87&- H4- UC-NRLF HE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL Including a General Accoun of the Educational System of Denmark By MARTIN HEGLAND, M.A. C aduate Scholar and Foreign ResearcK t Kolar, Teachers College, 1911-1912 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Require- ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University NEW YORK CITY 1916 EXCHANGE THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL Including a General Account of the Educational System of Denmark By MARTIN HEGLAND, M.A. Graduate Scholar and Foreign Research Scholar, Teachers College. 1911-1912 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Require- ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University US 13c.K.^. oild, Bu//.//-.^^,/f/^ NEW YORK CITY 1916 Uft876 H 4 CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 5 Prefatory note 6 Paet I. The Educational System of Denmark. Chapter I. — Historical development 7 II. — Organization and administration of education 19 III. — Elementary education 29 IV. — Secondary education 53 V. — University and vocational education 64 Paet II. The Danish People's High School. VI. — Origin of the people's high schools 73 VII. — Growth of the people's high school 84 VIII.— The schools and their life ; 99 IX, — Aims, curricula, and methods 113 X. — Influence and results 129 XI. — People's high schools in other countries 142 XII. — Conclusion 154 Appendix A. — Statistical tables 167 B.— Bibliography 172 Index 181 3 333570 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington^ Septemher 23, 1915. Sir: The folk high schools of Denmark and other Scandinavian countries are so unique and contain so much of interest to all who are concerned in the preparation of young men and women for higher and better living and for more efficient citizenship that, although two or three former bulletins of this bureau have been devoted to a description of these schools and their work, I recommend that the manuscript transmitted herewith be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education for the purpose of giving a still more com- prehensive account of the subject. Those who read this and the former bulletins referred to will have a fairly complete account, not only of these schools, but also of the whole system of rural education of which these schools are an important part. Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, C onmiissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. 5 PREFATORY NOTE For the sake of reference, the following facts relating to Denmark are stated here: Area. — 16,042 square miles. This is very nearly equal to the com- bined areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey, or to one-fifth the area of Minnesota. Population {1906). — ^2,588,919. This is almost identically equal to the population of New tlersey (1910) and is about half a million greater than the population of Minnesota (1910). The monetary unit is the krone^ equal to about 27 cents of Ameri- can money. The ore is one one-hundredth part of a krone. The Danish foot equals 12.35 inches; the Danish mile equals 4 English miles ; and the Danish pound equals 1.1 poimds avoirdupois. 6 THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL PART I. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. Chapter I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. An early culture. — Runic inscriptions bear evidence of a culture in the Old Norse world extending as far back as 500 A. D.^ The very existence of these inscriptions suggests practices of a distinctively educational nature — a supposition that is abundantly borne out by the contents of the folk songs and saga literature of this early period. From this material it is possible to gain a fairly definite idea of the status of education among these people of the north before the intro- duction of Christianity.^ Educational practices. — The child's early training was received at the hands of his mother. Her supervision was mild. The child was given large freedom in his play and activity, and very early was left to solve his own problems. Thus began that training in individual initiative which produced the viking who boldly set forth upon the seas in the quest of new lands and adventures. When the boy was old enough to be removed from the immediate care of his mother, his training was either continued in the home or given over to a foster father.' Many well-to-do people chose the latter course for various reasons.^ If he remained at home, the many slaves and servants, hoping for favors from the future master, might spoil the child by overindulgence. Furthermore, the removal of the boy from immediate parental supervision would tend to de- velop individuality in thought and action. The foster father was chosen with great care, the selection being made from among such wise men as possessed the requisite knowledge for a leader or chief- tain. These men were found chiefly among the district rulers, who were also priests. Serving in such double capacity, they were in- itiated into the civil laws as well as the religious teachings of the 1 Ottosen, Nordens Historic, p. 6. "Worm, Forsog til en Skolehistorie, p. 345. ■ Lagerstedt, Svenska Uppfostringsvasendets Historia, p. 6. 8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. community. These men were frequently also historians and poets.^ The relationship between a foster father and child was exceedingly intimate and loving. Between children fostered in the same home there was also formed a close bond of friendship, which sometimes ripened into love, as so beautifully pictured by Tegner, in his poetic version of Fritjof's Saga. Often, too, there was established between men fostered together the institution of " foster brotherhood," a brotherhood of arms. If a child was brought up in the home, his training was intrusted to some particular liberated slave, who might frequently be a captive from some foreign country and a person of considerable culture. Such a person would usually devote himself heartily to the child intrusted to his special care, a devotion which was generally rewarded in kind by the ward. Aim of Old Norse education. — The aim of Old Norse education for the boy was manliness, which was conceived as physical and intellectual vigor, courage, complete self-possession in the most criti- cal situation, large-mindedness, generosity, and above all utter dis- regard of death.^ These qualities the chieftains sought to develop by all manner of strong incentives, even resorting to abusive words to stimulate the boy to manly deeds. The training was, of course, obtained largely through imitation, seeing and doing the things that parents and elders did. In this way they became proficient in vari- ous peaceful and warlike exercises. The boys matured at a very young age, many a chieftain's son going to war at the age of 12. While the education was thus prevailing!}^ moral, its method being activity, and action its culmination, it nevertheless possessed a con- siderable intellectual content. Knowledge of the religion, laws, his- tory, and poetical literature of the people was considered essential to the equipment of a leader. Composition of impromptu poetry was a favorite diversion of chieftains around the festive board, while the writing of history and poetry was a recognized profession. The transfer of this intellectual heritage and the training of the boy in manly qualities and deeds constituted the special office of the foster father or special guardian. Thus the education of leaders in this early period had become a conscious process, and although there were no schools or teachers in the modern professional sense, it may be said that there had been developed a special teaching function. The education of the boy was completed by military campaigns and excursions, by travel and residence abroad. Young men of the northern nobility frequently spent much time at court, at home and abroad, in Scandinavia, Greece, Russia, England, France, Scotland, and acquired thus a knowledge of the world, higher training, and fine manners, as well as honor, riches, and influential connections." 1 Hertzberg, Opdragelsens og Skolens Historic, p. » Lagerstedt, op. cit., p. 6. 14. HISTOKICAL DEVELOPMENT. 9 The education of girls seems to have been less specialized. At an early age they engaged in the industries of the home — sewing, em- broidery, spinning, and weaving. They participated in various amusements and mingled freely with the people at festivals and pub- lic meetings. Their intellectual training was not entirely neglected, however, for women busied themselves also with poetry. But chiefly by work, play, and free activity were trained the mothers of a sturdy race. The Middle Ages. — With the introduction of Christianity schools were immediately established. The first Christian school is re- ported to have been erected in the beginning of the ninth century by the Apostle of the North, St. Ansgar, " for 12 young children whom he, together with his assistants, instructed in Christian learn- ing."^ Throughout Europe during this period there were three chief types of schools — monastic, cathedral, and burgher schools. Monastic schools were kept by the monks and consisted of two divi- sions, an interior school for novices who were to become monks and an exterior department for the boys of the community who desired an education chiefly for secular purposes. The studies pursued were religion, reading, writing, singing, and the subjects of the trivium and quadrivium. For the novices there was, in addition, instruction in the rules of the order and some of the principles of canonical law. Cathedral schools were established in connection with the cathedral chapters and were training schools chiefly for the priest- hood. The schools were in charge of a master, scholasticus^ and gave instruction in the most necessary subjects, such as reading — especially the Bible — writing, singing, Latin, the church fathers, canonical law, and the duties of the priestly office. These schools, though degen- erating to low standards in the later Middle Ages, were attended by large numbers of students, the school at Roskilde being reported to have had 900 students and the one at Ribe 700.^ Neither of the above types of schools met the demands of the citizen classes, who felt a growing need of education for the performance of their various pursuits. The citizens therefore began to establish schools on their own account. In addition to religion, instruction was given in read- ing, writing, arithmetic, a little history, geography, and sometimes also German. Such schools under various names — burgher, Danish, German, or writing schools — seem to have been established before the Reformation in all leading commercial towns.^ Elementary education was least well provided for. There were no common schools, in the modern sense. Provision was made, how- 1 Worm, op. clt., p. 346. »Idem, p. 362. • Ottosen, Vor Folkeskoles Oprindelse eg Udvikling, p. 8. 10 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. ever, for instruction by the parish priest in the elements of the Christian religion. This consisted of memorizing the Lord's Prayer, the Apostolic Creed, Ave Maria, and, in the latter Middle Ages, per- haps the ten commandments. Children were to commit these ele- ments to memory between their seventh and fourteenth years, after which they were subject to fines if they did not know them when tested at confession. Facilities for university education were provided in the north when the University of Upsala, in Sweden, was founded in 1477 and that of Copenhagen in 1478. Previously, and for a long time afterwards, students who desired advanced training went abroad, the Universities of Paris, Bologna, Orleans, Oxford, Lowen, and Rostock drawing the largest numbers. Educational plan of Reformation. — The Reformation was intro- duced into Denmark by act of Parliament in 1536, and a church ordinance of 1539, formulated by Bugenhagen, regulated ecclesias- tical and educational affairs. The King became head of the church, and under him were ordained seven superintendents, who were, however, popularly called bishops. The monasteries were dissolved and their properties and incomes were devoted to the support of Latin schools and the university. The cathedral schools were trans- formed into Latin schools by the guidance of Melanchthon's school plan for Saxony. These Latin schools continued to be training schools for the ministry until 1629, when a theological examination requiring university study was introduced for candidates for the ministry and for teachers in the higher classes of the Latin schools. Further- more, the above-mentioned church ordinance required that there should be one Latin school in every provincial city. The old mon- astery schools were partly dissolved and partly transformed into Latin schools of the new type. Later, schools were founded by the King. Their function was to equip for secular as well as for clerical life. Ultimately there developed two fairly definite types of " learned " or Latin schools, higher schools in the larger cities and lower schools in the smaller towns. These latter became essentially preparatory to the former. The higher schools became training institutions for the office-holding class, which included, of course, the ministry. The administration of a higher school was in the hands of a head master or rector. He was assisted by four or five " hearers," and the schools were divided into classes, ranging in number from four to seven. Needy students in the upper class were given the office of parish clerks in the surrounding parishes and received the income attached to those offices. The curriculum of these schools consisted of religion and Latin. Students in the upper class who were able to read and HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 11 write Latin well were permitted to study a little Greek, but not to the neglect of Latin. The mother tongue was not only neglected, but students were severely punished if they by chance spoke Danish. Contemporaries complain of the fruitlessness of the instruction and of the inhuman discipline maintained. The lower Latin schools in the smaller towns had only three or four classes and one or two teachers besides the head master. In addition to their chief function of preparing for the higher schools, they served as a sort of burgher school. To be sure the chief element in the curriculum was Latin, but at that time knowledge of this language was necessary for any person who wished to be deemed cultured. The other subjects of instruction were religion, writing, and singing. Both these types of schools were placed under the supervision of the clergy, and their development was much emphasized. For their benefit the existing Danish, German, or citizen schools were to be discontinued, so that there would be only one school in each city. While the church ordinance of 1539 abolished the above-mentioned private schools, it provided that the Government should erect " writ- ing schools for boys and girls and others who are not capable of learning Latin." The rationale of abolishing existing schools and immediately erecting new ones of about the same function was evi- dently to establish a system of public rather than private schools, for the new schools were to be erected by the Government. The Govern- ment must have taken the matter lightly, however, for no public schools, other than Latin schools, were established for a long time to come.^ The ordinance of 1539 makes no mention of rural schools. This was evidently not to be thought of. That every father should be a teacher of his own household, however, was an idea much encouraged. In addition to such home instruction, the ordinance provided that " The parish clerk shall instruct the young peasants in the catechism once a week at such time and place as the parish pastor may pre- scribe." 2 In 1555 a resolution was adopted by the college of bishops to the following effect: Every parish clerk in a rural town shall, in the days of the three great church festivals, repair to other rural towns,' and there in a citizen's house call together the young people, instruct and hear them in the catechism, suit- ably encourage them, sing a hymn with them, and let them afterwards play decorously in the street.* The obligation was also placed upon the pastors, in addition to the sermon proper, " each Sunday and in each church to explain a 1 Ottosen, op. cit., p. 11. « Quoted by Ottosen, ibid., p. 12. » Where there was no church. * Quoted by Ottosen, ibid., p. 13. 12 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. portion of the Christian elements — for example, a commandment, an article of faith, a prayer, etc. — and continue this constantly, so that when they had reached the end of the catechism they should begin again from the beginning." ^ Such was the educational plan of the Reformation in Denmark. Development of elementary education. — The period immediately following the Reformation was marked by a live interest in educa- tion, which manifested itself especially in the instruction in the homes. When the language of the religious services was changed from Latin to Danish, the desire to read instead of merely commit- ting to memory something read for them stimulated instruction in reading. Soon there were whole communities, especially in Jutland, where nearly every person could read. Whether this work of instruc- tion was at first 'entirely a family affair or a cooperative effort of several families involving the hiring of a teacher is not clear. It does appear, however, that by the time of Christian IV (1588-1648) schools had been established by such private initiative, and were pointed to by the King as examples worthy of emulation by other communities.^ Efforts at popular enlightenment continued to be made also by the kings and clergy. King Christian IV labored for a more thorough training of ministers and the appointment of capa- ble parish clerks. He regarded the chief function of these latter officials to be the instruction of the young, and this duty he urged uponthem conscientiously to perform. A significant ruling of 1645 pre- scribed that no young man or woman could become betrothed or mar- ried before he or she was found well versed in the Christian elements.^ But great obstacles were encountered. There was such a lack of pastors that it was necessary to combine many parishes into one charge, the manifold duties of which made it practically impossible for pastors to do much in the way of instructing the young. Further, many of them lacked the necessary qualifications for the work. The same discrepancies existed in the case of parish clerks. The income and honors attached to these latter offices were so small as to fail to attract capable men. The result was that the offices were generally filled by men who already held other positions, by students in the upper class of the Latin schools, or by men who had failed in their examinations. It is small wonder that complaints of their inefficiency and laziness were general and bitter. Added to these difficulties was the unwillingness of many parents to have their chil- dren instructed. They were threatened with increasingly severe punishments if they failed to send their children for instruction. This fact indicates perhaps a falling off of interest on the part of i-Quoted by Ottosen, Ibid., p. 13. » Ottosen, op. cit., p. 15. * Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 58. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 18 the people fully as much as a heightening of the ideals of bishop and pastor. When the religious life, which had been stirred by the Reformation, fell back into formalism, the desire for reading the Bible also waned, and with it interest in education. Some educa- tional advance was made by the Danish law of Christian V (1683). This law prescribes that only such students as were certificated by the bishops should be appointed parish clerks, and they must not hold any other office. Thus was legally abolished also the practice of fill- ing the clerks' offices with students in the Latin schools. This prac- tice, which had grown hateful to the people, continued, however, for many years in certain localities. It was further provided by law that the parish clerks should give instruction in the catechism on one week day in addition to Sunday. For this purpose the clerks kept ambulatory school in homes centrally located at various points in the parishes. Influence of pietism. — The pietistic movement, furthered by Francke and Spener in Germany, exerted a tremendous influence upon the Danes. So lifeless and formal had religious life become that this movement from the south was felt as a refreshing breeze. Especially the clergy were stirred, and in order that the young might be instructed in vital Christianity, they stimulated a marked revival of interest in education. In Copenhagen two pastors, Thestrup and Worm, were so active in their efforts for enlightenment that they suc- ceeded in having free schools established for the poor in their par- ishes in the first decade of the eighteenth century. Subsequently, similar schools were established in the other three parishes of the city. The schools were supported by free-will contributions. In- struction was given in religion, Danish, writing, and arithmetic. The girls received instruction also in sewing and spinning. These schools formed the foundation for the present public-school system of Copenhagen. Also other cities established free schools for the poor at this time.^ The greatest contribution to education during this period, how- ever, was made directly by King Frederick TV (1699-1730) . Within six years' time he built 240 substantial schools, many of which still stand. He accompanied his building ventures with specific instruc- tions regarding the conduct of the schools. Teachers were to be nominated and certificated by the local pastors and appointed by the county chairman. The schools, which were for both boys and girls, whether rich or poor, were to be kept six days in the week, and parents punished if they did not send their children. Instruction in the most elementary subjects was free, but tuition might be charged 1 Ottosen, op. cit., p. 27. 14 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. for instruction in special or advanced subjects. In general the teachers' cash salaries were paid by the King, and the salaries in kind by the local communities, a certain levy being made on each unit of land. Frederick IV died before the fruits of his efforts were evident, but his work was continued with great zeal by his son and successor, Christian VI (1730-1746). He introduced, in 1736, the institution of confirmation for the young at the age of 14 or 15. Before they could be confirmed, however, they must be instructed in a consider- able body of knowledge. The plan met with much opposition from the people. They themselves had had no such extended instruction, and they thought it a hardship that it should be required of their children. The King and most of the clergy remained firm, however, and as the instruction the pastor could give in the limited time at his disposal was insufficient to meet the standard established, there came about a feeling of a real need for schools. This was the very thing the King desired, for thus the ground was prepared for his plan of a common-school system for the entire country. E stahlishment of a State system. — The 240 schools erected by Frederick IV were built upon the lands devoted to the support of the army and directly subject to the Crown. His educational work was therefore in a sense of an individual nature. His son. Christian VI, however, extended the idea and conceived a national system of edu- cation. To prepare for the establishment of such a system a commis- sion was appointed to learn the status of education in the country and to submit plans. On the basis of its report there was enacted the " Ordinance of 1739, concerning schools in rural districts," which remained practically unchanged until 1814. This law laid down the following principles, which have ever since been followed in Danish education : (1) Every parish is in duty bound to establish and main- tain schools. (2) Children are in duty bound to receive instruc- tion during a certain period of their lives. If this is not otherwise provided for, they are to be instructed in the public schools. (3) The school is confessional, i. e., an Evangelical Lutheran parish school. The instruction in Christianity, which had previously been a function of the church and given by its officers, was now delegated to a separate institution, the school, which, therefore, received its own professional staff. Schools were to be of two kinds — stationary where the population was sufficiently dense, and ambulatory in the more sparsely populated areas. The parish clerks were' to keep school, but as their number was far too limited, there were to be appointed in addition as many persons to keep school as the bishops HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT. 15 deemed necessary. All children between the ages of 7 and 10 or 12 were to attend school every day that school was kept in the com- munity, and neglect of parents in sending children to school could be punished even by a prison sentence. Instruction embraced religion and reading for all. Writing and arithmetic were taught to such as paid a special fee. It soon appeared, liowever, that the law was far ahead of its time. The chief difficulties encountered in putting it into practice were the incapacity and unwillingness, or both, of the public to support the schools and the lack of qualified teachers. After the death of Christian VI the attitude of the Central Gov- ernment toward education became less firm, and the provisions of the law were not carried out in full. Christian VI had been suc- cessful, however, in establishing the principle that education is a function not only of the home and church, but also of the State. On this foundation the Government continued to build.^ Inftuence of EnlightenTnent and naturalism. — The influence of eighteenth century educational thought took definite form in Den- mark in the erection of training schools where teachers might be made acquainted with the new ideas of enlightenment and naturalism, and thus be equipped to train up " a new, better, and happier genera- tion " The first teachers' training school within the then-existing bounds of Denmark was established in 1781, at Kiel. In 1789 there was appointed by Christian VII the " Great School Commmission," to prepare a new plan for the school system of the country. The first problem to which the commission devoted itself was the train- ing of teachers, and in 1791 there was established under its super- vision the Blaagaard Normal School in Copenhagen. The influence of the Enlightenment is plainly evident in the curriculum of Blaa- gaard. The instruction embraced — the theoretical and practical teachings of the Christian religion, with proofs from the Scriptures and reason, Bible study, catechization, history, geography, mother tongue, nature study, physics, logic, laws and ordinances, writing, arithmetic, geometry, German, music. Later were added anthropology, agri- culture, horticulture, household sciences, industries and gymnastics.* This formidable program was the model on which other schools were built, but their histories were comparatively brief. The spirit of the Enlightenment, however, operated powerfully in the work of the Great Commission, whose plan, after having been tried out in practice and modified by criticism, was enacted into law in 1814. This law made possible the enforcement of compulsory education, placed the burden of support upon the local communities, fixed the salaries of teachers, and provided for a small pension. The subjects of instruction were to be religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, sing- 1 Based chiefly on Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 73flf. 2 Quoted by Hertzberg, op. cit., p. 108. 3334°— 15 2 16 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAEK. ing, gymnastics for the boys, and, when possible, a little history and geography. The poor economic and social conditions of Denmark during the first part of the nineteenth century and diminution of interest in enlightenment made the enforcement of the law very difficult. Con- sequently, salaries and equipment became meager and the instruction very inferior. The systems of Lancaster and Bell were seized upon in many places as a means of general education at a low cost and as a result the instruction became very formal and mechanical. Recent reforms. — After 1830 educational interest took an upward trend. The psychological tendency was making itself felt. Teachers formed associations, issued educational journals, and held meetings for the discussion of educational problems; and progress was made in many directions. A distinctly Danish contribution to educational thought and practice was made at this time by Bishop Grundtvig and somewhat later by Kristen Kold. Both of these men are of special interest in connection with the history of people's high schools, but their agitation for a more free and spiritual instruction also exerted a tremendous influence on elementary education. The granting of general suffrage by the Danish free constitution in 1848 and the increasing prosperity of the country further stimulated interest in education, but progress was delayed for a time by a sharp conflict in Parliament over the question of centralization.^ The re- sults of reform and discussion were embodied in the school law of 1856, which, among other things, improved salaries, gave to local communities the right to nominate teachers, and required the State to assume a small part of school expenses. Legally and administratively reforms continued to be made in the supply, training, certification, and salaries of teachers, extension of the curriculum, and methods of instruction. In the sixties local communities were given more power in regard to their school affairs and the interest of the people increased. Serious defects, especially in the matter of low salaries, were existent, however, and in response to the growing appreciation of modern educational needs a series of laws in 1899, 1903, and 1904 placed elementary education on its pres- ent footing, the exposition of which will be undertaken in another chapter. Secondary education since the Reformation. — Having thus traced briefly the development of elementary education from the Reforma- tion up to the present time, it is in order to glance at the history of secondary schools which took its course more or less independently of elementary education during this period. The influence of Comenius and realism were but slightly felt in Denmark and the Latin schools 1 Larsen, Folkeskolen in Danmarks Skolevaesen, p. 31. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 17 continued supreme in the field of secondary education. The higher Latin schools gradually became preparatory to university study, in- stead of training directly for the ministry. In smaller towns where the Latin schools were but poorly attended, efforts were made to sub- stitute Danish schools where children might be instructed in the Christian elements, arithmetic, writing, bookkeeping, and seaman- ship, but the efforts were without avail. Nor did the eighteenth century witness any essential changes in secondary schools. The ordinance of 1739 prescribed that the mother tongue should be given more attention and textbooks should be written in Danish, but the law remained virtually a dead letter. A number of the smaller Latin schools were, however, transformed into Danish schools. It was noU before the first decade of the nineteenth century that any essential reform in secondary education took place. This con- sisted in a betterment of finances, buildings, and salaries. The mother tongue and modern languages — French and German — together with some science, were given a place in the curriculum. The old sub- jects, however, maintained their claims to a position of the first rank, and as teachers were lacking in ability to handle the new subjects, difficulties were at once encountered. The first half of the century is thus marked by a struggle between the old and the new. There were complaints of overcrowded curricula, and efforts at remedies were made, the development moving along the same lines as in Ger- many. Gradually, however, more independence in reforms became evident.^ By 1871 the Latin school had been divided into two lines, the linguistic-historical and the mathematical-scientific, both pre- paring for the university. By 1881 there had been worked out a Real school of four years, preparing for practical life, with a leaving ex- amination at the age of 15 or 16. Latin was still considered essential for anyone contemplating university study, and four years of it were required even in the mathematical-scientific course of the Latin school. The Real school, with four years, continued practically un- changed until replaced by the new system introduced by the law of 1903. The new system recognizes the growing appreciation of the educational value of modern languages and literatures by giving them a large place in the curriculum. Another large element in the reform of 1903 was the desire for a unified school system embracing a continuous course of instruction from the primary grade to the university. Previously elementary and secondary education were distinct and parallel from the bottom up. A child began his career in the one or the other, the choice usually depending upon the social position of his parents. The new * Linderstrom-Lang, Drenge-og Faellesskoler in Danmarks Skolevaesen, p. 7. 18 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. system provides for the education of all children together during the first five years of school life, regardless of the social position of the parents or the future career of the child. This is accomplished by superimposing on the fifth year of the elementary school a system of secondary education which provides a four-year middle school, fol- lowed by a Real course of one year or a Gymnasium course of three years. Secondary education of girls. — The record of higher education for girls does not go back more than 150 years in Denmark, and during the eighteenth century such schools are known only by the criticism directed against them.^ The Enlightenment, however, included also women in its program, and in 1787 was issued by Emmanuel Balling a " Plan for a Real School for Our Daughters." This plan indicates a high ideal of womanhood, and proposes an extensive educational program for girls. A few excellent schools were established, but most of them were short lived. The conditions of the early nine- teenth century in Denmark were not conducive to large or persistent effort in behalf of women's education. Gradually, however, as the new ideas of women's capacities and work gained ground, a persistent demand for suitable educational facilities for girls made itself felt. The person who did most to advance the cause of girls' higher education in Denmark was Miss N. Zahle, who, as the head of a large renowned girls' school in Copen- hagen, is said to have created the modern girls' school. She was the first to prepare girls for the teacher's, examination when they were admitted to it in 1860, for the preliminary Real examination, which girls were permitted to take for the first time in 1882, and finally was the first to prepare girls for the university, when she felt that the time was ripe for such a step. A large number of excellent private girls' schools were built in the latter half of the nineteenth centur}^, and the quality of girls' higher education came to be regarded as being on a par with that for men. By the law of 1903 coeducation was introduced into the State schools and has become very general also in the communal secondary schools which have recently sprung up in the cities and towns. Girls and boys are thus given equal op- portunities for secondary education, and the number of women en- tering the university is steadily increasing. During the last two decades there has been manifest in Denmark a wonderful educational activity. Old forms and institutions have been subjected to criticisms and analysis, reforms have been under- taken to perfect the instruments in use, curricula have been enriched and modernized, the aids to instruction have been multiplied, supple- mentary types of education have been introduced, a variety of voca- 1 Lang, Den hoiere Pigeskole in Danmarks SUolevaesen, p. 19. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 19 tional schools has come into being to meet the new conditions, teach- ers' associations have been active in spreading professional literature and stimulating educational thought, and school people in general have displayed an eager desire to acquire and test the best educa- tional ideas, whether domestic or foreign. Chapter II. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDU- CATION. The system — Terms de-fined. — Primary, secondary, and university education in Denmark is now organized into a State system, with continuity from the bottom up. The figure given on page 21 may serve to make the system clear to the reader and help to define the three degrees of education as they apply to Denmark. As the figure indicates, the system is built upon a substructure of elementary education. Theoretically, at least, all children receive the same edu- cation during the first five years of their school life. Then occurs a parting of the ways. Those children who are to receive secondary education enter at this point into the middle school, while those whose life career does not embrace secondary education continue for two or three years in the elementary school, usually until confirma- tion, at 14 or 15 years of age. The term elementary education is therefore used in this study to cover the instruction given to all children during the first five years of school life and the further cul- tural instruction given to those children who do not enter the sec- ondary schools. The term will thus include also continuation schools. Secondary education, as stated, begins at the end of the fifth year of school work, normally when the child is 11 years of age. It em- braces first the middle school of four years, ages 11 to 15. Many children go no further. A continuation may be made, however, in the one-year Real course or in the three-year Gymnasium which offers three courses: Classical, modern language, and mathematical- scientific. The term secondary education thus embraces instruction given 'in these three types of schools, middle school. Real course, and Gymnasium. The people's high schools, which constitute the special subject of this study, are somewhat difficult to classify. They are not a part of the formal organization of secondary education, but in their cultural purpose and in the content of their curricula they classify more properly under secondary than under any of the other degrees of education. The Gymnasium prepares for the university, which is a profes- sional school. To be sure, the first year in the university is devoted 20 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. to an introductory study of psychology and the history of philosophy, but thereafter the student pursues studies under the faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy, or science, with a view to his vocational equipment. Administration — The ministry, — As education in Denmark is or- ganized into a State system, it is also administered as such. Mat- ters of fundamental importance constitute subjects for legislation by Parliament. Matters of lesser range, though still weighty, may be covered by royal resolution. The King also participates to a small extent in the administration of the schools, notably by appointing head teachers and principals on the recommendation of the ministry. The immediate administration of educational affairs, however, is in the hands of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruc- tion. Denmark has a form of State church (Folkekirke) — the Evan- gelical Lutheran — the administration of which is combined with that of education under one head, as the title of the ministry indicates. The minister is appointed by the King and has a seat in the cabinet, together with the eight other ministers. Educationally, it is the function of the ministry to issue adminis- trative directions of a general nature pertaining to education, such as announcements, circulars, regulations, and instructions, provided, however, that the matter in question is not a subject for royal reso- lution.^ The ministry also acts as a court of last resort in all the more important matters pertaining to education, and, in general, exercises supervision over the organization and state of the instruc- tion in all the public schools in the country, both elementary and advanced. Division of work. — The educational work of the ministry is divided between two departments, each with its department chief and assist- ants. Under the first of these departments classify matters pertain- ing to elementary education, normal schools. State teachers' college, people's high schools, schools of domestic science, school libraries, stipends for foreign study, Danish school museum, orphan homes, and schools for defectives. The other department has to do chiefly with secondary and higher schools, the university, polytechnical in- stitute, schools of pharmacy and dentistry, the Royal Archives, Royal Library, Royal Theater, Royal Academy of Fine Arts, scientific and fine arts collections, grants to science and arts, and stipends to stu- dents at the university and abroad.^ Advisers and inspectors. — In the administration of educational affairs the ministry is further assisted by several permanent advisers 1 For the material in this and the following chapter the author has drawn freely upon the work by Henrik Lehmann, Haandbog i Lovgivningen om den Danske Folkeskole. It is an excellent compilation of legal and administrative measures relating to elementary education In Denmark and has proved a source book of the highest value. 2 Hof-og Stats Kalender, 1912. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 26^ 21 bi v. // . 2Sl ^4 23 '^ T ^ 2/. ao. /9 . /S //'. .^ . . $ 5 /^ {1,1110 "> /^. /3 . /2 . // C7ymna>y/um > n I I I J 22 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE DENMARK. and inspectors. There is a counselor in matters pertaining to ele- mentary education, whose function it is to pass judgment on ques- tions submitted to him by the ministry, submit plans for improve- ments in the school system, and judge of the serviceableness of school materials. Further, the counselor assists the ministry in his inspec- tion of the normal schools. Another counselor gives advice in mat- ters pertaining to libraries. There are four inspectors of special subjects, who report to the ministry concerning the work of the schools in their respective sub- jects and express opinions on questions submitted to them by the ministry. Of these, three are inspectors, respectively, of music, gym- nastics, and sloyd for elementary, secondary, and normal schools. A fourth inspects drawing in State and private normal schools and technical schools. There are, furthermore, an inspector of complete secondary schools, one for middle and Keal schools, and one for people's high schools, agricultural schools, and schools of domestic science. The accompanying table aims to give a comprehensive view of the civil and ecclesiastical divisions of Denmark, together with the educa- tional boards. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP EDUCATION. 23 1-^ A ?! . 2 a 1 5 g 2 a ^ 24- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. Civil and ecclesiastical divisions. — The smallest civil unit is the commune. Of these there are three kinds: (1) Copenhagen (popu- lation, 426,000) is in a class by itself, enjoying self-government in a high degree. (2) Provincial cities (Kobsteder) are those centers of population, usually the larger, which enjoy a city form of govern- ment. There are 12 with a population of over 10,000; 25 with be- tween 4,000 and 10,000; and 37 below 1,000. (3) Rural communes; in these there are many villages which are of considerable size, but are not incorporated as distinct governmental units. The rural communes are combined to form the next larger civil units {Herreder) which, for want of a better term, w^e may call town- ships. These together with the cities again form the amter or coun- ties, the largest civil subdivisions of the county. Largely parallel with these divisions are the ecclesiastical units. In large city communes there may be several parishes. In the rural districts, however, the parish usually coincides territorially with the commune as does the next larger ecclesiastical unit, the deanery, with the township. There the parallelism stops ; the next and largest ecclesiastical subdivision, the bishopric, comprises several counties and corresponds to no civil unit. Each subdivision has its administrative head, and some of the civil units have governing boards, as the table indicates. The table also shows the position of educational boards, whose composition and functions will be discussed hereafter. Several of the civil and ecclesi- astical officers and civil boards act also in an educational capacity, supplementing the work of educational authorities proper, wherefore a consideration of their functions in so far as they relate to educa- tion must be included in the presentation. Bishops. — In addition to their ecclesiastical functions, it is the duty of bishops to keep closely in touch with all the elementary schools within their respective bishoprics, inspect them by personal visits, and receive reports from the school boards and school com- missions. As a part of th«ir inspections, which occur about every other year, the bishops examine the pupils to determine how they have been instructed, endeavor in general to learn how the teachers do their work, and give needed guidance as well as censure neglect of duty. They report to the ministry. The bishop has, furthermore, the right to ap]3oint teachers to certain positions formerly held by parish clerks and issue to all teachers in public schools hollats^ which is a document certifying that the teacher has been regularly ap- pointed to office and recommending him to the good will of the resi- dents of his school district. Finally, by royal resolution of 1903, the inspection of teachers' training in the State normal schools is made a duty of the respective bishops in whose territory the schools are located. ^H boai OEGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 25 ounty school hoards. — The county school board is a composite board for each county, made up of the members of the several district school boards within the county. Its chief function is, in conjunction with the county school council, to administer the county school fund. It meets at least once each year for the purpose of preparing the school budget for the coming fiscal year. County school council. — We have referred previously to the county school council. This board is made up of the members of the county civil council and, in addition, of certain members elected by the pro- vincial cities within the county. The number of elective members must bear the same relation to the number of members in the county civil council as the population of the city bears to the rural popula- tion of the county. The participation of this body in fixing the school budget has been mentioned. It furthermore administers the capital of the school fund, and no money may be expended from this without the sanction of the council. Requests from school districts for building loans are submitted to the ministry through the county school council, and in the event of requiring a community to make alterations in its school build- ings action is not taken by the ministry without an opinion from this council. It keeps a list of teachers employed in the county, with their periods of service, fixes widows' pensions, and by the consent of the ministry may appropriate financial aid to certain teachers and widows who are not entitled to pension. District school hoard. — As appears from the table, there is a school board for each of the 73 ecclesiastical divisions of the country, deaneries, composed of (1) the county chairman, who is thus a member of the several boards within his county; (2) the dean; and (3) a third member elected by the county school council, within or outside of their own number, usually for a period of three years. The district boards serve as a medium between the ministry and the local authorities. Communications from the ministry to the local authori- ties, as well as from the latter to the ministry, pass through the dis- trict school board, who are thus enabled to add such comments as may be desired. The boards are usually the final authority in ap- proving school programs. They approve plans and specifications for erection or remodeling of school buildings coming within the limits of the law, and such approval is necessary. They normally elect permanent teachers in the common schools, and the election of temporary teachers must have their approval. They exercise super- vision over the schools within their respective districts and are invested with authority over the schools and teachers. The dean, as a member of the board, personally inspects the schools and reports thereon to the ministry. It is his duty to observe tjaat laws and 26 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. regulations are enforced, such as the employment of an additional teacher when the number of pupils exceeds the legal limit, and the imposing and collection of fines for illegal absences. The boards report to the ministry. Local civil council. — The local civil council, both in the provincial cities- and in rural communities, administers the finances of the local schools, and no economic question, such as that of salaries, can be decided without the action of the council. It has charge of the erection and maintenance of school buildings, enforces compulsory attendance laws, imposes and collects fines for their violation, sanc- tions the continuance of a child in school beyond the compulsory age, and decides, with reference to the furnishing of school mate- rials, whether or not a child's parents shall be deemed poor. The local council furthermore nominates teachers, with the advice of the school commission, and fills temporary vacancies. It participates in mapping out school programs and courses of study and approves choice of textbooks. In cities the councils usually delegate various duties to standing and special committees, while in rural communities the councils may delegate particular duties to individual members, but may give no general authority to act on behalf of the council. School commission. — The immediate supervision of the schools and the work of teachers is in the hands of a local school commission, whose composition appears from the table. If the commission has four elective members, two of these shall be fathers or widows with children of school age. No other women are eligible to membership. In rural districts the pastor is chairman, and the .commission meets at his call or that of a majority of the members. In cities the chair- man is elected, and the commission meets at his call or that of a pastor. The duties of the commission are much the same in rural and city districts. Its members may visit the schools personally. In the rural districts, universally, and to some extent in the smaller cities, the inspection is performed by the clerical member of the commission. During visits in the schools the inspector, by listening to the instruction, talking with children and otherwise, is to gain an insight into the professional work of the teachers and condition of the schools generally, to observe that laws and regulations are enforced, and the program of studies carried out. The chairman of the commission has the right to require the pupils examined in his presence in any subject desired, and he may himself put questions to individual pupils. If the commission finds anything to criticize, this is brought to the attention of the teacher concerned and possibly communicated to the local civil council or district board. The com- mission is the authority nearest to the teacher, possesses the right ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION. 27 discipline, and issues testimonials regarding the work of teachers. The supervision extends also to private schools. In these as well as in public schools the commission holds and chooses censors for the required school examinations. The commission initiates improvements in the schools by making recommendations to the local civil council or the district school board and makes recommendations to the local council as to choice of textbooks and supply of school materials. It furthermore partici- pates in arranging school programs and courses of study, and its members have a seat, though without a vote, in the meeting of the local civil council, in which teachers are nominated or temporary vacancies filled. It is the duty of the commission also to observe that the attendance laws are enforced, that pupils are vaccinated, and regulate with medical assistance the attendance of children suffering from contagious diseases. Annually, as soon as possible after the close of the calendar year, the commission submits its report on the condition of its schools to the district school board. Participation of teachers in administration. — In cities the teachers in each school constitute a teachers' council, of which the head teacher or principal is chairman. In case of several schools a joint council is formed, presided over by the superintendent. The council meets at least twice a year, and otherwise as often as its chairman or the school commission finds it necessary. In rural districts there is no corresponding council, but the permanent teachers, individually or collectively, may give their opinion on certain questions. To the teachers' council are submitted all questions relating to the instruc- tion in the particular school, daily life of the school, vacations, course of study, time table, procuring of new materials, promotions, departmental or class teacher systems, expansion of a school by addi- tion of middle or Real school, erection of new buildings, alteration of districts, new teaching positions, granting of free places, rewards, additions to libraries, and some other minor matters. The purely administrative routine in each school is in the hands of the teacher or of the head teacher or principal. The principal supervises all the activities of his school. In his relation to the teachers' work he observes that the instruction begins and ends at the proper time, that the teachers carry out the course of study prescribed, for which purpose he may visit classes. He is n )t considered an authority over the teachers. This rests with the com- mission, but in most cities the commission has delegated to princi- pals certain powers with regard to the teachers, which give them a position of very considerable authority. The principal also super- vises the conduct of the pupils, arranges with teachers to supervise playgrounds during recesses ; he oversees the caretaking of buildings, 28 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAEK. grounds, and equipment; enrolls, assigns to classes, and discharges pupils; keeps the records for the school as a whole, and prepares the required reports. He procures substitutes in case of teachers' tem- porary absence, submits to the commission recommendations as to examinations, transfers, school programs, vacations, and, if required, submits estimates for the school budget. He may also be delegated by the ministry to inspect the private schools in his city. In the larger cities with several schools there are appointed school superintendents, whose duties are specified and approved by the ministry. To such officer the commission delegates a very large part of its functions, notably as to leadership of the school system and supervision of teachers, and his position is thus much like that of an American city superintendent. Administration of schools in Copenhagen. — Educationally as well as politically the capital city enjoys self-government in a much larger degree than other cities. It is governed by a board of 42 citizen representatives elected by the people, a president appointed by the King, and four city department heads elected by the board of repre- sentatives. The president and the department heads constitute the magistracy. The highest educational authority is the board of educa- tion, of three members — the president of the city government, that division head under which schools classify, and a resident dean or pastor appointed by the ministry. The leadership of the school system is assigned to a superintendent, who is the executive officer of the board and has a seat in that body, though without a vote. He is nominated by the magistracy, elected by the board of representatives, and his election is approved by the King. The superintendent is assisted by two vice superin- tendents, one of whom inspects communal secondary and all private schools, which have not the right to hold secondary examinations. Private schools, both in and out of Copenhagen which have this privilege are under the immediate supervision of the ministry. The other vice superintendent inspects the public elementary schools. There are furthermore special inspectors of gymnastics, drawing, music, needlework, and school kitchens. The principal of each school is its executive head, and he is also the professional leader and supervisor of his teachers. Complaints are heard, however, that clerical duties are too numerous to permit of sufficient attention to the latter function. Efforts are made to remedy this difficulty by the appointment of a man and woman to serve as vice principals. These are found in nearly all schools, and assist the principal with routine and clerical duties, as well as officiate in his absence. Proposed modiiications. — Thus in brief is the manner in which the Danish school system at present is administered. A bill providing ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 29 for a considerable readjustment of the administration and supervi- sion of elementary education has been up for consideration in Par- liament. One feature of the bill looks to a reduction of ecclesiastical control and inspection and the substitution of professional super- vision. Late reports indicate that the bill has not yet been enacted into law, although sentiment favoring a change obtains generally among educational leaders. Chapter III. