UCSB LIBRARY

THE

BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS

TUK

BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS

THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION

HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.

AUTHOR OF THE "BOOK OF Til 10 FAIIM," F.TC.

ROBERT SCOTT BURN

]. X G I X F, E Ft

" He's got no notion about buildings : you can so seldom get hold of a man as can turn his
brains to more nor one thing ; it's just as if they wore blinkers like th' horses, and could see
nothing o" one side of 'em. Now, there's Mr Irwine has got notions o' building more nor most
architects ; for as for th' architects .... most of "em don't know where to set a chimney
so as it shan't be quarrelling with a door. My notion is, a practical builder, that's got a bit o'
taste, makes the best architect for common things ; and I've ten times the pleasure i' seeing
after the work when I've made the plan myself." Adam Bede, vol. iii. p. '2'2l.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS

EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCLXI

P E E F A C E,

THE object of this work is twofold one, to establish principles upon
which the planning of farm-buildings should be based the other, to
concentrate correct and valuable information on the nature and use
of the materials employed in constructing farm-buildings.

It may astonish those of our readers who are agriculturists, to learn
for the first time that principles should still be sought for in the plan-
ning of farm-steadings, after so long an experience of their use. The
surprise would be greatly modified were they to take into consideration
the care that should be bestowed in placing the numerous apartments
of steadings relatively where they should be ; and they would then
discover that these are generally by no means so conveniently arranged
as they might be. At any rate, it is clear that the same arrange-
ment of apartments in a steading for a pastoral farm, where live-
stock alone are reared, would not be suitable for a strong clay land
farm, where no stock are reared at all. We contrast these two ex-
treme cases to make our meaning the clearer. But, however great
a difference of arrangement is required in such extreme cases, a
material difference also exists in cases even more alike. It will at
once be admitted that a different arrangement should be made where
stock are reared from where they are not ; but even where stock are
reared, it must also be conceded that considerable difference in the
arrangement is required where the sorts of farming differ. For
example, stock are reared on both pastoral and dairy farms, but the

vi PREFACE.

arrangement of apartments should be as different in these as between
a pastoral and a carse farm, although the apartments themselves may
be formed alike. Again, stock are reared in both dairy and mixed
husbandry farms, yet the arrangement of the apartments should be
quite different in such different modes of farming. Moreover, stock
are fattened in both common and mixed husbandry farms, but the
apartments in breeding should be quite differently placed from those
in feeding farms. We may therefore safely conclude that each mode
of farming requires its own arrangement of apartments in the stead-
ing, so that each class of steading should have its distinguishing
features. Having arrived at this conclusion, the question naturally
arises, Do existing steadings really possess such distinctive character-
istics i. We believe they do not. We suspect very many do not
indicate at a glance the purpose for which they were constructed.
And why should this be so ? In other mechanical arts we find no
difficulty in distinguishing one building from another. No one would
mistake a flour-mill for a spinning-mill, or a factory for a warehouse.
So ought we to be able to distinguish the system of farming by the
structure of the steadings, and we could do so easily were steadings
really constructed in conformity with the system of farming they are
intended to accommodate.

It is our ambition to plan steadings that will at once tell the system
of farming they are intended for. If we can do this, we conceive we
would do a good thing for the agricultural community, and we believe
we have done it. But we are sure we could not have done it without
following principles, and those we have followed have only been
apprehended after much practical thought and observation. On fol-
lowing them out, convenience and economy in construction gradually
developed themselves : and the entire results we here endeavour to
place before our readers, accompanied with copious illustrations. The
principles referred to are fully explained at p. 6, and their particular
application to each sort of farming is illustrated in the Description of
Plates I. to VIII.

Besides steadings, the construction of farmhouses should be based
upon the requirements incidental to the occupation of such a dwelling.
These requirements are enumerated in pp. 54-57. The leading prin-

r HE FACE. vii

ciplcs are, that the working and dwelling parts of a farmhouse should
be kept separate; that the working part should be, in all cases, nearly
of the same dimensions, because the utensils employed and the room
required for work arc nearly the same in all cases ; and that the
dwelling part should be enlarged and embellished in conformity with
the importance of the farm.

Farm -cottages require careful consideration in their construction.
We have endeavoured to evince that care in the observations we
have made on that interesting class of dwellings in pp. 93, 94. The
guiding principle is that farm-cottages should be made to suit the
number of the family to occupy them, and not to make them all
of one size. A married couple only require one room ; while the same,
with a family, require at least three, and even more rooms, according
to the number of the family. Wherever a hind is bound to provide a
field-worker, his cottage requires one apartment more than where no
such obligation exists.

In drawing out the plans of farm-cottages, the principle in all cases
has been rigidly adhered to, of first deciding what was required in the
way of apartments, sculleries, &c., to make the cottages, when con-
structed, absolutely convenient, so as to secure in the best possible
manner, not the comfort merely of their inhabitants, but also to aid in
the exercise of economical and orderly housewifery ; for it appeared to
us axiomatic that, in order to secure household order and economy,
it is essential that those constructive conveniences be supplied to all
cottages by which these alone are attainable ; for it is an easy thing to
demand of the labouring man's household that everything shall be in
its proper place, but not so easy nay, impossible to do this if the
place is not provided. The primary aim, then, of a planner of a house
being to arrange it so that it shall in the fullest and widest sense of
the term be fit to live in, we so endeavoured to plan the structures,
without reference to what their external form would be. The plan in
all cases defined the design, not the design the plan. There is an
essential distinction between these two terms here italicised, which we
endeavoured to keep in view. For the system, not seldom followed,
of predetermining what the external form of a house shall be that is to
say, how it shall look when finished and thereafter crushing into the

viii PREFACE.

outline thus obtained, not what should be, but what can be got into
the outline in the way of apartments and conveniences, is obviously
subversive of all sound attempts to obtain a thoroughly convenient
house. This principle, if principle it can be called, we endeavoured
to avoid. Hence, however, we do not conceal from ourselves the
objections which will be made to the designs of their structure, archi-
tecturally speaking. These, as indicated above, having been defined
by the plan, which was carefully elaborated beforehand, do not perhaps
admit of the architectural pose, so to speak, which another system of
planning would perhaps have admitted of. Our aim, however, we do
not hesitate to say, has been to plan houses fit to live in, rather than
to design structures pretty or pleasing to look at. And yet, we
believe, few will be disposed to deny that the perspective designs of
farmhouses and cottages to be seen on some of the plates, founded
upon the ground-plans we have given, are both pretty and ornamental.
Nor, on the other hand, are we ignorant of this, that adverse criticism
will be freely given as to the mere planning or arrangement of the
apartments. But for this we are prepared. Some experience in the
matter leads us to know that, however well arranged a house may
seem, it is an easy matter to pick out faults in it, and to suggest im-
provements. But as the opinions of many men are various " Many
men, many minds/' says the truthful proverb and as the mere changes
of which a given number of apartments are susceptible, so far as re-
gards change of position, are exceedingly numerous, it would be strange
indeed if one plan pleased all. It is sufficient for us to know that we
have in all cases attempted, to the best of our ability, to plan struc-
tures which will enable all the operations for which they are designed
to be carried on with comfort and economy.

So much for the first object of the work namely, the establishing
of principles upon which the planning of farm -buildings should be
based. With reference to the second object the concentration of
information on the nature and use of the materials employed in their
construction we may be permitted to say that we have endeavoured
to secure this concentration, and that we believe we have in some
degree practically attained it, by the adoption of a style of description
which, while conveying sound information, is yet so free from all un-

PREFACE. ix

necessary technicalities, as to be within the easy comprehension of all
not practically conversant with the various branches of construction.
To aid in this, illustrations have been given, to a degree of profusion
not often attempted in similar works ; and these have been specially,
in the great majority of instances, designed for the purposes of this
work, and drawn to scale, so as to be practically available in the work-
shop of the mechanic, as well as useful in elucidating the study of
the amateur in construction. We do not lay claim to having illustrated
and described all the constructive appliances which inventive genius is
daily elaborating and multiplying : to do this would have been impos-
sible in any work within the limits of a Cyclopaedia ; and if it had
been possible, it would have been unnecessary. Enough that we have
embraced within the pages of our work, leading and practically useful
examples of the various constructive and economical appliances of farm-
buildings. Modifications of these are obviously endless ; and to have
given these as it would have been easy enough to have done while
they might have added to the bulk, could not have added much to the
practical value of the work. At the same time, we may be allowed to
say that, so far as the different branches of farm-building construction
and appliances are concerned, we have concentrated within this work
a vast amount of information, which, lying scattered through the pages
of numerous works, many of which are, from their high pi-ice, rarity, or
being clothed in foreign languages, practically inaccessible to the great
majority of readers. Further, a large amount of the information and
illustration in the work being specially prepared for its pages, cannot,
we have reason to believe, be elsewhere met with.

On the whole, viewing the copiousness of its descriptions, and the
profusion of drawings and figures by which these are illustrated, we
venture to hope that the work will take its place as a trustworthy
guide to the mechanic who may be constructing, or the agricul-
turist who may be planning, highly interesting varieties of farm-
buildings, required in the various forms of agriculture practised in
the United Kingdom.

The description of the individual Plates affords full information of
the subjects they contain. To produce a pictorial effect, the isometrical
perspectives of the steadings for Carsc, Dairy, and Common farming,

x PKEFACE.

have been executed with the view of comparing them with the
simpler, but perhaps more useful, isometrical plans. For the same
reason, perspective ornamental designs of the different classes of Farm-
houses and Cottages have been sketched upon the same ground-plan
as the simpler designs, that a contrast might be exhibited between the
simplest and the most ornamental the least costly and the most
costly structure.

HEXRY STEPHENS.
EGBERT SCOTT BURN.

EDINBURGH, June 1861.

CONTENTS,

I. PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT.

1. PLANS OF STEADINGS BASED UPON
FIXED PRINCIPLES, . . 1

Cattle Pastoral Farming, . . 7

Sheep Pastoral Farming, . . 9

Cattle Pastoral Farming, with Arable

Culture, . . . .11

Sheep Pastoral Farming, with Arable
' Culture, .... 13
Carse or Clay -land Farming, . 14

Dairy Farming (large), . .16

Dairy Farming (small), . . 19

Suburbial Farming, with Arable Cul-
ture, . . . . .21
Suburbial Dairy Farming, . . 22
Common Farming, . . .24
Mixed Husbandry, . . .28
Plans of Roofs of Steadings, . . 32

2. PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS, . 38

Southhill Park, Surrey, . . 39

Drumkilbo, Forfarshire, . . 40

Morphie, Kincardineshire, . . 42

Coleshill, Berkshire, . . .44

Wark, Northumberland, . . 47

Inverquharity, Forfarshire, . . 48

3. PLANS OF FARMHOUSES, . . 52

First-class Farmhouse, . . 58

First-class Farmhouse, . . 02

First-class Farmhouse, . . 67

Second-class Farmhouse, . . 72

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES Continued.

Third-class Farmhouse, . . "6

Third-class Farmhouse, . . 77

Third-class Farmhouse, . . 79

Third-class Farmhouse, . . 80

4. PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES, . 83

Single-roomed Single-storeyed Cottages, 94

Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 96

Single-storeyed Cottage, . . 98

Two-storeyed Cottage,

Double-detached Cottages, .

Single-storeyed Double-detached Cot-
tages,

Two-storeyed Double - detached Cot-
tages, . . . .105

Single-storeyed Double-detached Cot-
tages, witli Houses of different
sizes, . . . .110

Two-storeyed Double -detached Cot-
tages, with Houses of different sizes, 111

Improving defectively arranged Cot-
tages,

Composite Cottages, .

Bothies,

Outhouses for Single Cottages,

Outhouses for Double-detached Cot-
tages,

Outhouses for Two Double-detached
Composite Cottages, . .123

102

113

114
118
122

122

Xll

CONTENTS.

II. PRACTICE IN CONSTRUCTION.

1. MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUC-
TION :

Stones, . . .131

Brick, . . -138

Slates, Tiles, . .140

Mortar, Concrete, Beton, Hydraulic

Cements, and Cements, . . 141

Exterior Finishings, Rough - casting,

Stuccoing, .... 147
Finishings of Interior Walls, Plaster-
ing, .... 148
Painting, . . . .149
Timber, . . . .152
Metals, . . . .159

2. SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS:

General Specifications, . .165

Specification adapted to a Steading of

Stone, . . . .169

Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse

of Brick, . . . .181

Measurements in Specifications, . 187
Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse

of Stone, . . . .191

Specifications adapted to Cottages of

Brick, . . . .194

Specifications adapted to Cottages of

Stone, . . . .200

Contracts, . . . .204

3. PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION :

Foundations, . ' . . . 205
Stone Construction.

Stone Masonry, . . . 209

Brick Construction, . . . 214

Embankments, . . . 224

Dams, Weirs, . . .233

Conduits, . . . - 237

Drains, . . .239

Dry-stone Dykes, . . .242

Farm Roads, . , . .247

Well-Sinking, . . .250

Liquid-manure Tanks, - . . 253

Horse-pond, . . ; . 259
Fittings of the Farmhouse in Stone and

Brick, . ... .259

Fittings of the Steading in Stone, . 273

Pise Walls, . 276

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION Continued.

Timber Construction.

Joinings of Timber, . . .281

Floors, . . . .292

Partitions, .... 294
Roofs, . . . .297

Gutters, .... 321
Stairs, .... 314

Fittings of the Farmhouse in Wood, 317
Doors, . . . .317

Windows, . . . .321

Fittings of the Steading in Wood, . 333
Stables, . . . .333

Ventilators in Wood, . . 339

Byres, . . . .343

Cattle-boxes, . . . .346

Calves' Houses, . . . 348

Courts, . . . .349

Straw-barn, . . . .351

Corn-barn, .... 352
Granary Windows, . . . 354

Stackyard, . . . .355

Centres for Arches, . . . 356

Bridges of Wood, . . . 357

Sluices, . . . .360

Gates of Wood, . . .363

Timber Houses and Sheds, . . 368

Iron Construction.

Iron Beams, .... 375
Iron Columns, . . . 381

Iron Roofs, .... 384
Fittings of the Farmhouse in Iron, . 402
Locks, . . . .402

Hinges, .... 405

Fastenings of Window-blinds, . 406

Fastenings for Stair-rods, . . 407

Iron Ventilators, . . 408, 417

Iron Chimney-guards, . . 408

Gas Regulators, . . .410

Bells, . . . .411

Taps and Cocks, . . .411

Traps, . . . 413, 416

Grates, . . . .414

Cooking-apparatus, . . . 414

Gas Stove, . . . .415

Fittings of the Steading in Iron, . 415
Gutters for Stables, . . .415

Gratings, .... 416
Stalls, . . .419

Feeding-troughs, . . . 422

Bridges of Iron, . . . 424

CONTENTS.

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION Continued.

Sluice-valves, . . . 427

Gates of Iron, . . 4:29

Wire Fences, . . . 484
Iron Sheds, . . . .442

Combined Construction.

Wood combined with Iron, . . 446

Wood combined with Stone and Brick, 4.">4

Irou combined with Concrete, . 456

Iron combined with Wood, . . 461

Iron combined with Slate, . . 462

Iron combined with Zinc, . . 462

4. MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES :

Tools of the Joiner, . . . 466

Tools of the Mason, . . .468

Tools of the Smith, . . .469

Machines for the Workshop.

Vertical Saw Frame for cutting Trees, 473
Endless Band Saw, . . . 474

Mortising, Boring, Tenoning Machine, 475
Sheep-fence-making Machine, . 476

Lathe, . . . .477

Drilling and Boring Machines, . 477

Useful Apparatus for the Farm.

Caldrons and Furnace, . . 478

Fire-engine, .... 479

Pumps, .... 479

Hydraulic Ram, . . . 480

Steam-pump, .... 481

Cranes, .... 482

Gas Apparatus, . . . 485

5. DETACHED ERECTIONS :

Isolated Byre, . . . 487

Isolated Dairy, . . . 488

Sheep-feeding Sheds, . . 489

Poultry-houses, . . . 490

DETACHED ERECTIONS Continued.

Pigeon-houses, . . .491

Babbitry, . . . .492

Piggeries, . . . .492

Slaughter-house, . . . 493

Grain-drying Kilns, Sheds, and Ma-
chines, .... 494
Tank Granaries, . . . 507

Brick-kilns and Drying-sheds, . 509

Drain-tile Work, . . . 510

Plans of Farm Carpenter's Shop and
Smithy, . . . .510

6. FOREIGN FARM-BUILDINGS :

Belgian and Dutch Steadings, . 513

American Barns, . . . 517

French Steading at Vincennes, . 525

7. ESTIMATES AND CALCULATIONS OF
ARTIFICERS' WORK OF VARIOUS
KINDS :

Diggers' and Excavators' Work, . 526
Brickwork, . . . .526

Stone-paving, . . . 527

Carpentry and Joinery Work, . 528

Tables for Calculating the Quantity
of Timber in Joists, Hoofs, Parti-
tions, Roof-trusses, &c., in a given
Scantling and Space Apart, . 529

Calculations of the Cubical Contents
of Timber in 1 Square of 100 feet
of Roofing, .... 530
Calculations of the Cubical Contents
of Timber in 1 Square of 100 feet
of Partition, . . . 533

Wrought-iron Girders and Beams, . 533
Weight of Round Iron Bars as Ten-
sion-rods for Roof -trusses, . 534
Weight of Lead and surface covered

by it of a given weight to the foot, 534
Glossary of Technical Terms, . 535

Index, . . . .547

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

ON inspecting the Plates in this volume, the reader is requested to keep
in mind the following explanations regarding them.

The Plans of the Steadings, from Plate I. to X., are not plans of any exist-
ing steadings ; they are only illustrations of the principles upon which the
Authors consider that the apartments of all steadings ought to be arranged.
The principles are simple, as expressed in general terms at p. 6, and, in par-
ticular, they are these : That straw, being the most bulky and most useful in-
gredient in a steading in winter, should be placed at its centre, as the point
most accessible to every apartment ; that the apartments required for each sort
of work in the steading should be placed next each other, as it were in groups,
to avoid crossings when different sorts of work are simultaneously carried on,
as are inconveniently experienced in too many existing steadings ; that ample
accommodation should be afforded to each sort of work to be done ; and
that the groups of apartments should bear such a relation to each other as
to be in strict conformity with the system of agriculture adopted on the farm.
The plans, in illustration of the principles just enunciated, are the results of
much thought and practical experience in the endeavour to apply them to actual
use. In this endeavour, it will be observed that the apartments appropriated
to arable culture such as the work-house stable, cart-shed are placed on the
one side of the straw-barn, while those devoted to live stock, whether in a
dairy, breeding, or feeding farm, are placed on the other side. The plans
might be adopted just as they stand, or modified according to circumstances
the arrangements being rather suggestive than imperative. For example,
the apartments consigned to the use of the arable part of the farm may be
placed on the right or the left of the straw-barn, according to convenience in
relation to the fields; and the same transposition may be made as regards
the apartments occupied by breeding, feeding, or dairy stock ; or any apart-
ment may be larger or smaller, according to the work expected to be done in it.

The attention of the reader is particularly directed to the construction of the
plans, they being neither the common ground-plan, nor the isometric perspec-
tive. The obvious objection to the ordinary ground-plan is, that it exhibits no
more than a horizontal section of the walls at the level of the ground, which
affords nothing more than a mere outline of the building. The elevated,
horizontally-sectional, perspective plans here adopted, convey to the mind a
clear idea of the form and capacity of each apartment, with its doors and
windows, as if finished for use ; while the isometric mode of perspective, as
far as it is given, affords equal facility for the measurement of the walls with
the compasses as the common ground-plan, and at the same time preserves
the value of a full isometrical perspective. A ground-plan, moreover, im-

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. xv

parts no idea of the external form of a building, which a perfected isometric
perspective certainly does ; but this, on the other hand, gives no insight into
the interior arrangement of the apartments, whilst the sectional isometric here
submitted, it is believed for the iiivst time to the public, not only manifests
the interior arrangement, but the dotted lines above the sectional walls in
conjunction with them, give as complete an idea of the exterior form of the
building with its roof a.s may be desired. On account of these advantages,
we think that this particular plan should be adopted for all buildings, by builders
and their employers; and both the mason and the carpenter might make it their
working plan.

These plans of steadings are intended to suit the different kinds of farming
practised in this kingdom. For Pastoral Farming there are four plans ; Carse
Farming, one plan ; Dairy Farming, two plans ; Suburbial Farming, two plans ;
Common Farming, one plan ; and for Mixed Husbandry, one plan : in all, eleven
plans. At all the plans the Arrow points to the North.

We shall now describe each Plan separately, as exhibited upon its Plates.

I. PLAN OF A DETACHED PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE.

Fig. 1 illustrates courts and sheds for sheltering cattle during a storm in winter on the
hills. These may be constructed to any extent in one place, or at different places,
where it may be most convenient to make hay. The farm may be of any extent.

Fig. 2 represents the steading suitable for such a farm, and its simplest form is the single
row. The farmhouse should be near the steading.

I. PLAN OF A COMPACT PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE.

Fig. 3 combines the courts and sheds with the apartments of the steading, which form wings
to the courts and afford them shelter, one wing being devoted to the working animals,
and the other to the animals useful to the house. A steading of this form necessarily
limits the extent and number of the cattle-courts, and is therefore adapted to a smaller
farm than Fig. 1.

II. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE, WITH ARABLE CULTURE.

Fig. 1 represents the first attempt to illustrate the principles enunciated in the prelimi-
nary remarks, by placing the straw in the centre, supported on each side by cattle-
courts, and flanked on one side with a wing containing the apartments used in arable
husbandry, and on the other with a wing containing those for domestic use. The
cart-horse stable contains two pairs of horses, which indicates a size of arable hill-farm
of from 120 to 140 acres.

II. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP, WITH ARABLE CULTURE.

Fig. 2 contains the straw in the centre, flanked on either side with a wing, such as has
been described above for cattle, no courts for sheltering sheep on a pastoral farm being
recpiired at the steading, stells being used for that purpose, and which are represented
in the body of the work by woodcuts. The cart-horse stable accommodates two pairs
of horses, which will cultivate a hill-farm of from 120 to 140 acres.

III. PLAN OF A CARSE FARM-STEADING.

This is a steading for farming strong clay-land, which species of soil was almost solely
devoted to the cultivation of the cereal crops, cattle being used chiefly for trampling
down the straw, until thorough-draining came into vogue and guano was employed
in raising green crops : since then cattle are fattened on turnips and naangold-wurzel,
and must therefore be accommodated, which they are, in this plan, on both sides of the
straw. The cart-horse stable accommodates six pairs of horses, which will cultivate a
clay farm of 240 acres.

IV. PLAN OF A LARGE DAIRY FARM-STEADING.

A large dairy farm-steading should afford ample accommodation for a considerable number
of milking cows, and for the products derived from milk, as well as for the young stock
which are to replace the cows when they become aged, and for the pigs which consume

xvi DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE

the refuse of the dairy. No dairy farm can be conducted without some arable culture to
raise roots, hay, and straw, for the stock. In this plan it will be seen that the wing
appropriated to the use of the arable culture is separated from the buildings connected
with the dairy by the straw-barn, which takes up its proper position between the two.
The byre contains stalls for fifty-six aged cows, and others for heifers in calf. The
cart-horse stable contains three pairs of horses, which will cultivate an arable farm of
from 180 to 210 acres.

V. PLAN OF A SMALL DAIRY FARM-STEADING.

Fig. 1 is a steading for a small dairy farm, which may be somewhat differently arranged
from that of a large one, inasmuch as the space is necessarily much contracted for the
fewer number of apartments required, but which circumstance, on the other hand,
enables them to be compactly arranged. While the separation of the arable from the
dairy apartments is preserved, it will be seen from the plan that the straw still main-
tains its central position, between the two separate departments of farm labour. The
byre contains stalls for thirteen cows. The cart-horse stable contains three horses,
which will cultivate an arable farm of 70 to 100 acres.

V. PLAN OF A SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE.

Fig. 2 shows how the arrangement of the apartments of a steading for a farm in the neigh-
bourhood of a town may be adapted alone for arable culture, while keeping the farming
and domestic apartments separate by the central position of the straw. The cart-horse
stable accommodates four pairs of horses, which will cultivate an arable farm, in easy
land near a town, of from 240 to 280 acres.

VI. PLAN OF A SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR DAIRY.

Besides arable culture, the suburbial farm the farm in the neighbourhood of a town
may have a dairy, and this plan is suited for that purpose. The two great divisions of
arable and dairy culture are separated by the central supply of straw and other con-
veniences. The byre contains stalls for fifty cows. The cart-horse stable accom-
modates five horses, which will cultivate an arable farm of easy land, near a town, of
from 160 to 180 acres.

VII. PLAN OF A COMMON FARM-STEADING.

Fig. 1 is a steading adapted for the ordinary farming of the country, at a distance from
towns, consisting of arable culture, in conjunction with the fattening of oxen purchased
for the purpose. The fattening cattle'may be accommodated in three different ways,
in hammels, in boxes, and in byres. The plan shows the space on each side of the straw-
barn to be occupied by hammels.

Fig. 2 shows the boxes which might in lieu occupy the same space ; and

Fig. 3 shows the byres which may be substituted in the same place for either.

The cart-horse stable contains stalls for six pairs of horses, and, according to the rotation
of husbandry pursued, four to six shift, this steading will answer for 360 to 480 acres.

VIII. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY.

Fig. 1 is also a steading adapted for a farm at a distance from a town, like that for com-
mon farming, but the stock on a farm of mixed husbandry are bred and fattened upon
it. These may be accommodated here, as there, in hammels, boxes, or byres. The plan
shows the adoption of the hammels, and their position is on one side of the straw-
barn, while the breeding stock are accommodated on the other side.

Fig. 2 contains the plan of the boxes ; and

Fig. 3 that of the byre ; with

Fig. 4, the plan of dung-stance and food-stores in connection with the byre.

The cart-horse stable contains only six pairs of horses, in consequence of a longer stable
not finding room in the Plate, but the stable may be extended to any desired length.
The part of the steading appropriated to the breeding and fattening stock is intended
for a farm of 500 acres, which would require seven pairs of horses, in a five-course shift.
The byre contains stalls for twenty breeding cows.

IX. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A FARM-STEADING FOR MlXED HUSBANDRY.

This isometric perspective of the steading in Plate VIII. is introduced merely to show the
extent of accommodation, and the form in the simplest style of building and roofing.
These may be ornamented to any degree to please the taste of the owner ; but our
opinion is, that the more simple the style of a farm-steading is, the more durable it will
prove, if constructed in the most substantial manner.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. xvii

PLATE

X. PLANS OF THE ROOFS OF THE FARM-STEADINGS IN PLATES I. TO VIII.

The roofs are all in straight lines, and terminate in Cables, in raglins against a wall, or at
right angles in gutters against another roof. With one exception, in fig. 7, pavilion
roofs are avoided, on account of primary expense, and after-liability to be affected by
the weather.

The plans of the steadings, in Plates XI. to XVI, have recently been constructed
in different parts of the country, and are here introduced by way of
contrast to or comparison with the principles which we here endeavour
to establish.

XI. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS on the property of Sir W. G. Hayter, Bart., M.P.,
at Soutlihill Park, Bracknell, Surrey.

It will be observed that there are two apartments for straw in this steading besides the
straw-barn, which at once indicates the inconvenient position of that primary and
indispensable apartment. The work-horse stable contains ten stalls for horses, which
number will cultivate a farm of ordinary soil of 300 to 3f>0 acres.

XII. PLAN OF THE FARM-STEADING AT DRUMKILRO, FORFARSIIIRE, belonging to
Lord Wharncliffe.

This plan nearly illustrates the principles we have enunciated ; the straw-barn, however,
being a little too far removed from some of the cattle-courts and stables. The work-
horse stable contains ten stalls for horses, which should cultivate a farm of ordinary
soil of 300 to 350 acres.

XIII. PLAN OF A FARM-STEADING AT MORPIIIE, KINCARDINESIIIRE, belonging to
Barren Graham, Esq.

This is an example of an entirely covered steading, a plan of but recent commendation,
suggested, without doubt, by the covered stations at railways. The straw-barn here
is conveniently situated for the principal feeding-byre and work-stable, but is too far
removed from the other cattle-courts, and the straw has to be objectionably carried
from it through one apartment into another. The cart-horse stable contains accommo-
dation for six pairs of horses, which should cultivate from 360 to 420 acres of ordinary
soil.

XIV. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS, belonging to E. W. Moore, Esq., at Coleshill,
Highworth, Berkshire.

This is another illustration of a covered steading. The straw-barn is too far from the
principal feeding-boxes for cattle. The pigsties, too, are nearer the straw-barn than the
cattle-boxes, which should not be. The straw is, moreover, obliged to be put in one
instance into another apartment. The cart-horse stable contains twelve stalls, which
number of horses should cultivate from 360 to 420 acres.

XV. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF COLESHILL FARM-BUILDINGS.

It will be observed that the architecture of this steading is somewhat of an ornamental
description, and looks very well. ,

XVI. PLAN OF FARM-BUILDINGS AT WARK, COUNTY OF NORTHUMBERLAND, be-
longing to the Earl of Tankerville.

It will at once be observed that the straw-barn of this steading is placed at one side of
the building, and far away from most of the feeding-boxes and courts ; the consequence
of which inconvenience is, that a straw stack has to be built near these apartments.
The cart-horse stable contains twenty-four stalls, which number of horses will culti-
vate from 840 to 1200 acres. The greater number of horses on a farm will cultivate, in
proportion to the number, a larger extent of land.

XVII. PLAN OF A FARM- STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY, FORFARSHIRE, belonging
to the Trustees of the late Charles Lyell, Esq. of Kinnordy.

This is an example of converting an old into a new steading, and a good example it is.
It is a partially covered-in steading, but the objectionable pavilion form of roof prevails.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE

XVIII. FRONT ELEVATIONS OP FARMHOUSES.

Fig. 1 is the front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Tudor-Gothic style.

Fig. 2 is a second alternative front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Tudor-Gothic

style, adapted for three storeys.
Fig. 3 is an alternative front elevation of a first-class farmhouse in the Italian style, to the

front elevation of the same style in fig. 36, p. 64 Fig. 26 is a side elevation ; fig. 27

a back elevation, p. 60 ; fig. 28 a side elevation, finished to show stone rubble walling ;

and fig. 29 a longitudinal section, p. 61.
A back elevation of an alternative Italian style is shown at fig. 30, p. 62.

XIX. VERTICAL SAW FRAME FOR CUTTING UP TREES.

Fig. 1. End elevation of the saw-frame, with the tree in cross section.

Fig. 2. Side elevation of the saw-frame, with the trunk of the tree in length.

XX CIRCULAR SAW FRAME.

Fig. 1. Side elevation of the circular saw and frame.

Fig. 2. Plan of the circular saw and frame.

Fig. 3. End elevation of the circular saw and frame.

XXI. ENDLESS-BAND SAW.

Fig. 1. Side elevation of the endless-band saw.
Fig. 2. End elevation of the endless-band saw.

The plans of the steadings in Plates I. to VIII. may be regarded as working
plans, without any attempt at embellishment, and even the isometrical elevation
of the steading for mixed husbandry on Plate IX. exhibits but the simplest form
of a perspective view that is possible to delineate; yet it is quite sufficient to con-
vey to the mind the external aspect of the building, and may therefore be re-
garded as a representation well suited to an architect for an accompaniment to a
plan. But in order to show how easily the bare outline of the isometric eleva-
tion may be converted into a picturesque form, we give in shaded isometrical
perspective three of the steadings which have been described.

XXII. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A CARSE FARM-STEADING.

The position of the stackyard, which is always a prominent figure in a carse farm, is here
given, and the road leading to it, as well as the relation of the adjoining fields, with the
direction of the ridges.

XXIII. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A LARGE DAIRY FARM-STEADING.

Here the stackyard is of less importance and bulk than on a carse farm. The cow-byre
on the other hand, and accommodation for young stock, along with pigs, demand para-
mount consideration.

XXIV. ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION OF A COMMON FARM-STEADIXG.

The stackyard here is of considerable extent, and the accommodation for fattening cattle
bears a prominent part in the arrangement of the apartments. A watering-pond for the
horses is here introduced in front of the steading, as well as one for the aquatic poultry.

The elevations given in the text from page 60 to 116, and in Plate XVIII.
of the farmhouses and cottages, in illustration of the ground-plans, are of the
simplest description, and are presented more with the view of exhibiting the
different styles of architecture recommended, than as specimens of ornamen-
tation. As they are, however, they will bear a favourable comparison with the
very plain and very tasteless examples of farmhouses and cottages constructed
in the country up to only a dozen of years ago. But the plans are capable of
being illustrated with really beautiful elevations, as may be seen in Plates
XXV. to XXX., more beautiful than any that have yet been erected. We give
one specimen of each class of farmhouse and of each class of labourers' cottages
and of a mansion-house.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. six

PLATE

XXV. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

This design is reared upon the ground-plan of a first-class farmhouse in fig. 23, on page
58. A front elevation, adapted to this plan, will be found in No. 3, Plate XVIII. ; a
side elevation in fig. 26, and a hack elevation in fig. 27, both on p. GO. Aside eleva-
tion, somewhat ornamented in the fare of the stone, is given in fig. 29, p. 61, and a back
elevation of an alternative design is given in fig. 30, p. 62. These are all in the Italian
style. The perspective view in this Plate is in the Elizabethan style, which has now
become fashionable, and is well adapted in picturesque effect for farmhouses.

XXVI. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

This design is reared upon the ground-plan in tig. 53, p. 73. A front elevation of it will
be found in fig. 56, p. 74, and two side elevations in figs. 57 and 58, on p. 75. All the
designs are in the Elizabethan style, massive and effective. Were it desired to sim-
plify the front, the V and oriel windows might be taken away, and the balusters
removed from above the front door. The beauty of this elevation consists of the V
window in conjunction with the scrolled architrave around the upper window.

XXVII. ALTERNATIVE DESIGN ix PERSPECTIVE FOR A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

This design is reared upon the ground-plan of fig. 68, p. 81. Its front elevation is in fig.
71, p. 82. The style in the Plate is Elizabethan, that in fig. 71 Italian. The front
might be simplified by removing the oriel windows.

XXVIII. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE-DETACHED COT-
TAGES, WITH HOUSES OF DIFFERENT SIXES.

This Plate presents two such cottages. We consider that all hinds' houses on farms
ought to be constructed on this principle. Such an arrangement of houses would not
only look more picturesque, but they would be much more convenient for the inmates
than the long rows of houses so often to be met with in the country, inasmuch as the
garden behind would not only be more accessible, but the ground in front would afford
an open playground for children ; or, should the entire piece of ground in front be
laid out as a flower-plot, it would the more enhance the beauty of the place. We have
advocated more than once the houses of farm- servants being made of different capaci-
ties, to suit the number of the family who are to occupy them ; and, with this principle
in view, we would place a large and small house together, in order to separate the larger
families from one another. These houses could be made one-storeyed as well as two-
storeyed, as seen in the Plate, and they may be ornamental or plain, as the taste and
ability of the proprietor may desire. The elevations of these houses are raised upon the
ground-plans of figs. Ill and 113.

XXIX. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF TWO-STOREYED SINGLE-DETACHED COTTAGES.

These cottages would suit a farm steward or bailiff, gamekeeper, or forester of an estate.
Being two-storeyed, they would afford ample accommodation for a family; and if one
storey, they would equally suit an ordinary day-labourer, such as a hedger or roadmaker.
The upper cottage is in the Elizabethan, and the lower in the Rustic Gothic-style.

XXX. DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF A MANSION- HOUSE, OFFICES, STEADING,
FARMHOUSE, AND HINDS' HOUSES.

This is the Frontispiece, intended to show the relation which the proprietor's mansion
should hold with the houses of his tenantry and labourers. The mansion-house is
seen in the centre, flanked on the one hand by its offices, and on the other, at a greater
distance, a farm-steading, farmhouse, and cottages of the farm-servants.

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.

1. Simple Forms of Outside Stells,

2. Outside Stell, affording shelter in

all directions, .

3. Inside Circular Stell, with Planta-

tion, ....
4 Inside Circular Stell, with Hay-
Stack and Backs,

5. Outside Stell, sheltered by Planta-

tion on every side,

6. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Cattle Pastoral Farming with
Arable Culture,

7. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Sheep Pastoral Farming with
Arable Culture,

8. Upper Floor of a Steading for Carse

Farming,

9. Upper Floor of a Steading for a

Large Dairy Farm,

10. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Small Dairy Farming,

11. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Suburbial Farming with Arable
Culture,

12. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Suburbial Dairy Farming,

13. Upper Floor of a Steading for

Common Farming,

14 Upper Floor of a Steading for
Mixed Husbandry,

15. Isometrical Perspective of a Cov-

ered Stackyard,

16. Ground-Plan of a Covered Stack-

yard, ....

17. Plan of Second Floor, and Roof-

Plan of Ground Floor of the
Steading at Coleshill, Berkshire,

18. Elevation of a Gable in a simple

Elizabethan Style,

19. Elevation of a Gable in an Orna-

mental Elizabethan Style,

20. Elevation of a Gable in the Gothic

Style, ....

21. Ground-Plan of a Kitchen, &c., of

Farmhouse,

22. Cheese-Room, &c., of a First-Class

Farmhouse,

23. Ground -Plan of a First-Class

Farmhouse,

24. Chamber-Floor Plan of a First-

Class Farmhouse,

Page
10

Fig.
25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38,

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47,

54
57
58
59

49.
50.

51.

Page

Alternative Arrangement of Part

of the Chamber-Floor Plan, . 59

Side Elevation of a First-Class

Farmhouse, . . .60

Back Elevation of a First-Class

Farmhouse, . 60

Side Elevation of a First-Class
Farmhouse, finished to show
Stone-rubble Walling, . . 61

Longitudinal Section of a First-
Class Farmhouse, . . 61

Back Elevation of Alternative De-
sign of a First-Class Farmhouse, 62

Vertical Section of Milk- House
and Cheese-Room of a Farm-
house, . . . .62

Ground-Plan of a First-Class Farm-
house, . . . .63

Cellar Plan, . . .63

Alternative Cellar Plan, . . 63

Chamber-Floor Plan of a First-
Class Farmhouse, . . 64

Front Elevation of a First-Class

Farmhouse in Italian Style, . 64

Back Elevation of a First-Class

Farmhouse in Italian Style, . 65

39. Side Elevations of a First-
Class Farmhouse in Italian
Style, . . .65, 66

Longitudinal Section of a First-
Class Farmhouse, . . 66

Ground - Plan of a First - Class

Farmhouse, . . .67

Chamber -Floor Plan of a First-
Class Farmhouse, . . 67

Attic and Part Roof Plan, . 68

Cellar Plan, . 69

Front Elevation of a First-Class
Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic
Style, .... 70

Back Elevation of a First-Class
Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic
Style, .... 70

48. End Elevations of a First-Class
Farmhouse in Tudor - Gothic
Style, .... 70

Transverse Section, . . 71

Enlarged View of Part of Front

Elevation, . . .71

Enlarged View of Part of Back

Elevation, . . .72

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

xxi

Fig.

52. Enlarged View of Part of End

Elevation,

53. Ground - Plan of a .Second-Class

Farmhouse,

54. Cellar Plan,

55. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Second-

Class Farmhouse,

50. Front Elevation of a Second-Class
Farmhouse,

57, 58. Side Elevations of a Second-
Class Farmhouse,

59. Ground-Plan of a Third - Class

Farmhouse,

60. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third-

Class Farmhouse,

61. Front Elevation of a Third-Class

Farmhouse,

62. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class

Farmhouse,

63. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third-

Class Farmhouse,

64. Front Elevation of a Third-Class

Farmhouse,

65. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class

Farmhouse,

6G. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third-
Class Farmhouse,

67. Front Elevation of a Third- Class

Farmhouse,

68. Ground -Plan of a Third -Class

Farmhouse,

69. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Third-

Class Farmhouse,

70. Cellar Plan,

71. Front Elevation of a Third-Class

Farmhouse,

72. Ground - Plan of a Hind's Small

House of One Room, .

73. Ground-Plan of a Hind's Large

House of One Iloom,

74. Ground -Plan of a Hind's Small

Hovise of Two Rooms, .

75. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed

Detached Cottage,

76. Front Elevation of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

77. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed

Detached Cottage,

78. Front Elevation of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage, .

79. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed

Detached Cottage,

80. Front Elevation of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

81. Ground-Plan of a Single-Storeyed

Detached Cottage,

82. Front Elevation of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

83. Back Elevation of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

84. Vertical Section of a Single-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

85. Ground -Plan of a Two-Storeyed

Detached Cottage,

86. Chamber-Floor Plan of a Two-

Storeyed Detached Cottage,

87. Front Elevation of a Two-Sto-

reyed Cottage, .

89.

74
74

97.

77 ; 9S.

99.

100.

79 101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

100

119.

120.

100

121.

122.

101

123.

102

124.

102

Page

Ground -Plan of Single-Storeyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 103

Alternative Ground-Plan of Sin-
gle - Storeyed Double - Detached
Cottages, _ . . . 103

Front Elevation of Single-Storey-
ed Double-Detached Cottages, . 103

Alternative Front Elevation of
Single - Storeyed Double - De-
tached Cottages, . . 104

93, 94. Alternative Ground-Plans
of a Single - Storeyed Double-
Detached Cottage, . 104, 105

Ground-Plan of Single-Storeyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 105

Front Elevation of Single-Storey-
ed Double-Detached Cottages, . 106

End Elevation, . . . 106

Vertical Section, . . . 106

Ground - Plan of Two - Storeyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 106

Chainber - Floor Plan of Two-
Storeyed Double-Detached Cot-
tages, . . . .107

Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed
Double- Detached Cottages, . 107

End Elevation, . . . 107

Ground -Plan of Two-Sioreyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 108

Chamber -Floor Plan of Two-
Storeyed Double- Detached Cot-
tages, . . . .108

Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 108

Ground - Plan of Two -Storeyed
Double-Detached Cottages, . 109

Chamber -Floor Plan of Two-
Storeyed Double-Detached Cot-
tages, . . . .109

Cellar Plan, . . .110

Front Elevation of Two-Storeyed
Double- Detached Cottages, . 110

Ground - Plan of Single-Storeyed
Double Cottages, consisting of
Larger and Smaller Houses, . Ill

Small Two- Storeyed Double Cot-
tages, . . . .111

Elevation of Small Two-Storeyed
Double Cottages, . . 112

Ground-Plans of Double Cottages
of Different Sixes, . . 112

Chamber-Floor Plan of Double
Cottages of Different Sizes, . 113

Unimproved Single-Roomed Cot-
tage, . . . .113

First Improved Arrangement of

Cottage,. . . 113

Second, . . . .114

Third, . . . .114

Fourth, . . . .114

Fifth, . . . .115

Composite Cottage, . . 115

End Elevation of Composite Cot-
tage, . . . .116

Upper Storey of Composite Cot-
tage, . . . .116

Upper Storey of Composite Cot-
tage, . .117

LIST OF WOOD ENGEAVINGS.

Fig. Page

125. Upper Storey of Composite Cot-

tage, .... 117

126. Upper Storey of Composite Cot-

tage, . . . .117

127. Upper Storey of Composite Cot-

tage, . . 118

128. Upper Storey of Composite Cot-

tage, . . . .118

129. Ground-Plan of a Two-Storeyed

Bothy, . . . .119

130. Chamber Floor of a Two-Storeyed

Bothy, . . . .119

131. Ground -Plan of a Single-Storeyed

Bothy, . . . .120

132. Plan of Outhouse for a Single

Cottage, . . .122

133. First Alternative Plan of Out-

houses for Single Cottages, . 122

134. Second Alternative Plan of Out-

hoxises for Single Cottages, . 122

135. Plan of Outhouses for Double-

Detached Cottages, . .123

136. First Alternative Plan of Out-

house for Double Cottages, . 123

137. Second Alternative Plan of Out-

houses for Double Cottages, . 123

138. Third Alternative Plan of Out-

houses for Double Cottages, . 124

139. Plan of Outhouses for Four Cot-

tages of Two Double Composite
Cottages, . . .124

140. Alternative Plan of Outhouses

for Four Double Composite Cot-
tages, . . . .124

141. Elevation of Front Door for Cot-

tage, . . . .125

142. Three-Light Window for the Liv-

ing-room of a Cottage, . . 125

143. Two-Light Window for the Bed-

room of a Cottage, . .125

144. Small Two-Light Window for the

Staircase of a Cottage, . . 125

145. Preparation of the Timber for

Boucherie's Method of preserv-
ing it, . . . 158

146. Timber prepared for Boucherie's

Method of preserving it, . 158

147. Pier and Protecting Apron for

Foundations, . . . 207

148. Section of Coffer-Dam, . . 207

149. Section of the Foundation of a

Hind's House, . ! . .208

150. Stone Footings, . . .208

151. Plan of Stone Footings, . . 209

152. Breaking Joint with Stones, . 209

153. "Inverted Arches for Foundations, 209

154. Defective Ashlar-work, . . 210

155. Mode of Building Ashlar Walls

with Rubble Fifling-in, . 210

156. Lewis for raising Blocks of Stone, 210

157. Lewis fixed in a Stone Block, . 211

158. Dowels, Joggles, and Cramps for

joining Blocks of Stone, . 211

159. Joggled Joint of Stones, . .211

160. Elevation of Stone Fiuial, . 212

161. Moulding of Corbel to Chimney, 212

162. Moulding of Chimney Cap, . 212

163. String-Course, . 212

Fig. Page

164. Summer-Stone, . . .212

165. Mouldings of Jamb and Mullion

of Doorway, . . . 212

166. Stone Finial, . . .212

167. Mouldings of Capping, . . 213

168. Mouldings of Window Cornice, . 213

169. 170. Stone Balcony Fronts, . 213

171. Stone Finial, . . .213

172. Drip-Stone, . . .213

173. String-Course, . . .213

174. Stone Window Cornice, . .214

175. Moulding to Chimney Cap, . 214

176. Header and Stretcher (Bricks), . 214

177. Footings for a 14-inch Brick Wall, 215

178. Plan of Lower Course of Footings, 215

179. Plan of Second Course of Footings, 215

180. Plan of Third Course of Footings, 215

181. Plan of First Course of 14-inch

Wall, . . . .215

182. Old English Brick Bond, . 215

183. Flemish Bond, . . .215

184. Tyermann's Hoop-Iron Bond, . 216

185. Plan of First Course of 9-inch

Wall in Old English Bond, . 217

186. Plan of Second Course of 9-inch

Wall in Old English Bond, . 217

187. Plan of First Course of 9-inch

WaU in Flemish Bond, . . 217

188. Plan 'of Second Course of 9-inch

WaU in Flemish Bond, . 217

189. Mode of carrying up Brick Courses, 217

190. Good and Bad Methods of Setting

Flooring-Joists, . . . 218

191. Mode of Fixing Beams of Upper

Floors, . . . .218

192. Bearing Walls, . . .218

193. Curved Arch and Lintel, . 218
194 Flat Arch and Lintel, . . 218

195. Disposition of the Parts of an

Arch, . . . .219

196. Segmental and Semicircular

Arches, .... 219

197. Dearu's Hollow 9-inch Walls, . 220

198. 11-inch Walls, . . 220

199. 14-inch Walls, . . 220

200. Elevation of Dwarf WaU in Ro-

berts' Hollow Brick, . .221

201. Sections of 12-inch HoUow Wall, 221

202. Section of 14-inch Hollow WaU, 221

203. Views of " External Jamb " and

" Centre " Hollow Bricks, . 221

204. Views of Jamb and Chimney Hol-

low Bricks, . . .221

205. Views of Partition Hollow Bricks, 222

206. Section of Partition Hollow Bricks, 222

207. 208. Hollow Brick for Door Jambs

in Alternate Courses, . . 222

209, 210. Plan of Angles for Door Jambs

in Alternate Courses, . . 222

211. Fireproof Floors and CeiUngs

in Roberts' Hollow Bricks, . 223

212. Grooved Bricks, . . . 223

213. Norton and Borrie's HoUow Bricks, 223

214. Dean's HoUow Bricks, . . 223

215. Stewart's Partition Tile, . 223

216. Embankment and Face - Dyke

against a Rivulet, . . 224

217. Section of River Embankment, . 226 *

LIST OF WOOD ENGEAV1NGS.

Fig.
218.

219.
220.
221.

222.
223.

224.
225.
226.
227.

228.

229.

230.
231.
232.

233.

234.
235.
236.

237.
238.

239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.

245.
246.
247.

248.

249.
250.

251.
252.
253.
254.
255.

256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.

The most effectual Embankment

on a Gravelly Bottom, . . 228

Cutting of River-Banks to Pre-
vent Washing Away, . . '2'2S
Protection of River - Banks 1 >y

means of Breakwaters, . 229

Plan of River -Banks requiring

Protection, . . . 229

Weirs for Protecting River-Banks, 229
Misuse of a Tree in the Protection

of River-Banks, . . 230

Common Piling for River-Banks, 230
Improved Piling for River-Banks, 230
Protection of Sea-Banks, . 231

Protection by Sea Embankment, 231
Plan of Proper Inclination of the

Embankment of a Dam, . 234

Embankment for a Water Reser-
voir, .... 234
Section of Dam or Weir, . 235

Plan of Dam or Weir, . . 235

Section of Groin and Dam for

Protecting a River- Side, . 236

Conduit or Drain with Flat Sides

and Bottom,

Drain with Angular Bottom,
Conduit with Segmental Bottom,
Elliptical or Egg-shaped Drain, .
Segmental Bricks for Drains,
Doulton's Patent Junction Block

for Drains, . . . 239

Doulton's Invert Block, . . 239

Liquid-Manure Conduit, . 239

Spigot and Faucet Drain-Tube, . 239
Half Socket Drain-Tubes, . 240

Rabbet-jointed Drain-Tubes, . 240
Clayton's Cored-Joint for Drain-
tubes, . . . .240
Section of Doulton's Lidded Drain-
Tubes, . . . .241
Perspective View of Doulton's

Lidded Drain-Tubes, . . 241

Perspective View of Cooper's Lid-
ded Drain-Tubes and Saddles, . 241
Perspective View of Saddles for

Cooper's Lidded Drain-Tubes, 242
The building a Dry-Stone Dyke, 244
Expedients for increasing the

Height of Dry-Stone Dykes, . 246
Four Watering- Pools formed by

Two Dykes crossing, . . 247

One Watering-Pool common to

Four Fields, . . .247

A Clump of Trees within the

meeting of Four Dykes, . 247

Section of Road on Strong Clay

Soils, . . . .249

Section of Cross-Culvert and

Under-Drains, . . . 249

Flemish Liquid-Manure Tank, . 258
Plan, .... 258
Section, .... 258
Peake's Oblong Paving-Bricks, . 259
Peake's Diamond Paving-Bricks, 259
Peake's Square Paving-Bricks, . 259
Hexagonal Paving-Tiles, . 260

Square Paving-Tiles, . . 260

Section of Paving- Tiles, . . 260

Fii,'. Page

265. Peake's Oblong Roof-Tiles, . 261

266. Peake's Roof-Tiles with Rounded

Ends, . . . .261

267. Peake's Ridge-Tiles, . . 261

268. Quoined Valley-Tiles, . . 261

269. Hip-Tiles, . . .261

270. Ridge-Tiles, . . .261

271. Grooved Ridge-Tiles, . . 261
2~2. Various Ornamental Tiles to fit in

Grooves of Ridge-Tiles, . 261

273. Corrugated Tile, . . 262

274. Hollow Roof-Tile, . . 262

275. Beadon's Gutter-Tiles, . . 262

276. Section of Earthenware Blocks

for Staircases, . . . 264

277. Section showing mode of Heating

Upper Rooms from a Kitchen

Fire, .... 265

278. Section of Smoke and Ventilating

Flue, .... 265

279. Plan showing mode of Heating

Upper Rooms from a Kitchen

Fire, .... 265

280. Plan, Elevation, and Section of

Pierce's Fire-Lump Stove-Grate, 266

281. Perspective View of Pierce's Cot-

tage Fire-Lump Grate, . 266

Plan of Fireclay Hearth, . 266

Section of Fireclay Hearth, . 266

Section and Plan of Chimney

and Ventilating Tube, . . 267

285. Front Elevation of Chimney-

Breast, showing Opening to
Ventilation Tube, . .267

286. Ornamental Grating to Venti-

lator, . . . .267

287. Ventilating Chimney-Tube, . 267

288. 289. Sectional Plan of Chimney

and Ventilating Tube, 267, 268

290. Perspective View of Doulton's

Ventilating Chimney-Tube, . 268

291. Sections of Ventilating Chimney-

Tube, . . . .268

292. Looker's Tubular Ventilator,' . 268

293. Glazed Clay Scullery-Sink, . 269

294. Glazed Clay Trap, . . 269

295. Syphon-Trap, . . .269

296. Court Cesspool-Trap, . . 269

297. A Rain-Water Cistern, . . 270

298. View of Carbon Filter, . .271

299. Section of Wash-Hand Pedestal

Basin, . . . .271

300. Wash-Hand Basins and Pedestals, 271

301. Jennings' Lavatory, . ' . 272

302. Closet Soil-Pan and Trap, . 272

303. Ilidgway's Pottery Water-Closet, 272

304. Closet-Pan Trap, . . . 272

305. Earthenware Closet-Pan with Trap, 273

306. Section of Jennings' Water-Closet

Tube open, . . . 273

307. Section of J ennings' Water-Closet

Tube closed, . . . 273

308. A Fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble,

or of Wood lined with Metal, . 273

309. Perspective View of Forbes's

Drainage Pavement-Bricks, . 274

310. Drainage Pavement-Bricks in Per-

spective, with G utter partly un-

XXIV

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.

311.
312.

313.

314.
315.
316.

317.

318.
319.
320.

321.

322.
323,

327,
329,
332,
334,
337,

340.
341.

342.
343.
344.
345.

346,
348.
349.

350.
351,

353.
354.

355.
356.
357.
358.
359,

361.
362.
363,

365.
366.

covered to show its Connection

with Pavement,
Water-Troughs, .
Section of a Stone Trough for a

Byre, ....
Section of Planks for Mould for

Pise Walls,

Side of Mould for PisS Walls, .
Section of Mould for Pisg Walls,
Plan of Joists of Mould for Pisg

Walls, .
Plan and ' Section of a Joist of

Mould for Pise Walls, .
Foot of Posts^f or Pise Walls,
Top of Posts for Pisg Walls,
Section showing Arrangement of

Parts of Mould of Pis Walls, .
Mode of filling up the Mould in

Pise" Walls,

Courses of a Pis Wall, .
324, 325, 326. Joining Timbers in

the Direction of their Length,
328. The Half-Lap Joint,
330, 331. Scarf Joint,
333. Half-Lap Joint,
335, 336. Scarf Joint,
338, 339. Joint to resist Vertical

Compression, . . 283,

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint,
Joint of Vertical with Horizontal

Timber,
Connection of King -Post with

Tie-Beam,
Connection of King - Post with

Tie-Beam, with Wedge,
Connection of King -Post with

Tie-Beam, with Bolt, .
Connection of King - Post with

Tie-Beam, with Jibs and Cottars,
347. Dovetail Joint,
Tusk Joints,

Joining of Girders and Binding-
Joists, ....
Method of "Notching" Wall-
Plates together,
352. Joining of Tie-Beam with

Wall-Plate, . . 286,

Joints of Timber at Right Angles,
Joining of Beams crossing each

other at Right Angles,
Joining of Timbers at Obtuse

Angles, ....
Joining of Timbers crossing each

other at Right Angles, .
Joining of Timbers at Right

Joint of Foot of Rafter with Tie-
Beam, ....

360. Joining of an Inclined Beam
with a Horizontal Beam, .

Joint of Rafter with Tie-Beam, .

Joint of Collar-Beam with Rafter,

364. Joint of Collar -Beam with
Rafter, .

Joints of Struts and Rafters with
Heads and Feet of King- Posts
and Queen-Posts,

Joint of Rafter with King-Post,

Page

Fig.

367.

274

275

368.

369.

276

370.

277

371.

277

372.

277

373.

374.

277

375.

376,

277

278

378.

278

379.

380.

278

381.

382.

279

383.

279

384.

385.

281

386.

282

387.

282

388.

282

389.

283

390.

391.

284

392.

284

393.

394.

285

395.

285

396.

397.

285

398.

399.

285

400.

285

401.

286

402.

286

403.

404

286

405.

406.

286

407.

287

408.

287

409.

287

410.

411.

287

412.

288

413.

288

414

415.

288

416.

288

417.

289

418.

289

419.

420.

289

421.

422,

289

424

290

Page

Joint of Foot of Struts with King-
Post, . . . .290
Joint of Rafters with King-Post, 290
Joint of Straining Beam with

Queen-Post, . . .290

Joint of Purlins to Rafters, . 290
Joint of Rafters to Wall-Plate, . 290
Bow-and-String Rafter, . . 291

End of Bow-and-String Rafter, 291
Centre of Bow-and-String Rafter, 291
Bow-and-String Rafter, . . 291

377. Method of increasing Depth

of Beams, . . . 292

Single Flooring, . . . 292

Trussing of Flooring Beams, . 292
Trimming or Bridle Joists, . 292
Double Flooring, . . 293

Double-Framed Flooring, . 293

Partition for 18-feet Span, . 294

Partition, Span 28 feet, . . 295

Partition, 22-feet Span, . . 295

Partition for 18-feet Span, . 295

Partition for 20-feet Span, . 296

Trussed Partition, . . 296

Partition for 18-feet Span, . 296

Double Partition, . . 296

Lean-to and Ridge Roofs, . 297

Hipped Roofs, . . . 297

Pavilion Roof, . . .297

Conical Roof, . . .298

Ridged Roofs meeting at Right

Angles, . . .298

Ridge-and- Valley Roofs, . . 298

Lean-to Roof, 12-feet Span, . 298
Lean-to Roof, 20-feet Span, . 298
Truss with Collar, 18-feet Span, 299
Truss with two Collars, 16-feet

Span, .... 299
Truss for Collar-Beam Roof, . 299
Truss for a Porch, . . 300

Truss for 20-feet Span, . . 300

Truss with King-Bolt, 20-feet Span, 300
Truss for a 30-feet Span, . . 301

King- Post Truss for 25-feet Span, 301
Queen-Post Truss, for 30 to 45

feet Span, . . .301

Truss for a 30-feet Span, . 302

Truss with two Queen-Posts for

47-feet Span, . . .302

Roof with Hip-Rafter, . . 302

Dragon-Piece and Dragonal Tie

to support Hip- Rafter, . . 302

Plan of Hipped Roof, . . 303

Plan of Timber of a Roof meeting

at Right Angles, . . 304

Elevation of a Roof, . . 304

Side Elevation of a Roof, . 304

Joining of Hip - Rafters with

Ridge-Pole, . . .305

Hip-Rafters, . . .305

Jack-Rafters, . . . 305

Truss for Flat Roof, . . 305

Flat Roof, . . .305

Mansard or Curb Roof, . . 306

423. Truss for Gothic or High-

PitchedRoof, . . .306

Truss for Cambered or High-

Pitched Roof, . . .307

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.

425. Curved Rib Truss,

426. Plan and Elevation for "Ribs of Truss

427. Skeleton of Truss f < >r a Laminated

Rib-Roof, 32-feet Span,

428. Detail of Part of Hoof-Truss,

429. Detail of Rib of Roof,

430. Part Plan of Truss of Roof for

Thrashing-Mill Horse-Walk, .

431. Elevation of Truss for Thrashing-

Mill Horse-Walk,

432. Plan of Walls of Horse- Walk, .

433. Plan of Hexagonal Truss,

434. Elevation of Hexagonal Roof,

435. Section of Hexagonal Roof,

436. Elevation and Section of Dormer

Window,

437. Simple Gutter of Metal, .

438. Wooden Gutter, .

439. 440. Gutters at Ends of Rafters,

441. Gutter with Cantaliver, .

442. Section of Wall showing Gutter

with Cantaliver,

443. Bridged Gutter,

444. Valley-Gutter, .

445. Section and Elevation of Valley-

Gutter,

446. Mode of cutting out Roans or

Gutters out of Solid Timber,

447. Front Elevation of Belvidere of a

Farmhouse,

448. Side Elevation of Wooden Bracket

for a Farmhouse,

449. Mode of laying out Steps,

450. Treads and Risers,

451. Mode of setting out Steps,

452. Plan of Platform Stairs,

453. Section of Platform Staircase,

454. Plan of Staircase with Return, .

455. Section of R,eturn Stairs,

456. Carriage-Board of a Staircase,

457. Notch-Board of a Staircase,

458. Template for marking out Steps,

459. Mode of using Template in mark-

ing out Steps, .

460. Marking out Steps in String-

Board, ....

461. Elevation of Balusters for Farm-

house, ....

462. Section of Baluster,

463. Elevation of Baluster for Farm*

house, ....

464. Ledged Door,

465. Ledged and Braced Door,

466. Framed and Braced Door,

467. Circular-Headed Door, .

468. Sash Door,

469. Four-Panel and Six-Panel Doors,

470. Stiles of a Door, .

471. Rails of Door,

472. Bottom Rail of a Door, .

473. Middle Rail of a Door, .

474. Muntins of a Door,

475. Raised Panel. Sunk Panel,

476. Bead-Butt and Flush Panel,

477. Panels of Door of Farmhouse, .

478. Panel for Door of Farmhouse,

479. Gothic Door,

480. Eight-Panel Raised Door,

P.1RC | Pi S .

307

481.

308

482.

483.

31 IS

4S4.

:>i is

3i S

485.

486.

309

4S7.

309

488.

309

:il()

489.

310

4! 10.

310

491,

310

493.

311

494.

311

495.

311

312

496.

312

31-2

497.

312

498.

312

499.

500.

313

501.

313

502.

314

503.

314

504.

315

505.

315

506.

315

316

507.

316

508.

509.

316

510.

316

511.

316

512.

316

513.

317

514.

317

515.

317

516.

317

318

517.

318

518.

318

519.

318

520.

318

319

521.

319

522.

319

523.

Page

Folding Door, . . .320

Sliding Door, . . . 320

Plan of Door Stop (door closed), 320
Plan of Door Stop (door partially

dosed), . . . 320

I )( ior Stop for Bottom Rail of Door, 321
Plan of Framing for a Fixed

Window, ^ . .321

Plan of Fixed Window, . . 321

Elevation and Section of Frame

of a Fixed Window, . . 321

Part Section of Sash -Frame, . 322
Elevation and Section of Sash-
Frame of Window. . . 322
492. Astragals of Sash Window, 322
Section and Elevation of Frame

of Sliding Window, . . 323

Details of Sliding Window, . 323
The Inside Elevation of an Im-
proved Window suited for Cot-
tages, . . . .324
The Plan of an Improved Win-
dow for Cottages, . . 325
The Vertical Section of an Im-
proved Window for Cottages, . 325
Elevation of a French or Case-
ment Window, . . 326
Oak-Hall Window, closed, . 326
Oak-Hall Window, open, . 326
Part Longitudinal and Vertical

Section of Oak-Hull Window, 327
Part Horizontal Plan of Oak-Hall

Window, . . .327

Part Elevation of Shaw's Patent

Window, . . .328

Part Plan of Shaw's Patent Win-
dow, .... 328
Longitudinal Section of Shaw's

Patent Window, . . 328

Half Plan of Main Window of

a Farmhouse . . . 329

Enlarged View of Bay Window of

a Farmhouse, . . . 329

Part Plan of Bay Window, . 329

Plan of Shutters, . . 330

Part Vertical Section of Bay Win-
dow, . . . .330
Part Section of Base of Bay

Window, . . . 330

Side Elevation of a V Window,. 330
Part Sectional Plan of a V Win-
dow, . . . .331
Plan of V Window Shutters, . 331
Plan of Shutters of Window of

a Farmhouse, . . . 331

Part Plan of Bay Window of a

Farmhouse, . . . 332

Plan of Bay Window Shutters, 332

Plan of Bay Window, Chamber

Floor, . . . .332

Section of Architraves of a Farm-
house, .... 332
Skirting and Cornice for Dining-

Room of a Farmhouse, . 333

Skirting for Drawing-Room of a

Farmhouse, . . . 333

Cornice for a Farmhouse, . 333

A Stall for a Work-Horse Stable, 335

LIST OF WOOD EXGKAVINGS.

Fig. Page

524. Fittings of Head of Stall with Feed-

ing-Passage, . . . 336

525. Stall with Cast-iron Heel-Posts, 336

526. Elevation of Ferguson's Venti-

lator, . . . .339

527. Section of Ferguson's Ventilator, 339

528. Section of Sheriugham's Venti-

lator with Hinged Valve, . 340

529. Section of Sheringham's Venti-

lator with Suspended Valve, . 340

530. A Wooden Ventilator, . . 340

531. A Stable Window, . . 341

532. Corn-Chest for Work-Horses, . 343

533. Door through which to supply

Mangers with Turnips, . 344

534. Byre Travis, Manger, Stake, and

Turnip-Store, . . .345

535. A Baikie, . . .345

536. Cattle Seal or Binder, . . 346

537. Byre Window, . . .346

538. Section of Laycock's Manger for

Cattle-Boxes, . . .348

539. Section of Laycock's Hack for

Cattle-Boxes, . . .348

540. A Calf s-Crib Door, . . 349

541. Turnip-Trough for Courts, . 350

542. Wooden Straw-Rack for Courts, 350

543. Straw-Rack for Sheds, . .350

544. Pigsty Door, . . .351

545. Corn-Barn Door, . . 353

546. Section of Corn-Barn Floor, and

Upper Barn, . . . 354

547. Granary Window and Section of

Shutters, . . .355

548. A Wooden Stathel for Stacks,

with Stone Supports, . . 355

549. Centre for a Door Arch, . 356

550. Centrings for Gothic and Semi-

circular Arches, . . 356

551. Centres for Stone Circular Arches, 356

552. Foot-Bridge for Spanning Ditches, 357

553. Beam-Bridge for 15-feet Span, 357
554 Bridge for 14-feet Span, with

Struts, . . . .357

555. Trussed-Beam Bridge, Span 8 feet, 358

556. Trussed-Girder Bridge for a Span

of 32 feet, . . .358

557. King-Post Truss for Bridge, . 358

558. Queen-Post Truss for Bridge, . 358

559. Trussed Bridge Girder, . . 359

560. Elevation of Bridge of 32-feet

Span, . . . .359

561. Elevation of Mid-Pier for Bridge, 359

562. Sections of Forms of Piers or Star-

lings for Bridges, . . 359

563. End and Side Elevation of Cen-

tral Support for Bridge, . 360

564. Italian Wooden Aqueduct for

Conducting Water of Irrigation

over Rivers, Ravines, &c., . 360

565. Wooden Sluice-Gate, . . 361

566. Italian mode of lifting a Sluice.

Italian Sluice-Gate lifted by

a Screw, . . .361

567. Wooden Sluice in Stone Grooves, 361

568. Longitudinal Section of Self -Act-

ing Sluice, . . .361

569. Plan of Self-Acting Sluice, . 362

Fig- Page

570. Transverse Section of Self-Act-

ing Sluice, . . . 362

571. Sluice-Pipe Valve, . . 362

572. Rectangular Gate with Diagonal

Strut, . . . . 363

573. A Common Field-Gate, . . 363

574. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed

Field-Gate, . . .364

575. Miles' Wooden Field-Gate with

Cast-iron Heel-Post, . . 364

576. Wooden Gate suited for the Ap-

proach to a Farmhouse, . 364

577. Secure mode of fastening the

Hanging- Post of a Field-Gate, 366

578. Sliding-Door for Stables, . 367

579. Suspended or Hanging Gate for

Courtyards, . . . 368

580. Gate for Centre of Bridge, . 368

581. Swivel-Gate for Centre of Bridge, 368

582. Frame-House Walls, . . 368

583. Foundation Balk for Frame-

House, .... 369

584. Plan of Foundation Balks for

Timber Shed, . . . 369

585. Side Elevation of Timber Shed, . 369

586. Elevation of Timber Shed, . 369

587. Exterior Finishing of Shed, . 369

588. 589, 590. Weather-Boarding, . 370

591. Sections of various forms of Bat-

tens, . . .370

592. Eassie's mode of Joining Boards, 370

593. Rebated Battens, . . 370

594. Swedish mode of forming Walls

of Frame-Houses, . . 371

595. Mode of forming Walls of Frame-

Houses Fireproof, . .371

596. Timber Shelter -Shed at the

Corner of Four Fields, . . 372

597. Plan of Balk Foundations of

Shelter-Shed, . . .372

598. Side Elevation of Timbers of

Shelter-Shed, . . . 372

599. End Elevation of Timber Shed, 372

600. Plan of Belgian Covered Dung-

Shed, . . . .373

601. End Elevation and Section of

Belgian Covered Dung-Pit, . 373

602. Side Elevation of Belgian Covered

Dung-Shed, . . . 373

603. End Section of American Barn

and Byres, . . . 373

604. Isometrical Perspective View of

the Balloon Frame, . . 374

605. Elevation Section Manner of

Nailing Balloon Frame, . 374

606. Upper Edge of Joist of Balloon

Frame, .... 374

607. Section of Strongest Form of Cast-

iron Beam, . . . 375

608. Plan of Cast-Iron Beam, . 375

609. Elevation of Cast-Iron Beam, . 375

610. "I "-Shaped Cast-Iron Beam, . 375

611. Plan and Elevation of Cast-Iron

Girder for Span of 18 or 20 feet, 375

612. Section of Girder for Span of 18

or 20 feet, . . .376

613. Connection of Binding - Joists

with Cast-Iron Girders, . 376

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.
614.

615.
616.
617.

618.
619.

626.
627.
628.

629.
630.

631.
632.

633.
634.
635.
636.

637.
638.
639,

641.
642.
643.

644.
645.

646.
647.
648.
649.

650.

651.
652.

653.

654.
655.
656.

657.

Cast-Iron Girders with " Shoes"
for Joists,

Connection of Cross-Beams with
Girders,

Suspension of Cross-Beams from
Girders,

Fixing of Truss-Rods of Cast-Iron
Beams, ....

Section of Wrought-Iron Beam,

Section of Eolled Wrought- 1 run
Beam, ....

Section of Tie - Rods with
Wrought-Iron Beams, .

Fixing of Cast-iron Pillar,

623. Base of Cast-Iron Pillar, .

Upper Termination of Cast-Iron
Columns to receive Beam,

Upper Termination of Cast-Iron
Column to receive Base of Se-
cond Column, .

Position and Fixing of Tie-
Rods, ....

Joining of Girders in the Caps of
Columns,

Junction of Girders with Circular
Neck to Columns,

Junction of Girders,

Junction of four Girders on Cap
of Column,

Junction of Wrought-Iron Beams
on Cap of Column,

Skeleton Truss for an Iron Roof
of 18-feet Span,

Section of Wrought-Iron Rafters,

Rafter-Shoe for Roof,

Plan of Rafter-Shoe,

Side and End Elevation of Rafter-
Shoe, ....

Elevation and Plans of Shoe for
Upper End of Rafter, .

Junction of King-Bolt, Struts,
Rafters, and Tie-Rods,

640. Junction of King-Bolt, Raf-
ters, and Tie-Rods,

Details of Tie-Rods,

Junction of Struts with Rafters,

Skeleton Truss of Double-Span
Roof, ....

Rafter- Shoes for Roof, .

Skeleton Iron Truss for Span of
25 feet,

Upper End of Cast-Iron Strut, .

Lower Termination of Strut,

Side Elevation of Strut, .

Junction of Rafters, Ridge-Pole,
Bracket, and Ties,

Side Elevation of Rafters, Ridge-
Pole, Bracket, and Ties,

Shoe for Rafters,

Shoe in Plan and Elevation for
Securing Feet of Rafters,

End View of Rafter-Shoe and
Details of Tie-Rods, .

Upper Termination of Strut,

Lower Termination of Strut,

Skeleton of Trussed Roof 30-feet
Span, ....

Scale for a Number of the Figures,

37 S

3so

380
381

382

661.

(5(52.
0(53.

6(54.
005.
0(56.
0(57.
008.

009.
070.
071-
072.

383

073.

384

074.

384

075.

070.

384

077.

384

078.

384

385

079.

385

680.

081.

385

082.

385

683.

684.

386

085.

387

080.

388

087.

388

389

088.

089.

389

090.

389

691.

389

692.

390

093.

094.

390

695.

690.

390

097.

391

098.

699.

391

700.

391

701.

392

702.

392

703.

392

704.

392

Page
Joining of Feet of Struts and

King-Bolt, . . .393

Joining of Upper End of Strut

with Rafter, . . . 393
Joining of Foot of Queen-Bolt

with Strut, . . . 393
Plan of Tie-Bolt, . . 393
Joint of Queen-Bolt, . 394
Junction of Rafters with King-
Bolt^ Head, . . . 394
Plan of King-Bolt-Head, . 394
End Elevation of King-Bolt-Head, 394
Side Elevation of Rafter-Shoe, . 395
End Elevation of Rafter-Shoe, . 395
Plan of Horse- Walk for Thrash-
ing-Mill, . . . 396
Skeleton Truss for Thrashing-Mill

Horse-Walk, . . . 396
Shoe for Feet of Rafters, Tie-
Beam, and Tie-Rods, . . 396
King -Bolt and Rafter -Shoe in

Elevation and Plan, . . 397
Shoe for receiving Lower Ends of
Struts and Upper Ends of Tie-
Rods, . . . -397
Junction of King-Bolt, Struts,

and Tie- Rods, . . . 397

Gutter of Iron Roof, . . 398

Cast-Iron Gutter, . . 398
Cast-Iron Gutter, leading Water

to Hollow of Column, . 399

Gutter for Double-Span Roof, . 399
Cast-Iron Gutter for Double-Span

Roof, .... 399

Corrugated Iron Plates, . . 400

Truss for a Galvanised Iron Roof, 400
Section and Side Elevation of

Rib, . . . .400

Cap of Column and Beam, . 400

Plan of Upper End of Column, . 400

Junction of Struts with Tie-Rod, 401
Connection of Corrugated Iron
Plates with Central Shoe of

Double-Span Roof, . . 401
Skeleton Truss for Corrugated

Iron Roof of 52-feet Span, . 401
Elevations and Plan of Shoe for

Upper Termination of Rafters, 402

Junction of Struts with Rafters, 402

Junction of Tie-Rods with Rafters, 402

Shoes for Tie-Rods, . . 402

6-Inch Kitchen Latch, . . 404

7-Inch Rim Lock, . . 404

5-Inch Press Lock, . . 404

6|-Ineh Mortise Lock, . . 404

Escutcheon for Key-Hole, . 404

12 J -Inch Hinge, ' . . 405

13^-Inch Hinge, . . . 405

Butt Hinges, . . . 405
Patent Hinges for Self-Shutting

Doors, .... 405

Collinge's Patent Spherical Hinge, 405

Pulley-Stile, . . . 406

Window- Latch, . . . 400
Spring Pulley for Window-Blind

Cord, . . . .406
Fastening of French Window-
Front View, . 406

XXV111

LIST OF WOOD ENGKAVINGS.

Fig.

705. Fastening for French or Casement

Windows Side View,

706. Lower Bolt of Window-Fastening,

707. Upper Bolt and Catch of Win-

dow-Fastening,

708. 709. Fastening for Stair-Carpet

Rod, ....

710. Arnott's Ventilator, . .

711. Sheringham's Fresh -Air Venti-

lator, ....

712. Top of a Chimney for Preventing

the Down-Draught of Smoke, .

713. Chad wick' s Archimedean Screw

Chimney-Guard with Ventilator,

714. Ball Chimney-Guard,

715. Method of Contracting the Top

of a Chimney, .

716. Chimney- Valve, .

717. Elevation of Chimney-Hopper, .

718. Plan of Chimney Hopper and

Bearer,

719. Cast-Iron Chimney Hopper and

Bearer Combined,

720. Gas Regulator, .

721. Hart's Gas Regulator, .

722. 723. Chrimes' Water-Tap,

724. Jenning's India-rubber Tube-Cock, 412

725. Wheatcroft and Smith's Water-

Tap, ....

726. 727. Pilbrow's Water Waste Pre-

venter, ....

728. Lowe's Cast- Iron Trap, .

729. Bell Trap,

730. Cast-Iron Sink, .

731. Goddard's Economical Kitchen-

Range, . . . .

732. American Cottage Cooking-Stove,

733. Rickett's Gas-Stove,

734 Cottam's Iron Guttering for closed
Surface Stable-Drains, .

735. Barton's Stable-Drains, .

736. Juncture at Right Angles of Bar-

ton's Stable-Drains,

737. Corner Junction of Barton's

Stable-Drams, .

738. Drain Grating for Courts,

739. Bell's Patent Trap for Stables, .

740. Cottam's Sanitary Trap for

Stables,

741. Cast-Iron Cesspool for Stables

and Byres,

742. Section of Valve for admitting

Fresh Air to Stables, .

743. Front View of Valve,

744. Ratchet- Valve for admitting Air,

745. Ventilator for Roof,

746. Swivel or Cowl Ventilator,

747. Muir's Four-Points Ventilator, .

748. Cottam's Hind-Posts for Stalls, .

749. Cottam's Travises or Stall Divi-

sions, ....

750. Patent Manger, Water- Trough,

and Wrought-Iron Rack,

751. Bruce's Improved Stable Fittings,

752. Garood's Adjustable Hay-Rack,

753. Cottam's Stable Fittings,

754. Cottam's Section of Sliding-

Manger,

Page

Fig.

Page

755. Manger and Rack,

422

406

756. Manger and Water-Trough,

422

407

757. Saddle and Harness Bracket,

422

758. Collar Holder, .

422

407

759. Pig-Troughs, with Subdivisions,

to stand in an opening of the

408

outer wall of the Sty, .

423

408

760. Pig-Trough,

423

761. Hog-Trough,

423

408

762. Round Pig-Trough, to stand in a

Court,

423

763. Foot-Bridge of Cast-Iron Beam,

424

764. Plan of Foot-Bridge,

424

409

765. Section and Plan of Beam,

425

409

766. Shoe for End of Beam, .

425

767. Feet of Uprights for Rails,

425

409

768. Uprights for supporting Chains

410

and Rails,

425

410

769. Studs for Chain and Rails,

426

770. Cap for receiving Rail, .

426

410

771. Section of Beams for Bridge,

426

772. Cast-Iron Beam Bridge, .

426

410

773. Section of Roadway with Three

411

Beams, ....

426

411

774. Corrugated Iron-Plate Bridge, .

427

412

775. Section of a Corrugated Plate, .

427

412

776. Front Elevation of Sluice- Valve,

427

777. Side Elevation of Sluice- Valve .

427

412

778. Jenning's Sluice-Valve, .

428

779. Brown and May's Sluice-Cock, .

428

413

780. Wheatcroft and Smith's Hydrant,

429

413

781. Elevation of Iron Sluice-Valve

413

and Rack,

429

414

782. Plan of Iron Sluice,

429

783. Iron Field-Gate with Iron Posts

414

and Stay,

430

415

784. Iron Field-Gate on the Tension

415

Principle,

430

785. Angle-Iron Field-Gate, .

431

416

786. Elements of the Bracing of a

416

Wire Field-Gate,

432

787. Wrought-Iron Side-Gate,

433

416

788. Foot-Gate for Fence,

433

789. Top of Sliding-Gate of Corru-

416

gated Iron,

433

416

790. Detail of Sliding-Gate, .

434

417

791. Mode of Hanging a Sliding-Gate,
792, 793. Details of Sliding-Gate,

434
434

417

794 Straining - Post of Wire Fence,

with Sole and Stay Underground,

434

417

795. Straining-Post, with Planks Un-

derground,

435

417

796. Straining-Post, with Standard

417

and Stay Aboveground,

435

417

797. A Wrought-Iron Straining-Post,

435

418

798. Block for Straightening Wires, .

439

418

799. Joining of Wires,

439

418

800. Block for Making Eyes in Wires,

439

418

801. Clambs for Twisting the Wire at

the Eye,

439

419

802. Turn- Key for Wires,

440

803. Straining-Screw,

440

419

804 Collar-Vice, . .

440

420

805. Straining-Screw and Collar- Vice

420

Combined,

440

421

806. Wrought-Iron Hurdle, .

441

807. Wire-Xetting and Stake,

441

421 808. Mixed Gauze for Wire-Xetting,

442

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.

809. Wire-Netting,

810. Spiral Wire- Work,

811. Elevation of Cast-Iron Girder for

Sheds, ....

812. Plan of Shoe for receiving Ends

of Girder,

813. Trussed Beam, or Open Girder, .

814. Elevation and Section of Shoe,

815. Termination of Central Upright,

816. Termination of Side Upright,

817. Plan of Octagonal Shed, .

818. Hoof-Truss of Octagonal Shed, .

819. Plan of Central King for Shed, .

820. End of Strut for Shed, .

821. Widened Part of Tie-Rod for Shed,

822. Section and Elevation of Wrought -

Iron Columns for Sheds,

823. Section of Cast-Iron Pillars for

Cattle- Boxes in Sheds, .

824. Iron Strap for Foot of King-

Post, Struts, and Tie- Beams, .

825. Iron Strap for Foot of Rafter

and Tie-Beam, .

826. Iron Strap for Head of King-

Post and Braces,

827. Iron Strap for Collar and Pi after,

828. Iron Strap for Straining- Beam,

Queen-Post, and Strut,

829. Iron Saddle for Joining Beams

crossing at Right Angles,

830. Cast-iron Shoe for receiving End

of Girder,

831. Cast-Iron Shoes for "Joists,"

"Wall-Plates,"

832. Cast-Iron Shoe for the reception

of Wooden Struts,

833. Shoes for King-Bolt-Heads,

834. 835. Shoe for Queen-Bolt and

Strut, ....

836. Shoe for Foot of Rafter and Pole-

Plate, ....

837. Shoe for "Purlins,"

838. 839, 840. Trussed Beam,

841. Tmssed Beam for 12-feet Span,

842. Cross Section and Part Elevation

of Flitches of Trussed Beam,

843. 844. Details of Truss Rods, 451,

845. Conder's Trussed Beam, .

846. Details of Conder's Trussed Beam,

847. Trussed Beam,

848. 849. Details of Trussed Beam, .

850. Details of King-Post Trussed

Beam ....

851. Details of Queen -Post Trussed

Beam, ....

852. Details of Cornice of a Farmhouse,

853. Front Elevation of Bracket of

Cornice,

854. Section of Base of Principal Win-

dow of a Farmhouse,

855. Section through Window-Head of

a Farmhouse,

856. Plan of Mullion of Window of

a Farmhouse,

857. Section of Base of Bay Window

of a Farmhouse,

858. Section of Window-Head of Bay

Window of a Farmhouse,

Page

Fijj.

442

859.

442

44::

860.

861.

443

8(32.

44:;

444

803.

444

864.

444

865.

445

866.

446

867.

446

868.

447

869.

447

870.

871.

447

448

872.

448

873.

448

874.

875.

448

876.

449

877.

449

878.

449

879.

449

880.

450

881.

451

882,

451

452

884.

452

885.

452

453

886.

453

887.

454

888.

454

889.

454

890.

891.

455

892.

893.

455

894.

895.

455

896.

897.

456

898.

899.

456

900.

456

901.

Page

Cast-Iron Girders, Pillars, and
Brick Arches, for Fireproof
Flooring, . . . 457

Fireproof Flooring, . . 457

Fireproof Floors with Wrought-

Iron Beams, . . . 457

Section of Angle Iron, and Junc-
tion of Wrought-Iron Plates
with Beams, . . . 458

Section of Wrought-Iron Fire-
proof Flooring, . . . 458
Plan of Fireproof Flooring, . 458
Plan and Elevation of Fireproof

Flooring, . . . 459

Details of Beam in System e de

Mansne, . . . 459

Lore's System of Fireproof Floor-
ing, . . . .460
Cheyne's Corrugated Iron Fire-
proof Floor, . . . 4(50
Cross Section of Bunnett's Cel-
lular Brick Arch, . .461
Longitudinal Cellular Brick Arch, 461
Part Section of Fireproof Floor,
showing Tie - Rods passing
through Bunnett's Cellular
Bricks, . . . .461
Section showing Tie-Rod passing

under Cellular Bricks, . . 461

Junction of Wooden Purlins with

Iron Rafters, . . . 462

Fixing of Slates with Iron Roof, 462
Joining Rafters of Truss for Zinc

Covering, . . . 462

Skeleton Truss for Shed, . 463

Plate connecting the Ends of Tie-
Bolts and Struts, . . 463
Termination of Struts and Tie-
Bolts, .... 463
Riveting Struts to Rafters, . 463
Attaching Sheets of Zinc to

Wrought-Iron Rafters, . . 464

Fixing of Sheets of Zinc to

Wood Rolls, . . .464

883. Joining of Sheets of Zinc

from Wall-Plate to Ridge, . 464
Expanded Foot of Rafter, . 465

Joining Corrugated Plates of

Zinc together, . . . 465

Elevation and Section of Joiner's

Gauge, .... 467
Elevation of part of Joiner's

Bench, .... 467
Plan of Joiner's Bench, . . 468

Joiner's Tressels or Horses, . 468
Claw-Hammer, . . . 468

Grindstone, . . . 468

Mason's Trowel, . . . 469

Mason's Level, . . . 469

Mason's Plumb-Line, . . 469

Fanners for Forge, . . 470

Details of Fanners, . . 470

Eccentric Fanners for Forge, . 470
Forge with Fanners, . . 470

Brace for Drilling Holes in Metal, 47 1
Elevation of Screw-Frame for

Boring Brace, . . 471

Il>l)otson's Ratchet Brace, . 471

LIST OF WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

Fig.

902. Plan and Section of Fenn's Rat-

chet Brace,

903. Boring Drills,

904. Screw Stocks,

905. Ibbotson's Screw-Stock, .

906. Various Views of Spanners or

Screw- Keys,

907. Riveting Hammer,

908. Portable Vice, .

909. Dunn's Lifting Screw-jack,

910. Halley's Patent Lifting-Jack, .

911. Perspective View of Turner's

Iron Bench for Circular Saw, .

912. Endless Band Saw Frame in Per-

spective,

913. Powis's Mortising, Tenoning, and

Boring Machine in Perspective,

914. Perspective View of Macpherson's

Sheep-Fence-Making Machine,

915. Lathe, ....

916. Boring Machine, .

917. Breast Boring Machine, . .

918. Perspective View of Combined

Caldron and Furnace, .

919. Section of Combined Caldron and

Furnace,

920. Perspective View of Asphalt Cal-

dron and Grate,

921. Perspective View of Fire-Engine

or Liquid- Manure Pump,

922. Perspective View of Holman's

Double-Action Pump, .

923. Gwynne's Farm Hand-Pump,

924. Section of Hydraulic Ram,

925. Side Elevation of Carrett's Steam-

Pump and Portable Steam-Engine, 481

926. Simple Quarry Crane,

927. Complex Derrick Crane,

928. Dray's Portable Crane, .

929. Porter's Gas Apparatus for Farm

Use, ....

930. Perspective View of Messrs

Bridges and Aubury's Gas-
Making Apparatus,

931. Plan of Isolated Cow -Byre at

Corehouse,

932. 933. Plan of Isolated Dairy,

934. Plan of Upper Floor in Isolated

Dairy, ....

935. Plan of Poultry-House, .

936. Elevation of Poultry-House,

937. Section of Poultry-House,

938. 939. Plans of Poultry-House, .

940. Plan of Pigeon-House,

941. Part Section of Pigeon-House, .

942. Elevation of Detached Pigeon-

House, ....

943. Plan of Rabbitry,

944. 945. Plans of Detached Piggery, 492, 493

946. Ground-Plan of Detached Slaugh-

ter-House, . .

947. Upper Floor of Detached Slaugh-

ter-House, . .

948. Vertical Section of Detached

Slaughter-House, ' ii .

949. Principle of Hot- Water Supply, .

950. Section of a Heating Apparatus

for a Drying-House, . .-

Page

Fig.

951.

472

952.

472

953.

472

954.

472

955.

472

473

956.

473

957.

474

958.

474"

959.

475

960.

476

961.

477

962.

477

963.

478

964.

478

965.

478

966.

967.

479

968,

479

970.

480

971.

481

972.

483

973.

484

974.

485

975.

486

976.

487

977.

488

978.

979.

488

490

980.

490

981.

491

982.

492

983.

492

984.

492

493

985.

493

986.

493

987.

493

988.

496

989.

497

Page

Plan of a Heating Apparatus for
a Drying-House, . . 497

Roller for a Steam-Pipe, . 499

Expansion Drum-Joint for Steam-
Pipes, . . . .500

Valved Curved Pipe for Steam, 500

Vertical Section of Hands' Dry-
ing-Sheds, . . .501

Another Form or Section of Hands'
Drying-Sheds, . . .501

Plan of Archimedean Screw Con-
veyor, .... 505

Vertical Section of Archimedean
Screw Conveyor, . . 505

Rake between the Threads of
Archimedean Screw Conveyor, 506

Section of Hands' Brick-Kiln and
Drying-Shed, . . .509

Plan of Drain-Tile Work at Core-
house, . . . .511

Plan of Drain-Tile Kiln at Core-
house, . . . .511

Transverse Vertical Section of
Drain-Tile Kiln at Corehouse, 51 1

Ground-Plan of Farm Carpenter's
Shop, . . . .513

Ground-Plan of Farm Smithy, . 513

Plan of Flemish Barn, . . 513

Plan of Dutch Barn, . . 514

969. Sketch -Plan of Flemish
Farm-Buildings, . 514, 515

Plan of Machine-House in Flem-
ish Farm, . . . 515

Elevation of Machine - House in
Flemish Farm, . . 515

Plan of Steading of Britannia
Farm, Belgium, . . 516

Dung-Pits and Cinder-Cellars of
Britannia Farm, Belgium, . 517

Basement of American "Side-
Hill Barn," . . .517

Plan of Second Floor of Ameri-
can " Side-Hill " Bam, . 517

Perspective View of an American
"Side-Hill" Barn, . . 518

Plan of American Barn, . . 518

Plan of Allen's American Barn, . 519

Isometrical Elevation of Allen's
American Barn, . . 519

Plan of Basement of American
Barn, . . . .520

Plan of Upper Floor of Ameri-
can Barn, . . . 520

Plan of American Steading, . 521

Plan of Western States American
Farm-Buildings, . . 522

Plan of American Cheese-Dairy
Buildings, . . . 523

Plan of American "Sifting" Pig-
gery, .... 524

Ground- Plan of American Poul-
try-House, . . . 524

Section of an American Poultry-
House, .... 524

Section of Nests behind Stairs in
American Poultry-House, . 524

Plan of the Imperial Farm-Stead-
ing at Vincennes, . . 525

LIST OF WOOD EXGRAVINGS.

Fig.

990. Contents of Timber in Queen-

Post Eoof,

991. Contents of Timber in King-

Post Roof,

992. Contents of Timber in Tie-Beam

Roof, ....

993. Contents of Timber in Collar-

Roof, ....

994. Contents of Timber in Partition,

995. Back-Flaps,

996. Blockings,

997. Clamp, .

998. Elevation and Section of Hand-

rail, ....

999. Mitre-Joint in Wood, .

1000. Fillet, .

1001. Bead or Astragal,

1002. Roman Scotia Moulding,

1003. Grecian Scotia Moulding,

1004. Roman Ovolo Moulding,

1005. Grecian Ovolo Moulding.

100(5. Roman Cavetto or Hollow
Moulding,

1007. Grecian Cavetto or Hollow

Moulding,

1008. Roman Cyma-Recta Moulding,

1009. Grecian Cyma-Recta Moulding,

1010. Roman Cyma-Reversa Mould-

ing, . . . .

1011. Grecian Cyma-Reversa Mould-

ing, ....

1012. Ogee Moulding,

1013. Congee or Apophygee Mould-

ing, .

1014. Post at Bottom of Stairs,

1015. Single Quirk in Joinery,

1016. Double Quirk in Joinery,

1017. Sash-Window, .

Page

541

541
542
542

542

542
542
543
543
544

EREATA.

In par. 1721, p. 495, twenty-seventh line from top, for " low temperature of hot water system,'

read " low temperature hot-water system."

In par. 1730, p. 501, second line from bottom, for "airing" read "using."
At p. 285, in fig. 345, in the title, for "collars," read "cottars."
At p. 289, in fig. 362, in the title, for " bottom beam," read " collar- beam."
At p. 400, in fig. 682, in the title, for " column-beam," read " column and beam."
At p. 418, in fig. 746, in the title, for " bowl," read " cowl."
At p. 458, in fig. 864, in the title, for " % inch," read " % inch to the foot."

THE

BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS,

BOOK EIRST -PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT.

DIVISION FIRST. PLANS OF STEADINGS BASED UPON FIXED PRINCIPLES.

1. THE farms of this kingdom occupy every available space of ground, from
the tops of the highest mountains to the lowest level of the plains. On the
variety of ground implied in so wide a range, it is not to be expected that
the same kind of husbandry should be followed. On the contrary, as a con-
sequence of the great diversity, a different system is pursued in each variety
of soil.

2. It may not therefore excite surprise when it is stated that no fewer than
six kinds of farming are practised in the kingdom. The same kind is probably
followed in all places of nearly similar soil and locality. Locality apparently
determines the kind of farming more than the soil. The comparative influence
of soil and locality in determining the kind of farming will best be understood,
after considering the particulars incidental to each of the six kinds.

3. The simplest sort of farming is the pastoral. It is entirely confined to the
mountains. Sheep are reared on the upper, and cattle on the lower, mountain
ranges. Cattle and sheep are not always reared on the same farm : they are
so only when high and low pasture-grounds unite. When the low-pasture
ground lies in a valley, or along the banks of a stream, arable culture is judi-
ciously introduced for the raising of winter food ; but arable culture is the excep-
tion. A pastoral district is always hilly, the soil thin, poor, various, of light
texture, and more suited to the growth of natiiral pasture grasses and live stock
than of grain. The ordinary winter food, in most pastoral farms, is hay. Pas-
toral farms are always large, containing sometimes many thousands of acres,
and even miles in extent ; but from 1500 to 3000 acres may perhaps constitute
one of common size. The rent is moderate. Locality thus entirely determines
this kind of farming.

4. Another kind of farming is practised on carse land. In all respects a carse
is quite the opposite of a pastoral district. Carse land implies a flat, clay, rich
soil, capable of raising all sorts of grain, and is therefore eminently suited to
arable culture, and for the same reason unsuited to pasture grasses and live

2 PLANS OF STEADINGS

stock. Soil thus entirely determines carse farming. A carse farm is all arable,
requiring much labour, and is never of large extent, seldom exceeding 200
acres ; but the rent is always high.

5. A third sort of farming is the suburbial, practised in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of large towns. In the vicinity of London, garden vegetables are
raised on farms. In the neighbourhood of most other towns, garden vegetables
are not so much raised as green crops, such as potatoes, turnips, and grass ; as
also dry fodder, such as straw and hay. This kind of farming is thus entirely
suited to arable culture. The extent of such farms is not large, seldom exceed-
ing 300 acres, and the rent is high. Locality thus entirely determines this kind
of farming.

6. A fourth kind of farming is found at a distance from towns, and is called
common farming. Not being directly dependent upon towns, this kind of farm-
ing follows a regular rotation of cropping with green and grain crops, and it
fattens purchased cattle and sheep for the market. It is thus also suitable to
arable culture. This is the most common kind of farming in the country, and
being so extensively, practised, necessarily comprehends great variety of soil,
the rotations on which are contracted or expanded from the common standard,
as the culture of live stock or grain claims the predominance in consonance
with the nature of the soil. Locality rather than soil determines this kind of.
farming. The farms are not of large extent, seldom exceeding 400 acres, but
some extend to 1500 acres. The rent is generally moderate.

7. A fifth sort of farming is the dairy. It directs its attention to the produc-
tion of milk, and the making of butter and cheese. For these purposes it
requires a considerable proportion of old pasture grass, as well as arable land
for raising food for the cows in winter. It is thus suited to both arable and
pastoral conditions. Its farms are of small extent, seldom exceeding 150
acres, and the rent moderate. Locality chiefly determines this sort of farming,
which has reference to a proximity to good markets.

8. The sixth and last sort of farming is the mixed husbandry. It is so named
because it embraces the culture of the soil in intimate connection with the
rearing of live stock. The system of rotation of crops is therefore solely
adapted to promoting the welfare of the live stock reared. Thus pursuing
arable culture with the rearing of stock, this mode of farming cannot be prac-
tised within narrow bounds. The farms are therefore large, seldom less than
500 acres, and extending to even 1500 acres. Its adoption is determined
neither by locality nor soil, its mixed character affording a happy medium for
adapting itself to circumstances, whether of the one or the other.

9. The causes which have operated so to diversify the systems of farming in
this country, are perhaps the following : Sheep occupy the whole range of
pasture from the mountain-tops to the plains. Hence the highest mountain
pastures are occupied solely by sheep, and there, in consequence, pastoral farms
which breed sheep only are to be found. High sheep farms are much subjected
to wind and rain ; and were it not that the tops of mountains face different
directions one face affording comparative shelter and warmth, whilst the
opposite is confronting the fiercest blasts of the elements such farms would
be unfit even for the most hardy breeds of sheep.

10. Since sheep can occupy the whole range of mountain pasture, and cattle
only the secondary hills to the plains, it follows that both sheep and cattle may
be reared on the same pastoral farm. This constitutes our second description
of pastoral farms. Few store-masters, however, trouble themselves with breed-
ing both cattle and sheep, where accommodation in steadings for stock of

FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARMING. 3

both kinds is very limited, and where variety of winter provender is not over-
abundant. But where good haugh or holm land exists, and a thick soil on the
adjacent slopes, a commodious steading may be set down with advantage for
both cattle and sheep breeding. Cattle and sheep may be reared Avith advant-
age on the same pasture, inasmuch as sheep bite the grass closer and dis-
tribute their manure better than cattle, and the cropped grass thereby springs
up afresh more readily.

11. Upon the slopes and undulations of the ground from the foot of the
secondary mountains into the plains, are found the sites of many kinds of
farming. The soil generally in these slopes and undulations rests on trap alone,
or on sandstone alone, or on mountain limestone containing projecting emin-
ences of trap. Such formations are eminently suited for raising turnips, and,
accordingly, we there find prevailing the mixed, the dairy, and the common
farming.

12. On the plains, towns and villages are found on the margins of rivers
which are making their way to the sea or to an estuary. The soil is either thin
clay or gravel, both travelled materials, and resting upon diluvial clay. The
farming here is determined by the immediate demands from these towns and
villages, and hence arises the suburlial farming.

13. Where the plain extends to the banks of a large river or wide estuary,
the soil is often a uniform deposit of strong alluvial clay, upon which is prac-
tised the carse farming.

14. Such are the physical causes Avhich have given rise to the different
kinds of farming practised in this country. It is obvious that no change can
be introduced into pastoral farming, except in the extension of arable culture,
for the purpose of raising an increased and sufficient supply of winter food for
live stock. Carse farming can only be materially altered by raising turnips
where none were raised before, by means of thorough drainage. Suburbial
farms must preserve their peculiar characteristics until the demand ceases from
the towns for the peculiar products which they consume. As long as milk, and
butter, and cheese, are wanted, dairy-f&rmmg must be pursued. The only
material change that can be effected in the general farming of the country is
the transference of the common farming at a distance from towns to that of the
mixed husbandry. This change would involve the breeding and rearing of live
stock upon the farm, instead of their being purchased at markets. What then
would become of the live stock reared in the pastoral districts, when there
would be no purchasers in the low country ? But purchasers would be found
by increasing the culture of turnips in the neighbourhood of towns beyond the
town demand, and also by increasing them on carse farms by means of thorough
drainage, on which classes of farms live stock cannot be reared. Such a
change might probably afford accommodation for all the cast stock from the
pastoral districts, in every successive year. Any change that- could be effected
on the mixed husbandry, could only be by purchasing live stock instead of
breeding them, and such a change would be a retrograde one for the farmer.

15. The general condition of all the sorts of farming referred to above, may
be modified materially by the following incidents : The land may be on too
steep an inclination. The soil may be too tenacious or too loose ; too wet or
too dry ; naturally poor or naturally rich. The fields may want water in
summer. The fences may be injudiciously placed. The position of the farms
may be exposed or sheltered ; they may be far or near from coal, lime, markets,
and railroads. The roads may be difficult or easy to traverse, or be in good or
bad repair.

4 PLANS OF STEADINGS

16. Seeing there are so many kinds of farming, it may reasonably be as-
sumed that, for their accommodation, there should be a corresponding diversity
in the size and arrangement of the fields and of the buildings on the farm.
When the farming is limited in extent, such as in a dairy district, it is not to
be supposed that the fields should be as large, in following a regular rota-
tion of crops, as in a farm of mixed husbandry, or that the stable accommo-
dation in the steading should be as extensive as in a carse farm. Although
errors in judgment in constructing steadings may not be committed to such
extremes as these cases indicate, errors too often prevail in that particu-
lar, by neglect of the essential consideration that the steading about to be
erected is for the use of a special system of husbandry, and not for every
system.

17. But this consideration, essential as it is, does not imply that no gen-
eral rule or principle can be found which would apply to the construction of all
steadings. Such a general rule may and does exist, and it is applicable, and is
fit to be a guide, in the construction of steadings for every diversity of husbandry
in which straw is used. Were the rule kept steadily in view in their construc-
tion, steadings would present much uniformity of aspect, whilst, at the same
time, the arrangement of their apartments might be so modified as to suit each
diversity of farming. It is one of the objects of this work to lay down such a
general rule, and to show its applicability to the construction of steadings for
every variety of arable husbandry in practice.

18. But before explaining this general rule, and applying it to construction,
it seems necessary, as a preliminary investigation, to ascertain the particulars
which constitute the most proper site which the steading of the farm should
occupy.

19. Were theory alone to determine the site of the steading, it would be at
the centre, as being the point equidistant from the circumference of a circular
farm. But, for the sake of practice, farms should not be laid out in the circular
form, because their circumference, or lines of boundary with other farms, would
not be in straight lines ; and not being in straight lines, much space would be
lost for culture in the place where every four farms met. Such spaces might
indeed afford good shelter, were they planted ; but sufficient shelter can be
better obtained from judiciously-placed large plantations on inferior soils, though
at a greater distance and elevation. Farms are therefore laid out in the quad-
rangular form, having straight sides, wherever practicable, that is, where no
rivulet occurs, the course of which is always obliged to be followed. The
centre of such a quadrangle is the proper site for the steading, and from its
centre alone, it is obvious that a farm can be most economically conducted.

20. Difficulties, however, of a physical nature often interfere with the choice
of the centre as the most proper site. The centre may be very much elevated
above the other parts, or it may be a low marsh or a lake. In either case, the
steading cannot be placed in the centre of the farm.

21. When the farm contains both permanent pastoral and low arable land, the
steading should be placed upon, and at the centre of, the arable portion, whether
that be the centre of the farm or not.

22. Convenience often decides the site of a steading. Command of water-
power is a strong incentive to place it by the side of a river. But it is worthy
of consideration at first, whether the river is capable of affording a constant
supply of water throughout all the seasons. If it does, then the steading will
be economically placed near the river, though that may not be at the centre
of the farm ; but if the water be deficient in quantity, if it affords a sufficiency

AND THEIR PROPER SITES. 5

only in winter, then it is more economical to place the steading near the centre
of the farm, and erect a steam-power there.

23. A good road to a market-town or railway-station, is a natural inducement
to place the steading beside it. But this advantage, natural as it is, may be
purchased by the sacrifice of a greater. Should the steading be placed, in
consequence, at the extreme angle of the farm, such a sacrifice would be made.
We know a large steading which is thus inconveniently placed, for the sake
of a good road and the command of water-power ; but these advantages were
obtained at the additional expense of maintaining a man and pair of horses with
their implements, to work the most distant fields of the farm. Better make a
good farm-road to the turnpike from the centre of a farm, and erect steam-power,
than place a steading at its utmost corner.

24. Good shelter induces the placing of a steading in it. A warm and com-
fortable situation in winter conduces much to the well-being of the stock lodged
in a steading. But this desideratum alone should not induce the placing of a
steading at a point whence the farm would have to be worked at increased cost.

25. A pleasant view from the farmhouse may naturally induce the placing of
a steading a short distance away from the centre of a farm.

26. There are particular spots which should be avoided as sites for steadings.
A rocky knoll presents difficulties in making a foundation for buildings, and it
is unsuited to proper drainage from a steading. Close to a river or lake, on a
level with its banks, renders drainage from a steading impracticable, and
should be avoided on account of the dampness of such a situation. A bed of
dry loose sand is unsuitable for a secure foundation to a steading, though the
difficulty might be overcome by artificial means. There is no necessity, how-
ever, of incurring an obviously unnecessary expense in forming a foundation for
a steading. A clayey substratum in front of a rising ground is not an eligible
position for the site of a steading, inasmuch as it will always retain dampness,
whatever may be the drainage. A very exposed spot in a gap between two
hills, is an uncomfortable position for a steading, both for man and beast.

27. It is a question whether or riot it is more economical to place the steading
at the higher or lower part of an inclining arable farm. If situate at the higher
part, all the produce of grain, turnips, and potatoes, has to be carried up-hill ;
and if on the lower, the manure is subject to the same inconvenience. Where
the surface of a farm forms a round-backed ridge sloping both ways, the apex of
the ridge is the most economical site for the steading, and the case is the same
when the steading is placed in the centre of a long slope of land. It should
not be forgotten that loads have to be carried both to and from a steading, so
that the high or low position will answer, provided there be no steep ascent or
descent immediately at the steading. When both high and low situations are
equally circumstanced, reason and experience would prefer the low.

28. One essential consideration should be given to all sites, which is, whether
pump water is obtainable or riot. Where it is abundant, some inconvenience
may be submitted to ; but if scanty, the most eligible site ought to be abandoned
at once.

29. It is desirable that the farmhouse should be situated so as to command a
view of the fields of the farm, and also be near the steading ; and if any sacri-
fice of position on the part of either is necessary, the house should give way to
the steading.

30. Having thus pointed out the best position for the steading to occupy on a
farm, our next endeavour shall be to lay down the general principle which should
guide the construction of steadings for every variety of arable husbandly.

6 PLANS OF STEADINGS

31. Straw being the most bulky article in the steading, and in great and daily
use by all the stock, and having, though heavy and unwieldy, to be distributed
in every apartment by manual labour, it should, of necessity, be placed centri-
cally, and at the shortest distance from the stock. Bearing the relations of these
particulars in mind, it is obvious that they constitute the principle upon which
the construction of steadings should be based ; and as the centre is the nearest
point to the circumference, it is also obvious that the original receptacle for the
straw should occupy the central point of the steading. There can be no exception
to this rule for every variety of farming where straw is in use. Every apartment
occupied by stock should thus encircle the straw-barn. Different classes and
ages of stock require different quantities and kinds of straw, so that those which
require the most should be placed nearest the straw-barn; and in ah 1 cases straw
should be carried short distances, and not at all from any other apartment than
direct from the straw-barn.

32. The thrashing-machine supplies the straw at once to the straw-barn :
that machine should therefore be erected nearest to it. The stackyard supplies
the corn direct to the thrashing-machine, and should thus be contiguous to it ;
and as the corn and straw are thrashed most easily and quickly in a straight
line, it follows that the stackyard, thrashing-machine, arid straw-bam, should be
in a straight line ; and it also follows that as the straw-barn should be in the
centre of the steading, and as the thrashing-machine intervenes between it and
the stackyard, the stackyard should be placed on the outside of the steading.
Another important corollary, as regards the construction of the steading, follows
from these premises. The sun is an important source of warmth, and, in con-
sequence, of comfort to the animals in a steading in the winter season. Every
facility should therefore be allowed the sun to enter, and the removal of one
obstruction to the greatest amount of sunshine is, placing the length of the
central straw-bam north and south; and in settling this point, the straw-barn,
thrashing-machine, and stackyard, will as a consequence be in a line north and
south. This being the case, the building required to accommodate the thrashing-
machine, and its accompanying corn-barn, being always two-storeyed, a con-
venient position for the granaries will be to place them east and west, where
they will form a good screen from the north wind. Here, then, we have fixed a
principle in the construction of steadings which is indisputable, namely, that
the straw-barn should occupy the centre ; that the thrashing-machine should
be nearest to it and in a line with it ; that the stackyard should be near the
thrashing-machine ; and that all three should be in a line north and south. And
as all steadings for arable culture have straw-barn, thrashing-machine, and
stackyard, it follows that this principle is applicable to all steadings erected for
that purpose.

33. It shall now be our endeavour to illustrate this principle in its application
to all classes of steadings. Cattle fattening, whether in haminels, boxes, or
byres, requiring most straw, should be placed nearest the straw-bam. Younger
cattle, being lighter, require less straw, whether for fodder or litter, and should
be placed either at a greater distance from the straw-barn than the fattening
cattle, or at the same distance on the other side of it. Horses and cows requir-
ing the least straw, may be placed at the greatest distance from the straw-barn.

34. The leading principle involved in the above arrangement is comprehen-
sive and simple, and is obviously applicable to every size and kind of steading.
But indisputably correct as the principle is, it is very seldom adopted in prac-
tice ; and we may safely assert that, the greater the deviation from it, the less
commodious are steadings as habitations for stock in winter.

FOR CATTLE PASTORAL FARMING. 7

35. One reason why steadings are not constructed on this principle is, that
possibly architects are not conversant with the use of the respective apartments
iu steadings, and they seem to bestow most attention on outward symmetrical
proportions, and on constructing them at the least possible expense, and within
the smallest space of ground, as if a few square yards more or less were of great
value in the country. Xo doubt economy is enforced on architects by reluctant
proprietors, at whose cost the buildings are to be erected ; but economy is a
secondary consideration when the proper accommodation of stock comes into
competition with it. For, let us suppose that, by inadequate accommodation,
cattle thrive by 10s. a-head less than they would have done by the best, the
loss on 60 cattle would be 30, which, as an annual loss, is equivalent to a loss
of 570 in the course of 19 years, besides interest a sum much larger than
would have been required to make the steading complete in this respect at
the outset. So little is such a loss anticipated, that in too many parts of the
country the cattle are placed in courts within a small quadrangle, the southern
range of which prevents the sun ever penetrating to them in winter; and on
account of that peculiar form the chill air rushes over the corners of the roofs
into the courts in whirlwinds, which, if accompanied with rain or sleet, is sure
to engender in the cattle the most insidious diseases. Into a large quadrangle,
however, the sun does find its way.

36. It is now time to describe the steadings suitable to the different sorts of
farming, and to apply the ruling principle propounded above to those in which
straw is used. We have seen that there are six different modes of farming
practised in the country namely, 1. PASTORAL farming, either simply or in
connection with arable culture; 2. CAKSE farming; 3. DAIRY fanning; 4. SUHURBIAL
farming, or that practised in the immediate neighbourhood of towns ; 5. COM-
MON farming, or that practised at a distance from towns ; and, G. MIXED hus-
bandry. We shall take these in the order named.

37. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING OR ONSTEAD, OR FARMERY, AND STELLS FOR
PASTORAL FARMING. Pastoral farming is that which is simply so, or in connec-
tion with arable culture. Simple pastoral farming embraces the breeding and
rearing of cattle or of sheep, or of both combined ; and that, sort of farming,
combined with arable culture, devotes itself to the same ends.

38. Cattle pastoral farming. On a pure pastoral farm on which cattle are bred
and reared, the steading required on it is simply a protection in winter for the
cows, and this being the case, the rule propounded above does not apply to
it particularly. The cows suckle their calves during the summer, and after the
calves are weaned, they are put under protection in winter when the weather is
severe, or the ground covered with snow, and supplied with hay and water, or
let out to the water to drink every day. Such a steading may be erected in
any convenient place detached or near, as desired, to the farmhouse and herd's
house. A plan of such a steading is given at fig. ], Plate I., where it is named
"Detached pastoral farm-steading for rearing cattle:" a b, c d, each 30 feet
long, and 18 feet in width, are the sheds for the shelter of the stock, and e, /, g, h
are their respective courts, each 30 feet square. The entrances to both sheds
and courts should be 9 feet in width. The entrance to the sheds i i i i may be
arched overhead if built of stone and lime, or have a flat wooden lintel. The
walls should be 8 feet in height above the ground. The roof may consist of
trees placed in the breadth across the walls, and covered with broom, whin,
fern, or branches of spruce, all of which materials will last several years. But,

8 PLANS OF STEADINGS

if desired, the roof may be made of ordinary couples of timber and slated. The
courts should be provided with water-troughs, one trough to two courts, an
arched opening being made in the common wall at k k. Gates are placed at
the openings I III. The completed roof and the flat lintels over the doorways
may be seen by the dotted lines of the isometrical perspective over the sheds
abed. The walls may be made of dry stone rubble, toothed or pointed with
lime on the outside ; or they may be made of wood where timber is plentiful on
the estate. But the best and most durable materials are stone and lime, where
these can be procured.

39. Such a plan may be contracted or enlarged according to the wants and
extent of the farm, and several may be erected on the same farm at places
convenient for the making of hay, to save the carrying of that fodder to a
distance. Cows in calf and calves will be well sheltered in such a steading
in wet stormy weather, or when snow covers the ground ; and even year-olds
may be accommodated on an emergency, or on a much-exposed farm. From
the dimensions given, it is easy for farmers to estimate the number of cattle, at
their respective ages, which could be accommodated in the sheds.

40. Besides this accommodation for the breeding stock, a pastoral farm requires
a steading for various other purposes. The farmer must have a horse and a gig
to take him and his family to church and market. One or two work-horses are
required to bring corn, provisions, and artificial food to the farm, as well as to
carry a carcass to the butcher, and hay to the stacks. The farmer must have
a cow or two for his family and those of his herds, and fowls arid pigs.

41. Such a steading is represented by fig. 2, Plate I. It is the most easily
and economically erected in a long straight building in which the apartments
are conveniently arranged, a is the killing-house, which is a necessary apart-
ment in a pastoral steading, for when a beast is taken ill, and not likely to
recover, it must be killed : it is 18 feet in width, and 20 feet in length, with a
window in front and door at the back ; b is an outhouse in which implements
and other articles may be locked up, 18 by 25 feet, with a window and door in
front ; c the gig-house, 18 by 9 feet, with a wide door in front ; d the riding-
horse stable of two stalls, 18 by 12 feet, with a window and door in front ; e the
hay -house, in which the corn-chest may be placed to contain the corn for all the
horses, 18 by 15 feet, with a window and door in front; / the cart-horse stable,
furnished with three stalls, to accommodate a strange horse when it comes, 18
by 18 feet, with a window and door in front ; g the byre or shippen, 18 feet by
20, with a window and door in front, and four divisions for 8 cows, if as many
are wanted, if not, it can be made proportionally smaller ; h the hen-house, 18
by 8 feet, with a window in front and a door at the back, and a bole with steps
leading up to it by the side of the door ; and i is the cart-shed, 18 by 12 feet,
with a 9-feet opening. The stables arid byre, being most in use, are placed at
the centre of the building, while the less used apartments are at the outer ends.
The hay-house may have internal doors leading into the riding and work stables,
but in a small steading such as this it is unnecessary to incur the expense. The
walls should be 9 feet above the ground, and the roof made of good couples of
wood, and slated. The steading may be placed near the cattle-sheds, fig. 1, or
at a distance, as most convenient for both sheds and steading. The dotted lines
show the structure of the walls and roof, and the positions and forms of the
doors and windows.

42. The farmhouse and cottages for the herds should be near the steading.

43. The scale for figs. 1 and 2, Plate I., is as half an inch to the foot.

44. The extreme length over walls of fig. 1, Plate I., is 125 feet; the extreme

FOR SHEEP PASTOEAL FAEMING. 9

breadth, 51 feet ; and the "width of the sheds is 18 feet within -walls. The
length of fig. 2 over walls is 153 feet, and the width of the apartments within
walls is 18 feet.

45. The arrow indicates the direction of north.

46. It may be deemed desirable to have the cattle-sheds connected with the
steading. Such a plan is represented by fig. 3, Plate I., where it is denominated
" Compact pastoral farm-steading for rearing cattle," and where the central part
of the building is occupied by the cattle-sheds abed, each 30 feet by 18, with
their respective courtyards e f y //, each 30 feet square. With the sheds here,
the apartments of the steading are not in a straight line, as in the above case, but
are thrown into the form of wings, the lower one in the plate being devoted to
the operations of the farm, and the upper one to those of the house. The
lower wing is occupied by z", the riding-horse stable with three stalls, 18 feet
by 18, with a window and door in front ; k the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, in
which a large corn-chest for all the horses may be placed, with a door and
window in front; I the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, furnished with three
stalls, and a door and window in front. The hay-house being placed between
the two stables, internal doors of communication may be made if desired. The
gig-house m, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door in front. The litter-house , 18 by
24 feet, is provided with a window and door in front, as well as a door at the
back, to allow the litter to be carried either way, as required.

47. The upper wing contains o, the hen-house, 18 feet by 10, with a door
in front, and a window and bole with steps at the side. There is another hay-
house here at p, 18 feet by 10, for the use of the byre q, which is 18 feet by
20, furnished with four divisions for two cows in each. Both the hay-house and
byre or shippen have a window and door in front. The outhouse r is 18 feet by
18, with a window and door in front ; s the killing-house, 18 feet by 26, with a
door and two windows in front, and may be used for other purposes.

48. The walls are 9 feet in height from the floor, and the dotted lines show
the structure of the walls, windows, doors, and roof; the roof being made of
wooden couples, and slated.

49. The extreme length over walls of fig. 3, Plate I., is 164 feet. The length
of the upper wing is 91 feet, and that of the lower 91 feet. The width of the
sheds and courts over walls is 52 feet. The width of the apartments and sheds
within walls is 18 feet.

50. The scale of fig. 3, Plate I., is in the proportion of three-eighths and a
third of an inch to the foot.

51. The farmhouse and cottages for the herds should be placed near the
steading, which should be erected in the most accessible part of the farm.

52. The arrow shows the direction of north.

53. Sheep Pastoral Farming. Sheep in pastoral farms are never housed in a
steading in winter, although in modern agriculture in the low country they
are not unfrequently fed in sheds erected beside the steading. Nevertheless,
sheep are at times protected in a certain class of buildings, named stells, in the
upper pastoral districts. In a pastoral farm where a ewe stock is kept such
stells are of much use in stormy weather, and when the ground is covered with
snow, to afford both protection and food to the ewes in lamb. Where ewes are
kept, a certain proportion of the ewe lambs are retained, to maintain the number
of the flock, and these lambs, when weaned and then termed hoggs, require
shelter as well as the ewes themselves. Most of the lambs, and all the old cast

PLANS OF STEADINGS

ewes, are sold off every year. Where no ewe stock is kept, weaned lambs or
hoggs are bought from the breeders, and they require shelter at times in winter.

54. Stells are of various forms, and generally constructed of dry stones,
though better of stone and lime, and sometimes they are made entirely ot
grassy turf.

55. The site of a stell should be in a sheltered situation, and, at the same
time, not be subject to be overwhelmed with snow.

56. An example of the simplest form of stells is given in fig. 1, where a

Fig. 1.

F:g. 2.

Fig. 3.

is the arc of a circle, affording shelter at a against the blast on the opposite
face of the fence ; b is of two inverted arcs of circles touching, and they afford
shelter on either side, as also in the spaces between the curves ; c has two
parallel walls connected by a wall between them, and these afford equal shelter
at c and c.

57. Another simple form of stell is in the meeting of four arcs of a circle, as

in fig. 2, affording shelter in all the
curves, according to the direction
whence the blast comes.

58. A circular stell, with a simple
fence, very common in use, is an ob-
jectionable form, inasmuch as its in-
terior is apt to be blown up with snow.

59. A circular stell, however, sur-
rounded by a plantation, affords ex-
cellent shelter and protection, as seen
in fig. 3, where a is the space within
for shelter, provided with an entrance b
through the planting, which should be
parallel and winding, and not as shown
in the figure, which is the common form
of entrance, but which is bad, inasmuch
as the sheep, crowding in, are apt to
be jammed at the inner narrow point.
Such a stell would occupy a consider-
able space of ground, according to the
size of the flock, and it may be reared
in the most exposed situation. A num-
ber of them might be made on the
same farm.

60. Fig. 4 represents an inside
stell of 18 yards diameter within,
surrounded by a wall 6 feet in

height, the lower 3 feet of which may be built of stone, and the upper 3 feet

IN9IDE CIRCULAR STKLr,. WI

PLANTATION.

FOR CATTLE PASTORAL FARMING WITH ARABLE CULTURE. 11

of turf. It contains a hay-stack, protected by hurdles, and racks for hay
against the wall round the inside. Its site should he in a sheltered place,

Fia. -I.

where deep snow cannot cover it up. The opening- into it should be from
the side towards the rising ground, or it
should be on the sheltered side when the
stell stands upon a knoll.

61. An outside stell of large dimen-
sions is represented by fig. 5, where a
curved fence of reversed circular form
encircles the plantation, and affords
shelter from every quarter. It might be
erected in the most exposed situations,
and multiplied in any number in the
same farm or district. Such a form of
stell would be an ornament to the coun-
try, besides a means of shelter at all ( -J
times.

62. Cattle Pastoral Farming with Arable
Culture. Every pastoral farm that has
much ground in its lower part, in a

valley or on the banks of a rivulet, has arable culture connected with it ; and
every pastoral farmer is desirous of having as much arable laud on his farm as
will produce corn for the support of his family and servants and horses, and
supply straw and turnips for the use of his stock in winter. Such a farm re-
quires an adequate steading, and such a steading is necessarily provided with
a thrashing-machine and straw-barn. Wherever these requisites are available,
the principle we have advanced above, in par. 32, is applicable in the construc-
tion of the steading.

63. Fig. 1, Plate II., presents such a steading, where the central part is
occupied with the thrashing-machine and straw-barn in a line north and south
of a range of building having apartments in the upper wing connected with
the operations of the arable part, and in the lower one, with the pastoral
department of the farm : The corn-barn a is 18 feet by 26, with a door
at the back to the stackyard, and a window looking into the cattle-court p ;
b is the site of the thrashing-machine, c the chaff-house, 5 feet wide, with
an internal door to the straw-barn and a window into the cattle-court p ;
d the straw-barn, 18 feet by 21, has four doors, two to cattle-courts, and two
outside them, to the stables and byre ; e the cart-shed, 18 feet by 22, with two

PLANS OF STEADINGS

port-holes; /the gig-house, 18 feet by 9; and h the horse-course, 26 feet in
diameter. To the right of the central range of buildings are the cattle-sheds I
and m, 18 feet by 30 each, with their respective courts p and <?, 30 feet by 30
each. To the left of the central range are the cattle-sheds, i and k, 18 feet by
30 each, with their respective courts n and o, 30 feet by 30 each.

64. In the right wing are these apartments for arable culture : r the boiling-
house, 18 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, having a door at the back and a window in
front ; s the implement-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door in front ; t the cart-
horse stable, 18 feet by 32, having four stalls and a loose-box, 8 feet wide, with
a door and two windows in front ; u the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, with a door
at the back towards the straw-barn d for carrying the straw to the cart-horse
stable t, and a window in front ; v riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 12, with two
stalls and a door and window at the back ; and w a turnip-store, 18 feet by 12,
for the cattle-courts p and q.

65. In the left wing are these apartments for the pastoral depai'tment of the
farm : b' the hen-house, 18 feet by 9, with a door in front and a window and bole
at the back ; x an outhouse, 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in front;
y the killing-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front; z, a turnip-
store, 18 feet by 18, for the cattle-courts nand o and cow-byre a', with a door at
the back, and the cow-byre a', 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front.
The killing-house is a convenience in all pastoral farms, and here, as it should
be, it is situated between apartments not appropriated to any kind of live stock.

Fig. e. The cattle-courts and sheds may accommodate either breeding-
cows and calves, or young stirks and heifers bought from the
breeders. The turnip store w may be the gig-house ; the gig-
I house / a guano-store, and the turnip-store z allotted to any other
purpose. Turnip-stores could then be made in front of the walls
of the cattle-courts n o and p q fit b' and c'.

66. The walls are 9 feet high above the ground, and the dot-
ted lines show the structure of the roofs, the two-storeyed por-
tion of the steading, and the position of the doors and windows.

67. The highest part of the building contains two floors or
storeys. The upper floor or storey consists of the apartments
shown in fig. 6, where a is the upper barn immediately above the
corn-barn ; b the site of the thrashing-machine with its gearing,
drum, and shakers ; c the dotted lines showing the position of the
beams of wood which support the thrashing-machine ; d the door,
6 feet wide, which leads into the stackyard, from which the
sheaves from the stacks are brought either in wheel-barrows along
a gangway, or in carts placed right under the door and forked into
the barn ; g is a window at the right hand of the man who feeds
the sheaves into the thrashing-mill ; e is a hatch, 3 feet by 3,
communicating with the corn-barn below, for the purpose of
passing the roughs of the grain to be rethrashed, where there
are no elevators connected with the mill ; A is a bole, 4 feet
by 3, communicating with the straw-barn, t, through which
the straw is forked, to be again passed through the mill
when necessary ; I is the granary over the cart-shed and gig-
house, 18 feet by 32, with an entrance by an outside stone stair k,

with four windows, two on each side. The granary is placed here for simplicity
of construction, but it would be better to extend the central range into two
storeys over the cattle-sheds k and I, fig. 1, Plate II., and thus have two

XJPPBR FLOOR OF A
BlIAUISO TOR CAT-
TLE PASTORAL FARU-
JHO WITH ARABLK

CULTURE.

FOR SHEEP PASTORAL FARMING WITH ARABLE CULTURE. 13

granaries, each 30 feet in length, with an entrance direct from the corn-barn.
In that case, the roof of the cart-shed c and gig-house / should be brought
down to one storey, and the end wall of the straw-barn elevated into a gable.

68. The extreme length over walls of fig. 1, Plate II., is 188 feet. The
length of the right wing is 96 feet, that of the left wing 95 feet. The length
of the middle division over walls is 73 feet. The width of the sheds and
courts is 53 feet, and that of all the apartments and of the sheds is 18 feet.

69. The scale of fig 1, Plate II., is in the proportion of rather more than -jjths
of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 6 will be found at fig. 1, Plate II.

70. The farmhouse and the herd's cottage should be placed near the steading,
which should be erected in an accessible part of the farm.

71. The arrow points to the north.

72. Sheep Pastoral Farming with Arable Culture. It is as convenient to have
some arable husbandry connected with a sheep pastoral farm, as with that for
the rearing of cattle, and hence a steading is required for it also. As this sort
of farming is furnished with stells for the sheep, and does not require courts,
the apartments might be placed in a single row ; but as such a form would
place the apartments at the extreme ends at a considerable distance from one
another, it is more convenient to make it into that of a hollow square or paral-
lelogram. Where arable culture is practised, it is always advisable to have a
thrashing-machine. No courts being required, it is not absolutely necessary
to place the straw-barn within the hollow square, although it is necessary to
have it at hand; and this is the case in the plan of a "Farm-steading, for
rearing sheep with arable culture," given in fig. 2, Plate II., showing a slight
modification of the principle laid down as an axiom in par. 32, in its application
to a case where little straw is required.

73. The corn-barn is a, 18 feet by 32, with a door and window in front. Off
the corn-barn is the space , 18 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, for the thrashing-
machine, as also the space c, 5 feet wide, for the chaff-house, with a door to the
straw-barn and a window in front. The straw-barn d is 18 feet by 40, with a
door in front, and another at the back to the stack-yard and horse-course, and
also a bole at the back. The horse-course /is 26 feet in diameter. The killing-
house g is 18 feet by 10, with a door and window at the back. This apartment
is far removed from any occupied by animals. The cart-shed /?, 18 feet by 18,
has two arched ports. The implement-house^? is 18 feet by 18, with a door and
window at the back. All these apartments are situate in the central range of
the building.

74. The two wings are so arranged as the lower one is devoted to the arable
work of the farm, and the upper to the pastoral. The lower wing contains the
following apartments : The cart-horse stable z, 18 feet by 32, having four
stalls and a loose-box fc, 8 feet wide, with a door and window in front. The hay-
house Z, 18 feet by 10, with a door and window in front, as also an internal door
leading on the one hand into the cart-horse stable, and, on the other, into the
riding-horse stable m, 18 feet by 12, with two stalls, and a door and window in
front; n the gig-house, 1.8 feet by 10, with a wide door; and o the boiling-
house, 18 feet by 14, with a door and window in front, and a boiler and furnace
at the gable.

75. The upper wing has these apartments in it: the byre or shipperi g, 18
feet by 25, contains five divisions, for two cows in each, if required, with a
door and window in front ; r the hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door at the
back, and a bole and a window in front ; s the outhouse, 18 feet by 17, with a

PLANS OF STEADINGS

door and window in front ; and the wool-room /, 18 feet by 28, with a door and
two windows in front, arid three windows at the back for air and ventilation,
and an internal door to the outhouse for convenience. There is also a fireplace
in it at the gable, with a chimney-stalk ; u is a pump-well shaft, 5 feet in dia-
meter, in the centre of the space common to all the apartments.

76. The dotted lines show the structure of the building, roofs, doors, windows,
and chimney-tops.

77. The highest part of this steading is the central range which is divided
into two floors or storeys. The upper floor consists of three apartments, as
shown in fig. 7, where a is the upper barn immediately above the corn-barn, and
of the same dimensions ; b, the site of the thrashing-machine, with its gearing,
drum, and shakers ; c, in dotted lines, are the beams of wood supporting the

thrashing-machine ; J, the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stackyard, from which
the sheaves of the stacks are brought either on wheel-barrows over a gangway,
or by carts loaded at the stack, and then placed right under the door, and the
sheaves forked from it into the barn ; e, the window ; /, a hatch in the floor, 3
feet by 3, communicating with the corn-barn below, for passing the roughs of
grain to be rethrashed when no elevators are appended to the thrashing-mill ; <?,
a bole, 4 feet by 3^, communicating with the straw-bam, for the purpose of
forking up any straw that may require to go again through the thrashing-mill ;
h is the straw-barn, with boles in the wall; and z, the granary, 18 feet by 48,
extending over the killing-house, cart-shed, and implement-house, with three
windows on each side, and entered directly from the corn-barn by a stair.

78. The extreme length of fig. 2, Plate II., over walls is 125 feet. The
length of both wings is 113 feet. The width of the apartments within walls is
18 feet.

79. The scale of fig. 2, Plate II., is in the proportion of f and J of an inch to
the foot The scale of fig. 7 will be found in that of fig. 2, Plate II.

80. The arrow points in the direction of north.

81. The farmhouse and herd's cottage should be near the steading, and in an
accessible part of the farm.

82. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING FOR CARSE FARMING. Carse farming con-
sisting entirely of arable husbandry, the steading is constructed for that purpose
only, accommodation being afforded chiefly for the straw and the animals of
labour, cattle being only used to trample the straw down into manure, and a few
cows to supply the farmer's family and the work-people with milk.

83. A plan of a steading suited to these requisites is given in Plate III. It
will be found that this plan fully illustrates the principle of construction laid
down in par. 32, wherein the straw occupies the central position, and all the
other apartments cluster around it as a centre.

84. The corn-barn a is 31 feet by 28, with a door to the stackyard and a
window into a court, containing within it the space for the thrashing-machine b,
18 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and for the chaff-house c, 5 feet in width, with a door

FOR CAESE FARMING. 15

leading into the straw-barn c7, 18 by -If! feet, with four doors, two leading into
the cattle-courts, and two into the open space, conducting to the cart-horse
stable and cow-byre. The boiling-house e, 18 by 24 feet, for the cooking of food
for the horses, is a continuation of the straw-barn, and being in a two-storeyed
range, is provided with a cock-loft or gangway to contain at hand the ingredi-
ents to be cooked, and with a door towards the stable and a window in the gable
between the two boilers ; / is the steam-engine room, 18 by 11 feet, with a door
and window, as also a trap door into the boiler-house g, 20 by 10 feet, with which
is connected by a door the coal- store />, 20 feet by 5, having a window at the
end. The chimney-stalk, 50 feet in height, is seen at the end of the boiler-house
g; i is a shed for cattle, 18 feet by 30, and 1: a court, 30 feet by 30, connected
with it; I is a shed for cattle, 18 by 38 feet, and in its court, 38 feet by 30 ; n
and o are the turnip-stores for the respective cattle-courts, n being 24 feet
9 inches by 7 feet, and o, 26 feet 9 inches by 7 feet. These apartments consti-
tute the central portion of the steading.

85. In the right wing are these apartments : p, a loose-box, 18 feet by 18,
with a door and window in front ; q, the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide
door in front; r, a hay -house, 18 by 20 feet, with a window and door in front,
and an internal door into the cart-horse stable s s, 18 by 78 feet ; t is a central
door to bring the straw from the straw-barn into the stalls, and in front are a
dpor and four windows; u is another hay-house, 18 by 14 feet, with a window
in front and a door at the back ; and v is the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18,
with a door and window, and an internal door to the hay-house u.

86. In the left wing are the following apartments : w is the hen-house, 18
feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and a bole at the back; x x the
cart-shed, 18 feet by 55, with six arched ports ; y the cow-byre or shippen, 18
by 40 feet, w r ith 8 double-stalls for 16 cows, should the hinds have a cow's keep
as part of their wages, with a door and two windows in front; z an implement-
house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; a' an outhouse, 18 feet
by 15, with a door and Aviudow in front; and I' another outhouse for any
purpose, with a door and window in front.

87. The pigs may share the sheds and courts with the cattle, but a pig-sty
for feeding them for domestic use may be erected as a lean-to against the gable
of the boiling-house e.

88. The dotted lines show the construction of the building and the style of
roofing, with the positions of the doors, and windows, and chimneys.

89. They also show the highest part of the building, which consists of
two floors or storeys. The upper storey contains the apartments an shown in
fig. 8, where a a is the upper barn immediately above the corn-barn and steam-
engirie room, with a bole for air o ; &, the site of the thrashing-machine with
its gearing, drum, and shakers ; c, the dotted lines, the beams of wood which
support the thrashing-machine ; cZ, the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stack-
yard, from which the sheaves are brought from the stack either on wheel-barrows,
or by carts loaded at the stack arid placed right under this door, and the sheaves
forked into the barn ; e, the sky-light in the roof for giving light to the barn ; /,
a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, for passing the roughs of grain from the corn-
barn, to be again thrashed by the mill when elevators are not appended to the
mill ; g a bole, 4 feet by 3, communicating with the straw-barn, through which
to fork any straw that may require to go again through the mill ; h the straw-
barn ; / one granary, 18 feet by 45, entered from the corn-barn by a stair through
the engine-room, with three windows on one side and two on the other, and one
at the gable, and k is another granary, 18 feet by 61, entered by a stair direct

PLANS OF STEADINGS

from the corn-barn, with three windows on each side and one at the gable ; I a
cock-loft or gangway over the boiling-house, entered by a fixed trap-stair in

Fig. 8.

UPPER FLOOR OF A STEAKINO FOR CARSE FARMINO.

that house ; and m is a good place of warmth from the boiler for a pigeon-house,
18 feet by 6, up to the roof, and the pigeons to enter through the gable.

90. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of f and -| of an inch very
nearly to the foot. The scale of fig. 8 will be found in Plate III.

91. The extreme outside length of the principal east and west range of the
building is 145 feet ; the length of the middle range north and south is 83 feet ;
the length of the right wing is 169 feet, that of the left 170 feet. The width
of all the apartments within walls is 18 feet.

92. The arrow shows the direction of north.

93. The farm and hinds' houses should be placed near the steading.

94. On looking at the plan on Plate III., with the view of amendment, it
would make a more compact arrangement to push the hay-houses and cart-
horse stable up to the loose-box p, and place the gig-house q at the end of the
building on this side of the riding-stable, with its wide door looking this way.

95. DESCRIPTION OP STEADINGS FOR DAIRY FARMING. Dairy farming is
conducted on two scales, large and small. A large dairy requires ample accom-
modation for live stock, a considerable extent of arable land, as well as perma-
nent pasture, and can only be prosecuted by targe capitalists. A small dairy
may be conducted by farmers of small capital. Each of the scales requires a
different arrangement.

96. Large Dairy Farming. A large dairy farm comprehends four distinct ope-
rations for which accommodation must be provided. The first is, arable culture
to produce food for the stock summer and winter ; 2. The dairy, comprehending
the making of butter and cheese ; 3. The breeding of stock in as far as to replen-
ish the stock of cows ; and, 4. The rearing and feeding of pigs.

97. The plan of a steading in Plate IV. comprises all these requisites. The

FOE LARGE DAIRY FARMING. 17

two right wings of the steading are devoted to the use of arable husbandry,
the broad division in the centre accommodates the operations of the dairy ;
while the left wing comprehends the breeding and rearing of heifers and pigs.

98. In the lower one of the two right wings is the corn-barn a, 18 feet by 30,
with a door and window at the back and a window in front, and in which is
the space for the thrashing-machine b and chaff-house c, with a door leading
into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 40, which has two doors, and a straw-cutter
placed in it moved by power; e is a turnip-store, 18 feet by 24, with a door
and window facing the byre. At the outside of the gable, as a to-fall or lean-to,
are the hammels for young horses, with their sheds//, 12 feet by 9 each, and
courts g g, 10 feet by 9 each; h is the steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12, with
a door and window in front, and a trap-door to the boiler-house /, 24 feet by
10, with a door and window. The coal-store is at , 24 feet by 5, with a door
from the boiler-house and a window at the farther end. The boiler-house
and coal-store are covered by a lean-to roof, and the chimney-stalk, 50 feet in
height, is close to the boiler-house ; m is the cart-shed, 18 feet by 44 feet
6 inches, with five arched port-holes arid a door at the back at Z, to give
access to the stackyard; n is the implement-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door
and window.

99. In the upper right wing is the cart-horse stable o, 18 feet by 36, with a
door and two windows in front, and provided with a loose box, 18 feet by 8,
with an internal door to the stable ; p is the hay-house, 18 feet by 12, with a
door and window in front, and two internal doors, one leading to the cart-horse
and the other to the riding-horse stable ; q is the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by
18, with three stalls, and a door and window in front ; r is the gig -house, 18
feet by 12, with a wide door ; and s is the boiling-house for preparing food for
the horses and pigs, 18 feet by 20, with a door in front and window at the back,
and provided with two boilers. A small pigeon-house could be placed in the
couples of this apartment, where the pigeons would derive warmth from the
boilers.

100. In the dairy department, t is the hay-house, 18 feet by 22, with a door
and window in front, and in which the hay-cutter is placed and moved by
power; u is the turnip-cutting-machine room, 18 feet by 18, with a door and
window in front, where the machine is moved by power ; v is the churn-room,
18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a window at the back, and an internal door
leading into the cheese-press room : the churn is moved by power, the entire
milk being churned at a time ; w is the cheese-press room, 18 feet by 17 feet
6 inches, with a window at the back and a door opposite leading into the cow's
boiling-house, and an internal door into the milk-house; x is the milk-house, 18
feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with two windows at the back and an internal door
from the cheese-press room, and provided all round with stone shelving ; y is
the wash-house for cleaning the dairy-utensils in, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches,
with a window in the side wall and a door opposite leading into the cow
boiling -house, and is furnished with a boiler and a separate chimney-
stalk ; z is the cow boiling-house, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a door into
the wash-house, another into the cheese-press room, and a third, that of entrance,
from the passage e'; it is provided with two boilers for preparing the food for the
cows, from which a double chimney-stalk rises up separately ; a' is a turnip-
store, 18 feet by 17 feet 6 inches, with a door and window in front, and a door
to the passage, by which the turnips are carried to the boilers in the boil-
ing-house z. The continuation of this range is the cow-byre or shippen,
98 feet by 55, divided into two great heads for the milking-cows, of which

PLANS OF STEADINGS

b' b' and c c' are the cleansing passages and grapes ; d d\ e e', f f, the feeding
passages, 4 feet in -width ; g g is the part of the byre in which the heifers to-
be transferred into the cow-stock are lodged. The cleansing passages are
furnished with a door at each end for ingress into the byre and egress for the
dung, and the feeding passages with a window at each end for light. The roof
is provided with ventilators. From e e to ff'i& a passage, 4 feet wide, down
the middle of the byre, to allow the food to be brought in the cooler from the
boiling-house to the ends of their respective feeding passages.

101. In the left wing, in the stock department, are the following apartments :
h' h' the hammels for bulls, 18 feet by 8 in the sheds, and the same dimen-
sions in the courts i' i', with a port to each shed and a gate to each court ; k' k' k'
are the hammels for heifers, 18 feet by 14 in the sheds, and the courts i i i of
the same dimensions, with a port to each shed and a gate to each court ; m is
a hammel for yearling heifers, 18 feet by 14 in the shed, and a court of the
same dimensions ; o' is a small turnip- store, 8 feet by 4 ; and 1? is a larger
turnip-store, 14 feet by 7 ; p' is the hen-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and
window in front, and a bole at the back of the ' range ; q is an outhouse,
18 feet by 16 feet 6 inches, with a door and window in front ; r' is the calves-
house, 1 8 feet by 32, with a door and two windows, and capable of containing
22 calves ; s' s' s' are piggeries, each sty 10 feet by 6 in the shed, and 8 feet by
6 in the court, with a door and window in front, and provided with a passage
along the back of all the sties, of 4 feet in width ; u' is a covered dung-stance,
18 feet by 28, with a door in front, and a wide door for a cart at the back.

102. The dotted lines give the form of all the roofs, doors, windows, and
chimney-stalks.

103. The highest part of this steading is confined to the extreme right of the
principal range, with the spur at right angles containing the straw-barn and
turnip-store, the principal range being divided into two floors, the upper one

containing the apartments
as shown in fig. 9, where
a is the upper barn im-
mediately above the corn-
barn and the steam-engine
room ; b the site of the
thrashing-machine, with its
gearing, drum, and shakers ;
e the beams of wood which
support the thrashing-ma-
chine ; d the door, 6 feet
wide, leading to the stack-
yard, from which the
sheaves of the stacks are
brought into the barn,
either on wheelbarrows or
on carts loaded at the stack,
and then placed right under
this door, to be forked into
the barn ; c the sky-light
in the roof, to give light to
the barn ; f a hatch in the
floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of grain from the corn-barn below, to be
rethrashed where no elevators are appended to the mill ; g, a bole, 4 feet by 3|,

UPPER JLOOR OF A 8TEADINO FOR A I.AROF. DAIRT.

FOE SMALL DAIRY FARMING. 19

communicating with the straw-barn for the purpose of forking up any straw that
may require to be again passed through the mill; h is the straw-barn, and i the
granary, 18 feet by 63, entered by a stair direct from the corn-barn, with four
windows on one side arid three on the other, and one in the gable ; and 1c is the
cheese-room, 18 feet by 24, with two windows on each side, and entered by a
fixed trap-stair in the turnip-store below.

104. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of and -*- of an inch to the
foot. The scale of fig. 9 will be found in Plate IV.

105. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 304 feet, the length
of the upper right wing is 138 feet, the length of the lower right wing is 101
feet, the length of the byre division is 121 feet ; and the length of the left wing
149 feet. The width of all the apartments within walls is 18 feet.

106. The arrow shows the direction of north.

107. The farm-house and the hinds' and dairymaids' cottages should be near
the steading.

108. Small Dairy Farming. Small dairy farming, as well as the large, is
practised at a distance from towns, and hence the small system may be regarded
as an epitome of the larger one just described. It might therefore be concluded
that a reduced scale of the larger steading described above would answer for
the smaller system ; but such a conclusion is not always a correct one as re-
gards the arrangement of a steading. Many of the apartments of a small
steading require to be as commodious as those of a large, while other apart-
ments might be contracted ; and hence, that both classes of apartments may
bear the same relation to each other, it is necessary to modify somewhat their
relative positions in steadings of different sizes.

109. For this reason, the plan of a small dairy steading, given at fig. 1, in
Plate V., has a different arrangement from that of the large dairy farm in Plate
IV. While the distinctive division of the arable from the dairy portion is pre-
served, the spare space between the wings is conveniently occupied with the
necessary adjuncts of the dairy.

110. The centre is still devoted to the purposes of the straw, where a is the
corn-barn, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window at the back in the stackyard,
including the space appropriated to the thrashing-machine at &, and the chaff-
house at c, 5 feet wide, with a window in front, and an internal door leading
into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 24, with a door in front and one at the back
into the stackyard ; e is the horse-course, 27 feet diameter, in which a two-horse
power driving-gear is fixed.

111. In the right wing is/, the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, for three
stalls, and with a door and window in front; g cart-shed, 18 feet by 18, with
two port-holes ; h the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 12, with a door and win-
dow in front, and furnished with two stalls ; i is the gig-house, 18 feet by 9,
with a wide door ; k the implement-house, 18 feet by 10 feet 6 inches, with a
door and window in front ; Z, an outhouse, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window
in front ; and m, a bull's hammel, 18 feet by 11, with a door and window in front.

112. In the centre and left wing, connected with the dairy, are the following
apartments : o is the churning-room, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window
in front ; q is the food-store and cheese-press room, 18 feet by 12, with a window
and door in front ; r the milk-house, 18 feet by 25, with a door in front and two
windows at the back, and furnished with stone shelving all round ; s the byre
for heifers, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window in front ; t t the cow-byre or
shippen, 18 feet by 56, having seven double-stalls, each 8 feet wide ; and u is

PLANS OF STEADINGS

the hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door at the back, a window in the gable, and
a bole in front.

113. In the space between the wings are these apartments : v the hay-house
for supplying hay to the stables and byres, 18 feet by 24, with a window, and
with a door on each side ; w the wash-house, 18 feet by 12, with a window
and door, and boiler for cleansing the dairy utensils ; x the boiling-house,
18 feet by 18, with a door on one side and a window on the other, and two
boilers for preparing food for the cows, horses, and pigs ; and y y y are pig-
sties, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet each, with courts z z z, the central one being
5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, and the two extreme ones each 6 feet by 5. These sties
are covered with a lean-to roof against the gable of the adjoining boiling -house.

114. Gearing may be erected for driving a straw-cutter in the straw-barn d,
and the churn in the chuming-room o ; and the gearing might be extended in
front, under-ground, into the hay-house t>, for driving a hay-cutter there.

115. The dotted lines show the structure of the building, and the position of
the windows, doors, and chimneys.

116. The highest part of this steading is confined to the principal range,
which is divided into an upper and lower floor. The upper one contains the
apartments shown in fig. 10, where a is the upper barn immediately above

Fig. 10.

UPPER BTO

the corn-barn ; b the site of the thrashing-machine, with its gearing, drum, and
shakers. It would be better to have the mill near the power, in which case the
positions of the corn-barn a, in Plate V., fig. 1, and the mill b and chaff-house c
should be reversed, c the door, 6 feet wide, for receiving the sheaves ; d a
hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of grain from the corn -barn
below to be rethrashed by the mill ; e a bole, 4 feet by 3^, communicating with
the straw-barn to allow any of the straw to be forked up to be again passed
through the mill, if necessary ; /the straw-barn ; g the granary, 18 feet by 35,
entered by a stair from the straw-barn, to which direct access is given by the
back-door of the straw-barn from the corn-barn ; and h is the cheese-room,
18 feet by 15, with a window on each side, and one in the gable, and entered
by a stair from the cheese-press room below.

117. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of f and J of an inch to the
foot. The scale of fig. 10 will be found at fig. 1, Plate V.

118. The extreme length of the central range over walls is 103 feet, that of
the right and left wings 119 feet, and that of the intermediate range 71 feet.
The width within walls of all the apartments is 18 feet.

119. The houses for the farmer and servants should be near.

120. The arrow points to the north.

121. DESCRIPTION OP A STEADING FOR SUBURBIAL FARMING. The ground in the
immediate vicinity of all towns is devoted to the cultivation of vegetables for
the domestic use of their inhabitants. Around large towns this garden culture
may extend for a mile or so, and beyond that distance commences what we have

FOE SUBUEBIAL FARMING AVITH AEABLE CULTUEE. 21

denominated Suburbial Farming, the object of which is to supply those products
to the inhabitants which are not afforded by the garden, such as straw, hay,
turnips, forage, potatoes, milk, &c. Suburbial farming is therefore either
entirely arable or entirely dairy, each of which requires a different arrangement.

122. Suburbial Farming with Arable Culture. The plan of a steading appli-
cable to a farm of this description is given at fig. 2, Plate V. It has its central
portion occupied by the straw, and the right wing is devoted to arable culture,
while the left is appropriated to domestic purposes. In the central range is
the corn-barn a, 18 feet by 30, with a window in front, and a door and window
at the back, in the stackyard. The barn includes the space for the thrashing-
machine 6, and the chaff-house c, 5 feet by 9, with a window in front, and an
internal door leading into the straw-barn d, 18 feet by 40, with one door in the
front, another on the opposite side leading into the cattle-court z<, and a third
into the space in front of the cow-byre z ; /is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 20,
with a door and window in front ; g is the steam-engine room, 18 feet by 12,
with a door and window in front, and a trap-door at the back entering at level
of the top of the boiler, and leading by steps to the floor of the. engine-room ;
h is the boiler-house, 20 feet by 7, with a door in front and a window at the
end, and an internal door into the coal-store z, 20 feet by 4, having a window
at the end. The chimney-stalk is seen rising 50 feet in height from the base-
ment. The cart-shed Z, 18 feet by 38, has four arched port-holes, with a door
at the back at &, leading into the stackyard. At the inner end of the cart-shed
are three open pig-sties, each 13 feet by 5 feet 3 inches, with a door to each.

123. In the right wing are the following apartments : n the cart-horse
stable, 18 feet by 50, for eight stalls, with two doors and a window in front and
a window at the end; q a hay-house, 18 feet by 9, with a door in front, and
two internal doors, one leading to the cart-horse, the other to the riding-horse
stable ; r the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, having three stalls and a door
and window in front, and an internal door to the hay-house ; and s the gig-house,
18 feet by 12, with a wide door in front.

124. In the centre and left wing are these apartments : t a shed for cattle
under the principal range, 18 feet by 32, with an arched port 9 feet wide, and
outside a courtyard u, 45 feet 9 inches by 26 feet, having a gate to the space
outside, and a door to the straw-barn ; v the hen-house, 18 feet by 13, with a
door and window in front ; w outhouse, 18 feet by 10, with a door and window
in front ; x implement-house, 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in front ;
y turnip-store, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window at the back; and z cow-
byre, 18 feet by 31, with a door and window at the back.

125. The dotted lines show the structure of the buildings, the position of the
doors and windows, and of the chimney-stalks.

126. The highest part of this steading is along the principal range and the
south projection as far as the straw-barn, and the range is divided into two floors
or storeys, the upper one containing the apartments as shown in fig. 11, where a is
the upper or feeding-in barn, immediately above the corn-barn ; b the site of the
thrashing-machine, with gearing, drum, and shakers ; c the beams of wood which
support the thrashing-machine ; d the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stack-
yard, from which the sheaves are brought from the stack to the barn, either on
wheel-barrows or on carts loaded at the stack, and then placed under this door
to be forked into the barn ; /sky-light in the roof over the head of the man that
feeds the sheaves into the mill ; e a hatch, 3^ feet by 3, in the floor, for passing
the roughs of grain to be rethrashed by the mill when no elevators are appended

PLANS OF STEADINGS

to it; g a bole, 4 feet high by 3J feet wide, communicating with the straw-barn,
for allowing any straw to be forked that requires to be again passed through the
mill ; h is the straw-barn ; k one granary, 18 feet by 64, with four windows on
each side, and entered by a stair direct from the corn-barn ; i another granary,

Fig. 11.

3FPER 8TORET Of A STEADrSO TOS. SC

ITH ARABLE CULTURE.

18 feet by 62, with five windows on one side and four on the other, and
entered from the corn-barn by a stair through the engine-room ; and I the
pigeon-house, 18 feet by 6, entered by a trap-stair from the hen-house below.

127. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of nearly f of an inch to the
foot. The scale of fig. 11 will be found at fig. 2, Plate V.

128. The extreme length of the principal range over walls is 158 feet, that
of the right and left wings 95 feet, that of the middle range 64 feet, and all
apartments 18 feet in width within walls.

129. The farmhouse and servants' cottages should be near the steading.

130. The arrow points to the north.

131. Suburbial Dairy Farming. In suburbial dairy farming the chief object is
the production of new milk for immediate consumption in towns. For this purpose
a large accommodation should be provided for cows, and for the preparation of
their food. At the same time, there should be liberty to convert some of the milk
into butter, and even into cheese. There must always be arable culture in connec-
tion with dairy husbandry, and in case the entire arable products should not be con-
sumed on the farm, the surplus is sent to market. It will thus be easily understood
that suburbial dairy farming should be conducted on a somewhat large scale, and
that the size of the steading should bear an adequate proportion to the extent
of the farming. The cows in a suburbial dairy being purchased, either calved
or about to calve, in-the weekly markets, no accommodation is required for the
rearing of young stock ; nor are hammels for bulls needed in such farming, as
the cows are allowed to yield milk as long as they can, and are then disposed of
to the butcher in fair condition.

132. The plan in Plate VI. affords the accommodation required in a steading
for suburbial dairy farming, where the centre is occupied by the straw, and one
wing is devoted to arable and the other to dairy operations.

133. In the central range is the corn barn a, 18 feet by 31, with a window in

FOE SUBTJB.BIAL DAIRY FARMING. 23

front, and a door and window at the hack in the stackyard ; b is the space occu-
pied by the thrashing-machine, and c, that by the chaff-house, 8 feet by 5, with
its window in front, and an internal door leading to the straw-ham d d, 18 feet
by 39, with a door on both sides near the thrashing-machine ; h is the steam-
engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a trap-door
at the back leading into the boiler-house /, 24 feet by 7, having a door in front
and a window at the end, and an internal door to the coal-store , 24 feet by
5, with its window at the end. The chimney- stalk, 50 feet high, is seen to rise
from its basement; e is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door in front
and window at the back, and two boilers in the corners ; /is a large turnip-store,
18 feet by 23, with a door and window in front, and an internal door leading
into the boiling-house e <j is the implement-house, 18 feet by 12, with a door in
front and window at the back.

134. In the right wing are these apartments : v v the cart-shed, 18 feet by 29,
with three arched port-holes and a door v' at the back leading to the stackyard ;
w the hen-house, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a bole at
the back ; x the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, of three stalls, with a door
and window in front ; y the gig -house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door ; z hay-
house for horses, 18 feet by 9, with a door and window in front, and an internal
door leading into the cart-horse stable ; a a is the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by
30, of five stalls, with a door and two windows at the back, and an internal door
to the hay-house, and another to the loose-box &', 18 feet by 8 ; c an out-
house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window at- the back; d' killing-house,
18 feet by 10, with a door in front and a window at the back ; and c' e e' pig-
sties, 8 feet by 5 feet 6 inches each, with courts 8 feet by 5 feet G inches, pro-
vided each with a door.

135. In the dairy department of the steading are these apartments : / hay-cut-
ting house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front; in churn-house, 18
feet by 16, with a door and window in front; n wash-house for cleansing the
dairy utensils in, 18 feet by 12, with a door and window in front, and a boiler
at the back; o the cheese-press room and food-store, 18 feet by 18, with two win-
dows at the back and an internal door to the wash-house ; q milk-house, 18 feet
by 18, with two windows in front and a door at the back, and furnished with
stone shelves all round; r is a passage 6 feet wide ; s s comprehends the cow-
byre or shippen for 45 cows, being 76 feet in length and 54 in width ; u u is a
feeding passage 4 feet wide, and u u & feeding passage 6 feet wide ; and t t
a passage and dung-grupe on each side, 6 feet wide, and t t a passage and
dung-grupe on one side, 4 feet wide. These feeding and dung passages are
provided with a door at each end. The byre is lighted and ventilated from
the roof.

136. The dotted lines indicate the construction of the different ranges, with
their respective gables and chimney-stalks.

137. The highest part of this steading embraces the principal range and part
of the central range, the principal being divided into an upper and lower floor
or storey, which contain the apartments as shown in fig. 12, where a is the
upper bam of the same dimensions, and immediately above the corn-barn ; b the
site of the thrashing-machine, with its gearing, drum, and shakers ; c the beams
of wood which siipport the thrashing-machine ; d the door, 6 feet wide, into the
stackyard, from which the sheaves are brought into the barn ; e e boles in the
outside walls for the admission of air to the sheaves when stored ; /sky -light in
the roof for light to the barn ; g hatch in the floor, 3^ feet by 3, for passing the
roughs of grain from the corn-barn below to be rethrashed by the mill ; h bole

PLANS OF STEADINGS

4 feet by 3^, opening into the straw-barn to return any straw that requires re-
thrashing ; i is the straw-barn ; k one granary, 18 feet by 61, with four windows

Fig. 12.

3 r- "

UPPER STORET OF A STEADING FOR SUE

IAI. DAIRY FARMING.

on each side, and entering by a stair direct from the corn-barn ; and I another
granary, 18 feet by 59, with four windows on each side, and entered by a stair
from the corn-barn through the engine-room ; and m cheese-room, 18 feet by 18,
with a window on each side and one in the gable, and entered by a stair from
the food-store o below ; n is the pigeon-house, 6 feet cube, in the straw-barn,
where the pigeons will receive warmth from the adjoining boiling-house.

138. It is not a desirable arrangement to pass through the engine-room in
going from the com-barn to the granary Z, and it may be avoided by making
the stair to start from the floor of the corn-barn and to pass over the engine-
room ; but in doing so the communication between the engine-room and the
boiler-house will have to be given up, unless a man-hole is left open between
them.

139. The gig-house y could be removed to between the loose-box b' and out-
house c', so that the hay-house may be between the two stables, with an internal
door to each.

140. If desired, power can be obtained from the steam-engine to drive a hay-
cutter in the hay-house Z, the churn in the churn-house m, and a straw-cutter
in the straw-barn d, and even an oilcake-bruiser in the food-store o.

141. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of nearly f of an inch to the
foot. The scale of fig. 12 will be found in Plate VI.

142. The extreme length of the principal range over walls is 168 feet, that
of the right wing 133 feet, that of the middle range 101 feet, and that of the
left wing 127 feet. The width of all the ranges, with the exception of the
cow-byre s s, is 18 feet within walls.

143. The farmhouse, as well as the cottages for the hinds and dairymaids,
should be near the steading.

144. The arrow points to the north.

145. DESCRIPTION OP A STEADING FOR COMMON FARMING. This we have deno-
minated Common Farming because it is the most common system of farming

FOR COMMON FARMING. 25

practised in the kingdom. It is practised on every variety of soil between the
two extremes of pastoral and carse farming. Being removed from large towns
it is not affected by their immediate and peculiar wants ; and as it is not de-
voted to the breeding of stock, the arrangement of its steading is chiefly designed
to preparing them for the butcher. It is essentially an arable system, although
it may embrace a large extent of permanent pasture, as well as the raising of
forage plants for the fattening of stock in summer.

146. This mode of farming requires a large accommodation for arable pur-
poses and for stock, and the arrangement of the apartments for these two
purposes should be kept distinct, to avoid confusion in conducting the business
of the steading. This system may be prosecuted either on a large or small
scale, but the arrangement of the apartments are similar in both.

147. In fig. 1, Plate VII., we have given a plan of a steading for Common
farming on a large scale, in order to show the above requirements of the
system in their fulness. In the centre of the principal range, as it should be,
is the straw, to the right of which are the apartments for arable purposes, and
to the left are those for live stock, and on either side of the straw-barn are the
apartments for fattening the cattle in.

148. There are three accommodations for fattening cattle, namely, in hammels,
in boxes, and in byres. All these three AVC haA*e illustrated in the plan. Fig. 1
comprehends the feeding of cattle in hammels, \\iiich consist of small sheds Avith
small open courts, in which cattle, few in number two, three, or four together,
according to their size and ages are accommodated. The hammels are arranged
in four divisions, two on one side of the straw-barn and two on the other. Sup-
posing each hammel to contain two large oxen, ] 20 oxen could thus be fattened
at the same time, and of course a proportionate larger number of smaller cattle.
Fig. 2 represents the mode of feeding in boxes, which consist of pens large
enough to hold one large ox or two small ones, all under a roof. The same
number of cattle could be accommodated in a smaller space in boxes than
in hammels. Sixty cattle can be contained in boxes in the space repre-
sented, as that number are in the two divisions of hammels on either side of
the straw-barn. The third mode of feeding is in byres under a roof, as seen in
fig. 3, in which the cattle are arranged in double stalls, and tied by the neck to
a stake ; and in the space represented, the same number, sixty, can be accom-
modated as in the boxes, fig. 2 so that byres take up the least room of the
three modes of feeding.

149. In fig. 1, Plate VII., a is the corn-barn, 18 feet by 27 at one part, and
18 feet by 20 at another part, Avith a door and window in front and one window at
the back ; b is the space occupied by the thrashing-machine ; and c that by the
chaff-house, 9 feet by 5, with a window in front and an internal door leading into
the straw-barn d d, 18 feet by 85, Avith two doors opposite at the thrashing-
machine, and two opposite at the other end; /is the steam-engine room, 18 feet
by 12, Avith a window in front and a door at the back; g the boiler-house, 20 feet
by 8, Avith a door in front and Avindow at the end, and an internal door to the
coal-store h, 20 feet by 5, with a window at the end. The chimney-stalk, 50
feet high, is seen rising from its basement.

150. In the right wing is i, a passage, 4 feet wide, leading into the stack-
yard ; k k is a turnip-cutting-machine house, 18 feet by 50, with two doors
and two windows in front, and a door at the back leading to the turnip-store i' z v ,
58 feet by 4 ; I is a food-store, 18 feet by 24, with a door and wiridoAV in front ;
m m is the work-horse stable, 18 feet by 72, having tAvelve stalls and a loose-
box -n, 18 feet by 8, with a door and tAVO windows in front ; o hay-house, 18 feet

26 PLANS OF STEADIXGS.

by 23, with a door and window in front, and an internal door to the work-horse
stable and to the riding-horse stable p, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window
in front, and provided with three stalls ; q is the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with
a wide door; r the horse boiler-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window
at the back towards the work-horse stable; s the implement-house, 18 feet by
12, with a door and window in front ; and 1 1 is the cart-shed, 18 feet by 57, with
six port-holes in front.

151. In the left wing are these apartments: u u a second turnip-cutting-
machine house, 18 feet by 50, with two doors and two windows in front, and a
door at the back leading to the turnip-store h' h', 50 feet by 4 ; v another food-
store, 18 feet by 24, with a door and window in front ; w w the cow-byre or
shippen, 18 by 40 feet, for eight stalls, with a door and window in front ;
and x the calf-house, 18 feet by 28, with a door in front and two windows
at the back. Where only as many cows are kept as serve the farmer's family
with milk and butter, and where no calves are brought up, the byres may be
of a size to suit the number of cows, and the calf -house dispensed with
altogether, and used for some other purpose ; y the servants' cow-byre, 18
feet by 35, with a door and two windows in front, and furnished with eight
stalls. Where the farmer does not breed any cattle, the servants dispose of
their calves to other purchasers ; z the hen-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door
and window in front, and a bole at the back ; a' a hatching-house for poultry,
18 feet by 9 ; b' an outhouse, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front;
d d pig-sties, six in number, the sties 8 feet by 4 each, and their courts 10 feet
by 4 each. The pig-sties may be extended as desired, or their space occu-
pied for some other purpose, and they erected by themselves elsewhere ;
d! the guano and bone-dust store, 18 feet by 20, with a door and window in
front; and e' another boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in
front

152. The hammels for containing the fattening cattle areat/'/',/'/', 12 feet
by 10 in the sheds, and 14 feet by 10 in the courts g 1 g 1 , g g . There are two rows
of hammels in each division, on both sides of the straw-barn, each row contain-
ing fifteen hammels. We have placed the hammels in the plan in preference to
boxes and byres, because we believe they are the best kind of accommodation
for cattle to be fattened in the most healthy and sound condition, though the
most expensive in construction.

153. A tramway, 3 feet wide, starts from opposite each of the doors in' m, of
the food-stores v and ?, and runs parallel to them and the cutting-machine rooms
u u and k fc; then turns at right angles and runs parallel to the straw-barn dd ;
turns again at right angles, and runs parallel to the walls of the courts g' </,
of the hammels, in the lines I' 1' and Id k'- then passes up the side of the ham-
mels, and along their back, to the door m! of the food-stores. The small arrows
indicate the routes of the tramways to and from the food-stores. The food pre-
pared in the cutting-rooms u u and k k is placed in trucks upon the tramway,
and delivered to each hammel over the front walls g' g 1 of the courts, into the
feeding-troughs inside.

154. Fig. 2, Plate VII., is an illustrative plan of cattle-boxes, which may
be adopted where this method of feeding is preferred to hammels : a a is the
central passage, 10 feet wide, for receiving the cattle and removing the dung
from the central boxes ; b J, b b passages, 5 feet wide, along which the food is
delivered to each box on each side ; c c are the boxes, 8 feet square, to hold one
ox ; d are the doors by which the dung is removed when desired. These boxes
contain sixty cattle, the same as in a double row of hammels. The bottoms of

FOR COMMON FARMING.

the boxes are usually dug 18 inches or 2 feet below the surface of the ground.
Cattle-boxes are best lighted from the roof.

155. In fig. 3, Plate VII., is an illustrative plan of cattle-byres, when they
are preferred for fattening cattle either to boxes or hammels : a a is the middle
passage, 5 feet wide, with a dung-grape on each side ; b b and c c the feeding
passages, 5 feet wide, and d rf, d d the stalls affording accommodation to sixty
cattle. These byres may be lighted either by windows in the outside walls, or
by sky-lights in the roof.

156. Where the arrangement of 1 tyre-feeding is adopted, a place for the dung
will be required, and this is provided for in the covered dung-stance e e, fig. 4,
Plate VII., the dimensions of which are 18 feet by 50, and a door, 9 feet wide,
at each end, for a cart to be backed through to remove the dung.

157. It may be both curious and interesting to state the space occupied by
each ox respectively in hammels, boxes, and byres. The hammels give 191|
square feet to each ox, the boxes 115J square feet, and the byres 106^ square
feet so that hammels occupy If and boxes 10 per cent more of space than
byres.

158. Power can be derived from the engine to drive turnip-cutters in the
cutting-machine rooms u and k, and corn and oilcake bruisers in the food-stores
v and Z, as also a straw-cutter in the straw-barn d.

159. The dotted lines show the structure of the buildings and their roofs, and
the positions of the doors and windows, and of the chimney-stalks, and specially
of the engine-stalk rising 50 feet from its basement.

160. The highest part of this steading is a part of the principal range on each
side of the thrashing-machine and the centre range, the principal range being
divided into upper and lower storeys. In fig. 13 is the plan of the upper storey

Fig. 13.

in both ranges, in which a is the upper barn, 18 feet by 30 in the widest part, and
18 feet by 20 in the narrowest, directly over the corn-barn and the engine-room ;
b the site of the thrashing-machine, with its drum, and shakers, and gearing ; c
the door, 6 feet wide, by which the sheaves of corn are brought from the stack-
yard ; d a sky-light in the roof for light to the barn ; e a hatch in the floor, 3 feet
by 3, through which the roughs may be handed up from, the corn-barn below to

28 PLANS OF STEADINGS

be again passed through the mill when there are no elevators; /bole to admit
air to the sheaves when stowed in the barn ; g an opening, 4 feet wide by 3^ feet
high, for permitting straw to be forked up from the straw-barn, when it is desired
to be again passed through the mill ; h the straw-barn ; i a granary, 18 feet
by 76, with four windows on each side, and entered by a stair from the corn-
barn ; k a granary, 18 feet by 72, with three windows to the north and four
to the south, and entered by a stair from the corn-barn across the engine-
room ; and I the pigeon-house, partitioned from the granary ,18 feet by 6,
with a trap-stair from the food-store v below, and entered by the pigeons
through the gable.

161. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of rather more than 1^ eighth
of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 13 will be found in Plate VII.

162. The extreme length of this plan of steading over walls of the principal
range is 463 feet, that of the right wing 128 feet, that of the centre range 106
feet, and that of left wing 129 feet. The width of all these ranges is 18 feet
within walls. The length of each row of hatnmels over walls is 174 feet, and
width 33 feet. The length of the cattle-boxes, fig. 2, over walls is 125 feet,
and width 57 feet. The length of the cattle-byre, fig. 3, over walls is 153 feet,
and width 42 feet. The length of the dung-house, fig. 4, is 55 feet, and width

29 feet.

163. The hinds' houses should be near the steading, although the farmhouse
may be at a little distance.

164. The arrow points to the north.

165. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY. This mode of farm-
ing is named Mixed, because it establishes an intimate relation between arable
culture and the breeding, rearing, and fattening all kinds of live stock. Ee-
garding the treatment of stock as its principal object, it conducts the cultivation
of the arable land entirely in subjection to it. It is the most satisfactory system
of husbandry practised in the kingdom, inasmuch as the treatment of live stock
from their birth to maturity not only insures the whole profit derivable from them,
if any, to the breeder himself, who is best entitled to it, but it also insures a
regular course of lenient cultivation to the land, because, where much green crop
and pasture grass are obliged to be cultivated for the sake of stock, the land can
never undergo a deteriorating course of cropping.

166. The Mixed husbandry cannot be conducted on a small scale. It is
obvious, that where a large amount of food for stock throughout the year has to
be raised, and the stock have to be maintained during the whole period of their
lives, that both a large extent of ground must be cultivated, and a corresponding
extent of accommodation afforded to the stock in the steading.

167. In fig. 1, Plate VIII., we have given such a plan of a steading for Mixed
husbandry as is suitable to the exigencies of the case. In the centre, as it
should be, is placed the straw. The right of the centre of the building is
appropriated to arable operations, while the left is devoted to the breeding
and rearing of stock. The young stock are placed at the left of the straw-
barn, and the fattening at the right. The fattening stock are accommodated in
hammels, while these may be substituted, if desired, by cattle-boxes, such as
are shown in fig. 2, or by cattle-byres, as seen in fig. 3.

168. Such being the general features of the steading, we shall proceed to
describe its constituent parts : a is the corn-barn, 18 feet by 15 in its nar-
rowest, and 18 feet by 26 in its widest part, with a window and door in
front, and a window at the back ; b is the space occupied by the thrashing-

FOE MIXED HUSBANDBY* 29

machine, and c that by the chaff-house, 9 feet by 5, with its window in front, and
internal door leading to the straw-barn d d, 18 feet by 77, with two doors oppo-
site at the thrashing-machine end, and two at the other end ; g is the steam-
engine room, 18 feet by 12, with a window in front and door at the back ; h the
boiler-house, 25 feet by 9, with a door in front and window at the end, and an
internal door to the coal-store i, 25 feet by 5, with a window at the end.

169. To the right of the corn-barn is , a passage, 5 feet wide, leading into
the stackyard ; I the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door; m the riding-
horse stable, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and provided with
three stalls; n hay -house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and
an internal door to the riding-horse stable, and another to the work-horse stable
o o, 18 feet by 72, with a door and two windows in front, and provided with
twelve stalls, and a loose box p, 8 feet wide ; q the boiling-house, 18 feet by
18, with a door and window in front, and provided with a boiler and furnace at
the gable.

170. To the left of the corn-barn are these apartments : r r cattle-sheds,
18 feet by 25 each, with courtyards s s, one to the vight, 38 feet by 30, having
a door to the straw-barn, and the other to the left, 36 feet by 30, both with port-
holes to the sheds and gates to the courtyards; / a turnip-store, 20 feet by 12 ;
w, hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door and window in front, and a bole at the
back ; v the calf-house, 18 feet by 40, with a door in front and two windows at
the back, and furnished with cribs for 25 calves ; w calf-shed, 18 feet by 30,
with a port-hole leading into the courtyard #, 30 feet by 20, with a gate ; y y the
cow-byre or shippen, 18 feet by 80, with a door and four windows in front,
and an internal door leading into the calf-house, and another to the boiling-
house, and provided with sixteen stalls ; z boiling-house, 18 feet by 18, with a
door and window in front, and an internal door to the foot-passage of the cow-
byre, and another to the feeding passage at the head of the cows, and provided
with boiler and furnace ; and a turnip-store, 18 feet by 18, with a door and
window in front.

171. At the end of the straw-barn is the implement-house e, 18 feet by 18, with
a door and window in front. To the left of the implement-house are 4 hammels
b' b' b' &', 12 feet by 10 each, with courts c' c' c' c', 13 feet by 10 each, for bulls and
young horses ; d' a passage, 5 feet wide, for convenience ; e e servants' cow-
byre or shippen, 18 feet by 40, with a door and two windows in front ; /' guano
and bone-dust store, 18 feet by 30, with a wide door and window in front; g'
outhouse, 18 feet by 18, with a door in front and window at the back ; h' court
for small pigs, 18 feet by 5 ; i' i' four sties for breeding sows, two 11 feet by 5,
and two 11 feet by 8 each ; k' three sties for feeding pigs, the sties 6 feet by 5,
the courts 13 feet by 10 each : all these sties are under one roof, and have two
doors and two windows in front; I' the hatching-house for poultry, 15 feet by
13 ; m' geese-house, 12 feet by 5 ; n' chicken-house, 9 feet by 9 ; o' turkey-
house, 9 feet by 9 ; and p' a duck-house, 9 feet by 6 : these poultry-houses
are under one roof.

172. To the right of the straw-barn are the hammels for the fattening cattle,
in two rows, and eight harntnels in each row. With two oxen in each hammel,
32 can be fattened. The sheds r' r' are 12 feet by 10, and the courts s' s' 14
feet by 10.

173. To the right of the hammels are the cart-shed t' t', with six port-holes,
16 feet by 48 ; u' u' turnip-stores, 18 feet by 16 each ; and v' v' food-stores, 18
feet by 16 each, with a window and door to each turnip and food stoi-e ; w' a
dung-court, 40 feet by 16, and x' a liquid-manure tank, 16 feet by 6, sunk 6

PLANS OF STEADINGS

feet. A covered dung-stance g 7 , 18 feet by 23, is placed near the cow-byre y,
with two doors for putting in and taking out the dung.

174. In fig. 2, Plate VIII., is an illustrative plan, in which "box-feeding is
substituted for hammel-feeding. If boxes are substituted for hammels, the
boxes would occupy the following position : The dotted line c d represents the
right wall of the straw-barn d d. The boxes embraced between e f h g would
occupy the same relative position to that dotted line c d as the hammels r' s' do
at present to the straw-barn d d. Then the cart-shed if t', &c., would be placed
in relation to the boxes as the dotted rectangle a b does to fig. 2. The length
of space between c e f a b would be 16 feet less than that between the ham-
mels and cart-shed f. The boxes k k, k k, fig. 2, are 32 in number, each 8 feet
by 8, to contain one ox ; i i, i i are the feeding passages, 5 feet wide each, and
1 1, 1 1 are the doors for the removal of the dung.

175. In fig. 3, Plate VIII., is given an illustrative plan of feeding in byres ;
and were they substituted for hammels, they would occupy the same position in
relation to the cart-shed if, &c., as they do to fig. 4. In the byre, f g h i,
fig. 3, the feeding passage to the cattle in the stalls m m is k k, that to the
cattle in the stalls n is I L The dung passages and grupes, 5 feet wide, are
along p and I. The stalls m and n will contain 60 oxen. In fig. 4 a a are
turnip-stores, 18 feet by 18 ; b b food-stores, 18 feet by 18 ; c c cart-shed, 18
feet by 56 ; d d dung-stance, 18 feet bv 50 ; and e liquid-manure tank, 18 feet
by 6.

176. The dotted lines indicate the form of the roofs and structure of the
buildings, with the positions of the windows and doors and chimneys, the stalk
of the engine, 50 feet in height, resting upon its basement at the boiler-house A.

177. The highest part of this steading extends along the principal range from
the thrashing-machine to the hay-house n on the right, and to s, the cattle-shed,

on the left, and along
the whole of the cen-
tral range, the princi-
pal range being divid-
ed into an upper and
lower storey, as is also
part of the central.
Fig. 14 represents a
plan of the upper
storey in both ranges,
where a is the upper
barn, 18 feet by 38 in
the widest, and 18 feet
by 14 in the narrowest
part, directly over the
corn-barn and engine-
room ; b the site of the
thrashing-machine ; c
door, 6 feet wide, for
the admission of the
sheaves of corn from
the stackyard ; d sky-
light; e hatch in the
floor, 3 feet by 3, for
receiving roughs from the corn-barn below, where there are no elevators ; / bole

Fig. 14.

tJPPSR STOREY OF A I

BINO TOR MIXED HU8BA3TORT.

FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY. 31

for the admission of air to the sheaves when stowed up ; g opening, 4 feet wide
by 3r>- feet high, for allowing straw to be forked np from the straw-barn, when
desired to pass it again through the mill ; h the straw-barn ; i wool-room, 18
feet by 18, with a window in each side, and an entrance-door by the gable,
reached by an outside stone stair: k granary, 18 feet by 55, with three win-
dows to the north and four to the south, and a stair direct from the corn-barn;
I a granary, 18 feet by 47, with two windows to the north and three to the
south, and a stair from the corn-barn across the engine-room; and m the
pigeon-house, 18 feet by six, partitioned from the granary /, with a trap-stair
from the cattle-shed r below, and an entrance for the pigeons through the
gable at c" .

178. The scale of this plan is in the proportion of rather more than 2. of an
inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 14 will be found in Plate VIII.

179. The extreme length over walls of the principal range of this steading is
431 feet, that of the central range 104 feet, and that of the lower left range 218
feet. The width within walls of the principal range, the middle range, and
the lower left range, is 18 feet. The length of the cart-shed t', &c., is 91 feet,
and width 38 feet, over walls. The length over walls of each row of hammels
is 91 feet, and width 32 feet. The length of the cattle-boxes over walls, in fig. 2,
is 69 feet, and width 52 feet. The length of the cattle-byre over walls, in fig. 3,
is 58 feet, and width 56 feet. The length of fig. 4 over walls is 100 feet, and
width 42 feet. The length of the dung-stance q' over walls is 25 feet, the
width 20 feet.

180. The servants' houses should be near the steading : the farmhouse may
be at a little distance.

181. The arrow points to the north.

182. In Plate IX. is given an isometrical elevation of the steading just
described, and although only in outline, it is a good representation of what the
steading should appear to the eye. A shaded one would have given a more
picturesque effect, but not more accurate. It will be observed that all the
apartments occupied by the animals have their fronts presented to the sun's
light, which is an essentially good feature in winter in any steading. The ham-
mels, in this respect, bear a favourable comparison, to either boxes or byres, in
as far as the cheerfulness and health, and, in consequence, the well-being, of
the animals inhabiting them, are concerned. Not only the hammels, but the
courts and sheds of the young cattle, the byres, the stables, and the accommo-
dation for the minor animals, are as favourably situated as to sunlight ; while
those for the straw, the carts, and the manure, are placed in the shade, as they
should be.

183. The isometrical elevation is a common and graphic mode of representing
steadings; but the combination of the isometrical and the ground-plan, as given
in Plate VIII., is a still more satisfactory method of representing such a build-
ing in a drawing. The names of the various apartments are marked as distinctly
as in the ground-plan, while the horizontal section of the walls at three feet above
the ground, gives such a reality to the form of each apartment, with its doors
and windows, as at once to indicate its size and use ; and the dotted lines above
the sectioned walls afford a correct and distinct enough idea of the building as
it should appear in a complete isometrical perspective. We would therefore re-
commend this combined method of representation for all plans of steadings, even
for the working places for masons, as the most useful and satisfactory. And
farther, this style of perspective affords equal facilities for taking measurements

32 PLANS OF STEADINGS

from the ordinary scale, with ground-plans drawn in the usual way. This is the
first instance that we are aware of in which this combined method of perspec-
tive and plan has been presented to the notice of the public.*

184 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANS OF THE EOOFS OF THE STEADINGS DESCRIBED IN
PLATES I. TO VIII. As the roofs of buildings are an expensive item in their
construction, it is desirable they should be made in the simplest form. This
remark applies forcibly to the roofs of steadings, inasmuch as ornamental work
is excusable in many cases in houses and cottages as a matter of taste ;
whereas in steadings, which are exclusively devoted to rough and common pur-
poses, ornamental roofs seem unsuited to their use. It should therefore be the
aim to give the roofs of steadings the simplest form consistent with strength and
durability. Now, there cannot be a simpler form of roof than a long stretch,
nor a more durable one than when the stretch terminates at both ends at a
gable. There should therefore be nothing but stretches, and as few breaks in
the roofs of steadings as possible.

185. Another point, as a principle, is, that at the turns of a roof, it is
stronger for one stretch to terminate in a gable, and in the other to join the roof,
than to make the turn in the form of a pavilion ; because a pavilion is always
made at a sacrifice of timber, and timber is more expensive than ordinary
rubble masonry. A pavilion-roof is only excusable in a steading when the apart-
ment is of extraordinary width ; because were gables raised in a proportionate
height to inordinate breadth they would seem incongruous and out of propor-
tion to the rest of the building. Some apartments are better for being of great
width, as an ox or cow byre in a large establishment, where many animals can
be concentrated in a comparatively small space, and view r ed and tended with
ease and little expense. Now that trussed-roofs of iron are successfully used at
railway-stations, pavilion-roofs may be dispensed with altogether, and a series of
roofs running parallel with one another, in the form of " ridge and valley," substi-
tuted ; but it must be remembered that such a form has the disadvantage of
having as many rows of iron pillars in the interior of the apartment as there
are rows of roofs.

186. An important consideration in the economical construction of the roofs
of steadings is the making all the apartments of one width, because the same
scantlings or couples will answer for all the apartments, whether in a two or
one storey ed building ; and when a small steading is pulled down for a larger,
the old couples will answer for the new walls, or when an addition is built,
the new piece joins in neatly with the old. When animals have to be
attended to, ample room in the apartments is a great convenience. Experi-
ence has proved that a less width than 18 feet is too little for a stable, a cow-
byre, a corn-barn, an upper barn, straw-barn, or a granary ; and, as a conse-
quence, that width should be adopted in all the working apartments of every
steading, and we have adopted that width accordingly in all the steadings
described above.

187. Turns in the roofs of steadings are necessary; for were the apartments
of the wings placed in a line with the principal range, those in the two ex-
tremities of a large steading would be at too great a distance from each other
for one cattleman to undertake all his duties. Instead of one very long stretch,
which would certainly give the simplest form of roof, a turn at one or both ends

* Those unacquainted with the method of throwing ordinary plans into isometrical perspective,
will find the subject fully treated of in a small work, price only two shillings, intituled Isome-
trical Drawing, by Robert Scott Burn, forming a part of " Chambers's Educational Course."

ROOF-PLANS OF STEADINGS. 33

is necessary to concentrate the work within a space consistent with economy
of labour. Hence, a principal range with wings is a desirable form of steading;
but, as we have said above, the turns of the wings should be at gables, not
as pavilions, for the sake of economy in construction. Besides, wings afford
shelter, and, along with the principal range and the projection of the central one,
screen the courts from the north, east, and west winds.

188. We have endeavoured to follow those principles in the construction of
the roofs of the steadings treated of in the foregoing pages, and, in order to show
their application, we have given, in Plate X., a plan of the roofs of each of the
steadings described in Plates I. to YLIL, and we shall now proceed to describe
those roofs in detail.

189. Plate X., fig. 1, represents the roof-plan of a cattle-shed in a "Detached
Pastoral Farm for rearing Cattle." The roof consists of a simple stretch from
a to b, terminating at the gables a and b. The plan of the shed, of which this
is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 1, Plate I.

190. Fig. 2 is the roof-plan of a steading for a " Detached Pastoral Farm for
rearing Cattle," containing its various apartments. The roof also consists of a
single stretch from a to 6, terminating at the gables a and b. The plan of the
steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is shown at fig. 2, Plate I.

