities of hot and cold blast iron. The conclusions to which he considered these experiments point were as follows : " (1.) That hot-blast is less certain in its results than cold-blast ; (2.) Mixtures of cold-blast are more uni- form than those of hot-blast ; (S.)Mixture of hot and cold blast give the best results; (4) Simple samples do not run so solid as mixtures; (5.) Simple samples sometimes run too hard, and sometimes too soft, for practical pur- poses." 643. The strength of cast-iron objects depends also much upon their size, and in the way in which they are cast. When the object is very large, the iron softens with slow cooling. When the thicknesses of which it is composed are unequal, the unequal cooling of the parts renders some more crystallised and weaker than others. Hence the endeavour of mechanics to have a uniform thickness in the different parts of castings ; and hence, also, the rule which should be strictly attended to namely, never to take the castings out of the sand while red hot, but to allow them to gradually cool, and to become, in fact, annealed in the sand. We are aware that this, in small foundries, cannot under all circumstances be done, from want of space, and also from economical rea- sons, inasmuch as the portion of the sand in immediate contact with the metal is burnt, and rendered useless ; but where sound work to be depended upon is required, it is essential that the castings should be allowed to remain in the sand till cooled, and a " perfect and compact mass of crystallisation" is ob- tained. Mr Fairbairn says that fireproof beams should be allowed to remain in the sand never less than ten hours, heavy castings thirty or forty hours. Articles, when cast in the direction of their greatest length, are more dense, and are freer from impurity, than when in the direction of their shortest length. Mr Glynn thinks that castings are strongest when the iron is obtained from an air- furnace in dry sand, and that castings in loam are stronger than castings in open sand. The air-furnace is preferred by high authorities before the blast cupola. Mr Fairbairn states that, in one series of experiments, the iron pro- duced in the air-furnace was 2 per cent stronger than that obtained from the cupola. 644. As regards the relative values of Scotch and English iron, the same high authority states, that he " thinks the Scotch weaker, and that it runs more fluid than the English irons. It is, however, equal in strength and superior in qua- lity to some of the Staffordshire irons, but certainly inferior, as respects strength, to the Yorkshire and Welsh cold-blast iron." The Scotch is generally preferred METALS. 163 for the purposes of machinery, as it runs well into the mould, and gives clearly- defined edges. 645. Malleable Cast-iron. A variety of cast-iron has been introduced by this title, by which all the advantages of a malleability and non-liability to fracture possessed by hammered work, are obtained witli the cheapness of cost of moulded work. Various agents are appointed throughout the country to work the patent, which, however, we believe, has not yet been successful as a com- mercial speculation. 646. Wrought-iron. The fracture of wrought-iron presents a clear grey colour, with a metallic lustre and granular texture. The appearance of the fracture gives a strong indication of force having been required to tear the fibres asunder. A decided fibrous appearance Avill be given to the granular fracture, if the fractured bar is drawn out into small bars by means of the hammer. When the fracture presents a crystalline or laminated appearance, the iron is defective. Of defective irons, burnt iron is hard and brittle, of a clear grey colour, and of laminated texture. Cold short iron so called from its breaking under the hammer when cold is similar in appearance to burnt iron, the colour, however, being whiter. Hot short iron so called from its breaking under the hammer while hot is dark in colour, and has no lustre. This latter defect is indicated by cracks on the edges. 647. Wrought-iron of the best quality is divided into two classes, the hard and the soft. The soft is weaker than the hard, gives easily to the hammer, and presents the fibrous texture in bars of considerable section. The hard is strong and ductile, and only presents the fibrous texture when, drawn out into small rods. In testing wrought-iron, bars of not less than 1 inch square or round, and flat bars of not less than jjr-inch thick, should be used. If of less section, the distinctive features of the fracture will not be sufficiently observable. 648. With respect to iron cast and wrought, a question of some importance has arisen as to whether its internal structure is changed by vibration, or by shocks to which the parts may be subjected. On this point a variety of opinions was elicited before the Royal Commission somewhat contradictory, however, in their nature. Mr Glynn, in his evidence, states that he considers the structure both of wrought and cast iron is altered by a succession of blows the wrought to a crystalline structure, the cast to larger crystals ; and that lie has observed this appearance particularly in axles, mill-shafts, tooth-wheels, crowbars, and crane chains. The latter, even when made of strong fibrous iron, require to be annealed every three years. Mr Fox considered that an internal change is pro- duced in wrought-iron by vibration, and points to an instance when the thread of a screw is cut in wrought-iron, and the part broken across at the tapped part and at another point distant from this, the tapped part will present the most crystallised appearance. Mr Fairbairn points out a fact of some importance, that repeatedly making a wrought-iron bar hot, and plunging it into cold water, renders it crystalline, and that annealing is required to restore the fibrous tex- ture. Although percussion renders the fibres more liable to break off short, he thinks that unless it is sufficient to cause a considerable rise in temperature, it does not cause change in the internal structure. Mr Stephenson considered any change in the internal structure to be highly improbable ; and cited one instance of a connecting-rod which vibrated 25,000,000 of times and yet remained fibrous. He also pointed to the fact that the iron of an axle may not be in the first instance fibrous ; for although the drawing out of bars from one to some twenty feet long necessarily renders the texture fibrous, it 164 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION. does not follow that it will become so when the bars are drawn out only from 1 to 6 feet. The late Mr Brunei took a still more novel and suggestive view of the matter ; and, while doubting the change of internal structure, he thought that the various appearances of different fractures result as much from the mode in which the iron has been broken as from any change of structure. Further, that change of temperature will also produce a variation in the fracture ; that iron in a cold state presents a more crystallised fracture than the same iron warmed a little ; that wrought-iron does not actually become crystalline and fibrous, but breaks either crystalline or fibrous according to the combination of circumstances under which it is broken. The whole subject, although of great importance to the practical mechanic, is surrounded with difficulties, and all evidence given in connection with it has been more or less conjectural. It is right, however, to state that it is a very general opinion amongst mechanics and philosophers, that iron repeatedly hammered and by inference subject to repeated vibrations and shocks becomes completely changed in its internal structure. Numerous instances could be brought forward in proof of this, a most notable one being that of the " monster wrought-iron gun " of Mr Na- smyth, which was fabricated by the agency of the steam hammer, and which burst at the first or second trial, presenting, we believe, all the appearances of cast-iron. Parts of machinery are sometimes cold hammered in order that they may take a higher polish ; but if this generally received opinion is correct, the practice is a dangerous one, as they may be much weakened. The same may be said of the practice of repeatedly heating and plunging in cold water, forged parts of machines. 649. As regards the durability of iron, and the influence of the atmosphere and water upon it, Mr Mallet, in his Eeport to the British Association, gives some valuable remarks. From his close investigation into the nature and pro- perties of iron he deduced a variety of hints, of which the following are the most useful for our purposes. 650. That iron placed in clear fresh river- water corrodes less than under any other immersion, from the absence of highly corrosive matters, and from the coat of oxide which is formed, and which is not so easily washed off as in sea- water ; that castings made in dry sand and loam are more durable when im- mersed in water than those made in green sand ; that cast-iron is more durable when the hard crust is allowed to remain, than when it is removed by chipping and filing ; that the greater the bulk of bars the less is the corrosion ; that to prevent unequal cooling in castings, the ribs should be made of equal thickness. 651. The methods in general use to prevent corrosion and decay of iron- work, consist in the application of paints. These afford, however, little pro- tection ; and a better medium, boiled coal-tar laid on while the iron is hot, is highly recommended. It leaves on the surface a bright varnish, capable of resisting for a considerable time corrosive agencies. Painting the surface with the hot solution of the oil of tar Bethellising is said to be an efficient pre- servative of iron surfaces. 652. Copper. For constructive purposes this metal is principally used in form of thin sheets. It is very durable, and it is little affected by atmospheric influences. Brass is an alloy of this metal and zinc, and is composed when that kind of it known as British brass of a full yellow colour is wished to be made of 66.18 parts of copper, and 33.82 of zinc. Its specific gravity is 8.299. For purposes where copper is too soft, and a metal less corrosive than iron is required, gun-metal may be used. This is an alloy of copper and tin in the SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. 165 proportion of 84.29 of copper to 15.71 of tin. To render these alloys easily worked in the various processes of the mechanic, a little lead should be added to the brass, and a little zinc to the gun-metal alloy. 653. The lead of commerce is derived from the ore galena, which is a sul- phuret yielding about 87 per cent of lead and 13 of sulphur. Galena is found in greatest quantity in transition rocks, and of these the blackish transition limestone contains the largest. The ore is more frequent in irregular beds and masses than in veins. The galena lead-mines of Derbyshire, Durham, Cumber- land, and Yorkshire, are situate in limestone, while those of the Leadhills, in Scotland, are in greywacke. Great Britain produces the largest quantity of lead of any country in the world, the annual produce being about 32,000 tons, of which the English mines supply 20,000. The rest of Europe does not supply 50,000 tons. The export of lead has fallen off considerably, and its price has experienced a corresponding depression for some years past, on account of the greatly increased production of the lead mines of Adra in Granada, in Spain. 654. Zinc is an ore which occurs in considerable quantity in England. It is found in two geological localities in the mountain limestone and in the magne- sian limestone. It occurs in veins, and almost always associated with galena or lead-glance. It is of the greatest abundance in the shape of a sulphuret or blende, or black-jack, as the miners call it. There is also a silicious oxide of zinc, and a carbonate, both called calamine. In North America, the red oxide of zinc is found in abundance in the iron mines of New Jersey. The zinc of commerce is derived, in this country, from the blende and calamine. It is naturally brittle, but a process has been discovered by winch it is rendered malleable, and it retains its ductility ever after. It is this assumed ductility which renders the metal useful for domestic purposes. " It is extensively em- ployed for making water- cisterns, baths, spouts, pipes, plates for the zinco- grapher, for voltaic batteries, filings for fireworks, covering roofs, and a variety of architectural purposes, especially in Berlin ; because this metal, after it gets covered with a thin film of oxide or carbonate, suffers no further change from long exposure to the weather. One capital objection to zinc as a roofing ma- terial is its combustibility/' 655. The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name of spelter, which is sent by inland traffic to Hamburg and Belgium, where it is shipped for this country. The zinc of the Veille Montaigne Company enjoys a high reputation : it is considered the purest spelter. Zinc is much lighter than lead, the density being 7.190, while that of lead is 11.352. The tenacity is also greater ; thus, while lead has a tenacity of 27.7, zinc has a tenacity of 109.8. DIVISION SECOND. SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. 656. SECTION FIRST Specifications. We shall now treat of specifications, in which the disposition in their respective places of the material employed in the construction of buildings is fully explained, together with the modes in which the work should be executed and finished. But before giving what may be called " model specifications " adapted to stone and brick structures, we deem it advisable to precede them with a list of items which should be con- 166 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. sidered in the preparation of all specifications for steadings, dwelling-houses, and cottages : 657. Excavating, by the Cubic Yard. Dig out and remove surface of ground to depth shown in sections. Dig out for cellars, trenches for footings for walls, cross-walls, chimney-jambs, piers, fenders. Excavate for cesspools in stables, byres, &c., for drains, wells, liquid-manure tanks, and dung-sheds. Clear away rubbish, ram, level, fill in. Concrete to be shot from stage 10 feet high. 658. Bricklaying, per Rod. Walls round the building with footings. Party- walls. Cross-walls. Sleeper-walls and piers for ground joists. Paving, &c. Fenders to fireplaces on lowest storey. Chimney-shaft, extra to sailing-course, continuing walls up gable. Brickwork under steps. Courses of slate to prevent wet rising in cement near ground-line on walls, and sleeper-walls. Bottom of liquid-manure tanks. Wells to have invert arches in cement, with arched crowns in ditto. 659. Bricklaying, per Yard Superficial. Bricknogging. Brickpaving in sand. Invert and relieving arches to openings. 660. Bricklaying, per Foot Superficial. Half-brick trimmer arches to front hearths. Gauged arches set in putty-facings. Yellow malms, white Suffolk, &c. Baking and tuck-pointing. 661. Bricklaying, per Foot Running. Drains, stoneware glazed pipes. Steining. Cuttings. Splays for shutters. Chamfers. Brick on edge. Cut- ting up gables. 662. Bricklaying, in Numbers. Cement or other chimney-pots, set with tiles in cement. Traps to drains. Brick eyes to drains. Common water-closet, stoneware pan. Bedding and pointing to door and window frames. Making good to sills. Parget and core flues, set copper stoves, range, &c. Sinks on brick piers. Air bricks. 663. Slating, per Square. Slates of fir battens, double nailed, with copper nails, or composition ditto. Allow 10 inches on all the run of eaves to slips, valleys, and gutters. Cement filleting. Saddle slating. Ornamental cruse. Slate cisterns bolted together. Shelves to wine-bins. Pantiling laid dry. Ditto bedded in mortar. Ditto pointed outside. Filleting and heading in- cluded. Ditto pointed inside. Plain tiling. Four inches to be allowed for eaves. Six inches for dripping eaves. One foot for valleys. Three inches for all cuttings. In fe-tiling, using sound old tiles about 100 new ones are re- quired to one square. Verge per foot-run. Slates in cement breaking point at plinth line of house, to prevent damp rising in walls. Tiles. Eaves tiles. 664. Masonry. Cube stone laid on natural bed. Super-sawing, half ditto. Sunk work, ashlar facing, proper bound stones at intervals. Front and other stone steps. Landings. Sunk-throated and weathered sills, 4 inches longer than opening, project 1^- inch from face of wall. Balcony bottom trusses. Portico, window, and door dressings. Yorkshire tooled or bunched paving to cellars, kitchen, and for travises to byres. Wash-house, areas, &c., laid on brick rubbish. Portland rubbed chimney-pieces to bedrooms, &c. Port- land or York tooled or rubbed outer and inner hearths. Outer ditto, 18 inches longer than opening, 18 inches wide. Sinks, sink-stones, and holes cut. Feather-edge coping to walls, &c., throated and set. Hough York stone core for cornices run in cement. Templates to iron columns and storey posts. Hook- stones for gates. Curb for railing. Holes cut. Stone bases for pillars or posts in stable, and byre travises, with upper side chamfered, and hole cut 2 inches deep to receive heel-posts. String-course caps to chimneys. Marble GENERAL ITEMS (>l< SPECIFICATIONS. ]67 chimney-pieces. Bath. Pipe-hole::-; cut. Washers let in. Copper cramps, and lead. Feeding-troughs and benches. Court-gate pillars. Cart-shed do. All angles rounded off or splayed. Wall-copings. Causeway for stable and byre floors, &c. Man-hole stone cover for well. Liquid-manure tanks. 665. Carpentry, Cube. Fir in bond, plates, &c. Old oak sleepers and plates, 4 inches by 3^, to basement Moor. Templates to beams. Girders. Fir bond all round, with rider to connect at linos. Wood-bricks to doors, windows, skirting, 9 inches by 4 by 2J- inches. Lintels over openings 9 inches hold on wall, each side. Pole-plates. 666. Carpentry, Cule-fnnned. Ground joists notched and spiked. Trimming joists, fitting in ditto. Common joists. Bridging and ceiling ditto. Girders, bressummers, sawn down, reversed, and bolted together. Storey posts. Ceiling joists and binders to top storey. Dragon piece and angle tie. Principal rafters (pair). Common ditto (pair). Hips and ridge (rolls). Valley-rafters. Tie-beam. King and queen posts. Struts. Purlins. Quartering to form soffit of eaves. Quarter partitions. Head and sill. Braces and quarters. Door-heads. Posts, puncheons. Filling in quarters. Nogging-pieces. Ashlets. Heel-posts, for stables, byres. 667. Carpentry, per Foot Superficial. Gutter-board and bearers. Board- ing or Baltic battens to roofs. Eaves boards. Boarding to dormers. Planceer and Facia. Centres and turning pieces to arches, &c. Bracketing. Sound boarding. Boarding for lead-Hat. Edges shot. Finings. Travises for stables, byres. 668. Carpentry, per Running Foot and Numbers. Rounded rolls. Herring- bone strutting. Angle staff. Tilting fillets. Cantilevers. Rebated drips to gutter. Cesspools, &c., ditto. 669. Joinery, per Square. Floors, best rooms, yellow deal, straight- joint, ploughed and tongued headings. Common floors, laid folding. 670. Joinery, per Foot Superficial. Double-moulded skirting. Deal-cased frames, oak sunk weathered sills, double-hung sashes, brass axle-pulleys, lines and weights. Boxing. Shutters, square or splayed. Backs, elbows, and soffits. Shutter front moulded, bead, butt, or square. Framed back-flaps, back linings, elbow-capping, architrave round window. Beaded lining. Rounded window- board. Framed grounds to doors. Double-beaded and rebated door-jambs. Doors, square-framed, four or six panel, moulded one or both sides. Bolection mouldings to entrance -door. Coach-house and stable doors, framed, ledged, and braced. Sash-doors. Marginal squares. Movable shutter. Folding and sliding doors to drawing-rooms. Shutters hung with lines and weights, with proper boxing and frames, beads, &c. Moulding round ditto, deal moulded front, flap to shut over shutters, flush rings, turned knob, lines and weights. 671. Joinery, per Foot Running. Mitred borders to hearths, torus and square skirting, narrow grounds, mouldings, beaded capping. Staircase, dog-legged, or well-hole. Fir-carriages, brackets. Wall-string cut, and mitred inner string, ramped or wreathed. Circular strings. Return nosings. Steps arid risers rounded or moulded, glued, blocked, and bracketed, ploughed and feathcred- tongued. Curtail step. Housings to strings. Plain cut brackets. Windows. Landing and joists to ditto. Lining to joists top of well-hole. Working hosing and hollow moulding to landing. Facia. Balusters, turned or square iron one every fifth step. Iron newel. Turned ditto. Hand-rail rounded or moulded. Ramp, swan's-neck, wreathed, scroll end, raking, moulding to wall- string, sometimes beaded capping. Mitred caps, pendants, fixing iron newel and baluster extra. Joint-screws to hand-rail. Closet fronts, correct to stairs. 168 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. Pump casing. Soil-pipe casing to water-closet. Water-cistern dovetailed. Seat and riser. Hole cut and dished. Beaded-handle hole. Clamped flap and beaded frame. Mahogany skirting to ditto. Floor and skirting to water-closet. Dresser. Tongued-drawer bottoms. Dovetailed runs. Beaded drawer-fronts. Dresser-top, ploughed and tongued. Bounded pot-board and bearers. Shelves and standards. Turned legs. Glued sliders. Turned knobs. Flat-rail and pegs. Saddle-brackets, and pins in stable. 672. Ironmongery. Hinges and fastenings. Brass mortice-locks. Iron rim-locks, striking-plates, finger-plates, bolts, latches, turn-buckles. Bolts and screws for shutters, strap-hinges to back flaps. Bolts and screws for doors, brass or iron. Sash-fasteners. Flush-rings. Flush-bolts, barrel-bolts. Draw-back lock and chain. Shutter-bars. Brass shutter-knobs. China-ware or glass- door furniture. Casement stay cross-garnets, cabin-hooks, outside shutter-stays, shutter-lifts. Grates, range, copper. 673. Smith-work and Founding. Wrought-iron ties, straps, king-bolts, screws, nuts, bolts, cramps, chimney-bars, saddle-bars. Flitches to strengthen beams. Hoop-iron bond. Tyerman's patent notched ditto. Top rail of rail- ing. Metal bars for skylights, casements, or sashes. Cast-iron girders, columns, rain-water pipes, newel and balusters, heads and shoes, stink-traps, air-bricks, railing, standards, cantilevers, stable-racks and mangers, gates, eaves- shoot, coal-plates, gratings, pumps, balconies, verandahs, knocker, scrapers. 674. Plumbing. Cover lead-flats. Lead-rolls, 4 feet 6 inches apart, of cast-lead ; 5 feet of milled ditto. Ten inches extra width to each roll. Cover hips and ridges, valleys, dormers, gutters, gutters behind chimney. Gutters to have one drip every 10 feet ; If inch fall in ditto. Eaking-step flashing ; flash- ing to skylights, chimneys. Line cisterns. Sink to housemaid's closet. Extra soldered angles per foot run. Service and waste-pipes to cisterns, sink, water- closet ; water-closet apparatus ; lead soil-pipe. D-traps. Lead for mason and smith's work. Brass bell grates, washers and wastes, valves, ferrols, bosses, stop-cocks, square or round water-way, ball-cocks, basin with plug-hole. 675. Plastering, per Yard Superficial. Lath, plaster, float, and set ceilings. Deduct chimney breast. Lath, plaster, float, and set quarter partitions, deduct doors and skirting, unless plaster continued to floors. Lath, plaster, set, soffit of staircase. Bender, float, and set walls and bricknogged partitions. Deduct chimney, window, and door openings. Lath, plaster soffit of eaves. 676. Plastering, per Foot Superficial. Cornices, plain or enriched, compo- skirting, pugging with lime and hair, and chopped-hay, two coats, or on fir laths with lime, sand, and hair. 677. Plastering, per Foot Running. Cement window and door dressing- strings, reveals, arrises, quirks, &c. 678. Plastering, perYard Superficial. Washing and stopping. Clearcoling. Whiting, &c., in distemper. Colouring. Ditto in distemper. Centre flowers, trusses, vases, balustrades, ornaments generally. 679. Painter and Glazier, per Yard Superficial. Paint all outside new work four oils. Inside ditto, three oils. Graining and varnishing, two coats. Flat- ting, various tints. 680. Painter and Glazier, per Foot Running. Wire-edges, bars, rails, staff- beads, narrow-skirtings, bands, hand-rail or newel-strings. Bail and piers. Pipe-trunk. Chain. Coping-edge. Cornice (small girt). 681. Painter and Glazier, Numbers. Frames. Venetian ditto. Dormer ditto, squares, per dozen. Small metal ditto. Casements. Sills, 3 feet 6 inches long, each. Beveals, pegs, brackets, saddle-bars, legs, bearers, scrapers, SPECIFICATIONS OF A STEADING OF STONE. 169 balusters, newels. Towel-roller and bracket, eluiin, sets of beads arid pulley- pieces. Step and riser eacli side carpet. 682. Painter and Glazier, JHT Foot Superficial. Trellis- work, close ditto, ornamental railing, balcony-fronts, glaze-sashes, specify kind of glass, ditto to fanlights, skylights, sash-doors. Measure glass to sashes 3 inches less than width of brickwork, and 7 inches less iu height. Glaze dormers and bull's- eye lights. 683. SECTION SECOND Specification adapted to a Steading of Stone. The ex- ample which we shall give of a particular specification applicable to a steading constructed of stone, is that which was drawn up for building the steading of Drumkilbo, in Forfarshire, belonging to Lord WharnclilTe, and a plan of which is given in Plate XII. 684. Mason Work. The tracks for the foundations of walls are to be dug to the depth of 18 inches below the level of door-sills, and to such a width as there will be 6 inches of a scarcement on each side of the walls. The footings to be of large flat stones, not less than G inches in thickness, and to meet in the tails, so as there shall be no small stones between them. The footings to form a scarcement of 6 inches on each side of the walls. 685. The stone walls, unless otherwise described, to be of good common rubble work. The whole of the stones to be fair dressed in face and beds, and to be well banded, bedded, jointed, packed, and pointed with good lime mortar, mixed with a due proportion of clean sharp sand. The lime, after being properly slaked, to be passed through a common sand-riddle, and to be properly mixed with water, and well wrought before being used. Sleeper- walls to be built under all the partitions, and wherever it is necessary ; all the gables to be carried up within 3 inches of the sarking, and all the walls, where necessary, to be beam-filled with stone and lime. 686. There is to be a cesspool under each grating in byres and stables. The cesspools to be at least 2 feet 6 inches in depth, and not less than 14 inches square, and to be built and paved with brick ; also, at all the junctions of the urine-pipes there are to be eyes of brick at the necessary depths of the pipes 9 inches square. Urine-tank to be of brickwork at the depth shown on the section. 687. All the corners, gate-pillars, and door and window rybats to have 2-inch droved margins, droved breasts, checks to the necessary depths, and pick-dressed in the tail, and the sizes already described, except the following corners and openings, which will be formed of hammer-dressed scunscions, long stones, or brick, viz. : Cattle-shed, doors, and other openings and corners to be formed of brick ; but where there are to be doors hung, two stones of a sufficient size are to be built into the wall, and the crooks sufficiently batted into them. The openings into the two large courts are to be formed with long stones, to be at least 3 feet below the surface of the ground, and to be of such a breadth as cover in the end of the dyke, and not less than 8 inches thick, and to finish with the cope of the dyke, and to be neatly hammer-dressed. Cart-shed pillars to be 22 inches square, two stones to form a course, except the last course, which must be in one stone. The lintels to be at least 13 inches in height, and not less than 9 inches in thickness, and to be built hard together at the ends, to be neatly hammer-dressed, a chamfer to be taken off all round the pillars. All the other openings for doors to have either cheeks for post or giblet checks. Mill-shed openings to be formed with hammer- dressed scunscions, to be set double and single alternately, and to finish with 170 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. a double one at least 18 inches in breadth. The lintels are to be provided by the carpenter. Two stones, 2 feet square by 10 inches in thickness, to be set on wall, at the level of cross-beam, and one of stone, of the same dimensions, set for supporting horse-wheel ; also two stones, 18 inches square by 8 inches in thickness, to be built into the wall 6 feet below the top of wall, and a recess made into the wall for an iron rod for fixing down the beam. The position will be pointed out during the progress of the work. 688. Feeding Troughs Benches. The feeding benches in courts are to be built with brick, and covered with faced and jointed pavement, having all the necessary bolt-holes, &c. ; tho.se in loose-boxes to be of the same description. Feeding troughs in byres to be as shown on the plan and section, having sides 3 inches in thickness, and not less than 18 inches in depth. All to be dressed straight, and close-jointed; bottoms to be paved with brick, bedded and jointed with lime. Division stones to be from 3 to 4 inches in thickness, and to be 4 feet 6 inches square, having a proper hold of the ground. Thirty-two fixings for cattle to be provided, and fixed to the stones and walls. Fixings to be of 1 inch diameter, and not less than 20 inches in length. 689. Travise Stones. Thirteen stones for horse travises, to be 9 feet by 2 feet 9 inches, and 3 inches in thickness, and to have 6 inches of hold in the ground and 2 in the wall, and chamfered as shown on the section. There will be five stones for supports in cart-shed, 1 8 inches square by 8 inches in thick- ness. Also ten stones for partition in straw-barn 12 inches square by 6 inches thick. Six stones for supporting feeding-shed roof, to be 8 feet long, and 12 inches by 9, resting in socket-stones 20 inches by 20, and 9 inches thick, and let into the timber lintel. (See section.) A stone, with a sunk panel, to be set above arch in south elevation, as shown on the plan. 690. Paving. The stables, byres, loose boxes, and turnip-shed are all to be paved with small boulders, bedded in sand, and laid to the proper falls. Stables and byres to have curb-stones, as shown on the section. Ten 8-inch bell-traps to be provided, and fitted into stones 18 by 18 by 6, to be placed above each cesspool. The bell -traps to be strong made, and close fitted on to the stone. The urine-pipes will be provided by the proprietor, but the contractor is to open the trench, and lay them to the proper falls towards the tank, as shown by dotted lines. The passages in byres and feeding-shed passage to be laid with jointed pavement. 691. Bothy, harness-room, gig-house, boiler-house, and passage in straw- barn to be laid with jointed pavement. . Riding-stable to be paved where coloured blue, and cut as shown on the plan. Coal-house and privy to be paved, and to have pavement roofs. Privy to have a pavement front for seat. Hen-house, urine-tank, girnal-house, shed, potato-house, workshop, guano store, and chaff-house to be paved with brick on bed, laid on lime, and grosited full in the joints with lime. Urine-tank to .be covered with strong covers, a hole 12 inches diameter to be made in the cover for the pump. Also a part of the court dyke coped with flat stones for working the pump, and stone steps for getting up to it. 692. Cisterns. Three stone cisterns to be placed as shown on the plan. The two in shed to be 6 feet by 2, and 1 foot 6 inches ; the other to be 14 feet by 2, and by 1 foot 6 inches ; or, if the contractor prefers, he can make it in two. They are to be properly cheeked and jointed with white lead, and bolted toge- ther, and made completely water-tight ; and scullery to be laid with faced and jointed pavement, bedded on sand and jointed with lime. Dairy shelving to be of polished pavement, and to have at least 2 inches of wall-hold ; the pave- SPECIFICATIONS O!-' A STEADING OF STONE. 171 ment under shelving to be laid 2 inches above the floor on section. Coal-house to be paved with brick on bed, laid on lime as aforesaid. The spence to be laid with jointed pavement, bedded on sand and worked with lime. 693. Jobbing. The contractor is to execute all necessary jobbing belonging to his department of the work, such as cutting raglets, bolt-holes, and fitting in crooks for hanging doors, and running them in with lead, sloping for get- ting in pipes, &c. ; bnt the contractor furnishes no lead except what is wanted for the cattle-fixings the lead for bolts and crooks being to be all provided by the carpenter. 694. General Conditions. The contractor to get all the materials in the present steading and pigeon-house, belonging to his department of the works, and must take down the walls at such times as the tenant may find it conve- nient. Brick will be provided by the proprietor for all the work specified to be brick. The contractor will have Kinpnrney quarry, free of lordships, for all the stones necessary for the completion of the works shown on the plans and set forth in this specification. The quarry must be well wrought. All rubbish to be removed out of the way, so as not to interfere with the working of the quarry afterwards. The contractor will have the use of the rafters and joist- ing for scaffolding ; but if in any way damaged by him and not fit to be used, he must pay full value for it to the contractor for carpenter and joiner-work. The contractor is to furnish all the materials except brick, as aforesaid ; but if sand cannot be got without stripping off the soil, he must do that, and at such times as there will always be as much cleared as allow the tenant free access to the pit. The tenant will perform all necessary carriages. Stones from Kinpurney quarry. Pavement and lime from Meigle Station. 695. The whole is to be finished in a most complete and tradesmanlike manner, and to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kcrr, Esquire, factor on the estate, or any person appointed by him to superintend the Avorks. 696. Carpentry Steading Lintels. All the doors, windows, and other open- ings to have safe lintels, as already described. Cart-shed lintels to be in one length. Lintels over mill-shed posts to be 8 inches thick, and of such a breadth as carry the couples. The cross-beams in mill-shed to be 14 inches by 7, to have 18 inches of wall-hold at each end, and to be bolted down to a stone block by a |-inch iron rod at least 6 feet in length, to have a good thread and strong nut. The other two beams to be of the same dimensions, to be well secured together by | inch travelling bolts. The beams over pillars for carry- ing cattle feeding-shed roof to be in one length, and to be 11 inches by 9, having 12 inches of wall-hold at each end. 697. Joists and Sleepers. Granary and sheaf-loft joists to be 10- 1 - inches by 2J, laid on wall-plates 8 inches by 1J. Joists to be set 19 inches apart from centres, and to be properly bridled for machinery. Stair-bridling to be 10^ inches by 4- 1 -, to be dovetailed and screwed together with -^-irich iron bolts, and the whole of the floors to be laid with 1^-inch white wood ploughed and tongued flooring well nailed down. Corn-room to be laid with sleepers 6 1 - inches by 2|- on wall-plates 6 feet by 1 inch, and clad with flooring as afore- said. Bothy bedroom to be laid with sleepers and flooring. 698. Roofing. West and north ranges to be roofed with couples to the sizes marked on the section, and all to be properly checked and well nailed, as afore- said, and set on wall-plates. Not to be more than 20 inches apart from centres, and to be clad with -f-inch white wood sarking, as described. Mill-shed roof to be constructed as shown on the section, having ten rafters going to the top. All the rafters to be set on wall-plates sawed to the circle. The wall-plate to 172 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. be in two, thickness making 2 inches, to be overlapped and well nailed toge- ther, and nailed down to the wood lintels. The other courses of plates to be 6 inches by 3, sawn to the circle, and fitted into a half check in rafters. A deal, 6 inches by |, to be bent round the outside of each plate. A detailed drawing will be given for this roof during the progress of the work. The rafters to be covered with f-inch sarking, as aforesaid. Bothy roof to have couples placed 18 inches apart from centres, and covered with sarking. Stable range to be roofed as described for west and north range. All the byres and cattle-sheds to have couples made as described, and placed 20 inches apart from centres, and clad with lath 2 inches by f , at the distance to suit the courses of the slates (the slates to be, if they can be got, 14 inches by 8) ; ridge-battens to be supported on iron spikes on every second couple ; fillets to be put on where necessary. Projections to be cleaned, and covered with iron, as described. 699. Windows. The windows in south and west elevations to be sash and case, and primed as aforesaid. Stables and byres to have windows with sparred sliding-shuts, upper half to be glazed. Corn-room to have sash and case windows, as aforesaid. Granary to have twelve opening frames, all to have suitable hinges and fasteners. The proprietor will provide wire-screens for these windows, but the contractor is to fix them. Six skylights to be glazed. 700. Lathing. The bothy ceiling to be lathed in the manner already de- scribed for lathing. Two beds to be fitted up in bothy, having forestock and bottom, &c. Granary floor to be supported by a beam running the whole length. Beam to be 6 inches by 6, supported by five uprights the same dimen- sions, resting into a stone. The beam to have 9 inches of wall-hold at each end. Corn-room partitions to be of standards 4| inches by 2, and clad with f-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued lining, having doors where necessary. Granary stair to have l|~inch treads. Straw-barn to be divided, as shown, by a wood partition, posts to be 6^ inches by 2^, having a runner 6| inches by 1^ at top and bottom, and clad with rails 3J inches by 1^, nailed on 12 inches apart. Rails to be of larch. 701. Cattle-Racks. Substantial racks to be fitted up above all the feeding- troughs in byres and loose-boxes. A runner, 3 inches by 3, to be stretched along the top of division-stones the whole length of byres, to be checked down on top of stones at least 1 inch, having all the necessary upright posts for supporting racks, &c. The space between runner and top of feeding-troughs is to be closed in by a door formed of f-inch ploughed and tongued deals, with two cross-bars on the back, and will be either hung with hinges or made to slide up and down, having the necessary fixings. Backs to be fitted up in court sheds to the extent of 118 lineal feet. 702. Feeding-Troughs. Troughs in feeding-shed to be formed, as shown on the section, by planks 8 inches by 3, bolted down to the pavement-soles with ^-inch iron bolts, not more than 6 feet apart. The sides next to passage to have uprights 3 feet by 2, placed not more than 5 feet apart, properly fixed to the side of troughs, and to have a runner 3 inches by 2 at top nailed to the baulks. A sliding door, 2| feet in height, formed of f-inch ploughed and tongued deals, with two cross-bars on the back, to be placed between each upright, and to slide in grooves and into uprights. Each door to have an iron slip-bolt, and two lifters made of hardwood. Privy-seat to be covered with wood. 703. Travises. The stables to be fitted up with travises having high and low racks, heel and shoulder posts, and fire-clay feeding-troughs, having a row SPECIFICATIONS OK A STEADING OF STONE. 173 of harness pegs fixed into a plat of wood, to extend the whole length of the stables. Heel-posts to be 7 inches by 7, having a chamfer taken off each corner, and to be set down into stone 2 inches, and well nailed to a runner above 7 feet by 2. Division boards to be 2 inches thick, having two dowels into each joint, and covered on top by --^-inch hoops of iron, fixed by countersunk screw-nails. The feeding-boxes to be 2 feet 3 inches long by 1 foot 3 inches wide by 1 foot deep, inside measurement. A press to be fitted up in the angle of riding-horse stable, having shelves, and a plain door with a lock and key. The walls of harness- room to be lined on straps with ^-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued lin- ing, having a plate of wood round all the house, with all the necessary bridle-pegs and saddletrees fixed into it. The ceiling to be lathed. The hen-house to be fitted up with roost and roosting-poles. Roost to be covered with sarking, close jointed, and nailed down. 704. Doors. There will be ten large doors in two halves, to be formed of 18-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued deals in narrow pieces, with three cross-bars on the back, and to be hung with strong crook and band hinges, batted into the beds of the stone with lead, and bolted to the doors. Sheaf- loft door to be in two halves ; to be 6 feet by G, to be hung on posts, and to open to the inside, having fourteen cross-tailed hinges, slip-bolt, and stay-band. All the two-leaved doors to have stay-bands, and a hardwood revolving bar outside. All the other outside doors to be formed as already described ; the doors having rebates checked inside, to be hung on posts by fourteen cross-tailed hinges, and those doors opening out to be hung with crook and band hinges, as already described. Inside doors to be of |-iuch wood, and hung with twelve cross-tailed hinges. 705. Locks and Latches. The doors in west, north, and stable ranges all to have stock locks of the best description. The small doors to have good latches, and all the doors opening out to have latches fixed into the stone wall, to keep them back to the wall when open. The keys for stable and byre doors to have a falling ring. 706. Gates. There will be seven 10-feet gates, each gate to be in two halves, having stiles 4 inches by 2-J, rails 4 inches by 1^, spars 8- inches by 1, placed 3 inches apart. Gates to have diagonal or centre rails. Two small gates of a similar description. All to be hung with strong crook and band hinges, as already described. These gates to have suitable slip-bolts, bolted on foot of stiles, and a swivel bar on centres, and all the necessary catches and latches to keep them open or shut, as the case may be. 707. Skirting. Bothy and harness-room to have skirting 4| inches by |. Corn-room, sheaf-loft, and granary to have skirting fixed all round the walls and partitions ; thus the floor-line to be nailed to dowels driven into the wall. Bothy and harness-room to have plain mantelpieces. The two recesses in bothy to be fitted up with shelves, one of them to get a plain door. 708. Jobbings. The contractor is to execute all jobbing necessary for the completion of his department of the works, also to forward and give all the necessary assistance for the laying and bedding of the beams, &c. All minor parts to be included, and the whole and every department of the works must be finished in strict accordance with the plans, and equal to other works of a similar class. Although everything may not be particularly and minutely described, such must be considered to fall under the contract, as no extras will be allowed unless specially ordered. 709. Materials. All the timber for the carpenter-work to be of the best Swedish fir. The flooring and sarking to be of Baltic white-wood, and the 174 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. finishings to be all of the best Quebec or St John's yellow pine. The whole must be the best of their respective kinds, free from softwood, shakes, or large knots, and to stand the sizes when finished. 710. General Conditions. The builder is to get the use of the joists and couples for scaffolding. The contractor is to take the couples and lath of the existing buildings at Drumkilbo, consisting of pigeon-house, stable, byres, barn, cart-shed, and mill-shed. The contractor is to get all the wood in mill- shed, consisting of upright posts and beams, for carrying roof and roofing. All are of new wood, and can be used in the steading. The contractor is to furnish all other materials necessary to complete his department of the works ; but the tenant will perform all necessary carriage from Meigle Station, or any similar distance. The whole works must be finished in a most com- plete and tradesmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kerr, Esq., factor on the estate, or any person that may be appointed by him to superintend the works. The factor, as aforesaid, reserves full power to make any additions to or deductions from the foregoing works, without any way affecting the terms of the contract, the value of which will be added to or de- ducted from the contract price by the architect of the works. No part or por- tion of the works will be allowed to be sublet without an order from the factor aforesaid. 711. Slater and Plumber Work. The roofs to be covered with dark blue slates. Byres and cattle-sheds to be covered with 14 inch by 8 slates. Byres and sheds to be hung on lath. Cottages and all the other roofs to be covered with slates 13 inches by 7. All to have full and sufficient cover, averaging 2 J inches at bottom, and diminishing regularly to 1^ inches at top ; to be square dressed, regularly sized, and hung to the sarking by galvanised iron nails. Every third course to be double nailed. The joints of sarking on house and cottages to be properly filled up with plaster-lime, mixed with hair, and all the raglets to be pointed with mastic. 712. Plumber- Work. All the roans, valleys, ridges, hips, and conductors, to be of 18-inch zinc flashings, to be of 5-lb. lead : 4|-inch roans to be round all the eaves of farmhouse, and all the roofs falling into the cattle-courts : 3^-inch roans to be round all the eaves of kitchen and dairy ranges. There will be two 3-inch conductors from farmhouse, one from dairy, and three 2-inch conductors from kitchen-range, and two 1^-inch ditto from porch, and six 2|-inch conductors for cattle-courts. A 2-inch roan to be round eaves of porch. The roans to be supported by strong iron hooks, well nailed to the sarking or lath, not to be more than 27 inches apart from centres, all to be laid to the proper falls. Each conductor to have a 6-feet cast-iron length to enter the drains 12 inches below the surface. Eidges, hips, and valleys to be 12 inches in breadth, all to fit their respective places. Lead flashings, 8 inches broad, to be properly ragleted on porch roof. All the chimney-tops to have lead flashings 8 inches broad. 713. Skylights. There will be six cast-iron skylights ; two to open, the others to be dead. All to have zinc soles two skylights No. 4, and four No. 3. 714. Ventilators. There will be twenty double ventilators of zinc. The position of them will be pointed out during the progress of the work. (See north elevation in Plate XII. for sketch of ventilators.) A spire to be fixed on top of mill-shed roof with a weathercock, to be of sheet copper. The spire to be a rod of 1-inch round iron, to be fixed 3 feet below the top of roof, having a shoulder and a nut properly screwed, and to be firmly braced up. The cock to SPECIFICATIONS OF A STEALING OF STONE. 175 be 5 feet above roof. The whole to be finished in a most complete and tradesman- like manner, to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kcrr, Esq., or any person appointed to superintend the \vorks. The contractor is to uphold the roofs against wind and Weather, and keep them completely water-tight, for twelve months after the completion of the whole works, and leave them in good condition at that period. The contractor is to take the slates off the present steading-house and pigeon-house, and put them carefully aside, so as to be entirely clear of all the buildings, b. In fig. 185, by inserting the closer c, the joints of the second header d are carried to the solid parts of the first and second stretchers a a. If the closer had not been inserted, one of the joints of d would obvi- ously have come to the joint of a a. The same effect is produced by inserting the closer b in fig. 186. Corresponding plans of Flemish bond are shown in figs. 187 and 188 ; c and c being closers. 959. In Flemish bond the facing is generally made of a superior quality of brick, arid to serve this the headers are not whole-length bricks, but are cut through. This is a practice utterly wrong ; for the headers, on which depends, or should de- pend, the transverse strength of the wall, have no hold of the back part of the wall. The conse- quence is that the " backing " and " facing " sep- arate from each other, and the whole structure be- comes endangered. 960. Walls. In carrying up walls, the courses should be taken up as uniformly as possible, in order to insure regular and equal settlement. If this is not attended to, and one part a is carried up much higher than b, fig. 189, the wall will likely crack. All buildings settle or shrink ; and those parts which are built up first, and allowed to settle first, will remain stationary, so that when the succeeding part is built up, its settlement will cause it to be separated from the first-built por- tion. All agreements should specify that no par- ticular part is to be built up exceeding 4 feet in height. As each part is thus built up, its ends should not be made square, but the courses should terminate so as to afford a series of step-like pro- jections, as from b to c, fig. 189, which will afford a good bond to the next-built-up portion. The layer of mortar between the bricks should not ex- ceed a quarter of an inch in thickness ; it is a sign of bad construction when thick patches of mortar are seen between the bricks. The brick should be well wetted before setting, to free it from all matter likely to prevent adhesion of the mortar. The mortar should be carefully spread over the brick, and the one to be bedded well rammed down with the trowel, or, what is better, pressed down with a rubbing motion. The joints in the face of the work should be finished off with what is called a " straight-ruled joint." 961. In carrying up walls, small piers, 1CK OODRS THE FOOT. 218 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fi2. 190. as c, fig. 190, should be carried up from the footings, on which to lay the flooring-joists d. This allows the air to circulate round the end of the joist, and tends greatly to preserve the timber. The plan of building in the ends of the joists, as the joist b in the wall a a, fig. 1 90, is greatly to be reprehended : the decay of the timber is hastened, and, as it decays, irregular settlement of the walls is likely to ensue. In the upper walls, as piers cannot conveniently be built, the plan illus- trated in fig. 191 should be adopted, to secure the advantages of a circulation of air round the ends of the joists. In this illustration the end of the joist or beam a rests in an aperture or wall-box, formed by two stone or wooden slabs b and b. The width of this aperture should be greater than the breadth of the beam, so as to enable the air to circulate round its sides as well as round its end and top, as at c, fig. 191. For securing the ends of large girders, wall-boxes or shoes of cast-iron are built into the wall in which the ends of the girders are inserted. Fig. 192 shows a bearing wall in which the joist a rests on a wall-plate b. -'a JOISTS SCALE, I INCH TO THE FOOT Fig. 192. Fig. 191. MODE OF F1XIN3 BEAMS O OFPBB FLOORS SCALE, IKCH TO THE FOOT. 1 c IT in ^^ i EEE i i i | i I i -Wl i 1 1 O WAI-M. Fig. 193. Fig. 194. 962. In the case of openings as doors and windows in walls, it is essential, in sound construction, to arch them over, as in fig. 193. Where the opening is narrow, good construction may, to a certain extent, be insured by the use of strong and sound timber lintels, fig. 193. For openings of doors and windows of the ordinary extent, the size of this lintel may be 5 inches by 4 inches, a bearing of at least 14 inches on the walls being given to it, as from b to c, fig. 194. A flat arch may be substituted for the lintel, as fig. 194. If this is used, as the whole strength depends on the mortar, it will be advisable to use cement of a good quality and hoop-iron bond. As evidence of the amazing increase of transverse strength obtained by the use of cement and hoop- iron bond, we here cite an experiment of Colonel Pasley. Brick beams were made 10 feet long, 18 inches wide, 12 inches thick, of four courses, and made to rest on brick piers. The first beam was built with pure cement only ; the second with pure cement and hoop-iron bond, two pieces being placed at the upper and lower joints, and one in the centre, thus I -~ ; the third beam was built with mortar only. The TLAT ARCH SCALE, |- INCH TO THE FOOT, BRICK AliCHES. 219 breaking- weight was placed in tlio centre of the beams, between the two pieces. No. 1 (pure cement) was broken across with 49S lb. ; No. 2 (pure cement and hoop-iron bond) was broken with 4723 lb. ; No. 3 (mortar only) took a weight of 459 lb. only to break it. 963. Arches. To enter fully into the "theory of equilibrium" of arches, would be beyond the scope, and exceed the limits of this work; we shall there- fore only refer to a few forms of arches of ordinary occurrence. 964. An arch is the disposition of the building materials in a curved form, the mutual pressure of which enables them to sup- port large weights pressing upon them. In fig. 195 the wedge-shaped blocks a to a are termed the vous- soirs ; the central b are the Icey-stones ; the line formed by the external surface of the blocks c to c, the extrados ; the line formed by their internal sur- face, d to J, the intrados, or soffit. The distance from d to d is called the span, that from / to b the rise of the arch. The parts receiving the thrust of the arch c and c, or those from which the voussoirs, a to a, spring, are called the abutments. 965. The flat arch illustrated in fig. 194 is applicable to narrow openings, where the weight of materials over them is not great. Great care, however, should be taken to get a proper slope or bevil to the bricks, or a " skew-back," as it is termed. To proportion this, let c? e, fig. 194, be the width of opening; from d and e, with d e as radius, describe arcs cutting in/. From /draw lines f d,fe, forming an equilateral triangle with d e ; and continue them to g and //. All the joints of the bricks should converge to the point/ To insure good construction, the use of parallel bricks should be carefully avoided. The bricks should be rubbed to the proper shape, so that, when placed in their respective situations, the whole joints will lie close to each other. If parallel bricks are used, their upper joints naturally open. If cement is used, the work should be quickly done, as it sets rapidly ; possibly the better way will be to use blue lias mortar. Arch bricks of the proper bevel and curvature are now made to suit arches of all sizes. 966. In all cases where the opening is wide, or a large amount of material is resting above it, as in the case of openings near the ground-level, circular, elliptic, or segmental arches must be constructed. In fig. 196, a segmental arch is illus- trated at a b, a semicircular arch at c d. The bricks, to insure good construction, should be carefully Fi p - 1M - rubbed ; but to lessen the amount of the opening of the joints at the upper ends, it is considered a good plan to divide the depth of arch into two concentric circle's or arcs. Thus, a 9-inch arch may be made up of two rings of half-bricks, as from a and d, fig. 196. 967. Hollow Walls of Brick. We now, in con- cluding our remarks on brick-work, present a few notes on the construction of hollow walls. These may be constructed of the ordinary solid bricks, so arranged as to present cavities in the direction of their length, or the bricks themselves may be hollow. In whatever way con- structed, the " principle " is so good, that it should be adopted in all cases where the important advantages of security from damp and the saving of 220 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. DEARN'S HOLLOW O-INC WALL SCAUP, J INCH TO THE FOOT. 11-INCH HOLLOV material are desired. To the agriculturist the prevention of damp, which hollow walls insure, is alone of great importance. 968. We shall first notice the methods adopted to construct hollow walls with the ordinary solid bricks. In fig. 197 we illustrate Dearn's method of building 9-inch hollow walls. In this method the courses, up to the ground-level, are built in old English bond. The next course immediately above is formed of two rows of stretchers a b laid on edge. The next course above this of a row of headers, c d, laid on thoir fiat side, edge to edge. The saving of material by this arrangement is considerable, and the sav- ing of mortar also ; for it is evident that the spaces between the edges of the row headers, as c d, which lie over the hollow beneath, have no mortar between them; so that, in fact, a hollow wall from top to bot- tom is secured. In fig. 198 we give an illustration of a method of building an 11 -inch hollow wall. By driving in wood bricks here and there, as at 5, fig. 198, and nailing vertical battens, as c, on which to nail boarding laths, the advantages of a double hollow wall may be obtained. If this is not adopted, and the inside is wished to be plastered, the expense of laths may be saved in this form of hollow wall, as the hollow spaces will afford excel- lent "keys" for the plaster to be secured to the walls. In fig. 199, we illustrate a method of building a 14-inch hollow wall, construct- ed by placing a row of two stretchers and a header on opposite sides of the wall. 969. Another, and, since the introduction of improved machinery, a more generally adopted method of forming hollow walls, is to use hollow bricks. A great many forms of this species of brick have been introduced. In figs. 200 to 211 we give various views of Eoberts' patent bonded hollow bricks. " By the forms adopted in the patent hollow brick-work, a perfect bond, running longitudinally through the centre of the wall, is secured ; all headers and vertical joints passing through it are avoided; internal as well as external strength is obtained, and every facility given for fixing the floor-plates and other timbers ; whilst, by the parallel longitudinal cavities, ample security for dryness is afforded, and great facility is presented for ventilation, as well as for the conveyance of arti- ficial heat, the transmission of pipes, &c." The size adopted by the patentee makes the work look bolder than ordinary brick, three courses rising 1 foot in height, the length being 12 inches. The number of joints is thus reduced one-third. Nine of the hollow bricks go as far as sixteen ordinary bricks. Not the least advantage of this and other forms is the extreme lightness, insuring a large saving in the cost of carriage. 970. We now present a few illustrations of this important system. In fig. 200, we give the representation of an elevation of dwarf wall, of which, in fig. 201, we give a section. The section of a 14-inch hollow wall is shown in fig. 202. 9-inch walls can be built by the use of the " external patent bricks," one of which is shown to the right of fig. 203, along with the " quoin 14-INCH HOLLOW WALL SCALE, J INCH HOLLOW BRICKS. 221 brick," shown to the left of same figure ; and the "jamb brick" to the right of the following fig. 201. Where walls thicker than 9 inches are reqtiired, the form of brick shown in the centre of jig. 20o is used in conjunction with the Fi:;. :> Fi?. 204. OF JAMB ANT) GRIMNEV HOLLOW DKIC others just described. The form of brick shown to the right of fig. 204 is used for internal jambs and chimneys, and is 8f inches long. The two other stretchers in this figure show how one or two angles may be chamfered in the process 222 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. of making by the same die. The form of brick seen to the right of fig. 205 is used for 4^-inch partitions, of which fig. 206 is a sectional elevation. Fig. 205. Fig. 206. VIEWS OF PARTITIOS Fig. 209. These bond with the splayed bricks, and answer for floor and roof arches where the span does not exceed 7 feet. The form of brick shown in the centre of fig. 205, is used for 5f-inch partition walls, also for arch bricks used for floor and roof arches, of from 7 to 10 feet span. The brick to the left is also used for partition or inter- nal walls, with web to give extra strength, and to adapt " Bs them for using on edge in par- titions of 3f inches thick, to rise in 6-inch courses. The method of setting these hollow bricks for win- dow and door jambs on alternate courses is shown in figs. 207 and 208, and the plans of angles on alternate courses in figs. 209 and 210. Much economy is said to re- sult from the use of these patent bricks. The inventor, an architect of established reputation, states that 9 patent hollow bricks of the size before described viz., 12 inches in length, and calculated to rise 1 foot in three courses, will do as much walling as 16 ordinary bricks ; whilst the weight of the patent bricks but little exceeds that of the ordinary bricks an important consideration with reference to carriage, and ease of handling. If niched at any desired part with a sharp-pointed ham- mer, they will break off easily, and the angles may be taken off with a trowel as readily as those of a common brick. The bricks for the quoins and jambs may be perforated for ventilating purposes, with perpendicular holes, either square, circular, or octagonal. As to the saving effected by their use, the fol- lowing comparative statement of a rod of ordinary bricks, and a rod of the patent, will afford some information : IN AI/TEKNAT 4000 ordinary bricks at 20s., 2450 patent bricks at 25s., . Saving in bricks per rod, 4000 ordinary bricks at 24s., 2450 patent bricks at 30s., . Saving, . 4000 ordinary bricks at 28s., 2450 patent bricks at 35s., . Saving, . 460 313 149 199 LARGE-SIZED BRICKS. Being about 29 per cent in favour of the patont bricks, and of 25 per cent in mortar and labour. The following test as to the strength of the hollow bricks may be interesting : six bricks of good quality were put together so as to form a pier 1 foot long, 1 foot high, and 9 inches wide ; the external sides being |ths of an inch thick, the internal -Jths of an inch thick, it was found that a weight of 6|- tons caused a slight crack, only perceptible by sound, which did not increase until Si tons were placed on them. With 9 tons the horizontal beds gave way, the per- pendicular sides remaining unbroken, and without any tendency in the bricks to separate. This experiment was made at the eminent architects and builders, Messrs Cubitt, of Gray's Inn Road, London. Roberts' patent bonded hollow bricks are also well adapted for partitions, as also for forming fireproof ceilings and floors, as shown in fig. 211. The external springers are of cast-iron, connected by wrought-iron tie-rolls. The space above the arch, as at r, is filled in with con- crete, and finished with a boarded floor b b, resting on narrow fillets ; or tiles may be used, or the patent bonded bricks. 971. Grooved Bricks. In order to secure a better bond in brick-work, bricks are now often made with a depressed or hollow part in the flat side, as at a, fig. 212, or grooved, as at b b. The depressed portions afford keys for the mortar. 972. Large-sized Bricks are now frequently used. They save mortar, and a building is quicker erected. 973. In fig. 213 we illustrate Nor- ton and Borrie's hollow brick, a Fig. 213. Fit:. -2U. o o o o oooj 000 being a stretcher, and b a header. These are rectangular, and can be built in the ordinary way, or hollow, as by any of the methods illustrated in figs. 204, 205, or 206. 974. In fig. 214 we give a section one-fourth of full size of hollow bricks made by Thomas Dean, Wishaw and Coltness Brick-works. The header is perforated in a different man- ner from the stretchers. In fig. 215 we give a section of a hollow tile for lining walls or for making partitions. They are recommended by the Association for promoting Improve- ment in the Dwellings and Domestic Condition of Agricul- tural Labourers in Scotland. 224 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 975. SECTION FOURTH Embankments Dams Weirs. Our remarks on the subject of embankments will be confined to the consideration of those construc- tions of comparatively minor importance as those for rivulets, the protection of river banks, and of parts exposed to the action of the sea premising that much of the information already given on the subject of " Foundations," and that which is to follow on " Footings," will be applicable to the construction of embankments. 976. In order to determine the dimensions of an embankment adapted to the peculiarities of a locality, the highest point to which the water of the rivulet had ever reached should be ascertained from the best evidence which can be obtained ; and if the embankment is made 1 or 2 feet higher than that point, the land may be considered as being placed in safety. The next consideration is the distance of the site of the embankment from the brink of the water. In every place where the bed of the stream is narrow, and where, of course, the flooded current will attain the greatest height, the embankment should not only be higher, but farther removed from the edge of the stream. Where the bed of the stream, on the other hand, is broad, and there is ample space for a slow though deep current, the embankment may be safely placed nearer the water's edge. But the safest plan in all cases is to afford sufficient room for the water, as much loss has been occasioned by overflowings of rivers, even when embanked, by contracting the channel between the embankments on opposite sides of rivers too much, from a mistaken desire to reclaim a piece of land from the river-bank ; forgetting that, in proportion as the river increases in depth, by confinement between the embankments on both sides, its power to do mischief is greatly increased ; and it may even overcome the strength of the embankment, when the injury committed will be more serious than if there had been no embankment at all. The best policy, therefore, is to give the river sufficient room to flow, and also to remove all sudden turns in its course against which the water may strike with force, or be reflected with violence against the opposite bank. Let all curves of embankments, whether concave or convex to the river, present surfaces along which the water will flow in unbroken sweeps, not in all places conformably, perhaps, to the natural form of its channel, but the form of the channel should be made with easy sweeps, by taking away portions of the bank on one side, and filling up deep bends on the other. 977. Fig. 216 gives a vertical section of such an embankment as may suffice to keep off the swollen water of a small rivulet. It is formed of turf derived Fig. 216. T A R1VCLT. RIVER EA! 1 J A X K ME NTS. 225 from the river's bank, and faced with a stone dyke to prevent its being injured by stock on the side of the field, when; the dyke answers the purpose of an efficient fence. The line of the embankment should be marked off with pins, and the turf raised along the breadth of ground to be occupied by the embank- ment. In raising- the turf, that intended to cover i\w fac.K of the embankment next the stream should be at least one foot square, unbroken, and tough; and if the river-bank does not afford turf of this description, it must be obtained elsewhere, and brought to the spot. The turf to build the face-wall may be of any description possessing tenacity at all. The turf for the sloping bank should be cut with bevelled edges, so that each turf may overlap two lower turfs with two of its edges the one edge, the lowest, overlapping in the direc- tion of the slope of the bank, the other overlapping in the direction of the flow of the water of the river. These circumstances settling the proper and relative position of the turfs, the embankment should begin to be constructed at the lowest point down the stream, and carried upwards ; and it should also be begun at the water's edge, and carried upward to the top of the slope. 978. Suppose the tuif wall a b, fig. 216, to be 4 feet in height, then a breadth of 5 feet from b to c, being the base of the slope of the embankment, may give sufficient stability to the structure, and slope to the face. The line b c, however, will vary according to the nature of the ground on the river-bank. In a steep part it may be less than 5 feet, in a gentle slope it will retain its proper length, and in a sudden and narrow hollow it may be necessary to fill up the hollow altogether, in order to make the bank uniformly even, in which case the slope may have to be built up from the very edge of the water. The first operation in the actual construction of the embankment is building the turf- wall a 6, the sods of which are laid with the grassy face downwards, on the same principle as breaking joints in masonry. As the wall proceeds, earth is taken from the field in spadefuls to pack behind it, and to fill up the entire contents of the embankment included within a b c. This earth should be free of stones, and if disposed to rise in lumps, should be chopped small with the spade, and beaten firmly with a wooden beater. After a sufficient quantity of earth has been placed behind the turf wall, the turfs of the slope c a are then begun to be laid at the lowest point c, where the first turf d, with the grass side upmost, is made to grip under and abut against the sward e of the river-bank by a notch cut out of the latter with the spade, the object of the notch being to plant the edge of the turf through the sward, to prevent the water getting hold of it and carrying it away. Another turf/ is made to overlap with its lower edge the upper edge of the turf d just laid, and the earth is brought behind it with a trowel, or with the hand, to the shape of the slope c a. In like manner, the turfs #, /, and z are laid one after the other, till the top of the turf wall b a, and the top of the slope c a, are reached at the same time, when a thick turf k, with the grass upmost, covers the top of the wall, and finishes the slope. When the turfs are cut square, and all of the same size, which they should scrupulously be, they are quickly and evenly laid. The whole of the turfs are then beaten firmly down with the back of the spade. It will be concluded from this description that the building of the turf wall should proceed in ad- vance of the laying of the turf upon the slope. In conjunction with the turf work, the building of the stone dyke I m may proceed, and finish the whole embankment at once. Such a dyke as is here required is called the single-faced dyke, having only one finished face, towards the field, with broad projecting covers and a strong cope. 979. The cost of making an embankment, 4 feet high in the wall, 5 feet P 226 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. broad in the base, and casting the turf for it, the materials being all at hand, is Is. 4d. per rood of 6 yards. If the turf has to be brought from a distance, the cost of its carriage, and casting, of course, involves a greater expense. The cost of building the face-dyke five quarters high will be 8s. per rood of 30 lineal yards, and the quarrying and carriage of the stones will be as much, or 9^d. per lineal yard. 980. Such an embankment should be constructed at as early a period of the season as possible, to give the turf time to grow together before the occurrence of the earliest flood. In a very dry summer the turf may become brown, when water should occasionally be thrown upon it with a scoop from the rivulet ; and in any kind of season it is possible that a turf will die here and there, when it should be removed, and a fresh one substituted. Until the turfing becomes converted into a thick and tough sward, it should be frequently inspected, and every gap in it plugged up, whether occasioned by accident, such as the feet of cattle trespassing from the opposite side, or the burrowing of animals, such as rabbits or water-rats. In the succeeding season the grass will grow luxuriantly upon the embankment, when it may be mown early in summer, to give it time to grow to a thick sward before winter. After this period the earth will become quite firm, and the embankment require nothing more than a general super- vision every year. 981. In fig. 217 we give a section of a form of embankment recommended Fig. 217. SE9TION Or KIVER EMBANKMENT 8CAI.E, -fg OF AN INCH TO THE FOOT by Mr Johnstone, for low ground on the side of rivers. The slope of the em- bankment towards the river from a to c should be longer than that of the land side, as from b to d. The base of an embankment, as a d, should be three times its height, as I m ; the width b c at top one-third of the height I in. The distance of the foot a of embankment from the river, as the distance a k, is shown in the figure at 10 feet ; and all trees, brushwood, &c., should be re- moved from the space, as these may shake the earth and render it loose, and give admission to the water. The earth to form the embankment should be taken from the land side, none from the river ; this obviates the necessity of breaking and loosening the surface next the river. The earth may be taken from adjoining heights, or from the ditch h g /, which is formed at the back of the embankment, to lead the surface-water from the field. A paling or fence e should be put up at the outer side of the scarcement d e, to prevent cattle from going up and trampling upon the embankment, until it be consoli- dated and well swarded. The slope of the embankment in this case "is sup- posed to be covered with grass turf; but, in the absence of this, a stone facing may be adopted. 982. The body of the embankment may be formed of the earth in the im- mediate neighbourhood, care being taken to beat it well down ; but for better security, and to prevent all leakage which, in time, endangers the stability of RIVEtt EMBANKMENTS. 227 the embankment a puddle-wall should bo placed in the centre, as shown by the dotted lines from I to m in fig. 21 7. 983. Some writers state that, in founding- the embankment, all that is neces- sary is to remove the turf from its site; it is obvious, however, that this only holds where the subsoil is impervious and retentive. If it is light and porous, admitting the water easily beneath the embankment, it is absolutely essential to make a complete union between the subsoil and the lower courses of the em- bankment. This will best be e fleeted by sinking a trench as broad as the embankment, the trench being deep enough to reach the retentive soil. Should a central puddle-wall, as represented by in. I in fig. 217, be used, it will only be necessary to make the trench wide enough for the wall, the embankment on either side resting on the unturfed soil. 984. As the stability of the embankment depends upon the thorough incor- poration of the mass of earth which forms it, no pains should be spared to secure this. The materials should be placed down in thin layers, and each well rammed down before the next is superimposed. Mr Thorn, the well- known engineer of the Shaws Waterworks, Greenock, recommends embank- ments to be formed of alternate layers of earth, clay, or other soil, with small stones or gravel, forming a species of artificial puddingstone. The great point to attend to is securing the materials from the attacks of rats and other ver- min ; once these effect a lodgment, the deterioration of the embankment com- mences ; holes are rapidly formed, into which the water enters gradually, washing away all soft material it meets with. Care also should be taken to preserve throughout the embankment the proper slope or angle of its sides ; to insure this, a wooden template or mould should be made to guide the workmen in laying down the materials. 985. We have hitherto referred only to turf as the material for facing the slopes of embankments ; but in exposed situations the river-side will be most effectually protected when a stone facing is employed. This facing may be made thus : over the whole of the river-slope place a layer of broken stones, not less than 8 inches deep ; ram these well down. Over this rubble-stones are laid, and continued upwards beyond the line where the waves dash at their highest : if carried over the top and down the land side, the embankment will be secured from the ravages of vermin. This, however, will be so expensive, that it will be sufficient to stop the stone facing near the top of the river-slope. To secure, a good bond between the stones of the facing, piles or short stakes are driven into the face of the slope at intervals, and a row close together at the bottom line. 986. " When the surface and subsoil are both of a gravelly nature," says Mr Sutter, C.E., in his Prize Essay on " River Embankments," in the Trans- actions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1858, p. 317, "the work of embanking becomes then very unsatisfactory, and the water will filter through, should the flood continue for any length of time, or else bubble up from below. Many methods have been adopted to prevent this, but all attended with considerable expense. I have used the following method, and it has been attended with success. A drain a, fig. 218, was cut behind and alongside the embankment 4 feet deep, and filled with clay from an adjoining hill. Clay, however, is very expensive when it lias to be used in large quantities, and may not readily be procured ; and even this method would fail after a time, as the water would still percolate below this trench. Again, the most effectual way would have been a wall of clay b c, fig. 218, from the top of the embank- ment If no clay can be procured, then take as much of the 228 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. soil as will at least cover the face of the embankment from d to e, even though it should have to be made up with gravel. The whole face will Fig. 218. RAVELLY BOTI Fig. 219. require to be turfed ; for, should any breakage take place on the face, the gravel forms such a bad element that it will all go by the run. A ditch is sometimes formed behind the embankment for leakage water ; this, however, unless under certain circumstances, should not be formed, it merely weakening the stability of the whole by breaking the surface, and causing the water to leak more readily from the bottom of the ditch." 987. Where the banks of a river are perpendicular, and composed of loose or friable earth, the best plan to prevent the continual washing away by the action of the river, is to slope the bank, as shown in fig. 219, from a to b to the surface of the water. This should be done early in spring, and the slope covered with turf, or sown " very thick with the seeds of some small mat-rooted grass : the creeping meadow-grass (Poa reptans] is a proper grass for this purpose." The breast of the bank, from b to c, is formed by throwing in small stones about the size of a man's hand, the slope being a con- tinuation of that from a to b. These stones will be best suited for the purpose if taken off cultivable land, and great taken to make the slope or face of the heap as linooth as COTTIUO OF RrVER^BAJJXS TO PREVENT WASHIKO AWAY. care should be possible. 988. On the use of stones for the protection of river-sides, Mr George Stephens, in his work on Irrigation and Draining, has the following : " The sheathing or protecting of river-sides with small stones is so very simple in itself, that, where stones are to be had, there is not the least difficulty in preserving their banks at a trifling expense, provided the injured part be immediately filled. Instead of putting a few cartloads in heaps at random along the affected part, they ought to be laid regularly along the affected part ; for, in the first case, they only serve to break the cement, forming partial waterfalls where there were none, whereby the injury is increased instead of diminished ; but in the latter case the bank will be secured. Even in districts where stones cannot be had, half the ravages committed by watercourses winding through low grounds might be prevented by timely and judiciously keeping down the perpendicular banks, and sowing or planting the slopes with small-rooted aquatic plants, such as bog-reeds, sedges, water spiderwort, rushes, and seeds of any kind of plants which are known to thrive in and near water." Ill V K R E M B A NKMENTS. 229 989. Where the tendency of a river is to scoop out a place, as at a, fig. 220, a jetty may be placed obliquely, as at , which will have a tendency to direct the current towards r, and prevent it acting on a. Care sliou d be taken to place the jetty oblique 'y to the course of the stream, as at 1> ; if thrown out nearly at right angles, as at c7, the result will be that the water is projected with considerable force against the opposite point ?, and be reflected with increased force to- wards a. A jetty, thrown out as at d, will require, moreover, to be made much stronger than when sloping as at b. Jetties, in slow-moving streams, will be best when constructed of stones loosely thrown in, so as to form a bank sloping on either side. Where stones cannot be had, stakes may be driven in some 2 or 3 feet, and closely wattled with brushwood, or fascines, or bundles of faggots. These will gradually arrest silt, floating materials, &e., and in time a bank will be formed. 990. As to this method of placing jetties, Mr Sutler has the following remarks, which demand attention, all the more from his opinions being at variance with other authorities. " A common way of attempting the saving of a side, such as a a, fig. 221, from a current, is by placing weirs as in fig. 222, in the hope of directing the current against the opposite side. The water acts upon these weirs, as shown by arrows, merely keeping oiitside the points, and for the most part turning round in the shape of eddies and undermining them. If the bottoms of these weirs are placed right across the river, say, by laying a tree across, from the weir to a as in fig. 223, then the current is thrown as from a darn to the other side, but not without some such means. This latter manner of saving land is far from proper, and, should the stream form a march, often leads to lawsuits ; in fact, it ought never to be allowed. The adjoining pro- prietor should either allow the removal of the sand or gravel bank c, supposed 230 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. to be as in fig. 223, or the proprietors at the concave side protect themselves without injuring their neighbours; for, be it observed, the proprietor having the Weir- Fig. 223. Surface of River. MISUSE OF A TF Fig. 224. gravel bed is always safe he has a natural advantage which nothing can take away. The current never does set towards the side b b b of the gravel bank c, fig. 221, like the arrows, and it is in general at those places without a current." 991. Where a rock obstructs the passage of the stream lying, we shall sup- pose, in the position shown at (7, fig. 220 and causes the river to act on the opposite bank e, it will be necessary, if this is of a soft and yielding nature, to protect it by throwing in stones, or facing it with fascines or a stone wall. To face with fascines, the brushwood is tied up into bundles, piles or stakes driven in at intervals, and the fascines laid between, and secured to the piles by wattling; or if two or more layers of fascines are used, they should be placed in opposite directions. Thus, if the first row is placed at right angles to the slope, the second should be parallel. 992. Piling. Common piling, for repairing embankments or protecting the sides of rivers, is performed by driving in rows of piles some 2 feet into the river bottom, fig. 224. The top is secured by means of a rail, and the back filled up with boughs and stones. Even when this kind of piling is care- lessly done it lasts a long time, especially after it gets silted up. Mr Sutter does not recommend piling at all, but in its place an extremely flat slope, with a rise of 4 to 1, or so, with a fiat space, 2 or 3 feet wide, next the river. Should " the whole strength of a river run upon a point, it then becomes necessary," says Mr Sutter, " to have it protected ; and if expense of masonry be too great, piling may be resorted to in the following manner : A good slope having been given the embankment, the piling should be double, and driven, that they be not more than 4 inches between the sides, and having two or more rails upon the face, say 6 inches broad ; at least every 5 feet should have a stay, connecting the whole with the face of the embankment, fig. 225, firmly nailed or bolted to all these piles. This will prevent the piles leaning outward ; the space between the piles filled with stones not above 6 inches square, or such a size as will prevent them pass- ing through the piles. If larger stones can be pro- cured, they might be with great advantage placed outside, but never inside (unless the piling be very strong), as they force the piling out in spite of the resistance of the stay. The whole space being thus completed, will resist almost any amount of wear from water, as it gradually fills with sand until it becomes as solid as a wall. When piling is single and without stays (a very common practice), the water, in my experience, seems to shake the pile until it loses all hold of the bottom ; and in gradually shaking the ER-BANKS. Fig. 225. ROVED PJUNCJ FOR HIVER-BAN SEA EMBANKMENTS. 231 earth, undermines the ground behind. When packed with brushwood behind, the pile is forced forward, and gradually falls away, leaving the earth bare the whole height of the pile ; whereas, had no pile been there, the grass would have grown, and thus naturally have formed one of the best defences against a current: for this reason I object to all piling, except at sharp corners ; arid even there, with proper construction of embankment, it is unnecessary." 