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. De-pnition. — In the legal and narrow sense the elementary schools of Denmark {Folheskole) include the public communal schools in which children of school age receive such specified instruction as the laws make obligatory for every child. The term " elementary education," as used in this study, has previously been defined as em- bracing the instruction given in the first five years of school life to all children and the further cultural instruction given those who after five years of schooling do not enter a secondary school. In this broad sense the term will include both public and private schools; but ordinarily it will have reference to the elementary education given in the public schools. Gompulsory education. — From 7 to 14 years of age every child in Denmark must receive instruction in public or private schools or in the home. If a child is defective, so as not to profit by the ordinary form of instruction, his training is legally provided for in suitable institutions. That the compulsory-education laws are efficiently en- forced is evident from the fact that of every 1,000 children of school age in 1909 the number not receiving instruction was a fraction less than 4.^ In Copenhagen alone the number was a fraction more than 4.^ And the absence of these 4 may be accounted for by various causes, such as not yet enrolled, continued illness, or mental defects. It may be of interest to note a little more particularly the means employed to produce this result. Responsibility for keeping children in school is placed primarily upon parents and guardians, who, as will appear, may be called to account for neglects. The school cen- sus, which gives so much trouble in American cities, with their shifting population, is kept rigorously up to date. In the cities re- sponsibility for it rests upon the city council, it being obtained and checked up in connection with a general population census or by special enumerators. In the rural districts it is the duty of the teacher or the head teacher to keep the census up to date, and the iDan. Stat, FolkeskoleA'aesenet, 1909, p. 82. •Annual School Report, 1910, p. 16. 30 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMARK. school commission is instructed to see that this is done and that no name is legally stricken from the lists. But the State goes further and places upon parents and guardians the duty of reporting to the local civil council the removal of a child from one district and its arrival in another. Failure to do this incurs a penalty of from 66 ore ^ to 4 kroner ^ a week. Furthermore, the name of a removed child must not be stricken from the census in the district where he has attended until satisfactory evidence is at hand to show that the child is in attendance elsewhere and his name entered on the census there. Failure to make such a report within a reasonable time incurs a penalty in the district from which the child has been removed, even if meantime he has actually been in attend- ance elsewhere. It is obligatory upon every child enrolled in public schools to at- tend every day that school is in session. The laws fix the minimum amount of schooling a year for each pupil at 41 weeks of 18 hours in the rural districts and 21 hours in the cities. Ordinarily the only valid excuses are illness of children, contagious disease in family, bad weather, impassable roads, and attendance upon confirmation classes. Absence without valid excuse incurs automatically a penalty of 12 ore for each day within a month. If illegal absence occurs in more than one month within a half year, the fine is automatically doubled for each succeeding month, but not to exceed 1 krone per day. Not later than the 5th of every other month the teachers must submit to the local council lists of absences, both excused and unexcused, occur- ring in the two previous months, with alleged reasons for absence. By the 15th of the month the lists must be considered in a meeting of the local council and penalties imposed as per legal requirements. The council has the right to refrain from imposing penalties in certain cases where humanitarian or like interests dictate it. Fines are then collected, if necessary, by compulsory measures. Failing collection, a term in prison may be imposed, the length of which cor- responds to the amount of the fine. A copy of the lists, with infor- mation as to penalties imposed, must then be sent to the district school board, in order that this body may know how the laws are being enforced in each locality, and possibly modify the actions of the local council. School districts. — In rural sections the school district may comprise a whole commune, a part of one, two, or more. In 1901 there were 3,224 rural districts.^ Their size is determined by two considera- tions — the number of children within its limits, and the distance from the schoolhouse. The. average size of rural districts is 12 square kilometers, and the average distance from center to outside 1 See Prefatory Note. a Dan. Stat. Folkeskolevsesenet, 1901, pp. 96-99. ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION". 31 IS 2 kilometers. It is obligatory upon the communes to keep the roads passable at all times of the year. Cities constitute single dis- [tricts, there being 75 of these in the whole country. Grounds and buildings. — Danish school sites are generally high and open, with ample supply of light and air. In rural districts and villages school grounds are generous, and 25 per cent of the schools have their own or rented gymnasia.^ Practically every city school has its own gymnasium, while a none too large paved court yard, around which the buildings are grouped, constitutes the open-air plaj^grounds. A regulation one-room school must have at least 5,000 cubic feet of air space, the minimum height from floor to ceiling being 10 feet. City schools generally surpass the minimum requirements. Jacketed stoves are the ordinary means of heating, though central heating is being introduced, especially in new buildings in cities, together with central ventilation systems. Facilities for ventilation are inadequate in many buildings, but school people are awake to the situation and improvements are on the program. Danish school people, generally speaking, do not seem to have awakened to a feeling of any need for extended blackboard space. A beginning toward larger facilities, especially for the lower grades, is being made, however, in some new buildings and model schools. Desks and seats, usually for two pupils, are built together on a mov- able frame which, by means of a platform, raises the feet about 4 or 6 inches above the floor. Whether intended or not, this would seem to afford excellent protection for the feet against the cold air along the floor. In some schools slippers are furnished free for the use of those children who wear w^ooden shoes, and their use is then compulsory , upon those children who do not furnish their own. The provision is a very wise one, protecting as it does the health of children., clean- liness of schoolrooms, and perhaps not least the teachers' nerves. It is curious to see the slippers or the wooden shoes, as the case may be, ranged in rows on little shelves in cloak rooms or hallways. A striking and pleasing feature of nearly all Danish schoolrooms is the abundance of excellent prints which adorn the walls. Archi- / tecture, sculpture, and painting, both ancient and modern, are repre- sented, especially in the upper grades and in secondary schools. Responsibility for keeping the school buildings and equipment clean rests upon the local civil council. The regulations in regard to the hygiene of school buildings are detailed and excellent. Kinds of schools. — Within each rural district there is either one school with pupils of all ages or a head school for the older children, iKmidsen, Gymnastikens Tilstand, 1910, p. 25. 3334"— 15 3 32 THE EDUCATIOl^rAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. ages 11 to 14, and one or more preparatory schools for the younger children from 6 to 10 years of age. Preparatory schools are found only in some rural districts and are taught by teachers of only one year's professional training. In addition to the regular type of schools, there are found in some poorer and thinly populated areas "infant" schools for children 6 to 9, taught by teachers of inferior training ; " winter " schools, where instruction is given only during the winter months, and " ambula- tory " schools. Schools in rural sections and smaller cities are generally coeduca- tional. In Copenhagen boys and girls attend in the same buildings, but have separate classrooms and playgrounds. As a usual thing, boys are taught by men and girls by women. The younger boys, however, are frequently taught by women. Free and pay schools. — In Copenhagen and some other cities pub- lic elementary schools are of two kinds — free schools and pay schools. The object in maintaining pay schools is evidently not to produce revenue, for the tuition is very low, being 1 krone a month per pupil. The reason is to be sought rather in the effort to dis- courage the many inefficient but costly private schools which formerly flourished by reason of the unfavorable attitude of certain classes toward the heterogeneous public free school. The establishment of public schools where tuition is charged satisfied many of these upper classes of the masses. The public pay school has therefore come into favor to the destruction of many private schools. The tuition, even though small, is sufficient to keep out the very poor, and thus there results a school with a better clientele to which parents, even of the better classes, do not hesitate to send their chil- dren. Pedagogically, too, it has seemed advantageous to have the children grouped in schools according to the station of the parents. The school people seem satisfied that there exists a positive correla- tion between limited means and intellectual incapacity. Be the theor- etical truth what it may, there is perhaps considerable evidence to support the view stated. Children in Copenhagen are on a half -day schedule, and the poor children very generally spend the part of the day that they are not in school in work to help support their house- holds. Consequently they come to school in a fagged-out condition, especially for the afternoon session, and are physically incapable of the best school efforts. This situation is not so true of children in the better homes, wherefore teachers feel that better work is possible in their case, and consequently a division along the lines of means pro- duces groups of children more homogeneous in point of available capacity. The city is laid out into districts in such a way that both a free school and a pay school are within reasonable distance of all homes. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 33 though ordinarily efforts have been made to avoid overlapping. It is not so true of Copenhagen, however, as of some larger American cities that the poorer classes are grouped in districts. Rich and poor live frequently in the same neighborhood. This constitutes an addi- tional reason for sorting the children. The small tuition serves in Copenhagen as a selective instrument to accomplish somewhat the same result as that brought about by geographical distribution in some American cities. Organization. — The number of teachers in a school is determined by the number of pupils. In rural districts the average enrollment must not exceed 37 in two successive years for each teacher em- ployed. But as there are normally two classes meeting on alternate days or half days, the actual maximum number of children to a teacher is twice the above — 74 for one and 148 for two teachers. In cities the maximum per teacher is 35 pupils. Whenever the enroll- ment surpasses the legal limit facilities must be provided b}^ the ad- dition of another teacher or a new school or by the transfer of pupils to another school. As to internal organization, a one-teacher school is usually divided into two classes for ages 6 to 10 and 11 to 14, respectively. In a two- teacher school the classes number four — ages 7 to 8, 9 to 10, 11 to 12, and 13 to 14. A complete classification gives seven classes. In some districts, however, there is an eighth, and in a few schools even a ninth class.^ There are no kindergartens in the public school system. A few are found in the cities operated by private persons, but they are not at all general. Half-time schedule. — Each class is to have separate instruction. This means that in a one-teacher school with two classes the instruc- tion must be given alternately. Thus each class is, so to speak, on half time. Instruction is provided for each class either every other day or in half-day sessions. Even in Copenhagen, as noted above, the children are on a half- day schedule. One group attends in the morning from 8 to 1 o'clock and another in the afternoon from 1 to 6. This is the case through- out the city, and is not a mere temporary expedient, but a deliberate arrangement. The system is economically advantageous, to be sure, in that only about half as many plants are required as for whole- day instruction. There may also be some advantage in this — that many children of poor parents can use a large part of every day for re- munerative work. A large number of children are thus engaged out- side of the home. The work is mostly of an incidental nature, such as delivery of milk, papers, and merchandise, and various forms of messenger service. While it may be advantageous both for poor » Dan. Stat., op. cit, p. 130. 34 THE EDUCATIOlSrAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. parents and the children themselves that they add to the family in- come by honorable work, it is evident that for children of school age much energy spent in that direction must detract from their work in school. One writer puts it thus: Cliildren from 12 to 14 years of age are driven up at half past 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning in order to ride about through all the long forenoon on a shaky milk wagon and run up and down kitchen stairs from basement to attic with heavy baskets of bottles on their shoulders. When they are finally released about noontime, tired and fagged out, they have more need of a warm meal and a good long after-dinner nap than to be sent to school for full five hours to be instructed/ School people are aware of the disadvantages attendant upon the half-day scheme, and occasionally their and other voices are raised against the system, but the tremendous expenses of building and equipping a duplicate number of school buildings will probably op- erate to continue the present system for many years to come, especially since the city's school population is growing so fast as to require frequently new buildings even with the half-day program. Each half day is divided into five hours of 50 minutes for in- struction and 10 minutes for intermission. During the intermission all children are marched to the courtyards and the rooms are aired out. The hours are all the same length for all the classes, higher and lower, but the lowest has usually only four hours a day. The hours seem long for young pupils. As a matter of fact, however, some five minutes in addition to the intermission are usually consumed in moving from and to classrooms. In lower classes, too, songs and recreative exercises are sometimes interspersed throughout the in- struction. All in all, one gets the impression that school is a serious business, and teachers are not afraid to express the opinion that a little " mor- tification of the flesh " is a good thing for the young citizen. Discipline. — Discipline, however, can by no means be considered severe. In fact, in some schools it is exceedingly lax. An attempt is made to have the children form and keep in line when marching to and from the playgrounds, but the attempt is not always highly successful. There is nothing of German militarism. In classrooms some teachers show a wonderful capacity by the strength of their per- sonality for putting children at ease, and yet retaining control. It is not uncommon to see a man lean on a desk and put his arm around a little fellow's neck, playfully pull another's ear when he does not answer correctly, or poke another with a pointer. In other rooms the picture is less attractive. Whispering, shuffling of feet, and a variety of other diversions busy the unoccupied and uninterested 1 Bitack, Demoralization i Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler, p. 9. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 35 children until the teacher is aware of an unusual commotion and stops proceedings in order to administer a general rebuke, the effect of which is frequently not long lasting. Teachers complain about the lack of discipline, and some criticize severely the restrictions placed upon corporal punishment, which practically prohibit its use. The system may not be blameless, but one rather feels that if discipline is weak it is rather the fault of the people immediately in charge, who are in many cases not making full use of their opportunities. Unless the Danish nature and traditions as to law and order are fundamentally different from the American, there would seem to be possible a more consistent and helpful discipline without running over into militarism, and the means to produce it would seem to lie ready in the hands of the teach- ing force. Curriculum. — In rural districts the required subjects of the cur- riculum are Danish, religion, writing, arithmetic, history, geog- raphy, singing, gymnastics for boys, including swimming and play, and needlework in case a female teacher is employed. Optional sub- jects are the following: Nature study, hygiene, sloyd, gymnastics for girls, and school baths. The subjects are optional only with reference to being entered in the course of study by the school com- mission. Once there, they are compulsory for the pupils. City schools and many rural schools have a somewhat richer curriculum than the above. The following are the time-tables ^ for the Copenhagen schools in 1910-11, the curriculum being identical for pay schools and free schools : Table 2. — Time taUe for hoys, Copenhagen public schools, 1910-11. Subjects. Classes. Total. First. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh. Eighth. Religion 2 10 3 6 2 2 9 3 6 3 2 3 9 3 6 3 9 \ 3 8 2 4 2 7 2 4 2 6 1 4 2 5 A 19 63 17 35 Daiiish Writing Observational instructin and home geography 5 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 4 2 1 2 5 2 4' 3 Geogranhv 10 8 6 9 Natural science German Bookkeeping 2 Singing 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 4(2) (2) 2 4(2) (2) 1 2 4(2) (2) 6 14 Drawing 2 2 23 (m (6) Sloyd Toral 24 27 30 30 30 30 30 30 231 lAnnuai School Report, 1910, p. 4. 36 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. Table 3. — Time table for girls, Copenhagen public schools, 1910-11 ^ Subjects. Classes. Total. First. Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth. Seventh. Eighth. Religion 2 9 3 4 2 2 8 2 5 3 2 3 8 2 5 3 8 2 4 3 7 2 4 2 7 2 4 1 2 1 5» 19 Danish 6 5 58 Writing 13 Arithmetic 4 2 32 Observational instruction and home geography History 5 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 6 1 3 6 14 Geography 10 Nature study g Natural science 5 German 6 Singing .. 1 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 3 4 1 3 4 1 3 4 7 Gymnastics 16 Needlework 4 4 34 Domestic science 4 Total 24 27 30 30 30 30 30 30 231 Religion. — Keligion is taught in all classes.^ Through the seven years the instruction is based on material from the Old and New Testaments. In the first three years the instruction is oral, supple- mented largely by the use of pictures, of which many excellently adapted for the purpose are found in the schools. In the following years books of Bible history are used, and through conversation with the children about the biblical stories the chief elements of the Chris- tian faith are taught. These are further explained and amplified by committing to memory selected hymns that bear on the subject under consideration, as also Scripture passages from an authorized text- book, the body of which is not to be committed to memory, but may be used as a guide to the instruction. In the upper classes the pupils are trained in looking up the references to the New Testament. In the leaving class there is given an elementary course in the history of the Christian church. That the instruction in religion is very formal in many instances is rather to be expected, but it must also be said that to a great many teachers the work in religion is a very vital matter. Voices are heard for the removal of religion as a sub- ject from the public schools of the country, but the great inajority of the people entertain strong convictions as to the wisdom of its retention. Normally, at the close of the seventh year of school children are confirmed. For half a year previously they participate in a con- firmation preparatory class conducted by the pastor of the parish. Sessions are usually of two hours twice a week. They are sometimes held in the evening, but more commonly from 12 to 2 p. m., so that forenoon and afternoon pupils, respectively, miss only one hour from school. 1 The remarks here made on the curriculum have reference particularly to the public schools of Copenhagen. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 87 Danish. — Danish is easily the major subject in the elementary school, comprising 27 per cent of the total hours of instruction for boys and 25 per cent for girls. The instruction includes reading, composition, and grammar. Beading is begun by learning the alpha- bet, and the first steps in spelling by the writing-reading method. The phonetic method may be used, and is recommended where con- ditions make it possible to use it. The aim of the first year's work is that the children may be able to read short, easy stories to the amount usually found in one of the larger first readers. The empha- sis is placed upon a good pronunciation and the comprehension of the contents rather than upon facility in reading. The writer will not soon forget the shock experienced upon entering a first-year class toward the close of the year. The little fellows were reading w^ords instead of sentences in an unnatural tone of voice and with the meas- ured regularity of drum beats. His suprise was perhaps just as great when entering a second-year class to hear some most excellent reading by sentence and thought grouping. It is marvelous that such a change can be brought about, but the teachers seem to think that if the pupils once get complete control of the symbols the read- ing of the thought follows naturally as a matter of course. Be the explanation what it may, the fact remains that there is some excel- lent reading in the grades above the first. A characteristic feature of the work throughout is requiring the pupils to tell in their own words what they have read. This is almost invariably done from the first grade up and constitutes one of the chief exercises in oral language. The same process continues in modern-language instruc- tion later, and it is quite remarkable how much a child, after years of this training, can reproduce of a story or paragraph after one reading or hearing it told. Non multa^ sed multum seems to be the general watchword in Danish instruction, arid perhaps nowhere more evidently observed than in the reading instruction. Every portion read is worked over and over again by reproduction, by questioning as to meanings of w^ords, phrases, and allusions, so that it becomes the child's very own and he can reproduce the thought entire- Only one book of some 100 to 150 pages is gone through in a year in the lower classes. This is read and reread until it seems that the pupils know pretty much the entire thought contents by heart. The mere mention of the title of a story raises a score of frantic hands, indi- cating the eagerness to tell it, and they do it in good language with realistic detail. The above indicates, too, the manner in which material is pre- pared for composition. After a story has been thus made the pupils' own, they reproduce it in writing. Later of course original compo- sitions are written, but the subject matter for these, too, is prepared by oral conversation before writing. In the three upper classes one 3.8 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. composition a week is written. Spelling is taught in connection with both the reading in the lower classes and composition w^ork. Formal grammar includes phonetics, word formation, parts of speech, inflection, and some syntax. Below the sixth class no text- book in grammar is permitted, and teachers are warned against devoting too much time to formal grammar. Timining in observation. — Very characteristic is the work called observational instruction and home geography. The purpose of this instruction is to develop the observational and imaginative powers of the children, stimulate their self-activity, and encourage them to give free and natural expression to their thoughts and impressions. The work is done as much as possible in connection Avith actual objects and conditions. If this is not possible, models and pictures are used, as well as representations on the blackboard by the teacher. The pupils are also encouraged to express themselves through draw- ing. The teachers strive to lead the pupils to make their own obser- vations and draw their conclusions, building on the basis of pupils' nearest interests and stock of information. A review lesson, undertaken to give an idea of the instruction, proceeded somcAvhat as follows: Topic — a trip to the woods wdiich the teacher and pupils had previously made. A suitable song w^as sung. The school was located on a sectional map and the road to the railway station traced, the streets passed through being named. On a smaller scale map the railway journey was traced. The directions were noted, and the points of the compass were discussed, the posi- tion of the sun and its movements, and length of days. Through- out the year the position of the sun had been noted by the shadow cast by the casing of a certain window on the 21st of each month and the curve of the sun's course platted on a chart. Having reached the woods, the objects encountered were recalled and dis- cussed by means of pictures taken and objects picked up. The characteristics and usefulness of the trees were noted. On a map of the region visited, which had been constructed by teacher and pupils, were pointed out the walks taken, a lake, island, peninsula, and hill with sand pit. On a cross-sectional draAving of the sand pit were shown loam, sand, and clay, and their characteristics were dis- cussed. On top of the hill was a tree. Its supply of light and moisture and the service of the roots were noted. The rain process was reviewed, evaporation, condensation, fresh water from salt, water sinking into the ground down to the clay, origin of spring, brook, and lake. A fox's hole and deer had been observed ; the food and habits of these animals were discussed. The hour closed with a number of songs Avhich had been suggested by the lesson. The pupils talked very eagerly and freely and displayed a surprising grasp of the processes and the life going on about them. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 39 Drawing. — In the first years of school there is no ordered instruc- tion in drawing, but the children are encouraged to give graphic expression to their observations and ideas. With the third class, however, systematic instruction in free-hand drawing is begun and carried through to the end of the course, the aim being to ena]:)le every child to represent correctly on paper any ordinary object ob- served. The work begins by training the eye by use of the measuring pencil to determine points, straight lines, and relationships in figures on flat surfaces. Gradually more complicated figures and curved lines are attempted. When these are mastered, objects are introduced and drawn by faithfully adhering to the principles already estab- lished. The objects progress in difficulty from a regularly shaped block of wood or a box to a bird or animal, shading and sometimes coloring being included. The instruction is seriously planned, and executed as worthy of a distinct place in the curriculum. It is taken for granted that children can not draw correctly without systematic instruction any more than they can w^rite a composition. The acquisi- tion of this tool or mode of expression requires, therefore, serious and continued application. Once acquired, its practical usefulness in other school subjects and in life is apparent. The representation on paper of an observed object by the use of eye and hand being the function of free-hand drawing, this purpose is aimed at from the beginning and consciously striven for. The results reached by elementary school pupils are indeed very remark- able and truly merit the commendation which they have received at home and abroad wherever excellence in drawing is valued. Strangely enough, girls are not favored with instruction in this subject in the elementary school. One reason for this is undoubtedly the inability to see the practical importance of this art in the subse- quent life of the girl, while in the later technical or professional training of the boy its usefulness is readily apparent. Girls, how- ever, are given a course in the middle school. Other subjects. — In the history instruction, story telling by the teacher and reproduction are very common. In the upper classes the essentials of general history are included, in addition to the history of Denmark. The geography instruction is very practical. The sub- jects that are of much importance because of Denmark's geographical location are emphasized. Maps, especially physical, and pictures are much used. Nature study, though elementary, is on a scientific basis and is aided by splendid botanical and zoological materials. A good collec- tion of mounted specimens and models is found in every school, from which the material when needed is taken to the different classrooms. The study culminates in human physiology and hygiene. In physics the instruction is built on the general observation of the pupils and 40 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. experiments in the classroom. The work includes the elements of the main divisions of physics and is calculated to give a somewhat rea- soned comprehension and appreciation of the child's environment. A supply of physical apparatus is at hand for this work. The study of German aims at a reading and speaking knoTvledge by a direct method, with emphasis on only the most essential points of grammar. Sight reading and conversation occupy considerable time in the second year's work. The work in arithmetic is not particularly characteristic. Mental computation is emphasized a great deal, and the material used throughout seems to be closely related to the interests and activities of the people. The course in bookkeeping aims to give the knowledge required for keeping a tradesman's books, cashbook, journal, and ledger. In writing, the semislant system is used, and the art is taught exceedingly well. Singing includes considerable of musical theory, and singing from notes is the rule throughout. The teacher in- structs and leads the singing by the use of a violin, which all normal school students must learn to play. Some experiments are being made with rhythmic gymnastics. In place of drawing in the elementary school, girls enjoy a thor- ough training in needlework, which extends through the course. Domestic science is being rapidly introduced. Excellently equipped school kitchens are being installed. The same is true of sloyd for boys, which is quite universal, the lack of suitable room and facilities having hindered its introduc- tion in some schools. The work is regarded as having pedagogic as well as practical significance, especially in the opportunity given for self-activity and creative expression. The attention given to gymnastics is quite remarkable throughout all Denmark, and in Copenhagen every school is equipped with a roomy and well-furnished gymnasium. For all boys and all but the two lower classes of girls gymnastics are required unless they are exempted by medical orders. A somewhat modified form of the Swedish Lyng system is used. Throughout, free directed play is combined with the formal gymnastics, in the gymnasium in the winter months and in the open air in summer, association foot ball being the chief outdoor game for the larger boys and "long ball" for the girls and smaller boys. Compulsory bathing, the girls one week and boys the next, is required in more than half the com- munal schools. Instruction in swimming is given from June to August. Specialists displaced. — Some of the above subjects, as drawing and gymnastics, have been taught hitherto to a considerable extent by specialists, artists, and Army officers, who have not had a normal- ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 41 school training. Hereafter no teacher can be appointed in the elementary schools in Denmark who has not passed through a nor- mal school or holds a degree from the university. The reason seems to be chiefly that professionals in art and the like lack the necessary pedagogic training. Furthermore, the criticism is offered that the work of these specialists is not well balanced with reference to the rest of the curriculum, that it does not support the work in the other subjects, and in general fails to correlate. The idea is not to dispense with departmental work in these subjects, but to have the departmental work done by teachers whose training has given them a balanced view of the curriculum. The prophecy is made, and perhaps with truth, that the work in the special subjects will suffer, but this loss it is thought will be more than compensated for by the greater correlation that will result. Needless to say, a keen fight over the question has been going on in which the more or less creditable war cry "The elementary schools for the normal graduates" has been adopted by the advocates of the reform. Along with the change goes a demand for better training in the normal schools in the special subjects. Especially is this the case with drawing, whose advocates are making a hard fight to retain for drawing the place and excellence it has attained in the schools. Aids to instruction. — Materials that are used only in the school- room are furnished by the commune. Books and materials used only or partly in the home must be furnished by the parents, except in case of poverty, when these also are furnished by the community. These include textbooks in the various subjects, pens, pencils, and the like. Many communities equip their schools very sparingly. But others, again, especially in the larger cities, furnish practically everything free. Many schoolrooms have splendid collections of illustrative matter, such as industrial, geographic, and historical pictures, bo- tanical, zoological, and physiographic illustrations, and a wealth of illustrative material for observation lessons and nature study. In this connection may be mentioned the work of the Danish School Museum, which has as one of its objects the education of teachers and school officers in the value and selection of school mate- rials. It aims to display in its museum in Copenhagen practically all the aids to instruction that are on the market. The results of these efforts are evident in the schoolrooms. Botanical school gardens. — In connection with four schools in Copenhagen are maintained botanical school gardens in which are cultivated such type plants as are of especial importance for the instruction in botany. Schools that are not too far distant receive from these gardens specimens of all except the rarer varieties. In 42 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. one garden are represented 75 plant families, with from 200 to 300 varieties. After the 1st of April notices are sent to the schools about every two weeks stating what plants are available for study. The plants are cut in the morning, arranged in bunches, labeled, and sent by messengers to the schools. Some schools receive specimens of all the plants included in the course of study, delivered twice a week through the summer. The work has been extended rapidly from supplying material for 150 hours of instruction in 1905 to 10,000 hours in 1910.^ Examinations. — Formerly examinations were semiannual as a rule. Now they are more generally held annually, usually at the close of the winter semester in April. Examinations for promotion and finals are not very formidable in the lower grades. They usually consist of a composition or dictation and number work on slates. In upper grades the written part is somewhat more extensive. The oral exam- inations are held in the schoolrooms and are always public. The school commission must be represented at the examination, usually by the clerical member, and there must also be a censor appointed by the commission. All children must be present at the examinations. Illegal absence is punishable by a fine of from 60 ore to 2 kroner. The oral examinations are a rather interesting procedure. The pupils are seated at their desks, which for the occasion are frequently moved to the sides of the room, leaving an open space in the center. Here at a table are seated the teacher as examiner, and the censor. Visitors are present, frequently in large numbers, notably other teachers. One or two children at a time are called to the desk and are quizzed individually by the teacher for a few minutes. Members of the school commission, especially the pastor, may take a hand in the questioning, as is frequently done. Generally the pupils do not seem to mind the ordeal, as the teacher quizzes in a manner very similar to that of an ordinary review lesson, and some teachers make an effort to dispel any uneasiness that a child may display. Sometimes, after four or five pupils have been examined, pupils and visitors must leave the room in order that the examiner and censor may confer about the result of the examination while the memory of each child's work is still fresh. The pupils then reenter the room and the process is resumed. Each child must thus be examined in every subject and given a grade in all except religion. Theoretically the examination is held to determine the question of the pupil's promotion; but this is de facto decided beforehand. About the only direct effect of the annual examination is a share in fixing the pupil's standing in the various subjects, and thus in determining his place in the class roll for the ^Annual School Report, 1910, pp. 143-144. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 43 coming year. In the final examinations the oral part plays a some- what more significant role. Promotions. — The question of promotion is usually decided by the class teachers, sometimes in conference with the principal. The pupil's work in language and arithmetic is the deciding considera- tion. In Copenhagen a child who can not be promoted with his class is assigned to a coaching or helping class, in which the number of pupils to a teacher is only one-half as large as in the regular classes. In these helping classes, which are taught in the same school building as other classes, the teachers who are assigned to the duty make special efforts by individual assistance and attention to help these backward children and endeavor to bring them up to grade. Of pupils in such classes on March 31, 1911, a median of 9 per cent were promoted to a higher regular class and 65 per cent to a higher helping class; 17 per cent were restored to a regular cla'ss of the same grade, and 3 per cent were retained in a helping class of the same grade. The sj^stem has, however, not been in use long enough to test its merits thoroughly. New helping classes are being established each year. For children who are on the border line of weak-mindedness there is still another type of classes, the so-called " protecting " classes. The instruction is graded through four classes. Imbecile children are, of course, in institutions. Medical inspection. — Upon entering school in Copenhagen all children are examined by school doctors, and defects discovered are treated by these or other doctors. During 1910-11, of the 7,999 pupils entered in school 3,361 were found to be ailing. Of 53,212 children in the various classes, 6,679 were presented for examination by the school doctors. There are 20 doctors devoting a part of the time to the work.^ Free meals. — In Copenhagen free schools, warm dinners are served absolutely free to all children through the three months of January to March. Boys are served one day and girls the next, so that each child gets three dinners a week. The dinners consist of two courses. In 1909-10 there were served to 10,032 children 289,735 meals, cost- ing 48,056.94 crowns. The cost per meal thus amounts to 15.41 ore. The expense is borne by " The Association for Providing Meals for Children in Free Schools." No free meals are served in pay schools.^ Continuation schools. — Continuation schools are practically found only in the form of evening schools, and these, strange to say, are almost exclusively in the rural districts, and are purely voluntary. 1 Annual School Report, 1910, p. 147. * Op. cit, p. 148. 44 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMAKK. Of cities it is only Copenhagen and Frederiksberg that make a seri- ous attempt to maintain evening continuation schools. In rural dis- tricts the evening schools are usually taught by the regular public- school teachers through the winter months two evenings a week, with sessions of two hours. The curriculum consists of Danish, writing, arithmetic, natural sciences, and history. In Copenhagen in 1909-10 there were 10 evening schools with a total of 110 classes and an enrollment of 2,531, of whom 1,128 were men and 1,403 women.^ The schools were in session from October to April, inclusive, the average attendance per month being 1,918. The subjects in which instruction was given were Danish, arithmetic, writing, bookkeeping, mathematics, stenography, typewriting, Eng- lish, German, and French. In addition to the above subjects, 1,764 women enrolled for in- struction in housekeeping and cooking, of whom 1,156 were grouped in 44 evening classes and 326 in 14 day classes. Classes in singing were conducted in six divisions, five for women and one for men, with an enrollment of 556. The course closed with a public concert in the courthouse hall before an audience of 2,500 people. Most of the pupils in these continuation schools are below 18 years of age and are engaged in learning a trade. Private schools. — Private schools play a somewhat important role in elementary education in Denmark. In rural sections some 200 of the private schools are maintained by the Grundtvigian religious movement. In cities, on the other hand, the reason for the prevalence of private schools is to be found chiefly in the social attitude, which regards a private school of select clientele, especially if it is costly, as a better place for the training of the future man and citizen than a public school in which the child rubs elbows with a complex of humanity. It is not our function here to discuss the merits of the view, but merely to observe that the attitude is responsible for the existence of a number of schools which, to say the least, do not add to the educational reputation of the country. All private schools in which children of school age are taught are subject, .however, to essentially the same regulations as the public schools. They must give instruction in the same subjects as the public schools, and the pupils must be examined in each under the censorship of the school commission. If found to be not as far ad- vanced at the various ages as pupils instructed in the public schools, children may be taken away and placed in public schools. This is not done, however, as generally as efficiency might require. To schools that give evidence of satisfactory excellence, permis- sion is given to have the examinations held in their own buildings. »0p. cit., p. 120. ELEMENTABY EDUCATION. 45 Very rarely pupils in private schools are requested to participate in the regular examinations in the public schools. The school build- ings must be hygienic and properly kept, and children attending must be vaccinated. Private schools must furnish all the statistical information asked for in regard to their equipment and activities. Full information is therefore contained in the State reports as to the attendance in the schools, teachers and their training, classification, curriculum, size of classes, school buildings, and the like. It is rather remarkable, however, that outside of Copenhagen no profes- sional certification is required for teachers in private schools. The slowly but steadily decreasing percentage of children in private schools is estimated to be due to the progressive improvement of the public schools. The teaching force. — There are in general two classes of teachers in the Danish elementary schools, the permanently and the non- permanently appointed. Teachers are civil servants, and a per- manent appointment holds for life, or as long as the teacher is capable of efficient service. Persons holding nonpermanent appoint- ments are such as are either serving probationary terms, or are engaged to fill temporary vacancies, or do not possess the qualifica- tions for permanent appointments. Teachers holding permanent appointments and probationaries are paid by the year; all others are generally paid by the hour. In the rural schools 28 per cent of the teachers are women.^ The percentage in cities ranges from 40 to 48, while in Copenhagen 57 per cent of the teachers are women. Men, therefore, play a much more important role in Danish than in American schools. The percentage of women teachers, however, is on the increase. Training of teachers. — Teachers are trained in 4 State normal schools, all for men, and in 13 State-aided private normal schools, of which 3 are for men, 4 for women, and 6 for both sexes. The normal schools stand in immediate relation to the ministry, whose supervision of them is performed by the bishops and by the counselor in matters pertaining to elementary education. Principals and teachers in State normals are appointed by the King. They are recruited usu- ally from the ranks of those most successful and experienced teachers in the elementary schools who have received advanced training. Be- fore receiving ermanent appointment they usually serve temporarily fcr a year or 'wo. Private normal schools that measure up in all respects to the re- quirements set for State normals are recognized by the State, hold their own examinations, are supervised in the same way as State nor- mals, and receive State aid. ^Dan. Stat. Folkeskolevsesenet, 1909, p. 107. 46 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. In connection with all schools there is a practice school which may be the local communal school or one established especially for the normal. The practice teaching in these is done under the supervision of the principal of the normal school. In order to be admitted to the lowest class of any normal school the candidate (1) must be 18 years of age by the close of the calendar j'-ear ; (2) must have taught under the direction of an able teacher for a period of one year and present evidence from the school commission or the teacher concerned that he possesses desire and adaptability for the teaching profession. This preliminary practice teaching may be done in public schools, in a private school with approved teachers, or in the practice department of a normal school. (3) He must present the required certificates of birth, health, character, and morals, and (4) must have passed the entrance examinations, which require a thorough knowledge of elementary-school subjects. In some schools there is a preparatory class in which candidates spend a year in order to fit themselves for the entrance examinations. in this year the required teaching experience may also be gained, as indicated above. The normal course is three years in length. The first two years are devoted mainly to liberal studies, while the third year is intended to give professional training. The curriculum of the Kanum State normal school is fairly typical.^ Table 4.- -Suhjects and hours per tveek in the Ranum State Normal School, 1910-11. Subjects. I class. n class. Ill class. Gymnastics and physiology . Singing Drawing Writing Arithmetic Higher mathematics Natural science Nature study Geography History Danish Bible and church history . . . Bible study and doctrine. .. Pedagogy Practice teaching Total. .36 Normal training for preparatory-school teachers is afforded in one State and three State-aided private schools. These have a course of from one to one-and-a-half years, largely of a practical nature. In order to enter, candidates must be between 18 and 30 years of age. ^Annual Report, Banum Statsseminarium, 1911, p. 14. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 47 of good health and character, possess ability to sing, and pass the entrance examination. These schools are all for women. Courses for the training of winter and ambulatory teachers are found in some people's high schools and are aided by counties and the State. State teachers' college. — For the advanced training of teachers in service there is maintained in Copenhagen a splendidly equipped State teachers' college, with an excellent staff of instructors. The principal course extends through a period of one year and offers ad- vanced instruction in any subject in or related to the elementary curriculum. Special short courses are offered during the vacation months in a wide range of subjects. The college is much sought by teachers desirous of advancement and serves as an efficient stimulus in many ways. Examination and certification. — The teachers' examinations, which are both written and oral, are given in two parts, one at the end of the second year and the other at the end of the third year of the normal-school course. The second part can not be taken earlier than in the year in which the candidate completes his twenty-first year, but must be taken not later than three years after the first part. Two of these years may be spent outside of the normal school, in teaching. Under special circumstances and by the permission of the minis- try, candidates who have not passed through a normal school may take the final teacher's examinations, provided they are 21 years of age and fulfill the essential requirements for entrance to a normal school. When a candidate has passed his final teacher's examination, he is certificated by the State to teach in any elementary school in the country. Appointment of teachers. — In order to receive permanent appoint- ment in a city system or in a one-teacher rural school, a teacher must be at least 25 years of age, be in good health, of good character, be a member of the State church, have passed the teacher's final exami- nation and have taught sucessfully for two years after passing the final examination. For temporary appointments the requirements as to age, education, and experience are, of course, not so high. Principals in city schools are appointed by the King, upon the recommendation of the ministry. Permanent appointment to nearly all other positions, both in city and rural schools, are made by the district school board upon the nomination of the local civil council. When a vacancy occurs the position is advertised in the official organ by the appointing authority, who also receives applica- tions accompanied by the proper testimonials as to fitness. The applications are then sent to the local civil council, who after con- 3334**— 15 1 48 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. sultation with the local school commission nominate first, second, and third choice. Of these nominees the appointing authority elects the applicant who seems best fitted for the position, and issues to him a formal call. If the applicant accepts he must take the oath of office prescribed for servants of the Government, and is formally installed. In many cases a permanent appointment to a vacancy does not take place at once, but is preceded by a period of probation called " consti- tution." This is the case especially in cities, but probation may be dispensed with in case the teacher elect has held a permanent posi- tion in another city system. In rural districts "constitution" is frequently resorted to to cover cases where the candidate does not possess at the time of appointment all the legal requirements as to examination or teaching experience. He may then be " constituted " until he has fulfilled the requirements, when permanent appoint- ment may take place. A "constituted" teacher has no ipso facto claim to permanent appointment. Such action requires the joint sanction of the district school board and the local civil ccmncil. " Constitution " does not ordinarily last more than two years. In Copenhagen, however, teachers must serve probationary terms of three years. And before receiving probationary appointment, the prospective teacher must ordinarily have served as substitute for periods ranging from a few months to two years. A list of qualified candidates is maintained by the school director, out of which the principals choose substitutes when needed. Permanent teachers are appointed for the city, not for a particular school, and are obliged to serve where a place is assigned them. Teachers and the church, — There are three groups of church offices which devolve upon teachers in the elementary public school: (1) To the office of precentor any teacher in the parish may be elected by the local council and is under obligation to serve. In addition to leading the singing of the regular church services, which constitutes his chief duty, he assists the pastor with ministerial acts coming within the regular Sunday services. (2) The teacher or head teacher in a village where a church is situated must, ex officio, serve, as the pastor's secretary in keeping the ministerial records. (3) Every teacher or head teacher in a district must, ex officio, act as the pastor's assistant in the performance of ministerial acts in the dis- trict occurring on week days and outside of the regular services on Sundays. He is also to assist in the Sunday service, in addition to other minor duties, by offering the prescribed prayers at the opening and close of the service. In cities certain of the teachers are appointed by the district school board upon nomination by the local council to perform essertially the same duties as outlined above. