THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFQ.ID y THE TJKASURVOF OF \TID MATH .IK I LLUSTRATED WITH '<. ENGRAVED EXPRESSLY FOR THIS W BY SAMUEL .JKABHPER. NEW EDITION N : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS. 1862 . THE TREASURY OF NATURAL HISTORY : OR, a popular Btctfonarg IN WHICH THE ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT CLASSES, GENERA, AND SPECIES, ARE COMBINED WITH A VARIETY OF INTERESTING INFORMATION ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HABITS, INSTINCTS, AND GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, A SYLLABUS OF PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY, AND < Glat&xvial EMBELLISHED WITH K1NE HUNDRED WOODCUTS, EXPRESSLY ENGRAVED FOR THIS WORK. BY SAMUEL MAUNDER, AUTHOR Or U nm THKASCRY OF KNOWLEDGE," " TH SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY TMRASUBY," ETC. ETC. To Thee, whose temple is all pace ; Whose altar, earth, sea, skies I One chorus let all Being raise I All Nature's incense rise I " POPE. THIRD EDITION. LONDON : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, PATERNOSTE R-ROW. 1852. LONDON : SPOTTISWOODES and SHAW, New-street-Squure. INTRODUCTION. A DICTIONARY of ANIMATED NATORE, upon a comprehensive plan, had long pied my thoughts, before I first publicly announced my intention of making this addition to my series of popular " TREASURIES." Now although I cannot charge myself with being idle during that period, or with omitting to avail myself of the writings of the most distinguished authors that had recently contributed to the stock of Zoological Science, it is certain that at the outset of this undertaking I under- rated the difficulties I might have to contend with In treating the subject at the same time popularly and, as it always ought to be treated, systematically; neither did I accurately calculate the time and labour absolutely necessary to carry out my ori- ginal design ; the publication of this volume has consequently been protracted. It has also been further delayed owing to a very serious illness with which I have recently been afflicted, but from which, with humble thanksgivings to the Almighty Dispenser of Life and Health, I am now rapidly recovering Having thus at length, however, been permitted to bring the Work to a close, I trust there may be reason to hope that my readers will find it not altogether unworthy of their kind patronage, or in any way derogating from the high character which its precursors have so generally borne. It will be seen at the first glance, that the whole of the articles are printed in alphabetical order ; so that, the name of any animal being previously known, it* zoological character and its habits can be instantly ascertained ; while those persons who wish to study this branch of Natural History according to the most approved modern system will only have to refer to this " INTRODUCTION," and they will find not only an outline of Cuvier's celebrated arrangement, as developed in the last edition of his ' Rcgne Animal ' with those alterations and additions required by the present advanced state of the science, but, under each Class and Order, references to the different genera, &c- described in the body of the Work. Thus, this CLASSIFIED INDEX will be the means of supplying the necessary systematic information. But whether the articles be so consulted, or merely read in a more desultory way, I believe that a vast fund of instruction and amusement will be found here collected. And so, in truth, there ought. Many of the most celebrated standard zoological works have been put under contribution, and accurate information has been gleaned from all. Nor is it among the least of the advantages which, I presume, this volume will be found to possess over most others on this subject, that, besides numerous entirely new articles, and condensed abridgments of the more elaborate writings of many acknowledged authorities, I have had an opportunity of making * The four volumes already published have humble an opinion of my own literary power* an met with a decree of favour far beyond their will ever en.ure n,e fronibein* much injured ty menu from the public in general, and have the Intoxicating effect* of over-dose* ofpraise. been severally honoured by such encoraiumi from the critical bench as might possibly make " Averse alike to flatter or offend, Notfom faulu ' nor yet to Taln to golden opinions," I trust that I have so M35Q189 Sntafrurttmi* myself acquainted with many interesting facts now for the first time recorded in a popular digest of Animated Nature. It will also be ipparent that I have not hesitated to make copious extracts from the recent Publications of various living writers who have displayed the wonders of Animated Nature under new aspects, and with increased force, originality, and beauty. In this, I have most scrupulously ac- i knowledged the sources whence my pages have been enriched ; and to the many j scientific men and pleasing writers to whom I am thus indebted I beg to return my warmest acknowledgments. The names of Owen, Gray, Bell, Yarrell, Dr. G. Johnston, Broderip, Sowerby, Forbes, of Gould, Darwin, Gosse, Hewitson, Knapp, and Waterton of Kirby, Spence, Dr. Harris of Harvard College, Newman, and Westwood, are foremost among the many to whom these remarks apply. It would be easy to extend my Introductory Remarks to a considerable length by dilating on the uses and advantages to be derived from an acquaintance with Natural History ; nor would it be difficult to show how much that is bright and beautiful in Nature is for ever lost to him who has never become conversant with the study. But my inclination is to avoid what some ill-natured critics might term twaddle, and my limits forbid me to descant on a theme which others (who are far better qualified than I can ever possibly become) have treated with all the ardent enthusiasm that is inherent in the breast of every true votary of Nature. The subject, indeed, presents a wide field for the employment of the mental faculties ; and I confess it is difficult to repress some of the thoughts that arise from its contemplation. No part can be viewed as unimportant or uninteresting none that is unworthy of the most attentive consideration, or that can fail to impress the mind with feelings of profound admira- tion for the works of NATCRE. Marvellous, indeed, as they are all, the most astounding manifestations of Supreme Intelligence are unquestionably displayed in his character as " LORD AND GIVER OF LIFE," as the Creator and Preserver of all that " live, move, and have their being." It is therefore that portion of the "wondrous whole" which we term The ANIMAL KINGDOM that demands our especial regard, and is in the highest degree calculated to gratify a laudable curiosity, as well as to reward the labours of the most diligent research. The Zoological descriptions are followed by a Syllabus of PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY, j This has been kindly furnished by Mr. A. Hepburn of Whittingham, an enthusiast in the pursuit of Natural History ; and, besides having the merit of being truly practical, his directions to the Amateur Collector have been framed with more \ than ordinary attention to economy. It might have succeeded as a separate publi- j cation; but the attractive nature of this volume, I trust, is likely to make it very extensively known. The GLOSSARIAL APPENDIX has been added to the other contents of the Volume in the belief that such a Collection of Terms was much wanted by the Tyro in i Zoology, and that careful definitions of many words which frequently occur in the works of Naturalists would be esteemed as real desiderata. As to the manner in which this Work has been embellished, I can speak with perfect satisfaction. About Nine Hundred accurate Woodcuts have been given ; and in order that this highly important part of the Work should not be treated slightly or erroneously, I obtained the valuable assistance of Mr. Adam "White, of the British Museum, a gentleman who to the enthusiasm belonging to the true Naturalist unites a sober judgment and great experience. To him was accordingly entrusted the selection of all the subjects, and under his superintendence every drawing has been made by competent artists. And here let me add that I have availed myself of Mr. White's acknowledged Zoological attainments, and improved my book by adopting many valuable hints and suggestions with which he has from time to time j Entrotfuctum. v j kindly furnished, me. The Engravings are in Mr. R. Branston's best manner, and will no doubt be properly appreciated. [We may add that Mr. Adam White, F.L.S., has revised this Edition.] I shall now proceed to give a Systematic Classification of the principal contents of this volume, a mode which, I trust, will be found at once simple and scientific, and calculated to remove any objection that might be urged against my adoption of the alphabetical arrangement in ihe body of the Work. LIST OF PERSONS, IN LONDON OR ITS VICINITY, WHO CAN SUPPLY ZOOLOGICAL ODJECTS AND NATURAL HISTORY APPARATUS. ARGENT (JAMES), 32. Bishopsgate Street Without. Has often British Insects and rare British Buds on sale. Mr. Argent stuffs liirds and Animals, and deals generally in Shells and Skins. He keeps handsome show-cases. BAKER (JOSEPH), \.Robert Street, Ha?nvstcad Road. Stuff* for the British Museum, East India House Museum, &c. Keeps a stock of the Skins of British Birds. BARTLETT, (A. D.), 12. College Street, Canulen Town. Stuffs for the Zoological Society and many private pai tics. Has often lor sale Skins of British Birds, &c. DOWNIE (KOHBRT), Bamet (care of Mr. Ever eat , Union Street, Barnet). Makes excellent Insect Boxes, Nets, &c. EDWARDS and SONS, 40. Hif.fi Street, Camden Town. Makes all kinds of boxes, cabinets, trays, &c., for Shells, Minerals, &c. FOXCKOFT (JAMES), 3. Union Yard, 191. Oxford Street. Makes all kinds of Insect apparatus. JAMUACH (Mr.), Ratdffi Highway. Sells live Animals. KIRBY, BEARD, and Co., West-end of Cannon Street. Have a large stock of good Insect-pins. KNIGHT and SON, Great Foster Lane. AM kinds of Insect apparatus, &c. LEADBEATER (JoHN), 20. Brewer Street, Golden Square. Stuffs Birds and Mam- malia, keeps handsome show-cases, and deals generally in Birds. NOKRIS (HENRY), 35. Dorchester Street, New North Road, Hoxton. Maker of glass- topped Boxes. RICH (W.), Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury. Deals generally in Natural History objects, especially from W. Africa. Has many fine show-cases of Birds, and superb specimens' of Goliath Beetles. SOWEKBY (G. B., F.L.S., &c.), Great Russell Street. Has fine named collections of Shells, &c., always on sale. STAMHSII (BEM.), 6. Diamond Row, Southampton Street, Camberwell. Makes Insect cabinets. STEVENS (SAMUEL, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c.), 24. Bloomsbury Street, Great Russell Street. Is a General Commission Agent for objects of Natural History; especially attending to exotic Insects, of which he has a large supply ; keeps rare British Insects. TAYLER and EDELSTEN, Crown Court, Cheapside. Make solid-headed Entomological pins. Mr. Robert Stark, Hope Street, Edinburgh, a well-known Nurseryman and Seedsman, has these pins, and sells miscellaneous Natural History apparatus. WARWICK (JOHN EDDINGTON), 23. New Street, Kennington. Has the largest *nd best arranged and named stock of Skins of foreign and Hritish Birds in London ; Mr. W. has occasionally rare Insects, and deals generally in Natural History objects, alive and dead. WILLIAMS (T. M.), 155. and 245. Oxford Street. Deals in Skins, and has many handsome show-cases of Birds, Stags, &C. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, ARRANGED IN CLASSES. ORDERS, AND GENERA, ACCORDING TO ITS ORGANIZATION. It has long been customary to apply the terms ANIMAL KINGDOM, VEGETABLE KINGDOM, and MINERAL KINGDOM, respectively, to the three grand portions of the "mighty whole" into which, when speaking of the science of Natural History, the countless productions of the Earth are systematically divided. In this simple and obvious arrangement, the Animal Kingdom is conspicuously pre-eminent in rank and importance ; inasmuch as it comprehends all organized and living beings pro- vided with a mouth and stomach, and endowed with the powers of sensation and voluntary locomotion. The Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms are, however, so intimately blended together, that this description is an insufficient guide to distinguish those organized beings which may be said to be on the confines of either Kingdom. The possession of nerves being supposed to be indispensable to the power of motion, a nervous system has been considered the distinguishing characteristic of the Animal Kingdom, but in one division (Acrita, comprising Polypes, Infusoria, Animalcules, Sponges, &c.) no traces of nerves have hitherto been discovered. The best characteristic of the Animal Kingdom is the possession of a mouth or aperture through which food is received, and a stomach in which it is digested, and this would include all the organized beings which have ever been con- sidered by naturalists to belong to the Animal Kingdom, except the various kinds of sponges. Our limits are prescribed, and further observations must necessarily be dispensed with in this place ; but the following beautiful remarks by Mr. Rymer Jones so admirably illustrate the difficulty of drawing an exact line between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, that we gladly conclude in his words : " Light and darkness are distinct from each other, and no one possessed of eye-sight would be in danger of confounding night with day ; yet he who, looking upon the evening sky, would attempt to point out precisely the line of separation between the parting day and the approaching night, would have a difficult task to perform. Thus is it with the Physiologist who endeavours to draw the boundary between these two grand Kingdoms of Nature ; for so gradually and imperceptibly do their confines blend, that it is at present utterly out of his power to define exactly where Vegetable existence ceases, and Animal life begins." DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA. CLASS I. MAMMALIA Order I. BIMANA . Man . (Quadrupeds) . 65 . 402 . 557 Order II. QUADHTTMAKA 557 Monkey . . .427 Ape .... 27 Orang-Outang Chimpanzee Gibbon Siamang . Ungka-Puti Colobus Douc . Semnopithecus Barbary Ape Baboon . Platyrrhini . Cebidse Mycetes Page 4(52 Spider Monkey Saki . Sajou . Sagoin Marmozet Jacchus Lemur Propithecus Lory Galago Tarsius Cheirogaletia Galeopithecus Page 637 j)temattraITt! arrange^. vii Pau'e Page 1 Page 1 Order HI. CARNARIA . 105 Viverra . . . 725 | Dasyprocta . . 172 (Ferae) . ... 230 Civet . . . .133 Acouchy ... 6 Suborder I. CIIKIROP- Genet . . . .258 Prionodon . . .646 Paca .... 483 Lagostomus . . 364 TERA. . . 122 Ichneumon . . 344 Bizcacha . . .73 Bats . .50 Vampire Bat . 719 Proteles . . .648 Aardwolf ... 1 Chinchilla . . .126 Abrocoma . . 1 Pteropus . . 652 Hyaena . . . 337 Octodon . . .456 Suborder II. INS CTI- Felis . . . .229 Cut . . . .107 Poephagomys . . 533 Tucutuco . . .706 VORA . . 35!) Hedgehog . . 305 Echinops . .211 Tenrec 668 Lion . . . .381 Tiger . . . .682 Leopard . . . 372 Toxodon . . .697 Order VI. EDENTATA . 211 Gymnura . . 297 Puma . . . .554 Ja fr uar 553 Sloth . . . .622 Tupaia . . 707 Ptilocercus . . 652 Ocelot ! ! '.456 Serval G04 Acheus ... 4 Armadillo ... 86 Shrew . . .615 Desman . . 177 Chrysochloris . 128 Mole . . .423 Shrew Mole . 616 Coudylura . . 146 Margay ! ! ! 410 Seal . ... 600 Arctocephalua . . 84 Walrus . . .729 Order IV. MAKSUPIALIA 412 Chlamvphorus . . 127 Mylodon . . .443 Megatherium . . 415 Glyptodon . . .264 Orycteroj.us . . 469 Aard-vark ... 1 Suborder III. CAKN VOEA 105 riantigrada . 629 Bear . .62 Helarctos . . 306 Raccoon . . 500 Ailurus . . 8 Coatimondi . 136 Opossum . . .461 Didelphida . . 179 Thvlacinus . . 681 Myrmecobius . . 444 Tarsipes . . .MB Phalanger . . .512 Petaurus . . .609 Ant-eater . . .22 Manis .... 409 Echidna . . .209 Ornithorhynchus . 467 Order VII. rACiirnEB- MATA . . .484 Nasua . . 445 Potto . .545 Kinkajou . . 361 Badger . . 47 Glutton . . 263 Gulo . .295 Ratel . . .564 Weasel . . 733 Kangaroo . . .357 Halmaturus . . 300 Osphranter . . 470 Pctrogale . . .510 Bettongia ... 65 Dendrolagus . .176 Phuscolarctus . . 513 Wombat . . .744 (BeUnce) ... 63 Proboscidea . . 546 Elephant . . .216 Mammoth . . .401 Mastodon . . .414 Hippopotamus . . 319 Suidse . . . .651 Hog . . . .321 Marten . . 412 Polecat . . 534 Ferret . . 2.>0 Order V. RODENTIA . 579 Babvroussa . . . 46 Phacochserus . .511 Ermine . . 222 Sable . . .585 Skunk . . 622 Fossane . . 243 Helictis . . 307 Squirrel . . .642 Ground Squirrel . 283 Flying Squirrel . 242 Aye Aye ... 44 Marmot . . .411 Peccary . . 502 Anoplotherium . .19 Rhinoceros . . .573 Ilyrax . . .341 Pulicctherium . . 485 Otter . . .473 Enhydra . . 220 Canis . .101 Souslik . . .623 Citillua . . .133 Dormouse . . .190 Tapir .... 603 Dinotherium . . 179 Adapis ... 6 Dog . . .184 Fox . . .243 Echymys . . .210 Caproinys . . .102 Order VIH. SOLIDUKQUIA. Wolf . . .743 Mus . . . .435 Equus .... 221 Beagle . . 52 Rat . . . .562 Horse . . . .327 Bloodhound . 76 Gerbillus . . . 259 Galloway ... 2.54 Dalmatian Dog . 171 Meriones . . .421 Barb . . . .221 Dingo . . 179 Hamster . . .300 Ass . . . .89 Foxhound . . 245 Vole [see also Rat.] 5G4. 726 Mule . . . .437 Greyhound . 281 Harrier . . 305 Fiber .... 230 Musk Rat . . . 440 Quagga . . .557 Zebra .... 752 Lapdog . . 367 Lemming ... 371 Lurcher . . 393 Mastiff . . 413 Jerboa . . .356 Helamys . . .306 Order IX. RUMINANTIA 684 Newfoundland D g .450 Pointer . . 633 Bathyergus . . 51 Beaver ... 65 Camel and Dromedary 98 Llama .... 385 Setter . .605 Coypu . . .153 Alpaca ... 11 Shepherd's Dog . 614 Siberian Dog . 618 Porcupine . . .542 Hare . . . .301 Vicugna . . .724 Moschus . . . 430 Spaniel . . 628 Rabbit . . .559 Musk . . . .439 Terrier . . 674 Jackill 3'52 Lagomys . . . 364 Cervidse . . .115 Fennec ! ! 229 Cavy .. I ". ! Ill Elk . . . .214 Ilyama Dog . 338 Agouti ... 8 Reindeer . . .570 1 viii Oje Animal !&tng tan Page Page Page i Wapiti . . . . 730 Hawk 305 Blackcap . . 73 Fallow-deer . 227 Goshawk . 278 Beccafigo . 57 Axis . Roebuck . 44 . 579 Sparrow-hawk . Kite .... 88i 881 Sedge Warbler Redpole (Sylvico a) . 602 . 508 Muntjac . 438 Milvus 422 Tailor-bird . 661 Giraffe . . 261 Pern .... 508 Accentor . . 3 Antelope Buzzard . . . 96 Regulus . 569 Gazelle '. 2.57 Hen-harrier . :;& 345 530 Order I. ACANTHOP- TEBYGH ... 2 Abdominalea Cyprinidaa Carp . 1 169 105 Lizard . . . 383 Perch . . . 507 Bleak . 74 Megalosaurus 415 Huron . . . 337 Chubb . 129 Monitor . . 427 Centropomus 113 Crusian 163 Iguana 346 Pomotis . 640 Dace 170 Iguanidae . . 346 Weever . . 734 Leuciscus 377 Iguanodon . Amblyrhynchus 346 12 Uranoscopus ''- Polynemus . . 718 536 Roach . Rudd . 579 584 Stellio . 645 Mullet . 437 Gold-fish 272 Uromastyx . 718 Surmullet . 652 Tadpole-fish 661 Agama 7 Gurnard . ... 296 Barbel . 49 Dragon . . 192 Trigla . . . 700 Gudgeon 290 Chlamydosaurus 127 Dactylopterus . 170 Minnow 422 Pterodactylus 551 Bullhead . 88 Tench . 667 Basilisk 49 Cottidaa 152 Bream . 82 Anolis . 18 Sculpin 598 Catastomus 108 Gecko . 257 Father-Lasher . 228 Cobitis . 385 Hemidactylus . 308 Scorpgena . . 597 Anableps 15 Moloch 426 Sebastes . . 602 Esox . 223 Dendrosaura . 176 Agriopus . . 8 Pike . 624 Chameleon . 119 Stickleback 645 Belone . 63 Sciuk . 595 Scisenidae . 595 Garfish 255 Chalcidse . 119 Otolithus . 472 Flying-fish 241 Glass Snake 262 Umbrina . . 716 Mormyrus 430 Ophisaurus . 460 Sparus . . . 632 Siluridce 619 Gallywasp . 253 Gilthead . . 260 Pimclodus 526 Bipes . . . 65 Chaetodon . 117 Callichthys 96 Toxotes . . 698 Salmo . 58C gg&emattcallji arrangrtt. xi Pase Page Page Charr . . . 121 . 566 , 347 Grayling . . . 281 Skate . 621 Euchirus . 223 Coregonus . 149 Thornback 678 iiucanidae . . 391 Trout . . 704 Torpedo 692 Stag-beetle . . 643 Smelt . . 623 Lamprey 365 Heteramera . . 815 Argentine . . 35 Gastrobranchua 256 Pimeliidaa . . ".IT- Herring . . . 311 Ammocetes 12 Blaps . . . 73 Clupea . . 135 Aniphioxus 13 Tenebrionidaa . 667 Shad . . 605 Taxicornes . . 665 Alosa . . 11 ~ p ^- Helopidae . . 308 Pilchard Sardine . 624 . 592 DIVISION HI. Cistela . (Edemeridae . 133 . 457 Anchovy . . Elops . Lepidosteus Gadus . Cod . 16 . 218 . 375 . 251 . 142 ANNULOSA (Articulata) CLASS I. 88.847 Traehelidae . Lagriadte Pyrochroidaa Mordellidae . Notoxidae . .698 .365 . 556 . 430 . 454 i Haddock . Ling . . 298 . 380 INSECTS. Horiadas Cantharidaa .325 ; . 101 Coal-fish . Pollack . 130 . 535 Order I. COLEOPTERA . 143 Mylabris . Mel.-e . . . 442 . 418 Hake . . . . 299 (Beetles') . 61 Oil Beetle . . 458 Burbot . 92 Cicindela . . 131 Salpingidae . . .-.s'.l Pleuronectidae . 530 Carabidse . . 103 Tetramera . . 675 Plaice . . 529 Calosoma . 97 Rhynchophora . 575 Dab . 170 Mormolyce . . 430 Bruchus . 85 Halibut . 300 Brachinug . . 81 Brenthidse . . 84 Holibut . 323 Callistus . 97 Apion . . 31 Flounder . . 238 Blethisa . 75 Brachycerus . 82 Turbot . 707 Dytiscus . 202 Curculio . 166 Brill . . 85 Gyrinus . 298 Diamond Beetle . 178 Sole Achirus . 627 4 Brachelytra Staphylinidae . 81 . 643 Balaninua . Calandra . 47 . 96 Lump-fish . llcinora . . 393 . 571 Buprestis Elater . . 90 . 215 Bostrichua . Scolytidse . . 81 . 596 Apodes . 31 Cebrio . . 112 Longicornes . 388 Eel ... . 211 Malacodermata . 399 Parandra . . 491 Muraenidffi . . 438 Lampyridaj . . 3H6 Prionus . . 546 Monopterus . 430 Glow-worm . 2,12 Cerambycidae . n:: Saccopharynx . 585 Telephorua . . 666 Callidiura . . 96 Gymnotus . . 21)6 Melyrida . . 419 Clytus . . 135 Leptocephalua . 376 Clerus . . 134 Acanthocinua . 2 Ophidium . . . 461 Ptinus . . 553 Acrocinus . . 5 Ammodytes . . 12 Book-worm . 80 Lepturidas . . 376 Anobium . 18 Criocerida . . 158 Order III. LOPHOBF AN- Death-watch . 172 Hispidas . 320 CH1I . . 389 Lymexylon . 394 Cassida . 106 Pipe-fish . Hippocampus Pegasus . . . 527 . 319 . 503 Scydmaenus . Hister . Necrophorus Dermestes . . 598 . 321 . 447 . 177 95 Chrysomelidae Timarcha . Galerucidae . Halticidas . . 128 . 685 . 252 . 300 Order IV. PLECTOQNA- rOA Acanthopoda ! 2 Erotylus . 222 THI . . . ' >"" Elmis . . 218 Trimera . 701 Diodon Tctraodon . . 180 . 675 Hydrophilus Sphseridiadce . 339 . 632 Coccinella . Lady-bird . . 136 . 363 Orthagoriscua . 651 LamellicorneB . 365 Claviger . 133 File-fish . 231 Petalocera . . 508 Aluterus . . . 11 Scarabseidae . 594 Order H. ORTHOP RA 468 Ostracion . . 471 Copridte . 148 Aphodiadse . 29 Earwig . 208 Order V. CHONDROPTERYGII. Arenicoli Dynastidae . 35 . 201 Blattidae Blatta . . . 74 . 74 Sturgeon . . 650 Asserador . 49 Mantis . . . 410 Cliimaera . 124 Cockchafer . 140 Phyllium . . 520 Sharks . 605 Rutelidse. . 5S5 Phasmida . . 414 Dog-fish . 188 Pelidnota . 505 Saltatoria . . 590 Cestracion . . 115 Cetoniadse . 116 Crickets . 157 Balance-fish . 47 Rosechafer . 582 Mole -Cricket . 425 Zygaena . . . 756 Goliathua . 272 Deinacrida . . 176 Angel-fish . Saw- fish . 16 . 593 Dicronocephalus Jumnoa . 178 . 357 Proscopia . Fneumora . . 548 .532 xii EIjc gmmal Hingtram Page I 'age Page Locusts . .387 Order VI. LEPIDOPTERA 374 Membracis . . .419 Grasshopper . . 280 Acrydium ... 5 Order III. TIIYSAITOP- Rhopalocera Butterfly . Papilio Pontia . 575 93 488 541 Cercopidae . . .114 Tettigonia . . .675 Psylla . . . .649 Negro-fly . . .448 Coccus 337 XEKA. . 682 Pieris . 521 Order IV. NEUKOPTEKA 450 Parnassius . Leucophasia Colias . . 492 377 144 Chermes ! \ ! 123 Aphis .... 27 Dragon fly . . Libellulidae . . 193 . 378 Gonepteryx Heliconidse . 273 306 Order VIII. APIIANIP- Petalura . 508 Argynnis . 36 TERA ... 27 Ephemera . . 220 Melitea 416 Flea . . . .238 Plauipennes Scorpion-fly . 529 . 698 Nymphalidae Vanessa . 455 719 Chigoe . . . .121 Panorpidae . Ant-Lion . . 488 . 25 Cynthia Limenitis . 168 378 Order IX. STREPSIPTERA 668 Hemerobius . Termitidae . . 308 . 669 Apatura . Satyrus . 26 593 Order X. DIPTERA . 181 Psocidaa . 649 Hipparchia . 317 Fly . . . .239 Mantispa . . 410 Lycaenidae . 394 Culex . . . .165 Snake-fly . . 626 Lycaena . 393 Gnat . ... 264 Raphidia . Perlidie . 662 . 507 Polyommatus Thecla 537 676 Chironomidae . . 126 Mosquito . . .431 Pteronarcys . . 651 Erycinidse . 223 Simulium . . .620 Sialidse . 617 Nemeobius . 448 Tipula . . . .686 Trichoptera . Phryganea . . 700 . 518 Hesperiidae '. Thymele 313 681 Bibio .... 65 Hessian-fly . . .313 Pamphila . 487 Wheat-fly . . .70 Order V. HYMENOPTE RA 341 Heterocera . 315 Tanystoma . . .683 Terebrantia Tenthredinidse . Cimbex . 668 . 668 . 132 UraniadaB . .^Egeriadae . Sesia . Anthrocerida 717 - 7 604 25 Asilus . 39 Leptidae . . .376 Bombylidse ... 80 Tabanus . . .661 Sirex . Cephns Evaniadae . Ichneumon . Bracon Proctotrupidaa Gall-insect . Cynips . Chalcididse . . Golden Wasp Chrysididas . . 621 . 113 . 225 . 344 . 82 . 547 . 253 . 168 . 119 . 271 . 128 Sphingidae . Aeherontia . Hepialidae . Ghost Moth Cossus . Cerura . Bombycidae . Silkworm Moth Stauropus . Arctiadae . Arctia . 632 3 309 259 151 115 80 618 644 34 33 Notacantha . . .454 Stratiomidae . . 648 Syrphidae . . .661 Humble-bee-fly . . 332 Gad-fly . . .251 GEstrus . . . .457 Bots .... 81 Breeze-fly . . .'83 Diopsis . . . .180 Sheep-tick . . .611 Aculeata . . 6 Callimorpha 97 Ant Formicidae . Driver Ant . . 19 . 242 . 194 Lithosiadse . Moths_ . 385 431 453 Order XI. AJTOPLCBA . 19 Louse . . . .391 Mutillidse . Fossores . . Scoliadaa Bembex Larridae Sand Wasp . . 442 . 243 . 596 . 63 . 369 . 590 Geometridaa Bupalus Pyralidse . Pyralis . Tortrieidae . Tineidae 258 90 555 556 695 686 Order XII. THYSAIOJRA 682 Lepisma . . . 375 Podura. . . .633 Sphegidas . Mason Wasp Diploptera . . 632 . 413 . 181 Alucitidse . Order VII. HEMIP ERA 11 308 CLASS II. Vespidae . . Wasp . . 722 . 731 (Heteropterd) 316 MYRIAPODA. Hornet . . 326 Coreidse 149 Crabro . 155 Cimex . 132 Order I. CIIILOGXATHA . 126 Eumenidae . . 224 Bug 86 Julus . 351 Mellifera . Bee ... . 418 . 57 Boat-fly Hydrometridaa Velia . 80 339 721 Glomeris . . .262 Andrenidae . . 16 (Homoptera) 324 Order II. CHILOFODA . 124 Upholsterer-Bee Megachile . . . 717 . 414 Cicada . Fulgora 129 249 Centipede . . .112 Scolopendra . .596 Carpenter-Bee . . 106 Lantern-fly 367 Humble-Bee . 332 Froghopper . 249 (ifc^ Psithyrus . . . 649 Aphrophora . 29 dggtemattcattg arranged. xiii Page Pa-e Page CLASS HI. Order IV. L^MODH-ODA 304 CLASS VII. ARACHNIDA . 33 Cyamus . . .107 ROTATORIA. Pulmonaria . 554 Spiders . 634 Order V. ISOPODA . 851 Rotifera . . .683 Polythalamia . . 640 Trap-door Spider 693 OniscidaB . . .460 Folygastrica . . 636 Tarantula . 664 Purcellio . . .641 Diadem Spider 178 -d^ga .... 7 Clotho . . 135 Limnoria . . .384 Saltatores . 590 Scorpion . 597 Bopyrus . . .81 Trilobites . . .701 CLASS VIH. Chelifer . 123 Phalangidse 513 Calymene ... 93 ENTOZOA . 220 Acaridae . 2 Mite . . 422 Hydrachna . Order VI. ENTOMOS- TBACA . . .220 Filaria . . .230 Ascaridas . . .38 Acanthocephala . . 2 Tick . . 682 Cyclops . . .168 Tsenia . . . .661 . Branchiopoda . . 82 Cypris . . . .170 r CLASS IV. Cladocera . . .1.33 CRUSTACEA . 162 Daphnia . . .171 Cytherea . . .170 DIVISION HL (Malacostraca.') Order I. DJ-.CAPODA . 172 Apus . . . .32 Siphonostoma . . 620 Argulus . 35 CLASS IX. MOLLUSCA . 425 BracJiyura. Naxia .... 446 Jamulua ... 379 (Shell*) . . 612 ' Portunidaa . . .544 Order I. CEPHALOPODA . 113 Crab .... 154 Purthen ope . . . 49.5 Lambrus . . . 365 (Ethra .... 457 Eurynoine . . .226 Cancer . . . .101 Eriphia . . .222 Filumnus . . . 525 Ocypoda . . . 457 Go'noplax . . . 274 Gecareinus . . .257 CLASS V. CIRRHIPEDIA 133 Lepas . . . .874 Otion . . . .473 Acorn-shell ... 4 Balauus . . .48 Acasta .... 3 Cuttle-fish . 167 j Octopus . 456 , Sepia . . 603 Argonaut . 35 Belernnites . 62 Spirula . 637 Tetrabrancliiata 675 Nautilus . 446 Ammonites . 13 Turrilites . 711 i Orthoceras . 468 Calappa . . 9G Hepatus . . .309 Pinnotheres . . 52,'J CLASS VT. Order II. GASTEROPODA 255 LeucosiadaB . . 378 ANNELIDA . 18 Zoophaga. Anomura ... 19 S trombus . 650 Dromia . . .196 Order I. DOKSIBKAXCHI- Terebellum . 6C8 ! Dorippe . . .189 ATA . . . .191 Ptcroceras . 550 Hippa . . . .317 Porcellana . . .541 Aphrodita ... 29 Rostellaria . 583 Ranella . 562 Hermit Crab . . 309 Nereidaa . . . 449 Trii'iM . . 701 Pagurus . . .485 Birgus . . 70 Macroura. Arenicola . . .34 Palolo . . . .487 Alcyope ... 10 A fto Murex . . 438 Pleurotoma . 531 Conus . . 147 Palinurus . . .486 Galathea . . .251 Scyllarus . . .599 Astacus ... 40 Crawfish . . .186 Lobster . . .386 Prawn . . . .545 Ancia . . . 36 Tubicolas . . .705 Vermilia . . .722 Serpula . . .604 Amphitrlte ... 14 Sabella . . .685 Abranchiata . . 1 Pyrula . 556 i Turbinella . 707 Tasciolaria . 228 Cancellaria . 101 i Struthiolaria 650 Cassis . . 103 Helmet-shell 307 \ Palemonidae . . 486 Dolium . 188 \ Shrimp . . .617 Hippolyte . . .319 Order II. STOMAPODA . 647 Order n. TERRICOLA . 674 Earthworm . . .207 Lumbricus . . .393 Naides . Ill Chank-shell. 120 i Hurt-a . 304 ! Purpiira . 505 Planaxis . 529 Squilla . . .641 Phyllosoma Order HI. SUCTORIA. Magilus . 399 Lefttuttmehw 376 Vermetus . 722 Order HI. AMPHIPODA . 14 Leech . . . .370 Bticeinum . 85 Kas-a . . 44.5 Gammarus . . . 254 ^ Oliva . . 459 Chelura . . .123 Ancilla . 16 *iv *c flafnul Bin**.* wtnurttadlg manga. Pace Page Page Eburna J . 209 Order III. COWCHIFI RA 145 Order VI, TUNICA TA . 706 Voluta . Mitra . . Margiuella . Cvpraea 725 422 411 169 (Dimyaria) . (Bivalves) . Cytherea Venus . . 179 . 72 . 170 . 721 Ascidia Botryllus Pyrosoma .' 81 . 556 Ovula. . 476 . 104 (Phytophaga) Turbo . 707 Cardiac* Mactra . . 104 . 398 CLASS X. Periwinkle . Phasianella . 507 514 Lutraria Gnathodon . . 393 . 204 RADIATA .560 Monodonta . 429 Tellina . 607 Order I. ECHINOPE R- Rotella 683 Petricola . 509 MATA . . . 210 Stomatia Haliotis Ear-shell . Parmophorus Emargiuula Lottia . Nerita . Navicella Ampullaria . lanthina Atlanta Natica . Littorina 647 300 207 492 218 391 449 446 14 354 41 445 383 Donax . Pholas . Teredo . Aspergillum Gastrochaeua Solenidse . Myochama . Corbula Pandora Saxicava Chama . Etheria Venericardia . 189 . 517 .6(59 . 39 . 2.56 . 628 . 443 . 149 . 488 . 593 . 119 . 223 . 721 Asterias Euryale Encrinites . Crinoideans . Pentacrinus Echinus Sea- egg Spatangus . Poundstone . Holothuria . Siphunculus . 41 . 225 . 219 . 1.58 . 507 . 211 . 599 . 632 . 545 . 323 . 699 . 620 Nematura . Turritella . 448 711 Isocardia Lucina . . 351 . 392 Order II. ACALEPHA . 1 Cerithium . Scalaria Paludina Pyramidella Tornatella . Siliquaria . Crepidula . 115 593 487 556 692 618 157 Ungulina Anodonta . Alasmadon . Unio . Iridina Trigonia Polyodonta . . 716 . 18 . 9 . 716 . 851 . 700 . 537 Medusa . . .414 Beroe . . . .64 Jelly-fish . . . 355 Physalia . . .521 Portuguese Man-of-War 643 Order III. POLYPI . 539 Phorus 518 83 Bui la . Aplysia Dolabella . Carinaria . Bellerophon Umbrella . Pleurobranchus Kudibranchiata Doris . Glaucus Scylleae Phvllideaa . Limpet Chiton . Limax . 87 31 188 104 63 716 530 544 190 262 599 520 379 126 378 Pectunculus Nucula Tridacna . Hippopus . Mussel . Pinna . . Malleus Vulsella Avicula Pearl Oyster Margaritaceae Perna . Pecten . Lima . , . Pedum . . 503 . 454 . 700 . 320 . 441 . 526 . 400 . 728 . 43 . 500 . 410 . 508 . 603 . 378 . 503 Actinia Lucernaria . Hydra . Corallina Sertularia . Tubularia . Campanularia Flustra Gorgonia Madrepore . Caryophyllea Betepora Dendrophyllia . Fungia Virgularia . . 5 . 392 . 338 . 148 . 604 . 706 . 100 .' 278 . 398 . 106 . 572 . 177 . 250 . 725 ^ . 623 Spondylus . . 638 Alcyoneae . . . 10 Snail . 624 Plicatula . . 531 ____ Helix . 307 Oyster 482 Anastoma . 16 Placuna . . 528 CLASS XI. Bulimus . Pupa . 87 555 Anomia Placurianomia . 19 . 528 INFUSORIA .347 Clausilia . 133 Volvox . . . 726 Achatina Achatinella . Onchidium . Auricula. 3 3 459 42 Order IV. BRACHIO ODA 82 Lingula . . 380 Terebratula . 669 Monad . Enchelides . . 427 . 219 Lymnsea Physa . . 395 620 Order V. PTEROPODA . 551 CLASS XH. Planorbis . Ancylus . 529 16 Hyalea Limacixia . . 338 . 378 SPONGES .638 Helicina 306 Clio . . . 134 Halichondria . 300 THE TREASURY OF NATURAL HISTORY; OR, A POPULAR Btcttonarg ol ^mmatefc Jilature. AARD-VARK. The name by which the quadruped Orycteropus Capensis is known to the Dutch colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. The following cut, which is copied from Daniell's work on the Animals of Southern Africa, will give a good idea of its form. [For an account of its habits, see OKYCTKKOPUS.] AARD-WOLF. A name given by the European colonists in the neighbourhood of Algoa Bay, in South Africa, to a carnivorous digitigrade animal, which at first sight might be easily mistaken for a young striped hyaena. It is about the size of a full-grown fox, and in habits and manners somewhat resembles it. [See PEOTELES.] ABDOMINALES. An order of fishes in the Linnaean system, consisting of all those species which have the ventral fins placed behind the pectoral, or upon the abdomen, the cartilaginous fishes alone excepted. This arrangement has, however, been departed from by Cuvier as defective; and in its present acceptation the term Abdominals denotes a family or subdivision of Malacopterygious or soft-flnned fishes only, including therein the greater number of the fresh- water species, and such as periodically migrate from the ocean to deposit their spawn. As familiar instances, we may specify the Salmon and Trout. ABERDAVTNE. A small migratory Passerine bird, more generally termed the SISKIN [which see]. In Sussex it is known as the Barley-bird, because it is usually a visitant of that county about the barley seed- time. ABOU-HANNES. An African bird, sup- posed to be the Ibis reliffiosa, or White Ibi, of the ancient Egyptians. [See IBIS.] ABRAMIS. A genus of Malacoptery- gious fishes. [See BREAM.] ABRANCHIATA. An order of the An- nelida, composed of animals having no branchial appendages. Of these, the Earth- worm and the Leech are examples. ABROCOMA. A genus of small Rodent Animals, native of South America, remark- able for the extraordinary fineness of their fur. They have large ears, small claws, and the tail rather long, and not tufted. Their general aspect is intermediate to that of the Chinchillas and Rats or Voles. ACALEPHA. An order of the class Ra~ diata, comprising those animals which float and swim in the water, by alternate contrac- tions and dilatations of the body, although their substance is merely gelatinous, and without any apparent fibres. They are popu- larly named sea-nettles, from their causing, when touched, a disagreeable sensation, like the sting of a nettle: they are also familiarly known as jelly-fishes, sea-blubbers, &c., from the extreme softness of their tissues, which FURPLB OCEANIC JELLY-FISH. (.BQOOREA PORPURBA.) melt away, as it were, when removed from the water. Their form is circular, and there is only one opening into the body, which serves both for the mouth and vent. Al- though possessed of a certain degree of loco- motive power, the movements of the Aca- lephaa are very feeble ; and they are conse- quently often driven by the winds and rough currents on shore, where they are either beaten to pieces by the waves, or left dry by the tide. The Acalephaa are of various forms : many, indeed, are not yet tho- roughly known ; but the specimens which cf Datura! $|t are most commonly met with in our climate when examined in their native element, are seen to be composed of a large mushroom- shaped gelatinous disc, from the lower surface of which various processes and filaments depend. There are, in fact, obvious points of resemblance among them all ; but still they admit of division into genera and sub- genera. Thus, we may observe, the genus Medusa includes those which have a central disc, more or less convex, on the upper sur- face, something like the head of a mush- room, and those that have a true mouth on the under-side of the disc ; but this mouth is sometimes a simple opening, and at other times placed on a peduncle : while the genus jEqu&rea includes those in which the mouth is simple, and not on a peduncle. When the disc is furnished with tentacula all round, they are the ^quorea strictly so called, and one of the most numerous among the Acalephae in the seas of warm climates. There are many others ; and it would ap- pear that their tentacula possess consider- able muscular power, and that they are capable of drawing towards the mouth many small Molluscous and Crustaeeous animals. [See JELLY-FISH.] ACANTHOCEPHALA. A genus of pa- rasitic worms belonging to the Parenchy- mata, an order of the Entozoa. As an ex- ample, the Echinorhyncus yigas, often found in abundance in the alimentary canal of swine, may be named. The form of this parasite is elongated, tapering to the tail : the head consists of a retractile snout or proboscis, armed with four circlets of sharp recurved spines, and it can be withdrawn or protruded at will. At the extremity of this spine-armed proboscis is the mouth, a simple suctorial orifice leading to a double nutritive canal. ACANTHOCrNTJS. A genus of Coleop- terous insects belonging to the Longicorn group. There are but few European species : the antennae in the male are more than four times the length of the body. ACANTHOPHIS. A genus of venomous serpents, allied to the Vipers, but distin- guished from them in many essential cha- racters. The head of the Acanthophis is broad and compressed, the mouth capable of great extension, and the tail is terminated by a little spur or horny excrescence, whence its name is derived. They are natives of Aus- tralia ; secrete themselves in holes or beneath the roots of trees, and exhibit an astonish- ing tenacity of life. The A. Brownii is reckoned the most venomous Reptile found near Port-Jackson. ACANTHOPODA. A tribe of Clavicorn Coleopterous insects (composed of only one genus, ftettrocerus), distinguished by their flattened feet, which are broad, and armed on the outside with spines ; the tarsi short and four-jointed with ordinary sized claws, and the body depressed ; the prosternum is dilated ; the antennae are rather longer than the head, eleven-jointed, the last six forming a nearly cylindrical serrated mass. ACANTHOPTERYGII. One of the three primary grand divisions, or natural orders, of fishes ; originally recognized by our coun- trymen Willoughby and Ray, afterwards systematized by Artedi, and since established by Cuvier. The characteristics of the Acan- thopterygii are, that they possess bony skele- tons, with prickly spinous processes in the dorsal fins. The Stickleback and Perch are familiar examples of this division. ACANTHURUS, or SURGEON-FISH. A genus of Acanthopterygious fishes, many of which are remarkable for the beauty of their SURGEON PISH. (AOANTHUBTJS ) form and the variety of their colours. They are chiefly distinguished by the sharp and lancet-like moveable spines with wliich they are armed on each side of the tail ; hence, as they cannot be handled incautiously with impunity, they have obtained from English sailors, &c., the name of " doctors." They abound in the tropical seas, but are never seen elsewhere. Of these small spider-like animals, M. Latreille makes four divisions : 1. Mites, (Trombidites) ; 2. Ticks, (Ricinitcs) ; 3. Water Mites, (Hydrachnellce) ; and 4. Flesh Worms (Microphthira). Some of these exist on the ground, others in the water ; some are parasitical, living on the blood and humours of the animals or insects on which they are fixed, while others insinuate them- selves under the skin, where they multiply prodigiously. Of these latter, the Itch-insect (Sarcoptcs scabici,) is a remarkable example. Their mouths are, in general, formed rather for suction than for mastication ; and their extremities are commonly armed with what may be likened to a small pair of pincers. Some have four eyes, some two, and several appear to have none. The common Cheese- mite (Acarus dmnesticus*) is familiar to every one. Another has the power of spinning webs, and is well known as the Red Spider, in hot-houses, where it greatly injures the plants by covering the leaves with its webs. There are also Ticks, Harvest-bugs, Wa- ter Mites, and many others, which will be noticed in their alphabetical order. We may here, however, observe, en passant, that so widely are the Acaridee disseminated through animate JBtrttouarj? of gmmatrlr and inanimate objects, that it would be difficult indeed for the moat patient na- turalist to describe them. Myriads swarm around us : they float in our drink ; over- spread our food and fruits ; and if viewed with a microscopic eye, would make some loathe the choicest viands, and nauseate the most delicious productions of nature. The Mites possess great powers of life, resisting for a time the application of boiling water, and living long in alcohol. It is a species of Acams that Mr. Crpsse is thought to have produced by galvanic action ; but naturalists who have attended closely to such matters can readily and rationally account for their production in the usual way. ACASTA. A genus of Cirrhipedes, found imbedded in sponges. [See BALANUS.] ACCENTOR. A group of Passerine birds, many of which are peculiar to America ; but including also our well-known Hedge- sparrow (Accentor modularis). ACCIPITRES. The first order of birds in the Linnacan system, comprising such as have the beak or upper mandible hooked, and an angular projection on each side near the point ; as the Eagles, Falcons, Hawks, and Owls. They are among birds what the Carnivora are among quadrupeds. ACEPHALAE. An order of Mollusca, distinguished by having no apparent head, but a mouth only, concealed in the bottom, or between the folds, of their mantle. The testaceous Acephalse are by far the most numerous ; all Bivalve shells, and some kinds of Multivalves belonging to them. [See LAMELLIBKANCHIATA ; and for a fa- miliar example, see OYSTER.] ACERA. A name applied to a group of Apterous insects, characterized by the ab- sence of antennas. ACERJ3. A family of Gasteropodous Mollusca, distinguished by the tentacula being so much shortened, widened, and se- parated, that there seem to be none at all, or rather, they form together a large, fleshy, ' and nearly square buckler, tinder which the I eyes are placed. They approximate in many respects to the Aplysice. The shell, in those j which have one, is more or less convolute, without a visible spire, and the mouth has neither sinus nor canal. The genus Bulla I belongs to this family. ACHATINA. A genus of terrestrial Pneumonobranchous Gasteropods, popularly known by the name of agate-snails. They are characterized by an oval oblong shell, ! striated longitudinally, with the aperture j ovate, and never thickened or reflected, and a smooth, straight columella, truncated at the base. All the species are oviparous ; and among them are some which are the largest of all land shells. They always live near ; water about trees, and are very plentiful in Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope. Some are found in the West Indies ; an-1 there , are two small species, Achatina acicala and Achatina octona, found in England, among I the roots of trees at the base of limestone rocks. The Achatina cohtmnaris is one of the most remarkable of land sheila ; it is reversed, and the columella forms a winding pillar, visible within, quite to the summit of the spire. Many are covered with a thick epidermis, as the Achatina zebra ; but others are destitute. ACHATINELLA. A small genus of shells, differing from Achatina, in having the inner edge of the outer lip thickened, and a slight groove near the buture of the spire. ACHERONTIA. A genus of Lepidop- terous insects belonging to the family Sphin- ffidce. Of this genus there are two or three species closely resembling each other : one of these is found in this country ; and is known as the DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK-MOTH (Acherontia atropos). This magnificent in- sect varies in the expanse of its wings from four to considerably more than five inches. The upper pair are of a very dark brown colour, varied with black, especially near the base, near which is an undulated bar of pale ochre : the disc is varied with deep black BEATH'8-HEAD HAWK-MOTH (AOHKROHTIA ATROPOS.) undulated lines, and ferruginous patches, minutely irrorated with white, of which colour there is a central spot, and several wavy connected bars beyond the middle. The posterior wings are fulvous orange, with a narrow central and a broader dentated bar running parallel with the hinder margin. The head and thorax are brownish black, the latter with a large pale, skull-like mark on the back : the abdomen is fulvous, with the incisures of the segments black, and a lead-coloured stripe runs down the back. When disturbed or irritated, this insect emits a squeaking sound. From this circumstance, as well as from the singular mark just mentioned, its appearance is regarded with much dread by the vulgar in several parts B 2 Ercagttrj? of Natural $? of Europe, as ominous of some approaching calamity. The Caterpillar from which thi curious insect proceeds is in the highes; degree beautiful, and far surpasses in size every other in this country, measuring some- times near five inches in length, and being of very considerable thickness. Its coloui is a bright yellow j the sides being market with seven elegant broad stripes or bands, of a mixed violet and sky-blue colour, which meet on the back, and are there varied with jet-black specks : on the last joint of the body is a horn or process, curving over the joint in the manner of a tail. This cater- pillar is principally found on the potato and the jessamine, those plants being its favourite food. It usually changes into a chrysalis in the month of September, retiring for that purpose pretty deep under the surface of 'the earth ; the complete insect emerging in the following June or July. " Another peculiarity connected with the history of this Moth," Mr. Westwood ob- serves, " consists in its attacking bee-hives, ravaging the honey, and dispersing the in- habitants. It is singular that a creature with only the advantage of size should dare, without sting or shield, singly, to attack in their strongholds these well-armed and nu- merous people ; and still more singular, that amongst so many thousands of bees it should always contend victoriously. Huber, who first noticed the fact, asks, ' May not this moth the dread of superstitious people also exercise a secret influence over insects, and have the faculty, either by sound or some other means, of paralysing their cou- rage ? May not such sounds as inspire the vulgar with dread be also the dread of bees ? ' He also states that he was witness to the curious fact that some bees, as if expecting their enemy, had barricaded themselves by means of a thick wall of propolis and wax, completely obstructing the entrance of the hive, but penetrated by passages for one or two workers at a tune ; thus instructing us, that at the period when the moth appears, when also wasps and robber bees attack the hive, it is advantageous to narrow the en- trances to it, so as to prevent the depreda- tions of these obnoxious insects. The species appears to be distributed over the greater part of England and Scotland, and many specimens are annually obtained by labour- ers when employed in getting up potatoes." ACHETID^E. A family of Orthopterous insects, ordinarily called Crickets. [See CKICKET.] ACHETJS. A name applied by M. F. Cuvier to such of the Tardigrada, or Sloths, as have three claws on their fore-feet. ACHIRUS. A genus of flat-fish, belong- ing to the order Malacopterygii ; in form resembling the Sole, but distinguished from all other genera by the total want of pectoral fins ; hence their name. The Achiri have no air-bladder, and consequently remain for the most part at the bottom of the sea; yet their motions are there frequently very rapid. They abound mostly in the East and West Indies ; and as they keep near the shores, they furnish a plentiful supply of wholesome food to the inhabitants. The most remarkable of this species is the Achirus marmoratus, which has the caudal fin dis- tinct from the anal and dorsal, all of which are of a pale bluish-white colour, thickly studded with small black spots. The flesh is of a delicate flavour, and highly esteemed. There is also another of the Achiri de- serving notice, the Achirus pavonicus, so called from the beauty of its spots, wlu'ch cover the body of the fish like those on a peacock's tail. ACIPENSER (sometimes written ACCI- PENSER). A genus of fish in the Linnsean system, the distinguishing characteristics of which are, that the mouth is retractile and destitute of teeth, and the gills have only one aperture on each side. [See STURGEON.] ACONTIAS. A genus of Serpents, for- merly confounded with the Angues, or com- mon snakes, but differing from those rep- tiles in certain peculiarities of osteological formation, as well as in their habits j and therefore Cuvier considered it necessary to establish this new genus. They are cha- racterized by the absence of all the bones which represent the extremities of the other angues, while they retain the structure of the head common to those animals and the lizards, and have the body similarly covered with small scales only. The progressive movements of the Acontias are consequently very diiferent from those of common ser- pents : they carry their heads and breasts erect ; and, though by nature harmless and even timid, when pursued they will dart courageously at their assailant. There are few countries in the Old World in which some species of Acontias are not found ; but our elder naturalists have generally confounded them with serpents of a dangerously venom- ous nature : hence the numerous fabulous stories which are related of them by ancient bdstorians. ACORN-SHELL. The popular name for ;he Balanus and other Cirrhipeds, which in- habit a tubular shell, whose base is usually formed of calcareous laminae. It is always bund attached to some shell or foreign body: it is multivalvular, unequal, and fixed by a stem, or sessile ; the valves lie parallel to each other, and in a perpendicular position. The inclosed animal performs its necessary func- IDrrjwlar JStctumavg of &nimatett tions by an aperture at the top j for the I by their skin being covered with innumera- valves, being destitute of hinges, never open ! ble small warts or tubercles, which, how- or separate. The tentacula from this animal 1 ever, are only apparent when the skin of the being feathered, our credulous ancestors con- living reptile is inflated or in preserved spe- ceived the idea that it gave origin to a bird i cimeus. The only species accurately known called the barnacle goose ; nay, BO prevalent , at present is the Acrochordua Javanicus of was the opinion, that we find inserted in the ! Lacepede, chiefly remarkable on account of Philosophical Transactions of this country its diet ; which, contrary to the general habit a grave account of its transformation. [See BAKNACLE.] These curious but common shells are found in all seas, particularlyon the coasts of Africa. They are affixed to marine bodies, generally in numerous groups, and the peduncle is sometimes found a foot long. A large log of timber (as Mr. Broderip remarks) covered with these animals, twisting and diverging in all directions, and so thick as entirely of the order, seems (according to the testi- mony of Hornstedt) to consist of fruits and other vegetable substances. This animal averages from eight to ten feet in length, the body growing gradually thicker from the head to the vent, and there suddenly con- tracting so as to form a very short slender tail. ACROCINUS. A genus of Coleopterous insects belonging to the Longicorn group. to hide the surface of the log, is a strange sight. They look like an enormous collec- .. . tion of serpents to the ignorant ; and a bodv w living mass of this description, casually thrown into shallow water and left by the tide, has been so termed. Their growth must be exceeding rapid. A ship going out with a perfectly clean bottom will often return, after a short voyage, covered with them. ACOUCHI. (Dasyproctaacuchi.) A Ro- dent quadruped, considerably smaller than the Agouti ; it is of a deep olive colour, and mi.) haa only the rudiments of a tail. It inhabits the woods of Guiana ; is of a mild, gentle, and timid disposition ; and subsists on nuts, almonds, and other vegetable food. ACRITA. The lowest division of the Animal Kingdom, (comprising the classes Spoimiue, Polypi, Polygastrica, Sterelmintfue, and Acalepha,) in which there is no distinct discernible nervous system, or distinct and separate alimentary canal. In most of the animals composing this sub-kingdom, no muscular fibres are to be perceived, yet of these many contract and expand their bodies, and are furnished with movable and sensi- tive tentacles, by which they seize their prey. Many also are capable of locomotion j others, like the plant, are fixed to one spot for life ; and some are united together, and form compound animals. There is ordi- narily no distinction of sexes ; and repro- duction takes place either by the simple division of the body, by granular ova, or gemmules which become detached from the parent body, the form of which they ulti- mately assume. ACROCHORDUS. A genus of Serpents discovered in Java. They are considered innoxious, and are distinguished from others The thorax on each side is furnished with a moveable tubercle ending in a spine ; the the antennae very long S (ACROOINUS LONOIMAN and slender ; the fore-legs much longer than the others ; the elytra are truncated at the end and furnished with two teeth. The 1 largest and best known species is the HAR- ; LKyuiy BEETLE (A. lonyimanus) of South America, the common name of which is de- | rived from the agreeable mixture of grey, black and red, on the elytra, giving it a re- semblance to the garb of a harlequin. ACRYDIUM . The name applied by Fa- bricius to a genus of Locusts, characterized by a carinate thorax ; filiform antennae, shorter than the thorax ; and equal palpi. [See LOCUST.] ACTION. A genus of Mollusca allied to Doris, a few species of which are found in this country. [For habits, see NUDIBKAN- CHIATA.] ACTINIAE. These curious and interest- ing marine animals are closely allied to the B 3 Evtatfurj? ai Natural gl Sea-nettles, spoken of under the head ACA- LEPiijE. They are distinguished by the form of their body, which is cylindrical, soft, fleshy, and susceptible of contraction and dilatation. They are also furnished with nu- merous tentacula, which are appended round the margin of the aperture that serves both as the mouth and vent ; and these being not only radiated but of various lively colours, nave given rise to the popular names of Animal-flma&rs and Sea-Anemonies, by which the Actiniae are familiarly known. They are found on the shores of every sea, often covering the sides of rocks as with a tapestry of flowers. As in other tribes, each species has its peculiar haunt, and they differ from each other in shape, size, and colour; those in tropical regions far sur- passing in gorgeous brilliancy such as are met with in the seas of colder latitudes. "These singular creatures," says an able contemporary, " have a power of reproduc- tion equal to that so well known in the fresh- water polypus. They may be cut perpen- dicularly or across, and each cutting will give origin to a new animal. The young Actiniae are seen issuing, already formed, sometimes from the mouth ; and sometimes the base of the old animal is dissevered, a portion remaining attached to the rock, where it continues to live, increasing in size, becoming more and more rounded, while, in a short time, a mouth, stomach, and tentacula are formed, presenting, to the surprise of an observer, a complete Actinia. At length, the side portions of this base give out glo- bules, which are detached, and fix themselves upon adjacent rocks, where they grow and produce a new colony like the parent ani- mal." Among the best ascertained Actiniae are the large leathery Sea- Anemone (A. sent/is), the purple Sea- Anemone (A. equina), the white Sea- Anemone (A. plumosa), and the deep crimson species (A . Jordiaca), which is found in the Mediterranean, and esteemed by the Italians a great delicacy for the table. ACTINOCAMAX. A name given by Miller to the fossil shells of an extinct genus of Cephalopodous Mollusca, apparently con- necting the Belemnites with the existing Sepice. They are principally found in the chalk formations of England and Nor- mandy. ACTJLEATA. The name for a section of Hymenopterous insects, whose antennae are simple, and composed of a constant number of joints, namely, thirteen in the males, and twelve in the females. The larvae have never any feet, and subsist on food which the females or neuters provide them with : one division of them, the Prcedones, or pre- daceous tribes, which do not collect pollen, feeding upon other insects that have been stored up for them ; and the other division, the Melliferce, or honey-collectors, feeding upon honey or pollen paste, similarly re- served for their use. ADAPTS. The name given to a genus of Pachydermatous quadrupeds, now existing only in a fossil state, some imperfect speci- mens of which were found in the plaster quarries of Montmartre, and described by Cuvier in his great work, Sur ks Ossemew ADDA. A small species of Lizard, cele- brated throughout the East as being effica- cious in the cure of various cutaneous diseases to which the inhabitants of Egypt and Arabia are peculiarly subject. It is about six inches long ; the body and tail cylin- drical, the latter ending in a very sharp point ; the face is covered with black lines, which cross each other ; the body is of a light straw colour with black bands ; and the scales shine as if they were varnished. It burrows in the sand. ADD AX. (Antilope addax.) A species of Antelope, more heavily formed than the generality of Antilopidce, and having large spiral horns, annulated to within about six inches of the points. It lives solitarily or in pairs on the borders and oases of the Nubian deserts. It has remarkably broad hoofs, provided by nature to enable the animal to move the more easily over the fine loose sand. The general colour of the Addax is a greyish-white ; but the head and neck are of a deep reddish-brown with a mark of pure white across the lower part of the fore- ADDER. (Ftpera lerus.) The Adder, or Viper, is a venomous reptile of the serpent kind, seldom more than two or three feet long, being considerably shorter than the common snake in proportion to its bulk. It is of a dull yellow colour with black spots, and the abdomen entirely black. [See VIPER.] ADEPHAGA. A name given to a family of carnivorous and very voracious Coleop- ADESMACEA. A family of Lamellibran- chiate Mollusca, which either bore tubular dwellings in rocks, wood, &c., or live in testaceous tubes, their shells being con- sequently destitute of the hinge ligament. The genera Pholas, Teredina, Teredo, Fis- tulana, and Septaria belong to this family. ADJUTANT, or GIGANTIC CRANE (Leptoptilos Argala), the Argala of India. This remarkable bird is a native of the warmer parts of India, and is of great use in removing noxious animals and carrion, which it devours with avidity. It stands five feet high, measuring from the tip of the bill to the claws seven and a half feet, and From the tip of each outstretched wing not less than fourteen feet. The head and neck are nearly bare ; the beak is extremely large, at gmmatrtr ,O8 ARQAT.A.) long, and strong ; and under it hangs a downy pouch or bag, like a dewlap, which is capable of being inflated ; the upper part of the bird is of an ash-grey colour, and the under part white. The voracity of the Ad- jutant is not more extraordinary than its capacity for swallowing : it makes but one mouthful of a rabbit, a fowl, or even a small leg of mutton ; and when domesticated its habits of purloining render it necessary to all kinds of provision out of its reach. kee Keep ail Dr. Latham observes that these birds in their wild state live in companies, and when seen at a distance, near the mouths of rivers, coming towards an observer, which they often do with their wings extended, " may well be taken for canoes upon the surface of a smooth sea : when on the sand-banks, for men and women picking up shell-fish or other tilings on the beach." ADONIS BUTTERFLY. [See FOLY- OMMATUS.] A genus of Isopodous Crustacea, parasitic on fish hence frequently called Fish- lice. They are found in all parts of the world. In Newfoundland the fisher- men call the species fish- doctors, and believe that the soft matter (mixed with eggs) found on the under side of the body of the females, is very useful in healing wounds. The adjoining cut will give some idea of the form of the species of this genus, which have the eyes generally large and approximating in front. FISH-LOUSE. A family of Heterocerous Lepidoptera, comprising a moderate number of interesting insects, whose resemblance to various Ilymenoptera and Diptera (owing to the elongate form of the body, and the naked- ness of the wings, which are more or less transparent in many of the species) is some- hat remarkable. The antennae are simple, fusiform, or thickened towards the tips, and generally terminated by a small pencil of hairs ; the ocelli are distinct, and the labial palpi elevated ; the abdomen is elongated ; the wings have but comparatively few ner- vures; and the posterior legs are furnished with very long spurs The larvae of these insects are of a cylindrical form, and with naked bodies destitute of a caudal horn: they have six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal feet. They live in the interior of the branches or roots of trees, where they undergo their transformations to chrysalides, whose abdo- minal segments are armed with transverse rows of recurved points: these enable the chrysalis to push itself not only through the cocoon which the caterpillar had constructed from the decayed roots or branches, but half out of the hole in the stem previously made, it having had the instinct to turn round in its burrow, so that the head of the pupa should be towards the orifice. The larvse of some species, such as the jEgeria culidformis and jE.formictformis, feed upon the apple, and that of ^Egeria tijtultformis upon the pith of currant trees ; in the neighbourhood of which the perfect insects may be seen flying, in the hottest sunshine, with great activity, or basking upon the leaves, alternately expanding and shutting the fan-like glossy appendages of hair which decorate the end of the body. JEGITH ALUS. A name given to a genus of birds (the PencMous Titmice) of the order Passerinae. [See TITMOUSE.] ^GOTHELES. A name given to a genus of Passerine birds, distinguished by long tarsi, and toes apparently fitted for hopping from bough to bough ; the wings comparatively short. The only known species inhabits Australia, and is the Caprimulffus Novae Hollandice of Phillips. In the day it resorts to the hollow branches of trees (or spouts as they are called), and holes of the gum trees. It feeds on the smaller Coleop- tera. Its flight is straight ; lays four or five white eggs, which are nearly round; and has at least two broods a year. JEQUOREA. [See ACALIPHA.] AGAMA : AGAMHXE. A genus and family of Saurian Reptiles. They have thick bodies covered with a loose skin, which is capable of being distended with air, at the will of the animal ; the head is short, broad, and flat ; the neck also is short, and the tail seldom longer than the bqdy. Different spe- cies of them are to be met with in every cli- mate ; and as some are capable of changing the colours of their skin, they are in some parts of South America called chameleons. They generally lurk among rocks, heaps of stones, and mouldering ruins, their dull and sombre colours protecting them from observa- tion: the more slender and active kinds, how- ever, ascend trees with great facility, sport among the branches, and feed upon the insects which are generally to be found there 8 Crearfurp nf flatttral in abundance. Some of the Agamida met with in India, South America, and Australia, are very curious ; but so numerous are the species, that we cannot here give more than a description of their general characteristics. ! [See MOLOCH.] AGAMI.or GOLD-BREASTED TRUM- PETER. (Psophia crepitans.) This in- teresting bird is about the size of a pheasant or large fowl ; has long legs, and a long neck, but a very short tail, consisting of twelve black feathers, over which the rump-plumes hang droopingly. It inhabits the forests of South America, where it is found in nume- rous flocks : it runs swiftly, and when pur- sued, trusts to its legs rather than its wings. When domesticated, this bird is a pattern of fondness and fidelity ; arid is so jealous of its master's caresses, that it attacks the dogs and other animals who venture near him. It is sometimes used to protect domestic poultry from the attacks of birds of prey. AGATHISTEGUES. A family of Cepha- lapodous Mollusca, in which the cells are gathered together in small numbers, and heaped up in a globular shape. AGEISnOSUS. A genus of Mai acoptery- gious Abdominal fishes, belonging to the Siluruke. AGGREGATA. The name given to cer- tain shell-less Mollusca, which are collected together in a common enveloping organized substance containing numerous compart- ments, from each of which a distinct occu- nt sends forth a circle of organs to collect 3d, which, after assimilation, is carried by a common and continuous system of vessels for the support and enlargement of the com- mon dwelling. AGLAURA. A genus of Dorsibranchiate Annelides, distinguished by having nume- rous jaws, but no tentacles, or which are entirely hidden ; and cirrhi, which perform the office of branchiae. AGOUTI. (Dasyprocta.) A genus of Mammalia belonging to the order Jtodentia, and classed with the Cavidce, or guinea-pig tribe. It is found in great abundance throughout South America ; and as it bears some rude resemblance in its form and man- ner of living to the hare and rabbit, though it varies from both very essentially, it has sometimes been denominated the rabbit of that continent. It, however, varies still more from that animal in its habitude and disposition, than in its form. It has in a great measure the external covering of a hog ; so also has it the hog's voracious appetite : it eats indiscriminately of every thing that comes in its way ; and, when satiated, con- ceals the remainder, like the dog and fox, for it future occasion. The Agouti secretes itself in the holes of trees ; its ordinary food con- sisting of potatoes, yams, and the fruits which fall in autumn. It uses its fore-paws, like the squirrel, to convey the food to its mouth ; and as its hind legs are very long, it runs, or rather leaps, with considerable swiftness. pant food AGOUTI. (uAUiirBOOTA.) and well dressed it is by no means unpala- table food. Agoutis are particularly de- structive to the sugar-cane : the planters consequently use every means to catch them; and although they are still numerous in most places which are not settled and culti- vated, their number is not now to be com- pared with what it was even long after the first colonists took possession of the West India islands. There is one kind of Agouti called the Mara, or Patagonian Cavy, con- siderably larger and more elegant than any of the others. Differently from most bur- rowing animals, it wanders, commonly two or three together, to miles or leagues from its home. It feeds and roams about by day ; is shy and watchful ; and generally produces two young ones at a birth. Naturalists give to this kind and species the name of Doli- chotis Patachonicus. AGR AL33. An order of quadrupeds, des- titute of teeth, but furnished with very long cylindric tongues, which supply that defect. Of this order there are only two distinct genera, the Myrmccophaga and the Manis [which see]. AGRIOPUS. A genus of Acanthoptery- gious fishes, particularly distinguished from other genera by having only nine rays in the pectoral fins. The Agriopus torvits, or Sea- horse, as it is sometimes called, is about two feet long, and is common on the shores of the Cape of Good Hope. AI. [See SLOTH.] AIAIA. (Platalea.) A bird of the Spoon- bill genus, frequently seen in Brazil on the banks of rivers. It is of a pale but very bright and glossy flesh-colour on the back and wings, while the other parts are all beau- tifully white. Its flesh is considered whole- some and palatable. AILURUS. A genus of carnivorous quad- rupeds belonging to the family Ursidce. The only known species, first found by Maj. ! Gen. Hardwicke, is the Wah or Panda | (Aihirits fulyens.) It is about the size of ; a large cat ; the fur soft and thickly set ; above, of the richest cinnamon-red ; be- The flesh is white and tender, and when fat | hind more fulvous, and deep black beneath. of gtoimatett $aturc. FDLOENS.) The head is whitish ; the tail annulated with brown ; and the soles of the feet are hairy. This elegant animal frequents the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes much of its time upon trees, and feeds on birds and the smaller quadrupeds. ALABES. A genus of Malacopterygioua apodal fishes, distinguished by having one gill-opening ; pectorals well marked, with a disc between them ; gill-lids small, with three rays, and pointed teeth. The species inhabit the Indian Ocean. ALASMADON. A name which has been given to some Bivalve Mollusca, of which the fresh-water Pearl Mussel (.Mya margariti- fera) is an example. ALAT^E. A family of Mollusca, belong- ing to the second section of the order Tra- chelipoda, containing the genera Jtostellaria, Pterocera, Strombiis, &c. The shells of this family are distinguished by the spreading of the outer lip. ALAUDA. A genus of granivorous singing-birds, of which there are many species, found in all parts of the globe. They are characterized by a long and straight hind claw, a strong straight bill, and by being able to raise the feathers on the back part of the head into the form of a crest. The greater part of them are migratory : they always build their nests on the ground, and may be considered as peculiarly birds of the fields and meadows. [See LARK.] ALBATROSS. (ZHomedea.) A genus of Palmipede birds : the species are the largest of all aquatic birds, the wings of some when extended measuring fifteen feet, and the weight often exceeding twenty pounds. Its plumage is white, with the exception of a few of the wing feathers and some transverse black bands on the back. It has a strong, hard, long beak, of a pale yellow colour : the feet, which are flesh-coloured, are short and webbed ; and the wings are long, strong, and narrow. It preys on the wing, and is very voracious ; but though formidable from its size and strength, it is not equally cou- rageous, being frequently compelled to yield its prey to the sea-eagles, and sometimes even to the larger species of gulls. These ! birds are continually met with in the South- ern Ocean, and are also seen in immense flocks about Bchring's Straits and Kamt- schatka in the early part of summer, at- tracted thither by the vast shoals of fish, whose migrations they follow. Besides the common Albatross, here described, there are two other species of less gigantic proportions, namely, the Albatross of China and the black-beaked Albatross. When sailors accidentally fall overboard n latitudes where the Albatross abounds, they find it a most formidable enemy, even should only a few minutes elapse before they can be rescued by their comrades. Its powers of flight are prodigious. Dr.Arnott mentions an instance of one of these birds following a rapidly sailing ship for two or three days. One species is called by sailors the " Cape (CIOUZDKA XULAUS.) Sheep," from flocks of them being seen off the Cape of Good Hope Captain Sir J. C. Ross, in his voyage to the Southern Seaa, mentions that, in one of the islands fre- quented by seal hunters, the eggs of these birds, each of which averages about a pound in weight, are much esteemed while the young birds, when first taken from their nest, are described by them as being quite delicious. It is possible, he adds, the sealers may have acquired the Esquimaux taste. ALBIONES. A genus of Abranchioua Annelides, distinguished by having the body bristled with tubercles. ALBURNUS. A fresh-water fish, a species of the CyprinicUx. [See BLEAK.] ALCA. [See AUK.] ALCAD^E. A family of oceanic birds, including the Auks, Puffins, and Guille- mots. The power of their wings as organs of flight is generally very circumscribed j but their whole structure is admirably adapted for an aquatic life. The legs are extremely short, but powerful, and placed so far backwards that, in resting on the rocks, the birds appear to stand in an upright posi- tion. The toes are usually only three in number, and fully webbed. The bill is generally compressed, and often grooved at the sides, but it varies in form in the dif- ferent genera. Their food consists of fishes, Crustacea, and other marine productions ; but they never resort to fresh water. [See AUK, &c.] ALCEDO : ALCEDINID^. A genus and family of birds, popularly known as Kingfishers, of which there are numerous 10 ([Treasury of Natural fgi exotic species (all distinguished by the splen- did colours of their plumage), but only one kind indigenous to this country. Their principal characteristics are, a long, straight, quadrangular bill, thick and pointed; tongue, short, flat, and fleshy ; the nostrils at the side of the base of the bill running obliquely ; the tail and legs short. These birds for the most part live on fish, which they transfix with the bill as with a spear : they are solitary in their habits, and build their nests in holes on the banks of rivers. [See KING- FISHER.] ALCIOPE. A genus of Dorsibranchiate Annelides, distinguished by having two foliated cirrhi, or gills, and a couple of branchial tubercles. ALCYONE^, or ALCYONIAN POLY- PES. Under the heads " CORALS," " POLY- PES," and " SPONGES," will be found such particulars as are deemed necessary to de- scribe those singular marine productions. It is, therefore, sufficient to observe in this place, that the Alcyonece are somewhat similar to the last mentioned. They vary much in form, being either lobed, branched, rounded, or existing in a shapeless mass or crust ; while the interior substance is of a spongy or cork-like nature, surrounded by tubular rays inclosed in a sort of tough fleshy membrane. The animals are lodged in round cells, separated from each other by thin partitions. They are to be found in all seas, and at various depths, resorting, in general, to sheltered places, or where the water is deep and still. ALEA. A genus of minute land shells, found in marshy ground, roots of trees, moss, &c. ALECTOR. (Crax.-) A large Gallina- ceous bird of America, somewhat like a turkey. They have large rounded tails, composed of stiff quills ; build their nests in trees ; live on buds and fruits ; and may be easily domesticated. [See CURASSOW.] ALECTURA. [See TALEGALLA.] ALEPOCEPHALUS. A fish belonging to the Esocidte, or Pike family, found in the depths of the Mediterranean. Head naked, body with broad scales, mouth small, teeth minute and crowded, eyes very large, and eight gill-rays. ALLIGATOR. (Alligator Jwciws.) This very formidable and ferocious Reptile is found in tropical climates, and agrees in every essential property with the Crocodile once so terrible along the banks of the Nile. There are apparently several species belong- ing to the order Sauria, family Crocodilidce, their general plan of structure being the same as that of the lizards. They have a long flat head, thick neck and body, protected by regular transverse rows of square bony plates, raised in the centre into keel-shaped ridges. The mouth is extremely large, ex- tending considerably behind the eyes, and furnished in each jaw with a single row of pointed teeth, all of different sizes, and standing apart from one another. The tongue is short and fleshy, and firmly at tached to the under jaw throughout, so as tc be incapable of protrusion ; the eyes are placed in the upper part of the skull, and provided each with three distinct lids ; and beneath the throat are two small glands which contain a musky substance. They have five toes on the fore-feet and four behind ; but only the three inner toes on each foot are provided with claws. But the most remarkable, and, at the same time, most important organ they possess, is their long taper tail, which is strongly compressed on the sides, and surmounted with a double series of strong plates, which, converging towards the middle, there unite and form a single row to the extremity Their feet are webbed ; but it is to the tail they owe most of their progressive power in the water ; and although it impedes their motions on dry land, even there it often becomes a powerful weapon of defence. The Alligator is prodigiously strong ; and its arms, both offensive and defensive, are irresistible. Its ordinary length is from fifteen to eighteen feet, though sometimes considerably more. The shortness of its legs, the vertebral conformation of the back- bone, the muscles of the legs, and, in short, its whole frame, are calculated for amazing force. Its teeth are sharp, numerous, and formidable ; its claws long and tenacious ; but its principal instrument of obstruc- tion is its tail, with a single blow of which it is capable of overturning a canoe. Its proper element is the water ; but it is also very terrible by land : it seldom, how- ever, unless when pressed by hunger, or with a view of depositing its eggs, quits the water: it usually lays between fifty and sixty of these (.which are about the same size as those of a goose, but oblong rather than oval), in one place, and covers them up with sand, leaving them to be hatched by the heat of the sun : it generally happens, however, that half of them are devoured by vultures, or fall a prey to various descriptions of ravenous fishes. Both the Alligator and the Crocodile are supposed to be very long- lived, and their growth is extremely slow. The most extraordinary accounts are re- lated of the ferocity and strength of this terrible destroyer. It usually floats along the surface, and seizes fish, fowl, turtle, or whatever other prey may fall within its reach ; but, this method failing, it is then compelled to venture near the shore, where it conceals itself among the sedges in ex- Papular JBt'ctionarg of gmmatetf feature, n pectation of some land animal coming to drink. As the devoted victim approaches, nothing of its insidious enemy is to be seen ; nor is the retreat of the former meditated till it is too late. The voracious reptile instantly springs on its prey with much more agility than might reasonably be ex- pected from such an unwieldy creature ; and, having secured it with its teeth and claws, instantly plunges into the water and drags it to the bottom, where it is devoured at its leisure. In its depredations along the banks, however, it sometimes happens that the Alligator seizes on an animal as formid- able as itself, and meets with a desperate resistance. With the tiger, in particular, which is in the habit of lurking in the vici- nity of great rivers, it has frequent contests ; and the instant this animal finds itself as- saulted, he turns about with prodigious agility, and forces his claws into the eyes of the assailant, who immediately plunges with its fierce antagonist into the river, where the struggle continues till the tiger submits to a watery death. As we have spoken at some length of the CROCODILE, and described the different species, it would be inconsistent with our general plan to extend this article much further. We therefore conclude with an anecdote from Waterton's " Wanderings in South America," clearly showing that man is not exempt from the attacks of this fero- cious destroyer :" One Sunday evening, gome years ago, as I was walking with Don Felipe de Ynciarte, governor of Angustura on the bank of the Oroonoque, ' Stop here a minute or two, Don Carlos,' said he to me, 'while I recount a sad accident. One fine evening last year, as the people of Angustura, were sauntering up and down here, in the Alameda, I was within twenty yards of this place, when I saw a large Cayman [the com- mon species of Surinam and Guiana] rush out of the river, seize a man, and carry him down, before any body had it in his power to assist him. The screams of the poor fellow were terrible as the Cayman was running off with him. He plunged into the river with his prey : we instantly lost sight of him, and never saw or heard him more." ALLIGATOR TORTOISE. A genus of the EMYDA:, or Marsh Tortoises, which are carnivorous in their habits ; and some of the species, of which this is one, are formidable from their size and ferocity. It is a native of the lakes, rivers, and morasses of Caro- lina ; and it is remarkable for its activity, darting suddenly upon aquatic birds, fishes, or other animals that come within its reach, and snapping them up : from which habit it is sometimes designated as the " Snap- ping Turtle." The species is the Chelydra Serpentina. [See TORTOISE.] ALOSA. A genus of Malacopterygious fishes of the Clupeidce or Herring family, greatly resembling the Pilchard and Sardine, Alosa vulgaris is the common SHAD (which see]. ALPACA, or PERUVIAN SHEEP. (.Auchenia.) In form and structure, this animal bears a strong resemblance to the camel ; but is greatly inferior in size, and differs from it in the absence of the hump, the want of water-cells in the stomach, and in the conformation of the foot, which con- FBROVHN 8HBXP. (iUOHBNIi.) sists of two toes completely divided, each with a rough cushion beneath, and provided at the end with a strong short hoof. There appear to be three closely allied species of these animals. That which we are now describing is said to be entirely confined to Peru, where the natives keep vast flocks of them for the sake of the silky lustre and fineness of their wool. It inhabits the more elevated parts of the mountain ranges, living almost on the borders of perpetual snow. [See LLAMA, GUANACO, and VICUNA.] ALUCITID^. A family of small Lepi- dopterous insects, nearly allied to the TixEii)>K,hut distinguished from that and all others by the wings being singularly divided into narrow feathered rays ; the fore wings having two, three, four, or six, and the posterior wings three or six of such rays, which are beautifully feathered on each edge: they are carried horizontally in repose ; the antennae are long, slender, and setaceous ; the spiral maxillae are long ; and the legs are g and slender. The l with very long hairs ; they have sixteen feet, larvae are clothed and are very inactive ; the pupse are either naked, and enclosed in a transparent silken cocoon ; or conical, hairy, and either sus- pended perpendicularly by a thread, or af- fixed at the posterior extremity of the body to a layer of silk or leaves. These insects vary in the time of their flight ; the Aluciia frequenting our gardens, and sitting with its beautiful fan-like wings on our hothouses, whilst the Pterophori, being crepuscular, fly over low plants. The rays of the wings are composed of the nerves, without any of the intervening membrane, which seems to be transformed into the fringe. In repose the Pterophori fold their wings so as to appear to consist of only one broad ray. ALUTERES. A genus of fishes, belong- ing to the order Plectognathi : they are cha- racterized by a long body, the granulations scarcely visible, and a single spine in the first dorsal ; but the pelvis is completely hidden in the skin. For an example, see OSTRACIOW. 