993. Sea Embankments. On the subject of embanking lands from the sea, we now propose to offer a few remarks. In cases where the banks near the sea are perpendicular, and composed of loose or penetrable mould mixed with loose stones, much valuable land above the sea-level will speedily be lost by the continued action of the waves below undermining the soil, and allowing the superposed material to fall in. In cases where the tidal force or the exposure is not great, a sufficient bulwark may be made by giving the face of the bank a considerable slope, as from a to &, fig. 226, the earth taken from c being used to make up the part d. This slope maybe faced by any of the means already described for river embankments. Where the action of the tide is considerable, stone facing may be used, piles being driven in at intervals to secure a bend ; and further to reduce the action of the waves, it will be found beneficial to drive in a row of piles at the foot of the bulwark, as shown at e in fig. 226. This ex- pedient has been found to be highly beneficial in moderating the action of the waves on the face of the bulwark. 994. For reclaiming or protecting low-lying lands from the sea, embank- ments are raised ; in fig. 227 we give a section of one form of embankment for this purpose. Before proceeding to form the embankment, the exact level of the highest tides should be ascertained, and the height of the embankment should exceed this by 2 feet. Stakes of the proper height should then be driven in along the whole line of embankment. Two frames of timber should then be constructed of the exact form of section of the embankment, and set up some 20 or 30 feet distant from each other. As the whole surface of the sea is on a level, it is essential that the upper line of embankment present a true level parallel to the horizon ; to insure this, the two frames above men- tioned should be set on a level. The construc- tion of the embank- ment should then be begun. As on many shores, sand, debris of various kinds, collect^ very rapidly, it is re- commended by some authorities to drive in stakes in the line of embankment, to fix fascines to ; the mud, sand, debris, are 232 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. soon collected, and tend to form a species of embankment, which can be finished in due time, in the usual way. Indeed, an extension of this system will sometimes suffice to form a permanent embankment. This is done by form- ing rows of wicker-work, well staked down, and by filling up the internals with brushwood, &c., so as to form as regular a slope as possible from the water. As the tide passes through these materials, they collect and arrest the sand, mud, &c., and as they accumulate, the embankment will rise, so as ultimately to exclude the tide at all times. (JOHNSTONE'S Draining, p. 171.) 995. " As the pressure of water," says the above authority, " upon an em- bankment against the tide, is different from that in the current of a river, it is not necessary to have it so straight, or of that uniform smoothness which is requisite where a running stream is to glide along the side of it. It is unneces- sary, however, to give it such turns and windings, or to embrace all the points and indentures of the verge next the water, which would lengthen its course, and increase the expense ; but it may be carried as near the edge of the land as it is possible to obtain a safe and permanent foundation. In forming the bank, the breadth, height, and strength, must be made in proportion to the depth and weight of water it may have to resist ; and in order to obviate re- sistance, and to lessen the pressure, the more the slope towards the water ap- proaches to a degree of flatness, the greater will be the firmness and durability of the structure. In difficult cases, it is advisable that the surface next the water should form an angle to a perpendicular line of from 40 to 60 degrees, according to the force to be opposed, and the nature of the materials of which the mound is to be constructed." 996. As regards the materials of which sea embankments may be constructed, Mr John Wiggins, a first-rate authority on this subject, after reviewing the nature and constituents of several usually found in sea -districts, says, " On the whole, it must be concluded, that of the materials for a sea-bank, tenacious clay is the best, and loose sand the very worst. All the intermediate modifications of soil will have their respective merits or demerits, but they will be eligible in proportion to their ponderosity, their cohesiveness, and their power of resisting the action of water, either in penetrating or dissolving them ; and these soils will be ineligible in proportion to their lightness, their looseness, and their aptitude to run or to blow away when dry, or to melt when wet. A mixture of materials, bad and good together, when in a wet state, would probably reduce the whole mass to an eligible condition ; and although the expense might be thought too great at first, it might be found economy in the end, and the mix- ture might be effected by the tread of horses without much labour, previously to the material being laid up on the bank. In cases, also, where the material is not very trustworthy, an artificial dyke of concrete or common puddling might be carried up in the centre of the bank, of such width, and commenc- ing at such depth below the shore-level, as the case might require." (The Prac- tice of Embanking Lands from the Sea. By JOHN WIGGINS, F.Gr.S. Weale, London. 2s.) 997. Where the embankment is much exposed, the safest facing is stone. When this is used, it is advisable to finish the face with a layer of well-puddled clay before the stones are laid on. In medium cases of exposure, after the clay is laid down, the face may be carefully covered with turf. In cases of least exposure, the material of which the main body of the bank is made will answer for the face. The growth of plants and grass which have a tendency to bind the soil on which they grow, may be encouraged. The ordinary couch- grass will be found admirably adapted for this purpose. DAMS- WE IKS. 233 998. Stones should be carefully removed from the foot "of the embankment, as they cause eddies, which tend to undermine the base. A " footing" of gravel laid along the base-line, more especially if subjected to pressing action, as when used for a road, is recommended by Mr Wiggins as an effectual means of preventing the sea undermining or "pecking " the bank. When the bank is constructed of sand, this gravel footing consolidates it, " and checks the soakage under the bank a service of the very utmost importance for the purpose of pre- venting its blowing iip." 999. To maintain a good breadth of what is called " foreland " that is, the portion of shore before the embankment is a point of importance. " There is certainly," says Mr Wiggins, " no feature appertaining to a sea-bank of greater importance than this, since it acts against, as the advanced guard to the bank itself receives, the first shocks of the sea, and deadens its force upon the bank by decreasing the depth and bulk of the wave. The broader, therefore, the foreland, and the higher the shore above the low-water mark, the greater its protection to the bank. In Essex, a county so famous for its sea-walls, the foreland generally stands several feet above low-water mark, and some hundreds of yards outside the bank; and where it wears away, its edges are scarped and stoned, to prevent the loss of so valuable a defence to the sea-wall." 1000. The drain e, fig. 227, should not be too near the foot of the inner slope, as the water continually resting against the soil is apt to percolate through and undermine the embankment. The distance cZ, from the foot of the embankment b c, Mr Wiggins recommends to be 12 yards, the depth of the drain e 4 or 5 feet, the width at top 12, and at bottom 6 feet the water to stand 2 feet below the surface. In very loose sandy soils it is not advisable to have a drain cut as a substitute for it. A slight rill may be allowed to " carry off the soakage from the bank, which, in such a soil, must be considered as inevitable." 1001. It does not form part of the plan of this work to give descriptions of drainage or irrigation works, further than of those parts which come under the head of construction, as culverts, sluices, &c. We have therefore little more, under the head of drainage of the " intake " of reclaimed or embanked lands, to say, than that the discharge of the land-water to the sea is effected by drains or culverts passed through the bank, as shown by the dotted line//, fig. 227. For the construction of these, see remarks on culverts, &c., in the succeeding Section ; and for notes on valves or flood-gates, see Section on " Timber Con- struction." 1002. Dams Weirs. As a conclusion to this department, we now propose to consider briefly the construction of dams and weirs. In cases where water is to be led off directly from a river to the mill-race, the supply of water being at all times considerable, the velocity slow, and the stream liable to few sudden torrents, a dyke of timber thrown across the stream obliquely will in many cases be all that is necessary. This dyke may be constructed after the manner recommended by Mr Findlater, and described in his prize essay on the " Construction of Reservoirs of Water for Agricultural Purposes," published in vol. xii. of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, p. 314. Figs. 228 and 229 will illustrate the method : a, fig. 228, shows the oblique posi- tion of the dyke, b b the mill-race ; c, fig. 229, the piles or stakes driven into the bed of the river, and placed at a distance of 5 or 6 feet apart. A strong or cross piece d unites the heads of the piles. A facing of wood planks, 2^ inches thick, is nailed closely to the piles. This planking faces up the stream, and is opposed to the direction of the current, as shown by the arrow. The timber- work thus made is backed up with rubble // having a slope of not less than 45 234 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. degrees. The face e e of this rubble backing should be formed of stones set on edge, and close laid. The rubble backing //should be started at least 2 feet Fig. 229. Fig. 228. below the line h of the natural bed of the river. A complete junction with the ends of the dyke and the sides or banks of the stream should be secured ; this will be effected by cutting out parts, and carrying in the piles and backing for some distance. A not uncommon practice is to place the mill-race b b, fig. 228, at the acute angle of the dyke a, whereby all the refuse that floats in the water finds its way to the sluice of the mill-race, and of course entails the trouble of having it to remove frequently. 1003. Where the stream is rapid and liable to torrents, the dyke or dam must be constructed in a mere substantial form, entirely of stone. The worst way in which to construct this, is to lead directly across the stream at right angles, and in a straight line ; the section at the same time answering the form of a tri- angle, the two sides sloping to a point. " A dyke of this form and structure," says Mr Johnstone, " must be very insufficient, and liable to be disarranged and thrown down by the force of running water pressing upon and falling over it. The upper stones are first lowered and carried down, and the water, striking with velocity on the whole face of the dyke, precipitates itself with violence against those at the bottom, and displacing them, the whole structure is soon demolished. Dams that are erected at still greater expense, of hewn stone, but of a similar construction, are also liable to be destroyed (although in a lesser degree), if the lower side is formed with a slope or inclined plane. The water in this case does not insinuate itself in such a body among the stones that are joined as it does when they are loosely laid together, as in the first-mentioned case ; but still the force of the falling water has such effect upon the under- most layers of stone, that in time it cannot fail to undermine and displace them. The first error in all these kinds of stone weirs is the carrying them in a straight line across the river or stream. They should be constructed so as to form an arch across the bed of the stream, with the convex side upwards, the ends resting on strong abutments placed in the bank on both sides, fig. 231. By this means the force of any body of water, however great, will be effectually resisted, and the structure be perfectly firm and secure. The greater the slope towards the upper side the better, but the lower side should be nearly perpendicular, that the water may fall over it like a cascade, without coming in contact with the face of the building." A pavement of considerable breadth, and well laid, should be placed before the under-side ; this will receive the falling water, and DAMS WEIRS. 235 will prevent its action in undermining the wall. In fig. 230 we give a section, and in fig. 231 a plan of this form of dyke or weir, as recommended by Mr Johnstone. 1004. Great care must be taken to secure a good foun- dation for the wall. (See our remarks on Foundations in a preceding Sec- tion.) The dimen- sions of the wall a, fig. 230, will be regulated by circumstances : if the height is 12 feet, the breadth at bottom should be G, and at top 2. Every care should be taken to well-bed the stones, and hydraulic cement should be used to make good the joints. The top of the wall must be exactly level throughout its whole extent, so that the water, in times of flood, shall go over the weir in a stratum of equal thickness, and so prevent any undue action on one part more than another, which would be the case if this precaution was not taken. The top should be provided with a coping of flat stones, projecting slightly over the face of the wall : if stone cannot be had, plank- ing may be substituted ; in either case it is essen- tial to have the coping as smooth as possible, free from all irregularities of surface. 1005. To prevent the action of the water on the upper face of the wall, a layer of clay b should be well rammed down against its whole height and length. This clay should extend lower than the foot of the breastwork. An apron of gravel c thrown down before the clay, presenting as great a slope as possible, will still further prevent the action of the water on the dyke. 1006. Where the water of a small rivulet, or that of drainage, passing through a valley or gorge, is desired to be retained for ornamental or domestic purposes, an embankment of the form shown in fig. 217 may be constructed. The points noted relative to the construction of embankments already described will be applicable to this. Every care should be taken to consolidate the successive layers of soil as they are laid down, and the embankment should stand for some months after it is finished before the water is let in. 1007. In fig. 232 we give at a a section of a dam or weir, and at b a section of a protective groin for a river-side, as used in Italian irrigation. We are in- debted for these illustrations to Captain Baird Smith's work on this subject. 1008. During a recent visit to the Orkneys, we noticed a curious specimen of a sea-wall in the harbour of Wick. In this the stones of the flagstone series instead of being placed on their flat sides, or " broad-bed," are raised on end " like staves in a pail or barrel, so that at some little distance the work looks like as if formed of upright piles or beams jammed fast together." Mr Hugh Miller, who thus describes it in his Rambles of a Geologist, gives the reasoning on which Mr Bremner, the engineer who carried out this style of work, founded the principle of operation. Referring to the standard rule of masonry, that the 236 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. " ,- Mr Austin has proposed a half-socket joint, to be manufactured either with a half socket at one end only of each length, or at the lower half of both ends ; to be used alternately with a length without any socket This form is shown in fig. 242. The advantage to be derived from this arrange- ment, is that the half sock- ets form a bed or founda- tion in which the plain pipes are laid, not pushed in, as in the full socket-pipe ; thus every joint, as it is made, is open to inspec- tion ; and, in case of accident or faulty joint-making, any one length of pipe can be taken up without disturbing the others. One objection, however, to all socket-jointed pipes is, that the projection of the socket acts as a species of fulcrum for the lever formed by the adjoining length of pipe, which may be subjected to disturbance by the passage of heavy carts over the ground above it. This displacement is, however, obviated, by using what is termed the " conical-jointed pipe." These are laid down in alternate lengths, the small end of one being inserted in the large end of the other. When these are smoothly made, they form excellent drain-tubes. Constructed of the durable material known as Peake's " Terro Metallic," they will give much satisfaction. Drain-tubes with the " rabbet joint," as in fig. 243, form a very tight, and not easily disturbed, line of drain. Forming one continuous line, they lie evenly in the bed. In order to give sufficient thickness to admit of the " rabbet " being formed, more clay is required than in the socket-jointed pipe, but they are more easily made. A form of drain- tube joint has been recently introduced by Mr Clayton, a view of which is given in fig. 244, by which it will be seen that one end of the pipe is cored out, whilst the other end is turned down to suit. These pipes, when laid together, form a per- fectly flush joint. The address of the patentee is, Atlas Works, 21 Upper Park Place, Dorset Square, London. Where it is a desideratum to have the range of drain-tubes as absolutely water-tight as possible, the tubes should be gently pushed down upon a bed of well-pud- dled clay; the space on each side, and to a height of at least 6 inches above the crown of the tube, should next be filled in with the same material forming the bed. The tubes, thus completely em- bedded, will remain very satisfactorily placed, even in circumstances where heavy vehicles may pass frequently over the Line of tubes. Where the strata through which the tubes are to be laid are irregular, they may be much straightened by the use of collars, where the tubes are what are called " butt- joints" that is, each length of tube similar to its neighbour, and the ends squared off. These " collars " are also very useful in repairing breakages of tubes, when these happen between the joints. 1020. Lidded Drain-Tubes. By far the best method yet introduced for enabl- ing the interior of drains to be examined and cleansed, at any one point, without disturbing the series, or any part of the invert of the tubes, is that in which they are provided with movable lids or covers. Several parties have intro- duced tubes of this description. We select the plans of Messrs Doulton & Co., RABBXIXJOINTED ERAtN-TUBES. Fig. 244. CLAYTON 8 COKJtD^JOXNT FOR 1)11 A TN -TUBES. 241 and Mr Cooper. In fig. 245 wo give a section, and in fig. 246 a perspective sketch, of Messrs Doultou's (High Street, Lambeth) lidded pipes. Fig. 245. 1021. The thickness and strength of the pipes are increased by two ribs run- ning lengthways, through which a partial division is effected in the process of manufacture, both internally and externally, leaving sufficient material to pre- serve strength and soundness. The pipes are thus fired in one piece, and perfect accuracy of form is secured. By the insertion of a chisel at the ends, the upper pieces may, at any time, be detached without the slightest risk, and afterwards replaced, so as to form a perfect and accurately fitting cover ; or the lids can be removed when the pipes are laid, and the drain tested as to its fall and the accuracy of the joints before they are replaced. The following may bo stated as the advantages possessed by pipes of this sort : "These pipes may be laid whole as ordinary socket pipes, and the covers need only be removed should necessity arise. On the removal of the lids the drain is laid open throughout its entire length, and may be cleaned without disturbing any part of the invert. The advantages of inspection are obtainable without any im- perfect joints or other complication, which would allow either the escape of the liquid contents of the drain, or the entry of the surrounding soil. The capa- city of the drain is not lessened when under examination, as is shown by the cross section, fig. 245. The introduction of junctions is faciliated. The upper part or cover being fired in one piece with the pipe, fits with a perfection and accuracy only possible by this peculiar mode of manufacture, and it cannot shift laterally. Perfect truth of form is secured, and increased strength obtained." 1022. In fig. 247 we give a sketch of the method of laying Mr Cooper's (Fac- srECTIVE VIE7 OOPER 8 LIDDED DRAIN-TUBES 4NU tory, Wottoon, Isle of Wight, or 150 Leadenhall Street, London) pipes, which are of the " butt joint" kind ; " chairs " being used to connect the length of pipes. In fig. 248 we give views of the " chair." Mr Cooper states the advantages of his system to be as follows : " They provide ready access to any part of the Q COOPER 8 LIDETCD DKAIN-1 QflES. 242 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. drain, for examination, without disturbing any other part, or point of the invert, of the drain. The pipe, being laid on the under connection, butts the adjoin- ing pipe at the middle of the connection ; the pipes are there- fore kept perfectly straight in the drain. Should any pipes be not quite exact in size, arising from the difference of the shrink in burning (which is often the case), their being joined on an even surface at the middle of the under connection, will necessarily throw any irregularity to the top of the drain, thereby obviating the necessity of the use of the mop, and making the invert perfectly fair and even, not liable to be obstructed or injured by running sand, sinking of the earth, or the action of external water. By the use of the under connection singly, the full advantage that half sockets, single or double, may be considered to be, is secured to every pipe/' 1023. SECTION SIXTH Construction of Dry -Stone Dykes. Very many dry-stone dykes in this country are constructed on erroneous principles, the stones being laid promiscuously, and more with a view to give a smooth face than a sub- stantial hearting to the wall. The coping, too, is often disproportionately large for the body of the wall, which is not unfrequently too narrow for its height. We suspect that many dry-stone dykes are built by ordinary masons, who, being accustomed to the use of lime-mortar, are not acquainted with the bedding of the loose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be, and therefore are unfitted to build such a dyke. A builder of dry-stone dykes should be brought up to the profession ; and when he has acquired skill he will build a substantial one, at a moderate cost, which will stand upright for many years. A proper sort of stone is a great assistance to the builder of stone dykes, flat thin ones being the best : but flatness and thinness are not the only requisites ; they should also have a rough surface by which to adhere to one another in the wall ; and no material, on this account, is so well adapted for the purpose as the stones derived from sandstone boulders of gravel deposits, when split with the pick into flat pieces of the requisite thickness on being taken out of the ground, and which, on being exposed to the air for a short time, become dry and hard. 1024. Dry-stone dykes are measured in height by quarters that is, quarters of a yard, of 9 inches each. A 5-quarter dyke is the usual measure of a field-fence ; that is, 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches, to the under side of the cover upon which the cope-stones stand the cover and cope-stones usually measuring 12 inches, so that the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches in height. The dyke, when finished, is measured by the rood of 36 square yards upon its face under the cover, so that every 30 yards of a 5-quarter dyke will be 1 rood in length. The usual thickness of such a dyke is 2 feet at the base, and 15 inches under the cover. 1025. A dyke that has two plain faces is called a double-faced dyke, and a dyke with one face, as one built against a sunk fence, is called a single-faced dyke. A double-faced 5-quarter dyke requires 1 ton of stones for every square yard of its face, so that 36 tons of stones are required for every rood of 30 yards long. The expense of quarrying that quantity of stones is about 10s. the rood; the carriage of them at a reasonable distance beyond one mile is also 10s. ; and the building is commonly undertaken, when the stones are good, at 10s. DRY-STONE DYKES. 243 also ; so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 yards, or Is. for every yard in length, or 6, 9s. 6d. per cubic rood, or 3s. 7d. per cubic yard. The best way to contract for the erection of stone dykes is by the rood of 36 cubic yards, when every temptation on the part of the builder to lessen the breadth, and make the heart of the dyke hollow, will be removed. 1026. The tools of a dry-stone dyker are few and inexpensive, consisting only of a mason's hammer, a frame as a gauge for the size of the dyke, and cords as guides for the straightness and thickness of the dyke. A ditcher's shovel is also useful to him in putting the shivers of the stones together into heaps, to be the more easily removed by carts. 1027. A dyker cannot work in wet or in very cold weather, as handling stones in a state of wetness is hurtful to the bare hand ; on which accounts, dry-stone dykes are commonly built in summer. 1028. The line of fence being determined on, it is marked off with a row of stakes driven firmly into the ground. The upper soil, to the depth it has been ploughed, is removed from the line to form the foundation of the dyke ; and it may be driven away immediately, and not lie in the builder's way, or it should be formed into a compost with lime, near the spot, for top-dressing grass. When the surface consists of old firm thick sward, the dyke may be founded upon it ; but in forming foundations, it should be borne in mind that dykes are apt to sink in soft earth of every kind, to its injury not merely by curtailing its height as a fence, but by twisting its structure and causing it ultimately to fall. When the soil consists of vegetable mould, it should therefore be re- moved altogether, and its intrinsic value in a compost will amply repay the trouble of removing it. 1029. After the foundation has been formed by the removal of the earth, the stones should be laid down on both sides as near the line of foundation as prac- ticable, for it is of considerable importance to the builder that the stones be near at hand. When the stones are laid even as far off as two yards from the foundation, the builder loses time in throwing them nearer ; but, on the other hand, no stones should be emptied from the cart into the foundation, as they will have to be removed by the builder before he commences his work. Large boulder-stones form excellent material for the foundation of stone dykes, and should be laid close to the foundation before the building stones are brought. In laying down the stones, the carters should be instructed to put down 18 tons on each side of 30 yards length of the foundation ; and when boulders are also put down, allowance should be made for them out of the building stones. These particulars are worth attending to, to save unnecessary trouble after- wards in removing or bringing stones, to the annoyance alike of the dyker and the farmer. 1030. The simplest mode of conveying large boulders is upon a sledge, shod with iron, which is better than putting them in and taking them out of a com- mon cart, the bottom and sides of which are apt to be broken by boulders. A pair of horses, yoked as in a plough, will draw a very heavy boulder upon such a sledge, on the ordinary surface of the ground. When many ordinary stones are driven for buildings, of any kind, the carts should receive an extra bottom- ing and lining with deals of common Scots fir, or of willow, which is better than any other sort of wood, as being softer and less liable to split. 1031. Every preparation being thus made, two builders proceed to the work, one opposite the other the best number to make the best work, and they assist each other with stones which one would not be able to manage. 1032. They begin by setting up the frame, fig. 249, at one end of the dyke, 244 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTIOX. whether it commences against another fence, or at a gateway into the field which the figure is supposed to represent, in the foundation of the proposed Fig. 249. THE BCILUINO A DRT-8TOSB D" line of dyke. The frame is made of the breadth and height of the proposed dyke under the cover ; and is set perpendicularly by the plummet attached to it. A corresponding frame should be placed beyond the point which is fixed for one stretch of building, or two stakes driven into the ground, having the same inclination as the sides of the frame, to answer the purpose of a temporary one. On undulating ground, a space of half a rood, or 15 yards, between the frames, is a sufficient stretch of building at one time ; but on level ground a rood may safely be taken in. The cords are then stretched along the space, and fastened to the outside of each frame, to guide, as lines, the building of the side of the dyke straight, and to gauge its breadth. The frame is held up- right and steady by a stiff rail, having a nail driven through one of its ends, hooked on to the top-bar of the frame, and the other end with a stone laid upon it, or pushed into the ground. 1033. When the dyke begins with a scuncheon, as in this case, a large boulder should be chosen for its foundation stone ; and if there are no boulders, a large stone should be selected and dressed for the purpose, as no better pro- tection can be given to the end of a dyke and especially so when the scun- cheon forms one side of a gateway to a field. Another boulder, or large stone, should be placed at a little distance from the first, and smaller stones used to fill up the space between them, until the building is raised to the height of the boulders. 1034. Great art is required in laying the small stones, and it is this art in dyke-building which detects the good from the bad builder. In good dry build- ing, the stones are laid with a slight inclination downwards, from the centre of the dyke, towards each face, and to break band with one another ; and to sup- port their inclination, small stones should be wedged firmly under them in the heart of the dyke ; whereas stones that are laid flat admit of no wedging to DRY-STONE DYKES. 245 heart them, and receive none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out in both faees. The inclination causes the rain which may have found its way down through the top of the dyke to be thrown oil' by both sides. 1035. The stability of a dyke is much assisted by having what is called a thorough-band stone, placed across it at about half-way up the building. The cover also acts as a thorough-band at the top of the dyke ; but in laying the cover, the levelling of the dyke to form its bed should not be made of very small and very thin stones, as is too often the case, as neither have stability, are easily broken, and are constantly in danger of slipping out from under the cover and cope. Thorough-band stones are frequently left projecting from one or both sides of the dyke by some builders, merely to indicate that they are thorough-bands ; but the practice is objectionable, inasmuch as such projections serve only as stepping-stones for trespassers to climb over the dyke. 1036. A scuncheon should be formed of in-band and out-band stones, ham- mer-dressed, and firmly bedded upon one another. 1037. The covers should project an inch or two beyond the face of the dyke, to protect the top. They should be 2 inches thick, arid without a flaw through- out their length, which should be 2 feet at least, that their weight may keep them firm and their size cover a large space of building. 1038. In forming the cope, a large stone should be placed at the end of the scuncheon to keep down the cover, and act as an abutment for resisting the wedging down of the smaller cope-stones. Another large cope-stone should be set at a short distance from it upon the joining of two covers, to keep them secure. Thinner stones should then be placed on edge between these and wherever they meet, a stone should be wedged in by strokes of the hammer; but the wedging should be delayed until a considerable length of coping is finished, the better to resist its force. The cope-stones should be nearly all of the same height. On finishing the face of a dyke, small stones should be firmly wedged in with the hammer, where room can be found, between the beds and the ends of the larger ones. 1039. In building a stretch of dyke, such as the rood above referred to, it is customary to carry up the building at both ends, as well as at the middle of the stretch, to the levelling of the top, before the intermediate spaces are built up, because those primary parts, being built thus independently, act as pillars in the dyke to support the intermediate building plumb ; and they are also con- venient for pinning the cords against while the intermediate spaces are being- built. 1040. When a few stretches of dyke have thus been finished, the surplus stones, if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted ; and should there be a deficiency, stones should be immediately brought, to allow the builders to finish one stretch before they proceed to another. The debris of stones caused by the hammer should be taken to repair roads. 1041. These are all the particulars to be attended to in building dykes for ordinary fencing ; but modifications are sometimes introduced into their form to serve a convenient purpose. For example, an opening should be left under the cover of a dyke, of a sufficient width and height to allow sheep to pass from one field into another, when the passage between them by road may be a considerable distance. Where a passage exists between the fields by means of a gate, no such opening should be made, but only when the two fields are entered by different farm-roads. When the opening is not used, it should be stopped up with thorns or a wooden board. An opening of 3^ feet wide and 3 feet high will suffice. 246 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig 250 iSINO THE HEIGHT DYKES. 1042. Another convenience is to leave a gap at the top of the dyke by low- ering its cover and removing the cope at a place where a passage is occasion- ally required for foot-passengers. By doing this the dyke may be saved from much injury. A gap near the top of the dyke may be useful as a stile in the line of a footpath, or at the side of a cover, for hounds and huntsmen to pass with ease ; and here the whipper-in may stand on the outlook for a break-cover. When not constantly in use, the gap is easily fenced with a bunch of thorns or whins. 1043. Such dykes as we have been describing, of 5 quarters in height, will fence horses and cattle and Leicester sheep, but will not confine blackfaced sheep, and scarcely Cheviots. For these, higher walls must be built, or ex- pedients used to make ordinary ones confine them. Some of these expedi- ents are shown in fig. 250, where part of an ordinary dyke with its cope is seen ; and they consist of occasional cope-stones a be d e, set on edge to a considerable height, say 12 inches, above the ordinary ones, and 4 feet apart. Upon these are placed either fillets of wood along notches made on the top of the stones, and wedged into them, as at a b c, or a strong rope of straw is laid somewhat loosely over the notches to dangle in the wind, and to form a scare to the sheep, as at c d e. Another expedient is, where a single-faced dyke is built against rising ground, consisting of plantation or of cultivated land, to sow a few seeds of whin or broom in the soil behind the dyke, and the plants in time spread over the cope-stones. Where good stones for covers are scarce, and turf is tough and heathery, thick turfs, cut of the breadth of the top of the dyke, and laid, with the grass side uppermost, firmly and neatly on with cope-stones upon the turfs, which thus afford them a firm bed, will raise a dyke a sufficient height. A more permanent expedient than either of these, where the dyke is built of large strong stones from a quarry, is to erect a wire fence upon the dyke, by batting upright wrought-iron standards into the covers, and stretching three rows of wire through them. Such an addition costs from 8d. to Is. 4d. per lineal yard. Or stakes might be driven along and close to one face of the dyke, of sufficient length to reach above its covers to receive three rows of wires. Where thinnings of plantations are abundant, this is the cheaper, though less durable plan, than the preceding one with the iron standards. 1044. When dykes run at right angles to one another, and are erected simul- taneously, they should be built in connection ; but where a new dyke comes against another, the old one should not be touched, and the new built firmly beside it. 1045. Where two dykes cross, and the place is naturally wet, or water may be easily brought to it, a watering-pool there would serve four fields, and the basin for the pools should be formed before the dykes are built. The two dykes cross at the centre of the pond, as in fig. 251, having holes in them to allow the water to pass through, forming a watering-pool in each field, as at abed. 1046. Where a pond already exists, and its water is too deep for dykes to traverse, the dykes must terminate within its edge, and convert the pond into a watering-pool common to four fields. When the pond c, fig. 252, is used by only one field at a time, it should be fenced from the other three fields by means of hurdles or paling, at/ J I. 1 ;,, .--i PICT .v> made to cross, and a well sunk in a corner of one of the fields, with a pump in it of such height as to supply all the fields with water from it by means of a spout into a trough in each field. This expedient we have successfully used. 1048. Where the ground is firm, and no water but shelter :ruso-i>ooi. ' is wanted at that spot, the ioci dyke should be built curved, to enclose a space between them to be planted with trees for ornament and shelter. The land here will not bo wasted, even should it be of the highest value ; because the corners of four adjoining fields always have ground that cannot be reached by the plough, as may be seen between i k I m, fig. 253, while the plough can pass along such curves as near as to a straight fence. In building curvatures in dykes, builders charge a half more per rood than for plain work. Such curves in dykes are easily drawn by setting off an equidistant centre for each. 1049. A stone dyke is in the highest state of per- fection as a fence immediately from the hands of the builders ; but every day thereafter the effect of the atmosphere upon the stones, at all seasons, and the ac- i cidents to which they are liable by trespasses of indi- viduals and the fretting of stock, render it necessary to uphold their repairs frequently ; and this consideration should cause the best materials and workmanship to be selected for their original construction. 1050. SECTION SEVENTH Farm-Roads. We do not deem it at all necessary to go into detail as to the methods adopted for laying out a road, so as to secure the most beneficial level, and the nearest route between any two desired points ; for all purposes of the farm, the farmer will at once be able to distinguish at what points a hollow place may be filled up, and embankments made from the material obtained from cuttings, and the cases in which the trouble and cost of performing these operations would be repaid by the extra perfection of the road. We shall merely content ourselves with a few hints as to the forms of roads, and the kind of materials which may be employed, leaving the reader to decide, according as circumstances or his own opinions may dictate, as to which of these he may carry out in practice. 1051. Convex roads that is, roads highest in the centre have been much recommended, from the facilities which the form presents to the thorough drain- age of the surface ; the water, it is said, freely running from the centre to the sides. Authorities, however, seem to agree in thinking that the advantages of this have been much over-rated. The principal objection made to it is, that as the centre of the road is the only place at which the vehicles passing over it 248 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. can be kept vertical, it is most frequently used, and hence the centre part becomes hollow, affording a receptacle, as it were, for rains to lodge in, aud from which it is difficult to run off. Upon the whole, we would recommend the farmer to form the road with a comparatively slight rise in the centre. The materials of which to make a good road-surface may be broken stones, of a size sufficient to pass through a ring 2 inches diameter. These are placed in layers on the road, and well rammed down ; the upper surface soon becomes smooth and consolidated by the action of the passing vehicles. Some recommend the depth of materials to be greater in the centre than at the sides of the road ; this, however, should not be attended to ; on the contrary, care should be taken to make all portions of the road equal in construction and solidity the aim in a well-laid-out road being to make it serviceable on all parts of its surface for the passage of vehicles. When footpaths are required, they may be formed of a layer of broken stones of size sufficient to pass through a ring 1 inch diameter, with two layers of gravel well rammed down : the surface should slope towards the side drain. In place of ramming the broken stones on the soil which forms the basis of the principal road, blocks of rough stones may first be laid down, and the layers of smaller stones above these. Good gravel is a good material for road surfaces. 1052. In all cases drains should be made at the side (or both sides, if possible), by which to carry off the surface-water. These drains are formed by ditches of sufficient depth to carry away the water, and having a proper fall throughout their length. Where a footpath is made, the surface-water of the main road, and that of the footpath, is taken off by a small gutter formed at the inner edge of footpath, and constructed of blocks of stones : small outlets are made at inter- vals by which the water is led off through drains placed beneath the footpath to the large side-drain or ditch. Where the side-ditch or drain is of sufficient depth, the soil beneath the road surface will also be drained by it. Beside the side-ditches, a covered drain should run along the middle of the road where the subsoil is of clay, and where there is a burst of water. 1053. In excavating roads, the sides of the excavation should have 2 feet of a slope outwards for 1 foot perpendicular of its height. Where the soil is sandy or gravelly, a greater degree of slope must be given to the sides of the excavation. In forming embankments, each layer, of some 4 feet, should be well rammed : this tends to consolidate the road. The slope given to the sides should be less than that which the materials would naturally assume if left to themselves. The side slopes can be very efficiently protected by encouraging the growth of grass on them. The surface-water from the road must not be allowed to run down the sides, but be carefully let off by properly-constructed side-drains. 1054. Where a road is formed over a sandy soil, the sand may be in a great measure prevented from shifting laterally by digging, at each side of the road, ditches some 30 inches deep, and the same width tilling these up with turf or clay, and well ramming them. This precaution need not be taken where an excavation and strong embankments are made in the sides. 1055. Construction of Roads on Strong Soils. Perhaps the most practical autho- rity on this department of road-making is Mr Bailey Denton, who published the result of his experience in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xviii., from which we extract the following points to be attended to in practice : " 1st, The road should be perfectly drained by means of surface- ditches, as a a, fig. 254, on each side of the formation, and of under-clrains, as d d, on each side of the metalling. 2d, The formation should be 18 feet wide FAEM-EOADS. 249 at least between tlio inner edges of the. surface-ditches, i. e., from b to c. 3d, The surface-ditches a a should be at least 18 inches deep, with good and sufli- cietit batter or side slopes. They should have a sufficient fall towards existing watercourses, to discharge freely all water that may be run into them, and pipe-culverts protected by end-gratings should be provided at all gateways opening to the road. 4th, The metalling should be 9 feet wide at least, that is, from b to b. 5th, The under-drains d d, should be dug 4 feet deep at least on each side of the metalling, laid with 2-inch pipes, and connected with the culverts or drains crossing the road at every fence and every hollow in the ground; and these cross-ciilverts or drains should be laid so low in connection with existing ditches (to be deepened, if necessary, for the purpose), that the crown of the cross-culvert or drain shall be no higher than the bottom of under- drain ; thus, in fig. 255 a is a cross-culvert, b b under-drains. At the ends of each cross-culvert there should be an iron grating to prevent the pas- sage of vermin. The tinder -drains should be carefully filled to the height of the metal bed, with the earth taken out of the drains. Gth, The surface of the road for its en- tire breadth of 18 feet or more, from c to c, fig. 254, should be raised above the ground surface in a convex shape. 7th, The height of the centre of the road above the ground surface, should be as near as possible; the thickness of the metalling, whatever it be. It is necessary, however, that the ground or base upon which the metalling is placed should be perfectly solid, and, if possible, unbroken. It should be convex, and accord in form with the intended convex shape of the surface of the road itself. 8th, The metalling may consist of two or more layers or strata which, together, should be 9 inches deep at least. This depth will suffice where the materials are of the best sort, but they should be proportionately deeper in cases where the materials are softer and less durable. 9th, The metalling should be of uniform depth for its entire width. 10th, The under stratum or foundation of metalling may consist of any durable, porous, or non-absorbent material, of the depth of 4-| inches at least. It may be judiciously increased where the material required for the upper stratum or covering is very costly, when the depth of the covering maybe reduced accordingly. It is not essential that the material for the foundation shall be of uniform size, as long as it lies compact, is well banded, and its surface is even and regular to receive the upper stratum, llth, The upper stratum or covering should be of the best description of clean stone, or sifted gravel or pebbles., the country will aflbrd. If gravel, it should be screened, to get rid of sand and dirt ; and the 250 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. larger stones should be broken, so that no particle shall be left on the road exceeding 2^ inches in the largest diagonal line. The depth should be 4^ inches, and should, if possible, be placed on the road in two courses. 12th, The side spaces, 4 feet 6 inches each at least from b to c, fig. 254 should be carefully finished off in close conformity with the metalling. The fall thus given from the centre to the sides of the road will insure a perfect drainage of the surface into the side ditches. The side spaces should be seeded and rolled, or beaten down firmly. 13th, There should be no fence that will throw a shadow on the road. 14th, The road, after its completion, should be most rigidly maintained in its convex form ; any unevenness should be overcome by the rake, and all ruts and hollows should be kept filled in at once with fresh mate- rial, properly broken to the same size as the original metalling ; and the side ditches should be kept open and free to discharge the water flowing into them. No water should be allowed to stand on either the metalling or the side spaces, but the water should be got rid of, not by making grips or channels into the side-ditches, but by filling up hollows and ruts, and keeping the whole in its original form." 1056. It will be observed that in these rules, very great stress has been laid upon both surface and under draining. All engineers have acknowledged the advantage of rendering roads dry and unyielding, and considerable attention has been paid to surface -draining ; but the importance of under-draining roads by means of longitudinal pipe drains, laid sufficiently deep and near each other to remove soak or bottom water, and overcome as far as possible capillary attraction and suction in the soil, has been overlooked until very recently. A shallow centre drain, called a mitre-drain, was often adopted with good effect, but it failed to render the subsoil dry, and increased the cost of the road con- siderably. There is but little doubt, however, that the advantages arising from the act of adequately deep under-draining, both in economising materials and in reducing the cost of maintenance, surpass any single appliance of either Tel- ford or Macadam in the practice of road-making. The effect of deep under-drains on each side of the metalling is to render the mass of soil between them per- fectly solid and inflexible, so that any metalling, let it be either loose gravel or a close pavement, rides upon it without sinking into it. 1057. " The solid and firm base thus obtained is equivalent to at least one- fourth of the metalling ordinarily put on roads. That proportion which is so frequently sunk and buried in the clay base, is saved ; and it has been found that roads carefully formed and under-drained, with 9 inches of metalling, will better preserve their shape, and a hard and firm surface, than roads with 12 inches of metalling without under-draining. 1058. " The practice, too, of laying faggots as a foundation is superseded by under-draining, except in cases of peat-bogs and deep spongy soils, where a layer of faggots is essential as a platform for the materials. In dealing with homogeneous clays, the use of faggots is much to be reprehended. Their elas- ticity keeps the base of the road in a constant fret and soft state, causing the clay to rise, and the metalling to sink between the branches and twigs of which the faggots are composed." 1059. For other information as to details of construction, cost, &c., the reader is referred to Mr Dentou's paper, which abounds in practical information on the subject. 1060. SECTION EIGHTH Weil-Sinking Liquid-Manure Tanks Horse Pond. In well-sinking we confine ourselves to explaining the easiest method of sink- WELL-SINKING. 251 ing shafts for wells in various soils, refraining from noticing the method of obtain- ing water by boring through the surface and the various strata, this involving the use of instruments and appliances not easily attainable by the farmer. It is somewhat difficult to decide, as to the localities most suitable for sinking a well so as to insure a regular supply of water at a reasonable depth. Mr Swindell (Rudimentary Treatise on Well-Digging and Boring. Is. Weale, London) gives the following as a few simple directions on this point: " In the early part of the year, if the grass assume a brighter colour in one particular part of a field than in the remainder, or, when the latter is ploughed, if a part be darker than the rest, it may be suspected that water will be found beneath it. In summer the gnats hover in a column, and remain always at a certain height above the ground, over the spots where springs are concealed. In all seasons of the year more dense vapours arise from these portions of the surface, from which, owing to the existence of subterranean springs, a greater degree of humidity gives rise to more copious exhalations, especially in the morning or evening. The springs to which these rules apply are such as are only near the surface." In trap-rock, water is not likely to be found ; and in gravel, sand, or rich unctuous clay, digging to a considerable depth will likely be required before water is obtained. Water is most certain to be found in diluvial clay; this, although impervious to water, is here and there intersected with veins of sand, interspersed with small stones, on removing which water is found to ooze, and which may be collected in a pit formed in the clay. The follow- ing is the method of digging a well in such a soil : " Let a circle of 8 feet in diameter be described on the surface of the ground, from whose area let the surface-soil be removed to be used elsewhere as compost. After throwing out a depth of 8 or 9 feet with the spade, let a winch and rope and bucket be set up to draw the earth out of the well. While the digging is proceeding, let a sufficient quantity of flat stones be laid down near the winch, by which to let them down to build the ring. A depth of 16 feet will most probably suffice ; but if no water is found, let the digging proceed to the requisite depth. A ring of 3 feet in diameter will be a large enough bore for the well : the rest of the space should be filled up with dry rubble masonry, and drawn in at the top to 2 feet in diameter. Whenever the building is finished, the water should be removed from the well with buckets if the quantity is small, and with a ptimp if it be large, to allow the bottom to be cleared of mud and stones. A thick flat stone, reaching from the side of the ring to beyond the centre, should be firmly placed on the ground at the bottom of the well for the wooden pump to stand upon, or for the lead pipe to rest on. If a wooden pump is used, a large flat stone, having a hole in it to embrace the pump, should be laid on a level with the ground upon the ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is preferred, the flat stone should be entire and cover the ring, and the clayey earth thrown over it." 1061. In cases where the well has to be sunk in loose gravel or sand, a dif- ferent plan has to be adopted. The following is a specification of a method carried out by Mr Wilson, Dumbartonshire : " The diameter of the well to be 3 feet 6 inches inside of the building, and the building, instead of rubble, to be of droved ashlar, each stone 8 inches broad in the bed, 12 inches deep, about 2 If inches long, in the chord of the arc of a circle on the one side, and 17 inches long in a straight line on the other side. The oxitside of the stones to be formed neatly to a circle, and their inside into an octagon. Beds to be square ; ends properly bevelled and wrought correctly to a mould ; each course to contain 8 stones of equal size ; a ring-board to be formed of willow, not to taste the 252 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. water, 8J inches broad, 1^ or 2 inches thick, and ^ inch larger than the outside circle of the stones. The ring-board could be made stronger in two courses of four pieces of equal size. In building upon the ring-board, the first course of stones to have the centres of their face raised perpendicular to the inside of the ring-board. The centres of each stone of the second course to be placed over the joints of the preceding course, and also perpendicular to the inside of the ring-board. The inside face of each stone being a straight line, the inside diameter of the well being 3^ feet, and the ring-board being correctly made, the inside ends of each stone will be back If inch from the centre of the face of each stone in the course immediately above it, and so on with every course. A small stick, made as a gauge at one end, of If inch length, will be found handy for setting the stones. The outside circle must be most carefully made. The upper course to form a square instead of an octagon for the covers to rest on, and to slope to one side, to carry the water off the top of the well. The covers to be droved, and in three pieces, one of which to cover the build- ing on one side and half of the well, and to be half-checked where the other two stones meet it in the middle, and they are to be half-checked into it, also half-checked into each other where they meet in the middle, and to cover the other side of the building. One of the stones covering a portion of the well to have an iron ring in it, by which to lift it freely out of the checks of the other two stones. The joints of the covers to be filled with putty well mixed with whitelead, to prevent water from the surface getting into the well." 1062. The method of sinking the well is thus described by Mr Wilson : " I had the stones dressed, droved to a mould as specified, and all ready before breaking ground, when I made a rod 2 inches longer than the extreme diameter of the ring-board ; described the circle on the surface with it, and gave it to the labourer as a gauge, that he might not take out any more sand arid gravel than was necessary to let the ring-board in with ease. I had about 5 feet of gravel, which I should always like to go through before laying in the ring-board. There were then 2 feet of fine sand, when water appeared by taking a shovelful out of the centre. I then ordered the ring-board to be put in and levelled, and built upon to the top of seven courses, filling up as it was built the back of each course with fine sand, loosely put in witli a shovel, to steady the building when sink- ing. I then commenced taking gravel out of the centre with a short shovel, and a bucket with a rope attached to it to be drawn up with a winch and handle. In about three hours of an afternoon there was about a foot of water. Next day I commenced taking out a barrowful of sand, and two or three bucketfuls of water alternately, till in other three hours I had got down altogether about 11 feet 6 inches, when the water flowed in so much that I could not proceed further, and it rose to its level of 3 feet 8 inches. The building went down steadily, and did not seem to be an eighth of an inch off the level at which it was first set. Other four courses were then built, and the covers put on, and the pump-frame erected several feet from the side of the well, where an inclined plane and gutter had been formed to carry off the water. The pump I use is a copper chamber, 4 inches in diameter, with brass boxes, and a 2-irich lead pipe attached to the chamber, and laid into the well through the side of the building about 2 feet below the surface." 1063. Where the interior of the wall is faced with bricks " steined," as it is termed a simple method of proceeding is as follows : A drum-curb is provided, being a circular frame of wood, with a strong flat ring, of the same diameter as the intended well at top and bottom, the breadth of the ring being equal to the breadth of a brick ; the depth of curb is 5 feet or so. The ground being exca- LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 253 vated to a depth equal to that of the curl), this is lowered into the excavation. The operation of digging is continued, the curb gradually descending the excavated earth being removed by buckets lifted by tackle supported above the excavation by a triangular frame. The steining or brickwork is then built on the upper ring of the curb ; the bricks are laid without mortar, care being taken to arrange them so as to keep the form of the circle as perfect as possible, each course breaking joint with the one under it. As the sinking of the curb goes on, the laying of the bricks is proceeded with, until the necessary depth is obtained. It is scarcely requisite to point out the absolute necessity of making all wells circular; the sides of square ones would inevitably be forced in. 1064. Of all the methods in use for raising the water from wells that are of greater depth than when the common pump can be used namely, 30 feet that of the ascending and descending buckets (the empty one descending as the full one is being pulled up) forms the simplest. The buckets must be comparatively heavy to allow of their sinking into the water on being let down. The rope to which the buckets are attached is wound round a wooden barrel, revolving on two uprights at each side of the well mouth, and turned by a winch or handle. The well- covering should be made in two halves, opening upwards, and hinged at the outer edges to a wooden frame placed round the mouth of the well. A small space should be left between the edges of the Haps, to admit of the rope passing freely. A small curb-wall should be made round the mouth, in order to prevent surface-water running into the well ; and a railing, some 3 or 4 feet high, to prevent children having access. 1065. Liquid-Manure Tanks. Tanks are not required on every kind of farm. On carse farms, where much straw and little green food is used, there can be no liquid manure ; and on pastoral farms, the stock confined in winter in the stead- ing are too limited in number to afford much of that material. On dairy farms, on the other hand, where many cows are maintained, and much green food consumed by them in byres, tanks should be constructed for the advantage of the pasture- land. The practice of the farmers of Flanders might be usefully followed on all small dairy farms, by constructing a small tank iinder ground in every byre, the contents of which might be enriched with rape-cake and other valuable ingredients. These enriched contents, employed as a top-dressing on pasture and forage land, would increase their produce, for the support of the cows, very consider- ably. A tank to a dairy farm seems, therefore, indispensable, and it should be of large dimensions, to meet any enlargement of the dairy. On farms of mixed husbandry, if the steading is furnished with rain-water spouts, and the stock well supplied with litter, much liquid manure cannot be collected. Under that system we had a circular tank of 12 feet in diameter and 4 deep, connected with well-planned courts by neatly-built drains provided with good gratings, and the courts were defended from being deluged with rain-water by capacious rain- water spouts, and care taken that the cattle were always provided with a suffi- cient quantity of litter with all which accommodations every well-appointed steading should be supplied. The tank was not filled in the course of the sea- son above three times a quantity not worth while providing a liquid-manure cart to take it to the field ; and even this small quantity was solely derivable from heavy rains and melting snows for a few days falling directly into the courts, and causing a surplus of water, which was readily conveyed into the tank by the drains. The ordinary supply of the liquid manure was merely a few drops from the sole of the drain into which all the other drains merged. The sole of this drain was only 4 feet above the bottom of the tank, and, except after rain or snow, the liquid manure never reached that height. Still, wlier- 254 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. ever cattle are housed and fed in large numbers on turnips, a tank should be constructed with drains, to keep the courts comfortably dry. 1066. There are several circumstances to be taken into consideration, before proceeding to construct a tank for liquid manure. When a tank is made deep, such as a well, the building of the lower part, as well as of the sides, will require to be particularly strong, to resist the equal hydrostatic pressure of the fluid on all sides within it, and, of course, will be so much the more expensive in construction. A tank should therefore be shallow, to be economical in con- struction, and not deeper than 6 feet below the sole of the drains which bring the liquid manure. It is very desirable to have the tank covered, for the sake of protection against accidents, and against undue action of the atmosphere upon the liquid. The most durable covering is an arch ; and, to keep the cost of that within bounds, the tank should be narrow, not exceeding six feet. The desired capacity of a tank will thus be attainable by extending its length. A tank should neither let in nor let out liquid. To prevent its letting in water, a drain should be formed where there is the slightest appearance of it in oozings or a spring ; and to prevent the liquid getting out, a puddling of clay should be used, where the subsoil does not consist of tenacious boulder clay. The clay for puddling should be well pugged, or beaten into the consistency of putty. 1067. A considerable fall is required along the floor of a liquid-manure tank ; and a roomy man-hole should be made in the arch of the roof at each end, and at the deepest end a third opening for a pump. 1068. To know the size of tank required for any particular case, an allow- ance of 1000 gallons for every cow is a good criterion on a dairy farm, and that number of gallons occupies 162 cubic feet. When enlarged tanks are desired, it is better, because cheaper, to have parallel rows of narrow tanks contiguous to each other, than to extend the breadth or length and increase the depth of the dimensions given above (1066). In a series of parallel tanks, the common walls support the arches on both sides. 1069. A tank of 72 feet in length, 6 feet wide inside, and 6 feet deep below the soles of the drains, contains about 2600 cubic feet, and, with a pump and the carriage of materials, would cost about 24.* 1070. Mr Milburn, Sowerby, by Thirsk, gives the cost of constructing a liquid- manure tank, 13^ feet in length, 6| feet in width, and 6 feet deep, inside mea- sure, with brick in length, and plastered with Roman cement a size suitable to small holdings in these terms : Ft. in. Length within, . . . . 13 6 Width, ..... 66 Depth, . . . . . 6 = 19^ cubic yards. Cutting over all, at 3d. per yard, . . . . .079 Walling, including bricks in length, and mortar around them, at 4s. per yard, . . . . . . . .680 Plastering and cement, . . . . . . 16 Covering and flags, . . . . . . . 2 15 10 6 9t 1071. A simple and convenient mode of collecting the liquid manure of a dairy farm of from 130 to 170 acres, with a stock of cows from 14 to 24, with young beasts and horses has been practised by Mr M'Lean, Braidwood, and Mr Wilson, Eastfield, both near Penicuik, Mid-Lothian. Drains are formed from * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for March 1846, p. 292-8. t Ibid., vol. xiv. p. 280. LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 255 the byres and stables into one main drain, the mouth of which happens to be elevated as high above the ground below it as to admit a liquid-manure barrel a common butt, mounted on its cart to stand under it, and receive the liquid direct into the bung-hole ; and as the barrel becomes full, it is carted away, and its contents emptied on the field. The barrel contains 150 gallons, and is usually filled three times u-\veek. When there is an excess of liqriid, in con- sequence of much rain, it is allowed to run into the dunghills below the drain, and, after saturating them, flows into an open shallow tank, from which it irri- gates at pleasure a drained mossy field laid down to perpetual grass. 1072. The cost of these drains is thus given by Mr AYilson: In under-byre, including cover of the main drain, . . . 226 In upper-byre, ..... ..160 Stable pavement, grates, and cost of putting them in, . . . 200 Drains from dwelling-house and scullery, including grates, . . 15 Expense of cutting a road, to allow the bung-hule of the barrel to be placed lower than the main drain, . . . . . . 0106 6 14 1073. A common butt, of the above capacity of 150 gallons, sunk into the ground, forms a good and convenient tank for the use of a labourer's cottage, and, retaining all the liquid refuse from the house, would afford ready means of manuring a portion of the garden. 1074 The rationale of the construction of liquid-manure tanks is this : The cistern for collecting liquid manure in the farmstead, though apparently simple in its construction, being merely a covered pond or a well, yet serious errors are frequently committed in its formation. The first and most important consi- deration for the formation of the cistern, is the effect of hydrostatic pressure ; inattention to this has caused the failure of many such cisterns. The liquid we have here to deal with, like all other fluids, acts on the bottom and sides of the vessel or body that contains it, with a pressure directly in proportion to the depth at which the fluid stands, without reference to either length or breadth; that is to say, suppose a cistern, whose bottom is 12 inches square, and its depth 10 feet, filled with water, every square inch in the bottom will suffer a pressure equal to the height of a column of water whose base is one inch square and 10 feet, or 120 inches, in height. The weight of such a column will be 4J Ib. nearly, and this would be exerted on every square inch on the bottom, or the whole pressure on the bottom would be 625 Ib., the weight of 10 cubic feet of water. There is a natural law that governs the pressure of fluids, which shows us that they press equally in all directions, downward, horizontally, and even upwards, the last arising from the general statical law, that " action and reaction are equal, and in opposite directions. " It follows, from these hydrostatical laws, that the lowermost portion of each side of our supposed cistern will suffer a pressure from the water equal to that which acts upon the bottom hence, taking the lowermost inch in the height of the sides of this cistern, it will be pressed with a force of 52^ Ib. or thereby, or 4t>- Ib. on the square inch, and each of the four sides will suffer the same pressure. Suppose, now, that the cistern is elongated in one direction to any number of feet, and again filled to the depth of 10 feet, the pressure on each square foot of the bottom remains the same as before, and so in like manner does it remain the same upon the sides ; for the pressure is not altered in any direction, although the proportion of the cistern has been changed. Keeping this in view, it will be seen that length and breadth produce no effect on the pressures 256 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. that a fluid exerts against the vessel or body that retains it ; and that, in calculating the resistance to sustain such pressures, depth is the only element requiring to be taken into account. It is also to be kept in view, that pressure on the bottom or sides is directly as the depth ; thus, if our supposed cistern were reduced to 5 feet in depth, the pressure on the bottom would only be one- half, or 2^ Ib. on each square inch. 1075. The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is, that a cistern, in the form of a pit or well, should be always avoided, unless it can be formed in a natural bed of impervious clay. When such a substratum can be attained, a pit may be adopted, but not otherwise. If such has been found, and the pit dug out, it should be lined with brick, or with stone built in mortar, the bot- tom being first lined with the same material. When the building approaches to the surface, the wall can be gradually reduced in diameter to a small com- pass, leaving only an opening of 2 to 3 feet sqiiare, which is covered in at small expense ; and the saving in this last item is the only apparent advan- tage that seems to attend the practice of pit cisterns. Deep cisterns are liable to another inconvenience of their becoming recipients of spring or of drainage water ; and it is sometimes more difficult to keep such water out than to keep the proper liquid in ; for if springs and their origin lie at considerable heights, their hydrostatic pressure may be so great as to render the prevention of access to their products a process of great difficulty. 1076. A cistern of moderate depth, not exceeding 4 feet below the outfall of the drains, may be constructed in any situation, whether in gravel or in clay, and its length can be extended so as to afford any required capacity ; the breadth being restricted to that for which materials for covering it can be most easily obtained, which may be from 3 to 4 feet, or, if arched, it may be 6 feet. Whatever be the stratum in which such a cistern is to be formed (un- less it be perfectly impervious clay), it should be puddled to the thickness of at least 1 foot with the best clay that can be procured. For this purpose, the earthy matters are to be dug out to a depth of 1^ foot lower than the intended sole, and to a width of 4 feet more than that proposed for the cistern. Two or three thin layers of the prepared clay are then to be compactly laid over the whole breadth of the excavation, and beaten firmly together at all points, making up the depth to 1 foot, and the surface of it brought to a uniform level. Upon this the side walls are to be founded, and these may be of brick 9 inches in thickness, or of flat bedded rubble stones 14 inches. The wall should be built in successive courses of about 1 foot in height, the whole being bedded in mortar ; and, as each course is completed, the puddle is to be carefully laid and beaten in behind, in layers of 6 inches or thereby, the first layer being pro- perly incorporated with the foundation puddle, and each succeeding layer with the one immediately preceding it. To prevent the side-walls from being pushed inward by the pressure of the puddle or of the bank, tie-walls of brick or of stone should be formed at every 5 feet of the length of the cistern. These may be 9 inches of brick, or 14 inches of stone, and they must have conduits formed at the level of the sole, to allow the liquid to run towards the pump. The sole should be laid all over with brick set on edge, or with strong pavement jointed, the whole having a slight declivity towards one end, where a small well-hole of 9 inches in depth is to be formed to receive the bottom of the pump. The brick or pavement, as the case may be, is to be bedded on the puddle, and grouted flush in the joints with mortar ; and when the walls and sole are built up, they should then be pointed in every joint with Koman cement. The covering may be effected with strong pavement, of length sufficient to rest on LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 257 the side-walls, laid and jointed with mortar; or with rough found-stones, where such can be procured ; and if neither can conveniently be found, a beam of sound Memel fir may be laid along the middle of the cistern, resting on the tie-walls, and, with this bearer, stones of half the length will be sufficient to form a cover. A thin layer of clfiy may be laid over the stone covers, and upon that a coat of gravel. To prevent accident, it is always desirable to construct the cistern in a situation where it will be as little as possible exposed to the transit of carts; and this may be always obtained at a small additional expense of covered drain to convey the manure from the dunghills to the cistern. The best and most secure plan, no doubt, though the most expensive, is to cover the cistern with an arch of stone or brick. 1077. The pump for lifting the liquid from the cistern to the cart may be either of wood or cast-iron, but the latter is preferable. A common sucking- pump of 85 inches chamber is quite sufficient ; the chamber should be bored out, and the pump-boxes, for durability, should be also of metal, with leathern flap-valves. The height of the pump should be such as to deliver the liquid freely into the funnel of the barrel or tank ; but if this height is found to raise the pump-lever above the reach of a man's hand, it is only necessary to joint a light connecting-rod to the lever, its lower end being furnished with a cross handle, and by these means the pump-man will be able to work the pump in the same manner as the lower end of the common pit-saw. 1078. Forcing and lifting pumps have been proposed, and even employed, for the purpose we have here in view, though with questionable propriety ; and here it may be proper to explain, that by the term force-pump is to be under- stood a pump that raises water to any height above the point where the power is applied, by the descent of a solid piston acting in the chamber of the pump, sending the liquid into an ascending pipe, which springs from below the piston. 1079. The lifting-pump differs from this in having a valved piston through which the liquid passes, as in the sucking- pump, on the descent of the piston; and, on its ascent, the valve being now closed, the liquid is lifted and forced into the ascending pipe, which, in this case, springs from above the piston, the chamber being closed at top with a water-tight stuffing-box. From this brief description, the simplicity, both in construction and in management, of the sucking or common pump, as compared with the other two, will be obvious, the cost being also in favour of the first. 1080. Construction of Tank for the Waste Urine from a Dunghill. Mr James Porter, in his prize essay (" Eeporton the Saving and Application of the Liquid Manure of a Farm" Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, January 1857), gives the following description of a cheaply-formed tank, erected in a circular form, 10 feet diameter and 7 deep = 550 cubic feet, capable of con- taining 3427 gallons, or about 18^ tons weight. " When the pit was exca- vated, a puddle of clay was laid on its bottom about 12 inches deep, firmly beaten down and causewayed over with pebble-stones. The sides were then built round with a rough stone-and-lime wall 18 inches thick ; and as the build- ing advanced, a puddle of clay the same thickness was carried up between it and the back. The pump was then set in the side next the dung-pit, in a hollow in the bottom left for receiving it. The tank had then a cloe cover- ing of strong rough wood, as far below the adjoining ground as admitted of 6 inches depth of gravel being laid over it. As more sediment was expected to collect in this than the other tanks, a trap-door was put in to allow its being cleared out. The tank of itself is perfectly close, and as suitable for the pur- pose as could be desired. The wooden covering is no doubt perishable, and will 258 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 256. at times cost some expense in renewing it, but which will only happen at con- siderable intervals, as wood lasts for a long time below ground. I have con- structed several oblong tanks in this way, and always found them to answer the purpose well ; with plenty of good clay well puddled in, it is quite prac- ticable to make them perfectly water-tight, and as suitable for preserving urine as cemented tanks constructed of pavement or the best ashlar work. . . Where the ground is wet and spongy, it ought always to be deeply drained around all dunghills and urine-tanks." 1081. Flemish Liquid-Manure Tanks. The tank is frequently constructed underneath the stable and cattle-house, the liquid being led to it by open gutters running along in front of the stalls. Part of it projects beyond the wall, as in fig. 256 at a, and is provided with a well-hole 6, through which the liquid is taken when required for use by means of a pump, or long-handled ladle. The aper- ture is closed at other times by a wooden or stone cover c, as shown. Brick is used in its construction, and the bottom and sides are well cemented, to make the whole water- proof. Sometimes the tank is divided into various compartments, as in fig. 257, at a b c d e and /, these being designed to hold the liquid manure collected at different periods. 1082. But not only are tanks provided at the steadings : in many districts, as in the flax-growing district of Courtray, they are built at the roadside, at the edges of the fields, in order to facilitate its application. These are usually made to contain the vidanges by which term is meant human excretae which are collected from time to time in the towns, and carted out to the rural districts. In fig. 258 we give a trans- verse and a longitudinal section of a road- side tank. The manure is supplied to and taken out of the tank through the man-hole door a, shown in the transverse section to the left : this is usually kept closed by means of a stone or wooden cover. But a second aperture b, Fig. 258. 8H LIQUID-MAS Fig. 257. FLEMISH LIQUID-HAND F is provided at the end of the tank, which is always kept open, to allow of the ingress of air and the egress of the foul emanations. The crown of the arch PA VTXO-PiltK 'K* FLOORS. 259 rises a considerable height above the level of flic surrounding ground, and the whole is covered with earth or turf, < <\ so that in process of time the structure is grown over with grass, presenting the appearance of a verdant semicircular mound with rounded ends. 1083. Horse-Pond.- The most convenient form of the horse-pond, at the stead- ing, is open at the one side and fenced at the other, of considerable width, and the clear water to come in at the upper end, and flow away at the lower. 1084. The pond should have a hard bottom to resist the action of the horses' feet, and it should not exceed a depth beyond the horses' knees. When on clay, small gravel is beaten into it, and upon this should be made a causewaying of small round stones imbedded in sand and beaten down with a rammer. When the bottom is gravel, it should be puddled with clay first beaten smooth with a woode*n rammer, and mixed with a fourth part of its bulk of slaked lime, to pre- vent injury from worms. Alter the mass Iris soured for a time, let large balls be formed of it, and forcibly thrown upon the prepared bottom of the pond, and beaten down with a rammer until a coating- of 6 or 7 inches or more in thick- ness is formed. The gravel and causewaying are placed above the clay. The water should not be let on until the paving and clay have consolidated a little, and it should be brought on and oft' the pond without a fall. At such a pond a number of horses can drink at once, and pass one another in washing their feet. 1085. SECTION NINTH Fittings (if the Farwhons<>, Cottage, caul Steading. 1086. Paving-Bricks Floors Pcake's Te.rro-Melullic, Paving -Bricks. In fig. 259 we give a diagram of oblong, in fig. 200 diamond or lozenge-shaped, and in fig. 261 square- shaped bricks of this material. The price of fig. 259, 9 inches by 4tj, blue or red for intersection, 4, 10s. per 1000, or about 2s. lOj-d. per square yard. The price per 1000 of those in fig. 260, 5 inches by 5, and 1 inch thick, red or blue, with cut ones to divide, is 3, 13s. 6d., or 4s. 6d. per square yard. The price per 1000 of those in fig. 261, 6 inches square, 4, 5s., or 2s. lO^d. per square yard. The ad- dress of the manufacturer is, Thomas Peake, Tun- stile, Staffordshire Potteries.. 1087. Hexagonal Paving-Tiles Hollow Bricks. Hexagonal, or six-sided tiles, would bind well in with one another. The best mode of making floors with the top covering of tiles would be thus : Well beat the bottom of the foundation ; place a layer of stones on this, of sufficient size to pass through a ring 1^ inches diameter; pour over this a mixture of coal-tar and clean sharp sand three parts of the latter to one of the former ; pi-ess this closely down 260 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 262. HEXAOONiL FAVINO-TILBS. Fig. 263. Fig. 264. when partly consolidated, throw on another layer of stones, and above this another of the tar and sand. When the upper is nearly consolidated, but not hardened, place the flat tiles, beginning at one end, and advancing in such a manner as to leave no footsteps on the soft material. Instead of tar and sand, consistent clay, in a partly fluid state, may be used, and allowed to consolidate before the tiles are laid on. The tiles should have projecting knobs or snugs on their under side, which would, when pressed into the soft materials beneath, keep them in their places. If, however, the tiles were hexagonal, there would be sufficient bond to keep them in their places. Fig. 262 represents the position of the hexagonal tiles : the round dots represent the position of the projecting knobs or snugs on the under side ; a a the tiles, b b the line of wall; as the tiles, from their shape, will leave in some places triangular spaces, as c c, these may be filled up with cement or asphalt, or pieces of tile might be made of the shape : this will be the same size at all places, the angles being invariably equal. Fig. 263 represents the position of square tiles laid angularly, having pro- jections or tongues on one side, with corresponding grooves to fit into them ; a a the tiles, b b the tongues and grooves. Hollow bricks are admirably adapted for ground floors. Fig. 264 shows Mr Kawlinson's improved form of hollow brick. The following is Mr Roberta's plan of forming hard, cheap, and durable floors : A foundation or substratum should be pre- pared about 6 inches thick, with coarse gravel, or brickbats and lime-core, well visa, beaten to a level surface. In damp situa- tions, tar may be added to the concrete on which the ash-floor is to be laid, thus prepared : Take good washed sand, free from all earth and stones, together with the ashes of lime fresh from the kiln, in the proportion of two-thirds of sand and one-third of lime-ashes (where obtain- able, the substitution of one-third of smiths' ashes or pounded coke for one- half of the sand increases the durability and hardness of the floor) ; mix the sand and lime-ashes well together, and let them remain in a body for a fortnight, in order that the lime may be thoroughly slaked ; then temper the mortar, and form the floor with it 3 inches thick, well floated, and so worked that it be not trodden till it has lain for three days, or according to the dampness of the weather, when it should be well rammed for several successive days, until it becomes hard taking care to keep the surface level ; then use a little water, and smooth it with a trowel ; after this keep the floor free of dirt, and when perfectly dry it may be rubbed over twice with linseed-oil, which gives the appearance of stone in- stead of sand. The price paid for such floors is about 6d.per yard for labour, and 8d. for material. In cases where cottages are built on the fireproof principle adopted by Mr Roberts, or on the patent system of Mr Barrett, the floors in the upper rooms, if any, may be made in the same economical way as those on the ground. 1088. Asphalt Floor. As a cheap and excellent floor, we would recommend asphaltum to be used. It has been adopted in similar cases with marked suc- cess, and we are not aware of any valid objection against its use. It is prefer- able, in every point of view, to stone or porous brick. An asphalt can be made by mixing boiled coal-tar with powdered chalk or bricks. Dr lire, a high SQUARE PAV1UCJ-TILES ROOF- TILES. 