191. Fig. 3 represents the roof-plan of a " Compact Pastoral Farm-Steading
for rearing Cattle." The roof consists of a principal range a b, and two wings
a c and b d, the principal terminating at the gables a and 5, and the wings
at the gables c and d. The wings join in level with the roof of the principal
range, gutters being made in the line of junctions at e and e, to carry off rain-
water. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is shown at
fig. 3, Plate I.

192. Fig. 4 is a roof -plan for a " Pastoral Farm -Steading for rearing
Cattle, with arable culture." Here the principal range a b is intercepted by
the central one c d, which is two-storeyed, and containing the thrashing-machine
and straw-barn. The parts of the principal range a c and c i, and the wings
a e and &/, are on the same level, and are one-storeyed, and their junction is of
the same form as at a and &, fig. 3. The roofs of the principal range a c and
c b terminate in gables at a arid &, but are let in at the other end in the walls of
the central range c d by means of raglins at g c/. The wings a e and b f ter-
minate in gables at e and /, and the central range c d terminates in gables at c
and d; 7* is the circular roof of the horse-course. The plan of the steading, of
which this is the roof-plan, is shown at fig. 1, Plate IT.

193. Fig. 5 is the roof-plan for a "Pastoral Farm-Steading for Sheep, with
arable culture." This plan has the principal range a b in two storeys, and which
elevates its ridge above the level of the wings c and d. The principal range
terminates in gables at a and ft, and the wings terminate in gables at c and d,
and are at the other end let into the wall of the principal range by means of
raglins at e e ; /is the circular roof of the horse-course. The plan of the stead-
ing, of which this is the roof -plan, is shown at fig. 2, Plate II.

194. Fig. 6 represents the roof-plan for a " Carse Farm-Steading." The
principal range a & is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a arid b. The
central range c is also two-storeyed, terminating in the gable at c, and on
a level with the ridge of the principal range, having the rain-gutters at the
corners // The wings d and e terminate in gables at d and e, and are let into
the wall of the principal range by means of raglins at g g. The roof at h is a
lean-to covering the boiler-house and coal-store. The plan of the steading, of
which this is the roof- plan, is given in Plate III.

34 PLANS OF STEADINGS.

195. Fig. 7 is the roof-plan for a " Large Dairy Farm- Steading." The
principal range a b is interrupted at c, from whence to c b it is two-storeyed,
and the central range e d is also two-storeyed and on a level with c b. The
principal range terminates in gables at a, c, and 5, and the central range in a
gable at rf, and in the roof of c b at e e. The wing bf terminates at f in a
gable, and at g is let into the wall of c b by means of a raglin. The wing a h
terminates at h in a gable, and at a on the roof of a c, having the rain-gutters
i i ; k k is a wide pavilion-roof covering the cow-byre ; Us a lean-to roof cover-
ing the boiler-house and coal-store ; and m is also a lean-to roof against the
gable d. The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given in
Plate IV.

196. Fig. 8 is the roof-plan for a " Small Dairy Farm- Steading." The princi-
pal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables at a and b. The
wings a c and b d terminate in gables at c and rf, and are let into the wall of
a b by means of raglins at e and e. The central and detached range / terminates
in gables at /and g, and A is a lean-to roof against the gable g. The plan of the
steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 1, Plate V.

197. Fig. 9 represents the roof-plan for a " Suburbial Farm-Steading, with
arable culture." The principal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates
in gables at a and b. The central range c is also two-storeyed, terminating in
a gable at c, and in the roof of a &, with the rain-gutters d d. The wings a e
and b /terminate in gables at e and/ and are let in the wall of a b by means of
raglins at g and g ; h is a lean-to roof covering the boiler-house and coal-store.
The plan of the steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is given at fig. 2,
Plate V.

198. Fig. 10 represents the roof -plan for a "Suburbia! Farm -Steading,
with Dairy." The principal range a b is two-storeyed, and terminates in gables
at a and J. The central range e d is also two-storeyed from e to c, terminating
in a gable at c, and joining the roof of a b with the rain-gutters e e. The re-
mainder of the central range from c to d is one-storeyed, terminating in the
gable at rf, and against the gable c, by means of a raglin. The wing b g ter-
minates in the gable at g, and in the wall of a b by means of a raglin at/. The
wing h terminates in a gable at h, and in the wall of a b by means of a raglin
at i; k is a detached cow-byre, having ridge-and-valley roofs, terminating at
each end in gables ; I is a lean-to roof, covering the boiler-house and coal-store,
and m is a lean-to roof against the gable g. The plan of the steading, of which
this is the roof-plan, is given in Plate VI.

199. Fig. 11 represents the roof-plan for a "Common Farm-Steading." The
principal range a b is two-storeyed from c to c?, and so is the central range
f e\ c d terminates in a gable at c and rf, and f e terminates in a gable at e,

and in the roof of c d, with the rain-gutters //. The one-storeyed part of a b
terminates in a gable at a and 5, and in the gables c and d by means of raglins.
The right wing h g terminates in a gable at g, and joins the roof of d b, with
the rain-gutters at h. The left wing k i terminates in a gable at /, and joins
the roof of a c, with the rain-gutters at k ; I m n o are hammels, having their
respective roofs terminating in a gable at each end ; p is feeding-boxes, having
their roof terminating at each end in a gable ; q is a feeding-byre, having its
roof terminating at each end in a gable ; and r is a dung-stance, having its roof
terminating at each end in a gable ; s is a lean-to roof covering the boiler-house
and coal-store. The plan of this steading, of which this is the roof-plan, is
given in Plate VII.

200. Fig. 12 represents the roof-plan of a steading for " Mixed husbandry."

EOOFED STACKYARD. 35

The principal range a b is two-storeyed from c to d, and so is the central range
fe;cd terminates in a gable at r and c/, and/c terminates in a gable at e, and
in the roof of c d, with the rain-gutters at f f. The one-storeyed parts of a 5
terminate in gables at a and ft, and at gables c and t/, let in by means of raglins.
The roof of the hammels g h terminates in a gable at </, and in the wall of the
straw-barn by means of a ragliu at //. The roof i k terminates at both ends in
gables at z and k. The roof / in terminates at both ends in gables at I and m.
In like manner, the roof n o terminates in the gables at n and o ; the roof p q
in the gables at p and q ; the roof r s in the gables r and s ; the roof t u in the
gables at t and u ; the roof of v w in the gables at v and iv ; and the roof of x
in gables also ; y is a lean-to roof covering the boiler-house and coal-store ; and
z is a lean-to roof as a calf-shed. The plan of this steading, of which this is
a roof-plan, is given in Plate VIII., and an isometrical perspective of it in
Plate IX.

201. These roof-plans are all drawn to a scale which is given in Plate X.

202. On viewing all the roof-plans in Plate X., it will be seen that the roofs
consist of simple stretches of considerable length each, and where they are
joined, the joinings are of .the simplest form ; and there is, besides, not a single
break in all the roofs. The natural consequence is, that if made of good mate-
rials, put together in a proper manner, such roofs cannot be injured by the
weather for a long time.

203. It will also be observed that the stretches of all the roofs terminate, at
one end at least, in a gable, and not in a pavilion, nor do they project over the
gable. The pavilion, as we have said before, involves a Avaste of timber ; and a
projecting roof over the gables, being made of Avood, is subject to early decay
by the effects of Aveather. The end of the roof, protected under a stone skew, is
safe from the injuries of weather, and it has thus the advantage of being the
most durable finishing to a roof. A projecting roof is more picturesque than a
skewed one, and is suitable for a dwelling-house or cottage, where ornament is
required ; but ornament is no commendation in a steading ; and that a skeAved
gable presents no unpleasant aspect, the useful appearance of a steading
in the isometrical perspective of the one for Mixed husbandry, given in
Plate IX., is a presumptiA r e evidence. Crow steps are sometimes introduced in
the gables of steadings as an ornament, but, besides the expense, they afford
facilities for burglars to ascend and break into the roofs of buildings.

204. AVI die speaking of roofs, Ave may express surprise that no proposal has
hitherto been made to roof in a stackyard. The light and elegant trussed
roofs at railway-stations have suggested the placing of cattle-courts under
such a covering, to shelter the cattle from the weather, and thereby promote
their warmth and comfort. Chemical physiologists insist on the necessity of
having oxen, Avhilo feeding, under cover, in order to encoiirage and presen*e in
them that animal heat so essential to their growth and condition. Whether
oxen moving about under a lofty roof in a courtyard Avill generate a greater
degree of animal heat than under the usual circumstances in which they are
placed, may admit of doubt ; but, nevertheless, courtyards haA T e been covered
with that object, and the effects of such a coA r ering on the animal economy must
be left to the test of experience. But there can be no doubt that a stackyard
under a roof Avould be in the best possible state for receiving the corn as it comes
from the field. We knoAv that a rick- cloth secures from rain the building of a
haystack, hoAvever long the process may be prolonged. So a roof over a stack-
yard should secure the stacks under it from the injurious effects of unfavour-

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

able weather, and it should confer the additional benefit of entirely saving the
thatching of stacks. The thatching of stacks, in first preparing the straw and
making the ropes, and then executing the thatching, is attended with consider-
able labour and expenditure of time, while the thatch-straw, after being so
used, bears little value as a constituent of manui-e. A covered stackyard
would admit of the stacks being built in any form or size ; and it would
afford great facilities and comfort to the work-people in taking in stacks to be
thrashed in bad weather in winter. Believing that such a structure would be
a great convenience, we have given illustrations of one that might be con-
structed on any farm ; one illustration consisting of an isornetrical perspective
of ridge-and-valley roofs over a stackyard ; and another, a ground-plan of a
stackyard, with the stacks in it so arranged as to be in conformity with those
roofs over it.

205. Fig. 15 represents an isometrical perspective of a covered stackyard,

Fig. 15.

ISOMXTRICAI, PERSPECTIVE OF A COTBRID STACKYARD

where a a a is the wall, 3^- feet in height, surrounding the stackyard ; b a
cart entrance into the stackyard, which should admit a loaded cart or waggon
of corn, say 32 feet in height and 12 in width ; c the outlet from the stackyard
to the upper barn, whether by means of a cart, or by wheelbarrows along a
gangway ; d d d cast-iron hollow pillars, 32 feet in height ; e e iron brac-
ings supporting the roof; // the roof of corrugated iron ; g a vent upon the
ridge of the roof, which can be multiplied to any number thought requisite
to admit the air through them upwards to prevent the roof being carried
up by the wind ; but as the supports of the roof are quite open all round the
stackyard, and the roofing is well secured to the supports, such a precaution
is not deemed necessary ; and h h is the valley of the roof, along which the
rain-water runs and descends through the cast-iron hollow pillars into drains

PLAN OF A HOOFED STACKYARD.

formed under-ground to cany it off. Xo stacks are given in perspective under
the roof, Imt their effect in perspective may be seen in Plate I. of Stephens'
Book of the Farm.

206. The ground-plan of tlic stackyard, of which fig. 15 is the roof, is given
in fig. 16, where a a a a is the stackyard wall ; b b the cart entrances into the
stackyard ; c the gangway from the stackyard to the upper barn, and it may be
roofed over; d d d d the cast-iron hollow pillars which support the roof along
the sides and in the centre of the stackyard at 22 feet apart, and along the ends
at 45 feet apart ; e e e e the hollow cast-iron pillars under each valley, which,
while supporting, act as roans for carrying off rain-water from the roof into the
underground drains. The space covered by the roof in fig. 15 embraces only
half the ground-plan in fig. 16, from a to d, including two ridges of the ridge -

Fi-. Hi.

and-valley. The entire space included in the ground-plan, fig. 16, is 178 feet
by 142.

207. The stacks / or g are 15 feet in diameter, and stand 3 feet from the
fence-wall, and as much apart from each other, while the distance betwixt
the stacks /and g is 15 feet.

208. The mode of placing the stacks at the time of carrying them is this :
The loaded cart enters into the stackyard by the gate b, figs. 15 and 16, and in
clearing the gate it is taken up the space between e and rf, which is 45 feet in
width, until it reaches the farther end of the stackyard, where two stacks may
be built of the circular form, or one in the rectangular, as shown at h. The
two next stacks built, are first k and then i. A space equal to that occupied
by two stacks is left open at I for a passage to the gangway c. The next
two stacks built are n and then m, and then first p and then o. When the

38 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

work has proceeded thus far, the cart must be differently placed to the building
of g and q. When the cart enters the gate i, the cart is backed first as far as q,
until it is built, and then to g. In like manner the stacks from r and s to t
and/ are built, and then that division of the stackyard is finished. The other
division of the stackyard is filled with the stacks in the same manner, by enter-
ing into the other gate i, and first building the stacks from u and v to w and
a?, or from z y to V a, as desired or is convenient

209. The stacks covered by the two roofs of fig. 15, number twenty-two, of
15 feet diameter ; the other half of the stackyard contains twenty-four stacks.
The ground-plan of the stackyard in fig. 16 is expansive, for it may be extended
to any length beyond h, and to any breadth beyond w x.

210. Farmers usually adopt a method of arranging the stacks in the stack-
yard according to the kind of grain. Barley being in demand by the brewers
and distillers immediately after harvest, the stacks containing that grain are
built nearest the steading at h to g q. Wheat being generally unfit for the
miller until spring, the stacks are built at the farthest side of the stackyard
from u v to w x and y z. Oats are built anywhere in the interior, as that grain
is used at all times. Beans and pease being the last of being ready, fill up the
interior, or are built outside the stackyard.

211. We have thus described every variety of steading applicable to the
various kinds of farming practised in this country, on the principles laid down
by us at the first ; and we feel assured that, where each modification of form is
examined and criticised in relation to the kind of farming in which it is intended
to be used, it will be allowed, we are confident, that it possesses such a com-
pactness and convenience in the arrangement of its different apartments, as to
allow the business to be done in it in the most economical way. Where com-
pactness not closeness, but at hand, and at the same time with plenty of elbow-
room and convenience of arrangement are combined, one man will perform the
duties of cattleman with greater ease to himself and better results in his work,
than two where these requisites are awanting. Any one knowing the work to
be done in a steading in winter, and looking at the most complicated forms of
steadings, given in Plates VII. and VIII., will at once say that compactness
and convenience of arrangement for work are combined in these ; while the
isometrical perspective of the ground-plan in Plate VIII, given in Plate IX.,
exhibits the elevation of a building which, in its proportions and constituent
parts, is at least pleasing to the eye as a picture. It would have been easy to
have heightened the effect by shading, but we have preferred showing the effect
in the simplest form. We do not think that more ornament should be attempted
to give effect to a steading which, be it remembered, is a building intended more
for use than ornament more for economy in use than expense in construction.

DIVISION SECOND PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS.

212. Having thus minutely described a series of farm-steadings, which are
based upon the principles we have propounded, and which, in our judgment, are
eminently suited to the purposes for which they are respectively intended, we
shall now describe, with similar minuteness, plans of a number of existing
steadings, both in England and Scotland, which have been recently erected,
and which have the character of possessing conveniences suggested by the im-

AT SOUTHILL PA11K, SUEREY. 39

proved ideas of recent experience. We shall not fail to criticise them on the
principles we have laid down, and as little fail to commend them when they can
bear that ordeal.

213. DESCRIPTION or A STKAIUM; AT SOI/THILL TAUK, tiracknell, Surrey, be-
longing to Sir W. (I. Hayter, Bart., M. P., and planned by Mr John Dongall,
farm-bailiff. Plate XT. contains a ground-plan of this steading-, wherein is
the corn-barn, 30 feet by 19, with a door, and an interior one to the straw-barn ;
b the boiler-house, 22 feet 6 inches by 11 feet, with opposite doors, one to c,
steam-engine house, 10 feet G inches by 7 feet the other to the sawing-house,
e e, 14 feet by 55 ; d d the straw-barn, 43 feet inches by 17 feet G inches, with
a door, and internal ones to the corn-barn and piggeries ; e house for cut litter,
17 feet 6 inches by 8 feet G inches, with a door; / house for cut chaff, 17 feet
6 inches by 7 feet G inches, with a door ; y wash-house for roots, 17 feet G inches
by 11 feet, with a door ; h pigs'-food store, 13 feet by 10, with a door and win-
dow ; i fuel-house, 13 feet by 5, with a door ; k boiling-house with three boilers,
16 feet by 8 ; H piggeries, nine in number, in three divisions, each division 11
feet 3 inches by 10 feet 9 inches, entering from two covered yards m m, each
34 feet by 26, with wide doors ; n hay-house, 1 1 feet by 1 1 ; o straw-house, 23 feet
by 11 ; p p work-horse stable, 73 feet G inches by 19 feet, with ten stalls, each
6 feet wide, with three doors and four windows ; q q cow-byre or shippen, 78 feet
6 inches by 19 feet, with eight stalls, 8 feet wide, for two cows each, with three
doors and three windows ; d' riding-horse stable, 19 feet by 13, of three stalls,
with two doors and a window; r poultry-house, 18 feet by 19, with two boles
and a door; s killing-house, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet G inches, with a door;
t tool-house, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet G inches, with a door ; u mess-room for
men, 14 feet 9 inches by 10 feet, with a door, and window, and fireplace; v v
calf-house, 41 feet 9 inches by 14 feet 9 inches, with seven stalls, with a door
and two windows ; w root-house, 20 feet G inches by 14 feet 9 inches, with a
door and window ; x x young cattle shed, 44 feet G inches by 32 feet, with a
gate, and doors into the root-house and straw-house ; y y straw-house, 45 feet
by 14 feet 9 inches, with doors to the cattle-shed and feeding-boxes ; z z cattle
feeding-boxes, seven in number, 10 feet by 10 each, with doors to the straw-
house, root-house, and each box; a'* a' root-house, 22 feet by 14 feet 9 inches,
with a door, and an internal one to the boxes z ; b' is a liquid-manure tank,
from which, by means of a portable pump, the dung in the covered yards m
can be watered ; the tank c', away from the steading, is for the surplus liquid -
manure. The double-dotted lines indicate the lines of urine-drains. This stead-
ing is adapted to Common farming.

214. It will be observed, in the disposition of the various apartments in the
above steading, that the straw-barn is not placed in the centre of the premises,
so as the principal live stock might encircle themselves around it. On the con-
trary, it is placed at a corner of the buildings ; and instead of the cattle and
horses, which require most straw, having their houses situated nearest it,
the pigs have that advantage bestowed upon them which require the least
straw. That the straw-barn, is felt to be inconveniently placed, as regards the
stock, is evinced from the fact that additional straw-houses arc obliged to be
provided at o and y, in order that the horses and the cattle, both young and
fattening, may be supplied with straw near at hand, thus occasioning unneces-
sary labour in carrying it from the thrashing-machine while in motion, or from
the straw-barn afterwards to their several receptacles. The width of the ranges
of the buildings also differ, one width being 19 feet and another 14 feet 9 inches.

40 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

215. The scale of the plan in Plate XI. is in the proportion of and % of an
inch to the foot.

216. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 168 feet, and the
extreme width 151 feet.

217. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING AT DRUMKILBO, in Forfarshire, belonging to
Lord Wharncliffe. This is quite a new steading, adapted to Common farming,
being removed at a distance from a town. It consists of a principal range and
two wings, the space between the wings being also occupied by buildings.
Plate XII. presents a ground-plan and sections of certain lines of the steading,
where, in the principal range, fig 1, are these apartments : a a the corn-barn,
34 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 9 inches, with a door and two windows, and an in-
ternal door to the cart-shed leading to the door of the chaff-house b &, 34 feet 6
inches by 7 feet 6 inches, with an internal door at the other end in the passage e ;
c is a stair from the corn-barn to the upper barn above in the second
floor ; d d the horse-walk for the thrashing-machine, 33 feet diameter, with
five port-holes ; e a passage, 7 feet 6 inches, leading into the stackyard behind ;
// the straw-barn, 53 feet by 22 feet, having the two doors of the passage e for
its doors on opposite sides, with six boles in the outside walls ; g a loose-box,
12 feet by 22, with a wide door, and an internal one to the turnip-store, and a
sky -light in the roof; h turnip-shed, 15 feet by 22, with a wide door, and an
internal door to the loose-box, and another to the feeding-byre ; i i feeding-byre
for cattle, 35 feet by 22, of five double-stalls for ten cattle, with a feeding-
passage to the turnip-shed, and a door and one window in front, one at the end,
and two at the back. On the other side of the corn-barn is the cart-shed d'd',
60 feet by 22, with four port-holes, and a door at the back leading to the
stackyard.

218. In the right wing are these apartments : Jo k feeding-byre for cattle, 43
feet by 17, six double-stalls for twelve cattle, with a feeding-passage at the
head from the turnip- shed if, and a door and two windows in front, and two
windows at the back ; 1 1 a turnip-shed, 20 feet by 17, with a door, and an in-
ternal one to each of two feeding-byres ; m in feeding-byre for cattle, of five
double-stalls for ten cattle, with a feeding-passage along their heads, and a
door and two windows in front, and two windows at the back; n loose-box, 17
feet by 12, with a wide door in front, and an internal one to the feeding- byre m ;
o hen-house, 17 feet by 11 feet 6 inches, with a door in front and a window in
the gable.

219. In the left wing are these apartments: e' workshop, 17 feet by 11,
with a wide door in front; /' potato-store, 17 feet by 17 feet 4 inches, with
a door in front and a window at the back; g implement-house, 17 feet by
10, with a wide door in front and a window at the back; li boiling-house, 17
feet by 12, with a wide door in front; i' girnal or meal-house, 17 feet by 10,
with a door in front and a window at the back; k' gig-house, 17 feet by 10,
with a wide door in front ; I' harness-room, 17 feet by 21, with a door in front
and a window at the back; m! bothy for the ploughmen, 17 feet by 9 feet
6 inches, with a door in front, and a sleeping apartment off it n, 17 feet by 8
feet 6 inches, with a window in the gable ; o' coal-house, 6 feet 6 inches by 6
feet 6 inches.

220. In the space on the right between the two wings is accommodation
afforded to cattle, where p p are two courts for cattle, each 25 feet by 20, with
gates in front; q g two cattle-sheds, each 25 feet by 18, with a door in front,

AT DRUMKILBO, FOEFAESHIEE. 41

connected with the two sheds ; r liquid-manure tank, 15 feet by 6, and 4 feet
6 inches deep ; s s two cattle-courts, 45 feet by 25, with two open sheds t f, t t,
8 feet wide each, and with gates in front ; n u feeding-troughs in these sheds,
and a passage v r, 3 feet G inches wide between the troughs ; iv ia two cattle-
sheds, each 34 feet by 17 ; x x turnip-shed, 23 feet by 17, with a wide door in
front, and an opening behind leading into the passage r, to the turnip- troughs u ;
y y water-troughs under the sheds for the cattle ; and z a privy, with a door
in front.

221. Between these buildings and the left wing is accommodation afforded
to horses, where a' a is the riding-horse stable, 22 feet by 18, provided with
four stalls, and a door and Avindow in front, and a Avindow in the gable ; q'
guano-shed, 18 feet by 13 feet G inches, with a wide door in front; p' p work-
horse stable, 18 feet by 64, of ten stalls, with two doors and three windows in
front, and a door at the back ; b f is a water-trough, and c a pump-well.

222. The principal range, including the corn-barn, cart-shed, and straw-
barn, is two-storeyed. The granaiy, 60 feet by 22, extending over the cart-shed,
and entered from the upper barn, has five Avindows on each side. In the
upper barn is a 6 -feet wide door, for the admission of the sheaves of corn from
the stack, when forked from a cart placed under the door. A sky-light is on the
roof to give light to the upper barn, immediately above the head of the man
who feeds in the sheaves to the thrashing-mill. The site of the thrashing-
machine is such as to alloAV the mill to throw the straw into the straw-barn,
over the passage e. A sky-light on the roof of the straw-barn giA^es light at the
place where the straw is received from the mill.

223. In Plate XII., besides the ground-plan, fig. 1, are eleA'ations and sections
in given lines of the steading just described.

224. Fig. 2 gives the south elevation of the steading, presenting the gables
of the bothy, the riding stable, turnip-shed, and hen-house, Avith the gateAvays
leading into the interior of the steading.

225. Fig. 3 is the north elevation, giving the back of the cart-shed and the
granary windows above, the horse-course, and the back of the upper barn and
straw-barn, with its boles, in tAvo storeys, and in one storey extending to the
right, including the back of the loose-box ^7, turnip-shed /;, and feeding-byre L

226. Fig. 4 is a section in the horizontal dotted line of a b in fig. 1, compre-
hending the section of the gig-house &', Avork-horse stable p', Avith its stall and
water-tank &', privy , cattle-shed t, Avith its feeding-troughs u and passage v,
liquid manure-tank r, and feeding-byre w, with its stall and feeding-passage.

227. Fig. 5 is a section of the perpendicular dotted line c d in fig. 1, compre-
hending the section of the cattle-sheds q and w, of one storey, and of the straw-
barn/, of two storeys.

228. Fig. 6 is a section in the perpendicular dotted line of e f in fig. 1,
embracing the section of the corn and upper barns, in two storeys, and of the
horse-walk of the thrashing-machine.

229. The extreme length of this steading over Avails is 219 feet, and extreme
Avidth 143 feet, of the principal range and wings. The length of the cattle-
court buildings over Avails is 103 feet, and Avidth 77 feet. The length of the
stable division over Avails is 104 feet, and Avidth 21 feet.

230. The width of the apartments Avithin walls varies. The width of the
principal two-storey range is 23 feet, that of the stables 18 feet, and that of the
sheds, byres, and other apartments, 17 feet.

231. The scale of the ground-plan, fig. 1, is nearly -} of an inch to the foot.

42 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

232. The lines of urine-drains are distinctly marked by double lines tra-
versing fig. 1, Plate XII., in different directions.

233. The arrow points to the north.

234. It will be observed that the design of this steading is to have a prin-
cipal range in the north, with two wings towards the south. The straw-barn
is within the line of the principal range, and not placed as a projection into,
the centre of the premises, in accordance with our principles. Nevertheless, it
is conveniently placed in regard to most of the stables, cattle-courts, and feeding-
byres, although at a considerable distance from the farthest end of them, for a
steading of its limited dimensions. The system of feeding cattle here adopted
is partly in byres, and partly in sheds and courts, these last containing each,
more cattle than in a hammel. The width of the different ranges of the build-
ings is 23, 18, and 17 feet, thereby discarding the convenience of a similarity
of roof, and a unity of timber. Pavilions are also introduced instead of gables,
thereby incurring waste of timber in construction. Upon the whole, this is a
compact steading, having the straw convenient enough, though not so central
as it might have been ; the right-hand half of the buildings is devoted to the
feeding of cattle the horses are all together, and away from the cattle ; the
left wing is appropriated to miscellaneous purposes. The obvious objections to
the arrangements are the want of a separate byre for the milk-cows of the
farmer's family ; two loose-boxes g and n, one being enough in so small a
steading, the carpenter's shop e', and the bothy in of the ploughmen being in
the steading, which they should never be, and are more convenient and safe
from fire in detached cottages.

235. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING ON THE ESTATE OF MORPHIE, Kincard'meshire,
belonging to Barron Graham, Esq. This steading may be seen in ground-
plan and front-elevation in Plate XIII., where a is the corn-barn, 45 feet by 20,
with a door and window in front ; b the space for the thrashing-machine ; c
chaff-house, 20 feet by 12, with a door in front : d d the straw-barn, 76 feet
by 18, with a door into the corn-barn, three doors towards the feeding-byres,
and one into the hay-house; e steam-engine room, 8 feet by 11, with a door
in front and another into the corn-barn ; f the boiler-house, 30 feet by 11,
with a wide door in front ; g granaries, projecting backwards from the corn-
barn, in two storeys, each 45 feet by 20, with a door and two windows in front ;
h h feeding-byre for cattle, 92 feet by 37, with twenty-four double-stalls of 7 feet,
for two oxen, each standing in two rows, head to head, with a feeding-passage
between of 7 feet in width ; i a cattle-shed, 18 feet by 39 feet 6 inches, which
may be fitted up as boxes, with an 8-feet door in front, and two internal ones
leading to a passage ; k another such cattle-shed, 36 feet by 25, with an 8-feet
door in front and two internal ones leading into a passage on each side ;
I a third similar cattle-shed, 18 feet by 39 feet 6 inches, with an 8-feet door in
front, and two internal ones leading to a passage ; m a turnip-shed, 18 feet by
25, with a door in front and an internal one to the feeding-byre h n cow-byre,
18 feet by 14 feet 6 inches, provided with three double stalls, for two cows each,
and a door in front, and an internal one to the feeding-byre h ; o calves' byre,
18 feet by 22 feet six inches, with a door in front, and an internal one to the
feeding-byre h; p infirmary, 18 feet by 14 feet 6 inches, with a door in front;
q q cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 75, provided with twelve stalls, with two doors,
one at each end to the front, and a wide passage into the feeding-byre h ; r two
loose-boxes, 10 feet by 10 each ; and s s two loose-boxes, 10 feet by 15 each ;

AT M011PIIIE, KINGAEDINESHIEE. 43

t riding-horse stable, 18 feet l>y 18, furnished with three stalls: the riding-
horse stable and all the loose-boxes are within the work-horse stable ; u gig-
house, 18 feet by 10, with a 7 -feet door; v hay-house, 18 feet by 15, with a 9-
feet door in front, and an internal one leading into the straw-barn, arid another
into the feeding-byre /* ; w iv w cart-sheds, one 18 feet by 27, with three 8-feet
port-holes; another, 18 feet by 1G, with two 8-feet port-holes; arid a third, 18
feet by 9, with one 8-feet port-hole, which last may be a loose-box if desired,
having an internal door into the adjoining cart-shed, and another into the tool-
house ; x tool-house, 18 feet by 22 feet G inches, with a door in front ; y cattle-
shed, or court, 42 feet by 30 feet G inches; z a turnip-shed, 11 feet by 14,
with an 8-feet door in front, and an internal one to the cattle-court ?/; a' pig-sty,
11 feet by 11, with a door in front; b' poultry-house, 18 feet by 15, with a door
in front; c guano-house, 11 feet by 10, with a door in front; ^'carpenter's
shop, 18 feet by 10, with a door in front; c! boiling-house, 11 feet by 11, with
a door in front, and boiler and furnace at a back corner; /' potato-house, 9 feet
by 11, with a door in front; g' privy, in the corner of the cattle- court ?/, with a
door from a cart-shed ; h' the water-cistern for the steam-boiler.

23G. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 220 feet and width
79 feet. The length of the projection backwards is 93 feet by 23.

237. The steading is entirely under cover, divided into three ranges, the
central being 37 feet in width, flanked on each side by a range of 18 feet in
width, within walls. The ranges terminate in gables at each end, as seen by
the front elevation in Plate XIII. The projection is two storeys, with the upper
barn above the corn-barn, and one granary, above the other, is roofed in by
itself. The boiler-house, engine-room, and boiling and potato houses are roofed
in by themselves, and so is the chaff-house. The front of the calves' byre o
is elevated into a gable for ornament, and there the pigeon-house may be
situated.

238. The scale of this ground-plan is in the proportion of a little more than
f of an inch to the foot.

239. It will be observed, in the arrangement of the apartments of this stead-
ing, that the straw-barn is quite at hand to the feeding-byre h, and convenient
for the stables, and loose-boxes, and cattle-sheds i k I. The cattle-sheds at y
are a little out of the way of the straw-barn. It is a good idea to place the
granaries in two floors, and to project them into the stackyard, but in that
case a door will be required on each side of the upper barn to receive the
sheaves from either side of the stackyard. The want of a high range east
and west along the north side, to screen the buildings from the north wind, is not
felt in this case, where all the apartments are under cover.

240. Still there are some inconveniences in the arrangement. The feeding-
byre h is made a thoroughfare for the straw from the barn d. The cattle-sheds
z, k, /, and ?/, the stables q and t, the loose-boxes r and s, the cow and calves'
byres n and o, cannot be reached from the straw-barn but through the feeding-
byre h ; and the cattle-shed ?/, in particular, must have its straw carried through
the work-horse stable and boxes besides. The carpenter's shop should, we
conceive, never form an integral part of any steading. Upon the whole, this is
a compact convenient steading.

241. The arrow points to the north.

242. On the policy of placing all the apartments and courts of a steading
under a series of roofs, there maybe difference of opinion. The entire covering
has a protective, snug, comfortable appearance from the outside, but the comfort

44 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

within is more apparent than real. Every animal there is entirely excluded
from the sunshine, and this is a positive privation in winter ; for the general
warmth of sunshine is agreeable to every living creature. There is not a win-
dow in all the outside walls of the main part of the building, so that the
apartments must necessarily be lighted, if lighted at all, from the roof, and
the more numerous such lights the more chances of rain-droppings therefrom.
There are, besides, a great many outside doors, and when these must necessarily
be placed in opposite walls, on account of the structure of the building, strong
and cold draughts of air will be generated. The unpleasant sensation created
by such draughts may be sensibly felt by any one who has had to wait for a
train on the platform of a large covered rail way- station. In such a draught cattle
cannot feel comfortable ; and where doors are numerous, and the traffic to apart-
ments frequent, the chances are that some of them will be left open in opposite
directions at the same time, and a constant draught generated and maintained.

243. DESCRIPTION OF A STEADING AT COLESHILL, Highworth, Berkshire, belonging
to and arranged by E. W. Moore, Esq. In Plate XIV. is the ground-plan of this
steading, wherein, in the principle range, are : a the corn-barn, 24 feet by 44, with
a door and two windows in front ; b root and food store, 24 feet by 44, with a
door and two windows in front; c loose-box, 15 feet by 11, with a door and
window in front; d riding-horse stable, 15 feet by 18, of three stalls, and with
a door and large window in front; e harness-room off the stable, 15 feet by
5, with a fireplace, and a window in front, and an internal door to the stable
and another to the gig-house; /gig-house, 15 feet by 16, with a large door
and window in front ; g the office, 15 feet by 15, with a fireplace, and door and
window in front, and a stair to the floor above ; h an open shed, 16 feet by 21,
with a door at back to a stair down to the waggon-arches; ii cart-shed, 19 feet
by 14, with two port-holes ; k waggon-arches, five in number, each 20 feet by
10 ; the steam-engine room, 26 feet by 9, is at the back of the corn-barn.

244. In the central range are : I a passage, 14 feet by 45, across the building;
m the straw-barn, 18 feet by 33, with a door and window in front, a door to the
passage I, and a door to the steaming and mixing rooms ; n the steaming-room,
18 feet by 16, having two boilers, with a door to the passage Z, and two windows
in front, and a door to the straw-barn ; o mixing room, 18 feet by 16, having
two vats, with a door to the straw-barn and to the steaming room, and a window
in front ; p cattle-stalls, 18 feet by 62, having stalls for twelve cattle ; q fatting
pig-boxes, 10 feet by 62, in two divisions of two boxes each ; r breeding-sow
sties, 8 feet by 62, in six divisions, with a yard to each, 18 feet long ; s cattle-
sheds, 20 feet by 68, in four divisions, with a yard to each, 16 feet by 23 ;
t bulls' staUs, 18 feet by 18 ; u shed, 20 feet by 48, with a cow-yard, 46 feet by
31 ; v cow-yard, 30 feet by 38 ; w cattle-boxes, 26 feet by 182, in thirty-eight
boxes, of 10 feet by 10, with two doors and two windows into the yards o' o',
and a door at the left gable ; and another division, 21 feet by 43, in eight boxes,
of 10 feet by 10.

245. In the right wing are : x cow-stalls, 11 feet by 100, in eighteen stalls,
with an internal door to the calf-house ; y cow-boxes, 12 feet by 100, in ten
boxes, with a door and three windows in front ; z calf-house, 10 feet by 29, in
twelve cribs, with an internal door to the cow-stalls ; a! hay-house, 18 feet by 29,
with an outer door, and an internal one to the cow-boxes, and a window in front.

246. In the left wing are : b' b' loose-boxes, 16 feet by 10, with a door and
a window to each ; d c' cart-horse stable, 16 feet by 88, in twelve stalls, with
two doors and four windows in front, and two windows at the back ; d' hay-

AT COLESHILL, BERKSHIRE.

house and corn-room, 16 feet by 15, with a door in front, and a stair to a room
above this and the harness-room ; </ harness-room, 17 feet by 6, with a door
and a window at the back ; f implement-shed, 16 feet by 17 ; g' shoeing open
shed, 16 feet by 17; h' smithy, 16 feet by 18, with a door and window in front,
and an internal door to the shoeing-shed g' ; i men's kitchen, 16 feet by 15,
with a door in front and window in the gable.

247. In the lowest range are: k' k' fatting-sheep house, 14 feet by 108, in two
divisions of twenty-two stalls each, with a door and two windows in front, three
windows at the back, and a window in each gable. In the centre apartment are
four stalls more, and a stair to a room above ; I' liquid-manure tank, 16 feet by
20; m' manure shed and pit, 16 feet by 20; n' n' n' ri open sheds, 11 feet in
width ; o' o yards for sheep or young cattle.

248. In the open space between the central range and the left wing are : p a
straw-barn, 20 feet by 37, flanked on three sides with six sheds, 8 feet 6 inches
in width, with doors and windows.

249. In Plate XV. is an isometrical perspective of this steading, in which,
besides the principal range of the corn-barn and straw-barn, which are central,
the cattle-stalls p, the cattle-sheds s, and cattle-boxes w, along with the pig-
boxes and sties q and r, are all included under a continuous roof. The right
wing, containing the cow-stalls x, cow-boxes ?/, and calf-house 2, is also under
one roof, so that this may be considered an example of a covered steading. The
left wing, containing the cart-horse stable c', the lowest range, containing the
fatting-sheep house //, and the straw-barn and sheds p' in the open space, are
detached buildings.

250. A tramway passes from the root-store i, by the cattle-stalls and pig-
boxes, to the cattle-boxes w, where is a turn-table to deliver the food to the
left, or to the right, on to the cow stalls and boxes.

251. In fig. 17 is a plan of the second storey of this steading, and the roof- plan

OCi-PLA\- OF

46 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

of the ground-floor, in which the principal range is of two storeys, with as much
of the central range as includes the straw-barn, steaming and mixing rooms, and
the remainder of the building is of one storey; a a is the granary, 41 feet 6
inches by 33 feet, over the straw-barn m, and steaming and mixing rooms n and o,
Plate XIV. ; b b, the upper barn, 91 feet 6 inches by 38 feet at the broadest, and
24 feet at the narrowest part, over the corn-barn and root-store below ; c the
corn-mill ; d the thrashing-machine ; e the steam-engine room, 26 feet by 9 ;
/a coal-store ; g part of sawing-shed, 16 feet by 56 ; h h carpenter's shed, 16 feet
by 46 ; it loft, 16 feet by 57, over the loose-box, riding stable, and gig-house ;
k nail-house, 16 feet by 27 feet; / office, 16 feet 6 inches by 15 feet; m a loft at
the sheep-house ; and n another loft at the cart-horse stable. To the right of the
nail-house k are three apartments, which are not shown in fig. 17, but are seen
in perspective in Plate XV., and in plan in Plate XIV. : one, the wheel- wright's
shed, 15 feet by 32 ; another, an open shed, 15 feet by 27 feet 6 inches ; and a
third, a mason's shed, 15 feet by 28 feet 6 inches; o, fig. 17, is the stackyard;
p the timber-yard.

252. The complete drainage of this steading is shown in Plate XIV., in which
the double-dotted lines are the urine-drains, which empty themselves into the
liquid-manure tank V. The rain-water from the west side of the roofs is carried
into these urine-drains, and is about sufficient to dilute the urine from the
animals. The single round dotted lines show how the water for drinking is
conveyed from the respective troughs to the several parts of the building?.
The long dotted single lines show the drains from the springs and roofs to the
troughs, and also how the surplus water is carried away from the buildings.
The chain-like lines in the lower yards o'o' show the drains put originally into
the land before the levels of the ground were altered, and they are below the
foundations of the buildings.

253. The extreme length of this steading over walls within the square of
the buildings is 274 feet, and extreme breadth 248 feet. The principal range,
with the straw-barn projection, have the termination of their roofs in gables in
the other parts of the buildings the roofs terminate in the pavilion form. The
width of the apartments within walls varies, the corn-barn and root-store being
24 feet, the straw-barn, cattle-stalls, and pig-boxes, 18 feet, cattle-boxes 26 feet,
cow stalls and boxes 30 feet, cart-horse stable 16 feet, riding stable 15 feet,
sheep-house 14 feet. Such a diversity of widths gives an unnecessary diversity
of roofing.

254. The scale of this plan in Plate XIV. is in the proportion of 2|- eighths of
an inch to the foot.

255. The arrow points to the north.

256. On taking a survey of this steading, the straw-barn m, in connection with
the corn-barn, is conveniently situated for the stock accommodated in the cen-
tral range of the buildings, but in its dimensions, 18 feet by 33, it seems too
small for the numbers of stock, and it is confined, moreover, in its capacity by
having the granary floor over it. It is also at a considerable distance both from
the cows and the work-horses. With regard to the horses, the inconvenience
seems to be admitted by the erection of another straw-barn nearer them at p' ;
but neither of the straw-barns is convenient for the cows. It seems strange to
place the pigs in the central range in preference to the cows, and especially as
the odour emanating from them must diffuse itself under the same roof with the
cattle. Had all the cattle been placed in the central range, and the pigs sent to
the left wing arid the horses to the right, the relative positions of the different

AT WAKK, NORTHUMBERLAND. 47

kinds of stock would Lave been improved. As it is, this steading for Common
farming shows great adaptation for the purpose it was constructed.

257. DESCRIPTION OF TJII: STKADIM; AT WAKK, in Northumberland, near Kclso,
belonging to the Earl of Tankerville.. In 1'late XVI. is given the ground-plan
of a new and extensive steading, occupying t\vo acres of ground, in the farm of
Wark, and adapted to Common farming: a corn-Lam, 19 feet Ly 42, with two
doors and two windows in front, and a window at ihe Lack ; b corn-room, 19 feet
Ly 19, into which the dressed corn is put in Lin, with a window in front and
Lack, and an internal door from the corn-Larn ; c straw-Larn, 19 feet Ly 42, with
a door in front and window at the Lack ; d corn-mill, 19 feet Ly 9, with two
windows arid a door from the corn-Larn ; e steam-engine room ; / chimney-stalk,
50 feet in height ; g joiner's shop, 19 feet Ly 19, with a door in front arid two
windows at the Lack ; /; cart-shed, 19 feet Ly 70, with seven port-holes ; i guano-
store, 19 feet Ly 12, with a window in front and an internal door from the cart-
shed ; k hen-house, 17 feet Ly 16, with a door and window in front; I loose-
Loxes, four in numLer, 17 feet Ly 18, with a door in front ; m outhouse, 17 feet
Ly 17, with a door and window in front ; n cart-horse staLle, 17 feet 2 inches
Ly 148, divided into twenty-four stalls, with three doors and six windows in
front, and a window in the gaLle ; o hay-house, 17 feet 2 inches Ly 15 feet,
with a door and window in front ; p cattle-feeding Loxes, 12 feet Ly 274, in
twenty-nine Loxes, each 12 feet Ly 9 within divisions, with a door, as at q, to
two Loxes, and a feeding-bole, as at r, to two mangers ; s cow-Lyre, 15 feet Ly
15, for the farmer's cows, three in numLer Common farming requiring no breed-
ing-cows with a door in front and window at Lack ; / servants' cow- Lyre, 15 feet
by 47, with a door and window in front ; u four cattle-sheds, 15 feet Ly 38 each,
with each a court 24 feet Ly 48, and an open feeding-shed, 8 feet Ly 48. A
covered turnip-store is placed between every two feeding-sheds, 10 i'eet Ly 48
each, provided with six boles in each wall, through which the turnips are served
to the turnip-troughs. These apartments are comprehended in the quadrangle
of buildings.

258. In the space within the quadrangle are : v feeding-pig sties, two in num-
ber, each 8 feet Ly 9, with a common court, 8 feet Ly 10; pig-court w, 10
feet by 19, with a gate in front, and two boles in the Lack wall for a passage
into a cattle-shed x ; x x two cattle-sheds, each 15 feet Ly 41, with straw-
courts, 41 feet Ly 50 each, with a gate to each ; y four cattle-sheds, each 15 feet
by 38, with a court, 27 feet by 43, an open feeding-shed, G feet by 43, and a
covered turnip-store, 10 feet by 43, to two feeding-sheds, provided with five boles
in each wall to pass the turnips into the feeding-troughs.

259. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 287 feet by 225 in
width. The roof turns at the corners in pavilion. The width of the apartments
within walls varies from 18 feet in the corn-barn, straw-barn, and cart-shed, 17
feet 2 inches in the cart-horse stable, 15 feet in the cattle-sheds, and 12 feet in
the cattle-feeding boxes.

260. The two-storeyed part of this steading comprises the whole of the lower
side of the quadrangle, the upper barn being over the corn-barn and corn-room ;
z stair to the granary, 19 feet by 89, from the corn-room b, over the cart-shed
and guano-house, with windows on each side. There is an outside stone stair
to a granary over one of the cattle-sheds x, and an interior stair in the outhouse
w, to a loft over it and the loose-box I and hen-house &, for containing the
horse-corn, which is supplied from thence to the corn-chest below in the cart-
horse stable n.

48 PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS

261. The scale of this steading, in Plate XVI., is in the proportion of f of an
inch to the foot.

262. It will at once be observed that the plan of this steading is not in con-
formity with the principle we have laid down (par. 32). The straw-barn a,
at one of the corners of the quadrangle, is at a great distance from the cattle-
courts y and feeding-boxes p. To obviate this inconvenience, a straw-stack is
built on the space between the cattle-courts y and the feeding-boxes p. The
quadrangular form is objectionable in a small steading ; but in a large one
such as this, covering an area of two acres, it is not so objectionable, inasmuch
as the sun shines freely into its centre into the cattle-courts. Had the thrash-
ing-machine been placed in the centre of the quadrangle, the straw would
have been conveniently situated for all the courts, feeding-boxes, and stables.
This objection is freely admitted by the tenant, and he would have preferred the
stackyard on the rising ground to the west of the steading, instead of the low
ground to the east ; but a serious obstacle presented itself in a quicksand under-
ground, through which the back lade from the mill-wheel had to be built ;
and rather than expend a large sum in overcoming such a difficulty, it was
deemed expedient to suffer the present inconvenience. Both water and steam
power are employed here. The stackyard covers about two acres of ground.
Where the sun has free admittance in winter, the quadrangular form has the
advantage of having all the premises locked in by one gate at a'.

263. We think we have now given abundant examples of steadings both in
Scotland and England, as also remarks to illustrate the principles we wish
to maintain. It may be advisable, however, before concluding this part of
our work, to give an illustration of how an old and inconvenient steading may
be altered into a new and convenient one, and this we are enabled to do by the
kindness of a friend.

264. DESCRIPTION OF THE STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY, in Forfarshire, belong-
ing to the Trustees of the late Charles Lyell, Esq. of Kinnordy, with the Alterations
and Additions. Plate XVII. contains all the particulars connected with the
alterations and additions effected on this steading. Fig. 1 contains the ground-
plan of the new and old parts of the steading, the open outlines showing the
old, and the shaded lines the new, parts of the steading. Fig. 2 is a roof-plan
of the entire steading as amended. Fig. 3 is a south elevation of the steading
as amended, the plain part showing the old, and the stippled part the new, por-
tion of the steading. Fig. 4 is a vertical section of the finished buildings, indi-
cated by the horizontal line A B in fig. 1. Fig. 5 is a vertical section at the
vertical line C D in fig. 1. And fig. 6 is a vertical section at the vertical line
E F in fig. 1.

265. In fig. 1, Plate XVII., in the central range are : a the corn-barn, 15 feet
by 33, with a door and window in front ; b chaff-house, 7 feet by 28, with a
door into the straw-barn ; c straw-barn, 22 feet by 51, with two doors opposite
near the mill ; d implement-house and guano-store, 12 feet by 22, with a large
gate to the front.

266. In the right wing are these apartments : e cart-shed, 19 feet by 58, with
five port-holes ; /hay-house, 18 feet by 19, with a door in front, and an internal
one to the cart-horse stable ; g cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 65, of eleven stalls,
with a door and window at the back, a window into the cattle-court fc, and two
sky-lights in the roof; h loose-box, 18 feet by 10, with a door in front; i cattle-
shed, 18 feet by 23, furnished with a feeding-trough and a turnip-shed ; k cattle-

AT INVERQUHAKTTY, FORFAESIIIEE. 49

court, 22 feet by 23, with a gate in front; I riding-horse stable, 12 feet by 1G,
with a door; m boiling-house, 12 1'eet by 11, with a boiler and furnace, and a
door in front ; and a outhouse, 1 7 feet by G, with a door.

267. In the left wing are these apartments : n water-wheel ark or steam-
engine room, 17 feet by G, with a window in front, and door into the open pas-
sage v] o cow-byre, 17 feet by 11, with a window in front and door to the
passage v; p cattle-byres, 17 feet by 915, of four compartments, each with, a door
into the open passage v and turnip-shed q ; q turnip-shed, 14 feet by 93, with
four doors in front ; r hen-house, 14 feet by 14, with a door in front; s s cow-
byre, 16 feet by 60, of nine stalls, with doors into the adjoining cattle-byre p,
open passage v, and cattle-court iv ; t loose box, 16 feet by 11, with a door in
front.

268. The open space between the left wing and central range is occupied by
four covered cattle-courts iv, one being 31 feet by 41, another 31 feet by 45, a
third, 31 feet by 45 at the widest part, and 30 feet at the narrowest, and the
fourth, 31 feet by 41 at the broadest part, and 14 feet at the narrowest, with
doors into the passages and gates in front; z the urine-tank, 15 feet by 5 ; and
y turnip-store, 15 feet by 31, with a gate in front. This store supplies turnips
from its centre to a double row of feeding-troughs along a 3-feet passage x,
through the centre of the cattle-courts -, as also through three boles in each
of its side walls into feeding-troughs in two of the coiirts at V b'. These cov-
ered courts are lighted by eight skylights in the roof, as seen in fig. 2. They
are separated from the central range by a covered passage u, 5 feet by 72, and
from the principal range by an open passage r, 6 feet by 97.

269. The two-storeyed portions of this amended steading arc the principal
range to the right and the central range. The upper storey of the principal
range comprehends the upper barn, 33 feet by 22, over the corn-barn and chaff-
house, and the granary, 19 feet by 77, over the cart-shed and hay-house,
having a stair from the corn-barn, with windows on both sides. The upper
storey of the central range consists only of one apartment over the implement-
house d.

270. The double-dotted lines show the urine drainage from the byres and
covered courts to the urine-tank z.

271. It will be seen by the plan roof, fig. 2, Plate XVII., that only two
stretches terminate in gables, at the loose-boxes h and /, the most in pavilions,
while the outhouse a' has a lean-to roof.

272. The extreme length of this steading over walls is 226 feet, and its
extreme breadth in the right wing is 98 feet, and that of the left wing 108 feet.
The width of the apartments varies from 16, 17, 18, 19, to 21 feet.

273. The scale in Plate XVII. is as f of an inch to the foot.

274. The arrow points to the north.

275. What the original form of this steading was, we do not know, but in
the amended form, as represented in Plate XVII., it is arranged very much on
the principles we have been advocating, having a principal range, a central one,
and right and left wings. The straw is conveniently placed in the central range
for the stables on the right, and the covered cattle-courts on the left, and not far
from the cow-byre s. Instead of having the wings extended to afford accom-
modation to feeding cattle, the space between the central range and left wing
is occupied by covered sheds and courts, with access to them by means of pas-
sages. This arrangement admits of putting these apartments under one roof.
Upon the whole, this is a compact convenient steading, and is a good illustration

PLANS OF EXISTING STEADINGS.

Fig. 18.

of how an old faulty steading may be converted into a good new one. There
should be a window in the hay-house to afford light to the men when taking
the hay for the horses. The cattle-shed marked p should be fitted up as a byre
for feeding cattle, in order to allow the turnips to be wheeled into the cow-byre s
from the store at q.

276. The architecture of the steadings given in Plates I. to IX. is of the
simplest description plain rubble-work, with broached ashlar corners, rebates,
lintels, and skews, and the roofs extending in stretches, and terminating in
gables, without points to be affected by the weather. A slight inspection of
the isometrical perspective of a steading for Mixed husbandry, in Plate IX.,
will at once show the simplicity and neatness in which such a structure may
be finished. A somewhat more ornamental style is given in Plate XV. of the
farm-steading at Coleshill, in Berkshire, the corners and rebates being in raised
work, and the skews of the gables ridged and pinnacled. But should an orna-
mental style be desired in preference to a plain one, we shall give a few examples

of such, two of the Eliza-
bethan, and one of the
Gothic. These are not parts
of a steading, but are given
as examples.

277. Fig. 18 represents a
simple form of the Eliza-
bethan, showing the eleva-
tion of a gable, with cornices,
skews, door, and window.

278. In fig. 19 is repre-
sented an ornamental style
of Elizabethan architecture
of an elevation of a gable,
comprehending ornamental
cornices, skews, and window.
The door is simple enough.

279. In fig. 20 is the ele-
vation of a gable in the
Gothic style, in which the
ashlar corners, rebates, lin-
tels, and sills are in polished

raised work. There are no skews, the slating projecting over the walls, as
much as to allow an ornamental boarding. The pinnacle terminating the gable
is an essential feature in Gothic architecture.

280. We would here take the liberty of earnestly directing the attention of
landed proprietors to the condition of the steadings on their farms when they
are offered to tenants. That a steading is a necessity upon a farm, the wants of
the farm obviously demonstrate; and that every steading should be so con-
structed as to be suitable to the business of the farm upon which it is erected,
is a proposition which none acquainted with the culture of land and the rearing
of live stock will be disposed to controvert. Unless suitably constructed, the
business of the farm, in the winter season, cannot be conducted in the steading
in a satisfactory manner to the farmer, or comfortably to the stock. On this
account, a farm not having a suitable steading always deters farmers offering
the highest rent for it. We regret to say that many farms in all parts of the

ORNAMENTS I, GABLES.

country have unsuitable steadings, as regards accommodation for the mode of
farming practised upon them. AVlu;n a farmer finds the accommodation inade-
quate to the extent of the
farm, he is hampered in
every kind of work he has
to do in it. He would wish
it enlarged, but he has not
the means himself, and on
applying to his landlord,
he will probably bo told to
abide by his bargain. A
farmer placed in such a
strait is sure to incur loss
on many articles of pro-
duce, which in better cir-
cumstances would proba-
bly yield him profit. Even
on the supposition that the
steading is large enough
for the farm, if the arrange-
ment of its apartments is
riot suited to the kind of
farming pursued, inconve-
nience is felt, and loss in-
curred. The farmer must then either advance his own capital or nmst make up
his mind to submit to constant loss. See how the matter stands in such circum-
stances between landlord Fin , OQ
and tenant : on the one " }
hand, should the farm be
rack-rented, and have an
unsuitable steading, the
landlord is deriving more
rent from the farm than
he is entitled to receive,
and the tenant sustain-
ing a greater loss than ho
should incur ; and, on
the other hand, when the
steading is suitable to the
extent of the farm and
the kind of farming prac-
tised, the landlord is not
only entitled to the high-
est rent the land is cap-
able of realising, but the
tenant, at the same time,
is saved the risk of ex-
pending capital, which
ought rather to be spent
in 'the cultivation of the
farm. Is it not therefore
desirable, in every case, when a farm is offered to ihe public, that the most
favourable circumstances should be secured both to landlord and tenant ? Most

52 PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

certainly ; and the most effective, reasonable, and just method of obtaining that
security, is for the landlord to make the steading suitable to the size of the
farm and its mode of husbandry, because then the tenant would have nothing
to do but direct his mind entirely to what is called high farming. Were this
understanding acted upon, the kindly feeling betwixt landlord and tenant would
remain undisturbed. But, unfortunately, in most cases, steadings are not so
complete as to meet the exigencies of the farm, and the tenant, knowing this,
and knowing also that he has not the spare capital to expend on buildings,
binds himself to pay the landlord six and a half per cent on the amount expended
during the course of the lease. By this proceeding it is the tenant and not the
landlord who has paid the capital and interest required, whereas the steading
ought to have been complete before the farm was offered to the public. It is
quite as unreasonable in a landlord to expect the highest rent for a farm with an
incomplete steading, as for a farmer to expect as great a price for the same ox
in a lean as in a fattened condition. If a per-centage is deemed a fair demand
by the landlord on the tenant in those circumstances, it is our opinion that it
would be equally fair to demand from the landlord payment of the same per-
centage when the tenant expends his capital. And yet how astounded would
any proprietor be were such an equitable demand proposed by a farmer when
bargaining for a lease, and with what equanimity he would expect the highest
rent for his land, however incomplete may be the state of the steading !

DIVISION THIRD. PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

281. WE offer a few remarks on the principles which should regulate our
choice of the relative position betwixt the farmhouse and steading, and of the
site to be occupied by the farmhouse :

282. Position of Farmhouse and Steading. In regard to the relative posi-
tions which the farmhouse and steading should occupy, it has been remarked
by a recent writer, that "it is generally advised that the farmhouse should be
placed directly in front ; to which, however, it may be objected, that it casts a
shade over the southern entrance of the yard, if very near ; and, if too far off, its
distance will be found to be inconvenient. Perhaps the best situation is on one
side of the farmyard, with the common parlour and kitchen opening nearly into
it : farmers may talk as they like about unhealthy odours arising from the stables
and yards, but there never was any one injured by them, and they cannot keep
too close an eye upon their servants and stock." * If fanners " cannot keep too
close an eye upon their servants and stock," and if the position of their houses
will enable them to do so, they should do something more than place them "on
one side of the farmyard;" they must remain constantly in them, and cause
"their servants and stock" to be continually in sight in the farmyard, other-
wise their watching will be of no avail ; for when the servants come to know
that the house has been placed there merely to watch their proceedings, they,
at least, if not the stock, can and will easily avoid the particular place constantly
overlooked by the house. The truth is, and every farmer knows it, that it is
not the spot occupied by his house, whether here or there, that maintains his
authority over his servants ; he knows that he himself must be "up and doing"

* British Husbandry, vol. i. p. 86.

SITE OF FARMHOUSE. 53

in the fields, in the farmyard everywhere we lie can ascertain whether his
servants are doing their work well, and his stock thriving- apace. Inconve-
nience to himself in going a great distance betwixt his house and the steading
will induce the farmer to place his house near rather than at a distance from the
steading. He wishes to be within call, to be able to be on the spot in a few
seconds, when his presence is required in the farmyard, the stable, the byre,
or the barn; but more than this he does not want, and need not care for. Place
the house, therefore, if the choice is given, on some pleasant spot, neither
"direct in front," nor much in the rear, of the steading. If there be no such
spot at hand, make one for the house, place it there, and dwell in it, with
the comfortable assurance that servants will not regard their master the less,
or the stock thrive the worse, because he happens to live beyond the influence
of the " unhealthy odours arising from stables and yards," odours, by the
way, of the unpleasantness of which we never heard a farmer complain. No one
of that class but a sloven would place his house beside a dunghill.

283. Site of Farmhouse. With reference to site, Mr Allen, in his work entitled
Rural Architecture, an American work, has some remarks worth quotation : " A
fitness to the purpose for which the dwelling- is constructed should unquestion-
ably be the governing point in determining its position. The site should be dry
and slightly declining, if possible, on every side ; but if the surface be level, or
where water occasionally Hows from contiguous grounds, or on a soil naturally
damp, it should be thoroughly drained of all superfluous moisture. That is in-
dispensable to the preservation of the house itself and the health of its inmates.
The liouse should so stand as to present an agreeable aspect from the main
points at which it is seen, or the thoroughfares by which it is approached. It
should be so arranged as to afford protection from wind and storm to that part
most usually occupied, as well as be easy of access to the out-buildings
appended to it. It should have an unmistakable front, sides, and rear ; and
the uses to which its various parts are applied should distinctly appear in its
outward character. It should combine all the advantages of soil-cultivation,
water, shade, and shelter, which the most liberal gratification, consistent with
the circumstances of the owner, may demand. If a site on the estate command
a prospect of singular beauty, other things equal, the dwelling should embrace
it ; if the luxury of a stream or a sheet of water in repose present itself, it
should, if possible, be enjoyed ; if the shade and protection of a grove be near,
its benefits should be included in fine, every object in itself desirable, and not
embarrassing to the main purposes of the dwelling and its appendages, should
be turned to the best account, and appropriated in such a manner as to combine
all that is desirable both in beauty and effect, as well as in utility, to make tip
a perfect whole in the family residence.

284. " Attached to the building site should be considered the quality of the
soil as affecting cultivation and growth to shrubbery and trees at onge the
ornament most effective to all domestic buildings, grateful to the eye always as
objects of admiration and beauty delightful in the repose they offer in hours
of lassitude or weariness ; and to these, that indispensable feature in a perfect
arrangement, the garden, both fruit and vegetable, should be added."

285. On the subject of trees and shrubs a due appropriation of which " to an
agreeable residence is equal in importance to the style and arrangement of the
house itself" the same author has some remarks worthy of notice. " The
proper disposition of trees and shrubbery around, or in the vicinity of buildings,
is far too little understood, although tree-planting about our dwellings is a

PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES.

practice pretty general throughout our country. Nothing is more common than
to see a man build a house, perhaps in the most elaborate and expensive style,
and then plant a row of trees close upon the front, which, when grown, will
shut it almost entirely out of view, while he leaves the rear as bald and
unprotected as if it were a barn or a horse-shed as if in utter ignorance, as he
probably is, that his house is more effectively set off by a flanking and back-
ground of tree and shrubbery, than in front and this is called good taste.
Let us examine it. Trees near a dwelling are desirable for shade ; shelter they
do not afford, except in masses, which last is always better given to the house
itself by a verandah. Immediately adjoining, or within touching distance of a
house, trees create dampness, more or less litter, and frequently vermin. They
injure the walls and roof by their continual shade and dampness. They exclude
the rays of the sun, and prevent a circulation of air. Therefore, close to the
house, trees are absolutely pernicious, to say nothing of excluding all the
architectural effect from observation, when, if planted at proper distances, they
compose its finest ornaments."

86. Working Part of the FarmJiouse. The principles which should regu-
late the arrangement of that part of the farmhouse which is exclusively
devoted to labour have an intimate connection with the management of the
farm. The part we allude to includes the kitchen and dairy, and their
accompanying apartments. Now, it may frequently be seen in the plans
furnished by architects, that to give the farmhouse a fashionable and airy
appearance, the working portion of it is too often contracted and inconveniently
arranged. The principle of its construction should be, to make this part of the
house thoroughly commodious in itself, and at the same time prevent its giving
the least annoyance to the rest from noise or disagreeable effluvia, which cannot
at all times be avoided in the labours of the kitchen. Both objects would be
accomplished by placing it independent of the main body of the house, and this
is best effected by a jamb. Whatever may be the external form given to the

house, the relative positions of its
two parts may easily be preserved,
whether in the old-fashioned form
of a front tenement and back jamb,
or the more modern and beauteous
form of the Elizabethan style.

287. The ground-plan which we
recommend of the kitchen and use-
ful parts of the farmhouse in which
work is performed, may be seen in
fig. 21, where a is the kitchen, 18
feet by 16, and 10 in height, provided
with two windows ; a door into
the interior of the house, another
to the kitchen-pantry Tc and dairy m,
and a third to the scullery d and
porch p. A large kitchen-range,
.oven, and furnace -pot are at b,
a commodious lock-up closet c, a
wall -press h, and a dresser and
table g g. There is a stair at c to the servants' and other apartments above,
and which also leads to the principal bedrooms in the upper storey of

Fig. 21.

WORKING TAUT OF FARMHOUSE. 55

the house. Beyond the kitchen is the scullery d, which contains a large fur-
nace-pot e, a sink in the window/, a wall-press //, and a dresser^. This apart-
ment is 18 feet by 10 feet, and 10 in height. A door from it, and another
from the kitchen, open on a lobby common to both, and which gives access by
another door to the principal kitchen entrance-door through the porch p. The
porch p, 6 feet square, is erected for the purpose of screening both the kitchen
and scullery from wind and cold, and it has a window. On going to the right
from the kitchen to the kitchen-pantry /.', is a Avail-press in the passage at s.
The pantry k is provided with a door ; a window which should look to the east
or north; a larder /, and abundance of shelving at o; it is 12 feet square, having
a roof of 10 feet in height. Beyond this pantry is the milk-house or dairy ?,
having two windows also facing to the north or east ; a lock-up closet ?z, and
shelving o o around the walls ; it is 18 J feet by 12, and 10 in height.

288. These are the different apartments on the ground-floor, and their relative
positions, required for conducting the business of a farm within the house, and
in the fitting up of which are many particulars which require attention. The
floor of the kitchen should be c flagged pavement polished, that it may be cleaned
with certainty and ease. The outside walls and ceiling should be lathed, and
all the walls and ceiling plastered with the best hair-plaster. Iron hooks, both
single and double, should be screwed into the joists of the roof, from which
may be suspended hams or other articles. The dressers g are best made of
plane-tree tops and black American birch frames, the chairs of the latter wood,
and the stools of common fir. In case of accidents, or negligence in leaving
them unfastened at night, it would be well to have the lower sashes of the
windows of the kitchen and scullery fast, and the upper ones only to let down
for the occasional admission of fresh and the escape of heated air.

289. In the scullery, the sink / should be of polished free-stone, made to fit
the window-void, with a proper drain from it, provided with a cesspool. The
floor should be of the same material as that of the kitchen, for the sake of
cleanliness. The outside wall and ceiling should be lathed, and all the walls
and roof plastered. There should be a force-pump in the scullery to fill a
cistern with water at the upper part of the house, to contain a constant supply
for the sink. A boiler behind the kitchen fire, provided with a small cistern
and ball-cock in connection with the upper cistern, for the supply of cold
water into the boiler ; and a cock from it in the kitchen, and another from it
in the scullery, for drawing off warm water when required, could be fitted up
at no great cost, and would be found a most serviceable apparatus in a farm-
house.

290. The large furnace-pot e should be built in with fire-brick, surrounded
with common brick, plastered and protected with cloth on the outside, rubbed
hard into the plaster, and the mouth of the pot protected with a 4-inch thick
pavement polished. To carry off the superfluous steam, a lead-pipe should be
fastened into a narrow immovable portion of the pot-lid, and passed through the
wall into the flue. A tin pipe soon rusts and wastes. An iron bar should
project from the stone-wall, having a horizontal eye at its end directly over
the centre of the furnace-pot, to receive the stick into when making the por-
ridge for the reapers' morning meal in harvest. The dresser g should be
of the same material as that of the kitchen. There should be iron hooks
fastened into the roof for hanging any article on. Shelving is also useful in a
scullery.

291. The outside walls and ceiling of the kitchen-pantry k should be lathed,
and all the walls and ceiling plastered. The flooring should be of the same mate-

56 PLANS OF FAKMHOUSES.

rial as that of the kitchen, or of hard brick. The shelving o should be of wood
of several tiers, the lowest row being 3 feet above the floor. The movable
portion of the window should be protected with fly zinc-gauze, and so also the
side and door of the larder I. A few iron hooks in the roof will be found useful
for hanging up game or fowls. A set of steps for reaching above an ordinary
height is convenient in a pantry.

292. The outside walls ,and ceiling of the milk-house m should be lathed, and
the walls and roof plastered. The flooring should be of polished pavement, for
the sake of coolness. The windows should be protected in the movable part
with fly zinc-gauze, which is much better than wire-gauze ; and the side and
door of the lock-up closet n should also be lined with zinc-gauze. The best
shelving for a milk-house is marble, and though this substance may appear ex-
travagant in a farmhouse, the price of marble is now so much reduced that it
is worth the extra expense, the import of foreign marble being now free. Marble
is always cool, and easily cleaned and freed of stains. Scottish marble is hard
and unequal of texture. The grey-veined marble from Leghorn is therefore
preferable, though the black marble of the county of Galway in Ireland is
equally good ; but the grey colour has a coolness and freshness about it in a
dairy which the black does not possess. Polished pavement is the next best
material for coolness, but it is very apt to stain with milk or butter, and the
stains are difficult of removal We speak from experience, and know the labour
required to keep stone-shelving in a milk-house always sweet and clean ; and
let us say farther, unless it is so kept, any other material is preferable to it.
If marble be rejected on account of expense, we would recommend stout shelv-
ing of beech or plane-tree, as being smooth, and hard, and easily kept clean.
This shelving should be 2 feet broad, 1^ inch thick, and, to be convenient,
should not exceed the height of 3 feet from the floor.*-

293. It is necessary to make the wall which separates the kitchen and scul-
lery from the milk-house and pantry of brick or stone, to keep the latter apart-
ments more cool, and less likely to be affected by the heat and vapour, which
must of necessity sometimes escape from the scullery. It would no doubt be
convenient for the removal of the milk dishes to have a door between the
scullery and milk-house ; but it is much better to avoid every risk of contamin-
ation from a place which must at times be filled with vapours injurious to milk
a substance which is at all times delicately susceptible of injury.

294. The windows of all the apartments should be provided with shutters on
the inside ; and it may be a safe precaution against nocturnal intruders to pro-
tect those of the milk-house and pantry with iron stancheons on the outside, as
their windows should, occasionally at least, be left open even all night.

295. On this side of the kitchen will be observed a stair. It is 4 feet in width,
and intended to lead to the storey above the kitchen-floor, as also to the upper
storey of the principal part of the house. The storey above the kitchen may be
subdivided in this way : let a continuation of the brick or stone wall which
separates the kitchen and scullery from the milk-house and kitchen-pantry
be carried up, in the form of a partition of lath and plaster, to the roof of the
second storey, which may be 9 feet in height, as seen on the right of <7, fig. 22.
The wall of the kitchen-flue b should, of course, be carried up to a chimney-stalk
above the ridging, containing at least four flues from below, one of the kitchen
fire, one of the small furnace-pot of the kitchen, one of the oven, and one of the
large furnace-pot in the scullery ; but there should also be one from the room
above the scullery, and one from one of the rooms above the kitchen ; and,

WORKING PAET OF FAKMHOUSE.

22.

to render both kitchen and sculloiy as wholesome by ventilation as possible,
there should be a small flue from the ceiling- of each to carry oft' heated air and
vapour. The kitchen stalk would thus contain six flues from below and two
from above.

29G. The upper storey should be partitioned off in the way as seen in fig.
Let the apartment a above the
scullery be fitted up with a fire-
place/as a bedroom for the female
servants, having a closet c in the
outer wall. After taking off a pas-
sage g of 3^ feet in width along
the whole length of this part of the
house, this room will be 14 feet by 10.
The space above the kitchen may
be divided into two bedrooms, one
Z>, 14 feet by 9 feet, and 9 in height,
with a fireplace /and window, and
closet c. This might be occupied
as a sitting-room and bedroom by
the housekeeper, if the services of
such a person are required ; if not,
it might be a large store-room,
with a fireplace, which would be
useful for various purposes. The
room d, 14 feet by 8 feet 3 inches,

and 9 in height, having a window in it, but no fireplace, might be a bedroom
for occasional stranger servants. It has a closet a in it, 3 feet by 2 in depth.

297. At the end of the passage is a water-closet z, lighted by a window in
the gable of the jamb. It is 5 feet 3 inches by 3-| feet. It has water from the
same cistern that supplies the sink in the scullery, and its soil-pipe descends in
an appropriate recess in the wall. Its window could give light to the passage
g by a glass window above the door, or light might be obtained by a cupola
in the roof, or from the cheese-room h by windows in the lath-and-plaster wall.

298. The entire space above the kitchen-pantry and milk-house may be appro-
priated to a cheese-room /;, 29 feet 2 inches by 12 feet, and 9 in height, with 3
windows. Besides the floor, proper shelving m m would afford accommodation to
the cheese, in its various stages towards maturity ; and the lower halves of the
windows provided with Venetian shutters, outside the glass, to regulate the air
into the room when the windows are opened. Except in dairy farms, the milk-
house and cheese-room are most conveniently placed within the farmhouse.

299. If there is sufficient room in the roof above these various apartments for
a garret, access can be obtained to it by a stair at /, which would have to return
upon itself in ascending the 9 feet, the height of the storey ; and both this stair
and the one k down to the kitchen could be lighted by a long window at n. If
there is no garret, then the cheese-room will be 32 feet 3 inches in length, by
dispensing with the stair Z, as also with the window n.

300. These dimensions of kitchen and other apartments would be suited to
the farmhouse of a farm of from f)00 to 1000 acres, under the Mixed husbandry.

"The rnilk-house may, perhaps, be large enough for a small dairy-farm; but should
it be preferred in the farmhouse, and it be too small for that purpose, it might
easily be enlarged by increasing the length and breadth of the building.

PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES.

301. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Farmhouses. We BOW proceed to give
illustrations of farmhouses of various sizes and in different styles. In fig. 23 we
give a ground-plan of a first-class farmhouse : a the entrance steps ; b the
ante-hall, 7 feet wide, with steat c ; d library, office, or study, 12 feet square.
There are two doors to this room -one, the public, entering from the ante-hall
b, the other leading to the hall e e, 7 feet wide ; // drawing-room, 20 feet by
16 ; g g the dining-room, 20 feet by 16 ; h h store-room, 16 feet by 12 ;
i i stairs to second floor, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; k k kitchen, 16 feet square ;
I kitchen-pantry, 10 feet 6 inches by 8 feet ; m m milk-house, 25 feet by 16,
with closet n, 8 feet by 5 feet 6 inches. A lift o is placed in this closet, by

Fig. 23.

OKOONO-PLiN OP FA

which articles are conveyed to the cheese-room above; p p scullery, 14 feet by
8 feet 6 inches, with pantry q, wash-boiler r, and slop-stone s. The back stairs
to servants' bedroom are at t t; u u a passage, 3 feet wide, leading to back-
entrance v ; w a water-closet, 3 feet 6 inches wide.

302. In the upper floor, fig. 24, a a, b b are the principal bedrooms, 20
feet by 16 ; c c small bedroom, 12 feet square ; d d nursery, 16 feet by 12 ;

PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FAKMHOUSE.

e linen-closet, 7 feet square ; / water-closet, 3 feet wide ; g g servants' bed-
room, 16 feet square ; h h cheese-room, ,'><} feet 9 inches by 1C feet ; i lift ;
k k roof of scullery.

303. Fig. 25 shows an alternative arrangement of part of chamber-floor storey,
in which a corre-

i -j.1 Fig- 25.

spends with g g,
fig. 24 ; a passage b
being taken off it,
to give entrance to
a bedroom c built
over the scullery
k k, fig. 24, or p p
and pantry g, fig.
23 ; d cheese-room ;
e a room.

304. In Plate
XVIII., fig. 1, we
give a drawing of
front elevation in the
Tudor Gothic style ;

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

fig. 3 being an alternative design in the Italian style ; fig. 2 being a second
alternative design, adapted for three storeys, in the Tudor Gothic style.
305. In fig. 26 we give a side elevation (left hand in plan fig. 23) ; in fig. 27 back

elevation (along the back of the plan, fig. 23) ; in fig. 28 side elevation (right-
hand side of plan in fig. 23), finished to show stone-rubble walling ; in fig. 29,

Fig. 27.

longitudinal section in the line A B, fig. 23 ; in fig. 30 back elevation of alter-
native design in same style as fig. 3, Plate XVIII. ; in fig. 31 a vertical section
of milk-house m m, fig. 23, and above it cheese-room h h, fig. 24

PLAN OF A FIEST- CLASS FABMHOUSE.

f >

[CD

a it

ill

I.ONOITODIN.

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

306. Second Design for First- Class Farmhouse. In
fig. 32 we give ground-plan, and in figs. 33 and 34
cellar plan, and alternative cellar plan, and in fig. 35
chamber or first-floor plan of a farmhouse, designed in
the Italian style, with campanile tower.

307. Ground-Plan. In fig. 32, a is the entrance-hall,
8 feet square ; b b drawing-room, 16 feet by 12 ; c c parlour
or dining-room, 15 feet by 12 ; d d the kitchen, 15 feet
by 12 ; e the scullery, 12 feet by 10 ; / the larder, 6 feet
square ; g the china-pantry, 6 feet square ; h the cen-
tral lobby, 4 feet wide ; i i staircase, 6 feet wide ; k
water-closet and place for hats, 3 feet wide ; 1 1 milk-
house, 25 feet by 12 ; mm cheese-room, 25 feet by 12.

308. Cellar Plan.Yig. 33 shows the cellar ar-
rangement under the kitchen, where the " cheese-room "
and "milk-house" are not in the ground floor, and
where a is the stair, 3 feet wide ; b the coal-store, 9 feet
by 5 feet 6 inches ; c the beer and wine store, 9 feet by
5 feet 6 inches ; d d milk-house, 24 feet by 11. In
this arrangement the bedroom d, fig. 35, is taken as

the cheese-room. In fig. 34 the cellar plan is shown as under the milk-house
I I, and cheese-room m m, fig. 32. In fig. 34 the part a a is arranged, as in
fig. 33, with coal and beer stores, as there indicated ; b b being a general store-
cellar.

309. Chamber Plan. Fig. 35 : a a bedroom, 12 feet square ; b balcony ;
c c bedroom, 15 feet by 12 ; d bedroom, 12 feet by 11 ; e e bedroom, 12 feet
by 10 at widest, and 6 feet at narrowest part ; // bedroom, 12 feet by 10 ;
g bath-room, 8 feet square ; h balcony.

310. Elevations and Section of Farmhouse, of which plans are given in figs.
32, 33, 34, and 35. Front elevation in fig. 36 ; back elevation in fig. 37 ;
elevation of side towards left hand in ground-plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 38 ;
the elevation of side towards right hand in plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 39 ;
a transverse section on the line A B in ground-plan, fig. 32, is given in fig. 40.
The scale to which these drawings are constructed is given in fig. 32.

SECTION OF MILK-HOUSE
ESE-ROOM, FIO. 23 AND 24.

PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

Fig. 33.

PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES.

CHAMBER-FLOOR PLAN OF FARMHOUSE IN ITALIAN STYLE SCALE IN FIQ. 32.

Fig. 36.

FRONT ELEVATION OF F4HMHOCS3 IN ITALIAN STTLI OROCND-PLAN AND SCALE IN FIO. 32.

PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE

Fi-'. 38

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

Fig 39.

IDE ELEVATION IN THS ITALIAN STYLE SCALE LN FIQ. 32.

Fig. 40.

LONOITUDINA

32 SCALE IN FIO. 32.

PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

311. Third Design for a Firxt-C/aas Farmhouse. We now present a third set
of plans of a farmhouse in tlio Tudor-Gothic style, the arrangement of the apart-
ments of which present some claims to consideration. The plans are reduced
from designs in Mr Scott Burn's work, Model Designs for Villas.

312. Ground-Plan. In fig. 41 we give a sketch of the ground-plan, with scale
attached, in which a is the hall, 7 feet G inches wide ; b b the drawing-room,
16 feet 6 inches square; c c the dining-room, 16 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 9
inches ; dd breakfast-room, 12 feet 9 inches square ; e e kitchen, 12 feet 9 inches
square ; / scullery, 8 feet 5 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; g pantry, 6 feet by 4
feet 9 inches ; h staircase, 3 feet wide.

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

Fig. 43.

313. Chamber or First Floor Plan, fig. 42. a a principal bedroom, 16 feet 6
inches by 12 feet 9 inches, from which is entered the dressing-room b, 5 feet 9
inches by 5 feet 3 inches ; c the flat over window, 4 feet wide ; d flat over door,
4 feet wide ; e e front bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; // back
bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 9 inches ; g bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by
12 feet 3 inches ; h bedroom, 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet 3 inches ; i bath-room,
8 feet by 5 feet ; k water-closet, 3 feet wide ; Z well-hole ; m stairs.

314. Plan of Attic or Third Storey, fig. 43. a landing, 6 feet 6 inches wide ;

b stairs, 2 feet 6 inches
wide ; c servants' bed-
room, 12 feet 9 inches
by 12 feet ; d second
bedroom or store-
room, 12 feet 9 inches
by 12 feet ; e e plan
of roof over apart-
ments g and h in fig.
42; //plan of roof
over apartments a a,
b, i, k, in fig. 42.

315. Cellar Plan,
fig. 44. The cellar
occupies the part un-
der the apartments
d d, e e, /, and c c, in
fig. 41. In fig. 44
a a is the staircase,
3 feet wide, entered from the point i, in fig. 41 ; b the landing, 5 feet wide ; c the

cellar or store-room, 12 feet 9 inches square ;

d beer-cellar, 12 feet 9 inches by 6 feet ;

e wine-cellar, same dimensions ; / and g

milk-rooms, each 12 feet 9 inches by 12 feet.

316. Elevations and Sections. In fig. 45
we give sketch of front elevation ; in fig. 46
back elevation ; in fig. 47 end elevation
towards apartments e e and /, fig. 41 ; in

' fig. 48 end elevation towards apartments
b b and g, fig. 41 ; in fig. 49 transverse sec-
tion on the line A B, fig. 41.

317. Enlarged Drawings and Details.
From the small scale to which the eleva-
tions now given are drawn, the peculiarities
of window and door ornamentation are not
observable ; to show these, we now give, in
fig. 50, enlarged drawings of part of the front
elevation in fig. 45, in which is the front
entrance-door and window to breakfast-
room d d, fig. 41. In fig. 51 we give ele-
vation of gable above the apartment e e in fig. 42, showing barge-board, attic
window, and one chimney-shaft. In fig. 52 we give the elevation of two of
the three windows in end elevation, fig. 48, to the apartments c c and / in
fig. 41.

Fig. 44.

ELLAK PLAN O*

SCALE IN FIO. 41.

PLAN OF A FIRST-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

318. It may be objected to the designs which we have given for first-class
farmhouses that they are too ornate, arid would involve in their erection a far
greater sum than the ordinary circumstances of farming economy would warrant
or justify. While conceiving it to be our duty to give each design complete,
with the peculiar ornament fitted to its style leaving this to be adopted or not
as desired we have endeavoured to meet the above objection by giving plans
in which the picturesque effect, which should be striven after in all rural struc-
tures, can be obtained by the outline of the buildings rather than by the orna-

PLANS OF FAKMHOUSES.

Fig. 47.

END ELEVATION OF TtTDOS EOO8E JCALE IN FIG. 41.

Fig. 48.

BUD BLEVATION OF TDDOR HOUSE SCALE IN FIO. 41.

ments by which their exteriors may be decorated. It is possible, nay, a matter
of easy attainment, to erect a house in which large sums may be expended in
the exterior decoration of its doors, windows, &c., and yet a bald, tame, and
anything but picturesque effect will be produced ; while, on the other hand,
a house may be erected with its exterior positively destitute of decoration, and
yet presenting to the eye of the beholder a pleasing picturesqueness of outline.
In the one case, the outline or general design of the building has been bald and
tame tea-box fashion, so to speak attributes which no amount of external
decoration could overcome ; while, in the other case, general design has been

PLAN OF A FIBST- CLASS FARMHOUSE.

calculated to produce a picturesque effect, by the variety of outline or projection
calling into existence the effect of light and shade, and producing an effect,
which the lack of ornament does not diminish, and yet, if added thereto, would
at the same time be perfectly appropriate, and tend to give it a more perfect
because more finished appearance.

319. The scale to which figs. 50, 51, 52 refer is | of an inch to the foot.

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

Fig. 51.

Fix. 52.

ELEVATION, FIO. 46 SC

AN INCH TO THE FOOT.

fATION OF FICJ. 48 SCALE,

.N INCH TO THZ FOOT.

320. The minimum of internal accommodation being determined on, it may
be considered as axiomatic that a picturesque outline which will embrace this
accommodation will be obtained as cheaply, at least very nearly so, as One
which in its tameness will ever be a blot on the landscape and an eyesore to
the man of taste. A pleasing building does not depend on its external deco-
ration for effect, but, as we have already said, upon its general design or
variety of outline. The external decoration appropriate to the style doubtless
gives a finish to the building, but it may be dispensed with without in any
degree marring the effect of the structure. We have deemed it best to give the
approximative cost with, and without, decoration, leaving the parties interested
to decide on its adoption or otherwise.

321. Approximative cost of fig. 1, Plate XVIII., a front elevation in the
Tudor-Gothic style, with exterior decoration, and first-class interior fittings, is
1800. Without exterior decoration that is, the window and door voids, &c.,
without dressing, &c. the cost will be reduced to 1600. This again will be
lessened by adopting a plainer style than first-class for the interior fittings,
grates, paper hangings, &c.

322. The approximative cost of the house 'with three storeys, as in fig. 2,
Plate XVIII., will be 2000 with, and 1800 without, exterior decorations.

323. The approximative cost of the second design of a first-class farmhouse
in the Italian style, of which fig. 3, Plate XVIII., is a front elevation, may be
set down at 1700 with, and 1600 without, decoration.

324. The approximative cost of the third design of a first-class farmhouse,
illustrated by figs. 45 to 49, may be set down at 900 with, and 700 without,
decorations.

325. The approximative cost of the design of a second-class farmhouse, illus-
trated in figs. 56 to 58, may be set down at 800 with, and 660 without,
decorations.

326. Design for a Second-Class Farmhouse. We now present a set of draw-
ings illustrative of the arrangements and decoration of a farmhouse, giving less
accommodation than those preceding.

327. Ground-Plan, fig. 53. a entrance-lobby, 6 feet wide ; b b dining-
room, 16 feet by 14 ; cc parlour, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches; dd kitchen,
14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; e scullery, 10 feet by 9 ; /pantry, or store-
room, 9 feet by 5 feet 3 inches ; g stair, 3 feet wide ; h back-passage, 3 feet
4 inches wide.

PLAN OF A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

328. Cellar-Plan, fig. 54. a stair, 3 feet wide, entered from the back-
passage h, fig. 53, by a door at the point /; b the landing-place, 6 feet wide;
c c beer and wine cellar, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; d d store or general
cellar, 16 feet by 14 feet.

10 I.')

20 25

'? Ft.

Flit. 54.

329.
by 14;
7 feet

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES.

Chamber or First Floor Plan, fig. 55. a a principal bedroom, 16 feet
b b bedroom, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; c linen-closet, 6 feet by
6 inches ; d d nursery or back bedroom, 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet

Fig. 55.

ft.UBER-PI.AK- OF A SI-CONE-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE IS FIO. 53.

PLAN OF A SECOND-CLASS FARMHOUSE.

6 inches, with closet <>, 3 feet by 4 feet 9 inches ; /servants' bedroom, 12 feet
6 inches by 9 feet ; g closet, 3 feet by 4 feet 3 inches ; h water-closet or bath,
6 feet by 3 feet 4 inches.

330. Elevations, fig. 56. Front elevation. Fig. 57, side elevation towards
apartments c and d in fig. 53. Fig. 58, side elevation towards apartments 6, A,
and /in fig. 53.

Vis. 57.

SIDE ELEVATION OF

Fig. 58.

PLANS OF FAEMHOUSES.

331. First Design for a Third-Class Farmhouse. In fig. 59 we give ground-

Fig. 59.

OROUND-FLAN Or A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE, OF AN INCH TO

Fig. 60.

plan, and in fig. 60
chamber or first floor
plan, of a two-storeyed
farmhouse. The scale
to which these plans are
constructed is fy of an
inch to the foot.

332. Ground-Plan, fig.
59. a the entrance-
passage, 4 feet 3 inches
wide ; b b living-room,
14 feet 6 inches by 14
feet 3 inches ; c c stair-
case, 2 feet 6 inches
wide ; d d bedroom, 14
feet 3 inches by 12 feet
6 inches ; e e kitchen,
12 feet 6 inches by 12
feet 3 inches ; / scul-
lery, 8 feet by 8 feet 6
inches.

333. Chamber - Plan,
fig. 60. a a the land-
ing, 3 feet wide ; b b
front bedroom, 14 feet
3 inches by 11 feet 9
inches ; c c nursery or
back bedroom, 14 feet
3 inches by 12 feet 6
inches; dd bedroom, 12
feet 6 inches by 12 feet
3 inches ; e servants'
bedroom, 8 feet by 8
feet 6 inches ; / linen-
closet, 4 feet 3 inches
square.

334. Of this house we
give the following as the
front elevation.

CHAMBER-FLOOR PLAN OF A THIHD-OLA8S FARMHODS: SCALE,

INCH TO THK FOOT.

PLAN OF A THIED- CLASS FAEMHOUSE.

I'ig. lil.

335. Second Design for a Third- Class Farmhouse. In fig. 62 we give ground-
plan, and in fig. 63 chamber-plan, of another two-storeyed small farmhouse.

Fig. 62.

PLANS OF FABMHOUSES.

336. Ground-Plan, fig. 62. a entrance-passage, 5 feet 6 inches wide ; b stair-
case, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c living-room, 14 feet square ; d d office or
parlour, 14 feet by 10 feet 3 inches ; e e back-passage, 2 feet 6 inches wide ;

f f kitchen, 14 feet by 12 ; g scullery, 11 feet by 9 ; h pantry or store-closet,
9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches.

337. Chamber-Plan, fig. 63. a a landing-place, 5 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet
6 inches wide ; b b front bedroom, 14 feet square ; c c nursery, 14 feet by 12 ;

Fig. 63.

<:/ LUB1 L-l

U-CI.A3S FARMHC

d c? bedroom, 14 feet by 10 ; e servants' bedroom, 11 feet by 9 ; /linen-closet,
9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; g water-closet, 6 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 6 inches.
338. Of this house we give front elevation in fig. 64.
I I Fig- 64.

PLAX OF A THIRD- CLASS FARMHOUSE.

339. Third Design for a Third-Clays Farmhouse. In fig. 65 wo give ground-
plan, and in fig. 66 chamber-plan, of a two-storeyed farmhouse.

340. Ground-Plan, fig. 65. a entrance-porch, 5 feet wide ; b staircase, 2 feet

6 inches wide ; c c living-room, 15 feet by 13
with boiler and sink ; d
bedroom, 8 feet by 7 feet 6
inches ; /small bed-closet,
8 feet by 5 feet ; g pantry,
entering from scullery, 4
feet 6 inches by 2 feet 9
inches ; h closet, entering
from living-room, 4 feet 6
inches by 4 feet ; z coal-
house, entering from out-
side, 4 feet 6 inches by 3
feet, and it may also enter
from the scullery e. ; k
privy or water-closet, 4
feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6
inches ; I store-room, 4 feet
6 inches by 3 feet 9 inches,
entering better, perhaps,
from the living-room c than
from the outside ; m con-
cealed bed.

341. Chamber-Floor, fig.
66. a landing-place, 2
feet 6 inches wide ; b b

e scullery, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches,

PLANS OF FABMHOUSES.

front bedroom, 15 feet by 10 feet 6 inches; c bed-closet, 8 feet by 7 feet 6
inches, with closet d, 8 feet by 5 ; e bed-closet, 8 feet by 7 feet 6 inches ; / closet,
4 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 6 inches ; g light store-room, 10 feet by 8 at the widest
part, or it may be a bed-closet.

342. Of this house we give the front elevation in fig. 67.

Fig. 67.

i r

1 '

i r

)

FRONT ELEVATION OP A THIRD-CLASS FA

343. Fourth Design for a Third-Glass Farmhouse. In fig. 68 we give ground-
plan, in fig. 69 chamber-plan, and in fig. 70 cellar-plan, of a two-storeyed small
farmhouse.

344. Ground-Plan, fig. 68. a a passage or lobby, 5 feet wide ; b b dining-
room, 16 feet square ; c c parlour, 14 feet by 12 ; d stairs, 2 feet 9 inches
wide ; e kitchen, 13 feet by 12 ; / scullery, 9 feet by 6 ; g pantry, 2 feet 9
inches by 2 feet ; h h bedroom, 16 feet by 14.

345. Chamber-Plan, fig. 69. a a landing, 2 feet 6 inches and 5 feet wide ;
b[b front bedroom, 16 feet by 14 ; c linen-closet, 9 feet by 5 ; d d bedroom, 14
feet by 12 ; e bedroom, 13 feet by 12 ; / closet, 12 feet by 6 ; g g bedroom or
nursery, 16 feet by 14.

346. Cellar-Plan, fig. 70. a landing, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; the part b, 5 feet
wide, may be fitted up with shelves for larder ; c c cellar or store, 14 feet by 12 ;
d beer-cellar, 12 feet by 4.

347. Of this house the front elevation is given in fig. 71.

PL AX OF A THIRD-CLASS F ABM 110 USE.

El?

PLANS OF FAKMHOUSES.

Fig. 70.

CELLAR-PLAN OP A THIRD-CLASS FARMHOUSE SCALE IX FI

7ATIOS OF A THIRD-CLASS FAK1IHOC8E SCALE IN FIO

348. Plans of farmhouses, large and small, could be given in endless variety ;
so the above plans are given more as suggestive ones for such structures than
as perfect of their respective classes. Convenient arrangement of apartments,
and ample room in those of them which are constantly occupied, are requisites
as necessary in the farmhouse as in the farm-steading. But how often do we
see in the laying-out of a farmhouse the large space sacrificed, and the constant
inconvenience in consequence experienced, by making one or two large bed-
rooms for the accommodation of friends who only pay a visit once a-year, or
not so often. It would surely be a wiser plan that a friend who stays only a

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 83

few nights, should put up with a moderately-sized bedroom, than that the whole
family be inconvenienced for want of adequate room throughout the year.

349. It is a nice adaptation of tilings to circumstances to see the farmhouse
in every respect in keeping with the extent and value of the farm. It would
be quite incongruous to tind a large, handsome, and ornamental house upon a
poor small farm in an obscure part of the country ; and it would be equally
incongruous to see a mean, tasteless house set down upon a valuable farm in a
richly-cultivated district. The former incongruity is seldom, if ever, met with;
but the latter is not so rare as it should be. Ample accommodation in his house
is due to every farmer ; but a large ornate house should only be expected to be
occupied by a tenant who pays 1000 of rent and upwards. No farmhouse
should consist of less than two storeys, in order to distinguish betwixt the
farmer and the farm-steward or bailiff, who. if fulfilling a high position as to
management, or having a large family, might justly lay claim to a two-storeyed
house, though it should not be as ornate as that occupied by a tenant. In the
variety of houses we have given above, and which are still to follow, we hope that
no difficulty will arise in choosing one fit for a tenant and another for a bailiff.

DIVISION FOURTH. PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

350. OF the various schemes brought forward during the last fifteen or
twenty years a period fruitful in philanthropic projects for the improve-
ment of the social condition of our agricultural labourers, none perhaps has
met with so much notice, and obtained such general favour, as that having
for its object the improvement of their dwelling-houses. The labours of the
press, of associated bodies, and of isolated individuals, possessed at once of
interest in the question and influence in furthering its practical development,
have all aided in placing the subject on a broad and permanent basis ; and in
a space of time marvellously short in the history of any social movement, have
raised it from a position humble in the extreme to one comparatively high in
the estimation of the public.

351. But while gladly admitting that much practical advance has been made
in this department of social progress, a full and candidly carried out investiga-
tion of the agricultural districts of Great Britain shows, nevertheless, that more
remains yet to be done. In truth, what has been bears a miserably small pro-
portion to that which has yet to be effected, in bringing the house-accommoda-
tion of our labouring population into that condition which sanitary science shows
us to be needful, before we can secure the full and healthy development of their
working capabilities. It needs but a limited inspection to convince us that, as
dens in the city street, so hovels in the country hamlet, stare us in the face as
of old. The biting blasts of winter blow fiercely through the chinks and crevices
of dilapidated dwellings ; the rain soaks through the roof-tree and battered wall ;
green-hued pools and reeking masses of filth pollute the air around ; and this
not in the close alleys of the city, but in the purer air and brighter skies of the
country. While in many districts we yet find that the homes provided for the
labourers of the farm may be described by the pithy sentence, " floor, walls,
and roof" and these, too, of the worst materials, put together in the most
slovenly of ways we see on the same farm the utmost attention paid to the
housing of the cattle reared on them, as if the bone and sinew of the inferior

84 PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

animals were of infinitely more importance than the health and comfort of those
who were hired to attend upon them. This indifference to the physical wants
and moral necessities of the agricultural labourer, strange as it is in its philo-
sophical phases, is unfortunately as deplorable in its social results.

352. The following, although written some years ago, may be taken as a
type of the condition of the cottages of the agricultural labourer in many of our
farming districts more particularly perhaps in England of the cottages of a
district of which (Northumberland) one sentence is in fact a description : " The
general character of the best of the old-fashioned hinds' cottages in the neigh-
bourhood is bad at the best. They have to bring everything with them parti-
tions, window-frames, fixtures of all kinds, grates, and a substitute for ceiling ;
for they are, as I have already called them, mere sheds. They have no byre
for their cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps or wells, nothing to promote
cleanliness or comfort. The average size of these sheds is about 24 feet by 16.
They are dark and unwholesome. The windows do not open, and many of them
are not larger than 20 inches by 16. Into this space within the shed are
crowded eight, ten, and even twelve persons. How they lie down to rest, how
they sleep, how they can preserve common decency, how unutterable horrors
are avoided, is beyond all conception. The case is aggravated when there is a
young woman to be lodged in this confined space, who is not a member of the
family, but is hired to do the field-work, for which every hind is bound to pro-
vide a female. It shocks every feeling of propriety to think that, in a room,
and within such a space as I have been describing, civilised beings should be
herding together, without a decent separation of age and sex. So long as the
agricultural system in this district requires the hind to find room for a fellow-
servant of the other sex in his cabin, the least that morality and decency can
demand is, that he should have a second apartment, where the unmarried female,
and those of a tender age, should sleep apart from him and his wife." " If we
follow," says another writer, " the agricultural labourer (in Bedfordshire) into
his miserable dwelling, we shall find it consist of two rooms only. The day-
room, in addition to the family, contains the cooking utensils, the washing
apparatus, agricultural implements, and dirty clothes ; the windows broken and
stuffed full of rags. In the sleeping apartment, the parents and their children,
boys and girls, are indiscriminately mixed, and frequently a lodger sleeping in
the same and only room : generally no window the openings in the half-thatched
roof admit light, and expose the family to every vicissitude of the weather. The
liability of the children so situated to contagious maladies frequently plunges
the family in the greatest misery."

353. But lest our readers should deem these to be descriptions of the hovels
of bygone times, we quote from the description of recent writers accounts of the
present condition of the houses of labourers in many of our agricultural districts :
" Look," says a graphic writer* one who has widely and practically investi-
gated the subject in all its bearings " at those structures called cottages.
They are mere hovels of mud, or of ' wattle and daub,' or of rubble stone set in
mud, or of rude timber frames filled in with mud, or with brick, or with stone,
or with other material. The timber is rotten ; the mud, bricks, and stones are
damp in wet weather, and dusty in dry weather. Look at the site probably a
hole not unfrequently a swamp several feet below the adjoining road, the slope
being towards the door. If on an elevation, the ground is unformed, rugged,
abrupt, uneven, and neglected. Many of these hovels are only one storey in

* Mr R. Rawlinson. On House Accommodation: its social bearing, individually and nationally.
A Paper read before the Society of Arts, Feb. 3, 1858.

PLANS OF FAFtM COTTAGES. 85

height, the side walls arc very low from three to six feet up to the square
few are vertical, and some are supported l>y buttresses or by props. Many are
half-buried against a hill-side, or against a bank which is wet. Then the roof :
this is of thatch, of heather, or of straw ; or is formed of turf, of sods, of shingle,
of tile, or of slate. If of thatch, the material is rotten with age, and green with
fungoid vegetation; if of shingle, the timber is decayed; if of slates, they are
broken and in holes. Doors and windows match the structure, and the floor is
of native mud the space enclosed being common to bipeds and to quadrupeds
alike. The floor is not only very dirty, but the walls, furniture, and roof, are
the colour of grimy dirt. Amongst the rafters, spiders and other insects abound.
Outside, animal refuse is stored in some hollow where liquid permanently rests,
so as to keep up evaporation and an evolution of gases highly injurious to
human life; and if this refuse does not actually surround the hovel, it is fre-
quently so situated that the prevailing winds shall drive the gases of decom-
position into and through the habitation. The arrangements for disease, misery,
and premature death are ample, adequate, and complete. The hovel is crowded
by males and by females of all ages without means of separation, so that the
arrangements for sin and misery are also complete."

354. Another well-known philanthropist, the l\ev. Harry Stuart, of Oathlaw,
in Forfarshire, thus remarks on the present condition of the labourers' houses :
" Very many families get as yet but one damp ill-aired apartment to accom-
modate them. I have seen such suffering, such ill, and such deaths from this,
that I feel I should greatly fail in duty did I lose this opportunity of giving it
the greatest condemnation in my power ; and even where they have a spare

bed-closet for a visitor, the bed in it is always damp And to what

do they owe all their severe sufferings in old age from rheumatic pains, and
rickets, and scrofula, and ringworm, and itch among their children but to
their damp ill-aired hovels."

355. But if this character is so true of the houses of the married, as bad a
one is given by the same writer of those of the unmarried labourers in many
districts. The "bothy," for such is the name given to the shelter it would
almost be a desecration of the sacred name of home to call it such is " very
seldom more than an ill-built small house of one apartment, having no in-door,
no lath, no plaster, no floor, hardly a window, and a vent (chimney) that will
hardly draw. No chair, no table ; an old broken stool or two, two or three
rickety bedsteads, one iron pot, and one iron large spoon or ladle, a water-
bucket, and a litter of fuel and filth." This is " all the accommodation and
furniture that some half-dozen or a dozen constantly and heavily toiled men
have to make themselves comfortable with from one year's end to the other."
" If any man," says the same author, " is entitled to a comfortable resting-
place to recruit his strength, it is the agricultural labourer, by far, according
to Dr Adam Smith, the most productive of all labourers. And on the bare
question of thews arid sinews only -if there be any truth in the principles and
findings of animal chemistry, on which you now house, and bed, curry, and
feed your cattle such refreshing places would pay you the best of any."

" Damp, nasty, and unwholesome habitations depress the spirits
and enfeeble the exertions not only of man but of brute animals ; yet such, I
venture to assert, are the habitations of nine-tenths of the ploughmen of
Scotland."

356. Seeing, then, that so much remains yet to be done in combating the indif-
ference and in awakening the interest of those connected with agriculture in
this great social question, we may perhaps be permitted to enter somewhat

86 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

fully into a consideration of the chief points connected with what may here be
called the philosophy of the subject. These resolve themselves into two divi-
sions, the physical and the moral.

357. And first, as to the physical evils resulting from ill-arranged and badly-
constructed houses for the poor. Take, for instance, the damp, defective drain-
age and bad air as perhaps the most potent influence acting for evil in and
around the houses of the poor, and let us trace briefly their effects on the
health of the population.

358. As to the first of these, damp, the following is trustworthy evidence :
" When experienced medical officers see rows of houses springing up on a
foundation of deep retentive clay, indifferently drained, they foretell the certain
appearance among the inhabitants of catarrh, rheumatism, scrofula, and other
diseases, the consequence of an excess of damp, which break out more exten-
sively and in severer forms in the cottages of the poor who have insufficient
means to purchase the larger quantities of fuel, or to obtain the other appliances
by which the rich greatly counteract the effects of dampness." (Report to the
Board of Health on Suburban Drainage.} The Rev. Mr Stuart, in his well-
known pamphlet, which we have already quoted, has some forcible remarks on
the evils arising from the damp houses of the agricultural labourers, which
space does not permit of us giving here, but of which the following is the
concluding portion : " Oh, it is hard to see, as I have seen, the delicate
mother of a numerous young family lingering out a consumption, and blaming,
unheeded, the damp of their house for it all, and no way of getting her removed
out of it. And I have now in my eye, but niouldering in the dust, some of
the finest specimens of country-labourer youths, both as to body and as to
mind, that we would wish to see, who blamed nothing else for cutting short
their days but their living in some ' damp hole,' as they called it. A son or
daughter comes home sick, and nowhere to put them but into a damp closet."
It is needless here to multiply evidence as tD the bad effects of damp cottages
on the health of those inhabiting them. Very little consideration, indeed, is
necessary to show how potent an influence it is in inciting a variety of diseases,
and of that class, too, which rapidly and effectually prevents the labourer from
exercising his fullest strength.

359. Turning now our attention to the physical evils resulting from the
presence of drainage matters in the immediate neighbourhood of cottages, that
which

" Floats a nauseous mass of all obscene, corrupt, offensive things,"

we shall find that they are not less marked in their influence on the health ot
those subjected to them.

360. " The presence of impurity," says an able authority, "produced by the de-
composition of animal and vegetable matter, is now established as a constant
concomitant of the excessive ravages of typhus and other epidemic diseases in
towns, and a proportionate exemption from such maladies has marked the re-
moval of the sources of aerial pollution. In proportion as perfect cleanliness
has been obtained in prisons, the gaol fever has ceased to exist, and a compara-
tive exemption from the entire class of zymotic diseases has followed the pro-
gress of purification in every description of inhabitants."

361. Dr Southwood Smith says, that he believes the "immediate and direct cause
of fevers to be a poison generated by the decomposition of animal and vegetable
matters." Dr Arnott, also, on this point, remarks, that the localities where
" fever first breaks out, and in which it becomes prevalent and fatal, are invari-

PLAXS OF FA1LM COTTAGES. 87

ably those in the immediate neighbourhood of uncovered sewers, stagnant ditches
and ponds, gutters full of putrifying matters, nightrnen's yards arid privies, the
soil of which lies openly exposed, and is seldom or never removed/' From
malaria produced by these noisome places, too frequently met with in connection
with cottages in rural districts, oilier diseases are induced; "diarrhoea, and a
long catalogue of strumous affections, are some of them. The former disease is
sometimes very severe in those localities, and in the autumn prevails in the
epidemic form. It is now ascertained beyond a doubt that open sewers, stag-
nant ponds, and masses of vegetable matter, furnish the chief sources of the
disease called English cholera/'

362. It would be easy to add evidence to evidence in proof of the fact that "dirt
makes disease," as it was by some one pithily said, but surely there is little
need of it. " History, daily experience alike teach us," as Ave have elsewhere
remarked, " that the haunts of fever have always been amongst the houses of
filth ; " and that the converse holds equally true, that cleanliness of houses and
of persons has always acted as the best preventive of disease. These diseases
so caused are not an essential part of our social condition ; if so, however much
we might deplore their presence amongst us, we could do nothing effectually to
remove them, and nothing would remain for us but to cross the hands of patience,
and with the Turk in his fatalism exclaim, "Allah el Allah," God is merciful. But
things are not so with us. Those maladies, we fear, which come under the influence
of filth, are "self-imposed; they are the annoyances of our culpable ignorance,
neglect, and folly. It is in our power to avert them, and we know the certain
means of doing so. There is no typhus fever where there is absolute cleanli-
ness ; but it is in our power to make our villages, towns, and dwellings, ab-
solutely clean ; it is therefore in our power to prevent the existence of this
plague. Wherever we have drained our marshes, ague or intermittent fever has
disappeared, and when we shall have thoroughly purified our towns and houses,
typhus fever will equally cease to exist. By enforcing scrupulous cleanliness,
we have for some time banished this disease from our union workhouses and
from prisons ; and now, by giving to the houses of the industrious classes effi-
cient drainage, the ready means of removing solid refuse, a good supply of water,
and water-closets instead of cesspools, we have placed a barrier around those
dwellings which the mortal pest of our towns and cities has not been able to
pass."

363. Glancing for a brief space at the evils of deficient ventilation, we find
that they are not less marked than those arising from defective drainage. Indeed,
recent experience goes to prove that impure air from the respiratory organs has
a more deleterious influence on health than the malaria arising from putrid
drainage matters. Thus " In the Dublin Lying-in Hospital, of 7650 children
born within a given period, 2944 died within fourteen days of their birth ; but
on the hospital being ventilated, the mortality fell to a proportion which proved
that 2000 out of the 2944 children who had died had fallen a sacrifice to the
poisoned air of the hospital." Dr Simon, medical officer to the Corporation of
London, tracing in an elaborate report the evils of deficient ventilation, states it
to be " one of the chief causes not only of many definite diseases, but of a general
deterioration of health in large numbers of the community. It is the prime agent
in the organisation and propagation of that scourge of our clime consumption.
a cause of mortality the more jealously to be guarded against that it perpetu-
ates itself from generation to generation." .... " The tendency to tubercu-
lar disease is one which transmits itself from parent to child ; and thus, if in
any one generation the disease be artificially engendered or increased, that mis-

88 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

fortune does not confine its consequences to the generation which first suffers
them. Whatever tends to increase tubercular disease among the adult members of
a population must be regarded as assuredly tending to produce a progressive de-
generation of race"

364. Considerations such as those we have briefly laid before our readers
open up a question of the highest importance to us all. Apart from its humani-
tarian aspect, it is well to consider the importance of its pecuniary or partly
commercial one. For it must be obvious to the meanest comprehension, that un-
necessary death and disease must be a loss to the community. All the misery
which exists by a neglect of sanitary arrangements must be paid for ; every
death involves the loss of a certain amount of money which must in some shape
or other be drawn from the survivors who are able to pay, and this, whether
collected in the name of poor-rates or prison-rates, or on any of the numerous
pleas by which money is obtained either for supporting wretchedness, or en-
deavouring to prevent or to punish crime. If it is true that " a wrong to the
individual is a wrong to the state," it is equally true, " that shortness of life,"
from whatever cause, " among individuals, is a heavy calamity to the com-
munity at large." On this point an able writer has the following : " The more
closely the subject of the evils affecting the sanitary condition of the labouring
population is investigated, the more widely do their effects appear to be ramified.
The pecuniary cost of noxious agencies is measured by data within the province
of the actuary, by the charges attendant on the reduced duration of life, and by
the reduction of the periods of working ability, or reduction by sickness. The
cost would include also much of the public charge of attendant vice and crime,
which come within the province of the police, as well as of the destitution
which comes within the province of the administration of relief. To whatever
extent the probable duration of the life of working men is diminished by noxious
agencies, I repeat a truism in stating that, to some extent, so much productive
power is lost, and, in the case of destitute widowhood and orphanage, burthens
are created and cast either on the industrious survivors belonging to the family,
or on the contributors to the poor-rates, during the whole period of the failure
of such ability."

365. These considerations are further and ably enforced in the following
sentence : " The health of the people is the chief wealth of a nation ; for health
is life, and without a strong vitality no community can be prosperous or power-
ful. The vigour of the Anglo-Saxon race is the true source of Britain's great-
ness, of her freedom and industry at home, of her marvellous success as a colo-
niser, and of the respect and envy with which she is regarded by other nations.
But her advance in power and civilisation is attended with dangers that threaten
its very continuance. Emigration drafts off many of the strongest members of
the community, wars in various portions of our widespread empire draw away
thousands of men in the flower and prime of manhood, of whom large numbers
return no more, and at home disease and privation enfeeble vast masses in town
and country. And all these causes tend to the deterioration of the parent stock
of that extraordinary race to which in this latter day the dominion of the earth
seems to have been given. For the prevention of such a result, it becomes the
statesman and the moralist, no less than the sanitary reformer, to labour. From
the investigations of the latter, it plainly appears that most of the evils which
assail the health of the community have their root among the masses living
under conditions unfavourable to the development of an average degree of vital
vigour. There they are ripened to fatality, and thence they spread through the

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 89

entire body social. The conclusion of the poet is equally applicable to physical
as to moral health

366. We have yet to notice the mural effects resulting from defective house-
arrangement ; and but little investigation is required to show that these exer-
cise an amazingly powerful influence fur evil. If the arrangements of houses
are subversive of Avhat are acknowledged by all as the principles of decency
and morality, and are calculated to engender habits of carelessness in personal
and household appearances, it is axiomatic that the reflex influence on their
inhabitants will be to degrade and lower them in the social scale. The con-
verse of the case needs not to be stated. We can scarcely conceive of a
neighbourhood in which there are good, however cheap, convenient and
decently-arranged houses, very remarkable either for the depravity of their
inhabitants, or the uncleanliness of its exterior thoroughfares ; at least the
experience of the last few years shows that the reverse of this is to be expected.
Before the minds and habits of the people can be improved, it is imperatively
necessary that their physical amendment should precede all other measures.
The physical condition of the labouring classes lias been called by Mr Mills
"the great economic question of the day,'' and "in no other way can it be so
efficiently ameliorated as by the improvement of their houses."

367. " When," says one who knew the poor well, and the temptations to which
they are subjected, " the mind has become habituated to filth, and has lost the
taste of a comfortable dwelling, the supply of money goes only to satisfy the
appetites that remain. What these are, how gross and debasing, we need not
stop to inquire." u The universal influence of filth and discomfort," says an-
other authority, "has never been sufficiently attended to. That influence is,
in the highest degree, anti-social. The wretched state of a man's house is one
of the most powerful causes which induce a man to spend his money in strictly
selfish gratifications. He comes home tired and exhausted ; he wants quiet,
needs refreshment ; filth, squalor, and discomfort in every shape around him,
he naturally gets away from it if he can." One who possessed a wide and
intimate acquaintance with the house-condition of the labouring poor, expresses
his surprise that the moral evils are not more marked than they really are. " I
must confess," he says, " that the wonder to me is, not that so many of the
labouring classes crowd to the gin-shop, but that so many are to be found
struggling to make their wretched abodes a home for their families." This
remark, however, applies to the farm-labourer of England, and not to that of
Scotland, who is riot addicted to go either to the beer or gin shop. Yet even
in Scotland we cannot forget that " in these wretched dwellings all ages and
all sexes fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, grown-up brothers arid
sisters, stranger adult males and females, and swarms of children, the sick,
the dying, and the dead are huddled together with a proximity and a mutual
pressure which brutes would resist, where it is physically impossible to pre-
serve the ordinary decencies of life, where all sense of propriety and self-
respect must be lost, to be replaced only by a recklessness of demeanour
which necessarily results from vitiated minds." As the houses so the people ;
with depressing influences we cannot expect to find elevating thoughts
decency with dirt, piety with pollution the sanctities of privacy with the
temptations of publicity. " From a ministerial experience," says the Eev.
J. Puckle, incumbent of St Mary's, Dover, " of thirteen years, I am perfectly

90 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

satisfied of the close connection subsisting between the sanitary and moral
condition of our poorer classes. I have found, without any exception, the
worst demoralisation in the worst constituted dwellings and neighbour-
hoods; the one being traceable from the other directly, as effect from cause.
To what extent we may succeed in raising the moral tone of our poor people's
habits of life, time can only show ; but I affirm that, to raise them while they live
in such places and under such circumstances is impossible." Another clergyman
thus gives his opinion : " The poor man when fatigued cannot be expected to
remain in his house if his wearied senses are to be oppressed by noisome
stenches and disgusting objects. He naturally seeks the beer-shop as a
refuge, and his wife and family are left to seek relief under such circumstances
as they may. Thus the domestic bond is loosened, if not severed : he ceases
to regard his family, and they cease to respect him ; and so a generation of
reckless and unprincipled persons is by these means turned out upon society."
Strange inconsistency it surely is in those who believe the family tie to be a
divine institution, and the influence of the hearth and the home to be potent
for good if rightly directed, to do all they can to sever the tie and weaken the
influence. Still more inconsistent is it to allow the publichouse-keeper to be
the successful caterer for fireside comforts which the poor man cannot obtain at
his own home, and which we take special care, or are careless of altogether,
not to supply in another and a more innocent direction.

368. We have made bold thus to place some points before the reader in behalf
of a class who have not many opportunities to say much for themselves. We are
no advocates of that sickly sentimentality which would do all for the labourer,
and allow him or ask him to do nothing for himself. There must be a mutuality
of effort as well as of interest in all matters of social progress ; the labourer
must do his part as well as the landlord his. But in some things the labourer
is powerless for all action, and this matter of house improvement is one of them.
Hence, from the hopelessness of any movement being made by the poor them-
selves, arises the earnestness of those who ask the assistance of landlords and
men of influence to aid this great social movement by practical efforts, and to
impress upon those who have property, with its attendant rights and privileges,
the importance of taking the initiative in this great question of social reform.
As well might we expect a private individual to initiate and carry out a public
undertaking, such as a canal or a railway, as expect poor men to build houses,
pave streets, lay down pipes to bring in the pure, and drains to carry off the
foul, water. Are we who have some legislative influence, and possessed of some
pecuniary power, so quick at perceiving the disadvantages of some social abuse,
and in getting the remedy applied, that we have any right to expect that the
poor, with no influence, shall at once see the disadvantages under which they
labour, and, with their lack of pecuniary power, resolve at once to get rid of
them ? We are a conservative people, truly. But, if property has its privileges,
it has its duties also, and these will have, one day or other, to be accounted for.
The dictates of the religion we profess, and the impulses of a benevolence we
admire, equally demand that we, who have the opportunities of place or power
afforded us, shall do all we can to remedy the evils which press so hard upon
our labouring poor evils which, if unremedied, may nay, assuredly will bring
about a state of matters pregnant with infinite danger to the welfare of the state.
Better to go about this question of "remedy" with the grace of a ready compli-
ance, than to allow the evils to increase till the question of "right" shall be
mooted. " Why," it has been eloquently asked, " should persons be allowed to
erect human habitations in situations and in construction so palpably at variance

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 91

with every principle of health or convenience? What right has any man to
crowd human beings, poor though they be, into a space utterly incompatible
with wholesome, not to say comfortable, existence? Upon what ground does
any one presume to confine thi.s less fortunate portion of his species within
limits infinitely too small, and obviously insufficient for the maintenance of the
healthy functions of vitality ? Y\ hat avail public generosity and private benevo-
lence, our hospitals and dispensaries, if their funds are to be expended and
their wards are to be peopled with the inmates of those dens and hovels of
infection! It is sacrificing the charity of the many to the cupidity and reck-
lessness of the few; it is catering for the victims of a sordid and unprincipled
speculation. If prevention be better than cure, precautionary means wiser than
remedial arrangements, the counteraction of existing and immediate mischief
more judicious than its subsequent and tardy correction, then it is the duty, as
we doubt not it will be the wisdom, of the legislature to enact laws, and rec-
tify, so far as may be, the abuses of the past."

369. An objection commonly made by those who profess to have an interest
in the social movement whose claims to the notice of the landlord we have been
advocating is, that cottages with improved arrangements do not pay. On this
point we are half inclined to say, that those who enter into the matter, careful
only as to the paying consideration, had better not enter into it at all. We do
not say that the " per-centage " obtained for outlay is not to be considered ; on
the contrary, it is a fair and legitimate hope, on the part of any capitalist who
builds superior houses, that he shall be in fair measure repaid for the outlay.
But this matter of repayment is not, we hold, the only point to be considered.
What these are cannot be better placed before the reader than in the words of
a letter addressed by the Duke of Bedford a nobleman who has always evinced
a high degree of interest in the welfare of his peasantry to the Earl of Chi-
chester. " Cottage buildings," says his Grace, " except to a cottage speculator,
who exacts immoderate rents for scanty and defective habitations, is, we all
know, a bad investment of money; but this is not the light in which such a
subject should be viewed by landlords, from whom it surely is not too much
to expect that, while they are building and improving farmhouses, homesteads,
and cattle-sheds, they will also build and improve dwellings for their labourers,
in sufficient number to meet the improved and improving cultivation of the
land. To improve the dwellings of the labouring class, and afford them the
means of greater cleanliness, health, and comfort in their own homes to extend
education, and thus raise the social and moral habits of those most valuable
members of the community are among the first duties, and ought to be amongst
the truest pleasures, of every landlord. While he thus cares for those whom
Providence has committed to his charge, he will teach them that reliance on
the exertion of the faculties with which they are endowed is the surest way to
their own independence and the well-being of their families. I shall not dwell,
as I might, on the tindeniable advantages of making the rural population con-
tented with their condition, and of promoting that mutual goodwill between the
landed proprietor and the tenants and laboxirers on his estate which sound policy
and the higher motives of humanity alike recommend."

370. As far as the farm is concerned, the question of the cost of erecting cot-
tages to be occupied by farm-servants is quite irrelevant. A farm can no more
be conveniently tenanted without servants' houses than without a farmhouse
or a farm-steading. No landlord ever dreams of asking a rent for the farmhouse
or the steading separate from that of the farm, and why should any difference

92 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

be made in this respect as regards the servants' houses ? When a farmer offers
for the farm he wishes to occupy, his offer has reference to the state of the
farmhouse, the steading, and the servants' houses, as well as to the state of the
land. Whichever of the houses he finds in bad order, and is obliged to repair
them himself, his offer for the farm is proportionately of less amount than when
they are all in good order ; or he stipulates for the landlord to undertake the
repairs or the rebuilding of them. Whatever may be the case of detached
cottages, occupied by other labourers than farm-servants, whether or not they
are objects of good or bad investment of money, that consideration should in no
case have reference to the necessary dwellings of the servants of the farm.
Farm-servants must be accommodated with dwellings suitable to their condi-
tion and wants, as well as the farmer himself; and should those dwellings be
inadequate for their purposes, the landlord alone must be the loser, in the
diminished rent of the farm. Hence the cost of erecting cottages for farm-
servants is a question which should never be raised they being a necessity.

371. Upon this subject the Quarterly Review for April 1860, in its article on
" Labourers' Houses," quotes with approbation the following remarks of a
writer in the Associated Architectural Societies' Eeports for 1851 : "The land-
lord proprietor," says the writer, " must be content to look for his return from
improved cottages just (only in a higher sense, and I may say, too, in a more
direct way) as he does from improved farm-buildings and farmhouses viz. in
the general and permanent amelioration of his estate thereby. Nor does this
apply only to our magnates in land : no proprietor would be expected to pro-
vide more cottages than his estate will fairly support, any more than he would
be expected to build barns and sheds beyond the requirements of his farm ; but
with less than this he cannot expect either labourer or tenant will be satisfied.
The fact is, that it is this very non-remuneration of cottage-building that is the
landed proprietor's greatest safeguard. If good cottages could really be built at
a paying price, every parish in the country that had an acre of ground, inde-
pendent of the great proprietor, would soon swa"rm with them. But the natural
constructive faculty which leads every man to build who can afford it the
love of independence of having a house of one's own, and the privileges of a
county vote there would always be on the look-out, as indeed there now is, a
herd of small builders ready to invest their capital, if they have it if riot, their
labour in this precarious but most tempting kind of property. I own, then,
that the day of well-paying cottages is a day I never wish to see. The present
state is one of those ' burdens upon land ' which the proprietor may with good
heart make up his mind to bear. While I would advocate the strictest economy
in cottage building looking upon all ornament for the sake of ornament as, in
this place, the most offensive of all, and the worst of shams I cannot but rejoice
rather than grieve, that the unprofitableness of this kind of building necessarily
throws it on the shoulders of those best able to bear it, and thus keeps up that
kindly dependence of the labourer upon his master, which I, for one, never wish
to see broken up ; while at the same time it gives the landlord a fair claim to
interfere in the economy of the cottage, and to lay down such rules with respect
to lodgers, &c., which, even in the best built cottages, are necessary to protect
the poor against themselves, and prevent those crowded bedrooms which are
the greatest evil we have now to contend with. If cottages paid as remuner-
atively as other houses, I don't see how the landlord could prefer this claim."

372. The tendency of these observations leads the reviewer himself to ex-
press the opinion that " there can be no doubt in the minds of those who have
the welfare of the poor at heart, that there can be no greater blessing to them

PLAXS OF FAini COTTAGES. 93

than to keep them out of the hands of speculative builders of small capital, the
hardest of all landlords, and to make them the tenants neither of shopkeeper
or farmer, but of the proprietor of the land.'' Had the opinion been confined to
the propriety of the owner of cottages, occupied by independent labourers, being
the landlord, we would readily assent to it. But if the owner is to be the
landlord also of the cottages occupied by farm-servants, we must protest against
the proposition, because such an arrangement would render farming impracti-
cable ; for where would the farmer lodge his new servants, should the old ones,
whose services are no longer required, retain possession of their cottages on the
plea that they are tenants of the proprietor and not of the farmer? The
farmer therefore must be the landlord of his own servants, and his servants'
cottages must be as free as the farmhouse and steading, if farming is to be
conducted in peace and happiness.

373. Farm-labourers consist of two classes those who are constantly cm-
ployed in the daily operations of the farm, and those who occasionally work on a
farm, but principally support themselves by independent labour. Farm-servants
are stewards or bailiffs, ploughmen, shepherds, cattle-men, hedgers, and field-
workers, who are hired by the year or half-year, and are lodged on the farm ;
at least such is the practice in Scotland, although it is otherwise in many parts
of England, where they have to walk long distances to and from their houses
in villages, thereby inflicting an undue strain upon their physical powers. The
obvious remedy for this strain is to build cottages near the steading. It has
often been a source of wonder to us to what cause may be ascribed the practice
of placing the dwellings of farm-servants at a distance from the scene of their
labours. One should suppose that common sense would fix the lodging of a
man who has worked ten hours in the day with a pair of horses upon the farm
itself, in which he might rest his wearied body, and from which he might
easily tend the animals intrusted to his care, rather than farther to fatigue
him by a long journey after the labours of the day had ceased, and at the same
time to remove him entirely from the animals under his charge. The payment
of weekly money-wages entices the English farm-servant into the beer-shop
of the village in which he dwells, rather than spend his leisure hours with his
family. The Scotch farm-servant, who is paid greatly from the produce of the
farm, and lives upon the spot where his horses are, feels an interest in the
welfare of the farm, and has no temptation to waste his hours in imbibing
liquor.

374. Independent labourers are hired by the day; and, as the scene of their
work may frequently be changed, it is no inconvenience for them to live in
villages.

375. The dwellings of both these classes of labourers may be of the same
description, although it shall be our special duty to describe such arrangements
in the apartments of cottages as shall be most suitable to farm-servants.

376. Arrangement of Cottages for Farm- Servants having Large, or Small Families.
While deprecating the fault of too limited accommodation, we, on the other
hand, conceive it necessary to warn our readers against the fault on the opposite
side of giving too much. This caution we deem all the more necessary, inas-
much as we see a desire on the part of many landlords manifesting itself for
building very fine large cottages. On this point, perhaps, the following con-
siderations will be useful :

377. A larger house than a hind can well furnish is a burden to him ; and

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

whatever part lie cannot furnish, becomes a dirty lumber-room, or is let to some
stranger in the capacity of a boarder a very objectionable class of persons on
any farm. A house that will just accommodate the number of persons of his
household, is what the hind wants, and the object can only be attained by
building cottages of different sizes. The usual practice, when building cottages
for farm-servants, is to adopt a uniform plan, upon which all are built. The
practice is not founded upon sound principle, nor even on consistency ; because
it implies that families consisting of very different numbers should, nevertheless,
be accommodated with similar spaces. Instead, therefore, of a family accom-
modating itself to the size of the cottage, the cottage ought to be adapted to
the size of the family ; and there is no way of fixing the proportions between
the cottages and their inmates but by building them with different extents of
accommodation, for families of different numbers. This is the only rational
course to pursue ; and, in pursuance of it, it is as easy to build a given number
of cottages on different plans, as on the same plan. Following out this princi-
ple, we shall give a number of plans, suited to families of different sizes, taken
from practical examples, but modified, in some instances, to suit our own notions
of the conveniences, comforts, and means of cleanliness which such dwellings
should possess.

378. Single-Roomed Single- Stor eyed Cottages. Objections have been made to
accommodating a family in one room ; but the force of the objections entirely
depends upon the number of the family. In some parts of the country the
hind's family may consist of himself and wife only, in which case a single room
and a single bed will suffice for their accommodation. In other parts the hind
is obliged to supply the farmer with a female to work in the fields, when a bed
must be procured for her. In this case, at least two beds are required in the
house ; and even these may be accommodated in one room. Fig. 72 shows

the manner of accommodating two beds
in one room : a is the door of entrance ;
b the porch ; c the door into the room d ;
e is the fireplace ; / the window of the
room ; g the plate-rack for holding the
crockery, &c. ; h the dresser ; i and k are
the two beds, i entering from the room d,
and k from the small room n, provided
with a window, which is divided by a
partition between this room and the
store-room I, which is entered from the
porch by the door m. The apartment n
has a door hinged on the corner of the
bed fc, if a box-bed, and on the wall if
not so. If the beds are box-beds, which is the most common form, the inmates
at night will be sufficiently separated, the married couple entering the bed i
from the apartment d, and the field-worker k from the small chamber n. Should
the beds be of the tent-bed form, with curtains, farther separation might be
effected by a wooden partition between the two beds, and at the ends of k next
I and d, and at the back of i next L Such a cottage measures 22 feet in length,
and 15 in breadth giving the floor of d a space of 15 feet by 11|, which is
enough for three adult persons.

379. Even three beds might be accommodated in one room, as shown in
fig. 73, where a is the entrance-door ; b the porch ; c the door of the apartment
d ; e the fireplace ; / the window of the room ; g the plate-rack ; h the dresser ;

Fig. 72.

PLANS OF SINGLE -EOOMED FARM COTTAGES.

i m n are throe beds, so arranged that in enters from the room cZ, i from the small
closet entered by the door /, and having-
the window k divided between it and the
store-room o, which is entered by the pas-
sage _p, where is a door, and lias a bed in
it, n. Box-beds would make a complete
separation of their occupants by being
so arranged. Tent-beds would require
wooden partitions to separate m from n
and i would require one along- the back
next p, and at the end next o. If this
cottage were of the same si/c as fig. 72
that is, 22 feet by 15 the room d
would bo equally large, but that tin-
lobby b is taken oil' it, to make up for
which the size should be extended 2G feet in length, and If) in breadth.

380. Box-beds are objected to by medical men, as they are too confined and
inconvenient in form when any of the family are sick. Modifications in their
form may be effected, chiefly by having the back and ends to open on hinges,
and the top made movable, to promote ventilation, as well as to allow freer
access to the patient. Curtains suspended from movable rods, made to draw
forward in front, instead of sliding panels, have been recommended, to screen
the person dressing and undressing, when the beds do not occupy separate
apartments ; but were the beds arranged in the manner represented in figs. 72
and 73, such a contrivance with the curtains would not be required. It is
questionable, however, that box-beds will be voluntarily relinquished by farm-
servants, and certainly not so until every cottage is accommodated Avith fixed
beds or separate bedrooms ; and if the fixed beds have the alcove form, which
most of them have, they are equally inconvenient for a sick patient as the box-
bed itself.

381. But it must be owned that, where more than one bed is required in a
hind's house, a separate room for it is better than any arrangement that can be
made with the beds within one room, and the feeling of security and separation
is more satisfactory in the second

apartment. Fig. 74 gives the ground -

plan of such a cottage, where a is the

entrance-porch, 3 feet 3 inches by 4

feet 9 inches ; b the apartment, 15 feet

by 1 4, with a window ; c the bedroom,

10 feet square, with a window ; d a

light pantry, 4 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 6

inches ; e e are fireplaces, 4^ feet by 3^-

feet ; and f a wall-press, 3 feet wide.

One bed can stand against the back

wall of b for the hind and his wife, and

another if required for two children ;

and one bed might be put into the

room c, for the field-worker, and another for two children, if required. Thus

three adult persons can well be accommodated in such a house, along with

four children, if required.

382. In such a house as fig. 74 tent-beds and curtains would look neat and
be appropriate. Iron bedsteads are now quite common, and, for convenience of

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

putting up and taking down, and

avoiding fracture, they are much better
adapted for hinds than
wooden ones. They also
possess the advantage of
giving no shelter to bugs.
The curtains of beds to
be used in such houses
ought to be made of wool
to resist fire, and not of
cotton, which would, in
the circumstances, only
be a little less dangerous
than a covering of tinder.

383. Design for a
Single- Stor eyed Detached
Cottage : Ground-Plan,
In fig. 75 we give the
ground-plan of a single-
storeyed detached cot-
tage : a the porch, 5 feet 6
inches by 4 feet ; c c liv-
ing-room, 15 feet by 11,
having a cupboard d d at
each side of the fireplace.
A bed may be placed
at the part e ; // bed-
room (with fireplace),
9 feet 6 inches by 7
feet 9 inches ; g a
bed or store closet,
7 feet 9 inches by 5
feet ; h scullery, with,
slop-stone or sink, and
boiler, 7 feet 9 inches
by 5 feet 6 inches.

384. Front Eleva-
tion. In fig. 76 we
give a front eleva-
tion of the cottage of
which, in preceding
figure, we have given
the ground-plan.

385. Second Design
for a Single-Storeyed
Detached Cottage.
In fig. 77 we give
ground-plan of an-
other example of a
one-storeyed cottage,
in which a is the en-
trance-porch, 4 feet

PLAN OF A SINGLE -STOEEYED DETACHED COTTAGE.

square ; b a pantry, entering from porch, 4 feet by 3 feet G inches ; c c living-
room, 14 feet by 12 ; d pantry entering from living-room, 4 feet 6 inches by
3 feet 9 inches; e e bedroom, entering from porch, 10 feet by 8 \f scullery,
8 feet square, provided with sink and boiler.

386. Front Elevation. In fig. 78 we give front elevation of the cottage of
which, in preceding figure, we have given ground-plan. The sketch to the left
shows the side elevation of the porch door.

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

387. Third Design for a Single- Stor eyed Detached Cottage. In fig. 79 we
give ground-plan of a cottage in which a is the entrance -porch, 3 feet 6
inches square ; b b the lobby or passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; c c bedroom,
13 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; d d bedroom, 10 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 6 inches ;
e e nursery or bedroom, 12 feet by 9, with closet/ off it, 3 feet 6 inches square ;
g store-room or office, 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet ; h h living-room, 16 feet 6
inches by 10 feet ; i scullery, 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. This cottage would do
for a farm-bailiff or steward.

Fig. 79.

GROUND-FLAN OP A SINGLE -STORIYED EETACHED COTTAGE SCALE, f-g OF Ail INCH TO THE FOO

388. Front elevation of this plan is given in fig. 80.

Fig. 80.

PBONT ELEVATION OP A 8INOLZ-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE SCALE IN FIG. 79.

389. Fourth Design for a Single- Stor eyed Cottage. Ground-Plan, fig. 81.
a the entrance-porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 6 inches ; b b living-room, 15

PLAN OF A SINGLE- STOKE YED DETACHED COTTAGE.

feet square ; c c bedroom, 12 feet by 10 ; d d kitchen, 12 feet square ; e scullery,
8 feet by 6 feet 9 inches ; f closet or store-room, 7 feet by 3 ; g stairs to cellars
the cellars being under the kitchen d d, scullery e, and closet/. This is a cot-
tage which would accommodate the bailiif of a large farm.

I I 1 I I I'M Ft.

390. In fig. 82 is the front elevation of the cottage, the ground-plan of which
is in fig. 81.

100

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

391. In fig. 83 is the back elevation of the cottage, the ground-plan of which
is in fig. 81.

Fig. 83.

IK ELEVATION OP A SINOLE-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE SCi

392. Fig. 84 gives a vertical section of the cottage of which the ground-plan
is fig. 81, in the line of A B of fig. 81.

Fig. 84.

VBRTICAI. SECTION OF A 8INOLE-3TORKYED tSTACHED COTTAGE SCALE IN FIQ 81.

PLAN OF A TWO-STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE.

101

393. A more correct idea now prevails in regard to the extent of accommo-
dation absolutely required by a farm-servant and his family. It is deemed
proper that a man and his wife should have a bedroom to themselves; and as
he is the head of the house, and works harder than any of the family, he should
have the principal and most comfortable bedroom in the house. When a sepa-
rate room from the living-room is offered him for that purpose, he prefers to have
his bed near the warm fire, that he may turn into bed with the least trouble and
exposure to cold. The girls of the family must have a bedroom for them-
selves, and so must the boys. Thus three bedrooms at the least are required
for a ploughman and his family. If he consent to occupy a separate bedroom,
then there must be four rooms in his house. But if he is moreover obliged to
supply a field-worker for the farm, then another room is required for her, for
such a person is generally a woman. So that in these circumstances five rooms
will be required in a hind's house.

394. Such an extent of accommodation in the ground-plan would imply a
large and expensive roof, which is the most costly part of house building. A
two-storey house is thus necessitated to be made, and many proprietors now
prefer that plan for accommodating a large family.

395. It should, however, be held in remembrance that a second sitting-room in
a hind's house is an unnecessary

appendage to it ; it will never
be used as such. When in the
second storey it will be converted
into a sleeping-room : and when
on the ground-floor, into a meal or
potato store, beside the beds that
may be put into it. The fire will
never be kindled in it, and it will
consequently become damp and
cold. It is only when the la-
bourer is a fixed resident, holding
directly under the landlord, that
he will furnish his second room
in the ground-floor comfortably,
and warm it by occasional fii es.

396. Design for a Two-Storeyed
Detached Cottage. In fig. 85 we
give ground-plan, and in fig. 80
chamber or bedroom plan of a
single two-storeyed cottage.

397. Ground-Plan. a entrance-
porch, 5 feet by 2 feet 9 inches ;

b a pantry or store-closet, 5 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 3 inches ; c c stairs to second
storey, 2 feet 6 inches wide; d d living-room, 12 feet square, with cupboard e on one
side of fireplace ; /scullery, 8 feet square ; y store-closet, 8 feet by 3feet 6 inches.

398. Chamber-Plan, in fig. 86. a a stairs ; b b landing, 2 feet 6 inches wide ;
c c front bedroom, 12 feet square, with closet d off it, 5 feet by 3 ; e e back bed-
room, 8 feet by 9 feet 3 inches ; /linen or clothes closet, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches.

399. Front elevation of cottage, of which the preceding are the plans, is
given in fig. 87. The scale to which all the figures are drawn of this example
is the same as given in fig. 75.

102

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

400. Double-Detached Cottages,
Labourers' cottages are most
commonly built in long rows,
and when several are required
for a large farm, they frequently
assume the form of three sides of
a square. When outhouses are
afforded, which ought always to
be, much inconvenience is expe-
rienced by the inhabitants living
in long rows of houses, in going
to and from them. This row form
originated, no doubt, because of
a larger number of houses being
erected at the same expense, than
in any other form, and economy
of the ground taken up by them
had also entered into the calcula-
tion. For comfort and conveni-
ence combined, no form is equal
to the double - detached house,
having entrances at. different
parts, and the fireplaces
in the centre of the build-
ing. Of this class of cot-
tage we now proceed to
give examples, dividing
them, as in the cases of
the single - storeyed de-
tached class of cottages,
into single and two-storey-
ed cottages.

401. Single-Storey ed
Double - Detached Cottage.
Ground -Plan, fig. 88.
a a passage or lobby, 3 feet
6 inches wide ; b b living-
room, 12 feet by 12, with
space for bed at c ; d scul-
lery, 7 feet 9 inches, by 5
feet 6 inches ; e pantry,

5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet

6 inches ; / coal-closet, 5
feet 6 inches by 3 feet ;
g press, 3 feet by 2 feet ;
h h back bedroom, 12 feet
by 11 feet 6 inches ; i i
front bedroom, 12 feet by
8 feet 3 inches.

402. Alternative Plan,
fig. 89. a passage, 3 feet
6 inches wide, with locker

PLAN OF SINGLE -STOEEYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 103

seat & ; c e kitchen, 15 feet by 32 feet G inches, with space for Led d, 6 feet by 3
feet 9 inches; e e back bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; //front

bedroom, 11 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; g scullery, 12 feet 6 inches by 5 feet,
with coal-bunker h.

Fi K . SO.

403. Front Elevation. In fig. 90 we give front elevation for above plans,
with an alternative design in fig. 91 ; the front wall for this having sets-off at
the points a b, as shown in part of the ground-plan of wall in fig. 91. The
scale for all these drawings is given in fig. 88.

104

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

404. In fig. 91 is the alternative front elevation to the front elevation in

fig. 90. Fig. 91.

ALTERNAT

405. Alternative Plans. In figs. 92, 93, and 94 we give alternative plans of
house in fig. 88. In fig. 92 a a is the passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b liv-
ing-room, 14 feet by 12 ; c scullery, 7 feet 6 inches by 6 feet, with pantry d.
entering off it, 3 feet wide ; e e bed-closet, 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet ; f f back
bedroom, 11 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; g g front bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by
8 feet 6 inches. Fig. 92.

ILTERNATIVE GROUND-PLAN TO OROUNU-PL.

406. In fig. 93, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet 6
inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; c scullery, 7 feet by 6 feet, with pantry d, entering
from it, 3 feet wide; e bed-closet, 9 feet 3 inches by 7 feet; /bedroom, 12
feet by 11 feet at the broadest, and 9 feet at the narrowest part.

Fig. 93.

AX.TERNAT

PLAN OF TWO-STOEEYEJ) DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 105

407. In fig. 94, a a passage, 3 feet G inches wide ; b b living-room, 14 feet
by 12, with c space for bed, G feet by 4 feet G inches ; d scxillery, 8 feet 6 inches
by 6 feet ; e pantry, 6 feet by -5 feet (> inches ; /back bedroom, 9 feet 6 inches by
8 feet 6 inches ; g front bedroom, 12 feet by 11, with space for bed h; i privy ;
k coal-cellar. The scale to which figs. 92, 93, and 94 are made is given in
fig. 94.

408. We give another example of this class of cottages in figs. 95 to 98.

409. Ground-Plan. Fig. 95, a a passage, 3 feet wide, with pantry b entering
from it ; c c living-room, 12 feet by 12 ; d bed-closet, 8 feet G inches by 7 feet
6 inches ; e scullery, 8 feet G inches by 5 feet, with pantry h entering from it,
3 feet by 5 ; //back bedroom, 12 feet square ; g g front bedroom, 13 feet by 8
feet 6 inches.

FiR. 95.

410. Elevations and Section. In fig. 96 we give front elevation, in fig. 97
end elevation, and in fig. 98 transverse section. The scale to which figs. 95 to
98 are drawn, is given in fig. 9G.

41.1. Two-Storeyed Double- Detached Cottages. In figs. 99 to 109 inclusive we
give drawings of two-storeyed double-detached cottages.

412. Ground-Plan. In fig. 99, a a passage, 3 feet G inches wide ; b b stairs ;
c c living-room, 13 feet by 12 ; d scullery, 9 feet by 7, with back door protected
by porch e ; / pantry, entering from scullery, 5 feet by 3 feet 6 inches ; gg bed-
room, 11 feet, and 7 feet wide by 10 feet 6 inches, and 7 feet long ; h coal-cellar.

106

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

413. Chamber-Plan, fig. 100. a stairs ; b landing ; c front bedroom, 17 feet
4 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; d back bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet ; e bed-
closet, 5 feet 6 inches square.

FRONT ELEVATION OF SINGLE -STOREYED DODBLE-DBTACHED COTTAO

Ft,

Fig. 97.

Fig,

\ERTiCAIj SECTION.

Fig. 99.

OKODNU-PLAN OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE-CBTACHED COTTAOKS.

PLAN OF TWO-STOKEYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 107

414. Elevations. In fig. 101 we give front elevation, and in fig. 102 end
elevation both adapted for brick, and rising two steps from ground-line.

Fit,'. 101.

END ELEVATION OF COTTAGES IN FIO. P9,

108

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

415. Ground-Plan, fig. 103. a porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet ; b stairs ;
c living-room, 15 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, with two pantries d d entering from
it ; e pantry, entering from scullery ; / scullery, 7 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; g coal-
closet ; h bedroom, 12 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; i privy ; k pig-sty ; I ash-pit.

Fig. 103.

416. Chamber-Plan, fig. 104. a landing : b b closets ; c c bedroom, 13 feet
square ; dd bedroom, 13 feet by 11.

Fig. 104.

CHAMBEU-FLOOR PLAN OF FI3. 103

417. Elevation. In fig. 105 we give front elevation.

Fig. 105.

PLAN OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE -DETACHED COTTAGES. 109

418. Ground-Plan, fig. 106. a porch, 6 feet by 5 ; b lobby, 6 feet 4 inches
wide ; c stairs, 3 feet wide ; d d living-room, 16 feet by 15 ; e scullery, 12 feet
by 10; // bedroom, 10 feet by 12 ; g closet, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; h entrance
to cellar under bedroom//; i privy, 3 feet wide ; k ash-pit, 3 feet wide.

419. Chamber-Plan, fig. 107. a a stairs ; b landing ; c c front bedroom, 16
feet by 15, with closet d, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; e e back bedroom, 16 feet by
12, with closet/, 2 feet G inches wide; g g small bedroom, 12 feet by 10, less
" set-off" to admit of entrance to bedrooms c c and e e beinc; obtained.

Fit:. 107.

>N^-i'~T^^n

I i L ~"~~

c
^

5 s

CHAMHER-FLOOK PLAN OP COT

420. Cellar-Plan, fig. 108. a stairs, entering at h from bedroom //, in fig.
106 ; b b store-cellar, 16 feet by 12. It might be the better arrangement to
enter cellar b b from living-room d d, in fig. 106. In fig. 108 c is the stair,
entering from lobby b, in fig. 106 ; d coal-cellar, 12 feet by 10.

110

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

Pig. 108.

CKLHAK-PLAN OF OOTT

421. Elevation. In fig. 109 we give a sketch of front elevation.

Fig. 109.

FROMT ELEVATION OF COTTAGES IS FIG. 106.

422. In the plans of the double cottages given above, the houses are of the
same size, so that families of the same number would have to occupy the same
double cottage ; but, as we have already said, cottages for work-people should
be planned of different sizes, so that a larger or smaller family should have the
cottage that best suited their number. With this view we now give plans of
double cottages containing houses of different sizes ; and as we are of opinion
that large families should not be associated together, the numbers of their
persons being too many in one cottage, we have arranged the plans so as to
unite a large and small house together in each cottage.

423. Small Single- Storey ed Double- Detached Cottages, with Houses of different
sizes. In fig. 110 we give a ground-plan of such a cottage, of which on the
right hand is the smaller house, where a is the entrance-porch, 4 feet wide ;
b the living-room, 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; c bedroom, 12 feet by 14 ; d
scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and e coal-house, 4 feet by 3.

424. In the larger house on the left hand, / is the entrance-porch, 4 feet
wide ; g the living-room, 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; h front bedroom, 12 feet

PLAN OF TWO-STOEEYED DOUBLE-DETACHED COTTAGES. Ill

by 14 ; i back bedroom, 12 feet by 14 ; k scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and coal-house
Z, 4 feet by 3. It would perhaps be more acceptable to the inmates were the
bedrooms c and h to enter from their respective living-rooms instead of from
their respective entrance-porches.

INI II II I I I I I

425. Small Two-Storeyed Double Cottages Detached, with Houses of different sizes.
Instead of having the sleeping apartments upon the ground-floor, they may be
placed in a storey above. Fig. Ill shows
such an arrangement, in which a is the
entrance-porch of a small house ; b the
staircase leading to the upper storey ;
c the living-room, entering from the porch
a, having a window, a fireplace, and wall-
press, and continuing on to a back kitchen
d, having a window, a boiler, and a back
door. This apartment is useful for wash-
ing clothes in, and doing such things as to
leave the sitting-room c always clean and
comfortable. One large or two small bed-
rooms are placed over the sitting-room c.

426. A larger house has an entrance-
porch e, fig. Ill, which is also the stair-
case for the upper storey ; g is the sitting-room, entering from the porch,

112

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

Fig. 112.

and having two windows, a fireplace, a pantry fc, and passing into the back

kitchen A, which has a window, boiler,
and back door, and enters to a light
closet i. The light closet / enters from
the porch e. Two large or three small
bedrooms are placed over the apartments
g and h, and the closets i and k.

427. Fig. 112 represents the elevation
of the houses whose ground-plans are
given in fig. 111.

428. Ground-Plan. Fig. 113 gives
the ground-plan of a double cottage
containing a small house and a large
house. Thus, the small house contains

~ an entrance-porch a. 4 feet wide ; a

ELEVATION OF SMALL TWO-S1OBEIED DOUBLE COTTAGES. L ' '

living-room i, 17 feet by 14 ; a bedroom

c, 12 feet by 14 ; a scullery d, 4 feet by 7 ; and a coal-house e, 4 feet by 3.
429. The larger house contains the ground-floor and entrance-porch/, 4 feet

Fig. 113.

wide; a living-room g, 17 feet by 14 ; h the scullery, 12 feet by 10 feet 6
inches ; the coal-house z, 4 feet by 7, and the staircase Tc leading up to the
upper floor.

430. Chamber-Floor Plan. Fig. 114 is the chamber-floor plan of the larger
cottage, in which the landing is at a, and from it access is had to a small bed-
room J, 10 feet 6 inches by 12 feet ; another bedroom c, 14 feet by 12, and to
the larger bedrooms d and e, each 17 feet by 14. This house would contain a
man and his wife with a large family, the boys and girls having separate bed-
rooms, and a separate one for the field- worker ; the heads of the family having
also a separate bedroom, and the living-room being common to them all.

PLANS FOB IMPEOVING DEFECTIVE COTTAGES.

113

IER-FLOOtt TE

431. On improving defectively arranged Cottages. A few remarks, with illus-
trative examples, may here be useful, as showing how cottages, when defective
or meagre, may be altered to give ampler accommodation.

432. In fig. 115 we give an example of the one-roomed cottage so often met
with in agricultural districts, and possessing few or none of those requirements
which are indispensable where a family is maintained. Here a a is the apart-
ment, lighted with one window only, e, and entered at once from the open air at 5,
without the intervention of a porch, and with the fireplace d at one side. Fig.
116 shows how still retaining the main part of the building as given in fig.

Fig. 115.

II ! I I 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I . | | I | |

Ft.

115 accommodation of a superior quality may be obtained at comparatively
small expense. Here a is the living-room as before, with window c, door , and
fireplace d; a door e gives admission to a bed-closet /, while another door g, at
the opposite side of the fireplace, gives admission to the scidlery ^, from which
is entered a pantry i ; with an additional window opposite the fireplace d.

114

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

Fig. 117.

f^ - '_

$%*** i
a

_. ID

. V

SECOND IMPROVED ARRANGEMENT OF COTTAO

Fig. 118.

433. Fig. 117 shows how, retaining the old building in fig. 115, still more
ample accommodation may be obtained : a a is the living-room, as before ; b scul-
lery ; c bedroom ; d bedroom ;
e pantry.

434. Fig. 118 shows further
accommodation : a a living-
room, as before ; b b bedroom ;
c and d bed-closets ; e scul-
lery ; f pantry ; g coal-house,
entered from outside.

435. Fig. 119 shows another
arrangement, in which the
entrance-porch is secured at a,
the scullery b being entered
from the porch, and independ-
ent entrances obtained to the
living-room c c, and bedroom
d d ; e a pantry entering from
living-room ; / small bedroom
entering from living-room.

436. Fig. 120 illustrates a
simple modification of fig. 115,
in which an entrance-porch is
secured at a the window and
door b c in fig. 115 being
blocked up, and two windows
placed at b and c, as in fig. 1 20 ;
c c is the living-room ; d is
the scullery, entering from
living-room c c ; e a, pantry,
entering from porch a ; f f
bedroom, with fireplace g.

Fig. 119.

% nflj

3B1H IMPHOVII

437. Composite Cottages.
We deem it likely to be useful to give
sketches illustrative of what has been
termed composite cottages that is, two-
storeyed cottages, but of which the upper
and lower storeys form independent houses
with separate entrances, the upper house
being generally entered from the back.

438. In fig. 121 we give part plan show-
ing upper house over that given in fig. 81 :
a a is the entrance-passage, corresponding
to the closet or store-room / in fig. 81,
reached by the outside stair b ; c the pas-
sage corresponding to cellar-stair g, in fig.
81 ; d scullery over scullery e, in fig. 81 ;
e e bedroom over bedroom c c, in fig. 81 ;
//bedroom over bedroom d d, in fig. 81 ;
g g living-room over living-room b Z, in
fig. 81. The other parts of the plan
being exactly similar to those in fig. 81,

PLANS OF COMPOSITE COTTAGES.

115

space is not here taken tip by completing- the sketch. The scale is in the pro-
portion of -j 3 ^- of an inch to the foot.

439. In fig. 122 we give the end elevation of this composite cottage, showing
outside stair a ; b is the window of the bedroom c, in fig. 81 ; c that of bedroom
e e, in fig. 121. The porch a in fig. 81 is only carried up to the level of second
storey ; it might, however, be carried up to roof-line, when it would afford space
for a small closet, which might enter either from bedroom e e or living-room g g,
fig. 121. Scale -f$ of an inch to the foot.

440. In fig. 123 we give sketch of plan of house over that given in fig. 75 :
a a outside stairs ; b porch, giving entrance to kitchen c c this room corre-
sponding to the apartment marked f f in fig. 75. The scullery d is entered
from kitchen d corresponding to the apartment h in fig. 75 ; the closet /, fig.
123, to porch a in fig. 75 ; e e living-room corresponding to same apartment c c
in fig. 75 ; bed-closet g g to that marked g in fig. 75.

116

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

Fig. 122.

-OL

MB ELEVATION OV COMPOSITE COTTAGE IN FIO8. SI AND 121.

Fig. 123.

UPPER SrORKTOfr COMPOSITE COTTAGE APPLIED TO FIO. 75 SCALE tM FIO.

PLANS OF COMPOSITE COTTAGES.

117

441. In fig. 124 we give plan of house over that in fig. 77 : a a outside stairs ;
b porch ; c c living-room over same apartment c c in fig. 77 ; d scullery over
apartment / in fig. 77; c c bedroom over same apartment e e in fig." 77 ;
/pantry or store-closet over the entrance-lobby of fig. 77.

442. In fig. 125 we give part plan of cottage over that in fig. 117 : a a out-
side stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d bed-closet over d in fig. 117; e e living-room ;
the scullery and bed-closet correspond in size and position to apartments
marked b and c in fig. 117.

443. In fig. 126 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 118 : a a outside
stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d coal-closet ; e e living-room, corresponding to a a
in fig. 118 ; f bed-closet over the same at d in fig. 118. The scullery and
second bed-closet are entered from living-room a a, as in fig. 118, occupying
the same position as e and c in fig. 118 ; g g is the bedroom corresponding to b b
in fig. 118.

Fig. 125.

Fie;. 120.

1. 118 SCALE IN FiO. 116.

118

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

444. In fig. 127 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 120 : a a outside
stairs ; b porch ; c pantry ; d d living-room ; e scullery ; //bedroom. .

445. In fig. 128 we give plan of cottage over that in fig. 119 : a outside
stairs ; b porch ; c scullery ; d d living-room ; e closet entering from the liv-
ing-room ; //bedroom ; g bed-closet.

Fig. 128.
Fig. 127.

DPPEB PLAN OF COMPO

CFPBR PLAN OP COMPOSIIE COTTAGE APPLIEIJ
TO FIG. 119 SCALE IN FIG. 115.

446. Arrangement of Bothies. This structure of the farm has given rise to
much discussion some utterly condemning, others as loudly praising it. Never-
theless, taking the description of their general peculiarities which we have given
at the beginning of this section as correct, it will be difficult, we think, for any
one to defend the use of a structure of this kind as at all likely to conduce either
to the physical or moral well-being of their inhabitants. The Kov. Mr Stuart has
made this subject exclusively his own, and to his pamphlet we recommend the
reader, where he will find all the evils of the bothy system, unimproved, fully
detailed. The same gentleman has been at much pains to devise arrangements
which shall give comfort to the inhabitants of the bothy, and enable them to
carry out, in some measure, the requirements of decent and orderly living. To
avoid the evils of the bothy as generally arranged, Mr Stuart recommends that
every one " ought to have a cooking and a sleeping apartment ; the one furnished
with a strong table and chairs with high backs, well bolted and stayed with iron
rods, and the other with small iron bedsteads one for each man both these
apartments of healthful dimensions and construction. The sleeping apartment
floored with wood, well lathed on the walls, quite free of damp, yet well venti-
lated with ventilating flues. Giving each man his own bed, I am confident,
would of itself work a mighty reformation in the habits of ploughmen, as it cer-
tainly did in the habits of our soldiers, when each of them wholly got a bed to
himself."

447. In the pamphlet above referred to Mr Stuart gives plans illustrative
of an improved arrangement of bothy. We prefer, however, to give those plans
containing the results of his whole experience as published in the " Third
Annual Eeport of the Scottish Association for Improving the Dwellings and Do-
mestic Condition of Agricultural Labourers." Of this the ground-plan is given in
fig. 129, and upper floor plan in fig. 130, where a a are the beds.

PLAN OF A TWO-STOEEYED BOTHY.

119

a low wooden
feet above the

Ft.

448. The dimensions of the whole structure are 22 feet by 16 ; the side-walls
being 14 feet in height, measured from the sole of the outer door. The thick-
ness of the walls is 20 inches, but. those

of the lower storey are lined with the Fi s- 129 -

hollow tiles (hereafter described). A
fire-brick sink is placed in the lobby ,
fig. 129 a foul air flue being carried
up from this into the chimney or ' vent "
of the wash-closet b. This has a tire-
place in it, so that it can be used as a
spare room when any of the men are
sick. The dimensions of this apart-
ment are 12 feet by 5. Under the
stairs c space is obtained for coals.
In the kitchen d there is space for a
resting bed e. " The side of the bed
next the door, finished and protected
from its draught by
screen rising about 2
surface of the bed. I have visited this bothy," says Mr Stuart, " at night,
and found several of the men reclining on this bed, and declaring it to be a grand
improvement."

449. " The stair c is made to ascend from the living-room, purposely to pre-
vent any man taking to his bed-closet

any company his comrades may not see
and approve of. For the same reason,
when proposed, I objected to locks
being put on the bed-closet doors.
This would have tended to make the
occupant independent of the visits of
those who have an interest in seeing
that at all times he keeps all right in
his own cabin. They can well enough
secure all the property they have in
their own trunks, and by locking the
entry door. Four of the bed-closets
on the upper floor average 10J feet by
5i| feet, or nearly so. It was very
difficult to place a stair easy of access,

so as not to sacrifice room, and hence one of the closets is of smaller area
than the other five, but it has a fine exposure, and is well ventilated. The
windows are all sashes, the upper half hung on pulleys, and the smallest of
them 1-J by 3^ feet high. At each window a board is placed as a writing-
desk. The partitions of the bed-closets are of f -inch white wood, grooved
and tongued, strongly framed, and carried close up to the ceiling. The closet
doors are of the same, also strongly framed. In short, everything is purposely
made so as to bear the roughest usage, and need no repairs for generations
to come. The beds are strong wooden frames, having a wooden screen about
2 feet high at the head and foot.

450. " To secure the sleeping-closets against severe alternations between cold
and heat, lath was put on the upper edge of the baulks, and a coat of plaster be-
tween it and them before putting the ceiling lath and plaster on the lower edge.

O T H Y 3 C AT.E

120

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

Fig. 131.

This cost lOd. a-yard additional, but I considered it a great matter for the health
of the occupants ; and I cannot too strongly condemn making but small sleeping
berths for those hard- wrought men, like so many nests among the couples of the
bothy garret only, and all to save a few pounds in raising the walls 5 or 6 feet
higher. If such a stunted way of giving each man his own bed and bed-closet
is pursued, it will soon bring the movement into disrepute. To form ventilating
flues for the bed-closets, the kitchen vent was formed of fire-brick vent-lining ;
and in the gable-top, around this lining, four fire-brick pipes, each of 4 inches
bore, were placed in the kitchen vent-lining, carried some inches above the
chimney-top ; and, to prevent soot falling into them, a round bonnet of fire-brick
was placed in the kitchen vent-lining, carried some 9 inches above the chimney-
top. This round screen has of course a round hole in its centre, equal in dia-
meter to that of the vent-lining ; and on the upper side a division of vent-lining
1 foot high, to carry off the smoke. These four small pipes, being laid hard on
the kitchen vent, will become hot, and thus cause a draught in them upward,
and by means of other pipes, made of thin yellow pine deal, the draught of these
pipes was thus brought to bear upon the foul air above the beds in the closets,
so that, between these and the windows, I should think the ventilation will be
good."

451. In fig. 131 we give a plan of bothy for two men, designed also by

Mr Stuart : a kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9
feet 4 inches, with sink b ; resting bed c; d
and e bed-closets, 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet;
ff meal-binns in the kitchen.

452. In some districts the bothy system
cannot, under present circumstances, be got
rid of, but it behoves the parties having
interest in these localities to see that they
are improved so far as to secure jcomfort to
their occupants. The advantages obtained
in healthier workmen would amply repay the
cost incurred in this way. There can be no
doubt of the fact that the numbers of comfort-
less bothies throughout the country exercise a most injurious influence on the
physical condition of the farm-labourers who live in them. In the words of one
who knows the subject well, it is " sad enough to think of the after effects of
these on the constitution of the ploughmen compelled to sit in their drenched
clothes at night, with no fire to dry at, and again to have them to draw on in
the morning, not dry, but merely ' weel dreeppit.' The constitutional coughs,
and the irremediable rheumatism which prevail among elderly ploughmen, are
clearly traceable to such a mode of treatment."

453. A few remarks of our own on the origin of the bothy system, and of the
possibility of putting an end to it, may perhaps prove not unacceptable to our
readers.

454. No difficulty ever occurred in accommodating married hinds on a farm,
for they must have their cottage and garden ; but it has been a question in
different parts of the country of the best manner of lodging unmarried men.
There are just three modes of doing it. One is to lodge them in the farmhouse ;
another is to provide a house for them to live in together ; and the third is to
lodge them in the houses of married men.

455. In primitive times the farm lads used to take their meals in the farmer's
kitchen, at the table of which the farmer and his wife presided. As far as the
quality of the food they received, and their personal comfort during the day

OROUND-PUOJ OF A 8INOLZ-ST

THE BOTHY SYSTEM. 121

was concerned, they were well fed, and passed their time happily in such an
arrangement. But there were drawbacks to it nevertheless. In wet weather
the lads could not easily have their clothes dried at the kitchen lire, and at
night they had to go to a loft in the work-horse stable to sleep, and to which
place they were naturally prohibited taking a light with them, for fear of fire.
At length when the farmer preferred his own snug parlour in the company of
his family, as the progress of refinement advanced, to the kitchen and its
inmates, such an arrangement could not be continued. Left to themselves
thus in the kitchen in the evening, all the servants did not conduct themselves
with propriety, so that the farmer was glad to purge his house of its unruly
inmates. He provided a house for the young men to live in together, near the
steading.

456. Such a house was called the bothy. The change was an agreeable one
to both parties ; to the farmer, inasmuch as it restored order and quietness to
his house ; and to the men, because they were freed from the surveillance of
the farmer's wife ; and their bed in a bothy Avas more comfortable than .the one
in the stable. They had now, however, to cook their own victuals ; and to
render that task as easy as possible in the circumstances, they were obliged to
select articles of food of the simplest description to live, in short, on oatmeal
brose and porridge, while the farmer provided the milk. But, like all cases of
compromise, the bothy system has not worked advantageously for either party.
The farmer finds idle company congregating in the bothy in the evenings, given
to drinking, card-playing, and other evil work, lie hears that some of the men
wander from home most of the night, and he observes them, in consequence,
unable to do their duty next day as it should be done. He is annoyed at their
leaving their service every half-year, and it is evident to him, from the general
tenor of their conduct, that they feel no interest in the farm or its operations.
The men, on the other hand, feel that the farmer takes no interest in their
personal comfort. Mated with disagreeable companions, they are induced to
visit neighbouring farms in the evening. They complain that their food and
fuel are not so good as they should be, and that their bed-clothes are scanty
and too long of being changed. They thus believe that a change of place may
improve their condition, and after trying many changes, they discover that all
places are very much alike.

457. The bothy system has thus proved a failure, and yet where that system
is in greatest force, it is believed that it cannot be put down, but has now to
be endured as a necessary evil. But in truth no such necessity exists ; it can
be abolished as completely in every district, as in those parts of the country
where the system has never existed. In those parts, the primitive plan of lodging
in the farmer's kitchen was also pursued in regard to unmarried men, but when
that plan was abandoned, as explained above, the young men were not put into
bothies, but continued in their parents' and friends' houses, and took service
when so lodged. When a hind finds himself advancing in years, he is glad to
have one of his sons to remain with him, and obtain a double-binding for him
from his master; and if the relationship is 'not so near as that of a father, a
young man who has lost his parents may obtain a hinding along with an uncle
or a cousin, or he may have a hinding for himself, and occupy the house, with an
aunt or a sister. As lodgers in the houses of married men, young men find
themselves infinitely more comfortable and enjoyable in every respect than in
any bothy.

458. The remedy for the bothy system is thus obvious : Let cottages be
built in every farm where the bothy system exists, to be occupied by married
men. They will soon be crowded by the bothy men, anxious to marry and

122

PLANS OF FAKM COTTAGES.

settle in life, or as inmates with their relations. The change from the confused
crowd of a bothy to the peaceful quiet of one's own house, will soon work a
marked change for the better in the character of the young men. They will
then have no desire to change their service. There will then be no loss of time
and work every half-year ; no hiring-market will then be frequented for a bad
purpose, and the outcry against them, and the bothy system itself, will cease
for ever.. This is no inferential result, but one established from our own expe-
rience.

459. Outhouses of Cottages. Although, in some of the examples of cottage
arrangement which we have given, we have shown the privy or water-closet,
connected with the house, we would recommend the space to be used in some
other way, as a closet for coals, pantry, &c. This will necessitate having the
privy apart from the house, an arrangement which is in every way better. The
separate structure should be placed in the garden at a considerable distance
from the house, and should also comprise a place for coals and a pig-sty. We
now propose to give a few plans suggestive of the arrangements of outhouse
structures adapted to the different classes of cottages we have already given.

460. Outhouses for a Single Cottage. In fig. 132 we give plan of the arrange-

Fig. 133.

Fig. 132.

n i

J r

THOUSE FOR A SINGLE CO1
1NOH TO THE FOOT.

IRST ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOriS

SCALE IN FIO. 132.

INGLE COTTAGE

Fig. 134.

ment suggested, in which a is the coal or fuel store, 5 feet by 6 feet ; b the

privy or water-closet, 3 feet by
6 ; c pig-sty, 4 feet by 6.
Alternative Plan, fig. 133, in
which a is the fuel-store, 5
feet by 6 ; b privy, 3 feet by
6 ; c pig-sty, 4 feet by 6 ; d a
food-store, 3 feet by 6. Second
Alternative Plan, fig. 134, in
which the accommodation of
cow-byre is given ; a a the
cow-byre, 18 feet by 6 ; b coal-
store, 6 feet by 6 ; c water-
closet, 3 feet by 6 ; d pig-sty,
4 feet by 6 ; e food-store, 3 feet
by 6.

461. Outhouses for Double-
Detached Cottages, fig. 135, in
which a and b are the two coal-
stores, each 3 feet by 6 ; c and d the water-closets, same dimensions ; e and /

SECOND ALTERNATIVE PL

OF OUTHOUSES FOR A SINGLE COTTAGE
iLE IN FIG. 133.

PLANS OF OUTHOUSES FOR COTTAGES.

123

pig-sties, 4 feet by 6. Alternative Plan, fig. ]?>(!, in which a and b are the two
coal-stores, 5 feet by 6 ; c and d the water-closets, 3 feet by 6 ; e and/ pig-
sties, 4 feet by 6. Second Altcrtiatlre Plan, icilJt cow-byres, fig. 137 : a and a the
cow-byres, 18 feet by G ; b and b privies, 3 feet by 4 ; c and c pig-sties, 8 feet
by 3 ; d and d food-stores, 3 feet by 4. Tltird Alternative Plan, fig. 138 : a and a
coal-stores, 7 feet 4| inches by (5 feet ; b and b pig-sties, 4 feet by 6 ; c and c
privies, 3 feet by 6 ; d and d food-stores, 3 feet by 4.

Fi- IMC,.

^^71 E

b i=

Pi rJZ

>t '.

462. Outhouses for Two Double- Detached Composite Cottages, fig. 139 : a a, a a
coal-stores, each 4 feet by 6 ; b b, b b privies, each 3 feet by 6 ; c c, c c pig-
sties, 4 feet by 6 each. Alternative Plan, fig. 140 : a a, a a privies ; b b, b b
coal-stores, 4 feet square ; c c pig-sties, two at the ends of the coal-stores b b,
not shown in the figure, 4 feet by 6.

124

PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

THIRD ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOOSE6 FOR DOUBLE COTTAGES SCALE IN 113. 132.

Fig. 139.

PLAN OF ODTHOU6E8 FOB FOUK COTTAGES, TWO DOUBLE COMPOSITE COTTAQES SCALE IN FIQ. 133.

ALTERNATIVE PLAN OF OUTHOUSES TOR FOUR DOUBLE COMPOSITE COTTA023- SCAI 2 IN FIO. 133.

DOOES AND WINDOWS FOE COTTAGES.

125

463. Doors and Windows. Windows and a door for cottages are given in
sketches as follow, to larger scale. In fig. 141 we give elevation of front door,
showing dressings, &c. ; in lig. 142 ele-
vation of three-light window to living-
room ; in fig. 143 an elevation of two-
light window to bedrooms ; and in fig. 144

an elevation of small two-light window
for staircase.

464. The following remarks on win-
dows in the article on Labourers' Homes,
which has just appeared in the Quarterly
Review for April 1860, deserve attention.
" It is the windows, however," says the
writer, "that give the character to every
building, and mark its style ; and this to
the cottage as much as to the palace.
From old association we should regret
the substitution of the sash for the case-
ment-window ; but, in fact, the latter, if
of three lights, and opening outwards in
the centre, is also more convenient for
the cottage, being much more easily re--
paired when out of order, and its interior
sill serving as a useful shelf. If lead
lattice is objected to, the best casement
is a wooden frame with sqiiare lights.
Large diamond frames never look well,
and are particularly ugly either in wood
or cast iron. If the windows are suffi-
ciently large, there can be no objection
to small lead lattice, as a cottage window
is not wanted to look in or oiit of, but
simply for transmission of light. When
near the road, large frames render the
interior too public. A single sash-window
can never be made proportionate to a low
room; for all low buildings the windows

should run in horizontal, not vertical length. Good proportion for cottage win-
dow-lights are 4 feet high by 18 inches wide, or 2 feet 9 inches by 15 inches."

Fig. 143. r '.- 144 -

142.

/ \

\ 1

WINDOW FOR, BEDKOOM OF A COTTA

126 PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

465. Allotments. There can be no doubt that a man who has part of his
family able to work with him in the field, may live more comfortably, and be
better enabled to earn money on a piece of land within the power of their com-
bined labour, and possessed at a moderate rent, than if he were a farm-servant.
A piece of land so occupied is called an allotment. To render it capable of
being occupied by a family, it must have a dwelling-house and a set of offices
suited to the extent of the ground occupied.

466. Allotment land must be cultivated with the spade and other hand imple-
ments. When the extent of the allotment is less than the occupier and his
family can easily cultivate, part of their 'labouring power is thrown away, and
when its extent is beyond their physical power to cultivate it properly, the pro-
duction of the whole allotment is suppressed. In either case loss is incurred.
It is, therefore, of the utmost advantage both to the occupier and the proprietor to
have the power of labour and the extent of the ground proportioned to each other.

467. Unfortunately the proportion betwixt labour and the soil cultivated is
less attended to than it should be, for commonly the allotment is larger than
is the power of the occupier to cultivate it in a proper manner, and the natural
consequence is that allotments are not so well cultivated as farms. It is rare to
find an allotment in a high state of cultivation. Besides shortcomings in
labour, there are shortcomings in capital, and labour alone is not a substitute
for capital in the cultivation of the soil. It is then an important consideration
for the landlord, when engaging with an occupier, to be assured that both ade-
quate labour and capital are to be brought upon the allotment with the new
occupier.

468. But, on the other hand, the occupier should be satisfied that the dwelling-
house, the offices, the roads, and the fences are in good order. The house may
be a single-storey cottage if the family is small ; but if large, a two-storey one
will be required. The outhouses should consist of a byre, a barn, a hen-house,
and outhouses to contain sundry hand implements, and some light machines.
Amongst the many plans of cottages we have given, one may easily be chosen
suitable for an allotment.

469. We have nothing more to say on the subject of allotments, and shall
conclude by appending the following paragraph by the writer in the Quarterly
Review, formerly referred to. " There is yet one matter," he says, "in which
our landed proprietors might most serviceably aid in cottage improvement. In
many parishes the manorial tenure is often the sole obstacle to better dwellings,
where encroachments on the waste have given uncertain ownerships, and the
parish, the lord of the manor, and the occupier dispute rather whose property it
is not than whose it is. This is the most hopeless case, for even repairs are
not eifected, much less improvement ; and too often the tenement, which none
think worth an outlay, becomes, when the blood of proprietorship is once up, a
bone of contention between parties who can little afford to be at variance. The
end is that the poor man is either heartlessly swept away from the home of his
fathers, or gains the short-lived and disastrous triumph of retaining the paltry
prize in the teeth of those to whom he must look for his bread. Few parishes
are without some of this bitter experience, but in many the nature of the soil,
and prevalence of copyhold, have made it the rule. These huts and hovels take
the place of houses, and, like the mother's pet, are clung to all the more for their
weakness and worthlessness. No kinder act could be done to the rural poor
than the compulsory commutation of these questionable tenures into freeholds.
Often it would be better that the landlord should have them, sometimes it would
be fairest to assign them at once to the servant ; but as there is no root of

PEOPOETION OF POWER AND ACCOMMODATION IN A FARM. 127

revolution so deep as the agrarian one, it would be well to cut off, before it lias
too widely spread itself in tlie social soil, an evil which is daily fostering dis-
content and defiance among the tillers of the land, and for which they might
fairly expect the law to find an easy and equitable remedy. When the work of
landed accumulation is going on so fast, a few thousand additional small free-
holds would be a political gain, not to the landed interest only, but to the whole
state. But the jealousy which is felt towards the cottage freeholder by the
farmer, and still more by the steward, can only be appreciated by those who
have lived among them. Legislation is not likely to be speeded in this direc-
tion. It is a gentleman's question, to be taken into his own hands ; and he
that can have the heart to abate the jots and tittles of his feudal claims, and
not only enfranchise his copyholder, but, if the case requires it, set him up
with means to make his new freehold respectable, may be assured that in
strengthening the state of his poor neighbour's property he has not weakened
his own/'

470. The proportion of power and accommodation to the acreage of the farm.
The amount of power required to cultivate land depends on the nature of the
soil, and the rotation of crops under which it is cultivated. Strong soils require
a greater amount of power to cultivate them than weak soils. Strong clays,
fitted chiefly to grow wheat, require a greater number of horses to work them
than loams, and still more so than gravelly soils. Hence carse clays require a
greater force than sharp turnip soils. Perhaps 40 acres of carse clay are as
much as a pair of horses can work, whereas 70 acres of turnip soil might be
overtaken by the same force. On farms of equal extent, it is thus evident that
nearly double the accommodation for horses will be required in the steading of
a carse farm than on a farm of gravelly soil.

471. By a parity of reasoning in farms of the same extent and same kind of
soil, one rotation of cropping will require a greater number of horses to cultivate
it than under another rotation. For example, under a rotation of fours, three-
fourths of the land is under arable culture ; whereas, in a system of sixes, one
half only of the land is under the plough. Less extent, therefore, of accommoda-
tion for horses is required in a farm where the six course is pursued, than where
is the four course.

472. The difference of force required to cultivate clay soils in comparison
with weak soils, is not on account of any difference in the manner of rising the
implements of culture, but solely on account of the greater physical power
required to labour the clay soil in every operation. Xot only is a greater force
required to work any implement used in clay soils than in light, but a greater
variety and heavier class of implements are required to reduce the clay soil to
the same degree of pulverisation.

473. From all these considerations, we must come to the conclusion which
we have stated at the outset, that the extent and accommodation to be given to
farm-buildings must be regulated by the kind of farming to be pursued on the
soil which forms the staple of the farm.

474. State of Farming in Scotland in the Middle Ages. Perhaps an appropriate
conclusion may be given to this part of our work by taking a glance at the
state of agriculture in Scotland in the thirteenth century. Tir the middle ages
the monks were the great promoters of agriculture and gardening, and the
breeding and rearing of cattle and sheep. It may prove interesting to our
readers to give them a slight sketch of the condition of the farms, farm-
buildings, and farm-labourers of that period, and which we can do satisfactorily

128 PLANS OF FAEM COTTAGES.

from the pages of Mr Cosmo Innes, in his Scotland in the Middle Ages, an in-
teresting work which has just recently appeared.

475. Of the condition of pastoral farming Mr Innes says, " The monasteries of
Teviotdale had necessarily a great extent of pasture-land ; and the minute and
careful arrangement of folds on their mountain pastures for sheep, and byres for
cattle, and of the lodges and temporary dwellings for their keepers and attend-
ants, shows that they paid the greatest attention to this part of their extensive
farming."

476. In regard to arable husbandry, great attention was p^,id to agriculture
from the earliest period of our records. The same corn was grown as is now
used. Wheat was grown even in Morayshire in the thirteenth century. We
find everywhere strict rules for the protection of growing corns and hay-meadows.
" In the reign of Alexander II., the monks of Melrose purchased the right of
straightening a stream that bounded their lands of Bele in East Lothian, on
account of the frequent injury done by its inundations to the hay-meadows and
growing corns of the abbey."

477. "On the estates of the monasteries, water-mills and wind-mills were
used for grinding corn in the thirteenth century, and previously, though the rude
process of the hand-mill kept its ground in some districts of Scotland to a
recent period."

478. " At the end of the thirteenth century (A.D. 1290), and probably always,
the monks held a great part of their ample lands and baronies in their own
hands, and cultivated them by their villeins from the several granges. The
grange itself, the chief house of each of the abbey baronies, must have been a
spacious farm-steading. In it were gathered the cattle, implements, and stores
needed for the cultivation of their demesne lands or mains, their corn and pro-
duce, the serfs or carls who cultivated it, and their women and families."

479. "Adjoining the grange was the mill, with all its pertinents and appear-
ance and reality of comfort, and a hamlet occupied by the cottars, sometimes
from thirty to forty families in number. The situation of these was far above
the class now known by that name. Under, the monks of Kelso, each cottar
occupied from 1 to 9 acres of land along with his cottage. Their rents varied
from one to six shillings yearly, with services not exceeding nine days' labour.
The tenants of twenty-one cottages at Clarilaw, having each 3 acres of land,
minus a rood, and pasture for two cows, paid each 2 bolls of meal yearly, and
were bound to shear the whole corn of the abbey grange of Newton."

480. " Beyond the hamlet or cottar town, were scattered in small groups the
farm-steadings of the husbandi or husbandmen, the next class of the rural popu-
lation. Each of these held of the abbey a definite quantity of land, called a
husbandland. Each tenant of a husbandland kept two oxen, and six united
their oxen to work the common plough. The Scotch plough of the thirteenth
century was a ponderous machine, drawn, when the team was complete, by
twelve oxen. The husbandland was estimated long ago in the Merse, as 26
acres, ' where scythe and plough may gang.' The husbandmen were bound to
keep good neighbourhood, the first point of which consisted in contributing
sufficient oxen and service to the common plough."

481. "I have said that, of the inhabitants of the grange the lowest in the scale
was the carl, bond, serf, or villein, who was transferred like the land on which he
laboured, and who might be caught and brought back, if he attempted to escape,
like a stray ox or sheep. Their legal name of nativus or neyf, which I have
not found but in Britain, seems to point to their origin in the native race, the
original possessors of the soil." " We learn of the price of the serf from the

FAEMIXG IX SCOTLAND IX THE MIDDLE AGES. 129

efforts made by the Church for their manumission The Abbey of

Coldingham purchased the freedom of Joseph, the son of Etwald, and all his
posterity, for the price of three inerks ; of Uoger Fit/ Walker, and all his pos-
terity, for two merks."

482. "Above the class of husbandmen was that of the yeoman or bonnet-
laird, as he is now called in primitive parts of Scotland He no

doubt paid for his hereditary right to the lands, and felt himself much above the
husbandmen whose little was precarious."

483. " Still higher in the scale were the great Church vassals, who held a
place only second to the baronage and freeholders of the crown. These gener-
ally had their lands free of all service, and paid only a nominal quit-rent."

484. " No service is imposed on women, except harvest-work, and I believe
agriculturists will agree that we have a still more decided proof of advancing
civilisation in the fact, that at the period of the rental, the whole services were
in process of being commuted for money."

485. " As to the rent of land, each husbandland paid Gs. 8d. of money-rent,
but to this were added considerable services in harvest and sheep-shearing, in.
carrying peats and carting wool, and fetching the abbot's commodities. These
stipulations are exceedingly precise, fixing even the service in which the
husbandman was to have his food from the abbey, and where he was to maintain
himself."

486. " Eoads appear to have been frequent, and although some are called the
green road, viridis via, and by other names indicating rather a track for cattle;
others, bearing the style of 'high-way,' alta via, ' the king's road,' via regia, via
regalis, and still more, the caulsey or calwia, must have been of more careful
construction, and some of them fit for wheel carriages. A right of way was
frequently bargained for, and even purchased at a considerable price. The
road leading south of Inverness is called via Scoticana in a charter in 1376."

487. " We find agricultural carriages of various names and descriptions
during the thirteenth century plaustrum, quadriga, charete, carecta, biga arid
not only for harvest and for carriage of peats from the moss, but for carrying
wool of the monastery to the seaport, and bringing in in exchange, salt, coals,
and sea-borne commodities."

488. " The immense number and variety of agricultural transactions/' con-
cludes Mr Innes this part of his subject, " the frequent transference of lands,
the disputes and settlements regarding marches, the precision and evident care
of leases, the very occurrence so frequently of the names of field divisions, and
of the boundaries between farms, settled by King David in person, show an
enlightened attention and interest in agricultural affairs, that seem to have
spread from the monarchy and reached the whole population during that period
of natural peace and good government, which was so rudely terminated by the
War of the Succession."

BOOK SECOND PBACHCE IN GONSTEUC1ION.

DIVISION FIRST. MATERIALS EMPLOYED IX CONSTRUCTION.

489. SECTION FIRST Stones. Stones useful for the building purposes of the
farm may be divided into three great classes namely, the tiilicious, the Cal-
careous, and the Argillaceous. The silicious are represented by the granites,
traps, and sandstones ; the calcareous are comprised in the limestones ; the
argillaceous, being peculiarly liable to atmospheric influences, are by no means
durable enough for building purposes, but, being slaty in their structure, they
are employed in the construction of roofs.

490. Granite. This, in its several varieties, is the most durable of all the
building-stones. Its constituents are quartz, which is nearly pure silica, and
forms the greater part of the rock ; felspar, which imparts to granite its peculi-
arities of character ; and mica, which occurs in shining plates of greater or less
size. The best granites are obtained in Scotland ; they are known as the red
and the grey varieties. They are more durable than the granites of the coun-
ties of Devon and Cornwall in England.

491. The granular arrangement of felspar, hornblende, and quartz, known
as sienite or syenite, forms a species of granite, the hornblende appearing
instead of the mica, and is one of the most durable of the building-stones known.
The two substances, hornblende and mica, resemble each other closely in com-
position hornblende having, however, a much greater proportion of the black
oxide of iron. Syenite is as capable of being worked in large blocks as granite,
although, from its hardness, like common granite, it is not easily tooled. The
durability of this class of building-stones (the granites), in which felspar is
present, depends much on the composition of this ingredient. From the potash
contained in it, it is more or less obnoxious to atmospheric influences. Care,
therefore, should be taken to ascertain the composition of the stones of this
class, where large and important works are to be carried on.

492. Trap or Greenstone is a very hard and durable stone ; it is composed
of hornblende and felspar. Although a valuable building-stone, its uses are
restricted, from the small size and irregular form of the concretions in which it is
frequently found. It is also found in some localities in amorphous masses, when
it may be raised in large blocks. For cottages and rural structures, when
used in conjunction with white stone-facings or dressings to the windows,
doors, and corners, and with white mortar, it is well adapted, and presents a
pleasing appearance. Basalt, of the same composition as greenstone, but with
a larger proportion of iron, is also a durable material as a building -stone ; but it

132 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

occurs in columnar masses and in still smaller concretions than greenstone, and,
being harder, is more difficult of being tooled. Trap-rocks are all liable to what
is termed " sweating " in damp weather.