12 Datura! AMADAVADE. A small bird of the Finch tribe (FringiUidce), having a beautiful red bill. The upper part of the body is brown, the rump dark red, and the prime feathers of the wings are black ; as are also those of the tail, which are longest in the middle, and gradually slope to the sides : it is frequently kept as a pet in cages, and lives on seeds. AMBLYRHYNCHUS. The name given to a genus of Lizards, very much resembling the Iguanas, common on all the islands throughout the Galapagos Archipelago. They differ, however, from the Iguana, in having, instead of the long, pointed, nar- row muzzle of that species, a short, ob- tusely truncated head, and also in the strength and curvature of the claws. Mr. Darwin (in his " Journal of Researches," &c.) thus speaks of the one which is termed Am- blyrhynchus cristatus : " It lives exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches, and is never found, at least I never saw one, even ten yards in- shore. It is a hideous looking creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid and sluggish in its movements. The usual length of a full- grown one is about a yard ; but there are some even four feet long. I have seen a large one which weighed twenty pounds. On the island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than on any other. These Lizards were occasionally seen some hundred yards from the shore, swimming about ; and Captain Collnett, in his voyage, says, ' they go out to sea in shoals to fish.' With respect to the object, I believe he is mistaken ; but the fact stated on such good authority cannot be doubted. When in the water the animal swims with perfect ease and quickness, by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail, the legs during this time being perfectly motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight at- tached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly ; but when, an hour afterwards, he drew up the line, the Lizard was quite active. Their limbs and strong claws are admirably adapt- ed for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava, which every where form the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may often- times be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with out- stretched legs." Its habits are entirelyaquatic, as well as its food, which consists of sea- weed. The species termed Amblyrhynchus subcris- tatus is terrestrial, and is confined to the central islands of the Archipelago. These " inhabit both the higher and damp, as well as the lower and sterile parts ; but in the latter they are much the most numerous. Like their aquatic brethren, they are ugly animals; and from their low facial angle have a singularly stupid appearance. In size, per- haps, they are a little inferior to the latter, but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds each. The colour of their belly, front legs, and head (excepting the crown, which is nearly white), is a dirty yellowish-orange : the back is a brownish- red, which in the younger specimens is darker. In their movements they are lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, they slowly crawl along with their tails and bellies drag- ging on the ground. They often stop and doze for a minute with closed eyes and hind legs spread out on the parched soil. They in- habit burrows, which they sometimes ex- ! cavate between fragments of lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft volcanic substance. They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows. When atten- tively watching any one they curl their tails, and, raising themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically with a quick movement, and try to look very fierce ; but in reality they are not at all so : if one just stamps the ground, down go their tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can." They live on the leaves of trees and other vegetable productions ; and their flesh is considered a delicate kind of food. AMBLOTIS. [See WOMBAT.] AMIA. A small Malacopterygious fresh- water fish, found in the rivers of South America. It belongs to the Clupeidce fa- mily ; feeds on Crustacea, and is rarely eaten. AMMOCETES. A genus of Chondrop- terygious fishes, allied to the Lampreys, the maxillary ring being without teeth, the fleshy lips semicircular. The common species, Ammocetes branchiaUs, is about the thickness of a goose quill, and is very com- mon in some of the English rivers, where it is known as the Stone Grig. It lodges in the mud, where it preys on worms, insects, &c. ; and is of no use but as bait for other fish. It has been accused of sucking the gills of fishes. AMMODYTE, or LAUKCE. This fish, which is of the Malacopterygious or soft- finned kind, is named Launce from its lance- like shape, and is from eight to ten inches long ; its form is slightly square, being rather rounded on the sides, and somewhat flat- tened above and beneath ; the head is small and taper, and the under jaw much longer than the upper ; the mouth is destitute of teeth, but at the entrance of the throat are two oblong bones for retaining the prey. The pectoral fins are small, and the tail is slightly forked ; the general colour of the body is a greenish-blue on the back, and the belly is either of a silvery white, or of a yellowish hue. These fishes are in England called Sand-eels, being remarkable for their IDopttTar JBtcttonarj) at gtoimatctt $ature. 13 habit of burrowing in the sand, in which they find the worms and insects that con- stitute their chief food. They are in their turn preyed upon by the larger fishes, par- ticularly by the mockarel and salmon ; to the support of the latter, whilst they are in the estuaries of rivers, the Launcea are be- lieved to contribute largely. The Launce spawns in the month of May, depositing its eggs in the mud, near the edges of the coast. AMMODYTES. A genus of Serpents, nearly the size of the Viper, and allied to it in general appearance, though distinguished from it by an erect pointed process on the tip of the snout : its usual colour is either bluish-grey or brown, with a continued black dorsal band resembling that of the viper. A species of this genus is found in many parts of the East, and is so extremely poi- sonous as to prove fatal in three or four noun. AMMONITES, or SNAKE-STONES. Spiral fossil shells, of which there are a great abundance in Europe, Asia, and America, especially in the lias, chalk, and oolite for- mations. They appear like a snake rolled up : some are very small, but occasionally they are met with upwards of three feet in diameter. In some places they are so nu- merous, that the rocks seem, as it were, composed of them alone. Upwards of 240 species have been already described ; and it appears that many of these were very widely distributed ; some being found in the Hima- laya mountains, at an elevation of 16,000 feet, and others in various parts of Europe. Their numbers must have been very great, as M. Dufresne informed Lamarck that the road from Auxerre to Avalon, in Burgundy, was absolutely paved with them ; and we know that it is no uncommon occurrence to find them used in parts of the west of England to pave the roads. It has been suggested that " these animals must have been very important agents, their carnivo- rous habits duly considered, in keeping the balance among the other tenants of the seas, by preventing the excessive multiplication of Crustacea, as well as of other molluscs, and of fishes." The nearest recent ally of this extinct species is supposed to be the SriBULA [which see]. AMPELIIXE. A family of birds called CHATTEKKKS [which see]. AMPHIBIA. Steictly speaking, the term Amphibia will apply only to such animals as have the power of living, indifferently, at the same time, either upon land or in water, yet in common conversation we are ac- customed to denominate Seals, Otters, Bea- vers, &c., besides many Reptiles, amphibious, because their organization disposes them to resort either to the land or water for pro- curing food, or whose habits are at once terrestrial and aquatic. But this is by far too comprehensive a sense. Linnaeus applied the term generally to the third class of his system of zoology, which comprised not only all the animals since more properly de- nominated Reptiles, such as the Tortoises, Lizards, Serpents, and Frogs, but likewise the Cartilaginous Fishes. It is now admitted, however, that Linnaeus was not correct in this classification, and that a truly am- phibious animal should possess the extra- ordinary double apparatus (lungs and gills at one and the same time) for extracting the principle which supports animal life in- differently from either element. [See BA- TBACHIANS.] AMPHIDESMA. A genus of small round or rather oblong Shells, slightly gaping and inequilateral, found in the sand on the sea- coasts of tropical countries, and also those of England, France, &c. The Amphidesma variegatum, described by Lamarck, is a na- tive of the coast of Brazil. " In most bivalve shells," Sowerby observes, " the cartilage and ligament are united in one mass, or C laced close to each other ; the contrary i this case gives rise to the name, which signifies double ligament" AMPHIOXUS.orLANCELET. A small fish of the Lamprey family. Its form is compressed ; the head pointed, without any trace of eyes ; a delicate membranous dorsal fin extends the whole length of the back j and the tail is pointed. At one time this was regarded as a mollusc, the best known species being the Limax lanceolatus of Pallas. It is found on the coasts of England and Ireland, in the Forth of Clyde, and in the Mediter- ranean. Mr. Gray has described a second species from the Eastern seas (A. Belcher i). (J 14 Crsatfttrg of Natural AMPHIPODA. An order of minute Crustaceans, which have the power of swim- ming and leaping with great facility, but always on one side. Some are found in streams and rivulets, but most in salt water ; and their colour is of a uniform pale red or greenish. In this order the eyes are sessile and immoveable ; the mandibles are fur- nished with a palp; the abdominal append- ages are always apparent and elongated ; and they have ciliae, which appear to ful- fil the office of bran- chiae. The antennae, ordinarily four in number, are com- posed of peduncle and slender fila- ment ; and the body is mostly compressed and bent. The ap- pendages of the tail '~" generally resemble little pointed stylets. Among the Amphi- pods most common on our shores are the Sandhoppers, ( Talitrus locusta and Orchestia littorea,) found under stones, or under the mass of exuviae thrown up by the tide on sandy shores, in troops of thousands, all ac- tive and leaping when disturbed in their re- treats. The following passage from Paley's Natural Theology alludes to these minute Crustacea : " Walking by the sea-side, in a calm evening, upon a sandy shore, and with an ebbing tide, I have frequently remarked the appearance of a dark cloud, or rather very thick mist, hanging over the edge of the water, to the height perhaps of half a yard, stretching along the coast as far as the eye could reach, and always retiring with the water. When this cloud came to be ex- amined, it proved to be nothing else than so much space filled with young shrimps in the act of bounding into the air from the shal- low margin of the water or the wet sand." AMPHISB^NA. A genus of Serpents, natives of South America, distinguished by their bodies having nearly the same uniform thickness throughout, by their small mouths and eyes, short tails, and their numerous rings of small square scales. The two best known species are Amphisbcena alba and Amphisbc&w fuliginosa. They are destitute of fangs, and are consequently harmless and inoffensive ; living, for the most part, upon ants and other small insects. The colour of the first mentioned species is white, as its name imports ; but in some specimens it is tinged with pale rose colour, while in others the head and back incline to a pale yellow or brownish cast. The A. fidiginosa is either black with white variegations, or purple with yellow. The eyes of the Am- ] phisbaena are covered, and almost concealed, by a membrane; which, added to their natu- I rally diminutive size, has given rise to the popular opinion that the animal was desti- tute of the organs of sight. The head is so small, and the tail so thick and short, that at first sight it is difficult to distinguish one from the other ; and this circumstance, united to the animal's habit of proceeding either backwards or forwards as the occasion may require, gave rise to the credulous belief throughout the native regions of the Am- phisbaana, that it has two heads, one at each extremity, and that it is impossible to de- stroy one by simple cutting, as the two heads mutually seek one another, and soon re- unite 1 AMPHITRITE. A genus of Annelides, belonging to the division Tubicolve, and easily j distinguished by their large golden-coloured i setae, disposed in a comb-like series or in a i crown, or in one or several ranges on the front of the head ; which may assist them m locomotion, and probably serve them for defence. Around the mouth are very nume- rous tentacles, and on either side of the com- mencement of the back are pectinated gills. Some of them compose slight tubes, of a regular conical form, which they carry about with them, when running in search of food ; these tubes, which consist of fine grains of sand cemented together with great regularity, are simple cones open at both ends, and not attached ; they are usually about two inches long, and may be frequently picked up on our shores. [See TUBICOI^E.] AMPHIUMA. A genus of Batrachian reptiles which abound in the lakes and stag- nant waters of N. America. They first appear in the tadpole form, respiring by means of gills, and inhabiting the water ; they after- wards gradually acquire small legs and feet, and would have an appearance similar to the water-newt, were it not for the extreme length of their body. Though they are ca- pable of existing on land, they seldom aban- don the watery element. There are only two known species, one characterised by being three-toed, which is three feet long ; the other, a much smaller species, having only two toes. AMPULL ACER A. A genus of Mollusca, allied to theAmpuUaria, two species of which are found in great abundance in New Zea- land, living in pools of brackish water, and buried in sandy mud. When touched, the animal enters very deeply into its shell, and is at all times much hidden by it. The head is large, flat, divided into two lobes, and having two sessile eyes ; no appearance of tentacula ; foot short and square. The shell is thick and globular ; mouth round, or oblique, having the lips united ; spire short ; operculum thin and horny. AMPTJLLARIA. A genus of Mollusca found in the rivers of Africa, India, and South America. The shell is generally large, thin and globular ; spire very short ; whorls rapidly enlarging ; the operculum thin and horny, and rarely calcareous. The animal has a large head furnished with four tenta- 23irttonarg of ntmatc& 15 cula, with eyes at the base of the two longest, and the foot oval and large. Some of the African species have reversed shells, and all that are natives of Africa and America have the operculum horny ; while those which come from India usually have it shelly, and are furnished with an internal groove for its reception parallel to the mouth. The animal has a large bag opening beneath, placed on the side of the respiratory organs ; this they fill with water, by which means they can exist for a considerable period out of their natural element ; and specimens have been brought from Egypt to Paris alive (before steam navigation was common), although Cked up in sawdust. The Indian species globular eggs, of a pale green colour, about the size of small peas, which are found in clusters attached to sticks or other things in the water ; when dry, they have a beauti- ful appearance. AN ABAS. A genus of Acanthopterygious fishes, whose respiratory organs are so con- structed as to enable them to sustain life for a space of time out of water, by having small apertures or some receptacle, where they can preserve sufficient water to moisten their gills. In cold or temperate regions this is not required, but in tropical countries it often happens that many of the riverg and ponds are dried up. At such times no fish but such as, like the Anabas, are furnished with the necessary pharyngeal apparatus for keeping the gills moist, could exist ; many of these, however, are able to migrate in search of their natural element, and, it is said, they are guided by a remarkable in- stinct to travel towards the nearest water. One species is called the Climbing Perch. (Anabas scandens.) This species, Mr. Dal- dorf, a distinguished Danish naturalist, says -he observed in the act of ascending palm trees, which it did by means of its fins and tail and the spines of its gill-covers ; but other naturalists, who have mentioned its habit of creeping on the ground and living out of water, have not confirmed this Dane's account of its climbing propensities. It is a native of India. AN ABATES. A genus of Passerine birds, distinguished by having the superior ridge of the beak rather convex, like that of a Thrush, without emargination. The tail is long and wedge-shaped, which indicates that it is employed for supporting the bird when in a perpendicular position against the trunks of trees. ANABLEPS. A viviparous fish belonging to the AfaJacoptcri/gii, remarkable for being apparently possessed of four eyes : this is not, however, really the case ; for although the cornea and iris are divided by transverse bands, so that two pupils are observed on each side, yet the other parts of the eye are single. The body is cylindrical, with strong scales ; the head is flat ; the snout blunt, and the mouth across its extremity, with small crowded teeth in both jaws ; the intermax- illaries have no peduncle, but are suspended to the nasal bones ; the pectorals are in part scaly ; the dorsal is small, and nearer the tail than the anal ; the pharyngals are large, and covered with small globular teeth. The species here delineated, Anableps tetraoph- thalmtu, inhabits the rivers of Guiana. ANACONDA. (Boa.) A Ceylonese ser- pent, belonging to the Boa family, of enor- mous magnitude and strength ; said to be capable of conquering the largest and fiercest quadruped, and concerning whose actions the most wonderful stories are related. An encounter between one of these serpents and a most powerful tiger is described by an eye- witness in language of fearful interest : ' Though unable to get rid of its cruel enemy, the tiger gave it prodigious trouble. A hundred times would it rear up, and run a little way ; but soon fell down again, partly oppressed by the weight, and partly by the folds and wreathed twists of the serpent round its body. But though the tiger fell, it was far from being entirely conquered. After some hours it seemed much spent, and lay as if dead ; when the serpent, which had many times violently girded itself round the tiger, vainly attempting to break its bones, now quitted its hold, twisting its tail only round the neck of its prey, which was in no condition either to resist or escape. Having by degrees dragged the tiger to a tree, the monster wound its body round the animal and the tree together several times, girding both with such violence that the ribs and other bones began to give way : and, by repeated efforts of this kind, it broke all the ribs, one by one, each of which gave a loud crack in breaking. It next attempted the legs, and broke them severally in the same manner, each in four or five different places. This employed many hours, during all which time the poor tiger remained alive ; and at every crack of the bones gave a faint but most piteous howl." A loathsome descrip- tion of the serpent's " licking the body and covering it with its slaver," preparatory to the act of swallowing, is then given ; and the account thus concludes : " Much time was employed in this business ; but at length the serpent having prepared the whole to its mind, drew itself up before its prey ; and, seizing the head, began to suck that, and afterwards the body, down into its throat." But this, it appears, was the work of some hours ; and it had so gorged, that, the next morning, on being attacked by the 16 at Natural ^ party who were witnesses to his monster meal, the serpent could neither defend itself nor retreat ; and it was dispatched, by re- peated heavy blows on the head with large clubs. It was thirty-three feet in length. ANAMPSES. A genus of Acanthoptery- gious fishes found in the Indian seas. They are small and beautifully coloured. The head is without scales ; and they are dis- tinguished by having two flat teeth, which project from the mouth, and curve upwards. ANARRICHAS. A genus of Acanthop- terygious fishes, bearing great resemblance to the Blennies, except in their being destitute of ventral fins. Their dorsal fin is composed entirely of simple but not stiff rays, and ex- tends, as does also the anal, very close to the base of the caudal, which last, as well as the pectorals, is rounded. The whole body is soft and slimy. Their front teeth are large and conical, and they may be regarded as fierce and dangerous fishes. [See WOLF- FISH.] ANAS. The name of a large Linnean genus of birds, of the order Anseres; whose distinguishing character is, that the beak is convex, terminating in an obtuse point ; as the Swan, the Goose, the Duck, Widgeon, &c. ANASTOMA. A genus of land shells, resembling the other Helices in every respect, except in the peculiarity of the last whorl taking a sudden turn and reflecting the aper- ture upwards, so as to present it on the same plane with the spire; so that the animal must walk with the spire of its shell down- wards, resting on its foot. ANATZFER^E. A name given to a genus of multivalve Cirrhipeds. [See ACORN- SHELL.] ANATID^E. The Duck tribe ; a family of web-footed birds ; order Natatores. They are distinguished by a broad depressed bill, which is covered with a soft skin ; and by the hind toe not being included in the web. The bill is furnished with a set of horny laminae at the edge of each mandible, which serve to filter the fluid taken up by the bill, and retain the solid substances taken up with it : the tongue is large and fleshy, the gizzard strong and muscular, and lined with a tough coat, so as to be capable of hich they feed. Many are migratory, and fly with great strength at a considerable grinding down the shells of the mollusca on which the fly elevation. ANCHOVY. (Engraulis encrasicolus.) A well known small fish, abounding in many parts of the Mediterranean, particularly on the coasts of Italy, Greece, and Spain : it oc- curs also, though not in such considerable numbers, on some of our western coasts, as well as on those of France and Holland. It is about four inches long, of a bluish-brown colour on the back, and silvery white on the belly. It is covered with large, thin, and easily deciduous scales, and may be readily distinguished from the Sprat and other kin- dred species by the anal fin being remarkably short. Mr. Couch, in his Cornish Fauna, says, " this fish abounds towards the end of sum- mer, and if attention were paid to the fishery, enough might be caught to supply the con- sumption of the British islands ; " and he adds, that he has seen it in the Cornish seas of the length of seven inches and a half 1 ANCLLLA, or ANCILLARIA. A genus of Mollusca, inhabiting a spiral, univalve marine shell, which, when the animal is alive, is so much covered by the foot, that only the middle of the back can be seen. The species are numerous, and they are chiefly confined to tropical climates. The shells are smooth, and appear as if highly po- lished. ANCYLUS. A fresh-water Gasteropo- dous Mollusc, with a shell similar to that of a Patella. They live in stagnant waters and in rivulets, adhering to stones and aquatic plants. ANDRENmSJ. A family of solitary Bees, each species consisting only of males and females. The mandibles are simple, or terminated by one or two notches ; in which the labium and terminal maxillary lobes do not form an elongated proboscis, a character which distinguishes them from the APID^: [which see]. The antennas are elbowed ; and the hind legs are generallycompletelyclpthed with hairs, the trochanters and femora in the females being pollinigerous. The species of the genus Andrena are very numerous ; they make their appearance in the early spring and summer months, and have very much the appearance of hive-bees. The females collect pollen from the stamens of flowers, rather by means of the general hairiness of the body than with the posterior tarsi : this they form, by the addition of a little honey, into a paste for the food of their progeny. They burrow in the ground, in sandy situ- ations, especially if exposed to the sun, often to a considerable depth. At the foot of these burrows they deposit an egg, with a suffi- cient quantity of this prepared food for the supply of the future grub ; which they then cover up, and proceed, cell after cell, closing up the hole at the top with earth, to prevent the attacks of parasites, which, notwith- standing, often succeed in entering the hole and depositing their eggs in the cells. The sexes of many of the species are unknown. ANEMONIES, SEA. [See ACTINIA.] ANGEL-FISH, or MONK-FISH. (Sgua- tina Angelus.) This fish, which is more re- markable for its singularity of form than for its beauty, would seem to connect the genus of Rays and Sharks, were it not for the situation of its mouth, which is an ex- ception from each. It is said to have ac- quired the name of Angel-fish from its ex- tended pectoral fins having the appearance of wings ; and it is called Monk-fish, because its rounded head appears as if enveloped in a monk's hood. The head is large, and the mouth very wide ; the teeth are broad at the base, but slender and very sharp above, and disposed in five rows round the jaws. By means of muscles uniting them to the jaws, the teeth are capable of being raised Popular SCrtfanarj) at gmmatetr Mature. 17 and depressed like those of the other shark tribe. The eyes are small, and behind each is an orifice in the shape of a crescent. The back is of a pale ash-colour, and extremely rough, having a prickly tuberculated line down the middle ; the belly is white and smooth ; the pectoral fins are large, and extend horizontally to a considerable dis- tance ; the ventral fins are also placed in the same manner, and the tail is bifurcated. The Angel-fish is met with on many parts of the British coasts, but is most numerous on the Southern. It is very voracious, and feeds on the smaller flat-fishes, which swim close to the bottom ; and, like them, it oc- casionally hides itself in the loose soft soil. It is exceedingly fierce, and dangerous to ap- proach ; nor does it look less fierce or malig- nant than it really is. It sometimes attains the length of seven or eight feet, and weighs nearly a hundred pounds ; but instances of this are comparatively rare. Formerly the flesh was held in high estimation, but it is now disregarded as rank and coarse. The skin, being rough, is used to polish wood and ivory, as well as for other uses in the arts. ANGLER. (Lophius piscatariits.) This extraordinary fish is not unfrequently met with on our coasts, and is known also by the names of the Fishing-frog, Toad-fish, and Sea Devil. It is the most uncouth, ill-shapen of the piscatory tribe, resembling the frog in its tadpole state, from which it derives one of its common appellations. The head, which is circumferentially larger than the whole body, is flat on the top ; the mouth nearly as wide as the head ; the lower jaw is considerably longer than the upper, and bearded all round the edge ; both jaws are armed with numerous sharp conical teeth, curving inwards. The nostrils have no ex- ternal orifice, but there are two internal ones which supply their place ; the eyes are large. the irides brown, and the pupils black pectoral fins broad, rounded at the edge and wide at the base ; ventral fins broad, thick, and fleshy, jointed like arms, and divided in the insides. The colour of the upper surface of the body is brown, the lower part white, and the skin smooth throughout : ventral and pectoral fins white ; tail nearly approaching to black. The Com- mon Angler is usually about three, but sometimes it is six feet in length ; lives, as _t were, in ambush, at the bottom of the sea; and by means of its fins it stirs up the mud and sand so as to conceal itself from other fishes on whom it preys. Allied to the Common Angler, above de- scribed, are six others: 1. The CORNISH ANGLER (Lophivs Cwnubicus), which is of a longer form, with the head more bony, rough, and aculeated, as well as destitute of the fringed appendages. 2. The MUKICATKD ANGLER (Lopiiius muricatus) ; body very flat, orbicular, and covered above with very numerous small tubercles tipped with di- vided or radiated spines ; hind part con- tracting suddenly, covered with similar spines, and terminated by the tail-fin. 3. The BEAKED ASOLKR (Lophius rostratus) : this is a native of the South American seas, from twelve to eighteen inches long ; the body broad in the middle, tapering toward* the tail, and strongly acuminated in front, so as to form a sharp-pointed lengthened snout ; mouth of moderate width ; pectoral fins situ- ated on very strong arm-shaped bases ; tail rounded at the end ; and the whole animal covered above with numerous roundish, crenated tubercles, with pointed tops. 4. The HARLEQUIN ANGLER (Lophius histria). A most grotesque and singular fish ; body thick, but much compressed; ventral fins resembling short arms, being situated very forward, and palmated at their tips ; dorsal fin large, and extending from the middle of the back nearly to the tail, which is of a rounded shape. Above the upper lip rises a long and slender cartilaginous process or filament, dividing at top into two dilated oval and pointed appendages : beyond this a strong and fleshy process, terminated by a few filaments ; and beyond this a much larger and thicker process, tipped like the former ; lower tip and dorsal fin bearded with scattered cirri ; and the whole animal of a yellow-brown colour, irregularly mar- bled with brown or blackish variegations, here and there edged with white. 5. The STRIPED ANGLER (Lophius striatus). This fish is nearly allied to the Lophius histrio, but differing in being marked all over, chiefly in a transverse direction, by very numerous narrow black streaks. It is a native of the Pacific Ocean. 6. The MARBLED ANGL (Lophius marmoratus) : of an oval shape ; body slightly compressed ; back arched, and furnished with a long, single, and rather narrow fin, extending nearly to the tail ; ventral fins short, arm-shaped, and termi- nated by thick lobes, so as to resemble the paws of a quadruped : colour on the upper parts black-brown, with a few bluish clouds and spots ; on the lower parts whitish, and on the sides of the fish the white parts edged with a dull red : eyes white, radiated with black : mouth wide ; and above the upper lip a long filament, forking into two at the tip. c 3 18 at Batumi ANGUILLA. [See EEL.] ANHINGA, or WHITE-BELLIED DARTER. (PJotus anJtinga.) A very elegant species of the Colymbidce, or Diver family, common in some parts of Brazil. Its body is about the size of a tame duck's, but its length, from the tip of the beak to that of the tail, is nearly three feet. It has a long, slender bill, yellowish at the base ; a small head ; the neck long, round, and slender, and co- vered with soft downy feathers of a rufous grey colour ; while those on the breast, belly, and thighs are of a silvery whiteness. The plumage at the beginning of the back is brown, each feather having an oblong spot of whitish yellow in the centre, so that it appears speckled : the rest of the back is black ; and the tail consists of shining black feathers tipped with grey. The legs are re- markably short, the thighs feathered, and the claws very sharp and crooked. The Anhinga builds its nest on trees, on which it roosts at night and when not on the water, being very rarely seen on the ground. It feeds upon fish, which it catches most dexterously, darting upon them with great rapidity. These birds delight to sit in little com- munities, on the dry limbs of trees, hanging over still waters, with their wings and tails expanded. When any one approaches, they will drop off the limb into the water as if dead, and for a minute or two are not seen ; when on a sudden, at a great distance, their long slender heads and necks only appear, so that whilst swimming they greatly re- semble snakes, no other part of them being visible, except occasionally the tip of the tail. ANI. [See CROTOPHAGA.] ANIMAL, FLOWER. A name given to one species of Actinia, the animal bearing some resemblance to a flower with a radiated disc ; its tentacula being disposed in regular circles, and tinged with a beautiful variety of bright lively colours, as the marigold, anemone, &c. [See ACTINIA.] ANIMALCULE, or ANIMALCULES. A term applied to minute animals of various orders, many of which can only be seen by the aid of a microscope. [See INFUSORIA.] ANNELIDA. A division of the class Vermcs, comprising species which may be characterized as possessing an elongated body, divided into numerous segments, marked by transverse lines, and generally furnished with a series of bristly appendages which serve as legs. Many of the Annelida are red blooded, and have a complete appa- ratus for circulation and respiration. Some live in fresh, others in salt water ; and others, like the Hair-worm, are amphibious. In some the bristly appendages are implanted on fleshy tubercles ; in others they are only represented by a few short stiff hairs ; while in other instances, as in the Leech, there is no trace of any members or appendages to the body. The bristles are usually sharp, and sometimes barbed, serving not only to attach the animals to soft substances, and to hold firmly on to rocks and other solid surfaces, but to aid their movements through the water. When there are no locomotive ap- pendages, the extremities of the body are usually furnished with suckers. ANNULATA SEDENTARIA. A tribe of soft, elongated, and worm-shaped animals, inhabiting a tube which they never quit. The body has either transverse segments or wrinkles ; the head, eyes, and antennae are furnished with retractile knobs, in lateral rows. They are usually attached to marine substances, and the greater part of them are carnivorous. ANOA. (Anoa depressicornis.') A rumi- nating animal of Sumatra, at present but imperfectly known to naturalists ; by some considered a small species of wild buffalo, and by others a kind of antelope. The living animal has not been brought to this country, but several skulls and horns are deposited in the British Museum, and in that of the Zoological Society. The horns are wrinkled, but perfectly erect and straight, and the head is long and narrow. ANOBIUM. A genus of Coleopterous in- sects, some of M'hich inhabit the interior of our houses, where they do much injury in their larva state by gnawing furniture, books, &c., which they pierce with little round holes : others feed upon wafers, preserved specimens of natural history, c. The curi- ous sound made by one of these has given it the name of DEATH-WATCH [which see]. ANODONTA. A fresh- water Molluscous animal, inhabiting a thin, inequiyalve, in- equilateral shell ; hinge straight, with either no teeth or mere rudiments ; shell transverse ; ligament external. The valves are thin, large, and pearly ; and from their shape and lightness they are used in France for skimming milk. The Anodonta is found in every quarter of the world. ANOLIS. A genus of reptiles peculiar to America, and supplying the place that is occupied by_ the chameleons in the OldWorld. Cuvier distinguishes them from the Iguanas, by their having teeth in the palate of the mouth as well as in the maxillary bones. The Anolis is a small, slender, active animal ; frequenting woods and rocky places ; and running, leaping, and climbing with singular agility. It is furnished with a loose skin or bag beneath its throat, which, when inflated, frequently changes its colour : in short, whenever these creatures are under the ex- JBtctumarg oi 19 citement of fear, anger, or love, the skin as- sumes an endless succession of varying hues. They are of more slender proportions than the chameleon, and more agile in their move- ments ; they feed chiefly upon flies and other insects, and inhabit the neighbourhood of marshes and other moist places where insects mostly abound. The head is long, straight, and flattened ; the body and tail are long and slender, both being covered with small round scales, which give the skin the appear- ance of fine shagreen. The hind legs are rather longer than those before ; and each considerably in their general formation ; some presenting a light, slender, and grace- ful form, probably a fleet and active inhabi- tant of the dry land, having much of the contour of the gazelle ; while another was heavy, bulky, and short-limbed, with a flat- tened tail, as if aquatic in its habits. But it seems fully demonstrated that these animals were all herbivorous, differing but little in this respect from the Tapirs and Rhinoceroses at present existing. ANOPLURA. An order of parasitic in- sectsthe Louse and its allies ; whose pre- largest of them not being more than a foot long. ANOMIA. A genus of marine Mollusca remarkable for the perforation of one of its valves by a large aperture ; through which a strong tendinous ligature passes, to be in- serted into a third plate, by which the ani- animals are subject to them, and that almost every quadruped and bird is infested with some one or other of these parasitic insects. ANSERES. The third order of the Lin- nsean class Area, thus characterized : A mal adheres to fofeign ' bodies. They are i smooth beak, covered with skin, gibbous at usually found attached to oyster and other ! ' h e base, and broader at the point ; feet shells. This family has long been known in | formed for swimming, having palmated toes a fossil state, and contains many species. ] connected by a membrane ; the legs thick They may be divided into two genera ; the I and short 5 and the body bulky, plump, and inarticulate, and the multarticulate : in the downy : food fishes, frogs, aquatic plants, inarticulate Anomia, the hinge of the under i worms, &c. The Goose furnishes a ready valve forms a large cavity, the corners of I example. which make two prominences or joints, and ANT. (Formica.) A well-known genus the upper valve is indented into it by corre- | o f Hymenopterous insects, famed from all spending depressions : in the multarticulate antiquity for their social and industrious Anomia the hinge lies in a long straight line, j habits, for their love of order and subordina- and is set with many teeth. tion, and for being a pattern of unremitting ANOMURA. A section of Decapod Crus- ' industry and economy. They are di.stin- taceans, consisting of many genera; the ha- i gushed from other Ilymenojitcra by their bits of some of which, as the Hermit or Sol- | habit of residing under ground in numerous dierCrab (the type of the genus Payurus), ! societies, and by the existence of neuters are highly curious and interesting. [See a . mon * h e m .. by which class the labours of UKRMIT Ci HAB.] ANOPLOTHERITJM. A genus of extinct the community are chiefly performed. The males have always four wings ; the females are larger than the males, and only possess quadrupeds, found in a fossil state, and j wings during the pairing season ; but the which seem to range between the Pachyder- neuters have none at any period. mata and the Ruminantia. They had six incisor, four canine, and four molar teeth, in each jaw, forming a continued line ; and the feet had only two toes, sheathed by sepa- rate hoofs ; but the toes had separate meta- carpal and metatarsal bones, as in the hog, instead of springing from a single canon bone, as they invariably are among the Ru- ANT (FORMICA RUFA), MALI AMD FEMA.LS The common European Ants are, in gene- ral, either black or red, and they are of dif- ferent sizes. Some are furnished with stings, and others are wholly destitute of them : such as have stings use them for their defence ; and such as are unprovided with these wea- pons have a power of squirting an acid pun- gent fluid, which inflames and irritates the skin like nettles. The eyes are extremely black ; and under them are two small horns or feelers, composed of twelve joints, all co- vered with fine silky hair. The mouth is composed of two crooked jaws, which pro- ject, anfl in each of which appear incisures resembling teeth. The breast is covered with fine silky hair, from which project six legs, minantia. The skull partook of the form of that of the Horse and the Camel, not having a prolonged snout. It is observable, that among the remains which have been dis- covered there are several species, varying 20 Crcatfurg at Natural $| I having the extremities of each armed with I two small claws, which assist the insect in 1 climbing. The body is of a brown chesnut colour, shining like glass, and covered with extremely fine hair. From this formation, it would appear, the Ant seems bolder and more active than any other creature of the insect tribe of the same size ; and, indeed, it possesses sufficient intrepidity to attack an animal many times larger than itself. The nests of Ants are differently con- structed in the different species, but all are very curiously and regularly arranged. " If an Ant-hill," says Mr. Broderip, " be ex- amined any time after Midsummer up to the close of Autumn, there may be seen mixed with the wingless workers a number of both males and females furnished with white glistening wings. These, however, are neither kings nor queens in the state, at least so far as freedom of action is concerned, for they are not allowed to move without a guard of workers to prevent their leaving the boundaries ; and if one straggles away unawares, it is for the most part dragged back by the vigilant sentinels, three or four of whom may. in such cases, be seen hauling along a single deserter by the wings and limbs. The workers, so far from ever facilitat- ing the exit, much less the departure of the winged ones, more particularly the females, guard them most assiduously in order to pre- vent it, and are only forced to acquiesce in it when the winged ones become too numerous to be either guarded or fed. There seems, in- deed, to be a uniform disposition in thewinged ones to desert their native colony ; and as they never return after pairing, it would soon become depopulated in the absence of females. The actual pairing does not seem to take place within the ant-hill, and we have ob- served scouts posted all around ready to dis- cover and carry back to the colony as many fertile females as they could meet with. It is probable that, soon after pairing, the males die, as do the males of bees and other in- sects ; for, as the workers never bring any of them back, nor take any notice of them after leaving the ant-hill, they must perish, being entirely defenceless, and destitute both of a sting and of mandibles to provide for their subsistence. The subsequent proceed- ings of females are very different, and of curious interest. It was supposed by the ancients that all Ants, at a certain age, ac- quired wings ; but it was reserved for the younger Huber, in particular, by means of his artificial formicaries, to trace the de- velopment of the wings in the female from the first commencement, till he saw them stript off and laid aside like cast clothes." " Having directed my close attention to the eggs of ants," says Huber, " I remarked that they were of different sizes, shades, and forms. The smallest were white, opaque, and cylindrical ; the largest transparent, and slightly arched at both ends ; while those of a middle size were semi-transparent. On holding them up to the light, I observed a sort of white oblong cloud ; in some, a transparent point might be remarked at the superior extremity ; in others, a clear zone above and underneath the little cloud. There were some whose whole body was so remark- ably clear as to allow of my very distinctly observing the rings. On fixing attention more closely upon the latter, I observed the egg open, and the grub appear in its place. Having compared these eggs with those just laid, I constantly found the latter of a milky whiteness, completely opaque, and smaller by one half, so that I had no reason to doubt of the eggs of ants receiving a very consider- able increase in size ; that in elongating they become transparent, but do not at this time disclose the form of the grub, which is always arched." When the eggs are at length hatched, the young grubs are fed either by the neuters (called also nurse-ants and workers) when any of these are in the colony, and by the mother when she is alone, by a liquid disgorged from the stomach, as is done in a similar way by wasps, humble-bees, and certain birds. " When the larvae have attained their full growth they spin a silken covering, called by entomologists a cocoon : in this they com- pletely enclose themselves, and remain per- fectly quiescent without receiving any nutri- ment, awaiting the final change when they are to assume the form of Ants. This stage of its existence is the pupa, but is commonly though very erroneously called the egg. Ants' eggs, as they are vulgarly called, are a favourite food for partridges and pheasants, and are eagerly sought after by persons who rear these birds from the egg. The cocoon containing the pupa is of a long cylindrical form, of a dirty white colour, and perfectly without motion. The pupa within the cocoon has now attained the form which it will finally possess ; its limbs are distinct, but want strength and consistence, and are co- vered by a skin which has yet to be cast. In colour it changes from white to a pale yellow, then to red, and finally becomes almost black ; its wings, if a male or female, are dis- tinctly visible, but do not assume the shape, size, or character, they are hereafter destined to bear." Newman's Hist, of Insects. In England, ant-hills appear formed and arranged with very little regard to order or regularity ; but in the more southern parts of Europe they are constructed with amazing ingenuity. They are generally formed in the vicinity of some large tree on the bank of a river ; the former for the pur- pose of securing food, and the latter for sup- plying them with that abundant moisture which is requisite for the use of these insects. The ant-hill is of a conical shape, and is composed of leaves, bits of wood, sand, earth, stubble, gum, and grains of corn ; all united into a compact body, perforated with gal- leries down to the bottom, and having a variety of tunnels or passages throughout the interior, the number of these avenues depending entirely on the population and extent of the nest. At its commencement the nest is simply an excavation made in the earth ; a number of the labourers wander about in quest of materials suitable for the superstructure ; others carry out particles of earth from the interior, and these particles, interspersed with the fragments of wood and leaves brought in continually from every 23ictt0nan> of 21 quarter, give a kind of stability to the edifice: it daily increases in size, the Ants taking care to leave the spaces required for the galleries which lead to the exterior ; while the dome contains a number of spacious chambers or recesses, which communicate with each other by means of galleries con- structed in a similar manner. Thus we see that although the exterior of the hillock always presents the appearance of a dome, and appears but a careless heap, it is in re- ality a most ingenious device for keeping out water, for evading the effects of the wind, and the attacks of enemies ; and yet more especially for receiving and husbanding the heat of the sun. There are external aper- tures, to permit free egress to the multitude of labourers of which the commonwealth is composed ; and from the commencement of the warm season they are constantly em- ployed, till the unpropitious winter again suspends their exertions, and terminates their annual industry. The working Ants are not only employed in sustaining the idlers at home, but in pro- viding sufficient food for themselves. They subsist on various provisions, both animal and vegetable ; killing and devouring all weaker insects, as well as in seeking ripe fruits and whatever appears to contain sac- charine matter. When they are unable to eat the whole of the substance they have found, they devour what they can j and, tearing the rest in pieces, load themselves with the spoil. When they meet with an insect which they are singly incapable of mastering, several of them join in the at- tack ; its destruction generally follows, each Ant assisting in carrying away a portion of the booty. When a single Ant chances to make a fortunate discovery, it immediately communicates the information to others, and the whole republic soon appear in mo- tion. But while they are thus busied in feeding abroad, and carrying in provisions for the use of those which continue inactive at home, they are by no means unmindful of posterity. The female Ants soon begin to lay their eggs, which are immediately carried to the safest situation, at the bottom of the hill, where they are assiduously de- fended by the labourers, who always display the fondest attachment to the rising progeny, either attending to the safety of the larvae, or in feeding the newly born insects. Who, indeed, has not seen them, when the gardener or some formidable enemy has demolished their whole habitation, affectionately soli- citous of their offspring, and running wildly about, each loaded with a young one, not unfrequently as large as itself. For some time the new born Ants remain under the careful superintendence of the la- bourers : they are attended in all their wanderings about the nest, and are made acquainted with all its galleries and cham- bers : the wings of the males and females, previously folded together, are extended, and this is always accomplished with such skill and tenderness, that these delicate members are never injured by the operation: in fine, these founders of future colonies are in all respects served with unremitting at- tention until their final departure from the nest. In the autumn, says Mr. Newman, we fre- quently observe one of their hillocks closely covered with a living mass of winged Ants, which continue to promenade, as it were, over its entire surface : they mount on every plant in the vicinity of their nest, and the labourers (for now the entire population of the nest has turned out) accompany them as closely as possible, following them to the extreme tip of every blade of grass; and when at length those possessed of wings spread them in preparation for flight, the labourers will often hold them back, as if loath to trust them alone. . . . When the air is warm and still they rise in thousands, and sailing, or rather floating on the atmosphere, leave for ever the scene of their former existence. Each female, immediately on alighting from her aerial voyage, examines the situation in which chance has placed her, and if she find it adapted to her purpose, she turns her head back over her shoulders, and with her sharp mandibles tears off the wings which bore her from the place of her nativity. Strange as this propensity may seem, it is dictated by an unerring instinct, for the object for which wings were given her is now accomplished, and henceforth they would prove an in- cumbrance, and retard rather than assist, the performance of her duties. Sometimes a few workers, wandering at this period of excitement far from their home, may happen to meet with her, and if so, they unite their labours with hers in excavating a small and humble dwelling in the earth, which serves as the nucleus of a future colony : in all operations the female, now a queen, takes a most energetic part, and continues to labour until she has laid eggs, when the conduct of the workers undergoes a great change, for they now treat her with the most marked respect, and consider her worthy the honours of a sovereign. The ingenious author we before quoted gives a very curious account of what he terms the Slave Ants, which in substance is as follows : The most remarkable fact con- nected with the history of Ants, is the pro- pensity possessed by certain species to kid- nap the workers of other species, and compel them to labour for the benefit of the com- munity, thus using them completely as slaves ; and, as far as we yet know, the kid- nappers are red or pale-coloured Ants, and the slaves, like the ill-treated natives of Africa, are of a jet black. The time for capturing slaves extends over a period of ,bout ten weeks, and never commences until the male and female Ants are about emer- ng from the pupa state, and thus the rutli- ss marauders never interfere with the con- tinuation of the species. This appears to be a special adaptation of their peculiar in- stinct ; for if the attacks were made on the nests of the Negro Ants, before those by whom the race is propagated are ready to issue forth, it must speedily become extinct. When the Red Ants are about to sally forth on a marauding expedition, they send scouts to ascertain the exact position in which a colony of negroes may be found ; these 22 Creatfurg 0f Natural ^t scouts having discovered the object of their search, return to the nest and report their success. Shortly afterwards the army of Red Ants marches forth, headed by a van- guard, consisting of only about eight or ten Ants, which is perpetually being changed, the individuals which constitute it, when they have advanced a little before the main body, halting, falling into the rear, and being replaced by others. When they have arrived near the Negro colony, they dis- perse, wandering through the herbage, and hunting about, as if aware that the object of their search was near, though ignorant of its exact position. At last they discover the settlement, and the foremost of the invaders rushing impetuously to the attack, are met, grappled with, and frequently killed by the negroes on guard : the alarm is quickly communicated to the interior of the nest ; the negroes sally forth by thousands, and the Red Ants rushing to the rescue, a des- perate conflict ensues, which, however, al- ways terminates in the defeat of the negroes, who retire to the innermost recesses of the habitation. Now follows the scene of pil- lage : the Red Ants with their powerful mandibles tear open the sides of the negro ant-hill, and rush into the heart of the citadel. In a few minutes each of the in- vaders emerges carrying in its mouth the pupa of a worker negro, which it has ob- tained in spite of the vigilance and valour of its natural guardians. The Red Ants re- turn in perfect order to their nest, bearing with them their living burdens. On reach- ing the nest the pupae appear to be treated precisely as their own, and the workers when they emerge perform the various duties of the community with the greatest energy and apparent good- will. [For an account of the White Ants, which belong to a totally dif- ferent order of insects, see TERMITES. See also DRIVER ANTS.] The following short passage from Mr. Darwin's Observations on the Natural His- tory of Rio de Janeiro will give the reader a good idea of the magnitude of the Ants' nests there : " Travelling onwards, we passed through tracts of pasturage, much injured by the enormous conical Ants' nests, which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to the plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanoes at Jorullo, as figured by Hum- bpldt." And in Gardner's Travels in Bra- zil we read the following remarks on the immense multitudes of Ants which are found there. " When near Rio de Janeiro," he says, " we passed many habitations belonging to poor people of colour, mostly fishermen. Before reaching the foot of the mountain over which the road leads to Tijuca, we passed a migrating body of small Black Ants. The immense number of individuals composing it may be imagined from the fact, that the column was more than six feet broad, and extended in length to upwards of thirty yards. The ground was completely covered with the little creatures, so closely were they packed together." The species also are more numerous than naturalists are aware of : he says that near Pernambuco he noticed more than 25 different species. ANT-EATER. iMyrmeomhaaa.) A genus of animals, of the Cuiverian order Edentata. Their distinguishing character- istics are, that the body is covered with hair, the mouth is small, and the tongue long and cylindrical, calculated to supply the want of teeth, from being covered with a glutinous saliva, by means of which they entrap and devour the insects upon which they live and from which they derive their name. The head is very long, but the tongue is much longer, and capable of being extended to a surprising distance beyond the snout ; the eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, the legs thick and strong, but most unfavourably formed for locomotion, and consequently their pace is remarkably slow. There are three distinct and well- defined species in South America ; and these, with one or two others, we shall briefly describe. The GREAT ANT-EATER, or ANT- BEAR (Myrmecophagajubata), is by far the largest of the Ant-eaters, and is covered with long, coarse, shaggy hair, except the head, where it is short and close ; it has a very long and slender head, and a bushy black tail of JUBATA.) enormous size and length, the whole animal often measuring eight feet from the tip of I the snout to the extremity of the tail. Being I plantigrade, it stands lower on the hind legs than before, which is the case with bears and other quadrupeds similarly formed. It has four toes on the fore-feet, the second and third being provided with long, sharp- pointed, and trenchant claws ; so that no- thing upon which it has an opportunity of fastening can escape. The hind feet have five toes, furnished with short weak claws, resembling those of ordinary quadrupeds. The prevailing colour of this animal is a deep grey, with a very broad band of black running from the neck downwards on each side of the body ; its habits are slothful and solitary ; and it sleeps during the greater part of the day. It lives exclusively on ants, to procure which it opens their hills with its powerful crooked claws, and draws its long flexible tongue, which is covered with gluti- nous saliva, lightly over the swarms of insects who flock from all quarters to defend their dwellings. It is a native of Brazil and Guiana. It seems almost incredible that so robust and powerful an animal can procure sufficient sustenance from Ants popular 23trtt'0narj) of gntmatrtr 23 alone ; but this circumstance has nothing strange for those who are acquainted with the tropical parts of America, and who have seen the enormous multitudes of these in- sects, which swarm in all parts of the country to that degree, that their hills often almost touch one another for miles together. The favourite resort of the Great Ant-eaters are the low swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds. The TAMANDUA ( Myrmecophaga ta- mundua), a smaller kind of Ant-eater, is about the size of a full-grown cat ; the head not being so disproportionately long as the species above described, though it is of the same general cylindrical form, and equally truncated at the end. The conformation of the extremities, and the number of the toes is in every respect the same as in the Great Ant-eater ; but the tail is prehensile, which makes it essentially an arboreal quadruped ; while, instead of having long shaggy hair, it is short, shining, and somewhat silky, like the finest wool. There are several varieties of this species, differing chiefly in colour ; they reside exclusively on trees, living on termites, honey, and (according to Azara, in his Natural History of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay), bees, which in those coun- tries form their hives among the loftiest branches of the forest, and, having no sting, are readily despoiled of their honied treasure. The LITTLE ANT-EATER (Myrmeco- phaga didact>/hi)\A an animal of considerable elegance, and not larger than a squirrel : the head is small, the snout sharpened and slightly bent downwards ; the fore-feet have only two claws on each, the exterior one much larger and stronger than the interior ; the ears are very small, and hid in the fur ; the eyes are also small. The whole animal t.ITTLB AN1 is covered with a beautiful soft and curled fur of a pale yellow-brown colour : the tail is thick at the base, tapering to the tip ; and being prehensile, it greatly assists the Little Ant-eater's operations in its search for in- sects among the trees, on which it resides. The STRIPED ANT-EATER. (Myrme- cafihaga striata.) This is a native of Guiana : it is about twenty inches long from the tip of its snout to the end of its tail ; the nose is taper, the upper mandible extending very far beyond the lower ; the body and tail are of a tawny colour, with the under parts white ; the body marked with broad, distant, black- ish, transverse stripes, and the tail annulatcd with similar ones. [For SPINE ANT-EATER, see ECHIDNA.] ANTELOPE. Un/7ope.) A genus of hollow-horned Ruminants, of which there are many species, each differing from the other in some important points, but agreeing in the grand leading characteristics. Thus, 8KTJU. OF ANTBLOPV speaking generally, it may be said, that An- telopes are of graceful and symmetrical pro- portions ; of a restless and timid disposition, extremely watchful, of great vivacity, re- markably swift and agile, and most of their boundings inconceivably light and elastic. Their horns, whatever shape they assume, are round and annulated ; in some species straight, in others curved and spiral ; in some the females have no horns, in others they are common to both sexes. They all possess a most delicate sense of smell ; their eyes are proverbially bright and beaming ; and so fleet are they, that the huntsman is often obliged to call in the aid of the falcon, trained for the purpose, to seize on the ani- mal and arrest its progress, in order to give the greyhounds an opportunity of overtaking it. Their hair is generally short and smooth, and of an equal length over every part of the body : some species, however, nave manes on the neck and shoulders ; and a few are furnished with long hair on the chin and throat. The ears are long and pointed ; the tails short, and tufted at the extremity. For the most part Antelopes are gregarious, some species forming herds of two or three thousand, while others keep in pairs, or in companies of five or six. They often browse like the goat, and feed on the tender shoots of trees ; and the flesh of those which are taken in the chase is usually of excellent flavour. The AntilopidfK seem to be a connecting link between the Goat and the Deer. Like the goat, they never shed their horns ; but, on the other hand, their size and the delicacy of their conformation, the nature and colour of the hair, their fleetness, &c., are striking ints of resemblance to the deer tribe. The nd legs, like those of the hare, being po hi 24 of longer than the fore ones, not only give additional swiftness, but greater security, in ascending and descending precipices, a prac- tice in which the Antelope greatly delights. The majority of the species are brown 011 the back, and white under the belly, with a black stripe separating those colours. The tail is of various lengths, but always covered with pretty long hair ; and the ears, which are beautiful and well placed, terminate in a point. The hoof is cloven, like that of the sheep ; and the horns are perennial. The length, size, and turn of the horns, the differ- ent spots in the skin, or diversities of size, constitute the chief distinctions which mark the several species. They mostly inhabit the torrid regions, or such parts of the tem- perate zone as are nearly contiguous, fre- quenting the cliffs and ledges of rocks, or traversing vast untrodden wildernesses. Africa appears to be their great nursery, but many kinds are natives of Asia ; very few are met with in Europe ; and it is remark- able that, notwithstanding the warmth of South America is well suited to their nature, only a single species of Antelope is to be found in any part of the New World. Having made these general remarks, it is necessary, for the sake of perspicuity, to con- sider Antelopes as divided into sub-genera, or families. It has been customary to class them as follows : 1. True Antelopes ; 2. Bush Antelopes ; 3. Capriform (or goat- like) Antelopes ; and 4. Bovine (or ox-like) Antelopes. But some late writers on zoology have rendered the sub-division infinitely more minute ; the species in many instances closely bordering on each other, while there are others in which scarcely any correspond- ing features can be distinctly traced. Thus, as an eminent naturalist has remarked, " the genus Antelope has become a kind of zoolo- gical refuge for the destitute, and forms an incongruous assemblage of all the hollow- horned ruminants together. So diversified are its forms, and so incongruous its mate- rials, that it presents not a single character which will either apply to all its species, or suffice to differentiate it from conterminous genera." The COMMON ANTELOPE, or SASIN. (Antilope Cervicapra.) This elegant speci- men of the Antelope tribe is a native of many parts of Africa, and also of India. It is somewhat smaller than a fallow deer, and is remarkable for the peculiar beauty of its long spiral horns, which are distinctly marked by numerous prominent rings ; its colour is a reddish tawny brown above, and white below ; the legs are long and delicate, the body round, but light and well formed ; the eyes large and expressive, and their orbits white. They are extremely wary, and when feeding or lying down are guarded by sentinels, who give the alarm on the slight- est appear nee of danger ; and such is their fleetness and activity, that, they often vault over nets ten feet high, and when pursued, will pass over as many yards at a single bound. [See SPRINGBOK, PRONGBUCK, GNU, GAZELLE, KOODO, STEENBOK, NYLGHAU, CM.] TILOPE OERVI- ANTHICID-ffi. A tribe of Coleopterous insects, possessing simple or but slightly ser- rated and fili- form antennae ; the maxillary palpi are termi- -r- r- vjisw-v i- natedbyahatch- J^J,-mT\ kk et-shaped joint ; 1 /VflwA 1 and the Penulti- mate joint of the tarsi is bilobed. Some of these species are found ANTHICUS TjATEFU FUNC' TATDS / upon plants, but the maj ority live on the ground, and run with great quickness : their larvae are probably parasites. They compose the genera Notoxus, Anthicus, &c. ANTHOBII. A section of Coleopterous insects, composed of species inhabiting the southern parts of Europe and the warm parts of both hemispheres. They are distinguished by the two divisions of the lower lip being produced considerably beyond the mentum, and the elytra gaping at the tips, which are rounded ; the antennae have nine or ten joints, the last three composing the club ; the terminal lobe of the maxillse is membra- nous, silky, and pencil-like, but leathery in others ; the upper lip and mandibles are more or less solid, as they are more or less exposed. These insects live upon flowers or leaves. ANTHOCH^RA. A genua of birds belonging to the family Meliphagidce, or Honey-eaters, several species of which are found in New Holland. As an example of this interesting genus we give The ANTHOCH^ERA MELLIVORA, or BUSH WATTLE-BIRD ; a bird con- stantly found where there are Banksias, in New South Wales, South Australia, and Van Diemen's Land. It is bold and spirited, fearlessly attacking and driving away all other birds from the part of the tree on which it is feeding. In spring and summer the male perches on some elevated branch, and screams forth his harsh and peculiar notes, like a person vomiting, whence its local ^popular Bt'cttcmarj) at giiimatcft $atitre. 25 BRDSn WATTI.E-BIRD. name Goo-gwar-ruck, in which the natives have tried to imitate it. While thus em- it frequently jerks its tail, throws its head, and distends its throat, as if great exertion were required. It breeds in September and three following months : the nest is round, open, and rather small ; it is generally placed in the fork of a small branch; and is formed of fine twigs, lined with fibrous roots. Eggs two, and sometimes three. Banksias are in blossom the greater part of the year ; each flower as it expands is diligently examined by the Wattle-bird, which inserts its long feathery tongue into every part, extracting pollen and insects. It is to be observed that Banksias are not a sign of good land, so that the garrulous note of this species may be taken by the settler as an indication or the sterile and unprofit- able nature of the soil. (Gould's Birds of A ustralia.) ANTHOMYZID^J. A general division of the JHuscidcB, composed of species haying the appearance of Common Flies ; the wings not vibratile ; the antennae inserted near the forehead, always shorter than the head, ter- minated by a long or linear joint, with the seta mostly plumose ; the legs are of mode- rate size, and the abdomen composed of four joints. ANTHOPHTLA. A name given by La- treille to the fourth family of the Aculeated Hymenoptera (the Bees). ANTHROCERID^E. A family of Lepi- dopterous insects, of the section Heterocera ; comprising a rather numerous group of small or moderately sized species, distinguished by their brilliancy of colour and diurnal flight ; having the antennae never terminated by a pencil of hairs, and either simple in both sexes and fusiform, or thickened near the middle : the head is furnished with a pair of ocelli behind the antennas ; the labial palpi are rather small, and the maxillae greatly elongated : the wings are always deflexed in repose, exhibiting in many species a number of denuded spots ; the nervures are very numerous ; the legs are long, with the pos- terior tibiae furnished with four spurs. The caterpillars are of a cylindrical form, gene- rally clothed with short hairs, and without any spine at the hind part of the body : they feed on various leguminous plants, and con- siderably resemble those of several of the liombycidce. The pupas are of the ordinary conical form, without any angular promi- nences. The colouring of some of the exotic species of this family is truly beautiful. [See BUHNET MOTH.] ANTHITS. [See PIPIT.] ANTIFATHES. Black Coral. ANT-LION. (Jfyrmeleonformicaleo.) A Neuropterous insect which has long been celebrated for its wonderful ingenuity in preparing a kind of pitfall for the destruc- tion of euch insects as happen unwarily to enter it. In its complete or fly state it bears no inconsiderable resemblance to a small dragon-fly, from which however it may rea- dily be distinguished by its antennae, which are hard, and incurvated at the ends. It AifT LION. (IJYriMh.i.aON FORMICATED.) deposits its eggs in dry sandy situations, and the young larvae, when hatched, begin se- parately to exercise their talent of preparing a very small conical cavity in the sand, which they eflect by turning themselves rapidly round. Under this cavity it lies concealed, ready to rush forward at a moment, in order to seize any small insect that has been so unfortunate, in approaching the edge, as to fall in ; and no sooner has it sucked out the juices of its victim through its tubercular forceps, than it throws it by a sudden exer- tion to some distance. As the larva in- creases in size, it enlarges the hole, which at last becomes about two inches in diameter, its own length being when full-grown about half an inch. It is of a flattened figure, broad towards the upper part, and gradually tapering to an obtuse point : the legs are slender ; the head and thorax rather small the tubular jaws long, curved, serrated in- ternally, and very sharp-pointed : it is of a brown colour, beset with numerous tufts of dusky hair ; the whole presenting a form bearing some resemblance to a flat-bodied spider. In preparing its pit, it begins by tracing an exterior circle of the intended diameter of the cavity, continuing its motion, in a spiral line, till it gets to the centre, thus making several volutes in the sand, resem- bling the impression of a large helix or snail- shell ; and after having sufficiently deepened the cavity by a repetition of this motion, it smoothes the sides into a regular shape by throwing out the superfluous sand lyi: the ridges, which it effects with sur] address and dexterity. The ingenuity and perseverance of tliis in- sect, or rather the admirable instinct it dis- plays, is so amusingly described by Messrs. Kirby and Spence in their " Introduction to 26 of $atttral Entomology," that we cannot refrain from indulging in a quotation, the length of which, we trust, its pertinence may well excuse. " In the course of its labours it frequently I meets with small stones : these it places upon I its head, one by one, and jerks over the mar- gin of the pit. But sometimes, when near the bottom, a pebble presents itself of a size so large that this process is impossible, its head not being sufficiently broad and strong to bear so great a weight, and the height being too considerable to admit of projecting so large a body to the top. A more impa- tient labourer would despair ; but not so our insect. A new plan is adopted. By a ma- noeuvre, not easily described, it lifts the stone upon its back, keeps it in a steady position by an alternate motion of the segments which compose that part ; and, carefully walking up the ascent with the burthen, deposits it on the outside of the margin. When, as oc- casionally happens, the stone is round, the labour becomes most difficult and painful. A spectator watching the motions of the ant- lion feels an inexpressible interest in its be- half. He sees it with vast exertion elevate the stone, and begin its arduous retrograde ascent : at every moment the burthen totters to one side or the other : the adroit porter lifts up the segments of its back to balance it, and has already nearly reached the top of the pit, when a stumble or a jolt mocks all its efforts, and the stone tumbles headlong to the bottom. Mortified, but not despair- ing, the Ant- Lion returns to the charge ; again replaces the stone on its back ; again ascends the side, and artfully avails himself, for a road, of the channel formed by the falling stone, against the sides of which he can support his load. This time possibly he succeeds ; or it may be, as is often the case, the stone again rolls down. When thus un- fortunate, our little Sisyphus has been seen six times patiently to renew his attempts, and was at last, as such heroic resolution deserved, successful. It is only after a series of trials have demonstrated the impossibility of succeeding, that op engineer yields to fate, and, quitting his half-excavated pit, begins the formation of another. " When all obstacles are overcome, and the pit is finished, it presents itself as a coni- cal hole rather more than two inches deep, gradually contracting to a point at the bot- tom, and about three inches wide at the top. The Ant-lion now takes its station at the bottom of the pit, and, that its gruff appear- ance may not scare the passengers which approach its den, covers itself with sand, all except the points of its expanded forceps. It is not long before an ant on its travels, fearing no harm, steps upon the margin of the pit, either accidentally or for the pur- pose of exploring the depth below. Alas ! its curiosity is dearly gratified. The faith- less sand slides from under its feet ; its struggles but hasten its descent ; and it is precipitated headlong into the jaws of the concealed devourer. Sometimes, however, it chances that the ant is able to stop itself midway, and with all haste scrambles up again. No sooner does the Ant-lion per- ceive this (for, being furnished with six eyes on each side of his head, he is sufficiently sharp-sighted), than, shaking off his inac- tivity, he hastily shovels loads of sand upon his head, and vigorously throws them up in quick succession upon the escaping insect, which, attacked by such a heavy shower from below, and treading upon so unstable a path, is almost inevitably carried to the bot- tom. The instant his victim is fairly within reach, the Ant-lion seizes him between his jaws, which are admirable instruments, at the same time hooked for holding and grooved on the inner side, so as to form with the ad- joining maxillae, which move up and down in the groove, a tube for sucking, and at his leisure extracting all the juices of the body, regales upon formic acid. The dry carcass he subsequently jerks out of his den, that it may not encumber him in his future con- tests, or betray the ' horrid secrets of his prison-house : ' and if the sides of the pit have received any damage, he leaves his concealment for a while to repair it ; which having done, he resumes his station." Such is the mode of life pursued by the larva of the Ant-lion until nearly two years have elapsed, when, being arrived at its full growth, and ready to change into a chrysalis, it envelopes itself in a round ball of sand, agglutinated and connected by very fine silk, which it draws from a tubular process at the extremity of its body. In this silken cocoon it remains about three weeks ; and then bursts forth a four- winged insect, resembling the dragon-fly both in appearance and man- ners. The Myrmeleonformicaleo is not found in England, but occurs in many parts of the Continent, as France, Spain, Germany, &c. [See MYRMELEON.] APATURA IRIS, or PURPLE EM- PEROR. Of all our native Lepidoptera, there is no Butterfly that is more justly admired than the Purple Emperor. In its PT7RPLB EMPEROR. (APATORA IRIS., bold and soaring flight, as it displays its beautiful lines in the effulgence of the meri- dian sun, or as it settles for repose when the shades of evening approach, it still maintains its acknowledged pre-eminence. The gene- ral colour of the wings above is a rich deep brown, changing in the male according to the light, to a lovely purple, or a splendid mazarine blue, and relieved by a triple series of white spots. The posterior wings have a white angular band, placed in continuity with the first series of spots on the anterior wings ; and an ocellus at the anal angle with a narrow tawny iris and black pupil : the under surface of the anterior wings is a fcr- at &tum&tett $ 27 ruginous brown, varied with white and black ; between the disc and the hinder mar- gin is an ocellus with a black iris and a bluish pupil : body black above, cinereous beneath ; antennae black. The female is considerably larger than the male, but the colours are not so deep, nor are the reflected hues so bril- liant. The Caterpillar is a bright green, with greenish-yellow horns, reddish at the tip, and has reddish bristles at the tail. It feeds on the oak, ash, and willow. The Chrysalis is of a pale green hue. The perfect insect seldom makes its appearance before July ; is by no means scarce ; and in various parts of the South and West of England very beauti- ful specimens are often taken. There are other species of the genus Apatura, but the above is the only one found in Britain. APE. (Pithecus.) The words APE, MON- KEY-, and BABOON were formerly applied in- discriminately to any of the Quadrumanous Mammalia ; it will therefore be right to state, before we proceed further, that the ArK.s, or SIMILE, may be properly divided into four sections ; viz Apes, or such as are destitute of a tail : Baboon*, or such as have muscular bodies, elongated muzzles, and whose tails are usually short : Monkeys, whose tails are in general long : and Sapa- jous, or Monkeys with prfhensHe tails, which can at pleasure be twisted round any object, and thereby in many instances answer the purpose of an additional hand to the animal. It is, however, to the first of these only that our attention is in this place to be directed. The genus Ape (Pithecus) comprises those quadrumanous animals which most closely approach to the human species in anatomi- cal structure, and which, in popular lan- guage, are termed monkeys without tails or cheek-pouches. As Buffon justly observes of the whole, they are not quadrupeds, but quadrumana ; not four-footed, but four- handed animals. They chiefly inhabit the vast forests of India and Africa, and are nu- merous in the peninsula of Malacca, and the great islands of the Indian Ocean ; living in trees, and feeding on fruits, leaves, and in- sects ; but though frugiverous in a state of nature, yet, from the resemblance of their teeth to those of the human species, it is very evident that their diet may be almost as various as that of Man. They generally live in troops, and some of the species are said to construct a sort of hut of leaves, as a defence against the weather : it is also asserted that they use clubs to defend themselves when attacked. The Apes are in general fierce and untract- able ; though some of them appear to be of a grave and gentle disposition ; neither petu- lant nor mischievous, like the monkeys, pro- perly so called. Their arms are so long as almost to touch the ground when the ani- mals stand erect on their hind legs ; the fin- gers and toes are long, flexible, deeply sepa- rated from one another, and admirably adapted for prehension : thus they are ena- bled to spring from tree to tree with surpris- ing agility, even when loaded with their young, who cling closely to them on every appearance of danger. Apes have the power of assuming a nearly erect position ; though on the ground this is by no means conve- nient, as they stand upon the outer edges, being unable to apply the palms of the pos- terior hands fairly against the soil, and re- quire a staff, or other support, to maintain this attitude, except when they have been taught to stand erect by man. [See CHIM- PANZEE ; OKANO-OUTANG ; SIAMANO ; GIB- BON, &c.] APH ANIPTERA. An order of Apterous Haustellate insects, having rudimental elytra or wings in the perfect state. It is composed entirely of the different species of Fleas, form- ing the family PULICID.E ; the common Flea (Pulex irritans) being the type of the order. The legs are long, the posterior formed for leaping ; the coxae are very large ; the fore legs are singularly placed, appearing to arise from the front of the head, the coxae defending the sides of the rostrulum. This peculiarity is caused by the prothoracic epimera being detached from the body, and extended obliquely beneath the head : the femora are short, but strong ; the tibiae very setose ; and the tarsi five-jointed, termi- nated by a pair of strong claws. The female flea dei>osits a dozen eggs, of a white colour, and rather viscous texture, from which are hatched long worm-like grubs, destitute of feet, which are very active in their motions, winding themselves in a serpentine manner through the substance in which they may be deposited : the head of the larva is pro- tected by a firm skin, and bears two antennae, but no eyes. The body consists of thirteen segments, bearing little tufts of hair, and the last is armed with a pair of small hooks. When full grown, which occurs in summer in about twelve days, the larvae enclose themselves in a small cocoon of silk, often covered with dust, and attached to adjoining substances : in this it passes into the pupa state, and in about twelve days more emerges a perfect flea. In hot countries these insects are exceed- ingly troublesome : but in the West Indies and South America there is an insect be- longing to the family having habits different to those of the common flea, which is even still more obnoxious ; this is the Chigoe (Pulex penetrans), which lives in the open country, and attacks the naked feet both of men and dogs. [See FLEA and CHIGOE.] APHIS : APHID^. A genus and family of Homopterous insects, comprising the very numerous and obnoxious species of Plant- lice, a tribe of insects analogous, in regard to the vegetable world, to the animal parasites of the order ANOPLURA, or lice. The antennae are of great length ; the ocelli, three in number, form a large triangle ; the eyes are entire, prominent, and semiglobose ; the abdomen is short and convex, generally furnished with a tubercle on each side near the extremity. Some are winged, and some are wingless, without distinction of sex : the wings are very much deflexed at the side of the body, being almost perpendicular in repose ; the fore wings much larger than the posterior, with strong nerves : the legs are very long and slender, formed only for of crawling. The species reside in great so- cieties upon almost every species of plant, of which they suck the young shoots, leaves, and stems, by the assistance of their pro- boscis, producing disease in the plant either by greatly weakening it, or by raising vesicles, or other gall-like excrescences, in which whole generations of Aphides reside. The anal tubercles above mentioned secrete a saccharine fluid of which ants are very fond ; and it is this fluid dropped upon the adjacent leaves, or the extravasated sap flow- ing from the wounds caused by the punctures of the insects, which is known under the name of the honey-dew. In the spring they are viviparous, in the autumn and as winter approaches they are oviparous ; and by a surprising aberration from the common laws of nature, it appears that one im- pregnation of the female is sufficient for many generations, without further assistance from the male. All the Aphides which appear in the spring are exclusively females, no males being found till the autumn ; and the females are endowed with such astonish- ing fecundity, that nine generations each generation averaging 100 individuals have been produced within three months ; " so that from a single Aphis, 10,000 million millions may be generated in that short period I " In some years they re BO nume- PLANT-LICK. (APHIS PLATANOIDES.) rous as to cause almost a total failure of the hop plantations ; at other times the beans, peas, and potatoes are injured by them to an alarming extent ; as also are numerous shrubs, and plants, including the delicate exotics raised in stoves and green-houses. There are numerous species ; uniformly de- riving their specific name from the tree, shrub, or plant, on which thev are common- ly found. Of these the Aphis rapce, which has made a great noise as the Aphis vastator and feeds on various plants, the Aphis rosce (or rose louse), the Aphis hurnuli (or hop- fly), and the Aphis vitis (or vine-fretter), are among the best known and most destructive; but the largest and most remarkable of the British Aphides is the Aphis salicis, which is found on the different kinds of willows, and is nearly a quarter of an inch long. Many of the species have the body densely clothed with a white cottony secre- tion, either in threads or flakes ; among these j may be particularly mentioned the Aphis lanigera, or American blight, as it is termed, which infests the stems of Apple-trees, some- times totally destroying them. " The injuries occasioned by plant lice," as Dr. Harris very truly observes, " are much greater than would at first sight be expected from the small size and extreme weakness of the insects ; but these make up by their numbers what they want in strength in- dividually, and thus become formidable enemies to vegetation. By their punctures, and the quantity of sap which they draw from the leaves, the functions of these im- portant organs are deranged or interrupted, the food of the plant, which is there elabo- rated to nourish the stem and mature the fruit, is withdrawn before it can reach its proper destination, or is contaminated and left in a state unfitted to supply the wants of vegetation. Plants are differently affected by these insects. Some wither and cease to grow, their leaves and stems put on a sickly appearance and soon die from exhaustion. Others, though not killed, are greatly im- peded in their growth, and their tender parts, which are attacked, become stunted, curled, or warped. The punctures of these lice seem to poison some plants, and affect others in a most singular manner, producing warts or swellings, which are sometimes solid and sometimes hollow, and contain in their interior a swarm of lice, the descendants of a single individual, whose punctures were the original cause of the tumor. I have seen reddish tumors of this kind, as big as a pigeon's egg, growing upon leaves, to which they were attached by a slender neck, and containing thousands of small lice in their interior. Naturalists call these tumors galls, because they seem to be formed in the same way as the oak-galls which are used in the making of ink. The lice which inhabit or produce them generally differ from the others, in having shorter antennae, being without honey-tubes, and in frequently being clothed with a kind of white down, which, however, disappears when the insects become winged." Mr. Knapp, in his ' Journal of a Natura- list,' has thus described this species, and its effects. " Our apple-trees here are greatly injured, and some annually destroyed, by the agency of what seems to be a very feeble insect. We call it, from habit, or from some unassigned cause, the ' American blight.' [It seems, however, that it had been noticed in England as early as the year 1787 ; and there is good reason to believe that in America it is not indigenous, but was in- troduced there with fruit-trees from Europe.] In the spring of the year a slight hoariuess is observed upon the branches of certain species of our orchard fruit. As the season advances this hoariness increases, it becomes cottony ; or, in other words, towards the end of summer the under sides of some of the branches are invested with a thick, downy substance, so long as at times to be sensibly agitated by the air. Upon examining this substance, we find that it conceals a multi- tude of small wingless creatures, which are busily employed in preying upon the limb of the tree beneath. This they are well enabled to do, by means of a beak termina- $9icttanarg at glmmatrfr 29 ting in a fine bristle ; this, being insinuated through the bark and the sappy part of the wood, enables the creature to extract, as with a syringe, the sweet, vital liquor that circulates in the plant. The alburnum, or sap-wood, being thus wounded, rises up in excrescences and nodes all over the branch, ,nd deforms it ; the limb, deprived of its nutriment, grows sickly ; the leaves turn ellow, and the part perishes. Branch after iranch is thus assailed, until they all be- come leafless, and the tree dies." * * * * Many remedies have been proposed for removing this evil, efficacious perhaps in some cases upon a small scale ; but when the injury has existed for some time, and extended its influence over the parts of a large tree, I apprehend it will take its course, and the tree die." Upon this part of the subject, Dr. Harris remarks that the application of the spirits of tar, of spirits of turpentine, of oil, urine, and of soft soap, has been recommended ; but he is inclined to think that the following mode of treatment will be found the most effectual of any : " Scrape off all the rough bark of the infected trees, and make them perfectly clean and smooth early in the spring ; then rub the trunk and limbs with a stiff brush wet with a solution of potash ; after which remove the sods and earth around the bottom of the trunk, and with the scraper, brush, and alkaline liquor cleanse that part as far as the roots can conveniently be uncovered. The earth and sods should immediately be carried away, fresh loam should be placed around the roots, and all cracks and wounds should be filled with grafting cement or clay mortar. Small limbs and extremities of branches, if infected, and beyond reach of the applications, should be cut off and burned." He further observes, in reference to remedial measures necessary to counter- act the injury done to plants generally by the different species of Aphides, that " solutions of soap, or a mixture of soap-suds and to- bacco water, used warm and applied with a watering-pot or with a garden-engine, may be employed for the destruction of these in- sects. It is said that hot water may also be employed for the same purpose with safety and success. The water, tobacco-tea, or suds should be thrown upon the plants with considerable force, and if they are of the cabbage or lettuce kind, or other plants whose leaves are to be used as food, they should subsequently be drenched thoroughly with pure water. Lice on the extremities of branches may be killed by bending over the branches and holding them for several mi- nutes in warm and strong soap-suds. Lice multiply much faster, and are more injurious to plants, in a dry than in a wet atmosphere ; hence in green-houses, attention should be paid to keep the air sufficiently moist ; and the lice are readily killed by fumigations with tobacco or with sulphur. To destroy subterranean lice on the roots of plants I have found that watering with salt-water was useful, if the plants were hardy j but tender herbaceous plants cannot be treated in this way, but may sometimes be revived by frequent watering with soap-suds." The species of this family are greatly subject to the attacks of other insects ; the larvae of the Hemerobiidce, the CoccinelUe, and the larvae of various species of Syrphidce feed upon them, and destroy vast numbers ; they are also infested by minute parasitic Hymenoptera belonging to the families Cy- nipitlce, Ickneumonidce, &c. In the papers of Mr. F. Walker, F.L.S., and in his Catalogue of the species in the British Museum, much 'nformation on the British Aphides is eiven. APHIDIPHAGI. The name of a family of Coleopterous insects, which are for the most part of a hemispherical form, and com- pose the genus COCCINELLA cor Lady-birds). APHODIAD^E. A family of minute La- mellicorn beetles, extremely abundant in this and other temperate countries, especially during the spring months, swarming in the dung of the larger herbivorous animals, or hovering over it as soon as it is dropped. The body is of an oblong or oval shape, rounded at the extremity, with the abdomen entirely concealed by the elytra i they are nearly allied to the Scarabaeidae, both in their an- tennae, organs of the mouth, and legs, but the body is more elongated. APHRODIT A, or SEA-MOUSE. A small ..