261 authority, says it is equal to the natural kind. The mode of laying asphalt floors is simple. Place a layer of .small gravel-stones, about 6i inches deep, in a dry and well-beaten foundation ; pour the asphaltum (which must previously be melted in a caldron), when boiling, over this to any convenient thickness; spread it smoothly and press it down; sift some very small powdered stones over the surface, press them down with a flat wooden trowel, and, when hardened, the operation is finished. The best material after wooden boarding, which we look upon as the " standard " material for all floors of living-rooms that can be used for the laying of ground-floors is hard glazed earthenware tiles or slabs ; these would imbibe no moisture, be easily kept clean, and may be looked xipon as nearly indestructible. 1089. Roof -Tiles. In fig. 2G5 we give a diagram of Peake's plain, and in fig. 266 a diagram of ornamental, tiles. Size of fig. 265, 10f inches by 7 ; price per 1000, 3, 5s. about 1, 12s. 6d. per square of 8-inch gauge. Size of fig. 266, 10J inches by 7 ; price per 1000, 3, 17s. 6d. about . 270. Fig. 271. vwv 252 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1090. Corrugated Roof-Tile. In fig. 273 we give a drawing of this tile, manufactured by Messrs Norton & Borrie, and in fig. 274 a hollow roof-tile by the same firm. Fig. 274. CORRUOATED TII.K. HOLLOW P.OOF-TILI 1091. Beadoris Eave or Gutter-Tile. In fig-. 275 we illustrate this tile in three forms, a c b. It is simply a tile with its end turned up at right angles. Each tile is cemented to the next adjoining, forming a water-tight joint. Fig. 275. BEADON'S GUTTER-TILES 1092. Asphalted Felt Roof -Cover ing. A species of covering for boarded roofs, whether of iron or timber trusses, much used, especially for temporary agricul- tural erections, is the " asphalted felt " manufactured by Messrs M'Neil & Co., Bunhill Row, London. It is also well adapted for placing underneath rafters, as, from its non-conducting powers, it tends to exclude the heat of the sun and the frost of winter. It is also used for lining damp walls, &c. The materials of which it is composed are strong and durable fibres, with a mixture of hair, thoroughly saturated with the best bitumen or asphalt. It unrolls as easily as any other ordinary cloth, and is manufactured in any given lengths, to suit the buildings proposed to be covered with it. The width namely, 32 inches is the same for any length. The manufacturers, whose address we have given, present purchasers, or parties applying, with a book so full of practical instructions as to its use, and with diagrams showing every species of roof- construction, &c., for which it is adapted, that we deem it unnecessary to go further into the matter, save than by giving comparative estimates, furnished by the manufacturers, of the cost of roofs on which the material and the ordi- nary slate and timber arc used : BLUE AND (J.KKY SLATES. SLATE COVERING Foil A HOOF 111 FEKT I.ONd AND 2 1 FEET WIDE, ADAPTED FOR A .SUKJ), HTC. Indies, 3 tie-bearers, '24 feet 6 inches long, . . 4 by (j principals, 1(! ,, 6 ., ., . . 4 by 5 3 kingposts, 11 ,, 6 . .. . . 4 by 4 tj struts, 8 8 purlins, 10 6 fiO rafters, 17 ,., (5 Ivhlge-piece, 40 ., Battening for slates, ....... 15 squares of slating, with metal nails, c., at 28s., . 15 1-2 '2100 21 SAMi: HOOF, WITH ASPHALT FELT. Indies. 6 principals, each 15 feet long, . . 3 by 5 ) 3 ties, 18 24 purlins, 10 ,, Ridge-piece, 40 . . 6 " by H ) => ) 1160 square feet of J-iuch or |-ineh boarding, including fixing, 750 The necessary felt, including everything, . . . . 6 10 21 2 '0 1093. The price per square foot of the felt is Id., the width of the pieces being invariably 32 inches. The length as desired. 1094. Blue and Grey tilates for llnufg. We no\v propose to add a few remarks on the mode of laying on blue and grey slates as a covering- for roofs. The blue or ordinary slates are laid either upon close boarding or upon battens, the width of which varies from 2 to 3 inches. The use of battens is more general than close boarding, as it is cheaper. Before lay- ing the slates, the sides and the under edge are trimmed. The under surface of a slate is called the bed, the tipper the bade, its upper edge the head, and its lower edge the tail. By the term inary'm is meant that part of the slate which, on the finished roof, is exposed to view the width of this being termed the gauge. The lap of a slate is the distance which its lower edge overlaps, when laid in its place, the course of slate immediately beneath ; this lap should never exceed 3, nor be less than 2, inches. When battens are used, the distance between them will of course be regulated by the sizes of the slates. The holes through which the nails are driven to secure the slates to the batten, are punched as near the head as possible the holes being equidistant from the lower edge or tail. The duchess slate, the size of which is 24 inches by 12, will give a gauge, or exposed surface of 8 inches, the lap being 2 inches; with a lap of 3 inches, the gauge will be only 6 inches. Each slate should be fastened with two nails, these being best of copper ; zinc or iron nails may be used ; if of iron, to prevent them rusting they may be put in boiled oil, or steeped in a hot solution of coal-tar. Slating is well exe- cuted when the tails lie very close to the backs of the course below. In slated roofs, the hips and ridges are generally finished with lead. A cheap method of finishing is sometimes executed, in which fillets of slate are made to cover the ridge-boards and hips the whole being well bedded in putty, and nailed down with a nail at each end. Ornamental ridge-tiles and slates are now much used. A cheap plan of covering roofs with slates has been recently introduced, which requires no battens. To the ripper surface of the rafters a fillet of wood is nailed, this being about 1 inch thick, -^ inch broad at the bottom, where it is nailed on to the rafter, and 1 inch broad at the upper surface ; the taper is thus 264 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. the wrong way. The edges of the slates are brought up to the fillets, and the joint well made with putty. A neat joint may be made by nailing a roll over the two slates this roll being nailed to the central fillet. Slates for the roofs of steadings are sometimes set with battens after the manner of tiles, the under surfaces being made good witli mortar worked into curves. 1095. Grey Slates require the roof to be lathed in the same manner as tile, but, not being of a uniform size like tiles, they are assorted to sizes in the quarry. The larger and heavier slates are put next the eaves, and gradually diminish in size to the ridge. The course at the eaves is laid double, slate above slate. Every slate is hung upon the lath by a wooden pin being passed through a hole at the upper end, arid, on being laid on, the slates are made to overlap at least one-third. Grey slates should either be bedded and shouldered in plaster-lime, or laid on moss, the latter making the warmer roof. 1096. The flanks are made of slate, but the ridge is covered with droved angular ridge-stones of freestone. As this species of roofing is not adapted to pavilion roofs, the peands should be covered with lead ; but the safest form of roof with grey slates is with upright gables. 1097. Flat tiles are simply fastened to the battens by pegs passing through holes in the upper part. In the ordinary-shaped tile, or pantile, projecting parts are provided at the back of each tile, by which it is attached t# the lath. In fig. 274, we have illustrated a form of hollow roofing tile. 1098. Earthenware Staircase. In fig. 276 we give a view of Norton & Borrie's fireproof staircase. 1099. Heating of Apartments, Grates, $c. Figs. 277 and 279 are a section and plan showing method of heating upper rooms from the kitchen fire. The hot-air chamber a is formed of cast-iron, of the same width as the fire, and extending from the bottom of the grate to a few inches over the top of it. The cold air is brought in by the flue b, formed in the thickness of the wall, and after circulat- ing through the cells into which the chamber is divided, and being thereby warmed, it is conveyed to the floor above by the flue c, and thrown into the room at an opening in the skirting, fitted with a valve, c? is a ventilator in connection with a ventilating flue, shown by the dotted lines above : it is formed as close as possible to the kitchen flue I the basin, supplied with a plug which fits into the top of the pipe ate, thus retaining the water at pleasure: tins .-.- -M^ER plug should be attached by a chain to the side of the basin, to prevent its being lost ; d d the pipe leading to the drain by the exit e, and it should be trapped at the junction. This form is adapted to cases where the supply of water can be obtained from a cistern above the level of the basin. In cases where there is no provision of this nature, another form is required; at least a subsidiary contrivance has to be adopted to supply the de- fect, winch is attained by having a small pottery cistern hung at a short dis- tance above the basin, where it is filled with water when required ; and the water is withdrawn by means of a small stop-crane. In fig. 300 we give perspective views of the forms just noted. 272 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1114. In fig. 301 we give a sketch of the apparatus adopted in the form of a lavatory for bedrooms, introduced by Mr Jennings, of Great Charlotte Street, Blackfriars Road, London, in which "hot" and "cold" water and "waste- pipe" cocks are acted on by handles or knobs. Fig. 301. Fig. 302. NOS'S LAVATORY. CLOSET 30IL- 1115. Water- Closets. If the water-closet is placed within the house a matter which we leave to the dictation of personal opinion, although ours is decidedly in favour of exterior arrangements, or at least, if they are interior, that they must be well ventilated the soil-pan should at once communicate with the drain leading to the manure-tank. In fig. 302 a section is given of a soil-pan combining a water-trap, up which the foul air cannot ascend, as may be seen in the figure. The whole is made of earthenware, and the cost varies from 4s. to 7s. 6d. The pottery water-closet, shown in perspective in fig. 303, manufactured by John Eidgway & Co., Cauldon Place, Staffordshire Potteries, may also be used. They are neat, and made of the hard vitreous pottery, which is an admirable non-absorbent material. Fig. 303. Fig. 304. KlDGtWAY 8 POTTEBY WATEa- CLOSET-PAN TKAP. 1116. Fig. 304 illustrates a very simple and cheap form of closet-pan. Fig. 305 represents a form of water-closet pan and trap formed in one piece, wholly of earthenware, so as to require no woodwork for its support. The top is spread out about four or five inches, so as to form a self-sustaining seat. The entrance of the pipe for carrying off the effluvia to a ventilating tube or chimney is shown at a. This form, when properly constructed, and with an ordinary service-pipe MILK COOLER 273 for water constantly on, and under pressure, is found to answer completely In fig. 306 we give a section of Jennings's water-closet pan, in which an india-rubber tube , is employed to communicate with the drain by raising the handle b ; the lever c c nips the tube , and closes it perfectly water-tight, as shown in fig. 307. This is per- haps the best and most efficient form of water-closet yet intro- duced. It is peciiliarly free from the liability to get out of order, which characterises those appar- atus with cranks, levers, &c. SECTIOS OF 1117. SECTION TENTH Fittings of the Farm- steading, is represented by fig. 308, made of stone sandstone, slate, or marble the last being the best material, be- ing cool, cleanly, and handsome. An orifice is made in the bottom, at the near side, through which the rnilk runs out of the cooler, as also the water which has been used to wash it clean. The dimensions may be made at pleasure, 3 feet long and 2 broad being a good size ; but the depth should not exceed 4 inches, to contain from 2 to 3 inches of milk. When made of wood lined with zinc, block-tin, tin, or lead, the form is the same as this. The sandstone and marble ones, as a, fig. 308, are each hewn out of single blocks and pol- ished, and placed upon upright slabs; A fixed milk-cooler ILK-COOLER O 274 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 309. and the wooden ones, which support the metallic lining, are framed along the walls of the milk-house, and subdivided into separate coolers. It is only in large dairies that these fixed coolers are used. 1118. Drainage Pavement-Bricks. In fig. 309 we give views of Forbes's patent drainage bricks for the floor of stables, byres, &c., manufactured by H. Clayton, Aslar Works, Dorset Square, London. In fig. 309 a and a are gutter bricks, b a drain brick, and c a cover for gutter. In fig. 310 we give a diagram showing the floor of flushed pave- ment, with the gutter partly uncovered, to show "' its connection with the PERSPECTIVE VJ DRAINAGE PAVEMENT-B pavement. Fig. 310. DRAINAGE PiVEMENT-BRIOZS IN PERSPECTIVE, WITH GUTTER PARTLY DNOOVSHED TO SHOW 1119. Water-Troughs for Courts. The supply of water to cattle-courts is of paramount consideration. The troughs may be supplied with water either directly from pump-wells, or by pipes from a fountain at a little distance, the former being the most common plan. As a pump cannot conveniently be placed at each trough, we have found a plan of supplying any number of troughs from one pump, to answer well, provided the surface of the ground will allow the troughs being placed nearly on the same level. 1120. Were the trough which receives the water placed a few inches below the top of the one supplying it, and a lead pipe to come from the bottom of the supply trough over the top of the edge of the receiving one, the water might entirely be emptied, by drinking, without affecting the quantity in any of the others. Let a, fig. 311, be the supply trough immediately beside the pump ; let b be the trough in any other court to be supplied with water from a, and let it be 3 inches below the level of a. Let a lead pipe d, be fastened to the bottom of a, the orifice looking upwards, and protected by the hemi- WATER -TROUGHS. 275 spherical drainer c. Let the lead pipe <7, be passed under ground to the trough 5, and emerge from the ground by the side of and over the top of b at e. When a is filling with water from the pump, the moment the water rises in a to the level of the end of the pipe at ^-^^13 ; 1 ft \ ful in building up or length- ? , M '^\_ I t^ ^ 1 ening posts or pillars. When o d ff two pieces of timber are to be joined vertically together in the direction of their length, to resist compression, joints, as in figs. 337 and 338, may be used. In fig. 337 let a b c d be the end of the lower part of the beam ; two square pieces are cut out at opposite corners. Let the end of the upper part of the beam be similarly cut, as at c, and the two placed to- gether, so that the solid parts of the upper beam may fit into the hollow spaces of the lower beam. In fig. 338, a b d c, efg h, represent the ends of the beams Fig. 336. INT TO BESIS ALE, 1 INCH TO to be joined. From the lower beam parts are cut at each corner, as at a b c d, of any depth required. The method of cutting the end of the upper beam is shown at e f g h; the corners being left solid, the solid parts of the lower beam go into the hollow parts in the upper beam. If there is any chance of the beams thus joined being subjected to a cross strain, plates of iron may be put at the sides, extending some distance on either side of the joints, and secured together by bolts passing through the beams, or, what will be better, by hoops passing outside. 1138. In fig. 339 we give other forms of joints for perpendicular beams. In the figure to the right, the part a a is cut out of the lower beam, the part b of the upper beam being passed into a. In the figure to the left, the part c is cut at right angles to d, the depth being equal to e. The part/ of the upper beam enters the part c of the lower, g the part d. 284 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 339. JOINT TO RESIST KTICAL COMPRESSION :H TO THE FOOT. 1139. As regards the proportions of scarf joints, of which we have given illustrations, Tredgold, in his valuable work on Carpentry, has given some valu- able notes: these we here append. "The length of the scarf should be, if bolts are not used, in oak, ash, or elm, six times the depth of the beam ; in fir twelve times the depth of the beam. If bolts and indents are combined, the length of the scarf should be, in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth of the beam ; in fir, four times the depth. In scarfing beams to resist transverse strains, sti'aps drawn on tight are better than bolts. The sum of the area of the bolts should not be less than one-fifth the area of the beams when a longitudinal strain is to be borne. No joint should be used in which shrinkage or expansion can tear the timbers." 1140. In joining timbers, all the bear- ing surfaces should be made with great ac- curacy, all inequalities tending to increase the strain more upon one part than another, and thus to cause rupture. The simpler the parts are the better. 1141. As the bolts and keys of scarfed timbers are apt to work loose and become shaky in situations where subjected to vibration, as in engine-rooms, &c., scarfed beams should not be employed under such circumstances trussed beams of wood being employed, or iron, cast or wrought. 1142. Joints employed when the Timbers are at right angles to each other. When the piece c, fig. 340, is to abut vertically upon a horizontal piece a, the joint is made by what is called a mortise-and-tenon joint. The projecting piece or tongue d is called the tenon, and the slot or aperture b which receives it is called the mortise. When the piece d is inserted into ft, the two are generally connected by an oak pin driven through at e. To secure permanence in this joint, the tenon must fit with great accuracy into the mortise, to keep the strain equally on the whole parts ; if the strain is thrown on the tenon only, through inaccuracy of the parts fitting, the joint is much weakened. To prevent this, the joint is sometimes made with the sides at an angle, as at a b, b c, fig. 341, on the part d. The acute angle ef g does not secure so good a joint as the obtuse one at a b c, espe- cially where the lower beams are of the same depth. The king-post of a roof, as a a, fig. 342, is connected with the tie-beam b b by the tenon c. d d is a plan of the lower edge of tie-beam, with the mortise-hole e ; / / are the struts. Wedges may be driven up from the under- side of tenon c, as at g. 1143. In figs. 343, 344, and 345, we give other methods of connecting the king-post of a roof with the tie-beam. 1144 In fig. 343 we illustrate a method of connecting king-post b with tie- beam a a ; a mortise is cut in the beam, in which the tenon c is inserted d Fig. 340. MORTISE-A SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOO JOINTS AT RIGHT AXGLES. 285 being a wedge to drive the whole tight up. In fig. 344 we illustrate another method, where the king-post I is lot into the upper edge of the beam a, as shown in the section efg, to the right hand of the diagram. A bolt d passes through both of them, and is secured by the nut c. In fig. 345 the connec- ,1 CD Fig. 343. CONNECTION OF KING-POS tion is made by passing an iron strap b b, round the tie-beam a a, arid con- necting it to the king-post c d by the keys h /?, and cottars y g these passing through an aperture cut in the king-post and slots in the sides of the strap b b. In the section, //is the king-post, e the tie-beam. 114-5. Fig. 346 shows a method of joining at right angles a horizontal beam a a, to a vertical one b b, by what is called a " dovetail joint," the tenon c pass- ing into the mortise d. 1146. If the tenon is to be inserted in the beam , in its centre as at c, fig. 347, the tenon is made of the form as at J, and small oak wedges // are in- serted in the end of b- and as the tenon is driven in the mortise, the wedges/ / are forced into and cause the tenon to expand, filling up the mortise c. This species of joint is called " fox-tail dovetailing." In section, d is the mortise and e the tenon. 1147. Fig. 348 illustrates three methods of joining horizontal to vertical timbers, given by Emy in his celebrated Treatise on Carpentry. 1148. In cases of double-flooring, the binding joists are mortised into the "girders" in the manner shown in fig. 349. The best place to make the mor- tise in the girder e is in its neutral line, or the middle of its depth, as at/. The tenon d of the joist which is to be supported by the girder e should be somewhat 286 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. near the bottom line of the joist, as at g. Where the beam is subjected to a great strain, tending to draw the tenon d out of the mortise in the girder e, an Fig. 346. OVBTAIL JOINT- DOVETAIL JOINT SCALE, j- INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 348. Fig. 349. JOINTNG OF GIRDERS iND BINDING JOISTS SOAXE, INCH TO THE FOOT. oak trenail, or pin, or an iron bolt, should be passed through. In the case of a joist mortised through a beam, the tenon may be fastened as at h, and a pin i inserted. 1149. In joists, as in A fig. 349, the mortise should be siink near the top of the girder, as at c, gradu- ally deepening towards the central or neutral axis of the girder, where the strain is least. The length of the tenon may be about one-sixth of the depth of the girder. 1150. Wall-plates are joined at the corners by methods shown in fig. 350, half notched at the end as at a and 6, or a little from the end of each, as at c and d. By this method of joining, the tendency to dis- connect in either direction is prevented. A dovetail joint is sometimes used as at e, a corresponding tenon being made at the extremity of the other wall- plate. The joint shown at c and d is perhaps the best. 1151. Tie-beams are joined to the wall-plates, as a a to b b, fig. 351, by the TVBK JOINTS -SCALE, J- INCH : Fig. 350. Fig. 351. JOINING OP "TIE-BEAM" WITH WAIL-FLAT SCALE, ^ INCH TO THE FOOT. MBTHOD O NOTOHINO " WALL-PLATES " TOOETHER SCALE, joint at c, the tie-beam being simply let into this. A better and more secure joint is shown at d, which is similar to that at c, with this exception, that the TTE-BEAMS. 287 wood is not cut across, but a piece or feather is left in the middle : a corre- sponding piece e is cut out of the lower edge of the tie-beam a a, into which the feather goes. 1152. In fig. 352 wo show at a b a method of joining the tie-beam c c with the wall-plate d : where a dovetail joint, as at e fin the lower figure, is employed, the tenon is apt to Avork loose. In fig. 350 we gave at a b a form of joint suit- able for joining timbers at right angles to each other at the corners or angles. 1153. In fig. 353 we give two illustrations showing other forms. The beam a is joined to b by the mitre-joint at c ; the beam d is notched into the beam e. Where beams cross each other, as in fig. 354, the beam a a crossing FIR. 352. r? the beam b b, the upper beam may simply be placed on the lower, being secured by a strap, or by bolt and nut c c ; or the lower one d d may be notched into the upper one e. 1154. Joining of Timbers at angles other than a right angle. We give a few illustrations of joints for such cases. In. fig. 355 the beam a is joined to the beam b b by being let into the notch c. The obtuse angles d d of the beam a give a stronger joint than when they are more acute, as at e e in the beam / 1155. In fig. 356 the beam a is secured to the beam b by the tenon c being in- serted in the notch d. As good a joint for cases now under consideration as can be made, is perhaps that shown to the left hand of fig. 356, where a notch is cut across of the full breadth of the beam/; the two beams / and e e being secured together by a rib or tenon g going into the notch or mortise in the under-side of the beam/; i is a continuation of the beam/. An objectionable form of joint of this kind is shown in the right hand of fig. 357, where the beam a is joined to the beam b b by the tenon c passing into the mortise d. 1156. Beams crossing each other at other than right angles, may be secured by the form of joint shown in fig. 357, the diagram to the left ; the beam a a crossing the beam b &, the part c being inserted in the notch d ; e e in the lower figure shows the beam b b in continuation on each side of the bea:n a a. 288 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 356. 1157. Joining of Timbers placed at angles to horizontal Timbers. Of this class of joints the most important refer to the joining of the feet of rafters with the tie-beams of roofs. Fig. 358 shows a simple form of con- necting the foot of a rafter a with the tie-beam b b. By forming the joint as c d ef, and giving a tenon d efg, a much stronger joint will be secured. A better form of joint, as in fig. 359, may be adopted ; a is the rafter, b the tie-beam. The butting end c is at right angles to the line e f of the rafter. The part d e f is not cut out across the upper edge of the tie-beam, but a piece form- ing a feather is left as at g ; a corresponding mortise is cut out at the lower edge of the rafter a, into which g fits. The tenon may be formed on the end of the rafter, and the mor- tise in the tie-beam ; this is the usual way. JOINING Of TIMBERS CROSSING EACH OTHER AT KJOHT . SOLES SCALE, 1 INCH Fig. 357. Fig. 358. JOINING OF TIMBERS AT RIOHT ANGLE ALE, 1 INCH TO THE TOOT. JOINT OF FOOT OF RAFTER WITH TIE-j 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 360. 1158. A still better form for the same joint is illustrated in fig. 360 : a the rafter, ft the tie-beam, and d plan of the upper edge of the tie-beam, with the mortise cut to receive the tenon ft, formed on the end of the rafter a. An easily-formed and strong joint is shown in fig. 361 ; where a is the rafter, ft ft the tie-beam, c the dot- ted lines showing the JOINING OF AN INCLINBD WIT HORIZONTAL BEAU SCALE, form of the tenon. 1 159. Collar or horizontal timbers are joined to angular timbers, or " prin- cipals," by a variety of joints, of which we give a few examples. COLLARS AND STRUTS. 289 1160. In fig. 362 the " collar" a is joined to the " principal" or " rafter" b b, by inserting the termination a into the notch c. To bring the surface of a flush with that of b b, the end of a is half-notched, as shown at d. Ficr. 361. Fij,'. 36:2. 1161. The dovetail joint, fig. 363, is a good form. An end a of the collar b is inserted into the notch c of the rafter d d. 1162. Fig. 364 shows another form of joint. In all these joints trenails or spikes are used to secure the timber together. Fig. 3G3. OF COLLAR-BEAM WITH Ttil i INCH TO THE FOOT The 1163. Struts are made to abut against king-posts in a variety of ways. best method, however, is where the face of the joint is at right angles to the direc- tion of the thrust of struts, as the faces a b, fig. 365, to the line of struts c d, or the faces e f to the struts g h. The forms of joint shown at z and k are objectionable. 1164. In fig. 366 we show the method of forming the joint with a tenon : a b the front view of head of king-post ; c the bearing of the rafter end ; the dotted line shows the tenon cut to receive the mortise e of the rafter J;/ shows an edge view of the king-post head, with mortise. The ends of struts are joined to the foot of king- post by mortise and tenon. This is illus- trated in fig. 367: a is end Of king-pOSt, "~or'm^mnaw, shown in section. Fig. 369. Fig. 370. Fig. 371. JOINT OF STRAININO-BEAM WITH JOHN-POST SCALE, J INCH TO THB FOOT. OF PURLINS TO RA SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT OINT OF RAFTERS TO WALL-PLATE SCALE. ^ INCH TO THE FOOT. 1169. Trussed Beam. In the Section treating of parts of structures in which BOW- A X ! )-STRIX( I I? AFTERS. 291 wood and iron are combined, the reader will find various methods illustrated and described of trussing- beams. 1170. We here give in lig. 372 an exceedingly simple and effective form of flat roof truss, the invention of Mr Smart, by whom it was communicated to the Society of Arts, and named by him " the bow-and-string rafter." " In this commnni- [~~V~ZI cation," he says, " I take a span of the usual size for a rafter, and, by means of a cir- cular saw, make an incision in it, as shown at a , fig. 372. I then make a cut 6, at right angles to the former, and equidistant from the two ends. Lastly, I make two cuts c d, taking out a thin wedge from each piece. The two pieces e/are then to be gently raised up till they form an angle of 10 or 12 with the piece a a, and are secured in th'eir place by the oak key-wedge g. It is obvious that a weight pressing on the key -wedge of this rafter (the ends being properly supported) will be sustained, either till the fibres of the wood forming the string are torn asunder, or till the lateral cohesion of the wood forming the butt end of the rafters be destroyed ; at the same time, there is no lateral pressure on the wall." 1171. In fig. 373 we give sketch to a larger scale of the end of the rafter so treated, where a a is the rafter, b b the horizontal saw-cut, c the wedge. 1172. In fig. 374 we give a sketch of the centre of the rafter above formed; a a are the two ends, corresponding to the ends of the pieces ef, fig. 372, b the oak key-wedge. 1173. In fig. 375 we give a drawing of a rafter for a 56-feet span, the scant- ling of the rafter being 10 inches by 4. In this form Mr Smart inserted vertical pieces a a between the upper and lower parts of the beam, securing these by iron straps. Fig. 375. 1174. Increasing Depth of Beams. A method to obtain depth in a girder, and to avoid deflection or bending, is illustrated in fig. 376, and is recommended by some as preferable to the trussed girder. Two beams of equal scantling are laid edge on, as a i, c d, and secured together by keys e e e, the whole being secured together by hoops of iron /// driven tightly on. In place of hoops, 292 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. bolts may be used, as shown at g, but hoops are preferable. The thickness of the keys should be equal to about half of the breadth the total thickness of all the keys, when laid on each other, being equal to one-third of the depth of the beam. 1175. In fig. 377 we illustrate another method of deepening a beam, the sur- faces in contact being provided with in- dentations and corresponding projections, the two being well secured by bolts and Fig. 376. ^ ii e': * ~ 'H e - 3 -g ' 1 ! c MEIHOIJ O g f / F INCREASING DEPTH OF BEAMS. INCREASING nuts. Fig. 378. 1176. SECTION SECOND Floors. The simplest form of floor is illustrated in fig. 378, and is called the " single flooring." Where a a a are the joists laid on the wall c c c, parallel to one another, the distance should not in any case exceed 12 inches from centre to centre of joists. The flooring-planks b b are laid on the joists a a a. 1177. When the walls, as a a and b b, fig. 379, are separated more than 8 feet, the joists are apt, under sudden strains as weights hauled over the floor, people walk- ing quickly, &c. to bend laterally. To pre- vent this, struts are placed between the joists, as c c between the joists d d d. When the span of floor is wide, these struts should be placed at distances of not less than 4 feet apart. One row will do for joists, with a bearing exceeding the 8 feet ; for every 4 feet of extra bearing, one row of strutting should be given. They may be formed either of pieces of thin wood, as at e, fig. 379, the same depth of "the joists, or of two pieces crossed, as at/. 1178. When the course of the joists is to be interrupted, as in fig. 380 SINGLE FLOORING SCAM, J INCH TO THE TOOT. TRUSSING OT FLOORING BEAMS- SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. TRIMMING-JOISTS SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. where, for instance, a well-hole g is to be made, as in the floor of a barn or granary, to admit of passage from one floor to another by means of trap- stairs the joists, as a a, b b, are supported by cross pieces c c, d d, called " trimmers " or " bridles." These again are supported by larger joists e e, ff, which run parallel to the ordinary joists a a, b b ; these larger joists are called " trimming-joists," or " carnage-beams." The trimmers c c, d d must be made strong in proportion to the number of joists which they have to carry, and ; INGS. 29:? the scantling of the carriage-beams is proportioned to the weight which the trimmers carry. 1179. For floors of a wide span, and where more perfect work is required, as in the supporting of heavy weights, what is called "double flooring" is used. This is illustrated in fig. 381, where b b b represent two large joists, termed "binding-joists," which are laid on the wall a a at each end, at dis- tances of 10 feet apart from centre to centre. These joists support other joists, termed "bridging-joists," c c c, laid at right angles to b b. These bridging-joists are laid at distances of from 12 to 20 inches apart, and support the flooring-planks d c/, which run parallel to the " binding-joists " b b. Where it is deemed necessary in the apartments of the steading to have a "ceiling" on the under-side of the floor, what are called " ceiling-joists " should be notched into the under-side of the binding-joists, as at e e. The distance between these is usually set off at 12 inches. 1180. A still more complicated form of flooring, and one usually adopted where the bearing is great, is illustrated in fig. 382, and is known as the Fig. 381. DOUBLE FLOORING SCAM " girder " or "double-framed flooring." Tn this case the binding-joists b b are not supported at the ends by the walls, but are supported by "girders," as a a, which rest on the walls, and are placed generally at a distance of 10 feet apart ; on the " binding -joists " b b, the bridging -joists c c c c are placed, these sup- porting the flooring-planks d d. Span or Bearing. CLASS I. Joists. CLASS II. Binders. CLASS III. Girders. Ceiling- Joists. Distance apart of Girders. Distance apart of Hinding- Joists. Distance apart of Hridjjing- Juists. 6 W. B. 2 x 6 in. W. D. 6 x 4 in. W. D. W. D. 34 x 2 in. CLASS I. CLASS II. CLASS III. 8 2 7 7 4| 4 24 10 feet 10 12 14 16 20 24 7i 24 8 2| 9 3 12 8 5 9 51 10 6 11 64 13 74 9 x 7 in. 10 8 11 9 12 10 13 11 5 24 apart. The bearings on wall 9 to 4 to 6 feet apart. Bear- ing 4 to 6 in. on walls. 12 to 14 in. 4 to 6 in. bearing on walls. 24 15 12 12 in. 28 16 13 1181. Taking fig. 378 as representative of the " first class " of floors, fig. 381 of the " second," and fig. 382 of the " third," the preceding table, compiled from data given by the eminent authority Tredgold, will be useful, as showing 294 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. the scantling of floors for various spans. W represents the width, and D the depth of the joists, binders, and girders. 1182. The following remarks on flooring by Mr Gwilt will, we trust, be of use : " First, the wall-plates that is, the timbers which lie on the walls to receive the ends of the girders or joists should be sufficiently strong, and of sufficient length to throw the weight upon the piers. Secondly, if it can be avoided, girders should not lie with their ends over openings, as doors or win- dows ; but when they do, the strength of the wall-plates must be increased. To avoid the occurrence in question, it was formerly very much the practice in this country, and indeed is still partially so, to lay girders obliquely across rooms, so as to avoid openings and chimneys, the latter whereof must always be at- tended to. Thirdly, wall-plates and templates must be proportionately longer, as their length and the weight of the floor increase. Their scantlings will in this respect vary from 4^- inches by 3, up to 7| inches by 5. Fourthly, the tim- bers should always be kept rather higher say half to three-quarters of an inch in the middle than at the sides of an apartment, when first framed, so that the natural shrinkings and the settlements which occur in all buildings may not \iltimately appear after the building is finished. Lastly, when the ends of joists or girders are supported by external walls whose height is great, the middles of such walls ought not at first to rest upon any partition-wall that does not rest higher than the floor, ' but a space should (says Vitruvius, lib. vii. 1) be rather left between them, though, when all has settled, they may be brought to a bearing upon it. Neglect of this precaution will induce unequal settlements, and, besides causing the floor to be thrown out of a level, will most probably fracture the corners of the room below/ " 1183. SECTION THIRD Partitions. In designing partitions, care should be taken to transfer the weight to the points of support the walls. This is best done by placing two struts or braces, butting against a central post. The best angle for the braces is 40 degrees. Where partitions have to support their own weight merely, the principal timbers for a span of 20 feet may be 3 inches by 4 ; for a span of 25 feet, 3| inches by 5 ; and for a span of 30 feet, 4 inches by 6. Where partitions have to bear other weights, then the dimensions of their parts may be calculated according to the rules to be given hereafter. 1184. In fig. 383 we give a drawing of a partition adapted to an 18-feet span, with one door in the centre. The head a b is 5 inches by 4 ; the sill c d, same scantling ; the posts a c, b d, e, f, 5 inches by 4 ; the straining- beam g, 5 inches by 3 ; the struts or braces h 7z, 5 inches by 4 ; the filling -in pieces i i i z, 5 inches by 2^. 1185. In fig. 384 we give the drawing of a partition adapted to a 28-feet or 30-feet span, with spaces for a door at each end. The scantlings are as follows : the head a I, 6 inches by 6 ; the sill c d the same ; the posts a c, b d, e /, 6 inches by 6 ; the king-post k same size ; the straining-pieces ffff, 6 inches by 4 ; the struts or braces h h, h h, 6 inches by 5 ; the filling-in pieces i t, 6 inches by 3. K Id . 18-yEKT SPAN SOiLE, PARTITIONS. 295 k 1186. In fig. 385 the partition is adapted to a 22-feet span : the head a 5, 6 inches by 6 ; the sill c d, 6 inches by 4 ; the tie-beam e c, 6 inches by 5 ; the king-posts //, 6 inches by 6 ; the posts I c, a d, g, cj, y, y, G inches by 6 ; the straining-piece h, 6 inches by 4 ; the braces or struts i /, G inches by 4 ; the filling-in pieces k k, 6 inches by 3. There are here a wide and narrow door. 1187. In fig. 386 we give a drawing of a partition without door spaces for a span of 16 to 18 feet, of which the scantlings are as follows : a a sill, 5 inches by 4 ; I b head, also 5 F . ir , m inches by 4 ; c post, 6 inches by 4 ; d d braces or struts, 10 inches by 2 ; e e quarters, 4 inches by 2. 1188. In fig. 387 we give the drawings of a partition with large door in centre and small door at side, adapted to an 18-feet span. The sill (.T, ^ 1,^^/1 / / I \ , a a 4 inches by 4 ; the head b b, 4 inches by 4 ; the tie- beam C C C, 4 inches by 3; PARTITION *-OK IS-FKET SPAN- SOAUB, J ISCIH TO THE roor. the posts d d d d d, 4 inches by 3 ; straining-beam e, 4 inches by 4 ; struts em- braces //, 4 inches by 3 ; g filling-in pieces, 4 inches by 2. 1189. In fig. 388 we give the drawing of a trussed partition for a wide span, with large door at one side and small door at the other. 1190. In fig. 389 we give a drawing of a partition adapted for an 18-feet 296 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. * X span, with large door in the centre only. The scantlings the same as in fig. 388, just above. 1191. In fig. 390 we give a drawing of the partitions in first and second storeys, in which the span is 18 feet. The beam a a is 18 inches by 3 ; the sills b 6, b b, 4 inches by 4 ; the heads c c, c c, 4 inches by 4 ; posts d d d, 4 inches by 3 ; struts or braces ee, e e, 4 inches by 3; puncheons //, 4 inches Fig. 388. "J TRUSSED PARTITION SCALE, IXC Fig. 389. J?\ II II 11'^ / / \ s /A ^ PARTITION FOB ItS-FEET SPA-J ^-SOALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT Fig. 390. / 1 ll/ll ( ^ s a /, / XS \ ,, /< I \ // d \ // (\ ] k r ; i DUBLE PABTIIIOX SCALE, I IKCH TO TH FOOT. ROOFS. 297 1192. SECTION FOURTH Rm>f*. Before illustrating the construction of trusses for roof's, we shall give a fu\v diagrams showing t\ie forms as used in the more simple constructions of the farm. 1193. Lean-to and Ridge Roaj's. Where the plan of building is rectangular, as (the d, in fig. 391, and one wall higher than the other, as e J] the form of roof employed, slop- ing from f to g, is termed a " lean-to." Where the walls are of equal height, as h /, I; /, the slopes of the roof, as h m, in A 1 , are equal ; the point at which they meet, as at in, being termed the " ridge," and the angle // in A', the " gable." The ridge divides the building into two parts by a line, as n o. 1194. Hipped Roofs. Where the plan is rec- tangular, in place of the ridged roof, as in last figure, the form in fig. 392 may be used ; a b is the ridge, the ends c d, e f, sloping at the same angle as the sides d e, c f. The ridges a b, b d, b c, are termed hips, and the whole ar- rangement a hipped roof; g is an end, and h a side elevation of roof. 1195. Pavilion Roof. Where the plan of the building is a square, as at a b c d, fig. 393, all the sides of the roof may be made to slope at an equal angle, and to meet in the point. All the elevations present the same appearance as at e. Where the length f h of the building does not much exceed the breadth/ g, it may be roofed with a pavilion roof, as shown. Where the building is square, the pavilion roof may be truncated by a plane, as shown by the dotted lines in square above, A:, parallel to the base I. In this case the side elevation will be as at m. Where the square binding is desired to have gables at all the sides, there will be two ridges, as shown by the dotted lines n o and &, at right angles to each other the eleva- tion being as at r ; s being one gable, t t the two gables of the sides at right angles to the side r. 1196. Conical Roof. This form of roof, generally used for the roof of thrash- ing-mills, is shown in fig. 394, in plan at a, and elevation at b. 1197. Ridged Roof meeting at Right Angles. Where the building a b c d,_fig. 395, is at right angles to the building e f g /?, the plan of roof is as shown in the drawing; i k, Z in being the ridges, c I, If being termed the valleys. 1198. M Roofs Ridge-and- Valley Roofs. Where the building is wide, and the roof is to be kept low to correspond in height with the other parts of the build- ing, the width is divided into two parts I and ???, fig. 396. Where more than 298 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. two divisions are made, as at n n, the arrangement is termed a " ridge-and- valley roof," g hi k being the ridges, o o o the valleys. Fig. 394. Fig. 395. t b CONICAI. ROOF OOF'S MEZIINO AT KIQHI ANGL-K3 Fig. 396. Pig. 397. LEAN-TO ROOF, SCO., 12-FEET BPAN SCAU, J INCH TO THE FOOT. 1199. Roof Trusses. In fig. 397 we give an illustration of the simplest form of roof; this is called a " lean-to/' and is adapted for covering cart-sheds, &c. The form in fig. 397 is calculated for spans of from 10 to 12 feet. The scantling of the rafter or beam b c is 105 inches by 2^ ; the wall-plate 6, 4 inches by 3. The joists should project 18 or 20 inches beyond the lower wall d, as at /, and should be placed on the walls at distances of 4 feet from each other. The roofing -boards are nailed on the joists parallel to the walls a and d. 1200. Where the distance or span is from 10 to 14 feet, and a lean-to roof re- quired, the " truss " shown in fig. 398 may be adopted. In this a " tie-beam " a a is used, which rests upon the wall- plates b and c. An LEAN-TO ROOF, 20-FEET SPAN SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. r . , . * upright post d is notched into the end of the tie-beam a a, and is let into the wall. The TRUSS FOE EOOF. 299 tendency to separate at rafter e e is notched at its Tipper end to the post d, and to the tie-beam a a at its lower end; /is the purlin; g g the common rafter, 4 inches by 2|. The scantling of the tie-beam a a is tt inches by 4 ; the wall-plates b c, 6 inches by 4 ; the rafter e c, 5| inches by 4; the post d, 4 inches by 3. The post d may be dispensed with, and the upper end of the rafter e e abut on a wall-plate, as b, fig. 397 ; 7z, fig. 398, is a strut. Fig. 309. 1201. An arrangement adapted to the most usual form of roof namely, one having an equal slope on both sides is shown at fig. 399. The rafters a a, d d are notched at their lower extremities to the wall- plates b c. As the weight of the roof-covering which would rest upon those rafters would give them a their feet, and thrust out the walls, a " collar " or " tie " e connects the two. The scantlings of the parts are as follows : rafters a a, d d, 9 inches by 3 ; wall- plates, 4 inches by 3 ; col- lar or tie, 5 inches by 3. 1202. Fig. 400 shows a truss of this kind with two collars. For a span of 16 feet the scantlings are as follows : rafters or principals a a, b b, 6 inches by 2 J ; collars c, 6 inches by 2 ; d, 5 inches by 2. 1203. Truss for a Collar -Beam Roof. Roofs with a collar-beam may be strengthened by a longitudinal truss placed at the point shown by the dotted line e in fig. 400, the ends of the truss being inserted in the gables. A side elevation of the truss is given in fig. 401 ; Fi s- 401 - a b the sill, c d the C|j head, e f g h the posts, i the straining- piece, j k struts or braces. 1204. In fig. 402 we give a truss for a porch or building of small span, say from 6 to 8 feet : a a the 9-inch walls ; b b the wall-plates, 5 inches by 3 ; c e the rafters, 3 inches by 2 ; d d the struts or braces, 2^ inches by 2. 1205. As the tie-beam or collar e in the illustration, fig. 399, is too high up to act in the best way, the tie should be placed as at b b, fig. 403, resting on the wall-plates c c, 4 inches by 3. The rafters d d, 6 inches by 4, abut on the tie-beam b b, 8 inches by 4. This truss is strengthened by the struts e e, 4 inches by 3, abutting on the " straining - sill " / 3 inches THE FOOT. 300 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 402. Fig. 403. square, let into the face of the tie-beam. This truss is adapted to spans from 19 to 24 feet. In these illustrations, fig. 397 is for a 12-feet span, fig. 398 for 20, fig. 399 for 18, and fig. 402 for a 6 -feet span. Fig. 404 is a roof on the principle of fig. 403, with a suspension-rod a of iron, b b struts, c c tie-beam, d wall-plate, e pole-plate,// com- mon rafters. 1206. The truss in fig. 405 is calculated for a 30-feet span ; a the rafter-box or shoe, of cast-iron ; b the suspension-rod of wrought -iron, 2 inches diameter; cc struts, 5 inches square ; d d wall-plates, 6 inches by 4 ; e e pole-plate, 5 inches by 3 ; // principal rafters, 10 inches by 5 ; g g . common rafters, 4 inches by 2 ; h h tie- beam, 12 inches by 5 ; i nut for securing tie-bolt b ; m ridge-pole, 8 inches by 1| ; n purlins, 6 inches by 4. 1207. King-post Truss Fig. 406. The truss in this sketch is adapted for a span of 25 feet between the walls a a; b b the wall-plates which run longitudinally along the walls 5 inches square ; these support the tie-beam c c, 10 inches by 5 ; d d pole- inches square ; / / principal rafters, 5 inches by 4 ; g g struts, 5 inches by 3 ; h h purlins, 6 inches by 4 ; i i common raf- ters, 4 inches by 2^. The various parts now described as the tie - beam c c, the principal rafters// the king - post e e, truss." The trusses The roof materials, TRUSS FOB 20-FEET SPAN SCALE, J INCH TO THB FOOT. e e king - post, 5 plates, 5 inches square ; TRUSS WITH KTN3-BOI.T, 20-FEET SPAS' JJCH TO THE FOOT and the struts g g, constitute what is called " the are placed at distances apart from *6 to 10 feet. boarding and slating, are supported by the common rafters i z, abutting at the upper end on the ridge-pole j, and at the lower on the pole-plate d d, notched into the tie-beam c c above and near the wall-plates b b. The com- mon rafters also rest on the purlins h h. These rest on the principal raft- ers // and are continued from truss to truss. The ridge-pole j is let into a notch in the head of the king-post e e, and is continued from truss to truss, like the purlins. The ridge-pole j, the purlins h A, the pole-plates d d, are all parallel to the walls a a, as also the wall-plates b b ; while the tie- beam c c, the common rafters i z, the principal rafters// the king-post e e, and the struts g g, are all at right angles to the walls a a. Properly the " king- SPAN -ROOFS. 301 post" e e, does not act as a post \vhich involves the idea of compression but as a tic, as the tie-beam c c is suspended at, the centre by it. A better name would perhaps be the "king-bolt," or ''suspender.' 1208. Where space is required above the line of the tie-beam, a form of truss, known as the "queen-post," is used. It is also adapted to greater spans than the king-post truss. This is illustrated in fig. 407, which is a queen-post Fig. 406. j truss for a 30-feet span, but is adapted to spans from this extent iip to 45 feet. The tie-beam is at a, 10 inches by 5 ; b b wall-plates, 6 inches square ; c c pole-plates, 5 inches square ; d ridge-pole, 8 inches by 1^ ; e e common rafters, 4 inches by 2^ ; //principal rafters, 9 inches by 5 ; g straining-beam, 9 inches by 5 ; h h queen-posts, 7 inches by 5 ; i i struts, 5 inches square ; 302 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. k k purlins, 6 inches by 4. A straining- sill, formed of a flat piece of wood, is sometimes placed on the tie-beam, against which the feet of the queen-posts h h abut, serving the same purpose as the straining beam g. 1209. In fig. 408 we give a drawing of a roof truss for a 30-feet span, on the principle of the queen-post truss, but modified with a king-post a, and struts or braces b , c c. Fig. 408. Fig. 409. TRDSS WITH TWO 1210. In fig. 409 we give a sketch of half of a truss calculated for 47-feet span, but also adapted to spans between 45 and 60 feet. In this there are two queen- I posts a b, with a strut c bet we en them, and a second strut d supporting the prin- cipal rafter. The fol- lowing are the sizes or scantlings of the various parts : the wall-plates, 6 inches . square ; tie-beam, 13 inches by 8 ; queen-posts a, 8 inches square ; small queen-posts b, 8 inches by 4; principal rafters, 8 inches by 6; straining-beam e, 9 inches by 6 ; struts c d, 5 inches by 3 ; purlins f, for 8- feet bearings, 7 inches by 5 ; pole - plates, 6 inches square. 1211. Hip Roof. In small roofs the lower ends of the hip-rafters rest on the walls at the corners be d e of the building, the upper end being fitted to the ridge-pole a, as in fig. 410. 1212. Another method is to form a frame as a a, b c, fig. 411, which is placed at the corner of the walls. Upon this framing the lower termination of the hip-rafter is fixed, the upper resting on the king-post. Where a tie-beam is introduced, the Fig. 411. Fig. 410. ROOF WITH HTF-RAFTIR 8CALT. - TO TH FOOT. -nEC* A27D URAOONAL TIB TO 8DPPORT HIB-JvAFTZR. SCANTLINGS OF ROOFS. 303 outer end rests on the angle of the wall, the inner being fixed to the principal tie-beam. A strut fitted to the smaller tie-beam supports the middle of the hip-rafter. The short rafters between the hip-rafters are called "jack- rafters." 1213. Fig. 412 illustrates the plan of a hipped roof : a a a the walls, b bb the wall-plate, c c hip-rafters, d d angle-pieces to support end of rafters, e e princi- pals, // purlins, g ridge-pole. The part to the left shows the roof slated. 1214. Scantlings of Roofs of various Classes and Spans. Taking fig. 406 as an illustration of the "first class" of "roof-trusses," fig. 407 as an illustration of the " second," and fig. 408 as of the " third class," the following may be taken as tables of the sizes of useful spans of roofs : CLASS I. (Fig. 406.) Span. Tie-beam. Principal Rafters. COMMON RAFTERS. Struts. King-post. PURLINS. Bearing Bearing 8 Feet. 10 Feet. 8 Feet. 10 Feet. 20ft. 25 10 x 4 in. 10 5 4x4 in. 5 4 4 x 2 1 in. 6 x 3 in. 4x3 in. 5 3 4 x 4 i n . 5 5 6 x 4 i n . 7 x 5 in. 30 11 6 6 4 ... 6 3 5 .5 ... CLASS II. (Fig. 407.) Span. Tie-beam. Principal Rafters. Queen-posts. Straining- beam. Struts. 35 ft. 11 x 4 in. 5 x 4 in. 4 x 4 in. 7 x 4 in. 4 x 2 in. 40 12 5 64 5 5 8 5 5 3 45 13 6 7 5 6 6 9 5 5 5 CLASS III. (Fig. 408.) Span. Tie-beam. Principal Queen - pnsts a. Small Queen- posts 6. Struts. Straining- 1'ieces. Principal Rafters. 50 ft. 13x8 in. 8x8 in. 8 x 4 in. 5 x 3 in. 9x6 in. 8 x 6 in. 55 14 9 9 8 94 54 3 10 6 8 7 60 15 10 10 8 10 4 6 3 11 6 8 8 304 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1215. In fig. 413 we give a plan of the roof-timbers of a building where one part is at" right angles to the other : a a a a the walls ; b b b the wall- Fig. 413. TIMBER OP A HOOP MEETING AT R: lOHT ANGLES (FLAX) SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT plates, 4 inches by 2 ; d d the ridge-pole, 7 inches by 2|, of the longest part of the roof; cc the ridge-pole, 7 inches by 1|, of the shortest part; e e the hip-rafters, 6 inches by 2 ; //the rafters, 6 inches by 2; g h part of the slate-boarding on the two roofs. In fig. 414 we give an end elevation of the same roof ; h h is the ridge-pole corresponding to c c, fig. 4 13, the end of which butts on the ridge-pole corre- sponding to d d, fig. 413, the other end resting on the gable of the short pro- jection of the building m m, fig. 413 ;/ the raf- ters of the longest portion of building; d the ceil- ing joists, 4 inches by 2 ; g the hip-rafter correspond- ing to e, fig. 413 ; n n the common rafters. In fig. 415 we give the side elevation of roof; o o IB the ridge - pole corre- sponding to d d in fig. 413 ; b b the rafters corre- sponding to n n, fig. 414 ; nn the rafters corresponding to those marked //in fig. 413. In fig. 416 is the arrangement of timbers at c c, fig. 413, drawn to a larger scale ; a a part 8IDTS, ELEVATION OF ROOF IN FIQ. 413. CURB ROOF. 305 of the ridge-pole, corresponding to d d, fig. 413, and b the ridge-pole, corre- sponding to c c in the same figure, <; c the hip-rafters, corresponding to e e, fig. 413. 1216. In some roofs the ends terminate at the same angle of inclination as that of the sides. This is effected by introducing hip-rafters, as a , fig. 417. 1217. In smaller roofs the lower ends of the rafters rest on the walls at the corners of the building a , the upper end being fitted to the ridge-pole b, as in fig. 417. 1218. Fig. 418 shows the "jack-rafters " of a hip-roof, being the short tim- bers filling up the slope* 1219. In fig. 419 we give the elevation of a truss adapted for a flat roof; a the straining-beam, part of which is cut away at either end, as at b 5, to form the butting ends, against which the raft- ers c c rest. These rafters are made of the pieces cut out of b b. Suspension or tie-bolts d d are placed near the ends of the beam a to prevent deflection. 1220. In fig. 420 we give a drawing of another form, of truss for a flat roof, for a 35-feet span : a wall-plate, 6 inches square ; b b tie-beam, 13 inches by 5 ; c qxieen-post, 12 inches by 6 ; d straining-beam, 12 inches by 6 ; e strut or brace, 5 J inches by 5|- ; / / principal, 8 inches by 6 ; g pole - plate, 6 inches by 4 ; li h common rafter, 7 inches by 6 ; ii joists supporting the lead flat. 1221. Mansard or Curb Roof . In cases where space is desired above the tie-beam, a form of truss known as the "mansard" is adopt- ed ; an illustration of which we give in fig. 421 ; a a, 10 inches by 4 ; b b, 6 inches by 4 ; c c, 5 inches by 4 ; d d, 4 inches by 4 ; e e, 5 inches by 4 ; /, 5 inches by 4 ; g g, 5 inches by 2. u 306 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 421. 1222. High-pitched or Gothic Roofs. In fig. 422 we give a trass for a high-pitched roof for a 20 - feet span ; a a, 4 inches by 3| ; 5, 5 inches by 4 ; c, 3^ inches by 4. 1223. In fig. 423 is another form of a truss for a high-pitched roof, in which the tie-bolt a is of wrought-iron. The tie-beam b b is 12 inches deep at the centre and 9 at the ends, the thickness be- ing 5 inches ; c c lower braces, 9 inches by 5 ; d d upper braces, 6 inches by 5 ; e e prin- cipals, 9 inches by 5. 1224. Height in a high-pitched roof may be obtained by cam- bering up the tie-beam, as shown in fig. 424, which may be adapted for a thrashing-mill. The king-post will re- quire to have as many faces as there are sides in the polygon to be roofed. The whole strength of the ar- rangement depends upon the strength of the straps used to join the ends of braces b b to the foot of the king- post a. 1225. Curved Rib- Truss. Fig. 425 illus- trates a form of roof invented by Mr Holds- worth, and for which the Society of Arts gave a reward. In this form, the space usually taken up by king-posts, &c., is left clear, so as to be available for several useful purposes, while the truss is TRUSS FOB OOTHIO OR BIOS-PITCHED ROOF SCALE, | INCH TO TH FOOT Pig. 423. TRUSSES. 307 not only lighter, but a considerable saving of timber is effected. The prin- cipal feature is the employment of a curved rib, as a a a ; this may be made of thin half-inch boards bolted together at intervals, firmly fixed into the tie- beam b b ; the principal rafters c c rest on these ribs, the lower ends abutting upon pieces d resting on the wall, and firmly connected by iron straps to the rib, so as to be able to counteract the outward thrust of the rafters ; e e are the common rafters, ///the purlins, g the wall-plate. 1226. Mr Tredgold describes a method of making curved ribs of short pieces of wood, which we illustrate in fig. 426. The pieces break joint, as shown in plan, the bolts being placed at each side of the joint, passing through the solid parts of thja wood. Timber for small roofs may be bent into the required form ; the elasticity of a piece of timber not being impaired by thus bending, when 308 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. ELEVATION FOK BIBS OF Fig. 427. its thickness does not exceed the one-hundred and twentieth part of its length. The best mode, however, of making a bent rib is on the " laminated" principle, now much adopted in railway-station roofs a fine example being met with in the Car- stairs Junction Station of the Caledonian Kail- way. Flat half -inch boards may be laid to- gether till the thick- ness desired is attained. The two ribs may then be placed, and the ends brought down with a rope till the curve is got, when the two Fig. 428. should be bolted together. On the release of the rope they will not spring back more than one- fourth or so of the amount of curve. The original curve given them, therefore, should be about 25 per cent greater than the curve required, to compensate for this spring or return, which taking place will bring the ribs to their true position, 1227. Laminated Rib-Roof. In fig. 427 we give a sketch of a truss of 32-feet span for a la- minated rib. The rafters a a are 10 inches by 6 ; the king- post b the same ; c c the lami- nated ribs, 10 inches by 6. 1228. Fig. 428 is part of the truss on a larger scale ; a the rafter resting on the pole-plate b, c c post resting on the bracket 7 the risers bring- nailed, &e. to the lines corresponding to c d, a /, and the treads on the lines d c, f f the Farmhouse and Cottage Doors Windoivs, $c. 1248. Ledged Doors. A lodged door is constructed of a number of boards, a a, fig. 4G4, of length equal to that of doorway. They are tongued and grooved, and secured by cross pieces or ledges b b. 1249. Ledged and Braced Doors. In this form, in addition to the ledges a a #, fig. 465, braces b b, are added. 1250. Framed and Braced Doors. In this form the longitudinal boards are kept together by the frame H a a u, fig. 4GG, and farther strengthened by the braces b b. Doors of this kind, when circular headed, may be finished in the interior, as shown in fig. 4G7. The exterior being kept quite plain. Fig. 464. 1251. Sash Door. In fig. 468 we give the ele- vation of a sash door, the lower part being furnished with two panels a b, the upper with a sash c, framed and glazed. 1252. Framed Doors. The doors of rooms of a superior class, furnished with panels, are termed " framed doors." In fig. 4G9, a a shows a four- panelled, and b b a six- panelled door. In the 318 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. frame of a panelled door, the side parts a a, fig. 470, are called " styles.'' The "rails," fig. 471, are the horizontal pieces containing the tenon mortised into the styles, and into which the panels are inserted. In fig. 472 a is the Fig. 471. Pig. 470. or A I>CCB. - . : " bottom rail ; " in fig. 473 a is the " middle rail." The vertical pieces a a, fig. 474, between the styles b b and rails c c, are called " muntins." :. ::. IT7XTIKS Or A I/OOB 1253. Panels. In fig. 475 we give at a the elevation of a snnk panel, and at b a raised lozenge. A panel is said to be " bead butt," as at , fig. 476, when the bead is worked on the edge of the panel, and so butts against the " rails." It is said to be "bead flush," as at b, fig. 476, when the bead is worked all round on the edge of the frame. Fig. 475. - - U BUII AS3> FLCBH FAJCEI PANELS. 319 1254. In fig. 477 we give suggestions for panelled work for house in fig. 23, and in fi\ 478 for the panel of drawing-room door of house in fig. 41. 1255. Gothic Door, fig. 479. 1256. Raised Panel Door. Bokctinn Moulded, fig. 480. 1257. Folding Door, fig. 481. 1258. Sliding Door, fig. 482. Fig. 478. O O G O O 3 O 320 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. Fig. 482. Fig. 481. I SLIEINO BOOR. 1259. Door Stops for the Prevention of Draughts. In fig. 483 we give a drawing of a left-hand door closed, and in fig. 484 a right-hand door opening, Fig. 483. Fig. 4S4. FLAN O DOOR STOP (oOOB CLOSED). DOOR STOP (DOOR PARTIALLY OPES). fitted with the india-rubber stops, The appliance consists of a small beading, nailed or screwed round the door frame, with a narrow strip or ribbon of thin vulcanised india-rubber, which is fixed at an angle, as at a, fig. 484, in a groove. The whole forms a species of spring, which presses against the door when closed, and forms an air-tight joint all round. In fig. 485 we illustrate the stop for the bottom of a door an admirable substitute for weather- boards in outside-doors. The beading which supports the strip of vulcanised india-rubber is hinged to the door itself, so that it opens like a parallel ruler. A spiing is provided between the two pieces, so that, as the door closes, the heel of the bead is caught by the frame and pressed so as to open the parallel slip, and cause the lower, edge, provided with the india-rubber, to press upon the WINDOWS. 321 floor or carpet. The address of the patentee is, Mr .T. Greenwood, 10 Arthur Street West, London Bridge, London. 1260. Windows. In fig. 48G we give a 4 feet high that is, between upper and under side of lintels a <7, a a and 2 feet broad between inner side of side-posts b b. Part of the length of side-posts are broken off to save room. The lintels a , a a are 4 inches by 3; the side-posts, same size, are attached to these by any of the joints already described ; a centre rail c c, 4 by 2, divides the window into two. Fig. 487 shows the plan of this, where the angular form of wall o o is shown, commencing at upper side of lower lintel a a, fig. 486, and terminating at under side of upper lintel a a. The window- sill, in the inside of room, is formed by pi in the space between o o at m, and projecting over inside wall about f inch. An exterior sill may be made by nailing to out- side of under lintel a a, fig. 487, a piece of timber 3 inches square the upper side sloping, and under side throated : c is section of the corresponding centre rail c, fig. 486. In fig. 488 we give the drawing of a sash window, the upper half c of which is fixed, the lower d being movable that is, cap- able of beingliftedup. Thelower mov- able sash is, however, not balanced by sash-weights, but is retained in its place by a simple catch, or a piece of wood, at any desired height. The construction of a balanced sash is of too complicated a kind to be at- tempted by any but an experienced workman. The left figure is a sec- tion (vertical), that to the right being an elevation : a a a a is the fram- ing, 5 inches by 3, the wall //being >' -+ 14 inches thick ; c the upper sash, firmly nailed to the framing ; d the lower movable sash, which slides up diagram of the framing; for a window acing a piece of boarding, inch thick, 322 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 489. into the space e. The lower sash d is prevented from coming out of its place by two bars c c, fig. 489, \ inch thick, and inch wide, nailed to the inside and outside of side-posts a a. The outer one is only continued from bottom lintel up to the under side of upper sash ; the inner one being earned up to the under side of upper lintel. In fig. 489, b is the side of sash-frame c, fig. 488, e the rebated astragal, / the glass, g the bottom rail of sash-frame c, fig. 488. The dimensions of this window is 3 feet 4 by 6 feet 5 ; each sash is divided into six panes, 12 inches by 17. In fig. 490 we give drawings of the lower sash, drawn to a scale of ^ inch to the foot. The lower rail a a, is 3 inches by 2 ; the upper, J, 2 inches by 2, as also the side ones c c. The section to the right shows position of top and bottom rail, and astragal for sus- taining the glass ; that to the left, an end view of sash ; that to the bottom, a plan. A method of mak- ing the astragals for sustaining the glass in windows, is shown in fig. 491, which is a cross section of one. A piece of wood any desired length (they may be made in long lengths, and cut as desired) is planed up to 1^ inch broad by ^ thick ; a rebate is made on both sides, as 6, inch deep, and of breadth so as to leave the front a 1 inch broad. The PABT SECTION OF SASH-FRAME. Fig. 490. b angle. sides c c are \ inch broad, and the other portion is tapered off to a little more than ^. The glass is fastened in the rebates 5, and se- cured with putty, filling up the The part a is outside, d in the interior of the room. In fig. 492 the ILKVATIOS AND SUCTION O SA8H-FRAMK OF WINBOV manner of joining the astragals together is shown : a a corresponds to the ver- tical lengths in fig. 490, b b to Fig. 492. Fig. 491. the cross ones. They may be joined by a dovetail or other joint, or nailed together. The dotted lines in fig. 491 show the position of an astragal at right angles to a d. In fig. 493 we give a diagram illustrative of the arrangement of another form of sliding window : in this instance the window is moved from side to side laterally, instead of vertically, as in fig. 488. Let a b c d be the opening of window in inside of frame, or in the wall ; h h the wall of room ; below the window fix (to wood bricks fixed in the wall) a horizontal timber e e, ASTRAGALS WINDOWS. 323 4^ inches by 4 feet, Laving nailed on its upper side a piece c, fig. 494, ^ inch square; similar to this, fix above the, window another horizontal slide//, but having its piece, as c, ri , 4po tin f fig. 494, fixed on lower edge ; there will thus be at upper and un- der sides of window, and extending beyond it on both sides (or one, as the window is desired to be moved on both sides or one only), two slides, in which the sash-frame a b c d, fig. 493, can be moved or pushed along. To facilitate its being moved along, two projecting handles may be attached to the sash-frame in- side. The upright g, fig. 493, limits the extent to which the window can be opened, or slid along e e and//. In the dia- Fi o- 494. gram we have repre- sented the horizontal bars e e, ff as being broken off. If the window is required to be capable of moving either to right or left of window - opening, they will extend to an equal distance on both sides : if the window is to move only to one side, a vertical post similar tog Avill be placed close to the edge of window, at side opposite to that at which g in the figure is placed. The figure to the left, fig. 493, is a section. In fig. 494, a is the sash-frame, 4 feet square, inside measurement, the scantling being the same as in fig. 490. It is divided into 20 squares, 11 inches by 9. The section b to the right repre- sents the under rail e e in fig. 493, to a scale of ^ inch to the inch ; c is the bottom rail of the sash. Instead of making the window in one part, it may be divided into two the inner rails of sash-frame being rebated, as in section e e to the left, so that, when closed together, they will form a water-tight joint. 1261. As a good window is an essential article in the cottages of labourers, it may be worth while to give a description of one made by Messrs M'Culloch & Co., Gallowgate, Glasgow, and for which they received a premium from the Highland and Agricultural Society. " This window is extremely simple in its construction, and. may with safety be pronounced efficient in point of comfort and utility, while the price, it is believed, will not be higher than the cheapest description of iron windows now in use, and, for durability, will be preferable to those of any other material. The dimensions that have been recommended for the windows of ordinary cottages are, 39 inches for the height, and 24 inches for the width, within the wooden frames. The size of glass required for these frames is 7^ inches by 5^. The sash is divided into two unequal parts, the lower part having 3 squares in height, and the upper part 2. The lower part is per- 324 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. manently fixed, while the upper part is constructed to turn in the vertical direction on pivots, which are situate in the line of its middle astragal ; and both parts are set in a substantial wooden frame, which may either be built in while the wall is erecting, or set in afterwards in the ordinary way, with or without checked rebats, according to the taste of the proprietor. The window and its arrangements will be better understood by reference to the annexed cuts, fig. 495 showing an inside elevation, fig. 496 a plan, and fig. 497 a ver- Fig. 495. L THE INSIDE ELEVATION OF AN IMPROVED WINDOW 8OITED FOR COTTAO1 feet. tical section, in each of which a portion of the wall is exhibited, and the same letters refer to the corresponding parts of each figure ; a is a portion of the sur- roxinding wall ; b b the wooden frame of the window ; c the lower sash, which is dormant; and d the upper and movable sash. In fig. 497, the upper sash is represented as open for ventilation. When shut, the parts of the opening sash cover and overlap the fixed parts in such a manner as to exclude wind and water ; but when ventilation is required, the arrangement of the parts which WINDOWS. 325 produce tins, is such as to enable tlio housekeeper to admit air to any extent. For this purpose, the notched latch c i.s jointed to a stud in the edge of the sash ; a simple iron pin or stud is also fixed in the wooden frame at s, and the notches of the latch being made to fall upon this stud at any required distance, the requisite degree of opening is secured ; and when the sash is again closed, the latch falls down parallel with, and close to, the sash. To secure the sashes when shut, the T bolt f, in the mid- dle of the meeting bars, has only to be turned \ round, and the movable sash is held fast in close contact with the other. Fig. 495 represents the windows as finished with simple dressings namely, plain deal shutters, facings, and sole which, at a small expense, would give an air of neatness and comfort to the apartment, and promote a correspond- ing taste in the other parts of the cottage. Though the dimensions of the window here stated may be conceived sufficient for light- ing an apartment of ordinary size, they can, nevertheless, be varied to suit every pur- pose. This may be done either by employ- ing two such windows as above described, with a mullion of wood or of stone between them, or the single window may be enlarged by 1 or 2 squares in width, or in height, or in both directions." 1262. It is proper to mention that zinc, in the opinion of tradesmen, is too weak for window-sashes to admit of repair by an un- practised hand. Wood and lead are, for the same reasons, equally unsuitable. Malleable iron, even so thin as to impede the light but little, if the astragals are not provided with flanges for the glass to rest against, the re- 326 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. pair must also be a work of some difficulty, and is also deemed unfit for the purpose. Cast-iron, therefore, appears to be the material least liable to objec- tion ; but astragals of cast-iron must be of considerable thickness, and such frames, consequently, could not be adapted to a very small size of glass, without materially obscuring the light. The iron sashes, as shown above, without the wooden frames, cost 5s. ; and glass for such windows may be purchased at 2|d. per square. 1263. French Casement Window. In fig. 498 we give an elevation of this form of window, the peculiarity of which is, that the sashes a a, b b open longitudinally, like fold- ing-doors. The leaves may open up the whole length of window, or the sashes c c may be fixed. Objections to this form of window the difficulty of regulating the amount of opening, so as to secure less or more ventilation, the ex- pensiveness of the fastenings, and their liability to shake and rattle, and to admit draughts through the central join- ing are all obviated in the ingenious form of window now to be described. 1264. West $ Habbell's Patent " Oak-Hall" Window. In fig. 499 we give an elevation of this window closed, and in fig. 500 an ele- vation open. From fig. 500, it will be seen that the sashes are capable of ILIVATION O A F CASEMENT WI Fig. 499. Fig. 500. OAK-HAI.I, WINDOW, CLOSEr being opened several ways at once. The top sashes a a can be lowered, so as to permit of the escape of the foul air of the room, while the lower sashes b and c can be opened not only in the direction of their length, but can be raised in the frame. The upper panes a a can be lowered to the bottom of the frame, so as to be within easy reach when requiring to be cleaned or re- paired ; and being kept in the lower position while the two swinging sashes are completely open, they will serve as a protection when children are in the room. In construction, this form of window is cheaper than French casements, requires no expensive fastenings, and does not interfere with inside blinds, which can be used whether the window is open or shut. Amongst other advantages this window possesses, is that which enables one-half of the lower sash, as the WINDOWS. 327 part i, to be opened or drawn up independently of the other half c. By this arrangement, the draught of air entering the apartment can be directed as de- sired. The centre mullions of the lower sashes b, care tongued and grooved like the boards of a floor., so that the sashes do not shake or rattle, and are perfectly weather-tight when closed. From the vertical movement of the lower sashe's, the stop bead at the bottom of the frame acts also as a medium to ex- clude the weather the drip being on the outside. In fig. 501 we give a longitudinal, and in fig. 502 a horizontal, section of this window. Fig. 502. FAKT HORIZONTAL PLAN OF C 1265. Shaw's Patent Sash-Frame. In fig. 503 we give a drawing of part ele- vation, in fig. 504 a horizontal section, and in fig. 505 a vertical section, of this window, which is rapidly coming into use, affording great facilities for cleaning and repairing. The sashes are fixed upon centres, so that they are capable of making a semi-revolution presenting the outside of the window to the inside of the room. In fig. 505 the sash-cords a are attached to strips or loose pieces b, sliding in the recess of the window-frame ; the sashes d d have on either side a projecting pin or centre e e, as seen also in fig. 503 328 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. on the lower sash. only. The centres e are nearly in the centre of the length of sash, and they engage in the bearings /, in the loose strips b. To preserve the sashes in a vertical direction, screws g g, fig. 504, are passed through the sash stile, and engage in pieces h h, fixed in the strips b. The sash is thus made to form vertically one piece with the strips ft, so that it can be raised or lowered as an ordinary sash. By withdrawing the pins g, the sash may be turned on its centre, as in fig. 505. The sashes, when restored to their vertical position, are secured in their places by the screws g g these entering the window in an oblique direction, as in fig. 504. The address of the patentee is, Benjamin Shaw, Wellington, Salop. Fig. 503. fpn"T5- Fig. 505. PART ELETATrCW OF SHAW'9 PATENT WINDOW. Fig. 504. LONO1TUDINAI. SECTION OF I PATENT WINDOW. PART PLN OF I PATENT WIN 1266. Details of Windows of Farmhouses. Of the windows of houses given from pages 58 to 83, we now propose to give detail drawings. In fig. 506 WINDOWS. 329 we give half plan of main window, of which we have given the front elevation in fig. 56. Fi-. 500. 1267. In fig. 507 w r e give an enlarged sketch to a scale of -^ inch to the foot showing half elevation of bay window to sitting-room a a in ground plan, fig. 55, and elevation in fig. 56. 1268. In fig. 508 we give part plan of this window, at the corner where the front and side lights meet ; a the corner jamb or mullion, b b space for sun blinds, c space for shutters, d skirting. 1269. In fig. 509 we give the plan of shutter of one side of this window, where a a is line of sill, b jamb or mullion, c c space for sun blinds, d d space for shutters, e e face of skirting, f f shutter-box and shutters. 1270. In fig. 510 we give part vertical section of this bay window; a a a cornice, b sash-frame. 1271. In fig. 511 we give part vertical section of base of the same bay win- dow ; a the sill, b sash-frame, c skirting in room. 1272. In fig. 512 we give a side elevation, of the V window in fig. 56, and in parlour, b b, fig. 55, of which fig. 513 is part plan, showing mullion a, sash- framing b b. 1273. In fig. 514 we give section of inner part of same window, with jamb , and shutter-box and shutters b and c. In figs. 513 and 514 the numbers 111, 2 2, and 3 3, denote the same lines. The scale to which these drawings are made, is 1 inch to the foot. 330 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. PART VERTICAL B1CTION OF BAT WINDOW SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. PLAN OF SHUTTERS SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 611. PART SOTIOK OF BASH OF BAT WINDOW 1 INCH TO THI FOOT. Fig. 512. SIDE ELEVATION OF V -WINDOW- IN FIQ. 56. WINDOWS. 331 Fig. 513. 1274. In fig. 515 we give plan of shutters of principal window of room c c, in house in fig. 65 (and in elevation, in fig. 67), of which a a is the brick wall, b b cavity of do., c bracket, d stone nmllion, e sash, f f shutter. Scale, 1 inch to the foot. 1275. In fig. 516 we give part plan of bay window in apartment b i, fir*-. 68 ; a stone mullion, b b brickwork, c sash-frame. 1276. In fig. 517 a part of sash-frame, b b brickwork, c c shutters. 1277. In fig. 518 we give half plan of bay window in chamber floor b b, fio-. 69, and in the elevation in fig. 71 ; a stone mullion, /; b brickwork, c d e sash- frames and sashes. The scale to which figs. 51G, 517, and 518 are constructed, is given in fig. 516. 332 PEACTICAL CONSTBUCTION. Fig. 516. Fig. 517. 12 6 PABT PLAN OF BAT WINDOW OF BOOSE IN FIO. 63 3CALE, 1 INC! TO THE FOOT. PLAN OF BiY WINDOW SHUTTERS- SCALE IN FIO. 516. Fig. 519. Fig. 518. PLAN OF BAT WINDOW, CHAMBER FLOOR, IN FIO. 69 SOALU IN FIO. 516. 1278. Architrave. In fig. 519 we give section of mouldings of architrave for house in fig. 23. 1279. Skirting and Cornice. In fig. 520 we give section of skirting and cor- nice for dining-room of house in fig. 41. In fig. 521 skirting, and in fig. 522 FITTINGS OF STABLES. 333 cornice for drawing-room of same house. For many of these- details we are indebted to Mr Burns' work, Modal Designs for Mansions, Villas, $c. Fig. 520. EIRT1NQ ANL) CORNICE FOE tNINO-ROOM OF FARMHOUS IN HO. 41. SO-IIOOM OF FIG. 41. 1280. SECTION SEVENTH Fittings of the Steading, Stable, Byre, Barn, Courtyard, $c. The length of a work-horse stable, of course, depends on the number of horses employed on the farm; but in no instance should its width be less than 18 feet, for comfort to the horses themselves, and convenience to the men who take charge of them. Few stables for work-horses are made wider than 16 feet, and hence few are otherwise than hampered for room. A glance at the particulars which should be accommodated in the width of a work-horse stable, will show at once the inconvenience of this narrow breadth. The length of a work- horse is seldom less than 8 feet ; the width of a hay-rack is about 2 feet ; the harness hanging loosely against the wall occupies about 2 feet ; and the gutter occupies 1 foot ; so that in a width of 16 feet there is only a space of 3 feet left from the heels of the horses to the harness, to pass backward and forward, and wheel a barrow and use the shovel arid broom. No wonder, when so little room is given to work in, that cleanliness is so much neglected in farm-stables, and that much of the dung and urine are left to be decomposed and dissipated by heat in the shape of ammoniacal gas, to the probable injury of the breath- ing and eyesight of the horses, when shut up at night. To aggravate the evil, there is very seldom a ventilator in the roof; and the windows are gene- rally too small for the admission of light and air ; and what is still worse, a hay-loft is placed immediately above the horses' heads ; and, to render the condition of the stable as bad as possible, as regards cleanliness, its walls are never plastered, and their rough stones form receptacles of dust and cobwebs. 1281. Another particular in which most stables are improperly fitted up, is the narrowness of the stalls, 5 feet 3 inches being the largest space allowed for an ordinary-sized work-horse. A narrow stall is not only injurious to the horse himself, by confining him peremptorily to one position, in which he has no liberty to bite or scratch himself, should he feel so inclined, but it materially 334 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. obstructs the ploughmen in the grooming and supplying the horse with food. No work-horse, in our opinion, should have a narrower stall than 6 feet from centre to centre of the travis, in order that he may stand at ease, or lie down at pleasure with comfort. 1282. It is a disputed point of what form the hay-racks in a work-horse stable should be. The prevailing opinion may be learned from the general practice, which is to place them as high as the horses' heads, because, as it is alleged, the horse is thereby obliged to hold up his head, and he cannot then breathe upon his food. Many better reasons, as we conceive, may be adduced for placing the racks low down. A work-horse does not require to hold his head up at any time, and much less in the stable, where he should rest as much as he can. A low rack permits the neck and head, in the act of eating, to be held in the usual position. He is not so liable to put the hay among his feet from a low as from a high rack. His breath cannot contaminate his food so much in a low as in a high rack, inasmuch as the breath naturally ascends ; and as the sense of smell is employed by the horse in choosing his food, he chooses it at leisure from a low rack, whereas from a high one he is first, obliged to pull it out before he knows he is to like what he pulls. He is less fatigued eating out of a low than from a high rack, every mouthful having to be pulled out of the latter, from its sloping position, by the side of the mouth turned up- wards. For this reason mown grass is much more easily eaten out of a low than a high rack. And, lastly, we have heard of peas falling out of the straw, when pulled out of a high rack, into the ear of a horse, and therein setting up a serious degree of inflammation. 1283. The front rail of the low rack should be made of strong hardwood, in case the horse should at any time playfully put his foot on it, or bite it when groomed. The front of the rack should be sparred, for the admission of fresh air among the food, and incline inwards at the lower end, to be out of the way of the horses' fore-feet. The bottom should also be sparred, and raised at least 6 inches above the floor, for the easy removal of the hay-seeds that may Lave passed through the spars. The manger should be placed at the near end ot the rack, for the greater convenience of supplying the corn. A spar of wood should be fixed across the rack from the front rail to the back wall, midway between the travis and the manger, to prevent the horse tossing out the fodder with the side of his mouth, which he will sometimes be inclined to do when not hungry. The ring through which the stall collar-shank passes, is fastened by a staple to the hardwood front rail. We have seen the manger, in some new steadings, made of stone, on the alleged plea that stone is more easily cleaned than wood after prepared food. We do not think wood more difficult of being cleaned than stone, when cleaned in a proper time after being used. As ploughmen are proverbially careless, the stone manger has perhaps been sub- stituted on the supposition that it will bear much harder usage than wood ; or perhaps the proprietors could obtain stone cheaper from their own quarries than good timber from abroad : but whatever may have been the reasons for pre- ferring stone in such a situation, it has a clumsy appearance and feels uncom- fortable, and is injurious to the horses' teeth when they seize it suddenly in grooming, and even work-horses will bite any object when groomed; and we sup- pose that stone would also prove hurtful to their lips when collecting their food at the bottom of the manger. 1284. When hind-posts of travises are made of wood, they are fastened at the upper ends to battens stretching across the stable from the ends of the couple legs where there is no hay-loft, and from the joists of the flooring where FITTINGS OF STABLES. 