493. Sandstones, belonging to the silicious class, are composed of grains derived
from the wearing down of the silicious rocks, and bound or cemented together
by natural cement of an argillaceous, silicious, or calcareous character. Sand-
stones present a wide range of character, from a state almost as durable as
granite, to that but little better than hardened clay. Where the silicious par-
ticles are held together chiefly by an argillaceous cement, they rapidly disinte-
grate under the influence of the weather.

494. Sandstones are easily worked, and divide readily into convenient blocks.
From the ease with which it is worked, indeed, some workmen term it " free-
stone." The best sandstone is that obtained from Craigleith quarry, near Edin-
burgh : it is in high repute. The grey-coloured sandstones of Forfarshire are
very durable. The Yorkshire sandstones are much esteemed for flagging, being
hard, durable, and easily worked. A greenish sandstone, known as Kentish rag,
is very durable.

495. In choosing sandstone, preference should be given to that purely silicious;
when argillaceous matter is present, the atmosphere will affect its durability.
Although generally esteemed from its variegated appearance, sandstone with
coloured stripes should be avoided. These coloured parts, arising from the
presence of iron, are speedily affected by water, and decay of the stone is
thereby hastened. When mica is present in minute quantity, it determines
more specifically the stratified character of sandstone, and the stone is then
easily worked in blocks.

496. Limestones. This, the last class of stones suitable for the buildings of
the farm we have here to notice, is an important one, and presents a large
variety of kinds, characterised by as great diversities of composition as the
sandstones. The principal constituent of stones of this class is lime. Lime-
stones are impure carbonates, the impurities present giving that diversity of
appearance which characterises many varieties, as marble. Any limestone
susceptible of a high polish is termed marble, and of this there are many
varieties. The oolite limestones, a new formation, afford the limestones chiefly
used for building purposes. Magnesian limestones afford some superior building
material, as well as the mountain limestone.

497. In determining the qualities of building- stone, its cohesiveness, or resist-
ance to a crushing power, and its absorbent power, or that which represents its
capability to resist atmospheric influences, are the two points principally consi-
dered. In the Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to investigate the
qualities of the stone to be used for the Houses of Parliament, a valuable table
is given, which we here append. This affords information on the above two
points in connection with the most celebrated of the building-stones of the
kingdom. In another column the number of grains disintegrated from each
specimen is given. The amount of disintegration was ascertained by subject-
ing all the specimens simultaneously for eight days to Brard's process, which
closely resembles the action of the usual atmospheric influences on stone. The
absorbent column exhibits the bulk of water absorbed by specimens one cubic
inch in size, while the cohesive column exhibits the weight necessary to crush
two-inch cubes, or blocks of eight cubic inches. Of the two columns of
specific gravities, the first exhibits the ordinary specific, gravity, the second
shows the specific gravity of the solid particles of which each specimen is com-

STONES.

133

posed, on the supposition that the water will take the place of the air which
occupied the pores before the atmospheric pressure was removed.

Classes and Names of
Stones.

Specific (

iravities.

Absorbing
Power.

Disintegra-
tion.

Cohesive
Power.

SANDSTONES.

Craigleith
Darley Dale .
Heddou

2.232

2.G2S
2.229

2.646
2.993
2.643

0.143
0.121
0.156

0.6
0.121
10.1

28.083
25.300
14.168

Kenton

2.247

2.625

0.143

7.9

17.710

Mansfield

2.G3S

2.756

0.151

7.1

18.216

Park Spring .
Morley Moor

2.3-21

2.053

2.615

2.G87

0.112
0.221

5.0
0.9

27.071
10.879

MAGNESIAS LIMESTONES.

Bolsover

2.316

2.833

0.182

1.5

29.G01

Huddlestone

2.147

2.867

0.239

1.9

15.433

lloche Abbey
Park Nook .

2.134

2.138

2.840
2.847

0.248
0.249

0.6

1.8

13.915
15.433

Cadeby
Jackdaw Crag
Bramliam Moor

1.951

2.070

2.008

2.846
2.634

2.059

0.310

0.200
0.244

6.4
3.1

0.7

15.180
16.951
22.011

OOLITES.

Ancaster

2.182

2.687

0.1 SO

7.1

8.349

Bath Box

1.839

2.675

0.312

10.0

5.313

Portland

2.145

2.702

0.20G

2.7

7.590

Ketton

2.045

2.70G

0.244

3.3

9.108

LIMESTONES.

Barnack

2.090

2.G27

0.204

16.6

6.325

Chilmark

2.481

2.621

0.053

9.8

25.553

Ham Hill .

2.260

2.695

0.147

9.5

14.421

498. " If the stones be divided," say Professor Daniell and Wheatstone, who
conducted the above experiments, " according 1 to their chemical composition, it
will be found that, in all stones of the same class, there exists generally a close
relation between their various physical qualities. Thus it will be observed that
the specimen which has the greatest specific gravity possesses the greatest
cohesive strength, absorbs the least quantity of water, and disintegrates the
least by the process which imitates the effects of the weather. A comparison
of all the experiments shows this to be the general rule, though it is liable to
individual exceptions. But this will not enable us to compare stones of diffe-
rent classes together. The sandstones absorb the least quantity of water, but
they disintegrate more than the magnesian limestones, which, considering their
compactness, absorb a great deal."

499. In practice stones are chiefly subjected to compression, rarely to a tensile
force, or a transverse strain ; and as the weight to which they are subjected, in
the generality of cases, is far beneath the crushing force, or the point at which
the particles part asunder, the principal point to be attended to in the selection
of a stone is its capability to resist the influences of the weather. Where, how-
ever, it is desirable to know the strength of a stone, or its resistance to a crush-
ing weight, it is the safest plan to institute direct experiment.

500. The following, extracted from the Eeport which we have already alluded
to, will afford some practical information as to the various causes of decay in
the different classes of stone : " As regards the sandstones that are usually
employed for building purposes, and which are generally composed of either

134 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

quartz or silicious grains, cemented by silicious, argillaceous, calcareous, or
other matter, their decomposition is effected according to the nature of the
cementing substance, the grains being comparatively indestructible. With
respect to limestones composed of carbonate of lime, or the carbonate of lime
and magnesia, either nearly pure, or mixed with variable proportions of foreign
matter, their decomposition depends, under similar circumstances, upon the
mode in which their component parts are aggregated ; those which are most
crystalline being found to be the most durable ; while those which partake least
of that character suffer most from exposure to atmospheric influences. The
varieties of limestone termed oolites (or roestones), composed of oviform bodies
cemented by calcareous matter of varied character, will, of necessity, suffer
unequal decomposition, unless such oviform bodies, and the cement, be equally
coherent, and of the same chemical composition. The limestones which are
usually termed shelly, from their being formed of broken or perfect fossil shells,
cemented by calcareous matter, suffer decomposition in an unequal manner in
consequence of the shells, which, being for the most part crystalline, offer the
greatest amount of resistance to the decomposing effects of the atmosphere.
Sandstones, from the mode of their formation, are veiy frequently laminated,
more especially when micaceous, the plates of mica being generally deposited
in planes parallel to their beds. Hence, if such stone be placed in buildings
with the planes of lamination in a vertical position, it will decompose in flakes
according to the thickness of the laminae ; whereas, if it be placed so that the
planes of lamination be horizontal, which is most common in its natural (or
quarry] bed, the amount of decomposition will be comparatively immaterial.
Limestones, such at least as are usually employed for building purposes, are
not liable to the kinds of lamination observable in sandstone, nevertheless
varieties exist, especially those commonly called shelly, which have a coarse
laminated structure generally parallel to the planes of their beds ; and there-
fore the same precaution in placing such stone in buildings, so that the
planes of lamination be horizontal, is as necessary as with sandstones, above
noticed.

501. " The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire
matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of the sandstones,
according to the amount of surface exposed to it. The chemical action due to
atmospheric causes occasions either a removal or disruption of the exposed par-
ticles, the former by means of powerful winds and driving rains, and the latter
by the congelation of water forced into, or absorbed by, the external portions of
the stone. These effects are reciprocal, chemical action rendering the stone liable
to be more easily affected by mechanical action ; which latter, by constantly
presenting new surfaces, accelerates the disintegrating effects of the former.

502. " Buildings in this climate are generally found to suffer the greatest
amount of decomposition on their southern, south-western, and western fronts,
arising, doubtless, from the prevalence of winds and rains from these quarters ;
hence it is desirable that stones of great durability should at least be employed
in fronts with such aspects. Buildings situated in the country appear to pos-
sess a great advantage over those in populous and smoky towns, owing to
lichens, with which they almost invariably become covered in such situations,
and which, when firmly established over their entire surface, seem to exercise a
protective influence against the ordinary causes of the decomposition of the
stone upon which they grow."

503. With regard to the kind of stone which should be employed in the build-
ing of a steading, it must be determined by the mineral product of the locality

STONES. 135

in which it is proposed to erect it. In all localities where stone is accessible, it
should be preferred to every other material ; but where its carriage is distant,
and of course expensive, other materials, such as brick or clay, must be taken.
In large flat tracts of country, stone is generally at too great a distance ; but
in those situations, clay being abundant, brick may be easily made, and it makes
an excellent building material for walls, and far superior to the old-fashioned
clay walls which were in vogue before brick became so universally used for
building. Of stone, any kind may be used that is nearest at hand, though
some rocks are much better adapted for building purposes than others.

504. We have already given a description of the most important of these
building rocks, and now finally point out that the worst sort of building-stone
are land-fast boulders of the primitive and trap-rocks, which, although reduci-
ble by gunpowder, and manageable by cleavage into convenient-shaped stones,
incur great labour in their preparation for building ; and even after the stones
are prepared in the best manner they are capable, their beds are frequently very
rough, and jointings coarse, and the variety of texture and colour exhibited by
them render them at the best unsightly objects in a building. They are equally
unsuitable for dry-stone dykes or walls as for buildings ; for in the case of
dykes, they must be used very nearly in their natural state, as the usual charge
for such work will not bear labour being bestowed on the preparation of the
material. They form very good foundation-stones for dry-stone walls. Still,
after all, if no better material for building houses is near at hand than those
boulders, they must be taken as the only natural product the country affords.
There is a class of boulders composed chiefly of micaceous sandstone, found
in banks of gravel, which answer admirably for dry-stone walls, splitting with
ease with a hand-pick into thin layers, and exhibiting a rough surface on
the bed, very favourable to their adherence together in the wall. This species
of building material is abundant in Forfarshire, where specimens of dry-stone
building may be seen of a superior order.

505. In. the following remarks on the general choice of building-stones by Mr
G. Smith, architect in Edinburgh, there is much truth : " The engineer and
architect," says he, " go differently to work in choosing their stones. The
former, in making his experiments for his piers and bridges, selects the
strongest and hardest as most suited to resist great pressure. The latter, for
all architectural decorations, chooses not only the most beautiful as to texture
and uniformity of colour, but those which may be easily cut into the most deli-
cate mouldings, and which, moreover, will stand the winter's frost and the
summer's heat. It may be remarked, that the hardest stones are not always
those which hold out the best against the effects of weather."

506. Preservation of Stone : Kuhlmanris Method. Various methods are now
adopted to prevent the decay of stone. The following is a description of the
method used at the Louvre, Notre Dame, and other places in France, with marked
success : " Two and a quarter parts of silica (flint or clean sand) are fused with
one part of potash ; it is then dissolved by boiling under pressure, in from eight
to ten times its weight of water. The stonework of old buildings is thoroughly
cleansed of all that might prejudice its absorbing qualities. Troughs nugged
with clay are placed against the part of the building intended to be silicated, so
as to collect the solution, which is applied with a syringe at intervals of three
or four hours for about four days, or till the stone (when dry) ceases to absorb.
It is considered desirable that this process should be repeated, but to a less ex-
tent, the following year. The colour of the stone is riot materially changed,
provided the absorption is tolerably equal, and the silicalisation effected by a

136 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

number of applications of weak solutions, both of which conditions are necessary
to success."

. 507. M. Kuhlrnann thus explains the rationale of the process of induration thus
effected : " The carbonic acid of the atmosphere separates the silica from the
potash, leaving it deposited in the pores of the stone, when, should the carbonate
of lime be present (as in limestone), it combines with it, and forms the silicate
of lime, while the soluble salt viz. the potash is removed by the rain or other
means." The cost of the process in France is stated by Mr H. H. Burnell to be
Is. 3d. per superficial yard,

508. Daines' Method. Mr Daines, who has devoted considerable attention to
the causes of decay in stone, states it to be his opinion that " alkaline efflor-
escence is the primary cause of decay in stonework. This efflorescence is the
result of chemical agency, not the least of which will be found in the cement
or mortar employed for ' bedding,' .or jointing, the work, as in all cases it may
be observed that crystals are found commencing at the angles or joints of the
work before the walls are thoroughly dry ; and, in the first instance, the disin-
tegration which follows proceeds from the alkaline matter contained in all ce-
ments and mortars now in general use. In many cases it is accelerated by the
employment of sea or salt sand, which is too often used, as the damp developed
on the internal walls of many of our buildings plainly testifies. If pieces of
Bath or Caen stone, one inch thick, be set with a layer of Koman cement be-
tween, and be exposed to the action of the air, it will be found, in the course of
three or four years, that the cement will have so acted upon the stone as to
render it incapable of being crushed by pressure between the thumb and finger
in consequence of its decomposition by the chemical action of the cement. A
proof of the destructive effect of salt upon stonework may be observed in any
seaport town. The stone-buildings which are exposed to the sea-breezes show
plainly this effect. ... In certain localities where the atmosphere is com-
paratively free from that influence, vegetation may be observed as accelerating
the progress of decay." The most obvious effect of salt on stones is to be seen
on the walls of salt-works situate on the sea-shore.

509. As to the remedy for the decay of stone, Mr Daines states, that he em-
ploys a " solution of one part by weight of sublimed sulphur in eight parts of
linseed oil, heated in a sand-bath to a temperature of 278 Fahr, by which pro-
cess the vegetable mucus of the oil is precipitated, and the watery particles
evaporated, and their place supplied by the sulphur, which is readily taken up
by the oil at the above temperature. The solution is applied with a common
painter's brush to the surface of the stone until it will absorb no more. Sulphur
is stated by ancient and modern chemists to be insoluble in water, and to suffer
no change by exposure to air ; and farther, it is known to be a decided foe to
vegetation. . . . For these reasons," says Mr Daines, " I have selected itas :
the basis of the indurating medium. The stone so heated becomes extremely
hard, almost equal to granite ; and so far as I have been able to test its preserv-
ing qualities, a period of four years shows, not only that no decay has taken
place, but time actually seems to increase its hardness."

510. Ransomes Method of Preserving Stone. Mr Frederick Eansome, of Ips-
wich, has introduced a mode of preserving stone by the application of a "wash,"
or substance applied after the manner of paint, by which he states that "the
softest and most friable stone can be rendered impervious and imperishable." ,
The method employed consists in applying to the stone surface a solution of
silicate of soda, allowing this to be absorbed, and finally applying a solution of
the muriate of lime. These two substances, exercising a chemical reaction, fill

STONES. 137

Tip the pores of the stone with an insoluble; substance, the silicate of lime. Ob-
jections have been made to this mode of preserving- stone, on account of the
whitewashed appearance it sometimes gives to stone subjected to the process,
and also from the liability of the particles of silicate of lime, which become
pulverulent when dried, to be washed out by the action of the rain. Mr Ean-
some, however, it is right to state, has answered these objections. A very ex-
tended trial of the method is, while we write, being made at the Baptist Chapel
at Bloomsbury, the result of which will place its capabilities before the public.

oil. The following is the method to be adopted, as recommended by the
patentee : "The surface of the stone, <YC., should be thoroughly cleaned by the
removal of any extraneous matter, and the prepared silicate should then be laid
on evenly with a brush. As soon as this is properly absorbed, and before it has
had time to dry, the prepared calcium, diluted with an equal quantity of water,
should be applied and well worked upon the silicate with a still' brush until all
froth has disappeared in the pores of the stone. When dry, a second coating of
the prepared calcium should be applied to insure the complete neutralisation of
the silicate. Should the stone be of a very absorbent character, it may require
a second dressing, in which case it is better to allow the first application to get
thoroughly dry, and then proceed in the same manner as before. About four
gallons of each solution will be required for every hundred yards of surface."
The above solutions can oidy be obtained of the patentee, Mr Frederick Kan-
some, Whitehall Wharf, Cannon Eow, Westminster, and Patent Stone Works,
Ipswich.

512. Paul's Method of Preserving Stone. Mr Paul applies to the surface of the
stone to be preserved a solution of aluminate of potash. The action of this is
not instantaneous, like that of Mr Eansome's process, but, being gradually de-
composed by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, deposits alumina in the pores
of the stone, and creates an insoluble substance, which is not liable to be acted
on chemically by atmospheric influences or mechanically washed out by rain.

513. Szerelmey's Mode of Preserving Stone. This method, which, under the
auspices of the late Sir Charles Barry, Avho had, it is said, formed a high opinion
of its merits, is being carried out on a large scale at the Houses of Parliament,
Westminster, is a secret. We merely mention the fact, to make the reader
aware of the existence of such an extended trial as is being afforded to the
method, and that he may note the results, which will doubtless be made public
hereafter.

514. Principles of Preservation of Stone. In concluding our remarks on the
preservation of stone, w r e may briefly draw attention to the great point to be at-
tended to, namely, the filling of the pores of the stone with some substance in-
capable of being acted on by atmospheric influences, so that water may not be
allowed to permeate the interior pores. Any application which merely surface-
paints the pores will not be of service, at least it will riot act permanently as a
preservative, but will have to be frequently renewed. The pores must be filled
up, and that to a considerable extent of their length ; and the substance so used
for filling up must be indestructible incapable of being acted on prejudicially
either by chemical or mechanical atmospheric influences.

515. Artificial Stones. A few notes on this subject may be useful, as many
are now being used in practice.

516. Ransomes Artificial Stone. Of artificial stones, perhaps the most cele-
brated, and principally used, is that of Messrs Kansome, known as the " Silicious."
This is composed of " grains of sand, pebbles, portions of limestone, marble, or
granite, or indeed any other material cemented together by a true glass, obtained

138 MATEKIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

by dissolving flint in caustic alkali in a boiler at a high temperature, mixing up
the materials with this solution into a paste of the consistence of putty ; mould-
ing this paste into any required form ; and, after slow air-drying, burning the
articles thus manufactured in a kiln, at a bright red heat, maintained for some
time. In the course of this process the alkali combines with the free silica
and forms a kind of glass, so that the materials become cemented together by a
substance which does not admit of the smallest absorption of moisture, and is
consequently absolutely unattackable by frost. It also resists every other kind
of atmospheric action, and is extremely hard. It possesses, besides, the great
advantage of not contracting sensibly during the last process of baking."

517. Kuhlmann's Artificial Stone. M. N. Kuhlmann has discovered a simple
process by which he converts blocks of chalk, which in its natural state is
easily and cheaply worked into any shape or form, into a hard material re-
sembling stone. It has a smooth appearance, a compact grain, and is suscep-
tible of a high polish; it is also unaffected by damp. The process consists in
subjecting the chalk or soft limestone to the action of a solution of silicate of
potash, lime having a great affinity for silica dissolved in potash. The quantity
of silica taken up by the chalk may be increased by alternately exposing it to
the action of the solution and the air. A cement or plaster, which is capable
of being applied to soft limestone buildings, may be prepared by mixing some
powdered chalk in a solution of silicate of potash. By impregnating the chalk
with metallic sulphates, under circum stances of easy attainment, a variety of
beautiful shades of colour is produced.

518. Enamelled Slate. This seems a fitting place to notice the enamelled
slate of Mr Magnus of Pimlico. The patentee, by a simple process the nature
of which is not publicly known gives to slabs of slate all the appearance
of beautifully grained marbles with highly polished surfaces. In addition to
the beauty of the material thus prepared, it possesses the advantage of lightness
with a strength equal to about four times that of ordinary stone. This enables
long slabs of it to be used for various purposes the lining of walls, butts,
chimney-pieces, wash-stand tops, &c.

519. Artijiclal Materials for the production of Architectural Decoration. In ad-
dition to stucco, a variety of materials are now used for the production of orna-
ments in relief, such as carton pierre, papier mache, and leather. Carton pierre
is composed of the pulp of paper, mixed with whiting and glue. This is pressed
into moulds of plaster backed with paper, and, when set, dried in a drying-room.
From its lightness, strength, and ease of application, this material is now be-
coming much used for decorative purposes. Messrs Jackson and Sons, Kathbone
Place, manufacture it extensively. Papier mache, as used for architectural de-
coration, is prepared by gluing sheets of brown paper together, and pressing
them into metal moulds. After receiving the impress of these, it is trimmed,
and a composition of paper pulp, rosin, and glue poured into the mould, in
which the paper is again inserted ; as it is pressed upon the composition, a sharp
well-defined ornament is produced. Leather is now used to produce ornaments
in relief, being stamped by powerful hydraulic pressure, the relieved parts being
filled in at the back with a composition. Vulcanised India-rubber and gutta-
percha are also used for the production of decorative ornaments in relief.

520. SECTION SECOND Brick. If properly made, bricks are little inferior in
strength, hardness, and durability, to the building-stones in ordinary use. When
broken across, their fracture should present a fine, compact, and uniform texture,
of a brownish colour : a whole brick, when struck, should give a clear ringing

BRICK. 139

sound. In Scotland considerable prejudice exists against the use of bricks,
as compared with stone, more especially for domestic structures.

521. The following remarks from the Report on the Condition of the Labouring
Population are deserving of serious consideration, as showing that, as respects
the prevention of damp at all events, stone is not so useful as is generally sup-
posed : " Wood and wattled houses, such as our forefathers built, are the driest
and warmest of all ; brick is inferior in both these requisites of a comfortable
house ; but stone, especially the unhewn stone, as it is unnecessarily employed
for cottages, is the very worst material possible for the purpose. The evil
arises from two causes : the stone is not impervious to water, especially when
the rain is accompanied by high winds, and it sucks up the moisture of the
ground, and gives it out into the rooms ; but principally stone is a good con-
ductor of heat and cold, so that the walls, cooled down by the outer air, are con-
tinually condensing the moisture contained in the warmer air of the cottage,
just as the windows steam on a frosty morning ; besides, the abstraction of

heat iu stone houses must be a serious inconvenience Of course I do not

attribute all the damp of our cottages to the stone much of it is due to the wet
climate, soil, and building so near the ground ; but the stone, as a material of
building, must bear a considerable share of the blame."

522. Advantages of Brick. And here we may perhaps be permitted to give
a few sentences on this subject which we some time since contributed to the
pages of the Agricultural Gazette, noting here only that, although the remarks
were made more particularly with reference to the advantages of bricks for
cottage building, they are obviously applicable to the other buildings of the farm :
" Of the various materials employed for walls, none combine so many of the
essentials necessary to secure good construction as brick. It is easier set up,
admits of good joints being secured, and gives rise to none of the vacuities
observable in rubble walls, which harbour mice and rats, so annoying to the
farmer, especially in the steading, and is less liable to atmospheric influences
than stone. An inspection of a vast number of houses in England and Scotland
has gone far to convince us that the employment of brick in Scotland would
lessen the number of damp houses there so often met with ; for it is a notorious
fact, which even a most cursory inspection will show, that there is a much
higher proportion of damp houses of stone in Scotland than amongst brick
houses in England. Nor is this to be attributed to the difference of the climate.
Some districts of Lancashire, not a hundred miles from Manchester, enjoy a
far more unenviable reputation for rain and humidity than many parts of Scot-
land; and yet there is a marvellously small proportion of damp houses met with
in those districts small compared with similarly humid districts in Scotland. . .
. . Nor need the want of solidity be brought against brick w T alls; a well-built
9-inch brick wall will compare very favourably with a 24-inch stone wall, built
in the wretchedly scrimped honeycomb system too often passed off as good
work in Scotland. Neither in view of the economical features of construction
is brick as a building material to be classed as low as it is in Scotland. Esti-
mates for cottages of brick would contrast favourably with those of stone, eveiy-
thing else being equal in both cases. Not seldom have we heard astonishment
expressed at the low rate at which good cottages, with ample accommodation

and convenient fittings, can be built in England It is easy to bring

vague objections against brick houses as to being cold, and to indulge in jokes
at the expense of their solidity ; but it should be remembered that the winters
of England are little less severe than those of Scotland, and the inhabitants of
the former as keenly alive as to what constitutes household comfort as those of

140 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

the latter country, and that the apparent thickness of Scotch walls does not
always insure dryness or warmth."

523. SECTION THIRD Slates Tiles. Blue slate is derived from the primitive
rock clay-slate. It occurs in large quantities through the mountainous parts of
the kingdom. Good slate should not absorb water, and it should be so compact
as to resist the action of the atmosphere. When it imbibes moisture, it becomes
covered with moss, and then rapidly decays.

524. The principal blue-slate quarries in Great Britain are in Wales, Lanca-
shire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, Argyll, and Perth shires. The most exten-
sive quarry is in Caernarvonshire, in Wales, near the town of Bangor, on the
Penrhyn estate. It employs 1500 men and boys. The Welsh slate is very
large and smooth, and much of it is fit for putting into frames for writing-slates.
When used very large, being thin, it is apt to warp on change of temperature.
The English slates at Ulverstone, in Lancashire, and in the counties of West-
moreland and Cumberland, are not so lai'ge as the Welsh, but equally smooth
and good. The Easdale slates, in Argyllshire, are small, thick, waved on the
surface, and contain many cubical crystals of iron pyrites, but its durability is
endless. Being a small and heavy slate, it requires a stout roofing of timber to
support it. The Ballachulish slates are rather smoother and lighter than the
Easdale, though also small, and containing numerous crystals of iron pyrites,
and is equally durable. The slates in Perthshire are of inferior quality to either
of these. " The ardesia of Easdale," says Professor Jameson, " was first quar-
ried about a hundred years ago ; but was for a long time of little importance, as
sandstone flags and tiles were generally used for roofing houses. As the use of
slates became more prevalent, the quarries were enlarged, so that 5,000,000
slates are annually shipped from this island. The number of workmen is at
present (in 1800) about 300, and they are divided into quarriers and day-
labourers. The quarriers are paid annually at a certain rate for every 1000
slates, from lOd. to 15d., I believe, as their work has been attended with more
or less difficulty. The day-labourers are employed in opening new quarries,
and have from lOd. to Is. a-day."

525. Slates are assorted into sizes at the quarry. The following are the dis-
tinctive names and sizes of slates known in the trade : Doubles, 13 inches by
6 ; ladies, 15 inches by 8 ; countesses, 20 inches by 10 ; duchesses, 24 inches
by 12 ; rags, 36 inches by 24 ; queens, same size as rags. This size, 3 feet
by 2, may be taken as the average size of rags and queens, there being no de-
finite size for these classes. The dimensions of the remaining classes, imperials
and patent Wyatts, are 30 inches by 24. Slates are sold by long tale, 1200
for 1000 : 100 feet superficial is termed a square. Of doubles, 1000 (1200) will
cover 2^ squares ; of ladies, 4f squares ; of countesses, 1\ squares ; and of
duchesses, 10 squares. The weight per square of the three latter classes is
nearly 6 cwt. Of rags and queens, a ton will cover nearly 2 squares ; of im-
perials and patent Wyatts, from 2 \ to 2| squares.

526. Grey Slates are pretty smooth on the surface, and when so compact in
texture as to resist moisture, form a durable though very heavy roof.

527. The cost of grey slating depends on the locality where it is wished to be
done. At Edinburgh it costs L.6 a-rood ; whereas in Forfarshire, the matrix of
the grey slate, it can be done, exclusive of carriage, for L.2, 10s. the rood. In
Forfarshire the slates cost L.4 per 1000 ; 360 are required for a rood ; the put-
ting them on, including dressing, holing, pins for the slates, and nails for the
lath, costs only 15s.; and with moss for bedding, Is., and lime for teething, 3s.

SLATES TILES. 141

,22s. tlie rood. The droved angular freestone ridging- stone,. always accompany-
ing grey slating, including carriage, costs (Jd. a lineal foot, or H)s. the rood.

528. Grey slates are obtained in best quality from grey slaty inferior sand-
stone, belonging to the old red sandstone series. They are derived from the
same quarries as the far-famed Avbroatli pavement, being, in fact, formed by
the action of frost on pavement, set on edge for the purpose. A mild winter is
thus unfavourable to the making of slates. From Carmylie to For far, in Forfar-
shire, is the great iield for the supply of grey slates ; and as blue slates could
only be obtained there by sea and long land carriage, before the introduction of
railways, and there is little clay lit % tiles, they constituted the chief roofing of
cottages and small farmhouses in that part of the country, their aspect being
cold and unpicturesque, though snug enough. The easy transit now by rail-
ways may effect a material change in that quarter in favour of blue slates.

529. Of all sorts of slating, there is none equal to blue slate for appearance,
comfort, and even economy in the long-run. When a blue-slate roof is well
executed at first, with good materials, it will last a very long time. Tile-
roofs are constantly requiring repairs, and the employment of grey slate is a
sacrifice of, and a burden upon, timber. Of the blue slates, the Welsh give
the cheapest roofing, being larger and much lighter than Scotch or English
slates.

530. Tiles. Tiles should be smooth on the surface, compact, and ring freely
when struck, when they will resist water. When they imbibe moisture by
porosity, they soon decay in winter by the effects of rain and frost.

531. SECTION FOURTH. Mortar, Concrete, Bet on. Hydraulic Cements, and
Cements.

532. Mortar is a combination of lime and sand. Lime, in its ordinary state
of carbonate, is useless for building purposes ; but, when burnt, a new substance
is produced, which has a powerful affinity for water : this new substance is termed
an oxide of calcium. When water is added to this, a hydrate is formed, which,
when combined with sand, forms a new substance again namely, a silicate.
The office which the sand performs is simply to act as neueli, round which the
crystals of carbonate of lime, and the portions of silicate which are formed, may
arrange themselves. Sand, therefore, must not be rotten or friable ; moreover,
it must contain no salt calculated to make the lime soluble ; hence the use of
sea-sand must be avoided.

533. The Sands used for the preparation of mortar are generally classed as pit,
river, and sea sands. Of these, river-sand is generally considered the best, pit-
sand being dirty and sometimes friable ; while the sea-sand is objectionable for
the reason stated in last paragraph, as also from walls built with it being pe-
culiarly liable to atmospheric influences, soon showing damp, arising from the
affinity salt has for moisture. A mixture of coarse and fine sand is better than
sand of equal fineness. For good mortar, the proportion of Kino to sand should
be two and a half of sand to one of lime.

534. Concrete is a compound of lime finely pulverised, gravel, or broken'stones
the more angular the better and sand. The whole must be mixed up near
the spot where the concrete is to be used, as it sets very quickly. The propor-
tions of this compound vary with the locality, and with the practice of engineers.
The lime must be fresh burned, and pulverised without slacking. A proportion
adopted in London is five parts of gravel and sand to one of lime. The materials
are thoroughly mixed up while dry, and a little water is then added to bring the
whole to the consistence of mortar; it is then quickly worked up with a shovel,

142 MATEEIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

and applied. In filling in foundations, it is considered by some a good plan to
" toss " in the concrete from some height, as it tends to consolidate the mass.
A contrary result may, however, be appi-ehended, as it tends, we think, to separ-
ate the constituent parts. When first made, the bulk of concrete is less than
the bulk of the materials of which it was composed ; but the mass ultimately
expands, in the proportion of nearly half an inch in height for every foot of
depth.

535. In some instances concrete is applied in blocks as a building material,
but both in durability and transverse strength it is very deficient. Away from
atmospheric influences, such blocks may be used in the interior of thick walls.
As a material for securing a good foundation, and for the prevention of damp, it
is exceedingly valuable, and is deservedly in high repute.

536.- The term Beton is applied to any mixture of hydraulic lime with frag-
ments of brick, stone, or gravel. The most economical mixture, and one which
is very good, is broken stone or brick, in fragments of the size of pigeon eggs,
with coarse and fine gravel. In preparing beton, the lime is first prepared, with
which is next incorporated the finer quality of gravel used. This is then spread
out where required to a depth of some 4 or 6 inches, over which the coarse gravel
and broken fragments of stone or brick are then strewed, and the whole brought
to a well-mixed condition with water by the spade or the lime-hoe. Beton is
superior to concrete, especially for foundations under water, or in wet soils.

537. Hydraulic Cements. Pure lime, when reduced to a paste by the addition
of water, has no tendency to harden the lime, after the water has evaporated,
returning to its original dry condition. Different effects are produced, however,
on different limes by the addition of water : thus, in some, termed "rich or fat
limes," the bulk is much increased ; in others the bulk is very slightly altered.
These last are termed "poor" or "meagre" limes, and are those only which,
in combination with silica, alumina, and magnesia, have the power of harden-
ing under water. This combination of poor limes with silica, &c., is called a
hydraulic mortar or cement.

538. There are various methods of forming this species of cement Smeaton's
mortar, as used at the Eddystone lighthouse, was " composed of equal parts of
Aberthaw lime in the state of hydrate of lime in fine powder, and puzzolano also
in fine powder, well beaten till it had acquired the utmost degree of toughness."
Puzzolano is a volcanic concrete thrown up from Vesuvius ; it is so named from
the town Puzzuoli, where it was first found. An artificial puzzolano is prepared
by burning clay. The cement or hydraulic mortar used by the Romans was
composed of two parts of puzzolano to one of lime. The facing of the London
docks was cemented with an excellent mortar, composed of four parts of lias
lime, six of river-sand, one of calcined limestone, and one of puzzolano. A good
hydraulic mortar may be composed of two and a half parts of burnt clay to one
part of blue lias lime, to be pulverised between rollers, mixed, and used im-
mediately.

539. Many calcareous clays or argillaceous limestones possess the property of
hardening under water when made into lime or hydraulic cement. When the
proportion of clay is only about 10 or 12 per cent, the hydraulic cement made
from these takes about twenty days to set in moist places. The hardening,
however, takes place in two or three days, when the proportion of clay reaches
to 20 or 25 per cent. A minute division of the clay, and a condition in which
part of the silica is given up on the application of caustic potash, is considered
to give the best results.

540. Roman or Parker s Cement is made in England from nodules of calcareous

CEMENTS. 143

matter, found in the London clays of Shoppoy and Harwich, and the Oxford and
Kimmeridge clays. The Medina Cement, so called, is of the same kind, but of
lighter colour, and is made from the Hampshire septaria. Atkinson's Cement
is made from the lias.

541. Portland Cement. The most important of the artificial hydraulic cements
is that known as Portland, ft is " made from carbonate of lime mixed in defi-
nite proportions with the argillaceous deposit of some rivers, running over clay
and chalk." The whole are pounded together and afterwards dried and burnt.
It is called Portland cement irom its colour, resembling that of the well-known
Portland stone. It is a cement possessed of extraordinary strength, being four
times nearly as great as that of any of the natural hydraulic cements. It forms,
when mixed with small or even with broken bricks, a concrete of great strength :
the proportion of cement required being so small as a tenth or even a twelfth
part.

542. At the Great Exhibition of 1851 a series of interesting and valuable ex-
periments were made to test the cohesive strength of Portland cement, as com-
pared with Parker's or Roman. In one experiment, " a block of neat Portland
cement, having a sectional area of 1C inches (4 indies square) was suspended
from each end, and the weight applied exactly in the centre. The block had
been made four months. It broke at 1580 Ib. The fracture was perpendicular,
even, and good. An exactly similar block of neat Roman cement, made from
Harwich stone, and seven weeks old, broke at 380 Ib. This must have been
a bad sample of the material."

543. A block of neat Portland cement, having a sectional area, measuring 2j
inches by 2 inches, was pulled asunder, with the fracture, as shown at the top,
at 2280 Ib. A block of Portland stone, having the same sectional area, and in
all respects resembling the above, broke at 1480 Ib. The fracture showed no
flaw in the stone, which was of even grain and sound quality.

544. The principal experiment was the breaking of a beam constructed of
ten courses of hollow bricks, cemented together, the upper part with three courses
on edge and four on the flat, the lower two on edge and one on the flat. They
were put together with Portland cement, and strengthened with hoop-iron band,
H-inch broad and 1-lGth of an inch thick. Fifteen of these iron hoops were in-
serted. The following were the dimensions of the beam :

Feet. Indies.
Total length, ... .. . 24 4

Length between bearings, .. . 21 4

Depth, ... .. .46

Thickness at bottom, .. . 23

Do. at top, .. .16

The total weight of the beam, including 1200 bricks, 32 bushels of cement, and
32 of sand, was 17,150 Ib. 672 Ib. of stone were placed at the top of the
beam. The weight of the attached scale was 1792, and the suspended portion
of beam 15,000 making the total suspended weight 17,464. The total sec-
tional area cemented was 700 square inches, and the depth of the beam being
52J inches, the measure of its strength was 700 x 52 J = 36,750. For some
months the beam was unsupported, carrying the weight as above stated, 17,464
Ib. A weight of 15,000 Ib. was loaded on the beam at the centre ; the load-
ing was continued after some days, till it reached the amount of 41,000 Ib.,
which caused a deflection of nearly four-eighths of an inch. 41,600 Ib. caused
two cracks on each side of the fourth brick from the centre, and not long after-
wards a crack exactly in the centre. On the addition of 10,000 Ib. to the load
the piers were affected, as shown by the breaking of a string which was stretched

144 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

from one end to the other, and attached to the piers to measure the deflection.
This weight caused the crack to extend through the six lower courses, and in-
creased the deflection to 5-16ths of an inch. The weight being increased to
62,800 lb., which was borne for a short time, all the fissures widened, the centre
crack extending vertically alike through cement and bricks ; the piers were
ultimately thrust a considerable distance out of the "plumb," and the beam
broke into two parts.

545. The beam tested with Eoman cement was of the ordinary stock-bricks,
banded as usual, bedded and jointed with cement composed of equal proportions of
best Roman cement and clean Thames sand. In this beam there were nineteen
courses, the thirteen upper ones being two bricks deep, and the six lower ones 2|-
inches fifteen bands of hoop-iron being inserted, 1^-inch broad and l-16th of
an inch thick. The sectional area was 1107 inches, the distance between the
bearings being 21 feet 4 inches. After having been built for three months it
was loaded with a weight of 11,200 lb., suspended, as usual, from the centre.
At the end of another period of three months the weight was increased
24,000 lb. ; after twelve months it broke down with a weight of 50,622 lb.

546. " The true comparative strength," says the reporters, " of Roman and
Portland cement, is perhaps not so well tested as if the bricks had been of the
same kind in the two experiments ; but, estimating as nearly as circumstances
will admit, it appears that the Portland bears to the Roman a ratio of 2^ to 1,
very nearly. It must, however, be remembered that the Roman cement beam
had been built seventeen months, and the Portland only five, a fact greatly in
favour of the former material."

547. To ascertain the resistance of Portland cement to crushing weights, the
following experiments were instituted : " A block of neat Portland cement,
manufactured by Messrs Robin, Aspden, & Co., thirty days old, measuring 18
inches by 9 x 9, was tested by a Bramah's hydrostatic press, and is said to have
withstood a pressure of 41 tons for upwards of a minute, when it broke up with
a report. A similar block of one part cement and one sand, twenty-eight days
old, cracked at 108 tons. Another, four sand and one cement, at 45 tons ; and
another, nine sand and one cement, at 4| tons. A small piece of neat Portland
cement, exposing a surface of l inch by 1 inch, and six months old, withstood a
pressure of 40,320 lb., while a piece of Portland stone, of the same size, cracked at
2576 lb." For details of other experiments, see the Jury Report of the Great
Exhibition of 1851, pp. 587-9.

548. Of the cements known as Martins, Keene's, and Parian, sulphate of lime
or gypsum is the base. In these " the plaster in the state of fine powder is
thrown into a vessel containing a saturated solution of alum, sulphate of pot-
ash or borax. After soaking for some hours it is removed and air-dried, and
subsequently rebaked at a brownish-red heat. When taken out of the oven it
is once more reduced to a fine powder, and carefully sifted, after which it is
fit for use, but when slacked a solution of alum is employed instead of pure
water. The cement is called Parian when borax is used ; Keene's when sul-
phate of potash ; and in Martin's, pearl-ash as well as alum is employed."

549. Keene's, Parian, and Martin's cements are principally used for decorative
purposes, but so far as the Farm Buildings are concerned, a much more practical
value is attached to them, from the circumstance of their being peculiarly well
adapted for forming skirtings of granaries, barns, &c., uninjured by damp and
perfectly vermin proof.

550. Stucco for decoration is a combination of plaster-of-Paris calcined
gypsum with a solution of gelatine or strong glue.

CEMENTS. 145

551. Scagllola. Tins material is much used as an economical means of
imitating the finer kinds of marble. It consists of a coating of plaster mixed
with alum and colour into a paste, and afterwards beaten with fragments of
marble. The surface on which it is to be laid is previously prepared with a
" key" of lime and hair. In this work, resembling as it does that of the fresco-
painter, everything depends upon the skill of the operator.

552. Marine Cement.- An excellent marine cement, according to Mr Chalmers,
may be artificially obtained by " submitting to a moderate heat a mixture of 70
to 80 parts of pure limestone, and 20 to 25 parts of fine sand or flint ; a defi-
nite silicate of lime which, in forming a hydrate, .takes up six atoms of water.
The more intimate the previous mixture of the materials the better." The
same authority has the following remarks on marine cements : " Cements
which set quickly, and are prepared under moderate heat, are always difficult
to manage in marine works, as they contain no free lime, and consequently
their hardness is all that preserves them from the influence of the sea-water.
They may, however, be improved by adding a certain proportion of lime, and
letting the mixture stand a considerable time. Natural or artificial cements,
well burnt, and containing only a small portion of quicklime, such as those of
Parker, the Medina, or the Portland, owe the great solidity which they acquire
under water almost entirely to the presence of the hydro-silicate, as Si. 0' ! + Ca.
+ H. contains less water by half than the corresponding silicate produced
in the hydraulic lime or cement which is burnt at a lower temperature. These
we find to answer best for works which are constantly immersed. They would
not probably answer so well for those exposed on each side to the effects of
water at varying heights. Artificial puzzolana but seldom gives good results.
With natural puzzolana fat lime should be used in preference to hydraulic lime;
and it is most important to submit the mixture previously to a long soaking in
a small quantity of water. This plan is adopted by the Dutch engineers, and
tends to account for their remarkable success."

553. The same authority lays particular stress on the following qualities
essential to the formation of good marine cement. The materials to be most
thoroughly pulverised before mixing. " Sufficient free lime must be present
to allow the carbonic acid in the water to combine with it, and form a protecting
coating of carbonate. A long soaking of the materials, in order that the
chemical combination necessary for the ultimate stability of the mortar, may
take place before it is actually used."

554. Medina Cement for Farm Structure. Labourers' cottages have been
constructed by Messrs Francis & Sons, of Vauxhall, of Medina cement concrete.
The concrete is made of sea-beach or washed gravel stones, with a small por-
tion of Medina cement, in quantity sufficient to bind the stones together, but
without filling the vacuities ; a hollow wall is produced which dries instantly,
so that the building can be inhabited a week after erection. The concrete is
laid between an inner and outer row of planks, which, after the concrete is set,
are taken down, and can be used to form the floors, doors, &c., or used in the
erection of another building. The chimney-stack is similarly formed, and
lined with drain-pipes. The top of the wall is finished with a wooden wall-
plate, to receive the roof. A hut 40 feet by 20 can be erected for 100, or if
with party-walls, giving two cottages with three rooms each, 140, or 70
each.

555. Two huts were erected at 'Shorncliff upon this principle, and in con-
nection with which the Inspector-General of Fortifications granted the following
certificate : " These buildings give great satisfaction, and have been highly

146 MATEEIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

approved of by the officers and soldiers who inhabit them. They are superior
to 9-inch brick work, as that description of wall will not keep out the wet
without being plastered ; whereas the Medina cement concrete huts are, from
the nature of their construction, necessarily plastered, and are therefore warm
and dry. They are also very strong and substantial, and as well adapted for
two storeys as one. Their great advantage over brick, or indeed wooden huts,
is the rapidity and economy with which they can be constructed, combined
with a durability little if at all affected by time." This principle of construc-
tion is obviously applicable to the erection of various structures of the farm,
especially of sheds for stock in the fields.

556. Cements for Lining Water-Cisterns, Tanks, fyc., may be easily made by
mixing 2^ parts of chalk with 1 of lime, and applying them in the state of a
paste, of a consistence easily applied : this will be found useful for lining
cisterns, &c.

557. Stone cisterns may be put together with a cement made of boiled lin-
seed-oil, litharge, red and white lead, mixed together till of proper consistence.
The proportion of ingredients may be varied, care being taken not to make
the cement too thin. This cement is also useful for joining flanges of iron
pipes, &c.

558. Cracks in Iron Boilers can be stopped up by a cement made by mixing
6 parts of clay and 1 of iron-filings, with as much linseed-oil as will make the
cement of a proper consistence.

559. Pottery, Drain-Tubes, and Articles of Stone, may be fixed with a cement
made of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of bees'-wax, melted and mixed with a small
quantity of gypsum, or plaster-of-Paris, or pounded chalk. In cementing such
articles as are mentioned, it should be borne in mind that the thinner the
stratum of cement between the two surfaces the firmer will be their adher-
ence.

560. A Cement useful for Joining Glass, $c., and metallic surfaces, is made as
follows : " To an ounce of mastic add as much highly rectified spirits of wine
as will dissolve it. Soak an ounce of isinglass in water until quite soft, then
dissolve it in pure rum or brandy, until it form a strong glue, to which add about
a quarter of an ounce of gum-ammoniac, well rubbed and mixed. Put the two
mixtures together in an earthen vessel over a gentle heat ; when well united,
the mixture to be put in a phial, and well stopped." In using it, the phial must
be placed in warm water to melt the cement ; the edges of the glass to be
joined should also be warmed. After the cement is put on, the edges should be
kept in close contact for at least twelve hours.

561. A Cement well adapted for Filling up Holes in Roofs, Stone Walls, $<?.,
and which hardens by exposure, is made by mixing up white sand and white
lead to a consistence rather thicker than that of ordinary paint. It may be
used for stopping up leaks in cisterns, &c.

562. A Cement applicable for the Covering of Exterior Work, Lining of Cisterns,
$c., may be made as follows : Take 6 parts of burnt clay, 1 part of white lead,
1 part of litharge (red oxide of lead), and 3 parts of linseed-oil. Vauban's
cement for lining cisterns is made by slaking 5 or 6 parts of rich lime in
linseed-oil, and mixing this up with 2 parts of cement, passed through a fine
sieve. The cement should be well incorporated, and allowed to lie for a night,
and beaten up and applied next day. It is to be laid on in thin coats, about
^-inch thick, some days being suffered to elapse before the succeeding coats
are put on. Each coat should be scored, to form a key for the succeeding one.
The last coat is of course left smooth.

EXTERIOR FINISHINGS. 147

563. SECTION FIFTH. Exterior Finishings, Rough-Casting, Stuccoing. We
purpose giving a few hints on the finishing of external walls, as rough-casting,
stuccoing, &c. The outside icalh <>f pi*e /muses arc finished in two ways these
are, rough-cast and stucco. Rough-cast consists of a small quantity of mortar
diluted with water in a tub ; to this a trowelful of pure lime is added, so as to
make the whole of the thickness of cream. To finish the Avails with greater
expedition, the joist-holes may be left not filled up ; into these, joists may be
inserted, on which to place scaffolding to bear the operatives. The "walls are
prepared for plastering by indenting them all over from top to bottom with
numerous hammer or pick marks: the closer these arc to each other the better.
The rough-cast is laid on as follows : The indentations in the wall being first
carefully swept, the wall being sprinkled witli water, the workman takes his
brush filled with rough-cast mortar and dashes it against the wall. The in-
dentations in the wall give the appearance of the ordinary rough-cast with peb-
bles in it. The scaffolding being placed at the top of the wall, he lowers his
scaffold, takes out the joists, fills up the holes with bricks, mortar, &c., and,
fastening his scaffold lower down, proceeds as before.

564. Stucco for outside work is made with one bushel of unslaked lime to
six bushels of clean sharp sand. Stucco-finishing is laid on as follows : The
walls being previously indented, swept, and sprinkled with water, the workman
places some mortar on a flat piece of board 12 inches square, provided with a
handle, and with a plastering-trowel lays this on the wall, pressing it closely
between the indentations, and working the surface, finally, fair and level, it
being sprinkled at the same time by means of a brush with some of the thin
mortar, the poorer the mortar the better the stucco. Lime-wash is vised as a
final covering to the stuccoed wall. This is made by dissolving some unslaked
lime in clear water, and sprinkling it on the wall before the stucco is dry.
When applied in this manner the stucco sets very hard, and the white colour
of the wash is so incorporated with it that it will never wash off, although no
size or oil is used indeed, the using of these renders the white dead and less
brilliant ; whereas, if the lime-wash is alone used, the colour will remain -natu-
rally as long white as the plaster lasts. All the plastering should be done at
one time : new plastering never sets well with old. It is absolutely essential
that the walls shall be thoroughly dry before the plaster is laid on. If this is
not attended to, the plaster will inevitably scale and blister off, leaving un-
seemly spots.

565. The method of Rough- Casting Riiblle Stone or Brick Walls is as follows:
First wash the earth from the gravel or coarse sand, and bring it to a uniform
size by sifting it, or passing it through a screen ; mix the gravel with newly-
slaked lime and water, to the consistence of thick cream. Having cleaned
the part of the wall to be operated on with a rough brush, a coat of lime and
hair is laid on smooth, and, as fast as some two or three square yards are finished,
the rough-cast is thrown upon it. Some recommend the first coat of lime and
hair to be allowed to dry, and a second coat put on, upon which the rough-cast is
finally thrown. Instead of throwing the rough-cast on, small pebbles may be
stuck in the mortar while yet in a soft state. This, however, is a tedious process.

566. Mr Downing recommends a strong and durable stucco for the finishing of
the outside of rough brick and stone walls, as follows : " Take stone lime fresh
from the kiln, and of the best quality, such as is known to make a strong and
durable mortar. Slake it by sprinkling or pouring over it just water enough
to leave it, when slaked, in the condition of a fine dry powder, and not a paste.
Set up a ^-inch wire-screen at an inclined plane, and throw this powder against

148 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

it. What passes through is fit for use ; that which remains behind contains the
core, which would spoil the stucco, and must be rejected. Having obtained the
sharpest sand to be had, and having washed it so that not a particle of the mud
and dirt (which destroy the tenacity of most stuccoes) remains, and screened it, to
give some uniformity to the size, mix it with the lime in powder, in the propor-
tion of two parts sand to one part lime. This is the best proportion of lime stucco.
More lime would make a stronger stucco, but one by no means so hard and
hardness and tenacity are both needed. The mortar must now be made by add-
ing water, and working it thoroughly. On the tempering of the mortar greatly
depends its tenacity. The wall to be stuccoed should be first prepared by
clearing off all loose dirt, mortar, &c., with a stiff broom. Then apply the mor-
tar in two coats : the first a rough coat, to cover the inequalities of the wall,
the second as a finishing coat. The latter, however, should be put on before
the former is dry, and as soon, indeed, as the first coat is sufficiently firm to
receive it : the whole should then be well floated, trowelled, and marked off ; and
if it is to be coloured in water-colour, the wash should be applied so as to set
with the stucco.

567. Whitewash for External Walls. A cheap wash for the outside of wood
cottages, outbuildings, &c., is made by slaking fresh quicklime with boiling
water, and adding some sulphate of zinc sufficient water being put in to
bring the whole to the consistence of cream. The addition of the sulphate of
zinc tends to harden the wash, and make it more durable. The addition of a
little sulphate of iron will give the wash a warm tint, which will be much more
agreeable to the eye than the pure white resulting from the above.

568. A wash useful for brick and stone walls, rongh-casted or stuccoed, is
made by mixing equal quantities of clean, sharp, and rather coarse sand, and of
fresh-burnt lime, in 6 or 8 gallons of water. This is to be laid on the walls
with a brush, care being taken to stir the mixture up each time the brush is
dipt into it, so as to mix the sand well up.

569. The following is the recipe for making the celebrated stucco white-
wash used in the President's house at Washington, United States : " Take
half a bushel of good unslaked lime, slake it with boiling water, covering
it during the process to keep in the steam. Strain the liquor through a fine
sieve or strainer, and add to it a peck of clean salt previously dissolved in warm
water ; three pounds of good rice, ground to a thin paste, and stirred in while
boiling hot ; half-a-pound of powdered Spanish whiting, and a pound of clean
glue, which has been previously dissolved by first soaking it well, and then
hanging it over a slow fire in a small kettle, within a large one filled with water.
Add 5 gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir it well, and let it stand a few
days covered from dirt. It should be put on quite hot : for this purpose it can
be kept in a kettle on a portable furnace. It is said that one pint of this mixture
will cover a square yard upon the outside of a house, if properly applied. ....
It retains its brilliancy for years. Any required tinge can be given to the pre-
paration by the addition of colouring matter."

570. A fawn colour may be made by mixing four parts of amber, one of
Indian red, and half a part of lamp-black, previously dissolved in alcohol.

571. SECTION SIXTH. Finishing of Interior Walls Plastering. In many cot-
tages, &c., the stucco already described as useful for outside may be adopted for
inside walls, partitions, &c. Plaster proper is made of gypsum, or sulphate of
lime ; this is burned or calcined in a simple rectangular kiln or enclosure, formed
of brick walls. The largest lumps or stones of lime are placed on the floor of

INTEUIOII FINISHINGS. . 149

tlie kiln, in such a way as to form, as it were, a series of arches, into the space of
which the firewood or fuel used in calcining 1 is put, the smaller stones being placed
above. After being calcined, the time lor which operation varies according to
the quantity of lime to be burnt, the lime is powdered either by hand or a mill,
after which it is protected from the atmosphere until ready to be prepared for
plaster. This is done by slaking the powder with water, the quantity of water
depending on the degree of stiffness required in the plaster.

572. The first coat is laid on the walls in a thinnish state, and left rough to
take on the next coat, which must be laid on stiff, and smoothed up with a
hand-trowel, the surface being levelled with a flat rule. For ordinary work, a
plaster termed " coarse stuff" may be made of common mortar mixed with
coarse hair cattle or horse, from the tanyard and thoroughly incorporated.
In laying this on brick or stone walls, the first coat, which is termed " render-
ing," is to be crossed or made rough with the trowel, in order to form a key to
the next coat. This not done where the work is " two coats " only.

573. In this case the first coat or " rendering" is left smooth; the second coat
is then put above this the material for the second coat being of pure lime
slaked with a small quantity of water, more being finally added to bring it to
the thickness of cream. After being allowed to settle, the water is poured off,
and the lime allowed to remain, till, by the evaporation, it is brought to a
proper thickness for working. Where fine stuff is used for ceilings, a little hair
is mixed with it, the colour of this being white.

574. Three-coat work is executed by first laying on a coat of coarse stuff,
crossing it with the trowel ; then above this another coat, smooth and floated
with a rule, and then finished with a "set," or smooth coat of fine stuff.

575. In partitions where laths are placed across the timbers, and in ceilings
where only one coat of coarse stuff is laid on between the laths, the operation
is termed " lath and plaster." A more finished method, where laths are used,
is by first laying on a coat (leaving it crossed) of coarse stuff, thereafter a coat
of fine stuff; a still higher kind of finish being first, a coat of rough stuff,
crossed ; next, a second coat, smoothed ; lastly, a coat of fine stuff.

576. The tools used in plastering are simple a variety of trowels, a small
square board on which to place a quantity of plaster while working, a handle
being placed on its lower side by which it is held. The float is a rule which
may be long enough to be worked by two men it is used for levelling the
surface.

577. Painting Distemper. Plastered walls may be painted in distemper that
is, by colours worked up with size instead of oil. The size is formed of a solu-
tion of glue. A good substitute for this size can be made by preparing potato-
starch, adding some of it to a mixture of whiting and water. This colour has
no smell, and makes a beautiful white colouring-wash for ceilings. Where whit-
ing cannot be procured, chalk may be pounded very fine, and washed with pure
water. In mixing up whiting and size for this kind of painting, any desired tint
may be given by adding the colour finely ground. It must be borne in mind,
however, that the colour will dry on the walls of a lighter tint than when mixed
up ready to be used. The proper tint can be easily decided on by painting a
piece of paper, and allowing it to dry. Two coats must be given in painting
distemper.

578. Where old plastered walls become stained, and it is desired to have them
painted in distemper, the surface of the wall should be cleaned, and one coat of
white lead in oil, with a little turpentine, given to it : after it is dry, the water-
colour will be taken on smoothly.

150 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

579. Painting in Oil. The basis generally used in preparing colours is white
lead. The oil used for mixing the colours is linseed the dilution being effected
by spirits of turpentine. Litharge, sugar of lead, &c., are added to facilitate the
drying. The following recipe is for white paint, used for exterior woodwork :
seventy-eight parts of white lead, ground in oil, nine parts of boiled oil, nine
parts of raw oil, and four parts of spirit of turpentine. For a stone colour for the
exteriors of buildings, window and door facings, &c. : white, lamp-black, and
a little Venetian red, ground in oil, and mixed with white lead and boiled lin-
seed-oil. For a fawn-colour : white, yellow-ochre, and Spanish brown. For a
drab : white, Venetian red, burnt amber, and a little black. A green paint,
useful for outside doors, &c., is made with 1 Ib. of verdigris, and 2 lb. of white
lead, ground and diluted in common linseed-oil the wood being first painted
with white, and the green in two coats.

580. In painting in oil, " when bright colours, as white and grey, are ground
and diluted in oil, it is advisable to make use of the oil of walnuts ; but if the
colours be dark, such as chestnut, or olive, or brown, you must make use of a
pure linseed-oil."

581. In painting wood- work, it is necessary to kill the knots which, in pine
especially, are frequently met with. This is effected by covering them with
fresh-slaked liine this being rubbed off after twenty-four hours, and painted
over with white or red lead. The knots will also be prepared to take on the
colour properly by first giving them a coat of oil mixed with the litharge. The
priming coat of white and red lead, well diluted in oil, is next to be put on,
previously filling up the nail and other holes with putty, composed of whiting
and linseed-oil. The first coat of white is next to be laid on, which, after it is
dried, is to be rubbed down with a pumice-stone, to prepare it for the next coat.
If the final colour is not to be white, the second coat should have some of the
intended colour mixed up with it. The third coat is of the requisite colour.

582. In painting plastered walls, it is absolutely necessary that they should
be dry : in no case will the work be satisfactory if this is not attended to. As
plaster will take eighteen months or two years to dry, according to circum-
stances, it will be as well to paint them in distemper first, washing this off
whenever the walls are judged sufficiently dry. In painting with oils, the walls
must be first primed : this is done by giving two or three coats, to harden the
plaster ; thereafter lay on two coats of ochre, ground and diluted in linseed-oil ;
finish with the paint of the desired colour, one or two coats as may be considered
desirable.

583. A paint which dries quicker than oil-paint, and has no smell, may be
made of milk and lime as follows : " Take of skim-milk nearly 2 quarts, of
fresh-slaked lime about 6 ounces, of linseed-oil 4 ounces, and of whiting 3 lb. ;
put the lime in a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to
form a mixture resembling thin cream ; then add the oil, a little at a time,
stirring it with a small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and
lastly the whiting. The milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by
dipping the pieces in water, out of which it is to be immediately taken, and left
to slake in the air. For fine white paint the oil of carraway is the best, because
colourless ; but with ochres, the commonest oils may be used. The oil, when
mixed with the oil and lime, entirely disappears, and is totally dissolved by the
lime forming a calcareous soap. The whiting or ochre is to be gently crumbed
on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually imbibes, and at last sinks : at this
period it must be well stirred in. This paint may be coloured like distemper
or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow-ochre, &c., and used in the same

PAINTS. 151

manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover 20 square yards
with the first coat, and will cost three halfpence a-yard. The same paint will do
for outdoor work, by the addition of '2 ounces of slaked lime, 2 ounces of linseed-
oil, and 2 ounces of white Burgundy pitch the pitch to be melted in a gentle
heat with the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk and lime.
In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its co-operation with the
milk." (SMITH'S Art of House-Painting.}

584. The following is a very durable paint more so than the ordinary oil
recommended by Mr Downing for cottage-work its hardness increasing by
time : " Take freshly-burned unslaked lime, and reduce it to powder. To 1 peck
or bushel of this add the same quantity of line white sand, or line coal-ashes,
and twice as much fresh wood-ashes, all these being sifted through a fine sieve.
They should then be thoroughly mixed when dry. Afterwards mix them with
as much common linseed-oil as will make the whole thin enough to work freely
with a painter's brush. This will make a paint of a light-grey stone-colour,
nearly white. To make it fawn or drab, add yellow-ochre and Indian red ; if
drab is desired, add burnt amber, Indian red, and a little black ; if dark stone-
colour, add lamp-black ; or if brown stone, then add Spanish brown. All these
colours should of course be mixed in oil, and then added. This paint is very
much cheaper than common oil-paint. It is equally well suited to wood, brick,
or stone. It is better to apply it in two coats the first thin, the second thick."

585. The interior woodwork of cottages may be beautifully stained to re-
semble oak and walnut, by washing the cleaned surface with diluted sulphuric
acid (1 ounce of sulphuric acid to a pint of warm water) ; this to be washed,
when warm, evenly on the surface of the wood to be stained. The next opera-
tion is washing over the surface so prepared with a tobacco stain, made by boil-
ing a quantity of tobacco with as much water as will cover it, allowing this to
get dissolved to the consistence of a syrup by gentle boiling this being strained
before using. The stain is laid on with a sponge. When the wood is thoroughly
dry, it is to be brushed over with 8 ounces of bees'-wax, ^ pint of linseed-oil,
and double the quantity of boiled linseed-oil.

586. A varnish for finally covering the surface of the wood thus stained is
prepared by dissolving in a pint of spirits of wine a |- Ib. of seed-lac. Varnishes
had better be procured ready-made.

587. Outside work may be stained by adopting Mr Wheeler's mode : " Take
best rosin tar, or pitch, in the proportion of 1 gallon to every 4 gallons of the
following turpentine 1^ gallon, seed-lac dissolved in alcohol (in the proportion
of 1 Ib. to 1 quart) 2 quarts, cold linseed-oil i gallon, boiled oil I gallon, bees'-
wax 6 Ib., ox-gall 1 Ib. ; mix all these together, and add the rosin tar first
named. Lay it on with a large flat brush."

588. We would recommend the emigrant to provide himself with a quantity
of Stephens' dyes for staining wood : they stain the wood beautifully. The oak,
mahogany, and satin-wood colours are 8s. per Ib., and are simply dissolved in
water : this quantity will make a gallon of stain. Being in powder, they are
easily carried. Address Mr Henry Stephens, 54 Stamford Street, Blackfriars,
London.

589. A Durable Paint for Outdoor Work. Any quantity of charcoal powdered,
a sufficient quantity of litharge as a drier, to be well levigated with linseed-oil,
and when used to be thinned with well-boiled linseed-oil. The above forms a
good black paint, and by adding yellow-ochre an excellent green is produced,
which is preferable to the bright green used by painters for all garden work, and
does not fade with the sun. This composition was first used by Dr Parry of

152 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

Bath, on some spouts, which, on being examined fourteen years afterwards, were
found to be as perfect as when first put up.

590. SECTION SEVENTH. Timber. All the varieties of Fir timber imported
into the country are employed in the construction of farm-buildings, and those
kinds are most used in localities which are obtained from the nearest seaports.
For example, along the east coast of this country, Memel logs and Baltic battens
are used for all such purposes, while on the west coast no timber is to be seen
in the construction of farm-buildings but what is brought from America.

591. Norway and St Petersburg battens, being cut to proper lengths and
breadths, form cheap and very durable timber for all farm purposes. The red
or white wood battens make excellent floors, and plain deal doors for inside use.
Such flooring is beautifully dressed by planing machinery such as at the mills at
Leith.

592. Memel logs are admirably fitted for joisting, windows, outside doors, and
all outside work, it being composed of strong and durable fibre, surrounded
with resinous matter. The greatest objection to its use for small purposes is
its knottiness, on which account the Norway battens make handier small scant-
lings and cleaner door- work.

593. The American red pine is excellent timber, being clean, reedy, and
resinous. It is seldom or never of so large dimensions as Memel log. It is
fitted for beams, joists, scantlings, windows, and outside doors.

594. American yellow pine is well suited to all inside work, and especially
that which requires the highest finish, such as bound-doors, window-fittings,
and mantelpieces. There is no wood that receives paint so well. The logs
are generally of immense sizes, affording great economy of timber in cutting
them up.

595. Swedish 11-inch plank is good and useful timber, but its scantlings are
not very suitable for farm-buildings. Stout joists for granaries are made of it,
with a f draught taken off the side for sarking. It forms excellent planking
for wheeling upon, and for gangways.

596. In the interior of the country, at a distance from seaports, home timber
is much used in farm-buildings. Larch forms good scantlings and joists, and is a
durable timber for rough work ; and so does well-grown Scotch fir of good age,
and cut down in the proper season ; but in its ordinary state its durability is not
equal to larch or generally any good foreign timber, for rough purposes.*

597. All the timber referred to is derived from the trees belonging to the
natural order of Coniferos, or cone-bearing trees. The Scotch fir, Pinus syl-
vestris, is a well-known tree in the forests of this country, and few new plan-
tations are made without its aid, as a nurse for hardwood trees. In favourable
situations it grows to a large size, as is evidenced in the Memel log, which is
just the produce of the Scotch fir from the forests of Lithuania. Aged Scotch fir
cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, was of as good quality and useful sizes as
the best Memel.

598. The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies excelsa or communis, a tree
which, as it is treated in this country, comes to little value, being rough and
full of knots. Inspection of a cargo from Sweden, which arrived at Hull in
1808, convinced Mr Pontey that the white deal, which fetched at that time

* In voL ix. p. 165, of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society will be found
a long account of the larch plantations of Atholl, drawn up from the papers of the late Duke of
Atholl ; and in vol. xii. p. 122, of the same work, is an account of the native pine forests of the
north of Scotland, by Mr John Grigor, Forres.

TIMBER. 153

from 14 to 15, 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common spruce, the
planks having been recently sawn, and a small branch left attached to one of
them.*

599. Whether the Norway pine is the same species as the pine found in some
of the forests of the north of Scotland, we do not know. Some writer's speak of
the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce, called by them Pinus Abies. It may
be that the white-wood battens are derived from that tree ; but the red-wood
kind has very probably the same origin as the red- wood of the north of Scotland,
which is from a variety of the Pinus sylrcsfris or horizontalis of Don.-j-

600. The red pine of Canada is the Pinus resinusa.

601. The yellow pine is the Pinus rariabilis or Pinus in/'tis of Michaux, which
towers in lofty height far above its compeers. It grows to the gigantic height
of 150 feet, and must require great labour to square it to the sizes found in the
British market, large as these sizes unquestionably are.

602. The larch, Larix EuropcKa, is a native of the ravines of the Alps of the
Tyrol and Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a rush, to a great
height.

603. Some of the pines of California are highly spoken of as yielding good
timber for useful purposes, but as yet we have no experience of them as timber.

604. For agricultural implements two kinds of wood are principally used
oak and ash ; oak chiefly in England, ash in Scotland, possibly from ash being
cheaper in Scotland than oak. Experiments go to prove the superiority of
ash for purposes where sudden shocks and severe strains are given to the
implements.

605. Oak. The common English oak, Qucrcus rnlur, is deemed the best for
construction. The grain is straight and fine, and well adapted for purposes
where stiffness is required. It splits easily into laths. The Sessile oak is
considered, from its elasticity and toughness, best for ship-building purposes,
but is somewhat liable to warp and split. It is not. so fine-grained as the Robur
oak, and is darker in colour. These English oaks take a long period to come
to maturity nearly 100 -years. The American oak is of more rapid growth than
the English, but is not so durable. The red Canadian oak is deemed of little
constructive value.

606. Oak is adapted to a vast variety of purposes, and when kept in a dry
situation it may be termed practically imperishable. Even in situations of
alternate wetness and dryness, it is more durable than other wood used for
construction. The colour of the best quality is a light brown ; when it
approaches to red, the quality is not so valuable. The heaviest wood is
always the strongest, and that grown on. clay soil more valuable than that on
light.

607. Ash. A hard wood, of compact texture and brownish colour, easily
worked when young, but tough and hard when seasoned. Its durability is
great when kept dry, but alternations of wetness and dryness cause it to decay.
Notwithstanding this defect, it is greatly used for purposes where it is sub-
jected to severe strains and shocks, from its superiority in toughness and
elasticity.

608. The Tree. If we examine the transverse section of the trunk of a full-
grown tree, we will find it divided into three parts the heart, which is the

* PONTEY'S Profitable Planter, p. 41, 4th edition, 1814 ; and at p. 56 he relates an anecdote of
a person who, though long accustomed to attend on sawyers, was deceived by some Scotch
fir, which he considered excellent foreign plank.

t See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530.

154 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

centre part ; the sap-wood, which surrounds the heart ; and the bark, which
forms the outer covering. Of these the heart is the valuable part for con-
structive purposes, the sap-wood having little strength, and being very liable to
decay from the amount of fermenting matter contained in it.

609. The tree should not be felled till it has attained its maturity ; if cut
before, the timber will not be so strong ; if cut after decay has set in, it will
be less durable and strong than when cut as above mentioned. The commence-
ment of the decline of a tree is indicated by the decay of the top and the
topmost branches. There are differences of opinion as to the period of the year
when timber should be felled this having reference to the time when the sap
is not in circulation. If the tree should be felled while this circulates, the
decay of the tree will be hastened from the highly fermentable nature of the
sap. The winter months, and the month of July, are considered the best for
felling, as the sap is then believed to be dormant. The researches, however,
of M. Boucherie, a gentleman who has devoted much time to investigating the
properties of timber, point to midsummer and autumn as the time when the sap
is least active.

610. Seasoning of Timber. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of
this part of the duties of the machine and implement maker. Unseasoned tim-
ber, from shrinking and warping, may cause material injury to important struc-
tures and implements. There are a variety of methods now introduced to effect
this important purpose. We shall notice three of these : Natural seasoning ;
Water seasoning ; Hot-air desiccation.

611. Natural Seasoning. On felling, the bark and small branches are to be
removed, and the timber as soon as possible cut into balks of convenient size of
scantling. These are to be removed at once, and piled under drying sheds,
where they are subjected to the free circulation of the air, yet protected from the
direct action of the sun, wind, and rain. The great object to be attained is
uniform drying of the whole timber ; all partial and unequal drying only causes
warping and shrinking. No timber should be used for constructive purposes
until it has been subjected at least two years to this seasoning process. For
the usual purposes of the carpenter, timber is considered sufficiently seasoned
when it loses about one-fifth of its weight when green.

612. Water Seasoning. This consists in placing the timber in water, with a
view to use the latter as a medium to carry off the soluble matter, which is the
principal cause of decay. Although much recommended by some, it is consi-
dered by good authorities of doubtful utility.

613. Hot-air Desiccation. The best process, and one which has proved itself
thoroughly successful, is that introduced by Messrs Davison and Symington.
The following is a brief description of it : The timber to be dried is placed in
proper positions in a close chamber, into which is forced, by means of fanners,
a powerful current of highly heated air. This air is heated by passing through
a series of pipes, which are arched over, and form the upper part of the furnace.
Some idea may be formed of the complete nature of the process, when we men-
tion that a violin, which had been in use for many years, and was considered
thoroughly dry, lost a considerable per-centage of its weight when subjected to
the action of the currents of heated air. The same result was obtained in sub-
jecting a piece of wood, which had lain for a great number of years exactly over
a smith's forge, which had been in constant use.

614. Preservation of Wood. In regard to the composition of wood, and its
chemical properties, " it is considered by chemists that dry timber consists, on
an average, of 96 parts of fibrous and 4 of soluble matter in 100, but that their

TIMBER 155

proportions vary somewhat with the seasons, the soils, and the plant. All kinds
of wood sink in water when placed in a basin of it under the exhausted receiver
of an air-punip, showing their specific gravity to be greater than 1.000," and
varying from 1.46 (pine] to l..">3 (oaJS) " Wood becomes snow-
white when exposed to the action of chlorine ; digested with sulphuric acid it
is transformed first into gum, and, by ebullition with water, afterwards into

grape sugar Authenreith stated, some years ago, that he found that

fine sawdust, mixed with a sufficient quantity of wheat Hour, made a cohesive
dough with water, which formed an excellent food for pigs ; apparently showing
that the digestive organs of this animal could operate the same sort of change

upon wood as sulphuric acid does The composition of wood has

been examined by Messrs Gr'ay-Ltissae and Thenard, and Dr Front. According
to Dr Prout, the oxygen and hydrogen are in the exact proportions to form pure
water; according to the others, the hydrogen is in excess."*

615. "When minutely divided fragments of a trunk or branch of a tree," as
M. Easpail observes, "have been treated by cold or boiling water, alcohol, ether,
diluted acids and alkalies, there remains a spongy substance, of a snow-white
colour when pure, which none of these reagents have acted on, while they have
removed the soluble substances that were associated with it. It is this that
has been called woody matter, a substance which possesses all the physical and
chemical properties of cotton, of the fibre of flax, or of hemp."

616. " On observing this vegetable caput inortinun with the microscope, it is
perceived to be altogether composed of the cells or vessels which formed the
basis or skeleton of the living organs of the vegetable. They are cither cells
which, by pressing against each other, give rise; to a network with pentagonal
or hexagonal meshes ; or cells with square surfaces ; or else tubes of greater or
less length, more or less flattened or contracted by drying ; sometimes free and
isolated, at other times agglomerated, and connected to each other by a tissue of
elongated, flattened, and equilateral cells ; or, lastly, tubes of indefinite length,
each containing within it another tube formed of a single filament spirally rolled
up against its sides, and capable of being unrolled under the eye of the observer
simply by tearing the tube which serves to support it. We find the first in all
young organs, in annual and tender stems, in the pith of those vegetables that
have a pith, and always in that of the monocotyledons. It is in similar cells
that the fecula is contained in the potato. The second is met with in all the
trunks and woody branches of trees. The tubes and the spirals (tracheae) are
found in all the phanerogamous plants. These are the organs which constitute
the fibre of hemp, of flax," &c.

617. " Experiment, in accordance with the testimony of history, proves that,
if excluded from the contact of moist air, woody matter, like most of the other
organised substances, may be preserved for an indefinite period." The plants
found in coal-mines, the wood, linen cloths, bandages, and herbs and seeds
found in the coffins of Egyptian mummies, have all their characters undecayed,
and yet these tombs are in many cases nearly 3000 years old. " But if the
woody matter be not protected against the action of air and moisture, the case is
very different. By degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged, and the
carbon predominates more and more. Thus the particles of the texture are dis-
integrated gradually, their white colour fades, and passes through all the shades
till it becomes jet-black ; and if this altered woody matter be exposed to heat, it
is carbonised without flame, because it does not contain a sufficient quantity of
hydrogen. Observe also, that the cells of woody matter contain different sorts

* URE'S Dictionary of the Arts art. " Wood."

156 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

of substances tending to organise, and that these are mixed and modified in many
different ways." ..." Woody matter, such as I have defined it, being
formed of 1 atom of carbon and 1 atom of water, as soon as it is submitted to
the action of a somewhat elevated temperature, without the contact of air, expe-
riences an internal reaction, which tends to separate the atom of water from the
atom of carbon. The water is vaporised, and the carbon remains in the form of
a black arid granular residue."*

618. Ryan's Process. Now, if any means could be devised by which the
substances in the cells of woody matter could be deprived of their tendency to
organise when in contact with common air, wood might be rendered as perma-
nently durable as the grains of wheat which have been found undecayed in
Egyptian mummies, and even more so. This discovery seems to have been
made by Mr Kyan. In contemplating the probability of the use of home tim-
ber being much extended in the construction of steadings, when the young
woods at present growing shall have attained their full growth, it may be
proper that the growers of wood, and the farmers on the estates on which wood
is grown, be made aware of this mode, and of others, of preventing timber being
affected by the dry-rot. What the true cause of dry-rot is, has never yet been
determined, but it frequently shows itself by a species of mildew which covers
the timber, and the action of which apparently causes the wood to decay, and
crumble down into powder. The mildew, however, is neither the dry-rot nor its
cause, but its effect. It is distinctly seen by the microscope to be a fungus ;
and as the fungus itself is so minute as to require the aid of the microscope to
be distinctly seen, its seeds or spores may be supposed to be so very minute as
to be taken up by the spongioles of trees.

619. The principle upon which the chemical action of the corrosive sublimate
the substance used by Mr Kyan upon vegetable matter preserves the timber,
is easily explained. All plants are composed of cellular tissues, whether in
the bark, alburnum, or wood. The tissue consists of various-shaped cells ;
and although they may not pass uninterruptedly along the 'whole length of
the plant, as M. de Candolle maintains, yet air, water, or a solution of any-
thing, may be made to pass through the cells in their longitudinal direction.
Experiments with the air-pump have proved this beyond dispute. Those cells,
and particularly those of the alburnum, contain the sap of the trees which, in
its circulation, reaches the leaves, where its watery particles fly off, and the
enlarging matter of the tree, called the albumen, remains. Albumen is the
nearest approach in vegetables to animal matter, and is therefore, when by any
natural means deprived of vitality, very liable to decomposition, particularly
that which is connected with the alburnum or sap-wood. Now, corrosive sub-
limate has long been known to preserve animal matter from decay, being used
to preserve anatomical preparations ; and even the delicate texture of the brain
is preserved by it in a firm state. The analogy between animal and vegetable
albumen being established, there seems no reason to doubt the possibility of
corrosive sublimate preserving both substances from decay ; and, accordingly,
the experiments of Mr Kyan with it on albuminous and saccharine solutions
have confirmed the correctness of this conjecture. The prior experiments of
Fourcroy, and especially those of Berzelius, in 1813, had established the same
conclusions, though neither of these eminent chemists had thought of their
practical application to the preservation of timber. Berzelius found that the
addition of the bichloride (corrosive sublimate) to an albuminous solution, pro-
duced a protochloride of mercury (calomel), which readily combined with albu-

* RASPAIL'S Organic Chemistry, translated by Henderson, p. 141-164.

TIMBER. 157

men, and produced an insoluble precipitate. This precipitate fills up all the
cellular interstices of the wood, and becomes as hard as the fibres.

620. Ventilation of Timber in Dwellings, Even after timber has been subjected
to this process, it is requisite to give the air free access to it by means of ven-
tilation, and for that purpose, where timber is covered up, which it is not likely
to be in a steading, small openings, covered and protected by cast-iron gratings
in frames, should be made through the outside walls.

621. Other plans for preserving timber have been introduced, of which the
four most important are known as Burnett's, Bethell's, Payne's, and Bou-
cherie's : of these we offer a short description.

622. Burnett's Process. The process patented in 1842 by Sir William Bur-
nett consists in impregnating the timber with a solution of the chloride of zinc.
From recorded experiments, the process seems to be efficient. The solution is
prepared in the proportion of 1 pound of chloride of /inc to 10 gallons of water.

623. Bethell's Process. In Bethell's process, oil of tar, and other bituminous
matters containing creosote, are used to impregnate tiie wood. The wood is not
only immersed in the solution, but it is forced into the fibres by pressure. The
wood to be impregnated is placed in close tanks filled with the solution ; the
tanks are then closed up, and the air exhausted from their interior ; more solu-
tion is then pumped in for a period of six or seven hours. The wood is finally
taken out thoroughly saturated with the solution, and weighing considerably
heavier. The process is said to perfectly coagulate " the albumen in the sap,
thus preventing its putrefaction." In using the oil of tar it is necessary to
deprive it of its ammonia, otherwise the wood becomes brown and soon decays.

624. Timber for farm purposes may be simply Bethellised by painting the
surface over with the hot oil of tar, or by immersing it in a tank of the hot solu-
tion. This will not give such beneficial results as when impregnated under
pressure, but will nevertheless tend to preserve the timber for a considerable
time from atmospheric influences. The cost of the oil, as sold by the patentee,
is stated at 4d. per gallon.

625. Payne's Process. In Payne's process (patented 1841) the wood is im-
pregnated by pressure with a solution of earthy or metallic substances ; and
these substances, by chemical decomposition, preserved within the material in
an insoluble state. Thus, if a solution of sulphate of iron is forced into the
wood, a second solution is forced in of any of the carbonate alkalies, which
" decomposes the salt, and renders the iron insoluble."''

626. Boucherie's Process. This process consists essentially of impregnating
the wood with a preservative solution. The solution which is found to answer best
is sulphate of copper, or the blue vitriol of commerce, one by weight of which
is dissolved in 100 by weight of water. The peculiarity of the process, how-
ever, consists in the method of impregnating the wood with a solution a method
which is simple, and easily and inexpensively carried out. The method has
two objects in view one the impregnating of the wood with the salt, and one
the driving out of the natural sap the salt taking the place of the sap. This
latter constitutes not the least valuable part of the process ; for in other
systems the sap the fermentation of which is the chief cause of decay in wood
is allowed to remain, while the Boucherie process expells it thoroughly,
cleansing the tubes or pores from all fermenting matter. The importance of
having the sap of timber expelled, and its place occupied by the preserving solu-
tion, has long been recognised ; and attempts have been made to secure the ad-

* See Transactions of the Highland and Ayrirultura! Society for 1857, p. 12 art. " The Preser-
vation of Timber."

158

MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

vantages of this mode of treatment ; but the expensiveness of the methods pro-
posed have completely precluded all prospect of their being generally adopted.
It has remained for M. Boucherie, as the result of many years' experimenting on
the nature of woods, to introduce a mode as simple as it is ingenious and philo-
sophical. The long series of experiments which M. Boucherie instituted resulted
in proving that, although the structure of trees is tubular, there is no lateral
communication between the tubes. To show how completely isolated each tube
is from the others surrounding it, and how perfect is the longitudinal connection
of the tube, M. Boucherie has shut off certain tubes at one end of a tree, leaving
these exposed to form a certain word, and, by means of a coloured liquid forced
along the tubes, has transferred the word or name from the one end of the tube
to the other. And so completely is the flow of the liquid through the tubes
carried out that, at whatever part of the tree a section is made, there the name
is found. The following is the method of conducting the process : " Soon after
the tree is felled a saw-cut is made in the centre, through about 9-10ths of its
section. The tree is then slightly raised by a lever or wedge at its centre, and
the saw-cut is then partially opened, as in fig. 145. A piece of string is

Fig. 145.

PREPARATION OF THE TIMBER FOR BOTJCHE

1 PB.E8ERVIKQ IT.

TIMBER PREPARED FOR BOUCHERIE'S METHOD OP PRESERVING IT.

then placed round the saw-cut, close to the outer circumference of the tree ; the
support is then withdrawn, and the saw-cut closes on the string, thereby making
a water-tight joint. An auger hole is then bored obliquely into the saw-cut in
the direction shown at a, fig. 1 46 ; a wooden tube 6, fig. 146, is then driven into the

hole, the conical end of
which is attached to a
flexible pipe c, which is
in connection with a
cistern or reservoir at
an elevation of from 30
to 40 feet above the tree
intended to be preserved. In the case of very long trees the foregoing method
is slightly modified. When the timber is under operation, the sap runs out from
the ends in a clear stream, showing the amazing quantity of this fluid which it
contains ; in fact, the preserving fluid will traverse a tree 12 feet in length with
less pressure than is required to force it laterally through a plank three-quarters
of an inch in thickness. As the sap is forced out the preservative fluid follows
it, and its presence at the ends of the wood is ascertained by a chemical test.
Thus the sap and fermenting juices are completely expelled, and the timber im-
pregnated throughout its length with the preserving fluid."

627. One great advantage possessed by the process, so far as the interest of
our readers is concerned, is that the least costly woods are the best for the

METALS.

159

operation. Thus woods which at present arc the refuse or least valuable may,
by the process, be raised to the value of first-class home timbers. From the
Eeports of the French engineers who investigated the process at the request of
the government, the following extract is given : " Those kinds of wood which
possess most moisture, and, of the same kind, those which have grown in the
dampest soils, are most easily penetrated. It follows that the least esteemed
kinds of timber, and consequently the cheapest, are precisely those which afford
the best results when injected with the sulphate of copper." They also give
the following examples, showing the increase of weight in various woods after
impregnation :

Beech, .

Oak (sappy part only),

Hornbeam,

Birch,

Poplar,

Alder,
Ash,

Scotch Fir,
White Fir,

increased 209 Ib. per 35 ft. cube.
5,5 Ib.
4(3 Ib.
2 Ib. 10 oz.
70 Ib.
50 Ib.
15(3 Ib.
50 Ib.
127 Ib.
53 Ib.

628. The sooner the trees are subjected to the process after being cut down
the better ; no time therefore is lost, or expense incurred, in drying or seasoning
the timber. Trees felled any time from November to May may be prepared in
May; but if they are cut down in May, or any month from May to November,
they ought to be prepared within three weeks from the time of being felled.

629. .From statements furnished by the agent of the company, it appears that
the cost of the gutta-percha tubing, with every appliance necessary to operate
upon fifteen trees at once, is 6 ; on thirty trees, 11, 5s. Full information as
to prices, &c., may be obtained at the office of the Permanent Way Company,
26 Great George Street, Westminster, London.

630. SECTION EIGHTH, Metals. The metals used in construction are iron,
copper, brass, zinc, and lead.

631. Iron. The two varieties of this material are cast-iron and wrought-iron.

632. Cast-iron is generally divided into two classes, grey and white, between
which there exist very marked differences. When of good quality, grey cast-
iron is slightly malleable, and files easily when the skin or outer crust is
removed. The fracture presents a granular appearance grey in colour, and
metallic in lustre, as if grains of lead were on the surface. Grey is smoother
and tougher than white cast-iron.

633. White cast-iron, when broken, presents a fracture of a distinctly-marked
crystalline character, the colour white, and instead of a metallic it possesses
a vitreous lustre, or a light somewhat similar to that reflected from a series of
small crystals. This quality of iron is hard and brittle.

634. The colour and lustre of iron is usually taken as a test of its strength.
Where the colour is dark grey, with a high metallic lustre, the iron is of a valu-
able quality. Where the lustre is less decided, the softness and weakness are
increased. Where the colour is a light grey, with a high metallic lustre, the
metal is hard and tenacious. The hardness and brittleness of cast-iron become
more marked as the colour becomes whiter, and the lustre changes from metallic
to vitreous. The extreme of the grey variety is where the colour is dark and
mottled this gives the softest and weakest iron of this class ; and of the white

160 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

variety, where the colour is of a dull greyish-white, with a high vitreous lustre
this giving the hardest and most brittle of this class.

635. But while colour and lustre are taken as tests of strength, a good autho-
rity does not think them admissible as tests of the chemical constituents of
iron; for though dark-coloured iron is usually weak, grey strong, and white
brittle, yet black iron, when chilled, becomes white, although it must be sup-
posed to contain the same quantity of carbon. We therefore conclude that the
colour of iron indicates the treatment to which it has been subjected, and in
some cases only the quantity of carbon.

636. As a general rule, the grey cast-iron is most suitable where strength is
requisite, the white where hardness is required. The best test of the quality
is to strike the edge of a casting with a hammer. If the blow produces fracture,
the iron is brittle and comparatively weak ; if the blow indents without break-
ing, the iron is of good quality.

637. The strength of cast-iron depends upon the quantity of carbon which
it contains, and its freedom from impurities. In addition to carbon, cast-iron in
this country contains silica, lime, magnesia, alumina, and occasionally some of
the phosphates and other admixtures. The iron made from the magnetic ores
is the best

638. When cast-iron contains 3 per cent of carbon, it is considered to be of
the strongest quality ; if it contains more than this amount, it is soft and weak ;
if less, it is hard and brittle.

639. The quality of iron produced at the iron-works throughout the country
varies considerably, although, taking an average of the whole, some approach to
a uniform standard is obtained. As a mixture of the various irons is understood
to produce the best cast-iron, it is of some practical importance to know the
" mixtures " recommended by experienced engineers. The object in mixing the
different varieties is to obtain the proportion of carbon which gives the greatest
strength with the requisite degree of fluidity ; and this proportion is regulated
by the appearance of the fracture of the several varieties proposed to be used
for the mixture.

640. Mr Fairbairn of Manchester, one of our highest practical authorities,
gives the following as the best mixture, independently of price :

Lowmoor, No. 3, . . . .30 per cent.

Blaina, or Yorkshire, No. 2, . . . 25

Shropshire or Derbyshire, No. 3, . 25

Good old scrap-iron, . . . . . 20

100

For large and small castings Mr M. Stirling gives the following mixtures :
For a heavy casting, several inches in thickness and several hundredweight, a
mixture of two proportions of No. 3 to one of No. 1 may be used. When the
casting is thin and light (say 2 or 3 cwt.), a larger proportion of No. 1 and a
smaller proportion of No. 3 may be used. It is difficult to estimate exactly the
quantity of the various irons from their numbers, as these are very arbitrary,
the No. 1 of one district differing considerably from the No. 1 of another.
Attention should therefore be paid to the appearance of fracture of each quality ;
and where great nicety is required, it would be advisable to test the strength of
each by direct experiment. The London mixture, which by the metropolitan
founders is considered to be stronger than country mixtures, is equal propor-
tions, or nearly so, of No. 3 old scrap and No. 1 Scotch hot-blast. Another

METALS. 161

mixture recommended is, equal proportions of hot-blast iron, old iron, and
Blaenavon Welsh iron.

641. Mr M. Stirling's patented mixture of wrought-iron and cast-iron gives
"considerably increased powers of resistance to every description of strain,
when compared with the unmixed irons." This process of toughening cast-
iron consists in fusing simultaneously wrought-iron and cast-iron in a cupola or
air-furnace. The result of a series of experiments made in connection with this
toughened iron, showed that the relative value, as regards strength, of the un-
prepared iron and the prepared was 1 : 1.36 the mean breaking- weight of the
unprepared being 38.3, and of the prepared 52.3. Other experiments showed a
higher value, however, than this. Mr Fairbairn reports very favourably upon
this mixture, arid says that, when "judiciously managed and duly proportioned,"
it " increases the strength about one-third above that of the ordinary cast-iron."
With regard to the proportions, Mr Stirling says that " the place from whence
the iron comes regulates, to a certain extent, the quality, as a general rule.
Scotch iron, generally speaking, requires more, Staffordshire less, and Welsh
least of all. The proportions which I should recommend for No. 1 Scotch hot-
blast, vary from 24 Ib. (of wrought-iron) contained in the cwt, to 40 lb., accord-
ing to the richness of the iron. No. 2 requires a smaller proportion, say from
20 lb. to 30 lb., also according to its quality. No. 3, generally, I do not recom-
mend for mixture, as it is very often uncertain in itself, and its mixtures are
not so certain as the toughened mixtures Nos. 1 and 2. No. 3, Scotch hot-blast,
makes an excellent mixture with from 15 to 20 per cent of malleable iron for
large castings. The Staffordshire No. 1 will not bear so much as the Scotch,
and in the same proportion with Nos. 2 and 3 ; 20 lb. to 30 lb. would be a high
proportion for Welsh No. 1. With Staffordshire No. 2, a small proportion in
the same falling ratio as in the Scotch ; and with Welsh No. 2, 10 lb. to 15 lb.
per cwt. would be sufficient."

642. From the commercial results obtained in the manufacture of cast-iron
by the use of the hot-blast, the process is now very generally adopted. The
question, therefore, is possessed of considerable interest to the mechanic, Is the
strength of cast-iron prepared by the hot-blast less than that prepared by the
cold '? On this point considerable diversity of opinion exists. An interesting
series of experiments was carried out by Messrs Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, to
determine the relative strength of hot and cold blast. " From these it was
found that the hot-blast irons, when taken collectively from a number of works
in England, Scotland, and Wales, gave results rather in favour of the hot-blast ;
whereas the cold-blast iron, when taken separately, and compared with others,
indicated a superior quality of iron to those obtained from the hot-blast." Tak-
ing the mean of four kinds of iron experimented upon to ascertain the number
of pounds required to tear asunder a bar 1 inch square, it was found that, while
the cold took 16,801 lb., the hot-blast took 15,342 lb. ; and that, taking the
strength of cold-blast as represented by 1000, the ratio of the strength of the
hot-blast to it was 928. Again, in ascertaining the force in pounds reqiiired to
crush a prism an inch square on its base, and 1^ inch high, it was found
(taking the mean of four) that while the cold-blast took 99,238 lb., the hot-
blast iron took 102,777 lb., the ratio of strength being (cold-blast 1000) as 1000
to 1028. And in the experiments made to ascertain the transverse strength of
rectangular bars 1 inch square, laid on supports 4| feet wide, and broken by a
weight in the middle, it was found (taking a mean of eight), that while the cold-
blast took 456 lb., the hot-blast took 453 lb., the ratio of strength being as 1000
to 996. " On the whole," says Mr Fairbairn, with reference to the point now

162 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

under consideration, " I am of opinion that the hot-blast does not improve the
quality of the Welsh and English irons, but, judging from the experiments, and
other indications since these experiments were made, that its application to the
Scotch furnaces in the reduction of the blackband ores is an improvement. I
am the more confirmed in this opinion from the fact, that although the Scotch
irons are not injured by the hot-blast, both the English and the Welsh suffer
considerably, as may be seen in the case of the Elsicar, Milton, and Buffery
irons." As to the effect produced by the hot-blast in the manufacture of iron,
the same authority remarks, that " it varies considerably with the quality
of the ore and the fuel, and I believe much depends upon the quantity of
sulphur present in the coal or coke used. The chemical constituents of the
fuel and foreign mixtures in the mine, are considerations of importance in
the use and application of the hot- blast ; but, generally speaking, I should
infer that it has a tendency rather 1 to weaken the iron than otherwise." A
large number of experiments were made by the well-known engineer, the late
Mr Robert Stephenson, at the High-level Bridge, Newcastle, to test the merits of
the various qualities of hot and cold blast iron. The conclusions to which he
considered these experiments point were as follows : " (1.) That hot-blast is less
certain in its results than cold-blast ; (2.) Mixtures of cold-blast are more uni-
form than those of hot-blast ; (S.)Mixture of hot and cold blast give the best
results; (4) Simple samples do not run so solid as mixtures; (5.) Simple
samples sometimes run too hard, and sometimes too soft, for practical pur-
poses."

643. The strength of cast-iron objects depends also much upon their size,
and in the way in which they are cast. When the object is very large, the iron
softens with slow cooling. When the thicknesses of which it is composed are
unequal, the unequal cooling of the parts renders some more crystallised and
weaker than others. Hence the endeavour of mechanics to have a uniform
thickness in the different parts of castings ; and hence, also, the rule which
should be strictly attended to namely, never to take the castings out of the
sand while red hot, but to allow them to gradually cool, and to become, in fact,
annealed in the sand. We are aware that this, in small foundries, cannot under
all circumstances be done, from want of space, and also from economical rea-
sons, inasmuch as the portion of the sand in immediate contact with the metal
is burnt, and rendered useless ; but where sound work to be depended upon is
required, it is essential that the castings should be allowed to remain in the
sand till cooled, and a " perfect and compact mass of crystallisation" is ob-
tained. Mr Fairbairn says that fireproof beams should be allowed to remain in
the sand never less than ten hours, heavy castings thirty or forty hours. Articles,
when cast in the direction of their greatest length, are more dense, and are
freer from impurity, than when in the direction of their shortest length. Mr
Glynn thinks that castings are strongest when the iron is obtained from an air-
furnace in dry sand, and that castings in loam are stronger than castings in
open sand. The air-furnace is preferred by high authorities before the blast
cupola. Mr Fairbairn states that, in one series of experiments, the iron pro-
duced in the air-furnace was 2 per cent stronger than that obtained from the
cupola.

644. As regards the relative values of Scotch and English iron, the same high
authority states, that he " thinks the Scotch weaker, and that it runs more fluid
than the English irons. It is, however, equal in strength and superior in qua-
lity to some of the Staffordshire irons, but certainly inferior, as respects strength,
to the Yorkshire and Welsh cold-blast iron." The Scotch is generally preferred

METALS. 163

for the purposes of machinery, as it runs well into the mould, and gives clearly-
defined edges.

645. Malleable Cast-iron. A variety of cast-iron has been introduced by this
title, by which all the advantages of a malleability and non-liability to fracture
possessed by hammered work, are obtained witli the cheapness of cost of
moulded work. Various agents are appointed throughout the country to work
the patent, which, however, we believe, has not yet been successful as a com-
mercial speculation.

646. Wrought-iron. The fracture of wrought-iron presents a clear grey colour,
with a metallic lustre and granular texture. The appearance of the fracture
gives a strong indication of force having been required to tear the fibres
asunder. A decided fibrous appearance Avill be given to the granular fracture,
if the fractured bar is drawn out into small bars by means of the hammer.
When the fracture presents a crystalline or laminated appearance, the iron is
defective. Of defective irons, burnt iron is hard and brittle, of a clear grey
colour, and of laminated texture. Cold short iron so called from its breaking
under the hammer when cold is similar in appearance to burnt iron, the colour,
however, being whiter. Hot short iron so called from its breaking under the
hammer while hot is dark in colour, and has no lustre. This latter defect is
indicated by cracks on the edges.

647. Wrought-iron of the best quality is divided into two classes, the hard
and the soft. The soft is weaker than the hard, gives easily to the hammer, and
presents the fibrous texture in bars of considerable section. The hard is strong
and ductile, and only presents the fibrous texture when, drawn out into small
rods. In testing wrought-iron, bars of not less than 1 inch square or round, and
flat bars of not less than jjr-inch thick, should be used. If of less section, the
distinctive features of the fracture will not be sufficiently observable.

648. With respect to iron cast and wrought, a question of some importance
has arisen as to whether its internal structure is changed by vibration, or by
shocks to which the parts may be subjected. On this point a variety of opinions
was elicited before the Royal Commission somewhat contradictory, however, in
their nature. Mr Glynn, in his evidence, states that he considers the structure
both of wrought and cast iron is altered by a succession of blows the wrought
to a crystalline structure, the cast to larger crystals ; and that lie has observed
this appearance particularly in axles, mill-shafts, tooth-wheels, crowbars, and
crane chains. The latter, even when made of strong fibrous iron, require to be
annealed every three years. Mr Fox considered that an internal change is pro-
duced in wrought-iron by vibration, and points to an instance when the thread
of a screw is cut in wrought-iron, and the part broken across at the tapped part
and at another point distant from this, the tapped part will present the most
crystallised appearance. Mr Fairbairn points out a fact of some importance,
that repeatedly making a wrought-iron bar hot, and plunging it into cold water,
renders it crystalline, and that annealing is required to restore the fibrous tex-
ture. Although percussion renders the fibres more liable to break off short, he
thinks that unless it is sufficient to cause a considerable rise in temperature, it
does not cause change in the internal structure. Mr Stephenson considered
any change in the internal structure to be highly improbable ; and cited
one instance of a connecting-rod which vibrated 25,000,000 of times and
yet remained fibrous. He also pointed to the fact that the iron of an axle
may not be in the first instance fibrous ; for although the drawing out of bars
from one to some twenty feet long necessarily renders the texture fibrous, it

164 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.

does not follow that it will become so when the bars are drawn out only from
1 to 6 feet. The late Mr Brunei took a still more novel and suggestive view
of the matter ; and, while doubting the change of internal structure, he thought
that the various appearances of different fractures result as much from the mode
in which the iron has been broken as from any change of structure. Further,
that change of temperature will also produce a variation in the fracture ; that
iron in a cold state presents a more crystallised fracture than the same iron
warmed a little ; that wrought-iron does not actually become crystalline and
fibrous, but breaks either crystalline or fibrous according to the combination of
circumstances under which it is broken. The whole subject, although of great
importance to the practical mechanic, is surrounded with difficulties, and all
evidence given in connection with it has been more or less conjectural. It is
right, however, to state that it is a very general opinion amongst mechanics
and philosophers, that iron repeatedly hammered and by inference subject to
repeated vibrations and shocks becomes completely changed in its internal
structure. Numerous instances could be brought forward in proof of this, a
most notable one being that of the " monster wrought-iron gun " of Mr Na-
smyth, which was fabricated by the agency of the steam hammer, and which
burst at the first or second trial, presenting, we believe, all the appearances of
cast-iron. Parts of machinery are sometimes cold hammered in order that they
may take a higher polish ; but if this generally received opinion is correct, the
practice is a dangerous one, as they may be much weakened. The same may
be said of the practice of repeatedly heating and plunging in cold water, forged
parts of machines.

649. As regards the durability of iron, and the influence of the atmosphere
and water upon it, Mr Mallet, in his Eeport to the British Association, gives
some valuable remarks. From his close investigation into the nature and pro-
perties of iron he deduced a variety of hints, of which the following are the
most useful for our purposes.

650. That iron placed in clear fresh river- water corrodes less than under any
other immersion, from the absence of highly corrosive matters, and from the
coat of oxide which is formed, and which is not so easily washed off as in sea-
water ; that castings made in dry sand and loam are more durable when im-
mersed in water than those made in green sand ; that cast-iron is more durable
when the hard crust is allowed to remain, than when it is removed by chipping
and filing ; that the greater the bulk of bars the less is the corrosion ; that to
prevent unequal cooling in castings, the ribs should be made of equal thickness.

651. The methods in general use to prevent corrosion and decay of iron-
work, consist in the application of paints. These afford, however, little pro-
tection ; and a better medium, boiled coal-tar laid on while the iron is hot, is
highly recommended. It leaves on the surface a bright varnish, capable of
resisting for a considerable time corrosive agencies. Painting the surface with
the hot solution of the oil of tar Bethellising is said to be an efficient pre-
servative of iron surfaces.

652. Copper. For constructive purposes this metal is principally used in
form of thin sheets. It is very durable, and it is little affected by atmospheric
influences. Brass is an alloy of this metal and zinc, and is composed when
that kind of it known as British brass of a full yellow colour is wished to be
made of 66.18 parts of copper, and 33.82 of zinc. Its specific gravity is 8.299.
For purposes where copper is too soft, and a metal less corrosive than iron is
required, gun-metal may be used. This is an alloy of copper and tin in the

SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS. 165

proportion of 84.29 of copper to 15.71 of tin. To render these alloys easily
worked in the various processes of the mechanic, a little lead should be added
to the brass, and a little zinc to the gun-metal alloy.

653. The lead of commerce is derived from the ore galena, which is a sul-
phuret yielding about 87 per cent of lead and 13 of sulphur. Galena is found
in greatest quantity in transition rocks, and of these the blackish transition
limestone contains the largest. The ore is more frequent in irregular beds and
masses than in veins. The galena lead-mines of Derbyshire, Durham, Cumber-
land, and Yorkshire, are situate in limestone, while those of the Leadhills, in
Scotland, are in greywacke. Great Britain produces the largest quantity of
lead of any country in the world, the annual produce being about 32,000 tons, of
which the English mines supply 20,000. The rest of Europe does not supply
50,000 tons. The export of lead has fallen off considerably, and its price has
experienced a corresponding depression for some years past, on account of the
greatly increased production of the lead mines of Adra in Granada, in Spain.

654. Zinc is an ore which occurs in considerable quantity in England. It is
found in two geological localities in the mountain limestone and in the magne-
sian limestone. It occurs in veins, and almost always associated with galena
or lead-glance. It is of the greatest abundance in the shape of a sulphuret or
blende, or black-jack, as the miners call it. There is also a silicious oxide of
zinc, and a carbonate, both called calamine. In North America, the red oxide
of zinc is found in abundance in the iron mines of New Jersey. The zinc of
commerce is derived, in this country, from the blende and calamine. It is
naturally brittle, but a process has been discovered by winch it is rendered
malleable, and it retains its ductility ever after. It is this assumed ductility
which renders the metal useful for domestic purposes. " It is extensively em-
ployed for making water- cisterns, baths, spouts, pipes, plates for the zinco-
grapher, for voltaic batteries, filings for fireworks, covering roofs, and a variety
of architectural purposes, especially in Berlin ; because this metal, after it gets
covered with a thin film of oxide or carbonate, suffers no further change from
long exposure to the weather. One capital objection to zinc as a roofing ma-
terial is its combustibility/'

655. The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name
of spelter, which is sent by inland traffic to Hamburg and Belgium, where it is
shipped for this country. The zinc of the Veille Montaigne Company enjoys a
high reputation : it is considered the purest spelter. Zinc is much lighter than
lead, the density being 7.190, while that of lead is 11.352. The tenacity is
also greater ; thus, while lead has a tenacity of 27.7, zinc has a tenacity of
109.8.

DIVISION SECOND. SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

656. SECTION FIRST Specifications. We shall now treat of specifications,
in which the disposition in their respective places of the material employed in
the construction of buildings is fully explained, together with the modes in
which the work should be executed and finished. But before giving what may
be called " model specifications " adapted to stone and brick structures, we
deem it advisable to precede them with a list of items which should be con-

166 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

sidered in the preparation of all specifications for steadings, dwelling-houses,
and cottages :

657. Excavating, by the Cubic Yard. Dig out and remove surface of ground
to depth shown in sections. Dig out for cellars, trenches for footings for
walls, cross-walls, chimney-jambs, piers, fenders. Excavate for cesspools in
stables, byres, &c., for drains, wells, liquid-manure tanks, and dung-sheds.
Clear away rubbish, ram, level, fill in. Concrete to be shot from stage 10 feet
high.

658. Bricklaying, per Rod. Walls round the building with footings. Party-
walls. Cross-walls. Sleeper-walls and piers for ground joists. Paving, &c.
Fenders to fireplaces on lowest storey. Chimney-shaft, extra to sailing-course,
continuing walls up gable. Brickwork under steps. Courses of slate to prevent
wet rising in cement near ground-line on walls, and sleeper-walls. Bottom
of liquid-manure tanks. Wells to have invert arches in cement, with arched
crowns in ditto.

659. Bricklaying, per Yard Superficial. Bricknogging. Brickpaving in
sand. Invert and relieving arches to openings.

660. Bricklaying, per Foot Superficial. Half-brick trimmer arches to front
hearths. Gauged arches set in putty-facings. Yellow malms, white Suffolk,
&c. Baking and tuck-pointing.

661. Bricklaying, per Foot Running. Drains, stoneware glazed pipes.
Steining. Cuttings. Splays for shutters. Chamfers. Brick on edge. Cut-
ting up gables.

662. Bricklaying, in Numbers. Cement or other chimney-pots, set with tiles
in cement. Traps to drains. Brick eyes to drains. Common water-closet,
stoneware pan. Bedding and pointing to door and window frames. Making
good to sills. Parget and core flues, set copper stoves, range, &c. Sinks on
brick piers. Air bricks.

663. Slating, per Square. Slates of fir battens, double nailed, with copper
nails, or composition ditto. Allow 10 inches on all the run of eaves to slips,
valleys, and gutters. Cement filleting. Saddle slating. Ornamental cruse.
Slate cisterns bolted together. Shelves to wine-bins. Pantiling laid dry.
Ditto bedded in mortar. Ditto pointed outside. Filleting and heading in-
cluded. Ditto pointed inside. Plain tiling. Four inches to be allowed for
eaves. Six inches for dripping eaves. One foot for valleys. Three inches for
all cuttings. In fe-tiling, using sound old tiles about 100 new ones are re-
quired to one square. Verge per foot-run. Slates in cement breaking point at
plinth line of house, to prevent damp rising in walls. Tiles. Eaves tiles.

664. Masonry. Cube stone laid on natural bed. Super-sawing, half ditto.
Sunk work, ashlar facing, proper bound stones at intervals. Front and other
stone steps. Landings. Sunk-throated and weathered sills, 4 inches longer
than opening, project 1^- inch from face of wall. Balcony bottom trusses.
Portico, window, and door dressings. Yorkshire tooled or bunched paving to
cellars, kitchen, and for travises to byres. Wash-house, areas, &c., laid
on brick rubbish. Portland rubbed chimney-pieces to bedrooms, &c. Port-
land or York tooled or rubbed outer and inner hearths. Outer ditto, 18 inches
longer than opening, 18 inches wide. Sinks, sink-stones, and holes cut.
Feather-edge coping to walls, &c., throated and set. Hough York stone core
for cornices run in cement. Templates to iron columns and storey posts. Hook-
stones for gates. Curb for railing. Holes cut. Stone bases for pillars or
posts in stable, and byre travises, with upper side chamfered, and hole cut
2 inches deep to receive heel-posts. String-course caps to chimneys. Marble

GENERAL ITEMS (>l< SPECIFICATIONS. ]67

chimney-pieces. Bath. Pipe-hole::-; cut. Washers let in. Copper cramps,
and lead. Feeding-troughs and benches. Court-gate pillars. Cart-shed do.
All angles rounded off or splayed. Wall-copings. Causeway for stable and
byre floors, &c. Man-hole stone cover for well. Liquid-manure tanks.

665. Carpentry, Cube. Fir in bond, plates, &c. Old oak sleepers and plates,
4 inches by 3^, to basement Moor. Templates to beams. Girders. Fir bond all
round, with rider to connect at linos. Wood-bricks to doors, windows, skirting,
9 inches by 4 by 2J- inches. Lintels over openings 9 inches hold on wall, each
side. Pole-plates.

666. Carpentry, Cule-fnnned. Ground joists notched and spiked. Trimming
joists, fitting in ditto. Common joists. Bridging and ceiling ditto. Girders,
bressummers, sawn down, reversed, and bolted together. Storey posts. Ceiling
joists and binders to top storey. Dragon piece and angle tie. Principal rafters
(pair). Common ditto (pair). Hips and ridge (rolls). Valley-rafters. Tie-beam.
King and queen posts. Struts. Purlins. Quartering to form soffit of eaves.
Quarter partitions. Head and sill. Braces and quarters. Door-heads. Posts,
puncheons. Filling in quarters. Nogging-pieces. Ashlets. Heel-posts, for
stables, byres.

667. Carpentry, per Foot Superficial. Gutter-board and bearers. Board-
ing or Baltic battens to roofs. Eaves boards. Boarding to dormers. Planceer
and Facia. Centres and turning pieces to arches, &c. Bracketing. Sound
boarding. Boarding for lead-Hat. Edges shot. Finings. Travises for
stables, byres.

668. Carpentry, per Running Foot and Numbers. Rounded rolls. Herring-
bone strutting. Angle staff. Tilting fillets. Cantilevers. Rebated drips to
gutter. Cesspools, &c., ditto.

669. Joinery, per Square. Floors, best rooms, yellow deal, straight-
joint, ploughed and tongued headings. Common floors, laid folding.

670. Joinery, per Foot Superficial. Double-moulded skirting. Deal-cased
frames, oak sunk weathered sills, double-hung sashes, brass axle-pulleys, lines
and weights. Boxing. Shutters, square or splayed. Backs, elbows, and soffits.
Shutter front moulded, bead, butt, or square. Framed back-flaps, back linings,
elbow-capping, architrave round window. Beaded lining. Rounded window-
board. Framed grounds to doors. Double-beaded and rebated door-jambs.
Doors, square-framed, four or six panel, moulded one or both sides. Bolection
mouldings to entrance -door. Coach-house and stable doors, framed, ledged, and
braced. Sash-doors. Marginal squares. Movable shutter. Folding and sliding
doors to drawing-rooms. Shutters hung with lines and weights, with proper
boxing and frames, beads, &c. Moulding round ditto, deal moulded front, flap
to shut over shutters, flush rings, turned knob, lines and weights.

671. Joinery, per Foot Running. Mitred borders to hearths, torus and square
skirting, narrow grounds, mouldings, beaded capping. Staircase, dog-legged,
or well-hole. Fir-carriages, brackets. Wall-string cut, and mitred inner string,
ramped or wreathed. Circular strings. Return nosings. Steps arid risers
rounded or moulded, glued, blocked, and bracketed, ploughed and feathcred-
tongued. Curtail step. Housings to strings. Plain cut brackets. Windows.
Landing and joists to ditto. Lining to joists top of well-hole. Working
hosing and hollow moulding to landing. Facia. Balusters, turned or square
iron one every fifth step. Iron newel. Turned ditto. Hand-rail rounded or
moulded. Ramp, swan's-neck, wreathed, scroll end, raking, moulding to wall-
string, sometimes beaded capping. Mitred caps, pendants, fixing iron newel
and baluster extra. Joint-screws to hand-rail. Closet fronts, correct to stairs.

168 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

Pump casing. Soil-pipe casing to water-closet. Water-cistern dovetailed.
Seat and riser. Hole cut and dished. Beaded-handle hole. Clamped flap and
beaded frame. Mahogany skirting to ditto. Floor and skirting to water-closet.
Dresser. Tongued-drawer bottoms. Dovetailed runs. Beaded drawer-fronts.
Dresser-top, ploughed and tongued. Bounded pot-board and bearers. Shelves
and standards. Turned legs. Glued sliders. Turned knobs. Flat-rail and
pegs. Saddle-brackets, and pins in stable.

672. Ironmongery. Hinges and fastenings. Brass mortice-locks. Iron
rim-locks, striking-plates, finger-plates, bolts, latches, turn-buckles. Bolts and
screws for shutters, strap-hinges to back flaps. Bolts and screws for doors, brass
or iron. Sash-fasteners. Flush-rings. Flush-bolts, barrel-bolts. Draw-back
lock and chain. Shutter-bars. Brass shutter-knobs. China-ware or glass-
door furniture. Casement stay cross-garnets, cabin-hooks, outside shutter-stays,
shutter-lifts. Grates, range, copper.

673. Smith-work and Founding. Wrought-iron ties, straps, king-bolts,
screws, nuts, bolts, cramps, chimney-bars, saddle-bars. Flitches to strengthen
beams. Hoop-iron bond. Tyerman's patent notched ditto. Top rail of rail-
ing. Metal bars for skylights, casements, or sashes. Cast-iron girders,
columns, rain-water pipes, newel and balusters, heads and shoes, stink-traps,
air-bricks, railing, standards, cantilevers, stable-racks and mangers, gates, eaves-
shoot, coal-plates, gratings, pumps, balconies, verandahs, knocker, scrapers.

674. Plumbing. Cover lead-flats. Lead-rolls, 4 feet 6 inches apart, of
cast-lead ; 5 feet of milled ditto. Ten inches extra width to each roll. Cover
hips and ridges, valleys, dormers, gutters, gutters behind chimney. Gutters to
have one drip every 10 feet ; If inch fall in ditto. Eaking-step flashing ; flash-
ing to skylights, chimneys. Line cisterns. Sink to housemaid's closet. Extra
soldered angles per foot run. Service and waste-pipes to cisterns, sink, water-
closet ; water-closet apparatus ; lead soil-pipe. D-traps. Lead for mason
and smith's work. Brass bell grates, washers and wastes, valves, ferrols, bosses,
stop-cocks, square or round water-way, ball-cocks, basin with plug-hole.

675. Plastering, per Yard Superficial. Lath, plaster, float, and set ceilings.
Deduct chimney breast. Lath, plaster, float, and set quarter partitions, deduct
doors and skirting, unless plaster continued to floors. Lath, plaster, set, soffit of
staircase. Bender, float, and set walls and bricknogged partitions. Deduct
chimney, window, and door openings. Lath, plaster soffit of eaves.

676. Plastering, per Foot Superficial. Cornices, plain or enriched, compo-
skirting, pugging with lime and hair, and chopped-hay, two coats, or on fir
laths with lime, sand, and hair.

677. Plastering, per Foot Running. Cement window and door dressing-
strings, reveals, arrises, quirks, &c.

678. Plastering, perYard Superficial. Washing and stopping. Clearcoling.
Whiting, &c., in distemper. Colouring. Ditto in distemper. Centre flowers,
trusses, vases, balustrades, ornaments generally.

679. Painter and Glazier, per Yard Superficial. Paint all outside new work
four oils. Inside ditto, three oils. Graining and varnishing, two coats. Flat-
ting, various tints.

680. Painter and Glazier, per Foot Running. Wire-edges, bars, rails, staff-
beads, narrow-skirtings, bands, hand-rail or newel-strings. Bail and piers.
Pipe-trunk. Chain. Coping-edge. Cornice (small girt).

681. Painter and Glazier, Numbers. Frames. Venetian ditto. Dormer
ditto, squares, per dozen. Small metal ditto. Casements. Sills, 3 feet 6
inches long, each. Beveals, pegs, brackets, saddle-bars, legs, bearers, scrapers,

SPECIFICATIONS OF A STEADING OF STONE. 169

balusters, newels. Towel-roller and bracket, eluiin, sets of beads arid pulley-
pieces. Step and riser eacli side carpet.

682. Painter and Glazier, JHT Foot Superficial. Trellis- work, close ditto,
ornamental railing, balcony-fronts, glaze-sashes, specify kind of glass, ditto to
fanlights, skylights, sash-doors. Measure glass to sashes 3 inches less than
width of brickwork, and 7 inches less iu height. Glaze dormers and bull's-
eye lights.

683. SECTION SECOND Specification adapted to a Steading of Stone. The ex-
ample which we shall give of a particular specification applicable to a steading
constructed of stone, is that which was drawn up for building the steading of
Drumkilbo, in Forfarshire, belonging to Lord WharnclilTe, and a plan of which
is given in Plate XII.

684. Mason Work. The tracks for the foundations of walls are to be dug to
the depth of 18 inches below the level of door-sills, and to such a width as
there will be 6 inches of a scarcement on each side of the walls. The footings
to be of large flat stones, not less than G inches in thickness, and to meet in
the tails, so as there shall be no small stones between them. The footings
to form a scarcement of 6 inches on each side of the walls.

685. The stone walls, unless otherwise described, to be of good common
rubble work. The whole of the stones to be fair dressed in face and beds, and
to be well banded, bedded, jointed, packed, and pointed with good lime mortar,
mixed with a due proportion of clean sharp sand. The lime, after being
properly slaked, to be passed through a common sand-riddle, and to be
properly mixed with water, and well wrought before being used. Sleeper- walls
to be built under all the partitions, and wherever it is necessary ; all the
gables to be carried up within 3 inches of the sarking, and all the walls, where
necessary, to be beam-filled with stone and lime.

686. There is to be a cesspool under each grating in byres and stables.
The cesspools to be at least 2 feet 6 inches in depth, and not less than 14
inches square, and to be built and paved with brick ; also, at all the junctions
of the urine-pipes there are to be eyes of brick at the necessary depths of the
pipes 9 inches square. Urine-tank to be of brickwork at the depth shown on
the section.

687. All the corners, gate-pillars, and door and window rybats to have
2-inch droved margins, droved breasts, checks to the necessary depths, and
pick-dressed in the tail, and the sizes already described, except the following
corners and openings, which will be formed of hammer-dressed scunscions,
long stones, or brick, viz. : Cattle-shed, doors, and other openings and corners
to be formed of brick ; but where there are to be doors hung, two stones of a
sufficient size are to be built into the wall, and the crooks sufficiently batted
into them. The openings into the two large courts are to be formed with long
stones, to be at least 3 feet below the surface of the ground, and to be of such
a breadth as cover in the end of the dyke, and not less than 8 inches thick,
and to finish with the cope of the dyke, and to be neatly hammer-dressed.
Cart-shed pillars to be 22 inches square, two stones to form a course, except
the last course, which must be in one stone. The lintels to be at least 13
inches in height, and not less than 9 inches in thickness, and to be built hard
together at the ends, to be neatly hammer-dressed, a chamfer to be taken off
all round the pillars. All the other openings for doors to have either cheeks
for post or giblet checks. Mill-shed openings to be formed with hammer-
dressed scunscions, to be set double and single alternately, and to finish with

170 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

a double one at least 18 inches in breadth. The lintels are to be provided by
the carpenter. Two stones, 2 feet square by 10 inches in thickness, to be set
on wall, at the level of cross-beam, and one of stone, of the same dimensions,
set for supporting horse-wheel ; also two stones, 18 inches square by 8 inches
in thickness, to be built into the wall 6 feet below the top of wall, and a recess
made into the wall for an iron rod for fixing down the beam. The position will
be pointed out during the progress of the work.

688. Feeding Troughs Benches. The feeding benches in courts are to be
built with brick, and covered with faced and jointed pavement, having all the
necessary bolt-holes, &c. ; tho.se in loose-boxes to be of the same description.
Feeding troughs in byres to be as shown on the plan and section, having sides

3 inches in thickness, and not less than 18 inches in depth. All to be dressed
straight, and close-jointed; bottoms to be paved with brick, bedded and jointed
with lime. Division stones to be from 3 to 4 inches in thickness, and to be

4 feet 6 inches square, having a proper hold of the ground. Thirty-two fixings
for cattle to be provided, and fixed to the stones and walls. Fixings to be of
1 inch diameter, and not less than 20 inches in length.

689. Travise Stones. Thirteen stones for horse travises, to be 9 feet by 2
feet 9 inches, and 3 inches in thickness, and to have 6 inches of hold in the
ground and 2 in the wall, and chamfered as shown on the section. There will
be five stones for supports in cart-shed, 1 8 inches square by 8 inches in thick-
ness. Also ten stones for partition in straw-barn 12 inches square by 6
inches thick. Six stones for supporting feeding-shed roof, to be 8 feet long,
and 12 inches by 9, resting in socket-stones 20 inches by 20, and 9 inches
thick, and let into the timber lintel. (See section.) A stone, with a sunk panel,
to be set above arch in south elevation, as shown on the plan.

690. Paving. The stables, byres, loose boxes, and turnip-shed are all to be
paved with small boulders, bedded in sand, and laid to the proper falls. Stables
and byres to have curb-stones, as shown on the section. Ten 8-inch bell-traps
to be provided, and fitted into stones 18 by 18 by 6, to be placed above each
cesspool. The bell -traps to be strong made, and close fitted on to the stone.
The urine-pipes will be provided by the proprietor, but the contractor is to
open the trench, and lay them to the proper falls towards the tank, as shown
by dotted lines. The passages in byres and feeding-shed passage to be laid
with jointed pavement.

691. Bothy, harness-room, gig-house, boiler-house, and passage in straw-
barn to be laid with jointed pavement. . Riding-stable to be paved where
coloured blue, and cut as shown on the plan. Coal-house and privy to be
paved, and to have pavement roofs. Privy to have a pavement front for seat.
Hen-house, urine-tank, girnal-house, shed, potato-house, workshop, guano store,
and chaff-house to be paved with brick on bed, laid on lime, and grosited full
in the joints with lime. Urine-tank to .be covered with strong covers, a hole
12 inches diameter to be made in the cover for the pump. Also a part of the
court dyke coped with flat stones for working the pump, and stone steps for
getting up to it.

692. Cisterns. Three stone cisterns to be placed as shown on the plan. The
two in shed to be 6 feet by 2, and 1 foot 6 inches ; the other to be 14 feet by
2, and by 1 foot 6 inches ; or, if the contractor prefers, he can make it in two.
They are to be properly cheeked and jointed with white lead, and bolted toge-
ther, and made completely water-tight ; and scullery to be laid with faced and
jointed pavement, bedded on sand and jointed with lime. Dairy shelving to be
of polished pavement, and to have at least 2 inches of wall-hold ; the pave-

SPECIFICATIONS O!-' A STEADING OF STONE. 171

ment under shelving to be laid 2 inches above the floor on section. Coal-house
to be paved with brick on bed, laid on lime as aforesaid. The spence to be laid
with jointed pavement, bedded on sand and worked with lime.

693. Jobbing. The contractor is to execute all necessary jobbing belonging
to his department of the work, such as cutting raglets, bolt-holes, and fitting
in crooks for hanging doors, and running them in with lead, sloping for get-
ting in pipes, &c. ; bnt the contractor furnishes no lead except what is
wanted for the cattle-fixings the lead for bolts and crooks being to be all
provided by the carpenter.

694. General Conditions. The contractor to get all the materials in the
present steading and pigeon-house, belonging to his department of the works,
and must take down the walls at such times as the tenant may find it conve-
nient. Brick will be provided by the proprietor for all the work specified to be
brick. The contractor will have Kinpnrney quarry, free of lordships, for all
the stones necessary for the completion of the works shown on the plans and
set forth in this specification. The quarry must be well wrought. All rubbish
to be removed out of the way, so as not to interfere with the working of the
quarry afterwards. The contractor will have the use of the rafters and joist-
ing for scaffolding ; but if in any way damaged by him and not fit to be used,
he must pay full value for it to the contractor for carpenter and joiner-work.
The contractor is to furnish all the materials except brick, as aforesaid ; but if
sand cannot be got without stripping off the soil, he must do that, and at such
times as there will always be as much cleared as allow the tenant free access
to the pit. The tenant will perform all necessary carriages. Stones from
Kinpurney quarry. Pavement and lime from Meigle Station.

695. The whole is to be finished in a most complete and tradesmanlike
manner, and to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kcrr, Esquire, factor on
the estate, or any person appointed by him to superintend the Avorks.

696. Carpentry Steading Lintels. All the doors, windows, and other open-
ings to have safe lintels, as already described. Cart-shed lintels to be in one
length. Lintels over mill-shed posts to be 8 inches thick, and of such a
breadth as carry the couples. The cross-beams in mill-shed to be 14 inches by
7, to have 18 inches of wall-hold at each end, and to be bolted down to a stone
block by a |-inch iron rod at least 6 feet in length, to have a good thread and
strong nut. The other two beams to be of the same dimensions, to be well
secured together by | inch travelling bolts. The beams over pillars for carry-
ing cattle feeding-shed roof to be in one length, and to be 11 inches by 9,
having 12 inches of wall-hold at each end.

697. Joists and Sleepers. Granary and sheaf-loft joists to be 10- 1 - inches by
2J, laid on wall-plates 8 inches by 1J. Joists to be set 19 inches apart from
centres, and to be properly bridled for machinery. Stair-bridling to be 10^
inches by 4- 1 -, to be dovetailed and screwed together with -^-irich iron bolts,
and the whole of the floors to be laid with 1^-inch white wood ploughed and
tongued flooring well nailed down. Corn-room to be laid with sleepers 6 1 -
inches by 2|- on wall-plates 6 feet by 1 inch, and clad with flooring as afore-
said. Bothy bedroom to be laid with sleepers and flooring.

698. Roofing. West and north ranges to be roofed with couples to the sizes
marked on the section, and all to be properly checked and well nailed, as afore-
said, and set on wall-plates. Not to be more than 20 inches apart from centres,
and to be clad with -f-inch white wood sarking, as described. Mill-shed roof
to be constructed as shown on the section, having ten rafters going to the top.
All the rafters to be set on wall-plates sawed to the circle. The wall-plate to

172 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

be in two, thickness making 2 inches, to be overlapped and well nailed toge-
ther, and nailed down to the wood lintels. The other courses of plates to be
6 inches by 3, sawn to the circle, and fitted into a half check in rafters. A deal,
6 inches by |, to be bent round the outside of each plate. A detailed drawing
will be given for this roof during the progress of the work. The rafters to be
covered with f-inch sarking, as aforesaid. Bothy roof to have couples placed
18 inches apart from centres, and covered with sarking. Stable range to be
roofed as described for west and north range. All the byres and cattle-sheds
to have couples made as described, and placed 20 inches apart from centres,
and clad with lath 2 inches by f , at the distance to suit the courses of the
slates (the slates to be, if they can be got, 14 inches by 8) ; ridge-battens
to be supported on iron spikes on every second couple ; fillets to be put
on where necessary. Projections to be cleaned, and covered with iron, as
described.

699. Windows. The windows in south and west elevations to be sash and
case, and primed as aforesaid. Stables and byres to have windows with
sparred sliding-shuts, upper half to be glazed. Corn-room to have sash and
case windows, as aforesaid. Granary to have twelve opening frames, all to have
suitable hinges and fasteners. The proprietor will provide wire-screens for
these windows, but the contractor is to fix them. Six skylights to be glazed.

700. Lathing. The bothy ceiling to be lathed in the manner already de-
scribed for lathing. Two beds to be fitted up in bothy, having forestock and
bottom, &c. Granary floor to be supported by a beam running the whole
length. Beam to be 6 inches by 6, supported by five uprights the same dimen-
sions, resting into a stone. The beam to have 9 inches of wall-hold at each
end. Corn-room partitions to be of standards 4| inches by 2, and clad with
f-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued lining, having doors where necessary.
Granary stair to have l|~inch treads. Straw-barn to be divided, as shown, by a
wood partition, posts to be 6^ inches by 2^, having a runner 6| inches by 1^
at top and bottom, and clad with rails 3J inches by 1^, nailed on 12 inches
apart. Rails to be of larch.

701. Cattle-Racks. Substantial racks to be fitted up above all the feeding-
troughs in byres and loose-boxes. A runner, 3 inches by 3, to be stretched
along the top of division-stones the whole length of byres, to be checked down
on top of stones at least 1 inch, having all the necessary upright posts for
supporting racks, &c. The space between runner and top of feeding-troughs
is to be closed in by a door formed of f-inch ploughed and tongued deals, with
two cross-bars on the back, and will be either hung with hinges or made to
slide up and down, having the necessary fixings. Backs to be fitted up in
court sheds to the extent of 118 lineal feet.

702. Feeding-Troughs. Troughs in feeding-shed to be formed, as shown on
the section, by planks 8 inches by 3, bolted down to the pavement-soles with
^-inch iron bolts, not more than 6 feet apart. The sides next to passage to
have uprights 3 feet by 2, placed not more than 5 feet apart, properly fixed to
the side of troughs, and to have a runner 3 inches by 2 at top nailed to the
baulks. A sliding door, 2| feet in height, formed of f-inch ploughed and
tongued deals, with two cross-bars on the back, to be placed between each
upright, and to slide in grooves and into uprights. Each door to have an iron
slip-bolt, and two lifters made of hardwood. Privy-seat to be covered with
wood.

703. Travises. The stables to be fitted up with travises having high and
low racks, heel and shoulder posts, and fire-clay feeding-troughs, having a row

SPECIFICATIONS OK A STEADING OF STONE. 173

of harness pegs fixed into a plat of wood, to extend the whole length of the
stables. Heel-posts to be 7 inches by 7, having a chamfer taken off each corner,
and to be set down into stone 2 inches, and well nailed to a runner above 7 feet
by 2. Division boards to be 2 inches thick, having two dowels into each joint,
and covered on top by --^-inch hoops of iron, fixed by countersunk screw-nails.
The feeding-boxes to be 2 feet 3 inches long by 1 foot 3 inches wide by 1 foot deep,
inside measurement. A press to be fitted up in the angle of riding-horse stable,
having shelves, and a plain door with a lock and key. The walls of harness-
room to be lined on straps with ^-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued lin-
ing, having a plate of wood round all the house, with all the necessary
bridle-pegs and saddletrees fixed into it. The ceiling to be lathed. The
hen-house to be fitted up with roost and roosting-poles. Roost to be covered
with sarking, close jointed, and nailed down.

704. Doors. There will be ten large doors in two halves, to be formed of
18-inch beaded, ploughed, and tongued deals in narrow pieces, with three
cross-bars on the back, and to be hung with strong crook and band hinges,
batted into the beds of the stone with lead, and bolted to the doors. Sheaf-
loft door to be in two halves ; to be 6 feet by G, to be hung on posts, and to
open to the inside, having fourteen cross-tailed hinges, slip-bolt, and stay-band.
All the two-leaved doors to have stay-bands, and a hardwood revolving bar
outside. All the other outside doors to be formed as already described ; the
doors having rebates checked inside, to be hung on posts by fourteen cross-tailed
hinges, and those doors opening out to be hung with crook and band hinges,
as already described. Inside doors to be of |-iuch wood, and hung with twelve
cross-tailed hinges.

705. Locks and Latches. The doors in west, north, and stable ranges all to
have stock locks of the best description. The small doors to have good latches,
and all the doors opening out to have latches fixed into the stone wall, to keep
them back to the wall when open. The keys for stable and byre doors to have
a falling ring.

706. Gates. There will be seven 10-feet gates, each gate to be in two
halves, having stiles 4 inches by 2-J, rails 4 inches by 1^, spars 8- inches by
1, placed 3 inches apart. Gates to have diagonal or centre rails. Two small
gates of a similar description. All to be hung with strong crook and band
hinges, as already described. These gates to have suitable slip-bolts, bolted
on foot of stiles, and a swivel bar on centres, and all the necessary catches
and latches to keep them open or shut, as the case may be.

707. Skirting. Bothy and harness-room to have skirting 4| inches by |.
Corn-room, sheaf-loft, and granary to have skirting fixed all round the walls
and partitions ; thus the floor-line to be nailed to dowels driven into the wall.
Bothy and harness-room to have plain mantelpieces. The two recesses in
bothy to be fitted up with shelves, one of them to get a plain door.

708. Jobbings. The contractor is to execute all jobbing necessary for the
completion of his department of the works, also to forward and give all the
necessary assistance for the laying and bedding of the beams, &c. All minor
parts to be included, and the whole and every department of the works must
be finished in strict accordance with the plans, and equal to other works of a
similar class. Although everything may not be particularly and minutely
described, such must be considered to fall under the contract, as no extras will
be allowed unless specially ordered.

709. Materials. All the timber for the carpenter-work to be of the best
Swedish fir. The flooring and sarking to be of Baltic white-wood, and the

174 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

finishings to be all of the best Quebec or St John's yellow pine. The whole
must be the best of their respective kinds, free from softwood, shakes, or large
knots, and to stand the sizes when finished.

710. General Conditions. The builder is to get the use of the joists and
couples for scaffolding. The contractor is to take the couples and lath of the
existing buildings at Drumkilbo, consisting of pigeon-house, stable, byres,
barn, cart-shed, and mill-shed. The contractor is to get all the wood in mill-
shed, consisting of upright posts and beams, for carrying roof and roofing.
All are of new wood, and can be used in the steading. The contractor is
to furnish all other materials necessary to complete his department of the
works ; but the tenant will perform all necessary carriage from Meigle Station,
or any similar distance. The whole works must be finished in a most com-
plete and tradesmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kerr,
Esq., factor on the estate, or any person that may be appointed by him to
superintend the works. The factor, as aforesaid, reserves full power to make
any additions to or deductions from the foregoing works, without any way
affecting the terms of the contract, the value of which will be added to or de-
ducted from the contract price by the architect of the works. No part or por-
tion of the works will be allowed to be sublet without an order from the factor
aforesaid.

711. Slater and Plumber Work. The roofs to be covered with dark blue slates.
Byres and cattle-sheds to be covered with 14 inch by 8 slates. Byres and
sheds to be hung on lath. Cottages and all the other roofs to be covered with
slates 13 inches by 7. All to have full and sufficient cover, averaging 2 J inches
at bottom, and diminishing regularly to 1^ inches at top ; to be square dressed,
regularly sized, and hung to the sarking by galvanised iron nails. Every
third course to be double nailed. The joints of sarking on house and cottages
to be properly filled up with plaster-lime, mixed with hair, and all the raglets
to be pointed with mastic.

712. Plumber- Work. All the roans, valleys, ridges, hips, and conductors, to
be of 18-inch zinc flashings, to be of 5-lb. lead : 4|-inch roans to be round all
the eaves of farmhouse, and all the roofs falling into the cattle-courts :
3^-inch roans to be round all the eaves of kitchen and dairy ranges. There
will be two 3-inch conductors from farmhouse, one from dairy, and three 2-inch
conductors from kitchen-range, and two 1^-inch ditto from porch, and
six 2|-inch conductors for cattle-courts. A 2-inch roan to be round eaves
of porch. The roans to be supported by strong iron hooks, well nailed
to the sarking or lath, not to be more than 27 inches apart from centres, all to
be laid to the proper falls. Each conductor to have a 6-feet cast-iron length to
enter the drains 12 inches below the surface. Eidges, hips, and valleys to be
12 inches in breadth, all to fit their respective places. Lead flashings, 8 inches
broad, to be properly ragleted on porch roof. All the chimney-tops to have
lead flashings 8 inches broad.

713. Skylights. There will be six cast-iron skylights ; two to open, the
others to be dead. All to have zinc soles two skylights No. 4, and four
No. 3.

714. Ventilators. There will be twenty double ventilators of zinc. The
position of them will be pointed out during the progress of the work. (See
north elevation in Plate XII. for sketch of ventilators.) A spire to be fixed on
top of mill-shed roof with a weathercock, to be of sheet copper. The spire to
be a rod of 1-inch round iron, to be fixed 3 feet below the top of roof, having a
shoulder and a nut properly screwed, and to be firmly braced up. The cock to

SPECIFICATIONS OF A STEALING OF STONE. 175

be 5 feet above roof. The whole to be finished in a most complete and tradesman-
like manner, to the entire satisfaction of Christopher Kcrr, Esq., or any
person appointed to superintend the \vorks. The contractor is to uphold the
roofs against wind and Weather, and keep them completely water-tight, for
twelve months after the completion of the whole works, and leave them in good
condition at that period. The contractor is to take the slates off the present
steading-house and pigeon-house, and put them carefully aside, so as to be
entirely clear of all the buildings, <tc., having no further claim on them. The
contractor is to furnish all materials necessary for the completion of his de-
partment of the works ; but the tenant will perform all carriages from Meigle
Station, or any similar distance. All minor parts to be included; and the
whole and every department of the works must be finished in strict accordance
with the plans, and equal to other works of a similar class. Although every-
thing may not be particularly and minutely described, such must be considered
to fall under the contract, as no extras will be allowed unless specially
ordered.

715. Plaster -Work. Bothy walls, partitions, and ceiling, to receive two
coats of plaster. Ceiling of harness-room to get two coats of plaster. Granary,
sheaf-loft, and corn-room walls to receive one coat of plaster. The windows to
be bedded and pointed with lime. The plaster is to consist of lime and clean
sharp sand, mixed with a due proportion of good fresh hair, to be well mixed
and properly wrought, and the whole to bo of the best description when
finished, free from cracks, blisters, or water-marks of every description. The
contractor is to provide all materials necessary for the completion of the works ;
but the tenant will perform all carriages of lime from Meigle Station, and sand
from the pit. The whole to be finished to the entire satisfaction of Christopher
Kerr, Esq., factor on the estate, or any person appointed to superintend the
works. All minor parts to be included, and the whole and every department
of the works must be finished in strict accordance with the plans, and equal to
other works of a similar class. Although everything may not be particularly
and minutely described, such must be considered to fall under the contract, as
no extras will be allowed unless specially ordered.

716. What is contained on this and preceding pages are the specifica-
tions referred to in a minute of agreement, executed of equal date herewith,
between Christopher Kerr, conjunct town-clerk of Dundee, as factor and com-
missioner for the Right Hon. Lord Wharnclille, of the first part, and David
Milne, mason, Kirriemuir ; Robert Dow, wright, Blairgowrie ; Andrew Ander-
son, slater, Coupar- Angus ; and Alexander Mitchell, plasterer, Alyth ; and
David Smith', manufacturer, Alyth, as cautioner for and with the said Alex-
ander Mitchell, all of the second part. In witness whereof, this docquet,
written upon this page by James Moir, clerk to Christopher Kerr and Com-
pany, writers in Dundee, by whom the said specifications are also written, are
subscribed, along with the said specifications, by all the parties, as follows
viz., by the said David Milne, Andrew Anderson, Alexander Mitchell, and
David Smith, all at Dundee, on the twentieth day of March eighteen hundred
and fifty-seven, before these witnesses Christopher Webster Kerr, residing in
Dundee, and Andrew Huttori, clerk to the said Christopher Kerr and Company ;
by the said Robert Dow, on the twenty- seventh day of the said month of
March, before these witnesses the said Christopher Webster Kerr and Andrew
Hutton; and by the said Christopher Kerr, also at Dundee, on the said twenty-
seventh day of the said month of March, before these witnesses the snid
Christopher Webster Kerr and the said Andrew Hutton.

176 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

717. Specification adapted to a Steading of Brick. The following is an example
of a specification for a brick-built farm-steading :

718. General Conditions. The several contractors for the farm-buildings are
required to provide all materials, tools, tackle, and all other requisites necessary
for completing the work. The whole of the materials to be the very best of
their several kinds, sound and well seasoned, and to be applied in the most
workmanlike and substantial manner, under the direction and to the complete
satisfaction of the architect, or the clerk of works, duly appointed to superin-
tend the erection of the building.

719. The drawings are strictly to be adhered to, and to be considered equally
binding with the specification. Should anything appear to have been omitted
in either the drawings or the specification which is usually inserted in these, or
which may reasonably be inferred from the said drawings and specification,
the contractors shall not be free to obtain any advantage from these omissions.
On the contrary, it is clearly understood that they shall provide and apply
whatever material or labour, or both, which may be wanting to complete the
works in accordance with the true intent and meaning of the said drawings and
specification, and with the general conditions ; and the directions for their cor-
rect performance, as given from time to time by the architect or clerk of the
works, are strictly to be adhered to.

720. Where any ambiguity exists with reference to the measurements shown
in, or taken from, the drawing from the scale attached thereto, figures are in all
cases to be preferred to the drawings. Any doubtful or disputed point, or ques-
tion arising on this or any other subject, is to be decided by the architect, whose
decision in writing shall be final and without appeal.

721. Any dispute or disputes that may arise in connection with the work,
whether on account of extra or unfinished works of the drawings or specification,
or otherwise, of whatever kind, shall be referred to the architect, whose decision
or valuation, as the case may be, shall be final, and binding upon all parties.

722. Any extra work which is required to be done, is to be contracted for
before the same is commenced to ; and should any of the contractors omit to
make such previous agreement or contract, the architect, or person appointed
by him, shall measure the work done, and value the same, and this valuation is
to be final and binding.

723. Should any of the. several works herein specified or shown on the draw-
ings be ordered to be omitted and not carried out, then the architect, or person
appointed by him, shall measure the portions so ordered to be omitted, and
value them according to the rates or prices at which he considers the contractor
or contractors to have founded his or their contracts ; and the amount so
valued shall be deducted from the sum due to the contractor.

724. The payments to the bricklayer, mason, and carpenter, to be made in
three instalments, in sums not less than 20 per cent upon the amount of the
respective contracts upon producing a certificate from the architect that the
amount of the sums applied for do not exceed three-fourths of the value of the
works then executed and performed. The value to be computed after the same
ratio at which the architect conceives each contractor's estimate or tender has
been formed.

725. The plasterer, slater, plumber, painter, and paperhanger to be paid when
the whole of their work is completed to the satisfaction of the architect or clerk
of works.

726. The proprietor, through his architect, reserves to himself the power of
making any alterations or additions to the several works as they proceed, with-

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A STEADING OF BRICK. 177

out multiplying or invalidating tlio contracts ; but the architect will not feel
himself bound by any order given, or which ma} r be said to have been given,
verbally for any such alterations and additions ; consequently no allowances
will be made for such work, except the contractor or contractors can and do
produce a written order authorising the addition or alterations, signed by the
architect. No deviations, therefore, are to be made from the drawings, with-
out a written order from the architect.

727. The building, the ground attached, and materials placed thereon, from
the commencement to the finishing thereof, are to be considered in the posses-
sion of the proprietor, without tending to make void or to invalidate any of
the foregoing conditions, or to make him liable for any accident, risk, or
damage whatsoever, that may occur to the same. None of the materials to be
removed without the permission of the architect.

728. Should any of the contractors perform any improper and untradesman-
like workmanship, or provide any improper materials, they shall be immediately
replaced by good workmanship and materials, upon the architect requiring the
same to be done. And should any of the contractors in such case refuse to
carry out the requirements of the architect within the space of twenty-four
hours after a written notice has been given of the same, it shall be lawful for
the architect to re-let the work to other contractors, and cause to be replaced by
good workmanship and materials the said defective workmanship and mate-
rials, according to the terms of this specification ; and this at the cost of the
original contractor or contractors whom it may concern.

729. From the commencement to the finishing of every part of the respective
works, the care of the same, and whatsoever appertains thereto, is to be with
the several contractors, who are in each of their respective departments to pro-
tect and preserve the same ; and in case of any damage or injury happening to
any portion of the said works by the artificers employed by the inclemency of
the weather, by fire, or by any accident whatever the contractor or contrac-
tors whom it may concern shall repair the same at his or their costs, so that at
the conclusion of the several works every part may be complete and perfect.

730. No portion of the works will be allowed to be sublet on any account,
unless the architect shall fully approve of the same.

731. The buildings are to be erected ready for the slater and plumber in
weeks from the date of an order from the architect to commence the

works ; in default of which the bricklayer, mason, and carpenter are all and
each of them severally to perfect and pay to the proprietor the stun of per

week, for each and every week, until the work shall be so built up, from the
aforesaid date ; anything whatsoever to the contrary notwithstanding to be
recovered from them as and for liquidated damages, or to be deducted from the
amount due to the said contractors.

732. The whole of the slating and plumbing to the roofs, cisterns, and gut-
ters are to be thoroughly finished in days after an order has been given
by the architect to commence ; in default of which the plumber and slater shall
each and both pay the sum of per day to the proprietor, for each and
every day, until the said work shall be completed, from the aforesaid date, to
be deducted from the amount due to the said contractor.

733. The whole of the works to be entirely completed, to the full extent
herein specified, in weeks after the roof is covered in ; in default of
which the contractors are all and each severally (with the exception of the
slater) to forfeit and pay to the aforesaid proprietor the sum of for
each and every week, until the aforesaid work shall be so completed, from the

178 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

aforesaid date ; the amount thus forfeited to be deducted from the amount due
to the said contractors.

734. Each contractor to clear and cart away all rubbish accumulated from
time to time in connection with his work as the architect shall direct.

735. The several contractors are to be prepared with the names and resi-
dences of two respectable sureties each at the signing of the contract.

736. Excavator. Make all the necessary excavations for footings, drains,
wells, liquid-manure tanks, and dung-stances, to the depth and in the position
shown in the drawings. All water, soil, &c., settling in these trenches, to be
drawn off, and this drainage to be effectually completed before the brick-work is
commenced. Level and ram down hard the beds of all footings, and consoli-
date the earth about the same, and also against all walls, drains, &c., if the
nature of the foundation soil requires it. (See Section on Foundations, Book
Second.) Lay under the external walls round building a course of good lime
concrete (see Concrete) ; the depth of this to be 18 inches, and width 1 foot
wider than the width of lower course of footings. The concrete to be thrown
into the trenches from a stage at least 6 feet above their level. Any other
work upon the site of the whole building which may be required to level and
render it complete to be duly executed ; and all rubbish and superfluous soil
that may accumulate during the progress of the work to be removed, and all
left clean and perfect, to the satisfaction of the architect or the clerk of works.

737. Bricklayer. The brick-work to commence on the concrete (if used), the
first course to be laid and well bedded in mortar.

738. All the walls to have two to three courses of footing, and to be con-
structed of the several thicknesses shown upon the drawings, of the best hard
well-burnt, sound stock -ibricks, to be laid in old English bond, and to be carried
up regularly. No four courses of brick to rise more than f inch beyond the
collected height of the bricks ; every course to be filled in and fully flushed up
with mortar, and well grouted with liquid mortar of hot lime and sand every
second course up to level of ground line, and every fourth course above this.
No variation to be made between the inside and outside work. The joints
inside of the apartments which are required to be plastered to be left rough.
Where plastering is not required, the inside joints to be finished with a neat
ruled joint in putty or cement. To prevent damp rising, lay all round the
walls, at ground level, a course of countess slates, laid in cement, or a layer of
a composition formed of coal-tar and sand, to be carefully laid on with a hard
brush, and well worked into the joints before flushing. 9-inch relieving arches
to be turned over all voids, window, door, and chimney openings. Turn arches
in brick-and-half work to liquid-manure tanks. Drains to be laid down in drain
tubes or in brick drains as directed. (Here fill in description of drains to be em-
ployed. See Drains.) Bed in mortar all bond timber, plates, lintels, wood-bricks,
templates, and other wood-work required to be set in the brick-work. Bed and
point round all window and door frames with lime-and-hair mortar, and bed the
sash-sills with white lead. Cut all splays, chamfers, &c., where required. Set
the boilers in boiling-houses with seconds bricks, and with bull-nose corners
the fireplaces to be set with fire-bricks of the best quality. The flues to be 14
inches by 9 for fireplaces in wool-room, and 9 inches square for single boilers
in boiling-houses, the inside to be pargeted with well-made cow-dung par-
geting.

739. The floors of the several apartments (here name them) to be laid with
brick on edge, or Minton's encaustic tiles, as directed. (See Section on Floors.)
Make good all necessary openings to drains. Build cesspools in 9-inch work

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A STEADING OF BRICK. 179

laid in cement in cow-house, stables, Feeding-boxes, &c., where required. Build
foundation to mangers in byres, and to feeding-troughs in cattle-courts. Set in
brick-work, where required, water-troughs for cattle. All the angles of doors
and gates to be splayed or made; bull-nosed. Provide all necessary scaffolding,
and appurtenances to carry on the work, and to attend on the masons, plum-
bers, carpenters, and smiths, aiding and making good after them ; and to per-
form all jobbing necessary to cany out the works ; and to leave all in a perfect
state of completion, to the full satisfaction of the architect or the clerk of works.
To set in brick-work, where required, all parts of the steam-engine and boiler-
house, and the steam-boiler chimney, according to the plans specially provided
for this department by the engineer. To set foundation, &c., where required,
for all machines, as directed by the engineer.

740. Mason. Provide and fix to the windows throughout stone sills,
weathered and throated, 4 inches deep on face, 4^- inches on back, Si inches wide,
and 4 inches longer than the width of window-opening. Provide and fix to
each door two stone blocks, width of thickness of brick- work, and 6 inches deep,
and to mortise the same for the leading of iron bends to receive doors ; also
to each door a stone block with mortise-hole to receive fastening of door.
Provide and fix to all the doors of all apartments named stone sills, 9 inches
by 3, with mortise-holes to receive door-posts. Provide and fix coping to all
the walls of courtyards, and jambs to gates of the same. Provide coping for
steam-engine chimney-shaft, and all stone-work required by the engineer for the
fitting up of the machinery department, according to drawings and directions
furnished by the same. Provide and fix stone blocks to the number required,
as shown in the drawings, to fix stall-posts in stable, travise-posts in cow-house,
and pillars of shelter-sheds in courtyards, each block to be 9 inches square
and 6 inches deep, and properly mortised and chamfered at top. Provide and
fix curb-stones between stall divisions of stable and cow-house, with groove 011
upper surface to receive travis-boards. Provide and fix stone blocks 12 inches
square and 9 inches deep ; cut on upper surface to receive gratings and stench-
traps. (Where the byres are to be fitted up with stone travises.) Provide and
fix stone travises to cow-byre, 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 inches thick ; to
be 12 inches sunk below the floors. The angles to be rounded off, to prevent
injury to the cattle. Pavement to be provided for all apartments named (here
name apartments), to be faced and jointed, and tool-dressed on upper surface,
and laid in sand with cemented joints. (Where a horse-wheel is used as the
motive power). To provide for horse- wheel-house lintels with a 12 -inch hold on
the walls, also two stones 14 inches square and 9 inches thick, to place centre-
beam upon; each stone to have 1^-inch bolt-hole in centre (see mode of fixing
beam in Section treating of iron and woodwork combined). To provide and fix
feeding-bench bottoms 3 inches thick, with holes cut along the front-edge, at
intervals of 6 feet, to receive posts to retain wood front. To provide and fix in
apartments named (here name them) causeway of small stone boulders laid in
sand. To provide and fix man-hole-door pavements and covers to liquid-manure
tanks ; the latter to have a 4-inch hole cut to receive barrel of pump. To cut
all holes and notchings, and to provide all cramps, lead, cement, &c. ; to attend
smith, and to clean down all stone-work at finish, to the complete satisfaction of
the architect or clerk of works.

741. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the timber to be used to be of good
(here name the quality or qualities to be used) all of approved quality, well
seasoned, free from all sap, shakes, large or unsound knots ; all to be cut die-
square, and true to the several dimensions shown on the drawings, and herein

180 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

described. None of the timber to be set more than 14 inches apart, and to
have bearings not less than 6 inches on the wall.

742. Provide and fix all necessary centring, and turning-pieces, stops, fillets,
backings, blocks, finings, &c., and all other articles necessary to the perfect
and efficient completion of the various works described under the various heads
of bricklayer, mason, carpenter, joiner, slater, and plumber. The centring to be
eased, and finally struck when directed by the architect.

743. Provide all necessary wood-bricks, with every required preparation for
fir-ring grounds, battens, and joinery.

744. Provide and fix good and sound lintels of timber over all doors,
windows, and openings generally. The lintels to have a vertical depth of
1 inch for each foot of opening, and to have a bearing on the walls at each
end of not less than 9 inches. The beam over cart-shed posts to be in one
length, 12 inches by 8, and to have a bearing on wall of 12 inches at each
end.

745. The flooring-joists, in apartments where boarded floors are required, to
be 5 inches by 2|, laid on cross sleeper-walls, carried up from footings. The
joists of granaries over cart-sheds and barn to be 9 inches by 3, placed 14
inches apart from centre to centre. Trimmer-joists for thrashing-mill machinery
to be 12 inches by 6. Flooring to be inch red pine, properly tongued and
grooved. (See Section on Floors.)

746. The roofs to be turned as shown in drawings, and of the following scant-
lings. (See Section on Eoofs for scantlings of various dimensions. )

747. Form hatches as shown in upper barn-floor. Staircases to have 9-inch
treads, and 7^-inch risers, formed of inch red pine, with inch square balusters,
and deal handrail. The partitions to chaff-room, &c., to be made as directed.
(See Section on Partitions.)

748. The stable travises to be fitted up as shown in drawings, with heel-posts
6 inches by 6, with runner at top, 6 inches by 3. The heel-posts to be cham-
fered at corners, and let in to the stone blocks at least 2 inches. Travis or
division boards to be 2 inches thick, tongued, or grooved, or dowelled ; the
upper board to be finished on edge with ^-inch hoop-iron, screwed on with
countersunk screw-nails. To provide racks, mangers, &c., as described.
(See Section on Wood Fittings of the Farm-Steading. )

749. To provide and fix doors and windows as described. (See Wood Fittings
of the Farm- Steading.)

750. Slater. All the roofs to be covered with duchess slates, laid on bat-
tens, with proper lap, and secured with two copper or galvanised iron nails to
each slate. The whole to be left perfectly water-tight at completion.

751. Plumber. Cover the ridge and hips with 5-lb. lead, secured with lead-
headed nails. Flashings to be of 5-lb. lead. Cast-iron spouting and down-
pipes leading to drains, carrying rain-water to horse-pond, or rain-water tank for
dairy purposes, to be provided to all the roof. Ventilators of zinc to be pro-
vided and fixed in roof of stable and cow-byres where directed.

752. Plasterer. To plaster with lime-and-hair plaster the walls of granary ;
and provide a solid skirting of cement, 9 inches deep all round, to prevent
entrance of rats. Walls of riding-horse stable and of harness-room to be
plastered.

753. Smith. To provide boilers to boiling-house, and all locks, hinges,
staples, &c.

754. Painter. To give three coats of good colour to all outside work, and
to inside work where directed.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A FARMHOUSE OF BEICK. 181

755. Glazier. To provide and iix to all windows, as directed, squares of the
best glass. The whole to be left clean on completion.

756. Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse, of JJrick. The following are speci-
fications of the various works to be executed in erecting a farmhouse of brick
of the first class.

757. Excavator. Dig out the ground where necessary for the several
Avails, cellars, drains, cisterns, &c., as shown in plans, and fill in and well-ram
the same as the different works are brought up. Cart away all siiperfluous
earth, and deposit it upon any portion of the ground as may be directed from
time to time. The whole of the surface earth (if suitable) to be reserved, and
afterwards spread uniformly and evenly over garden.

758. All water that may rise from springs, rain, or other cause, must be
pumped out or baled as soon as discovered. The concrete under all walls to be in
no part less than 1 foot thick, and double the width of the lowest course of foot-
ings. The concrete to consist of perfectly clean gravel, with a proper propor-
tion of large and small stones (none of these, however, to be larger than will
pass through a ring 1^ inch in diameter), and fresh-burnt grey-stone lime, in
the proportion of five parts of gravel and stones to one of lime. The whole to
be thoroughly incorporated in a dry state ; the water to be added by degrees,
and not at once.

759. The concrete thus made to be lifted from the highest possible point
into the trenches.

760. Bricklayer. The whole of the bricks used throughout the building to be
of the best description of grey stock-bricks, sound, hard, and well burnt ; no pluce
or soft unsound bricks to be used in any part of the building. The mortar to
consist of grey-stone lime, and clean, sharp, screened river sand, free from all im-
purities, in the proportion of three parts of sand to one of lime. The lime and
sand to be well mixed together, in the first place, in the dry state, and after-
wards passed through a pug-mill two or three times, in order that the ingred-
ients may be thoroughly incorporated.

761. The walls are to be built in regular courses, Flemish bond, and of the differ-
ent lengths and thicknesses shown upon the drawings. No four of the courses
to exceed 13 inches in height. The whole to be carried up in a regular manner.
The mortar used throughout to be of such consistency that the workmen may be
able to flush up each joint full and sound, course by course. No toothing to
connect the walls to be left ; but the walls are to be racked back and properly
bonded. The footings are to be in three courses ; the bottom one must be twice
the thickness of the wall to be built over it. The bricks to be used in the con-
struction of the footings to be selected from the hardest and best burnt ; no un-
sound bricks to be used in any case.

762. The window splays to be neatly cut, and all quoins accurately formed;
the walls on top floor to be splayed back to receive the timber of roof. All putty
holes to be filled in ; and if, after the completion of the works, any efflorescence
be discovered, the defective bricks displaying such efflorescence to be removed
and sound bricks substituted.

763. Form all projections for strings, plinths, and cement runnings, and
securely tie in the same ; bring out all corbellings for fireplaces, and bearings of
timber ; properly bed and secure all lintels, wall-plates, and templates.

764. Turn 9-inch arches over all lintels and openings, in -|-inch rings, with
joints properly broken. Turn 9-inch arches in cement over cellars and cis-
terns, and fill in spandrils with hard dry rubble. Properly form, cover, and

182 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

carefully parget all flues ; the sizes of the same to be not less than 14 inches
by 9, all of one uniform size. 4^-inch arches to be turned to all fireplaces, and
trimmer arches to all hearth-stones, except those in basement floor. Fix boiler
and furnace in scullery with all necessary fire-bricks, the external face to be
carried up with hard sound bricks neatly pointed. Fix all grates throughout
the house, finding and setting in loam all necessary lumps and fire-bricks.
Provide and lay from water-closet 6-inch glazed stoneware drain-pipes, pro-
perly jointed in cement and well puddled in clay bed. The fall throughout
length of pipes to be 2 inches in every 10 feet. The termination to be securely
connected with liquid-manure tank. The remainder of the drain-pipes employed
to be of 4 inches diameter. All necessary bends, junction, syphons, &c., to
be provided and properly fixed and laid. The cellar to be paved with hard
dry bricks laid in mortar, on a properly prepared bed of hard dry rubble.

765. Mason. All stone used throughout the building to be of the best descrip-
tion of its kind, sound, and free from all sand-holes, vents, veins, or other de-
fects. The steps leading to cellar to be of tooled York stone, 2 inches thick,
set on brick risers and properly bedded in mortar. The steps to front entrance
to be of Portland stone, 11 inches in the tread, 7-inch risers, with moulded
risings, and properly weathered. Tooled Yorkshire stone steps to be placed at
back-door leading from milk-house and cheese-room to garden, with 10-inch
treads and 7-inch risers. The kitchen, scullery, larder, milk-house, and cheese-
room, to be laid with Yorkshire stone paving, tooled on one face, and pro-
perly jointed and bedded in mortar ; no stone to be less than 9 feet in super-
ficies.

766. 2-inch rubbed Portland stone hearth-slabs to be laid in drawing-room
and parlour and dining-room fireplaces, of the requisite length and width. Tooled
slabs and inner hearths to be provided to kitchen and bedrooms, firmly bedded
in mortar. Provide and fix in scullery a York stone sink, 4 feet long, 1 foot 6
inches wide, and 6 inches deep, with hole cut at one corner for bell-trap. The
larder and milk-house to have l-inch tooled slate shelves, supported on iron
brackets.

767. A Portland stone chimney-piece to be provided and fixed in kitchen,
with 12-inch jambs and mantel, and 9-inch shelf. The chimney-piece in
drawing-room to be of marble say of the value of 8 ; that in the parlour or
dining-room of enamelled slate say of the value of 3. The chimney-pieces
in bedrooms to be of Portland stone, with 7-inch jambs, and moulded trusses
and plinths. Yorkshire stone sills, rebated, weathered, and throated, to be
placed to all window openings, 12 inches wide, 4^ inches thick at heel edge,
and 3 inches at nose ; the whole to be firmly bedded in mortar. Provide and fix
a York stone barb, with hole cut in centre to receive coal-plate or grid.

768. Carpenter and Joiner. The timber (except where otherwise particularly
specified) is to be of red pine, of the best quality, free from sap, shakes,
large or dead knots, and all other defects.

769. All joists or other timbers bearing on the walls are to rest upon plates
4 by 3, with templates 2 feet 6 inches long where necessary, the plates to be in
long lengths, halved together, with an overlap of 12 inches, and securely nailed.

770. Lintels to all door- ways and windows 4 inches thick at least, and bear-
ing 9 inches on each quoin.

771. The joists of ground floor are to be 6 by 2 inches, laid on sleepers 4 by
3 inches, those of upper floor 9 by 2 inches, except to cheese-room, which are
to be 11 by 2 inches. The w r hole to be securely nailed to the plates, and
strengthened with cross-braced strainers, one row to each room on chamber floor.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A FARMHOUSE OF BEICK. 183

772. The joists are to bo trimmed round the fireplaces and stairs ; the
trimmers and trimming-joists to have an extra thickness of 1 inch.

773. The joists, generally, rafters, &o., are not to be placed more than
12 inches apart.

774. The bedrooms, passage, and nursery are to bo floored with best 1-inch
spruce prepared boards 7 inches wide.

775. The dining and drawing rooms, office, store-room, and water-closet, to be
floored with 1-| inch prepared red floors, 5-^- inches wide.

776. The cheese-room to be laid with Jj-inch rough spruce flooring. The
whole to be straight jointed and well nailed.

777. The sashes throughout, where practicable, are to be double hung; they
are to be 2 inches astragal and hollow, well dowelled and mitred, hung in
proper boxed frames, with mullions and transom, behind freestone ditto, with
pitchpine sills rebated to lie on freestone sill, brass-faced axle-pulleys, patent
lines, and iron weights complete.

778. Angle-staves to be put to all external angles on the several floors.

779. The door-frames are to be properly built into the walls, with horns and
side aiTns, and secured to stone plinths by iron strap tenons.

780. Ground Floor.- The inside doors to offices to be 1^ inch thick, square
framed, six panelled (7 feet by 3) hung by 3.^-inch butts to l^-inch rebated
and rounded recesses, grooved to receive plastering.

781. The external door at back to be 2-inch bead arid flush, 7 feet by 3,
hung by 4-inch butts and screws to 4 by 3 inch red deal rebated and beaded
frame.

782. The doors to sitting-rooms and office to be "I ^ -inch thick (7 feet by
3), in six panels, double-worked, moulded, and fdletted, hung to If -inch
rebated jamb-linings by 3 -J inch butts and screws, with 7-inch double-sunk
architraves and grounds.

783. 2-inch moulded glazed screen in entrance-hall, to correspond with
best doors.

784. Provide and fix to the doors of offices 7-inch three-bolt iron rim-locks
to the back-door approved spring-latch and two 12-inch bolts. The sitting-
room and office doors and screen to have best mortise-locks, and plain china
furniture.

785. The front entrance-door to be 2| inches thick, moulded and raised out-
side, and bead and flush inside, hung by 4-inch butts, to 4 by 3 inch rebated
and beaded frame, with transom curved head, as shown on elevation, and
2-inch fanlight. To provide and fix to this door Chubb's patent latch, and two
12-inch bolts.

786. The dresser in kitchen to hav r e IJ-inch rounded and sunk top, and
bearers, with 1^-inch deal cupboard and -|-inch drawer fronts, the drawers to
have -|-inch dovetailed rims and bottoms. No. 3, -f-inch shelves, small cornice,
turned uprights, &c., complete.

787. Double pinned cover, and handle to boiler with elm curb.

788. The windows of sitting-rooms and office to have 1^-iiich moulded,
square framed, panelled sh litters, with -|-inch square framed back-flaps, and 1^-
inch framed soffits, plain -inch back linings, 1^-inch framed, and moulded backs
and elbows, with beaded capping, and 7-inch architraves to match doors.

789. 1^-inch square framed shutters to offices, with square framed back-flaps,
soffit, &c., and -|-inch rounded window-boards on proper bearers.

790. Hang the shutters with 3-inch butts, and the back-flaps with 1^-inch
back-flap hinges.

184 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

791. 1^-inch moulded steps and 1-inch tongued risers of red deal to stair-
cases, with two rows of 5 by 3 inch carriages. Principal stairs to have
1^-inch moulded steps and risers, housed into l|-inch. Sunk and moulded
outer storey, 12 inches wide, deal chamfered balusters 2 by 1 inch, moulded
oak hand-rail, 4 by 3 inches, chamfered newel, 5 by 5 inches, with raised lozenge
and trenail, and raking moulded skirting complete.

792. The water-closets to be fitted up with 1-inch moulded mahogany seat
and riser, with back and returns, 18 inches high, and 2^-inch moulded capping,
f-inch clean white deal under seat, paper box, flush ring, and brass hinges com-
plete, 1^-inch deal cistern, over upper water-closet, 3 by 2 feet 6 inches, and
2 feet deep, on 5 by 3 inch bearers, ^-inch beaded pipe-casing where necessary.

793. The flat over water-closets and brick door to be covered with 1-inch
rough boarding, on 4 by 2 inch bearers, to receive zinc.

794. Form the "lift" to cheese-room in position shown in drawing, with 3
by 2 inch framing, cased with ^-inch wrought and beaded boarding, and pro-
vide all necessary guide pieces, lines, weights, hooks, &c., complete. Provide
and fix 100 feet, run 1-inch shelves, 12 inches wide, and bearers to store-room
and linen-closet.

795. Chamber Floor. The doors are to be If-inch thick (7 by 3 feet), double
worked in six panels, hung to 1^-inch rebated jamb linings, by 3^-inch butts and
screws, with 6-inch double sunk architraves and grounds ; 6-inch rim-locks to
these doors.

796. The partitions on false bearings to be 4 by 2 inches, trussed with head
4 by 4 inches, and sill 5 by 4 inches, and filled in with quarters, not exceeding
12 inches apart.

797. Form a trap-door to gain access to roofs, with |-inch beaded casing,
hung with 2-inch butts and screws, and two 4-inch flush-bolts.

798. The window-sashes and frames to be as described for ground floor.

799. Window boards to be provided and fixed where required, and chamber
windows to have 3-inch band moulding round same.

800. The skylight to be formed of the size shown on plan, with 8 by 4 inch
curb, and to have 2-inch moulded lights, one compartment hinged, with pulley
and line to open, -inch beaded casing to ditto.

801. The cheese-room to be fitted up with shelves and divisions, the uprights,
back, and front, and cross bearer, to be 3 by 2 inches wrought and beaded. The
shelves to be in two tiers 1^-inch thick, planed both sides, and with rounded
edge.

802. The roofs are to be framed, and with timbers of the following dimensions,
of Memel or Riga timber, well seasoned, and free from all defects :

Tie-beams, . 7 by 3 inches.
Purlins, . 6 by 4

Hips and valleys, 8 by 2

Rafters, . 4 by 2 inches.
Ceiling joists, 3 by 2
Principals, . 5 by 3

Struts, . 4 by 3 inches.
Ridge, . 7 by 14

Wall-plate, . 4 by 3

803. Provide and fix 1-inch deal gutter and valley boards on 3 by 2 inch
bearers, with {j-idoh side boards, 7 inches wide, laid with a current of 2 inches
in 12 feet, and 1^ inch drips.

804. Tiler and Plasterer. The roofs are to be covered with dun-coloured plain
tiles, having alternate courses laid ornamentally, to be secured to Baltic deal
battens, 2 by 1 inch.

805. Ornamental creese to be put to the ridges, carefully set in cement.

806. The gables, and where else the roofs abutt against walls, are to have neat
tile in cement filletting.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A FARMHOUSE OF BRICK. 185

807. The ceilings, partitions, and soffits of stairs to be lathed with Baltic
laths, once arid a-half the usual thickness, each lath separately nailed and not
lapping, and the bond broken every 18 inches, to be rendered and floated in
good hair mortar, and set in fine stuff.

808. The walls of the whole of the rooms to be rendered and floated in hair
mortar and set in fine stuff, except to offices, cheese-room, and milk-houses,
which are to be plastered one coat in hair mortar, and set in fine stuff.

809. Plaster cornices, 12 inches girt with two enrichments, to be run roxmd
office, hall, and staircase. Ditto, 18 inches girt with 3 enrichments, to dining
and drawing rooms, and 6-inch plain cornices to the whole of the bedrooms.

810. Enriched flowers, 3 feet in diameter, to the two principal rooms, with 4
corner flowers to the drawing-room, value 10s. each.

811. The three sitting-rooms, hall, and office, are to be skirted with moulded
base and plinth, 15 inches high, executed in Keene's cement, the bedrooms and
chamber floor throughout to have moulded skirting 9 inches high in same mate-
rial, and all other floors to have chamfered cement skirting 6 inches high, in
Portland cement.

812. The cement floors are described in mason's specification.

813. Painter. The whole of the wood, iron, and other work usually painted,
is to have four coats of good oil colour, properly knotted, stopped, and rubbed
down between the coats. The shelves in cheese-room are not to be painted.
The external wood-work to be grained, branched, and twice varnished, in imita-
tion of oak in the best manner.

814. Clean off with fine sandpaper, and French polish the seats of water-
closets and hand-rail of stairs.

815. Plumber. The gutters and valleys are to be laid with the best milled
lead, weighing 6 pounds per foot superficial, not less than 8 inches in the nar-
rowest part, turning 8 inches np the rafters, with drips and cesspools where
necessary, and flashings of lead, 5 pounds to the foot. Similar flashings, 12
inches wide, to chimney-stacks and round skylight, also where roofs abutt against
walls, forming concealed gutters under tiles.

816. Line the cistern over water-closet with 6-pound lead, properly soldered
and rounded at the angles.

817. The water-closets to be fitted up with the best apparatus, ivory handle,
blue basin, copper pan, iron container, &c., complete, with J-inch lead supply-
pipe and service-box to the same, 4-inch soil-pipe, weighing 7 pounds per foot
superficial, with lead eject shoe, and necessary bends from water-closets to drain.

818. Lay the flat over water-closet with zinc, 16 ounces to the foot superficial.

819. Provide and fix 5-inches semicircular eaves gutters, as shown on eleva-
tions, with clip stays turning over edge of shutes. Cast-iron down-pipes fixed
with ring stays where required, having cast-iron cistern-heads and snow-boxes
complete, and connected at foot with drain.

820. Glazier. The sashes of main fronts are to be glazed with the best crown
glass, securely fixed and made water-tight, that in the sitting-rooms being fluted ;
the remainder to be glazed with the best seconds crown glass, well bedded in
putty and neatly back-puttied. The screen in hall and skylight to be glazed
with ribbed glass. The whole of the glass to be cleaned down on completion,
and all damages made good.

821. Paperhanger. Prepare the walls, and provide and hang the dining and
drawing rooms with paper of the value of 4s. per piece, the hall and office with
ditto, value 2s. 6d. per piece ; and the bedrooms, landing, passages, &c., with
paper of the value of Is. 6d. per piece. The hall to be twice varnished.

186 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

822. Bellhanger. Hang the following bells, of the best bright metal and of
different sounds, with pendulums to have proper wires in concealed tubes, with
all necessary cranks, &c., complete : front door, 1 bronzed handle, with bell in
kitchen ; back door, ditto ; office, 1 lever, value 2s. 6d., with bell to kitchen ;
drawing-room, 2 levers, value 5s. each, with bell to ditto ; dining-room, ditto ;
nursery and four bedrooms, 1 pull each, with bell to ditto. Provide and fix 1^-
inch wrought and beaded bell-board for the above.

823. Chimney-pieces of the following values to be provided and fixed : bed-
rooms, l each ; nursery, 15s. ; kitchen, 2 ; drawing-room, 6 ; dining-room,
4 ; office, 2, 10s.

824 Grates of the following values to be provided and fixed : bedrooms and
nursery, 10s. each; drawing-room, 4; dining-room, 3; office, l, 10s.; kitchen-
range, 8 ; a 20-gallon boiler to be fixed in scullery.

825. Where the house is to be built of stone, the specification will be as fol-
lows ; all the portions relating to the carpenter, joiner, slater, &c., being the
same as already given above :

826. Excavator. The ground is to be excavated to the extent and depth
necessary for carrying the proposed plans into execution ; the trenches for
foundations and drains being made sufficiently wide for the mason to build
therein, and afterwards properly filled in with dry screenings, well rammed, and
levelled. The whole of the earth excavated, together with all nibble created
by the building, is to be deposited on the ground where directed.

827. Mason. The walls are to be built of the several depths, heights, and
thicknesses, shown on the plans, such as are more than 9 inches thick are to be
of stone, well bonded, true, and perpendicular, and those less are to be of brick.
The walls are to be carried up in a regular manner, and made level every 4 feet
in height.

828. The wall-stones are to be good, fluted, bedded, large size stones of the
district, not being mountain Kmestone or Has ; the external faces to be neatly
polled, and laid in regular courses, to be pointed on completion with a narrow
tuck joint of properly prepared pointing mortar.

829. The bricks are to be the best hard burnt Stocks.

830. The mortar is to be made from fresh slaked lime and well screened
coal-ashes, properly mixed and tempered together, in the proportion of three
bushels of lime to five of ashes or sand, mixed in a pug-mill, and no more made
at one time than a day's consumption.

831. The foundation and cellar walls to be built of brown lime, to the level
of plinth-course.

832. Lay a course of ^-inch slate slabs between two beds of cement, all
round house, the whole width of walls at level of plinth-course.

833. Brick trimmer arches to be turned, to receive all slabs in front of fire-
places, on boarded floors.

834. The said slabs are to be of planed slate, 2 inches thick, and 18 inches
wider than the several openings, and projecting before the same 2 feet at least.

835. The flues are to be built of equal sizes throughout, not less than 12 by
9 inches, smoothly pargeted with cow-dung mortar. They must be properly
cored after the building is completed, and left in a perfect state, free from
every obstruction.

836. Stone or 9-inch brick arches are to be turned over all openings, whether
with lintels or otherwise, through the whole thickness of the several walls,
where the plan will admit of it.

SCHEDULE OP MEASUREMENTS. 187

837. The sills, jambs, heads, mullions, &c., of windows and doors, the
coping to gables, string courses, corbels, tabliugs, and chimney-stalks, are to
be executed in. freestone from approved quarries, free from all defects, and laid
in its natural bed, and to be cleaned oil' with a line drag upon completion to
be cramped where necessary with galvanised wrought-iron cramps, run in
with lead, and grooves for flashings to be made where required.

838. All plates, bond or other timbers, door-frames, window-frames, and
blocks, to receive joiner's work, are to be properly bedded in the walls, at the
levels required.

839. The grates, range, and boiler (of the values hereafter named), are to be
provided and fixed with all necessary slips and coves. Also fix chimney-pieces
as hereafter specified.

840. Put solid, benched, square-nosed, hard-stone steps, to front and back
doors.

841. Erect in scullery, on solid stalk, a Yorkshire stone sink, of the size
shown, and 6 inches deep, with G inches iron grating, and bell-trap, and pro-
perly trunked into drain.

842. Provide and fix approved glazed earthenware pipes 6 inches diameter
from soil-pipes and sink, and 4 inches diameter from down-pipes, with all neces-
sary bends, junctions, &c. ; the whole well bedded in brown lime mortar, and
the joints cemented.

843. The kitchen, scullery and larder, passage, milk-house, and pantry, to be
paved with paving-stone, not less than 2-^ inches thick, and no stone less than
3 feet superficial; the whole to be close-jointed, and well bedded in brown
lime mortar.

844. The hall floor and entrance lobby, to be laid with 1^-itich Portland
cement and rough sand, finished with Keene's cement - inch thick, marked in
squares with black dots at the intersections.

845. The larder and milk-house to have 1-inch tooled slate shelves, in position
shown on plan, supported on iron brackets.

846. Provide and fix No. 6 cast-iron gratings, 12 by 4, for ventilation under
floors, neatly let into plinth.

847. Build in copper where shown on plan, forming flue, and providing
furnace-door and bars complete.

848. The following is a Schedule of Measurements, or Bills of Quantities,
for a Farmhouse, of which we have given the specifications for stone :

Yards. Feet. EXCAVATOR. s. d.

203 Cube excavating surface of ground and trenches, ramming and filling

into ditto, and removing surplus earth,

Carried to summary,

MASOX.

732 Cube of rubble calling in random courses in mortar,

227 Run flues, cored and pargeted, ....

81 Superficial 18-inch discharging bricks,
34 ,, 4,|-inch trimmer walls,

370 ,, ^-inch slate slabs, set in cement and bedded in walls,

108 ,, '2-inch planed slate-hearths and brick-hearths,

671 Polling and pointing walls with blue ash mortar,

Carry forward,

188 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

Yards. Feet. Brought forward,

140 Superficial Hardstone paving, 1^ inch thick,

Building stack for sink iu scullery, do. for copper or
boiler, and setting same, with all necessary fire-
bricks, burrs, &c.,
21 Run 12 by 6 inches solid square-nosed stepping, well bedded, .

No. 1 solid sunk Yorkshire sink, 4 feet by 2, 8 inches thick, with

" Bell-trap," grating, &c., complete, .

70 Run 6-inch glazed earthenware pipe and joints cemented, and includ-
ing digging of trench for same, and well puddling with clay,
170 4-inch do. do. do.,

No. 3, 4 -inch bends, .....
No. 5, 4-inch junction, .....
84 Superficial 1-inch tooled slate shelves,

No. 6 cast-iron gratings, let into plinth course for ventilation of

timbers, .....

No. 2 scrapers, let into stone-work and run with lead, one at front

and one at back entrance, ....
1081 Cube freestone, from approved quarry, free from all defects, includ-
ing sunk and splayed labour thereon as to windows, &c., and
with proper beds and joints,

399 Do. do. including moulded labour thereon, as to strings,
courses, chimney, &c., as per detail drawings, and with
proper beds and joints,
Extra to turning two finials,
Setting No. 9 chimney-pieces,

,, No. 8 grates, and one range, .

Finding all necessary slips, cover, and fire-bricks, &c., to the
same, .....

Carried to summary,

Squares. Feet. CARPENTER AND JOINER.

332 Cube fir in lintels, wall-plates, and joists, .

237 Fir framed in roof, ....
274 Superficial labour and nails to roof,

70 Quarter partitions, ....

109 Run herring-bone strainers, ....

7 84 Superficial l|-inch red flooring, well nailed,
5 44 1 |-inch spruce flooring, rough, .

13 86 1-inch prepared do. do.,

63 1-inch rough boarding to trough gutter, .

168 |-inch valley boards, ....

871 2-inch astragal and hollow sashes in deal-cased frames,

with pitchpine sills, brass-faced axle-pulleys, patent
lines, and iron weights, complete,

224 If-inch square-framed, moulded, and chamfered shutter-

fronts, and |-inch square-framed back-flaps,
245 1^-inch square-framed shutters,

82 l|-inch do. do. chamfered and moulded

backs and elbows,

344 1 |-inch framed, chamfered, and splayed soffits,

101J- -inch plain back-linings,

61 1-inch rounded window-boards and bearers,

476 Run 3-inch band mouldings, ....
328 6-inch double-sash moulded architraves and grounds,
288 J-inch angle bead, ....

170 4 by 3 inches solid, rebated, and beaded door-frames,

238 If-inch double, rebated, and beaded jamb-linings,

26 2-^-inch moulded outside, and bead-flush inside front door, with

transom and fanlight over,

22^ Superficial 2-inch framed, ledged, and beaded door, .
105 I|-inch6-paneldouble-worked,moulded,andfilletted doors,

189 If-inch 4-panel square-framed doors,

210 If-inch 4-panel moulded do. do.,

No. 1 Beaded bell-board, 6 by 9 inches,

Carry forward,

SCHEDULE OF MEASUREMENTS. 189

Squares. Feet. Brought forward,

No. 1 Dresser in kitchen, S feet long, with 1 i-inch rounded sunk top,
with Ifj-inch deal cupboard front; and ^-inch chamfered fronts,
with jj-inch dovetailed runs and bottom,

No. 3 J-inch shelves, small cornice, and turned uprights, &c., complete,
No. 1 Vent to copper, .....

No. 1 Double cover to do., ....

77 Superficial 2-inch moulded glazed screen, to correspond with best
doors. .....

35 1-inch risers to stair, housed into wall-strings,

60 Moulded deal treads, housed to strings, .

28 li-inch boldly moulded, sunk, aiid beaded into string,

20 Ij-inch beaded inner string,

53 Run chamfered bar balusters, '1 by 1 inch,

19 ,, Gothic moulded mahogany hand-rail, 5 by 3 inches,

16 ,, G by 6 inches moulded, chamfered, stopped, and newels, with
raised lozenge, and ornamental caps and pendants,

20 ,, Ij-inch deal string-board, ....

56 1-inch deal steps and risers, with rounded nosing, housed into

string, .....

Fitting up two water-closets, with 1-inch mahogany seat and riser,
clamped flap, and beaded frame, with backs and returns, 18 inches
high ; J-inch clean deal white uuderseat, paper box, flush ring,
and hinges complete, ....

No. 2 small cistern over ditto, 3 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, 2 feet deep,
16 Run l-inch framed and ledged trap-door to roof,
28 -iuch beaded boxing, ....

374 2-inch moulded skylight, ....
320 3 by 2 inch moulded and beaded standards, and cross-ties to

cheese-room, ....

126 Superficial l.^-inch shelves, wrought both sides, shelves with rounded

edges, .....
84 ,, 1-inch shelves, on proper bearers, to linen-room,

Constructing " lift," as shown in plan in cheese-room, with 3 by 2

inch studding, f inch beaded and matched,
Casing, with lines, guides, and counterbalancing weights, complete,

Carried to Summary,

IROXMOXGEK.

No. 8 Cast-iron buckets, 2 feet long,

6 inches deep tailing, 9 inches into wall, with caulkings at end,

2 pairs 4-inch butts,
23 pairs 3-inch do.,
18 2,|-inch do.,
28 back-flaps,

2 shutter-bars, 6 feet long,
10 44 feet long,

8 3 feet long,

56 sash-fasteners,

5 mortise-locks,
15 rim-locks, .

2 patent latches,

4 10-inch barrel-bolts, .

1 chimney-bar of wrought-iron to kitchen, 10 feet by J inch, .

1 furnace-door, and bars to boiler,

2 door-scrapers,

Carried to Summary,

TILER AND PLASTERER.

27| Dun-colour plain tiles, on 2 by 1 inch batting,

144 Run batting to valleys,

147 ,, creese set in cement,

404 Superficial lath plaster, float and set ceilings,
766 ,, binder float and set walls,

Carry forward,

190 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDIXGS.

Squares. Feet. Brought forward,

337 Superficial twice lime-whiting and stopping,

144 Run 18-inch cornice, with 3 enrichments, .
110 12-inch do, with 2 do,

370 6-inch plain cornices,

No. 2 centre flowers to drawing and dining-rooms,
No. 4 angle pieces, . . . .

120 Run 15-inch Keene's cement skirting moulded,
394 9-inch do. do. do.,

312 6-inch do. do. do.,

23 Superficial Keene's cement floor on l inch,

Portland cement of rough sand, marked in squares, with black dots at
the intersections, ....

Carried to Summary,

Cwfc Ore. PLUMBER AND SMITH.

17 2 Lead in gutters and valleys, . . .

Feet.

31 ^ Superficial zinc in float, ....