~j~i^*,+*. . marine annelide, jiJJBRniilJlB^^ known on our Bk coasts as the Sea- JPB ^Bfe mouse. Its figure X is oval and acu- iB Pleated; and it 3HPP t is covered with tfawss*5 a very bright metallic lustre, the colours of which vary with the play of the light. On the back are two rows of large membranous scales, which somewhat resemble the elytra of insects. In many species the lateral setae or bristles exhibit a beautiful structure, being barbed on each side of the tips, and each of these barbed setae being inclosed in a smooth horny sheath. It not unfrequently happens that a large number of Aphroditae are thrown up on the British shores after a gale of wind. ArHROPHORA. A genus of Homopte- rous insects which in the larva state live on plants enveloped in a saliva-like mass ; whence their popular name of Cuckoo-spits : the insects in their perfect state are named from their leaping powers, Frog-hoppers. [See CICADA.] APID^. An extensive family of Bees, which may be classed under three heads ; namely, 1. Social bees ; 2. Solitary working bees ; 3. Cuckoo-like parasitic bees. The insects composing this family are distin- guished by having the mentum long, with the labium at its extremity, forming an elongated slender seta, with two small lateral filaments, and forming with the maxillae an elongated proboscis, capable of being por- rected in front of the head when in action, or folded up beneath it and the breast when at rest. The antennae are often elbowed, the basal joint being long. Following the p 3 30 Natural arrangement compiled by Mr. Westwood, we find the AIMDJB are divided into five sub- families : 1. PANURGIDJE, consisting of insects nearly allied to the Andrenidae in the labium being shorter than the mentum, and the structure of the labial palpi, which are composed of continuous linear joints, the two basal ones not being so much elongated as in the fol- lowing sub-families. The maxillary palpi are six-jointed ; the upper lip is short ; and the females are destitute of a pollen brush on the under surface of the abdomen. They are, however, furnished with a pollen plate on each side of the metathorax, and another on the posterior femora : the hind legs have also pollen brushes. Nothing is known of their nidification ; but Latreille observes that the perfect insects of the genus Panurgus are attached to semi-flosculous flowers. 2. DENUDAT.E, or MELECTID.H. The insects composing the second sub-family (as well as those of all the following sub-families of bees) have the labial palpi formed of two very long, flattened, scaly basal joints, and two minute apical ones. The abdomen is not provided with a ventral pollen brush, neither do these insects possess any pollen plates, their bodies being in effect naked, whence they are supposed to be parasites. Some of the species resemble small wasps in their colours, whilst in others some parts of their bodies are clothed with small patches of very short hairs. From their evidently para- sitic habits they have been termed Cuckoo- bees. 3. LOlfGILABRES, Or MEOACHILID^. The third sub-family of the Apidse ; composed of insects distinguished by the large oblong form of the upper lip, and strong mandibles : the maxillary palpi are but slightly de- veloped ; while on the contrary, the labial are very long, with the two last joints ob- liquely inserted. Nearly all the genera are polliniferous, the pollen brush being very large, and covering the under side of the abdomen : they are, however, destitute of pollen plates. " From their respective eco- nomy, they have been termed Mason and Upholsterer bees ; the former building their nests of fine moistened earth, whilst the Up- holsterers employ in the construction of their cells portions of leaves which they have cut from various plants by means of their power- ful jaws, which are employed like a pair of scissors." Some of the species of the genus Osmia construct their nests of minute grains of sand, cemented together with a glutinous secretion, and which are placed by the in- sects on the angle of a wall, the crevices between bricks, &c. The genus MegacMle comprises the Leaf-cutting and some other bees. These form their nests in the trunks of decayed trees, and in old rotten palings. They are lined with pieces of leaves, of a circular form, which the insects have most dexterously clipped oif, and afterwards ad- justed together so admirably, that, although not covered with any coating of gum, &c., they are honey-tight. 4. ScoruLti'EDES. This sub-family derives its name from the very thick coating of hairs upon the hind legs of the females, which constitute the pollen brushes. The wings have commonly three perfect submarginal cells ; the third joint of the antennae is often long and clavate, and the mouth is occa- sionally very considerably developed. Not- withstanding the shortness of the wings, and the robustness of the body, these insects fly with great strength and rapidity, making a loud humming noise. They nidificate in the crevices of old walls or in the ground, pre- ferring banks exposed to the sun. " We are indebted to Reaumur ," as this gentleman observes, " for the history of the Carpenter bees, Xylocopa, a genus contain- ing the largest species of the family, all of which are exotic. Their wings are often black, with a fine purple or violet gloss, and some of the species are richly coloured. The females of Xylocopa violacea appear in the spring, and select posts, palings, espaliers, &c. in gardens, in which they construct their burrows, from twelve to fifteen inches in length, and rather more than half an inch in diameter ; the top and bottom of the tunnel is curved, having a passage at each end. When completed, they deposit an egg at the bottom, with a proper supply of pollen paste ; the whole is then covered with a layer of agglutinated sawdust, formed dur- ing the construction of the burrow : the layer thus formed serves not only as the roof of one cell, but as the floor of another which is placed immediately above it. They thus proceed till about a dozen cells are formed. When the larvaa are full grown, they assume the pupa state, head downward, so as to allow the lowermost and oldest to make its way out of the bottom of the burrow as soon as it becomes winged, and which consequently takes place earlier than in those which occupy the upper cells." 5. SOCIALES. The fifth and last sub-family of the Apidae. " Here, dependent upon their social habits, we find each species com- posed of three kinds of individuals ; viz. males, females, and neuters, or workers. In addition to their gregarious habits, the cir- cumstances of the larvaa being fed from time to time by the worker bees, and the cells being generally of an hexagonal form, they are also distinguished by their peculiar habit of secreting wax for the manufacture of the cells of their nests. In these insects, the outside of the posterior dilated tibiae is smooth, and hollowed in the neuters into a shining plate, for the reception and carrying of pollen, which has been accumulated by means of the pollen brushes upon the basal joint of the tarsi of this pair of legs. The maxillary palpi are minute and exarticulate. These bees have the body covered with thick hairs." " The Humble-bees, composing the genus Bombus, are at once known by their large and very hairy bodies : they are the largest species of the Mellifera found in England ; and they are often of a black colour, with bands of yellow or orange. They form societies consisting of about fifty or sixty individuals, occasionally, however, amount- ing to two or three hundred. They construct their dwellings under ground, in meadows, pastures, or hedge-rows, generally employ- SStcttanarg ol $aturg. 31 ing moss for this purpose. Their union, how- ever, lasts only till the cold weather kills the great mass of the inhabitants, a few im- pregnated females alone surviving to become the foundresses of fresh colonies at the com- mencement of the following spring. The neuters are late in their appearance, being produced from eggs produced by these foun- dress bees ; and it is not till autumn that the males appear. Unlike the hive-bees, the females take their share in the labours of the community, and they are accordingly furnished with two peculiar organs possessed by the neuters, of which the queen of the hive is destitute, although the neuters of the latter insect possess them ; namely, the dense fringe of hairs surrounding the pollen- plate of the posterior tibiae, and the dilated base of the first tarsal joint. The economy of the humble-bee also, unlike that of the hive, admits of the presence of numerous females in the same nest. The species of Bombus are very difficult to determine, from the colours of the hairs being very liable to fade. It is essential, therefore, to trace the insects from their first leaving the nest." The Hive-bee, and some other analogous species (forming the second section of the ,S'of iales), have the basal joint of the posterior tarsi striated, and the posterior tibiae have no spurs at the extremity, a character not to be found in any other Hymenopterous group. * * * The principal species of beet kept for domestic purposes are the follow- ing : Apis mdlijii-a (Linn.\ or the common hive-bee of Europe, and which has also been introduced into the U. S. of America and into New Zealand ; Apis iiyitstica (Spinola), kept in some parts of Italy ; Apis fasciata (Lat.), in Egypt and some parts of Asia Minor ; Apis unicolor (Fab.), in Madagas- car ; Apis Indica (Linn.), at Bengal ; Apia Aduntonii (Latr.), at Senegal. Laeordaire also observed hives of an undescribed species of Chili ; and the Horticultural Society of London, in 1825, received a hive of bees from New Holland, differing materially from the bees of Europe, " being infinitely smaller and wholly without stings." An interesting work on the British Bees, by Mr. Frederick Smith, may be shortly expected: in the " Zoologist," &c. he has published much on the subject. APION. An extensive genus of Coleop- terous insects, de- riving the name from their pear- shaped body. The grubs of many kinds of Apions destroy /ilftiJ^fflN. the seeds of plants. "^ In Europe they do much mischief to clover in this way ; but in America the species are more numerous and more destructive. Apion black species, not more than one tenth of an inch long, exclu- sive of the slender sharp-pointed snout. Its grubs live in the pods of the common wild indigo bush, Bupt isia tinctoria, devouring the seeds. A smaller kind, somewhat like it, inhabits the pods and eats the seeds of the locust-tree, or Robinia pseudacacia. Harris. APLYSIA. A genus of Tectibranchiate Mollusca, of which several species are known. The body of the animal consists of a soft fleshy mass ; it has four flattened tentacular appendages ; the mouth in the form of a vertical fissure, with two lateral labial plates, and a cordiform tongue beset with denticles; branchiae covered by a sort of operculum ; and shell wanting. From the borders of the mantle is poured out abundantly a deep purple liquor, with which the animal colours the water around to a considerable distance, hen it perceives any danger. The Aplysia dcpilans, or Depilatory Aplysia, is found in the European seas adhering to rocks : it is extremely fetid, and it was long supposed that the acrid humour which it exuded oc- casioned the loss of the hair. Its digestive apparatus consists of a membranous crop, of enormous size, which leads into a muscular gizzard, furnished with pyramidal cartila- ginous teeth ; and a third stomach beset with pointed hooks ; besides a fourth sacu- lus. Its general colour is blackish, with grey or brown blotches, and tinged with purple. The ova is laid in long glairy entangled filaments, as slender as threads. APODES or APOD A. An order of fishes characterised by Linnaaus as being composed of all those which are destitute of ventral fins. According to Cuvier's system, how- ever, they must not only want ventral fins, but be likewise malacopterygious. Of this kind a good and familiar example is seen in the common Eel. APOLLO [BUTTERFLY]. [See PAR- NASSIUS.] APOSUR2E. The name given to a section of the Nocturnal Lepidoptera, differing from all the rest of the order in the caterpillars being destitute of any anal feet, the extre- mity of the body terminating in a point, which in many is forked, or furnished with two long articulated appendages, forming a kind of tail. APPLE-MOTH. [See TOKTRJX.] ASPIDOPHORUS. The Armed Bullhead or Pogge. [See BULLHEAD.] APTENODYTES. The generic appella- tion of the curiously-formed palmiped birds, known by the name of Penguins, a more general and detailed account of which will be found under the letter P. In this place we shall merely make an extract from Capt. Sir J. C. Ross's Voyage to the Antarctic Regions, where he speaks of the Great Pen- guins : "These enormous birds varied in weight from sixty to seventy-five pounds. The largest was killed by the Terror's people, and weighed seventy-eight pounds. They are remarkably stupid, and you are able to approach them so near as to allow you to strike them on the head with a bludgeon, and sometimes, if knocked off the ice into 32 Creatfttrj? of Natural the water, they will almost immediately leap upon it again as if to attack you, but without the smallest means either of offence or defence. They were first discovered dur- ing Capt. Cook's voyage to these regions, and the beautiful unpublished drawing of Fors- ter the naturalist has supplied the only figures and accounts which have been given to the public, both by British and foreign I have never seen more than two or three together ; whilst the two smaller species congregate in vast numbers. I know not to what cause we can assign this very re- markable paucity of individuals in the larger species." AFTER A. An order of the Linnsean class Tnsectce; characterized, as the term implies, writers "on natural history. Mr. G. R. Gray !! 7 having no wings in either sex. It includes has therefore named it in the zoology of our j tjie , modern ord voyage, Aptenodytcs Forsteri, of which we and Mvnapoda. were fortunate in bringing the first perfect orders Crustacea, Arachnidu, specimens to England. Some of these were preserved entire in casks of strong pickle, that the physiologist and comparative ana- tomist might have an opportunity of tho- roughly examining the structure of this wonderful creature. Its principal food con- various species of cancri and other APTERYX. A bird which in form some- what resembles a Penguin, and stands about two feet in he' " slender, ma: tudinal groove, and furnished with a mem- brane at its base. Its wings are simple ru- diments ; a mere stump, terminated by a hook. It has no abdominal air cells, nor _ height. The beak is very long, rked on each side with a longi- crustaceous animals ; and in its stomach we | are any of its bones hollow. The feathers frequently found from two to ten pound weight of pebbles, consisting of granite, quartz, and trappean rocks. Its capture afforded great amusement to our people, for when alarmed and endeavouring to escape, it makes its way over deep snow faster than they could follow it ; by lying down on its belly and impelling itself by its powerful feet, it slides along upon the surface of the enow at a great pace, steadying itself by ex- tending its fin-like wings, which alternately touch the ground on the side opposite to the propelling leg." In No. IV. of the Appendix to the work above quoted, (the Geology of the Southern Islands, by R. Me Cormick, Esq.,) the writer observes : " As I had no opportunity of land- ing for specimens, I was in the habit of ex- amining the stomachs of most of the birds which I shot and preserved for the Govern- ment Collection ; and found the Penguins my best geological collectors, for their crops were frequently filled with pebbles ; more especially the large species, Aptenoclytcs cmtarctica. In one of these individuals I found upwards of a pound of small fragments of rocks ; comprising basalt, greenstone, porphyry, granite, vesicular lava, quartz, scoriae, and pumice ; but none of them ever brought me a vestige of aqueous rocks, all were volca: e a vestige Tiic, and such the appearance of the Antarctic lands, even at a distance, would proclaim them to be. We saw threi species of Penguins within the Antarctic circle. The larger kind, 'Aptenodytes antarctica,' attains a great size. I preserved one, weighing seventy-five pounds. It is a scarce bird, generally met with singly ; and have no accessory plume, but full loosely, like those of the emu, and their shafts are prolonged considerably beyond the base. The feet have a short and elevated hind-toe, the claw of which is alone externally visible. The eye is small, and a number of bristle- like hairs surround the mouth. Its colour is deep brown ; its time of action nocturnal ; and it subsists on insects. It runs with ra- pidity, the limbs are extremely powerful, and it defends itself vigorously with its feet. This bird is chiefly met with in the southern parts of the interior of New Zealand. When chased, it takes refuge in the clefts of rocks, hollow trees, or in deep holes which it exca- vates in the ground ; and it runs with great swiftness, with its head elevated like the ostrich. The natives value it greatly for the sake of its skin, which, prepared with the feathers on, they make into dresses. The name given to this bird by the New Zea- landers is Kiwi. A second species of this curious genus has been lately received by Mr. Gould from the South Seas. APUS. A genus of small Crustaceous animals which inhabit ditches, lakes, and standing waters, generally in innumerable quantities. They often swarm in myriads, and, indeed, have been known to be carried up by violent storms of wind, and scattered over the land ; hence they often appear suddenly in puddles of rain water where none have been previously, especially in |3rjpuTar 3tctt0narj) of xJmmatctr $aturr. the spring and early in summer. They swim well on the back, and when they bur- row iii the sand they raise their tails in the AFT73 PROTTUCTU9 water. Their food principally consists of tad- poles. When first hatched they have only one eye, four oar-like legs, with whorls of hairs, the second pair being the largest : the body has then no tail, and the shell only covers the front half of the body : the other organs are gradually developed during succeeding moultings. These creatures are the common food of the Wagtails. We give the species Apus productus as an example. AQUTLA. [See EAGLE.] ARACHNID A. A class of Articulated animals, including Spiders, Mites, and Scor- pions, all ranked by Linnaius under Insects; but though having a great analogy with them, and being equally fitted to live in the air, are distinguished from them by their number of limbs, their internal structure, and habits. All the Arachnida are desti- tute of antennae, and have the head united with the thorax: they have generally eight legs, though some species have six, and others ten ; they have no wings ; most of them breathe by means of air-sacs, instead of by prolonged tracheae ; and in the greater part there is a complete circulatory system. Most of the Aracbnida are carnivorous, and are furnished with appropriate organs for their predatory life ; but in general they confine themselves to sucking the juices of insects ; and in order to enable them to cap- ture and subdue animals otherwise capable of effectual resistance, Nature has furnished them with a poisonous apparatus. [See SPIDER.] ARACARI. (Ptcrof/lossm.') A genus of birds, which, like the Toucans breed in the hollows of decayed trees, which they enlarge and render commodious by means of the beak ; and it is from this habit that the Brazilians give them the name of Tacataca, in imitation of the sound made by clipping the decayed wood. We may here mention two species described and figured in Mr. Gould's truly elegant monograph of the Tou- cans. ARACARI TOUCAN. (Pteroglosswiplu- ricinctiui.) This bird, as depicted and de- scribed by Mr. Gould, is twenty inches in length, of which the bill is four inches and a half ; a broad band of black advances from the nostrils along the whole of the culmen, and forms a narrow belt down the sides of the upper mandible at its base ; the elevated basal margin of the bill is yellow ; the sides of the upper mandible beautiful orange- yellow, fading into yellowish white towards the tip ; under mandible wholly black, with a yellow basal ridge ; head, neck, and chest black ; the whole of the upper surface, except I the rump, which is scarlet, dark olive green ; breast marked with two broad bands of black, the upper separated from the throat by an intervening space of yellow dashed with red ; a similar but broader space sepa- rates the two bands of black, the lower of which is bounded by scarlet, advancing as far as the thighs, which are brownish olive ; under the tail coverts light yellow ; naked space round the eyes ; tarsi and feet dark lead-colour. It is a native of Brazil. The CURL - CRESTED ARACARI (PterogloKsus ulocomus), is one of the most rare and beautiful of its tribe. Its length from the tip of the bill to the end of its tail is eighteen inches : the crown of the head is covered with an elegant crest of curled fea- thers without barbs, which are of an intense glossy black, but as they approach the occi- put they become straight, narrow, and spa- tulate ; the feathers on the cheeks are of a yellowish white colour, tipped with black ; the back of the head and upper tail coverts are of a deep blood-red ; the breast is a deli- cate yellow, with slight crescent-shaped bara of red ; the back, tail, and thighs are olive green ; the quills brown, the tarsi lead-co- loured : the beak of this species is lengthened, both mandibles being edged with thickly-set white seratures j the upper has an orange- coloured culmen, bordered by a stripe of dull blue extending nearly to the tip, below which, the sides of the mandibles are fine orange-red ; the under mandibles is straw colour, becoming orange at the tip, and a narrow band of rich chesnut encircles both mandibles at the base. During life the colour- ing of the bills is generally very vivid, but after death the bright hues fade, so as often- times to become nearly obsolete. ARACHNOTHERES, or SBIDER- CATCHERS. Small birds, very similar to the Sun-birds in respect to their long, arcu- ated beak : they inhabit the Indiau Archi- pelago, and live on spiders. ARANEA. [See SPIDKB.] ARC A, or ARK SHELL. The Arcadce, a family of Bivalve Shells, found in the At- lantic and Pacific Oceans, the Mediterra- nean, &c., are distinguished by their great number of teeth, resembling those of a fine saw, and forming either a straight or curved continuous line. They bury in the sand near the coasts, and are also sometimes found attached to rocks, coral, &c. The Area is nearly equivalye, inequilateral, heart- shaped, valves ribbed, and in some species gaping at the lower part. A few have one valve larger than the other ; and many have a velvety or shelly epidermis, frequently ending in a deep fringe. ARCHER-FISH. [See TOXOTUS.] ARCHES [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors, to Moths of the genera folia and Xylophasia. ARCTIA CAJA, or TIGER MOTH. There are few more striking Insects among the niyht-Jlying Lepidoptera than the various species of Arctive, or Tiger Moths. The one we have here selected is well known and 34 Crouhtrg at Natural abundant. It measures from two and a half to three inches in the expanse of the fore wings, which are of a rich brown colour, with numerous irregular spots and streaks of cream white ; the hind wings bright red, with blue-black spots ; the thorax brown, with a red neck-band, and the abdomen red, with blue-black bars. The insects belonging to this genus are observed to vary consider- ably in their markings, and the present spe- cies is no exception to the general rule ; some having the brown and blue-black por- tions more or less obliterated, whilst in others they are sometimes almost entirely predominant. The Caterpillar is dark brown, and very hairy, the hairs on the back dusky, and those on the neck and sides reddish, the head black : its food is nettles, chiukweed, lettuce, strawberries, &c. When full fed it spins itself a web, wherein, at the latter end of April, it changes to the Chrysalis state ; and the Moth appears about the end of June or beginning of July. ARCTIC FOX. ( Viilpcs lagopus.') A small species of Fox, inhabiting the high northern latitudes, and justly celebrated for the beauty and fineness of its fur. [See Fox.] ARCTIID^. A family of Lepidopterous insects, belonging to the general section HETEROCERA, comprising those species which have the wings deflexed in repose, the posterior pair not extending beyond the costa of the anterior. The antennas of the males are strongly serrated ; the spiral tongue is either very small, or obsolete ; and the labial palpi are generally short and obtuse at the tip. The caterpillars vary much : in some species they are thickly hairy ; some are furnished with long fasciles of hairs ; and some are naked, but variously tubercled. They feed upon the external parts of plants, and enclose themselves in cocoons when about to undergo their transformations. The types of the family are distinguished by their larvae being very thickly clothed with long hairs, whence they have obtained the name of "woolly bears." Such are especially the | larvae of the various species of Tiger Moths, i and others nearly allied to them, which are I well known, and considered as being amongst the most beautiful of all the species of Moths ; their fore wings are ornamented with white, i brown, or black, and the hind wings red, j with black or blue markings. Some of these 1 caterpillars are extremely destructive, par- I ticularly to fruit trees and hedges. Great j alarm has been created at times when they j were particularly abundant ; and, indeed, their polyphagous habits on such occasions may justly be dreaded. The larva of some species are furnished, in addition to the long slender hairs all over the body, with several short, thick, truncated tufts of hair on the back as well as at the sides ; the majority of these produce species not materially differing in the sexes ; but some, forming the genus Oryyia, have females with the smallest ru- diments of wings, and large swollen abdo- mens, and which are exceedingly sluggish in their habits, whilst the males are con- j stantly on the wing, flitting about in the ! hottest weather of autumn. The family like- ! wise comprises several other genera differing widely in the appearance of the sexes, or ano- malous as respects their transformations. ARCTOCEPHALUS TJRSENUS. The i Ursal ; a species of Seal, from the north ot ! the Pacific Ocean. It is eight feet long, has \ no mane, and varies in colour from brown to wliitish. [See SEAL.] ARCTOMYS. [See MARMOT.] ARCUATA. A section of the genus Can- cer, of which the true Crabs are the type. [See CRAB.] ARDEA. The Heron [which see]. ARDEID^E. A very extensive family of birds, formed for wading, and generally seeking their food on the margins of rivers and lakes, and in marshes, where they obtain fish, reptiles, and even small mammalia. They are characterized by having very long legs, with a strong, straight, pointed, and compressed bill ; in most species finely toothed ; the upper mandible usually notched towards the tip ; a furrow passing from the nostrils, which are linear, to the apex. They in general build and breed in societies, but always wander alone in search of food, and after the breeding season lead a solitary existence. They have ample wings, and many of them are adorned with elegant plumes and crests. [See HERON, STOKK, &c.] ARENICOLA. A genus of Dvrsibran- chiata, or Cuvier's second order of the class ANNELIDA. The gills are of an arborescent form, on the rings of the middle part of the body. The best known species (Arenicola marina) is common on our coasts, where the fishermen, who dig for it as bait, know it by the name of the Lob- worm. It is almost a foot }90pttlar 2B(rtfmiarg at feature. 35 long ; tlie body is of a reddish colour ; and on being touched, exudes a quantity of yel- low fluid. The animal bores for itself a passage through the sand, and secures the sides of the passage from falling in by apply- ing to them a glutinous cement, which unites the particles of sand into a kind of wall or coating. This covering does not adhere to the body, but forms a detached tube, within which the animal moves with perfect free- dom, and which it leaves behind it as it progressively advances ; so that the passage is kept pervious throughout its whole length, by means of the lining, which may not in- aptly be compared to the brickwork of the shaft of a mine or tunnel. ARENICOLI. The name given to a section of beetles which live in dung, and form deep burrows in the earth. The elytra entirely cover the abdomen ; the mandibles are horny, exposed, and curved ; the terminal lobe of the maxillae is generally straight ; and the antennae are ten or eleven-jointed. They fly about in the twilight after sunset, and counterfeit death when alarmed. ARGALI. A species of wild Sheep, found on the mountains of Siberia and Kamts- chatka. It so closely resembles the MOUFFLON [which see] as to be regarded by many natu- ralists as the same species. ARGENTINE. (Argentina sphyrcena.) A genus of Malacopterygious fishes belong- ing to the Salmonidce ; the mouth of which is small and toothless ; the tongue is fur- nished with strong hooked teeth ; and the digestive organs resemble those of the Trout. The well-known species Argentina sphyrcena is caught in the Mediterranean, and is com- mon in the markets of Rome : it has also, though very rarely, been caught on the British coast. It is about two inches and a half in length ; the eyes are large, and the irides silvery ; the lower jaw much sloped ; the teeth small ; the body compressed, and of an equal depth almost to the anal fin ; and the tail forked. The back is of a dusky green ; the sides and covers of the gills ap- pear as if overlaid with silver : on each side of the belly is a row of circular punctures, and above them another which terminates near the vent. The air-bladder is thick, and loaded with nacre, the substance used in making artificial pearls. ARGONAUT, or PAPER-NAUTILUS. A curious molluscous animal, the shell of which is peculiarly white and delicate ; not chambered, as in the true Nautilus, but pos- sessing one spiral cavity, into which the animal can withdraw itself entirely. It has eight arms, two of which expand into wide membranous flaps ; and as the animal floats on the surface of the sea, the expanded membranes are spread over the sides of the shell, where, meeting along its keel or edge, they are said to be held in close contact by a double row of suckers, and thus completely inclose it. Such being the structure and action of the Argonauta, it is not surprising that it has had the reputation, from very early times, of using its arms as oars, and spreading these expanded membranes as sails, so as to be wafted along by the wind. [See NAUTILUS.] The nature and habits of the Argonauta having long been a subject of much contro- versy, a lady (Madame Jeannette Power) made a series of interesting experiments, in 18S, the result of which she laid before the Academy at Catania. In order to arrive at her conclusions, she had cages constructed, and placed in a shallow part of the sea, near the citadel of Messina, and in these cages she inclosed several of the living animals, wliich she kept supplied with small molluscs, their natural food. The result of her observations went to prove that the animal is in the ha- bit of sailing on the water, using its dilated tentacula as sails, the remainder as oars, and aiding its movements by means of a kind of proboscis which it employs as a helm. The sail, when spread out, presents a silvery surface, speckled with concentric circles of spots, with a black spot in the middle, sur- rounded with a beautiful gold colour. The animal is not attached to the shell, but, when under water, it adheres firmly to it by its sail-arms. The shell, which is remarkably brittle when exposed to the air, is quite pli- able in water, and thus escapes the destruc- tion to which so thin and tender a fabric would otherwise be liable. The animal at the approach of any object takes in its tenta- cula, wraps its gaili over the shell, and de- scends, blackening the water at the same time, if hard pressed, by a discharge of inky fluid, to cover its escape. ARGULUS. A genus of Crustaceous ani- mals, belonging to the P.SCILOPODA. The best known species, Arfftilusfoliacevs, is found in this country. This aquatic parasite attaches itself to the young of Frogs, Sticklebacks, &c., and sucks their blood : it is also found upon the Perch, Pike, Carp, and Trout. The body is flattened ; of a greenish-yellow colour ; less than a quarter of an inch long ; and is divided into five somewhat indistinct segments along the back. The animal turns itself about in the water in a similar manner to the Gyrini. The eggs are oval, of a milky white colour, and are attached by gluten to stones or other hard substances ; and before the Argulus arrives at the adult state it undergoes several transformations. ARGUS-PHEASANT. (Argus gigantetts.) This beautiful but rare bird is a native of of ^atttral f^ many parts of the Indian Islands. The male measures five feet six or eight inches from the beak to the tip of the tail ; and the whole of the plumage is remarkable for variety and elegance. The wings consist o f very large feathers, nearly three feet long, the'outer webs being adorned with a row of large eyes (ocelli), arranged parallel to the shaft -, the tail is composed of twelve feathers, ARCJDS PHEASANT. (ARQU3 the two middle ones being about four feet in length, the next scarcely two, and gradually shortening to the outer ones. The whole plumage is, indeed, so varied, that to attempt to describe it fully in our limits would be vain. Its voice is rather plaintive, and not harsh as in the peacock. It is considered a very shy bird, but one was kept alive a con- siderable time in the aviary of the Zoological Gardens, where the pleasing variety of its plumage and the beautifully coloured skin of its head were much admired. ARGUS. [See PECTEX.] ARGYNNIS. A genus of diurnal Lepi- doptera. We here describe two beautiful British species of Butterflies belonging to this division. ARGYNNIS PAPHIA, or SILVER STREAK BUTTERFLY. There are few of the Lepidoptera more abundant in the woods and meadows of the South of England than the Silver Streak, which is known to SILVER-STREAK BUTTXRFLr. (A. PAPHIA.) delight in settling on the bramble-bl In the male the wings above are fulvous, in the female virescent, with numerous longi- tudinal and transverse black lines and bars, and three rows of marginal black spots ; an- terior wings beneath, paler and less spotted ; the posterior wings are greenish beneath, with four irregular narrow pale silvery- waved bands ; between the two last is a series of ocelli, with a green iris and pale pupil, and on the margin is a row of green crescents : the cilia of all the wings above are fulvous and black, paler and ferruginous beneath: the body fulvous above, grayish beneath : the antenna are brownish, with the club black. ARGYNNIS LATHONIA, or QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY. This exceed- ingly beautiful species, though rare in this country, appears to be very common on the Continent. The upper surface in general markings resembles that of the allied species, but it may be at once known by the beau- tiful and well-defined silver marks on the under surface of the lower wings. British specimens of it are much prized by the col- lector. Our cuts will give a very good idea of this insect, as we have figured both the upper and under sides. ARICIA. A genus of Dorsibranchiate Annelidas. They have neither teeth nor tentacles. The body, which is lengthened, bears two ranges of lamelliform cirrhi along the back ; and the anterior feet are furnished with dentelated crests, that do not occur on the other feet. ARMADILLO. (JDos7/p?M.) A genus of mammiferous quadrupeds, belonging to the order Edentata, readily distinguished from all others by the singular covering with which Nature has protected them. This is a com- plete suit of armour; consisting of a triangu- lar or oval plate on the top of the head, a large buckler over the shoulders, and a simi- popular Qtcttonarn of gfotmatctt 37 lar buckler over the haunches, while between these solid portions there intervenes a series of transverse bands or shelly zones, in such a manner as to accommodate this coat of mail to the various postures of the body ; the tail also is covered by a series of calcareous rings ; and the animal altogether exhibits a striking deviation from the usual structure and out- ward appearance of quadrupeds. Like the hedgehog, it can roll itself up into a ball, thereby offering a uniform, solid surface, impervious to the attacks of birds of prey or small quadrupeds. The interior surface of FOYOO ARMADII.LO. (DA8YPD8 8EXCJNCTO8 VAR ) the body, not covered by the shell, is clothe 1 with coarse, scattered hairs, of which some are also seen to issue forth between the joints of the armour. The Armadillos have a ra- ther pointed snout, long ears, short and thick limbs, and stout claws ; all of which are adapted to their habits of burrowing, which they perform with such astonishing rapidity that it is almost impossible to get at them by digging. The hunters are then obliged to smoke them out of their dens ; and as soon as they reach the surface they roll themselves up, and are easily captured. Al- though they abound in incredible numbers, were it not for their peculiar fecundity they would be speedily exterminated, as they are sought with great avidity on account of their flesh, which is roasted in the shell, and is regarded as a great luxury. Their food con- sists chiefly of succulent roots, ripe fruits, and other soft vegetable substances ; but they also greedily devour worms, small li- zards, ants, and the eggs of birds which build their nests on the ground. The species are distinguished from each other, principally, bj f the number of bands on the trunk of the body, between the shield on the fore-shoul- ders and that on the rump. Don F. Azara, however, in his " Essays on the Natural His- tory of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay," showed that the number of these bands is by no means constant in the same species, but that within certain prescribed limits this number varies according to the age and sex of the individual. Baron Cuvier, accordingly, for j greater facility of definition, has divided the ' whole genus into five small groups, princi- j pally distinguished from one another by the i number and form of their teeth and claws ; j and to these sub-divisions he has applied, re- | spectively, the names of Cachicames, Apars, Encouberts, Cabassous, and Priodontes. The CACHICAMKS are those which have four toes on each foot, and seven teeth on each side in both the upper and lower jaws. The APAKS have also four toes on each foot, and nine or ten teeth on each side above and below. The Apar has only three move- able bands ; the rest of its tesselated cover- ing being nearly inflexible : it has also the power of rolling itself into a perfect sphere, in which state it is safe from the attack of dogs ; its smooth hard covering offering a better defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog. The EXCOUBEKTS have five toes on the fore-feet, and in addition to nine or ten teeth on each side in both jaws, have two incisor teeth in the upper. The CABASSOCS have five toes ; but those of the fore-feet are obliquely placed, so that the thumb and index finger are small, but the middle and fourth claws are anned with immensely large trenchant claws ; on each side above and below are nine or ten teeth The PKIO- DONTES, in addition to the unequal toes and enormous claws of the Cabassous, have, on each side of both jaws, twenty-two or twen- ty-four small teeth. The GL/LKT AKMADII.LO ffiyas) belongs to this division. It is the largest known species of Armadillo; the body, exclusive of the toil, being some- times three feet in length. The PICIIY (Dasypus wiinwrtw), as we read in Mr. Darwin's " Researches " in South America, wanders by day over the open plains, feeding on beetles, larvae, roots, and even small snakes. It prefers a very dry soil ; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many months it can never taste water, is its favourite resort. The instant one was perceived, it was necessary in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one's horse ; for if the soil was soft, the animal burrowed BO quickly, that its hinder quarters had al- most disappeared before one could alight. The Pichy likewise often tries to escape notice by squatting close to the ground. It is an interesting fact, fully proved by the remains of extinct species discovered by the above-named traveller, that more than one gigantic animal, protected by an arma- dillo-like covering, were once inhabitants of this earth, but at a period so remote as to render all attempts to ascertain their exact nature perfectly unavailing : much, however, Crcagttrj? of Natural has been done towards it by the aid of modern science. [See TOXODOX and GLYPTODOX.J ARNEE. (Bos Ami.) A large and for- midable quadruped) conspicuous for courage, strength, and ferocity ; and closely allied to the wild ordinary Buffalo. It inhabits the high lands of Hmdostau, and is remarkable for its enormous horns, which often measure from four to six feet in length. They incline outwards and backwards, and then, arching gradually towards each other as they proceed to the points, form a bold crescent : they are rough with numerous ridges and furrows. In Bengal and the neighbouring provinces this animal is known by the name of Arna. ARTAMUS. A genus of birds, one of the species of which was placed by the older writers among the Shrikes. [See WOOD- SWALLOW.] ARTTCtTLATA. The term applied by Cuvier to a primary division of the animal . kingdom. The animals composing it not ! only present an internal structure which is j essentially different from that of the other three divisions the VERTEBRATA, MOL- | LUSCA, and RADIATA but are distinguished i by external characters so definite and evi- dent as not to be mistaken. The skeleton is not internal, as in the Vertebrata, but is seldom altogether absent, as in the Mollusca. Their entire body is divided into segments ; the series of articulated rings which encircle the body supplying the place of a skeleton, and being in general hard enough to furnish the necessary resisting fulcra to the muscles of locomotion ; whence they are capable of performing the several actions of walking, leaping, swimming, or flying. There are also some which are not furnished with feet, but have only soft and membranous articu- lated limbs, by which they can merely crawl. In some articulated animals, their ring-like appearance results merely from a certain number of transverse folds, which furrow the skin, and encircle the body ; but in the greater number, the animal is enclosed in a kind of case, formed by a series of rings, so united one to another as to allow them a certain degree of movement. In most ani- mals of this sub-kingdom, each ring in its i complete state possesses a pair of nervous ganglia, united on the central line ; and. these ganglia are connected together by a double cord of communication, which runs along the ventral or lower surface of the body. The bulk of the body in the Articu- lata is made up of the muscles, by which the several segments, and their various append- ages, are put in motion ; and these muscles are arranged with so much regularity and exactness on the two sides of the central j line, that the lateral syfnmetry of the Ar- ticulata is most exact. With the exception of a few of the very lowest species, all the ! Articulata are furnished with a distinct head, | and with jaws for the prehension and reduc- tion of the food : these jaws, however, do not open vertically, as in the Vertebrata, but j laterally, and there are frequently several pairs of them, one behind the other. All the actions of the Articulata are performed i with great energy ; and at the time of the [ triangular : inhabits the intestines of ema- most rapid increase of the body, the demand for food is so great, that a short suspension of the supply proves fatal. The members of this great division are dis- tributed into five classes, principally founded on the organs of locomotion. 1. The AXXE- LIDJ2, or Red-blooded Worms; characterized by the presence of a distinct circulating sys- tem, and of respiratory organs ; the exten- sion of the body into numerous segments ; and by the possession of a well-developed nervous system. 2. The CIRRIPEDES, which seem, as it were, to connect the Articulata with the Mollusca. The body is furnished with articulated cirrhi, arranged in pairs, while in many it is provided with a multi- valve shell. 3. CRUSTACEA, or Crabs, Lob- sters, &c. These have articulated limbs, more or less complicated, attached to the sides of the body. Their blood is white, their respiration aquatic, and among them alone, of all the Articulata, do we find a distinct auditory apparatus. They have transverse jaws ; two compound eyes ; and all are fur- nished with antennas or articulated filaments attached to the head, of which there are ge- nerally four. 4. ARACHXIDA, or Spiders, Mites, &c. In common with a great number of the Crustacea, these have the head and thorax joined into a single piece with arti- culated limbs on each side : their mouth is armed with jaws, but they have no antennae. 5. IXSECTS ; the most numerous in species of any throughout the Animal Kingdom. They are characterized by the division of the body into three distinct portions, the head, thorax or corselet, and abdomen ; by the possession of antennae on the head : of three pairs of legs, and, in general, of one or two pairs of wings ; and by their respiring by means of tracheae, which are elastic ves- sels. that receive the air by orifices termed stigmata, pierced in their sides, and which are distributed by minute ramifications over every part of the body. ARVICOLA. A genus of Rodent Mam- malia. [See VOLE.] ASCARID^E. A family of Entozoa, or Intestinal Worms, which live in the bodies of other animals. They are thus character- ized : body round, elastic, and tapering to- wards each extremity ; head with three vesicles ; tail obtuse or subulate ; intestines spiral, milk-white, and pellucid. There are numerous species, generally deriving their specific name from the animal they chiefly infest ; for the intestinal canal of most ani- mals is affected by some species or other. As exam pies we shall take 1. Ascaris vermi- cularis (the Thread or Maw-worm), which is found, in considerable numbers, chiefly in the intestinum rectum of children, where they occasion very troublesome symptoms, and are not easily expelled. They are vivi- parous, and about half an inch long : body a little dilated in the middle, and wrinkled at the sides, pellucid and angular, but gradu- ally tapering and terminating in a fine point. 2. Ascaris lumbricoides : long round worm: oviparous, head slightly incurved, with a transverse contraction beneath it : mouth JButumarj) ol 3m'mattfr ^ature. 39 ciated persons, generally about the ilium : whence it sometimes ascends into the sto- mach, and creeps out at the mouth or nos- trils : length from twelve to fifteen inches, breadth that of a goose quill : body trans- parent, light yellow with a faint line down the side. They are frequently very nume- rous and vivacious. The word Ascarides is used by Reaumur to denote, also, certain small worms, or mag- gots, bred from the eggs of winged animals as butterflies, flies, and beetles which, burying themselves between the membranes of the leaves of plants, consume their paren- chymatous substance. ASCIDIA. A genus of Molluscous ani- mals, by some authors regarded as forming a class called Tunicata; the body is fixed, roundish, and apparently issuing from a sheath. There are many species, most of which are inhabitants of the European seas, in high latitudes. They adhere by their base to rocks, shells, and other submarine sub- stances ; they are more or less gelatinous, and some are esculent ; they contract and dilate themselves alternately, and have the power of squirting out the water they have imbibed. This power of ejecting the con- tents of the branchial sac is, in fact, their principal means of defence : some of the larger species are able to shoot the fluid to a height of three feet. Some of the Ascidia are compound; different individuals being united together by a common stem ; but each having its own heart, respiratory apparatus, and digestive system ; and each fixed on a footstalk that branches from a common creeping stem, through which a circulation takes place that connects them all. Both in the solitary and compound Ascidians, the young animal, when it first issues from the egg, has active powers of locomotion, being provided with a large tadpole-like tail, by the aid of which it is propelled through the water. ASILUS : ASILID^E. A genus and family of Dipterous insects ; the most com- mon European species of which is the Asilus crabroniformis, an insect nearly equalling a hornet in length, but of a much "more slender and pointed form ; and, though of a some- what formidable aspect, incapable of piercing with any degree of severity. ASP. (Coluber aspis.) A species of venom- ous Serpent, often mentioned both by Greek and Roman writers (who, from the discre- pancies in their accounts of it, appear to have known several noxious reptiles under this name) ; but most especially celebrated as the instrument chosen by Cleopatra to put an end to her existence after the defeat of Mark Antony at the battle of Actium. Na- turalists now concur in the opinion that the real Asp is the serpent to which the Arabs give the name of El Haje ; that it is of a green colour, marked obliquely with brown bands, and measures from three to five feet in length. Like the Cobra Capcllo of India, the Asp has the power of greatly distending the neck when irritated, and of raising itself on its tail to dart forward upon an enemy. The effects of its poison are most deadly, admitting of no remedy where amputation of the part cannot be immediately effected : but Lord Bacon asserts that its bite is the least painful of all the instruments of death, and he supposes its poison to have some affi- nity to opium, though less disagreeable in its operation. ASPERGILLUM. A genus of Molluscous animals, furnished with a bivalve shell, in- closed in a tubular calcareous sheath, which is dilated or club-shaped at the lower eud, and gradually lessens in diameter to the nar- row aperture. The shell, which derives its name from its resemblance to the spout of a watering-pot (a name familiarly given to it by collectors), has the form of an elongated cone, terminating at the large end in a disc, which is pierced with a number of small orifices, and bordered by a sort of corolla or frill. By means of two small valves in the tube the water is freely admitted into the interior of the shell. The animals of this genus are borers : some bury themselves in the sand, some in stone, others in wood, and others in thick shells. ASPLDIPHORA. The name given to a group of Branchiopodous Crustacea, distin- guished by having sixty pairs of legs, all furnished on the outside, near the base, with a large oval vesicle, and of which the two anterior, much larger than the rest, resemble antennae. A large shell, almost entirely dis- engaged, covers the major part of the upper side of the body. [See BKANCHIOPODA.] ASS. (Equus cwmws.) A well-known and most useful domestic quadruped, whose good qualities are too generally undervalued by us in consequence of our possessing a more noble and powerful animal in the horse ; but, as Buffon remarks, if the horse were unknown, and the care and attention which we lavish upon him were transferred to his humble and despised rival, both his phy- sical and moral qualities would be developed to an extent, which those persons alone can fully estimate who have travelled through Eastern countries, where both animals are equally valued. In his domesticated state, as we usually find this animal in most Eu- ropean countries, we observe no superior marks of sagacity ; but he has the merit of being patient, enduring, and inoffensive ; temperate in his food, and by no means de- licate in the choice of it ; eating thistles and a variety of coarse herbage which the horse refuses. In his choice of water, however, he is remarkably nice, and will drink only of that which is clear. His general appearance, certainly, Is very uncouth ; and his well- known voice, it must be confessed, is a most discordant succession of flats and sharps a bray so hideous as to offend even the most unmusical ear. The Ass is believed to be a descendant of the wild Ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c. (by some naturalists called the Onager, and supposed to be identical with the Persian Kou1an\ and celebrated in sacred and pro- fane history, for the fiery activity of its dis- position, and the fleetness of its course. But, x 2 40 (Erca&trj) flf Natural $f start? ; in the state of degradation to which for so many ages successive generations have been doomed, the Ass lias long since become pro- verbial for stolid indifference to suffering and for unconquerable obstinacy and stupidity. From the general resemblance between the Ass and the Ilorse, it might naturally enough be supposed that they were very closely allied, and that one had degenerated : they are, however, perfectly distinct ; there is that inseparable line drawn, that barrier between them, which Nature provides for the perfection and preservation of her pro- ductions their mutual offspring, the mule, being incapable of reproducing its kind The best breed of Asses is that originally derived from the hot and dry regions of Asia ; at present, perhaps, the best breed in Europe is the Spanish ; and very valuable Asses are still to be had in the southern ppr- j tion of the American continent, where during ' the existence of the Spanish dominion the breed was very carefully attended to. In truth, wherever proper attention has been paid to improve the breed by crossing the finest specimens, he is rendered nearly if not quite equal to the horse for most purposes of labour ; while on hilly and precipitous roads he is decidedly better adapted from his general habits and formation. The most general colour of the Ass is a mouse-coloured grey, with a black or blackish stripe, extend- ing along the spine to the tail, and crossed by a similar stripe over the shoulders. The female goes with young eleven months, and seldom produces more than one foal at a time : the teeth follow the same order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. Asses' milk has long been celebrated for its sanative qualities : invalids suffering from debility of the digestive and assimi- lative functions make use of it with great advantage ; and to those also who are con- sumptive it is very generally recommended. The WILD ASS {Equus hemiomis), [or KOULAX, as it is called by the Pei^hm.s] stands much higher on its limbs than the ccmmon Ass ; its legs are more slender, the forehead is more arched, and it is altogether more symmetrical. The mane is composed of a soft woolly dusky hair, about three or four inches long ; the colour of the body is a fine silvery grey ; the upper part of the face, the sides of the neck and body, being of a flaxen hue ; and a broad brown stripe run- ning down the back, from the mane to the tail, and crossing the shoulders, as in the common Ass. The Koulan inhabits parts of Central Asia, and migrates from nortli to south, according to the season. Its flesh is held in high esteem by the Tartars and Per- sians, who hunt it in preference to all kinds of game. We have alluded to the frequent mention of this animal by both sacred and profane writers of antiquity ; and we may properly conclude by quoting the book of JOB, xxxix. 5 8 : " Who hath sent out the wild ass free ? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass ? Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after every green thing." ASSERADOR. (The Spanish word for Sawyer.) The name applied in Columbia to a remarkable L,amellieorn beetle, which will be better understood by the accompanying wood-cut than by any description. The female wants the singular horns on the head and thorax from which the species derives its local name of " The Sawyer ;" it being the belief of the country people that the in- sect saws off the small twigs of trees by means of the friction of the two. Mr David Dyson informed us that he found it abun- dantly, and in clusters, on a species of bamboo. Mr. Empson of Bath first dis- covered this curious insect, and published igure of it with the name of Asserador llewitsom, and presented his unique spe- cimen to the British Museum at a time when the insect was very rare. It has also been described by Mr. Hope as the Golufa Portcri, and by Erichson as the Scarabceus Petircrii ; and we see the learned Berlin entomologist, now fancies it may be only a variety of the Fabrician species, S. cegeon. We give this one example of what naturalists call the synonymes of a species, to show the utter impossibility of our attempting to give or to reconcile the different names applied to the same species by different authors. ASTACUS. A genus of long- tailed Crns- taceous animals, whose distinguishing cha- JDirttouarw of &nimatrtt $atttrc. 41 racter is derived from the antennae, the two pairs of which are inserted in the same hori- zontal line. In it are included those well- known and valuable shell-fish, the Lobster (Astacu.i marinus), and the Crayfish (Asta- ciisfui-iutilis) : the former of these has, how- ever, by recent naturalists been regarded as the type of another genus (Homanis). [See LOBSTER and CUAYFISII.] ASTERIAS. A genus of Radiated ani- mals, shameless and rude in form, which we find thrown up on every coast, and which are popu- larly known as Star-fishen. They are formed of a semi - transparent and gelatinous substance covered ----- ' 1K, v -' f Sfe witl1 a tniu mem ~ ^82% brane ; and though R FISH. at first sight they ) ftcu appear like a lump of inanimate jelly, on a more minute inspection they are found possessed of life and motion. " Let a star-fish thus picked up," observes Mr.Rymer Jones, " be placed in some transparent pool left by the tide, within a rocky basin ; watch it there, and, doubtless, soon the most incuri- ous looker-on will find himself compelled to gaze in mute astonishment at what he sees. From the inferior surface of each ray, the creature, wliicli before appeared so helpless and inanimate, slowly protrudes numbers of fleshy tubes, which move about in search of firm holding-places, and are soon fixed, by means of little suckers at the end of each, to the smooth siu-fr.ce of a neighbouring stone, or, if the star-fish has been placed in glass filled witli salt water, to the inner surface of the glass, where every movement may be plainly seen. When these have laid fast hold, others appear in quick succession, and i likewise are attached to the smooth surface, | till at last hundreds of little legs, for such j these suckers seem, are actively employed, j and by their aid the creature glides along j with such a gentle motion, that it seems I rather to swim than crawl. Thus roused j into activity we watch its movements, and j perceive that it has appetites and instincts | which direct its course. Place within its reach a piece of tainted fish, or other sea- side carrion, and it soon will find it out, and, clasping it between its rays, will swallow and digest it in its ample stomach." " We see at once that they are scavengers em- ployed In Nature's grand police." ASTRCEA. A genus of fixed Polypi, either incrusting marine bodies, as in the Astrcea rotulosa, an inhabitant of the West Indian seas ; or collected in a hemispherical mass, sometimes though rarely lobated, as in the Astrcea favosa, commonly found in the seas of the East Indies. ASTTJR. [See HAWK.] ATELES. [See SPIDER MONKEY.] ATHERICERA. The fourth section of Dipterous insects, characterized by the an- tennae being only two or three-jointed, and the proboscis capable of being withdrawn into the mouth. Few of the Athcricerae are carnivorous in the perfect state. They are found, for the most part, on flowers leaves, and sometimes on human excrement. ATHERINE. (Atherina.) A genus of Acanthopterygious fish, of which there are several species, varying in length from three inches to six. They are abundant on the shores of Italy and Greece, as also on the Pe- ruvian and other coasts of South America, where they are esteemed delicious food. They are likewise taken in considerable numbers on the south-western coasts of England, espe- cially near Southampton, where, from their similarity of appearance, they are called smelts. The Atherine is of a silvery yellow hue, somewhat transparent, and having a well-defined silvery band or stripe running along the sides, from gills to tail. ATLANTA. (.Atlanta Peronii.) A small transparent Molluscous animal, found in the seas of all hot climates ; it occupies a most delicate shell spirally rolled on itself, hav- ing a thin and glassy operculum. The At- lanta belongs to the order Heteropoda : it has two tentacula, with large eyes at the base ; and the foot large. ATTAGEN. A local name for the Ptar- migan or White Grouse. [See PTARMIGAN.] ATTIHAWMEG. [See SALMO ALBUS.] AUK. (Alca.) A genus of aquatic birds of the family ylfcacte, consisting of several spe- cies -, particularly the Great Auk, the Razor- bill, and the Little Auk. They are charac- terized by having very short wings, and the legs placed so far behind the centre of the body that they stand nearly erect. They are strictly sea birds, and nestle on its borders ; breeding in caverns and rocky clilfs, and laying only one large egg. They obtain their food by diving, at which they are very expert ; but the power of their wings is very limited ; and when they proceed on foot by land, which they do with swiftness, if pur- sued, their motions are the most awkward imaginable. They all feed on small fishes, Crustacea, vermes, mollusca, or marine ve- getables. The GREAT ATJK (Alca imptrmis) is three feet long ; and has a black bill, four inches K 8 42 of and a quarter long, both mandibles being crossed obliquely with several ridges and furrows. Two oval-shaped white spots occupy nearly the whole space between the bill and the eyes : the head, back part of the neck, and all the upper parts of the body and wings are covered with short, soft, glossy black feathers, excepting a white mark across the_ wings, formed by the tips of the lesser quills. The wings do not exceed more than four inches and a quarter from the tips of the longest quill-feathers to the first joint : legs black, short, and placed near the vent. This species inhabits Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and the Feroe Islands. They are, sometimes, though very rarely, met with on the northern isles of Britain, but are never observed to be at any great distance from the shore, A British-killed specimen is in the Britiwh Museum ; it was formerly in the collection of Mr. Bullock. The RAZOR-BILL, or Common AUK, (Alca torda). These birds abound in the higher northern latitudes ; they are, how- ever, widely diffused ; and in England many prt'cijiitous cliffs, the Needles, &c., have a fair share of them. The Razor-bill is about eighteen inches long, and the extended wings about twenty-seven inches. They build no nests, but lay their eggs upon the bare edges of lofty rocks hanging over the sea, where they form a very grotesque appearance, from the singular order of the rows in which they sit one above another. Their [one] egg is disproportionately large, being three inches long, the colour a greenish- white ir- regularly marked with dark spots. Thou- sands of these birds are killed on the coast of Labrador, for the sake of the breast feathers, which are very warm and elastic ; and incredible numbers of eggs are also col- lected there. The LITTLE AUK (Mergtdtts alle\ This is a plump round-shaped little bird, about nine inches long. The crown of the head is T.ITTL.E ADK. - ( .. t. .viOi.rjd ALUS.) flat and black ; nearly all the upper parts of the plumage are of the same colour ; the cheeks and under parts white : legs and toes yellowish. These birds inhabit the inhos- pitable shores of Greenland and Spitzbcrgen ; but their great breeding station is said to be in the northern part of Baffin's Bay. In these dreary regions, we are told, when the ice has been broken up by storms, they watch its motion, and come down in legions to banquet on the various marine animals which lie scattered before them. It is rarely that the Little Auk is seen on our shores, and can hardly be called an occasional visitant. Like the others which have been mentioned, it only lays one egg, which is of a pale bluish-green, and is placed on the most inaccessible ledges of rocks. Different species of this family of birds are spread over various parts of the northern world ; and some of them are met with on almost all the rocky cliffs on the coasts of Britain and Ireland. The female deposits her single egg upon the bare mould, in a hole dug out and formed in the ground b\ herself and mate, for that purpose, or in one that they find ready made by the rabbits, which they easily dislodge. They assemble early in April, prepare for the business of incubation in May, and hatch their young in the be- ginning of July ; from which time till the middle of August they are employed in nurturing and rearing their brood : they then regularly depart for the southern coasts of France, Spain, and other regions more suited to their exigencies, where they pass the remainder of the year. AULOSTOMA. A genus of Acanthop- terygian fishes, closely allied to Fistularia, from which they are distinguished by having numerous free spines before the dorsal fin : the jaws are toothless ; the tube of the muz- zle is shorter, wider, and more compressed than in Fistularia : the body is very scaly ; the tail is short and slender, ending in a com- mon fin : the air-bladder is also larger than in the true Pipe-fishes. The best known species is a native of the Eastern seas. AURICULA. A genus of Molluscous animals, having a head furnished with two tcntacula, and eyes at their base : foot fhort and narrow. They inhabit a shell having a fancied resemblance to the ears of certain ' EAR. (AORICOLA MIB.E.) animals ; hence the name. Several species are European ; others are found on the banks of rivers in Brazil, and the Indian and American islands. The species known as Popular JBtctionart? of 43 Aiiricula Midcc, or Midas' Ear, is a hand- some shell, native of the East Indies : its figure is oval or oblong ; the mouth longi- tudinal, with a reflected lip. AUXIS. A fish belonging to the Scom- ber ifhs or Mackerel family, found in the Mediterranean. It is of a fine blue black on the back, with oblique blackish lines, and the flesh deep red. AVES. [BIRDS.] The name of a class of vertebrated animals, characterized by ovipa- rous generation, a covering of feathers, and by their anterior extremities being organized as wings, and mostly used for flight. There are six orders, which are distinguished by certain characteristics of the posterior ex- tremities or feet. The FIKST order is termed Raptorvs or Accipitres; they have large feet, with three toes before and one behind, all armed with long, strong, sharp, curved, and prehensile talons ; this structure is asso- ciated with a strong, curved, and sharp- pointed beak ; a very muscular body ; and capability of rapid and long-continued flight. These are Birds of Prey ; the principal of them being Vultures, Eagles, Hawks, Kites, Buzzards, and Owls. The SECOXD order is termed Insessarea, or Perching Birds. The feet of these are all formed for perching, and their power of grasping is very great ; the toes are slender, flexible, of moderate length, and provided with long, pointed, and slightly curved claws. It includes the Thrushes, Nightingales, and all the sweetest songsters of our groves ; with the Redbreasts, the Spar- rows, Larks, S.v allows, Crows, Kingfishers, Birds of Paradise, and Humming-birds. From including the smaller tribes of Birds, the term I'aeseres is also given to this order. The THIKIJ order is termed Scansores, or Climbers. These have the power of throw- ing one of the fore toes back at pleasure ; a construction which enables them to climb the perpendicular trunks of a tree. Of this order the Parrot tribe and the Woodpeckers are the principal members. The KOUKTH order is termed Easores, or Gallinaceous Birds. It is characterized by the hinder toe being raised above the level of the three anterior ones ; this reduces the power of perching ; but the front toes are united by a slight membrane, and are strong, straight, and terminated by robust, obtuse claws, adapted for scratching up the soil, and for running along the ground ; for which pur- pose they are also furnished with very strong, muscular legs. These birds have the head small in proportion to the body ; and the bill generally short, with the upper mandible somewhat curved. In this order are com- prised the Peacock, the Turkey, the common Cock and Hen, Partridges, Pheasants, Pi- geons, &c The FIFTH order is termed Grnl- latorcs, or Waders. To enable them to wade and seek their food in water, along the mar- gins of rivers, lakes, and estuaries, the birds belonging to this order have long and slender legs, and generally bare thighs. Their three front toes are more or less united at the base by a web, and the central toe is often longer and stronger than the rest ; the hind toe is elevated, short, or even sometimes wanting. This order comprises the Ostriches, Cranes, Herons, Storks, Snipes, Woodcocks, Bustards, and Plovers. The SIXTH order is termed A'ataturcs, Palmipedes, or web-footed Birds ; and their whole organization is especially adapted for an aquatic life. Their legs are short, and placed behind the centre of equi- librium; their fore toes are united by a thick and strong web or membrane ; and their bodies are covered with a dense layer of down, beneath the outer plumage, which is close, and rendered impervious to the water. The order comprises Swans, Ducks, and Geese ; Auks, Penguins, Pelicans, Petrels, Coots, and Grebes. [See the art. BIBDS.] AVICULA. A genus of Conchiferous Molluscs belonging to the order Dimyaria. It is thus defined by Cuvier : "The shell has the valves equal, with a rectilinear hinge, and is often carried out into wings ; the ligament is narrow and elongated ; small dentilations often appear on the hinge, on its anterior part ; and below the angle on the side near the mouth is the notch for the byssus. The anterior abductor muscle is still extremely minute." The foot of the animal is conical, worm-shaped, and rather long. Some very beautiful species of the Avicula are brought from the Indian Ocean, coast of Brazil, New Holland, the Red Sea, &c. The interior of the shell is pearly in the centre : some species have a broad black border surrounding it, and the margin ter- minating in a fringe. The Avicula mnr- garitifcra, or Pearl Oyster, which contains the valuable and elegant substance called Mother-of-pearl, belongs to this genus. [See PKAUI, OYSTER.] AVOSET. (Recurvirostraavocetia.} This grallatorial bird, whose great singularity is in the form of its bill, is aquatic, the shores of the ocetm and the banks of estuaries being its favourite haunts. On the shores of the Caspian and the salt lakes of Tartary they are abundant ; they are widely distributed through the temperate climates of Europe; and on the south-eastern coast of England they are occasionally found. The Avoset is about eighteen inches in length ; very erect, and has legs unusually long for its size. AVO8BT. (RZCURVTROSTRA AVOCBTTA.) The bill, which ia three inches and a half in length, turns up like a hook, in an opposite direction to that of the hawk or parrot, and is flat, thin, sharp, and flexible. The plumage is black and white, tail con- 44 at Natural sisting of twelve white feathers ; the legs are of a fine blue colour, naked and well cal- culated for wading ; the feet are palmated, but not so much adapted for swimming as for supporting the bird upon the mud. It feeds on worms, &c., which it scoops out of the mud with its bill ; and it lays two eggs, which are greenish, spotted with brown and black. AXIS. (Cervus Axis.) A species of Indian Deer, of which there are two or three va- rieties. 1. The Common Axis is about the size of a fallow deer, and of a light red co- lour. The body is beautifully marked with white spots, and a line of white runs along the sides, dividing the upper from the under parts of the body. The horns are slender, and tri-forked ; the first ramification being near the base, and the second near the top, each pointing upwards. It is extremely docile, and possesses the sense of smelling in an exquisite degree. Though it is a native of the banks of the Ganges, it appears to bear the climates of Europe without injury. ! 2. The Great Axis. This animal, which is a native of Borneo and Ceylon, is about the ; height of a horse, and of a reddish-brown ! colour. The horns are trifurcated, thick, strong, and rugged ; about two feet nine inches long, and two feet four inches between I the tips. 3. The Lesser Axis is a gregarious j animal, inhabiting Java, Ceylon, Borneo, and some other oriental islands. It is hunted with ardour, the sport affording the highest diversion, and the flesh being esteemed ex- cellent. j AXOLOTL. (Siren pisciformis.) A singular genus of Batrachian reptiles, being ! perfectly amphibious, inasmuch as they pos- ; sess both kinds of respiratory organs at the : same period, being furnished alike with gills and lungs ; and they can consequently | breathe air and water according to the cir- ; cumstances in which they happen to be I placed. The Axolotl is about eight or nine inches long, the head is broad and flat, the nose blunt, the eyes situated near the muz- zle, the tail nearly as long as the body, and the toes unconnected by intermediate mem- branes. The colour is brown, thickly mot- tled both on the upper and under surfaces of the head and body, as well as on the tail and dorsal fins, with numerous small round black spots. It is commonly sold in the markets of Mexico : it is dressed after the manner of stewed eels, and when served up with a rich and stimulating sauce, is es- teemed a great luxury. A second species has been lately discovered and described. AYE- AYE. (Chclromys Madaguscarien- sis.) A singular quadruped (which in some descriptions has been confounded with the Ai, or Sloth, whose habits it somewhat re- sembles.) It is placed by Cuvier in the order Jtodentia, but other naturalists have classed it with the Monkey tribe, from the hand-like structure of its hinder feet. It is a native of Madagascar ; it burrows under ground, is very slothful, and is altogether a nocturnal animal. It has large flat ears, like those of a bat, and a tail resembling a squirrel's ; but its most distinguishing pe- culiarity is the middle toe or linger of the fore-foot, the two last joints of which are very long, slender, and destitute of hair : this, as M. Sonnerat, who describes the one A.XOLOTIJ. (SIREN PiaciroBMis.) (CHEIHOMTS MADAGASCARTENSia.) he had in his possession, remarks, is use- ful to the animal in drawing worms out of holes in the trees, and in holding on to the branches. It measures about eighteen inches from the nose to the tail ; and its general colour is a pale ferruginous brown, mixed with grey. BABOON. (.CtjnocepJialm.-) A genus of Quadrumana, which forms the last link in the chain that unites the Simiaj with quad- rupeds ; comprising a large, fierce, and for- midable race of animals, who, though they in a slight degree partake of the human -popular HBtrtt'flnarji at &mmatftt Mature. 