335 there is, and sunk at the lower ends in stone blocks placed in the ground. The head-posts are divided into t\vo parts, which clasp the travis-boards between them, and are kept together with screw-bolts and nuts, and their lower ends are also sunk into stone blocks. Their upper ends are fastened to the battens or joists when the hind-posts are of wood. The travis-boards are put endways into the groove of the hind-post, and pass between the two divisions of the head-post to the wall before the horses' heads ; and are there raised with a sweep so high as to prevent the horses putting their heads over it. 1285. Fig. 523 gives a view of the particulars of a stall for work-horses, fitted up with wooden travis-posts, which is yet the common method : Fig. 52.3. a a are the strong hind -posts ; b 6, the head-posts, both sunk into the stone blocks c c c c, and fastened to the battens d d, stretching across the stable from the wall e to the opposite wall ;//, the travis-boards, let into the posts a a by grooves, and passing between the two di- visions of the posts b b ; the boards are represented high enough to prevent the horses annoying each other ; g g are curb-stones set be- tween the hind and fore posts a and b, to receive the side of the travis-boards in grooves, and there- by secure them from decay by keep- ing them above the action of the litter; h is the sparred bottom of the hay-rack, the upper rail of which holds the ring i for the stall collar-shank ; k the corn-manger or trough ; I the bar across the rack, to prevent the horse tossing out the fodder ; m the pavement within __ the stall ; n the freestone gutter for conveying away the urine to one V O V A STALL FOR A WOKK-UORSE STABLE. end of the stable ; o the pavement of the passage behind the horses' heels ; p are two parallel spars fastened over and across the battens, when there is no hay -loft, to support trusses of straw or hay, to be given as fodder to the horses in the evenings of winter, to save the risk of fire in going at night to the straw-barn or hay-house with a light. 1286. A new method of arranging the stalls in stables has recently been advocated namely, giving feeding passage at the head, in place of termi- nating them at a dead wall. Morton, in his prize essay on Fittings for Stables and Byres* has, we think, exhausted all the reasons which can be urged in favour of the scheme, and very pertinently finishes his remarks with the follow- ing : " If cow-stalls, having a front feeding passage, are found of advantage, in facilitating labour, in supplying the animals with food, and in some degree promoting ventilation, the same arrangement ought surely to be adopted in * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, 1857. 336 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. nrTIN38 OF ] stables where these advantages are of still greater importance." But with such a passage the stable would require to be made proportionately wider. 1287. In the same essay Morton describes a method of fitting up the front of the stalls to which we refer the reader. The following illustration which we have prepared, embraces the parti- culars there given, with some modifica- tions. In fig. 524, a a are the-head- posts of the stall, into which the cross- bars b 6, c c are mortised the bar c c being just above the top edge of manger. These bars, b , c c, support a range of vertical spars d d, or have boarding nailed to them, according as an open or a closed space is required. In the centre of the stall a space e 30 inches wide is left, through which to supply food to the man- ger. This is closed when required by folding-doors / /, hinged to the upright bars g g, which are mortised into the bars b 6, c c at their upper and lower ends. In place of these folding- doors a sliding gate may be adopted. This is shown at h h the upper and lower bars of which, i k, being rounded at their outer edges o o, and running in grooves, made in bars I m, screwed to the face of the upper and lower bars b b and c c. The sliding gate h h may be fitted in at the centre n, either with vertical spars or with boarding. 1288. Fig. 525 is a specimen of a stall for a work-horse stable, with cast-iron heel-posts. 1289. The roof of a work-stable should always be open to the slates, and not only so, but have openings in its ridge, protected by ventilators; and such are absolutely necessary for a work-horse stable. It is distressing to the feelings to inhale the air in some farm stables at night, particularly in old steadings economically fitted up, which is not only warm from confine- ment, moist from breathing, and stifl- ing from sudorific odours, but cutting to the breath, and pungent to the eyes, from the volatilisation of ammonia. The windows are seldom opened, and can scarcely be so by disuse. The roof in such a stable is like a suspend- ed extinguisher over the half-stifled horses. This evil is still further aggravated by a hay-loft, the floor of which is extended over and within afoot or less of the horses' heads. Besides its incon- venience to the horses, the hay in it, through nightly roasting and fumigation, Fig. 525. VENTILATION. 337 soon becomes dry and brittle, and contracts a disagreeable odour. The only remedy for all these inconveniences is complete ventilation. 1290. Ventilation. The object of ventilation, to any apartment which consti- tutes the abode of animals, is to procure a constant supply of air in sufficient purity to meet the demands of the animal economy. The practice that has long prevailed, as regards ventilation, seems to deny its utility, and to doubt the injury accompanying its neglect. " It is upwards of eight-and-forty years," says Stewart, " since James Clarke of Edinburgh protested against close stables. He insisted they were hot and foul, to a degree incompatible with health, and he strongly recommended that they should be aired in such a manner as to have them always cool and sweet. Previous to the publication of Clarke's work, people never thought of admitting fresh air into a stable ; they had no notion of its use. In fact, they regarded it as highly pernicious, and did all they could to exclude it. In those times the groom shut up his stable at night, and was careful to close every aperture by which a breath of fresh air might find admission. The keyhole and the threshold of the door were not forgotten. The horse was confined all night in a sort of hot-house ; and, in the morning, the groom was delighted to find his stable warm as an oven. He did not per- ceive, or did not notice, that the air was bad, charged with moisture, and with vapours more pernicious than moisture. It was oppressively warm, and that was enough for him. He knew nothing about its vitiation, or about its influ- ence upon the horses' health. In a large crowded stable, where the horses were in constant and laborious work, there would be much disease glanders, grease, mange, blindness, coughs, and broken wind would prevail, varied occa- sionally by fatal inflammation. In another stable, containing fewer horses, and those doing little work, the principal diseases would be sore throats, bad eyes, swelled legs, and inflamed lungs, or frequent invasions of the influenza. But everything on earth would be blamed for them before a close stable." Moreover, he observes, " The evils of an impure atmosphere vary according to several circumstances. The ammoniacal vapour is injurious to the eyes, to the nostrils, and the throat. Stables that are both close and filthy are notorious for producing blindness, coughs, and inflammation of the nostrils ; these arise from acrid vapours alone. They are most common in those dirty hovels where the dung and urine are allowed to accumulate for weeks together. The air of a stable may be contaminated by union with ammoniacal vapour, and yet be tol- erably pure in other respects. It may never be greatly deficient in oxygen ; but when the stable is so close that the supply of oxygen is deficient, other evils are added to those arising from acrid vapours. Disease, in a visible form, may not be the immediate result. The horses may perform their -work and take their food, but they do not look well, and they have not the vigour of robust health; some pre lean, hide-bound, having a dead dry coat, some have swelled legs, some mange, and some grease. All are spiritless, lazy at work, and soon fatigued. They may have the best of food, and plenty of it, and their work may not be very laborious, yet they always look as if half starved, or shamefully overwrought. When the influenza comes among them, it spreads fast, and is difficult to treat. Every now and then one or two of the horses become glandered and farcied." 1291. In order to show in a striking light the necessity there exists of using means to promote ventilation in all places occupied by animals, it may perhaps be done in the best manner by stating the estimated quantity of air which is vitiated every day by a cow of ordinary size. Dr Kobert D. Thomson, after showing that the large quantity of carbon, 6.172 lb., daily taken by a cow in 338 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. its food, is employed for a purpose totally distinct from proper nutrition, pro- ceeds to say " We are at present acquainted with only one other purpose for which the carbon of the food can be employed viz., the generation of animal heat throughout the body, a function undoubtedly carried on, not only in the lungs, but also throughout the entire capillary system of the skin, at least in man and perspiring animals. If this view be correct, then it follows that up- wards of 6 Ib. of carbon are expended by a cow daily in the production of animal heat. And as 1 Ib. of carbon, when combined with the necessary amount of oxygen to form carbonic acid, gives out as much heat as would melt 104.2 Ib. of ice, it is evident that the quantity of ice capable of being melted by the heat generated by a cow, in one day, would amount to upwards of 625 Ib., or it would heat 1 Ib. of water, 87,528 degrees. It would consume, at the same time, the enormous quantity of 330,429 cubic inches of oxygen, or 191j cubic feet of this gas ; and as this amounts to one -fifth of the atmospheric air, we find that a cow, consuming 6 Ib. of carbon for respiratory purposes, would require 956^ cubic feet of atmospheric air, a sufficient indication of the immense importance of a free ventilation in cow-houses, and of the danger of over-crowding, if the ani- mals are expected to retain a healthy condition." " 1292. Here are data furnished of the quantity of air required to be admitted into a byre, for the necessary use, daily, of a single cow of ordinary size. How, then, is this large quantity of fresh air to be admitted into a byre, when all the doors and windows are shut ? This question involves and presupposes another, namely, How is as large a quantity of vitiated air to be expelled from the byre ? for this must first take place ere a ventilation through the byre can be main- tained. The popular notions, however, regarding ventilation are very indefinite, as Mr Stewart observes : " Most people do not imagine that one set of apertures is required to carry away the foul, and another to admit the pure air. Even those who know that one set cannot answer both purposes in a perfect manner, are apt to disregard any provision for admitting fresh air. They say there is no fear but sufficient will find its way in somehow, and the bottom of the door is usually pointed to as a very good inlet. It is clear enough, that while air is going out, some also must be coming in ; arid that if none go in, little or none can go out. To make an outlet without any inlet betrays ignorance of the cir- cumstances which produce motion in the air. To leave the inlet to chance, is just as much as to say that it is of no consequence in what direction the fresh air is admitted, or whether any be admitted. The outlets may also serve as inlets ; but then they must be much larger than when they serve only one pur- pose ; and the stable, without having purer air, must be cool or cold. When the external atmosphere is colder than that in the stable, it enters at the bottom of the door, or it passes through the lowest apertures, to supply and fill the place of that which is escaping from the high apertures. If there be no low openings, the cooler air will enter from above it will form a current inwards at the one side, while the warmer air forms another current, setting outwards at the other side. But when the upper apertures are of small size, this will not take place till the air inside becomes very warm or hot."-}- So little do many people see the necessity of ventilation, that they cannot distinguish between the warm air and the foul air of a stable; and, consequently, if the admission of fresh air is wanted to expel the foul, they immediately conclude it must be cold, and do harm. Now, it is the proper action of ventilation to let away all, and no more of the warm air of a stable, than what is foul, * THOMSON'S Researches into the Food of Animals, pp. 113, 114. t STEWART'S Stable Economy, pp. 35, 43, and 51. FEBGUSON'S IMPEOTED VENTILATOR 339 and then, of course, no more than the same quantity of fresh air can find its way into it. 1293. As doors and windows are usually situated in farm-stables, the fresh air should not be allowed to enter by them through the night ; they should therefore be made tight. Fresh air coming directly from the doors or windows towards the nostrils of a horse, must pass either over his body, or first strike against his limbs in either case doing more injury than good. The fresh air should come in near the horses' nostrils, where it is really required to be breathed in. An opening through the head wall of the stable, a few feet above the horse's head, seems the most convenient and proper place for the air to find its way. For the supply of every horse alike, an opening should be made above the head of each horse; and being so numerous, they should be small. We cannot particularise the size, as that must depend on many circumstances the number of horses, contents of the stable, tightness of the doors and windows, and such- like. The air, on entering, being colder than that in the stable, will fall down- wards, and to retard the velocity of its entrance the openings should be pro- vided with a covering of perforated plates of zinc ; and should the current be still too strong, let it strike against a board or plate of iron fixed to the wall, and so placed as to cause the air to be reflected upwards before it descends. Experience will soon adjust the various parts of the means of ventilation to their proper relative proportions. 1294. It greatly promotes the comfort and health of animals confined for many hours every day in one apartment to have the fresh air admitted to them without the creation of draughts, and no means of obtaining this object is so much in our power, as placing ventilators in the roof of the part of the steading so occupied by the animals. 1295. Ferguson's Improved Ventilator fur Stables, eye. In fig. 526 we give an elevation, and in fig. 527 a section, of a ventilator invented by Mr James Fer- guson, agent to W. B. Beaumont, Esq., M.P. In fig. 527, the section, the dimensions are about 3 feet by 2, and 3 feet high. A continuation of the void of the ventilator is carried downward with light close boarding, forming a cham- ber a a, in which the regulator operates its interior dimensions being as above stated. At bottom the chamber spreads out, so as to assume the form of an in- verted funnel. At the point where the chamber expands, two valves or light doors are hinged, as at b b ; these, when let down in a horizontal position, fill up the area of the chamber so completely as to prevent all egress of the foul air. The descent of the valves is secured by the action of the loaded levers c c. To open the valves, cords are attached, as shown in the diagram, and, joined into one, are carried down to a point within easy reach of the attendant. 340 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1296. Other forms of Ventilators. In figs. 528 and 529 we give forms of ven- tilators, in which the egress of the foul air is easily regulated, and which we have used with success. In fig. 528 a a is the box of the ventilator, which passes through, and is continued at least 2 feet above the ridge of the roof. A valve b is hinged at one side e, and rests on the batten or piece d, secured to the side of the ventilator. This is lifted up to any desired extent by the chain or stiing e e, which passes through an aperture in the box a, and is led over a pulley /, working in a small bracket secured to the box. The cord is carried over another pulley, and terminates within easy reach of the attendant An- Fig. 528. Fig. 529. SECTION OF VENTILATOR WITH SUSPENDED VALV SECTION Of VENTILATOR WITH HINOED other form is shown in fig. 529. In this the valve a a is suspended beneath the ventilator b b. The dimensions of the valve a a exceed the area of the aperture of the ventilator. By this arrangement the foul air is compelled to take the course of the arrows, thus creating a more widely-extended current from the parts surrounding the aperture of the ventilator. The valve is worked by a cord c passing over the pulley d, which works on a bar e, passing across the ventilator. 1297. Fig. 530 is a ventilator, in which the Venetian blinds a are fixed, and answer the double purpose of permit- ting the escape of heated air and effluvia, and of preventing the entrance of rain or snow. The blinds are covered and protected by the roof b, made of slates and lead ; c is an apron of lead. Such a ventilator would be more or- A VENTII-AT namental to the steading than fig. 530 is, and more protective to the blinds, if its roof projected 12 inches over. One ventilator 6 feet in length, 3 feet in height in front, and 2 feet above the ridging of the roof, for every six horses or cows, might suffice to maintain a complete ventilation. But such openings in the roof will not of themselves constitute ventilation, unless an adequate supply of fresh air is admitted below ; and the supply might be ob- tained from small openings in the walls, including the chinks of doors and windows when shut, whose gross areas should be nearly equal to those of the ventilators. The openings should be in such situations and numbers as STABLE WIN I )OWS HARNESS-PINS. 341 Fit;. 5:31. to cause no draught of air upon the animals ; arid might bo conveniently placed, protected by iron gratings on the outside to prevent the entrance of vermin, in the wall behind or before the animals, of such a form as to deflect the air upwards against a board or plate of iron, to spread it about as much as possible. Other forms of ventilators are in use, consisting of a large curve of lead or zinc pipe projected through the roof and bent downwards; or simply a few of the slates or tiles raised up a little, either of which is better than no ven- tilator at all, but neither so effectual for the purpose of ventilation as the one we have described. (Other forms of ventilators for withdrawing foul air will be found described in a future Section, when treating of Iron Construction.) 1298. Stable Windows. The windows of steadings should be of the form for the purpose they are intended to be used. On this account the windows of stables, and of other apartments, should be of different forms. Fig. 531 re- presents a window for a stable. The opening is 4 feet in height by 3 in width. The framework is composed of a dead part a, of 1 foot in depth, 2 shutters b b to open on hinges, and fasten inside with a thumb-catch, and c a glazed sash 2 feet in height, with three rows of panes. The object of this form of window is, that it may easily be opened, although a number of small articles are thrown upon the sole of a work-horse stable window, such as short-ends, straps, &c., which are only used occasionally, and intended to be at hand when wanted. The consequence of this confused mixture of things, which it is not easy for the farmer to prevent, especially in a busy season, is, that when the shutters are desired to be opened, it is scarcely possible to do it without first clearing the sole of everything ; and, rather than find another place for them, the window remains shut. A cupboard in a wall suggests itself for containing such small articles; but in the only wall namely, the front one of the stable in which it would be convenient to make such a cupboard, its surface is occupied by the harness hanging against it ; and besides, no orders, however peremptory, will prevent such articles being at busy times thrown upon the window-soles ; and where is the harm of their lying there at hand, provided the windows are so constructed as to admit of being opened when desired? When a dead piece of wood, as a, is put into such windows, small things may remain on the sole, while the shutters b b may be easily opened and shut over them. 1299. Harness-Pins. The harness should all be hung against the wall be- hind the horses, and none on the posts of the stalls, against which it is too frequently placed, to its great injury, in being constantly kept in a damp state by the horses' breath and perspiration, and apt to be knocked down among their feet. A good way is to suspend harness upon stout hardwood pins driven into a strong narrow board, fastened to the wall with iron holdfasts ; but perhaps the most substantial way is to build the pins into the wall, when a new stable is build- ing. The harness belonging to each pair of horses should just cover a space of the wall equal to the breadth of the two stalls which they occupy, and when windows and doors intervene, and which of course must be left free, this arrange- ment requires some consideration. We have found this a convenient one : A spar of hardwood nailed firmly, immediately over the passage, across the upper edge of the batten d, fig. 523, that supports both posts of the stall, will suspend a collar on each end, high enough above a person's head. One pin on the wall is sufficient for each of the cart-saddles, one will support both the bridles, while 342 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. a fourth will suffice for the plough, and a fifth for the trace harness. Thus 5 pins or 6 spaces will be required for each pair of stalls ; and in a stable of 12 stalls deducting a space of 13 feet for 2 doors and 2 windows in such a stable there will still be left, according to this arrangement, a space for the harness of about 18 inches between the pins. Iron hooks driven into the board betwixt the pins will keep the cart-ropes and plough-reins by themselves. The curry- comb, hair-brush, and foot-picker, may be conveniently enough hung up high on the hind-post, betwixt the pair of horses to which they belong, and the mane- comb is usually carried in the ploughman's pocket. When the hind-posts are of cast-iron, these small articles cannot be hung upon them; and in such a case, there being no batten to suspend the collars from, hooks must be driven into the couple-legs to hang them upon. 1300. Each horse should be bound to his stall with a leather stall-collar, having an iron-chain collar-shank to play through the ring i of the hay-rack, fig. 523, with a turned wooden sinker at its end, to weigh it to the ground. Iron chains make the strongest stall collar-shanks, though certainly noisy when in use; yet work-horses are not to be trusted with the best hempen cords, which often become affected with dry rot, and are, at all events, soon apt to wear out in running through the smoothest stall-rings. A simple stall- collar with a nose-band, and strap over the head, is sufficient to secure most horses ; but as some acquire the trick of slipping the strap over their ears, it is necessary to have either a throat-lash in addition, or a simple broad belt around the neck. Others are apt, when scratching their neck with the hind-foot, to pass the fetlock joint over the stall collar-shank, and, finding themselves en- tangled, to throw themselves down in the stalls, bound neck and heel there to remain unreleased until the morning, when the men come to the stable. By this accident we have seen horses get injured in the head and leg for some time. A short stall collar-shank is the only preventive against such an acci- dent, and a low rack admits of its being made short. 1301. Loose-Box. Besides the ordinary stalls, a loose-box will be found a useful adjunct to a work-horse stable. A space equal to two stalls should be railed off at one end of the stable. It is a convenient place into which to put a work-mare when expected to foal. Some mares indicate so very faint symptoms of foaling, that they frequently are known to drop their foals under night in the stable to the great risk of the foal's life where requisite attention is not directed to the state of the mare, or where there is no spare apartment to put her in. It is also suitable for a young stallion, when first taken up and preparing for travelling the road ; as also for any young draught-horse, taken up to be broke for work, until he become accustomed to the stable. It might also be, when unfortunately so required, converted into a temporary hospital for a horse, which, when seized with complaint, might be put into it until it is ascertained whether or not the disease is infectious, and if so, removed to a proper hospital. Some people object to having a loose-box in the stable, and would rather have it out of it; but the social disposition of the horse renders such a place useful on such occasions. It is, besides, an excellent place to rest a fatigued horse for a few days. It is also a good place for a foal when its mother is obliged to be absent at work in the fields, until both are turned out to grass. 1302. Hay-House. The hay-house should be adjoining the work-horse stable. Its floor should be flagged on a considerable quantity of sand to keep it dry, or with asphaltum. It should have a giblet-checked door to open out- wards, with a hand-bar to fasten it on the inside ; it should also have a CO UN- (J 1 IEST B YKES. 343 partly glazed window, with .shutters, to afl'ord light when taking out the Lay to the horses, and air to keep it sweet. As the hay -house communicates immediately with the work-horse stable by a door, it may find room for the work-horse corn-chest, which may there be conveniently supplied with corn from the granary above, by means of a spout let into the fixed part of the lid. For faciliating the taking out of the corn, the end of the chest should be placed against the wall at the side of the door which opens into the stable, and its back part boarded with thin deals up to the floor above, if there be one, or sufficiently high to prevent the hay coming upon the lid of the chest. The walls of the hay-house should be plastered. 1303. Corn-Chest. The form of the corn-chest is more convenient, and takes up less room on the floor, when high and narrow than when low and broad, as in fig. 532, which is 5 feet long and 4 high at the back above the feet. A part of the front b folds down with hinges, to give easier access to the corn as it gets low in the chest. Part of the lid is made fast, to receive the spout d, for conveying the corn into it from the granary or lop, if there be one, and also to render its movable part a lighter, and this is fastened with a hesp and padlock, the key of which should be constantly in the custody of the farm-steward, or of the person who gives out the corn to the plough- men where no farm-steward is kept : c is the corner of the doorway into the work-horse stable, and e is the board- ing behind to prevent the hay falling on the lid. A fourth part of a peck measure is always kept in the client for measuring out the corn to the horses. It must not be imagined that when the spout supplies corn from the granary as required, it supplies it without measure. The corn appropriated for the Lorses is previously measured off on the granary floor, in any convenient quantity, and then shovelled down the spout at times to fill the chest. A way to ascertain the quantity of corn at any time in the chest is to mark lines on the inside of the chest indicative of every quarter of corn which it contains. 1304. Byres. The cow-house or byre is occupied by the COW T S, and in some districts by the fattening oxen also, and is fitted up in a peculiar manner. The cows stand in stalls : the stalls, to be easy for the cows to lie down and rise up, in our opinion, for a large kind of cattle, should never be less than 5 feet in width. Four feet is a more common width, but is too narrow for a large cow, and even 7 feet is considered in the dairy districts a fair-sized double stall for two cows. Our opinion is, that every cow should have a stall for her own use, lying, standing, or eating her food, of sufficient length and breadth that she may lie at ease betwixt the manger and the gutter. The width of the byre should be 18 feet, the manger 2 feet in width, the length of a large cow about 8 feet, the gutter 1 foot broad, leaves 7 feet behind the gutter for a passage for containing the different vessels used in milking the cows and feeding the calves. The ceiling should be quite open to the slates, and a ventilator for every four or five cows in the roof, for regulating the temperature and supplying the byre 344 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. with fresh air. A door, divided into upper and lower halves, should open out- wards to the court on a giblet-check, for the easy passage of the cows to and from the court, and each half fastened on the inside with a hand-bar. Two windows with glass panes, with the lower parts furnished with shutters to open, will give sufficient light, as also air, with the half-door. The walls should be plastered for comfort and cleanliness. 1305. The stalls are most comfortably made of wood, though some recom- mend stone, which always feels hard and cold. Their height should be 3 feet, and length no farther than to reach the flank of the cow, or about 6 feet from the wall. When of wood, a strong hardwood hind-post is sunk into the ground, and built in masonry. Between this post and the manger should be laid a curb-stone, grooved on the upper edge to let in the ends of the travis-boards. The deals are held in their places at the upper ends by means of a hardwood rail, grooved on the under side, into which the edge of the deals are let ; and the rail is fixed to the back of the hind-post at one end, and let into the wall at the other, and there fastened with iron holdfasts. Stone travises are no doubt more durable, and in the end perhaps more economical, where flag-stones are plentiful ; but we would in all cases prefer wood, as feeling warmer, being more dry in damp weather, and less liable to injure the cows coming against them, and within doors will last a long time. 1306. The mangers of byres are usually placed on a level with the floor, with a curb-stone in front to keep in the food, and paved in the bottom. Such a position we conceive highly objectionable, as, on breaking the turnips, the head of the animal is so depressed that an undue weight is thrown upon the fore-legs, and an injurious strain induced on the muscles of the lower jaw. A better manger is made of flag-stones or wood, resting on a building of stone and mortar, raised about 20 inches from the ground, and a plank set on edge in front to keep in the food. This front should be secured in its position with iron rods batted into the wall at one end, and the other end passed through the plank against a shoulder, which is pressed home by means of a nut and screw. Out of such a manger the cow will eat with ease any kind of food, whether whole or cut ; and all feeding byres for oxen should be fitted up with mangers of this construc- tion. Mangers are generally made too narrow for cattle with horns, and the consequence is the rubbing away of the points of the horns against the wall. 1307. The supply of green food. to cattle in byres may be effected from the outside through holes in the wall at the back of the manger. This is a convenient mode for the cattle-man, but is costly in the outfit, and allows the wind to blow forcibly upon the heads of the cows. Fig. 533 is a door in the opening of the wall, shut on the outside. We pre- fer giving the food by the stall, when it is 5 feet wide, and no cold air can come upon the cows. But when the stalls are narrow, a passage of 2| feet in width, betwixt the stalls and the wall, would allow the cattle-man to supply turnips and fodder. In such a case the space behind the cows is reduced to 4^ feet in width. 1308. A wide single stall is not only useful in supplying the food from within the byre, but admits of the cows being more easily and conveniently milked. A double stall is objectionable for several reasons : a cow is a capricious crea- ture, and not always friendly to her neighbour, and one of them in a double stall must be bound to the stake on the same side as she is milked from ; and, to avoid the inconvenience, the dairy-maid either puts the cow aside nearer her CATTLE-STALL AND BINDINGS. Fi- 534. neighbour, in the same stall which may prove unpleasant to both parties or the cow in the adjoining stall nearer her neighbour, which may prove equally inconvenient. Neither is it a matter of indifference to the cow from which side she is milked, for many will not let down their milk if the milk-maid sits down to the unaccustomed side. The best plan in all respects is, for each cow to have a roomy stall to herself. 1309. Fig. 534 is a section of a travis and manger of a byre, as just described, where a is the wall, b the building which sup- ports the manger c, hav- ing a front of wood, and bottomed with either flags or wood ; d the hardwood hind - post, sunk into the ground, and built in with stones and rnortar ; e the hard- wood top-rail, secured behind the post d, and let into and fixed in the wall a with iron hold- fasts ; / the stone curb- stone into which the ends of the tra vis-boards are let ; g the travis- boards let endways into the curb-stone below, and into the top-rail above, by a groove in each ; h a hardwood stake, to which the cattle are fastened by binders, the lower end of which is let into a hole in the block of stone z, and the upper fastened by a strap of iron to a block of wood fc, built into the wall a ; m is the gutter for the dung, having a bottom of flag-stones and sides of curb-stones ; n the paved floor ; o the opening through the wall a by which the food is supplied into the manger c to the cattle, from the shed s behind. This shed is 8 feet wide, p being the pillars, 6 feet in height, which support its roof q, which is a continuation of the slating of the byre roof, the wall a of which is 9 feet high. But where these small doors are not used, the shed .?, pillars p, and roof q, are not required, but they might form a convenient turnip-store, to which access might be obtained from the byre by a back door. 1310. Cattle-Bindings. Cows are bound to a stake in the stall by means of a ligature which goes round the neck behind the horns. One method of binding is with the baikie, which is made of a piece of hardwood, e fig. 535, standing upright, arid flat to the neck of the cow. A rope g fastens the lower end of it to the stake, upon which it slides up and down by means of a loop which the rope forms round the stake. This rope passes under the neck of the animal, and is never loosened. Another rope k is fastened at the upper end of the piece of wood e, and, passing over the neck of the animal arid round the stake, is made fast to itself by a knot and eye, and serves the purpose of fastening and loosen- 346 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 536. TLE SEAL OR BINDER. Fig. 537. ing the animal. The neck, being embraced between the two ropes, moves up and down, carrying the baikie along with it. This method of binding, though quite easy to the animals themselves, is objectionable in preventing them turn- ing their heads round to lick their bodies ; and, the stake being in a perpen- dicular position, the animals can only move their heads up and down, and are obliged to hold them always over the mangers. 1311. A much better mode of binding cattle is with the seal, which consists of an iron chain, fig. 536, where a is the large ring of the binder, which slides up and down the stake h, which is here shown in the same position as is h in the section of the stall in fig. 534. The iron chain, being put round the neck of the cow, is fastened together by a broad-tongued hook at c, which is put into any link of the chain that forms the gauge of the neck, and it cannot come out until turned on purpose edgeways to the link of which it has a hold. It is the most durable form of binder, and gives the animal liberty not only to lick itself, but to turn its head in any direction it pleases ; and the inclination of the stakes gives the animal the farther liberty of lying down or standing back quite free of the manger. 1312. Byre Windows. A convenient form of window for a byre consists of two shutters, a a, fig. 537, 2 feet in height, which open by cross-tailed hinges, and are kept shut with thumb- catches. The window-frame is made of wood, and glazed with four rows of panes c, 2^ feet in height, and 5 in number to the width the opening of the window being 4J feet in height and 3 in width. There being no small articles in a byre to lay upon the window-sole, as in stables, the dead piece of wood below the shutter is not here required. 1313. The construction of byres for the accommo- dation of fattening oxen and milk cows is quite the same, but feeding-byres are usually made much too small for the number of oxen confined in them. When stalls are put up, they seldom exceed 4 feet in width; more frequently two oxen are put into a double stall of 7 feet, and not unfrequently travises are dispensed with altogether, and simply a triangular piece of boarding placed across the manger against the wall, to divide the food betwixt each pair of oxen. In double stalls, and where no stalls are used, even small oxen, as they increase in size, cannot all lie down at one time to chew their cud and rest; and as they re- quire more room and rest the fatter they become, the larger the oxen become they are hampered the more. In such confined byres, the gutter is placed too near the heels of the oxen, and prevents them standing back when they desire. Short stalls, it is true, save the litter being dirtied by the dung dropping from the cattle directly into the gutter, and the arrangement saves the cattle- man trouble ; but the saving of litter in such a case is at the sacrifice of com- fort to the animals. 1314. On the Construction of Cattle-Boxes. Mr Ewart, a well-known prac- tical writer on agricultural construction, and author of a prize essay on " Farm Buildings," has the following remarks : " The boxes should be sunk 1 foot below I CATTLE-BOXES. 347 the surface of the ground, and be separated from eacli other by a wall one brick thick, and 2 feet high from their bottom or floor. They should also have a similar wall in front, upon both of which there should be a wall-plate of deal 9 inches wide and 3 inches thick, bringing the entire height of the division walls to 2 feet 3 inches above the level of the floor, and that of the front to 1 foot 3 inches above the level of the passages. At the intersection of the front wall of the boxes by the division walls, should be cast-iron pillars G feet long and 4- - inches outside diameter, supporting a deal, similar to the wall-plates described, to carry the roof; and at each end of the range of boxes should be an upright jamb of 9 inches deal, laid flat to the inside of the north wall ; . . . such jamb being framed to the wall-plate, and the deal supported by the pillars. The cast-iron pillars should have grooves formed on each of their sides in the direction of the length of the range, and also another groove on the side in the direction of the division walls, between the boxes, the grooves being formed of flanges 2-| inches apart and 2 inches deep. The upright deals against the walls, at the ends of the range of boxes, should have half the breadth of a Nor- way batten nailed firmly on the face at 2^- inches apart, thus forming a groove in the middle of the breadth of the deals throughout their length 2-t inches wide O A and 2ijr deep. On the deal supporting the front of the roof, and immediately above each cast-iron pillar, should be firmly spiked one end of a Norway batten, which should extend across the range of boxes to the back wall, on which it should rest firmly, spiked to a continuous wall-plate of deal 4^ inches wide. Against the back wall of the boxes should be upright deals framed to the wall- plates on the division walls, between the boxes, and receiving the cross-beam spoken of above in a notch. The upright deal just mentioned should have a groove formed in its face similar to those previously described, on the upright deals at each end of the range at the front of the boxes. Midway, in the length of the division between the boxes, should be two upright pieces, half the breadth of the Norway batten, opposite to each other, at 2^ inches apart, the lower ends of which should be framed to the wall-plate in the division wall between the boxes, and the upper end secured to the cross-beam by a screw bolt. The fronts of the boxes should be enclosed to a height of about 4 feet above the walls, first by an 11-inch deal, and then by Norway battens in succession, fitting rather loosely in the grooves on the sides of the pillars in the direction of the length of the range. The fences between the boxes may be formed also of battens, one end of which being fitted into* the groove in the pillar, in the direction of the breadth of the boxes, the other in the groove formed upon the upright deal on the back wall, passing between the half-battens at the mid-length of the division walls, and should be held 1 foot apart from each other by cotteril bolts, on holes made for the purpose in the flanges of the grooves." 1315. LaycocJc's Fittings for Cattle-Boxes. Mr Laycock of Lintz Hall has designed a variety of farm-building fittings, of which those for cattle-boxes may be selected for description. " The front of the box is furnished with horizontal bars from one pillar to another their ends fitting rather loosely into the grooves. The lowest is formed of a deal 11 inches wide, with chocks 3-| inches wide, fixed on the low r er edge near the ends. On the upper edge is hung, by means of hooks formed of flat iron, fitting the thickness of the deal, a short iron feeding- pan or manger, 2 feet 6 inches in length, 15 inches wide at top, and 8 inches wide at the bottom ; 14 inches deep at the back, and 10 inches of perpendicular depth at the front. The hooks are riveted to the backs of the pans near to the ends. On the same deal is a rack, the bars of which are f round iron, 2 feet 6 inches long, somewhat curved, and each end riveted into a piece of flat 348 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. iron 1 inch broad and 2 feet 6 inches long, forming a rack about 2 feet high, which is attached to the deal near the lower edge by means of hook-and- eye hinges near the extreme ties, and supported in a sloping position by a piece of small chain at each end, 2 feet long, linked to any desired length to hooks near to the upper edge of the deal. Fig. 538 is a section of the manger, and fig. 539 that of the rack, described on a scale of | inch to the foot. Fig. 538. Fig. 539. EOTION OF LAYCOCK a 3XE8 SCALE, J INCH TO THE TOOT. SECTION OF LAYCOCK S RACE FOR CATTLE-BOXSS SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. 1316. "Above the deal just described are two other bars, formed of Norway battens ; the upper one held in its position, about 4 feet above the wall-plate, by means of iron pins or small cotteril bolts passing through holes in the sides of the grooves, and at the ends of the bars. It will be perceived that the racks and mangers can be raised as the box becomes filled with manure, by placing bars under the deal to which they are attached." Prize Essay on the Construc- tion of Farm Buildings, in vol. xi., Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, pp. 245, 246. 1317. Calves' House. For convenience, the calves' house should be placed immediately adjoining the cow-byre. Calves are either suckled by their mothers, or brought up on milk by the hand. When they are suckled, if the byre be roomy enough that is, 18 feet in width stalls are erected for them against the wall behind the cows, in which they are usually tied up imme- diately behind their mothers ; or, what is a less restrictive plan, put in numbers together in large loose-boxes at the ends of the byre, and let loose from both places at stated times to be suckled. When brought up by the hand, they are put into a separate apartment from their mothers, and each confined in a crib, where the milk is given them. The superiority of separating calves to having a number together is, that it prevents them sucking one another, after having had their allowance of milk, by the ears, teats, scrotum, or navel, by which mal- practice certain diseases may be engendered. 1318. The crib is large enough for one calf at 4 feet square, and 4 feet in height, sparred with slips of tile-lath, and having a small wooden wicket to afford access to the calf. The floor of the cribs may be of earth ; but the pas- sage between them should be flagged, or of asphalt. Abundance of light should be admitted, either by windows in the walls or skylights in the roof; and fresh air is essential to the health of calves, the supply of which would be best secured by a ventilator in the roof, such as fig. 530. A door should*communicate with the cow-house, and another, having upper and lower divisions, with a court furnished with a shed. The crib should be fitted up with a manger to contain cut turnips or carrots, and a high rack for hay, the top of which should be as much CALVES' CRIBS TURNIP-TROUGHS. 349 elevated above the litter as to preclude the possibility of the calf getting its feet over it. The general fault in. the construction of calves' houses is the want of both light and air, light being cheerful to animals in confinement, and air essential to the good health of all young animals. AYhen desired, both may be excluded. The walls of the calves' house should be plastered, to be neat and clean. Some people are of opinion that the calves' house should not only have no door of communication with the cow-house, but should be placed at a dis- tance from it, that the cows may be beyond the reach of hearing the calves. Such an objection could only have originated from an imperfect acquaintance with the character of these animals. A cow that is prevented smelling and suckling her calf, does not know its voice, and will express no uneasiness about it a few minutes after they are separated, and after the first portion of milk has been drawn from her by the hand. 1319. The front and door of a calf's crib is represented by fig. 540, in which a is the wicket door which gives access to it, b b are the hinges, and c is a thumb-catch to keep it shut. This sort of hinge is very simple and economical. It consists of those rails of the wicket intended for the hinges being elon- gated towards 5, where they are round- ed off; and their lower face is shaped into a round pin, which fills and ro- tates in a round hole made in a billet of wood, seen at the lower hinge at i, securely screwed to the upright door- post of the crib. Another billet d is screwed immediately above the lower rail b, to prevent the door being thrown off the hinges by any accident. Cross- tailed iron hinges, of the lightness suited to such doors, would soon break, by rusting in the dampness usually occasioned by the breath of a number of calves confined within the same apartment. 1320. A court should be attached to the calves' house, and there should be erected in it, for shelter to the calves in cold weather, or at night before they are turned out to pasture, or for the night for a few weeks before they are put into the larger court when at pasture, a shed fitted up with mangers for turnips and racks for hay. A trough of water is also requisite in this court, as well as a gateway for carts, by which the dung may be removed, and a liquid-manure grating to keep the court dry. 1321. Fittings for Courts Turnip -Troughs. The troughs for turnips are placed against the walls, as in fig. 541, where a is the wall against which the trough is built, and b a building of stone and lime 2 feet thick, to support the bottom of the trough, of which the lime need not be used for more than 9 inches in the front and sides of the wall, and the remaining 15 inches may be filled up with any hard material; c is the flagging placed on the top of this wall, to form the bottom of the trough. Some board the bottom with wood ; and, where wood is plentiful, it is cheap, and answers the purpose, and is pleasanter for the cattle in wet and frosty weather; but where flags can be easily procured, they are more durable in the open air : d is a plank, 3 inches thick and 9 in depth, to keep in the turnips. Oak planking from wrecks, and old spruce trees, however knotty, we have found a cheap and durable front for turnip- troughs. The planks are spliced together at their ends, and held on edge by 350 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. rods of iron e batted with lead into the wall, and with a shoulder and nut and screw in front. The height in front should not exceed 2 feet 9 inches for Fig. 541. Fig. 542. calves, and 3 feet for the other cattle ; and it will become less as the straw daily accumulates. The trough, here shown short, may extend to any length along the side-wall of a court. 1322. Straw -Racks. The straw -racks for courts are made of vari- ous forms. A common kind of wooden rack is in fig. 542, of a square form, sparred round the sides and bottom to keep in the straw. The cattle draw the straw through the spars as long as its top is too high for them to reach over it, but after the dung accumulates, and the rack thereby becomes low, the cat- tle get at the straw over the top. It is made of wood, 5 feet square and 4 in height. These racks may be pulled up STRAW-RACK FOR COORT8 higher when the dung accumulates much. Fig. 543. STRAW-HACK FOR SHEDS 1323. Fig. 543 is a form of wooden rack adapted to supply fodder to cattle under cover in sheds. It consists of an upper and a lower bar of wood, parallel to each other, and into which are notched behind a series of rails as far asunder as to allow of the straw being pulled through between them by the cattle. PIG-STY DOOR. 351 The rack has an inclination of aboiit 2 foot forward at the top, which affords the capacity of holding the food, both its rails being batted to the wall. 1324. Pig-sty Door. As swine have very powerful necks, and are apt to push open doors of ordinary construction, a form of door such as is repre- sented in fig. 544 is very secure. The door, of double plank-wood, slips up and down a groove formed in the masonry on each side, and this contrivance is such as to elude the arts of the most cunning brood-sow to escape out of its sty. 1325. On the Accommodation of the Grain Crops in the Steading. On looking at the plans of steadings in the Plates, it will be observed that the thrashing- machine, placed in the upper barn above the corn-barn, is in the middle of the great range of the steading, ready to receive the unthrashed crop from the stackyard behind it, and as ready to deliver the straw thrashed into the straw- barn, and the grain into the corn-barn below. 1326. Straw-Barn. The straw-barn is purposely made of the height of the upper barn, to contain a large quantity of straw, as it is often convenient in bad weather to thrash out a considerable quantity of corn, when no other work can be proceeded with, or when high market-prices induce farmers to take advan- tage of them. There is another good reason for giving ample room to the straw- barn. Every sort of straw is not suited to every purpose, one sort being best suited for litter, and another for fodder. This being the case, it is desirable to have always both kinds in the barn, that the fodder-straw may not be wasted in litter, and the litter-straw given as fodder, to the injury of the animals. Be- sides, the same sort of straw is not alike acceptable as fodder to every class of animals. Thus wheat-straw is a favourite fodder with horses, as well as oat- straw, whilst the latter only is acceptable to cattle. Barley-straw is only fit for litter. To give access to litter and fodder straw at the same time, it is necessary to have a door from each kind into each court. Thus four doors, two at each side near the ends, are required in a large straw-barn. Slit-like open- ings should be made in its side-walls, to admit air and promote ventilation through the straw. A skylight in the roof, at the end nearest the thrashing- machine, is useful in giving light to those who take away and store up the 352 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. straw from the thrashing-machine when the doors are shut, which they should be whenever the wind happens to blow too strongly through them into the machine against the straw. Instead of dividing straw-barn doors into two vertical leaves, as is usually done, they should be divided horizontally into an upper and lower leaf, so that the lower may always be kept shut against in- truders, such as pigs, whilst the upper admits both light and air into the barn. One of the doors at each end should be furnished with a good stock-lock and key, and thumb-latch, and the other two fastened with a wooden hand-bar from the inside. The floor of the straw-barn is seldom or never flagged or cause- wayed, though it is desirable it should be. If it were not so expensive, the asphaltum pavement would make a good floor for a straw-barn ; but the most effective floor is made of small broken stones to the depth of 15 inches, and blended with gravel. It will prevent moulding, and resist rats. Mouldy straw at the bottom of a heap superinduces throughout the upper mass a disagreeable odour, and imparts a taste repugnant to every animal. That portion of the floor upon which the straw first alights on sliding down the straw-screen of the thrashing-machine, should be strongly boarded, to resist the action of the forks when removing the straw. Blocks of hardwood, such as the stools of hard- wood trees, set on end causewaywise, and sunk into the earth, form a very durable flooring for this purpose. Stone flagging in this place destroys the prongs of the pitchforks. The straw-barn should communicate with the chaff- house by a shutting door, to enable those who take away the straw to see whether the chaff accumulates too high against the end of the winnowing- machine. 1327. The Corn-Barn. Its roof is formed of the floor of the upper barn, and its height is generally made too low. The higher the roof is, the more easily will the corn descend to be cleaned from the thrashing-machine' down the hopper to the winnowing-machine. Nine feet is the least height it should be in any instance. The corn-barn should have in it at least two glazed windows, to admit plenty of light in the short days of winter, and they should be guarded outside with iron stanchions. If one window cannot be got to the south, the door when open will answer for the admission of sunshine to keep the apartment comfortably dry for the workpeople and the grain. 1328. The door is generally divided into upper and lower halves, which, as usually placed, are always in the way when the winnowing-machine is used at the door. A more convenient method is to have the door in a whole piece, and when opened, to fold back into a recess in the outer wall, over the top of which a plinth might project to throw off the rain. In this case the ribats and lintel must be giblet-checked as deep as the thickness of the door, into which it should close flush, and be fastened with a good lock and key, and provided with a thumb-latch. The object of making the corn-barn door of this form is to avoid the inconvenience of its opening into the barn, where, unless it folds wholly back on a wall, it is frequently in the way of work, particularly when winnowing roughs, and taking out sacks of corn on men's backs. As to size, it should not be less in the opening than 7 J feet in height and 3 in width. A light half-door can be hooked on, when work is going on, to prevent the intrusion of animals, and the wind sweeping along the floor. 1329. The floor of the corn-barn is frequently made of clay, or of a com- position of ashes and lime; the asphaltic composition would be better than either; but in every instance it should be made of wood of sound hard red- wood Drahm battens, ploughed and feathered, and fastened down to stout joists GIBLET-CHECKED DOCKS. 353 with Scotch flooring sprigs driven through the feather- edge. A wooden floor is the only one that can bo depended on being constantly dry in a corn-barn; and in a barn for the use of corn, a dry lloor is indispensable. It has been suggested to us that a stone pavement, square-jointed, and laid on a bed of lime over 9 inches of broken stones or an asphaltnm pavement, laid on a body of 6 inches of broken stones, covered with a bed of grout on the top of the stones, would make as dry and a more durable barn-floor than wood, and which will not rot. No doubt stone or asplialtum pavement is durable, and not liable to rot ; but there are objections to both, in a corn-barn, of a practical nature, and it is cer- tain that the best stone pavement is not proof against the undermining powers of the brown rat : whilst a wooden floor is durable enough, and certainly will not rot, if kept dry in the manner we shall recommend. The objections to all stone pavements as a barn-door are, that the scoops for shovelling the corn pass very harshly over them the iron nails in the shoes of the work-people wear them down, raise a dust upon them, and crush the grain and they are hurtful to the bare hands and light implements, when used in taking up the corn from, or in cleaning the floor. For true comfort in all these respects, there is nothing like wood. The walls of this barn should be made smooth with hair-plaster, and the joists and flooring forming its roof cleaned with the plane, as dust adheres much more readily to a rough than to a smooth surface. The stairs to the granaries should enter from the corn-barn, and a stout plain deal door with lock and key placed at the bottom of each. And at the side of one of the stairs may be enclosed on the floor of the barn, a space to contain light corn to be given to the fowls and pigs in summer, when this sort of food becomes scarce. 1330. As the method of hanging doors on a giblet-check should be adopted in all cases in steadings where doors on O TV . -I" outside walls are likely to meet with obstructions on opening inwards, or themselves becoming obstructive to things passing outwards, the subject de- serves a special illustration. In fig. 545, a is the inside form of a strong door, mounted on crooks and bands, fully open, and thrown back into the recess of the wall b, the projecting part of the lintel c protecting it effectually from the rain ; d is the giblet-check in the lintel, and e that in the ribats, into which the door shuts flush ; / is the light movable door used when work is going on in the corn-barn. 1331. The wooden floor of the corn-barn is liable to decay unless precautions are used to prevent it ; but a much too common cause of its destruction is vermin such as rats and mice. We used a most effectual method of preventing the destructive ravages of either vermin or damp, by supporting the floor in the particular manner represented in fig. 546. The earth, in the first instance, was dug out of the barn to the depth of the foundation walls, which should be two feet below the door-soles, and in the case of the building of a new steading this can be done when the foundations of the walls are taken out. The ground is then spread over with a layer of sand, sufficient to preserve steadiness in the stout broad flags b b which are laid upon it and jointed in strong mortar. Twelve- inch thick sleeper walls a a, of stone and lime, are then built on the flags, to z 354 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 546. support the ends of the joists of the floor. The ends of the joists c, formed of 10 inches by 2^-inch plank, are then laid on edge upon the walls 16 inches apart, and the spaces between them filled up to the top of the joists with stone and lime. The building between the joists requires to be done in a pecu- liar way. It should be done with squared rubble stones, and on no ac- count should the mortar come in con- tact with the joists, as nothing de- stroys timber, by superinducing the dry rot, more readily than the action of mortar upon timber above ground. For the same reason care should be observed in building all the joists into the walls ; in placing the safe- lintels over the doors and windows dry-bedded, and in beam filling be- tween the couple-legs. The floor d is then laid on a level with the door- sole, and finished with a neat skirting board i i round the walls of the barn. By this contrivance the vermin can- not possibly reacli the floor but from aronojj or TUX i the flags Z>, which are nearly 2 feet under it. A hewn stone pillar e, or even two, are placed on the flags under each joist to support and strengthen the floor. This construction of floor freely admits the air above and below to preserve it, and affords room under it for cats and dogs to hunt after the vermin. The figure also gives a section of the building above the corn-barn, constituting the upper barn^ having similar out- side walls, coupling, slating, and ridging of the roof to the middle range of the building. 1332. Immediately in connection with the upper barn may be a gangway to give access to the stackyard. It is used as an inclined plane, upon which to wheel the corn-barrows, and forms a road for the carriers of sheaves from the stackyard. This road should at all times be kept hard and smooth with small broken stones, and sufficiently strong to endure the action of barrow- wheels. Either asphaltum or wood pavement would answer this purpose well. To prevent the gangway affecting the wall of the corn-barn with dampness, it should be supported on a semicircular arch of masonry. Some farmers prefer taking in the corn on carts instead of by a gangway, and the carts in that case are placed alongside the large door of the upper barn, and emptied of their contents by means of a fork. We prefer a gangway for this reason, because it enables the farmer to dispense with horse-labour in bringing, in the stacks if they are near at hand, and they should always be built near the upper barn for convenience. It is suggested to have a railway to convey the stacks on their stathels to the upper barn-door, and thence cast the sheaves into the barn at once. This would require the ground of the stackyard and the barn to be on the same level. 1333. Granary Windows. These windows should be formed to admit light and air freely ; and we know of no form so capable of affording both as fig. 547. The opening is 4| feet in length and 3 in height. In the frame a are a glazed sash 1 foot in height, composed of two rows of panes, and b Venetian W001 )EX STATIIELS. 355 shutters, which may be opened more or less at pleasure : c d shows in section the manner in which these shutters operate. They revolve by their ends, a round pin, in holes iu the side-posts of the frame c/, arid are kept in a parallel position to each other by the bar r, Fifr :A - which is attached to them by an eye of iron, moving stiff on an iron pin pass- ing through both the eye and bar r. 1334. Stackyard. As most of the stacks must stand on the ground, it should receive that form which wi 11 allow the rain-water to run off and not injure their bottoms. This is done by forming the ground into ridges. The minimum breadth of these ridges may be determined in this way: The usual length of the straw of the grain crops can be conveniently packed in stacks of 15 feet diameter ; and as 3 feet is little enough space to be left on the ground between the stacks, the ridges should not be of less width than IS feet. The stackyard should be enclosed with a substantial stone and lime wall of 4^ feet in height. In too many instances the stackyard is entirely unenclosed, and left exposed to the trespass of every animal. The stackyard should have gateways of not less than 10 feet in width clear, with a stout gate hung on crook and band, and fastened with a short chain and hook. In carse farming the stacks require to be 24 feet in diameter. 1335. Stathels. It is desirable to place the outside rows of the stacks next the wall on stools or stathels, which will not only keep them off the wet ground, should they remain a long time in the stackyard, but in a great measure prevent vermin getting into the stacks. These stathels are usually and most economically made of stone supports and a wooden frame. The frame is of the form of an octagon, and under its centre and each angle is placed a support. The framework consists of a plank a a, fig. 548, 15 feet in 356 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. length, and of others 7|- feet in length, 9 inches in depth, and 2 inches in thickness, if made of Scots fir, but less will suffice of larch. The supports consist of a stone 5, sunk to the level of the ground, to form a solid foun- dation for the pillar c, 18 inches in height and 8 square, to stand upon, and on the top of this is placed a flat rounded stone or bonnet d, of at least 2 inches in thickness. The pillar is bedded in lime, both with the found stone and bonnet. The tops of these stone-supports must be on the same level. Upon them are placed on edge the scantlings a a, to the outer end of which are fastened with strong nails the bearers e e, also 9 inches in depth and 2 in thickness. The spaces between the scantlings a are filled up with fillets of wood//, nailed upon them. If the wood of the framework were previously preserved by Kyau's or Burnett's process, it would last perhaps twenty years, even if made of any kind of home timber, such as larch or Scots fir. 1336. SECTION EIGHTH Centres for Arches Bridges Sluices. 1337. Centres for Arches. In fig. 549 we illustrate a simple centering for a semicircular arch ; a b the arch timbers, or ribs, resting on the posts c c, as shown. Wedges are driven in be- tween the top of posts and under side of ribs a b. When the arch is turned and set, by driving out these wedges, the ribs are gradually lowered, and the arch allowed slowly to settle before the centering is finally removed. Bolster-pieces, as shown at of, are laid across the ribs, and on these the brick or stone work rests. Two of these ribs are generally used one at each side of the thick- ness of the wall the bolster-pieces d stretching between them. When the wall on which the arch is to be turned is of more than ordinary thickness, three ribs may be used, placed parallel to, and at equal distances from, each other. 1338. In fig. 550 we give other forms of centres, in which the ribs a are supported by ties b, and struts or braces c c. The centering for a Gothic or pointed arch is shown at d e in the same figure. 1339. In fig. 551 we show how the ribs for centering may be strengthened CENTRE TOR A DOOR ARCH SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 551. Fig. 550. CENTERINGS FOR OOTHIO AND SEMICIRCULAR ARCHE SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. CENTRES FOR STONE CIRCULAR ARCHES 8CALE, I INCH TO THE FOOT. BRIDGES. 357 by being formed of two thicknesses tlio parts abed having similarly cut pieces e f g placed behind, and secured to them in such a way that their solid parts shall be placed at the back of the joints of the front pieces abed. In the lower part of the same figure, a centre for a larger arch or a small bridge is shown. The tie-beam h h is supported on the posts i i z, and carries the ribs k k k k. These are supported by the king-post /, and braced by the struts m m, and n n. 1340. Bridges. As a useful addition to the present section, we here give a few designs for simple wooden Tjlj rr 55O bridges, adapted for the short spans usually met with in farms. For the construction of more complicated forms we would ad- vise the professional aid of a competent engineer to be called in. Our notes, however, will apply to the majority of in- stances where small erections, not subjected to unusual strains, are required. Fig. 552 shows foot - bridge for crossing a form of simple used in Flanders ditches. 1341. Fig. 553 illustrates the simplest form of bridge which can be erected. It is composed of girders b b, resting on wall-plates c c, on the walls a a. The span is 15 feet, the breadth 10 to 12 feet. Three girders are placed at equal dis- tances on the wall -plates. The flooring is made with flooring- boards or planking, spiked on to Fig. 554. the girders. The timbers should BEAM-! be Kyanised before being laid clown, or well painted with coal-tar. The girders, 9 inches by 4, are calculated to sustain ordinary cart-load pressure. The scantling of the flooring -boards d d d, 6 inches by 2. The hand-rail // 3 inches by 2 (laid flat), is supported by posts e e e e, 3 inches by 2, mortised into the girder b b. Diagonal struts g g g are in- serted between the posts, their scantling, 3 inches by 1^. The bridge illustrated in fig. 553 will be strengthened by using two struts c c, abutting at their lower ends on stone corbels d d, as in fig. 554, built into the piers or abutments a a, and at their upper ends against the " straining beam " b. These two forms of bridges are well adapted for farm purposes, where a rivulet has to be crossed. Of the two forms, fig. 554 pre- sents the simplest construction of rail. The whole structure may be formed of rough trees in the bark, the girders of Scots fir, and the rails of weedings of larch. 358 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1342. Trussed-Girder Bridges. In fig. 555 we give an elevation of a girder bridge for a span of 8 feet. The beam rests in cast- iron shoes a b ; c c c are the hand-rails, and a d b is the malleable-iron truss. In fig. 556 is a sketch showing the arrangement of trussed beams for a span, of 32 feet, divided into two spans of 16 feet each. The beams a a, 12 inches by 8, rest at the ends b b on the retain- ing walls ; the other ends being secured by cast-iron shoes to the cap of the iron pillar c c. Bolster-pieces d d rest on the beams, and upon these the flooring or planking e e is laid. Fig. 556. THE FOOT. Fig. 557. 1343. In fig. 557 we illustrate another method of trussing beams to be thrown across an opening, on the principle of the king-post truss ; a a the tie-beam, b the king-post, c c the struts. The hand-rail d d passes through the cap of the king-post after the man- ner of a ridge-pole in a roof, and the ends are supported by posts or up- rights e e. KINO-POST TRDSS FOB BRrnOE SCiLE SIGH TO THE FOOT Fig. 558. 1344. In fig. 558 we illustrate another method of trussing a beam on the principle of the queen-post truss ; a a the tie-beam, b b the queen-posts, c the straining-beam, d d the struts, e e the hand-rail, // the posts or uprights. 1345. In fig. 559 we illustrate another form of trussed bridge girder for a 30- feet span ; a a, 13 inches by 4 ; b b, 7 by 4 ; c, 8 by 4 ; d d, 8 by 4 ; e e, 6 by 4 ; TRUSSED BRIDGES. 359 / /, 8 by 4 ; y, wrought-iron king-bolt 1 ,\ inch diameter. If the span is in- creased, say to 32 feet, or double that of fig. 553, as in fig. 560, two gird- ers same length as in fig. 553 may be scarf- jointed to form one beam and supported by an up- right b, 4 inches by 6. At the upper end of this is a transverse beam a, 4 inches by 6, the ends of which rest on wall- plates d d. Struts c c, 4 inches by 3. 1346. In fig. 561 we illustrate the method which may be adopted to support the post b, fig. 560: a a are piles driven, into the bed of the river, or the centre of the ravine over which the bridge may be supposed to cross. These piles are driven at a dis- tance of 2 feet apart ; b b is a " capping-beam," con- necting the heads of the piles together. Into this beam the upright posts ccc are mortised, or secured 562. by straps, bolts, and nuts ; d d is the transverse beam, represented by the letter a, fig. 560, on which the piles d d and the beams c e, fig. 561, are supported; // are the flooring timbers, g g struts or braces, h h outside struts, will act as fenders to protect the posts from ice, &c. The end of the beam b, pointing up stream, should be tapered, or nose-pointed, as at a or , fig. 562. 360 PKACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. Fig. 563. 1347. In fig. 563 we illustrate a simple method of forming a central support, which may be used where the bridge, as in fig. 560, has not much pressure to sup- port as in the case of a foot-bridge a a, e e e is the beam, cor- responding to e e in fig. 561, resting on the cross-beam f f or b. This is supported by the stays c c c c at three points g g g. The stays c c, c c are strengthened by collars d d, transversely, and by others longitudinally, as shown by the dotted lines j ; cross stays, as shown by the dotted lines i, may also be put in. 1348. Wooden Aqueduct. In fig. 564 we illustrate a form of bridge to lead the water of irrigation across a ravine. We are indebted for tbis illustration to Captain Baird Smith's work on Italian Irrigation: a a is a plan of the aqueduct, with the leaders of irrigation c c, c c diverging from it ; and b b is an elevation of the aqueduct. Fig. 504. SIDE ELEVATI r OF CENTRAL SUPPORT FOR BRIDGI SCALE IN Fid. 560. i I I I I I I I I I \feet. ITALIAN WOODEN AQUEDUCT FOR CONDUCTING WATER OP IRRIOATION OVER RIVERS, BA VINES, &C. 1349. Sluices. We now propose to illustrate a few simple forms of sluices. In fig. 565 we give a sketch of one constructed entirely of timber ; a a the gate, composed of three pieces, strengthened with battens, as shown by the dotted lines ; b b the gate in plan. The two uprights c c are mortised into the sill d d ; two cheeks e e, f f(g ff in elevation) are fastened to the uprights, forming a groove in which the sluice-gate a a works up and down. The gate is lifted by h, which passes through a slot in the cross-beam i L Apertures are provided in A, through which a pin can be passed to retain the gate at any desired elevation. In fixing the timbers in the water-way, care should be taken to bed the sill and uprights in good puddle, to prevent all side and bottom leakage. The sluice- gate may be lifted by means of a screw a, right hand fig. 566, passing through an aperture in the cross-beam d, the nut e provided with handles. The screw may be terminated by iron straps b b, which will enable it to be firmly fixed to the gate. The left-hand fig. 566 illustrates a method of lifting gates used in Italian irrigation ; / the gate ; g g uprights, between which wooden or iron SLUICES. 361 rungs or rods h are placed, and which serve as handles to lift the gate. This is supported at any desired elevation by a stick or pin passed between one of the rods and the top of the cross-beam i i. 1350. Where perfect work is desired, the gates should work in contact with stone or brick facing; the sill a, fig. 567, being carefully set in a good foun- dation 5, and the retaining walls c c well puddled. The foundations of the walls c c should be carried down some distance below the bed of the water- channel. In this form of sluice the gate is raised or lowered by means of a rack fixed to the tail d, and a pinion working in bearings fixed to the cross-beam e e. A pawl should be provided, which, entering the teeth of the rack, will sus- tain the sluice at any desired elevation ; / is the sluice-gate and walls in plan. 1351. Self-acting Sluice. In fig. 568 we give k e i on gitudinal section, in fig. 569 plan, and in ig. 567. JULJLULU 362 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. fig. 570 a transverse section of a self-acting sluice, designed by Mr Archibald Sutter, C.E., Edinburgh, and described by him in his valuable paper on Fig. 569. Fig. 570. COG " River Embankments," in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, July 1858. It consists of a chamber built of masonry in the centre of the embankment, as shown in fig. 568. The float a is kept in position by the guides b b. When the river begins to rise, the working beam c c is raised, consequently holding down the cover or valve of the pipe c?, and upon the fall of the river again, opening the same, as shown by the dotted lines. A wooden door should be provided at the top to prevent people interfering with its work- ing. " It will be apparent," says Mr Sutter, " that sluices of this nature would be more applicable to tidal-waters than others, the regularity of the tides pre- venting them getting out of order for want of work. In rivers, unless some examination takes place, grass may grow, say outside the valve hinge ; a stone gets washed down the pipe and sticks below the valve, or something of that sort takes place, and unless remedied, spoils all." 1352. Sluice-Pipe Valves. Valves for this purpose are hung outside the box which terminates the sluice-pipe or culvert. The valve is hung obliquely to the line of box, so that it has always a tendency to keep closed. In ordinary circumstances the water passes freely out, but in times of flood or tidal flow, the valve is kept close by the pressure outside, and the efflux of the drainage- water prevented. Fig. 571. SLUICE-PIPE VAI.VK. 1353. In fig. 571 we give a sketch illustrative of a form of sluice-valve ; a the box, b the valve, hinged at c. A piece of iron d, may be bolted to the back of the valve to keep it closed. The figure to the left is a front view of valve. An iron sluice-valve will be found illustrated in Section on Bridges and Sluices, in Iron Construction. GATES. 363 1354. SECTION NINTH Gates The reader, desirous to discuss the principles on which gates ought to be constructed, is referred to the Boole of Farm Imple- ments and Machines, where lie will find the subject 'fully entered into. We proceed at once, therefore, to illustrate examples for practice. 1355. Fig. 572 represents field-gate with diagonal strut, without the upfil- lings, where a c is the heel-post, I d the head-post, and c b and a d the top and bottom rails of the rectangular frame of a field-gate ; and a I is the diagonal, which converts the rectangle a c b d into two triangles a c b and bad. 1356. In field-gates constituted en- tirely of wood, the diagonal should in- variably be applied as a strut, to rise from the foot of the heel at , and terminate at the top of the head-post at b. Placed in this position, the diagonal a b supports the swinging end of the gate b d, by its resistance to compression ; which it is well adapted to perform by the area of its cross section being considerable, and hence capable of resisting lateral flexure. 1357. But a field-gate is liable from various causes to be forced up at the head-post b d, however well the diagonal is adapted to prevent the upper rail from being depressed by any undue weight exerted upon its end at b. The advantages of a tie are the converse of a strut. If a tie, therefore, is placed from c to the opposite angle d, crossing the strut a b in its centre and an iron bar makes a perfect tie, the cohesion of which is such that a very small sec- tional area is sufficient for the purpose the two antagonistic forces of the wooden strut and the iron tie, acting each in its own sphere, preserve within the whole structure the most perfect equilibrium. 1358. Defective Field-Gate. A very common form of field-gate to be seen in this country is shown in fig. 573, and applying correct principles to it, we shall find it defective in several most essential particulars. It has a strut a b, but instead of extending across the en- tire diagonal to c, it stops short at the centre of the gate at b. The part of the top & c is liable to be broken off by any undue force being exerted upon it at c when it is converted into a lever, whose fulcrum is supported at b by the end of the strut a b. It has also a tie b d, which is not only made of a wooden rail, but it does not extend across the rectangle to e, and in no part does it cross the strut a &, so as to act with it in maintaining an equilibrium of forces. The consequence in practice is, that this form of gate is very frequently fractured at the head-post c d, and falls to the ground at d. 1359. Trussed Gate. The principle of trussing has been successfully intro- duced into the wooden field-gate by Sir John Orde of Kilmory in Argyllshire. Fig. 574 shows the rectangular form trussed, so as to make a compact firm structure. The heel-post a 5, the head-post c d, and the upper and lower rails a c and b d, form the rectangular frame. The truss consists of four bars of wood, a e, b e, c e, and d e, each of which abuts into an angle of the rectangle, 364 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 674. and all meet at the centre of the gate e ; where, each bar being longer than the half of a diagonal of the rectangle a d, they become elevated in the form of a pavilion roof. A similar truss is formed for the other face of the gate, whose apex is at/. Through the points e and/, the apeces of the trusses, passes the iron bolt e /, the head of which holds the bars at /; and a screw and nut upon a plate hold those at e ; and when the screw is tightened, the trusses are brought nearer together in the cen- tre, and their ends abut with great force against the angles of the rectangular frame at b, a, c and d. To resist this pressure, it is necessary to connect the posts and rails with an iron clamp at each angle of the frame. We believe that this construction of gate will admit the frame neither to bend nor twist, and it will bear any pressure of stock against its sides ; but its peculiar form is attended, we think, with a practical inconvenience. The trusses rising on each side of the gate 9 inches above the plane of the frame, the projecting parts at e and / present an easy and ready hold for the foot of a colt, should he be disposed to amuse himself about the gate a recreation which young horses are apt to indulge in ; and the same projection will likely graze against the sides of cattle, and lay hold of the harness of horses when passing through the gate. We are therefore doubtful of its utility as a common field-gate. The interior of the frame can be filled up with any light material, as wire or spars of wood. When fitted up with wooden spars, the frame costs 13s. 6d., and the posts suited for it, 13s. 6d. more. 1360. A gate constructed by Mr Charles Miles, architect, London, which seems well adapted for fields, is illustrated in fig. 575. It con- sists of both iron and wood. It has a strong cast-iron heel-post, a b, which is round, tapering to the top, and is batted into a large stone in the ground. At a is a collar of iron embracing and revolving round upon a projecting bead encircling the post. To one side of this col- lar is attached a socket of considerable depth, and of a form to receive into it the upper rail of the gate, which, when properly seated, the socket preVents from drooping at the head d. The under-rail style at b is in every respect fitted up in the same manner as the upper one. The head-style d is light, and completes the framing. The filling-up of the frame is left to choice, either in iron or wood. In the figure the filling-up consists of light wooden spars, nailed on alternately upon both sides of the upper and lower bars. Were a wooden strut introduced into the frame from the bottom rail b to the opposite angle at c?, the gate would be much strengthened, though the deep hold of the sockets makes the rails much more rigid than might be expected. The receiving-post c is made of wood fitted into an iron socket, which is batted into a stone. The cost of the gate, without the receiving-post, is 37s. 6d. ; with the post, 45s. Fig. 575. CiATKS. 365 1361. We Lave hitherto alluded only to tho simplest efficient form of wooden field-gates, in the construction of which cheapness is always an object, and we have, in order to avoid confusion of ideas, restricted the description to the essential parts ; the number of bars, or other means of rendering the gate a sufficient fence, is left to be filled up at discretion. In making these npfillings, the maker should studiously keep in mind that no curved bars or timbers of any description should enter into the construction either for ornament, or ostensibly for use. 1362. In the construction of wooden gates for drives or approaches, where utility is the chief object, strict attention should still be paid to the princi- ples of construction, but a little more latitude may be admissible in point of finish and expense. For such purposes, the rails and posts of the gate should be all of one thickness, or at most, the only difference should be a gradual diminution in thickness towards the head, to lessen the effect of gravity on the hinges and gate-post; for pleasant effect, there should not be more than three horizontal rails, with two diagonals ; and if it is necessary to have a closer upfilling, it should be of an upright light balustrade form. Fig. 576 is an ., n. n] n example of this form of gate, adopted many years ago, and the originals then constructed are still good and serviceable, but it is considerably more expensive than the common field-gate. The heel-post a b is o inches broad and 3 thick, while the head-post c d may be reduced to 2 \ inches if thought advisable. The top and bottom bars are formed with abutment pieces at both ends, which are 5 inches broad, the intermediate parts being reduced to 3^ inches ; the middle bar has the same breadth, but is made up in the middle with corresponding abutments as at e, and the two diagonals, of 2 inches in breadth, are inserted in four pieces, exactly fitted between the abutments of the bars. The hinges are of the common double-tailed crook-and-band form, binding the top and bottom rails firmly to the heel-post, and the gate may be hung upon pillars of stone, or of wood well secured. The best balustrade for a gate of this kind is rods of iron \ inch diameter, as in the figure, passed up through the bottom and middle bars and the diagonals, the holes for these being easily bored with an auger after the gate is formed ; but a simple and cheaper balustrade is formed of light wooden spars sunk into the bars and diagonals. 