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 49 (4) In addition to the above offices, the position of church organist may be fulfilled in both city and rural districts by a teacher elected to this position, but there is no compulsion resting upon the teacher to accept this office, unless this is specifically stated in his call to the teaching position. It is almost universally the case, however, that the organist position is held by a teacher. Salaries of teachers, — Salaries of teachers in the public elementary schools are graded according to the nature of the positions and length of service. There are two scales of salaries provided by law for city systems, a lower and a higher scale. In the lower scale the range is from a basic salary of 1,500 kroner a year to 2,800 kroner after 20 years of service. The corresponding figures in the higher scale are 1,600 and 3,000 kroner. Salaries of principals range from 3,000 to 4,200 kroner a year. The question as to which scale is to be used is determined by the ministry after the matter has been considered and reported on by the local civil council. The adoption of a certain scale fixes the minimum salaries for that system. Nothing prevents, however, the payment of higher salaries if the local authorities so decide. In Copenhagen a maximum of 3,600 kroner a year is paid. For principals the maximum is 5,200 kroner. In rural schools, first and one teacher positions pay (1) a mini- mum cash salary ranging from 900 to 1,500 kroner a year, besides (2) free residence, fuel, use of a barn large enough for two cows and six sheep, fodder, a well of good water, and a garden for vegetables. (3) In addition to the above, there may be an income from church offices amounting to 220 kroner or more a year. The above figures all apply to men. Women are paid, on the average, 25 per cent less than men. Compulsory insurance. — Every married teacher must provide for the support of his wife in the event of his death. This is usually done in one of two ways: The teacher may pay annually to the State Insurance Institute one-eighth of his income. In the event of his death the widow receives anually one-eighth of the income which her husband was earning at the time of his death. Or, if he chooses, the teacher may buy life insurance in the State Insurance Institute to an amount which must be at least fifteen times one-eighth of his annual income. The policy is made payable to the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction, and the resulting funds are administered for the widow by this department. Pensions. — After the age of 30, teachers who have served by permanent appointment for five years are entitled to a pension, provided they are dismissed for a cause for which they are not respon- sible or do not enter upon other remunerative work. The amount of 50 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. the pension varies with length of service, the maximum, tvzo-thirds of the average salary for the last five years, being reached after 30 years of service. At the age of 70 every teacher is entitled to un- conditional release with pension. At this age, too, he may be dismissed by reason of age, even against his will, but always with pension. In addition to income from compulsory insurance, a widow is entitled to a pension amounting to one-eighth of her husband's annual income at the time of his death. Support of elementary education — The State. — There are three administrative units involved in the support of elementary educa- tion — the State, the county, and the local commune. The State derives its moneys for this purpose from taxation, there being no permanent school fund for elementary education. The necessary appropriations are annually made by Parliament. An idea of the participation of the State in the support of elementary education may be derived from a study of the budget for a certain year. The appropriation for 1912-13 was as follows : ^ State Appropriation fob Elementary Education in 1912-13. Kroner. 1. For salary increases' in provincial cities and rural districts 4,100,000 2. To county school funds, for payment of interest and principal of loans of local communes* necessitated by erection or enlarging of school buildings 370,000 3. To county school funds annually for aid to needy communities whose school expenses are disproportionately large* 50,000 4. For pensions, the State paying one-half and the county school funds the other half 780, 000 5. Extra appropriation for increases in pensions and for support of widows 45,000 6. To the city of Copenhagen, a grant toward the expenses of its school system 375, 000 7. Training of teachers in State and private normal schools and in special courses 487,537 8. Advanced training of teachers, mainly chargeable to elementary education 238,500 iFinanslov for 1912-13, pp. 265-270. 2 The State pays all such salary increases as are provided for in the legal salary schedules. 8 Each school district may receive one-half the amount annually expended for payment of interest and principal, but not to exceed 450 kroner a year. It is therefore to the advantage of the commune to arrange the payments in increasing amounts, so as to use each year the full amount available from the State. The State will not give aid toward the same loan, however, for a longer period than 28 successive years. Application for such aid Is made by the commune to the ministry through the district school board and the county school council. *The grants may be used for improvements, special types of education, or current expenses. ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION. 51 Kroner. 9. To private schools in rural districts * 110, 000 10. To private schools in provincial cities, distributed on essen- tially same terms as above 45, 000 11. To pension fund for teachers in private schools 4, 000 12. For evening continuation schools taught by public-school teachers 36, 000 13. For continuation schools other than the above 12, 000 14. Supervision of instruction, chiefly singing and gymnastics 17, 600 15. Miscellaneous : (a) For procuDing aids to instruction 7,500 (6) Support of pupils' libraries 13, 800 (c) Support of teachers' libraries 5, 000 (d) Danish School Museum 10,400 (e) To association for the promotion of school hygiene 300 (/) To association for the promotion of school gardens 2, 200 Total 6, 709, 837 As appears from the above budget, the State is guided in its sup- port of elementary education by the principles of equalizing the burden of support upon the various communities, aiding needy com- munities, encouraging special forms of education, and stimulating local effort. County school funds. — The county school fund serves as an admin- istrative medium between the State and the local communities, and is intended to supplement the efforts of the individual school dis- tricts within the county. The sources of the county school funds are chiefly the appropriations from the State referred to. Another large source is taxes. Their amount is determined by the needs of the school fund for each county, and are levied on rural communities and provincial cities in proportion to their population. Minor sources are incomes from productive funds and fines. Out of the county school funds are disbursed the amounts received from the State, for which the school funds' administration acts merely as disbursing agent, such as for building loans, salary in- creases, and the like. One-half the amount of pensions and special maintenance grants to teachers within the county are also paid from the county funds. In addition there are grants toward the part pay- ment of substitutes for teachers who by reason of illness or other adequate cause are unable to serve for a time, grants to such teachers themselves who find themselves in severe financial distress, to needy communities, and for special activities, such as evening schools. In » Of the sum distributed to private schools, 100,000 kroner are distributed to such schools as in the opinion of the school commission rank on a par with the public schools and have been in successful operation for at least one year. The basis of distribution is the average enrollment of children of school age. The grant per pupil must not exceed 12 kroner. The balance, 10,000 crowns, is applied according to the discretion of the ministry. Applications are made to the ministry through the district school board. 62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. some of the above cases the grants are required as a condition for State aid to the same object. Local support. — Local communities derive their school moneys partly from grants from State and county, regular and special, as indicated above. In rural districts fuel and forage are furnished by landowners, in proportion to the taxed valuation of their property, either in natura or, by common agreement, in cash, or the amount may be included as a part of the regular taxes. In some communities there is income from school land, from tuition in schools giving advanced instruction, tuition of pupils from other communes, fines for illegal absence, voluntary gifts, and the like. Other moneys needed are obtained from the funds of the commune, which are derived chiefly from direct taxation. The local community assumes all expenses not otherwise provided for, such as erection, equipment, and maintenance of school build- ings, with playgrounds, gymnasium, and residence with garden for teacher; all basic salaries of permanent teachers, salaries of all other teachers, except as elsewhere noted, and salaries for church offices; for school materials and aids to instruction used by all chil- dren; books and materials for poor children, teachers' and pupils' libraries, and teachers' administrative expenses. Local communities grant aid to private schools, which supple- ment the public school system and thus reduce the burden of support. A grant of 6 kroner per pupil may be made to State-aided private schools, without sanction of the county civil council. Beyond that amount such sanction is required. Many communities make large expenditures for evening and cx)n- tinuation schools and for other special forms of education. This is largely the result of the policy of the State in making its grants dependent upon the efforts put forth by the local community. The total average cost of Danish elementary education per en- rolled child is $13.45 a year.^ Exactly comparable statistics for the United States are not available. The nearest approach is the average expenditure per capita of average attendance in common school sys- tems. For the United States as a whole this figure is $34.71 per child. Four States spend less than Denmark, two about an equal amount, while the rest spend more. The figure for Minnesota is $45.96, while in Massachusetts $50.39 are expended per child.^ It must be borne in mind, however, that these figures are subject to two main corrections. In the first place, the basis of average cost in Denmark is enrollment, while the above figures for the United States 1 U. S. Com. of Ed. Report, 1912, vol. 2, p. 657. « Idem, p. 18. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 53 are based on average attendance. This difference tends to lower the average cost for Denmark as compared with the United States. Furthermore, the purchasing power of a dollar is considerably greater in Denmark than in the United States, perhaps from one- fourth to one-third more. Chapter IV. SECONDARY EDUCATION. Definition. — As previously noted, the term secondary education is used in this study to cover the instruction normally given in three types of schools, middle school of four years, for children from 11 to 14 years of age. Real course of one year, from 15 to 16, and Gym- nasium of three years, 15 to 18, with its three courses, classical, mod- ern language, and mathematical-scientific. Many secondary schools have preparatory classes covering the five years of school life pre- ceding the middle school, but such classes are regarded in this study as a part of the system of elementary education. Ownership and control. — Secondary schools are of three kinds as to ownership and control. State, communal, and private. The State schools, 14J[n number,^ are for the most part on cathedral school foundations, are owned by the State and administered directly through the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction. Communal schools, which number 48, are established and adminis- tered as part of the communal school systems. Private schools, numbering 141, are the most numerous of all. Many factors con- tribute to give private schools such an important role in secondary education in Denmark. To begin with, there is the historic origin. Private schools sprang up before the State or communes made ade- quate provision for secondary education. The idea prevailed that the expense of higher education ought properly to fall upon the parents whose children were to receive the benefits of such education, and not upon the public at large. When once established, it is much more economical from the standpoint of the Government to encourage private schools to continue to do their work than to take them over as State institutions. Therefore their continuance is encouraged by State aid, and the privilege of holding their own examinations. There is, furthermore, a well-intrenched belief in Denmark that private initiative in education is highly beneficial to the cause of edu- cation itself. New ideas and educational experimentation prosper in private schools in a way that is scarcely possible in a State school ^Asmussen, Meddelelser angaaende de hojere almeuskoler, 1909-10, Tables 1-9. 54 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. controlled according to legislative enactments and governed by a central administrative bureau. This is not mere theory either, for some private schools have done much to break new paths in the edu- cational field. The right of educating their children privately is also highly prized by the Danes. It is one of the fields of activity in which private judgment, religious conviction, and cultural view- point like to operate independently and unhampered. Perhaps a more powerful factor than any of the above in some localities is the social attitude which finds in the private school the proper en- vironment for higher education, just because it is not public. Supe7'vision. — Reference has been made above to the organization of the department of education at the central office, whereby second- ary education classifies under the second of the two departments. The inspection and supervision of secondary schools is accomplished chiefly through two inspectors, one for middle and Real schools, and one for the complete secondary schools, i. e., those which have a gymnasium. The later inspector is, next to the ministry, at the head of the secondary school system. He visits all schools. State, communal, and private, in order to observe their condition and the quality of their work.^ He may on his own responsibility advise rectors or administrators of the schools, who are to give him all needful assistance and information for the furtherance of his work. He may make recommendation to the min- istry touching the entire status of a school or special matters therein, and may recommend new arrangements in the secondary field. He supervises the arrangement and holding of all State examinations according to the legal directions. He is required to advise the min- istry in all matters pertaining to secondary education that are sub- mitted to him, such as courses of study, appointment, promotion, and dismissal of teachers, dispensations from rules, and the like. He is also in charge of the professional training of secondary teachers. In regard to this function more will be said below. Statistics' of schools and attendance. — In 1909-10 there were 204 schools, of which 44 were complete secondary schools, including all of the 14 State schools, besides 5 communal and 25 private schools.^ Of the 160 schools without gymnasium, 43 were communal and 117 private. Real courses were found in 147 schools. Of all secondary schools, 28 were for boys, 31 for girls, and 145 coeducational. The total attendance of students in the secondary schools in 1909-10 was 22,968, distributed as the following table indicates : ^ 1 Ministerial Instruction, Sept. 8, 1906. •Asmussen, op. cit., ibid. SECONDARY EDUCATION. Table 5. — Attendance in Danish secondary schools, 1909-10, 65 Middle school. Real course. Gym- nasium. Former classifica- tion.! Total. 10,052 7,204 1,061 821 1,649 454 1,185 542 13,947 Girls 9,021 Total 17,256 1,882 2,103 1,727 22,968 J The caption "Former classiflcation" refers to students in Real schools of the old type, which had not entirely disappeared at the time these statistics were gathered. Life in the schools. — The school year in State and private secondary schools generally begins in the latter part of August or the first part of September and closes in June or early part of July. Communal schools begin and close with the common schools in April or May. Normally, vacations and holidays, not including Sundays, must not exceed 63 days in the year. The school day usually consists of 6 hours, 50 minutes in length, with a 10-minute intermission after each. In some schools there is one continuous session from about 8 or 9 a. m. to 2 or 3 p. m., with an intermission of 20 minutes for lunch, while in other schools there are two sessions, with a lunch period of an hour or more. School extends through six days in the week ; a free day is granted, however, once a month or fortnightly in case no fixed holiday occurs within that period. Most of the schools are day schools. Only two of the State schools — Soro and Herlufsholm — are boarding schools, and these are for boys. The school at Soro is famous for its rich endowment. It was founded in 1586 with funds from the cloister at Soro, and later, in 1747, was endowed by the entire baronial estate of the great Dano- Norwegian dramatist, Ludvig Holberg. At various times through its history it has had united with it a knights' academy {Ridderaha- demie), which, however, did not minister to its success as an educa- tional institution. It is notable for the 'many men prominent in Danish history and literature which have studied within its walls, as also by the dream which Bishop Grundtvig cherished for it — a trans- formation into a people's high school. The school has a most beauti- ful location on the banks of the little Lake Soro and is splendidly furnished with buildings and equipment for about 300 boys. The surplus income from its endowment is used by the State for other educational purposes. Aside from the two State boarding schools, there is a small number of private schools in which the students re- side, but many of these schools also have day pupils. Life in the boarding schools is much like that in American institu- tions of the same type, except that the school day is much longer and sports are not so prevalent. Association football, tennis, and a kind 56 THE EDUCATIOITAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. of baseball are played, and a little rowing indulged in. In the day schools there is not much of any school life. There are no student organizations to speak of. A social gathering of students and teachers may take place once or twice a year. Sports, such as foot- ball and "long ball," are being encouraged, but do not seem to have taken a hold to any marked extent. One must bear in mind, of course, that the students in these schools are very young, finishing the Gymnasium at about the same age that the American youth com- pletes the high school, and that the last three years are occupied with serious study preparatory to a very severe State examination. One gets the impression that there is not much joyousness in the secondary school life of the Danish youth, except that which comes from the consciousness of work well done. The boy or girl is kept pretty busy six days in the week with six recitations a day and preparation for the next day's tasks. It is not surprising that there is little time or energy left for sports or other supplementary activi- ties. These come in their own fashion in the first years at the uni- versity, for those who are so fortunate as to reach that stage. CuTTiGula: The middle school. — Secondary curricula are deter- mined in broad outline by the law of 1903. A detailed program is fixed by the department of education for State schools and serves consequently as a guide for the instruction also in communal and private schools. While considerable latitude is allow^ed even State schools in modifying details of the course of study to meet local conditions, there is large uniformity in the curricula of the schools throughout the county. The following is the program outlined by the ministry for middle schools : ^ Table 6. — Weelcly program, Danish middle schools. Subjects. I class. II class. III class. IV class. Total. Religion 2 5 6 2 4 3 5 2 2 2 2 5 1 2 2 4 3 4 3 2 2 2 6 1 1 1 5 3 4 2 2 2 2 7 1 7 18 English 15 13 History 3 2 2 2 4 2 2 10 Geography 8 8 Sciences 8 22 Writing 5 Drawing 6 Total 30 30 30 30 120 4 2 4 2 4 1 4 Singing . ..•••. Remarks on the curriculum. — The instruction in religion is based on Bible history and aims to familiarize the students with the Bible *Glahn, Lov om hojere Almenskoler m. m., p. 66. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 57 itself and its essential teachings, with a view to developing the child's religious nature and making the truths function in the child's life.^ Danish includes a thorough training in oral and written expression and grammar, together with the study of a considerable range of Danish and Norse and some Swedish literature. German may be taken up before English if the local authorities so choose. The State schools are equally divided on English and Ger- man as the beginning language.^ The aim in modern language in- struction is correct pronunciation, ability to read and understand ordinary prose at sight, and to form grammatically correct sentences. A speaking knowledge of the language is a part of the ultimate pur- pose striven for. The direct method is used throughout. From the first day on the language being learned is used to the greatest possible extent by the teacher as the medium of instruction. Some of the very best work done in Danish schools is seen in the modern language in- struction. Teachers go abroad in large numbers to obtain more per- fect mastery of their methods. Some idea of the result of the work in middle schools may be obtained from one feature of the final ex- amination in a modern language. The examinee is given a selection in the foreign language about half a page in length to read aloud. After one reading he closes the book and by the use of the foreign language reproduces freely the content of the selection. Instruction in history embraces a general view of the world's progress. Particular emphasis is placed on modern and Danish his- tory. Geography is regarded as a very important subject and extends through the course. Nature study includes the elements of zoology and botany. Speci- mens are collected and studied in type groupings. Physics constitutes the major part of the work in science. Chemistry receives minor at- tention. Mathematics embraces arithmetic, elementary algebra, and portions of plane geometry. The instruction in writing aims at a neat and legible hand. In drawing, the correct representation of an object by the free-hand method is aimed at by graded exercises. Gymnastics and singing are required, but are regarded more as helpful diversions than as parts of the accredited course. In some schools, as modifications of the above program, are found needlework and domestic science for girls and sloyd for boys. Latin and French are also optional subjects. All the State schools offer Latin four hours a week the last year. French in like amount is found in four State schools. The introduction of these subjects sometimes necessitates a reduction in the time devoted to other sub- iThe scope of this study does not permit of a full discussion of the curricula and methods of the secondary schools. Remarks are offered merely to make the time-table intelligible or to call attention to characteristic features. *Asmussen, op. cit., pp. 104-106. 58 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. jects. In other cases the brighter students are permitted to carry one of these subjects in addition to the full course. Real course. — The Real course is a sort of finishing year for such students as can not take the full Gymnasium course. These Real courses are not operated in separate institutions, but are found in the complete secondary schools and are attached to many middle schools. There is no fixed schedule for the work of this Real year, the local needs and the requirements of the students serving largely to fix its character.^ The following program, suggested by the department, is a fair type of the work done in these courses : Weekly program — Real course. Hours. Danish 4 Two modern languages 8 Practical mathematics 4 History and geography 4 Sciences 4 Electives 6 Gymnastics 4 The electives may be chosen from a wide range of subjects, such as: Religion, a third modern language, Latin, geometry, bookkeeping, stenography, drawing, sloyd, and singing. Special electives for girls are practical accounting, needlework, and domestic science. If this course is to close a young person's school career, he may, by a proper combination of subjects, fit himself for a business, governmental, or other vocational position. Gymnasium — Courses. — Entering the gymnasium the student has a choice of three courses — the classical, modern language, and mathe- matical-scientific — each three years in length. The popularity of the various courses is indicated by the attendance.^ The pro-modern tendency is clearly evidenced by the large percentage of attendance in the modern-language course and the very small percentage in the classical department. Only eight State schools and four private schools maintain the classical course. Practically all schools — State, communal, and private — maintain the modern-language and the mathematical-scientific courses. Table 7. — DistriMtion of students in Danish gymnasium courses, 1909-10. Course. Boys. Girls. Total. Percent- age. Classical 178 806 665 89 312 53 267 1,118 718 13 Mnrtom InTumfliTO ........... 53 Mathematical scientific 34 1 Glahn, op. cit., p. 142. ^Asmussen, op. cit, Table 9. SECONDAEY EDUCATION. 59 Program, — As in the case of middle schools, the State department of education outlines the program of studies also for the Gymnasia. The programs as suggested by the department ^ and modified to some extent by practice are indicated in the subjoined table: Table 8. — Weehly programs, Danish Gymnasia, Subjects. I class.- AU three courses. n class.— All three courses. m class.— All three courses. Religion 1 4 4 3 2 4 1 4 4 3 2 4 I Danish , 4 French 4 History 4 Music - 2 Gymnastics 4 I class. II class. m class. Subjects. Clas- sical. Mod- em. Mathe- matical- scien- tific. Clas- sical. Mod- em. Mathe- matical- scien- tific. Clas- sical. Mod- em. Mathe- matical- scien- tific. English 2 5 4 4 2 2 5 4 4 2 2 6 4 3 2 German.. - ............... Latin 6 6 I 1 5 6 } i Greek ArchsBolosry .... 1 2 2 { i 1 2 2 { ! 1 2 2 1 Geography and nature study. Sciences } I i • Total 36 36 36 36 .^fi 36 36 :iR 36 Some very general remarks on the programs must suffice. It will be noted that all the courses have much in common. There is special- ization, to be sure, but the courses are not unbalanced. The names of the courses indicate the major emphasis in each case. As to languages, Greek is offered only in the classical course, and Latin is not offered in the mathematical-scientific course. French is common to all courses. In the modern-language course both Eng- lish and German are studied, the one or the other being selected as major. In the other two courses only one of these two languages can be taken up, the selection being made by each school. But it has been noted that both English and German are studied in the middle school. The general statement may therefore be made that a person may graduate from the Danish Gymnasium and thus become a student in the European sense without having studied either Latin or Greek, but he must have studied three modern languages. Sciences and mathematics have a place also in the language courses, but constitute the major subject in the mathematical-scientific course. In this course these subjects embrace geography; geology; min- »Glalm, op. cit, p. 198. 60 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. eralogy ; biology ; human physiology ; astronomy ; physics ; inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry ; algebra ; trigonometry ; plane, solid, and analytical geometry. The work in archselogy in the classical course is fairly well in- dicated by the name itself, but in the modern language and mathe- matical-scientific courses, where one hour a week throughout the three years is devoted to it, the scope of the work is much broader than the term indicates. In these courses the subject is calculated to give a knowledge of classical civilization and culture somewhat com- mensurate with that obtained from study of the classics in the origi- nal. Selected portions of Greek and Latin literature are read in translation and a study made of artistic and other monuments of the ancient world. Thus these courses, while so strictly modern, are endeavoring to transmit also some of the best of our inheritance from classic culture. Examinations. — Examinations in the secondary schools are held at the close of each school year, and a final examination at the end of each course. All examinations consist of two parts, a written and an oral test. Final examinations are all conducted by the State, through approved representatives, the question for the written tests being prepared by the ministry. All oral examinations are public. A censor appointed or approved by the State is present at each ex- amination, and his grade is averaged with that given by the ex- aminer in each subject. The grades range from to 6, the higher numbers indicating the better standing. The average of the averages of examination and class marks in all subjects constitutes the final grade. An average of 3.50 is required to pass. All standings, with names of examinees, are published in the annual bulletins of the schools and in the State reports. From this practice may be gained some idea of the importance attached to examinations in Denmark. Schools and professions are graded in the minds of the people ac- cording to the severity of the examinations which they require, and individuals are more or less marked for life by the published reports of their school examinations. Privileges. — The middle-school examinations, besides admitting to the real course and gymnasium, is considered as fitting for an ordi- nary industrial or business career. The Real examination fits for certain governmental positions, such as postal and railway service, certain better business positions, and admits to certain technical schools. The student examination, with which the gymnasium closes, admits to all courses at the university and to certain of the higher business and governmental positions. Girls'^ examination. — The secondary scheme of education, as adopted in 1903 and outlined in this study, seems not to have proved entirely satisfactory for girls. The higher girls' schools, which were SECONDARY EDUCATION. 61 in a sense displaced by the adoption of the present system, carried the instruction up to a leaving examination at 17 years of age. The examination in the present system corresponding most nearly to the former leaving examination of the girls' schools is the Real examina- tion, but this comes at 16 years of age, and thus cuts off the last year of the former girls' schools. To meet the objection raised on this ground, there was introduced a special girls' examination at the age of 17 as a modification of the present system. In Copenhagen, where the higher girls' schools draw their students largely from well-to-do homes, the girls stay in school longer, and the postponement of the final examination to the age of 17 is very common. Outside of Copen- hagen, however, the plan of 1903 has met with general favor. Girls' schools in the provincial cities have found great difficulty in holding the girls who do not expect to go to the university longer than until the age of 16. The Real examination of the present system, there- fore, satisfies their needs admirably, and as a result the girls' schools outside of Copenhagen are being shaped more and more by the present system of secondary education. Teachers and salaries. — There are three classes of permanently ap- pointed teachers in the secondary schools — the head masters, called rektors^ regular teachers, and adjuncts. In State schools, teachers in these positions begin with a basic salary of 4,800, 3,600, and 2,400 kroner, respectively. Increases come every four years, until the salaries reach, respectively, 5,600, 4,800, and 4,000 kroner. Rektors receive, in addition, free residence or equivalent. Before becoming an adjunct teacher, the candidate must have served a probationary term of one or two years.^ Besides the above classes of teachers there are in some schools tem- porarily appointed teachers, who are paid by the hour. A teacher of gymnastics is found in every school, and there is also a personage called pedel^i who serves as a sort of administrative secretary. Training of secondary teachers. — Since 1908 no person can become a teacher in a complete secondary school who does not pass the State examination in the theory and practice of teaching. Preparation for this examination is normally afforded in the pedagogical seminary established in 1906 and maintained by the State. Before entering upon the work of this seminary, the candidate must, as a rule, hold a degree from the university. The seminary embraces a half year of theory and another half year of practice. The theoretical instruction includes: The history and principles of education and methods of teaching; a study of the development and present organization of Danish education; school hygiene, including the physiology and hygiene of adolescence. Professors of university rank are in charge 1 Glahn, De til om hojere Almenskoler horende Retsregler, II Del., pp. 83-84. 62 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMAKK. of the instruction. The examination covers the work of the course, and is both written and oral. For the practical training in teaching the candidates are assigned to State or designated private secondary schools. Each candidate must select one subject as major and one as minor, which choice usually determines the teacher under whose supervision and guid- ance the candidate's practice teaching is to be done. At first the can- didate visits classes in his chosen subjects and discusses methods employed with the teacher in charge. Then the candidate himself teaches a few periods in the presence of his adviser, who offers such suggestions as may be helpful. Finally, the candidate takes full charge of the instruction, his adviser not being present. He must, however, each day render an account of the instruction he has given and the methods employed. Aside from teaching in his major and minor subjects, the candidate must visit other classes, both in secondary and elementary schools. A preliminary examina- tion in this part of the candidate's training consists of two hours of teaching in his major subject and one in his minor, in the presence of his adviser, the head master of the school, and the State inspector of complete secondary schools. The above examinations in theory and practice being passed, the candidate must serve a probationary term of one year in a secondary school. A final test of his teaching ability is then made by a committee consisting of the head master of the school and the State inspector or other designated persons, who observe the candidate's teaching through a period not exceeding two days. A written document, signed by the examining commit- tee, constitutes the candidates final testimonial of teaching ability. He is then eligible for a permanent position in a complete secondary school. The arrangement and conduct of the training and examination of secondary teachers is in the hands of the State inspector of com- plete secondary schools, who receives applicants for training, assigns candidates to schools for their practice teaching, and arranges the various examinations. By this connection with teachers in training he is eminently qualified to make valuable recommendations as to appointments. In secondary schools that do not have Gymnasium departments, the requirements for appointment are not so high as in the complete secondary schools. Many teachers from the elementary schools have by special training, especially in the State Teachers' College, equipped themselves for teaching in middle schools. A special examination for women teachers in girls' higher schools has been arranged, which meets the characteristic requirements of SECONDARY EDUCATION". 63 these schools. Candidates who have passed this examination are in great demand in the girls' higher schools.^ Pensions. — By State action there have been established two pen- sion bureaus, one for teachers in complete secondary schools and another for Keal and middle schools. Each teacher pays to the pension fund 2 per cent of his salary annually. To this is added appropriations from the schools and State aid to the amount of 30,000 kroner annually. After 25 years of service the teachers are entitled to an annual pension of two-thirds of their average salary during the last 10 years of service.^ Sup'port of secondary education — State schools. — State schools derive their funds in part from the income of lands devoted to the support of churches and schools and from productive funds. Tu- ition fees and other minor sources contribute a share, and the bal- ance is covered by appropriations from State moneys. Tuition in the middle schools is 120 kroner a year, in the Gymnasium and Real course the amount is 144 kroner. At the boarding school at Soro 400 kroner a year are paid for room, board, tuition, and incidentals. Free places are maintained for a number equal to one-sixth of the total enrollment.^ Communal schools. — Communal secondary schools are supported by funds obtained from the State, the county, the local community, and in some cases from tuition fees. Some communal middle schools are absolutely free to all children, some are free to all within the dis- trict, and some are free only to poor children. In cases where tui- tion is charged, the amount per child is graded in an ascending scale from the lower to the higher classes. Fees range from 1^ kroner a month in the lowest class of one school to 14 kroner in the highest class of another school. Perhaps the most common amount is 5 or 6 kroner a month.* Private schools. — In the case of private secondary schools the sources of income are various. Most of them receive some State aid, some grants from county or commune. Other sources are: Endowments, gifts of societies and private persons, and tuition moneys. Private schools depend much on tuition fees, which are therefore, as a rule, higher than in State or communal schools. In Copenhagen the usual rate is 20 to 23 kroner per month. Outside of Copenhagen the fees are not so high, however, ranging from 10 to 20 kroner.* Even with these higher tuition fees the private schools are ex- periencing financial difficulties. This is especially true since the 1 Lang, Den hojere Pigeskole in De Nordiska Landernas SkolvSsen, 1905-1910, p. 96. 8 Linderstrom-Lang, Drenge og Fsellesskoler in Danmarks Skoievsesen, p. 16. « Glalin, Lov om hojere Almenskoler, pp. 11-12. *Asmussen, op. cit., pp. 104ff. 3334°— 15 5 64 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. erection of free or low-rate communal secondary schools. In order to better their financial status, several of the leading private boys' schools in Copenhagen banded together in 1901 into a federation under one business management. Some schools that indicated lack of sufficient patronage were discontinued and their teachers were transferred to other schools in the federation. The persistent de- mands of teachers for better pay have made necessary increasingly higher tuition fees. Parents finally became alarmed, and in 1908 organized a parents' association to counteract the " teachers' union." A bitter struggle between the two associations has ensued. More generous State aid has been pointed to as one element in the solu- tion of the difficulty.^ Conclusion, — The last decade has been a period of reorganization in the Danish secondary school world. School people have some- times been at a loss to know how to adjust themselves to the new order of things, and full satisfaction with the present system has not always been in evidence. In general, however, the system of middle school. Real course, and Gymnasium as at present arranged, seems to meet the requirements in an acceptable manner. Each year the new forms are becoming more familiar, and in the quiet pursuance of their various functions the schools will undoubtedly perform a valuable service for the Danish youth. State, commune, and private initiative are operating together to give Denmark the best secondary school system within its reach. The recent activity of the local communities in establishing and maintaining free pub- lic middle schools is a particularly significant sign of progress. Throughout there is a marked tendency toward democracy in edu- cation and a careful adaptation of educational agencies of the sec- ondary type to the needs of the people. Chapter V. UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. The university — Organization and teaching force. — At the top of the educational system of Denmark stands the University of Copen- hagen. Founded in 1478, the institution is quite venerable with age, and has exerted a tremendous influence upon the cultural life of northern Europe. The work of the university is organized under five faculties, with a teaching force of 149, divided as follows : The- ology, 14; law, 17; medicine, 47; philosophy, 44; and mathematical- » Martensen-Larson, " Skal Privatskolen leve?" TJNTVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 65 scientific, 27.^ The rectorship rotates among the faculty members, the period of office being one year. The highest coimcil is the Con- sistoriiim of 18 members, and the rector and prorector, if these are not already members. The 18 members comprise the 5 deans of fac- ulties and 13 members elected by the academic teachers' council among those of their number who are faculty members. The teachers are of four degrees — professor ordinary, professor extraordinary, docent extraordinary, and privat docent. The salary of a professor ordinary is 3,600 kroner, with an increase of 600 kroner every fifth year up to 6,000 kroner. Salaries are considered unreasonably Iotv, and a bill has recently been introduced into Par- liament to have them raised. Matriculation. — The university student body numbers at present about 3,000. They come, as previously noted, from the Gymnasia of the country. Students graduating from the Gymnasium do not receive the degree of bachelor. That term is not used in Denmark. They are granted by the university, however, a Letter of Academic Citizenship, which bestows about the same honors and privileges that we in America associate with the academic bachelorhood and admits to the university without examination. Courses and degrees. — During the first year in the university all students must pursue the same course, leading to the degree candidate of philosophy, the examination for which is generally taken at the end of the first year. The subjects required are logic, psychology, and an elementary course in the history of philosophy. The above examination is very insignificant, however. The "big" examina- tions come later. The length of the various professional courses in the university is not as definite as we ordinarily think of them in American schools. The following is an estimated average of the time required for the various degrees, including also the first year in the -university: Candidate of theology, 5 J to 6 years; candidate of medicine, 7 to 8 years; candidate of law, 5 J to 6 years; candidate of politics, 5J to 6 J years; master of arts and master of science, 4 to 5 years; and the teaching degree, candidatus magisteri, about 6 years, j As noted in the review of secondary education, the Danish youth j finishes his university preparatory course about the time that the ' American youth completes the high school. The professional courses in Denmark are considerably longer, however, than in America, so that while the youth gets a shorter general course he gets a longer specialized training. /Student life and residence halls. — Student life at the university centers around two types of institutions, the residence houses and the lAarbog for Kjobenhavns Unlversitet, Kommunitetet, og den Polytekinske Laereanstalt, 1906-7. 66 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP DENMARK. student associations. The student residences, of which there are about half a dozen, with rooms for 10 to 100 students, have been estab- lished and endowed by people of means. In these, students who are fortunate enough to get in enjoy free residence and, in some, a cash stipend in addition. . The most famous of these residences is Regensen^ established in 1623, for 100 students. Free residence and an allowance of 50 kroner a month are granted each occupant. There is no boarding establishment in connection, but a couple of small kitchens in which some of the students prepare their lunches. In Regensen have lived many men famous in Danish literature and his- tory. In a room now used as a reading room Grundtvig preached his famous trial sermon on, "Why is the Lord's Word Departed from His House ? " which stirred up the clergy of Copenhagen. Much is done for the encouragement of poor students. Com- munitet is the name of an endowment, established about 1580 and managed by the university, out of which are paid 185 stipends of 40 kroner a month to needy students. Student associations. — ^The other phase of student life is very characteristic. It is that provided by the student associations. The general association is the Studenterforening^ with about 800 mem- bers, students past and present. This association has a most splendid building, recently erected by support from the State and various other sources. In it are reading rooms, dining rooms, smoking rooms, lecture halls, and the like, very beautifully equipped. This building furnishes a center and home for a great many students. There are, however, no opportunities for students to room in this building. Students both in and out of Studenterforeningen are furthermore organized into groups with a particular politico- religious coloring. There are two confessed Christian associations, Studenterhj em- met and Kristeligt Studenterforhund^ while Studentersamfundet is radical both with reference to religion and politics. All the asso- ciations have their own centers, with reading and lounging rooms, but no rooming places. They meet on Saturday evenings and have a lecture on a religious, political, literary, historical, scientific, or other subject. A discussion follows, during which students do not hesitate in the least to take issue with the lecturer, be he a world-famed scholar or a mere tyro. At intervals or after the dis- cussion a social time with refreshments is enjoyed. Both men and women are members and participate in the student association life. Support. — The university has to some extent its own funds, but receives from the State, for all its activities, nearly 1,000,000 kroner a year. There is no tuition, properly speaking, there being only a few minor fees. UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 67 Poly technical Institute. — The Polytechnical Institute, both as to entrance requirements, quality of work, and student life, is much on a par with the university and there is some connection between the students of the two institutions. It has a faculty of 33 members, and students numbering 776. Through five and six year courses it trains chemical, mechanical, construction, and electrical engineers. It has splended new buildings, elaborate and expensive equipment, and costs the State about 345.,000 kroner a year.^ Courses in dentistry and pharmacy do not constitute a part of the university, but are given in separate institutions. Mention can merely be made of other semiprofessional schools, such as fine arts, military and naval academy, and seven schools of navigation. Veterinary and agricultural college. — A very significant institu- tion for Denmark is the Veterinary and Agricultural College in Copenhagen, for around its work center many of the problems of this agricultural and dairy country. The institution was founded in 1856. At present 32 teachers instruct 442 students, 28 of whom were, in 1910, from Norway.^ Formerly the number from that country was much greater, but since Norway established and equipped a splendid agricultural college at Aas, near Christiania, the number of agricultural students going to Denmark has been much decreased. Courses in the Danish college range from one and two-thirds to five years, and include theoretical, experimental, and practical work in veterinary science, agriculture in all its phases, animal husbandry, horticulture, and forestry. In addition to the veterinary clinics there are operated in connec- tion with the institution chemical and bacteriological laboratories for testing soils and foods and combating tuberculosis and other diseases in domestic animals. There is also a laboratory for the study of animal physiology. An ambulator}^ department of the school insti- tutes experiments in dairy methods, feeding, and breeding of ani- mals on selected farms throughout the country. Every year are held at the college butter exhibitions, to which every creamery oper- ating in the country must, upon order by telegraph or telephone, send at once a sample of its butter already manufactured. The butter is tested and graded with reference to its excellence as an export prod- uct, and any creamery whose butter sample does not measure up to the standard, may temporarily be denied the use of the trade-mark of the Danish butter-export association. The obligation of every creamery to send, without previous warning, a sample of its butter at any time an order may come, tends to keep the creameries always up to the highest mark of efficiency. 1 Op. cit. •Beretning fra Den Kongelige Veterinaerspog Landbohojskole, 1909-10. 68 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. The activities of the agricultural college require from the State an appropriation of 540,000 kroner annually.^ The other agricul- tural schools throughout the country, which together with the agri- cultural college constitute the system of vocational training for rural Denmark, are so closely bound up with the people's high schools that they will be treated of under that heading, in the second part of this study. Industrial schools. — Denmark does much in many ways to en- courage every youth to acquire proficiency in his chosen vocation, and to place educational facilities for this purpose within his reach. Thus are worthy of special notice the technical and trade schools which are found all over the country, and are largely attended.^ In 1911 there were 160 such schools with a total attendance of over 18,000. They are mostly evening schools in which young persons from 14 years upward, who are learning a trade, may supplement their training by courses in Danish, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, free-hand drawing, descriptive geometry, geometrical construction, and foreign languages, usually English and German. In addition to these more general subjects there are also trade courses for masons, carpenters, joiners, tinners, turners, coach makers, smiths, mechanicians, electricians, and the like. Some schools also give instruction in painting, clay modeling, and art industries. Still another type of instruction is given in the trade schools proper, which are generally maintained by trade unions and supported by local and State aid. Thus there are evening trade schools for shoemakers, tailors, watchmakers, bookbinders, barbers, hotel clerks, cooks, dress- makers, milliners, servant girls, and the like. The instruction is usually given from 7 to 10 o'clock through the months October to March, and the same student usually continues through the several years during which he is learning his trade. More than half of the schools have their own buildings. The rest are conducted in public-school buildings. The teachers are frequently public school-teachers or men and women proficient in their trades. During the summer months the State maintains special training courses for such teachers. Some of the larger schools in the cities have established day schools, in which instruction is given in a wider range of cultural subjects and in branches that are required for proficiency in the more difficult trades, such as draftsmanship, building construction, and decoration. ScJwol for servant girls. — A most interesting and unique trade school is operated in Copenhagen by the Servant Girls' Union. There 1 Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912, pp. 12-15. 2 Andersen, Summary of the Development of Technical Insti'uction in Denmark. (Manu- script) UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 69 is a six months' course for beginners and advanced courses of two months for special training in cooking, dining-room service, and the like.^ The girls live at the school and pay 10 kroner a month for tuition, board, room, and laundry. Theoretical instruction in the six months' course embraces nutrition, hygiene, and care of the sick and children. For the practical instruction the girls are divided into three sections, for kitchen, housemaid, and laundry work, respec- tively. By rotation every week the girls thus do all the actual work connected with the school, and by so doing under competent super- vision receive instruction in preparation of food, baking, housework, setting table, serving, sewing, washing, ironing, and household accounts. When graduates of the school accept positions they are bound by the rules of the union. Some of the rules of service are : The work- day extends from 6 or 7 o'clock in the morning to the same hour in the evening, with one or one and a half hours for rest during the day ; every other Sunday and holiday free from 2 o'clock in the afternoon, and two evenings a week, after 7 o'clock, when the girl may leave the house i^ she chooses; at least eight days' vacation a year; overtime to be paid for at the rate of 25 ore per hour or 15 ore for the half- hour. Needless to say, many housewives are incensed at the regula- tions of the union and refuse to employ union girls. Others recog- nize the superior quality of the girls that have received the training of the school and are willing to pay the higher wages they ask and grant the desired liberties in return for the superior excellence in service. The school and the terms of service tend to raise the social status of servant girls, and may therefore be a significant contribution to the solution of the problem that is vexing housewives in all countries. Schools of housekeeping and domestic science. — Schools of house- keeping and domestic science have recently experienced a rapid growth in Denmark. There are now some 20 schools in the country, 13 of which received State aid in 1912-13.- Nearly all the schools are boarding schools. By doing in part the actual work connected with the institution, under competent supervision, the girls receive practi- cal training in all phases of housekeeping and domestic science. Usually two courses of five months each are operated each year, one from May to September and the other from November to March. The theoretical subjects embrace nutrition, hygiene, and household accounts. Many schools also include some liberal subjects in their courses. The schools are largely frequented by girls from the better class of homes, who seek the training of the schools to equip them for presiding over their own future homes. Three schools are devoting * Bulletin, Kobenhavns Tjenestepigeforenings Fagskole. "Fortegnelse over Husholdningsskoler, 1912-13. 70 THE EDUCATION-AL SYSTEM OF DENMARK. themselves to training teachers for these and other schools in which similar instruction is given. One of these normal schools has a three-year course, and the others maintain courses of two-years' work. For 1912-13 the State appropriated 468,000 kroner to technical schools, 68,000 kroner to trade schools, and 12,000 kroner to schools of housekeeping and domestic science.^ The schools are not a part of the public school system. They are established and maintained by private persons or associations, but are not conducted as money- making ventures. Commercial schools. — The same is true of another numerous and important type of schools, the commercial schools, of which there are in the country 8 day schools and 59 evening schools, Avith a total of over 6,000 students. As technical and trade schools serve for the in- dustries, so the commercial schools suppplement the training of the young people who enter the commercial field. It is customary in Denmark for business houses to take in young men to learn their busi- ness at about the age of 14. They serve an apprenticeship of from four to five years, during which period it is generally required that the learners attend the evening commercial school. The course runs usually through three years of 10 months each, with 6 hours a week. A selection of subjects may be made from Danish, German, English, French, Spanish, Russian, arithmetic, writing, correspondence, geog- raphy, bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, commercial law, com- modities of commerce, and gymnastics.