45 conformation, as seen in the Orang-outang, &c., are in their habits, propensities, and dispositions, the very reverse of gentleness and docility. In Apes and other quadru- mana which have the head and face round, the nose is flat, and the nostrils are situated about half-way between the mouth and the eyes ; but in the Baboon this organ is pro- longed uniformly with the jaws, and the nostrils open at the end of it exactly as in the dog. In short, the most distinctive pecu- liarity of the genus is the marked resem- blance which the head and face of these animals bear to a large dog. They have, moreover, long and truncate muzzles, cheek pouches, tails, and sharp claws. Yet, not- withstanding this close approximation to the shape of the dog's head, the form and position of the eyes, combined with the simi- larity of the arms and hands, give to these creatures a resemblance to humanity as striking as it is humbling and diigBrttng. Formed for strength, furnished with dan- gerous natural weapons, and being wild, restless, and impetuous, this animal, in its native haunts, proves itself to be one of the most formidable of the savage race ; nor can it be restrained, even when in confinement, any longer than coercion is continued : al- lowed to have its own will, its savage nature gtiins the ascendancy, and its actions are gratuitously cruel, mischievous, and destruc- tive. But there is nothing so revolting as their lascivious habits, which they indulge to such a degree that it is unsafe and highly improper for females to visit exhibitions of animals where these beasts form a part of the number. In their native haunts they subsist on roots and berries, and partly on eggs, insects, and scorpions ; but in cultivated districts they make incursions into the fields and gardens, where they commit the greatest depredations on the fruit and grain. They congregate in troops, and are bold and skilful in their pre- datory excursions, maintaining their ground even against large parties of men ; and it is remarked that " a troop of them will some- times form a long chain, extending from the vicinity of their ordinary habitation to the garden or field which they happen to be en- gaged in plundering, and that the produce of their theft is pitched from hand to hand, till it reaches its destination in the moun- tains." The Baboon can never be said to be thoroughly tamed, how long soever his con- finement may have endured. As he ad- vances in age, all his worst qualities become more strongly developed, and the expression of his physiognomy bears ample testimony to the fierceness and brutality of his disposition. Having given a general description of these animals, it will be only necessary to particu- larise a few species where the difference between them seems most to deserve notice. The D E R R I A S. ( Ci/nocephahis hama- dryas.) This celebrated Baboon inhabits the mountains of Arabia and Abyssinia, and was probably the species known to the ancients, and sculptured in Egvptian monuments. It measures upwards of four feet when standing erect, and about two feet six inches in a sit- ting posture. The face is extremely long, and of a dirty flesh colour, with a lighter ring surrounding the eyes : the head, neck, shoulders, and all the fore-part of the body is covered with long shaggy hair ; that on the hips, thighs, and legs having the ap- pearance of being clipped. The hair of the head and neck forms a long mane, which falls back over the shoulders ; and the whiskers are broad, and directed backwards so as to cover the ears. The general colour of the hair is a mixture of light grey and cinereous : a dark brown line passes down the middle of the back ; and the tail is ter- minated by a brown tuft of long hair : the callosities are large, and of a dark flesh co- lour : the hands are almost jet black ; and the feet arc rusty brown. The female when full grown is as large as the male, but is des- titute of a mane, and the hair of the body is short and of a uniform deep olive-brown colour. The Derrias while young is gentle and playful, but as soon as it has arrived at a mature age it becomes sulky and malicious. The CHACMA or PIG-FACED BA- BOON ( Cynoccphalus porcaruw) is equal in size, and much superior iu strength, to a common English mastiff. It inhabits the mountains in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, associates in families more or less numerous, and occasionally levies contributions on the gardens of Cape Town, which it perform* in a very adroit and regular manner. The Chacma is of a uni- form dark brown colour, mixed throughout with a dark green shade, occasionally re- lieved by a few hairs of a lighter hue. The hair is long and shaggy, particularly on the neck and shoulders of the males, where it forms a distinct mane ; the face and ears are naked, as are likewise the palms of the hands and soles of the feet ; and the cheeks of both sexes have small whiskers, directed back- wards, of a greyish colour. The hands, face, and ears are of a very dark violet-blue co- lour ; the muzzle is extremely prolonged, and the skull is contracted and flattened. It is no uncommon thing for travellers, while ascending the steep and dangerous moun- tain passes in South Africa, to meet with troops of these animals, who have been sun- ning themselves on the rocks: if not at- tacked, they hasten off, yelling and scream- ing ; but if fired at and wounded, they no sooner get out of the range of the gun than 46 of Natural they throw and roll down stones, to resent the injury. The COMMON BABOON. (Cynocephalus papio.) This species is a native of the coast of Guinea, and is the one most commonly exhibited by itinerant showmen. Its appear- ance is at once grotesque and formidable ; its nervous limbs and compressed form indi- cate great force and agility ; the anterior parts especially being extremely strong and muscular. It is of a uniform yellowish- brown colour, with a shade of light red upon the head, shoulders, and extremities ; the face, ears, and hands naked, and entirely black. The cheeks are considerably swollen below the eyes ; after which the face con- tracts sudde'nly, which gives the nose the appearance of having been broken by a vio- lent blow. It is furnished with whiskers, which have a backward direction, but do not conceal the ears. While young, this Baboon is gentle and familiar ; but as it approaches adult age, it displays all the repulsive man- ner, the ferocity and intractability common to the rest of its kind. The MANDRILL, or VARIEGATED BABOON. ^Cij,wcepJialus maimon.) The Mandrill is the most remarkable of the whole genus for brilliancy and variety of colour, while for size it is unequalled by any other Baboon, its height when standing up- right being upwards of five feet. The limbs MANDRILL. (OYNOCEPHALUS MAIMON.) are large and muscular, the body thick and robust ; the head large, face long, scarcely any forehead, and the snout ending abruptly; the eyes small and deeply sunk in the head; the cheek-bones enormously swollen, and marked with several deep furrows of violet- blue, purple, and scarlet ; and the muzzle and lips large and protuberant. The hair of the forehead and temples rises, in a re- markable manner, into a pointed form, which gives the head a triangular appear- ance ; and a small pointed orange-yellow beard adorns the chin. Round the back of the neck the hair is long, and inclines for- wards, somewhat in the manner of a wreath. On the loins the skin is almost bare and of a violet-blue colour, gradually altering into a bright blood-red, which is more conspicuous on the hinder parts, where it surrounds the tail, which is very short, and generally car- ried erect. In most of its habits the Mandrill resembles the other Baboons, especially in its growing more morose as it advances in age, and in becoming offensively libidinous. In their wild state they generally march in large bands, and are so formidable that not only are the inhabitants afraid to meet them in the woods, unless they are in considerable companies and well armed, but the beasts of the forest, including even the elephant, quit their respective haunts at the approach of the powerful and savage animals whose habits we have endeavoured to describe. To this truly formidable species belonged " Happy Jerry," long kept in the flue me- nagerie of Mr. Cross. He was trained to smoke a pipe, and seemed to relish a pot of porter : but he was fierce to most persons who approached him, unless they were his keepers. His stufled skin and skull may now be seen in the magnificent collection of the British Museum. There are several other species which our limits forbid us to do more than merely men- tion ; as, the DRILL, the WOOD-BABOON, the PIGTAIL, the CRESTED, the YELLOW, the CINEREOUS, and others. BABYROUSSA. (Sits Babirussa.') This animal is nearly of the size of a common Hog, and has generally been referred to the Hog genus, though in many respects it is essentially different ; its form being longer, its limbs more slender, and, instead of bristles, being covered with fine, short, and somewhat woolly hair, of a dark brown colour, inter- spersed with a few bristles on the upper and hinder part of the back. It is still further distinguished by the very extraordinary po- sition and form of its enormous upper tusks, which, instead of being situated internally, on the edge of the jaw, as in other animals, are placed externally, perforating the upper lip, and turning upwards toward the fore- head, like the horns of the Ruminantia : the tusks of the lower jaw arc also very long, sharp, and curved ; but not of equal magni- tude with those of the upper. The tusks are of a very fine ivory, but neither so hard nor so durable as that of the elephant : the eyes are small ; the ears erect and pointed ; the tail rather long, slender, and tufted at the end with long hairs. B&BTBOTJSSA. (SOS BABIRU88A.) The Babyroussa is a gregarious animal, inhabiting the woods of Java, Amboyna, the Celebes, and other Indian islands, where large herds are met with. Their food con- sists chiefly of vegetables, and the leaves of trees. When sleeping or resting themselves in a standing posture, they are said often to hook or support themselves by placing the of 47 upper tusks across the lower branches of the trees, and, thus suspended, sleep in security. When hunted closely, and in apparent dan- ger, this animal will, if possible, plunge into some great river, or the sea, where it swims with great facility, and by alternate diving and rising, is frequently able to escape from its pursuers. In the gardens of the Zoolo- gical Society a fine specimen of this rare animal may be (or was latety) seen. BACULITES. A species of Ammonite or Snake-stone. [See AMMOXITE.] BADGER. (Melfs vultjaris.) The Badger is a carnivorous quadruped, inhabiting most parts of Europe and Asia ; and is generally regarded as a solitary, stupid animal, that seeks refuge in the most sequestered places, and shuns the light of day. It has very short legs and a broad flat body ; the head is long and pointed, the eyes small, the neck short and thick, the tail remarkably short, and the hide thick and tough. The upper parts of the body are covered with long coarse hair, the hue of which is a rusty grey ; but on the breast, bellv, and limbs it is short and black : the face is white, and along each side of the head runs a long pyramidal band of black, including the eyes and ears. With its powerful claws it constructs a deep and commodious burrow ; and as it continues to bury itself, it throws the earth behind it to a great distance, and thus forms for itself a long winding hole, ending in a round apartment at the bottom, wliich is well lined with dry grass and hay. This retreat it seldom quits till night, when it steals from its subterraneous abode for the purpose of procuring food. It lives chiefly on roots, fruits, insects, and frogs ; but it also robs the bee of his honey, and destroys the eggs of partridges and other birds which build their nests on the ground. It is quiet and inoffensive ; but when attacked by dogs it defends itself with great resolution, and seldom dies unrevenged of his enemies. The Badger is about two feet six inches long : his skin is so thick that it resists the impression of the teeth, and so loose, that even when a dog has seized it, he is enabled to turn round easily, and severely bite his assailant. The female produces three or four young at a time. The flesh of the Badger is reckoned a delicacy in Italy, France, and China, and may be made into hams and bacon. The skin, when dressed with the hair on, is im- pervious to the rain, and consequently makes excellent covers for travelling trunks, &c. ; and the hairs or bristles are made into brushes for painters. The AMERICAN BADGER, or CAR- CAJOU. (3/efes Labradorica.) This animal is rather smaller than the European species ? its fore-claws are longer and stronger, and the black bauds on the face narrower. Its pre- vailing colour is a kind of mottled grey, and, with the exception of the head and extre- mities, which are covered with short coarse hair, it is furnished with a fine, long, silky fur. It is a slow and timid animal, takes to the first earth it meets with when pur- sued, and, burrowing in the sand, is soon out of the reach of danger. Whilst the ground is covered with snow the American Badger seldom ventures from his hole, but passes the severe winter months in a semi- torpid state. By some naturalists this is regarded as. the type of a distinct genus (Taxidea). The INDIAN BADGER (Mi/dam col- laris) is about twenty inches in height and two feet in length, the form of its body and limbs bearing a resemblance to the bear, while its head, eyes, and tail remind us of the hog. The hair is a yellowish white, with black points, which gives the whole a dark brown shade ; but the legs and under parts of the body are black. The ears are very small ; and on each side of the head are two black bands, which descend down the neck, and enclose the throat. They are so exceedingly fierce that dogs would quite as readily encounter the hysena or wolf. BAL^NA. [See WHALE.] BAI^ENICEPS. [See BOAT-BILL.] BALANCE-FISH. (.Zygoma.) A re- markable fish, the shape of whose monstrous head has been likened to a blacksmith's large hammer. It ia a native of the Medi- terranean Sea. BALANINUS. A genus of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the family Curcu- lionidte, furnished with a long slender ros- trum, or snout, at the tip of which is a mi- nute pair of sharp horizontal jaws, and by means of which it is enabled to deposit its eggs, which are generally placed in the ker- nel of some fruit. Of this kind is the ala- 48 STrcatfurg ol Natural n ninus Nucum, or Nut- Weevil, whose larva is so commonly found in nuts, filberts, &c. The egg is introduced when the nut is young and soft ; and the nut being but slightly injured, continues to grow and ripen, while the larva feeds upon the kernel in which it is im- bedded. When about to change its state, it bores through the shell and escapes, leaving a small round orifice: falling on the ground, it then burrows into the earth, where it as- sumes the pupa state, and in the following summer it conies forth as a perfect insect. BALANUS. A genus of multivalve Cir- ripedes, usually found adhering to various submarine productions, whether fixed or moveable ; such as the harder sea-plants and all sorts of crusta- ceous as well as testaceous ani- mals, rocks, ships, timber, &c. The shell shapes itself at the base to the figure of the sur- face of whatever it adheres to, and from which it is with difficulty re- moved. It alto- gether forms a rude hollow cone. The animal in- closed in it is of a very singular structure : it has twelve crooked legs or arms, gar- nished with a great number of hairs, which it elevates on all occasions ; besides eight others, inferior in size and lower in position. In general the Balani are considered ineligible as food : but Capt. P. P. King speaks of some large kinds (Balanus psittacus} on the southern parts of the South American coast as forming a very common and highly esteemed food of the natives, the flesh equalling in richness and delicacy that of the crab. He also says, it occurs in large bunches, and presents some- what of a cactus-like appearance. The parent is covered by its progeny, so that large branches are found composed of from fifty to a hundred distinct individuals, each of which becomes in its turn the foundation of another colony. BALD BUZZARD. [See OSPRET.] BALEARIC CRANE. [See CRANE.] BALTIMORE BIRD. [See ORIOLE.. BAND-FISH. (Cepola.) This genus of Acanthopterygious fishes is of a form so thin and flat in proportion to its length, as to have obtained among the ancient ichthyolo- gists the name of Taenia or Riband-fish. One species (C. Mediterranea) is a native of the Mediterranean, and varies in length from eighteen inches to three feet. The head is short and rather truncated in front; the mouth is wide, and the lower jaw longer than the upper, both being armed with sharp curved teeth, of which there is a double row in the lower jaw. The sides are extremely compressed ; and the body, both above and below, sharpens into a kind of carina or ridge. The dorsal fin commences from the back of the head, and is continued as far as the tail ; the vent fin also extends nearly throughout the whole length. The colour of the body is bright silver, with a dusky tinge above ; the sides are marked with a few large reddish spots ; the fins are all of a pale red colour, and the skin is covered with ex- tremely small scales. It is predaceous, and swims with great rapidity. Another species, found on our coasts, ( Ce- pola rubcscens) is of a pale carmine colour, and varies from ten to fifteen inches in length. It is very smooth and slender, and tapers very gradually from the head to the tail. BANDICOOT. (Pcramelcs.-) A genus of Marsupial animals, indigenous to Aus- tralia, and in some respects analogous to the Opossums and Kangaroos ; but the dis- proportion between the fore and hind legs is by no means so great, though sufficient to make their gait rabbit-like, or a succes- sion of leaps, rather than walking or run- ning. Their feet are provided with broad powerful claws, which enable them to bur- row with great facility, and to dig up roots, on which they principally feed. The most common species is called the LONO-NOSKD BANDICOOT (Perameles nasuta) : it mea- sures about a foot and a half from the tip of the snout to the origin of the tail ; the ears are erect and pointed, the eyes small, and the tail bearing considerable resemblance to that of a large overgrown rat, to which the whole animal, in fact, may be likened as regards its general external appearance, as well as its depredations upon the farm-yards and granaries. BANXRING. [See TUPAIA.] BARB. The name given to a fleet and vigorous breed of horses reared by the Moors of Barbary, and introduced into Spain during their dominion in that country, but since their expulsion it has been allowed greatly to degenerate ; nor is it much better in their original clime, except among the wild no- madic tribes of the desert, where the breed still exists in perfection. But the Barb is far from excelling in symmetrical beauty ; the true value of these noble animals is to be discovered in their qualities rather than in their appearance. With a large and clumsy head, a short thick neck, and a bioad chest, are united a long body and slender legs ; but, on the other hand, they are unri- valled in speed, abstinence, docility, patience, and endurance under fatigue. They are sinewy, nervous, and long-winded ; they walk well, and stop short, if required, even In full career ; walking and galloping, in- deed, being the only paces these animals are allowed to practise. It is not customary, except in cavalry exercises, for the Moors to try the powers of their horses very severely ; they then, however, gallop them at the height Popular liictianarp ot Tmmatrtf fixture. 49 of their speed. The horses arc never cas- trated, and are alone used for the saddle, the mares being kept for breeding. It has been remarked that Barbs grow ripe, but never old, because they retain their vigour to the last ; they are also said to be long-lived, and remarkably free from diseases. BARBARYAPE. (Pftftcciw IIMIIM.) This species of Ape, which grows to the height of nearly four feet, is remarkable for docility, and, by force of discipline, is made to exhi- bit considerable intelligence. Its general colour is a palish olive-brown ; the face is a swarthy flesh colour. It is common in Bar- bary and the lower parts of Africa, and is also found in considerable numbers on the rock of Gibraltar. This species was well known to the ancients, and it has been the " show- man's ape" from time immemorial. Though morose and sullen in confinement, it is re- presented as social, active, and courageous in its wild state, and is particularly distin- guished for its attachment to its young. BARBEL. (Barliu wXgaris.) A fresh- water malacopterygious fish, usually fre- quenting the deep and still parts of rivers, swimming with great strength and rapidity, and living not only on aquatic plants, worms, and insects, which it obtains by boring and turning up the loose soil of the banks with its snout, but occasionally by preying on smaller fishes. It is said to receive its name from the barbs or wattles attached about its mouth, by which appendages it is readily distin- guished, as well as by the great extension of the upper jaw beyond the lower. It is some- times found to weigh from fifteen to eighteen pounds, and to measure three feet in length : its more general length, however, is from twelve to eighteen inches. The general co- lour of the upper part of the head and body is a greenish brown ; the scales are small, and in general of a pale gold colour, edged ! with black on the back and sides, and silvery- white on the belly ; the pectoral fins are a pale brown, the ventral and anal fins are tipped with yellow ; and the tail is slightly | forked, and of a deep purple. The Thames produces Barbel in abundance, and of a large size. " So numerous are they about Shepper- ton and Walton," says Mr. Yarrell, " that one hundred and fifty pounds weight have been taken in five hours, and on one occasion it is said that two hundred and eighty pounds weight of large sized Barbel were taken in one day." The flesh of the Barbel is very coarse and unsavoury ; the fish, consequent- ly, is held in little estimation, except as affording sport for the angler. BARBET. The Barbets are a family of birds belonging to the order Scansorcs, or Climbers, and are distinguished by their large conical beak, which appears swollen, or, as it were, puffed out at the sides of its base, and by being bearded (whence the name) with five tufts of stiff bristles, directed forwards. They inhabit Java, Sumatra, c., and sport about in all positions on the trunks and among the branches of trees, in search of insects or their larvae, on which they feed: some of them are said also to devour small birds and fruits ; the typical genera, how- ever, appear confined to the former food. The plumage of some of the species is very brilliant. VFRSIOOLOR,) (BtJOCO BARIS. A genus of Coleopterous insects, which feed upon the dead parts of tree*. BARKING BIRD. (Pteroptocltos.) This Tenuirostral bird, which is common in Chiloe and Chonos, islands in the SouthAmerican Archipelago, is called by the natives Guid- guid ; "but its English name," says Mr. Darwin, " is well given ; for I defy any one at first to feel certain that a small dog is not yelping somewhere in the forest. Just as with the Chencau, a person will sometimes hear the bark close by, but in vain may endeavour, by watching, and with still less chance by beating the bushes, to see its author ; yet at other times the Guid-guid comes fearlessly near." Its manner of feed- ing and its general habits are very similar to those of the Cheucau. Both species are said to build their nests close to the ground, amongst the rotten branches. [See CHEU- CAU.] BARNACLE. A name given to the cirri- pedes sometimes found adhering to the bot- toms and sides of ships, &c. [See BALANUS.] BASILISK. ( ^ sh ould be with scales), and in the early stage of ex- istpnpp rpnirp hv mpins of wills BEAGLE. A small kind of hotind, or hunting-dog, formerly much prized for its . , cautiously managed, being often capricious treacherous, and vindictive. Its retreat, during the period of hibernation, is the natural hollow of a tree, or some cavern ; but where these are not conveniently found, xcellent scent and persevering endurance | it will either form a suitable den for itself when employed in hare-hunting. It cannot | by digging, or construct a rude kind of hut indeed boast of great speed ; but its " slow with branches of trees, lined with moss. and sure " qualities are generally rewarded j Thus protected, and fat with its summer JStrttonarj) $ature. 53 food, it will remain without further suste- nance till the ensuing spring ; during which time the female generally produces two cubs, which when first born are not much larger than a mastiff's puppies. Most writers agree that the Brown Bear was at one time common in the British islands. The Caledonian bears (another name for British with the Romans) were imported to make sport for the Roman people, to whom the excitement of wit- nessing the suffering of man and beast, in its most distressing shape, seems to have been but too welcome. For many years (says Mr. Broderip) it has been swept away from our islands so completely, that we find it im- ported for baiting, a sport in which our no- bility, as well as the commonalty, of the olden time nay, even royalty itself de- lighted. A bear-bait was one of the re- creations offered to Elizabeth at Kenilworth, and in the Earl of Northumberland's House- hold Book we read of 20s. for his bear-ward. In Southwark there was a regular bear- garden, that disputed popularity with the Globe and Swan theatres on the same side of the water. Now, however, so much do tastes alter (in this instance certainly for the better), such barbarous sports are ba- nished from the metropolis." The AMERICAN BLACK BEAR. ( Ur- sus Amcricamis.) This animal is somewhat smaller than the European Brown Bear just described. It has a long head, pointed nose, small eyes, and short ears rounded at the top ; its limbs are strong, thick, and clumsy; its tail is short, its feet large, and the hair on the body and limbs is black, smooth, and glossy. This animal inhabits all the north- ern parts of America, migrating occasionally from the northern to the more southern parts in quest of food, which consists chiefly of vegetables and grain. So impenetrable are their retreats during the period of gestation, that although immense numbers of Bears are killed annually in America, hardly a single female is ever found among them. The flesh of these Bears in autumn, when they are become exceedingly large by feed- ing on acorns and other arborescent food, is extremely delicate ; the hams, in parti- cular, are much esteemed ; and the fat, which preserves a certain degree of fluidity, is remarkably white and sweet. In the Canadian Naturalist, by Air. P. H. Gosse, the following account of this animal forms a portion of the author's interesting ' Conver- sations ' : " This species appear to be less carnivorous than the Ursus Arctos of northern Europe, and less ferocious. His chief food seems to be of a vegetable nature, grain, fruits, and roots. He has an appetite for pork, however, and occasionally makes a visit to the farmer's hog-sty for the purpose of cultivating an ith the grunting inhabitants. Some years ago, one of our nearest neigh- acquaintance with the grunting inhabitants. Some years ago, one of our nearest neigh- bours was aroused in the night by a com- motion in his hog-pen ; suspecting the cause, he jumped up immediately, took his gun, and saw a bear in the act of getting over the fence with a fine hog, embraced very lovingly in his fore-paws. The man fired (while his wife held a light), and killed the intruder. It is difficult to hurt a bear with any weapon but fire-arms ; he fights with his fore-paws like a cat ; and so watch- ful is he, and so expert at warding off every blow that is made at him, that it is next to impossible to strike his head, the only part in which he is vulnerable ; for you might almost as well batter a feather-bed as the body of a bear, so encased and shielded by an enormous layer of fat. In our climate he becomes torpid during winter, generally choosing for his hybernaculum some large hollow log, or a cavity beneath the root of an overthrown tree. The species is nume- rous in all the wooded parts of this conti- nent, even to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. In the southern states he commits depredations on the farmer's fields of maize: when the corn is in that milky state called ' roasting ears,' so prized for boiling and eating as a table dish, like green peas, or roasting whole on the cob, the bear manifests a singular unity of taste with the farmer, and devours and treads down a large quan- tity, as he finds no difficulty in climbing over the zig-zag rail fence. I have been told that he repeats his nightly visit to the same field ; and, what is singular, always, on such occasions, mounts the fence, night after night, at the same spot where he got over the first time. The planters take ad- vantage of this regular habit, by fastening to the fence a heavily loaded gun at such an angle that it shall point at the bear's breast as he rises on his hind legs. The identical crossing-place is easily known by his great tracks in the soft earth. A stick is attached to the trigger, and this is made fast, at right angles, to a transverse stick resting on two forks about breast high, a few inches outside the fence. The bear rears up to put his fore- paws on the rails, and in getting over presses with his breast against the transverse stick, which drives back the trigger, and poor Bruin instantly receives the reward of his dishonesty." The GRISLY BEAR. (Ursus /crar.) The Grisly Bear is about nine feet long, and is said to attain the weight of eight hundred pounds. The claws are long and very strong, but more adapted for digging than for OKISLY BBAR. (OK8C8 FBBOX.) climbing trees ; the muzzle Is lengthened, narrowed, and flattened ; the canine teeth are highly developed, exhibiting a great increase of size and power ; and the eyes are small and sunk in the head. Notwithstand- ing its bulky and unwieldy form, it is capable Crtns'ttrji of pt great rapidity of motion ; and its strength is so prodigious, that the bison contends with it in vain. Mr. Drummond, in his excursions over the Rocky Mountains, had frequent opportunities of observing the manners of the Grisly Bears, and it often happened that in turning the point of a rock or sharp angle of a valley, he came suddenly upon one or more of them. On such occasions they reared on their hind legs, and made a loud noise like a person breathing quick, but much harsher. lie kept his ground, without attempting to molest them ; and they on their part, after attentively regarding him for some time, generally wheeled round and galloped off ; though, from their known disposition, there is little doubt that he would have been torn in pieces, had he lost his presence of mind and at- tempted to fly. The POLAR BEAR. (Tlialcussarctos ma- ritimus.) The accounts given by the early navigators of the size, strength, and ferocity of the Polar Bear are perfectly appalling ; but the accuracy of modern investigation has dissipated many of the erroneous ideas which were formerly entertained on the subject, though it is still very clear that this Bear is possessed of immense strength and fierceness. The whole animal is white, except the tip of the nose and the claws, which are jet POLAR BEAR. (THAiASSAROTOS MARITIMUS.) black ; the ears are small and rounded, the eyes small, the teeth very large, and the limbs extremely large and strong. The shores of Hudson's Bay, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, are its principal places of resi- dence ; but it has sometimes been accident- ally carried on floating ice as far south as Newfoundland. Their usual food consists of seals, fish, and carcasses of whales ; but when on land they prey on various animals, as hares, young birds, &c. : they also eat such roots and berries as they can find. They are said to be frequently seen in Greenland in great droves, allured by the scent of the flesh of seals, and will sometimes surround the habitations of the natives, and attempt to break in. Captain Lyon gives the following account of its hunting the seal : " The bear on seeing his Intended prey, gets quietly into the water, and swims until to leeward of him, from whence, by frequent short dives he silently makes his approaches, and so arranges his distance, that, at the last dive, he comes to the spot where the seal is lying. If the poor animal attempts to escape by rolling into the water, he falls | into the bear's clutches ; if, on the contrary, he lies still, his destroyer makes a powerful ' spring, kills him on the ice, and devours i him at leisure." I During the summer they reside chiefly on the ice-islands, and pass frequently from I one to another, being extremely expert swimmers. They lodge in dens, formed in the vast masses of ice, which are piled in a stupendous manner, leaving great caverns beneath : here they breed, and bring forth one or two at a time ; and the affection between the parent and the cubs is so great, that they will sooner die than desert each other. During winter they retire, and bed themselves deep beneath the snow, or else beneath the fixed ice of some eminence, where they pass in a state of torpidity the long and dismal arctic night, appearing only with the return of the sun. JUGGLER BEAR, or JUXGLE BEAR. (J'rocfiilns vrsinus.) When this uncouth animal was first brought to England (now more than half a century since), it was taken for a Sloth, and obtained the names of ttradypus pcntadactylus, and Bradypus ur- BEAR. (PROCHILUS URSrNUS.) sinus, "Five-fingered Sloth," " Ursine Sloth," and " anonymous animal." It is the Ours jongleur of the French, who so called it on account of its being afavoxirite with the In- dian mountebanks or jugglers, who rely on the attraction of its ugliness. The Juggler Bear inhabits the mountainous parts of In- dia, its place of retreat being in some cavern. Its short limbs, the depressed air of the head, surmounted by the hillock of a back, and the whole contour of the apparently unwieldy mass, give the idea of deformity. In bulk it is about the size of the Brown Bear. The nasal cartilage is capable of considerable extension, and the lips of protrusion. The muzzle and tips of the paws are a whitish- yellow ; and there is a half-collar or Y-like marking on the under side of the neck and breast. With these exceptions, the fur is deep black, with here and there some brown spots, and is rather long, particularly round the head, as the animal grows old. In a state of nature its food consists of fruits, honey, and those destructive insects the white ants. In captivity it appears to be mild, but melancholy. MALAY BEAR. (Prochilus Mnlayamis.-) This animal is jet black, with the muzzle of a yellowish tint, and a crescent-shaped white mark on the breast. Vegetables form & ^popular 3tcttonari) of &uimattfr 55 its chief diet, but it is said to be extremely fond of delicacies, and in its native forets subsists in a great measure upon the honey which is there found in considerable abun- dance. It is attracted to the vicinity of man by its fondness for the young shoots of the cocoa-nut trees, to which it is very injurious. It has been frequently taken and domesti- cated. One which Sir Stamford Raffles possessed when young is thus described by him : " He was brought up in the nursery with the children ; and, when admitted to my table, as was frequently the case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but mangosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne. The only time I ever knew him to be out of humour was ou an occasion when no champagne was forthcoming. He was naturally of an affectionate disposition, and it was never found necessary to chain or chastise him. It was usual for this bear, the cat, the dog, and a small blue mountain bird or lory of New Holland, to mess to- gether, and eat out of the same dish. His favourite playfellow was the dog, whose teasing and worrying were always borne and returned with the utmost good humour and playfulness. As he grew up he became a very powerful animal, and in his rambles in the garden he would lay hold of the largest plantains, the stems of which he could scarcely embrace, and tear them up by the roots." BEAVER. (Cantor fiber.) The Beaver is a Rodent animal, readily distinguished from every other quadruped by its broad horizontally-flattened tail, which is of a nearly oval form, but rising into a slight convexity on its upper surface, and covered with scales. The hind feet are webbed, and together with the tail, which acts as a rudder, serve to propel it through the water with considerable facility. It is about three feet long, exclusive of the tail, which is one foot more : its colour is a deep chesnut, the hair very fine, smooth, and glossy ; but it occa- sionally varies, and is sometimes found per- fectly black. The incisor teeth are very large and hard ; so hard, indeed, that they were used by the North American Indians to cut bone and to fashion their horn-tipped spears, till they were superseded by the in- troduction of iron tools from Europe. Of all quadrupeds the Beaver is considered as possessing the greatest degree of natural or instinctive sagacity in constructing its habitation ; preparing, in concert with others of its own species, a kind of arched caverns or domes, supported by a foundation of strong pillars, and lined or plastered in- ternally with a degree of neatness and ac- curacy unequalled by the art of any other quadruped. But it should seem, however, that the architecture of the Beaver is no- where so conspicuous as in the northern parts of America. The favourite resorts of the Beaver are retired, watery, and woody situations. In such places they assemble, to the number of some hundreds ; living, as it were, in families, and building their arched receptacles. From this we may perceive to what a degree animals, unassisted either by language or reason, are capable of concurring for their mutual benefit, and of attaining, by dint of numbers, those advantages which each, in a state of solitude, seems unfitted to possess : for if we view the Beaver only in the light of an individual, and uncon- nected with others of its kind, we shall find that many other quadrupeds excel it in cunning, and almost in all the powers of an- noyance and defence. When kept in a state of solitude or domestic tameness, it appears calm and indifferent to all about it ; with- out attachments or antipathies ; and never seeking to gain the favour of man, nor aim- ing to offend him. BBAVIR. (OASTOR FIBER.) Few subjects in natural history have more attracted the attention of travellers, or have been more minutely described by naturalists, than the instinctive building operations of the Beaver ; and they have accordingly had attributed to them powers so marvellous, as to render ridiculous that which, if regarded merely as a high species of animal instinct, could not fail to command universal ad- miration. The account given by Buffon, though graphic and amusing in no ordinary degree, is evidently overcharged : we shall therefore take the more sober narration of Hearne : " The situation of the beaver-houses is various. Where the beavers are numerous they are found to inhabit lakes, ponds, and rivers, as well as those narrow creeks which connect the numerous lakes with which this country abounds ; but the two latter are generally chosen by them when the depth of water and other circumstances arc suitable, as they have then the advantage of a current to convey wood and other necessaries to their habitations, and because, in general, they are more difficult to be taken than those that are built in standing water. They always choose those parts that have such a depth of water as will resist the frost in winter, and prevent it from freezing to the 56 cl bottom. The beavers that build their houses in small rivers, or creeks, in which water is liable to be drained off when the back sup- plies are dried up by the frost, are wonder- fully taught by instinct to provide against that evil by making a dam quite across the river, at a convenient distance from their houses. The beaver-dams differ in shape according to the nature of the place in which they are built. If the water in the river, or creek, have but little motion, the dam is almost straight ; but where the current is more rapid, it is always made with a con- siderable curve, convex toward the stream. The materials made use of are drift-wood, green willows, birch, and poplars if they can be got ; also mud and stones intermixed in such a manner as must evidently contribute to the strength of the dam ; but there is no other order or method observed in the dams, except that of the work being carried on with a regular sweep, and all the parts being made of equal strength. In places which have been long frequented by beavers un- disturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of water and ice ; and as the willow, poplar, and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches. " The beaver-houses are built of the same materials as their dams, and are always pro- portioned in size to the number of inhabit- ants, which seldom exceeds four old and six or eight young ones ; though, by chance, I have seen double the number. Instead of order or regulation being observed in rearing their houses, they are of a much ruder struc- ture than their dams ; for, notwithstanding the sagacity of these animals, it has never been observed that they aim at any other convenience in their houses than to have a dry place to lie on ; and there they usually eat their victuals, which they occasionally take out of the water. It frequently hap- pens that some of the large houses are found to have one or more partitions, if they de- serve that appellation, but it is no more than a part of the main building left by the sa- gacity of the beaver to support the roof. On such occasions it is common for those differ- ent apartments, as some are pleased to call them, to have no communication with each other but by water ; so that, in fact, they may be called double or treble houses, rather than different apartments of the same house. " So far are the beavers from driving stakes into the ground when building their houses, that they lay most of the wood crosswise, and nearly horizontal, and without any other order than that of leaving a hollow or cavity in the middle. When any unnecessary branches project inward they cut them off with their teeth, and throw them in among the rest, to prevent the mud from falling through the roof. It is a mistaken notion that the wood-work is first completed and then plastered ; for the whole of their houses, as well as their dams, are, from the founda- tion, one mass of mud and wood mixed with stones, if they can be procured. The mud is always taken from the edge of the bank, or the bottom of the creek or pond near the door of the house ; and though their fore- paws are so small, yet it is held close up between them under their throat : thus they carry both mud and stones, while they al- ways drag the wood with their teeth. All their work is executed in the night, and they are so expeditious that, in the course of one night, I have known them to have collected as much as amounted to some thousands of their little handfuls. It is a great piece of policy in these animals to cover the outside of their houses every fall with fresh mud, and as late as possible in the autumn, even when the frost becomes pretty severe, as by this means it soon freezes as hard as a stone, and prevents their common enemy, the wolverene, from disturbing them during the winter ; and as they are frequently seen to walk over their work, and sometimes to give a flap with their tail, particularly when plunging into the water, this has, without doubt, given rise to the vulgar opinion that they used their tails as a trowel, with which they plastered their houses ; whereas that flapping of the tail is no more than a custom which they always preserve, even when they become tame and domestic, and more par- ticularly so when they are startled." In the more northern climates the habita- tions of these animals are finished in August, or early in September, when they begin to lay in their stores. During the summer months they regale themselves on the choicest fruits and plants the country af- fords ; but in winter they subsist principally on the wood of the birch, the plane, and some other trees, which they steep in fresh water from time to time. Those who are accustomed to hunt these animals, being perfectly aware that green wood is much more grateful to them than that which is old and dry, place a considerable quantity round their lodgments ; and when they sally forth to seize it, either catch them in snares, or take them by surprise. When the frost is very severe, the hunters sometimes break large holes in the ice ; and, on the Beavers resorting to these apertures to breathe the fresh air, they either kill them with their hatchets, or cover the holes with large sub- stantial nets. This being done, they under- mine and subvert the whole fabric ; when the beavers, expecting to make their escape in the usual way, fly with precipitation to the water, and, rushing to the opening, fall directly into the net. The Beaver is pursued both for its fur, and for the sake of a peculiar odoriferous secre- tion, termed castor, or castoreum, which is contained in two little bags, the inguinal glands, each about the size of a hen's egg. This substance, as we find it in the shops, is of a brownish unctuous consistence, has a disagreeable narcotic smell, and a nauseous acrid taste : it was at one time esteemed as possessing considerable medicinal properties, but is now chiefly employed by perfumers. The fur was formerly a most important ar- ticle of commerce ; but the animals have in recent times been exterminated from so many extensive tracts which they once in- of 57 habited, that it is now far less considerable than it was half a century ago. To this may be added, that the present custom of using silk and other materials in lieu of beavers' fur in the manufacture of hats, has wonderfully lessened the demand for it, as well as reduced the price. An idea, how- ever, may be formed of the astonishing num- ber of beavers' skins that were formerly made use of, when we state that in 1808, no less than 12(5,927 were sent from Quebec alone to tliis country. The flesh of the Bea- ver is much prized by the Indians and Ca- nadian voyagers, especially when it is roasted in the skin after the hair has been singed off : and in some districts it requires all the in- fluence of the fur-traders to restrain the hunters from sacrificing a considerable quan- tity of beaver fur every year to secure the enjoyment of this luxury ; and Indians of note have generally one or two feasts in a season, wherein a roasted beaver is the prime dish. It resembles pork in its flavour, but it requires a strong stomach to sustain a full meal of it. (Richardson' 1 8 Fauna borcali- Amcricana.) Our readers wilt see that the foregoing account relates to the American Beaver. The European species does not boast of such architectural habits, but lives in burrows along the banks of the Rhone, the Danube, the Weser, and other large rivers in the north of Europe ; yet, from some of the de- scriptions which have been given of them, we are disposed to believe that, considering the materials within their reach, their in- stinctive skill is not greatly inferior to those who dwell on the other side of the Atlantic. It is believed that at no period were Beavers common in Britain, though the mention of them by some of our earliest historians is a clear proof of their existence here. BECCAFIGO, or FIG-EATER. (Sylvia hortensis.) A migratory song-bird, about the size of a linnet, but with a remarkably short body. It feeds on fruits and berries, and is highly prized by the Italians for the delicacy of its flesh, particularly in autumn, when it is in excellent condition for the table. It is often seen in England in the summer, where it is called the Pettychaps ; but it generally returns to a warmer climate in September. It has a lively, loud, and piercing note ; but it is seldom seen, as it usually sings from the midst of some closely em- bowered covert. Its head, back, neck, wings, and tail are generally of a greenish grey, but some more incline to a greenish brown. BEE. (Apis.) The generic name of a family of Ilvmenopterous insects, [for the classification of which, see APID.E.] Of all the insect tribe none have more justly ex- cited the attention and admiration of man- kind than the Bee ; and yet, although it has engaged the study of naturalists for two thousand years, we still occasionally find, in the economy of this social and industrious little animal, some obscurely known or uii- elucidated fact, which is thought worthy of the labours of those who devote their time aud abilities in the pursuit and advancement of this interesting branch of natural science. The most important species is the HONEY- BEE (Apis mellificd), so long celebrated for its wonderful polity, the neatness and pre- cision with which it constructs its cells, and the diligence with which it provides during the warmth of summer a supply of food for the support of the hive during the rigours of the succeeding winter. In its natural state the Honey-bee generally constructs its nests in hollow trees ; but so universally is it now domesticated that we rarely find it otherwise than hived in any part of Europe. Peter Kalm, the Swedish traveller, ob- serves, that the people of North America were unanimously of opinion that the HONZY-BBE. (APIS MZLLIFICA.) Honey-bee was unknown in that country before the arrival of the Euroi>earis ; but that they were first brought over by the English who settled there. The Indians likewise declared that their fathers had never seen any bees either in the woods or elsewhere, before the Europeans had been several years settled there. This, he says, is further confirmed by the name which the Indians gave them : for, having no particular name for them in their language, they call them English flies, because the English first brought them over ; but at the time he wrote (nearly a century ago) they flew plen- tifully about the woods of North America. Honey and wax are the two valuable ar- ticles of commerce for which we are indebted to this useful insect. Now, if we examine the structure of the common Bee, the first remarkable part which presents itself is the proboscis, an instrument serving to extract honey from flowers : it is not formed, like that of other flies, in the shape of a tube, by which the fluid is to be sucked up, but rather like a tongue, to lap it up. When thus lapped out of the nectary, it is conveyed to the crop or honey-bag ; where it undergoes but little alteration, and is transferred or disgorged into the cells destined to receive it. While the Bee is busy in extracting the sweets of the flowers, it becomes covered with the farina or pollen of the anthers ; this pollen it wipes off with the brushes of its legs, collects every particle together, and kneads it into two little masses, which it lodges on the broad surface of the tibia of each hind leg, where a series of elastic hairs over-arches a concavity, and acts as a sort of lid or covering. Thus employed, the Bee flies from flower to flower, increasing its store of honey, and adding to its stock of kneaded pollen, which is called bee-bread. The ab- domen is divided into six annulations or rings, which are capable of being contracted or extended at pleasure ; and the insect is internally furnished with a honey-bag, a 58 of $ venom-bag, and a sting. The honey-bag, which is as transparent as crystal, contains the honey which the Bee has brushed from the flowers, the greatest part of which is carried to the Ixive, and poured into the cells of the honeycomb, while the remainder serves for the Bee's own nourishment. Wax is a peculiar secretion in little cells beneath the scales of the abdomen. It is from honey that the wax, by some internal process, is elaborated. The wax oozes out between the abdominal rings, in the form of little la- mina; ; it is then worked with the mouth, and kneaded with saliva that it may acquire the requisite degree of ductility for the con- struction of the comb, which is* finished with a substance called propolis, a glutinous or gummy resinous matter procured from the buds of certain trees. The sting is composed of three parts ; namely, the sheath, and two extremely small and penetrating darts, each of which is fur- nished with several points, or barbs, which, rankling in the wound, render the sting more painful. This instrument, however, would prove but a feeble weapon, if the Bee did not poison the wound. The sharp- pointed sheath first enters, and this being followed by the barbed darts, the venomous fluid is speedily iniected. Sometimes the sting sticks fast in the flesh, and is left be- hind ; but the death of the Bee invariably follows. Having examined the Bee singly, we now proceed to an inquiry into its habits as a member of a social community. Viewed in I this light, we behold an animal active, vi- | gilant, laborious, and disinterested ; subject to regulations, and perfectly submissive. All its provisions are laid up for the community ; and all its arts are employed in building a cell, designed for the benefit of posterity. Many interesting accounts of the history and economy of the Bee have been published. We know of none, however, so concise and at the same time so explicit, as that which is given by Mr. Newman, in his " Familiar Introduction to the Study of Insects ; " and to that source we are indebted for the fol- lowing observations, marked with inverted commas : " A bee-hive contains three kinda of in- dividuals, a queen, drones, and workers ; the queen is a female, and not only the ruler, but, in great part, the mother of the community ; the drones are males, and the workers are abortive females. The sole office of the queen appears to be the laying of eggs, and this occupies her almost inces- santly, as a single one only is deposited in each cell, thus causing her to be in continual motion ; she is slow and majestic in her movements, and differs from the workers in being larger, having a longer body, shorter wings, and a curved sting. The queen is accompanied by a guard of twelve workers, an office which is taken in turn, but never intermitted; in whatever direction she wishes to travel, these guards clear the way before her, always with the utmost courtesy turning their faces towards her, and when she rests from her labours, approaching her with hu- mility, licking her face, mouth, and eyes, and appearing to fondle her with their an- tenna. " The drones are all males ; they are less than the queen, but larger th;m the workers ; they live on the honey of flowers, but bring none home, and are wholly useless, except as being the fathers of the future progeny : when this office is accomplished, they are destroyed by the workers. A buzzing com- mences in the hive, the drones and the workers sally forth together, grapple each other in the air, hug and scuffle for a minute, during which operation the stings of the workers are plunged into the sides of the drones, who, overpowered by the poison, almost instantly die. " The workers are the smallest bees in the hive, and by far the most numerous ; they have a longer lip for sucking honey than either of the others ; their thighs are fur- nished with a brush for the reception of the pollen of flowers, and their sting is straight. The workers do the entire work of the com- munity ; they build the cells, guard the hive and the queen, collect and store the honey, elaborate the wax, feed the young, kill the drones, &c. The average number of these three kinds of bees in a hive is one queen, 2000 drones, and 20,000 workers. The eggs are long, slightly curved, and of a bluish colour ; when laid they are covered with a glutinous matter, which instantly dries, at- taching them to the bottom of the cell. " For eleven months the queen lays only workers' eggs ; afterwards, those which pro- duce drones: as soon as this change has taken place, the workers begin to construct royal cells, in which, without discontinuing to lay the drones' eggs, the queen deposits here and there, about once in three days, an egg which is destined to produce a queen. The workers' eggs hatch in a few days, and pro- duce little white maggots, which'immediate- ly open their mouths to be fed ; these the workers attend to with untiring assiduity : in six days each maggot fills up its cell ; it is then roofed in by the workers, spins a silken cocoon, and becomes a chrysalis : and on the twenty-first day it comes forth a perfect bee. The drones emerge on the twenty-fifth day, and the queens on the sixteenth." When the queen-bee has an inclination to deposit her eggs, she goes forth, accompanied by six or eight working bees as a guard, whose stomachs are filled with honey. She is very deliberate in her motions, and seems to proceed with great caution. She first looks into a cell, and if she finds it perfectly empty, she draws up her long body, inserts her tail into the cell, and deposits an egg. In this way she slowly proceeds till she has dropped ten or twelve eggs, when perhaps feeling exhausted, she is fed by one of the attendant bees, who have surrounded her the whole time. This is done by the bee ejecting the honey from its stomach into the mouth of the queen. When this has been done, the bee goes away, and another takes its place. The operation of laying her eggs again goes on, and is succeeded' bv the saVrie mode of feeding, the attendant bees fre- quently touching the antennas of the queen popular SJtrtumarM of &m'mat& .59 with tlieir own. When the operation of laying the eggs is completed, and it gene- rally occupies some time, the queen retires to that part of the hive which is most filled with bees. During her progress the sur- face of the comb is very little intruded upon, and the space seems purposely to be left unoccupied. Some few of the cells, how- ever, in a brood comb, are passed over by the queen, and afterwards filled either with honey or farina. These serve as deposits of food, from which the neighbouring brood may be fed more readily, as such cells are never covered with wax. Jesse. " It has been already stated, that the queen, for nearly a year, lays no eggs that are destined to produce queens ; it therefore follows, that if any evil befall her, the hive is left without a queen : it sometimes hap- pens that she dies, or is taken away by the owner of the hive, to observe the result. For twelve hours little notice is taken of the loss ; it appears not to be known, and the workers labour as usual : after that period, a hubbub commences ; work is aban- doned ; the whole hive is in an uproar ; every bee traverses the hive at random, and with the most evident want of purpose. This state of anarchy sometimes continues for two days ; then the bees gather in clus- ters of a dozen or so, as though engaged in consultation, the result of which seems to be a fixed resolution to supply the loss. A few of the workers repair to the cells in wliich are deposited the eggs of workers ; three of these cells are quickly broken into one, the edges polished, and the sides smoothed and rounded, a single egg being allowed to re- main at the bottom. When this egg hatches, the maggot is fed with a peculiarly nutritive food, called royal bee-bread, which is never given to any maggots but such as are to pro- duce queens ; work is now resumed over the whole hive, and goes on as briskly as before: on the sixteenth day the egg produces a queen, whose appearance is hailed with every demonstration of delight, and who at once assumes sovereignty over the hive. When, under ordinary circumstances, a young queen emerges from the chrysalis, the old one frequently quits the hive, heading the first swarm for the season, and flying to some neighbouring resting-place, is observed by the owner, captured, placed under a new hive, and a new colony is immediately com- menced. Before a swarm leaves the hive, sure indications are given of the intended movement ; the workers leave their various occupations and collect in groups, especially near the door of the hive, as though in con- sultation on the important event about to take place. " As the summer advances many queens are hatched, but the workers do not allow them instant liberty, as severe battles would take place between them and the reigning queen, in wliich one would be killed : the workers, therefore, make a small hole in the ceiling of the royal cell, through which the captive queen thrusts her tongue, and re- ceives food from the workers. In this state of confinement the young queen utters a low querulous note, which has been compared to singing. When the reigning, or a newly- created queen, finds one of these captives, she uses every effort to tear open the cell and destroy her rival : to prevent this, the workers often interpose, pulling her away by the legs and wings ; to this she submits for a short time, when, uttering a peculiar cry, called her voice of sovereignty, she com- mands instant attention and obedience, and is at once freed from her assailants. The cocoons spun by the maggots of the workers and drones completely envelope the chrysa- lis; but that spun by the maggot of the queen appears imperfect, covering only the upper end of the chrysalis : it has been supposed that they are thus designedly exposed to the attacks of other queens, and tlieir destruc- tion, before emerging, facilitated. When the chrysalis of the queen is about to change to a perfect insect, the bees make the cover of the cell thinner by gnawing away part of the wax ; and with so much nicety do they perform this operation, that the cover at last becomes pellucid, owing to its extreme thin- ness. " The combs of a bee-hive comprise a con- geries of hexagonal cells, built by the bees as a receptacle for honey, and for the nur- series of their young : each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells, backed against each other : the base or partition between tliis double row of cells is so dis- posed as to form a pyramidal cavity at the bottom of each. There is a continued series of these double combs in every well-filled hive ; the spaces between them being just sufficient to allow two bees, one on the sur- face of each comb, to pass without touching. Each cell is hexagonal, the six sides being perfectly equal. This figure ensures the greatest possible economy of material and space ; the outer edges of the cells are slight- ly thickened, in order to gain strength ; the same part is also covered with a beautiful varnish, which is supposed to give additional strength. The construction of several combs is generally going on at the same time : no sooner is the foundation of one laid, with a few rows of cells attached to it, than a se- cond and a third are founded on each side, parallel to the first, and so on till the hive is filled, the combs which were commenced first being always in the most advanced state, and therefore the first completed. " The design of every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments laid by a single bee : this foundress-bee forms a block out of a rough mass of wax, drawn partly from its own resources, but principally from those of other bees, which furnish wax from small sacs, in which it has been secreted, that are situated between the segments of the body of the bee ; taking out the plates of wax with their hind feet, and carrying it with their fore feet to their mouths, where it is moistened, masticated, and rendered soft and ductile. The foundress-bee determines the relative position of the combs, and their distance from each other, the foundations which she marks serving as guides to the ulterior labours of the wax-working bees, and of those which build the cells, giving them the advantage of the margins and 60 Criatfurg at Natural angles already formed. The mass of wax prepared by the assistants is applied by the foundress-bee to the roof or bottom of the hive, and thus a slightly double convex mass is formed: when of sufficient size, a cell is sculptured on one side of it by the bees, who relieve one another in the labour. At the back, and on each side of this first cell, two others are sketched out and excavated: by tMs proceeding the foundations of two cells are laid, the line betwixt them cor- responding with the centre of the opposite cells : as the comb extends, the first exca- vations are rendered deeper and broader ; and when a pyramidal base is finished, the bees build up walls from its edges, so as to complete what may be called the prismatic part of the cell. The cells intended for the drones are considerably larger and more sub- stantial than those for the workers ; and being formed subsequently, they usually ap- pear nearer the bottom of the combs : last of all are built the royal cells for the queens: of these there are usually three or four, sometimes ten or twelve, in a hive, attached completely to the central part, but not un- frequently to the edge of the comb. The form of the royal cells is an oblong spheroid, tapering gradually downwards, and having the exterior full of holes: the mouth of the cell, which is always at the bottom, remains open until the maggot is ready for trans- formation, and it is then closed like the rest. " When a queen has emerged, the cell in which she was reared is destroyed, and its place is supplied by a range of common cells: the site of this range may always be traced by that part of the comb being thicker than the rest, and forming a kind of knot. The common breeding cells of drones and workers are occasionally made the depositories of honey; but the cells are never sufficiently cleansed to preserve the honey undeterio- rated. The finest honey is stored in new cells constructed for the purpose of receiving it, their form precisely resembling that of the common breeding cells : these honey- cells vary in size, being larger or smaller according to the productiveness of the sources from which the bees are collecting, and ac- cording to the season." It is remarkable that all animals which have been long under the protection of man seem to lose a part of their natural sagacity. In those countries where the bees are wild, and unprotected by man, they are always sure to build their waxen cells in the hol- lows of trees ; but with us they appear im- provident in their choice ; and the first green branch which stops their flight is deemed sufficient for their abode. It does not even appear that the queen chooses the place where they are to alight; for numbers of the swarms when they conceive a predilection for any particular branch, spontaneously settle on it ; others follow their example ; and at last the queen herself, finding the majority of the swarm convened together, condescends to place herself amongst them. The queen being settled, the rest of the swarm soon flock around her, and in about a quarter of an hour the whole body seems to be perfectly at rest. When a hive sends out several swarms in a year, the first is always the best as well as the most numerous; for, having the greatest part of the_ summer before them, they have the more time for making wax and honey, and consequently their labours are the most valuable to their proprietor. Though the swarm is principally made up of the younger Bees, those of all ages generally compose the number of emigrants ; and as a single hive sometimes contains upwards of forty thou- sand inhabitants, such a vast body may well be supposed to work with great expedition. Among the varied mass of amusing and instructive information with which the volumes of Kirby and Spence abound, we shall make a few condensed extracts ere we close this article : Bees in their excursions do not confine themselves to the spot im- mediately contiguous to their dwelling, but, when led by the scent of honey, will go a mile from it, or considerably more ; yet from this distance they will discover honey with as much certainty as if it was within their sight. * * * A new-born bee, as soon as it is able to use its wings, seems perfectly aware, without any previous instruction, what are to be its duties and employments for the rest of its life. It appears to know that it is born for society, and not for selfish pursuits ; and therefore it invariably de- votes itself and its labours to the benefit of the community to which it belongs. Walk- ing upon the combs, it seeks for the door of the hive, that it may sally forth and be useful. Full of life and activity, it then takes its first flight ; and, unconducted but by its in- stinct, visits like the rest the subjects of Flora, absorbs their nectar, covers itself with their ambrosial dust, which it kneads into a mass and packs upon its hind legs ; and, if need be, gathers propolis (an unctuous resinous substance, collected from the buds of trees, and used in lining the cells of a new comb, stopping crevices, &c.), and returns unem- barrassed to its own hive. The method of ventilating their hives is thus described : By means of their mar- ginal hooks, they unite each pair of wings into one plane slightly concave, thus acting upon the air by a surface nearly as large as possible, and forming for them a pair of very ample fans, which in their vibrations de- scribe an arch of 90. These vibrations are so rapid as to render the wings almost in- visible. During the summer a certain number of workers for it is to the workers solely that this office is committed may always be observed vibrating their wings before the entrance of their hive ; and the observant apiarist will find, upon examina- tion, that a still greater number are engaged within it in the same employment. The station of these ventilators is upon the floor of the hive. They are usually ranged in files that terminate at the entrance ; and sometimes, but not constantly, form so many diverging rays, probably to give room for comers and goers to pass. The number of i ventilators in action at the same time varies : I it seldom much exceeds twenty, and is often more circumscribed. The time also that I they devote to this function is longer or of 61 shorter, according to circumstances : some have been observed to continue their vibra- tions for nearly half an hour without rest- ing, suspending the action for not more than an instant, as it should seem to take breath. When one retires, another occupies its place ; so that in a hive well peopled there is never any interruption of the sound or humming occasioned by this action, by which it may always be known whether it be going on or not. BEE-EATER. (Merops apiaster.} There are many species of the genus Mcrops, all of which are distinguished by their brilliant plumage, and take their prey, consisting of bees, wasps, gnats, &c., on the' wing, like the swallow, and, what seems remarkable, with- out being stung by them. The one we are about to describe is among the most elegant of the European birds, and, next to the Roller and the Kingfisher, may be con- sidered as the most brilliant in point of colour. It is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, particularly among the islands of the Grecian archipelago, and of many parts both of Asia and Africa ; but in the north of Europe it is rarely seen. In shape this bird resembles the halcyon tribe, and is about the si/e of a blackbird. The bill is slightly curved, sharp-pointed, rather long, and black ; the irides bright red ; the crown of the head and upper parts of the neck and back are of an orange-chesnut colour ; the throat yellow, the scapulars, lower part of the back, and wing-coverts pale yellow, more or less shaded with an admixture of red and green. The smaller quill feathers are rufous chesnut, tipped with green ; the larger sea-green with dusky tips ; the rump and tail sea-green, the latter about three inches long, the two middle feathers project- ing, in a pointed form, to some distance beyond the rest. The sides of the head, above the eyes, and the whole under parts are sea-green : from the corners of the bill, on each side of the head, a black streak passes across the eyes, curving downwards, and nearly meeting the tips of a black crescent placed across the snout, and sepa- rating the yellow of that part from the sea- green of the under parts. The legs are short, and of a reddish-brown colour. It builds in deep holes in the banks of rivers, forming a nest of moss, and laying from five to seven white eggs. The INDIAN BEE-EATER (Mcrops riridts) is about half the size of the common or European Bee-eater, but the middle tail- feathers are considerably longer. On the upper port of the breast is a crescent-shaped transverse mark, with the horns pointing upwards ; the back and lesser covert-feathers of the wings are of a parrot-green colour ; the rump or coverts of the tail of a bluish- green ; the breast and belly of a light green, and the tail is green. The greater quills of the wings ore dusky at their tips ; the centre quills are of an orange colour, bordered with green, and marked with black spots, the extreme tips being orange; the interior quills next the bock are wholly green ; the first row of coverts above the quills is orange in the centre, and green on the edges. The bill is long and sharp- pointed, Iiaving a downward incurvation ; the claws are pretty strong i and the legs and feet of a dusky brown colour. This species is a native of Bengal, ports of Madagascar, &c. BEETLES. The insects composing the order COLEOPTEHA, or Beetles, are almost incredible in point of number, as may readily be supposed when it is stated that between 70,000 and 80,000 species at present exist in the cabinets of collectors. The singular forms and brilliant colours of many of them ; the size of their bodies ; the solid texture of their integuments, which renders their pre- servation comparatively easy ; and the nature of their habits, which affords every facility for their capture ; have combined to render them objects of peculiar attention to those who delight in the science of entomo- Among the beetle tribe some are very re- markable for projections or horns growing from the head and corslet. The species found in warm climates are generally large and of a formidable appearance, though by no means noxious. They are mostly winged, flying with much rapidity and force ; but when on the ground their movements are slow and heavy. The wings of beetles are covered and concealed by a pair of horny cases or shells, meeting in a straight line on the top of the back, and usually having a little triangular or semicircular piece, called the ecutel, wedged between their bases. Hence the order to which these insects be- long is called Coleoptera, a word signifying wings in a sheath. They are all produced from eggs ; they then become grubs ; after- ards they are changed into chrysalides ; and lastly, the beetles, leaving their prisons, sally forth as winged insects in full maturity. The conversion of the first pair of wings into elytra, or hard wing-cases, and the complete inclosure of the second pair by these, when the insect is at rest, constitute the distinguishing features of the order. The elytra, when expanded, are of little or no use in flight, generally remaining nearly motionless ; when closed, they meet along the bock in a straight line, which is called the suture. The body of the perfect insect is oval, or nearly so, and the head is pro- G2 vided with two antennce, composed of eight or ten pieces ; the extremities of the antennas are club-shaped, and composed of plates or joints, either disposed like the leaves of a book, or arranged perpendicularly to the axis, like the teeth of a comb. The eyes are large and protuberant, especially in the carnivorous species, and in those, the slow- ness of whose habits makes them need quick powers of sight, for the purpose of avoiding their enemies. Of the three segments of the thorax, the corslet greatly surpasses the two others in size ; and the chief movement of the parts of the trunk upon one another, is between the first and second segments of the thorax. The two fore-legs of beetles, and even the others, in some instances, are den- tated externally, and suited for burrowing. These are the principal characters which distinguish this numerous family ; but it is necessary to observe that nearly all of them are subject to some exceptions. The larvcK are soft, flexible, whitish, semi- cylindric worms, having the body divided into twelve rings, and having a scaly head, armed with strong jaws. They have nine stigmata, or breathing-holes, on each side ; and the feet, which are six, are scaly. The body is thicker at the posterior than at the anterior extremity, and rounded, almost uni- formly curved downwards, so that the larva moves with difficulty over an even surface, and frequently tumbles down. The period during which the larvae remain in the state of destructive worms, varies indifferent species; those of some kinds becoming nymphs at the end of several months, and of others not sooner than three or four years. During this period they live in the earth, where they feed upon the roots of vegetables, animal matter in a state of decomposition, &c. It is in this stage of their existence that various species prove exceedingly injurious to farmers and gardeners, from their great numbers and voracity. When about to undergo their change of form, they make an egg-shaped cocoon, from fragments gnawed off wood, &c., which are united by a peculiar glutinous fluid furnished by their bodies. The form of the future beetle is now plainly perceived, the different parts being encased in distinct sheaths. Though the varieties of this genus arising from size and colour are wonderful some being no larger than a pin's head, while others are several inches in length and circumference, their most essential difference proceeds from the stages of their existence, some undergoing all their transformations in a few months, and others requiring nearly four years to complete their production. BELEMNITES. A genus of fossil Ce- phalopoda, which at different periods have received the names of Thunderstone, Arrow- head, and Fingerstone. The name is derived from Belemnon (Gr.), a dart or arrow. They abound in several of the older rocks, especi- ally the lias and oolite ; and consist of an in- terior cone divided into partitions connected by a syphon, as in the Nautilus, and sur- rounded by a number of concentric layers, made up of fibres radiating from the axis. (B. AOUTOS.) [RESTORED.! These layers are somewhat transparent, and when burnt, rubbed,or scraped, give the odour of rasped horn. From the weight of its dense internal shell the Belemnite may be supposed to have usually maintained a vertical posi- tion ; and as its chambered portion was pro- vided with a siphuncle analogous to that which we find in the Nautilus, the animal probably had the power of ascending and descending in the water with facility. The animal, of which the Belemnite was the internal " bone," has been proved by Mr. Owen to have been a dibranchiate eight- armed Cuttle-fish, somewhat resembling the recent genus Onychoteuthis. This he was enabled to do by access to specimens found near Chippenham, in Wiltsliire, during the excavations that were making for the Great Western Railway. The species are now extinct. BELL-BIRD. (Procnias carunciiJata.) This is a species of Chatterer, distinguished by a long soft caruncle at the base of its beak ; it is white when adult, greenish when BULL-BIRD. (FROONTA.8 CARUNCnL young. It is a native of South America the celebrated Campanero or Bell-bird of Guiana the loud sonorous voice of which, heard from time to time in the depths of the forest, during the stillness of mid-day, exactly resembles the tolling of a bell. Mr. Waterton, in his hearty " Wanderings in Demerara," often alludes to it. In one passage he says that it " never fails to attract SBtctionarn at gfoimatttt $ature. 