1363. For all wooden gates, the method of bracing with light iron diagonals is to be preferred to wooden struts, but to be effective, two diagonals must always be applied. In some cases they may pass from one angle to its oppo- site in one length, but in others they may be applied in four pieces, the con- 366 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 577. nection at the centre of the gate being effected either by a ring of iron, in which the four ends are screwed, or by bolting the palmated ends of the four parts, two and two together, through the middle bar, as at e, fig. 576, one bolt secur- ing the four ends ; and in either case the rods pass through the top and bottom of the heel and head-posts of the gate, and are there secured by screw-nuts. It is obvious that iron diagonals would apply in this manner to the gate, fig. 576, instead of the wooden braces from e. 1364. Field-gates should always be made to fold back upon a fence, to open beyond the square, and not to shut of themselves. When they shut of them- selves, and are not far enough pushed back when opened, they are apt to catch the wheel of a cart when passing, and to be broken, or the post to be snapped asunder by the concussion ; and as self-shutting gates are all apt to be left un- fastened by people who pass through them, requiring greater attention than is usually bestowed on such matters, the stock, particularly young horses, which seem to take delight to loiter about gates, might then escape from the field. Young horses are fond of rubbing their rumps against gates, to prevent which, when they do, it is necessary to wattle thorns into the bars. 1365. An excellent plan of fixing a hanging-post is to dig as narrow a hole as is practicable for the purpose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a flat stone of about 15 inches square and 7 or 8 thick, in the centre of which is cut through a hole of 8 or 9 inches in diameter, to take in the lower end of the post, dressed with the axe to fit the hole. Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into the hole, and made firm around the post with a rammer, up to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk a stone, at the edge of the upper square face of which the iron-shod heel-post of the gate is made to rotate in a. shallow hollow made to fit it. Fig. 577 shows the different parts of this mode of fastening the hanging-posts of field-gates; where a b is the hole into the bottom of which the stone c is sunk, and into this stone the end of the post d is inserted and secured, as at e. Water passing through the hole in the stone, the lower end of the post will be preserved ; and more so by being charred or in the bark, and smeared with coal-tar : the upper part of the post at d will be best preserved by being planed and painted. The top of the post should always be semispher- ical, or pyramidal, to prevent the lodg- ment of water upon it. The earth is rammed hard into the pit a & to the surface of the ground, in which is sunk at / a stone, on which the heel-post of the gate rotates. Part of the hedge- fence of the field in which the gate is placed is shown, as also the crook above d on which the gate is hung. 1366. Another method is in digging a hole 2|- feet square and of 3 in depth ; and the post being set into it, the pit is filled with rubble masonry in mortar, packed firmly, and grouted round the post. This is no doubt a very effectual mode of fastening gate-posts a matter not so well attended to on a farm as it GATKS. 367 ought to be ; and the lime may tend to preserve the wood under ground a longer time than it would be without it ; but it is expensive, and when the post has to be renewed, the masonry will have to be removed, as no new post can again be fixed so firmly in the pit as when both were put in together. 1367. There is no better mode of hanging a field-gate than by crook-and- band hinge at the upper rail, and a heel-crook at the bottom of the heel-post. Both the band-hinge and the heel-crook ought to be double-tailed, to embrace both sides of the heel-post and of the upper rail. The upper crook keeps the gate close to the upper part of the hanging-post, while the heel-crook, perpen- dicularly below it, resting on and working in a hole made in a hard stone, supports the entire weight of the gate, and thereby relieves the hanging-post. A gate-post of whatever kind, which has to support the entire weight of a gate, requires to be very securely fixed into the ground; but when the gate is sup- ported by a heel-crook, the post may be of more slender form. 1368. The simplest mode of fastening field-gates to the head-posts is to hook on a small linked chain from the stile-head of the gate to a hook in the receiv- ing-post. No animal is able to unloosen this simple sort of fastening ; but horses soon learn to unfasten almost every other sort. 1369. Field-gates ought to be painted before being put to use, and they ought to receive a ne\v coat every year, as without it they will rot in a com- paratively short period of time. The iron part of gates must of necessity be painted, to keep them from rusting. Coal-tar does not look well as a paint, and is apt to blacken the hands and clothes after exposure for a time to the air. Many compositions are presented to the public notice as suitable for painting outside work, amongst which we have seen a thick black varnish ; but there is nothing better than good whitelead and oil. Field-gates painted white have a lively appearance amongst the dark-green foliage of thorn hedges, and they harmonise well even with the colour of dry-stone walls. 1370. Sliding Door. In fig. 578 we give a drawing of a sliding door for the stable of the Coleshill Farm, F . ;I , rs Plate XIV. ; a a the wooden a _ Jjfl * M~lL! gate, the upper rail a of which E ^m d is embraced at points near each end by double straps b &, which support wheels c c, running on the bar of iron d d, li- inch by i. This is bent A v A at each end so as to project 1^ inch from the face of plate or lintel, to which it is bolted by three bolts ; e e are blocks of wood placed in the ground, with a groove in each to keep the door in its place ; //an upright post, against which the door a a shuts. A slid- ing door or gate may be double, opening right and left, and shutting against their two edges. 1371. Suspended or Hanging Gate. In cases where a wall, as a a, fig. 579, divides two courtyards, the narrowness in which prevents the gate of an ordi- nary construction opening laterally, it may be suspended as shown ; b b the gate, hung by the chains c c : passing over the pulleys d d, and counterbalanced by the 368 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. weights e e] f f the diagonal stays, to support the uprights, which carry the wheels or pulleys d d. ALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. 1372. Gate for Centre of Bridge. Where two pasture fields a a, fig. 580, are divided by a rivulet b b, crossed by a bridge c c, the cattle may be prevented from passing from one field to the other by a gate placed in the centre of the bridge, as at d d, in place of having two gates, one at each side at a. This is a plan adopted in Holland. An illustration of a swivel-gate for centre of bridge used in Belgium, is given in fig. 581 : a d banks of the rivulet; b b the bridge; c c the swivel-gates, which are shown closed at e e. Fig. 581. Fig. 580. .-, ' " a /c ^~fr '/ d b c 1373. SECTION TENTH Timber Houses and Sheds. 1374. Construction of Frame-Houses. The simplest frame-house which can be erected is by driving posts into the ground, Fig 582 and nailing what are termed slabs that is, the outsides of logs sawn off, as in a, fig. 582 on the inside and outside faces b of posts c c, the space between them, d, being filled up with some non-conducting mate- rial, as clay or earth, which will keep the interior much warmer than if FRAME-HOUSES. 369 the space is left hollow. The foundations of a good frame-house should be constructed of brick or stone, and carried all round to a height of at least 18 inches above the ground in this foundation the upright posts constitut- ing the framing are built. In the event, however, of brick or stone work for this purpose not being available, we think it best to explain, also, how a good balk foundation may be made, which will last many years premising that the after operations to bo described are to be carried out in any case, whe- ther the foundations be of wood, or of brick or stone. Having procured balks of from 12 to 16 inches diameter, partly square them on opposite sides ; next mark out the outline of house on the ground, and make a frame of logs corre- sponding to this. Having previously decided on the plan, ascertain the measure- ments of the distance of window and door open- ings from any angle, as at 6, fig. 583, and mark Fi - 583 - them off on the log foundation, or frame, as to & I ,. B 7^ \ c c, and at these places cut mortise holes, to -* admit the mortised ends of the upright posts. After all these holes have been marked and cut, the foundation frame, as lying on the ground, will present the appearance of fig. 584, which is a ground-plan. Having provided the upright posts of requisite length, 4 inches square and tenoned at the ends, they are to be placed in the respective mortises in the log founda- tion. When thus placed they will present the appearance, When Viewed PLAN OF FOUNDATION BALKS FOH TIMBER SUED SCALE, Jx from the front of the house, as in figs. 585 and 586. The upper timbers h h, 9 inches square, must be placed on Fig. 585. Fi - 5SO - the top of the posts c c, the tenons of these going into mortise holes in the timber ; or notches may be made on the under side of h /?, and spiked to the posts : the office of these timbers c c is to support the spars forming the roof// The upper part of the door-frame d, and the upper and lower parts of the window-frames e e, must next be put in between the posts, and struts g g, 2 inches broad by 1 thick, placed as in the figures. The spars forming roof are next to be laid down, and properly secured ; and finally, the shingles, slates, tiles, &c., used for the roof-covering laid carefully on. The outside cover- ing of walls comes next under con- sideration. This is generally effected by nailing planks some 6 or 9 inches broad by 1 thick, either vertically or horizontally, as exemplified in fig. 587. 2 A 370 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. We prefer to place them vertically, as on the left of the figure : where they are laid horizontally, they overlap one another in the manner shown in figs. 588 and 589. Fig. 588 is a front view, the left figure representing it in section. Fig. 589 is the outside of the post to which the boards are nailed. In seeming these, the one nearest the ground is nailed first, the second is placed so as to overlap this, the third to overlap the second, and so on : by this arrangement all the joints are secured from the effects of the weather. Where the boarding is secured to the posts vertically, the planks are nailed to the top and bottom tim- bers, between the posts, edge to edge. In first-class work they are tongued and grooved, but in ordinary work they may be merely planed, or, if preferred, left rough. The joints between the boards a a, fig. 590, are covered by narrow strips Fig. 589. Fig. 588. Fig. 590. * *\ - LL~i>-^k] A.THER BOATVDINO. or battens b J, some 2 inches broad and 1 thick, and secured by nails. The form of these battens may be varied according to taste : in fig. 591 a few are given. Messrs Eassie & Son, Gloucester, have patented a method of joining boards for roofing and sides of timber houses; this we illustrate in fig. 592, in elevation, and in section at bottom. This makes a neat water-tight joint. In well-con- structed frame-houses, the interior facings are built up with brick, and plastered. Where this is objected to, the inner face of the posts may be rebated as in fig. Fig. 692. Fig. 593. KASSIK'S MODE OF JOININO BOARDS 593, where a is the post, with rebates as b on the inner face. Boarding, planed on the outer face that is, to the side to be presented to the room may bo placed between the posts, going in at each end into the rebates of the posts, and there secured. If the thickness of the boarding is equal to the depth of rebate b, the face will be flush with that of the post a. The paper or paint may be SHELTER -SII EDS. AME-HOUSES. placed at cmco on the face of the boarding. The space between the inner face and the exterior weather boarding, as at d, may bo filled in with some non- conducting material. A method of making the exterior and interior finishings for walls of timber, almost universally v ^ r r l!U adopted in Sweden, may be noticed here : a a, fig. 594, are the upright posts ; c c a range of boarding laid horizontally ; an outer range, d d, is placed above this vertically, secured by battens as in fig. 590 ; the inner boarding b b is horizontal. The space between the posts and boarding is filled with non-conducting material. 1375. There is one decided objection to frame-houses that is, their extreme liability to fire. We think that a method of combining the rapidity with which a house of this description may be built, its economy where wood is plentiful, its durability and at the same time securing to it an almost absolute fireproof condition will be useful and acceptable. The method we have to propose is amazingly simple it is an adaptation of a plan much used in Paris for making fireproof partitions. The upright posts are to be placed in the horizontal foundation, at distances not greater than 2 feet ; where window and door open- ings occur, they must necessarily be placed wider apart. Let a a, fig. 595, be the foundation ; b b two of the posts ; to the Fi ,, 595 inside of these nail firmly flat boards c c, 1 inch thick, and of the breadth of the intended thick- ness of wall. Provide struts e e e,2| inches wide by 1 thick, and place them between the posts in the manner shown in the figure, one at each side ; secure them to the boarding c c. Having pro- vided a hard setting mortar, or mixture of gyp- sum and sand, or other easily made cement, fasten a board, of dimensions sufficient to cover one at least of the large diamond-formed open- ings, temporarily, yet firmly, either to the outside or inside of the posts ; next procure a number of pieces of broken and angular stones of all sizes, not exceeding, however, that which could pass through a ring 3 inches diameter; place these within the interstices formed by the struts e, placing them as carefully as possible, so as to be flush, or nearly so, with the outside and inside face of posts. Having thus well fitted the spaces, proceed to press well in, from the side opposite to that on which the flat board is temporarily fastened, the thin mortar or cement taking care that it shall thoroughly mix and permeate through the interstices of the stones packed up between the timbers. Having thus carefully filled in one portion with the stones and cement, remove the flat board to another portion, and proceed as before. The rough places afforded on each side of the wall by the projecting portions of small stones, will afford an excellent hold for the outside finishing and interior plastering. The roof can be made in exactly the same way, care being taken to place the flat boards on the under side of the timber, and allow- ing the cement a longer time to set. A house made on this principle will be dry, economical, quickly constructed, and almost absolutely fireproof. 1376. Shelter -Sheds. In fig. 596 we give the plan of a shelter-shed to be placed at the corner of four fields, from each of which a door leads to interior of shed. In case two of the four fields be in grass at the same time, a fence \ ,T c c 11 V 372 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Pig. 596. IE CORNER OF FOUI Fig. 597. Fig. 598. SIDE ELEVATION OF TIMBERS OF SHELTER-SHED. Fig. 599. could be put across the middle of the shed. Of such sheds there are too few in our pasture-fields. In fig. 597 we give plan of balk foundation for the shed. In fig. 598 side elevation, showing arrangement of tim- bers : a a door-spaces ; b b upright posts and cheek-posts of door-spaces ; c c roof-timbers ; d d, e e braces. In fig. 599 we give end elevation. These Avails are 12 feet high, but they would be sufficiently high at 9 feet. 1377. Covered Dung-Shed, In fig. 600 we give plan of covered dung-shed as introduced in Belgian farm- practice by Baron Peers, at Oostcamp, near Bruges. In fig. 601 we give an end elevation and section ; and in fig. 602 a side elevation. In the plan, fig. 600, are two double gates d d on each side of the shed, for the ingress and egress of the dung, as e and e are one double gate at each end. The shed is 60 feet long outside walls, and 27 in width. In the end elevation, fig. 601, a a is a pit, dug 4 feet below the ground b b, with a XLKVATION OF 8HB COVE RE I ) D UNG-SHED. 373 parapet of brickwork 3 feet above the ground, and the bottom is paved with brick ; c c c c are posts 7 feet high above the parapet ; d is the roof, and e e a double gate. In fig. G02, a a is the parapet, b l> the roof, c c double gates, and d d the side-posts. l'i 1 | , Q o 3 <; fl 12 SECTION OF GIRDER FOR SPAN O F 18 OR 20 FEET. Fig. 613. V the bottom flanges are parallel, as at a. In fig. 612, at a & c d, we give a sec- tion of this girder, of which the following are the dimensions : the width of bottom flange a b, 14 inches, its thick- ness 1-| inch ; the top flange c d, 4^ inches broad, and f inch thick; the total depth y A, 20 inches ; the thickness of the rib at e, 1 J inch ; at f, 1 inch. Beams of this size, placed 9 feet apart, are calculated to support on the flooring 22 to 24 cwt. on each square yard ; the weight of flooring-beams, &c., or of the arches which may be used to support the floor, being extra. In fig. 612 we also give a section of a girder where the weight per square yard is less than just stated, namely, from 12 to 13 cwt. per yard. Breadth of bottom flange 9^ inches, thickness 1^ inch ; breadth of top flange 2f inches, thickness f inch, total depth 18 inches; thickness at section of rib corresponding to e, 1 inch ; thickness corresponding to /, % inch. 1388. In fig. 613 we illustrate a method of filling in the spaces between the girders with the binding-joists a a, 8 inches by 5 ; the bridging-joists b b, 6 inches by 2 ; and the flooring- planks c c. Another method is shown in fig. 614, where shoes, as a, are cast in the side of the girder, in which the joists b are laid ; c is a front view of the shoe. Ceiling-joists, as d, may be suspended from the under side of the girder by bolts and nuts, in passing through pro- jecting snags e cast into the bottom flange, as is the snag g in fig. 613. 1389. A very little consideration of the form of the girder now illustrated, and of the way in which it is calculated to resist any superincumbent weight that is laid upon it, will show that the method of placing the cross- joists, or binding -joists, on one side of the flange, as shown in fig. 613, or in one side of the rib, as in fig. 614, is wrong. The most cor- rect method is to place the cross-joists at once on the top flanges of the girders, stretching from girder to girder. On this point Mr Fairbairn re- marks : " Supporting the load on one side of the flange is wrong in principle, and, to a certain extent, injurious in practice ; but that method has many conveniences, and in practice we are frequently called upon to abandon self-evident principles, in order to meet the requirements of different structures. Under such circumstances, when the load is on one side of the girder, the flange should be carefully constructed, in order to bring the bearing of the cross-beam as much as possible into the centre or vertical plane of the girder." In fig. 613 we illustrate the method which Mr Fairbairn recom- mends to connect a wood cross-beam with the girder : small projections e are made in the lower flange at the places where the cross-beams d are to rest ; CONNECTION OF BINDINO-JOISTS WITH CAST-IRON GIR: SGAJ.E, INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 614. CAST-IRON GIRDERS WITH " SHOES " FO SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. BEAMS. 377 flange, bolt-holes are made in these, by which the cross-beam d is bolted to the flange. By this method the whole of the cross-beams and girders are united together, and the " girder will be prevented from ' canting,' as the strain has a tendency to bring the top flange inwards, and to force the top flange outwards, thus pro- ducing a lateral strain upon the girder, which would in a great measure be resisted by the bolts in the cross-beams. The best security for girders loaded in this way will, however, be good broad flanges, cast upon the top and bottom sides, in order to resist the lateral thrust of the cross-beams." 1390. When the cross-beam or binding-joist is of cast-iron, and of the same section as the girder, Mr Fairbairn recommends an arrangement to be adopted, illustrated in fig. 615, a narrow shelf a being cast on the side of the from one end of the girder to the other (not merely, it is to be noted, at the places where the cross-beams occur) ; " this would give a sufficient bearing for the cross-beam by forming the ends, as shown in the figure at d; and the bolt-holes c should perforate the vertical rib as near as possible to the neutral axis of the girder." The cross-beam is shown at b. 1391. With reference to this plan of perforating the girder, and also of making perforations for pass- ing through the tie-bolts, often used in trussing cast-iron girders, Mr Fairbairn says, that in " cast- iron girders," even where the hole, or rather the metal immediately surrounding the aperture, is greatly strengthened, " such a process, if not fatal, would be, to say the least of it, exceedingly in- jurious. I have," he continues, " decided objections to anything like perfora- tions in cast-iron girders ; and it is even with' some reluctance I would have a bolt-hole through the neutral axis, unless thickened so as to compensate for the part taken out ; besides, it is exceedingly objectionable to cut off the connection between the two resisting flanges of a girder, or to damage in any other way a casting of this description. There is nothing I should be more tenacious about than the cutting or boring of any part of a well-proportioned girder ; and I believe there is nothing so dangerous in the hands of persons unacquainted with the laws which govern the strength of these important structures." 1392. Mr Fairbairn remedies the evil arising from the use of perforated girders by the plan illustrated in fig. 616. It is of essen- tial importance that the bottom flange shall not be per- forated, the cross-beam being supported only by hook- bolts. The other method is to lay the cross-beams at once upon the girders. 1393. Where tie-rods are used to truss the girders and prevent their lateral movement, it is important that they should be placed in the proper position. This practically is at the soffit of the arch, in which position the tie-rods will perforate the " neutral axis " of the beam. The maximum point of tension of the tie-rods is at the bottom SCSPFXSION OF C]iOKS . BK ^ tl of the flange ; but this, although the safest, is not the F ^ OM ";ERS SCAI.S, most convenient position in practice, as the tie-rod would then stretch across the chord of the arc. Tie-rods should never be placed above the arch near the top of the girder. For cases where the weight to 616. --V 1 1 378 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 611 be supported is equal to 13 cwt. per square yard, the sectional area of the tie-rods should not be less than 3 square inches for eveiy 20 feet in width of the building ; where the weight to be supported is equal to 24 cwt. per square yard, the area should be increased to nearly 5 square inches. 1394. As already noticed, par. 1391, Mr Fairbairn objects to all perforations in girders, as in cases where tie-rods are used ; he, however, has objections to the use of tie-rods on other grounds, which we here give : " In trussing a cast- iron girder, I would much rather give the strength to the girder itself than depend upon a malleable-iron truss. The two materials are widely different in character, the one being ductile, and subject to elongation under a severe tensile strain, and the other rigid and firm under compression : they seldom, if ever, agree (if I may use the expression) well together ; and during the whole of my experience, I have found it safer and better to keep them separate. Besides, the effect of tightening or screwing up the truss-rods has a tendency to throw increased strain upon the girder, or, vice versa, upon the rods themselves ; in fact, an ignorant person screwing up the trusses might do serious injury with- out ever being aware of having done so. Altogether, I have now, and always had, an objection to trussed girders, whether composed of chains or rods : I have, therefore, no hesitation in recommending a perfectly simple and well- proportioned girder, free from encumbrances of all kinds." 1395. Where truss-rods are used, Mr Fairbairn, in his work On the Applica- tion of Iron to Construction, recommends, at p. 150, the following method :- a a, fig. 617, represents the flange of beam in plan, b the rib, which is thick- ened at the part c, through which the tie-rods pass. A rectangular hole is made in this part, through which the tie-rods d e are passed in opposite direc- tions, the ends f catching on the rib of the beam, and the whole secured by a cotter #. The diameter of the rods if wrought-iron d and e, may be for | of an inch. " This connection is probably the best, as the rods are not weakened by cotter holes, and are simply formed into single gibs, with shoulders pulling against the beams, on each side, and a key between." 1396. Defects of Cast-Iron as compared with Wrought-iron Beams. With the pillars, cast-iron girders, and brick arches, buildings are not so safe or strong as might be expected. "Cast-iron cannot," remarks Mr Fairbairn, "be de- pended upon, even in the best form, and for several reasons viz., unequal contraction in the cooling of the metal ; the brittle nature of the material ; imperfections and flaws in the castings ; and its liability to break without warning. As regards the first point, we labour under great uncertainty in con- sequence of the ' shtinkage ' or contraction of the metals during the process of cooling. A casting, even when well proportioned, will suddenly ' snap,' without any apparent cause. Exposure to rain, or intense frost during the night, not unfrequently produces fracture ; and on these occasions, rupture takes place with a loud noise like the report of a pistol. On minute examination, the injury is at once seen to have arisen from the presence of an immense tensile strain in the immediate vicinity of the fracture, which is generally found to be greatly enlarged, and an enormous force is required to bring the parts again into contact. This unequal and dangerous force of tension, existing within the F1XIXO OF TRUSS-RODS OF CAST-IRON BEAMS SCALE, J INCH TO TH FOOT. BEAMS. 379 casting itself, appears to me to l>o produced by one of two causes, either from unequal rates in the time of cooling, whereby the crystalline process is seriously damaged, or from imperfect mixture of the metals, whence the shrinkage is greater in one part than in another, and from which would follow unequal degrees of tension of the parts, (jreat care, therefore, should bo observed in castings. It should be seen that the metals are well mixed, and that the moulds or patterns are so proportioned as to insure uniformity in the rate of cooling. These Are practical operations of some importance, and the moulds,, after run- ning, should be covered closely up, and as much time as possible given for attaining, by a slow rate of cooling, a greater degree of perfection in crystalline structure. The second cause of danger is, that all crystalline bodies are of a more brittle and uncertain character than those which are of a fibrous structure ; and as wrought-iron possesses more ductility, and partakes in a greater degree of the latter quality, it is better qualified to sustain heavy weights and shocks than cast-iron ; and its high powers of resistance to a tensile strain render its application in the constructive arts an object of primary importance to all those connected professionally or otherwise with the erection of buildings. The superiority of its resistance to tension is not, however, its only recommendation, as the new forms and conditions under which it can be manufactured and applied, in position and distribiition, to resist compression, is another powerful recommendation of it as a safer and lighter substitute for cast-iron. Another defect of cast-iron is the impossibility of discovering imperfections which may lie concealed under the surface of a casting, and which frequently baffle the scrutiny of the keenest observer. These defects are by no means uncommon ; and repeated instances have occurred wherein castings, presenting every appear- ance of perfection, have been found to contain the elements of destruction, either in concealed air-bubbles, or in the infusion of scoriae which had been run into the moulds, and skinned over by a smooth covering of apparently sound iron. Now, this can never occur in the wrought-iron beams ; as the different processes of manufacture, such as puddling, forging, piling, and rolling, are sufficient to cause any imperfection calculated to endanger the soundness of the plates to be detected. It will, however, sometimes occur, that minute particles of scoriae will be inserted between the laminna or bars from which the plates are rolled ; but this does not materially affect the strength, excepting only in the case of boilers, where they form blisters when exposed to intense heat. In the formation of bearers, these defects are of less consequence, as they do not seriously impair their strength." On the Application of Iron to Building Purposes, pp. 48, 49. Weale, London. 1397. In view of these and other defects of cast-iron fireproof constructions, and the great weight of the girder, wrought-iron beams have been introduced with marked success. Mr Fairbairn, than whom no more practical authority on all matters connected with construction can be cited, thus remarks on their use: "From the increased safety arid greatly increased strength of the wrought-iron beam, it appears to me to be in every respect adapted to the con- struction of fireproof buildings. It offers much greater security, and is free from the risk of those accidents which not unfrequently occur with cast-iron beams, and which have created so much alarm in the public mind. ... It now becomes a consideration of some importance to exhibit the advantages which may be gained by its introduction on a large scale into the building of warehouses, cotton and flax mills, and dwelling-houses, which require protec- tion from risk, whether arising from weakness, from the employment of a dan- 380 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 618. SECTION OF WROOOHT-IRON BEAU SCAX.E, ^ INCH TO THE FOOT gerous material, or from fire. In these erections, it will be found exceedingly valuable, irrespectively of the sense of security which the nature of the material is sure to establish in the public mind. Impressed wath these convictions, I unhesitatingly recommend its adoption to the architect and engineer ; and pro- vided the laws which govern its strength be carefully attended to, I have every reason to believe that a few examples will not only give entire confidence in its powers, but that increased experience will elicit improved conditions, and pro- bably better forms for its application." 1398. In fig. 618 we give a section of the "plate beam" which Mr Fairbairn most approves of. The length between the bearings for this ex- ample is 30 feet, and the breaking weight at the centre is 27.5 tons, uniformly distributed over its surface 55 times : one-fourth or one-third of this should be the amount laid upon it. The total depth is 22 inches ; the breadth of bottom flange 5^ inches ; its thickness inch ; the breadth of upper flange 7^ inches ; and thickness ^ inch. The thickness of the middle plate is T 5 7 of an inch. As will be seen from the sketch, the beam' is composed of a central plate, with angle irons riveted on each side at the upper and lower edges. There is very little difference between the cost of a girder of this kind and that of a cast-iron girder calculated to bear the same weight ; but the wrought-iron girder is only one- third of the weight of the cast-iron, and therefore costs less for carriage, and is easier erected and put in its place, besides possessing, as we have shown, the advantages of increased safety. 1399. In fig. 619 we give a section of a rolled beam, after the manner of rails, adapted for wrought - Fi s- 619 - iron fireproof construction ; the length a b being 20 feet. The width of bottom flange is 4 inches, and thickness ^ an inch ; of top flange, 4 inches, and thickness f inch ; the thickness of rib c ; total depth of beam 15 inches. 1400. In fig. 620 we show the method of fixing the tie -rods to wrought-iron beams ; a a the upper flange of beam, b b the tie-rod, ^ inch broad and f thick ; c is a part cross section of beam, d d tie-rod. 1401. We here append the dimensions of cast-iron girders, and joists or binders, for a few of the most iiseful spans, calculated for loads of 280 Ib. per square foot of floor, this including the material resting upon the floor, as grain or machinery, and the weight of the joists and the flooring materials. Fig. 612 will illustrate the different measurements : thus, a b is the bottom flange ; c d the top flange ; e the " thickness of rib " at the bottom ; / the thickness at top ; g h total depth of girder. 1402. The following are the sizes of main girders adapted to support 2^ cwt. per square foot. A floor of 30 feet square, 900 superficial feet, supports a load of 111 tons 5 cwt. The dimensions of the girder are as follows : length, 32 feet ; a SECTION OF BOLTED WROOOHT-IRON BEAU SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. JUNCTION OF TIE-ROD SCALE, 2 . WROUOHT-IRON BEAMS IO THE FOOT. COLUMNS. 381 extreme depth, from g to /<, fig. G12, 30 inches ; bottom flange a 5, 2.4 inches in breadth, 4|- inches thick ; top flange c rf, 8 inches broad, 4 inches thick ; thickness of rib at e, 3j inches ; at/, 2 inches. For a room of 25 feet square, the floor of which, 625 feet superficial, supports nearly 81 tons : length of girder, 27 feet; breadth of bottom flange a b, 21 inches, thickness 4-| inches ; breadth of top flange c d, Gj- inches, thickness 2^ inches; depth of girder g /*, 24 inches ; thickness of rib at c, 2- ; at /, 1^. For a room 20 feet square, the floor of which, 400 feet superficial, supports a weight of 50 tons : length of girder, 22 feet; breadth of bottom flange a b, 15 inches, thickness 3 inches; breadth of top flange c cZ, 5^- inches, thickness 1^ inches; depth of girder $r A, 24 inches; thickness of rib at c, 2 inches ; at/, 1| inch. For a room of 16 feet square, the floor of which, 256 square feet, supports 28 tons, the length of the girder is 18 feet ; the breadth of bottom flange a 6, 14 inches, its thickness 2 inches ; breadth of top flange c d, 4-| inches, its thickness | inch ; depth of beam, g /, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, 1^ inch; and at/ 1 inch. 1403. The following are the dimensions of binders or joists adapted for the foregoing cases, and still illustrated by fig. 612 : For a bearing of 30 feet, with a distance of 6 feet from centre to centre of joists, the weight supported is 22-| tons, at 2| cwt. per square foot. Length of joist 25 feet, breadth of bottom flange a b, 18 inches, thickness 2| inches ; breadth of top flange, 6 inches, thickness 1^ inch; depth of joist g h, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, If; at f, \\. For a bearing of 25 feet, the distance from centre to centre of joists being 6 feet, the weight supported is nearly 19 tons. Length of joist 25 feet; breadth of bottom flange, a b, 18 inches, thickness 2 j- ; breadth of top flange c d, 5f-, thickness 1^ inch; depth of joist g I/, 12 inches; thickness at e, 1| inch; at/ 1^. For a bearing of 16 feet, with the joists 6 feet apart from centre to centre, the weight supported is 12 tons. The length of joist is 16 feet, the breadth of flange a Z, 8 inches, its thickness 2 inches ; the breadth of flange c df, 3 inches, thickness 1 inch; depth of joist g h, 12 inches; thickness of rib at e, 1^ ; at / 1 inch. For a very full table of the sizes of girders and joists for a variety of spans and depths, we would recommend the reader to Weale's Engineer's Pocket- Book for 1855-56 (Gs.) 1404. SECTION SECOND Columns. 1405. Cast-Iron Columns, and Junctions with Girders or Beams.- foundation on which the column rests is good hard stone, the simplest method of fixing or bedding is shown in fig. 621, where a is the foundation-stone, with a socket cut into it to receive the neck b of the column c. Care must be taken to have the end of the neck perfectly flat. 1406. Where the foundation is of brick or soft stone, a cast-iron plate g g, fig. 622, should be let into the top of the stone a ; the plate has a collar or projection Z, which passes into the aperture of the pipe of the column ; the solid parts of the column fit into the parts c c; d shows the pillar connected with the base. 1407. Fig. 623 represents the method of fixing the column at foundation in cotton factories ; a a the stone-bed, resting on two or three brick courses ; b b a cast-iron plate, bolted to the stone, and provided with a circular projection c the hollow end of the column d passes over this ; e c shows a plan of the whole. For supporting beams of 20 to 25 feet span, the diameter of column 382 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 623. Fig. 622. ' CAST-IRON PILLAR SCALE. 1 INCH TO IBS FOOT. BASE OP OAST-IRON PILLAR SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. Fig. 624. should be 8 inches ; the thickness of metal at the bottom of If inch, and f- at the top. For beams of 18-feet span, the diameter may be reduced to 7 or 6 inches ; the size of base-plate e e or J, fig. 623, being from 2 to 2 J feet square. Mr Fairbairn states, " that the base of the lower columns should, in every case, be considerably enlarged, and the ends faced in the lathe ; the base-plate, which receives it, should also be faced. This is the more necessary, as it gives an even surface for the purpose of levelling the plate, and maintaining the vertical position of the column." 1408. The top of the pillar or column must be specially adapted to receive the girders or joists which rest upon it. A method of doing this is shown at fig. 624, where the top-plate b is left square, and has along two of its edges snags or projections c c ; the space between these should be wide enough to allow the girder to be inserted easily, with a little on each side to allow of expansion; d shows the plan of top-plate. Where there are two storeys to the building, and one row of columns has to rest upon the other immediately beneath, the best method to adopt is to have the neck / of the lower pillar e prolonged, and made hollow, to receive the end g of the upper pillar. The neck /must be long enough to be flush with or a little above the top edge of the girder, when it is laid upon the cap of the lower pillar e. tJPJ>BR TERMINATION OF COLUMNS TO RECEIVE : COLTMXS. 383 1409. Fig. 025 shows another method of connecting one base of Tipper column with the cap of lower OHO, of which tho upper part a receives the lower part b of column. The socket a and part b should both bo carefully faced in the lathe to insure accurate fitting. 1410. Where the caps of columns in rows are tied to- P!fr ,,.,. gether by truss-rods which run at right angles to the line of beams as the ties a <(, fig. 626, connecting the columns b b b placed opposite each other the method recommended by Mr Fairbairn is the best which can be adopted to secure the tie-rods. 1411. In fig. 626 c c is part of cap of column, with slot holes in each side, as d. The tie-rods e e aro terminated with catches or bent points, which grasp tho cap of the column, and are secured together by driving in the key/. 1412. There are various methods in use to join girders together, lying on the caps of columns. The simplest is illustrated in fig. 627, which represents a plan of the top of two girders, the ends a. c and b d of which are expanded into flanges, to allow of bolt-holes to be made. The side view is seen at e. 1413. The method adopted where a circular neck is made to the cap of tho column, as/ in fig. 624, is illustrated in fig. 628. In this form of joint the ends of the girders b b and c c are expanded into semicircular flanges, which embrace Fig. C27. Jfi ALE, J INCH TO THE 384 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. the neck /, as / and / in figs. 624 and 627, and are secured by bolts and nuts. The side view is shown at e /, fig. 628. 1414 In place of joining the two beams with bolts and nuts, as shown in fig. 629, projecting horns a b may be cast in the ends of the circular part of the beams c d, which em- Fig. 63i. brace the cap e ; these two horns being secured by wrought-iron clasps or clips fg. 1415. Where four girders meet on the cap of a column with neck, as at /, fig. 627, the ends of the girders are expanded into flanges of the form as shown in fig. 630, at b and c. Where four of these are put to- gether, the ends form a figure as shown by the dotted lines b e, c d. 1416. Junction of Wrought -Iron Beams with Cast-Iron Columns. In fig. 631 we show how this is effected : a the central hollow of column ; b the square part of the cap c c, against which the ends of the two beams abut ; angle-irons e e, e e are secured to the neck of column by the bolts //, which pass through the part a, and are secured by nuts. The angle-irons e e, e e are riveted to the beams, as shown in the front elevation at g g, g g. 1417. SECTION THIRD Roofs. In fig. 632 we give a skeleton diagram of a roof adapted for a span of 18 feet, and in which the principals are placed at a dis- tance of 7 feet apart. The following are the dimensions of parts : The rise or camber of tie-rods from a to b 6 inches ; from a to c, 4 feet ; diameter of tie-rods a d, f inch ; diameter of king-bolt b c, inch. The following are the dimensions of the rafters c d, c g, of which the right hand of fig. 633 is a section : Width of table a b, fig. 633, 2 inches ; thickness of do., inch ; total depth JUNCTION OF TOUR OIRDER8 ON GAP OF COLUMN SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. LUMN SCALE, 1 INCH TO ' Fig. 632. Fig. 633. BtETON TRUSS TOR AN IRON KOOF OF 18-PEET SPAN. : e : F.-" s v - I:...,. . * ' SECT tON OF WROUOHT-IRON B A.- TERS. from c to J, 2^ inches ; thickness of rib e /, inch. The following are the dimensions of the struts e b, f b, fig. 632, of which the left hand of fig. 633 DETAILS OF ROOFS. 385 is a section : Width of tablt inch ; thickness of do., ^ inch ; depth from j to ?, l-i- inch ; thickness of rib I', { incli. 1418. Details of Hoof in fig. 632. In fig. 634 we give detail drawings of rafter-box or shoe, in which the lower terminations of the rafters e or g are fixed; a a is the wall-plate, to which the shoe b b is bolted by bolts c, or, in place of being secured to a wall-plate, the shoe may be at once built into the wall ; d the recess in which tlie end of the rafter e is placed. To the front of the shoe a snag/ is cast, which is embraced by the jointed end of the tie-bolt g (d b, or g 6, fig. G32), and secured thereto by bolt and nut. 1419. Fig. 635 is the plan of shoe ; a the recess for rafter, b the snag for tie-bolt. Fig. 634. o 1420. In fig. 636 we give a sketch of another form of shoo, in which the tie- bolt a is inserted in an aperture and secured by a key b ; c the end of the rafter. In the end view d is the recess for the rafter, e the aperture for the tie-bolt. Fig. 630. 1421. In fig. 637 we give plan and elevation of the shoe, in which the upper ends of the rafters d c, g c, fig. 632, are secured. The ends of the rafters a a are cut off at right angles, as at b and c, and are passed into slots made in the thickness of the shoe. The king-bolt d is passed into a circular aperture in the under side of shoe, and secured by a cotter key e f is the recess for ridge-pole. In the plan of lower side, g g are the slots, in which the rafters a a are inserted, being secured therein by rivets or bolts ; h the central aperture, in which 2 v, 386 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. the king-bolt d is inserted. In plan of upper side, k k slots for rafters, i i recess for ridge-pole. Fig. 637. c Fig. 638. ELEVATION AND PLANS OF SHOE FOR OFFER END OF RAFTER SCALE IN FI3. 657. 1422. In fig. 638 we give side-elevation, and elevation and plan, showing method of connecting foot of king-bolt c b, fig. 632, feet of struts e b, f b, and inner ends of tie -rods a d, a g. In fig. 638 the ends a a of the struts b b are inserted in recesses made in the cast-iron shoe c ; to the under side of the shoe two snags d d are provided, to which the ends of the tie -rods e are jointed. The king-bolt / passes through an aperture in the centre of the shoe, and is tightened up by a nut g, fitted on the screwed lower end of king-bolt/. In the plan of under side of shoe, h is the nut of king-bolt, i i snags to which the tie -rods are jointed. In the side elevation k is the re- cess in which the end of strut is inserted, I the snag to which the end of tie-rod is jointed, m the king-bolt. 1423. In fig. 639 we give another method of joining the feet of struts e and/, and the ends of the tie-rods a d, a g, fig. 632. In fig. 639 the ends of the tie- rods a and b are finished with circular eyes, and plates c c, d d are secured to them by bolts e e, e e passing through circular holes and secured by nuts. The ends of the rafters // are bent so as to lie flat on the upper plate c c, and are secured Q, i i 1 JUNCTION OF KINO-BOX. T, STRUTS, RAFTERS, AND TIE-RODSSCALE IN P1O. 657. DETAILS OF ROOFS. 387 to the plate c c and eyes of tie-rods a I by the bolts c e, e. e. The king-bolt g passes through the central aperture in the plates c c, d d, and is screwed np by nuts. In the plan, h h are the upper sides of rafters, i i the sides of upper plates corresponding to c c, k the nut of king-bolt, I m the nuts corresponding to e e. l-i-. C.30. ri ...!.__ i i i / ,, , m h \ 1424. A third method of effecting the junction of the struts and tie-rods is shown in fig. 640, in which the tie-rods a and b pass into holes in the shoe, and are secured by keys or cotters c c. The king-bolt ^passes through a central aperture, and is secured by the nuts e e. In the end view, / is the king-bolt, g the recess in which the ends of the Struts are placed, h the aperture intO Which the JONCTION OF KIS-O-BOI.T, RAFTERS, AND TIF.-UO:,S SCALE IN FIO. 657 end of the tie-rod b passes. 1425. In fig. 641 we give view of end of tie-rods ad, a g in fig. 632, of which a a, fig. 641, is the side, b c the plan of jointed end ; the snag d, Fis. 041. fig. 638, passing into the part &, and the whole being secured by the bolt d passing through the holes and tightened up by the nut e. The outer termination of the tie-rods, where they are secured to the snag Of the rafter-Shoe in fig. 634, at g, DETAIL OF TIE-RODSSCALE IN no. Co7. are precisely the same as here shown. 1426. Fig. 642 shows the method of connecting the upper end of strut b c, fig. 632, with the rafter c g. The rafter is shown at a a, fig. 642. Two wrought-iron plates b b one on each side of the web of the rafter are secured by rivets c. Into the space between these two plates the end of the strut d is inserted, this being terminated by a line e parallel to face of rafter a a. The plates b b are secured to the end of the strut d by rivets /, as shown. We 388 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. give also in fig. 642 a plan in which the plates g are shown secured to the strut h h i i being the bolts and nuts by which the plates are secured to the rafter a a. Fig. 642. JUNCTION OF STRUTS AFTERS SCALE IN FIO. 657 1427. Double Roof for Wide Spans. The same form of truss now illustrated may be used in forming the roof of a wide building, as the cow-byre s s of the Suburbial Farm-Steading for Dairy, in Plate VI., the plan of roof of which is shown in fig. 10, Plate X., and the span of which is 58 feet. 1428. Fig. 643 shows the arrangement of roof trusses. A row of pillars or cast-iron columns a being placed down the centre of building at distances of 6 feet apart, the inner ends of the trusses b rest on shoes secured to the caps of the columns, the outer ends c c to shoes on the walls d d. For a span of 29 feet the following will be the dimensions of the parts of the truss, the letters of reference being those in fig. 632 : Camber of tie-rods from a to 5, 8^ inches ; height from i to c, 5 feet 8 inches ; diameter of king-bolt b c, 1 inch ; diameter of tie-rod a d, \\ inch. The dimensions of rafters and struts are as follows, the letters of reference being those in fig. 633 : rafters, width of table a b, 2^ inches ; thickness of table, ^ inch ; depth from c to d, 3 inches ; thickness of rib e fi f inch > struts, width of table g h, 2 inches ; thickness of table \ inch ; depth fromy to t, 2 inches ; thickness of rib &, ^ inch. Fig. 643. SKELETON TRUSS OF DOUBLE-SPAN ROOF SCALE IK 7IO. 657 1429. Details of Hoof in Jig. 643. All the details are of the same construction as those for truss in fig. 632, with the exception of the shoe for the feet of rafter at the junction of trusses at the point , fig. 643. In fig. 644 we give a side elevation of the shoe for this part : a the upper part of column ; b b cap of same, to which the shoe is bolted ; the ends of the rafters c c are passed into recesses formed in the shoe ; d d are snags to which the ends of the tie- rods e e are jointed; /a slot, through which the truss-rods connecting the rows of pillars or columns together are passed, and which are secured as shown in fig-. 626. 1 DETAILS OF ROOFS. 389 1430. Iron Truss without King-Dolt. In fig. 645 we give the drawing of a truss of this kind adapted for spaas from 18 to 30 feet. The span f g, in fig. 645, is 25 feet. The king-bolt c b is dispensed with, and two struts d e, d e are used, with tie-bolts c e, c e. The dotted line s <7 iahf, and d z, d h, show the position of the struts and tie-bolts before being braced up into the positions shown by the black lines. 1431. Details. In fig. 646 we give a side and end elevation of a form of cast-iron strut adapted to this form of truss : a a part of the rafter, b b the strut, secured by the bolt c. In the side elevation d is the lower part of the strut, e e the sides of the upper part, / the place in which the rafter a a is put, g h the bolt. In fig. 647 we give side, and in fig. 648 edge, elevations of the lower Fit*. C46. PPER END OF OAST-IRON part of the strut a a, b b, fig. 646, provided with a bolt-hole at c. The part of the 390 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. tie shown at e, fig. 647, corresponds to the tie e f in fig. 645 ; the tie at d, Fig. 648. fi ' 647 ' to tlie tie e b e in % 645 5 the part of the tie at g, fig. 647, to the ties e c, fig. 645. The whole of these ties, as d, e, g, fig. 647, are secured to the strut a a, b b by the bolt /. In 648, a b the strut, d g the ties, and /the bolt. 1432. In fig. 649 we give a front, and in fig. 650 a side elevation of the assemblage of rafters, ridge-pole, bracket, and ties for a roof, as of fig. 645; the same letters referring to both figures : a a the rafter-head, or box, formed of two cast-iron plates, which embrace the ends e of the rafters, and are secured by bolts //. They are provided with two snags b J, to which the ties k k are bolted by the bolts d d ; the brackets g g, cast to the sides of a a, support the ridge-pole box or shoe /* h in the cavity i of which the ridge-pole rests. BIDE ELEVATION OF I Fig. 649. Fig. 650. m Im E JUNCTION O , RIDGE-POLE, BRACKET, AND TIES. DE ELEVATION O? FIG 1433. We give in fig. 651 the elevation of another method of joining the assemblage of parts shown in figs. 649, 650, where a a is the cast-iron shoe, b the recess for ridge-pole, c the rafter, d e the line of tie-rods e c, fig. 645, of which //, fig. 651, is a side elevation, and g g edge, showing part which em- braces the shoe a a. 1434. Shoe for Feet of Rafters. We give, in fig. 652, an elevation of shoe for the feet of the rafters eg, c f in fig. 645 : a the rafters, b the bolt which secures the shoe to the wall -plate, c that which secures the gutter, d the bolt-hole for securing the end of tie-rod. In the plan below, e is the end of the tie-rod, with circular eye /, h the bolt, secured by the nut z, k the recess into which the end of rafter passes. 1435. In fig. 653, in the upper part, end view of shoe is given : a the end of tie-rod, b the circular eye of the same, c the bolt securing it to the snags d d, e the nut, /the recess for end of rafter. In section below, g is a front, and h a side view of the eye of tie-rod a. SHOES FOIl KALTEES. 391 Fig. 053. L j 1 392 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1436. In fig. 654 we give side elevation of upper part of another form of strut adapted for the truss in fig. 645, in which a a is the rafter at part d, fig. 645, the bolts b b securing the strut c to the same. 1437. In fig. 655 we give side elevation of the lower part of strut a a, ter- minated with a circular plate b b, in the periphery of which apertures are made, in which the ends of the tie-rods c d e are inserted, these being secured by keys shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 655. Fig. 654. OFFER TERM LOWER TERMIUiTIOiJ OF I 1438. Iron Trusses with Queen-Bolts. Of this class of roof for spans from 28 to 40 feet, we give a skeleton diagram in fig. 656 for a span of 30 feet, and of which the following are the dimensions : camber of roof from e to d, 9 inches ; rise of roof from d to a, 6 feet; distance apart of king-bolt d and queen-bolts/ and <7, 5 feet ; diameter of king-bolt d a, li inch ; diameter of queen-bolts ffi f f an i nc h > f queen-bolts g g, \ inch. Dimensions of rafters arid struts, the letters of reference being the same as in fig. 633 : Rafters, width of table a b, 2^ inches ; thickness of table, f of an inch ; depth from c to d, 3 inches ; thickness of rib e /, f inch. Struts, width of table g h, If inch ; thickness of table, inch ; depth from j to z, 2 inches ; thickness of rib k, T 5 ^- inch. Fig. 656. SKELETON OP TUTTSSID ROOF 30 EZET SPAK SCALE IN T1O. 657. Fig. 657. 1 2 3 4 s CALI FOR FIQ8. 634 TO 067 IKCLO8TO. 1439. Details of Truss in jig. 656, l-. Int the scale for all of which is given in fig. 657. DETAILS OF TRUSS. 39 1440. Fig. 658 is a sectional drawing, showing connection between foot of king-bolt and struts : a tr, a a the tie-bolts; c c the struts; d d the king-bolt; / a section of king-bolt ; b b bolts which pass through the ends of the struts c c, the upper and under plates s s, s s, and the ends of the tie- bolts a a. A plan view of the connection is given in the upper part of the figure : k k shows the form of the up- per and lower plates s s, s s h the termina- tion of a tie- bolt, g that of a strut. The king-bolt passes through the central aperture /, and the whole are secured by the bolts b b passing through the holes e, e. 1441. Fig. 659 shows the method of attaching the upper end of a strut to a rafter : a a is the rafter, b b a plate (there is a corresponding plate on the other side) attached to the rafter by a bolt passing through the plates and the rafter at d. The end of the strut c is cut off to suit the slope of the rafter as shown by the dotted lines, and passed between the two plates above described, and secured by rivets or bolts rivets being usually employed. 1442. The method of joining the foot of strut m and of queen-bolt /with the king-bolt a d, fig. 656, is illustrated in fig. 660, where a a is the tie-bolt (corresponding with tie-bolt c rf, fig. 656), d the strut, c the lower collar of the queen-bolt, terminating in a bolt i, passing through the strut d, upper washer e e, tie-bolt a a, lower washer e, and secured by nut / Fig. 661 shows the plan of tie-bolt a a, fig. 660, with the expanded part at the aperture 5, through which the bolt 5, fig. 660, passes ; c is the section of the tie-bolt. 394 PEACTICAL CONSTKUCTION. Fig. 662. 'c? JOINT OF QOEEN-BOLT. Fig. 663. 1443. Fig. 662 illustrates the method of forming the connection between the upper end of the queen-bolt c, fig. 660, with the rafter a a, fig. 659. In fig. 662, the upper part of the queen-bolt is jointed as at d, and provided with two eye-holes at a a. The plates b 5, fig. 659, pass between the forks a a of the end of the queen- bolt in fig. 662 ; and a bolt is passed through the j ^ bolt-holes in a a, and the bolt-hole d in b 6, fig. 659, | g and is secured by a nut. In fig. 662, b shows in side view the bolt-holes at a a, c the section of the queen-bolt /, fig. 656 (f inch), and e the section of queen-bolt g ( inch), also in fig. 656. 1444. Fig. 663 illustrates the method of joining the upper extremities of the two rafters in a b, a c, fig. 656, the ends of which are cut off at right angles to the direction of their length, as shown by the dotted lines of d arid d, fig. 663. The king-bolt- head a a a is made of cast- iron ; and space is provided between its two projecting ends, as shown at a a, fig. 664, into which the ends of the rafters are inserted, and secured by bolts and nuts or rivets passing through the " head " a a, fig. 663, and the rafters. The upper part of the head is terminated by a recess f, formed between two plates e e, fig. 663, into which the ridge-pole is placed. In the solid part of the head a core-hole is cast, into which is passed the upper end of the king - bolt b c ; this is fixed by a key driven through slots made in the head, and the key-seat in the bolt. 1445. Fig. 665 is an end view of king-bolt-head; a a the slot into which the rafter is passed, b b the part sustaining the ridge-pole, c the king-bolt. Fig. 664 is the plan of the king-bolt- head. 1446. In fig. 666 we give side elevation of shoe, in which the lower ends of rafters a b, a c, fig. 656, are secured ; a a, fig. 666, the end of the tie-rod b c, fig. 656, which passes into an aperture cast in the shoe, and secured by a cotter and gib b ; d end of rafter, secured by the bolts e e. 1447. Fig. 667 is a front view of the shoe, which is built into the wall. A form of shoe, as in fig. 634, may be adopted. 1448. The following are the dimensions of the parts of wrought-iron roofs of various spans ; for these we JUNCTION OP RAFTERS WITH XJ.NO-BOLT-HEAD. Fig. 664. ' XliJO-BOI/r-HEAU. Fig. 665. SPANS OF ROOFS. 395 SIDE EIEV are indebted to a valuable table in Weale's Engineer's Pocket- Boole for 1855-56 ; for other sizes we refer to the book itself. 1449; For a 20-feet span, as in fig. 632, the rise in the centre from a to b is 6 inches ; from b to c, 4 feet ; diameter of the tie-rod d 5, g &, inch ; of the king- bolt b c, inch. 1450. For a 25-feet span, as in fig. 645, the rise from a to b, 7| inches ; from b to c, 5 feet ; diameter of the tie-rod e b, b e, ~L inch ; of king-bolt b c, -| inch. 1451. For a 30-feet span, as in fig. 656, the rise from e to t?, 9 inches ; from d to a, 5 feet. The distance from king-bolt a d to the queen-bolts// g g, 5 feet respectively. The diameter of tie-rod b d, d c, l inch; the diameter of king-bolt a d, f inch ; of queen-bolts//, -f inch ; of queen-bolts g g, -| inch. 1452. For a span of 35 feet, the truss as in fig. 656, the rise from e to d, 10^- inches ; from c? to a, 7 feet. The distance from king-bolt a d, and queen-posts //, and from queen-posts f f to those g g, 5 feet 10 inches. The diameter of tie-rod b d, d c, king-bolt a d, queen-bolts //and g g, the same as for span of 30 feet, as in paragraph 1451. 1453. For a span of 40 feet, truss same as in fig. 656 ; rise from e to d, 12 inches ; from d to a, 8 feet ; distance between king-bolt d a to queen-bolts //, g g, each 6 feet 8 inches ; diameter of tie-rod b d, d c, 1 J inch ; of king-bolt, 1 inch; of queen-bolts// f inch ; and of queen-bolts g g, . 1454. For a span of 45 feet, same truss as in fig. 656, but with a third pair of queen-posts, rise from e to d, 13^ inches ; from d to a, 9 feet ; distance between king-bolts and queen-posts, and between queen-posts, each 5 feet 7|- inches ; diameter of tie-rod b c, If inch; of king-bolt, 1| inch; first pair of queen-bolts, -^ inch ; second pair, f ; and third pair, |. 1455. For a span of 50 feet, the truss same as in span of 45 feet, the rise from c to d, fig. 656, 15^ inches ; from d to a, 10 feet ; distance between king and queen bolts each 6 feet 3 inches ; diameter of tie-rod b c, 1| inch ; of king- bolt, 1^ inch; of first pair of queen-bolts, 1 inch ; of second pair, | ; and of third pair, f . 1456. In fig. 633 we give section of the rafter a b, a c, and strut m m, h h, in fig. 656. The following are the dimensions of rafters for the various spans now described : 20-feet span, total depth from c to rf, fig. 633, 5^ inches, width of top table a b 2, thickness of top table 3-, thickness of the rib e f ; 25-feet span, c d 3 inches, a b 2^-, thickness of a b ^, thickness of rib e f ; 30-feet span, c d 3 inches, a b 2|-, thickness of a b , e / ; 35-feet span, c d 3 inches, a b 2f, thickness of a-b , ef^; 40-feet span, c d 4 inches, a b 3^, thickness of a b T 7 ^, e f I r ; 45-feet span, e d 4j inches, a b 3^, thickness of a b 50-feet span, c d 4f inches, a b 3f, thickness of a b -^, of ef |. 1457. The following are the dimensions of the struts or braces of the above 396 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. spans : Let j i, fig. 633, be the depth of the strut, g h width of table, k the thickness of rib, and let m represent the thickness of table. Then, for a span of 20 feet : j i 2^ inches, g h 2, k f , and m \. For a span of 25 feet : j i 3 inches, g h 2|, k f, m J. For a span of 30 feet : j i 3 inches, g h 2|, k f, m . For a span of 35 feet : j i 3J inches, g h 2f , k T 7 F , m f . For a span of 40 feet : j i 4 inches, g h 3 J, k , m y 7 ^-. For a span of 45 feet : j i 4^ inches, g h 3, k A, m iV For a span of 50 feet : j i 4| inches, g h 3|, k |, m /^ 1458. Iron Roof for Horse-Walk of Thrashing-Mill. In fig. 668 we give the plan of horse-walk ; a a barn wall, b b collar beam, 8 inches by 6, to support hanger for vertical shaft of mill ; c c, c c, shears, 8 inches by 4, framed into collar b b, and stayed by the braces d d; e e the columns supporting the rafters and collar-beam b b. 1459. In fig. 669 we give a skeleton roof, showing disposition of the rafters, &c. : a a the cast-iron columns, b b the rafters, c c the tie-bolts, d d struts or braces, e king-bolt. \ a THRASHING-MILr- NCH TO THE FOOT. 1460. Details of the Roof. In fig. 670 we give elevation of the shoe which supports the ends of the collar-beam b b, fig. 668, and the ends of two of the rafters ; a the column to the cap 5, of which the shoe c is secured by bglts and nuts ; d the end of collar-l^eam, which is received into a recess made in the shoe, and kept in its place by a bolt ; e the end of the rafter. A stud / is riveted to the rafter, and provided with an eye, to which the tie-bolt g is jointed. To steady the two columns supporting the collar-beam rf, a tie-bolt may be used, stretching from one column to the other, secured at the ends to the eyes of snags h, cast in the caps of the columns. As two columns out of the assem- blage employed to support the roof only are required to support the collar-beam, the shoes for receiving the feet of the other rafters do not require to have recesses for receiving the ends of collar-beams, as in fig. 670 ; the shoe required, however, will be the same as in fig. 670, with the exception of the part to re- ceive end of collar- beam. 1461. In fig. 671 we give a drawing of the king- bolt-head which receives the upper end of the king-bolt e, fig. 669, and the SHOE FOR FIET OF RAFTERS, BEAM, AND TIE-RODS 8CA] 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. EOOF OF HOESE-WALK. 397 upper termination of the rafters at the point f. In fig. 671 a a is an elevation of the head, b the king-bolt, passing through an aperture in the centre of head, and secured by a nut c. In the plan, d d d are the recesses which receive the ends of the rafters ; e the nut of the king-bolt. 1462. In fig. 672 \ve give the cast-iron box or shoe for receiving the ends of the struts d d, fig. 669, which meet at the point #, and to which also the ends of the tie-bolts c c are jointed. In fig. 672 we give the shoe, in which a is king-bolt, secured by the nuts b b ; c c the recesses which receive the ends of the struts d d, fig. 669 ; and d d the tie-bolts c c, fig. 669 ; e e struts, corre- sponding to d d, fig. 669. The tie-bolts d d are jointed to the snags ffff by means of eyes, through which and the tie-bolts bolts are passed ; g the aperture through which the king-bolt a is passed. 1463. In fig. 673 we illustrate an- other method of joining the assemblage of struts d d, and tie-bolts c c, fig. 669, to the shoe. In fig. 673, a the king- bolt, passing through the shoe b c c the struts, secured to the shoe by the bolts d d and nuts e e ; f f the snags to which the tie-bolts g g are jointed. The lower figure is a plan of the shoe, with the ends of the struts inserted. 1464. Gutters for Iron Roofs Gutter for Single Roof. In fig. 674 we illus- trate a method of forming the gutter of an iron roof, in which a is the wall on which rests the shoo for rafter b. The flange c of the rafter b is continued past the butting end c, and carried outward beyond the wall a. The zinc or 398 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. iron roan or gutter d is riveted to the end of the flange c, as shown in the plan of under side of flange in the left-hand figure, where e is part of the flange, Fig. 674. SCALE IN FIQ. 657. //body of roan or gutter <7, which is continued along the line of wall from end to end, being riveted to the end of the flange of each principal 1465. In fig. 675 we give another form of gutter : a a is the gutter- rig. C75. OAST-IKON OOTTER SCALE IN FIO. 657. box, secured to the wall by bolts and nuts b &, as shown. The back of the gutter-box c is extended upwards, and forms a part d at the same angle as the angle of line of rafters e, the lower flange of which is bolted to the gutter- box by the bolt / and nut g. The rafter, instead of breaking off" flush with the inside of gutter-box, may be extended across, as shown by the dotted lines h, and rest on the cornice i of the box. 1466. In fig. 676 we give a drawing of another method of forming a gutter, in which the rafters are secured to shoes a a, resting on columns #, which are made hollow, and conduct the water from the roofs to the drains. At the back of the shoe a flange c is cast, to which is secured the wrought-iron gut- ter d d, by the bolt arid nut e e. A down pipe (placed at intervals in the length GUTTERS FOR EOOFS. 399 of gutter d d, corresponding to the distance between the columns J) / is con- nected by a flange to the flange g of the elbow h, which conducts the water to the interior of the column b. 1467. Gutters for Double Roofs. In the double roof, of which wo gave the junction of rafters at b, in the central column, in fig. G43, we now show a method of forming the gutter by bending galvanised iron to the form as shown at b, and riveting it to the flanges of the rafters. 1468. In fig. 677 we give another method of forming this central or valley gutter, in which a hollow part, a a, is cast in the centre of the shoe b &, c the rafter, d the tie-bolt, e the down pipe, leading the water to the centre of column, to which the shoe b b is bolted. 1469. In fig. 678 we give another form of gutter for a double roof: a a the ROOF SCAM: gutter-box, of cast-iron, secured to the wall-plate or column by bolts and nuts b b ; c c the rafters, secured to the angular pieces d d by bolts and nuts as shown. The rafters may be continued, as shown by the dotted lines, and secured by bolt and nut. 400 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1470. Corrugated Iron Roofs. When the surface of a plate of iron is formed into a series of ridges and furrows, as a J, fig. 679, a series of arches is arranged, which, abutting against each other, en- able weights laid, or a pressure made, upon the upper surface to be resisted, under circumstances in which the same piece of iron, if flat, would be bent and doubled up. In fig. 679 c d is the eleva- tion of plate a b ; and e f shows how, by giving a curve to the plate a b, so as to form it into an arch, still greater strength may be given to the plate so much so, that it may be used as the cover- ing of a roof of moderate span without the use of rafters the only point of support being at the abutments e and/ of the walls. 1471. In fig. 680 we give elevation for a truss span 18 feet adapted for galvanised iron covering : a a the covered rib or rafter, resting on the shoes b b, Fig. 680. CORRUGATED IRON FLATE9 GALVANISED IRON HOOF 'CALE, J INCH TO bolted to the beams c c which run along each side of building, and which rest on the caps of pillars placed at intervals ; d d tie-rods, e e struts of wrought- iron. In fig. 681 a is a section, and b side elevation of the rafter or rib a a in fig. 680. In fig. 682 we give upper part of column a, which supports the beam Fig. 682. Fig. 681. SECTION AHD B1U ELEVATION Ot TO THE FOOT -SCALE, } INCH , this CAP OF COLUMN-BEAM SCALE, | INCH TO THB FOOT. carrying the series of rafter-shoes, which is bolted to the cap c by the bolt d. In fig. 683 we give plan of upper Fig - cs3 - end of column a: b b cap, c c the beam, d d the nuts of the bolts securing it to c c. In fig. 684 we give side elevation and plan, showing the junction of feet of struts e e, fig. 680, with the tie-rod d d. In fig. 684 a a is tie-rod, b b the struts riveted to the tie- rod a a ; one of the struts c is placed on one side, the other, d, on the opposite side of the tie-rod e. e. UPPER EWD OF COLUMN 3CALE, \ INCH TO THE FOOT. GUTTERS FOR ROOFS. 401 1472. In fig-. 685 wo show a inodo of connecting corrugated arched iron plates e and c with the gutters a, which are either bolted to the cap of column b or built into a wall. The plate e is scoured to the side of gutter with bolts and nuts d. This figure also shows a mode of connecting the plates of a double roof, as in fig. G-i3 : a the iron gutter, stretching from column to column, or laid continuously in a central wall ; c and c the plates, secured to gutter with bolts arid nuts d. The connection of outer sides of plates is the same as at d. For roofs of large span, principals or iron trusses should be used the principals being placed at distances varying from 10 to 15 feet, and the plates of corrugated iron slightly arched, so that, when secured to the trusses, the roof will be in longitudinal section, as a b c d, fig. G8G. The upper part of same figure is a design by Messrs Dray & Co., London, for a wrought-iron truss for a span of 52 to 54 feet, adapted for corrugated iron. This roof seems well adapted for covering a stackyard. Fiir. GSG. 1473. Details of Truss in fig. 686. In fig. 687 we give the shoe I for Lead of rafters at the point / in fig. GSG. The rafters a a are riveted to the shoe b ; c the snag to which the tie-rod/ h is jointed; d the plan, and e the end ele- vation of shoe. In fig. 688 we give the shoe a, to which the ends of the tie- rods k I, fig. 686, are jointed ; b the snag, c c the rafter. In fig. 689 we give the shoe e for receiving ends of tie-rods h m, fig. 686 ; d d the rafter, /the snag to which the tie-rods h m are jointed ; h g is end view of shoe c. In fig. 690 a is the shoe to which the lower end of the rod from /to //, fig. 686, is jointed it 2 c 402 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. is bolted to the tie b b ; c is the snag to which the lower termination of the rod fh is jointed; in the end elevation, in the left figure, the rod / h, fig. 686, passes into the space d of the snag e ; / is section of tie b b. In fig. 690, right hand figure, h i shows the shoe to which the lower terminations of the rods k Z, fig. 686, are jointed ; g g the tie, corresponding to the tie h k g and h k e in fig. 686. Fig. 6S7. ELEVATIONS ANI1 PLAN OF SE Fig. 688. Fig. 689. JUNCTION OF STRUTS WITH RAFTERS SCALE, ] INCH TO THE FOOT. JUNCTION OF TIE- Fig. 600. SHOES FOR TIE-I CDS SCALE, Ji INCH TO THE 1474. SECTION FOURTH Iron Fittings of the Farmhouse and Cottage Locks. In connection with the fittings of the farmhouse is the subject of locks. It is very poor economy to use ill-made locks in any apartment of a farmhouse, and especially in those which contain articles which are usually locked up. In all those places as the store-room, linen-presses, and all wall-presses the best species of lock should be used, as such locks are not only pleasant to use, but LOCKS. 403 cannot go wrong, and are impossible to l>e opened but with the proper key. The outside door of a farmhouse is commonly provided with a very common spring- lock, which is always ready to be opened but when the key is turned in it, leav- ing the house in that quarter constantly accessible during the day, and part of the evening. Now, such a door should be provided with one of Chubb's patent locks, which has not only a small key, but is easily opened as a check-lock ; is beyond the power of any one to pick ; when attempted to be picked, tells it has been so ; cannot go wrong ; lasts a lifetime without repairs, and affords un- speakable security. One peculiarity of this lock is, that it has a number of bolts, every one of which must be lifted before the door will open- each bolt being a security equal to any common lock. Another peculiarity is its detec- tor, by which any attempt to pick or open the lock by a false key is imme- diately notified on the next application of the proper key, which will not open the lock. It, however, makes the lock again serviceable by being turned the wrong way, which no false key is capable of doing. The lock has commonly six bolts, or tumblers, and a detector ; and the ordinary chances against any key but its own opening it is 720. But the height of the shortest step in the key is capable of being altered twenty times, so that the chances against open- ing the lock may be increased to 14,400 : each of the six steps can be as many times altered, so that the chances may be increased to 80,400. The detector can be altered ten times, so the chances are increased to 864,000. Further still, the drill-pins of the locks, and the pipes of the keys, may be easily made of three different sizes, so that the number of chances may be in- creased to 2,592,000. In still larger locks, the chances may be increased to 7,776,000. The corn-barn, granaries, meal-chest, hen-house, and implement- house, ought all to be protected with such locks. We are far from supposing that farm-servants are more dishonest than other persons of their class ; but we all know that to put temptation in the way of servants who have hitherto borne a good character may be the means of corrupting their honesty ; and besides, when people are made aware that the more precious things are really secured with superior locks, the desire to attempt to obtain them, through the locks, will soon subside. 1475. The properties of a good lock are, strength of materials, simplicity of construction, durability of action, good workmanship, and perfect security. Without one and all of these properties, a lock is worthless ; and Chubb's locks possess them all in an eminent degree. With such qualifications, the price cannot be low, but it is cheap in the long-run.* We have used one with six tumblers for several years in the outer door as a check-lock, which cost 15s. with two keys, and of course those with fewer tumblers will cost less. 1476. But notwithstanding that we recommend the Chubb lock to all outer doors of farmhouses as a safe and convenient check-lock, we do not say that such doors should not be provided with a strong rim-lock to be used at night, in addition to the Chubb, not only to inspire undisturbed security in a lonely part of the country, but to lock up the house when the family may have occa- sion to go from home for a few days. Such a rirn-lock may also be used on the back-door of the farmhouse for the same purpose. 1477. Various Forms of Locks. In figs. 691 to 695 we illustrate the forms of locks used. Fig. 691 is a 6-inch Kitchen Latch the Thumb Latch is not figured. Fig. 692 a 7-inch Rim Lock. Fig. 693 a 5-inch Press Lock. Fig. 694 a 6 f -inch Mortise Lock, of which fig. 695 is the escutcheon for the key-hole. * CHUBB On the Construction of Locks, p. 15. 404 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. Fig. 691. Ficr. 692. 7-INOH KIM LOCK. Fig. 693. 5-INCH PRESS I.OCK. Fig. 694. Fig. 695. INCH MOKTI8B I.OC ESCniCHEON FOR KFT-HOL II1NCJES. 405 1478. Hinges. In fig. (JOG we illustrate ;i Lingo l'2f indies long; the part a If inch broad, b 1 i| inch broad and 5-\ long; tlie pin c -g inch in diameter. In fig. 697 the length of Lingo is 1.'}? inches, the breadth at part a 2^ inches; the length of cross 4^ inches, and breadth 1] inch. Fig. 698, FiL'. 698. Butt Hinges, 5 inches long by 2^- broad. In fig. 699 we illustrate the Patent Hinge, by the use of which the door is made self-shutting ; the side a is fixed to the door-frame, b to the door stile ; the door rises as it is opened, and on being left free the part b runs down the pin c. In fig. 700 we illustrate Spherical Hinge (Collinge's patent), in which tLe cylindrical pin which is used in ordinary hinges is dispensed with, and a ball-ended pin substituted ; this plays in a spherical cup made in the step or hook for its reception. This arrange- ment admits of considerable obliquity in the action of the hinges, allowing for all ordinary variation from the shrink- 406 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. ing of the door. The cup, serving as an oil receptacle, keeps the parts thoroughly lubricated, while, by the use of a leather washer, which covers the edge of the cup, all dirt is prevented from entering it. The manufacturer's address is, John Imray, 65 Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth, London. 1479. Window Pulley-Stile. In fig. 701 we give a pulley-stile, 4f inches long by 1^ broad. 1480. Window-Latch. In fig. 702 we illustrate a form of latch used for fastening the lower sash, and preventing it from being lifted up. Fig. 701. INUOW-J.AICH 1481. Spring Pulley for Window-Blinds. In fig. 703 we illustrate the patent spring-pulley, which requires one screw only for fixing it. The cord can be put on or taken off without unscrewing it. The manufacturer's address is, B. Sigrist, 47 Monkwell Street, London. In figs. 704 to 707 we give various views of the fastening for French or " casement " windows, as adopted on the Fig. 703. Fig. 704. c I tt b c o c U o ^ a '' V/ V\ Fig. 705. tA.llCNIKO fOf WINDOWS S FRENCH OR CASEUKN F LDE VIEW. WINDOW FASTEN IXGS. 407 Continent. In fig. 704 a a represents part of the centre stile of one-half of the window this being grooved on the inner edge ; a corresponding tongue or tenon made on the outer edge of the stile of other half of window fitting into it, and forming, when the two halves of the casement are closed, a weather-tight joint. To the stile a a, fig. 704, a plate of brass or iron b b is screwed ; this carries a slotted stud c c, between which a bar d e slides. The central part of this bar is provided with a rack as shown in side view in fig. 705, into which a small pinion gears, actuated by the handle/. The letters in fig. 705 correspond with those in fig. 704. By moving the handle / up- wards, the bar d e moves so that the bolts at its upper and lower ends pass into catches secured to top and bottom rails of window-frame thus securing the window. In fig. 706 the bolt at lower end of bar d e, fig. 704, is shown ; a a window-stile, b part of bar corresponding to d c, fig. 704 ; this is provided with a handle c, and the bar slides in a stud d; e shows the lower part of bolt or bar; this passing into a catch made in lower sill of window. In fig. 707 we show the upper bolt and catch ; to the upper frame a a of window two pieces of iron b b are secured ; the upper part of bar e, corre- sponding to d e, fig. 704, is made with a cross d e, which passes between the irons b b. When the bar c is moved upwards, the cross slips out from be- tween the irons b 5, and the window can be opened. When the bar c is moved Fig. 706. downwards by the rack, see fig. 705, the cross passes into the space, and the window is secured : simultaneously, the bolt e of the lower part of bar , fig. 706, is passed into its catch. In fig. 707 the bar c slides in a brass stud /, secured to the window-stile g, corresponding to a a, fig. 704,- d e being the cross. 1482. Fastening for Stair Rods. In fig. 708 we give a view of Edward's patent socket, which is to be secured to the staircase in the angle formed by the tread and the riser. The rods are triangular, and the ends being placed in the socket, a cap, fig. 709, secures them to the sockets. The objection to the common mode of fixing a stair carpet is, that the eyes of the staples are fast- ened so near the inner angle of the steps, that a stout rod has not room to pass through them over a thick carpet, especially in a turn of the stair, where one side of the carpet has to be doubled. The eyes should be fixed at half an inch from the inner angle of the steps. 408 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 708. Fig. 709. FASTENING TAIIt-OARPET ROD. ERINQHAM 8 FRE8H-A 1483. Ventilators. In fig. 710 we illustrate Arnott's chimney ventilator. The valve a is so nicely balanced that the upward draught of the chimney which causes a current through the opening leading into the room (at the ori- fice of which the valve is fixed) keeps the valve open, allowing of the egress of the foul air of the room ; but, should the smoke be sent down the chimney, and along to ward s the opening, the valve is instantly closed, pre- venting the access of all smoke to the room. 1484. In fig. 711 we illustrate Shering- ham's ventilator for admitting the external atmosphere to the interior of a room through an aper- ture made in the outside wall. The ventilators in figs. 528 and 529 are also Sheringham's. 1485. Chimney-Guards. In certain situations, and in certain quarters of the wind, a down-draught of smoke is created in the chimney. Those situations may be in the neighbourhood of tall trees, at the base of a hill, or in the lee of a large building, against which, if from one direction, and over which, if from another, the wind may be reflected against or bend in a down- ward direction upon the top of the chimney. The only safeguard against such a contingency is the placing a top upon the chimney -head, or- upon the can represented in section in fig. 715, where the iron cone b b should not be angled upwards as at c c, but made level, and it should be placed as much lower down the can below d d as to allow it to take in the top. Fig. 712 represents such a top recommended by Tredgold, where a is the part for fixing it to the can or chimney-head, d the cover, made circular or conical, for preventing the down-draught of the air from above ; and c c are the angular edges for directing the wind upwards according to their angle. The top may be made of thin metal of any kind, and painted black. Kites' (of London) diamond deflecting chimney-top we have found very efficient as a preventor of down- draughts. A rather ingenious, and, we believe, efficient, chim- ney-guard is that of Mr Chadwick of Bury, Lancashire, illus- trated in fig. 713. The principle of this is the employment of an external vane, which, giving motion from the action of the wind, works an Archimedean screw ventilator in the interior of the guard. This acting, after the manner of a pump, creates an upward current in the chimney. With this apparatus it is almost an impossibility to have a down-draught in a chimney ; and it certainly possesses this advantage of being the most efficient in its Fig. 712. ' A CHIMNEY DOWN-URAOOHT SMOKE. CHIMNEY-GUARDS. 409 action when most required, as the higher and more sudden the gusts of wind, the quicker is the velocity of the vane, and of the consequent action of the " screw- pump," as it may be termed. Another form of wind-guard is shown in fig. 714, in which a sphere a, lightly seated, is employed. The arrows on the left show how the current of the down-draught is deflected out of its normal path, and made to pass outwards from the guard, while the ascending smoke has free egress. Where the draught in a chimney is defective, Tredgold recommends the aperture at the top outlet to be contracted ; holding that, to contract it near the bottom, " it is like contracting the aperture of a pipe which supplies a jet." The contraction de- pends on the size of the grate for the fire ; and this being kept in view, Tredgold's rule for the contraction at the top is the following: Let 17 times the length of the grate in inches be divided by the square root of the height of the chimney in feet, and the quotient is the area for the aperture at the top of the chimney in inches. For example, suppose that a grate is 15 inches wide, and the chim- ney 36 feet high 17 X 15 = 255 ; and the square root of 36 is 6 ; therefore 255 divided by 6 = 42^- METHOD OF CONTRACTS THE inches is the area of the top, and the diameter of a circle of 42^ inches in area is rather more than 7f inches for the contraction. 1486. The contraction at the top may be made in this manner: Let fig. 715 represent the section of a chimney-can, the height of which above the stalk is from a to a ; b b is the contracting cone within it made of iron, the lower part of which is rounded off, as at d d; the upper part at c c being made angular upwards, with the view of facilitating the passing of the wind over it in an upward direction. The chimney-top, if constructed of this form at first, might answer as well as any can put up afterwards. 