^ The day commercial schools are usually attended by older pupils who have served their apprenticeship or have completed the middle school. Real school, or Gymnasium and require the student's whole time while pursuing a course. It seems difficult in Denmark for prospective young business men to set aside a year of their time in order to attend a day commercial school. The sysfem of recruiting business men by the apprenticeship system takes them directly from the elementary schools and they are therefore not well equipped to do the work of a higher commercial school, even if they have attended an evening commercial school. Furthermore, after spending four or five years as an apprentice, the young man begrudges the time neces- sary for a year course in a day school. The evening commercial schools are therefore the most popular method of supplementing the education of the business man. Some day schools are found, however. They all have courses ex- tending over one year, except Brock's Commercial College, in Copen- hagen. This school has a two-year course and serves as a central school for the whole country, drawing students who are desirous of 1 Finanslov, 1912-13. » De danske Handelsskoler, Fremstilling av deres indretning og virksomlied. UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 71 advanced commercial training. In addition to more elementary sub- jects its two-year course embraces economics, commerce, exchange, tariffs, statistics, technology, commodities of commerce, and the com- mercial phases of history, geogi'aphy, chemistry, and law. To the support of commercial schools the State appropriates an- nually 60,000 kroner.! This, in brief compass, is the system by which Denmark strives to educate her people culturally and vocationally. The outline provides the setting for a somewhat more detailed study of what is perhaps the most interesting feature of Danish education, the work of the people's high schools and the related agricultural schools. These institutions constitute the subject of the second part of this study. iQp. cit, p. 13. PART II. THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL Chapter VI. ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS. People's high school defined. — The Danish people's high school is a unique institution, and a preliminary statement of its nature and purpose may therefore serve to make more intelligible the discussion that follows. The people's high schools {FolJceh0jskoler) are boarding schools for adult young people, chiefly from the rural com- munities. They are not vocational, but cultural in their purpose. The typical . course extends through five months in winter for boys and three months in summer for girls. A second winter is frequently spent by the boys in one of the agricultural schools, which have grown out of the high-school movement. These agricultural schools are so closely related to the people's high schools in their historical development and method of work that they are here, as generally, treated together, such special mention being made of them as from time to time may be necessary for a correct presentation. Both types of schools are privately owned but receive State aid. To- gether they number 99, and have an annual attendance of over 8,000 young people. It is estimated that from one-third to one-fourth of the entire rural population of Denmark at some time or other attend these schools. Their influence in the country is therefore very great, and as a type of school activity they present many phases of interest to students of popular education. Grundtvig''s early life. — The father of the people's high schools was Bishop N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783-1872), theologian, historian, poet, patriot, and educator. On both his father's and mother's side his ancestry included distinguished theologians and scientists. His father was a clergyman in southern Zealand. There, in a home of culture set amidst the beauties of nature, Grundtvig spent his early years. By stories and legends his mother awakened the boy's his- torical sense, which continued to be fed by the reading of historical books, huge of bulk, whose profound contents taxed the father's and mother's capacity to explain.^ lA good biography of Grundtvig is L. Schroder's N. F. S. Grundtvig's Levned. 73 74 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Preparatory education. — At the age of 9 Grundtvig was sent to be prepared for the Latin school by a bachelor clergyman who had pre- viously served as tutor for Grundtvig's elder brothers. This clergy- man served a parish in Jutland on the border of the great heath, where the natural and human environment was far different from that of Grundtvig's home, and served during his six years' stay to broaden his knowledge and sympathies. He said later that he here became familiar with " seriousness and quietness in nature and in the thought life of the soul." Here, too, he had to find his companions among the peasants and workingmen, and developed thus an interest in the common people which was rare in a man of his origin and station. He also traveled some during this period, learned to know more of his country, and became familiar with the dialects peculiar to the different sections. Thus from first hand he gained that uni- versal knowledge of his native language which afterwards made him a master of expression. At the university. — After what he calls two useless years at the Latin school in Aarhus, he went to Copenhagen, where he took the student examination and entered upon theological studies at the uni- versity at the age of 17. He had no particular interest at that time in theological studies, but his parents wished him to take that course, and, besides, it was the line of study usually entered upon by men of his class. Grundtvig seems not to have been much impressed by any teachers at the university except his cousin Steffens, who had just returned from Germany, much influenced by the German philos- ophers. The free and spirited lectures of Steffens captivated Grundtvig and exerted an influence which clearly came to light later in his poetry. Crises. — After completing his theological studies, Grundtvig served for some years as tutor. While in this capacity he formed an unfortunate attachment for the mother of the children he taught. While this experience shattered his too great self-confidence, it also served to awaken his poetic nature, which gradually unfolded itself into an activity that placed him in the very forefront of northern poets. Later a religious crisis made him a devout student of the Bible and of the influence of Christianity in history. These ex- periences and studies produced the reformer, burning with a desire to reestablish a live Christianity among his people. Service as pastor. — Grundtvig was ordained to the ministry in 1811, and became his father's curate. His trial sermon before ordi- nation was on the text, " Why is the Lord's Word departed from His house"? It stirred up the clergy of Copenhagen and shows the spirit of the religious enthusiast. On the death of his father, in 1813, he moved to Copenhagen, where he served as pastor until the unfriendliness of the city clergy, resulting from his uncomfortable OKIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 75 activity, led to his withdrawal. After seven years he resumed office, but in 1828, for similar reasons, withdrew again. Eleven years later he resumed the work of the ministry, in which he continued for the balance of his life. As a mark of recognition of his services the title of bishop without diocese was conferred upon him. Grundtvig's service to the cause of education must be considered in the light of his great life purjDose, namely, to effect a nation-wide awakening of his people. This purpose gradually formed itself more and more clearly in his mind, and he labored to discover the means by which it might be accomplished. Humiliation of Denmark. — In order to appreciate the need for such awakening and the passion that burned in Grundtvig's breast to bring it about, it is necessary to note the humiliation of Denmark at this time. In bygone centuries the people of the north had lorded it over a large part of Europe. Their conquering Viking expedi- tions pressed boldly forth into unknown regions, subdued peoples, and set up new kingdoms. They built up an independent cultural civilization with a literature which, since it has again been brought to light, never ceases to call forth admiration. But later, while the other European nations were forming themselves and gaining in strength, the countries of the north went backward. Politically their territories were retrenched and their influence lessened. Cul- turally they lost their individuality, and everything foreign came into high favor. Northern culture was practically extinct ; even the native languages were being displaced by German and French as media of culture.^ Added to this, Denmark experienced one catas- trophe after the other during Grundtvig's early life. The Napo- leonic wars were in progress. Denmark tried to remain neutral, but when this was no longer possible, she cast in her lot with Napoleon, and immediately lost her fleet to England. The capital itself was bombarded, and a long and disastrous war followed. In 1813 the country was officially declared bankrupt, and in 1814 Norway, which had been united with Denmark for 400 years, was separated from her. Instead of being aroused by these events, the Danish people were stupefied and sank down into a hopeless apathy, expecting national extinction. Grundtvig'^s efforts for an awakening. — Grundtvig, who had lived himself into the past glories of the race, saw with pain and bitterness the calamities that overtook his country and the indifference of the people, in whom the spirit of national pride seemed absolutely dead. He began at an early age to cherish the idea, which later developed into a passion, to arouse the national feeling of his people. For a time he turned for inspiration to northern mythology. He thought * Cf. HoUmann, Den Danske Folkeh^jskole, pp. 3ff. 76 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. he saw in the traits of the old Norse gods the elements of true in- dividual and national greatness. The product of his devotion to mythology was several books which he hoped would stir the slum- bering qualities of the people. For the time being, however, their only effect seemed to be to establish his reputation as an author, lie also gave himself to the task of modernizing for the people of his day the classics of northern history and poetry. During his first period of enforced leisure from the ministry he translated Snorre Stur- lasson's Saga from Icelandic. The chronicles of Saxo Grammaticus from Latin, and Beowulf from Anglo-Saxon. Yisits to England. — After his second withdrawal from the minis- try, in 1829, he spent, by the aid of State stipends, three successive summers in England, studying the neglected Anglo-Saxon manu- scripts in London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Exeter. His interest in these matters lay chiefly in his desire to familiarize the Danish people with their spiritual inheritance, in order that their national spirit might be stirred to action. Grundtvig's visits to England were fruit- ful, however, in other than philological respects. He was struck with the active political life of the English people, who were then in the midst of their reform legislation. He was impressed, also, by the freedom for individual initiative and expression, which to him was the secret of the pulsating life and the business energy that he saw about him. All this was in marked contrast to the conditions at home, and he longed to see among his own people some of this activity which was making a great England.^ Loss of faith in hoohs. — These experiences of an active and achiev- ing life drew Grundtvig out from the retreat of the study into the open field of action. Hitherto his life had been spent almost exclu- sively in the study and production of books, for he had labored under the impression that the press was the most effective means of influ- encing his fellow men. As the years went on, however, he became disappointed with the results of his literary activity, for the effort of his pen failed to arouse the people as he had hoped. The years and labor he had spent on his books seemed practically wasted. The people did not read them ; or, if they did, it was without the reaction Grundtvig had looked for. Having lost faith in the magic of books, he determined to move to action. The " living word " of speech was now to accomplish what the "dead words" of books could not do. For a time he seems to have desired a professorship at the university, where he might give expression to his ideas and enthusiasm, but no such opportunity was offered. Even if it had come, however, it could scarcely have become the means of awakening the rank and file of his fellow citizens. 1 Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, English Special Ee- ports, vol. 17, p. 112. ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 77 The people^s high-scJiool idea. — It was then that the ideas about a people's culture which he had long entertained became clarified and took distinct form. He saw now more clearly than ever that a permanent national awakening must begin with a spiritual enlighten- ment of the common people, and as a means to the accomplishment of this purpose he made, in 1832, his first definite suggestion of a people's high school. This was to be an institution— where the mother tongue should be the ruling factor and the fatherland the living center to which all hearts might be drawn, and around which the light should move, so that, after having too long worshipped that which was foreign, the people might once more truly learn to know and love their home/ Grundtvig''s attitude toward existing schools. — In order to appreci- ate the need which Grundtvig felt for this new type of institution, it is necessary to know his attitude toward the existing agencies for higher education. He brings a general indictment against all types of existing schools : Every school, great or small, which begins with the alphabet and ends with book knowledge — consequently, everything which for centuries has been called school and all that is still so called — is a " school for death." * He criticizes the prevailing aims of education: Enlightenment has never been altogether neglected in Denmark, but it has hitherto clearly failed in its purposes. Its aim has been to give all men a Ger- man comprehension of heaven and logic, and to the professional class a Roman comprehension of the whole world, but it has given to none a sound under- standing of the things that lie nearest to us all — nature, the fatherland, and the conditions that make for its welfare.' Opposition to the Latin school. — He is particularly dissatisfied with the Latin schools, as appears from numerous passages in his writings : And although the Latin school, according to my conviction, is not only un- necessary, but very harmful and the mother of all our woes, it ought still to remain as long as many consider it to be the necessary support of the church, a Chinese wall against barbarism, and a nursery for all historical science. For this groundless but deeply- rooted prejudice will vanish as soon as people see that the Danish school really makes the church more alive and fruitful for the Danish people and inculcates much more love for Denmark and understanding of its needs. Such a school may become the cradle of an historical science which does not fetter its devotees with chains to the dead languages and their graves or grammars, but unites them in a living relationship with past genera- tions and especially with our northern forefathers.* The reasons for Grundtvig's hatred of the Latin schools were many.^ He contended that humanistic studies as pursued by mere children in the schools made them strangers to their own language, » Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 22. « Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 12. •Grundtvig, Akademlet i Soer, p. 32. * Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 11. • Ct Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 270. 78 THE DAinSH people's HIGH SCHOOL. literature, and national spirit, while it gave them no real insight into classic culture. Their acquisition was a mere formal knowledge of grammar and syntax and a quantity of historical facts. Moreover, he despised Roman civilization, which to him was organized selfish- ness and force, producing nothing great out of itself , but borrowing everything from Hellenism. He was deeply grieved that the influ- ence of such a civilization had overwhelmed the Germanic peoples, who had in themselves the elements of true individual and national greatness. Under the influence of Christianity, which permits the individual to reach his fullest development, the Germanic peoples had made notable progress in the development of a truly humanistic Christian culture. Therefore to have inflicted upon them as the chief means of culture the literature and history of a people foreign in spirit and ideals was to Grundtvig a real calamity. It is difficult for him to speak calmly about the situation : I confess that it is my firm conviction that all child science is preposterous, and that the bookworm system, seclusion from the world, the setting aside of the mother tongue, and the deification of the Latin writings constitute the most unsuitable education for royal Danish leaders that I can conceive of.* Grundtvig was opposed to the Latin schools also because of the aristocratic standard of culture for which they stood. To a man who was trying to open a way to a common culture for the common peo- ple the wearing of a " Latin cloak " could not be a true criterion of culture. Grundtvig held that culture finds its source and means in that which is " of the people." Another chief objection which is still a very pronounced line of demarcation between the people's high schools and the ordinary type of secondary schools was the emphasis on examinations. Examinations played and still play a tremendous role in Denmark. Openings to nearly all positions of importance in the country are via examinations. Examinations open the way to a " sure living," and preparation for examinations seemed to Grundt- vig to be the chief function of the " learned " schools. With despair he beheld this eternal striving for a " sure living," but saw no real desire for culture for its own sake. Criticism of the Real school. — The mathematical Real school finds as little favor with Grundtvig as the Latin school : Likewise I believe it is perfectly clear that even if it were an excellent round- about way or training for citizenship to go through the mathematical purgatory it would be such only on the condition that the boys could be relieved of all their learnings, lay all reckonings and demonstrations on the shelf, dismiss all bookwormishness from their minds, put on industriousness with their everyday clothes, and each eagerly take up his handicraft. Otherwise they would at the very best be fit to be professors of mathematics or teachers in schools of the same kind. If so, we should have a circle of schooling, examinations, and a » Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 25. ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 79 sure living similar to that of the Latin schools, but on a much larger scale. Such a system would exhaust the resources of even the richest nation, to say nothing of the poorest/ Work of people^s high schools outlined. — Finding that none of the institutions of his day afforded the means of a true people's culture, Grundtvig felt the need of a new type of school, a " school for life," whose aim should not be " examinations and a sure living," but " a culture and enlightenment which is the individual's own affair, and is its own reward." ^ Grundtvig never formulated any definite plan for the activity of his people's high school. He tells why he can not do so: As to the arrangement of the Danish high school I can not enter upon that, for everything human fares as we do. We must be born before it can be known what caps will fit our heads, to say nothing of how high a destiny we shall have and what knowledge we may be able to acquire. I should not even have men- tioned this matter, if we had not become so perverted in the " schools for death " that we can scarcely imagine a school whose whole life is not mapped out before it begins. This can easily be done with the bookish art, which consists in memorizing a certain number of glossaries and rules, and at its best in study- ing and imitating such unchangeable and dead things as books. But just as this method is impossible of application to the development of life, which pre- cludes stagnation and can follow no rules but those of nature, so neither can it be applied to education, which must adjust itself to life as it really is." Grundtvig does, however, indicate the general lines along which he thinks the institution should operate: One can therefore say that at a people's civic high school in our and our children's time there ought, as far as possible, to be opportunity for learning foreign languages, mathematics, history, and everything that an individual has a desire for and longs to study, either for the sake of its usefulness or enjoyment.* The chief purpose, however, the living unifying soul of such a school, Grundtvig says, can not be described. Poetically he feels it to be a life-giving, light-spreading, heart-warming function, but it defies schematic representation. One thing is clear to him, that books and all that resembles them should play as small and unim- portant a role as possible in the people's high school, where the aim must by no means be " examinations and a livelihood," but culture and enlightenment. In order to know what culture should be at- tained, it is necessary to ask what an educated citizen should know in order to be able to serve the State with efficiency. As parts of such knowledge and culture he mentions especially — a clear notion of civic society and the conditions of its welfare, an apprecia- tion of the national characteristics of his people, sincere devotion to " King » Grundtvig, op. cit., p. 39. *Idem, p. 13. ' Grundtvig, Akademiet 1 Soer, p. * Idem, p. 60. 3334<'_15 6 80 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. and fatherland," ability to express himself orally in his mother tongue, with ease and vigor, freedom and propriety, and, finally, a definite knowledge of what we have and what we lack, based upon reliable reports on the conditions of the country/ Curriculum and methods. — From these and other passages in his writings it is possible to obtain a fairly definite idea of the curricu- lum and methods which Grundtvig had in mind for his cherished institution. In the very first place must be put the mother tongue. For the school was to be distinctly Danish, not Latin, nor German. By the mother tongue as an element in the curriculum Grundtvig means training in free and forceful expression, appreciation for folk songs, familiarity with the ancient Danish myths, legends, arid epics, and also an introduction to modern Danish writers. The second large element in the curriculum was to be history, especially of Denmark, but also of Christianity and the world. Other subjects definitely suggested are economics, embracing a study of the re- sources, industries, and economic activities of Denmark, and civics, with special reference to national and communal government in Denmark, in order to prepare for intelligent participation in these forms of activity. The uniqueness of the new institution, however, was to be in its method. As has been noted, books were to be used as little as pos- sible. Grundtvig came to have an almost unreasonable hatred of books as school implements. He held that the constant application to books resulted in a bookworm existence and severance from ordi- nary interests. In the new school, therefore, human speech, instead of books, was to be the means of imparting spirit and ideas. In- formal lectures, without notes, was his ideal of method; talks, with a large human element in them, and conviction born of personal experience. The lectures ought furthermore to be given in a lan- guage that the people could understand. Grundtvig virtually created a new Danish speech. He broke away from the academic language of the day, and from his intimate knowledge of Danish, as spoken by the people, he built up a language which, in diction and idioms, was felt to be the people's own. In this language he wrote, and in this language he wished the work in his people's high school to be done. By hearing and speaking such idiomatic Danish, not by grammatical drill nor continuous essay writing, the young people would be taught to use and love their mother tongue. Grundtvig says that " a genuine Danish high school will make it possible for our descendants after hundreds of years to feel, think, and speak Danish." 1 Grundtvig, Akademiet i Soer, p. 61, ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 81 Another characteristic of method was to be the nationalistic ap- proach to all studies. Whether the subject matter be literature, his- tory, economics, or civics, the bearing of it all on Denmark was to receive the emphasis. History was to be presented, not critically but culturally, to show the progress of the race and for the light that it has to cast on present problems. Economics and civics were not to be taught theoretically by the agency of textbooks and statistics, but by having men of large knowledge of the country, its activities and institutions, talk to the young people and discuss matters with them personally. There were to be no examinations of any kind. It was not Grundtvig's idea that the high school should prepare its students for any learned studies. The culture was to be sought for its own value, and the work of the school must consequently be of such a nature as to have worth and attractiveness in itself. The instruc- tion was intended for grown-up young men who were already en- gaged in some life work, and the purpose of the high school was not to change their vocation. They were to return to their work, but with a greater inner jo}^, greater desire to work, greater love for country, and greater appreciation for a higher, more ideal conception of work and life.^ Place in the educational system. — Grundtvig does not seem to have thought out clearly the place of the people's high school in the scheme of education. At times he speaks of a school for citizen- ship, which all the people should attend, where they would learn to know and love their mother tongue and country, and thus be fitted f OBI their duties as citizens. In speaking of various types of schools, he says it is the school for citizenship he wishes to dwell on especially — inasmuch as it is the only one that can be common to us all. All of us can and should be intelligent and useful Danish citizens, but clearly only a very few at a time should be professors and learned men. But while we have more than suflScient schools for training pastors and professors, we have no schools at all to train Danish citizens.' This training for citizenship he thinks the existing schools are absolutely unfitted to give. Therefore there is a deficiency in the school system. Even though the rest of our school system be excellent and adapted to our purposes, it is still very deficient as long as we do not have a high school for that social and civic life in which we all can and should partake.' This must, moreover, be considered the natural root and source of all our endeavors, so much so that if the demands of this civic life are despised and neglected all other enlightenment will become lifeless in itself as well as fatal to the people and destructive to the Kingdom.' 1 Cf. Hollmann. Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 45, * Grundtvig, Skolen for Livet, p. 21. 82 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. A school for leaders. — Especially does Grundtvig^ see the need of a school of citizenship and a common folk culture for that portion of the population which are to be leaders, but do not study for a professional career. As has been noted in our survey of Danish education, the differentiation between elementary and secondary edu- cation was made very early at this time, in fact generally upon the child's entrance into school. The kind of education a child was to receive was determined by the type of school he entered and this again by the social position of his parents. Once registered in the elementary school, his fate was sealed. His cultural opportunities, as far as school was concerned, would terminate at the age of con- firmation. This was the fate of the masses of the people. To be sure the University of Copenhagen was always open to all, regard- less of academic preparations, but it is easy to see that, by reason of its nature and method, the work carried on there, even if it were all that might be expected of it, could never become an appreciable means of culture for any but the academically trained. Therefore, barred from the secondary schools by a too early differentiation and from the cultural opportunities of the university by lack of prepara- tion, the nonacademic people were living in intellectual and cultural destitution. Grundtvig says : The difficulty is that few or no places have a high school for scientific and civic training of the people, which can give a modicum of culture to those people who do not receive academic training, but who desire to belong to the cultured classes.^ In such a school — all those officers of State who do not need learning, but life, vision, and practical ability, and all those people who desire culture may have the desired oppor- tunity to develop themselves and learn to know each other.' A school for the common people. — A school of this type, Grundtvig thought, was necessary not for leaders only, however. It had a func- tion to perform for the ordinary citizenry. If now a Danish high school, as kingly, free, and popular as possible, is neces- sary for training officers of State, pray, is it less so for that large portion of the people who can not or do not desire to hold office, but who must support them- selves and the rest? That this root and stem of the people, renters and own- ers, great and small, mechanics of all kinds, seamen, and merchants, need no other enlightenment or culture than that obtained behind the plow, in the workshop, in the tops, or in the merchant's booth, may be the thought of bar- barians and tyrants. Such, however, has never been the northern mode of thought, either among the kings or the people, and it could never be, for here, if nowhere else, it is true that we are all of one blood, so that the same capacity for culture is found in the cottage as in the palace.' 1 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 22. 2 Idem, p. 24. "Grundtvig, Akademiet i Soer, p. 29. ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOLS. 83 Source of the people'^s high-school idea, — It is not laiown whether or not Grundtvig owes the origin of his people's high school idea to any other source than himself. A possible influence of Rousseau via Germany has been pointed out. Nordal-Peterson says : During a visit in eastern Prussia, Herder, one of Rousseau's admirers, saw how oppressed nations suffered under a foreign yoke. Tlirough the influence of Rousseau's ideas the thought comes to him that one might help the oppressed toward a national awakening by erecting a national young people's school, and he outlines the plan in one of his books. Herder never realized his plan, but it is probable that Grundtvig had read the book in question. His " World's History" (1812) shows that he had read Herder with interest, and it is not impossible that from his writings Grundtvig had received an impulse toward his great idea.^ Estimate of Grundtvig^s influence. — Whether the people's high- school idea be original with Grundtvig or not, the fact remains that he not only developed and propagated the idea, but presented a philosophy of life and education which has become the pedagogical foundation of the schools. While the chief emphasis in his writings is upon the service of a people's high school in the awakening and regeneration of the nation, he also stresses the value of such a school for the young people themselves, in helping them to realize them- selves most fully. In fact, as Grundtvig saw it, the latter service of the school is a prerequisite for the former. Ludvig Schroder, one of the closest students of Grundtvig, compares him with Rousseau.^ As Rousseau proclaimed the " gospel of childhood," so Grundtvig proclaimed the " gospel of youth." As childhood has its own interests and prerogatives and is not a mere transition period to becoming grown up, so youth has a right to an independent value and is not to be regarded as a meaningless passing over from childhood to manhood. The period of youth is a most unhappey one in the lives of many. It is a time when intellec- tual and moral problems beset the young person, when he is wrestling with the question of his life mission and perhaps that of his life mate. It frequently becomes a mere existence without content, a drifting about from one impulse to another. Grundtvig held that, if youth is to be a joyous and fruitful period, the individual must come to his rights and be wisely guided in his aspirations in order that his personality may be built on a sound foundation and de- veloped in all its capacities. Here was the opportunity for a peo- ple's high school. Hollmann has pointed out a kinship with Ruskin's ideas : ^ Grundtvig's view of life has much in common with that of Ruskin, who, continuing in a sense the ideas of Grundtvig, would make a festival of life as a whole and make work secondary. Both thinkers are as one in striving for 1 Nordal-Petersen, Danmarks Hojskoler, p. 3. • Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, Ch. I. « Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 26. 84 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. this, that life may be lived completely, that personality may be uniformly developed, and that all people may obtain a deeper appreciation of life's values. But while Ruskin nearly always moves on the border line of the impossible in his requirements, Grundtvig is a practical man, who knows what he wants and what is possible of realization. Grundtvig wants nothing else than this — to give the individual his youth, a time in which he may live in the realm of beautiful and noble aspirations. That Grundtvig has exerted a powerful influence upon the cul- tural life of his country is evident when intelligent students soberly apply to him such epithets as "Prophet of the north" and "The greatest folk educator of the north." Even his unsympathetic critic, George Brandes, estimates him as the largest cultural factor in Den- mark in the nineteenth century. The German Hollmann describes him as — a man of large historic vision, with creative thoughts and a depth and breadth of feeling which was capable of embracing his people, the nation in its future development. It may appear as if the wheel of history moves according to eternally fixed laws. Occasionally, however, a strong man may take a hand and strive to lift it out of its rut. If he is fortunate, others lend a hand and progress takes a new course. Grundtvig grasped the wheel of historical de- velopment and gave it a new direction. Without him there would now pre- sumably be no Danish Kultur, and therefol'e he is a genius in the eyes of his people.^ Chapter VII. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL. I. THE FIRST PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL. Grundtvig'^s plan futile. — Grundtvig had in mind the establishment of one large people's high school for the whole country. It was to be a school with a faculty of scholars on a par with those of the uni- versity, from whom streams of influence might flow forth to refresh and regenerate the nation. For a long time he cherished the plan that the richly endowed academy at Soro might be transformed into such a high school. For this he wrote and labored assiduously. He succeeded finally in gaining the favor of King Christian VIII and Queen Caroline Amalie for the plan, but the King died in 1848, be- fore the idea could be realized. The party which subsequently came into power was " too much bound by classical tradition to believe in a characteristically Danish culture." ^ Grundtvig's efforts for the Soro plan thus came to naught, and the idea has never been realized, although it is even to-day a live subject of discussion. 1 Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 4. ■Begtrup. Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 4. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 85 Scene of the ftr^t school. — Meanwhile the seed which Grundtvig had sown took root and began to bear fruit in another way. Although his efforts to have his cherished people's institution established by royal favor proved futile, the essential people's high school idea was being realized by the rank and file of the common people. The scene was north Schleswig. This was at that time a part of Denmark, and the people were becoming aware of the danger of German influence, which threatened to destroy their national identity. The situation is well described by Begtrup ; ^ North Schleswig, whose population was Danish, had been governed for many years by German-trained officials, who had studied at Kiel. When the nation- alistic movement began to be felt in Europe the citizens of north Schleswig also awakened to a consciousness of their Danish character and sought to free them- selves from the spiritual guardianship of the German officials. Then began a cultural struggle in which the majority of the educated classes were found in the German camps. Friends of the common people perceived that it was neces- sary for the plain people to be equipped with a better education in order that they might themselves defend the rights of their Danish speech. Such education must necessarily be given in Danish, since the people did not know any foreign language, and its content must serve to strengthen their appreciation of national values. Here was a practical need for Grundtvig's school idea. The leaders of this nationalizing movement, among whom Chris- tian Flor, professor of Danish at the University of Kiel, was a promi- nent figure, had become familiar with Grundtvig's ideas and were much influenced by his writings. When Grundtvig's request and plan for a high school at Soro appeared in 1840 and had been favor- ably received by Flor, a citizen of north Schleswig pointed out in a newspaper article that nowhere was a high school such as that pro- posed more needed than in north Schleswig. The first school established at Rodding. — Other interested citizens gave the idea their support, stock was subscribed, and in 1843 the Schleswig Association was formed with the erection of a people's high school as one of its chief aims. A suitable property was pur- chased at Rodding, and upon application to King Christian VIII permission was granted in 1844 for the establishment of the school. In the plan which accompanied the application, appeared the follow- ing passage relating to the purpose and scope of the school : The aim we have set before us is to found an institution where peasant and citizen may acquire such knowledge and accomplishments as may minister to his usefulness or enjoyment, with reference not so much to his particular vocation and work as to his function as his country's son and citizen of the State. The institution should have, therefore, a beneficent influence upon his private and home life, as well as upon his public and civic activity. We call it a high school because it is not to be an ordinary boy's school, but an educa- tional institution partly for young men past the age of confirmation and partly 1 Begtrup, Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 4. 86 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. for full-gi-own boys and men. We call it a people's high school because persons of every station may attend it, even if it is especially arranged for the rural class and expects its students from that source.^ The plan further provided that the board of directors should con- sist of seven members, three of whom must always belong to the rural class. The curriculum was to comprise Danish language and literature, history, civics, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, surveying, German, Swedish, natural sciences, singing, and gymnastics. Each semester was to be complete in itself, but the work so planned that a complete course extended over two years. The school began its ac- tivity in November, 1844, with 20 students and 2 teachers. Its prin- cipal was John Wegener, a university man and graduate in theology. Career and influence of the school. — The school at Rodding expe- rienced a checkered career. Its finances gave the most trouble. At times its friends despaired of maintaining it, but by earnest en- deavors it was possible to keep the school going. Much credit for this is due to Flor, who gave up his chair at Kiel to become its principal for a time. Certain problems were encountered and solved in this school and principles established that are of general interest in the people's high-school movement. The first was the question as to whether the school should be an out-and-out vocational school for agriculturists, or a school of general culture. The original purpose of the school had been to arouse the national spirit and save the mother tongue from its threatened extinction. When, after the war of 1848-49, these ends were largely attained, many thought that the school no longer had any sufficient reason for its existence, as origi- nally planned, and therefore should be transformed into an agricul- tural school. This party held that if able farmers were desired, the best plan was to go at the training of farmers directly with a pure agricultural school. However, the principal of the school, Sophus Hogsbro, Flor, and others championed the cause of general culture with such ability that they won the victory, and the institution was enabled to continue as a school of the Grundtvigian type. An inter- esting testimony in this connection came from the able agricultu- ralist, Testdorph, who later became president of the Royal Danish Agricultural Society: It is difficult to render a larger service to the country than to give wide-awake farmers some such an opportunity for a higher spiritual development as will operate beneficently and fruitfully for all the people. We have to do with an Institution that has successfully stood the test to which it has been subjected. We are not dealing with projects; we know what we are devoting our money to ; we know that we will get it back with high interest ; we know that we are really doing the country a great service by aiding the Rodding high school. Let me add that as nearly as I can learn, all the foreign countries in which I have * Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 46. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 87 traveled would grasp with eagerness an opportunity such as this to advance in a similar way the interests of the backbone of the country, the agricultural class.* Another attempt to modify the nature of the school was made by the minister of education, Monrad, by suggesting the introduction of a preliminary examination which might admit students to some courses at the agricultural college in Copenhagen. The reply of Principal Hogsbro, opposing this suggestion, is based solidly upon Grundtvigian high-school ideas, and the principle fixed in this case became a precedent for all future people's high schools : The aim of the school is to awaken and nourish appreciation for the life of the spirit. Especially is it concerned with increasing love of country by giving information about its language and literature, nature, and history, its condi- tions in the past and present. In addition, however, it does not lay less stress on giving students love for and knowledge of agriculture. With this aim the subjects of instruction can not be the same as those required for the " preliminary examination," nor the emphasis the same. With reference to method, too, the school must be different from the ordinary type. To be. sure, it does not minimize the value of positive knowledge and a training of the intellect in keenness and clarity of thought; its purpose, how- ever, is essentially educative, the development of feeling and the will being considered more significant than the training of memory or intellect. It desires to do for the life of the people what the church desires for the Christian life. Therefore it must lay emphasis on the concrete, the living, the stimulating. An hour of instruction in which it has been possible to arouse appreciation for the higher and nobler elements in human life, or to stimulate to effective and active service in their behalf, is of much greater importance in the work of the people's high school than an hour which has added to one's store of knowledge or in which the intellect has learned to understand a new grammatical exposition or a mathematical conclusion. These forms of instruction are also included, but merely to serve the chief purpose. Instruction is given, not for school, but for life. What we wish for our students is that they might leave us with a desire to participate in the work of the world, the spiritual as well as the material, and with capacity to use the means which life offers. What they may lack in the form of knowledge they will know how to obtain. As they work, their intel- lects will receive that development of which they are capable. For such a method of instruction the preliminary examination is altogether unsuitable.' After the war of 1864, when Schleswig was wrenched away from Denmark by Germany, the school had to be moved north of the new boundary. A place was found for it at Askov, where, under the efficient leadership of Ludvig Schroder, the institution became a power in the cultural life of Denmark. Its equipment and instruc- tion have been extended so as to make it the leading people's high school in the country. 1 Quoted by Schroder, op. clt, p. 70. « Quoted by Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 54. 88 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. II. WORK AND INFLUENCE OF KOLD. Deficiencies of the Rodding peopW^s high schoob. — While Grundt- vig's educational ideas were first tried out in the school at Rodding, it was not there that the characteristic Danish people's high school as it exists to-day took its beginnings. There were several reasons why this school did not at first wield the large influence for a people's culture that was exerted later by this and other schools. On account of rather high tuition rates and expenses, only some of the well-to-do farmers' sons could afford to attend. Furthermore, a full course extended over two years, the summers included. It is evident that only comparatively few grown up men could find it possible to spend so much time away from their work. Again, while the teachers at Rodding were inspired by love for their work and a desire to lead the young men out into a new light, they were generally academicians from a higher station in life and could not quite appreciate the situation and the peculiar needs of the peasant boys. Grundtvig himself, though a man of the people in his in- terests and sympathies, was a partial stranger to the sons of the soil. Kristen Kold {1816-1870) . — It was left for a shoemaker's son to meet the common peasantry on their own ground and by the attrac- tiveness of his personality drew them to cultural studies pursued under conditions that were practically within the reach of all. This man was Kristen Kold (1816-1870). While still a child in his humble home by the Limfjord, in west Jutland, he learned the magic power of the spoken word, which he himself later possessed in a remarkable degree. When he and his brothers and sisters be- came tired of play and unruly, their mother would often call them to her and tell them a story which would have a wonderful effect on their conduct. Kold says of this: Always, when she had told us a story, we would become happy and begin to play again — to build up instead of tear down. At that time I could not under- stand how a little fable about Great Peter or Little Peter, or what it might be, could have power to make us well-behaved and happy. Later, however, I gradually came to understand the secret, that the word upon our tongue possesses this power over children.^ Education. — Kold participated in the ordinary elementary school- ing of his day and ranked at the head of his class. At 11 he was to begin learning his father's trade, but was so awkward with the awl that his father despaired of his ever amounting to anything. After one and a half days' apprenticeship his mother took him out of the shop. The boy's whole desire now was to be a teacher. At the age of 13, after giving a trial lesson in a rural school before the dean and the children's parents, he was appointed monitor to teach chil- 1 Quoted by Austlid, Ein Folkelaerar, p. 22. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 89 dren larger than himself and about as old. His work, however, was a decided success. After confirmation he served as tutor ' for three years, when, having reached the required age of 18, he entered the normal school at Snested. He seems not to have profited much by the instruction there until a religious revival aroused him spiritually and intellectually and made him an eager student. Teaching. — After graduation from the normal school, Kold spent some years in tutoring, and participated in some revivals in which he began to experience his own powers of speech. At this time he also read some of Ingemann's romances. He saw how great Den- mark had once been, and how low it had sunk, and was seized with a desire to lend a hand in raising it again. " Oh, that 1 possessed the kind of words that are necessary to make Denmark great, and strong, and happy ! " ^ Moving to southern Jutland, where he continued as tutor, he found the people dead to patriotic impulses, and having read still more historical romances, he felt that he must do something to stir the people. " I felt now that I could have no peace until I had gotten this work started — to raise Denmark again to what it had once been." 2 Kold had an idea that much could be and must be done with the rising generation. Therefore as an experiment during the winter of 1840-41, he gathered about him 15 young men every Wednesday evening and read to them chiefly from Ingemann's ro- mances. They talked together about the contents and sang patriotic songs. This was something new, and people laughed at it. But his experience with these boys gave Kold the idea which he developed later into his high-school plan. Varied experiences. — Kold became dissatisfied with the methods in vogue in elementary instruction and instituted a reform in his own work. Instead of compelling the children to memorize vast por- tions of textbooks, he told the contents to the children in story form. The children were delighted, remembered perfeotly what he told them, and then the process of learning which before had been so laborious took care of itself. This revolutionary method, however, brought him into difficulties with pastor, bishop, and department, and the antagonism became so great that he soon found himself without an appointment. Saddened by this opposition and denial of opportunity to do the only work he wished and was able to do, he learned bookbinding, and went to Smyrna as a missionary's servant and helper. Terminating his serv- ices with the missionary, he spent some years there at his trade. The longing for his native land became too great, however, and he returned, walking from Trieste, some 800 miles, and drawing his belongings in a little wagon. This experience gave him an excellent lAustlid, op. cit., p. 43. *Idem, p. 44. 90 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. opportunity to study the common life of the people in the sections through which he passed. He enlisted for the war of 1848-1850, but finding himself poorly adapted for musket drill, he resigned. The war served him a purpose, however, for it awakened Denmark, and he could now see how a spiritual force operates on a large scale with a whole people; previously he had seen it only in the case of individuals. Founds a people^s high school. — Kold burned with desire to help perpetuate the spirit which the war had aroused in his people, but realized that sporadic efforts with a speech here and a speech there would avail but little. His experiences, notably his Wednesday even- ing class of boys, taught him that he must gather the young people in a school in order that they might be under his continuous influence for a considerable time. Thus only could he hope to effect an awak- ening and build up an enthusiasm that would last. By the aid of Grundtvig and other interested friends, he was enabled to make a humble beginning of a school in 1851 at Ryslinge, in Fyen. A pro- spectus of the new school announced that instruction would be given only during the winter, from November 1 to April 1. Tuition, in- cluding board and lodging, was fixed at 60 kroner for the entire five months. The instruction was to embrace an outline of general, Bible, and church history, northern mythology and history of Denmark, geography, especially of Denmark, selected readings from Danish literature, and singing. Instruction was also to be given in the com- mon-school branches with a view to their practical use in life.^ The school began its work with 15 students and 2 teachers. Kold had at last entered upon the realization of his cherished dreams, and was happy. Characteristics of Kold^s school. — The first year the students at Kold's school ranged in age from 14 upward, but this year's ex- perience taught him that for such a school the students must be grown up, i. e., 18 years of age or more, as Grundtvig had maintained. The work with the younger boys was not nearly so satisfactory as with the older. After the first year 18 was set as the minimum age for entrance. This became the settled policy for all later schools. Another characteristic feature of this school was the short term, only five months during the winter. On this point, too, Kold's school set a precedent which has been followed by the other schools. It is the time when^ men can most easily be spared from the work of the farms. Likewise, the expenses at Ryslinge were set so low as to bring the school within the reach of all young men of energy. The ex- penses were only 12 kroner a month. At Rodding the amount was 40 kroner.^ The intimate character of the association of teachers 1 Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 59. ■These amounts equal about $3.25 and $10.80, respectively. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 91 and students is shown by the arrangement whereby Kold and his assistant teacher slept with the boys in one large sleeping room. The boys could thus listen to the teachers' conversation about worthy things until they fell asleep. KoldJ's continued work and inftuence. — After two years Kold moved his school to Dalby, where he remained for six years. Here he experienced a hard struggle before winning the people's favor for his school venture. Force was given to the opposition also by Kold's activity in behalf of elementary schools conducted in accord- ance with his ideals as opposed to the spiritless memorizing and fact cramming of the public schools. While his influence widened, his enemies also increased. By a protest of these to the ministry, signed by 344 persons, the State aid of 800 kroner, which Kold's school had been receiving, was held up for a year. Kold's life was embittered also by newspaper attacks and the dire poverty to which he was re- duced. However, he was warmly defended by friends and students, who sent a counter protest to the ministry. Finally the local school commission served notice that they would inspect the school and judge for themselves of its work and merits. They came as avowed enemies of. the school, nine men strong, including the county chair- man, two deans, and the parish pastor. They proposed to examine each individual student in the several subjects, as was the customary method of procedure in the public schools; but this Kold resisted with force and dignity. No, Dean Rohmann ; if that is the method the commission desires to employ, to examine my boys one by one, then I must inform you that I do not want any examination; and the boys do not want it, either. They are here on their own account, pay their own school expenses, and we have no right to force them. If that is your plan, the school is hereby closed from this day on/ According to Kold's philosophy, the function of his school was essentially to arouse his boys spiritually and intellectually. To test the results of such work by an examination of the amount of facts acquired by his students was unfair and contrary to the fundamental principle of the school. Kold was then asked to proceed with the work of the school in the usual way, and the dean put questions to the school as a whole. The results were surprising and pleasing. The students gave evidence of a remarkable fund of knowledge despite the fact that they had not been cramming books. During the examination in general history the dean put the question, " Can you tell me the name of the Roman general that defeated Attila ? " This staggered the school for a moment, but a little fellow answered, "Aetius." "This answer saved our school," Kold said afterwards.^ The result of the inspection was entirely satisfactory. The teachers »Austlid, op. cit, p. 117. « Idem, p. 118. 