Extra to soldering angles of two small cisterns,

No. 2 water-closet apparatus, with blue basins; with f -inch lead supply-
pipe from cisterns ; 4 inch lead soil-pipe, eject, &c., complete,
135 Run 5-inch semicircular eaves gutters,

No. 6 heads and shoes, ....

145 Run 3-inch drain-pipe, ....

GLAZIER.

877 Superficial 21-ounce crown glass,
37 Ribbed glass for skylight,

Carried to Summary,

Yds. PAINTER.

632 Superficial painting in three oils,

11 Graining oak and varnishing, .

French-polishing hand-rail and water-closet seats, &c.,

Carried to Summary,

Chimney -pieces.

1 Freestone chimney-piece in kitchen,

1 Do. do. drawing-room, of value

1 Do. do. dining-room, of value

1 Do. do. library, of value

5 Do. do. bedrooms, of value .

Carried to Summary,

Grates.

1 Grate in drawing-room, value

1 Do. dining-room, value

1 Do. library, value

5 Do. bedrooms, value .

1 Kitchen-range, value . . .

1 Boiler or copper, 2 ft. diameter, value

Carried to Summary,

BELLHANQER.

Including all necessary wires, tubes, cranks, pendants, &c.,
No. 2 bells from front and back doors, with ornamental bronzed pulls,
No. 1 bell in drawing-room, with two levers or " pulls,"

Carry forward,

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A FARMHOUSE OF STONE. 191

Brought forward,

Xo. 1 bell in diniiiff-rooin. with two levers 01

Xo. 1 do. library, and Xo. 1 lever,

No. 5 do. bedrooms, and Xo. 5 pulls,

Carried to Summary,

SUMMARY.

EXCAVATOR,

MASON,

CARPENTER AND JOINER,

IRONMONGER,

TILER AND PLASTER KR,

PLUMBER AND SMITH,.

GLAZIER,

PAINTER,

Chimney-pieces,

Grates,

BELLIIANGER,

849. Specifications adapted to a Farmhouse of Stone. The following- arc specifi-
cations adapted to a farmhouse built of stone, after the Scotch building-
customs; the last specification in brick given being- adapted to English
customs :

850. Mason Work : Digging. The tracks for the foundations of walls to be
dug at least 15 inches below the present surface of the ground or deeper if
necessary to obtain a good foundation.

851. Building. The walls to be founded with large flat bedded stones, at least
6 inches thick, and brought up to the thickness shown in the drawings. The
whole of the walls to be of good common rubble work, the stones to be well
dressed, bedded, and bonded, and laid on their flat ; to be well bedded, jointed,
packed, and pointed with good lime mortar.

852. Mortar. The mortar to consist of lime, mixed with a due pro-
portion of clean sharp pit or fresh-water sand, to be well mixed together.

853. All the corners, door and window rebates, to have 4-inch droved mar-
gins, and to be neatly pick-dressed in the tail ; rebates to have droved breasts
and cheeks to the necessary depths. Sills of windows to project lv inch over
face of wall. Corners and rebates to be 2 feet in length, 8 inches in thickness,
and not less than 11 inches in height or more than 13.

854. Kitchen jambs to be 4 feet in height, and set 4 feet G inches apart.
Parlour and dining-room jambs to be 3 feet 2 inches in height, and set 3 feet 2
inches apart. All the bedroom jams to be 3 feet in height, and sot 2 feet
9 inches apart. All the vents to be regularly taken into the dimensions before
mentioned, as no quick bends or turns will be allowed. A brick arch to be over
each jamb lintel, and under each hearth-stone in upper flat. Chimney-heads to
be formed of droved ashlar, having a base course and projecting cope. The
brigs to be of brick on bed, and to be ragleted into the chimney-head ; ashlar
on both. sides, at least 2 inches. Chimney-head cope to be firmly batted toge-
ther with iron batts run in with lead.

855. All the vents must be properly swept after the chimney-heads are
finished, so as all the lime that may have collected in them during the progress
of the work may be dislodged.

856. Jambs to be set 3 feet 2 inches apart, and not less than 3 feet 2 inches
in height. Door and window sills, and lintels, and chimney-head cope to be of

192 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

stone and to be droved. Chimneys to be carried up as aforesaid, and to have
droved hearths of Glammiss or Forfar pavement. Kitchen to have a faced
hearth. Dining-room, parlour, and bedrooms to have polished hearths, and all
to be of such a length as cover in the jambs and mantel-pieces, and of such a
breadth as be 1 foot 10 inches beyond the finished wall, having back hearths
the necessary breadths.

857. Floor of porch and door flat to be of polished pavement. Dairy pas-
sage, kitchen, and scullery to be laid with faced and jointed pavement, laid in
sand and jointed with cement.

858. Carpenter and Joiner Work. All the doors, windows, and other open-
ings to have safe lintels, to be 1 inch in thickness for every foot of span, and to
fit close to the back of stone lintels, having 9 inches of wall hold at each end.

859. Bond Timber. Bond timber to be provided for all the stone walls in
house, except store-room and kitchen-range. Bond timber to be 4 inches by 1^,
placed not more than 22 inches apart from centres, and all the height to suit
the foot base. Wall-plates for sleepers to be 6 inches by 1, for joists 8 inches
by 1, and for couples 6 inches by l.

860. Joists and Sleepers. Sleepers to be 6^ inches by 2^, joists to be 10|
inches by 2^, and to be properly bridled for the stair. Kitchen-range joists
to be 8 inches by 2^, placed not more than 18 inches apart from centres, and all
to be clad with 1^ inch white wood, ploughed and tongued flooring, well nailed
down, all by wood to be dressed off.

861. Deafening. All the upper flat to be deafened with billet wood, resting
on fillets l inch by 1, and to have two rows of cross dwangs properly keyed
up the whole length of the house.

862. Roofing. The couples to be made of scantlings, to the sizes marked on
section, and to be properly checked to fit the wall -plates, and well nailed
together with long wrought-iron nails, and set not more than 18 inches apart
from centres (to be dressed and set as shown in west elevation) ; all the pro-
jections to be clad with flooring, laid with the dressed side down. The couples
to be clad with ^-inch sarking, not more than 9 inches in breadth. Each
sarking board to have three nails in each couple, all to be close jointed in ends
and edges. Eidge battens to be Ij feet diameter, supported on iron spikes
every 3 feet. Fillets to be put on for the slates where necessaiy.

863. Partitions. The house to be divided as shown in the plan. The parti-
tions coloured yellow are to be formed of standards 3J inches by 2, placed 15
inches apart from centres, having runners the same dimensions at top and
bottom. Warpings are to be provided for brick partitions, to be placed not more
than 2 feet 6 inches apart, and at the height of the foot base, and to be nailed
to the door-posts. Door-posts to be 5 inches by 2, to go to the ceiling.

864. Strapping. All the stone walls in house to be strapped, except store-
room and kitchen-range. Straps to be 1^ inch by f , placed not more than 15
inches apart from centres.

865. Stairs. Main stair to have l|-inch treads and 1-inch breasts treads to
project over breasts, and ends forming a bottle and fillet. Width of stair when
finished to be 3 feet 10 inches. Stair to have ornamented cast-iron balusters,
and a solid mahogany hand-rail. Kitchen to have a common stair, with treads
and risers.

866. Lathing. All the strapped walls, wood partitions, back of main stair,
ceiling and servants' beds, window-soffits and ingoes, to be lathed with the best
Baltic split-lath ; not to be more than l inch in breadth, or less than 3-l6ths
in thickness, and fixed with cast-iron nails ; the bond to be broken every two

SPECIFICATIONS FOR FARMHOUSE OF BRICK. 193

feet on all the ceilings, and on both sides of the partitions ; the lath all to meet
in the ends, or to be overlapped ; two beds to be fitted up in servants' bedroom,
with standards to go to the ceiling, all to be complete.

867. Windows. The window-sashes to be framed 2 inches thick, having |
astragals, to be hung in cases made of 1 j -inch wood ; all the windows in main
house to be double-hung, kitchen windows to be single-hung all to be hung with
bleached sash-cord line, having brass-faced axle-pulley boxes and metal weights,
and all the necessary facings, beads, and batten-rods, sash-lifters, and counter
check-fasteners ; dairy and coal-house windows to be opening frames.

868. Struts. Parlour and dining-room windows to have bound struts, breasts,
elbows, and soffits, with raised planted mouldings ; bedroom arid other windows
to have bound struts, breasts, elbows, and soffits, with sunk mouldings all to
have shutter-knobs, &c. ; struts to be framed 1| inch, back folds, |; kitchen-
range windows to have plain deal struts, with cross heads.

869. Doors. Front-door to be margin style, framed, 2^ inches thick, having
raised planted mouldings outside inside to be sunk ; lobby-door to be framed,
2 inches thick, having raised planted mouldings on both sides upper half to
be glazed with plate glass ; the doors in lobby of first floor to be framed If
inch thick, having raised planted mouldings on both sides ; the other doors
to be framed, 12 inches thick, having sunk mouldings ; kitchen outside door to
be in two halves, framed, 1^ inch thick, and clad with f-inch bedded, ploughed,
and tongued lining in narrow pieces ; dairy and kitchen inside doors to be
formed of 2|-inch beaded, ploxighed, and tongued deals, with three cross bars
on the back ; kitchen outside door to have a stay-band, and all the necessary
slip-bolts.

870. Presses. Dining-room to have two presses, as shown ; parlour to have
one, the doors to be framed, 1^- inch thick, having raised planted mouldings
outside inside to be sunk ; bedroom press-doors to have sunk mouldings ; all
the presses to be lined with wood inside, and to have four heights of shelving
as described.

871. Shelving . One course of shelving to be fitted up all round dairy, sup-
ported on brackets, and forty feet of shelving to be fitted up in kitchen and
scullery ; dairy shelving to be 14 inches by 1 j ; kitchen and scullery shelving
to be 12 inches by 1.

872. Water-closet. A water-closet to be fitted up as shown, having seat, and
breast, and hinge-flap; the closet walls to be lined round Avith |-inch lining,
not less than 5 feet in height ; cistern to be 3 feet by 2, by 2 within, made of
1 1 -inch wood.

873. Foot-base. Dining-room, parlour, and lobby, to have a foot-base plate
9 inches, with a 1^-inch moulding on top ; the other rooms and upper lobby to
have a foot-base plate 6 inches by f, with a moulding on the top ; kitchen-
range and dairy to have skirting 4^ inches by f , with a moulding on the top ;
skirting to be round all the floor and shelving in dairy, and all to be properly
fixed to hooks driven into the walls.

874. Architraves. All the doors and windows in main house to have archi-
traves set on blocks ; window architraves 6^ inches, door architraves 5^ inches ;
parlour and dining-room to be double-faced on both sides; the other doors to be
single ; kitchen and dairy range all to have facings 4^ inches by -|, with a
moulding on both sides ; corner beads to be put up where necessary.

875. Mantelpieces. Dining-room and parlour to have marble -pattern mantel-
pieces ; the other rooms to have jamb moulds, with frieze and shelf; kitchen to
have a plain mantelpiece; closet in second flat to have 15 feet of shelving

194 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

fitted up, 15 inches by lj, and one row of pegs fixed into a plate of wood on
the opposite side.

876. Glazing. All the windows to be primed with lead, mixed with linseed
oil, glazed with the best crown glass, puttied and back puttied.

877. Ironmongery. The front-door to be hung with 7-inch double-jointed
edge hinges, having a 9-inch rim-lock of the best quality ; the inside bound
doors to be hung with 6-inch double-jointed edge hinges, and to have 7-inch
rim-locks of the best quality ; lobby-door to have a mortise-lock ; parlour and
dining-room doors to have 7-inch mortise-locks ; kitchen outside door to be
hung with double-jointed edge hinges, having a good stock -lock and strong
thumb-latch and stay-band ; the plain doors to have 12-inch cross-tailed hinges,
and good pull-back locks, and strong thumb-latches ; press-doors and window-
struts to have suitable hinges, and all the presses to have locks ; water-closet
door to have a spring latch.

878. We conclude this department by giving specifications suitable to the
different classes of Cottages we have illustrated.

879. Specifications adapted to Single- Stor eyed Detached Cottages of Brick. In
single-storeyed detached cottages, built of brick, the following specifications
will serve as an example :

880. Excavator, Dig out the ground for the several footings, drains, &c. Dig
out the earth to the depth of 18 inches under the whole of the floors. Fill in
and ram around foundations, and remove all superfluous rubbish.

881. Bricklayer. The whole of the brick to be of the best hard burnt stocks
laid in mortar. The mortar to be composed of one-third stone lime and two-
thirds clean sharp river sand. The fronts to be finished with a neat rule joint.
A course of slate, bedded in cement, to be laid round extemal walls at level of
joists. All openings over fireplaces to be formed with counter-arches over the
same. All the flues to be carried up, of diameter not less than 9 inches of cir-
cular, and 14 feet by 9 of rectangular. The interior of all flues to be properly
cored and finished. All plates, lintels, wood-bricks, stone, or other work
requiring to be set in the brick-work, to be well bedded in mortar, and pointed
with hair-lime. All door and window frames to be mortared. Boiler in
scullery, and all grates, to be properly set with fire-brick. Build dwarf walls,
piers, &c., to receive sills of partitions and joists for floors. Build brick piers
in scullery to support sink or slop-stone. 5-inch drain-pipes to be laid from
sink in sculleries and water-closets in yard to liquid-manure tank in garden.

882. Mason. Provide and fix to all chimney openings rubbed York mantel-
pieces, jambs, shelves, tooled back hearths, and rubbed front hearths to same.
Pave porches and sculleries with 1^-inch paving, or fire-bricks set on edge.
Provide 3-inch step treads to all front-doors, with mortises for door-posts.
Sculleries to be provided with a 6-inch York slop-stone or sink.

883. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the timbers used to be of the best
Memel, Riga, or Danzig fir, well seasoned, and free from knots, shakes, or
other defects. The floors of living-rooms and bedrooms to be laid with 1-inch
white deal flooring on joists 4 inches by 2, or oak sleepers 4 inches by 2. The
partitions to have heads and sills 4 inches by 3, posts 4 inches by 4, quarters
and braces 4 inches by 2. The roof to have ceiling joists 3 inches by 2,
rafters 4 inches by 2, wall-plates 4 inches by 4. The whole of the floors to be
laid with 1-inch white deal, straight jointed. The whole of the windows to
be deal, solid, moulded, and rebated sashes, prepared to receive zinc casements,
and to be fitted with l|-inch deal bead butt shutters, hung with hinges, and

SPECIFICATIONS FOR COTTAGES OF BRICK. 195

fastened with bow latch sash-fasteners complete. The external doors to be
If-inch deal, four-panel, square framed, moulded on one side, and hung with
3^-inch butts to solid, rebated, and beaded frame. Back-doors (where used) to
be fitted with a 1^-inch proper beaded and ledged door, hung to solid frame.
External doors to have thumb-latches and barrel-bolts. The internal doors to
rooms to be of 1^-inch deal, four panel, square framed, hung with 3-inch butts
to l|-inch wrought, rounded, and rebated linings, and to be fastened with rim-
locks. Cupboards to be fitted to recesses at sides of fireplaces in living-
rooms ; to have Ij-inch deal beaded cupboard front, with 1^-inch four-panel
square framed door, hung with 2?, -inch butts, and fastened with turn-buckle
fastener. Provide and fix round living-rooms a trass skirting, moulded 7 inches
high, and round bedrooms a square skirting G inches high. The privy-seat
and riser to have proper bearers, seat-hole cut and dished, with movable cover.
The doors to all outhouses to be l|-inch deal beaded and ledged, hung to
1-J-inch linings. Doors to coal-stores and food-stores to be provided with locks.

884. Plasterer. Eender two coats, float, set, and white the walls and lath ;
float, set, and white the partitions throughout ; and lath, plaster, and twice
white the ceilings.

885. Slater. The whole of the roof to be covered with countess slates (or
tiles), laid to a proper gauge, on 3-inch battens, nailed with zinc nails.

886. Plumber. The sinks in sculleries to have 3-inch iron waste-pipes, with
grating and trap ; and to have f -inch service-pipe, with, bib-cock, led from
rain-water butt or cistern ; the whole well secured with wall-hooks. The
ridges to be covered with 5-lb. lead, 12 inches wide, well dressed down,
and fastened to proper deal ridge-rolls. Valleys to be laid with 5-lb. lead,
turned up at least 7 inches under slates on each side, and properly secured.
Provide proper flashings of 5-lb. lead to chimney-shafts. Lead and labour
to be found for fixing all stone and iron-work where required.

887. Painter. All the wood-work required to be done to be painted four coats
in good colour. Entrance-doors to be grained wainscoat, arid varnished.

888. Specifications for Detached Single -Stor eyed Double Cottages of Briclc,
The following specifications may be taken as an example :

889. Bricklayer. To excavate the ground for foundations to the depths and
widths shown in the drawings, also for all drains, and all other digging and
removal of earth is to be done as required. The ground beneath stone floors
to be made hard and firm ; and, after the foundations are laid, the earth to be
filled in and around the same, and well rammed. The whole of the walls and
partitions shown in plans are to be built of good hard burnt stock-bricks;
the fronts of a bright and uniform colour, carried up regularly, and no four
courses to rise more than 1^ inch above the height of four courses laid dry.
All work to be done in English bond, with the vertical joints neatly drawn,
and pointed with dark mortar. The angle-groins and arches to doors and win-
dows to be executed in red bricks ; and the chimney-headings, eaves course,
and along gable-ends, to be executed in the same set in angle, as shown in ele-
vation. All the flues are to be carried up separately, and to be cored and par-
geted. All the mortar used to be compounded of one-third part fresh burnt
stone-lime and two-thirds clean sharp river sand. Provide and fix in entrance-
door tooled York stone steps, 12 inches by 8. The windows to have freestone
sills, 9 inches by 4, weathered and throated, and freestone keystone to window-
arch, also to arch of doorway. The living-room and scullery to be paved with
large Yorkshire tooled paving, well bedded in brown lime-mortar. Fix in scul-

196 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

lery solid sink on brick stack, with 4-inch trap trunked into drain. Provide and
fix chamfered freestone chimney-pieces and shelves to all fireplaces, with 2-inch
tooled hearthstones. The drain from sink to liquid-manure tank to be 4-inch
earthenware, laid where directed, with bends and junctions wherever necessary.

890. Carpenter and Joiner. The timber employed throughout to be good
American or Baltic, free from all defects. The joists, rafters, and quarters in
partitions to be placed not more than 13 inches apart from centre to centre.
3|-inch lintels to be provided for all doors and windows, bearing not less
than 9 inches on each groin, the full thickness of the wall. Wood-bricks,
4 inches by 3, and 9 inches long, to be built into the walls at proper intervals to
receive joiner's work. The roof to be framed according to section, the rafters
being notched down upon the plates ; and purlins and ceiling-joists to be notched
up to the beam, and well nailed. The sleeping-room to have joists, 6 inches
by 2, resting on oak sleepers, 4 inches by 3, and to be laid with 1-inch spruce
flooring boards, 7 inches wide, and to have f -inch truss skirting round room, 6
inches high. The front-door to be of red deal, 1^ inch thick, rebated, beaded,
and ledged, hung with 18-inch hinges to 4 inches by 3 rebated and beaded
frame, with |-inch drawback-lock and two strong bolts. The internal doors
to be f -inch rebated, beaded, and ledged, hung to 1-inch plain jamb linings,
with fillet, 2 inches by \ inch, nailed to same, to form rebate, and to be hung
with 3-inch butts, and to have 6-inch iron rim-locks. The windows to be
If inch thick, double-hung, with fir sills, iron pulleys, lines, weights, and fasten-
ings complete ; glazed with 16 oz. crown glass ; to have ^-inch bead round
sash-frame inside, to stop the plastering, and 1^-inch rounded window-board
on proper bearers. Provide and fix to the front windows 1-inch beaded and
ledged outside shutters, with 8-inch barrel-bolt to fasten the same, hung with
parliament hinges. Fit up the closets, where shown, with three tier of 1-inch
shelves, and the pantry with ditto, 9 inches wide, and 6 feet of meat-rail with
turned hooks.

891. Slater, Plasterer, and Painter. The roof to be covered with duchess
slates on deal battens, l^ inch by f inch, secured with zinc nails. 5-lb. lead
flashings to chimney-stacks, and cement verge to gable-ends. The ridge to be
covered with ornamental creese, set in cement. The ceilings and partitions to
be lathed with single laths, separately nailed and not lapping, and plastered one
coat in good hair mortar, and set in fine stuff. The walls to be plastered two
coats, finished in fine stuff. 4-inch cast-iron skirting to eaves, and 2^-inch iron
drain-pipes and cistern-heads where necessary. Chamfered cement skirting, 7
inches high, to be run round living-room and passage. All the wood-work usually
painted to have four coats of good oil-colour. Lancashire grate or oven in
kitchen, sham register-grate in bedrooms.

892. Specifications for Detached Two-Storeyed Cottages in Brick. For two-
storeyed detached cottages built of brick, the following specifications will serve
as an example :

893. Excavator. Dig out and cart away ground for the foundations, to the
depth from ground-line as in the section ; also for drains, liquid-manure tank,
&c. The excavations for drains to be made with a sufficient fall to liquid-
manure tank. To dig out the ground under front living-room and lobby for
cellar, to the depth shown in section ; also under floors of kitchen and scullery,
to the depth of 1 foot below floors. Fill in and ram all the foundations and
other walls, and cart away all superfluous earth and rubbish.

894. Bricklayer. Carry up all the walls, external and party, 9 inches in

SPECIFICATIONS FOli COTTAGES OF B1UCK. 197

thickness, to the several heights shown in the section ; the mortar to be well
mixed and tempered together, in the proportion of 1 bushel of good stone-lime
to 2 of good, clean, sharp river or other approved sand. The bricks to be of
quality and kind as decided by the landlord, or easiest obtainable in the
neighbourhood. Lay the whole of the brick-work in old English bond the
exterior to be worked fair, and finished with a flat-ruled joint ; the interior
to be left rough for plastering. Turn half-brick trimmer-arches to all the
openings of fireplaces, and carefully carry up same at a proper angle. Make
air-chamber at back of fireplaces in living-room and kitchen ; make circular
openings, 9 inches in diameter, communicating with same, above skirting in
room, and close to fireplace jamb. Provide and lay in 4-inch drain-tube, glazed,
communicating with the interior of air-chamber at back of fireplace and the
external atmosphere. Provide, in like manner, a 2-inch pipe leading to cavity
beneath hearthstone, to supply fireplace with air. Bun up at back of fireplaces
pipes to serve as " dust draughts ;' ; or build in brickwork a 2-inch drain tube,
communicating with ash-pit and chimney. Carry up 9-inch circular chimney-
tubes for flues, or ventilating chimney-tubes. If the flues are preferred to be
run up in the brick-work, they should be made oblong, with the corners rounded
off. The chimney-bearer in all the fireplaces to be of wrought-irou. If venti-
lating chimney-tubes are not used, air-flues, 4 inches broad by width of flue,
to be run up alongside of chimney-flues, opening below ceiling to commu-
nicate therewith. If circular tubes are used for the chimney-flues, provide and
run up alongside of these 3-inch drain-tubes, properly jointed, to serve as ven-
tilating tubes. If the air-siphon ventilation is iised, provide a flat zinc pipe,
3 inches by 2^-, arid let same into brick-work in chimney-breast one end com-
municating with the flue by a circular bend, the other with an aperture near
ceiling. The same to be provided to the front and back bedrooms. The
children's bedrooms to have air-flues in wall leading to space between ceiling
of bedrooms and external roof, formed of 3-inch drain-tube the opening in
room to be beneath the ceiling. The chimney-shafts to be set angularly, and
carried up as in elevation and detail drawings, and to be finished externally
with a neat trowel joint. Construct two liquid-manure tanks behind fence wall,
at the points of the division wall of yards, with filtering divisions ; size, 6 feet
square by 6 feet deep (internal dimensions) ; face inside with 4-inch brickwork
set in Kornan cement, and done over with half-brick arch ; provide man-hole,
and cover same with stone slab, to be luted at the edges with clay to prevent
escape of gas or a rebated edge, 1 inch deep and 2 broad, may be exit round
the man-hole, in which to lay slab cover. If preferred, the interior of tank to
be formed of strong deal boarding lined with gutta-percha. Construct over
privy and ash-pit to right and left hand corner houses, cisterns in 9-inch brick-
work, external dimensions 9 feet by 5, and 4 feet deep, lined with slate slab, or
glazed flat tiles, to hold rain water ; or, if preferred, internally deal-boarded,
and lined with gutta-percha. Construct above privies and ash-pits to centre-
houses, a rain-water tank as above external dimensions 9 feet by 9, and 4 feet
deep. Provide and fix with proper fall 4 -inch drain-tubes with conical joints,
leading from sink in scullery and from privies to cesspools. Where bends or
junctions are required, provide and lay circular ones. Provide a soil-pan with
trap to privies, connected with tube leading to cesspool. All grates and ranges
provided by the smith to be properly set and fixed. Bed in mortar all wood,
bricks, bond-timbers, and point well with lime-and-hair mortar all door and
window frames. Pave the privies with hard and well-burnt bricks set on edge
in mortar laid on dry ashes or smiths' cinders. Pave kitchen and scullery with

198 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

flat paving-tiles in rnortar or dry ashes. Pave lobby with flat tiles parti-coloured,
in simple pattern or lozenge shape.

895. Mason. The whole of the stone-work in external walls, consisting of
heads, jambs, and sills to doorways and windows, to be of the best (here describe
stone most conveniently obtained in the neighbourhood), properly worked in
beds, joints, and faces, and set with chamfered angles and stopped ends, as shown
in the drawings. (If the lobby is preferred paved instead of flat-tiled as
above, pave all entrance passages with 2-inch paving laid to a close joint on
brick sleeper- walls, well stopped in composition.) Provide and fix 3-inch treads
to doors, and properly mortise the same to receive the door-posts. Provide and
fix rubbed stone-slabs and back hearths to all the fireplaces ; the slabs to pro-
ject 20 inches from the face of the chimney-breast. The fireplaces throughout
to he fitted up with 1^-inch rubbed Portland jambs (or slate or other suitable
material easily obtained in the neighbourhood) ; mantels and shelf with rounded
corners, each 6 inches in width, well cramped and secured together. Cut in
centre of hearthstone above cavity communicating with the air-flue to supply
fireplace, an aperture, 4 inches by 2, with rebated edge to lay grating in ; the
inner edge to be not more than 3 inches from line of fireplace bars. Provide
and fix in scullery a stone sink or slop-stone 'on brick bearers, of the size shown
in plans, 6 inches in depth ; and cut hole in same to receive waste-pipe (lead-
ing to drains) and trap. Provide a slab of stone, 2 inches in thickness and 2
feet square, to cover man-hole of liquid-manure tank. Provide and fix in cellar,
close up to wall opposite window, a stone slab 4 feet by 2 feet, 2 inches thick,
on which to place meat, milk, &c., to keep cool, on brick bearers 30 inches high.
Cut all holes, &c., for iron and other works, where required.

896. Carpenter. All the timber to be used to be good, sound, well-grown Baltic,
Danzig, or Kiga fir, well seasoned, and free from sap-shakes, or large and un-
sound knots, cut square and true to the several dimensions and lengths required ;
and no timbers to be fixed more than 12 inches apart, or to have a less bearing
than clear 4 inches on the plates, &c. Provide a sufficiency of wood-bricks for
joinery, to be inserted where required ; also all centerings and turning-pieces
for chimney openings. The quarter partitions throughout to consist of heads
and sills 4 inches by 7 ; posts 4 inches by 4 ; door heads, quarters, and braces,
4 inches by 2, with the exception of the centre partition, which is to be as
follows : heads and sills, 5 inches by 4, quarters and braces 5 inches by 3.
The interstices to be filled in with brick-work in mortar. The joists in living-
room ground-floor to be 7^ inches by 2^, 12 inches apart, having a clear bear-
ing of 4 inches in walls. The whole of the joists in first or chamber floor to be
7^ inches by If; trimmers, 7| inches by 2^; wall-plates, 4 inches by 2^.
The joists on this floor, when truly fixed, to have (if desirable) a row of herring-
bone strutting, and to be properly fixed underneath for lathing. The roof
timbers to be 12 inches apart, and to consist of rafters 3^ inches by 2, ceiling
joists 3 inches by 2, wall-plate 4 inches by 2|, ridge 6 inches by 2, valley
rafters 7 inches by 2. Prepare the whole of the roofs for slates with 2|-inch
by f -inch battens, well nailed to rafters. If zinc roofing is preferred, provide
and nail to rafters single slabs to lay zinc plates on.

897. Joiner. Lay the floors of living-room on ground floor, and of all the
bedrooms, with 1-inch yellow Christiana deals, not more than 9 inches wide,
with close joints, and well nailed, and bordered to slabs or hearthstone ; the
whole to finish clean up to the brick faces. Provide and fix f -inch skirting 6
inches high, with proper grounds to receive the same in all the rooms. The
whole of the sashes to be 2i-inch deal, chamfer moulded and rebated to receive

SPECIFICATIONS Foil COTTAGES OF BIQCK. I'M

casements; 1-inch deal rounded linings and window-board ploughed to receive
plastering. The shutters in lower storey to be l|-inch deal, bead, butt, and
square, hung with hinges in two leaves, and folding back against wall on the in-
side, and fastened with bow-latch spring fastening complete. Provide and fix
to all external doors a proper iir door-frame, mortised to heads of steps, and
fitted with Ij-inch deal lodged door, hung with 3-inch butts, and to have two
1-inch rod bolts and iron rim drawback-lock and key. The inner doors to be
1^-inch deal, square-framed, hung with 2,j-inch butts and rounded linings, with
stop grooved for plastering, and to be fitted with a G-inch iron rim-lock. Pro-
vide and fix in recess on side of fireplace in living-room nearest the window a
tier of 1-inch deal shelves on proper bearers, for books, &c. ; and at other recess,
a small cupboard 30 inches high, with flat deal top moulded at edge. Provide
and fix between chimney-breasts and walls in kitchen a small dresser with
l|-inch deal top, with sliders and runners for drawers, with 1-inch deal fronts,
return beaded -|-inch deal rims and ^-inch bottoms. Provide and fix above this
three tier of 1-inch deal shelves on proper bearers, with plate fillet attached ;
also a f-inch deal pot-board and skirting complete. The drawers to be fitted
with common black handles fixed with screws, and good drawer locks arid keys.
Provide and fix to closet on the other side of fireplace 1 |-inch beaded closet
fronts, with 1-inch deal, two-panel, square-framed doors, hung with 2^-inch butts,
and fastened with turn-buckle fastening and cupboard locks complete ; to have
f-iiich deal tops, 1-inch deal rounded tops, and three tier of 1-inch deal shelves
inside. The stairs to have 1-inch deal treads and deal risers, framed into 1|--
inch strings, with proper carriages, and blocked with rounded end to bottom
step ; deal framed and turned newels, with deal elliptical hand-rail, and square
bar balusters. The spandril to be filled in with l-|-iiich deal framing. Provide
and fix in recess in side of fireplace next window, in front bedrooms, a two-
basined wash-stand ; basins to be fixtures, and communicate with drains by
1-inch pipes. Fix one-basined stand in back bedroom. Provide arid fix in
other recess a neat plain wardrobe with folding doors, and fitted with shelves as
desired. Provide and fix to cellars sash or French windows, opening inwards,
as may be desired. Provide and fix to privies 1^-irich deal proper ledged doors,
with stop and rounded linings, hung with 3-inch butts, and fitted with thumb-
latch and bolt complete. Provide and fix in privies 1-inch deal seat and riser,
with clamped flap and beaded frame. Provide and fix J-inch deal skirting round
seat, 4 inches wide ; cut hole in seat for handle in cock for supply of water to
soil-pan. Provide and fix a hinged door to ash-pit hole, 2 feet square. Provide
and fix in gable of roof a proper oak frame, grooved at 45 deg. angle, to receive
luffer boarding fitted in ditto, and ornamented with a wave line. Provide and
fix in bedroom ceiling a small sliding trap-door, with frame rounded and grooved
to receive the same, to facilitate ventilation.

898. Plasterer. Kender two coats, float and set all the walls internally, and
lath-plaster two coats ; float and set the partitions throughout, and colour the
same in kitchen and scullery. Lath-plaster, float, and set all the ceiling, and
twice lime-white the same.

899. Paperhanger. Query (A neat light paper in sitting-rooms and bed-
rooms much recommended.)

900. Painter. Stain and varnish the whole of the wood- work, except in living-
room, to be painted of a suitable light colour. The back-door to yard, and door
to ash-pit and privy, to be painted a light green internally and externally.

901. Glazier. The whole of the sashes to be glazed with diamond-shaped
quarries of the best Newcastle crown glass. Provide and fix in window of bed-

200 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

room and children's room Lochead's perforated glass near top, to admit fresh air,
the perforations to be angular, and so placed as to throw the air towards
ceiling. Provide and fix the same to top of cellar window.

902. Plumber. Provide to sink in scullery a 2-inch iron waste-pipe into
drain, with proper trap and grating complete. Lead a 1-inch pipe from bottom
of rain-water tank filtering department to scullery, near end of slop-stone of
sink, and 15 inches above it, to allow utensil to be placed beneath to withdraw
water. Also same size pipe from unfiltered department of cistern to seat of water-
closet, and provided with stop-cock to flush soil-pan with. Lead a 1-inch pipe
from wash-stand basins in bedrooms to back of soil-pan in water-closet, using at
each stand, beneath basin, a simple trap to prevent ascent of foul air. Lay the
valleys of roof with 5-lb. lead, to turn up at least 7 inches under the slates on
each side, and properly secured. Provide and fix 5-lb. lead flashing to chimneys
and gables wherever requisite. Provide and fix to roof proper zinc gutters on
iron brackets, with cistern heads of neat design, and pipes complete, leading to
unfiltered department of rain-water tank. Provide and fix ventilating zinc
siphon tubes for ventilation of rooms where required. Provide and fix circular
valves to apertures in living-room and kitchen, for regulating supply of air from
warm-air chambers. Provide and fix perforated zinc plate with moulded edge
to all ventilating apertures near ceiling. Provide and fix iron wash-hand basins,
lined with glass, with stopper and chain complete, with trap connected with pipe
leading to water-closet soil-pan.

903. Smith. Provide and fix wrought-iron chimney-bars 2^ by ^ inch, 1-inch
camber running through all the jambs to fireplaces on basement. Provide grat-
ing to cellar-windows, also to all air-flues at external walls. Provide bow-latch
spring shutter bars to all the shutters. Provide and fix, if required, a boiler at
back of fireplace in kitchen, to supply neat pedestal tube in bedrooms with warm
water, with feed and return pipes complete.

904. Specifications adapted to Cottages of Stone. For cottages built of stone,
the following specifications, taken from the " First Annual Report of the
Association for promoting Improvement in the Dwellings and Domestic
Condition of Agricultural Labourers in Scotland," will serve as an example for
practice :

905. " Mason-Work. The depth of foundations is shown on the section ; and
the whole area of building, with a space 18 inches wide beyond the face of walls,
will be excavated to that depth, or further if necessary, to secure a solid and
equal bearing for the walls. The 18-inch space will be afterwards filled in with
dry stone. A drain will be formed, from 3 to 4 feet from outside face of walls
all round, with two cross drains running into it. These drains will be at least
12 inches below the foundations, executed with large drain-tiles, covered with
loose stones to within 10 inches of the surface. Where sinks are used in scul-
leries, a drain will be formed at the back of the cottages, with 6-inch clay tubes,
having spigot and faucit, or saddle joints, with a fall of 2 inches in every 10
feet, jointed with Roman cement, and have junctions and bends where necessary.
The rain-water pipes will be led into this drain (unless in those cases where
tanks are constructed for collecting either the rain-water or liquid-manure, or
both), and also the subsoil-drain already described. Where there are no sinks
in sculleries, the drain may be in front ; and at each end of cottage an iron
grating and cesspool, 9 to 10 inches diameter, will be placed, communicating
with the drain, and fitted into a stone hollowed out for the purpose. The found-
ations will be laid with large flat-bedded stones, having the joints packed with

SPECIFICATIONS FOR COTTAGES OF STONE. 201

stone shivers and grouted, forming- a G-inch scarccment on each side. The \vhole
of the walls will be of the Lest nibble-work, carried regularly up, with headers
in every foot of height, and 5 to G feet apart ; the beds and joints well squared,
and the whole exterior face of walls square hammer-dressed, having the joints
carefully pointed and drawn in. The inside of walls will also be carefully pointed.
The vents will be executed with hammer- dressed stone, free of pinnings on the
joints, carefully contracted over fireplaces, and plastered with fine lime. Those
for kitchens will be 11 inches square, and for bedrooms 10 inches square. If
executed with fire-clay vent linings, they will be carefully jointed with fine
lime, closely packed all round, and the joints cleaned off. A ventilating flue,

8 inches square, will be formed close to the kitchen-llue, commencing about 12
inches below kitchen ceiling, and terminating in an opening, 12 by 8 inches,
under cope of chimney-stalk, covered with a cast -iron grating. The partitions
on ground-floor will be of 4* -inch brick on bed, on 12 -inch stone footings.
Ventilating openings, from 8 to 10 inches square, will be left in the outside
walls, under floors of bedrooms, on the ground-floor, covered with cast-iron
gratings. The chimney-stalks will be executed with hammer-dressed stone,
well squared on the beds. The corners of building and chimney-stalks will not
be less than 20 inches long, and 9 to 10 inches on the head. The rebates of
doors and windows will be of similar dimensions, the inbands extending through
the walls, and neither rebates nor corners will exceed 14 inches in height. A
2-inch droved margin will be worked on corners, rebates, sills, and lintels, the
parts beyond being made to correspond with the rubble. The ingoings of rebates
and lintels, the whole of projecting sills, skews of gables and attic windows,
jambs, hearths, and door-steps, will also be clean droved. The floors of kitchen,
scullery, pantry, and lobby, will be laid with well-burned fire-clay paving tiles,*

9 inches square, on a layer of broken stone at least 9 inches deep, hard beat
down, bedded with lime, and the joints afterwards grouted with thin lime. The
scarcements of walls in bedrooms on ground-floor will be brought up to the
level of under side of sleeper joists. The hearths in kitchens will be 3 feet, and
in bedrooms 1 foot 6 inches in front of jambs, all extending to the back of fire-
places, of Arbroath stone, not less than 2-J- inches thick, bedded on lime. The
stone required for the building will be quarried by the contractor from the

quarry, free of lordship. It must be worked in a regular mariner, to the
satisfaction of the proprietor, or the person appointed to superintend the work,
and left in a proper working state and clear of rubbish when the work is finished.
All the stones will be laid on their natural beds. The lime will be mixed with
a due proportion of clean sharp pit or river sand, and properly worked together.
The mason will cut all bat-holes, raglets for slates, &c., and do all jobbings re-
quired by the other tradesmen in carrying on the work. The contractor will
provide all the materials except that above-mentioned, also all tressels, scaffold-
ing, &c. ; but the carriages will be performed by the tenant, the contractor pay-
ing the tolls.

906. " Carpenter and Joiner Work. The safe lintels will be 4 inches thick,
and of the requisite breadth, having 9 inches of wall-hold at each end. The
rafters and baulks of roof will be 6-| inches by 2^ ; those for roofs of scullery
and attic windows will be 5 inches by 2, all placed 20 inches apart from centre
to centre, on wall - plates 7 inches by 1^ ; and the whole will be strongly
put together, well secured to the wall-plates, and covered with 4 -inch deal

* In those parts of the country where Arbroath or Caithness pavement can be had at the same
price as the above, it will be preferred ; it will be square jointed, and laid in a similar manner,
and not be less than 1 inches thick.

202 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

sarking closely jointed the ridge batten will be 2 inches diameter, secured
to the rafters with strong spikes. The sleeper joists will be 6| inches by 2|,
and 20 inches apart from centre to centre, laid on dwarf walls. The joists of
upper floor will be 7 inches by 2|, 18 inches apart from centre to centre, on
wall-plates 7 inches by 1^, having 9 inches of wall-hold at each end. None
of the timbers will be placed within 9 inches of any of the smoke-flues. All
the bedroom floors will be laid with l|-inch deal, grooved and tongued on the
edges. The inside of all the exterior walls will be prepared for lath, the straps
being 1 inch square and 14 inches apart from centre to centre, fixed to the
walls by malleable iron holdfasts, not exceeding 2 feet apart ; and these walls,
and also standard partitions, ceilings, &c., will be covered with the best Baltic
split lath, not more than 1|- inches broad, nor less than 3-16ths of an inch thick,
each split.* The door-standards will be 6 inches by 2 ; those for outside
doors will be fixed to the stone by strong split bats. The partition-standards
in upper floors will be 3^ inches by 1^, placed 16 inches apart from centre to
centre, having sill and runtree of similar dimensions. The outside doors will
be framed, } the styles being 4 inches by 2, the top-rail 4 inches by 1 J, and the
other two 7 inches by 1^, lined on the outside with f -inch grooved, tongued,
and beaded deal, not more than 4 inches broad, hung with strong cross-tail
hinges, and have a strong thumb-latch, also a strong stock-lock, of the value
of 4s. ; and each of these doors will have a fanlight placed over it. The
inside doors will be of plain deal, 7-8ths of an inch thick, with three strong
back-bars, hung with 14 -inch cross -tailed hinges, and have good thumb-
latches; the pantry and press doors will have good press -locks. All the
doors will have facings and stops 5-8ths of an inch thick the latter will be
4 inches broad, and beaded, and each apartment wih 1 have a 4|-inch skirting,
also 5-8 ths of an inch thick. The window-cases will be of 7 -8th inch wood,
with a 4-inch sill, and the sashes of 2-inch wood, and 5-8th inch astragals, the
latter put together with a mixture of white lead and glue well boiled. All the
windows will be single-hung, with iron-faced axle-pulleys, cast-iron weights,
and the best sash-line, and glazed with third crown glass ; those on the ground-
floor having strong sash fasteners. J All the exterior timber-work will receive
three coats of oil-paint, and the windows will be primed before being glazed.
The pantry and press in kitchen will have three shelves of 1-inch deal, sup-
ported in the former on framed brackets. A shelf, 8 inches broad and 1^ inch
thick, will be fixed over the lintel of jambs in each bedroom. The breasts and
elbows of windows in kitchen and bedrooms will be lined with f -inch deal,
grooved, tongued, and beaded on the joints ; and the angles of all the windows,
and other angles where necessary, will have 7-8th inch corner beads. Each
window will have a blind-roller, fitted with the best common mounting. The
treads of stair will be 1 inch, and the breasts f of an inch thick, strongly
secured to the string-boards, which will be 1 inch thick. The skylights will
be of cast-iron or zinc, with strong hinges and quadrant, and glazed with
strong sheet glass. A box about 6 inches square will be fitted into the ceiling,
or into the wall close to the ceiling of each bedroom, open on the under side,
and covered with a perforated zinc or metal grating ; and a tube, 6 by 3 inches,

* Hollow tiles are recommended for kitchens, &c., instead of lath and plaster, not being liable
to be broken.

"t" In some cases, where the entrance-lobby is small, it will be found more convenient to make
these doors in two leaves.

If shutters are preferred on ground-floor windows, they may be of plain deal 3 ths of an inch
thick, having cross-heads, hung with 3-inch edge hinges, and finished with facings similar to the
doors.

SPECIFICATIONS FOLl COTTAGES OF STONE. 203

will be fitted into it, extending to the ventilating flue, formed as already
described, beside the kitchen chimney. These tubes will be framed of -|-inch
wood, and made perfectly air-tight. * The whole of the timber must be of the
very best description, free from all defects, and thoroughly seasoned before
being used. That for roofing, joisting, safe-lintels, wall-straps, windows, and
exterior doors, will be of Memel, or red wood Baltic plank, or battens :-{- the
interior doors, flooring deals, lining, and stair, may be of red or white wood
Baltic plank or battens, and the other finishings of American yellow pine. The
carpenter will allow the other tradesmen the use of part of the roof-timbers
and sleepers for scaffolding, provide moulds, and do all jobbing required
during the execution of the work. The contractor will provide all materials,
and the carriages will be performed by the tenant, the contractor paying
the tolls.

907. " Plumber-Work. A 4-inch cast-iron roan will be carried along the
eaves of roof, supported on malleable-iron straps placed 3 feet apart ; the rain-
water pipes will also be of cast-iron, 3 inches diameter, having cast-iron waste-
heads, and all will be well lacquered before being put up. The small valleys at
attic windows will be executed with xinc, 8 inches broad, turned over a round
on each edge ; the ridge of roof will be covered with xinc 14 inches broad, over
a roll 2 inches diameter, j The zinc will weigh 18 ox. to the superficial foot.
The sinks in sculleries may be of cast-iron or Welsh slate, having cesspool,
table-washer, and chain complete. The contractor will provide all materials
and scaffolding, and the carriages will be performed by the tenant, as before
mentioned.

908. "Slater-Work. The roofs will be covered with the best Easdale or
Ballachulish, Birnam, Glenalmond, or Welsh slates, having 3 inches of cover,
laid in good bond, shouldered with haired lime, and hung with malleable iron
nails, weighing 10 Ib. per thousand, steeped in linseed oil when red-hot. The
slates will be ragleted into the stone where they come in contact, and all the
skews will be carefully pointed with Roman cement. The contractor will pro-
vide all materials and scaffolding, and the carriages will be performed by the
tenant, as before mentioned.

909. ''Plaster-Work. All the walls, ceilings, and partitions will be finished
with the best two-coat plaster hard rubbed in, and free of cracks and blisters.
The whole of the windows will be bedded with plaster lime, and pointed with
mastic after being hung. All broken plaster must be mended after the other
tradesmen are finished. All the carriages required by the several contractors
will be performed by the tenant, the contractors paying the tolls ; and such
materials as require to be brought from a distance, will be laid down by the

contractors at the railway-station. The whole of the works herein

described will be executed in the most perfect, substantial, and tradesmanlike
manner, in strict accordance with the plans and specification, and to the satis-
faction of the proprietor, or the person who may be appointed to inspect the
work, either during its progress or after it has been completed. Contractors
will be bound to maintain their respective departments of work in a state of

* In one-storey cottages, and on upper floors of two-storey ones, these tubes may be placed on
the top of ceiling joists; on the ground-floor of two-storey cottages they will be conveyed across
the ceiling where most convenient.

"1* This is recommended as the best; but from the difference in price of home and foreign
wood in some parts of the country, it will be found necessary in some cases to use the home
for many purposes which are here described to be executed with foreign.

J The ridges of roofs are also frequently covered with stone ; fire-clay, both plain and orna-
mental, has also been used for the same purpose.

204 SPECIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

efficiency for a period of three years after the work has been taken off their
hands. Separate estimates will be given in for each department of work, as
follows : first, the Mason-work ; second, the Carpenter and Joiner-work ;
third, the Plumber- work ; fourth, the Slater-work; and fifth, the Plaster-
work. The proprietor does not bind himself to accept the lowest, or any of the
offers given in, unless in other respects satisfactory."

910. Contracts. Specifications must form the basis of all contracts for the
construction of buildings.

911. There are just three forms of contracts in which the construction of
buildings founded on specifications must be based. One is, that one party con-
tracts for the construction of the entire buildings for a slump sum, and on a
fixed plan.

912. The advantages of contracting for a slump sum are, that the employer
has to do business with, and make payment only to, one party ; that the proba-
bility is, that the entire contract, having been undertaken by one party, will be
done at a smaller sum than if it had been undertaken by several parties, because
it is reasonable to expect that the different classes of mechanics, in doing their
respective parts, will work into one another's hands more cordially in a common
contract than if they had separate interests.

913. One of the disadvantages of contracting for a slump sum is, that one
part of the work may be done in an inferior manner to another : for example,
the masonry, which is so palpable to every observer, may be done in a
superior manner, and at greater cost than the contractor has calculated to do it,
but that the carpentry, the bulk of which is out of sight, may be executed in
such an inferior manner, and with so much less amount of material than the
specifications direct, as to make up for the loss sustained, and even more, by
the superior masonry. Another disadvantage is, that it renders any improve-
ment of the plan, while the work is proceeding, nugatory, for wherever a change
is insisted on by the employer, in the plan supplied by himself, the contractor
considers that his agreement is abandoned to that extent ; and the employer
is thus so far placed at the mercy of the contractor, who may charge for the
altered portion of the plan whatever he may choose to demand.

914. Another form of contract is of a separate contractor executing each de-
partment of the work for example, one contractor for the masonry, another
for the carpentry, and so on for the slater-work, the plumber-work, the glazier
and painter work.

915. The advantages of separate contracts is, that as each contractor has to
do only his part of the work, he will do it to the best of his ability for the sake
of his own character as a tradesman ; and hence each sort of work may be well
done, and better done than when undertaken for a slump sum.

916. The disadvantages of separate contracts are, that having separate in-
terests, the contractors will not work into one another's hands for the benefit of
the entire work ; that the separate contracts will not be undertaken at so low a
sum as in one contract for a slump sum ; that the plan being a fixed one, no
alteration can take place in it without an abandonment of the contract so far,
and a consequent obligation of payment by the employer to the contractor to
whatever extent the contractor may cboose to demand.

917. A third form of contract is by measurement. The rate per foot or yard,
running or superficial, is fixed between the employer arid contractor, and after
its execution the work is measured by an ordained surveyor, and the entire
cost is calculated according to the rates fixed on in each department of the work.

FOUNDATIONS. 205

918. The advantages of this form of contract are, that the work is specially
surveyed after its execution, and its quality tested in terms of the specifications ;
that the plan is not so fixed and absolute but that alterations may be made in it
as the work proceeds, according to the matured wishes of the employer ; that
the contract may be undertaken by one party for the entire work, or by a party
for one or more parts of the work, with equal advantage to the work itself; that
it is the most equitable form of agreement both for employer and contractor ;
and that it affords the most satisfaction of any to the employer in the end.

919. There are no disadvantages attending this form of contract that we are
aware of; the contractor receiving the value of the work he has executed at the
rates he himself had agreed to accept, and the employer having the option of
change in the plan.

920. A superintendent should be appointed by the employer to inspect the
work in its progress, and to see that the terms of the specifications are strictly
attended to by the contractor.

921. Payments are made by the employer to the contractor at periods agreed
on, but which are generally never equal to the value of the work done by
20 or 25 per cent until the final settlement.

DIVISION THIRD. PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

922. SECTION FIRST Foundations. Tt is impossible to over-estimate the
importance of a good foundation, for on its being carried out in a proper
manner depends obviously the stability of the superstructure. The term
"foundation" has a twofold meaning, having reference, first to the prepara-
tion of the groiind on which the materials rest ; and, secondly, to the arrange-
ment of the materials forming the lower part of the substructure resting on the
ground so prepared. Our remarks, therefore, are naturally divided into two
classes 1. The choice and preparation of the ground; 2. The arrangement
and construction of the " footings," by which name the lower part of walls is
designated.

923. Choice and Preparation of the Ground. The best foundations are in
compact gravelly soils. This soil is incompressible, dry, little affected by the
atmospheric influences, and yields very little laterally. In a soil of this kind
the foundation is easily formed ; all that is necessary is to dig a trench con-
siderably wider than the width of the walls of the building, and of depth not
less than 3 feet. In some instances, a soil of this kind may not be uni-
formly good, but may present places where the soil is defective, being soft and
yielding. When these parts are met with, a simple method to secure a good
foundation for structures of no great weight is to dig out the bad earth till
good is met with, filling up the holes so made with sand ; or the patches of
yielding soil may be rammed well up with layers of small broken stones, as
angular in their form as obtainable. The more firmly these patches are rammed
the better.

924. In the preparation of foundations in compact clayey soils, great care
must be taken, as they form treacherous foundations, in conseqiience of their
being so subject to atmospheric influences. Thus a blue shale may be so difficult
to work as in some cases to require blasting with gunpowder, yet so susceptible
that in a short time the influence of the atmosphere may reduce it to a thin
sludge. In soils, therefore, of this nature, it is essentially requisite to secure

206 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the foundation from the action of the air. To attain this the trenches should
be dug deep, if possible, to reach the sound compact substratum ; the depth
should not be less than 30 inches. Before commencing to lay the bottom-
courses of the walls, a layer of concrete should be laid along the trenches. The
preparation of this material, and the advantages obtained by its use, has been
described in par. 534.

925. Firm compact beds of sand form good foundations, but only in circum-
stances where the sand has no tendency to move laterally that is, slide from
under the foundation. As this lateral tendency cannot in all cases be traced,
and as, however firm an examination may show the soil to be, the action of
springs, or even of surface water, may give at any time this lateral tendency,
it is deemed advisable, in the majority of cases where sand is met with, to adopt
special arrangements. These are as follows :

926. First, simply extend the bearing surfaces on which the walls rest.
This is easiest done by making the trenches considerably wider than the width
of intended wall, and laying broad and thick flagstones on the surface of the
trenches. The width of the stone for a single-storeyed building should be such
as to project a foot beyond the lowest course of the wall the thickness of
the flagstone 3 inches. If the building is to have two storeys, add 3 inches
to the above breadth and 1 inch to the thickness. It is of essential importance
that the stones should have a fair and flat bedding, to prevent unequal settle-
ment. In some cases this extension of bearing surface is given by laying a
platform of wood on the sand forming the foundation, this being confined with
walls of masonry or brickwork. A much better plan, however, is to dig sub-
sidiary trenches, completely surrounding the main trenches. The main trenches
are filled up to the level with concrete, and the subsidiary trenches also. These
subsidiary trenches should be deeper than the main trenches. By this arrange-
ment the sand is greatly prevented from sliding laterally from under the founda-
tion-courses. In some cases a firm unyielding soil is found below the bed of
sand on which it is proposed to build. In this case piles may be driven down
to the solid soil, and the whole of the piles sawn off level. A timber platform
may then be put on the piles, on which to rest the superstructure. If possible
to be carried out, the better plan will be to dig out the sand, filling up the
spaces with concrete or beton (par. 536).

927. To secure a good foundation in soils of a very soft, yielding character,
having a tendency to lateral displacement in almost every direction, it will be
necessary to surround the whole area of the foundations with a row of piles
driven close together, the heads of the piles sawn off at a level, and to spread
over the surface of the soil enclosed by the piles, and over the soil, to some
distance beyond the piles, a layer of concrete or beton.

928. In some of the constructions of the farm it may be necessary as in the
case of throwing a bridge across a stream to make a foundation under or on
a space surrounded by water. In many cases this species of foundation demands
the exertion of the utmost degree of skill on the part of the architect and
engineer; but in the majority of cases, in farm operations, the simplest me-
thods of carrying out and constructing foundations of this class may be available.

929. Where the water is shallow, and is either stagnant or its velocity of
flow of small amount, a foundation useful enough for many structures will be
obtained by throwing in heavy stones, leaving them to settle into a mass of
their own accord. Where the soil or river-bottom is soft and yielding, this
method will not be eligible, as the action of the water will carry off the soil
from under the stones, and cause unequal settlement in the mass. In this case,

FOUNDATIONS.

207

if the circumstances will admit of it, a space surrounding the spot on which the
foundation is required should bo enclosed with a dam or wall of clay well
rammed together; the water should be pumped out of this enclosed space, and
the foundation-trench dug, and the lower courses built up. After this is done,
the dam should be removed, and in order 1o prevent as much as possible the
action of the water on the foundation-courses, a mass of stories should be placed
against them, sloping downwards from the pier to the water.

930. Where the velocity of the stream is considerable, the space on which
the foundation is to be built will require to be enclosed by more permanent
materials than the clay mentioned in last paragraph. A suitable form of
" coffer-dam " may be erected by driving in piles on each side of the enclosed
space, giving these a hold of the ground according to the nature of the soil.
The piles should project some distance above the highest flood water-mark.
The strong planking should be nailed closely on the outside and inside of the
piles, and the space between them well " puddled" that is, rammed up with
clay and sand. The water should then be pumped out, and the foundation
prepared according to the nature of the soil
met with. On the removal of the coffer-
dam, the " apron " of stones, as described
in last paragraph, should surround the pier.
In cases where the action of the water is
rapid to a more than usual degree in small
rivulets, it will be advisable to construct
this "apron" as in fig. 147, where a a is
the pier ; d d, c c short piles driven in
obliquely, between and surrounding which

the StOneS are thrOWn in. It may be USe- FIFK AND PBOTECIINO APRON. SOALE JINOH TO

ful here to append a sketch showing a form

of " coffer-dam " adapted to cases presenting greater difficulties of execution
than those referred to in preceding paragraphs. In fig. 148, a a and a a are
the main piles, the distance between them
laterally from centre to centre being 4 feet.
The piles are connected by horizontal
pieces called " string-pieces," or " wales/'
e e, c c, and these again by cross pieces,
b b, notched on to the wales. These pre-
vent the piles from spreading out laterally.
The smaller piles driven in juxtaposition
with the larger ones, as d d, are termed \.
" sheeting piles." Interior " wales " are
placed inside the piles a a, which sup- ^H,-<

port the sheeting piles d d. The floor- SECIION l' f COFFFR . DAM _, OALF , i IKOH " TOTIIK FOOT
ing is supported by the cross pieces b b.

The puddling is rammed into the spaces h 7t, 7t 7t; the water-level is at ii;
o represents the mass of concrete or beton on which the pier is built. When
the depth does not exceed 10 feet, a width or thickness of equal extent is
given to the dam ; as the depth is increased, a foot of additional thickness
should be given for every addition of 3 feet to the depth. When the interior
excavated space is completed, a pressure is exerted on the sheeting-piles d d,
tending to drive them inwards ; to prevent this, cross pieces may be stretched
across the dam from string-piece to string-piece, c. to e r/ is the footing and
base of the pier of the bridge.

Fig. US.

208

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 149.

931. In commencing work on the most secure, yet the most difficult class of
foundations to work namely, rock care should be taken to level all the trenches
perfectly throughout, to fill up all rents either with concrete or masonry, and
specially to note that the trenches are deep enough to get rid of all portions
which have been subjected to the influence of the weather. Where the ground
is unequal, the foundation will require to be "benched out," or cut into a
terrace form, as it were. Where the level of these benches varies much, to
insure equal settlement of the superstructure, it is recommended to have the
whole built up to the same level by courses of masonry.

932. In digging foundations the material should be economically dealt with ;
that is, the "sod " should be cut carefully off, and removed to some distance ;
the same with the surface-soil or mould. Sand, if met with, should be retained
for mortar, gravel to make concrete with, and clay for puddling purposes. The
digging should commence and be carried out, so that, when the excavation is
finished, the floor may be as uniform and undisturbed as possible. The whole
should then be carefully gone over with a rammer, and the unsound parts
excavated, and filled up with concrete or sand. The sand used in this way
possesses many advantages, in cases where it is not allowed to slide laterally.
Indeed, where this lateral movement can be prevented, sand is recommended in
preference to wood for piles, inasmuch as it is capable of yielding and assuming
new positions according to the pressure the lateral pressure which it exerts
tending to relieve the vertical on the bottom of the trench.

933. Fig. 149 gives a section of the manner in which the foundation of hinds'

houses ought to be constructed, where a is the pavement
of the floor of the room resting upon broken stones to
keep it dry ; b the broad gravelled footpath along the
front of the wall ; c the surface of the ground on the
road, some inches below the level of the footpath ; and
d the drain to carry away the water that may chance
to fall upon the footpath. A border of earth may be
made along the front of the house, and a fence of low
hedging placed between it and the footpath, which in
that case would be made where the road c is.

934. Stone Construction Stone Footings. In the construction of footings, the
great object is to give a wide base, to which the vertical pressure of the walls
is to be transferred, greater stability being thus given to the structure by dif-
fusing its weight over a larger surface. The width of the base will obviously
depend upon the nature of the soil in which the foundation is made rock of a
firm stable character requiring the minimum, soil of a loose and yielding nature,
the maximum breadth.

935. The proper thickness of the wall begins usually at the ground-level, the
space below, in the foundation- trench, being devoted to the footings, which

spread out the farther they proceed from
the ground-level line. Two methods are
in use for forming the footings of stone
constructions, as exemplified in fig. 150.
I n one method, the lower courses are so
made as to form what is called a " set off,"
this being formed by one course, as c, being
narrower than <?, and b narrower than c,
the wall a narrower than b. The other
method consists in giving a uniform slope or batter, from g to/, to the footings,

SECTION OF THB FOUNDATION OF
A HIKD'S BOUSE.

Fig. 150.

FOUNDATIONS.

209

Fi-r. I'll.

upon wlii cli the wall e, is raised. Tliis employs a smaller volume of material
than the method at b c d, with an equal stability. The breadth of each set-off,
where used, should not exceed 4 incites.

936. The largest sized stones are used for the bottom course ; and the thick-
ness of stones used for any course should be uniform. The more perfectly
levelled the surfaces are the better. If obtainable, stones of size sufficient
to go across the foundation should be used. When, for thick walls, all
the stones cannot be obtained of breadth

sufficient to reach across, the place of

every second stone should be taken up

with two shorter blocks of the same width

and thickness. Thus in fig. 151, let , /;,

and c represent the longest, and defy

the shortest blocks. Another method is also illustrated in fig. 151, where the

longest stones, as hj I, are two-thirds of the thickness of the wall; and the

shortest stones, as i k w, one-third. The method of disposition

is shown in the diagram. The joints of all the stones should be

O '< f

so disposed that the joints of one course will fall upon the solid
parts of the course below, as the joints of n ??, fig. 151, rest on
the solid parts of the stones o and o. This is called " break-
ing joint." Fig. 152 shows how the various courses " break joint."

937. Where the soil is somewhat compressible, and the stones
cannot be obtained with straight surfaces, a plan of forming the
foundation is thus recommended : Make the first course with the
smaller blocks, well bedding them into the soil or on the concrete ;
form the next course with the large blocks, binding the smaller
stones together, and spreading the weight uniformly over them.

938. The largest stones should be used for the angles of the foundations, par-
ticular care being taken in bedding them ; and wherever the soil is liable to
moisture, hydraulic cement should be used for the joints. As in walls the
pressure is nearly always vertical, the surfaces of the stones upon which the
walls are to rest should be horizontal, carefully levelled, and presenting no
angular points. The stones of the upper course, as 6, fig. .150, should be so
arranged that the first course of the wall a shall rest on the outer stones.

939. Where solid foundations are
required for pillars, as iii the case of
a large roof covering a stackyard,
&c., and where the ground is of a
soft yielding character, the plan of
turning inverted arches might be
adopted with advantage, as shown
in fig. 153, where c and d are the
bottom blocks for supporting the
pillars or columns a and &, and ef
is one of the inverted arches.

SUBDIVISION FIRST Stone Construction.

9-40. SECTION SECOND Stone Masonry. The two principal kinds of stone
masonry are " ashlar " and " rubble." Ashlar consists of stones cut and dressed to
specific sizes ; it is the strongest method of building, although., from the expense
of dressing the stones, it is not so often followed. The front or outside of an
ashlar wall is termed the face, as the inside is termed the back : the stones

210

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 154.

composing these are, therefore, styled the facing and the backing. Where
the courses that is, the horizontal layers of the stones are of regular
and equal thicknesses, the style of building is called regular coursing ; if of
unequal thicknesses, irregular or random. The upper surface of each stone, as
it lies on the course, is called the "bed ;" and the method by which the con-
nection is made between the different stones is called the " bond."

941. For ashlar-work the stones are generally from 28 to 30 inches long,
12 to 18 wide, and 5 to 9 thick. The sizes will depend upon a variety of
circumstances ; but, as a general rule, the breadth should never be less than
the thickness, and never exceed twice this dimension the length of the stone
not exceeding three times its thickness. Every care should be taken to have
the stones well dressed ; the closer they fit together, the better the work :
unequal settling will certainly result from unequal surfaces, if not actual frac-
ture of the stone from the unequal pressure on the different points. All the
surfaces should be at right angles to the direction of the pressure. The prac-
tice so often adopted by scamping workmen, of dressing the stones
a few inches from the face, should be carefully avoided. When
this plan is followed, voids or empty spaces will be left, as a b in
fig. 154 ; and unequal settling, and possibly fracture of the stones
at the joints, will be the result. Where the backing of an ashlar
front is of rubble, this tapering-off of the blocks to the back may

DBFEOTIVE be, tolerated as affording a good bond between the facing and the
small stones composing the rubble backing ; but even in this case
the stones should be dressed as far back from the face at least as a foot.

942. Rubble-work is sometimes used as a backing for ashlar facing. This is

by no means a good plan, for, the modes of building being so
dissimilar, unequal settlement is likely to take place, and the
backing to be separated from the facing. The method illus-
trated in fig. 155 is a good one, and will be cheaper than solid
ashlar- work, and, if carefully built, nearly as strong : a b and
c d are thorough-band stones across the breadth of the wall,
the smaller stones forming the front and back of the wall,
while the smallest stones of rubble-work fill up the spaces be-
tween fhem.

943. The bed should now be carefully cleansed from dust and
stone-chippings, and moistened with water ; the mortar should
next be laid on the bed, and the block, with its under- side
cleansed and moistened, lowered, and settled in its place
by blows of the mallet. The joint which goes up against
the joint of another block, in the same course, must be as carefully made.

The vertical joints must be at right angles to the
horizontal ones, and also at right angles to the
facing ; by this arrangement of the horizontal and
vertical joints, the greatest strength possible is
given to each block.

944. Heavy blocks are raised and lowered by
what is called a " lewis" as illustrated in fig. 156.
An aperture, as a, is made in the upper surface of
the stone ; two wedges, as b c, of wrought-iron,
are made with a slope to correspond to the slope of the aperture a ; aflat piece d
goes between them, and the whole are united by the bolt /. In using a lewis
the bolt / is taken out, and one of the tapered wedges, as i, inserted in the

Fig. 155.

MODS OP BUILDINO
ASHLAR WALLS WITH
" BUBBLE " FTLLINO-IN

SCALE, J INCH TO

THE FOOT.

Fig. 156.

LEWIS TOR RAISTNO BLOCKS OF STONE

SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

STONK MASONRY.

211

ive them as complete a

work the stories are

hole a ; the other, as c, is next inserted ; lastly,
bolt / is then passed through them. The chain is
attached to the ring e passing through d, and the
tendency of the weight of the stone is only to tighten
the wedges b c in the hole a. Fig. 157 shows a lewis
fixed in the stone.

945. In ashlar-work, the stones in particular con-
structions, as embankment walls, &c., are often re-
quired to be joined together, as well as one course to
those above and below it. To effect this junction,
" dowels " or "joggles" are sometimes used, as at a in
fig. 158, or as at b. These dowels or joggles are made
of copper or of slate, or hard stone. Iron " cramps"
of various shapes are also used; the object being to ;
hold of the stones as possible. These are let

into similarly-shaped indentations made in the
stone, and run with lead ; two of which cramps
are shown at c and c. The connection of the
course with another above or below it is also
made by means of cramps, ae at d and e. Pro-
jections are sometimes made in the bed of one
block, and corresponding indentations on the
under-side of the other. Fig. 159 shows an-
other form of joggled joint.

946. Rubble-work is of two kinds, coursed and
uncoursed, or regular and irregular. In the coursed
hammer-dressed to sizes nearly uniform ; the courses
may be of unequal thicknesses. In uncoursed rubble,
the stones are prepared by knocking off all the sharp
angles. The bedding should be carefully prepared,
and the interstices filled in with smaller pieces or
chippings pressed into the mortar. As each course is
finished, grout or thin mortar should be applied to the
surface, in order completely to fill up all the interstices.

Due care should be taken to place the stones in their natural or quarry-bed
position, which is indicated by the laminre of the stone. The great art in build-
ing rubble-work uncoursed, is to place the stones of different sizes in such a
way as to interweave with each other, the interstices being Avell filled up with
mortar. To test if rubble-masonry is well built, step upon a levelled portion
of any course, and, on setting the feet a .little asunder, try, by a searching
motion of the legs and feet, whether any of the stones ride upon others.
When the stones ride, they have not been properly bedded in mortar. To ascer-
tain if there are any hollows, pour out a bucketful of water on the wall, and
those places which have not been sufficiently packed or hearted with small
stones will immediately absorb the water.

947. Stone Details of House in Plate XVIII. In fig. 160 we give elevation
of stone finial to house in fig. 1, Plate XVIII. ; in fig. 161, section of mould-
ing of corbel to chimney; in fig. 162, section of mouldings of chimney cap;
in fig. 163, section of mouldings of string-course ; in fig. 164, section of mould-
ings of summer-stone; and in fig. 165, section of mouldings of jamb and mtil-
lion of doorway. In fig. 166 we give elevation of finial for house, the elevation
of which is in fig. 2, Plate XVIII.

212

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 160. Fig. 161.

MOULDING OF CORBEL TO CHIMNEY.

Fig. 164.

ELEVATION OP STOKE FINIAL SCALE, 4 FULL SIZE.

Fig. 162.

Fig. 163.

LDma or CHIMNEY-OS

SCALE, J FOIL 8IZB.

HOULBINQ8 OF JAMB AND VtJLLIOH
DOORWAY SCALE, J FDLL SIZE

STONE DETAILS OF HOUSES.

213

948. Stone Details of House in Fig. 3G in the Italian Style. In fig. 167 we
give mouldings of "capping;" in fig. 108, mouldings of window cornice; in
figs. 169 and 170, suggestions for stone balcony fronts.

Fig. 1CS.

Fif?. 1(57.

Fig. 169.

TR7F 3TONF..

214

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

949. Stone Details of House in Fig. 45 in the Tudor-Gothic Style. In fig. 171
we give an enlarged drawing of " finial" to apex of gable ; in fig. 172, drawing
of "drip-stone" to breakfast-room window, of which, in fig. 45, we give an
elevation (and in plan at d d, fig. 41) ; and in fig. 173, section of mouldings of
" string-course."

950. In fig. 174 we give mouldings of cornice to window of house in fig.
64 ; and in fig. 175, mouldings of chimney-cap to house in fig. 67.

Fig. 174.

Fig. 175

SIONE WINDOW CORNICE SCALE, 1J INCH TO
THE FOOT.

MOCJ-DIKGS 1O CHIMNET-tAF.

Fig. 176.

HEADER AND

(BRICKS).

951. SECTION THIRD Brick Construction. Brick Footings. In brick-work,
when a brick is placed with its side parallel to the length of the wall, as a, fig.
176, it is called a " stretcher ; " when its end is parallel, or its side at right

angles to the length of the wall, as b, it is termed a ''header."
In forming brick-work footings, it is advisable to have all the
outside courses headers, as b. The benefit derived from attending
to this is obvious enough on examining the diagram in fig. 176.
For, let the line c d represent the outside line of the succeeding
course, then it is obvious that the brick a (stretcher) sustains the
pressure of the superstructure over half of its surface only ; while
the brick b (header) sustains it over nearly three-fourths of its
surface. We have, in the Book of Farm Implements and Machines,
shown that the more uniformly (Strength of Materials) a weight or
pressure is distributed over a material, the greater the weight which it can
support. Thus by increasing the width of the offset of the footing, as say to
the line ef, the bearing surface of each brick b and a is much reduced.

952. In fig. 177 we give a sketch showing the arrangement of brick foot-
ings adapted for a 14-inch wall a J, with the footings c d, e fg, h i j. In
fig. 178 we give the plan of the footing h i j in fig. 177, f e being the breadth
or thickness of the wall, the length being in the direction e g. Make the
set-off equal to half the width of a brick, or 2^ inches, this will give the
lines a rf, a ft, and d c ; these two last being, of course, continued as long
as the wall. Fig. 179 shows the arrangement of the course e f g in fig. 177,
the width of which b d corresponds to the width a d in fig. 178. This course
is made up of two rows of headers g and h, fig. 179, placed on each side of
stretchers e and /. Setting-off as before the distance of half a brick breadth,

BRICK FOOTINGS AND WALLS.

215

the lines j k, j i, and k I will be obtained, j i and k I stretching along the wall.
Fig. 180 is the plan of the
course c d in fig. 177, the lino

Fig. 178.

r -* r '

JP" k corresponding to j k in iig.
179. In this course there are
two rows of headers, placed
end to end. Set-off as be-
fore, 2^ inches, and the lines
b d, b a, d c, will be obtained,
giving the space for the wall
as a & in fig. 177. Of this
course a b c d, fig. 181, is the

plan composed of headers and two stretchers. If the reader would take trac-
ings of all these sketches, figs. 178 to 181 inclusive, and superpose fig. 179
on fig. 178, and fig. 180 on fig. 179, and fig. 181 on fig. 180, he would find
that the joints of all the bricks of each course would lie against the solid parts

Fig. 170.

Fig. 181.

i!.

1NO3 SCALE, J

of the bricks in the course immediately beneath, just as shown in the section
in fig. 177. Should a 9-inch wall be required, as shown by the dotted lines
Tc m in fig. 177, the bricks will be laid as in plan ij k /, fig. 181 ; j i will cor-
respond with /*/, i I with/<?, and/ k with h cj.

953. Brick Walls. Since the repeal of the duty on bricks, they are made of
all sizes and shapes ; but the dimensions of

ordinary building-bricks remain still as before ''"'

namely, 9 inches long, 4^ inches wide, and
3 inches thick. Each course is thus of the
same depth, being regulated by the thickness \~ J

of the bricks. The facing of brick walls is 1 I

"set" up in two ways "old English" and I l \

"Flemish" "bond." The English is illustrated

in fig. 182 ; in this the courses are made up

of alternate rows of headers and stretchers :

a a, b b are stretchers, c c are headers. The I I j ryn

"Flemish" bond is illustrated in fig. 183; in H | j I a I [

this, each course is made up of headers and I /, I J

stretchers alternately : a a are stretchers, b b 1*1" I H " I

are headers. _ SCAI . E , INCH

954. The Flemish bond is considered to look

the best, but the old English is undoubtedly the strongest. In the Flemish
there is comparatively little lateral tie, as the length of the stretchers predomi-
nates over that of the headers. In the old English, on the contrary, the bond
or connection between the various parts is very complete, the headers giving

Fig. 183.

216 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

good bond across the wall, the stretchers along it. As brick walls are apt to
split or rupture transversely, or in the direction of their thickness, and laterally
in the direction of their length, every attention should be paid to avoid this
tendency. Old English bond is preferable to Flemish, on this account chiefly,
that the frequency of the headers gives strong lateral bond. To afford the
mortar a secure hold of, or to enable it to " key" to the brick, bricks are now
sometimes moulded with shallow rectangular indentations on the upper and
under sides ; into these the mortar is pressed, forming a " key " or hold.

955. Still further to secure the advantages of a good " bond " in the struc-
ture, " bond-timber" is often used to connect the wall longitudinally. This
consists of timber of some 3 or 4 inches square, or of such dimensions as the
builder thinks fit, built into the centre of the thickness of the wall, and running
along in the direction of its length.

956. Bond-timber is, however, fast falling into disuse, in view of the superior
advantages of hoop-iron for binding purposes. Timber is apt to rot when im-
bedded in the wall, and no external evidence is given of its decay ; but this
objection does not hold against the use of hoop-iron. Sir I. K. Brunei was the
first who introduced this material for binding purposes, and its use has gradually
extended, till it is all but universal in good constructions. Experiments have
proved that brick beams have been strengthened ten times with the use of
cement and iron-hoop bonds. The hoop-iron should be slightly rusted before
being built in, as the adhesion of the mortar is thereby better secured. Two
strips of the iron should be laid along the length of each course ; where economy,
however, i& more consulted than efficient workmanship, one only may be used.
It should be remembered that the strain the hoop-iron bond has to sustain is
that of tension.

957. Tyermanris Hoop Bond. In fig. 184 we give a sketch of Tyermann's

hoop-iron bond, which is

lg ' prepared from the ordi-

nary hoop-iron by notch-

X X ; ing it at intervals of llf
^ inches, on both sides al-
ternately, and turning one
side of each notch in succession in contrary directions on the reverse sides of
the iron, thus forming reversed claws, which are so bent that a direct end abut-
ment of the iron is presented longitudinally, offering a most powerful and
effectual resistance in both directions, and which become, when built into the
brickwork, imbedded in -the structure, an effectual means of preventing the pos-
sibility of a longitudinal slip, and affording thereby a complete and permanent
bonding together of the whole building. Manufacturers, J. Perry & Sons, High-
field Works, Bilston.

958. In carrying up walls in old English bond, the " quoins," or corners,
must be commenced with a half-brick, termed a " closure " or " closer." The
same must also be attended to in Flemish bond walls ; the object of this being
that the bricks, as they are laid down, shall " break joint." For instance, in
an old English 9-inch bond wall, in the course of stretchers, it is obvious that
if the second line of stretchers, making up the thickness of the wall, started fair
with the first line, all the joints would lie against each other ; but by putting
in a half of a brick at the end, and starting with a whole brick, all the joints of
the second row, in the direction of the breadth of the course, will lie against
the solid parts of the facing bricks. In fig. 185 we give the plan of the first
course of a 9-inch wall in old English bond ; and in fig. 186, the plan of the

8 HOOP-IRON BOND.

BRICK WALLS.

217

second course. In fig. 186, the position of the stretchers a a a in fig. 185 is
taken by the headers a a ; while in !ig. 1 85, the position of the stretchers c e d ,
fig. 186, is taken by the headers l> b. In fig. 185,
by inserting the closer c, the joints of the second
header d are carried to the solid parts of the first
and second stretchers a a. If the closer had not
been inserted, one of the joints of d would obvi-
ously have come to the joint of a a. The same
effect is produced by inserting the closer b in fig.
186. Corresponding plans of Flemish bond are
shown in figs. 187 and 188 ; c and c being closers.

959. In Flemish bond the facing is generally
made of a superior quality of brick, arid to serve
this the headers are not whole-length bricks, but
are cut through. This is a practice utterly wrong ;
for the headers, on which depends, or should de-
pend, the transverse strength of the wall, have no
hold of the back part of the wall. The conse-
quence is that the " backing " and " facing " sep-
arate from each other, and the whole structure be-
comes endangered.

960. Walls. In carrying up walls, the courses
should be taken up as uniformly as possible, in
order to insure regular and equal settlement. If
this is not attended to, and one part a is carried
up much higher than b, fig. 189, the wall will
likely crack. All buildings settle or shrink ; and
those parts which are built up first, and allowed
to settle first, will remain stationary, so that when
the succeeding part is built up, its settlement will
cause it to be separated from the first-built por-
tion. All agreements should specify that no par-
ticular part is to be built up exceeding 4 feet in
height. As each part is thus built up, its ends
should not be made square, but the courses should
terminate so as to afford a series of step-like pro-
jections, as from b to c, fig. 189, which will afford
a good bond to the next-built-up portion. The
layer of mortar between the bricks should not ex-
ceed a quarter of an inch in thickness ; it is a sign
of bad construction when thick patches of mortar
are seen between the bricks. The brick should be
well wetted before setting, to free it from

all matter likely to prevent adhesion of the
mortar. The mortar should be carefully
spread over the brick, and the one to be
bedded well rammed down with the trowel,
or, what is better, pressed down with a
rubbing motion. The joints in the face of
the work should be finished off with what
is called a " straight-ruled joint."

961. In carrying up walls, small piers,

1CK OODRS
THE FOOT.

218

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fi2. 190.

as c, fig. 190, should be carried up from the footings, on which to lay the
flooring-joists d. This allows the air to circulate round the end of the joist,

and tends greatly to preserve the timber. The
plan of building in the ends of the joists, as the
joist b in the wall a a, fig. 1 90, is greatly to be
reprehended : the decay of the timber is hastened,
and, as it decays, irregular settlement of the
walls is likely to ensue. In the upper walls, as
piers cannot conveniently be built, the plan illus-
trated in fig. 191 should be adopted, to secure
the advantages of a circulation of air round the
ends of the joists. In this illustration the end
of the joist or beam a rests in an aperture or
wall-box, formed by two stone or wooden slabs
b and b. The width of this aperture should be
greater than the breadth of the beam, so as to
enable the air to circulate round its sides as well as round its end and top, as
at c, fig. 191. For securing the ends of large girders, wall-boxes or shoes of
cast-iron are built into the wall in which the ends of the girders are inserted.
Fig. 192 shows a bearing wall in which the joist a rests on a wall-plate b.

-'a

JOISTS SCALE, I INCH TO THE FOOT

Fig. 192.

Fig. 191.

MODE OF F1XIN3 BEAMS O

OFPBB FLOORS SCALE,

IKCH TO THE FOOT.

EEE

-Wl

1 1

O WAI-M.

Fig. 193.

Fig. 194.

962. In the case of openings as doors and windows in walls, it is essential,
in sound construction, to arch them over, as in fig. 193. Where the opening is
narrow, good construction may, to a certain extent, be insured by the use of strong
and sound timber lintels, fig. 193. For openings of doors and windows of the
ordinary extent, the size of this lintel may be 5 inches by 4 inches, a bearing
of at least 14 inches on the walls being given to it, as from b to c, fig. 194. A
flat arch may be substituted for the lintel, as fig. 194. If this is used, as the whole

strength depends on the mortar, it will be
advisable to use cement of a good quality
and hoop-iron bond. As evidence of the
amazing increase of transverse strength
obtained by the use of cement and hoop-
iron bond, we here cite an experiment of
Colonel Pasley. Brick beams were made
10 feet long, 18 inches wide, 12 inches thick,
of four courses, and made to rest on brick
piers. The first beam was built with pure
cement only ; the second with pure cement
and hoop-iron bond, two pieces being placed at the upper and lower joints, and
one in the centre, thus I -~ ; the third beam was built with mortar only. The

TLAT ARCH

SCALE, |- INCH TO THE FOOT,

BRICK AliCHES.

219

breaking- weight was placed in tlio centre of the beams, between the two pieces.
No. 1 (pure cement) was broken across with 49S lb. ; No. 2 (pure cement and
hoop-iron bond) was broken with 4723 lb. ; No. 3 (mortar only) took a weight
of 459 lb. only to break it.

963. Arches. To enter fully into the "theory of equilibrium" of arches,
would be beyond the scope, and exceed the limits of this work; we shall there-
fore only refer to a few forms of arches of ordinary occurrence.

964. An arch is the disposition of the building materials in a curved form,
the mutual pressure of which enables them to sup-
port large weights pressing upon them. In fig. 195

the wedge-shaped blocks a to a are termed the vous-
soirs ; the central b are the Icey-stones ; the line
formed by the external surface of the blocks c to c,
the extrados ; the line formed by their internal sur-
face, d to J, the intrados, or soffit. The distance from
d to d is called the span, that from / to b the rise of
the arch. The parts receiving the thrust of the
arch c and c, or those from which the voussoirs, a to
a, spring, are called the abutments.

965. The flat arch illustrated in fig. 194 is applicable to narrow openings,
where the weight of materials over them is not great. Great care, however,
should be taken to get a proper slope or bevil to the bricks, or a " skew-back,"
as it is termed. To proportion this, let c? e, fig. 194, be the width of opening;
from d and e, with d e as radius, describe arcs cutting in/. From /draw lines

f d,fe, forming an equilateral triangle with d e ; and continue them to g and //.
All the joints of the bricks should converge to the point/ To insure good
construction, the use of parallel bricks should be carefully avoided. The
bricks should be rubbed to the proper shape, so that, when placed in their
respective situations, the whole joints will lie close to each other. If parallel
bricks are used, their upper joints naturally open. If cement is used, the work
should be quickly done, as it sets rapidly ; possibly the better way will be to
use blue lias mortar. Arch bricks of the proper bevel and curvature are now
made to suit arches of all sizes.

966. In all cases where the opening is wide, or a large amount of material is
resting above it, as in the case of openings near the ground-level, circular, elliptic,
or segmental arches must be constructed. In fig. 196, a segmental arch is illus-
trated at a b, a semicircular arch at c d. The bricks,

to insure good construction, should be carefully Fi p - 1M -

rubbed ; but to lessen the amount of the opening of

the joints at the upper ends, it is considered a good

plan to divide the depth of arch into two concentric

circle's or arcs. Thus, a 9-inch arch may be made

up of two rings of half-bricks, as from a and d,

fig. 196.

967. Hollow Walls of Brick. We now, in con-
cluding our remarks on brick-work, present a few
notes on the construction of hollow walls. These
may be constructed of the ordinary solid bricks, so
arranged as to present cavities in the direction of

their length, or the bricks themselves may be hollow. In whatever way con-
structed, the " principle " is so good, that it should be adopted in all cases
where the important advantages of security from damp and the saving of

220

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

DEARN'S HOLLOW O-INC

WALL SCAUP, J INCH

TO THE FOOT.

11-INCH HOLLOV

material are desired. To the agriculturist the prevention of damp, which
hollow walls insure, is alone of great importance.

968. We shall first notice the methods adopted to construct hollow walls with
the ordinary solid bricks. In fig. 197 we illustrate Dearn's method of building
9-inch hollow walls. In this method the courses, up to the ground-level, are
built in old English bond. The next course immediately above is formed
of two rows of stretchers a b laid on edge. The next course above this of a row

of headers, c d, laid on thoir fiat side, edge
to edge. The saving of material by this
arrangement is considerable, and the sav-
ing of mortar also ; for it is evident that
the spaces between the edges of the row
headers, as c d, which lie over the hollow
beneath, have no mortar between them; so
that, in fact, a hollow wall from top to bot-
tom is secured. In fig. 198 we give an
illustration of a method of building an
11 -inch hollow wall. By driving in wood
bricks here and there, as at 5, fig. 198, and
nailing vertical battens, as c, on which to nail boarding laths, the advantages
of a double hollow wall may be obtained. If this is not adopted, and the inside

is wished to be plastered, the expense of
laths may be saved in this form of hollow
wall, as the hollow spaces will afford excel-
lent "keys" for the plaster to be secured to
the walls. In fig. 199, we illustrate a method
of building a 14-inch hollow wall, construct-
ed by placing a row of two stretchers and a
header on opposite sides of the wall.

969. Another, and, since the introduction
of improved machinery, a more generally
adopted method of forming hollow walls, is
to use hollow bricks. A great many forms
of this species of brick have been introduced. In figs. 200 to 211 we give
various views of Eoberts' patent bonded hollow bricks. " By the forms adopted
in the patent hollow brick-work, a perfect bond, running longitudinally through
the centre of the wall, is secured ; all headers and vertical joints passing
through it are avoided; internal as well as external strength is obtained, and
every facility given for fixing the floor-plates and other timbers ; whilst, by
the parallel longitudinal cavities, ample security for dryness is afforded, and
great facility is presented for ventilation, as well as for the conveyance of arti-
ficial heat, the transmission of pipes, &c." The size adopted by the patentee
makes the work look bolder than ordinary brick, three courses rising 1 foot in
height, the length being 12 inches. The number of joints is thus reduced
one-third. Nine of the hollow bricks go as far as sixteen ordinary bricks. Not
the least advantage of this and other forms is the extreme lightness, insuring a
large saving in the cost of carriage.

970. We now present a few illustrations of this important system. In fig.

200, we give the representation of an elevation of dwarf wall, of which, in fig.

201, we give a section. The section of a 14-inch hollow wall is shown in
fig. 202. 9-inch walls can be built by the use of the " external patent
bricks," one of which is shown to the right of fig. 203, along with the " quoin

14-INCH HOLLOW WALL SCALE, J INCH

HOLLOW BRICKS.

221

brick," shown to the left of same figure ; and the "jamb brick" to the right of
the following fig. 201. Where walls thicker than 9 inches are reqtiired, the
form of brick shown in the centre of jig. 20o is used in conjunction with the

Fi:;. :>

Fi?. 204.

OF JAMB ANT) GRIMNEV HOLLOW DKIC

others just described. The form of brick shown to the right of fig. 204 is used
for internal jambs and chimneys, and is 8f inches long. The two other stretchers
in this figure show how one or two angles may be chamfered in the process

222

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

of making by the same die. The form of brick seen to the right of fig.
205 is used for 4^-inch partitions, of which fig. 206 is a sectional elevation.

Fig. 205.

Fig. 206.

VIEWS OF PARTITIOS

Fig. 209.

These bond with the splayed bricks, and answer for floor and roof arches where
the span does not exceed 7 feet. The form of brick shown in the centre of fig.
205, is used for 5f-inch partition walls, also for arch bricks used for floor and

roof arches, of from 7 to 10 feet
span. The brick to the left is
also used for partition or inter-
nal walls, with web to give
extra strength, and to adapt
" Bs them for using on edge in par-
titions of 3f inches thick, to rise
in 6-inch courses. The method of
setting these hollow bricks for win-
dow and door jambs on alternate
courses is shown in figs. 207 and
208, and the plans of angles on
alternate courses in figs. 209 and
210. Much economy is said to re-
sult from the use of these patent
bricks. The inventor, an architect
of established reputation, states

that 9 patent hollow bricks of the size before described viz., 12 inches in
length, and calculated to rise 1 foot in three courses, will do as much walling as
16 ordinary bricks ; whilst the weight of the patent bricks but little exceeds that
of the ordinary bricks an important consideration with reference to carriage,
and ease of handling. If niched at any desired part with a sharp-pointed ham-
mer, they will break off easily, and the angles may be taken off with a trowel
as readily as those of a common brick. The bricks for the quoins and jambs
may be perforated for ventilating purposes, with perpendicular holes, either
square, circular, or octagonal. As to the saving effected by their use, the fol-
lowing comparative statement of a rod of ordinary bricks, and a rod of the patent,
will afford some information :

IN AI/TEKNAT

4000 ordinary bricks at 20s.,
2450 patent bricks at 25s., .

Saving in bricks per rod,

4000 ordinary bricks at 24s.,
2450 patent bricks at 30s., .

Saving, .

4000 ordinary bricks at 28s.,
2450 patent bricks at 35s., .

Saving, .

460
313

149

199

LARGE-SIZED BRICKS.

Being about 29 per cent in favour of the patont bricks, and of 25 per cent in
mortar and labour. The following test as to the strength of the hollow bricks
may be interesting : six bricks of good quality were put together so as to form
a pier 1 foot long, 1 foot high, and 9 inches wide ; the external sides being
|ths of an inch thick, the internal -Jths of an inch thick, it was found that a
weight of 6|- tons caused a slight crack, only perceptible by sound, which did
not increase until Si tons were
placed on them. With 9 tons the
horizontal beds gave way, the per-
pendicular sides remaining unbroken,
and without any tendency in the
bricks to separate. This experiment
was made at the eminent architects
and builders, Messrs Cubitt, of Gray's
Inn Road, London. Roberts' patent
bonded hollow bricks are also well
adapted for partitions, as also for
forming fireproof ceilings and floors,

as shown in fig. 211. The external springers are of cast-iron, connected by
wrought-iron tie-rolls. The space above the arch, as at r, is filled in with con-
crete, and finished with a boarded floor b b, resting on narrow fillets ; or tiles
may be used, or the patent bonded bricks.

971. Grooved Bricks. In order to secure a better bond in brick-work, bricks
are now often made with a depressed

or hollow part in the flat side, as at
a, fig. 212, or grooved, as at b b. The
depressed portions afford keys for the
mortar.

972. Large-sized Bricks are now
frequently used. They save mortar,
and a building is quicker erected.

973. In fig. 213 we illustrate Nor-
ton and Borrie's hollow brick, a

Fig. 213.

Fit:. -2U.

o o o o

oooj

000

being a stretcher, and b a header. These are rectangular,
and can be built in the ordinary way, or hollow, as by any
of the methods illustrated in figs. 204, 205, or 206.

974. In fig. 214 we give a section one-fourth of full size of
hollow bricks made by Thomas Dean, Wishaw and Coltness
Brick-works. The header is perforated in a different man-
ner from the stretchers. In fig. 215 we give a section of a
hollow tile for lining walls or for making partitions. They
are recommended by the Association for promoting Improve-
ment in the Dwellings and Domestic Condition of Agricul-
tural Labourers in Scotland.

224

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

975. SECTION FOURTH Embankments Dams Weirs. Our remarks on the
subject of embankments will be confined to the consideration of those construc-
tions of comparatively minor importance as those for rivulets, the protection
of river banks, and of parts exposed to the action of the sea premising that
much of the information already given on the subject of " Foundations," and
that which is to follow on " Footings," will be applicable to the construction of
embankments.

976. In order to determine the dimensions of an embankment adapted to
the peculiarities of a locality, the highest point to which the water of the rivulet
had ever reached should be ascertained from the best evidence which can be
obtained ; and if the embankment is made 1 or 2 feet higher than that point,
the land may be considered as being placed in safety. The next consideration
is the distance of the site of the embankment from the brink of the water. In
every place where the bed of the stream is narrow, and where, of course, the
flooded current will attain the greatest height, the embankment should not
only be higher, but farther removed from the edge of the stream. Where the
bed of the stream, on the other hand, is broad, and there is ample space for a
slow though deep current, the embankment may be safely placed nearer the
water's edge. But the safest plan in all cases is to afford sufficient room for
the water, as much loss has been occasioned by overflowings of rivers, even
when embanked, by contracting the channel between the embankments on
opposite sides of rivers too much, from a mistaken desire to reclaim a piece of
land from the river-bank ; forgetting that, in proportion as the river increases
in depth, by confinement between the embankments on both sides, its power
to do mischief is greatly increased ; and it may even overcome the strength of
the embankment, when the injury committed will be more serious than if there
had been no embankment at all. The best policy, therefore, is to give the
river sufficient room to flow, and also to remove all sudden turns in its course
against which the water may strike with force, or be reflected with violence
against the opposite bank. Let all curves of embankments, whether concave
or convex to the river, present surfaces along which the water will flow in
unbroken sweeps, not in all places conformably, perhaps, to the natural form of
its channel, but the form of the channel should be made with easy sweeps,
by taking away portions of the bank on one side, and filling up deep bends on
the other.

977. Fig. 216 gives a vertical section of such an embankment as may suffice
to keep off the swollen water of a small rivulet. It is formed of turf derived

Fig. 216.

T A R1VCLT.

RIVER EA! 1 J A X K ME NTS. 225

from the river's bank, and faced with a stone dyke to prevent its being injured
by stock on the side of the field, when; the dyke answers the purpose of an
efficient fence. The line of the embankment should be marked off with pins,
and the turf raised along the breadth of ground to be occupied by the embank-
ment. In raising- the turf, that intended to cover i\w fac.K of the embankment
next the stream should be at least one foot square, unbroken, and tough; and
if the river-bank does not afford turf of this description, it must be obtained
elsewhere, and brought to the spot. The turf to build the face-wall may be of
any description possessing tenacity at all. The turf for the sloping bank
should be cut with bevelled edges, so that each turf may overlap two lower
turfs with two of its edges the one edge, the lowest, overlapping in the direc-
tion of the slope of the bank, the other overlapping in the direction of the flow
of the water of the river. These circumstances settling the proper and relative
position of the turfs, the embankment should begin to be constructed at the
lowest point down the stream, and carried upwards ; and it should also be
begun at the water's edge, and carried upward to the top of the slope.

978. Suppose the tuif wall a b, fig. 216, to be 4 feet in height, then a
breadth of 5 feet from b to c, being the base of the slope of the embankment,
may give sufficient stability to the structure, and slope to the face. The line
b c, however, will vary according to the nature of the ground on the river-bank.
In a steep part it may be less than 5 feet, in a gentle slope it will retain its
proper length, and in a sudden and narrow hollow it may be necessary to fill up
the hollow altogether, in order to make the bank uniformly even, in which case
the slope may have to be built up from the very edge of the water. The first
operation in the actual construction of the embankment is building the turf-
wall a 6, the sods of which are laid with the grassy face downwards, on the
same principle as breaking joints in masonry. As the wall proceeds, earth is
taken from the field in spadefuls to pack behind it, and to fill up the entire
contents of the embankment included within a b c. This earth should be free
of stones, and if disposed to rise in lumps, should be chopped small with the
spade, and beaten firmly with a wooden beater. After a sufficient quantity of
earth has been placed behind the turf wall, the turfs of the slope c a are then
begun to be laid at the lowest point c, where the first turf d, with the grass side
upmost, is made to grip under and abut against the sward e of the river-bank
by a notch cut out of the latter with the spade, the object of the notch being to
plant the edge of the turf through the sward, to prevent the water getting hold
of it and carrying it away. Another turf/ is made to overlap with its lower
edge the upper edge of the turf d just laid, and the earth is brought behind it
with a trowel, or with the hand, to the shape of the slope c a. In like manner,
the turfs #, /, and z are laid one after the other, till the top of the turf wall b a,
and the top of the slope c a, are reached at the same time, when a thick turf k,
with the grass upmost, covers the top of the wall, and finishes the slope.
When the turfs are cut square, and all of the same size, which they should
scrupulously be, they are quickly and evenly laid. The whole of the turfs are
then beaten firmly down with the back of the spade. It will be concluded
from this description that the building of the turf wall should proceed in ad-
vance of the laying of the turf upon the slope. In conjunction with the turf
work, the building of the stone dyke I m may proceed, and finish the whole
embankment at once. Such a dyke as is here required is called the single-faced
dyke, having only one finished face, towards the field, with broad projecting
covers and a strong cope.

979. The cost of making an embankment, 4 feet high in the wall, 5 feet

226 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

broad in the base, and casting the turf for it, the materials being all at hand,
is Is. 4d. per rood of 6 yards. If the turf has to be brought from a distance,
the cost of its carriage, and casting, of course, involves a greater expense.
The cost of building the face-dyke five quarters high will be 8s. per rood of 30
lineal yards, and the quarrying and carriage of the stones will be as much, or
9^d. per lineal yard.

980. Such an embankment should be constructed at as early a period of the
season as possible, to give the turf time to grow together before the occurrence
of the earliest flood. In a very dry summer the turf may become brown, when
water should occasionally be thrown upon it with a scoop from the rivulet ; and
in any kind of season it is possible that a turf will die here and there, when it
should be removed, and a fresh one substituted. Until the turfing becomes
converted into a thick and tough sward, it should be frequently inspected, and
every gap in it plugged up, whether occasioned by accident, such as the feet of
cattle trespassing from the opposite side, or the burrowing of animals, such as
rabbits or water-rats. In the succeeding season the grass will grow luxuriantly
upon the embankment, when it may be mown early in summer, to give it time
to grow to a thick sward before winter. After this period the earth will become
quite firm, and the embankment require nothing more than a general super-
vision every year.

981. In fig. 217 we give a section of a form of embankment recommended

Fig. 217.

SE9TION Or KIVER EMBANKMENT 8CAI.E, -fg OF AN INCH TO THE FOOT

by Mr Johnstone, for low ground on the side of rivers. The slope of the em-
bankment towards the river from a to c should be longer than that of the land
side, as from b to d. The base of an embankment, as a d, should be three
times its height, as I m ; the width b c at top one-third of the height I in. The
distance of the foot a of embankment from the river, as the distance a k, is
shown in the figure at 10 feet ; and all trees, brushwood, &c., should be re-
moved from the space, as these may shake the earth and render it loose, and
give admission to the water. The earth to form the embankment should be
taken from the land side, none from the river ; this obviates the necessity of
breaking and loosening the surface next the river. The earth may be taken
from adjoining heights, or from the ditch h g /, which is formed at the back
of the embankment, to lead the surface-water from the field. A paling or
fence e should be put up at the outer side of the scarcement d e, to prevent
cattle from going up and trampling upon the embankment, until it be consoli-
dated and well swarded. The slope of the embankment in this case "is sup-
posed to be covered with grass turf; but, in the absence of this, a stone facing
may be adopted.

982. The body of the embankment may be formed of the earth in the im-
mediate neighbourhood, care being taken to beat it well down ; but for better
security, and to prevent all leakage which, in time, endangers the stability of

RIVEtt EMBANKMENTS. 227

the embankment a puddle-wall should bo placed in the centre, as shown by
the dotted lines from I to m in fig. 21 7.

983. Some writers state that, in founding- the embankment, all that is neces-
sary is to remove the turf from its site; it is obvious, however, that this only
holds where the subsoil is impervious and retentive. If it is light and porous,
admitting the water easily beneath the embankment, it is absolutely essential to
make a complete union between the subsoil and the lower courses of the em-
bankment. This will best be e fleeted by sinking a trench as broad as the
embankment, the trench being deep enough to reach the retentive soil. Should
a central puddle-wall, as represented by in. I in fig. 217, be used, it will only be
necessary to make the trench wide enough for the wall, the embankment on
either side resting on the unturfed soil.

984. As the stability of the embankment depends upon the thorough incor-
poration of the mass of earth which forms it, no pains should be spared to
secure this. The materials should be placed down in thin layers, and each
well rammed down before the next is superimposed. Mr Thorn, the well-
known engineer of the Shaws Waterworks, Greenock, recommends embank-
ments to be formed of alternate layers of earth, clay, or other soil, with small
stones or gravel, forming a species of artificial puddingstone. The great point
to attend to is securing the materials from the attacks of rats and other ver-
min ; once these effect a lodgment, the deterioration of the embankment com-
mences ; holes are rapidly formed, into which the water enters gradually,
washing away all soft material it meets with. Care also should be taken to
preserve throughout the embankment the proper slope or angle of its sides ; to
insure this, a wooden template or mould should be made to guide the workmen
in laying down the materials.

985. We have hitherto referred only to turf as the material for facing the
slopes of embankments ; but in exposed situations the river-side will be most
effectually protected when a stone facing is employed. This facing may be
made thus : over the whole of the river-slope place a layer of broken stones,
not less than 8 inches deep ; ram these well down. Over this rubble-stones
are laid, and continued upwards beyond the line where the waves dash at their
highest : if carried over the top and down the land side, the embankment will
be secured from the ravages of vermin. This, however, will be so expensive,
that it will be sufficient to stop the stone facing near the top of the river-slope.
To secure, a good bond between the stones of the facing, piles or short stakes
are driven into the face of the slope at intervals, and a row close together at the
bottom line.

986. " When the surface and subsoil are both of a gravelly nature," says Mr
Sutter, C.E., in his Prize Essay on " River Embankments," in the Trans-
actions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1858, p. 317, "the work
of embanking becomes then very unsatisfactory, and the water will filter
through, should the flood continue for any length of time, or else bubble up
from below. Many methods have been adopted to prevent this, but all attended
with considerable expense. I have used the following method, and it has been
attended with success. A drain a, fig. 218, was cut behind and alongside the
embankment 4 feet deep, and filled with clay from an adjoining hill. Clay,
however, is very expensive when it lias to be used in large quantities, and
may not readily be procured ; and even this method would fail after a time,
as the water would still percolate below this trench. Again, the most effectual
way would have been a wall of clay b c, fig. 218, from the top of the embank-
ment If no clay can be procured, then take as much of the

228

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

soil as will at least cover the face of the embankment from d to e, even
though it should have to be made up with gravel. The whole face will

Fig. 218.

RAVELLY BOTI

Fig. 219.

require to be turfed ; for, should any breakage take place on the face, the gravel
forms such a bad element that it will all go by the run. A ditch is sometimes
formed behind the embankment for leakage water ; this, however, unless under
certain circumstances, should not be formed, it merely weakening the stability
of the whole by breaking the surface, and causing the water to leak more
readily from the bottom of the ditch."

987. Where the banks of a river are perpendicular, and composed of loose
or friable earth, the best plan to prevent the continual washing away by the
action of the river, is to slope the bank, as shown in fig. 219, from a to b to the

surface of the water. This should be
done early in spring, and the slope covered
with turf, or sown " very thick with the
seeds of some small mat-rooted grass : the
creeping meadow-grass (Poa reptans] is
a proper grass for this purpose." The
breast of the bank, from b to c, is formed
by throwing in small stones about the size
of a man's hand, the slope being a con-
tinuation of that from a to b. These
stones will be best suited for the purpose
if taken off cultivable land, and great
taken to make the slope or face of the heap as linooth as

COTTIUO OF RrVER^BAJJXS TO PREVENT WASHIKO AWAY.

care should be
possible.

988. On the use of stones for the protection of river-sides, Mr George Stephens,
in his work on Irrigation and Draining, has the following : " The sheathing or
protecting of river-sides with small stones is so very simple in itself, that,
where stones are to be had, there is not the least difficulty in preserving their
banks at a trifling expense, provided the injured part be immediately filled.
Instead of putting a few cartloads in heaps at random along the affected part,
they ought to be laid regularly along the affected part ; for, in the first case,
they only serve to break the cement, forming partial waterfalls where there were
none, whereby the injury is increased instead of diminished ; but in the latter
case the bank will be secured. Even in districts where stones cannot be had,
half the ravages committed by watercourses winding through low grounds
might be prevented by timely and judiciously keeping down the perpendicular
banks, and sowing or planting the slopes with small-rooted aquatic plants, such
as bog-reeds, sedges, water spiderwort, rushes, and seeds of any kind of plants
which are known to thrive in and near water."

Ill V K R E M B A NKMENTS.

229

989. Where the tendency of a river is to scoop out a place, as at a, fig. 220,
a jetty may be placed obliquely, as

at , which will have a tendency to
direct the current towards r, and
prevent it acting on a. Care sliou d
be taken to place the jetty oblique 'y
to the course of the stream, as at 1> ;
if thrown out nearly at right angles,
as at c7, the result will be that the
water is projected with considerable
force against the opposite point ?, and
be reflected with increased force to-
wards a. A jetty, thrown out as at d, will require, moreover, to be made much
stronger than when sloping as at b. Jetties, in slow-moving streams, will be best
when constructed of stones loosely thrown in, so as to form a bank sloping on
either side. Where stones cannot be had, stakes may be driven in some 2 or 3
feet, and closely wattled with brushwood, or fascines, or bundles of faggots.
These will gradually arrest silt, floating materials, &e., and in time a bank will
be formed.

990. As to this method of placing jetties, Mr Sutler has the following remarks,
which demand attention, all the more from his opinions being at variance
with other authorities. " A common way of attempting the saving of a side,
such as a a, fig. 221, from a current, is by placing weirs as in fig. 222, in the

hope of directing the current against the opposite side. The water acts upon
these weirs, as shown by arrows, merely keeping oiitside the points, and for the
most part turning round in the shape of eddies and undermining them. If the
bottoms of these weirs are placed right across the river, say, by laying a tree
across, from the weir to a as in fig. 223, then the current is thrown as from a
darn to the other side, but not without some such means. This latter manner
of saving land is far from proper, and, should the stream form a march, often
leads to lawsuits ; in fact, it ought never to be allowed. The adjoining pro-
prietor should either allow the removal of the sand or gravel bank c, supposed

230

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

to be as in fig. 223, or the proprietors at the concave side protect themselves
without injuring their neighbours; for, be it observed, the proprietor having the

Weir-

Fig. 223.
Surface of River.

MISUSE OF A TF

Fig. 224.

gravel bed is always safe he has a natural advantage which nothing can take
away. The current never does set towards the side b b b of the gravel bank c,
fig. 221, like the arrows, and it is in general at those places without a current."

991. Where a rock obstructs the passage of the stream lying, we shall sup-
pose, in the position shown at (7, fig. 220 and causes the river to act on the
opposite bank e, it will be necessary, if this is of a soft and yielding nature,
to protect it by throwing in stones, or facing it with fascines or a stone
wall. To face with fascines, the brushwood is tied up into bundles, piles or
stakes driven in at intervals, and the fascines laid between, and secured to the
piles by wattling; or if two or more layers of fascines are used, they should be
placed in opposite directions. Thus, if the first row is placed at right angles
to the slope, the second should be parallel.

992. Piling. Common piling, for repairing embankments or protecting the
sides of rivers, is performed by driving in rows of piles some 2 feet into the river
bottom, fig. 224. The top is secured by means of a rail, and the back filled up

with boughs and stones. Even
when this kind of piling is care-
lessly done it lasts a long time,
especially after it gets silted up.
Mr Sutter does not recommend
piling at all, but in its place an
extremely flat slope, with a rise
of 4 to 1, or so, with a fiat space,
2 or 3 feet wide, next the river. Should " the whole strength of a river
run upon a point, it then becomes necessary," says Mr Sutter, " to have it
protected ; and if expense of masonry be too great, piling may be resorted to
in the following manner : A good slope having been given the embankment,
the piling should be double, and driven, that they be not more than 4 inches
between the sides, and having two or more rails upon the face, say 6 inches
broad ; at least every 5 feet should have a stay, connecting the whole with the
face of the embankment, fig. 225, firmly nailed or bolted to all these piles.
This will prevent the piles leaning outward ; the space
between the piles filled with stones not above 6 inches
square, or such a size as will prevent them pass-
ing through the piles. If larger stones can be pro-
cured, they might be with great advantage placed
outside, but never inside (unless the piling be very
strong), as they force the piling out in spite of the
resistance of the stay. The whole space being thus
completed, will resist almost any amount of wear
from water, as it gradually fills with sand until it
becomes as solid as a wall. When piling is single and
without stays (a very common practice), the water, in my experience, seems to
shake the pile until it loses all hold of the bottom ; and in gradually shaking the

ER-BANKS.

Fig. 225.

ROVED PJUNCJ FOR HIVER-BAN

SEA EMBANKMENTS.

231

earth, undermines the ground behind. When packed with brushwood behind,
the pile is forced forward, and gradually falls away, leaving the earth bare the
whole height of the pile ; whereas, had no pile been there, the grass would
have grown, and thus naturally have formed one of the best defences against a
current: for this reason I object to all piling, except at sharp corners ; arid
even there, with proper construction of embankment, it is unnecessary."

993. Sea Embankments. On the subject of embanking lands from the sea,
we now propose to offer a few remarks. In cases where the banks near the
sea are perpendicular, and composed of loose or penetrable mould mixed with
loose stones, much valuable land above the sea-level will speedily be lost by
the continued action of the waves below undermining the soil, and allowing the
superposed material to fall in. In cases where the tidal force or the exposure
is not great, a sufficient bulwark may be made by giving the face of the bank a
considerable slope, as from a to &, fig. 226, the earth taken from c being used
to make up the part d.

This slope maybe faced
by any of the means
already described for
river embankments.
Where the action of the
tide is considerable,
stone facing may be
used, piles being driven
in at intervals to secure
a bend ; and further to
reduce the action of the
waves, it will be found
beneficial to drive in a

row of piles at the foot of the bulwark, as shown at e in fig. 226. This ex-
pedient has been found to be highly beneficial in moderating the action of the
waves on the face of the bulwark.

994. For reclaiming or protecting low-lying lands from the sea, embank-
ments are raised ; in fig. 227 we give a section of one form of embankment for
this purpose. Before proceeding to form the embankment, the exact level of
the highest tides should be ascertained, and the height of the embankment
should exceed this by 2 feet. Stakes of the proper height should then be
driven in along the whole line of embankment. Two frames of timber should
then be constructed of the exact form of section of the embankment, and set
up some 20 or 30 feet distant from each other. As the whole surface of the
sea is on a level, it is essential that the upper line of embankment present a
true level parallel to the horizon ; to insure this, the two frames above men-
tioned should be set on

a level. The construc-
tion of the embank-
ment should then be
begun. As on many
shores, sand, debris of
various kinds, collect^
very rapidly, it is re-
commended by some
authorities to drive in
stakes in the line of embankment, to fix fascines to ; the mud, sand, debris, are

232 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

soon collected, and tend to form a species of embankment, which can be
finished in due time, in the usual way. Indeed, an extension of this system
will sometimes suffice to form a permanent embankment. This is done by form-
ing rows of wicker-work, well staked down, and by filling up the internals with
brushwood, &c., so as to form as regular a slope as possible from the water.
As the tide passes through these materials, they collect and arrest the sand,
mud, &c., and as they accumulate, the embankment will rise, so as ultimately
to exclude the tide at all times. (JOHNSTONE'S Draining, p. 171.)

995. " As the pressure of water," says the above authority, " upon an em-
bankment against the tide, is different from that in the current of a river, it is
not necessary to have it so straight, or of that uniform smoothness which is
requisite where a running stream is to glide along the side of it. It is unneces-
sary, however, to give it such turns and windings, or to embrace all the points
and indentures of the verge next the water, which would lengthen its course,
and increase the expense ; but it may be carried as near the edge of the land
as it is possible to obtain a safe and permanent foundation. In forming the
bank, the breadth, height, and strength, must be made in proportion to the
depth and weight of water it may have to resist ; and in order to obviate re-
sistance, and to lessen the pressure, the more the slope towards the water ap-
proaches to a degree of flatness, the greater will be the firmness and durability
of the structure. In difficult cases, it is advisable that the surface next the
water should form an angle to a perpendicular line of from 40 to 60 degrees,
according to the force to be opposed, and the nature of the materials of which
the mound is to be constructed."

996. As regards the materials of which sea embankments may be constructed,
Mr John Wiggins, a first-rate authority on this subject, after reviewing the
nature and constituents of several usually found in sea -districts, says, " On the
whole, it must be concluded, that of the materials for a sea-bank, tenacious clay
is the best, and loose sand the very worst. All the intermediate modifications
of soil will have their respective merits or demerits, but they will be eligible in
proportion to their ponderosity, their cohesiveness, and their power of resisting
the action of water, either in penetrating or dissolving them ; and these soils
will be ineligible in proportion to their lightness, their looseness, and their
aptitude to run or to blow away when dry, or to melt when wet. A mixture of
materials, bad and good together, when in a wet state, would probably reduce
the whole mass to an eligible condition ; and although the expense might be
thought too great at first, it might be found economy in the end, and the mix-
ture might be effected by the tread of horses without much labour, previously
to the material being laid up on the bank. In cases, also, where the material
is not very trustworthy, an artificial dyke of concrete or common puddling
might be carried up in the centre of the bank, of such width, and commenc-
ing at such depth below the shore-level, as the case might require." (The Prac-
tice of Embanking Lands from the Sea. By JOHN WIGGINS, F.Gr.S. Weale,
London. 2s.)

997. Where the embankment is much exposed, the safest facing is stone.
When this is used, it is advisable to finish the face with a layer of well-puddled
clay before the stones are laid on. In medium cases of exposure, after the
clay is laid down, the face may be carefully covered with turf. In cases of
least exposure, the material of which the main body of the bank is made will
answer for the face. The growth of plants and grass which have a tendency
to bind the soil on which they grow, may be encouraged. The ordinary couch-
grass will be found admirably adapted for this purpose.

DAMS- WE IKS. 233

998. Stones should be carefully removed from the foot "of the embankment,
as they cause eddies, which tend to undermine the base. A " footing" of gravel
laid along the base-line, more especially if subjected to pressing action, as
when used for a road, is recommended by Mr Wiggins as an effectual means of
preventing the sea undermining or "pecking " the bank. When the bank is
constructed of sand, this gravel footing consolidates it, " and checks the soakage
under the bank a service of the very utmost importance for the purpose of pre-
venting its blowing iip."

999. To maintain a good breadth of what is called " foreland " that is, the
portion of shore before the embankment is a point of importance. " There is
certainly," says Mr Wiggins, " no feature appertaining to a sea-bank of greater
importance than this, since it acts against, as the advanced guard to the bank
itself receives, the first shocks of the sea, and deadens its force upon the bank
by decreasing the depth and bulk of the wave. The broader, therefore, the
foreland, and the higher the shore above the low-water mark, the greater its
protection to the bank. In Essex, a county so famous for its sea-walls, the
foreland generally stands several feet above low-water mark, and some hundreds
of yards outside the bank; and where it wears away, its edges are scarped and
stoned, to prevent the loss of so valuable a defence to the sea-wall."

1000. The drain e, fig. 227, should not be too near the foot of the inner slope,
as the water continually resting against the soil is apt to percolate through and
undermine the embankment. The distance cZ, from the foot of the embankment
b c, Mr Wiggins recommends to be 12 yards, the depth of the drain e 4 or 5 feet,
the width at top 12, and at bottom 6 feet the water to stand 2 feet below the
surface. In very loose sandy soils it is not advisable to have a drain cut as a
substitute for it. A slight rill may be allowed to " carry off the soakage from
the bank, which, in such a soil, must be considered as inevitable."

1001. It does not form part of the plan of this work to give descriptions of
drainage or irrigation works, further than of those parts which come under the
head of construction, as culverts, sluices, &c. We have therefore little more,
under the head of drainage of the " intake " of reclaimed or embanked lands,
to say, than that the discharge of the land-water to the sea is effected by drains
or culverts passed through the bank, as shown by the dotted line//, fig. 227.
For the construction of these, see remarks on culverts, &c., in the succeeding
Section ; and for notes on valves or flood-gates, see Section on " Timber Con-
struction."

1002. Dams Weirs. As a conclusion to this department, we now propose
to consider briefly the construction of dams and weirs. In cases where water
is to be led off directly from a river to the mill-race, the supply of water being
at all times considerable, the velocity slow, and the stream liable to few sudden
torrents, a dyke of timber thrown across the stream obliquely will in many
cases be all that is necessary. This dyke may be constructed after the
manner recommended by Mr Findlater, and described in his prize essay on the
" Construction of Reservoirs of Water for Agricultural Purposes," published in
vol. xii. of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, p. 314.
Figs. 228 and 229 will illustrate the method : a, fig. 228, shows the oblique posi-
tion of the dyke, b b the mill-race ; c, fig. 229, the piles or stakes driven into
the bed of the river, and placed at a distance of 5 or 6 feet apart. A strong or
cross piece d unites the heads of the piles. A facing of wood planks, 2^ inches
thick, is nailed closely to the piles. This planking faces up the stream, and is
opposed to the direction of the current, as shown by the arrow. The timber- work
thus made is backed up with rubble // having a slope of not less than 45

234

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

degrees. The face e e of this rubble backing should be formed of stones set
on edge, and close laid. The rubble backing //should be started at least 2 feet

Fig. 229.

Fig. 228.

below the line h of the natural bed of the river. A complete junction with the
ends of the dyke and the sides or banks of the stream should be secured ; this
will be effected by cutting out parts, and carrying in the piles and backing for
some distance. A not uncommon practice is to place the mill-race b b, fig. 228,
at the acute angle of the dyke a, whereby all the refuse that floats in the water
finds its way to the sluice of the mill-race, and of course entails the trouble of
having it to remove frequently.

1003. Where the stream is rapid and liable to torrents, the dyke or dam must
be constructed in a mere substantial form, entirely of stone. The worst way in
which to construct this, is to lead directly across the stream at right angles, and
in a straight line ; the section at the same time answering the form of a tri-
angle, the two sides sloping to a point. " A dyke of this form and structure,"
says Mr Johnstone, " must be very insufficient, and liable to be disarranged and
thrown down by the force of running water pressing upon and falling over it.
The upper stones are first lowered and carried down, and the water, striking
with velocity on the whole face of the dyke, precipitates itself with violence
against those at the bottom, and displacing them, the whole structure is soon
demolished. Dams that are erected at still greater expense, of hewn stone, but
of a similar construction, are also liable to be destroyed (although in a lesser
degree), if the lower side is formed with a slope or inclined plane. The water
in this case does not insinuate itself in such a body among the stones that are
joined as it does when they are loosely laid together, as in the first-mentioned
case ; but still the force of the falling water has such effect upon the under-
most layers of stone, that in time it cannot fail to undermine and displace them.
The first error in all these kinds of stone weirs is the carrying them in a
straight line across the river or stream. They should be constructed so as to form
an arch across the bed of the stream, with the convex side upwards, the ends
resting on strong abutments placed in the bank on both sides, fig. 231. By this
means the force of any body of water, however great, will be effectually resisted,
and the structure be perfectly firm and secure. The greater the slope towards
the upper side the better, but the lower side should be nearly perpendicular,
that the water may fall over it like a cascade, without coming in contact with the
face of the building." A pavement of considerable breadth, and well laid,
should be placed before the under-side ; this will receive the falling water, and

DAMS WEIRS.

235

will prevent its action in undermining the wall. In fig. 230 we give a section,

and in fig. 231 a

plan of this form

of dyke or weir, as

recommended by

Mr Johnstone.

1004. Great care
must be taken to
secure a good foun-
dation for the wall.
(See our remarks
on Foundations in
a preceding Sec-
tion.) The dimen-
sions of the wall a, fig. 230, will be regulated by circumstances : if the
height is 12 feet, the breadth at bottom should be G, and at top 2. Every
care should be taken to well-bed the stones,
and hydraulic cement should be used to make
good the joints. The top of the wall must be
exactly level throughout its whole extent, so that
the water, in times of flood, shall go over the weir
in a stratum of equal thickness, and so prevent
any undue action on one part more than another,
which would be the case if this precaution was
not taken. The top should be provided with a
coping of flat stones, projecting slightly over the
face of the wall : if stone cannot be had, plank-
ing may be substituted ; in either case it is essen-
tial to have the coping as smooth as possible, free from all irregularities of surface.

1005. To prevent the action of the water on the upper face of the wall, a layer
of clay b should be well rammed down against its whole height and length. This
clay should extend lower than the foot of the breastwork. An apron of gravel c
thrown down before the clay, presenting as great a slope as possible, will still
further prevent the action of the water on the dyke.

1006. Where the water of a small rivulet, or that of drainage, passing through
a valley or gorge, is desired to be retained for ornamental or domestic purposes,
an embankment of the form shown in fig. 217 may be constructed. The points
noted relative to the construction of embankments already described will be
applicable to this. Every care should be taken to consolidate the successive
layers of soil as they are laid down, and the embankment should stand for some
months after it is finished before the water is let in.

1007. In fig. 232 we give at a a section of a dam or weir, and at b a section
of a protective groin for a river-side, as used in Italian irrigation. We are in-
debted for these illustrations to Captain Baird Smith's work on this subject.

1008. During a recent visit to the Orkneys, we noticed a curious specimen of a
sea-wall in the harbour of Wick. In this the stones of the flagstone series
instead of being placed on their flat sides, or " broad-bed," are raised on end
" like staves in a pail or barrel, so that at some little distance the work looks
like as if formed of upright piles or beams jammed fast together." Mr Hugh
Miller, who thus describes it in his Rambles of a Geologist, gives the reasoning
on which Mr Bremner, the engineer who carried out this style of work, founded
the principle of operation. Referring to the standard rule of masonry, that the

236

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

"<broad-bed of a stone being the best, should always be laid below," Mr Bremner
says, " A good rule for the land, but no good rule for the sea. The greatest

Fig. 232.

SECTION OF OROIN (6) AND DAM (fl) FOK PROTECTING A HIVE H-SIDE .

blunders are almost always perpetrated through the misapplication of good
rules." " In a coast like ours," he continues, " where boulders of a ton weight
are rolled about with every storm like pebbles, these stones, if placed on what
a workman would term their ' vert beds,' would be scattered along the shore like
sea- wrack by the gales of a single winter." " In setting aside the prejudice
that what is indisputably the best bed for a stone on dry land, is also the best
bed in the water or an exposed coast, I reasoned," says Mr Bremner, " thus :
The surf that dashes along the beach in times of tempest, and that forms the
enemy with which I have to contend, is not simply water, with an onward impetus
communicated to it by the wind and tide, and a reactive impetus in the opposite
direction the effect of the backward rebound, and of its own weight, when
raised by the propelling forces above its average level of surface. True, it is
all this ; but it is also something more. As its white breadth of foam indicates,
it is a subtile mixture of water and air, with a powerful upward action a con-
sequence of the air struggling to effect its escape ; and this upward action must
be taken into account in our calculations as certainly as the other and more
generally recognised action. In striking against a piece of building, this sub-
tile mixture dashes through the interstices into the interior of the masonry, and,
filling up all its cavities, has, by its upward action, a tendency to set the work
afloat ; and the broader the ends of the stones, of course the more extensive are
the surfaces which it has to act upon. One of these flat flags, 10 feet by 4, and
1 foot in thickness, would present to this upheaving force, if placed on end, a
superficies of but four square feet ; whereas, if placed on its broader base, it
would present to it a superficies of forty square feet. Obviously, then, with
regard to this aerial upheaving force, that acts upon the masonry in which no
precautions are usually adopted to bind it fast for the existence of the force
itself is not taken into account the greater bed of the stone must be just ten
times worse over a worse bed than its lesser one ; and, in a tempestuous foam-
encircled coast such as ours, this aerial upheaving force is, in reality, though
the builder may not know it, one of the most formidable forces with which he has
to deal. And so," concludes Mr Bremner, " on these principles I ventured to
set my stones on end on what was deemed their worst, not their best, beds
wedging them all together like staves in an anker, and there, to the scandal of all
old rules, are they wedged fast still, firm as a rock." Rambles of a Geologist, p. 384.

CULVERTS DRAINS.

237

1009. SECTION FIFTH Culccrt* Drains. We sliall now offer a few re-
marks on the fonu and construction of culverts and drains. In many cases,
such as in the sluices of sea embankments, the culverts are made of wood, elm
being generally chosen for this purpose; in constant wet it lasts along time.
In Essex the sluices are generally made of 2 or 3 inch plank, the usual dimen-
sions being 2 feet high by 1 ,j wide.

1010. In districts where stone is easily obtained, the culverts may be made
of the form as shown in fig. 233. Culverts of this form should not be made of
greater dimensions than 18 inches in the clear. If a larger size is required, a
brick arch may be thrown over the top, as shown by the dotted lines. A brick
drain with angular bottom, as in fig. 234, may be made at an expense of 2s. per
lineal foot, or thereabouts. The cover is of rough slab.

1011. Culverts of the form and dimensions shown in fig. 235 may be con-
structed at the rate of 14s. per lineal foot; this includes brickwork only, not
excavation.

Fig. 234.

1012. Form of Section of Conduits or Culverts. All conduits through which
water has to flow, should possess a form calculated to increase the rapidity of
that flow, and to reduce the friction. For this purpose, a drain with a right-
lined section is infinitely inferior to one with a curved-lined section. A curve
encloses a greater space within its perimeter than can be obtained by the same
length of right lines, so that a circular or curved drain will present less surface
to any given amount of liquid flowing through it, than will be presented by a
drain rectangular in section. Thus the friction of a circular tube 2 feet 3 inches
in diameter being represented by 7,
the friction of a rectangular opening 2
feet by 2 is represented by 8, while
an opening of 4 feet by 1 is repre-
sented by 10 the area of opening in all
cases being the same. Again, in all con- -v;
duits in which the quantity of water
flowing through varies, it is necessary to
preserve at all times the greatest pos-
sible depth of fluid. This depth cannot
be obtained in a flat-bottomed drain, as in
fig. 233, to a like extent with the form in
fig. 236, the same quantity being spread
over a much greater extent of surface in
fig. 233 than in fig. 236. Moreover, as
all conduits have to sustain the pressure of the surrounding earth, those of

238

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

circular or curved sections are better capable of resisting this pressure than
those of flat or rectilineal sections.

1013. Taking as the theoretical requirements of conduits the three points :
(1.) The least possible interior surface with the greatest possible area; (2.)
Preservation of the greatest depth of flowing water with the least quantity ;
and (3.) The capability to resist the pressure of the surrounding earth with
the least amount of constructive material ; the form known as the " egg-
shaped " or " elliptical," has been found in practice to be the most economical
and efficient, and that which very closely possesses those three requisites
noted above.

1014. We are indebted to Weale's Engineer's Pocket-Book for 1855-6, p. 147,
for the following method of setting out this form of conduit :

" If the diameter of top arch .1

Let the diameter of invert ditto = 0.5

And the total depth = the sum of two diameters, or = 1.5
Then the radius of the arcs which are tangentral to the top

arch, and the invert will also be 1.5

From this formula any two of the elements can be deduced from one being
known. Thus, if the total depth is intended to be 6 feet, then the diameter of
top arch will be 4 feet, and that of the invert will be 2 feet, and the radius for
the side connecting area will also be 6 feet." Assuming the cost, as before
stated, of the form of sewer illustrated in fig. 235 to be 14s. per lineal foot, the
cost of an egg-shaped sewer, as in fig. 236, of equal capacity, will be 10s. only,
the thickness being equal to one brick length.

1015. The objection urged against conduits of curved section is, that un-
equal and open joints are caused by the manner in which the bricks have to
be laid. Much of this objection can be met by taking the precautions we have

already pointed out, in Section
Third, as necessary to be attended
to in constructing arched work.
The objection is, however, wholly
met by the use of the radiated bricks,
of which, in fig. 237, we illustrate
one or two forms. These are now
manufactured at a price very little
above that of ordinary bricks, and
suited for conduits of various sizes.
These bricks require less cement
than ordinary ones, and give per-
fectly parallel joints. In fig. 238 we give a section of a " patent junction
block," manufactured by Doulton & Co., Lambeth Pottery, London. Each
block is made to bond with the brickwork of the culvert or sewer, the inner sur-
face corresponding to the curve. A socket is provided, either within the thick-
ness of the block, or projecting a little beyond it. This socket is so constructed
as to receive a junction-pipe, either straight or oblique to the line of culvert.
In fig. 239 we give a view of an " invert block " made by the same firm. This
is made of glazed stoneware, and forms an excellent foundation for the cul-
verts, figs. 234, 235.

8KOM1EHTAX. BRICKS FOR DRAINS

CULVERTS- DRAINS.

239

1016. For conduits from 9 to 18 inches, stoneware tubes may be used with
advantage. Every care should be

taken to secure a good bedding for
the tubes, and to make good the
joints. For these purposes nothing
exceeds well-puddled clay. Cast-
iron pipes will in many cases be
found eligible.

1017. In laying down culverts
a proper fall should be given to
them of not less than half an inch i--
in every 10 feet this being in-
creased in the case of junctions. All junctions should be curved, never made at
right angles. In our remarks on foundations and footings will be found all
necessary information applicable to the construction of culverts, the digging of
the trenches, and the setting of the materials, use of cement, &c. We are there-
fore spared the necessity of entering further into the subject here.

1018. Liquid-Manure Conduits should be built with stone and lime walls,
9 inches high and 6 asunder, nagged smoothly in the bottom, and cover-
ed with single stones. Fig. 240 shows the form of this sort of drain, and
sufficiently explains its structure. As liquid Fjo . 040

manure is sluggish in its motion, the drains re- -^rrr- ~~~^ '"=-- r^r-^
quire a much greater fall in their course than
rain-water drains. They should also run in di-
rect lines, and have as few turnings as possible ; ---_ |s -^-
in their way to the tank. The same remark (1012)
as to the superiority of the curved form over that
of the right-lined, applies to these conduits as to
those for other purposes.

1019. House Drains. In fig. 241 we give an
illustration of the spigot and faucet, or socket

drain - pipes, where a a is the spigot-tube, and c c the faucet of the tube b b.
Although this form is the most generally adopted, it is open to serious objections.
The cement or clay used to make good the
joint is very frequently pushed into the inside
of the pipe when the two lengths are laid to-
gether ; this causes ridges to be formed in
the interior of the drain, making a permanent
obstruction, or forming a nucleus at each joint,
around which the solid sewage-matter soon

accumulates. In the Minutes of Information on House Drainage, issued by the
Board of Health, containing practical information for the guidance of builders,
&c., it is stated that well-mixed clay has been found to be a better material for
making the joints good than cement an opinion which we have long entertained.
In laying socket-jointed pipes, care should be taken to pass down a wooden plug
nearly the diameter of inside of drain, the plug being attached to an iron rod.
This operation, performed as every three or four lengths are laid, will clear the
interior of any cement or clay. It is also necessary that the pipes should have
each a full bearing given them, and not to allow the plain ends to " bond," or rest
entirely on the socket, as, by doing so, the pipes are exceedingly apt to be broken.
To obviate the inconveniences arising from the use of socket-jointed drain-pipes,

(05 a

o o {

240

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 242.

HALF-SOCKET

3RAIN-TOBE8.

Fig. 243.

-->

Mr Austin has proposed a half-socket joint, to be manufactured either with a half
socket at one end only of each length, or at the lower half of both ends ; to be
used alternately with a length without any socket This form is shown in fig.

242. The advantage to be
derived from this arrange-
ment, is that the half sock-
ets form a bed or founda-
tion in which the plain
pipes are laid, not pushed
in, as in the full socket-pipe ; thus every joint, as it is made, is open to inspec-
tion ; and, in case of accident or faulty joint-making, any one length of pipe
can be taken up without disturbing the others. One objection, however, to all
socket-jointed pipes is, that the projection of the socket acts as a species of
fulcrum for the lever formed by the adjoining length of pipe, which may be
subjected to disturbance by the passage of heavy carts over the ground above
it. This displacement is, however, obviated, by using what is termed the
" conical-jointed pipe." These are laid down in alternate lengths, the small
end of one being inserted in the large end of the other. When these are
smoothly made, they form excellent drain-tubes. Constructed of the durable
material known as Peake's " Terro Metallic," they will give much satisfaction.
Drain-tubes with the " rabbet joint," as in fig. 243, form a very tight, and not

easily disturbed, line of drain. Forming one
continuous line, they lie evenly in the bed.
In order to give sufficient thickness to admit
of the " rabbet " being formed, more clay is
required than in the socket-jointed pipe, but
they are more easily made. A form of drain-
tube joint has been recently introduced by Mr
Clayton, a view of which is given in fig. 244, by which it will be seen that one
end of the pipe is cored out, whilst the other end is turned down to suit.

These pipes, when laid together, form a per-
fectly flush joint. The address of the patentee
is, Atlas Works, 21 Upper Park Place, Dorset
Square, London. Where it is a desideratum
to have the range of drain-tubes as absolutely
water-tight as possible, the tubes should be
gently pushed down upon a bed of well-pud-
dled clay; the space on each side, and to a
height of at least 6 inches above the crown of the tube, should next be filled
in with the same material forming the bed. The tubes, thus completely em-
bedded, will remain very satisfactorily placed, even in circumstances where
heavy vehicles may pass frequently over the Line of tubes. Where the strata
through which the tubes are to be laid are irregular, they may be much
straightened by the use of collars, where the tubes are what are called " butt-
joints" that is, each length of tube similar to its neighbour, and the ends
squared off. These " collars " are also very useful in repairing breakages of
tubes, when these happen between the joints.

1020. Lidded Drain-Tubes. By far the best method yet introduced for enabl-
ing the interior of drains to be examined and cleansed, at any one point, without
disturbing the series, or any part of the invert of the tubes, is that in which
they are provided with movable lids or covers. Several parties have intro-
duced tubes of this description. We select the plans of Messrs Doulton & Co.,

RABBXIXJOINTED ERAtN-TUBES.

Fig. 244.

CLAYTON 8 COKJtD^JOXNT FOR

1)11 A TN -TUBES.

241

and Mr Cooper. In fig. 245 wo give a section, and in fig. 246 a perspective
sketch, of Messrs Doultou's (High Street, Lambeth) lidded pipes.

Fig. 245.

1021. The thickness and strength of the pipes are increased by two ribs run-
ning lengthways, through which a partial division is effected in the process of
manufacture, both internally and externally, leaving sufficient material to pre-
serve strength and soundness. The pipes are thus fired in one piece, and perfect
accuracy of form is secured. By the insertion of a chisel at the ends, the
upper pieces may, at any time, be detached without the slightest risk, and
afterwards replaced, so as to form a perfect and accurately fitting cover ; or the
lids can be removed when the pipes are laid, and the drain tested as to its fall
and the accuracy of the joints before they are replaced. The following may bo
stated as the advantages possessed by pipes of this sort : "These pipes may
be laid whole as ordinary socket pipes, and the covers need only be removed
should necessity arise. On the removal of the lids the drain is laid open
throughout its entire length, and may be cleaned without disturbing any part
of the invert. The advantages of inspection are obtainable without any im-
perfect joints or other complication, which would allow either the escape of the
liquid contents of the drain, or the entry of the surrounding soil. The capa-
city of the drain is not lessened when under examination, as is shown by the
cross section, fig. 245. The introduction of junctions is faciliated. The upper
part or cover being fired in one piece with the pipe, fits with a perfection and
accuracy only possible by this peculiar mode of manufacture, and it cannot shift
laterally. Perfect truth of form is secured, and increased strength obtained."

1022. In fig. 247 we give a sketch of the method of laying Mr Cooper's (Fac-

srECTIVE VIE7

OOPER 8 LIDDED DRAIN-TUBES 4NU

tory, Wottoon, Isle of Wight, or 150 Leadenhall Street, London) pipes, which are
of the " butt joint" kind ; " chairs " being used to connect the length of pipes.
In fig. 248 we give views of the " chair." Mr Cooper states the advantages of
his system to be as follows : " They provide ready access to any part of the

COOPER 8 LIDETCD DKAIN-1 QflES.

242 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

drain, for examination, without disturbing any other part, or point of the invert,
of the drain. The pipe, being laid on the under connection, butts the adjoin-
ing pipe at the middle of the
connection ; the pipes are there-
fore kept perfectly straight in
the drain. Should any pipes
be not quite exact in size,
arising from the difference of
the shrink in burning (which is
often the case), their being joined on an even surface at the middle of the
under connection, will necessarily throw any irregularity to the top of the
drain, thereby obviating the necessity of the use of the mop, and making the
invert perfectly fair and even, not liable to be obstructed or injured by running
sand, sinking of the earth, or the action of external water. By the use of the
under connection singly, the full advantage that half sockets, single or double,
may be considered to be, is secured to every pipe/'

1023. SECTION SIXTH Construction of Dry -Stone Dykes. Very many dry-stone
dykes in this country are constructed on erroneous principles, the stones being
laid promiscuously, and more with a view to give a smooth face than a sub-
stantial hearting to the wall. The coping, too, is often disproportionately
large for the body of the wall, which is not unfrequently too narrow for its
height. We suspect that many dry-stone dykes are built by ordinary masons,
who, being accustomed to the use of lime-mortar, are not acquainted with the
bedding of the loose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be, and
therefore are unfitted to build such a dyke. A builder of dry-stone dykes
should be brought up to the profession ; and when he has acquired skill he
will build a substantial one, at a moderate cost, which will stand upright for
many years. A proper sort of stone is a great assistance to the builder of stone
dykes, flat thin ones being the best : but flatness and thinness are not the only
requisites ; they should also have a rough surface by which to adhere to one
another in the wall ; and no material, on this account, is so well adapted for
the purpose as the stones derived from sandstone boulders of gravel deposits,
when split with the pick into flat pieces of the requisite thickness on being
taken out of the ground, and which, on being exposed to the air for a short time,
become dry and hard.

1024. Dry-stone dykes are measured in height by quarters that is, quarters of
a yard, of 9 inches each. A 5-quarter dyke is the usual measure of a field-fence ;
that is, 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches, to the under side of the cover upon which the
cope-stones stand the cover and cope-stones usually measuring 12 inches, so
that the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches in height. The dyke, when
finished, is measured by the rood of 36 square yards upon its face under the
cover, so that every 30 yards of a 5-quarter dyke will be 1 rood in length. The
usual thickness of such a dyke is 2 feet at the base, and 15 inches under the
cover.

1025. A dyke that has two plain faces is called a double-faced dyke, and a
dyke with one face, as one built against a sunk fence, is called a single-faced
dyke. A double-faced 5-quarter dyke requires 1 ton of stones for every square
yard of its face, so that 36 tons of stones are required for every rood of 30 yards
long. The expense of quarrying that quantity of stones is about 10s. the rood;
the carriage of them at a reasonable distance beyond one mile is also 10s. ;
and the building is commonly undertaken, when the stones are good, at 10s.

DRY-STONE DYKES. 243

also ; so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 yards, or Is. for every yard in
length, or 6, 9s. 6d. per cubic rood, or 3s. 7d. per cubic yard. The best way
to contract for the erection of stone dykes is by the rood of 36 cubic yards,
when every temptation on the part of the builder to lessen the breadth, and
make the heart of the dyke hollow, will be removed.

1026. The tools of a dry-stone dyker are few and inexpensive, consisting
only of a mason's hammer, a frame as a gauge for the size of the dyke, and
cords as guides for the straightness and thickness of the dyke. A ditcher's
shovel is also useful to him in putting the shivers of the stones together into
heaps, to be the more easily removed by carts.

1027. A dyker cannot work in wet or in very cold weather, as handling
stones in a state of wetness is hurtful to the bare hand ; on which accounts,
dry-stone dykes are commonly built in summer.

1028. The line of fence being determined on, it is marked off with a row of
stakes driven firmly into the ground. The upper soil, to the depth it has been
ploughed, is removed from the line to form the foundation of the dyke ; and it
may be driven away immediately, and not lie in the builder's way, or it should
be formed into a compost with lime, near the spot, for top-dressing grass.
When the surface consists of old firm thick sward, the dyke may be founded
upon it ; but in forming foundations, it should be borne in mind that dykes are
apt to sink in soft earth of every kind, to its injury not merely by curtailing
its height as a fence, but by twisting its structure and causing it ultimately to
fall. When the soil consists of vegetable mould, it should therefore be re-
moved altogether, and its intrinsic value in a compost will amply repay the
trouble of removing it.

1029. After the foundation has been formed by the removal of the earth, the
stones should be laid down on both sides as near the line of foundation as prac-
ticable, for it is of considerable importance to the builder that the stones be
near at hand. When the stones are laid even as far off as two yards from the
foundation, the builder loses time in throwing them nearer ; but, on the other
hand, no stones should be emptied from the cart into the foundation, as they
will have to be removed by the builder before he commences his work. Large
boulder-stones form excellent material for the foundation of stone dykes, and
should be laid close to the foundation before the building stones are brought.
In laying down the stones, the carters should be instructed to put down 18
tons on each side of 30 yards length of the foundation ; and when boulders are
also put down, allowance should be made for them out of the building stones.
These particulars are worth attending to, to save unnecessary trouble after-
wards in removing or bringing stones, to the annoyance alike of the dyker and
the farmer.

1030. The simplest mode of conveying large boulders is upon a sledge, shod
with iron, which is better than putting them in and taking them out of a com-
mon cart, the bottom and sides of which are apt to be broken by boulders. A
pair of horses, yoked as in a plough, will draw a very heavy boulder upon such
a sledge, on the ordinary surface of the ground. When many ordinary stones
are driven for buildings, of any kind, the carts should receive an extra bottom-
ing and lining with deals of common Scots fir, or of willow, which is better
than any other sort of wood, as being softer and less liable to split.

1031. Every preparation being thus made, two builders proceed to the work,
one opposite the other the best number to make the best work, and they assist
each other with stones which one would not be able to manage.

1032. They begin by setting up the frame, fig. 249, at one end of the dyke,

244

PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTIOX.

whether it commences against another fence, or at a gateway into the field
which the figure is supposed to represent, in the foundation of the proposed

Fig. 249.

THE BCILUINO A DRT-8TOSB D"

line of dyke. The frame is made of the breadth and height of the proposed
dyke under the cover ; and is set perpendicularly by the plummet attached to
it. A corresponding frame should be placed beyond the point which is fixed
for one stretch of building, or two stakes driven into the ground, having the
same inclination as the sides of the frame, to answer the purpose of a temporary
one. On undulating ground, a space of half a rood, or 15 yards, between the
frames, is a sufficient stretch of building at one time ; but on level ground a
rood may safely be taken in. The cords are then stretched along the space,
and fastened to the outside of each frame, to guide, as lines, the building of
the side of the dyke straight, and to gauge its breadth. The frame is held up-
right and steady by a stiff rail, having a nail driven through one of its ends,
hooked on to the top-bar of the frame, and the other end with a stone laid upon
it, or pushed into the ground.

1033. When the dyke begins with a scuncheon, as in this case, a large
boulder should be chosen for its foundation stone ; and if there are no boulders,
a large stone should be selected and dressed for the purpose, as no better pro-
tection can be given to the end of a dyke and especially so when the scun-
cheon forms one side of a gateway to a field. Another boulder, or large stone,
should be placed at a little distance from the first, and smaller stones used to
fill up the space between them, until the building is raised to the height of the
boulders.

1034. Great art is required in laying the small stones, and it is this art in
dyke-building which detects the good from the bad builder. In good dry build-
ing, the stones are laid with a slight inclination downwards, from the centre of
the dyke, towards each face, and to break band with one another ; and to sup-
port their inclination, small stones should be wedged firmly under them in the
heart of the dyke ; whereas stones that are laid flat admit of no wedging to

DRY-STONE DYKES. 245

heart them, and receive none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out in both faees.
The inclination causes the rain which may have found its way down through
the top of the dyke to be thrown oil' by both sides.

1035. The stability of a dyke is much assisted by having what is called a
thorough-band stone, placed across it at about half-way up the building. The
cover also acts as a thorough-band at the top of the dyke ; but in laying the
cover, the levelling of the dyke to form its bed should not be made of very
small and very thin stones, as is too often the case, as neither have stability,
are easily broken, and are constantly in danger of slipping out from under the
cover and cope. Thorough-band stones are frequently left projecting from one
or both sides of the dyke by some builders, merely to indicate that they are
thorough-bands ; but the practice is objectionable, inasmuch as such projections
serve only as stepping-stones for trespassers to climb over the dyke.

1036. A scuncheon should be formed of in-band and out-band stones, ham-
mer-dressed, and firmly bedded upon one another.

1037. The covers should project an inch or two beyond the face of the dyke,
to protect the top. They should be 2 inches thick, arid without a flaw through-
out their length, which should be 2 feet at least, that their weight may keep
them firm and their size cover a large space of building.

1038. In forming the cope, a large stone should be placed at the end of the
scuncheon to keep down the cover, and act as an abutment for resisting the
wedging down of the smaller cope-stones. Another large cope-stone should be
set at a short distance from it upon the joining of two covers, to keep them
secure. Thinner stones should then be placed on edge between these and
wherever they meet, a stone should be wedged in by strokes of the hammer; but
the wedging should be delayed until a considerable length of coping is finished,
the better to resist its force. The cope-stones should be nearly all of the
same height. On finishing the face of a dyke, small stones should be firmly
wedged in with the hammer, where room can be found, between the beds and
the ends of the larger ones.

1039. In building a stretch of dyke, such as the rood above referred to, it is
customary to carry up the building at both ends, as well as at the middle of the
stretch, to the levelling of the top, before the intermediate spaces are built up,
because those primary parts, being built thus independently, act as pillars in
the dyke to support the intermediate building plumb ; and they are also con-
venient for pinning the cords against while the intermediate spaces are being-
built.

1040. When a few stretches of dyke have thus been finished, the surplus
stones, if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted ; and should
there be a deficiency, stones should be immediately brought, to allow the
builders to finish one stretch before they proceed to another. The debris of
stones caused by the hammer should be taken to repair roads.

1041. These are all the particulars to be attended to in building dykes for
ordinary fencing ; but modifications are sometimes introduced into their form
to serve a convenient purpose. For example, an opening should be left under
the cover of a dyke, of a sufficient width and height to allow sheep to pass
from one field into another, when the passage between them by road may be a
considerable distance. Where a passage exists between the fields by means of
a gate, no such opening should be made, but only when the two fields are
entered by different farm-roads. When the opening is not used, it should be
stopped up with thorns or a wooden board. An opening of 3^ feet wide and 3
feet high will suffice.

246

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig 250

iSINO THE HEIGHT
DYKES.

1042. Another convenience is to leave a gap at the top of the dyke by low-
ering its cover and removing the cope at a place where a passage is occasion-
ally required for foot-passengers. By doing this the dyke may be saved from
much injury. A gap near the top of the dyke may be useful as a stile in the
line of a footpath, or at the side of a cover, for hounds and huntsmen to pass
with ease ; and here the whipper-in may stand on the outlook for a break-cover.
When not constantly in use, the gap is easily fenced with a bunch of thorns or
whins.

1043. Such dykes as we have been describing, of 5 quarters in height, will
fence horses and cattle and Leicester sheep, but will not confine blackfaced
sheep, and scarcely Cheviots. For these, higher walls must be built, or ex-
pedients used to make ordinary ones confine them. Some of these expedi-
ents are shown in fig. 250, where part of an ordinary dyke with its cope is

seen ; and they consist of occasional
cope-stones a be d e, set on edge to a
considerable height, say 12 inches, above
the ordinary ones, and 4 feet apart. Upon
these are placed either fillets of wood
along notches made on the top of the
stones, and wedged into them, as at a b c,
or a strong rope of straw is laid somewhat
loosely over the notches to dangle in the wind, and to form a scare to the
sheep, as at c d e. Another expedient is, where a single-faced dyke is built
against rising ground, consisting of plantation or of cultivated land, to sow a
few seeds of whin or broom in the soil behind the dyke, and the plants in time
spread over the cope-stones. Where good stones for covers are scarce, and
turf is tough and heathery, thick turfs, cut of the breadth of the top of the dyke,
and laid, with the grass side uppermost, firmly and neatly on with cope-stones
upon the turfs, which thus afford them a firm bed, will raise a dyke a sufficient
height. A more permanent expedient than either of these, where the dyke is
built of large strong stones from a quarry, is to erect a wire fence upon the
dyke, by batting upright wrought-iron standards into the covers, and stretching
three rows of wire through them. Such an addition costs from 8d. to Is. 4d.
per lineal yard. Or stakes might be driven along and close to one face of the
dyke, of sufficient length to reach above its covers to receive three rows of
wires. Where thinnings of plantations are abundant, this is the cheaper, though
less durable plan, than the preceding one with the iron standards.

1044. When dykes run at right angles to one another, and are erected simul-
taneously, they should be built in connection ; but where a new dyke comes
against another, the old one should not be touched, and the new built firmly
beside it.

1045. Where two dykes cross, and the place is naturally wet, or water
may be easily brought to it, a watering-pool there would serve four fields,
and the basin for the pools should be formed before the dykes are built. The
two dykes cross at the centre of the pond, as in fig. 251, having holes in them
to allow the water to pass through, forming a watering-pool in each field, as at
abed.

1046. Where a pond already exists, and its water is too deep for dykes to
traverse, the dykes must terminate within its edge, and convert the pond into a
watering-pool common to four fields. When the pond c, fig. 252, is used by
only one field at a time, it should be fenced from the other three fields by means
of hurdles or paling, at/<? h ; and when the pond happens to be used by more

FA RM-HO ADS.

247

than one field at a time, a paling- should bo run across it from dyke to dyke,
besides the fences to the fields not occupied by the stock.

1047. Where the ground is firm, and there is no prospect of obtaining a water-
ing-pool, the dykes should be

O 1 > J I. 1 ;,, .--i PICT .v>

made to cross, and a well sunk
in a corner of one of the fields,
with a pump in it of such
height as to supply all the
fields with water from it by
means of a spout into a trough
in each field. This expedient
we have successfully used.

1048. Where the ground is
firm, and no water but shelter

:ruso-i>ooi. '

is wanted at that spot, the ioci

dyke should be built curved,

to enclose a space between them to be planted with trees for ornament and

shelter. The land here will not bo wasted, even should it be of the highest

value ; because the corners of four adjoining fields always have ground that

cannot be reached by the plough, as may be seen

between i k I m, fig. 253, while the plough can

pass along such curves as near as to a straight fence.

In building curvatures in dykes, builders charge a half

more per rood than for plain work. Such curves in

dykes are easily drawn by setting off an equidistant

centre for each.

1049. A stone dyke is in the highest state of per-
fection as a fence immediately from the hands of the
builders ; but every day thereafter the effect of the
atmosphere upon the stones, at all seasons, and the ac- i
cidents to which they are liable by trespasses of indi-
viduals and the fretting of stock, render it necessary

to uphold their repairs frequently ; and this consideration should cause the best
materials and workmanship to be selected for their original construction.

1050. SECTION SEVENTH Farm-Roads. We do not deem it at all necessary
to go into detail as to the methods adopted for laying out a road, so as to secure
the most beneficial level, and the nearest route between any two desired points ;
for all purposes of the farm, the farmer will at once be able to distinguish at
what points a hollow place may be filled up, and embankments made from the
material obtained from cuttings, and the cases in which the trouble and cost of
performing these operations would be repaid by the extra perfection of the
road. We shall merely content ourselves with a few hints as to the forms of
roads, and the kind of materials which may be employed, leaving the reader to
decide, according as circumstances or his own opinions may dictate, as to
which of these he may carry out in practice.

1051. Convex roads that is, roads highest in the centre have been much
recommended, from the facilities which the form presents to the thorough drain-
age of the surface ; the water, it is said, freely running from the centre to the
sides. Authorities, however, seem to agree in thinking that the advantages of
this have been much over-rated. The principal objection made to it is, that as
the centre of the road is the only place at which the vehicles passing over it

248 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

can be kept vertical, it is most frequently used, and hence the centre part
becomes hollow, affording a receptacle, as it were, for rains to lodge in, aud
from which it is difficult to run off. Upon the whole, we would recommend the
farmer to form the road with a comparatively slight rise in the centre. The
materials of which to make a good road-surface may be broken stones, of a size
sufficient to pass through a ring 2 inches diameter. These are placed in layers
on the road, and well rammed down ; the upper surface soon becomes smooth
and consolidated by the action of the passing vehicles. Some recommend the
depth of materials to be greater in the centre than at the sides of the road ; this,
however, should not be attended to ; on the contrary, care should be taken to
make all portions of the road equal in construction and solidity the aim in a
well-laid-out road being to make it serviceable on all parts of its surface for the
passage of vehicles. When footpaths are required, they may be formed of a
layer of broken stones of size sufficient to pass through a ring 1 inch diameter,
with two layers of gravel well rammed down : the surface should slope towards
the side drain. In place of ramming the broken stones on the soil which forms
the basis of the principal road, blocks of rough stones may first be laid down,
and the layers of smaller stones above these. Good gravel is a good material
for road surfaces.

1052. In all cases drains should be made at the side (or both sides, if possible),
by which to carry off the surface-water. These drains are formed by ditches of
sufficient depth to carry away the water, and having a proper fall throughout
their length. Where a footpath is made, the surface-water of the main road, and
that of the footpath, is taken off by a small gutter formed at the inner edge of
footpath, and constructed of blocks of stones : small outlets are made at inter-
vals by which the water is led off through drains placed beneath the footpath
to the large side-drain or ditch. Where the side-ditch or drain is of sufficient
depth, the soil beneath the road surface will also be drained by it. Beside the
side-ditches, a covered drain should run along the middle of the road where the
subsoil is of clay, and where there is a burst of water.

1053. In excavating roads, the sides of the excavation should have 2 feet of
a slope outwards for 1 foot perpendicular of its height. Where the soil is
sandy or gravelly, a greater degree of slope must be given to the sides of the
excavation. In forming embankments, each layer, of some 4 feet, should be
well rammed : this tends to consolidate the road. The slope given to the sides
should be less than that which the materials would naturally assume if left to
themselves. The side slopes can be very efficiently protected by encouraging
the growth of grass on them. The surface-water from the road must not be
allowed to run down the sides, but be carefully let off by properly-constructed
side-drains.

1054. Where a road is formed over a sandy soil, the sand may be in a great
measure prevented from shifting laterally by digging, at each side of the road,
ditches some 30 inches deep, and the same width tilling these up with turf or
clay, and well ramming them. This precaution need not be taken where an
excavation and strong embankments are made in the sides.

1055. Construction of Roads on Strong Soils. Perhaps the most practical autho-
rity on this department of road-making is Mr Bailey Denton, who published the
result of his experience in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, vol. xviii., from which we extract the following points to be attended
to in practice : " 1st, The road should be perfectly drained by means of surface-
ditches, as a a, fig. 254, on each side of the formation, and of under-clrains, as
d d, on each side of the metalling. 2d, The formation should be 18 feet wide

FAEM-EOADS.

249

at least between tlio inner edges of the. surface-ditches, i. e., from b to c. 3d,
The surface-ditches a a should be at least 18 inches deep, with good and sufli-

cietit batter or side slopes. They should have a sufficient fall towards existing
watercourses, to discharge freely all water that may be run into them, and
pipe-culverts protected by end-gratings should be provided at all gateways
opening to the road. 4th, The metalling should be 9 feet wide at least, that
is, from b to b. 5th, The under-drains d d, should be dug 4 feet deep at
least on each side of the metalling, laid with 2-inch pipes, and connected with
the culverts or drains crossing the road at every fence and every hollow in the
ground; and these cross-ciilverts or drains should be laid so low in connection
with existing ditches (to be deepened, if necessary, for the purpose), that the
crown of the cross-culvert or drain shall be no higher than the bottom of under-
drain ; thus, in fig. 255 a is a cross-culvert, b b under-drains. At the ends of
each cross-culvert
there should be an
iron grating to
prevent the pas-
sage of vermin.
The tinder -drains
should be carefully
filled to the height
of the metal bed,

with the earth taken out of the drains. Gth, The surface of the road for its en-
tire breadth of 18 feet or more, from c to c, fig. 254, should be raised above the
ground surface in a convex shape. 7th, The height of the centre of the road
above the ground surface, should be as near as possible; the thickness of the
metalling, whatever it be. It is necessary, however, that the ground or base
upon which the metalling is placed should be perfectly solid, and, if possible,
unbroken. It should be convex, and accord in form with the intended convex
shape of the surface of the road itself. 8th, The metalling may consist of two
or more layers or strata which, together, should be 9 inches deep at least. This
depth will suffice where the materials are of the best sort, but they should be
proportionately deeper in cases where the materials are softer and less durable.
9th, The metalling should be of uniform depth for its entire width. 10th, The
under stratum or foundation of metalling may consist of any durable, porous, or
non-absorbent material, of the depth of 4-| inches at least. It may be judiciously
increased where the material required for the upper stratum or covering is
very costly, when the depth of the covering maybe reduced accordingly. It is
not essential that the material for the foundation shall be of uniform size, as
long as it lies compact, is well banded, and its surface is even and regular to
receive the upper stratum, llth, The upper stratum or covering should be of
the best description of clean stone, or sifted gravel or pebbles., the country will
aflbrd. If gravel, it should be screened, to get rid of sand and dirt ; and the

250 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

larger stones should be broken, so that no particle shall be left on the road
exceeding 2^ inches in the largest diagonal line. The depth should be 4^
inches, and should, if possible, be placed on the road in two courses. 12th, The
side spaces, 4 feet 6 inches each at least from b to c, fig. 254 should be
carefully finished off in close conformity with the metalling. The fall thus
given from the centre to the sides of the road will insure a perfect drainage of
the surface into the side ditches. The side spaces should be seeded and rolled,
or beaten down firmly. 13th, There should be no fence that will throw a shadow
on the road. 14th, The road, after its completion, should be most rigidly
maintained in its convex form ; any unevenness should be overcome by the
rake, and all ruts and hollows should be kept filled in at once with fresh mate-
rial, properly broken to the same size as the original metalling ; and the side
ditches should be kept open and free to discharge the water flowing into them.
No water should be allowed to stand on either the metalling or the side spaces,
but the water should be got rid of, not by making grips or channels into the
side-ditches, but by filling up hollows and ruts, and keeping the whole in its
original form."

1056. It will be observed that in these rules, very great stress has been laid
upon both surface and under draining. All engineers have acknowledged the
advantage of rendering roads dry and unyielding, and considerable attention
has been paid to surface -draining ; but the importance of under-draining roads
by means of longitudinal pipe drains, laid sufficiently deep and near each other
to remove soak or bottom water, and overcome as far as possible capillary
attraction and suction in the soil, has been overlooked until very recently. A
shallow centre drain, called a mitre-drain, was often adopted with good effect,
but it failed to render the subsoil dry, and increased the cost of the road con-
siderably. There is but little doubt, however, that the advantages arising from
the act of adequately deep under-draining, both in economising materials and
in reducing the cost of maintenance, surpass any single appliance of either Tel-
ford or Macadam in the practice of road-making. The effect of deep under-drains
on each side of the metalling is to render the mass of soil between them per-
fectly solid and inflexible, so that any metalling, let it be either loose gravel or
a close pavement, rides upon it without sinking into it.

1057. " The solid and firm base thus obtained is equivalent to at least one-
fourth of the metalling ordinarily put on roads. That proportion which is so
frequently sunk and buried in the clay base, is saved ; and it has been found
that roads carefully formed and under-drained, with 9 inches of metalling, will
better preserve their shape, and a hard and firm surface, than roads with 12
inches of metalling without under-draining.

1058. " The practice, too, of laying faggots as a foundation is superseded by
under-draining, except in cases of peat-bogs and deep spongy soils, where a
layer of faggots is essential as a platform for the materials. In dealing with
homogeneous clays, the use of faggots is much to be reprehended. Their elas-
ticity keeps the base of the road in a constant fret and soft state, causing the
clay to rise, and the metalling to sink between the branches and twigs of which
the faggots are composed."

1059. For other information as to details of construction, cost, &c., the reader
is referred to Mr Dentou's paper, which abounds in practical information on the
subject.

1060. SECTION EIGHTH Weil-Sinking Liquid-Manure Tanks Horse Pond.
In well-sinking we confine ourselves to explaining the easiest method of sink-

WELL-SINKING. 251

ing shafts for wells in various soils, refraining from noticing the method of obtain-
ing water by boring through the surface and the various strata, this involving
the use of instruments and appliances not easily attainable by the farmer. It is
somewhat difficult to decide, as to the localities most suitable for sinking a well
so as to insure a regular supply of water at a reasonable depth. Mr Swindell
(Rudimentary Treatise on Well-Digging and Boring. Is. Weale, London) gives
the following as a few simple directions on this point: " In the early part of
the year, if the grass assume a brighter colour in one particular part of a field
than in the remainder, or, when the latter is ploughed, if a part be darker
than the rest, it may be suspected that water will be found beneath it. In
summer the gnats hover in a column, and remain always at a certain height
above the ground, over the spots where springs are concealed. In all seasons
of the year more dense vapours arise from these portions of the surface, from
which, owing to the existence of subterranean springs, a greater degree of
humidity gives rise to more copious exhalations, especially in the morning or
evening. The springs to which these rules apply are such as are only near
the surface." In trap-rock, water is not likely to be found ; and in gravel,
sand, or rich unctuous clay, digging to a considerable depth will likely be
required before water is obtained. Water is most certain to be found in diluvial
clay; this, although impervious to water, is here and there intersected with
veins of sand, interspersed with small stones, on removing which water is found
to ooze, and which may be collected in a pit formed in the clay. The follow-
ing is the method of digging a well in such a soil : " Let a circle of 8 feet in
diameter be described on the surface of the ground, from whose area let the
surface-soil be removed to be used elsewhere as compost. After throwing out
a depth of 8 or 9 feet with the spade, let a winch and rope and bucket be set
up to draw the earth out of the well. While the digging is proceeding, let a
sufficient quantity of flat stones be laid down near the winch, by which to let
them down to build the ring. A depth of 16 feet will most probably suffice ;
but if no water is found, let the digging proceed to the requisite depth. A ring
of 3 feet in diameter will be a large enough bore for the well : the rest of the
space should be filled up with dry rubble masonry, and drawn in at the top to

2 feet in diameter. Whenever the building is finished, the water should be
removed from the well with buckets if the quantity is small, and with a ptimp
if it be large, to allow the bottom to be cleared of mud and stones. A thick
flat stone, reaching from the side of the ring to beyond the centre, should be
firmly placed on the ground at the bottom of the well for the wooden pump to
stand upon, or for the lead pipe to rest on. If a wooden pump is used, a large
flat stone, having a hole in it to embrace the pump, should be laid on a level
with the ground upon the ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is preferred, the
flat stone should be entire and cover the ring, and the clayey earth thrown over
it."

1061. In cases where the well has to be sunk in loose gravel or sand, a dif-
ferent plan has to be adopted. The following is a specification of a method
carried out by Mr Wilson, Dumbartonshire : " The diameter of the well to be

3 feet 6 inches inside of the building, and the building, instead of rubble, to be
of droved ashlar, each stone 8 inches broad in the bed, 12 inches deep, about
2 If inches long, in the chord of the arc of a circle on the one side, and 17 inches
long in a straight line on the other side. The oxitside of the stones to be formed
neatly to a circle, and their inside into an octagon. Beds to be square ; ends
properly bevelled and wrought correctly to a mould ; each course to contain
8 stones of equal size ; a ring-board to be formed of willow, not to taste the

252 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

water, 8J inches broad, 1^ or 2 inches thick, and ^ inch larger than the
outside circle of the stones. The ring-board could be made stronger in two
courses of four pieces of equal size. In building upon the ring-board, the first
course of stones to have the centres of their face raised perpendicular to the
inside of the ring-board. The centres of each stone of the second course to be
placed over the joints of the preceding course, and also perpendicular to the
inside of the ring-board. The inside face of each stone being a straight line,
the inside diameter of the well being 3^ feet, and the ring-board being correctly
made, the inside ends of each stone will be back If inch from the centre of the
face of each stone in the course immediately above it, and so on with every
course. A small stick, made as a gauge at one end, of If inch length, will be
found handy for setting the stones. The outside circle must be most carefully
made. The upper course to form a square instead of an octagon for the covers
to rest on, and to slope to one side, to carry the water off the top of the well.
The covers to be droved, and in three pieces, one of which to cover the build-
ing on one side and half of the well, and to be half-checked where the other
two stones meet it in the middle, and they are to be half-checked into it, also
half-checked into each other where they meet in the middle, and to cover the
other side of the building. One of the stones covering a portion of the well to
have an iron ring in it, by which to lift it freely out of the checks of the other
two stones. The joints of the covers to be filled with putty well mixed with
whitelead, to prevent water from the surface getting into the well."

1062. The method of sinking the well is thus described by Mr Wilson : " I had
the stones dressed, droved to a mould as specified, and all ready before breaking
ground, when I made a rod 2 inches longer than the extreme diameter of the
ring-board ; described the circle on the surface with it, and gave it to the
labourer as a gauge, that he might not take out any more sand arid gravel than
was necessary to let the ring-board in with ease. I had about 5 feet of gravel,
which I should always like to go through before laying in the ring-board. There
were then 2 feet of fine sand, when water appeared by taking a shovelful out of
the centre. I then ordered the ring-board to be put in and levelled, and built upon
to the top of seven courses, filling up as it was built the back of each course
with fine sand, loosely put in witli a shovel, to steady the building when sink-
ing. I then commenced taking gravel out of the centre with a short shovel,
and a bucket with a rope attached to it to be drawn up with a winch and handle.
In about three hours of an afternoon there was about a foot of water. Next
day I commenced taking out a barrowful of sand, and two or three bucketfuls
of water alternately, till in other three hours I had got down altogether about
11 feet 6 inches, when the water flowed in so much that I could not proceed
further, and it rose to its level of 3 feet 8 inches. The building went down
steadily, and did not seem to be an eighth of an inch off the level at which it
was first set. Other four courses were then built, and the covers put on, and
the pump-frame erected several feet from the side of the well, where an inclined
plane and gutter had been formed to carry off the water. The pump I use is a
copper chamber, 4 inches in diameter, with brass boxes, and a 2-irich lead pipe
attached to the chamber, and laid into the well through the side of the building
about 2 feet below the surface."

1063. Where the interior of the wall is faced with bricks " steined," as it is
termed a simple method of proceeding is as follows : A drum-curb is provided,
being a circular frame of wood, with a strong flat ring, of the same diameter as
the intended well at top and bottom, the breadth of the ring being equal to the
breadth of a brick ; the depth of curb is 5 feet or so. The ground being exca-

LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 253

vated to a depth equal to that of the curl), this is lowered into the excavation.
The operation of digging is continued, the curb gradually descending the
excavated earth being removed by buckets lifted by tackle supported above the
excavation by a triangular frame. The steining or brickwork is then built on
the upper ring of the curb ; the bricks are laid without mortar, care being taken
to arrange them so as to keep the form of the circle as perfect as possible, each
course breaking joint with the one under it. As the sinking of the curb goes
on, the laying of the bricks is proceeded with, until the necessary depth is
obtained. It is scarcely requisite to point out the absolute necessity of making
all wells circular; the sides of square ones would inevitably be forced in.

1064. Of all the methods in use for raising the water from wells that are of
greater depth than when the common pump can be used namely, 30 feet that of
the ascending and descending buckets (the empty one descending as the full one
is being pulled up) forms the simplest. The buckets must be comparatively heavy
to allow of their sinking into the water on being let down. The rope to which the
buckets are attached is wound round a wooden barrel, revolving on two uprights
at each side of the well mouth, and turned by a winch or handle. The well-
covering should be made in two halves, opening upwards, and hinged at the
outer edges to a wooden frame placed round the mouth of the well. A small
space should be left between the edges of the Haps, to admit of the rope passing
freely. A small curb-wall should be made round the mouth, in order to prevent
surface-water running into the well ; and a railing, some 3 or 4 feet high, to
prevent children having access.

1065. Liquid-Manure Tanks. Tanks are not required on every kind of farm.
On carse farms, where much straw and little green food is used, there can be no
liquid manure ; and on pastoral farms, the stock confined in winter in the stead-
ing are too limited in number to afford much of that material. On dairy farms, on
the other hand, where many cows are maintained, and much green food consumed
by them in byres, tanks should be constructed for the advantage of the pasture-
land. The practice of the farmers of Flanders might be usefully followed on all
small dairy farms, by constructing a small tank iinder ground in every byre, the
contents of which might be enriched with rape-cake and other valuable ingredients.
These enriched contents, employed as a top-dressing on pasture and forage
land, would increase their produce, for the support of the cows, very consider-
ably. A tank to a dairy farm seems, therefore, indispensable, and it should be
of large dimensions, to meet any enlargement of the dairy. On farms of mixed
husbandry, if the steading is furnished with rain-water spouts, and the stock
well supplied with litter, much liquid manure cannot be collected. Under that
system we had a circular tank of 12 feet in diameter and 4 deep, connected
with well-planned courts by neatly-built drains provided with good gratings, and
the courts were defended from being deluged with rain-water by capacious rain-
water spouts, and care taken that the cattle were always provided with a suffi-
cient quantity of litter with all which accommodations every well-appointed
steading should be supplied. The tank was not filled in the course of the sea-
son above three times a quantity not worth while providing a liquid-manure
cart to take it to the field ; and even this small quantity was solely derivable
from heavy rains and melting snows for a few days falling directly into the
courts, and causing a surplus of water, which was readily conveyed into the
tank by the drains. The ordinary supply of the liquid manure was merely a
few drops from the sole of the drain into which all the other drains merged.
The sole of this drain was only 4 feet above the bottom of the tank, and, except
after rain or snow, the liquid manure never reached that height. Still, wlier-

254 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

ever cattle are housed and fed in large numbers on turnips, a tank should be
constructed with drains, to keep the courts comfortably dry.

1066. There are several circumstances to be taken into consideration, before
proceeding to construct a tank for liquid manure. When a tank is made deep,
such as a well, the building of the lower part, as well as of the sides, will
require to be particularly strong, to resist the equal hydrostatic pressure of the
fluid on all sides within it, and, of course, will be so much the more expensive
in construction. A tank should therefore be shallow, to be economical in con-
struction, and not deeper than 6 feet below the sole of the drains which bring
the liquid manure. It is very desirable to have the tank covered, for the sake
of protection against accidents, and against undue action of the atmosphere
upon the liquid. The most durable covering is an arch ; and, to keep the cost
of that within bounds, the tank should be narrow, not exceeding six feet. The
desired capacity of a tank will thus be attainable by extending its length. A
tank should neither let in nor let out liquid. To prevent its letting in water,
a drain should be formed where there is the slightest appearance of it in oozings
or a spring ; and to prevent the liquid getting out, a puddling of clay should be
used, where the subsoil does not consist of tenacious boulder clay. The clay
for puddling should be well pugged, or beaten into the consistency of putty.

1067. A considerable fall is required along the floor of a liquid-manure tank ;
and a roomy man-hole should be made in the arch of the roof at each end, and
at the deepest end a third opening for a pump.

1068. To know the size of tank required for any particular case, an allow-
ance of 1000 gallons for every cow is a good criterion on a dairy farm, and that
number of gallons occupies 162 cubic feet. When enlarged tanks are desired, it
is better, because cheaper, to have parallel rows of narrow tanks contiguous to
each other, than to extend the breadth or length and increase the depth of the
dimensions given above (1066). In a series of parallel tanks, the common walls
support the arches on both sides.

1069. A tank of 72 feet in length, 6 feet wide inside, and 6 feet deep below
the soles of the drains, contains about 2600 cubic feet, and, with a pump and
the carriage of materials, would cost about 24.*

1070. Mr Milburn, Sowerby, by Thirsk, gives the cost of constructing a liquid-
manure tank, 13^ feet in length, 6| feet in width, and 6 feet deep, inside mea-
sure, with brick in length, and plastered with Roman cement a size suitable
to small holdings in these terms :

Ft. in.
Length within, . . . . 13 6

Width, ..... 66

Depth, . . . . . 6 = 19^ cubic yards.

Cutting over all, at 3d. per yard, . . . . .079

Walling, including bricks in length, and mortar around them, at 4s.

per yard, . . . . . . . .680

Plastering and cement, . . . . . . 16

Covering and flags, . . . . . . . 2 15

10 6 9t

1071. A simple and convenient mode of collecting the liquid manure of a
dairy farm of from 130 to 170 acres, with a stock of cows from 14 to 24, with
young beasts and horses has been practised by Mr M'Lean, Braidwood, and
Mr Wilson, Eastfield, both near Penicuik, Mid-Lothian. Drains are formed from

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for March 1846, p. 292-8.
t Ibid., vol. xiv. p. 280.

LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 255

the byres and stables into one main drain, the mouth of which happens to be
elevated as high above the ground below it as to admit a liquid-manure barrel
a common butt, mounted on its cart to stand under it, and receive the liquid
direct into the bung-hole ; and as the barrel becomes full, it is carted away, and
its contents emptied on the field. The barrel contains 150 gallons, and is
usually filled three times u-\veek. When there is an excess of liqriid, in con-
sequence of much rain, it is allowed to run into the dunghills below the drain,
and, after saturating them, flows into an open shallow tank, from which it irri-
gates at pleasure a drained mossy field laid down to perpetual grass.
1072. The cost of these drains is thus given by Mr AYilson:

In under-byre, including cover of the main drain, . . . 226

In upper-byre, ..... ..160

Stable pavement, grates, and cost of putting them in, . . . 200

Drains from dwelling-house and scullery, including grates, . . 15

Expense of cutting a road, to allow the bung-hule of the barrel to be placed

lower than the main drain, . . . . . . 0106

6 14

1073. A common butt, of the above capacity of 150 gallons, sunk into the
ground, forms a good and convenient tank for the use of a labourer's cottage,
and, retaining all the liquid refuse from the house, would afford ready means of
manuring a portion of the garden.

1074 The rationale of the construction of liquid-manure tanks is this : The
cistern for collecting liquid manure in the farmstead, though apparently simple
in its construction, being merely a covered pond or a well, yet serious errors
are frequently committed in its formation. The first and most important consi-
deration for the formation of the cistern, is the effect of hydrostatic pressure ;
inattention to this has caused the failure of many such cisterns. The liquid
we have here to deal with, like all other fluids, acts on the bottom and sides
of the vessel or body that contains it, with a pressure directly in proportion to
the depth at which the fluid stands, without reference to either length or
breadth; that is to say, suppose a cistern, whose bottom is 12 inches square,
and its depth 10 feet, filled with water, every square inch in the bottom will
suffer a pressure equal to the height of a column of water whose base is one
inch square and 10 feet, or 120 inches, in height. The weight of such a column
will be 4J Ib. nearly, and this would be exerted on every square inch on the
bottom, or the whole pressure on the bottom would be 625 Ib., the weight of
10 cubic feet of water. There is a natural law that governs the pressure of
fluids, which shows us that they press equally in all directions, downward,
horizontally, and even upwards, the last arising from the general statical law,
that " action and reaction are equal, and in opposite directions. " It follows,
from these hydrostatical laws, that the lowermost portion of each side of our
supposed cistern will suffer a pressure from the water equal to that which acts
upon the bottom hence, taking the lowermost inch in the height of the sides
of this cistern, it will be pressed with a force of 52^ Ib. or thereby, or 4t>- Ib.
on the square inch, and each of the four sides will suffer the same pressure.
Suppose, now, that the cistern is elongated in one direction to any number of
feet, and again filled to the depth of 10 feet, the pressure on each square foot
of the bottom remains the same as before, and so in like manner does it remain
the same upon the sides ; for the pressure is not altered in any direction,
although the proportion of the cistern has been changed. Keeping this in
view, it will be seen that length and breadth produce no effect on the pressures

256 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

that a fluid exerts against the vessel or body that retains it ; and that, in
calculating the resistance to sustain such pressures, depth is the only element
requiring to be taken into account. It is also to be kept in view, that pressure
on the bottom or sides is directly as the depth ; thus, if our supposed cistern
were reduced to 5 feet in depth, the pressure on the bottom would only be one-
half, or 2^ Ib. on each square inch.

1075. The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is, that a cistern, in
the form of a pit or well, should be always avoided, unless it can be formed in
a natural bed of impervious clay. When such a substratum can be attained, a
pit may be adopted, but not otherwise. If such has been found, and the pit
dug out, it should be lined with brick, or with stone built in mortar, the bot-
tom being first lined with the same material. When the building approaches
to the surface, the wall can be gradually reduced in diameter to a small com-
pass, leaving only an opening of 2 to 3 feet sqiiare, which is covered in at
small expense ; and the saving in this last item is the only apparent advan-
tage that seems to attend the practice of pit cisterns. Deep cisterns are liable
to another inconvenience of their becoming recipients of spring or of drainage
water ; and it is sometimes more difficult to keep such water out than to keep
the proper liquid in ; for if springs and their origin lie at considerable heights,
their hydrostatic pressure may be so great as to render the prevention of access
to their products a process of great difficulty.

1076. A cistern of moderate depth, not exceeding 4 feet below the outfall of
the drains, may be constructed in any situation, whether in gravel or in clay,
and its length can be extended so as to afford any required capacity ; the
breadth being restricted to that for which materials for covering it can be
most easily obtained, which may be from 3 to 4 feet, or, if arched, it may be
6 feet. Whatever be the stratum in which such a cistern is to be formed (un-
less it be perfectly impervious clay), it should be puddled to the thickness of
at least 1 foot with the best clay that can be procured. For this purpose, the
earthy matters are to be dug out to a depth of 1^ foot lower than the intended
sole, and to a width of 4 feet more than that proposed for the cistern. Two or
three thin layers of the prepared clay are then to be compactly laid over the
whole breadth of the excavation, and beaten firmly together at all points,
making up the depth to 1 foot, and the surface of it brought to a uniform level.
Upon this the side walls are to be founded, and these may be of brick 9 inches
in thickness, or of flat bedded rubble stones 14 inches. The wall should be
built in successive courses of about 1 foot in height, the whole being bedded
in mortar ; and, as each course is completed, the puddle is to be carefully laid
and beaten in behind, in layers of 6 inches or thereby, the first layer being pro-
perly incorporated with the foundation puddle, and each succeeding layer with
the one immediately preceding it. To prevent the side-walls from being pushed
inward by the pressure of the puddle or of the bank, tie-walls of brick or of
stone should be formed at every 5 feet of the length of the cistern. These may
be 9 inches of brick, or 14 inches of stone, and they must have conduits formed
at the level of the sole, to allow the liquid to run towards the pump. The sole
should be laid all over with brick set on edge, or with strong pavement jointed,
the whole having a slight declivity towards one end, where a small well-hole
of 9 inches in depth is to be formed to receive the bottom of the pump. The
brick or pavement, as the case may be, is to be bedded on the puddle, and
grouted flush in the joints with mortar ; and when the walls and sole are built
up, they should then be pointed in every joint with Koman cement. The
covering may be effected with strong pavement, of length sufficient to rest on

LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 257

the side-walls, laid and jointed with mortar; or with rough found-stones, where
such can be procured ; and if neither can conveniently be found, a beam of sound
Memel fir may be laid along the middle of the cistern, resting on the tie-walls,
and, with this bearer, stones of half the length will be sufficient to form a cover.
A thin layer of clfiy may be laid over the stone covers, and upon that a coat
of gravel. To prevent accident, it is always desirable to construct the cistern
in a situation where it will be as little as possible exposed to the transit of
carts; and this may be always obtained at a small additional expense of covered
drain to convey the manure from the dunghills to the cistern. The best and
most secure plan, no doubt, though the most expensive, is to cover the cistern
with an arch of stone or brick.

1077. The pump for lifting the liquid from the cistern to the cart may be
either of wood or cast-iron, but the latter is preferable. A common sucking-
pump of 85 inches chamber is quite sufficient ; the chamber should be bored
out, and the pump-boxes, for durability, should be also of metal, with leathern
flap-valves. The height of the pump should be such as to deliver the liquid
freely into the funnel of the barrel or tank ; but if this height is found to raise
the pump-lever above the reach of a man's hand, it is only necessary to joint
a light connecting-rod to the lever, its lower end being furnished with a cross
handle, and by these means the pump-man will be able to work the pump in
the same manner as the lower end of the common pit-saw.

1078. Forcing and lifting pumps have been proposed, and even employed, for
the purpose we have here in view, though with questionable propriety ; and
here it may be proper to explain, that by the term force-pump is to be under-
stood a pump that raises water to any height above the point where the power
is applied, by the descent of a solid piston acting in the chamber of the pump,
sending the liquid into an ascending pipe, which springs from below the piston.

1079. The lifting-pump differs from this in having a valved piston through
which the liquid passes, as in the sucking- pump, on the descent of the piston;
and, on its ascent, the valve being now closed, the liquid is lifted and forced
into the ascending pipe, which, in this case, springs from above the piston, the
chamber being closed at top with a water-tight stuffing-box. From this brief
description, the simplicity, both in construction and in management, of the
sucking or common pump, as compared with the other two, will be obvious, the
cost being also in favour of the first.

1080. Construction of Tank for the Waste Urine from a Dunghill. Mr James
Porter, in his prize essay (" Eeporton the Saving and Application of the Liquid
Manure of a Farm" Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society,
January 1857), gives the following description of a cheaply-formed tank, erected
in a circular form, 10 feet diameter and 7 deep = 550 cubic feet, capable of con-
taining 3427 gallons, or about 18^ tons weight. " When the pit was exca-
vated, a puddle of clay was laid on its bottom about 12 inches deep, firmly
beaten down and causewayed over with pebble-stones. The sides were then
built round with a rough stone-and-lime wall 18 inches thick ; and as the build-
ing advanced, a puddle of clay the same thickness was carried up between it
and the back. The pump was then set in the side next the dung-pit, in a
hollow in the bottom left for receiving it. The tank had then a cloe cover-
ing of strong rough wood, as far below the adjoining ground as admitted of
6 inches depth of gravel being laid over it. As more sediment was expected
to collect in this than the other tanks, a trap-door was put in to allow its being
cleared out. The tank of itself is perfectly close, and as suitable for the pur-
pose as could be desired. The wooden covering is no doubt perishable, and will

258

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 256.

at times cost some expense in renewing it, but which will only happen at con-
siderable intervals, as wood lasts for a long time below ground. I have con-
structed several oblong tanks in this way, and always found them to answer
the purpose well ; with plenty of good clay well puddled in, it is quite prac-
ticable to make them perfectly water-tight, and as suitable for preserving urine
as cemented tanks constructed of pavement or the best ashlar work. . .
Where the ground is wet and spongy, it ought always to be deeply drained
around all dunghills and urine-tanks."

1081. Flemish Liquid-Manure Tanks. The tank is frequently constructed
underneath the stable and cattle-house, the liquid being led to it by open gutters
running along in front of the stalls. Part of it projects beyond the wall, as in
fig. 256 at a, and is provided with a well-hole 6, through which the liquid is

taken when required for use by means of a
pump, or long-handled ladle. The aper-
ture is closed at other times by a wooden or
stone cover c, as shown. Brick is used in
its construction, and the bottom and sides
are well cemented, to make the whole water-
proof. Sometimes the tank is divided into
various compartments, as in fig. 257, at
a b c d e and /, these being designed to
hold the liquid manure collected at different
periods.

1082. But not only are tanks provided at
the steadings : in many districts, as in the
flax-growing district of Courtray, they are
built at the roadside, at the edges of the
fields, in order to facilitate its application.
These are usually made to contain the
vidanges by which term is meant human
excretae which are collected from time to
time in the towns, and carted out to the
rural districts. In fig. 258 we give a trans-
verse and a longitudinal section of a road-
side tank. The manure is supplied to and taken out of the tank through the
man-hole door a, shown in the transverse section to the left : this is usually
kept closed by means of a stone or wooden cover. But a second aperture b,

Fig. 258.

8H LIQUID-MAS

Fig. 257.