1487. Chimney- Valves and Chimney Breast-Bearers. At the foot of every chimney, in every apartment, a valve should be placed above the throat or 410 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTIOX. Fig. 716. opening of the flue : this is exceedingly useful in regulating the draught and the consequent rate of combustion of the fuel in the grate ; but when the fire is not in use, by shutting it close down, all " back smoke " that is, smoke from other chimneys brought down by adverse currents will be prevented from entering the apartment. These valves may be made in a variety of ways : the common flap of the register grate will do well, if carefully made and adjusted ; or the damper -valve, which slides in a frame, may be used. The form shown in fig. 716 may be easily constructed. Let a a be the circular aperture of the chimney-flue ; a projecting ledge goes round this on the upper side ; at the two ends of its diameter, coinciding with a line drawn at right angles to the line of the chimney bar, or breast, two small apertures are made ; the spindle of the valve b works in these ; the spindle m is continued outwards, and passed through an aperture in the mantelpiece, and pro- vided with a small button c, by which the valve is turned ; a half turn of this will open the valve fully. In order to know the amount of opening, the button should have two projecting studs, as at e e : when these are vertical, or at right angles with the floor, the valve is shut ; when horizontal, as at f, it is open. The valve is thus easily ad- justed to any degree of opening. The chimney bar and valve opening may be advantageously made in one of cast-iron, as in figs. 717 and 718, where fig. 717 is an elevation, and fig. 718 a OHULHBT-HOPPl plan. Fig. 718. The brickwork of the flue rests on a a, which serves as a chimney- bearer, thus obviating all necessity for using the dan- gerous material wood for this purpose. The hood or hopper b b tapers gradually upwards to the size de- signed for that of the flue. The upper part of b forms the throat of the chimney; if the flue is made of circu- lar tubes, they rest on the up- per edge of b. The valve is shown at d, and in fig. 718 it is shown open ate. A modification of this plan, making the chimney-hopper and bar in one, of cast-iron, has been recently regis- tered, as illustrated in fig. 719. In this, however, the opening forming the throat of the flue is left square, and of the usual orthodox size of 14 inches by 9 a size of flue which, from its almost universal adoption by builders, seems to be held of vital importance to their efficient working. Manufac- tured by Lynch White, Iron Wharf, Upper Ground Street, London. 1488. Gas Regulators. Where the pressure from the gasometer is uniform, and the consumption of gas in the house unequal, some burners, being sud- denly shut off, while others are left burning, a usual result is, that the gas is blown rapidly through the burners which are left in use a flickering or un- steady light is thus induced, along with considerable waste. To keep the CAST-IRON CHIMNEY-HOPPER AXIJ BEAHEK CO GAS KKCULATOES. 411 pressure at the burner as uniform as possible is therefore of importance, method of reducing the pressure from the gasometer, sometimes adopted, is to turn the stopcock at the meter only half or partially open. As this adjustment is troublesome, and apt to be neglected, contrivances, known as " gas regu- lators," or " economisers," are coming into use. A very simple form is illus- trated in fig. 720 : a being the exter- nal view, the part b being that which is inserted into the aperture of the gas lustre or chandelier, c the part from which the gas to be lighted issues. In the centre of the enlarged part d d, a flat disc of metal e is placed, having apertures at the opposite diameter, as shown by the dark parts in the plan at/. The gas, striking at a high or variable pressure against the lower side of the disc e, is reduced in velocity, passes through the apertures, and issues from the jet at a uniform pressure. 1489. Another form of gas economise! 1 is illustrated in section in fig. 721; it is known as "Hart's/' In this the gas passes through a disc of felt c. AYe have seen both of these apparatus in use under varying cir- cumstances of action, and have found the combustion uni- form, where that from ordinary burners was unsteady the flame in these reaching a great height at one time, descending to a low point at another, according as the pressure of gas from the main increased or decreased. Uni- form velocity of the issuing gas must promote economical combustion ; hence the saving effected by the use of such contrivances as we have just noted is stated to be very considerable from 5 to 30 per cent, according to the variation in the pressure of the gas supplied to the gas lustres or chandeliers. 1490. Bells. Every farmhouse should be provided with bells. Their forms, and the mode of hanging them, are so well known that we do not illustrate them. The tubes for the wires should be placed before the finishing of the plaster. 1491. Water Taps and Cocks Chrimes's Tap. This form of tap, illustrated in figs. 722 and 723, is much patronised by architects in England. The valve portions consist of a brass disc covered with leather, and pressed on to the seat by a screwed spindle, working through a stuffing- box. For high pressure they are more particularly made with the valve loose from the spindle, the valve being lifted by the pressure only. The advantages claimed for this form of tap are, perfect security from leakage, facility of repair, by putting on a new leather without disconnecting the cock, the prevention of concussion, and the form of the water-way, which gives a larger area than the ordinary plug-cock. Messrs Guest & Chrimes, of Eotherham, are the patentees. 1492. Jennings India-rubber Tube Tap. This very efficient form of tap is illustrated in fig. 724, which represents the cock open. When the handle is 412 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Pis'. T23. IHIMKa'a WATER-TAP Fig. 724. STNINO 8 INDIA-HDBBBR TtJBE-COCK. Fig. 725. turned it presses upon the vulcanised india-rubber tube and collapses it, as shown by the dotted lines. One great ad- vantage possessed by this cock is, that it gives the water-way the full size of the pipe. It is little liable to get out of order. The patentee is C. Jenning, Great Charlotte Street, Blackfriars Koad, London. 1493. Wheatcroft and Smith's Water-Cock. In fig. 725 we give a section of this form of tap, of which the principle of arrange- ment is the same as that adopted in the ""hydrant:" a is the valve open for the escape of the water, b the spindle, c the vulcanised spring, d the screw. 1494. In cases where the water supply is on the " constant " system, as well as in those where the ordinary cistern is in use, much waste of water is occa- sioned by the " tap " being left open ; a means of putting this waste out of the reach of a careless attendant is offered by an ingenious and philosophical inven- tion of Mr Pilbrow, known as the " Water Waste Preventer," an elevation and section of which we give in figs. 726, 727. It may be described as a small cis- tern, which, when once emptied, cannot be again refilled without shutting off the delivery. The lower fig., 727, is a side elevation of this apparatus, in which a is the suction, and b the delivery pipe. The upper fig., 726, is a section showing WHEATCROFT AS WATER-TAPS. 413 the method of action. The cylinder contains a ball-valve, which, when the water is at rest, remains at tho .suction end as at c. When the delivery-cock is opened to draw water the ball slowly rises, following the current of the water, until it arrives at the top, as at cZ, where it stops the (low of water by covering the aperture of the pipe. To obtain a fresh supply of water, therefore, the cock must be closed, when the ball, from its specific gravity, will descend in a few moments, and admit of an additional quantity of water being drawn off. 1495. Traps for Sinks, Cesspools. Lowe's cast-iron trap, illustrated in fig. 728, is a very efficient form : a a a is the external covering, generally made of cast-iron, and fitted into the branch leading to the drain ; b the line of grating through which the drainage fluid falls into the interior, e e. A partition c pre- vents the foul air from the drain, which has a tendency to pass up d d, as shown by the arrows, from passing through e. e, and out by 6, the only inlet to the drain. The prices of this form of trap, made in cast-iron, are as follows : No. 1 size, 30 inches by 18, and 1G deep, weighing about 5 cwt., is 2, 5s.; 20 inches by 12, and 13 deep, 2 cwt., 17s. Gd. ; 14 inches by 9, and 9 deep, about 1 cwt., 10s.; 11 inches by 7, and 7 deep, 5G lb., 7s. 6d. ; 9 inches by 5|, and 5| deep, 25 lb., 4s. 9d. Another form of trap used for house gratings is shown in fig. 729 ; it is known as the " bell trap : " a is the entrance to the drain, the water passing through the grating at h h, Vis. 729. Fig. 728. 414 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 730. '-IRON SINK. passes into the receptacle d d; the bell or cup c c prevents the foul gases from a passing out by h h, while the water has free liberty to pass to the drain by a. The dotted lines at e show how the bell is jointed and may be raised. 1496. Cast-iron Sink. In. fig. 730 we give an illustration of the cast-iron sink, with trap complete, manufactured by J. Jones, 6 Bankside, Southwark, London ; the price varying from 6s. to 12s. each, according to size. 1497. Kitchen Grates, Ranges, and Stoves The Lancashire Kitchen Grate. The great advantage possessed by this grate is, that no independent fire is required to heat the oven. By merely withdrawing a damper, the heated air and flame from the fuel in the body of the grate are drawn underneath the saddle on which the oven rests, passing along the bottom plate, and up and over the back and end plate, and the top of the oven, to a small or subsidiary chimney or flue, which connects itself with the main chimney a little above the breast. By this arrangement, any degree of heat required can be maintained in the oven with very little trouble and expense. It is vastly superior to the ordinary kitchen range used nearly throughout Scotland, and in which the oven is heated by a fire or furnace specially connected with it. Not only is this latter plan wasteful of fuel, but it is not capable of that nice degree of regulation necessitated by careful and economical cooking. The fire is either too brisk or too dull, and the oven is consequently over or under heated. Now, in the Lancashire grate used by thousands in that county the oven is not only quickly heated (for no independent fire has to be specially kindled), but it is easily kept at a uniform temperature. The price, moreover, is moderate much, indeed, below that of the ordinary Scotch kitchen grate, and affords accommodation for a larger amount of cooking than may appear at first examination. 1498. Goddards Economical Cooking- Apparatus. Of a more pretentious character, but on the same principle of heating the oven and boiler, &c., from a cen- tral fire, as that adopted in the Lancashire grate above described, is the " Notting- ham " apparatus, manufac- tured by Henry Goddard of that town, and of which we give an illustration in fig. 731. These ranges consist of a surface or hot-plate, on which a number of vessels may be kept boiling, or on which irons may be heated ; it has an oven or roaster, a boiler, and a plate -warmer. This range can be used either as an open fireplace or a closed stove. Fig. 731. COOKING AND GAS STOVES. 415 1499. American Cooking-Stove. Having- been witness, while in the United States, to the efficiency, economy, and quickness of operation of the cooking- stoves in that country; and as, moreover, they are now being rapidly introduced into Great Britain, we have deemed it right to illustrate one of the numerous forms which this apparatus assumes ; believing that for cottages they will be found useful and economical ad- juncts to a poor man's house-appli- ances as enabling warm and com- fortable dishes to be quickly prepared a matter of no small moment to a man who comes home tired and wet from his day's work on the road or in the field. 1500. Fig. 732 illustrates the stove known as the " Magnolia," for small families, adapted for heating two ket- tles or pans at top. The manufac- turers are Messrs Smith and Wellstood, 33 Union Street, Glasgow. 1501. Gas-Stove. Where gas is made at the steading, a simple form of stove may be used to heat the lobby of the farmhouse, or the wool-room, or other apartment in the steading. 1502. Pig. 733 illustrates Kickett's (5 Agar Street, Strand, London) Calorific Gas-stove, in which, by a simple provision, the products of combustion are led off to the external atmosphere thus getting rid of the annoying smells which are produced by the ordinary form of gas-stove, in which the products of combus- tion are allowed to pass into the room ; " a a gas- burners, b b gas-cocks to regulate the same, c c inner cylinder to direct the burnt air to top of stove before passing out at nozzle e, d door for lighting burner, f f tube to conduct the air of room through body of stove. The arrows show the passage of the burnt air, after supporting the gas flame of burner, and its exit from the stoves by the aperture e at the back. The arrow-points show the passage of the air of the room through the body of the stove, without its com- ing in contact with the gas-burner. By the above it will be seen that, supposing the stove to be fixed in a bedroom, conservatory, or other close apartment, and a pipe be attached to the nozzle e, every portion of the burnt air must go up the pipe and be conveyed away." 1503. SECTION FIFTH Iron Fittings of the Steading Gutters, Gratings, and Traps. 1504. Iron Gutters for Closed Surface Drains for Stables, $c. In fig. 734 we give Cottam & Co.'s (Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London) improved surface drains, and in fig. 735 the form introduced by Mr James Barton, 370 Oxford Street, London. Figs. 736 and 737 show methods of forming junc- tions at right angles. 416 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 734. OOTTJJi 8 IRON GUTTERING FOR CLOSED BURFA.CE STABLE-DRAINS Fig. 735. Fig. 736. Fig. 737. SGLES OF BARTON I Fig. 738. 1505. Gratings. Neither courts nor hammels are completely furnished for the comfort of their tenants unless provided with well-built drains to convey away the surplus liquid manure, when there happens to be any excess of it. For this purpose a drain should enter into each of the large courts, and one across the middle of each set of hammels. The ground of every court should be so laid off as to make the lowest part of the court at the place where the drain commences or passes ; and such lowest point should be furnished with a strong block of hewn freestone, into which is sunk flush an iron grating, having the bars only an inch asunder, to prevent the passage of straws into the drain. Fig. 738 gives an idea of such a grating, made of malleable iron, to bear rough usage, such as the wheel of a cart passing over it ; the bars being placed across with a curve downwards, to keep them clear of obstruc- tions for the water to pass through. A writer, in speaking of such gratings, recommends " they should be strong, and have the ribs well bent upwards, as in that form they are not so liable to be choked up " a remark quite cor- rect in regard to the form of gratings for the sewers of towns, as with the ribs bent down- wards in such a place, the accumulated stuff brought upon them by the gutter would soon prevent the water getting down into the drains ; but the case is quite different in courts where the straw, covering the gratings, lies loosely over the ribs bent downwards, and acts as a drainer ; but were it to be pressed against the ribs bent upwards, the water could not percolate through it. Any one who has seen the straw of dunghills pressed hard against a raised stone in the ground below it, will easily understand the effect. 1506. Traps. In fig. 739 we give a view and section of Bell's patent trap for stables (manufactured by Glover Brothers, founders, 188 Drury Lane, Lon- DRAIN ORATINO FOR CODRT8. VENTILATORS. 417 don), and in fig. 740 a view and section of the form introduced by Cottaru & Co. In fig. 741 we give a cast-iron cesspool for s tables and byres the grating a of which is somewhat below the level of the pavement of stall, or the bottom of the gruip ; b is the entrance to the drain. 1507. Ventilators. In fig. 742 we give a section of a ventilator for admit- ting fresh air to the interior of an apartment. ,The aperture is made in the outer wall, near the ground, as at a ; a door or plate b is hinged at the upper edge, and its lower edge is provided with a stud which works in the slot of a quadrant d d; a pinching or thumb screw is provided to the stud by which the valve b can be maintained in any position desirable. Fig. 743 is a front view, showing how the Fig. 742. Fig. 743. valve a is hinged at b b, the staple or bar passing through the eyes of two studs leaded into the wall. The form of ventilator, fig. 292, as Looker's ventilator, is also made in cast-iron, and is well adapted for stables. The forms illustrated in figs. 528 and 529, may also be used for admitting and regulating the supply of fresh air. In fig. 744 we give a section of a ratchet valve, for admitting fresh air, or permitting the egress of foul air. 1508. Ventilators for the egress of the foul air of apartments may be made of the form shown in fig. 742, or as in fig. 745, or fig. 746. A form of ventilator, or modification of the well-known "Watson's System," highly spoken of, is the 2 n 418 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 745. Fig. 746 SW1VKL OR BOWI, VENriTJkTOR. Vi,TU_ATOK FOR ROOF. " Four Points Ventilator," invented by G. W. Muir, 11 Ducie Street, Exchange, Manchester. It consists of a .square shaft, fig. 747, open on all sides, divided vertically into four equal compartments. While the current of external air is Fig. 747. FOUR-POINTS VENTILATOR. forced down one compartment, the internal or impure air passes up the opposite STABLE-FITTINGS. 419 compartment, and is led to the external atmosphere. By the ventilator being- divided into four compartments, no matter in what direction the wind blows, the ventilator is always kept in action. It will be seen that the apparatus is designed to serve the double purpose of admitting fresh air to the interior of a room, and withdrawing from it, at the same time, the foul air. 1509. Hind-Posts- Travises Stable- Fittings. Fig. 748 illustrates various forms of hind-posts ; and in fig. 749 of traviscs or divisions, as manufactured by Cottam & Co. Fi". 740. A 15.10. Manger, Water-Trough, c. In fig. 750 we illustrate Cottam & Co.'s patent enamelled manger, water-trough, and wrought-iron hay-rack. These are made for stalls 6 feet in width. They require no front-bearer, and can be readily attached to the sides of the stall : a is a separate view of the seed- box attached to the bottom of the hay-rack, and is easily removable when required. The mode of fastening the horse in his stall is shown at b c ; the collar shank is attached to the part 6, which slides in rings, and is provided with a weight c. UL 3A_ ? i 1 \7 p 1 1 ll:''! :' ! " 1511. Bruce 1 s Improved Stable Fittings. In fig. 751 is an illustration of these ingenious fittings (manufactured by Ransome & Sims, Ipswich), in which the peculiar feature is the employment of an adjustable hay-rack. In this the hay is placed in a movable cage, hung by chains provided with a weight which always keeps the cage with its contained hay close up to the top flat bars of the rack. By this arrangement all waste is avoided. An in- genious form of fastening is also introduced. The end of the collar shank passes down the vertical tube in the centre of the stall, and is terminated with a weight. This always keeps the collar shank out of the way, so as to prevent the horse getting his foot over it. 1512. Garood's Adjustable Hay-Rack. In Brace's stable-fittings, illustrated PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. BRUCS'8 IMPROVED STABLE-FITTING Fig. 752. 3iBOOD 3 A.DJOSTABLI HAT-RACK. STABLE-FITTINGS. 421 in fig. 751, the hay-cage being suspended on one pulley, it is apt to get jammed against the side of the rack, and to remain immovable. A more per- fect adjustment is obtained by using two pulleys, as illustrated in fig. 752, and designed by Mr C. Garood, Lite superintendent of the Agricultural Department of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 1513. It is obvious that tlie.se spring hay-racks are quite unstated to a work- horse stable, but they may be, and with advantage, used in the riding-horse stable. In a work-horse stable, the simpler the fittings of the stall the better ; the rounder their finishing, the safer for the horse ; and the more easily cleaned, the more securely will the health of the horse be insured. The adoption in the work-horse stable of the method by which the collar-shank operates, as in fig. 751, would be a great improvement. 1514. Cottam's Improved Stable-Fittings. The object of this invention is to enable the rack, manger, and water-trough to be removed when not required, so as to admit of the interior of the stall presenting a flush surface. The plan is more particularly useful where a feeding passage is made at the head of the stalls, inasmuch as the racks, &c., can be brought at once into the passage, filled and returned to the stall with very little delay. The hay-rack, fig. 753, Fig. 754. in the centre swings on a central pivot, and is provided with a flat back, so that, when turned half round, the rack is passed behind the head of the stall, while the back presents a surface flush with the stall. The manger and water- trough are quadrantal, and swing on cen- tral pivots, so that, when turned one quarter round, the flat sides are pre- sented to the stall, while the other parts containing the corn or water are pre- sented to the back or to the feeding passage. In fig. 754 another arrange- ment is shown, in which the manger is capable of being pushed out and in ; it is well adapted for loose-boxes. The manger slides in and out on small pulleys on the bar a a ; the projecting part b prevents it being pulled out too far. 1515. Fittings for Loose-Boxes. In fig. 755 we illustrate the form of manger and rack without water-trough, and in fig. 756 patent manger and water-trough, fitted to a cast-iron plate. These are manufactured by Cottam & Co. 422 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1516. Harness Appliances. Fig. 757 illustrates cast-iron saddle and harness bracket, and fig. 758 cast-iron collar-holder. These articles are as well suited to a work-horse as to a riding-horse stable. Fig. 757, COLLAR HOLUEK. RNE8S BRACKS r. 1517. Fittings for Pigsties. A very convenient trough for a piggery con- .taining a number of pigs such as young ones, or others confined in summer from roaming about has been long manufactured by the Shotts Iron Company, of which fig. 759 is a view in perspective from the interior of the court. It is nearly all made of cast-iron, and possesses the great convenience of allow- ing the troughs to be filled with food from the outside of the building, the person who feeds being at the same time free of any annoyance from the pigs. Troughs of this kind are placed in proper sized openings in the external wall of the piggery court, in the manner shown in the figure, where a marks the wall on one side of the opening that on the hither side being left out of the figure, in order to exhibit the form of the trough. The trough, part of which is seen at J, is 4 feet in length, 16 inches wide at top, 8 inches at bottom, and 9 inches deep. The two ends c and d rise in a triangular form to the height of 3^ feet, and are connected at the top by the stretcher-bolt e. The lower part of each end extends inward to f, g, making a breadth of 3 feet 4 inches when complete ; but this part of the end g in the figure is broken off, to show part of the trough b. Two intermediate divisions h h divide the trough into 3 compartments these divisions extend to the same length as the ends / and g, and are all 21 inches in height. By means of these divisions, each animal, when there are more than one together, has its own stall, and can take its food undisturbed. PIGS' -TROUGHS. 423 DOQIIS, WITH 1518. In fig. 760 we illustrate a circular -bottomed pig -trough, and in fig. 761 a similar bottomed hog-trough, to stand in a court. In fig. 762 Fig. 760. we illustrate a handsome pigs'- trough adapted for standing in the middle of a court. It consists of Fi(r _ ( , cast-iron in one entire piece. Its external ap- pearance, when viewed as it stands on the ground, approaches to that of a hollow hemisphere, with the apex flattened ; and interiorly the flattened part rises up in the cen- tre in the form of a cen- tral pillar thus convert- ing the hemisphere into an annular trough, whose transverse section presents two troughs in the form of two semicircles con- 424 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. joined. The diameter a b of this trough is 30 inches, the rim is finished with a round edge, serving both for strength and comfort to the animals who eat out of it. The depth is about 9 inches, and it is divided into eight compartments by the division c, which are formed with a convexity in the upper edge, to pre- vent the food being thrown from one compartment to the other. This trough stands upon the top of the litter, and is not easily overturned. The cattle can- not hurt themselves upon it, while it is easily pushed about to the most con- venient spot for it to stand. Of all the classes of pigs' -troughs, whether made of stone, wood, or cast-iron, there are none so convenient, cleanly, durable, and neat, as those of cast-iron. 1519. SECTION SIXTH Bridges Sluice Valves Hydrants. 1520. Cast-iron Foot-Bridge. In fig. 763 we give the elevation of a foot- bridge, in which the beam a a is of cast-iron, and curved in outline. The stand- ards b b, of wrought-iron, are braced by the tie-rods c c. The plan of road- way is given in fig. 764, where a a, a a are the beams, b b the planking. Fig. 763. FOOT-BRIDGE OF OAST-IROS BEiM SCiLE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. PLAN OF FOOT-BRIDOE. 1521. Details of Foot-Bridge. In fig. 765 we give at a a section of the beam the total depth of which is 9 inches. The road planking b rests at the ends in a recess made in the upper part of the beam. At c c we give part plan of the beam, showing the slot or recess d, in which the lower part of the standard b, fig. 763, is placed. In fig. 766 we give a side and end elevation of the shoe in which the ends of the beams rest. In fig. 767 we illustrate methods of joining the tie-rods to the foot of standards either by eyes cast on the pillar, as at a a, to which the rods b b are jointed, or by recesses in the snugs c c, into which the rods d d are secured by the keys or cotters e e. The parts // pass into the recesses d, fig. 765, of the beam, and are se- cured by keys or bolts. The upper ends of the tie-rods are joined to the caps of the standards b b, fig. 763, in the same manner as now illustrated in fig. 767. 1JIOX BiUDGES. 425 SECTION AND PL 1 INCH TO TE Fur. 707. u Fig. 708. 1522. Simpler modes of erecting the rails of this foot-bridge are illustrated in fig. 768, where a a shows one of the upright standards of which as many are placed in line as are required which are fastened to the beam by the stud b passing into the slotted parts cast on the beam, as at d in fig. 765. The standards are kept together by chains c and e, which are connected to eyes of the piece d which slip over the standard. In the same figure another method is illustrated, where f is the standard, provided with a rec- tangular top g; this is made with a slot to permit of the top rail of wood h h being passed through. In fig. 769 we give at a and b an elevation and a plan of the piece c?, in fig. 768 ; and in fig. 770 at a an elevation, and b an end view of the rectangular head g of the standard /in fig. 768. 1523. Cast-iron Bridges. Where rectangu- lar beams of cast-iron are used to support the roadway of a bridge, the depth should be at least six times the thickness. For a span of 20 feet, the depth of beam a b, fig. 771, may be 15 inches; the thickness c 2^ inches. Where the distance between the beams or breadth of road- way is 6 feet, two beams, as d e, fig. 771, may be used; if the distance is from 10 to 14 feet, a third, as /, may be placed at a point equidistant be- tween the other two. In fig. 772 we give the section of a beam of improved 426 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 769 iTDDS TOO. CHAIN ANU KAILS SCALE, 4 1NJHES TO THE FOOT. iP fOO. RECEIVING RAIL SCALE, 4 INCHES TO Pig. 771. Fig. 772. 1 b \L form, two of which, placed 9 feet apart, will be adapted for a bridge of from 18 to 20 feet span. The width of lower flange a is 10 inches, and its thickness f inch ; width of upper flange b 2 J inches, and thickness f inch ; total depth of beam, 8 inches; thickness of rib c, 1 inch. Oak sleepers d, 9 inches broad by 5 thick, are placed upon the lower flanges of the beam, the distance between oak sleepers from centre to centre being 3 feet. These sleepers again support cross-beams e, 4 by 4, on which the flooring planks / rest. The section of a beam for a span of 12 feet 6 inches these beams being placed at a distance of 7 feet 4 inches apart from centre to centre, as shown in fig. 773 the width of lower flange is 3J inches ; thickness If inch ; breadth of upper flange 2J inches ; * thickness 1^ inch total depth c * a *\ of beam, 8 inches. In fig. 773 F] . 7T3 L'TION OF ROADWAY WITH TE J^.Q ^66 bolted to the wall-plate b l>, 6 inches by 4. Oak planks c c, 7 inches by 4, rest on the lower flanges of the beams ; the distance between planks from centre to centre being 3 feet. On these planks the flooring d d is laid. 1524. Mr P. W. Barlow, civil engineer, has introduced for road-bridges over railways the use of corrugated iron plates, bolted together, to act as one plate. The practical advantages, as stated by Mr Barlow, are " 1st, That there is less depth required between the surface of road and the soffit of girder ; 2d, that one plate assists another, and the weight of a passing load is distributed over the whole bridge, or nearly so ; 3d, that all lateral vibration is avoided ; 4th, that greater safety is obtained by the plates of the bridge being bolted together, as the fracture of any of them would not be attended by the fall of a load pass- ing over the bridge. The following experiments were made : 1st, with a plate 3 feet 1 inch wide ; 31 feet 6 inches between bearings total length, 33 feet 6 inches ; depth of corrugation, 8 inches ; thickness of metal, 1 inch With 4 tons, equally distributed, deflection | inch. 9 If 13 18 19 91 4 broke. UION KLUDGES. 427 2d, with one of tlie plates of tho Tunbridgo Wells bridge, bearing 28 feet With 3 tons in tho centre, deflection i inch. (! 1 The bridge, being composed of 12 plates in width, would bear 132 tons in the centre ; and as at least half comes into operation, by a loud passing over, 66 tons in the middle, or 132 tons all over, may be considered the resisting strength, which is six times what is required." 1525. Corrugated Iron-Plate Bridge. In fig. 774 we give a bridge of this de- scription, the distance to be traversed 20 feet being di- vided into two spans of 10 feet each ; the centre being sup- ported on the column a; b b side columns ; d d cast-iron beams, supporting the corru- gated plate ; c c the road -way. In fig. 775 we give a section of the corrugated plate, the di- ameter of the curves from a to b being 8 inches, the thickness of metal 1 inch, and the width of plates 2 feet 8 inches, or four corrugations in each width. 1526. Sluice- Vcdvcs. In fig. 776 we give a front elevation, and in fig. 777 a side elevation, of a "self-acting valve" for a tidal sluice in sea-embank- FiR. 770. car ments, &c. The water in this case is supposed to be passed through the embankment by means of a cast-iron pipe the valve being fitted to the outer or seaward extremity. In fig. 777 a is the extremity of pipe ; b b the ordinary flange ; a flat disc of wood c c, thicker at the under than the upper side, is bolted to the flange b b. This disc is cut on the lower side to the form of the flange, and at the upper to the outline, as shown at e e in fig. 776. A circular aperture is cut out of the centre of the disc, of diameter equal to the internal diameter of the cast-iron pipe a, fig. 777. A thin iron plate d ;. W1RE-NZTTLNO. invented by Mr J. Reynolds, of 27 New Compton Street, Soho, London. It is made of hard twisted wire, galvanised after being manufactured. From the way in which the twisted wires are interlaced, no other fixing is required. This would make an ornamental fence against cattle and sheep at a farmhouse. 1586. SECTION EIGHTH Iron Sheds. These structures will generally be required of a very simple and unambitious character. In the majority of cases, simple girders or bearers of cast-iron, or of wrought- iron, will suffice. In con- nection with these parts of iron structures, we have given ample instructions and illustrations in Subdivision Third, p. 375, under Iron Construction, to which we here refer the reader. We, however, deem it right to supplement these by giving a few illustrations of parts not there illustrated. 1587. In fig. 811 we give a half elevation of a cast-iron girder, which stretches from column to column ; shoes, as at a i, are cast in the girder, to support the ends of the rafters ; a corresponding shoe being cast at c on the top of the column. 1588. In fig. 812 we give the upper part of the column; the ends of the girders are inserted in the recesses a a ; b the plan of shoe. 1589. In fig. 813 we give the elevation of an open girder for supporting the roof of a large shed : a a the upright cast-iron columns, b b b the shoes for re- ceiving the wood-beam c c and the ends a, fig. 814, of the iron rafters ; <7, e e, SHEDS. 443 and// are uprights and braces. In fig. 814 we give a front elevation and section of tLe shoe &, fig. 81;-}, in which a is the termination of rafter of roof 6, the shoe bolted by the bolts c c to the cap of columns o, fig. 813 ; d the wood beam (c c, fig. 813) ; c, in the front elevation, is the slot receiving end of Fig. SI 2. rafter a. Fig. 815 shows upper termination b of upright d, fig. 813 ; a the shoe receiving the end of rafter b and beam c, d the snug to which the diago- nal ties / fig. 813, are bolted. Fig. 810 shows upper termination of uprights e e, fig. 813 : a is the wood beam corresponding to c c, fig. 813. 1590. In fig. 817 we give plan of an octagonal shed : a b the doors, c d the windows. In place of having brick or stone walls, as in the figure, cast-iron pillars are proposed to be placed at the corners of the octagon, the spaces be- tween being filled up with corrugated iron plates, or wood planking. The double lines converging to the centre e show the assemblage of rafters e/ ef, fig. 818. In fig. 819 we give the plan of central ring , the ends of which pass through iron plates c and d, and are secured by nuts. The lower ends of the truss rods b b are jointed to the struts or saddle-pieces e and/. A horizontal truss rod g is also jointed at its ends to the struts e and/. The beam may be cambered or lifted up in the centre at A, by tightening the nuts at c and d. The arrangement is in fact a small " suspension bridge," in which the beam a a is supported by the struts e and/; the upper part of the beam being in a state of compression. 1611. In the following figures 842 to 844 inclusive we give details of the parts of this truss. These are somewhat different from those given by Mr Ainger. 1612. In fig. 842 a a, b b are cross sections of the two flitches ; c c one of the struts, the bolts of which are passed between the flitches ; the strut is made with two snags, or projecting parts, d r7, provided with bolt-holes. These are embraced by the ends e and/ of the fork of the angular truss rods b b in fig. 841. The end of the truss rod g, in fig. 841, is placed between the snags d d, as shown at z, fig. 842. A bolt g is passed through the bolt-holes in the snags d d, the ends e/and i of the truss rods, and secured by a nut h. In the left figure k k is a side view of part of one flitch, I the central bolt of the strut m m, with its snug and bolt-hole n. 1613. In fig. 843 we give detailed ends of the truss rods, drawn to a scale Fig. 842. CROSS SECTION AND FART ELEVATION OF FLITCHB OF TRUSSED BEAM IN FIO. 641 SCALE, 1 INCH twice the size of the detail in fig. 842 : a is the end of the horizontal truss rod g in fig. 841, with its circular head and bolt hole b ; c is an edge view 452 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 844. DETAILS OF TRUSS ROES SCALE, 2 INCHES of the same ; d is the end of the truss rod J, fig. 841, which is expanded so as to form a fork with circular ends e e, provided with bolt-holes, as shown in the side or edge view at//. 1614. In fig. 844 we illustrate another plan of forming the connection be- tween the ends of the truss rods b b and g, and the eyes of the struts e and / fig. 841. In this case, the end, as of the truss b, fig. 841, is provided with an eye b b, fig. 844, with bolt-hole this being passed between the snags dd of the strut c c in fig. 842. The back of this is length- ened out at c?, fig. 844, and terminated with a second eye e e, with its bolt-hole c. The edge view of this part is shown at / g h. The end i of the horizontal truss a, fig. 841, is expanded so as to form a fork, with circular eyes k k, fig. 844. These embrace the eye /of the truss rod g, fig. 841; a bolt Z, fig. 844, is then passed through, and secures them all together. The upper end of the truss rod ft, fig. 841, is shown at n in fig. 844. It passes through a hole in the plate o o, which is placed at the bevelled end of the beam, and is tightened up by the nut p. The distance between the two flitches of the beam is maintained by blocking pieces, shown by the dotted lines h h h in fig. 841, of wood placed between them, and kept in place by iron straps. The thickness of these blocks should be a little more than the thickness of the truss rod b >, fig. 841. 1615. In figs. 845 and 846 we give details of a method of trussing solid beams, invented by Mr J. Con- der, and described at p. 158, vol. i. of the Engineers 1 and Mecha- nics' Encyclopaedia. The plan is applicable to the trussing of solid beams, that is, those which are not cut down the mid- dle into two flitches. The general appearance of the trussed beam is that of fig. 841, the truss rods being on the outside of the beam, in place of being partially between them, as in fig. 841. In fig. 845 a repre- sents the end of the beam to be trussed ; a cast-iron saddle b b is fitted on this ; an angular groove is provided in this saddle, the end being circular, as shown in the plan of the saddle at c c. The angle of the groove is the same as that which the truss rods make with the beam 15 in the present example. The truss rod, corresponding to b , fig. 841, is bent in the middle to a circular form, so as to embrace and catch on the circular end of the grooved Fig. 846. TO THE TOOT. DETAII.8 OF TROSf SCALE, 1 INCH TO TEUSSED BEAMS. 453 saddle, fig. 845. The ends are then passed down on each side of the beam, to points placed at one-third of the length of the beam from its ends, and the ends passed through the eyes of a strut. The horizontal truss rod, corresponding to g, fig. 841, is passed through an eye in the centre of the strut. The strength of the horizontal truss rod being equal to that of the two side trusses combined. In fig. 845 d rf, e e is the side truss rod. Fig. 846 shows the strut correspond- ing to e or/ in fig. 841. The ends of the side trusses are passed through the holes a b, fig. 846, of the strut the end of the horizontal rod being passed through c. The upper edge d d of the strut is made flat, but does not press immediately upon the under side of the beam e, but a blocking piece /is inserted. The plan of the strut is shown at g rj h being the nut for tightening up the horizontal rod z, and giving any desired degree of camber to the beam ; k k the nuts for tightening the ends I I of the side truss rods. 1616. Fig. 847 shows another form of trussing a beam : a a one of the flitches ; b b iron caps or boxes ; c c the truss rod, the two ends of which pass through the caps b Z, and are secured by nuts. The centre part of the truss rod c c passes over a curved hollow saddle d, secured by the bolt and nut e. 1617. In fig. 848 we give at a a side view of the sad- dle, and at b an end view of plate or cap b b, fig. 847. 1618. Fig. 849 shows another method of securing the ends of the truss rod, the arrangement of which is similar to that in fig. 847 the centre of the truss rod , fig. 849, passing over a curved saddle, as d in fig. 847. In fig. 849 the end of the truss rod a is jointed to DETAH OF TRUSS*,, BEAM SCALE, the stud at b b. The part c of the stud is bolted to the wall-plate e e ; the beam / to be trussed to the part d. In the plan g is the truss rod, h h i the stud. 1619. In fig. 850 we give details of the king- post trussed beam in fig. 838 : a a a part of the beam ; b the central abutting piece, with two inclined faces c c ; d the bolt at under side of beam ; e e the two inclined pieces corresponding to & & in fig. 838. In fig. 850 the outer end of the beam // is shown in the left-hand figure ; g the end abutting piece of iron, with bolt hole A, or bolt Z, with inclined face k for the piece i to abut against. 1620. In fig. 851 we give details of the queen-post truss in fig. 839 : a a, a a the beam ; b b the central abutting pieces, secured by the nuts c c. Two inclined faces d e, d e are the abutting pieces of b b, e e the straining piece, d d the struts. The abutting pieces at the end of the beam, against winch the feet of the struts d d rest, are similar to the piece g in fig. 850. U E 1 r - i u b 454 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 850. r DETAILS OP EJXO-POST TH.OSSED BEAM SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT Fig. 851. DETAILS OF QDEEN-FO3T TRUSSED BEAU SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. 1621. SECTION SECOND. Wood combined with Stone and Brick. In fig. 852 we give section of cornice of house, of which we give the elevation in fig. 56 ; a a, a a hollow brick wall, b brick nog, c wall-plate, d d bearer, e gutter, f g pen- dant of bracket, h lintel Fig. 852. DETAILS OF CORVICE OF FAK1THCCSE IN SIO. 6 SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. 1622. In fig. 853 we give the front elevation of the cornice, showing brackets a and pendants b. 1623. In fig. 854 we give section of base of principal window to living-room c c, fig. 65. In fig. 854 a a is of stone, b oak sill, c part of sash-frame. COENICES AND BASES. 455 Fig. 853. V ) f LO4. ) OW-HEAD OF BAT WINDOW OF HOUSE IN FIO. 71 BCALI, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. 1628. SECTION THIRD Iron combined with Brick or Concrete Fireproof Con- struction. We shall now describe the methods of making flooring fireproof by the use of cast-iron girders and brick arches. This is illustrated in fig. 859, representing the method adopted by Mr Fairbairn during his long practice as an engineer. The cast-iron pillars k Z, on which the girders c d rest, are placed at a distance of 9 feet 6 inches apart from centre to centre the distance covered by the arch being called a " bay." A convenient length for the girders is 20 feet, as illustrated in fig. 611. In fig. 859 the arches are composed of a brick FI RE PJ IOOF FLOORS. 457 three-quarters of a brick from e to f, or i to Fig. 859. Fig. 860. in length from a to , fig. 884, is expanded, and bolt or spike holes made in the expanded parts c c, by which the rafter is nailed to the wall-plate. 1653. In fig. 885 we show the method of joining plates of corrugated zinc together. A roof formed of this material is at once very strong and very light. Fig. 884. 1654. We here give the relative costs of roofs of same size, covered with slates and with zinc the trusses being composed in both cases of timber, the zinc fixed on the system illustrated in figs. 881, 882, and 883 : SLATE ROOF. 44 cubic feet of timber, at 3s., . . . . 6 12 589 square feet of rough boarding, at 3d., . . . 773 550 ,, ,, slating, countess, at 3d., . . 6176 284 7-lb. lead for gutters, at Is. 10d., . 26 8 91 4-lb. lead for the ridges, at Is., . . 4 11 51 8__5 ZfNC ROOF. 30 cubic feet of timber, at 3s., . . . . 4100 507 square feet of rough boarding, at 3d., . . . C 6 9 456 ,, 22-ounce zinc for the covering, at 6d., . 11 8 220 24-ounce for the gutters, at 6^d , . 5 19 2 28_3_11 These estimates do not include the cost of repairs. In this respect the zinc roof has great advantages over the timber and slate roof. 2c; 466 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1655. Putting the cost of a zinc roof with iron rafters and curved flattened sheet-zinc at 25, 7s., the cost of a timber and slate roof would be 58, 17s. lid. Stating the cost of a zinc roof with iron rafters and corrugated zinc as in fig. 885 at 4, 3s. 6d., the cost of the same extent of slate and timber would be 10. DIVISION FOURTH MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES. SUBDIVISION FIRST Fittings of the Workshop. 1656. SECTION FIRST Tools of the Joiner. The distinction between the two operations of Carpentry and Joinery may be simply stated. In carpentry, the framing and erecting of heavy timbers for the purposes of floors, roofs, partitions, &c., is the principal business ; in joinery, the making and fitting up of external and internal furnishings as door-cases, doors, windows, window-frames, &c. are the operations to be performed. In both, however, there are many common operations, which differ only in the fact that, for the purposes of joinery, they may be on a smaller scale than when required for those of carpentry. In general, all timbers used for carpentry are left rough as they come from the operation of the saw or the axe ; while in joinery, all exterior surfaces are made smooth and uniform by appropriate instruments. The tools required for the simple operations of joinery to be carried out on a farm-steading, may be enumerated as follows : the " ripping-saw," for cutting up heavy planks the teeth in this are 96 to the foot, or 16 to the two inches ; the " hand-saw," for ordinary work, 45 teeth to the foot; the " sash-saw," for cutting fine work, with a brass back it has 156 teeth to the foot. For cutting dovetails, a small saw, having 180 teeth to the foot, is used. Tenons may be cut out by means of the " sash-saw." A long, thin, and narrow saw, termed a " key-hole saw," having no back, and useful for cutting out holes in wood : a size as follows will be useful length 12 inches, breadth at point J inch or j^-ths, breadth at handle f inch. The planes used in joinery are very numerous. The "jack-plane" is used for taking the rough surface off the timber to be smoothed in surface. It is used by taking off as much as can be taken in by one arm-stretch the work- man beginning at the near side of the plank, and gradually taking off the rough across the breadth of the plank. On a part of the plank within arm -reach be- ing done, the workman moves farther along, until the whole surface is acted upon. To bring this surface properly smooth and to a level, a larger and heavier plane is used, termed the " trying-plane." Shavings are taken off with this the whole length of the plank. To test the level of the surface, a straight- edge (that is, a piece of wood about 18 inches long, \ inch thick, and 2 inches broad, having one edge perfectly true and square) is laid across the face, and the workman looks along the plank, where the straight-edge is lying on it : all inequalities are then easily observed, and are to be reduced by the plane. As the edges of the plane are generally accurately cut, the workman sometimes tests the " truth " of the surface of the work by laying the edge of the under side of the plane across the face of the plank. The "hand or smoothing plane " is used for giving a final truth and smoothness to the work, and for finishing up small work. It is used with both hands in some operations with only one in others. It is much shorter than the two others, being about 7 inches the length of jack-plane being 18, and that of the trying-plane 22 inches. For TOOLS OF TFIE JOINER. 467 making varieties of mouldings, " moulding-planes " are used ; but as the opera- tions are rather difficult, and not much required for ordinary work, we do not here describe them. The farm workman should, however, provide himself with a " rebate-plane " for forming rebates on the edges of planks, framing, &c. The nature of a rebate we have already described. The " plough " for sinking a u groove," and the plane for making the " tongue," are also required. Chisels are numerous ; but the " paring-chisel," of various sizes, from ^ inch in breadth to 1 inch, will be all that is necessary. The " mortise-chisel " will also be necessary. " Gouges " are circular chisels, and are used for making hollows : they are of various sizes. Small holes are made by " brad-awls " and " gimlets ; " they are of various sizes. Circular holes, of larger diameter, are made by means of a " brace " and " bit ; " the bits are of various sizes. Screwdrivers of various sizes will be required ; as also "hammer," " pincers," or " pliers." To assist the workman in marking off a line on a plank, parallel to the edge, and at any distance required, an instrument termed the " gauge " is required. This may be made by the workman, according to fig. 886. A piece of hard wood d d, some 6 or 9 inches long, is provided, and properly squared up ; at one end, within ^ inch or so, a nail is driven so as to project about | inch. This is sharpened to a point. A piece of wood, a a, lj inch square, and 1 inch thick, is provided with an aperture b, f square, having on one side a small mortised hole c cut in it, about ^ or broad and ELKVATION ANDSE0 . riONOFOAUQI ,_ SOAJE i IS;C1ITO THE INCH deep. This piece a a is passed over d d, as e, and can be secured at any part by means of a small wedge/, passed into and driven up the mortised hole c. By means of a rule, the distance between the point of the nail and face of e may be arranged as required ; and by putting the face of e to the edge of plank, and drawing it along, the point of the nail will draw a line on the face of the plank, at a distance from its edge, corresponding to the distance of the nail from face of e. A " mortise-gauge " will also be useful. This gauge has two " marking points," which can be set at any distance apart, and used to give two parallel markings in the centre of the edge of a board. When the rebate is made on each side of this central place, the tenon will be formed. 1657. For the purpose of assisting the joiner in his various operations, the " bench " is an indispensable requisite. This may be described as a species of framed table, having a level top, and a side-board perforated with holes, about 1 inch diameter, as in fig. 887. It is provided with a wooden closing-jaw and screw at one end, by which the plank to be operated upon is firmly fas- tened. Instead of a screw a wedge may be used, as in fig. 888 : a a is the top of the table or bench ; b c the part in which the .wedge is placed ; d the wedge ; the board e >AU1 ; OF (of which the upper edge is to be planed) is placed close to the side of the bench, one end being secured by driving in the wedge d, the other end rest- 468 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. ing upon a pier /shown separately at g which is passed into one of the holes made in the side of the bench. In fig. 887, which shows part of the side, a is the part into which the wedge b is driven, tightening up the board c, and which is further supported by the pin d. 1658. Tressels or Horses, for supporting planks while being sawn asunder, are useful. In fig. 889 the board a a rests upon the two tressels b , a side view of which is shown at c. Fig. 888. Fig. 889. JOINER B TRESSELS OB HOE ' PART OF JOINER'S BENC Fig. 890. CLAW-HAMMER. 1659. Glaw-Hammer. The hammer used for driving and extracting nails is illustrated in fig. 890. 1660. Grindstone. In fig. 891 we illustrate a convenient and cleanly form of grindstone, the framing a a of which is of cast-iron. The stone is covered with a casing b b, leaving part only of the stone exposed, as at c. This arrangement prevents the water from being scattered about. The revolution of the stone is caused by the action of the foot of the operator on the pedal dd, through the medium of the connecting-rod e acting on a crank. The form, as here illustrated, is manufactured by Messrs Ibbotson Brothers & Company, of Sheffield, tool-makers. 1661. SECTION SECOND Tools of the Mason. The tools of the mason may be described as the mallet, the chisel, the trowel, the plumb-rule, and the square. A few notes as to the more simple operations of the mason in which these tools are used, may be found useful. The tools used are chisels, with the cutting edges of various sizes, from about inch broad up to 2 inches. A "mallet" is used for striking the chisels, of the form of a parallel section of the lowest por- tion of a cone, with a short handle. Short, flat-faced, heavy hammers, with short handles, are now much used by hewers, especially for hard stones. In bringing a stone, say for a fire hearthstone, or the tread of a step, to a flat surface, two chisel-draughts are made at one side and the end of the stone, somewhat like what is termed in joinery a rebate. These rebates are made perfectly flat, which is tested by placing a straight edge. Every part of the stone should coincide with the under side of straight edge. A diagonal chisel- draught is then made, connecting the ends of the side and end draughts pre- viously made ; another diagonal draught is made, crossing the first diagonal, TOOLS OF THE MASON. 469 Fi-r. 892. and meeting the angle of the end and side draughts. All these being made as near as possible of the same depth, on the spaces between the draughts being blocked out, a comparatively flat surface is obtained. This is brought as flat as required by the use of the square ; or the level of the surface may be tested by using two straight edges of equal depth, thus : place one along an edge or arris of the stone, and on the opposite one the other straight edge ; by looking over the upper edge of the one straight edge, if the upper edge of the other coincides, the surface is level. 1662. Masonry is built with the aid of scaffolding, supported by two sets of standards, the system of putlogs not being admis- sible as in brickwork. In fig. 892 the mason and bricklayer's trowel is shown, 7 inches long in the blade a ; 5 in the handle c- and 1 , \ inch return at b. In fig. 893 the plumb-level is shown. This is used to ascertain whether any surface, as a course of brickwork or masonry, is level. It is laid on the surface, as a b level, the plummet / will not hang vertically down in the opening e, the cord by which it is suspended from d not coinciding with the line drawn on the board from the point of sus- pension d at right an- gles to the line of base a b. The plummet f will coincide with the line d e on the board, when the level rests on the dotted base line a c. The spirit-level is used for the same purpose as this instrument J it need not be here described : suffice it to say, that when laid on the wall, if level, the "air-bubble" will be exactly in the centre. The plumb-line for adjusting vertical heights, as posts, &c., is shown in fig. 894. It consists of a flat board ab, down the centre of which a plummet d hangs ; the line drawn from c to d is at right angles to the end 6, the sides being parallel to this line. 1 " Suppose it is required to test whether an upright post e e of a " frame-house " is vertical, the side of the plumb-line b is applied to the side of c e ; if it is verti- cal, the cord by which the plummet d is suspended will coincide with the line marked from c. An aperture should be made in the face of the board where the plummet d hangs, the centre of which should be at the end of the line from c. 1663. SECTION THIRD Tools of the Smith. The appliances to aid the workman in this department of the mechanical arts with which it will be necessary to be provided, are the anvil, tilt or sledge hammer, hand hammer, a variety of swages, &c., for making round bolts, and bellows or fanners. The construction and ar- rangement of the forge is so well known that illustration of it is unnecessary. It closely resembles the forge in fig. 898 ; with this difference, that a pair of bellows are substituted for the fanner there shown. Portable forges in frames, with wheels, are now much used, and can be had at a moderate price. Forges with fanners in place of bellows will be found so efficient, that we here illustrate that mode if it is not Fig. 894. ' a J [ d } 470 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. of construction. In fig. 895 we give a side view of " concentric fan," drawn to a scale of 2 inches to the foot. Two sides a a, e e are constructed of -inch wood, or of sheet-iron, with holes rf, 2 or 3 inches diameter, to admit air to the interior ; the extreme length of the sides is 18 inches, tapering to inch deep Fig. 895. at e e ; / shows the front of blowing aperture, the sides of which are kept apart a distance of 2| inches, throughout their whole length. Across each opening a piece of brass b b, f inch wide and thick, is fixed. In the centre of this, corresponding with centre of circle d, a hole is bored to admit the spindle on which the arms of revolving fan are fixed. On one end of the spindle a small pulley, 1^-inch diameter, is fixed ; this is turned by means of a band n n passing round the large pulley h. Fig. 896 is a view of the central spindle a : a boss, or part longer in diameter, as 5, is forged upon the spindle ; into this holes are bored, as c c c c, which are screwed with a small " tap " (a set of which should be procured) ; into these holes the arms or blades of the fan k, fig. 895, are screwed, the end of blades being made circular, and screwed with a " die " corresponding to the " tap," which is used for the holes c, in fig. 896. In place of having the fans re- volving concentric to the case, as in fig. 895, the fanners will be more efficient, and a steadier blast kept up, if the blades revolve eccentric to the case, as by a b c in fig. 897. In fig. 898 an arrangement of a forge Fig. 8%. DETAILS OF TANNERS Fig. 897. adapted for the use of the fanners is shown : the wheel for giving motion to the fan is fixed on a frame /, at the back of the forge, on the top of which the fan is placed. The large wheel is put in motion by a treddle g and connecting-rod A, TOOLS OF THE SMITH. 471 as in the knife-grinder's wheel, the upper end of the connecting-rod being con- nected with a pin inserted into the face of the wheel, at some distance from the centre of its revolution : a is the body of the forge, of brickwork ; b the flat flagstone in which the lire c is made ; d the iron hood placed over the fire, con- ducting the smoke to the chimneys. 16(54. Apparatus fur Buring Holes in Metal Holes are bored in metal by a simple contrivance known as the "brace," delineated in fig. 899. It is formed tl_ of iron, about 1 inch in diameter the upper part a being brought to a point, which revolves in a small hole punched in the under side of a bar of iron b of considerable length, one end of which is inserted in a hole in the wall above the bench in which the operation is conducted, an assistant pressing on the other end c. The drill d is inserted in the square hole made in the lower part of the drill at e ; a piece of thin sheet-iron / is passed round the brace at the bend this, being- loose, allows the brace to revolve within it, thus saving the hand of the operator, and making the turning easier. A small indentation is made in the piece of metal g in which the hole is to be bored. Instead of using the lever c, to give the pressure , on the brace and boring bit, the screw apparatus illustrated in fig. 900 may be adopted with benefit. In this a a is the frame, provided with a series of apertures in the upper part. The part b on which the piece of iron c, to be operated upon, rests is made hollow, as shown in plan at d. The screw e, which gives the pressure on the brace /, passes through the eye g of the arm 7, the end i of which is provided with a slotted head, which passes over the upper arm of frame a, and is maintained at any desired height by a pin passing through the apertures in the head i and arm a. A plan of the arm h is shown at k. 1665. Ratchet Braces. In places where the brace, as in the last illustration, cannot be used, owing to the confined space in which it may be desired to operate, and in which the brace has only space enough to give a part re- volution, the ratchet brace, fig. 901, is used. The pressure is put on at the point a by a shifting screw, as e in fig. 900, or a lever, as c in fig. 899 ; the boring tool is inserted in the part b. The handle c is moved through a part only of its revolution ; the click d, engaging with the ratchet e, keeps turning the boring bit always in one direc- tion. This is manufactured by Ibbotson & Co., Birmingham. 472 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 1666. Fends Ratchet Drilling Brace. In fig. 902 we give a plan a b and section c d of the ratchet brace invented and manufactured by Joseph Fenn, of Newgate Street, the well-known tool-maker. In this the catch-wheel e is placed within the Fig. 902. A b .,ar of iron a b ; a slot is cut in the lever to admit of the sliding catch/. The greater the strain on the lever the more closely does the catch en- gage with the catch- wheel e, and which is driven up by a at the back. In this brace the catch-wheel e is the entire width of the -thus rendering it fitter for heavy work. 1667. Boring Drills. In fig. 903 we give forms of bits a b c. If the cutting edges, as at 5, are made too acute, they are apt to break off; if made obtuse, as at c, they will be stronger, although they will not cut so quickly as in the more acute sprng lever Fig. 903. BORINO CHILL form at b. 1668. Screw-Stocks. Screw-bolts are made by screw-stocks. Stocks for small screws are shown in fig. 904 ; a shifting stock in fig. 905. Taps for making screw-nuts are of various sizes. Fig. 904. Fig. 905. JREW-STOC Fig. 906. Fig. 907. 1669. Keys or Spanners. In fig. 906 we illustrate various forms of keys manufactured by Ib- botson & Co., Birming- ham : a b are keys to embrace nuts of deter- minate sizes. Keys, or shifting spanners, are shown at c d ; by turning the handle e a screw is operated upon, by which the jaws f are made to recede from, or approach to, each other, as desired. 1670. Riveting Hammer. A small riveting hammer is illustrated in fig. 907. 1671. Portable Vice. In fig. 908 we illustrate White's portable vice, manu- factured by Ibbotson & Co. In this the faces of the jaws a, however far apart, VARIOUS FORMS OF SPANNERS OF SCREW-KEYS. RIVETINa HAMMER. MACHINES FOR WORKSHOP. 473 are always parallel to each other ; thus at all points insuring a secure hold of the article operated upon. 1G72. Lifting Screw-Jack. In fig. 909 we illustrate a lifting-jack manufac- tured by Dunn of Manchester. By turning the handle a b the mitre or bevel wheels c d act upon the vertical screw e, on the cap of which the article to be raised rests. In fig. 910 we illustrate Hallcy's patent lifting-jack, manufactured by Ibbotson & Co. 1673. SECTION FOURTH Machines for the Workshop Vertical Saiu Frame for Cutting Balks or Trees into Planks. As an apparatus of this kind may be economically used on a large estate, where homo timber is extensively obtained, we deem it right to give an illustration of it. We are indebted for this to the manufacturers, Messrs Wm. Dray & Co., of London Bridge, London. In Plate XIX. we give, in fig. 1 an end, and in fig. 2 a side, eleva- tion of the machine. In fig. 1 the vertical saws a a, which operate upon the balk or tree , are fixed in the upper and lower frames c c, which have a ver- tical up-and-down motion given to them by tlie connecting-rod c/, to which motion is imparted by the crank e, fitted to the horizontal shaft/, receiving motion from the steam-engine, or other prime mover, through the medium of the fast and loose pulleys g. The fly-wheel h is fixed on the shaft to equalise the motion. The shaft revolves in the pedestal i i, fixed to the brick foundation k k ; 1 1 the uprights or standards, in which the frames c c, supporting the saws a a, slide up and down. Motion is given to the tree in m, fig. 2, so as to keep it up to the action of the saws in manner following : The tree m m is secured to the travelling frame n n by the set screws o o. To the under side of the frame n n a rack p p is fixed; with, this engages a -small pinion, receiving motion through the medium of the ratchet wheel r, fig. 1. This receives a rotatory motion in alternate or intermediate movements by means of a click or pawl taking into the teeth of the ratchet wheel, and which pawl receives an up-and- down motion through the lever s and eccentric /. 1674. Iron Bench Circular Saw, In Plate XX. we give various views of a circular saw frame, to scale, as manufactured by Messrs E. K. & F. Turner of 474 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. PERSPECTIVE VIEW Of TURNER'S IRON BENCH FOB Fig. 912. Ipswich. In fig. 1 is an elevation ; fig. 2 a plan ; fig. 3 part section, through line 1, 2, fig. 2 ; and fig. 4 s'ection, through line 3, 4 in fig. 2. The circu- lar saw a a, figs. 1 and 2, is 27 inches diameter, and is calculated to cut up timber into planks 10 inches in depth. The spindle 6, fig. 2, is fitted with fast and loose pulleys cd; and the termination e is fitted to receive a boring bit/, fig. 3, which may be used for boring holes in timber. The timber to be cut is placed upon the table g, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, which can, by means of a screw A, fig. 4, be moved laterally parallel to the saw, so the thickness of cut can be easily adjusted, and to the greatest nicety. The timber to be cut is kept up to the ac- tion of the saw by the atten- dant ; its motion lengthways on the table being facilitated by the friction rollers i i, figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 911 gives a perspective view of this saw mounted on its iron bench. 1675. Endless Band Saw. In fig. 912 we give a perspective view of the "Endless Band Saw," as manufactured by Messrs Barrett, Exall, & Andrews, of Read- ing, and in Plate XXI. figures to scale of the same, of which fig. 1 is side, and fig. 2 end, elevation of which the upper part is in section, as shown by the cross lines. The saw consists of an end- less band of thin flex- ible steel a a, a a, on one side of which a continuous row of teeth is cut. This is stretched over two pulleys b b, b b, of equal diameter, and placed in the same line with each other. The lower pulley is keyed on to the shaft c, fig. 2, and which is put in motion by the prime mover through the medium of the fast and loose pulleys d and e. The band saw is kept in a state of uniform tension and in the same light line through the medium of the : :;. LMt -. g W FRAME IK PZRSPE MACHINES FOR WORKSHOP. 475 clip/, lever g, and weight Ji, fig 1 . 1. The saw passes up a slit made in the table i i, i ?', on which the wood to be cut is placed. Such is the accuracy and precision of operation of this apparatus that timber can be cut into any form or curved outline. For small work it is invaluable. 1676. Mortising, Tenoning, and Burinrj Machine.. In fig. 913 we give an illustration of this machine, manufactured by Messrs Powis, James, & Co., of 26 Watling Street, London. AVheu used for mortising, the handle a, with balance weight &, is Fi ,,. ,, r , worked up and down ; this gives a vertical motion to the spindle c, on the lower part of which the cutting- tool d is fixed. The timber in which the mortise is to be cut is placed on the table e, which receives the requisite lateral mo- tion to keep it up to the tool through the medium of the rat- chet wheel and pawl /, receiving motion from the alternate movement of the lever a b, through the rod g. When used for boring, the handle h is used to give mo- tion to the bevel gear- ing i i. The boring bit is kept to its work by the pressure of the lever a b. The table e is adjusted, when the machine is used for tenoning, by the screws having lever wheels k in front of the machine. 1677. Machine for making Macphersoris Portable Sheep-Fence. The machine, fig. 914, consists of a wooden frame 2 feet 11 inches high, and 3 feet 8 inches wide, standing on the ground, with a driving spindle a supported on the top near the back, carrying four bevel wheels 6 inches diameter, which give motion to four pinions of 3 inches diameter, mounted on four spindles lying longitudinally above the frame, 11 inches apart, and supported in plummer-blocks fixed to cross-rails b and c. On the overhanging end of each of these spin- dles, towards the front of the machine, are placed four bobbins d d, formed of wood with sheet-iron ends, with a light frame of wood and iron embracing both, slipped on the spindle in front of the bobbins, and secured by nuts to a spring behind them,, by which they may be tightened to any extent, and made to turn on the spindle with more or less freedom. The bobbins are sufficiently large to contain each about 120 yards of small tarred rope, the end of which is led over 47G PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 914. OF MiCPHERSON'8 SHEE?-FENCE-i!AKINO MACHIS a small pulley in the bobbin frame, and forward through its projecting arms, which serve to twist the two strands together and form a rope. In front of the bobbins is a wooden roller e extending the whole width of the machine, sup- ported in sliding brackets attached to the upper rails of the frame, so as to be set nearer to or farther from the bobbins as may be required ; the several ropes as they are formed pass over this roller, and are strained by a weight or other- wise to keep them at a regular degree of tension. 1678. In making the sheep-fence, bars of wood about 3 feet 6 inches long by |^ inch square, are worked into the ropes as they are made, at distances of 4 to 5 inches, in the following manner : The two strands from each pair of bobbins are tied together, forming, when drawn forward to the roller, an angular opening or kind of bight between the strands; and through the four openings thus formed, one of the wooden bars is inserted, and driven tightly into the angle of the cords by means of a board/, attached to a light frame g, jointed at bottom to the frame of the machine. The board has large openings cut in it opposite each set of bobbins, to give room for each pair of cords to revolve. In action, this board is similar to the reed of a weaver's loom, driving home the bar by means of the lever Z, in the same way as the reed forces the warp into its place, and keeps the bars always in their proper position, square with the lines of rope. When a bar is thus inserted and held fast, the handle h of the driving spindle is turned three or four times, causing the bobbins to revolve simultaneously six or eight times, as may be required ; this fixes the bar in its place, and twists up 4 or 5 inches of each of the four lines of rope, the bobbins being always stopped when the angle of the cords is in a vertical position, to admit the next bar. To keep the wood in its place, notches are cut in two opposite angles at the proper distances. 1679. The fence is made either entirely with long bars z, or with long and short ones k alternately ; the short being 2 feet 7 inches long, and worked into only three of the ropes. The kind of rope used is tarred hemp, and weighs, when four ropes are used, 40 to 50 Ib. per 100 yards of fence. 1680. Galvanised iron wire has been tried instead of rope, and found to answer MACHINES FOU WORKSHOP. 477 well, as it is not affected by changes in the atmosphere, like the rope. The price of the fence is the same for both ; being, according to the kind of wood employed, from 5^d. to 7|d. per lineal yard, inclusive of stakes and staples, ready for putting up. The weight of 100 yards complete is about 5 cwt. 1681. Lathe. A turning- lathe will be found of great service in the farm workshop. For the ordinary work of the farm, a lathe of the usual simple construction will be all that is required that is, with the single motion head-stock, with no back motion, and the rest adjusted by the screw. Some of our readers may, however, desire a more complicated ap- paratus, fitted to do ornamental as well as simple work. A lathe of this kind, manufactured by Joseph Fenn (tool manufac- tory, 105, 106 Newgate Street, - >- London), is illustrated in fig. 915 ; it is a complete appa- ratus, with universal chuck and screw slide-rest. 1682. Drilling or Boring Machine. In fig. 916 we illustrate a portable boring machine for metal- work, which will be found of great utility, in con- struction as well as in repairs. A breast boring apparatus or drill-stock is illustrated in fig. 917. These are also manufactured by Mr Fenn. Fig. 917. HUK/iST noUING APPARATUS 478 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. SUBDIVISION SECOND Useful Apparatus and Erections. 1683. SECTION FIRST Portable Caldron and Furnace. In fig. 918 we give elevation, and in fig. 919 section, of the American caldron and furnace, as manu- factured by Messrs T. & C. Clark & Co., Shakespeare Foundry, Wolverhamp- ton. By the use of an arched bottom 5, as shown in section a a, fig. 919, the fuel is enabled to be raised above the lower portion of the water in the caldron ; c the ash-pit, d cock. The inside of the caldron being lined with porcelain, all liability to rust is prevented. Fig. 918. Fig. 919. 1684. Asphalt Caldron. In fig. 920 we illustrate this apparatus as manu- factured by Woods, Suffolk Iron Works, Stowmarket. It will be found very Fig. 920. PBR8PSOT1V l.T C4LDKO> FIRE-ENGINE. 479 useful where an extensive surface of flooring in asphalt is to be carried out. 1685. SECTION SECOND Fire-Enyine, or Liquid-Manure. Pump. Tn fig-. 921 we illustrate the form of double-barrel pump, as manufactured by Messrs Guynne & Co., engineers, of Essex "Wharf, Strand, London. The valves are easily got at. It may be used conveniently as a fire-engine, or a liquid-manure pump for distributing liquid manure. 1686. Double- Action Pumps. In fig. 922 we illustrate the arrangement for working, by a fixed steam - engine, the F . ir double-action pumps, patented by Mr Hoi- man, and manufactured by Messrs Fowler & Co., Whitefriars Street, Fleet Street, London. These pumps supply a continu- ous stream, delivering both at the up and the down stroke. " Mounted on stout cast- iron baseplate and column, with spur-wheel and pinion, intermediate shaft, plummer- blocks, crank-pin, strap-head, slings, guide, and driving-drum complete, ready at once to connect strap from the fly-wheel shaft of either a fixed or portable engine, or from any convenient point of the main shaft. These pumps, thus arranged, are adapted for irrigation, fire-engine purposes, or for pumping liquid manure. The advantages of this arrangement consist in the facility with which the pump can be fixed, merely re- quiring to be securely bolted down, thus saving much expense and annoyance, be- sides loss of time in cutting a way for sup- ports. It occupies very little space, the supply is continuous, the whole is extremely simple, and the working parts are readily accessible. Where the speed of engine or 480 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Til. 923. driving power does not exceed fifty revolutions per minute, the spur-gear may be dispensed with, and the pump driven direct from a drum. Speedy access is permitted to all the valves simultaneously, by the removal of a single plate, which can be detached with perfect facility. This sim- ple arrangement renders it unnecessary to disconnect any other portion of the pipes or gear the inconveni- ence, expense, and loss of time arising from which, most persons in the habit of using pump work are well ac- quainted with. All the valves are out of the barrel, which permits their areas to equal that of the piston, and the water passages to be proportionately large." 1687. The arrangement here illustrated is obviously applicable to the working of any ordinary force-pump. 1688. Farm Hand-Pump. For the extinguishing 01 fires, a supply of water may be kept in a cistern placed at an elevated part of the steading, or it may be raised on pillars of considerable altitude, placed near the centre of the buildings. From this a supply of water may be taken to any part of the building by means of hose. The water may be supplied to the elevated cistern by means of the steam-pump, as illustrated in fig. 922 ; or the " farm hand-pump," illustrated in fig. 923, may be used for this purpose. As a force-pump is, however, attached to this arrangement, it is obviously capable of being used as a means of forcing a supply of water to a distance through flexible hose. In fig. 923 a a is the pump-well, b b the suction-pipe leading to the platform c, to which is se- cured the force-pump d ; e the air vessels ; ff the pump- rod, worked by a crank in the axle or shaft of the fly- wheel g, turned by the handle h. The frame i i for supporting the fly-wheel shaft is bolted to the bed-plate covering the mouth of the well. The water is forced up the pipe k, k k from the air-vessel e to the elevated cistern, or the end of the flexible hose may be attached to k. 1689. Hydraulic Ram. The ingenious contrivance known as the "hydraulic ram," may also be used to force a supply of water to the elevated cistern. It is simple in original construction, has no parts liable to get out of order, and will work contin- uously for years without repairs after once being put in operation, all that is re- quired being a small stream with a few feet of fall. The machine depends for its ope- ration on the momentum of the falling stream, which, con- fined in a pipe, is led to a Fig. 924. PUMPS. 481 chamber in which valves are placed, and which act as follows : In fig. 924, which is a longitudinal section of a form manufactured by Messrs Gvvynne, of Essex Wharf, Strand, London, a a is the supply -pipe, which leads the running stream down to the chamber b 5, bolted to the bed-plate c c. A valve d d is provided to the chamber b 5, and which has a tendency to fall from its seat so as to keep the water-way open, till the stream, 11 owing through the pipe a a, acquires sufficient momentum to close it. The velocity of the stream being thus checked, the water raises the valve e, which moves the reverse way of the valve d d, and enters the air-vessel//, from which it is finally passed by the pipe g g, which can be led to any desired elevation above the level of the ram. On the water passing into the air-chamber// it is pressed upon by the air in the upper part of the vessel, which closes the valve e. The momentum of the flowing stream in the pipe a a and vessel b b being thus exhausted, the valve d d falls, and allows the water to escape from the vessel b b, through the valve opening, till the flowing stream again acquires such momentum as to close the valve d d. When this happens, the valve e is again opened, and a second quantity of water discharged into the air-vessel// The action thus described goes on continually, resulting in a regu- lar beating or pulsation of the valves e and d d, each rising and falling alternately. 1690. A small porta- ble fire-engine may be kept in the workshop, which will be useful in cases of fire, and at other times may be made avail- able in cleaning out the byres, &c. The form of this is so well known that it is needless here to illustrate it. 1691. Carrett's Steam- Pump. In fig. 925 we give the side elevation of steam-pump manufac- tured by Messrs Carrett & Co., of Leeds : The cylinder a, supported on two elegant side-frames b c, is of the inverted kind, and is provided with stuffing-boxes at the upper and lower covers ; the piston-rod is passed through both ends, one of which is connected with a cross-head work- ing in the slotted up- rights d, attached to the upper end of the cylinder ; to the ends of the cross-heads the side-levers e are connected, the lower ends of 2 ii 482 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. these embracing the fly- wheel crank-shaft; the other end of the piston-rod, pass- ing through the lower cover of the cylinder, is connected with the pump-rod ; the pump-rod and plunger /are connected together by two set-screws. These set- screws have only to withstand the strain on the up stroke, the termination of the pump-rod bearing on the bottom of the plunger, which is hollow, and down the centre of which the pump-rod is passed. The reciprocatory motion of the piston- rod produces the rotatory motion of the crank-shaft and fly-wheel by a horizontal slotted slide g g, in the slot of which a brass block, containing the crank-pin, slides backward and forward. The slide-valve of the cylinder is worked by the side-rods A, fastened at one end to the cross-head of the slide-valve rod, and at the other to the bell-crank lever i. This lever receives its motion from another lever connected to a pin placed eccentrically in the face of the revolving disc or plate &, fixed in the crank-shaft outside the framing. This also gives motion to the connecting-rod and pump-plunger of the force-pump to supply the boiler with. The steam delivery-pipe is at 7, the exhaust at m. The supply of steam is regu- lated by a governor of peculiar construction, which consists of a ring of metal, which, as it rapidly revolves, actuates a series of levers, and through them the throttle- valve. The inlet-pipe to the pump is at n, the outlet is at o. By simply disconnecting the pump, the engine can be used for any purpose required. From the whole machinery being self-contained, it is easily moved from place to place, requiring no foundation to be prepared for it ; the only labour requisite to put it in working condition being the connection of the steam and pump pipes. 1692. An important feature of improvement in this pump consists in the introduction of two accumulating reservoirs in connection with the influx and efflux water-passages, and a peculiar modification in the construction of the pump, these by their action producing a continuous stream of water throughout the whole length of the suctional and delivery pipes. It is capable of fetching or forcing water to any required distance and height, or depth not exceeding 25 or 30 feet, and at a considerable velocity. In this department of engineering the great object has been to work a small pump at a great velocity, and with effect. The water is not able to start and stop instantly in the suction and outlet pipes ; the consequence is, that the ram is not followed by the water, and a vacuum is formed beneath it ; on the ram coming down, it receives an accelerated motion from the want of resistance coming down into the vacuum and it strikes the water with considerable force. This rapidly wears out the clacks, and in some instances the pump-bottom has been known to give way ; the delivery of water, moreover, is very irregular, and the pump is generally incapable of drawing the water more than a few feet far under the natural limit of 30 feet. All these disadvantages are apparently obviated by the form of steam-pump now under consideration. 1693. SECTION THIRD Cranes. A crane of simple construction, adapted for quarries, &c., is shown in fig. 926. It consists of a stem of wood a, 14 feet long, 12 inches square ; a jib or projecting arm b i, formed of two pieces of wood, 15 feet long, 10 inches deep, and 4 inches thick ; and a wooden strut c, 14 feet long, 10 inches square. The sides of the jib b b embrace both the stem a and the strut c, and are securely bolted to them, and the bottom of the strut is notched into and bolted to the stem. The crane is supported by, and allowed to revolve on, an iron gudgeon d, fixed into the bottom of the stem, and resting in a hole in the rock, and by another at top e working in iron straps bolted to wooden stays part of one of which is shown at/ which reach to the floor of the quarry at an angle of 30 to 45, and either fixed by strong bat bolts to the rock, or loaded by a pile of stones. There are generally two straps, which ought to be placed at right CRANES. 483 angles to each other OH plan. The crab, or that portion through which the lifting power is applied, consists of two cast-iron cheeks g, one on each side of the stem, a blocking of k wood about 6 inches thick ^ being interposed on each ''_ side to make the width be- tween the cheeks about '2 feet, and allow sufficient length of barrel to hold the chain. At the back of the stem a a spindle is supported by the cheeks, carrying at each end a winch handle h, and out- side one of the cheeks a pinion 5 or 6 inches in dia- meter, gearing into a wheel about 3 feet in diameter on another spindle in front of '' the stem, which also carries the chain-barrel, 6 or 7 i -i Ju inches in diameter, with a ____.^ i /,,/. flange 3 inches deep at each end. The chain i i may be | inch diameter, which is sufficient, if of proper quality, to bear a load of 2 tons ; it passes from the barrel upwards, and over a pulley k, supported on brackets at the point of the jib, and is provided with a strong hook I at the end, for attaching the load. 1694. Derrick Crane. A better form of crane is shown in fig. 927. The stem a is of wood, 14 feet long, 12 inches square, mounted at bottom with a cast- iron box Z>, having two jaws in front, and a gudgeon c in the centre underneath, 484 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. and at top with a gudgeon d, supported by straps, part of one of which is shown at e, like /in fig. 926. A derrick /of wood, 22 feet long, 10 inches square, is mounted with an iron shoe or socket at top <7, and another at h at bottom ; the shoe at g carries a pulley, and the shoe at h is made to fit between the jaws of the bottom box b of the stem a, and fastened thereto by a round bolt, forming a joint. To support the derrick/, an iron rod i extends from the shackle, at its upper extremity, to the top of the stem, where it is secured by a link and eyebolt passing through the stem. If it be wanted to use the derrick at different eleva- tions, to lift at different distances from the centre of the crane, a few large links of chain are formed at the end of the stay -rod next the stem, to admit of its being lengthened or shortened as may be required ; but as the alteration involves some little trouble, this form of crane cannot be recommended where frequent change of radius is necessary. The crab is somewhat similar to that of the crane in fig. 926, but as it is calculated to lift a load of 4 tons, it requires a more com- plex arrangement, and the introduction of what is called a double purchase. The driving spindle carries two handles k k and one pinion Z, and is made to slide endways when required, so that the pinion can work either into the large wheel m of 36 inches diameter on the barrel spindle, or into a 24-inch wheel n on the intermediate or second purchase spindle ; this last carries also a pinion constantly in gear with the large wheel. When the pinion on the driving- spindle acts directly on the large wheel, the crane is said to be worked with a Fig. 928. DRAT 8 PORTABLE CRAVE. single purchase, and when through the intervention of the 24-inch wheel and its pinion it has a double purchase, acting then with greatly increased power. A GAS APPARATUS FOE FABMS. 