92 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. and students were praised, the delayed State aid was forthcoming, and the standing of the school was assured. Subsequently Kold built a still larger school at Dalum, where the number of students increased to more than 100. Upon manifold re- quests of girls to attend the school he started in 1863 a three months' summer course for young women. This proved so successful that it became a permanent feature, and has since been an essential part of nearly all people's high schools. It is thus seen how the character of Kold's schools established the policy of the Danish people's high schools in the matter of the stu- dents' mature age, the five months' course, low expenses, a summer course for girls, and intimate association of teachers and students. It was due to his influence also that stimulation and development of personality and spiritual life came to be regarded as the chief function of the schools. At a meeting in Copenhagen in 1866, at which Kold was the chief speaker, he closed his address with these words : I do not know as much about enlightenment as I do about enlivenment. I enliven first, and enlighten afterwards, or at least enliven and enlighten at the same time. This, I believe, is right, for enlivenment is what is needed. He says he learned this when he worked — among people who could receive no enlightenment before they had been enlivened. They were plain folk who, so to speak, knew nothing of enlighten- ment. They needed to be enlivened. I believe, too, that the more one learns to know the Danish people, both in and out of Copenhagen, the more one will experience that they can not be truly enlightened before they have been en- livened.* Estimates of Kold. — By the time of his death, in 1870, Kold had had some 1,300 students under his charge, and a host of other people had received lasting impressions for good from his sturdy person- ality. He became known and loved throughout Denmark as the man who had given his life for the spiritual and national regeneration of the common people. Mr. Thornton, an Englishman, estimates him thus: Kold was a sort of rustic blend of Socrates and Pestalozzi ; he had a ready store of idiomatic Danish, had thought much of life and its problems, had a keen insight into human character, possessed an unlimited store of illustrations and experiences, and was consumed by a passion for communicating to others what had brought light and help to himself.' Comparing Kold's work and influence with that of Grundtvig, Dr. Hollmann says: Measured by Grundtvig's large ideas of a national people's culture, Kold's little peasant school seems insignificant, but history makes no mistake when 1 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 122. 2 Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe. English Special Re- ports, vol. 17, p. 114. GKOWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. • 93 it attributes to the little step forward in practical application a decisive signifi- cance in the development of the people's high schools. To Grundtvig is due the underlying thought of the people's high school, but Kold's plain peasant school was all that was possible of realization under the circumstances. By Kold's powerful influence, the people's high school was given a solid footing among the rural population of Denmark. He has given the people's high schools their external form and has put into practice the method which Grundtvig indicated within the limits that circumstances allowed.^ Grundtvig himself testified that Kold, in the very best manner, had transformed his ideas into realities.^ III. LATER DEVELOPMENTS. Grundtvig'^8 high school. — The idea of a large central people's high school was not abandoned after the failure of the plan to trans- form the Soro academy into a people's high school. Especially did the feeling prevail that there ought to be a school where Grundtvig could make his influence felt. Accordingly, on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, friends raised a sum of money which was pre- sented to him for the purpose of founding a high school. The chief donor and most active worker for the cause, C. D. Brandt, came of an aristocratic family in Copenhagen and entertained large ideas for the school. He aimed to build not a mere peasants' school, such as Kold's, which was being copied everywhere. This was to be a pretentious institution where Grundtvig might be given a suitable chair. Grundtvig's wife was opposed to this aristocratic notion. She wanted a school of the Kold type, and preferably Kold himself as principal. Grundtvig himself was undecided. Though the wisdom of the view held by Grundtvig's wife was afterwards proven, Brandt gained his point for the time being. The school was erected near Copenhagen in 1856 and given the name " Grundtvig's High School." Brandt was chosen principal, and Grundtvig delivered a series of lec- tures. Students did not flock to the school, however, as Brandt had hoped. During the first term there were 20 students, and when in the third year the number dwindled down to 12, Brandt resigned. The school was subsequently moved to Lyngby, some distance farther from the city. Under the succeeding principals the institution was transformed more and more into a school of the Kold type, and be- came one of theleading people's high schools in the country.^ People's high schools and the rural population. — The experience of Grundtvig's high school indicates the trend of the development — ^the people's high schools came to be attended almost exclusively by the 1 Begtrup, Folkehojskolen i Danmark, p. 6. * Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, Ch. VL 94 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. rural population. This was not in accordance with Grundtvig's ideas. He conceived of a school for all classes of the population with- out reference to geographical or vocational distribution. In attempt- ing to indicate why the development took this direction, it is not possible to point to one or two causes as offering a complete explana- tion. The situation was complex and a variety of influences was at work, among which it is by no means easy to distinguish between cause and effect. Some students consider the chief factor to be the religious movement which Grundtvig inspired.^ This took hold especially upon the rural population, and since the people's high schools owe so much to the influence of Grundtvig, it is natural that the schools should be sought by the^ Grundtvigian sympathizers. There is undoubtedly much truth in this view. Especially was this factor operative in the early history of the schools, but it is scarcely an adequate explanation in later years when the schools have lost much of the partisan religious coloring they may have had. The schools may now be regarded as a part of the national system of education, and not the property of any particular religious group. A large cause for the popularity of the people's high schools among the rural population is undoubtedly the fact that they began their work among this social class. The school at Rodding was announced as a school for the rural class especially, and it was Kold's con- stant thought to make his school attractive to even the poorest sons of the soil. Expenses were placed as low as possible, and life at school was maintained very simply and plainly, so that the farmers' boys might feel at home. The schools were in fact called " peasant schools," which name alone, with all that it implied, kept away many young people of cities and towns and even children of the well-to-do farmers. The schools became in consequence the special institution of the middle and lower classes of the rural population. The capacity and appreciation of these classes for culture was at the same time a cause and effect of the popularity of the schools among them. It was a case of " appetite growing with what it feeds on." Again, political developments contributed to make the people's high schools sought by the plain rural people. After 1870 the exi- gencies of politics brought the middle and lower classes of the rural population, representing democratic ideas, into sharp opposi- tion to the large landowners and the professional class, who occupied a conservative position. The plain country people found the people's high schools an excellent instrumentality for equipping them for this political contest. In fact, the schools were accused by the conserva- tive party of lending themselves to partisan agitation. This was de- nied, and with truth, it is contended. Nevertheless, the people's high schools were largely sought by the democratic element, and likewise * Cf. Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 68, ff. GKOWTH OF THE PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. 95 shunned by the conservatives, who built agricultural schools to com- pete with them. The democratic party won out in 1901, and the King appointed a "peasant ministry.'' The peasantry are still in power and vote a' generous amount of State aid to the people's high schools. An attempt at an explanation of the preponderance of rural stu- dents in the people's high schools must not fail to take account of the time element. In the case of young men, it is comparatively easy to be released from the farm during the winter months. The young man in the city, on the other hand, has no such season of com- parative leisure, and finds it exceedingly difficult to obtain leave of absence from his work for so long a period as a people's high-school course requires. In the case of girls the situation is perhaps not far different. When it is borne in mind that the people's high school does not contemplate a change in the student's vocation, but a return to work where he left off, the lack of time under the pressing con- ditions of modern city employment perhaps offers the largest single reason for the absence of city youth in the people's high schools. People's high schools and agricultural schools. — Since the people's high schools became institutions for the rural population in such a marked degree, the question is pertinent : " Why did they retain this form rather than become out-and-out agricultural schools?" In a sense this entire study is an attempt to answ^er that question, and its various phases are touched upon from time to time. Mani- festly, therefore, a full answer can not be attempted here. It may be serviceable, however, to point out at this stage the lines of thought that have been operative historically. Three ideas have been cham- pioned with more or less vigor: First, that the schools should all be agricultural schools; second, that they should be a mixture of people's high and agricultural schools ; and, finally, that there should be both kinds of schools, each kind doing its distinctive work. The advocates of agricultural schools exclusively held, as noted in the history of the Rodding high school, that the best school for farmers is a school of agriculture. They contended that it was an ill use of time and effort for farmers' sons to spend a winter pursu- ing studies that would not directly help them in the culture of their farms. Others for various reasons held that the peasantry were incapable of general culture and that it was foolishness to at- tempt it with them. Others, again, were opposed to the people's high schools for political reasons, as noted, and championed agri- cultural schools as the proper and useful kind of schools for the tillers of the soil. Prompted by one reason or another men erected agricultural schools independent of people's high schools, and in several cases in opposition to them, with a view to final suppression 3334°— 15 1 96 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. of the high schools. The schools founded on such ideas and oper- ated in opposition to the high schools were, however, generally short lived. They were not popular, did not draw students, and were financially unable to continue their activities. The mixed school has been tried sometimes with fair success, but more generally accompanied by failure. The plan was tried at Rod- ding, but was abandoned when it was found impossible to reconcile the conflicting elements in the faculty. Other schools, pressed by competition, have offered agricultural work in order to draw stu- dents, and some agricultural schools have for like and other reasons offered high-school subjects. The leading high-school men have been opposed to the mixed school. They contend that the vocational de- partment affects disastrously the cultural work of the school, while at the same time no satisfactory work can be done in the agricultural subjects. The time is too limited to attempt a double program, the result being a school that is "neither fowl nor fish." The develop- ment has been strongly in the direction of pure people's high schools and pure agricultural schools. Advocates of pure high schools are opposed to agricultural schools in place of people's high schools, but nre not opposed to them in addition to people's high schools. On the contrary, the fruitful development of agricultural schools has been in the hands of people's high-school men. While agricultural schools founded independently of the high-school movement or in opposition to it have proved failures, agricultural schools born of the high-school movement and operated in its spirit have proved successful and fruitful. Thus it is said that " the Danish agri- cultural school is a child of the Danish people's high school and likewise must have a Christian foundation resting on the life of the people." ' The view that has come to prevail holds that the young man should first attend a people's high school and be awakened, learn to know himself as a human being with a destiny, as a citizen of the State, and a member of a social group, and thus have his personality devel- oped. Then he may with much more profit take a course at an agri- cultural school. This view was clearly stated by Principal Svendsen, of Tune agricultural school, in his annual report in 1890 : ^ To what extent intellectual maturity affects the results of agricultural In- struction we have had an opportunity to observe by comparing those of our stu- dents who have previously attended ci people's high school with those who have had only an elementary education. The difference is perhaps less striking if the comparison is made with students who at a continuation or evening school have acquired such knowledge of school subjects as to place them in this respect on a level with students who have participated in people's high-school instruction. But even if they are apparently equally well prepared for partici- pation in agricultural instruction there is very often this defect in their prepa- ' SchrSder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 153. 2 Quoted by Schroder, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 292. GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL. 97 ration: That tlieir personality has been developed but little; wherefore such students, in spite of their intellectual ability, so frequently show a lack of power to comprehend and assimilate what they have learned. Even if the comparison is applied to such students as have acquired the knowledge requi- site for the preliminary examination, by going through a Real school, other things being equal, the advantage is without doubt on the side of the people's high-school students. In the case of reasonably gifted students the instruction has an awakening and enlivening effect which develops intellectual receptive- ness in a high degree and therefore makes the young people excellently fitted to acquire knowledge. Instead of the feeling of completion which the preparation for and passing of an examijiation is apt to give — the student who comes from the people's high school brings with him a firm and vivid impression that he has just entered upon his development and the goal is far ahead. When he enters the agricultural school in this frame of mind it is easy to understand that he preeminently possesses the qualifications for getting the most out of the institution. It would therefore be very desirable if all young persons who wish to attend an agricultural school would previously attend a people's high school for at least one term. Statistical growth. — Affected by these varying ideas, the people's high schools and agricultural schools have grown up together, some- times in opposition, sometimes in harmony. While the Danish na- tion was stirred by the war of 1818-1850, and several people's high schools were founded in consequence, it was the disastrous war of 1864 which thoroughly awakened Denmark to an appreciation of her national needs. With determination and zeal she set to work to make the most of what still remained to her. With the motto "Outward loss, inward gain," to inspire them, the Danish people proceeded to "re-win Schleswig-Holstein on the Danish heath." From now on began an era of intensive development. As an agency in this domes- tic conquest, people's high schools were erected in large numbers. Statistically the development is represented by Table 9, which shows the growth in the number of schools.^ Table Q.— Number of schools, 18U-1911, Years. People's high schools. Erected. Discon- tinued. Agricultural schools. Number at end of Erected, period. Discon- tinued. Number at end of period. 1S44-18.51. 1851-1861. 1861-1871. 1871-1881. 1881-1891. 1891-1901. 1901-1905- 1906-1911. Total. 143 63 80 35 16 19 Dan. Stat. Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 6 ff. 98 THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL. As appears from the table, the greatest activity in the erection of people's high schools was manifested in the sixties and seventies, the number increasing from 11 to 64 in 20 years. There has since been a steady gain in the number of schools up to the present time. The gain in agricultural schools has been largest in recent years. In the enthusiasm of this rural educational movement many schools have been erected without a sufficiently solid basis and have had to discontinue their activities. This has been the fate of 63 people's high schools and 16 agricultural schools. Most of these were in activ- ity for only a brief period, as shown by the following table :^ Table 10. — Careers of discontinued schools. Years of existence. 1-5 &-10 n-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 41-45 56-60 Total. People's high schools Agricultural schools 25 6 9 4 9 3 10 5 4 2 1 1 63 16 A rather more interesting study is that of attendance.^ A re- markable growth took place in the decade after the war, 1865-1875, when the attendance increased about eightfold. Since then the in- crease has been slower but steady, so that the number in the early seventies, some three thousand, has been more than doubled at the present time. The development of agricultural education is best shown by the number of agricultural students in percentage of the total attendance at both people's high schools and agricultural schools. In the early years before the people's high schools won favor with the people, the number of students in agricultural schools, though small, absolutely considered, was relatively very large, con- stituting for a time about 50 per cent. The percentage then de- creased until it reached the low figure of 10 in the late sixties and 5 in the early seventies. While a gradual tendency upward is notice- able after that time, the largest increase has occurred in the last decade. The number of students in agricultural schools in the single year 1910-11 constituted 19 per cent. This increase is said to be due to the growing appreciation of scientific methods in agriculture. The increase in girls' attendance has been steady up through the years, both absolutely and relatively, their number having reached at the present time nearly 50 per cent of the total number of students in people's high schools. The number of girls in agricultural schools is relatively small, a large number of those attending taking courses 1 Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 7. * See table in appendix, p. 167. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 99 in horticulture and dairying, rather than in agriculture, strictly speaking. Thus in brief is the story of the people's high-school movement in Denmark. Beginning with 1 school and 20 students in 1844, it has moved on and expanded until it has gathered over 8,000 young people in 99 schools, working together as powerful agencies for the cultural and vocational education of rural Denmark. Chapter VIII, THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. Size of schools. — On account of the historic origin, similarity in methods, and close interaction it is advantageous to deal with the people's high schools and the agricultural schools together. This is the more in order as all the schools are under one State inspection and statistically are treated together. The size of the schools is determined by the number of year students in each, i. e., the total number of. students in attendance during any one year times the months of attendance divided by 12.^ The average number of year students in people's high schools in 1910-11 w^as 29 ; m agricultural schools, 36. Five years previously the corresponding numbers were 32 and 37. The number of schools has increased more rapidly than the number of students, wherefore the average attendance has de- creased somewhat.^ The range of attendance is very great, the extreme limits in the case of people's high schools being 3 and 150 year students. The posi- tion of the schools on the scale of attendance appears from the fol- lowing table : ^ Table 11. — Distribution of schools on basis of number of year students, 1910-11. 1 to 10 year st u dents . 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 60 60 to 80 People's high schools. 25 26 10 6 5 2 80 to 100 year students. 100 to 120 120 to 140 140 to 160 - People's high schools. 3 1 3 1 Total 80 It will be seen that much more than one-half of the people's high schools had fewer than 20 year students, and in five years these small iThus 48 boys for 5 months and 40 girls for 3 months, divided by 12 (240 + 120 -i- 12), gives 30 as the number of year students. « Dan. Stat Folkehojskoler eg Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 7. 100 schools have grown in number from 38 to 49. The median school has 15 year students.^ This, then, is the size of the type school, in the sense of the one most frequently met with. As the usual school terms are five months in winter and three months in summer, with a differ- ent group of students each term, the type school has 22J boys in winter and the same number of girls in summer. A total of 45 young people is thus reached by the type school each year. On the basis of total distribution of year students, hoAvever, the median school is found manifestly higher up, for the small schools, though numerous, have only a small total attendance. Thus the 49 smallest schools had in 1910-11 a total attendance of 552, or not quite one-fourth, while the five largest schools had a total of 626 year students, or a little more than a fourth of the total number in all the schools. On the basis of total distribution of year students, the median school is found to have 41 year students, or 61^ students in each of the two terms, giving a total of 123 different students reached during the year. This is the type school in the sense of being the one most generally frequented by students. Measured by whatever standard, it is therefore far from the mark to say, as frequently has been done, that the typical people's high school has about 150 stu- dents in attendance at one time. The agricultural schools range in size from 7 to 111 year students. On the basis of frequency the median agricultural school has 27 year students, while on the basis of total attendance the median school has 61 year students. In 1910-11, of the 80 people's high schools, 64 had both boys and girls in attendance; 7 were for girls only, while 8 had boys only, although 7 of these had formerly had some girls. Location and equipment. — Almost without exception, the schools are located in the open country, a mile or two from village or city. The reasons for this are chiefly the desire to place the students in a rural environment, so as not to train them away from rural life, and the conviction that such a location offers fewer temptations and dis- turbs least the quiet needed for thought and study. Most of the schools are boarding schools, where the students live a community life with the teachers. In many cases the plant consists of one large building. The first floor is devoted to offices for the principal and home for his family, a common dining room, with the necessary culinary department attached, a common sitting room, one large lecture hall sufficient to accommodate all the students at one 1 The median school is the middle school, arrived at by counting in equal numbers from either extreme. The statistical data on which the above and following computations iire based are too extensive to warrant publication here. The data may be found in Dan. Stat., op. cit.. p. 50CE!. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LI:FE. 101 time, several smaller classrooms, library, ro*)ms containing physical and chemical apparatus and natural science collections, and a gymna- sium. On the upper floors are the dormitories, equipped for two or four persons in a room. In the case of schools which have more than one building, there may be a separate gymnasium, dormitories, and the like. Many of the schools have considerable land, with farm buildings in connection, where articles of food for the boarding estab- lishment are produced. The agricultural schools have in the main the same features as the people's high schools, but have more elaborate scientific equipment and laboratories where students do individual work. They also have land in connection for experimentation in agriculture and horticul- ture. Most of these schools also have museums attached, which show the progress made in agriculture by labor-savin'g machinery, and designs showing the advance toward perfection in agricultural imple- ments. Testing stations are also generally maintained for demon- strating the value of seeds and fertilizers. The furnishings of all the schools are simple — at times meager. The food, too, though substantial and sufficient, is very plain. Most of the students come from modest rural homes, where they are not accustomed to many luxuries. The aim of the schools is to have the young people return to their homes with a spiritualized view of life, to be sure, but not educated away from their work and station. Therefore, to surround them at the schools with luxuries would be bad psychology. " Plain living and high thinking " is the people's high-school principle. Community life in the schools. — It has been an almost universal custom in the schools since Kold's time for the principal and his family to take at least the principal meal of the day with the stu- dents in the common dining room. This gives the school more the color of a large family than a mere boarding school. Frequently, too, other teachers are seated at different tables throughout the room, and their influence for culture is thus extended. A like influence is exerted by unmarried teachers who live in the school dormitories, and thus come into very close personal touch with the students. Discipline, in the sense of enforced order, is practically unknown in the people's high schools. The young men and women who attend are grown-up people with a desire for self -improvement, and with the full daily program provided for them there is no trouble about order. To be sure, in a body of a hundred or more young men who have not had the benefit of many refining influences there w^ill be found habits and propensities which need to be discouraged. For this purpose, and in order to check any irregularities, the school principals exercise fatherly and wise supervision and lend their 102 THE DANISH PEOPLE ^S HIGH SCHOOL. influence to the building up of a healthy moral atmosphere. In some schools a form of student government is in vogue, whereby the stu- dents adopt certain regulations touching good order, which they mutually bind themselves to observe. Some principals hold, how- ever, that the terms are too short to develop an esprit de corps suffi- ciently strong for effective self-government. While the schools are pervaded with a deep-seated religious spirit, no compulsion rests upon students in religious matters. The prin- cipal usually conducts devotional exercises in the morning. These the students are free to attend, and their participation is very gen- eral. Grace is said at meals, and some schools have voluntary even- ing devotions. Attendance upon church services is also voluntary. There is no formal instruction in religion, but in the treatment of history, biographj^, and literature the religious factor is emphasized. Thus while the teachers bring no compulsion to bear upon students in matters of religion, they do consciously and sincerely make use of the religious element for the development of personality. The life in the schools is very attractive to the rural young people. "They take to it as ducks do to water." Many look forward for years to the time when they can afford to attend a people's high school. They go of their own free will and at their own expense. They are drawn by high anticipations of the wonderful things they are to experience there and by a keen desire for self -improvement. Coming into a group w^ith the same interests and aspirations as them- selves, their joyous community life begins at once, and the days of their sojourn pass all too quickly. Daily program. — The daily program of necessity differs much in the various schools, for the institutions strongly reflect the per- sonality of their principals. A fair idea of a day's work and life may, however, be obtained from the program at Roskilde, one of the larger schools, during the winter of 1911-12: Daily Program at Roskilde, 1911-12. A.M. 7.00. Rising bell. 7.30. Morning meal. 7.50. Devotion. A hymn is sung, principal reads a selection from devotional literature; the Lord's Prayer is said: and another hymn is sung. 8.00 to 9.00. Natural sciences. Elements of physics, astronomy, botany, and zoology. 9.00 to 11.00. Danish and gymnastics, alternately by sections, 11.00 to 12.00. Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday — discussion of social and church problems. Questions from students encouraged. Thursday, Friday, and Saturday — lectures on history of Europe in the nineteenth century. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 103 P.M. 12.10 to 12.30. 12.30 to 2.15. 2.15 to 3.15. 3.00 to 3.30. 3.30 to 5.30. 5.45 to 6.45. 6.45 to 7.15. 7.15 to 8.00. 8.00 to 9.00. 10.30. Dinner. Free hours. Students take walks, write letters, read, or study. Civics and economics. Largely discussions. Afternoon coffee in common dining room. Arithmetic, bookkeeping, drawing, and essay writing. In sec- tions, Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday — lectures on general his- tory. Thursday, Friday, and Saturday — lectures on history of Denmark since 1800. Evening meal. Free hours. In first weeks of term, reading of literary selections. Later individual work by students. Retiring hour. Where students come from. — As before noted, the students in the people's high school come almost exclusively from the rural districts. In 1910-11 only 5 per cent of the students came from cities, while of the total population in Denmark 40 per cent live in cities. The pro- portion of students from the cities and from the country has re- mained practically constant in recent years. A somewhat larger number of the girls than the boys came from the cities, the percent- ages being 7 and 4, respectively. In 1910-11 437 students came from countries outside of Denmark proper, by far the greater number of these being from south Jutland, the territory lost to Germany in 1864.1 Table 12. — Students from Denmark proper in relation to one generation of the rural population, 1910-11. Students. People's high schools. Agricul- tural schools. Total. Tne gen- eration of rural young people. Percentage of students in one generation of young people. People's high schools. Agricul- tural schools. All schools. Boys 3,419 2,941 1,275 185 4,694 3,126 13,041 12,530 26 23 10 1 Girls Total 6,360 1,460 7,820 25,571 31 Table 12 shows the number of students from Denmark proper in relation to one generation of the rural population.^ All the people in the country, outside of Copenhagen and 74 provincial cities, are classified as rural. The class embraces, therefore, many villages of considerable size. The unusual meaning of one generation in these 1 Dan. Stat., Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 19. > laem, p. 20. 104 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. statistics should be noted, namely, the group of people who are born in a given year. For people's high-school purposes one generation is computed to be the total rural population between ages 20 and 25, divided by 5. This age group is selected because the greatest number of students are of this age. The percentages in the table are subject to two main corrections. In the first place, the students from the cities have been included, as it was not practicable to separate them. This number constitutes about 5 per cent, as before noted. Secondly, to determine how many of one generation attend the schools it is necessary to deduct the number of those who have previously at- tended one of the schools. This element constitutes about 16 per cent of the student population. A total reduction of 21 per cent of the percentages is thus necessary. Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that these computations are for only one year, 1910-11. The percentages in recent years have, hoAvever, been fairly constant. It will be seen that the attendance at people's high and agricultural schools comprises 31 per cent; with the corrections applied, the result is about 24 per cent. Thus about one-fourth of the entire rural popu- lation of Denmark attend either a people's high school or an agricul- tural school or both. The percentage of boys' attendance is perhaps particularly inter- esting and significant, 26 per cent in people's high schools and 10 per cent in agricultural schools. These give a total of 36 per cent; cor- rected, about 28 per cent. In Jutland alone the corrected percentage of boys is 33, and in one county, Aarhus, the corrected percentage of boys' attendance rises to 40. It is of interest to note the location of students' homes with refer- ence to the schools they attend; 29 per cent attend schools in the county in which they live; a little less than 20 per cent attend in a neighboring county; while a similar number attend schools in another county in the same section of the country. Finally, 31 per cent go to another section of the country to attend school.^ This indi- cates that those young people who do leave home go to a considerable distance rather than into the next county. Among the reasons for this tendency, which has been growing, may be mentioned increasing wealth and low railway fares. The practice is encouraged, as it is felt that a visit to another section of the country is in itself a part of their education. The girls go a little farther away from home than the boys, and the boys in agricultural schools a little farther than those in people's high schools. Social station of students. — The station in life from which stu- dents come is of interest.^ More than one-half of the students are 1 Dan. Stat, op. clt, p. 24. * See table in appendix, p. 292. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 105 children of the larger farmers, operating 20 or more acres of land. The relative percentages through a series of years, 1890-91, 1900- 1901, 1905-6, 1910-11, are, respectively, 58, 53, 52, and 54. Thus this element, which for a time was decreasing, is now increasing again. The children of smaller farmers constitute the next largest group, 20 per cent. Their number has been slightly decreasing in recent years, the percentages for the four years mentioned above being, re- spectively, 21, 24, 22, 20. People's high-school friends are alarmed at this tendency, which is increasing the percentage of the well-to-do students at the expense of the poorer. In the spirit of the people's high-school movement they contend that the permanent stability and welfare of the civic and social structure demand a people's culture that shall embrace all classes of the population from the bottom up. They therefore regard as baneful any movement which tends to re- move cultural opportunities from the lower social group. Another tendency which is also regretted is that which is giving the schools a distinctive social coloring, so that they are coming to be regarded as schools for the well-to-do or the reverse. The fol- lowing table is based on the reports of those people's high schools only which had no vocational departments whatsoever.^ This group seems most significant for the present consideration. Table 13. — Character of people's high schools as determined hy social station of students' parents. Percentage of large farmers. Number of schools. 1905-6 1908-9 1910-11 10 to 20 1 2 8 14 8 7 2 1 1 3 7 10 7 14 3 1 1 20 to 30 i 3 10 10 9 4 30 to 40 40 to 50 60to60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 to 90 90 to 100 Total schools 37 43 47 The distribution of the schools shows an increase in the variation from the mode with a seeming trend toward the formation of two modes, one with a higher and one with a lower percentage of children of large farmers. This would mean children of the well-to-do going to one type of school and poorer children to another type. This is a truly regrettable tendency, as the very foundation of the people's high-school movement is laid in democracy, and a cleavage along the line of wealth can not but hamper the service of the schools. ^Dau. Stat., op. cit., p. 18. 106 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. In addition to the large and small farmers, in 1910-11 laborers furnished 3 per cent of the student population and artisans 10 per cent. The miscellaneous group is made up of teachers, civil servants, and the like, furnishing 4 per cent ; merchants, 3 per cent ; and other vocations, 6 per cent. Information as to the occupations of the students themselves is available in the case of those who hold scholarships.^ By far the largest number of the students hold the position of employees of one kind or another, 67 per cent of the boys and 82 per cent of the girls. Of the boys, the artisan group is also of considerable size, 23 per cent. Among the other occupations, dairy workers and seamstresses are most largely represented. Very few are reported as living at home. These ambitious young people have already begun the serious business of life, but feeling their lack of adequate equipment they go to the people's schools to prepare for larger living and more efficient service. Age of students. — The question of the students' occupations is of course closely related to their ages. The general statement has pre- viously been made that the students are adults. By far the largest age group is 18 to 25 years.^ Its lead has been increased in recent years, the percentages for 1890-91, 1900-1901, 1905-6, and 1910-11 being, respectively, 68, 75, 78, and 79. The decrease has taken place especially in the group below 18 years. In general it will be noticed that the girls are slightly younger than the boys, and that students in agricultural schools are older than those in people's high schools. The latter is, of course, to be expected, since many of the students in agricultural schools have previously attended a people's high school. Students'^ previous training. — Since students are so advanced in years, it is pertinent to ask what previous school training they have had. The great majority have had no regular school work beyond the elementary school.^ Sixteen per cent have previously attended a people's high school. Most of these are boys, and it is especially the boys in the agricultural schools that have previously attended a people's high school, their number constituting 45 per cent of the total. Further, 167 boys had had Real school or Gymnasium train- ing ; 64 of these took people's high-school work, the balance pursuing vocational courses. Courses pursued hy students. — As previously noted, the schools are not all pure people's high or agricultural schools. They overlap more or less, and several vocational departments aside from agricul- 1 See table in appendix, p. 293. ' ■ See table in appendix, p. 294. •Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 19. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 107 ture are maintained. The departments maintained in 1910-11, to- gether with the attendance, appear from table 14 : ^ Table 14. — Attendance in people's high schools and agricultural schools, by departments. Departments. People's high schools. Agricultural schools. Total. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. People's high school 2,851 101 534 55 62 3,047 9 2i' 27 5,898 1,439 547 1,146 13 183 Gymnastics 76 89 Horticuliure 57 138 7 6 63 Dairying . . 138 Live stocif and feeding experts 7 Total 3,603 3,104 1,361 189 8,257 In the high schools the vast majority of students are, of course, pursuing people's high-school courses proper, Avith the department for artisans second in importance. In the agricultural schools dairy- ing and horticulture chiefly occupy the attention of those who are not devoting themselves to agriculture itself. The courses in gymnastics train teachers of gymnastics for schools and village gymnasium clubs. The continuation courses supplement the work of the ele- mentary schools and prepare for the people's high-school courses. Length of attendance. — In the great majority of cases the people's high-school courses for boys extend through five months — November to March — and for girls three months — May to July. Several of the agricultural schools extend their work over six months, to the end of April, while some even have nine months' courses. Table 15 gives the attendance by months in 1910-11.^ Table 15. -Attendance hy months in people's high schools and agricultural schools, 1910-11. Month. April May June July August September People's high schools. 328 2,761 2, 755 2,744 48 129 Agricul- tural schools. 518 345 340 335 77 Month. <^ctober... November December. January.. February. March People's high schools. 161 3,643 3,684 3,914 3,893 3,779 Agricul- tural schools. 104 1,223 1,231 1,263 1,257 1,232 The uniformity of the attendance throughout the five winter and the three summer months indicates that the students remain to the »Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 13. 108 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. end of the term. In the case of the boys in people's high schools, however, it appears that some 200 do not enter until January, and about 100 drop out at the end of February. But this mortality must be regarded as very small, considering that there is no compulsion resting upon the students to remain. The persistency of their attend- ance is perhaps the most significant commentary on the hold which these schools have upon the people. Students^ expenses. — Undoubtedly one of the chief reasons for the success of the people's high schools is the small expense to the stu- dents. The costs are fixed by the Danish High- School Teachers' Association and are uniform throughout the schools. For room and board students pay 22 kroner per calendar month. For tuition the rates are 20 kroner for the first month, 20 for the second, 15 for the third, 10 for the fourth, and nothing for the fifth month. This makes a total of 175 kroner. If 10 kroner be added for books and school materials and 2 kroner for medical attendance, the total ex- penses for a five months' term amount to 187 kroner.^ The expenses for a three months' term total 108 kroner. At the advanced high school at Askov and at agricultural schools the expenses are about 25 per cent higher than the above. Scholarships. — Even these expenses, though so moderate, would operate as a barrier against many young people of small means and meager opportunities for earning money. The State has accord- ingly pursued a very generous policy in granting scholarships to needy students. The amount of the appropriation for this purpose has been increased from time to time until at present 250,000 kroner is available each year. In 1910-11 there were 4,710 applications for scholarships, of which 2,658, or 56 per cent, were granted.^ The number of students holding scholarships constituted 32 per cent of the entire student population. In the agricultural schools, vv^hich more well-to-do students attend, the percentage was 23. The amount of a scholarship per student per month was about 20 kroner in the high schools, and 25 kroner in the agricultural schools. These amounts constitute somewhat more than one-half of the total ex- pense to the student. With such low expenses and with such gen- erous aid from the State, it may safely be said that no student of merit need be barred by financial considerations from a course at a people's high school or agricultural school. The teaching force. — In 1910-11, 589 teachers gave instruction in people's high schools and 168 in agricultural schools.^ Teachers in both types of schools may be conveniently grouped under four heads — principals, wives of principals, permanently appointed teach- »At current rates of exchange, 187 kroner equal about $51. 8 Dan. Stat, op. cit., p. 26ff. 'Idem, p. 35. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. 109 ers, and instructors paid by the hour. In the high schools, women constituted about 27 per cent of the teaching force, while in agricul- tural schools only 17 per cent were women. Of high-school princi- pals only 6 were women. The average number of teachers was 7^ in high schools and 9 in agricultural schools. In the case of the high schools this average is not very significant, however, since many teachers give instruction during the winter only and others only during the summer. The resultant average is therefore too high to represent correctly the typical teaching force in charge at any one time. Correction for the duplication being made, the average teach- ing force numbers about 5^ in people's high schools.^ Many schools have, however, only 3 teachers, some only 2. That a school of con- siderable size can be operated by so small a number of teachers is due to the fact that- throughout the greater part of the instruction the whole student body constitutes one group, so that only one teacher at a time is in charge. Division into sections with two or more teach- ers in charge takes place only in the case of subjects involving drill, such as Danish, arithmetic, and gymnastics. As to amount of teaching done, about one-third of the teachers have not more than 6 hours of instruction per week and only one- fifth have more than 18 hours.^ As might be expected, instructors paid by the hour teach the fewest number of hours. The amount of teaching done by principals is surprisingly large. Women teach fewer hours than men, and teachers in agricultural schools do less quantitative teaching than those in the high schools. This is partly due to the fact that division of students into sections, with a conse- quently larger number of hours of teaching, is less common in agricul- tural schools than in the high schools. The agricultural instruction requires, too, a larger number of specialists whose work is intensive rather than extensive. Many persons do other work in addition to teaching in the people's high and agricultural schools. In some cases the teaching is their major interest and sometimes their minor. Thus a few hours a week are frequently taught by teachers from public or other schools, and by the local pastors. Artisans give some instruction in mechanical drawing, and practical farmers supplement the work of the regular teachers in the agricultural schools, as do also Government inspec- tors, live-stock experts, and veterinarians. A particularly large place in the life and work of the people's high schools is filled by the principal's wife. In many cases she does con- siderable teaching, especially in the field of household arts. Fre- quently, in the position of matron, she superintends the purchasing of supplies, manages the culinary department, and in general stands 1 statistical information for determining the median is not available. 8 See table in appendix, pp. 168, 169. 110 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. in the relation of mother to the students. Many a school owes its success and influence largely to the noble woman who, as partner in the principalship, has helped solve the innumerable problems that arise, and has exerted that gentle influence which makes the people's high school such a unique type of school activity. Additional light is thrown upon the character of the teachers by information as to their ages.^ Many of them are young, 46 per cent of the men in people's high schools being below 35 years. High- school teachers have a greater age range than those in agricultural schools, there being more below 30 and above 65 years. Other things being equal, this Avould indicate a superior class of teachers in the agricultural schools. Women are considerably yo'.mger than the men. More than half of them are below 30 years. While the propor- tion of young teachers is thus very large, the number of teachers in the higher age groups affords ample proof that many persons, espe- cially men, choose and pursue teaching in these schools as their life work. Education of teachers. — As to professional equipment, there are three chief groups of teachers in the people's high schools — the uni- versity trained, normal school graduates, and those trained in the people's high schools themselves — constituting 15, 22, and 28 per cent, respectively. The balance are trained by a variety of agencies, such as Gymnasia and other secondary schools, agricultural college, teach- er's college, and special courses for people's high-school teachers.* In the university group many are graduates in theology. This kind of training in preparation for high-school teaching has been regarded with much favor. It not only selects the men who by temperament are likely to prove successful teachers in a school whose object is pri- marily the awakening of the spirit, but it also gives an insight into the historic workings of those large religious, cultural, and social fac- tors that are still operative in building character. In recent years, however, the number of universit5^-trained men has been decreasing, while the proportion of teachers trained in the people's high schools has been on the increase. It is notably the advanced people's high school at Askov that trains teachers. While the w^ork of this school, which will be noted later, is of high grade and much more advanced than that of other high schools, the institution scarcely suffices as an adequate training school for teachers in these schools. Since 1895 university summer courses for people's high-school teachers have been held every year, chiefly in Copenhagen and at Grundtvig's high school in Lyngby. Recognized scholars and experienced teachers have contributed much to make these courses * See table in appendix, p. 169. THE SCHOOLS AND THEIR LIFE. Ill helpful and stimulating to high-school teachers. Excursions, visits to museums, and other educative efforts connected with the courses have added to their value. While the summer courses are of un- doubted service to teachers, the work attempted in these must be regarded as supplementary rather than fundamental in the serious business of training teachers. Leading people's high-school men are therefore much concerned about the problem of teachers' training. They point to the need of an institution of university rank, but per- vaded by the spirit of the people's schools as a training school for their teachers. It is in this connection that Grundtvig's plan for transforming the richly endowed academy at Soro into a school for the people is receiving renewed attention. Whatever may be the solution of the problem of training teachers, it would seem but a question of time when the present method of inbreeding and the em- ployment of teachers who have no adequate training for their work will prove destructive to the best interests of the people's high schools. Though the spirit of popular education which has brought the people's high schools into being and has made them powerful instru- ments for public service is still robust, it is nevertheless not strong enough to maintain the efficiency of the high-school movement unless it is supported by a thorough educdtional and professional training of the men and women who are to do its work. Among teachers in the agricultural schools the chief group, as might be expected, is composed of graduates of the State agricultural college, 47 per cent of the total; 18 per cent are trained in people's high schools.^ Teachers' association. — In 1891 was organized an association of teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools. This association has been an instrument of large value to the high- school movement. It has established uniform tuition rates and has influenced legislation in behalf of the schools. To the efforts of this association is due the establishment of the many supplementary opportunities for the improvement of teachers in service. It has in- stituted conventions of people's high-school teachers from all- the Scandinavian countries and published reports of its various meet- ings. It is largely the medium of fraternalism and exchange of ideas between people's high-school teachers in and out of Denmark. The organ, '^Hojskolehladet^^'' is published under its auspices. Maintenance. — All the people's high schools and agricultural schools are private institutions owned and operated by individuals or corporations. Table 16 indicates that principals are the owners in the great majority of cases.^ 1 See table in appendix, p. 170. * Dan. Stat, op. cit, p. 7. 3334°— 15 8 112 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Table 16.- —Otcnership of schools. Owners. People's high schools. Agricul- tural schools. Total. Principals 62 1 17 11 1 7 73 Other private persons . ... 2 Corporations 24 Total 80 19 99 In recent years the number of schools owned and operated by cor- porations has been on the increase. Most principals, however, seem to prefer owning their schools themselves. It leaves them much more freedom than otherwise to operate the schools according to their own ideas. Their personalities may then have full play. The history of the founding of schools may be illustrated by the follow- ing instance : A man who had taught successfully in several people's high schools was encouraged to start a school of his own in an un- occupied locality. In addition to what money he himself possessed, he borrowed as much as he could from friends and interested per- sons. With this money he ])urchased land and placed a mortgage on it to raise money for a building. With tuition moneys and State and local aid, he operates the school, pays interest on the debt and a part of the principal each year. State aid has been granted to people's high and agricultural schools from the beginning, not only for scholarships to needy stu- dents, but also to defray a part of the operating expenses of the schools. In 1892 the amount of the State aid which had gradually been increasing, was raised to 120,000 kroner; in 1902 to 140,000 kroner, and in 1908 to 150,000 kroner, together with 1,500 kroner to each additional school approved after that date. In order to share in the State aid, a school must be approved by the State. Be- fore this can take place, the school must have been in successful operation for at least two years, and have had each year at least 10 students for 12 months, 20 students for 6 months, or 40 students for 3 months. None of these students may be less than 16 years of age, and not more than one-fourth may be between 16 and 18 years. By law of 1908 the sum to each school was fixed at 500 kroner a year, plus a sum proportional to the previous year's expenditures for salaries, equipment, maintenance, and interest on debt, though not to exceed one-third of the amount of these expenditures. The amount of the appropriation directly to the schools for 1912-13 totals 171,500 kroner. There is an additional appropriation of 6,200 kroner for equipment, in which people's high and agricultural schools may share together with technical and commercial schools.^ In addition to State aid many schools receive aid from coimty school funds. Thus 38 people's high schools and 11 agricultural 1 Finanslov for 1912-13. AIMS, CURBICULA, AND METHODS. 113 schools received, respectively, 10,875 and 4,500 kroner in 1910-11 from this source. Local communes aided 3 schools to the extent of 830 kroner, and 10 schools received 6,305 kroner from associations of various kinds.