FLEMISH LIQUID-HAND F

is provided at the end of the tank, which is always kept open, to allow of the
ingress of air and the egress of the foul emanations. The crown of the arch

PA VTXO-PiltK 'K* FLOORS.

259

rises a considerable height above the level of flic surrounding ground, and the
whole is covered with earth or turf, < <\ so that in process of time the structure
is grown over with grass, presenting the appearance of a verdant semicircular
mound with rounded ends.

1083. Horse-Pond.- The most convenient form of the horse-pond, at the stead-
ing, is open at the one side and fenced at the other, of considerable width, and
the clear water to come in at the upper end, and flow away at the lower.

1084. The pond should have a hard bottom to resist the action of the horses'
feet, and it should not exceed a depth beyond the horses' knees. When on clay,
small gravel is beaten into it, and upon this should be made a causewaying of
small round stones imbedded in sand and beaten down with a rammer. When
the bottom is gravel, it should be puddled with clay first beaten smooth with a
woode*n rammer, and mixed with a fourth part of its bulk of slaked lime, to pre-
vent injury from worms. Alter the mass Iris soured for a time, let large balls be
formed of it, and forcibly thrown upon the prepared bottom of the pond, and
beaten down with a rammer until a coating- of 6 or 7 inches or more in thick-
ness is formed. The gravel and causewaying are placed above the clay. The
water should not be let on until the paving and clay have consolidated a
little, and it should be brought on and oft' the pond without a fall. At such
a pond a number of horses can drink at once, and pass one another in washing
their feet.

1085. SECTION NINTH Fittings (if the Farwhons<>, Cottage, caul Steading.

1086. Paving-Bricks Floors Pcake's Te.rro-Melullic, Paving -Bricks. In fig.
259 we give a diagram of oblong, in fig. 200 diamond or lozenge-shaped, and
in fig. 261 square-
shaped bricks of this

material. The price
of fig. 259, 9 inches
by 4tj, blue or red for
intersection, 4, 10s.
per 1000, or about 2s.
lOj-d. per square yard.
The price per 1000 of
those in fig. 260, 5
inches by 5, and 1 inch
thick, red or blue, with
cut ones to divide, is

3, 13s. 6d., or 4s. 6d. per square yard. The
price per 1000 of those in fig. 261, 6 inches square,
4, 5s., or 2s. lO^d. per square yard. The ad-
dress of the manufacturer is, Thomas Peake, Tun-
stile, Staffordshire Potteries..

1087. Hexagonal Paving-Tiles Hollow Bricks.
Hexagonal, or six-sided tiles, would bind well in
with one another. The best mode of making floors
with the top covering of tiles would be thus :
Well beat the bottom of the foundation ; place a
layer of stones on this, of sufficient size to pass
through a ring 1^ inches diameter; pour over
this a mixture of coal-tar and clean sharp sand

three parts of the latter to one of the former ; pi-ess this closely down

260

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 262.

HEXAOONiL FAVINO-TILBS.

Fig. 263.

Fig. 264.

when partly consolidated, throw on another layer of stones, and above this
another of the tar and sand. When the upper is nearly consolidated, but
not hardened, place the flat tiles, beginning at one end, and advancing in such
a manner as to leave no footsteps on the soft material. Instead of tar and sand,
consistent clay, in a partly fluid state, may be used,
and allowed to consolidate before the tiles are laid on.
The tiles should have projecting knobs or snugs on
their under side, which would, when pressed into the
soft materials beneath, keep them in their places. If,
however, the tiles were hexagonal, there would be
sufficient bond to keep them in their places. Fig. 262
represents the position of the hexagonal tiles : the
round dots represent the position of the projecting
knobs or snugs on the under side ; a a the tiles, b b
the line of wall; as the tiles, from their shape, will
leave in some places triangular spaces, as c c, these
may be filled up with cement or asphalt, or pieces of
tile might be made of the shape : this will be the same
size at all places, the angles being invariably equal.
Fig. 263 represents the position of square tiles laid angularly, having pro-
jections or tongues on one side, with corresponding grooves to fit into them ;
a a the tiles, b b the tongues and grooves. Hollow bricks
are admirably adapted for ground floors. Fig. 264 shows
Mr Kawlinson's improved form of hollow
brick. The following is Mr Roberta's plan
of forming hard, cheap, and durable floors :
A foundation or substratum should be pre-
pared about 6 inches thick, with coarse
gravel, or brickbats and lime-core, well
visa, beaten to a level surface. In damp situa-
tions, tar may be added to the concrete on
which the ash-floor is to be laid, thus prepared : Take good washed sand, free
from all earth and stones, together with the ashes of lime fresh from the kiln, in
the proportion of two-thirds of sand and one-third of lime-ashes (where obtain-
able, the substitution of one-third of smiths' ashes or pounded coke for one-
half of the sand increases the durability and hardness of the floor) ; mix the sand
and lime-ashes well together, and let them remain in a body for a fortnight, in
order that the lime may be thoroughly slaked ; then temper the mortar, and form
the floor with it 3 inches thick, well floated, and so worked that it be not trodden
till it has lain for three days, or according to the dampness of the weather,
when it should be well rammed for several successive days, until it becomes
hard taking care to keep the surface level ; then use a little water, and smooth
it with a trowel ; after this keep the floor free of dirt, and when perfectly dry it
may be rubbed over twice with linseed-oil, which gives the appearance of stone in-
stead of sand. The price paid for such floors is about 6d.per yard for labour, and 8d.
for material. In cases where cottages are built on the fireproof principle adopted
by Mr Roberts, or on the patent system of Mr Barrett, the floors in the upper
rooms, if any, may be made in the same economical way as those on the ground.
1088. Asphalt Floor. As a cheap and excellent floor, we would recommend
asphaltum to be used. It has been adopted in similar cases with marked suc-
cess, and we are not aware of any valid objection against its use. It is prefer-
able, in every point of view, to stone or porous brick. An asphalt can be made
by mixing boiled coal-tar with powdered chalk or bricks. Dr lire, a high

SQUARE PAV1UCJ-TILES

ROOF- TILES.

261

authority, says it is equal to the natural kind. The mode of laying asphalt
floors is simple. Place a layer of .small gravel-stones, about 6i inches deep, in
a dry and well-beaten foundation ; pour the asphaltum (which must previously
be melted in a caldron), when boiling, over this to any convenient thickness;
spread it smoothly and press it down; sift some very small powdered stones
over the surface, press them down with a flat wooden trowel, and, when
hardened, the operation is finished. The best material after wooden boarding,
which we look upon as the " standard " material for all floors of living-rooms
that can be used for the laying of ground-floors is hard glazed earthenware tiles
or slabs ; these would imbibe no moisture, be easily kept clean, and may be
looked xipon as nearly indestructible.

1089. Roof -Tiles. In fig. 2G5 we give a diagram of Peake's plain, and in
fig. 266 a diagram of ornamental, tiles. Size of fig. 265, 10f inches by 7 ;
price per 1000, 3, 5s. about 1, 12s. 6d. per square of 8-inch gauge.
Size of fig. 266, 10J inches by 7 ; price per 1000, 3, 17s. 6d. about
<l, 13s. 9d. per square. In fig. 267 we give a diagram of Peake's ridge-tiles ;

Fig. 205.

Fig. 266.

Fig. 267

a to cover the joints of the flat tiles I price of , 9d. per pair ; price of , 10
per 1000. In fig. 268 we give a diagram of Peake's quoined valley, and in
fig. 269 of hip-tiles. Price of fig, 268, 3|d. each; of fig. 269, 4|d. each. In
fig. 270 we give a diagram of ridge-tiles, and in fig. 271 grooved ridge-tiles, in
the groove a of which the ornamental tiles shown in fig. 272 are fitted.

Fig. 2C8.

Fig. 209.

Fl>. 270.

Fig. 271.

vwv

252

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1090. Corrugated Roof-Tile. In fig. 273 we give a drawing of this tile,
manufactured by Messrs Norton & Borrie, and in fig. 274 a hollow roof-tile by
the same firm.

Fig. 274.

CORRUOATED TII.K.

HOLLOW P.OOF-TILI

1091. Beadoris Eave or Gutter-Tile. In fig-. 275 we illustrate this tile in three
forms, a c b. It is simply a tile with its end turned up at right angles. Each
tile is cemented to the next adjoining, forming a water-tight joint.

Fig. 275.

BEADON'S GUTTER-TILES

1092. Asphalted Felt Roof -Cover ing. A species of covering for boarded roofs,
whether of iron or timber trusses, much used, especially for temporary agricul-
tural erections, is the " asphalted felt " manufactured by Messrs M'Neil & Co.,
Bunhill Row, London. It is also well adapted for placing underneath rafters,
as, from its non-conducting powers, it tends to exclude the heat of the sun and
the frost of winter. It is also used for lining damp walls, &c. The materials
of which it is composed are strong and durable fibres, with a mixture of hair,
thoroughly saturated with the best bitumen or asphalt. It unrolls as easily
as any other ordinary cloth, and is manufactured in any given lengths, to suit
the buildings proposed to be covered with it. The width namely, 32 inches
is the same for any length. The manufacturers, whose address we have
given, present purchasers, or parties applying, with a book so full of practical
instructions as to its use, and with diagrams showing every species of roof-
construction, &c., for which it is adapted, that we deem it unnecessary to go
further into the matter, save than by giving comparative estimates, furnished
by the manufacturers, of the cost of roofs on which the material and the ordi-
nary slate and timber arc used :

BLUE AND (J.KKY SLATES.

SLATE COVERING Foil A HOOF 111 FEKT I.ONd AND 2 1 FEET WIDE, ADAPTED
FOR A .SUKJ), HTC.

Indies,

3 tie-bearers, '24 feet 6 inches long, . . 4 by
(j principals, 1(! ,, 6 ., ., . . 4 by 5

3 kingposts, 11 ,, 6 . .. . . 4 by 4

tj struts, 8

8 purlins, 10 6

fiO rafters, 17 ,., (5

Ivhlge-piece, 40 .,

Battening for slates, .......

15 squares of slating, with metal nails, c., at 28s., .

15 1-2

'2100
21

SAMi: HOOF, WITH ASPHALT FELT.

Indies.

6 principals, each 15 feet long, . . 3 by 5 )
3 ties, 18

24 purlins, 10 ,,

Ridge-piece, 40 . . 6 " by H ) => )

1160 square feet of J-iuch or |-ineh boarding, including fixing, 750
The necessary felt, including everything, . . . . 6 10

21 2 '0

1093. The price per square foot of the felt is Id., the width of the pieces
being invariably 32 inches. The length as desired.

1094. Blue and Grey tilates for llnufg. We no\v propose to add a few
remarks on the mode of laying on blue and grey slates as a covering- for
roofs. The blue or ordinary slates are laid either upon close boarding or
upon battens, the width of which varies from 2 to 3 inches. The use of
battens is more general than close boarding, as it is cheaper. Before lay-
ing the slates, the sides and the under edge are trimmed. The under
surface of a slate is called the bed, the tipper the bade, its upper edge the
head, and its lower edge the tail. By the term inary'm is meant that part
of the slate which, on the finished roof, is exposed to view the width of
this being termed the gauge. The lap of a slate is the distance which its
lower edge overlaps, when laid in its place, the course of slate immediately
beneath ; this lap should never exceed 3, nor be less than 2, inches. When
battens are used, the distance between them will of course be regulated by the
sizes of the slates. The holes through which the nails are driven to secure the
slates to the batten, are punched as near the head as possible the holes being
equidistant from the lower edge or tail. The duchess slate, the size of which
is 24 inches by 12, will give a gauge, or exposed surface of 8 inches, the
lap being 2 inches; with a lap of 3 inches, the gauge will be only 6 inches.
Each slate should be fastened with two nails, these being best of copper ; zinc
or iron nails may be used ; if of iron, to prevent them rusting they may be
put in boiled oil, or steeped in a hot solution of coal-tar. Slating is well exe-
cuted when the tails lie very close to the backs of the course below. In slated
roofs, the hips and ridges are generally finished with lead. A cheap method
of finishing is sometimes executed, in which fillets of slate are made to cover
the ridge-boards and hips the whole being well bedded in putty, and nailed
down with a nail at each end. Ornamental ridge-tiles and slates are now much
used. A cheap plan of covering roofs with slates has been recently introduced,
which requires no battens. To the ripper surface of the rafters a fillet of wood
is nailed, this being about 1 inch thick, -^ inch broad at the bottom, where it
is nailed on to the rafter, and 1 inch broad at the upper surface ; the taper is thus

264 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the wrong way. The edges of the slates are brought up to the fillets, and the
joint well made with putty. A neat joint may be made by nailing a roll over
the two slates this roll being nailed to the central fillet. Slates for the roofs
of steadings are sometimes set with battens after the manner of tiles, the under
surfaces being made good witli mortar worked into curves.

1095. Grey Slates require the roof to be lathed in the same manner as tile,
but, not being of a uniform size like tiles, they are assorted to sizes in the
quarry. The larger and heavier slates are put next the eaves, and gradually
diminish in size to the ridge. The course at the eaves is laid double, slate
above slate. Every slate is hung upon the lath by a wooden pin being passed
through a hole at the upper end, arid, on being laid on, the slates are made to
overlap at least one-third. Grey slates should either be bedded and shouldered
in plaster-lime, or laid on moss, the latter making the warmer roof.

1096. The flanks are made of slate, but the ridge is covered with droved
angular ridge-stones of freestone. As this species of roofing is not adapted to
pavilion roofs, the peands should be covered with lead ; but the safest form of
roof with grey slates is with upright gables.

1097. Flat tiles are simply fastened to the battens by pegs passing through
holes in the upper part. In the ordinary-shaped tile, or pantile, projecting
parts are provided at the back of each tile, by which it is attached t# the lath.
In fig. 274, we have illustrated a form of hollow roofing tile.

1098. Earthenware Staircase. In fig.
276 we give a view of Norton & Borrie's
fireproof staircase.

1099. Heating of Apartments, Grates, $c.
Figs. 277 and 279 are a section and
plan showing method of heating upper
rooms from the kitchen fire. The hot-air
chamber a is formed of cast-iron, of the
same width as the fire, and extending from
the bottom of the grate to a few inches
over the top of it. The cold air is brought

in by the flue b, formed in the thickness of the wall, and after circulat-
ing through the cells into which the chamber is divided, and being thereby
warmed, it is conveyed to the floor above by the flue c, and thrown into
the room at an opening in the skirting, fitted with a valve, c? is a ventilator in
connection with a ventilating flue, shown by the dotted lines above : it is formed
as close as possible to the kitchen flue </, the heat of which, being by this means
communicated to the ventilating flue, produces an upward current, and thus
promotes ventilation. By connecting the hot-air flue with the ventilating flue,
as shown at/, the hot air, when not required, as in summer, may be allowed to
escape, and in this way it will also assist ventilation. Thus might an iron
kiln floor, placed over the engine-boiler in the steading, form a convenient
chamber for drying, by means of heated air, grain, sacks, and barn-cloths.

1100. When vent-linings are used, the ventilating and smoke flues may be
formed in one piece, as shown in fig. 278, the large opening being the smoke-
flue, and the small one the ventilating flue. In those parts of the country
where fireclay is expensive from the long carriage, vent-linings of well-burnt
common clay may be used : the first 3 or 4 feet should be of fireclay.

1101. With a view to prevent smoke, a small flue is formed of 2-inch drain-
tiles, built into the wall as at e, figs. 277 and 279 (it may also be brought in
under the floor of houses already built), extending from the outside of wall to

SECTION OF EARTHENWARE BLOCKS FOR 8

VENTILATION AXD G11A.TES.

265

the inside of jamb, covered at both ends by a grating, thus providing a supply
of air for the fire, and thereby preventing draughts. The smoke-flue should be
carefully contracted over the lintel, as shown by the dotted lines in the left-
hand diagram in fig. 280. In many instances it has been found an effectual
preventive of smoke to contract the flue, as shown by the inner dotted lines h,
fig. 277, widening gradxially to the full size above.

1102. Pierce 's Fire-Lump Stove-Grates. In fig. 280 we illustrate a form of
ventilating stove which enjoys a high reputation for efficiency : a, a a is the
fresh-air channel, b warm-air chamber, c c valves for admitting warm air to
interior of apartment; d is the plan. In fig. 281 we give Pierce's Fresh-air
Cottager's Grate for warming two rooms with one fire.

1103. " This grate is made of the best fireclay, having the back part hollow
to form an air-chamber for the admission of fresh air introduced from the out-
side by means of earthen pipes ; this fresh air passing through the back of the
grate becomes warmed, and will thus supply a bedroom over the living-room

266

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

PLAN, ELEVAT10

Fi. 281.

(or a room adjoining) with a large quantity of pure, warm air, without any addi-
tional fire. The great economy of this grate consists
in the peculiar construction of the back (which is
made out of the solid mass), supplying sufficient air
to warm another room, in addition to the radiant heat
produced by the fire. It also has the additional ad-
vantage of a table bar at the bottom, and a large
trivet at the top."

1104. Fireclay Hearth. In fig. 282 we give
plan of fireclay hearth and fender : a is the
hearth, b b the hollow tiles lining walls, c c the

PBHSPEOTIVE VIEW OF PIERCE B COT-
TAOE FIEE-I.DMP ORATE.

jambs. Fig. 283 is a section of the hearth.

Fig. 282.

Fig. 283.

PLAJI OP F1RECLAT BEARIH

ON Of FIRECLAY HEARTH.

1105. Ventilating Chimney- Tubes. These contrivances, rebently intro-
duced, are admirably adapted to promote the ventilation of apartments.
The heat of the chimney is communicated to the air in the flue near it ;
and if the air in the room is admitted to this smaller flue, the upward cur-
rent created will carry off the vitiated air from the apartment that is, if the
communications required are made in a proper place and way. Thus, in
fig. 284, if a a is a chimney-flue, and b b a smaller one alongside of it, divided
by a partition of brick or stone, the heat of the smoke in the chimney a a will
be communicated through the partition to the air in b b, and an upward current
therein will be produced. Now, suppose a a, fig. 285, to be the cornice at the

YENT1LATLOX AX I) GRATES.

207

ceiling- of a room, b b the chimney-breast, the dotted lines representing the
course of the chimney-flue and that of the ventilator, the latter beginning some-
where about rf, a short distance beneath the cornice a a. Now, if an aperture

is made at e, communicating with the interior of the ventilating fine, the up-

ward current therein will withdraw the vitiateil air from the room through the

aperture e, which may be covered with an ornamental grating, as in fig. 286.

This is a very simple and efficacious method of Fi , r ., so

withdrawing vitiated air from apartments ; it is

constantly in action, and, from having no mov-

able parts about it, it is never likely to be dis-

used through getting out of repair. There are

numerous ways of carrying out this principle.

In figs. 287, 288, we give a "registered"' form

which has been much introduced recently : the

large flue is the chimney, the small one the ven-

tilator. With this construction the ventilating

flue can be placed nearest the room, or outside

of the chimney-breast, as in fig. 288, thus enabling the aperture for admitting

the vitiated air to be made in the centre of the chimney-breast, which would

look better than if placed

at one side, as at <?, fig.

285. From the square

outline of this frame of

double tube, the flues from

a good number of apart-

ments may be joined and

run up in one central

Stack. " In a dwelling VENTILATING CHIMSBY-

tliree storeys high, for in-

stance, consisting of six rooms, or two dwellings of three rooms each, the
whole of the six chimney-tubes and ventilating flues may be carried up in
one tubular stalk : the tubes, as they proceed upwards, would be firmly
tied together, and secured by the floors ; and at the top, outside the build-
ing, might be held together by an iron hoop concealed by an ornamental
moulding. In the two lower storeys, the egress openings Avould not be in
the centres of their respective chimney-breasts ; but as they would require a
valve, or sliding plate, with a frame of iron or brass, another and similar frame
might be fixed at an equal distance on the other side of the centre line. The

268

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

hollow space that would be left under the elbows should be filled in with brick-
work, and the front and sides of the whole mass plastered, which completes the
chimney-breast all the way up." These tubes, which are much to be recom-
mended, may be had of the registree, Mr William Walker, engineer, Lower

King Street, Manchester. By the use of these
double tubes, much brickwork in the chimney-
breasts is saved ; and where this is of importance,
as in brick buildings, the projection being less, a
little extra space is added to the room. Where
single chimney-flues are run up separately, double
tubes of an elliptical form, as in fig. 289, might be
used. The chimney-flue would thus be completely
circular ; the shape of the ventilating flue would
be slightly irregular, but in nowise calculated to
retard the ascent of the vitiated air : a is the chimney, It the ventilating shaft.
In fig. 290 we give a perspective view of Doulton's Ventilating Chiumey-
Tube in the circular form, and in fig. 291 various sections. In fig. 290, a is

SECTIONAL PLAN OF CHIMNI
VENTILATINO TUBE.

Fig. 290.

Fig. 291.

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF DOULTON'8
LATINO OHIMNET-TUBB.

the smoke-tube, b the ventilating pipe ; the air from the room to be ventilated,
passing into it by the aperture c.

1106. Looker's Tubular Ventilator. This contrivance, illustrated in fig. 292,

Fig. 292.

VESJTILATOP..

consists of a tubular piece of pottery, of any size or shape, fixed in the wall of a
building in which, in the inside, another piece with closed end is made to slide
the latter having its periphery perforated with small holes. In proportion as
the eliding piece is withdrawn, the air is admitted through the tube to the apart-

RAIN-WATER CISTERN.

269

merit with which it is connected ; a is the tubular ventilator in perspective, and
b is the same in section iu connection with the wall.

1107. Stench-Trap Scullery Sink and Trap. In h'g. 293 we illustrate a
form made entirely of clay. It is formed in two pieces, the sink and upper part
of trap being in one piece, the lower part of trap and pipe to drain forming the
other. It requires no plumber-work whatever, is jointed with Roman or Port-
land cement, and fitted up by the mason. It is salt-glazed, and is thus easily
kept clean. It may also be used as a washing-tub. It is made by Mr T. Grieve,
Prestonpans, near Edinburgh.

1108. Fig. 294 is a section of a syphon- trap, of the same diameter as the
drain-tubes, with an opening fer cleansing when required. This opening will
be covered with a slate or Hat stone bedded in cement. All these pipes should
be salt-glazed, which is greatly superior to the common glaze.

Fig. -294.

1109. Fig. 295 shows form of syphon-trap adapted for sinks and sculleries;
and in fig. 296 a trap or cesspool for house-yards.

295.

1110. Rain-water Cistern. Rain-water for domestic purposes is collected in
cisterns. The form of a rain-water cistern, represented by fig. 297, we have
found useful for allowing the undisturbed deposition of impurities, and at the
same time the quick flowing off of the purer water without disturbing the de-
position. Let a b c b be a cistern of stone or wood, placed at a convenient spot of
the steading or farmhouse, for the reception of rain-water. We have found that
such a cistern, of the capacity of 12 cubic feet, holds a sufficient quantity of

270

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

rain-water for the domestic purposes of an ordinary family. A cistern of 2 feet
square at the base, and 3 feet in height, will just contain that quantity ; but
as the size of an ordinary wash-tub is 2 feet in diameter, the space between
d and d must be made 2 feet 6 inches at least, and the height of the cistern J
would be 2 feet ; but if more water is required than 12 cubic feet, then the

height should be 3 feet, which gives a ca-
pacity to the cistern of 18 cubic feet. Sup-
pose the cistern represented in the figure to
contain 18 cubic feet, then the area of a will
be 2Jr feet square, and b 3 feet in height,
supported on two upright stones d d of the
breadth of the cistern, and 2 feet high. The
cistern may either be made of a block of
freestone hewn out to the dimensions, or ot
flags, of which the sides are let into grooves
in the bottom, and into each other, and im-
bedded in whitelead, and fastened together
with iron clamps, having a movable stone
cover c. Or it may be formed of a box of
wood, securely fastened at the corners to be
water-tight, with a cover of wood, and rest-
ing on the stone supports d d. Stone, being
more durable, is of course preferable to wood
for a cistern that stands out in the open air.
1111. A hollow copper cylinder g is fast-
ened perpendicularly into the bottom a, hav-
ing its lower end projecting 1 inch below,
and its upper 3 inches above, the respective
surfaces of the bottom. The upper end of
the copper cylinder is formed to receive a
ground truncated cone of copper h, called a
plug or stopper, which is moved up and

down with a lever fc, by means of the copper rod i. The plug h must
be made water-tight with grease, the rod of which passes through a hole
in the cover, to be connected with the lever k, whose support or fulcrum
is fixed on the cover. These parts are all made of copper, to withstand
rusting from the water, with the exception of the lever, which may be of iron
painted. The rain-water is supplied to the cistern by the pipe e, which
descends from the rain-water conductor, and is let through a hole in the cover.
The water is represented standing as high as I ; but in case it should rise to
overflow, it can pass off by the lead waste-pipe /, which is secured and movable
at pleasure in a ground washer n, whose upper end is made flush with the upper
surface of the bottom a. After the water has entered the cistern, it gets leave
to settle its sediment, which it may do to the height of the upper end of g.
The sediment is represented by m, and when it accumulates to A, the cover c
should be taken off, and the waste-pipe/removed, and the cistern cleaned com-
pletely out by the washer n. The waste water runs away through the air-trap o,
and along the drain p. It is more convenient to have two small than one large
cistern, as, while the water is rising in the one, that in the other gets leave to
settle. The cost of such a cistern, with droved stones, and to contain 18 cubic
feet, with the proper mountings, may be about 5. We think it right to say, in
commendation of this form of water-cistern, that in no case have we known the

WAST1--BARTXS.

water about the phig to bo frozen, in consequence, porbaps, of tlie non-conduct-
ing power of the mud in the bottom of (be cistern. The rod z" has sometimes
become fast to tho ice on tin; top of the \vater at /, but a little boiling water
poured down by the side of tlie rod through tlie bole in the cover, by means of
a funnel, soon freed it from restraint.

1112. Carbon Filter. In fig-. 298 we give an elevation of a very simple and
efficient form of filtering- medium. It is composed of a

ball of moulded carbon, or porous charcoal, manufac-
tured after a process recently patented. (Depot, (J2
Fleet Street, London.)

1113. Wash-Basins and Lavatories.- As a cognate
branch of tin's department of our subject, we may here
notice those contrivances now adopted in the most im-
proved constructions, for the convenience of hand-
washing, &c., in bedrooms and sculleries. Those in-
troduced by llidgway, and termed the " pottery foun-
tain hand-basins," are very cheap, and even elegant
in design. The sectional sketch in fig. 299, will con-
vey an idea of this " convenience : " a is the pipe
leading from the rain-water cistern ; l> I the basin,
supplied with a plug which fits into the top of the

pipe ate, thus retaining the water at pleasure: tins .-.- -M^ER

plug should be attached by a chain to the side of the

basin, to prevent its being lost ; d d the pipe leading to the drain by the exit e,
and it should be trapped at the junction. This form is adapted to cases
where the supply of water can be obtained from a cistern above the level of
the basin. In cases where there is no provision of this nature, another form is
required; at least a subsidiary contrivance has to be adopted to supply the de-
fect, winch is attained by having a small pottery cistern hung at a short dis-
tance above the basin, where it is filled with water when required ; and the
water is withdrawn by means of a small stop-crane. In fig. 300 we give
perspective views of the forms just noted.

272 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1114. In fig. 301 we give a sketch of the apparatus adopted in the form of
a lavatory for bedrooms, introduced by Mr Jennings, of Great Charlotte Street,
Blackfriars Road, London, in which "hot" and "cold" water and "waste-
pipe" cocks are acted on by handles or knobs.

Fig. 301.

Fig. 302.

NOS'S LAVATORY.

CLOSET 30IL-

1115. Water- Closets. If the water-closet is placed within the house a
matter which we leave to the dictation of personal opinion, although ours is
decidedly in favour of exterior arrangements, or at least, if they are interior,
that they must be well ventilated the soil-pan should at once communicate
with the drain leading to the manure-tank. In fig. 302 a section is given of a
soil-pan combining a water-trap, up which the foul air cannot ascend, as may
be seen in the figure. The whole is made of earthenware, and the cost varies
from 4s. to 7s. 6d. The pottery water-closet, shown in perspective in fig. 303,
manufactured by John Eidgway & Co., Cauldon Place, Staffordshire Potteries,
may also be used. They are neat, and made of the hard vitreous pottery, which
is an admirable non-absorbent material.

Fig. 303.

Fig. 304.

KlDGtWAY 8 POTTEBY WATEa-

CLOSET-PAN TKAP.

1116. Fig. 304 illustrates a very simple and cheap form of closet-pan. Fig.
305 represents a form of water-closet pan and trap formed in one piece, wholly
of earthenware, so as to require no woodwork for its support. The top is spread
out about four or five inches, so as to form a self-sustaining seat. The entrance
of the pipe for carrying off the effluvia to a ventilating tube or chimney is shown
at a. This form, when properly constructed, and with an ordinary service-pipe

MILK COOLER

273

for water constantly on, and under pressure, is found to answer completely
In fig. 306 we give a section
of Jennings's water-closet pan, in
which an india-rubber tube , is
employed to communicate with the
drain by raising the handle b ; the
lever c c nips the tube , and
closes it perfectly water-tight, as
shown in fig. 307. This is per-
haps the best and most efficient
form of water-closet yet intro-
duced. It is peciiliarly free from
the liability to get out of order,
which characterises those appar-
atus with cranks, levers, &c.

SECTIOS OF

1117. SECTION TENTH Fittings of the Farm- steading,
is represented by fig. 308, made of
stone sandstone, slate, or marble
the last being the best material, be-
ing cool, cleanly, and handsome. An
orifice is made in the bottom, at the
near side, through which the rnilk
runs out of the cooler, as also the
water which has been used to wash
it clean. The dimensions may be
made at pleasure, 3 feet long and 2
broad being a good size ; but the
depth should not exceed 4 inches, to
contain from 2 to 3 inches of milk.
When made of wood lined with zinc,
block-tin, tin, or lead, the form is the
same as this. The sandstone and
marble ones, as a, fig. 308, are each
hewn out of single blocks and pol-
ished, and placed upon upright slabs;

A fixed milk-cooler

ILK-COOLER O

274

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 309.

and the wooden ones, which support the metallic lining, are framed along the
walls of the milk-house, and subdivided into separate coolers. It is only in
large dairies that these fixed coolers are used.

1118. Drainage Pavement-Bricks. In fig. 309 we give views of Forbes's patent

drainage bricks for the
floor of stables, byres,
&c., manufactured by H.
Clayton, Aslar Works,
Dorset Square, London.
In fig. 309 a and a are
gutter bricks, b a drain
brick, and c a cover for
gutter. In fig. 310 we
give a diagram showing
the floor of flushed pave-
ment, with the gutter
partly uncovered, to show
"' its connection with the

PERSPECTIVE VJ

DRAINAGE PAVEMENT-B

pavement.

Fig. 310.

DRAINAGE PiVEMENT-BRIOZS IN PERSPECTIVE, WITH GUTTER PARTLY DNOOVSHED TO SHOW

1119. Water-Troughs for Courts. The supply of water to cattle-courts is of
paramount consideration. The troughs may be supplied with water either
directly from pump-wells, or by pipes from a fountain at a little distance, the
former being the most common plan. As a pump cannot conveniently be placed
at each trough, we have found a plan of supplying any number of troughs from
one pump, to answer well, provided the surface of the ground will allow the
troughs being placed nearly on the same level.

1120. Were the trough which receives the water placed a few inches below
the top of the one supplying it, and a lead pipe to come from the bottom of
the supply trough over the top of the edge of the receiving one, the water
might entirely be emptied, by drinking, without affecting the quantity in any
of the others. Let a, fig. 311, be the supply trough immediately beside the
pump ; let b be the trough in any other court to be supplied with water from
a, and let it be 3 inches below the level of a. Let a lead pipe d, be fastened
to the bottom of a, the orifice looking upwards, and protected by the hemi-

WATER -TROUGHS.

275

spherical drainer c. Let the lead pipe <7, be passed under ground to the
trough 5, and emerge from the ground by the side of and over the top of b at

e. When a is filling with water from the pump, the moment the water rises in
a to the level of the end of the pipe at <?, it will commence to flow into b, and
will continue to do so until b is filled, if the pumping be continued. The
water in a, below the level of the end of the pipe at e, may be used in a with-
out affecting i, and the water in b may be entirely used without affecting a.

1121. Water-troughs may be made of various materials : a is hewn out of a
solid block of freestone, which makes the closest, most durable, and best trough.

1122. If of flag-stones, as b, the sides are sunk into the edges of the bottom
in grooves luted with whitelead, and held together with iron clamps li, at the
corners. This makes a good trough, but is apt to leak at the joints.

1123. Trough / is made of wood dovetailed at the corners, which are held
together by clamps of iron i. When made of good timber, and painted, they
last many years.

1124. Water-troughs are sometimes supplied from a large cistern, somewhat
elevated above their level, and filled from a well with a common or force pump.
In this case a cock, or ball-and-cock, is recpaired at each trough : if a cock, the
supply must depend on the cock being turned in due time ; and if a ball-and-
cock, the supply depends on the cistern always having water in it ; but this
method is expensive, and liable to go out of order.

1125. In an abundant supply of water from natural springs, accessible with-
out the means of a pump, lead pipes may be made to emit a constant stream of
water into each trough, and the surplus conveyed away in drains to the horse-
pond, or to any other useful purpose.

1126. Still another mode may be adopted where the supply of water is
plentiful, and it flows constantly into a supply-cistern. Let the supply-cistern
t)e 2 feet in length, 1 foot wide, and 18 inches in depth, provided with a ball-
and-cock, and let a pipe proceed from its bottom to a trough of dimensions fit
for the use of cattle, into which let the pipe enter by the end or side a little
way, say 3 inches, below the mouth of the trough. Let a pipe proceed from
this trough, as from the lower bend of the pipe e, at the bottom of the trough
b, fig. 311, into the end of another trough, and so on, from trough to trough,
into the ends of as many succeeding troughs, on the same level, as are re-
quired, and the water will rise in each as high as the mouth of the pipe, and,
when withdrawn by drinking from any one trough, the ball-and-cock will re-
plenish it direct from the supply-cistern ; but the objection to the ball-and-
cock applies as strongly in this as in the other case, although economy of pipe
attends this method.

1127. Stone Trough for a Byre. To keep the stone troughs of byres always
sweet and clean, they should be washed out and scrubbed with a heather rinse
once a-day ; and, that the water may be conveniently got rid of, the troughs
should be formed as in fig. 312, with the bottom sloping both along it from b
to d, and across it from d to e, where is a metallic sucker and stopper, to allow

276 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the water to escape to the drain underneath ; and this drain, of course, com-

municates with the other drains. A
convenient form and size of trough
is 27 inches in length, 16 in width,
and 8 in depth at a, increasing to
9 at c, and to 10 inches at e, the lowest
point.

1128. A hydraulic apparatus is some-
times provided to such byres, for the
supply and removal of cold water from
the troughs, by means of the action of

a lever operating at each trough ; and as long as the apparatus works well, its

convenience is certainly great, but it is apt to get out of proper action, when its

presence becomes a continual source of annoyance.

1129. The floors of work-horse stable, riding-stable, cow-byres, calves'-house,
and hay-house should be paved with small stones embedded in sand and beaten
down firm with a rammer. Eound stones may be gathered from' the land or
sea -shore, and square-dressed ones from a quarry. The floors of straw-barn,
outhouses, and turnip-stores may be of earth rammed hard. Pig-sties should
have a flooring of flag pavement, to prevent the propensity of pigs to grub up
small stones. The floors of corn-barns are often laid of flag pavement or as-
phalt, but we would always prefer them of wood.

1130. SECTION ELEVENTH Pise Walls. Brick earths are well adapted for
pise ; but, owing to the capacity for retaining moisture, they are apt to crack, un-
less carefully shielded from the wet during the process of drying the walls. All
kinds of earth, however, may be used, with the exception of light poor lands
and strong clays ; these, however, will do if judiciously mixed with other bet-
ter-fitted soil. To show how this mixing may be most successfully carried out,
a few sentences may be useful : the principle of mixing is simply to blend a
light earth with a strong, a clayey with a sandy or gravelly kind. Where the
best kind of soil that is, gravelly cannot be obtained, small round pebbles, &c.,
may be mixed with it. All animal or vegetable substances that are apt soon
to decay must be carefully kept out of the soil to be used. The following in-
dications, which may be observed in order to judge of the fitness of the soil for
pise in any district, may be useful. In digging, if the spade brings up large
lumps at a time, the soil is well adapted for the work ; this holds also where
the soil lies on arable land in large clods, and binds after a heavy shower and
a hot sun. Where vermin holes are smooth in the inside and firm, or where
the small lumps generally found in plenty in all fields are difficult to be
crumbled between the fingers, the soil is good. Soil of good quality is gene-
rally found at the bottom of slopes that are in cultivation, and on the banks of
rivers. In preparing the earth for building, the first operation is breaking the
clods or lumps, and thereafter placing the soil in a conical heap ; this form
facilitates the removal of large, flat, and circular stones, which, falling to the
bottom, are easily removed from the mass by means of a rake. The teeth of
the rake should be placed at intervals of 1 inch or thereabouts, so that only
stones exceeding this in size may be withdrawn ; or what would be better and
quicker, a bricklayer's sieve or " screen " might be used, having the meshes
about an inch square. Where two varieties of soil are to be mixed, the opera-
tion should be done at this stage , Enough of soil should only be prepared to
last a day's working. Care must be taken to prevent rain saturating the earth

TISE WALLS.

with water, as in this state it will form mere mud in the mould. It is neces-
sary to note that the soil is in best condition for working when neither too dry
nor too wet. It is very evident that less time will be lost in slightly wetting
the soil when too dry, than in waiting for it to dry should it get saturated with
rain by a careless exposure.

1131. The next point we have to explain is the construction of the " mould."
This should be made of clean thin planks of pine, or other light wood, well
seasoned, to lessen the chances of their warping. Their thickness should be
about 1 inch, well planed on both sides. The length should be from 12 to 14
feet for ordinary Avork ; but shorter moulds, as 7 feet, Avill be at times useful.
The depth of the mould should be 14 inches- some recommend 2 feet 9 inches ;
but a practical experiment, Avhere the former depth was adopted, shoAved that
it was more convenient than the latter, giving at the
same time greater facilities for detecting error in carry-
ing up the Avails. The two sides of the mould, of Avhat-
ever depth, are formed by the requisite number of planks
laid edge to edge, and tongued and grooved as in fig.
313 at o, or held together by pins as at Z, placed at a
distance of from 4 to 6 inches. Battens, as in fig. 3.14,
should be nailed on the outside of the side of the frame,
at intervals of 30 inches, or thereabouts. Iron handles

may be placed at each end of the upper edge of frame, to facilitate its removal.
It is necessary to have the boards forming the .side of frame, and the battens, of
one uniform thickness. In forming the angles, a
separate frame is required ; this should be of same
depth as the other, but having battens at each end
only, and these in the inside. These should be put
firmly on with screw-nails, as the ordinary ones are
apt to start. The use of these battens is to prevent
the head of the mould from springing out Avhen form-
ing the ends of the Avail. The pressure being out-
wards, the head of the mould must evidently be of the
same depth as the mould, and its Avidth equal to the
intended Avidth of Avail. This is shoAvn in fig. 315,
where a a are the sides of the mould, b b the inside
battens, c the head. The next point to be attended
to is the "joists." These are to be made of hard tim-
ber, 4 inches broad and 2^ deep. Suppose the thickness of the Avail to be
14 inches, the sides of the mould or frame being each 1 inch thick, mortises
must be cut at each end of the joist, as at a a, fig. 317, the distance between
the inner ends of AA'hich must be 16 inches. This will give a width betAA r een
the inside faces of the mould of 14 inches, equal to the intended thick-
ness of Avail. Fig. 316 shows the plan of the joists and sides of the mould
when laid on the wall. The mortises should be 1 ^ inch wide, and some 4 or 5

Fig. 315.

Fitf. 316.

Fi s . 817.

PLAN OF JC

278

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 318.

inches long ; and in order still further to facilitate the placing of the sides of
the mould, a groove b b, fig. 317, some \ inch deep, and 1 inch wide (the
thickness of the sides), may be made in the upper sides of the joists, close
up to one end of the mortise. " Posts " are next to be provided, 4 inches
square, and equal in length to about twice the depth of mould. Tenons will
be made at one end to fit into the mortise in the joists. The outer sides of the
mould will thus press closely against the inside face of each post. It is essen-
tially requisite that all the posts shall be of uniform scantling, and the tenons
all of the same size : this will prevent numbering being necessary, and facili-
tate operations. The foot of the posts a a, showing tenons b 5, is shown in
fig. 318. " Caps " are next to be described. These consist of pieces of hard
wood a a, fig. 319, 4 inches broad, and 2^ or 3 inches thick,
having snugs b b same breadth, and 2^- inches thick, dove-
tailed at each end. The distance in the inside of these snugs
should be 25 inches, so that space may be afforded on each
side to drive thin wedges between the inside face of snugs
and outside face of posts. The method of using the appa-
ratus may now be briefly described. The foundation of the
building to be erected is to be of stone or brick at least 18 inches above the
level of ground. The joists, figs. 316, 317, are next to be laid on the wall, at dis-
tances corresponding to the length
of boards forming the sides of mould.
The joists should be so laid that the
inside and outside line of founda-
tion-wall shall correspond with the
inside line of mortises cut in joists,
fig. 316. Having adjusted the
joists, the foundation-wall, in stone
or brick, must be increased in height
a course or two, so as to enclose the

FOOT OF POSTS.

Fig. 319.

TOP OF POSTS.

joists in the body of the wall.

Fig. 320.

The posts with tenoned ends are next to be in-
serted in the mortises of the joists, the
sides of the mould placed in the grooves,
the outside end filled in with the pre-
pared board, and the caps finally ad-
justed over the upper ends of posts, and
driven hard up by means of the wedges.
The mould sides will, by this means, be
able to resist the force of compression
used in ramming the earth ; while the end
nearest the extremity of wall will be
prevented from flying out by means of the
battens placed at the ends of each side
forming the mould, as before described.
In fig. 320 the arrangement of the various
parts may be seen : a a is the brick or
stone wall, b b the joists, c c the posts,
d d sides of mould, e the cap, // the
wedges to drive up the same. It should
be here noted that, as the foundation in
stone or brick is worked round, the joists
used at one part of the building should be driven out (to facilitate their removal,

SECTION SHOW

OEMENT OF PARTS OF

PISE AY ALLS. 279

they are made slightly narrower at one end than at the other), and placed as
before ; thus, when the foundation is finished, it will present the appearance
of a wall from 20 to 24 inches high, having all round it square or oblong holes,
in which the joists can be placed. Before commencing to ram the earth in the
mould, it will be necessary to try it by means of the plumb-line and square, to
ascertain that it is properly levelled. The operations must be commenced atone
angle of the wall, the head of the mould being at the outer extremity of wall,
within 14 inches of it, the joints being at that distance from the outer extremity
in consequence of the thickness of return wall. The labourers appointed to pre-
pare the mould, hand it up to those engaged in the mould in ramming; these
take the earth and lay it out at the bottom of the mould to the depth of 3
or 4 inches : more than this depth should not be put in at one time. The first
strokes of the rammer should be made close to the edges of the mould, there-
after going over the whole surface in regular succession, from the head of
the mould downwards ; then crossing these first blows or indents by an-
other succession. Care should be taken to give to each layer as equal a com-
pactness as possible, which is easily attainable ; the parts under the caps must
be carefully looked to, as, from their position, the rammer must be used
obliquely. The mould being thus filled by successive layers, each equally well
rammed, the wedges holding the caps must be withdrawn, the caps taken off,
the sides thus released taken out, and the joists finally drawn out of their holes
in the wall, which should be filled tip by proper means. In filling up the
mould, the inner end should not be filled up to the same height as the other
parts, but should be made to slope gradually down. This is shown in fig. 321.
The joists are next to be placed in the adjoining holes, the
sides of the moulds being without battens at the ends these
not being required, as no end to the mould is needed. The
outer end of the sides should be so adjusted that they are on
a line with the top of the slope of the first course of rammed
earth. By this means, when the earth is filled in to the second
mould, one end of it will lie upon the sloping end of the first
course, thus forming a species of bond. The foundation-wall being, by a suc-
cession of moulds, covered with a wall of rammed earth, the height being equal
to the depth of the mould, holes or slits are cut in the upper surface in which
to lay the joists. These being prepared, the mould is to be set up as before at
an angle of the wall, the sides having the battens at one end against which to
fix the end ; but the operation is to be begun at the opposite end of the wall
to that originally started with. By this means, as each end of the mould is left
sloping off as before, the sloped surfaces in the second course will lie the con-
trary way to those in the first ; the bond between the several courses will thus
be increased in efficiency. It should be borne in mind that the holes for the
joists cut in the upper surfaces of the suc-
cessive layers, should be so placed as not
to be exactly above one another in all the
courses, but each succeeding series be-
tween those of the series below. These re-
commendations will be seen exemplified in
fig. 322. The gables of a house can easily
be made by making the successive layers
each shorter than the one immediately be-
low it ; the requisite slope will thus be obtained. When a day's work is finished,
the walls should be covered with boarding, so that they may be covered in the

280 . PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

event of rain ; and the roof should be placed as soon after the walls are com-
pleted as possible. The roof should overhang at least 12 inches, to protect the
vertical walls from the effect of rain. Where the building consists of two storeys,
the walls of the upper storey may be made thinner than the lower, by setting
at the level of first floor a depth of 2 or more inches from the inside, the out-
side being flush with the outside of lower wall. The rammer may be made of
hardwood or cast-iron ; if of the latter material, its weight may be 14 Ib. or
thereabouts. Bond timbers may be used with advantage in pise walls ; they
should be of the length of the mould, and in breadth equal to one-third the thick-
ness of walL As they are completely embedded in the earth, they last for a
great length of time. If considered necessary or more economical, the inside
faces of the bond timbers may be made to lie flush with the inside wall of house.
In this case they will serve as battens in which to drive nails or holdfasts for
many convenient purposes. The openings for doors and windows should be
left a little less than required ; they may be dressed after the building is finished
to the proper dimensions. "Wood bricks should be built in here and there to
which to fasten the dressings and frames. The openings are made by placing
heads or a head in the mould at the place where the wall is to terminate and
the opening begin. We have next to notice the method of constructing the
walls of houses of

1132. Uriburnt Bricks. Unburnt bricks form a much drier wall than ordinary
burnt bricks, inasmuch as they are not so absorbent of wet or damp. To
make these, any ordinary clay will answer. If dry when obtained, it must first
be moistened and thoroughly worked by the feet of cattle, or pounded by hand.
Cut some straw into pieces about 6 inches in length. After being duly mixed,
the clay is ready to be made into bricks. A mould of any size must be made ;
a convenient size is 12 inches long, 6 wide, and 5 deep : this mould should
have a bottom, but not air-tight, in order to prevent the brick from sticking
in the mould. The clay is put in this mould, and the brick formed much
in the same way as ordinary bricks. Should the clay be veiy tenacious, a little
sand sprinkled in the mould will enable the brick to leave it freely. The bricks
are placed upon level ground to dry, turning them on their edges on the second
day ; thereafter left in piles, protected from the rain, for ten or twelve days. The
foundation must be formed of stone or burnt brick ; and, to prevent damp rising,
a course of slate should be laid above the footings in hydraulic cement. The
walls formed of these bricks will be exactly 12 inches in thickness that is, the
length of the mould ; the partitions are formed by laying the bricks lengthwise,
thus giving a thickness of 6 inches, the breadth of the mould. To obtain the
necessary bond in the walls, the work is carried up in alternate courses of
headers and stretchers one course having the bricks laid across the wall, the
next course having them side by side. A good ordinary brick-mortar is to be
preferred, although a weak mortar of lime and sand will do for laying the bricks.
The doors and window-frames should be previously made to be ready to insert
when required. These frames should be of stout plank, the exact width of
the thickness of walls ; they will thus help to cover the joints and strengthen
the walls. Lintels and sills of stone, when easily had, will much improve the
appearance of the structure : pieces of timber 3 inches thick, width equal to
thickness of walls, may be used in place of stone ; these should have a clear
bearing of at least 12 inches on each side of the opening. Of whatever kind
the roof is, it is essential, in this form of material for external walls, that it
should be an overhanging one, in order to guard the walls from vertical rains.
The outside of the walls is plastered with good lime-mortar mixed with hair,

FISHED JOINTS.

281

and then with a second coat pebble-dashed as in roughcast. The inside walls
are finished in the usual way. A cottage may be built in this way for an incre-
dibly small sum warm, dry, and of course comfortable. As to its durability,
it is only necessary to state, that it is by no means a difficult matter to adduce
instances where such structures have existed in thorough efficiency for a great
length of time ; in some, for upwards of two hundred years. The method of
forming the unburnt bricks will be found described under the head of BRICK-
MAKING, in the Handbook of the Mechanical Arts, by R. Scott Burn. Blackwood
& Sons.

SUBDIVISION SECOND Timber Construction.

1133. SECTION FIRST Joining, or Joints of Timber. When framing is con-
structed of wood, the modes of joining and fitting the various parts together
constitute the Practice of Carpentry. It is to the various forms of joints used in
carpentry that we now direct the attention of our readers.

1134. Fished Joints. Joining Timbers in the direction of their Length. When
timbers are to be joined in the direction of their length, when subjected to
tension, the method illustrated in fig. 323 may be adopted ; thus the ends of the
beams a and b are squared up, and made to abut against each other ; they are
secured in this position by bolting together the two pieces c and d, the bolts
passing through the beams a and b. This is a strong, if not the strongest, method
of joining timbers under this head, although it is objected to on account of its
clumsy appearance. In fig. 324 we show another method of "fishing" beams ;

Pig. 323.

Fig. 324.

ING- TIMBE
LENGTH S

a a the two beams to be joined, b b, c c, the upper and lower pieces secured to-
gether by the bolts and nuts. The joint may be made stronger by notching the
pieces // and g g, as in fig. 325, or inserting flat keys into apertures made
partly in the beams and partly in the pieces, as shown at e and/, fig. 323. In
fig. 325, b d are the two beams to be joined, butting at c ; // and g g the two
pieces notched in ; h and i showing the plan or upper side of the notches.
Another form is given in fig. 326, where a b are the two beams, butting at c ;
d d the lower, and e e the upper pieces notched into the upper and lower
sides of the beams, and kept together by the straps //, or bolts and nuts may
be used.

/ Fig. 325. /

RECTION OF THEIR

1135. Scarf Joints. When the joint is so constructed that the surfaces of the
two beams are flush with each other, the united beams presenting the appear-
ance of one only, the joint is called a " scarf" joint. The simplest and the

282

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

strongest form of this, known as the "half-lap joint," is shown in fig. 327 ; the
beams to be joined being shown at a b, the abutting ends c d being square ;
bolts e f are used to keep the parts together. Fig. 328 shows another form of
" half-lap " scarf joint, a b being hardwood keys. These keys should not be
driven in too tightly, so as to produce any strain on the parts ; all that is neces-
sary is to bring the joints together, and then bolt together the beams firmly.
When the jointed beams are subjected to a cross strain, the form of " scarf "
shown in fig. 329 will be found a good one. The two beams to be joined

Fig. 327.

Fig. 328.

Fig. 329.

AP JOINT SCALE. J INCH

TO THE FOOT.

HALF-LAP JOINT

are represented by a c ; the portion d b is oblique, not parallel to the sur-
faces of the timber as in fig. 327. The end b /is at right angles to the surface
of the beam, and the end d e oblique. A piece of timber g g is secured to the
under-side by hardwood keys, and the whole secured by iron hoops or bands h h.
Fig. 330 shows another form of scarf joint, in which a b are the two beams ; the
abutting surfaces or tables are notched, as shown. Wooden keys are driven in
at the parts marked c c c; d d are straps, or bolts and nuts, which embrace the
iron plates e e, and bind the whole together. This example is here given as one
rather to be avoided than used. Fig. 331 shows another form, in which a b are

Fig 330.

Fig. 331.

_m m m

SCARFJO1NT SCALE, J INCH TO TUB FOOT

SCARF JOINT SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

the two beams ; c d iron plates secured by bolts and nuts e e e. Fig. 332 shows
another form, in which, the half-lap joint is employed in conjunction with two
iron plates ; a b are the two beams ; c d the two plates, secured by bolts and
nuts e e e. This method of using plates does not give so strong a joint as where
the plates are arranged as at a a, b b, fig. 333, extending along the whole joint.

Fig. 332.

Fig. 333.

HALF-LAP JOINT SCALE. ^ INCH TO THE FOOT.

In some scarf joints the plates are placed at the sides, as at a a in fig. 334.
This should be avoided, as it tends to weaken the joint. In fig. 335 we give an
excellent form of a step scarf, with keys at a b c if placed at the points d and
e the joint would be weakened //, g g, lower and upper iron plates, are secured
together with the bolts and nuts gf, g f.

1136. Where the jointed beams are subjected to compression and extension
at the same time, the form of joint should be designed to meet those strains.
Fig. 336 shows a form adapted to these circumstances ; a b are the two beams

SCARF JOINTS.

283

to be joined ; the folding wedge or double keys c d serve to bring the parts
together. A plate of Avrought- Fjr ,_ .,., 4 _

iron g g is placed at the
under-side, and secured by
bolts e e.

1137. Scarf Joints fur Per-
pendicular Timbers. Many of
the joints used to increase the
length of timbers laid hori-
zontally are obviously useful
to lengthen beams placed per-
pendicularly. Thus, the joint
in fig. 337 is well adapted for
lengthening a post or pillar,
and is better calculated for
this purpose than the joints
illustrated in figs. 338 or 339. < <.

The following -joints are use- /"

O J \ c> ^-^^13 ; 1 ft \

ful in building up or length- ? , M '^\_ I t^ ^ 1

ening posts or pillars. When o d ff

two pieces of timber are to
be joined vertically together

in the direction of their length, to resist compression, joints, as in figs. 337 and
338, may be used. In fig. 337 let a b c d be the end of the lower part of the
beam ; two square pieces are cut out at opposite corners. Let the end of
the upper part of the beam be similarly cut, as at c, and the two placed to-
gether, so that the solid parts of the upper beam may fit into the hollow spaces
of the lower beam. In fig. 338, a b d c, efg h, represent the ends of the beams

Fig. 336.

INT TO BESIS

ALE, 1 INCH TO

to be joined. From the lower beam parts are cut at each corner, as at a b c d,
of any depth required. The method of cutting the end of the upper beam is
shown at e f g h; the corners being left solid, the solid parts of the lower beam
go into the hollow parts in the upper beam. If there is any chance of the
beams thus joined being subjected to a cross strain, plates of iron may be put at
the sides, extending some distance on either side of the joints, and secured
together by bolts passing through the beams, or, what will be better, by hoops
passing outside.

1138. In fig. 339 we give other forms of joints for perpendicular beams. In
the figure to the right, the part a a is cut out of the lower beam, the part b of
the upper beam being passed into a. In the figure to the left, the part c is cut
at right angles to d, the depth being equal to e. The part/ of the upper beam
enters the part c of the lower, g the part d.

284

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 339.

JOINT TO RESIST

KTICAL COMPRESSION
:H TO THE FOOT.

1139. As regards the proportions of scarf joints, of which we have given
illustrations, Tredgold, in his valuable work on Carpentry, has given some valu-
able notes: these we here append. "The
length of the scarf should be, if bolts are
not used, in oak, ash, or elm, six times the
depth of the beam ; in fir twelve times the
depth of the beam. If bolts and indents
are combined, the length of the scarf should
be, in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth of
the beam ; in fir, four times the depth. In
scarfing beams to resist transverse strains,
sti'aps drawn on tight are better than bolts.
The sum of the area of the bolts should not
be less than one-fifth the area of the beams
when a longitudinal strain is to be borne.
No joint should be used in which shrinkage
or expansion can tear the timbers."

1140. In joining timbers, all the bear-
ing surfaces should be made with great ac-
curacy, all inequalities tending to increase
the strain more upon one part than another,
and thus to cause rupture. The simpler the
parts are the better.

1141. As the bolts and keys of scarfed
timbers are apt to work loose and become shaky in situations where subjected
to vibration, as in engine-rooms, &c., scarfed beams should not be employed
under such circumstances trussed beams of wood being employed, or iron, cast
or wrought.

1142. Joints employed when the Timbers are at right angles to each other.
When the piece c, fig. 340, is to abut vertically upon a horizontal piece a, the

joint is made by what is called a mortise-and-tenon joint.
The projecting piece or tongue d is called the tenon, and
the slot or aperture b which receives it is called the
mortise. When the piece d is inserted into ft, the two
are generally connected by an oak pin driven through at e.
To secure permanence in this joint, the tenon must fit
with great accuracy into the mortise, to keep the strain
equally on the whole parts ; if the strain is thrown on
the tenon only, through inaccuracy of the parts fitting,
the joint is much weakened. To prevent this, the joint
is sometimes made with the sides at an angle, as at a b,
b c, fig. 341, on the part d. The acute angle ef g does
not secure so good a joint as the obtuse one at a b c, espe-
cially where the lower beams are of the same depth. The
king-post of a roof, as a a, fig. 342, is connected with the
tie-beam b b by the tenon c. d d is a plan of the lower edge of tie-beam, with
the mortise-hole e ; / / are the struts. Wedges may be driven up from the
under- side of tenon c, as at g.

1143. In figs. 343, 344, and 345, we give other methods of connecting the
king-post of a roof with the tie-beam.

1144 In fig. 343 we illustrate a method of connecting king-post b with tie-
beam a a ; a mortise is cut in the beam, in which the tenon c is inserted d

Fig. 340.

MORTISE-A
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOO

JOINTS AT RIGHT AXGLES.

285

being a wedge to drive the whole tight up. In fig. 344 we illustrate another
method, where the king-post I is lot into the upper edge of the beam a, as
shown in the section efg, to the right hand of the diagram. A bolt d passes
through both of them, and is secured by the nut c. In fig. 345 the connec-

,1 CD

Fig. 343.

CONNECTION OF KING-POS

tion is made by passing an iron strap b b, round the tie-beam a a, arid con-
necting it to the king-post c d by the keys h /?, and cottars y g these passing
through an aperture cut in the king-post and slots in the sides of the strap b b.
In the section, //is the king-post, e the tie-beam.

114-5. Fig. 346 shows a method of joining at right angles a horizontal beam
a a, to a vertical one b b, by what is called a " dovetail joint," the tenon c pass-
ing into the mortise d.

1146. If the tenon is to be inserted in the beam , in its centre as at c, fig.
347, the tenon is made of the form as at J, and small oak wedges // are in-
serted in the end of b- and as the tenon is driven in the mortise, the wedges/

/ are forced into and cause the tenon to expand, filling up the mortise c. This
species of joint is called " fox-tail dovetailing." In section, d is the mortise
and e the tenon.

1147. Fig. 348 illustrates three methods of joining horizontal to vertical
timbers, given by Emy in his celebrated Treatise on Carpentry.

1148. In cases of double-flooring, the binding joists are mortised into the
"girders" in the manner shown in fig. 349. The best place to make the mor-
tise in the girder e is in its neutral line, or the middle of its depth, as at/. The
tenon d of the joist which is to be supported by the girder e should be somewhat

286

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

near the bottom line of the joist, as at g. Where the beam is subjected to a
great strain, tending to draw the tenon d out of the mortise in the girder e, an

Fig. 346.

OVBTAIL JOINT-

DOVETAIL JOINT SCALE, j- INCH TO

THE FOOT.

Fig. 348.

Fig. 349.

JOINTNG OF GIRDERS iND

BINDING JOISTS SOAXE,

INCH TO THE FOOT.

oak trenail, or pin, or an iron bolt, should be passed through. In the case of a

joist mortised through a
beam, the tenon may be
fastened as at h, and a
pin i inserted.

1149. In joists, as in
A fig. 349, the mortise should
be siink near the top of
the girder, as at c, gradu-
ally deepening towards
the central or neutral axis
of the girder, where the strain is least. The
length of the tenon may be about one-sixth
of the depth of the girder.

1150. Wall-plates are joined at the corners
by methods shown in fig. 350, half notched
at the end as at a and 6, or a little from the
end of each, as at c and d. By this method of joining, the tendency to dis-
connect in either direction is prevented. A dovetail joint is sometimes used as
at e, a corresponding tenon being made at the extremity of the other wall-
plate. The joint shown at c and d is perhaps the best.

1151. Tie-beams are joined to the wall-plates, as a a to b b, fig. 351, by the

TVBK JOINTS -SCALE, J- INCH :

Fig. 350.

Fig. 351.

JOINING OP "TIE-BEAM" WITH WAIL-FLAT
SCALE, ^ INCH TO THE FOOT.

MBTHOD O NOTOHINO " WALL-PLATES " TOOETHER SCALE,

joint at c, the tie-beam being simply let into this. A better and more secure
joint is shown at d, which is similar to that at c, with this exception, that the

TTE-BEAMS.

287

wood is not cut across, but a piece or feather is left in the middle : a corre-
sponding piece e is cut out of the lower edge of the tie-beam a a, into which
the feather goes.

1152. In fig. 352 wo show at a b a method of joining the tie-beam c c with the
wall-plate d : where a dovetail joint, as at e fin the lower figure, is employed,
the tenon is apt to Avork loose. In fig. 350 we gave at a b a form of joint suit-
able for joining timbers at right angles to each other at the corners or angles.

1153. In fig. 353 we give two illustrations showing other forms. The
beam a is joined to b by the mitre-joint at c ; the beam d is notched into the
beam e. Where beams cross each other, as in fig. 354, the beam a a crossing

FIR. 352.

the beam b b, the upper beam may simply be placed on the lower, being
secured by a strap, or by bolt and nut c c ; or the lower one d d may be
notched into the upper one e.

1154. Joining of Timbers at angles other than a right angle. We give a few
illustrations of joints for such cases. In. fig. 355 the beam a is joined to the
beam b b by being let into the notch c.

The obtuse angles d d of the beam a give
a stronger joint than when they are more
acute, as at e e in the beam /

1155. In fig. 356 the beam a is secured
to the beam b by the tenon c being in-
serted in the notch d. As good a joint
for cases now under consideration as can
be made, is perhaps that shown to the
left hand of fig. 356, where a notch is cut
across of the full breadth of the beam/;
the two beams / and e e being secured
together by a rib or tenon g going into
the notch or mortise in the under-side of

the beam/; i is a continuation of the beam/. An objectionable form of joint
of this kind is shown in the right hand of fig. 357, where the beam a is joined
to the beam b b by the tenon c passing into the mortise d.

1156. Beams crossing each other at other than right angles, may be secured
by the form of joint shown in fig. 357, the diagram to the left ; the beam a a
crossing the beam b &, the part c being inserted in the notch d ; e e in the lower
figure shows the beam b b in continuation on each side of the bea:n a a.

288

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 356.

1157. Joining of Timbers placed at angles to horizontal Timbers. Of this class
of joints the most important refer to the joining of the feet of rafters with the

tie-beams of roofs. Fig. 358
shows a simple form of con-
necting the foot of a rafter
a with the tie-beam b b. By
forming the joint as c d ef,
and giving a tenon d efg, a
much stronger joint will be
secured. A better form of
joint, as in fig. 359, may be
adopted ; a is the rafter, b
the tie-beam. The butting
end c is at right angles to the
line e f of the rafter. The
part d e f is not cut out
across the upper edge of the
tie-beam, but a piece form-
ing a feather is left as at g ;
a corresponding mortise is cut out at the lower edge of the rafter a, into
which g fits. The tenon may be formed on the end of the rafter, and the mor-
tise in the tie-beam ; this is the usual way.

JOINING Of TIMBERS CROSSING

EACH OTHER AT KJOHT .

SOLES SCALE, 1 INCH

Fig. 357.

Fig. 358.

JOINING OF TIMBERS AT RIOHT ANGLE

ALE, 1 INCH TO THE TOOT.

JOINT OF FOOT OF RAFTER WITH TIE-j
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 360.

1158. A still better form for the same joint is illustrated in fig. 360 : a the

rafter, ft the tie-beam, and
d plan of the upper edge
of the tie-beam, with the
mortise cut to receive the
tenon ft, formed on the
end of the rafter a. An
easily-formed and strong
joint is shown in fig. 361 ;
where a is the rafter, ft ft
the tie-beam, c the dot-
ted lines showing the

JOINING OF AN INCLINBD WIT
HORIZONTAL BEAU SCALE,

form of the tenon.

1 159. Collar or horizontal timbers are joined to angular timbers, or " prin-
cipals," by a variety of joints, of which we give a few examples.

COLLARS AND STRUTS.

289

1160. In fig. 362 the " collar" a is joined to the " principal" or " rafter" b b,
by inserting the termination a into the notch c. To bring the surface of a flush
with that of b b, the end of a is half-notched, as shown at d.

Ficr. 361.

Fij,'. 36:2.

1161. The dovetail joint, fig. 363, is a good form. An end a of the collar b
is inserted into the notch c of the rafter d d.

1162. Fig. 364 shows another form of joint. In all these joints trenails or
spikes are used to secure the timber together.

Fig. 3G3.

OF COLLAR-BEAM WITH Ttil
i INCH TO THE FOOT

The

1163. Struts are made to abut against king-posts in a variety of ways.
best method, however, is where the face of

the joint is at right angles to the direc-
tion of the thrust of struts, as the faces
a b, fig. 365, to the line of struts c d, or the
faces e f to the struts g h. The forms of
joint shown at z and k are objectionable.

1164. In fig. 366 we show the method
of forming the joint with a tenon : a b the
front view of head of king-post ; c the
bearing of the rafter end ; the dotted line
shows the tenon cut to receive the mortise
e of the rafter J;/ shows an edge view of
the king-post head, with mortise. The
ends of struts are joined to the foot of king-
post by mortise and tenon. This is illus-

trated in fig. 367: a is end Of king-pOSt, "~or'm^mnaw<wm~mnaeou*.lmBm

mortised to the tie-beam b ; c is the part

against which the strut abuts, with the mortise to receive the tenon of the
strut an end view of which is seen at d.

290

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1165. A better way to join the rafters with the king-posts, or the straining
beam with the queen-posts and principal rafters, is to make the ends abut
against each other a piece of sheet-lead being only placed between them. As
there is no compressible material as the wood of the king-post, the form of the
framing is less liable to change. This is illustrated in fig. 368, where the

' RAFTER 'WITH KINO-POST SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 367.

Fig. 368.

JOINT OF FOOT OF
STRUTS, WITH XING
POST SCALE, J INC!

STT OF RAFTERS WITH KINO-POST SCALE. J INCH
TO THE FOOT.

straining beam c butts immediately against the principal rafter b ; the queen-
post a a being bolted in two halves on d and d, embracing the beam e, and
secured by bolts and nuts. In the same figure, // represents the principal
rafters butting at g ; the king-post h being bolted in two halves as at d and d.

1166. In fig. 369 we show the method of joining the straining-beam with
the queen-post 5, side view of post, with indent cut out of it ; a the edge view
of ditto, showing the mortise to receive the tenon e of the straining-beam d, of
which an end view is at c.

1167. The purlins of a roof are notched into the rafters by joints similar to
those used to join the tie-beam to the wall-plate. In fig. 370 a is the section
of purlin, notched into the principal rafter &, and at its upper end to the com-
mon rafter c. The purlin butts against a piece d, nailed to, or mortised into,
the principal rafter b.

1168. In the case of "lean-to" roofs, the rafters should butt in the wall-
plates with a horizontal joint, as in fig. 371, at a and >, shown in section.

Fig. 369.

Fig. 370.

Fig. 371.

JOINT OF STRAININO-BEAM WITH

JOHN-POST SCALE, J INCH TO

THB FOOT.

OF PURLINS TO RA
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT

OINT OF RAFTERS TO WALL-PLATE
SCALE. ^ INCH TO THE FOOT.

1169. Trussed Beam. In the Section treating of parts of structures in which

BOW- A X ! )-STRIX( I I? AFTERS.

291

wood and iron are combined, the reader will find various methods illustrated and
described of trussing- beams.

1170. We here give in lig. 372 an exceedingly simple and effective form of
flat roof truss, the invention of Mr Smart, by whom it was communicated to
the Society of Arts, and named

by him " the bow-and-string
rafter." " In this commnni- [~~V~ZI
cation," he says, " I take a
span of the usual size for a
rafter, and, by means of a cir-
cular saw, make an incision in
it, as shown at a , fig. 372.

I then make a cut 6, at right angles to the former, and equidistant from the two
ends. Lastly, I make two cuts c d, taking out a thin wedge from each piece.
The two pieces e/are then to be gently raised up till they form an angle of 10 or
12 with the piece a a, and are secured in th'eir place by the oak key-wedge g.
It is obvious that a weight pressing on the key -wedge of this rafter (the ends
being properly supported) will be sustained, either till the fibres of the wood
forming the string are torn asunder, or till the lateral cohesion of the wood
forming the butt end of the rafters be destroyed ; at the same time, there is no
lateral pressure on the wall."

1171. In fig. 373 we give sketch to a larger scale of the end of the rafter so
treated, where a a is the rafter, b b the horizontal saw-cut, c the wedge.

1172. In fig. 374 we give a sketch of the centre of the rafter above formed;

a a are the two ends, corresponding to the ends of the pieces ef, fig. 372, b the
oak key-wedge.

1173. In fig. 375 we give a drawing of a rafter for a 56-feet span, the scant-
ling of the rafter being 10 inches by 4. In this form Mr Smart inserted vertical
pieces a a between the upper and lower parts of the beam, securing these by
iron straps.

Fig. 375.

1174. Increasing Depth of Beams. A method to obtain depth in a girder, and
to avoid deflection or bending, is illustrated in fig. 376, and is recommended by
some as preferable to the trussed girder. Two beams of equal scantling are
laid edge on, as a i, c d, and secured together by keys e e e, the whole being
secured together by hoops of iron /// driven tightly on. In place of hoops,

292

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

bolts may be used, as shown at g, but hoops are preferable. The thickness of

the keys should be equal to about half of
the breadth the total thickness of all the
keys, when laid on each other, being equal
to one-third of the depth of the beam.

1175. In fig. 377 we illustrate another
method of deepening a beam, the sur-
faces in contact being provided with in-
dentations and corresponding projections,
the two being well secured by bolts and

Fig. 376.

ii e':

* ~ 'H

e -
3 -g

' 1

! c

MEIHOIJ O

g f /

F INCREASING DEPTH OF BEAMS.

INCREASING

nuts.

Fig. 378.

1176. SECTION SECOND Floors. The simplest form of floor is illustrated
in fig. 378, and is called the " single flooring." Where a a a are the joists laid

on the wall c c c, parallel to one another, the
distance should not in any case exceed 12
inches from centre to centre of joists. The
flooring-planks b b are laid on the joists a a a.
1177. When the walls, as a a and b b,
fig. 379, are separated more than 8 feet, the
joists are apt, under sudden strains as
weights hauled over the floor, people walk-
ing quickly, &c. to bend laterally. To pre-
vent this, struts are placed between the joists,
as c c between the joists d d d. When the
span of floor is wide, these struts should be
placed at distances of not less than 4 feet
apart. One row will do for joists, with a
bearing exceeding the 8 feet ; for every 4 feet of extra bearing, one row of
strutting should be given. They may be formed either of pieces of thin wood,
as at e, fig. 379, the same depth of "the joists, or of two pieces crossed, as at/.
1178. When the course of the joists is to be interrupted, as in fig. 380

SINGLE FLOORING SCAM, J INCH TO THE TOOT.

TRUSSING OT FLOORING BEAMS-
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

TRIMMING-JOISTS SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

where, for instance, a well-hole g is to be made, as in the floor of a barn or
granary, to admit of passage from one floor to another by means of trap-
stairs the joists, as a a, b b, are supported by cross pieces c c, d d, called
" trimmers " or " bridles." These again are supported by larger joists e e, ff,
which run parallel to the ordinary joists a a, b b ; these larger joists are called
" trimming-joists," or " carnage-beams." The trimmers c c, d d must be made
strong in proportion to the number of joists which they have to carry, and

; INGS.

29:?

the scantling of the carriage-beams is proportioned to the weight which the
trimmers carry.

1179. For floors of a wide span, and where more perfect work is required,
as in the supporting of heavy weights, what is called "double flooring" is
used. This is illustrated in fig. 381, where b b b represent two large joists,
termed "binding-joists," which are laid on the wall a a at each end, at dis-
tances of 10 feet apart from centre to centre. These joists support other
joists, termed "bridging-joists," c c c, laid at right angles to b b. These
bridging-joists are laid at distances of from 12 to 20 inches apart, and support
the flooring-planks d c/, which run parallel to the " binding-joists " b b. Where
it is deemed necessary in the apartments of the steading to have a "ceiling"
on the under-side of the floor, what are called " ceiling-joists " should be notched
into the under-side of the binding-joists, as at e e. The distance between
these is usually set off at 12 inches.

1180. A still more complicated form of flooring, and one usually adopted
where the bearing is great, is illustrated in fig. 382, and is known as the

Fig. 381.

DOUBLE FLOORING SCAM

" girder " or "double-framed flooring." Tn this case the binding-joists b b are
not supported at the ends by the walls, but are supported by "girders," as a a,
which rest on the walls, and are placed generally at a distance of 10 feet apart ;
on the " binding -joists " b b, the bridging -joists c c c c are placed, these sup-
porting the flooring-planks d d.

Span or
Bearing.

CLASS I.
Joists.

CLASS II.
Binders.

CLASS III.
Girders.

Ceiling-
Joists.

Distance apart
of Girders.

Distance apart
of Hinding-
Joists.

Distance apart
of Hridjjing-
Juists.

W. B.

2 x 6 in.

W. D.

6 x 4 in.

W. D.

34 x 2 in.

CLASS I.

CLASS II.

CLASS III.

2 7

7 4|

4 24

10 feet

10
12
14
16
20

24 7i
24 8
2| 9

3 12

8 5
9 51
10 6
11 64

13 74

9 x 7 in.
10 8
11 9
12 10
13 11

5 24

apart. The
bearings on
wall 9 to

4 to 6 feet
apart. Bear-
ing 4 to 6 in.
on walls.

12 to 14
in. 4 to 6
in. bearing
on walls.

15 12

12 in.

16 13

1181. Taking fig. 378 as representative of the " first class " of floors, fig. 381
of the " second," and fig. 382 of the " third," the preceding table, compiled
from data given by the eminent authority Tredgold, will be useful, as showing

294

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the scantling of floors for various spans. W represents the width, and D the
depth of the joists, binders, and girders.

1182. The following remarks on flooring by Mr Gwilt will, we trust, be of
use : " First, the wall-plates that is, the timbers which lie on the walls to
receive the ends of the girders or joists should be sufficiently strong, and of
sufficient length to throw the weight upon the piers. Secondly, if it can be
avoided, girders should not lie with their ends over openings, as doors or win-
dows ; but when they do, the strength of the wall-plates must be increased. To
avoid the occurrence in question, it was formerly very much the practice in this
country, and indeed is still partially so, to lay girders obliquely across rooms,
so as to avoid openings and chimneys, the latter whereof must always be at-
tended to. Thirdly, wall-plates and templates must be proportionately longer,
as their length and the weight of the floor increase. Their scantlings will in
this respect vary from 4^- inches by 3, up to 7| inches by 5. Fourthly, the tim-
bers should always be kept rather higher say half to three-quarters of an inch
in the middle than at the sides of an apartment, when first framed, so that
the natural shrinkings and the settlements which occur in all buildings may
not \iltimately appear after the building is finished. Lastly, when the ends of
joists or girders are supported by external walls whose height is great, the
middles of such walls ought not at first to rest upon any partition-wall that
does not rest higher than the floor, ' but a space should (says Vitruvius, lib.
vii. 1) be rather left between them, though, when all has settled, they may be
brought to a bearing upon it. Neglect of this precaution will induce unequal
settlements, and, besides causing the floor to be thrown out of a level, will most
probably fracture the corners of the room below/ "

1183. SECTION THIRD Partitions. In designing partitions, care should be
taken to transfer the weight to the points of support the walls. This is best
done by placing two struts or braces, butting against a central post. The best
angle for the braces is 40 degrees. Where partitions have to support their own
weight merely, the principal timbers for a span of 20 feet may be 3 inches by
4 ; for a span of 25 feet, 3| inches by 5 ; and for a span of 30 feet, 4 inches
by 6. Where partitions have to bear other weights, then the dimensions of
their parts may be calculated according to the rules to be given hereafter.

1184. In fig. 383 we give a
drawing of a partition adapted
to an 18-feet span, with one door
in the centre. The head a b is
5 inches by 4 ; the sill c d, same
scantling ; the posts a c, b d, e, f,
5 inches by 4 ; the straining-
beam g, 5 inches by 3 ; the struts
or braces h 7z, 5 inches by 4 ;
the filling -in pieces i i i z, 5
inches by 2^.

1185. In fig. 384 we give the
drawing of a partition adapted

to a 28-feet or 30-feet span, with spaces for a door at each end. The scantlings
are as follows : the head a I, 6 inches by 6 ; the sill c d the same ; the posts
a c, b d, e /, 6 inches by 6 ; the king-post k same size ; the straining-pieces
ffff, 6 inches by 4 ; the struts or braces h h, h h, 6 inches by 5 ; the filling-in
pieces i t, 6 inches by 3.

. 18-yEKT SPAN SOiLE,

PARTITIONS.

295

1186. In fig. 385 the partition is adapted to a 22-feet span : the head a 5,
6 inches by 6 ; the sill c d, 6 inches by 4 ; the tie-beam e c, 6 inches by 5 ;

the king-posts //, 6 inches by 6 ; the posts I c, a d, g, cj, y, y, G inches by 6 ; the
straining-piece h, 6 inches by 4 ; the braces or struts i /, G inches by 4 ; the
filling-in pieces k k, 6 inches by 3. There are here a wide and narrow door.

1187. In fig. 386 we give a drawing of a partition without door spaces for
a span of 16 to 18 feet, of which the scantlings are as follows : a a sill, 5
inches by 4 ; I b head, also 5 F . ir , m

inches by 4 ; c post, 6 inches
by 4 ; d d braces or struts,
10 inches by 2 ; e e quarters,
4 inches by 2.

1188. In fig. 387 we give
the drawings of a partition
with large door in centre and
small door at side, adapted
to an 18-feet span. The sill

(.T, ^ 1,^^/1 / / I \ ,

a a 4 inches by 4 ; the head
b b, 4 inches by 4 ; the tie-

beam C C C, 4 inches by 3; PARTITION *-OK IS-FKET SPAN- SOAUB, J ISCIH TO THE roor.

the posts d d d d d, 4 inches by 3 ; straining-beam e, 4 inches by 4 ; struts em-
braces //, 4 inches by 3 ; g filling-in pieces, 4 inches by 2.

1189. In fig. 388 we give the drawing of a trussed partition for a wide span,
with large door at one side and small door at the other.

1190. In fig. 389 we give a drawing of a partition adapted for an 18-feet

296

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

* X

span, with large door in the centre only. The scantlings the same as in fig.

388, just above.

1191. In fig. 390 we give a
drawing of the partitions in
first and second storeys, in
which the span is 18 feet. The
beam a a is 18 inches by 3 ;
the sills b 6, b b, 4 inches by 4 ;
the heads c c, c c, 4 inches by 4 ;
posts d d d, 4 inches by 3 ;
struts or braces ee, e e, 4 inches
by 3; puncheons //, 4 inches

Fig. 388.

TRUSSED PARTITION SCALE, IXC

Fig. 389.

J?\ II II 11'^

PARTITION FOB ItS-FEET SPA-J ^-SOALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT

Fig. 390.

1 ll/ll (

]

;

DUBLE PABTIIIOX SCALE, I IKCH TO TH FOOT.

ROOFS.

297

1192. SECTION FOURTH Rm>f*. Before illustrating the construction of
trusses for roof's, we shall give a fu\v diagrams showing t\ie forms as used in the
more simple constructions of the farm.

1193. Lean-to and Ridge Roaj's. Where
the plan of building is rectangular, as (the d,
in fig. 391, and one wall higher than the
other, as e J] the form of roof employed, slop-
ing from f to g, is termed a " lean-to."
Where the walls are of equal height, as h /, I; /,
the slopes of the roof, as h m, in A 1 , are equal ;
the point at which they meet, as at in, being
termed the " ridge," and the angle // in A', the
" gable." The ridge divides the building into
two parts by a line, as n o.

1194. Hipped Roofs. Where the plan is rec-
tangular, in place of the ridged roof, as in last figure, the form in fig. 392 may
be used ; a b is the ridge, the ends

c d, e f, sloping at the same angle as
the sides d e, c f. The ridges a b, b d,
b c, are termed hips, and the whole ar-
rangement a hipped roof; g is an end,
and h a side elevation of roof.

1195. Pavilion Roof. Where the plan
of the building is a square, as at a b c d,
fig. 393, all the sides of the roof may be
made to slope at an equal angle, and to
meet in the point. All the elevations
present the same appearance as at e.
Where the length f h of the building

does not much exceed the breadth/ g, it may be roofed with a pavilion roof,
as shown. Where the building is
square, the pavilion roof may be
truncated by a plane, as shown by
the dotted lines in square above, A:,
parallel to the base I. In this case
the side elevation will be as at m.
Where the square binding is desired
to have gables at all the sides, there
will be two ridges, as shown by
the dotted lines n o and &, at right
angles to each other the eleva-
tion being as at r ; s being one
gable, t t the two gables of the
sides at right angles to the side r.

1196. Conical Roof. This form of roof, generally used for the roof of thrash-
ing-mills, is shown in fig. 394, in plan at a, and elevation at b.

1197. Ridged Roof meeting at Right Angles. Where the building a b c d,_fig.
395, is at right angles to the building e f g /?, the plan of roof is as shown in
the drawing; i k, Z in being the ridges, c I, If being termed the valleys.

1198. M Roofs Ridge-and- Valley Roofs. Where the building is wide, and the
roof is to be kept low to correspond in height with the other parts of the build-
ing, the width is divided into two parts I and ???, fig. 396. Where more than

298

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

two divisions are made, as at n n, the arrangement is termed a " ridge-and-
valley roof," g hi k being the ridges, o o o the valleys.

Fig. 394.

Fig. 395.

t b

CONICAI. ROOF

OOF'S MEZIINO AT KIQHI ANGL-K3

Fig. 396.

Pig. 397.

LEAN-TO ROOF, SCO., 12-FEET BPAN SCAU, J INCH TO
THE FOOT.

1199. Roof Trusses. In fig. 397 we give an illustration of the simplest form

of roof; this is called a " lean-to/'
and is adapted for covering cart-sheds,
&c. The form in fig. 397 is calculated
for spans of from 10 to 12 feet. The
scantling of the rafter or beam b c is 105
inches by 2^ ; the wall-plate 6, 4 inches
by 3. The joists should project 18 or
20 inches beyond the lower wall d, as
at /, and should be placed on the walls
at distances of 4 feet
from each other.
The roofing -boards
are nailed on the
joists parallel to the
walls a and d.

1200. Where the
distance or span is
from 10 to 14 feet,
and a lean-to roof re-
quired, the " truss "
shown in fig. 398
may be adopted. In
this a " tie-beam "
a a is used, which
rests upon the wall-
plates b and c. An

LEAN-TO ROOF, 20-FEET SPAN SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. r . , . *

upright post d is
notched into the end of the tie-beam a a, and is let into the wall. The

TRUSS FOE EOOF.

299

tendency to separate at

rafter e e is notched at its Tipper end to the post d, and to the tie-beam a a
at its lower end; /is the purlin; g g the common rafter, 4 inches by 2|.
The scantling of the tie-beam a a is tt inches by 4 ; the wall-plates b c,
6 inches by 4 ; the rafter e c, 5| inches by 4; the post d, 4 inches by 3. The
post d may be dispensed with, and the upper end of the rafter e e abut on
a wall-plate, as b, fig. 397 ;
7z, fig. 398, is a strut. Fig. 309.

1201. An arrangement
adapted to the most usual
form of roof namely, one
having an equal slope on
both sides is shown at fig.
399. The rafters a a, d d
are notched at their lower
extremities to the wall-
plates b c. As the weight
of the roof-covering which

would rest upon those rafters would give them a
their feet, and thrust out
the walls, a " collar " or
" tie " e connects the two.
The scantlings of the parts
are as follows : rafters a a,
d d, 9 inches by 3 ; wall-
plates, 4 inches by 3 ; col-
lar or tie, 5 inches by 3.

1202. Fig. 400 shows
a truss of this kind with
two collars. For a span
of 16 feet the scantlings
are as follows : rafters or
principals a a, b b, 6 inches

by 2 J ; collars c, 6 inches by 2 ; d, 5 inches by 2.

1203. Truss for a Collar -Beam Roof. Roofs with a collar-beam may be
strengthened by a longitudinal truss placed at the point shown by the dotted
line e in fig. 400, the ends of the truss being inserted in the gables. A side
elevation of the truss

is given in fig. 401 ; Fi s- 401 -

a b the sill, c d the C|j
head, e f g h the
posts, i the straining-
piece, j k struts or
braces.

1204. In fig. 402 we give a truss for a porch or building of small
span, say from 6 to 8 feet : a a the 9-inch walls ; b b the wall-plates, 5
inches by 3 ; c e the rafters, 3 inches by 2 ; d d the struts or braces, 2^
inches by 2.

1205. As the tie-beam or collar e in the illustration, fig. 399, is too high
up to act in the best way, the tie should be placed as at b b, fig. 403, resting
on the wall-plates c c, 4 inches by 3. The rafters d d, 6 inches by 4, abut on
the tie-beam b b, 8 inches by 4. This truss is strengthened by the
struts e e, 4 inches by 3, abutting on the " straining - sill " / 3 inches

THE FOOT.

300

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 402.

Fig. 403.

square, let into the face of the tie-beam. This truss is adapted to spans
from 19 to 24 feet. In these illustrations, fig. 397 is for a 12-feet span,

fig. 398 for 20, fig. 399 for 18, and fig.
402 for a 6 -feet span. Fig. 404 is a
roof on the principle of fig. 403, with a
suspension-rod a of iron, b b struts, c c
tie-beam, d wall-plate, e pole-plate,// com-
mon rafters.

1206. The truss in fig. 405 is calculated
for a 30-feet span ; a the rafter-box or
shoe, of cast-iron ; b the suspension-rod of
wrought -iron, 2 inches diameter; cc struts,
5 inches square ; d d wall-plates, 6 inches
by 4 ; e e pole-plate, 5 inches by 3 ; //
principal rafters, 10 inches by 5 ; g g .
common rafters, 4 inches by 2 ; h h tie-
beam, 12 inches by 5 ; i nut for securing tie-bolt b ; m ridge-pole, 8 inches

by 1| ; n purlins, 6 inches
by 4.

1207. King-post Truss
Fig. 406. The truss in this
sketch is adapted for a span
of 25 feet between the walls
a a; b b the wall-plates
which run longitudinally along
the walls 5 inches square ;
these support the tie-beam c c,
10 inches by 5 ; d d pole-
inches square ; / / principal
rafters, 5 inches by
4 ; g g struts, 5
inches by 3 ; h h
purlins, 6 inches by
4 ; i i common raf-
ters, 4 inches by 2^.
The various parts
now described as the
tie - beam c c, the
principal rafters//
the king - post e e,
truss." The trusses
The roof materials,

TRUSS FOB 20-FEET SPAN SCALE, J INCH TO THB FOOT.

e e king - post, 5

plates, 5 inches square ;

TRUSS WITH KTN3-BOI.T, 20-FEET SPAS'

JJCH TO THE FOOT

and the struts g g, constitute what is called " the
are placed at distances apart from *6 to 10 feet.

boarding and slating, are supported by the common rafters i z, abutting
at the upper end on the ridge-pole j, and at the lower on the pole-plate d d,
notched into the tie-beam c c above and near the wall-plates b b. The com-
mon rafters also rest on the purlins h h. These rest on the principal raft-
ers // and are continued from truss to truss. The ridge-pole j is let into
a notch in the head of the king-post e e, and is continued from truss to
truss, like the purlins. The ridge-pole j, the purlins h A, the pole-plates d d,
are all parallel to the walls a a, as also the wall-plates b b ; while the tie-
beam c c, the common rafters i z, the principal rafters// the king-post e e, and
the struts g g, are all at right angles to the walls a a. Properly the " king-

SPAN -ROOFS.

301

post" e e, does not act as a post \vhich involves the idea of compression
but as a tic, as the tie-beam c c is suspended at, the centre by it. A better name
would perhaps be the "king-bolt," or ''suspender.'

1208. Where space is required above the line of the tie-beam, a form of
truss, known as the "queen-post," is used. It is also adapted to greater spans
than the king-post truss. This is illustrated in fig. 407, which is a queen-post

Fig. 406.
j

truss for a 30-feet span, but is adapted to spans from this extent iip to 45
feet. The tie-beam is at a, 10 inches by 5 ; b b wall-plates, 6 inches square ;
c c pole-plates, 5 inches square ; d ridge-pole, 8 inches by 1^ ; e e common
rafters, 4 inches by 2^ ; //principal rafters, 9 inches by 5 ; g straining-beam,
9 inches by 5 ; h h queen-posts, 7 inches by 5 ; i i struts, 5 inches square ;

302

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

k k purlins, 6 inches by 4. A straining- sill, formed of a flat piece of wood,
is sometimes placed on the tie-beam, against which the feet of the queen-posts
h h abut, serving the same purpose as the straining beam g.

1209. In fig. 408 we give a drawing of a roof truss for a 30-feet span, on the
principle of the queen-post truss, but modified with a king-post a, and struts or
braces b , c c.

Fig. 408.

Fig. 409.

TRDSS WITH TWO

1210. In fig. 409 we give a sketch of half of a truss calculated for 47-feet span,

but also adapted to
spans between 45
and 60 feet. In this
there are two queen-
I posts a b, with a
strut c bet we en them,
and a second strut d
supporting the prin-
cipal rafter. The fol-
lowing are the sizes
or scantlings of the
various parts : the
wall-plates, 6 inches
. square ; tie-beam, 13

inches by 8 ; queen-posts a, 8 inches square ; small queen-posts b, 8 inches
by 4; principal rafters, 8 inches by 6; straining-beam e, 9 inches by

6 ; struts c d, 5 inches
by 3 ; purlins f, for 8-
feet bearings, 7 inches
by 5 ; pole - plates, 6
inches square.

1211. Hip Roof. In
small roofs the lower ends
of the hip-rafters rest on
the walls at the corners
be d e of the building,
the upper end being fitted
to the ridge-pole a, as in
fig. 410.

1212. Another method is to form a frame as a a, b c, fig. 411, which is placed at
the corner of the walls. Upon this framing the lower termination of the hip-rafter
is fixed, the upper resting on the king-post. Where a tie-beam is introduced, the

Fig. 411.

Fig. 410.

ROOF WITH HTF-RAFTIR 8CALT. -
TO TH FOOT.

-nEC* A27D URAOONAL TIB TO
8DPPORT HIB-JvAFTZR.

SCANTLINGS OF ROOFS.

303

outer end rests on the angle of the wall, the inner being fixed to the principal
tie-beam. A strut fitted to the smaller tie-beam supports the middle of the
hip-rafter. The short rafters between the hip-rafters are called "jack- rafters."
1213. Fig. 412 illustrates the plan of a hipped roof : a a a the walls, b bb the
wall-plate, c c hip-rafters, d d angle-pieces to support end of rafters, e e princi-
pals, // purlins, g ridge-pole. The part to the left shows the roof slated.

1214. Scantlings of Roofs of various Classes and Spans. Taking fig. 406 as an
illustration of the "first class" of "roof-trusses," fig. 407 as an illustration of
the " second," and fig. 408 as of the " third class," the following may be taken
as tables of the sizes of useful spans of roofs :

CLASS I. (Fig. 406.)

Span.

Tie-beam.

Principal

Rafters.

COMMON RAFTERS.

Struts.

King-post.

PURLINS.

Bearing

8 Feet.

10 Feet.

8 Feet.

10 Feet.

20ft.
25

10 x 4 in.
10 5

4x4 in.
5 4

4 x 2 1 in.

6 x 3 in.

4x3 in.
5 3

4 x 4 i n .
5 5

6 x 4 i n .

7 x 5 in.

11 6

6 4

...

6 3

5 .5

...

CLASS II. (Fig. 407.)

Span.

Tie-beam.

Principal

Rafters.

Queen-posts.

Straining-
beam.

Struts.

35 ft.

11 x 4 in.

5 x 4 in.

4 x 4 in.

7 x 4 in.

4 x 2 in.

12 5 64

5 5 8 5

5 3

13 6

7 5

6 6

9 5

5 5

CLASS III. (Fig. 408.)

Span.

Tie-beam.

Principal
Queen -

pnsts a.

Small Queen-
posts 6.

Struts.

Straining-
1'ieces.

Principal
Rafters.

50 ft. 13x8 in.

8x8 in.

8 x 4 in. 5 x 3 in. 9x6 in.

8 x 6 in.

14 9

9 8

94 54 3

10 6

8 7

15 10

10 8

10 4

6 3

11 6

8 8

304

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1215. In fig. 413 we give a plan of the roof-timbers of a building where
one part is at" right angles to the other : a a a a the walls ; b b b the wall-

Fig. 413.

TIMBER OP A HOOP MEETING AT R:

lOHT ANGLES (FLAX) SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT

plates, 4 inches by 2 ; d d the ridge-pole, 7 inches by 2|, of the longest
part of the roof; cc the ridge-pole, 7 inches by 1|, of the shortest part;
e e the hip-rafters, 6 inches by 2 ; //the rafters, 6 inches by 2; g h
part of the slate-boarding on the two roofs. In fig. 414 we give an end
elevation of the same roof ; h h is the ridge-pole corresponding to c c, fig.

4 13, the end of which butts
on the ridge-pole corre-
sponding to d d, fig. 413,
the other end resting on
the gable of the short pro-
jection of the building
m m, fig. 413 ;/ the raf-
ters of the longest portion
of building; d the ceil-
ing joists, 4 inches by 2 ; g
the hip-rafter correspond-
ing to e, fig. 413 ; n n the
common rafters. In fig.
415 we give the side
elevation of roof; o o IB
the ridge - pole corre-
sponding to d d in fig.
413 ; b b the rafters corre-
sponding to n n, fig. 414 ;
nn the rafters corresponding to those marked //in fig. 413. In fig. 416
is the arrangement of timbers at c c, fig. 413, drawn to a larger scale ; a a part

8IDTS, ELEVATION OF ROOF IN FIQ. 413.

CURB ROOF.

305

of the ridge-pole, corresponding to d d, fig. 413, and b the ridge-pole, corre-
sponding to c c in the same figure, <; c the hip-rafters, corresponding to e e,
fig. 413.

1216. In some roofs the ends terminate at the same angle of inclination
as that of the sides. This is effected by introducing hip-rafters, as a ,
fig. 417.

1217. In smaller roofs the lower ends of the rafters rest on the walls at the
corners of the building a , the upper end being fitted to the ridge-pole b, as in
fig. 417.

1218. Fig. 418 shows the "jack-rafters " of a hip-roof, being the short tim-
bers filling up the slope*

1219. In fig. 419 we give the elevation of a truss adapted for a flat roof; a
the straining-beam, part

of which is cut away at
either end, as at b 5, to
form the butting ends,
against which the raft-
ers c c rest. These
rafters are made of the
pieces cut out of b b.
Suspension or tie-bolts
d d are placed near the ends of the beam a to prevent deflection.

1220. In fig. 420 we give a drawing of another form, of truss for a flat roof,
for a 35-feet span : a wall-plate,

6 inches square ; b b tie-beam,
13 inches by 5 ; c qxieen-post, 12
inches by 6 ; d straining-beam, 12
inches by 6 ; e strut or brace,

5 J inches by 5|- ; / / principal,
8 inches by 6 ; g pole - plate,

6 inches by 4 ; li h common rafter,

7 inches by 6 ; ii joists supporting
the lead flat.

1221. Mansard or Curb Roof .
In cases where space is desired
above the tie-beam, a form of truss
known as the "mansard" is adopt-
ed ; an illustration of which we

give in fig. 421 ; a a, 10 inches by 4 ; b b, 6 inches by 4 ; c c, 5 inches by 4 ;
d d, 4 inches by 4 ; e e, 5 inches by 4 ; /, 5 inches by 4 ; g g, 5 inches by 2.

306

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 421.

1222. High-pitched
or Gothic Roofs. In
fig. 422 we give a trass
for a high-pitched roof
for a 20 - feet span ;
a a, 4 inches by 3| ;
5, 5 inches by 4 ; c, 3^
inches by 4.

1223. In fig. 423 is
another form of a truss
for a high-pitched roof,
in which the tie-bolt
a is of wrought-iron.
The tie-beam b b is
12 inches deep at the
centre and 9 at the
ends, the thickness be-
ing 5 inches ; c c lower
braces, 9 inches by 5 ;
d d upper braces, 6
inches by 5 ; e e prin-
cipals, 9 inches by 5.

1224. Height in a
high-pitched roof may
be obtained by cam-
bering up the tie-beam,
as shown in fig. 424,
which may be adapted
for a thrashing-mill.
The king-post will re-
quire to have as many
faces as there are sides
in the polygon to be
roofed. The whole
strength of the ar-
rangement depends
upon the strength of
the straps used to join
the ends of braces b b
to the foot of the king-
post a.

1225. Curved Rib-
Truss. Fig. 425 illus-
trates a form of roof
invented by Mr Holds-
worth, and for which
the Society of Arts
gave a reward. In
this form, the space
usually taken up by
king-posts, &c., is left
clear, so as to be available for several useful purposes, while the truss is

TRUSS FOB OOTHIO OR BIOS-PITCHED ROOF SCALE, | INCH TO TH FOOT

Pig. 423.

TRUSSES.

307

not only lighter, but a considerable saving of timber is effected. The prin-
cipal feature is the employment of a curved rib, as a a a ; this may be made of
thin half-inch boards bolted together at intervals, firmly fixed into the tie-
beam b b ; the principal rafters c c rest on these ribs, the lower ends abutting
upon pieces d resting on the wall, and firmly connected by iron straps to the
rib, so as to be able to counteract the outward thrust of the rafters ; e e are the
common rafters, ///the purlins, g the wall-plate.

1226. Mr Tredgold describes a method of making curved ribs of short pieces
of wood, which we illustrate in fig. 426. The pieces break joint, as shown in
plan, the bolts being placed at each side of the joint, passing through the solid
parts of thja wood. Timber for small roofs may be bent into the required form ;
the elasticity of a piece of timber not being impaired by thus bending, when

308

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

ELEVATION FOK BIBS OF

Fig. 427.

its thickness does not exceed the one-hundred and twentieth part of its length.
The best mode, however, of making a bent rib is on the " laminated" principle,

now much adopted in
railway-station roofs
a fine example being
met with in the Car-
stairs Junction Station
of the Caledonian Kail-
way. Flat half -inch
boards may be laid to-
gether till the thick-
ness desired is attained.
The two ribs may then be placed, and the ends brought down with a rope till

the curve is got, when the two
Fig. 428. should be bolted together. On

the release of the rope they will
not spring back more than one-
fourth or so of the amount of
curve. The original curve given
them, therefore, should be about
25 per cent greater than the
curve required, to compensate
for this spring or return, which
taking place will bring the ribs
to their true position,

1227. Laminated Rib-Roof.
In fig. 427 we give a sketch of
a truss of 32-feet span for a la-
minated rib. The rafters a a
are 10 inches by 6 ; the king-
post b the same ; c c the lami-
nated ribs, 10 inches by 6.

1228. Fig. 428 is part of the
truss on a larger scale ; a the
rafter resting on the pole-plate
b, c c post resting on the
bracket <?, and bolted to the wall,
e e the laminated rib, of which a
section and part side view are

TAIL OF PART OP ROOF-TBO88
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 429.

given in fig. 429.

DETAIL OF HIB OF ROOF SCALE, J INCH

1229. Truss for Roof in
Thrashing- Mill. In fig. 430 is
plan of a truss for the horse-walk
of a thrashing-mill, fig. 431 the elevation, and fig. 432 plan of walls.

1230. Hexagonal Roof. In fig. 433 is plan, fig. 434 elevation, and fig. 435
section of hexagonal roof for a thrashing-mill horse-walk.

1231. Timber for Dormer Windows. Where windows project from the angle
of a roof they are termed "dormer," as at a 5, fig. 436. In same figure we
give a section showing the arrangement of timbers ; c c the rafter of the roof,
d the ridge-pole of the window, e e upright for supporting the window-frame,

/ filling-in pieces.

CIRCULAR THRASHING-MILL ROOF.

Ti''. 4:30.

309

Fig 431.

aio

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 433.

Fig. 434.

Fig. 435

IXBVATION OF HEXAGONAL ROOF SCALE, J IKOH TO

TH FOOT.

OALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT,

Fig. 436.

ZUVATION AND SECTION OF DORMEH WINDOW SCALE. J INCH
TO THE FOOT.

GUTTERS.

311

Fig. 437.

1232. Gutters. Where the rafters project over the wall which in the
majority of the simpler constructions will be the case the manner of making
the gutters in a variety of ways is shown in the following figures : In fig. 437,
d is the rafter ; c the gutter, formed by bending thin iron or
zinc into the shape required, and nailing it to the end of the
rafter. Care must be taken to give the gutter a gentle slope
throughout its length, to prevent the water stagnating in any
part, and to lead it as quickly as possible to the " down pipe,"
carrying it to the rain-water tank or barrel. This slope is
given to it by marking off on the end of the first and last SIKPI, K COTTER *
rafter, between which the length of gutter is fastened, a line
at the same distance from the under side say this, 4 inches : the upper edge
of the gutter, as a, is nailed at the mark ; and the other end of the gutter at the
other rafter, at a short distance below the mark, as b: this will give the proper
fall. The inclination may be, for every 15 feet in length, a fall of 1 inch. In
fig. 438 the gutter b may be made of wood 3 inches square in the inside, and
nailed to the rafter a, as shown. Mr Downing, in his work on Country Houses,
figures two simple methods of forming gutters at the end of rafters ; these are
shown in figs. 439, 440. In fig. 439, a is the wall, b b the rafter, c a trian-

Fig. 438.

Fig. 439.

Fig. 441.

gular piece of wood nailed to the rafter, giving a support to a curved halt
pipe of zinc or iron, as shown in the diagram. In fig. 440 the half-circular bed
for the pipe-gutter is cut out of the rafter : this looks well from the exterior,
as no projection is seen. In both these plans the down-pipes, for leading the
rain-water to the lower level, can be at once taken from the gutters, flush or
level with the outside line of wall, as shown by the dotted lines. In the other
forms of gutter described, if the down-pipe is wished to be taken along the
wall, bends or turns must be made to bring it-from the projecting gutter to the
face of wall. Thus, in fig. 438, the simplest method of leading the rain-water
from the gutter b, would be to take a pipe, shown
by the dotted line e, to the barrel or drain beneath.
This, however, would be unsightly; to obviate
which, a return or bend / might be made to the
wall d, and the pipe led down its face, as is usually
done. In fig. 441 the -gutter is supported by
pieces of timber a, placed beneath the wall-plate b,
at intervals corresponding to the rafters e. The
front face of the gutter d may bo ornamented with
a moulded piece /nailed to it. The size of pro-
jecting piece e, or " cantaliver" as it is termed, may be, for roofs of ordinary
size, 4 inches wide by 1 thick ; the size of gutter inside may be from 3 to 4
inches wide and deep, inside measurement.

312

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1233. In fig. 442 we give a section of a wall of house showing formation of
gutter, in which a a is the wall, b the cantaliver, supported by the bracket c,
secured to the nog c?; e an ornamental bracket ; / the gutter. Of the remain-
ing part of this figure, g is the pole-plate, h h the rafter, i the ceiling-joist, k the

cornice, I head of window, and m upper
442 - part of sash.

1234. Bridged Gutter. Where the
wall is continued in front to form a
parapet, as a a, fig. 443, the bridged
gutter is used ; b b the rafter, butting
by a bird' s-nose joint on the wall-plate c;
d the gutter-beam, supported by e.

Fig. 443.

GALE, -J INCH TO

SECTION OF WALL SHOWING GOTTKK WITH CANTAUVE:

Fig. 444.

FALLEJ-GOTTiH.

1235. Valley-Gutter. Fig. 444 shows
a simple method of forming a valley-
gutter, in which a is the beam on which
the rafters b b abut ; c c the boarding
forming the gutter.

1236. In fig. 445 is another method of forming a
valley-gutter : a a the beams, 10 inches by 2 J, against
which the rafters b &, 4 inches by 2^, abut ; the dis-
tance between the joists a a being 10 inches. Part
of the side view of joists a a is given at c c ; d d the
" gutter-plate," which rests on the studs e e, let into
the joists at either end.

Fig. 445.

ECTION AND ELEVATION OF VALLEY-GUTTER SCALE, j INCH TO THE FOOT

MODE OF CUTTING OUT

ROANS OR GUTTERS OUT

OF SOLID TIMBER.

1237. Moans or Gutters cut out of a Solid Block of Wood. Fig. 446 represents a

BELVIDERK AND BRACKET.

313

method of cutting out triangular " roans " out of a solid balk, as recommended
by the architect of

the Scottish Asso- Fi g . 447.

ciation for Improv-
ing the Cottages
of Agricultural La-
bourers. Let abed
be the section of
balk ; by means of
a circular saw, make
a cut from e to /,
and from f to g ;
the part e f g d
will thus be cut
out, leaving a roan
or gutter a b efc/c.
Out of the part ^7/ecZ
another gutter may
be cut, as shown by
the lines j h ; and
out of the square
piece cut z, a third
may be obtained,
leaving, finally, a
spar, which may be
used for a variety
of purposes.

1238. Belvidere of House in Fig. 38. Of this wo give in fig. 447 a section,
and in fig. 448 a side elevation of brackets supporting rafters.

IIION OF W001EN BRA

314

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1239. SECTION FIFTH Stairs. There are two limits of space to be con-
sidered in the laying out of stairs these are, the height from the upper surface
of the lowest floor to that of the upper, as the height from b to a, fig. 449 ; next,
the horizontal distance between the outer edge of the step at the top, as a to
that of the lower one at c. The part of a step on which the foot rests in ascend-
ing or descending is termed the " tread," a, fig. 450, and a generally received
breadth for this is 9 inches ; the vertical part of a step, as b, b, fig. 450, is

Fig. 449.

Fig. 450.

TREADS AUD HISER,

MODE OF lAYINO ODT STEPS.

called the "riser," and the height may be averaged at 7| inches. The vertical
height a 6, fig. 449, from one floor to another, being carefully ascertained
suppose it to be 97^ inches, or 8 feet 1^ inch, and the height of riser to be 7^
97^ divided by 7| lengths will give 13, the number of risers in the stair as in
fig. 449. Now, supposing the horizontal distance b c to be accurately ascer-
tained to be 9 feet or 108 inches, the tread being 9 inches, this will give 12
treads ; the number of treads in a stair is always one less than the number of
risers, as the floor of the upper storey forms the last tread.

1240. Fig. 451 is an elevation of the stairs laid
out in fig. 449, and which forms the simplest method
of reaching an upper floor.

1241. In fig. 452 we give the plan of a "platform
staircase," in which there is first a flight of eleven

Fig. 451.

Fig. 452.

MOEI OP 9ITTIKO OTTT BTXFS.

steps a a, leading to the platform b &, which forms the twelfth step. A second,
or " return " flight, of eleven steps, c c, leads to the floor d of second storey,
which forms the twenty-fourth step.

STAIiiS.

315

1242. In fig. 458 wo give a section of this; ti b being the height from
first to second floor; c the twelfth landing-place.

1243. In fig. 454 we give the plan, and in fig-. 455 the section, of a staircase,
with return, steps a a.

1244. Notch-Board. String-Hoard. The "treads" and "risers" of a stair-
case are notched into, or housed into, two inclined boards, which are termed
" notch-boards." The " carriage-board," rig. 45G, is the board next the open side
of the well-hole of a staircase, which encloses or terminates the ends of the steps.

Fiir. 453. I

Fig. 455.

1245. Laying out of the Steps on the Notch-Board. We now proceed to ex-
plain another way of laying out the positions of the treads and risers, on what
are termed "string" or " carriage boards" as ale d, fig. 457, where ef, g h
represents the mortises made in the face of the
board a b c d, and e g, h i those for the treads,
and into which the ends of the boards, 1 inch
thick, are passed, forming the " risers " and
" treads " respectively. Instead of mortising
them, the risers may be merely nailed at each
end to the carriage-boards, the treads being-
nailed on the risers. The dimensions of the
carriage -board, where the " risers" are 1\ and the
treads 9 inches, may be 9 by \\ inches. If the
under side of steps is to be covered in with lath
and plaster, 4 inches should be added to the

316

PBAGTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

above breadth. Having duly ascertained the vertical and horizontal heights,
proportioned the rise and tread, and ascertained their number, procure a tri-
angular board a b c, fig. 458 the sides a b, b c, each 12 inches or so, and about
1 thick from b mark off on b a, an extent of 7^ inches d (or whatever dimen-
sions the " riser " is to be), and from b to e on b c, equal to 9 inches (or the size
of tread). Procure a piece of timber a b c d, fig. 459, about 1 inch thick, and

Fig. 458.

Fig. 4.

TEMPLATE FOR MAE
STEPS.

MODE OF US1SO IJEICPLATB IN MARXINO OUT STEPS.

square up one side a d; take the triangular piece a b c, in fig. 458, and placing
the point d (denoting the extent of 7| inches from b} at any point in the side
a d, as at h, fig. 459, and the point e (denoting the extent of 9 inches from b) to
meet the same line a J, mark round, with a sharp point or pencil, h g, g m, and cut
out the piece h g m, as shown by the notched lines ; square the edges of this it
will form the " pitch-board " by which to mark the position of treads and risers on

the string-board. Hav-
ing obtained the timber
for the string-board of
proper dimensions, place
the "pitch-board" hgm,
fig. 459, with the point h
at c, fig. 460 (having pre-
viously drawn a gauge
line c c from the squared-

Fig. 460.

MARKINO Oni STEPS IN STRING-SCAB]!

Fig. 461.

up side a J, of breadth
sufficient for plastering 4
or 5 inches, or 2 to 3 if
left open), and the point
m at e ', draw in the face
of the string-board c de\
next place the end h at
e, and m at <?, and draw
e f g, and so on until
the requisite number of
treads and risers are laid

Fig. 462.

Fig. 463.

LVATION OF BALUSTERS TOR TAP.1IHOO8E.

ION OF BALI:

down. The two string-boards thus treated (one on
each side of the staircase) are to be placed as far

DOORS.

317

apart as the width of stair ; and the boards forming treads, 9 inches wide, arid
those forming risers, 1\ inches deep, are to be nailed at the ends or mortised,
as described in fig. 4/>7 the risers bring- nailed, &e. to the lines corresponding
to c d, a /, and the treads on the lines d c, f <j, iig. -1150. When, the stairs, thus
formed, are placed in their position between the walls a and b, in fig. 451, the
treads d e,fg, fig. 460, will bo horizontal, and the risers c d, ef vertical.

1246. In fig. 461 we give elevation of balusters for house in Iig. "23, and
in fig. 462 a section of one of the balusters ; and in fig. 463 an elevation of the
baluster for house in fig. 41 ; both for a first-class farmhouse.

1247. SECTION SIXTH Wooden Fittings <>f the Farmhouse and Cottage
Doors Windoivs, $c.

1248. Ledged Doors. A lodged door is constructed of a number of boards,
a a, fig. 4G4, of length equal to that of doorway. They are tongued and grooved,
and secured by cross pieces or ledges b b.

1249. Ledged and Braced Doors. In this form, in addition to the ledges a a #,
fig. 465, braces b b, are added.

1250. Framed and Braced Doors. In this form the longitudinal boards are
kept together by the frame H a a u, fig. 4GG, and farther strengthened by the braces
b b. Doors of this kind, when circular headed, may be finished in the interior, as
shown in fig. 4G7. The exterior being kept quite plain.

Fig. 464.

1251. Sash Door. In
fig. 468 we give the ele-
vation of a sash door, the
lower part being furnished
with two panels a b, the
upper with a sash c, framed
and glazed.

1252. Framed Doors.
The doors of rooms of a
superior class, furnished
with panels, are termed
" framed doors." In fig.
4G9, a a shows a four-
panelled, and b b a six-
panelled door. In the

318

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

frame of a panelled door, the side parts a a, fig. 470, are called " styles.''
The "rails," fig. 471, are the horizontal pieces containing the tenon mortised
into the styles, and into which the panels are inserted. In fig. 472 a is the

Fig. 471.

Pig. 470.

or A I>CCB.

- . :

" bottom rail ; " in fig. 473 a is the " middle rail." The vertical pieces a a,
fig. 474, between the styles b b and rails c c, are called " muntins."

:. ::.

IT7XTIKS Or A I/OOB

1253. Panels. In fig. 475 we give at a the elevation of a snnk panel, and at
b a raised lozenge. A panel is said to be " bead butt," as at , fig. 476, when
the bead is worked on the edge of the panel, and so butts against the " rails."
It is said to be "bead flush," as at b, fig. 476, when the bead is worked all
round on the edge of the frame.

Fig. 475.

- -

U BUII AS3> FLCBH FAJCEI

PANELS.

319

1254. In fig. 477 we give suggestions for panelled work for house in fig. 23,
and in fi\ 478 for the panel of drawing-room door of house in fig. 41.

1255. Gothic Door, fig. 479.

1256. Raised Panel Door. Bokctinn Moulded, fig. 480.

1257. Folding Door, fig. 481.

1258. Sliding Door, fig. 482.

Fig. 478.

O O G

O O

3 O

320

PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

Fig. 482.

Fig. 481.

SLIEINO BOOR.

1259. Door Stops for the Prevention of Draughts. In fig. 483 we give a
drawing of a left-hand door closed, and in fig. 484 a right-hand door opening,

Fig. 483.

Fig. 4S4.

FLAN O DOOR STOP (oOOB CLOSED).

DOOR STOP (DOOR PARTIALLY OPES).

fitted with the india-rubber stops, The appliance consists of a small beading,
nailed or screwed round the door frame, with a narrow strip or ribbon of thin
vulcanised india-rubber, which is fixed at an angle, as at a, fig. 484, in a
groove. The whole forms a species of spring, which presses against the
door when closed, and forms an air-tight joint all round. In fig. 485 we
illustrate the stop for the bottom of a door an admirable substitute for weather-
boards in outside-doors. The beading which supports the strip of vulcanised
india-rubber is hinged to the door itself, so that it opens like a parallel ruler.
A spiing is provided between the two pieces, so that, as the door closes, the
heel of the bead is caught by the frame and pressed so as to open the parallel
slip, and cause the lower, edge, provided with the india-rubber, to press upon the

WINDOWS.

321

floor or carpet. The address of the patentee is, Mr .T. Greenwood, 10 Arthur
Street West, London Bridge, London.

1260. Windows. In fig. 48G we give a
4 feet high that is, between upper and
under side of lintels a <7, a a and 2 feet
broad between inner side of side-posts
b b. Part of the length of side-posts are
broken off to save room. The lintels a , a a
are 4 inches by 3; the side-posts, same
size, are attached to these by any of the
joints already described ; a centre rail
c c, 4 by 2, divides the window into two.
Fig. 487 shows the plan of this, where
the angular form of wall o o is shown,
commencing at upper side of lower lintel
a a, fig. 486, and terminating at under
side of upper lintel a a. The window-
sill, in the inside of room, is formed by pi
in the space between o o at m,
and projecting over inside wall
about f inch. An exterior sill
may be made by nailing to out-
side of under lintel a a, fig.
487, a piece of timber 3 inches
square the upper side sloping,
and under side throated : c is
section of the corresponding centre
rail c, fig. 486. In fig. 488 we give
the drawing of a sash window, the
upper half c of which is fixed, the
lower d being movable that is, cap-
able of beingliftedup. Thelower mov-
able sash is, however, not balanced by
sash-weights, but is retained in its
place by a simple catch, or a piece of
wood, at any desired height. The
construction of a balanced sash is
of too complicated a kind to be at-
tempted by any but an experienced
workman. The left figure is a sec-
tion (vertical), that to the right being
an elevation : a a a a is the fram-
ing, 5 inches by 3, the wall //being >' -+
14 inches thick ; c the upper sash,
firmly nailed to the framing ; d the
lower movable sash, which slides up

diagram of the framing; for a window

acing a piece of boarding, inch thick,

322

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 489.

into the space e. The lower sash d is prevented from coming out of its
place by two bars c c, fig. 489, \ inch thick, and inch wide, nailed to the

inside and outside of side-posts a a.
The outer one is only continued from
bottom lintel up to the under side of
upper sash ; the inner one being earned
up to the under side of upper lintel. In
fig. 489, b is the side of sash-frame c,
fig. 488, e the rebated astragal, / the
glass, g the bottom rail of sash-frame c,
fig. 488. The dimensions of this window
is 3 feet 4 by 6 feet 5 ; each sash is
divided into six panes, 12 inches by 17.
In fig. 490 we give drawings of the
lower sash, drawn to a scale of ^ inch
to the foot. The lower rail a a, is 3 inches by 2 ; the upper, J, 2 inches by 2,
as also the side ones c c. The section to the right shows position of top and

bottom rail, and astragal for sus-
taining the glass ; that to the left,
an end view of sash ; that to the
bottom, a plan. A method of mak-
ing the astragals for sustaining the
glass in windows, is shown in fig.
491, which is a cross section of one.
A piece of wood any desired length
(they may be made in long lengths,
and cut as desired) is planed up to
1^ inch broad by ^ thick ; a rebate
is made on both sides, as 6, inch
deep, and of breadth so as to leave
the front a 1 inch broad. The

PABT SECTION OF SASH-FRAME.

Fig. 490.
b

angle.

sides c c are \ inch broad, and the
other portion is tapered off to a
little more than ^. The glass is
fastened in the rebates 5, and se-
cured with putty, filling up the
The part a is outside, d in the interior of the room. In fig. 492 the

ILKVATIOS AND SUCTION O SA8H-FRAMK OF WINBOV

manner of joining the astragals together is shown : a a corresponds to the ver-
tical lengths in fig. 490, b b to

Fig. 492.
Fig. 491.

the cross ones. They may be
joined by a dovetail or other
joint, or nailed together. The
dotted lines in fig. 491 show the
position of an astragal at right
angles to a d. In fig. 493 we
give a diagram illustrative of the
arrangement of another form of
sliding window : in this instance
the window is moved from side
to side laterally, instead of vertically, as in fig. 488. Let a b c d be the
opening of window in inside of frame, or in the wall ; h h the wall of room ;
below the window fix (to wood bricks fixed in the wall) a horizontal timber e e,

ASTRAGALS

WINDOWS.

323

4^ inches by 4 feet, Laving nailed on its upper side a piece c, fig. 494, ^ inch
square; similar to this, fix above the, window another horizontal slide//, but
having its piece, as c, ri , 4po

tin

fig. 494, fixed on
lower edge ; there will
thus be at upper and un-
der sides of window, and
extending beyond it on
both sides (or one, as
the window is desired to
be moved on both sides
or one only), two slides,
in which the sash-frame
a b c d, fig. 493, can be
moved or pushed along.
To facilitate its being

moved along, two projecting handles may be attached to the sash-frame in-
side. The upright g, fig. 493, limits the extent to which the window can be
opened, or slid along

e e and//. In the dia- Fi o- 494.

gram we have repre-
sented the horizontal
bars e e, ff as being
broken off. If the
window is required to
be capable of moving
either to right or left
of window - opening,
they will extend to an
equal distance on both
sides : if the window

is to move only to one side, a vertical post similar tog Avill be placed close to the
edge of window, at side opposite to that at which g in the figure is placed.
The figure to the left, fig. 493, is a section. In fig. 494, a is the sash-frame, 4
feet square, inside measurement, the scantling being the same as in fig. 490. It
is divided into 20 squares, 11 inches by 9. The section b to the right repre-
sents the under rail e e in fig. 493, to a scale of ^ inch to the inch ; c is the
bottom rail of the sash. Instead of making the window in one part, it may be
divided into two the inner rails of sash-frame being rebated, as in section e e
to the left, so that, when closed together, they will form a water-tight joint.

1261. As a good window is an essential article in the cottages of labourers,
it may be worth while to give a description of one made by Messrs M'Culloch
& Co., Gallowgate, Glasgow, and for which they received a premium from the
Highland and Agricultural Society. " This window is extremely simple in its
construction, and. may with safety be pronounced efficient in point of comfort
and utility, while the price, it is believed, will not be higher than the cheapest
description of iron windows now in use, and, for durability, will be preferable
to those of any other material. The dimensions that have been recommended
for the windows of ordinary cottages are, 39 inches for the height, and 24 inches
for the width, within the wooden frames. The size of glass required for these
frames is 7^ inches by 5^. The sash is divided into two unequal parts, the lower
part having 3 squares in height, and the upper part 2. The lower part is per-

324

PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

manently fixed, while the upper part is constructed to turn in the vertical
direction on pivots, which are situate in the line of its middle astragal ; and
both parts are set in a substantial wooden frame, which may either be built in
while the wall is erecting, or set in afterwards in the ordinary way, with or
without checked rebats, according to the taste of the proprietor. The window
and its arrangements will be better understood by reference to the annexed
cuts, fig. 495 showing an inside elevation, fig. 496 a plan, and fig. 497 a ver-

Fig. 495.

THE INSIDE ELEVATION OF AN IMPROVED WINDOW 8OITED FOR COTTAO1

feet.

tical section, in each of which a portion of the wall is exhibited, and the same
letters refer to the corresponding parts of each figure ; a is a portion of the sur-
roxinding wall ; b b the wooden frame of the window ; c the lower sash, which is
dormant; and d the upper and movable sash. In fig. 497, the upper sash is
represented as open for ventilation. When shut, the parts of the opening sash
cover and overlap the fixed parts in such a manner as to exclude wind and
water ; but when ventilation is required, the arrangement of the parts which

WINDOWS.

325

produce tins, is such as to enable tlio housekeeper to admit air to any extent.
For this purpose, the notched latch c i.s jointed to a stud in the edge of the

sash ; a simple iron pin or stud is also fixed
in the wooden frame at s, and the notches of
the latch being made to fall upon this stud
at any required distance, the requisite degree
of opening is secured ; and when the sash is
again closed, the latch falls down parallel
with, and close to, the sash. To secure the
sashes when shut, the T bolt f, in the mid-
dle of the meeting bars, has only to be
turned \ round, and the movable sash is held
fast in close contact with the other. Fig.
495 represents the windows as finished with
simple dressings namely, plain deal shutters,
facings, and sole which, at a small expense,
would give an air of neatness and comfort to
the apartment, and promote a correspond-
ing taste in the other parts of the cottage.
Though the dimensions of the window here
stated may be conceived sufficient for light-
ing an apartment of ordinary size, they can,
nevertheless, be varied to suit every pur-
pose. This may be done either by employ-
ing two such windows as above described,
with a mullion of wood or of stone between
them, or the single window may be enlarged
by 1 or 2 squares in width, or in height, or
in both directions."

1262. It is proper to mention that zinc,
in the opinion of tradesmen, is too weak for
window-sashes to admit of repair by an un-
practised hand. Wood and lead are, for the
same reasons, equally unsuitable. Malleable
iron, even so thin as to impede the light but
little, if the astragals are not provided with
flanges for the glass to rest against, the re-

326

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

pair must also be a work of some difficulty, and is also deemed unfit for the
purpose. Cast-iron, therefore, appears to be the material least liable to objec-
tion ; but astragals of cast-iron must be of considerable
thickness, and such frames, consequently, could not be
adapted to a very small size of glass, without materially
obscuring the light. The iron sashes, as shown above,
without the wooden frames, cost 5s. ; and glass for such
windows may be purchased at 2|d. per square.

1263. French Casement Window. In fig. 498 we give an
elevation of this form of window, the peculiarity of which
is, that the sashes a a, b b open longitudinally, like fold-
ing-doors. The leaves may open up the whole length of
window, or the sashes c c may be fixed. Objections to this
form of window the difficulty of regulating the amount
of opening, so as to secure less or more ventilation, the ex-
pensiveness of the fastenings, and their liability to shake
and rattle, and to admit draughts through the central join-
ing are all obviated in the ingenious form of window now
to be described.

1264. West $ Habbell's Patent " Oak-Hall" Window.
In fig. 499 we give an elevation of this window closed, and in fig. 500 an ele-
vation open. From fig. 500, it will be seen that the sashes are capable of

ILIVATION O A F
CASEMENT WI

Fig. 499.

Fig. 500.

OAK-HAI.I, WINDOW, CLOSEr

being opened several ways at once. The top sashes a a can be lowered, so
as to permit of the escape of the foul air of the room, while the lower sashes b
and c can be opened not only in the direction of their length, but can be
raised in the frame. The upper panes a a can be lowered to the bottom of
the frame, so as to be within easy reach when requiring to be cleaned or re-
paired ; and being kept in the lower position while the two swinging sashes are
completely open, they will serve as a protection when children are in the room.
In construction, this form of window is cheaper than French casements, requires
no expensive fastenings, and does not interfere with inside blinds, which can
be used whether the window is open or shut. Amongst other advantages this
window possesses, is that which enables one-half of the lower sash, as the

WINDOWS.

327

part i, to be opened or drawn up independently of the other half c. By this
arrangement, the draught of air entering the apartment can be directed as de-
sired. The centre mullions of the lower sashes b, care tongued and grooved
like the boards of a floor., so that the sashes do not shake or rattle, and are
perfectly weather-tight when closed. From the vertical movement of the lower
sashe's, the stop bead at the bottom of the frame acts also as a medium to ex-
clude the weather the drip being on the outside. In fig. 501 we give a
longitudinal, and in fig. 502 a horizontal, section of this window.

Fig. 502.

FAKT HORIZONTAL PLAN OF C

1265. Shaw's Patent Sash-Frame. In fig. 503 we give a drawing of part ele-
vation, in fig. 504 a horizontal section, and in fig. 505 a vertical section, of
this window, which is rapidly coming into use, affording great facilities for
cleaning and repairing. The sashes are fixed upon centres, so that they are
capable of making a semi-revolution presenting the outside of the window
to the inside of the room. In fig. 505 the sash-cords a are attached to
strips or loose pieces b, sliding in the recess of the window-frame ; the sashes
d d have on either side a projecting pin or centre e e, as seen also in fig. 503

328

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

on the lower sash. only. The centres e are nearly in the centre of the length of
sash, and they engage in the bearings /, in the loose strips b. To preserve the
sashes in a vertical direction, screws g g, fig. 504, are passed through the sash
stile, and engage in pieces h h, fixed in the strips b. The sash is thus made to
form vertically one piece with the strips ft, so that it can be raised or lowered
as an ordinary sash. By withdrawing the pins g, the sash may be turned on
its centre, as in fig. 505. The sashes, when restored to their vertical position,
are secured in their places by the screws g g these entering the window in an
oblique direction, as in fig. 504. The address of the patentee is, Benjamin
Shaw, Wellington, Salop.

Fig. 503.

fpn"T5-

Fig. 505.

PART ELETATrCW OF SHAW'9
PATENT WINDOW.

Fig. 504.

LONO1TUDINAI. SECTION OF I
PATENT WINDOW.

PART PLN OF I
PATENT WIN

1266. Details of Windows of Farmhouses. Of the windows of houses given
from pages 58 to 83, we now propose to give detail drawings. In fig. 506

WINDOWS.

329

we give half plan of main window, of which we have given the front elevation
in fig. 56.

Fi-. 500.

1267. In fig. 507 w r e give an enlarged sketch to a scale of -^ inch to the
foot showing half elevation of bay window to sitting-room a a in ground plan,
fig. 55, and elevation in fig. 56.

1268. In fig. 508 we give part plan of this window, at the corner where the

front and side lights meet ; a the corner jamb or mullion, b b space for sun
blinds, c space for shutters, d skirting.

1269. In fig. 509 we give the plan of shutter of one side of this window,
where a a is line of sill, b jamb or mullion, c c space for sun blinds, d d
space for shutters, e e face of skirting, f f shutter-box and shutters.

1270. In fig. 510 we give part vertical section of this bay window; a a a
cornice, b sash-frame.

1271. In fig. 511 we give part vertical section of base of the same bay win-
dow ; a the sill, b sash-frame, c skirting in room.

1272. In fig. 512 we give a side elevation, of the V window in fig. 56, and
in parlour, b b, fig. 55, of which fig. 513 is part plan, showing mullion a, sash-
framing b b.

1273. In fig. 514 we give section of inner part of same window, with jamb ,
and shutter-box and shutters b and c. In figs. 513 and 514 the numbers 111,
2 2, and 3 3, denote the same lines. The scale to which these drawings are
made, is 1 inch to the foot.

330

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

PART VERTICAL B1CTION OF BAT WINDOW SCALE, 1 INCH TO
THE FOOT.

PLAN OF SHUTTERS SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 611.

PART SOTIOK OF BASH OF BAT WINDOW
1 INCH TO THI FOOT.

Fig. 512.

SIDE ELEVATION OF V -WINDOW-
IN FIQ. 56.

WINDOWS.

331

Fig. 513.

1274. In fig. 515 we give plan of shutters of principal window of room c c,
in house in fig. 65 (and in elevation, in fig. 67), of which a a is the brick
wall, b b cavity of do., c bracket, d stone nmllion, e sash, f f shutter. Scale,
1 inch to the foot.

1275. In fig. 516 we give part plan of bay window in apartment b i, fir*-.
68 ; a stone mullion, b b brickwork, c sash-frame.

1276. In fig. 517 a part of sash-frame, b b brickwork, c c shutters.

1277. In fig. 518 we give half plan of bay window in chamber floor b b, fio-.
69, and in the elevation in fig. 71 ; a stone mullion, /; b brickwork, c d e sash-
frames and sashes. The scale to which figs. 51G, 517, and 518 are constructed,
is given in fig. 516.

332

PEACTICAL CONSTBUCTION.

Fig. 516.

Fig. 517.

12 6

PABT PLAN OF BAT WINDOW OF BOOSE IN FIO. 63 3CALE, 1 INC!

TO THE FOOT.

PLAN OF BiY WINDOW SHUTTERS-
SCALE IN FIO. 516.

Fig. 519.

Fig. 518.

PLAN OF BAT WINDOW, CHAMBER FLOOR, IN FIO. 69 SOALU

IN FIO. 516.

1278. Architrave. In fig. 519 we give section of mouldings of architrave for
house in fig. 23.

1279. Skirting and Cornice. In fig. 520 we give section of skirting and cor-
nice for dining-room of house in fig. 41. In fig. 521 skirting, and in fig. 522

FITTINGS OF STABLES.

333

cornice for drawing-room of same house. For many of these- details we are
indebted to Mr Burns' work, Modal Designs for Mansions, Villas, $c.

Fig. 520.

EIRT1NQ ANL) CORNICE FOE

tNINO-ROOM OF FARMHOUS

IN HO. 41.

SO-IIOOM OF FIG. 41.

1280. SECTION SEVENTH Fittings of the Steading, Stable, Byre, Barn, Courtyard,
$c. The length of a work-horse stable, of course, depends on the number of
horses employed on the farm; but in no instance should its width be less than
18 feet, for comfort to the horses themselves, and convenience to the men who
take charge of them. Few stables for work-horses are made wider than 16 feet,
and hence few are otherwise than hampered for room. A glance at the particulars
which should be accommodated in the width of a work-horse stable, will show
at once the inconvenience of this narrow breadth. The length of a work-
horse is seldom less than 8 feet ; the width of a hay-rack is about 2 feet ; the
harness hanging loosely against the wall occupies about 2 feet ; and the gutter
occupies 1 foot ; so that in a width of 16 feet there is only a space of 3 feet left
from the heels of the horses to the harness, to pass backward and forward, and
wheel a barrow and use the shovel arid broom. No wonder, when so little
room is given to work in, that cleanliness is so much neglected in farm-stables,
and that much of the dung and urine are left to be decomposed and dissipated
by heat in the shape of ammoniacal gas, to the probable injury of the breath-
ing and eyesight of the horses, when shut up at night. To aggravate the
evil, there is very seldom a ventilator in the roof; and the windows are gene-
rally too small for the admission of light and air ; and what is still worse, a
hay-loft is placed immediately above the horses' heads ; and, to render the
condition of the stable as bad as possible, as regards cleanliness, its walls
are never plastered, and their rough stones form receptacles of dust and
cobwebs.

1281. Another particular in which most stables are improperly fitted up, is
the narrowness of the stalls, 5 feet 3 inches being the largest space allowed for
an ordinary-sized work-horse. A narrow stall is not only injurious to the horse
himself, by confining him peremptorily to one position, in which he has no
liberty to bite or scratch himself, should he feel so inclined, but it materially

334 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

obstructs the ploughmen in the grooming and supplying the horse with food.
No work-horse, in our opinion, should have a narrower stall than 6 feet from
centre to centre of the travis, in order that he may stand at ease, or lie down
at pleasure with comfort.

1282. It is a disputed point of what form the hay-racks in a work-horse
stable should be. The prevailing opinion may be learned from the general
practice, which is to place them as high as the horses' heads, because, as it is
alleged, the horse is thereby obliged to hold up his head, and he cannot then
breathe upon his food. Many better reasons, as we conceive, may be adduced
for placing the racks low down. A work-horse does not require to hold his
head up at any time, and much less in the stable, where he should rest as much
as he can. A low rack permits the neck and head, in the act of eating, to be
held in the usual position. He is not so liable to put the hay among his feet
from a low as from a high rack. His breath cannot contaminate his food so
much in a low as in a high rack, inasmuch as the breath naturally ascends ; and
as the sense of smell is employed by the horse in choosing his food, he chooses
it at leisure from a low rack, whereas from a high one he is first, obliged to
pull it out before he knows he is to like what he pulls. He is less fatigued
eating out of a low than from a high rack, every mouthful having to be pulled
out of the latter, from its sloping position, by the side of the mouth turned up-
wards. For this reason mown grass is much more easily eaten out of a low
than a high rack. And, lastly, we have heard of peas falling out of the straw,
when pulled out of a high rack, into the ear of a horse, and therein setting up
a serious degree of inflammation.

1283. The front rail of the low rack should be made of strong hardwood, in
case the horse should at any time playfully put his foot on it, or bite it when
groomed. The front of the rack should be sparred, for the admission of fresh
air among the food, and incline inwards at the lower end, to be out of the way
of the horses' fore-feet. The bottom should also be sparred, and raised at least
6 inches above the floor, for the easy removal of the hay-seeds that may Lave
passed through the spars. The manger should be placed at the near end ot
the rack, for the greater convenience of supplying the corn. A spar of wood
should be fixed across the rack from the front rail to the back wall, midway
between the travis and the manger, to prevent the horse tossing out the fodder
with the side of his mouth, which he will sometimes be inclined to do when
not hungry. The ring through which the stall collar-shank passes, is fastened
by a staple to the hardwood front rail. We have seen the manger, in some new
steadings, made of stone, on the alleged plea that stone is more easily cleaned
than wood after prepared food. We do not think wood more difficult of being
cleaned than stone, when cleaned in a proper time after being used. As
ploughmen are proverbially careless, the stone manger has perhaps been sub-
stituted on the supposition that it will bear much harder usage than wood ; or
perhaps the proprietors could obtain stone cheaper from their own quarries than
good timber from abroad : but whatever may have been the reasons for pre-
ferring stone in such a situation, it has a clumsy appearance and feels uncom-
fortable, and is injurious to the horses' teeth when they seize it suddenly in
grooming, and even work-horses will bite any object when groomed; and we sup-
pose that stone would also prove hurtful to their lips when collecting their food
at the bottom of the manger.

1284. When hind-posts of travises are made of wood, they are fastened at
the upper ends to battens stretching across the stable from the ends of the
couple legs where there is no hay-loft, and from the joists of the flooring where

FITTINGS OF STABLES.

335

there is, and sunk at the lower ends in stone blocks placed in the ground. The
head-posts are divided into t\vo parts, which clasp the travis-boards between
them, and are kept together with screw-bolts and nuts, and their lower ends
are also sunk into stone blocks. Their upper ends are fastened to the battens
or joists when the hind-posts are of wood. The travis-boards are put endways
into the groove of the hind-post, and pass between the two divisions of the
head-post to the wall before the horses' heads ; and are there raised with a
sweep so high as to prevent the horses putting their heads over it.

1285. Fig. 523 gives a view of the particulars of a stall for work-horses,
fitted up with wooden travis-posts,

which is yet the common method : Fig. 52.3.

a a are the strong hind -posts ; b 6,
the head-posts, both sunk into the
stone blocks c c c c, and fastened
to the battens d d, stretching across
the stable from the wall e to the
opposite wall ;//, the travis-boards,
let into the posts a a by grooves,
and passing between the two di-
visions of the posts b b ; the boards
are represented high enough to
prevent the horses annoying each
other ; g g are curb-stones set be-
tween the hind and fore posts a
and b, to receive the side of the
travis-boards in grooves, and there-
by secure them from decay by keep-
ing them above the action of the
litter; h is the sparred bottom of
the hay-rack, the upper rail of
which holds the ring i for the stall
collar-shank ; k the corn-manger or
trough ; I the bar across the rack,
to prevent the horse tossing out

the fodder ; m the pavement within __

the stall ; n the freestone gutter
for conveying away the urine to one

V O V A STALL FOR A WOKK-UORSE STABLE.

end of the stable ; o the pavement

of the passage behind the horses' heels ; p are two parallel spars fastened over

and across the battens, when there is no hay -loft, to support trusses of straw

or hay, to be given as fodder to the horses in the evenings of winter, to

save the risk of fire in going at night to the straw-barn or hay-house with a

light.

1286. A new method of arranging the stalls in stables has recently been
advocated namely, giving feeding passage at the head, in place of termi-
nating them at a dead wall. Morton, in his prize essay on Fittings for Stables
and Byres* has, we think, exhausted all the reasons which can be urged in
favour of the scheme, and very pertinently finishes his remarks with the follow-
ing : " If cow-stalls, having a front feeding passage, are found of advantage,
in facilitating labour, in supplying the animals with food, and in some degree
promoting ventilation, the same arrangement ought surely to be adopted in

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, 1857.

336

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

nrTIN38 OF ]

stables where these advantages are of still greater importance." But with such
a passage the stable would require to be made proportionately wider.

1287. In the same essay Morton describes a method of fitting up the

front of the stalls to which we refer the
reader. The following illustration which
we have prepared, embraces the parti-
culars there given, with some modifica-
tions. In fig. 524, a a are the-head-
posts of the stall, into which the cross-
bars b 6, c c are mortised the bar c c
being just above the top edge of manger.
These bars, b , c c, support a range of
vertical spars d d, or have boarding
nailed to them, according as an open or
a closed space is required. In the centre
of the stall a space e 30 inches wide is left,
through which to supply food to the man-
ger. This is closed when required by
folding-doors / /, hinged to the upright
bars g g, which are mortised into the bars
b 6, c c at their upper and lower ends. In
place of these folding- doors a sliding gate
may be adopted. This is shown at h h
the upper and lower bars of which, i k,
being rounded at their outer edges o o,
and running in grooves, made in bars I m,

screwed to the face of the upper and lower bars b b and c c. The sliding gate
h h may be fitted in at the centre n, either with vertical spars or with boarding.

1288. Fig. 525 is a specimen of a
stall for a work-horse stable, with
cast-iron heel-posts.

1289. The roof of a work-stable
should always be open to the slates,
and not only so, but have openings in
its ridge, protected by ventilators; and
such are absolutely necessary for a
work-horse stable. It is distressing
to the feelings to inhale the air in some
farm stables at night, particularly in
old steadings economically fitted up,
which is not only warm from confine-
ment, moist from breathing, and stifl-
ing from sudorific odours, but cutting
to the breath, and pungent to the eyes,
from the volatilisation of ammonia.
The windows are seldom opened, and
can scarcely be so by disuse. The
roof in such a stable is like a suspend-
ed extinguisher over the half-stifled

horses. This evil is still further aggravated by a hay-loft, the floor of which is
extended over and within afoot or less of the horses' heads. Besides its incon-
venience to the horses, the hay in it, through nightly roasting and fumigation,

Fig. 525.

VENTILATION. 337

soon becomes dry and brittle, and contracts a disagreeable odour. The only
remedy for all these inconveniences is complete ventilation.

1290. Ventilation. The object of ventilation, to any apartment which consti-
tutes the abode of animals, is to procure a constant supply of air in sufficient
purity to meet the demands of the animal economy. The practice that has long
prevailed, as regards ventilation, seems to deny its utility, and to doubt the
injury accompanying its neglect. " It is upwards of eight-and-forty years,"
says Stewart, " since James Clarke of Edinburgh protested against close stables.
He insisted they were hot and foul, to a degree incompatible with health, and
he strongly recommended that they should be aired in such a manner as to have
them always cool and sweet. Previous to the publication of Clarke's work,
people never thought of admitting fresh air into a stable ; they had no notion
of its use. In fact, they regarded it as highly pernicious, and did all they
could to exclude it. In those times the groom shut up his stable at night, and
was careful to close every aperture by which a breath of fresh air might find
admission. The keyhole and the threshold of the door were not forgotten.
The horse was confined all night in a sort of hot-house ; and, in the morning,
the groom was delighted to find his stable warm as an oven. He did not per-
ceive, or did not notice, that the air was bad, charged with moisture, and with
vapours more pernicious than moisture. It was oppressively warm, and that
was enough for him. He knew nothing about its vitiation, or about its influ-
ence upon the horses' health. In a large crowded stable, where the horses
were in constant and laborious work, there would be much disease glanders,
grease, mange, blindness, coughs, and broken wind would prevail, varied occa-
sionally by fatal inflammation. In another stable, containing fewer horses,
and those doing little work, the principal diseases would be sore throats, bad
eyes, swelled legs, and inflamed lungs, or frequent invasions of the influenza.
But everything on earth would be blamed for them before a close stable."
Moreover, he observes, " The evils of an impure atmosphere vary according to
several circumstances. The ammoniacal vapour is injurious to the eyes, to the
nostrils, and the throat. Stables that are both close and filthy are notorious for
producing blindness, coughs, and inflammation of the nostrils ; these arise from
acrid vapours alone. They are most common in those dirty hovels where the
dung and urine are allowed to accumulate for weeks together. The air of a
stable may be contaminated by union with ammoniacal vapour, and yet be tol-
erably pure in other respects. It may never be greatly deficient in oxygen ;
but when the stable is so close that the supply of oxygen is deficient, other
evils are added to those arising from acrid vapours. Disease, in a visible form,
may not be the immediate result. The horses may perform their -work and
take their food, but they do not look well, and they have not the vigour of
robust health; some pre lean, hide-bound, having a dead dry coat, some have
swelled legs, some mange, and some grease. All are spiritless, lazy at work,
and soon fatigued. They may have the best of food, and plenty of it, and their
work may not be very laborious, yet they always look as if half starved, or
shamefully overwrought. When the influenza comes among them, it spreads
fast, and is difficult to treat. Every now and then one or two of the horses
become glandered and farcied."

1291. In order to show in a striking light the necessity there exists of using
means to promote ventilation in all places occupied by animals, it may perhaps
be done in the best manner by stating the estimated quantity of air which is
vitiated every day by a cow of ordinary size. Dr Kobert D. Thomson, after
showing that the large quantity of carbon, 6.172 lb., daily taken by a cow in

338 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

its food, is employed for a purpose totally distinct from proper nutrition, pro-
ceeds to say " We are at present acquainted with only one other purpose for
which the carbon of the food can be employed viz., the generation of animal
heat throughout the body, a function undoubtedly carried on, not only in the
lungs, but also throughout the entire capillary system of the skin, at least in
man and perspiring animals. If this view be correct, then it follows that up-
wards of 6 Ib. of carbon are expended by a cow daily in the production of animal
heat. And as 1 Ib. of carbon, when combined with the necessary amount of
oxygen to form carbonic acid, gives out as much heat as would melt 104.2 Ib.
of ice, it is evident that the quantity of ice capable of being melted by the heat
generated by a cow, in one day, would amount to upwards of 625 Ib., or it would
heat 1 Ib. of water, 87,528 degrees. It would consume, at the same time, the
enormous quantity of 330,429 cubic inches of oxygen, or 191j cubic feet of this
gas ; and as this amounts to one -fifth of the atmospheric air, we find that a cow,
consuming 6 Ib. of carbon for respiratory purposes, would require 956^ cubic
feet of atmospheric air, a sufficient indication of the immense importance of a
free ventilation in cow-houses, and of the danger of over-crowding, if the ani-
mals are expected to retain a healthy condition." "

1292. Here are data furnished of the quantity of air required to be admitted
into a byre, for the necessary use, daily, of a single cow of ordinary size. How,
then, is this large quantity of fresh air to be admitted into a byre, when all the
doors and windows are shut ? This question involves and presupposes another,
namely, How is as large a quantity of vitiated air to be expelled from the byre ?
for this must first take place ere a ventilation through the byre can be main-
tained. The popular notions, however, regarding ventilation are very indefinite,
as Mr Stewart observes : " Most people do not imagine that one set of apertures
is required to carry away the foul, and another to admit the pure air. Even
those who know that one set cannot answer both purposes in a perfect manner,
are apt to disregard any provision for admitting fresh air. They say there is
no fear but sufficient will find its way in somehow, and the bottom of the door
is usually pointed to as a very good inlet. It is clear enough, that while air is
going out, some also must be coming in ; arid that if none go in, little or none
can go out. To make an outlet without any inlet betrays ignorance of the cir-
cumstances which produce motion in the air. To leave the inlet to chance, is
just as much as to say that it is of no consequence in what direction the fresh
air is admitted, or whether any be admitted. The outlets may also serve as
inlets ; but then they must be much larger than when they serve only one pur-
pose ; and the stable, without having purer air, must be cool or cold. When
the external atmosphere is colder than that in the stable, it enters at the bottom
of the door, or it passes through the lowest apertures, to supply and fill the
place of that which is escaping from the high apertures. If there be no low
openings, the cooler air will enter from above it will form a current inwards at
the one side, while the warmer air forms another current, setting outwards at
the other side. But when the upper apertures are of small size, this will
not take place till the air inside becomes very warm or hot."-}- So little do
many people see the necessity of ventilation, that they cannot distinguish
between the warm air and the foul air of a stable; and, consequently, if the
admission of fresh air is wanted to expel the foul, they immediately conclude
it must be cold, and do harm. Now, it is the proper action of ventilation
to let away all, and no more of the warm air of a stable, than what is foul,

* THOMSON'S Researches into the Food of Animals, pp. 113, 114.
t STEWART'S Stable Economy, pp. 35, 43, and 51.

FEBGUSON'S IMPEOTED VENTILATOR

339

and then, of course, no more than the same quantity of fresh air can find its
way into it.

1293. As doors and windows are usually situated in farm-stables, the fresh
air should not be allowed to enter by them through the night ; they should
therefore be made tight. Fresh air coming directly from the doors or windows
towards the nostrils of a horse, must pass either over his body, or first strike
against his limbs in either case doing more injury than good. The fresh air
should come in near the horses' nostrils, where it is really required to be
breathed in. An opening through the head wall of the stable, a few feet above
the horse's head, seems the most convenient and proper place for the air to find
its way. For the supply of every horse alike, an opening should be made above
the head of each horse; and being so numerous, they should be small. We cannot
particularise the size, as that must depend on many circumstances the number
of horses, contents of the stable, tightness of the doors and windows, and such-
like. The air, on entering, being colder than that in the stable, will fall down-
wards, and to retard the velocity of its entrance the openings should be pro-
vided with a covering of perforated plates of zinc ; and should the current be
still too strong, let it strike against a board or plate of iron fixed to the wall,
and so placed as to cause the air to be reflected upwards before it descends.
Experience will soon adjust the various parts of the means of ventilation to
their proper relative proportions.

1294. It greatly promotes the comfort and health of animals confined for
many hours every day in one apartment to have the fresh air admitted to them
without the creation of draughts, and no means of obtaining this object is so
much in our power, as placing ventilators in the roof of the part of the steading
so occupied by the animals.

1295. Ferguson's Improved Ventilator fur Stables, eye. In fig. 526 we give an
elevation, and in fig. 527 a section, of a ventilator invented by Mr James Fer-
guson, agent to W. B. Beaumont, Esq., M.P. In fig. 527, the section, the

dimensions are about 3 feet by 2, and 3 feet high. A continuation of the void
of the ventilator is carried downward with light close boarding, forming a cham-
ber a a, in which the regulator operates its interior dimensions being as above
stated. At bottom the chamber spreads out, so as to assume the form of an in-
verted funnel. At the point where the chamber expands, two valves or light
doors are hinged, as at b b ; these, when let down in a horizontal position, fill
up the area of the chamber so completely as to prevent all egress of the foul
air. The descent of the valves is secured by the action of the loaded levers c c.
To open the valves, cords are attached, as shown in the diagram, and, joined
into one, are carried down to a point within easy reach of the attendant.

340

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1296. Other forms of Ventilators. In figs. 528 and 529 we give forms of ven-
tilators, in which the egress of the foul air is easily regulated, and which we
have used with success. In fig. 528 a a is the box of the ventilator, which
passes through, and is continued at least 2 feet above the ridge of the roof. A
valve b is hinged at one side e, and rests on the batten or piece d, secured to
the side of the ventilator. This is lifted up to any desired extent by the chain
or stiing e e, which passes through an aperture in the box a, and is led over a
pulley /, working in a small bracket secured to the box. The cord is carried
over another pulley, and terminates within easy reach of the attendant An-

Fig. 528.

Fig. 529.

SECTION OF VENTILATOR WITH SUSPENDED VALV

SECTION Of VENTILATOR WITH HINOED

other form is shown in fig. 529. In this the valve a a is suspended beneath the
ventilator b b. The dimensions of the valve a a exceed the area of the aperture
of the ventilator. By this arrangement the foul air is compelled to take the
course of the arrows, thus creating a more widely-extended current from the
parts surrounding the aperture of the ventilator. The valve is worked by a
cord c passing over the pulley d, which works on a bar e, passing across the
ventilator.

1297. Fig. 530 is a ventilator, in which the Venetian blinds a are fixed, and

answer the double purpose of permit-
ting the escape of heated air and
effluvia, and of preventing the entrance
of rain or snow. The blinds are covered
and protected by the roof b, made of
slates and lead ; c is an apron of lead.
Such a ventilator would be more or-

A VENTII-AT

namental to the steading than fig. 530
is, and more protective to the blinds,
if its roof projected 12 inches over.
One ventilator 6 feet in length, 3 feet
in height in front, and 2 feet above
the ridging of the roof, for every six
horses or cows, might suffice to maintain a complete ventilation. But such
openings in the roof will not of themselves constitute ventilation, unless an
adequate supply of fresh air is admitted below ; and the supply might be ob-
tained from small openings in the walls, including the chinks of doors and
windows when shut, whose gross areas should be nearly equal to those of
the ventilators. The openings should be in such situations and numbers as

STABLE WIN I )OWS HARNESS-PINS.

341

Fit;. 5:31.

to cause no draught of air upon the animals ; arid might bo conveniently
placed, protected by iron gratings on the outside to prevent the entrance of
vermin, in the wall behind or before the animals, of such a form as to deflect the
air upwards against a board or plate of iron, to spread it about as much as
possible. Other forms of ventilators are in use, consisting of a large curve of
lead or zinc pipe projected through the roof and bent downwards; or simply a
few of the slates or tiles raised up a little, either of which is better than no ven-
tilator at all, but neither so effectual for the purpose of ventilation as the one
we have described. (Other forms of ventilators for withdrawing foul air will be
found described in a future Section, when treating of Iron Construction.)

1298. Stable Windows. The windows of steadings should be of the form for
the purpose they are intended to be used. On this account the windows of
stables, and of other apartments, should be of different forms. Fig. 531 re-
presents a window for a stable. The opening is 4 feet

in height by 3 in width. The framework is composed

of a dead part a, of 1 foot in depth, 2 shutters b b to

open on hinges, and fasten inside with a thumb-catch,

and c a glazed sash 2 feet in height, with three rows of

panes. The object of this form of window is, that it may

easily be opened, although a number of small articles

are thrown upon the sole of a work-horse stable window,

such as short-ends, straps, &c., which are only used

occasionally, and intended to be at hand when wanted.

The consequence of this confused mixture of things,

which it is not easy for the farmer to prevent, especially

in a busy season, is, that when the shutters are desired to be opened, it is

scarcely possible to do it without first clearing the sole of everything ; and,

rather than find another place for them, the window remains shut. A cupboard

in a wall suggests itself for containing such small articles; but in the only wall

namely, the front one of the stable in which it would be convenient to make

such a cupboard, its surface is occupied by the harness hanging against it ; and

besides, no orders, however peremptory, will prevent such articles being at busy

times thrown upon the window-soles ; and where is the harm of their lying there

at hand, provided the windows are so constructed as to admit of being opened

when desired? When a dead piece of wood, as a, is put into such windows,

small things may remain on the sole, while the shutters b b may be easily opened

and shut over them.

1299. Harness-Pins. The harness should all be hung against the wall be-
hind the horses, and none on the posts of the stalls, against which it is too
frequently placed, to its great injury, in being constantly kept in a damp state
by the horses' breath and perspiration, and apt to be knocked down among their
feet. A good way is to suspend harness upon stout hardwood pins driven into a
strong narrow board, fastened to the wall with iron holdfasts ; but perhaps the
most substantial way is to build the pins into the wall, when a new stable is build-
ing. The harness belonging to each pair of horses should just cover a space of
the wall equal to the breadth of the two stalls which they occupy, and when
windows and doors intervene, and which of course must be left free, this arrange-
ment requires some consideration. We have found this a convenient one : A
spar of hardwood nailed firmly, immediately over the passage, across the upper
edge of the batten d, fig. 523, that supports both posts of the stall, will suspend
a collar on each end, high enough above a person's head. One pin on the wall
is sufficient for each of the cart-saddles, one will support both the bridles, while

342 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

a fourth will suffice for the plough, and a fifth for the trace harness. Thus 5
pins or 6 spaces will be required for each pair of stalls ; and in a stable of 12
stalls deducting a space of 13 feet for 2 doors and 2 windows in such a stable
there will still be left, according to this arrangement, a space for the harness
of about 18 inches between the pins. Iron hooks driven into the board betwixt
the pins will keep the cart-ropes and plough-reins by themselves. The curry-
comb, hair-brush, and foot-picker, may be conveniently enough hung up high
on the hind-post, betwixt the pair of horses to which they belong, and the mane-
comb is usually carried in the ploughman's pocket. When the hind-posts are
of cast-iron, these small articles cannot be hung upon them; and in such a case,
there being no batten to suspend the collars from, hooks must be driven into
the couple-legs to hang them upon.

1300. Each horse should be bound to his stall with a leather stall-collar,
having an iron-chain collar-shank to play through the ring i of the hay-rack,
fig. 523, with a turned wooden sinker at its end, to weigh it to the ground.
Iron chains make the strongest stall collar-shanks, though certainly noisy when
in use; yet work-horses are not to be trusted with the best hempen cords,
which often become affected with dry rot, and are, at all events, soon apt
to wear out in running through the smoothest stall-rings. A simple stall-
collar with a nose-band, and strap over the head, is sufficient to secure most
horses ; but as some acquire the trick of slipping the strap over their ears, it is
necessary to have either a throat-lash in addition, or a simple broad belt around
the neck. Others are apt, when scratching their neck with the hind-foot, to
pass the fetlock joint over the stall collar-shank, and, finding themselves en-
tangled, to throw themselves down in the stalls, bound neck and heel there
to remain unreleased until the morning, when the men come to the stable. By
this accident we have seen horses get injured in the head and leg for some
time. A short stall collar-shank is the only preventive against such an acci-
dent, and a low rack admits of its being made short.

1301. Loose-Box. Besides the ordinary stalls, a loose-box will be found a
useful adjunct to a work-horse stable. A space equal to two stalls should be
railed off at one end of the stable. It is a convenient place into which to put a
work-mare when expected to foal. Some mares indicate so very faint symptoms
of foaling, that they frequently are known to drop their foals under night in the
stable to the great risk of the foal's life where requisite attention is not
directed to the state of the mare, or where there is no spare apartment to put her
in. It is also suitable for a young stallion, when first taken up and preparing
for travelling the road ; as also for any young draught-horse, taken up to
be broke for work, until he become accustomed to the stable. It might also
be, when unfortunately so required, converted into a temporary hospital for
a horse, which, when seized with complaint, might be put into it until it is
ascertained whether or not the disease is infectious, and if so, removed to
a proper hospital. Some people object to having a loose-box in the stable,
and would rather have it out of it; but the social disposition of the horse
renders such a place useful on such occasions. It is, besides, an excellent
place to rest a fatigued horse for a few days. It is also a good place for a
foal when its mother is obliged to be absent at work in the fields, until both
are turned out to grass.

1302. Hay-House. The hay-house should be adjoining the work-horse stable.
Its floor should be flagged on a considerable quantity of sand to keep it
dry, or with asphaltum. It should have a giblet-checked door to open out-
wards, with a hand-bar to fasten it on the inside ; it should also have a

CO UN- (J 1 IEST B YKES.

343

partly glazed window, with .shutters, to afl'ord light when taking out the Lay
to the horses, and air to keep it sweet. As the hay -house communicates
immediately with the work-horse stable by a door, it may find room for the
work-horse corn-chest, which may there be conveniently supplied with corn
from the granary above, by means of a spout let into the fixed part of the
lid. For faciliating the taking out of the corn, the end of the chest should
be placed against the wall at the side of the door which opens into the stable,
and its back part boarded with thin deals up to the floor above, if there be
one, or sufficiently high to prevent the hay coming upon the lid of the chest.
The walls of the hay-house should be plastered.

1303. Corn-Chest. The form of the corn-chest is more convenient, and takes
up less room on the floor, when high and narrow than when low and broad, as in
fig. 532, which is 5 feet long and 4 high at the back above the feet. A part
of the front b folds down with hinges,

to give easier access to the corn as it
gets low in the chest. Part of the lid
is made fast, to receive the spout d,
for conveying the corn into it from
the granary or lop, if there be one,
and also to render its movable part
a lighter, and this is fastened with a
hesp and padlock, the key of which
should be constantly in the custody
of the farm-steward, or of the person
who gives out the corn to the plough-
men where no farm-steward is kept :
c is the corner of the doorway into the
work-horse stable, and e is the board-
ing behind to prevent the hay falling
on the lid. A fourth part of a peck
measure is always kept in the client
for measuring out the corn to the
horses. It must not be imagined that when the spout supplies corn from the
granary as required, it supplies it without measure. The corn appropriated for
the Lorses is previously measured off on the granary floor, in any convenient
quantity, and then shovelled down the spout at times to fill the chest. A way
to ascertain the quantity of corn at any time in the chest is to mark lines on
the inside of the chest indicative of every quarter of corn which it contains.

1304. Byres. The cow-house or byre is occupied by the COW T S, and in some
districts by the fattening oxen also, and is fitted up in a peculiar manner. The
cows stand in stalls : the stalls, to be easy for the cows to lie down and rise
up, in our opinion, for a large kind of cattle, should never be less than 5 feet
in width. Four feet is a more common width, but is too narrow for a large cow,
and even 7 feet is considered in the dairy districts a fair-sized double stall for
two cows. Our opinion is, that every cow should have a stall for her own use,
lying, standing, or eating her food, of sufficient length and breadth that she
may lie at ease betwixt the manger and the gutter. The width of the byre
should be 18 feet, the manger 2 feet in width, the length of a large cow about
8 feet, the gutter 1 foot broad, leaves 7 feet behind the gutter for a passage for
containing the different vessels used in milking the cows and feeding the calves.
The ceiling should be quite open to the slates, and a ventilator for every four
or five cows in the roof, for regulating the temperature and supplying the byre

344 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

with fresh air. A door, divided into upper and lower halves, should open out-
wards to the court on a giblet-check, for the easy passage of the cows to and
from the court, and each half fastened on the inside with a hand-bar. Two
windows with glass panes, with the lower parts furnished with shutters to open,
will give sufficient light, as also air, with the half-door. The walls should be
plastered for comfort and cleanliness.

1305. The stalls are most comfortably made of wood, though some recom-
mend stone, which always feels hard and cold. Their height should be 3 feet,
and length no farther than to reach the flank of the cow, or about 6 feet from
the wall. When of wood, a strong hardwood hind-post is sunk into the ground,
and built in masonry. Between this post and the manger should be laid a
curb-stone, grooved on the upper edge to let in the ends of the travis-boards.
The deals are held in their places at the upper ends by means of a hardwood
rail, grooved on the under side, into which the edge of the deals are let ; and
the rail is fixed to the back of the hind-post at one end, and let into the wall at
the other, and there fastened with iron holdfasts. Stone travises are no doubt
more durable, and in the end perhaps more economical, where flag-stones are
plentiful ; but we would in all cases prefer wood, as feeling warmer, being more
dry in damp weather, and less liable to injure the cows coming against them,
and within doors will last a long time.

1306. The mangers of byres are usually placed on a level with the floor,
with a curb-stone in front to keep in the food, and paved in the bottom. Such a
position we conceive highly objectionable, as, on breaking the turnips, the head
of the animal is so depressed that an undue weight is thrown upon the fore-legs,
and an injurious strain induced on the muscles of the lower jaw. A better manger
is made of flag-stones or wood, resting on a building of stone and mortar, raised
about 20 inches from the ground, and a plank set on edge in front to keep in
the food. This front should be secured in its position with iron rods batted
into the wall at one end, and the other end passed through the plank against a
shoulder, which is pressed home by means of a nut and screw. Out of such a
manger the cow will eat with ease any kind of food, whether whole or cut ; and
all feeding byres for oxen should be fitted up with mangers of this construc-
tion. Mangers are generally made too narrow for cattle with horns, and the
consequence is the rubbing away of the points of the horns against the wall.

1307. The supply of green food. to cattle in byres may be effected from the

outside through holes in the wall at the back of the
manger. This is a convenient mode for the cattle-man,
but is costly in the outfit, and allows the wind to blow
forcibly upon the heads of the cows. Fig. 533 is a door
in the opening of the wall, shut on the outside. We pre-
fer giving the food by the stall, when it is 5 feet wide,
and no cold air can come upon the cows. But when the
stalls are narrow, a passage of 2| feet in width, betwixt
the stalls and the wall, would allow the cattle-man to
supply turnips and fodder. In such a case the space
behind the cows is reduced to 4^ feet in width.

1308. A wide single stall is not only useful in supplying the food from within
the byre, but admits of the cows being more easily and conveniently milked.
A double stall is objectionable for several reasons : a cow is a capricious crea-
ture, and not always friendly to her neighbour, and one of them in a double
stall must be bound to the stake on the same side as she is milked from ; and,
to avoid the inconvenience, the dairy-maid either puts the cow aside nearer her

CATTLE-STALL AND BINDINGS.

Fi- 534.

neighbour, in the same stall which may prove unpleasant to both parties or
the cow in the adjoining stall nearer her neighbour, which may prove equally
inconvenient. Neither is it a matter of indifference to the cow from which
side she is milked, for many will not let down their milk if the milk-maid sits
down to the unaccustomed side. The best plan in all respects is, for each cow
to have a roomy stall to herself.

1309. Fig. 534 is a section of a travis and manger of a byre, as just described,
where a is the wall, b
the building which sup-
ports the manger c, hav-
ing a front of wood, and
bottomed with either
flags or wood ; d the
hardwood hind - post,
sunk into the ground,
and built in with stones
and rnortar ; e the hard-
wood top-rail, secured
behind the post d, and
let into and fixed in the
wall a with iron hold-
fasts ; / the stone curb-
stone into which the
ends of the tra vis-boards
are let ; g the travis-
boards let endways into
the curb-stone below, and into the top-rail above, by a groove in each ; h a
hardwood stake, to which the cattle are fastened by binders, the lower end of
which is let into a hole in the block of stone z, and the upper fastened by a
strap of iron to a block of wood fc, built into the wall a ; m is the gutter for
the dung, having a bottom of flag-stones and sides of curb-stones ; n the
paved floor ; o the opening through the wall a by which the food is supplied
into the manger c to the cattle, from the shed s behind. This shed is 8 feet
wide, p being the pillars, 6 feet in height, which support
its roof q, which is a continuation of the slating of the
byre roof, the wall a of which is 9 feet high. But where
these small doors are not used, the shed .?, pillars p, and
roof q, are not required, but they might form a convenient
turnip-store, to which access might be obtained from the
byre by a back door.

1310. Cattle-Bindings. Cows are bound to a stake in the
stall by means of a ligature which goes round the neck
behind the horns. One method of binding is with the
baikie, which is made of a piece of hardwood, e fig. 535,
standing upright, arid flat to the neck of the cow. A rope
g fastens the lower end of it to the stake, upon which it
slides up and down by means of a loop which the rope
forms round the stake. This rope passes under the neck
of the animal, and is never loosened. Another rope k
is fastened at the upper end of the piece of wood e, and,

passing over the neck of the animal arid round the stake, is made fast to
itself by a knot and eye, and serves the purpose of fastening and loosen-

346

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 536.

TLE SEAL OR BINDER.

Fig. 537.

ing the animal. The neck, being embraced between the two ropes, moves up
and down, carrying the baikie along with it. This method of binding, though
quite easy to the animals themselves, is objectionable in preventing them turn-
ing their heads round to lick their bodies ; and, the stake being in a perpen-
dicular position, the animals can only move their heads up and down, and are
obliged to hold them always over the mangers.

1311. A much better mode of binding cattle is
with the seal, which consists of an iron chain, fig.
536, where a is the large ring of the binder, which
slides up and down the stake h, which is here shown
in the same position as is h in the section of the
stall in fig. 534. The iron chain, being put round
the neck of the cow, is fastened together by a
broad-tongued hook at c, which is put into any link
of the chain that forms the gauge of the neck, and
it cannot come out until turned on purpose edgeways
to the link of which it has a hold. It is the most
durable form of binder, and gives the animal liberty
not only to lick itself, but to turn its head in any
direction it pleases ; and the inclination of the stakes
gives the animal the farther liberty of lying down or
standing back quite free of the manger.

1312. Byre Windows. A convenient form of window for a byre consists of
two shutters, a a, fig. 537, 2 feet in height, which open
by cross-tailed hinges, and are kept shut with thumb-
catches. The window-frame is made of wood, and
glazed with four rows of panes c, 2^ feet in height, and
5 in number to the width the opening of the window
being 4J feet in height and 3 in width. There being
no small articles in a byre to lay upon the window-sole,
as in stables, the dead piece of wood below the shutter
is not here required.

1313. The construction of byres for the accommo-
dation of fattening oxen and milk cows is quite the same,
but feeding-byres are usually made much too small for

the number of oxen confined in them. When stalls are put up, they seldom
exceed 4 feet in width; more frequently two oxen are put into a double
stall of 7 feet, and not unfrequently travises are dispensed with altogether,
and simply a triangular piece of boarding placed across the manger against
the wall, to divide the food betwixt each pair of oxen. In double stalls,
and where no stalls are used, even small oxen, as they increase in size,
cannot all lie down at one time to chew their cud and rest; and as they re-
quire more room and rest the fatter they become, the larger the oxen become
they are hampered the more. In such confined byres, the gutter is placed too
near the heels of the oxen, and prevents them standing back when they desire.
Short stalls, it is true, save the litter being dirtied by the dung dropping
from the cattle directly into the gutter, and the arrangement saves the cattle-
man trouble ; but the saving of litter in such a case is at the sacrifice of com-
fort to the animals.

1314. On the Construction of Cattle-Boxes. Mr Ewart, a well-known prac-
tical writer on agricultural construction, and author of a prize essay on " Farm
Buildings," has the following remarks : " The boxes should be sunk 1 foot below

CATTLE-BOXES. 347

the surface of the ground, and be separated from eacli other by a wall one brick
thick, and 2 feet high from their bottom or floor. They should also have a
similar wall in front, upon both of which there should be a wall-plate of deal 9
inches wide and 3 inches thick, bringing the entire height of the division walls
to 2 feet 3 inches above the level of the floor, and that of the front to 1 foot 3
inches above the level of the passages. At the intersection of the front wall of
the boxes by the division walls, should be cast-iron pillars G feet long and 4-
- inches outside diameter, supporting a deal, similar to the wall-plates described,
to carry the roof; and at each end of the range of boxes should be an upright
jamb of 9 inches deal, laid flat to the inside of the north wall ; . . . such
jamb being framed to the wall-plate, and the deal supported by the pillars.
The cast-iron pillars should have grooves formed on each of their sides in the
direction of the length of the range, and also another groove on the side in the
direction of the division walls, between the boxes, the grooves being formed of
flanges 2-| inches apart and 2 inches deep. The upright deals against the
walls, at the ends of the range of boxes, should have half the breadth of a Nor-
way batten nailed firmly on the face at 2^- inches apart, thus forming a groove
in the middle of the breadth of the deals throughout their length 2-t inches wide

O A

and 2ijr deep. On the deal supporting the front of the roof, and immediately
above each cast-iron pillar, should be firmly spiked one end of a Norway batten,
which should extend across the range of boxes to the back wall, on which it
should rest firmly, spiked to a continuous wall-plate of deal 4^ inches wide.
Against the back wall of the boxes should be upright deals framed to the wall-
plates on the division walls, between the boxes, and receiving the cross-beam
spoken of above in a notch. The upright deal just mentioned should have a
groove formed in its face similar to those previously described, on the upright
deals at each end of the range at the front of the boxes. Midway, in the length
of the division between the boxes, should be two upright pieces, half the breadth
of the Norway batten, opposite to each other, at 2^ inches apart, the lower ends
of which should be framed to the wall-plate in the division wall between the
boxes, and the upper end secured to the cross-beam by a screw bolt. The
fronts of the boxes should be enclosed to a height of about 4 feet above the
walls, first by an 11-inch deal, and then by Norway battens in succession,
fitting rather loosely in the grooves on the sides of the pillars in the direction
of the length of the range. The fences between the boxes may be formed also
of battens, one end of which being fitted into* the groove in the pillar, in the
direction of the breadth of the boxes, the other in the groove formed upon the
upright deal on the back wall, passing between the half-battens at the mid-length
of the division walls, and should be held 1 foot apart from each other by cotteril
bolts, on holes made for the purpose in the flanges of the grooves."

1315. LaycocJc's Fittings for Cattle-Boxes. Mr Laycock of Lintz Hall has
designed a variety of farm-building fittings, of which those for cattle-boxes may
be selected for description. " The front of the box is furnished with horizontal
bars from one pillar to another their ends fitting rather loosely into the grooves.
The lowest is formed of a deal 11 inches wide, with chocks 3-| inches wide,
fixed on the low r er edge near the ends. On the upper edge is hung, by means
of hooks formed of flat iron, fitting the thickness of the deal, a short iron feeding-
pan or manger, 2 feet 6 inches in length, 15 inches wide at top, and 8 inches
wide at the bottom ; 14 inches deep at the back, and 10 inches of perpendicular
depth at the front. The hooks are riveted to the backs of the pans near to the
ends. On the same deal is a rack, the bars of which are f round iron, 2 feet
6 inches long, somewhat curved, and each end riveted into a piece of flat

348

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

iron 1 inch broad and 2 feet 6 inches long, forming a rack about 2 feet high,
which is attached to the deal near the lower edge by means of hook-and-
eye hinges near the extreme ties, and supported in a sloping position by
a piece of small chain at each end, 2 feet long, linked to any desired length
to hooks near to the upper edge of the deal. Fig. 538 is a section of
the manger, and fig. 539 that of the rack, described on a scale of | inch to
the foot.

Fig. 538.

Fig. 539.

EOTION OF LAYCOCK a

3XE8 SCALE, J INCH

TO THE TOOT.

SECTION OF LAYCOCK S RACE FOR

CATTLE-BOXSS SCALE, J INCH

TO THE FOOT.

1316. "Above the deal just described are two other bars, formed of Norway
battens ; the upper one held in its position, about 4 feet above the wall-plate,
by means of iron pins or small cotteril bolts passing through holes in the sides
of the grooves, and at the ends of the bars. It will be perceived that the racks
and mangers can be raised as the box becomes filled with manure, by placing
bars under the deal to which they are attached." Prize Essay on the Construc-
tion of Farm Buildings, in vol. xi., Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, pp. 245, 246.

1317. Calves' House. For convenience, the calves' house should be
placed immediately adjoining the cow-byre. Calves are either suckled by their
mothers, or brought up on milk by the hand. When they are suckled,
if the byre be roomy enough that is, 18 feet in width stalls are erected for
them against the wall behind the cows, in which they are usually tied up imme-
diately behind their mothers ; or, what is a less restrictive plan, put in numbers
together in large loose-boxes at the ends of the byre, and let loose from both
places at stated times to be suckled. When brought up by the hand, they are
put into a separate apartment from their mothers, and each confined in a crib,
where the milk is given them. The superiority of separating calves to having a
number together is, that it prevents them sucking one another, after having had
their allowance of milk, by the ears, teats, scrotum, or navel, by which mal-
practice certain diseases may be engendered.

1318. The crib is large enough for one calf at 4 feet square, and 4 feet in
height, sparred with slips of tile-lath, and having a small wooden wicket to
afford access to the calf. The floor of the cribs may be of earth ; but the pas-
sage between them should be flagged, or of asphalt. Abundance of light should
be admitted, either by windows in the walls or skylights in the roof; and
fresh air is essential to the health of calves, the supply of which would be best
secured by a ventilator in the roof, such as fig. 530. A door should*communicate
with the cow-house, and another, having upper and lower divisions, with a court
furnished with a shed. The crib should be fitted up with a manger to contain
cut turnips or carrots, and a high rack for hay, the top of which should be as much

CALVES' CRIBS TURNIP-TROUGHS.

349

elevated above the litter as to preclude the possibility of the calf getting its
feet over it. The general fault in. the construction of calves' houses is the want
of both light and air, light being cheerful to animals in confinement, and air
essential to the good health of all young animals. AYhen desired, both may be
excluded. The walls of the calves' house should be plastered, to be neat and
clean. Some people are of opinion that the calves' house should not only have
no door of communication with the cow-house, but should be placed at a dis-
tance from it, that the cows may be beyond the reach of hearing the calves.
Such an objection could only have originated from an imperfect acquaintance
with the character of these animals. A cow that is prevented smelling and
suckling her calf, does not know its voice, and will express no uneasiness about
it a few minutes after they are separated, and after the first portion of milk has
been drawn from her by the hand.

1319. The front and door of a calf's crib is represented by fig. 540, in which
a is the wicket door which gives access
to it, b b are the hinges, and c is a
thumb-catch to keep it shut. This sort
of hinge is very simple and economical.
It consists of those rails of the wicket
intended for the hinges being elon-
gated towards 5, where they are round-
ed off; and their lower face is shaped
into a round pin, which fills and ro-
tates in a round hole made in a billet of
wood, seen at the lower hinge at i,
securely screwed to the upright door-
post of the crib. Another billet d is
screwed immediately above the lower
rail b, to prevent the door being thrown off the hinges by any accident. Cross-
tailed iron hinges, of the lightness suited to such doors, would soon break, by
rusting in the dampness usually occasioned by the breath of a number of calves
confined within the same apartment.

1320. A court should be attached to the calves' house, and there should
be erected in it, for shelter to the calves in cold weather, or at night before
they are turned out to pasture, or for the night for a few weeks before they
are put into the larger court when at pasture, a shed fitted up with mangers
for turnips and racks for hay. A trough of water is also requisite in this
court, as well as a gateway for carts, by which the dung may be removed, and
a liquid-manure grating to keep the court dry.

1321. Fittings for Courts Turnip -Troughs. The troughs for turnips are
placed against the walls, as in fig. 541, where a is the wall against which the
trough is built, and b a building of stone and lime 2 feet thick, to support the
bottom of the trough, of which the lime need not be used for more than 9 inches
in the front and sides of the wall, and the remaining 15 inches may be filled up
with any hard material; c is the flagging placed on the top of this wall, to form
the bottom of the trough. Some board the bottom with wood ; and, where
wood is plentiful, it is cheap, and answers the purpose, and is pleasanter for
the cattle in wet and frosty weather; but where flags can be easily procured,
they are more durable in the open air : d is a plank, 3 inches thick and 9 in
depth, to keep in the turnips. Oak planking from wrecks, and old spruce
trees, however knotty, we have found a cheap and durable front for turnip-
troughs. The planks are spliced together at their ends, and held on edge by

350

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

rods of iron e batted with lead into the wall, and with a shoulder and nut and
screw in front. The height in front should not exceed 2 feet 9 inches for

Fig. 541.

Fig. 542.

calves, and 3 feet for the other cattle ; and it will become less as the straw
daily accumulates. The trough, here shown short, may extend to any length
along the side-wall of a court.

1322. Straw -Racks. The straw -racks for courts are made of vari-
ous forms. A common kind of wooden
rack is in fig. 542, of a square form,
sparred round the sides and bottom to
keep in the straw. The cattle draw the
straw through the spars as long as its
top is too high for them to reach over
it, but after the dung accumulates, and
the rack thereby becomes low, the cat-
tle get at the straw over the top. It is
made of wood, 5 feet square and 4 in
height. These racks may be pulled up

STRAW-RACK FOR COORT8

higher when the dung accumulates much.

Fig. 543.

STRAW-HACK FOR SHEDS

1323. Fig. 543 is a form
of wooden rack adapted to
supply fodder to cattle under
cover in sheds. It consists of
an upper and a lower bar of
wood, parallel to each other,
and into which are notched
behind a series of rails as far
asunder as to allow of the
straw being pulled through
between them by the cattle.

PIG-STY DOOR.

351

The rack has an inclination of aboiit 2 foot forward at the top, which affords
the capacity of holding the food, both its rails being batted to the wall.

1324. Pig-sty Door. As swine have very powerful necks, and are apt to
push open doors of ordinary construction, a form of door such as is repre-
sented in fig. 544 is very secure. The door, of double plank-wood, slips up
and down a groove formed in the masonry on each side, and this contrivance
is such as to elude the arts of the most cunning brood-sow to escape out of
its sty.

1325. On the Accommodation of the Grain Crops in the Steading. On looking
at the plans of steadings in the Plates, it will be observed that the thrashing-
machine, placed in the upper barn above the corn-barn, is in the middle of the
great range of the steading, ready to receive the unthrashed crop from the
stackyard behind it, and as ready to deliver the straw thrashed into the straw-
barn, and the grain into the corn-barn below.

1326. Straw-Barn. The straw-barn is purposely made of the height of the
upper barn, to contain a large quantity of straw, as it is often convenient in bad
weather to thrash out a considerable quantity of corn, when no other work can
be proceeded with, or when high market-prices induce farmers to take advan-
tage of them. There is another good reason for giving ample room to the straw-
barn. Every sort of straw is not suited to every purpose, one sort being best
suited for litter, and another for fodder. This being the case, it is desirable to
have always both kinds in the barn, that the fodder-straw may not be wasted
in litter, and the litter-straw given as fodder, to the injury of the animals. Be-
sides, the same sort of straw is not alike acceptable as fodder to every class of
animals. Thus wheat-straw is a favourite fodder with horses, as well as oat-
straw, whilst the latter only is acceptable to cattle. Barley-straw is only fit
for litter. To give access to litter and fodder straw at the same time, it is
necessary to have a door from each kind into each court. Thus four doors, two
at each side near the ends, are required in a large straw-barn. Slit-like open-
ings should be made in its side-walls, to admit air and promote ventilation
through the straw. A skylight in the roof, at the end nearest the thrashing-
machine, is useful in giving light to those who take away and store up the

352 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

straw from the thrashing-machine when the doors are shut, which they should
be whenever the wind happens to blow too strongly through them into the
machine against the straw. Instead of dividing straw-barn doors into two
vertical leaves, as is usually done, they should be divided horizontally into an
upper and lower leaf, so that the lower may always be kept shut against in-
truders, such as pigs, whilst the upper admits both light and air into the barn.
One of the doors at each end should be furnished with a good stock-lock and
key, and thumb-latch, and the other two fastened with a wooden hand-bar from
the inside. The floor of the straw-barn is seldom or never flagged or cause-
wayed, though it is desirable it should be. If it were not so expensive, the
asphaltum pavement would make a good floor for a straw-barn ; but the most
effective floor is made of small broken stones to the depth of 15 inches, and
blended with gravel. It will prevent moulding, and resist rats. Mouldy straw
at the bottom of a heap superinduces throughout the upper mass a disagreeable
odour, and imparts a taste repugnant to every animal. That portion of the
floor upon which the straw first alights on sliding down the straw-screen of the
thrashing-machine, should be strongly boarded, to resist the action of the forks
when removing the straw. Blocks of hardwood, such as the stools of hard-
wood trees, set on end causewaywise, and sunk into the earth, form a very
durable flooring for this purpose. Stone flagging in this place destroys the
prongs of the pitchforks. The straw-barn should communicate with the chaff-
house by a shutting door, to enable those who take away the straw to see
whether the chaff accumulates too high against the end of the winnowing-
machine.

1327. The Corn-Barn. Its roof is formed of the floor of the upper barn,
and its height is generally made too low. The higher the roof is, the more
easily will the corn descend to be cleaned from the thrashing-machine' down
the hopper to the winnowing-machine. Nine feet is the least height it
should be in any instance. The corn-barn should have in it at least two
glazed windows, to admit plenty of light in the short days of winter, and
they should be guarded outside with iron stanchions. If one window cannot
be got to the south, the door when open will answer for the admission of
sunshine to keep the apartment comfortably dry for the workpeople and the
grain.

1328. The door is generally divided into upper and lower halves, which, as
usually placed, are always in the way when the winnowing-machine is used at
the door. A more convenient method is to have the door in a whole piece, and
when opened, to fold back into a recess in the outer wall, over the top of which a
plinth might project to throw off the rain. In this case the ribats and lintel must
be giblet-checked as deep as the thickness of the door, into which it should
close flush, and be fastened with a good lock and key, and provided with a
thumb-latch. The object of making the corn-barn door of this form is to avoid
the inconvenience of its opening into the barn, where, unless it folds wholly
back on a wall, it is frequently in the way of work, particularly when winnowing
roughs, and taking out sacks of corn on men's backs. As to size, it should not
be less in the opening than 7 J feet in height and 3 in width. A light half-door
can be hooked on, when work is going on, to prevent the intrusion of animals,
and the wind sweeping along the floor.

1329. The floor of the corn-barn is frequently made of clay, or of a com-
position of ashes and lime; the asphaltic composition would be better than
either; but in every instance it should be made of wood of sound hard red-
wood Drahm battens, ploughed and feathered, and fastened down to stout joists

GIBLET-CHECKED DOCKS.

353

with Scotch flooring sprigs driven through the feather- edge. A wooden floor
is the only one that can bo depended on being constantly dry in a corn-barn; and
in a barn for the use of corn, a dry lloor is indispensable. It has been suggested
to us that a stone pavement, square-jointed, and laid on a bed of lime over 9
inches of broken stones or an asphaltnm pavement, laid on a body of 6 inches
of broken stones, covered with a bed of grout on the top of the stones, would
make as dry and a more durable barn-floor than wood, and which will not rot.
No doubt stone or asplialtum pavement is durable, and not liable to rot ; but
there are objections to both, in a corn-barn, of a practical nature, and it is cer-
tain that the best stone pavement is not proof against the undermining powers
of the brown rat : whilst a wooden floor is durable enough, and certainly will
not rot, if kept dry in the manner we shall recommend. The objections to all
stone pavements as a barn-door are, that the scoops for shovelling the corn pass
very harshly over them the iron nails in the shoes of the work-people wear
them down, raise a dust upon them, and crush the grain and they are hurtful
to the bare hands and light implements, when used in taking up the corn from,
or in cleaning the floor. For true comfort in all these respects, there is nothing
like wood. The walls of this barn should be made smooth with hair-plaster,
and the joists and flooring forming its roof cleaned with the plane, as dust
adheres much more readily to a rough than to a smooth surface. The stairs to
the granaries should enter from the corn-barn, and a stout plain deal door with
lock and key placed at the bottom of each. And at the side of one of the stairs
may be enclosed on the floor of the barn, a space to contain light corn to be
given to the fowls and pigs in summer, when this sort of food becomes scarce.