63 the attention of the passenger ; at a distance of nearly three miles you may hear this | snow-white bird tolling every four or live j minutes like the distant convent bell. From I six to nine in the morning the forests resound with the mingled cries and strains of the feathered race, after this they gradually die away. From eleven to three, all nature is hushed as in a midnight silence, and scarce a note is heard, saving that of the campaiiero of the pi-pi-yo ; it is then that, oppressed by the solar heat, the birds retire to the thickest shade, and wait for the refreshing cool of the evening." BELLEROPHON. A genus of fossil shells, the animals of which are unknown, but which are now generally supposed to have been allied to Carinaria, the structure of whose shell it resembles. BELLU JE. The sixth order of the Mam- malia ; the characters of which are, that their fore-teeth are obtusely truncated, their feet hoofed, and their food vegetables. The genera of the Horse, Hippopotamus, Hog, and Rhinoceros belong to this order. BELOXE. A genus of fishes remarkable for the bright green colour of their bones. The jaws are much extended, and furnished with small teeth, without any others in the mouth, except in the pharynx. The body is very long, and covered with scales which are scarcely visible, except one keeled row on each side, near the under edge of the fish. [See GARFISH.] BELUGA. (Delphimts leucos.) A Ceta- ceous animal, of the size of the Grampus. It chiefly inhabits the seas of the Arctic re- gions, but is sometimes met with even on the British coasts. [See WHALE.] It is also the Russian name for the largest species of Sturgeon (Accipenscr huso\ BELYTA. A genus of Hymenopterous insects, being a species of minute four-winged flies, which frequent sandy situations. BEMBEX : BEMBECID^E. A genus and family of Hymenopterous insects, pe- culiar to hot climates, and, in some instances, very much resembling wasps both in size and colour. Bembex rostrata, an insect about the size of a wnsp, is the type of this family, and is remarkable for having the lower parts of the mouth produced into a long trunk or proboscis. The female form I oblique cylindrical burrows in sandy banks, with a cell at the end of each, and having collected five or six flies, and placed them in her cell, she deposits a single egg in it ; then having carefully closed its mouth, she pro- I ceeds in the same manner with another cell. These flies are no sooner hatched than the larva devours them ; it then changes into the pupa state, and shortly after to the per- fect insect. BEMBIDITD^S. A family of minute carnivorous beetles, which generally fre- quent damp situations, such as the banks of rivers, ditches, &c. They are usually of a bright blue or green metallic colour, having two or four pale yellow spots on the elytra. BERXACLE or BARNACLE GOOSE. (Bernicla leucopsis\ A bird which inhabits the arctic regions, and in its autumnal and brumal migrations visits the more temperate regions of England, France, Germany, Hol- land, &c. It frequents the north-west coasts of this country, and some parts of Ireland, in large docks during the winter, but is rarely 3KKNACUZ 00038. (BBRNIOLA. I.EOOOFSIS.) seen in the south except in very severe weather. About February it retires to the north to breed, and is then found in Russia, Lapland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, and other high latitudes. The length of the Bcrnacle is rather more than two feet. The bill is black, with a red- dish streak on each side, and between it and the eyes is a small black streak ; the i rides dusky-brown ; the forehead, sides of the head, and the throat, are of a pure white ; the rest of the head, neck, and shoulders black, the upper part of the plumage i marked with blue, grey, black and white ; and the legs are black. The history of this bird has been rendered singularly remarkable by the marvellous accounts which were related in the darker ages concerning its growth ; it being a re- ceived opinion that the Bcrnacle was pro- duced in a kind of cirripede, the le.pas anatifera of Linnneus, growing on rotten ship-timber and other kinds of wood, and trees which lay under water on the coasts 1 Among these is Gerard, a famous botanist in his day, whose account is too absurd to give in detail, but perhaps a short extract may be tolerated : " When it is perfectly formed, the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that appeareth is the aforesaid lace or string ; next cometh the legs of the bird hanging out ; and as it groweth greater, it openeth the shell by degrees till at length it has all come forth, and hangeth only by the bill. In short space after it cometh to full matu- rity, and falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl, bigger than a mallard, and lesser than a goose, having black legs, and bill or l>eak and feathers black and wlute, spotted in such manner as our magpie 1 " Again, Sir Robert Murray, in his account inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, says that he o 2 61 Qtoadurg cf $atttral found " an old fir tree on the coast of Scot- land, covered with bernacle shells, and that in every shell that he opened he found a perfect sea-fowl ; the little bill, like that of a goose ; the eyes marked ; the head, neck, , breast, wings, tail, and feet formed j the I feathers every where perfectly shaped, and I blackish coloured ; and the feet like those of other water-fowl 1 " Such are some of the | wild chimeras that have been handed down concerning the origin of these birds ; such the dangerous contagion of the errors of sci- ence, where the imagination is allowed to soar beyond the region of common-sense. There are several other species, some of which we shall briefly describe : The RED-BREASTED BERNACLE. (Bernicla ruficollis.) This is a beautiful bird, about twenty-two inches in length ; the beak is brown, with its hook black ; between the beak and the eye is a white space ; be- hind the eyes and on the sides of the neck it is white ; the top of the head, the throat, belly, tail, and all the upper parts are deep black ; the vent, under tail-coverts, and rump are pure white ; but the breast and fore part of the neck are bright red. A band of black extends the entire length of the hinder part of the neck ; the greater wing- coverts are tipped with white ; and the legs are black. This beautiful bird inhabits ttie arctic countries of Asia, living on the borders of the Frozen Ocean : it appears periodically in Russia, and occasionally in Germany ; but in England it is very rarely seen. A British-killed specimen, however, has been seen by us in the British Museum. The WHITE-WINGED BERNACLE. (Bernicla kucoptcra.) This bird varies in length from about thirty-two to forty inches; the head, neck, lesser wing-coverts, and under parts of the body, white ; the lower part of the neck behind, and as far as the middle of the back, crossed with numerous dusky-black lines ; the two middle tail- feathers black i the rest white ; and the lega black. It stands pretty high upon its legs ; walks and flies with great ease ; and has not that disagreeable cackling cry peculiar to the rest of its kind. The rlesh is wholesome and nourishing. It inhabits the Falkland Islands, where it is called the Bustard Goose. The ANTARCTIC BERNACLE. (er- nicla Antarctica.) This is rather smaller than a tame goose : beak narrow, short, and black ; the whole plumage of a dazzling snowy whiteness ; on the bend of the wing a blunt knob : legs yellow. It inhabits Christmas Sound, in Terra del Fuego. Its flesh is unfit to be eaten. BEROE. (Bertie, or Cydippe pilcus.) A small marine animal belonging to the class Acalcpha, and to which the name CW>/: is now very frequently applied. This little animal is nearly of a globular form, some- what elongated, and about three-fourths of an inch in length. It is composed of a ge- latinous substance, strengthened by eight bands of rather firmer texture, which are covered with rows of large vibratile cilia, ar- ranged side by side, so as to form narrow plates of a fin-like character. There are, in the most common species, from three to seven cilia in each row, and about twenty rows on each ridge : over these the Berile has complete control ; it can retard or stop their movements at pleasure ; and arrest the play of one, two, or more rows, whilst the re- mainder continue in rapid vibration, and act like so many little paddles. By these i means it is capable of swimming through ] the water with considerable activity, and of changing its course at will. These little ani- | mals are of a bright faintly-blue aspect ; and the cilia when in motion present vivid iri- descent hues. The mouth is situated at one end, which is always directed forward when the animal is in motion, and is then widely dilated. From the stomach, there passes a narrow straight intestine, which terminates at the opposite extremity of the body. When I the BerOe is in active movement, therefore, a continual stream of water will enter its mouth, and pass out again behind ; and from I the minute particles contained in the water, | it evidently derives its nourishment ; ex- ceedingly minute Crustacea may indeed be seen in the transparent stomach for some time after being swallowed. From the pos- terior part of the body arise two lengthened OYDIFFB FILEUS.) filaments, or tentacula, furnished on one side with cirri, which are sometimes spread out as delicate hairs, and, at others, are spirally convoluted, or coiled like the tendrils of a pea. When the main filaments have been ejected from the body, the little tendrils be- gin to uncoil. If a Beroe is placed in a vessel of sea-water, its various movements may be watched with interest : sometimes it remains at the bottom, projecting its long filaments upwards ; at others, it darts swiftly upwards, drawing its long filaments after it, and al- ternately retracting and extending them ; not unfrequently it remains for some time at the top of the water, till at length, wishing to descend, it turns over, drawing up its fila- ments suddenly, and then swims, mouth- downwards, to the bottom. In a small but intertesing volume oft the -popular !3tctt0narg of 'Etumatctr Mature. 65 Natural History of Arran by the Rev. David Landsborough, the author makes the follow- ing remarks on the species Bertie cucumis, several specimens of which he had taken during his " Excursions," to that island ; the largest being three inches in length, by about one inch and a half in diameter. They varied, lie says, from the size of a lemon to that of a lady's thimble, were very beautiful, and in shape resembling an antique pitcher contracted at the neck, with a graceful revo- lution, or turning back at the brim ; but the exact form was difficult to assign, as it varied by partial contractions at the animal's plea- sure. " The whole body has a tinge of pink, and the eight ribs closely set with cilia are beautifully adorned, having on each side an edging like fine crimson lace. In the larger specimens, this lace-work was studded with little orange oval- shaped bodies, like little grapes, attached by a capillary peduncle. When the Bertie was at rest, they rested ; but when the cilia began rapidly to play, and the current of water, mixed at times with air-bubbles, to rush through the tubes of the ribs, then all the little orange bodies were in quick motion, as if dancing to the music of the spheres ; or, believing in fairies as our forefathers did, one might have fancied that they were lace-bobbins, moved by nimble, invisible fairy hands, weaving the beautiful lace edging with which they were intermingled. Professor Forbes, how- ever, says, as I had conjectured, that they are the eggs attached to the placentary membranes ; and I doubt not that they are thus shaken by the motion of the cilia, that when fully ripe they may thereby be de- tached." Mr. Rymer Jones, in describing the beau- tiful mechanism of the Bertie, has made some pertinent philosophical reflections on it, in language at once elegant and forcible. " Man," says he, " justly prides himself, among the countless triumphs of his intellect over the stubborn elements, at his success in having found the means of struggling through the opposing surge, propelled by steam re- volving wheels whose paddles urge his vessel on with giant force. But man in this con- trivance, as in many more, is but a bungling artist when compared with Nature, when he chooses to adopt machinery^ which she like- wise has employed. Examine well the berde, and see if any paddle-wheels can equal hers. Stretching from pole to pole of this trans- lucent little orb, like lines of longitude upon a globe, and placed at equal distances, are eight broad bands of more consistence than the other portions of the body. On these bands are placed thirty or forty paddles, broad flat plates, for such they seem when magnified, with which the little creature rows itself along. But here the difference lies between the art of Man and Nature. Man to move his wheels must have much cumbersome machinery ; the furnace, and the boiler, and the Herculean arm that makes the wheel revolve ; but here all these may be dispensed with, for the paddles are them- selves alive, and move themselves at will with such degree of force as may be needed, either at once, or singly, or in groups* work- ng with mutual consent in any way required. Thus do they all work equally ; the bertie shoots along meteor-like, or, if a few relax their energy, wheels round in broad gyra- tions, or revolves on its own axis with an ease and grace inimitable." BETTONGIA. A genus of Kangaroos, one of the species of which is called " Forest Rat " by the colonists of Van Diemen's Land B. cuniculus) : the end of the tail in this species has a white tuft. Another species (B. fasciata) was found by M. Peron on the west coast of Australia, at Dirk Hartog. It is very timid, and constructs galleries among the thick brushwood, by cutting away the lower branches and spines. It is of a brown colour, the lower part of the back being banded across with darker lines. BIBIO : BIBIONID^. A genus and sub-family of Dipterous insects, distinguished from all the other Tipulidce by having the body and legs shorter and more robust ; the antenna; cylindric,monliform,or perfoliated; wings large ; and the eyes of the males large and generally contiguous. There is great diversity in the sexes of the genus Bibio ; all the species are of small size j and their flight is slow and heavy. They are found in damp, marshy places, flying in great swarms, and some of the species are amongst the most troublesome pests to our domestic animals. BIMANA. [Two-handed.] The term applied by Cuvier to the first or lu'ghest order of Mammiferous Animals. It contains only one genus, and one species, MAN ; the sole created Being that can be termed truly bimanous and truly bitted. The whole body of Man is adapted for the vertical position : he walks erect ; and thus preserves the en- tire use of Ms hands for the arts, while his organs of sense are most favourably situated for observation and the great mental pur- poses assigned to them by the Great Author of Nature. [See the articles MAMMALIA and MAff.] BIPELTATA. A name given to those Crustacea which have the carapax divided into two shields, the anterior of which is very large, more or less oval, composing the head ; and the second, corresponding with the thorax, is transverse and angulatcd in its outline, and bears the foot-jaws and the ordinary feet. The body is very flat, mem- branous, and transparent, with the abdomen small, and without spines to the posterior swimmeret. All the species are inhabitant* of the Atlantic and Eastern Oceans. BIPES. A genus of Reptiles in which the hind feet alone are visible, there being ex- ternally a total absence of the anterior ex- tremities, though the rudiments of these members are perceptible under the skin. This genus affords an example of one of those beautiful gradations by which Nature glides from one type of form into another, being intermediate between the Saurians (lizards) and the Ophidians (serpents). BIRDS. In the following observations on the structure, habits, and uses of Birds, we 66 &rr atfurg of Natural f have endeavoured to collect, from the wri- tings of various Ornithologists, such particu- lars as appeared to be best calculated to illustrate the subject in a manner the most simple, natural, and familiar ; and in so doing we have made the just and sensible remarks of the ingenious Thomas Bewick the basis on wliich to build whatever we have thought necessary to add, or to glean from other sources. Every part of nature is furnished with its proper inhabitants ; the woods, the waters, and the depths of the earth, have their re- spective tenants ; while the passive air and those tracts of seeming space too elevated for man to ascend, are traversed by multi- tudes of feathered beings, whose buoyancy and beauty are alike the objects of our ad- miration. But the symmetry and elegance discoverable in their outward appearance, although highly pleasing to the sight, are yet of much greater importance when con- sidered with respect to their peculiar habits and mode of living, to which they are emi- nently subservient. Instead of the large head and formidable jaws, the deep capa- cious chest, the brawny shoulders, and the sinewy legs of the quadrupeds ; we observe the pointed beak, the long and pliant neck, the gently swelling shoulder, the expansive wings, the tapering tail, the light and bony feet ; which are all wisely calculated to assist and accelerate their motion through the yielding air. Every part of their frame is formed for lightness and buoyancy ; their bodies are covered with a soft and delicate plumage, so disposed as to protect them from the intense cold of the atmosphere through which they pass ; their wings are made of the lightest materials, and yet the force with which they strike the air is so great as to impel their bodies forward with astonishing rapidity, whilst the tail serves the purpose of a rudder to direct them to the different objects of their pursuit. The internal struc- ture of birds is no less wisely adapted to the same purposes ; all the bones are light and thin, and all the muscles, except those which are appropriated to the purpose cf moving the wings, are extremely delicate and light ; the lungs are placed close to the back-bone and ribs ; the air entering into them by a communication from the wind-pipe, passes through, and is conveyed into a number of membraneous cells which lie upon the sides of the pericardium, and communicate with those of the sternum. In some birds these cells are continued down the wings, and extended even to the pinions, thigh-bones, and other parts of the body, wliich can be filled and distended with air at the pleasure of the animal. All birds are furnished with two very strong pectoral muscles on each side of their breast-bones. In quadrupeds, as well as in men, the pectoral muscles are trifling in comparison with those of birds. In the for- mer, the muscles of the thighs and the hinder parts of the body are by far the strongest ; but in birds it is far otherwise ; the pectoral muscles which give motion to their wings are amazingly strong, whilst those of their thighs are weak and slender. By means of these a bird can move its wings with a de- gree of strength which is almost incredible : the flap of a swan's wing would break the leg of a man ; and a similar blow from an eagle has been known to cause instant death. Such, consequently, is the force of the wing, and such its lightness, as to be inimitable by human art. The eyes of birds are admirably adapted to vision, by a particular expansion cf their optic nerves, which renders the impression of external objects more vivid and distinct. From this peculiar conformation, it appears that the faculty of sight in birds is infinitely superior to that of other animals, and, in- deed, is indispensably necessary to their support and security. Were the eye less perfect, the bird, from the rapidity of its motion, would probably strike against al- most every object in its way ; as well as be totally incapable of discerning its proper food when soaring in its own element. In mental capacity birds fully equal quad- rupeds, and in some respects surpass them. Parrots, starlings, &c., retain in memory many words and phrases which they have been taught, and many singing-birds whole melodies. Their powers of memory seem also to be evinced by the fact that birds of passage, after an absence of six months, or even a longer time, and after travelling thousands of miles, return to their former home ; the swallow to her beam, the finch to the tree where last year she reared her young, or where she herself was hatched. The difference between such birds as love to dwell in uninhabited places, secure from persecution, and such as are found in the neighbourhood of men, surrounded by dan- gers, is a proof that their prudence, cunning, and docility can be awakened and im- proved. The voice is a peculiar gift of Nature, by which the greater part of birds are distin- guished from all the rest of the animal world. The wind-pipe of birds is composed of entire rings of cartilage, with an exception in the case of the ostrich. At its bifurcation is a glottis supplied with appropriate muscles, called the lower or inferior larynx. It is here that the voice of birds is formed ; the vast body of air contained in the air-cells contributes to the force, and the wind-pipe, by its form and movements, to the modifica- tion, of the voice. The superior larynx is very simple and unimportant. The gift of song is given to the male birds only, and their notes are mostly an expression of love. They sing only when they are cheerful ; in sadness, during rougli weather, and in bodily disorders, they are silent. It is commonly said that the gift of song is confined to the birds in northern climates, and that nature, in the warmer regions, has endowed them, instead, with more brilliant colours ; but Foster relates, that in Otaheite the birds sing with charming sweetness ; and Cook, on his first voyage, found the forests of Queen Charlotte's Sound, in New Zealand, filled with little birds, whose voices sounded like silver bells. To no other animal have such various tones been granted for giving utterance to different feelings : hunger, fear, 2Bfrtumf the head and the back are of a glossy jlack colour, slightly edged with a yellow brown ; the throat and breast are orange, as are the lesser coverts of the wings ; but those which rest on the quill feathers are barred with black, tipped with orange ; and the tail is slightly forked. BRANCHIOPODA. An order of Crusta- ceous animals, in which the locomotive ex- ;remities fulfil the functions of gills. These Crustaceans, which are for the most part microscopic, are always in motion when in in animated state, and are generally pro- tected by a shell or crust in the shape of a shield, or of a bivalve shell, and are fur- nished sometimes with four, sometimes with two antennae. Their feet vary in number, some having not less than a hundred. A great portion have only one eye. BRANCHIOSTEGI. A tribe of Cartila- ginous fishes, comprehending those in which the gills are free, and covered by a mem- brane ; including the Sturgeon and Chimaera [which see]. BREAM. (Abramis brama.) A fish of the Carp family, and by anglers often called the Carp-bream ; found in lakes, and in the deepest parts of still rivers. The body is ex- tremely deep and thin in proportion to its BREAM. (AB length, and the back much elevated. Length two feet to two feet and a half ; colour olive, with a pale or flesh-coloured tinge on the under parts : scales large ; dorsal fin rather small, and situated a little beyond the middle of the back ; anal fin extending from ; the vent nearly to the tail, which is pretty j deeply forked. Its flesh is generally con- 1 sidered coarse and extremely insipid." The SEA BRKAM (Pagrus ccntrodontus)isa. \ common fish in the Mediterranean, nor is it by any means uncommon on the southern j and western coasts of England, especially j popular of 83 during summer and autumn. The spawn is shed in the beginning of winter in deep water; and it retreats altogether from our shores in severely cold weather. The young of this fish are commonly known by the name of Chads. The Sea bream is iiot very highly esteemed for the table, either fresh or salted. BREEZE-FLY. ((Estrus; (Estridce.) The insects we are about to describe are produced from larvae which when existing in horses are termed bots ; in sheep, maggots ; and in cows and oxen, wornils; and these three represent three divisions of the family, dif- fering essentially in their history. The per- fect insect produced from each kind of larva is properly termed a Breeze-fly. Before we proceed farther, however, we beg to state that the observations which follow are taken from Mr. Newman's History of Insects, who quotes as his authority " An Essay on the Bots of Horses and other animals, by Bracy Clark, F.L.S." " The opinions of the Breeze-fly of the horse, or bot, as it is usually termed, as to the benefit or injury derived from it, are very opposite ; some observers go so far as to as- sert that the larvae occasionally completely perforate the stomach of the horse, causing disease, pain, and even death j others regard them as perfectly innocuous ; and one author [Mr. Bracy Clark], whose careful and labo- rious investigations entitle his opinions to the greatest respect, believes the effect of bots to be salutiferous rather than otherwise; and from his masterly essay the following particulars are extracted. " The female fly, in approaching the horse for the purpose of pviposition, carries her body nearly upright in the air, the protruded ovipositor being curved inwards and up- wards. Suspending herself for a few seconds before the part of the horse on which she intends to deposit the egg, she suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair : she hardly appears to settle, but merely touches the hair with the egg held out on the extreme point of the ovi- positor, the egg adhering by means of a glu- tinous liquor with which it is covered. She then leaves the horse at a small distance, prepares a second egg, and, poising her- self before the part, deposits it in the same way : the liquor dries, and the egg becomes firmly glued to the hair. This is repeated till four or five hundred eggs are sometimes placed on one horse. The skin of the horse is usually thrown into a tremulous motion on the touch of the insect, which merely arises from the very great irritability of the skin and cutaneous muscles at this season of the year, occasioned by the heat and con- tinual teasing of the flies, till at length these muscles appear to act involuntarily on the slightest touch of any body whatever. " The fly does not deposit her eggs at lan- dom on the horse's body, but selects those parts which are most likely to be nibbled by the horse : the inside of the knee is fre- quently chosen, but all naturalists must have remarked how commonly the eggs of the bot are deposited on that part of a horse's shoulder which he can never reach with his month, and thus, to a casual observer, it would seem that they must perish, and fail in the object for which their parent designed them. Now there is a provision of nature which exactly counteracts this difficulty. When horses are together in a pasture, and one of them feels an irritation on any part of the neck or shoulder which he cannot reach with his mouth, he will nibble another horse in the corresponding part of his neck or shoulder, and the horse so nibbled will immediately i>erfonn the kind office re- quired, and begin nibbling away in the part indicated. The horses, when they become used to this fly, and find it does them no injury by sucking their blood, hardly regard it, and do not appear at all aware of its object. " When the eggs have remained on the hairs four or five days, they become mature, after which time the slightest application of warmth and moisture is sufficient to bring forth in an instant the latent larva. At this time, if the lips or tongue of the horse touch the egg, its operculum is thrown open, and the young larva liberated : this readily adheres to the moist surface of the tongue, and is from thence conveyed with the food to the stomach. It is worthy of remark, that it is probable the greater part of the eggs deposited by this fly are taken up in consequence of the irritation of other flies, as the 7 ii/tinii and Stomaxidcs, which, by perpetually settling on the skin, occasion a horse to nibble himself on those parts, and thus receive the larvae on the tongue and lips, whence they are introduced into the stomach. * * * The larva, when matured, quits the stomach of the animal and falls to the ground, and finding a convenient place of retreat, undergoes its change to a chrysalis, the skin then losing its organization, and changing in colour from a whitish red to a reddish brown. After remaining torpid in the chrysalis state a few weeks, the super- fluous moisture being removed and the parts of the future insect hardened by drying, it bursts from its confinement, and the fly makes its exit at the small end of the case. A few hours after quitting their shell they become dry, take wing, and seek their mates. "A second species of Breeze-fly. has a still more wonderful history : its eggs are laid in the nostrils of sheep, from one to seven or c'ght in each individual, and these on be- coming larvse.enter the frontal and maxillary sinuses, and even the horns, and feed on their secretions : when the larvae are young they are perfectly white and transparent, except two small black horny plates : as they increase in size the upper surface be- comes marked with two transverse brown lines on each segment, the anterior being shorter and narrower than the posterior ; and some spots are also observable on the sides. The body consists of twelve segments besides the head. These larvae move with considerable activity, holding with their tentacula to a fixed point and drawing up the body. When full grown the larvae fall through the nostrils of the sheep, and change to the pupa state lying on the earth or ad- hering to the side of a blade of grass : in of about two months the case of the chrysalis opens, and the fly makes its appearance. Sheep are exceedingly annoyed by these flies, and to avoid them lie down in ruts with their heads close to the ground ; at other times we see them huddled together under trees in a dense mass or phalanx, tl nose of each being pushed into the fleece of another. "There is a third species of Breeze-fly, far more formidable than either of those previously described : its eggs are laid on the backs and sides of cows and oxen, and the larv.-e hatched from them enter the hide, producing tumours as large as pigeons' eggs. The larva itself is of an oblong figure, larger at one extremity than at the other ; the body is divided into ten or twelve segments by transverse bands, and these are again intersected by six longitudinal lines, which purse up the skin, and produce along the sides a series of mammiform protuberances, each possessing at its extremity a respiratory pore : on each segment of the body may be observed ridges, or dotted prominent lines, interrupted however by the longitudinal lines already noticed : there are in pairs a narrower and broader line of minute dots or points ; the narrower line is found, under a lens, to be formed of hooks bent towards the posterior extremity of the insect ; the broader lines consist of smaller hooks bent in an opposite direction, or towards its head : it is probably by the aid of these hooks that the animal raises or depresses itself in the tumour, and finally, when mature, effects its escape. " The food of the larva appears to be the pus or matter surrounding it in the tumour in which it exists : as regards the period of its continuing to feed we have little satis- factory information. Its colour when young is white, but as it advances towards maturity it becomes browner, and finally of a deep dark brown, approaching to black : having attained its full size, it presses itself against the upper part of the tumour, and by some unknown process makes an aperture in the hide of about sufficient size to admit a pea ; through this the larva wriggles .itself a segment at a time until it comes quite out, and falling to the ground seeks a convenient retreat in which to become a chrysalis. " The chrysalis is of a dark brown colour, and in figure somewhat resembles the half of a walnut-shell, being narrower at one end than the other, flat on one side, and very rounded and convex on the other; after lying on the ground for some weeks, a portion of the indurated skin or cover, of a triangu- lar shape, is forced up at the smaller end, and through the aperture thus occasioned the fly emerges. The fly is large and hand- somely coloured ; although the presence of the larva in the backs of cattle is frequently observable, the insect in its perfect state is rarely met with, and very few of our cabinets possess good specimens ; it flies with rapidity, but apparently without noise, and never ventures over water. "The act of oviposition appears to be attended with severe suffering, or apprehen- sion at least, which makes the cattle run wild and furious, and gad or stray from the pastures, and hence the ancient epithet of gad-fly. When oxen are yoked to the plough, the attack of this fly is attended with real danger, since they become perfectly uncon- trollable, and often run directly forwards through the hedges, or whatever obstructs their way. On this account many ploughs are provided with a contrivance for setting the oxen immediately at liberty. When the cattle are attacked by this fly, it is easily known by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd ; the unfortunate object of the attack runs bellowing from among them, and seeks a refuge in the nearest water ; the tail becomes rigid, and is bran- dished aloft, or held straight out from the body. Its frightened companions follow in the rear of the animal attacked, and a wild and apparently unmeaning chase takes place, which, from the inelegant gallop of the cows, has often a very ludicrous effect. BRENT GOOSE. A much smaller bird than the common wild goose, but with longer wings ; and It traverses greater distances in its migrations. Its breeding places are in the far north ; but it migrates for the winter to France, England, Ireland, &c. The head, neck, bill, and upper part of the breast are black ; and on each side of the slenderest part of the neck : the lower part of the breast, the scapulars, and coverts of the wings are ash-coloured; the feathers, both above and below the tail, are white : and the tail, the quill feathers, and the legs are black BRENTHID^E, or BRENTID.E. A fa- mily of Coleopterous insects, which are among the most remarkable of the beetle tribe, and almost entirely confined to tropi- cal climates. Distinguishing characters : body much elongated ; tarsi with the penul- timate joints bilobed ; antenna; filiform, or in some with the terminal joint formed into a club ; proboscis projecting horizon- tally ; palpi minute. They are tound crawl- ing on trees, or under the bark, and some- times on flowers. Their general colour is black or brown, with red spots or markings. Dr. Thaddeus Harris, librarian of Harvard College, gives a detailed account of a North American species, in his fine work on the Insects of Massachusetts. We somewhat condense his history of it. It is the Bren- thus septemtriontiJis. The Northern Bren- thus, so named because most of the other species are tropical insects, is of a mahog- any brown colour ; the wing cases are somewhat darker, ornamented with narrow tawny yellow spots, and marked with deep furrows, the sides of which are punctured. Its common length is about six-tenths of an inch, but much larger as well as smaller spe- cimens frequently occur. The Northern Brenthus inhabits the white oak, on the trunks and under the bark of which it may be found in June and July, having then completed its transformations. The female, when about to lay her eggs, punctures the bark with her slender snout, and drops an egg in each hole thus made. The grub, as soon as it is hatched, bores into the solid wood, forming a cylindrical passage, which Sh'cttonavn of $ature. it keeps clear by pushing its castings out of dually thicker towards their points, in others the orifice of the hole, as fast as they accu- serrated or pectinated; the anus naked: mulate. These castings or chips are like | hind feet generally very large. The female very fine saw-dust ; and the holes made l>y i deposits an egg in the young and tender germ the insects are easily discovered by the dust of various leguminous or cereal plants, &c., around then. The grub is about an inch upon which the larva feeds, and within long and nearly cylindrical ; the last segment is of a horny consistence, and is obliquely hollowed at the end, so as to form a kind of gouge or scoop, the edges of which are fur- nished with little notches or teeth. It is by means of this singular scoop that the grub shovels the minute grains of wood out of its burrow. The pupa, which is of a yellowish white colour, is met with in the burrow formed by the larva ; the back is furnished with transverse rows of little thorns or sharp teeth, and there are two larger thorns at the extremity of the body. These minute thorns probably enable the pupa to move towards the mouth of its burrow when it is about to be transformed, and may serve also to keep its body steady during its exertions in cast- ing off its pupa-skin. These insects are most abundant in trees that have been cut down for timber or fuel, which are generally at- tacked the first summer after they are felled ; it has also been ascertained that living trees do not always escape, but those that are in full vigour are rarely perforated by grubs of this kind. BREVIPENNES. The term given to the first family of Stilt-birds, the shortness of whose wings are inadequate to perform the function of flight ; the weight of their mas- sive bodies appearing to require more mus- cular power to support them in the air than nature has furnished them with. The pec- toral muscles are reduced to extreme tenuity ; but the muscles of the thighs and legs are of an enormous thickness. [See OSTRICH, CASSOWARY, &c.] BRILL, or PEARL. (Pleuronectes rhom- bus.) In its general form this fish resembles the Turbot, but is inferior to it both in size and quality. It is distinguished from the Turbot by the perfect smoothness of its skin, which is covered with scales of a moderate size, and by its pale brown colour above, marked by scattered yellowish or rufous spots ; the lateral line, as in the Turbot, is first arched over the pectoral fins, and from thence runs straight to the tail. The Brill u taken on many parts of our coasts ; the principal part of the supply for the London market being derived from the southern coast, where it is most abundant. BRIMSTONE [BUTTERFLY]. A name applied by collectors to the Butterfly called Gonepteryx Jthamni. BROCK. A local name given to the Badger. Burns alludes to a " stinking brock." It also denotes a hart in its third year. BRUCHUS : BRUCIIID^. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, allied to the Weevils, and thus characterized: palpi obvious, filiform, not very minute ; rostrum broad ; labrum exserted ; antennas eleven- jointed, sub-clavate, with the club formed of distinct joints in some; filiform, or gra- which it undergoes its transformations : the perfect insect, in order to make its escape, detaches a portion of the epidermis like a small cup ; hence the small holes often ob- served in peas, dates, &c. The family is very extensive. Bnichiiapi.fi, Linn., which is two lines long, black, with grey spots on the elytra, in some years does great mischief to peas, particularly in North America. nc- chus serripes, the figure of which is here tiven, with the head and posterior limb, is a ne example of this family. By some authors it is placed in a separate genus. BRUSH TURKEY. The local name given by the colonists to the New Holland Vulture (of Latham,) or Tallegalla (of Gould). [See TALLEGALLA.] BUBO. A subgenus of owls. [See O\VL.] BUCCINUM. A genus of Molluscous ani- mals called Whelks ; the general characters of which are, that their mouths are an oblong or very lengthened oval, the upper parts of which are slightly beaked In the Unnsenn system, the Buccina form a distinct genus of the univalve and spiral Testacea. Those species most usually met with on the coasts of the British isles are the brown, massy, waved, striated, reticulated, and small Bnc cina. The shell of the Bttccinum Inpillits (the common White Buccinum) is one of the shells from which the ancients are supposed to have extracted their indelible purple dye, called the Tyrinn purple. The part con- taining the colouring matter is a longitu- dinal vein, just under the skin on the back, behind the head. If the vein is laid open with a needle, a tenacious yellow matter will flow, which being applied with a hair pen- cil to linen, silk, or paper, it will in a short time become of a bright yellow, will soon change to pale green, then assume a bluish cast, and afterwards a deep and brilliant purple. We learn from Mr. Stevenson's interesting narrative of the erection of the Bell Rock light-house, that the Dwcinum In/tillus preys upon the Mussel (Mytilus cdulis.) Mr. S. says, "When the workmen first landed upon the Bell Rock, limpets of a very large size 86 of Natural ^ were common, but were soon picked up for bait. As the limpets disappeared, we endea- voured to plant a colony of mussels, from beds at the mouth of the river Eden, of a larger kind than those which seem to be natural to the rock. These larger mussels were likely to have been useful to the work- men, and might have been especially so to the light-keepers, the future inhabitants of the rock, to whom that delicate fish would have afforded a fresh meal, as well as a bet- ter bait than the limpet ; but the mussels were soon observed to open and die in great numbers. For some time this was ascribed to the effects of the violent surge of the sea, but the Buccinum lapiltus (Purpura) having greatly increased, it was ascertained that it had proved a successful enemy to the mussel. The Buccinum, being furnished with a pro- boscis capable of boring, was observed to perforate a small hole in the shell, and thus to suck out the finer parts of the body of the mussel ; the valves of course opened, and the remainder of the fish was washed away by the sea. The perforated hole is generally upon the thinnest part of the shell and is perfectly circular, of a champliered form, being wider towards the outward side, and so perfectly smooth and regular as to have all the appearance of the most beautiful work of an expert artist. It became a matter extremely desirable to preserve the mussel, and it seemed practicable to extirpate the buccinum. But after we had picked up and destroyed many barrels of them, their extir- pation was at length given up as a hopeless task. The mussels were thus abandoned as their prey, and in the course of the third year's operations, so successful had the ra- vages of the buccinum been, that not a single mussel of a large size was to be found upon the rock ; and even the small kind which bred there, are now chiefly confined to the extreme points of the rock, where it would seem their enemy cannot so easily follow them." BUCCO. A genus of birds, called Barbels, a name derived from the bristly feathers which surround the base of the bill, and pro- ject beneath the chin like a beard. [See BARBET.] BUCEROS. [See HORXBILL.] BUCK. The male of the Fallow Deer, the female of which is called a Doe. [See DEEK.] BUFFALO. (Bos bubalug.) A species of Ox, found in various parts of India ; but in America the name of "Buffalo" is uni- versally given to the Bison [which see]. The Buffaloes are of large size, but low in proportion to their bulk ; they have no hunch on the back, and only a small dewlap on the breast ; the hide is generally black , the tail long and slender. They generally live in small flocks, but sometimes are found in herds of considerable numbers ; frequent- ing moist and marshy situations, and pre- ferring the coarse vegetation of the forest and swampy regions to that of open plains. They swim well, and cross the broadest rivers without hesitation ; their gait is heavy, and they run almost always with the nose horizontal, being principally guided by the sense of smelling. They are fierce and stub- BtTFFAT,O. (BOS BUBALtJS.) born, and with difficulty subjugated The Aniee Buffalo (Bos ami) has horns of a prodigious size and length ; the horns are turned laterally, flattened in front, and wrinkled on the concave surface. A pair of them are in the British Museum, each of which measures along the curve from base to tip, six feet three inches, and eighteen inches in circumference at the base. This formidable animal is found wild in many parts of India, and also tarne wherever the inhabitants have occasion for its services. Being extremely strong, they are employed in agriculture, and in drawing and carrying burdens, being guided by rings thrust through their noses. All Buffaloes are extremely fearful of fire ; and they have a great aver- sion to red colours. In general, they are very inoffensive, if left undisturbed ; but when wounded, or even fired at, their fury becomes ungovernable ; they then tear up the ground with their fore-feet, make a horrid bellow- ing, and pursue the objects of their resent- ment witli determined fury. [See Bisox.] BUFO. [See TOAD.] BUG. (Cimex.) Of the numerous tribe of Hemipterous insects belonging to the genus Cimex, we may specify the troublesome and nauseous insect, the Cimex Icctularius, or common domestic Bug. To give a very par- ticular description of this noxious tormentor would be superfluous : it may be sufficient to observe, that it is of an oval shape, about the sixth of an inch long, of a compressed or flat form, and of a reddish-brown colour. It is asserted, though it may be difficult to say how truly, that the Bug was scarcely known in England before the year 1670, having been imported from America among the timber used in rebuilding the city of London after the great fire of 1C66 ; but it appears not to have been an uncommon pest 8 Popular SBicttonari? of gfotmatrlr $aturc. 87 in several countries of Europe before that time. Its blood-sucking properties, and the offensive smell it emits when touched, are too well known to require comment. The female Bug deposits her eggs in the beginning of summer; they are very small, white, and of an oval shape ; each is fixed to a small hair- like stalk, which is glutinous, and readily adheres to any thing it touches. The places in which the eggs are generally deposited are the crevices of bedsteads or other furni- ture, or the walls of a room. During the winter months these odious insects secrete themselves behind walls, old wainscoting, or any neglected places, where they are capa- ble of bearing the most intense frost without injury, and on the return of warm weather again emerge from their concealment. A Bug always avoids the light, if possible ; and takes advantage of every chink and cranny to make a secure lodgment ; its motion is slow and unwieldy ; but its sight is so ex- quisite, that although it persecutes its victim with unceasing assiduity in the dark, the moment it perceives the light, it generally makes good its retreat. The Rev. Leonard Jenyns has described two or three other spe- cies found in this country. [See CIMBX.] BULIMUS. The name of a very exten- sive genus of terrestrial molluscs, very much resembling the Helix. Some attain to great size. [See HELIX.] BULL-DOG. {Canis [damesticus] moJos- su8\ A variety of the Dog, remarkable for its short, broad muzzle, and the projection of its lower jaw. The head is massive and large, and the frontal sinuses large ; the lips are thick and pendulous ; the ears pendant at the extremity ; the neck robust and short ; and the legs short and thick. Though inof- fensive and harmless when properly domesti- cated, the Bull-dog presents to the eye a most terrific appearance : the doubtful and designing leer, the tiger-like shortness of the head, the under-hung jaw, the width of the skull, the distension of the nostrils, and the almost constant sight of the teeth, hold forth a very formidable proof of the power he can exert, when that power is angrily brought into action. The breed is by no means so numerous as formerly, inconsequence of the abolition of the barbarous sport of bull-bait- ing ; the butchers, however, use Bull-dogs in catching and throwing down cattle ; and it is surprising to see the apparent ease with which the dog will seize an ox by the nose, and hold him perfectly still, or throw him on his side, at his master's command. They be- come very vicious, and sometimes extremely dangerous, as they advance In years, inflict- ing dreadful bites for the slightest provoca- tion; in their unrestrained state, indeed, they are a real nuisance, and therefore ought never to be allowed their full liberty. [See Doo.] BULLA. A genus of Molluscous animals with univalve shells ; whose general charac- ters are, that the shell is sub-oval, that the aperture is oblong and smooth, and that one end is a little convoluted. The animal breathes by gills, but has no respiratory tube, and consequently the margin of the aperture * of tin- shell is entire, or without a fissure or canal. There are nu- merous species, widely diffused ; generally a- bout the size of a bean, tho' sometimes much larger. Most of this genus, especially of the larger sizes,are furnish- ed with an organ ex- actly resembling the gizzard of a fowl, and which they appear to use for the purpose of masticating their food. BULLFINCH. (Loxia pyrrhtila of Lin- naeus.) A well-known and pretty bird, about the size of a sparrow. Its wild note is a soft low twitter : but, when tamed, it becomes re- markably docile, and learns with great faci- lity to whistle musical airs, wliich, if pro- perly taught, it seldom wholly forgets. The bill is strong, short, black, and thick ; the upper part of the head, the ring round the bill, and the origin of the neck, fine glossy black ; the back ash grey ; breast and belly red ; wings and tail black; the upper tail coverts and vent ore white ; legs dark brown. The female is very like the male, but the colours are less bright, and the under parts of a reddish brown. These birds are coimnon in every part of our island, as well as in most parts of Europe ; their usual haunts during summer are woods and thickets ; they also frequent our orchards and gardens in the spring, seeking not only the insects which are lodged in the tender buds of fruit-trees, but feeding on the buds ; on which account they are regarded by gardeners as among the most pernicious of the feathered race. BTTMFINOH. ( FTRKH The Bullfinch is a native of England, and also of most parts of the European conti- nent. It general! v constructs its nest, which is composed of small dry twigs, in the thickest parts of a white or black thorn hedge. The female lays about four or five bluish-white eggs, marked with dark spots at the larger end ; and breeds about the latter end of May. The bird is very common in the mountainous parts of Germany ; from which 1 2 88 Crras'urj? of country the market for piping-bullfinches is principally supplied. Other species are met with in Asia, Africa, and America; but they hardly require a distinct notice here. By many naturalists they are made to constitute a separate genus, called Pyrrlmla, after the type which we have just described. BULL-FROG. [See FROG.] BULL-HEAD, or MILLER'S-THUMB. (Coitus gobio.} There are several species of fish, inhabiting different climates, which are denominated Bullheads ; bu it is the well- knuwii River Bullhead, or Miller's Thumb, ai^Acanthopterygious fish, which we are now about to describe. This species is found in clear brooks and rivers, in most parts of Europe. It is only four or five inches long ; the head is of a roundish shape, large, broad, and depressed ; the gill-fins are round, and beautifully notched at their circumference ; and the rays of all the fins are prettily spotted. The mouth is large, and full of small teeth ; the general colour of the body is a dark brownish black ; the sides lighter, with small black spots ; and the under sur- face of the head and belly white. It is so remarkably stupid, that whatever number may be together, the most inexpert angler may catcli them all. It is generally found among loose stones, under which, from the 1 peculiarly flattened form of its head, it is | enabled to thrust itself, and thus to find a hiding place. Mr. Yarrell, in his truly na- tional work " The British Fishes," (the wood-cut illustrations of which are such ! models of excellency,) so amusingly accounts I for the popular names of this fish, that we ! take the liberty of borrowing his words : I " As the term Bullhead is considered to I refer to the large size of the head, so the name of Miller's Thumb given to this spe- i cies, it has been said, is suggested by, and I intended to have reference to, the particular ' form of the same part. The head of the fish, i it will be observed, is smooth, broad, and I rounded, and is said to resemble exactly the | form of the thumb of a miller, as produced I by a peculiar and constant action of the i muscles in the exercise of a particular and most important part of his occupation. It is well known that all the science and tact I of a miller is directed so as to regulate the | machinery of his mill, that the meal pro- | duced shall be of the most valuable descrip- tion that the operation of grinding will permit when performed under the most ad- vantageous circumstances. His profit or hi loss, even his fortune or his ruin, depend upon the exact adjustment of all the various parts of the machinery in operation. The miller's ear is constantly directed to the note made by the running-stone in its circular course over the bed-stone, the exact paral- lelism of their two surfaces, indicated by a particular sound, being a matter of the first consequence : and his hand is as constantly iaced under the meal-spout, to ascertain and qui of the meal produced. The thumb by placed by actu al contact the character and qualities particular movement spreads the sample I over the fingers ; the thumb is the guage of I the value of the produce, and hence has i arisen the sayings of " Worth a miller's thumb ; " and " An honest miller hath a golden thumb ; " in reference to the amount of the profit that is the reward of his skill. By this incessant action of the miller's thumb, a peculiarity in its form is produced, which is said to resemble exactly the shape of the head of the fish constantly found in the mill-stream, and has obtained for it the name of the Miller's Thumb, which occurs in the comedy of " Wit at several Weapons," by Beaumont and Fletcher, act v. scene 1. ; and also in Merrett's " Pinax." Although the improved machinery of the present time has diminished the necessity for the miller's skill in the mechanical department, the thumb is still constantly resorted to as the best test for the quality of the flour." The ARMED BULLHEAD, or POGGE, (Cottus aspidophorus,) is found in the Baltic and Northern seas, and is also taken on the British coasts. It seldom exceeds six inches in length ; small crustaceous animals and aquatic insects are its food ; and its flesh is said to be firm and good. The head is large, bony, and very rugged ; the end of the nose is armed with four short upright spines; and the chin is furnished with several minute cirri. The mouth is small, as are the teeth, which are very numerous. The body is di- vided longitudinally by eight scaly ridges, and is defended by eight rows of strong scaly plates, of which the elevated ridges form the central lines. The pectoral fins are large, with a broad bar of brown across the centre; the general colour of the upper surface of the body brown, with four broad dark brown bands ; tail brown ; and the under parts of the body nearly white. The SIX-HORNED BULLHEAD (Cottus hexacornis) is a North American species, about seven inches long. The head is large and depressed, and on it are six nail-shaped processes standing erect ; the eyes are large ; the mouth is capacious, its margins formed by the intermaxillaries and lower jaw; both jaws and the vomer are set with bands of fine teeth; the gill-covers are composed of several bones connected by membrane, and armed on their exterior edges with four or five small spinous teeth: the bones which support the pectoral fins are also armed with small spines, arid have sharp rough edges. The body is much narrower than the head, and tapers to the insertion of the caudal fin. The upper aspect of this fish popular JBtcttonarj) of gmmatett $aturt. 89 presents a clouded admixture of brown and olive-green tints : the belly white ; and the fins streaked with bluish-black. This species is said to be extremely tenacious of life; for, after being drawn from the water, they will leap vigorously over the sands, and inflate the head when touched. In this operation the branchiostegous membrane is distended, and the several pieces composing the gill- covers are separated by the extension of the intervening membranes. Capt. Sir J. C. Ross, who considers it to be the same with the Coitus scorpioides of Fabricius, says that, although very abundant on the Greenland coast, it is more rare in the higher latitudes, but several were taken on both sides of the peninsula of Boothia. The natives prize it highly as an article of food, preferring it to cod-fish or salmon. BUNTING. (Eiriberiza.') The Buntings form a very interesting group of Passerine birds. The general characters of the family are, that the bill is strong and conic, the upper mandible with a strong knob on the " palate," the sides of each mandible bending inwards; they live principally on seeds, for g of which their bill is well adapted. We select a few from among the the breaking of which adapted. W numerous species as examples. The COMMON BUNTING. (Emberiza miliuria.) The length of this bird is about seven inches and a half ; beak brown ; head and upper parts light brown, inclining to olive; under parts yellowish white; quills dusky with lighter edges ; upper coverts tipped with white ; tail slightly forked and dusky ; and legs pale brown. These birds COMMON BUNT1NO. (^EbiBERIZA MU.JAR1A.) are common in England, delighting in those parts that abound in corn, and rarely found in uncultivated places : in winter they as- semble in vast flocks ; and are often taken in nets, and brought to market, where they are sold for larks, but may be easily dis- tinguished by the knob in the roof of the mouth. The female builds her nest on a tuft of dead plants, a few inches from the ground: it is composed externally of grass and a few long hairs. She lays five or six dirty-white eggs, spotted with reddish brown and ash colour. The BLACK-HEADED, or REED- BUNTING. (Embcriza schcenidus.) B irda of this species frequent fens and marshy places, where there is abundance of rushes, among which they nestle. The head, throat, fore part of the neck, and breast, are black; divided by a white line from each corner of the bill, passing downwards and nearly encircling the neck: upper parts of the body and wings reddish brown, each feather with a black streak down the middle; under parts REE1J EONTINO. (EMBERIZA 8CHCKNICLUS.) white, with brownish streaks on the sides ; quills dusky, edged with brown; two middle tail-feathers black, the outer ones almost white ; legs and feet dusky brown. The head of the female is rust-coloured, spotted with black: it is destitute of the white ring round the neck, but in other respects it resembles the male. This bird was formerly supposed to suspend its nest between four reeds within a few feet of the water; this, however, is not the case, as it generally places it on the ground at a little distance from the water, and occasionally in a bush, in high grass, or in furze, at a great distance from any water: it is composed of stalks of grass, moss, and fibres, lined with fine grass. The eggs are four or five in number, of a dirty bluish white, with many dark-coloured spots and veins. To the Bunting Family, but by naturalists placed in different genera from the preceding, belong the three following species : The SNOW BUNTING. (Plectrophanes nivnlis.) This hardy bird is an inhabitant of the mountains of Spitzbergen, Greenland, Lapland, Hudson'sBay, and other cold north- ern countries : in the Highlands of Scotland (where it is known by the name of the Snow- flake) it is said also to be extremely abun- dant, and is supposed to be the harbinger of severe weather; which drives it from its usual haunts. The Snow Bunting weighs only about an ounce and a half. The bill and legs are black; the forehead and crown are white, with some mixture of black on the hind part of the head ; the back is wholly black ; the rump is white; the quill-feathers are black, with white bases; and the second- aries are white, with black spots on their interior webs. The inner feathers of the 90 Crarfurg at Natural tail are black, the tliree exterior ones being white, with dusky spots near their ends ; and from the chin to the tail is of a delicate white. The claw of the hind toe is very long. 8KOW-BONTIN9. (PLBOTBOPHANB8 NTVAI.18.) The nest of this bird is said to be placed in the fissures of the mountain rocks, and to be composed of grass, with a layer of feathers inside, and another of the soft fur of the Arctic Fox within that. The female lays five reddish- white eggs, spotted with brown : on its first arrival in this country it is very lean, but quickly grows fat, and is then excellent eating. It sings very sweetly, sitting on the ground ; and does not perch, but runs about like the lark, which at first sight it much resembles. PAINTED BUNTING. (Ember izafciris.) A beautiful bird, of the size of a hedge- sparrow, which inhabits various parts of South America : it builds its nest in the orange trees, and will feed on millet, suc- cory, and other seeds. It has a very soft and delicate note ; and will live in confinement eight or ten years. The head and neck are of a violet colour ; upper part of the back and scapulars yellow-green ; lower part and all the under side red ; wing coverts and tail of an olive-green, tinged with brown, and edged with red. They seldom obtain their full plumage till the third year, so that they are rarely found quite alike. The ORANGE-SHOULDERED BUN- TING. (Vidua longicauda.') This bird, which inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, is the size of a song-thrush ; bill strong and dusky, the nostrils almost hid in the feathers; plumage above and below glossy black ; lesser wing-coverts crimson, below which is a white spot. The tail consists of twelve feathers, hanging sideways ; the two middle ones fifteen inches in length, the rest shortening by degrees, and the outer ones very short; the legs large and brown ; claws long and hooked. Of this species M. Vaillant relates some particulars not unworthy of notice in this place. " " The female of this beautiful bird," says he, " has the simple colours of the sky-lark, and a short horizontal tail, like that of almost all other birds; the male, on the contrary, is wholly black, except at the shoulder of the wing, where there is a large red patch; and his tail is long, ample, nd vertical, like that of the common cock. But this brilliant plumage and fine vertical tail subsist only during the season of love, which continues six months. This period over, he lays aside his splendid habiliments, and assumes the more modest dress of his nate. The most extraordinary circumstance is, that the vertical tail also changes to a horizontal one, and the male so exactly re- sembles the female, that it is not possible to distinguish them from each other. The female has her turn. When she reaches a certain age, and has lost the faculty of pro- pagating the species, she clothes herself for the remainder of her days in the garb which the male had temporarily assumed; her tail, like his at that period, grows long, and like his also, from horizontal becomes vertical. The birds of this species associate together, live in a sort of republic, and build heir nests near to each other. The society usually consists of about fourscore females ; but whether, by a particular law of nature, more females are produced than males, or for any other reason of which I am ignorant, there are never more than twelve or fifteen males to this number of females, who have them in common." The truth is, that the male, ex- cept at the breeding season, when the long- tailed feathers are produced, very nearly re- sembles the female, and may often be mis- taken for it by an inattentive observer. According to our author, this transmuta- tion is by no means confined to this peculiar species of Bunting. Many females of the feathered creation, when they grow so old as to cease laying eggs, assume the more splendid colours of the male, which they re- tain during the remainder of their lives. BUPALUS. A genus of Lepidopterous insects, of which there are many species. The Bupahis piniarius, called the Bordered White Sloth, may be taken as an example. Its wings on the upper side are of a dusky brown colour, and adorned with numerous pale yellow spots. The Caterpillar is green, with a white stripe down the middle of the back, and two stripes on each side of it. BUPHAGA. There is but one bird which constitutes this genus of Passerine Coniros- tres, and that is the AFRICAN OX-PECKER (.Buphaga Africana). It is said to be fre- quently found in Senegal, and that its chief food consists in the larvae of cestri, or bot-fl " which it sedulously extracts from the backs of cattle : hence its name. It measures about eight inches and a half in length ; is rufous brown above, and of a dull yellowish white beneath. The bill is nearly an inch long, yellowish, with a red tip ; the legs and claws are brown. It is extremely wild or shy, and is usually seen in small flocks of six or eight together. BUPRESTIS : BUPRESTID^. A ge- nus and family of Coleopterous insects, of the family Serricorties, distinguished by the toothed or serrated form of the antennas, and the splendour of its colours ; many of its species having spots of golden hue upon an emerald ground, whilst in others azure glitters upon the gold. The subjoined figure popular HDtrtfmtarg of SCmmatrtr 91 shows one of the curious Brazilian species; it is named B. penicillata from the pencils of hairs at the tips ou the sides of its elytra. The largest and most brilliant of these beetles arc found chiefly in tropical climates. Some of them live for very_ many years in the larva state. A gentleman in the city of London had a desk that had been brought from India, in which was one of the grubs belonging to this species : several years afterwards the perfect insect made its appearance, and thereby put an end to many surmises of the merchant and his clerks as to certain scratchings which they had long heard in silent wonder. The Buprestians are hard-shelled beetles, often brilliantly coloured, of an elliptical or oblong-oval form, obtuse before, tapering behind, and broader than thick, so that when cut in two transversely, the section is oval ; the legs are rather short, and the feet are formed for standing firmly, rather than for rapid motion ; the soles being composed of four rather wide joints, covered with little spongy cushions beneath, and terminated by a fifth joint, which is armed with two claws. In the greater number of coleopterous insects the scutel is quite conspicuous, but in the Buprestidse it is generally very small, and sometimes hardly perceptible. These beetles are frequently seen on the trunks and limbs of trees basking in the sun. They walk slowly, and, at the approach of danger, fold up their legs and antenna? and fall to the ground. Being furnished with ample wings, their flight is swift and attended with a whizzing noise. They keep concealed in the night, and are in motion only during the day. The larvse are wood-eaters or borers ; and both fruit and forest trees are very subject to their attacks. In the tropical parts of S. Ame- rica the grub of the Buprestis gigas, the per- fect insect of which is figured in next column, must be exceedingly destructive. They are in general of a yellowish white colour, very long, narrow, and depressed in form, but abruptly widened near the anterior extremity : the upper jaws are provided with three teeth, and are of a black colour ; and the antennae are very short. There are no legs, nor any or- gans which can serve as such, except two small warts on the under side of the second segment from the thorax. The motion of the grub appears to be effected by the alternate contractions and elongations of the segments, aided, perhaps, by the tubercular extremity of the body, and by its jaws, with which it takes hold of the sides of its burrow, and thus draws itself along. These grubs are found under the bark and in the solid wood of trees, and sometimes in great numbers. They frequently rest with the body bent sideways, so that the head and tail approach each other ; those found under bark usually assuming this posture. The pupa bears a near resemblance to the perfect insect, but is entirely white, until near the time of its last transformation. Its situation is immedi- ately under the bark, the head being directed outwards, so that when the pupa-coat is cast off, the beetle has merely a thin covering of bark to perforate before making its escai>e from the tree. The form of this perforation is oval, as is also a transverse section of the burrow, that shape being best adapted to the form, motion, and egress of the insect. Some of these beetles are known to eat leaves and flowers, and of tliis nature is pro- bably the food of all of them. The injury they may thus commit is not very apparent, and cannot bear any comparison with the extensive ravages of their larvae. The solid trunks and limbs of sound and vigorous trees are often bored through in various directions by these insects, which, during a long-continued life, derive their only nou- rishment from the woody fragments they devour. Pines and firs seem particularly subject to their attacks ; but other forest- trees do not escape, and even fruit trees are frequently injured by them. We may here remark, that woodpeckers are much more successful in discovering the retreats of these borers, and in dragging out the defenceless culprits from their burrows, than the most skilful gardener or nurseryman. The wild cherry-tree \Prunw serotina), and also the garden cherry and peach trees, suffer severely from the attacks of borers, which are transformed to the beetles called Buprestis divaricata, because the wing-covers divaricate or spread apart a little at the tips. These beetles are copper-coloured, some- times brassy above, and thickly covered with little punctures ; the thorax is slightly fur- rowed in the middle ; the wing-covers are marked with numerous fine irregular im- pressed lines and small oblong square ele- vated black spots ; they taper very much behind, and the long and narrow tips are blunt-pointed : the middle of the breast is 92 Cmjfttrg at Natural furrowed ; and the males have a little tooth on the under-side of the shanks of the inter- mediate legs. They measure from seven to nine tenths of an inch. These beetles may be found sunning themselves upon the limbs of cherry and peach trees during the months of June, July, and August. Bqprettit dentipes, so named from the den- ticulation on the under-side of the thick fore legs, inhabits the trunks of oak-trees. It completes its transformations and comes out of the trees between the end of May and the 1st of July. It is oblong-oval and flat- tened, of a bronzed brownish or purplish black colour above, copper-coloured beneath, and rough like shagreen with numerous punctures ; on each wing- cover there are three irregular smooth elevated lines, which are divided and interrupted by large thickly punctured impressed spots, two of which are oblique ; the tips are rounded. Length rather more than half an tnch. Euprestis Harrisii is a small and broad beetle, of an entirely brilliant blue-green colour, except the sides of the thorax, and the thighs, which, in the male, are copper- coloured : it measures little more than three tenths of an inch in length. The larvse in- habit the small limbs of the white pine, and young sapling trees of the same kind. Buprestis Mariana, a species fonnd in the south parts of Europe, is placed along with a closely allied one from America, and two or three other species in the genus Cfial- BOPRESTI9 MARIANA.. Dr. W. Harris, of Massachusetts, speaking of the great difficulty there is in discovering and dislodging the various grubs of tree-bor- ing beetles, observes: "When trees are found to be very much infested by them, and are going to decay in consequence of the ravages of these borers, it will be better to cut them down and burn them immediately, than to suffer them to stand until the borers have completed their transformations and made their escape." It is from Dr. Harris's able work on the Insects of Massachusetts that we have derived much of the information in this article. BURBOT. (Gadus lota.) A fish be- longing to the order Malacopterygii ; very highly esteemed for its superior delicacy, and bearing some resemblance to the eel in its body, except that it is shorter and thicker. The head is broad and flat ; the eyes small and lateral ; the mouth wide ; the jaws armed with several rows of sharp teeth ; the lower jaw furnished with a beard of con- siderable length, and two small cirri seated on the top of the nose. The colour of the Burbot varies ; some being dusky, and others of a dull green, spotted with black, and often with yellow : the belly in some is white ; and the skin is remarkably smooth BURBOT. (OAD08 LOTA.) and slippery. The first dorsal fin is short, and the second is placed immediately behind it, extending almost to the tail ; the vent is situated near the centre of the belly ; the anal fin reaches almost to the tail ; and the tail is rather short and rounded. The Bur- bot is found in several of the English rivers and lakes of the northern countries ; but it is said to arrive at its greatest perfection in the lake of Geneva, where it sometimes weighs six pounds, though in this country it seldom exceeds two or three. BURSATELLA. A genus of marine Mollusca, without shells, found in the Indian seas. BUSTARDS. (Otis; Otidce.) A genus and family of Cursorial Birds, distinguished for their powers of running and their shyness : some of the Asiatic species, such as the Florican, are much sought for by the Indian sportsman as a delicacy for the table. We here mean to confine our attention to the two species indigenous to the British Islands, although now both are very rare birds. The GREAT BUSTARD (Otis tarda) is the largest of European laud birds, the male being about four feet long, and mea- suring nine feet from tip to tip of the wings when extended, while its weight is on an average twenty-five pounds. The head and neck are ash-coloured, and there is a tuft of feathers about five inches long on each side of the lower mandible. The back is transversely barred with black and bright ferruginous colours, and the primaries are black. The tail consists of twenty feathers, broadly barred with red and black ; and the legs are naked, dusky, and without a hind toe. The female is not much more than half the size of the male, and has the crown of the head of a deep orange colour, traversed by red lines ; the remainder of the head is brown ; her colours are not so bright as the male, and she has no tuft on each side of the head. There is likewise another very essen- tial difference between the male and the female ; the former being furnished with a sack or pouch, situated in the fore part of the neck, and capable of containing nearly two quarts : the entrance to it is immediately under the tongue. This singular reservoir the bird is supposed to fill with water, as a supply in the midst of those dreary plains where it is accustomed to wander ; it is also popular JBtcttonarj) of &nimatrtr $sturc. 93 said to make use of it when attacked by birds of prey, by so violently ejecting it as to baffle their attacks These birds were formerly seen in considerable flocks on the extensive plains of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and in parts of Yorkshire ; but as cultiva- tion has advanced, they are become very scarce. They arc very shy and vigilant, and D. (OTIS TARDA.) by no means easy to shoot : they run with great speed, and aid their course with their wings, like the ostrich. They feed on grain, seed, worms, &c. ; make their nest by merely scraping a hole in the earth ; and lay two eggs, as large as those of a goose, of a pale olive tint, with dark spots. They seldom wander far from their accustomed haunts, and have a great unwillingness to rise on the wing ; but when once in the air, they can fly several miles without resting. The LITTLE BUSTARD. (Otis tetrode.) This bird is very uncommon in England, but in France it is taken in nets, like the partridge. It is a very shy and cunning bird ; if disturbed, it flies two or three hun- dred paces, not far from the ground, and then runs away much faster than any one can follow on foot. The female lays three or four eggs, of ft glossy green colour, in June ; and as soon as they are hatched, she leads them about as a hen does her chickens. The length of this bird is seventeen inches : the bill is pale brown ; irides red ; the top of the head black, spotted with pale rusty ; the sides of the head, chin, and throat, red- dish with black spots : the whole neck in the male is black, encircled with an irregu- lar band of white near the top and bottom ; the back and wings rufous and brown, crossed with fine irregular black lines : the under parts of the body, and outer edges of the wings, are white ; the tail tawny and white, with black bands : legs grey. The thick- kneed Plover is sometimes also locally named " Bustard," but belongs to another order, the Grallatorial Birds. [See CEuiCNEMUS.] BUTCHER-BIRD. [See SHRIKE.] BUTEO. [See BUZZAKD.] BUTTERFLY. (Papilio.) The popular English name of an extensive group of beau- tiful insects, belonging to the order Lejn- doptera, as they appear in their fully de- veloped state. They are distinguished from other insects by these generical characters : their antennae are clubbed at the extremi- ties ; their wings, when at rest, are closed together over their backs ; and they fly only in the day-time. Butterflies are also dis- tinguished from the other Lepidoptera by the superior brilliancy of their colouring, and by the beauty of the under as well as the upper side of the wings. " The Butter- fly," as Mr. Knapp observes, " light, airy, joyous, replete with life, sports in the sun- shine, wantons on the flower, and trips from bloom to bloom, gay as the brilliant morn, and cheerful as the splendour of heaven : heat and light appear to be the very prin- ciple of his being ; in a cloudy or a chilly atmosphere his energies become suspended, and, closing his wings, he reposes like a sickly thing upon some drooping flower : but let the cloud disperse, the sun break out, he springs again to active life ; associating with the birds of day, and denizen of the same scenes, he only seems of a less elevated order." Butterflies are very careful in depositing their eggs in places where they are likely to be hatched with the greatest safety and suc- cess. They lie dormant through the winter ; but when the sun calls forth vegetation, and vivifies the various eggs of insects, cater- pillars are seen on various plants, eating their leaves, and preparing for a state of greater perfection. Their form is long and cylindrical, and they consist of thirteen seg- ments, including the head ; they have eight feet, and nine spiracles on each side. Those feet which are attached in pairs to the first three segments of the trunk inclose the parts which are developed into the permanent legs of the future Butterfly ; the remaining five pairs of feet are membranous, short, and thick, and are finally lost with the moultings of the skin. The external form of the chrysalids varies according to the species of Butterfly that in- habits them ; in all, however, there are aper- tures opposite to the thorax, by which re- spiration is carried on during the whole period of their inactive state. After the appointed time, when the creature has ac- quired sufficient vigour, the shell is broken, which at once constituted " the grave of the caterpillar and the cradle of the butterfly : " the down already grown upon the insect has completely separated it on all sides from I the shell, which by the action of the head | is broken opposite to that part, and affords free egress to the prisoner it so long confined. The wings of the Butterfly, on its first ap- pearance, are closely folded ; but by the help of a fluid constantly circulating through them, they are soon expanded, and suffi- ciently hardened, by the action of the air, to endure the efforts of flying. It is then that the insect enters upon a more enlarged sphere of action, with increased powers : he ranges from flower to flower, darting his rostrum into their nectaries for the delicious stores they contain. Then, too, in the full 94 Creagurp at Natural ^t possession of every faculty granted to race, he prepares to multiply and perpe- tuate it. This last and most considerable metamor- phosis is attended with a greater change in the economy of the insect than of the pre- ceding ; for not only the skin, but the teeth, jaws, and even the cranium, are left behind. Vhe work of Herold, on the transformation of the Cabbage Butterfly, may be judiciously consulted by the student; while Lyonet's researches and great book on the caterpillar of the Goat Moth, teach many particulars of the transformation of a large moth. There is a paper on the wings of LepMoptera by Bernard Deschamps well worth the at- tention of persons fond of the microscope (see " Annales des Sciences Naturelles," 2nd ser., t. III. 1S35). The quantity of food taken by them in their last state is compa- ratively small to what they antecedently devoured. For a short time after their ap- pearance on the wing, they discharge some drops of a red-coloured fluid ; but its ap- pearance on the surface of the earth has at different times been regarded, by vulgar su- perstition, as drops of blood fallen from the clouds, and was presumed to be portentous of some heavy calamity. Various insects prey upon the Butterfly, or hasten the approach of its dissolution. Many species of Ichneumonidse perforate the body of the insect while a caterpillar, and there deposits its eggs ; and although the caterpillar continues to live, and is transformed into a chrysalid, no Butterfly is produced from it, those internal parts that were essential to its perfection being con- sumed by the larvae of the ichneumon. From the great fecundity and variety of the insects of this genus, they probably would soon cover the earth, did not nature provide a bar to their increase by multiplying their enemies : hence they are destined to become the food of a great number of animals of various kinds, some of which swallow them entire, others macerate their bodies ; while many accomplish their destruction by gra- dually sucking their juices. It has been calculated that a single pair of sparrows, in order to supply themselves and their young, may destroy three thousand three hundred and sixty Butterflies in one week. " The clothing of the organs of flight in the Butterfly excites the admiration of the most incurious beholder. The gorgeous wings of these universal favourites owe their beauty to an infinite number of little plumes, thickly planted in their surfaces, and so minute as to seem like powder ; but which are in fact an innumerable number of small scales, varying in shape and length in dif- ferent species, and discoverable only by the assistance of a microscope. " The Butterfly requires no other food than the nectareous juices which are distilled from flowers, or the saccharine substance which exudes from the leaves of vegetables ; it will sometimes alight and suck the sweets of ripe fruit that has been broken by its fall. The skies are its proper habitation the air is its element ; the pageantry of princes can- not equal the ornaments with which it is invested, or the rich colouring that embel- lishes its wings. There is nothing in the animal creation so beautiful or splendid as many species of these insects ; they serve to banish solitude from our walls, and to fill up our idle intervals with the most pleasing speculations. " Butterflies fly generally only in the day. They accompany the sun in his course, and before he sets disappear. With us, says Mr. Samouelle, many of the species are extremely local ; and, from the shortness of their lives, require greater assiduity in the collector, and a wider range of search, than is gene- rally supposed. As an illustration of this fact, we must observe that the number of Papilianidce found in England is about se- venty-two. Of this number not more than fifty are to be met with within twenty-five miles of London ; and of these several are confined to the vicinity of a chalk-cliff, or are peculiar to a meadow or a certain wood. Even in these situations their appearance in the perfect state is limited but to a few days and at a certain season of the year. Of the remaining number, not found within this distance from London, some are confined to fens, nearly a hundred miles distant from the metropolis, and others to the mountains of Scotland ; but they are all equally limited in the times of their appearance and the shortness of their lives. There is also an- other circumstance in the history of these insects, which must not be passed over in silence ; and that is, there are several species which, from some hitherto unknown cause, appear in the proper season, but in certain years only, when they will be found in abun- dance, and probably extended over a vast tract of the country. These, however, dis- appear, and not a single specimen is to be found for a period of many years, when they will again be seen as plentiful as before. This is a circumstance that is not confined to England, where it might be attributed to our ever-varying climate, but occurs also in tropical countries." Butt. Coll. Vade Mecum. " If you denude the wings of any Butterfly, which you may easily do by scraping it lightly on both sides with a penknife," as Messrs. Kirby and Spence observe, "you will be amused to trace the lines in which the scales were planted, consisting of innumera- ble minute dots : the lines of the under side, in some cases, so cut those of the upper side, as by their intersection to form lozenges. With regard to the position of the scales on the wing, they usually lie flat, but some- times their extremity is incurved. But though the general clothing of the wings of Uftaoptera consists of these attle scales, yet in some cases they are either replaced by hairs or mixed with them. Thus, in the clear parts of the wings of Heliconians, Atti- ci, &c., short inconspicuous hairs are planted ; in a large number of the Orders the upper side of the anal area of the secondary wings is hairy ; in several Crepusculars, where there is a double layer, as before mentioned, the upper one consists of dense hairs, except at the apex, and the lower one of scales ; and in most of them the scales of the pri- mary wings are piliform, and the secondary Btctinitarj? at &nunatrtt are covered by what approach very nearly to real hairs." The number of exotic Butterflies is very great both in orders and in genera : and students are referred [we limit ourselves to British books] to Dr. Horsneld's elaborate work on those of Java, but especially to the truly admirable work on the Genera of Di- urnal Lepidoptera, by Edward Doubleday, F.L.S., illustrated by William Hewitson, and continued by Mr. Westwood since Mr. Doubleday's death. Our space prevents us from even alluding to the numerous genera of those gorgeous insects detailed in this splen- did book. It is, however, but bare justice to say that a more beautiful work has rarely been published. For a very excellent work on the British Butterflies, with coloured illustrations of the Insects in their various stages, and figures of the plants on which the Caterpillars feed, we can also heartily recom- mend Humphrey's British Butterflies, partly edited by Mr. Westwood. Butterflies, by thfir forms, contrasts of colour, and other pecu- liarities, not only charm the eye, but have afforded valuable information to artists. The great Van Dyck and our countryman Stothard are known to have been indebted to Butterflies for many fine hints on colour, both in harmony and contrast. In the present work we must confine ourselves to the British Genera as much as possible. [See PAPILIO ; POXTIA ; MEMT.