^ Even though the schools are thus aided by local and State funds it is no easy task for a principal without large means to build and operate a people's high or agricultural school. The tuition rates are very low, as previously noted, and State and local aid is relatively not great. None but principals who combine a variety of qualities — busines ability, intellectual gifts, ready and forcible speech, winning personality, and popular instincts — can succeed. The number of men possessing this combination of qualities is necessarily small, and the State has therefore pursued the policy of giving such men full liberty in the conduct of their schools. There is a mild form of inspection, there being one State inspector for all the people's high and agricul- tural schools, who also inspects the schools of domestic science. His visits are therefore very infrequent. Most of his work consists in gathering statistical information relating to the schools to satisfy himself and the State that the schools are doing the work for which the State subsidizes them. He has no authority over the schools or teachers to interfere with courses of study, methods, or the like. The teachers claim and receive absolute freedom. Attempts to estimate the efficiency of the schools by the introduction of a State examina- tion have been stubbornly resisted. In fact many schools would sur- render their State grants rather than be subjected to an examination test. It is held that the best criterion of the efficiency of the schools is the judgment of the students themselves, who as grown-up men and women are capable of estimating merits and demerits. Compe- tition among the schools and the free movement of the young people from one part of the country to another serve as stimuli to keep the schools up to grade. If they fall below, the verdict is registered in the dwindling of the student body. Whatever fallacies there may or may not be in this laissez faire policy of the State the fact remains that the efficienc}^ of the schools in performing tlieir avowed service has never been seriously questioned. Chapter IX. AIMS, CURRICULA, AND METHODS. Aims. — While the Danish people's high schools of necessity vary in many respects, they are united on three cardinal points — aim. chief elements in curriculum, and method. We have previously noted the purposes and aims entertained for the people's high schools by » Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 9. 114 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. their educational forerunners and founders. Without any essential change, these aims continue to guide the work of the schools at the present time. Speaking now of the people's high schools, apart from the agricultural schools, all judgments seem to agree that their pur- pose is not vocational, nor merely informational, but broadly cul- tural. An analysis of this cultural aim, as expressed by leading high- school men and students of the movement, indicates the following elements to be most clearly apprehended: (1) To impart a harmoni- ous view of life by showing that there is a divine purpose running through history and by giving an insight into the unifying princi- ples of nature; (2) to awaken the minds and kindle the imaginations of the students to see the glory of an ideal humanity, participation in which raises them above the clods of the earth into a fellowship with God and men; (3) to establish their characters on a sound Christian foundation; (4) to develop an appreciation for the beauti- ful and noble; (5) to instill a patriotic love for their country, its history, language, and literature; (6) to inform the students about the spirit and workings of their political institutions, in order that they may make full use of their free constitution; (7) to impart useful knowledge. Favorable conditions. — ^Undoubtedly such aims cherished for a short people's high-school course seem pretentious, but it is w^ell to bear in mind the conditions which a people's high school in Denmark may premise for its work at the present time. In the first place it has to do not with children, but with grown peoph^ whose age is about on a par with that of university students. This in itself, regardless of cultural opportunities, gives the schools a student body whose maturity makes possible a higher grade of work than in an ordinary continuation school. But it must not be supposed that the young people who come to the high school have had no cultural opportunities. The high schools have been at work for over half a century and have raised the entire cultural level of the population. A young person reared in a home influenced by this culture can not but have absorbed something from it. Furthermore, one may safely assume that a young person who hopes to go to a high school at 20 will not in the meantime neglect the opportunities which will pre- pare him for such a course. Continuation schools, the local church, young people's societies, the village lecturing society, newspapers and magazines, universally read, afford manifold educative oppor- tunities to the young person whose interests draw him in that direc- tion. Even though the preparation consists in nothing more than a longing for the high school, cherished through years of waiting, this alone cultivates in the young person an intellectual thirst which is of prime importance in the search for knowledge. In order to be able to take a high-school course, the young man has perhaps been AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS. 115 saving up his hard-earned money for years and has accumulated a store of energy, hopes, and anticipations that make him an eager student. Add to these considerations a sturdy health, which affords the physical basis for energetic intellectual work, and there results a student body eminently equipped, for fruitful study. Curriculum. — The situation presented each year by the people's high schools is undoubtedly unique in the educational field through- out the world. Over 7,000 grown-up young men and women, largely from rural homes, and usually with an education of only elementary character, come to receive in five or three months the elements of a cultural education. How shall the schools meet this unique oppor- tunity ? What sort of a curriculum are they to offer ? Clearly they can not proceed in the manner of an ordinary higher school which has years for the attainment of its purpose. A different set of prin- ciples must determine the curriculum. Every element suggested for the course of study must be subjected to the question, What edu- cational value does the subject possess to entitle it to a place in a three or five months' people's high-school course? No subject, even though in itself valuable, can be given a place if it does not con- tribute to the fulfillment of the special aim of the people's high school. The limited time available precludes all subjects except those possessing a maximum of potentiality for attaining this aim, and, finally, every subject must be selected with reference to the capacities and ages of the student body. Tested by these criteria a vast amount of material found in ordinary school curricula is of course discarded. The result of the application of the above princi- ples is shown by Table 17,' which indicates the subjects found in the average high-school curriculum, together with the number of hours devoted to each. Table 17. — Subjects in people's high-school curriculum, with the average number of hours of instruction per week in each. Subjects. Boys' course (five months) Girls' course (three months). Danish Penmanship . . .\p. .•# History of literature and literary readings. History and civics Geography Sciences and hygiene Arithmetic Drawing Singing Gymnastics Household arts Agriculture, etc other subjects 8.0 1.1 5.2 9.5 2.4 4.2 5.0 2.5 1.1 5.4 .0 4.2 1.5 Total. 50. 7.7 .8 5.9 9.3 2.3 3.8 3.6 .8 1.3 5.6 9.6 .0 1.0 51.7 > Dan. Stat., Folkehojskoler og Landbriigsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 44. 116 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Absence of disciplinary subjects. — The program is interesting, in the first place, for what it does not contain. Foreign languages are altogether lacking in the average school. Some instruction in Ger- man and English is given in the advanced courses at Askov and in one or two other schools. Disciplinary mathematics, too, are missing. In general, subjects relying for their justification upon a disciplinary conception of education have no place in the people's high-school curriculum. Danish. — The table clearly indicates that Danish and history oc- cupy the largest places in the curriculum. Strictly speaking, Danish includes reading, grammar, orthography, and composition. A total of eight hours a week is devoted to these in boys' courses. The num- ber of hours is increased by 5.2 if the history of literature and literary readings be added. Table 18^ indicates the average number of hours in a term devoted to each of these subjects. Formal instruc- tion in Danish is pursued only so far as is strictly necessary to enable the students to use correct orthography and to speak a language free from colloquialisms. The instruction in language is by no means regarded as an exercise in general mental discipline. Its aim is ex- ceedingly specific and utilitarian. That it gives a cultural by- product — love for the native tongue — is in perfect accord with the central purpose of the high school. The history of literature con- cerns chiefly Denmark, although it is not limited to this country. The cultural influence of the chief movements and representative men is treated, and literary selections illustrative of each are read and stu. ied. Table 18. — SuJ}jects and average niim'ber of hours of instruction in Danish in hoys' five months'' course. Hours. Reading 39 Grammar 38 - Orthography 46 Composition 26 History. — Table 19^ indicates something of the range of work in history. Scandinavia (Denmark especially) receives the greatest em- phasis, while general history holds a place of secondary importance. The place given to Bible, church, and missionary histofy is relatively large for a school of general culture. This fact indicates very dis- tinctly the importance which the people's high schools attach to the religious element in the history of the world's culture. The work in civics, which is statistically included with history, occupies a little less than one hour a week. It aims to give an appreciation of the constitution and the forms of State and local government, so that the iDan. Stat, op. cit, p. 461. AIMS, CURBICULA, AND METHODS. 117 students may intelligently face their duties, privileges, and problems as citizens. Table 19. — Suhjects and average number of hours of instruction in history in a boys' five months' course. Hours. Scandinavian history • 73 General history 57 Church, Bible, and missionary history 33 Miscellaneous lectures 7 The people's high school has been called an historical high school, and with truth. The historical point of view is uppermost through- out; even the sciences are approached historically, as will later ap- pear. The number of hours actually devoted to instruction in his- tory is so large as also to warrant that epithet being applied to the school. When, how^ever, the statement is made that two-thirds of the time in these schools is devoted to history, the actual state of affairs suffers misrepresentation. If to history and civics (9.5 hours a week) be added history of literature (2 hours), and if the science instruction (4.2 hours) be also classified as history, the total of all these gives only 15.7 hours a week. This constitutes less than one- third (31 per cent) of the total number of hours of instruction per week in all subjects. Arithmetic. — Of much importance, as measured by the time ele- ment, is arithmetic. This subject is included because of its extreme utility. The work, however, is limited to the exact needs of the students, only such portions of arithmetic, geometry, and accounts being included as are necessary for the average farmer or artisan in his vocation. Table 20. — Subjects and average number of hours of instruction in sciences in boys' five months' course. Hours. Physics 38 Zoology and botany 11 Chemistry 13 Hygiene 18 /Sciences. — Sciences and hygiene occupy 4.2 hours a week. The relative importance of each subject in this group appears from Table 20.^ Physics holds the first place, as might be expected. Clearly, however, the work in this, as well as the other subjects, must be limited to the elements. Nevertheless, the sciences hold an estab- lished place in the schools, for the hours that are assigned to them, even though few, give the students a reasonably intelligent apprecia- tion of their environment. 1 Dan. Stat., op. cit., p. 46. 118 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Geography. — Geography, handled in a large way, affords an ex- cellent means of familiarizing the Danish young people with their native country. A study is made of its physical characteristics, the means of access to its various parts, its resources, how these may be developed, and the economic problems arising therefrom. In imagi- nation the entire country is traversed, the occupations and habits of the people in the various parts being studied. Attention is also given to a comparative study of neighboring countries and the com- mercial relations in which Denmark is involved. Geography treated in a patriotic spirit is one of the chief instruments in the hands of the schools for instilling love of the fatherland. Drawing and penmanship. — Drawing is included chiefly in order to afford an avenue for self-expression and to give a sense of form. That it possesses practical usefulness, too, for the farmer boy, is not difficult to demonstrate. The small average amount of time de- voted to penmanship, 1.1 hours a week, is explainable by the fact that many schools give no time to this subject, while none gives a great deal. It is not necessary, for writing is one of the arts exceed- ingly well taught by the elementary schools. Singing. — Singing holds a much larger place in the people's high school than is indicated by the 1.1 hours a week assigned to it. It is formal instruction in singing which occupies this insignificant place, many schools giving no time to this subject. But the singing of songs is an essential characteristic of every people's high school. The day begins with song. Usually a song is sung at the beginning and sometimes at the end of every hour of work. A person inter- ested in the education of the plain people finds his heart beating faster when he sees and hears 150 brawny young farmers singing with all their hearts one of the stirring songs that have moved people to action. The songs are of the most varied character, dealing with religion, patriotism, love, home, geography, history, and folk lore. A book containing hundreds of songs has been edited and published by the teachers' association for use in the schools. Some unfriendly critics of the people's high school have facetiously made the charge that the students do not learn anything but singing. There may ap- parently be some reason for the criticism, but it is perhaps not a serious danger that comes from this passionate devotion to song. Agriculture. — As previously indicated, the work in agriculture and related subjects is not essential to a people's high-school course. In many schools, however, which do not pretend to give instruction in agriculture, series of lectures on agricultural subjects are given which are statistically listed under this caption. This accounts in part for the relatively large number of hours (4.2) devoted to this subject. AIMS^ CUKEICULA^ AND METHODS. 119 Gymnastics.— ^ysi&o[\?it\G gymnastics constitute a part of every day's program. A gymnasium is considered as essential as a lecture room to the equipment of a school. In fact it is largely due to the influence of the people's high schools that gymnastics have been so generally introduced into the school life of Denmark. A modified form of the Swedish Lyng system is used, and every student is given the special attention his needs require. Gymnastics are not looked upon as a hateful drill by these sturdy rural people, but as a joyous opportunity for physical movement and for building up their bodies into still more robust health. Variations in emphasis. — Additional light is thrown upon the cur- riculum by the differences in attention devoted to the various sub- jects.^ Danish, historj^, geography, arithmetic, and gymnastics are found in all the schools. The variation in the number of hours de- voted to these is very large, but there is a fairly well-defined mode in each subject, most clearly marked in the case of gynmastics. Physics is found in all but one school, literary readings in all but three, drawing in all but six, agriculture in all but seven, and hy- giene in all but nine. The remaining subjects are missing in a large number of the schools. Least uniformity is present in the case of literary readings and agriculture. Features of girls'^ curriculum. — Boys and girls pursue essentially the same program except that the girls have no agriculture and de- vote considerable time to household arts. Sciences, arithmetic, and drawing also show fewer hours per week for girls. The distinctive feature of the girls' program is the attention given to household arts. This work consists largely in the weaving of fabrics of artistic pat- tern. A revival of this household art has swept over the Scandi- navian countries, and the courses in the people's high schools are at once the cause and effect of the revival. Perhaps in no other way do the schools so w^ell demonstrate their devotion to that which is of the people as by their furtherance of this art. They love the homemade and the genuine. Sewing and embroidery also occupy some of the time devoted to household arts. An interesting feature of gymnastics in girls' courses is the atten- tion given to folk dances. These, too, have been revived and adapted to educational purposes. They form a very pleasant variation in the work of formal gymnastics, affording a means of healthful recreation and of developing grace of movement. Advanced courses at Ashov. — Work of a somewhat higher grade than in ordinary people's high schools is done in the advanced school at Askov. Before entering here students have attended a people's high school or other school of more than elementary character. The 1 See table in appendix, p. 170. 120 THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL. work at Askov extends over two terms of six months each. Table 21 indicates the scope of the instruction.^ As will be noticed, the total number of hours per week is even greater than in the ordinary peo- ple's high school. In explanation of this large total it may be in order to mention that a great many of the hours of work require no preparation on the part of the students. Even so, it is plainly evi- dent that the students in these schools lead a very busy life. Table 21. — Curriculum of advanced people's high school at Askov. Subjects. Danish Scandinavian literature General history Scandinavian history. . Geography Civics Mathematics Historical physics English or German Drawing Singing Hours of instruction per week. First Second year. Subjects. Arithmetic Hygiene The life of language General lectures Literature of the world. History of religion Nature study Gymnastics Total. Hours of instruction per week. First 52 Second year. Methods. — While the people's high schools possess unusual cur- ricula, the institutions are perhaps still more unique in their methods. Ordinary higher schools, that deal with youth through a series of years, proceed to impart a mass of formal knowledge. When the young person has developed sufficient powers of generalization, he will come to see this knowledge as a whole with the parts properly related. He can estimate the relative value of each and thus get a harmonious view of life. The people's high schools likewise en- deavor to give the essentials of culture, to put their students into an intelligent relation to the spiritual possessions of the race. But their method must be different. The limited time available does not permit of this slow process. Furthermore, they are not dealing with children, but with grown people who are capable of seeing the broad lines of development when mapped out for them, and who have developed a sense of values which enables them to judge between essentials and details. Cultural materials must be presented to these adult students in such a way that they can see the inherent values involved, and the data must be organized in such a way that the students recognize the rational connection. In other words, " the people's high schools must give the mate- rials for a philosophy of life in their organic relationships, so that the youth not only "may take away with him a mass of facts, but ^Announcement for 1912-13, AIMS^ CURRICULA, AND METHODS. 123 see the organic relations among them." ^ In order to affect him per- manently, the subject matter must be woven into the warp and woof of his personality. Method in history. — The method used is illustrated in the best way by the treatment of history. If a people's high school teacher is to discuss the Persian Wars/ he will previously have told about the older nations and, most recently, of the Persian empire. He will also have had opportunities of giving the students some notion of the spirit and life of the Greek people, and of how 'these differed from the Asiatic in mode of thought. Having thus awakened a desire to pursue the historical movement westward, he takes up the Persian Wars. With as much detail as is necessary for a vivid pic- ture he tells how the Persians and the Greeks approached nearer and nearer to each other until they finally clashed on Greek soil, and how the little Grecian nation dared to enter the unequal fight to pre- serve its liberty. He tells of the great men who by the magic of their spirit kept their countrymen awake, led them in battle, and supported their courage in moments of distress. He tells of the glorious combats at Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea. He must, of course, tell the story well, so that the heroic figures of Miltiades, Leonidas, and Themistocles stand out vividly before the eyes of the students. He must, furthermore, narrate the events so that in the very story the students may see the deep, hidden con- nection between events. They must feel something of that which drove the Greek people into this crucial fight. In addition he must seek to fix the lessons of the story by clarifying and amplifying the idealistic elements involved. He must therefore complete his nar- rative by a historical-philosophical elaboration. It must not appear as an accident that the Darius and Xerxes millions were humbled by the little Grecian band. The students must be led to see the law of history and of life according to which the result was inevitable. They must understand the fundamental superiority of the little band which, " obedient to the laws of Sparta," in love of freedom, country, and honor braided their hair and decked themselves as for a festival when they went out into the great combat to die the death of heroes. They must understand the moral superiority of these people over the blindly driven masses of Persians. They must like- wise be led to see that the sacrifice of Leonidas was not a senseless act of a man " who lets his people be cut down in a mountain pass by a superior force and even then does not win," but that this well- considered act was really a deed with large decisive results. The teacher must furthermore make it clear to the students how the achievement of the Greeks was possible for a people of their * Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 109flf. 122 THE DAITISH people's HIGH SCHOOL. spirit and history. For this purpose he must explain the character- istic contents of Grecian mythology and folklore, and by the help of translations and stories give them some idea of the Homeric poetry. He must show that out of the differing beliefs and spirit of the peoples arise differing deeds and lives. Along with this, he must awaken in the souls of his hearers a desire to live a similarly full, generous, and beautiful life, for their own satisfaction and for the gain and glory of their country. All that is great and noble in the history of past nations must, by the instrumentality of the teacher, be permitted to sink itself into the lives of the students and call forth the elements of a similar life. Use of lectures. — It is clear that such a presentation of history can be successfully made only by the use of the human voice in lectures. It has been the experience of the Danes, as perhaps of many other peoples, that efforts at the enlightenment of the common people by means of learned books have proved futile. Books appeal primarily to the intelligence which is least developed in the case of the meagerly educated. The Danish people's high schools are concerned with peo- ple whose intellectual level must be called primitive in comparison with the materials with which they deal. They must therefore ap- peal not so much to the understanding of the students as to their hearts and their personalities. For this, vivifying human speech far surpasses the " dead words " of books. In lecturing, the teachers use no notes, or at least very few. Students likewise take no notes during the progress of a lecture. The eyes of teacher and students meet. This the teachers consider essential to success. They want the stu- dents' undivided attention. They want to see the students' faces and know whether their spirits are responsive to their own. Much of the teachers' inspiration in their work comes from the gleaming eye and the sympathetic look that meets them as they watch the faces of their hearers. On the other hand, if their discourse is fail- ing to reach home, this verdict, too, is immediately recorded in the faces before them, and the teachers can make the adjustments neces- sary to regain attention. Secret of success — Mastery of subject. — One may ask how it is possible to speak with profitable results to such people about themes which seem to lie above their comprehending level. This is one form of the problem that has been faced over and over again by people who really believe in culture for the common people. It is therefore worth while to study the method used by the teachers in these insti- tutions which, it is agreed, have with large success bridged the gap usually existing between the common people and the cultural posses- sion of their country and race. AIMS, CURRICULA, AND METHODS. 123 As the scientific writer of history, so the people's high-school teacher of history must have attained to a certain view of the chief lines of historical devolpment by the study of the historical materials bearing upon the period under discussion. He can not transmit an abridged form of general history, but must give the development in large generalizations formed on the basis of wide study. As library aids, therefore, the teachers do not use textbooks or syllabi, but such works as those of Schlosser, Eanke, Taine, Gibbon, Hume, Macauley, or Ullstein. In Scandinavian history they make large use of the readily available source material. The teacher must have lived him- self so thoroughly into the historical situation that he speaks with conviction and enthusiasm, as it were, out of his own life experience. Selection of materixil for treatment. — Having acquired this knowl- edge and insight into historical trend, it remains to find the proper means and manner of expression. He may not bring into his pres- entation the materials which have contributed to form his present viewpoint. "He tells things straightforwardly, just as he now sees them to be." Neither does he discuss in abstract form the laws that govern the historical phenomena, but endeavors to find the crucial point in the development and then let the operations of the laws ap- pear through the concrete event or individual. In short, the teacher must have his eyes fixed upon the great course of the world's history and the points where the current is the strongest. When he sees this clearly he selects the individual men and events which mark the main stream and its currents. These, then, he treats so fully that they arouse the vivid participation of the hearers. By this manner of treatment a great many things that are found in a textbook in history are of course left out. Thus, while a n^ove- ment in one country may be treated vety fully, a parallel movement in another country may be passed over with a mere mention. Instead of saying something about a long series of kings, a single representa- tive may be chosen for treatment while the rest are left untouched. A single battle may represent a long war, and many wars are passed over altogether as contributing nothing to the world's progress. The great, the significant, the decisive is always selected for treatment. Full treatment of selected material. — As a result of this selection the portions that are presented are given so much greater attention and fuller treatment. Prominent personages and events are made to stand out clearly, and, as a result, impress themselves upon the memory and influence personality. From the standpoint of the people's high school it is infinitely more fruitful, for instance, in the treat- ment of American history, to say something significant about Thomas Jefferson and his service to republicanism than to present in order the dates and events of all the early presidential administrations. 124 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Individual men are given great prominence, so much so that history at times seems to resolve itself into a series of biographies. In pre- senting an individual's part in history, however, the teacher does not merely give a personal biography. He seeks to show the man as the exponent of a principle, the central force in a movement, or the " man of destiny " called forth to meet a crisis. The German Refor- mation is tied up with the personality of Luther, while Bismarck symbolizes the spirit of German nationalism. Thus is presented a philosophy of history which the student can understand. As em- phasis is placed upon history-making men and events, so efforts are also made to show the large workings of the moral laws in history and the great forces that make for and against national stability. Severe demands on teachers. — It need not be stated that this type of history teaching makes severe demands upon the teachers. It requires not only sound scholarship but forceful personality and power of expression. The ability possessed by some of the teachers to make history speak to these rural young people is indeed a revela- tion of the possibilities of their method. By constant and long- continued practice they have acquired the ability to handle their subjects so skillfully, with such clarity of thought and such simple language that even the unlettered youth can follow the development of the thought. To be sure misfits are occasionally met with, but the free movement of students throughout the country serves to weed out the unfit. Only those suited for the work can succeed. Success requires intellectual ability, but it also demands the qualities of heart which enable the teacher to live and feel with his subject and with his students. Bredsdorff says : ^ Onfy that history instruction ha^ power which is in such close compact with life itself that life's deep forces mingle themselves in it, and life's essence moves through it with the power of reality. It is clear then that effective history Instruction is that in which life is felt as a stream rising in the remotest past and rushing on toward the sea of eternity. We ourselves are in the midst of it, Its waters foam around us and through us, so that we feel ourselves as part of It and through joys and sorrows we are carried on to the unending. Method in sciences. — Since the historic approach to a subject, especially by the people's high-school method, places the student in such vital, personal contact with it, there has been developed a method by which also the sciences are studied historically. Instead of presenting the body of scientific knowledge systematically, the progress of the discovery of scientific truth is traced up through the centuries. By this method the students are constantly trained to look at natural phenomena, not apart but in their relation to man. Furthermore, the student comes to share in the problems and the » Quoted by HoUmann, op. clt., p. 121. AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS. 125 joys of the inventor and discoverer, and thus acquires scientific knowledge more personally and more thoroughly than otherwise. The method which is used in practically all branches of science is best described by the master of the art, Paul la Cour, who alone, or in collaboration with others, has published several textbooks in science built upon the historic method. In a lecture^ setting forth the possibilities of the metliod as applied to astromechanics he says in part: In this connection attention is directed to the great thinker Archimedes, who is already well known from general history. The students should first be made acquainted with his life and his exploits in defense of Syracuse. Thereupon they are told that he considered this service of small importance, but wished that his tombstone might bear the image of a cone, sphere, and cylinder in mem- ory of the fact that his intellect had been able to solve the relation beween the volumes of these bodies. Then the students are excellently prepared to follow out the mechanical principles of Archimedes with interest and attention. These are so necessary in order to experience the pleasure of one's own ability of thought, but are often lacking when mechanical principles are presented sys- tematically and abstractly. After the discovery of America sciences are again revived in Europe. Galileo begins where Archimedes left off some 17 or IS centuries before. Galileo's life and discoveries, like those of Archimedes, are eminently suitable as material for instruction. They need merely to be told very simply. After having mentioned a few Aristotelian misconceptions in regard to the characteristics of air, one passes on to the discovery of atmospheric pressure by Galileo's pupil, Torricelli. Thereupon follows Pascal's convincing proof of the correctness of this discovery and the commotion produced by it all over the civilized world. Then are told the stories of Otto V. Guerick's hasty attempt at making a fire engine into an air pump and his experiments before the Ger- man Parliament, and also Robert Boyle's successful construction of an air pump and scientific experiments with it. Some time later follow the invention of the balloon and the discovery of the elements of the air, which, so to speak, opened the door for the great advance in chemistry during the last century. Dynamics are studied in connection with Galileo and Stevin, the Hollander Huyghens, the inventor of the pendulum, and his great English contemporaries. Finally, modern astronomy is taken up. Copernicus makes such a thorough historic study of the Grecians that he not only announces anew that the earth moves around the sun, but adds — what the Greeks did not say — that also the planets revolve around the sun. Then Tycho Brahe builds up from the bottom by making ingenious and care- ful measurements with excellently constructed instruments. His pupil, Kepler, formulates the results into the three laws which make his name immortal, and Isaac Newton explains celestial mechanics so thoroughly that it was said in the Royal Scientific Society in London that " there was nothing more to be done." After this trio, whose works ought never to be studied otherwise than in their historic connections, one naturally considers several contemporary and later astronomers, as Ole Romer, Bradley, Bessel, Jansen, and others. 1 Delivered at a meeting of people's high-school teachers at Hvilan, Sweden, 1890. Printed in proceedings, p. 81 fl. 126 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. General use of lecture method. — The lecture method is used in all subjects capable of its application. Opportunity for the use of the "living word," for the contact of spirit with spirit, is sought for always. In addition to the subjects already mentioned, history and sciences, the method is used in literature, civics, geography, hygiene, and, to some extent, in the study of Danish. The reading aloud of literary selections is a favorite form of spending one of the evening hours. Use of texthoohs. — In general, textbooks are used only in subjects which do not lend themselves well to the use of the lecture method. In recent years, however, there has been in certain quarters an in- crease in the use of books and in the emphasis on work by the students themselves. In most schools now several hours a day are spent by students in individual work, chiefly in Danish and arithmetic. In some schools the practice of students making notes of lectures heard iii a previous hour is required or encouraged. No examinations . — It has previously been stated that the people's high schools have no examinations either at the beginning or end of their courses. A certificate of attendance is furnished to those who desire it, but no grades or diploma of graduation are given. There is no inducement of any kind to cram. Without the stress of preparing for formal knowledge tests, the students who have come from plow and bench are permitted to live their life quietly during these months while the treasures of culture are being opened to them and they are getting an insight into the wonderful world about them. With new and enlarged vision they return to the work they left. Aim of agricultural schools. — Since the purpose of the agricultural schools is vocational, they necessarily differ somewhat from the peo- ple's high schools. The difference is most marked in the case of aims and curricula. Naturally the agricultural schools aim to train agri- culturalists. They endeavor to equip young farmers to cultivate their land and care for their live stock more intelligently and efficiently. The same service is performed for young men who have no land of their own, but who desire to assume the management of large farms. Some schools have as their sole purpose the instruction of very small farmers in the conduct of their limited acres. A model farm is usually conducted, on which the boys spend part of their time in actual farm work with a view to learning the best methods. Some of the schools also maintain courses for the specific purpose of training gardeners, managers of creameries, and experts to be employed by the " societies of control." Domestic-science courses in some schools aim to meet the vocational demands of girls. While the leading purpose of the agricultural schools is specifically vocational, the humanity of the students is not lost to view. Along AIMS, CURKICULA, AND METHODS. 127 with the technical instruction the schools endeavor to exert a broadly cultural influence in order to cultivate in the young man or woman an appreciation for the higher values. Curricula of agricultural schools. — Detailed information in regard to the curricula of agricultural schools is not available. In broad out- line their work is indicated by the subjoined table/ which states the average number of hours devoted to the various subjects in five and six months' courses, respectively. It would seem that the six months' course is more pronouncedly vocational than the five months' course, for, although a month longer, it has a considerably smaller number of hours devoted to cultural subjects. This fact is perhaps explain- able by the very circumstance of the longer term, which permits of a more adequate treatment of the large amount of technical material. The vocational function is apparently more clearly apprehended and more specifically pursued than in the five months' course, which re- tains more the nature of a general people's high school. The place held by cultural subjects in both courses is significantly large and indicates the close kinship existing between the agricultural and the people's high school. Table 22. — Curricula jof agricultural scfiools, 1910-11, Subjects. Average number of hours of instruction. Five months' course. Six months' course. Sciences Plants and cereals Live stock and dairying Other agricultural subjects . Cultural subjects 211 159 143 97 295 237 181 176 136 251 Methods of agricultural schools. — Due allowance being made for the difference in the curricular material, the agricultural schools resemble the people's high schools very much in point of methods. Informal lectures constitute the chief medium of instruction. A difference is discernible, however, especially in the teaching of the sciences. In these individual work in experimentation is carried on. The purpose is to train the students in habits of observation and to familiarize them with such technical terms and processes as are employed in scientific agriculture, rather than the development of technical skill. Thus the student does work in analysis of soils, fertilizers, and the like, not with a view to testing the qualities of 1 Dan. Stat., op. dt., p. 47. 3334°— 15 9 128 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. these materials himself when he goes back to his farm, but to enable him to understand the results of such analysis and testing when performed by an expert. The value of such intelligence to the Danish farmer is very large. Experimentation in methods of culti- vation and rotation of crops is done to some extent. In some schools the students are divided into sections to assist in the work on the experimental farm, each group doing a different kind of work in rotation. In dairy schools experiments are made with different kinds of separators, churns, pasteurizing and cooling plants, and the like. Thus each specialized function of the schools employs to some extent the distinctive methods best suited to its purpose. Alumni reunions. — It must not be supposed that the usefulness of these people's schools in the lives of their students terminates with the close of the term. Once the student has come in touch with a school there is established a permanent bond of connection. To keep alive and stimulate this interest, mutually advantageous to the student and the school, there is held by most schools an alumni reunion each year. For a period of one or more days former students come back to renew acquaintance with fellow students and teachers, review experiences, recall forgotten events, and sing the old songs together. An intellectual treat of high order is also provided for them, to instruct and stimulate. These social and intellectual fea- tures make the alumni reunion a red-letter day in the lives of many farmers' sons and daughters. Autumn meetings. — The autumn meeting provides another means of binding former students and the people of the community to the school. These autumn meetings, which are a feature of nearly every school, extend over a period of several days, and in many features are comparable to our American Chautauquas. Upward of 1,500 former students and friends, almost exclusively from the agri- cultural classes, attend. The varied program consists of lectures, discussions, and excursions of an educational nature, under the guidance of experienced teachers, all adapted to the needs and the interests of the participants. Naturally the social features of these meetings constitute one of their chief attractions. Extension work. — As the service of the schools is not limited by time, so neither is it by distance. From every people's high school the forces that make for culture flow out in widening circles. By the production of books ably and popularly written, by large con- tributions to newspapers and magazines, and by frequent lectures in the village societies the teachers in the people's schools are exert- ing an influence for enlightenment, economic efficiency, culture, and morality, throughout Denmark. INFLUENCE AND RESULTS. 129 Chapter X. INFLUENCE AND RESULTS. Estimate difjiGult. — What are the results of the operation of these unique educational agencies? Extravagant statements regarding the beneficent results of the people's high-school movement have undoubtedly been made by uncritical enthusiasts. Unfriendly critics, on the other hand, have unduly minimized the significance of the schools. The truth lies somewhere between these extremes. Well-informed Danes and the many foreign students of the schools agree in assigning to the people's high-school movement a remark- able influence. The difficulty and complexity of the problem of tracing out these influences and results are very great, and the foreign investigator can not hope to succeed fully. He must con- tent himself with pointing out certain facts and conditions which give evidence of sustaining an appreciable relation to this educa- tional movement. Cultural results: Lecturing societies. — Since culture is the avowed purpose of the people's high schools, it is pertinent to inquire as to results in this particular. As a direct outcome of the high-school movement there have been established in practically every village and town the so-called lecturing societies. These are local organiza- tions meeting about once a month with a program of literary or social nature. Sometimes a lecturer from the outside is engaged, and for this purpose high-school teachers are in great demand. At other times the program is made up of local talent, papers being read or debates engaged in. Men and women who have been away to high school naturally take the lead in these matters. These lectures and debates are most eagerly attended by all the people in the neighborhood, some men and women often walking 4 or 5 miles in order to hear the lectures or join in the debates. The result of this form of social intercourse is that the oldest inhabitant feels that he has by no means finished his education. To give an example of the subjects chosen for these lectures: An eclipse of the moon was shortly to take place, and it is highly probable that a vast number of lectures were given in the villages on astronomy, ex- plaining the reasons for these natural phenomena. Any subject which may be the means of raising higher ideals and thoughts on higher objects than the mere means whereby wealth may be produced is chosen, and thus the subjects are mostly of a general nature, but at the same time giving food for thought and tending toward the higher and healthier cultivation of mind and body.* It is estimated that there are in Denmark 1,000 such societies, with an average of 10 meetings a year, and 100 people in attendance at each meeting. The product of these figures is 1,000,000, which num- 1 Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 133. 130 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. ber gives some idea of the cultural influence exerted by these in- stitutions. Another form of cultural activity is carried on in some of the high-school homes. These are modest hotels in the larger towns, where high-school men and women may meet and carry on work of a high-school character. High intelligence. — The direct and indirect influences of the peo- ple's high schools have contributed to produce a general intelligence of a very high order. The Norwegian poet, Bjornson, describes the Danish rural population as "the most enlightened peasantry in the world." This superlative estimate is, of course, difficult of demon- stration, but there is abundant evidence to show that the Danes oc- cupy a very high position on the cultural ladder. There is in the first place the Danish antipathy toward ignorance. This is the one thing that a Dane is ashamed of. The tradition of education is strong and of long standing. Sometimes the school opportunities during childhood years have been meager. But with all the more zest, men and women seem to seize upon every oppor- tunity for extending their knowledge, by a course at school, hearing lectures, or by home reading. A nation of readers. — The Danes are voracious readers. In 1910-11 there were published in Denmark 261 newspapers and 1,187 magazines,^ and this in a country with a population of about two and a half millions. It is a well-known fact that, although the Danish newspaper is of small size and not always a very attractive print in the eyes of a foreigner, a far larger number of copies proportionally are in circulation than in any other com- munity in the world. It may truthfully be said that scarcely a home may be found in all Denmark which does not subscribe to at least one daily newspaper, and in many cases to several, not to mention the large number of weeklies specially edited for the peasantry, which are to be found everywhere. The price of the Danish newspaper is nominal, rarely exceeding 5 ore, and even very small towns and every borough town in the country issues two or more of these papers. The illustrated journals published every week have in some cases close upon 100,000 subscribers.' Love of hoohs. — Newspapers and magazines do not constitute the only mental food of the Danes, however. Their love of books war- ranted the publication, in 1910-11, of 3,485 separate titles, and 31,335 brochures.^ The prevalence of libraries is indicated by the following table :» 1 Statistik Aarbog, 1912, Table 128. "Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 113. • Statistik Aarbog, 1912, Table 129. rBTFLUENCB AND EESITLTS. Table 23. — State-aided libraries in DenmarTc, 1910-11, 131 Libraries. Rural. City Total. Publlclibraries: 655 305,000 564,000 554 57,000 368,000 361 10,000 50 122,000 394,000 91 39,000 337,000 95 17,000 705 427, 000 Lo&ns ....'.................................. .................. 958,000 School libraries: 645 Volumes 96,000 705,000 Teachers' libraries: Number 456 Volumes 27,000 It is significant to bear in mind, in a comparison of libraries in city and rural communities, that the city population of Denmark now constitutes 40 per cent. To students familiar with the cultural conditions of rural communities in some other countries the facts of the above table regarding rural Denmark must prove a revelation, indeed. In addition to these public library facilities practically every home has a well-selected library of standard authors, and the books serve not merely as ornaments; they are read. In 1884 there was organ- ized a committee for the publication of cheap and instructive books of moderate size. Among other achievements the committee has pub- lished thousands of pamphlets on scientific subjects, popularly pre- sented, at an average price of 2J cents a copy. These books have been of immense importance in spreading general intelligence among the working and agricultural classes in the country.^ Love of art. — Love for and appreciation of art are also marked characteristics of the Danes. Excursions under capable guidance are frequently made to the cities to visit museums and other places of interest. Even in the humblest homes one is surprised at the refined taste shown in the selection of decorative materials. The influence of the people's high schools in the development of this cultural trait also deserves to be taken into account. Economic results. — Since material prosperity is so essential to the happiness of a people, it is proper to inquire into the effect of the people's high schools upon economic conditions. As is generally known, the economic rise of Denmark during the nineteenth century was remarkable. Low lands were drained, heath lands reclaimed, and the production of butter, beef, bacon, eggs, sugar, roots, and grains moved forward with giant strides.^ As a result Denmark rose from a condition of national bankruptcy in the beginning of the century to the position of second place in per capita wealth in Europe, according to the estimate of the statistical expert, Mr. Mul- hall.« 1 Report of a Deputation Sent from Ireland, 1903, p. 114. a See tables iu Appendix, pp. 299-301. « Smith, The Best Methods of Organization for Agricultural Cooperation and Credit, p. 9. 132 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. This remarkable advance in economic prosperity seems attributable to three causes — peasant proprietorship of land, the universal system of cooperation in vogue, and the popular system of education. Peasant proprietorship. — The subject of peasant proprietorship, which is very interesting in itself, concerns us here only in so far as it is bound up with education and cooperation in the explanation of the country's prosperity. Before 1792 the land in Denmark was held principally by a few large proprietors. To these the peasants were subject as tenants, and their condition was not much better than that of the serfs in Russia at a later day. Industrial depression and gen- eral discontent prevailed throughout the country. Agitation for peasant proprietorship was begun, and the land was gradually trans- ferred from the large landowners to the peasants themselves. The process moved very slowly, however, until 1851, when a great stimu- lus to the desire for ownership was given by the establishment of State-controlled companies that offered long-time loans secured by mortgages on the land to be transferred. Mortgages were taken up to 50 and 60 per cent of the purchase price of the land, and the time of payment ranged from 50 to 100 years. Under this system the transfer of lands went on rapidly. Rates of interest were rather high, however, and the annual pay- ments constituted a heavy drain upon the farmers. A betterment took place in the latter part of tlje last and the beginning of this century by the organization of cooperative credit associations. Through these agencies long-time loans may now be had at 4 per cent. If a prospective buyer has one-tenth the purchase price of a parcel of land, he can borrow the other nine-tenths on that margin of security. The annual payments of 4 per cent are sufficient not only for the payment of the interest, but also for a sinking fund, which repays the principal of the debt in 50 years' time.^ These methods have accelerated the transition from tenancy to proprietor- ship until at the present time about 90 per cent of the occupiers of land are proprietors. Peasant proprietorship has stimulated the self-respect of the Dan- ish peasants and has presented a favorable field for the work of the people's high schools. Growth of intelligence again stimulated others to become proprietors instead of tenants, and thus the two factors have gone hand in hand. System of cooperation. — Peasant proprietorship could not have succeeded so well, nor become so general, however, without the re- markable system of cooperation which has sprung up. This move- ment, too, it will appear, is bound up with the people's high schools. 1 Sinclair, Report of Wisconsin State Board of Public Affairs on Agricultural Coopera- tion, p. 11. INFLUENCE AND EESULTS. 133 The Danish system of cooperation is indeed a marvel of efficient or- ganization. It has become the object of study and the pattern for imitation by agricultural communities throughout the world. The Danish farmers raise their crops, select, buy, and feed their stock, prepare and market their products, buy their supplies, and supply their own means of credit all by the aid of cooperation. The movement began in 1882 with the establishment of a co- operative creamery. The idea took root at once and grew until, in 1912, there were 1,177 cooperative creameries, handling prac- tically all the milk in the country. The movement has spread also to other lines of activity, until to-day there is scarcely a field that has net been entered by cooperative organization. Some idea of the extent to which cooperation has been developed may be derived from the following figures for 1912 : ^ Table 24 — Cooperative societies in Denmarlc, 1912. Societies. Number. Members. A gri-^ult ural so^iotios Socii'tifts of renters and small farmers S(x-ictles for purchase ani sale of agricultural produce, 1903 Societies for the breeding of horses Sof-isties for the breeding of cattle Societies for the breeding of swine Societies for the breeding of sheep Societies of control for the oversight of dairy herds Cooperal ive creameries Cooperative bacon factories Farmers loan societies or credit banks, 1900 Ho 820 640 280 1/45 238 104 521 1,177 39 147 89,800 45,000 46,000 In addition to the above there are cooperative societies for horti- culture, seed growing, poultry farming, beekeeping, sugar-beet farm- ing, sugar manufacture, fisheries, forestation, reclamation of heath lands, insurance, pensions, lectures on agricultural economics, and so on almost without limit. In many of these lines of activity the local societies are federated into one organization for the district or county, and these organiza- tions elect representatives to a board for the entire country. By these various steps all the individuals are organized under one central administration, usually with headquarters at Copenhagen. The Royal Danish Agricultural Society is a union and a clearing house for all cooperative associations connected with agriculture in the country. Nearly all these cooperative organizations receive aid from the State. The usual procedure is for the State to make the appropria- tion to the central board. This body apportions the funds to the various district or county organizations, which in turn apply the funds available to the several societies in such a manner as best to 1 Larsen, Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912. 134 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. serve the purpose intended by the State. In this way the State may easily and intelligently reach with expert advice and material support any particular line of activity that seems to be in need of develop- ment. Advantages from cooperation. — By this universal application of the principle of cooperation to agriculture in all its phases there have been derived, according to the estimate of Mr. Dymond, an English investigator, the following advantages: (1) Yield has been increased, (2) quality has been improved, (3) cost of production has been lessened, and (4) better prices have been obtained.^ The phenomenal economic rise of the country, which is due so largely to agriculture, would seem to give weight to this estimate. In the matter of marketing alone the small farmers, who are very numerous in Denmark, have been very materially aided. Ey the help of cooperation they have been enabled to dispose of their products on terms equally good with those of the large farmers. The result of the various fpctors working together is indicated by very tangible evidence in that the exports of the three chief products — butter, bacon, and eggs — increased fivefold in value in 20 years.