1330. As the method of hanging doors on a giblet-check should be adopted
in all cases in steadings where doors on

O TV . -I"

outside walls are likely to meet with
obstructions on opening inwards, or
themselves becoming obstructive to
things passing outwards, the subject de-
serves a special illustration. In fig. 545,
a is the inside form of a strong door,
mounted on crooks and bands, fully
open, and thrown back into the recess
of the wall b, the projecting part of the
lintel c protecting it effectually from
the rain ; d is the giblet-check in the
lintel, and e that in the ribats, into
which the door shuts flush ; / is the
light movable door used when work is
going on in the corn-barn.

1331. The wooden floor of the corn-barn is liable to decay unless precautions
are used to prevent it ; but a much too common cause of its destruction is
vermin such as rats and mice. We used a most effectual method of preventing
the destructive ravages of either vermin or damp, by supporting the floor in the
particular manner represented in fig. 546. The earth, in the first instance, was
dug out of the barn to the depth of the foundation walls, which should be two
feet below the door-soles, and in the case of the building of a new steading
this can be done when the foundations of the walls are taken out. The ground
is then spread over with a layer of sand, sufficient to preserve steadiness in the
stout broad flags b b which are laid upon it and jointed in strong mortar. Twelve-
inch thick sleeper walls a a, of stone and lime, are then built on the flags, to

354

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 546.

support the ends of the joists of the floor. The ends of the joists c, formed of
10 inches by 2^-inch plank, are then laid on edge upon the walls 16 inches apart,

and the spaces between them filled up
to the top of the joists with stone and
lime. The building between the
joists requires to be done in a pecu-
liar way. It should be done with
squared rubble stones, and on no ac-
count should the mortar come in con-
tact with the joists, as nothing de-
stroys timber, by superinducing the
dry rot, more readily than the action
of mortar upon timber above ground.
For the same reason care should
be observed in building all the joists
into the walls ; in placing the safe-
lintels over the doors and windows
dry-bedded, and in beam filling be-
tween the couple-legs. The floor d
is then laid on a level with the door-
sole, and finished with a neat skirting
board i i round the walls of the barn.
By this contrivance the vermin can-
not possibly reacli the floor but from

aronojj or TUX i

the flags Z>, which are nearly 2 feet
under it. A hewn stone pillar e, or even two, are placed on the flags under
each joist to support and strengthen the floor. This construction of floor freely
admits the air above and below to preserve it, and affords room under it for cats
and dogs to hunt after the vermin. The figure also gives a section of the
building above the corn-barn, constituting the upper barn^ having similar out-
side walls, coupling, slating, and ridging of the roof to the middle range of the
building.

1332. Immediately in connection with the upper barn may be a gangway to
give access to the stackyard. It is used as an inclined plane, upon which to
wheel the corn-barrows, and forms a road for the carriers of sheaves from the
stackyard. This road should at all times be kept hard and smooth with small
broken stones, and sufficiently strong to endure the action of barrow- wheels.
Either asphaltum or wood pavement would answer this purpose well. To
prevent the gangway affecting the wall of the corn-barn with dampness, it
should be supported on a semicircular arch of masonry. Some farmers
prefer taking in the corn on carts instead of by a gangway, and the carts in
that case are placed alongside the large door of the upper barn, and emptied
of their contents by means of a fork. We prefer a gangway for this reason,
because it enables the farmer to dispense with horse-labour in bringing, in the
stacks if they are near at hand, and they should always be built near the upper
barn for convenience. It is suggested to have a railway to convey the stacks
on their stathels to the upper barn-door, and thence cast the sheaves into the
barn at once. This would require the ground of the stackyard and the barn to
be on the same level.

1333. Granary Windows. These windows should be formed to admit light
and air freely ; and we know of no form so capable of affording both as fig. 547.
The opening is 4| feet in length and 3 in height. In the frame a are a
glazed sash 1 foot in height, composed of two rows of panes, and b Venetian

W001 )EX STATIIELS.

355

shutters, which may be opened more or less at pleasure : c d shows in section
the manner in which these shutters operate. They revolve by their ends, a
round pin, in holes iu the side-posts of the frame c/, arid are kept in a parallel
position to each other by the bar r, Fifr :A -

which is attached to them by an eye of
iron, moving stiff on an iron pin pass-
ing through both the eye and bar r.

1334. Stackyard. As most of the
stacks must stand on the ground, it
should receive that form which wi 11
allow the rain-water to run off and not

injure their bottoms. This is done by
forming the ground into ridges. The
minimum breadth of these ridges may

be determined in this way: The usual length of the straw of the grain crops
can be conveniently packed in stacks of 15 feet diameter ; and as 3 feet is little
enough space to be left on the ground between the stacks, the ridges should
not be of less width than IS feet. The stackyard should be enclosed with a
substantial stone and lime wall of 4^ feet in height. In too many instances
the stackyard is entirely unenclosed, and left exposed to the trespass of every
animal. The stackyard should have gateways of not less than 10 feet in width
clear, with a stout gate hung on crook and band, and fastened with a short
chain and hook. In carse farming the stacks require to be 24 feet in diameter.
1335. Stathels. It is desirable to place the outside rows of the stacks next
the wall on stools or stathels, which will not only keep them off the wet
ground, should they remain a long time in the stackyard, but in a great
measure prevent vermin getting into the stacks. These stathels are usually
and most economically made of stone supports and a wooden frame. The
frame is of the form of an octagon, and under its centre and each angle is
placed a support. The framework consists of a plank a a, fig. 548, 15 feet in

356

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

length, and of others 7|- feet in length, 9 inches in depth, and 2 inches in
thickness, if made of Scots fir, but less will suffice of larch. The supports
consist of a stone 5, sunk to the level of the ground, to form a solid foun-
dation for the pillar c, 18 inches in height and 8 square, to stand upon,
and on the top of this is placed a flat rounded stone or bonnet d, of at least
2 inches in thickness. The pillar is bedded in lime, both with the found
stone and bonnet. The tops of these stone-supports must be on the same
level. Upon them are placed on edge the scantlings a a, to the outer
end of which are fastened with strong nails the bearers e e, also 9 inches in
depth and 2 in thickness. The spaces between the scantlings a are filled up
with fillets of wood//, nailed upon them. If the wood of the framework were
previously preserved by Kyau's or Burnett's process, it would last perhaps
twenty years, even if made of any kind of home timber, such as larch or
Scots fir.

1336. SECTION EIGHTH Centres for Arches Bridges Sluices.

1337. Centres for Arches. In fig. 549 we illustrate a simple centering for a

semicircular arch ; a b the arch timbers, or ribs, resting
on the posts c c, as shown. Wedges are driven in be-
tween the top of posts and under side of ribs a b. When
the arch is turned and set, by driving out these wedges,
the ribs are gradually lowered, and the arch allowed
slowly to settle before the centering is finally removed.
Bolster-pieces, as shown at of, are laid across the ribs,
and on these the brick or stone work rests. Two of these
ribs are generally used one at each side of the thick-
ness of the wall the bolster-pieces d stretching between them. When the
wall on which the arch is to be turned is of more than ordinary thickness, three
ribs may be used, placed parallel to, and at equal distances from, each other.

1338. In fig. 550 we give other forms of centres, in which the ribs a are
supported by ties b, and struts or braces c c. The centering for a Gothic or
pointed arch is shown at d e in the same figure.

1339. In fig. 551 we show how the ribs for centering may be strengthened

CENTRE TOR A DOOR ARCH
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 551.

Fig. 550.

CENTERINGS FOR OOTHIO AND SEMICIRCULAR ARCHE
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

CENTRES FOR STONE CIRCULAR ARCHES 8CALE,
I INCH TO THE FOOT.

BRIDGES.

357

by being formed of two thicknesses tlio parts abed having similarly cut
pieces e f g placed behind, and secured to them in such a way that their solid
parts shall be placed at the back of the joints of the front pieces abed. In
the lower part of the same figure, a centre for a larger arch or a small bridge is
shown. The tie-beam h h is supported on the posts i i z, and carries the ribs
k k k k. These are supported by the king-post /, and braced by the struts m m,
and n n.

1340. Bridges. As a useful addition to the present section, we here give a
few designs for simple wooden

Tjlj rr 55O

bridges, adapted for the short
spans usually met with in farms.
For the construction of more
complicated forms we would ad-
vise the professional aid of a
competent engineer to be called
in. Our notes, however, will
apply to the majority of in-
stances where small erections,
not subjected to unusual strains,
are required. Fig. 552 shows
foot - bridge
for crossing

a form of simple
used in Flanders
ditches.

1341. Fig. 553 illustrates the simplest form of bridge which can be erected.
It is composed of girders b b,
resting on wall-plates c c, on the
walls a a. The span is 15 feet,
the breadth 10 to 12 feet. Three
girders are placed at equal dis-
tances on the wall -plates. The
flooring is made with flooring-
boards or planking, spiked on to

Fig. 554.

the girders. The timbers should BEAM-!
be Kyanised before being laid

clown, or well painted with coal-tar. The girders, 9 inches by 4, are calculated
to sustain ordinary cart-load pressure.
The scantling of the flooring -boards
d d d, 6 inches by 2. The hand-rail //
3 inches by 2 (laid flat), is supported by
posts e e e e, 3 inches by 2, mortised into the
girder b b. Diagonal struts g g g are in-
serted between the posts, their scantling,
3 inches by 1^. The bridge illustrated
in fig. 553 will be strengthened by using
two struts c c, abutting at their lower
ends on stone corbels d d, as in fig. 554,

built into the piers or abutments a a, and at their upper ends against the
" straining beam " b. These two forms of bridges are well adapted for farm
purposes, where a rivulet has to be crossed. Of the two forms, fig. 554 pre-
sents the simplest construction of rail. The whole structure may be formed
of rough trees in the bark, the girders of Scots fir, and the rails of weedings of
larch.

358

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1342.

Trussed-Girder Bridges. In fig. 555 we give an elevation of a girder

bridge for a span of 8 feet.
The beam rests in cast-
iron shoes a b ; c c c are
the hand-rails, and a d b
is the malleable-iron truss.
In fig. 556 is a sketch
showing the arrangement
of trussed beams for a
span, of 32 feet, divided
into two spans of 16 feet
each. The beams a a,
12 inches by 8, rest at
the ends b b on the retain-
ing walls ; the other ends
being secured by cast-iron shoes to the cap of the iron pillar c c. Bolster-pieces
d d rest on the beams, and upon these the flooring or planking e e is laid.

Fig. 556.

THE FOOT.

Fig. 557.

1343. In fig. 557 we illustrate another method of trussing beams to be thrown

across an opening, on the principle of
the king-post truss ; a a the tie-beam,
b the king-post, c c the struts. The
hand-rail d d passes through the
cap of the king-post after the man-
ner of a ridge-pole in a roof, and the
ends are supported by posts or up-
rights e e.

KINO-POST TRDSS FOB BRrnOE SCiLE

SIGH TO THE FOOT

Fig. 558.

1344. In fig. 558 we illustrate
another method of trussing a beam
on the principle of the queen-post
truss ; a a the tie-beam, b b the
queen-posts, c the straining-beam,
d d the struts, e e the hand-rail, //
the posts or uprights.

1345. In fig. 559 we illustrate another form of trussed bridge girder for a 30-
feet span ; a a, 13 inches by 4 ; b b, 7 by 4 ; c, 8 by 4 ; d d, 8 by 4 ; e e, 6 by 4 ;

TRUSSED BRIDGES.

359

/ /, 8 by 4 ; y, wrought-iron king-bolt 1 ,\ inch diameter. If the span is in-
creased, say to 32 feet,
or double that of fig. 553,
as in fig. 560, two gird-
ers same length as in
fig. 553 may be scarf-
jointed to form one beam
and supported by an up-
right b, 4 inches by 6.
At the upper end of this
is a transverse beam a,
4 inches by 6, the ends
of which rest on wall-
plates d d. Struts c c, 4 inches by 3.

1346. In fig. 561 we illustrate the method which may be adopted to support
the post b, fig. 560: a a
are piles driven, into the
bed of the river, or the
centre of the ravine over
which the bridge may be
supposed to cross. These
piles are driven at a dis-
tance of 2 feet apart ; b b
is a " capping-beam," con-
necting the heads of the
piles together. Into this
beam the upright posts ccc
are mortised, or secured

562.

by straps, bolts, and nuts ; d d is the transverse beam, represented by the letter
a, fig. 560, on which the piles d d and the beams c e, fig. 561, are supported;
// are the flooring timbers, g g struts or braces, h h outside struts, will act as
fenders to protect the posts from ice, &c. The end of the beam b, pointing up
stream, should be tapered, or nose-pointed, as at a or , fig. 562.

360

PKACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

Fig. 563.

1347. In fig. 563 we illustrate a simple method of forming a central support,

which may be used
where the bridge, as
in fig. 560, has not
much pressure to sup-
port as in the case
of a foot-bridge a a,
e e e is the beam, cor-
responding to e e in
fig. 561, resting on the
cross-beam f f or b.
This is supported by
the stays c c c c at
three points g g g.
The stays c c, c c are
strengthened by collars d d, transversely, and by others longitudinally, as
shown by the dotted lines j ; cross stays, as shown by the dotted lines i, may
also be put in.

1348. Wooden Aqueduct. In fig. 564 we illustrate a form of bridge to lead
the water of irrigation across a ravine. We are indebted for tbis illustration to
Captain Baird Smith's work on Italian Irrigation: a a is a plan of the aqueduct,
with the leaders of irrigation c c, c c diverging from it ; and b b is an elevation
of the aqueduct.

Fig. 504.

SIDE ELEVATI

r OF CENTRAL SUPPORT FOR BRIDGI
SCALE IN Fid. 560.

i I I I I I I I I I \feet.

ITALIAN WOODEN AQUEDUCT FOR CONDUCTING WATER OP IRRIOATION OVER RIVERS, BA VINES, &C.

1349. Sluices. We now propose to illustrate a few simple forms of sluices.
In fig. 565 we give a sketch of one constructed entirely of timber ; a a the gate,
composed of three pieces, strengthened with battens, as shown by the dotted
lines ; b b the gate in plan. The two uprights c c are mortised into the sill d d ;
two cheeks e e, f f(g ff in elevation) are fastened to the uprights, forming a
groove in which the sluice-gate a a works up and down. The gate is lifted by h,
which passes through a slot in the cross-beam i L Apertures are provided in A,
through which a pin can be passed to retain the gate at any desired elevation.
In fixing the timbers in the water-way, care should be taken to bed the sill and
uprights in good puddle, to prevent all side and bottom leakage. The sluice-
gate may be lifted by means of a screw a, right hand fig. 566, passing through
an aperture in the cross-beam d, the nut e provided with handles. The screw
may be terminated by iron straps b b, which will enable it to be firmly fixed
to the gate. The left-hand fig. 566 illustrates a method of lifting gates used
in Italian irrigation ; / the gate ; g g uprights, between which wooden or iron

SLUICES.

361

rungs or rods h are placed, and which serve as handles to lift the gate. This
is supported at any desired elevation by a stick or pin passed between one of
the rods and the top of the cross-beam i i.

1350. Where perfect work is desired, the gates should work in contact with
stone or brick facing; the sill a, fig. 567, being carefully set in a good foun-
dation 5, and the retaining walls c c well puddled. The foundations of the
walls c c should be carried down some distance below the bed of the water-
channel. In this form of sluice the gate is raised or lowered by means of a
rack fixed to the tail d, and a pinion working in bearings fixed to the cross-beam
e e. A pawl should be provided, which, entering the teeth of the rack, will sus-
tain the sluice at any desired elevation ; / is the sluice-gate and walls in plan.

1351. Self-acting Sluice. In fig. 568 we give
k e i on gitudinal section, in fig. 569 plan, and in

ig. 567.

JULJLULU

362

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

fig. 570 a transverse section of a self-acting sluice, designed by Mr Archibald
Sutter, C.E., Edinburgh, and described by him in his valuable paper on

Fig. 569.

Fig. 570.

COG

" River Embankments," in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural
Society, July 1858. It consists of a chamber built of masonry in the centre of
the embankment, as shown in fig. 568. The float a is kept in position by the
guides b b. When the river begins to rise, the working beam c c is raised,
consequently holding down the cover or valve of the pipe c?, and upon the fall
of the river again, opening the same, as shown by the dotted lines. A wooden
door should be provided at the top to prevent people interfering with its work-
ing. " It will be apparent," says Mr Sutter, " that sluices of this nature would
be more applicable to tidal-waters than others, the regularity of the tides pre-
venting them getting out of order for want of work. In rivers, unless some
examination takes place, grass may grow, say outside the valve hinge ; a stone
gets washed down the pipe and sticks below the valve, or something of that
sort takes place, and unless remedied, spoils all."

1352. Sluice-Pipe Valves. Valves for this purpose are hung outside the box
which terminates the sluice-pipe or culvert. The valve is hung obliquely to
the line of box, so that it has always a tendency to keep closed. In ordinary
circumstances the water passes freely out, but in times of flood or tidal flow,
the valve is kept close by the pressure outside, and the efflux of the drainage-
water prevented.

Fig. 571.

SLUICE-PIPE VAI.VK.

1353. In fig. 571 we give a
sketch illustrative of a form
of sluice-valve ; a the box, b
the valve, hinged at c. A
piece of iron d, may be bolted
to the back of the valve to
keep it closed. The figure
to the left is a front view of
valve. An iron sluice-valve
will be found illustrated in

Section on Bridges and Sluices, in Iron Construction.

GATES.

363

1354. SECTION NINTH Gates The reader, desirous to discuss the principles
on which gates ought to be constructed, is referred to the Boole of Farm Imple-
ments and Machines, where lie will find the subject 'fully entered into. We
proceed at once, therefore, to illustrate examples for practice.

1355. Fig. 572 represents field-gate with diagonal strut, without the upfil-
lings, where a c is the heel-post, I d

the head-post, and c b and a d the top
and bottom rails of the rectangular
frame of a field-gate ; and a I is the
diagonal, which converts the rectangle
a c b d into two triangles a c b and
bad.

1356. In field-gates constituted en-
tirely of wood, the diagonal should in-
variably be applied as a strut, to rise

from the foot of the heel at , and terminate at the top of the head-post at b.
Placed in this position, the diagonal a b supports the swinging end of the gate
b d, by its resistance to compression ; which it is well adapted to perform by the
area of its cross section being considerable, and hence capable of resisting
lateral flexure.

1357. But a field-gate is liable from various causes to be forced up at the
head-post b d, however well the diagonal is adapted to prevent the upper rail
from being depressed by any undue weight exerted upon its end at b. The
advantages of a tie are the converse of a strut. If a tie, therefore, is placed
from c to the opposite angle d, crossing the strut a b in its centre and an iron
bar makes a perfect tie, the cohesion of which is such that a very small sec-
tional area is sufficient for the purpose the two antagonistic forces of the
wooden strut and the iron tie, acting each in its own sphere, preserve within
the whole structure the most perfect equilibrium.

1358. Defective Field-Gate. A very common form of field-gate to be seen in
this country is shown in fig. 573, and applying correct principles to it, we
shall find it defective in several most

essential particulars. It has a strut a b,
but instead of extending across the en-
tire diagonal to c, it stops short at the
centre of the gate at b. The part of
the top & c is liable to be broken off by
any undue force being exerted upon it
at c when it is converted into a lever,
whose fulcrum is supported at b by the
end of the strut a b. It has also a tie
b d, which is not only made of a wooden rail, but it does not extend across the
rectangle to e, and in no part does it cross the strut a &, so as to act with it in
maintaining an equilibrium of forces. The consequence in practice is, that
this form of gate is very frequently fractured at the head-post c d, and falls to
the ground at d.

1359. Trussed Gate. The principle of trussing has been successfully intro-
duced into the wooden field-gate by Sir John Orde of Kilmory in Argyllshire.
Fig. 574 shows the rectangular form trussed, so as to make a compact firm
structure. The heel-post a 5, the head-post c d, and the upper and lower rails
a c and b d, form the rectangular frame. The truss consists of four bars of
wood, a e, b e, c e, and d e, each of which abuts into an angle of the rectangle,

364

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 674.

and all meet at the centre of the gate e ; where, each bar being longer than
the half of a diagonal of the rectangle a d, they become elevated in the form of

a pavilion roof. A similar truss is
formed for the other face of the gate,
whose apex is at/. Through the points
e and/, the apeces of the trusses, passes
the iron bolt e /, the head of which
holds the bars at /; and a screw and
nut upon a plate hold those at e ; and
when the screw is tightened, the trusses
are brought nearer together in the cen-
tre, and their ends abut with great force
against the angles of the rectangular

frame at b, a, c and d. To resist this pressure, it is necessary to connect the
posts and rails with an iron clamp at each angle of the frame. We believe
that this construction of gate will admit the frame neither to bend nor twist,
and it will bear any pressure of stock against its sides ; but its peculiar
form is attended, we think, with a practical inconvenience. The trusses
rising on each side of the gate 9 inches above the plane of the frame,
the projecting parts at e and / present an easy and ready hold for the foot
of a colt, should he be disposed to amuse himself about the gate a recreation
which young horses are apt to indulge in ; and the same projection will
likely graze against the sides of cattle, and lay hold of the harness of horses
when passing through the gate. We are therefore doubtful of its utility as a
common field-gate. The interior of the frame can be filled up with any light
material, as wire or spars of wood. When fitted up with wooden spars, the
frame costs 13s. 6d., and the posts suited for it, 13s. 6d. more.

1360. A gate constructed by Mr
Charles Miles, architect, London,
which seems well adapted for fields,
is illustrated in fig. 575. It con-
sists of both iron and wood. It
has a strong cast-iron heel-post, a b,
which is round, tapering to the top,
and is batted into a large stone in
the ground. At a is a collar of
iron embracing and revolving round
upon a projecting bead encircling
the post. To one side of this col-
lar is attached a socket of considerable depth, and of a form to receive into
it the upper rail of the gate, which, when properly seated, the socket
preVents from drooping at the head d. The under-rail style at b is in every
respect fitted up in the same manner as the upper one. The head-style d
is light, and completes the framing. The filling-up of the frame is left to
choice, either in iron or wood. In the figure the filling-up consists of light
wooden spars, nailed on alternately upon both sides of the upper and
lower bars. Were a wooden strut introduced into the frame from the bottom
rail b to the opposite angle at c?, the gate would be much strengthened, though
the deep hold of the sockets makes the rails much more rigid than might
be expected. The receiving-post c is made of wood fitted into an iron socket,
which is batted into a stone. The cost of the gate, without the receiving-post,
is 37s. 6d. ; with the post, 45s.

Fig. 575.

CiATKS.

365

1361. We Lave hitherto alluded only to tho simplest efficient form of wooden
field-gates, in the construction of which cheapness is always an object, and we
have, in order to avoid confusion of ideas, restricted the description to the essential
parts ; the number of bars, or other means of rendering the gate a sufficient fence,
is left to be filled up at discretion. In making these npfillings, the maker should
studiously keep in mind that no curved bars or timbers of any description should
enter into the construction either for ornament, or ostensibly for use.

1362. In the construction of wooden gates for drives or approaches, where
utility is the chief object, strict attention should still be paid to the princi-
ples of construction, but a little more latitude may be admissible in point of
finish and expense. For such purposes, the rails and posts of the gate should
be all of one thickness, or at most, the only difference should be a gradual
diminution in thickness towards the head, to lessen the effect of gravity on the
hinges and gate-post; for pleasant effect, there should not be more than three
horizontal rails, with two diagonals ; and if it is necessary to have a closer
upfilling, it should be of an upright light balustrade form. Fig. 576

is an

., n.

example of this form of gate, adopted many years ago, and the originals then
constructed are still good and serviceable, but it is considerably more expensive
than the common field-gate. The heel-post a b is o inches broad and 3 thick,
while the head-post c d may be reduced to 2 \ inches if thought advisable. The
top and bottom bars are formed with abutment pieces at both ends, which are
5 inches broad, the intermediate parts being reduced to 3^ inches ; the middle
bar has the same breadth, but is made up in the middle with corresponding
abutments as at e, and the two diagonals, of 2 inches in breadth, are inserted
in four pieces, exactly fitted between the abutments of the bars. The hinges
are of the common double-tailed crook-and-band form, binding the top and
bottom rails firmly to the heel-post, and the gate may be hung upon pillars of
stone, or of wood well secured. The best balustrade for a gate of this kind is
rods of iron \ inch diameter, as in the figure, passed up through the bottom
and middle bars and the diagonals, the holes for these being easily bored with
an auger after the gate is formed ; but a simple and cheaper balustrade is
formed of light wooden spars sunk into the bars and diagonals.

1363. For all wooden gates, the method of bracing with light iron diagonals
is to be preferred to wooden struts, but to be effective, two diagonals must
always be applied. In some cases they may pass from one angle to its oppo-
site in one length, but in others they may be applied in four pieces, the con-

366

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 577.

nection at the centre of the gate being effected either by a ring of iron, in which
the four ends are screwed, or by bolting the palmated ends of the four parts,
two and two together, through the middle bar, as at e, fig. 576, one bolt secur-
ing the four ends ; and in either case the rods pass through the top and bottom
of the heel and head-posts of the gate, and are there secured by screw-nuts. It
is obvious that iron diagonals would apply in this manner to the gate, fig. 576,
instead of the wooden braces from e.

1364. Field-gates should always be made to fold back upon a fence, to open
beyond the square, and not to shut of themselves. When they shut of them-
selves, and are not far enough pushed back when opened, they are apt to catch
the wheel of a cart when passing, and to be broken, or the post to be snapped
asunder by the concussion ; and as self-shutting gates are all apt to be left un-
fastened by people who pass through them, requiring greater attention than is
usually bestowed on such matters, the stock, particularly young horses, which
seem to take delight to loiter about gates, might then escape from the field.
Young horses are fond of rubbing their rumps against gates, to prevent which,
when they do, it is necessary to wattle thorns into the bars.

1365. An excellent plan of fixing a hanging-post is to dig as narrow a hole
as is practicable for the purpose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a flat
stone of about 15 inches square and 7 or 8 thick, in the centre of which is cut
through a hole of 8 or 9 inches in diameter, to take in the lower end of the post,
dressed with the axe to fit the hole. Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into
the hole, and made firm around the post with a rammer, up to the surface of the
ground, in which is sunk a stone, at the edge of the upper square face of which

the iron-shod heel-post of the gate is
made to rotate in a. shallow hollow made
to fit it. Fig. 577 shows the different
parts of this mode of fastening the
hanging-posts of field-gates; where a b
is the hole into the bottom of which the
stone c is sunk, and into this stone the
end of the post d is inserted and secured,
as at e. Water passing through the
hole in the stone, the lower end of the
post will be preserved ; and more so
by being charred or in the bark, and
smeared with coal-tar : the upper part
of the post at d will be best preserved
by being planed and painted. The top
of the post should always be semispher-
ical, or pyramidal, to prevent the lodg-
ment of water upon it. The earth is
rammed hard into the pit a & to the
surface of the ground, in which is sunk
at / a stone, on which the heel-post of
the gate rotates. Part of the hedge-
fence of the field in which the gate is placed is shown, as also the crook above
d on which the gate is hung.

1366. Another method is in digging a hole 2|- feet square and of 3 in depth ;
and the post being set into it, the pit is filled with rubble masonry in mortar,
packed firmly, and grouted round the post. This is no doubt a very effectual
mode of fastening gate-posts a matter not so well attended to on a farm as it

GATKS.

367

ought to be ; and the lime may tend to preserve the wood under ground a
longer time than it would be without it ; but it is expensive, and when the
post has to be renewed, the masonry will have to be removed, as no new post
can again be fixed so firmly in the pit as when both were put in together.

1367. There is no better mode of hanging a field-gate than by crook-and-
band hinge at the upper rail, and a heel-crook at the bottom of the heel-post.
Both the band-hinge and the heel-crook ought to be double-tailed, to embrace
both sides of the heel-post and of the upper rail. The upper crook keeps the
gate close to the upper part of the hanging-post, while the heel-crook, perpen-
dicularly below it, resting on and working in a hole made in a hard stone,
supports the entire weight of the gate, and thereby relieves the hanging-post.
A gate-post of whatever kind, which has to support the entire weight of a gate,
requires to be very securely fixed into the ground; but when the gate is sup-
ported by a heel-crook, the post may be of more slender form.

1368. The simplest mode of fastening field-gates to the head-posts is to hook
on a small linked chain from the stile-head of the gate to a hook in the receiv-
ing-post. No animal is able to unloosen this simple sort of fastening ; but
horses soon learn to unfasten almost every other sort.

1369. Field-gates ought to be painted before being put to use, and they
ought to receive a ne\v coat every year, as without it they will rot in a com-
paratively short period of time. The iron part of gates must of necessity be
painted, to keep them from rusting. Coal-tar does not look well as a paint,
and is apt to blacken the hands and clothes after exposure for a time to the air.
Many compositions are presented to the public notice as suitable for painting
outside work, amongst which we have seen a thick black varnish ; but there is
nothing better than good whitelead and oil. Field-gates painted white have a
lively appearance amongst the dark-green foliage of thorn hedges, and they
harmonise well even with the colour of dry-stone walls.

1370. Sliding Door. In fig. 578 we give a drawing of a sliding door for the
stable of the Coleshill Farm, F . ;I , rs

Plate XIV. ; a a the wooden a _ Jjfl * M~lL!

gate, the upper rail a of which E ^m d

is embraced at points near

each end by double straps

b &, which support wheels c c,

running on the bar of iron d d,

li- inch by i. This is bent

A v A

at each end so as to project 1^
inch from the face of plate or
lintel, to which it is bolted by
three bolts ; e e are blocks of
wood placed in the ground,
with a groove in each to keep
the door in its place ; //an
upright post, against which
the door a a shuts. A slid-
ing door or gate may be double, opening right and left, and shutting against
their two edges.

1371. Suspended or Hanging Gate. In cases where a wall, as a a, fig. 579,
divides two courtyards, the narrowness in which prevents the gate of an ordi-
nary construction opening laterally, it may be suspended as shown ; b b the gate,
hung by the chains c c : passing over the pulleys d d, and counterbalanced by the

368

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

weights e e] f f the diagonal stays, to support the uprights, which carry the
wheels or pulleys d d.

ALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

1372. Gate for Centre of Bridge. Where two pasture fields a a, fig. 580, are
divided by a rivulet b b, crossed by a bridge c c, the cattle may be prevented
from passing from one field to the other by a gate placed in the centre of the
bridge, as at d d, in place of having two gates, one at each side at a. This is
a plan adopted in Holland. An illustration of a swivel-gate for centre of bridge
used in Belgium, is given in fig. 581 : a d banks of the rivulet; b b the bridge;
c c the swivel-gates, which are shown closed at e e.

Fig. 581.
Fig. 580. .-,

' "

/c ^~fr

1373. SECTION TENTH Timber Houses and Sheds.

1374. Construction of Frame-Houses. The simplest frame-house which can be
erected is by driving posts into the ground, Fig 582

and nailing what are termed slabs that is,
the outsides of logs sawn off, as in a, fig.
582 on the inside and outside faces b of
posts c c, the space between them, d, being
filled up with some non-conducting mate-
rial, as clay or earth, which will keep the interior much warmer than if

FRAME-HOUSES.

369

the space is left hollow. The foundations of a good frame-house should be
constructed of brick or stone, and carried all round to a height of at least
18 inches above the ground in this foundation the upright posts constitut-
ing the framing are built. In the event, however, of brick or stone work
for this purpose not being available, we think it best to explain, also, how
a good balk foundation may be made, which will last many years premising
that the after operations to bo described are to be carried out in any case, whe-
ther the foundations be of wood, or of brick or stone. Having procured balks
of from 12 to 16 inches diameter, partly square them on opposite sides ; next
mark out the outline of house on the ground, and make a frame of logs corre-
sponding to this. Having previously decided on the plan, ascertain the measure-
ments of the distance of window and door open-
ings from any angle, as at 6, fig. 583, and mark Fi - 583 -

them off on the log foundation, or frame, as to & I ,. B 7^ \

c c, and at these places cut mortise holes, to -*

admit the mortised ends of the upright posts.

After all these holes have been marked and cut, the foundation frame, as
lying on the ground, will present
the appearance of fig. 584, which
is a ground-plan. Having provided
the upright posts of requisite length,
4 inches square and tenoned at the
ends, they are to be placed in the
respective mortises in the log founda-
tion. When thus placed they will

present the appearance, When Viewed PLAN OF FOUNDATION BALKS FOH TIMBER SUED SCALE, Jx

from the front of the house, as in

figs. 585 and 586. The upper timbers h h, 9 inches square, must be placed on

Fig. 585. Fi - 5SO -

the top of the posts c c, the tenons of these going into mortise holes in the
timber ; or notches may be made on the under side of h /?, and spiked to the
posts : the office of these timbers c c is to support the spars forming the roof//
The upper part of the door-frame d, and the upper and lower parts of the
window-frames e e, must next be put in between the posts, and struts g g, 2
inches broad by 1 thick, placed as in the figures. The spars forming roof are
next to be laid down, and properly secured ; and finally, the shingles, slates,
tiles, &c., used for the roof-covering
laid carefully on. The outside cover-
ing of walls comes next under con-
sideration. This is generally effected
by nailing planks some 6 or 9 inches
broad by 1 thick, either vertically or
horizontally, as exemplified in fig. 587.

2 A

370

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

We prefer to place them vertically, as on the left of the figure : where they
are laid horizontally, they overlap one another in the manner shown in figs. 588
and 589. Fig. 588 is a front view, the left figure representing it in section.
Fig. 589 is the outside of the post to which the boards are nailed. In seeming
these, the one nearest the ground is nailed first, the second is placed so as to
overlap this, the third to overlap the second, and so on : by this arrangement all
the joints are secured from the effects of the weather. Where the boarding is
secured to the posts vertically, the planks are nailed to the top and bottom tim-
bers, between the posts, edge to edge. In first-class work they are tongued and
grooved, but in ordinary work they may be merely planed, or, if preferred, left
rough. The joints between the boards a a, fig. 590, are covered by narrow strips

Fig. 589.

Fig. 588.

Fig. 590.

* *\

- LL~i>-^k]

A.THER BOATVDINO.

or battens b J, some 2 inches broad and 1 thick, and secured by nails. The form
of these battens may be varied according to taste : in fig. 591 a few are given.
Messrs Eassie & Son, Gloucester, have patented a method of joining boards for
roofing and sides of timber houses; this we illustrate in fig. 592, in elevation,
and in section at bottom. This makes a neat water-tight joint. In well-con-
structed frame-houses, the interior facings are built up with brick, and plastered.
Where this is objected to, the inner face of the posts may be rebated as in fig.

Fig. 692.

Fig. 593.

KASSIK'S MODE OF JOININO BOARDS

593, where a is the post, with rebates as b on the inner face. Boarding, planed
on the outer face that is, to the side to be presented to the room may bo
placed between the posts, going in at each end into the rebates of the posts, and
there secured. If the thickness of the boarding is equal to the depth of rebate b,
the face will be flush with that of the post a. The paper or paint may be

SHELTER -SII EDS.

AME-HOUSES.

placed at cmco on the face of the boarding. The space between the inner face
and the exterior weather boarding, as at d, may bo filled in with some non-
conducting material. A method of making the exterior and interior finishings
for walls of timber, almost universally v ^ r r l!U

adopted in Sweden, may be noticed here :
a a, fig. 594, are the upright posts ; c c a
range of boarding laid horizontally ; an
outer range, d d, is placed above this
vertically, secured by battens as in fig.
590 ; the inner boarding b b is horizontal. The space between the posts and
boarding is filled with non-conducting material.

1375. There is one decided objection to frame-houses that is, their extreme
liability to fire. We think that a method of combining the rapidity with which
a house of this description may be built, its economy where wood is plentiful,
its durability and at the same time securing to it an almost absolute fireproof
condition will be useful and acceptable. The method we have to propose is
amazingly simple it is an adaptation of a plan much used in Paris for making
fireproof partitions. The upright posts are to be placed in the horizontal
foundation, at distances not greater than 2 feet ; where window and door open-
ings occur, they must necessarily be placed wider apart. Let a a, fig. 595, be
the foundation ; b b two of the posts ; to the Fi ,, 595

inside of these nail firmly flat boards c c, 1 inch
thick, and of the breadth of the intended thick-
ness of wall. Provide struts e e e,2| inches wide by
1 thick, and place them between the posts in the
manner shown in the figure, one at each side ;
secure them to the boarding c c. Having pro-
vided a hard setting mortar, or mixture of gyp-
sum and sand, or other easily made cement,
fasten a board, of dimensions sufficient to cover
one at least of the large diamond-formed open-
ings, temporarily, yet firmly, either to the outside
or inside of the posts ; next procure a number of
pieces of broken and angular stones of all sizes,
not exceeding, however, that which could pass
through a ring 3 inches diameter; place these
within the interstices formed by the struts e,

placing them as carefully as possible, so as to be flush, or nearly so, with
the outside and inside face of posts. Having thus well fitted the spaces,
proceed to press well in, from the side opposite to that on which the flat board
is temporarily fastened, the thin mortar or cement taking care that it shall
thoroughly mix and permeate through the interstices of the stones packed up
between the timbers. Having thus carefully filled in one portion with the
stones and cement, remove the flat board to another portion, and proceed as
before. The rough places afforded on each side of the wall by the projecting
portions of small stones, will afford an excellent hold for the outside finishing
and interior plastering. The roof can be made in exactly the same way, care
being taken to place the flat boards on the under side of the timber, and allow-
ing the cement a longer time to set. A house made on this principle will be
dry, economical, quickly constructed, and almost absolutely fireproof.

1376. Shelter -Sheds. In fig. 596 we give the plan of a shelter-shed to be
placed at the corner of four fields, from each of which a door leads to interior
of shed. In case two of the four fields be in grass at the same time, a fence

\ ,T

c c

11 V

372

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Pig. 596.

IE CORNER OF FOUI

Fig. 597.

Fig. 598.

SIDE ELEVATION OF TIMBERS OF SHELTER-SHED.

Fig. 599.

could be put across the middle of the shed. Of such sheds there are too few in
our pasture-fields. In fig. 597 we give plan of balk foundation for the shed.
In fig. 598 side elevation, showing arrangement of tim-
bers : a a door-spaces ; b b upright posts and cheek-posts
of door-spaces ; c c roof-timbers ; d d, e e braces. In fig.
599 we give end elevation. These Avails are 12 feet
high, but they would be sufficiently high at 9 feet.

1377. Covered Dung-Shed, In fig. 600 we give plan
of covered dung-shed as introduced in Belgian farm-
practice by Baron Peers, at Oostcamp, near Bruges.
In fig. 601 we give an end elevation and section ; and
in fig. 602 a side elevation. In the plan, fig. 600, are
two double gates d d on each side of the shed, for the
ingress and egress of the dung, as e and e are one double
gate at each end. The shed is 60 feet long outside walls, and 27 in width. In
the end elevation, fig. 601, a a is a pit, dug 4 feet below the ground b b, with a

XLKVATION OF 8HB

COVE RE I ) D UNG-SHED.

373

parapet of brickwork 3 feet above the ground, and the bottom is paved with
brick ; c c c c are posts 7 feet high above the parapet ; d is the roof, and e e a
double gate. In fig. G02, a a is the parapet, b l> the roof, c c double gates, and
d d the side-posts.

l'i<r. GOO.

i d

el '

I -

Ffc. COS

1378. The Americans are justly celebrated for their timber constructions. In
fig. 603 we give a section of a barn 48 feet wide

the central portion being the barn floor, 24
feet by 42 ; the right and left hand divisions
being the cow-stables, each 12 feet wide. The
length of the posts is 18 feet, the pitch of the
roof J ; the projection of rafters over sides 2 feet.
The dotted lines show the windows. In a future
section, the internal arrangement of American
barns or farm buildings will be fully illustrated.

1379. A style of framing known as " balloon "
is now being rapidly introduced in the United

374

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

States ; with extreme lightness it possesses great strength. All mortise holes,
tenons, auger holes are avoided in the construction, thus insuring the perfect
integrity of the timbers. Nails alone are used in the manner hereafter illus-
trated, and advantage taken of the full tensile and compressible strength of
the timber. For the following illustrations and descriptions, we are indebted
to the American Cultivator.

1380. Fig. 604 shows a portion of a balloon frame, drawn in isometrical per-
spective. This is sufficient to show the whole manner of construction, the
other parts of the building being a repetition. The manner of securing the
different timbers is shown in figs. 605 and 606 the nails being driven diagonally,
as in fig. 605, and in a manner to secure the greatest amount of strength. In
fig. 605, a is the corner stud, 4 inches by 4; b b joists, 5 by 3; c, 2 by 4. In
fig. 606, d is the joist, e stud.

Fig. 604.

Fig. 605.

Fig. 606.

PPEBEUOE OF JOI

ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE HALLOO

1381. The sizes of the different pieces of timber in a frame of this size are :
sills, 3 inches by 8 ; corner studs, 4 by 4 ; other studding, 2 by 4 ; plate, 1 by 4 ;
side strips, or side girts, 1 by 4 ; rafters, 3 by 6, or 2^ by 5 will do ; collars, 1
by 4; floor joists, 3 by 8, or maybe 2 by 7. Eafters, studdiugs, and joists
are 16 inches between centres.

1382. Small buildings of this character, not calculated for heavy storage,
may have all timbers 2 feet between centres. Small buildings of one storey,
as tool-houses, granaries, cottages, &c., will be perfectly strong and secure, if
all the timbers above the first floor joists are ripped from common 1^-inch floor
plank thus make studdings, ceiling joists, and rafters, 1^ inch by 5.

1383. For large barns, storehouses, &c., larger sizes will be required. The
weight and power necessary to injure a building with 3 by 8 studding, with a
double row of bridging, is more than is ever practically applied to any store-
house.

1384. The lining of a balloon frame adds immensely to its strength, particu-
larly so if put on diagonally; it may be done outside or inside, though on the
whole the inside is preferable. If done outside, it should be carried over the

BEAMS.

375

sill and nailed to it; the sill being wider than the studding, in order to get a
larger bearing on the masonry, and the floor joists being in the way, does not
admit of inside lining being put on in the same manner. Close or continuous
lining is not necessary for strength, but for dwelling-houses adds much to the
warmth. Large buildings, not used as dwelling-houses, can be sufficiently well
braced by diagonal strips of 1-inch board, 6 inches wide, nailed to the studding
inside, 6 feet apart. Where vertical siding is used, these same strips can be
put on in the same manner outside the studding. Let the strips run over the
sill and be nailed to it. Between the strips on the sill, nail an inch board, and
it is then ready for upright or battened siding. Small out-buildings, barns, &c.,
do not require any diagonal bracing.

1385. This kind of framing possesses many advantages the laboiir of
making mortise holes, &c., is dispensed with ; and as any one timber can be
removed without detriment to the structure, repairs are easily made the
whole indeed may be renewed timber by timber. Those requiring full infor-
mation as to the system, may apply to Mr George E. Woodward, architect, 335
Broadway, New York, United States.

SUBDIVISION THIRD Iron Construction.

1386. SECTION FIRST Beams. In fig. 607 we give a section of the best
form of a cast-iron beam ; in fig. 608 a plan ; and in fig. 609 an elevation. It
will be observed from fig. 608, that in plan the shape of the flanges is not rec-
tangular, but that it tapers from the middle towards the ends a a in the form of
double parabolas, with the vertex at the middle. By this arrangement the
quantity of metal in the bottom flange is reduced without deteriorating the
strength of the beam. The ratio of the strength of this beam, and that with
the equal flanges, as in fig. 610, is as 4075 to 2368, which was long considered,
and is now by some still considered, the best form of cast-iron beam.

Fig. 607.

Fig. 609.

Fig. 610.

ELEVATION OF STRONGEST FORM OF

Fig. 611.

1387. In fig. 611 we give at b b an elevation of a cast-iron girder, calculated
for a span of 18 to 20 feet be-
tween the bearings. In the
plan, fig. 608, it will be ob- i[^_
served that the shape of the
lower flange is parabolic ; but
as the extremities of this are E ^
too narrow for bricks or beams
to lie on, the plan of the beam
in fig. 611 is modified, so that

feet.

IRDZB FOB SPAN OF 18 OH 20 FEE

376

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 612.

A trS"

> 1

, Q

o 3 <; fl

SECTION OF GIRDER FOR SPAN O

F 18 OR 20 FEET.

Fig. 613.

the bottom flanges are parallel, as at a. In fig. 612, at a & c d, we give a sec-
tion of this girder, of which the following are the dimensions : the width of

bottom flange a b, 14 inches, its thick-
ness 1-| inch ; the top flange c d, 4^
inches broad, and f inch thick; the
total depth y A, 20 inches ; the thickness
of the rib at e, 1 J inch ; at f, 1 inch.
Beams of this size, placed 9 feet apart,
are calculated to support on the flooring
22 to 24 cwt. on each square yard ; the
weight of flooring-beams, &c., or of the
arches which may be used to support the
floor, being extra. In fig. 612 we also
give a section of a girder where the
weight per square yard is less than just
stated, namely, from 12 to 13 cwt. per
yard. Breadth of bottom flange 9^ inches, thickness 1^ inch ; breadth of top
flange 2f inches, thickness f inch, total depth 18 inches; thickness at section
of rib corresponding to e, 1 inch ; thickness corresponding to /, % inch.

1388. In fig. 613 we illustrate a method of filling in the spaces between the

girders with the binding-joists a a,
8 inches by 5 ; the bridging-joists b b,
6 inches by 2 ; and the flooring- planks
c c. Another method is shown in fig.
614, where shoes, as a, are cast in the
side of the girder, in which the joists b
are laid ; c is a front view of the shoe.
Ceiling-joists, as d, may be suspended
from the under side of the girder by
bolts and nuts, in passing through pro-
jecting snags e cast into the bottom
flange, as is the snag g in fig. 613.

1389. A very little consideration of the form of the girder now illustrated,

and of the way in which it is calculated to resist
any superincumbent weight that is laid upon it,
will show that the method of placing the cross-
joists, or binding -joists, on one side of the
flange, as shown in fig. 613, or in one side of
the rib, as in fig. 614, is wrong. The most cor-
rect method is to place the cross-joists at once
on the top flanges of the girders, stretching from
girder to girder. On this point Mr Fairbairn re-
marks : " Supporting the load on one side of the
flange is wrong in principle, and, to a certain extent, injurious in practice ; but
that method has many conveniences, and in practice we are frequently called
upon to abandon self-evident principles, in order to meet the requirements of
different structures. Under such circumstances, when the load is on one side
of the girder, the flange should be carefully constructed, in order to bring the
bearing of the cross-beam as much as possible into the centre or vertical plane
of the girder." In fig. 613 we illustrate the method which Mr Fairbairn recom-
mends to connect a wood cross-beam with the girder : small projections e are
made in the lower flange at the places where the cross-beams d are to rest ;

CONNECTION OF BINDINO-JOISTS WITH CAST-IRON GIR:
SGAJ.E, INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 614.

CAST-IRON GIRDERS WITH " SHOES " FO
SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

BEAMS.

377

flange,

bolt-holes are made in these, by which the cross-beam d is bolted to the flange.
By this method the whole of the cross-beams and girders are united together,
and the " girder will be prevented from ' canting,' as the strain has a tendency
to bring the top flange inwards, and to force the top flange outwards, thus pro-
ducing a lateral strain upon the girder, which would in a great measure be
resisted by the bolts in the cross-beams. The best security for girders loaded
in this way will, however, be good broad flanges, cast upon the top and bottom
sides, in order to resist the lateral thrust of the cross-beams."

1390. When the cross-beam or binding-joist is of cast-iron, and of the same
section as the girder, Mr Fairbairn recommends an arrangement to be adopted,
illustrated in fig. 615, a narrow shelf a being cast on the side of the

from one end of the girder to the other (not merely,
it is to be noted, at the places where the cross-beams
occur) ; " this would give a sufficient bearing for
the cross-beam by forming the ends, as shown in the
figure at d; and the bolt-holes c should perforate
the vertical rib as near as possible to the neutral
axis of the girder." The cross-beam is shown at b.

1391. With reference to this plan of perforating
the girder, and also of making perforations for pass-
ing through the tie-bolts, often used in trussing
cast-iron girders, Mr Fairbairn says, that in " cast-
iron girders," even where the hole, or rather the
metal immediately surrounding the aperture, is
greatly strengthened, " such a process, if not fatal,
would be, to say the least of it, exceedingly in-
jurious. I have," he continues, " decided objections to anything like perfora-
tions in cast-iron girders ; and it is even with' some reluctance I would have
a bolt-hole through the neutral axis, unless thickened so as to compensate for
the part taken out ; besides, it is exceedingly objectionable to cut off the
connection between the two resisting flanges of a girder, or to damage in any
other way a casting of this description. There is nothing I should be more
tenacious about than the cutting or boring of any part of a well-proportioned
girder ; and I believe there is nothing so dangerous in the hands of persons
unacquainted with the laws which govern the strength of these important
structures."

1392. Mr Fairbairn remedies the evil arising from the use of perforated
girders by the plan illustrated in fig. 616. It is of essen-
tial importance that the bottom flange shall not be per-
forated, the cross-beam being supported only by hook-
bolts. The other method is to lay the cross-beams at

once upon the girders.

1393. Where tie-rods are used to truss the girders and
prevent their lateral movement, it is important that they
should be placed in the proper position. This practically
is at the soffit of the arch, in which position the tie-rods
will perforate the " neutral axis " of the beam. The

maximum point of tension of the tie-rods is at the bottom SCSPFXSION OF C]iOKS . BK ^ tl
of the flange ; but this, although the safest, is not the F ^ OM ";ERS SCAI.S,
most convenient position in practice, as the tie-rod would

then stretch across the chord of the arc. Tie-rods should never be placed
above the arch near the top of the girder. For cases where the weight to

616.

--V 1

378

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 611

be supported is equal to 13 cwt. per square yard, the sectional area of the
tie-rods should not be less than 3 square inches for eveiy 20 feet in width of
the building ; where the weight to be supported is equal to 24 cwt. per square
yard, the area should be increased to nearly 5 square inches.

1394. As already noticed, par. 1391, Mr Fairbairn objects to all perforations
in girders, as in cases where tie-rods are used ; he, however, has objections to
the use of tie-rods on other grounds, which we here give : " In trussing a cast-
iron girder, I would much rather give the strength to the girder itself than
depend upon a malleable-iron truss. The two materials are widely different in
character, the one being ductile, and subject to elongation under a severe tensile
strain, and the other rigid and firm under compression : they seldom, if ever,
agree (if I may use the expression) well together ; and during the whole of my
experience, I have found it safer and better to keep them separate. Besides,
the effect of tightening or screwing up the truss-rods has a tendency to throw
increased strain upon the girder, or, vice versa, upon the rods themselves ; in
fact, an ignorant person screwing up the trusses might do serious injury with-
out ever being aware of having done so. Altogether, I have now, and always
had, an objection to trussed girders, whether composed of chains or rods : I
have, therefore, no hesitation in recommending a perfectly simple and well-
proportioned girder, free from encumbrances of all kinds."

1395. Where truss-rods are used, Mr Fairbairn, in his work On the Applica-

tion of Iron to Construction, recommends, at p. 150,
the following method :- a a, fig. 617, represents the
flange of beam in plan, b the rib, which is thick-
ened at the part c, through which the tie-rods pass.
A rectangular hole is made in this part, through
which the tie-rods d e are passed in opposite direc-
tions, the ends f catching on the rib of the beam,
and the whole secured by a cotter #. The diameter of
the rods if wrought-iron d and e, may be for | of
an inch. " This connection is probably the best, as
the rods are not weakened by cotter holes, and are
simply formed into single gibs, with shoulders
pulling against the beams, on each side, and a key
between."

1396. Defects of Cast-Iron as compared with Wrought-iron Beams. With the
pillars, cast-iron girders, and brick arches, buildings are not so safe or strong
as might be expected. "Cast-iron cannot," remarks Mr Fairbairn, "be de-
pended upon, even in the best form, and for several reasons viz., unequal
contraction in the cooling of the metal ; the brittle nature of the material ;
imperfections and flaws in the castings ; and its liability to break without
warning. As regards the first point, we labour under great uncertainty in con-
sequence of the ' shtinkage ' or contraction of the metals during the process
of cooling. A casting, even when well proportioned, will suddenly ' snap,'
without any apparent cause. Exposure to rain, or intense frost during the
night, not unfrequently produces fracture ; and on these occasions, rupture takes
place with a loud noise like the report of a pistol. On minute examination, the
injury is at once seen to have arisen from the presence of an immense tensile
strain in the immediate vicinity of the fracture, which is generally found to be
greatly enlarged, and an enormous force is required to bring the parts again into
contact. This unequal and dangerous force of tension, existing within the

F1XIXO OF TRUSS-RODS OF CAST-IRON
BEAMS SCALE, J INCH TO TH FOOT.

BEAMS. 379

casting itself, appears to me to l>o produced by one of two causes, either from
unequal rates in the time of cooling, whereby the crystalline process is seriously
damaged, or from imperfect mixture of the metals, whence the shrinkage is
greater in one part than in another, and from which would follow unequal
degrees of tension of the parts, (jreat care, therefore, should bo observed in
castings. It should be seen that the metals are well mixed, and that the moulds
or patterns are so proportioned as to insure uniformity in the rate of cooling.
These Are practical operations of some importance, and the moulds,, after run-
ning, should be covered closely up, and as much time as possible given for
attaining, by a slow rate of cooling, a greater degree of perfection in crystalline
structure. The second cause of danger is, that all crystalline bodies are of a more
brittle and uncertain character than those which are of a fibrous structure ; and
as wrought-iron possesses more ductility, and partakes in a greater degree of
the latter quality, it is better qualified to sustain heavy weights and shocks
than cast-iron ; and its high powers of resistance to a tensile strain render its
application in the constructive arts an object of primary importance to all those
connected professionally or otherwise with the erection of buildings. The
superiority of its resistance to tension is not, however, its only recommendation,
as the new forms and conditions under which it can be manufactured and
applied, in position and distribiition, to resist compression, is another powerful
recommendation of it as a safer and lighter substitute for cast-iron. Another
defect of cast-iron is the impossibility of discovering imperfections which may
lie concealed under the surface of a casting, and which frequently baffle the
scrutiny of the keenest observer. These defects are by no means uncommon ;
and repeated instances have occurred wherein castings, presenting every appear-
ance of perfection, have been found to contain the elements of destruction,
either in concealed air-bubbles, or in the infusion of scoriae which had been run
into the moulds, and skinned over by a smooth covering of apparently sound
iron. Now, this can never occur in the wrought-iron beams ; as the different
processes of manufacture, such as puddling, forging, piling, and rolling, are
sufficient to cause any imperfection calculated to endanger the soundness of the
plates to be detected. It will, however, sometimes occur, that minute particles
of scoriae will be inserted between the laminna or bars from which the plates are
rolled ; but this does not materially affect the strength, excepting only in the
case of boilers, where they form blisters when exposed to intense heat. In the
formation of bearers, these defects are of less consequence, as they do not
seriously impair their strength." On the Application of Iron to Building Purposes,
pp. 48, 49. Weale, London.

1397. In view of these and other defects of cast-iron fireproof constructions,
and the great weight of the girder, wrought-iron beams have been introduced
with marked success. Mr Fairbairn, than whom no more practical authority
on all matters connected with construction can be cited, thus remarks on their
use: "From the increased safety arid greatly increased strength of the
wrought-iron beam, it appears to me to be in every respect adapted to the con-
struction of fireproof buildings. It offers much greater security, and is free
from the risk of those accidents which not unfrequently occur with cast-iron
beams, and which have created so much alarm in the public mind. ... It
now becomes a consideration of some importance to exhibit the advantages
which may be gained by its introduction on a large scale into the building of
warehouses, cotton and flax mills, and dwelling-houses, which require protec-
tion from risk, whether arising from weakness, from the employment of a dan-

380

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 618.

SECTION OF
WROOOHT-IRON

BEAU SCAX.E, ^

INCH TO THE FOOT

gerous material, or from fire. In these erections, it will be found exceedingly
valuable, irrespectively of the sense of security which the nature of the material
is sure to establish in the public mind. Impressed wath these convictions, I
unhesitatingly recommend its adoption to the architect and engineer ; and pro-
vided the laws which govern its strength be carefully attended to, I have every
reason to believe that a few examples will not only give entire confidence in its
powers, but that increased experience will elicit improved conditions, and pro-
bably better forms for its application."

1398. In fig. 618 we give a section of the "plate beam" which Mr Fairbairn

most approves of. The length between the bearings for this ex-
ample is 30 feet, and the breaking weight at the centre is 27.5
tons, uniformly distributed over its surface 55 times : one-fourth
or one-third of this should be the amount laid upon it. The
total depth is 22 inches ; the breadth of bottom flange 5^ inches ;
its thickness inch ; the breadth of upper flange 7^ inches ; and
thickness ^ inch. The thickness of the middle plate is T 5 7 of
an inch. As will be seen from the sketch, the beam' is composed
of a central plate, with angle irons riveted on each side at the
upper and lower edges. There is very little difference between
the cost of a girder of this kind and that of a cast-iron girder
calculated to bear the same weight ; but the wrought-iron girder is only one-
third of the weight of the cast-iron, and therefore costs less for carriage, and is
easier erected and put in its place, besides possessing, as we have shown, the
advantages of increased safety.

1399. In fig. 619 we give a section of a rolled beam, after the manner of

rails, adapted for wrought -

Fi s- 619 - iron fireproof construction ;

the length a b being 20 feet.
The width of bottom flange
is 4 inches, and thickness
^ an inch ; of top flange,
4 inches, and thickness f
inch ; the thickness of rib
c ; total depth of beam
15 inches.

1400. In fig. 620 we show
the method of fixing the
tie -rods to wrought-iron
beams ; a a the upper flange
of beam, b b the tie-rod, ^
inch broad and f thick ; c is
a part cross section of beam, d d tie-rod.

1401. We here append the dimensions of cast-iron girders, and joists or
binders, for a few of the most iiseful spans, calculated for loads of 280 Ib. per
square foot of floor, this including the material resting upon the floor, as grain
or machinery, and the weight of the joists and the flooring materials. Fig. 612
will illustrate the different measurements : thus, a b is the bottom flange ; c d
the top flange ; e the " thickness of rib " at the bottom ; / the thickness at top ;
g h total depth of girder.

1402. The following are the sizes of main girders adapted to support 2^ cwt.
per square foot. A floor of 30 feet square, 900 superficial feet, supports a load
of 111 tons 5 cwt. The dimensions of the girder are as follows : length, 32 feet ;

SECTION OF BOLTED
WROOOHT-IRON
BEAU SCALE, 1

INCH TO THE FOOT.

JUNCTION OF TIE-ROD
SCALE, 2 .

WROUOHT-IRON BEAMS
IO THE FOOT.

COLUMNS. 381

extreme depth, from g to /<, fig. G12, 30 inches ; bottom flange a 5, 2.4 inches
in breadth, 4|- inches thick ; top flange c rf, 8 inches broad, 4 inches thick ;
thickness of rib at e, 3j inches ; at/, 2 inches. For a room of 25 feet square,
the floor of which, 625 feet superficial, supports nearly 81 tons : length of girder,
27 feet; breadth of bottom flange a b, 21 inches, thickness 4-| inches ; breadth
of top flange c d, Gj- inches, thickness 2^ inches; depth of girder g /*, 24
inches ; thickness of rib at c, 2- ; at /, 1^. For a room 20 feet square, the
floor of which, 400 feet superficial, supports a weight of 50 tons : length of
girder, 22 feet; breadth of bottom flange a b, 15 inches, thickness 3 inches;
breadth of top flange c cZ, 5^- inches, thickness 1^ inches; depth of girder $r A,
24 inches; thickness of rib at c, 2 inches ; at/, 1| inch. For a room of 16
feet square, the floor of which, 256 square feet, supports 28 tons, the length of
the girder is 18 feet ; the breadth of bottom flange a 6, 14 inches, its thickness
2 inches ; breadth of top flange c d, 4-| inches, its thickness | inch ; depth of
beam, g /, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, 1^ inch; and at/ 1 inch.

1403. The following are the dimensions of binders or joists adapted for the
foregoing cases, and still illustrated by fig. 612 : For a bearing of 30 feet, with
a distance of 6 feet from centre to centre of joists, the weight supported is 22-|
tons, at 2| cwt. per square foot. Length of joist 25 feet, breadth of bottom
flange a b, 18 inches, thickness 2| inches ; breadth of top flange, 6 inches,
thickness 1^ inch; depth of joist g h, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, If;
at f, \\. For a bearing of 25 feet, the distance from centre to centre of joists
being 6 feet, the weight supported is nearly 19 tons. Length of joist 25 feet;
breadth of bottom flange, a b, 18 inches, thickness 2 j- ; breadth of top flange
c d, 5f-, thickness 1^ inch; depth of joist g I/, 12 inches; thickness at e, 1|
inch; at/ 1^. For a bearing of 16 feet, with the joists 6 feet apart from
centre to centre, the weight supported is 12 tons. The length of joist is 16
feet, the breadth of flange a Z, 8 inches, its thickness 2 inches ; the breadth of
flange c df, 3 inches, thickness 1 inch; depth of joist g h, 12 inches; thickness
of rib at e, 1^ ; at / 1 inch. For a very full table of the sizes of girders and
joists for a variety of spans and depths, we would recommend the reader to
Weale's Engineer's Pocket- Book for 1855-56 (Gs.)

1404. SECTION SECOND Columns.

1405. Cast-Iron Columns, and Junctions with Girders or Beams.-
foundation on which the column rests is good hard

stone, the simplest method of fixing or bedding is
shown in fig. 621, where a is the foundation-stone,
with a socket cut into it to receive the neck b of the
column c. Care must be taken to have the end of the
neck perfectly flat.

1406. Where the foundation is of brick or soft stone,
a cast-iron plate g g, fig. 622, should be let into the top

of the stone a ; the plate has a collar or projection Z,

which passes into the aperture of the pipe of the

column ; the solid parts of the column fit into the parts c c; d shows the pillar

connected with the base.

1407. Fig. 623 represents the method of fixing the column at foundation in
cotton factories ; a a the stone-bed, resting on two or three brick courses ; b b
a cast-iron plate, bolted to the stone, and provided with a circular projection c
the hollow end of the column d passes over this ; e c shows a plan of the
whole. For supporting beams of 20 to 25 feet span, the diameter of column

382

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 623.

Fig. 622.

' CAST-IRON PILLAR SCALE.

1 INCH TO IBS FOOT.

BASE OP OAST-IRON PILLAR SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 624.

should be 8 inches ; the thickness of metal at the bottom of If inch, and f-
at the top. For beams of 18-feet span, the diameter may be reduced to 7 or 6
inches ; the size of base-plate e e or J, fig. 623, being from 2 to 2 J feet square.
Mr Fairbairn states, " that the base of the lower columns should, in every case,
be considerably enlarged, and the ends faced in the lathe ; the base-plate,
which receives it, should also be faced. This is the more necessary, as it
gives an even surface for the purpose of levelling the plate, and maintaining
the vertical position of the column."

1408. The top of the pillar or column must be specially adapted to receive

the girders or joists which rest upon it.
A method of doing this is shown at fig.
624, where the top-plate b is left square,
and has along two of its edges snags or
projections c c ; the space between these
should be wide enough to allow the
girder to be inserted easily, with a little
on each side to allow of expansion; d
shows the plan of top-plate. Where
there are two storeys to the building, and
one row of columns has to rest upon
the other immediately beneath, the best
method to adopt is to have the neck / of
the lower pillar e prolonged, and made
hollow, to receive the end g of the upper
pillar. The neck /must be long enough
to be flush with or a little above the top
edge of the girder, when it is laid upon the cap of the lower pillar e.

tJPJ>BR TERMINATION OF COLUMNS TO RECEIVE :

COLTMXS.

383

1409. Fig. 025 shows another method of connecting one base of Tipper column
with the cap of lower OHO, of which tho upper part a receives the lower part b
of column. The socket a and part b should both bo carefully faced in the lathe
to insure accurate fitting.

1410. Where the caps of columns in rows are tied to- P!fr ,,.,.
gether by truss-rods which run at right angles to the line

of beams as the ties a <(, fig. 626, connecting the columns
b b b placed opposite each other the method recommended
by Mr Fairbairn is the best which can be adopted to secure
the tie-rods.

1411. In fig. 626 c c is part of cap of column, with slot
holes in each side, as d. The tie-rods e e aro terminated with

catches or bent points, which grasp tho cap of the column, and are secured
together by driving in the key/.

1412. There are various methods in use to join girders together, lying on
the caps of columns. The simplest is illustrated in fig. 627, which represents
a plan of the top of two girders, the ends a. c and b d of which are expanded
into flanges, to allow of bolt-holes to be made. The side view is seen at e.

1413. The method adopted where a circular neck is made to the cap of tho
column, as/ in fig. 624, is illustrated in fig. 628. In this form of joint the ends
of the girders b b and c c are expanded into semicircular flanges, which embrace

Fig. C27.

Jfi

ALE, J INCH TO THE

384

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the neck /, as / and / in figs. 624 and 627, and are secured by bolts and nuts.
The side view is shown at e /, fig. 628.

1414 In place of joining the two beams with bolts and nuts, as shown in fig.
629, projecting horns a b may be cast in the ends of the circular part of the

beams c d, which em-
Fig. 63i. brace the cap e ; these
two horns being secured
by wrought-iron clasps
or clips fg.

1415. Where four
girders meet on the cap
of a column with neck,
as at /, fig. 627, the
ends of the girders are
expanded into flanges of
the form as shown in fig.
630, at b and c. Where
four of these are put to-
gether, the ends form a
figure as shown by the
dotted lines b e, c d.

1416. Junction of
Wrought -Iron Beams
with Cast-Iron Columns.
In fig. 631 we show
how this is effected :
a the central hollow of
column ; b the square

part of the cap c c, against which the ends of the two beams abut ; angle-irons
e e, e e are secured to the neck of column by the bolts //, which pass through
the part a, and are secured by nuts. The angle-irons e e, e e are riveted to
the beams, as shown in the front elevation at g g, g g.

1417. SECTION THIRD Roofs. In fig. 632 we give a skeleton diagram of a
roof adapted for a span of 18 feet, and in which the principals are placed at a dis-
tance of 7 feet apart. The following are the dimensions of parts : The rise or
camber of tie-rods from a to b 6 inches ; from a to c, 4 feet ; diameter of tie-rods
a d, f inch ; diameter of king-bolt b c, inch. The following are the dimensions
of the rafters c d, c g, of which the right hand of fig. 633 is a section :
Width of table a b, fig. 633, 2 inches ; thickness of do., inch ; total depth

JUNCTION OF TOUR OIRDER8 ON GAP OF
COLUMN SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

LUMN SCALE, 1 INCH TO '

Fig. 632.

Fig. 633.

BtETON TRUSS TOR AN IRON KOOF OF 18-PEET SPAN.

: e :

F.-" s v
-

I:...,. . *

SECT

tON OF WROUOHT-IRON B

A.-

TERS.

from c to J, 2^ inches ; thickness of rib e /, inch. The following are the
dimensions of the struts e b, f b, fig. 632, of which the left hand of fig. 633

DETAILS OF ROOFS.

385

is a section : Width of tablt

inch ; thickness of do., ^ inch ; depth from

j to ?, l-i- inch ; thickness of rib I', { incli.

1418. Details of Hoof in fig. 632. In fig. 634 we give detail drawings of
rafter-box or shoe, in which the lower terminations of the rafters e or g are
fixed; a a is the wall-plate, to which the shoe b b is bolted by bolts c, or, in
place of being secured to a wall-plate, the shoe may be at once built into the
wall ; d the recess in which tlie end of the rafter e is placed. To the front of
the shoe a snag/ is cast, which is embraced by the jointed end of the tie-bolt
g (d b, or g 6, fig. G32), and secured thereto by bolt and nut.

1419. Fig. 635 is the plan of shoe ; a the recess for rafter, b the snag for
tie-bolt.

Fig. 634.

1420. In fig. 636 we give a sketch of another form of shoo, in which the tie-
bolt a is inserted in an aperture and secured by a key b ; c the end of the rafter.
In the end view d is the recess for the rafter, e the aperture for the tie-bolt.

Fig. 630.

1421. In fig. 637 we give plan and elevation of the shoe, in which the upper
ends of the rafters d c, g c, fig. 632, are secured. The ends of the rafters a a
are cut off at right angles, as at b and c, and are passed into slots made in the
thickness of the shoe. The king-bolt d is passed into a circular aperture in the
under side of shoe, and secured by a cotter key e f is the recess for ridge-pole.
In the plan of lower side, g g are the slots, in which the rafters a a are inserted,
being secured therein by rivets or bolts ; h the central aperture, in which

2 v,

386

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

the king-bolt d is inserted. In plan of upper side, k k slots for rafters, i i
recess for ridge-pole.

Fig. 637.

Fig. 638.

ELEVATION AND PLANS OF SHOE FOR OFFER END OF RAFTER SCALE IN FI3. 657.

1422. In fig. 638 we give side-elevation, and elevation and plan, showing
method of connecting foot of king-bolt c b, fig. 632, feet of struts e b, f b, and

inner ends of tie -rods a d, a g.
In fig. 638 the ends a a of the
struts b b are inserted in recesses
made in the cast-iron shoe c ; to
the under side of the shoe two
snags d d are provided, to which
the ends of the tie -rods e are
jointed. The king-bolt / passes
through an aperture in the centre
of the shoe, and is tightened up
by a nut g, fitted on the screwed
lower end of king-bolt/. In the
plan of under side of shoe, h is
the nut of king-bolt, i i snags to
which the tie -rods are jointed.
In the side elevation k is the re-
cess in which the end of strut is
inserted, I the snag to which the end of tie-rod is jointed, m the king-bolt.

1423. In fig. 639 we give another method of joining the feet of struts e and/,
and the ends of the tie-rods a d, a g, fig. 632. In fig. 639 the ends of the tie-
rods a and b are finished with circular eyes, and plates c c, d d are secured to them
by bolts e e, e e passing through circular holes and secured by nuts. The ends
of the rafters // are bent so as to lie flat on the upper plate c c, and are secured

JUNCTION OF KINO-BOX. T, STRUTS, RAFTERS, AND TIE-RODSSCALE IN

P1O. 657.

DETAILS OF ROOFS.

387

to the plate c c and eyes of tie-rods a I by the bolts c e, e. e. The king-bolt g
passes through the central aperture in the plates c c, d d, and is screwed np
by nuts. In the plan, h h are the upper sides of rafters, i i the sides of upper
plates corresponding to c c, k the nut of king-bolt, I m the nuts corresponding
to e e.

l-i-. C.30.

ri ...!.__ i

i /

,, ,

m h \

1424. A third method of effecting the junction of the struts and tie-rods
is shown in fig. 640, in

which the tie-rods a and
b pass into holes in the
shoe, and are secured by
keys or cotters c c. The
king-bolt ^passes through
a central aperture, and is
secured by the nuts e e.
In the end view, / is the
king-bolt, g the recess in
which the ends of the
Struts are placed, h the

aperture intO Which the JONCTION OF KIS-O-BOI.T, RAFTERS, AND TIF.-UO:,S SCALE IN FIO. 657

end of the tie-rod b passes.

1425. In fig. 641 we give view of end of tie-rods ad, a g in fig. 632, of which
a a, fig. 641, is the side, b c the

plan of jointed end ; the snag d, Fis. 041.

fig. 638, passing into the part &,

and the whole being secured by the

bolt d passing through the holes

and tightened up by the nut e. The

outer termination of the tie-rods,

where they are secured to the snag

Of the rafter-Shoe in fig. 634, at g, DETAIL OF TIE-RODSSCALE IN no. Co7.

are precisely the same as here shown.

1426. Fig. 642 shows the method of connecting the upper end of strut b c,
fig. 632, with the rafter c g. The rafter is shown at a a, fig. 642. Two
wrought-iron plates b b one on each side of the web of the rafter are secured
by rivets c. Into the space between these two plates the end of the strut d
is inserted, this being terminated by a line e parallel to face of rafter a a. The
plates b b are secured to the end of the strut d by rivets /, as shown. We

388

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

give also in fig. 642 a plan in which the plates g are shown secured to the
strut h h i i being the bolts and nuts by which the plates are secured to the
rafter a a.

Fig. 642.

JUNCTION OF STRUTS

AFTERS SCALE IN FIO. 657

1427. Double Roof for Wide Spans. The same form of truss now illustrated
may be used in forming the roof of a wide building, as the cow-byre s s of the
Suburbial Farm-Steading for Dairy, in Plate VI., the plan of roof of which is
shown in fig. 10, Plate X., and the span of which is 58 feet.

1428. Fig. 643 shows the arrangement of roof trusses. A row of pillars or
cast-iron columns a being placed down the centre of building at distances of 6
feet apart, the inner ends of the trusses b rest on shoes secured to the caps
of the columns, the outer ends c c to shoes on the walls d d. For a span of
29 feet the following will be the dimensions of the parts of the truss, the letters
of reference being those in fig. 632 : Camber of tie-rods from a to 5, 8^ inches ;
height from i to c, 5 feet 8 inches ; diameter of king-bolt b c, 1 inch ; diameter
of tie-rod a d, \\ inch. The dimensions of rafters and struts are as follows, the
letters of reference being those in fig. 633 : rafters, width of table a b, 2^
inches ; thickness of table, ^ inch ; depth from c to d, 3 inches ; thickness of
rib e fi f inch > struts, width of table g h, 2 inches ; thickness of table \ inch ;
depth fromy to t, 2 inches ; thickness of rib &, ^ inch.

Fig. 643.

SKELETON TRUSS OF DOUBLE-SPAN ROOF SCALE IK 7IO. 657

1429. Details of Hoof in Jig. 643. All the details are of the same construction
as those for truss in fig. 632, with the exception of the shoe for the feet of
rafter at the junction of trusses at the point , fig. 643. In fig. 644 we give a
side elevation of the shoe for this part : a the upper part of column ; b b cap
of same, to which the shoe is bolted ; the ends of the rafters c c are passed
into recesses formed in the shoe ; d d are snags to which the ends of the tie-
rods e e are jointed; /a slot, through which the truss-rods connecting the
rows of pillars or columns together are passed, and which are secured as shown
in fig-. 626.

1 DETAILS OF ROOFS.

389

1430. Iron Truss without King-Dolt. In fig. 645 we give the drawing of a
truss of this kind adapted for spaas from 18 to 30 feet. The span f g, in fig.
645, is 25 feet.

The king-bolt c b

is dispensed with,

and two struts

d e, d e are used,

with tie-bolts c e,

c e. The dotted

line s <7 iahf, and

d z, d h, show the

position of the struts and tie-bolts before being braced up into the positions

shown by the black lines.

1431. Details. In fig. 646 we give a side and end elevation of a form of
cast-iron strut adapted to this form of truss : a a part of the rafter, b b the strut,
secured by the bolt c. In the side elevation d is the lower part of the strut, e e
the sides of the upper part, / the place in which the rafter a a is put, g h the
bolt. In fig. 647 we give side, and in fig. 648 edge, elevations of the lower

Fit*. C46.

PPER END OF OAST-IRON

part of the strut a a, b b, fig. 646, provided with a bolt-hole at c. The part of the

390

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

tie shown at e, fig. 647, corresponds to the tie e f in fig. 645 ; the tie at d,

Fig. 648. fi ' 647 ' to tlie tie e b e in % 645 5 the part of the tie at g,

fig. 647, to the ties e c, fig. 645. The whole of these ties,
as d, e, g, fig. 647, are secured to the strut a a, b b by the
bolt /. In 648, a b the strut, d g the ties, and /the bolt.

1432. In fig. 649 we give a front, and in fig. 650 a
side elevation of the assemblage of rafters, ridge-pole,
bracket, and ties for a roof, as of fig. 645; the same letters
referring to both figures : a a the rafter-head, or box, formed
of two cast-iron plates, which embrace the ends e of the
rafters, and are secured by bolts //. They are provided
with two snags b J, to which the ties k k are bolted by
the bolts d d ; the brackets g g, cast to the sides of a a,
support the ridge-pole box or shoe /* h in the cavity i of which the ridge-pole rests.

BIDE ELEVATION OF I

Fig. 649.

Fig. 650.

JUNCTION O

, RIDGE-POLE, BRACKET, AND TIES.

DE ELEVATION O? FIG

1433. We give in fig. 651 the elevation of another method of joining the
assemblage of parts shown in figs. 649, 650, where a a is the cast-iron shoe, b
the recess for ridge-pole, c the rafter, d e the line of tie-rods e c, fig. 645, of
which //, fig. 651, is a side elevation, and g g edge, showing part which em-
braces the shoe a a.

1434. Shoe for Feet of Rafters. We give, in fig. 652, an elevation of shoe
for the feet of the rafters eg, c f in fig. 645 : a the rafters, b the bolt which
secures the shoe to the wall -plate, c that which secures the gutter, d the
bolt-hole for securing the end of tie-rod. In the plan below, e is the end of the
tie-rod, with circular eye /, h the bolt, secured by the nut z, k the recess into
which the end of rafter passes.

1435. In fig. 653, in the upper part, end view of shoe is given : a the end
of tie-rod, b the circular eye of the same, c the bolt securing it to the snags d d,
e the nut, /the recess for end of rafter. In section below, g is a front, and h a
side view of the eye of tie-rod a.

SHOES FOIl KALTEES.

391

Fig. 053.

j 1

392

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1436. In fig. 654 we give side elevation of upper part of another form of
strut adapted for the truss in fig. 645, in which a a is the rafter at part d, fig.
645, the bolts b b securing the strut c to the same.

1437. In fig. 655 we give side elevation of the lower part of strut a a, ter-
minated with a circular plate b b, in the periphery of which apertures are made,
in which the ends of the tie-rods c d e are inserted, these being secured by keys
shown by the dotted lines.

Fig. 655.

Fig. 654.

OFFER TERM

LOWER TERMIUiTIOiJ OF I

1438. Iron Trusses with Queen-Bolts. Of this class of roof for spans from 28
to 40 feet, we give a skeleton diagram in fig. 656 for a span of 30 feet, and of
which the following are the dimensions : camber of roof from e to d, 9 inches ;
rise of roof from d to a, 6 feet; distance apart of king-bolt d and queen-bolts/
and <7, 5 feet ; diameter of king-bolt d a, li inch ; diameter of queen-bolts
ffi f f an i nc h > f queen-bolts g g, \ inch. Dimensions of rafters arid struts,
the letters of reference being the same as in fig. 633 : Rafters, width of table
a b, 2^ inches ; thickness of table, f of an inch ; depth from c to d, 3 inches ;
thickness of rib e /, f inch. Struts, width of table g h, If inch ; thickness
of table, inch ; depth from j to z, 2 inches ; thickness of rib k, T 5 ^- inch.

Fig. 656.

SKELETON OP TUTTSSID ROOF 30 EZET SPAK SCALE IN T1O. 657.

Fig. 657.
1 2 3 4 s

CALI FOR FIQ8. 634 TO 067 IKCLO8TO.

1439. Details of Truss in jig. 656,
l-. Int the scale for all of which is given in

fig. 657.

DETAILS OF TRUSS.

1440. Fig. 658 is a sectional drawing, showing connection between foot of
king-bolt and struts : a tr, a a the tie-bolts; c c the struts; d d the king-bolt; /
a section of king-bolt ; b b bolts which pass through the ends of the struts c c,
the upper and
under plates
s s, s s, and the
ends of the tie-
bolts a a. A
plan view of
the connection
is given in the
upper part of
the figure :
k k shows the
form of the up-
per and lower
plates s s, s s
h the termina-
tion of a tie-
bolt, g that of
a strut. The

king-bolt passes through the central aperture /, and the whole are secured by
the bolts b b passing through the holes e, e.

1441. Fig. 659 shows the method of attaching the upper end of a strut
to a rafter : a a is the rafter, b b a plate (there is a corresponding plate
on the other side) attached to the rafter by a bolt passing through the plates
and the rafter at d. The end of the strut c is cut off to suit the slope of the
rafter as shown by the dotted lines, and passed between the two plates above
described, and secured by rivets or bolts rivets being usually employed.

1442. The method of joining the foot of strut m and of queen-bolt /with the
king-bolt a d, fig. 656, is illustrated in fig. 660, where a a is the tie-bolt
(corresponding with tie-bolt c rf, fig. 656), d the strut, c the lower collar of the
queen-bolt, terminating in a bolt i, passing through the strut d, upper washer
e e, tie-bolt a a, lower washer e, and secured by nut / Fig. 661 shows the
plan of tie-bolt a a, fig. 660, with the expanded part at the aperture 5, through
which the bolt 5, fig. 660, passes ; c is the section of the tie-bolt.

394

PEACTICAL CONSTKUCTION.

Fig. 662.

'c?

JOINT OF QOEEN-BOLT.

Fig. 663.

1443. Fig. 662 illustrates the method of forming the connection between the
upper end of the queen-bolt c, fig. 660, with the
rafter a a, fig. 659. In fig. 662, the upper part
of the queen-bolt is jointed as at d, and provided
with two eye-holes at a a. The plates b 5, fig. 659,
pass between the forks a a of the end of the queen-
bolt in fig. 662 ; and a bolt is passed through the

j ^ bolt-holes in a a, and the bolt-hole d in b 6, fig. 659,

| g and is secured by a nut. In fig. 662, b shows in

side view the bolt-holes at a a, c the section of the
queen-bolt /, fig. 656 (f inch), and e the section
of queen-bolt g ( inch), also in fig. 656.

1444. Fig. 663 illustrates the method of joining
the upper extremities of the two rafters in a b, a c,
fig. 656, the ends of which are cut off at right angles to the direction of their
length, as shown by the dotted lines of d arid d, fig. 663. The king-bolt-
head a a a is made of cast-
iron ; and space is provided
between its two projecting
ends, as shown at a a, fig.
664, into which the ends of
the rafters are inserted, and
secured by bolts and nuts or
rivets passing through the
" head " a a, fig. 663, and the
rafters. The upper part of
the head is terminated by a
recess f, formed between two
plates e e, fig. 663, into which
the ridge-pole is placed. In
the solid part of the head a
core-hole is cast, into which
is passed the upper end of
the king - bolt b c ; this is
fixed by a key driven through
slots made in the head, and
the key-seat in the bolt.

1445. Fig. 665 is an end view of king-bolt-head; a a the slot into which the
rafter is passed, b b the part sustaining the ridge-pole,
c the king-bolt. Fig. 664 is the plan of the king-bolt-
head.

1446. In fig. 666 we give side elevation of shoe, in
which the lower ends of rafters a b, a c, fig. 656, are
secured ; a a, fig. 666, the end of the tie-rod b c, fig.
656, which passes into an aperture cast in the shoe,
and secured by a cotter and gib b ; d end of rafter,
secured by the bolts e e.

1447. Fig. 667 is a front view of the shoe, which is
built into the wall. A form of shoe, as in fig. 634,
may be adopted.

1448. The following are the dimensions of the parts
of wrought-iron roofs of various spans ; for these we

JUNCTION OP RAFTERS WITH XJ.NO-BOLT-HEAD.

Fig. 664.

' XliJO-BOI/r-HEAU.

Fig. 665.

SPANS OF ROOFS.

395

SIDE EIEV

are indebted to a valuable table in Weale's Engineer's Pocket- Boole for 1855-56 ;
for other sizes we refer to the book itself.

1449; For a 20-feet span, as in fig. 632, the rise in the centre from a to b is
6 inches ; from b to c, 4 feet ; diameter of the tie-rod d 5, g &, inch ; of the king-
bolt b c, inch.

1450. For a 25-feet span, as in fig. 645, the rise from a to b, 7| inches ; from
b to c, 5 feet ; diameter of the tie-rod e b, b e, ~L inch ; of king-bolt b c, -| inch.

1451. For a 30-feet span, as in fig. 656, the rise from e to t?, 9 inches ; from
d to a, 5 feet. The distance from king-bolt a d to the queen-bolts// g g, 5
feet respectively. The diameter of tie-rod b d, d c, l inch; the diameter of
king-bolt a d, f inch ; of queen-bolts//, -f inch ; of queen-bolts g g, -| inch.

1452. For a span of 35 feet, the truss as in fig. 656, the rise from e to d, 10^-
inches ; from c? to a, 7 feet. The distance from king-bolt a d, and queen-posts

//, and from queen-posts f f to those g g, 5 feet 10 inches. The diameter of
tie-rod b d, d c, king-bolt a d, queen-bolts //and g g, the same as for span of
30 feet, as in paragraph 1451.

1453. For a span of 40 feet, truss same as in fig. 656 ; rise from e to d, 12
inches ; from d to a, 8 feet ; distance between king-bolt d a to queen-bolts //,
g g, each 6 feet 8 inches ; diameter of tie-rod b d, d c, 1 J inch ; of king-bolt,
1 inch; of queen-bolts// f inch ; and of queen-bolts g g, .

1454. For a span of 45 feet, same truss as in fig. 656, but with a third pair
of queen-posts, rise from e to d, 13^ inches ; from d to a, 9 feet ; distance between
king-bolts and queen-posts, and between queen-posts, each 5 feet 7|- inches ;
diameter of tie-rod b c, If inch; of king-bolt, 1| inch; first pair of queen-bolts,
-^ inch ; second pair, f ; and third pair, |.

1455. For a span of 50 feet, the truss same as in span of 45 feet, the rise
from c to d, fig. 656, 15^ inches ; from d to a, 10 feet ; distance between king
and queen bolts each 6 feet 3 inches ; diameter of tie-rod b c, 1| inch ; of king-
bolt, 1^ inch; of first pair of queen-bolts, 1 inch ; of second pair, | ; and of third
pair, f .

1456. In fig. 633 we give section of the rafter a b, a c, and strut m m, h h, in
fig. 656. The following are the dimensions of rafters for the various spans now
described : 20-feet span, total depth from c to rf, fig. 633, 5^ inches, width of
top table a b 2, thickness of top table 3-, thickness of the rib e f ; 25-feet
span, c d 3 inches, a b 2^-, thickness of a b ^, thickness of rib e f ; 30-feet
span, c d 3 inches, a b 2|-, thickness of a b , e / ; 35-feet span, c d 3
inches, a b 2f, thickness of a-b , ef^; 40-feet span, c d 4 inches, a b 3^,
thickness of a b T 7 ^, e f I r ; 45-feet span, e d 4j inches, a b 3^, thickness of a b

50-feet span, c d 4f inches, a b 3f, thickness of a b -^, of ef |.

1457. The following are the dimensions of the struts or braces of the above

396

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

spans : Let j i, fig. 633, be the depth of the strut, g h width of table, k the
thickness of rib, and let m represent the thickness of table. Then, for a span
of 20 feet : j i 2^ inches, g h 2, k f , and m \. For a span of 25 feet : j i 3
inches, g h 2|, k f, m J. For a span of 30 feet : j i 3 inches, g h 2|, k f, m .
For a span of 35 feet : j i 3J inches, g h 2f , k T 7 F , m f . For a span of 40 feet :
j i 4 inches, g h 3 J, k , m y 7 ^-. For a span of 45 feet : j i 4^ inches, g h 3,
k A, m iV For a span of 50 feet : j i 4| inches, g h 3|, k |, m /^

1458. Iron Roof for Horse-Walk of Thrashing-Mill. In fig. 668 we give the
plan of horse-walk ; a a barn wall, b b collar beam, 8 inches by 6, to support
hanger for vertical shaft of mill ; c c, c c, shears, 8 inches by 4, framed into
collar b b, and stayed by the braces d d; e e the columns supporting the rafters
and collar-beam b b.

1459. In fig. 669 we give a skeleton roof, showing disposition of the rafters,
&c. : a a the cast-iron columns, b b the rafters, c c the tie-bolts, d d struts or
braces, e king-bolt.

\ a

THRASHING-MILr-
NCH TO THE FOOT.

1460. Details of the Roof. In fig. 670 we give elevation of the shoe which
supports the ends of the collar-beam b b, fig. 668,
and the ends of two of the rafters ; a the column to
the cap 5, of which the shoe c is secured by bglts and
nuts ; d the end of collar-l^eam, which is received into
a recess made in the shoe, and kept in its place by a
bolt ; e the end of the rafter. A stud / is riveted
to the rafter, and provided with an eye, to which the
tie-bolt g is jointed. To steady the two columns
supporting the collar-beam rf, a tie-bolt may be used,
stretching from one column to the other, secured at
the ends to the eyes of snags h, cast in the caps of
the columns. As two columns out of the assem-
blage employed to support the roof only are required
to support the collar-beam, the shoes for receiving
the feet of the other rafters do not require to have
recesses for receiving the ends of collar-beams, as in
fig. 670 ; the shoe required, however, will be the same
as in fig. 670, with the exception of the part to re-
ceive end of collar- beam.

1461. In fig. 671 we give a drawing of the king-
bolt-head which receives the upper end of the king-bolt e, fig. 669, and the

SHOE FOR FIET OF RAFTERS,

BEAM, AND TIE-RODS 8CA]

1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

EOOF OF HOESE-WALK.

397

upper termination of the rafters at the point f. In fig. 671 a a is an elevation
of the head, b the king-bolt, passing through an aperture in the centre of head,
and secured by a nut c. In the plan, d d d are the recesses which receive the
ends of the rafters ; e the nut of the king-bolt.

1462. In fig. 672 \ve give the cast-iron box or shoe for receiving the ends

of the struts d d, fig. 669, which meet at the point #, and to which also the
ends of the tie-bolts c c are jointed. In
fig. 672 we give the shoe, in which a
is king-bolt, secured by the nuts b b ;
c c the recesses which receive the ends
of the struts d d, fig. 669 ; and d d the
tie-bolts c c, fig. 669 ; e e struts, corre-
sponding to d d, fig. 669. The tie-bolts
d d are jointed to the snags ffff by
means of eyes, through which and the
tie-bolts bolts are passed ; g the aperture
through which the king-bolt a is passed.

1463. In fig. 673 we illustrate an-
other method of joining the assemblage
of struts d d, and tie-bolts c c, fig. 669,
to the shoe. In fig. 673, a the king-
bolt, passing through the shoe b c c
the struts, secured to the shoe by
the bolts d d and nuts e e ; f f the
snags to which the tie-bolts g g are
jointed. The lower figure is a plan of
the shoe, with the ends of the struts
inserted.

1464. Gutters for Iron Roofs Gutter for Single Roof. In fig. 674 we illus-
trate a method of forming the gutter of an iron roof, in which a is the wall on
which rests the shoo for rafter b. The flange c of the rafter b is continued
past the butting end c, and carried outward beyond the wall a. The zinc or

398

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

iron roan or gutter d is riveted to the end of the flange c, as shown in the plan
of under side of flange in the left-hand figure, where e is part of the flange,

Fig. 674.

SCALE IN FIQ. 657.

//body of roan or gutter <7, which is continued along the line of wall from end
to end, being riveted to the end of the flange of each principal

1465. In fig. 675 we give another form of gutter : a a is the gutter-

rig. C75.

OAST-IKON OOTTER SCALE IN FIO. 657.

box, secured to the wall by bolts and nuts b &, as shown. The back of the
gutter-box c is extended upwards, and forms a part d at the same angle as
the angle of line of rafters e, the lower flange of which is bolted to the gutter-
box by the bolt / and nut g. The rafter, instead of breaking off" flush with the
inside of gutter-box, may be extended across, as shown by the dotted lines h, and
rest on the cornice i of the box.

1466. In fig. 676 we give a drawing of another method of forming a gutter,
in which the rafters are secured to shoes a a, resting on columns #, which
are made hollow, and conduct the water from the roofs to the drains. At the
back of the shoe a flange c is cast, to which is secured the wrought-iron gut-
ter d d, by the bolt arid nut e e. A down pipe (placed at intervals in the length

GUTTERS FOR EOOFS.

399

of gutter d d, corresponding to the distance between the columns J) / is con-
nected by a flange to the flange g of the elbow h, which conducts the water to
the interior of the column b.

1467. Gutters for Double Roofs. In the double roof, of which wo gave the
junction of rafters at b, in the central column, in fig. G43, we now show a method
of forming the gutter by bending galvanised iron to the form as shown at b,
and riveting it to the flanges of the rafters.

1468. In fig. 677 we give another method of forming this central or valley
gutter, in which a hollow part, a a, is cast in the centre of the shoe b &, c the
rafter, d the tie-bolt, e the down pipe, leading the water to the centre of column,
to which the shoe b b is bolted.

1469. In fig. 678 we give another form of gutter for a double roof: a a the

ROOF SCAM:

gutter-box, of cast-iron, secured to the wall-plate or column by bolts and nuts
b b ; c c the rafters, secured to the angular pieces d d by bolts and nuts as
shown. The rafters may be continued, as shown by the dotted lines, and
secured by bolt and nut.

400

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1470. Corrugated Iron Roofs. When the surface of a plate of iron is formed

into a series of ridges and furrows, as a J,
fig. 679, a series of arches is arranged,
which, abutting against each other, en-
able weights laid, or a pressure made,
upon the upper surface to be resisted,
under circumstances in which the same
piece of iron, if flat, would be bent and
doubled up. In fig. 679 c d is the eleva-
tion of plate a b ; and e f shows how, by
giving a curve to the plate a b, so as
to form it into an arch, still greater
strength may be given to the plate so
much so, that it may be used as the cover-
ing of a roof of moderate span without the use of rafters the only point of
support being at the abutments e and/ of the walls.

1471. In fig. 680 we give elevation for a truss span 18 feet adapted for
galvanised iron covering : a a the covered rib or rafter, resting on the shoes b b,

Fig. 680.

CORRUGATED IRON FLATE9

GALVANISED IRON HOOF 'CALE, J INCH TO

bolted to the beams c c which run along each side of building, and which rest
on the caps of pillars placed at intervals ; d d tie-rods, e e struts of wrought-
iron. In fig. 681 a is a section, and b side elevation of the rafter or rib a a in
fig. 680. In fig. 682 we give upper part of column a, which supports the beam

Fig. 682.

Fig. 681.

SECTION AHD B1U ELEVATION Ot
TO THE FOOT

-SCALE, } INCH

, this

CAP OF COLUMN-BEAM
SCALE, | INCH TO THB FOOT.

carrying the series of rafter-shoes, which is bolted to the cap c by the
bolt d. In fig. 683 we give plan of upper
Fig - cs3 - end of column a: b b cap, c c the beam, d d

the nuts of the bolts securing it to c c. In
fig. 684 we give side elevation and plan,
showing the junction of feet of struts e e,
fig. 680, with the tie-rod d d. In fig. 684
a a is tie-rod, b b the struts riveted to the tie-
rod a a ; one of the struts c is placed on
one side, the other, d, on the opposite side of
the tie-rod e. e.

UPPER EWD OF COLUMN 3CALE, \ INCH
TO THE FOOT.

GUTTERS FOR ROOFS.

401

1472. In fig-. 685 wo show a inodo of connecting corrugated arched iron
plates e and c with the gutters a, which are either bolted to the cap of column b

or built into a wall. The plate e is scoured to the side of gutter with bolts and
nuts d. This figure also shows a mode of connecting the plates of a
double roof, as in fig. G-i3 : a the iron gutter, stretching from column to
column, or laid continuously in a central wall ; c and c the plates, secured to
gutter with bolts arid nuts d. The connection of outer sides of plates is the
same as at d. For roofs of large span, principals or iron trusses should be used
the principals being placed at distances varying from 10 to 15 feet, and the
plates of corrugated iron slightly arched, so that, when secured to the trusses,
the roof will be in longitudinal section, as a b c d, fig. G8G. The upper part of
same figure is a design by Messrs Dray & Co., London, for a wrought-iron truss
for a span of 52 to 54 feet, adapted for corrugated iron. This roof seems well
adapted for covering a stackyard.

Fiir. GSG.

1473. Details of Truss in fig. 686. In fig. 687 we give the shoe I for Lead of
rafters at the point / in fig. GSG. The rafters a a are riveted to the shoe b ; c
the snag to which the tie-rod/ h is jointed; d the plan, and e the end ele-
vation of shoe. In fig. 688 we give the shoe a, to which the ends of the tie-
rods k I, fig. 686, are jointed ; b the snag, c c the rafter. In fig. 689 we give
the shoe e for receiving ends of tie-rods h m, fig. 686 ; d d the rafter, /the snag
to which the tie-rods h m are jointed ; h g is end view of shoe c. In fig. 690 a
is the shoe to which the lower end of the rod from /to //, fig. 686, is jointed it

2 c

402

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

is bolted to the tie b b ; c is the snag to which the lower termination of the rod
fh is jointed; in the end elevation, in the left figure, the rod / h, fig. 686,
passes into the space d of the snag e ; / is section of tie b b. In fig. 690, right
hand figure, h i shows the shoe to which the lower terminations of the rods k Z,
fig. 686, are jointed ; g g the tie, corresponding to the tie h k g and h k e in
fig. 686.

Fig. 6S7.

ELEVATIONS ANI1 PLAN OF SE

Fig. 688.

Fig. 689.

JUNCTION OF STRUTS WITH RAFTERS SCALE,

] INCH TO THE FOOT.

JUNCTION OF TIE-

Fig. 600.

SHOES FOR TIE-I CDS SCALE, Ji INCH TO THE

1474. SECTION FOURTH Iron Fittings of the Farmhouse and Cottage Locks.
In connection with the fittings of the farmhouse is the subject of locks. It is
very poor economy to use ill-made locks in any apartment of a farmhouse, and
especially in those which contain articles which are usually locked up. In all
those places as the store-room, linen-presses, and all wall-presses the best
species of lock should be used, as such locks are not only pleasant to use, but

LOCKS. 403

cannot go wrong, and are impossible to l>e opened but with the proper key. The
outside door of a farmhouse is commonly provided with a very common spring-
lock, which is always ready to be opened but when the key is turned in it, leav-
ing the house in that quarter constantly accessible during the day, and part of
the evening. Now, such a door should be provided with one of Chubb's patent
locks, which has not only a small key, but is easily opened as a check-lock ; is
beyond the power of any one to pick ; when attempted to be picked, tells it has
been so ; cannot go wrong ; lasts a lifetime without repairs, and affords un-
speakable security. One peculiarity of this lock is, that it has a number of
bolts, every one of which must be lifted before the door will open- each bolt
being a security equal to any common lock. Another peculiarity is its detec-
tor, by which any attempt to pick or open the lock by a false key is imme-
diately notified on the next application of the proper key, which will not open
the lock. It, however, makes the lock again serviceable by being turned the
wrong way, which no false key is capable of doing. The lock has commonly
six bolts, or tumblers, and a detector ; and the ordinary chances against any
key but its own opening it is 720. But the height of the shortest step in the
key is capable of being altered twenty times, so that the chances against open-
ing the lock may be increased to 14,400 : each of the six steps can be as
many times altered, so that the chances may be increased to 80,400. The
detector can be altered ten times, so the chances are increased to 864,000.
Further still, the drill-pins of the locks, and the pipes of the keys, may be
easily made of three different sizes, so that the number of chances may be in-
creased to 2,592,000. In still larger locks, the chances may be increased to
7,776,000. The corn-barn, granaries, meal-chest, hen-house, and implement-
house, ought all to be protected with such locks. We are far from supposing
that farm-servants are more dishonest than other persons of their class ; but we
all know that to put temptation in the way of servants who have hitherto
borne a good character may be the means of corrupting their honesty ; and
besides, when people are made aware that the more precious things are really
secured with superior locks, the desire to attempt to obtain them, through the
locks, will soon subside.

1475. The properties of a good lock are, strength of materials, simplicity
of construction, durability of action, good workmanship, and perfect security.
Without one and all of these properties, a lock is worthless ; and Chubb's locks
possess them all in an eminent degree. With such qualifications, the price
cannot be low, but it is cheap in the long-run.* We have used one with six
tumblers for several years in the outer door as a check-lock, which cost 15s.
with two keys, and of course those with fewer tumblers will cost less.

1476. But notwithstanding that we recommend the Chubb lock to all outer
doors of farmhouses as a safe and convenient check-lock, we do not say that
such doors should not be provided with a strong rim-lock to be used at night,
in addition to the Chubb, not only to inspire undisturbed security in a lonely
part of the country, but to lock up the house when the family may have occa-
sion to go from home for a few days. Such a rirn-lock may also be used on
the back-door of the farmhouse for the same purpose.

1477. Various Forms of Locks. In figs. 691 to 695 we illustrate the forms of
locks used. Fig. 691 is a 6-inch Kitchen Latch the Thumb Latch is not
figured. Fig. 692 a 7-inch Rim Lock. Fig. 693 a 5-inch Press Lock. Fig. 694
a 6 f -inch Mortise Lock, of which fig. 695 is the escutcheon for the key-hole.

* CHUBB On the Construction of Locks, p. 15.

404

PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

Fig. 691.

Ficr. 692.

7-INOH KIM LOCK.

Fig. 693.

5-INCH PRESS I.OCK.

Fig. 694.

Fig. 695.

INCH MOKTI8B I.OC

ESCniCHEON FOR KFT-HOL

II1NCJES.

405

1478. Hinges. In fig. (JOG we illustrate ;i Lingo l'2f indies long; the
part a If inch broad, b 1 i| inch broad and 5-\ long; tlie pin c -g inch in

diameter. In fig. 697 the length of Lingo is 1.'}? inches, the breadth at part a
2^ inches; the length of cross 4^ inches, and breadth 1] inch. Fig. 698,

FiL'. 698.

Butt Hinges, 5 inches long by 2^- broad. In fig. 699 we illustrate the Patent
Hinge, by the use of which the door is made self-shutting ;
the side a is fixed to the door-frame, b to the door stile ; the
door rises as it is opened, and on being left free the part b
runs down the pin c. In fig. 700 we illustrate Spherical
Hinge (Collinge's patent), in which tLe cylindrical pin
which is used in ordinary hinges is dispensed with, and a
ball-ended pin substituted ; this plays in a spherical cup
made in the step or hook for its reception. This arrange-
ment admits of considerable obliquity in the action of the
hinges, allowing for all ordinary variation from the shrink-

406

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

ing of the door. The cup, serving as an oil receptacle, keeps the parts
thoroughly lubricated, while, by the use of a leather washer, which covers the
edge of the cup, all dirt is prevented from entering it. The manufacturer's
address is, John Imray, 65 Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth, London.

1479. Window Pulley-Stile. In fig. 701 we give a pulley-stile, 4f inches long
by 1^ broad.

1480. Window-Latch. In fig. 702 we illustrate a form of latch used for
fastening the lower sash, and preventing it from being lifted up.

Fig. 701.

INUOW-J.AICH

1481. Spring Pulley for Window-Blinds. In fig. 703 we illustrate the patent
spring-pulley, which requires one screw only for fixing it. The cord can be
put on or taken off without unscrewing it. The manufacturer's address is,
B. Sigrist, 47 Monkwell Street, London. In figs. 704 to 707 we give various
views of the fastening for French or " casement " windows, as adopted on the

Fig. 703.

Fig. 704.

a
'' V/ V\

Fig. 705.

tA.llCNIKO fOf

WINDOWS S

FRENCH OR CASEUKN F
LDE VIEW.

WINDOW FASTEN IXGS.

407

Continent. In fig. 704 a a represents part of the centre stile of one-half of
the window this being grooved on the inner edge ; a corresponding tongue
or tenon made on the outer edge of the stile of other half of window fitting
into it, and forming, when the two halves of the casement are closed, a
weather-tight joint. To the stile a a, fig. 704, a plate of brass or iron b b is
screwed ; this carries a slotted stud c c, between which a bar d e slides. The
central part of this bar is provided with a rack as shown in side view in
fig. 705, into which a small pinion gears, actuated by the handle/. The letters
in fig. 705 correspond with those in fig. 704. By moving the handle / up-
wards, the bar d e moves so that the bolts at its upper and lower ends pass
into catches secured to top and bottom rails of window-frame thus securing
the window. In fig. 706 the bolt at lower end of bar d e, fig. 704, is shown ;
a a window-stile, b part of bar corresponding to d c, fig. 704 ; this is provided
with a handle c, and the bar slides in a stud d; e shows the lower part of
bolt or bar; this passing into a catch made in lower sill of window. In
fig. 707 we show the upper bolt and catch ; to the upper frame a a of
window two pieces of iron b b are secured ; the upper part of bar e, corre-
sponding to d e, fig. 704, is made with a cross d e, which passes between the
irons b b. When the bar c is moved upwards, the cross slips out from be-
tween the irons b 5, and the window can be opened. When the bar c is moved

Fig. 706.

downwards by the rack, see fig. 705, the cross passes into the space, and the
window is secured : simultaneously, the bolt e of the lower part of bar , fig.
706, is passed into its catch. In fig. 707 the bar c slides in a brass stud /,
secured to the window-stile g, corresponding to a a, fig. 704,- d e being the
cross.

1482. Fastening for Stair Rods. In fig. 708 we give a view of Edward's
patent socket, which is to be secured to the staircase in the angle formed by
the tread and the riser. The rods are triangular, and the ends being placed in
the socket, a cap, fig. 709, secures them to the sockets. The objection to the
common mode of fixing a stair carpet is, that the eyes of the staples are fast-
ened so near the inner angle of the steps, that a stout rod has not room to
pass through them over a thick carpet, especially in a turn of the stair, where
one side of the carpet has to be doubled. The eyes should be fixed at half an
inch from the inner angle of the steps.

408

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 708. Fig. 709.

FASTENING

TAIIt-OARPET ROD.

ERINQHAM 8 FRE8H-A

1483. Ventilators. In fig. 710 we illustrate Arnott's chimney ventilator.
The valve a is so nicely balanced that the upward draught of the chimney
which causes a current through the opening leading into the room (at the ori-
fice of which the valve is fixed) keeps the valve open, allowing of the egress
of the foul air of the room ; but, should the smoke be sent down the chimney,

and along to ward s the
opening, the valve is
instantly closed, pre-
venting the access of
all smoke to the room.
1484. In fig. 711
we illustrate Shering-
ham's ventilator for
admitting the external atmosphere to the interior of a room through an aper-
ture made in the outside wall. The ventilators in figs. 528 and 529 are also
Sheringham's.

1485. Chimney-Guards. In certain situations, and in certain quarters of
the wind, a down-draught of smoke is created in the chimney. Those
situations may be in the neighbourhood of tall trees, at the base of a hill, or
in the lee of a large building, against which, if from one direction, and over
which, if from another, the wind may be reflected against or bend in a down-
ward direction upon the top of the chimney. The only safeguard against such
a contingency is the placing a top upon the chimney -head, or- upon the can
represented in section in fig. 715, where the iron cone b b should not be angled
upwards as at c c, but made level, and it should be placed as much lower down
the can below d d as to allow it to take in the top. Fig. 712 represents such a top
recommended by Tredgold, where a is the part for fixing it to the
can or chimney-head, d the cover, made circular or conical, for
preventing the down-draught of the air from above ; and c c
are the angular edges for directing the wind upwards according
to their angle. The top may be made of thin metal of any kind,
and painted black. Kites' (of London) diamond deflecting
chimney-top we have found very efficient as a preventor of down-
draughts. A rather ingenious, and, we believe, efficient, chim-
ney-guard is that of Mr Chadwick of Bury, Lancashire, illus-
trated in fig. 713. The principle of this is the employment of
an external vane, which, giving motion from the action of the wind, works an
Archimedean screw ventilator in the interior of the guard. This acting, after
the manner of a pump, creates an upward current in the chimney. With this
apparatus it is almost an impossibility to have a down-draught in a chimney ;
and it certainly possesses this advantage of being the most efficient in its

Fig. 712.

' A CHIMNEY

DOWN-URAOOHT
SMOKE.

CHIMNEY-GUARDS.

409

action when most required, as the higher and more sudden the gusts of wind, the
quicker is the velocity of the vane, and of the consequent action of the " screw-
pump," as it may be termed. Another form of wind-guard is shown in fig. 714,
in which a sphere a, lightly seated, is employed. The arrows on the left
show how the current of the
down-draught is deflected
out of its normal path,
and made to pass outwards
from the guard, while the
ascending smoke has free
egress. Where the draught
in a chimney is defective,
Tredgold recommends the
aperture at the top outlet
to be contracted ; holding
that, to contract it near
the bottom, " it is like
contracting the aperture
of a pipe which supplies a
jet." The contraction de-
pends on the size of the
grate for the fire ; and
this being kept in view,
Tredgold's rule for the
contraction at the top is
the following: Let 17
times the length of the
grate in inches be divided
by the square root of the
height of the chimney in
feet, and the quotient is
the area for the aperture
at the top of the chimney
in inches. For example,
suppose that a grate is 15
inches wide, and the chim-
ney 36 feet high 17 X 15
= 255 ; and the square
root of 36 is 6 ; therefore

255 divided by 6 = 42^- METHOD OF CONTRACTS THE

inches is the area of the

top, and the diameter of a circle of 42^ inches in area is rather more than 7f

inches for the contraction.

1486. The contraction at the top may be made in this manner: Let fig. 715
represent the section of a chimney-can, the height of which above the stalk is
from a to a ; b b is the contracting cone within it made of iron, the lower part of
which is rounded off, as at d d; the upper part at c c being made angular
upwards, with the view of facilitating the passing of the wind over it in an
upward direction. The chimney-top, if constructed of this form at first, might
answer as well as any can put up afterwards.

1487. Chimney- Valves and Chimney Breast-Bearers. At the foot of every
chimney, in every apartment, a valve should be placed above the throat or

410

PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTIOX.

Fig. 716.

opening of the flue : this is exceedingly useful in regulating the draught and
the consequent rate of combustion of the fuel in the grate ; but when the fire is
not in use, by shutting it close down, all " back smoke " that is, smoke from
other chimneys brought down by adverse currents will be prevented from
entering the apartment. These valves may be made in a
variety of ways : the common flap of the register grate
will do well, if carefully made and adjusted ; or the
damper -valve, which slides in a frame, may be used.
The form shown in fig. 716 may be easily constructed.
Let a a be the circular aperture of the chimney-flue ; a
projecting ledge goes round this on the upper side ; at the
two ends of its diameter, coinciding with a line drawn at
right angles to the line of the chimney bar, or breast, two
small apertures are made ; the spindle of the valve b
works in these ; the spindle m is continued outwards, and
passed through an aperture in the mantelpiece, and pro-
vided with a small button c, by which the valve is turned ;
a half turn of this will open the valve fully. In order to

know the amount of opening, the button should have two projecting studs, as

at e e : when these are vertical, or at right angles
with the floor, the valve is shut ; when horizontal,
as at f, it is open. The valve is thus easily ad-
justed to any degree of opening. The chimney
bar and valve opening may be advantageously
made in one of cast-iron, as in figs. 717 and 718,
where fig. 717 is an elevation, and fig. 718 a

OHULHBT-HOPPl

plan.

Fig. 718.

The brickwork of the flue rests on a a, which serves as a chimney-
bearer, thus obviating all necessity for using the dan-
gerous material wood for this purpose. The hood or
hopper b b tapers gradually upwards to the size de-
signed for that of the flue. The upper part of b forms
the throat of the chimney; if the flue is made of circu-
lar tubes, they
rest on the up-
per edge of b.
The valve is
shown at d, and
in fig. 718 it is
shown open ate.
A modification
of this plan,

making the chimney-hopper and bar in one, of cast-iron, has been recently regis-
tered, as illustrated in fig. 719. In this, however, the opening forming the
throat of the flue is left square, and of the usual orthodox size of 14 inches
by 9 a size of flue which, from its almost universal adoption by builders,
seems to be held of vital importance to their efficient working. Manufac-
tured by Lynch White, Iron Wharf, Upper Ground Street, London.

1488. Gas Regulators. Where the pressure from the gasometer is uniform,
and the consumption of gas in the house unequal, some burners, being sud-
denly shut off, while others are left burning, a usual result is, that the gas
is blown rapidly through the burners which are left in use a flickering or un-
steady light is thus induced, along with considerable waste. To keep the

CAST-IRON CHIMNEY-HOPPER AXIJ BEAHEK CO

GAS KKCULATOES.

411

pressure at the burner as uniform as possible is therefore of importance,
method of reducing the pressure from
the gasometer, sometimes adopted, is to
turn the stopcock at the meter only half
or partially open. As this adjustment
is troublesome, and apt to be neglected,
contrivances, known as " gas regu-
lators," or " economisers," are coming
into use. A very simple form is illus-
trated in fig. 720 : a being the exter-
nal view, the part b being that which
is inserted into the aperture of the gas
lustre or chandelier, c the part from
which the gas to be lighted issues. In
the centre of the enlarged part d d, a
flat disc of metal e is placed, having
apertures at the opposite diameter, as

shown by the dark parts in the plan at/. The gas, striking at a high or variable
pressure against the lower side of the disc e, is reduced
in velocity, passes through the apertures, and issues from
the jet at a uniform pressure.

1489. Another form of gas economise! 1 is illustrated
in section in fig. 721; it is known as "Hart's/' In
this the gas passes through a disc of felt c. AYe have
seen both of these apparatus in use under varying cir-
cumstances of action, and have found the combustion uni-
form, where that from ordinary burners was unsteady
the flame in these reaching a great height at one time,
descending to a low point at another, according as the
pressure of gas from the main increased or decreased. Uni-
form velocity of the issuing gas must promote economical
combustion ; hence the saving effected by the use of such
contrivances as we have just noted is stated to be very
considerable from 5 to 30 per cent, according to the
variation in the pressure of the gas supplied to the gas
lustres or chandeliers.

1490. Bells. Every farmhouse should be provided with bells. Their forms, and
the mode of hanging them, are so well known that we do not illustrate them.
The tubes for the wires should be placed before the finishing of the plaster.

1491. Water Taps and Cocks Chrimes's Tap. This form of tap, illustrated
in figs. 722 and 723, is much patronised by architects in England. The
valve portions consist of a brass disc covered with leather, and pressed
on to the seat by a screwed spindle, working through a stuffing- box. For
high pressure they are more particularly made with the valve loose from
the spindle, the valve being lifted by the pressure only. The advantages
claimed for this form of tap are, perfect security from leakage, facility
of repair, by putting on a new leather without disconnecting the cock, the
prevention of concussion, and the form of the water-way, which gives a larger
area than the ordinary plug-cock. Messrs Guest & Chrimes, of Eotherham, are
the patentees.

1492. Jennings India-rubber Tube Tap. This very efficient form of tap is
illustrated in fig. 724, which represents the cock open. When the handle is

412

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Pis'. T23.

IHIMKa'a WATER-TAP

Fig. 724.

STNINO 8 INDIA-HDBBBR TtJBE-COCK.

Fig. 725.

turned it presses upon the vulcanised india-rubber tube and collapses it, as

shown by the dotted lines. One great ad-
vantage possessed by this cock is, that it
gives the water-way the full size of the pipe.
It is little liable to get out of order. The
patentee is C. Jenning, Great Charlotte Street,
Blackfriars Koad, London.

1493. Wheatcroft and Smith's Water-Cock.
In fig. 725 we give a section of this form
of tap, of which the principle of arrange-
ment is the same as that adopted in the
""hydrant:" a is the valve open for the
escape of the water, b the spindle, c the
vulcanised spring, d the screw.

1494. In cases where the water supply
is on the " constant " system, as well as

in those where the ordinary cistern is in use, much waste of water is occa-
sioned by the " tap " being left open ; a means of putting this waste out of the
reach of a careless attendant is offered by an ingenious and philosophical inven-
tion of Mr Pilbrow, known as the " Water Waste Preventer," an elevation and
section of which we give in figs. 726, 727. It may be described as a small cis-
tern, which, when once emptied, cannot be again refilled without shutting off the
delivery. The lower fig., 727, is a side elevation of this apparatus, in which a is
the suction, and b the delivery pipe. The upper fig., 726, is a section showing

WHEATCROFT AS

WATER-TAPS.

413

the method of action. The cylinder contains a ball-valve, which, when the
water is at rest, remains at tho .suction end as at c. When the delivery-cock

is opened to draw water the ball slowly rises, following the current of the water,
until it arrives at the top, as at cZ, where it stops the (low of water by covering
the aperture of the pipe. To obtain a fresh supply of water, therefore, the
cock must be closed, when the ball, from its specific gravity, will descend in a
few moments, and admit of an additional quantity of water being drawn off.

1495. Traps for Sinks, Cesspools. Lowe's cast-iron trap, illustrated in fig.
728, is a very efficient form : a a a is the external covering, generally made of
cast-iron, and fitted into the branch leading to the drain ; b the line of grating
through which the drainage fluid falls into the interior, e e. A partition c pre-
vents the foul air from the drain, which has a tendency to pass up d d, as shown
by the arrows, from passing through e. e, and out by 6, the only inlet to the
drain. The prices of this form of trap, made in cast-iron, are as follows :
No. 1 size, 30 inches by 18, and 1G deep, weighing about 5 cwt., is 2, 5s.;
20 inches by 12, and 13 deep, 2 cwt., 17s. Gd. ; 14 inches by 9, and 9
deep, about 1 cwt., 10s.; 11 inches by 7, and 7 deep, 5G lb., 7s. 6d. ;
9 inches by 5|, and 5| deep, 25 lb., 4s. 9d. Another form of trap used
for house gratings is shown in fig. 729 ; it is known as the " bell trap : "
a is the entrance to the drain, the water passing through the grating at h h,

Vis. 729.

Fig. 728.

414

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 730.

'-IRON SINK.

passes into the receptacle d d; the bell or cup c c prevents the foul gases

from a passing out by h h, while the
water has free liberty to pass to the
drain by a. The dotted lines at e show
how the bell is jointed and may be
raised.

1496. Cast-iron Sink. In. fig. 730 we
give an illustration of the cast-iron sink,
with trap complete, manufactured by J.
Jones, 6 Bankside, Southwark, London ;

the price varying from 6s. to 12s. each, according to size.

1497. Kitchen Grates, Ranges, and Stoves The Lancashire Kitchen Grate.
The great advantage possessed by this grate is, that no independent fire is
required to heat the oven. By merely withdrawing a damper, the heated air
and flame from the fuel in the body of the grate are drawn underneath the
saddle on which the oven rests, passing along the bottom plate, and up and
over the back and end plate, and the top of the oven, to a small or subsidiary
chimney or flue, which connects itself with the main chimney a little above the
breast. By this arrangement, any degree of heat required can be maintained in
the oven with very little trouble and expense. It is vastly superior to the
ordinary kitchen range used nearly throughout Scotland, and in which the oven
is heated by a fire or furnace specially connected with it. Not only is this latter
plan wasteful of fuel, but it is not capable of that nice degree of regulation
necessitated by careful and economical cooking. The fire is either too brisk
or too dull, and the oven is consequently over or under heated. Now, in the
Lancashire grate used by thousands in that county the oven is not only
quickly heated (for no independent fire has to be specially kindled), but it is
easily kept at a uniform temperature. The price, moreover, is moderate
much, indeed, below that of the ordinary Scotch kitchen grate, and affords
accommodation for a larger amount of cooking than may appear at first
examination.

1498. Goddards Economical Cooking- Apparatus. Of a more pretentious

character, but on the same
principle of heating the oven
and boiler, &c., from a cen-
tral fire, as that adopted in
the Lancashire grate above
described, is the " Notting-
ham " apparatus, manufac-
tured by Henry Goddard of
that town, and of which we
give an illustration in fig.
731. These ranges consist
of a surface or hot-plate, on
which a number of vessels
may be kept boiling, or on
which irons may be heated ;
it has an oven or roaster, a
boiler, and a plate -warmer.
This range can be used
either as an open fireplace
or a closed stove.

Fig. 731.

COOKING AND GAS STOVES.

415

1499. American Cooking-Stove. Having- been witness, while in the United
States, to the efficiency, economy, and quickness of operation of the cooking-
stoves in that country; and as, moreover, they are now being rapidly introduced
into Great Britain, we have deemed it

right to illustrate one of the numerous
forms which this apparatus assumes ;
believing that for cottages they will
be found useful and economical ad-
juncts to a poor man's house-appli-
ances as enabling warm and com-
fortable dishes to be quickly prepared
a matter of no small moment to a
man who comes home tired and wet
from his day's work on the road or in
the field.

1500. Fig. 732 illustrates the stove
known as the " Magnolia," for small
families, adapted for heating two ket-
tles or pans at top. The manufac-
turers are Messrs Smith and Wellstood, 33 Union Street, Glasgow.

1501. Gas-Stove. Where gas is made at the steading, a simple form of
stove may be used to heat the lobby of the farmhouse, or the wool-room, or
other apartment in the steading.

1502. Pig. 733 illustrates Kickett's (5 Agar Street,
Strand, London) Calorific Gas-stove, in which, by a
simple provision, the products of combustion are led
off to the external atmosphere thus getting rid of the
annoying smells which are produced by the ordinary
form of gas-stove, in which the products of combus-
tion are allowed to pass into the room ; " a a gas-
burners, b b gas-cocks to regulate the same, c c inner
cylinder to direct the burnt air to top of stove before
passing out at nozzle e, d door for lighting burner,
f f tube to conduct the air of room through body of

stove. The arrows show the passage of the burnt
air, after supporting the gas flame of burner, and
its exit from the stoves by the aperture e at the back.
The arrow-points show the passage of the air of the
room through the body of the stove, without its com-
ing in contact with the gas-burner. By the above it
will be seen that, supposing the stove to be fixed in a
bedroom, conservatory, or other close apartment, and
a pipe be attached to the nozzle e, every portion of the
burnt air must go up the pipe and be conveyed away."

1503. SECTION FIFTH Iron Fittings of the Steading Gutters, Gratings, and
Traps.

1504. Iron Gutters for Closed Surface Drains for Stables, $c. In fig. 734
we give Cottam & Co.'s (Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London) improved
surface drains, and in fig. 735 the form introduced by Mr James Barton,
370 Oxford Street, London. Figs. 736 and 737 show methods of forming junc-
tions at right angles.

416

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 734.

OOTTJJi 8 IRON GUTTERING FOR CLOSED BURFA.CE STABLE-DRAINS

Fig. 735.

Fig. 736.

Fig. 737.

SGLES OF BARTON I

Fig. 738.

1505. Gratings. Neither courts nor hammels are completely furnished for
the comfort of their tenants unless provided with well-built drains to convey
away the surplus liquid manure, when there happens to be any excess of it.
For this purpose a drain should enter into each of the large courts, and one
across the middle of each set of hammels. The ground of every court should
be so laid off as to make the lowest part of the court at the place where the
drain commences or passes ; and such lowest point should be furnished with a
strong block of hewn freestone, into which is sunk flush an iron grating, having
the bars only an inch asunder, to prevent the passage of straws into the drain.
Fig. 738 gives an idea of such a grating, made of malleable iron, to bear rough

usage, such as the wheel of a cart passing over
it ; the bars being placed across with a curve
downwards, to keep them clear of obstruc-
tions for the water to pass through. A writer,
in speaking of such gratings, recommends
" they should be strong, and have the ribs well
bent upwards, as in that form they are not so
liable to be choked up " a remark quite cor-
rect in regard to the form of gratings for the
sewers of towns, as with the ribs bent down-
wards in such a place, the accumulated stuff
brought upon them by the gutter would soon
prevent the water getting down into the drains ; but the case is quite different
in courts where the straw, covering the gratings, lies loosely over the ribs bent
downwards, and acts as a drainer ; but were it to be pressed against the ribs
bent upwards, the water could not percolate through it. Any one who has seen
the straw of dunghills pressed hard against a raised stone in the ground below
it, will easily understand the effect.

1506. Traps. In fig. 739 we give a view and section of Bell's patent trap
for stables (manufactured by Glover Brothers, founders, 188 Drury Lane, Lon-

DRAIN ORATINO FOR CODRT8.

VENTILATORS.

417

don), and in fig. 740 a view and section of the form introduced by Cottaru & Co.
In fig. 741 we give a cast-iron cesspool for s tables and byres the grating a of
which is somewhat below the level of the pavement of stall, or the bottom of
the gruip ; b is the entrance to the drain.

1507. Ventilators. In fig. 742 we give a section of a ventilator for admit-
ting fresh air to the interior of an apartment. ,The aperture is made in
the outer wall, near the ground, as at a ; a door or plate b is hinged at the
upper edge, and its lower edge is provided with a stud which works in the slot
of a quadrant d d; a pinching or thumb screw is provided to the stud by
which the valve b can be maintained in any position
desirable. Fig. 743 is a front view, showing how the

Fig. 742.

Fig. 743.

valve a is hinged at b b, the staple or bar passing
through the eyes of two studs leaded into the wall.
The form of ventilator, fig. 292, as Looker's ventilator,
is also made in cast-iron, and is well adapted for
stables. The forms illustrated in figs. 528 and 529,
may also be used for admitting and regulating the
supply of fresh air. In fig. 744 we give a section of
a ratchet valve, for admitting fresh air, or permitting the egress of foul air.

1508. Ventilators for the egress of the foul air of apartments may be made
of the form shown in fig. 742, or as in fig. 745, or fig. 746. A form of ventilator,
or modification of the well-known "Watson's System," highly spoken of, is the

2 n

418

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 745.

Fig. 746

SW1VKL OR BOWI, VENriTJkTOR.

Vi,TU_ATOK FOR ROOF.

" Four Points Ventilator," invented by G. W. Muir, 11 Ducie Street, Exchange,
Manchester. It consists of a .square shaft, fig. 747, open on all sides, divided
vertically into four equal compartments. While the current of external air is

Fig. 747.

FOUR-POINTS VENTILATOR.

forced down one compartment, the internal or impure air passes up the opposite

STABLE-FITTINGS.

419

compartment, and is led to the external atmosphere. By the ventilator being-
divided into four compartments, no matter in what direction the wind blows, the
ventilator is always kept in action. It will be seen that the apparatus is designed
to serve the double purpose of admitting fresh air to the interior of a room, and
withdrawing from it, at the same time, the foul air.

1509. Hind-Posts- Travises Stable- Fittings. Fig. 748 illustrates various
forms of hind-posts ; and in fig. 749 of traviscs or divisions, as manufactured
by Cottam & Co.

Fi". 740. A

15.10. Manger, Water-Trough, c. In fig. 750 we illustrate Cottam & Co.'s
patent enamelled manger, water-trough, and wrought-iron hay-rack. These
are made for stalls 6 feet in width. They require no front-bearer, and can be
readily attached to the sides of the stall : a is a separate view of the seed-
box attached to the bottom of the hay-rack, and is easily removable when
required. The mode of fastening the horse in his stall is shown at b c ; the
collar shank is attached to the part 6, which slides in rings, and is provided
with a weight c.

UL
3A_

i
1 \7

p
1 1

ll:''! :' ! "

1511. Bruce 1 s Improved Stable Fittings. In fig. 751 is an illustration of
these ingenious fittings (manufactured by Ransome & Sims, Ipswich), in
which the peculiar feature is the employment of an adjustable hay-rack. In
this the hay is placed in a movable cage, hung by chains provided with a
weight which always keeps the cage with its contained hay close up to the
top flat bars of the rack. By this arrangement all waste is avoided. An in-
genious form of fastening is also introduced. The end of the collar shank
passes down the vertical tube in the centre of the stall, and is terminated with
a weight. This always keeps the collar shank out of the way, so as to prevent
the horse getting his foot over it.

1512. Garood's Adjustable Hay-Rack. In Brace's stable-fittings, illustrated

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

BRUCS'8 IMPROVED STABLE-FITTING

Fig. 752.

3iBOOD 3 A.DJOSTABLI HAT-RACK.

STABLE-FITTINGS.

421

in fig. 751, the hay-cage being suspended on one pulley, it is apt to get
jammed against the side of the rack, and to remain immovable. A more per-
fect adjustment is obtained by using two pulleys, as illustrated in fig. 752, and
designed by Mr C. Garood, Lite superintendent of the Agricultural Department
of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.

1513. It is obvious that tlie.se spring hay-racks are quite unstated to a work-
horse stable, but they may be, and with advantage, used in the riding-horse stable.
In a work-horse stable, the simpler the fittings of the stall the better ; the
rounder their finishing, the safer for the horse ; and the more easily cleaned,
the more securely will the health of the horse be insured. The adoption in
the work-horse stable of the method by which the collar-shank operates, as in
fig. 751, would be a great improvement.

1514. Cottam's Improved Stable-Fittings. The object of this invention is to
enable the rack, manger, and water-trough to be removed when not required,
so as to admit of the interior of the stall presenting a flush surface. The plan is
more particularly useful where a feeding passage is made at the head of the
stalls, inasmuch as the racks, &c., can be brought at once into the passage,
filled and returned to the stall with very little delay. The hay-rack, fig. 753,

Fig. 754.

in the centre swings on a central pivot, and is provided with a flat back, so
that, when turned half round, the rack
is passed behind the head of the stall,
while the back presents a surface flush
with the stall. The manger and water-
trough are quadrantal, and swing on cen-
tral pivots, so that, when turned one
quarter round, the flat sides are pre-
sented to the stall, while the other parts
containing the corn or water are pre-
sented to the back or to the feeding
passage. In fig. 754 another arrange-
ment is shown, in which the manger is
capable of being pushed out and in ; it
is well adapted for loose-boxes. The

manger slides in and out on small pulleys on the bar a a ; the projecting part
b prevents it being pulled out too far.

1515. Fittings for Loose-Boxes. In fig. 755 we illustrate the form of manger
and rack without water-trough, and in fig. 756 patent manger and water-trough,
fitted to a cast-iron plate. These are manufactured by Cottam & Co.

422

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1516. Harness Appliances. Fig. 757 illustrates cast-iron saddle and harness
bracket, and fig. 758 cast-iron collar-holder. These articles are as well suited
to a work-horse as to a riding-horse stable.

Fig. 757,

COLLAR HOLUEK.

RNE8S BRACKS r.

1517. Fittings for Pigsties. A very convenient trough for a piggery con-
.taining a number of pigs such as young ones, or others confined in summer
from roaming about has been long manufactured by the Shotts Iron Company,
of which fig. 759 is a view in perspective from the interior of the court. It
is nearly all made of cast-iron, and possesses the great convenience of allow-
ing the troughs to be filled with food from the outside of the building, the
person who feeds being at the same time free of any annoyance from the pigs.
Troughs of this kind are placed in proper sized openings in the external wall
of the piggery court, in the manner shown in the figure, where a marks the
wall on one side of the opening that on the hither side being left out of the
figure, in order to exhibit the form of the trough. The trough, part of which
is seen at J, is 4 feet in length, 16 inches wide at top, 8 inches at bottom,
and 9 inches deep. The two ends c and d rise in a triangular form to the
height of 3^ feet, and are connected at the top by the stretcher-bolt e. The
lower part of each end extends inward to f, g, making a breadth of 3 feet 4 inches
when complete ; but this part of the end g in the figure is broken off, to show
part of the trough b. Two intermediate divisions h h divide the trough into 3
compartments these divisions extend to the same length as the ends / and g,
and are all 21 inches in height. By means of these divisions, each animal,
when there are more than one together, has its own stall, and can take its food
undisturbed.

PIGS' -TROUGHS.

423

DOQIIS, WITH

1518. In fig. 760 we illustrate a circular -bottomed pig -trough, and in
fig. 761 a similar bottomed hog-trough, to stand in a court. In fig. 762

Fig. 760.

we illustrate a handsome pigs'- trough adapted for standing in the middle
of a court. It consists of Fi(r _ ( ,

cast-iron in one entire
piece.

Its external ap-
pearance, when viewed as
it stands on the ground,
approaches to that of a
hollow hemisphere, with
the apex flattened ; and
interiorly the flattened
part rises up in the cen-
tre in the form of a cen-
tral pillar thus convert-
ing the hemisphere into
an annular trough, whose
transverse section presents two troughs in the form of two semicircles con-

424

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

joined. The diameter a b of this trough is 30 inches, the rim is finished with
a round edge, serving both for strength and comfort to the animals who eat out
of it. The depth is about 9 inches, and it is divided into eight compartments
by the division c, which are formed with a convexity in the upper edge, to pre-
vent the food being thrown from one compartment to the other. This trough
stands upon the top of the litter, and is not easily overturned. The cattle can-
not hurt themselves upon it, while it is easily pushed about to the most con-
venient spot for it to stand. Of all the classes of pigs' -troughs, whether made
of stone, wood, or cast-iron, there are none so convenient, cleanly, durable, and
neat, as those of cast-iron.

1519. SECTION SIXTH Bridges Sluice Valves Hydrants.

1520. Cast-iron Foot-Bridge. In fig. 763 we give the elevation of a foot-
bridge, in which the beam a a is of cast-iron, and curved in outline. The stand-
ards b b, of wrought-iron, are braced by the tie-rods c c. The plan of road-
way is given in fig. 764, where a a, a a are the beams, b b the planking.

Fig. 763.

FOOT-BRIDGE OF OAST-IROS BEiM SCiLE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

PLAN OF FOOT-BRIDOE.

1521. Details of Foot-Bridge. In fig. 765 we give at a a section of the beam
the total depth of which is 9 inches. The road planking b rests at the ends
in a recess made in the upper part of the beam. At c c we give part plan of
the beam, showing the slot or recess d, in which the lower part of the standard
b, fig. 763, is placed. In fig. 766 we give a side and end elevation of the
shoe in which the ends of the beams rest. In fig. 767 we illustrate methods
of joining the tie-rods to the foot of standards either by eyes cast on the
pillar, as at a a, to which the rods b b are jointed, or by recesses in the
snugs c c, into which the rods d d are secured by the keys or cotters e e.
The parts // pass into the recesses d, fig. 765, of the beam, and are se-
cured by keys or bolts. The upper ends of the tie-rods are joined to the
caps of the standards b b, fig. 763, in the same manner as now illustrated
in fig. 767.

1JIOX BiUDGES.

425

SECTION AND PL

1 INCH TO TE

Fur. 707.

Fig. 708.

1522. Simpler modes of erecting the rails of this foot-bridge are illustrated
in fig. 768, where a a shows one of the upright standards of which as many
are placed in line as are required which are

fastened to the beam by the stud b passing into
the slotted parts cast on the beam, as at d in
fig. 765. The standards are kept together by
chains c and e, which are connected to eyes of
the piece d which slip over the standard. In
the same figure another method is illustrated,
where f is the standard, provided with a rec-
tangular top g; this is made with a slot to
permit of the top rail of wood h h being passed
through. In fig. 769 we give at a and b an
elevation and a plan of the piece c?, in fig. 768 ;
and in fig. 770 at a an elevation, and b an end
view of the rectangular head g of the standard
/in fig. 768.

1523. Cast-iron Bridges. Where rectangu-
lar beams of cast-iron are used to support the
roadway of a bridge, the depth should be at
least six times the thickness. For a span of

20 feet, the depth of beam a b, fig. 771, may be 15 inches; the thickness
c 2^ inches. Where the distance between the beams or breadth of road-
way is 6 feet, two beams, as d e, fig. 771, may be used; if the distance
is from 10 to 14 feet, a third, as /, may be placed at a point equidistant be-
tween the other two. In fig. 772 we give the section of a beam of improved

426

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 769

iTDDS TOO. CHAIN ANU KAILS

SCALE, 4 1NJHES TO THE FOOT.

iP fOO. RECEIVING RAIL SCALE, 4 INCHES TO

Pig. 771.

Fig. 772.

1 b

form, two of which, placed 9 feet apart, will be adapted for a bridge of
from 18 to 20 feet span. The width of lower flange a is 10 inches, and
its thickness f inch ; width of upper flange b 2 J inches, and thickness f inch ;
total depth of beam, 8 inches; thickness of rib c, 1 inch. Oak sleepers d, 9
inches broad by 5 thick, are placed upon the lower flanges of the beam, the
distance between oak sleepers from centre to centre being 3 feet. These
sleepers again support cross-beams e, 4 by 4, on which the flooring planks /
rest. The section of a beam for a span of 12 feet 6 inches these beams being
placed at a distance of 7 feet 4 inches apart from centre to centre, as shown in
fig. 773 the width of lower flange is 3J inches ; thickness If inch ; breadth

of upper flange 2J inches ;
* thickness 1^ inch total depth

c * a *\ of beam, 8 inches. In fig. 773

F] . 7T3

L'TION OF ROADWAY WITH TE

J^.Q

^66

bolted to the wall-plate b l>, 6 inches by 4. Oak planks c c, 7 inches by 4,
rest on the lower flanges of the beams ; the distance between planks from
centre to centre being 3 feet. On these planks the flooring d d is laid.

1524. Mr P. W. Barlow, civil engineer, has introduced for road-bridges over
railways the use of corrugated iron plates, bolted together, to act as one plate.
The practical advantages, as stated by Mr Barlow, are " 1st, That there is less
depth required between the surface of road and the soffit of girder ; 2d, that
one plate assists another, and the weight of a passing load is distributed over
the whole bridge, or nearly so ; 3d, that all lateral vibration is avoided ; 4th,
that greater safety is obtained by the plates of the bridge being bolted together,
as the fracture of any of them would not be attended by the fall of a load pass-
ing over the bridge. The following experiments were made : 1st, with a plate
3 feet 1 inch wide ; 31 feet 6 inches between bearings total length, 33 feet 6
inches ; depth of corrugation, 8 inches ; thickness of metal, 1 inch

With 4 tons, equally distributed, deflection | inch.

9 If

13
18
19

4
broke.

UION KLUDGES.

427

2d, with one of tlie plates of tho Tunbridgo Wells bridge, bearing 28 feet

With 3 tons in tho centre, deflection i inch.
(! 1

The bridge, being composed of 12 plates in width, would bear 132 tons in the
centre ; and as at least half comes into operation, by a loud passing over, 66
tons in the middle, or 132 tons all over, may be considered the resisting strength,
which is six times what is required."

1525. Corrugated Iron-Plate Bridge. In fig. 774 we give a bridge of this de-
scription, the distance to be

traversed 20 feet being di-
vided into two spans of 10 feet
each ; the centre being sup-
ported on the column a; b b
side columns ; d d cast-iron
beams, supporting the corru-
gated plate ; c c the road -way.
In fig. 775 we give a section of
the corrugated plate, the di-
ameter of the curves from a to b
being 8 inches, the thickness
of metal 1 inch, and the width
of plates 2 feet 8 inches, or four corrugations in each width.

1526. Sluice- Vcdvcs. In fig. 776 we give a front elevation, and in fig. 777
a side elevation, of a "self-acting valve" for a tidal sluice in sea-embank-

FiR. 770.

car

ments, &c. The water in this case is supposed to be passed through the
embankment by means of a cast-iron pipe the valve being fitted to the outer
or seaward extremity. In fig. 777 a is the extremity of pipe ; b b the ordinary
flange ; a flat disc of wood c c, thicker at the under than the upper side, is
bolted to the flange b b. This disc is cut on the lower side to the form of the
flange, and at the upper to the outline, as shown at e e in fig. 776. A circular
aperture is cut out of the centre of the disc, of diameter equal to the internal
diameter of the cast-iron pipe a, fig. 777. A thin iron plate d <f, is cut out to
the same shape as the wooden disc c, and is also similarly provided with an
aperture in the centre. The wooden disc and iron plate are secured to the

428

PBACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

flange of the pipe by the same bolts and nuts. To the upper part of the plate
d d snugs with circular bolt-holes are cast, as e, and at d d, fig. 776. The valve
is constructed of a thin wrought-iron plate //, shown in side elevation at g in
fig. 776. Iron straps b b are riveted to this, and terminated with eyes shown
in side elevation at h. A bolt k k is passed through the snugs d d, and the
eyes a a of the straps b b, and secured by bolt and nut e e. The inclination of
the disc c c, rig. 777, tends to keep the valve closed ; but to aid this, a piece of
iron c, fig. 776, is riveted on to the outer side. An internal circular plate i i
may be riveted to the interior side of the valve the diameter of this plate
being equal to the internal diameter of the pipe a, fig. 777.

1527. Jennings Sluice-Cock. For irrigation pipes, where the water is forced
through at high pressure, sluice valves are used with advantage. In fig. 778
we give a section of a sluice valve, manufactured by Gr. Jennings, 29 Great
Charlotte Street, Blackfriars Road, London. These have been worked for years
under vertical pressures varying from 1 to 300 feet.

1528. Brown and Mays Sluice-Cock. In fig. 779 we give an ingenious form
of sluice-cock, manufactured by Messrs Brown and May, North Wilts Foundry,
Devizes. In the figure a section and elevation are given. In the section a is
the outlet pipe ; b the valve face which covers it, and which is provided with
a rack c c, into which a pinion gears, worked by the handle d.

Fig. 778.

BROWN AND MAT'S 8LDIOE-C

JENNINO S !

1529. Wheatcroft and Smith's Hydrant. In fig. 780 we give a section of this
hydrant. The valve-chamber a communicates with the supply pipe b, c being
the pipe leading off the water ; d d is the projecting valve seating, which, hav-
ing a less area than the part 6, allows sufficient space for the escape of the water
required. Upon the valve d d rests the valve or disc e e, attached to the spindle/,
which passes through the top plate, and through the vulcanised india-rubber
packing a. This is protected by the metal cap h. The spindle / is secured by
the nut z, which is screwed down sufficiently to give compression to the valve
in its seat forming also a tight packing round the spindle, and having the
effect of keeping the valve closed, independent of the pressure of the water. To
open the valve, the screw k is acted upon by the nut I.

1530. Iron Sluice Valve and Rack. In fig. 781 we give an elevation of an
iron sluice-valve, as used in the Campine district in Belgium : a a the sides of
watercourse ; b watercourse ; c the valve ; d d the cast-iron or stone plate, to

SLUICE VALVES.

429

which is secured the standard e a; this carries a box^ in which a small pinion
g revolves this gearing with the teeth of the rack formed on the upper part of
stem h h of valve c. In fig. 782 we give plan : a a watercourse, b b stone or iron
plate, c c c c standard, d box containing- pinion.

Fig. 781.

1531. SECTION SEVENTH. Iron Gales.

1532. Malleable-Iron Gate. In the construction of malleable-iron gates we
as frequently find malformations as in those of wood, such as placing all the
bars on edge except the heel and head post, misplacing the diagonal, if single,
and not unfrequently applying bars variously formed in curves and fanciful
figures, to serve the purpose of the diagonals. The field-gate maker should be

430

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

instructed to hold steadily in view, that there is but one position and form for
that member of the structure that can be fully efficient, and this is, the straight
bar extending from the upper angle at the heel to its opposite angle at the
head post ; and, if the materials of the gate are light, to apply an antagonist
diagonal crossing the first. In framing the gate, also, the top and bottom bars
should be set flat-ways, to enable the structure to resist lateral strain from
animals rubbing or pushing against it.

1533. Fig. 783 gives a simple form of an iron field-gate ; it consists of six

rails, so arranged as to keep in lambs
in the lower part of it. It is both
light and strong. The fore-stile b g
is prevented dropping by the diagonal
bar a 6, which, on being applied with
its flat side, is riveted to each of the
rails ; and the twisting is counter-

ITH IRON POSTS

acted by the top and bottom rails / b
and a g being welded flat-ways to the
fore and hind stiles with strong solid knees. The upright bars, as c d, re-
tain each of the rails in its proper place. The gate-frame is 9 feet long
and 3 feet 9 inches in height. The gate can be hung upon wooden posts ;
but the iron posts, as shown in the figure, correspond better with the ap-
pearance of the gate. They are made of malleable-iron, and are fastened into
large stones with double bats ; and the hanging-post / a is additionally sup-
ported by a stay e. The cost of this gate is 30s., and the posts 20s. more
together, 50s. which price completes all the necessary bolts and nuts for fix-
ing them to the stone blocks, and hanging the gate on the posts. This form
of gate would probably be strengthened by the introduction of a tie stretching
from /to g across the centre of the diagonal a b.

1534. Iron Tension Gate. The same species of iron gate is made on the ten-

sion principle, as seen in fig. 784, where
the other parts than the tension are dif-
ferent from those in fig. 783, in not
having diagonals, as a b. In fig. 784
strong iron tension -wires pass through
the cast-iron blocks a and c, connected
together with an iron collar, in the
centre of the frame. These wires are
fastened by heads to the upper bar and
stiles at b and c?, and drawn as tight as

required at the lower bar and stiles at e and f, by means of nut and screw.

The cost of this gate, without the posts, is 25s.

1535. It will be observed that the central apparatus of this gate is similar in
appearance to that of the Kilmory wooden gate in fig. 574 ; but their mode of
action is the opposite, though the effects produced are similar. In fig. 784 the
wires from a and c act as ties, drawing the posts and rails towards them from
the angles, and thereby giving to the entire framing a rigid structure. In fig.
574 the wooden struts from e and/, as centres, push the posts and rails out-
wards at the angles against the clamps, thereby also giving the framing a rigid
structure.

1536. Angle-Iron Gate. One of the latest improvements in iron field-gates
is the introduction of angle-iron, now so extensively used in boiler-making,
ship-building, and other purposes. In the application of the angle-iron to the

3N FIBLD-GATE

GATES.

431

construction of gates, the fabric acquires the rigidity of a massive wooden gate,
with all the tenacity and strength of the iron, while its weight is little more
than that of wood. Fig. 785 is a form of gate of this construction, from a de-
sign, slightly altered, of Mr William
Dunlop, Edinburgh, and is manufactured
by A. & G. H. Slight, Edinburgh. The
external form is composed of four burs
of angle-iron, measuring l<j inch on each
side ; and to give security to the join-
ings at the four angles of the truss, the
ends of the bars are riveted upon cast-
iron corner-plates, those of the heel-
post a b being formed with strong pro-
jecting pivots, by which the gate is hinged. Any number of interior bars may
be applied to suit the objects of the gate. The figure exhibits the arrangement
adapted to retain sheep and lambs. The diagonal b c is contrary to the general
rule, for it is apparently a strut, but being a bar of angle-iron, of the same
breadth as before, it possesses the stiffness of wood to resist lateral strains
and is hence properly adapted for a strut; to render the bracing complete, the
antagonist diagonal a d is applied, and this, acting as a tie, is only a flat bar
1 inch by |. The external frame is thus rendered unchangeable in figure by
any force that may be applied to the head-post in a vertical direction, either-
upward or downward, short of what will fracture the gate ; and the point <?,
where the diagonals cross each other at the centre of the gate, becomes also
immovable in the plane of the truss ; hence the perpendicular bar / e g, being
riveted to the diagonal at e, acquires the same property, and by attaching all
the horizontal bars to / e g at their several crossings, each of them is rendered
permanent in its position at that point, and no force short of breaking down the
gate can bend any of the parts upward or downward in the direction of the bar
f e ffj so long as this last remains attached to the crossing of the diagonals at e.
In order to give farther support to the horizontal bars by the principle of con-
struction, we have only to take a point where a diagonal crosses a bar, as at A,
forming the opposite triangles e h i and a h fc, which, when the bar and diagonal
have been connected, become also immutable, and the perpendicular bar I h in
being secured to the point A, and again to the different bars at their intersec-
tion with I h m, the whole are again rendered immovable as in the middle. The
support given to the horizontal bars in the line I li m would have been still more
complete if there had been only one intermediate bar below the middle one of ,
as the three parts would then have met in one point, as they do at A, but two bars
are introduced to render the gate fencible for sheep of all ages. The perpen-
dicular bar n o p is applied on the same principle as seen in I h m, the point of
support in this case being o. This gate would perhaps become more rigid still
if the upper and lower rails a c and b d were double flanged.

1537. In this construction of gates, the greatest possible amount of mutual
support among the parts is obtained with a given quantity of materials ; hence
gates of this construction may be made lighter than any other form, where iron
is the material employed, and yet have a greater amount of strength. In this
example, the dimensions of the angle-iron are 1^ inch each way, and about
inch thick ; all the other parts are l inch broad by | thick, the cast-iron corner-
plates at a b c and d being of course stronger, and the entire weight of the gate is
112 Ib. It may be of use to those who make iron gates, but who have not taken
time to study the first principles of their construction, to notice this further re-

432

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

mark. Any number whatever of additional upright bars to those shown in fig.
785 would add strength or support to the horizontal bars only on the principle
of superposition, or adding bar to bar, without the advantages which arise from
the principle of unchangeableuess to the triangle when applied in the construc-
tion of framework, whether in a simple field-gate, or in the highest branches of
constructive carpentry in wood or in iron. In the one case, the stress on the
parts continues to act at right angles to the bars, the direction in which they
are weakest, while in the other the principle of throwing the frame into tri-
angles the whole stress is thrown upon one or more parts in the direction of
their length, in which position all bars and beams are strongest.

1538. Braced Iron Gate. An example of an ingenious construction of iron gate
is given in Parnell's work on road-making, which was improved on by the late
Dr Buist of Allahabad, in Bengal, arid described in the Transactions of the High-
land and Agricultural Society. These gates consist of a wrought-irou external
frame, which is supported by a very perfect system of bracing, with diagonal ties
of iron wire, and filled up in a variety of forms with the same material. Fig. 786

Fig. 786.

represents Dr Buist's gate with the fundamental braces and ties, which he thus
describes : " The framing a b c d is fashioned like that of an ordinary gate ;
ef,gh, and k I are three light slips of iron parallel to the ends of the gate, and
riveted to the upper and lower rails ; a p b is a wire about the thickness of a
goose-quill, fastened by a rivet at one end, and a screw and nut at the other ;
it passes through holes in the slips e f, g h, and k ?, and serves as a brace to
support the bar a b. In the same manner d p c serves as a brace to d c, while
the two sides of the gate being coupled together by the slips e f, g h, and k /,
the lower and upper rails have severally the benefit of both braces. The diag-
onals a c and d b keep the frame in shape, while a s d and b t c are braces to
a d and b c by means of the light bar m n. It will be seen that all the wires
and straps which act as fills-up, are either braces or supports, so that nothing
can be more stiff than the gate thus completed. It weighs about 801b. Its
dimensions are 9 feet by 3^, but may be made of any size, the price varying in
proportion. It may be observed, that a gate with one bolt, when shut sud-
denly, vibrates for some time at the fore-foot ; this is obviated by two bolts
coupled together near b and c, and acting simultaneously. It is also convenient
for gates opening into policy-grounds, getting bolted when thrown back by
means of a short stump driven into the ground, with a catch at the height of
the lower bolt c."

1539. The wire-gates above described are admirable examples of the princi-
ples of trussed frames, and for gates. So far as that principle gives them firm-
ness and support, they can hardly be excelled ; but there is one defect attendant

SIDE-GATES.

433

upon the wire upfilling, its too great tenuity, which renders the wires liable to
derangement on being loaded with any cross strain, such as a person attempting
to climb over the gate, and set-
ting foot on the wires. A diagonal
wire undergoing such treatment
will be liable to stretch, and there-
by lose its effects. Could such
accidents be effectually guarded
against, these gates might be re-
garded as almost perfect.

1540. Iron Side -Gate. In fig.
787 we give a form of wicket or
side-gate to a farmhouse, construct-
ed of malleable-iron ; the pillars are
of cast-iron, supported upon stone
standards. The price is from 25s.
to 30s., and the posts 26s. the pair.

1541. In fig. 788 we give
a form of " foot-gate" for a
footpath, manufactured by
the St Pancras Iron Com-
pany, London.

1542. Corrugated Iron Slid-
ing-Gate. In fig. 789 we
give a part front elevation of
a sliding-gate, in which the
framing a a, a is of angle
iron ; the upfilling b b, of
corrugated iron. The wheels
c c are supported by brack-
ets d d riveted to the upper
angle-iron. The rim in a
notch made in the under side
of the wooden beam e e ; f is
the side-post, against which
the door or gate b b stops
when pulled out to its great-
est traverse. In fig. 790 we
give a section of top and bot-
tom rail of gate, in which a
is the upper beam, in the slot
on the under side of which
the wheel b moves ; c is the
standard carrying the wheel
riveted to the upper angle-iron dj e the corrugated plate of the gate; / the
lower angle-iron. Instead of a beam a, on which the wheel b moves, a plate of
iron may be bolted to the wall at its extreme ends by bolts and nuts the wheel
running on its lower edge. Fig. 791 shows a section and elevation of the
mode of hanging a sliding-gate : a a part of the gate, b b the side stop, c c the
bar on which the pulleys slide. In the section, d d is part of the wall, e the bar
corresponding to c c, secured to the wall by the stud f and bolt and nut g ;
h the pulley, with the strap i riveted to the gate k, which is a section of a a.

2 E

434

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1543. In fig. 792 we illustrate another method of hanging the gate. A double
strap a a passes over the T rim b, and is riveted thereto. The upper ends of
the strap carries the wheel c, which runs on the beam d. In fig. 793 a is the
upper part of the framing, b the strap, c the wheel, d the beam, e the side
frame or beam which limits the traverse of the gate, and against which it abuts
when fully open.

Fig. 790.

DETAIL OF BLJDINO-

OATI 30ALE, 2

INCHES TO THE FOOT .

DETAIL OF SLIDISO-

3ATE SCALE. 2 INCHES

TO THS FOOT.

DETAIL OF SLIDINO-Oi
SCALE, 2 INCHES T

Fig. 794.

1544. Wire-Fences. Wire-fences consist of three parts the straining-posts,
the standards or intermediate posts, and the wires. The straining-posts are

made of wood or of iron ; and in the coun-
try, where wood is cheaper than iron, the
former will in most cases be chosen, al-
though it can bear no comparison with iron
in durability. A simple form of wooden
straining-post is shown in fig. 794, where
a is the post, 7 feet long, and 6 or 7 inches
in diameter at .the smallest end, is put into
a pit 3 feet deep ; b is the sole, 6 feet
long, 3 or 4 inches thick, and 6 inches
broad, which takes in the post a at 6
inches from the end c, and has a notch cut
into its upper surface near the other end
to admit the strut d, which is also notched
and nailed into the post about 4 inches be-
low the surface of the ground. In setting
the post into the ground, the earth is
firmly rammed in upon the sole, and about the strut.

1545. Another method of securing a straining-post underground is shown by
fig. 795, where a is the post of the same size as the preceding, at the back of

WITH SOLE AND STAT DND1
OBODND.

WIRE-FEXCES.

435

which at the bottom, is fastened a plank A, 2 feet long, 10 inches broad,
and 2 inches thick, at 3 feet depth in the ground ; and another plank c, of
the same dimensions, is fastened in front of the post about 6 inches below the
surface of the ground. The earth is then firmly rammed in until it comes to
12 inches of the surface, when another plank d of similar dimensions is
placed opposite to the plank c, firmly into the ground, and then the three
pieces of wood e are tightly driven in between the planks. This is considered
a very secure mode of fixing a straining-post against the wooden tension of
the wires.

Fig. 795.

:NO-POST, WITH THANKS UNDERGROUND.

1546. A third method still is given in fig. 796, where a similar size of post a,
to the others, is placed in the pit, 3 feet deep, having a piece of wood J, 2 feet
long, 6 inches broad, and 2 inches thick, nailed to the back part of the bottom ;
e is a standard driven into the ground, at 4 feet distance, in a line with the
post, and the strut d is nailed at one end

into a notch near the top of the post at c,
and at the other end to the standard e,
near the ground. Both the posts are
fixed in the ground before the strut is
nailed to them.

1547. Another sort of straining-post is
made of wrought-iron, fig. 797. When
wooden straining-posts decay they must
be removed, and in doing which the
whole fence must be taken down. Iron
posts, such as a, obviate this inconve-
nience by being permanent. They are
If to 1| inch square, and cost from 2d.
to 2|d. per Ib. Each weighs from 32 Ib.
to 40 Ib., according to the height re-
quired. The extreme posts require a stay b in addition, which costs according
to its weight. The cost of such a straining-post is this :

436 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

34 lb. at 2d. per lb., ... 058
Boring in a stone 2 holes, 3^ inches deep, and 2 inches

diameter, a whinstone, . . . . 009

5 lb. lead for batting, at 2d., . . . . 0010

7 3

Boulders answer for blocks, if not under 10 or 12 cwt. ; and those which have
rounded tops are best, inasmuch as a greater depth of earth covers them, to the
benefit of the grass growing over them.

1548. Mr Binning Munro of Auchinbowie, Stirlingshire, uses only iron strain-
ing-posts and iron standards, and considers them as cheap as wooden ones, even
at first. His straining-posts are round, 2^ inches, diameter, with stays, and
weigh 68 lb. The standards are made of 1^-inch by |-inch bar iron, with 6
holes for the wires, and weigh 10 lb. each, and they are not squared at the ends,
to admit them being put into a small hole, as is commonly done, and which
weakens the iron where it should be the strongest, but are kept broad and flat ;
and the hole is made for them, and not they for the holes. The straining-posts
have a hold in the stem of 6 inches, the standards 4 inches. After the posts
are put into the holes, these are filled with round gravel, and melted sulphur run
amongst them, at 2d. per lb., which is better than lead, because it does not
shrink as lead does, and become loose.

1549. The intermediate posts should be made of larch, and the thinnings of
plantations are suitable for them. If of larch weedings, the posts should be
placed in the same posture as they grew, and not inverted ; they will then last
much longer. For a fence of 3^ feet in height, the posts should be 5^ feet long,
with a diameter of 3^ inches at the smallest end. In ordinary fencing, they
may be used with the bark on. They should all be charred, which is done in
this manner : Lay two trees of little value parallel, about a foot or fourteen
inches apart, upon the ground. Between them collect chips and brushwood,
and set fire to them. Lay the posts directly across the flame, at the part
where the surface of the ground will touch, and turn them from side to side
until they are ready. They are then smeared with coal-tar as long as they are
warm, and as long as the tar may be absorbed.

1550. Intermediate posts have a sufficient hold of the ground at 21 inches
deep, and will support the wire sufficiently when set 7 or 8 feet apart, in a
straight line ; but in curves they should be set closer, and always within the
radius of the curve, and with their heads inclining outside of the curve, to
meet the strain upon the wires.

1551. Wires. The wires used in wire-fencing are of different kinds, and bear
different names. They are named common, prepared, charcoal, and annealed wire.
The common is the ordinary wire of commerce, and is the kind which has
hitherto been mostly employed in wire-fences. It is made from the coarser
sorts of iron,' and, as its name indicates, bears a corresponding relation, both as
regards quality and price.

1552. Prepared wire is made from a finer description of iron, is more carefully
manufactured, comes out in longer lengths, is consequently superior in quality,
and bears a higher price in the market.

1553. Charcoal wire is the best and strongest of any of the qualities made.
It is drawn from charcoal iron, prepared chiefly by wood-charcoal, which is
freer from the impurities known to deteriorate the quality of iron, that exist in
a greater or less degree in all the fuels used in the manufacture of the other
descriptions of that material.

WIRE-FENCES. 437

1554. Annealed wire is the common wire softened in the furnace, and sent
out in that state. It is purchased at the same price as the common, and is in
some districts used in preference, from its being softer and more easily handled
than the other. It is, however, the vov\ worst that can be put into a fence,
and ought always to be rejected. It easily bends, and remains so from want of
elasticity ; and it soon oxidises, even when painted.

1555. The following table exhibits the comparative qualities of these wires,
as tested by the number of pounds each kind sustains before breaking the
the length being 10 feet :

No. 8 broke with 590 Ib. J

No. 6 ,, 844 ., without perceptibly stretching.

No. 4 1269 )

Annealed Wire.

No. 8 broke with 605 Ib., stretched 4.', inches.
No. 6 832 ., ., 3"

No. 4 1282 2

Prepared Wire.

No. 8 broke with 955 Ib., stretched 1 inch.
No. 6 1380 ^ ,,

No. 4 2163

No. 8 broke with 1274 Ib. }

No. 6 ,, 1762 ,, / stretched the same as the prepared wire.

No. 4 2656 )

These are the numbers used in wire-fences. Each bundle of wire is made up
of 63 Ib., and each bundle runs thus :

No. 4 extends from 140 to 150 yards.
No. 6 180 200 ,.

No. 8 280 300

1556. The cost of the different kinds of wire of the same size, from Nos. 1
to 6, is the same. No. 1 to No. 6 of common wire costs from 8s. 6d. to 10s.
6d. per bundle ; the prepared is 2s. more ; and the charcoal 2s. more than the
prepared.

1557. The number of wires employed in a fence depends on its height, but
the ordinary height of 3^ feet requires 6 wires to make the fence confine sheep
and lambs. Fig. 796 shows a portion of a fence having 6 wires, the two upper
ones above d being of No. 4, and the four below it, No. 6 wires. A not uncom-
mon arrangement of the wires is to make the two uppermost No. 4, the two
undermost No. 6, and the two intermediate, No. 8. The upper wire is first
strained, and then the lowest one, and the intermediate ones are taken in suc-
cession, the tension of the upper one being the gauge to the others.

1558. As to the cost of wire-fencing, an instance may be given of a fence
constructed in front of a plantation, of curved and irregular form, of wooden
posts and standards, 3^ feet high, having 6 wires, and extending to 665 yards.
The two upper wires were of No. 4, and the four lower of No. 6. The under-
most one was 6 inches from the ground; the second, 11; the third, 16^; the
fourth, 23 ; the fifth, 31|; and the uppermost, 42 inches. The cost may be
stated thus :

438 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

35 straining-posts and angle-posts, at Is. 9d.,

17 stays for ditto, at 4|d.,

230 small posts, at 4d.,

1400 staples, at Is. per 100, .

10 bundles No. 4, prepared wire, and 15 bundles No. 6, at

10s. 6d. per bundle,
Wages for fitting up,

'3 1 3

4 1 54

13 2 6

8 16 3

Equal to 665 yards at 10i[d. per yard, . . 30 1

1559. Three wires above the height of a turf or stone dyke cost about 7|d.
per lineal yard.*

1560. Mr Binning Munro's account of the cost of erecting a wire-fence with
iron posts, per 100 yards, is this :

3 bundles of wire, at 8s. 6d.,
Iron for posts,
Boring and fitting posts,
Straining-posts bored and fitted,
Making holes in stones,
Other expenses,

156
126
10
066
062
100

Equal to lid. per yard, . . '. . 4 10 8

The stones being heavy, and the posts strong, no stays are required, and the
iron work is put down at cost price and labour, the entire work having been
done by country smiths.t

1561. The durability of wire-fences is greater than might be expected. They
stood upon the estate of Torrance, in Strathearn, for twelve years before requir-
ing repairs, and then some of the standards were renewed, while the wire would
stand for six years to come. On other estates they have stood nearly ten years
without repair. Were the posts made of iron, they might stand a lease without
repairs.

1562. It is not at all probable, that however durably wire-fences may be
erected, they will ever supersede thorn hedges or stone dykes on farms. They
afford no shelter to stock, and, appearing insignificant to restless cattle in the
fields, have been attempted to be leapt over, and the cattle, not marking the
height well, have been caught by the upper wire in the groins, to their serious
injury. They are well adapted to the fencing of plantations until the trees
grow sufficiently high for pasturage under them. The grazings of pastoral
farms might be subdivided by them, much to the advantage of both the stock
and pasture. They would form a cheap mutual march-fence, even with iron
posts, on large hill properties. They might be used instead of paling for pro-
tecting young thorn hedges, until these grew up to a fence.

1563. Wire would make a neat fence between the plat and a small grass
field in front of a farmhouse.

1564. Fitting-up of Wire-Fences. A few notes on this subject, from the pen
of Mr Young, may be of service to the reader.

1565. " The wire, as it is supplied by the makers, is in coils, the length of
these varying according to the size or number of the wire.

1566. "The first part of the operation in putting up wire-fences, as we have
practised it, is to take the wire out of the coil or, in other words, to straighten
it This is performed by drawing it through several iron pegs, driven into a
stout board a, fig. 798, each peg or pin being 2 or 3 inches from each other.

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, March 1850, p. 244-62.
t Journal of Agriculture, July 1850, p. 428.

W1RE-FEXCES.

439

1567. "About 2 or 3 foot of one end of the wire is now taken through the
staple i, at the back end of the board,

and placed inside of every alternate peg.

This end of the wire is then turned

round the handle of a hammer, or some

other similar piece of wood c, and drawn

through the pegs by one or two of the

workmen, the block a being supported

by a tressle, and kept in its position by

a loop of wire passed round the post d ;

it being particularly noticed that the

man who has the charge of the coil,

'gives it off/ or uncoils it, 'hand over hand,' as fast as it is drawn through

the pegs ; and to enable him to do this perfectly, especially at first, the wire

should not be very rapidly drawn away.

1568. " We are aware that many who put np wire-fences do not straighten
the wire at all, but run it at once off the coil into the fence. This is a practice,
however, we have never adopted, and do not recommend. We find that, by
straightening the wires first, we can not only do the work far more expeditiously,
but infinitely better, as there are neither crooks nor puckers in the wire, which,
when they exist, it is not possible for any strain the wire will bear, completely
to obliterate.

1569. " We shall therefore suppose that the wires have all been straightened.
The staples are then driven slightly into the posts at the heights on the posts
at which it is desired to place the wires. The wires are now led or drawn into
the staples in the posts. Having completed this, about 18 inches of each of the
wires are passed through the holes in the extreme straining-pest, and brought
half round and twisted upon the wire inside of the post, which completes this
part of the fastening.

1570. " It is very possible that the length of wire in any of the coils will
not reach the whole distance between the strain-
ing-posts. When this is the case, they must be ",.'_

joined together, as represented in fig. 799. ^Ki^f^lK^^

1571. "With the smaller sixes of wire, no one

will experience much difficulty in making such a joint ; but when the wires are

of the stronger kinds, we are obliged to

have recourse to implements to assist us,

other than the hand pliers used for the

weaker wires ; the most simple of which is

a small block of wood a, fig. 800, about 12

inches long and 3 square, into one end of

which b is driven a piece of round -| rod,

leaving it about \ an inch high. Beyond

this pin there are other three pegs driven, to keep the wire in the centre of

the block, while its end c is being turned round the pin to form the eye, and

which, when made, as shown in the

figure at &, is entered into the eye of

the other wire, and then taken hold

of by a pair of clambs, fig. 801, by

which the loose end of the wire is

turned round at the neck of the eye,

as shown in fig. 799. Any remaining

Fi<r. SOO.

440

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

portion of the wire is afterwards cut off by a file, which finishes the joint, and
makes it ready for straining.

1572. " There is another tool very necessary to enable us, easily and neatly, to
turn the thicker wires when forming the eye, or to twist the ends round the wires
at the straining-posts. It is termed a "turn-key," and .is represented by fig. 802.

1573. "Having now all the wires fastened to the extreme straining-post, and
joined where necessary, they are cut at the next straining-post, leaving about
15 or 18 inches beyond it. To the end of the upper wire is attached the
straining-screw, fig. 803, observing to place between its end a, and the post 6,

Fig. 802.

Fig. 803.

THKN-KET.

STRAININO-SCREW.

Fig. 804.

and under the wire c, a piece of wood rf, about 2 inches square. It is necessary,
before beginning to work the screw e, to place a temporary spur of wood to the
inside of the post about 6, which is removed when the next space is strained up,
and so on, until the next extreme post is strained from.

1574. " The upper wire is the first that is tightened, and this is done slowly
until a sufficient tension is procured. There can be no rule stated to instruct
when the strain is enough, but with a little experience, and applying the hand

occasionally to the wire as it is being strained, a
knowledge of the degree of tension will soon be
acquired. The wire being sufficiently tight, we
apply what is termed a " collar-vice," fig. 804,
which is put round the post on the upper side
of the wire, and the jaws of the vice a, firmly
screwed on the wire inside of the post. The
straining screw e, fig. 803, is then unfastened,
and the loose end of the wire brought closely
round, and a staple driven over it into the side
of the post. After this is done, the collar-vice

can likewise be taken away, and the wire fixed as at the other post, either

by the hand or by the turn-key, fig. 802.

1575. " The upper wire having been strained and fastened, the lowest is next

tightened, and so on, until
the last unstrained upper wire
is so done. The object in
straining the upper wire first,
is to make it a guide for the
tension of the others below it,
as the strain upon any of these
must increase the instant the
upper wire appears in any
degree slacker than it was at
first. When all the wires are strained, the staples in the small posts are driven
home, but not too firmly and, when this is done, the fence is completed.

COLLAR-VISE.

Fig. 805.

8TRAINTNO-8CRE

OLLAR-VICE COMBINE

HUJJDLKS.

441

1576. " The straining-screw and collar-vice have hitherto been the ordinary
implements used for the erection of wire-fences, but we have sometimes em-
ployed a collar-vice, in which is also combined a straining- screw, as in fig. 805,
where a is 'the jaws of the vice, and b the rest against which the straining-screw
c acts. We have found it an exceedingly useful instrument, and peculiarly
adapted for short lines, as, by using two or more of them at the same time, we
can procure a very equal degree of tension on all the wires/'

1577. Wrought-iron Hurdles. Fig. 806 represents wrought-iron hurdles of
five round bars, as manufactured

by Messrs Thomson and Co. of
Edinburgh. Each hurdle consists
of three strong uprights, one at
each end, and one intermediate
between them. The lower ex-
tremities of the end supports are
made with a strong double knee,
terminating in a prong this vary-
ing in length from a foot upward.
The middle-upright is simply con-
tinued to a point, and twisted so
as to present its flat side to the pressure. The horizontal bars in the
majority of instances round, but in some cases square, set diagonally are
" tannered " at the ends by machinery, which takes off the least possible pro-
portion to form a shoulder for riveting them to the uprights.

1578. In erecting the hurdles, the two end uprights are placed against each
other the knees being in opposite directions. A series of double prongs is
thus formed, which, being fixed in the ground, renders the hurdles self-sup-
porting, and obviates the necessity of using stays. In course of erection, the
hurdles are fastened together by means of bolts and nuts, the bolts passing
through bolt-holes made in the end uprights.

1579. For horses, cattle, sheep, and lambs, the price of this form of hurdle is
from 2s. to 4s. per lineal yard ; for sheep and lambs only, 2s. 6d. to 3s.

1580. Movable hurdles of iron might be conveniently used to confine a sheep
or two to eat the grass of a small plat and save the trouble of cutting it.
Top-dressing the grass in this manner is preferable treatment to cutting
it with the scythe and carrying it away, to the impoverishment of the soil.
Such hurdles make neat fences near farmhouses as a protection from the larger
class of stock of cattle and horses.

1581. Barnard and Bishops Sheepfold Hurdles.
Messrs Barnard and Bishop manufacture a sheepfold
iron hurdle invented by Henry Gilbert of Kensing-
ton, Middlesex. They are 12 feet long, are perfectly
flat, and are easily removed from place to place of a
plat by means of a light iron wheel, which is readily
attached to each hurdle. Price, 16s. ; the cost of a
wheel, 10s.

1582. Wire-Netting. In fig. 807 we give strong
wire-netting for sheep ; its height is 3 feet, and the
price per lineal yard is Is. 3d. It is quite effectual
for fencing off sheep near the farmhouse.

1583. Fig. 808 is the " mixed mesh-wire game-
netting," manufactured by Messrs Barnard and

442

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Bishop, Norfolk Wireworks, Norwich. By making the upper part of the nettiug
of a larger-sized mesh than the lower, the price is proportionally reduced ; to
work together, the upper mesh must be twice the size of the lower. This can
be made to any height under 8 feet. With meshes 1 and 2 inches, wire No. 19,
the price per lineal yard, 2 feet wide or high, is 9d. ; when japanned, 10|d. ;
when galvanised, with meshes l inch and 3 inches, No . 1 9 gauge, 5d. and
6d. ; with meshes 2 inches and 4 inches, No. 19, 4d. and 5^d. This is an
effectual fence against rabbits and hares into gardens and shrubberies.

1584. In fig. 809 is given the f -inch mesh wire-netting, manufactured also
by Messrs Barnard and Bishop, suitable for various purposes ; the price per
square foot, wire No. 20, being 5^d., japanned, and 6d. galvanised.

1585. In fig. 810 is illustrated a recently-introduced form of spiral wire work,

Fig. 808.

Fig. 810.

v. : EU .-. [ :.>;.

W1RE-NZTTLNO.

invented by Mr J. Reynolds, of 27 New Compton Street, Soho, London. It is
made of hard twisted wire, galvanised after being manufactured. From the
way in which the twisted wires are interlaced, no other fixing is required. This
would make an ornamental fence against cattle and sheep at a farmhouse.

1586. SECTION EIGHTH Iron Sheds. These structures will generally be
required of a very simple and unambitious character. In the majority of cases,
simple girders or bearers of cast-iron, or of wrought- iron, will suffice. In con-
nection with these parts of iron structures, we have given ample instructions
and illustrations in Subdivision Third, p. 375, under Iron Construction, to which
we here refer the reader. We, however, deem it right to supplement these by
giving a few illustrations of parts not there illustrated.

1587. In fig. 811 we give a half elevation of a cast-iron girder, which stretches
from column to column ; shoes, as at a i, are cast in the girder, to support the
ends of the rafters ; a corresponding shoe being cast at c on the top of the
column.

1588. In fig. 812 we give the upper part of the column; the ends of the
girders are inserted in the recesses a a ; b the plan of shoe.

1589. In fig. 813 we give the elevation of an open girder for supporting the
roof of a large shed : a a the upright cast-iron columns, b b b the shoes for re-
ceiving the wood-beam c c and the ends a, fig. 814, of the iron rafters ; <7, e e,

SHEDS.

443

and// are uprights and braces. In fig. 814 we give a front elevation and
section of tLe shoe &, fig. 81;-}, in which a is the termination of rafter of roof 6,
the shoe bolted by the bolts c c to the cap of columns o, fig. 813 ; d the wood
beam (c c, fig. 813) ; c, in the front elevation, is the slot receiving end of

Fig. SI 2.

rafter a. Fig. 815 shows upper termination b of upright d, fig. 813 ; a the
shoe receiving the end of rafter b and beam c, d the snug to which the diago-
nal ties / fig. 813, are bolted. Fig. 810 shows upper termination of uprights
e e, fig. 813 : a is the wood beam corresponding to c c, fig. 813.

1590. In fig. 817 we give plan of an octagonal shed : a b the doors, c d the
windows. In place of having brick or stone walls, as in the figure, cast-iron
pillars are proposed to be placed at the corners of the octagon, the spaces be-
tween being filled up with corrugated iron plates, or wood planking. The double
lines converging to the centre e show the assemblage of rafters e/ ef, fig. 818.
In fig. 819 we give the plan of central ring </, fig. 818, to which the ends of

444

Fig. 815.

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 817

Fig. 816.

TERMINATION OP CENTRAL Up- SCALE, 1 INCH 1O

B10HT SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE F001 '

THE FOOT.

PLAN OF OCTAGONAL SHED SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

ROOF TKO88 OF OCTAOONAL BHKD 8OALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT

Fig. 819.

'LAN OF CENTRAL BINO rf, FIO. 818 SCALE, J IN

OH TO THE FOOT.

SHEDS.

445

the tie-rods b and d are bolted. Whore the tie-rods, as a a a, fig. 819, join
the ring at the angles, triangular bolster-pieces b b are inserted, against which
the nuts c c are screwed hard up. Where the tie-rods, as d d, join the ring in
the centre of its sides,
the nuts e e butt imme-
diately against these.
In fig. 820 we give end
of struts g g, fig. 818,
showing its juncture
with rafter a fig. 820,
by the strap b. The end
c is rounded, and the
tie-rod d, correspond-
ing to a c, a c, fig. 818,
passes round it. The
tie-rods b b, fig. 818,
widen out so as to em-
brace the ends of the
struts g g. Fig. 821
shows the widened-out
part a a, where the
end of the strut g, fig.
818, passes through, as
also the tie-rod a c; b b
is a side view of a a.

Fig. S21.

1591. In fig. 822 in elevation and section is a method of forming sheds
with wrought-iron columns a #, these being provided with caps b &, the upper
parts of which are formed into shoes for supporting the wrought-iron beam c.
The wrought-iron column a and cap b are secured together by the key d.
Wrought-iron tension bars f f stretch from column to column, the ends being
jointed to snugs e e, cast on the cap b. In place of a wrought-iron beam as c,
a wooden beam may be used to support the rafter-shoes of the roof, as shown
by the dotted outline g. Where the iron beam c is of the dimensions shown
in the figure namely, the depth 12 inches, the length from centre to centre of
pillar 19 feet, the breadth of flanges at top and bottom 4f inches, and thickness
of central rib f inch the weight it is calculated to support at its centre is
19,000 lb., or double that spread over its whole length. The distance between
the pillars a being 19 feet, a rafter-shoe will be required at three points
above the pillars, and between the two. The rafter-shoes should be made to

446

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

clip the tipper flange of beam. Or the upper flange of rafter may be extended
and flattened out, so as to be riveted to the upper flange of the wrought-iron

Fig. 822.

ECTION AND ELEVATION OF WROUOHT-IRON COLUMNS FOR SHEDS.

Fig. 823.

beam c, the rib of the rafter butting at its end on the side of the beam, as
shown by the dotted lines h h. The dotted lines show
also the mode of fastening the rafters h h to the wooden
beam g if that is used in preference to a wrought-iron
one the upper flange of the rafter being spiked down to
the beam.

1592. Cast-iron Pillars for Cattle-Boxes in Iron Sheds.
Where cattle-boxes are fitted up in the interior of
sheds, pillars, as in fig. 823, may be used. On three
sides of these, as at a b c, snugs are cast, into which the
wooden battens d e f, forming the divisions between the
stalls, are passed. Thus, in b the transverse, and in c? c
and a/the longitudinal, divisions are placed. The battens
may be secured in their places by bolts and nuts g h t;
for this purpose holes at distances corresponding to the

centre of the battens may be bored in the snugs a b c.

SUBDIVISION FOURTH Combined Work.

1593. SECTION FIRST Wood combined with Iron Straps, Shoes, Trussed
Beams. Iron straps are frequently used to connect joints ; as the strap a
to connect the tie-beam b b with the king-post c and struts d d, fig. 824 ; or

SECTION OF CAST-IRON PILLARS
FOR CATTLE-BOXES IN SBEDS.

IRON STRAPS WITH WOOD.

447

the foot of the rafter c witli the tie-beam b h, fig. 825 a being the strap,
and e the eye-bolt.

1594. The following re-
marks from the article "Car-
pentry," Encyclopedia JJri-
tannicct) on the use of iron
straps, may be useful. " When
it is necessary to employ iron
straps for strengthening a
joint, considerable attention
is necessary that we may
place them properly. The
first thing to be determined ;
is the direction of the strain.

We must then resolve this strain into a strain parallel to each piece, and
another perpendicular to it. Then the strap which is to be made fast to any
of the pieces must be so fixed that it shall resist in the direction parallel
to the piece. Frequently this cannot be done, but we must come as near
to it as we can. In such cases we must suppose that the assemblage
yields a little to the pressures which act on it. We must examine what
change of shape a small yielding will produce. The strap that we observe
most generally ill-placed is that which connects the foot of the rafter with
the beam. It only binds down the rafter, but does not act against its hori-
zontal thrust. It should be placed farther back on the beam, with a bolt
through it, which will allow it to turn round. It should embrace the rafter
almost horizontally, near the foot, and should be notched square with the
back of the rafter. We are of opinion that straps with eye-bolts in the very
angles, and allow free motion round them, are of all the most perfect. A
branched strap, such as may at once bind the king-post and the two braces
which abut on its foot, will be more serviceable if it have a joint. When
a roof warps, these braced straps frequently break the tenons, by affording
a fulcrum in one of their bolts. An attentive and judicious artist will con-
sider how the beams will act upon such occasions, and will avoid giving rise
to these strains by levers. A skilful carpenter never employs many straps,
considering them as auxiliaries foreign to his art, and subject to imperfections
in workmanship which he cannot discern or amend."

1595. In fig. 824 we show a branched strap a joining the king-post c and the
struts d d. The strap may be fixed by keys driven through at the upper part,
or an eye may be

given to the strap,
and a bolt passed
through it.

1596. In fig. 826
we give a form of
strap for head of
king - post a, and
struts b c ; fig. 827
shows a strap for
joining collar beam
, and principal b c.

1597. Fig. 828

gives a form of strap for straining-beam a, queen-post b, and strut c.

448

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1598. Fig. 829 shows a form of saddle for joining a beam a, which crosses
another beam b b. The strap c c is bolted to the beam b b by the bolts d and
e ; ff is a plan.

Fig. 828

Fig. 829.

im,

)

< /

IRON STRAP FOR STRAININO-H
8 TROT SCALE, J INC

AM, QUEEN-POST,
TO THE FOOT.

ADDLE FOR JOINING BEAMS
T RIGHT ANOJLE8 SCALE, J

Fig. 830.

CAST-IRON SHOE P
OIRUEK SCALE,

I RECEIVING
IKCH TO TBI

Fig. 831.

1599. Iron Shoes for Wooden Framing. In fig. 830 we give a drawing of a
cast-iron shoe, for the reception of the end of tie-beams or girders, as a. The
shoe is provided with snugs c e, f d, which act as
keys, and give a secure hold in the wall b. A shoe for
the reception of joists which require to be bolted to
wooden columns, &c., is given at e d f in fig. 831 :
this is secured by bolts and nuts as shown at f. In
the same figure a shoe for the reception of "wall-
plates," running along the wall, is shown. The wall-
plate rests in the recess a ; c and a are projections. This
maybe adapted to secure to a post, &c., as the shoe
e df, by extending the projection c, as shown in form
towards b, and passing bolts through apertures made
in it ; the upper bolt-hole at a will require to be counter-sunk, or have a recess

in which the head of the bolt can go. This will
allow it to lie flush with the inside of the recess,
and the wall-plate to pass easily into the recess a.
A front view is shown at ff.

1600. In composite roofs that is, roofs com-
posed partly of iron and partly of timber certain
parts are composed of cast-iron, as queen-bolt-
heads, shoes for braces, struts, or tie-beams, and
purlin-boxes, &c. These we now propose to illus-
trate.

1601. Fig. 832 illustrates a " shoe " for the re-
ception of the foot of struts : a a is the wooden tie-
beam, b b the wrought-iron king-bolt, secured by
nut and washer c ; d the extremity of strut or
brace, butting in the shoe, the section of which is
formed of the proper shape ; /shows the elevation

of the shoe : an aperture is cast in the solid part of the shoe, through which
the king-bolt is passed ; e e are bolts fastening the shoe / to the tie-beam a a.

JOISTS, " WALL
IOH TO THE FOOI

SHOES.

449

At g h i a front view of the shoe is shown : g is the part where the brace or
strut enters, h the king-bolt, / part of the tie-beam.

1602. Fig. 833 illustrates a form of rafter-box or shoe, for the reception and

Fig. 833.

support of the principal rafters : a a are the upper ends of the rafters, b the
king-bolt, c d the box, the side c of which is in section, the side d in elevation.
An aperture is cast through the solid part to admit of the king-bolt b being
passed through ; the ridge-pole passes into the recess e ; i shows a front view
of the rafter-box.

1603. In fig. 834 we give a drawing of a shoe for the reception of the foot of
the strut and of the queen-bolt : a a is the tie-beam, b b the queen-bolt, c the
brace or strut, d the shoe, secured by the bolts e e.

1604. Fig. 835 illustrates a queen-bolt-head " box " for the reception of

Pig. 834.

straining-beam and principal rafter :
a is the queen-bolt, the head of
which is sunk into a recess in the
box or shoe b i, c the straining-
beam, d the principal rafter.

1605. In fig. 836 we give a cast-
iron shoe for the reception of the
end of the principal rafter arid the
pole-plate : a the rafter, b the re-
cess into which the pole-plate is
placed. The whole is secured to
the tie-beam by the bolts c and d.

Another bolt may be made to unite the
2 F

450

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

foot of the principal rafter and the tie-beam, passing through in the direc-
tion of / g.