^A ; ARGYNNIS : LIMEXITIS ; VANESSA ; APATURA LYC^ENA ; POLYOMMATUS ; TllKCLA ; HlPl'AUClilA ; HESPERIA ; PARNASSUS, &c.] BUZZARD. (Falco bitteo of Linnaeus.) This bird is supposed to he the most common in England of all the hawk tribe. It has a thick heavy body ; measures about twenty-two inches in length, and the full expansion of its wings is about fifty. It is usually of a ferru- ginous brown above, and yellowish white be- neath, with large longitudinal spots and dashes: the tail is barred with black and ash- colour; the tip is dusky white. It breeds in extensive woods, generally fixing on the old nest of a crow, which it enlarges, and lines with wool and other soft materials. It lays two or three eggs, which are sometimes wholly white, and at others spotted with yellow ; and when the female happens to be killed during the time of incubation, the cock hatches and rears the brood. The young accompany the old birds for some time after quitting the nest ; a circumstance unusual in other birds of prey, which always drive off their young as soon as they can fly. The Buzzard is very sluggish and inactive, re- maining perched on the same bough for the greatest part of the day, and always found near the eame place. It feeds on birds, frogs, insects, moles, and mice. By modern natu- ralists it is placed in the genus Buteo. [For Honey Buzzard, see PERXIS.] BYRRHUS : BYRRHID^E. A genas and family of Coleoptera. The insects belonging to this genus have an ovate body, convex or sub-globular in some species, with the elytra covered by a short pile, and the head is re- tracted under the thorax. Byrrhus pilula is about the size of the common Lady-bird : its colour is a dull brown, with a few obscure blackish lines down the wing-shells : it is of an extremely convex shape, and, when dis- turbed, contracts its limbs, and lies in an inert state, like an oval seed or pill, while thus counterfeiting death as a means of escape from danger. It is found on various plants in gardens and elsewhere. BYSSOARCA. A sub-genus of Mollus- cous animals, affixed by byssiform filaments to other bodies, a particular muscle being protruded through the gaping part of the shelly valves. BYSSOMYA. A genus of Acephalous Molluscs, which live in the fissures of rocks, attached by a byssus : sometimes the animal buries itself in the sand or lodges in small stones, &c. CACHALOT. {Physeter macrocephalus*) The Spermaceti Whale ; the head of which nearly equals the rest of the body in length, and surpasses it in bulk. It is an object of great commercial importance on account of the oil and spermaceti which it yields. Mr. Beale has published a most admirable and readable work on it. [See WiiALE." 1 CACHICAME. [See ARMADILLO.] CACTORNIS. A snbgemis of Passerine birds, closely allied to Geospiza, but differ- ing from it in the beak being elongated, somewhat like that of a Quiscalus, and very sharp-pointed. The typical specks is C'ac- Ol.IMBINO CAOT08 BIRD. (OAOTOBNI8 SCAKDEN8.) tontis scandens. The male is of a sooty black, the female brownish and spotted. This species was found by Mr. Darwin in the Galapagos ; its most favourite resort is the Opuntia Galapageia, a species of the Cacti tribe ; about the fleshy leaves of which they hop and climb, even with their back down- wards, whilst feeding with their sharp beaks, 96 tt nf both on the fruit and flowers. They fre- quently also alight on the ground an< search for seeds on the parched volcanic soil CADDICE-WORM, or CAD-BAIT. [See PHKYGANEA.] CECILIA. The name of a genus of Ser- pents, about a foot in length, and having much the appearance of an eel. They are natives of South America, and are said to be innoxious. CAIMAN. [See ALLIGATOR.] CALANDRA : CALANDRID^. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects closely allied to the Curculionidae ; some ol the minute species of which commit great havoc in granaries, both in their larva and perfect state. The species are very numerous, 1 and among them is the well-known Corn- weevil (Calandra granaria.) This insect bores a hole into the grain with its proboscis, I and there deposits an egg, which turns to a i little grub, and devours the whole of the inside of the grain, leaving the husk entire. Another species of Calandra, distinguished by its having 'four red spots on its elytra, attacks rice in the same way as the one above mentioned does wheat. These insects must not be confounded with the still more destructive larvae of the Corn- moth (Tinea graneUa), which also attack stored grain, nor with the orange-coloured maggots of the Wheat-fly (Cecidomyia tri- tici), which are found in the ears of growing wheat. Although the grain-weevils are not actually injurious to vegetation, yet as the name properly belonging to them has often been misapplied, some remarks upon them here may not be inappropriate. The true Grain- weevil or Wheat- weevil of Europe (Calandra granaria), in its perfect state, is a slender beetle of a pitchy red colour, about one-eighth of an inch long, with a slender snout slightly bent downwards, a coarsely punctured and very long thorax, constituting almost one-half the length of the whole body, and wing-covers that are furrowed, and do not entirely cover the tip of the abdomen. This little insect, both in the beetle and grub state, devours stored wheat and other grain, and often commits much havoc in granaries and brewhouses. Its powers of multiplication are very great, for it is stated that a single pair of these de- stroyers may produce above six thousand descendants in one year. The female depo- sits her eggs upon the wheat after it is housed, and the young grubs hatched therefrom im- mediately burrow into the wheat, each indi- vidual occupying alone a single grain, the substance of which it devours, so as often to leave nothing but the hull ; and this destruc- tion goes on within, while no external ap- pearance leads to its discovery, and the loss of weight is the only evidence of mischief that has been done to the grain. In due time the grubs undergo their transformations, and come out of the hulls in the beetle state, to lay their eggs for another brood. These insects are effectually destroyed by kiln- drying the wheat ; and grain that is kept I cool, well ventilated, and frequently moved is said to be exempt from attack. CALAPPA, or BOX CRAB. A genus of Crustacea, belonging to the family Calop- pidce. They arc named by the French coqs de mer, from their crested chelre, which are large, equal, compressed; with their upper edge, which is notched or crested, very much elevated, and fitting exactly to the external border of the shell or carapace, so as to completely cover the mouth and anterior parts : the rest of the feet short and simple ; carapace short and convex, forming, behind, a vaulted shield, under which the posterior legs are hidden when the animal is in a state of repose : eyes mounted on short pedicles, and not far apart. There are several species widely diffused : some inhabit the seas of the Indian Archi- pelago, and of New Holland ; others are met 1th in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, the seas of South America, &c. ; others, again, inhabit the Mediterranean sea. They fre- quent the fissures of rocks, some of them at great depth. The females deposit their eggs in summer. CALATHUS. A genus of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the Caraltidoe. Several species are found in the British islands, most frequently under stones and house rubbish. CALLICHTHYS. A genus of abdominal Malacopterygious fishes, family Silvridve. The body and head are protected by large, hard, scaly plates ; the mouth is furnished with four long cirri ; the teeth are very small ; the eyes are also small, and situated on the side of the head. They are natives of South America and other hot climates, where the rivers frequently dry up ; and they can not only live for a considerable time out of water, but they are said to perform long journeys over land, directing their course to some other stream. CALLIDIUM. A genus of Coleopterous sects, belonging to the family Longicorms; one species of which (Callidium bajiil/'*) in the larva state is particularly destruc- tive to fir timber. This is a flattish rusty black beetle, with some downy whitish spots across the middle of the wing-covers ; she thorax is nearly circular, is covered with fine whitish down, and has two elevated polished black points upon it ; and the wing covers are very coarsely punctured. It in- habits fir and spruce timber, and may often Popular Sh'ctmuarji nf &mmatetr Mature. 97 be seen on wooden buildings and fences in July and August. We are informed by Kirby and Spence that the grubs sometimes greatly injure the wood-work of houses in London, piercing the rafters of the roofs in every direction, and, when arrived at matu- rity, even penetrating through sheets of lead which covered the place of their exit. One piece of lead, only eight inches long and four broad, contained twelve oval holes made by these insects, and fragments of the lead were found in their stomachs. The Violet Callidium (Callidium viola- ceum) is of a Prussian blue or violet colour ; the thorax is transversely oval, and downy, sometimes having a greenish tinge ; and the wing-covers are rough with thick irregular punctures. It is about half an inch in length; may be found in great abundance, in the northern and middle parts of Europe, on piles of pine-wood, from the middle of May to the first of June ; and the larvae and pupae are often met with in splitting the wood. They live mostly just under the bark, where their broad and winding tracks may be traced by the hardened saw-dust with which they are crowded. Just before they are about to be transformed, they bore into the solid wood to the depth of several inches. In this country it is not so common. CALLIMORPIIA. A genus of Lepidop- terous insects, belonging to the family Bom- bycuke. One of these ( CaUimorpha Jacobete) is both a beautiful and common Moth, its wings when expanded measuring about an inch and a half in width : on the upper wings, which are of a greenish black colour, are two round pink spots at the apex, and an oblong pink streak parallel with the outer margin. The under wings are entirely pink, except the margins, which are of the same colour as the ground-colour of the upper wings. The head, body, and legs are quite black. The larva feeds on the common ragwort (Senecis Jacobcea) ; hence the name of the insect. CALLISTUS. A genus of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the family Carabidce. The species C.'luatus is found in this coun- try, and is about a quarter of an inch long : the head and under parts of the abdomen are of a greenish black colour, the thorax is reddish-yellow, and the wing-cases are yellow with six black spots : the antennae and legs are black; the head and thorax are very thickly punctured, and the elytra are punctate-striated. CALLIONYMUS. [See DRAGOXET.] CALOSOMA. A genus of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the family Carabidce, one of which (Catosoma sycojihanta) is about an inch long; the head, thorax, and under parts of the body are of a beautiful blue colour, the elytra are green, and the legs and antennas block. There are about thirty different species of these insects, the pre- vailing colour being some shade of green with a kind of brassy hue. They are very useful in many places, from the number of noxious caterpillars they destroy. Mr. I. W. Slater (in the Zoologist for 1845) thus speaks of them : " This beautiful beetle is very common in the pine-forests, particularly on the path leading to the Raubchloss, where they spangle the sand and the tree trunks like living gems. The splendour of its elytra, green, gold, scarlet, orange, the rich purple- black of the thorax, the rapidity and ease of its movements, render it a pleasing object even to the most careless, whilst the pungent odour, wliich it possesses more strongly, I believe, than any other of the Geodephaga, readily betrays its presence. Except from the collector, however, it has nothing to dread, its utility to man being both known and appreciated. The pine-forests, for in- stance, are exposed to the ravages of various lepidopterous insects, such as Smerintlius piiiastri, and, in particular, Gastrvpnha pint. Now, a pine-tree, once stripped of its leaves, or needles, as the Germans more aptly term them, does not recover like an oak or a sycamore, but dies. Scarcely is vegetation at an end, when the Longicornes seize upon the trunk, and burrow in it ; the wood-ants tunnel it in all directions, and it thus be- comes worthless. Many hundred acres of the finest timber are thus often destroyed. It is an interesting sight to any In it the owner, to visit a forest under the infliction of Gostropacha pini ; the thousands of cater- pillars eagerly feeding produce a distinct crackling aound, as the hard, dry pine-leaves yield to their persevering jaws. The large moths fluttering lazily about, or perched on the leafless sprays, await the approach of evening, when the gamekeepers kindle large fires in the open spaces. Into these multi- tudes of moths fall, and are consumed; but this, with all that are destroyed by hand, or devoured by birds, would avail but little, but for the services of certain insects. Our Calosoma is one of the most active; both larva and beetle mount the trees, and slaughter both moths and caterpillars, far more than are requisite to satisfy their appetite. Those seasons in which the pine-moth is most nu- merous are also remarkably favourable to the Calosoma, and to several kinds of ich- neumons, which also prey upon the pine- moth." CALYMENE. A genus of Trilobite Crustacea, comprising the well-known C. Blumeitbachii, found in the transition lime- stone of Dudley. Head deeply divided by two longitudinal grooves, abdominal rings, &c. CALYPTOTmYNCTTTTS. A eenus of birds belonging to the Parrot family, found in New Holland. Tl:e plnmape is generally black, sometimes of a smoky brown, orna- mented occasionally with large spots of a clear red or orange or -ulphur colour, forming wide bands on the tail : the beak is short and considerably elevated : by these and other characters the birds contained in it may be distinguished from the light coloured and lively COCKATOO (Plyctolaphus). One of the best known species is Banks's Cockatoo (Cali/ptorhynchus Banksii), named after Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., who was perhaps the first naturalist that visited Australia. The great Australian Ornithologist, Mr. 98 Ercarfurp of Natural fgu Gould, in his very magnificent "Birds of Australia," has figured all the species of this genus ; and from his account of the species called Wy-la (from its whining call note) by the natives of N. S. Wales, and Calyptarhynchus fuiierctis by naturalists, we extract the following observation : it is usually met with in small companies of from four to eight in number, except during the breeding season, when it is only seen in pairs. Its food is much varied ; sometimes the great belts of Bartksia shrubs are visited, and the seed-covers torn open for the sake of their contents, while at others it searches greedily for tluD larvae which are deposited in the wattles and gum trees {Encalyptus}. Its flight is very heavy, flapping, and la- boured ; but Mr. Gould informs us that he has sometimes seen it dive between the trees in a most rapid and extraordinary manner. The eggs are white, two in number, and deposited on the rotten wood in the hollow branch of a large gum tree. CAMBERWELL BEAUTY [BUTTER- FLY.] A name given to a spetiies of But- terfly, of the genus VANESSA [which see]. CAMEL. (Camelus.) A genus of mam- miferous ruminating quadrupeds without horns, further distinguished by the possession of incisive, canine, and molar teeth : the up- OAMII,. (CAM-EL08 BAOTRIANOS') per lip is divided; the neck long and arched; having one, or two, humps or protuberances upon the back, and naked callosities at the joints of the leg, the lower part of the breast, &c. They have a broad, expanded, elastic foot, terminated in front by two compara- tively small hoofs, or toes; the whole struc- ture of it being admirably fitted for enabling the animal to travel with peculiar ease and security over dry, stony, and sandy regions. The native country of this genus is said to extend from Mauritania to China, within a zone of 1000 miles in breadth. The common Camel (Camelus Bactria- n?ts), having two humps, is only found in the northern part of this region, and ex- clusively from the ancient Baetria, now Turkestan, to China. It is larger than the Dromedary ; the limbs are not so long in proportion to the body ; the muzzle is larger and more tumid ; the hair of a darker brown, and the usual gait slower: but the most ob- vious distinction is afforded by the Bactrian Camel having two humps, and the Drome- dary or Arabian Camel having but one, which single hump occupies the middle of the back, rising gradually on all sides to- wards its apex. The Arabian, or single-hump Camel (Ca- melus (iromedarius) is found throughout the entire length of this zone, on its southern side, DROMEDARY {ciMEI,OS DROMED ARIOS .) as far as Africa and India. The general height of the Arabian Camel, measured from the top of the dorsal hump to the ground, is about six feet and a half, but from the top of the head when the animal elevates it, not much less than nine feet: the head, however, is generally so carried as to be nearly on a level with the hump, or rather below it, the Camel bending the neck extremely in its general posture. In some particular atti- tudes, perhaps, the Camel may be said to have an elegant and picturesque appearance, yet its general aspect, and more especially its dorsal hump, at first sight, is apt to im- press on the mind the idea of deformity, rather than a truly natural conformation. It is highly probable that the Camel has long ceased to exist in its wild or natural state, as it has been enslaved by man from the earliest times of which we have record. Unlike the elephant, and other animals which cease to breed in a state of captivity, the Camel is as prolific as if at liberty; and vast numbers are raised and employed throughout the East, especially in the commerce carried on between the people residing in the vicinity of the great deserts. In regions where water is scarce, and wells or springs are several days' journey distant from each other, it would be im- possible to traverse the country with the usual beasts of burthen. But the Camel can abstain from drinking for seven or eight days together without injury an important advantage, which is owing to the possession of an additional cavity in the stomach, destined to receive water, whenever it can be procured, and capable of retaining it un- changed for a long time. " But," as the writer of the zoological articles in Brande's Dictionary observes, " besides a reservoir of water to meet the exigencies of long journeys across the desert, the Dromedary and Camel are provided with a storehouse of solid nu- triment, on which they can draw for supplies long after every digestible part has been extracted from the contents of the stomach : this storehouse consists of one or two large collections of fat stored up in ligamentous i^flpular SJtcttmiarj) of ^ni'matca Mature. 99 cells supported by the spines of the dorsal vertebrae, and forming what are called the humps. When the Camel is in a region of fertility, the hump becomes plump and ex- panded; but after a protracted journey in the wilderness it becomes shrivelled and \ reduced to its ligamentous constituent, in ! consequence of the absorption of the fat. ; Buffon carried his teleological reasoning, or the ascription of design, so far as to assert ' that the humps on the backs of the Camel were badges of slavery, and intended to I adapt them to the burthens of their task- masters ; and he supported this ingenious idea by the unfounded assertion that the dorsal prominences did not belong to the Camels in free nature. But the true uses of : , the fatty humps, as of the water-cells, relate I i to the exigencies of the Camelidm of the deserts under every condition." Possessing strength and activity surpassing that of most beasts of burthen, docile, patient of hunger and thirst, and contented with small quantities of the coarsest provender, the Camel is one of the most valuable gifts of Providence. There is nothing, however, in the external appearance of the animal to indicate the existence of any of its excellent qualities. In form and proportions, it is very opposite to our usual ideas of perfection and beauty. A stout body, haviug the back disfigured by one or two humps; limbs long, slender, and seemingly too weak to support the trunk ; a long, thin, crooked neck, surmounted by a heavily-proportioned head,, are all ill suited to produce favourable impressions. Nevertheless, there is no crea- ture more excellently adapted to its situ- ation, nor is there one in which more of creative wisdom is displayed in the pecu- liarities of its organization. To the Arabs and other wanderers of the desert, the Camel is at once wealth, subsistence, and protection. The milk furnishes them with a large part of their nutriment. The flesh of the young animal is one of their greatest luxuries ; of the skins they form tents, or manufacture them into saddles, harness, pitchers, shields, and many other articles ; the various sorts of hair, or wool, shed by the Camel, are wrought into different fabrics; and its very excrements serve as fuel, or are applied to other useful purposes. These animals are trained, when extremely young, to the labours which they are after- wards to perform: and with this view, when but a few days old, their limbs are folded under their body, and they are compelled to remain on the g'round whilst they are loaded with a weight, which is gradually increased as they increase, in strength. The pace of the Camel is a high and swinging trot, which, to persons unaccustomed to it, is at first disagreeable and apparently dangerous, but is afterwards tolerably pleasant and secure. The Arabians in general ride on a saddle that is hollowed in the middle, and has at each bow a piece of wood placed upright, or sometimes horizontally, by which the rider keeps himself in the seat- and the animal is guided, or stopped, by means of a cord that serves as a bridle, and is affixed to a ring which is passed through his nostrils. Small Camels carry from 600 to 800 Ibs. i the largest and strongest bear 1000 Ibs. or up- wards from thirty to thirty-five miles a day ; but those which are used for speed alone are capable of travelling from sixty to ninety miles a-day. When a caravan of Camels arrives at a resting or baiting place, they kneel, and, the cords sustaining the load being untied, the bales slip down on each side. They generally sleep on their bellies, crouching between the bales they have carried ; the load is, therefore, replaced with great facility. In an abundant pasture they generally browse as much in an hour as serves them for ruminating all night and for their support during the next day. But it is uncommon to find such pasturage, and they are said to prefer nettles, thistles, cassia, and other prickly vegetables, to the softest herbage. The female goes with young twelve months, and brings forth one at a birth. Her milk is very rich, abundant, and thick, but of rather a strong taste; though when mixed with water it forms a very nutritive article of diet. Breeding and milk-giving Camels are exempted from service, and fed as well as possible, the value of their milk being greater than that of their labour. The young Camel usually sucks for twelve months; but such as are intended for speed are allowed to suck, and exempted from re- straint, for two or three years. The Camel arrives at maturity in about five years, and the duration of its life is from forty to fifty years. There are several races or varieties both of the Arabian and the Bactrian Camel, K 2 100 ing of interest, between the Cat-bird and the farmer. The Cat-bird is fond of large ripe i garden strawberries ; so is the farmer, for the good price they bring at market : the , Cat-bird loves the best and richest early cher- ' ries ; so does the farmer, for they are some- times the most profitable of his early fruit, &c. Perhaps, too, the common note of the Cat-bird, so like the mewing of the animal whose name it bears, and who itself sustains | no small share of prejudice, the homeliness of his plumage, and even his familiarity, so proverbially known to beget contempt, may also contribute to this mean, illiberal, and persecuting prejudice ; but, with the gene- rous and the good, the lovers of nature and of rural charms, the confidence which 'this familiar bird places in man by building in his garden, under his eye, the music of his song, and the interesting playfulness of his manners, will always be more than a recom- pence for all the little stolen morsels he i snatches. ! " The Cat-bird measures nine inches in length ; at a small distance he appears nearly black ; but, on a closer examination, i is of deep slate colour above lightest on the | edges of the primaries, and of a considerably i lighter slate colour below, except the under | tail-coverts, which are very dark red ; the i tail, which is rounded, and upper part of the ; head, as well as the legs and bill, are black. ! The female differs little in colour from the male." The habits, manners, and general appearance of the Cat-bird diifer so little from the Thrushes, that the naturalist to whom we are indebted for the foregoing par- ticulars does not hesitate to place him in the genus Turdus. He is a great and determined enemy to the common black snake, or horse-runner (Coluber constrictor), which rifles its nest whenever an opportunity offers. As the Cat-bird uniformly attacks or pursues this snake, and is frequently seen in the act of hopping eagerly after it, numerous ridi- lous stories are related of its being fascinated by the snake ; it is, however, well known to naturalists that the bird is almost uniformly the aggressor and victor, driving the reptile to its hiding-place. CATERPILLAR. The name given to the larvae of lepidopterous insects ; of which we have spoken at some length in the article BUTTERFLY, and to which the following, from " Brande's Dictionary of Science " (art. Lepidoptera), may be added. " They have six squamous or hooked feet, which cor- respond to the legs of the perfect insect, and from four to ten additional membranous ones, or propedes ; the two last of which are situated at the posterior extremity of the body. Those Caterpillars which have but ten or twelve in all, have been called, from their mode of progression, Geometrce. Several of these geometers, when at rest, remain fixed to the branches of plants by the hind feet alone, whence in the form, colour, and directions of their body, they resemble a twig. The body of these larvse is generally elongated, almost cylindrical, soft, variously coloured ; sometimes naked, and sometimes covered with hairs, tubercles, and spines. It is composed of twelve segments or annuli, exclusive of the head, with nine stigmata on each side. Their head is invested with a corneous or squamous dermis, and presents on each side six shining granules, which appear to be ocelli : and it is furnished with two very short and conical antennae, and a mouth composed of strong mandibles ; two maxillae, a labrum, and four small palpi. Most Caterpillars feed on the leaves of plants; some gnaw their flowers, roots, buds, and seeds ; others attack the ligneous or hardest parts of trees, softening it by means of a fluid which they disgorge. Certain species attack our woollens and furs, thereby doing us much injury ; even our leather, bacon, wax, and lard are not spared by them. Several confine themselves exclusively to a single article of diet ; others are less delicate, and devour all sorts of organized matters. Some of them form societies, and frequently live popular of 111 under a silken tent, spun by them in com- mon, which even shelters them in winter. Several construct sheaths for themselves, either fixed or portable ; others make their abode in the parenchyma of leaves, where they form galleries. The greater number are diurnal ; the others never issue forth but at night." There are perhaps no insects which are so commonly and so universally destructive as Caterpillars ; they are inferior only to lo- custs in voracity, and equal or exceed them in their powers of increase, and in general are far more widely spread over vegetation. As each female Butterfly or Moth usually lays from two hundred to five hundred eggs, one thousand different kinds of butterflies and moths will produce, on an average, three hundred thousand caterpillars ; if one half of this number, when arrived at maturity, are females, they will give forty-five millions of caterpillars in the second, and six thousand seven hundred and fifty millions in the third generation ! These data suffice to show that the actual number of these insects, existing at any one time, must be far beyond the limits of calculation. CATHARTES. [See TURKEY BUZZARD.] CATTLE. A collective term, denoting all animals of the bovine or ox kind. The domestic cattle of Britain may be divided into two races: those of large size, adapted for the plains ; and those of smaller size, adapted for the mountains. Of each of these classes there are several breeds ; such as the High- land and the Welch cattle, among the latter; and the Lancashire, the Yorkshire, and the Herefordshire cattle, among the former. There is also an intermediate breed, adapted for moderately hilly countries ; such as the Galloway and Fife breeds in Scotland, and the Alderney and Guernsey cattle in Eng- land. The best beef brought to the London market is that of cattle of the Highland breed fed in English pastures, or on turnips, for general purposes is the Ayrshire ; the best for cream and butter, The best milk cow for gei the Alderney ; and the best for immense quantities of milk, the Lancashire. Hence the latter are generally employed in public dairies, the Ayrshire by farmers and cot- tagers, and the Alderney by the higher classes. CAVY. (Cavia.) This genus of Rodentia seems to hold a middle place between the mouse and rabbit tribes : they are natives of tropical America, and are distinguished by two wedge-shaped fore-teeth and eight grinders ; from three to five toes on the fore- , feet, and on the hind from four to five ; tail short, or tailless ; and no clavicle. They have generally a slow, and sometimes a ; leaping pace ; they live on vegetable sub- ' stances, and in their natural state inhabit excavations under ground, or beneath the roots of trees, or other recesses which they either find ready prepared, or form for them- selves. The most familiar example of this genus is the well-known little animal, called the Guinea-pig, or Cavia Cobaya. The COMMON CAVY, or GUIXEA- i PIG. (Cavia Cobaya.') From the beauty and variety of its colours, and the neatness of its appearance, this species must have early : attracted the attention of those Europeans who first visited South America ; but it has been so long domesticated in this and other countries, as now to have become quite naturalized in the Old World. Its ears are large, broad, and rounded at the sides ; its upper lip is half divided ; and its hair is erect, somewhat resembling that of a young pig. Its colour is white, varied with orange and black in irregular blotches. It has four toes on the fore-legs, and three on the hind ; and is destitute of a tail. In its wild state it lives in societies, inhabiting dry lands covered with low brushwood ; and remains concealed during the day. coining forth on the approach of evening to seek its food. It possesses neither cunning to avoid danger, strength to resist, nor swiftness to escape from it ; and nothing could save the race from extermination, were it not for its extra- ordinary rapidity of multiplication. The usual litter consists of six, eight, or ten ; and so prolific is it that it breeds almost every two months. The young very soon acquire the necessary degree of strength and perfec- tion of their species, though they continue to grow till seven or eight months. They are very tender animals, and susceptib e of cold ; and should therefore be provided with warm receptacles to retire into in bad wea- ther. In their habits they are extremely neat, and may be frequently observed in the act of smoothing and dressing their fur. Their general voice is a sort of a grunting squeak, and sometimes a shriller or sharper cry. The SPOTTED CAVY (Calogenyspaca) is a large species, measuring nearly two feet in length. It is found in Guiana, Brazil, and other parts of South America ; inhabiting holes formed underground, and principally near the banks of rivers. Its shape is thick and clumsy, somewhat like that of a pig, for which reason it has been sometimes called the hog-rabbit. It has five toes on each foot, and only the mere rudiment of a tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower ; the ears are short and naked ; the lip is divided like that of a hare ; and it has long whiskers. The body is covered with coarse, short, thinly-scattered hair of a dusky colour; the throat, breast, and belly are of a dingy white ; and on each side the body run five rows of roundish, slightly angular spots. The Spotted Cavy is a nocturnal animal, residing in a solitary manner in his hole nearly the whole day. In a domestic state 112 Cfje \ they are extended into large undivided propel themselves J. paddles, by which they can es rapidly through the water. .S., and Professor Bell have E. Gray, F.R.S., published monographs of this order. [See TORTOISE and TURTLE.] CHELURA. The name applied to a ge- nus of small Amphipodous Crustacea, first found at Trieste by Dr. Philippi, who has described a species which he calls C. tere- brans, from its habit of boring into wood- Mr. Thompson. It may prove nearly as de- structive as the Limnoria terebrans [which see]. CHENALOPEX, or EGYPTIAN GOOSE. A genus of palmiped birds, allied to the Ber- nacle Geese, but distinguished by the length of its legs, and the small spur on the shoulder of the wing. The only known species (Che- nalupex jEgyptiaca) is often figured on the work in sea water. This species, or a very closely allied one, has been found at Ar- drossan, in Ayrshire, by Major Martin, and in Dublin Bay, Ireland, by Dr. Allman and EGYPTIAN OOOSK. (CBMJALOPKX JKJYPTIAOA ) Egyptian monuments : it is a very common bird in aviaries, where it proves very attrac- tive by its pretty colouring, elegant form, and the ease with which it is kept in con- finement. It is a native of the South of Europe, abounding in Sicily, for example ; and in N. Africa it is an abundant species, especially in the Valley of the Nile. CHERMES. A genus of four-winged insects, which, like those of the genus Aphis, are found on the leaves, young shoots, and bark of various trees and vegetables. They derive their particular distinctions from the plants or trees on which they feed ; as the ash, alder, elm, box, willow, nettle, &c. The abdomen is pointed, and the legs are formed for leaping. In their larva state many of them appear coated, especially on the hind part of the body, with a flocculent or fila- mentous clammy substance, of a white colour, which exudes from their pores. CHEyCAU. (Pteroptochos rubecula.) This curious bird frequents the most gloomy and retired spots within the damp forests o"f the islands forming the Clionos archipelago. Sometimes, although its cry may be heard close at hand, let a person watch ever so at- tentively, he will not see the Cheucau ; at -other times, let him stand motionless, and the red-breasted little bird will approach within a few feet, in the most familiar man- ner. It then busily hops about the entangled mass of rotting canes and branches, with its little tail cocked upwards. Mr.Darwin opened the gizzard of some specimens : it was very muscular, and contained hard seeds, buds of plants, and vegetable fibres, mixed with small stones. The Cheucau is held in su- perstitious fear by the Chilotans, on account 124 EreaSurp at Natural f^ of its strange and varied cries. Darwin's Journal. [See BARKING-BIRD.] CHEVALIER. (Totanus glottis.') This Grallatorial bird, which is called by some naturalists the Greenshank, and by others the Green-legged Horseman, is about twelve inches in length, and stands very high on its legs. The bill is long, reddish near the tip, and black near the base ; in summer the top of its head and nape are longitudinally rayed with deep black and white ; the forehead, throat, fore part of the neck, breast, upper part of the belly and the sides are white, sprinkled with oval dusky spots ; the rest of the under parts are pure white, except the under tail-coverts, which have the feathers spotted with black in the direction of the shafts : the greater wing-coverts, and the long feathers which protect the quills, are of a reddish grey, spotted with black ; the rest of the coverts are edged with white, which is followed by a band of brown : the two intermediate tail- feathers are ash-coloured, with transverse brown zig-zag stripes. It frequents lakes, meadows, and the margins of rivers ; and its flesh is very delicate and well-flavoured. CHEVROTAIN. [See MUSK DEER.] CIIILOGNATHA. The first divsion of Myriapoda. The body is crustaceous, and often cylindrical, the antennae rather thick- ened at the tips : two thick mandibles with- out palpi, distinctly divided into two por- tions ; legs very short, and always termi- nated by a single claw. They crawl very slowly, or rather glide along, rolling them- selves into a spire or ball. The first segment of the body, and in some also the second, is largest, and represents a corselet or small shield. It is only at the fourth, fifth, or sixth segment, in different species, that the duplication of the legs commences ; and the two or three terminal segments are destitute of feet. On this family and the following, George Newport, F.R. S. has published valuable monographs in the Transactions of the Linnaean Society. [See IULUS and CENTIPEDE.] CHILOPODA. A division of the class Myriapoda. They are characterized by an- tennae thick at the base, and gradually grow- ing slendertowards the apex ; the mouth con- sists of two mandibles, which are furnished with a palpiform process, and provided at the apex with numerous little denticulations ; covering these is an upper and an under lip ; above which are two palpi, resembling legs by being terminated by a pointed claw ; and covering this under lip is an organ furnished with two lateral processes, each of which is terminated by a large bent claw, through the under part of which a poisonous liquid is said to be ejected. The body is somewhat flattened, composed of numerous segments, defended by plates of a horny substance, and each segment generally furnished with a pair of legs. In hot climates they grow very large, and, from their venomous bite, some of them are truly formidable. They conceal themselves under stones and fallen trees, and are all found in rotten wood. They are nocturnal in their habits, very active, and some emit a phosphoric light. [See ScoLorENDRA ; CENTIPEDE, &c.] CHIMERA. There are two species of this very singular kind of Chondroptery- gious fish, the Northern and the Southern Chimara ; each named after the ocean it in- habits. The NORTHERN CHIMERA (CJiimcera JBo- realis\ generally abides in the deepest re- cesses of the sea, and is supposed to prey on the smaller fishes, as well as on the various sorts of Mollusca and Testacea. Its usual length is from three to four feet ; the body is long, compressed, and gradually tapering towards the tail, which is continued into a long and slender filament : the head is very large and thick, rising up in front into a kind of pyramidal form ; and at the top of the head, in the male fish, is a short upright process resembling a tuft. The mouth, placed beneath, is furnished in each jaw with a pair of broad, bony laminae, notched in the margin into a resemblance of numerous teeth ; while in front, both above and below, stand two large sub-triangular teeth : the upper lip is divided into five clefts ; the front, from the mouth to the eyes, is marked by transverse undulations and pores; a line runs across the forehead, and is continued in a serpentine course into the lateral line, which is very strongly marked, of a whitish colour, with dark edges, and runs to the tip of the tail : the eyes are very large and bright, of a greenish colour, with silvery irides. The body above the lateral line is of a yellowish brown, and of a bright silver colour beneath it, variegated with numerous irregular spots. The fins are yellowish-brown, varied with darker shades : the first dorsal and the pec- toral fins are large and subtriangular ; the ventral, similarly shaped, are smaller ; and at the base of each, in the males is a length- ened sub-cylindric process, roughened by numerous sharp prominences in a reversed direction. The flesh of the Chimaera is coarse, and unfit to be eaten The SOUTHERN CHIMERA (.Chimcera Australis) is nearly of the size of the preceding species, but with the front sloping downwards, and the upper lip extended into a lengthened cartilaginous flap, bending downwards in a reversed di- rection beneath : general colour of the whole fish silvery, with a yellowish-brown cast on the upper parts : fins pale brown. Its man- ner of life is similar to that of the Chimcera Borealis in the Northern Hemisphere. CHIMNEY SWEEPER [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to Moths of the genus Fumea. CHIMPANZEE. (Pitkecus troglodytes.') Cuvier placed the Oran-Outang foremost in the rank of QUADRUMANA, but later natu- Btcttanarn of Tmmatctt jtaturc. 125 ralists consider that the Chimpanzee ap- proximates more nearly in its general con- formation to the human race. And yet how wide the difference ! This animal is an in- habitant of Africa, and especially of the coasts of Congo and Angola ; and travellers who have visited those countries assure us that in an adult state the Chimpanzees attain the stature of man, and live in society in the woods ; that they construct huts of the leaves and branches of trees, to protect themselves against the extreme heat of the sun and the violence of the rains ; that they walk up- right, arm themselves with clubs, and make a formidable resistance against the attacks of the largest and most powerful beasts. The body of the Chimpanzee is covered with long black hair on the head, shoulders, and back, but much thinner on the breast and belly ; the arms and legs are not so disproportionate as those of the Oran-Outang, the fore-fingers not quite touching the knees when the ani- mal stands upright. The upper part of the head is very flat, with a retiring forehead, and a prominent bony ridge over the eye- brows ; the mouth is wide, the ears large, the nose flat, and the face of a blackish brown colour. There is at present a female Chim- panzee in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, supposed to be about ten years old : she is remarkably docile, and performs cer- tain actions with much apparent rationality. How truly has it been said, that although the gradations of Nature in the other parts of her works are minute and imperceptible, yet in the ascent from brutes to men the line is strongly drawn, well marked, and decisive ! In vain the Chimpanzee or Oran-Outang may resemble Man in form, or may possess the power of imitating his actions, it still continues a wretched helpless creature ; and whatever distant resemblance its internal conformation may bear to the human, its whole figure exhibits a picture sufficiently mortifying to those who pride themselves on personal appearances alone. The tongue and all the organs of voice may be the same, yet the animal is dumb ; the brain may be formed_ in the same manner, yet the animal is destitute of reason : an evident proof, as Buffon beautifully observes, that no dispo- sition of matter can constitute a mind ; and that the body, how nicely soever constructed, is constructed in vain, when no soul is in- fused into it for the purpose of directing its operations. Mr. Newman furnishes the readers of the "Zoologist" (1845) with the subjoined par- ticulars : " A larger, stronger, and more ac- tive Chimpanzee than any previously im- ported, was lately consigned to Messrs. Coleman, Flockhart, and Co., from the river Nunez, near Sierra Leone. On its arrival in the London Docks I paid it a visit, and immediately communicated with Mr.Yarrell, with a view to obtaining it for the Zoological Society : the officials, however, were already on the alert, and the creature has since been purchased by the society for 300Z. The fol- lowing paragraph, which has been circulated in the London newspapers, was, I hear, penned by one of the keepers : ' It is sin- gular that she resists every attempt to cor- rect her, fighting with the utmost deter- mination ; every other animal, even the Ourang, fears its keeper. The first day of the Chimpanzee's arrival at the Gardens, she tore out three of the strong iron bars of her cage, which have been since strengthened. A temporary nail was driven about half its length, into a piece of wood, about six inches long and three and a half square ; she held the wood between her teeth, and doubling the nail backwards and forwards, broke it short off. When in a passion, she tears her hair and rolls herself on the ground violently. Her table is supplied from her keeper's, and she shares in everything and anything he has. She eats her egg with a spoon, takes her grog daily, and, 'tis said, that when on board ship she mixed the latter herself. She will lock and unlock a door or drawer ; will thread any needle ; she cannot be taken in by the same thing twice, and will imitate almost anything that is done before her. She is considered by Professor Owen to be about nine years old, which well agrees with all accounts of her previous life. She weighs 52 Ibs. ; measures 2 feet 2 inches round the chest, and is 3 feet 2 inches high ; or, as she will not stand upright to be measured, pro- bably her height is nearly 3 feet 6 inches.' On making a more careful examination of this animal in her present abode, I was par- ticularly struck by her want of teeth. Only one incisor and a few imperfect molars ap- pear to remain. I observed her total ina- bility to crack a nut, a feat performed by al- most every other monkey with great adroit- ness. Her manners now are perfectly quiet, and there is no appearance of the ferocity implied in the preceding quotation ; she was gentle in the extreme, shaking hands in a very cordial manner with some cliildren who were present, and perfectly on the alert at the sound of her name " Susan" when- ever it was uttered. I presume the keeper imagined that details of her ferocity would five her an interest in the eyes of the public, have observed that the captains of Margate steamers always tell their passengers that the present is the roughest passage they ever encountered ; so the visitors of this gentle being are assured it is the most savage Chim- panzee. The Captain, to whose care "Su- san " was entrusted, told me that in taking her meals on the passage home, she used u 3 126 (teatfurn at Natural gg knife, fork, spoon, and drinking cup, with the same ease as a human being ; and with whatever food she was supplied, she pre- ferred using a fork or a spoon to convey it to her mouth, to holding it in her hands. For more than three years she had been in possession of a Mr. Campbell, who left her at perfect liberty, never subjecting her to the slightest confinement. When he received her she was quite young a mere baby, so that her present age may be supposed four or five years, rather than eight or nine. AVhen on board ship she entertained a great dislike to black men, who used to tease and otherwise misuse her ; but with the crew generally she appeared on excellent terms, and exhibited many traits of extreme do- cility." CHINA-MARK [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to Moths of the genera Hydro- campa and Margaritia. CHINCHILLA. This little'Rodent animal, so highly valued on account of its fur, is a native of South America, inhabiting the val- leys in the high mountain districts, where the cold is often very severe. There are se- veral species belonging to the natural family Chinchillidce, of which this animal and the Viscacha of the Pampas are the chief. The colour of the Chinchilla is clear grey above, CHINCHILLA. (c. LAU1OERA.) passing into white on the under parts. It associates in numbers, and excavates bur- rows, in which it resides, feeding chiefly upon roots. In size and general form it much re- sembles the rabbit, with the exception of the tail, which turns up after the manner of a squirrel's. The fur is of a remarkably close and fine texture ; and is, accordingly, much used in muffs, tippets, linings to cloaks, trimmings, &c. CHIRONOMID^. A sub-family of Dip- terous insects, which frequent marshy situa- tions, and very much resemble gnats. The species are of small size and very numerous ; they often assemble in immense cloud-like swarms ; and the name of Midge is given to them. CHITON. A genus of marine Molluscs, inhabiting multivalve shells, several spe- cies of which are found on our own coasts. They adhere to rocks and stones, in general, near low-water mark. The shell is boat- shaped, composed of about eight transverse pieces, folding over each other at their edges, and inserted into a tough ligament. They sometimes attain a large size, but do not usually exceed two inches. They have the power of rolling themselves up into a ball, like the wood-louse. Several new species of these shells were collected in the Eastern Archipelago by Sir Edward Belcher and Mr. Adams during the voyage of H. M. S. Sama- rang ; two of which, viz., Chiton peta,*in/i, Co- reidai, Lyyeidce, Jieduvmla:, Acantkidw, and JlildroiiVitridtje: the two terminal joints of the antennae of hair-like fineness ; body much depressed ; thorax transverse; antennae four-jointed ; labrum rather long and pointed, and when the proboscis is not in use, recurved under the head. The bed-bug (Cirnex lectularius) may serve as a general example of this very extensive tribe. [See BUG.] CINCLOSOMA. A genus of Passerine birds, belonging to the Turdidce family. The species Cinclosoma punctatum, or Spot- ted Ground Thrush, inhabits Van Diemen's Land and Eastern Australia. It prefers the summits of low stony hills and rocky gullies, particularly those covered with scrubs and bushes. Its flight is very limited ; but it readily evades pursuit by running over the stony surface and concealing itself among the underwood : when flushed suddenly, it rises with a loud whirring noise, like a Quail or Partridge. Its note consists of a low piping whistle. It is sold in Hobart-Town market, with Bronzewings, Pigeons, and Wattle-birds, and is known there as the Ground Dove : doubtless from its terrestrial habits and its flesh being excellent eating. To its delicacy, and the large development of the pectoral muscles, and the contour of the body, resembling a Quail, Mr. Gould gives his testimony. It breeds in October and three following months. The nest, which is always placed on the ground, is a slight and rather careless structure, composed of leaves and the inner bark of trees, and is of a round, open form. The stomach of this bird, on dissection, was found to contain seeds and caterpillars, mingled with sand. Another species, Cinclosoma castanotu^, found near the Swan River, is a much shyer bird than the C. punctatum, and runs over the ground faster ; its shorter toes consider- ably assisting its progressive motion. CINCLUS. The Water-ouzel [which see]. CINNYRIS. CINNYRHWE. A genus and family of small birds, remarkable for the splendid metallic lustre of their plumage in which they rival the Humming-birds All the species inhabit the |90jwlar SH 0f gmmatctr $aturc. 133 Old World ; chiefly Africa and India. [See SUN-BIRD.] C I P. RIPE D I A, or CIRRIPEDES. A class of invertebrated animals, so named from the curled and ciliated branchiae which protrude from the oval aperture of the shells. They are divided into sessile, that is, either themselves firmly united at their bases to rocks or solid masses ; and pedunculated, or attached by a long pedun- cle or footstalk. They are closely allied to the Crustacea. CISSITIS. A genus of Coleoptera. [See HOHIAD^E.] CISTELA : CISTELID^E. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the section Hcteromera. They are cha- racterized by antennas nearly filiform, the joints serrated; body ovoid, arched above; feet long, but none of the legs formed for leaping ; penultimate joint of the tarsi bi- fid ; mandibles entire. They generally live amongst leaves and flowers. They are an important group numerically, both as re- gards genera and species, several being found in this country. CITILLUS. A small Rodent animal, of the genus Spcrmophilus, with a long thin body, short tail, and of a silvery grey colour. It is a native of the northern parts of Eu- rope, and dwells in communities, great num- bers of them being usually found together in the same cave, furnished with a store of nuts, chestnuts, &c. Their flesh is well fla- voured, and their skins are much valued. [See Sl'ERMOPHILUS.] CIVET. (Viverra civetta.) This animal, popularly known by the name of the Civet- cat, belongs to a genus of carnivorous, mam- miferous quadrupeds, and is a native of several parts of Africa and India. It is particularly distinguished by having a se- cretory glandular receptacle, situated at some little distance beneath the tail, wherein is formed a powerfully odorous matter called civet. In general appearance, this animal reminds one of the fox, which it also re- sembles in its predatory habits ; but the legs are short, the tail is long, hairy, and cylin- drical, and the claws, though by no means so acute as those of the cat, are still partially retractile. The ground colour of the body is yellowish-grey, with large dusky spots disposed in longitudinal rows on each side ; and a sort of upright mane on the neck and back. The tongue is covered with stout, horny prickles ; and the ears are straight and rounded at the tips. The pouch, situ- ated near the genitals, is a deep bag, some- times divided into two cavities, whence a thick, oily, and strongly musk-like fluid is poured out. When good, this odoriferous substance is of a clear yellowish or brown colour, and of about the consistence of butter; when undiluted, the smell is powerful and very offensive, but when largely diluted with oil or other ingredients, it becomes an agree- able perfume. Important medical virtues were formerly attributed to the civet; it, however, not only no longer forms an article in the Materia Medica, but even as a per- fume it has been laid aside. The foregoing description will apply to another species, the Viverra zibetha, except that this has no mane : it should be observed also, that the Viverra civetta is peculiar to Africa, and the zibetha to Asia. CL ADOCERA. An order of minute Crus- tacea, characterized by the body being in- closed in a bivalve shell, including, among others, the genus Daphnia. CLAM. The shell of a species of Con- chiferous Mollusca. [See TBIDACNA.] CLAUSILIA. A genus of Mollusca cliicfly inhabiting mosses at the foot of trees. The species are very numerous, and they are all small shells, in shape somewhat re- sembling the pupa or chrysalis of an insect ; the largest scarcely exceeding an inch in length. Within the mouth, in the last whorl but one, there is a little elastic shelly plate attached to the shell, and called a clausium, from which the genus takes its name It is used to close up the aperture when the animal has retreated within its shell, and in that respect resembles an oper- culum, except that the latter is attached to the animal, or is loose and thrown off, whereas the former is fixed permanently to the shell. CLAVIGER. A genus of Coleopterous insects, of the section Trimera; characterized by six-jointed antennae, the maxillary palpi very short, and the eyes apparently wanting. The species are found under stones, and in the nests of small yellow Ants. One was found a few years ago in a nest of Formica flava, by Mr. J. O. Westwood, at Ensham, Oxon, and it was considered one of our rarest insects; but Mr. F. Smith says (in the Zoologist), " I have been an examiner of , ants' nests, and an observer of their habits, | some years, and have searched in scores of the nests of Formica flava for the Claviger; I and this perhaps is the reason why I have [ not found it. In the immediate neighbour- hood of London there are no stony fields like those in chalky districts ; and where the soil is subject to retaining a greater degree of moisture, like the London clay, the ant appears to find it necessary to raise up a hillock like a mole-hill, to the upper chambers of which she conveys her larvse, eggs, and pupae, as the atmospheric changes 134 of Natural flutter jj ; render it necessary ; but, on the contrary, at Mickleham I did not observe a single in- stance of any superstructure being raised, for, in a soil so light as in some places barely to cover the strata of chalk, the ant is glad to find a situation so suited to her purpose as the under side of a large stone, for here the necessary degree of moisture for the development of her progeny is retained in the earth. Now it will be obvious that the difficulty of detecting the Claviger amongst the accumulations of the ant-hill must be very great, but on removing the stones you are at once, as it were, admitted into the channels of the nest, filled with eggs, larvae, and pupae, and amongst these it is that Cla- viger is found. The first question which ! naturally arises is this : What is the nature ! of the connexion between the two insects ? | P. W. J. Miiller, in Germar's Magazin der | Entomologie,' informs us that the ants alto- i gether support the Clavigers for the sake of a peculiar secretion which exudes from them, 1 and which the ants suck from the two flocks of ' hair that terminate the external angles of the elytra, that the ants occasionally caress i the Clavigers, which then give out a fresh ' supply of the fluid, that the Claviger is I wholly dependent for support on the ants, and I that they feed it with juices extracted from flowers, &c. * * * I am inclined to the opinion that the only purpose for which these insects are retained by the ants, is for the sake of the fluid which they extract from them ; I feel convinced that there are hundreds of nests without them : they are most numerous during the early summer months, whilst the lams are in the nests; and I was at one time inclined, from that circumstance, to think that the fluid ex- tracted from them might serve to nurture particular sexes of ants, but the fact of their not inhabiting every nest at once decides the question." The species figured is the Claviger lonyicornis, wliieh differs consider- ably from the preceding, but has the same general appearance. CLAVICORNES. The name given to a family of Pentamerous beetles, whose an- tennae end in a club-shaped enlargement : they are partly terrestrial, and partly aqua- tic. CLAY [MOTHS]. A name given by col- lectors to Moths of the genus Grapluphara. CLEAR-WING [HAWK-MOTHS]. A name given to the species of Sphingidai, be- longing to the genus jEgcria. CLERUS : CLERID^E. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, of small ex- tent ; generally handsomely variegated in their colours, and seldom exceeding an inch in length : the body is firm, long, and often cylindric, with the head and thorax nar- rower than the elytra ; and the antennas are short, sometimes filiform and serrated. The species of the genus Clerus are amongst the largest of the family ; having the elytra ge- nerally of a bright red colour, ornamented HIVE BEETLE, (CLKR-OS [TRICHODES] AFIA.RIOS.) with purple spots. The perfect insects extract the honey from flowers ; but their larvse, which are of a bright red colour, are very destructive to bees and wasps, in the nests of which the females deposit their eggs during the absence of those insects, upon whose grubs the larviB of the Clerus prey ; they begin in the cell where they were hatched, and proceed from cell to cell, devouring each inhabitant until they arrive at maturity. CLIO : CLIONID^E. A genus and family of naked marine molluscs, belonging to the order Ptcrvpoda. They are particularly dis- tinguished by having a pair of fin-like organs, or wings, consisting of an expansion of the mantle on each side of the neck, and fur- nished with muscular fibres a peculiarity of structure by which they are enabled to propel themselves rapidly through the water. So numerous are they in the Northern and Southern oceans, that the water appears literally alive with them ; they are called whales' food, and the sea is sometimes so glutted with the Clios, that the whales can scarcely open their mouths without ingulph- ing thousands of them. The Clio borealis abounds in the Arctic seas, and the Clio Bictionarg of gnimatrtr Mature. 135 anstralis appears to be equally abundant in the polar regions of the southern hemi- sphere. CLOTHO. A genus of spiders, which inha- bit Egypt and the south of Europe, remark- able for the curious nest or habitation which it constructs for its young. This is indeed a singular genus. The best known species ( Clotho Durandii) is about half an inch long, of a brown maroon colour, with the abdomen black, marked with five yellowish spots. It constructs on the under side of stones, or in crevices of rocks, a cocoon in the shape of a cap or patella, an inch in diameter, its cir- cumference having seven or eight festoons ; the points alone being fixed to the stone by means of threads, w ng tixt whilst of the festoons are free. This singular tent, the outer surface resembling the finest taftety, is composed of a number of folds. When young it only constructs two layers, between which it takes its station. But subsequently, perhaps at each moulting.it adds other folds, and when the period of reproduction arrives it weaves another apartment expressly for the reception of the sacs of eggs, and young when hatched, of a softer texture. The in- side of its habitation is always remarkably clean. The bags in which the eggs are placed are four, five, or six in number in each habitation ; they are about one-third of an inch in diameter, and of a lenticular form. The eggs are not deposited till about the end of December or in January, and they are enveloped in fine down to guard them from the cold. The edges of the fes- toons not being fastened together, the insect is able to creep in and out at will by lifting them up. When the young are able to dis- pense with the maternal cares, they quit their common habitation and form separate abodes, and their parent dies in her tent which is thus its birthplace and its tomb. CLOUDED YELLOW [BUTTERFLY] A name applied by insect collectors to But- terflies of the genus Colias. CLUPEA: CLUPEIDJE. A genus and lented, and by its more slender thighs. The lead is yellow, with the antennae and the yes reddish black ; the thorax is black, with wo transverse yellow spots on each side ; he wing-covers, for about two- thirds of their ength, are black, the remaining third is yellow, and they are ornamented with bands and spots arranged in the following manner: a yellow spot on each shoulder, a broad yel- ow curved band or arch, of which the yellow scutel forms the key-stone, on the base of the wing-covers, behind tliis a zigzag yellow band forming the letter W, across the mid- dle another yellow band arching backwards, and on the yellow tip a curved band and a jlack spot ; the legs are yellow ; and the under-side of the body is reddish yellow, variegated with brown. It is the largest known species of Clytus, being from nine to eleven tenths of an inch in length, and three or four tenths in breadth. It lays its eggs on the trunk of the maple in July and Au- gust. The grubs burrow into the bark as soon as they are hatched, and are thus pro- tected during the winter. In the spring they penetrate deeper, and form, course of the summer, long and n the nding galleries in the wood, up and down the trunk. In order to check their devastations, they should be sought for in the spring, when they will readily be detected by the saw- dust that they cast out of their burrows ; and, by a judicious use of a knife and stiff wire, they may be cut out or destroyed be- fore they have gone deeply into the wood. Many kinds of Clytus frequent flowers, for the sake of the pollen which they devour y e Nort CLYTUS PICTUS. This other North Ame- rican species has the form of the beauti- ful Maple Clytus. It is velvet black, and or- namented with transverse yellow bands, of which there are three on the head, four on the thorax, and six on the wing-covers, the tips of which are also edged with yellow. The first and second bands on each wing-cover are nearly straight; the third band forms a ~V,or, united with the opposite one, a W, as in the C. speciosus ; thi -------- ----- runs upwards on the inner margin of the family of Malacopterygious fishes ; distm- j w i ng . cover towards the scutel ; the fifth is guished by tfteir wanting the adipose fin, by having the upper jaw composed of the inter- maxillary bones in the middle, and the maxillaries at the sides, and by the body wing-cover towards te scute ; te s broken or interruped by a longitudinal ele- vated line ; and the sixth is arched, and consists of three little spots. The antennae dark brown ; and the legs are rust-red. being always covered with scales. To this These insect! . vary from six-tenths to three genus belong the Herring, Sprat, Shad, quarters of an ^ in length. We are in- Whitebait, &c. [which see]. formed by Dr. Harris, that in the month of CLYTUS. A genus of Longicorn Beetles, \ September these beetles gather on the locust- aboundin" in species. A few species 7. | trees, where they may be seen glittering in arietis arfd C. arcuatus) are found in this I the sunbeams with their gorgeous livery of country; but we prefer quoting, from Dr. ' black velvet and gold, coursing up and down Harris's work, his description of two North j the trunks in pursuit of their mates, or to American species, on account of the interest- j drive away their rivals, and stopping every in" notices of the habits of CLYTUS SI>K- \ now and then to salute those they meet with ciosus: This beautiful Clytus, like the ! a rapid bowing of the shoulders, accompanied other beetles of the genus to which it be- by a creaking sound, indicative of recogni- longs, is a wood-borer ; and the noble su- j tion or defiance. Having paired, the female gar-maple, which is one of the most beau- I atteuded by her partner, creeps over the tiful of American forest-trees, is doomed to ; bark, searching the crevices with her an- jsurt'er from its depredations. The Clytus j tennze, and dropping therein her snow-white is distinguished from a Callidium by its eggs, in clusters of seven or eight together more convex form, its more nearly globular and at intervals of five or six minutes, till thorax, which is neither flattened nor in- | her whole stock is safely stored. The eggs s 2 136 Creatfurj? tif Natural are soon hatched, and the grubs immediately burrow into the bark, where they remain during the ensuing winter in a torpid state, but in spring they bore more or less dceply into the trunk, the general course of their winding and irregular passages being in an upward direction from the place of their entrance. COAL-FISH. (Gadtts carbonarius.*) A Malacopterygious fish, inhabiting the Baltic, the Northern, and the Mediterranean seas : it is common on most of our rocky and deep coasts, but particularly on those of Scotland, the Orkneys, and Yorkshire. The head and body are elegantly shaped ; the scales small and oblong : the lateral line silvery white and nearly straight ; the under jaw is some- what longer than the upper ; the lips tinged with purple red ; the mouth black ; the teeth very small ; and the irides silvery white. When full grown, it is about two feet and a half long, and weighs thirty pounds ; the head, dorsal fins, tail, and upper parts of the body are of a dusky black, which gradu- ally softens into a silvery tinge as it ap- proaches the abdomen ; the tail is broad and forked. According to Mr. Pennant, the young begin to appear in vast shoals on the coast of Yorkshire, in July, and are at that time about an inch and a half long ; in Au- gust they are from three to five inches in length, and are taken in great numbers with the rod and line, when they are esteemed a very delicate fish, but when about a year old they are so coarse that few people will eat them. Mr. Couch says, "It is in the highest condition from October to December, at which season it prowls after prey in large companies ; so that when met with they prove a valuable capture to the fishermen ; for though but coarse food, yet being whole- some, substantial, and cheap, they are eagerly purchased by the poor, either fresh or salted. They swim at no depth, and with great rapidity ; but when attracted by bait, will keep near a boat till all are taken ; and I have known four men in two boats, two men in each boat, take twenty-four hundred weight with lines in a very few hours. The season for spawning is early in spring ; im- mediately after which this fish becomes so lank as to be worthless, in which state it continues through the summer." These fish derive their English name from the dusky pigment which tinges their skin, and which, when they are handled, soils the fingers like moist coal. The young resort to the rocky bays of the Orkneys and Hebrides in immense numbers, where, according to the period of their growth, they are known by the names of cuddy, sithe, and sillocJc. On the Yorkshire coast the young are called parrs, and when a year COATIMONDI. (Nasua.') An animal bearing some affinity to the racoon, except that the neck and body are longer, the fur is shorter, and the eyes are smaller ; but it is more particularly distinguished by \ the elongation of its snout, to which its scientific name nasua refers. By the assist- I ance of this long flexible snout, which is somewhat truncated at the end, it roots up the earth, in the manner of a hog, in quest of earth-worms, &c. It also preys on the smaller quadrupeds ; but it lives more upon trees than upon the ground, and is a de- structive enemy of birds, their eggs, and un- fledged young. It is equal in size to a large cat ; its general colour is a cinereous brown ; the tail, which is of very considerable length, ! is annulated with distinct circles of black ; the ears are round, like those of a rat, co- vered with short hair externally, but inter- nally with long whitish hair ; the mouth is ! large, and the under jaw much shorter than the upper. It is a native of Brazil. COBITIS. [See LOACH.] COBRA DI CAPELLO. The Portuguese name of the Vipera naja; called by the English names of the HOODED SNAKE and the SPECTACLE SNAKE. [See SNAKE.] COCCINELLA: COCCINELLID^E}. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, characterized by their hemispheric form, the upper part being convex, and the lower flat ; and further distinguished by the colour and spots of their wings. Among these are in- cluded all the Lady-birds ; one of which is the Coccinella septempunctata of Linnams, or common seven-spotted Lady-bird, the well-known summer visitant of every field and garden. Though these insects sometimes appear in great numbers, and have occa- sionally created much alarm, it is erroneous to suppose that they do any injury to vege- tation ; on the contrary, both in the larva and perfect state, they feed on the Aphides which infest plants, and are consequently of JBtcttmtarj? at 9futmatctf ^ature. 137 great service : its larva has a rather dis- agreeable appearance ; it is of a long oval shape, with a pointed tail, of a black colour, LADY BIRD, WITH ITS I.ARVA AND POPA. (COCOINELLA SEPTEMPDNCTATAJ with red and white specks, and a rough sur- face ; it changes to a short, blackish, oval chrysalis, spotted with red, and which gives birth to its beautiful inmate in the months of May and June. The different species of Coccinellse are very numerous ; they are generally divided ac- cording to the ground-colour of their elytra, which are either red with black, yellow with black, black with red, or yellow with white spots. One of the most beautiful of the English species is the Coccinella octodecim- pwii-.tata of Linnscus, or the eighteen-spotted Lady-bird, which is of a bright yellow with numerous black specks, and little more than half the size of the common red kind above described. Most people who are familiar with our South-eastern coasts have had opportunities of witnessing the flight of extraordinary swarms of Lady-birds during the summer or autumnal months. The most recent instance of this which we have seen publicly noticed is the following : " On Friday, August 13. 1847, the whole of the coast around Southend was visited by one of the most numerous flights of insects on record. They consisted of at least five species of lady-bird, and they came in such dense numbers, as for miles along the coast to resemble a swarm of bees during hiving. The sea destroyed countless millions of them, the grass and hedge-rows, and every crevice that afforded shelter from the wind, were coloured with their numbers, and for many miles it was impossible to walk, without crushing numbers beneath the tread. The insects evidently came from the east, the wind having veered round to that point during the night. Every true friend of agriculture, however, hails the appearance of these insects, as they are well-known to be the destroyers Of Aphides, a race of flies the most injurious to vegetation. We found, on inquiry, that this phenomenon was not confined to the above mentioned locality ; for on the same day Kamsgate, Margate, Brighton, and the coasts of the adjacent neighbourhoods were similarly visited by swarms of these Aphidivorous insects, which in many places were swept off the public walks, and speedily consigned to a watery tomb." Dr. Thaddeus Harris has the following sensible remarks on the valuable services of the Coccinellce, when speaking of the " re- doubtable enemies " which " seern expressly created to diminish the numbers" of the Aphides, or plant-lice. "These lice-destroyers are of three sorts. The first are the young or larvae of the hemispherical beetles fa- miliarly known by the name of lady-birds, and scientifically by that of Coccinellce. These little beetles are generally yellow or red, with black spots, or black, with white, red, or yellow spots ; there are many kinds of them, and they are very common and plentiful insects, and are generally diffused among plants. They live both in the per- fect and young state, upon plant-lice, and hence their services are very considerable. Their young are small flattened grubs of a bluish or blue-back colour, spotted usually with red or yellow, and furnished. with six legs near the fore-part of the body. They are hatched from little yellow eggs, laid in clusters among the plant-lice, so that they find themselves at once within reach of their prey, which, from their superior strength, they are enabled to seize and slaughter in preat numbers. There are some of these lady-birds of a very small size, and blackish colour, sparingly clothed with short hairs, and sometimes with a yellow spot at the end of the wing-covers, whose young are clothed with short tufts or flakes of the most delicate white down. These insects belong to the genus Scymnus, which means a lion's whelp, and they well merit such a name, for their young, in proportion to their size, are as sanguinary and ferocious as the most savage beast of prey. I have often seen one of these little tufted animals preying upon the plant-lice, catching and devouring, with the greatest ease, lice nearly as large as its own body, one after another, in rapid succession, without apparently satiating its hunger or diminishing its activity." M. Mulsant, of Lyons, has published a volume on the Coc- cinelliflce of France, most of which are also found in tliis country : a monograph of the whole group by the same learned entomolo- gist is in the press. COCCUS. A genus of Hemipterous in- sects, including the Cochineal insect (Coccus cacti.) In this remarkable genus the males are much smaller than the females, and are furnished with wings, of which the females are destitute. The Cocci are found on the leaves and bark of various plants : hence they become injurious to many ex- otics in our hothouses and conservatories. One of the most common of these is the Coccus adonidum, a small oval-shaped in- sect of a pale rose-colour, slightly convex above, with the body divided into many transverse segments projecting sharply on the sides : it has six short legs, and the whole insect appears more or less covered with a fine white powder. When the female is full of eggs, she ceases to feed, and remaining fixed to one spot, envelops herself in a fine white fibrous cotton-like substance, and soon afterwards dies : the young, which are hatched under the body of the parent insect, preceding from it in great numbers, and dis- 138 at persiug themselves in quest of food. It w_ originally introduced into Europe along with exotic plants from the warmer regiom of Africa and America. It may be remarked of the Coccidce gene- rally, that they are remarkable for their powers of propagation, and that when they once attack a plant or young tree, the minute size of the larvte renders their extermination a very difficult task. We were particularlj struck with the observations of the Presideni of the Entomological Society (G. Newport Esq. F. R. S.) in his " Anniversary Address,' 1845 that so complete had been the ravages of the Coccus of the orange-trees, that one o: the Azores, the island of Fayal, lost its entin produce from this cause alone. The usua. exportation of fruit from Fayal had been 12,000 chests annually, but in 1843 not a single chest was exported. This injury had extended to St. Michael's ; and the inhabit- ants of the whole of that group of volcanic islands, depending almost entirely on the produce of their orange-groves, and despair- ing of retrieving their prospects, were fast turning their attention to the cultivation oi other objects of commerce. This amount of injury to a whole population, by a diminu- tive and apparently contemptible insect, was the result of but three years I It was there- fore with great reason that the President laid some stress on the fact, and remarked, that the effects of this insect on a single arti- cle of luxury might fairly be adduced to show that entomological inquiries are deserving of full attention. They furnish, however, some very_ important products : the bodies of many species, being deeply coloured through their whole substance, yield dies of great value, the richness of which seems to depend upon the nature of the plant upon which they feed. By far the most important of all is the Coccus cacti, or COCHINEAL CACTUS, so cele- brated for the beauty of the colour which it yields. This species is a native of South America, and was for a long time exclusively confined to Mexico, where it feeds on a species of cactus. The female or officinal Cochineal insect, in its full-grown pregnant or torpid state, swells or grows to such a size, in pro- portion to that of its first or creeping state, that the legs, antennas, and proboscis, are so small with respect to the rest of the animal as hardly to be discovered by the naked eye ; BO that on a general view it bears a great resemblance to a seed or berry : hence arose that difference of opinion which at one period subsisted among writers ; some maintaining that Cochineal was a berry, while others con- tended that it was an insect. When the female insect is arrived at its full size, it fixes itself to the surface of the leaf, and envelopes itself in a kind of white down, which it spins or draws through its proboscis in a continued double filament. The male is a small and rather slender two- winged fly, about the size of a flea, with jointed antenna and large white wings in proportion to the body, which is of a red colour, with two long filaments proceeding from the tail. When the female insect has discharged all its eggs, it becomes a mere husk, and dies ; so that great care is taken to kill the insects before that time, to prevent the young from escaping. The operation of collecting the insects, which is exceedingly tedious, is performed by the women. " For- merly," says Mr. M'Culloch, "it was in Mexico only that it was reared with care, and formed a valuable article of commerce ; but its culture is now more or less attended to in various parts of the West Indies and of the United States. There are two sorts or varieties of Cochineal : the best or domes- ticated, which the Spaniards call gruna //mi, or fine grain ; and the wild, which they call grana sylvestra. The former is nearly twice as large as the latter ; probably because its size has been improved by the favourable eflects of human care, and of a more copious and suitable nourishment, derived solely from the Cactus cochinellifer, during many generations. Wild cochineal is collected six times in the year ; but that which is cul- tivated is only collected thrice during the same period. The insects, of which there are about 70,000 in a pound, being detached from the plants on which they feed by a blunt knife, are put into bags, and dipped in boiling water to kill them, after which they are dried in the sun. It is principally used in the dyeing of scarlet, crimson, and other esteemed colours. The watery infusion is of a violet crimson ; the alcoholic, of a deep crimson ; and the alkaline, of a deep purple, or rather violet hue. It is imported in bags, each containing about 200 Ibs. ; and lias the appearance of small, dry, shrivelled, rugose berries or seeds, of a deep brown, purple, or mulberry colour, with, a white matter between the wrinkles." COCK. (Gallus domesticus.) The com- mon domestic Cock, the well-known cliief- tain of the poultry-yard, is subject to in- numerable varieties, scarcely two being found to resemble each other exactly in form and plumage. At what time this valuable bird vas brought under the control of man, it s now impossible to determine ; but, as the "brests of many parts of India still abound : Popular Jatcttfliiarj) Ql &mmatctt Mature. 