485 ratchet-wheel o is fixed on the barrel spindle outside the bearing, with its pall attached to the check for supporting the load when required to be suspended for a time. The chain />, sufficient to lift 4 tons 1 , is J inch diameter ; it passes from the barrel along the upper .side of the derrick and over the pulley at top; it is supported, when slack, by two saddles or cross bars of wood fixed on the derrick. 1695. Portable Crane. In fig. 928 we give a sketch of a portable crane as manufactured by Messrs Dray & Co. of London, which requires no description. 1696. SECTION FOURTH Gas Apparatus Porters Gas Apparatus for Farm Use. A cheap, easily-managed, and economically-worked gas-making apparatus for farms and rural localities has long been a desideratum. A form of appar- atus, manufactured by Mr T. B. Porter of Lincoln, which we have lately in- spected, and of which report speaks very favourably, is, we think, likely in many respects to meet this. We give in fig. 929 this compact apparatus, the principal feature of which is the ease and economy with which the retorts are worked that process which, in other arrangements, constitutes the most dis- agreeable part of gas-making, but which, in the apparatus now under notice, is effected with amazingly little trouble and inconvenience. Fig. Oi9. fee. ' PORTERS OAS AITARATOS FOR FARM USE 1697. The retort used, as seen in section at a, is not of uniform diameter throughout its length, like the retorts usually employed, but gradually widens 486 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. from the front to the back. The back terminates at the top of a cylindrical ves- sel b, at the foot of which a tank of water is provided; into this the coke is pushed, in the manner hereafter to be described, where, by coming in contact with the cold water, it is instantly cooled, and from which it can be removed at pleasure. The front part of the retort is of uniform diameter for some dis- tance, and contains an Archimedean screw, which is turned by a handle c, placed on the end of the shaft, continued through the cover of the retort. Con- nected with the upper part of this end of the retort is a vertical chamber d, the aperture of which is closed by a tightly-fitting stopper, which can be removed at pleasure. This chamber or hopper contains the charge of coal from which the gas is to be produced. On the hopper being filled with coal, the stopper is put tightly in ; and on turning the handle or wheel of the Archimedean screw, the charge is gradually transferred from the hopper to the interior of the retort. The charge thus delivered to the retort is allowed to remain exposed to the action of the fire for about one hour. The hopper is then filled a second time, and by means of the Archimedean screw the charge is transferred from it to the retort the second charge pushing the first charge forward into the gradually widening space of the retort. Another hour is suffered to expire, when a third charge is supplied to the hopper, and transferred to the retort, pushing before it the two former charges. The fourth charge, which is in like manner made, pushes the first charge out of the wide end of the retort into the vertical cham- ber bj and its water-tank. The coke thus formed is found to be a harder, denser, and consequently more valuable kind than that resulting from the ordinary system this arising, doubtless, from the compression to which it is subjected in being forced into the retort by the screw. In consequence of there being no escape of gas during the process of charging the retort a loss inevitable in the old system the quantity of gas obtained by this apparatus is .greater than that produced by the usual arrangements ; whilst another source of increased " make" arises from the circumstance that the vapours evolved from the last charge in- troduced must all pass along the highly-heated charge or charges which pre- cede it, and along three-fourths of the heated retort. Much of the tar produced in the old system is by this apparatus converted into gas. The purifying appa- ratus is of extreme simplicity, the "hydraulic main," the "condenser," and " puri- fier," all being contained in one vessel e, of very limited dimensions. The upper part of the figure in elevation, shows the connection of the various parts part only of the retaining wall/of the gasometer being shown. The cost of the gas OF MESSRS BR1L1GKS AND AUBURT 8 OAS-MiKING AFPAKAJ t ISOLATED COW-BYRE. 487 produced by this apparatus is stated to be -1s. Gd. per 1000 cubic feet, where a thirty-light apparatus is used ; where a sixty-light apparatus is employed, the cost will be reduced to 3s. per 1000 cubic feet, and as much coke will be pro- duced as will keep the fire of the retort-furnace going. 1698. In fig. 930 we illustrate a form of compact "gas-making apparatus," manufactured by Messrs Bridges, Aubury, & Co., 84 Webber Ixovv, West- minster Eoad, London. 1699. SECTION FIFTH Detached Erections. 1700. Isolated Cow-Byre. In fig. 931 we give the plan of a detached byre or cow-house, showing the arrangements capable of accommodating forty- eight cows in double stalls. By this arrangement the stalls of twenty-four cows may be cleaned at one time, and the mangers of from twelve to twenty- four replenished from the same passage : a the double stalls, b the stone troughs or mangers, two of which are placed in each stall, 6 inches from the side, their dimensions being 27 inches long, 16 wide, and 8 deep ; the upper edge of the trough 18 inches above the floor ; g the gutters for receiving dung and urine, 15 inches wide, in which is a grating h, communicating with a drain leading to the liquid-manure tank ; i the footpaths, 4 feet wide, from the outer door k to the stalls : by these paths the cows enter and leave the stalls, and the dung and litter are removed from them. The cooler, containing the food from the boil-house n, is drawn along the passage /; k the outer doors at the end of each path i by which the cows of each division enter without disturbing those of the others ; /the windows ; m the position of water-cock, from which to obtain a supply of water for cleansing the mangers, paths, and gutters ; c the travis-boards, 2 feet across the mangers, and 3 feet in front of the travis-posts, from which they slope in a triangular form to the floor ; e is the boarding, 2-| feet high, along the heads of the stalls, over which the food is handed to the manger ; the boil- house n contains two boilers, heated alternately ; o the store for topped and 488 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. 932. tailed turnips : to keep the boil-house free from dust, the coals are kept in o, at the space p ; r the hay-house, in which is also placed the hay-cutter. At the other end of the byre is a large apartment, at one end of which q is used for storing turnips, to be given raw to such of the cows as have not calved, and are not in milk. At the other end of this apartment is the hay-house v, for the hay given as ordinary fodder. At each side of the window s t may be placed the linseed-crusher and oilcake-bruiser : an inside door u allows the turnips and hay to be taken along the passage I. The stone troughs should be made deeper at one end than the other, and a pipe inserted at the deepest end, by which to withdraw the water this being stopped up with a plug or valve when re- quired. .1701. Isolated Dairy. In fig. 932 we give plan of an isolated or detached dairy, in which the accommoda- tion is all on the ground - floor the floor being a height equal to four steps above level of ground : a the milk-house, b the churn-room, c the cheese-store, d the scullery, e the boiler-room, f the fuel-store, g store - room for utensils, &c. 1702. In fig. 933 we give the ground-plan of a detached dairy, with second sto- rey : a the milk- room, lighted to the north by the " three-light " window 5, c false or dead window, d churn- room, e scullery, /stairs to cheese-room , and feeding-passages c c ; d hay or implement house, e stable, f piggery, g barn, Fig. OCO. 40 so 20 10 2 K 514 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. h bay for sheaf corn, i cart-shed. In fig. 967 we give plan showing arrange- ments of a Dutch barn, in which a b is the cow-house, c the bam or thrashing- floor, d bay for sheaf corn, e stable, / second barn-floor, g second bay for sheaf corn. Fig. 967. PLAN OF DUTCH BAK.JI SCALE AS IN FIO. 963. Fig. 968. 1757. Although the cultivation of the soil in the provinces of East and West Flanders stands deservedly high, yet, as a general rule, little attention seems to be paid to the arrangement of the various buildings and apartments, so as to economise, the working of the farm. Straggling here and there, anywhere where fancy dictates, they look picturesque and pleasing as objects in the land- scape, but they by no means satisfy the mind alive to the advantages of econo- mic working. The courtyards if the term may be applied to a place in few cases, so far as our observation went, surrounded, like our courtyards, by build- ings and sheds are by no means in keeping with the neat and orderly condition of the fields. The manure seems to He about as if quite uncared for ; and a general dis- order, far from pleasing, seems to prevail. This is, however, more apparent than real, so far as the buildings are concerned, for considerable care is taken to have them well cleaned in the interior. 1758. In fig. 968 we give a sketch-plan of a Flemish farm- steading : a the position occu- pied by the farmhouse, b the stable, through which one en- trance can be obtained to the kitchen, c c cattle-house, d calf- house, e cart -shed, / store- house, g machine-house, h h solid manure-pit or heap, i potato-pits, jj the barn, k space SKSTCH-PLAS or FAMISH FiKM- B un.rcjos f or thrashing-machine, I horse- walk for thrashing-machine, m n pigeon -houses. On BELGIAN FARM-BUILDINGS. 515 Fifr. 969. 1759. In fig. 969 we give sketch-plan of farm-buildings at Courtrai, the celebrated flax-growing district of Belgium : a denotes the space occu- pied by the house of the farmer, b the cow-house, c a sheep-shed, d the root-cutting house, e f barns, g the bull-house, h baking-house, i lumber, wood, and implement store, k the cart-shed, m hay-shed, I the store- house for roots. 1760. On many Belgian farms the machines of the steading are placed in a separate building, horse-power being used. In fig. 970 we give plan of such a machine-room a a. It is octagonal in outline, and is lighted by a window and door. The main driving-wheel, which is a large spur-wheel b b put together in segments, is connected with the cen- tral shaft c, formed of wood. This shaft is continued upwards through the roof of the building, the lower end being provided with an iron stud working in a step bolted to the floor, and finished with a turn-cap. To this cap a long piece of timber is connected, and continued on the SKETCH.?^* OF FINISH rAsii-mjinDisos. outside downwards, as shown in fig. 971, to within a short distance of the horse-walk, which completely encircles Fig. 970. the building a. Hooks are provided, to which the draught-chains are attached. The timber b b is curved in order to clear the building, and it is strengthened 516 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. by the diagonal stays attached to the cross-bar c c ; and connected with the cen- tral shaft is the cap d. In fig. 970, d shows the position of the straw-cutter ; the bean-inill e, and the corn-mill /, are fixed on a raised platform g g ; h indicates the position of the barrel-churn, which is worked by a pulley deriving motion from the main driving-wheel b b ; i shows the position of the turnip- cutter. 1761. In fig. 972 we give the plan of a large farm-steading at the Brit- PZ.AN OP STBADINO OP BKITAJJNIi FARM, BELOTOM. annia farm, Ghistelles, near Ostend, in Belgium, belonging to M. Bortier, and for which we are indebted to the Manual des Constructions Rurales, pub- AMERICAN BARNS. 517 lished at Brussels. The terrace of the lawn is at a, the carriage-drive to door 4, c hall of the farmhouse, d kitchen, e e e e bedrooms, f f coach- Fig. 973. houses, g g infirmary for horses and for sheep, h poultry-house and yard, i i i boxes and yards for horses and cows, k k oat and bean stores, I I piggeries, m m m, m m sheep-sheds and yards, n n covered passage, o o salt and oilcake stores, p boiling-house, q q oat and bean stores, r r steam-engine and boiler-house, s liquid-manure tanks, t t, t t beetroot pits, u stackyard, v beetroot distillery, iv ma- chine-room, x the dotted lines show the drainage pipes, and y y the railways leading from the stackyard u and beetroot pits t, to the machine-room w and the beetroot distillery v ; z the water-tank. Fig 973, a a covered dung-pits and cisterns for " purin," b b cellars for cinders. 1762. SECTION SECOND American Barns. In addition to the plans of farm- buildings suited to the agricultural practice of Great Britain, we deem it likely to add to the utility of our work, by giving a few plans illustrative of farm-build- ings suited to the practice of the United States and our North American colonies. The term barn is there equivalent to our term " farm-steading," " homestead," or " farmery; " it is not confined to signify as with us the one apartment of a farmery in which the com is thrashed and prepared for market, but it com- prehends all the apartments usually required in farm practice. Hence the term " barn " in North America is eqiiivalent to our " covered farm-steading," a form of arrangement now by some much esteemed here, in which all the apartments required are placed under one roof. In the American "barn," however, there is one feature which is absent in all improved structures in this country namely, very large storage-room for corn, roots, and fodder. This is necessitated by the exigencies of the climate, which prevents our sys- tem of out-of-door storage being adopted. In place of drawing upon our own notes taken during a visit paid to the United States some time ago, we prefer to present the reader with plans of acknowledged merit which have been published under the sanction, and received the good opinion of American agri- culturists. The following, taken from the American Cultivator, will convey some idea of the nature of the arrangement of what is called a " side-hill barn :" In fig. 974 we give the plan of basement, in which a is the manure-pit, b the cattle- -I H liPFFPFF a i, a a /> EMENT OF AWE stalls, 3 feet 3 inches by 8 feet ; c the feeding-passage, 4 feet 6 inches wide ; the part dis paved. In fig. 975 we give the plan of second storey, in which a a are the posts supporting hay-floor over stable-passage, b b cattle-stalls, c c hay- mow or balk, d the hay-shoot or funnel, e another funnel, /passage. In fig. 976 we give a perspective elevation of the barn. 518 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. PERSPECTIVE 1763. " The barn is 40 feet long by 26 wide, with a basement 8 feet high ; posts 20 feet above the basement ; the roof steep, which gives more room for hay, is more durable and stronger if left without purlin sup- port ; two middle cross works, which make the girts 13 feet. It is situated on a somewhat steep side-hill, facing the south-east; the basement wall on the north side, and the west part of the south side to the west middle cross work, 8 feet high. The wall at the west end is 15 feet high, the basement part of which is built very strong of heavy stone, so that the upper part of it (7 feet high), which is faced .one foot back or west of the basement wall (for a cross sill to rest upon), may rest firm, and never be moved. 1764. " The post which is in the east middle cross work, south side, is sup- ported by bridge braces, with bolt at bottom to hold up the sill, which gives free access to the manure which is kept in the south part of the basement ; in the north half is a row of stanchion stables for 12 cattle, facing the north, towards a foddering-pass wide enough to fodder the cattle when in the stable. One row of cattle are kept over the manure basement facing the north, which, with a foddering-passage, occupies 13 feet, or half the width. 1765. " The earth is filled in and thoroughly packed up to the wall at the west end, and graded or inclined to drive the loaded teams with the hay, to be pitched into the barn through ample sized doors of different height ; much of the hay is thus pitched down into the barn, and it is certainly ' put into place ' with comparatively little labour. The barn is filled with hay, excepting two funnels through which to pitch the hay down to the two foddering-passes ; and by allowing a reasonable time to settle, will hold 35 tons of hay. Our cattle are three-year-old steers, for fattening the following season when four years old. I think there are very few barns which contain so much practically valuable room tinder the same proportion of roof, or expense of building, and repairs for the next hundred years." The barn is built thoroughly but plainly, and we think at a cost of 400 dollars (80). 1766. The same Journal shows the plan of a barn, which we give in fig. 977, in which a is the barn floor, 24 feet by 42 ; b cow-stable, 12 feet by 38, c 12 feet by 31 ; d oat-bin, 5 feet by 12 ; e work- horse stable, 14 feet by 32 ; / tool-room, 14 feet by 12 ; g wheat- bin, 5 feet by 12 ; k colt-stable, 16 feet by 20 ; i calf-stable, 16 feet by 20 ; k corn-crib, 8 feet by 20. The height over the cow- stables is 7 feet, over the main floor and horse - stable 9 feet, 603, p. 373, inthe section Fig. 977. treating of wooden sheds, is a sectional elevation of frame of this barn. 1767. The most complete form, perhaps, of American barn is to be met with AMERICAN STEADING. 519 in the state of Pennsylvania. A very distinguished agriculturist of that state, Mr Lewis F. Allen, has in his work, Rural Architecture, illustrated and described a barn which he built for his own use, " and which has proved so satisfac- tory in its use that, save in one or two small particulars, which are here amended, we would not," says Mr Allen, " for a stock-barn, alter it in any degree, nor exchange it for one of any description whatever." " For the farmer who needs one of but half the size, or greater, or less, it may be remarked that the extent of this need be no hindrance to the build- ing of one of any size, as the gene- ral design may be adopted and carried out, in whole or in part, according to his wants, and the economy of its accommodation pre- served throughout. The principle of the structure is what is intended to be shown." 1768. Fig. 978 is the principal or ground-plan ; fig. 979 is an isometrical elevation. The follow- ing is Mr Allen's description of its interior arrangement : " Entering the large door a, fig. 978, at the front end, 14 feet wide and 14 feet high, the main floorer passes through the entire length of the barn and rear lean-to, 116 feet; the last 16 Fix. 979. 520 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 980. feet through the lean-to, and sloping 3 feet to the outer sill and door I, of that appendage. On the right of the entrance is a recess e, 20 feet by 18, to be used as a thrashing floor, and for machinery cutting food, &c. 5 feet next the end at k being cut off for a passage to the stable. Beyond this is a bay c, 18 feet by 70, for the storage of hay or grain, having a passage k at the further end of 5 feet wide, to go into the further stables. This bay is bounded on the extreme left by the line of outside posts of the barn. On the left of the main door is a granary d, 10 feet by 18, two storeys high, and a flight of steps leading from the lower into the upper room. Beyond this is another bay 6, corresponding with c on the opposite side. The passages k k, at the end of the bays b and c, have steps of 3 feet descent to bring them down on a level with the stable floors of the lean-tos. A passage in each of the two long side lean-tos e e, 3 feet wide, receives the hay -forage for cattle, or other stock, thrown into them from the bays and the lofts over the stables, and from them is thrown into the mangers h h. The two apartments f f, in the extreme lean-to, 34 feet by 16 each, may be occupied as an hospital for invalid cattle, or partitioned off for calves, or any other purpose. A calving-house for the cows which come in during the winter is always con- venient, and one of those may be used for such a purpose." At the front of the stalls is the passage i i, for the cattle as they pass in and out of their stalls. The stable doors m, are six in number. In this barn, accommodation is given for fifty- six grown cattle in twenty-eight double stalls, with room for twenty to thirty calves in the end stables. Storage for 150 tons of hay is also provided. 1769. In fig. 980 we give plan of basement of another arrangement of barn designed by Mr Allen. A line of posts stands at a?, and a wall e e placed back- wards from these affords space for cattle- sheds. Two sheds o o for cattle-shelter can be run out to any desired length, at right angles to e e. The barn is built on sloping ground, so as to admit of the under portion being made without much excavation. Fig. 981 is the main floor of. the barn ; its dimensions are 60 feet by 46 ; two large doors are at the end, 14 feet square a louvre-boarded window being above these. A door, 9 feet by 6, opens to- wards the yard from the apartment f. The main floor a, 12 feet wide, runs along the whole length of the barn ; h h are trap-doors to let forage down to the stables beneath ; b is the principal bay for _ __ i hay, 16 feet wide, running up to the roof; g is the j bay, 26 feet by 16, for the grain more if required I I for that purpose ; d the granary, 13 feet by 16 feet ; e a storage-room for machinery, &c. ; grain . HPP.B. STOR.T or AvBio iH si**. ^ tne g heaf, or hay, may be stored in the space above / d and e. The main floor will accommodate the thrashing-machine, &c., when at work. " A line of movable sleepers or poles may be laid across Fig. 981. AMERICAN STEADING. 521 the floor, 10 feet above it, on a line of girts framed into the main posts for that purpose, over which, when the sides of the barn are full, either hay or grain may be deposited up to the ridge of the roof, and thus afford large storage ; and if the demands of the crop require it, after the sides and over the floor are thus filled, the floor itself may, or part of it, be used for packing away either hay or grain." The stables, <.v.c., are placed beneath the body of the barn, as seen in fig. 980 ; it is here cut up into stables. Passages a a are made for the stock to go into the stalls ; c is the centre passage, 8 feet wide ; b b the passages, 3 feet wide, between the mangers, placed under the traps h /*, fig. 981, in the main floor. The mangers are 2 feet wide ; the stalls are 6i feet wide ; at the end walls the cattle-passages are 5 feet wide, the partition between the stalls being sloped from 5 feet high at the upper end clown to the floor. The main floor is provided with inclined planes leading from the surrounding level to the main doors : this will be found a great convenience in housing hay, &c. The sheds o o may be used for carts, &c., or shelter sheds : there may be storage-room for hay, &c., made over them. 1770. In fig. 982 we give plan of American farm-buildings designed by Mr Marshall, and adapted for the northern states : a space for roots ; b machine-room for cutting straw, roots, &c. ; c straw-bay, d d feeding- passages for cow-byres e and f, sheep-shed g, with yard h; i piggery, with yard Jc I poultry-house, m boil-house, n store for firewood, &c., o calf-house, p carpenter's shop, r implement-house, s waggon-shed, t yard. 1771. In the southern and western states of America the peculiarities of farming, as there practised, require several modifications of ar- rangement, &c., in the farm-buildings, differing from those carried out in the northern or middle states. Professor Turner of Illinois has made public a variety of useful hints on stables and farm-buildings for the West, a portion of which will, we think, be highly useful to our readers. His remarks are given in cxtcnso in Mr Downing's American Country Architecture. "Throughout the vast regions devoted to stock, especially in Illinois and Missouri, and all the states south of these, stables are used not for sheltering common stock or fodder, but merely for the few horses and milch-cows which are kept for family use. Many farmers in these states annually fatten some one or two hundred head of oxen, and some few even a thousand or more, for the market, and still a very moderate-sized stable, or rather no stable at all, answers their purpose." Mr Turner then gives a statement of what " ends the great majority of those who are intending to build in those regions wish to reach," the purport of which we give as fol- lows : Wood (or lumber, as it is called) being very dear in the West, as also labour, economy in these is the first consideration. This is best effected by throwing all the buildings under " one roof, and in a square form, or one as nearly square as possible ; the foundations, made of brick or stone and which 522 PKACTICAL CONSTEUCTION. Fig. 983. may have to be transported from a distance at great cost will, by the same plan, be also economised." Another desideratum, and one peculiar to these states, is to have " free access to and from their out-buildings, without passing through the terrible mud and water which, in prairie countries, always exists on all flat lands where cattle or swine are yarded, or allowed to run in small lots. Those who are accustomed only to a rocky or gravelly soil, can form no adequate conception of the inconvenience of the prairie mud throughout all the rainy seasons of the year." The location of a well is a point of great importance, as water is not found in springs or brooks, but from wells. The conveniences in the stable are, stalls for from one to four horses, stalls for cows (though sheds are generally used for them), pig and fowl house, carriage and tool house. Boom for storing hay is also useful, though this crop is chiefly stacked, and the corn " cribbed " in the fields. Eoom will, however, be required for storing as much of these crops as will suffice for the provender of the stock. Professor Turner gives a plan illustrative of the arrangements proposed : this we now append. " At a, fig. 983, a door is made in the rear of the cattle-stalls b, through which to pass the man- ure from time to time ; c is the corn-crib. The floor of this, as well as the corn-cribs in the stalls, indicated by the small black circles, should be from 2^ to 3 feet above the level of the ground, so as to admit of the pigs getting beneath them. By this arrangement, not only will shelter be provided for them, but they will be enabled to pick up all scattered corn, and FLAN Of WB8TSKN STATES AMERICAN FAKM-BniLUINQS. . n also prevent rats from accumu- lating, as they will be prevented from depredating by the continual intrusion of the pigs. The front of one stall should be open, to admit of a door being made, so as to give access to the stalls from the carriage and waggon houses d e. As the weather in the West is at times very cold, the well should be located in a convenient recess, as at/; the water should be supplied to the trough <7, in the yard, through a spout h. Two troughs should be made here, one higher than the other, the lower one being for the use of the pigs these animals being, in Western farming, allowed to follow the larger stock in the yard. A small pond i receives the water from the troughs, and is used for ducks, &c. ; another pond Ic, outside the yard, is used for goslings and ducklings. In selecting a place for the building, the yard should be on the east side, and a green grass surface on the south side of both stable and stock yard Z, no cattle or hogs being allowed to pass in to the grass ; so that the farmer may have a mudless access at all times to the farm-buildings. The ground should, if possible, be selected sloping, the stable at the highest part, so as to allow the wet to go towards the lower end of the yard. If sloping ground cannot be obtained, an artificial slope should be made. The position of the well / will, of course, dictate the other arrangements, the well being first dug." 1772. American Cheese-Dairy Buildings. As an example of " cheese- dairy " buildings adapted for American agriculture, we here append the plan and buildings, by Mr Paris Barber of Homer, New York, given in the '1 J 11 111 - 1 [f 03 i-ii i-i-i c 7, . nrnrm AMERICAN CHEESE-DAIRY. 523 American Artisan. Fig. 984 is the general plan : a a the byre or milking-shed, 25 feet by 75 ; b b the store-room, 22 feet by 36, with counters and shelves c c ; d the work-room, 16 feet by 20, connected with the store-room by a car- way e. "In sub- mitting my plan," says Mr Barber, " I will simply say that, in getting up my cheese -dairy build- ings and fixtures, the FLiXOI ^ilElUCAS OHEKSE-UAIST BCU1.DINCHI first point arrived at was economy in construction, with the greatest convenience in all its parts for labour saving, which I consider the all-important point in dairying. The cheese- room b b stands 1 foot from the ground, and is thoroughly banked upon the outside of wall, to prevent frost. It is planked, and then boarded up and down, and battened. Inside it is finished by a narrow lath over each crack, lathed and plastered in the usual way. The floor is lined to make it tight, planed and jointed. The counters or shelves are around the outside, and two in the middle of the room two tier deep. The lower one is 6 inches from the floor ; the space between is 2 feet 3 inches. The posts or legs are turned, to prevent the cheeses being bruised in turning. The room will hold, with the present shelves, two hundred and fifty cheeses, pressed in an 18-inch hoop; and by the addition of another tier of shelves, the number will be greatly increased. The windows have sliding shutters on the inside, by which I can make it dark, and wire gauze on the outside, to prevent flies, both of which are of importance. There is a large store-room above, with a swing stairway to rise and fall as required. The room is so tight and well-built that I have not had any trouble in keeping the cheese from freezing, during the coldest weather, with an ordi- nary stove. My work-room d is 16 feet by 20 ; it is 18 feet from the store-room, and is connected with it by a covered car-way e, which saves the trouble of carrying the cheeses by hand. I have a constant supply of soft spring-water, running from a spring on the farm. The apparatus for the manufacture of cheese consists of a furnace or steamer, for heating water and scalding whey ; two cis- terns, a wooden one and a tin one, suitable for the manufacture of cheese ; presses ; tub for hot water ; arid conductor for carrying the whey to the reser- voir. My milking-barn or shed a a is 25 feet by 75. It has swing-gates on the sides, and is 6 feet in the rear of the two buildings referred to, which makes it very easy of access for the milkers. It also makes a division in my cattle-yard, and affords a fine large loft for storing hay or corn fodder." Where possible, the cheese-dairy should be placed on a higher level than that of the piggery or cow-house, so that the whey may be carried easily down by con- ductors to reservoirs placed in these houses, from which it may be taken as required. 1773. American Piggery. In the western states of America, where hundreds of pigs are kept, the plan of sty-feeding and rearing is not adopted, as not being at all remunerative. They are allowed, therefore, to roam about. In the cold nights of winter, while endeavouring to have as much heat as possible, 524 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 985. Fig. 9S6. they crowd much together in what are called their nests, and numbers of the weaker ones are smothered by the strong. In Mr Downing's work, a plan of what is there termed a " sifting-shed " is given, which is likely to prevent much of the loss in- curred through this. We here append it in fig. 985. Let a be the lightest and warmest place, having entrances e e only large enough to admit the smallest hogs. Let c be another shed, hav- FLAN OF "8iFTiv,-o"pio3ERT. i n g doors ff through which the middle-sized hogs can pass. The largest ones will take up their abode in b. This should face to the south. The sifting of the hogs into their respective sties is done in this way : shut the doors ff, and the smallest will go into a ; then shut the doors e e, and the middle-sized will go into c when the doors ff are opened. 1774. American Poultry-houses. In fig. 986 we give ground-plan of an American poultry- house : a b doors, c c stairs to upper floor, d enclosed space covered in at top with roosting- bars fixed on the inclined pieces c c, shown in section, fig. 987. In fig. 987 a is the door corresponding to a in fig. 986 ; b b stairs, at the back of which a series of boxes or nests are placed, into which the birds pass through cir- cular doors made in the "riser" of each step, two nests being made to each riser; d d a. series of nests rising one above another, with resting platforms in front of each ; e e e venti- lating windows. In fig. 988 we give section of the nests behind the stairs : a a a the treads, b b b the risers in which the entrance holes are made, c c c the bodies of the nests, d d d back doors to them. aaouNi>-PLAW or AMKRIIAN POULTRY-HOUSE SCALE, J INCH TO THX FOOT. Fig. 987. Fig. 988. Sr bl i ICT1ON OF AMERICAN POULTRY-HOC SCALE IN F10. 938. FRENCH STEADING. 525 1775. SECTION THIRD French Steading. In fig. 989 we give the plan of the imperial farm-steading at Yincennes, near Paris : a the house of the LAN OF THE IMPERIAL FAKM-STEADISO farm-bailiff, b the dairy, c the dairy wash-house, d the coach-house, e wood- house, f infirmary, g stable, h harness-room, i implements, j machine-house, k living-room for farm-labourers, I piggeries, with yard ; m box for lambs, with yard ; n straw-cutting room, o place for horse-gear, outside building, for working the straw-cutter placed at p ; q the shed for calves, with yard ; r r cow-house for 50 cows ; s sheep-shed, with yard ; t lamb and ewe shed, with yards. The scale of this drawing is O m - 0012 to the metre. The French metre is 39.371 inches, or rather over 3 feet 3 inches. For the above drawing we are indebted to the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique (Paris), for May 5, I860 a valu- able work, and very ably conducted by M. Barral. 526 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. SUBDIVISION FOURTH Estimates and Calculations of Artificers' Work of various kinds. 1776. The limits of the work prevent us from giving full descriptions of the methods adopted in practice for estimating the quantities of materials used in building. The subject is too elaborate to admit of this being done ; it will be sufficient for our purposes if we give in brief abstract form a selection of calcu- lations and statements, which will enable our readers to form a rough estimate, sufficiently accurate for ordinary ptirposes, of the quantities of materials required for any structure or part of a structure. The quantities being known, it will be an easy matter to ascertain from a tradesman the cost of supplying them, charged in the usual way. 1777. SECTION FIRST Diggers' and Excavators' work is estimated by the cubic yard of 27 feet, or a " single load." Taking the cost of digging and throwing out common soil to a depth not exceeding 6 feet at 5d. per yard cube, the cost of digging in gravel or clay will be 7d. A ton of excavated matter is equal to 24 cubic feet of sand, 17 cubic feet of clay, 18 cubic feet of ordinary earth or soil, 13 cubic feet of chalk. 1778. Well-Digging and Well-Steining with bricks is estimated by the foot in depth, the price varying according to the diameter. Thus, where the diameter is 3 feet, in clear of brickwork, and the price per foot in depth 13s., the price for a diameter of 6 feet will be 23s. 6d., or thereabouts. By multiplying the square of diameter of well, including brickwork, by '7854, the number of cubic feet of earth obtained in digging each foot of depth will be ascertained. By multiplying the square of the diameter of well by '7854, and dividing the quo- tient by 6, the number of gallons of water contained in each foot of depth will be ascertained. 1779. In Digging a Well 3 feet diameter in the clear, the quantity of earth removed for every foot of depth is 11 cubic feet; of 4 feet diameter, 17 cubic feet 17 in. ; of 5 feet, 20 cubic feet ; of 6 feet, 33 cubic feet 8 in. 1780. In Lining a Well with Brickwork (or steiriing it, as it is technically termed) of 3 feet diameter ^ brick thick, the number of bricks required for every foot in depth is 57 laid in mortar, 68 laid dry ; where the lining is 1 brick in thick- ness the number required is 126 in mortar, 154 dry. For a well 4 feet diameter, the lining ^ brick in thickness, the number of bricks for every foot will be 73 in mortar, 89 dry ; 1 brick thick, 159 in mortar, 194 dry. For 5 feet diameter, \ brick lining, 90 in mortar, 110 dry ; 1 brick lining, 192 in mortar, 234 dry. For 6 feet diameter, \ brick lining, 107 in mortar, 130 dry ; 1 brick lining, 226 in mortar, 276 dry. 1781. The number of Imperial Gallons contained in Wells of the following Diameter for each Foot of Depth 3 feet diameter, 44 gallons; 4 feet, 78 ; 5 feet, 122 ; 6 feet, 176. 1782. SECTION SECOND. In estimating the quantity of brickwork, ascertain by calculation the number of cubic feet in the wall ; Reduce the number of these cubic feet so ascertained to the standard of brick and half, by multiply- ing them by 8 and dividing by 9 ; or find the area of the face of wall in feet, multiply the number of feet thus found by the number of half- bricks in the thickness of the wall ; divide the result by 3, which will give the superficial feet ; divide the amount by 272, and the result is the number of " rods " of the standard thickness. ESTIMATES OF WORK. 527 1783. In one foot superficial of wall, ^ brick in thickness, there will be five bricks; 1 brick in thickness, 11 bricks; H brick thick, 16 bricks; 2 bricks thick, 23 bricks. In three feet superficial, ^ brick thick, there will be 16 bricks ; 1 brick thick, 33 ; 1^- thick, 49 ; 2 bricks, 6G. In five feet superficial, \ brick thick, 27 bricks; 1 thick, 55; 1^ thick, 82; 2 thick, 110. In ten feet super- ficial, ^ thick, 55 ; 1, 110 ; 1^, 165 ; 2, 220 bricks. In twenty feet superficial, i brick thick, 110 ; 1, 22 ; 1^, 330 ; 2, 441. In thirty feet superficial, |, 165 ; 1, 330; 1J, 496; 2, 661. In fifty feet superficial, 1 brick thick, 275 bricks; 1, 551 ; l|, 827 ; 2, 1102. In seventy feet superficial, , 386 ; 1, 772 ; 1|, 1158; 2, 1544. In ninety feet superficial, , 496; 1, 992 ; H, 4488; 2, 1985. In one hundred feet superficial, |, 551; 1, 1102; 1-|-, 1654; 2, 2205. 1784. One rod of brickwork brick and half standard will take, allowing for waste, 4500 bricks of the usual dimensions, 8f- inches long, 4^ broad, and 2| thick. 1785. The weight of 1000 bricks of above dimensions may be taken at 2^ tons. 1786. The weight of 1 rod of reduced brickwork, 272 feet superficial, stand- ard thickness of brick and half, will be about 13 tons ; this includes mortar and cement. 1787. Facings in brickwork estimated by the " foot superficial." 1788. Rubbed and Gauged Work in Mortar (brickwork) estimated by the "foot run ; " do. in putty, by the "foot superficial." 1789. Brick Drains estimated by the " foot run." 1790. Brick-Nogging by the " yard superficial." To make 1 yard of brick- nogging it will take 30 bricks on edge, and 45 on the flat. 1791. Brick-Paving by the square yard. 36 paving-bricks laid flat will be required to pave 1 yard surface ; 82 on the edge. The size of a paving-tile is 9 inches long, 4| broad, If thick ; the weight of each about 3 Ib. 13 ounces. It will take 36 stock-bricks laid flat, and 52 on edge, to pave a yard. 9 tiles 1 foot square, and 13 10-inch tiles go to the yard. Of Dutch clinkers laid on edge 140 will be required to pave a yard, 125 laid flat, 136 laid herring-bone fashion. The size of a Dutch clinker is 6|- inches long, 3 inches wide, and 1^ inch thick, its weight about 1 Ib. The size of a "foot paving-tile " is 11J inches square, its thickness 1^ inches, and weight 12- Ib. The size of a "ten-inch paving- tile " is 9|- inches square, its thickness 1 inch, and its weight 8| Ib. 1792. SECTION THIRD Stone-Paving. 1 ton of 6-inch granite-paving will cover 4 yards superficial ; a ton of 9-inch granite, 2J yards ; a ton of pebble- paving, 4 to 4| yards; of ray stone, 5 to 5^ yards. 1793. Tiling is estimated by the " square " of 100 superficial feet. Laid to a 6-inch gauge, it will take 768 plain-tiles to " one square " of 100 feet ; to a 7-inch gauge, 655 ; to an 8-inch, 576. A " pan-tile " is 10| inches long, 6 wide, -f of an inch in thickness, and weighs 37 ounces. Laid to a gauge of 10 inches, it will take 180 pan- tiles to make a " square ;" to a gauge of 11 inches, 160; and to a gauge of 12 inches, 150 to the square. The length of a " pan-tile " is 13| inches, its breadth 9|, and thickness \ inch, its weight 75 ounces. 1794. Mortar. A " 2 load" is 7 cubic feet, or 21 striked bushels. To make it, there are required 9 bushels of lime, and 1 cubic yard of sand. A "hod " of mortar is equal to 1134 cubic inches, and will lay or set 100 bricks of the ordinary dimensions. The size of a hod is 9 inches by 9, and 14 inches long ; it will carry 20 bricks of the ordinary dimensions. One " rod " will take 184 528 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. hods of mortar. A "rod" of brickwork will take of mortar to set them, 1| cubic yards of chalk-lime and 3 " loads " of drift, or 1 cubic yard of stone-lime and 3 loads of sand. 1795. Cement. A barrel contains 5 bushels, and weighs 3 cwt. To cement a " rod " of brickwork 36 bushels are required. A yard square of 14-inch wall takes If bushels ; of 9-inch, 1 bushel ; of 4-inch wall, bushel. To " point " joints of a yard square, one-eighth of a bushel will be required. To plaster a yard square of plain surface in cement, about one-third of a bushel will be reqxured. 1796. Laths. Laths are of two kinds, "plain-tile" and "pan-tile." The "plain-tile " laths are 1^ inch wide and inch thick. When 5 feet long, 100 laths make one "bundle ;" when 4 feet long, 125; and when 3 feet long, 167 go to the " bundle : " 500 feet run of laths, of any length, also constitute a "bundle;" 30 bundles make 1 "load." One square of plain-tiling takes 1 bundle of laths, or 500 feet run ; or it will cover 4^ yards superficial, 500 nails being required. " Pan-tile " laths are 1| inch wide, 1 inch thick ; 12, 10 feet long each, make 1 " bundle." 1797. Plastering is estimated by the square foot or yard; mouldings by the lineal foot. To cover 75 yards of " render and set " in brickwork, 1 cubic yard of chalk-lime, 2 cubic yards of sand, and 3 bushels of hair, will be required. The same quantity will cover 70 yards on lath, or 65 yards of " plaster," or " render two coats and set " on brickwork, or 60 yards of the same on lath. 1798. Slating is estimated by the "square" of 100 superficial feet. The "duchess" slate measures 24 inches by 12; 1000 will cover 10 squares. The " countess " measures 20 inches by 10, and 1000 will cover 7 squares. The " ladies " slate measures 15 inches by 8, and 1000 will cover 4^ squares. The " doubles " measure 13 inches by 6, and 1000 will cover 2^ squares. A square of "duchess," "countess," or "ladies," will weigh about 6 cwt. " Westmoreland " slate varies in size, as also do " rags " and " queens." A superficial foot of slate-slab, 1 inch in thickness, will weigh about 14 Ib. Scotch blue slate is thicker, smaller, and stronger than the Welsh or Eng- lish : the Scotch grey slate is thicker than either, and not so strong as the Scotch blue. 1799. A square of " pan-tiling " will weigh about 7 cwt.; of " plain-tiling," double. A square of lead covering, weighing 7 Ib. to the superficial foot, will weigh 6J cwt. ; of " copper," 1 Ib. to the foot, 1 cwt. 1800. SECTION FOURTH. Carpentry and Joinery Work are estimated by the square foot or yard ; mouldings and fancy work, by the lineal or foot run. Large work, as flooring, boarding, &c., is estimated by the square of one hundred feet superficial. A "load" of timber is made up of '600 feet superficial of plank or deal 1 inch thick ; or 400 feet superficial, 1^- inch in thickness ; 300 feet superficial of 2 inch thickness; 240 feet superficial of 2^ inch thickness; 200 feet of 3 inch thick stuff; 170 feet of 3^ inch thickness ; 150 feet superficial of 4 inches in thickness. 40 cubic feet of " rough " and 50 of " square " timber make 1 load. 1801. Deals 12 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 2^ inches thick, contain each 1 foot 10 inches cube ; 120 of them make 4| loads of timber. Deals 12 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, measure each 2 feet 3 inches cube ; and 120 make 5f loads of timber. 120 deals make what is termed "one hundred." 1802. Weight of Timber. Of fir 64 cube feet make 1 ton ; of ash, 45 ; of beech, 51 ; of elm, 60 ; of oak, 39. TABLE OF CALCULATIONS. 529 1803. The following Tables will be found useful in calculating the quantity of timber in joists of floors, rafters in roof's, partitions, and roof trusses, &c., according to given scantling and space apart : 12 INCHES APART OR 11J INCHES APART. llj INCHES APART. 13 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE. Cube. Cube. PnV.0 In. In. Ft. In. In. In. Ft. In. In. In. Ft. In. >.- by 3 4 3 34 by 3 6 4 1 by 3 2 2 ... 4 5 8 84 ... 4 8 6 I ,. 4 2 8 2 ... f> 7 1 34 ... '5 10 8 1 ... 5 3 4 21... 6 8 ii 3?, ... 6 12 10 1 ... 6 4 21 ... 7 9 11 35 ... 7 15 1 ... 7 4 8 2] ... 8 11 4 34 ... 8 17 2 1 ... 8 5 4 24 ... ! 12 9 34 ... 9 19 4 1 ... 9 6 24 ... 10 14 2 34 ... 10 21 t> V 11 o<> o O.> ... 11 ^..J o Qi 19 91 10 UTT IXCHT" APART *j-> ... ^i tj \j llf INCHES APART. 2.iby 3 4 9 llg; INCHES APART. 2j ... 4 6 4 14 by 3 2 6 2j ... 5 7 11 3| by 3 6 8 !; ... 4 3 4 23 ... 6 9 (i 3^ ... 4 9 1 ; ; ... 5 4 2 21.:: 7 11 1 3|... 5 11 4 ll ... 6 5 23 ... 8 12 8 32 ... fi 12 (5 1; ... 7 5 10 2j . 9 14 3 3|... 7 14 8 1 ... 8 6 8 2| ... 10 15 10 3|... 8 l(j 10 l| ... 9 7 6 32 ... 9 19 ;?2 ... 10 21 2 11J INCHES APART. ;i2 ... 11 23 4 32 ... 12 25 (i 11J INCHES APART. 2J by 3 5 3 22 4 7 Hby 3 3 2$ ... 5 8 9 12 INCHES APART 11 ... 4 4 22 ... 6 10 6 OR ll ... 5 5 22 ... 7 12 3 16 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE. l.i ... 6 6 2 ... 8 14 11 .- 7 7 22 ... 9 15 9 4 by 4 8 11 ll ... 8 8 2f ... 10 17 fi 4 ... 5 11 2 li -. 9 9 4 ... (i 13 5 4 ... 7 15 8 12 INCHES APART 4 ... 8 17 11 11J INCHES APART. OR 15 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE. 4 ... 9 4 ... 10 20 2 22 5 13 by 3 3 6 3 by 3 3 ... 4 5 4 7 2 4 ... 11 4 ... 12 24 8 26 11 ll .. 4 4 8 3 ... 5 9 If ... 5 5 10 3 ... 6 10 10 ll ... 6 7 3 ... 7 12 8 l| ... 7 8 2 3 ... 8 14 6 ll ... 8 9 4 3 ... 9 16 4 ll ... 9 10 6 3 ... 10 18 2 12... 10 11 8 3 ... 11 3 ... 12 20 21 10 12 INCHES APART llf INCHES APART. OB 14 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE. 3i by 3 5 10 31 ... 4 7 10 2 by 3 3 9 3;.... 5 9 10 2 ... 4 5 3; ... 6 11 10 2 ... 5 6 3 3; ... 7 13 10 2 ... 6 7 6 3; ... 8 15 10 2 ... 7 8 9 3; ... 9 17 10 2O O 10 3 ... 10 19 10 2 ... 9 11 3 3; ... 11 21 10 2 ... 10 12 6 3| ... 12 23 10 2L 530 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Table of Calculations continued. 12 INCHES APART. 12 INCHES APART. 12 INCHES APART. Cube. In. In. Cube. Ft. In. In. In. Cube. Ft. In In. 3; In. by 3 Ft. In. 5 9 1; 1; 1 by 3 ... 4 ... 5 4 l| 2 5 by 3 2; ... 4 2 : ... 5 4 2; 5 7; 7 3; 3; 3; ... 4 ... 5 ... 6 7 9 9 9 11 9 1; . 6 4 Hi 2; ... 6 8 5; 3; ... 7 13 9 1 7 5 9 2| ... 7 9 10 3; ... 8 15 6 1; 8 6 7 2| ... 8 11 3; 3; ... 9 17 9 9 7 *; 2| ... 9 12 8; 3; ... 10 19 9 * " ~M 2| ... 10 14 1; 3; ... 11 21 9 3; I ... 12 23 9 12 INCHES APART. 12 INCHES APART. A 12 INCHES APART. 3.1 by 3 62 liby 3 2 11 4 7. i 4 ... 4 8 4 l 4 3 11 24 6 2. 3 ... 5 10 6 1^ ... 5 4 11 2 ..." 5 7 9 3 ... 6 12 8 1 ... 6 5 11 2 ... 6 9 4 3 ... 7 14 10 1 ... 7 6 11 2 7 10 11 3 ... 8 17 1 ... 8 7 11 2 ... 8 12 6. .. 3 ... 9 19 2 1 . 9 8 11 2 9 14 1 3 ... 10 21 4 2 ... 10 15 8. i 3 ... 11 23 6 3 19 9K R 12 INCHES APART. 12 INCHES APART. 12 INCHES APART. 1> by 3 4 3 4.1 4 6| 2fby 3 5 1 35 by 3 6 4i 8 81 l 5 5 8J 22 ... 4 6 9 34 ... 5 11 0| -V lj 6 6 10; 22 ... 5 8 6 32 ... 6 12 2J 7 8 22 ... 6 10 3 32... 7 14 4| 14 '" 8 9 2 22 ... 7 12 34... 8 16 6| 12 9 10 4 2f ... 8 13 9 3| ... 9 18 81 l| ... 10 11 e; 22 ... 10 15 6 17 3 ! 32 ... 10 32 ... H 20 10| 23 0.1 32 ... 12 25 2| 1804. The following are calculations of the cubical contents of timber in various roofs in a square of 100 feet : QUEKN-POST ROOF, Fig. 990. Tie-beam a, 10 in. by 5. Principals //and Straining-beam g, 9 in. by 5. Ft. In. Cube. Ft. In. 32 10 11 1 5 30 9 9 4 5 12 6 7 3 5 8 5 1 4 5 24 9 Queen-posts h h, 7 in. by 5. Struts i i, 5 in. by 5. Cubic feet in all. 15 feet 10 inches cube in 1 square. Area. Ft. In. 16 9 144 Feet superficial. CONTEXTS OF TIMBER IX ROOFS. 531 Ft. In. 27 10 4 28 9 4 7 12 Cube. Ft. In. 7 C 7 1 2 1 4 17 Kixa-FosT ROOF, Fig. 901. Tie-beam c c, 10 in. by 4. Principals //,//, 9 iu. by 4. King-post c c, 6 in. by 4. Struts # , fig. 384, p. 295. QUEEN-PosT (in carpentry). The vertical timbers in a roof-truss, in which the king-post is dis- pensed with in order to give a central space, as the timbers h h, fig. 407, p. 301. QUIRK (in joinery). The groove (.between a bead a and the solid wood /;, fig. 1015 ; in fig. 1016 is a " double quirk," round the bead a. 544 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 1015. Fig. 1016. DODBLB QUIRK IN JOINERY. QUOIN-STONES (in masonry). The stones placed at the corners of a wall to give an external finish ; they are usually of unequal lengths, but of equal height. See fig. 80, p. 93, and CORNERS. B RAFTERS (in carpentry). The inclined timbers of a roof: they are of three kinds, "principal rafters," asff, fig. 405, p. 301 ; "common raf- ters," as g g, fig. 405 ; and " hip-rafters," as a a, fig. 417, p. 305. RAGGLINGS (in carpentry). A term used in North- umberland to designate CEILING- JOISTS, which see. RAGGLINGS. A Scotch term for the groove made in the face of a wall to admit the side or top slates of a lean-to roof, for the sake of being water-tight. RAILS OF A DOOR (in joinery). See&g. 471, p. 318. REBATE (in joinery). The rectangular piece cut away from the edge of board, as e e, fig. 494, p. 323. REBATES or RYBETS (in masonry). A Scotch term equivalent to JAMBS, which see. RENDERED AND FLOATED (in plastering). This term is used to denote "three-coat work." REVEALS (in brickwork or masonry). The space in the sides of a door or window opening, which is comprised between the outside line of the wall and the outside face of window or door frame. RIB OF A ROOF (in carpentry). A provincial term for PURLIN, which see. RlDGE-PoLE or PIECE (in carpentry). The piece of timber which is placed at the apex of, and supported by, the king-post ; the office of which is to support the upper ends of the common rafters. In fig. 405, p. 301, m is the ridge-pole, against which the common rafters g g abut. RIGGIN. The Scotch term for the ridge-pole of a house. RISERS (in joinery). The vertical parts, as g ft, f e, fig. 457, p. 315, of stairs, the horizontal parts being termed " treads." ROAN (Scottice). The gutter of wood, zinc, lead, or iron, placed beneath the eaves of a roof to catch the rain-water. ROOFS (in carpentry). For varieties of roofs, see pars. 1193-9, pp. 297, 298, and Plate X. ROUGH-CAST (in plastering). A material used for finishing the outside of walls. The first coat is of lime-and-hair mortar, worked rough, with sometimes a second coat, worked smooth. On the surface of the first or second coat the "rough-cast" is put, this being composed of fine gravel mixed with lime and water. ROUGH-RENDERING. An operation in plaster- ing where the rough coat only is given. ROUGHING-IN. A term used in plastering to designate the first coat of "three-coat work." RUBBLE- WORK (in masonry). A walling built of rough stones not dressed, and laid with mortar, or built dry, as in " dry-stone dykes." RUNNERS (in carpentry). Lancashire name for single joists. S SAG (in carpentry). When a piece of timber, stretched from wall to wall, bends in the middle, it is said to " sag." SARKING (in joinery). A north of England term, equivalent to "boarding." SARKING. A Scotch term for boarding on a roof upon which to place blue slates, lead, or zinc. SASH-BARS (in joinery). The vertical and hori- zontal pieces in a window, as a, fig. 494, p. 323, which support the sheets of glass. They are sometimes termed astragals. See fig. 492, p. 322. SASH-DOOR (in joinery). See fig. 468, p. 317. SASH-WINDOW (in joinery). a a d e, fig. 1017, is termed the "casing" of the sash-frame; a a the pulley-piece, sustaining the pulleys over which the cords are strained which support the sash-weights b ; the inside lining and bead are at c ; outside lining, d ; back lining, e ; f archi- trave of shutter-box ; g g, g g folding shutters. Fig. 1017. SCARCEMENTS (in masonry or brickwork). A Scotch term, equivalent to FOOTINGS, which see. SCARF JOINT (in carpentry). See par. 1135, p. 281. GLOSSAEY. 545 SCOTIA. See MOULDINGS. SCROLL (in joinery). -The curved or spiral ter- mination to the handrail of a stair. Sc<. Ci'R- TAIL STEP. ScUNCHEON (in masonry).- A Scotch term for the inside jamb of a door or window, or the vertical end of a wall. SHED-ROOF. See PENT-ROOK. SHIPPEN. A Lancashire term signifying' the cow- house. See BY HE. SHUTTER-BOXING (in joinery).- -The boxing for enclosing the shutters of a sash-window. Sec. SASH-WINDOW. SKEW (in masonry). The term used in Scotland to designate the gable-coping of a roof. See GABLE-COPING. SKIRTINGS (in joinery). The boards surround- ing the room at the floor level. See fig. 5:21, p. 333. SNECK (in ironmongery). A Scotch term equi- valent to "latch." SKY-LIGHT. A window flush with the roof. SOFFET. A Scotch term for the inside upper panelling of a window. SOFFIT (in masonry). The under side of an arch, as d d, fig. 195, p. 219. SoLPlE-RooF (in carpentry). Lancashire name for SHED, LEAN-TO, or PENT- ROOF, which see. SOUGH. Lancashire name for drain. SPAN OF AN ARCH (in masonry). Its greatest width, as d d, fig. 195, p. '219. SPAN-ROOF (in carpentry). The simplest form of inclined roof of two rafters, as a a, d d, tig. 399, p. 299, without the "collar" e. SPAR (in carpentry). Lancashire name for " rafter." SPECIFICATIONS. The particular terms upon which a contract is agreed on. See COX- TRACT. SPLAYED-BRICK (in brickwork). A brick with a corner or corners bevelled off. SPRINGING-COUH.SES (in masonry). The stones, as d d, fig. 195, p. 219, from which the arch- stones c c spring. SPUR. See STRUTS. STAIRCASE, BRACKETTED. Stairs provided with an open well-hole. The steps are housed into notches made in the string-boards, beyond which project the ends of the treads and risers ; the ends of these being concealed with brackets, or ornamental pieces. STAIRCASE, DOG-LEGGED (in carpentry). In this the steps are supported at one end only by the wall, the other being carried by a piece of timber called the string-board. A dog-legged staircase has no well-hole. STAIRCASE, GEOMETRICAL. The well-hole is in the centre ; the steps are supported at one end by the wall, into which they are inserted, and at the other they are mutually supported by resting one upon another. STANDARDS (in carpentry). Scotch term used to designate the " studs," or upright timbers, as i I, fig. 383, p. 294. STINK-TRAP. See TRAPS. STOOTHINGS (in carpentry). A term used in Northumberland to designate the quartering of a wooden partition. STORM-WINDOWS. The Scotch term for a dormer window. STRAINING-SILL (in carpentry). A piece of tim- ber/, placed upon the upper side of the tie-beam I !>, fig. 403, p. 300, abutting against the struts e e. STISKTCHERS (in masonry and brickwork). Tho stones, as <> <>, fig. 151, p. 209, or the bricks, as a a ., tig. 185, p. 217, which extend longitu- dinally along the wall. STRUTS (in carpentry). The inclined pieces of timber 39 Chimney-cap, mouldings of, 947 bearer, 1487 guards, 1485 pieces, 823 tubes, ventilating, 1105 valves, 1487 Chrime's water-tap, 1491 Circular saw, iron bench, 1674 Cistern, rain-water, 1110 Cisterns, 692 stone, cement for, 557 water, cement for lining-, 556, 562 Clambs for twisting the wire at the eye for fences, 1571 Clark and Co.'s clays for cements, 539 Claw-hammer, 1659 Clayton's drain-tubes, 1019 Closets, water, 872, 1115, 1116 Closure, or closer, in brickwork, 958 Clothing of steam-pipes, 1728 Clump of trees within the meeting of dykes, 1049 Cocks and taps, water, 1491 Coffer-dam for foundation in water, 930 Coleshill steading, Berkshire, description of plan of, 243-256 Collar-beam, roof- truss for, 1201 holder, 1516 vice for wire fencing, 1574 Collinge's patent spherical hinge, 1478 Colour, fawn, for walls, 570 Columns, caps for, 1408-1415 iron, 1404-1416 foundation for cast-iron, 1405-1407 junction of iron girders with, 1408-1415 junction of, with wrought-iron beams. 1416 wrought-iron, for sheds, 1591 Combined furnace and caldron, 1683 work, iron with brick or concrete, 1628- 1640 iron with wood, slate, or zinc, 1641-1655 wood with stone and brick, 1621- 1627 Common farming, 6 description of plan of steading for, 145-164 Concrete, 534 and brick combined with iron, 1628- 1640 and wrought - iron beams, fireproof floors, 1629 Conder's mode of trussing solid beams, 1615 Conduits or culverts, form of, 1012 Conical roof, 1 1 96 truss for, 1229 Construction, combined, 1628 in brick, 951. of dry-stone dykes, 1023-1049 fireproof, 1628-1640 iron, 1386-1592 materials employed in, 489 practical, 922 practice in, 489 stone, 940 Construction, timber, 1133 Contracts, 910-921 Cooking-apparatus, Goddard's, 1498 stove, American cottage, 1499 Cooler for milk, 1117 Copper, peculiarities of, 652 Corbel, moulding of, 947 Corehouse detached byre, 1700 drain-tile work, plan of, 1749 Corn-barn, arrangement and construction of, 1327- 1332 door, 1330 floor, 1329,1332 roof of, 1327 windows of, 1327 Corn-chest for work-house stable, 1303 Corn drying, advantages of, 1716 Cornice, 1279 details of, for farmhouse, 1622 Corrugated iron-plate bridges, 1525 iron roofs, 1470 iron roof for 18-feet span, 1417 iron roof for span of 52 feet, 1472 iron sliding-gate, 1542 roof-tile, 1090 zinc joining, plates of, 1653 Cost of first-class farmhouses, 321-325 Cost, relative, of slate and zinc covered roofs, 1654 Cottage, American, cooking-stove, 1499 door, 463 out-houses, plans of, 459 windows, 464, 1261 Cottager's grate, Pierce's fire-lump, 1102 Cottages, doubl e detached sing! c-sto roved , of brick, specification adapted for, 888-891 single-storeyed detached, of brick, speci- fication adapted for, 878-8S7 two-storeyed detached, in brick, speci- fication adapted for, 892-903 of brick, specification adapted for, 879- 903 of stone, specifications adapted for, 904- 921 foundations for, 932 various plans of, 350-445 Cottam and Co.'s improved stable-fittings, 1514 Cottam's enamelled manger for stables, 1510 fittings for loose-boxes, 1515 hind-posts for stalls, 1509 iron drains for stables, 1504 iron traps for stables, 1506 travises for stables, 1509 Courses of brick walls, carrying up of, 960,961. Courts, fittings for, 1321 Covered dung-shed, 1377 stackyard, description of, 204, 205 steadings, plans of, in Plates XIII. and XIV. Cow-byre, isolated, 1700 Cow house or byre, 1304 " Cramps" for joining blocks of stone, 946 Crane, Dray's portable, 1695 derrick, 1694 quarry, 1693 Cranes, 1693-1695 Culverts, 100.9 or conduits, form of, 1012 egg-shaped, 1013 Curb-roof, or mansard, 1221 Curved rib-roof, truss for, 1225 Dames' method of preserving stones, ,508 Dairy, cheese, buildings, American, 1772 isolated, 1701 farming, 7 550 INDEX. Dairy-fanning, large, description of plan of stead- ing for, 96-107 . . .. small, description of plan of stead- ing for, 108-120 Dam or weir, construction of, 1003 used in Italian irrigation, 1007 Dams, 1002, 1003 Deafening, 861 Dean's hollow bricks, 9/4 Dearn's hollow brick wall, 968 Decoration, architectural, materials for, 519 Derrick crane, 1694 Detached erections, 1699-1714 byre at Corehouse, 1700 dairy, 1701 poultry-houses, 1707 pigeon-houses, 1710 rabbitry, 1711 piggery, 1712 slaughter-house, 1714 Details for iron foot-bridge, 1521,1522 of Ainger's trussed beam, 1611 of cornice for farmhouse, 1622 of corrugated iron-roof for span of 52 feet, 1472 of double iron-roof for wide spans, 1429 of iron-roof for 18-feet span, 1417 of iron-roof for 25-feet span, 1431-1437 of iron-roof for 30-feet span, 1439-1447 of iron-roof for horse-walk of thresbing- mill, 1460-1463 of iron-roof , with zinc covering, 1647-1652 of king- post trussed beam, 1607 of queen-post trussed beam, 1607 of roof, for octagonal shed, 1590 of sliding-gate, 1543 of stonework of farmhouse, 947-950 of trussed beam, 1619 of trussed beam for sheds, 1589 of windows of farmhouses, 1266-1277 Diggers' and excavators' work, estimating, 1777- 1781 Dimensions of iron beams or girders, for various spans, 1401, 1402 of iron laths for roofs, 1645 of liquid-manure tank, 1068 of parts of iron-roofsof various spans, 1448-1457 Distemper, painting in, 577 Door of corn-barn, 1330 bead butt and flush panel, 1253 bottom rail of, 1252 cottage, 463 circular headed, 1250 folding, 1257 for calf s crib, 1319 for pigsty, 1324 four and six panel, 1252 framed, and braced, 1250 Gothic, 1255 ledged, 1248 middle rail of a, 1252 mun tins of a, 1252 panels of a, 1253 panels of, for a farmhouse, 1254 rails of a, 1252 raised eight-panel, 1256. raised panel, 1256 sash, 1251 sliding, 1258 stiles of, 1252 stops for the prevention of draughts, 1259 sunk panel, 1253 Doors, 704, 869 for farm-cottages, 463, 464 ...'.... framed, Iii5'2 Doors, ledged and braced, 1249 Dormer window, elevation of, 1231 windows, truss for, 1231 Double-action pump, 168C Double and single stalls in byres, comparative advantages of, 1308 Doulton's patent junction and invert block for drains, 1015 ventilating chimney-tube, 1105 Dowels for joining blocks of stone, 945 Downing* s durable paint, 584 Drainage pavement-bricks, 1118 Drain -tile kiln, 1749 tubes, cement for, 559 tubes, lidded, 1020-1022 Drains, 1009 bedding of the tubes of, 1016 fall of, 1017 house, various forms of, 1019 liquid-manure, 1018 invert block and junction blocks for, 1015 for roads, 1052 segmental bricks for, 1 015 Dray's portable crane, 1695 vertical saw frame, 16/3 Drilling or boring machine, 1682 braces, 1664- 166h' Drip-stone, mouldings of, 948 Drumkilbo steading, Forfarshire, description of plan of, 217-233 Drying, principles of, 1723 Drying of grain, 1731-1743 by Archimedean screw, 1735 rooms and machines for, 1716 in the sheaf or bulk, 1722 by tile-kiln, 1732 house, heating apparatus for, 1724 houses, description of substances to be dried in, 1727 scale for calculating the surfaces of hot-water pipes for, 1J25 steam-pipes for, 1727 ventilation of, 1724 machines and kilns, 1715-1751 of sheaves in the boiler-house, 1729 sheds, Hands' patent, 1730 Dry-stone dyke, expedients to increase height of, 1043 dykes, construction of, 1023-1049 Dunghill, tank for the waste urine from a, 1080 Dung-shed, covered, 1377 Dunn's lifting screw-jack, 1672 Dutch barn, 1756 Dykes, clump of trees formed in the meeting of four, 1049 dry-stone, construction of, 1023-1049 Earthenware staircase, 1098 Elevation of belvidere of farmhouse, 1238 of wooden bracket, 1238 of Carrett's steam-pump and portable steam-engine, 1691 of cottages, 384, 386, 388, 390, 391, 399, 403, 404, 410, 414, 417, 421, 427, 439 of dormer window, 1231 of farmhouses, 305, 310, 316, 330, 334, 338, 342, 347 front of farmhouses in Plate XVIII. of gables of steadings, 276-280 of stone finials, 947 of detached pigeon-house, 1710 of machine-house in Flemish farm, 1760 of poultry-house, 1707 Embankment for a small rivulet, 977-980 for low grounds on river-sides, 981-985 INDEX. 551 Embankments, 975 Farm-cottages, doors and windows of, 463, 464 principles of construction of, 976 double single-storeyed, of two river, gutter's method of forming, different sizes, plans of, 423, 424 986,987 double two-storeyed, of two dif- sea, 993-1001 ferent sizes, plans of, 425-430 Enamelled manger for stables, 1510 double two-storeyed, plans of, slate, 518. 411-422 Enlarged view of part of back elevation of farm- for large and small families, 376, house, 319 377 of windows in part of end cleva- importance of providing good ac- tion of farmhouse, 319 commodation in, 350-372 of door and windows of part of out-houses of, 459-462 front elevation of farmhouse. 318 single-roomed and single-storey- of bay window of farmhouse, 1268 ed, plan of, 378, 379 Endless band saw, 1675 two-roomed and single-storeyed, Engine, fire, portable, 1685 plan of, 381, 382 English bond for brick walls, 953 Farm, gas apparatus for, Porter's, 1696 Erections and apparatus, useful, 1683 hand-pump, 1687 detached, 1699-1714 Farmhouse of brick, specification adapted for, Errors prevalent in designing farm-buildings, 16 756-824 connected with brick-paving, 1791 detail of cornice of, 1622 Estimates and calculations of artificers' work. 1776 cheese-room, 296 connected with brick- first-class, cost of, 321-325 work, 17S2-1791 enlarged details of, 317-319 connected with carpentry-work, 1800 plans of, 301-316 cement, 1795 kitchen, 287 laths, 1796 position of, in relation to the stead- mortar, 1794 ing, 282 plastering, 1797 remarks on accommodation of, 348 slating, 1798 remarks on the accommodation of, stone-paving, 1792 in relation to the size of the farm, tiling, 1793 349 with well-digging and second-class, plans of, 326-330 steining, 1778 site of, 283-285 of diggers' and excavators' work, 1777- of stone, specification adapted for, 1781 825-847 Ewart's fittings for cattle-boxes, 1314 of stone, specification for, 849-877 Excavators' and diggers' work, 1777-1781 third-class, plans of, 331-347 Excavations for roads, 1053 working part of, 286-300 Excavator, specification of duties to be performed Farmhouses, details of stonework of, 947-950 by, in building farm structures, 657, 684,736, windows for, 1266-1277 757, 826, 850, 880, 893, 905 plans of, 281 principles of arrangement of, 286 Facing of brick walls, 959 Farm-labourers, classes of, 373-375 Fairbairn's fireproof flooring, with wrought-iron Farm, proportion of power and accommodation for beams, 1630 size of, 470-473 method of constructing fireproof roads, 1050-1059 flooring, 1628 Farm-steading, American, 1770 mixture of cast-iron, 640 Belgian, 1756-1761 remarks on Parisian modes of fire- imperial, at Viucennes, France, proof construction, 1638 1775 Fanners for smith's forge, 1663 Farming of carse-land, 4 Farm-buildings, errors prevalent in the design- causes of diversities of, 9 ing of, 16 common, 6 foreign, 1756 dairy, 7 for Western States of America, different kinds of, 2 1771 incidents which modify, 15 Marshall's American, 1770 mixed, 8 Farm-cottage, double, detached, 400 modifications of the different kinds of, 14 double, single-storeyed, plans of, pastoral, 3 401-410 cattle, description of plan of five -roomed and two-storeyed, steading for, 38-52 plans of, 396-399 sheep, 53 five-roomed, single-storeyed, plan state of, in middle ages in Scotland, 474- of, 387-389 488 four-roomed and single-storeyed, suburbial, 5 plan of, 383 Fastening for stair-rods, 1482 remarks on arranging accommo- Fa wn-colour for walls, 570 dation of, to the size of family, Feeding-passages at heads of stable stalls, 1286, 393-395 1287 three-roomed and single-storeyed, troughs benches, 688, 702 plan of, 385 Felt, asphalted, for roof covering, 1092 Farm-cottages, plans of, 350 Fence foot-gate, 1541 composite, plans of, 437-445 sheep, machine for making, 1677 defective, plans suggesting im- wires, 1551-1563 provements in, 431-436 Fences, wire, 1544-1576 INDEX. Fences, wire, fitting up of, 1574-1576 Fenn's boring or drilling machines, 1682 lathe, 1681 ratchet brace, 1666 Ferguson's improved ventilator for stables, &c., 19Q1 LitaO Field, common, gate, 1358 gate, hanging-post for, 1365 of iron, 1533 of iron tension, 1534 of angle-iron, 1536 Filter, carbon, 1112 Finial, stone, mouldings of, 947 Fireclay hearth, 1103 Fire-engine, portable, 1685 lump, cottager's, grate, 1102 proof construction, 1628-1641 Fox's method, 1629 Bunnett's system of, 1640 Cheyne's system of, 1639 proof flooring, Fairbairn's method, 1628 with wrought-iron beams, 1630 proof floors and ceilings on Roberts' hollow bricks, 970 Lord's system of making, 1635 Mausne^s system of making, 1634 Parisian methods of making, 1631-1638 walls of frame-houses, 1 375 Firing of drain-tile kilns, 1732 Fitting up of wire- fences, 1564-1576 Fittings, Brace's improved stable, 1511 for cattle-boxes, 1315 Cottam's improved stable, 1514 for courts, 1321 ..., iron, of the farmhouse and cottages, 1474-1502 iron, of the steading, 1503-1518 for loose-boxes, 1515 for pigsty, 1517 of the workshop, 1656-1682 Fixed window, 1260 Flat arch and lintel in brick walls, 962 roof, truss for, 1219, 1220 Flemish barn, 1756 Flemish bond in brickwork, 953 farm-steading, 1757-1761 liquid-manure tanks, 1081 Floor of asphalt, 1088 double, 1176 double-framed, 1176 of corn-barn, 1329-1332 single, 1176 Flooring, fireproof, Fairbairn's method, 1628 joists, good and bad method of setting of, in brick walls, 961 joists, trimming, 1178 Mr G wilt's remarks on, 11 82 Floors, fireproof, in hollow bricks, 970 Lord's system of making fireproof, 1635 Mausnd's system of making fireproof, 1634 Parisian methods of making fireproof, 1631-1638 timber, 1176-1182 Flue, ventilating and smoke, 1101-1105 Foot-base, 873 bridge, with cast-iron beam, 1520 gate for fence, 1541 Footings or foundations in brick, 951, 952 stone, 935, 936 Forbes" s pavement-bricks, 1118 Foreign farm -build ings, 1756 Forge, fanners for smith's, 1663 Forge, with fanners, 1603 Foundation, coffer-dam for, in water, 930 for cottages, 932 of dry-stone dykes, 1029 Foundations, 922 for cast-iron Columns, 1405-1407 in compact clayey soils, 924 in sand, 925, 926 in soils of a yielding character, 927 inverted arches for, 939 points to be attended to in making, 922-939 on rock, 931 in water, 928-930 Fox's method of fireproof construction, 1629 Frame-house, construction of, 1374 houses, fireproof walls of, 1375 walls of, Swedish mode of form- ing, 1374 saw, vertical, 1673 Framed doors, 1252 and braced door, 1250 Framing, " balloon," for timber houses, 1378 wooden, iron shoes for, 1599-1606 French casement window, 1263 steading at Vincennes, France, 1775 windows, fastening for, 1481 Fresh air, iron valves for admitting to stables, 1507 Furnace and caldron, combined portable, 1683 Furnaces, heating of buildings by, 1720 Gables suggested for steadings, 276-280 Gangway from stackyard to upper barn, 1332 Garrood's adjustable hay-rack, 1512 Gas apparatus, 1096-1698 Bridges, Aubury, & Co.'s, 1698 for farm use, Porter's, 1696 Gas regulator, Hart's, 1489 regulators, 1488 stove, Rickett's, 1501 Gate, braced iron, 1538 common field, 1358 field, of angle-iron, 1536 foot, for fence, 1541 for centre of bridge, 1372 iron field, 1533 rectangular, with diagonal strut, 1355 sliding, of corrugated iron, 1542 suspended or hanging, 1371 tension iron, 1534 trussed, Kil tnorey, 1 359 wooden, for the approach of a farmhouse, 1362 wrought-iron side, 1540 Gates, 706, 1354-1372 iron, 1531-1543 General conditions of a specification adapted for a steading of brick, 718-736 of stone, 710-716 Girder, cast-iron, for sheds, 1589 cast-iron shoe for receiving end of, 1599 open or trussed beam, for sheds, 1589 Girders, calculations connected with iron, 1807 iron, junction of, with columns, 1408-1415 wood, iron trussing for, 1607-1620 Glass cement for joining, 560 Glazier, specification of duties to be performed by the, in the erection of farm-buildings, 679, 682, 755, 820, 876, 901 Glossary of technical terms used in artificers' work," 1812 Glover Brothers' iron traps for stables, 1506 Goddard's cooking-apparatus, 1498 Gothic door, 1255 or high-pitched roof, trusses for, 1222- 1224 IXDEX. 553 Grain crops in the steading, accommodation for, Horse-pond, making of a, 1033 1325 Horses or tressels for the joiner's shop, 1G58 drying of, 1731-1743 Hot-air seasoning; of timber, (513 drying 1 by Archimedean screw. 1735 Hot water, heating of buildings by, 1721 drying rooms and machines, 17-16 pipes for drying-houses, rule for cal- drying in the sheaf or bulk, 1722 dilating surface of, 1725 drying tile-kiln, 1732 supply, principles of, 1721 tanks for the preservation of, 1744 House drains, various forms of, 1019 Granary windows, 1333 drying heating apparatus, 1724 Granite, 4!)0 frame, construction of, 1374 Grate, cottager's fire-lump, 1102 Houses for calves, 1317-131!) stove, fire-lump, 1103 drying, ventilation of, 1724 Grates, 824, 1099 pigeon, 1710 kitchen, ranges, and stoves, 1497-1502 poultry, 1707-1709 Grating, ornamental, for ventilator, 1105 American, 1774 Gratings for court drains, 1505 timber, and sheds, 1373-1385 Greenstone, 492 Hurdles, wrought-iron, 1577, 1581 Greenwood's door-stops for the prevention of Hydrant, Wheatcroft and Smith's, 1529 draughts, 1259 Hydrants, bridges, sluice-valves, 1519-1530 Grindstone, 1660 Hydraulic cement, 537 Groin and dam for protecting a river side, 1008 ram, 1689 Grooved bricks, 971 Ground, choice and preparation of, for founda- Ibbotson &; Co.'s grindstone, 1660 tions, 923-933 ratchet brace, 1665 Grout, 946 lifting screw-jack, 1672 Guards, chimney, 1485 screw stock, 1668 Gutta-percha for architectural decoration, 519 India-rubber, vulcanised, for architectural decor- Gutters cut out of solid wood, 1237 ation, 519 for iron roofs, 1464-1469 Inverquharity steading, Forfarshire, description iron, for closed surface-drains in stables, of plan of, 264-274 1504 Inverted arches for foundations, 939 wooden, 1232-1237 Iron bars, used as tension-rods for roof-trusses, Gutter-tile, Beadon's, 1091 weight of 1 foot lengths, 1809 Guynne's portable fire-engine, 1685 beam, best section of, 1386 Gwilt's remarks on flooring, 1182 beams, 1386-1403 filling in spaces between, 1388 Halley's lifting-jack, 1672 fixing of cross girders to, 1390-1392 Hammer, claw, 1659 or girders, dimensions of, for various riveting, 1669 sizes, 1401, 1402 Hand-pump, 1688 placing of binding-joists upon, 1389 Hands' patent brick-kilns, 1747 for span of 18 to 20 feet, 1387 drying-sheds, 1730 wrought, to prevent deflection of, Hanging-post of a field- gate, 1365 1808 posts, fixing of, 1366-1369 boring- bits, 1667 Harness and saddle bracket, 1516 cast, classes of, 632-639 pins, 1299 Fairbairn's mixture of, 640 Hart's gas regulator, 1489 hot and cold blast, 642 Hay-house, 1302 malleable, <>45 Hay-rack, Garrood's adjustable, 1512 relative values of Scotch and English, 644 position of, in stalls, 1282 castings, precautions to be adopted in mak- Hearth, fireclay, 1103 ing, 643 Heating apparatus for drying-house, 1724 columns, 1404-1416 of apartments, 1099-1104 combined with brick or concrete, 1628-1640 of buildings, 1719 wood, 1593-1620 by furnaces, 1720 wood, slate, or zinc, 1641- by hot water, 1721 1655 by steam, 1721 construction, 1386-1592 Hexagonal paving-tiles, 1087 corrugated, roofs, 1470 roof for thrashing-mill, 1229 drilling braces, 16:54-1666 High-pitched roofs, trusses for, 1222-1224 fittings of the farmhouse and cottage, 1474- Hind-posts, iron, for stalls in stables, 1509 1502 Hinge for self-shutting door, 1478 ' of the steading, 1503-1518 spherical, Collinge's patent, 1478 foot-bridge, details of, 1521, 1522 Hinges, 1478 gates, 1531-1543 butt, 1478 gutters for closed surface drains in stables, Hip-rafter for roof, 1211 1504 Hipped-roof, 1194 laths for roofs, dimensions of, 1645 plan of, 1 21 3 preservation of, 649-651 Hollow-brick, 11-inch wall, 968 rolled beam, 1399 14-inch wall, 968 roof, double, for wide spans, 1427 Norton & Borrie's, 973 for 18-fcet span, 1417 wall, Dearn's, 968 for 25-fcet span, 1430 bricks, Dean's, 974 for 30-feet span, 1438 fireproof floors and ceilings in, 970 for horse-walk of thrashing-mill, 1458 Holman's double-action pump, 1686 slate-covering for, 1643 Hoop-iron bond for brick walls, 956, 957 with zinc covering, 1646 554 INDEX. Iron roof, wood covering for, 1642 roofs, 1417-1473 dimensions of parts of, for various spans, 144S-1457 gutters for, 1464-1469 sheds, 1586-1591 shoes for wooden framing, 1599-1606 sluice-valve and rack, 1530 Stirling's mixture of wrought and cast, 641 straps for wooden beams, 1593-1598 traps for stable, 1506 travises for stable stalls, 1509 trussing for wood girders, 1607-1620 varieties of, 631 ventilators, 1507 weight of bars, round and square, 1809 wrought, change of structure of, by vibra- tion, 648 varieties and peculiarities of, 646- 651 Ironmonger, specification of duties to be per- formed by, in the erection of farm-buildings. 672, 705, 714, 823, 824, 877 Isolated cow-byre, 1700 dairy, 1701 Isometrical elevation of Allen's American barn, 1768 of a covered stackyard, 205 perspective of a steading for mixed husbandry, in Plate IX. of steading at Coleshill, Berkshire, in Plate XV. of a carse farm-steading, Plate XXII. of a large dairy -farm,Plate XXIII. of a common farm-stead- ing, Plate XXIV. Jacks, lifting screw, 1672 Jamb, mouldings of, 947 Jenning's india-rubber tube water-tap, 1492 lavatory, 1114 sluice-cock, 1527 water-closet, 1116 Jobbing, 693, 708 Joggles for joining blocks of stone, 945 Johnstone's method of forming embankments in low grounds on river-sides, 981-985 Joiner, tools of the, 1656-1658 Joiner's bench, 1657 Joining of plates of corrugated zinc, 1653 of sheets of zinc, 1652 of wires for fences, 1570 Joints, fished, for timber, 1134-1136 for perpendicular timbers, 1137-1141 for timber at right angles, 1142-1149 for timbers at angles other than a right angle, 1154-1156 of timber, 1133-1168 of timber placed at angles to horizontal timbers, 1157-1168 scarf, for timber, 1134-1136 cast-iron shoe for receiving ends of, 1599 setting of flooring, on brick walls, 961 Joists, binding, 1180 bridging, 1180 bridle, 1178 calculations of quantity of timber in, 1803 ceiling, 1179 good and bad method of setting, in brick walls, 961 and sleepers, 697, 860 trimming, 1178 trussing of flooring, 1178 Keene's cement, 548 Keys or spanners of various forms, 1669 Kiln for drain-tiles, 1749 tile, for drying, 1732 Kilns, Hands' patent brick, 1747 drying machines and, 1715-1751 firing of, for drain- tiles, 1750 King-bolt, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1602 King-post truss for bridge, 1343 roof, 1207 trussed beam, 1607 Kitchen of farmhouse, 287 grates, ranges, and stoves, 1497-1502 lock, 1477 Kyan's process for preserving timber, 618 Kuhlmann's artificial stone, 517 method of preserving stone, 506 Labourers, farm, classes of, 373-375 Laminated rib-roof, 1227 Lancashire kitchen grate, 1497 Larch timber, 596-602 Latch, window, 1480 Latches, 705 Lathe, 1681 Lathing, 700, 866 Laths, estimates connected with, 1796 iron, for iron roofs, dimensions of, 1645 Lavatories and wash-basins, 1113, 1114 Laycock's fittings for cattle-boxes, 1315 Lead, peculiarities of, 653 surface covered by, at a given weight per foot, 1811 weight of, 1810 Lean-to roof, 1193-1199 truss for, 1199, 1200 Leather for architectural decoration, 519 Ledged door, 1248 and braced doors, 1249 Level, mason's, 1662 Lewis for raising blocks of stone, 944 Lidded drain tubes, 1020-1022 Lifting screw jacks, 1672 Limestones, 496, 539 Lintel and flat arch in brick walls, 962 Lintels for steadings, 696 Liquid-manure drains, 1018 pump, 1685 pumps for lifting, from tanks, 1077 tanks, 1065 Flemish, 1081 rationale of construction of, 1074 Lock, kitchen, 1477 mortise, 1477 press, 1477 rim, 1477 Locks, 1474-1478 and latches, 705 Looker's tubular ventilator, 1106 Loose-box in stable, 1301 Loose-boxes, fittings for, 1515 Lore's system of fireproof floors, 1635 Lowe's patent iron trap for sinks, 1495 M'Culloch and C'o.'s cottage window, 1261 Machine, boring or drilling, 16S2 mortising, tenoning, and boring, 1676 Machines, drying, and kilns, 1715-1751 of the workshop, 1673-1682 Macpherson's portable machine for making sheep- fences, 1677 Magnus's enamelled slate, 518 Manger, enamelled, for stables, 1510 in byre or cow-house, 1306 installs, 1282 INDEX. 555 Mansard or curb roof, 1221 Paper-hanger, specification of duties to be per- Mantelpieces, 875 formed by the, 809, 821 Manure, liquid, pump for, 16S5 Papier mache for architectural decoration, 519 tanks for, 10U5-10S1 Parian cement, 548 Marine cement, 552 Parisian methods of making fireproof floors, Marshall's American farm-buildings, 1770 1631-1638 Martin's cement, 548 . modes of fireproof construction, Mr Fair- Mason, specification of duties to be performed by, bairn's remarks on, 1038 in the building of farm structures, 004, Parker's cement, 540 684, 827, 850, !M>5 Pastoral farming, 3 tools of the, lb'01, 1062 farming for cattle, description of plan work, 084. of steading for, 138-52 Masonry, stone, classes of, 940-943 farming for cattle, with arable culture, Mason's level, 1062 02 plumb-line, 1602 farming for sheep, 53 trowel, 1062 farming for sheep, with arable culture, Materials, 709 72 employed in construction, 489 Partitions, 803, 1183-1191 for architectural decoration, 519 calculations of quantity of timber in, for road surface, 1051 1803 MausneTs system of making fireproof floors, 1034 trussed, 1191 Measurements, schedule of, for a farmhouse of Partition-tile, hollow, Stewart's, 974 stone, 848 Paul's method of preserving stone, 512 Medina cement, 540 Pavement-bricks, drainage, 1118 for farm structure, 554 Pavilion-roof, 1195 Memel timber, 592 Paving, 099 Metals, 630 brick, estimates and calculations con- Miles' wooden field-gate, with cast-iron heel-post, nccted with, 1791 1360 bricks, 1<)80 Milk cooler, 1117 stone, estimates connected with, 1792 Mixed farming, 8 Paving tiles, 1087 description of plan of steading Payne's process of preserving timber, 625 for, 105-183 Peake's terro-metallio paving- bricks, 1086 gauze wire-netting, 1583 Perspective view of American cooking-stove, 1499 Morphie steading, Kincardineshire, description of American side-hill barn, 1763 of plan of, 235-241 of asphalt caldron and grate, Mortar, 532, 852 1084 estimates connected with, 1794 of carbon filter, 1112 Smeaton's, 538 of a first-class farmhouse, Plate Mortise lock, 1477 XXV. Mortising, tenoning, and boring machine, 1670 of boring machine, 1682 Mouldings of corbel, chimney-cap, string-course, of Bridges and Anbury's gas ap- summer-stone, jamb, and finial, 947 paratus, 1098 of capping, stone-balcony front, stone of Bruce's stable stall, 1511 finial, window cornice, drip -stone, of Clayton's cored joint for string-course, 948 drain-tubes, 1019 of stone window cornice, chimney-cap, of collar holder, 1516 950 '. of combined caldron and furnace, varieties of. See Glossary 1083 Mullion of window, 1625 of Cooper's lidded drain-tubes Muntins of a door, 1252 and saddles, 1022 of corn-chest, 1303 Natural seasoning of timber, 611 of Doulton's lidded drain-tubes, Netting, wire, for sheep, 1582 1020 Norton and Borrie's earthenware staircase, 1098 of Doulton's ventilating chim- hollow bricks, 973 ney-tubo, 1105 Norway and Petersburg timber, 591, 599 of drainage pavement - bricks, Notch-board of a stair, 1244 1118 of endless band saw frame, 1675 Oak timber, 605 of feeding-trough for cattle, 1321 Octagonal shed, 1590 of fire-engine, 1685 Oil painting, 579-584 of Forbes 's drainage pavement- Old English bond in brickwork, 953 bricks, 1118 Onstead, orsteading, or farmer}', 37 of Garrood's stable rack, 1512 Out-houses, cottage, plans of, 459-402 of hinges, 1478 plans of, for composite cottages, 402 of Holman's double-action pump, for double cottages, 461 1686 for single cottage, 400 of Ibbotson's grindstone, 1600 of Jenning's lavatory, 1114 Paint, durable, for outdoor work, 584, 589 of a lathe, 1081 Painter, specification of duties to be performed of locks, 1477 by, in the erection of farm-buildings, 079, 754, of manger and rack, 1515 813, 887, 891, 900 of a mansion-house and offices, Painting in distemper, 577 Plate XXX. in oil, 579-584 of marble milk-cooler, 1117 Panels of doors, 1253 of Miles' wooden field-gate, 1360 556 INDEX. Perspective view of M'Pherson's sheep-fence-mak- Plan of Flemish barn, 1756 ing machine, 1677 of Flemish farm-buildings, 1758, 1759 of Muir's four points ventilator, of four-roomed and single-storeyed farm- 1508 cottage, 385 of Pierce's cottage fire-lump of heating apparatus for drying-house, 1724 grate, 1104 of hipped-roof, 1213 of a pigsty door, 1324 of Inverquharity steading, Forfarshire, de- of pigs' troughs, 1518 scription of, 264-274 of Powis's mortising, tenoning, of isolated cow-byre, 1700 and boring machine, 1676 of isolated dairies, 1701-1702 of a pulley-stile, 1480 of kitchen, &c., of a farmhouse, 287 of Ridgway's water-closet, 1115 of large dairy farm- steading, description of a second class farmhouse, of, 96-107 Plate XXVI. of machine-house in Flemish farm, 1760 of spring pulley for window- of Morphie steading, Kincardineshire, de- blind, 1481 scription of, 235-241 of stall with cast-iron heel-posts, of mullion of window of farmhouse in fig. 1288 67, 1625 of stone-dyke building, 1032 of pigeon-house, 1710 of straw-racks for cattle, 1322 of poultry-house, 1707 of a third-class farmhouse, Plate of rabbitry, 1711 XXVII. of river- bank requiring protection, 990 of Turner's iron bench for cir- of single-roomed and single-storeyed farm- cular saw, 1674 cottage, 378 of a two-storeyed double cottage, of small dairy farm-steading, description of, Plate XXVIII. 