1606. In fig. 837 is given a " shoe " or box for purlins, an end view of

which is given at b b, and a side
view at g. The shoe g is passed
over the upper edge of the rafter
ff which goes into the recess a,
and is secured by. bolts and nuts
at d d ; b b, h is the part receiv-
ing the purlin c c.

1607. Trussing of Girders.
When the bearing of a girder ex-
ceeds 25 feet, the deflection which

SHOE FOB " PURLINS " SOAI.

Fig. 839.

arises has a tendency to push out
the walls in which it rests. The usual method of preventing this is to "truss"
the girder. This is performed by cutting the girder in two through the centre

in the direction of its length,
and inserting two pieces of
timber oak is the best in-
clining towards each other as
in the principal rafters of a
roof. The rise of these pieces
is very trifling, projecting or
rising very little above the
beam. Fig. 838 illustrates a
method of trussing a beam
with wrought-iron and wood ;
a a the beam, b b struts
or braces abutting on the
wrought-iron bolts and seats
c c c. In fig. 839 we give an-
other method of trussing a
beam after the queen-post
principle, fig. 838 being on
the king-post. The abutting
pieces d b a c are of wrought-iron ; the struts or braces e e e of wood. The two
halves are bolted together by bolts and nuts, as at /, which is a plan showing
the position of these. In fig. 838 we have another method of trussing a
beam : d d the beam : e e suspension-pieces fixed to the under-side of the beam
by bolts, or otherwise ; f g g are tie-rods of wrought-
iron. In fig. 840 the girder is shown trussed, with an
arched piece of wrought-iron a b c between the two
halves, the whole d being secured by bolts.

1608. In heavy girders of more than a foot in thick-
r*"^^^^^^^^^ ness, it is a good practice to saw them down the
d centre, turning the inside surfaces outward, bolting

them together with pieces of thin wood between them ;

this enables the air to circulate freely, in addition to affording an opportunity
to examine the quality and condition of the timber.

1609. In fig. 841 we give a trussed beam, on the principle invented by
Mr Ainger a full description of which will be found in vol. 48 of the Trans-
actions of the Society of Arts, to which body the inventor communicated his

RUSSED BEAM.

Fig. 840.

TRUSSES FOR GIRDERS.

451

paper. The beam we have given is adapted for a span of 12 feet, and,
according to Mr Ainger the suspension rods being 1 inch square capable of
supporting easily between 4000 and 5000 pounds more than double the weight
which the beam would support if not trussed.

1610. The beam a a, fig. 841, to be trussed, is divided into two flitches in the
direction of its length ; the sawn sides should be turned outwards. The ends
are bevelled off, so that the faces thus cut shall be at right angles to the line of
the inclined truss rods b >, the ends of which pass through iron plates c and d,
and are secured by nuts. The lower ends of the truss rods b b are jointed to
the struts or saddle-pieces e and/. A horizontal truss rod g is also jointed at its
ends to the struts e and/. The beam may be cambered or lifted up in the centre
at A, by tightening the nuts at c and d. The arrangement is in fact a small
" suspension bridge," in which the beam a a is supported by the struts e and/;
the upper part of the beam being in a state of compression.

1611. In the following figures 842 to 844 inclusive we give details of the
parts of this truss. These are somewhat different from those given by Mr Ainger.

1612. In fig. 842 a a, b b are cross sections of the two flitches ; c c one of
the struts, the bolts of which are passed between the flitches ; the strut is
made with two snags, or projecting parts, d r7, provided with bolt-holes. These
are embraced by the ends e and/ of the fork of the angular truss rods b b in
fig. 841. The end of the truss rod g, in fig. 841, is placed between the snags
d d, as shown at z, fig. 842. A bolt g is passed through the bolt-holes in the
snags d d, the ends e/and i of the truss rods, and secured by a nut h. In the
left figure k k is a side view of part of one flitch, I the central bolt of the
strut m m, with its snug and bolt-hole n.

1613. In fig. 843 we give detailed ends of the truss rods, drawn to a scale

Fig. 842.

CROSS SECTION AND FART ELEVATION OF FLITCHB
OF TRUSSED BEAM IN FIO. 641 SCALE, 1 INCH

twice the size of the detail in fig. 842 : a is the end of the horizontal truss
rod g in fig. 841, with its circular head and bolt hole b ; c is an edge view

452

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 844.

DETAILS OF TRUSS ROES SCALE, 2 INCHES

of the same ; d is the end of the truss rod J, fig. 841, which is expanded so as
to form a fork with circular ends e e, provided with bolt-holes, as shown in
the side or edge view at//.

1614. In fig. 844 we illustrate another plan of forming the connection be-

tween the ends of the truss
rods b b and g, and the eyes
of the struts e and / fig. 841.
In this case, the end, as of the
truss b, fig. 841, is provided
with an eye b b, fig. 844,
with bolt-hole this being
passed between the snags dd
of the strut c c in fig. 842.
The back of this is length-
ened out at c?, fig. 844, and
terminated with a second eye
e e, with its bolt-hole c. The
edge view of this part is
shown at / g h. The end i
of the horizontal truss a,
fig. 841, is expanded so as to form a fork, with circular eyes k k, fig. 844.
These embrace the eye /of the truss rod g, fig. 841; a bolt Z, fig. 844, is then
passed through, and secures them all together. The upper end of the truss
rod ft, fig. 841, is shown at n in fig. 844. It passes through a hole in the plate
o o, which is placed at the bevelled end of the beam, and is tightened up by
the nut p. The distance between the two flitches of the beam is maintained
by blocking pieces, shown by the dotted lines h h h in fig. 841, of wood placed
between them, and kept in place by iron straps. The thickness of these
blocks should be a little more than the thickness of the truss rod b >, fig. 841.

1615. In figs. 845 and 846 we give details of a method of trussing solid beams,

invented by Mr J. Con-
der, and described at
p. 158, vol. i. of the
Engineers 1 and Mecha-
nics' Encyclopaedia. The
plan is applicable to the
trussing of solid beams,
that is, those which are
not cut down the mid-
dle into two flitches.
The general appearance
of the trussed beam is
that of fig. 841, the
truss rods being on the
outside of the beam, in
place of being partially between them, as in fig. 841. In fig. 845 a repre-
sents the end of the beam to be trussed ; a cast-iron saddle b b is fitted on
this ; an angular groove is provided in this saddle, the end being circular,
as shown in the plan of the saddle at c c. The angle of the groove is
the same as that which the truss rods make with the beam 15 in the present
example. The truss rod, corresponding to b , fig. 841, is bent in the middle
to a circular form, so as to embrace and catch on the circular end of the grooved

Fig. 846.

TO THE TOOT.

DETAII.8 OF TROSf
SCALE, 1 INCH TO

TEUSSED BEAMS.

453

saddle, fig. 845. The ends are then passed down on each side of the beam, to
points placed at one-third of the length of the beam from its ends, and the ends
passed through the eyes of a strut. The horizontal truss rod, corresponding to
g, fig. 841, is passed through an eye in the centre of the strut. The strength
of the horizontal truss rod being equal to that of the two side trusses combined.
In fig. 845 d rf, e e is the side truss rod. Fig. 846 shows the strut correspond-
ing to e or/ in fig. 841. The ends of the side trusses are passed through the
holes a b, fig. 846, of the strut the end of the horizontal rod being passed
through c. The upper edge d d of the strut is made flat, but does not press
immediately upon the under side of the beam e, but a blocking piece /is inserted.
The plan of the strut is shown at g rj h being the nut for tightening up the
horizontal rod z, and giving any desired degree of camber to the beam ; k k
the nuts for tightening the ends I I of the side truss rods.

1616. Fig. 847 shows another form of trussing a beam : a a one of the

flitches ; b b iron caps or boxes ; c c the truss rod, the two ends of which pass
through the caps b Z, and are secured by nuts. The
centre part of the truss rod c c passes over a curved
hollow saddle d, secured by the bolt and nut e.

1617. In fig. 848 we give at a a side view of the sad-
dle, and at b an end view of plate or cap b b, fig. 847.

1618. Fig. 849 shows another method of securing
the ends of the truss rod, the arrangement of which is
similar to that in fig. 847 the centre of the truss rod
, fig. 849, passing over a curved saddle, as d in fig.

847. In fig. 849 the end of the truss rod a is jointed to DETAH OF TRUSS*,, BEAM SCALE,
the stud at b b. The part c of the stud is bolted to the

wall-plate e e ; the beam / to be trussed to the part d. In the plan g is the
truss rod, h h i the stud.

1619. In fig. 850 we give details of the king-
post trussed beam in fig. 838 : a a a part of the
beam ; b the central abutting piece, with two
inclined faces c c ; d the bolt at under side of
beam ; e e the two inclined pieces corresponding
to & & in fig. 838. In fig. 850 the outer end of
the beam // is shown in the left-hand figure ;
g the end abutting piece of iron, with bolt hole
A, or bolt Z, with inclined face k for the piece i
to abut against.

1620. In fig. 851 we give details of the
queen-post truss in fig. 839 : a a, a a the beam ;
b b the central abutting pieces, secured by the
nuts c c. Two inclined faces d e, d e are the
abutting pieces of b b, e e the straining piece,
d d the struts. The abutting pieces at the end
of the beam, against winch the feet of the struts
d d rest, are similar to the piece g in fig. 850.

U E

r -

u b

454

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 850. r

DETAILS OP EJXO-POST TH.OSSED BEAM SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT

Fig. 851.

DETAILS OF QDEEN-FO3T TRUSSED BEAU SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT.

1621. SECTION SECOND. Wood combined with Stone and Brick. In fig. 852 we
give section of cornice of house, of which we give the elevation in fig. 56 ; a a,
a a hollow brick wall, b brick nog, c wall-plate, d d bearer, e gutter, f g pen-
dant of bracket, h lintel

Fig. 852.

DETAILS OF CORVICE OF FAK1THCCSE IN SIO. 6 SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

1622. In fig. 853 we give the front elevation of the cornice, showing brackets
a and pendants b.

1623. In fig. 854 we give section of base of principal window to living-room
c c, fig. 65. In fig. 854 a a is of stone, b oak sill, c part of sash-frame.

COENICES AND BASES.

455

Fig. 853.

V )

LO4.

) <i_

SONT

. 665

OF CORNICE IN
BALE, 1 INCH TO

1624. In fig. 855 we give a section of liigli cornice of principal window of
the house whose elevation is in fig. 67 : a architrave, b b craddling, c c joist, d
plaster cornice, e shutter, /sash.

tCIION IHKODQ

456

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1625. In fig. 856 we give plan of mullion of principal window : a a stone
mullion, b pilaster, c window-bottom, d d sashes arid frame.

1626. In fig. 857 we give section of base of bay window of the house of which
in fig. 71 we give an elevation : a a stone, b b brick, c c batton, d d skirting,
e sill, /the sash.

1627. In fig. 858 we give section of part of lower and part of upper bay
window of the elevation in fig. 71 : a sash, b oak sill of upper or bedroom
window, c stone mouldings, d biickwork, e brackets l inch thick, /joists,
g pitch pine boarding, h sash of lower window.

Fig. 856.

FLAN OF UCIXION OF WINDOW OF FARMHOUSE IN FIO. 67
8CALZ, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

SECTION OF BASE OF BAY WINDOW OF HOUSE IN FIO. 71 SECTION OF wmi>OW-HEAD OF BAT WINDOW OF HOUSE IN FIO. 71

BCALI, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT. SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.

1628. SECTION THIRD Iron combined with Brick or Concrete Fireproof Con-
struction. We shall now describe the methods of making flooring fireproof by
the use of cast-iron girders and brick arches. This is illustrated in fig. 859,
representing the method adopted by Mr Fairbairn during his long practice as
an engineer. The cast-iron pillars k Z, on which the girders c d rest, are placed
at a distance of 9 feet 6 inches apart from centre to centre the distance covered
by the arch being called a " bay." A convenient length for the girders is 20
feet, as illustrated in fig. 611. In fig. 859 the arches are composed of a brick

FI RE PJ IOOF FLOORS.

457

three-quarters of a brick from e to f, or i to

Fig. 859.

Fig. 860.

in length from a to <?, or from b to
A, and half a brick from
f to ^7, or h to <7 ; the posi-
tion of the tie -rod is shown
at the line a b. u When
the arches are finished,
and before the centres are
struck, the key - bricks,
from f to A, and also all
the others, are wedged
between the joints with
thin pieces of slate, for
the purpose of equalising
the bearings, to prevent

settling after the centres are withdrawn. The arches being thus secured, are
afterwards levelled and filled up with a concrete of lime and ashes, on which is
laid the flooring of tiles or stone flagging, as the case may be." The best and
safest rise for arches such as now described is 1-J- inch for every foot of span.

1629. Wrought-iron Beams and Concrete. Wrought-iron beams or joists are
rolled solid after the manner of railway bars ; a usual form is the I-shaped
joist, as in fig. 860 at c c. The same figure illustrates Fox's patented method
of constructing fireproof flooring, in which the iron

joists c c stretch across the room ; b b b are rough strips
of wood bearing on the bottom flanges ; these sup-
port a layer of rough mortar, indicated by the dotted
lines above b. The mortar is pressed down tightly
so as to exude from between the joints of the strips
of wood. A key or surface is thus formed, to which
the ceiling-plaster, &c., a a, adheres. Above the
layer of rough rnortar a bed of concrete d d is placed, on which is placed the
flooring-tiles or cement. If boards are used for the floor, narrow strips or bat-
tens of wood e e are imbedded in the concrete ; on these strips the boards are
nailed. The iron joists c c, and strips of wood b, are thus completely imbed-
ded in mortar, concrete, and plaster. This system is very widely used, and
forms an exceedingly strong and fireproof floor. Where the span does not ex-
ceed 20 feet, iron joists in the length may be used ; for spans exceeding this,
cast or wrought iron girders will require to be used ; and for spans exceeding
60 feet, columns will be required.

1630. In fig. 618 we have given a section of a wrought-iron beam recom-
mended by Mr Fairbairn. In fig. 861 we give a section showing the method
of carrying out fireproof

floors with this form of
beam, 9 feet 6 inches apart
from centre to centre : a a
the columns, b b the beams
resting on these : wrought-
iron plates c c are riveted
to these beams, and stretch FIRErKOOt . Ft-OOKS WITH wnouoH1 , niON B , AM8 -oA. i OB TO -m* TOO r.
in a curve, as shown in the

figure. The haunches d d are filled up with concrete, on which the floor-
ing material e e is placed. The iron plates c c are strengthened by angle
irons a a, riveted as shown in the lower figure of fig. 862. A section of the

Fig. 861.

458

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 862.

SECTION OF ANGLE IRON.

JUNCTION OF WROUOHT-IRON

H.ATFS WITH BEAMS SCALK,

2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.

Fig. 863

angle iron is given in the upper figure ; the lower flange a is 4 inches wide, the
thickness -f$ inch ; the depth of central rib b 2 inches,
and thickness ^ inch ; the reader desirous of obtain-
ing full information on the subject of wrought-iron beams,
&c., should consult Mr Fairbairn's work, On Iron Applied
to Construction.

1631. Wrought-iron fireproof flooring has long been
carried out with success in Paris, and various plans for
it are now attracting considerable attention in this
country. Of these we now propose to notice the most
important.

1632. The girder or joist employed is I-shaped, as at a,
fig. 863. These are slightly arched or cambered up, with
a rise of ^ inch in the centre. They are placed at a
distance of 3 feet 3 inches from each other a distance of
2 feet, however, gives greater rigidity. In the method of
construction which has had the preference amongst the
principal Parisian builders, the girders or joists are tied
together in pairs, as b c placed parallel to each other, and
at the distance above mentioned from centre to centre.
The horizontal tie-rod d d, T % inch diameter, which con-
nects the joists, passes through holes made in the neutral axis of the joists,

and is tightened up
by nuts e e. On these
tie-bars, cross-square
wrought-iron bars///
are hung by hooks
at their extremities
these hooks being
deep enough to admit
of the bars hanging
nearly on a level with
the bottom of girders,

OAL.. } INCH TO THE FOOT. &S Sit ff ff ' kk be^g

the horizontal parts of the rods.
There are three of these cross-
rods between each pair of girders,
as shown at b b, b b in plan, fig.
864. In the plan a a are the
joists, c c, c c the tie-rods, cor-
responding to d d in elevaton. In
fig. 863, m m the wooden joists,
n n the flooring. The outer ex-
tremities of the cross-bars are
bent downwards, and built into
the walls. The plaster ceiling,
extending below the joists as
shown by the line o o, is formed
as follows : A wooden platform
is supported from below, its up-

PLAN OF FLOORING SCALE, \ INCH TO THE FOOT. _/ -I ct ft "\

per surface being some 2 or 2
inches below the bottom of joists ; a coarse grout of plaster of Paris is then

fflV

SECTION OF WKOOOHT-IRON FIS

Fig. 864.

FIREPROOF FLOORS.

459

Tins hardens almost imme-

forced up between the joists and the tie-rods,
diately, and upon the re-
moval of the platform the
ceiling may be finished with
the usual coat of fine plaster.
Wooden joists m m, m ?, fig.
863, are laid over the gird-
ers, and above these the
flooring is laid in the usual
way.

1633. Another method is
shown in fig. 865, where a a
are the iron joists as before ;
between these, square bars
b, d d, e e e are placed, the
ends of which are turned up
and rest on the lower flange,
as at c c. The length of the
elbow or bend of the bars, as

d d, is .such as to bring its termination immediately beneath the upper web
of the joist. Three cross-bars b placed at intervals of 1 foot each, as shown at
e e e in the plan, and are held upright by the plaster which forms the ceiling.

1634. Systems de Mausne. In this
system the iron joists are employed as
before the distance between them being
2 feet from centre to centre, but the tie-
rods a a, fig. 866, are carried by wrought-
iron clips b b passed over the iron joists
c c. In the left figure a side elevation
is given : d the clip, e the tie-rod, // the
joists. The inventor of this system pub-
lished some time ago a list of dimen-
sions and prices, of which the following is a translation, given in a paper read
before the Royal Institute of British Architects :

BEARINGS.

Depth of
Joist in
inches.

Depth of
Floor in
complete
inches.

Weight per
square in
pounds.

Iron -work per

square.

Including Grout-
ing (12s.) per
square.

Ft In Ft In

s. cl.

s d

10 to 11 6

71
' a

370

2 19 5

3 11 5

11 6 13

420

365

3 18 5

13 13 6

465

3 14 4

464

16 6 20

510

419

4 13 9

20 23

101

605

4 17 6

596

23 26

11*

700

5 12 4

644

1635. Lore's System of Fer Tubulaire. This system is described in Captain
Fowler's Report on Civil Construction (Paris Exhibition), to which we are in-
debted for the following materials. The/er tubulaire, or hollow girder, is of the
form shown at a a, fig. 867 the top b being flat, and having flanges c c. The gir-
ders are placed at a distance of 2 feet 8 inches from centre to centre, and are
tied together at intervals of 3 feet by flat iron bars d, riveted to the flanges c c.

460

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

LCR*'B SYSTEM

!BEPHOOF FX.OORIKG SCALi'

TO THE FOOT.

The floor is formed of flat arches of hollow bricks e e, springing from the sides
of the girders. The joists //are notched into the upper part of the girders b 6,
while the flooring-boards g g are laid in the ordinary method.

1636. For a bearing of 20 feet the dimensions are as follows : The height
of girder from i to A, fig. 867, is 4f inches, width at top k 2J inches, at bottom

I 4 inches ; breadth of flange m f
inch. The thickness of the sides
n n -fu inch, of top k and flanges m m
jV inch. The width of the flat tie-
bars d is f inch, their thickness
jjj inch.

1637. Girders of this section are
said to possess the following ad-
vantages over those used in figs.
863, 865, and 866 " first, with
equal weights they give a strength
or resistance nearly double, as
ascertained by the following ex-
periment : A girder of this form,
20 feet in length, 4f inches in depth, and weighing 9.5 Ib. to the foot, deflected
2.34 inches with a load on its centre of 3 tons. A girder of the I form, 20 feet
long, 8^ inches in depth, and weighing 16.9 Ib. to the foot, deflected 2.49
inches with the same weight. Again, on the score of economy, a floor of 20
feet square, calculated to bear a weight of 200 Ib. on the square foot, ex-
clusive of the cost of flooring, costs in Paris 9, 6s. lOd. per square, includ-
ing everything, when executed with the I rolled iron girder ; and a floor
similar in all respects, but having the girder fer tubulaire substituted for
the I, costs but 7, 9s. 5d. per square. Another great advantage that this
form of joist over that in ordinary use in Paris has, is that it does not require
any strutting ; while the I girder requires lateral pressure to such an extent
that it is said not to be employed to the best advantage unless absolutely filled
in either with hollow brick arches or plaster, more than one-half of its strength
being dependent on its lateral rigidity."

1638. With reference to the utility of the Parisian methods of constructing
fireproof flooring, Mr Fairbairn no better authority in describing a method in
which the I girders are used, as in fig. 866, with the hollow brick arches, as in
fig. 867, says, " This description of building is in general use in Paris and other
towns of France, and viewing it as a 'permanent fireproof structure, 1 should
earnestly recommend its adoption in this country."

1639. In fig. 868 we
give a system of fire-
proof flooring patented
by Mr C. Cheyne, C. E.,
of 34 Great George
Street, Westminster,
London, in which mal-
leable iron corrugated
plates are used in con-
junction with iron beams
and concrete filling in.

OOR SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. it IT!' C, f O ' i '

" Fig. 868 is a section
of a floor parallel with the joists, and transverse section of same. The

Fig. 868.

CHZYNE'S CORBOG

I IKOK FIREPF

FIREPROOF FLOORS.

461

joists a a, a a are of rolled iron, the proportions of which are calculated, and
depend upon the strength and area of floor to be supported. In tins figure
they are represented 4^ inches deep and spaced 2 feet 6 inches apart, and
are calculated for a floor with 15 feet bearing, and having a load of 50 Ib.
per foot superficial. Plates of corrugated iron b rest on the bottom
flange of girders, to which they are riveted ; these sheets may be either flat
when the floor is light, or cambered if additional stiffness is required in either
case. The sheet-iron would cover the entire ceiling, through which it would
be impossible for flames to pass. Concrete c c would be filled in above the
sheets, and the floor would be either boarded or laid with cement according
to the purpose for which it was intended. If the under side is to be ceiled, the
inventor uses a wirecloth stretched from joist to joist, and plaster is laid on
that in the ordinary way."

1640. Stinnett's Fireproof System of Floors and Roofs. In this system hollow
or cellular bricks are employed in conjunction with iron tie-rods. The bricks
lock into each other on all sides, and are laid to break joint. Each brick
receives the support of six adjoining ones. A cross section of a brick is
shown in fig. 869, and in fig. 870 a longitudinal section. The ends of the arch

Fig. 870.

formed of the bricks are bedded, in the direction of the thrust, in strong angle-
irons, as seen in fig. 871. These angle-irons are kept in their places by ten-
sion-rods passing through the bricks, as in fig. 871, or under them, as in fig. 872.
Floors of wood, cement, or tiles may be laid on the arches.

Fig. 871.

Fig. 872.

1641. SECTION FOURTH Iron combined with Wood, Slate, or Zinc.

1642. Roof Covering of Wood. In fig. 873 we illustrate the method of fixing
the wood purlin a to the rafter b b angle-irons c c being riveted to the upper
flange of rafter, and spiked to the purlins ; d d the wood planking.

462

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1643. A satisfactory mode of covering an iron roof is to place wooden board-
ing on the flanges of the rafters, and on these boards laying sheets of galvan-
ised iron. This affords a roof which maintains a uniform temperature in the
building.

1644. Roofs with Slate Covering. Where slates are used as the roof covering,
they are placed in wrought-iron angle-laths, as a 6, fig. 874, these being riveted

Fig. 874.

FIX1NO OF SI-ATES WITH IRON ROOF SCAL

JUNCTION OT WOODEN PORI.IN8 WITH IRON
RAFTERS SCALE IN FIG. 657.

to the upper flanges c d of the rafters. These laths are placed at such distances
as to give two to the width of each slate. The slates e e e are secured by copper
nails, these being clipped over the laths and laid on their lower flanges.

1645. When queen's slate, 27 inches wide, is used in conjunction with iron
laths, the size of the laths, when the rafters are placed 5 feet apart, and the
laths 12 inches distant from each other, is as follows : Length of each side of
the angle-iron 1 J- inch ; thickness, " number eight" wire gauge. For princesses
and duchess slate, 24 inches wide, the length will be l| inch, and thickness,
" number nine" wire gauge the distance between each lath being 10 J inches.
Where countess slate is used, 20 inches wide, the size of each side of the lath
the distance between each being 8^ inches is the same as the last case.

The weight per square of 100 feet su-
perficial of laths, 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 25 Ib. ; of
corrugated iron, 3 cwt ; of queen's slates,
7 cwt. 2 qrs. ; of zinc, 22 ounces to the
square foot, 147 Ib. Plain sheet-iron,
number twenty gauge, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 18 Ib. ;
1^-inch boarding, 4 cwt. 1 qr. 24 Ib.

1646. Roofs with Zinc Covering. In
figs. 875 to 885 we illustrate the me-
thods of fitting up zinc-covered roofs, a
species of covering well adapted to sheds
and other agricultural buildings. The
system we have illustrated is that re-
commended by the " Veille Montagne
Company " (12 Manchester Buildings,
Westminster Bridge, London), so well
known for the improvements they have introduced in the manufacture and uses
of zinc for constructive and decorative purposes.

JOISINO KiFTEK3 OF TRUSS

INC COVERING.

ZINC HOOFING.

463

1647. In fig. 875 we illustrate tlio method of joining the rafters of the truss
in fig. 876, adapted for sheds, CY.C. : a a, a a, fig. 875, are the rafters, butting
against and bolted by h h to the ridge-pole c c of wood or iron -bin binding
piece, the same breadth as the rafters, bolted to them by the bolts and nuts as
shown at b I ; d d shows the position of the eyes to which the upper ends of
the bolts d e, fig. 876, are connected.

1648. In fig. 877 we give the plate used for connecting the ends of the two
tie-bolts and the strut which meet at points, as /and </, fig. 876 : a b, fig. 877,
is the plate ; c e the bolt-holes for the tie-bolts ; d the bolt-hole for the strut.
A section is at/ ^7, the bolt-holes at h i j.

1649. In fig. 878 we give views of the termination of the struts and tie-bolts,
where they are jointed to the plate a b in fig. 877 : a 6, fig. 878, is a side view,
dc a front. The plate a b, fig. 877, is inserted in the part d, fig. 878, and
secured by bolts and nuts. The upper termination of the bolts d and e, fig.
876, are jointed in the same manner to the eyes d d shown by the dotted lines
in fig. 875.

1650. Fig. 879 illustrates the method of riveting the struts to the rafters :
a the section of the rafter, b d c the projecting snag, riveted by the rivets e e
at right angles to the line of rafters ; g g is a side view of the rafter, h h rivets,
of the snag/, with bolt-hole i ; a plan is shown at k k, the under side of rafter ;
I the snag, m n the rivet-holes. The ends of the struts, of same diameter as
the tie-bolts, are jointed in the manner illustrated in fig. 878.

TIE-BOLTS.

1651. In fig. 880, at a a we give a section of the wrought-iron rafter used,
with a method of attaching the sheets of zinc which forms the roof coverin"-.
The ends of the sheets b b are turned up at right angles, and laid against
the sides of the rafter ; a " cap " c c, goes over these, and is secured by the pin
d. It will be observed that the joining of the sheets of zinc will be waterproof,
as well as admitting of "free expansion." This system of " free expansion " is

464

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

illustrated in fig. 875, where g g are the sheets of zinc covering the roof, e e
the cap, secured by the pin /.

1652. The system is also illustrated in fig. 881, showing the method of mak-
ing the termination of the sheets along the length of the roof. The following

Fig. 881.

VKOUOHT-IRON RAFTEH

E1XINO SHEETS OF ZtNO TO WOODHOIXS

are the directions for fixing the sheets with wood rolls, as a, fig. 881 : If there
is a gutter provided, it should be fixed first, made of the full length of the
sheets the ends to be well soldered together ; one side of the gutter to cover
about 3 inches of the slope of the roof, the other side to be brought down
against the wall-plate, and bent up to any desired size and shape, as at c c.
On roofs where there is no gutter, the workman begins by nailing on the lower
edge of the roof a stout band of zinc, called a " welt," projecting about 1 inch.
The gutter in the one case being fixed as before described, and the welt in the
other where there is no gutter, the work proceeds as follows : The wooden
" rolls " a, fig. 881, are nailed to the wooden boards of the roof, at equal dis-
tances from each other. When 32-inch sheets of zinc are used, the distance
between the " rolls " should be 29 inches, and so on ; " double clasps " b b,
are fixed beneath the " rolls." The sides of the sheets of zinc covering the
slope of the roof are bent upwards at c c, and rest against the side of the
"double clasps" b b. The lower end of each sheet is carried down into
the gutter, or passed under the welt, thus preventing the rain from passing
between the sheets of zinc and the boarding. After the sheets are thus
fixed, the upper end of the double clasps b b are bent over the ends of the

sheets c c, thus making a water-tight and ex-
pansive joint. The method of joining the sheets
in the direction of the breadth of the roof that
is, from the wall-plate to the ridge is illus-
trated in figs. 882, 883. Let a a, fig. 882, re-
present the boarding, d d the first sheet laid
down as above described the upper edge of
this is bent as shown the lower edge of the
next succeeding sheet c being similarly bent
the two embracing each other freely, as shown
between d and c. To fix each sheet to the roof
independently of the others, and to allow ot
free expansion and contraction, the doubled-up
end of each sheet is kept by two clasps nailed
to the boarding, as 5, fig. 883. The spike rf,
or spike e, fig. 882, passes through a slot made in the clasp, which allows of
free expansion. The fixing of the " cap " d d, fig. 881, with the pin e, finishes
the operations. The caps should weigh 24 ounces to the square foot ; they

Fig. 882.

Fig. $83.

JOINING SHEETS OF ZTNC FRO
TO KI1)O.

COST OF ROOFS.

465

should be laid loosely on tlio roll, and cover the sides of the sheets at least 1
inch. The caps are fixed by galvanised screws, and finally soldered over to
prevent the admission of water. Where the fall or slope of the roof is less than
20 degrees, the ends of the sheets should be soldered together, instead of being
folded as described. The method illustrated is intended for wooden roofs,
where the zinc is laid on boarding in flat sheets. Where iron rafters are used,
corrugated zinc is adopted no boarding being required ; or flattened sheets
may be used, eacli sheet having a slight convexity or curve given to it,
which gives them sufficient strength to allow of walking over them. The foot
of each rafter a Z>, fig. 884, is expanded, and bolt or spike holes made in the
expanded parts c c, by which the rafter is nailed to the wall-plate.

1653. In fig. 885 we show the method of joining plates of corrugated zinc
together. A roof formed of this material is at once very strong and very light.

Fig. 884.

1654. We here give the relative costs of roofs of same size, covered with
slates and with zinc the trusses being composed in both cases of timber, the
zinc fixed on the system illustrated in figs. 881, 882, and 883 :

SLATE ROOF.

44 cubic feet of timber, at 3s., . . . . 6 12

589 square feet of rough boarding, at 3d., . . . 773

550 ,, ,, slating, countess, at 3d., . . 6176

284 7-lb. lead for gutters, at Is. 10d., . 26 8

91 4-lb. lead for the ridges, at Is., . . 4 11

51 8__5

ZfNC ROOF.

30 cubic feet of timber, at 3s., . . . . 4100

507 square feet of rough boarding, at 3d., . . . C 6 9

456 ,, 22-ounce zinc for the covering, at 6d., . 11 8

220 24-ounce for the gutters, at 6^d , . 5 19 2

28_3_11

These estimates do not include the cost of repairs. In this respect the zinc roof
has great advantages over the timber and slate roof.

2c;

466 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1655. Putting the cost of a zinc roof with iron rafters and curved flattened
sheet-zinc at 25, 7s., the cost of a timber and slate roof would be 58, 17s. lid.
Stating the cost of a zinc roof with iron rafters and corrugated zinc as in fig.
885 at 4, 3s. 6d., the cost of the same extent of slate and timber would be 10.

DIVISION FOURTH MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES.

SUBDIVISION FIRST Fittings of the Workshop.

1656. SECTION FIRST Tools of the Joiner. The distinction between the two
operations of Carpentry and Joinery may be simply stated. In carpentry, the
framing and erecting of heavy timbers for the purposes of floors, roofs, partitions,
&c., is the principal business ; in joinery, the making and fitting up of external
and internal furnishings as door-cases, doors, windows, window-frames, &c.
are the operations to be performed. In both, however, there are many common
operations, which differ only in the fact that, for the purposes of joinery, they
may be on a smaller scale than when required for those of carpentry. In
general, all timbers used for carpentry are left rough as they come from the
operation of the saw or the axe ; while in joinery, all exterior surfaces are made
smooth and uniform by appropriate instruments. The tools required for the
simple operations of joinery to be carried out on a farm-steading, may be
enumerated as follows : the " ripping-saw," for cutting up heavy planks the
teeth in this are 96 to the foot, or 16 to the two inches ; the " hand-saw," for
ordinary work, 45 teeth to the foot; the " sash-saw," for cutting fine work,
with a brass back it has 156 teeth to the foot. For cutting dovetails, a small
saw, having 180 teeth to the foot, is used. Tenons may be cut out by means
of the " sash-saw." A long, thin, and narrow saw, termed a " key-hole saw,"
having no back, and useful for cutting out holes in wood : a size as follows will
be useful length 12 inches, breadth at point J inch or j^-ths, breadth at handle
f inch. The planes used in joinery are very numerous. The "jack-plane" is
used for taking the rough surface off the timber to be smoothed in surface. It
is used by taking off as much as can be taken in by one arm-stretch the work-
man beginning at the near side of the plank, and gradually taking off the rough
across the breadth of the plank. On a part of the plank within arm -reach be-
ing done, the workman moves farther along, until the whole surface is acted
upon. To bring this surface properly smooth and to a level, a larger and
heavier plane is used, termed the " trying-plane." Shavings are taken off with
this the whole length of the plank. To test the level of the surface, a straight-
edge (that is, a piece of wood about 18 inches long, \ inch thick, and 2 inches
broad, having one edge perfectly true and square) is laid across the face, and
the workman looks along the plank, where the straight-edge is lying on it : all
inequalities are then easily observed, and are to be reduced by the plane. As
the edges of the plane are generally accurately cut, the workman sometimes
tests the " truth " of the surface of the work by laying the edge of the under
side of the plane across the face of the plank. The "hand or smoothing plane "
is used for giving a final truth and smoothness to the work, and for finishing up
small work. It is used with both hands in some operations with only one in
others. It is much shorter than the two others, being about 7 inches the
length of jack-plane being 18, and that of the trying-plane 22 inches. For

TOOLS OF TFIE JOINER.

467

making varieties of mouldings, " moulding-planes " are used ; but as the opera-
tions are rather difficult, and not much required for ordinary work, we do not
here describe them. The farm workman should, however, provide himself with
a " rebate-plane " for forming rebates on the edges of planks, framing, &c. The
nature of a rebate we have already described. The " plough " for sinking a
u groove," and the plane for making the " tongue," are also required. Chisels
are numerous ; but the " paring-chisel," of various sizes, from ^ inch in breadth
to 1 inch, will be all that is necessary. The " mortise-chisel " will also be
necessary. " Gouges " are circular chisels, and are used for making hollows :
they are of various sizes. Small holes are made by " brad-awls " and " gimlets ; "
they are of various sizes. Circular holes, of larger diameter, are made by means
of a " brace " and " bit ; " the bits are of various sizes. Screwdrivers of various
sizes will be required ; as also "hammer," " pincers," or " pliers." To assist
the workman in marking off a line on a plank, parallel to the edge, and at any
distance required, an instrument termed the " gauge " is required. This may
be made by the workman, according to fig. 886. A piece of hard wood d d,
some 6 or 9 inches long, is provided,
and properly squared up ; at one
end, within ^ inch or so, a nail is
driven so as to project about | inch.
This is sharpened to a point. A
piece of wood, a a, lj inch square,
and 1 inch thick, is provided with
an aperture b, f square, having on
one side a small mortised hole c

cut in it, about ^ or broad and ELKVATION ANDSE0 . riONOFOAUQI ,_ SOAJE i IS;C1ITO THE INCH
deep. This piece a a is passed

over d d, as e, and can be secured at any part by means of a small wedge/,
passed into and driven up the mortised hole c. By means of a rule, the distance
between the point of the nail and face of e may be arranged as required ; and
by putting the face of e to the edge of plank, and drawing it along, the point of
the nail will draw a line on the face of the plank, at a distance from its edge,
corresponding to the distance of the nail from face of e. A " mortise-gauge "
will also be useful. This gauge has two " marking points," which can be set
at any distance apart, and used to give two parallel markings in the centre of
the edge of a board. When the rebate is made on each side of this central
place, the tenon will be formed.

1657. For the purpose of assisting the
joiner in his various operations, the
" bench " is an indispensable requisite.
This may be described as a species of framed
table, having a level top, and a side-board
perforated with holes, about 1 inch diameter,
as in fig. 887. It is provided with a wooden
closing-jaw and screw at one end, by which
the plank to be operated upon is firmly fas-
tened. Instead of a screw a wedge may be
used, as in fig. 888 : a a is the top of the
table or bench ; b c the part in which the
.wedge is placed ; d the wedge ; the board e >AU1 ; OF

(of which the upper edge is to be planed) is placed close to the side of the
bench, one end being secured by driving in the wedge d, the other end rest-

468

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

ing upon a pier /shown separately at g which is passed into one of the
holes made in the side of the bench. In fig. 887, which shows part of the side,
a is the part into which the wedge b is driven, tightening up the board c,
and which is further supported by the pin d.

1658. Tressels or Horses, for supporting planks while being sawn asunder,
are useful. In fig. 889 the board a a rests upon the two tressels b , a side
view of which is shown at c.

Fig. 888.

Fig. 889.

JOINER B TRESSELS OB HOE

' PART OF JOINER'S BENC

Fig. 890.

CLAW-HAMMER.

1659. Glaw-Hammer. The hammer used for driving and extracting nails is

illustrated in fig. 890.

1660. Grindstone.
In fig. 891 we illustrate
a convenient and cleanly
form of grindstone, the
framing a a of which is
of cast-iron. The stone
is covered with a casing
b b, leaving part only of
the stone exposed, as at
c. This arrangement
prevents the water from
being scattered about.
The revolution of the
stone is caused by the
action of the foot of the
operator on the pedal

dd, through the medium of the connecting-rod e acting on a crank. The form,

as here illustrated, is manufactured by Messrs Ibbotson Brothers & Company,

of Sheffield, tool-makers.

1661. SECTION SECOND Tools of the Mason. The tools of the mason may be
described as the mallet, the chisel, the trowel, the plumb-rule, and the square.
A few notes as to the more simple operations of the mason in which these tools
are used, may be found useful. The tools used are chisels, with the cutting
edges of various sizes, from about inch broad up to 2 inches. A "mallet" is
used for striking the chisels, of the form of a parallel section of the lowest por-
tion of a cone, with a short handle. Short, flat-faced, heavy hammers, with
short handles, are now much used by hewers, especially for hard stones. In
bringing a stone, say for a fire hearthstone, or the tread of a step, to a flat
surface, two chisel-draughts are made at one side and the end of the stone,
somewhat like what is termed in joinery a rebate. These rebates are made
perfectly flat, which is tested by placing a straight edge. Every part of the
stone should coincide with the under side of straight edge. A diagonal chisel-
draught is then made, connecting the ends of the side and end draughts pre-
viously made ; another diagonal draught is made, crossing the first diagonal,

TOOLS OF THE MASON.

469

Fi-r. 892.

and meeting the angle of the end and side draughts. All these being made as
near as possible of the same depth, on the spaces between the draughts being
blocked out, a comparatively flat surface is obtained. This is brought as flat
as required by the use of the square ; or the level of the surface may be tested
by using two straight edges of equal depth, thus : place one along an edge or
arris of the stone, and on the opposite one the other straight edge ; by looking
over the upper edge of the one straight edge, if the upper edge of the other
coincides, the surface is level.

1662. Masonry is built with the aid of scaffolding, supported by two sets of
standards, the system of putlogs not being admis-
sible as in brickwork. In fig. 892 the mason and
bricklayer's trowel is shown, 7 inches long in the
blade a ; 5 in the handle c- and 1 , \ inch return
at b. In fig. 893 the plumb-level is shown. This
is used to ascertain whether any surface, as a course
of brickwork or masonry, is level. It is laid on the surface, as a b
level, the plummet /
will not hang vertically
down in the opening e,
the cord by which it is
suspended from d not
coinciding with the line
drawn on the board
from the point of sus-
pension d at right an-
gles to the line of base
a b. The plummet
f will coincide with the
line d e on the board,
when the level rests on
the dotted base line a c.

The spirit-level is used for the same purpose as this instrument J
it need not be here described : suffice it to say, that when laid
on the wall, if level, the "air-bubble" will be exactly in the
centre. The plumb-line for adjusting vertical heights, as posts,
&c., is shown in fig. 894. It consists of a flat board ab, down the
centre of which a plummet d hangs ; the line drawn from c to d is
at right angles to the end 6, the sides being parallel to this line. 1 "
Suppose it is required to test whether an upright post e e of a " frame-house " is
vertical, the side of the plumb-line b is applied to the side of c e ; if it is verti-
cal, the cord by which the plummet d is suspended will coincide with the line
marked from c. An aperture should be made in the face of the board where the
plummet d hangs, the centre of which should be at the end of the line from c.

1663. SECTION THIRD Tools of the Smith. The appliances to aid the workman
in this department of the mechanical arts with which it will be necessary to be
provided, are the anvil, tilt or sledge hammer, hand hammer, a variety of swages,
&c., for making round bolts, and bellows or fanners. The construction and ar-
rangement of the forge is so well known that illustration of it is unnecessary. It
closely resembles the forge in fig. 898 ; with this difference, that a pair of bellows
are substituted for the fanner there shown. Portable forges in frames, with wheels,
are now much used, and can be had at a moderate price. Forges with fanners
in place of bellows will be found so efficient, that we here illustrate that mode

if it is not

Fig. 894.

[

d
}

470

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

of construction. In fig. 895 we give a side view of " concentric fan," drawn to
a scale of 2 inches to the foot. Two sides a a, e e are constructed of -inch
wood, or of sheet-iron, with holes rf, 2 or 3 inches diameter, to admit air to
the interior ; the extreme length of the sides is 18 inches, tapering to inch deep

Fig. 895.

at e e ; / shows the front of blowing aperture, the sides of which are kept apart
a distance of 2| inches, throughout their whole length. Across each opening
a piece of brass b b, f inch wide and thick, is fixed. In the centre of this,
corresponding with centre of circle d, a hole is bored to admit the spindle on
which the arms of revolving fan are fixed. On one end of the spindle a small
pulley, 1^-inch diameter, is fixed ; this is turned by means of a band n n passing
round the large pulley h. Fig. 896 is a view of the central spindle a : a boss,
or part longer in diameter, as 5, is forged upon the spindle ;
into this holes are bored, as c c c c, which are screwed with
a small " tap " (a set of which should be procured) ; into
these holes the arms or blades of the fan k, fig. 895, are
screwed, the end of blades being made circular, and screwed
with a " die " corresponding to the " tap," which is used
for the holes c, in fig. 896. In place of having the fans re-
volving concentric to the case, as in fig. 895, the fanners will be
more efficient, and a steadier blast kept up, if the blades revolve
eccentric to the case, as by a b c in fig. 897. In fig. 898 an arrangement of a forge

Fig. 8%.

DETAILS OF TANNERS

Fig. 897.

adapted for the use of the fanners is shown : the wheel for giving motion to the
fan is fixed on a frame /, at the back of the forge, on the top of which the fan
is placed. The large wheel is put in motion by a treddle g and connecting-rod A,

TOOLS OF THE SMITH.

471

as in the knife-grinder's wheel, the upper end of the connecting-rod being con-
nected with a pin inserted into the face of the wheel, at some distance from the
centre of its revolution : a is the body of the forge, of brickwork ; b the flat
flagstone in which the lire c is made ; d the iron hood placed over the fire, con-
ducting the smoke to the chimneys.

16(54. Apparatus fur Buring Holes in Metal Holes are bored in metal by a
simple contrivance known
as the "brace," delineated
in fig. 899. It is formed tl_
of iron, about 1 inch in
diameter the upper part a
being brought to a point,
which revolves in a small
hole punched in the under
side of a bar of iron b of
considerable length, one
end of which is inserted in
a hole in the wall above
the bench in which the
operation is conducted, an
assistant pressing on the
other end c. The drill d is

inserted in the square hole made in the lower part
of the drill at e ; a piece of thin sheet-iron / is
passed round the brace at the bend this, being-
loose, allows the brace to revolve within it, thus
saving the hand of the operator, and making the
turning easier. A small indentation is made in the
piece of metal g in which the hole is to be bored.
Instead of using the lever c, to give the pressure ,
on the brace and boring bit, the screw apparatus
illustrated in fig. 900 may be adopted with benefit. In this a a is the frame,
provided with a series of apertures in the upper part. The part b on which
the piece of iron c, to be operated upon, rests is made hollow, as shown in
plan at d. The screw e, which gives the pressure on the brace /, passes
through the eye g of the arm 7, the end i of which is provided with a slotted
head, which passes over the upper arm of frame a, and is maintained at any
desired height by a pin passing through the apertures in the head i and arm a.
A plan of the arm h is shown at k.

1665. Ratchet Braces. In places where the brace, as in the last illustration,
cannot be used, owing to the confined space in which it may be desired to
operate, and in which the brace has
only space enough to give a part re-
volution, the ratchet brace, fig. 901, is
used. The pressure is put on at the
point a by a shifting screw, as e in
fig. 900, or a lever, as c in fig. 899 ;
the boring tool is inserted in the part b.
The handle c is moved through a part
only of its revolution ; the click d,
engaging with the ratchet e, keeps turning the boring bit always in one direc-
tion. This is manufactured by Ibbotson & Co., Birmingham.

472

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

1666. Fends Ratchet Drilling Brace. In fig. 902 we give a plan a b and
section c d of the ratchet brace invented and manufactured by Joseph Fenn,
of Newgate Street, the well-known tool-maker. In this the catch-wheel e is

placed within the

Fig. 902. A b .,ar of iron a b ; a

slot is cut in the
lever to admit of
the sliding catch/.
The greater the
strain on the lever
the more closely
does the catch en-
gage with the catch-
wheel e, and which
is driven up by a

at the back. In this brace the catch-wheel e is the entire width of the
-thus rendering it fitter for heavy work.

1667. Boring Drills. In fig. 903 we give forms
of bits a b c. If the cutting edges, as at 5, are
made too acute, they are apt to break off; if made
obtuse, as at c, they will be stronger, although
they will not cut so quickly as in the more acute

sprng
lever

Fig. 903.

BORINO CHILL

form at b.

1668. Screw-Stocks. Screw-bolts are made by screw-stocks. Stocks for
small screws are shown in fig. 904 ; a shifting stock in fig. 905. Taps for
making screw-nuts are of various sizes.

Fig. 904.

Fig. 905.

JREW-STOC

Fig. 906.

Fig. 907.

1669. Keys or Spanners. In fig. 906 we illustrate various forms of keys

manufactured by Ib-
botson & Co., Birming-
ham : a b are keys to
embrace nuts of deter-
minate sizes. Keys,
or shifting spanners,
are shown at c d ; by
turning the handle e a
screw is operated upon,
by which the jaws f
are made to recede
from, or approach to,
each other, as desired.

1670. Riveting Hammer. A small riveting hammer is illustrated in fig. 907.

1671. Portable Vice. In fig. 908 we illustrate White's portable vice, manu-
factured by Ibbotson & Co. In this the faces of the jaws a, however far apart,

VARIOUS FORMS OF SPANNERS OF SCREW-KEYS.

RIVETINa HAMMER.

MACHINES FOR WORKSHOP.

473

are always parallel to each other ; thus at all points insuring a secure hold of
the article operated upon.

1G72. Lifting Screw-Jack. In fig. 909 we illustrate a lifting-jack manufac-
tured by Dunn of Manchester. By turning the handle a b the mitre or bevel
wheels c d act upon the vertical screw e, on the cap of which the article to be
raised rests. In fig. 910 we illustrate Hallcy's patent lifting-jack, manufactured
by Ibbotson & Co.

1673. SECTION FOURTH Machines for the Workshop Vertical Saiu Frame
for Cutting Balks or Trees into Planks. As an apparatus of this kind may

be economically used on a large estate, where homo timber is extensively
obtained, we deem it right to give an illustration of it. We are indebted
for this to the manufacturers, Messrs Wm. Dray & Co., of London Bridge,
London. In Plate XIX. we give, in fig. 1 an end, and in fig. 2 a side, eleva-
tion of the machine. In fig. 1 the vertical saws a a, which operate upon the
balk or tree , are fixed in the upper and lower frames c c, which have a ver-
tical up-and-down motion given to them by tlie connecting-rod c/, to which
motion is imparted by the crank e, fitted to the horizontal shaft/, receiving motion
from the steam-engine, or other prime mover, through the medium of the fast
and loose pulleys g. The fly-wheel h is fixed on the shaft to equalise the
motion. The shaft revolves in the pedestal i i, fixed to the brick foundation k
k ; 1 1 the uprights or standards, in which the frames c c, supporting the saws a
a, slide up and down. Motion is given to the tree in m, fig. 2, so as to keep it
up to the action of the saws in manner following : The tree m m is secured to
the travelling frame n n by the set screws o o. To the under side of the frame
n n a rack p p is fixed; with, this engages a -small pinion, receiving motion
through the medium of the ratchet wheel r, fig. 1. This receives a rotatory
motion in alternate or intermediate movements by means of a click or pawl
taking into the teeth of the ratchet wheel, and which pawl receives an up-and-
down motion through the lever s and eccentric /.

1674. Iron Bench Circular Saw, In Plate XX. we give various views of a
circular saw frame, to scale, as manufactured by Messrs E. K. & F. Turner of

474

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

PERSPECTIVE VIEW Of TURNER'S IRON BENCH FOB

Fig. 912.

Ipswich. In fig. 1 is an elevation ; fig. 2 a plan ; fig. 3 part section, through
line 1, 2, fig. 2 ; and fig. 4 s'ection, through line 3, 4 in fig. 2. The circu-
lar saw a a, figs. 1 and 2, is 27 inches diameter, and is calculated to cut up
timber into planks 10 inches in depth. The spindle 6, fig. 2, is fitted with

fast and loose pulleys cd; and
the termination e is fitted to
receive a boring bit/, fig. 3,
which may be used for boring
holes in timber. The timber
to be cut is placed upon
the table g, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4,
which can, by means of a
screw A, fig. 4, be moved
laterally parallel to the saw,
so the thickness of cut can
be easily adjusted, and to the
greatest nicety. The timber
to be cut is kept up to the ac-
tion of the saw by the atten-
dant ; its motion lengthways on the table being facilitated by the friction
rollers i i, figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 911 gives a perspective view of this saw mounted
on its iron bench.

1675. Endless Band Saw. In fig. 912 we give a perspective view of the

"Endless Band Saw,"
as manufactured by
Messrs Barrett, Exall,
& Andrews, of Read-
ing, and in Plate XXI.
figures to scale of
the same, of which
fig. 1 is side, and fig.
2 end, elevation of
which the upper part
is in section, as shown
by the cross lines. The
saw consists of an end-
less band of thin flex-
ible steel a a, a a,
on one side of which
a continuous row of
teeth is cut. This
is stretched over two
pulleys b b, b b, of
equal diameter, and
placed in the same
line with each other.
The lower pulley is
keyed on to the shaft
c, fig. 2, and which is
put in motion by the
prime mover through
the medium of the fast and loose pulleys d and e. The band saw is kept in a
state of uniform tension and in the same light line through the medium of the

: :;. LMt -. g

W FRAME IK PZRSPE

MACHINES FOR WORKSHOP.

475

clip/, lever g, and weight Ji, fig 1 . 1. The saw passes up a slit made in the
table i i, i ?', on which the wood to be cut is placed. Such is the accuracy and
precision of operation of this apparatus that timber can be cut into any form
or curved outline. For small work it is invaluable.

1676. Mortising, Tenoning, and Burinrj Machine.. In fig. 913 we give an
illustration of this machine, manufactured by Messrs Powis, James, & Co., of
26 Watling Street, London. AVheu used for mortising, the handle a, with
balance weight &, is Fi ,,. ,, r ,

worked up and down ;
this gives a vertical
motion to the spindle
c, on the lower part
of which the cutting-
tool d is fixed. The
timber in which the
mortise is to be cut
is placed on the table
e, which receives the
requisite lateral mo-
tion to keep it up to
the tool through the
medium of the rat-
chet wheel and pawl
/, receiving motion
from the alternate
movement of the
lever a b, through the
rod g. When used
for boring, the handle
h is used to give mo-
tion to the bevel gear-
ing i i. The boring
bit is kept to its work
by the pressure of
the lever a b. The
table e is adjusted,
when the machine is
used for tenoning, by
the screws having
lever wheels k in front of the machine.

1677. Machine for making Macphersoris Portable Sheep-Fence. The machine,
fig. 914, consists of a wooden frame 2 feet 11 inches high, and 3 feet 8
inches wide, standing on the ground, with a driving spindle a supported on the
top near the back, carrying four bevel wheels 6 inches diameter, which give
motion to four pinions of 3 inches diameter, mounted on four spindles lying
longitudinally above the frame, 11 inches apart, and supported in plummer-blocks
fixed to cross-rails b and c. On the overhanging end of each of these spin-
dles, towards the front of the machine, are placed four bobbins d d, formed of
wood with sheet-iron ends, with a light frame of wood and iron embracing both,
slipped on the spindle in front of the bobbins, and secured by nuts to a spring
behind them,, by which they may be tightened to any extent, and made to turn
on the spindle with more or less freedom. The bobbins are sufficiently large to
contain each about 120 yards of small tarred rope, the end of which is led over

47G

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 914.

OF MiCPHERSON'8 SHEE?-FENCE-i!AKINO MACHIS

a small pulley in the bobbin frame, and forward through its projecting arms,
which serve to twist the two strands together and form a rope. In front of the
bobbins is a wooden roller e extending the whole width of the machine, sup-
ported in sliding brackets attached to the upper rails of the frame, so as to be
set nearer to or farther from the bobbins as may be required ; the several ropes
as they are formed pass over this roller, and are strained by a weight or other-
wise to keep them at a regular degree of tension.

1678. In making the sheep-fence, bars of wood about 3 feet 6 inches long by
|^ inch square, are worked into the ropes as they are made, at distances of 4 to
5 inches, in the following manner : The two strands from each pair of bobbins
are tied together, forming, when drawn forward to the roller, an angular opening
or kind of bight between the strands; and through the four openings thus formed,
one of the wooden bars is inserted, and driven tightly into the angle of the cords
by means of a board/, attached to a light frame g, jointed at bottom to the frame
of the machine. The board has large openings cut in it opposite each set of
bobbins, to give room for each pair of cords to revolve. In action, this board is
similar to the reed of a weaver's loom, driving home the bar by means of the
lever Z, in the same way as the reed forces the warp into its place, and keeps the
bars always in their proper position, square with the lines of rope. When a bar
is thus inserted and held fast, the handle h of the driving spindle is turned three
or four times, causing the bobbins to revolve simultaneously six or eight times,
as may be required ; this fixes the bar in its place, and twists up 4 or 5 inches of
each of the four lines of rope, the bobbins being always stopped when the angle
of the cords is in a vertical position, to admit the next bar. To keep the wood
in its place, notches are cut in two opposite angles at the proper distances.

1679. The fence is made either entirely with long bars z, or with long and
short ones k alternately ; the short being 2 feet 7 inches long, and worked into
only three of the ropes. The kind of rope used is tarred hemp, and weighs,
when four ropes are used, 40 to 50 Ib. per 100 yards of fence.

1680. Galvanised iron wire has been tried instead of rope, and found to answer

MACHINES FOU WORKSHOP.

477

well, as it is not affected by changes in the atmosphere, like the rope. The
price of the fence is the same for both ; being, according to the kind of wood
employed, from 5^d. to 7|d.
per lineal yard, inclusive of
stakes and staples, ready for
putting up. The weight of
100 yards complete is about
5 cwt.

1681. Lathe. A turning-
lathe will be found of great
service in the farm workshop.
For the ordinary work of the
farm, a lathe of the usual simple
construction will be all that is
required that is, with the
single motion head-stock, with
no back motion, and the rest
adjusted by the screw. Some
of our readers may, however,
desire a more complicated ap-
paratus, fitted to do ornamental
as well as simple work. A lathe
of this kind, manufactured by
Joseph Fenn (tool manufac-
tory, 105, 106 Newgate Street, - >-
London), is illustrated in fig.
915 ; it is a complete appa-
ratus, with universal chuck
and screw slide-rest.

1682. Drilling or Boring Machine. In fig. 916 we illustrate a portable
boring machine for metal- work, which will be found of great utility, in con-
struction as well as in repairs. A breast boring apparatus or drill-stock is
illustrated in fig. 917. These are also manufactured by Mr Fenn.

Fig. 917.

HUK/iST noUING APPARATUS

478

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

SUBDIVISION SECOND Useful Apparatus and Erections.

1683. SECTION FIRST Portable Caldron and Furnace. In fig. 918 we give
elevation, and in fig. 919 section, of the American caldron and furnace, as manu-
factured by Messrs T. & C. Clark & Co., Shakespeare Foundry, Wolverhamp-
ton. By the use of an arched bottom 5, as shown in section a a, fig. 919, the
fuel is enabled to be raised above the lower portion of the water in the caldron ;
c the ash-pit, d cock. The inside of the caldron being lined with porcelain, all
liability to rust is prevented.

Fig. 918.

Fig. 919.

1684. Asphalt Caldron. In fig. 920 we illustrate this apparatus as manu-
factured by Woods, Suffolk Iron Works, Stowmarket. It will be found very

Fig. 920.

PBR8PSOT1V

l.T C4LDKO>

FIRE-ENGINE.

479

useful where an extensive surface of flooring in asphalt is to be carried
out.

1685. SECTION SECOND Fire-Enyine, or Liquid-Manure. Pump. Tn fig-. 921
we illustrate the form of double-barrel pump, as manufactured by Messrs
Guynne & Co., engineers, of Essex "Wharf, Strand, London. The valves are
easily got at. It may be used conveniently as a fire-engine, or a liquid-manure
pump for distributing liquid manure.

1686. Double- Action Pumps. In fig. 922 we illustrate the arrangement for
working, by a fixed steam - engine, the F . ir

double-action pumps, patented by Mr Hoi-
man, and manufactured by Messrs Fowler
& Co., Whitefriars Street, Fleet Street,
London. These pumps supply a continu-
ous stream, delivering both at the up and
the down stroke. " Mounted on stout cast-
iron baseplate and column, with spur-wheel
and pinion, intermediate shaft, plummer-
blocks, crank-pin, strap-head, slings, guide,
and driving-drum complete, ready at once
to connect strap from the fly-wheel shaft
of either a fixed or portable engine, or from
any convenient point of the main shaft.
These pumps, thus arranged, are adapted
for irrigation, fire-engine purposes, or for
pumping liquid manure. The advantages of
this arrangement consist in the facility with
which the pump can be fixed, merely re-
quiring to be securely bolted down, thus
saving much expense and annoyance, be-
sides loss of time in cutting a way for sup-
ports. It occupies very little space, the
supply is continuous, the whole is extremely
simple, and the working parts are readily
accessible. Where the speed of engine or

480

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Til. 923.

driving power does not exceed fifty revolutions per minute, the spur-gear may
be dispensed with, and the pump driven direct from a
drum. Speedy access is permitted to all the valves
simultaneously, by the removal of a single plate, which
can be detached with perfect facility. This sim-
ple arrangement renders it unnecessary to disconnect
any other portion of the pipes or gear the inconveni-
ence, expense, and loss of time arising from which, most
persons in the habit of using pump work are well ac-
quainted with. All the valves are out of the barrel,
which permits their areas to equal that of the piston,
and the water passages to be proportionately large."

1687. The arrangement here illustrated is obviously
applicable to the working of any ordinary force-pump.

1688. Farm Hand-Pump. For the extinguishing 01
fires, a supply of water may be kept in a cistern placed
at an elevated part of the steading, or it may be raised
on pillars of considerable altitude, placed near the centre
of the buildings. From this a supply of water may be
taken to any part of the building by means of hose. The
water may be supplied to the elevated cistern by means of
the steam-pump, as illustrated in fig. 922 ; or the " farm
hand-pump," illustrated in fig. 923, may be used for this
purpose. As a force-pump is, however, attached to this
arrangement, it is obviously capable of being used as a
means of forcing a supply of water to a distance through
flexible hose. In fig. 923 a a is the pump-well, b b the
suction-pipe leading to the platform c, to which is se-
cured the force-pump d ; e the air vessels ; ff the pump-
rod, worked by a crank in the axle or shaft of the fly-
wheel g, turned by the handle h. The frame i i for
supporting the fly-wheel shaft is bolted to the bed-plate
covering the mouth of the well. The water is forced
up the pipe k, k k from the air-vessel e to the elevated
cistern, or the end of the flexible hose may be attached
to k.

1689. Hydraulic Ram. The ingenious contrivance known as the "hydraulic

ram," may also be used to
force a supply of water to the
elevated cistern. It is simple
in original construction, has
no parts liable to get out of
order, and will work contin-
uously for years without
repairs after once being put
in operation, all that is re-
quired being a small stream
with a few feet of fall. The
machine depends for its ope-
ration on the momentum of
the falling stream, which, con-
fined in a pipe, is led to a

Fig. 924.

PUMPS.

481

chamber in which valves are placed, and which act as follows : In fig. 924, which
is a longitudinal section of a form manufactured by Messrs Gvvynne, of Essex
Wharf, Strand, London, a a is the supply -pipe, which leads the running stream
down to the chamber b 5, bolted to the bed-plate c c. A valve d d is provided to
the chamber b 5, and which has a tendency to fall from its seat so as to keep the
water-way open, till the stream, 11 owing through the pipe a a, acquires sufficient
momentum to close it. The velocity of the stream being thus checked, the water
raises the valve e, which moves the reverse way of the valve d d, and enters the
air-vessel//, from which it is finally passed by the pipe g g, which can be led to
any desired elevation above the level of the ram. On the water passing into the
air-chamber// it is pressed upon by the air in the upper part of the vessel, which
closes the valve e. The momentum of the flowing stream in the pipe a a and
vessel b b being thus exhausted, the valve d d falls, and allows the water to
escape from the vessel b b, through the valve opening, till the flowing stream
again acquires such momentum as to close the valve d d. When this happens,
the valve e is again opened, and a second quantity of water discharged into the
air-vessel// The action thus described goes on continually, resulting in a regu-
lar beating or pulsation
of the valves e and d d,
each rising and falling
alternately.

1690. A small porta-
ble fire-engine may be
kept in the workshop,
which will be useful in
cases of fire, and at other
times may be made avail-
able in cleaning out the
byres, &c. The form
of this is so well known
that it is needless here
to illustrate it.

1691. Carrett's Steam-
Pump. In fig. 925 we
give the side elevation
of steam-pump manufac-
tured by Messrs Carrett
& Co., of Leeds : The
cylinder a, supported on
two elegant side-frames
b c, is of the inverted
kind, and is provided
with stuffing-boxes at the
upper and lower covers ;
the piston-rod is passed
through both ends, one
of which is connected
with a cross-head work-
ing in the slotted up-
rights d, attached to the
upper end of the cylinder ;

to the ends of the cross-heads the side-levers e are connected, the lower ends of

2 ii

482 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

these embracing the fly- wheel crank-shaft; the other end of the piston-rod, pass-
ing through the lower cover of the cylinder, is connected with the pump-rod ; the
pump-rod and plunger /are connected together by two set-screws. These set-
screws have only to withstand the strain on the up stroke, the termination of the
pump-rod bearing on the bottom of the plunger, which is hollow, and down the
centre of which the pump-rod is passed. The reciprocatory motion of the piston-
rod produces the rotatory motion of the crank-shaft and fly-wheel by a horizontal
slotted slide g g, in the slot of which a brass block, containing the crank-pin,
slides backward and forward. The slide-valve of the cylinder is worked by the
side-rods A, fastened at one end to the cross-head of the slide-valve rod, and at
the other to the bell-crank lever i. This lever receives its motion from another
lever connected to a pin placed eccentrically in the face of the revolving disc or
plate &, fixed in the crank-shaft outside the framing. This also gives motion to
the connecting-rod and pump-plunger of the force-pump to supply the boiler with.
The steam delivery-pipe is at 7, the exhaust at m. The supply of steam is regu-
lated by a governor of peculiar construction, which consists of a ring of metal,
which, as it rapidly revolves, actuates a series of levers, and through them the
throttle- valve. The inlet-pipe to the pump is at n, the outlet is at o. By simply
disconnecting the pump, the engine can be used for any purpose required. From
the whole machinery being self-contained, it is easily moved from place to place,
requiring no foundation to be prepared for it ; the only labour requisite to put
it in working condition being the connection of the steam and pump pipes.

1692. An important feature of improvement in this pump consists in the
introduction of two accumulating reservoirs in connection with the influx and
efflux water-passages, and a peculiar modification in the construction of the
pump, these by their action producing a continuous stream of water throughout
the whole length of the suctional and delivery pipes. It is capable of fetching
or forcing water to any required distance and height, or depth not exceeding 25
or 30 feet, and at a considerable velocity. In this department of engineering
the great object has been to work a small pump at a great velocity, and with
effect. The water is not able to start and stop instantly in the suction and
outlet pipes ; the consequence is, that the ram is not followed by the water,
and a vacuum is formed beneath it ; on the ram coming down, it receives an
accelerated motion from the want of resistance coming down into the vacuum
and it strikes the water with considerable force. This rapidly wears out the
clacks, and in some instances the pump-bottom has been known to give way ;
the delivery of water, moreover, is very irregular, and the pump is generally
incapable of drawing the water more than a few feet far under the natural
limit of 30 feet. All these disadvantages are apparently obviated by the form
of steam-pump now under consideration.

1693. SECTION THIRD Cranes. A crane of simple construction, adapted for
quarries, &c., is shown in fig. 926. It consists of a stem of wood a, 14 feet long,
12 inches square ; a jib or projecting arm b i, formed of two pieces of wood, 15 feet
long, 10 inches deep, and 4 inches thick ; and a wooden strut c, 14 feet long, 10
inches square. The sides of the jib b b embrace both the stem a and the strut c,
and are securely bolted to them, and the bottom of the strut is notched into and
bolted to the stem. The crane is supported by, and allowed to revolve on, an iron
gudgeon d, fixed into the bottom of the stem, and resting in a hole in the rock,
and by another at top e working in iron straps bolted to wooden stays part of
one of which is shown at/ which reach to the floor of the quarry at an angle of
30 to 45, and either fixed by strong bat bolts to the rock, or loaded by a pile of
stones. There are generally two straps, which ought to be placed at right

CRANES.

483

angles to each other OH plan. The crab, or that portion through which the
lifting power is applied, consists of two cast-iron cheeks g, one on each side
of the stem, a blocking of k

wood about 6 inches thick ^
being interposed on each ''_
side to make the width be-
tween the cheeks about '2
feet, and allow sufficient
length of barrel to hold
the chain. At the back of
the stem a a spindle is
supported by the cheeks,
carrying at each end a
winch handle h, and out-
side one of the cheeks a
pinion 5 or 6 inches in dia-
meter, gearing into a wheel
about 3 feet in diameter on
another spindle in front of ''
the stem, which also carries

the chain-barrel, 6 or 7

i -i Ju
inches in diameter, with a ____.^ i /,,/.

flange 3 inches deep at each

end. The chain i i may

be | inch diameter, which is sufficient, if of proper quality, to bear a load of

2 tons ; it passes from the barrel upwards, and over a pulley k, supported on

brackets at the point of the jib, and is provided with a strong hook I at the

end, for attaching the load.

1694. Derrick Crane. A better form of crane is shown in fig. 927. The

stem a is of wood, 14 feet long, 12 inches square, mounted at bottom with a cast-
iron box Z>, having two jaws in front, and a gudgeon c in the centre underneath,

484

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

and at top with a gudgeon d, supported by straps, part of one of which is shown
at e, like /in fig. 926. A derrick /of wood, 22 feet long, 10 inches square, is
mounted with an iron shoe or socket at top <7, and another at h at bottom ; the
shoe at g carries a pulley, and the shoe at h is made to fit between the jaws of
the bottom box b of the stem a, and fastened thereto by a round bolt, forming
a joint. To support the derrick/, an iron rod i extends from the shackle, at its
upper extremity, to the top of the stem, where it is secured by a link and eyebolt
passing through the stem. If it be wanted to use the derrick at different eleva-
tions, to lift at different distances from the centre of the crane, a few large links of
chain are formed at the end of the stay -rod next the stem, to admit of its being
lengthened or shortened as may be required ; but as the alteration involves some
little trouble, this form of crane cannot be recommended where frequent change
of radius is necessary. The crab is somewhat similar to that of the crane in
fig. 926, but as it is calculated to lift a load of 4 tons, it requires a more com-
plex arrangement, and the introduction of what is called a double purchase.
The driving spindle carries two handles k k and one pinion Z, and is made to
slide endways when required, so that the pinion can work either into the large
wheel m of 36 inches diameter on the barrel spindle, or into a 24-inch wheel n
on the intermediate or second purchase spindle ; this last carries also a pinion
constantly in gear with the large wheel. When the pinion on the driving-
spindle acts directly on the large wheel, the crane is said to be worked with a

Fig. 928.

DRAT 8 PORTABLE CRAVE.

single purchase, and when through the intervention of the 24-inch wheel and its
pinion it has a double purchase, acting then with greatly increased power. A

GAS APPARATUS FOE FABMS.

485

ratchet-wheel o is fixed on the barrel spindle outside the bearing, with its pall
attached to the check for supporting the load when required to be suspended
for a time. The chain />, sufficient to lift 4 tons 1 , is J inch diameter ; it passes
from the barrel along the upper .side of the derrick and over the pulley at top;
it is supported, when slack, by two saddles or cross bars of wood fixed on the
derrick.

1695. Portable Crane. In fig. 928 we give a sketch of a portable crane as
manufactured by Messrs Dray & Co. of London, which requires no description.

1696. SECTION FOURTH Gas Apparatus Porters Gas Apparatus for Farm
Use. A cheap, easily-managed, and economically-worked gas-making apparatus
for farms and rural localities has long been a desideratum. A form of appar-
atus, manufactured by Mr T. B. Porter of Lincoln, which we have lately in-
spected, and of which report speaks very favourably, is, we think, likely in
many respects to meet this. We give in fig. 929 this compact apparatus, the
principal feature of which is the ease and economy with which the retorts are
worked that process which, in other arrangements, constitutes the most dis-
agreeable part of gas-making, but which, in the apparatus now under notice,
is effected with amazingly little trouble and inconvenience.

Fig. Oi9.

fee. '

PORTERS OAS AITARATOS FOR FARM USE

1697. The retort used, as seen in section at a, is not of uniform diameter
throughout its length, like the retorts usually employed, but gradually widens

486

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

from the front to the back. The back terminates at the top of a cylindrical ves-
sel b, at the foot of which a tank of water is provided; into this the coke is pushed,
in the manner hereafter to be described, where, by coming in contact with
the cold water, it is instantly cooled, and from which it can be removed at
pleasure. The front part of the retort is of uniform diameter for some dis-
tance, and contains an Archimedean screw, which is turned by a handle c,
placed on the end of the shaft, continued through the cover of the retort. Con-
nected with the upper part of this end of the retort is a vertical chamber d, the
aperture of which is closed by a tightly-fitting stopper, which can be removed
at pleasure. This chamber or hopper contains the charge of coal from which
the gas is to be produced. On the hopper being filled with coal, the stopper is
put tightly in ; and on turning the handle or wheel of the Archimedean screw,
the charge is gradually transferred from the hopper to the interior of the retort.
The charge thus delivered to the retort is allowed to remain exposed to the
action of the fire for about one hour. The hopper is then filled a second time,
and by means of the Archimedean screw the charge is transferred from it to the
retort the second charge pushing the first charge forward into the gradually
widening space of the retort. Another hour is suffered to expire, when a third
charge is supplied to the hopper, and transferred to the retort, pushing before
it the two former charges. The fourth charge, which is in like manner made,
pushes the first charge out of the wide end of the retort into the vertical cham-
ber bj and its water-tank. The coke thus formed is found to be a harder, denser,
and consequently more valuable kind than that resulting from the ordinary system
this arising, doubtless, from the compression to which it is subjected in being
forced into the retort by the screw. In consequence of there being no escape
of gas during the process of charging the retort a loss inevitable in the old
system the quantity of gas obtained by this apparatus is .greater than that
produced by the usual arrangements ; whilst another source of increased " make"
arises from the circumstance that the vapours evolved from the last charge in-
troduced must all pass along the highly-heated charge or charges which pre-
cede it, and along three-fourths of the heated retort. Much of the tar produced
in the old system is by this apparatus converted into gas. The purifying appa-
ratus is of extreme simplicity, the "hydraulic main," the "condenser," and " puri-
fier," all being contained in one vessel e, of very limited dimensions. The upper
part of the figure in elevation, shows the connection of the various parts part
only of the retaining wall/of the gasometer being shown. The cost of the gas

OF MESSRS BR1L1GKS AND AUBURT 8 OAS-MiKING AFPAKAJ t

ISOLATED COW-BYRE. 487

produced by this apparatus is stated to be -1s. Gd. per 1000 cubic feet, where a
thirty-light apparatus is used ; where a sixty-light apparatus is employed, the
cost will be reduced to 3s. per 1000 cubic feet, and as much coke will be pro-
duced as will keep the fire of the retort-furnace going.

1698. In fig. 930 we illustrate a form of compact "gas-making apparatus,"
manufactured by Messrs Bridges, Aubury, & Co., 84 Webber Ixovv, West-
minster Eoad, London.

1699. SECTION FIFTH Detached Erections.

1700. Isolated Cow-Byre. In fig. 931 we give the plan of a detached byre

or cow-house, showing the arrangements capable of accommodating forty-
eight cows in double stalls. By this arrangement the stalls of twenty-four
cows may be cleaned at one time, and the mangers of from twelve to twenty-
four replenished from the same passage : a the double stalls, b the stone troughs
or mangers, two of which are placed in each stall, 6 inches from the side, their
dimensions being 27 inches long, 16 wide, and 8 deep ; the upper edge of
the trough 18 inches above the floor ; g the gutters for receiving dung and
urine, 15 inches wide, in which is a grating h, communicating with a drain
leading to the liquid-manure tank ; i the footpaths, 4 feet wide, from the outer
door k to the stalls : by these paths the cows enter and leave the stalls, and the
dung and litter are removed from them. The cooler, containing the food from the
boil-house n, is drawn along the passage /; k the outer doors at the end of each
path i by which the cows of each division enter without disturbing those of the
others ; /the windows ; m the position of water-cock, from which to obtain a supply
of water for cleansing the mangers, paths, and gutters ; c the travis-boards, 2 feet
across the mangers, and 3 feet in front of the travis-posts, from which they
slope in a triangular form to the floor ; e is the boarding, 2-| feet high, along
the heads of the stalls, over which the food is handed to the manger ; the boil-
house n contains two boilers, heated alternately ; o the store for topped and

488

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

932.

tailed turnips : to keep the boil-house free from dust, the coals are kept in o, at
the space p ; r the hay-house, in which is also placed the hay-cutter. At the
other end of the byre is a large apartment, at one end of which q is used for
storing turnips, to be given raw to such of the cows as have not calved, and
are not in milk. At the other end of this apartment is the hay-house v, for the
hay given as ordinary fodder. At each side of the window s t may be placed
the linseed-crusher and oilcake-bruiser : an inside door u allows the turnips and
hay to be taken along the passage I. The stone troughs should be made deeper
at one end than the other, and a pipe inserted at the deepest end, by which to
withdraw the water this being stopped up with a plug or valve when re-
quired.

.1701. Isolated Dairy. In fig. 932 we give plan of an isolated or detached

dairy, in which
the accommoda-
tion is all on the
ground - floor
the floor being a
height equal to
four steps above
level of ground :
a the milk-house,
b the churn-room,
c the cheese-store,
d the scullery, e
the boiler-room, f
the fuel-store, g
store - room for
utensils, &c.

1702. In fig.
933 we give the
ground-plan of a
detached dairy,
with second sto-
rey : a the milk-
room, lighted to

the north by the " three-light " window 5, c false or dead window, d churn-
room, e scullery, /stairs to cheese-room <?, fig. 934.

PLAN OF ISOLATED DAIKr

Fig. 933.

Fig. 934.

PLAN OF tSOLATED DAIHY SCALE. ,'5 INCH TO THE FOOT.

PLAN Or DPPEB 8TORET IN ISOLATED
DAIB.Y SCALE IN FI3. 632.

SHEEP FEEDING-SHEDS. 49

1703. Sheep Feeding-Sheds. Of late years an opinion has prevailed among
some farmers, tliat sheep would feed foster and Letter in winter in sheds than
in the open fields. The opinion originated, no doubt, from the dictum of
Liebig, that the move the animal heat is preserved the more rapidly and
better will the animals themselves fatten. Accordingly, sheds of various de-
grees of cost have been erected near the steading for the accommodation of
sheep, and all the npfitting they received was generally a few turnip-troughs
within, and a fenced courtyard on the outside for the sheep to breathe the air
If there is any truth in Liebig's opinion, it was worth putting to the test of
experiment ; but a few years' trial has sufficed to determine many farmers not
to pursue the experiment farther. His opinion is that animal heat is pro-
duced and maintained by the carbon of the food undergoing combustion, by
means of the oxygen inhaled. This opinion is combated by some physiolo-
gists, and by none more strongly than Mr Lewes in his very interesting
work, the Physiology of Common Life, wherein he affirms and proves, by refer-
ence to facts and experiments, that animal heat arises from the action of
oxygen on the living tissues. " Food is warmth," he says, u because food
furnishes the pabulum of the tissues, and warmth is evolved in the chemical
changes which go forward in the formation and destruction of the tissues. If
anything is burnt, it is the tissues, not the food ; our warmth comes from the
organic processes which make and unmake the tissues." It is therefore ques-
tionable practice to confine within doors so warm-blooded and warmly-clothed
animals as sheep. In either view of the origin of animal heat, the more freely
fresh air is admitted to them, the more certainly should they preserve it.

1704. Any of the wooden and iron sheds we have described will answer the
purpose. If the sheep have liberty to go into a court, no subdivisions are re-
quired within the shed, but if they are desired to be confined within the shed
all winter, pens are required for confining them in. Suppose the shed is 18
feet in width, a row of pens of 7 feet in depth, on each side of a passage of 4
feet in width, will be a convenient arrangement. Wooden or iron hurdles of
7 feet will divide the pens, and ordinary wooden hurdles of 9 feet will form a
handy fence along their face, making each pen 7 feet by 9, which will contain
four or five sheep, according to their size. Each pen will require a trough for
cut turnips, and another for oilcake or corn, in front, and a rack for hay or
straw at the back. While thus confined, the earthen floor of the pens will
become wet and disagreeable, even with straw for litter, so that a sparred floor
of wood seems necessary when sheep are so confined, that their dung and
urine may pass from under them, and in such circumstances it is perhaps
better they should have no litter at all. Sheep being quick-breathing animals,
they require a large supply of air, so that their feeding-shed should be pro-
vided with many windows, and if these are kept shut at night, ventilators will
have to be placed on the roof. We have seen sheds for sheep fitted with pens
of cleaned spars of wood, nicely painted, sparred bottoms, elegant troughs, and
a wooden-floored passage between. Such erections, though neat, are costly.

1705. Turnip-Washing. A very convenient and ingenious mode of washing
turnips is adopted on the farm of St Colme, near Dunkeld, belonging to her
Grace the Duchess of Atholl. It consists of a dam of water, the issue of the
water from which is regulated by a set of sluices. A dam may be made on
purpose, or the water may be obtained from the thrashing-mill dam. Parallel
rows of built drains are made from the dam down an inclined plane towards
the steading the drains may be built of stone-and-lime, or of brick, or, better
still, of glazed pipes. The lower ends of all the drains converge towards an
iron grating of sufficient width to admit water through, but not a turnip, how-

490

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

ever small The iron grating is connected with a wooden trough, the lower
end of which is narrowed so as to allow one or two turnips to pass along at a
time, into the hopper of the turnip-slicing machine, which is driven by power.
The turnips, as topped and tailed from the field, are stored between the rows
of drains. These appliances are used in this way : The water is let on along the
drain nearest the store of turnips desired to be used. The turnips are supplied
by women from the store into the drain one by one, through openings in it,
which are protected by hatches when not used. The turnips running down
the inclined drain among the water, become thoroughly cleansed before they
reach the iron grating, over which they roll into the trough, and lastly into
the hopper of the slicer, while the water on leaving them falls through the grating
and is conveyed away by means of a drain. A more simple and perfect arrange-
ment for the purpose cannot be conceived, and deserves to be imitated.

1706. Turnip-Truck. In modern steadings railways are becoming common
for conveying the prepared food to the live stock in their respective apart-
ments. At her Grace the Duchess of AtholTs farm of St Colme is a simple
contrivance for making a truck on four wheels turn the corner of a railway
without the intervention of a turn-table. It consists of making the axle of the
fore-wheels of the truck turn on a pivot at its centre below the body of the
truck. On coming to the end of a line of rails, where their angles are rounded
off, the pivoted axle of the truck accommodates itself to the round, and guides
the truck quickly and easily into the adjoining line of rails. The truck returns
back in the same manner for a new load.

1707. Poultry-Houses. In fig. 935 we give the plan of a detached poultry-

house, of timber with brick base-
ment, which may be made of any
desired length, and divided into
departments for varieties of birds :
a steps up to floor, b space oc-
cupied by nests, d roosting-place,
c floor. In fig. 936 is the front
elevation, and in fig. 937 section;
in this, a the nests, b the roost-
ing-place.

PLAN OT PODLTRY-BOO

Fig. 937.

Fig. 936.

ELEVATION OP POULTRY-HOUSE SCALE IN K1O. 935.

CTIO2J OF PODLTKY-HOD8E SCALE IN FIO. 935.

1708. In fig. 938 we give a plan of an octagonal poultry-house, in which
the nests a a are placed one above another, while the central space within
these is covered by inclined roosting-poles b b ; a walk c goes entirely round
the building, d is the door, e e windows.

PIGEON-HOUSES.

491

1709. In fig. 939 we give plan of poultry-house : a the feeding-place, b b the
nests, c c roosting-poles, d middle door, e back, and /front door."

Fig. 939.

PLAN OF POULTRY-HOUSE SC

1710. Pigeon-Houses. In fig. 940 we give plan of detached pigeon-house, the
basement of which, up to level of floor, is built of brick, the upper part being of
timber : a a brick walls, b stair, c floor., d d line of nests. In fig. 941 we give
part section of the house, in which the brick walls a a are shown continued ; b
the flooring joist, c c d the nests. In fig. 942 we give an elevation of a detached
pigeon-house constructed of timber, the base a a being supported by the central
pillar b and struts c c ; d stair up to door e, // ventilating openings : the birds
gain access to the interior either by the holes in the cupola g, or at h.

492

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Pig. 942.

PART SECTION OF PIGEON-HOUSE SCALE, -J INCH TO THE FOOT.

ELEVATION OF DETACHED PIOKON-

HOUSE - SCALE, -fa INCH TO

THE FOOT.

Fig. 943.

FLAN Of RABBITRT.

Fig. 944.

1711. Babbitry. In fig. 943 we give plan of a rabbit-house : a a a a the

hutches for the does, with nest-boxes
attached, 3 feet long, 2 deep, and 14
inches high. The breeding-place should
be about 1 foot wide. Each hutch should
have a wire door to the front, and an
opening provided with a cover, secured
by a small catch at the back, from which
the manure is taken and the hutch cleaned
out. The floor of the hutch should have
a fall of 2 inches from front to back, and
formed of zinc ; this leads off the liquid
manure to the drain situated in the
passage between the rows of hutches.
b b are the hutches (having the par-
titions between them and those of the
does movable) for the young
rabbits ; c c c c are the
hutches for the stock bucks ;
e the entrance to the rab-
bitiy (another entrance is
made at the end of the pas-
sage) ; n n n n are boxes
made at each side of the
large windows, for holding
roots, hay, &c.

1712. Detached Piggeries.
In fig. 944 we give plan
of a detached piggery : a
the central apartment, in
which the food is prepared,
with cooking-boiler b ; c
food-store, d fuel-store, e e
feeding-pens, with troughs
/ /; 99 bedding - pens,

JTAN OF DETACHED FIOOERY SCALE, J INCH TO THE FOOT. k JOUHg plgs'-pCtt, I

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.

493

In fig. 945 we give the plan of another

Fig. 945.

The whole is lighted from the roof,
arrangement which can be ex-
tended to any desired length ;
the light in this is also obtained
from the roof : a the central dung-
ing and feeding passage, b the
pig-pens, with troughs c and
doors d.

1713. When brood-sows are
confined with their litters in
their sties, they sometimes
smother their young by lying
down upon them, whatever de-
gree of care they may bestow.
A simple contrivance prevents
such inadvertent losses, and it
merely consists in fixing a spar
of wood at a distance of 6 inches
or more from each of the three
walls of the sty, the fourth be-
ing occupied by the door, at
a height of 9 inches from the

ground. The spars prevent the sow lying down closer to the walls than they
are, and at the same time give the young pigs a protection by escape between
them and the wall.

1714. Detached Slaughter- House. In fig. 946 we give ground-plan of a detached
slaughter-house : a low-
er floor of pavement,

b stairs to upper floor,
c door, d d windows.
In fig. 947 we give plan
of upper floor : a trap-
door in wooden floor
through which the car-
casses are raised, by
rope - and - tackle, from
the ground-floor. In fig.
948 is vertical section
of the house : a is the
lower room, b the stairs,
c the trap-door in floor,
d block-and-tackle, e e
hooks for suspending
the carcasses of oxen
from, ff ventilating win-
dows. Carcasses of mut-
ton and pork are sus-
pended upon hooks fas-
tened in the walls of the
upper storey. Water is
an essential necessary
near a slaughter-house.

Fig. 043.

XJPPEK STORE?

SCALE IN FIO. 946.

494 PKACTICAL CONSTBUCTION.

1715. SECTION SrxTH Drying Machines Kilns.

1716. Grain-Drying Rooms and Machines. It is difficult to over-estimate the
importance of a method or methods by which the farmer can be enabled to
send his grain to market in good condition. Numerous calculations have
been made, more or less accurate in detail, yet all clearly showing the exist-
ence of a loss to the farming community of serious importance as well
as from the habit of storing up grain in sheaves in a damp condition. It
is quite obvious that a method or methods of increasing the bread-producing
powers or qualities of a wheat, as well as of its keeping qualities (so that it may
be easily stored without loss), must be of immense advantage to the farmer.
These desiderata are obtainable at a small outlay of time or money by artificial
drying. The advantages to be obtained from drying grain before being ground
are thus summed up by a practical miller : " It will yield much more flour per
bushel, and require about half the machinery to manufacture it, that it other-
wise does if not dried. The quality of the flour is improved at least 10 per
cent, as by drying the wheat all impurities of a vegetable nature are entirely
consumed ; and by extracting its natural moisture the flour will consume, when
baked, more water than it would before the grain was dried, which makes the
bread much more palatable, it being more spongy." Any process, therefore,
which enables the farmer to get the highest value for his crop, by preparing it
ready in the highest condition for the merchant or miller, must be advantage-
ous in a pecuniary point of view. Corn-drying, then, takes a wider range, and
is valuable to a more widely-extended class, than is generally supposed. A
few notes on some of the methods employed will therefore be of some utility.

1717. Corn-drying, as forming one of the many operations of agriculture, may
be divided into two branches- drying in the sheaf, and drying in the grain.

1718. Heat for the Warming of Buildings. But before giving our plans for the
construction of drying-houses for drying produce in the bulk, it will be neces-
sary to make a few remarks on the application of heat to the warming of build-
ings ; or rather upon the method of supplying currents of hot air to the interior
of apartments in which produce is placed to dry.

1719. Plans for the heating of buildings have often assumed a degree of com-
plexity and difficulty when applied alone, but become simple and easy when
attempted in connection with ventilation. Indeed, a writer on the subject
remarks, and with truth, that unless a building is well ventilated, no plan of
heating can be adopted with success. This is evident when we consider that
such plans depend for their efficiency upon the establishment of movements and
currents of air in the interior of the buildings in which they are placed. While
recommending the reader, unacquainted with the nature and phenomena of heat,
to study its interesting peculiarities, we will at once proceed to the more imme-
diate consideration of our subject.

1720. The plans hitherto in use for heating large spaces are as follows :
Hot furnaces, steam, and hot water. In the first, plates of metal, or masses of
brick and stone, or flues, are heated in and by a furnace, and the air to be sup-
plied to the interior is caused to impinge upon or pass through these, thus
imparting a degree of heat, which it is evident cannot be controlled or regulated
as required. Moreover, from the fact of the surfaces over which it is made to
pass being often overheated, the air is burnt or desiccated ; that is, deprived of
its inherent moisture, consequently causing it to have an unhealthy action on
the bodies of those subjected to its influence. Steam and hot water, as used
for the purpose of heating, are caused to pass through a congeries of pipes,
which heat the air surrounding them by a combination of the two modes by

HEATING OF BUILDINGS. 495

which heat is derived from heated bodies namely, radiation and contact.
Passing over the first mode mentioned, as not only being expensive in its
construction and operation^ but from its incapability of being controlled so as
to produce the degree of heat required, we will notice the peculiarities of these
two, steam and hot water, which, in the generality of cases, are now adopted.

1721. Steam is generated in a boiler, and sent through the range of pipes
arranged in number and situation as required, the water of condensation either
returning to the boiler, or led to a convenient place. The hot- water system is
divided into two classes, "low" and "high" temperature. The former consists
of a congeries of pipes communicating with a boiler or receptacle placed at a
lower level, to which the fire is applied : a receptacle is placed at the highest
part or extremity of the pipes, into which the waste water caused by the
expansion runs ; this is open, and consequently being exposed to the atmos-
pheric pressure, the water cannot attain to a higher temperature than that of
boiling water, 212. In the "high" temperature, the pipes are hermetically
sealed after the water is put in, space being allowed for the expansion ; and by
continuing the heat of the fire, a high degree of heat, far above 212, is attain-
able. The heat from steam or hot-water pipes may be applied in two ways :
either by placing a congeries of pipes in an apartment distinct from the building
to be heated, and causing the air to pass between these, and thereafter, in a
heated^ state, into the interior, through apertures in such cases provided ;
or by placing the pipes in the interior of the building, and connecting these
with a boiler situated in a distinct apartment, at or below the building to be
heated. Of the two methods we decidedly recommend the former. As to the
comparative methods of the two systems, we cannot find space to enter into a
long discussion ; but as the result of some experience, we would decidedly
recommend farmers to adopt the low temperature of hot water system. Steam
undoubtedly possesses the advantage of a ready means of preparing mashes
and boiling water in a very short time ; but to set against this, the steam often
not being readily raised when required, and from the time taken up in doing so,
to keep stearn apparatus in continual action involves a very considerable degree
of attention and outlay of fuel, while in that of the hot water a very small fire
will maintain a considerable degree of heat for any length of time. "As con-
trasted with steam heat," says a writer on the subject, "it may be remarked,
that the extreme simplicity of the hot-water apparatus, and its freedom from
those casualties which are incident to an accumulated temperature in steam,
renders it a desirable means for adoption in domestic economy ; for while, on
the one hand, heating by steam necessarily involves liability to accident from
the increased ratio of the force of vapour as compared with that of its sensible
heat, and which is frequently occasioned by the derangement either of the
feeding or the safety apparatus ; on the other hand, by the substitution of hot
water, this serious inconvenience is avoided, while the expenditure of the water
is in this latter mode no greater than the quantity lost from^ leakage ; or the
slight evaporation which can occur, is limited to the efl'ect of overfiring, by
which water may be driven out of the upper part of the pipes, or from the feed
cistern of the apparatus, into the channel provided for its escape, so as to
produce for a short interval a reduction in the temperature of the remaining
quantity, by the immediate influx of cold water from the source to supply the
deficiency thus occasioned." Fig. 949 illustrates the rationale of this process,
where a represents the boiler, b the feed cistern, c c the ascending or hot pipe,
d d the descending or supply pipe. The water from the feed cistern descends
the pipe d d, and fills the interior of the boiler a ; by the action of the fire, the

PRINCIPLE OF HOT-WATER SUPPLY.

496 PBACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

temperature of the water is raised, and, according to the laws which regulate
the motion of hot fluids, it flows up the pipe c c to the cistern b. A regular

and unintennitting descent of cold water

rig. 949. e (| down the pipe d, and hot water up the

pipe c c, as indicated by the arrows, goes on
until the temperature of the whole body of
water is the same. Properly speaking, this
scarcely ever happens, as a portion of the
heat is abstracted from the pipe c c by
radiation and contact : the motion may be
said to be continual so long as the fire is
maintained. The feed cistern b is sup-
plied with cold water by the pipe e, and a waste pipe / is provided to allow
any water of expansion to escape. As the pipes in this apparatus are
always open to the atmosphere, any steam or vapour generated can easily
escape. It will be evident that in this apparatus the heat can never exceed
that of boiling water, 212. If the feed cistern is at a considerable elevation
above the boiler, as the pressure in the water therein is greater than
ordinary, the boiling will vary in proportion to the height. Thus, in an
apparatus in which the boiler is 60 feet below the cistern or highest part of
the pipes, the boiling point is 270 instead of 212, and the mean temperature
of the circulating pipes will in such a case be 185. To obtain a supply of hot
water for the preparation of mashes, &c., a stop-crane may be attached to the
ascending pipe c at or near to the boiler ; and by shutting this, all circulation
through the pipe c will be stopped, consequently confining it to the pipe d
between the cistern and the boiler. To prevent loss of heat by abstraction
from the pipes, boiler, and cistern, all the parts of the pipes from which heat
for useful purposes is not to be taken, should be covered with a non-conducting
material : a covering of felt, well wrapped round with cord, will answer well.
The boiler should have an iron case fitted to the part exposed to the open air ;
and between the spaces charcoal or other non-conducting substance should be
placed. The cistern should be provided in the same manner with a case. We
have dwelt for some length in the description of this apparatus, as, by a cor-
rect apprehension of it, the reader will have no difficulty in understanding the
rationale of any low-temperature heating apparatus, however apparently com-
plicated in its arrangements ; nay, more, will be enabled to superintend the
construction of one, should he be required to do so ; and however apparatus
may vary in their arrangements, the principle which regulates the action, in all
cases, is the same. The cause of the circulation of the hot water in pipes is pro-
duced by the " unequal density of the fluid, arising from the difference of tem-
perature in the ascending and descending columns of water connected with the
heating reservoir ; and its velocity is governed by the height of the columns."

1722. Drying in the Sheaf or Bulk. In the construction of drying-houses
for grain in the sheaf, attention should be paid to two things : first, the nature
of the principles which regulate the drying process ; and, secondly, the mode
of arranging the substances to be acted upon, so as to present them in the
most favourable position to the action of the drying agent.

1723. All drying consists in applying such a degree of heat as will convert
the moisture contained in the substances to be operated upon into vapour, and
in taking advantage of the affinity that air has for moisture. This affinity is
increased by raising the temperature of the air, thereby producing an effect
equivalent to a diminution of atmospheric pressure, which very much facilitates

DEYING-HOUSE FOE SHEAVES.

497

the removal of the inherent moisture. Tt should be remembered, however, that
" though air has ail'mity for moisture, it can absorb it only in the state of
vapour; and, therefore, as much heat as will convert all the water in the goods
into vapour will still be required besides that necessary to heat the air the
action of the air's affinity being chiefly effectual in accelerating the process of
drying." Houses for drying- grain may be constructed, and in some small
measure made effectual, without adopting a heating apparatus ; but the agricul-
turist may rest assured that it will be most conducive to his interests, in con-
structing a drying-house, to adopt thereto a proper and well-arranged heating
apparatus. With it, he will find that in course of time the extra outlay will be
amply repaid, and his additional trouble fully compensated, by his independence
of external circumstances, such as dampness, calmness, &c., of the atmosphere.
1724. We conceive that the best mode of making the reader acquainted with
the construction of drying-houses, in a simple yet efficient manner, will be to ex-
plain figs. 950 and 951, which contain a section and plan, with heating apparatus,

SECTION OF A

the arrangements of which will of course differ in different localities. Fig. 950 is
a longitudinal vertical section of a drying-house :
a a the walls ; b b the ground in which the house
is built ; c c is a place excavated in the ground
in front of the house ; e the steps by which ac-
cess is gained to the floor of c c ; d the furnace
and boiler of the heating apparatus ; / the gang-
way up to the door g, stretching across the exca-
vation ; h h a false flooring, composed of small
beams, having between each an interval or space
of some 2 or 2 1 inches, through which the heat
ascends from the pipes k &, traversing the space
between the floor of the building and the beams
constituting the false floor ; I the feed cistern, as.
in fig. 949. Fig. 951 is a plan of the house, the=
same letters referring to it: k is the ascending
pipe, curved as seen, and should be supported and
kept clear of the ground by non-conducting sup-
ports say bricks; the curves should not be larger
than 2 inch radius, if many pipes are required ;.
the size of the curve will of course vary according;

2 i

498 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

to the size and convolutions of pipes ; this ascending pipe should be continued
to within 16 or 18 inches of the surface of the water in the cistern ; m n the
return pipe, which should be covered over with the non-conducting wrapper
previously mentioned. The supply of air to the interior, without which no
dependence can be placed on the operation of the drying-house, should be
ample and easily under control. And particular attention should be paid to
the due adjustment of the valves in the egress ventiducts placed at the
top of the house. As a corresponding quantity of fresh air should be ad-
mitted, the valves at the fresh-air ventiducts should be opened the same
degree with those of the exit ventiducts ; that is, when the exit ventiducts
are opened one-half, the fresh-air ventiduct valves should also be opened
one-half. The fresh-air ventiducts, in a case such as is represented in the
figures, would be made at the bottom of the wall near the ground, and of
that construction known as the " damper valve ; " the wire or rope of the
exit ventiduct valve should be attached to that of the fresh, and so adjusted
that when the fresh is opened one-half the exit may be the same, and so on in
the same proportion. The fresh air should be so admitted as to pass below the
hot-water pipes ; as a great velocity of air, through the materials to be dried,
will only have the effect of drying the exterior, while the dampness will still
remain in the interior. A slow rate of current, then, will be best ; say that the
whole body of the air in the room were removed twice in a minute, we think
this rate of speed would answer. Should this velocity be too great, by shutting
the valves it may be lessened ; and vice versa.

1725. The calculation for ascertaining the area or surface of the hot-water
pipe for any size of house is very simple, and of importance in heating houses.
The temperature at which it is proposed to maintain the house must be settled
on we should say 100 would be high enough ; and, as we mentioned, at the
rate of current which would be beneficial, the quantity to be heated every
minute will be twice the cubical contents of the house. Suppose the cubical
contents to be 800 feet, according to our data 1600 cubic feet will be required
to be heated per minute. To this is to be added the loss of heat from ventila-
tion, which will make the number of cubic feet to be heated per minute, in the
above-mentioned case, 3200, or four times the quantity contained in the room.
The mean temperature of the pipes, when the altitude of the feed cistern is 60
feet above the boiler, is 185. In the generality of cases, the boiling point will
rise one degree for every foot of height of difference between the cistern and
boiler. Suppose the mean temperature to be 140, the rule for ascertaining the
quantity of surface of pipe will be as follows : " Multiply the cubic feet per
minute of air to be heated to supply the ventilation and loss of heat, by the
difference between the temperature the house is to be kept at, and that of the
external air, in degrees of Fahrenheit; and divide the product by 2.1 times the
difference between 140 (the mean temperature of the pipes),'and the tempera-
ture of the house (supposed, in our case, to be 90), this quotient will give the
quantity of surface of cast-iron pipe that will be sufficient to maintain the
required temperature." The above is deduced from Tredgold's rule. What is
meant by the " difference between the temperature the room is to be kept at,
and that of the external air," will be seen by the following recommendation :
In calculating the sizes of pipes, the temperature of the external air that sup-
plies the ventilation, differs of course from that of the heated air supplied to
the interior. This forms an important feature in the calculation. The differ-
ence, then, between the two must be ascertained. The extreme case of cold
experienced during the day is, 30, and at night at zero. Tredgold is of opinion

DRYIXU-IIOUSE FOR SHEAVES. 409

that- the difference of tlio air in a stove or forcing-house will never be more than
50, and upon this founds the following- rule : " To the length of the stove in
feet, multiplied by half the greatest vertical height in length, add one and a
half times the whole area of ylaxs, and also eleven times the number of doors ;
the sum will be the number of cubic feet of air to be heated in a minute, from
the temperature of the external air to that of the stove ; which, being- used as
directed in our first rule, will give the quantity of surface of steam-pipe re-
quired." This rule will be found useful when windows are thought necessary
in a drying-house, as through these a vast deal of heat is lost. Windows
should generally be made double in such houses. Whenever a door is opened,
a great quantity of heat escapes. But we would recommend every door of a
drying-house to be made double ; this, if expensive, will ultimately be found to
be the most economical. In all the provisions for heating, as in ventilation, it
is better to err in excess than deficit. It will save in many instances time and
expense.

1726. The disposition of the matter to be dried is of some importance ;
this, of course, will be best arranged according to the locality or arrangements
of the house. Sections of wooden beams stretched across the breadth of the
house, should rest their ends on projecting brackets. If these are placed 24
inches or so apart, room sufficient will be given for the placing of the sheaves
of grain, putting up a few beams, and placing on them the sheaves to be dried.
The attendant will proceed till he gets to the last near the door. To insure a
current of air through every part of the house, the area of tubes required for
ventilation should be distributed pretty equally over the roof ; thus, if the roof
is twenty feet long, no less than three ventilators should be put up. To ascer-
tain the area of tube or tubes for carrying off the vapour raised by the drying
and the air through the ventilators, 1| square feet of aperture must be allowed
for every 270 feet of surface of steam-pipe. Thus, if there are 810 feet of pipe-
surface, the area of the ventilator tube will be 4| square feet. The area for the
admission of fresh air may be the same, if admitted by pipes ; but to prevent
a sudden influx of air, the area should be made nearly double that of the exit
ventiducts.

1727. In cases where there is a steam-engine erected in the steading, it may
be advisable to make arrangements by which the steam from the boiler might
be made available in supplying currents of heated air to the drying-room. In
this case the arrangements of the drying-room would be precisely as figured in
the illustrations just given, the pipes of course communicating directly with the
engine-boiler, and so set that a fall throughout their whole length shall be
given to them to enable the water of condensation to re-
turn easily to the cistern, from which the steam-engine
pumps the supply of the boiler. Where ranges of pipes
are carried along horizontally for some distance, its great
length induces such an amount of expansion that the
joints are rapidly loosened. This is to a certain extent
prevented, and the range allowed free motion during ex-
pansion, by being placed on rollers, as in fig. 952, where
a is the standard for supporting the roller &, c the
steam-pipe. When ranges of pipes are laid down for
" steaming purposes," the expansion drum-joint may be
xised with advantage. This is shown in fig. 953 : the
pipes a b are supplied with flanges c c, these being
attached to the sides of the copper drum d; this, being of thin metal, ad-

IR 3TEAM-ri!

500

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

EXPiNSIOM EKO1I-JOLNT.

Fig. 954.

VALVKD OtJKVID PIPE.

mils of a considerable degree of extension and contraction, in a line coinci-
dent with its breadth. Thus, on
the pipes expanding, the sides
of the drum are separated, as
shown by the exaggerated dot-
ted lines. A small aperture, fit-
ted with a screw-plug, should
be made at the lowest part of the
drum, to admit of the condensed
water being withdrawn. Where
pipes are laid horizontally, a
considerable degree of inclination should be given to them towards the boiler
throughout their length, so as to return the water of conden-
sation to the boiler. Where they are placed at a lower level,
as on the floor of a granary (for drying purposes), the pipes
may incline towards a small cistern placed at a lower level, or
towards a curved pipe, as fig. 954, the steam pressure forcing
the water up the pipe a b into the cistern c. A small valve is
placed at a, opening upwards to prevent the return of the
water in pipe b.

1728. In carrying steam-pipes underground from one
apartment to another, across a yard, &c., great care should be
taken to prevent the condensation of the steam in the range
of pipes. These, throughout their whole length, should be
carefully covered over with prepared felt, and placed in a
box, which should be well rammed up with non-conducting materials, as saw-
dust, ashes, &c., the box being laid in a trench lined with brick, and ce-
mented. All steam-pipes and boiler- surface exposed to the atmosphere should
be also carefully covered with the prepared felt; a great saving of fuel is in-
variably effected by adopting this plan.

1729. Drying of Sheaves in the Boiler -House. Where a steam-engine is erected
at the steading, this method of drying produce should not be neglected. The
most obvious way to take advantage of the heat arising from the surface of the
boiler, is to have the boiler-house carefully shut in by a door, and .the roof made
somewhat higher than in ordinary circumstances, to admit of a series of poles
being stretched across, one above the other, on which the corn to be dried is
placed. Ventilators should be fixed in the roof to carry off the vapour, and to
facilitate the drying process. The heating surface may be increased at will
by erecting over the boiler a congeries of pipes, into which the steam is allowed
to pass, the condensed water returning to the boiler.

1730. Hands' Patent Drying-Sheds. The great feature in Mr Hands' system
is the economisation of the heated air which passes and, in ordinary circum-
stances, wastefully away from brick-kilns, steam-engine furnaces, and the like.
The system was originally applied to brick-making, but it is applicable with
equal results to all drying processes. For instance, it has been carried out
with very striking success, in the drying of wood on the " Fibrous Slab Com-
pany's" premises. A principal feature in the drying-sheds is the above-ground
flues, as shown in the section of the drying-shed, as erected at the Fibrous Slab
Company's works at Staines, in fig. 955, another arrangement being shown in
fig. 956. The kilns which bake the bricks or plastic ware have no chimney ;
a horizontal conduit, which is bent down to pass through the drying-rooms,
takes the smoke and gas, still at a very high temperature, and carries it

HANDS' DEYING-SHEDS.

501

through the series of flues so as to maintain the temperature at a high
point 120 to loO. The vapour arising from the articles in the drying-

room is led off, not through ventilators placed in the roof, as usually is
the case, but through the flues themselves. To enable this to be done, each
flue is provided with apertures in the upper side, and these apertures fur-
nished with valves. The current through the pipes draws in, as it were,
the vapour which arises from the material to be dried ; the rate or velocity
of the ventilating current being regulated by the degree to which the valves in
the apertures in the flues are opened. The fresh air admitted to the interior of
the drying-shed takes the place of the moist air withdrawn from it ; and this, to
maintain the ventilating current, is not supplied in a cold state, but it first
passes through pipes placed in the upper part of the kiln, the drying-shed in
this way obtaining supplies of heated air only. The heated air from the kiln,
after passing through the flue a, fig. 956, in one direction of the shed, returns by

the other J, to the kiln ; so that, in point of fact, but one flue heats the shed.
On returning to the kiln, the current of heated air divides itself into two sepa-
rate currents ; and these, coming in contact with red-hot plates of iron, ignite,
giving out a great heat, and which, passing up the chimney, keeps up a strong
draught, the regulation of which divides the rate of passing current in the flues
in the drying-shed. The system, as before stated, is applicable to the econo-
misation of the waste heat of a steam-engine furnace. Indeed, the patentee
has carried it out in airing the waste heat of the steam-engine at Mr Payne's
brick-works, at Dippen Hall, near Farnham, Surrey to heat a shed 120 feet

502 PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

long and 30 wide ; the flues being 6 feet high, and about 12 inches wide. The
address of the patentee, Mr Johnson Hands, is 5 Holland Street, Blackfriars,
London.

1731. Drying of Grain. "We now come to the drying of corn after it has
been thrashed.

1732. Tile-Kiln Drying. The plan of drying most generally adopted is that
known as the " tile-kiln ; " in this the grain is placed upon tiles or iron plates
perforated with holes, a fire being maintained beneath at a distance below the
plates, varying from 8 to 10 or 12 feet. All the air passing through the chamber
in which the grain is placed, is forced to pass through the chamber below, in
which is situated the fire. This method is exceedingly defective, and admits of
no regulation, either of the rate of speed at which the drying progresses, or of the
amount of drying to which the grain s"hould be subjected. It is altogether a hap-
hazard process, which should be discarded, as highly wasteful in its operation.
To obviate the defects of this system, and to introduce a process more in keeping
with the regularity and precision of other operations, many inventors have
devoted their attention.

1733. Taking as the standard of perfection of corn-drying, " that every in-
dividual grain should have each portion of its surface subjected to the dry-
ing influence, and the process so under control that it can be regulated to
give the merest shade of surface-drying up to, and through all, the grada-
tions of scorching or burning," the difficulty of the problem to be solved may
be at once seen. A very cursory examination of the process involved in the
old plan of tile-kiln drying, as already described, will suffice to show how far
from the standard of perfection that plan is. The grain placed in a layer of
considerable thickness on the perforated tiles or iron plates, the steam evolved
from the lower grain rises upwards, and is partially condensed by the cooler
layers above ; a degree of moisture is imparted to them, thus bringing out, in
the case of a large percentage of the grain, the very condition to do away with
which is the work which the process has to perform. Here we have a series of
layers in all varieties of condition from overheating up to various degrees of
moisture. The amendment here required is some means of changing the rela-
tive condition of the layers, so as to bring each under the direct influence of
the heated plates ; hence arises the plan of shovelling and turning the grain
over. Apart from the loss occasioned by this clumsy process, it is inconvenient
to be performed, and very inefficient, so far as the attainment of the desired
end is concerned. The chances are all against the subjecting of each grain to
the drying process. Again, the apertures in the plates are apt to be filled up
with the particles of grain ; this is a fruitful source of inefficiency : even on the
supposition that the grain could be stirred up so as to present each portion to
the plates, the stoppage of the apertures prevents that current upwards of the
vapour evolved, without which all drying is inefficient. Again, from the gene-
ral want of ventilation of the chamber in which the grain is being dried, the
moisture from the mass is condensed on the walls or roof, and, trickling down,
accumulates on particular portions of the grain, thus again inducing the very
disease which the process is meant to cure. Still further, the amount of drying
cannot be regulated in this process with sufficient precision, inasmuch as, from
the method of firing usually adopted, the degree of heat cannot be controlled ;
hence the scorching of the lower layer of grain is frequently the result. Over-
burning impairs the quality of the grain materially, the gluten, the most nutri-
tious portion, being made less tough and elastic ; it being probable also, as Mr
Beck supposes, that the proportion of dextrine and glucose is increased at the

TILE-KILX DliYIXG FOB GEAIX. 503

expense of tlie starch : under those circumstances, a subsequent exposure to
moisture, and a slight elevation of temperature, establishes the lactic acid fer-
mentation, which, Mr Beck thinks, is the chief cause of the souring of the flour.

1734. To attain to the standard of perfection already pointed out, two things are
to be considered ; one of these is the regulation of the amount of heat or drying.
In some instances, placing the grain on surface's heated by steam is adopted : this,
doubtless, prevents an overheating, as the steam, under ordinary atmospheric
pressure, cannot get to a higher heat than 212, or that of boiling water. But
although placing the limit in one way so as to prevent the passing over of a
certain point, it does not enable the limit of drying, on the other side, to be
capable of adjustment ; that is, a less degree in the amount of drying cannot be
given. Possibly it may be found that steam heat is the best to be used under
all circumstances ; experience certainly points that way. But the substitution
of steam heat merely, for that of a fire, the grain being still allowed to lie in
layers one above another, does not yet bring the process up to our standard
the means of placing the surface of each individual grain in contact with the
Heating surface not being attainable, any more than in the old tile-kiln. Hence,
at this stage of progression in the improvement of corn-drying, the question
arises, Cannot some mechanical means be adopted of moving the grain over the
surface ?

1735. Numerous were the methods proposed to effect this desideratum, but
all were more or less unsuccessful, until the idea of adopting the " Archimedean
screw" struck some one, and evidently brought the process under control.
Doubtless many of our readers have witnessed the Archimedean screw in oper-
ation in open channels, conveying flour or meal from one place to another in a
mill. This screw, placed in a pipe or tube, the tube enclosed throughout its
length so as to receive furnace heat on its outer surface, was the plan adopted ;
the grain was put in at one end, and conveyed along it to the other by the
revolution of the screw, which was effected by obvious mechanical means. In
this process the grain was not allowed to remain in any one portion of the inte-
rior heated periphery of the tube or pipe, but passed unceasingly along until
delivered to the other end. Here the amount of heat imparted to it could obvi-
ously be regulated, by driving the screw quicker or slower, according as required,
thus allowing the grain to remain longer or shorter in the tube, and conse-
quently exposed to the heating surface in proportion to the velocity of revolu-
tion of the screw. Or, in place of modifying the speed of one screw, a number
of screws could be adopted, all revolving at a rate of speed determined on
according to the heat of the furnace, or other causes the grain on passing from
one tube going into another, and so on. Practical experience, however, of this
apparently efficient plan showed, what would have been obvious from a consid-
eration of the operation of the screw, that the grain was found to pass through
the tube in one mass ; that is, the portion which formed the layer next the tube
on entering was found to be in the same position on passing from the tube.
Such was the experience, we believe, of a machine fitted up by a Lancashire
engineer at one of our government depots. A glance at the flour-carrier in a mill
will show that no change takes place in the position of the layer. Here, then,
was an unceasing movement of the grain obtained, without involving the
required desideratum of subjecting each grain to the heating surface. The
only method available was to pass through each tube a very small quantity of
grain, so as to form a mere line, as it were, in the lowest portion of the tube.
This involved one of two things not attainable in practice a large number of
tubes, or a large amount of time to do the work in. " The standard," with this

504 PEACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

plan, could only have been approached by passing one grain after the other in
procession ; even then, however, the upper portion of each grain would be un-
touched. This plan, therefore, did not obtain a large adoption.

1736. The next plan we have to notice was one which was original in its
conception, and comparatively perfect in working. This was the passing of a
strong artificial current of air, heated to a high temperature, through the mass of
grain. From the close-lying nature of the grain, small masses could only be
operated upon. The process, therefore, in respect of this and other particulars,
was a costly one.

1737. To subject large quantities of grain to the influence of artificial cur-
rents of heated air, so as to allow each grain, as it were, to be acted on, another
inventor adopted the method of allowing the grain to fall from one floor to an-
other, the strong current being passed at the same time through the chamber.
This was bringing the process very near to the standard of perfection, and in
practice it was most efficient. However, from the nature of the arrangements, it
is necessarily an expensive one, as the process of falling must be gone through
repeatedly, in many instances, before the requisite amount of heating could
be given.

1738. There can be no doubt, we think, that the simplest method to dry
grain, is by giving the heat out from heated metallic surfaces : doubtless it is
the cheapest. A method, therefore, which retains this part of the old process,
yet 'puts every portion of the grain in contact with it, will be of great advan-
tage. This is effected, we think, very simply, and, judging from the operation
as witnessed in a working model, very efficiently, by the plan which we now
propose describing. The best way of witnessing the complete manner in which
the grain is turned over and over again, so as to put every portion of its sur-
face not once, but repeatedly, in contact with the metal, is by seeing the screw
working in a glass tube. In this' machine there are the means of regulating
the degree of drying to any nicety required, by the rate of revolution of the
screws and their number ; and the degree of turning over, or change of contact,
by the number of the rakes or mixers.

1739. In the words of the patentees, the invention consists of " certain im-
provements in the means of conveying, distributing, or separating granular and
other substances," and is applicable to the various processes of drying and
roasting, and other processes in which it is essential that the berries, grains, or
particles of the substances should be regularly and frequently turned over and
separated during the process. It is applicable in simple drying, and also in
cases of drying in which an equal and uniform turning over is needed, for the
purpose of mixing one ingredient with another ; also in cases of roasting, wherein
the same turning over and separating is requisite, in order to prevent scorching
on the one hand, and to insure equal and uniform roasting on the other; also in
other processes wherein the same equal and uniform turning over, mixing, or
separating, may be required.

1740. The precise nature of the invention may be understood by consider-
ing it as a means of rendering the ordinary Archimedean conveyor, by a simple
addition thereto, hereinafter described, capable of not only conveying or pro-
pelling substances as heretofore, but also, at the same time, of distributing,
separating, turning over, and mixing such substances as required. And this
effect is produced by adapting and applying to the " screw conveyor," plates,
ribs, or blades, so disposed or arranged as to cause, by the revolution of the
screw, the turning over and distribution or separation, as well as, when required,
the admixture of the several grains or particles of substances or ingredients, as

ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW CONVEYOR.

505

they are carried along by the conveyor. The plates, ribs, or blades should be
placed between the threads of the screw, but they may be varied in size and
form, and mode of application to it. In order, however, that the invention may
be fully understood, we will proceed to describe, by the aid of the accompany-
ing figures, a mode by which it may be readily carried into effect.

1741. Fig. 957 is a part section of an oblong vessel or case, containing a
number of tubes (two only are shown) with screw conveyors, fitted up with the
plates, ribs, or blades inside them. Fig. 958 is a transverse section of the

same, showing the communication of the tubes from one to another throughout
the series. Fig. 959 is a detail representation, on a larger scale, of a portion

506

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

BASE BETWEEN THE THREADS O2" ARCHIMEDEAN 8CE

1 CONVEYOR.

of the screw, with the additions under the invention applied thereto. The
letters apply to all three figures. In fig. 958, a a is the case, containing a num-
ber of tubes b, secured and made tight at each end of the case. These tubes
have pipes of communication from one to the other at their ends, as shown at
c, by means of which the material may be passed throughout the series of
tubes b. The screws s, fig. 957, within the tubes J, are made to revolve by

means of the wheels e gear-

F 'g- 959 - ing into one another, and

driven by the pulleys /from
any prime mover ; d, figs.
957, 958, and 959, are the
plates, ribs, or rakes applied
between the threads of the
screw s, by which the grain
is turned over, during the
conveyance, by the screws ;
ff, figs. 957 and 958, is the
hopper, by which the grain
is introduced into the ap-
paratus ; and 7^, fig. 958, is
the shoot by which the
grain is discharged after
having passed through the
same.

1742. The apparatus thus
referred to,, when employed
in the processes of drying and roasting, is combined with any suitable mode
of heating ; but it is to be observed, that if the tubes b, figs. 957, 958, are to
be heated by being surrounded with steam or hot water, they must be tight,
and made capable of sustaining the pressure applied to them. If, however,
dry heat from a naked fire or heated air alone be applied to them, tightness is
unnecessary, and the tubes may be perforated, or made of woven wire, if pre-
ferred.

1743. The operation of the apparatus is as follows : The grain to be oper-
ated upon is introduced into the hopper #, and thence into the upper tube 5,
at the left-hand end in fig. 957, whence it is conveyed along the tube,
by the revolution of the screw s, to the other end, being constantly, during
its course, turned over by the several plates, ribs, or rakes, as at d, in
regular succession, until it passes down the first connecting-pipe c into the
next tube b. Having fallen into this tube at the right-hand end, it is con-
veyed by its screw s to the left-hand end of the same, being constantly turned
over by the plates, ribs, or rakes d on this screw successively, as in the former
instance, until it passes down the second connecting-pipe c into the third
tube b. The same operation is carried on in this tube, and so on throughout
the whole series of tubes. The grain, thus continually turned over as it is
conveyed along the tubes, and in the process of drying acted upon by the
heat applied to the same, is eventually delivered from the apparatus at the
shoot A. Should it be thought desirable, the grain may be carried up by an
elevator to the hopper^, and be submitted to the same operations of turning and
heating, or turning only, in the tubes b, two or three times. We would here
remark, that the apparatus above described may be varied in the combination
of its parts, and that it may be combined with other mechanism not described.

PRESERVATION OF GRAIN IN TANKS. 507

We have merely described the above as a sample form in which the apparatus
may be arranged, so as to produce the desired effect.

1744. Tanks for tin'. Preservation of Grata. Corn once dried, it is desirable
to keep it so. This, however, is not so easily done, especially in our humid
climate, where mists and rains abound, and where " granaries " are not con-
structed in accordance with what true science dictates. In connection with
the subject of preserving grain, Mr Bridges Adams, a well-known and sugges-
tive writer on scientific topics, has thrown out, in an article in the Journal of the
Society of Arts, t some hints which may by some be considered as rather specu-
lative, but which we conceive to contain the germ of a plan or system which,
if \vell carried out, will meet a want long desiderated in agricultural structures.
Grain can be stored up so and that, moreover, in such a good condition
that it may be preserved for years. Indeed, we see no limit to the time
for which it may be kept. We have seen that on the Continent grain is kept
in good condition for seven and ten years, and that in situations which may be
looked upon as unpromising; and perhaps there is no more suggestive conjec-
ture than that thrown out by Mr Adams, that the "mummy wheat" of our own
time may be portions of the stores laid up by Joseph to meet the evils of the
famine time of Egypt. It certainly would be a libel on the mechanical genius
of the present time, every day of which brings out new wonders, to say that
means could not be adopted to preserve grain in all the efficiency with which
we store up other perishable articles. With all the improvements recently in-
troduced in farm appliances, this important department the preservation of
grain has been nearly lost sight of. Some minor improvements have doubtless
been introduced; but these are rather palliatives of a disease than the intro-
duction of methods by which the disease can be prevented. Prejudice is a
mighty power by which most useful suggestions are rendered null ; and we
fear that, in the minds of many, the somewhat bold and original project con-
tained in the letter of Mr Adams, will be considered as more characteristic of a
day-dreamer than one likely to be carried out into the everyday usefulness of
practical life. Yet we do venture to affirm that, if properly carried out, possibly
with some modifications, in the manner the writer proposes, the end so much to
be desired will be most efficiently attained. The project will best be explained
to our readers in Mr Adams's own words :

1745. " There does not seem to be any difficulty in the matter, if we can divest
ourselves of preconceived ideas of the notion that a granary or grain receptacle
must necessarily be a building with a floor or windows more or less multiplied
in altitude. We may reason by analogy as to what is the cheapest and most
effective means of securing perishable commodities from the action of the atmo-
sphere and vermin. In England we put our flour in sacks. Brother Jonathan
puts his in barrels, which does not thoroughly answer. ... If Brother
Jonathan wishes really to preserve his flour or his ' crackers ' undamaged, he
makes them thoroughly dry and cool, and hermetically seals them in tin cans.
This also is a common process to prevent goods being damaged at sea. The
Chinese, not having much facility for metal manufacture, line wooden chests
with thin sheet-lead or tin, and pack their teas in them. In England we keep
our tea and sugar in cases of tinned sheet-iron. We preserve meat in tinned
cases, hermetically sealed. We put fruit into sealed bottles. In all these cases
the object is to exclude the air as well as vermin. . . . There can be no
doubt that if we were to put dry wheat in a hermetically sealed tinned case, it
might be kept as long as the famed ' mummy wheat ' of Egypt. This will
readily be admitted, but the expense would be queried. Let us examine into

508 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

this. A canister is a metallic reservoir ; so is a gasometer ; so is an iron water-
tank in a ship, at a railway station, or elsewhere ; and a cubic foot of water-
tank on a large scale will be found to cost very much less than a cubic foot of
canister on a small scale. And if a bushel of wheat be more valuable than a
bushel of water, it will clearly pay to put wheat into huge canisters of iron.
The wheat-canister, in short, should be a wrought or cast iron tank of greater
or less size, according to the wants of the owner, whether for the farmer's crop
or the grain-merchant's stock. This tank should be constructed of small parts,
connected together by screw-bolts, and consequently easily transported from
place to place. The internal parts should be galvanised, to prevent rust, and
the external part also, if desired. It should be hermetically tight at all the
joints, and the only opening should be what is called a man-hole that is to
say, a canister-top where the lid goes on, large enough to admit a man. When
filled with grain, the top should be put on, the fitting of the edge forming an
air-tight joint. Wheat put dry into such a vessel, and without any vermin,
would remain wheat any number of years. But an additional advantage to such
a reservoir would be an air-pump, by the application of which, for the purpose
of exhaustion, any casual vermin would be killed. If the grain were moist, the
same air-pump might be used to draw or force a current of warm air through it,
to carry off the moisture. By this process, and subsequently keeping out the
air, the grain might be preserved for any length of time. As the reservoir
would be perfectly air-tight and water-tight, it might be buried in the ground
with perfect safety ; and thus cellars might be rendered available for granaries,
economising space of comparatively little value. The grain would be easily
poured in from the surface, and to discharge it an Archimedean screw should be
used. The size of the reservoir should be proportioned to the locality, and it
should hold a specified number of quarters, so as to serve as a measure of quan-
tity, and prevent the expense of meterage. ... If constructed above the
ground, a stair or ladder must communicate with the upper part, and the lower
part must be formed like a hopper for the purpose of discharge. For many
farm localities this arrangement might be best, and wheat might be thrashed
into grain direct from the field, and stored. . . . Granaries of this descrip-
tion would occupy less than one-third the cubic space of those of the ordinary
description, and their cost would be less than one-fifth. . . . With this
security for storing safely, a farmer would have less hesitation in sowing great
breadths of land. He would not be driven to market under an average value,
and might choose his own time for selling. The fear of loss being dispelled,
people would buy with less hesitation, and the great food-stores of the com-
munity would, by wholesome competition, insure the great mass of the com-
munity against a short supply. But as long as uncertainty shall prevail in the
storage of grain, so long will it be a perilous trade to those engaged in it, and
so long will the food of the community be subject to a very irregular fluctuation
of prices. There is nothing difficult in this proposition. It is merely applying
existing arrangements to unusual cases. There needs but the practical example
to be set by influential people, and the great mass will travel in the same track.
To the wealthy agriculturist it will be but the amplification of the principle of
the tin-lined corn-bin, that keeps out the rats from the oats of the stable. . . .
Were this mode of preserving grain to become general, the facility of ascertain-
ing stocks and crops after reaping would be very great. The granaries being
measures of quantity, no hand-measuring would be needed, and the effects of
wet harvest weather might be obviated."

1746. In conjunction with methods for putting the grain into proper condition

HANDS' BRICK-KILN FOR DRYING.

509

when it happened to be deteriorated by circumstances, as a wet harvest, &c.,
this plan of preserving grain would be highly beneficial to the farmer, at least
in a pecuniary sense.

1747. Hands Patent Brick-Kilns and Drying-Sheds. We have now to show
the connection of the drying-sheds with the kilns of Mr Hands. This is
illustrated in fig. 960, being part of the section of kiln and drying-shed, erected

at the works of Mr Payne, alluded to at p. 501. In fig. 9GO, a a is the kiln ; the
heated air and gases, after passing in contact with the bricks, are led off by the
flue or funnel , down c c to the interior of the " above-ground flue " d, which
traverses one side of the drying-shed e ; passing through the Hue on the other
side of shed, the heated air is led off at the end of the building by the flue
//, to the chimney g, from which it finally escapes. The drawings of this and
the other figures have been furnished us by the patentee, whose address we
have given at top of p. 502.

1748. The system has been carried out in several large brick-works and
potteries, and in all cases is very favourably reported of. " The general object
proposed by Mr Hands," says an authority well calculated to give an opinion on
the matter, " is of simple and natural means, and without extravagant outlay,
to utilise the heat generated in kilns or furnaces during the burning of the
wares. By this means he proposes to effect the perfect combustion of the fuel,
and prevent the formation of smoke, or wo should perhaps say the issue of
smoke from the chimney. His plan also accomplishes a uniform and rapid
drying and burning of the wares, by the same fuel used for burning, thus effect-
ing the twofold object at the cost of burning only. Two most important fea-
tures of his invention, and which deserve special notice here, as they entirely
refute the statements of the old brickmaking hands, are, first, that by drying
the bricks in a moist atmosphere, the inside of the brick is made to dry before
the outside in other words, the moisture of the air keeps the brick from in-
crusting, and thus allows the moisture from the interior to pass off. This it is
which prevents the bricks from breaking, as in ordinary drying. The second
point is, that bricks dried on this system dry better the hotter the temperature
of the air in which they are placed, bearing 150 of temperature. This results
from there being in this case more moisture in the air, which, consequently,
keeps the outside of the brick more moist, and thus allows of a more rapid
drying of the interior of the brick, and that without the slightest fear of break-
age. These features of Mr Hands' invention are well worthy of note, and are
of the greatest importance. In addition to all, it must be remembered that the

510 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

whole operations may be carried on at all times, no out-door drying being
necessary the brickfield being, as we have said, turned into a brick-factory."

1749. Drain-Tile Kiln. A general plan of a drain-tile work, in which the
work is as much as possible done by machinery, is shown in fig. 961, as taken
from the tile-work at Corehouse, Lanarkshire, belonging to Miss Edmonstoune
Cranstoun, where a is the engine-room, b the boiler, c a pug-mill, driven by a
shaft overhead in connection with the steam-engine, and d an Ainslie tile-machine,
driven by a belt from the main shaft. These machines stand in a large shed,
adjoining which is a range of drying-sheds e e, in which the tiles are placed after
being taken from the machine, and where they stand until sufficiently hard to bear
handling and building in the kiln. The drying-sheds may be constructed either
in single lines, with a row of shelves on each side, or as represented in the plan,
where two sheds, 24 yards long and 20 feet wide each, are made side by side,
each with three passages, having shelves on each side ; the width of the pas-
sages is 4 feet, the outer shelves 1 foot 4 inches broad, and the inner or double
shelves 2 feet 7 inches broad, formed of 1-inch deals, supported in convenient
lengths by standards 6 inches square, and 7 feet 3 inches high, with cross
bearers for each shelf. For the smaller sizes of tiles, fourteen shelves in height
are employed, but for large tiles the height and number must be made to suit
the tiles. The extent of shelving necessary is that which will hold tiles suffi-
cient to fill the kiln twice.

1750. At the end of the drying-sheds, farthest from the machine-shed, is
placed the kiln f, represented on a larger scale, in plan by fig. 962, and in
cross section by fig. 963. This kiln is of that kind known as riddle-bottomed,
which is now considered the most suitable arrangement for equalising the heat
from the furnaces ; and the dimensions here given are of one which has been
proved to be very efficient in working. It consists of a chamber 21 feet in
length and 10 feet in width, formed by walls 3^ feet thick. In each side wall
are formed seven furnaces a a, fig. 962, each 14 inches wide, with doors and fur-
nace bars, which is considered preferable to burning the fire on a simple hearth.
The furnace bars are 2 feet 2 inches in length, with a dumb-plate in front 6^
inches broad, inclusive of the thickness of the door-frame ; the furnace door is
sunk 9 inches within the face of the wall, and the height of the ashpit, to the
furnace bars, is 1 foot 10 inches. The floor of the kiln is formed by first being
made solid to the level of the furnace bars, then a division wall b, 9 inches
thick, is made along the centre of the kiln, dividing the two sets of furnaces ;
from this wall to the main side walls are built dwarf walls c to c, c to c, 9 inches
thick, dividing the single furnaces from each other, and on these are built arches 9
inches thick and 4^ inches apart, on which the kiln floor is made by filling up
solid above the arches to a uniform level, and connecting these spandril walls
at top by bricks set on edge, with 2|-inch spaces between them, so that the
whole floor is formed into a regular series of openings 4|- inches by 2|, sepa-
rated along the kiln by divisions 2^ inches thick, and across the kiln by the
spandril walls 9 inches thick, as seen to the right of c c. The height from the
level of the furnace bars to the kiln floor is 2 feet 6 inches. The inside is finished
by a 9-inch semicircular arch, 10 feet high from the floor in the centre, and the
roof formed by filling in above the arch with brickwork, about a foot above the
arch in the centre, and sloping to the top of the side walls, which are 12 feet 6
inches high. In this roof, and through the arch, five lines of chimneys, each 6
inches square, are formed; the outer and the centre lines d d d, fig. 963, each
consist of eight chimneys, and the intermediate ones e e of nine each, making,
forty-two chimneys in all. The end chimneys in each line are made straight

COEEHOUSE DRAIN-TILE KILN.

Fi--. 901.

511

11)

SK VKIVI'IOAI. SKCTION Of IJRAIN-TrLE Kl

512 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

up from the end walls, an arrangement which is found of great benefit, by causing
a regular diffusion of the heat. All the chimneys are finished to a level about
16 inches above the apex of the roof. The entrance to the kiln is at one end,
by an arched doorway/, 3 feet 8 inches wide, and 6 feet 9 inches high. On each
side of the kiln four flying buttresses, g to g, g to g, are made, springing from the
ground at a distance of 9 feet from the walls, and resting on them at a height of
10 feet 6 inches ; each of these buttresses is 14 inches square in section, arid the
whole support the walls against the lateral thrust of the arched roof. A space
outside the furnaces, on each side, is enclosed by a wall h h and light wooden
roof, the side walls being 9 feet from the kiln and 7 feet high. The gables
are carried up to the pitch of the roof, entirely closed at the one end, and
having a door i, 4 feet wide and 8 feet high, opposite the door of the kiln. The
kiln and this enclosing wall are connected at each end by two walls, which
form buttresses for supporting the end walls of the kiln, and are carried up to
the roof, openings k k being left at the entrance end for communication with
the furnaces ; the space i between the doors is arched over with brick. The
length over all of the enclosing wall is 48 feet, and breadth 38 feet.

1751. There is employed to drive the pug-mill and tile-machine a steam-
engine of four-horse power, which seems amply sufficient. The tile-machine
makes, of If -inch pipe-tiles, 12,000 per day, of 2|-inch pipes 8000, or of hollow
bricks of the common size 6000 per day. The time required in the sheds for
drying varies from forty-eight hours to four days under ordinary circumstances,
but in bad weather it may be eight or even ten days. In filling the kiln, three
men are required for wheeling in the tiles, and one man for building; the time
required, one day four hours, and the quantity of tiles put in, 32,000 of the 2^-
inch pipes ; these are built to within 4 inches of the top of the kiln. When
the kiln is filled, the door is built up by a 9-inch wall, plastered outside with
wet clay ; another wall is built 6 inches clear of the first, and the space between
filled up with wet sand, a sight hole being left at the top, 6 inches square out-
side, and 18 inches wide inside. Eegular firing of the kiln is a work of the
greatest nicety, in order that the whole of the tiles may be properly burned ;
twenty-four hours are allowed for heating, forty-eight hours for burning, and
forty-eight hours for cooling, before the kiln can be opened. The quantity, of
common coal required for each burning is 8 tons.

1752. SECTION SEVENTH Plans of Carpenter 's Shop and Smithy. It is not abso-
lutely necessary that a carpenter's shop or smithy should be erected at a steading,
as the work of either tradesman for a farm is not of the extent to occupy his whole
time. A village affords a very common site for both, and generally it is at no
great distance from a number of farms. Farms employing about 30 pair of horses
would give siifficient work to both ; and were the village a large one, the work
for the villagers would considerably curtail the number of farms for which they
could work. It is not iinusual in large farms to have a carpenter's shop and
smithy erected near the steading, that the tradesmen may come at stated times
to do the work required. Kepairs only are there executed, the more important
work being done at the tradesman's own premises. This is not so convenient
an arrangement, however, for the farmer, as when the shops are near at hand.

1753. We give plans of a carpenter's shop and smithy which we have found
convenient and commodious. They were erected at a distance of about half a
mile, on a piece of ground which was conveniently situate near a public road
and as many farms as afforded the tradesmen constant employment. As both
shops are subject to fire, it is incumbent that they be constructed with the most

FLEMISH BARN.

513

durable materials ; and perhaps no building-s admit of the application of iron
for their roof so appropriately as the carpenter's shop and smithy.

1754. Plan of a Carpenter's Shop fur Farm Work. Fig. 964 is a plan for
a carpenter's shop suited for farm work:

a is the entire shop, b the fireplace,
situate at one of the gables, c a broad
bench for all the purposes of carpentry
and joinery, d a narrow bench, e the
lathe, f the wheel-pit. Coupling-beams
should be placed at intervals across the
shop on the wall-heads, for containing
articles which should always be ready
when required, such as fork and rake
shafts, handles of hoes, picks, spades,
and shovels, wheel-naves, felloes, and
spokes, and suchlike. Room should be
provided outside the shop for saw-pit and timber-yard.

1755. Plan of a Smithy for Farm Work. Fig. 965 is the plan of a farm
smithy, where a is the

smithy, b the forge, c the
coal-bunker, d the iron
store, locked up, e the anvil,
/the vice-bench, # the lathe,
and h the shoeing-shed, to
accommodate at least two
horses at a time. This
should be separated from
the smithy by a wall, with
an internal door. The horses
enter the shoeing shed by
a separate outside door, and
it is provided with a window.

SUBDIVISION THIRD Foreign Farm - Buildings.

1756. SECTION FIRST Belgian and Dutch Steadings. Excellent arrange-
ments of barns, in which the whole of the apartments are under one roof, are
met with in Belgium (Flanders) and Holland. In fig. 966 we give a plan of a
Flemish barn, in which a a are the cow-stalls, with dunging-passage >, and
feeding-passages c c ; d hay or implement house, e stable, f piggery, g barn,

Fig. OCO.

40 so 20 10

2 K

514

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

h bay for sheaf corn, i cart-shed. In fig. 967 we give plan showing arrange-
ments of a Dutch barn, in which a b is the cow-house, c the bam or thrashing-
floor, d bay for sheaf corn, e stable, / second barn-floor, g second bay for sheaf
corn.

Fig. 967.

PLAN OF DUTCH BAK.JI SCALE AS IN FIO. 963.

Fig. 968.

1757. Although the cultivation of the soil in the provinces of East and West
Flanders stands deservedly high, yet, as a general rule, little attention seems to
be paid to the arrangement of the various buildings and apartments, so as to
economise, the working of the farm. Straggling here and there, anywhere
where fancy dictates, they look picturesque and pleasing as objects in the land-
scape, but they by no means satisfy the mind alive to the advantages of econo-
mic working. The courtyards if the term may be applied to a place in few
cases, so far as our observation went, surrounded, like our courtyards, by build-
ings and sheds are by no means in keeping with the neat and orderly condition

of the fields. The manure
seems to He about as if quite
uncared for ; and a general dis-
order, far from pleasing, seems
to prevail. This is, however,
more apparent than real, so far
as the buildings are concerned,
for considerable care is taken
to have them well cleaned in
the interior.

1758. In fig. 968 we give a
sketch-plan of a Flemish farm-
steading : a the position occu-
pied by the farmhouse, b the
stable, through which one en-
trance can be obtained to the
kitchen, c c cattle-house, d calf-
house, e cart -shed, / store-
house, g machine-house, h h
solid manure-pit or heap, i
potato-pits, jj the barn, k space
SKSTCH-PLAS or FAMISH FiKM- B un.rcjos f or thrashing-machine, I horse-

walk for thrashing-machine, m n pigeon -houses.

BELGIAN FARM-BUILDINGS.

515

Fifr. 969.

1759. In fig. 969 we give sketch-plan of farm-buildings at Courtrai, the
celebrated flax-growing district of

Belgium : a denotes the space occu-
pied by the house of the farmer, b
the cow-house, c a sheep-shed, d the
root-cutting house, e f barns, g the
bull-house, h baking-house, i lumber,
wood, and implement store, k the
cart-shed, m hay-shed, I the store-
house for roots.

1760. On many Belgian farms the
machines of the steading are placed
in a separate building, horse-power
being used. In fig. 970 we give
plan of such a machine-room a a.
It is octagonal in outline, and is
lighted by a window and door. The
main driving-wheel, which is a large
spur-wheel b b put together in
segments, is connected with the cen-
tral shaft c, formed of wood. This
shaft is continued upwards through
the roof of the building, the lower
end being provided with an iron stud
working in a step bolted to the floor,
and finished with a turn-cap. To
this cap a long piece of timber is

connected, and continued on the SKETCH.?^* OF FINISH rAsii-mjinDisos.

outside downwards, as shown in fig.

971, to within a short distance of the horse-walk, which completely encircles

Fig. 970.

the building a. Hooks are provided, to which the draught-chains are attached.
The timber b b is curved in order to clear the building, and it is strengthened

516

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

by the diagonal stays attached to the cross-bar c c ; and connected with the cen-
tral shaft is the cap d. In fig. 970, d shows the position of the straw-cutter ; the
bean-inill e, and the corn-mill /, are fixed on a raised platform g g ; h indicates
the position of the barrel-churn, which is worked by a pulley deriving motion
from the main driving-wheel b b ; i shows the position of the turnip- cutter.
1761. In fig. 972 we give the plan of a large farm-steading at the Brit-

PZ.AN OP STBADINO OP BKITAJJNIi FARM, BELOTOM.

annia farm, Ghistelles, near Ostend, in Belgium, belonging to M. Bortier,
and for which we are indebted to the Manual des Constructions Rurales, pub-

AMERICAN BARNS.

517

lished at Brussels. The terrace of the lawn is at a, the carriage-drive to door
4, c hall of the farmhouse, d kitchen, e e e e bedrooms, f f coach- Fig. 973.
houses, g g infirmary for horses and for sheep, h poultry-house
and yard, i i i boxes and yards for horses and cows, k k oat and
bean stores, I I piggeries, m m m, m m sheep-sheds and yards, n n
covered passage, o o salt and oilcake stores, p boiling-house, q q oat
and bean stores, r r steam-engine and boiler-house, s liquid-manure
tanks, t t, t t beetroot pits, u stackyard, v beetroot distillery, iv ma-
chine-room, x the dotted lines show the drainage pipes, and y y the
railways leading from the stackyard u and beetroot pits t, to the
machine-room w and the beetroot distillery v ; z the water-tank.
Fig 973, a a covered dung-pits and cisterns for " purin," b b cellars
for cinders.

1762. SECTION SECOND American Barns. In addition to the plans of farm-
buildings suited to the agricultural practice of Great Britain, we deem it likely
to add to the utility of our work, by giving a few plans illustrative of farm-build-
ings suited to the practice of the United States and our North American colonies.
The term barn is there equivalent to our term " farm-steading," " homestead,"
or " farmery; " it is not confined to signify as with us the one apartment of a
farmery in which the com is thrashed and prepared for market, but it com-
prehends all the apartments usually required in farm practice. Hence the
term " barn " in North America is eqiiivalent to our " covered farm-steading,"
a form of arrangement now by some much esteemed here, in which all the
apartments required are placed under one roof. In the American "barn,"
however, there is one feature which is absent in all improved structures in
this country namely, very large storage-room for corn, roots, and fodder.
This is necessitated by the exigencies of the climate, which prevents our sys-
tem of out-of-door storage being adopted. In place of drawing upon our
own notes taken during a visit paid to the United States some time ago, we
prefer to present the reader with plans of acknowledged merit which have been
published under the sanction, and received the good opinion of American agri-
culturists. The following, taken from the American Cultivator, will convey some
idea of the nature of the arrangement of what is called a " side-hill barn :" In
fig. 974 we give the plan of basement, in which a is the manure-pit, b the cattle-

-I H liPFFPFF

a i, a a />

EMENT OF AWE

stalls, 3 feet 3 inches by 8 feet ; c the feeding-passage, 4 feet 6 inches wide ;
the part dis paved. In fig. 975 we give the plan of second storey, in which a a
are the posts supporting hay-floor over stable-passage, b b cattle-stalls, c c hay-
mow or balk, d the hay-shoot or funnel, e another funnel, /passage. In fig.
976 we give a perspective elevation of the barn.

518

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

PERSPECTIVE

1763. " The barn is 40 feet long by 26 wide, with a basement 8 feet high ;

posts 20 feet above the basement ;
the roof steep, which gives more
room for hay, is more durable and
stronger if left without purlin sup-
port ; two middle cross works,
which make the girts 13 feet. It
is situated on a somewhat steep
side-hill, facing the south-east;
the basement wall on the north
side, and the west part of the
south side to the west middle
cross work, 8 feet high. The
wall at the west end is 15 feet high, the basement part of which is built very
strong of heavy stone, so that the upper part of it (7 feet high), which is faced
.one foot back or west of the basement wall (for a cross sill to rest upon), may
rest firm, and never be moved.

1764. " The post which is in the east middle cross work, south side, is sup-
ported by bridge braces, with bolt at bottom to hold up the sill, which gives
free access to the manure which is kept in the south part of the basement ; in
the north half is a row of stanchion stables for 12 cattle, facing the north,
towards a foddering-pass wide enough to fodder the cattle when in the stable.
One row of cattle are kept over the manure basement facing the north, which,
with a foddering-passage, occupies 13 feet, or half the width.

1765. " The earth is filled in and thoroughly packed up to the wall at the west
end, and graded or inclined to drive the loaded teams with the hay, to be pitched
into the barn through ample sized doors of different height ; much of the hay is
thus pitched down into the barn, and it is certainly ' put into place ' with
comparatively little labour. The barn is filled with hay, excepting two funnels
through which to pitch the hay down to the two foddering-passes ; and by
allowing a reasonable time to settle, will hold 35 tons of hay. Our cattle are
three-year-old steers, for fattening the following season when four years old.
I think there are very few barns which contain so much practically valuable
room tinder the same proportion of roof, or expense of building, and repairs for
the next hundred years." The barn is built thoroughly but plainly, and we
think at a cost of 400 dollars (80).

1766. The same Journal shows the plan of a barn, which we give in

fig. 977, in which a is the barn
floor, 24 feet by 42 ; b cow-stable,
12 feet by 38, c 12 feet by 31 ;
d oat-bin, 5 feet by 12 ; e work-
horse stable, 14 feet by 32 ; /
tool-room, 14 feet by 12 ; g wheat-
bin, 5 feet by 12 ; k colt-stable,
16 feet by 20 ; i calf-stable, 16
feet by 20 ; k corn-crib, 8 feet by
20. The height over the cow-
stables is 7 feet, over the main
floor and horse - stable 9 feet,
603, p. 373, inthe section

Fig. 977.

treating of wooden sheds, is a sectional elevation of frame of this barn.

1767. The most complete form, perhaps, of American barn is to be met with

AMERICAN STEADING.

519

in the state of Pennsylvania. A very distinguished agriculturist of that state,
Mr Lewis F. Allen, has in his work, Rural Architecture, illustrated and described
a barn which he built for his own use, " and which has proved so satisfac-
tory in its use that, save in one or two small particulars, which are here
amended, we would not," says Mr Allen, " for a stock-barn, alter it in any
degree, nor exchange it for one of any description whatever." " For the
farmer who needs one of but half
the size, or greater, or less, it may
be remarked that the extent of this
need be no hindrance to the build-
ing of one of any size, as the gene-
ral design may be adopted and
carried out, in whole or in part,
according to his wants, and the
economy of its accommodation pre-
served throughout. The principle
of the structure is what is intended
to be shown."

1768. Fig. 978 is the principal
or ground-plan ; fig. 979 is an
isometrical elevation. The follow-
ing is Mr Allen's description of its
interior arrangement : " Entering
the large door a, fig. 978, at the
front end, 14 feet wide and 14 feet
high, the main floorer passes through
the entire length of the barn and
rear lean-to, 116 feet; the last 16

Fix. 979.

520

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 980.

feet through the lean-to, and sloping 3 feet to the outer sill and door I, of
that appendage. On the right of the entrance is a recess e, 20 feet by 18,
to be used as a thrashing floor, and for machinery cutting food, &c. 5 feet
next the end at k being cut off for a passage to the stable. Beyond this is a
bay c, 18 feet by 70, for the storage of hay or grain, having a passage k at
the further end of 5 feet wide, to go into the further stables. This bay is
bounded on the extreme left by the line of outside posts of the barn. On the
left of the main door is a granary d, 10 feet by 18, two storeys high, and a
flight of steps leading from the lower into the upper room. Beyond this is
another bay 6, corresponding with c on the opposite side. The passages
k k, at the end of the bays b and c, have steps of 3 feet descent to bring them
down on a level with the stable floors of the lean-tos. A passage in each of
the two long side lean-tos e e, 3 feet wide, receives the hay -forage for
cattle, or other stock, thrown into them from the bays and the lofts over the
stables, and from them is thrown into the mangers h h. The two apartments
f f, in the extreme lean-to, 34 feet by 16 each, may be occupied as an hospital
for invalid cattle, or partitioned off for calves, or any other purpose. A
calving-house for the cows which come in during the winter is always con-
venient, and one of those may be used for such a purpose." At the front of the

stalls is the passage i i, for the cattle as
they pass in and out of their stalls. The
stable doors m, are six in number. In
this barn, accommodation is given for fifty-
six grown cattle in twenty-eight double
stalls, with room for twenty to thirty calves
in the end stables. Storage for 150 tons
of hay is also provided.

1769. In fig. 980 we give plan of
basement of another arrangement of barn
designed by Mr Allen. A line of posts
stands at a?, and a wall e e placed back-
wards from these affords space for cattle-
sheds. Two sheds o o for cattle-shelter
can be run out to any desired length,
at right angles to e e. The barn is built
on sloping ground, so as to admit of the
under portion being made without much
excavation. Fig. 981 is the main floor

of. the barn ; its dimensions are 60 feet by 46 ; two large doors are at the

end, 14 feet square a louvre-boarded window
being above these. A door, 9 feet by 6, opens to-
wards the yard from the apartment f. The main
floor a, 12 feet wide, runs along the whole length
of the barn ; h h are trap-doors to let forage down
to the stables beneath ; b is the principal bay for

_ __ i hay, 16 feet wide, running up to the roof; g is the

j bay, 26 feet by 16, for the grain more if required

I I for that purpose ; d the granary, 13 feet by 16

feet ; e a storage-room for machinery, &c. ; grain
. HPP.B. STOR.T or AvBio iH si**. ^ tne g heaf, or hay, may be stored in the space
above / d and e. The main floor will accommodate the thrashing-machine,
&c., when at work. " A line of movable sleepers or poles may be laid across

Fig. 981.

AMERICAN STEADING.

521

the floor, 10 feet above it, on a line of girts framed into the main posts for
that purpose, over which, when the sides of the barn are full, either hay or
grain may be deposited up to the ridge of the roof, and thus afford large
storage ; and if the demands of the crop require it, after the sides and over the
floor are thus filled, the floor itself may, or part of it, be used for packing away
either hay or grain." The stables, <.v.c., are placed beneath the body of the barn,
as seen in fig. 980 ; it is here cut up into stables. Passages a a are made
for the stock to go into the stalls ; c is the centre passage, 8 feet wide ; b b the
passages, 3 feet wide, between the mangers, placed under the traps h /*, fig. 981,
in the main floor. The mangers are 2 feet wide ; the stalls are 6i feet wide ;
at the end walls the cattle-passages are 5 feet wide, the partition between the
stalls being sloped from 5 feet high at the upper end clown to the floor. The
main floor is provided with inclined planes leading from the surrounding level
to the main doors : this will be found a great convenience in housing hay, &c.
The sheds o o may be used for carts, &c., or shelter sheds : there may be
storage-room for hay, &c., made over them.

1770. In fig. 982 we give plan of American farm-buildings designed by Mr
Marshall, and adapted for

the northern states : a space
for roots ; b machine-room
for cutting straw, roots, &c. ;
c straw-bay, d d feeding-
passages for cow-byres e and
f, sheep-shed g, with yard h;
i piggery, with yard Jc I
poultry-house, m boil-house,
n store for firewood, &c.,
o calf-house, p carpenter's
shop, r implement-house,
s waggon-shed, t yard.

1771. In the southern and
western states of America
the peculiarities of farming,
as there practised, require
several modifications of ar-
rangement, &c., in the farm-buildings, differing from those carried out in the
northern or middle states. Professor Turner of Illinois has made public a variety
of useful hints on stables and farm-buildings for the West, a portion of which will,
we think, be highly useful to our readers. His remarks are given in cxtcnso in Mr
Downing's American Country Architecture. "Throughout the vast regions devoted
to stock, especially in Illinois and Missouri, and all the states south of these,
stables are used not for sheltering common stock or fodder, but merely for the
few horses and milch-cows which are kept for family use. Many farmers in
these states annually fatten some one or two hundred head of oxen, and some
few even a thousand or more, for the market, and still a very moderate-sized
stable, or rather no stable at all, answers their purpose." Mr Turner then
gives a statement of what " ends the great majority of those who are intending
to build in those regions wish to reach," the purport of which we give as fol-
lows : Wood (or lumber, as it is called) being very dear in the West, as also
labour, economy in these is the first consideration. This is best effected by
throwing all the buildings under " one roof, and in a square form, or one as
nearly square as possible ; the foundations, made of brick or stone and which

522

PKACTICAL CONSTEUCTION.

Fig. 983.

may have to be transported from a distance at great cost will, by the same
plan, be also economised." Another desideratum, and one peculiar to these
states, is to have " free access to and from their out-buildings, without passing
through the terrible mud and water which, in prairie countries, always exists
on all flat lands where cattle or swine are yarded, or allowed to run in small
lots. Those who are accustomed only to a rocky or gravelly soil, can form no
adequate conception of the inconvenience of the prairie mud throughout all the
rainy seasons of the year." The location of a well is a point of great importance,
as water is not found in springs or brooks, but from wells. The conveniences
in the stable are, stalls for from one to four horses, stalls for cows (though sheds
are generally used for them), pig and fowl house, carriage and tool house.
Boom for storing hay is also useful, though this crop is chiefly stacked, and the
corn " cribbed " in the fields. Eoom will, however, be required for storing as
much of these crops as will suffice for the provender of the stock. Professor
Turner gives a plan illustrative of the arrangements proposed : this we now
append. " At a, fig. 983, a door is made in the rear of the cattle-stalls b,

through which to pass the man-
ure from time to time ; c is the
corn-crib. The floor of this, as
well as the corn-cribs in the
stalls, indicated by the small
black circles, should be from 2^
to 3 feet above the level of the
ground, so as to admit of the
pigs getting beneath them. By
this arrangement, not only will
shelter be provided for them,
but they will be enabled to
pick up all scattered corn, and

FLAN Of WB8TSKN STATES AMERICAN FAKM-BniLUINQS. . n

also prevent rats from accumu-
lating, as they will be prevented from depredating by the continual intrusion
of the pigs. The front of one stall should be open, to admit of a door being
made, so as to give access to the stalls from the carriage and waggon houses
d e. As the weather in the West is at times very cold, the well should be
located in a convenient recess, as at/; the water should be supplied to the
trough <7, in the yard, through a spout h. Two troughs should be made here,
one higher than the other, the lower one being for the use of the pigs these
animals being, in Western farming, allowed to follow the larger stock in the
yard. A small pond i receives the water from the troughs, and is used for
ducks, &c. ; another pond Ic, outside the yard, is used for goslings and ducklings.
In selecting a place for the building, the yard should be on the east side, and
a green grass surface on the south side of both stable and stock yard Z, no
cattle or hogs being allowed to pass in to the grass ; so that the farmer
may have a mudless access at all times to the farm-buildings. The ground
should, if possible, be selected sloping, the stable at the highest part, so
as to allow the wet to go towards the lower end of the yard. If sloping
ground cannot be obtained, an artificial slope should be made. The position
of the well / will, of course, dictate the other arrangements, the well being
first dug."

1772. American Cheese-Dairy Buildings. As an example of " cheese-
dairy " buildings adapted for American agriculture, we here append the
plan and buildings, by Mr Paris Barber of Homer, New York, given in the

111

- 1

i-ii

i-i-i

nrnrm

AMERICAN CHEESE-DAIRY. 523

American Artisan. Fig. 984 is the general plan : a a the byre or milking-shed,
25 feet by 75 ; b b the
store-room, 22 feet by
36, with counters and
shelves c c ; d the
work-room, 16 feet
by 20, connected with
the store-room by a
car- way e. "In sub-
mitting my plan,"
says Mr Barber, " I
will simply say that,
in getting up my
cheese -dairy build-
ings and fixtures, the FLiXOI ^ilElUCAS OHEKSE-UAIST BCU1.DINCHI

first point arrived at

was economy in construction, with the greatest convenience in all its parts for
labour saving, which I consider the all-important point in dairying. The cheese-
room b b stands 1 foot from the ground, and is thoroughly banked upon the
outside of wall, to prevent frost. It is planked, and then boarded up and down,
and battened. Inside it is finished by a narrow lath over each crack, lathed and
plastered in the usual way. The floor is lined to make it tight, planed and
jointed. The counters or shelves are around the outside, and two in the
middle of the room two tier deep. The lower one is 6 inches from the floor ;
the space between is 2 feet 3 inches. The posts or legs are turned, to prevent
the cheeses being bruised in turning. The room will hold, with the present
shelves, two hundred and fifty cheeses, pressed in an 18-inch hoop; and by the
addition of another tier of shelves, the number will be greatly increased. The
windows have sliding shutters on the inside, by which I can make it dark, and
wire gauze on the outside, to prevent flies, both of which are of importance.
There is a large store-room above, with a swing stairway to rise and fall as
required. The room is so tight and well-built that I have not had any trouble
in keeping the cheese from freezing, during the coldest weather, with an ordi-
nary stove. My work-room d is 16 feet by 20 ; it is 18 feet from the store-room,
and is connected with it by a covered car-way e, which saves the trouble of
carrying the cheeses by hand. I have a constant supply of soft spring-water,
running from a spring on the farm. The apparatus for the manufacture of cheese
consists of a furnace or steamer, for heating water and scalding whey ; two cis-
terns, a wooden one and a tin one, suitable for the manufacture of cheese ;
presses ; tub for hot water ; arid conductor for carrying the whey to the reser-
voir. My milking-barn or shed a a is 25 feet by 75. It has swing-gates on
the sides, and is 6 feet in the rear of the two buildings referred to, which
makes it very easy of access for the milkers. It also makes a division in my
cattle-yard, and affords a fine large loft for storing hay or corn fodder." Where
possible, the cheese-dairy should be placed on a higher level than that of the
piggery or cow-house, so that the whey may be carried easily down by con-
ductors to reservoirs placed in these houses, from which it may be taken as
required.

1773. American Piggery. In the western states of America, where hundreds
of pigs are kept, the plan of sty-feeding and rearing is not adopted, as not
being at all remunerative. They are allowed, therefore, to roam about. In
the cold nights of winter, while endeavouring to have as much heat as possible,

524

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 985.

Fig. 9S6.

they crowd much together in what are called their nests, and numbers of the
weaker ones are smothered by the strong. In Mr Downing's work, a plan of

what is there termed a " sifting-shed " is given,
which is likely to prevent much of the loss in-
curred through this. We here append it in fig.
985. Let a be the lightest and warmest place,
having entrances e e only large enough to admit
the smallest hogs. Let c be another shed, hav-
FLAN OF "8iFTiv,-o"pio3ERT. i n g doors ff through which the middle-sized

hogs can pass. The largest ones will take up

their abode in b. This should face to the south. The sifting of the hogs into
their respective sties is done in this way : shut the doors ff, and the smallest
will go into a ; then shut the doors e e, and the middle-sized will go into c when
the doors ff are opened.

1774. American Poultry-houses. In fig. 986
we give ground-plan of an American poultry-
house : a b doors, c c stairs to upper floor, d
enclosed space covered in at top with roosting-
bars fixed on the inclined pieces c c, shown in
section, fig. 987. In fig. 987 a is the door
corresponding to a in fig. 986 ; b b stairs, at
the back of which a series of boxes or nests are
placed, into which the birds pass through cir-
cular doors made in the "riser" of each step,
two nests being made to each riser; d d a.
series of nests rising one above another, with
resting platforms in front of each ; e e e venti-
lating windows. In fig. 988 we give section of
the nests behind the stairs : a a a the treads, b b b
the risers in which the entrance holes are made,
c c c the bodies of the nests, d d d back doors
to them.

aaouNi>-PLAW or AMKRIIAN POULTRY-HOUSE

SCALE, J INCH TO THX FOOT.

Fig. 987.

Fig. 988.

bl i

ICT1ON OF AMERICAN POULTRY-HOC
SCALE IN F10. 938.

FRENCH STEADING. 525

1775. SECTION THIRD French Steading. In fig. 989 we give the plan of
the imperial farm-steading at Yincennes, near Paris : a the house of the

LAN OF THE IMPERIAL FAKM-STEADISO

farm-bailiff, b the dairy, c the dairy wash-house, d the coach-house, e wood-
house, f infirmary, g stable, h harness-room, i implements, j machine-house,
k living-room for farm-labourers, I piggeries, with yard ; m box for lambs, with
yard ; n straw-cutting room, o place for horse-gear, outside building, for
working the straw-cutter placed at p ; q the shed for calves, with yard ; r r
cow-house for 50 cows ; s sheep-shed, with yard ; t lamb and ewe shed, with
yards. The scale of this drawing is O m - 0012 to the metre. The French metre
is 39.371 inches, or rather over 3 feet 3 inches. For the above drawing we are
indebted to the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique (Paris), for May 5, I860 a valu-
able work, and very ably conducted by M. Barral.

526 PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

SUBDIVISION FOURTH Estimates and Calculations of Artificers' Work of various kinds.

1776. The limits of the work prevent us from giving full descriptions of the
methods adopted in practice for estimating the quantities of materials used in
building. The subject is too elaborate to admit of this being done ; it will be
sufficient for our purposes if we give in brief abstract form a selection of calcu-
lations and statements, which will enable our readers to form a rough estimate,
sufficiently accurate for ordinary ptirposes, of the quantities of materials required
for any structure or part of a structure. The quantities being known, it will be
an easy matter to ascertain from a tradesman the cost of supplying them, charged
in the usual way.

1777. SECTION FIRST Diggers' and Excavators' work is estimated by the cubic
yard of 27 feet, or a " single load." Taking the cost of digging and throwing
out common soil to a depth not exceeding 6 feet at 5d. per yard cube, the cost
of digging in gravel or clay will be 7d. A ton of excavated matter is equal to
24 cubic feet of sand, 17 cubic feet of clay, 18 cubic feet of ordinary earth or
soil, 13 cubic feet of chalk.

1778. Well-Digging and Well-Steining with bricks is estimated by the foot in
depth, the price varying according to the diameter. Thus, where the diameter
is 3 feet, in clear of brickwork, and the price per foot in depth 13s., the price
for a diameter of 6 feet will be 23s. 6d., or thereabouts. By multiplying the
square of diameter of well, including brickwork, by '7854, the number of cubic
feet of earth obtained in digging each foot of depth will be ascertained. By
multiplying the square of the diameter of well by '7854, and dividing the quo-
tient by 6, the number of gallons of water contained in each foot of depth will
be ascertained.

1779. In Digging a Well 3 feet diameter in the clear, the quantity of earth
removed for every foot of depth is 11 cubic feet; of 4 feet diameter, 17 cubic
feet 17 in. ; of 5 feet, 20 cubic feet ; of 6 feet, 33 cubic feet 8 in.

1780. In Lining a Well with Brickwork (or steiriing it, as it is technically termed)
of 3 feet diameter ^ brick thick, the number of bricks required for every foot in
depth is 57 laid in mortar, 68 laid dry ; where the lining is 1 brick in thick-
ness the number required is 126 in mortar, 154 dry. For a well 4 feet diameter,
the lining ^ brick in thickness, the number of bricks for every foot will be 73
in mortar, 89 dry ; 1 brick thick, 159 in mortar, 194 dry. For 5 feet diameter,
\ brick lining, 90 in mortar, 110 dry ; 1 brick lining, 192 in mortar, 234 dry.
For 6 feet diameter, \ brick lining, 107 in mortar, 130 dry ; 1 brick lining, 226
in mortar, 276 dry.

1781. The number of Imperial Gallons contained in Wells of the following Diameter
for each Foot of Depth 3 feet diameter, 44 gallons; 4 feet, 78 ; 5 feet, 122 ;

6 feet, 176.

1782. SECTION SECOND. In estimating the quantity of brickwork, ascertain
by calculation the number of cubic feet in the wall ; Reduce the number of
these cubic feet so ascertained to the standard of brick and half, by multiply-
ing them by 8 and dividing by 9 ; or find the area of the face of wall in feet,
multiply the number of feet thus found by the number of half- bricks in the
thickness of the wall ; divide the result by 3, which will give the superficial
feet ; divide the amount by 272, and the result is the number of " rods " of the
standard thickness.

ESTIMATES OF WORK. 527

1783. In one foot superficial of wall, ^ brick in thickness, there will be five
bricks; 1 brick in thickness, 11 bricks; H brick thick, 16 bricks; 2 bricks
thick, 23 bricks. In three feet superficial, ^ brick thick, there will be 16 bricks ;
1 brick thick, 33 ; 1^- thick, 49 ; 2 bricks, 6G. In five feet superficial, \ brick
thick, 27 bricks; 1 thick, 55; 1^ thick, 82; 2 thick, 110. In ten feet super-
ficial, ^ thick, 55 ; 1, 110 ; 1^, 165 ; 2, 220 bricks. In twenty feet superficial,
i brick thick, 110 ; 1, 22 ; 1^, 330 ; 2, 441. In thirty feet superficial, |, 165 ;
1, 330; 1J, 496; 2, 661. In fifty feet superficial, 1 brick thick, 275 bricks;

1, 551 ; l|, 827 ; 2, 1102. In seventy feet superficial, , 386 ; 1, 772 ; 1|, 1158;

2, 1544. In ninety feet superficial, , 496; 1, 992 ; H, 4488; 2, 1985. In one
hundred feet superficial, |, 551; 1, 1102; 1-|-, 1654; 2, 2205.

1784. One rod of brickwork brick and half standard will take, allowing
for waste, 4500 bricks of the usual dimensions, 8f- inches long, 4^ broad, and
2| thick.

1785. The weight of 1000 bricks of above dimensions may be taken at 2^
tons.

1786. The weight of 1 rod of reduced brickwork, 272 feet superficial, stand-
ard thickness of brick and half, will be about 13 tons ; this includes mortar and
cement.

1787. Facings in brickwork estimated by the " foot superficial."

1788. Rubbed and Gauged Work in Mortar (brickwork) estimated by the "foot
run ; " do. in putty, by the "foot superficial."

1789. Brick Drains estimated by the " foot run."

1790. Brick-Nogging by the " yard superficial." To make 1 yard of brick-
nogging it will take 30 bricks on edge, and 45 on the flat.

1791. Brick-Paving by the square yard. 36 paving-bricks laid flat will be
required to pave 1 yard surface ; 82 on the edge. The size of a paving-tile is
9 inches long, 4| broad, If thick ; the weight of each about 3 Ib. 13 ounces.
It will take 36 stock-bricks laid flat, and 52 on edge, to pave a yard. 9 tiles
1 foot square, and 13 10-inch tiles go to the yard. Of Dutch clinkers laid on edge
140 will be required to pave a yard, 125 laid flat, 136 laid herring-bone fashion.
The size of a Dutch clinker is 6|- inches long, 3 inches wide, and 1^ inch thick,
its weight about 1 Ib. The size of a "foot paving-tile " is 11J inches square,
its thickness 1^ inches, and weight 12- Ib. The size of a "ten-inch paving-
tile " is 9|- inches square, its thickness 1 inch, and its weight 8| Ib.

1792. SECTION THIRD Stone-Paving. 1 ton of 6-inch granite-paving will
cover 4 yards superficial ; a ton of 9-inch granite, 2J yards ; a ton of pebble-
paving, 4 to 4| yards; of ray stone, 5 to 5^ yards.

1793. Tiling is estimated by the " square " of 100 superficial feet. Laid to
a 6-inch gauge, it will take 768 plain-tiles to " one square " of 100 feet ; to a
7-inch gauge, 655 ; to an 8-inch, 576. A " pan-tile " is 10| inches long, 6
wide, -f of an inch in thickness, and weighs 37 ounces. Laid to a gauge of 10
inches, it will take 180 pan- tiles to make a " square ;" to a gauge of 11 inches,
160; and to a gauge of 12 inches, 150 to the square. The length of a
" pan-tile " is 13| inches, its breadth 9|, and thickness \ inch, its weight
75 ounces.

1794. Mortar. A " 2 load" is 7 cubic feet, or 21 striked bushels. To make
it, there are required 9 bushels of lime, and 1 cubic yard of sand. A "hod "
of mortar is equal to 1134 cubic inches, and will lay or set 100 bricks of the
ordinary dimensions. The size of a hod is 9 inches by 9, and 14 inches long ;
it will carry 20 bricks of the ordinary dimensions. One " rod " will take 184

528 PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

hods of mortar. A "rod" of brickwork will take of mortar to set them, 1| cubic
yards of chalk-lime and 3 " loads " of drift, or 1 cubic yard of stone-lime and
3 loads of sand.

1795. Cement. A barrel contains 5 bushels, and weighs 3 cwt. To cement
a " rod " of brickwork 36 bushels are required. A yard square of 14-inch wall
takes If bushels ; of 9-inch, 1 bushel ; of 4-inch wall, bushel. To " point "
joints of a yard square, one-eighth of a bushel will be required. To plaster a
yard square of plain surface in cement, about one-third of a bushel will be
reqxured.

1796. Laths. Laths are of two kinds, "plain-tile" and "pan-tile." The
"plain-tile " laths are 1^ inch wide and inch thick. When 5 feet long, 100
laths make one "bundle ;" when 4 feet long, 125; and when 3 feet long, 167
go to the " bundle : " 500 feet run of laths, of any length, also constitute a
"bundle;" 30 bundles make 1 "load." One square of plain-tiling takes 1
bundle of laths, or 500 feet run ; or it will cover 4^ yards superficial, 500 nails
being required. " Pan-tile " laths are 1| inch wide, 1 inch thick ; 12, 10 feet
long each, make 1 " bundle."

1797. Plastering is estimated by the square foot or yard; mouldings by the
lineal foot. To cover 75 yards of " render and set " in brickwork, 1 cubic yard of
chalk-lime, 2 cubic yards of sand, and 3 bushels of hair, will be required. The
same quantity will cover 70 yards on lath, or 65 yards of " plaster," or
" render two coats and set " on brickwork, or 60 yards of the same on lath.

1798. Slating is estimated by the "square" of 100 superficial feet. The
"duchess" slate measures 24 inches by 12; 1000 will cover 10 squares. The
" countess " measures 20 inches by 10, and 1000 will cover 7 squares. The
" ladies " slate measures 15 inches by 8, and 1000 will cover 4^ squares.
The " doubles " measure 13 inches by 6, and 1000 will cover 2^ squares.
A square of "duchess," "countess," or "ladies," will weigh about 6 cwt.
" Westmoreland " slate varies in size, as also do " rags " and " queens." A
superficial foot of slate-slab, 1 inch in thickness, will weigh about 14 Ib.
Scotch blue slate is thicker, smaller, and stronger than the Welsh or Eng-
lish : the Scotch grey slate is thicker than either, and not so strong as the
Scotch blue.

1799. A square of " pan-tiling " will weigh about 7 cwt.; of " plain-tiling,"
double. A square of lead covering, weighing 7 Ib. to the superficial foot, will
weigh 6J cwt. ; of " copper," 1 Ib. to the foot, 1 cwt.

1800. SECTION FOURTH. Carpentry and Joinery Work are estimated by the
square foot or yard ; mouldings and fancy work, by the lineal or foot run. Large
work, as flooring, boarding, &c., is estimated by the square of one hundred feet
superficial. A "load" of timber is made up of '600 feet superficial of plank
or deal 1 inch thick ; or 400 feet superficial, 1^- inch in thickness ; 300 feet
superficial of 2 inch thickness; 240 feet superficial of 2^ inch thickness; 200
feet of 3 inch thick stuff; 170 feet of 3^ inch thickness ; 150 feet superficial
of 4 inches in thickness. 40 cubic feet of " rough " and 50 of " square " timber
make 1 load.

1801. Deals 12 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 2^ inches thick, contain each
1 foot 10 inches cube ; 120 of them make 4| loads of timber. Deals 12 inches
long, 9 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, measure each 2 feet 3 inches cube ; and
120 make 5f loads of timber. 120 deals make what is termed "one hundred."

1802. Weight of Timber. Of fir 64 cube feet make 1 ton ; of ash, 45 ; of
beech, 51 ; of elm, 60 ; of oak, 39.

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS.

529

1803. The following Tables will be found useful in calculating the quantity
of timber in joists of floors, rafters in roof's, partitions, and roof trusses, &c.,
according to given scantling and space apart :

12 INCHES APART

11J INCHES APART.

llj INCHES APART.

13 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE.

Cube.

PnV.0

In. In.

Ft. In.

In. In.

Ft. In.

In. In.

Ft. In.

>.- by 3

4 3

34 by 3

6 4

1 by 3

2 ... 4

5 8

84 ... 4

8 6

I ,. 4

2 8

2 ... f>

7 1

34 ... '5

10 8

1 ... 5

3 4

21... 6

8 ii

3?, ... 6

12 10

1 ... 6

21 ... 7

9 11

35 ... 7

1 ... 7

4 8

2] ... 8

11 4

34 ... 8

17 2

1 ... 8

5 4

24 ... !

12 9

34 ... 9

19 4

1 ... 9

24 ... 10

14 2

34 ... 10

21 t>

V 11

o<> o

O.> ... 11 ^..J o

Qi 19 91 10

UTT IXCHT" APART

*j-> ... ^i tj \j

llf INCHES APART.

2.iby 3

4 9

llg; INCHES APART.

2j ... 4

6 4

14 by 3

2 6

2j ... 5

7 11

3| by 3

6 8

!; ... 4

3 4

23 ... 6

9 (i

3^ ... 4

1 ; ; ... 5

4 2

21.:: 7

11 1

3|... 5

11 4

ll ... 6

23 ... 8

12 8

32 ... fi

12 (5

1; ... 7

5 10

2j . 9

14 3

3|... 7

14 8

1 ... 8

6 8

2| ... 10

15 10

3|... 8

l(j 10

l| ... 9

7 6

32 ... 9

;?2 ... 10

21 2

11J INCHES APART.

;i2 ... 11

23 4

32 ... 12

25 (i

11J INCHES APART.

2J by 3

5 3

22 4

Hby 3

2$ ... 5

8 9

12 INCHES APART

11 ... 4

22 ... 6

10 6

ll ... 5

22 ... 7

12 3

16 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE.

l.i ... 6

2 ... 8

11 .- 7

22 ... 9

15 9

4 by 4

8 11

ll ... 8

2f ... 10

17 fi

4 ... 5

11 2

li -. 9

4 ... (i

13 5

4 ... 7

15 8

12 INCHES APART

4 ... 8

17 11

11J INCHES APART.

15 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE.

4 ... 9
4 ... 10

20 2
22 5

13 by 3

3 6

3 by 3
3 ... 4

5 4

7 2

4 ... 11

4 ... 12

24 8
26 11

ll .. 4

4 8

3 ... 5

If ... 5

5 10

3 ... 6

10 10

ll ... 6

3 ... 7

12 8

l| ... 7

8 2

3 ... 8

14 6

ll ... 8

9 4

3 ... 9

16 4

ll ... 9

10 6

3 ... 10

18 2

12... 10

11 8

3 ... 11
3 ... 12

20
21 10

12 INCHES APART

llf INCHES APART.

14 INCHES FROM CENTRE TO CENTRE.

3i by 3

5 10

31 ... 4

7 10

2 by 3

3 9

3;.... 5

9 10

2 ... 4

3; ... 6

11 10

2 ... 5

6 3

3; ... 7

13 10

2 ... 6

7 6

3; ... 8

15 10

2 ... 7

8 9

3; ... 9

17 10

2O
O

3 ... 10

19 10

2 ... 9

11 3

3; ... 11

21 10

2 ... 10

12 6

3| ... 12

23 10

530

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Table of Calculations continued.

12 INCHES APART.

Cube.

In. In.

Cube.
Ft. In.

In. In.

Cube.
Ft. In

In.
3;

In.
by 3

Ft. In.
5 9

by 3
... 4
... 5

4 l|

2 5 by 3

2; ... 4

2 : ... 5

4 2;

5 7;

3;
3;
3;

... 4
... 5
... 6

7 9
9 9
11 9

. 6

4 Hi

2; ... 6

8 5;

... 7

13 9

5 9

2| ... 7

9 10

... 8

15 6

6 7

2| ... 8

11 3;

... 9

17 9

7 *;

2| ... 9

12 8;

... 10

19 9

* " ~M

2| ... 10

14 1;

... 11

21 9

I ... 12

23 9

12 INCHES APART.

12 INCHES APART.
3.1 by 3 62

liby 3

2 11

4 7.

4 ... 4

8 4

l 4

3 11

6 2.

3 ... 5

10 6

1^ ... 5

4 11

2 ..." 5

7 9

... 6

12 8

... 6

5 11

2 ... 6

9 4

... 7

14 10

... 7

6 11

2 7

10 11

... 8

7 11

2 ... 8

12 6.

... 9

19 2

. 9

8 11

2 9

14 1

... 10

21 4

2 ... 10

15 8.

... 11

23 6

9K R

12 INCHES APART.

by 3
4

3 4.1
4 6|

2fby 3

35 by 3

6 4i

8 81

5 8J

22 ... 4

6 9

34 ... 5

11 0|

-V

6 10;

22 ... 5

8 6

32 ... 6

12 2J

22 ... 6

10 3

32... 7

14 4|

14 '" 8

9 2

22 ... 7

34... 8

16 6|

12 9

10 4

2f ... 8

13 9

3| ... 9

18 81

l| ... 10

11 e;

22 ... 10

15 6
17 3

32 ... 10
32 ... H

20 10|
23 0.1

32 ... 12

25 2|

1804. The following are calculations of the cubical contents of timber in
various roofs in a square of 100 feet :

QUEKN-POST ROOF, Fig. 990.
Tie-beam a, 10 in. by 5.

Principals //and Straining-beam g, 9 in. by 5.

Ft.

In.

Cube.

Ft.

In.

Queen-posts h h, 7 in. by 5.

Struts i i, 5 in. by 5.

Cubic feet in all.

15 feet 10 inches cube in 1 square.

Area.
Ft. In.

16
9

144 Feet superficial.

CONTEXTS OF TIMBER IX ROOFS.

531

Ft. In.

27
10

28
9
4

Cube.
Ft. In.

7 C

1 2

1 4

Kixa-FosT ROOF, Fig. 901.

Tie-beam c c, 10 in. by 4.

Principals //,//, 9 iu. by 4.

King-post c c, 6 in. by 4.

Struts # </, 4 in. by 4.

Cubic feet in all.

16 feet cube in 1 square.

A ITS .

Ft. In.

13 (i

H\S Feet supcifickl.

Fig. 001.

stsG-rcsi r.oor SCAT.E is- r

532

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Ft. In. ! Cube.
21 ! Ft - In -

24
6
3

12
3
3

3 6

7 3

TIE-BEAM ROOF, Fig. 992.
Tie-beam b b, 8 in. by 3.

Principals d d, 6 in. by 3.

Struts e e and Foot-piece /, 3 in. by 3.

Cubic feet in alL

9 feet 1 inch cube to 1 square.

Area.
Ft. In.

10 6
7 6

78 9 Feet superficial.

Fig. 992.

TIE-BBaM BOOF.

Ft. In.
27

13
5
2

Cube.
Ft. In.

1 10

20
o

COLLAR-ROOF, Fig. 99"3.
Rafters a a, d d, 5 in. by 2.

Collar e, 5 in. by 2.

Cubic feet in all.

3 feet 9| inches cube to 1 square.

Area.
Ft. III.

10
7

70 Feet superficial.

Fig. 993.

COtLAR-KOOr.

CONTENTS OF TIMBER IN PARTITIONS.

533

1805. These are the calculations of the cubical contents of timber in parti-
tions in a square of 100 feet.

PARTITION", Fig. 99-1.
Head b a, Sill d c, 6 hi. by 5.

Door Heads y y, 5 in. by 5.
Posts e /, 6 in. by 5.
King-post k, 7 in. by 5.
Struts h h, 5 in. by 5.
Puncheons i /, 5 in. by 3.

Quarters 1 1, 5 in. by 3.

Cubic feet in all.

15^ cube feet to 1 square.

Fig. 904.

Ft.

In.

Cube.

2.28

Ft.

In.

4.9

2.12

18.9

1806. Purlins, ridges, to be measured separately, not being included as parts
of the " Truss."

1807. SECTION FIFTH Wrouglit-Iron Girders and Beams. The following, on
the sizes, weight per foot run, and breaking-weight of wrought-iron beams, of
which the section is in fig. 619, p. 380, will be useful. The beams are manu-
factured by Messrs Matthew, Ledward, & Co. of Liverpool ; and the results
named have all been confirmed by experience. We are indebted to the above
firm for the data given below. They are given only for distances of 17 feet
9 inches between the supports ; the beam being laid in the wall 7i inches on
each side. The weight on the fifth column is that which the beam \rill bear

534

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

when suspended from a pressing upon its centre ; the last column shows the
weight which the same will bear when it is distributed over its surface :

Weight
in Ib.
per lin-
eal foot.

Depth of
Beam.

Width of
Upper Flange Thickness of
and Lower Central Rib.
Flange.

Breaking
Weight in
Ib. at centre.

Breaking
Weight uni-
formly dis-
tributed.

Inches.

llf

16,082

26,840

11?

21,120

35,200

12,760

21,340

8,270

13,730

6,290

10,450

1'i

8,270

13,790

1,980

3,300

2,680

4,450

1808. Beams subjected to the extreme strain indicated in the above, will
retain their elasticity, but may become deflected to a greater extent than may
be desirable. To avoid all risk, it will be better to reduce the loads to one-half
the above. By increasing the thickness of the beams, they will be able to
resist greater weights. As, in some instances, it may be necessary to retain the
depth of any given beam, and yet to enable it to resist greater pressure than
given in the table, the following rule will give the increased weight to be given
to the beam per foot : To enable, for instance, the beam, llf inches deep, to bear
50,000 Ib. in place of 26,840 Ib., as above given, what addition must be made
to the weight of 44 Ib. to the lineal foot ? The following proportion will give
it : 26,840 : 44 : : 50,000 : is to the weight required. Again, supposing it is
desired to know what weight a beam will support, 9f inches deep, but weighing
60 Ib. to the lineal foot, in place of 42, as above given, the following proportion
will give the result required : 42 Ib. : 21,340 :: 60 : is to the number of pounds
the beam will bear.

1809. Weight of Round Iron Bars used as Tension-Rods for Roof -Trusses, in
I Foot Lengths. Diameter \ inch, weight 10J oz. ; diameter J- inch, weight
16 oz. ; diameter f inchp weigh.t 23 \ oz. ; diameter | inch, weight 32 oz. ;
diameter 1 inch, weight 41 \ oz. ; diameter \\ inch, weight 53 oz.=3 Ib. 5 oz. ;
diameter \\ inch, weight 65^ oz.=4 Ib. \\ oz. ; diameter If inch, weight
79 oz.=4 Ib. 15 oz. ; diameter 1| inch, weight 95 oz.=5 Ib. 15 oz.

1810. Weight of Lead per Foot Superficial. Where the thickness is -^ inch,
the weight is 3 Ib. 12 oz. to the foot; where J inch thick, the weight is 7 Ib.
8 oz. ; where \ inch thick, the weight is 14 Ib. 12 oz. ; where | inch thick,
the weight is 19 Ib. 12 oz.

1811. Surface covered by 1 cwt. of Lead of a given Weight to the Foot. Where
the weight of the lead is 4 Ib. to the foot superficial, 112 Ib. will cover 28 feet
superficial; where 6 Ib. to the foot, 112 Ib. will cover 22 feet 5 inches super-
ficial; where 6 Ib. to the foot, 112 Ib. will cover 18 feet 8 inches. The above
are for "milled lead." Where " cast lead" is used at 7 Ib. to the foot super-
ficial, 112 Ib. will cover 16 feet superficial; where the weight is 8 Ib. to the
foot, 112 Ib. will cover 14 feet; 9 Ib. to the foot, 112 Ib. will cover 12 feet 5|
inches ; 10 Ib. to the foot, 112 Ib. will cover 11 feet 3 inches ; 11 Ib. to the foot,
10 feet 2 inches will be covered ; 12 Ib. to the foot, 9 feet 4 inches will be
covered by the 112 Ib. The reader desirous to know the price of "building
materials," should consult Taylor's or Laxton's Builders' Price-Book, pub-
lished annually.