^ Economic contribution of peopWa high schools. — The question is now pertinent. What relation do the people's high schools sustain to these cooperative and economic movements? The thoughtful reader will ere this have formed an opinion of his own as to the degree of intelligence that must exist among the farmers to make such co- operation possible. It requires no small amount of intelligence on the part of the people to see the advantage of all these various forms of cooperation, to grasp, for instance, the fact that good marketing, which involves a consideration of the conditions in other countries, is as much a part of good farming as the production of the crops. A broad outlook, too, is required to appreciate the truth that the interests of the group are the interests of the individual, and vice versa. Furthermore, the many duties which devolve upon committee members and managers of all these cooperative organizations also make large demands upon the intelligence. It will be recalled that from one-fourth to one-third of the entire rural population attend these people's high schools at some time in their lives, and these are virtually the only schools above the ele- mentary schools that are open to the farming class. It seems, there- fore, almost a truism to say that the people's high schools have con- tributed largely to that high intelligence and that broad sympathy among the rural population which makes successful cooperation possible. The people's high schools are described as " hotbeds " of the cooperative movement. It thrives best in their soil. Statistics » Quoted by Thornton In Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, p. 125. « See tables in appendix, pp. 299-301. INFLTJENCE AND EESULTS. 135 show that more than one-half of all members of committees in co- operative societies and nine-tenths of all the managers of cooperative creameries are former high-school men.^ Production of a particular type of mind. — The attitude of the Danish farmers to the cooperative movement is only a particular manifestation of the type of mind which the people's high schools have produced among the rural population. It is to this background of broad intelligence and intense patriotism that we must direct our attention if we would even partially understand the economic rise of Denmark. The high state of perfection of Danish agriculture would naturally lead one to think that its excellence is due to the vocational instruc- tion in agricultural schools. While the work done in these schools in Denmark is of a high order, yet no one will contend that in this respect Denmark is superior to some other countries in Europe, such as Germany or Hungary. Furthermore, the agricultural schools are attended by only a very small proportion of the farmers. The ex- planation of Danish agricultural excellence is not to be found so much in the possession of expert intelligence by the farmers them- selves, but rather in a condition of mind that is capable of receiving and profiting by expert intelligence contributed by specialists. Clearly but a small proportion of farmers in any community can be- come school-trained agricultural experts, but it is possible to have a body of farmers capable of being guided b}^ experts. The production of an agricultural population that reads and possesses a mind open to receive new ideas, a willingness to listen to expert advice, a spirit of enterprise that is not afraid of making new adjustments, and a patriotism that is vitally concerned about the nation's prestige — this is the great economic contribution of the people's high schools. Reading hahit. — That the Danish rural people are a reading popu- lation is attested by the fact that no fewer than 53 journals ?.nd papers relating to agriculture and allied interests are required to supply the demand.^ This takes no account of the general news- papers and journals, the wide circulation of which has previously been mentioned. Open minds. — And not only do these people read, but their minds are open to receive new ideas, whether from at home or abroad. This trait is cultivated by the high schools. The young men and women are trained to look everywhere for good ideas, not to absorb them uncritically, but to observe and to choose. One high school maintains a department styled "A window to the West," an evi- dence of a desire to let in light from England and America. 1 Thornton, in Educational Times, November, 1905. * Landokonomisk Aarbog, 1912, p. 120. 136 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Respect for the Expert; societies of Kontrol. — ^^A peeuliarly sig- nificant result of this openness of mind is the willingness of the farming class to profit by the aid of experts. This respect for the expert is admirably illustrated by the success of societies of Kontrol^ that have been established in every corner of the land, for the over- sight of dairy herds. The writer can not do better than quote here the description of the operation of these societies as given in the re- port of a deputation from Ireland : The system, briefly, is as follows: The farmers of a district form a society on cooperative lines for the purpose of Kontrol, and about 1,000 cows in a so- ciety would be sufficient for one inspector, to be appointed by the Royal Danish Society, to take charge of the local society. His duties would be as follows: He keeps a set of books of each farm in duplicate, one set being retained by the farmer. He makes an inspection of each farm in the society about once every 18 days, and there enters fully all particulars relating to the farm since his last visit. Some of those particulars consist of the following examples: The total amount of milk from each cow since his visit (the milk is regularly weighed and entered in a rough book by the farmer) ; the percentage of fat contained in the milk (samples kept by the farmer) ; the calculation of butter produced from the milk; the amount of food required per cow (each cow on its merits) ; the amount of butter produced in relation to the amount of food con- sumed; the total amount of milk, in pounds per annum, of each cow, and date of calving. He advises as to manures, change of crops, if thought desirable to deviate from the formula; to which bull the cows should be taken; to which boar the sows should go. If a farmer is in possession of a cow which does not produce good milk, the inspector advises that she should be sold, and that she should not be used for breeding purposes. The farmers, when questioned as to whether this advice was generally accepted, were unanimous in saying that they undoubtedly preferred to retain only those cows which were worth keep- ing — from a breeding and milk-producing point of view — even though they had to dispose of those at a loss which were not up to the standard. The accounts are also made up for the farmer in every item, so that he has an exact knowledge of his position. The charge for this work varies according to each society, but the minimum is 1 krone, the maximum 2 kroner per cow per annum. This money goes toward the payment of the salary of the Kon- troller, which is supplemented by State aid. The value to the farmer of this form of Kontrol is enormous, as by joining a Kontrol society he is able to possess an exact knowledge of his economic posi- tion. It might be urged that this form of assistance, viz, account keeping, etc., would tend to make the farmer rely less on himself, but use the society as a leaning prop; but this is by no means the case. The man is in better com- mand of his position when he knows how he stands, and the visits of this expert do for the farmers what the auditor does for the business man. The farmer, in short, by means of his society obtains at small cost the benefit of an expert audit of the business of his own farm. On farms where cows are carefully bred and great attention paid to every detail in their breeding, it is usual to have a tablet at the head of the stall of each, giving the name; date calved; sire and dam, names and numbers; total milk production for the previous year; date when she calved; date of expected calf and name and number of its sire. In this way visitors to the farms see at a glance the performance of the cow and also her breeding. It is to estab- lishments of this kind that farmers desirous of improving their stock turn rNTLTJEKCE AND REStTLTS. 137 when in search of a good cow or bull, and often the option is given on calves before they are born, such is the desire on the part of the farmers to have t> really good class of animals in general on their farms/ The value of the instruction and assistance of these peripatetic agricultural and dairy experts is so great that their services are by some investigators regarded as explaining in a large measure the economic prosperity of the country. That is a superficial estimate of their influence, however, which does not take into account the unusually high intelligence and openness of mind of the rural popu- lation which the people's high schools have produced. One might suppose that the " little learning " the farm boys get in tl^ comparatively short high-school courses would be " a dangerous thing." But so far from making the boys satisfied with their attain- ments the high-school teachers have a wonderful way of instilling into their minds a spirit of modesty. They learn to see that the little they know is but an infinitesimal part of the totality of knowledge. The idea of finality is kept very far away from them. The value of specialization is emphasized. They are taught that no single indi- vidual can become master in many fields, not even in the various branches of agriculture. Therefore, if the ordinary man shall prosper, he must accept the aid of experts in matters where his knowledge is deficient. There is as a result a marked contrast between the spirit displayed by these Danish farmers and the disdain with which scien- tific methods and " the professor from the agricultural college " are so frequently mentioned by the farming laity in this country. A group of people have really advanced very far when they have come to the point where they are willing to discredit their own knowledge in a field where they are not specialists and are eager to listen to the advice of experts. In cultivating modesty among the rural popu- lation as to their own knowledge and in teaching them the superior value of scientific methods and the advice of trained experts, the Danish people's high schools have rendered a service that sustains a decidedly important relation to the economic prosperity of the country. In passing, mention may be made of the fact that many of the agricultural and dairy experts have themselves been students in the people's high schools. They have thus been affected by the spirit of these institutions and are therefore in harmony with the movement for a people's culture both for its own value and as a basis for eco- nomic elT'ciency. Capacity for making adjustments. — Another large service of edu- cation to economics is that which has made possible the wonderfully rapid adjustments that Danish agriculturists have made in periods of crisis. When, in the seventies, the Danish lands were depleted 1 Report of a Deputation from Ireland, 1903, pp. 130-131. 138 THE BANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. by long-continued grain farming and the price of grain fell to a low figure, the Danish farmers found themselves in distress. Some change had to be made in their methods. Economists and agricul- turists combined their efforts at a solution and reached the con- clusion that instead of selling grain, Denmark should buy it, feed it to her dairy herds and live stock, and sell the products of this altered form of agricultural production. The word was passed along to the farmers by their advisers. A campaign of education was set on foot, and in a few years' time the economic policy of the country in the matter of grain shipments was completely reversed. One phase of the change is represented by the following table.^ Table 25. — Shipments of grain in Denmark — Average per year. Years. Excess of exports over imports. Years. Excess of imports over exports. 1800 Million pounds. 68 153 273 608 246 48 1885 to 1889 Minion pounds. 221 1820 to 1824 1890 to 1894 439 1840 to 1844 1895 to 1900. .„ 1.128 1870 to 1874 1875 to 1879 1880 to 1884 As the table shows, the excess of exports over imports of grain fell from over five hundred million pounds in 1870 to zero in about 20 years' time. Then imports began to exceed exports until, in 20 years more, Denmark was buying grain in such quantities that the excess of imports over exports was more than twice the greatest amount of the former excess of exports over imports. This change in economic policy was accompanied by a wonderful transformation of the agri- cultural industries. The change is generally spoken of as a shift from grain farming to dairying and cattle raising. A more correct description is to say that it was a development and extension of the dairy and other industries in addition to grain production. For while the exports of butter rose by leaps and bounds, the surprising fact remains that the amount of grain produced has not decreased, nor merely held its own, but has actually increased, as the appended table indicates.^ Table 26. — Size of grain crop in Denmark — Average per year. Barrels. ISOO— 4. 500, 000 1845 11. 000. 000 1S05 to 1S68 18, 200. 000 1875 to 1878 18,982.000 1885 to 1888 21,620.000 1805 to 1S9S 23,371,000 iDen Landbohistoriske Udstilling, 1900, p. 30. 'Idem, p. 27. INFLUENCE AND RESULTS. 139 Rise of cooperative creameries. — Thus did the Danish farmers meet and solve their first great crisis. Another was encountered in the eighties. England was the chief consumer of Danish butter, and it soon appeared that if the product was to be sold advantageously in England it must be presented in a more uniform way and in larger quantities under the same trade-mark. Then arose as if by magic the cooperative creameries. These receive the milk from an entire neighborhood, remove the cream by the centrifugal separators, and manufacture it into butter of a uniformly high grade. By these adjustments and improved methods the excess exports of butter rose from eight million pounds in the late sixties to ninety-eight millions at the end of the century, an increase of more than twelvefold.^ Rise of hacon factories. — Other crises have been met and solved. In the eighties high-tariff legislation in Germany made that country a less favorable market, and Denmark was forced to look elsewhere for a better market for her live stock. England was accessible, but the transportation of live stock across the channel was difficult. For instance, in 1887 swine fever caused the export of swine to fall from 232,000 to 16,000.^ This crisis was met by the establishment of cooperative and private bacon-curing factories, which now dot the land to the number of 61. As a result the exportation of live swine has been almost abandoned, while the excess exports of the bacon factories rose in 20 j^ears from twelve million pounds to one hundred and twenty-five millions, an increase of more than tenfold. In the same period of time the value of the excess exports of eggs rose from 2,000,000 kroner to 11,000,000, an increase of more than fivefold.^ After making due allowance for wise leadership, the rapidity and skill with which these adjustments were made are very largely at- tributable to the work of the people's high schools. By the agency of these institutions there had been prepared a sufficient body of young men who, unhampered by tradition, were able to grasp the value of the new ideas and quickly prepare themselves for responsi- ble positions as managers and leaders of the new activities.* Concern for national prestige. — There is still another result of the work of the people's high schools that has an economic bearing. It is the development of an intense patriotism. By their large emphasis upon Danish history, song, language, literature, and ideals the peo- ple's high schools have stimulated a deep love of country which can not bear to see Denmark fall behind in the race of the nations in those lines of activity in which she is in any way qualified to com- lOp. cit, p. 30. « Smith, The Best Methods of Organization for Agricultural Cooperation and Credit, p. 10. « Den Landbohistoriske TJdstllling, pp. 28 and 31. * Paulsen, A Lecture Delivered in Oxford, 1894, p. 15. 140 THE DANISH people's HIGH SCHOOL. pete. Looking back with grief at her national disasters, her people realized that she could not compete upon the international arena of diplomacy or war. But though by reason of its small extent the country must hold a subordinate place in these and some other re- spects, her leaders saw that the nation could take high rank in other lines by developing herself internall}''. Even though she could not build many battleships, she could produce butter, bacon, and eggs of a quality unsurpassed. And this sort of constructive development is clearly calculated to produce a higher state of national happiness than the efforts expended on instruments of destruction. Thus, though a small nation, the beloved fatherland could still be wealthy and happy and strong. This is the doctrine that has been inculcated in the people's high schools. And with rare vision and fervent patriotism the young people have gone forth to develop all the resources of the country. Their high intelligence reenforced by the love of country has en- abled them to seek out new and better means of production, exchange, and credit. Thus by giant strides Denmark has moved forward to the very front rank among nations in per capita wealth and happi- ness. Interest in public ajfairs. — A third sphere in which the people's high schools have exerted a profound influence is that of public affairs. Mention has previously been made of the uses to which these schools were put by the rural class in their advance toward political supremacy in the State. When the new democratic Par- liament assembled in 1901, it was found that 30 per cent of the mem- bers of the upper and lower houses had been students in people's high schools.^ Later the King appointed a "peasant" ministry, with J. C. Christiansen, a former people's high-school student, at the head. Men identified with the people's high-school movement have since held important positions in the ministry, among them the present minister of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction, Jacob Appel, principal of the Askov High School. The citizens of Copen- hagen regarded this peasant domination with no great delectation. But a series of laws have recently been enacted by this same majority, which have become models for imitation by other nations. In any event it is an imposing spectacle to see a social group which a few centuries ago belonged to the lowest and most oppressed class of society put forward a body of representatives that have shown in the few years of their activity that they posses creative ideas of statesmenship and the energy to make them effective.' If people's high-school men hold position of influence and trust so high in the political realm, their number in the councils of county, * Thornton, op. clt, p. 129. ■Hollmann, Den Danske Folkehojskole, p. 73. IN-FLITENCE AND RESULTS. 141 town, and parish must be very large indeed. The contribution of these people's institutions to good citizenship is one of their largest services. Social results. — The broadening effect of popular education has also served to eliminate in a large measure the class distinctions which were formerly very marked. The people's high schools are sought by the children of the well-to-do as well as by the poorer classes. And "the people who toil" have by the agency of the people's high school been raised to a position of true dignity and respect in the eyes of the total population. The social life of rural communities has been enriched. The village hall forms a social center for the local population. There they gather as one large family to enjoy a lecture, a debate, a program of readings or song. There, too, the boys come together on certain evenings for gymnastic exercises, and still other evenings are devoted to the various forms of amusement, such as folk dances or games. The high-school homes or hotels constitute other centers of social intercourse, where travelers and residents may meet for companion- ship and interchange of ideas. The people live sober and indus- trious lives. Poverty is almost unknown in rural districts. The only objects of benevolence are unfortunates and cripples. These are generally taken care of by the local community and thus enabled to spend their days in plain comfort in the midst of their fellow villagers. That the total paid police force in all of Denmark numbers only a little over 300 ^ constitutes a significant commentary on the lives of the people. Religious results. — A freer and richer church life has been fostered by the people's high schools. This is best understood in connection with the growth of the free church or Valgmenighed movement. There were three principal steps in this movement.^ In 1855 the tie that bound the parishioner to his parish church was loosed, and he was permitted to attach himself elsewhere. The second step was taken in 1868, when power was given to 20 heads of families at their own expense to build a church of their own and choose their pastor out of the number of those legally qualified for office. Their choice would then be ratified by the King, and thus they would be saved from becoming dissenters. Finally, in 1903, permission was given such free congregations to use the parish church at such times as it was not required by the regular congregation. These free congrega- tions have given larger opportunities than the established churches for laymen's activity, and a richer church life has thereby become possible. Many forms of social activity have been set on foot by these congregations. In fact, some of the city churches may be said to be / 1 Report of a Deputation from Ireland, p. 134. « Thornton, op. cit., p. 126. 142 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. institutionalized. The free-church movement may not be called a product of the people's high schools, but this form of organization is fostered by them, and flourishes best in their vicinity. Pastors of the churches frequently speak and teach in the people's high schools, and teachers in the schools reciprocate by taking nn active part in the work of the congregations. Thus there is developed, it is claimed, a more virile Christianity, and wider opportunities are opened up for religious activity. Summary. — In this chapter has been presented evidence bearing upon the influence of the people's high-school movement upon the cultural, economic, political, social, and religious life of Denmark. Additional evidence for the influence of the Danish institution is to be found in the extension of the people's high-school idea to other countries. A review of this widening movement constitutes the pur- pose of the next chapter. Chapter XI. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS IN OTHER COUNTRIES. Norway — Schools founded, — People's high schools were introduced into Norway by Grundtvigian sympathizers in 1864. The ground had previously been prepared by the work of the teacher, poet, and editor Ole Vig, who was imbued with a passionate desire for popular enlightenment. The first high school was established at Hamar by Anker and Arveson. Danish influence in their case was direct and powerful. Another high-school man, Christoffer Bruun, performed a large service by pointing out the importance of a broad cultural training of the plain people and by laying down valuable principles for the prosecution of the work of enlightenment. Hindrances. — The career of people's high schools in Norway has, however, been beset by difficulties and hindrances, official and other- wise. The reasons are several. In the first period of their develop- ment the schools were very closely identified with the Grundtvigian religious movement, which was by no means favorably received by the orthodox party in Norway. Generally, too, the people's high schools have taken a decided stand in favor of the introduction of the national language, the Landsmaal^ in place of the present official language. The Landsmaal is a composite language constructed on the basis of the leading dialects in the country and is, therefore, more thoroughly Norse than the official language, which came into use during the Danish domination. The attitude of the people's high schools in this contest has operated to estrange from them a large part of the population which is not in favor of this linguistic change. A similarly partisan attitude has been taken by some of the 143 schools in political matters, whereby they iiave come to be regarded as the exponents of a particular political creed. These forms of partisanship have undoubtedly hurt the high-school movement in Norway. Contest with the county high schools. — In 1875 there was estab- lished by governmental agency a sj^stem of schools which, whether intentionally or not, became serious competitors of the people's high schools. These are the Amtsskoler^ or county high schools. They resemble the people's high schools in that they require attendance through a series of months, but until recently took pupils much younger than the people's high schools. They are also more utili- tarian and practical in their curricula. The contest between the people's high schools and the county high schools for favor and recognition constitutes the most interesting and instructive feature of the popular high-school movement in Nor- way. Due to the reasons assigned above, and possibly others, official favor for a time was on the side of the county high schools. They were public institutions and served a large constituency. The friends of the people's high schools contended, however, that the large num- ber reached by the county high schools was due to their taking very young pupils with whom work of high-school character could not successfull}^ be carried on. Furthermore, it was urged against the county high schools that their influence had not been of exactly the right kind. They became stepping stones to the normal and other advanced schools, thus drawing some of the brightest boys away from the farms instead of — enabling them to live the farmer's life as enlightened and interested citizens with the living sense for their father's life and ways and the ends their fathers sought to reach. And so they have helped on the belief which has become only too common among many j^oung people that the farmer's life and work is some- thing rather low and simple, which may be good enough for the more ignorant and uneducated, but is something to be avoided by those Who are gifted and well off.* By the influence of the minister of education, Wexelsen, the offi- cial attitude toward the people's high schools became more friendly. In 1900 direct State aid was voted the people's high schools as well as the county high schools. An additional amount of State subsidy was granted to certain people's high schools that maintained an ad- vanced course for students who had previously spent a year at a people's high school or county high school. The two types of schools then prospered side by side. But the practice of the county high schools in taking very young pupils brought about a competition un- favorable to the people's high schools. These latter insisted upon a 1 Quoted by Thornton Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe, p. 120. 3334°— 15 10 146 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Danish high-school men to write for his paper. The matter of erect- ing people's high schools was also discussed at conferences and con- ventions, especially at the meetings of the National Conference of the North in 1867. Three schools founded. — As a result of the campaign of education, there was founded in 1868 a school at Herrestad, which was after- wards moved to Lunnevad. The first principal was the above-men- tioned Dr. Aalund. He was replaced by Dr. P. A. Godecke, one of the strong personalities in the Swedish people's high-school move- ment. The school has been under the management of its present principal, Dr. Herman Odhner, and his capable wife and coworker for more than 30 years, and has filled a large place in the annals of the people's high schools in Sweden. In the same year in which the above school was founded there were erected by more or less independent movements two other people's high schools in the south of Sweden. Due to the efforts of Dr. C. A. Bergman, a school was begun at Onnestad. To what ex- tent Danish influence was operative in the founding of this school may be discerned from the words of Dr. Bergman : The object of this school is to communicate to young men from 18 to 25 years of age the higher civic enlightenment which must now be considered as necessary for every member of the free peoples of the north. In order to reach this end the activity of the school ought first and foremost to aim at awaken- ing and developing in the young man the higher life slumbering within him, reflection, love of country, and love of men in general; and next, to sharpen the judgment, to extend the pupil's spiritual outlook, to awaken pleasure in the work and activity he has chosen, in order and seemliness, and in the at- tainment of fresh light on, and practice of, everything which relates to our activity as Swedish citizens, as members of a parish, as heads of a family, as thoughtful householders, farmers, or members of any other profession. The teachers must give the instruction preferably by word of mouth, in familiar lectures, or in answers to questions. The principal must be a man who is armed not only with a living fear of God, a love of his country, and good knowledge of his subjects, but also with power to impart what he knows in a bright and living way ; he ought to cherish a love of working folk, be familiar with their circumstances, and be able at once to win his pupils' affection and respect for the ends he wishes to attain.* The third school, founded in the same year, came to be the largest in Sweden. It is located at Hvilan, and was presided over for 40 years by Dr. L. P. Holmstrom, a noted geologist, but preeminently an enthusiast for a people's culture. Compared with Danish schools. — Following these beginnings other schools were founded until there is now no considerable section of the country without its people's high school. Compared with the Danish schools, those in Sweden are somewhat more practical in 1 Quoted by Thornton, op. cit., pp. 122-123. people's high schools in other countries. 147 their curricula. History and literature have a smaller place, while the sciences are given greater attention. Textbooks are more gener- ally used, and individual work by the students receives greater em- phasis than in Denmark. In general aims, however, the schools correspond closely to those in Denmark. The statutes of one of the schools express them thus: The purpose of the people's high schools is (1) to inspire young men of the district with a fervent and steadfast Christian faith, a vigorous patriotism founded on an acquaintance with the natural conditions and history of Sweden, and a sound I^nowledge of the rights and duties of the Swedish people; (2) to give these young men an elevating insight into the concordant phenomena of creation, the forms, powers, and evolutions of nature; and (3) to teach them how to work as law-abiding citizens, .everyone in his profession, with loyalty and disinterestedness, to the benefit of his native country and himself. All instruction in the people's high schools to be pithy, simple, and clear, its aim being to warm the heart, raise the intelligence, purify the imagination, mold the character into firmness and stability, and thus to make the young men fully ripe, to make them skilled laborers and go-ahead citizens/ As to teaching force, the schools rank somewhat higher than in Denmark. The principal, who is generally a doctor of philosophy, bears the title of Rektor^ which in itself is significant of the rank gf the schools. The balance of the teachers are also frequentlj^ uni- versity trained, it being considered just as creditable to teach in a people's high school as in a secondary school of the ordinary type. Characteristic feature. — The most characteristic feature of the people's high-school arrangements in Sweden is the maintenance of an agricultural school in connection with nearly every people's high school. As a prerequisite for entrance to the agricultural school a previous year's work in a people's high school is required. The impression has therefore come to prevail that a complete course at one of these people's high schools embraces two terms, one in the people's high school proper, and one in the agricultural school. About one-third of the boys return for this second year's work. Present status. — State aid has been granted directly to the people's high schools since 1872, the amount at present aggregating over 200,000 kroner annually, besides 35,000 kroner for scholarships.^ In 1912 provision was made by act of Parliament for a special in- spector of people's high schools whose work is to be chiefly advisory. There were, in 1909, 43 people's high schools in Sweden. Nine of these are coeducational, while in the rest the boys attend in winter and the girls in summer. The total attendance in the people's high- school departments was 2,251, of whom 1,193 were boys and 1,058 girls.^ From the beginning of the movement in 1868 up to the pres- ijonsson. The People's High Schools in Sweden, p. 4. *De Nordiska Lfindernas Skolvtlsen, 1905-1910, p. 12. 150 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. against German influence. One school was erected in 1906 at iVU- bersdorf, in Holstein, and another the following year at Mohrkirch- Osterholz, in Angel. According to a report on the nature of the work by the principal of the Allbersdorf school, Fr. Lembl^e, it ap- pears that these schools are built more on the Swedish than the Danish model. He gives expression to the wish that the time be not far distant when one may speak not only of Scandinavian, but also of Germanic people's high schools.^ England — A recent attenfipt. — A most interesting attempt to build an adult school with the same general purpose as the Danish has recently been made at Fircroft, near Birmingham, England. Some three years before he became principal of this school, Mr. Tom Bryan visited at the people's high school at Vallekilde, Denmark, and was strongly impressed by the spirit and purpose of the Danish people's high school, as summarized in the statement : The main object of tliis school is rot to impart to our pupils a mass of use- ful information; that is only a secondary aim. The principal aim is to impart to them a spiritual view of life, so that they may see there is some sense in their existence.' Perhaps even more powerful Danish influence is traceable through the person of Mr. J. S. Thornton, who for a generation has made a special study of education in Scandinavia and has persistertly pointed out to Englishmen the benefits accruing to those countries from the people's high schools. Furthermore, the adult schools and university settlements have given the English soil a tillage which should afford the people's high school a prosperous growth. As the village lecturing societies in Denmark serve as recruiting agencies for the people's high schools, so these adult schools in England draw out the idealists and seekers after truth to whom a school like Fir- croft should prove particularly attractive. Character of the Fircroft school. — The Fircroft school, founded in 1909, is situated in the outskirts of the model residence village for workingmen, Bournville. It is also near the Woodbroke University Settlement, the courses of which are open to students at Fircroft. Courses at Fircroft extend through terms of 12 weeks each, there being three terms a year. The work in each term is complete in itself, but there is also a continuity of instruction running through the three terms, for the advantage of such as can remain for a longer period than one tarm. The work includes courses in history, liter- ature, economics, mathematics, nature study, gardening, and the Bible. Gymnastics and song also hold a large place, as in the Dan- 1 Stauri, Folkehogskulen, p. 306. ■ Quoted by Thornton, Reprint from The Educational Times, May, 1911. t>EOPLE^S HIGH SCHOOLS m OTHEB COtJKTKIES. 151 ish schools. The informal lecture and discussion methods are largely employed. Community life, brotherliness, broad culture, and a spiritualizing of life, rather than vocational training, seem to be attractive fea- tures of Fircroft, as of the Danish schools. A London letter sorter describes thus the product of a stay at Fircroft : " Physical develop- ment, an enlargement of one's view of life, toleration of the point of view of opponents, a realization that the past has produced men whose words are living truths to-day." He admits there are no bread-and-butter subjects taught there, but adds : " That is not its special work. Its aim is to perfect the side of a man that is not catered for in technical schools and commercial colleges. * * * Fircroft is an inspiration."^ The school has had a fair attendance of term students from the start, and many more have come for shorter periods and for week ends. For women, courses extending through a period of one week have been maintained during the summer and have been largely at- tended. Strangely enough, while the Scandinavian schools have been recruited largely from the rural districts, this school at Fircroft has drawn men and women largely from the cities. Thus one group of students was made up of two gardeners, a shoemaker, a cabinetmaker, a baker, a clerk, a bricklayer, a painter, a miner, a metal turner, a printer's reader, a weaver, a fitter, two railway men, and several laborers.^ DifficuUies and possibilities. — There are real difficulties in the way, however, in making a people's high school fit into English conditions. The employers are loth to grant a furlough extending over so long a period as three months. The ordinary workman, moreover, has diffi- culty in perceiving the advantage to be gained by spending such a period of time in cultural studies. But the Fircroft school has made a good beginning, and as a supplement to the adult school movement it would seem to point the way to a still greater extension of the people's high-school idea. Whether such a school can become as widely popular here as in Denmark remains to be seen. If Lancashire and Yorkshire had each 50 such schools dotted about their country spots, and other counties had them in the same proportion, we should still have fewer for our population than they have in Denmark. But they would be enough to uplift not a man here and there, as already happens, but to leaven the whole lump. For Englishmen are of the same race as Danes, Norsemen, and Swedes; and what has happened on the east of the North Sea may just as well happen on the wt^st. There is no Sunday school, no council school, no town or parish council, no cooperative * Quoted by Thornton, op. cit. 154 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. been successful and as having a future before them. Students nearly always return to the work they left, and thus the schools serve the purposes intended. One principal points to a misunderstanding of the character of the schools as one of the hindrances to success. In considering the success or failure of these Danish -American peo- ple's high schools, it must be borne in mind that the schools are exclusively operating among Danish- Americans, and are therefore subject to the operation of a particular set of conditions. A con- sideration of the adaptability of the people's high school to normal American conditions belongs more properly in the next chapter. Chapter XII. CONCLUSION. Success of Danish education — Adaptation. — Statements about the success of the Danish system of education are frequently made and generally admitted to be true. Wherein does its excellency lie? This question does not permit of a single answer. There are many elements entering into the consideration. The course of social progress is from the simple to the complex, and the Danish school system is indeed complex. Every class of society, from peasantry to royalty, every trade and profession, from the shoemaker's assist- ant to the prime minister, has a form of education suitable and adapted to its purpose. The Danes believe thoroughly in training, and every inducement is held out to the youth to attain proficiency. Their ideal is first to lay a foundation with as good a general education as the parental means and the child's capacities allow. As has been noted in the scheme of education, there is an opportunity to complete a course of general training at almost any year in the young person's life. If the child can only go through the elementary school, he finishes at 14; if he can enter the 'middle school at 11, he finishes at 15; if he can take the additional Real course, he finishes at 16. For girls there are courses finishing at 17, while the complete gymnasium course carries the student to 18. Then he may enter the imiversity, with opportunities before him limited only by his inclinations and purse. To those who do not receive academic training, there lie open the facilities of the continuation and the people's high schools. And the fact that 10 per cent of students in these people's high schools are over 25 years of age indicates the prevalence of the idea that one's education is never limited by age. Having obtained as good a general education as possible, there remains to prepare for a vocation. The multitudinous industrial CONCLUSION. 155 and trade schools, commercial and agricultural schools, and the uni- versity with its professional colleges, minister to the needs for voca- tional training. Many of the Danish schools are not models of excellence, and the methods are not always such as are considered the best in the most modern educational circles, but a sincere effort is made to reach every child with the best cultural and vocational training possible under the circumstances. Denmark has employed in the culture of her children the same methods of patient detail and intensified effort that she has applied to the culture of her farms and dairy herds, and she must be credited with achieving success in both particulars. This character of detailed adaptation of educational agencies to the needs of her people is undoubtedly the chief strength of the Danish educational system. Cooperation of public and private endeavor. — The system is made possible largely through the wonderful cooperation between private and public enterprise in education. The State does not abrogate to itself the entire privilege and responsibility. It takes the attitude that the problem of adequate educational facilities is so large that every means for furthering its solution should be encouraged. No individual who has money to invest in education and no group or society which has educational effort as a part of its program is discouraged. The contributing efforts of all are welcomed. This does not imply that inefficiency is encouraged. By its systems of inspection and reports the State endeavors to protect the people against educational fraud. Compulsory attendance. — Not only does Denmark offer to every child the opportunity of an education, but she insists that he shall make use of it. Her success in the enforcement of the compulsory school law up to the age of 14 is indeed noteworthy. This insures a fair education to every child and constitutes a significant element of excellence. Dignity of the teaching profession, — That her schools are staffed with so large a percentage of men who make teaching their life work indicates that Denmark regards educational work with high respect. Teaching is not looked upon as a stepping-stone to something better, but as a profession having worth and dignity in itself. Thorough training is required for appointment, the tenure is stable, a profes- sional spirit is cultivated, the social station of teachers is high, sal- aries are comparatively good, and a suitable pension automatically provides for the needs of old age. The public recognizes the sig- nificance of educational work by providing better and better equip- ment for its prosecution. 158 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. have fastened themselves upon the curriculum of the ordinary school have been pared away and discarded. The principles which deter- mine the curriculum in a people's high school are, of course, not the same as those which operate in other types of schools, but the spirit and the tendency of making the curriculum conform is the lesson which these schools would teach. Method. — In point of method the success attained by the people's high-school teachers in presenting ideas is suggestive not only for teachers, but also for all persons who are engaged in conveying ideas through public address. An attempt has been made to give some idea of the method in the chapter dealing with that subject. Briefly, it consists of such wide reading and a mastery of the subject so thorough as to make the teacher not only independent of a textbook, but actually able to live his theme with his pupils. Having gained such mastery, it remains to select the vital and climatic and present it with detail sufficient to make the presentation vivid, and in such lucid and simple language as to be easily understood by all. The desirability of masteiy in this kind of teaching will be granted, even though its attainment is admittedly not easy. Thi success of even the average people's high-school teacher would indicate, however, that it is attainable by a far greater number of teachers than do possess it. Personality. — Success with this method is undoubtedly bound up with personality. We have previously made reference to the Danish respect for this quality in teachers, and nowhere is this more true than in the people's high school. In fact, the personality and indi- viduality of the teachers may be said to be the core of the schools. The teachers are so tremendously in earnest and enter w^ith such zest into their teaching that impression and conviction are bound to follow. The writer has had the privilege of hearing some public speakers of renown, but he must confess that, when preparing a subject for public presentation, there frequently emerges into the forefront of his consciousness the image of a certain people's high- school principal standing before 150 farmer boys. It was at 5 o'clock in the afternoon, " between the dusk and the daylight." He had himself chosen the hour. His theme was a Danish poet previ- ously known to the writer only by name. With eye meeting eye in tense attention and sympathetic understanding, the teacher lived the beautiful life of that poet over again with those farmer boys. He dwelt on the significant moments in the poet's life, the moments of decision, of disappointment, and of triumph. Eeciting poem after poem from memory, he pictured the ardor of the poet's desire to reach the hearts of his countrymen and draw them up to higher things. Virtually the poet himself was reincarnated into living form, and it is superfluous to add that the message went home. CONCLUSION. 159 Adaptability in the United States. — Is the idea of the Danish peo- ple's high school adapted to American conditions? This is a ques- tion frequently asked. It can be answered only by pointing to factors that are favorable as well as those that are unfavorable, and by indicating what adjustments must be made, in order to present at least an opportunity for success, and what plan is most likely to fit conditions in the United States. Struggle for existence not so keen, — Some conditions in America are without doubt unfavorable to the reception of the people's high- school idea. The struggle for existence has perhaps not become so keen in the United States as in Denmark and other European comi- tries. Americans do not appreciate so well the supreme need of intelligence in meeting the situations which life presents. The Danes have learned that only the intelligent can hope to succeed. The ignorant will be driven to the wall, in agricultural as well as other lines of work. Hence the people eagerly seize upon educa- tional agencies as means to make them more efficient breadwinners. Such keen appreciation of the necessity of education for the farmer boy is perhaps not current in this country. In the United States, with its hitherto wide expanse of unoccupied territory, the farmer boy, rather than develop himself and his home farm intensively, has gone West, where a livelihood and even wealth might be had with but a small capital of money and intelligence. Clearly, however, such conditions can not long obtain. Intensive eifort must be the method in the future, and Americans are begin- ning to appreciate the fact that successful intensive effort can not be made without education of the farmer boy. Change of occupation. — Another factor militating against success for the people's high school in this country is the unsettled state of the farmer boy's mind. He is by no means sure, at the age of 18, that he will always be a farmer. With American traditions of the possibility of rising from the lowest to the highest position in busi- ness, politics, or other forms of activity, the farmer boy dreams of conquests in other lines than agriculture. Toiling hard from morn- ing to night, he is tempted to look with longing at the supposed easy life of the city man, who may wear good clothes and has no chores to do in the evening. If he goes away to school at a young age, he enters the high school or academy with the intention of pre- paring for college or some vocation other than farming. If he does not go until 18 or later, he generally attends the business college, to equip himself for a clerical position off the farm. It does not occur to him or to his parents or friends to go away to school with the in- tention of returning to the farm. Why go away to school at all, if he can not improve his situation? This generally means getting 3334°— 15 ^11 160 THE DANISH people's HIGH SCHOOL. into some other vocation than farming. To a population controlled by such ideas and ideals the people's high school does not look par- ticularly attractive. But in this respect, too, the United States is progressing. The life of the farmer is becoming more attractive every day, and is growing in dignity. The back-to-the-farm move- ment, rural-life commissions, the telephone, daily delivery of mail, good roads, rapid transit, and the high price of agricultural produce are making the farmer's life more and more worth while. Not only is this change welcomed by the sociologist who loves his country, but it is recognized as a compelling necessity in order that the backbone of the Nation — the rural population — may be made strong to resist the growing attractions and injurious influence of city life. An es- sential element in this new rural development is proper educational facilities. Thus by the growing pressure of the struggle for exis- tence, the increasing attractiveness of farm life and the need of strengthening its hold upon the people, the United States is being driven to seek out new^ lines of educational supply for the rural population. The people's high-school idea. — To the solution of this educational problem the Danes contribute their people's high-school idea. But here it must be borne in mind that the Danish people's high school is a school of general culture, not a vocational school. The Danes be- lieve that broad culture provides the best equipment for the young farmer. They do not underrate specialized skill. That is highly valuable and necessary in addition to broad intelligence and sym- pathy, and they provide for it in their agricultural schools. But if only the one side can be had in school, they choose the broad train- ing, and trust that actual work will develop the requisite skill. American ideas of education for the farmer boy and girl are, per- haps, not so liberal. There has been much haranguing at the futility of the liberal education of our high schools as a training for a people who work with their hands, and perhaps the curriculum and spirit ol the average school merit the censure they have re- ceived. The pendulum appears to have swung to the other extreme, however, where Avorship is accorded the golden calf of practical edu- cation. Shrines to this god are springing up on every hand and the chant rings out : Let us teach our boys how to plow the land, rotate the crops, feed the cow, and breed the hog. This may be all ver}' well, but the Danes tell us it is all wrong if this great truth is over- looked — that the farmer is first of all a man, a spiritual being of divine destiny, with capacity for wide human interests, capable of enjoying the beautiful in art and literature, and with a heart that may throb with the love of home and country. Efforts at making a good farmer will fail fundamentally so long as there is not de- veloped the personality of the man. CONCLUSION. 161 In their opposition to academic education, the Danes have been more moderate than the people of the United States. With vision and sympathy they have built up their system of people's high schools, giving a culture that is suitable for the plain people, and on this foundation they are building their vocational training. Until this principle is recognized, that the man is above the farmer and that thought must precede skill, the atmosphere can not be favor- able to the reception of the central idea of the Danish people's high school. There is at least some evidence that in America, too, the pendulum is about to swing back to this happy mean. If such be the course of development, the usefulness of the people's high-school idea would not seem to be precluded from the American system of rural education. Necessary adjustments. — In order to make it possible for the peo- ple's high schools to thrive on American soil, they must be acclima- tized. This is a double process. In the first place, the American people, and especially teachers, must be familiarized with the genius of the people's high schools. They must learn to know what the schools are, what is their aim, their spirit, their content, and their method. On the other hand, the schools must be adapted to the genius of the American people. They can not simply be trans- planted to our soil. If they are to thrive, they must undergo certain modifications and changes. A tentative flan. — It would seem, in the first place, that existing higher schools for general culture, which are located in agricultural communities, might advantageously arrange short courses of a peo- ple's high-school nature for adult rural young people. In connection with such an idea, several considerations must be kept in mind. The courses must be short and given at such times of the year as make it possible for the young people to attend. Thus courses for young men would have to be conducted in the winter time, when their services are not in such large demand on the farms. For girls' courses, it would seem that the many empty school buildings might be utilized during tho long summer vacations current in this country. It does seem regrettable that buildings in which such large capital has been invested should stand idle for a fourth of the year. Such lack of use of a factory plant would be condemned by even a tyro in economics. Furthermore, the courses must constitute a whole in themselves, not be mere fragments of a high school or academy course. Their content too must be selected with particular reference to the needs of rural young people who expect to return to the farm when the course is completed. There are schools enough which tend to take the young people olf the farms ; a people's high-school course should 162 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. encourage to stay on the farm, and the instruction should be planned accordingly. Finally, the courses must be made available for so small an outlay by the students or with such financial assistance in the form of scholarships that no worthy applicant would be barred by lack of funds. A public school. — ^The last consideration, particularly, leads to the conviction that successful people's high schools in this country would have to be supported by public funds. But few private schools are so strong financially as to be able to offer courses at such low rates as to place them within the reach of rural young people of limited means. And since in this country cooperation between private and public enterprise in education is virtually impossible, the only re- course would seem to be to public support. The most natural gov- ernmental unit to assume the establishment and maintenance of a rural people's high school would seem to be the county. This unit would bring to the support of the schools the efforts not only of the strictly rural sections, but also of the villages and cities, which, in an agricultural section, are so largely dependent for prosperity upon the welfare of the surrounding rural districts. To equalize the burden of support and make available State school funds, the prin- ciple of granting State aid ought properly to be called into play. And if the Federal Government could see its way clear to contribute something to the support of such a system of people's schools, the burden of support would seem not insurmountable. No worthy person need then be barred from attendance for financial reasons. Organization. — The experience of successful people's high schools in Denmark and elsewhere would suggest a location in the open country, a mile or two from village or city. Such a location would remove the students from the immediate influence of city tempta- tions and allurements, and still would leave them within reach of the local churches and exceptional cultural opportunities that the city might from time to time offer. Land should be available suffi- cient for experimental purposes. The boarding feature would seem essential, both by reason of the location of the schools, away from centers of population, and in order to make them attractive to the young people. As previously emphasized, courses must be short. The best time for boys would clearly be in winter. For girls the season of the year would seem less significant, but the proper utilization of the plant would require their attendance during the summer. The writer sees no valid reason, however, for having the girls' courses shorter than those for boys. If boys should attend five months, from November to March inclusive, and girls five months, in summer, there would be a month available in the spring and fall for an overhauling of the plant. CONCLUSION. 