139 with several varieties of the Cock in the wild or natural condition, it is quite rea- sonable to conclude that the race was first domesticated in the East, and gradually extended thence to the rest of the world. It seems to be generally understood, indeed, that the Cock was first introduced into Europe from Persia : it has, however, been 10 long established throughout the Western regions, that to attempt to trace its progress from its native wilds would be a useless waste of time. We figure what many na- turalists regard as the origin of our domestic poultry, the very handsome Javanese wild fowl ; but it is our firm belief that domes- ticated animals are in general not traceable to any wild stock or race. The Domestic Cock has his head sur- mounted by a notched, crimson, fleshy sub- stance, called a comb ; and two pendulous fleshy bodies of the same colour, termed wattles, hang under his throat. The hen has also a similar, but not so large nor so vividly coloured excrescence on her head. The Cock is provided with a sharp horn or spur on the outside of his tarsus, with which he inflicts severe wounds ; the hen, instead of a spur, has a mere knot or tubercle. There is, in both sexes, below the ear, an oblong spot, the interior edge of which is reddish, and the remainder white. The feathers arise in pairs from each sheath, touching by their points within the skin, but diverging in their course outwards. On the neck they are long, narrow, and floating ; on the rump they are of the same form, but drooping laterally over the extremity of the wings, which are quite short, and terminate at the origin of the tail, the plumes of which are vertical. In the centre of the Cock's tail are two long feathers, which fall backwards in a graceful arch, and add great beauty to the whole aspect of the fowl. It is in vain to offer any description of the colour of the plumage, as it is infinitely varied, being in some breeds of the greatest richness and elegance, and in ethers of the simplest and plainest hue. Except in the pure white breeds, the plumage of the cock is always more splendid than that of the hen : his apparent consciousness of personal beauty, courage, and gallantry, seem never to forsake him, whether we regard his stately march, at the head of his train of wives and nume- rous offspring, or watch him as he crows defiance to a rival. His sexual powers are matured when he is about six months old, and his full vigour lasts for about three years. The hen, if left to herself, forms a very ndifterent nest : a simple hole scratched in ;he ground among a few bushes is the only preparation she usually makes, and she generally lays from twelve to fifteen eggs iefore she begins to sit upon them for the purpose of hatching. But she now becomes a model of enduring patience, remaining [ fixed in her place until the urgency of hunger I forces her to go in search of food. During | the time of her sitting she diligently turns : and shifts her eggs, so that each may receive a due degree of genial warmth ; and it is not until about three weeks have elapsed that the ncubation is completed. The strongest of the progeny then begin to chip the shell with the bill, arid are successively enabled to burst their brittle prisons. The whole family being at length emancipated, the parent leads them forth in search of food. In her nature the hen is timid ; but in discharging the duties of maternity she becomes bold, and indiscriminately attacks every aggressor, watches over the safety of her young with the utmost jealousy, neglects the demands of her own appetite to divide the food she may obtain among her nurslings, and labours with untiring diligence to provide them sufficient sustenance. The Cock is very attentive to his females, hardly ever losing sight of them : he leads, defends, and cherishes them ; collects them together >hen they straggle, and seems to eat unwillingly till he sees them feeding around him. Mons. Parrmentier, a cele- brated French naturalist, has thus described the Cock : " He is considered to have every requisite quality when he is of a good mid- dling size j when he carries his head high ; has a quick animated look ; a strong and shrill voice, short bill, and fine red comb, shining as if varnished ; wattles of a large size, and of the same colour as the comb ; the breast broad ; the wings strong ; the plumage black, or of an obscure red : the thighs very muscular ; the legs thick, and furnished with strong spurs ; the claws rather bent, and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow fre- quently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself as to treat his hens. He ought withal to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens ; quick in defending them, at- tentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night." After the common or dunghill breed which we have described, the principal varieties are The GAME COCK, which is more dis- tinguished for its unusual length of spur, and its courage, than for any great peculiarity in its plumage ; the DOKKINQ fowl, which has two toes behind, and is considerably larger than the other European species ; the POLAND breed, which is black-feathered, with white topknots ; the BANTAM COCK, 140 at Batumi $?t a small but most courageous fowl, whose legs are so much feathered as to hinder it greatly in walking ; and the DWARF COCK, much smaller than the Bantam, with legs so short that the wings drag on the ground. COCKCHAFER, or MAY-BUG. (Melo- lontha vulgaris.) This is one of the most common of European beetles, and in this country there is no one with which we are more familiar, the larvae or caterpillar feed- ing on the roots of corn, &c., and the com- plete insect making its appearance during the middle and the decline of summer. It is found on most of the deciduous trees ; particularly the oak and willow, and on the hazel and other fruit trees ; and often in guch numbers that branches bend under their weight. Its duration in the perfect state is very short, each individual living only about a week, and the species entirely disappearing in the course of a month. After the sexes have paired, the males (MELOLONTHA vm.OARIS.) perish, and the females enter the earth to the depth of six inches or more, making their way by means of the strong hook which arm the fore legs ; here they deposit their eggs, amounting from one to two hundred from each female, which are abandoned by the parent, who generally ascends again to the surface, and perishes in a short time. From the eggs are hatched, in the space of fourteen days, little whitish grubs, each provided with six legs near the head, and a mouth furnished with strong jaws. When in a state of rest, these grubs usually curl themselves in the shape of a crescent. They subsist on the tender roots of various plants, committing ravages among these vegetable substances, on some occasions of the most deplorable kind, so as totally to disappoint the best-founded hopes of the husbandman. During the summer they live under the thin coat of vegetable mould near the surface, but as winter approaches they descend be- low the reach of frost, and remain torpid until the succeeding spring, at which time they change their skins, and re-ascend to the surface for food. At the end of their third summer they have acquired their full growth as larvae ; they then cease eating, and void the residue of their food, prepara- tory to the metamorphosis which they are about to undergo. As this period approaches they bury themselves deeper in the earth, where they form a rounded cavity, the sides of which are smoothed and consolidated by the application of a fluid disgorged from their mouths. Its abode being thus formed, the larva soon begins to contract in length, swell, and burst its last skin, coming there- from in the form of a chrysalis, exhibiting the rudiments of elytra, antennae, &c., and gradually acquiring consistence and colour till it becomes of a brownish hue. In this state it continues about three months, by the end of which time it assumes its rank as a perfect coleopterous insect. During the months of March and April the insect ap- proaches the surface of the earth, and ge- nerally bursts from its subterraneous abode during some mild evening about the latter end of May, thus quitting its grovelling mode of life, to soar aloft and disport in the realms of air. In their winged state, these beetles, with several other species, act as conspicuous a part in injuring the trees, as the grubs do in destroying the herbage. During the month of May they come forth from the ground, whence they have received the name of May- bugs or May-beetles. They pass the greater part of the day upon trees, clinging to the under sides of the leaves, in a state of repose; but as soon as evening approaches, they begin to buzz about among the branches, and con- tinue on the wing till near midnight. In their droning flight they move very irregu- larly, darting hither and thither with an uncertain aim, hitting against objects in their way with a force that often causes them to fall to the ground. They frequently enter houses in the night, apparently at- tracted, as well as dazzled and bewildered, by the lights. Their vagaries, in which, without having the power to harm, they seem to threaten an attack, have caused them to be called dors, that is, darers ; while their seeming blindness and stupidity have be- come proverbial, in the expressions, " blind as a beetle," and " beetle-headed." Besides the leaves of fruit-trees, they devour those of various forest-trees and shrubs, with an avidity not much less than that of the lo- cust ; so that, in certain seasons, and in par- ticular districts, they become an oppressive scourge, and the source of much misery to the inhabitants. The animals and birds appointed to check the ravages of these insects, are, according to Latreille, the badger, weasel, marten, bats, rats, the common dung-hill fowl, and the goat-sucker or night-hawk. To this list may be added the common crow, which de- vours not only the perfect insects, but their larvae, for which purpose it is often observed to follow the plough. In " Anderson's Re- creations," it is stated that " a cautious ob- server, having found a nest of five young jays, remarked that each of these birds, while yet very young, consumed at least fifteen of these full-sized grubs in one day, and of course would require many more of a smaller size. Say, that on an average of sizes, they consumed twenty a-piece, these for the five make one hundred. Each of the parents consumes say fifty ; so that the pair and fa- mily devour two hundred every day. Tliis, in three months, amounts to twenty thousand in one season. But as the grub continues |30jiular JBtcttonarj) at gmmatctt Mature. 141 in that state four seasons, this single pair, with their family alone, without reckoning their descendants after the first year, would destroy eighty thousand grubs. Let us sup- pose that the half, namely, forty thousand, are females, and it is known that they usu- ally lay about two hundred eggs each ; it will appear that no less than eight millions have been destroyed, or prevented from being hatched, by the labours of a single family of jays. It is by reasoning in this way, that we learn to know of what import- ance it is to attend to the economy of nature, and to be cautious how we derange it by our short-sighted and futile operations. From Vincent Kollar's useful work on the injuries done to vegetation by various insects, (translated from the German by the Misses Loudon) we derive the following informa- tion. " The May-bug is able to do mischief in a double form ; viz. as larva and beetle, in seasons when its increase exceeds the pro- per limits. The larvae spare neither meadow nor corn-fields ; they often destroy potatoes and other vegetables, and even gnaw the roots of trees and vines, so as to make them sickly. They do particular injury in nur- series, where seeds are raised, to the young plants. By attentively observing the appear- ance of the young trees, the presence of the larvae of the May-bug gnawing at the roots may be detected. The plants thus deprived of their roots become yellow and parched, and are easily taken out of the ground. Young fir-trees are not less exposed to the attacks of this insect than deciduous trees. These insects must not be looked for under the already parched-up trees, but under those that are withering ; as the former are already deserted from want of nourishment. The fully formed beetle is still more destructive than the larvae. It attacks cherry, apple, pear, and nut trees, the vine, the oak, and the beech, &c. in multitudes. The leaves and fruit of the trees, when this is the case, are completely destroyed ; and the stems, full of sap, become unhealthy, and either recover slowly, or die off. It is worthy of remark, that these insects spare the lime- tree. It is natural that the agriculturist, gardener, and forester should try to discover a method by which so powerful an enemy in their peculiar province may be lessened in number or destroyed. It is impossible to search for the small eggs in the earth; and to dig up the grubs that lie deep in the ground would be attended with an expense which would far exceed that of the ravages they commit, while collecting those which are thrown up by the plough and the spade is not to be taken into consideration. Nothing remains to be done but to catch the fully- formed beetle. Nature, however, as in all other extreme visitations, has provided a more effectual remedy for this evil than can be devised by man. Pigs, moles, field-mice, a multitude of birds (particularly the crow, raven, jackdaw, the woodpecker, and the hawk), and even the large ground-beetles, (Carabidce) instinctively search out the May- bug and its larvae to feed on. Unfavourable weather often comes on, and if the month of May is wet and cold, the success of the May-bug is at an end ; but in order to aid in lessening their too great increase, country magistrates and managers of forests should issue a strict order every spring to the far- mers, gardeners, and labourers, to search for and collect these insects as soon as they appear in the gardens, hedges, and forests. For this purpose the children of the pea- santry in the country, and those of the lower classes in towns, should be employed and encouraged by rewards. This business should take place in the morning, because the May- bugs, which have been sitting on the blos- soms of the trees during the night have be- come as if torpid, and as long as the branches remain still they do not cling tightly to them with their hooks; in this state they can easily be thrown down in heaps. In shaking the trees, care should be taken that there are no nails or iron on the soles or heels of the shoes of the boys who climb up the branches, so that the abundant sap and tender bark of the trees may not be injured. In order to facilitate the collecting of the fallen beetles, a linen cloth should be spread under each tree, otherwise they will crawl away in the grass. This practice should be continued throughout May, and even to the beginning of June. The collected insects may be killed by pouring boiling water over them, and given as food to fowls and swine j or they may be burnt. It is not advisable either to bury them or to throw them into ponds or rivers, because they would make their way out again, and commit new ra- vages. Nurseries are best protected by leaves being strewed over the surface of the ground, because (as it is asserted) the beetle never lays its eggs in ground covered with litter. " Another method of setting a limit to the too great increase of the Cockchafer consists in sparing those birds before named which feed on them, and amongst them the crow undoubtedly claims the first place. These birds follow the plough for the express pur- pose of consuming worms, the larvae of insects, and particularly those of the Cock- chafer, which are thrown on the surface by the plough. The instinct of the crow to go in quest of this grub, may also be observed in gardens and other places where vegetables are planted. It walks about between the plants, and soon as it sees one that has be- gun to wither, it approaches it with a joyful spring, digs with its sharp bill deep into the ground near the plant, and knows so well now to seize its prey, that it draws it forth and swallows it almost in the same moment. The crows do the same in meadows, which we sometimes see completely covered with them." COCKATOO. The Cockatoos belong to the Psittacidce, or Parrot family, but are distinguished from the true parrots, and all others, by a crest, or tuft of elegant feathers, on the head, which they can raise or depress at pleasure. They are in general natives of Australia and the Indian islands, inhabiting the woods, and feeding upon seeds and fruits. They make their nests in decayed trees, and if taken at an early age are easily tamed. 142 Crratfurr? of Datura! $H Before we proceed to describe some of the species, we beg to copy from the pages of Capt. Grey (Travels in Australia} a most interesting description of " Cockatoo kill- ing." " Perhaps as fine a sight as can be seen in the whole circle of native sports is the killing Cockatoos with the kiley, or boomerang. A native perceives a large flight of Cockatoos in a forest which encircles a lagoon ; the expanse of water aifords an open clear space above it, unencumbered with trees, but which raise their gigantic forms all around, more vigorous in their growth from the damp soil in which they flourish : and in their leafy summits sit a countless number of Cockatoos, screaming and flying from tree to tree, as they make their arrangements for a night's sound sleep. The native throws aside his cloak, so that he may not even have this slight covering to impede his motions, draws his kiley from his belt, and, with a noiseless, elastic step, approaches the lagoon, creeping from tree to tree, from bush to bush, and disturbing the birds as little as possible ; their sentinels, however, take the alarm, the Cockatoos farthest from the water fly to the trees near its edge, and thus they keep concentrating their forces as the native ad- vances ; they are aware that danger is at hand, but are ignorant of its nature. At length the pursuer almost reaches the edge of the water, and the scared Cockatoos, with wild cries, spring into the air ; at the same instant the native raises his right hand Mgh over his shoulder, and, bounding forward with his utmost speed for a few paces, to give impetus to his blow, the kiley quits his hand as if it would strike the water, but when it has almost touched the unruffled surface of the lake, it spins upwards with inconceiv- able velocity, and with the strangest con- tortions. In vain the terrified Cockatoos strive to avoid it : it sweeps wildy and uncertainly through the air, and so eccentric are its motions, that it requires but a slight stretch of the imagination to fancy it en- dowed with life, and with fcll swoops is in rapid pursuit of the devoted birds, some of am are almost certain to be brought screaming to the earth. But the wily savage has not yet done with them. He avails himself of the extraordinary attachment which these birds have for one another, and fastening a wounded one to a tree, so that its cries may induce its companions to return, he watches Ms opportunity by throwing his kiley or spear to add another bird or two to the booty he has already obtained." The preceding animated description refers not only to the species beneath, but also to spe- cies of the genus Calyptorhynchus, previously described. BROAD-CRESTED COCKATOO. (Psittacus cristatus.) This elegant species is about the size of a common fowl j the colour white, j with a faint tinge of rose-colour on the head and breast, and of yellow on the inner wing- { coverts and tail-feathers : on the head is a very ample crest, consisting of large and ; long feathers arching over the whole head, I which the bird can readily raise or depress : i these feathers are white above, but of a fine scarlet hue beneath : the tail is short in proportion to the size of the body, and even at the end ; the bill very large, strong, and of a bluish black ; the orbits of the eyes bare, and of a deep ash-colour, and the legg deep cinereous. It is of a mild and docile disposition, but can rarely be taught to articulate any other word than its own name, which it pronounces with great distinctness. New Holland is its locality. GREAT SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO. Psittacus galeritus.) This is somewhat larger than the preceding, and measures upwards of two feet in length : its colour is white, slightly tinged with yellow on the sides of the tail, and about the wing-coverts: the head is ornamented with a large, long, and pointed crest, of a fine sulphur colour, slightly reversed at the tip ; the bill is black; and the tail longer than in the Broad-crested Cockatoo. Same locality. SMALLER SULPHUR-GUESTED COCKATOO. Psittacus sulphureus). In almost every respect except in size (being only about fifteen inches long), the description just gven would apply to this species. The crest shaped as in the preceding bird, and is of a fine sulphur-yellow ; but it has in addi- tion a large yellow spot beneath each eye. The bill is black ; and the legs deep lead- colour. It is a native of the Molucca is- lands. RED-VENTED COCKATOO. (.Psittacus Phi- lippinarum.) This is not only the smallest of the White Cockatoos, but its crest is smaller in proportion than the rest of the tribe. The bill is of a pale flesh-colour, and the legs cinereous. It is a native of the Philippine isles. COCKLE. [See CARDIUM.] COCK OF THE WOODS. [See GROUSE.] COCKROACH. [See BLATTA ORIEXTALIS.] COD. [For the generic character of the Gadidte, or Codfish tribe, see GADUS.] The COMMOX COD. (Gailus caUarus.) It is almost impossible to estimate too highly the importance of this truly valuable inhabitant of the deep, whether regarded as a supply of food, a source of national industry and com- mercial wealth, or as a wonder of nature in its astonishing fecundity. It resides in im- mense shoals in the Northern seas, perform- ing various migrations at stated seasons, and visiting in succession the different coasta of Europe and America. Though found in considerable numbers on the coasts of other northern regions, an extent of about 450 papular Stctfanarw of &mmatett Mature. 143 miles'of ocean, leaving the chill and rugged shores of Newfoundland, is the favourite annual resort of countless multitudes of Cod, which visit the submarine mountains known as the Grand Bant:, to feed upon the erus- taceous and molluscous animals abundant in such situations. Hither, also, fleets of fishermen regularly adventure, sure of win- ning a rich freight in return for their toils and exposure. " In this country," Mr. Yar- rell observes, "it appears to be taken all round the coast : among the islands to the north and west of Scotland it is abundant : most extensive fisheries are carried on ; and it may be traced as occurring also on the shore of almost every county in Ireland. In the United Kingdom alone, this fish, in the catching, the curing, the partial con- sumption and sale, supplies employment, food, and profit to thousands of the human race." The Cod is of a moderately long shape, with the abdomen very thick and promi- nent ; the head is large, as also are the eyes ; the jaws of equal length, the lower one bearded at the tip by a single cirrus ; in the jaws and palate are numerous sharp teeth ; the dorsal and anal fins are rather large, the pectoral and ventral rather small ; the tail of moderate size, and even at the end ; the belly tumid and soft, the body tapering gradually throughout the latter half ; the upper part of the head, cheeks, back, and sides, mottled and spotted with dull yellow ; the belly white or silvery ; the lateral line white ; all the fins dusky. The Cod some- times grows to a very large size. Pennant gives an instance of one taken on the British coasts which weighed seventy-eight pounds, and measured five feet eight inches in length, and five feet in girth round the shoulders ; but the general size, at least in the British seas, is far less, and the weight from about fourteen to forty pounds ; and such as are of middling size are most esteemed for the table. Speaking of the localities to which the Cod-fish chiefly resort on our own coasts, Mr. Yarrell says, "A change has lately taken place, from the Cod having shifted their ground. Formerly the Gravesend and Bark- ing fishermen obtained few Cod nearer than the Orkneys or the Dogger Bank ; but for the last two or three years the supply for the London market has been obtained by going no farther than the Lincolnshire and Nor- folk coasts, and even between that and Lon- don, where previously very few fish could be obtained." " There appear to be two well-marked varieties of the Common Cod ; one with a sharp nose, elongated before the eye, and the body of a very dark brown co- lour, which is usually called the Dogger- bank Cod. This varietv prevails also along our southern coast. The other variety has a round blunt nose, short and wide before the eyes, and the body of light yellowish ash-green colour, and is frequently called the Scotch Cod. Both sorts have the lateral line white. I believe the distinction of more southern and northern Cod to be tenable, and that the blunt-headed lighter-colour fish does not range so far south as the sharper-nosed dark fish. Our fishermen now finding plenty of Cod-fish near home, the London shops for the last year or two have only now and then exhibited specimens of the short-nosed northern Cod: both varieties are equally good in quality, and both are frequently taken on the same ground." COLEOPTERA. [BEETLES.] The name given to designate an order of Insects, cha- racterized by having four wings, the exter- nal pair of which are not suited for flight, but form a covering or case for the interior pair, and are composed of a hard, tough. substance : the inner margins of these wing- cases, or elytra, when closed, touch and form a longitudinal suture ; and the inner or true wings, which are large and membranous, when not in use, are folded transversely under them. Under the term Coleoptera, therefore, are included all the beetle tribe ; of which naturalists have established a great number of genera, from the different con- formations of their antennae, &c.j presenting among them many that are remarkable for their brilliant colours or singular formg. The larvae of coleopterous insects undergo a complete transformation : those which bur- row in the ground generally prepare for the pupa state by removing the earth which surrounds them so as to form an open oval space i others form a kind of cocoon or web around them ; and some assume the perfect state without any preparation. " Many of these Insects, particularly in the larvae state, are very injurious to vegeta- tion. The Tiger-beetles (CicindeUdce), the predaceous ground beetles (Carabulce), the diving beetles (Dytiscidce), the Lady-birds (Coccinellitke), and some others, are emi- nently serviceable by preying upon cater- pillars, plant-lice, and other noxious or destructive insects. The water-lovers (Hy- drophilidai), rove-beetles (Staphylinidce), car- rion-beetles (.Silphidce), skin-beetles (Der- mcstidce, Byrrhidce, and Trogidce), bone- beetles (some of the Nitidulidoi and Cleridce), and various kinds of dung-beetles (Sphceri- diadce, Histeridce, Geotrupidce, Coprididce, and Aphodiadce), and the Pimdiadae and Blaptidce act the useful part of scavengers, by removing carrion, dung, and other filth, h alone they and their larvae sub- y Coleoptera (some StaphylinidoR by removing carrion, dung, upon which alone they and sist. Many Coleoptera (so and Nitidulidce, Diaperidida?, some Serro- paJpidce, Mycetophagida, Erotylidce, and En- domychidce) live altogether on agarics, mushrooms, and toad-stools, plants of very little use to man, many of them poisonous, and in a state of decay of ten offensive ; these fungus-eaters are therefore to be reckoned among our friends. There are others, such as the stag-beetles (.Lticanidce), some spring- beetles (Elate-ndfE), darkling beetles (Tene- brionidoe), and many bark-beetles (Hetopidce, Cistelidce, Serropalpidce, (Edemeridce, Cucu- jidce, and some Trogositidce), which, living under the bark and in the trunks and roots of old trees, though they may occasionally prove injurious, must, on the whole, be con- sidered as serviceable, by contributing to destroy, and reduce to dust, plants that have passed their prime, and are fast going to 144 at Natural $t decay. And, lastly, the blistering-beetles (Cantharidce) have, for a long time, been employed witli great benefit in the healing art." COLIAS. A genus of diurnal Lepidop- tera, abounding in species. See Doubleday and Hewitson's Genera of Diurnal Lepidop- tera. We here restrict ourselves to the men- tion of two British species. COLIAS HYALE, or CLOUDED YEL- LOW BUTTERFLY. This is a compara- tively scarce British butterfly, found chiefly near the sea coast in the counties of Kent, Sussex, and Suffolk. The male is usually of a rich sulphur-yellow, the female nearly white ; with a deep black spot in the middle of the anterior wings, and a pale orange spot in the disc of the posterior. The anterior wings have a black border, widest towards the costa, and with a row of yellowish or whitish spots. The under wings have a large orange spot in the centre : beneath, the upper wings are whitish yellow, tipped with orange ; having a black ring-spot en- closing a yellow centre near the middle, and with a row of small dusky marks at some distance from the outer margin. The lower wings beneath are entirely orange- yellow, with a row of dusky reddish spots towards the margin, and two silvery spots in the centre. The wings are all ciliated witli yellowish red ; the body is yellow ; the head and the front of the thorax and the legs are ferruginous ; the back dusky ; the antennas reddish. The caterpillar is velvety- green, witli two yellowish lateral lines, and black spots on the annuli : it feeds on papi- lionaceous plants. The chrysalis is green, with a yellow lateral line. COLIAS EDUSA, or CLOUDED SAF- FRON BUTTERFLY. The anterior wings of the male insect are of a deep bright ful- vous orange above, with a broad black in- ternally-waved band on their outer edge, and a large round central deep black spot : the posterior wings are fulvous above, with a narrow black border on the outer edge, and a greenish tinge on the other ; beneath they are greenish, with a sub-ocellated silver spot in the middle, accompanied by a smaller one. The female differs in having a series of irregular yellow spots in the black margin of the anterior wings : but each sex has a row of spots parallel with the edge of the hinder margins of both wings, of which three or four on the anterior ones are deep black, and the rest of a rust-colour : the cilia are yellow and red-brown above^ and rose- coloured beneath. The body is yellowish- green, with the back dusky : the antennae reddish, and the tip of the club inclining to yellow. In some specimens the marginal band is jet black ; and the posterior wings are sometimes beautifully iridescent. It is not uncommon during the autumn in the southern counties of England, particularly on the coasts of Kent and Sussex. The caterpillar is deep green with a longitudinal white stripe on each side, spotted with blue and yellow ; it feeds on grasses : the chrysa- lis is green, with a yellow line on each side, and black spots on the wing-cases. COLIBRI. [See HUMMING-BIRD.] COLIN. A South American Rasorial bird, by some writers called the Quail, but belong- ing to the genus ORTYX [which see]. There are several distinct species, all much esteemed for the delicacy of their flesh. COLOBUS. A genus of quadrumanous animals, of which there are several species. They are natives of Africa, and are in ge- neral distinguished by their long, soft, silky hair, which covers the head and upper part of the body. Their "hands" want the thumb ; hence their name, derived from the Greek word for imperfect. All the species of this genus, most of which are from West- ern Africa, are in the British Museum. A magnificent species was found by Dr. Rup- pell in Abyssinia ; it is black, and has long flowing white hair over the sides and back. (C. Guereza.) [See MONKEYS.] COLOSSOCHELYS. (C. Atlas.) The name applied by Dr. Falconer and Major Cautley to a gigantic fossil Tortoise discover- ed by them in India, the remains of which are now in the British Museum. The first fossil remains of this colossal Tortoise were discovered by the gentlemen above-mentioned in 1835, in the tertiary strata of the Sewalik Hills, or Sub-Hima- layahs skirting the southern foot of the great Hiinalayah chain. They were found asso- ciated with the remains of four extinct spe- cies of Mastodon and Elephant, species of Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Horse, Anoplo- therium, Camel, Giraffe, Sivatherium, and a vast number of other Mammalia, &c. The remains of many of the animals associated with the Colossocheh/s in the Sewalik Hills have been discovered along the banks of the Irawaddi in Ava, and in Perim Island in the Gulf of Cambay, showing that the same extinct fauna was formerly spread over the whole continent of India. " This is not the place (say the discover- ers) to enter upon the geological question of the age of the Sewalik strata ; suffice it to say, that the general bearing of the evidence is, that they belong to the newer tertiary period. But another question arises : ' Are there any indications as to when this gi- gantic Tortoise became extinct ? or are there grounds for entertaining the opinion that it may have descended to the human period ? ' Any d priori improbability that an animal so hugely disproportionate to existing spe- cies should have lived down to be a contem- porary with man, is destroyed by the fact that other species of Chelonians which were IBtcttonarp of STmmatetr $ature. us coeval with the Colossochelys in the same fauna, have reached to the present time ; and what is true in this j-espect of one spe- | cies in a tribe, may be equally true of every other placed under the same circumstances. We have as yet no direct evidence to the point, from remains dug out of recent allu- vial deposits ; nor is there any historical testimony confirming it ; but there are tra- ditions connected with the cosmogonic spe- culations of almost all Eastern nations having reference to a Tortoise of such gi- C:ic size, as to be associated in their fabu- accounts with the elephant. Was this Tortoise a mere creature of the imagination, or was the idea of it drawn from a reality, like the Coloxxochcl >/s f Without attempting to follow the tortoise tradition through all its ramifications, we may allude to the in- teresting fact of its existence even among the natives of America. The Iroquois Indians believed that there were originally, before the creation of the globe, six male beings in the air, but subject to mortality. There was no female among them to perpetuate their race ; but learning that there was a being of this sort in heaven, one of them under- took the dangerous task of carrying her away. A bird (like the Garuda of Vishnoo, or the Eagle of Jupiter) became the vehicle. He seduced the female by flattery and pre- sents : she was turned out of heaven by the supreme deity, but was fortunately received upon the back of a tortoise, when the otter (an important agent in all the traditions of the American Indians) and the fishes dis- turbed the mud at the bottom of the ocean, and drawing it up round the tortoise formed a small island, which, increasing gradually, became the earth. We may trace this tra- dition to an Eastern source, from the cir- cumstance that the female is said to have had two sons, one of whom slew the other ; after which she had several children, from whom sprung the human race. "In this fable we have no comparative data as to the size of the tortoise ; but in the Pythagorean cosmogony the infant world is represented as having been placed on the back of an elephant, which tens sustained on a huge tortoise. It is in the Hindoo accounts, however, that we find the fable most circum- stantially told, and especially in what relates to the second Avatar of Vishnoo, when the ocean was churned by means of the moun- tain Mundar placed on the back of the king of the tortoises, and the serpent Asokee used for the churning-rope. Vishnoo was made to assume the form of the tortoise, and sus- tain the created world on his back to make it stable. So completely has this fable been impressed on the faith of the country, that the Hindoos to this day even believe that the world rests on the back of a tortoise." We ought to apologise to our readers, per- haps, for devoting so much space to the " vague and uncertain indications of mytho- logical tradition : " we shall not, however, pursue the subject further, but merely state that the result at which the researches and inquiries of the discoverers arrived was, " that there are fair grounds for entertaining the belief as probable that the Colossochelys A tlas may have lived down to an early pe- riod of the human epoch and become extinct since : 1st, from the fact that other Chelo- nian species and crocodiles, contemporaries of the Colossochelys in the Sewalik fauna, have survived ; 2nd, from the indications of mythology in regard to a gigantic species of tortoise in India." Ann. Nat. Ilist. vol. 15. COLUBER : COLUBRID^. An exten- sive genus and family of Ophidian reptiles, comprising all serpents, whether venomous or not, whose scales beneath the tail are ar- ranged in pairs ; but now, according to Cu- vier's arrangement, including only the harm- less snakes, many of which habitually reside among trees, and are distinguished by the brilliancy of their colours and the graceful- ness of their forms. [See SNAKES.] COLUGO. The Flying Squirrel. [See GALKOPITHECUS.] COLUMBID^E. A natural family of birds, comprising the pigeons, doves, and turtle-doves. In Britain there are four na- tive species ; the Ring-dove or Wood-pigeon; the Rock-pigeon, which is the original of all our domesticated breeds; the Stock- dove, which, like the Ring-dove, chiefly frequents coppices and groves ; and the Turtle-dove, which is the smallest, and the most elegant both in form and colour. The Cplumoidce fly well, and associate invariably in pairs ; their nests are constructed in trees, or in the holes of rocks ; and both parents sit upon the eggs. They are further remarkable for the peculiar mode in which their young are fed. The crop is furnished with numerous glands, which become developed in both sexes during incubation : these glands se- crete a sort of milky substance, with which the food that passes into the crop is moist- ened ; and the food, saturated with this secretion, is regurgitated by the parents for the nourishment of their young. By some naturalists these birds are regarded as form- ing a distinct order called GYEATOKES. [See PIGEON.] COLUMELLID^E. A family of univalve shells, distinguished by their having no canal at the base of the aperture, but a notch, more or less distinct, and plaits on the columella or left lip. Many individuals of this family, as MITKA, MAUOINELLA, VOLUTA, &c., are remarkable for their beauty. COLYMBID2E. The Colymbidce, or Di- vers, are a family of birds inhabiting the northern regions, and distinguished by their legs being placed so far back, that they al- ways assume an erect position when stand- ing. Their feet are large and webbed ; they are rapid and powerful divers; and they feed both on fish and vegetables. [See DI- VER.] CONCHIFERA. The scientific name given to Bivalve Shells, which are separated into three orders : Brachiopoda ; Dimyaria; and Monomyaria: [which see.] The Mol- lusca which inhabit them, not having any especial organs for seeing, hearing, or smell- ing, are limited to the perception of no other impressions but those of immediate contact. 146 Crcatfurp of Natural $?ttorj); CONDOR. (Sarcoramphits gryplms.) A large species of vulture, the most exaggerated descriptions of whose size, as given by the earlier writers and naturalists, caused it to be long regarded as a giant of the feathered race, whose bulk darkened the air, and the rushing of whose mighty wings could only be compared to the roaring of a cataract. But these tales of wonder, like others of a similar nature, have lately given place to the sober reasonings of scientific truth, which, while correcting the extravagance of error, still leave us sufficient room for rational ad- miration. The Condor is found in the high- est and most inaccessible part of the Andes, over the loftiest summits of which it soars, in clear weather, to an amazing height. The elevation it chooses as its breeding-place CONDOR. (SARCORAMPHDS GRYPHUS.) and habitual residence varies from 10,000 to i 15,000 feet above the level of the sea ; and here, on some isolated pinnacle or jutting i ledge, it rears its brood. " The old birds," ! says Mr. Darwin, "generally live in pairs ; but among the inland basaltic cliffs of the Santa Cruz, I found a spot where scores most usually haunt ; on coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice, it was a grand | spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these great birds start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel away in majestic I circles." "Except when rising from the , ground," he adds, " I do not recollect ever I having seen one of these birds flap its wings. j Near Lima I watched several for nearly half I an hour without once taking off my eyes. 1 They moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending without once flapping. As they glided close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique position the outlines of the separate and terminal feathers of the wing ; if there had been the least vibratory movement, these would have blended together; but they were seen distinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved frequently, and apparently with force ; and it appeared as if the extended wings formed the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck, body, and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings were for a moment collapsed ; and ! then, when again expanded with an altered I inclination, the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird up- i wards with the even and steady movement of a paper kite." The Condor feeds, like other vultures, chiefly on dead carcasses, but two will frequently unite their forces to overpower and devour the puma, the lama, and other large animals. It occasionally descends to the plains in search of food ; but the stories of its attacking children are quite fabulous. It makes no nest, but lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock. The young birds for many months are covered only with a fine thick down, and are said to remain with the parent bird, unable to fly, for an entire year. At mature age the prevailing colour of the male is glossy black, with a tinge of grey. The greater wing- coverts, except at the base and tips, and the secondary quill-feathers, are white ; and a white ruff of downy feathers encircles the base of the neck : the crest, or comb, which is fleshy, or rather cartilaginous, occupies the top of the head and about a fourth part of the beak, and is entirely wanting in the female : the skin of the neck is dilated under the throat into a kind of wattle, and along the sides of the neck runs a wrinkled | skinny stripe or band, the processes of which are moveable at will. The tail is broad and somewhat wedge-shaped. Length about four feet ; expanse of wing about nine feet : tarsi powerful. Various traps and strata- gems are made use of to capture the Condors, the lasso being among the number. The genus Sarcoramphus is peculiar to the New World, and contains, besides the Condor, the King-vulture, and Californian vulture. CONDYLURA. (Condylura cristata.) A mole-like animal of North America, which has the termination of the nostrils sur- rounded by movable cartilaginous points, that radiate like a star when expanded. The head is remarkably large ; the body thick and short, growing narrower towards the tail ; which is small at the root, large in the middle, and tapering to a fine point at the tip : the fur on the body is very soft, fine, and shining. In Kalm's description of this animal, he says, "It had greater stiffness and strength in its legs than I ever observed in other animals, in proportion to their size. Whenever it intended to dig, it held its legs | obliquely like oars. I laid my handkerchief before it, and it began to stir in it with the snout ; and taking away the handkerchief to see what it had done to it, I found that in the space of a minute it had made it full of holes, and it looked as if it had been pierced very much by an awl. I was obliged to put some books on the cover of the box in which I kept this animal, or else it was flung off immediately. It was very irascible, and would bite great holes into anything that was put in its way : I held a steel pen- case to it ; it at first bit at it with great vio- lence, but having felt its hardness, it would not venture again to bite at anything." 0( &ntmatetr 147 These moles do not make such hills as the European ones, but only little subterraneous walks in the fields, forming banks about four inches broad by two inches thick, and which sink in when trod upon. CONGER. [See EEL.] CONIROSTRES. This term is used to denote those Birds which have a strong co- nical bill, the margin of which is not toothed or indented. The greater part of these are omnivorous ; but some are exclusively gra- nivorous. Cuvier observes that they live more or less exclusively upon seeds, in pro- portion as their bill is more or less thick. Crows, Starlings, and Finches are examples of this class. CONUS. An extensive genus of univalve Mollusca, the shells of which are thick, SHELL AND ANIMAL OF TUB COS OS BAND AN CIS and rolled up, as it were, in a conical form. They are found principally in the southern and tropical seas ; and many of them are very beautiful both in shape and colour. The mollusc is much compressed and in- volved ; the head very distinct, terminated by a trunk capable of great extension ; two tentacula, with eyes near the summit 5 foot oval, and long. Some of the species, such as the Conus gloria marts, for example, have fetched enormous prices. The cones are very hand- some in shape and agreeable in colour, and are consequently much prized by collectors. The accompanying figures will give some idea-of their forms. In the British Museum there is a very fine collection of them. The Messrs. Sowerby have monographed the genus and figured all the species. CONILITES. A genus of fossil Cepha- lopoda, conical, straight, or slightly curved ; having a thin external covering, independent of the alveole. The difference between Be- lemnites and Conilites, is that the external sheath of the latter is thin, and not filled up with solid matter, from the point of the al- veole to the apex, as in the fonner. COOT. A genus of birds of the order Grallatores. They are distinguished from all other birds by the remarkable structure of the membranes on the toes : the inner toe is furnished with two of these appendages, or rather scallops, the middle one with three, and the outer with four ; the hinder toe has a simple membrane only, extending its whole length. They are met with in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America : they delight in marshy and wet places, hiding them- selves during the day, and venturing forth in the evening in search of food, which con- sists of insects and aquatic vegetables. The COMMON COOT (FuHca atra) is about six- teen inches in length : its beak is white, slightly tinged with rose-colour ; the head and neck deep black ; the upper parts of the plumage of a slaty black, and all the under parts of a greyish-blue or lead-colour. The skin is clothed with a thick down, and co- vered with close fine feathers : thighs placed far behind, fleshy, and strong, bare, and yel- low above the "knee-joints : legs and toes commonly of a yellowish-green, but some- times of a lead-colour. From the bill, al- \ most to the crown of the head, there is an excrescence, or fleshy lobe, destitute of fea- thers, soft, smooth, and round 5 on which account this bird is sometimes called the bald Coot. This speoies is common in many parts of England, particularly in the South- ampton river, and in the Isle of Sheppey ; and it is generally believed that it does not j migrate to other countries, but changes its stations, and removes in the autumn from j ponds and small lakes, where the young j have been reared, to the larger lakes, where j flocks assemble in the winter. It is usual | for them to build their nests in a bush of j rushes, surrounded by the water : it is com- posed of a great quantity of coarse dried weeds, well matted together, and lined with- in with softer and finer grasses : the female lays from twelve to fifteen eggs, and gene- eggs are about the size of those of a pullet, and are of ay rall y hatches twice in a season ; the e a pale brownish-white, sprinkled with nu- merous dark spots, which at the thicker end are like large irregular blotches. A variety, excelling the other in size and the deeper blackness of its plumage, is found in Scot- land ; also in Lancashire and some of the adjacent counties. Another species, called WILSON'S COOT (Fvlica Wilsani), inhabit various parts of North America, and make their appearance in Pennsylvania in the beginning of October among the muddy flats and islands of the river Delaware, which are overgrown with reeds and rushes, and are periodically over- flowed. The chief distinctions between this species and the Common Coot consist in the callous knob on the forehead being of a deep chestnut : the feathers of the vent are quite black, and the under tail-coverts white ; and there are a few white feathers on the upper edge of the wing. There is also a very singular species inhabiting Madagascar, called the CRESTED COOT (Fulica cristatn). \ It measures eighteen inches in length ; its bill is red at the base, and whitish towards the tip ; the crown of the head is bare, of a j O 2 148 of $?ts"t0ry ; deep red, and rising into a bifid, detached, crest-like membrane. The entire plumage is blue-black : its legs are dusky, with a tri- color ring or garter above the knee, red green, and yellow. COPPER [BUTTERFLY]. A name ap- plied by collectors to Butterflies of the genus LycMna. [See LYC-ENA.] COPRIDJE. A family of Coleopterous insects allied to the ScarabuKi. The name j Copris is from the Greek word for dung, in i which the insects are found. Some of them have the head and thorax singularly armed. They are generally of a dull black colour : but some of the species of the American ge- nus Phancem perfectly glow with rich green, red, and blue colours. Our figure, derived from Sturm's Catalogue, represents the bril- liant blue Phancnus sapphirinus of Brazil. | There are but few species of this family I found in this country. CORACIAS. A genus of Passerine birds. [See ROLLER.] CORALLINA. The name given by Lin- naeus to a genus or group of marine organized bodies, of the class Vermes, order Zoophyta. The animals of this genus are arborescent or tree-like in form ; the stem fixed, with cal- careous subdivided branches, mostly jointed. Neither pores nor polypes are distinguishable on the surface of these beings ; and they were formerly supposed to be vegetable ; but they give the most evident tokens of large por- tions of ammonia, the common test of ani- mal substance, and have been often traced to spontaneous motion. Every tube, vesicle, or articulation, is probably the enclosure of a distinct animal, so that the entire mass or tree is a family ; in this respect resembling the vegetable tree, in which every bud may also be regarded as an individual living plant. [See POLYPES, ACTIM.E, &c.] We may in this place very consistently introduce some observations made by late writers on Coral Reefs and Islands, the Coral Fishery, &c. With regard to the growth of coral, it has been observed, that many errors have prevailed upon this subject, both as to the rapidity of their extension, and the depth from which they are built up to the surface of the ocean. It has been commonly stated that many channels and harbours in the Red Sea have been closed up, within the memory of man, by the rapid increase of coral limestone. But Ehrenberg, who care- fully examined these localities, attributes the obstruction rather, in some instances, to i the quantities of coral sand which have been washed into the harbours, and in others to the accumulation of ballast (generally com- i posed of pieces of coral rock) thrown out i from vessels. * * * There can be no j doubt that, whether the growth of coral i takes place as rapidly as some maintain, or ! as slowly as it is believed to do by others, j it is among the most important of the pro- | gressive changes, which have been altering I the surface of the globe since it has been | tenanted by man. To it is due the existence of a large proportion of the islands of the Polynesian Archipelago, as well as many of those in the Indian Ocean ; and the extent of these islands is far less than that of the reefs which are not yet raised above the level of the sea, some presenting themselves at a distance from any upraised land, others fringing the shores of continents and islands, composed of other formations. It is not cor- rect, however, to affirm (as has been fre- quently done) that these islands and reefs have been upreared by the Coral-polypes from the depths of the ocean. It is now sa- tisfactorily ascertained that no known spe- cies can build from a greater depth than twenty fathoms ; and a large proportion seem to prefer a depth of from twenty to thirty feet. As very deep water is found in the immediate neighbourhood of many of these reefs, the question arises, upon what basis they are constructed ; and to solve this it is necessary to look at the forms which these massive structures present. " A large proportion of the Coral Islands of the Polynesian Archipelago," as Dr. Carpenter observes, " are shaped like a crescent, sometimes like a complete ring ; and these islands never rise many feet above the surface of the ocean. The highest part is always on the windward [easterly] side, against "which the waves are almost con- stantly dashing. Within the crescent or ring is a basin, termed a latjoon; and this usually communicates with the open sea, by a channel, sometimes of considerable width, on the leeward side of the island. Occa-i< >n- ally this channel is completely filled up by the growth of the coral ; and the lake, thus inclosed, only communicates with the sea by filtration through the Coral rock. The Coral-polypes never build above low-water mark ; and they are not, therefore, imme- diately concerned in the elevation of the surface from beneath the waves. This is principally accomplished by the action of the sea itself. Large masses are often de- tached, by the violence of the waves, from the lower part of the structure ; and these (sometimes measuring six feet by four) are washed up on the windward side of the reef. Shells, coral-sand, and various other debris, accumulate upon it in like manner, until it is at last changed into an island, upon which there is a calcareous soil capable of support- ing various kinds of vegetation. When these have once established themselves, the eleva- tion of the surface continues with greater ra- pidity successive layers of vegetable mould being deposited by the rapid and luxuriant vegetation of these tropical islands, which JBtcti0narjj at feature. 149 are soon tenanted by various forms of ani- mals, and at some subsequent period afford a habitation to Man." Speaking of an island which was evidently of coral origin, Capt. Flinders thus reasons : " It seems to me, that when the animalcules which form the corals at the bottom of the ocean cease to live, their structures adhere \ to each other, by virtue either of the gluti- nous remains within, or of some property in salt water : and the interstices being gra- i dually filled up with sand and broken pieces \ of coral washed by the sea, which also ad- ! here, a mass of rock is at length formed. Future races of these animalcules erect their habitations upon the rising bank, and die in their turn to increase, but principally to \ elevate, this monument of their wonderful labours. The care taken to work perpen- dicularly in the early stages, would mark a surprising instinct in these diminutive crea- tures. Their wall of coral, for the most part in situations where the winds are con- stant, being arrived at the surface, affords a shelter, to leeward of which their infant colonies may be safely sent forth : and to this their instinctive foresight it seems to be owing, that the windward side of a reef, exposed to the open sea, is generally, if not always, the highest part, and rises almost perpendicular, sometimes from the depth of 200, and perhaps many more fathoms. To be constantly covered with water seems ne- cessary to the existence of the animalcules, for they do not work, except in holes upon the reef, beyond low-water mark ; but the coral sand and other broken remnants thrown up by the sea adhere to the rock, and form a solid mass with it, as high as the common tides reach. That elevation sur- passed, the future remnants, being rarely covered, lose their adhesive property ; and remaining in a loose state, form what is usually called a key upon the top of the reef. The new bank is not long in being visited by sea birds, salt plants take root upon it, and a soil begins to be formed ; a cocoa nut, or the drupe of a pandanus is thrown on shore ; land birds visit it, and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees ; every high tide, and still more every gale, adds something to the bank ; the form of an island is gradually assumed ; and last of all comes man to take A few words in this place respecting the J CORAL FISHERY may not be inappropriate. \ The manner of fishing being nearly the same \ wherever coral is found, it will suffice to state ' the method adopted by the French, under the , direction of the company established at Mar- seilles. Seven or eight men go in a boat com- manded by the proprietor ; and when the net is thrown by the caster, the rest work the vessel, and help to draw the net in. The net is composed of two rafters of wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed to them : to these they fasten a quantity of hemp twisted loosely round, and intermingled with some loose netting. This instrument is let down where they think there is coral, and pulled up again, when the coral is strongly en- tangled in the hemp and netting. For this, six boats are sometimes required ; and if, in hauling in, the rope happens to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost. Be- fore the fishers go to sea they agree for the price of the coral ; and they engage, on pain of corporal punishment, that neither they nor their crew shall embezzle any, but de- liver the whole to the proprietors. Red Coral is found in the Mediterranean, on the shores of Provence, about the isles of Majorca and Minorca, on the south of Sicily ; on the coast of Africa ; and, lastly, in the Ethiopic Ocean, and about Cape Negro. The divers say that the little branches are found only in the caverns whose situation is parallel to the earth's surface, and open to the south. CORBULA. A genus of marine Mollusca, some species inhabiting the British coasts. Shell regular, inequivalve, and inequilateral, scarcely gaping ; one cardinal spoon-shaped tooth in each valve, but no lateral; ligament interior. These small shells are met with in the seas of New Holland, China, and South America. COREID^E. A family of Hemiptera, of which there are a few brown coloured species in this country ; in tropical climates, where there is a luxuriant vegetation, they abound, and from their size, and frequently grotesque shapes, as may be seen in the British Mu- seum collection, are very striking. In the example figured (Diactor bilincatus), a native LEAP LEGOKD COFIEO8. (UIA01OR BIUNEA/lOa ) of Brazil, the hind legs have singular leaf- like appendages to their tibial joints. This, however, is common to many other species. The smell of these insects is peculiar ; the word cimicine, may be used to express it ; it is very far from agreeable, and has associa- tions connected with it by no means pleasing. COREGONUS. The Guiniad. A genus of Malacopterygious fishes, belonging to the Salmonidce family, distinguished by a small trout-like mouth, but with few teeth, and sometimes none ; the scales rather large ; and the dorsal fin short. There are many species of this genus, some in the sea, others in the fresh waters only. It feeds on insects, and minute fresh-water Crustacea. They seem to abound in the Arctic parti O 3 150 Ererofttrg of of North America; one especially we may mention, the Coregonus albus, called the Whitv-jish by the fur traders, and Poisson Uaw by the Canadians. It is from seven- teen to twenty inches long. It is bluish-grey on the back, lighter on the sides, and white on the belly ; the scales are large and or- bicular ; there are about eighty scales on the lateral line, and twenty in an oblique series from the dorsal. This species in par- ticular abounds in the lakes of North Ame- rica. Dr. King, speaking of it, says, " Take, for instance, the white-fish only the Cor- regonus albus, which has never failed to yield to the fisherman's net every demand . the bread of life to the inhabitants of North America, as I have called it, in gratitude for its being tiie provision which saved my party when in search of Sir John Boss from the death of starvation. This is a food upon which man will not only live for several months together, but actually fatten." CORMORANT. (Plialacrocorasc.} Among the whole of the web-footed birds which prey on fish, there are none so voracious as Cormorants. They are most excellent divers, and pursue their prey with astonishing fa- cility beneath the surface of the water, but COMMON CORMORANT. (PHALACROCORAX CARBO.) upon land they are extremely awkward in their movements, owing to their legs being placed so far backwards : they, however, fly with rapidity ; and their tail being rather long and furnished with strong feathers, it helps to support their body while walking. As soon as winter approaches, they are seen dispersed along the sea-shores, entering the mouths of fresh- water rivers, and threaten- ing destruction to all the finny tribe. There are several species, but a description of the one common in this country will be sufficient for our purpose. This, which is called by Bewick, the Great Black Cormorant, is said to vary from four to seven pounds in weight, and the size from thirty-two inches to three feet four or five in length, and from four feet to four feet six inches in ! breadth when the wings are extended. The bill, to the corners of the mouth, measures four inches, and on its ridge two inches and three qviarters : it is of a dark horn co- lour, and the tip of the upper mandible is much hooked and sharp : the lower bill is compressed, and covered about the gape of the mouth with a naked yellowish skin, extended tinder the chin and throat, where it hangs loose, and forms a kind of pouch, \ which is capable of distention to a great ; width : the skin about the eyes is also naked and yellowish, and the eyes have a remark- ably wild stare. The crown of the head and the neck are black ; and on the former are some loose feathers, which form a sort of ; short crest ; the breast, all the under parts, ; and the rump, are black glossed with green ; i the quills and tail-feathers are black ; the ! legs black. j The Cormorant is found in every climate. ' j In Greenland, where it is said they remain ! throughout the year, the jugular pouch is i made use of by the natives as a bladder to ' i float their fishing-darts, after they are j thrown; their skins, which are tough, are used i by them for garments, and their flush, which is rank and disagreeable, for food. They 1 usually assemble in flocks on the inaccessible j parts of the rocks which overhang or are i surrounded by the sea; upon which the fe- i male makes her nest of withered sea- weeds, j ! sticks, and grasses : she lays four or more greenish-white eggs, about the size, but i somewhat longer, than those of a goose, j At sea, or on the inland lakes, they make a terrible havoc. From the greatest height ! they drop down upon the object of pursuit, j dive after it with the rapidity of a dart, and, i with an almost unerring certainty, seize the victim ; then emerging, with the fish across i the bill, with a kind of twirl, throw it up ; into the air, and dexterously catching it head j foremost, swallow it whole. Notwithstanding the natural wildncss of their disposition, it seems that certain spe- cies of these birds have formerly been tamed and rendered subservient to the purposes of man, both in this and in other countries. Among the Chinese, it is said, they have frequently been trained to fish, and that some fishermen keep many of them for that purpose, by which they gain a livelihood. In England too, formerly, according to Willoughby, they were hoodwinked in the manner of the falcons, till they were let off j to fish, and a leather thong was tied round ; the lower part of their necks, to prevent their swallowing the fish. The whole de- | portment of the Cormorant indicates the | wary circumspect plunderer, the unrelenting tyrant, and the greedy insatiate glutton, rendered lazy only when the appetite is j palled ; it ought, however, to be observed, that this bird, like other animals, led only by the cravings of appetite, and directed by instinct, fills the place and pursues the course assigned to it by nature. It may be thought that we have already dwelt at sufficient length on the nature j and habits of the Cormorant ; nor would we i trespass farther but for the pleasure it affords us to quote from that inimitable writer -popular 3trtian widgeons are stationary on the pool, the Cor- morant is seen swimming to and fro, ' as if in , quest of something.' First raising his body | nearly perpendicular, down he plunges into the deep ; and, after staying there a con- ; siderable time, he is sure to bring up a fish, ' which he invariably swallows head foremost. Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can manage to accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach. You see him strain- j ing violently, with repeated efforts to gulp it ; and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully disposed of, all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards from its dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape. The Cormorant swallows it again ; and up again it comes and shows its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mouth. At length, worn out with ineffectual writh- ings, and slidings, the eel is gulped down into the Cormorant's stomach for the last i time, there to meet its dreaded and inevita- | ble fate. This gormandizing exhibition was i witnessed here by several individuals, both ladies and gentlemen, on Nov. 26. 1832, through an excellent eight and twenty guinea telescope j the Cormorant being, at that time, not more than a hundred yards distant from the observers. I was of the party." [For other species, such as the Chi- nese Fishing Cormorant and the Australian Cormorant, see PHALACEOCOKAJC.] CORVTDvE. The Crow tribe ; a family of birds which belong to the Conirostres. The Corvidce are very widely diffused over the globe ; the general characters are con- sequently well known. They have a strong bill, compressed at the sides, and covered at the base with stiff feathers, which advance forwards so as to cover the nostrils : the bill is capable of laying hold of almost any kind of food, and the stomach of digesting it. The form of their foot adapts them to traverse the fields and pastures with facility, in search of fiood ; whilst they can also perch with sc- cunty on trees, the tarsi and toes being moderately long and stout, and the claws arched and acute. Their wings are of that form which ensures a powerful and regular flight ; steady without being heavy, and buoyant without wavering ; for they are broad and moderately long, and usually rounded at their extremities. The tail, which is chiefly used as a rudder to direct the course of the bird in rapid flight, is short in the species that seek their food entirely on the ground, and long in those which re- side chiefly in trees and bushes. Their sight is keen and distant ; they often show great sagacity in their natural actions ; they pos- sess much docility ; and their courage and activity are only equalled by their caution and vigilance. In most of the species in- habiting temperate climates their plumage is rather sombre ; but though dark in hue, it is lustrous ; while many species in tropical climates exhibit considerable brilliancy and variety in their colouring. [See CHOW'S.] COSSUS. A genus of nocturnal Lepidop- tera, the larvte of which feed on wood. There are several species found in other climates ; but we restrict our notice to the British species. COSSUS LIGNIPERDA, or GOAT MOTH. This is one of the largest European Moths, being nearly three inches in the ex- pansion of its fore-wings, the colour of which is ashy white, clouded with brown, and marked with an infinite number of short, black, irregular streaks, forming a kind of network : the hind wings are brown, with darker reticulations extending along the margins. The thorax is ochre-coloured in front, pale in the middle, and with a black bar behind : abdomen brown, with the mar- gins of the segments pale yellowish grey. The Caterpillar, which is nearly as large as a man's finger, is of a dull fleshy hue, with dark chestnut scales on the back of each segment, and a few scattered hairs. It chiefly feeds upon willows and poplars, but will attack various other trees, boring into the 152 (Ercftgurg cf Natural y&i timber, and frequently doing very serious damage. It forms a rough cocoon of the chips of wood, wliich it has bitten to pieces, fastening them together with a glutinous j I secretion, and lining them with its silken : web. The pupa has the head-case acute, I and each of the abdominal segments is fur- nished with several rows of reflexed spiny hooks ; by the aid of which the pupa, shortly before arriving at the perfect state, is enabled to push itself through its cocoon, and to the surface of the tree ; out of the aperture of which the exuviae may be seen partially sticking after the moth has made its escape. FI7PA AND OOOOON OF THE QOAT MOTH. The strength of their jaws is so great that i they will very soon destroy any common ' chip-box in which the larva may be placed, i by abrading the edges, to gain its liberty. [ In breaking up decayed pollards, we not uufre29 have been discovered ; so that this caterpillar pos- sesses nearly eight times as many muscles as are contained in the human frame 1 It has an offensive smell, from which it derives its popular English name. CORYPH.ENA. A genus of Acanthop- terygious fishes, family Scoinbrid(e ; some- times called Dolphins, but not to be con- founded with the Dolphin proper, which belongs to the Cetacea. The principal cha- racters by which they are distinguished are as follows: Body elongated, compressed, covered with small scales ; dorsal fin extend- ing nearly the whole length of the back ; the tail more or less forked, and the pectoral fin usually arched above and pointed. They have the head much elevated, and the palate and both jaws furnished with teeth. These fishes are very rapid in their motions, gene- rally of large size, and they prey upon the flying-fish. The greater part inhabit the Mediterranean. [See DOLPHIN.] COTTIDJE. A family of Acanthoptery- gious fishes, with hard or mailed cheeks; the sub-orbitals being united to the preoper- culum, and so expanded as to cover a large part on the whole of the cheeks. They have many characters in common with the Per- cidce; in short, a family likeness prevails among the fish possessing this check-mail, notwithstanding the various forms of the head that result from its greater or less de- velopment. In one group of genera, the head has the form of a cube ; in another it is round ; in a third it is compressed ; and a fourth group is composed of fish of hideous aspect, with a monstrous head and vertical eyes. The only forms among the Cottidce that have anything like a general distribu- tion are the larger genera of Trigla, Coitus, Aspidophvnis, Scorpcena, Sebastes, and Gas- terosteus, containing the majority of the whole species. The range of individual spe- cies is more remarkable in this family than in the more extensive one of Percidce; as is evident when we consider the number of species which cross the Atlantic ; and in this $0jpufar SBittiannr^ at gtofmateir fixture. 153 respect there is some analogy between the Cottidve and some of the higher classes of animals; it having been observed that the quadrupeds and birds common to the Old and New Worlds are species that have a high northern range. Sir John Kichardson, M. U., Fauna Bor. Amer. COTTUS. A genus of Acanthopterygious fishes, chiefly characterized by having a large head, furnished more or less with spines or tubercles. [See BULL-HEAD.] COW. The female of the Bovine species, and the most valuable to man of all rumi- nating quadrupeds. [See OA.] COW-BUNTING. (Molothrus pecoris.) A well-known Passerine bird in North America, the most remarkable trait in the character of which is, the unaccountable practice it has of dropping its eggs into the nests of other birds, instead of building and hatching for itself; and thus entirely abandoning its progeny to the care and mercy of strangers. " About the 25th of March, or early in April," says Wilson, " the cowpen bird makes his first appearance in Pennsylvania from the south, sometimes in company with the red-winged blackbird, more frequently in detached parties, resting early in the morning, an hour at a time, on the tops of trees near streams of water, ap- pearing solitary, silent, and fatigued. They continue to be occasionally seen, in small solitary parties, particularly along creeks and banks of rivers, so late as the middle of June ; after which we see no more of them until about the beginning or middle of October, when they re-appear in much larger flocks, generally accompanied by numbers of the redwings ; between whom and the present species there is a considerable simi- larity of manners, dialect, and personal re- semblance. In these aerial voyages, like other experienced navigators, they take ad- vantage of the direction of the wind, and always set out with a favourable gale." " It is well known to those who have paid attention to the manners of birds, that, after their nest is fully finished, a day or two generally elapses before the female begins to lay. This delay is in most cases neces- sary to give firmness to the yet damp ma- terials, and allow them time to dry. In this state it is sometimes met with, and laid in by the Cow-Bunting, the result of which I have invariably found to be the desertion of the nest by its rightful owner, and the consequent loss of the egg thus dropt in it by the intruder. But when the owner her- self has begun to lay, and there are one or more eggs in the nest before the Cow -Bunting deposits hers, the attacliment of the pro- prietor is secured, and remains unshaken until incubation is fully performed, and the little stranger is able to provide for itself. * * * I have never known more than one egg of the Cow- Bunting dropt in the same nest. This egg is somewhat larger than that of the blue-bird, thickly sprinkled with grains of pale brown on a dirty white ground. It is of a size proportionable to that of the bird." " What reason Nature may have for thia extraordinary deviation from her general practice is, I confess, altogether beyond my comprehension. There is nothing singular j to be observed in the anatomical structure of the bird that would setm to prevent, or render it incapable of incubation. The ex- treme heat of our climate is probably one reason why, in the months of July and August, they are not to be seen here. Yet we have many other migratory birds that regularly pass through Pennsylvania to the north, leaving a few residents behind them ; who, without exception, build their own nests and rear their own young. This part of the country also abounds with suitable food, such as they usually subsist on. Many conjectures, indeed, might be formed as to the probable cause ; but all of them that have occurred to me are unsatisfactory and inconsistent. Future, and more numerous observations, made with care, particularly in those countries where they most usually pass the summer, may throw more light on this matter ; till then, we can only rest satis- fled with the reality of the fact." The length of this species is seven inches, breadth eleven inches ; the head and neck is of a very deep silky drab ; the upper part of the breast a dark changeable violet ; the rest of the bird is block, with a considerable gloss of green when exposed to a good light : the tail is slightly forked : legs and claws, glossy black, strong, and muscular ; iris of the eye, dark hazel. The young male birds are at first altogether brown, and for a month or more are naked of feathers round the eye and mouth ; the breast is also spotted like that of a thrush, with light drab and darker streaks. In about two months after they leave the nest, the black commences at the shoulders of the wings, and gradually increases along each side, as the young feathers come out, until the bird appears mottled on the bock and breast with deep black, and light drab. At three months the colours of the plumage are complete, and except in moulting, they are subject to no periodical change. COWRIES. A genus of shells used in the East Indies, and many parts of Africa, as the current coin of the natives. [See COW-FISH. [See MAXATUS.] COYPU. (J/j/opotamiM coypvg.') A South American rodent animal, resembling the 154 heusa, which in- habits India, is thus noticed by Bishop Heber, in his Journal: " All the grass through the Deccan generally swarms with a small Land Crab, which burrows in the ground and runs with considerable swiftness, even when en- cumbered with a bundle of food as big as itself : this food is grass, or the green stalks of rice j and it is amusing to see the Crabs, sit- ting, as it were, upright, cut their hay with their sharp pincers, and then waddling off with their sheaf to their holes, as quickly as their sidelong pace will carry them." They have been found on the table-lands, at an elevation of nearly 4000 feet ; but it is be- lieved that they do not perform an annual migration to the sea, for the purpose of de- positing their eggs. CRABRO : CRABRONTD^J. A genus and family of Hymenopterous insects, popu- larly known as Wood-wasps. Most of the larger species are marked with yellow rings 5 the smaller are generally wholly black. They are extremely active in their movements, and may be seen busily employed, in the hottest sunshine, extracting nectar from the flowers of plants, or running about in search of other insects, on which they prey. They excavate cells in the ground, or in rotten posts, timber, &c., in which they deposit their eggs, together with the flies, &c., which constitute the food of the larvae when hatched. Mi;ny species are found in this country : we refer our readers who may wish further acquaintance with them, to the capital work of Mr. Shuckard on the In- digenous Fossorial Hymenoptera. CRACID^J. A family of Gallinaceous birds, peculiar to tropical America, which 156 of Natural approach the turkey in size and grandeur of appearance. They live in the woods, feed on berries, &c., and build on trees ; but they are easily domesticated, and their flesh is exceeded by no fowl in delicacy and white- ness. [See CURASSOW.] CRACTICUS. [See CROW SHRIKE.] CRAKE. The CORN-CRAKE, or LAND- RAIL, (Ortygometra crex), which is very similar to the Water-rail, is fond of woody places, and high herbage or corn-fields in the vicinity of water, or in marshy places, where it breeds ; making its nest of a few dry plants, put carelessly together, and lay- ing ten or twelve eggs of a dull white, marked with rust-colour spots. The bill is short, strong, and thick ; all the feathers on the upper part of the plumage are of a dark brown, edged with light bay ; the wing-co- verts and quills are deep chestnut ; the fore parts of the neck and breast are pale cine- reous ; the belly is a yellowish-white ; and the legs are a pale flesh-colour. It is much sought after for the delicacy of its flesh, but it is a difficult bird to spring. The legs, which are remarkably long for the size of the bird, hang down while it is on the wing ; and, in general, it seems rather inclined to swiftness of foot than rapidity of flight. It is migratory, appearing in England about the beginning of April, and departing in October. At the time of its arrival the bird is extremely lean ; but before it quits the island it becomes excessively fat. Its food is chiefly worms, snails, and insects ; but it also occasionally feeds on seeds and various vegetables. Its note (crek-crek-crek), ra- pidly repeated, has been compared to the noise made by drawing a linger along the teeth of a comb. CRAMP-FISH. A name by which the Torpedo is sometimes called. [See TOR- PEDO.] CRANE. Birds of the Crane kind (family Oruidce) subsist on herbs, seeds, worms, frogs, and slugs : they reside in marshy places, rarely visiting the sea shores, and are f mnd in various parts of the world ; but only one, the COMMON CRANE, (Gmis cinerea~), is a native of Europe. This bird frequently measures upwards of five feet in length, and weighs about ten pounds ; its gait is erect, and its figure tall and slender. The bill is about four inches long, straight, pointed, and compressed at the sides, of a greenish-black, turning lighter towards the point ; tongue broad and short, and horny at the top. The forehead, to the middle of the crown, is co- vered with black hairy down, through which the skin appears red ; behind this it is nearly bare to the neck, which is ash grey. The sides of the head behind the eyes, and the hinder part of the neck, are white. The space between the bill and eyes, the cheeks, and fore part of the neck, are a blackish ash ; greater wing-coverts also blackish ; and those farthest from the body, with the bastard wing and quills, quite black : the rest of the plumage is a line waved light ash. From the pinion of each wing springs an elegant tuft of loose feathers, curled at the ends, which fall gracefully over the tail, in their flexibility, position, and texture, re- sembling the plumes of the ostrich. The legs and bare part of the thighs are black. The Crane is migratory, and, soaring high in the air, performs the boldest and most distant journeys. In summer they spread themselves over the north of Europe and Asia as far as the arctic circle ; and in the winter they are met witli in India, Syria, Egypt, &c. They formerly visited the fens and marshes of this country in large flocks ; but they seem to have been driven away by the advance of cultivation, which lias else- where, as here, deprived it of many of its most congenial localities. The female lays two greyish-green eggs, spotted with brown. The SIBERIAN CRANE (Grits gigantea) in- habits the great marshes and lakes of Siberia : it builds its nest, of herbs and grass, in almost inaccessible situations amongst the reeds ; where the female lays two eggs : both sexes are said to watch the nest alter- nately ; and during the period of incubation, although they are very shy at other times, they will boldly attack any person that ap- proaches their haunts. This species is four feet six inches in height ; the bill large and red ; the face naked beyond the eyes, and of a red colour ; the greater quills and their coverts deep black, the rest of the plumage snowy white ; the tail nearly even ; the legs red. The BROWN CRANE (Grits Canadensis) is a native of North America, migrating north- ward in the spring to breed, and returning to the south in autumn. It is three feet three inches long, and its beak about four inches, the tip of the under mandible being of a pale flesh-colour : the top of the head being covered with a red skin, thinly beset with hairs ; the hinder part and neck, grey ; the scapulars and wing-coverts, pale rufous, margined with brown ; the belly, breast, sides, and thighs, ash-colour : the wing-co- verts next the body, grey, forming a band on the wing ; the greater quills dark brown, with white shafts ; the secondaries pale ru- fous ; the tail of a deep ash-colour ; the legs and bare part of the thighs, black. The fe- male lays two very large and long eggs at a time ; they are much pointed at one end, and freckled with brown. The nest is formed on a tuft upon which much dry grass is ac- cumulated, until it becomes as high as the belly of the bird when standing ; this is covered at the top with very fine dried grass, upon which the eggs are laid, and the female stands over them, placing her legs on each side of the heap. [See DEMOISELLE.] CRAWFISH, or CRAYFISH. (Astacus fluviatilis.) A Crustaceous animal of the genus Astacus, differing in general appear- ance but little from the Lobster. They are found in almost every river, and even brook, in England ; and their flesh is reckoned cooling and nutritious. Species of this genus are found in all parts of the world. In the mammoth caves of Kentucky, in the United States, a species has been discovered ; it is the Astacus pellucidus of Tellkampf. Mr. Papular BfrSftnixry of ftnnnatrtr $aturr. 