GLOSSARY. 535

SUBDIVISION FIFTH. Glossary or Explanation of some of the Terms used in
Artificers Work, as Bricklaying, Masonry, Carpentry, Joinery, Slating,
Plastering, and Plumbing,

1812. SECTION FIRST Glossary. The following must only be taken as a
contribution and a slight one to a department of constructive literature which
is singularly deficient in complete works. Many causes, however, exist to
render the task of compiling a full " dictionary of terms" a peculiarly difficult
one ; the most important of which is, that not only in each of the three countries,
as England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in many of their separate counties or
districts, a set of nearly totally different terms are used. Indeed, so marked is
the discrepancy between the technicalities of one district and those of another,
even in the same country, that many of the terms inserted in a specification
fitted for the practice of the one would be quite unknown in the other. A
writer in the Building News puts the matter so pointedly and so well, that we
cannot do better than avail ourselves of his remarks :

" These are days of railway locomotion and telegraphic converse, which in a few
generations may have the salutary effect of reducing to one uniform standard the
phraseology of both London and provincial builders nay, it may even destroy event-
ually those troublesome discrepancies that exist between town and country weights and
measures. Much might be written on these discrepancies : they are well known to all
town architects of extensive practice, as discrepancies that often produce great confu-
sion and misunderstanding. Thus, while a London builder values his walls by the
superficial ' reduced rod,' and assumes them to be l^V brick in thickness, in the south-
west counties we find the walls valued by the lineal ' rope ; ' and in the northern they
are again estimated by superficial measurement, but instead of the rod of li brick
thick, by the square yard of 1 brick in thickness. In short, a literary comparison of
the different modes of measuring a wall that prevail in the several counties of England,
would create no small amazement in the minds of those town architects who have
never thought much on the subject. It is in its entirety a vast question and a curious,
which at present we will not further enter upon.

" Our remarks mainly apply to the mere local phraseology or trade dialect of the
provincial builders, of which, as we have just said, a glossary is needed that is to
say, of the patois which affects only the nouns representing the several artificers' works
connected with building operations. A glossary of every dialectal expression is not our
aim, since that would be altogether too formidable an affair. Whole sentences of patois
must be left to time, the tram, and the telegraph to deal with ; and London architects
travelling into the north to look after their works must take their chance ; and when
they hear their contractor ordering his men to 'get a gate and fettle f midden,' must
construe the mysterious order into ' set to work and repair the cesspool ' as they best
may, with the aid of some local interpreter ; but actual nouns referring to building,
and which are' to appear in his specifications and letters of instruction during progress
of work, are matters of serious consequence, deserving of a glossary or short dic-
tionary, such as should, as the book-reviewers say, ' form a portion of every architect's
library.' "

1813. We have in the title to this Subdivision used the expression, " of some
of the terms." This has been done advisedly, and for the reason so well stated
in the above extract. The majority, however, of "metropolitan" building
phrases will be met with in our list, and also of those which are generally used
by writers on the constructive arts. In this way, and so far as they go, our
list of "explanations" will, we trust, be in some degree useful. We have in-
serted a few of the Scottish terms, and also of those used in the important dis-

536

PEACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

tricts of Lancashire. For these last we are mainly indebted to an article in the
Building News for July 20, 1860 ; from which we have made the above extract.
The glossary is as follows :

ABREYOIR (used in masonry). The space be-
tween two adjoining stones, to be filled with
mortar.

ABUTMENTS (masonry). The supporting or side
walls of an arch are so termed.

ABUTTING JOINT (in carpentry). The junction of
two pieces of timber, of which the fibres of one
are at right angles, or an obtuse angle to those
of another. See par. 1163, p. 289.

ANGLE FLOAT (in plastering). The part made at
the internal angle formed by the junction of two
sides of the room.

ANGLE OF EQUILIBRIUM IN REPOSE, in materials.
That angle at which the materials will stand
without slipping down or falling. The angles
for different materials are assumed to be as
follows :

Fine dry sand 35

Gravel 37

Dry loose shingle 39

Dry common earth 4"

Earth slightly damp 54

Earth of the strongest and most
compact nature 55*

The term, when used in construction, has refer-
ence to that point to which an arch can sustain
itself without centring.

ANGLE or HIP RAFTER (in carpentry). The short
rafters used at the angles of a hip-roof. See
figs. 417, 418, p. 305.

ANGLE- RAFTER (in carpentry). A term equiva-
lent to "hip-rafter," Scottick " piend-rafter."

APOPHYGEE. See MOULDINGS.

APRON (in plumbing). A term used in Scotland
equivalent to FLUSHING, which see.

ARCH (in masonry and bricklaying). The curved
part of a building placed over an opening.
Arches used in buildings are of various kinds
as semicircular and elliptic. A " scheme-arch"
is that in which the soffit or under side is less
than a semicircle. An "invert" or "inverted
arch " has the arch described from a centre or
centres above the arch ; it is usually adopted in
basements where the foundation is not deemed
very secure. A "relieving arch" is placed over
the lintel of an opening to ease it of the pres-
sure. For a description of the various parts of
an arch, see par. 9(54, p. 219.

ARCHITRAVE (in joinery). The moulded part
fixed round a window or door opening, as in
fig. 519, p. 332.

ARK (in masonry). The pit in which is placed the
water-wheel of a mill.

ARRIS (in joinery). The corner formed by the
meeting of two surfaces, placed at an angle to
each other.

ARRIS- FILLET (in slating). See TILTING- FILLET.

ASHLAR (in masonry). The hewn stone used in
fronting buildings of a superior kind.

ASHLETS (in carpentry). The vertical strips of
wood or studs placed at the sides of an attic
room, dividing the angular parts formed by
the slope of the roof, and forming straight or
vertical sides to the apartment.

ASTRAGALS. Sash-bars which support the frames
of glass. See fig. 492, p. 322.

ATTIC. See GARRET.

BACK-FILLET (in masonry). The projecting mar-
gin of a door-jamb.

BACK FLAPS (in joinery). The additional pieces
a a, fig. 995, attached to the front shutter
when that is not broad enough to cover the
window.

Fig. 995.

BACK TXAP3

BACK OF A SLATE. Its upper side.

BACKER. Where the slates begin to narrow, the
narrow slate placed on the upper side of a broad
slate is termed the backer.

BACKS (in carpentry). Lancashire name for the
"principal" rafters of a roof.

BALUSTERS (in joinery). Vertical bars placed in
the treads of a stair to support the handrail
above. See figs. 461-3, p. 316.

BANDS (in ironmongery). A north of England
term used to designate " strap-hinges."

BARGE BOARDS (in joinery). The ornamented
raking or inclined boards at the gable of a
building.

BARRED DOOR (in joinery). Scotch term for
"lodged door."

BASTARD STUCCO (in plastering). Three-coat
plaster.

BATTEN (in carpentry). Pieces of wood are so
called which measure from 1 to 7 inches in
breadth, and ^ to H inch in thickness.

BAULK (in carpentry). A Scotch term equivalent
to "tie-beam" 1 or collar.

BAT. A plaster rib made to regulate the floating
rule ; it is formed between the screens.

BEAD. See MOULDINGS.

BEAD-BUTT (in joinery). Where the bead is
worked all round on the edge of the panel.

BEAD-FLUSH. In this case the bead is worked
all round the edge of the frame in which the
panel is inserted.

BEAM (in carpentry and iron - framing). The
timber or beams placed horizontally, to sustain
weights or resist pressure. See fig. 323, p. 281,
for timber, and figs. 607-10, p. 375, for iron
beams.

BEAM-FILLING (in masonry or brickwork). The
operation of filling in the spaces between tim-
bers with bricks or stones, is so called.

BEAM-FILLED (in bricklaying). Where the inter-
stices between beams, rafters, &c., are filled in
with bricks and mortar, they are said to be
" beam-filled."

GLOSSARY.

537

BEARING. The span or space in the clear be-
tween the supports of a beam. The term is
also used to designate the hold which a beam
has of the wall on which it rests.

BEARING WALL (in bricklaying or masonry).
The wall which supports a superincumbent
part, and having a solid foundation. S<.e tig.
192, p. 218.

BED OB' A SLATE. Its lower side.

BEDDING BRICKS. Disposing them horizontally
in a wall.

BEDDING TIMBERS. Fixiucr various timbers, as
the linings of doors and windows, in lime-and-
hair mortar.

BlNDlNG-JoisTS (in carpentry). The transverse
beams of a floor, carrying the bridging-joists
placed above at right angles. See fig. 381,
p. 293.

BINDING-RAFTERS. See PURLINS ; see fig. 370,
p. 290.

BIRD'S MOUTH. The joint formed by cutting an
angular piece out of the foot of a rafter, so that
it will rest or abut upon the wall or pole plate.

BLOCKINGS. The solid parts placed behind, to
strengthen the angles formed by the junction of
two pieces of timber, a b or b c, fig. 996.

Fig. 996.

BRKSTSUMMER. A beam placed over a void or
opening, and which supports the wall over.

BRICKNOGGING. Filling in the spaces between
the quarters of a wooden partition with bricks
set in mortar.

BRIDGED GUTTER. Gutters in which the boards
are supported by bearers. Sue fig. 443, p. 312.

BRIDGING (in carpentry). The Lancashire term
for strutting a floor. See DWANGS.

BRIDGING- JOISTS. The beams in a floor sup-
porting the flooring-boards. See fig. 381, p. 293.

BRIDLE- JOIST. A'ee TRIMMING-JOISTS.

BRINGING FORWARD (in painting) means the prim-
ing and painting of new or old work, so that all
the surface shall have a uniform appearance on
being finished.

BROACHED. A Scotch term in masonry, in which
the face of ashlar is worked in narrow parallel
horizontal stripes with a pointed chisel.

BUILDING BEAMS.- -Securing two or more beams
together, in order to increase the depth, form-
ing a deep beam out of two or more shallow
ones, See figs. 376, 377, p. 292.

BULL-NOSED BRICKS (in brickwork). Bricks hav-
ing one angle rounded.

Bu R us. ( ,'liii ker- bricks.

BUTMENT-CHEKKS. The solid parts on each side
of a mortise-hole. See fig. 340, p. 284.

BUTT AND BEN. A term used in Scotland to de-
signate a cottage or house with two rooms, as
kitchen and bedroom ; the bedroom end of the
house is called the "ben," the kitchen the
" butt."

BYRE. Cow-house. See also SHIPPEN.

BOLECTION MOULDING (in joinery). Mouldings
which project above the surface of tiie framing.
BOND. The manner of disposing bricks in differ-
ent courses. "Flemish Bond" consists in form-
ing every course with headers and stretchers
alternately ; " English Bond," in forming each
course alternately of headers and stretchers
throughout. See par. 953, p. 215.

BOND (in masonry). Is placing the stones so
that they lap one upon another, the joints of
two below being covered with the solid part of
the one above, the whole forming a compact
mass.

BOND or LAP OF A SLATE. The distance between
the nail of the under and the lower edge of the
upper slate.

BOND TIMBERS. Pieces of timber placed horizon-
tally between the courses of brick or stone, to
unite together.

BOSGIN. The Lancashire name for stall space
in a cow-byre or stable.

BOXINGS. The cases or recesses at the sides of a
window, into which the shutters fold back. See
fig. 514, p. 331.

BRACE (in carpentry). A strut placed at an angle
to support another and inclined piece, as arafter,
or placed between the uprights of a partition or
framing to strengthen it. See fig. 405, p. 301.

BRACKET. A small support against a wall,
usually ornamented.

BREAKING JOINT. Placing stones or bricks so
that the solid parts of one course shall fall upon
the joints of the course below.

BREASTS OF A CHIMNEY. The solid parts of the
wall between the room and the chimney-flue.

BREASTS OF THE RYBETS or REBATES (in masonry).
A Scotch term equivalent to REVEALS, which
see.

CAMBER (in carpentry). When abeam is raised
in the centre, making the upper side convex and
lower concave, it is said to bo cambered. Cam-
bering is done to strengthen the beam and to
prevent it becoming straight under the pressure
which it has to sustain.

CANT-MOULDING (in joinery). A moulding with
a bevelled face is so called.

CANTALIVERS (in carpentry). The pieces of tim-
ber which project at right angles to the walls
and at the upper parts, to support the eaves or
gutter - boarding, are so called. See fig. 441.
p. 311.

CARRIAGE OF A STAIR (in carpentry). The beams
at the side which carry the steps. See fig. 45ti,
p. 315.

CASEMENT-MOULDING (in joinery). A "hollow"
or concave moulding.

CAVETTO (in joinery). See MOULDINGS.

CEILING-JOISTS. Small beams to which the
ceiling of a room is attached.

CHAMFERED (in joinery or masonry). The edge
or corner of a piece of wood or stone cut in a
sloping or angular direction, is said to be cham-
fered. See SPLAYED BRICK.

CHAMFERING (in joinery). Cutting off the cor-
ner formed by the junction of pieces of timber
at right angles, so that the edge should be slop-
ing or bevelled.

CHECKED (in joinery and masonry). A term
used in Northumberland and Scotland, equiva-
lent to " rebated."

CHEEKS (in masonry). A north of England term,
equivalent to "jambs."

CHIMNEY. See FLUES. Where there is only one
it is named a chimney "shaft;" where more
than one, a "stack" of chimneys.

CLAMP (in joinery). The cross-piece uniting a

538

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

number of pieces of wood placed side by side,
as is a to b, fig. 997, and which are at right
angles to the cross-piece. The ends of the
pieces of wood have tongues c, which pass into
the groove made in the edge of the cross-
piece d.

Fig. 997.

CLEARCOLE (in painting). The cheapest kind of
painting is so called ; the holes are first filled
up with putty, then a coat of whiting and size
is given, the whole finished with a coat of lead
oil-colour.

CLENCHING NAILS. Bending back the ends
which pass through to the reverse side of the
timber.

COARSE STUFF (in plastering). A mixture of
lime and hair used in floating, and also in the
first course of plastering.

COAT (in plastering and painting). Being one
layer of plaster or paint.

COCK-BEAD. See MOULDINGS.

CODDINGS (in masonry). A Scotch term, desig-
nating the footings of the jambs of ground-floor
chimney-pieces.

COLLAR. The horizontal piece which connects
rafters at any place above their ends. See
BAULK.

COLLAR-BEAMS (in carpentry). The horizontal
pieces framed into and between the heads of
queen-posts and rafters. See fig. 400, p. 299,
and fig. 407, p. 301.

CONGEE. See MOULDINGS.

CONTRACT. The agreement upon which the
buildings are constructed.

CORBELS (in masonry). Stones projecting from
a wall, on which to support beams. The last
stones in the coping of a gable end, and the
eaves are also so called, and which serve as
the abutment for the skew or gable coping.

CORNERS. The square ashlar stones which lie at
the corner of two walls and unite them.

CORNICE. Congeries of mouldings which crown
or finish any composition externally or inter-
nally.

COUNTER LATH. The third lath placed between
two gauged ones is so called.

COUPLES (in carpentry). The principal rafters
of a roof. The term is Scottish.

COUPLES (in carpentry). Rafters framed together
in pairs ; a tie is usually provided, uniting their
feet, the whole forming one of the simplest
forms of truss. See fig. 403, p. 300.

COURSING. A Scotch term in masonry, in which

all the stones of a course are of one thickness.
CRESTING (in slatery). Ornamental ridge-tiles

well finished.
CROSS - TAILED HINGES (in ironmongery).

Hinges provided with a long piece fixed to the

door, and a shorter cross-piece fixed to the

frame. See figs. 696, 697, p. 405.
CROW-STEPS (in masonry). The coping of a gable

in the form of steps.
CROWN-POST (in carpentry). A term equivalent

to king-post.
CURB- ROOF (in carpentry). A mansard - roof.

See fig. 421, p. 306.
CURTAIL STEP (in joinery). The lowest step of

a staircase, the outer end of which is usually

formed spirally.

CYMA-RECTA. See MOULDINGS.
CYMA-HEVERSA. See MOULDINGS.

DEAFENING. A Scotch term equivalent to PUG-
GIXG, which see.

DEAL (in joinery). The standard thickness of
deals is 1J inch, standard length 12 feet, usual
breadth 9 inches.

DOG-LEGGED STAIRS (in carpentry). Stairs in
which there is no well-hole.

DOOKS (in carpentry). A Scotch term for wood
bricks built into the wall at intervals to receive
nails for standards. See NOGS.

DOOR-FRAME (in joinery). The casing of a door
into which it shuts. See fig. 473, p. 318.

DOORS. See figs. 464-85, p. 317.

DORMER WINDOW. Used in a roof to light an
attic ; the frame is set vertically. See tig. 436.
p. 310.

DOTS (in plastering). Patches of plaster placed
in the line of screed and bags to regulate the
floating rule.

DOUBLE-HUNG SASHES (in joinery). Windows
in which the upper and lower sashes are alike
suspended by lines and weights.

DRAG. A tool used in masonry to work the
surface of freestone, consisting of a thin steel
blade, with fine teeth on one of its edges.

DRAGON TIE OR PIECE (in carpentry). The an-
gular piece placed near the junction of two
wall-plates, to support the end of the hip-rafter
in a hipped roof. See fig. 411, p. 302.

DRIFT (in masonry). The horizontal thrust of
an arch upon the butment walls.

DRIPS (in plumbing). Making gutters or flats;
the drips are formed at the joints of the end,
by turning up the edge of one piece and
putting the other over it.

DROP-SPOUT. Lancashire term for the "down
spout" or " rain-water trunk," leading off rain-
water from gutters to drains.

DROVED (in masonry). A term used in Scotland
to designate tooled flat work.

DUBBING OUT (in bricklaying). Where the sur-
face is uneven, it is levelled for plastering by
using tiles.

DWANGS (in carpentry). The Scotch name for the
struts of a floor. See STRUTS.

EASING. The Scotch term for eave.
EAVE (in slating). The lower edge of the slates
which project over the wall.

GLOSSARY.

539

ELBOWS OF A WINDOW (in joinery). The two
side panels under the front shutter.

EXTERNAL CORNERS (in masonry). The Scotch
term equivalent to QUOINS,, which see.

EXTKADOS. The upper or convex part of an
arch. See fig. 195, p. 219.

FACINGS (in joinery). The linings of woodwork
which cover the rough surfaces of interior
walls.

FANG. The narrow part of any tool which is
inserted into the handle.

FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. Boards, one edge of
which is thicker than another. They are used
for covering the sides of sheds or of wooden
roofs. See fig. 589, p. 370.

FILLET. See MOULDINGS.

FILLING-IN PIECES (in carpentry). The short
timbers of a roof, or the studs over the door-
head of partitions. See e e, fig. 380, or i i, fig.
384, p. 295.

FINE STUFF (in plastering). Is composed of
slaked lime, sifted and mixed with hair, and
sometimes fine sand.

FIRST COAT (in plastering). This is known by
various terms ; where in two-coat work the
first coat is laid upon laths, it is termed " lay-
ing," if on brick, "rendering;" if three-coat
work, it is called, if laid on lath, " pricking
up;" and " roughing in," if laid on brick.

FIRST-PIECE (in carpentry). Lancashire name
for the ridge-piece, asj, tig. 406, p. 301.

FLOAT. A tool used in plastering to bring' the
second coat of three-coat work to a fair sur-
face.

FLOATED LATH AND PLASTER. Three-coat work
for papering. The first coat is termed " prick-
ing up," the second, " floating," the third coat
is pricked up.

FLOATED WORK (in plastering). Work "roughed
in" or "pricked off," floated and set.

FLOORS. See figs. 380-82, pp. 292, 293.

FLOOR OF A HOUSE (in plans). In Scotland the
"first floor" is the ground-floor; in England
the term is used to designate the "bedroom"
or " second floor" plan. In England, in a house
of three storeys, the first bedroom floor is some-
times called " one pair plan ;" the second, the
" two pair plan." In all plans, the ground-floor
is termed the "ground-plan." The "cellar-
plan" shows the accommodation below the
ground-floor. Cellars are rarely used in Scot-
land, except in towns.

FLUES or FUNNELS (Vents, Scottice). The tubes
or channels formed vertically in walls to carry
off the smoke from fireplaces.

FLUSHINGS (in plumbing). Pieces of milled lead.
They are fixed round the edge of lead gutters
or flats one edge being fixed into the brick-
work, the other edge being dressed over the
lead. Flushings are also used round chimney-
stalks, hips, ridges, &c.

FOOTINGS (in bricklaying or masonry). The
lowest courses in a wall; they project out be-
yond thickness of the same, so as to give
ample bearing surface. See fig. 150, p. 208,
and fig. 177, p. 215.

FOOT-PACE (in joinery). The landing-place at
the end of a flight of steps in a stair.

FOUNDATION. See figs. 147, 148, p. 207. .

FRAMED AND BRACED DOOR (in joinery). See fig.
466, p. 317.

FRAMED DOOR (in joinery). See fig. 469, p.
317.

FRAMES (in joinery). The wood casings or lin-
ings round door and window openings.

GABLE. The triangular finish to the end wall of
a house.

GAB LIC COPING (in masonry).- The stone coping
of the gable of a building terminating the slate-
work. See SKEW.

GAGE (in plastering). A mixture used for form-
ing mouldings, and for the last coat of ceilings ;
it is made either of plaster and course, or plas-
ter and tine, stuff.

GARRKT. An apartment next the roof of a house,
in which the ceiling is inclined to the sides.
It is sometimes used as synonymous with
"attic," which designates, however, or should
designate, an apartment next the roof, in
which the ceiling is square to the sides of the
room.

GATHERING (in bricklaying). The narrowing of
the flue above the fireplace opening, bringing
it into the proper dimensions of the flue.

GAUGE (in tiling). The distance between the
first and the third laths the second lath is
placed between.

GAUGED ARCH (in bricklaying). Has the bricks
of which it is composed radiating from the
centre.

GIBLET-CHECK (in masonry). A term used in
Scotland to designate the "rebate" or " check"
cut in the jarnb and lintel of the door, to admit
of the door-frame falling into. See d e, fig. 545,
p. 353.

GIRDER. In a framed flooring the beam of
largest dimensions supporting the binding-
joists. See , fig. 382, p. 293.

GRAINING (in painting). Imitating the surface
of expensive woods in paint is so called.

GRUIF. The Scotch term for the gutter running
along the floor in front of cattle or horse
stalls.

GROOVING (in joinery). The cutting out in the
edge of a piece of timber, of a part rectangular
in section.

GROUND-PLATE (in carpentry). The lo.west beam
in which the mortise-holes are cut to receive
and support the upper timbers.

GROUNDS (in carpentry). Pieces of wood built
into the wall, which receive the nails used for
fixing the linings. To give a hold to the plas-
ter, they should be grooved on their outer
edges.

HACKING (in masonry). Where the stones in
a wall are not of uniform size, and the beds
thus on different levels, the irregularity in tho
courses thus formed is named hacking.

HALF-SPACE. See FOOT-PACE.

HAMMELS.- Tho term used in Scotland to desig-
nate the arrangement for sheltering store cattle,
consisting of a small shed with a small court
attached.

HAMMER-DRESSED. Stones are so when trimmed
with the hammer.

HANDRAIL (in joinery). The rail at the side of a
staircase, placed next the well-hole, 6 c, fig.
998 ; a is section of a handrail.

540

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

SECTION OF HiNE

HANGING-STYLE (in joinery). That side of the
frame of a door to which the door is hinged.

HAULING. The Scotch term for rough-cast. See
ROUGH-CAST.

HAWKE (in plastering). An implement for hold-
ing the plaster ; it consists of a square board,
with a handle placed at its lower side.

HAWKE. The Scotch term for the pronged im-
plement for mixing hair in plaster-lime.

HEADERS (in bricklaying). The bricks in a wall
placed at right angles to the face or length of
the wall. In masonry, it denotes the stones
which are placed with their greatest length
transversely to the wall. See a, fig. 176, p. 214.

HEART-BOND (in masonry). The lapping of one
stone above two others, forming together the
thickness of the wall.

HiP-RoOF (in carpentry). In this form of roof
the ends are inclined at the same angles as the
sides. See fig. 392, p. 297.

HOD. A short angled trough with a handle, for
carrying mortar upon the shoulder.

HOLEING (in slating). Making the holes in slates
for the insertion of nails.

HOLLOW WALL. Walls either of brick or of stone,
having a central cavity. See tig. 197, p. 220.
In some cases they are formed of hollow bricks.
See fig. 201, p. 221.

HOUSINGS (in carpentry). The spaces made in
the timber, into which other pieces are inserted.

IMPOST (in masonry). The upper part of a pier,
from which the arch springs.

IN-BAND (in masonry). A term used in Northum-
berland and Scotland to designate a " header."

INTER-JOIST (in carpentry). The space between
two contiguous joists.

INTERTIE (in carpentry). The horizontal timber,
as e e, fig. 385, p. 295, placed between the sill
d c and the head a b.

INTRADOS (in masonry). The under side or con-
cave portion of the arch. See fig. 195, p. 219.

JACK-RAFTERS (in carpentry). The short rafters
which are used in filling in the spaces at the
hip of a roof. See fig. 418, p. 305.

JAMB-LINING (in joinery). The lining to jambs,
or sides of window or door openings.

JAMBS (in bricklaying and masonry). The verti-
cal sides of any aperture, as door or window.

JOGGLED JOINTS (in masonry). Joints are said to
be joggled when they are interlined or jointed

together, that one cannot be forced from the
other by lateral pressure. See fig. 159, p. 211.

JOGGLE-PlECE (in carpentry). The foot of a rafter
or vertical timber which is bevelled to receive
the feet of the inclined struts. See e, fig. 406,
p. 301.

JOINTS. For a description of the various joints
used in framing timbers together, see para-
graphs 1133 to 1168, pp. 281-90.

JOISTS (in carpentry). Horizontal beams to sup-
port the flooring boards placed parallel to and
at a certain distance from each other, their
outer extremities resting upon the walls.

KEYS (in joinery). Pieces of wood let into the
back of a number of pieces to prevent them
from warping or twisting.

KEY-STONE (in masonry). The centre stone of
an arch.

KiNG-PosT (in carpentry). The central timber
in a roof-truss, against the foot of which the
struts or braces abut. See e e, fig. 406, p. 301.

LANDING (in carpentry). The part of a staircase
level with the floor of the room.

LATH-BRICKS. Bricks of dimensions larger
22 inches by 6 than the ordinary size.

LATH-LAYED AND SET (in plastering). This term
is used to designate two-coat work, in which
the last is roughened or scored.

LATHS (in plastering). Strips of wood nailed to
the ceiling- joists of floors and the vertical
timbers of partitions. The laths are not placed
close up edge to edge, but have spaces left
between ; into these spaces the mortar is press-
ed, and forms a key by which it is retained
to the face of the lathwork. Laths h,ave differ-
ent designations, as "single lath," "lath and
half," and " double lath." They are also of
different lengths, as " three" and " four feet."

LAYING (in plastering). The placing in of the
first coat, the surface of which is roughened
with a broom, not scored.

LEAN-TO ROOF. See PENT-ROOF.

LEDGED AND BRACED DOOR (in joinery). See fig.
465, p. 317.

LEDGED DOOR (in joinery). See fig. 464, p. 317.

LEDGERS (in bricklaying). The horizontal poles
or beams lashed to the upright standards to
support the putlogs. See PUTLOG.

LENGTHENING TIMBERS. For illustrations of
methods of lengthening timbers, otherwise
known as " scarfing," see figs. 323-39, pp.
281-4.

LEWIS (in masonry). An iron key fitted into
a wedge-shaped hole made in the upper sur-
face of a large stone, by which the same can be
lifted. See fig. 157, p. 211.

LIME AND HAIR (in plastering). A compound of
lime and hair used for the first coat.

LINTELS (in carpentry). Short pieces of timber
placed horizontally over an opening in a wall,
the ends having bearings in the wall.

LOUVRE OR LUFFER BOARDS (in joinery). A
number of boards placed in a ventilator, paral-
lel to one another, but inclined to the horizon
at a certain angle. This angle in some instances
is changeable at pleasure, the boards being
fitted into movable side-pieces.

GLOSSAEY.

541

LOWER RAIL (in joinery). The bottom rail of a
door.

LYING PANEL (in joinery). The panel of a door
in which the grain of the wood is placed horizon-
tally.

MANSARD-ROOF (in carpentry"). Also termed a
C0RB-ROOF, which see, tig. 421, p. :'0(j.

MARGENTS (in joinery). The flat parts of the
styles or rails of doors.

MARGIN (in joinery). tiee MAKGENTS.

MARGIN OF A COURSE (in slating-). Those parts
of the slates which are exposed to the weather.

MIDDLE AND MIDDLE (in carpentry). A Nor-
thumberland term, equivalent to ' ' from centre
to centre."

MIDFEATHER (in brickwork). The v:ltle of a
chimney, in Lancashire so called.

MITRE. Two pieces of wood having 1 equal angles,
or the sides forming- equal inclinations, and the
two sides so joined together as to make an
angle doubls of that of either piece. &e fig.
999.

Fig. 999.

MITRED BORDERS (in carpentry). Narrow
boards placed round, and forming a border to,
hearth-stones.

MORTAR. A mixture of lime, sand, and water ;
for proportions see par. 532-3, p. 141.

MORTISE (in carpentry). An aperture made in a
timber to receive another piece, which is termed
the tenon. See fig. 340, p. 284.

MOULDINGS. Profiles of various curves ; they are
named as follows: fig. 1000, the "fillet;" fig.
1001, the "bead" or astragal; fig. 1002, the
Roman, and fig. 1003, the Grecian "Scotia;"
fig. 1004, the Roman, fig. 1005, the Grecian
" ovolo ;" fig. 1006, the Roman, and fig. 1007,
the Grecian "cavetto" or " hollow ;" fig. 1008,
the Roman, and fig. 1009, the Grecian "cyma-

Fig. 1001.
Fig. 1000.

recta ; " fig. 1010, the Roman, and fig. 1011,
the Grecian " cyma-reversa ; " fig. 1012, the
"ogee;" fig. 1013, the "congee," or "apophy-
gee." Where a bead projects from the sur-
face, as in fig. 1002, it is called a " cock-bead."

Fig. 1003.

Fig. 1004.

Fig. 1005.

Fig. 1000.

Fig. 1002.

OAVE1TO Oil UOLL

542

PEACTICAL CONSTKUCTION.

Fig. 1007. Fig. 1012.

Fig. 1008.

Fig. 1013.

ROMAN CTMA-RIC1A.

Fig. 1009.

CONOEE OB APOFHYOEE.

MULLION (in masonry and joinery). The vertical
bar of stone or wood dividing two casements
from each other. See fig. 498, p. 326.

MUNTINS (in joinery). The vertical pieces in the
centre of a door between the styles See fiz
474, p. 318.

GRECIAN CTMA-RECTA.

Fig. 1010.

ROMAN CYMA-REVER84

Fig. 1011.

OHICIAN OTUA-RBVZR8A.

NAKED FLOORING (in carpentry). The rough ex-
posed timber-work of a floor, before the board-
ing and ceiling-joists are placed down.

NATURAL or QUARRY BED. The position in
which stones lay originally ; the laminae being
either vertical or horizontal.

NEWEL (in joinery). In dog-legged stairs,
the post where the winders terminate, and into
which the adjoining string-boards are framed.
It also signifies the turned post a a, fig. 1014,
placed at the bottom of a flight.

Fig. 1014.

POST AT BOTTOM OP STAIRS.

NOGS. Wood-bricks built into the wall at inter-
vals to receive nails, &c., for linings.

GLOSSARY.

543

NOGS (in carpentry). Lancashire name for wood-
bricks.

NOTCH-BOARD. The hoard fixed to the side of a
wall, in which notches are placed to receive
the ends of the treads and risers of a staircase.
See fig. 457, p. 315.

NIDGED. The Scotch term in masonry, in which
the face of ashlar is gently grooved vertically
with the sharp end of the hammer.

OFFSET (in bricklaying). The part of a wall which
is set back from the general line or face of wall
below it, the thickness of the wall being re-
duced above it, either on one or both sides.

OGEE (in joinery). A moulding, the outline of
which is formed of two curves in contrary direc-
tions. See MOULDINGS, tig. 1012, p. 542.

OPEN NEWELLED STAIRS (in joinery). Those
having a rectangular well-hole, and which arc
divided into several Hights.

OUT-BAND (in masonry). A term used in North-
umberland and Scotland, equivalent to
" stretcher," in the building" of a wall.

OVOLO (in joinery). A moulding described by a
quarter of a circle. See MOULDINGS, figs. 1004,
1005, p. 541.

PAN (in carpentry). Lancashire name for PUR-
LIN, which see.

PARAPET. Breast-wall at the sides of bridges, or
placed at the top of wall to hide roof.

PARGETTING (in brickwork). Lining the inside
of chimney-flues with a mixture of cow-dung
and lime.

PARTITION (in carpentry). flee paragraphs 1183-
91, pp. 294-96, for various illustrations of these.

PARTY-WALL (in bricklaying). The wall which
divides two adjoining buildings.

PAVILION-ROOF. Sec fig. 393, p. 297. The term
is used in the text, p. 32, paragraph 185, as
synonymous with "hip-roof," corresponding to
the part 6 c d, fig. 392, p. 297.

PENT-ROOF (in carpentry). A lean-to roof. See
fig. 391, p. 297, also fig. 397, p. 298.

PERPEND-STONE (in masonry). A stone of suffi-
cient length to stretch across the entire thick-
ness of a wall.

PiEND-RooF. A Scotch term for PAVILION-ROOF,
for illustration of which see fig. 393, p. 297.

FIENDS (in carpentry). A Scotch term, equiva-
lent to the " hip-rafters " of a roof.

PIERS (in masonry). The walls between aper-
tures or voids.

PITCH OF AN ARCH (in brickwork or masonry).
The vertical height from the line of springing,
as f, to the under side of arch, at b, fig. 195, p.
219.

PITCH OF A ROOF (in carpentry). The angle
formed by the rafters. When the length of
the rafters is equal to three-fourths of the dis-
tance between inside of walls, the pitch is said
to be "common pitch."

PITCH OP A ROOF (in carpentry). The angle or
inclination of its sides.

PLASTER (in plastering). A material used for
making the mouldings and attached ornaments
of ceiling, &c.

PLATBAND (iu masonry). A square moulding, the
projection of which is considerably less than its
height.

PLATE (in carpentry). As a wall-plate, a horizon-
tal piece of timber laid on the wall, on which
to join a tic-beam, a joist, &c. See par. 1150,
p. 28t!.

PLINTH (in brickwork or masonry). The part at
the base of a building which projects beyond'
the line of wall above.

PLOUGH-GROOVE (in joinery). See TONGUE, as
also fig. 997, p. 538.

PLUGS (in carpentry). Pieces of timber inserted
in a wall, to which the joinerwork is attached.
They are sometimes called wood-bricks; also
dooks, in Scotch terms.

POINTING (in bricklaying). Filling up the spaces
between the joints of external brickwork with
putty, cement, or plaster.

POLE-PLATE (in carpentry). The horizontal piece
of timber in a roof-truss, against which the
feet of the common rafters abut. See par.
1207, p. 300.

PlUCKIXG-ur (in plastering) is a term used to de-
scribe the first coat of " three-coat" work.

PRINCIPALS, or PRINCIPAL RAFTERS (in carpen-
try).- The inclined pieces of timber in a roof-
truss which support the purlins. See pars.
1-207, 1208, pp. 300, 301.

PUGGING (in carpentry).- An operation which has
for aim the deadening of the sound passing from
one apartment to another through the floor-
ing. To the sides of the joists, near the bottom,
narrow fillets of wood are nailed ; these are
made to support cross pieces of split wood,
forming a species of floor, on which is laid a mass
of mortar mixed with the cinders of a smith's
fire. Same as the Scotch term DEAFENING,
which see.

PUNCHEONS (in carpentry). The short timbers
placed above a void in a partition ; as i i in
fig. 384, p. 295. They are sometimes called
" filling-in pieces."

PURLINS (in carpentry). The horizontal timbers
in a roof-truss, which rest on the principals,
and support the common rafters. See pars.
1207, 1208, pp. 300, 3dl.

PUTLOGS (in bricklaying). The timbers which
are used to support the scaffolding employed
in raising brick walls. One end of the putlog
is inserted in the wall, and the other lashed
with a rope to the vertical poles placed at the
required distance from the wall. When the
building is finished, and the scaffolding taken
down, the holes left in the walls when the put-
logs are taken out are filled up.

QUARTERING (in carpentry). The stud-work of a
partition is so called.

QUARTER-PACE (in joinery). The landing-place
at the end of a flight of steps, at the angle, or
where the direction of the two flights turns.

QUARTERS (in carpentry). The Lancashire name
for STUDS or STANDARDS, which see.

QUARTERS (in carpentry). The vertical posts
bounding the framework of a partition, as
those between the " sill" c d, and "head" a l>,
fig. 384, p. 295.

QUEEN-PosT (in carpentry). The vertical timbers
in a roof-truss, in which the king-post is dis-
pensed with in order to give a central space, as
the timbers h h, fig. 407, p. 301.

QUIRK (in joinery). The groove (.between a bead
a and the solid wood /;, fig. 1015 ; in fig. 1016 is
a " double quirk," round the bead a.

544

PKACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 1015.

Fig. 1016.

DODBLB QUIRK IN JOINERY.

QUOIN-STONES (in masonry). The stones placed
at the corners of a wall to give an external
finish ; they are usually of unequal lengths, but
of equal height. See fig. 80, p. 93, and CORNERS.

RAFTERS (in carpentry). The inclined timbers of
a roof: they are of three kinds, "principal
rafters," asff, fig. 405, p. 301 ; "common raf-
ters," as g g, fig. 405 ; and " hip-rafters," as
a a, fig. 417, p. 305.

RAGGLINGS (in carpentry). A term used in North-
umberland to designate CEILING- JOISTS, which
see.

RAGGLINGS. A Scotch term for the groove made
in the face of a wall to admit the side or top
slates of a lean-to roof, for the sake of being
water-tight.

RAILS OF A DOOR (in joinery). See&g. 471, p. 318.

REBATE (in joinery). The rectangular piece cut
away from the edge of board, as e e, fig. 494,
p. 323.

REBATES or RYBETS (in masonry). A Scotch
term equivalent to JAMBS, which see.

RENDERED AND FLOATED (in plastering). This
term is used to denote "three-coat work."

REVEALS (in brickwork or masonry). The space
in the sides of a door or window opening, which
is comprised between the outside line of the
wall and the outside face of window or door
frame.

RIB OF A ROOF (in carpentry). A provincial term
for PURLIN, which see.

RlDGE-PoLE or PIECE (in carpentry). The piece
of timber which is placed at the apex of, and
supported by, the king-post ; the office of which
is to support the upper ends of the common
rafters. In fig. 405, p. 301, m is the ridge-pole,
against which the common rafters g g abut.

RIGGIN. The Scotch term for the ridge-pole of a
house.

RISERS (in joinery). The vertical parts, as g ft,
f e, fig. 457, p. 315, of stairs, the horizontal
parts being termed " treads."

ROAN (Scottice). The gutter of wood, zinc, lead,
or iron, placed beneath the eaves of a roof to
catch the rain-water.

ROOFS (in carpentry). For varieties of roofs, see
pars. 1193-9, pp. 297, 298, and Plate X.

ROUGH-CAST (in plastering). A material used
for finishing the outside of walls. The first
coat is of lime-and-hair mortar, worked rough,
with sometimes a second coat, worked smooth.
On the surface of the first or second coat the
"rough-cast" is put, this being composed of
fine gravel mixed with lime and water.

ROUGH-RENDERING. An operation in plaster-
ing where the rough coat only is given.

ROUGHING-IN. A term used in plastering to
designate the first coat of "three-coat work."

RUBBLE- WORK (in masonry). A walling built of
rough stones not dressed, and laid with mortar,
or built dry, as in " dry-stone dykes."

RUNNERS (in carpentry). Lancashire name for
single joists.

SAG (in carpentry). When a piece of timber,
stretched from wall to wall, bends in the
middle, it is said to " sag."

SARKING (in joinery). A north of England term,
equivalent to "boarding."

SARKING. A Scotch term for boarding on a roof
upon which to place blue slates, lead, or zinc.

SASH-BARS (in joinery). The vertical and hori-
zontal pieces in a window, as a, fig. 494, p.
323, which support the sheets of glass. They
are sometimes termed astragals. See fig. 492,
p. 322.

SASH-DOOR (in joinery). See fig. 468, p. 317.

SASH-WINDOW (in joinery). a a d e, fig. 1017, is
termed the "casing" of the sash-frame; a a
the pulley-piece, sustaining the pulleys over
which the cords are strained which support the
sash-weights b ; the inside lining and bead are
at c ; outside lining, d ; back lining, e ; f archi-
trave of shutter-box ; g g, g g folding shutters.

Fig. 1017.

SCARCEMENTS (in masonry or brickwork). A
Scotch term, equivalent to FOOTINGS, which
see.

SCARF JOINT (in carpentry). See par. 1135, p.
281.

GLOSSAEY.

545

SCOTIA. See MOULDINGS.

SCROLL (in joinery). -The curved or spiral ter-
mination to the handrail of a stair. Sc<. Ci'R-
TAIL STEP.

ScUNCHEON (in masonry).- A Scotch term for the
inside jamb of a door or window, or the vertical
end of a wall.

SHED-ROOF. See PENT-ROOK.

SHIPPEN. A Lancashire term signifying' the cow-
house. See BY HE.

SHUTTER-BOXING (in joinery).- -The boxing for
enclosing the shutters of a sash-window. Sec.

SASH-WINDOW.

SKEW (in masonry). The term used in Scotland
to designate the gable-coping of a roof. See
GABLE-COPING.

SKIRTINGS (in joinery). The boards surround-
ing the room at the floor level. See fig. 5:21,
p. 333.

SNECK (in ironmongery). A Scotch term equi-
valent to "latch."

SKY-LIGHT. A window flush with the roof.

SOFFET. A Scotch term for the inside upper
panelling of a window.

SOFFIT (in masonry). The under side of an arch,
as d d, fig. 195, p. 219.

SoLPlE-RooF (in carpentry). Lancashire name
for SHED, LEAN-TO, or PENT- ROOF, which see.

SOUGH. Lancashire name for drain.

SPAN OF AN ARCH (in masonry). Its greatest
width, as d d, fig. 195, p. '219.

SPAN-ROOF (in carpentry). The simplest form
of inclined roof of two rafters, as a a, d d, tig.
399, p. 299, without the "collar" e.

SPAR (in carpentry). Lancashire name for
" rafter."

SPECIFICATIONS. The particular terms upon
which a contract is agreed on. See COX-
TRACT.

SPLAYED-BRICK (in brickwork). A brick with a
corner or corners bevelled off.

SPRINGING-COUH.SES (in masonry). The stones,
as d d, fig. 195, p. 219, from which the arch-
stones c c spring.

SPUR. See STRUTS.

STAIRCASE, BRACKETTED. Stairs provided with
an open well-hole. The steps are housed into
notches made in the string-boards, beyond
which project the ends of the treads and risers ;
the ends of these being concealed with brackets,
or ornamental pieces.

STAIRCASE, DOG-LEGGED (in carpentry). In this
the steps are supported at one end only by the
wall, the other being carried by a piece of
timber called the string-board. A dog-legged
staircase has no well-hole.

STAIRCASE, GEOMETRICAL. The well-hole is in
the centre ; the steps are supported at one
end by the wall, into which they are inserted,
and at the other they are mutually supported
by resting one upon another.

STANDARDS (in carpentry). Scotch term used
to designate the " studs," or upright timbers,
as i I, fig. 383, p. 294.

STINK-TRAP. See TRAPS.

STOOTHINGS (in carpentry). A term used in
Northumberland to designate the quartering
of a wooden partition.

STORM-WINDOWS. The Scotch term for a dormer
window.

STRAINING-SILL (in carpentry). A piece of tim-
ber/, placed upon the upper side of the tie-beam
I !>, fig. 403, p. 300, abutting against the struts
e e.

STISKTCHERS (in masonry and brickwork). Tho
stones, as <> <>, fig. 151, p. 209, or the bricks, as
a a ., tig. 185, p. 217, which extend longitu-
dinally along the wall.

STRUTS (in carpentry). The inclined pieces of
timber <j //, fig. 406, p. 301, in a roof- truss
which support the principal rafters / /, the
lower ends abutting against the foot of king-
post e e.

STRUTS (in carpentry). Pieces of timber placed
between the joists of a floor to strengthen it.
See par. 1177, p. 292.

STUDS (in carpentry). See STANDARDS.

STUDWOKK (in carpentry). Framework, as the
quartering of a partition.

STYLES OF A DOOR (in joinery). See a a, fig. 470,
p. 313.

SUMMER-STONES (in masonry). See CORBELS.

SURBASE (in joinery). <S'ce SKIRTING.

SWOHDED (in joinery). Lancashire name for
" lodged."

TAIL OF A SLATE. Its lower end.

TENON (in joinery and carpentry). See d, fig. 340,
p. 284.

THREE - COAT WORK (in plastering). First,
''roughing in;" second, " floating ;" third,
"finishing."

THROUGH-BAND STONE. Covers the breadth
of the wall in the middle of a "dry-stone
dyke."

THROUGH (in masonry). A bond stone.

TIE-BEAM (in carpentry). The lowest beam in
the assemblage of beams forming a roof-truss,
as/i/t, fig. 405, p. 301.

TILTING FILLET (in slating). A piece of wood
triangular in section, used to raise the slates
where they join a chimney-shaft or wall; its
purpose being to throw off the rain more effec-
tually.

TONGUE (in joinery.) A projecting part on a
piece of timber, as , fig. 352, p. 287, to be in-
serted in the groove, named a "plough groove,"
made in another piece, as h.

TRANSOM (in masonry or joinery). The cross-
beam or bar across a two-light window.

TRAPS (in drain-work). Appliances to prevent
the stench from drains ascending. See figs.
29:5-6, p. 269.

TRAVISES. The divisions or partitions between
the stalls of a byre or stable.

TREAD OF A STEP (in joinery). Tho part, as e y,
fig. 457, p. 315, on which the feet rest in ascend-
ing and descending a stair.

TRIMMER ARCHES (in bricklaying). Flat arches
built under the hearthstone, to support the
same.

TRIMMING-JOISTS (in carpentry). See c c, d d, fig.
380, p. 292. See also BRIDLE-JOISTS.

TROUGH-SPOUT. Lancashire term for eaves-gut-
ter.

TRUNCATED ROOF. See par. 1195, p. 297.

TRUSS OF A ROOF (in carpentry). A frame
triangular in form, for supporting the tim-
bers and covering. For several forms, see
figs. 403-9, pp. 300-302, and figs. 420-35, pp.
305-10.

TUSK (in joinery and carpentry). A form of tenon
with an upper shoulder. For various forms of,
see fig. 348, p. 286.

2 M

646

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

VALLEY-GUTTER (in carpentry). See figs. 444,

445, p. 312.
VALLEY KAFTER (in carpentry). See b b, fig. 445,

p. 312.
VENT. A term used in Scotland to designate the

chimney-flue.
VENTILATOR (in joinery). An erection of luffer-

boards on the ridge of a house for the egress

of foul air. See figs. 526 and 530, pp. 339,

340.

VERGE BOARDS (in joinery). See BARGE BOARDS.
VOUSSOIRS (in masonry). The wedge - shaped

stones in an arch, as a a, fig. 195, p. 219.

WALL-PLATE (in carpentry). See d d, fig. 405,
p. 301.

WEATHER BOARDING (in joinery). The feather-
edged boards which overlap each other in cover-
ing the sides of a wooden erection. See fig. 588,
p. 370.

WITHES or WITHS (in brickwork or masonry).
The divisions between the flues in a stack of
chimneys.

WOOD-BRICKS (in carpentry). The pieces of
wood, same size as bricks, inserted and built
into the walls, to which the joinerwork is
nailed.

INDEX,

The Subjects arranged AlphaleticaUi/ in the Glossary (u-hidi See) are not repeated in the Index.
The Fiijures in the Index refer to the Paragraphs.

Accommodation and power to the size of farm,
470-473

Adam's tanks for the preservation of grain, 1744

Ainger's trussed beam, 1609

Air required in stables, byres, &c., 1292

Allen's American barn, 1767

remarks on the site of farmhouse, 283

Allotments, 465-469

American barn, 1762-1766

cheese-dairy buildings, 1772

cottage cooking-stove, 1499

farm-steading, 1770

poultry-houses, 1774

red pine timber, 593, 600

sifting pigery, 1773

yellow pine timber, 594, 601

Western States of America, farm-build-
ings for, 1771

Angle-iron field-gate, 1536

Apartments, heating of, 1099-1102

Apparatus, and erections useful, 1683

gas, Bridges, Anbury, & Co.'s, 1698

Goddard's cooking, 1498

heating, for drying-house, 1724

Aqueduct, wooden, for irrigation, 1348

Arches, centres for, 1337

in brick walls, 962-966

inverted, for foundations, 939

Archimedean screw, grain drying-machine, 1735-
1743

ventilator, Chadwick's, 1485

Architrave, 874, 1278

Arnott's ventilator, 1483

Arrangement, principles of, 1

Artificers' work, estimates and calculations of, 1776

glossary of technical terms used

in, 1812

Artificial stones, 515

Ransome's, 516

Kuhlmann's, 517

Ash timber, 607

Ashlar work in masonry, 940, 941

Asphalted felt for roof covering, 1092

Asphalt caldron, 1684

flooring, 1088

Atkinson's cement, 540

Baikie for cattle, 1310

Balloon framing for timber houses, 1379

Balusters for stairs, 1 246

Band saw, endless, 1675

Barlow's experiments with corrugated iron, 1524

Barn, Allan's American, 1767

corn, arrangement and construction of,

1327-1332

Dutch, 1756

Flemish, 1756

side-hill, American, 1763

straw, arrangement and construction of,

1326

American, 1762

Barnard and Bishop's sheep-hurdles, 1581

Barrett, Exall, and Andrews' endless band saw,
1675

Barton's cast-iron stable drains, 1504

Basalt, 492

Bay-window, 1266-1271

section of window-head, 1627

Beadon's gutter-tile, 1091

Beam, Ainger's trussed, 1609

cast-iron, foot-bridge, 1520

iron, best section of, 1386

iron, for span of 19 to 20 feet, 1387

iron, filling in space between, 1388

rolled iron, 1399

solid, Condor's, mode of trussing, 1615

trussed, king-post, 1607

trussed, queen-post, 1607

wrought-iron plate, 1398

Beams, increasing depth of, 1174

iron, 1386-1403

iron, bust position of, tie-rods in, 1393-

1395

iron, calculations connected with, 1807

iron, cast and wrought, comparative ad-
vantages of, 1396, 1397

iron, fixing of cross girders to, 1390-1392

iron, placing of binding-joists upon, 1389

or girders, iron, dimensions of, tor various

spans, 1401,1402

trussed timber, 1169-1173

upper floors, fixing of in walls, 961

wooden, iron straps for, 1594-1598

Bearer, chimney, 1487

Belgian covered dung-shed, 1377

steadings, 1757-1761

Bellhanger, specifications of duties to be per-
formed by the, 822

Bells, 1490

Bell's trap for stables, 1506

Bell-trap for sinks, 1495

Belviderc, wooden, for farmhouse, 1238

Bench, joiner's, 1657

Bethell's process of preserving timber, 623

548 INDEX.

Beton, 536 Byre, width of stall in, 1304

Bills of quantities for a farmhouse of stone, 848 window, 1312

Bindings, cattle, 1310 Byres, 1304

Bits, boring for iron, 1667 for fattening oxen, 1313

Blinds, window, spring pulley for, 1481 manger of, ]306

Boarding, weather, for timber sheds, 1374

Boiler-house, drying of sheaves in, 1729 Calculations and estimates of artificers' work,

Boilers, iron, cement for cracks in, 558 1776

Bond in brick walls, 953, 954 and estimates connected with brick-

Flemish, and old English in brick walls, work, 1782-1791

953 and estimates connected with dig-

hoop-iron for brick walls, 956, 957 gers'and excavators' work, 1777-1781

timber for brick walls, 859, 956 for carpentry and joinery work, 1800

Boring bits for iron, 1667 connected with iron beams, 1807

brace, screw-frame for, 1664 of the cubical contents of timber in

mortising, and tenoning machine, 1676 various roofs,1804

or drilling machine, 1682 of the cubical contents of timber in

Bothies, plans of, 446-458 partitions, 1805

Boucherie's process of preserving timber, 626-629 for stone paving, 1792

Box, loose, in stable, 1301 Caldron and furnace, combined and portable,

Boxes, cattle, construction of, 1314 1683

Brace, boring, smith's, 1664 asphalt, 1684

Braced iron gate, 1538 Californian pine timber, 603

Bracket, wooden, for farmhouse, 1238 Calves'-crib door, 1319

Breakwater for protecting river-banks, 989-991 houses, 1317-1320

Bremner's remarks on the position of stones in Caps of columns, 1408-1415

sea-walls, 1008 Carpenter, joiner, specification of duties to be

Brick, 520 . . performed by the, in the erection of farm-

advantages of, 522 . buildings, 665-669, 696, 741, 768, 858, 883, 890,

and concrete, combined with iron, 1628-. 896, 906

1640 Carpenter's shop, plan of, 1754

construction, 951 Carpentry work, estimates connected with, 1800

footings or foundations, 951, 952 Carrett's steam-pump, 1691

kilns, Hands' patent, 1747 Carse-farming, description of, plan of steading

paving, estimates and calculations con- for, 82-94

nected with, 1791 land, farming of, 4

walls, 953-961 Carton pierre, for architectural decoration, 519

walls, facing of, 959 Casement, or French window, 1263.

walls, hollow, 967-974 Cast and wrought-iron beams, comparative ad-

work, estimates and calculations con- vantages of, 1396, 1397

nected with, 1782-1791 Cast-iron bridges, 1523

Bricklayer, specifications of duties to be per- heel-posts for work-horse stable stalls,

formed by, in the erection of farm- buildings, 1288

658, 662, 737, 760, 881, 889, 894 sink, 1496

Bricks, grooved, 971 varieties and peculiarities of, 632-645

large sized, 972 Cattle-binding, 1310

for paving, 1086 boxes, construction of, 1314

segmental, for drains, 1015 boxes, fittings for, 1315

walls of unburnt, 1132 boxes in iron sheds, cast-iron pillars for,

Bridge of corrugated iron plates, 1524 1592

foot, with cast-iron beam, 1520 courts, water-troughs for, 1119-1126

gate for centre of, 1372 pastoral farming, description of plan of

king-post truss for, 1343 steading for, 38-52

queen-post truss for, 1344 pastoral farming with arable culture, de-

trussed beam, 1342 scription of plan of steading for, 62-71

trussed girder bridge, 1342 racks, 701

Bridges, Aubury, & Co.'s gas apparatus, 1698 Ceilings, fireproof, in hollow bricks, 970

sluice- valves, hydrants, 1519-1530 Cement, Atkinson's, 540

wooden, 1340-1347 clays for, 539

Bridle-joists, 1178 experiments on, 542-547

Britannia farm-buildings, Belgium, 1761 . estimates connected with, 1795

Brown and May's sluice-cock, 1528 for covering exterior work, 562

Bruce's improved stable-fittings, 1511 for cracks in iron boilers, 558

Buildings, American cheese-dairy, 1772 for filling up holes in walls, 561

foreign farm, 1756 for joining glass, 560

, heating of, 1719 for lining water-cisterns, tanks, &c.,

heating of, by furnaces, 1720 556, 562

heating of, by hot water, 1721 . for pottery, and drain-tubes, 559

heating of, by steam, 1721 for stone cisterns, 557

specifications of, 656-909 hydraulic, 537

Bunnett's system of fireproof construction, 1640 .... Keene's, 548

Burnett' s process of preserving timber, 622 marine, 552

Butt hinges, 1478 Martin's, 548

Byre or cow-house, 1304 Medina, 540

cow, isolated, 1700 Medina, for farm structure, 554

stone trough for, 1127 Parian, 548

INDEX.

549

Cement, Parker's, .540

Portland, 541

puzzolano, 538

Roman, 540

vermin proof, 549

Centres for arches, 1:5:57

Chadwick's Archimedean screw ventilator, 1485

Cheese-dairy buildings, American, 177-

room of farmhouse, 296

Chest, corn, for work-horse stable, 1 303
Cheyne's system of fireproof construction, lf>39
Chimney-cap, mouldings of, 947

bearer, 1487

guards, 1485

pieces, 823

tubes, ventilating, 1105

valves, 1487

Chrime's water-tap, 1491
Circular saw, iron bench, 1674
Cistern, rain-water, 1110
Cisterns, 692

stone, cement for, 557

water, cement for lining-, 556, 562

Clambs for twisting the wire at the eye for

fences, 1571

Clark and Co.'s clays for cements, 539
Claw-hammer, 1659
Clayton's drain-tubes, 1019
Closets, water, 872, 1115, 1116
Closure, or closer, in brickwork, 958
Clothing of steam-pipes, 1728
Clump of trees within the meeting of dykes, 1049
Cocks and taps, water, 1491
Coffer-dam for foundation in water, 930
Coleshill steading, Berkshire, description of plan

of, 243-256
Collar-beam, roof- truss for, 1201

holder, 1516

vice for wire fencing, 1574

Collinge's patent spherical hinge, 1478
Colour, fawn, for walls, 570
Columns, caps for, 1408-1415

iron, 1404-1416

foundation for cast-iron, 1405-1407

junction of iron girders with, 1408-1415

junction of, with wrought-iron beams.

1416

wrought-iron, for sheds, 1591

Combined furnace and caldron, 1683

work, iron with brick or concrete, 1628-

1640

iron with wood, slate, or zinc,

1641-1655

wood with stone and brick, 1621-

1627

Common farming, 6
description of plan of steading

for, 145-164
Concrete, 534

and brick combined with iron, 1628-

1640
and wrought - iron beams, fireproof

floors, 1629

Conder's mode of trussing solid beams, 1615
Conduits or culverts, form of, 1012
Conical roof, 1 1 96

truss for, 1229

Construction, combined, 1628

in brick, 951.

of dry-stone dykes, 1023-1049

fireproof, 1628-1640

iron, 1386-1592

materials employed in, 489

practical, 922

practice in, 489

stone, 940

Construction, timber, 1133

Contracts, 910-921

Cooking-apparatus, Goddard's, 1498

stove, American cottage, 1499

Cooler for milk, 1117

Copper, peculiarities of, 652

Corbel, moulding of, 947

Corehouse detached byre, 1700

drain-tile work, plan of, 1749

Corn-barn, arrangement and construction of, 1327-
1332

door, 1330

floor, 1329,1332

roof of, 1327

windows of, 1327

Corn-chest for work-house stable, 1303

Corn drying, advantages of, 1716

Cornice, 1279

details of, for farmhouse, 1622

Corrugated iron-plate bridges, 1525

iron roofs, 1470

iron roof for 18-feet span, 1417

iron roof for span of 52 feet, 1472

iron sliding-gate, 1542

roof-tile, 1090

zinc joining, plates of, 1653

Cost of first-class farmhouses, 321-325

Cost, relative, of slate and zinc covered roofs,
1654

Cottage, American, cooking-stove, 1499

door, 463

out-houses, plans of, 459

windows, 464, 1261

Cottager's grate, Pierce's fire-lump, 1102

Cottages, doubl e detached sing! c-sto roved , of brick,
specification adapted for, 888-891

single-storeyed detached, of brick, speci-
fication adapted for, 878-8S7

two-storeyed detached, in brick, speci-
fication adapted for, 892-903

of brick, specification adapted for, 879-

903

of stone, specifications adapted for, 904-

921

foundations for, 932

various plans of, 350-445

Cottam and Co.'s improved stable-fittings, 1514

Cottam's enamelled manger for stables, 1510

fittings for loose-boxes, 1515

hind-posts for stalls, 1509

iron drains for stables, 1504

iron traps for stables, 1506

travises for stables, 1509

Courses of brick walls, carrying up of, 960,961.

Courts, fittings for, 1321

Covered dung-shed, 1377

stackyard, description of, 204, 205

steadings, plans of, in Plates XIII.

and XIV.

Cow-byre, isolated, 1700

Cow house or byre, 1304

" Cramps" for joining blocks of stone, 946

Crane, Dray's portable, 1695

derrick, 1694

quarry, 1693

Cranes, 1693-1695

Culverts, 100.9

or conduits, form of, 1012

egg-shaped, 1013

Curb-roof, or mansard, 1221

Curved rib-roof, truss for, 1225

Dames' method of preserving stones, ,508
Dairy, cheese, buildings, American, 1772

isolated, 1701

farming, 7

550

INDEX.

Dairy-fanning, large, description of plan of stead-

ing for, 96-107

. . .. small, description of plan of stead-
ing for, 108-120

Dam or weir, construction of, 1003

used in Italian irrigation, 1007

Dams, 1002, 1003

Deafening, 861

Dean's hollow bricks, 9/4

Dearn's hollow brick wall, 968

Decoration, architectural, materials for, 519

Derrick crane, 1694

Detached erections, 1699-1714

byre at Corehouse, 1700

dairy, 1701

poultry-houses, 1707

pigeon-houses, 1710

rabbitry, 1711

piggery, 1712

slaughter-house, 1714

Details for iron foot-bridge, 1521,1522

of Ainger's trussed beam, 1611

of cornice for farmhouse, 1622

of corrugated iron-roof for span of 52

feet, 1472

of double iron-roof for wide spans, 1429

of iron-roof for 18-feet span, 1417

of iron-roof for 25-feet span, 1431-1437

of iron-roof for 30-feet span, 1439-1447

of iron-roof for horse-walk of thresbing-

mill, 1460-1463

of iron-roof , with zinc covering, 1647-1652

of king- post trussed beam, 1607

of queen-post trussed beam, 1607

of roof, for octagonal shed, 1590

of sliding-gate, 1543

of stonework of farmhouse, 947-950

of trussed beam, 1619

of trussed beam for sheds, 1589

of windows of farmhouses, 1266-1277

Diggers' and excavators' work, estimating, 1777-
1781

Dimensions of iron beams or girders, for various
spans, 1401, 1402

of iron laths for roofs, 1645

of liquid-manure tank, 1068

of parts of iron-roofsof various spans,

1448-1457

Distemper, painting in, 577

Door of corn-barn, 1330

bead butt and flush panel, 1253

bottom rail of, 1252

cottage, 463

circular headed, 1250

folding, 1257

for calf s crib, 1319

for pigsty, 1324

four and six panel, 1252

framed, and braced, 1250

Gothic, 1255

ledged, 1248

middle rail of a, 1252

mun tins of a, 1252

panels of a, 1253

panels of, for a farmhouse, 1254

rails of a, 1252

raised eight-panel, 1256.

raised panel, 1256

sash, 1251

sliding, 1258

stiles of, 1252

stops for the prevention of draughts, 1259

sunk panel, 1253

Doors, 704, 869

for farm-cottages, 463, 464

...'.... framed, Iii5'2

Doors, ledged and braced, 1249
Dormer window, elevation of, 1231

windows, truss for, 1231

Double-action pump, 168C

Double and single stalls in byres, comparative

advantages of, 1308

Doulton's patent junction and invert block for
drains, 1015

ventilating chimney-tube, 1105

Dowels for joining blocks of stone, 945
Downing* s durable paint, 584
Drainage pavement-bricks, 1118
Drain -tile kiln, 1749

tubes, cement for, 559

tubes, lidded, 1020-1022

Drains, 1009

bedding of the tubes of, 1016

fall of, 1017

house, various forms of, 1019

liquid-manure, 1018

invert block and junction blocks for, 1015

for roads, 1052

segmental bricks for, 1 015

Dray's portable crane, 1695

vertical saw frame, 16/3

Drilling or boring machine, 1682

braces, 1664- 166h'

Drip-stone, mouldings of, 948

Drumkilbo steading, Forfarshire, description of

plan of, 217-233
Drying, principles of, 1723
Drying of grain, 1731-1743

by Archimedean screw, 1735

rooms and machines for, 1716

in the sheaf or bulk, 1722

by tile-kiln, 1732

house, heating apparatus for, 1724

houses, description of substances to be

dried in, 1727

scale for calculating the surfaces

of hot-water pipes for, 1J25

steam-pipes for, 1727

ventilation of, 1724

machines and kilns, 1715-1751

of sheaves in the boiler-house, 1729

sheds, Hands' patent, 1730

Dry-stone dyke, expedients to increase height of,
1043

dykes, construction of, 1023-1049

Dunghill, tank for the waste urine from a, 1080

Dung-shed, covered, 1377

Dunn's lifting screw-jack, 1672

Dutch barn, 1756

Dykes, clump of trees formed in the meeting of

four, 1049
dry-stone, construction of, 1023-1049

Earthenware staircase, 1098

Elevation of belvidere of farmhouse, 1238

of wooden bracket, 1238

of Carrett's steam-pump and portable

steam-engine, 1691
of cottages, 384, 386, 388, 390, 391, 399,

403, 404, 410, 414, 417, 421, 427, 439

of dormer window, 1231

of farmhouses, 305, 310, 316, 330, 334,

338, 342, 347

front of farmhouses in Plate XVIII.

of gables of steadings, 276-280

of stone finials, 947

of detached pigeon-house, 1710

of machine-house in Flemish farm, 1760

of poultry-house, 1707

Embankment for a small rivulet, 977-980

for low grounds on river-sides,
981-985

INDEX. 551

Embankments, 975 Farm-cottages, doors and windows of, 463, 464

principles of construction of, 976 double single-storeyed, of two

river, gutter's method of forming, different sizes, plans of, 423, 424

986,987 double two-storeyed, of two dif-

sea, 993-1001 ferent sizes, plans of, 425-430

Enamelled manger for stables, 1510 double two-storeyed, plans of,

slate, 518. 411-422

Enlarged view of part of back elevation of farm- for large and small families, 376,

house, 319 377

of windows in part of end cleva- importance of providing good ac-
tion of farmhouse, 319 commodation in, 350-372
of door and windows of part of out-houses of, 459-462

front elevation of farmhouse. 318 single-roomed and single-storey-

of bay window of farmhouse, 1268 ed, plan of, 378, 379

Endless band saw, 1675 two-roomed and single-storeyed,

Engine, fire, portable, 1685 plan of, 381, 382

English bond for brick walls, 953 Farm, gas apparatus for, Porter's, 1696

Erections and apparatus, useful, 1683 hand-pump, 1687

detached, 1699-1714 Farmhouse of brick, specification adapted for,

Errors prevalent in designing farm-buildings, 16 756-824

connected with brick-paving, 1791 detail of cornice of, 1622

Estimates and calculations of artificers' work. 1776 cheese-room, 296

connected with brick- first-class, cost of, 321-325

work, 17S2-1791 enlarged details of, 317-319

connected with carpentry-work, 1800 plans of, 301-316

cement, 1795 kitchen, 287

laths, 1796 position of, in relation to the stead-

mortar, 1794 ing, 282

plastering, 1797 remarks on accommodation of, 348

slating, 1798 remarks on the accommodation of,

stone-paving, 1792 in relation to the size of the farm,

tiling, 1793 349

with well-digging and second-class, plans of, 326-330

steining, 1778 site of, 283-285

of diggers' and excavators' work, 1777- of stone, specification adapted for,

1781 825-847

Ewart's fittings for cattle-boxes, 1314 of stone, specification for, 849-877

Excavators' and diggers' work, 1777-1781 third-class, plans of, 331-347

Excavations for roads, 1053 working part of, 286-300

Excavator, specification of duties to be performed Farmhouses, details of stonework of, 947-950

by, in building farm structures, 657, 684,736, windows for, 1266-1277

757, 826, 850, 880, 893, 905 plans of, 281

principles of arrangement of, 286

Facing of brick walls, 959 Farm-labourers, classes of, 373-375

Fairbairn's fireproof flooring, with wrought-iron Farm, proportion of power and accommodation for
beams, 1630 size of, 470-473

method of constructing fireproof roads, 1050-1059

flooring, 1628 Farm-steading, American, 1770

mixture of cast-iron, 640 Belgian, 1756-1761

remarks on Parisian modes of fire- imperial, at Viucennes, France,

proof construction, 1638 1775

Fanners for smith's forge, 1663 Farming of carse-land, 4

Farm-buildings, errors prevalent in the design- causes of diversities of, 9

ing of, 16 common, 6

foreign, 1756 dairy, 7

for Western States of America, different kinds of, 2

1771 incidents which modify, 15

Marshall's American, 1770 mixed, 8

Farm-cottage, double, detached, 400 modifications of the different kinds of, 14

double, single-storeyed, plans of, pastoral, 3

401-410 cattle, description of plan of

five -roomed and two-storeyed, steading for, 38-52

plans of, 396-399 sheep, 53

five-roomed, single-storeyed, plan state of, in middle ages in Scotland, 474-

of, 387-389 488
four-roomed and single-storeyed, suburbial, 5

plan of, 383 Fastening for stair-rods, 1482
remarks on arranging accommo- Fa wn-colour for walls, 570

dation of, to the size of family, Feeding-passages at heads of stable stalls, 1286,

393-395 1287
three-roomed and single-storeyed, troughs benches, 688, 702

plan of, 385 Felt, asphalted, for roof covering, 1092

Farm-cottages, plans of, 350 Fence foot-gate, 1541

composite, plans of, 437-445 sheep, machine for making, 1677

defective, plans suggesting im- wires, 1551-1563

provements in, 431-436 Fences, wire, 1544-1576

INDEX.

Fences, wire, fitting up of, 1574-1576
Fenn's boring or drilling machines, 1682

lathe, 1681

ratchet brace, 1666

Ferguson's improved ventilator for stables, &c.,
19Q1

LitaO

Field, common, gate, 1358

gate, hanging-post for, 1365

of iron, 1533

of iron tension, 1534

of angle-iron, 1536

Filter, carbon, 1112
Finial, stone, mouldings of, 947
Fireclay hearth, 1103
Fire-engine, portable, 1685

lump, cottager's, grate, 1102

proof construction, 1628-1641

Fox's method, 1629

Bunnett's system of,

1640

Cheyne's system of, 1639

proof flooring, Fairbairn's method, 1628

with wrought-iron beams,

1630

proof floors and ceilings on Roberts' hollow

bricks, 970

Lord's system of making, 1635

Mausne^s system of making, 1634

Parisian methods of making,

1631-1638

walls of frame-houses, 1 375

Firing of drain-tile kilns, 1732
Fitting up of wire- fences, 1564-1576
Fittings, Brace's improved stable, 1511

for cattle-boxes, 1315

Cottam's improved stable, 1514

for courts, 1321

..., iron, of the farmhouse and cottages,

1474-1502

iron, of the steading, 1503-1518

for loose-boxes, 1515

for pigsty, 1517

of the workshop, 1656-1682

Fixed window, 1260

Flat arch and lintel in brick walls, 962

roof, truss for, 1219, 1220

Flemish barn, 1756

Flemish bond in brickwork, 953

farm-steading, 1757-1761

liquid-manure tanks, 1081

Floor of asphalt, 1088

double, 1176

double-framed, 1176

of corn-barn, 1329-1332

single, 1176

Flooring, fireproof, Fairbairn's method, 1628

joists, good and bad method of setting

of, in brick walls, 961

joists, trimming, 1178

Mr G wilt's remarks on, 11 82

Floors, fireproof, in hollow bricks, 970

Lord's system of making fireproof, 1635

Mausnd's system of making fireproof,

1634
Parisian methods of making fireproof,

1631-1638

timber, 1176-1182

Flue, ventilating and smoke, 1101-1105
Foot-base, 873

bridge, with cast-iron beam, 1520

gate for fence, 1541

Footings or foundations in brick, 951, 952

stone, 935, 936

Forbes" s pavement-bricks, 1118
Foreign farm -build ings, 1756
Forge, fanners for smith's, 1663

Forge, with fanners, 1603

Foundation, coffer-dam for, in water, 930

for cottages, 932

of dry-stone dykes, 1029

Foundations, 922

for cast-iron Columns, 1405-1407

in compact clayey soils, 924

in sand, 925, 926

in soils of a yielding character, 927

inverted arches for, 939

points to be attended to in making,

922-939

on rock, 931

in water, 928-930

Fox's method of fireproof construction, 1629
Frame-house, construction of, 1374

houses, fireproof walls of, 1375

walls of, Swedish mode of form-
ing, 1374

saw, vertical, 1673

Framed doors, 1252

and braced door, 1250

Framing, " balloon," for timber houses, 1378

wooden, iron shoes for, 1599-1606

French casement window, 1263

steading at Vincennes, France, 1775

windows, fastening for, 1481

Fresh air, iron valves for admitting to stables,

1507

Furnace and caldron, combined portable, 1683
Furnaces, heating of buildings by, 1720

Gables suggested for steadings, 276-280
Gangway from stackyard to upper barn, 1332
Garrood's adjustable hay-rack, 1512
Gas apparatus, 1096-1698

Bridges, Aubury, & Co.'s, 1698

for farm use, Porter's, 1696

Gas regulator, Hart's, 1489

regulators, 1488

stove, Rickett's, 1501

Gate, braced iron, 1538

common field, 1358

field, of angle-iron, 1536

foot, for fence, 1541

for centre of bridge, 1372

iron field, 1533

rectangular, with diagonal strut, 1355

sliding, of corrugated iron, 1542

suspended or hanging, 1371

tension iron, 1534

trussed, Kil tnorey, 1 359

wooden, for the approach of a farmhouse,

1362

wrought-iron side, 1540

Gates, 706, 1354-1372

iron, 1531-1543

General conditions of a specification adapted for

a steading of brick, 718-736 of stone, 710-716
Girder, cast-iron, for sheds, 1589

cast-iron shoe for receiving end of, 1599

open or trussed beam, for sheds, 1589

Girders, calculations connected with iron, 1807

iron, junction of, with columns, 1408-1415

wood, iron trussing for, 1607-1620

Glass cement for joining, 560

Glazier, specification of duties to be performed

by the, in the erection of farm-buildings, 679,

682, 755, 820, 876, 901
Glossary of technical terms used in artificers'

work," 1812

Glover Brothers' iron traps for stables, 1506
Goddard's cooking-apparatus, 1498
Gothic door, 1255

or high-pitched roof, trusses for, 1222-

1224

IXDEX.

553

Grain crops in the steading, accommodation for, Horse-pond, making of a, 1033

1325 Horses or tressels for the joiner's shop, 1G58

drying of, 1731-1743 Hot-air seasoning; of timber, (513

drying 1 by Archimedean screw. 1735 Hot water, heating of buildings by, 1721

drying rooms and machines, 17-16 pipes for drying-houses, rule for cal-

drying in the sheaf or bulk, 1722 dilating surface of, 1725

drying tile-kiln, 1732 supply, principles of, 1721

tanks for the preservation of, 1744 House drains, various forms of, 1019

Granary windows, 1333 drying heating apparatus, 1724

Granite, 4!)0 frame, construction of, 1374

Grate, cottager's fire-lump, 1102 Houses for calves, 1317-131!)

stove, fire-lump, 1103 drying, ventilation of, 1724

Grates, 824, 1099 pigeon, 1710

kitchen, ranges, and stoves, 1497-1502 poultry, 1707-1709

Grating, ornamental, for ventilator, 1105 American, 1774

Gratings for court drains, 1505 timber, and sheds, 1373-1385

Greenstone, 492 Hurdles, wrought-iron, 1577, 1581
Greenwood's door-stops for the prevention of Hydrant, Wheatcroft and Smith's, 1529

draughts, 1259 Hydrants, bridges, sluice-valves, 1519-1530

Grindstone, 1660 Hydraulic cement, 537

Groin and dam for protecting a river side, 1008 ram, 1689

Grooved bricks, 971

Ground, choice and preparation of, for founda- Ibbotson &; Co.'s grindstone, 1660

tions, 923-933 ratchet brace, 1665

Grout, 946 lifting screw-jack, 1672

Guards, chimney, 1485 screw stock, 1668

Gutta-percha for architectural decoration, 519 India-rubber, vulcanised, for architectural decor-

Gutters cut out of solid wood, 1237 ation, 519

for iron roofs, 1464-1469 Inverquharity steading, Forfarshire, description

iron, for closed surface-drains in stables, of plan of, 264-274

1504 Inverted arches for foundations, 939

wooden, 1232-1237 Iron bars, used as tension-rods for roof-trusses,

Gutter-tile, Beadon's, 1091 weight of 1 foot lengths, 1809

Guynne's portable fire-engine, 1685 beam, best section of, 1386

Gwilt's remarks on flooring, 1182 beams, 1386-1403

filling in spaces between, 1388

Halley's lifting-jack, 1672 fixing of cross girders to, 1390-1392

Hammer, claw, 1659 or girders, dimensions of, for various

riveting, 1669 sizes, 1401, 1402

Hand-pump, 1688 placing of binding-joists upon, 1389

Hands' patent brick-kilns, 1747 for span of 18 to 20 feet, 1387

drying-sheds, 1730 wrought, to prevent deflection of,

Hanging-post of a field- gate, 1365 1808

posts, fixing of, 1366-1369 boring- bits, 1667

Harness and saddle bracket, 1516 cast, classes of, 632-639

pins, 1299 Fairbairn's mixture of, 640

Hart's gas regulator, 1489 hot and cold blast, 642

Hay-house, 1302 malleable, <>45

Hay-rack, Garrood's adjustable, 1512 relative values of Scotch and English, 644

position of, in stalls, 1282 castings, precautions to be adopted in mak-

Hearth, fireclay, 1103 ing, 643

Heating apparatus for drying-house, 1724 columns, 1404-1416

of apartments, 1099-1104 combined with brick or concrete, 1628-1640

of buildings, 1719 wood, 1593-1620

by furnaces, 1720 wood, slate, or zinc, 1641-

by hot water, 1721 1655

by steam, 1721 construction, 1386-1592

Hexagonal paving-tiles, 1087 corrugated, roofs, 1470

roof for thrashing-mill, 1229 drilling braces, 16:54-1666

High-pitched roofs, trusses for, 1222-1224 fittings of the farmhouse and cottage, 1474-

Hind-posts, iron, for stalls in stables, 1509 1502

Hinge for self-shutting door, 1478 ' of the steading, 1503-1518

spherical, Collinge's patent, 1478 foot-bridge, details of, 1521, 1522

Hinges, 1478 gates, 1531-1543

butt, 1478 gutters for closed surface drains in stables,

Hip-rafter for roof, 1211 1504

Hipped-roof, 1194 laths for roofs, dimensions of, 1645

plan of, 1 21 3 preservation of, 649-651

Hollow-brick, 11-inch wall, 968 rolled beam, 1399

14-inch wall, 968 roof, double, for wide spans, 1427

Norton & Borrie's, 973 for 18-fcet span, 1417

wall, Dearn's, 968 for 25-fcet span, 1430

bricks, Dean's, 974 for 30-feet span, 1438

fireproof floors and ceilings in, 970 for horse-walk of thrashing-mill, 1458

Holman's double-action pump, 1686 slate-covering for, 1643

Hoop-iron bond for brick walls, 956, 957 with zinc covering, 1646

554

INDEX.

Iron roof, wood covering for, 1642

roofs, 1417-1473

dimensions of parts of, for various

spans, 144S-1457

gutters for, 1464-1469

sheds, 1586-1591

shoes for wooden framing, 1599-1606

sluice-valve and rack, 1530

Stirling's mixture of wrought and cast, 641

straps for wooden beams, 1593-1598

traps for stable, 1506

travises for stable stalls, 1509

trussing for wood girders, 1607-1620

varieties of, 631

ventilators, 1507

weight of bars, round and square, 1809

wrought, change of structure of, by vibra-
tion, 648

varieties and peculiarities of, 646-

651

Ironmonger, specification of duties to be per-
formed by, in the erection of farm-buildings.
672, 705, 714, 823, 824, 877

Isolated cow-byre, 1700

dairy, 1701

Isometrical elevation of Allen's American barn,
1768

of a covered stackyard, 205

perspective of a steading for mixed

husbandry, in Plate IX.

of steading at Coleshill,

Berkshire, in Plate XV.

of a carse farm-steading,

Plate XXII.

of a large dairy -farm,Plate

XXIII.

of a common farm-stead-
ing, Plate XXIV.

Jacks, lifting screw, 1672
Jamb, mouldings of, 947
Jenning's india-rubber tube water-tap, 1492

lavatory, 1114

sluice-cock, 1527

water-closet, 1116

Jobbing, 693, 708

Joggles for joining blocks of stone, 945

Johnstone's method of forming embankments in

low grounds on river-sides, 981-985
Joiner, tools of the, 1656-1658
Joiner's bench, 1657
Joining of plates of corrugated zinc, 1653

of sheets of zinc, 1652

of wires for fences, 1570

Joints, fished, for timber, 1134-1136

for perpendicular timbers, 1137-1141

for timber at right angles, 1142-1149

for timbers at angles other than a right

angle, 1154-1156

of timber, 1133-1168

of timber placed at angles to horizontal

timbers, 1157-1168

scarf, for timber, 1134-1136

cast-iron shoe for receiving ends of,

1599

setting of flooring, on brick walls, 961

Joists, binding, 1180

bridging, 1180

bridle, 1178

calculations of quantity of timber in, 1803

ceiling, 1179

good and bad method of setting, in brick

walls, 961

and sleepers, 697, 860

trimming, 1178

trussing of flooring, 1178

Keene's cement, 548

Keys or spanners of various forms, 1669

Kiln for drain-tiles, 1749

tile, for drying, 1732

Kilns, Hands' patent brick, 1747

drying machines and, 1715-1751

firing of, for drain- tiles, 1750

King-bolt, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1602
King-post truss for bridge, 1343

roof, 1207

trussed beam, 1607

Kitchen of farmhouse, 287

grates, ranges, and stoves, 1497-1502

lock, 1477

Kyan's process for preserving timber, 618
Kuhlmann's artificial stone, 517
method of preserving stone, 506

Labourers, farm, classes of, 373-375

Laminated rib-roof, 1227

Lancashire kitchen grate, 1497

Larch timber, 596-602

Latch, window, 1480

Latches, 705

Lathe, 1681

Lathing, 700, 866

Laths, estimates connected with, 1796

iron, for iron roofs, dimensions of, 1645

Lavatories and wash-basins, 1113, 1114
Laycock's fittings for cattle-boxes, 1315
Lead, peculiarities of, 653

surface covered by, at a given weight per

foot, 1811

weight of, 1810

Lean-to roof, 1193-1199

truss for, 1199, 1200

Leather for architectural decoration, 519
Ledged door, 1248

and braced doors, 1249

Level, mason's, 1662

Lewis for raising blocks of stone, 944

Lidded drain tubes, 1020-1022

Lifting screw jacks, 1672

Limestones, 496, 539

Lintel and flat arch in brick walls, 962

Lintels for steadings, 696

Liquid-manure drains, 1018

pump, 1685

pumps for lifting, from tanks, 1077

tanks, 1065

Flemish, 1081

rationale of construction

of, 1074
Lock, kitchen, 1477

mortise, 1477

press, 1477

rim, 1477

Locks, 1474-1478

and latches, 705

Looker's tubular ventilator, 1106
Loose-box in stable, 1301
Loose-boxes, fittings for, 1515
Lore's system of fireproof floors, 1635
Lowe's patent iron trap for sinks, 1495

M'Culloch and C'o.'s cottage window, 1261
Machine, boring or drilling, 16S2

mortising, tenoning, and boring, 1676

Machines, drying, and kilns, 1715-1751

of the workshop, 1673-1682

Macpherson's portable machine for making sheep-
fences, 1677

Magnus's enamelled slate, 518
Manger, enamelled, for stables, 1510

in byre or cow-house, 1306

installs, 1282

INDEX. 555

Mansard or curb roof, 1221 Paper-hanger, specification of duties to be per-

Mantelpieces, 875 formed by the, 809, 821

Manure, liquid, pump for, 16S5 Papier mache for architectural decoration, 519

tanks for, 10U5-10S1 Parian cement, 548

Marine cement, 552 Parisian methods of making fireproof floors,

Marshall's American farm-buildings, 1770 1631-1638

Martin's cement, 548 . modes of fireproof construction, Mr Fair-
Mason, specification of duties to be performed by, bairn's remarks on, 1038
in the building of farm structures, 004, Parker's cement, 540
684, 827, 850, !M>5 Pastoral farming, 3

tools of the, lb'01, 1062 farming for cattle, description of plan

work, 084. of steading for, 138-52

Masonry, stone, classes of, 940-943 farming for cattle, with arable culture,

Mason's level, 1062 02

plumb-line, 1602 farming for sheep, 53

trowel, 1062 farming for sheep, with arable culture,

Materials, 709 72

employed in construction, 489 Partitions, 803, 1183-1191

for architectural decoration, 519 calculations of quantity of timber in,

for road surface, 1051 1803

MausneTs system of making fireproof floors, 1034 trussed, 1191

Measurements, schedule of, for a farmhouse of Partition-tile, hollow, Stewart's, 974

stone, 848 Paul's method of preserving stone, 512

Medina cement, 540 Pavement-bricks, drainage, 1118

for farm structure, 554 Pavilion-roof, 1195

Memel timber, 592 Paving, 099

Metals, 630 brick, estimates and calculations con-
Miles' wooden field-gate, with cast-iron heel-post, nccted with, 1791

1360 bricks, 1<)80

Milk cooler, 1117 stone, estimates connected with, 1792

Mixed farming, 8 Paving tiles, 1087

description of plan of steading Payne's process of preserving timber, 625

for, 105-183 Peake's terro-metallio paving- bricks, 1086

gauze wire-netting, 1583 Perspective view of American cooking-stove, 1499

Morphie steading, Kincardineshire, description of American side-hill barn, 1763

of plan of, 235-241 of asphalt caldron and grate,

Mortar, 532, 852 1084

estimates connected with, 1794 of carbon filter, 1112

Smeaton's, 538 of a first-class farmhouse, Plate

Mortise lock, 1477 XXV.

Mortising, tenoning, and boring machine, 1670 of boring machine, 1682

Mouldings of corbel, chimney-cap, string-course, of Bridges and Anbury's gas ap-

summer-stone, jamb, and finial, 947 paratus, 1098

of capping, stone-balcony front, stone of Bruce's stable stall, 1511

finial, window cornice, drip -stone, of Clayton's cored joint for

string-course, 948 drain-tubes, 1019

of stone window cornice, chimney-cap, of collar holder, 1516

950 '. of combined caldron and furnace,

varieties of. See Glossary 1083

Mullion of window, 1625 of Cooper's lidded drain-tubes

Muntins of a door, 1252 and saddles, 1022

of corn-chest, 1303

Natural seasoning of timber, 611 of Doulton's lidded drain-tubes,

Netting, wire, for sheep, 1582 1020

Norton and Borrie's earthenware staircase, 1098 of Doulton's ventilating chim-

hollow bricks, 973 ney-tubo, 1105

Norway and Petersburg timber, 591, 599 of drainage pavement - bricks,

Notch-board of a stair, 1244 1118

of endless band saw frame, 1675

Oak timber, 605 of feeding-trough for cattle, 1321

Octagonal shed, 1590 of fire-engine, 1685

Oil painting, 579-584 of Forbes 's drainage pavement-
Old English bond in brickwork, 953 bricks, 1118

Onstead, orsteading, or farmer}', 37 of Garrood's stable rack, 1512

Out-houses, cottage, plans of, 459-402 of hinges, 1478

plans of, for composite cottages, 402 of Holman's double-action pump,

for double cottages, 461 1686

for single cottage, 400 of Ibbotson's grindstone, 1600

of Jenning's lavatory, 1114

Paint, durable, for outdoor work, 584, 589 of a lathe, 1081

Painter, specification of duties to be performed of locks, 1477

by, in the erection of farm-buildings, 079, 754, of manger and rack, 1515

813, 887, 891, 900 of a mansion-house and offices,

Painting in distemper, 577 Plate XXX.

in oil, 579-584 of marble milk-cooler, 1117

Panels of doors, 1253 of Miles' wooden field-gate, 1360

556

INDEX.

Perspective view of M'Pherson's sheep-fence-mak- Plan of Flemish barn, 1756

ing machine, 1677 of Flemish farm-buildings, 1758, 1759

of Muir's four points ventilator, of four-roomed and single-storeyed farm-

1508 cottage, 385
of Pierce's cottage fire-lump of heating apparatus for drying-house, 1724

grate, 1104 of hipped-roof, 1213

of a pigsty door, 1324 of Inverquharity steading, Forfarshire, de-

of pigs' troughs, 1518 scription of, 264-274

of Powis's mortising, tenoning, of isolated cow-byre, 1700

and boring machine, 1676 of isolated dairies, 1701-1702

of a pulley-stile, 1480 of kitchen, &c., of a farmhouse, 287

of Ridgway's water-closet, 1115 of large dairy farm- steading, description

of a second class farmhouse, of, 96-107

Plate XXVI. of machine-house in Flemish farm, 1760

of spring pulley for window- of Morphie steading, Kincardineshire, de-
blind, 1481 scription of, 235-241
of stall with cast-iron heel-posts, of mullion of window of farmhouse in fig.

1288 67, 1625

of stone-dyke building, 1032 of pigeon-house, 1710

of straw-racks for cattle, 1322 of poultry-house, 1707

of a third-class farmhouse, Plate of rabbitry, 1711

XXVII. of river- bank requiring protection, 990

of Turner's iron bench for cir- of single-roomed and single-storeyed farm-

cular saw, 1674 cottage, 378
of a two-storeyed double cottage, of small dairy farm-steading, description of,

Plate XXVIII. 108-120
of a two-storeyed single cottage, of smithy, 1755

Plate XXIX. of stackyard, 206-210

of wash-hand basins and pedes- of steading at Britannia Farm, Belgium, 1761

tals, 1113 of steading at Southhill Park, Surrey, de-

of a wooden ventilator, 1297 scription of, 213-216

of a wooden stathel, 1335 of steading for cattle pastoral farming, de-
Pierce' s fire-lump stove-grate, 1102 scription of, 38-52

Pigeon -house, detached, 1710 of steading for cattle pastoral farming with

Piggery, American sifting, 1773 arable culture, description of, 62-71

detached, 1712 of steading for common farming, description

Pigsty door, 1324 of, 145-164

fittings, 1517 of steading for mixed husbandry, description

Pig-troughs, 1518 of, 165-183

Pilbrow"s water waste preventer, 1494 of steading for sheep pastoral farming, with

Piling for protecting river-banks, 992 arable culture, description of, 72-81

Pillars, cast-iron, for cattle-boxes in ironsheds, 1592 of steading for suburbial dairy fanning, de-
Pins, harness, 1299 scription of, 131-144

Pipe, steam, curved valve, 1727 of steading for suburbial farming with

roller for steam, 1727 arable culture, description of, 122-130

steam, expansion joint for, 1727 of two-roomed and single-storeyed farm-cot-

valves for sluices, 1353 tage, 381

Pipes, steam, clothing of, 1728 of Warksteading, Northumberland, descrip-

steam, for drying-houses, 1727 tion of, 257-262

Pise* walls, 1130, 1131 of Western States, American, farm-build-

Plan of Allen's American Barn, 1768 ings, 1771

of American barn, 1766 Plans of bothies, 446-458

of American cheese-dairy buildings, 1772 of composite farm-cottages, 437-445

of American poultry-house, 1 774 of double single-storeyed farm - cottages,

of American side-hill barn, 1762 401-410

of American sifting piggery, 1773 of double two-storeyed farm-cottages, 411-

of Archimedean screw grain conveyer, 1741 422

of bay windows, 1269, 1727 of double two-storeyed farm-cottages of two

of carpenter's shop, 1754 different sizes, 425-430

of carse farm-steading, description of, 82-94 of existing steadings, 212

of Coleshill steading, Berkshire, description of farm-cottages, 350

of, 243-256 of farmhouses, 281

of cheese-room of a farmhouse, 296 of first-class farmhouses, 301-325

of dam, 1004 of out-houses for composite farm-cottages,

of detached piggery, 1712 462

of detached slaughter-house, 1714 of out-houses for double-cottages, 461

of double detached farm-cottage, 400 of out-houses for farm-cottages, 459

of drain-tile kiln at Corehouse, 1750 of out- houses for single-cottages, 460

of drain-tile work at Corehouse, 1750 of roofs of steadings, description of, 184-

of Drumkilbo steading, Forfarshire, descrip- 203

tion of, 217-233 of second-class farmhouses, 326-330

of Dutch barn, 1756 of steadings based upon fixed principles, 1

of five-roomed and single-storeyed farm- of third-class farmhouses, 331-347

cottage, 387-389 suggesting improved arrangements in do-

...... of five-roomed and two-storeyed farm-cot- fective farm-cottages, 431-436

tage, 396 Plaster-work, 715

INDEX. 557

Plasterer, specification of duties to be performed Remarks on the arrangement of Drumkilbo

by, in the erection of farm-buildings, (575, 715, steading, 234

752, 804, 884, 891, 898, 907 on the arrangement of Morphie stead-
Plastering, 571-57*5 ing, 239-240

estimates connected with, 1796 on arranging the accommodation of

Platform stairs, 1241 farm-cottage to size of family, 393-395

Plumber, specification of duties to be performed on the Coleshill steading, 256

by, in the erection of farm-buildings, (J74, 711, on farmhouse accommodation, 348

712, 815, 880, 891, 902, 907 on furniture for small cottages, 380

Plumb-line, mason's, 1(562 on Inverquharity steading, 275

Pools, watering, in fields, formed by dykes cross- on the importance of providing good

ing in meeting, 1045-1048 accommodation in farm-cottages, 350-

Pole-plate, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1605 372

Pond, making of, for horses, 1083 on the policy of adopting a covered

Porch, truss for, 1204 steading, 242

Portable combined furnace and caldron, 16S3 on Wark steading, 262

crane, Dray's, 1695 Reservoir, water, embankment for, 1002

vice, 1671 Rickett's gas-stove, 1501

Porter's gas apparatus for farm use, 1696 Ridge and valley roof, 1198

Portland cement, 541 tiles, 1089

experiments on, 542, 544,547 Ridgway's water-closet, 1115

Portable fire-engine, 1685 Rim lock, 1477

Posts, intermediate, for wire-fences, 1549 Risers of a stair, 1239

Poultry-houses, 1707-1709 River-banks, protection of, by breakwaters, 989-

American, 1774 991

Powis, James, and Co. '& mortising, tenoning, and tree, 990

boring machine, 1676 piling, 992

Practical construction, 922 Road surface, material for, 1051

Practice in construction, 489 Roads, construction of, on strong soils, 1054

Preservation of grain, tanks for, 1744 convex, 1(151

of iron, 649-651 drains for, 1052

of wood, 614 excavations for, 1053

Press lock, 1477 farm, 1050-1059

Presses, 870 Roberts' system of hollow brick walls, 969-971,
Principles of arrangement of steadings, 1 1087

of arrangement of farmhouses, 286 Rolled iron beam, 1399

of drying, 1723 Roman cement, 540

of grain drying, 1733 Roman cement, experiments on, 545, 546

of hot-water supply, 1721 Roof, conical, 1196

Pulley, spring, for window-blinds, 1481 conical truss for, 1229

stile, window, 1479 corrugated iron, for span of 18 feet, 1417

Pump, double-action, 1686 52 feet, 1472

hand,- 1688 covering, asphalted felt for, 1092

liquid-manure, 1685 curb or mansard, 1221

steam, Carrett's, 1691 curved rib-truss for, 1225

Pumps for lifting liquid manure from tanks, 1077 for octagonal shed, 1590

Purlin, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1606 hexagonal, 1230

Puzzolano cement, 538 for thrashing-mill, 1229

hipped, 1194

Quantities, bills of, for a farmhouse of stone, 848 plan of, 1213

Quarry crane, 1693 iron, covering of wood for, 1642

Queen-bolt, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1604 double, for wide spans, 1427

Queen-post truss for bridge, 1343 for horse-walk of thrashing-mill, 1459

roof, 1208-1210 for 25-feet span, 1430

trussed beam, 1607 for 18-feet span, 1417

for 30-feet span, 1438

Rabbitry, 1711 slate covering for, 1644

Rack, straw, for sheds, 1323 king-post truss for, 1207

Racks, straw, for courts, 1322 laminated rib, 1227

Rafter, cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1605 of corn-barn, 1327

Rails of a door, 1252 of stable for work-horse, 1289

Rain-water cistern, 1110 pavilion, 1195

Raised panel door, 1256 queen-post truss for, 1208-1210

Ram, hydraulic, 1689 ridge and lean-to, 1193

Ranges, grates, and stoves, 1497-1502 ridged, meeting at right angles, 1197

Ransome's artificial stone, 516 tiles, 1089

method of preserving stone, 510 truss for flat, 1219, 1220

Ratchet brace, Fenn's, 1666 for, with king-bolt, 1207

Ibbotson and Co.'s, 1665 trusses, 1199-1230

valve for admitting air, 1507 with queen bolts, 1438

Rawlinson's hollow brick, 1087 with hip-rafter, 1211

Regulators, gas, 1488 Roofing, 698, 862

Remarks on the accommodation of farmhouses in tiles, 530

relation to the size of the farm, 349 Roofs, 1192-1198

on the advantages of double cottages blue and grey slates for, 1093

over rows, 400 calculations of quantity of timber in, 1803

558

INDEX.

Roofs, corrugated iron, 1470-1473

Gothic, 122

for thrashing-mills, 1229

iron, 1417-1473

iron, dimensions of parts of, for various

spans, 1448-1458

iron, gutters for, 1464-1469

iron, with zinc, 1646

of steadings, description of plans of,

184-203, 251
relative cost of slate and zinc covered,

1654

ridge and valley, 1198

tables of scantlings of timber for various

spans of, 1214
Rough-casting, 563-565
Rubber, india, tap, 1492
Rubblework in masonry, 942, 943, 946
Rule, general, applicable to all designs of farm-
steadings, 17

for calculating surface of hot- water pipes

for drying-houses, 1725

Saddle and harness-bracket, 1516

Sandstones, 493-495

Sands for building purposes, 533

Sash door, 1251

frame, Shaw's patent, 1265

Saw, circular, iron bench, 1674

endless band, 1675

frame, vertical, 1673

Scagliola, 551

Scantlings of timbers for floors of various spans,
1181

of timbers for various spans of roofs,

1214

Schedule of measurements for a farmhouse of
stone, 848

Scotch fir timber, 597-599

Scotland, state of farming in the Middle Ages,
474-488

Screw, Archimedean, grain drying machine, 1735

frame for boring brace, 1664

keys or spanners, 1669

lifting-jack, 1672

stocks, 1668

ventilator, Chadwick's, 1485

Sea-embankments, 993-1001

Seal or binder for cattle, 1311

Seasoning of timber, 610

natural, 611

water, 612

hot-air, 613

Section of American poultry-house, 1774

of Archimedean screw grain - conveyer,

1741

of base of principal window of farmhouse,

1623

of base of bay window of farmhouse, 1626

of a self-acting sluice, 1351

of an improved cottage-window, 1261

of byre travis, manger, and stake, 1309

of cornice, base, of farmhouse, 1621

of dam, 1004

of detached slaughter-house, 171 4

of drain-tile kiln at Corehouse, 1750

of first-class farmhouses, 310, 316

of groin and dam for protecting a river-
side, 1008

of Hands' drying-sheds, 1730

of heating apparatus for a drying-house,

1724

of Jennings's water-closet, 1116

of milk-house and cheese-room of a farm-
house, 305

of moulds for pise" walls, 1131

Section of manger, and rack for cattle-boxes, 1315

of nests behind stairs in poultry -house,

1774

of pigeon-house, 1710

of platform and return stairs, 1242-1243

of portable combined furnace and caldron,

1683

of poultry-house, 1707

of river embankment, 981

of road in strong clay land, 1055

of stone trough for a byre, 1127

of through window-head of farmhouse,! 624

transverse, of 'Tudor farmhouse, 316

of wall, showing gutter with cantaliver,

1233

of window-head of bay window of farm-
house, 1627

of wrought-iron columns for sheds, 1591

fire-proof flooring, 1632

vertical, of corn-barn, 1331

vertical of single-storeyed detached cot-
tage, 392

vertical of slaughter-house, 1714

Segmental arch in brick wall, 966

Self-acting sluice, 1351

Semi-circular arch in brick wall, 966

Shaw's patent sash-frame, 1265

Sheaf, drying of grain in the, 1722

Sheaves, drying of, in the boiler-house, 1729

Shed, covered dung, 1377

octagonal, 1590

truss for roof of, 1647

Sheds and timber houses, 1373-1385

cast-iron girder for, 1589

drying, Hands' patent, 1730

iron, 1586-1591

sheep feeding, 1703

shelter, at the corner of four fields, 1376

trussed beam for, 1589

wrought-iron columns for, 1591

Sheep feeding-sheds, 1703

fence-making machine, 1677

pastoral farming, 53

with arable culture, de-
scription of plan of steading for, 72-81

Sheep, wire-netting for, 1582

Shelter-sheds, 1376

Shelving, 871

Sheringham's ventilator, 1296, 1484

Shoe, cast-iron, for ends of struts, 1601

for king-bolt, 1602

for purlins, 1606

for rafter and pole-plate, 1605

for struts and queen-bolt, 1604

iron, for receiving end of girder, 1599

iron, for joists, wall-plates, 1599

Shoes, iron, for wooden framing, 1599-1606

Shop, carpenter's, plan of, 1754

Side-gate of wrought-iron, 1540

hill barn, American, 1762

Sienite, 491

Sifting piggery, American, 1773

Single and double stalls in byres, comparative
advantages of, 1308

storeyed detached cottages of brick, speci-
fication adapted for, 878-887

Sink, cast-iron, 1496

Sinking of wells, 1060

in loose sand, 1061

Site of farmhouse, 283-285

Site of steading, 19, 28, 29

particulars to be avoided in the

choosing of, 26

Skirting, 707, 1279

Skylights, 713

Slate, blue, best for buildings, 529

INDEX.

559

Slate, blue, quarries of, 524

for shed covering', 1092

covering for iron roof, 1643

enamelled, 518

roof, cost of, 1654

Slates, blue and grey, for roofs, 10,04

grey, 526

quarries of, 528

sizes of, 525

Slater, specification of duties to bo performed
by, in the erection of farm.-buiki.iugs, (JO'3,
711, 8S5, 891, 908

and plumber work, 711

Slating, estimates connected with, 1798

grey, cost of, 527

Slaughter-house, detached, 1714

Sleepers and joists, 697

Sliding door, 1258

door for stables, 1370

gate of corrugated iron, 1542

window, 1260

Sluice-cock, Brown and May's, 1528

cock, Jenning's, 1527

pipe valves, 1 353

self-acting, 1351

valve and rack, iron, 1530

valves, 1526

valves, hydrants, bridges, 1519-1530

Sluices, wooden, 1349-1352

Smeaton's mortar, 538

Smith, specification of duties to be performed
by, in the erection of farm - buildings,
673, 753, 903

tools of the, 1663-1673

boring brace, 1664

'. ... forge, 1663

Smithy, plan of farm, 1755

Smoke and ventilating flue, 1101-1105

Soils, foundations in various classes of, 924-927

Sutter's method of forming river-embankments,
986, 987

Southhill Park, Surrey, steading, description of
plan of, 213,216

Spanners or screw-keys, 1669

Specification adapted for a steading of brick,
general conditions of, 718-736

adapted for a steading of brick,

717-755

adapted for a steading of stone,

683-716

of a steading of stone, general con-
ditions of masonry, 694 general
conditions of carpentry, 710

of farm-house adapted for brick,

756-824

of farmhouse, adapted for stone,

825-847, 849-877

Specifications for cottages of brick, 879-903

for cottages of stone, 904-909

items to be considered in the draw-
ing up of, 657-682

of buildings, 656-909

of duties to be performed by vari-
ous tradesmen in the erection of farm-buildings,
as follows : Excavator, 657, 684, 736, 757,
826, 850, 880, 893, 905. Mason, 664, 684, 827,
850, 905. Bricklayer, 658, 662, 737, 760, 881,
889, 894. Carpenter and Joiner, 665, 669,
696, 741, 768, 858, 883, 890, 896, 906. Slater,
663, 711, 885, 891, 908. Smith, 673, 753, 903.
Ironmonger, 672, 705, 714, 823, 824, 877. P lum-
ber, 674, 711, 712, 815, 886, 891, 902, 907.
Plasterer, 675, 715, 752, 804, 884, 891, 898,
909. Painter, 679, 754, 813, 887, 891, 900.
Glazier, 679, 682, 755, 820, 876, 901. Paper-
hanger, 821, 899. Belllumger, 822.

Spelter, flee Zinc

Spiral wire-work, 15S5

Stable fittings, Bruce' s improved, 1511

Cottam's improved, 1514

roof of work-horse, 1289

stalls, with feeding-pasages at the heads

of, 1286, 1287

windows, 1298

work-horse, proper width of, 1280

Stables, &c., ventilation of, 1290-1297

sliding door for, li>70

work-horse, proper width of stalls in, 1281

Stackyard, 1334

covered, description of, 204, 205

plan of, 206-210

Staining of wood, 585

Stair, mode of laying out the steps in the notch-
board of, 1245

rods, fastening for, 1482

treads and rises of, 1239

Staircase, earthenware, 1098

Stairs, 865, 1239-1246

balusters for, 1246

notch-board and string-board of, 1244

platform, 1241

template, for setting out steps of, 1245

Stall-collar, 1300

fittings for work-horse stables, 1285

in byres, width of, 1304

Stalls, double and single, in byres, comparative
advantages of, 1308

for work-horse stable, with cast-iron heel-
posts, 1288

iron hind-posts for stable, 1509

mode of supplying food to, in byre, 1307

of work-horse stables, proper width of,

1281

Stathels, 1335

Steading, (Joleshill, Berkshire, description of plan
of, 243-256

covered, remarks on the policy of adopt-
ing, 242

description of plan of, for carse farming,

82-94

description of plan of, for cattle pastoral

farming, 38-52

description of plan of, for cattle pastoral

farming with arable culture, 62-71

description of plan of, for common farm-
ing, 145-164

description of plan of, for large dairy

farming, 96-107

description of plan of, for mixed farm-
ing, 165-183

description of plan of, for sheep pastoral

farming with arable culture, 72-81

description of plan of, for small dairy

farming, 108-120

description of plan of, for suburbial

dairy farming, 131-144

description of plan of, for suburbial

farming with arable culture, 122-130

Drumkilbo, Forfarshire, description of

plan of, 217-233

fittings of, 1280

Inverquharity, Forfarshire, description

of plan of, 264-274

iron fittings of, 1503-1518

lintels for, 696

Morphie, Kincardineshire, description

of plan of, 235-241

of brick, specification adapted for, 717-

755

site of, 19, 28, 29

site of, particulars to be avoided in the

choosing of, 26

560

INDEX.

Steading, Southhill Park, Surrey, description of
plan of, 213-216

Wark, Northumberland, description of

plan of, 257-262
Steadings, arrangement of, determined by the

position of straw, 31, 32
. bad arrangement of, loss sustained by,
35

Belgian, 1756-1761

existing, plans of, 212

gables suggested for, 276-280

general rule applicable to the design-
ing of, 17

kind of building-stones to be employed

in constructing, 503-505

plans of, based upon fixed principles, 1

principles of arrangement of, 1

roofs of, description of plans for, 184-

203
Steam, heating of buildings by, 1 721

pipes, clothing of, 1728

for drying-houses, 1727

pump, Carrett's, 1691

S tolls for pastoral sheep farming, 54-61

inside circular, with plantation, 59

with hay-stack and racks.

outside, affording shelter in all direction,

sheltered by plantation on every

side, 61

simple forms, 56

Stench-traps, 1107-1109

Stephens' method of staining wood, 588

Stewart's hollow partition-tile, 974

Stile, window-pulley, 1479

Stiles of a door, 1252

Stirling's mixture of wrought and cast iron, 641

Stock, position of, with reference to the straw,

33
Stone and brick, wood combined with, 1621-1627

blocks of, "lewis" for raising, 944

construction, 940

footings, 934-936

masonry, classes of, 940-943

paving, estimates connected with, 1792

trough for byre, 1127

work of farmhouses, details of, 947-950

Stones, absorbent power and cohesiveness, 497

artificial, 515

classification of, 489

"dowels," "joggles," and "cramps," for

joining blocks of, 945

kind of, to be used in constructing stead-
ings, 503-505

position of, in sea-walls, 1008

preservation of, 506

preservation of, Kuhlmann's method, 506

Daiues' method, 508

Paul's method, 512

principles of, 514

Ransome's method, 510

Szerelmey's method, 513

table of qualities of, 497

their constructive qualities, 498-505

Stops, door, for the prevention of draughts, 1 259
Storey, upper, of steadings, 67, 77, 89, 103, 116,

126, 137, 160, 177, 251. See Upper Storey
Stove, gas, 1501

grate, fire-lump, 1103

Stoves, kitchen-ranges and grates, 1497-1502
Straining -post for wire-fence, 1544-1548

screw and collar- vice combined, for

wire-fences, 1575

screw for wire-fences, 1573

Strapping, 864

Straps, iron, for wooden beams, 1594-1598
Straw-barn, arrangement and construction of,
1326

position of, determines the arrangement of

steadings, 31, 32

rack for sheds, 1323

racks for courts, 1322

reference of, to the position of stock, 33

String-board of a stair, 1244

course, mouldings of, 947, 948

Struts, 868

cast-iron shoe for receiving ends of, 1601-

1604

Stucco, 550, 566
Stuccoing, 564, 566, 569
Suburbia! dairy farming, description of plan of,

steading for, 131-144

farming, 5

farming with arable culture, description

of plan of steading for, 122-130
Summer-stone, moulding of, 947
Surface covered by a given weight of lead per

foot, 1811

Suspended or hanging gate, 1371
Swedish mode of forming walls of frame-houses,
1374

timber, 595-598

Szerelmey's method of preserving stone, 513

Table of qualities of stones, 497

of scantlings for floors of various spans, 1181

of bearing of floors in Systeme de Mausne",

1634

of bearing or span of joists, beaders, aud

girders, 1180

of the breaking weight of wrought-iron

beams, 1807

Tables for calculating quantity of timber in roofs,
joists, partitions, 1803

for calculating the cubical contents of tim-
ber in roofs and partitions in a square of
100 feet, 1804, 1805

of scantlings of timbers for roofs of vari-
ous spans, 1214

Tank, dimensions of, for liquid manure, 1068

for the waste urine of a dunghill, 1080

liquid-manure, apparatus to lift manure

from, 1077

Tanks, cement for lining, 556-562

for liquid manure, rationale of construc-
tion of, 1074

liquid-manure, 1065-1081

for the preservation of grain, 1744

Technical terms, glossary of, used in artificers',
work, 1812

Tension gate of iron, 1534

Tenoning, mortising, and boring machine, 1676

Terms, technical, glossary of, used in artificers'
work, 1812

Thrashing-mill, iron roof for horse-walk of, 1458

roofs for, 1229

Thumb-latch, 1477

Tie-beams, 1151

Tie-rods, best position of, in iron beams, 1393-
1395

Tile, corrugated roof, 1090

grooved ridge, 1089

gutter, 1091

hollow roof, 1090

hip, 1089

kiln, drying of grain, 1732

ornamental ridge, 1089

quoined valley, 1089

ridge, 1089

Tiles for roofing, 530

flat, 1097

INDEX.

5U1

Tiles, paving, 1087

ridge, 1089

roof, 1089

valley, 1089

Tiling, estimates connected with, 170')
Timber, 590

American red pine, 51)3, 6(>0

yellow pine, 594, 601

ash, 607

Bethel's process of preserving, 623

bond, for brick walls, 956

Boucheric's process of preserving', 626-

629

Burnett's process of preserving, 022

California pine, 603

construction, 1133

for agricultural implements, 60 1

floors, 1176-1182

houses and sheds. 1373-138,5

joists of, 1133-1168

Kyan's process for preserving, 618

larch, 596-602

Merael, 592

Norway and Petersburg, 591, 5W

oak, 605

Payne's process of preserving, 625

Scotch fir, 597-599

seasoning of, 610

Swedish, 595-598

ventilation of, in dwellings, 620

Tools of the dry-stone dyker, 1026

of the joiner, 1656-1658

of the mason, 1661, 1662

of the smith, 1663-1673

Trap rock, 492

Traps, iron, for sinks, 1495

iron, for stable, 1506

stench, 1107-1109

Travis and manger of stall in byre, 1309

stones, 689

Travises, 703

of stalls in stables, 1284

iron, for stable stalls, 1509

Treads of a stair, 1239

Tree, structure of, 608

Tressels or horses for the joiner's shop, 1658

Trimming-joists, 1178

Trough, stone, for byre, 1 127

Troughs, pig, 1518

turnip, for courts, 1321

water, for cattle-courts, 1119-1127

Trowel, mason's, 1662

Truck, turnip, 1706

Truss, for bridge, 1343

for collar-beam roof, 1203

for curb or mansard roof, 1221

for curved rib-roof, 1225

for dormer windows, 1231

for flat roof, 1219

for a lean-to roof, 1199, 1200

for a porch, 1204

for roof of shed, 1647

king-post, for roof, 1207

queen-post, for roof, 1208-1210

with king-bolt, 1207

Trussed beam, Ainger's, 1609
bridge, 1342

for sheds, 1589

king-post, 1607

queen-post, 1607

gate, 1359

girder bridge, 1342

partition, 1189

timber beams, 1169-1173

Trusses for Gothic or high-pitched roof, 1222-1224

roof, 1199-1230

Trussing of flooring- joists, 1178

of solid beams, Condor's, 1615

iron, of wood girders, 1607-1620

Tubes, drain, lidded, 1020-1022
Tubular ventilator, 1106
Turner's iron bench circular saw, 1674
Turnip-troughs for courts, 1321

truck, 1706

washing, method of, 1705

Turn-key for wire-fences, 1572

Tyermanu's hoop-iron bond for brick walls, 957

Unburnt bricks, walls of, 1132

Upper storey of steading for cattle pastoral farm-
ing with arable culture, 67

of steading for sheep pastoral farm-
ing with arable culture, 77

of steading for carse farming, 89

of steading for large dairy farming,

103

of steading for small dairy farming,

116

of steading for suburbial farming

with arable culture, 126

of steading for suburbial farming

with dairy, 137

of steading for common farming,

160

of steading for mixed husbandry,

177

of steading at Coleshill, Berkshire,

251

Useful apparatus and erections, 1683-1698

Valley-tiles, 1059
Valves, chimney, 1187
Valves for sluices, 1526

iron, for admitting fresh air to stables,

&c., 1507

Varnish for stained wood, 586
Venetian ventilator, 1296
Ventilating and smoke flue, 1101-1105
Ventilation of drying-houses, 1724

importance of, 1290, 1291

of stables, &c., 1290-1297

Ventilator, Arnott's, 1483

for stables, Ferguson's, 1295

for withdrawing foul air from dwell-
ings, 1508

Looker's tubular, 1106

ornamental grating for, 1105

Sheringham's, 1296,1484

Watson's, 1508

with hinged valve, 1296

with suspended valve, 1296

wooden, 1295, 1297

Ventilators, 714

iron, 1507

Vermin-proof cement, 549
Vertical saw frame, 1673
Vice, portable, 1671
Vincennes farm-buildings, 1775
Voids in brick walls, 962
V-window, 1272

Wall-plates, 1150

cast-iron shoe for receiving, 1599

brick openings or voids in, 962

carrying up of courses of, in brick. 960,

961

fireproof, of frame-houses, 1375

hollow, of brick, 967-974

of brick, 953-961

bond in, 953, 954

of unburnt bricks, 1132

pise, 1130, 1131

2 X

562 INDEX.

Wall, sea, position of stones in, 1008 Wire fence, straining- screw, 1573

whitewashing of, 567, 568 turn-key, 1573

Wark Steading, Northumberland, description of fences, 1544-1576

plan of, 257-262 fitting up of, 1564-1576

Wash-basins and lavatories, 1113, 1114 intermediate posts for, 1549

Washing, turnip, method of, 1705 fencing, collar- vice for, 1574

Water-closets, 872, 1115, 1116 straining-screw and collar- vice for,

cock, Wheatcroft and Smith's, 1493 combined, 1575

foundations in, 928-930 joining, for fences, 1570

rain, cistern, 1110 netting for sheep, 1582, 1583

raising from wells, 1064 work, spiral, 1585

seasoning of timber, 610 for fences, 1551-1563

tap, Jenning's india tube, 1492 block for making eyes in,

taps and cock, 1491 1571

troughs for cattle-courts, 1119-1127 Wood combined with iron-work, 1593-1620

waste preventer, Pilbrow's, 1494 with stone and brick, 1621-1627

Watering-pools, formed by crossing of dykes, covering for iron roof, 1642

1045-1048 its chemical properties and composition,

Watson's ventilator, 1508 614-618

Weather-boarding for timber sheds, 1374 preservation of, 614

Weight of round iron bars, used as tension-rods staining, 585

for roof -trusses, in foot lengths, 1 809 Stephens' method of, 588

of lead per foot superficial, 1810 Wheeler's method of, 587

Weirs, 990, 1002, 1003 Wooden aqueduct for irrigation, 1348

Weir for a water reservoir, 1002 beams, iron straps for, 1594-1598

Wells, raising water from, 1064 bridges, 1340-1347

Well digging and steining, estimates connected fittings of the farmhouse and cottage,

with, 1778 1247-1279

sinking, 1060 fittings of the steading, stable, byre,

in loose sand, 1061 barn, courtyard, &c., 1280-1335

West and Hubbell's "oak-hall" window, 1264 framing, iron shoes for, 1599-1606

Western States of America, farm- buildings for, gutters, 1232-1237

1771 sluices, 1349-1352

Wheatcroft and Smith's hydrant, 1529 ventilators, 1295, 1297

water-cock, 1493 Wood's asphalt caldron, 1684

Wheeler's mode of staining wood, 587 Workshop, fittings of the, 1656-1682

White's portable vice, 1671 machines of the, 1673-1682

Whitewashing of walls, 567 Work, brick, estimates and calculations con-

Width, proper, for stalls in work-horse stables, nected with, 1782-1791

1281 estimates of diggers' and excavators',

for work-horse stables, 1280 1777-1781

Window-blinds, spring pulley for, 1481 artificers' glossary of technical terms used

cornice, mouldings of, 948 in, 1812

stone mouldings of, 950 Wrought-iron and cast-iron beams, comparative

dormer, elevation of, 1231 advantages of, 1396, 1397

fixed, 1260 beams, Fairbairn's fireproof floor-

for cottages, 1261 ing with, 1630

French casement, 1263 beams, junction with cast-iron

fastenings for, 1481 columns, 1416

head of farmhouse, 1624 beams, with concrete for fireproof

latch, 1480 construction, 1629

mullion of, 1625 girders and beams, 1607

oak-hall, 1264 plate beam, 1398

of byre, 1312 columns for sheds, 1591

pulley-stile, 1479 hurdles,1577

sliding, 1260 side-gate, 1540

V, 1272 varieties and peculiarities of, 646-

Windows, 699, 867 651

for farm-cottages, 463, 464 girders and beams, 1807

of corn-barn, 1327

of farmhouses, details of, 1266-1277 Young's instructions for fitting up wire fences,

of granary, 1333 1565-1576

stable, 1298

various forms of, 1260-1277 Zinc-covered iron roof, 1646

Wire, block for straightening, 1567 fixing of sheeting as roof covering, 1652

clambs for twisting the eye of, for fences, joining plates of corrugated zinc, 1653

1571 peculiarities of, 654

fence, straining-post for, 1544-1548 roof, cost of, 1654

THE END.

PRINTFD BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, KD1NBUKUH.

I'L/ITK 1

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CARSE FARM STEADING

LARGE DAIRY

R -Scott Sum DrL

PLATE IV

ARM STEADING

-nm.. DO,

PI..ITK VI

COMMON FAR

Fiq 1

W 20 .30 40 AC SO 70

R Scott Sum. Del

STEADING

FARM STEADING FOR MIXED HU

fur 1

Centre /or small, prigrs
i'z' Sties /hr~ TrreeeKny sows
fc Sties /vr- feecHrtff pig's
I' 2?ac7uru Souse

rV Cfacfan. 2fou.se
r>' Turfay House
p' Duck ffouse
A~ Wool room.

House

O 1C 20 30 40 -ill 60 10

PLJTK VJI1

UN D R Y

Ka 3

Scale.

to ID

120 an tea jgo

ISOMETRICAL ELEVATION IN OUTLINE OF FARM STEADIf
FOR MIXED HUSBANDRY

/,' \rff Hum l>el

L. //'/: AT

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PLANS or THI
FARM S7
In Plute.* 1 to

P L
FARM STEADI

a
a

X Statt Burn. Dd.

PL Art:

F
AT DRUMKILBO

PLAN OF FARM S

n n n n n rJTO"_~. ~_Ti_r~_ ~^D.~J^

10 6 10 20 30 4-0

\DING AT MORPHIE

PLATE Xlll

ELEVATION

60 70 ;; i

PLATE XIV

PERSPECTIVE V.
CO L E S H ILL F /<

Y IN OUTLINE OF
I BUILDINGS

PLAN OF FARM STEADI NC

% '

, fi

; Cattle \ Teeddnq ' Box

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HoKts

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,T WARK NORTHUMBERLAND

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iiillllll

Stairs to
qrasf .tetd loft

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cnavne -room

feet . f

ununrve y

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PLAI'i: XMl

FRONT ELEVATION OF FARM HOUSES

VERTICAL SAW FRAME. FOR CUTTING TREES

1 IPA! _* _ Q

CIRCULAR SAW FRAME

PL ATE XX

A GARSE FARM STEADING

PL A TI-: XX Jl

ISO METRICAL ELEVATION OF

RGE DAIRY FARM STEADING

I S M E TRIG AL ELEVATION

A COMMON FARM STEADING

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTI

F A FIRST CLASS FARM HOUSE FIG 23

/'/..I TK XXV

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVI

SECOND CLASS FARM HOUSE FIG 58

PL A TE XXVI.

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPEC

FOR A THIRD CLASS FARM HOUSE FIG

PI. ATE XXV J I

DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE OF TWO-STOREYED DOUBLE-

;-S.W1>

J./^PRSW^P'." ^ '-

Wsx . :-.% j<=i

CHED COTTAGES WITH HOUSES OF DIFFERENT SIZES

PI.ATI-: xxvni.

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN IN PERSPECTIVE FOR A
TWO STOREYED DETACHED COTTAGE. FIG. 87.

ALTERNATIVE DESIGN FOR A DETACHED COTTAGE FIG 82

N O T I C E.

TH, uti % of a series of Working-Drawings to a large scale in Plan,
'

P te vm e

1. to VIII., having been suggested to the Authors, Mr BURN

has made arrangements to prepare, these, as well as a series of Drawing
of Iron Koofs adapted to the Steadings. Gentlemen and Landed Pro
pnetors who .nay be desirous of procuring Tracings of a set of Plans
of any one of the Steadings, &c., as above named, will receive informa-
non as to price of the same, time of delivery, & c., by applying by letter
to Mr K SCOTT 15UKX, Castle, Farm, Stnckport, Cheshire

employed to a large extent, and in many cases emux-ay, m unc^i v,^,,.,,.^., ,
they are not only lighter in appearance, but more elegant in form and more
efficient in use. Still, a close inspection, with a critical eye, will detect, in
many of them, a larger quantity of material than is necessary for strength, and
a greater violation of mechanical principles, in the construction of their com-
ponent parts, than their general elegance of form would indicate. It cannot be
doubted that a perfect knowledge of the strength of materials and of the prin-
ciples of mechanics on the part of our agricultural machinists, would produce all
the existing implements and machines, and invent others much lighter in weight
and simpler in construction, and therefore better adapted for the particular pur-
poses for which they are designed. If the same degree of mechanical skill that
is employed in the construction of manufacturing machinery were transferred to
that appertaining to Agriculture, implements would soon become more perfect
in every respect than they are. It is not, however, intended to be asserted that
machines for the purposes of agriculture can be as easily perfected by any amount
of mechanical skill as those used in manufactures may be ; because the soil and
its crops, being much more crude, unsteady, and unequal, are worse to deal with
than the materials prepared for manufactures. The very distinction, indeed,
which is generally made while treating of agricultural mechanism namely,
" implements and machines " conveys in some measure this important truth.
A machine operating upon a substance which varies little from its normal con-
dition, may be constructed so as to be nearly in all things self-acting, requiring

COMPANION VOLUME TO THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

THE BOOK

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.

JAMES SLIGHT AND ROBERT SCOTT BURN,

KNGINEEIiS.

(gbifcb k
HENRY STEPHENS, E.K.S.E.

Author of the, "Book of the Fann," &.<<.

fa One Volume, lari/c octavo.
ILLUSTRATED WITH 836 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD AND 39 ENGRAVINGS ON COPPER.

who recollect the appearance of our Agricultural Implements and
J_ Machines at the commencement of this century, will have no hesitation
in acknowledging the superiority they now present. Being made chiefly of
wood, and without regard to its intrinsic strength and comparative "bulk, the
implements of that period seem clumsy and ill constructed. Xow that iron is
employed to a large extent, and in many cases entirely, in their construction,
they are not only lighter in appearance, but more elegant in form and more
efficient in use. Still, a close inspection, with a critical eye, will detect, in
many of them, a larger quantity of material than is necessary for strength, and
a greater violation of mechanical principles, in the construction of their com-
ponent parts, than their general elegance of form would indicate. It cannot be
doubted that a perfect knowledge of the strength of materials and of the prin-
ciples of mechanics on the part of our agricultural machinists, Avould produce all
the existing implements and machines, and invent others much lighter in weight
and simpler in construction, and therefore better adapted for the particular pur-
poses for which they are designed. If the same degree of mechanical skill that
is employed in the construction of manufacturing machinery were transferred to
that appertaining to Agriculture, implements would soon become more perfect
in every respect than they are. It is not, however, intended to be asserted that
machines for the purposes of agriculture can be as easily perfected by any amount
of mechanical skill as those used in manufactures may be ; because the soil and
its crops, being much more crude, unsteady, and unequal, are worse to deal with
than the materials prepared for manufactures. The very distinction, indeed,
which is generally made while treating of agricultural mechanism namely,
"implements and machines" conveys in some measure this important truth.
A. machine operating upon a substance which varies little from its normal con-
dition, may be constructed so as to be nearly in all things self-acting, requiring

PROSPECTUS Continued.

from man little more attention than is necessary to supply it with the material
which it is designed to operate upon. An implement, on the contrary, required
in an agricultural operation, may, and often does, demand the exercise of mind
and skill on the part of its worker, to enable it to meet the peculiarities of a soil
or a crop constantly varying in character. Still it seems beyond all doubt that
if the scientific truth in designing, and the workmanlike skill in executing and
fitting together of manufacturing, could be transferred, as far as actually avail-
able, to agricultural mechanism, of whatever kind or class, a higher state of effi-
ciency, both in construction and operation, would be soon attained. At the same
time, it may be safely admitted that this transference has to a great extent been
carried out. To ignore the improvements both in design and construction which
have been effected during the last ten or fifteen years in many of our machines and
implements, would be injustice to those eminent agricultural-implement makers
throughout the kingdom by whose skill these improvements have been brought
about ; and would also convey an entirely erroneous notion of the high state of
excellence to which agricultural machinery has now attained.

A superior mode of culture, in deep pulverisation of the soil, in finer treat-
ment of its surface, in more certain and convenient modes of depositing man-
ures and seeds, and in improved methods of securing crops, has led to a large
increase of suitable machines being contrived for those purposes ; and the
rivalry created by the establishment of large manufactories of implements in
England, giving a stimulus to their manufacture which did not exist before,
has no doubt greatly tended to increase their number beyond the mere demand
occasioned by superior culture, as well as to improve their construction and
workmanship.

Agricultural implements and machines having thus increased in number
and risen in importance from the causes which have just been indicated, the
time seems to have arrived when a consideration, commensurate with their
importance and utility, should be bestowed upon the principles of their con-
struction ; and such a consideration, it is conceived, can only be given in a
work specially devoted to the elucidation of those principles. Descriptions of
implements have at all times formed part of works on general agriculture ; but
hitherto no work in the English language has been entirely assigned to their
discussion. It is the object of the " BOOK OP FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES "
to supply that desideratum in the agricultural literature of Great Britain.

It is not, however, intended that all the existing implements and machines
should be passed in review before the reader, as if under a critical examination
of their mechanical construction ; for, setting aside the arrogance of such a pro-
ceeding, it would be unfair to implement-makers to institute what could not
but be deemed an invidious comparison betwixt their respective manufactures.
The true objects of the Work will, the authors conceive, be better accomplished
through its enunciating the rules by which the strength of materials employed
in the making of implements may be rightly estimated, and the principles upon
which they ought to be constructed, in order to their executing the largest
expected amount of good work with the least expenditure of power.

Such a Work, it is believed, can only be produced by a combination of mind.
A knowledge of general mechanical principles, a facility of mechanical repre-
sentation, an aptitude for mechanical description, and a practical experience of
the use of the implements at work, are all requisite in order to bring even the
simplest implement vividly before the reader.

With what success this combination has been attained, the work itself must
show. The statement, however, may be permitted, that in the selection of sub-
jects for illustration and description, in the preparation of the drawings and the
execution of the engravings, every care has been bestowed to render it a trust-
worthy and practically useful authority on agricultural mechanism.

LIST OF WORKS

PUBLISHED BY

WiUiitm tMluw(t &

EDINBURGH & LONDON.

In Two Volumes Royal Sro, price 3 half-bound,

THE BOOK OF THE FARM.

DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE FARMER, FAR SI-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHERD,

HEDGER, CATTLE-MAN, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRT-MAID , AND FORMING A

SAFE MONITOR FOR STUDENTS IN PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.

Corresponding Member of the Society Royale et Ccntrale d'Agriculture of France,
and of the Koyal Agricultural Society of Galicia.

A NEW COITION.

Illustrated with PORTRAITS OF AMMAI.S painted from the life, engraved on Steel by
I,AM>SRKH and others ; and with eoo i:\ ;is \ vi>4s o\ wool* by iiiiAX*'ro.\, representing the
principal Field Operations, Implements, and Animals treated of in the Work.

SUBJECTS TREATED OP IN THE BOOK OP THE PARM.

INITIATION.

On the best of the existing methods for acquiring a thorough knowledge of Practical Hus-
bandry. Difficulties the Pupil has to encounter in Learning Practical Husbandry, and on the
means of overcoming them. The different kinds of Farming, and on selecting the best. On
the Branches of Science most applicable to Agriculture. Persons required to conduct and execute
the labour of the Farm. On the Institutions of Education best suited to Agricultural Students.
On the evils attending the neglect of Landowners and others to learn Practical Agriculture. On
observing the Details and recording the Facts of Farming by the Agricultural Student.

PRACTICE.

WINTER.

Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Winter. Plough, Swing-Trees, and
Plough-Harness. Ploughing and Ploughing-Matches. Ploughing different forms of Ridges.
Ploughing Stubble and Lee Ground. Occupation of the Steading in Winter. Pulling and Stor-
ing Turnips, Mangold-Wurzel, Carrots, Parsnips, and Cabbage, for Consumption in Winter.
Feeding of Sheep on Turnips in Winter. Accommodation afforded to Cattle in Winter by the
Steading. Rearing and Fattening of Cattle on Turnips in Winter. Varieties of Turnips culti-
vated. Construction of Stables for Farm-Horses. Treatment of Farm-Horses in Winter. Treat-
ment of the Farmer's Saddle and Harness Horse in Winter. Fattening of Swine in Winter.
Treatment of Fowls in Winter. Rationale of the Feeding of Animals. Accommodation of the
Grain Crops in the Steading. Thrashing and Winnowing of Grain. Forming of Dunghills and
Composts in Winter. Liquid-Manure, and the Construction of Liquid-Manure Tanks and Carts.
Sea- Weed as Manure. Gaulting or Claying the Soil.

[Continued.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

THE BOOK OP THE FAEM-Continued.

SPRING.

Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Spring. Advantages of having Field-
work always in a state of Forwardness. Calving of Cows. Milking of Cows. Rearing of Calves.
Sowing of Spring Wheat. Drilling up of Land. Sowing of Oats, Beans, Peas, Tares. Rolling
of Land. Lucerne. Transplanting of Turnip-bulbs for producing Seed. Sainfoin. Lambing of
Ewes. Cross-Ploughing Land. Ribbing Land for the Seed-Furrow. Sowing of Grass-Seed.
Sowing of Barley. Turning of Dunghills. Planting of Potatoes. Paring and burning the Sur-
face. Farrowing of Sows. Hatching of Fowls.

SUMMER.

Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Summer. On the Hay given to Farm-
horses. Sowing and Summer Treatment of Flax Hemp Hops Turnips Kohl-rabi the Cab-
bage Mangold- Wurzel the Carrot Parsnips Rape Buck- wheat Sunflower Madia and
Maize. The Rationale of the Germination of Seeds. On Sowing Broadcast, Drilled and Dibbled
Thick and Thin and at Different Depths. Repairing the Fences of Pasture-fields. Disposal
of the Fat Sheep and Fat Cattle. Mares Foaling Treatment of Bulls in Summer. Pasturing
of Sheep and Cattle in Summer. Weaning of Calves. Pasturing of Farm-horses in Summer.
Soiling of Stock on Forage Plants. Washing and Shearing of Sheep. Rolling of Fleeces, and on
the Quality of Wool. Summer Culture of Beans and Pease. Weaning of Lambs. Drafting of
Ewes and Gimmers. Making of Sheep Hay-making. Summer Culture of Wheat Barley
Oats Rye and Potatoes. Summer Fallow. Reaping of Turnip-seed. Making Butter and Cheese.

AUTUMN.

Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Autumn. Sowing of the Stone-Tur-
nip, and on the Sowing of Turnip for Seed. Sowing of Winter Tares Rape Crimson Clover
Bokhara Clover Red Clover for Seed and Italian Rye-grass. Picking and Drying of Hops.
Sowing of Winter Beans. Pulling, Steeping, and Drying of Flax and Hemp. Reaping Wheat,
Barley, Oats, Rye, Beans, Pease, and Tares, when grown for Seed. Carrying and Stacking of
Wheat, Barley, Oats, Beans, and Pease. The Common Jerusalem Artichoke. Reaping Buck-
wheat, Sunflower, and Maize. Birds destructive to the Grain Crops. Putting the Tups to the
Ewes. Bathing and Smearing of Sheep. Lifting Potatoes. Storing Potatoes. Sowing Wheat,
Barley, and Pease in Autumn. Sowing several varieties of Grain together. Planting Potatoes
in Autumn. The effects of Special Manures. Rotation of Crops. Fertility of Soils. Disposal
of the Fat Pigs. Management of Fowls. Animals destructive to Poultry.

REALISATION.

Differences in the Physical Geography of Farms. Climate and its Effects. The Judging of
Land. Estimating the Rent of a Farm. The Mode of Offering for a Farm. Negotiating the
Covenants of the Lease. Entering to a Farm. The Stocking of a Farm. Choosing the Site, on
Building, and en the Expenses of Erecting the Steading. The Farm-house. Cottages for Farm-
servants. Insurance against Fire and Disease. The Principles of Enclosure, and on Shelter.
The Planting and Rearing of Thorn Hedges. The Building of Stone Fences. Wire Fences. Em-
banking against Rivulets. Construction of Field Gates. Draining of Land. Improving Waste
Land. Trench and Subsoil Ploughing. Liming of Land. Forming Water-meadows. Irrigation.

The points to be aimed at in Breeding the most perfect forms in Live Stock. Descriptl
Animals whose Portraits are given in the Plates. Account of some other Breeds of Cattle and
Sheep. The Principles of Breeding. Selection of Parents in Breeding. Breeding in-and-in.
Crossing. Hiring of Farm-servants. Wages of Farm-servants. The Farm Smith, Joiner, and
Saddler. The care due to the Implements. Making Experiments on the Farm. Corn-markets.
Farm Book-keeping. Concluding exhortations to the young Farmer. Index.

"The beat practical book I have ever met witli." Professor Johnston.

" We assure agricultural students that they will derive both pleasure and profit from a diligent perusal of this
clenr directory to rural labour. . . . We have thoroughly examined these volumes ; but to give a full notice
of their varied and valuable contents would occupy a larger space than we can conveniently devote to their dis-
cussion ; we therefore, in general terms, commend them to the careful study of every young man who wishes to
become a good practical farmer." Times.

" A work, the excellence of which is too well known to need any remarks of ours." Farmers' Magazine.

" Exhibiting in every page the combination of large experience, extensive observation, and a cultivated
mind. . . . One of the most unique and valuable works to be found within the range of agricultural litera-
ture." Bell's Mevsenger.

" We know of no single agricultural work to be compared with this. . . . Nothing can he more disin-
terestedly earnest than our recommendation of the ' Book of the Farm.' " Bell's Life.

" One of the completest works on agriculture of which our literature can boast." Agricultural Gazette.

A new Edition, enlarged, with Index. Crown Octavo, price Ss. 6d.

A HANDY BOOK ON PROPERTY LAW.

By LORD ST LEONARDS.

" Less than 200 pages serve to arm us with the ordinary precautions to which we should attend in selling,
buying, mortgaging, leasing, settling, and devising estates. We are informed of our relations to our property, to
our wives and children, and of our liabilities as trustees or executors, in a little book for the million, a book which
the author tenders to the profanum vulgus as even capable of ' beguiling a few hours in a railway carriage.' "
Times.

WORKS OX AGRICULTUEE, ETC.

In One Volume, large Octavo, v.n(f<,rm with tie "Bool of the Farm," price 2, 2s.

TILE BOOK

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.

By J. SLIGHT and E. SCOTT BURN, Engineers.

Edited by HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E., Author of the "Book of the Farm," &c.

C O X T K X T S.

Boole First. Dissertations elucidating the scientific principles which regulate the
choice of materials and construction of the Machines and Implements, and the
structures connected with them, on the Farm Materials employed in Construction
Principles of Construction Practice of Construction Friction and Force.

Boole Second. On the practical construction, properties, and uses of Farm Im-
plements and Machines.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

Ploughs, including Steam-Ploughs, Trench and Subsoil Ploughs. Grubbers, Scarifiers,
Cultivators. Harrows, Land-rollers, Clod-crushers, Press-wheels. Horse-hoes. Sowing
Machines and Manure-distributors. Manual Implements connected with the Cultivation of
the Soil.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.

Hay-making Machines. Cora-reaping Machines. Barn Machines, including Thrashing-
Machines, Fixed and Portable ; Winnowing-Machines, Hummellers, Corn-cleaning Machines,
and Weighing-Machines. Carts Waggons Cart Steelyards. Straw-Cutters. Turnip-
Slicers, Root-Graters, %nd Root- Washers. Corn-Bruisers Bean-Mills Oil-Cake Breaker.
Boiling and Steaming Apparatus. Dairy Apparatus. Manual Implements connected with
the Products of the Soil, as Scythes, Forks, Barn Implements, and Dairy Utensils. Machines
not directly connected with any of the above Ten Sections, but useful on the Farm.

MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.

Horse-Power. Water-Power. Steam-Power. Wind-Power.

ARRANGEMENTS OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING.

Arrangement of Machines in the Ground-Floor of the Steading. Arrangement of Machines
in the Upper Floor of the Steading. Arrangement of Small Machines with the Moving
Power in the Steading. The Preservation of Implements and Machines in the Steading.

40 Engravings on Steel 836 Engravings on Wood.

" This magnificent work must excite the admiration of every practical agriculturist. It forms at once a com-
plete history of the progress made up to this day in the adaptation of mechanism to farming operations, and a
brilliant analysis of the value of each additional step on the road of improvement to the farmer. . . . It is a
work which, like its great predecessor, the Book of the Farm, supplies an obvious want, and does so to such per-
fection as to render any other work on the subject, for some time to come, a superfluity." Sussex Agricultural
Express.

Subscription, Twelve Shillings per Annum. Published Quarterly.

JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE,

AND THE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.

A few Complete Sets from the commencement of the Series are for sale --viz.,
OLD SERIES, 1828 to 1843, 21 vols., cloth, .3, 3s.
NEW SERIES, 1843 to 1855, 10 vols., cloth, -2, 12s. Gd.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

Preparing for Publication,

THE BOOK
OF FARM -BUILDINGS:

THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION.
By HENRY STEPHENS, F.E.S.E.

Author of the " Book of the Farm,"
AND

ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Engineer.

In One Volume, Royal Octavo, uniform with the " Book of the Farm," and the " Book of Farm
Implements and Machines." Illustrated with numerous Plates and Engravings.

THE object of this Work is to indicate, in the most distinct manner, that ar-
rangement of the Apartments in Farm-Steadings best adapted for each of the
methods of Farming practised in the kingdom. It may surprise those unacquainted
with Agriculture to learn that there are various modes of Farming. There are not
fewer than Five distinct systems of Farming pursued in this country. In view,
then, of this variety in modes of practice, it will be obvious that no single arrange-
ment, however apparently complete and well conceived, can meet the requirements
of all circumstances of practice, or be calculated to secure the strictest economy of
labour. As the manufactures of wool, cotton, silk, or flax, require arrangements of
premises suited to the peculiarities of the material to be operated upon, so, in like
manner, do the peculiarities of " dairy," " pastoral," or of " mixed " husbandry,
demand arrangements calciUated to aid their practice. A very slight consideration
indeed of this subject will suffice to show that the accommodation required on a
farm solely devoted to the rearing of live-stock, should not be the same as that
required for one which is cultivated entirely for the raising of corn.

But although the arrangement of the Apartments of Steadings should vary in
accordance with the kind of Farming, yet every arrangement suited to the various
modes of Farming may be founded upon such a general principle as shall insure
the greatest convenience and economy in the use of each arrangement.

The Authors are quite aware of the difficult task they have undertaken in order
to attain the important object they have thus enunciated ; but, nevertheless, they
flatter themselves that the object has been attained in this Work, and that for the
first time by any writer who has hitherto attempted to illustrate Farm-Buildings.

Without pledging themselves to any specific amount of matter, the Authors may
be permitted the statement that, in addition to Plans expressly prepared to working
scale, to elucidate the " Principle " of arrangement of Steadings suited to all varie-
ties of Farming, and to ample working details of construction and fittings of apart-
ments, it is proposed to give such Plans of Farm-Houses, and of Bailiff's and
Labourers' Cottages, as shall exhibit details of convenient arrangements and fit-
tings. The construction of Bridges, Embankments, Culverts, Dams, &c. those
"outlying buildings" of the Farm will also receive due attention. It is thus
the aim of the Authors to make the Work a trustworthy and practically useful
authority in all matters connected with the Buildings of the Farm.

In Small Octavo, price 5*.

THE LARCH DISEASE, AND THE PRESENT

CONDITION OF THE LARCH PLANTATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. By
CHARLES M'INTOSH, Author of the " Book of the Garden," &c.

WORKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC

FAim ACCOUNTS.

PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FARM BOOK-KEEPING

'THE BOOK OF THE FARM,

K.VS. F.K..S E. I

SEVEX FOLIO ACCOUNT-BOOKS, constructed in accordance with the system, Printed and
Ruled throughout, and bound in separate Volumes; the whole liein^ specially adapted for
keeping, by an easy and accurate method, an account of all the Transactions of the Farm.

THE ACCOUNT-BOOKS CONSIST OF~

I. CASH -BOOK Huled with double inoiiey-
colums for Dr. and Cr. , showing the Cash received
for produce sold off the Farm, the money paid on
account of the Farm ; and all general Cash and Hunk-
ing transactions. Price 2s. (id.

II. LEDGER Kuled with single money-columns,
Dr. and Cr. on separate pages, containing Accounts
with every Person or Company having transactions
with the Farm. Price 5s

III. FARM ACCOUNT Contains the Ca.-h re-
ceived for all the Produce sold off the Farm, and the
Cash paid for all the commodities required for the
Farm, and these alone. Thus the Balance between
the Dr. and Cr. sides of the Farm Account, at the
end of the Agricultural Year, shows whether the
f;irm has returned or consumed the largest amount of
Cash. Price 2s. 6d.

IV. CORN ACCOUNT Comprises all accounts
and statements connected with 1. Wheat ; 2. liar-
ley; 3. Oats; 4. Straw; 5. Potatoes; 6'. Turnips,
Maugold-Wurzel, Carrots and Parsnips. These ac-
counts show all the particulars connected with the
different species of produce the time when grain is
thrashed the parties to whom it has been sold the
uses which have been made of it on the Farm the

Tlte Account-Books are sold separate/;/, the c<

Balance of (irain on hand at any time in the Corn-
barn and Granary the weight of the Grain, and the
prices obtained for it. Price 3s. 6d.

V. LIVE-STOCK ACCOUNT-Consists of Ac-
counts relating to 1. Cattle ; 2. Sheep ; 3. Pigs ; 4.
Jlorses; showing the particulars of every species of
Live-Stock, the disposal of them, the cash paid and
the prices obtained for them, and the numbers on
hand at different periods. Price 3s.

VI. LABOUR ACCOUNT -BOOK -Contains,
I. Labour Journal ; 2. Labour Account, the former
for showing the Labourers' names, the days of the
week on which they have been employed, and a
register of the number of work-days in eacli week ;
the latter forming a summary of the amount of all
the manual labour executed on the Farm in the
course of a-year, including the Harvest Expenses.

'vilT" FIELD- WORKERS' ACCOUNT - This
is a simple form of keeping the Labour- Account, en-
abling the total number of Days iu which work has
been done for half a year to be summed up and cal-
culated at the rate ov' wages per day, when the gross
amount of the half-year's earnings is brought out dis-
tinctly. Price 2s. (id.

i/>leli: Set, hi El<il,t Volumes, //.< at 24.s. 6d.

LABOUR ACCOUNT OF THE ESTATE.

This form of Labour Account is specially constructed for the use of Country Gentlemen, whether residing at
home or abroad, who require returns to be made to them of the species of work which daily engages the time of
their labourers in whatever capacity, and whether male or female ; that is, besides Labourers and Field-
Workers, the form is as well adapted to Gardeners, Foresters, 1 ledgers, Road-makers, Quarriers, Miners, Game-
keepers, and Dairymaids. Price 2s. 6d.

" We have no hesitation in saying, that of the many systems of keeping farm-accounts which are in vogue,
there Is not one which will bear comparison with that just issued by Messrs filackwood, according to the recom-
mendations of Mr Stephens, in his invaluable 'Hook of the Farm.' The great characteristic of this system is
its simplicity. When once the details are mastered, which it will take very li'.tle trouble to accomplish, it will
be prized as the clearest method to show the profit and loss of business, and to prove how the soundest and
surest calculations can be arrived at. We earnestly recommend a trial of the entire series of Books they must
be used as a whole to be thoroughly profitable ; for we are convinced the verdict of our agricultural friends who
make such a trial will speedily accord with our own that they owe a deep debt of gratitude both to Mr Stephens
and Messrs Blackwood for providing a method so complete and satisfactory to their hands." J Sell's Messenger.

ANNUAL PUBLICATION.

Foolscap Odavo, price :>g.

THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS

FOR 18GO.
Edited by ROBERT SCOTT BURN.

" Next to keeping full and complete accounts, nothing is more useful to the farmer than to have an accurate
record of fads and dates." Economist.

THE object of the present work is to secure for the most useful of the " FACTS'' scattered
through the pages of the numerous Magazines and Journals Home and Foreign which
are devoted exclusively or partially to the dissemination of information connected with the
various branches of agriculture, a permanent and easily accessible record. It embraces,
moreover, the most striking of the "Facts" promulgated at the meetings of Farmers'
Clubs, Agricultural Societies, &c. &c. ; and which, even when made public through the
Agricultural Journals, are apt to be lost sight of, or cannot be conveniently and readily
referred to, among the mass of other matter which these journals comprise.

Copies of the Volume for 1859 may still he had, price 5s.

WOKKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

Dedicated by permission to Her Majesty.
In Two large Volumes Royal Octavo, embellished, with 1350 Engravings,

THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN.

By CHARLES M'INTOSH,

Formerly Curator of the Royal Gardens of his Majesty the King of tbe Belgians, and lately of those of
his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Palace.

The volumes are sold gepwrMely viz.
VOL. I. OX THE FORMATION OF GARDENS AND CONSTRUCTION OF GARDEN EDIFICES.

776 pages, and 1073 Engravings. '2, 10s.
VOL. II. PRACTICAL GARDENING. 868 pages, and 279 Engravings. 1, 17s. 6cL

WORKS on Gardening have long been abundant, and the popularity of many of
them has attested the general interest taken in this art, and the value of books as
guides and instructors in it. None, perhaps, has enjoyed a wider or firmer repu-
tation than the Practical Gardening of Mr M'Intosh, which was for many years
recognised as the completest, most systematic, and most practical extant treatise on
the art. A quarter of a century, however, has now elapsed since that work last
received the revisions of the author ; and in that time gardening, as a practical art,
has undergone such advances and improvements, that a treatise, which might be
most valuable in 1830, has ceased to be so in 1855. The Book of the Garden was
accordingly resolved on, not merely to supersede the author's former, and now com-
paratively obsolete work, but designed to form for its art a text-book as full and
complete as the Book of the Farm was for agriculture. The reception which the
work has experienced from the press and the public has been more than sufficient
to attest both the need of such a complete and systematic treatise on gardening in
all its departments, and the degree to which Mr M'lutosh has filled up an existing
blank.

The work is divided into two great sections, each occupying a volume the first
comprising the formation, arrangement, and laying out of gardens, and the con-
struction of garden buildings ; the second treating of the theory and practice of
horticulture.

CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

INTRODUCTION. GARDENING AS AN ART OP DESIGN AND TASTE, CONSIDERED AS REGARDS
ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT STATE.

CHAPTER I. THE FORMATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF CULINARY AND FRUIT GARDENS IN
GENERAL. Section 1. Plan ; 2. Extent ; 3. Form ; 4. Supply of Water ; 5. Situation ; 6. Soil ;
7. Fruit-Tree Borders ; 8. Principal Entrance ; 9. Shelter ; 10. Style.

CHAPTER II. GARDEN WALLS. Sectionl. Aspect of Wails; 2. Foundations of Walls ; 3.
Materials for Garden Walls ; 4. Copings for Garden Walls ; 5. Trellised Garden Walls ; 6. Height
of Garden Walls ; 7. Arranging Walls to suit various situations ; 8. Colour of Garden Walls ; 9.
Construction of Garden Walls.

CHAPTER III. HOTHOUSE BUILDING Section 1. General Principles ; 2. Angle of Elevation.

CHAPTER IV. HEATING AS APPLIED TO HORTICULTURAL ERECTIONS. Section 1. Preliminary
Remarks ; 2. Heating by Flues ; 3. Heating by Hot-Water Pipes ; 4. The Tank Mode of Heat-
ing ; 5. Heating by Hot-Air Stoves ; 6. Heating by Steam ; 7. Boilers and Pipes ; 8. Hothouse
Furnaces ; 9. Cause of Circulation of Hot Water.

CHAPTER V. VENTILATION.

CHAPTER VI. FRUIT-HOUSES. Section 1. Vineries ; 2. Pineries ; 3. Peach-Houses ; 4.
Cherry, Fig, Plum, and Apricot Houses ; 5. Tropical Fruit-House.

CHAPTER VII. PLANT-HOUSES. Section 1. Conservatories ; 2. Greenhouses; 3. Orangeries ;
4. Heath-Houses ; 5. Orchid-Houses ; 6. Aquarium ; 7. Window Gardening.

CHAPTER VIII. PITS AND FRAMES. Section 1. Pits and Frames Heated by Fermentation ;
2. Pits Heated by Smoke-Flues, Tanks, Hot- Water Pipes, and Steam ; 3. Cucumber and Melon
Houses ; 4. Mushroom-Houses ; 5. Conservative Pits.

CHAPTER IX. MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN STRUCTURES. Section 1. Gardeners' Houses ; 2.
The Fruit-Room ; 3. Ice- Houses ; 5. Tanks and Cisterns ; 5. Apiaries.

CHAPTER X. DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. Section \. Glass and Glazing: 2. Lights or
Sashes ; 3. Rafters and Astragals ; 4. Wall- Plates ; 5. Covering the Roofs of Glass Houses and
Pits, for the exclusion of cold or the retention of heat ; 6. Espalier Railings ; 7. Footpaths ; 8.
Painting; 9. Cements ; 10. On the Preservation of Timber used in Hothouse-Building; 11. On
the Durability of Materials.

[Continued.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

THS BOOK OF THE GARDEN- Continued.

CHAPTER XI. LAYING on 1 FL(>WEI;-CAI:D;:NS. >',<<-tio)i 1. Preliminary Remarks on the
Classification of Stylos; 2. Situation of the Flower-Garden ; ?!. flower-Garden Fences ; 4. Plant-
ing with a view to produce Effect : ,~>. The Arboretum : (>'. The Pinetnm ; 7. Edgings; 8. The
Reserve Flower-Garden ; 9. Disposal of the Gi-uund ; Id. Harmony of Colours.

CHAPTER XII. GEOMETRICAL FI.O\VI:U-(;ARI>I:X. -Action I. Their General Arrangement,
&c. ; 2. Fountains; '2. Vases and Cms, Dials and Plural Decorations; 4. Statues; 5, Seats; 6.
Temples and Arbours ; 7. Mausoleums, Cenotaphs, or Sepulchral Structures.

CHAPTER XIII. GARDEN F. SQUE STYIJ: OF V\.o\\\:K-G.\KVEs.ticrtiu>i 1. Their General
Arrangement ; 2. Fountains and Vases ; :'.. Busketwork ; 4. Bridges ; 5. Trelliswork, Gates,
Fences, and Tree-Guards; 6. .Moss- Houses, Seats, and Resting-places.

CHAPTER XI V. PUTCRKSQI-K STYLI: OK FLOWER-GARDENS. Section 1. Their General
Arrangement; 2. Rockwork ; ''>. Hermitages, Arbours, Mess-Houses, and Seats; 4. Ridges; 5.
Rills, Rivulets, and Cascades ; (J. Rustic Fences.

CHAPTER XV. PRACTICAL DIAGRAMS EXPLANATORY OP THE RULES FOR LAYING OUT
GARDENS, MORE PARTICULARLY FOR FUU.MING CURVED LINE--.

CHAPTER XVI. TOWN AND SMALL SUI-.UUBAN GARDENS.

APPENDIX.

INDEX.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

33 COPPER-PLATE ENGRAVINGS nv W. AND A. K. JOHNSTON.
1040 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD BY BRANSTON.

This Volume may be had separately, hf. bd., price 2, 10s.

CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

THE CULINARY OR KITCIil-N GARDEN.

THE HARDY FRUIT-GARDEN.

THE FLOWER-GARDEN : CHAPTER I. PLANT-HOUSES, PITS, AND WALLS;

CHAPTER II. OPEN FLOWEII-GAKDKN.
SELECT LIST OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.
SELECT LIST OF PLANTS.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.

2SO ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
This Volume may be had separately, hf. bd., price 1, 17s. 6d.

" "We must congratulate both editor and publi.-liers on the completion of this work, which, -whether consi-
dered in reference to the information it convoys on the theory and practice of horticulture, its numerous illustra-
tions in tlie first style of art, and beautiful type, is every way worthy of the character of all concerned in its pub-
lication. The scientific knowledge and great experience of the editor in all that pertains to horticulture, not
only as regards cultivation, but as a landscape-gardener and garden architect, has enabled him to produce a
work which brings all that is known of the various subjects treated of down to the present time ; while the
manner in which the work is illustrated merits our highest approval, as most successful specimens of engraving
.... On the practical details of culture, the editor give?, in addition to his own opinion, the pith ot what

others have written on the subject We hope to notice this book again. In the mean time, we

strongly recommend the ' Book of the Garden.' To gardeners, in every way it will be indispensable, and not
less so to country gentlemen, architects, and surveyors, who will find it the best authority on the subject they can
refer to." The Florist.

TEXT-BOOKS on GEOLOGY, by DAVID PAGE, F.G.S.

Fourth Edition, price la. Gd.,

INTRODUCTORY TEXT -BOOK OF GEOLOGY.

With Engravings on Wood, and Glossarial Index.

II.

Second Edition, revised and enlarged, price 6s.,

ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OE GEOLOGY,

DESCRIPTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL.
With Engravings on Wood, and Glossary of Scientific Terms.

III.

In Crown, Octavo, price 6s.,

HANDBOOK OF GEOLOGICAL TERMS AND GEOLOGY.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

In foolscap 8vo, price 4*. 6il.,

TESTER DEEP LAND-CULTURE;

BEING A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE METHOD OF CULTIVATION WHICH HAS BEEN SUCCESSFULLY PRACTISED
FOR SEVERAL YEARS BY THE MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE AT YESTER.

By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.,

Author of the "Book of the Farm."

THE characteristic of the new system for it may be well so named, different as it
is from any now in use is the complete pulverisation of the subsoil, and its mix-
ture with the upper soil, the treatment being of a very substantial and permanent
nature. The work is divided into the following sections :

(I.) The physical geography and climate of the Yester Farms. From the details here given on these points, it
will be seen that the great results obtained were not those induced by the propitious nature of the soils treated,
but, from the fact that the fields operated upon were, on the contrary, by no means promising subjects for the
expenditure of capital, the best evidence is obtained of the excellence of the principle upon which the improve-
ments were founded. (2.) Thorough-draining the soils and subsoils. (3.) Deep-ploughing the soils and subsoils.
(4.) Subsoil trench-ploughing. (5.) The Yester Plough. (6.) Swing-trees for three and four horses. The last
four sections comprise descriptions of the peculiarities of construction of the ploughs used, and the method of
working them. (7.) The physical benefits derived from the thorough-draining and subsoil trench-ploughing. (8.)
The economical benefits. (9.) The system of fanning now adopted at Yester Farm. (10.) Results of the system.
(11 ) The working strength of Yester Farm. (12.) The concluding chapter gives a detail of the advantages de-
rivable from the thorough pulverisation of the subsoil, the whole of which abounds in suggestions of great value to
the practical man.

In 2 vols. 8vo, with ATLAS in folio, price 30s. Second Edition,

ITALIAN IRRIGATION:

A REPORT ON THE AGRICULTURAL CANALS OF PIEDMONT AND LOMBARDY,
ADDRESSED TO THE HON. THE DIRECTORS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY;

WITH AN APPENDIX,

CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA.

By Lieut.-0ol. R. BAIRD SMITH, F.G.S.

Captain, Bengal Engineers.

WHILE " Irrigation works," varying widely in character and importance, have
been carried out in this country, and attention directed to their details, through
the medium either of special works or periodical publications, information has been
scarcely obtainable, except in small measure, and through the medium of isolated
and rarely met with reports, of the nature, extent, and details of the system
adopted in Italy, " the classic land of irrigation," where its influence has tended,
even from the earliest period of history, to make her plains the richest on the face
of the earth. And yet when we consider that the machinery of this grand system
for the distribution of water, in order to the cultivation of the land, over which it
is made to spread in fertilising streams, is " considered by most observers to come
nearest to the type of theoretical perfection," some idea of the value of a work
may be obtained which would show, in a clear, explicit, and practical manner,
the various relations of the system, the details of its works, and the practical
operation of its mechanism. These and many other details, interesting in a histo-
rical and social point of view, it is the object of the present work to lay before the
reader. In addition to the letterpress, which fully exhausts the theory and the
practice on which this the most extensive as well as the most efficient system in the
world is founded and carried out, the work is enriched by a large folio Atlas
of Plates, abounding in hints and suggestions on various points of constructive
detail.

WORKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC. 9

^1 +Yeiv Edition, Illustrated with iin.iiterov.ii Engravings, \s.,

A CATECHISM

P R A C T I C A L A G R I C U L T U R E.

By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.

Author of the " Book of the Farm."

FOB those destined to act as principals on thu farm, instruction is provided by the profusion of Treatises on the
various branches of the subject, by Agricultural Colleges and Lectureships, and pre-eminently by their entering
as practical pupils with men of mature experience and skill ; but for the far larger numbers destined to subordi-
nate employments, no such means, and, indeed, no means of any kind, have been available. They entered on
their occupation entirely unprepared for it, and were destined to acquire the knowledge and skill requisite wholly
empirically, behind the plough or in the field. That through such a training multitudes have come thoroughly to
understand and ably to fulfil their duties, admits of no dispute ; had it been otherwise, our agriculture could
never have been what it is. But still it is hardly questionable but that this knowledge and ability might have
been earlier, more easily, and more generally attained, had these workers in our fields entered on their task
in some degree informed, by preliminary elementary instruction, as to what was expected of them.

The favourable reception given to Professor Johnston's " Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology,"
suggested to the Publishers the propriety of a similar work on Practical Agriculture. In intrusting the carrying
out this idea to the Author of the ' Hook of the Farm," they knew they were securing for the Work devised the
fullest possible knowledge of the subject, sound judgment as to the wants of the class for whom he was specially
writing, and orderly and methodical arrangement, and the utmost clearness and simplicity of style, in filling up
the details. The method he has adopted is the same as that on which public approval has been so decisively
stamped as followed in the " Book of the Farm " the describing the various operations of the Farm in the
order in which they are in the successive seasons actually performed upon it. And in following out the details,
he has proceeded on the principle which all teachers of mixed classes know to be the only safe one the assuming
nothing whatever to be known beforehand of the processes described. The utmost simplicity and clearness have
thus, it is hoped, been secured ; and as a still further aid to full comprehension of every operation, woodcuts
and diagrams have been profusely employed wherever they could be of any possible service.

Third Edition, Ki-o, price ,o.<.,

A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL DRAINING.

By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.

Author of " The Book of the Farm.''

THE subject is divided into the following sections :

(1.) The symptoms exhibited by land requiring drainage. (2.) The different methods of draining shallow
draining, with its varieties deep draining thorough draining. (3.) Draining by open ditches. (4.) Sheep
drains in hill pastures. (5.) Drains for ground for forest trees. (6.) Ancient shallow covered drains. (7.) Iso-
lated hollows and running sands. (8.) Bog drains. (9.) Elkington's method. (10.) Determination of the
minimum depth of drains. (11 ) Open ducts for drains stone tile ducts necessity for soles for ducts. (12.)
Estimate of the quantity of water to be conveyed by ducts. (13.) Draining of fields in succession. (14.) Period
of the rotation at which drains should be executed. (15.) Position of main drains. (16.) Ditto in reference to
surface. (17.) Ditto of small drains in reference to inclination of surface. (18.) Particulars determining depth.
(19.) Ditto distances between drains. (20.) Contracts for cutting. (22.) liules for filling drains with stones.
(23.) Drains with soles and tiles. (24.) Laying of ditto. (25.) Pipe-drains. (26.) Laying of ditto. (27.) Tile and
stone drains. (28.) Outlets and levels. (29.) Returning the soil into the drains. (30.) Conducting draining
operations. (31.) Ground plan of a thorough-dried field. (32.) Physical benefits derivable from draining. (33.)
Pecuniary profits. (34.) Cost of draining by different methods. (35.) Draining railway cuttings. (30.) Flat
stone drains. (37.) Peat tile ditto. (38.) Plug ditto. (39.) Hod. (40.) Mole. (41.) Larch tube. (42.) Brush-
wood. (43.) Brick drain. (44.) Drain ploughs. (45.) Drain-tile machines. (40.) Machines for preparing
clay. (47.) Inquiry as to whether landlords ought to undertake any or what part of the expense of draining.
(48.) Theory of draining. (49.) Durability of drains. (50.) Trenching rough ground preparatory to, and conse-
quent upon, drainage.

In Demy Quarto, with Engravings, 10,. 6;L,

ELKINGTON'S SYSTEM OF DRAINING.

Edited by J. JOHNSTONE.

10 WOEKS ON AGRICULTUKE, ETC.

A new Edition, with the Author's last Additions and Corrections, Svo, price 21*.,

THE PLANTER'S GUIDE.

By SIR HENRY STEUART, Bart, of Allanton.

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR, AND AN
ENGRAVING FROM A PORTRAIT BY RAEBURN.

No point in arboriculture has been more keenly contested than the possibility of
transplanting trees of considerable size. There can be no doubt that this, if prac-
ticable, would be of great advantage, as respects both shelter and ornament, around
newly-erected country or suburban residences ; and accordingly every possible
means have been tried to secure such removals with safety and economy. What
was in this way accomplished by Sir H. Steuart, at his residence at Allanton,
excited so much interest and admiration, that an account of the methods employed
seemed imperatively called for ; and with this the author combined a statement of
his views as to the beneficial and ornamental disposal of wood, and the general
management of forest trees. Though many years have since elapsed, and many
improvements on mere machinery of removal have been made, it is still admitted
by practical men that the principles of Sir H. Steuart' s method are the only ones
on which such transplantations can be safely effected, and that on the full carrying
out of these rests our only hope of accomplishing an object of great interest to
landed proprietors in particular.

In addition to a large variety of interesting and valuable notes and illustrations
on various points of interest, the following are the principal sections of this work :
The art of giving immediate effect to wood history of the art of arboriculture ;
new theory its development preparation of the soil for open and close plantation
preparation of the trees for removal taking up and transportation of trees
with description of the machines useful in this department planting of the trees
in the new situations treatment of trees subsequent to removal expense of the
operations of the principal forest trees, oak, ash, &c. &c. The work is illustrated
by six engravings and a portrait of the author.

In Svo, price 12*.,

THE RURAL ECONOMY OF ENGLAND,
SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.

By LEONCE DE LAVERGNE.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. WITH NOTES BY A SCOTTISH FARMER.

To those who are desirous of gaining a knowledge of the rural economy of Great
Britain, no better guide could be presented than the present work. It is not only
political, but it is interesting ; it deals in a manner as singularly concise as it is
fascinating and effective in style, with subjects valuable alike to the practical
economist, the agriculturist, and the general reader.

The following is a brief outline of the points taken up and illustrated. These,
however, afford but little evidence of the philosophical as well as interesting and
practical 'style of the work :

(1.) Soil and climate. (2.) Sheep. (3.) Cattle. (4.) The crops. (5.) The gross produce. (6.) Rents, profits,
and wages. (7.) Constitution of property. (8.) Constitution of farming. (9.) Country life. (10.) Political
institutions. (11.) Markets. (12.) The customs' reform. (13.) High farming. (14.) The Southern {15. ) The
Eastern (16.) Western (17.) Midland, and (18.) The Northern Counties. (19.) Wales and the Island?.
(20.) Scotland. (21.) The Lowlands. (22.) The Highlands. (23.) Irelai d, (24.) State of Wexford. (25.) The
Famine and Exodus.

WOKKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC. 11

Third Edition, much enlarged, in, Royal Octavo, with Engravings, price 30s.,

THE FORESTER:

A PEACTICAL TEEATISE ON THE PLANTING, BEARING, AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT OF FOHE3T TREES.

By JAMES BROWN,

Wood-Manager to the Earl of Seafield, and Surveyor of Woods.

WITH a view to render the book still more worthy of continuance in public favour,
this edition has been carefully rewritten, and many new sections upon important
subjects added, for the purpose of making it still better adapted as a complete
guide in all forest operations ; in short, it has been so much enlarged and im-
proved, that it may be considered in every respect a new book.

Since the appearance of the Second Edition in 1851, the Author has been very
extensively employed by landed proprietors in all parts of the country, in surveying
and reporting oil the present state and future management of plantations, and of
grounds adapted for planting. His observations and experience have thereby been
very much extended, inasmuch as each district usually presents some distinctive
and peculiar features, arising from the nature of the soil, aspect, and elevation
above the sea : and the whole practical results from this extended and varied field
of operations have been embodied in the present edition of " The Forester." In
it, as in the former editions, the Author has confined himself entirely to his own
experience in forest operations ; and his aim has been that of making his work
plainly and practically useful as a forester's guide.

The subject of keeping the Forest accounts has also been for the first time taken
up in the present edition ; and a section has been added containing a complete sys-
tem of Forest Book-keeping, with examples of all the various Books, and full
explanations regarding them.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Importance of Woodlands in Great Britain. The object of planting. The value of wood as a crop upon land.
Forestry as at present understood and practised in Great Britain. Education necessary for foresters. What
portions of the country should be put under trees, and what portions should not. Laying out of land for forests
and plantations. Stone and lime walls. Dry stone-dykes with lime on cope only. Turf dykes. Wooden palings.
Wire fences. The purpose and situation for which each sort of fence is most properly adapted. Gates.. Pre-
paring ground for the growing of young trees. Drainage. Laying off and making of roads in new plantations.
Trees considered as a profitable crop, and as ornamental objects on landed property. Descriptive character,
habit, and peculiarities of the various forest trees. Season of the year best adapted for planting operations. How
to choose young forest trees when buying them from public nurseries. Utility of proprietors having their own
home nurseries. Management of the nursery. Kinds of forest trees which may be most profitably planted in any
given district of the country. Expenses of laying down land under plantations. Game injurious to young trees.
Pruning. Thinning plantations. Management of hard wooded plantations of considerable age, reared chiefly
with a view to ornamental effect. Management of plantations of considerable age, reared with a view to a crop
of timber only. Rules and regulations necessary to be observed in the cutting down and selling of trees, whether
as thinnings or clearings of old timber. Rearing and management of plantations for a supply of hop-poles.
Management of general coppice plantations. The stripping and drying of bark used for tanning. Cause of dis-
ease among larch plantations. Exteinal symptoms of disease in trees, and general causes of the same. The
periodical increase of timber in the different species of forest trees. How to find the value of growing plantations,
and of full-grown timber trees. Method of transplanting large trees, and description of machines for performing
that operation. Method of renewing the health of old or decayed trees. Kinds of plants best fitted for under-
wood, and how they may be planted in a wood so as to produce useful and ornamental effect.. Hints in reference
to the felling of timber. The application of water and steam powers to the manufacture of timber. The prepar-
ing of timber for better preservation. Reporting on woodlands. System of book-keeping adapted to forest
operations.

In Octavo, price 5s.,

YIEW OE THE SALMON-FISHERY

OF SCOTLAND.

WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURE, HABITS, AND INSTINCTS OF THE SALMON, AND ON THE
LAW AS AFFECTING THE RIGHTS OF PARTIES, &C. &C.

By the Late MUEDO MACKENZIE, Esq. of Cardross and Dundonald.

12 WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

Sixty two highly -finished Engravings, medium 4.to, with Descriptions, 42*.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE FARM :

A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOB FARM-HOUSES, FARM-STEADINGS, FACTORS* HOUSES,
AND LABOURERS' COTTAGES.

By JOHN STARFORTH, Architect.

THE work comprises a series of sixty-two plates, finished in the highest style of art,
all the drawings and designs being carefully prepared by the Author. Eight designs
for labourers' cottages, of different styles and accommodation, with two plates of
working details, are given, taking up 1 7 plates. The next two are occupied by a
design for a farm bailiff's house ; these being followed by a series of four designs
for different classes of farm-houses in plates 18 to 35 inclusive. Plates 36 to 38
take up a design for a factor's house, while 39 to 44 illustrate the arrangements
and decorations of a house adapted for a proprietor farming his own estate. These
comprise the first division of the work ; the second being occupied with plates 45
to 62 inclusive, illustrative of designs for farm-steadings, for water, horse, and
steam-power, adapted for farms of various sizes, including the design for which the
Author obtained the Highland and Agricultural Society's Gold Medal.

General details of construction and descriptions of each plate are added ; and in
the preparation of the work every pains has been taken to produce a practical and
useful volume, calculated to meet the wants of the present time.

In Crown Svo, with upwards of 500 Engravings on Wood. Second Edition, price 6s. 6d.,

THE HANDBOOK

THE MECHANICAL ARTS:

CONCERNED IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF DWELLINGS AND OTHER BUILDINGS,
WITH PRACTICAL HINTS ON ROAD-MAKING AND THE ENCLOSING OF LAND.

By R. SCOTT BURN, Engineer.

ALTHOUGH the agriculturist is not generally conversant with the operations and
processes connected with the mechanical arts, still numerous instances are sure to
arise in every-day practice, in which even a slight knowledge of them would be
of great pecuniary value. The various operations demanded by the exigencies
of farm life, and the numerous claims made on the mechanical ingenuity and
abilities of the farmer, tend to render a work peculiarly valuable to him which
bears on those branches of the mechanical arts which are in the most frequent
requisition. This desideratum the present work is designed to supply. Every
care has been taken in the preparation of the working drawings with which the
work is profusely illustrated, and by judicious compression of materials to present
a mass of practical information which will enable the reader to carry on many
operations without involving the expense of hired labour. The following are the
divisions of the work :

(1.) House arrangement and conveniences. (2.) Building specifications bills of quantities and estimates.
(3.) Fireplaces, stoves, and cooking-ovens. (4.) Chimneys. (5.) Ventilation. (6.) Water-closets. (7.) Water
its qualities and filtration. (8.) Cisterns. (!*.) Foundations and drains. (10.) Solid ground-floors. (11.) Log
cabin or shanty. (12.) Frame-houses. (13 ) Pis, or hard-rammed earth. (14.) Unburiit bricks. (15.) Brick-
setting. (16.) Stone walls construction. (17 ) Fire-proof construction. (18.) Theory of carpentry. (19.) Prac-
tice of carpentry. Joints floors roofs partitions gates and bridges. (20.) Iron-framing roofs and columns.
(21.) Joinery tools mouldings doors windows staircasing. (22.) Smith-work. (23.) Practical mechanism,
and the fitting and construction of machines. (24.) Brickmaking. (25.) Roof-covering. Exterior and inte-
rior finishings. Plastering. Painting. (26'.) Mortars. Concrete. Cements. (27.) Enclosing of land. Fences.
(23 ) Road-making. (29.) Well-sinking. (30.) Farm and agricultural buildings. Index.

WORKS OX AGKKTLTrUE, ETC. 13

Fifty-second Edition, pria Is.,

A CATECHISM
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.K.S.E., &c.

THE object held in view in compiling the present little work was the preparation
of a manual sufficiently elementary to be used even in our humblest schools, yet so
precise and complete as to constitute in itself a complete course of instruction in
the applied science of which it treats. The reception it has experienced, as exem-
plified in the issue of a Fifty-second Edition, may be held as proof that in general
estimation it has achieved its aim.

The Work is arranged under the following sections, in the form of question and
answer, and is amply illustrated by diagrams :

(1.) General relations of the plant, the soil, and the animal (2.) Compound substances of which the organic
part of plants and animals consists. (3.) Elementary bodies of which the compound substances contained in the
organic part of plants, animals, and soi's consist. (4.) Of the organic food of plants. (5.) Composition and
properties of water, ammonia, and nitric acid. (ti. ) Composition of woody tibre, starch, sugar, gum, and liumic
acid, and how they are formed in the plant or the soil. (7.) Composition of fat, gluten, and fibrin, and how
they are formed in the plant and the animal. (8.) Substances of which the inorganic, mineral, or incombustible
part of soils, plants, and animals consists. (!).) Origin and general characters of soils. (10.) Improvement of
the soil by deep-ploughing, subsoiliuz, and draining. (11.) Composition and material relations of the inorganic,
part of the soil and the plant. (12.) Effect of cropping upon the soil. (13.) Vegetable manures. (14.) Of the
parts of animals used as manures. (15.) Of the droppings or dung of animals. (16.) Of saline and mineral
manures. (17.) Of limestone, and of the burning and use of lime. (IS.) Of the proportions of starch, gluten, and
fat contained in the crops which the farmer usually reap-;. (10.) Uses of the starch of our crops in the feeding of
animals. (20.) Uses of the gluten, fat. and mineral matter of plants in the feeding of animals. (21.) Of milk and
dairy produce, and the feeding of milk cows.

Seventh Edition, greatly fnlari/fJ, jirive 6.'-. ()</.,

E L E M E N T S

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., &c.

MANY, it was apprehended, might be deterred by the voluminous appearance of the
Author's larger work (" Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology,") from
giving due attention to the subject ; and partly for the sake of these, partly to pro-
vide a cheap and accessible hand-book of the subject, the present work was designed
and executed by the Author. Though styled " Elements," however, the book is
not in the strict sense of the word an elementary one, otherwise, at least, than as
the student may proceed at once to it without the slightest previous knowledge of
the subject. It might safely have been called Handbook of Agricultural Chemistry
and Geology, inasmuch as it presents, in a condensed rather than an abridged form,
the entire subject it professes to take up.

The work is divided into sections, of which the following is a brief outline :

(1.) Object of the farmer what the sciences can do for him organic and inorganic substances relative pro-
portions of elementary bodies contained in plants. (2.) Forms in which the organic elements enter into plants.
(3.) Structure of plants. (4.) Inorganic substances of plants. (5.) Of soils. (6.) (7.) (8.) Direct relation of
geology to agriculture. (9.) Of the physical, chemical, and botanical relations of soils. (10.) Of the general
improvement of the soil, and how the practical man will commence such improvement. (11.) Mechanical methods
continued. (12.) Improvement of the soil by planting, and by the growth of wood. (18.) Chemical methods of
improving the soil Manures vegetable manures. (14.) (15.) Animal manures. (16.) Relative theoretical values
of different animal manures. (17.) Saline and mineral manures. (18.) Why these are required by the soil. (1!).)
Use of lime in agriculture. (20.) Improvement of the soil by paring and burning do. by irrigation. (21.) The
products of vegetation. (22.) Average composition of root and green crops. (23.) Of milk ai:d its products.
(24.) (25.) Of the fattening of animals.

14 WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.

In Octavo, price 8s. ,

EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURE;

BEING THE RESULTS OF PAST, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE EXPERIMENTS
IN SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E., &c.

IN the other works by the same Author there has been embodied all that is known
with any degree of certainty in regard to the application of chemistry to agriculture.
There are, however, a variety of important points about which there is as yet much
obscurity, and a vast deal altogether unknown. To explain these in as far as they
are capable of being immediately elucidated by experiment, is the scope of the
present work. From the considerations dwelt upon, a variety of suggestions as to
experimenting in the field and the feeding-house are evolved : these are presented
in such a way as to point out to practical men what they may do for the advance-
ment of the art of agriculture. The following are the leading points elucidated :

(1, 2.) The knowledge necessary in a suggester and maker of experiments. (3.) How experiments are to be
made and judged of. (4.) Influence of circumstances on the result of experiments. (5.) Preliminary considera-
tion connected with the making of experiments. (6.) Experiments with sulphuric acid, and with the sulphates
of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, and iron. (7.) Experiments with gypsum, and the sulphates of magnesia and
iron. (8.) Do., with chloride of potassium, and with common salt. (9.) With the chlorides of magnesium and
calcium, muriatic acid, and the fluoride of calcium. (10.) With the carbonates, phosphates, silicates of potash
and soda. (11.) With the nitrates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia. (12.) With the salts of ammonia.

Fourth Edition, 2s.,

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS

SOILS, LIMESTONES, AND MANURES.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.E.S.E., &c.

THIS work is intended as a first help to practical and economical chemical analysis
and its value in this and other obvious ways to the farmer, the pharmaceutical
chemist, the youthful student, and to rural training-schools and agricultural labora-
tories, will be seen by a perusal of the following brief notice of its contents :

(1.) The work opens with a chapter showing how the physical properties of the soil are determined. (2.) How
its organic matter is estimated, (3.) and its saline matter examined. These are followed by (4.) a chapter on the
estimation of the saline matters, and an examination of natural water ; (5.) and its earthy matters ; with notes
on tile and fire clay. (6.) The analysis of ores by measure is then discussed. (7.) General remarks on the analy-
sis of soils, with practical suggestions thereon, follow. (8.) The analysis of limestones and marls, and (9.) of
saline manures, next succeed ; and the work closes with (10.) an examination of bone manures, guanos, and oil-
cakes.

In small Octavo, price 6s.,
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THE USE OF LIME IN AGRICULTURE.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.E.S.E., &c.

THIS work is designed to throw together, in a convenient form, the results of
practice, and the suggestions of theory, in the use of a substance which has been
called the basis of all good husbandry, so important a part does it perform in its
practice. The points discussed are the use of lime in its application to the soil ;
the artificial states in which these are made ; an investigation into the points as to
whether it is indispensable to the fertility of the land ; and when it should be
applied. Its effects on the soil and the crops are then stated, followed by a notice
of the theory of its action ; its exhausting influence on the soil ; the length of time
which it acts ; and its effects on animal and vegetable life ; the work concluding
with two elaborate chapters on the use of lime as a sulphate and a phosphate.

\VOIIKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC. 15

In Ttco ro!g. crown Svo, price Us. CnL,

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS L'NURAVKT) OX WOOD,

THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMON LIFE.

By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.E.S.E., &c.

A NEW EDITION, edited by G. H. LEWES. Author of the " Pliysiologj r of Common Life."

THE common life of man is, full of wonders, Chemical and Physiological. Most of
us pass through this life without seeing or being sensible of them, though every
day our existence and our comforts ought to recall them to our minds. One main
cause of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them do not teach those
parts of modern learning which would lit us for seeing them. What most con-
cerns the things that daily occupy our attention and cares, are in early life almost
sedulously kept from our knowledge. Those who would learn anything regarding
them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of the press : hence the
necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature.

It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the same time to supply
a Manual for the Schools, that the present work has been projected. It treats, in
what appears to be their natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE AND THE WATER WE
DRINK, in their relations to human life and health THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE and
THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief sustenance of all life is
obtained- THE BREAD WE EAT and THE BEEF WE COOK, as the representatives of the
two grand divisions of human food THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from which so
much of the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilised, is derived THE
SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so striking an illustration of the
economical value of chemical science THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, so different from
the Sweets in their action on the system, and yet so closely connected w T ith them in
chemical history THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as presenting us with an aspect
of the human constitution which, both chemically and physiologically, is more
mysterious and wonderful than any other we are yet acquainted with THE ODOURS
WE ENJOY, and THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE ; the former because of the beautiful illus-
tration it presents of the recent progress of organic chemistry in its relations to
the comforts of common life, and the latter because of its intimate connection with
our most important sanitary arrangements WHAT WE BREATHE FOR and WHY WE
DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most important to life, and the most
purely chemical in their nature THE BODY WE CHERISH, as presenting many strik-
ing phenomena, and performing many interesting chemical functions not touched
upon in the discussion of the preceding topics and lastly, the CIRCULATION OF
MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the end, purpose, and method of all the changes
in the natural body, in organic nature, and in the mineral kingdom, which are
connected with and determine the existence of life.

" All will concur in admiring the profound thought which has ennobled so many familiar things, and has
even tinged the commonest process of household life with the hues of novelty and surprise. The work deserves
to be universally read." British Quarterly Review.

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THE CHEMISTRY

VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

By Dr J. G. MULDER,

Professor of Chemistry in the University of Utrecht.

Translated by Dr P. F. H. FROMBERG ; with an Introduction and Notes by
PROFESSOR JOHNSTON.

16 WORKS OX AGRICULTURE, ETC.

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AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS AS THEY WERE,

ARE, AND SHOULD BE, IN THEIR SOCIAL CONDITION. By the REV.
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CONTAINING WORKING DRAWINGS OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS'
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CONVERTED INTO A PORTER'S LODGE.

These Sheets contain the most approved Designs for Labourers' Dwellings, and furnish
facilities for obtaining accurate estimates of the cost of erection. Price Is. each Sheet; or
Six Annual Reports, Is. each.

IN THE PRESS.

A MANUAL OF VILLA GARDENING. By

CHAS. M'INTOSEJ, Author of the " Book of the Garden." In One VoL Crown 8vo.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES. By DR

MACKENZIE, Eileanach.

in.

DAIRY MANAGEMENT, AND FEEDING OF

MILCH COWS.

LIBRARY

A 000 631 244

BOUND BY