163 A satisfactory program would seem to require two terms, the first year's course being for general cultural purposes, and the second for vocational training, agriculture for boys, housekeeping and do- mestic science for girls. The age limit for entrance should be set so high — 17 or 18 — as to admit only those young people who are mature enough to profit by the instruction and who have virtually decided upon agriculture as their vocation. Curricula. — The above characterization of courses roughly indi- cates their content. There would seem to be a place in the life of rural young people for a cultural course which may open to them the treasures of our inspiring history, literature, and song; acquaint them with the lives and thoughts of men and women who have shaped the course of events; reveal to them the elementary prin- ciples of the physical and biological sciences in order to make their environment intelligible; introduce them to some of those social, economic, and civic problems which their station in life will confront them with; and let them return to the farm with enlarged vision of duties and opportunities and a new estimate of life's values. To outline even in the rough the curricula for the vocational courses seems unnecessary. The names suggest with sufficient clear- ness the principal subject matter. Let it be said, however, that ac- cording to Danish experience a certain amount of cultural work fits in very well even in a vocational course. Methods. — It would seem that the contribution of the Danish people's high schools in point of method ought to be utilized in any scheme of people's schools. The wonderful success attending the informal lecture method, whereby personality is given full play, suggests its use in as large a measure as practicable. The antipathy to the use of textbooks displayed by certain people's high-school men must, however, be guarded against. The Swedish schools sug- gest that considerable work by the students themselves is accom- panied by beneficent results. Care should be taken to avoid the idea that such a rural people's high school is preparatory to some other school or some other vo- cation than agriculture. It should be regarded as a finishing school for the rank and file of the farming population. The granting of diplomas admitting to other schools or vocations should therefore be avoided. Certificates of attendance, industry, and character should suffice for all exigencies that might arise in the subsequent career of a student. The door to advancement in any line of activity, and further educational facilities should not be closed to a young person who has passed through such a people's high school. Ex- ceptional young people should be afforded exceptional opportuni- ties. But exceptional individuals should not establish the normal 164 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. course of procedure. Experience shows that the genius generally discovers himself and finds a way of his own. The chief concern of the average school must be for the average student. Place in the educational system. — The question arises, How will such a school fit into the American scheme of education? Is there a place for it ? Is not the field covered by existing schools or schools in the process of building? As far as cultural education for the rural population is concerned, there seem to be very few schools that are not mapped out along the lines of the traditional high school or academy course. And these courses have been cordially condemned, both because of their unsuitable curricula and because of their tend- ency to draw the young people's interests away from the farm. Efforts are being made to remedy the situation by adding agricul- tural subjects and other features, but there still remains the objec- tion of the long terms and the many years which virtually exclude the mass of the rural young people. Only an exceptionally favored child here and there can take advantage of such four-year courses of nine months each year. And anything but a complete course of such a character is but a fragment. For vocational education, State and county agricultural colleges are subject to the same objection of the length of time involved in completing a course. These schools have undoubtedly filled a va- cancy in the school system, and will continue to hold a place of in- creasing significance, but clearly the masses of rural young people will remain untouched by them in their present form. When one considers that the Danish people's high schools and agricultural schools gather within their folds frrm 25 to 33 of every 100 of the rural population, it is evident that by comparison present facilities in the United States for rural education are not generous. There would seem to be a place in the scheme of rural schools for an institu- tion that may take the adult young people who have decided to stay on the farm, for such a period of the year as they can get away from their work, and give them, at a minimum of expense, a reasonably complete course in general culture and in the most necessary techni- cal phases of their vocation. A training school for teachers. — A highly desirable feature of any system of people's high schools would be a training school where teachers might be equipped for service in the schools. Such school, receiving candidates of a broad general training, should endeavor particularly to impart a knowledge of the history and principles of popular enlightenment; the unique aims and spirit of the people's high school, and the means and methods by which it is sought to attain the ends in view. It should also afford training in the actual conduct of people's high-school work. CONCLUSION, 165 Conclusion. — ^Whatever the difficulties attendant upon the estab- lishment and operation of a system of people's high schools ; whatever the necessary variations and adjustments in their organization, ad- ministration, content, or method, it would seem that the central idea of the people's high-school movement — the raising of the entire cul- tural level of the plain people — is good for any country. Judging by the service which they have performed for Denmark and other countries in the direction of cultural, economic, civic, social, and re- ligious advancement, it would seem that these people's schools have an especially significant contribution to make to a nation living un- der a government of, by, and for the people. APPENDIX A. STATISTICAL TABLES. Table 28. — Average number of students in people's high schools and agricultural schools each year from 1844 to 1911} People's high schools. Agricultural schools. Grand total. Ratio of agricultu- ral stu- dents to grand total. Ratio of girls in Years. Boys. Girls. Total. Boys. Girls. Total. people's hilh schools to total in schools. 1844-45 to 1845-46 184fr-47 to 1850-51 1851-52 to 1855-56 1856-57 to 1860-61 1861-62 to 1865-66 1866-67 to 1870-71 1871-72 to 1875-76 1876-77 to 1880-81 1881-82 to 1885-86 1886-87 to 1890r-91 1891-92 to 1895-96 1896-97 to 1900-1901 1901-2 to 1905-6 34 20 135 209 331 1,320 2,060 2,182 2,151 2,180 2,626 2,732 3,249 3,385 3,603 6 14 29 35 65 371 1,038 1,242 1,424 1,587 2,189 2,612 3,033 3,153 3,104 40 34 164 244 396 1,691 3,098 3,424 3,575 3,767 4,915 5,344 6,282 6,538 6,707 36 42 61 75 89 186 153 349 443 418 516 849 1,083 1,175 1,361 2 4 1 2 7 2 12 18 82 43 6 43 156 189 36 44 65 76 91 193 155 361 461 500 559 855 1,126 1,331 1,550 76 78 229 320 487 1,884 3,253 3,785 4,036 4,267 5,374 6,199 7,408 7,869 8,257 Per cent. 47 56 28 24 19 10 5 10 11 12 10 14 15 17 19 Per cent. 15 41 18 14 16 22 34 36 40 42 45 49 48 1906-7 to 1910-11 48 Single year, 1910-11 46 Danmarks Statistik, Folkehojskoler og Landhrugsskoler, 1906-1911, p. 11. Table 29. — Social station of students' parents} Total. Large farmers. Small farmers. Laborers. Artisans. 3,603 1,361 Per cent. 55 60 Per cent. 22 16 Per cent. 3 2 Per cent. 11 5 3,104 189 50 42 21 24 3 3 10 13 6,707 1,550 53 58 21 17 3 3 11 6 4,964 57 20 3 9 3,293 8,257 49 54 21 20 2 3 11 10 Miscel la- Boys in— People's high schools , Agricultural schools Girls in— People's high schools Agricultural schools Boys and girls in— People's high schools Agricultural schools Boys in people's high schools and agri- cultural schools Girls in people's high schools and agri- cultural schools Students in all schools , Per cent. 17 11 1 Op. cit., p. 15. 167 168 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. Table 30. — Occupation of students holding scholarships, 1910-11} students. Total: Boys Girls People's high schools: Boys Girls Agricultural schools: Boys Girls Living at home. Per cent. 4 13 Servants. Per cent. 67 S2 64 82 78 82 Artisans. Per cent. 23 Other oc- cupations. Per cent. ■ Op. cit., p. 30. Table SI.— Age of students, 1910-11} students in all schools. Boys in— " People's high schools Agricultural schools Girls in— People's high schools Agricultural schools Boys and girls in— People's high schools Agricultural schools Boys in people's high schools and agricultural schools. Girls in people's high schools and agricultural schools. students in all schools. Total. 8.257 1,361 3,104 6,707 1,550 4,964 3,293 8.257 Below 16 years. Per cent. 1 16 to 18 years. Per cent. 7 1 18 to 25 6,541 Per cent. 81 Above 2.5 years. 1,158 Per cent. 11 33 I Op. cit., pp. 14 ff. Table 32. — Teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools, distrib- uted according to numl)er of hours of instruction per weeJc, 1910-11?- i. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS. Hours of instruction per week. Not re- ported. Total. 1 to 6 7 to 12 13 to 18 19 to 24 25 to 30 31 to 36 37 Principals: Men 3 1 6 16 22 107 19 18 4 7 45 24 8 18 31 19 3 1 1 1 76 6 Wives of principals Permanently appointed: Men 1 90 24 6 9 14 53 14 2 3 15 1 6 4 2 3 1 229 Women 88 By the hour: Men 126 Women 50 Total: Men 126 48 71 53 127 34 74 17 18 1 6 2 1 7 4 431 158 Grand total.... 174 124 161 91 19 6 3 11 589 * Op. cit., p. 36. STATISTICAL TABLES. 169 Table 32. — Teachers in people's high schools and agricultural schools, etc. — Con. IL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. Hours of instruction per week. Not re- ported. Total. lto6 7 to 12 13 to 18 19 to 24 25 to 30 31 to 36 37 Principals men 12 27 2 3 3 1 21 1 1 4 19 Wives of principals Permanently appointed: Men 1 6 2 50 5 4 5 4 2 2 1 1 7 65 Women 13 By the hour: Men 61 Women 1 1 1 8 Total: Men 56 8 42 2 25 2 8 6 4 3 2 1 8 1 145 Women 23 Grand total.... 64 44 27 14 7 3 9 168 Table 33. — Age of teachers} 19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 Not re- ported. Total. People's high schools: Men Women 1 39 36 88 39 70 18 44 14 49 42 31 7 29 19 1 12 6 10 2 8 1 32 14 431 158 Total 1 75 127 88 58 61 38 36 20 18 12 9 46 589 Agricultural schools: Men Women 8 3 26 6 25 5 20 2 16 1 10 1 12 1 6 5 1 1 15 4 145 23 Total 11 32 30 22 17 11 13 6 5 1 1 19 168 1 Op. cit., p. 39. -• Table 34. — Education of teachers} 1. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS. Gradu- ates of gym- nasia. University trained. Gradu- ates of normal schools. Gradu- ates of agricul- tural college. Trained in people's high school. Other- wise trained. Gradu- ates in theol- ogy. Other univer- sity degrees. Total. Principals: Men 3 16 1 30 2 2 17 3 7 72 44 13 8 7 1 7 39 36 30 35 76 Women * 6 W^ives of principals .... 14 Permanently appointed: Men . . 3 26 8 52 8 29 6 29 14 229 88 By the hour: Men 2 1 31 7 126 Women 50 Total 9 73 16 127 45 164 155 589 Op. cit., p. 38. 170 THE DANISH PEOPLE S HIGH SCHOOL. Table 34. — Education of teachers — Continued. II. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. Gradu- ates of gym- nasia. University trained. Gradu- ates of normal schools. Gradu- ates of agricul- tural college. Trained in people's school. Other- wise trained. Gradu- ates in theol- ogy. Other univer- sity degrese. Total. Principals, men 1 15 2 2 6 11 4 5 1 5 2 29 3 19 Wives of principals 2 Permanently appointed: Men 1 1 4 48 65 Women 13 By the hour: Men 1 2 3 6 16 61 Women g Total 1 3 4 11 79 30 40 168 Table 35. — Variations in emphasis in people's high-school curricula. [Table shows the distribution of 68 pure people's high schools on basis of number of hours ol instruction devoted to each subject in a five months' course, 1910-11.'] Average number hours in five months' course. Number of schools. 1 o B o .a ! 8 OP .a 1 ! '7 1 M £} f S o .a o X3 i o a, 1 152 21 63 201 46 ?? 13 18 95 48 20 103 20 59 15 28 3 16 27 14 6 2 68 Penmanship 21 3 16 6 26 13 3 10 1 23 15 2 3 1 6 24 4 7 2 3 2 2 2 17 68 11 8 3 68 History , 14 16 68 Geography 35 39 8 10 10 1 21 19 6 3 1 1 2 68 Physics 1 38 33 9 10 19 21 48 '68 Zoology and botany 68 68 Hygiene 68 Arithmetic 14 9 17 2 26 43 2 .... 1 1 68 Drawing 6 23 4 17 68 Singing 68 Gymnastics 9 3 7 1 6 9 9 1 2 68 Surveying... 25 7 23 41 21 17 31 7 14 11 11 5 68 5 2 68 Civics 68 Other subjects 3 1 1 1 68 ' Op. cit., p. 46. Table S6.^— Excess of exports over imports of Danish hutter — Avera-ge per year. Years. Amount. Value. Years. Amount. Value. 1800 Pounds. 1,070,000 3,584,000 2,733,000 3,763,000 .3,212,000 . 8,786,000 Kroner. 397,000 1,111,000 1,014,000 l,39(i,000 1,400,000 7,400,000 1870-1874 Pounds. 17,057,000 21,379,000 22,223,000 39, 862, 000 Kroner. 17, 700, 000 1820 1875-1879 21,700,000 1830-1834 1880-1884 22,200,000 35, 200, 000 1835-1839 1885-1889 1840-1844 1890-1894 72,136,000 98,700,000 67,300,000 1865-1869 1895-1899 92,200,000 ' This and the following tables are from a centennial publication. Katalog over den Landbohistoriske Udstilling, published in connection with agricultural expositions in Oaense in 1900, pp. 27 ff. This publi- cation has, of course, not been continued, and exactly comparable statistics for later years are difficult to obtain. STATISTICAL TABLES. 171 Table 37. — Excess of exports over imports of Danish pork and teans — Average per year. Years. Amount. Value. Years. Amount. Vnlue. 1763-1771 Pounds. 9,000 15, 760 36,530 110,970 185,470 Kroner. 86,000 158,000 1,500,000 10,200,000 15,200,000 1880-1884 Pounds. 274,860 136,570 130,290 23,740 Kroner. 22,400,000 8,200,000 10,000,000 2,000,000 1821-1825 1885-1889 1805-1869 1890-1894 1870-1874 1895-1899 1875-1879 Table 38. — Excess of exports over imports of Danish eggs — Ai^erage per year. Years. Quantity. Value. Years. Quantity. Value. 1865-1869 Millions. 0.6 11.0 24.8 47.6 Kroner. 24,000 479.000 1.218,000 2,241,000 1885-1889 Millions. 93.3 127.6 207.6 Kroner. 4,183,000 6,572,000 11,220,000 1870-1874 1890-1894 1875-1879 1895-1891} 1880-1884 Table 39. — Size and value of potato crop — Average per year. Years. • Amount. Value. Years. Amount. Value. 1837 Barrels. 1,600,000 2,685,000 Kroner. 1885-1888 Barrels. 3,937,000 5,009,000 Kroner. 13,324,000 16,546,000 1875-1878 13,283,000 1895-1898 Table 40. — Roots other than potatoes — Average per year. Years. Amount. Value. Year-!. Amount. Value. 1875-1878 Barrels. 3,686,000 17,641,000 Kroner. 6,078,000 16,894,000 1895-1898 Barrels. 36,570,000 Kroner. 36,892,000 1885-1888 Table 41. — Total excess of exports over imports of the chief agricultural prod- ucts in Denmark — Average per year. Years. Value. Years. Value. 1763-1771 Kroner. 4,320,000 7,620,000 61,730,000 1880-1884 Kroner. 90, 50,000 122,270,000 1820 1895-1899 1865-1869 APPENDIX B, BIBLIOGRAPHY. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL WORKS. Thomassen, Fb. Fortegnelse over Dansk padagogisk Literatur. TJdgivet af Dansk Skolemnsenm. Copenhagen, 1896. 143 p. Supplements published from time to time. United States. Bureau of Education. List of publications of the United States Bureau of Education. Washington, Government printing office, 1911. (Bulletin, 1911, no. 17.) See Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in alphabetical index. GENERAL WORKS. Carlson, J., Olrik, Hans, and Starcke, C. N. Danmarks Kultur ved Aar 1900. Copenhagen, 1900. Contains some account of education. Danmarks Skolevsesen. Oversigt over Det danske Skolevsesens Ordning, af Forretningsudvalget i den danske Bestyrelse for det 9de nordiske Skole- mode. Copenhagen, 1906. 56 p. A good brief account of elementary and secondary education and people's high schools. De Nordiska Lsendernas Skolvsesen : 1905-1910. Utarbetad for det lOde Nor- diska Skolmotet i Stockholm, 1910. Stockholm, 1910. 135 p. Discusses most recent educational movements in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. Healey, Elizabeth. Educational systems of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark; with special reference to the education of girls and adults ; being the report presented to the trustees of the Gilchrist educational trust. London, 1892. 5-56 p. Very brief. Hertzberg, N. Opdragelsens og Skolens Historie. Christiania, 1910. 156 p. A brief history of education, with special reference to Norway and Denmark. Hippeau, Celestin. L'instruction publique dans les 6tats du nord; SuMe. Norvege, Dauemark. Paris, 1876. 35-320 p. A good account, but out of date. Kobel, Oskar. Eine padagogische Studienreise nach Danemark, Schweden und Norwegen. Seyffarth-Liegnitz. Thornton, J. S. Recent educational progress in Denmark. In Great Britain. Board of Education, Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1897. Vol. 1, p. 587-614. Schools, public and private, in the north of Europe. In Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1907. Vol. 17. 7-136 p. Best single reference. 172 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 173 United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, 1877, no. 2, p. 36^6. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1889-90. Vol. 1, p. 519-548. 1896-97. Vol. 1, p. 71-101. Information in former reports, p. 72. Historical data; chronological survey, p. 99-101. Vestrup, August. Vore Dotres Fremtid. Veiledning til Uddannelse af unge Piger til Beskaeftigelse i Hjemmet og Selverhverv. Copenhagen, 1894. 96 p. A treatise on existing educational opportunities for Danisli girls. Weyher, Ernst. Was lehren einem Schulmanne Danemark und Schweden? Schilderung einer Studienreise unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der tech- nischen Unterrichtsfacher. Breslau, 1912. 116 p. HISTORICAL WORKS. Balling, E. Plan for en Realskole for vore Dotre. Copenhagen, 1787. 29 p. Curriculum, p. 10-18. Hertzberg, N. Opdragelsens og Skolens Historic. Christiania, 1910. 156 p. A brief history of education, with special reference to Norway and Denmark. Koch, L. Den danske Landsbyskoles Historie til 1848. Copenhagen, 1882. 115 p. Kromen, K. Om Maal og Midler for den hojere Skoleundervisning. Copen- hagen, 1886. 329 p. Aims, content, and methods of secondary education, treated historically. Lagerstedt, N. G. W. Svenska Uppfostringsvsesendets Historia ; kort Of versikt. Stockholm, 1900. 70 p. A brief account of Old Norse education, p. 5-7. Larsen, JoAKiM. Bidrag til den danske Folkeskoles Historie 1784-1818. Copen- hagen, 1893. 322 p. Based largely on primary sources, from which are copious citations. Bidrag til den danske Folkeskoles Historie 1818-1898. Copenhagen, 1899. 524 p. Extensive treatment of reform movements culminating in law of 1899. Bidrag til Kobenhavns offentlige Skolevsesens Historie. Copenhagen, 1881. 214 p. Nyerup, R. Udkast til en Historie om de latinske Skoler i Danmark og Norge. Copenhagen, 1804. 367 p. Contains an interesting time-table covering fifteen years, prepared in 1604 by pro- ' fessors of the university, by order of the King, The course consists mostly of Latin grammar and classics. Greek is begun in the eleventh year. Ottosen, K. Vor Folkeskoles Oprindelse og Udvikling. Et Folkeskrift. Aarhus, 1901. 182 p. A good account of the history of elementary education. Pai.udan, Dr. J. Det hoiere Skolevaesen i Danmark, Norge og S verge. Copen- hagen, 1885. 809 p. An historic presentation for each country, with special attention to the nineteenth century. Also a comparison of existing conditions (1885). THOStfASSEN, Fr. Dansk Skolemuseum, gennem 25 Aar, 1887-1912. Udgivet av Bestyrelsen. Copenhagen. 1912. 60 p. Traces growth of movement for betterment of school equipment. 174 THE DANISH PEOPLE 's HIGH SCHOOL. WoBM, J. Forsog tel en Skolehistorie for Reformation. Videnskabemes Sel- skabs Skrifter, v. XI. 1777. pp. 345-398. An interesting account of education in Denmark before the Reformation. Sur- prisingly modern in Its treatment of educational source material. Zahle, N. Om den kvindelige Uddannelse her i Landet. Copenhagen, 1883. 55 p. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. Bang, Niels. Nye Former for Forssettelsesundervisningen. [Pamphlet] A discussion of vocational schools continuing the work of elementary education. Bauditz, Sophus. Undervisningsplan for Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler af 4de December, 1907. Copenhagen, 1907. 38 p. Benthin, W. Th., and Poulsen, Cael. Danmarks Folkeskole, 1910. Udgivet med understottelse av Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet, af Danmarks Laererforening. Odense, 1911. Contains a directory of elementary school teachers Beretning om Det Kobenhavnske Borger- og Almueskolevaesens Tilstand for Aaret 1910. 156 p. Annual publication. Betaenkning angaaende Folkeskolens Tilsyn m. m. av den af Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet under lite. December, 1909, nedsatte Kom- mission. Copenhagen, 1911. 108 p. An extended discussion of present status of elementary school supervision in Den- mark and suggested reforms. BiTACK, Mois. Demoralisation i Kobenhavns Kommuneskoler. [Pamphlet.] Copenhagen, 1912. A criticism of the rules governing discipline In the public schools of Copenhagen. Danmarks Statistik. Folkeskolevaisenet m. m. udenfor Kobenhavn 1 Aaret 1909. Udgivet af Statens statistiske Bureau. Copenhagen, 1911. Oflacial State report on elementary schools. Published annually. Knudsen, K. a. Beretning om Statens Kursus i Gyranastik og om Gymnas- tikens Tilstand i de danske Skoler i 1910. Copenhagen, 1911. 26 p. Lehmann, Henrik. Haandbog 1 Lovgivningen om den danske Folkeskole. Systematisk Fremstilling. Copenhagen, 1909. 458 p. An excellent presentation of the legal status of elementary education in Denmark. Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet. Cirkulser af 6te April, 1900 Copenhagen. Contains directions relating to Instructions in the elementary school subjects. Olrik, Hans. Beretning om Statens Laererhojskole i Skoleaaret 1909-1910. Copenhagen, 1910. 75 p. Published annually. Danmarks Laererhojskole 1856-1906. Copenhagen, 1906. An historical sketch of the State teachers' college. EiGSDAG. Lov om forskellige Forhold vedrorende Folkeskolen, Amalienborg, den 24de Marts, 1899. The fundamental elementary school law In force at the present time. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 175 Kaiieloven af 30 Marts, 1894, med dertil horende ministerielle bekendt- gc5relser, cirkulaerer og skrivelser. Copenhagen, 1899. Thomassen, Fe. Skolestiiens TJdstyr. Udgivet af Dansk Skolemuseum. Copenhagen, 1908. 16 p. Suggestions as to suitable equipment of elementary schools. Tilheg til Skoleloven ; Lov af 29de Marts, 1904, om forskellige forhold vedror- ende Folkeskolen, udgivet paa foranstaltning af Ministeriet, ved Henrik Lehmann. Copenhagen, 1906. SECONDARY EDUCATION. AsMussEN, A. F. Meddelser angaaende de hojere Almenskoler I Danmark for skoleaaret 1909-1910. Copenhagen, 1911. 408 p. Official State report on secondary schools, published annually. In addition to this collective report, nearly all secondary schools publish annually a form of report which afiford a considerable source of information. Barfod, A. Meddelser angaaende Soro Akademi for Aarene 1899-1908. Copen- hagen, 1909. 218 p. Mabtinsen-Laksen, M. Skal Privatskolen Leve? Copenhagen, 1912. [Pam- phlet.] A contribution to a current discussion of the future prospects of private secondary schools, with particular reference to finances and administration. Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvsesenet, Anordniug om og Bekentgorelse angaaende Proven i Pa^dagogik og Undervisningsfairdighed for Laerere og Lsererinder ved Statens hojere Almenskoler. Copenhagen, 1905. Samllng af Eksamenbestemmelser vedrorende det hojere Skolevsesen. Copenhagen, 1899. 58 p. RiGSDAG. Lov om hojere almenskoler m. m. Copenhagen, 1903. This is the now famous secondary school law of 1903. Thornton, J. S. Cooperative schools. Educational times (London), Febru- ary, 1902. A discussion of the experiment in cooperative management of private secondary schools in Copenhagen. TuxEN, S. L. Gymnasieundervisningen — Erfaringer og lagttagelser. [Pam- phlet] A discussion of the effect of recent changes and movements in secondary education. Westergaard, Harald. Privatskolen og Foraeldrene. Copenhagen, 1912. [Pam- phlet.] A contribution to the current discussion relating to private secondary schools. UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. * Aarbog for Kjobenhavns Universitet, Kommunitetet og den polytekniske Lsere- anstalt, indeholdende Meddelelser for det akademiske Aar 1906-1907. Copenhagen, 1911. p. 335-32. Forelsesninger og Ovelser ved Kobenhavns Universitet og Den polytekniske Lnereanstalt i Foraars-Halvaaret 1912. Copenhagen, 1012. Foss, Alexander. Industrial Denmark. American-Scandinavian review, No- vember, 1913, p. 5-14. A study of the industrial rise of Denmark and the new demands made on edu- cation. 3334°— 15 12 176 THE DANISH PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL. Great Britain. Foreign Office. Report on commercial education in Denmark. London. (Diplomatic and consular reports. Miscellaneous series, no. 495.) Hannover, H. I. Ueber die praktische ausbildung an der koeniglichen tech- nischen hochscbule in Kopenbagen. Internationaler Kongress fiir Hoebern Tecbniscben Uuterricbt. Brussel. 30 p. De danske Handelsskoler. Fremstilling av deres indretning og virksombed, udarbeidet af undervisningsinspektoren for de statsunderstottede bandels- skoler, i anledning af en fra udlandet forekommen foresporgsel. Copen- hagen, 1906. 13 p. Plan for de Handelsskoler der staar under Tilsyn af Provinshandelsforening- ernes Fsellesudvalg for Skolevsesen, 1910. Kolding, 1910. Steen, Adolph. Den polytekniske Laereanstalts forste Halvbundrede Aar 1829- 1879. Copenbagen, 1879. 208 p. PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS. In addition to tbe following references, scattered information regarding people's bigb scbools will be found in tbe general works dealing witb education In Denmark. AusTLiD, Andreas. Ein Folkelaerar (Kristen Kold). Copenbagen, 1911. 177 p. Begtrup, Holger. Et Vindu i Vest. (Ssertryk af " Hoj skolebladet " 1911.) A plea for an open door in the people's high school for influences from England and America. Folkebojskolerne i Danmark, 1908. [Pampblet] Folkebojskolens Opgave. [Pamphlet.] A consideration of some criticism directed against the work of people's high schools. Beunn, Kristoffer. Folkelige Grundtanker, Hamar, 1878. 396 p. A series of essays dealing with fundamental principles in popular education, with special reference to the work of people's high schools. Danmark. Statens Statiske Bureau. Danmarks Statistik. Danmarks Folkebojskoler og Landbrugsskoler i 1906-11. Copenbagen, 1907. Official State report on people's high schools and agricultural schools. Published every five years. Det kongelige danske Landbusholdningsselskab. Aarsberetning om dets Virk- sombed ,i 1910-1911. Copenbagen, 1911. Has some information of interest because of close relation between people's high schools and agricultural practices. Dymond, T. S., comp. Report on tbe visit of tbe Essex farmers' party to Den- mark, May and June, 1000. Cbelmsford, Eng. (Out of print.) Egan, Maurice Francis. Notes on agricultural conditions in Denmark, which served as a basis for a series of lectures delivered in tbe United States, 1913. Washington, Government printing office, 1913. 34 p. (Senate docu- ment no. 992.) ESKESEN, Morten. Samliv med Kold. Christiania, 1910. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 177 Fay, C. R. CJooperation at home and abroad. A description and analysis. New York and London, 1908. 403 p. Numerous references to Denmark. The first people's high school in England. This leaflet may be had from Mr. Francis Hodgson, 89 Farringdon St., London, E. C Gbundtvig, N. F. S. Academiet i Soer. Copenhagen, 1838. Den historiske Hojskole. Copenhagen, 1872. Skolen for Livet. Copenhagen, 1838. Haggard, H. Rider. Rural Denmark and its lessons. London, 1911. 335 p. Devotes some attention to people's high schools and agricultural schools. Hansen, Fritz. Om Folkehojskolen og Almendannelsen. Copenhagen, 1877. HoLLMAN, A. H. Entwicklung der danischen Landwirtschaft. Berlin, 1900. Die Danische Volkshochschiile und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Entwicklung einer volkischen Kultur in Danemark. 1909. Translated into Danish by A. Vedel. Copenhagen, 1910. 160 p. . An excellent treatment of the educational philosophy and methods of the people's high-school movement. HOLMSTROM, Leonard. Afhandling om Folkehojskolesagen. Nordisk Tidskrift. [1889.] Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Report on cooperative agriculture and rural conditions in Denmark. Dublin, 1903. 148 p. (Miscellaneous series. Bulletin no. 7.) This excellent report of a deputation sent to Denmark devotes much attention to the work of the people's high school as related to the prosperity of the country. LaCour, Paul. Foredrag, holdt paa den anden nordiske landbrugskongres i Stockholm, 1897. A discussion of method in teaching science and mathematics in people's high schools. . Katalog over den Landbohistoriske Udstilling under den 18 danske Landmandsforsamling i Odense den 30, Juni 8, Juli, 1900. Odense, 1900. 133 p. Traces statistically the growth of economic prosperity in Denmark. Larsen, H. C. Landokonomisk Aarbog for 1912. Copenhagen, 1912. Statistical information. Le mouvement cooperatif en Danemark Public H I'occasion du congr&s international des associations agricoles et de demographic rurale. Copen- hagen and Bruxelles, 1910. Nordahl-Petersen, a. Danmarks Hojskoler i T-ekst og Billeder. Ringe, 1908. 447 p. Nygaard, Fr. Kristen Kold, Folkehojskolens Banebryder. 2 vols. Odense, 1895-96. PouLSEN, Alfred. Hojskolen og Statistiken. Hojskolebladet, 24 Mai, 1912. p. 729-736. A contribution to a current discussion regarding status of people's high schools. The Danish popular high school. A lecture delivered in Oxford, August, 1894. Oxford university extension gazette, September, 1894. Also printed separately. Odense, 1907. 19 p. 178 THE DANISH PEOPLE ^S HIGH SCHOOL. RosENDAL, H. Danmarks Folkehojskoler og Landbrugsskoler, 1844-1894. Med- deleser fra Skolerne, udgivne af Foreningen for Hojskoler og Landbrugs- skoler, i Anledning af Halvliundredaars-Jubilaeet, Odense, 1894. 177 p. Contains statistical summary up to 1894. Grundtvigs Hojskole, 1856-1906. Kolding, 1906. RoNBERG, Madsen. Grundtvig und die danishen Vollshochschulen. Padago- gisches Magazin. pt. 253. Langensalza, 1905. VI-124 p. Rysgaard, J. M. Agricultural co-operation in Denmark. A paper read before the Fortnightly Club of Grand Forks, N. D. 6 p. Sandstbom, Anna. Grundtvig och den nordiske folkhogskolen. Tidsskriftet Verdandi, 1897. Stockholm. Schroder, Ludvig. Den Nordiske Folkehojskole ; Bidrag til dens Historie. Copenhagen, 1905. VI-487 p. The most complete history of the people's high school movement. Den Danske Folkehojskole. Et brev til en Engelsk Laerer. Copenhagen, 1889. 32 p. N. F. S. Grundtvigs Levned. Copenhagen, 1901. 223 p. Om skoler for Voksne. Copenhagen, 1878. [Pamphlet.] Sellers, Edith. Testrup peasant's high school. Cornhill magazine. Reprinted in American-Scandinavian, Spokane, Wash., October, November, and De- cember, 1909. Sinclair, John F. Agricultural cooperation. Wisconsin state board of public affairs, Madison, 1912. Denmark, p. 9-16. Advance sheets. Smith, . The best methods of organization for agricultural cooperation and credit. In Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical In- struction. Dublin, 1903. 102 p. (Miscellaneous series. Bulletin 6.) Stauri, Rasmus. Folkehogskulen i Danmark, Norge, Sverige og Finland. Christiania, 1910. 315 p. Thornton, J. S. Recent educational progress in Denmark. Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1897. TOl. 1. People's high schools, p. 592-600. Schools public and private in the North of Europe. Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1907. vol. 17. People's high schools, p. 105-129. See articles in Educational Times (London), October, 1900, and November, 1905, Journal of Education (London), October, 1895. Warming, Jens. Staab Hojskolen Stille. Hojskolebladet, May, 1912. p. 633-636. A discussion of the present status of the people's high school movement, based on the latest statistical report. Washington, Booker T. How Denmark has taught herself prosperity and happiness. The rural high schools which have made over a nation. World's Work, June, 1911, p. 14486-94. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 179 NORWAY. Anderson, David Allen. The school system of Norway. Boston, Gorham press, 1913. 232 p. Bibliography : p. 225-228. The first reasonably complete account in English of education in Norway. An illuminating and scholarly presentation. A ratljpr serious omission, however, is the total absence of any reference to the work of the county and people's high schools, (amtsskoler and folkehojskoler). Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1902, vol. 8, p. 1-94 ; 1906, vol. 16, index ; 1907, vol. 17, p. 36-65. United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, July, 1871. Report of the Commissioner of education, 1889-90, vol. 1, 475-517 p.; 1896-97, vol. 1, 103-123 p. SWEDEN. Education in Sweden. Stockholm, 1909. 57 p. Prepared for Alaska-Yukon- Pacific Exposition, 1909. Great Britain. Board of Education. Special reports on educational subjects. London, 1898, vol. 3, p. 649-671 ; 1902, vol. 8, p. 95-158. Johnson, J. V. The people's high schools in Sweden. Orebro, 1904. SuNDBARG, . GusTAV, ed. Bducatiou in Sweden. In Sweden and its people. Stockholm, 1904. 69 p. United States. Bureau of Education. Circular of information, July, 1871. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1888-89, vol. 1, p. 197-221; 1891-92, vol. 1, p. 423-^49; 1898-99, vol. 1, p. 237-257; 1904, vol. 1, p. 767-797. INDEX. Administration of education, 19-29. Agricultural education, 67-68, 95-97, 126-128. Agricultural products, statistics, 170-171. Arithmetic, teaching, peoples' high schools, 117. Askov, advanced courses, 119-120. Attendance, school, 107-108. Bergman, C. A., on the peoples' high school, 146. Bibliography, 172-179. Bishops, educational duties, 24. Boards of education, 23, 25-27. Botanical school gardens, 41-42. Butter, Danish, excess of exports over imports, 170. Civil divisions, 24-25. Claxton, P. P., letter of transmittal, 5. Colleges and universities, 64-68. Commercial schools, curriculum, 70-71. Commimal secondary schools, 63. Community life in schools, 101-102. Compulsory education, 29-30. Continuation schools, 43-44. Cooperative societies, activities, 133-140. Copenhagen, administration of schools, 28; pay schools, 32-33; time-tables of public schools, 35-36. County school boards, 25. Coimty school council, 25. Curriculum, agricultural schools, 127; commercial schools, 70-71; elementary schools, 39-40; middla schools, 56-58; normal schools, 46-47; peoples' high schools, 115-128, 170; secondary schools, 56-60; university, 65. See also under special subjects. Danish education, success, 154-165. Danish language, instruction, 37-38. Discipline. See School discipline. District school board, 25-26. Domestic-science schools, 69-70. Drawing, teaching, 39, 118. Ecclesiastical divisions, statistics, 23-25. Economic contribution, peoples' high schools, 134. Educational boards, statistics, 23. Educational system, historical development, 7-19. Elementary education, 12-13, 29-53- term defined, 19. England, peoples' high schools, 150-152. Enlightenment period, 15, 19. Equipment for schools, 41. Examinations, elementary schools, 42; peoples' high schools, 126; secondary schools, 60-61. Extension work, peoples' high schools, 128. Finland, peoples' high schools, 148-149. Fircroft School, England, 150-152. Frederick IV (1699-1730), contribution to educa- tion, 13-14. Free meals, elementary schools of Copenhagen, 43. Geography, home, instruction, 38. German language, teaching, 40. Germany, peoplej?' high schools, 149-150. Girls, education in early times, 9; features of curric- ulum, peoples' high schools, 119; secondary edu- cation, 18-19. Grain, shipments, 138. Groimds and buildings, 31. Grundtvig, N. F, S., career and Influence, 73-84. Gymnasium, 19; curriculum, 58-60. Gymnastics, instruction, 40; peoples' high schools, 119. Half-time schedule, 33-34. High schools. See Peoples' high schools. Higher education, term defined, 19. History, teaching, 116-117, 121-122. Industrial schools, 68-70. Kold, Kristen, career and influence, 88-93. La Cour, Paul, on method of teaching science, 125. Latin school, divided into linguistic-historical and mathematical-scientific, 17; during the Reforma- tion, 10. Lecture system, peoples' high schools, 122. Lecturing societies, 129-130. Libraries, State-aided, 131. Local civil council, 26. Medical inspection of schools, Copenhagen, 43. Methods of instruction, peoples' high schools, 120-127. Middle Ages, education during, 9-10. Middle schools, curriculum, 56-58. Ministry of education, 20-21. Naturalism, influence in eighteenth century, 15-16. Normal schools, 46-^7, 110. Norway, peoples' high schools, 142-145. Observational instruction, 38. Old Norse education, 7-9. Organization and administration of education, 19-29. Organization of elementary schools, 33. Ownership of schools, 112-113. Pay schools, Copenhagen, 32. Peasant proprietorship, 132-133. Pensions, teachers. See Teachers, pensions. Peoples' high schools, growth, 84-99; origin, 73-84. Pietism, influence, 15-14. Polytechnic Institute, courses, 67. Private elementary schools, 44-45. Private schools, secondary, sources of income, 63-64. Promotion, elementary schools, 43. Ranum State Normal School, curriculum, 46. Real course, weekly program, 58. Reformation, educational plan, 10-12. Reforms, recent, 16. Religious education, 36, 141-142. Rodding, first peoples' high school, 85-87. Roskilde, daily program, 102-103. 181 182 INDEX. Runic inscriptions, 7. Salaries, teachers. See Teachers' salaries. Scholarships, peoples' high schools, 108. School buildings, 31. School commission, 26-27. School discipline, 34-35. School districts, 30-31. School funds, county, 51-52. Schools, distribution on basis of number of year students (1910-11), 99-100. Sciences, teaching, 117, 124-125. Secondary education, 53-64; girls, 18-19; since Reformation, 16, 17-18; support of State schools, 63; term defined, 19. Servant girls' school, 68-69. Singing, teaching, peoples' high schools, 118. Specialists, displaced in elementary schools, 40-41. State system of schools, establishment, 14-15. State teachers' college, Copenhagen, 47. Student associations, 66. Students, peoples' high schools, 10^-108, 167-168. Sweden, peoples' high schools, 145-148. Teachers, 108-111, 124, 168-170; and the church, 48- 49; appointment, 47-48; elementary schools, 45; examination and certification, 47; training, 45-47, 61-63. Teachers' associations, 111. Teachers' councils. 27-28. Teachers' pensions, 49-50, 63. Teachers' salaries, 49, 61. Teachers' training school, first established, 16. Textbooks, peoples' high schools, 126. Trade schools, 68-69. United States, peoples' high schools, 152-154, 162, 164. Universities, organization and teaching force, 64. Veterinary and Agricultural College, work, 67. BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. [Note.— With the exceptions indicated, the documents named below will be sent free of charge upon application to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are no longer available for free distribution, but may be had of the Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C, upon payment of the price stated. Remittances should be made In coin, currency, or money order. Stamps are not accepted. Numbers omitted are out of print.] 1906. ♦No. 3. State school systems: Legislation and judicial decisions relating to public education, Oct. 1, 1904, to Oct. 1, 1906. Edward C. Elliott. 15 cts. 1908. ♦No. 6. The apprenticeship system in its relation to industrial education. Carroll D. Wright. 15 cts. No. 8. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by the State, 1907-8. 1909. No. 2. Admission of Chinese students to American colleges. John Fryer. ♦No. 3. Daily meals of school children. Caroline L. Hunt. 10 cts. No. 5. Statistics of public, society, and school libraries in 1908. No. 7. Index to the Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-1907. ♦No. 8. A teacher's professional library. Classified list of 100 titles. 5 cts. No. 10. Education for efficiency in railroad service. J. Shirley Eaton. ♦No. 11. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by the State, 1908-9. 5 cts. 1910. No. 2. State school systems: III. Legislation and judicial decisions relating to public education, Oct. 1, 190.S, to Oct. 1, 1909. Edward C. Elliott. ♦No. 5. American schooLhouses. Fletcher B. Dresslar. 75 cts, 1911. ♦No. 1. Bibliography of science teaching. 5 cts. ♦No. 3. Agencies for the improvement of teachers in service. William C. Ruediger. 15 cts. ♦No. 4. Report of the commission appointed to study the system of education in the public schools of Baltimore. 10 cts. ♦No. 5. Age and grade census of schools and colleges. George D. Strayer. 10 cts. ♦No. 6. Graduate work in mathematics in universities and in other institutions of like grade in the United States. 5 cts. No. 7. Undergraduate work in mathematics in colleges and universities. No. 9. Mathematics in the technological schools of collegiate grade in the United States. ♦No. 13. Mathematics in the elementary schools of the United States. 15 cts. ♦No. 14. Provision for exceptional children in the public schools. J. H. Van Sickle, Lightner Witmer, and Leonard P. Ayres. 10 cts. ♦No. 15. Educational system of China as recently reconstructed. Harry E. King. 10 cts. No. 19. Statistics of State tmiversities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by the State, 1910-11. 1912. ♦No. 1. A course of study for the preparation of rural-school teachers. F. Mutchler and W. J. Craig. 5 cts. ♦No. 3. Report of committee on vmiform records and reports. 5 cts. ♦No. 4. Mathematics in technical secondary schools in the United States. 5 cts. ♦No. 5. A study of expenses of city school systems. Harlan Updegraff. 10 cts. ♦No. 6. Agricultural education in secondary schools. 10 cts. ♦No. 7. Educational status of nursing. M. Adelaide Nutting, 10 cts. ♦No. 9. Coimtry schools for city boys. William S. Myers. 10 cts. No. 11. Current educational topics, No. I. *No. 13. Influences tending to improve the work of the teacher of mathematics. 5 cts. ♦No. 14. Report of the American commissioners of the international commission on the teaching of mathe- matics. 10 cts. ♦No. 17. The Montessori system of education. Anna T. Smith. 5 cts. ♦No. 18. Teaching language through agriculture and domestic science. M. A. Leiper. 5 cts. ♦No. 19. Professional distribution of college and imiversity graduates. Bailey B. Burritt, 10 cts. II BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. *No. 20. Readjvistment of a rural high school to the needs of the country. H. A. Brown. 10 cts. *No. 22. Public and private high schools. 25 cts. *No. 23. Special collections in libraries in the United States. W. D. Johnston and I. G. Mudge. 10 cts. No. 26. Bibliography of child study for the years 1910-11. No. 27. History of public-school education in Arkansas. Stephen B. Weeks. ♦No. 28. Cultivating school grounds in Wake Coimty, N. C. Zebulon Judd. 5 cts. No. 29. Bibliography of the teachmg of mathematics, 1900-1912. D. E. Smith and Chas. Goldziher. No. 30. Latin-American universities and special schools. Edgar E. Brandon. 1913. No. 1. Monthly record of cxorrent educational publications, January, 1913. ♦No. 2. Training courses for rural teachers. A. C. Monahan and R. H. Wright. 5 cts. ♦No. 3. The teaching of modern languages in the United States. Charles H. Handschin. 15 cts. ♦No. 4. Present standards of higher education in the United States. George E. MacLean. 20 cts. No. 5. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1913. ♦No. 6. Agricultural instruction in high schools. C. H. Robison and F. B. Jenks. 10 cts. ♦No. 7. College entrance requirements. Clarence D. Kingsley. 15 cts. ♦No. 8. The statvis of rural education in the United States. A. C. Monahan. 15 cts. ♦No. 9. Consular reports on continuation schools in Prussia. 5 cts. No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1913. ♦No. 12. The promotion of peace. Fannie Fern Andrews. 10 cts. ♦No. 13. Standards and tests for measuring the efficiency of schools or systems of schools. 5 cts. ♦No. 14. Agricultural instruction in secondary schools. 10 cts. No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1913. ♦No. 16. Bibliography of medical inspection and health supervision. 15 cts. ♦No. 17. A trade school for girls. A preliminary investigation in a typical manufacturing city, Worcester, Mass. 10 cts. ♦No. 18. The fifteenth international congress on hygiene and demography. Fletcher B. Dresslar. 10 cts. No. 19. German industrial education and its lessons for the United States. Holmes Beckwith. ♦No. 20. Illiteracy in the United States. 10 cts. No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications, June, 1913. ♦No. 22. Bibliography of industrial, vocational, and trade education. 10 cts. ♦No. 23. The Georgia club at the State Normal School, Athens, Ga., for the study of rural sociology. E. C. Branson. 10 cts. ♦No. 24. A comparison of public education in Germany and in the United States. Georg Kerschensteiner. 5 cts. ♦No. 25. Industrial education in Colmnbus, Ga. Roland B. Daniel. 5 cts. ♦No. 26. Good roads arbor day. Susan B. Sipe. 10 cts. ♦No. 28. Expressions on education by American statesmen and publicists. 5 cts. ♦No. 29. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. Kendric C. Babcock. 10 cts. ♦No. 30. Education in the South. 10 cts. ♦No. 31. Special features in city school systems. 10 cts. ♦No. 34. Pension systems in Great Britain. Raymond W. Sies. 10 cts. ♦No. 35. A list of books suited to a high-school library. 15 cts. ♦No. 36. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska, 1911-12. 10 cts. No. 37. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1913. ♦No. 38. Economy of time in education. 10 cts. ♦No. 40. The reorganized school playground. Henry S. Curtis. 10 cts. ♦No. 41. The reorganization of secondary education. 10 cts. ♦No. 42. An experimental rural school at Winthrop College. H. S. Browne. 10 cts. ♦No. 43. Agriculture and rural-life day; material for its observance. Eugene C. Brooks. 10 cts. ♦No. 44. Organized health work in schools. E. B. Hoag. 10 cts. No. 45. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1913. ♦No. 46. Educational directory, 1913. 15 cts. ♦No. 47. Teaching material in Government publications. F. K. Noyes. 10 cts. ♦No. 48. School hygiene. W. Carson Ryan, jr. 15 cts. No. 49. The Farragut School, a Tennessee country-life high school. A. C. Monahan and Adams Phillips. ♦No. 50. The Fitchburg plan of cooperative industrial education. M. R. McCann. 10 cts. ♦No. 51. Education of the immigrant. 10 cts. ♦No. 52. Sanitary schoolhouses. Legal requirements in Indiana and Ohio. 5 cts. No. 53. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1913. No. 54. Consular reports on industrial education in Germany. No. 55. Legislation and judicial decisions relating to education, Oct. 1, 1909, to Oct. 1, 1912. James C. Boykin and William R. Hood. No. 58. Educational system of rural Denmark. Harold W. Foght. No. 59. Bibliography of education for 1910-11. No. 60. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by the State, 1912-13. BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Ill 1914. No. 2. Compulsory school attendance. No. 3. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1914. No. 4. The school and the start in life. Meyer Bloomfield. No. 5. The folk high schools of Denmark. L. L. Friend. No. 6. Kindergartens in the United States. No. 7. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1914. *No. 8. The Massachusetts home-project plan of vocational agricultural education. R. W. Stimsou. 15 cts. No. 9. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1914. No. 10. Physical growth and school progress. B. T. Baldwin. *No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications. May, 1914. 6 cts. No. 12. Rural schoolhouses and grounds. F. B. Dresslar. No. 13. Present status of drawing and art in the elementary and secondary schools of the United States. Royal B. Famum. No. 14. Vocational guidance. No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications. Index. No. 16. The tangible rewards of teaching. James C. Boykin and Robprta King. No. 17. Sanitary survey of the schools of Orange County, Va. Roy K. Flannagan. No. 18. The public school system of Gary, Ind. William P. Burris. No. 19. University extension in the United States. Louis E. Reber. No. 20. The rural school and hookworm disease. J. A. Ferrell. No. 21. Monthly record of current educational pubUcations, September, 1914. No. 22. The Danish folk high schools. H. W. Foght. No. 23. Some trade schools in Europe. Frank L. Glynn. No. 24. Danish elementary rural schools. H. W. Foght. No. 25. Important features in rural school improvement. W. T. Hodges. No. 26. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1914. *No. 27. Agricultural teaching. 15 cts. No. 28. The Montessori method and the kindergarten. Elizabeth Harrison. No. 29. The kindergarten in benevolent institutions. ♦No. 30. Consolidation of rural schools and transportation of pupils at public expense. A. C. Monahan. 25 cts. *No. 31. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska. 25 cts. No. 32. Bibliography of the relation of secondary schools to higher education. R . L. Walkley. No. 33. Music in the public schools. Will Earhart. No. 34. Library instruction in universities, colleges, and normal schools. Henry R. Evans. No. 35. The training of teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany. Charles H. Judd. *No. 36. Education for the home— Part I. General statement. B.R.Andrews. 10 cts. *No. 37. Education for the home— Part II. State legislation, schools, agencies. B. R. Andrews. 30 cts. No. 38. Education for the home— Part III. Colleges and universities. Benjamin R. Andrews. ♦No. 39. Education for the home— Part IV. Bibliography, list of schools. Benjamin R. Andrews. 10 cts. No. 40. Care of the health of boys in Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. No. 41. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1914. No. 42. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1914. No. 43. Educational directory, 1914-15. No. 44. County-unit organization for the administration of rural schools. A. C. Monahan. No. 45. Curricula in mathematics. J. C. Brown. No. 46. School savings banks. Mrs. Sara L. Oberholtzer. No. 47. City training schools for teachers. Frank A. Manny. No. 48. The educational museum of the St. Louis public schools. C. G. Rathman. No. 49. Efficiency and preparation of rural-school teachers. H. W. Foght. No. 50. Statistics of State universities and State colleges. 1915. ♦No. 1. Cooking in the vocational school. Iris P. O'Leary. 5 cts. No. 2. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1915. No. 3. Monthly record of cm-rent educational publications, February, 1915. No. 4. The health of school children. W . H. Heck. No. 5. Organization of State departments of education. A. C. Monahan. No. 6. A study of the colleges and high schools in the North Central Association. No. 7. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. Samuel P. Capen. No. 8. Present status of the honor system in colleges and universities. Bird T. Baldwin. No. 9. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1915. No. 10. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1915. No. 11. A statistical study of the public-school systems of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Norman Frost. IV BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. No. 12. History of public-school education in Alabama. Stephen B. Weeks. No. 13. The schoolhouse as the polling place. E. J. Ward. No. 14. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1915. No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications. Index, February, 1914-January, 1915. No. 16. Monthly record of current educational publications, June, 1915. No. 17. Civic education in elementary schools as illustrated in Indianapolis. A. W. Dunn. No. 18. Legal education in Great Britain. H. S. Richards. No. 19. Statistics of agricultural, manual training, and industrial schools, 1913-14. No. 20. The rural school system of Minnesota. H. W. Foght. No. 21. Schoolhouse sanitation. "William A. Cook. No. 22. State versus local control of elementary education. T. L. MacDowell. No. 23. The teaching of community civics. No. 24. Adjustment between kindergarten and first grade. Luella A. Palmer. No. 25. Public, society, and school libraries. No. 26. Secondary schools in the States of Central America, South America, and the West Indies. Anna T. Smith. No. 27. Opportunities for foreign students at colleges and universities in the United States. Samuel P. Capen. No. 28. The extension of public education. Clarence A. Perry. No. 29. The truant problem and the parental school. James S. Hiatt. No. 30. Bibliography of education for 1911-12. No. 31. A comparative study of the salaries of teachers and officers. No. 32. The school system of Ontario. H. W. Foght. No. 33. Problems of vocational education in Germany. George E. Myers. *No. 34. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1915. 5 cts. No. 35. Mathematics in the lower and middle commercial and industrial schools. E. H. Taylor. No. 36. Free textbooks and State uniformity. A. C. Monahan. No. 37. Some foreign educational surveys. James Mahoney. No. 38. The university and the municipality. No. 39. The training of elementary school teachers in mathematics. I. L, Kandel. No. 40. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1915. No. 41, Significant school extension records. Clarence A. Perry. No. 42. Advancement of the teacher with the class. James Mahoney. No. 43. Educational directory, 1915-16. No. 44. School administration in the smaller cities. W. S. Deflenbaugh. No. 45. The Danish people's high school. Martin Hegland. No. 46. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1915. O VITA Martin Hegland, the author of this work, was born at Merton, Minnesota, Jan. 20, 1880. In 1900 he graduated from the high school at Owatonna, Minnesota, and in 1904 from St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota, with the degree of Bachelor of Arts. From 1904 to 1907 he served as superintendent of the public schools at Fertile, Minnesota. In 1907-8 he studied English philology, education, and philosophy at the University of Minnesota and received from that institution the degree of Master of Arts. After three years of study he graduated in 1910 from the Theological Seminary of the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in St. Paul, Minnesota. As recipient of the St. Olaf College Alumni scholarship in 1910, he entered upon graduate study in education and sociology at Columbia Univer- sity, New York. With educational administration as his major field he spent three semesters in resident study chiefly in Teachers College. For the school year 1911-12 he received from Teachers College a Graduate Scholarship and a Foreign Research Scholarship. The second semester of 1911-12 he spent in the study of education in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, gaining first hand information and gathering materials for the present work. mr.'' :.f\i:W:^'' m' UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 7. -Mr REC'D LD MA:^ 27 1957 m STACKS ^ \ FEB 8 I960 REC'D .-^ JUN8 1960 9Nov'60PM Vf RKCD LD JAN 11 361 f^5 /I/} If T.n 9.1-innr»-9 '4.R<"R3QQRlfi"»<17fi YC 03539 ^ ^. \ i I