108-120 of a two-storeyed single cottage, of smithy, 1755 Plate XXIX. of stackyard, 206-210 of wash-hand basins and pedes- of steading at Britannia Farm, Belgium, 1761 tals, 1113 of steading at Southhill Park, Surrey, de- of a wooden ventilator, 1297 scription of, 213-216 of a wooden stathel, 1335 of steading for cattle pastoral farming, de- Pierce' s fire-lump stove-grate, 1102 scription of, 38-52 Pigeon -house, detached, 1710 of steading for cattle pastoral farming with Piggery, American sifting, 1773 arable culture, description of, 62-71 detached, 1712 of steading for common farming, description Pigsty door, 1324 of, 145-164 fittings, 1517 of steading for mixed husbandry, description Pig-troughs, 1518 of, 165-183 Pilbrow"s water waste preventer, 1494 of steading for sheep pastoral farming, with Piling for protecting river-banks, 992 arable culture, description of, 72-81 Pillars, cast-iron, for cattle-boxes in ironsheds, 1592 of steading for suburbial dairy fanning, de- Pins, harness, 1299 scription of, 131-144 Pipe, steam, curved valve, 1727 of steading for suburbial farming with roller for steam, 1727 arable culture, description of, 122-130 steam, expansion joint for, 1727 of two-roomed and single-storeyed farm-cot- valves for sluices, 1353 tage, 381 Pipes, steam, clothing of, 1728 of Warksteading, Northumberland, descrip- steam, for drying-houses, 1727 tion of, 257-262 Pise* walls, 1130, 1131 of Western States, American, farm-build- Plan of Allen's American Barn, 1768 ings, 1771 of American barn, 1766 Plans of bothies, 446-458 of American cheese-dairy buildings, 1772 of composite farm-cottages, 437-445 of American poultry-house, 1 774 of double single-storeyed farm - cottages, of American side-hill barn, 1762 401-410 of American sifting piggery, 1773 of double two-storeyed farm-cottages, 411- of Archimedean screw grain conveyer, 1741 422 of bay windows, 1269, 1727 of double two-storeyed farm-cottages of two of carpenter's shop, 1754 different sizes, 425-430 of carse farm-steading, description of, 82-94 of existing steadings, 212 of Coleshill steading, Berkshire, description of farm-cottages, 350 of, 243-256 of farmhouses, 281 of cheese-room of a farmhouse, 296 of first-class farmhouses, 301-325 of dam, 1004 of out-houses for composite farm-cottages, of detached piggery, 1712 462 of detached slaughter-house, 1714 of out-houses for double-cottages, 461 of double detached farm-cottage, 400 of out-houses for farm-cottages, 459 of drain-tile kiln at Corehouse, 1750 of out- houses for single-cottages, 460 of drain-tile work at Corehouse, 1750 of roofs of steadings, description of, 184- of Drumkilbo steading, Forfarshire, descrip- 203 tion of, 217-233 of second-class farmhouses, 326-330 of Dutch barn, 1756 of steadings based upon fixed principles, 1 of five-roomed and single-storeyed farm- of third-class farmhouses, 331-347 cottage, 387-389 suggesting improved arrangements in do- ...... of five-roomed and two-storeyed farm-cot- fective farm-cottages, 431-436 tage, 396 Plaster-work, 715 INDEX. 557 Plasterer, specification of duties to be performed Remarks on the arrangement of Drumkilbo by, in the erection of farm-buildings, (575, 715, steading, 234 752, 804, 884, 891, 898, 907 on the arrangement of Morphie stead- Plastering, 571-57*5 ing, 239-240 estimates connected with, 1796 on arranging the accommodation of Platform stairs, 1241 farm-cottage to size of family, 393-395 Plumber, specification of duties to be performed on the Coleshill steading, 256 by, in the erection of farm-buildings, (J74, 711, on farmhouse accommodation, 348 712, 815, 880, 891, 902, 907 on furniture for small cottages, 380 Plumb-line, mason's, 1(562 on Inverquharity steading, 275 Pools, watering, in fields, formed by dykes cross- on the importance of providing good ing in meeting, 1045-1048 accommodation in farm-cottages, 350- Pole-plate, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1605 372 Pond, making of, for horses, 1083 on the policy of adopting a covered Porch, truss for, 1204 steading, 242 Portable combined furnace and caldron, 16S3 on Wark steading, 262 crane, Dray's, 1695 Reservoir, water, embankment for, 1002 vice, 1671 Rickett's gas-stove, 1501 Porter's gas apparatus for farm use, 1696 Ridge and valley roof, 1198 Portland cement, 541 tiles, 1089 experiments on, 542, 544,547 Ridgway's water-closet, 1115 Portable fire-engine, 1685 Rim lock, 1477 Posts, intermediate, for wire-fences, 1549 Risers of a stair, 1239 Poultry-houses, 1707-1709 River-banks, protection of, by breakwaters, 989- American, 1774 991 Powis, James, and Co. '& mortising, tenoning, and tree, 990 boring machine, 1676 piling, 992 Practical construction, 922 Road surface, material for, 1051 Practice in construction, 489 Roads, construction of, on strong soils, 1054 Preservation of grain, tanks for, 1744 convex, 1(151 of iron, 649-651 drains for, 1052 of wood, 614 excavations for, 1053 Press lock, 1477 farm, 1050-1059 Presses, 870 Roberts' system of hollow brick walls, 969-971, Principles of arrangement of steadings, 1 1087 of arrangement of farmhouses, 286 Rolled iron beam, 1399 of drying, 1723 Roman cement, 540 of grain drying, 1733 Roman cement, experiments on, 545, 546 of hot-water supply, 1721 Roof, conical, 1196 Pulley, spring, for window-blinds, 1481 conical truss for, 1229 stile, window, 1479 corrugated iron, for span of 18 feet, 1417 Pump, double-action, 1686 52 feet, 1472 hand,- 1688 covering, asphalted felt for, 1092 liquid-manure, 1685 curb or mansard, 1221 steam, Carrett's, 1691 curved rib-truss for, 1225 Pumps for lifting liquid manure from tanks, 1077 for octagonal shed, 1590 Purlin, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1606 hexagonal, 1230 Puzzolano cement, 538 for thrashing-mill, 1229 hipped, 1194 Quantities, bills of, for a farmhouse of stone, 848 plan of, 1213 Quarry crane, 1693 iron, covering of wood for, 1642 Queen-bolt, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1604 double, for wide spans, 1427 Queen-post truss for bridge, 1343 for horse-walk of thrashing-mill, 1459 roof, 1208-1210 for 25-feet span, 1430 trussed beam, 1607 for 18-feet span, 1417 for 30-feet span, 1438 Rabbitry, 1711 slate covering for, 1644 Rack, straw, for sheds, 1323 king-post truss for, 1207 Racks, straw, for courts, 1322 laminated rib, 1227 Rafter, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1605 of corn-barn, 1327 Rails of a door, 1252 of stable for work-horse, 1289 Rain-water cistern, 1110 pavilion, 1195 Raised panel door, 1256 queen-post truss for, 1208-1210 Ram, hydraulic, 1689 ridge and lean-to, 1193 Ranges, grates, and stoves, 1497-1502 ridged, meeting at right angles, 1197 Ransome's artificial stone, 516 tiles, 1089 method of preserving stone, 510 truss for flat, 1219, 1220 Ratchet brace, Fenn's, 1666 for, with king-bolt, 1207 Ibbotson and Co.'s, 1665 trusses, 1199-1230 valve for admitting air, 1507 with queen bolts, 1438 Rawlinson's hollow brick, 1087 with hip-rafter, 1211 Regulators, gas, 1488 Roofing, 698, 862 Remarks on the accommodation of farmhouses in tiles, 530 relation to the size of the farm, 349 Roofs, 1192-1198 on the advantages of double cottages blue and grey slates for, 1093 over rows, 400 calculations of quantity of timber in, 1803 558 INDEX. Roofs, corrugated iron, 1470-1473 Gothic, 122 for thrashing-mills, 1229 iron, 1417-1473 iron, dimensions of parts of, for various spans, 1448-1458 iron, gutters for, 1464-1469 iron, with zinc, 1646 of steadings, description of plans of, 184-203, 251 relative cost of slate and zinc covered, 1654 ridge and valley, 1198 tables of scantlings of timber for various spans of, 1214 Rough-casting, 563-565 Rubber, india, tap, 1492 Rubblework in masonry, 942, 943, 946 Rule, general, applicable to all designs of farm- steadings, 17 for calculating surface of hot- water pipes for drying-houses, 1725 Saddle and harness-bracket, 1516 Sandstones, 493-495 Sands for building purposes, 533 Sash door, 1251 frame, Shaw's patent, 1265 Saw, circular, iron bench, 1674 endless band, 1675 frame, vertical, 1673 Scagliola, 551 Scantlings of timbers for floors of various spans, 1181 of timbers for various spans of roofs, 1214 Schedule of measurements for a farmhouse of stone, 848 Scotch fir timber, 597-599 Scotland, state of farming in the Middle Ages, 474-488 Screw, Archimedean, grain drying machine, 1735 frame for boring brace, 1664 keys or spanners, 1669 lifting-jack, 1672 stocks, 1668 ventilator, Chadwick's, 1485 Sea-embankments, 993-1001 Seal or binder for cattle, 1311 Seasoning of timber, 610 natural, 611 water, 612 hot-air, 613 Section of American poultry-house, 1774 of Archimedean screw grain - conveyer, 1741 of base of principal window of farmhouse, 1623 of base of bay window of farmhouse, 1626 of a self-acting sluice, 1351 of an improved cottage-window, 1261 of byre travis, manger, and stake, 1309 of cornice, base, of farmhouse, 1621 of dam, 1004 of detached slaughter-house, 171 4 of drain-tile kiln at Corehouse, 1750 of first-class farmhouses, 310, 316 of groin and dam for protecting a river- side, 1008 of Hands' drying-sheds, 1730 of heating apparatus for a drying-house, 1724 of Jennings's water-closet, 1116 of milk-house and cheese-room of a farm- house, 305 of moulds for pise" walls, 1131 Section of manger, and rack for cattle-boxes, 1315 of nests behind stairs in poultry -house, 1774 of pigeon-house, 1710 of platform and return stairs, 1242-1243 of portable combined furnace and caldron, 1683 of poultry-house, 1707 of river embankment, 981 of road in strong clay land, 1055 of stone trough for a byre, 1127 of through window-head of farmhouse,! 624 transverse, of 'Tudor farmhouse, 316 of wall, showing gutter with cantaliver, 1233 of window-head of bay window of farm- house, 1627 of wrought-iron columns for sheds, 1591 fire-proof flooring, 1632 vertical, of corn-barn, 1331 vertical of single-storeyed detached cot- tage, 392 vertical of slaughter-house, 1714 Segmental arch in brick wall, 966 Self-acting sluice, 1351 Semi-circular arch in brick wall, 966 Shaw's patent sash-frame, 1265 Sheaf, drying of grain in the, 1722 Sheaves, drying of, in the boiler-house, 1729 Shed, covered dung, 1377 octagonal, 1590 truss for roof of, 1647 Sheds and timber houses, 1373-1385 cast-iron girder for, 1589 drying, Hands' patent, 1730 iron, 1586-1591 sheep feeding, 1703 shelter, at the corner of four fields, 1376 trussed beam for, 1589 wrought-iron columns for, 1591 Sheep feeding-sheds, 1703 fence-making machine, 1677 pastoral farming, 53 with arable culture, de- scription of plan of steading for, 72-81 Sheep, wire-netting for, 1582 Shelter-sheds, 1376 Shelving, 871 Sheringham's ventilator, 1296, 1484 Shoe, cast-iron, for ends of struts, 1601 for king-bolt, 1602 for purlins, 1606 for rafter and pole-plate, 1605 for struts and queen-bolt, 1604 iron, for receiving end of girder, 1599 iron, for joists, wall-plates, 1599 Shoes, iron, for wooden framing, 1599-1606 Shop, carpenter's, plan of, 1754 Side-gate of wrought-iron, 1540 hill barn, American, 1762 Sienite, 491 Sifting piggery, American, 1773 Single and double stalls in byres, comparative advantages of, 1308 storeyed detached cottages of brick, speci- fication adapted for, 878-887 Sink, cast-iron, 1496 Sinking of wells, 1060 in loose sand, 1061 Site of farmhouse, 283-285 Site of steading, 19, 28, 29 particulars to be avoided in the choosing of, 26 Skirting, 707, 1279 Skylights, 713 Slate, blue, best for buildings, 529 INDEX. 559 Slate, blue, quarries of, 524 for shed covering', 1092 covering for iron roof, 1643 enamelled, 518 roof, cost of, 1654 Slates, blue and grey, for roofs, 10,04 grey, 526 quarries of, 528 sizes of, 525 Slater, specification of duties to bo performed by, in the erection of farm.-buiki.iugs, (JO'3, 711, 8S5, 891, 908 and plumber work, 711 Slating, estimates connected with, 1798 grey, cost of, 527 Slaughter-house, detached, 1714 Sleepers and joists, 697 Sliding door, 1258 door for stables, 1370 gate of corrugated iron, 1542 window, 1260 Sluice-cock, Brown and May's, 1528 cock, Jenning's, 1527 pipe valves, 1 353 self-acting, 1351 valve and rack, iron, 1530 valves, 1526 valves, hydrants, bridges, 1519-1530 Sluices, wooden, 1349-1352 Smeaton's mortar, 538 Smith, specification of duties to be performed by, in the erection of farm - buildings, 673, 753, 903 tools of the, 1663-1673 boring brace, 1664 '. ... forge, 1663 Smithy, plan of farm, 1755 Smoke and ventilating flue, 1101-1105 Soils, foundations in various classes of, 924-927 Sutter's method of forming river-embankments, 986, 987 Southhill Park, Surrey, steading, description of plan of, 213,216 Spanners or screw-keys, 1669 Specification adapted for a steading of brick, general conditions of, 718-736 adapted for a steading of brick, 717-755 adapted for a steading of stone, 683-716 of a steading of stone, general con- ditions of masonry, 694 general conditions of carpentry, 710 of farm-house adapted for brick, 756-824 of farmhouse, adapted for stone, 825-847, 849-877 Specifications for cottages of brick, 879-903 for cottages of stone, 904-909 items to be considered in the draw- ing up of, 657-682 of buildings, 656-909 of duties to be performed by vari- ous tradesmen in the erection of farm-buildings, as follows : Excavator, 657, 684, 736, 757, 826, 850, 880, 893, 905. Mason, 664, 684, 827, 850, 905. Bricklayer, 658, 662, 737, 760, 881, 889, 894. Carpenter and Joiner, 665, 669, 696, 741, 768, 858, 883, 890, 896, 906. Slater, 663, 711, 885, 891, 908. Smith, 673, 753, 903. Ironmonger, 672, 705, 714, 823, 824, 877. P lum- ber, 674, 711, 712, 815, 886, 891, 902, 907. Plasterer, 675, 715, 752, 804, 884, 891, 898, 909. Painter, 679, 754, 813, 887, 891, 900. Glazier, 679, 682, 755, 820, 876, 901. Paper- hanger, 821, 899. Belllumger, 822. Spelter, flee Zinc Spiral wire-work, 15S5 Stable fittings, Bruce' s improved, 1511 Cottam's improved, 1514 roof of work-horse, 1289 stalls, with feeding-pasages at the heads of, 1286, 1287 windows, 1298 work-horse, proper width of, 1280 Stables, &c., ventilation of, 1290-1297 sliding door for, li>70 work-horse, proper width of stalls in, 1281 Stackyard, 1334 covered, description of, 204, 205 plan of, 206-210 Staining of wood, 585 Stair, mode of laying out the steps in the notch- board of, 1245 rods, fastening for, 1482 treads and rises of, 1239 Staircase, earthenware, 1098 Stairs, 865, 1239-1246 balusters for, 1246 notch-board and string-board of, 1244 platform, 1241 template, for setting out steps of, 1245 Stall-collar, 1300 fittings for work-horse stables, 1285 in byres, width of, 1304 Stalls, double and single, in byres, comparative advantages of, 1308 for work-horse stable, with cast-iron heel- posts, 1288 iron hind-posts for stable, 1509 mode of supplying food to, in byre, 1307 of work-horse stables, proper width of, 1281 Stathels, 1335 Steading, (Joleshill, Berkshire, description of plan of, 243-256 covered, remarks on the policy of adopt- ing, 242 description of plan of, for carse farming, 82-94 description of plan of, for cattle pastoral farming, 38-52 description of plan of, for cattle pastoral farming with arable culture, 62-71 description of plan of, for common farm- ing, 145-164 description of plan of, for large dairy farming, 96-107 description of plan of, for mixed farm- ing, 165-183 description of plan of, for sheep pastoral farming with arable culture, 72-81 description of plan of, for small dairy farming, 108-120 description of plan of, for suburbial dairy farming, 131-144 description of plan of, for suburbial farming with arable culture, 122-130 Drumkilbo, Forfarshire, description of plan of, 217-233 fittings of, 1280 Inverquharity, Forfarshire, description of plan of, 264-274 iron fittings of, 1503-1518 lintels for, 696 Morphie, Kincardineshire, description of plan of, 235-241 of brick, specification adapted for, 717- 755 site of, 19, 28, 29 site of, particulars to be avoided in the choosing of, 26 560 INDEX. Steading, Southhill Park, Surrey, description of plan of, 213-216 Wark, Northumberland, description of plan of, 257-262 Steadings, arrangement of, determined by the position of straw, 31, 32 . bad arrangement of, loss sustained by, 35 Belgian, 1756-1761 existing, plans of, 212 gables suggested for, 276-280 general rule applicable to the design- ing of, 17 kind of building-stones to be employed in constructing, 503-505 plans of, based upon fixed principles, 1 principles of arrangement of, 1 roofs of, description of plans for, 184- 203 Steam, heating of buildings by, 1 721 pipes, clothing of, 1728 for drying-houses, 1727 pump, Carrett's, 1691 S tolls for pastoral sheep farming, 54-61 inside circular, with plantation, 59 with hay-stack and racks. 60 outside, affording shelter in all direction, 57 sheltered by plantation on every side, 61 simple forms, 56 Stench-traps, 1107-1109 Stephens' method of staining wood, 588 Stewart's hollow partition-tile, 974 Stile, window-pulley, 1479 Stiles of a door, 1252 Stirling's mixture of wrought and cast iron, 641 Stock, position of, with reference to the straw, 33 Stone and brick, wood combined with, 1621-1627 blocks of, "lewis" for raising, 944 construction, 940 footings, 934-936 masonry, classes of, 940-943 paving, estimates connected with, 1792 trough for byre, 1127 work of farmhouses, details of, 947-950 Stones, absorbent power and cohesiveness, 497 artificial, 515 classification of, 489 "dowels," "joggles," and "cramps," for joining blocks of, 945 kind of, to be used in constructing stead- ings, 503-505 position of, in sea-walls, 1008 preservation of, 506 preservation of, Kuhlmann's method, 506 Daiues' method, 508 Paul's method, 512 principles of, 514 Ransome's method, 510 Szerelmey's method, 513 table of qualities of, 497 their constructive qualities, 498-505 Stops, door, for the prevention of draughts, 1 259 Storey, upper, of steadings, 67, 77, 89, 103, 116, 126, 137, 160, 177, 251. See Upper Storey Stove, gas, 1501 grate, fire-lump, 1103 Stoves, kitchen-ranges and grates, 1497-1502 Straining -post for wire-fence, 1544-1548 screw and collar- vice combined, for wire-fences, 1575 screw for wire-fences, 1573 Strapping, 864 Straps, iron, for wooden beams, 1594-1598 Straw-barn, arrangement and construction of, 1326 position of, determines the arrangement of steadings, 31, 32 rack for sheds, 1323 racks for courts, 1322 reference of, to the position of stock, 33 String-board of a stair, 1244 course, mouldings of, 947, 948 Struts, 868 cast-iron shoe for receiving ends of, 1601- 1604 Stucco, 550, 566 Stuccoing, 564, 566, 569 Suburbia! dairy farming, description of plan of, steading for, 131-144 farming, 5 farming with arable culture, description of plan of steading for, 122-130 Summer-stone, moulding of, 947 Surface covered by a given weight of lead per foot, 1811 Suspended or hanging gate, 1371 Swedish mode of forming walls of frame-houses, 1374 timber, 595-598 Szerelmey's method of preserving stone, 513 Table of qualities of stones, 497 of scantlings for floors of various spans, 1181 of bearing of floors in Systeme de Mausne", 1634 of bearing or span of joists, beaders, aud girders, 1180 of the breaking weight of wrought-iron beams, 1807 Tables for calculating quantity of timber in roofs, joists, partitions, 1803 for calculating the cubical contents of tim- ber in roofs and partitions in a square of 100 feet, 1804, 1805 of scantlings of timbers for roofs of vari- ous spans, 1214 Tank, dimensions of, for liquid manure, 1068 for the waste urine of a dunghill, 1080 liquid-manure, apparatus to lift manure from, 1077 Tanks, cement for lining, 556-562 for liquid manure, rationale of construc- tion of, 1074 liquid-manure, 1065-1081 for the preservation of grain, 1744 Technical terms, glossary of, used in artificers', work, 1812 Tension gate of iron, 1534 Tenoning, mortising, and boring machine, 1676 Terms, technical, glossary of, used in artificers' work, 1812 Thrashing-mill, iron roof for horse-walk of, 1458 roofs for, 1229 Thumb-latch, 1477 Tie-beams, 1151 Tie-rods, best position of, in iron beams, 1393- 1395 Tile, corrugated roof, 1090 grooved ridge, 1089 gutter, 1091 hollow roof, 1090 hip, 1089 kiln, drying of grain, 1732 ornamental ridge, 1089 quoined valley, 1089 ridge, 1089 Tiles for roofing, 530 flat, 1097 INDEX. 5U1 Tiles, paving, 1087 ridge, 1089 roof, 1089 valley, 1089 Tiling, estimates connected with, 170') Timber, 590 American red pine, 51)3, 6(>0 yellow pine, 594, 601 ash, 607 Bethel's process of preserving, 623 bond, for brick walls, 956 Boucheric's process of preserving', 626- 629 Burnett's process of preserving, 022 California pine, 603 construction, 1133 for agricultural implements, 60 1 floors, 1176-1182 houses and sheds. 1373-138,5 joists of, 1133-1168 Kyan's process for preserving, 618 larch, 596-602 Merael, 592 Norway and Petersburg, 591, 5W oak, 605 Payne's process of preserving, 625 Scotch fir, 597-599 seasoning of, 610 Swedish, 595-598 ventilation of, in dwellings, 620 Tools of the dry-stone dyker, 1026 of the joiner, 1656-1658 of the mason, 1661, 1662 of the smith, 1663-1673 Trap rock, 492 Traps, iron, for sinks, 1495 iron, for stable, 1506 stench, 1107-1109 Travis and manger of stall in byre, 1309 stones, 689 Travises, 703 of stalls in stables, 1284 iron, for stable stalls, 1509 Treads of a stair, 1239 Tree, structure of, 608 Tressels or horses for the joiner's shop, 1658 Trimming-joists, 1178 Trough, stone, for byre, 1 127 Troughs, pig, 1518 turnip, for courts, 1321 water, for cattle-courts, 1119-1127 Trowel, mason's, 1662 Truck, turnip, 1706 Truss, for bridge, 1343 for collar-beam roof, 1203 for curb or mansard roof, 1221 for curved rib-roof, 1225 for dormer windows, 1231 for flat roof, 1219 for a lean-to roof, 1199, 1200 for a porch, 1204 for roof of shed, 1647 king-post, for roof, 1207 queen-post, for roof, 1208-1210 with king-bolt, 1207 Trussed beam, Ainger's, 1609 bridge, 1342 for sheds, 1589 king-post, 1607 queen-post, 1607 gate, 1359 girder bridge, 1342 partition, 1189 timber beams, 1169-1173 Trusses for Gothic or high-pitched roof, 1222-1224 roof, 1199-1230 Trussing of flooring- joists, 1178 of solid beams, Condor's, 1615 iron, of wood girders, 1607-1620 Tubes, drain, lidded, 1020-1022 Tubular ventilator, 1106 Turner's iron bench circular saw, 1674 Turnip-troughs for courts, 1321 truck, 1706 washing, method of, 1705 Turn-key for wire-fences, 1572 Tyermanu's hoop-iron bond for brick walls, 957 Unburnt bricks, walls of, 1132 Upper storey of steading for cattle pastoral farm- ing with arable culture, 67 of steading for sheep pastoral farm- ing with arable culture, 77 of steading for carse farming, 89 of steading for large dairy farming, 103 of steading for small dairy farming, 116 of steading for suburbial farming with arable culture, 126 of steading for suburbial farming with dairy, 137 of steading for common farming, 160 of steading for mixed husbandry, 177 of steading at Coleshill, Berkshire, 251 Useful apparatus and erections, 1683-1698 Valley-tiles, 1059 Valves, chimney, 1187 Valves for sluices, 1526 iron, for admitting fresh air to stables, &c., 1507 Varnish for stained wood, 586 Venetian ventilator, 1296 Ventilating and smoke flue, 1101-1105 Ventilation of drying-houses, 1724 importance of, 1290, 1291 of stables, &c., 1290-1297 Ventilator, Arnott's, 1483 for stables, Ferguson's, 1295 for withdrawing foul air from dwell- ings, 1508 Looker's tubular, 1106 ornamental grating for, 1105 Sheringham's, 1296,1484 Watson's, 1508 with hinged valve, 1296 with suspended valve, 1296 wooden, 1295, 1297 Ventilators, 714 iron, 1507 Vermin-proof cement, 549 Vertical saw frame, 1673 Vice, portable, 1671 Vincennes farm-buildings, 1775 Voids in brick walls, 962 V-window, 1272 Wall-plates, 1150 cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1599 brick openings or voids in, 962 carrying up of courses of, in brick. 960, 961 fireproof, of frame-houses, 1375 hollow, of brick, 967-974 of brick, 953-961 bond in, 953, 954 of unburnt bricks, 1132 pise, 1130, 1131 2 X 562 INDEX. Wall, sea, position of stones in, 1008 Wire fence, straining- screw, 1573 whitewashing of, 567, 568 turn-key, 1573 Wark Steading, Northumberland, description of fences, 1544-1576 plan of, 257-262 fitting up of, 1564-1576 Wash-basins and lavatories, 1113, 1114 intermediate posts for, 1549 Washing, turnip, method of, 1705 fencing, collar- vice for, 1574 Water-closets, 872, 1115, 1116 straining-screw and collar- vice for, cock, Wheatcroft and Smith's, 1493 combined, 1575 foundations in, 928-930 joining, for fences, 1570 rain, cistern, 1110 netting for sheep, 1582, 1583 raising from wells, 1064 work, spiral, 1585 seasoning of timber, 610 for fences, 1551-1563 tap, Jenning's india tube, 1492 block for making eyes in, taps and cock, 1491 1571 troughs for cattle-courts, 1119-1127 Wood combined with iron-work, 1593-1620 waste preventer, Pilbrow's, 1494 with stone and brick, 1621-1627 Watering-pools, formed by crossing of dykes, covering for iron roof, 1642 1045-1048 its chemical properties and composition, Watson's ventilator, 1508 614-618 Weather-boarding for timber sheds, 1374 preservation of, 614 Weight of round iron bars, used as tension-rods staining, 585 for roof -trusses, in foot lengths, 1 809 Stephens' method of, 588 of lead per foot superficial, 1810 Wheeler's method of, 587 Weirs, 990, 1002, 1003 Wooden aqueduct for irrigation, 1348 Weir for a water reservoir, 1002 beams, iron straps for, 1594-1598 Wells, raising water from, 1064 bridges, 1340-1347 Well digging and steining, estimates connected fittings of the farmhouse and cottage, with, 1778 1247-1279 sinking, 1060 fittings of the steading, stable, byre, in loose sand, 1061 barn, courtyard, &c., 1280-1335 West and Hubbell's "oak-hall" window, 1264 framing, iron shoes for, 1599-1606 Western States of America, farm- buildings for, gutters, 1232-1237 1771 sluices, 1349-1352 Wheatcroft and Smith's hydrant, 1529 ventilators, 1295, 1297 water-cock, 1493 Wood's asphalt caldron, 1684 Wheeler's mode of staining wood, 587 Workshop, fittings of the, 1656-1682 White's portable vice, 1671 machines of the, 1673-1682 Whitewashing of walls, 567 Work, brick, estimates and calculations con- Width, proper, for stalls in work-horse stables, nected with, 1782-1791 1281 estimates of diggers' and excavators', for work-horse stables, 1280 1777-1781 Window-blinds, spring pulley for, 1481 artificers' glossary of technical terms used cornice, mouldings of, 948 in, 1812 stone mouldings of, 950 Wrought-iron and cast-iron beams, comparative dormer, elevation of, 1231 advantages of, 1396, 1397 fixed, 1260 beams, Fairbairn's fireproof floor- for cottages, 1261 ing with, 1630 French casement, 1263 beams, junction with cast-iron fastenings for, 1481 columns, 1416 head of farmhouse, 1624 beams, with concrete for fireproof latch, 1480 construction, 1629 mullion of, 1625 girders and beams, 1607 oak-hall, 1264 plate beam, 1398 of byre, 1312 columns for sheds, 1591 pulley-stile, 1479 hurdles,1577 sliding, 1260 side-gate, 1540 V, 1272 varieties and peculiarities of, 646- Windows, 699, 867 651 for farm-cottages, 463, 464 girders and beams, 1807 of corn-barn, 1327 of farmhouses, details of, 1266-1277 Young's instructions for fitting up wire fences, of granary, 1333 1565-1576 stable, 1298 various forms of, 1260-1277 Zinc-covered iron roof, 1646 Wire, block for straightening, 1567 fixing of sheeting as roof covering, 1652 clambs for twisting the eye of, for fences, joining plates of corrugated zinc, 1653 1571 peculiarities of, 654 fence, straining-post for, 1544-1548 roof, cost of, 1654 THE END. PRINTFD BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, KD1NBUKUH. f I'L/ITK 1 /'/../ 77: /// CARSE FARM STEADING LARGE DAIRY R -Scott Sum DrL PLATE IV ARM STEADING >- -nm.. DO, PI..ITK VI COMMON FAR Fiq 1 W 20 .30 40 AC SO 70 R Scott Sum. Del STEADING FARM STEADING FOR MIXED HU fur 1 Centre /or small, prigrs i'z' Sties /hr~ TrreeeKny sows fc Sties /vr- feecHrtff pig's I' 2?ac7uru Souse rV Cfacfan. 2fou.se r>' Turfay House p' Duck ffouse A~ Wool room. House O 1C 20 30 40 -ill 60 10 PLJTK VJI1 UN D R Y Ka 3 Scale. to ID 120 an tea jgo ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION IN OUTLINE OF FARM STEADIf FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY /,' \rff Hum l>el L. //'/: AT See fit/ / Mate / Si* I =^= f j ^r^r--=- . _-^-T=^^ . r^z^>^-^^^=^^ ; ^ ; * <> iy, ^ .L e fig 2 Mate J IV ffafr. 17 fa^^ps_,^ _ __'__^__^. _^__.__^_^. _^__._ wliH I'.l.ljll' PLANS or THI FARM S7 In Plute.* 1 to L H~ P L FARM STEADI B n] a a a It X Statt Burn. Dd. PL Art: F AT DRUMKILBO PLAN OF FARM S n n n n n rJTO"_~. ~_Ti_r~_ ~^D.~J^ 10 6 10 20 30 4-0 \DING AT MORPHIE PLATE Xlll ELEVATION 60 70 ;; i PLATE XIV PERSPECTIVE V. CO L E S H ILL F /< Y IN OUTLINE OF I BUILDINGS PLAN OF FARM STEADI NC % ' : J r* 3 , fi ; Cattle \ Teeddnq ' Box : _. .i 1 A j ?^~ r ' ' -,. : ,..f !h -] k > '";:[ if * IJ \ti ? : = v ^ ^ ?t - & 5- : : - v, i i c 5 -- ^5 i i 3 ; - M ^ \ I ^ ^ * ^ : K f ' M ^ \ ! v I 1 / : W V' HH f I ! ; ; >. : MS; B ; 1 r i III -I jl - y Cattle 1 i g \ nn Catties \ ri .c Straw Court X Stre U JAW. L^ f v . 1 -s <> 5 ^ fc ^ J2WI- 1 Guana Outhouse hoii.se Stare HoKts ^ ^ ^ Scale. O 6 JO 16 20 30 tO 60 <*> 7C SO 9O 100 11O 12O Iff ,T WARK NORTHUMBERLAND i.ATK XVI iiillllll Stairs to qrasf .tetd loft Hi'' 170 cnavne -room feet . f ununrve y CT ' s| > E ^ J./^PRSW^P'." ^ '- Wsx . :-.% j<=i CHED COTTAGES WITH HOUSES OF DIFFERENT SIZES PI.ATI-: xxvni. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A TWO STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE. FIG. 87. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN FOR A DETACHED COTTAGE FIG 82 N O T I C E. TH, uti % of a series of Working-Drawings to a large scale in Plan, ' P te vm e 1. to VIII., having been suggested to the Authors, Mr BURN has made arrangements to prepare, these, as well as a series of Drawing of Iron Koofs adapted to the Steadings. Gentlemen and Landed Pro pnetors who .nay be desirous of procuring Tracings of a set of Plans of any one of the Steadings, &c., as above named, will receive informa- non as to price of the same, time of delivery, & c., by applying by letter to Mr K SCOTT 15UKX, Castle, Farm, Stnckport, Cheshire employed to a large extent, and in many cases emux-ay, m unc^i v,^,,.,,.^., , they are not only lighter in appearance, but more elegant in form and more efficient in use. Still, a close inspection, with a critical eye, will detect, in many of them, a larger quantity of material than is necessary for strength, and a greater violation of mechanical principles, in the construction of their com- ponent parts, than their general elegance of form would indicate. It cannot be doubted that a perfect knowledge of the strength of materials and of the prin- ciples of mechanics on the part of our agricultural machinists, would produce all the existing implements and machines, and invent others much lighter in weight and simpler in construction, and therefore better adapted for the particular pur- poses for which they are designed. If the same degree of mechanical skill that is employed in the construction of manufacturing machinery were transferred to that appertaining to Agriculture, implements would soon become more perfect in every respect than they are. It is not, however, intended to be asserted that machines for the purposes of agriculture can be as easily perfected by any amount of mechanical skill as those used in manufactures may be ; because the soil and its crops, being much more crude, unsteady, and unequal, are worse to deal with than the materials prepared for manufactures. The very distinction, indeed, which is generally made while treating of agricultural mechanism namely, " implements and machines " conveys in some measure this important truth. A machine operating upon a substance which varies little from its normal con- dition, may be constructed so as to be nearly in all things self-acting, requiring COMPANION VOLUME TO THE BOOK OF THE FARM. THE BOOK OF FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. BY JAMES SLIGHT AND ROBERT SCOTT BURN, KNGINEEIiS. (gbifcb k HENRY STEPHENS, E.K.S.E. Author of the, "Book of the Fann," &.<<. fa One Volume, lari/c octavo. ILLUSTRATED WITH 836 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD AND 39 ENGRAVINGS ON COPPER. who recollect the appearance of our Agricultural Implements and J_ Machines at the commencement of this century, will have no hesitation in acknowledging the superiority they now present. Being made chiefly of wood, and without regard to its intrinsic strength and comparative "bulk, the implements of that period seem clumsy and ill constructed. Xow that iron is employed to a large extent, and in many cases entirely, in their construction, they are not only lighter in appearance, but more elegant in form and more efficient in use. Still, a close inspection, with a critical eye, will detect, in many of them, a larger quantity of material than is necessary for strength, and a greater violation of mechanical principles, in the construction of their com- ponent parts, than their general elegance of form would indicate. It cannot be doubted that a perfect knowledge of the strength of materials and of the prin- ciples of mechanics on the part of our agricultural machinists, Avould produce all the existing implements and machines, and invent others much lighter in weight and simpler in construction, and therefore better adapted for the particular pur- poses for which they are designed. If the same degree of mechanical skill that is employed in the construction of manufacturing machinery were transferred to that appertaining to Agriculture, implements would soon become more perfect in every respect than they are. It is not, however, intended to be asserted that machines for the purposes of agriculture can be as easily perfected by any amount of mechanical skill as those used in manufactures may be ; because the soil and its crops, being much more crude, unsteady, and unequal, are worse to deal with than the materials prepared for manufactures. The very distinction, indeed, which is generally made while treating of agricultural mechanism namely, "implements and machines" conveys in some measure this important truth. A. machine operating upon a substance which varies little from its normal con- dition, may be constructed so as to be nearly in all things self-acting, requiring PROSPECTUS Continued. from man little more attention than is necessary to supply it with the material which it is designed to operate upon. An implement, on the contrary, required in an agricultural operation, may, and often does, demand the exercise of mind and skill on the part of its worker, to enable it to meet the peculiarities of a soil or a crop constantly varying in character. Still it seems beyond all doubt that if the scientific truth in designing, and the workmanlike skill in executing and fitting together of manufacturing, could be transferred, as far as actually avail- able, to agricultural mechanism, of whatever kind or class, a higher state of effi- ciency, both in construction and operation, would be soon attained. At the same time, it may be safely admitted that this transference has to a great extent been carried out. To ignore the improvements both in design and construction which have been effected during the last ten or fifteen years in many of our machines and implements, would be injustice to those eminent agricultural-implement makers throughout the kingdom by whose skill these improvements have been brought about ; and would also convey an entirely erroneous notion of the high state of excellence to which agricultural machinery has now attained. A superior mode of culture, in deep pulverisation of the soil, in finer treat- ment of its surface, in more certain and convenient modes of depositing man- ures and seeds, and in improved methods of securing crops, has led to a large increase of suitable machines being contrived for those purposes ; and the rivalry created by the establishment of large manufactories of implements in England, giving a stimulus to their manufacture which did not exist before, has no doubt greatly tended to increase their number beyond the mere demand occasioned by superior culture, as well as to improve their construction and workmanship. Agricultural implements and machines having thus increased in number and risen in importance from the causes which have just been indicated, the time seems to have arrived when a consideration, commensurate with their importance and utility, should be bestowed upon the principles of their con- struction ; and such a consideration, it is conceived, can only be given in a work specially devoted to the elucidation of those principles. Descriptions of implements have at all times formed part of works on general agriculture ; but hitherto no work in the English language has been entirely assigned to their discussion. It is the object of the " BOOK OP FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES " to supply that desideratum in the agricultural literature of Great Britain. It is not, however, intended that all the existing implements and machines should be passed in review before the reader, as if under a critical examination of their mechanical construction ; for, setting aside the arrogance of such a pro- ceeding, it would be unfair to implement-makers to institute what could not but be deemed an invidious comparison betwixt their respective manufactures. The true objects of the Work will, the authors conceive, be better accomplished through its enunciating the rules by which the strength of materials employed in the making of implements may be rightly estimated, and the principles upon which they ought to be constructed, in order to their executing the largest expected amount of good work with the least expenditure of power. Such a Work, it is believed, can only be produced by a combination of mind. A knowledge of general mechanical principles, a facility of mechanical repre- sentation, an aptitude for mechanical description, and a practical experience of the use of the implements at work, are all requisite in order to bring even the simplest implement vividly before the reader. With what success this combination has been attained, the work itself must show. The statement, however, may be permitted, that in the selection of sub- jects for illustration and description, in the preparation of the drawings and the execution of the engravings, every care has been bestowed to render it a trust- worthy and practically useful authority on agricultural mechanism. LIST OF WORKS m PUBLISHED BY WiUiitm tMluw(t & EDINBURGH & LONDON. In Two Volumes Royal Sro, price 3 half-bound, THE BOOK OF THE FARM. DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE FARMER, FAR SI-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHERD, HEDGER, CATTLE-MAN, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRT-MAID , AND FORMING A SAFE MONITOR FOR STUDENTS IN PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. Corresponding Member of the Society Royale et Ccntrale d'Agriculture of France, and of the Koyal Agricultural Society of Galicia. A NEW COITION. Illustrated with PORTRAITS OF AMMAI.S painted from the life, engraved on Steel by I,AM>SRKH and others ; and with eoo i:\ ;is \ vi>4s o\ wool* by iiiiAX*'ro.\, representing the principal Field Operations, Implements, and Animals treated of in the Work. SUBJECTS TREATED OP IN THE BOOK OP THE PARM. INITIATION. On the best of the existing methods for acquiring a thorough knowledge of Practical Hus- bandry. Difficulties the Pupil has to encounter in Learning Practical Husbandry, and on the means of overcoming them. The different kinds of Farming, and on selecting the best. On the Branches of Science most applicable to Agriculture. Persons required to conduct and execute the labour of the Farm. On the Institutions of Education best suited to Agricultural Students. On the evils attending the neglect of Landowners and others to learn Practical Agriculture. On observing the Details and recording the Facts of Farming by the Agricultural Student. PRACTICE. WINTER. Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Winter. Plough, Swing-Trees, and Plough-Harness. Ploughing and Ploughing-Matches. Ploughing different forms of Ridges. Ploughing Stubble and Lee Ground. Occupation of the Steading in Winter. Pulling and Stor- ing Turnips, Mangold-Wurzel, Carrots, Parsnips, and Cabbage, for Consumption in Winter. Feeding of Sheep on Turnips in Winter. Accommodation afforded to Cattle in Winter by the Steading. Rearing and Fattening of Cattle on Turnips in Winter. Varieties of Turnips culti- vated. Construction of Stables for Farm-Horses. Treatment of Farm-Horses in Winter. Treat- ment of the Farmer's Saddle and Harness Horse in Winter. Fattening of Swine in Winter. Treatment of Fowls in Winter. Rationale of the Feeding of Animals. Accommodation of the Grain Crops in the Steading. Thrashing and Winnowing of Grain. Forming of Dunghills and Composts in Winter. Liquid-Manure, and the Construction of Liquid-Manure Tanks and Carts. Sea- Weed as Manure. Gaulting or Claying the Soil. [Continued. WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. THE BOOK OP THE FAEM-Continued. SPRING. Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Spring. Advantages of having Field- work always in a state of Forwardness. Calving of Cows. Milking of Cows. Rearing of Calves. Sowing of Spring Wheat. Drilling up of Land. Sowing of Oats, Beans, Peas, Tares. Rolling of Land. Lucerne. Transplanting of Turnip-bulbs for producing Seed. Sainfoin. Lambing of Ewes. Cross-Ploughing Land. Ribbing Land for the Seed-Furrow. Sowing of Grass-Seed. Sowing of Barley. Turning of Dunghills. Planting of Potatoes. Paring and burning the Sur- face. Farrowing of Sows. Hatching of Fowls. SUMMER. Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Summer. On the Hay given to Farm- horses. Sowing and Summer Treatment of Flax Hemp Hops Turnips Kohl-rabi the Cab- bage Mangold- Wurzel the Carrot Parsnips Rape Buck- wheat Sunflower Madia and Maize. The Rationale of the Germination of Seeds. On Sowing Broadcast, Drilled and Dibbled Thick and Thin and at Different Depths. Repairing the Fences of Pasture-fields. Disposal of the Fat Sheep and Fat Cattle. Mares Foaling Treatment of Bulls in Summer. Pasturing of Sheep and Cattle in Summer. Weaning of Calves. Pasturing of Farm-horses in Summer. Soiling of Stock on Forage Plants. Washing and Shearing of Sheep. Rolling of Fleeces, and on the Quality of Wool. Summer Culture of Beans and Pease. Weaning of Lambs. Drafting of Ewes and Gimmers. Making of Sheep Hay-making. Summer Culture of Wheat Barley Oats Rye and Potatoes. Summer Fallow. Reaping of Turnip-seed. Making Butter and Cheese. AUTUMN. Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Autumn. Sowing of the Stone-Tur- nip, and on the Sowing of Turnip for Seed. Sowing of Winter Tares Rape Crimson Clover Bokhara Clover Red Clover for Seed and Italian Rye-grass. Picking and Drying of Hops. Sowing of Winter Beans. Pulling, Steeping, and Drying of Flax and Hemp. Reaping Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, Beans, Pease, and Tares, when grown for Seed. Carrying and Stacking of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Beans, and Pease. The Common Jerusalem Artichoke. Reaping Buck- wheat, Sunflower, and Maize. Birds destructive to the Grain Crops. Putting the Tups to the Ewes. Bathing and Smearing of Sheep. Lifting Potatoes. Storing Potatoes. Sowing Wheat, Barley, and Pease in Autumn. Sowing several varieties of Grain together. Planting Potatoes in Autumn. The effects of Special Manures. Rotation of Crops. Fertility of Soils. Disposal of the Fat Pigs. Management of Fowls. Animals destructive to Poultry. REALISATION. Differences in the Physical Geography of Farms. Climate and its Effects. The Judging of Land. Estimating the Rent of a Farm. The Mode of Offering for a Farm. Negotiating the Covenants of the Lease. Entering to a Farm. The Stocking of a Farm. Choosing the Site, on Building, and en the Expenses of Erecting the Steading. The Farm-house. Cottages for Farm- servants. Insurance against Fire and Disease. The Principles of Enclosure, and on Shelter. The Planting and Rearing of Thorn Hedges. The Building of Stone Fences. Wire Fences. Em- banking against Rivulets. Construction of Field Gates. Draining of Land. Improving Waste Land. Trench and Subsoil Ploughing. Liming of Land. Forming Water-meadows. Irrigation. The points to be aimed at in Breeding the most perfect forms in Live Stock. Descriptl Animals whose Portraits are given in the Plates. Account of some other Breeds of Cattle and Sheep. The Principles of Breeding. Selection of Parents in Breeding. Breeding in-and-in. Crossing. Hiring of Farm-servants. Wages of Farm-servants. The Farm Smith, Joiner, and Saddler. The care due to the Implements. Making Experiments on the Farm. Corn-markets. Farm Book-keeping. Concluding exhortations to the young Farmer. Index. "The beat practical book I have ever met witli." Professor Johnston. " We assure agricultural students that they will derive both pleasure and profit from a diligent perusal of this clenr directory to rural labour. . . . We have thoroughly examined these volumes ; but to give a full notice of their varied and valuable contents would occupy a larger space than we can conveniently devote to their dis- cussion ; we therefore, in general terms, commend them to the careful study of every young man who wishes to become a good practical farmer." Times. " A work, the excellence of which is too well known to need any remarks of ours." Farmers' Magazine. " Exhibiting in every page the combination of large experience, extensive observation, and a cultivated mind. . . . One of the most unique and valuable works to be found within the range of agricultural litera- ture." Bell's Mevsenger. " We know of no single agricultural work to be compared with this. . . . Nothing can he more disin- terestedly earnest than our recommendation of the ' Book of the Farm.' " Bell's Life. " One of the completest works on agriculture of which our literature can boast." Agricultural Gazette. A new Edition, enlarged, with Index. Crown Octavo, price Ss. 6d. A HANDY BOOK ON PROPERTY LAW. By LORD ST LEONARDS. " Less than 200 pages serve to arm us with the ordinary precautions to which we should attend in selling, buying, mortgaging, leasing, settling, and devising estates. We are informed of our relations to our property, to our wives and children, and of our liabilities as trustees or executors, in a little book for the million, a book which the author tenders to the profanum vulgus as even capable of ' beguiling a few hours in a railway carriage.' " Times. WORKS OX AGRICULTUEE, ETC. In One Volume, large Octavo, v.n(f<,rm with tie "Bool of the Farm," price 2, 2s. TILE BOOK OF FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. By J. SLIGHT and E. SCOTT BURN, Engineers. Edited by HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E., Author of the "Book of the Farm," &c. C O X T K X T S. Boole First. Dissertations elucidating the scientific principles which regulate the choice of materials and construction of the Machines and Implements, and the structures connected with them, on the Farm Materials employed in Construction Principles of Construction Practice of Construction Friction and Force. Boole Second. On the practical construction, properties, and uses of Farm Im- plements and Machines. IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. Ploughs, including Steam-Ploughs, Trench and Subsoil Ploughs. Grubbers, Scarifiers, Cultivators. Harrows, Land-rollers, Clod-crushers, Press-wheels. Horse-hoes. Sowing Machines and Manure-distributors. Manual Implements connected with the Cultivation of the Soil. IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. Hay-making Machines. Cora-reaping Machines. Barn Machines, including Thrashing- Machines, Fixed and Portable ; Winnowing-Machines, Hummellers, Corn-cleaning Machines, and Weighing-Machines. Carts Waggons Cart Steelyards. Straw-Cutters. Turnip- Slicers, Root-Graters, %nd Root- Washers. Corn-Bruisers Bean-Mills Oil-Cake Breaker. Boiling and Steaming Apparatus. Dairy Apparatus. Manual Implements connected with the Products of the Soil, as Scythes, Forks, Barn Implements, and Dairy Utensils. Machines not directly connected with any of the above Ten Sections, but useful on the Farm. MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM. Horse-Power. Water-Power. Steam-Power. Wind-Power. ARRANGEMENTS OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING. Arrangement of Machines in the Ground-Floor of the Steading. Arrangement of Machines in the Upper Floor of the Steading. Arrangement of Small Machines with the Moving Power in the Steading. The Preservation of Implements and Machines in the Steading. 40 Engravings on Steel 836 Engravings on Wood. " This magnificent work must excite the admiration of every practical agriculturist. It forms at once a com- plete history of the progress made up to this day in the adaptation of mechanism to farming operations, and a brilliant analysis of the value of each additional step on the road of improvement to the farmer. . . . It is a work which, like its great predecessor, the Book of the Farm, supplies an obvious want, and does so to such per- fection as to render any other work on the subject, for some time to come, a superfluity." Sussex Agricultural Express. Subscription, Twelve Shillings per Annum. Published Quarterly. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, AND THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND. A few Complete Sets from the commencement of the Series are for sale --viz., OLD SERIES, 1828 to 1843, 21 vols., cloth, .3, 3s. NEW SERIES, 1843 to 1855, 10 vols., cloth, -2, 12s. Gd. WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. Preparing for Publication, THE BOOK OF FARM -BUILDINGS: THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION. By HENRY STEPHENS, F.E.S.E. Author of the " Book of the Farm," AND ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Engineer. In One Volume, Royal Octavo, uniform with the " Book of the Farm," and the " Book of Farm Implements and Machines." Illustrated with numerous Plates and Engravings. THE object of this Work is to indicate, in the most distinct manner, that ar- rangement of the Apartments in Farm-Steadings best adapted for each of the methods of Farming practised in the kingdom. It may surprise those unacquainted with Agriculture to learn that there are various modes of Farming. There are not fewer than Five distinct systems of Farming pursued in this country. In view, then, of this variety in modes of practice, it will be obvious that no single arrange- ment, however apparently complete and well conceived, can meet the requirements of all circumstances of practice, or be calculated to secure the strictest economy of labour. As the manufactures of wool, cotton, silk, or flax, require arrangements of premises suited to the peculiarities of the material to be operated upon, so, in like manner, do the peculiarities of " dairy," " pastoral," or of " mixed " husbandry, demand arrangements calciUated to aid their practice. A very slight consideration indeed of this subject will suffice to show that the accommodation required on a farm solely devoted to the rearing of live-stock, should not be the same as that required for one which is cultivated entirely for the raising of corn. But although the arrangement of the Apartments of Steadings should vary in accordance with the kind of Farming, yet every arrangement suited to the various modes of Farming may be founded upon such a general principle as shall insure the greatest convenience and economy in the use of each arrangement. The Authors are quite aware of the difficult task they have undertaken in order to attain the important object they have thus enunciated ; but, nevertheless, they flatter themselves that the object has been attained in this Work, and that for the first time by any writer who has hitherto attempted to illustrate Farm-Buildings. Without pledging themselves to any specific amount of matter, the Authors may be permitted the statement that, in addition to Plans expressly prepared to working scale, to elucidate the " Principle " of arrangement of Steadings suited to all varie- ties of Farming, and to ample working details of construction and fittings of apart- ments, it is proposed to give such Plans of Farm-Houses, and of Bailiff's and Labourers' Cottages, as shall exhibit details of convenient arrangements and fit- tings. The construction of Bridges, Embankments, Culverts, Dams, &c. those "outlying buildings" of the Farm will also receive due attention. It is thus the aim of the Authors to make the Work a trustworthy and practically useful authority in all matters connected with the Buildings of the Farm. In Small Octavo, price 5*. THE LARCH DISEASE, AND THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE LARCH PLANTATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. By CHARLES M'INTOSH, Author of the " Book of the Garden," &c. WORKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC FAim ACCOUNTS. PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FARM BOOK-KEEPING 'THE BOOK OF THE FARM, K.VS. F.K..S E. I SEVEX FOLIO ACCOUNT-BOOKS, constructed in accordance with the system, Printed and Ruled throughout, and bound in separate Volumes; the whole liein^ specially adapted for keeping, by an easy and accurate method, an account of all the Transactions of the Farm. THE ACCOUNT-BOOKS CONSIST OF~ I. CASH -BOOK Huled with double inoiiey- colums for Dr. and Cr. , showing the Cash received for produce sold off the Farm, the money paid on account of the Farm ; and all general Cash and Hunk- ing transactions. Price 2s. (id. II. LEDGER Kuled with single money-columns, Dr. and Cr. on separate pages, containing Accounts with every Person or Company having transactions with the Farm. Price 5s III. FARM ACCOUNT Contains the Ca.-h re- ceived for all the Produce sold off the Farm, and the Cash paid for all the commodities required for the Farm, and these alone. Thus the Balance between the Dr. and Cr. sides of the Farm Account, at the end of the Agricultural Year, shows whether the f;irm has returned or consumed the largest amount of Cash. Price 2s. 6d. IV. CORN ACCOUNT Comprises all accounts and statements connected with 1. Wheat ; 2. liar- ley; 3. Oats; 4. Straw; 5. Potatoes; 6'. Turnips, Maugold-Wurzel, Carrots and Parsnips. These ac- counts show all the particulars connected with the different species of produce the time when grain is thrashed the parties to whom it has been sold the uses which have been made of it on the Farm the Tlte Account-Books are sold separate/;/, the c< Balance of (irain on hand at any time in the Corn- barn and Granary the weight of the Grain, and the prices obtained for it. Price 3s. 6d. V. LIVE-STOCK ACCOUNT-Consists of Ac- counts relating to 1. Cattle ; 2. Sheep ; 3. Pigs ; 4. Jlorses; showing the particulars of every species of Live-Stock, the disposal of them, the cash paid and the prices obtained for them, and the numbers on hand at different periods. Price 3s. VI. LABOUR ACCOUNT -BOOK -Contains, I. Labour Journal ; 2. Labour Account, the former for showing the Labourers' names, the days of the week on which they have been employed, and a register of the number of work-days in eacli week ; the latter forming a summary of the amount of all the manual labour executed on the Farm in the course of a-year, including the Harvest Expenses. 'vilT" FIELD- WORKERS' ACCOUNT - This is a simple form of keeping the Labour- Account, en- abling the total number of Days iu which work has been done for half a year to be summed up and cal- culated at the rate ov' wages per day, when the gross amount of the half-year's earnings is brought out dis- tinctly. Price 2s. (id. i/>leli: Set, hi Elg. THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS FOR 18GO. Edited by ROBERT SCOTT BURN. " Next to keeping full and complete accounts, nothing is more useful to the farmer than to have an accurate record of fads and dates." Economist. THE object of the present work is to secure for the most useful of the " FACTS'' scattered through the pages of the numerous Magazines and Journals Home and Foreign which are devoted exclusively or partially to the dissemination of information connected with the various branches of agriculture, a permanent and easily accessible record. It embraces, moreover, the most striking of the "Facts" promulgated at the meetings of Farmers' Clubs, Agricultural Societies, &c. &c. ; and which, even when made public through the Agricultural Journals, are apt to be lost sight of, or cannot be conveniently and readily referred to, among the mass of other matter which these journals comprise. Copies of the Volume for 1859 may still he had, price 5s. WOKKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. Dedicated by permission to Her Majesty. In Two large Volumes Royal Octavo, embellished, with 1350 Engravings, THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN. By CHARLES M'INTOSH, Formerly Curator of the Royal Gardens of his Majesty the King of tbe Belgians, and lately of those of his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Palace. The volumes are sold gepwrMely viz. VOL. I. OX THE FORMATION OF GARDENS AND CONSTRUCTION OF GARDEN EDIFICES. 776 pages, and 1073 Engravings. '2, 10s. VOL. II. PRACTICAL GARDENING. 868 pages, and 279 Engravings. 1, 17s. 6cL WORKS on Gardening have long been abundant, and the popularity of many of them has attested the general interest taken in this art, and the value of books as guides and instructors in it. None, perhaps, has enjoyed a wider or firmer repu- tation than the Practical Gardening of Mr M'Intosh, which was for many years recognised as the completest, most systematic, and most practical extant treatise on the art. A quarter of a century, however, has now elapsed since that work last received the revisions of the author ; and in that time gardening, as a practical art, has undergone such advances and improvements, that a treatise, which might be most valuable in 1830, has ceased to be so in 1855. The Book of the Garden was accordingly resolved on, not merely to supersede the author's former, and now com- paratively obsolete work, but designed to form for its art a text-book as full and complete as the Book of the Farm was for agriculture. The reception which the work has experienced from the press and the public has been more than sufficient to attest both the need of such a complete and systematic treatise on gardening in all its departments, and the degree to which Mr M'lutosh has filled up an existing blank. The work is divided into two great sections, each occupying a volume the first comprising the formation, arrangement, and laying out of gardens, and the con- struction of garden buildings ; the second treating of the theory and practice of horticulture. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. INTRODUCTION. GARDENING AS AN ART OP DESIGN AND TASTE, CONSIDERED AS REGARDS ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE. CHAPTER I. THE FORMATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF CULINARY AND FRUIT GARDENS IN GENERAL. Section 1. Plan ; 2. Extent ; 3. Form ; 4. Supply of Water ; 5. Situation ; 6. Soil ; 7. Fruit-Tree Borders ; 8. Principal Entrance ; 9. Shelter ; 10. Style. CHAPTER II. GARDEN WALLS. Sectionl. Aspect of Wails; 2. Foundations of Walls ; 3. Materials for Garden Walls ; 4. Copings for Garden Walls ; 5. Trellised Garden Walls ; 6. Height of Garden Walls ; 7. Arranging Walls to suit various situations ; 8. Colour of Garden Walls ; 9. Construction of Garden Walls. CHAPTER III. HOTHOUSE BUILDING Section 1. General Principles ; 2. Angle of Elevation. CHAPTER IV. HEATING AS APPLIED TO HORTICULTURAL ERECTIONS. Section 1. Preliminary Remarks ; 2. Heating by Flues ; 3. Heating by Hot-Water Pipes ; 4. The Tank Mode of Heat- ing ; 5. Heating by Hot-Air Stoves ; 6. Heating by Steam ; 7. Boilers and Pipes ; 8. Hothouse Furnaces ; 9. Cause of Circulation of Hot Water. CHAPTER V. VENTILATION. CHAPTER VI. FRUIT-HOUSES. Section 1. Vineries ; 2. Pineries ; 3. Peach-Houses ; 4. Cherry, Fig, Plum, and Apricot Houses ; 5. Tropical Fruit-House. CHAPTER VII. PLANT-HOUSES. Section 1. Conservatories ; 2. Greenhouses; 3. Orangeries ; 4. Heath-Houses ; 5. Orchid-Houses ; 6. Aquarium ; 7. Window Gardening. CHAPTER VIII. PITS AND FRAMES. Section 1. Pits and Frames Heated by Fermentation ; 2. Pits Heated by Smoke-Flues, Tanks, Hot- Water Pipes, and Steam ; 3. Cucumber and Melon Houses ; 4. Mushroom-Houses ; 5. Conservative Pits. CHAPTER IX. MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN STRUCTURES. Section 1. Gardeners' Houses ; 2. The Fruit-Room ; 3. Ice- Houses ; 5. Tanks and Cisterns ; 5. Apiaries. CHAPTER X. DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. Section \. Glass and Glazing: 2. Lights or Sashes ; 3. Rafters and Astragals ; 4. Wall- Plates ; 5. Covering the Roofs of Glass Houses and Pits, for the exclusion of cold or the retention of heat ; 6. Espalier Railings ; 7. Footpaths ; 8. Painting; 9. Cements ; 10. On the Preservation of Timber used in Hothouse-Building; 11. On the Durability of Materials. [Continued. WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. THS BOOK OF THE GARDEN- Continued. CHAPTER XI. LAYING on 1 FL(>WEI;-CAI:D;:NS. >',<<-tio)i 1. Preliminary Remarks on the Classification of Stylos; 2. Situation of the Flower-Garden ; ?!. flower-Garden Fences ; 4. Plant- ing with a view to produce Effect : ,~>. The Arboretum : (>'. The Pinetnm ; 7. Edgings; 8. The Reserve Flower-Garden ; 9. Disposal of the Gi-uund ; Id. Harmony of Colours. CHAPTER XII. GEOMETRICAL FI.O\VI:U-(;ARI>I:X. -Action I. Their General Arrangement, &c. ; 2. Fountains; '2. Vases and Cms, Dials and Plural Decorations; 4. Statues; 5, Seats; 6. Temples and Arbours ; 7. Mausoleums, Cenotaphs, or Sepulchral Structures. CHAPTER XIII. GARDEN F. SQUE STYIJ: OF V\.o\\\:K-G.\KVEs.ticrtiu>i 1. Their General Arrangement ; 2. Fountains and Vases ; :'.. Busketwork ; 4. Bridges ; 5. Trelliswork, Gates, Fences, and Tree-Guards; 6. .Moss- Houses, Seats, and Resting-places. CHAPTER XI V. PUTCRKSQI-K STYLI: OK FLOWER-GARDENS. Section 1. Their General Arrangement; 2. Rockwork ; ''>. Hermitages, Arbours, Mess-Houses, and Seats; 4. Ridges; 5. Rills, Rivulets, and Cascades ; (J. Rustic Fences. CHAPTER XV. PRACTICAL DIAGRAMS EXPLANATORY OP THE RULES FOR LAYING OUT GARDENS, MORE PARTICULARLY FOR FUU.MING CURVED LINE--. CHAPTER XVI. TOWN AND SMALL SUI-.UUBAN GARDENS. APPENDIX. INDEX. ILLUSTRATIONS. 33 COPPER-PLATE ENGRAVINGS nv W. AND A. K. JOHNSTON. 1040 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD BY BRANSTON. This Volume may be had separately, hf. bd., price 2, 10s. CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. THE CULINARY OR KITCIil-N GARDEN. THE HARDY FRUIT-GARDEN. THE FLOWER-GARDEN : CHAPTER I. PLANT-HOUSES, PITS, AND WALLS; CHAPTER II. OPEN FLOWEII-GAKDKN. SELECT LIST OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. SELECT LIST OF PLANTS. GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 2SO ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. This Volume may be had separately, hf. bd., price 1, 17s. 6d. " "We must congratulate both editor and publi.-liers on the completion of this work, which, -whether consi- dered in reference to the information it convoys on the theory and practice of horticulture, its numerous illustra- tions in tlie first style of art, and beautiful type, is every way worthy of the character of all concerned in its pub- lication. The scientific knowledge and great experience of the editor in all that pertains to horticulture, not only as regards cultivation, but as a landscape-gardener and garden architect, has enabled him to produce a work which brings all that is known of the various subjects treated of down to the present time ; while the manner in which the work is illustrated merits our highest approval, as most successful specimens of engraving .... On the practical details of culture, the editor give?, in addition to his own opinion, the pith ot what others have written on the subject We hope to notice this book again. In the mean time, we strongly recommend the ' Book of the Garden.' To gardeners, in every way it will be indispensable, and not less so to country gentlemen, architects, and surveyors, who will find it the best authority on the subject they can refer to." The Florist. TEXT-BOOKS on GEOLOGY, by DAVID PAGE, F.G.S. i. Fourth Edition, price la. Gd., INTRODUCTORY TEXT -BOOK OF GEOLOGY. With Engravings on Wood, and Glossarial Index. II. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, price 6s., ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OE GEOLOGY, DESCRIPTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL. With Engravings on Wood, and Glossary of Scientific Terms. III. In Crown, Octavo, price 6s., HANDBOOK OF GEOLOGICAL TERMS AND GEOLOGY. WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. In foolscap 8vo, price 4*. 6il., TESTER DEEP LAND-CULTURE; BEING A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE METHOD OF CULTIVATION WHICH HAS BEEN SUCCESSFULLY PRACTISED FOR SEVERAL YEARS BY THE MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE AT YESTER. By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E., Author of the "Book of the Farm." THE characteristic of the new system for it may be well so named, different as it is from any now in use is the complete pulverisation of the subsoil, and its mix- ture with the upper soil, the treatment being of a very substantial and permanent nature. The work is divided into the following sections : (I.) The physical geography and climate of the Yester Farms. From the details here given on these points, it will be seen that the great results obtained were not those induced by the propitious nature of the soils treated, but, from the fact that the fields operated upon were, on the contrary, by no means promising subjects for the expenditure of capital, the best evidence is obtained of the excellence of the principle upon which the improve- ments were founded. (2.) Thorough-draining the soils and subsoils. (3.) Deep-ploughing the soils and subsoils. (4.) Subsoil trench-ploughing. (5.) The Yester Plough. (6.) Swing-trees for three and four horses. The last four sections comprise descriptions of the peculiarities of construction of the ploughs used, and the method of working them. (7.) The physical benefits derived from the thorough-draining and subsoil trench-ploughing. (8.) The economical benefits. (9.) The system of fanning now adopted at Yester Farm. (10.) Results of the system. (11 ) The working strength of Yester Farm. (12.) The concluding chapter gives a detail of the advantages de- rivable from the thorough pulverisation of the subsoil, the whole of which abounds in suggestions of great value to the practical man. In 2 vols. 8vo, with ATLAS in folio, price 30s. Second Edition, ITALIAN IRRIGATION: A REPORT ON THE AGRICULTURAL CANALS OF PIEDMONT AND LOMBARDY, ADDRESSED TO THE HON. THE DIRECTORS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY; WITH AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA. By Lieut.-0ol. R. BAIRD SMITH, F.G.S. Captain, Bengal Engineers. WHILE " Irrigation works," varying widely in character and importance, have been carried out in this country, and attention directed to their details, through the medium either of special works or periodical publications, information has been scarcely obtainable, except in small measure, and through the medium of isolated and rarely met with reports, of the nature, extent, and details of the system adopted in Italy, " the classic land of irrigation," where its influence has tended, even from the earliest period of history, to make her plains the richest on the face of the earth. And yet when we consider that the machinery of this grand system for the distribution of water, in order to the cultivation of the land, over which it is made to spread in fertilising streams, is " considered by most observers to come nearest to the type of theoretical perfection," some idea of the value of a work may be obtained which would show, in a clear, explicit, and practical manner, the various relations of the system, the details of its works, and the practical operation of its mechanism. These and many other details, interesting in a histo- rical and social point of view, it is the object of the present work to lay before the reader. In addition to the letterpress, which fully exhausts the theory and the practice on which this the most extensive as well as the most efficient system in the world is founded and carried out, the work is enriched by a large folio Atlas of Plates, abounding in hints and suggestions on various points of constructive detail. WORKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC. 9 ^1 +Yeiv Edition, Illustrated with iin.iiterov.ii Engravings, \s., A CATECHISM OF P R A C T I C A L A G R I C U L T U R E. By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. Author of the " Book of the Farm." FOB those destined to act as principals on thu farm, instruction is provided by the profusion of Treatises on the various branches of the subject, by Agricultural Colleges and Lectureships, and pre-eminently by their entering as practical pupils with men of mature experience and skill ; but for the far larger numbers destined to subordi- nate employments, no such means, and, indeed, no means of any kind, have been available. They entered on their occupation entirely unprepared for it, and were destined to acquire the knowledge and skill requisite wholly empirically, behind the plough or in the field. That through such a training multitudes have come thoroughly to understand and ably to fulfil their duties, admits of no dispute ; had it been otherwise, our agriculture could never have been what it is. But still it is hardly questionable but that this knowledge and ability might have been earlier, more easily, and more generally attained, had these workers in our fields entered on their task in some degree informed, by preliminary elementary instruction, as to what was expected of them. The favourable reception given to Professor Johnston's " Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," suggested to the Publishers the propriety of a similar work on Practical Agriculture. In intrusting the carrying out this idea to the Author of the ' Hook of the Farm," they knew they were securing for the Work devised the fullest possible knowledge of the subject, sound judgment as to the wants of the class for whom he was specially writing, and orderly and methodical arrangement, and the utmost clearness and simplicity of style, in filling up the details. The method he has adopted is the same as that on which public approval has been so decisively stamped as followed in the " Book of the Farm " the describing the various operations of the Farm in the order in which they are in the successive seasons actually performed upon it. And in following out the details, he has proceeded on the principle which all teachers of mixed classes know to be the only safe one the assuming nothing whatever to be known beforehand of the processes described. The utmost simplicity and clearness have thus, it is hoped, been secured ; and as a still further aid to full comprehension of every operation, woodcuts and diagrams have been profusely employed wherever they could be of any possible service. Third Edition, Ki-o, price ,o.<., A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL DRAINING. By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. Author of " The Book of the Farm.'' THE subject is divided into the following sections : (1.) The symptoms exhibited by land requiring drainage. (2.) The different methods of draining shallow draining, with its varieties deep draining thorough draining. (3.) Draining by open ditches. (4.) Sheep drains in hill pastures. (5.) Drains for ground for forest trees. (6.) Ancient shallow covered drains. (7.) Iso- lated hollows and running sands. (8.) Bog drains. (9.) Elkington's method. (10.) Determination of the minimum depth of drains. (11 ) Open ducts for drains stone tile ducts necessity for soles for ducts. (12.) Estimate of the quantity of water to be conveyed by ducts. (13.) Draining of fields in succession. (14.) Period of the rotation at which drains should be executed. (15.) Position of main drains. (16.) Ditto in reference to surface. (17.) Ditto of small drains in reference to inclination of surface. (18.) Particulars determining depth. (19.) Ditto distances between drains. (20.) Contracts for cutting. (22.) liules for filling drains with stones. (23.) Drains with soles and tiles. (24.) Laying of ditto. (25.) Pipe-drains. (26.) Laying of ditto. (27.) Tile and stone drains. (28.) Outlets and levels. (29.) Returning the soil into the drains. (30.) Conducting draining operations. (31.) Ground plan of a thorough-dried field. (32.) Physical benefits derivable from draining. (33.) Pecuniary profits. (34.) Cost of draining by different methods. (35.) Draining railway cuttings. (30.) Flat stone drains. (37.) Peat tile ditto. (38.) Plug ditto. (39.) Hod. (40.) Mole. (41.) Larch tube. (42.) Brush- wood. (43.) Brick drain. (44.) Drain ploughs. (45.) Drain-tile machines. (40.) Machines for preparing clay. (47.) Inquiry as to whether landlords ought to undertake any or what part of the expense of draining. (48.) Theory of draining. (49.) Durability of drains. (50.) Trenching rough ground preparatory to, and conse- quent upon, drainage. In Demy Quarto, with Engravings, 10,. 6;L, ELKINGTON'S SYSTEM OF DRAINING. Edited by J. JOHNSTONE. 10 WOEKS ON AGRICULTUKE, ETC. A new Edition, with the Author's last Additions and Corrections, Svo, price 21*., THE PLANTER'S GUIDE. By SIR HENRY STEUART, Bart, of Allanton. TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR, AND AN ENGRAVING FROM A PORTRAIT BY RAEBURN. No point in arboriculture has been more keenly contested than the possibility of transplanting trees of considerable size. There can be no doubt that this, if prac- ticable, would be of great advantage, as respects both shelter and ornament, around newly-erected country or suburban residences ; and accordingly every possible means have been tried to secure such removals with safety and economy. What was in this way accomplished by Sir H. Steuart, at his residence at Allanton, excited so much interest and admiration, that an account of the methods employed seemed imperatively called for ; and with this the author combined a statement of his views as to the beneficial and ornamental disposal of wood, and the general management of forest trees. Though many years have since elapsed, and many improvements on mere machinery of removal have been made, it is still admitted by practical men that the principles of Sir H. Steuart' s method are the only ones on which such transplantations can be safely effected, and that on the full carrying out of these rests our only hope of accomplishing an object of great interest to landed proprietors in particular. In addition to a large variety of interesting and valuable notes and illustrations on various points of interest, the following are the principal sections of this work : The art of giving immediate effect to wood history of the art of arboriculture ; new theory its development preparation of the soil for open and close plantation preparation of the trees for removal taking up and transportation of trees with description of the machines useful in this department planting of the trees in the new situations treatment of trees subsequent to removal expense of the operations of the principal forest trees, oak, ash, &c. &c. The work is illustrated by six engravings and a portrait of the author. In Svo, price 12*., THE RURAL ECONOMY OF ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. By LEONCE DE LAVERGNE. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. WITH NOTES BY A SCOTTISH FARMER. To those who are desirous of gaining a knowledge of the rural economy of Great Britain, no better guide could be presented than the present work. It is not only political, but it is interesting ; it deals in a manner as singularly concise as it is fascinating and effective in style, with subjects valuable alike to the practical economist, the agriculturist, and the general reader. The following is a brief outline of the points taken up and illustrated. These, however, afford but little evidence of the philosophical as well as interesting and practical 'style of the work : (1.) Soil and climate. (2.) Sheep. (3.) Cattle. (4.) The crops. (5.) The gross produce. (6.) Rents, profits, and wages. (7.) Constitution of property. (8.) Constitution of farming. (9.) Country life. (10.) Political institutions. (11.) Markets. (12.) The customs' reform. (13.) High farming. (14.) The Southern {15. ) The Eastern (16.) Western (17.) Midland, and (18.) The Northern Counties. (19.) Wales and the Island?. (20.) Scotland. (21.) The Lowlands. (22.) The Highlands. (23.) Irelai d, (24.) State of Wexford. (25.) The Famine and Exodus. WOKKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. 11 Third Edition, much enlarged, in, Royal Octavo, with Engravings, price 30s., THE FORESTER: A PEACTICAL TEEATISE ON THE PLANTING, BEARING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOHE3T TREES. By JAMES BROWN, Wood-Manager to the Earl of Seafield, and Surveyor of Woods. WITH a view to render the book still more worthy of continuance in public favour, this edition has been carefully rewritten, and many new sections upon important subjects added, for the purpose of making it still better adapted as a complete guide in all forest operations ; in short, it has been so much enlarged and im- proved, that it may be considered in every respect a new book. Since the appearance of the Second Edition in 1851, the Author has been very extensively employed by landed proprietors in all parts of the country, in surveying and reporting oil the present state and future management of plantations, and of grounds adapted for planting. His observations and experience have thereby been very much extended, inasmuch as each district usually presents some distinctive and peculiar features, arising from the nature of the soil, aspect, and elevation above the sea : and the whole practical results from this extended and varied field of operations have been embodied in the present edition of " The Forester." In it, as in the former editions, the Author has confined himself entirely to his own experience in forest operations ; and his aim has been that of making his work plainly and practically useful as a forester's guide. The subject of keeping the Forest accounts has also been for the first time taken up in the present edition ; and a section has been added containing a complete sys- tem of Forest Book-keeping, with examples of all the various Books, and full explanations regarding them. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. Importance of Woodlands in Great Britain. The object of planting. The value of wood as a crop upon land. Forestry as at present understood and practised in Great Britain. Education necessary for foresters. What portions of the country should be put under trees, and what portions should not. Laying out of land for forests and plantations. Stone and lime walls. Dry stone-dykes with lime on cope only. Turf dykes. Wooden palings. Wire fences. The purpose and situation for which each sort of fence is most properly adapted. Gates.. Pre- paring ground for the growing of young trees. Drainage. Laying off and making of roads in new plantations. Trees considered as a profitable crop, and as ornamental objects on landed property. Descriptive character, habit, and peculiarities of the various forest trees. Season of the year best adapted for planting operations. How to choose young forest trees when buying them from public nurseries. Utility of proprietors having their own home nurseries. Management of the nursery. Kinds of forest trees which may be most profitably planted in any given district of the country. Expenses of laying down land under plantations. Game injurious to young trees. Pruning. Thinning plantations. Management of hard wooded plantations of considerable age, reared chiefly with a view to ornamental effect. Management of plantations of considerable age, reared with a view to a crop of timber only. Rules and regulations necessary to be observed in the cutting down and selling of trees, whether as thinnings or clearings of old timber. Rearing and management of plantations for a supply of hop-poles. Management of general coppice plantations. The stripping and drying of bark used for tanning. Cause of dis- ease among larch plantations. Exteinal symptoms of disease in trees, and general causes of the same. The periodical increase of timber in the different species of forest trees. How to find the value of growing plantations, and of full-grown timber trees. Method of transplanting large trees, and description of machines for performing that operation. Method of renewing the health of old or decayed trees. Kinds of plants best fitted for under- wood, and how they may be planted in a wood so as to produce useful and ornamental effect.. Hints in reference to the felling of timber. The application of water and steam powers to the manufacture of timber. The prepar- ing of timber for better preservation. Reporting on woodlands. System of book-keeping adapted to forest operations. In Octavo, price 5s., YIEW OE THE SALMON-FISHERY OF SCOTLAND. WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURE, HABITS, AND INSTINCTS OF THE SALMON, AND ON THE LAW AS AFFECTING THE RIGHTS OF PARTIES, &C. &C. By the Late MUEDO MACKENZIE, Esq. of Cardross and Dundonald. 12 WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. Sixty two highly -finished Engravings, medium 4.to, with Descriptions, 42*. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE FARM : A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOB FARM-HOUSES, FARM-STEADINGS, FACTORS* HOUSES, AND LABOURERS' COTTAGES. By JOHN STARFORTH, Architect. THE work comprises a series of sixty-two plates, finished in the highest style of art, all the drawings and designs being carefully prepared by the Author. Eight designs for labourers' cottages, of different styles and accommodation, with two plates of working details, are given, taking up 1 7 plates. The next two are occupied by a design for a farm bailiff's house ; these being followed by a series of four designs for different classes of farm-houses in plates 18 to 35 inclusive. Plates 36 to 38 take up a design for a factor's house, while 39 to 44 illustrate the arrangements and decorations of a house adapted for a proprietor farming his own estate. These comprise the first division of the work ; the second being occupied with plates 45 to 62 inclusive, illustrative of designs for farm-steadings, for water, horse, and steam-power, adapted for farms of various sizes, including the design for which the Author obtained the Highland and Agricultural Society's Gold Medal. General details of construction and descriptions of each plate are added ; and in the preparation of the work every pains has been taken to produce a practical and useful volume, calculated to meet the wants of the present time. In Crown Svo, with upwards of 500 Engravings on Wood. Second Edition, price 6s. 6d., THE HANDBOOK OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS: CONCERNED IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF DWELLINGS AND OTHER BUILDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL HINTS ON ROAD-MAKING AND THE ENCLOSING OF LAND. By R. SCOTT BURN, Engineer. ALTHOUGH the agriculturist is not generally conversant with the operations and processes connected with the mechanical arts, still numerous instances are sure to arise in every-day practice, in which even a slight knowledge of them would be of great pecuniary value. The various operations demanded by the exigencies of farm life, and the numerous claims made on the mechanical ingenuity and abilities of the farmer, tend to render a work peculiarly valuable to him which bears on those branches of the mechanical arts which are in the most frequent requisition. This desideratum the present work is designed to supply. Every care has been taken in the preparation of the working drawings with which the work is profusely illustrated, and by judicious compression of materials to present a mass of practical information which will enable the reader to carry on many operations without involving the expense of hired labour. The following are the divisions of the work : (1.) House arrangement and conveniences. (2.) Building specifications bills of quantities and estimates. (3.) Fireplaces, stoves, and cooking-ovens. (4.) Chimneys. (5.) Ventilation. (6.) Water-closets. (7.) Water its qualities and filtration. (8.) Cisterns. (!*.) Foundations and drains. (10.) Solid ground-floors. (11.) Log cabin or shanty. (12.) Frame-houses. (13 ) Pis, or hard-rammed earth. (14.) Unburiit bricks. (15.) Brick- setting. (16.) Stone walls construction. (17 ) Fire-proof construction. (18.) Theory of carpentry. (19.) Prac- tice of carpentry. Joints floors roofs partitions gates and bridges. (20.) Iron-framing roofs and columns. (21.) Joinery tools mouldings doors windows staircasing. (22.) Smith-work. (23.) Practical mechanism, and the fitting and construction of machines. (24.) Brickmaking. (25.) Roof-covering. Exterior and inte- rior finishings. Plastering. Painting. (26'.) Mortars. Concrete. Cements. (27.) Enclosing of land. Fences. (23 ) Road-making. (29.) Well-sinking. (30.) Farm and agricultural buildings. Index. WORKS OX AGKKTLTrUE, ETC. 13 Fifty-second Edition, pria Is., A CATECHISM AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.K.S.E., &c. THE object held in view in compiling the present little work was the preparation of a manual sufficiently elementary to be used even in our humblest schools, yet so precise and complete as to constitute in itself a complete course of instruction in the applied science of which it treats. The reception it has experienced, as exem- plified in the issue of a Fifty-second Edition, may be held as proof that in general estimation it has achieved its aim. The Work is arranged under the following sections, in the form of question and answer, and is amply illustrated by diagrams : (1.) General relations of the plant, the soil, and the animal (2.) Compound substances of which the organic part of plants and animals consists. (3.) Elementary bodies of which the compound substances contained in the organic part of plants, animals, and soi's consist. (4.) Of the organic food of plants. (5.) Composition and properties of water, ammonia, and nitric acid. (ti. ) Composition of woody tibre, starch, sugar, gum, and liumic acid, and how they are formed in the plant or the soil. (7.) Composition of fat, gluten, and fibrin, and how they are formed in the plant and the animal. (8.) Substances of which the inorganic, mineral, or incombustible part of soils, plants, and animals consists. (!).) Origin and general characters of soils. (10.) Improvement of the soil by deep-ploughing, subsoiliuz, and draining. (11.) Composition and material relations of the inorganic, part of the soil and the plant. (12.) Effect of cropping upon the soil. (13.) Vegetable manures. (14.) Of the parts of animals used as manures. (15.) Of the droppings or dung of animals. (16.) Of saline and mineral manures. (17.) Of limestone, and of the burning and use of lime. (IS.) Of the proportions of starch, gluten, and fat contained in the crops which the farmer usually reap-;. (10.) Uses of the starch of our crops in the feeding of animals. (20.) Uses of the gluten, fat. and mineral matter of plants in the feeding of animals. (21.) Of milk and dairy produce, and the feeding of milk cows. Seventh Edition, greatly fnlari/fJ, jirive 6.'-. ()