157 Virtue has written a paper on this subject, and on the other curious animal productions of these caves j to wJiich we refer our readers. CREEPER. (Certhia.) A numerous ge- nus of insectivorous birds, distinguished for the most part by being adapted to live upon the trunks and branches of trees, and to feed upon the insects which infest the bark. The form of the bill is, in some, long and slender ; in others, short and stout, and capable of penetrating very hard substances. They have a long, slender, arched bill ; wings long and rounded ; feet rather slender, but the hinder toe is long and stout ; and the tips of the tail-feathers extend beyond the webs. In the splendour and variety of their colours the Creepers rival the Humming- birds, to which they are nearly allied in some of the smaller species. These birds cling by their feet to the perpendicular sur- face of trees, resting upon the stiff quills of their tails ; and they will even pass round a horizontal branch, clinging to its under surface with their backs to the ground. The COMMON CREEPER (.Certhia fami- liaris) weighs only five drams, and next to the Crested Wren is the least of the British birds. The bill is hooked ; the legs slender ; the toes and claws very long. It breeds in ! hollow trees ; and lays from five to seven j spotted ash-coloured eggs. The head and upper part of the neck are brown, streaked with black ; the coverts of the wings are variegated with brown and black ; the quill- feathers dusky, tipped with white, and ! barred ; the breast and belly white ; and the tail very long. The WALL CREEPER (Tichodroma mvra- ria) is considered as one of the rarer Eu- ropean birds, and its principal residence seems to be in Italy and Spain, where it is observed to frequent ruins, creeping about the mutilated walls in quest of spiders and other insects. Its colour is a deep bluish- grey ; the wing-coverts and middle quill- feathers black, those nearest the body edged witli white ; the tail short and black, the two exterior feathers on each side being tipped with white. CRICKETS. (Achetida;.) A group of Orthopterous insects, belonging to the gryl- loid family, which comprises " the crickets of the hearth," the mole-crickets, and the grasshoppers. The Crickets are distin- guished from the other members of this family by their long antennae, and by the comparative smallness of their thighs. Their bodies are short, thick-set, and soft, with the head, corselet, and abdomen of equal length and breadth : the elytra, which do not com- pletely cover the belly, are curved squarely, and are not roof-shaped, as in the locust and grasshopper. In the winged species the wings exceed the elytra, and project even beyond the abdomen, in the form of a sort of bifid tail. The Cricket's chirping noise, as it is called, is produced by the friction of the bases of their elytra, or wing-cases, against each other, these parts being curiously adapted to produce this sound. There are some people to whom the chirp of the DOMESTIC CRICKET is not merely an agreeable sound, but who regard the presence of these active insects as a good omen 1 For our own part, while we are ready to admit that they are perfectly harmless, when, issuing from their warm abodes, they skip round the hearth and join in their monotonous song, we con- fess that " we would much rather have their room than their company." The FIELD CRICKET (Acheta campes- tris) is much larger, and also rarer, than the preceding : it is also more noisy. It is of a blackish colour, with a large head in proportion to the body, and full prominent eyes : it frequents hot sandy districts, in which it forms its burrow at the side of footpaths, &c., in situations exposed to the sun, to the depth of from six to twelve inches ; and sits at the mouth of it, watch- ing for its prey, which consists of other in- sects. [See DEINACRIDA : GEYILUS : MOLE CRICKET.] CRIMSON UNDERWING [MOTHS]. A name applied by collectors to species of Moths, of the genus Catocala. CREPIDULA. A genus of Molluscous animals, inhabiting an irregularly shaped shell, and often very much flattened ; the inside partly covered with a plate, so as to resemble a half-decked boat. There are many recent species, and some fossil. The inside of the Crepidula onyx is of the most brilliant black, while the margin of the shell is tinged with a rich brown, and the little half-deck (if such it may be called) is of a 158 Crra&irg of Natural ^f beautiful white. These shells are often found upon rocks, where they constantly remain, and form a very irregular outline at the circumference, agreeing with the shape of the particular part to which they are at- tached. One species frequently fixes itself upon other living shells, particularly upon the Purpura, wliosc movements it of course follows. The specimen we have here figured is the Crepidula porcellana. CRINOIDEANS. The name given to an extinct class of invertebrate animals, having a radiated, lily-shaped disc, supported on a jointed stem ; and having a crustaceous or coriaceous covering. When this stem is cylindrical, the species are termed Encri- nites ; when it is pentagonal, Pentacrinites. [See ENCRINITES.] CRIOCERIS. A genus of Coleopterous insects, belonging to the family Eupoda. They live upon aquatic plants, asparagus, &c. ; their larvas feeding upon the same. They have the body soft, short, and swollen ; and descend into the earth to become pupae. One species, Crioccris Asparagi (the As- paragus Beetle), is of a blue colour, with the thorax red, and the elytra yellowish-white with blue markings. In its larva state it feeds upon the young sprigs of asparagus, and is sometimes so abundant as to do con- siderable damage to the plants. CRIOCERIDHXE. A group of oblong leaf-beetles, distinguished by the following characters. The eyes are nearly round and prominent; the antennae are of moderate length, composed of short, nearly cylindrical or beaded joints, and are implanted before the eyes ; the abdomen is narrow and almost cylindrical or square, rounded behind, and much wider than the thorax ; and the thighs of the hind legs are often thickened in the middle. Crioceris trilineata, or Three-lined Leaf- beetle (a North American species), will serve to exemplify the habits of the greater part of the insects of this family. Dr. Harris of Boston, in his truly original work on the Insects of Massachusetts, has described them at length, and it is principally from his work that we are indebted for our notice. This beetle is about one quarter of an inch long, of a rusty buff or nankin-yellow colour, with two black dots on the thorax, and three black stripes on the back, namely, one on the outer side of each wing- cover, and one in the middle on the inner edges of the same ; the antennae (except the first joint) and the feet are dusky ; the thorax is abruptly narrowed or pinched in on the middle of each side. When held between the fingers, these insects make a creaking sound like the Capricorn-beetles. They appear early in June on the leaves of the potato-vines, having at that time recently come out of the ground, where they pass the winter in the pupa state. They eat the leaves of the potato, gnawing irregular holes through them ; and in the course of a few days begin to lay their oblong oval golden yellow eggs, which are glued to the leaves, in parcels of six or eight together. The grubs, which are hatched in about a fortnight afterwards, are of a dirty yellowish or ashen white colour, with a darker coloured head, and two dark spots on the top of the first ring. They are rather short, approaching to a cylin- drical form, but thickest in the middle, and have six legs, arranged in pairs beneatli the three first rings. After making a hearty meal upon the leaves of the potato, they cover themselves with their own filth. The vent is situated on the upper side of the last ring, so that their dung falls upon their backs, and, by motions of the body made for this purpose, is pushed forwards, as fast as it accumulates, towards the head, until the whole of the back is entirely coated with it. This covering shelters their soft and tender bodies from the heat of the sun, and probably serves to secure them from the attacks of their enemies. When it becomes too heavy or too dry, it is thrown off, but replaced again by a fresh coat in the course of a few hours. In eating, the grubs move backwards, never devouring the portion of the leaf immediately before the head, but that which lies under it. Their numbers are sometimes very great, and the leaves are then covered and nearly consumed by these filthy insects. When about fifteen days old they throw off their loads, creep down the plant, and bury themselves in the ground. Here each one forms for itself a little cell of earth cemented and varnished within by a gummy fluid discharged from its mouth, and when this is done it changes to a pupa. In about a fortnight more the insect throws off its pupa skin, breaks open its earthen cell, and crawls out of the ground. The beetles come out towards the end of July or early in August, and lay their eggs for a second brood of grubs. The latter come to their growth and go into the ground in the autumn, and remain there in the pupa form during the winter. CROCODILE. A Saurian reptile of the first magnitude, and celebrated from the remotest antiquity for its terror-striking aspect and destructive power. We of course now allude to the species which inhabits the Nile and other large rivers of Africa ; but as we have given the general character and habits of Crocodiles under the head " ALLI- GATOR," the species peculiar to the American continent, that account should be referred to, and read in connection with what fol- lows -.Crocodiles, like the rest of the La- certae, are oviparous : they deposit their eggs in the sand or mud near or on the banks of the rivers they frequent, and the young, of 159 when hatched, immediately proceed to the water ; but the major part are said to be generally devoured by other animals, as ichneumons, birds, &c. The egg of the com- mon or Nilotic Crocodile is not much larger than that of a goose, but its form is more oblong. When the young are first excluded, the head bears a much larger proportion to the body than when full grown. The Cro- codile preys chiefly on fish, but occasionally seizes almost on every animal which hap- pens to be exposed to its rapacity ; it is fre- quently met with twenty feet long, and the armour with which the upper part of the body is covered may be reckoned among the most elaborate specimens of Nature's mecha- nism. In the full-grown animal it is so strong and thick as easily to repel a musket ball ; on the lower parts it is much thinner, and of a more pliable nature; and the whole appears as if covered with the most regular and curious carved-work. The colour of a full-grown Crocodile is blackish-brown above, and yellowish- white beneath ; the upper parts of the legs and the sides varied with deep yellow, and in some parts tinged with green : in the younger ones the colour on the upper parts is a mixture of brown and pale yellow, the under parts being nearly white. The eyes are provided with a nicti- lating membrane, or transparent movable pellicle, as in birds ; the mouth is of a vast width, the rictus or gape having a somewhat flexuous outline, and both jaws being fur- nished with very numerous sharp-pointed teeth, of which those about the middle part of each jaw considerably exceed the rest in size, and seem analogous to the canine teeth in the viviparous quadrupeds or mammalia. The tongue is attached by its entire mar- ginal circumference to the lower jaw, and is not extensible, as in all true lizards : the ears are externally closed by two fleshy slips ; the nostrils form a long narrow chan- nel, which only opens anteriorly at the back of the throat ; and under the throat there are two small pouches, which secrete a strong musky substance. The tail is long, power- ful, of a laterally compressed form, and furnished above with an upright process, formed by the gradual approximation of two elevated crests proceeding from the lower part of the back : it accordingly serves as the principal means of propelling the body througli the water when in pursuit of fish. The legs are very short, but strong and muscular : the hind feet have only four toes, which are united towards their base by a strong web : the two interior toes on eacli of the fore-feet, and the interior one on the hind feet, are destitute of claws. There are also numerous other particulars connected with the anatomy of these beings, which are very curious and interesting. Such are the articulations of the lower jaw with the upper, the joint being so far back as to cause almost every incidental observer to believe that the upper, not the lower, jaw is moved in opening the mouth : the lateral spines on the vertebrae, which prevent the turning of the body, except in a large circle; the curious set of ribs designed exclusively for the protection of the belly, aided by two broad bones standing on the anterior edge of the pelvis ; the construction of the exter- nal ears ; the apparatus for the protection of the eye, &c. &c. The Crocodile of Egypt is no longer found except in the upper parts of that country, where the heat is greatest, and the popula- tion least numerous. Anciently, the species was common nearly to the outlet of the Nile; and it is stated by Pliny, that they used to pass the winter months buried in the mud, or in a state of torpidity. They are still common enough in the river Senegal, Jaire, &c. It is stated by excellent authorities, that they have occasionally been killed in Upper Egypt measuring thirty feet in length; and a very little reflection upon the muscu- lar power of such a reptile will serve to con- vince us of its ability to commit the most dreadful ravages on the lives of other crea- tures. Were not such huge and ferocious animals rendered unwieldy by the length of the body and tail, they might become as dreadful on land as in the water ; but when on shore, the difficulty they have in turning or of advancing otherwise than directly for- ward, enables men and animals readily to escape. In the water, the vast force it can exert by means of the long oar-like tail, amply compensates for want of flexibility, and renders the creature more than a match for any of its enemies. Crocodiles are exclu- sively carnivorous, and they always prefer their food in a certain state of putrefaction. It may be proper to add, that the Crocodile is supposed to be the Leviathan of the Scrip- tures : few persons, indeed, can have read the book of Job without being struck with the magnificent and terrible description of the attributes of Leviathan, to which alone the characters of the Crocodile correspond. [See GAVIAL, and ALLIGATOR.] CROPPER. A particular species of Pigeon, which receives its name from a large crop under its beak, which it can either raise or depress at pleasure. [See PIGEON.] CROSSBILL. (Loxia.) A genus of Pas- serine birds, the distinguishing characters of which are that the tongue is plain, equal, and whole ; and that the beak is large, thick, short, crooked, and convex both ways. This singular structure of the beak was considered f~l60 Crre&trg of Natural as a mere lusits naturae by Button ; but, not- withstanding the apparently awkward and useless shape, it is found to be most admira- ; bly adapted to their particular habits. The ! two mandibles, instead of lying in a straight direction, cross each other in a similar man- ner to a pair of scissors, and which enables them to obtain their food with the greatest ! facility. They live mostly on the seeds of I the cones of the fir ; in procuring which they j exhibit wonderful instinct, as they fix them- j selves across the cone, then bring the points : of their beak immediately over each other, and insinuate them between the scales,when forcing them laterally, the scales open ; and then again bringing the points in contact, | they pick out the seed with the utmost ease. | The male of the COMMON CROSSBILL ! (Loxia ciirvirostra) varies from a beautiful red to orange colour on the head, neck, ' breast, back, and rump ; the wing-coverts rufous brown ; quills and tail dusky ; tail forked ; legs short ; claws strong. The fe- male in general is of a dull olive-green on those parts that are red in the male ; wings . and tail similar to the male, but not so dark. J This species inhabits Sweden, Germany, and many other parts of Europe, where it breeds and migrates occasionally in vast flocks into the other parts : it is never known to breed in this country, but sometimes appears in immense numbers, fixing on those spots that abound with firs, for the sake of the seeds, which are its_ natural food. It is said to do a deal of mischief to orchards ' by splitting the apples to get at the seeds ; and it is so intent when feeding on the cones of the firs (which it holds in its claws like a parrot), that it may be taken without diffi- culty. In North A'merica and Greenland this bird is very common, and is said to build its nest in the highest parts of the firs, making use of the resinous matter that ex- udes from them for fixing it to the trees. : It is sometimes called the German Parrot. ! Another species, called UieWniTE-wiNGED CROSSBILL (Loxia leucoptcra), which is some- what less than a goldfinch, is common in North America. It is said to make its ap- pearance in March, and to build its nest of mud and feathers in May, about half-way up a pine-tree, laying five white eggs speckled with yellow : in November both the old and young disappear, and are supposed to retire farther inland. I CROTAJLUS. [See RATTLESNAKE.] I CROTOPHAGA, or ANI. A genus of . Scansorial birds found in the New World. i The Crotophaga Americana, or Keel-bill, is ' principally an inhabitant of the hotter re- gions of South America, particularly Brazil, ' though it is met with also in North America, as well as in several of the West India is- lands. The general colour of these birds is j black,with more or less of metallic reflections ; ! and they have a short, arched bill, very much j compressed. They live in flocks ; the skirts of I woods and the borders of flooded savannahs [ being their favourite haunts ; and their food chiefly consisting of small lizards, insects j and seeds. Their wings are short, and their flight feeble ; but they are so bold and fear- less as scarcely to be alarmed at the sound of fire-arms ; and as they are not reckoned among edible birds, on account of the rank- ness of their flesh, they may be said to enjoy a kind of privileged security. Many pairs are said to use the same nest, which is built on the branches of trees, ana of a large size ; there they lay and hatch un concert. They are observed to breed several times in a year, and their eggs are of a bluish-green colour. CROW. (Corvus.) Under the term COR- vin. will be found a brief account of the general characteristics of this gregarious and predatory genus of birds, of which the Raven may be considered the head. We are now about to speak of the COMMON or CARIUON CROW (Corvus corone), which in form, co- lour, and appetites, so much resembles it. The Carrion Crow is similar to the Raven in its habits, colour, and external appear- ance : length about eighteen inches ; breadth three feet. The glossy feathers of the upper plumage have a burnished look, excepting on their edges, which are dull, and form a border to each. They live mostly in woods; build their nests in trees ; and lay five or six eggs. They feed on putrid flesh, and garbage of all sorts ; likewise on eggs, shell- fish, worms, and insects. England is said to produce more birds of this kind than any other country of Europe. In the reign of Henry VIII. they were so numerous, and deemed so injurious to the farmer, that they were regarded as an evil worthy of parliamentary redress ; and an act was accordingly passed for their destruc- tion, in which rooks and choughs were in- cluded. Every hamlet was to provide crow- nets for ten years : and, during that space, the inhabitants were obliged to assemble at certain times, in order to project the most efiectual methods for extirpating them. The habits of this bird are so amusingly pourtrayed by Mr. Waterton, that we deem it no trespass upon the patience of our rea- ders to quote his observations at considerable length. " This warrior bird," says he, " is always held up to public execration. The very word carrion, attached to his name, |90jmlar JButtonarg of ftntmatctt Mature. 161 carries something disgusting with it, and no one ever shows him any kindness. Though he certainly has his vices, still he has his virtues too ; and it would be a pity if the general odium in which he is held should be the means, one day or other, of blotting out his name from the page of our British orni- thology. With great propriety he might be styled the lesser raven in our catalogue of native birds ; for, to all appearance, he is a raven ; and I should wish to see his name changed, were I not devoutly attached to the nomenclature established by the wisdom of our ancestors. " The Carrion Crow is a very early riser ; and, long before the rook is on the wing, you hear this bird announcing the approach of morn, with his loud hollow croaking, from the oak to which lie had resorted the night before. He retires to rest later than the rook : indeed, as far as I have been able to observe his motions, I consider Ixim the first bird on wing in the morning, and the last at night, of all our non-migrating diurnal British birds. When the genial voice of spring calls upon him for the continuation of his species, the Carrion Crow, which up to this period has been wary, shy, and cau- tious, now, all of a sudden, seems to lose these qualities ; and, regardless of personal danger, sometimes makes his nest within a hundred yards of the habitation of man, upon a tree, at once the most conspicuous and exposed. To us, who know so little of the economy of birds, this seems a strange phenomenon ; nor can any penetration of which we may be possessed enable us to comprehend the true meaning of this change from timidity to boldness, from distance to proximity, from wariness to heedlessness, in so many different species of birds. One would suppose that they would be more shy and distant at this interesting period ; and, in imitation of the cat, the rabbit, and the fox, conceal as much as possible the place of their retirement. The rook will some- times build a poor and slovenly nest, but this is never the case with the Carrion Crow; this bird invariably makes its nest firm and compact ; it never builds it in hedges, but will construct it in any of our forest trees ; and, with me, it seems to give the preference, in general, to the oak, the spruce fir, and the Scotch pine. The young are hatched naked and blind, and remain blind for some days. " Our ancestors, no doubt, bestowed the epithet carrion upon this bird, in order to make a clear and decided distinction between it (whose flesh they probably supposed was rank and bad) and the rook, the flesh of which was well known to be good and whole- some food. Perhaps, too, in those days of plenty, and of less trade, the Carrion Crow had more opportunities of tasting flesh than it has in these our enviable times of divers kinds of improvement. Were a Carrion Crow of the present day to depend upon the finding of a dead cow or horse for its dinner, it would soon become an adept in the art of fasting by actual experiment ; for no sooner is one of these animals, in our neighbourhood, struck by the hand of death, than its hide is sent to the tan-pit, and its remains are either made into soup for the hunt, or carefully buried in the dunghill, to increase the farmer's tillage. The poor Crow, in the mean time, despised and persecuted for having an inclination to feed upon that of which, by-the-by, the occupier of the soil takes good care that he shall scarcely have a transient view, is obliged to look out for other kinds of food. Hence you see it re- gularly examining the meadows, the pas- tures, and the corn-fields, with an assiduity not even surpassed by that of the rook itself. " The Carrion Crow will feed voraciously on ripe cherries ; and, in the autumn, he will be seen in the walnut-trees, carrying off from time to time, a few of the nuts. With the exception of these two petty acts of de- predation, he does very little injury to man during nine or ten mouths of the year ; and if, in this period, he is to be called over the coals for occasionally throttling an unpro- tected leveret or a stray partridge, he may fairly meet the accusation by a set-off in his account of millions of noxious insects de- stroyed by him. However, in the spring of the year, when he has a nest full of young to provide for, and when those young begin to give him broad hints that their stomachs would like something of a more solid and substantial nature than mere worms and caterpillars, his attention to game and poultry is enough to alarm the stoutest- hearted squire and henwife. These per- sonages have long sworn an eternal enmity to him ; and he now, in his turn, visits, to their sorrow, the rising hopes of the manor with ominous aspect ; and he assaults the broods of the duck-pond, in revenge, as it were, for the many attempts which both squire and henwife have made to rob and strangle him. " In 1815, I fully satisfied myself of his inordinate partiality for young aquatic poultry. The cook had in her custody a brood of ten ducklings, which had been hatched about a fortnight. Unobserved by any body, I put the old duck and her young ones in a pond, nearly 300 yards from a high fir-tree in which a Carrion Crow had built its nest : it contained five young ones almost fledged. I took my station on the bridge, about 100 yards from the tree. Nine times the parent crows flew to the pond, and brought back a duckling each time to their young. I saved a tenth victim by timely interference. When a young brood is at- tacked by an enemy, the old duck does nothing to defend it. In lieu of putting herself betwixt it and danger, as the dung- hill fowl would do, she opens her mouth, and shoots obliquely through the water, beating it with her wings. During these useless movements the invader secures his prey with impunity. " Let us now examine if the attacks of this bird on domestic poultry cannot be easily counteracted ; and whether its assiduous attention to the nests of pheasants and of partridges is of so alarming and so important a nature as to call for its utter extermina- tion from the land. For my own part, I acknowledge that I should lament his final absence from our meadows and our woods. 162 at Natural His loud and varied notes at early dawn, and again at latest eve, are extremely grate- ful to me ; and many an hour of delight do I experience, when," having mounted" up to the top of a favourite aged oak which grows on the border of a swamp, I see him chasing the heron and the windhover through the liquid void, till they are lost in the distance. Then, again, how eager is his pursuit ! how loud his croaking ! how inveterate his hostility ! when he has espied a fox steal- ing away from the hounds, under the covert of some friendly hedge. His compact and well-built figure, too, and the fine jet black of his plumage, are, in my eye, beautifully orna- mental to the surrounding sylvan scenery." The HOODED CROW (Centw cornix) is a bird of passage, which visits England in the beginning of winter, and leaves it with the woodcock. It is found both in the inland and maritime parts of this kingdom ; and, in the latter, it feeds on crabs and other shell- fish. It is very common in many parts of the Highlands of Scotland, the Hebrides, Ork- neys, &c. They build indifferently in all kinds of trees ; lay six eggs ; have a shriller voice than the common Crow ; and are much more mischievous. CROW SHRIKE. (Cracticus.) A genus of birds found in Madagascar, New Holland, &c., of which there are several species. The BLACK-THROATED CKOW SHRIKE (Cracticus niffror/itlari*, Gould) is a handsome species, with a black head, neck, and breast ; the under parts, the hinder part of the neck, shoulders, centre of the wing, white ; the tail black, the ends of the feathers white, except the two middle feathers, which are black. It is a native of New South Wales, is usually seen in pairs, and from its active habits and conspicuous pied plumage, forms a striking object among the trees. It feeds on insects and small lizai'ds, but is not satisfied with such trifling prey ; its powerful and strongly hooked Mil makes it a formidable enemy to young birds, mice, and other small animals, which it soon kills, tears to pieces, and de- vours on the spot. Mr. Gould, in his inva- luable work on the " Birds of Australia," from which our figure is copied, tells us that wounded individuals on being handled inflict severe blows. The nest is like that of a jay. CRUSTACEA, or CRUSTACEANS. The term applied to those animals which are covered with a soft shell or crust. These consist of crabs, lobsters, and many others of a much less complicated structure, and of a different external form. They are called articulated animals that is, those whose members or limbs consist of segments or rings, articulated into each other, to the in- i side of which their muscles are attached. ' The tegumentary skeleton of Crustacea ge- I nerally possesses a considerable degree of stony hardness ; and, indeed, contains no j small proportion of carbonate of lime. This i solid envelope may be looked upon as a kind of epidermis ; for beneath it we find a mem- brane like the true skin of higher animals ; and at certain times it detaches itself and falls off, in the same manner as the epi- dermis of reptiles separates itself from their bodies. The way in which they free them- ; selves from their old shell is exceedingly ; singular. In general, they manage to get out of it without occasioning the least : change in its form. When they are first denuded, the whole surface of their bodies ! is extremely soft, and it is not for some time that the substance which has been exuded from the pores on the surface of their skin, j acquires a hard consistence. Crustaceous animals present remarkable physiological distinctions. They respire by t means of branchicp, or branchial plates, usu- ally attached to their feet or to their jaws ; they have from five to seven pairs of feet ; j their head is frequently not distinct from the trunk, provided with from two to four jointed, setaceous antennae ; and two com- pound movable eyes seated on peduncles, which are sometimes movable, and at others I fixed : they have a distinct heart, and a regular circulating system : and their organs | of reproduction are placed either in the feet i 01 tail. In those genera where the head is not separated from the trunk, the shield or \ covering envelopes the whole thorax. In ; other genera the head is distinct from the body, which is divided into seven segments, i to the lower sides of which the feet are at- j tached ; these for the most part have a tail, ! consisting of many segments. The limbs vary from ten to fourteen, each having six articulations. The two anterior limbs, and sometimes even three on each side, are pro- vided with forceps ; at other times they are terminated by simple hooks, and in many instances by appendages which fit them for swimming. The mouth has usually two mandibles, a labium or lip below, and from ' three to five pairs of jaws : these small leg- ! shaped appendages are not fitted for loco- motion, but, being situated near the mouth, assist in the operation of feeding. Animals of this class live in various situa- tions, suited to their organization : some { inhabit considerable depths of the ocean, others are found on rocky shores, or in ! I muddy shallows ; some, such as crawfish, i j inhabit rivers, under stones and banks ; ] I while the land-crab takes up its abode in j inland situations, making periodical jour- I neys to the coast in vast numbers, for the ! i purpose of depositing its eggs. [See CUAB.] ; Some of the Crustacea have the power of ! emitting light in the dark. Others are en- dowed with the power of not only detaching I one of their limbs, when seized upon by an popular JBittt0narj) at gmmatcXr $ature. 163 enemy, but have also the faculty of repro- ducing the severed limb, which, however, is always of a less size than the others, until it has once or twice changed its crust. The reader is referred to Prof. Milne Edwards's Hist. Nat. des Crustacees, and to Prof. Bell's British Crustacea, for further information. See also numerous scattered articles in this work. CRUSIAN. (Cyprinus curassius.") A fish of the carp kind, which, though common enough in many parts of England, is be- lieved to be not a native fish. It is from eight to ten inches in length ; very deep and thick, and the back much arched. The colour is a deep olivaceous yellow, with a slight silvery tinge on the belly ; lateral line straight ; tins dull violet ; the dorsal fin broad, and extending a considerable dis- tance from the middle of the back towards the tail. The flesh is coarse, and conse- quently in little esteem. CTENOMYS. [See TUCUTUCO.] CUCKOO. (Cuculus canortts.) This bird, whose parasitic habits have so long been a subject of popular interest, and regarding whose general economy so much speculation has been indulged in, is about fourteen inches in length, and twenty-five in breadth when extended : the bill is black and some- what bent ; irides yellow ; inside of the mouth red ; its head, neck, back, and wing- coverts pale blue, darkest on the head and back, and palest on the forepart of the neck and rump ; breast and belly white, ele- gantly crossed with wavy bars of black ; quill feathers dusky, the inner webs marked with white oval spots ; the tail long, the two middle feathers black, with white spots on each side of the shaft ; legs short and yellow ; toes, two forward, two backward ; the outer one being directed forward or backward at pleasure ; claws white. The female is rather less than the male, and CUCKOO. (CUCUI.TJS CANOR.US.) somewhat differs in colour ; the neck and breast being of a tawny brown, with dusky bars ; and the wing-coverts marked with light ferruginous spots. the young is very dissimilar to that of The plumage ol e young is very dissimlar to that of the adult bird ; it is supposed, indeed, that they do not throw off the nestling feathers till he second year's moulting. The Cuckoo is a migratory bird, visiting this country early in spring, and generally quitting it at the commencement of July : ts well-known note is usually first heard about the middle of April, and ceases at the end of June. Contrary to the general eco- nomy of the feathered creation, it constructs no nest, and never hatches its own eggs ; but deposits them in the nests of other birds, as the hedge-sparrow, titlark, water-wag- tail, &c., preferring, as it would seem, the first-mentioned. During the time the hedge- sparrow is laying her eggs, which generally occupies four or five days, the Cuckoo contrives to deposit her egg among the rest, caving the future care of it entirely to the hedge-sparrow. This intrusion often oc- casions discomposure, for the hedge-sparrow, at intervals, whilst sitting, not only throws out some of her own eggs, but injures others in such a way that they become addled, so that not more than two or three of them are hatched along with that of the Cuckoo ; and what is very remarkable, she never throws out or injures the egg of the intruder. When she has disengaged the young Cuckoo and her own offspring from the shell, her young ones, and any of the eggs that remain unhatched, are soon turned out by the young Cuckoo, who then remains in full possession of the nest, and becomes the sole object of the care of its foster parents. The young birds are not previously killed, nor the eggs demolished, but all are left to perish to- gether, either entangled in the bush which contains the nest, or lying on the ground near it. The mode of accomplishing the ejectment is curious : The Cuckoo, very soon after being hatched, and consequently while it is yet blind, contrives with its rump and wings to get the hedge-sparrow, or the egg, upon its back, and making a lodgment for its burden by elevating its elbows, clambers backwards with it up the side of the nest, till it reaches the top, where, rest- ing for a moment, it throws off its load with a jerk, and quite disengages it from the nest ; nfter remaining a short time in this situation, and feeling about with the extremities of its wings, as if to be convinced that the business has been properly executed, it drops into the nest again. Nature seems to have pro- vided, even in the formation of the Cuckoo, for the exercise of this peculiar instinct ; for, unlike other newly hatched birds, its back, from the scapulas downwards, is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle, as if for the purpose of giving a more secure lodgment to the egg, or the young bird, while the intruder is employed in removing either of them from the nest; when about twelve days old, this cavity is filled up, the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general, and the disposition for turning out any bird or substance placed in the nest entirely ceases. The smallness of the Cuckoo's egg is another circumstance deserving attention in this surprising trans- action ; in size and appearance it differs little from the egg of the Skylark and Tit- lark, though the disparity of the bulk of the 164 Crrarfuvg n( Natural ^t birds is very great : in short, everything conspires, as might be expected, to render perfect the design which is to l>e accomplished by the seemingly unnatural propensity of this bird. 1 The growth of the young Cuckoo is ex- tremely rapid : it has a plaintive chirp which is not learned from its foster-parent ; and it never acquires the adult state during its stay here. A fierceness of disposition shows itself long before it leaves the nest ; for when irritated it assumes the manners of a bird of prey, often making a chuckling noise like a young hawk. When it is suffi- ciently fledged, it does not long remain the inmate of its supposed parent's domicile ; for as its appetites for insect-food increase, it cannot expect to obtain a supply by imi- tating its little instructor : it therefore takes a final leave of, and seldom offers any vio- lence to, its nurse. All the little birds, how- ever, who consider the young Cuckoo as their enemy, show an inclination to revenge the general cause, and compose the train of his pursuers ; but none of them are so active in the chace as the Wryneck, who, from this circumstance, has been erroneously consi- dered by many as the Cuckoo's attendant and provider. The Cuckoo is said to be a fierce pugnacious bird. Its principal food consists of hairy caterpillars, grasshoppers, snails, moths, cockchafers, &c., of which it disgorges the hard parts after digestion, in the same manner as birds of prey : it is also said to eat the eggs of other birds. Mr. White (of Selborne) remarks, however, that Cuckoos cannot be birds of prey, as they have a weak bill and no talons. Although we have already extended this article to a greater length than was our in- tention, we cannot refrain from making room for the following remarks by Mr. Jesse : "There is still a great mystery attached to the natural history of the Cuckoo, and one would willingly, if possible, rescue it from the charge of a want of that natural affection which has been alleged against it. It has been stated that what has been said by a very ancient and sublime writer, con- cerning the defect of natural affection in the ostrich, may be applied to the Cuckoo. It is now, however, pretty well ascertained that the ostrich only quits her eggs when the sun is so powerful that the additional warmth from her body would be detrimental to them. She therefore returns to them in the cool of the evening. I am persuaded that the more we inquire and search into the economy of nature, so far from finding any defects, we shall have more and more reason to be convinced that not only every bird, but every animal from the highest to the lowest in the scale of creation, is equally well adapted for the purpose for which it was intended." We should have mentioned that it is to Dr. Edward Jenner, who first introduced vaccination, that we are indebted for having given the earliest and fullest ac- count of the habits of this singular bird. Many of our readers are doubtless familiar with Logan's fine address to the Cuckoo, beginning, "Hail ! beauteous stranger of the grove ! " The GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. {Oxylophus ylandarius.) This species inhabits both the south and the north of Europe ; and is about the size of a Magpie. The beak la black, and a little bent ; head crested ; the crest being composed of bluish ash-coloured feathers ; from the base of the upper man- dible arises a band of black, which passes through the eyes almost to the hinder part of the head, and is broadest in the middle : scapulars, upper wing, and tail-coverts, dark brown, marked with small white and pale cinereous spots ; quill-feathers brown ; tail wedge-shaped, blackish, and all tipped with white except the two middle feathers : legs and claws black. The OKIEXTAL CUCKOO. (Eudynamys Ori- entalis.) There are several varieties of this species. The first is the size of a pigeon : length about sixteen inches ; beak grey- brown ; plumage nearly black, with a green gloss, which in some parts assumes a sort of violet hue. The tail is eight inches long ; the legs are of a dusky grey colour ; claws black : it is found in the East Indies. The next varictyinhabits Mindanao: it is fourteen inches long ; beak black, yellow at the tip ; the plumage a blue-black j and the tail generally carried spread. A third variety is about nine inches in length : beak bright orange ; plumage black, glossed with green and violet ; tail wedge-shaped ; legs reddish- brown ; claws nearly black. This species frequents woods, and for the most part flies in small flocks. It is held in veneration by the Mahometans; but by epicures, who have no religious prejudices in its favour, it is esteemed a great delicacy. The GILDED CUCKOO. ( Chrysococcyx anra- tus.) This beautiful little specimen of the Cuckoo tribe is about seven inches in length: the beak is of a greenish brown colour ; and the upper parts of the body are of a rich gilded glossy green ; on the head are five stripes of white ; nearly all the wing-coverts and the second quills have white tips, as likewise the tail-feathers and the two greater tail-coverts ; the throat and breast white ; the sides and feathers which fall over the knees marked with a few greenish bars ; legs grey, covered with white feathers as far as the middle : tail wedge-shaped, above three inches long, and in its natural state spread out like a fan. Le Vaillant, who discovered this species in Southern Africa, remarks that it is undoubtedly the finest bird of the genus. There are many genera and species of Cuckoos, it being a very extensive family ; and a fine collection of them is to be seen in the British Museum. We find it necessary, however, to give but one more, and that is The YELLOW-BILLED AMERICAN CUCKOO (Coccyzus Americanus\ the description of which we take from Wilson, as follows : " From the imitative sound of its note, it is known in many parts by the name of the cow-bird; it is also called in Virginia the rain-crow, being observed to be most cla- morous immediately before rain. This spe- cies arrives in Pennsylvania, from the south, papular trttonarj? of &ntmatrtr ftaturr. 165 about the 22nd of April, and spreads over the country, as far at least as Lake Ontario ; is numerous in the Chickasaw and Chactau nations ; and also breeds in the upper parts of Georgia ; preferring, in all these places, the borders of solitary swamps, and apple orchards. It leaves us, on its return south- ward, about the middle of September " The singular, I will not say unnatural, conduct of the European Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), which never constructs a nest for itself, but drops its eggs in those of other birds, and abandons them to their mercy and management, is so universally known, and so proverbial, that the whole tribe of Cuckoos have, by some inconsiderate people, been stigmatized as destitute of all parental care and affection. Without attempting to account for this remarkable habit of the European species, far less to consider as an error what the wisdom of Heaven has im- posed as a duty upon the species, I will only remark, that the bird now before us builds its own nest, hatches its own eggs, and rears its own young ; and, in conjugal and pa- rental affection, seems nowise behind any of its neighbours of the grove. "Early in May they begin to pair, when obstinate battles take place among the males. About the 10th of that mouth they com- mence building. The nest is usually fixed among the horizontal branches of an apple- tree ; sometimes in a solitary thorn, crab, or cedar, in some retired part of the woods. It is constructed, with little art, and scarcely any concavity, of small sticks and twigs, in- termixed with green weeds and blossoms of the common maple. On this almost flat bed, the eggs, usually three or four in num- ber, are placed; these are of a uniform greenish blue colour, and of a size propor- tionable to that of the bird. While the fe- male is sitting, the male is generally not far distant, and gives the alarm, by his notes, when any person is approaching. The fe- male sits so close, that you may almost reach her with your hand, and then precipitates herself to the ground, feigning lameness, to draw you away from the spot, fluttering, trailing her wings, and tumbling over, in the manner of the partridge, woodcock, and many other species. Both parents unite in providing food for the young. This consists, for the most part, of caterpillars, particularly sucli as infest apple-trees. The same insects constitute the chief part of their own sus- tenance. They are accused, and with some justice, of sucking the eggs of other birds, like the crow, the blue jay, and other pil- lagers. They also occasionally eat various kinds of berries. But, from the circumstance of destroying such numbers of very noxious larva;, they prove themselves the friends of the farmer, and are highly deserving of his protection. "The Yellow-billed Cuckoo is thirteen inches long, and sixteen inches in extent ; the whole upper parts are of a dark glossy drab, or what is usually called a Quaker colour, with greenish silky reflections ; from this must, however, be excepted the inner vanes of the wings, which are bright reddish cinnamon ; the tail is long, composed of ten feathers, the two middle onw being of the same colour as the back, the others, which gradually shorten to the exterior ones, are black, largely tipt with white ; the two outer ones are scarcely half the length of the middle ones. The whole lower parts are pure white ; the feathers covering the thighs being large, like those of the hawk tribe. The legs and feet are light blue, the toes placed two before and two behind, as in the rest of the genus : the bill is long, a little bent, very broad at the base, dusky black above, and yellow below ; the eye hazel, feathered close to the eyelid, which is yel- low. The female differs little from the male ; the four middle tail-feathers in her are of the same uniform drab; and the white, with which the others are tipt, not so pure as in the male. In examining this bird by dissection, the inner membrane of the giz- zard, which in many other species is so hard and muscular, in this is extremely lax and soft, capable of great distension ; and, what is remarkable, is covered with a growth of fine down, or hair, of a light fawn colour." A specimen of this bird is said to have been found in this country. CUCKOO-SPIT. [See CERCOPID*:.] CUCULID^E. An extensive family of Pas- serine birds, characterized by having the toes situated two before and two behind ; and so named from including as the typical species the well-known Cuckoo. These birds are for the most part inhabitants of the warm climates, and none permanently reside in countries subject to severe winter cold. They have a slightly arched compressed beak, and a long rounded tail ; their wings are moderately long, and they fly with ra- pidity. They feed on insects, worms, and soft fruits, which they procure while leaping from branch to branch, or flitting from tree to tree : when on the ground they walk awkwardly, on account of the shortness of their tarsi. [See CUCKOO.] CUCULINJE. The name given to denote that sub- family of the CUCULID.E which con- sists of the genuine Cuckoos. CULEX : CIILICIDJE. A genus and fa- mily of Dipterous or two-winged insects, consisting of the various kinds of Gnats. They are distinguished by the length of the proboscis, and their beautifully tufted an- tennae. They generally abound in damp situations, their larv:c being inhabitants of the water. [See GNAT : MOSQUITO.] CURASSOW. (Crar.) A genus of Gal- linaceous birds, inhabiting various parts of South America. They are nearly as large as a turkey. The CRESTED CURASSOW. (Crocc alector.) This bird is nearly three feet in length. The crest, which it can elevate or depress at pleasure, is composed of twisted black fea- thers, narrow at the base and broad at the tip : the whole of the upper part of the plumage is of a deep shining black colour, reflecting purple and green shades ; the tail is black, generally tipped with white ; the abdomen and the inferior tail-coverts are 166 Crcarfurg of Natural $?tstnry ; invariably white. The females have a smal- ler crest, and their feathers are more dull. They associate in small flocks, and at night roost on high trees : their food consists of maize, rice, bananas, and other fruits. The egg is about the size of that of the turkey, and is of a pure white. Native of Guiana, Mexico, and Brazil. The RED CUKASSOW. (Crax rubra.) In size this bird may be compared with the turkey, being about two feet six or eight inches in length. It has a large, strong bill ; and a crest composed of twisted and curled feathers, broad at the top, and tipped with black : the front and sides of the head, and the top of the neck, are pure white, the feathers being marked at their tips with a black fringe : the breast and the upper parts of the tail are reddish, the under parts a brighter red than the upper : the feet and the bill are of horn colour. The young of this species are beautifully varied : the sides of the head and top of the neck are barred with black and white ; the upper part of the plumage, as well as the tail-feathers, are striated with broad, transverse, red and white bands, margined with a black line : as the bird increases in age these bands gradually disappear, and the feathers of the crest, which are at first straight, begin to twist and curl. In their native country these birds are easily tamed, and readily associate with other poultry ; but although they are here common enough in menageries, they have never been known to breed. Temminck, however, says, they have once at least been thoroughly acclimated in Hol- land, where they were as prolific in their domesticated state as any of our common poultry : and Mr. Bennet, alluding to the same subject, observes, " It may not be too much to expect that the Zoological Society may be successful in perfecting what was then so well begun, and in naturalizing the Curassow as completely as our ancestors have done the equally exotic, and, in their wild state, much less familiar breeds of the Turkey, the Guinea-fowl, and the Peacock." Their flesh is both delicate and nutritious. CURCTJLIO : CITRCULIONID^E. A ge- nus and family of snouted Coleopterous in- sects,including the diamond beetles and other splendidly coloured species ; as well as the corn and nut weevils, and a variety of others scarcely less destructive to grain, fruit, and vegetable products in general ; several of which are given under their respective names. M. Schonherr has published a voluminous work which describes the numerous species. Mr. Walton, F. L. S., has studied the British Ciu'ciiiivnhlie, and published excellent papers on all the species found in this country. CURLEW. (Numenhis.) A Grallatorial bird, belonsing to the X<-i>(-itlu\ or Snipe tribe, all of which inhabit the vicinity of waters and marshes, and feed upon worms, &c. The COMMON CUKLEW (Numenitts ar- quata) measures about two feet in length ; and in breadth, from tip to tip, above three feet. The bill is about seven inches long, of a regular curve, and blunt at the end : the upper mandible is black, gradually softening into brown towards the base ; the under one flesh-coloured. The head, neck, and wing-coverts are streaked with brown ; the back and scapulars are nearly black in the middle, edged and deeply indented with light grey. The breast, belly, and lower part of the back are of a dull white, spotted with black ; the quill-feathers are black, the inner webs crossed with white : tail barred with black, on a white ground tinged with red : thighs bare about half way above the knees, of a bluish-colour : the toes are thick, and slightly membranous. The female makes her nest upon the ground, in a dry tuft of rushes or grass ; and lays four eggs of a greenish cast, spotted with brown. The Curlew is met with in most parts of Europe. In Britain their summer haunts are the large, heathy, and boggy moors, where they breed ; their food consisting of worms, flies, and insects, which they pick out of the soft mossy ground by the marshy pools. In autumn and winter they depart to the sea-side in great numbers, and there subsist upon worms, marine insects, small crabs, snails, &c. This bird is extremely com- mon in most parts of Europe, and it occurs also in several parts of Asia. In the winter it is gregarious, and it is at all times very shy and difficult to approach ; but it will soon become familiar. In Scotland, from its cry it is called the " Whaap." [For another spe- cies, see WIIIMBKEL.] CURSORIUS. This genus of birds in- habits the hot regions of Asia and Africa ; one species only, and that very rarely, having been found to visit Europe. The CKEAM-COLOUKKDCOUUSEU (named by Tem- minck Cursorius Isabelltnus) is ten inches in length ; and has a black, curved beak ; the forehead, under parts of the body, back, tail, and wing-coverts of a reddish cream- colour ; the latter edged with grey : behind the eyes a double black stripe ; the throat and belly whitish ; the whole of the lateral tail-feathers black towards the tip, with a small spot of white in the centre of the black : legs yellowish. This rare species is a native of Africa ; but with its habits we are unacquainted. Two only are on record as seen in England : one which was shot near St. Albans, in East Kent, the seat of W. Hammond, Esq., Nov. 10. 1785 ; and another, shot in Chamwood Forest, Leices- tershire, Oct. 15. 1827. The former of these was observed to run with incredible swift- !|3aj)ulatr $3ictionarj} of "Hmmatclf 167 ness, and at intervals to pick up something from the ground ; and was so bold as to render it difficult to make it rise from the ground, in order to take a more secure aim on the wing. The note was unlike that of any known bird. A British-killed specimen of this desert-loving bird is preserved in the fine collection in the British Museum. CURUCUI. [See TKOGOX.] CURVIROSTRA. [See CROSSBILL.] CUSHAT. The Wood-pigeon [which see]. CUTTLE-FISH. (Octopus.') A mollus- cous animal, belonging to the genus Sepia, order Cephalopoda; and sometimes called the Ink-fish. It is of an oblong form, about six inches in length, and three and a half in breadth. The body is somewhat oval ; but it is broadest near the head, and grows smaller towards the extremity, where it is obtusely pointed. The head is surrounded with eight arms and two feet; the two feet being nearly similar in their structure to the arms, or tentacula, but considerably larger in their dimensions. The head is divided from the sac on all sides by a neck. The sac is furnished on each side throughout its whole length with a narrow fin. The suckers are irregularly scattered on the arms COTTtK-FISS. (OCTOPUS.) and feet. The back is strengthened by a complicated calcareous plate, which plate has been long known in the shop of the apo- thecary under the name Cuttle-jfeh bone, and was formerly much prized in medicine as an absorbent, but is now chiefly sought after for the purpose of polishing the softer metals. The superior half, or the one next the head, is the longest, rounded at the extremity, and thin. The inferior portion becomes suddenly narrow, and ends in a point. It may be considered as consisting of a dermal plate, concave on the central aspect, having its concavity filled up with layers which are convex on their central aspect. The dermal plate consists of three different laminae, ar- ranged parfllel to one another. The ex- ternal or dorsal lajer is rough on the surface, and marked by obscure, concentric arches towards the summit, formed by minute knobs, which become larger towards the base, where they appear in the form of interrupted trans- verse ridges. It is uniform in its structure, and the tubercles possess a polish and hard- ness equal to porcellaneous shells, although they blacken speedily when put in the fire, and contain a good deal of animal matter. On the central side of this layer is one flex- ible and transparent, similar to horn, and smooth on the surface. The third layer is destitute of lustre ; and, in hardness and structure, resembles mother-of-pearl shells. The term bone has been improperly applied to this complicated plate ; for this substance, in composition, is exactly similar to shell, and consists of various membranes, hardened by carbonate of lime, without the smallest mixture of phosphate. Under the throat there is a vessel or bladder containing a fluid blacker than ink, which the Cuttle-fish, when pursued by its enemies, ejects in con- siderable quantities ; and this, darkening the water all around, enables it to escape with facility. The most remarkable species of the genus is the Sepia officinalix, which is distinguished from the others by its smooth skin. It inhabits the British seas, and al- though seldom taken, its " bone " is cast ashore on different parts of the coast, from the south of England to the Zetland isles. It is said that the Cuttle-fish is considered a lux- ury by all classes of the Sandwich islanders, and that when fresh and well cooked it is excellent, being in consistence and flavour not unlike the flesh of a lobster's claw. The singular habits of the Cuttle-fish did not escape the notice of Mr. C. Darwin, while at the Cape de Verd islands. " I was much interested," says he, " on several occasions, by watching the habits of an Oc- topus or Cuttle-fish. Although common in the pools of water left by the retiring tide, these animals were not easily caught. By means of their long arms and suckers, they could drag their bodies into very narrow crevices : and when thus fixed, it required great force to remove them. At other times they darted, tail first, with the rapidity of an arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the same instant discolouring the water with a dark chestnut-brown ink. These animals also escape detection by a very extraordinary, chameleon-like power of changing their colour " [which Mr. D. minutely describes]. He then adds: " I was much amused by the various arts to escape detection used by one individual, which seemed fully aware that I was watching it. Remaining for a time motionless, it would then stealthily advance an inch or two, like a cat after a mouse ; sometimes changing its colour : it thus proceeded, till, having gained a deeper part, it darted away, leaving a dusky train of ink to hide the hole into which it had crawled. . . . That it possesses the power of ejecting water there is no doubt, and it appeared to me certain that it could, moreover, take good aim by directing the tube or siphon on the under side of its body." CYAMUS, or WHALE LOUSE. A small crustaceous animal belonging to the order Lcemodipoda. This minute claw-limbed creature, with others allied to it, inhabits the seas of northern and temperate Europe, 168 of and the Southern Seas. As its name indicates, it infests different species of Cetacea ; living on their rough skin and gnawing ^ it more or less deeply. *> Some are found congre- ss gated on the heads of the ' Whale ; while others are wanderers, and crawl about various parts of their bodies. It is well WHALE LOOSE, worthy of notice that (CTAMDS OXTZ.) guc h immense creatures, which inhabit the depths of the ocean, are subject to such parasites ; nor are they the only petty enemies to whose attacks the Whale is subject. [See WHALE.] CYCLOPS. A genus of minute Crusta- ceans, comprising numerous species, some of which belong to fresh-water, while others are marine. The fresh- water species abound in the muddiest and most stagnant pools, and often too in the clearest springs : the marine species are to be found, often in vast numbers, among the sea-weeds, in small pools on the sea-shore ; others there are which inhabit the open ocean, where, by the luminous properties they possess, they con- tribute to its phosphorescence. They take their name from having but one eye. They have all eight or ten legs, and the abdomen is terminated by a bifid tail adapted for swimming. Dr. Baird has monographed the British species. CYCLOPTERUS. [See LUMP-FISH.] CYGNUS. [See SWAX.] CYNIPS : CYNIPID.E. A genus and family of Hymenopterous insects, commonly known by the name of GaU-Jlics. These in- QALL IN3EOT, (uYNIPS QUBBCOSPOLII.) sects puncture, with their ovipositor, the surface of the leaves, buds, and stalks of various plants and trees ; and they increase the aperture by means of the toothed edge, forming a kind of saw, with which the ex- tremity of this organ is armed. In this aperture they deposit, with the egg, a drop of fluid, which, from its irritating quality, produces different kinds of gall-nuts, accord- ing to the species of Cynips by which it has been punctured. The excrescences on the leaves and buds of trees which are called Galls are of various shapes : many are spherical ; others are hairy or tomentose, the surface emitting nu- merous fibrous threads; others resemble buds, flowers, &c. ; and there are a few which are flat : in most of the species a single gall sup- ports only a single gall-insect; while others are poJythaJamous, serving for the residence of many. "Probably," says Mr. Westwood, "no insect has been of greater benefit to mankind than the Cynips Gallce tinctorice, the galls of which are the common gall-nuts of commerce, growing upon the Quercus in- fectoria in the Levant, and which are em- ployed in the manufacture of ink. The galls are of the size of a boy's marble, very hard and round, with various tubercles on the surface ; they contain but a single inha- bitant, which may often be found in the in- terior on breaking the galls. This species resembles some of our English species which reside in globular oak-galls in its habits of undergoing its transformations within the gall, leaving a great portion of the gall un- consumed. Those galls which are gathered before the insect has escaped (.and which con- sequently contain most astringent matter) are known in trade under the name of black or blue galls and green galls ; but those from which the insect has escaped are called white galls. CYNTHIA. A genus of Diurnal Lepi- doptera, belonging to the Nymphalidae : we restrict ourselves to the mention of the Bri- tish species. CYNTHIA CARDUI; or PAINTED LADY. This species of Butterfly is noted for the irregularity of its appearance in particular districts. The wings in general PAINTED LADY BUTTERFLY. (CYNTHIA CARDDI.) are of a brownish yellow colour, dappled with black spots or clouds of various shapes; especially those parts of the upper wings next the apices, which are all black, except five white spots on each side. On the under 0tctt0tmry at ITntmatefc $atttre. 169 side the superior wings are of a fine ligh orange-colour, but they become of a deei crimson near the body ; and the part towards the tips are of a pale brown, havin< five white spots, corresponding with those on the upper surface ; the remaining part are dappled with black, with one largi white and nearly square spot on the secto: edge. The inferior wings are of a pale yellow brown, dappled with dark brown spots nearly equal in size ; and near the lower border are five ocelliform spots. The caterpillar, which feeds on thistles, nettles mallows, &c., is a grayish brown, with yellow lateral lines. The chrysalis is grayish, with golden dots, and whitish brown longitudinal streaks. " On the blue heads of the pasture sca- bious (Scabiosa succisa,)" says the author oi the Journal of a Naturalist, " we occasionally see, toward the end of the summer, the Painted Lady Butterfly (Cynthia cardui); but this is a creature that visits us at very un- certain periods, and is vivified by causes in- finitely beyond the comprehension of the entomologist, seeming to require a succession and variety of seasons and their change, and then springing into life we know not how. This was particularly obvious in the summe of 1815, and the two following, which were almost unceasingly cold and rainy ; scarcely a moth or butterfly appeared. And in the early part of 1818, the season was not Jess mgenial j a few half-animated creatures alone struggled into being ; yet this " painted lady was fostered into life, and became the commonest butterfly of the year : it has, however, but very partially visited us since that period. The keenest entomologists, perhaps, would not much lament the absence of this beauty, if such cheerless seasons were always requisite to bring it to perfection. Some years ago a quantity of earth was raised in cutting a canal in this county ; and n the ensuing summer, on the herbage that sprang up from this new soil on the bank, this butterfly was found in abundance, where it had not been observed for many rears before. In some particular seasons we lave acres of this scabious in bloom, during he months of September and October, giving a tender shade of lavender colour to the vhole field, affording now great pleasure to he entomologist, by reason of the multitude )f insects that resort to it for the honey in he tubular florets in the plant. Late as his period is, I have seen, in some bright morning, besides multitudes of bees, flies, ch creatures, eleven different species id suc 'f lepidopterous insects, feeding and ba- aueing on the blue heads and glancing their 'ay wings in the sunny beam." This species s, apparently, found every where : and in he Museum collection are specimens from learly every part of the world. CYNOCEPHALUS. [See BABOON.] A group of beetles de- iched from the Cefn-ionidce on account of heir small size ; hemispheric, depressed, or vate, and rather soft bodies, and furcate abial palpi : they are of dull colours, and ttached to plants in damp situations ; and they fly and run with agility. In some species the hind legs are formed for leaping CYPR.33A. A genus of univalve shells, called also Cowries, remarkable for the bril- liancy of their colours, and for the high polish of which they are susceptible. The animal they contain is a Gasteropodus Mol- lusc ; and the shell of one species, the Cyprcea morteta, is well-known in commerce as the current coin of the natives of Siam, Bengal OOWRIB. (CTPRJEA 8TO1-IDA.) and many parts of Africa : in the latter it is collected by the female negroes, and is thence sent to distant countries. The Cy- pra-idrieidJ items of Lin- naeus), which inhabits the Mediterranean j the other, the Da.ctyloptc.riis oricntulis of Cuvier, inhabits the Indian seas. Neither of these, however, must be confounded with the common Flying-fish, which belongs to the genus Exocetus. DAGGER [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to Moths of the genera Acronycta and Diurna. DALMATIAN, DANISH, SPOTTED, or COACH-DOG. This variety of the canine race, known by each of the foregoing names, is easily distinguished from all other species by its numerous small black spots. Its form is rather elegant, partaking both of the hound DALMATIAN BOO. and pointer ; its limbs are tolerably stout, and its general appearance is showy. The animal has, however, few claims on us for its services ; neither its scent nor its sagacity being such as to render it the useful com- panion of man. It is kept chiefly as an appendage to the carriage, and shows an instinctive fondness for the stable. DAPHNIA. A genus of minute Crusta- ceans, belonging to the order Branchiopoda ; the best known and most interesting of which is the Daphnia pulex (sometimes termed Monoculus, from having but one eye). This animalcule, which is popularly called the Arborescent Water-flea, is" a favourite microscopic object. The head is prolonged into a snout, and provided with a single central compound eye : it is also furnished with antennae, which serve as oars, to propel it through the water by a series of short springs or jerks. The Daphnia pulex is very abundant in many ponds and ditches, being seen on the surface in the mornings and evenings, as well as in cloudy weather ; but seeking the depths of the water during the heat of the day. They are extremely prolific ; and when, in the summer time, they assume a red colour, the swarms which abound in stagnant water give it the appear- ance of its being occasioned by blood. In this country, Dr. Baird, F. L. S., has given to the world the history of Daphnia ; and its congeners ; and interesting histories they are. DART [MOTHS]. A name given by col- lectors to Moths of the genus Ayrotis* DART-SNAKE. [See ACONTIAS.] DARTER. (Flatus.) The Darters are a genus of web-footed birds, of the Pelican tribe, found near the eastern coasts of the tropical parts of America, and on the western coast of tropical Africa. The general form of their bodies is like that of the gulls : they have a long slender bill, broad at the base, but compressed and pointed at the tip : they perch on trees by the sides of lakes, lagoons, and rivers ; and, after hovering over the water, they suddenly dart at their finny prey with unerring aim. Their movements are alike rapid and graceful. " The DARTER or SXAKE BIRO, (Plotus melanoyastcr,)" says Wilson, " seems to have derived its name from the singular form of its head and neck, which at a distance might be mistaken for a serpent. In those coun- tries where noxious animals abound, we may readily conceive that the appearance of this bird, extending its slender neck through the foliage of a tree, would tend to startle the wary traveller, whose imagination had pour- trayed objects of danger lurking in every thicket. Its habits, too, while in the water, I have not a little contributed to its name DATVTER, OR SNAKE-BIRD. (PLOTOS MB1.ANOOAS1 KR ) It generally swims with its body immerged, especially when apprehensive of danger, its long neck extended above the surface, and vibrating in a peculiar manner. The first individual that I saw in Florida was sneak- ing away, to avoid me, along the shore of a reedy marsh, which was lined with alligators, and the first impression on my mind was, that I beheld a snake, but the recollection of the habits of the bird soon undeceived me. On approaching it, it gradually sank, and my next view of it was at many fathoms dis- tance, its head merely out of the water. To pursue these birds at such times is useless, Q 2 172 Crnrrfuni at Natural as they cannot be induced to rise, or even I expose their bodies. Wherever the limbs of ia tree project over, and dip into the water, : there the Darters are sure to be found, these i situations being convenient resting-places I for the purpose of sunning and preening I themselves, and, probably, giving them a ] better opportunity than when swimming, of j observing their finny prey. They crawl ! from the water upon the limbs, and fix them- ! selves in an upright position, which they I maintain in the utmost silence. If there be foliage, or the long moss, they secrete them- selves in it in such a manner that they cannot be perceived unless one be close to them. ' When approached, they drop into the water | with such surprising skill, that one is asto- ' nished how so large a body can plunge with ; so little noise, the agitation of the water i being apparently not greater than the gliding of an eel Formerly the Darter was con- sidered by voyagers as an anomalous pro- ; duction, a monster partaking of the nature ! of the snake and the duck ; and in some ; ancient charts which I have seen, it is de- j lineated in all the extravagance of fiction." DARTER-FISH. [See Toxoxcs.] I DASYORNIS. A genus of insectivorous j birds, belonging to the great family of ! Thrushes, and found throughout the greater | part of Southern Australia. The BKISTLE- I BIRD (DasyornisAustralis) inhabits reed-beds and thickets, but owing to its recluse habits is a species familiar to few persons. It carries the tail erect, and threads its way through the thickets with great dexterity; but its powers of flight appear to be very limited. The wings, tail-coverts, and tail, are rufous brown, the latter indistinctly barred with a darker tint ; under parts brownish grey ; bill brown ; legs grayish brown. Another species, of a smaller size, called the LONG- BILLED BiiisTLE-BiKD (Dasyornis longiros- tris), is a native of Western Australia, and bears a very close resemblance both in the character and colouring of its plumage to the one above described. DASYPROCTA. A genus of Rodent Mammalia. In disposition and the nature of their flesh they resemble Hares and Rabbits, which they in some degree represent in the Antilles and hot parts of America. They employ their fore feet to hold up food to their mouth. [See AGOUTI.] DASYPUS. A genus of Rodent animals, very remarkable among the Mammalia for the scaly and hard shell-like armour which, divided into regular compartments, covers their head and body, and often the tail. [See ARMADILLO.] DAY-FLY. [See EPHEMERA.] DECAPODA. An order of Crustacea, containing those in which we find the high- est general organization, the most varied habits, and such as are the most useful to man as food. Their growth is slow, and their habits are mostly aquatic : they are naturally voracious ; and they are armed with a pair of powerful claws, by which they seize their food, and convey it to the mouth. In this order are included Crabs, Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, &c. [which see]. For the history of the British species, see Dr. Leach's " Malacostraca," or, as more easily accessible, the elegant work on British Crustacea, by Professor Bell, in which are figures and de- scriptions of all the British species. DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK-MOTH. A remarkable Lepidopterous insect, belonging to the family Sphinyuloe. [See ACHEKO.NTIA ATROPOS.] DEATH-WATCH. (Andbium tessda- tum.) Among the popular superstitions which the almost general illumination of modern times has not been able to obliterate, as Dr. Shaw very truly observes, the dread of the Death-watch may well be considered as one of the most predominant ; yet it must be allowed to be a very singular circum- stance that an animal so common should not be more universally known, and the peculiar noise which it occasionally makes be more universally understood. The insect in question is a small beetle belonging to the timber-boring genus Anoblum; and the po- pular superstition alluded to is, that when its beating is heard, it is a sign that some one in the house will die before the end of the year. It is chiefly in the advanced state of spring that this little creature commences its sound, which is no other than the call or signal by which the male and female are led to each other, and which may be considered as analagous to the call of birds ; though not owing to the voice of the insect, but to its beating on, or striking, any hard sub- stance with the shield or fore-part of its head. The prevailing number of distinct strokes which it beats is from seven to nine or eleven ; and this very circumstance may perhaps still add to the ominous character which it bears among the vulgar. These sounds or beats are given in pretty quick succession, and are repeated at uncertain intervals ; and in old houses where the in- sects are numerous, may be heard at almost any hour of the day ; especially if the weather be warm. The sound exactly re- sembles that which may be made by tapping moderately hard with the finger-nail on a table. The insect is of a colour so nearly resembling that of decayed wood, viz. an obscure greyish brown, that it may for a considerable time elude the search of the inquirer. It is about a quarter of an inch in length, and is moderately thick in pro- portion, and the wing-shells are marked with numerous irregular variegations of a lighter cast than the ground-colour. It is singular that this insect may so far be fami- liarized as to be made to beat occasionally, by taking it out of its confinement, and beating on a table or board, when it will readily answer the noise, and will continue to beat as often as required. I cannot con- clude this slight account of the Death-watch, says our author, without quoting a sentence From that celebrated work the Pseudodoxia Bpidemica of the learned Sir Thomas Brown, ho on this subject thus expresses himself: He that could eradicate this error from $3ajpu!av of feature. 173 ale iuc.se inserts giuiitiy injure uiuiunu- re, by perforatiug numerous small round DEER. (Cervws.) Among the various animals which embellish the forests and nimate the solitudes of nature, none are superior to the cervine race. These well- known ruminants are distinguished from the antelopes by their horns, which are com- posed of a bony substance, caducous, or fall- ing off annually, and again renewed of a larger size than in the preceding year. The fonn of these is various. Sometimes they spread into broad palms, which Bend out sharp snags around their outer edges ; some- times they divide fantastically into branches, some of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared upward in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect posture : yet, in what- ever way they grow, they appear to give an air of grandeur to the animal. It may, then, speaking in general terms, be said, that the easy elegance of their form, the lightness of their motions, their size, their strength, their flcetness, and the extraordinary develop- ment of those branching horns, which seem fully as much intended for ornament as de- fence, all contribute towards placing them in the foremost rank of quadrupeds. RED DEER, or STAG. (Cervus elapMs.') Before we speak of the habits &c. of this noble animal, it will be we_ll to enter into a few particulars relative to its distinguishing characteristic, the horns. The first year the stag has properly no horns, but only a kind of corneous excrescence, short, rough, and covered with a thin hairy skin ; the second year the horns are single and straight ; the third year they have two antlers ; the fourth, three; the fifth, four; and the sixth, five. When arrived at the sixth year, the antlers do not always increase ; and though the number may amount to six or seven on each side, the Stag's age is then estimated rather from the size and the thickness of the branch that sustains them, than from their number. The proportional length, direction, and cur- vature of the antlers vary ; and it often happens that there is one more or less on the RBD DBBR MATJ5. (OERVU8 BL4.PHUS ) one side than on the other : the horns also become larger, the superficial furrows more marked, and the burr is more projecting. Notwithstanding their magnitude, these horns are annually shed in the spring of the year, and succeeded by new ones. Of the old horns, which are of a solid, firm texture, a variety of domestic articles are made ; but wliile young they are remarkably soft and (OERVUS BLAPHU8.) tender ; and the animal, as if conscious of its want of power, instantly retires from the rest of the herd, and, hiding itself in thick- ets and unfrequented places, ventures abroad for the sake of pasture only at night. It is nearly three months before the new horns attain their full growth and solidity ; and then, by rubbing them against the boughs of trees, they at length clear them of that co- vering of skin, which had before contributed to their growth and nourishment. "The growth of the horns," says Mr. Bell, " is an astonishing instance of the rapidity of the production of Ixjne under particular circum- stances, and is certainly unparalleled in its extent in so short a period of time. A full grown Stag's horn probably weighs 174 .) at Natural twenty-four pounds ; and the whole of this immense mass of true bone is produced in about ten weeks. During its growth the branches of the external carotid arteries, which perform the office of secreting this new bone, are considerably enlarged, for the purpose of conveying so large a supply of blood as is necessary for this rapid forma- tion. These vessels extend over the whole surface of the horn as it grows, and the horn itself is at first soft and extremely vascular, so that a slight injury, and even merely pricking it, produces a flow of blood from the wound. It is also protected at this time with a soft, short, hairy or downy coat, which is termed the velvet ; and hence the horns are said to be in ' the velvet ' during their growth." The Stag is supposed to have been origin- ally introduced into our own island from France, where it is very common : but it has been in a great degree expelled from most parts of this kingdom to make way for the common, or Fallow Deer, the venison of which is far superior to that of the Red Deer, and the animal itself of a more manageable and placid disposition. The Stag has a fine eye, an acute smell, and a good ear. When listening, he raises his head and erects his ears. When going into a coppice or other half-covered place, he stops to look round him on all sides, and scents the wind, to discover if any object be near that might disturb him. Though a simple, he is a curious and crafty animal. When hissed or called to from a distance, he stops short, and looks steadfastly, and, with a kind of admiration, at horses or men; and if the latter have neither arms- nor dogs, he moves on without betraying any symp- toms of alarm. He eats slowly ; and after his stomach is full, he lies down and rumi- nates at leisure. In Dr. A. T. Thomson's notes to an edition of" THE SEASONS," by his celebrated name- sake, we find appended to line 454, (Au- tumn,") " The big round tears run down his dappled face ; " the following very apposite remarks : "This supposed peculiarity of the Stag to shed tears is noticed by several poets, but by none so strikingly as by Shakspere* and our author : but, indeed, it is not wonderful that it was the popular belief before it was noticed by poets, for the eyes of the Stag, and nearly all the deer tribe, display a pecu- liarly weeping aspect. This is more obvi- ously displayed in the male than in the female. It depends on a remarkable glan- dular sinus, crumcn, or tear-pit, placed at the inner angle of each eye, close to the nose without having any communication with it, or with what are termed the lachrymal In piteous chase ; and thus the hairv fool, Much ma- keel of the melancholy Jaques, Ptood on the extremes! verge of the swift brook Augmenting il with tears." At You Like It, act ii. sc. 1. ! passages. It is composed of a fold of the I skin, and is capable of being opened and shut at the pleasure of the animal. It is furnished at the bottom with a gland, which secretes an oily, viscous substance, of the colour and consistence of the wax of the ears, and which hardens and becomes black when exposed to the air. The precise func- tion of this organ is unknown, although many conjectures have been offered in ex- planation of it : and there can be no doubt that it serves some important purpose in the economy of the animal. The moistened moving edges of the sinus have been mis- taken by general observers and the poets, for precious tears let fall over that part of the eyelids ; and, in our love for the roman- tic, we almost regret to be undeceived." In winter and spring this animal rarely ever drinks, the dews and tender herbage being sufficient to satisfy his thirst ; but during the parching heats of summer, he not only frequents the brooks and springs, but searches for deep water wherein to bathe and refresh himself. He swims with great ease and strength, particularly when he is in good condition, his fat contributing to his buoyancy. His voice is stronger, louder, and more tremulous, in proportion as he advances in age ; and during the rutting season it is really fearful. The cry of the hind, or female, is not so loud as that of the male, and she is never excited but through apprehensions for the safety either of herself or her young, Like all the rest of the Deer tribe, except the Elk, the female is destitute of horns ; she is also more feeble and unfit for hunting than the male. The pairing season is in August ; the time of gestation is between eight and nine months; and she seldom produces more than one at a time. The usual season of parturition is about May, during which these animals are very assiduous in concealing and tending their young ; nor is this a needless precaution, since almost every animal of the canine or feline kind is then an active enemy ; nay, unnatural as it may seem, the Stag himself is also one of their most dangerous assailants. At this season, therefore, the courage of the male seems to be transferred to the female ; for she resolutely defends her offspring ; and if pursued by the hunter, exposes herself to great apparent danger, for the purpose of diverting his attention from the object of her parental regard. The Calf (the name by which the young of this animal is called) never quits the dam during the whole sum- mer ; and in winter, the hind, together with all the males under a year old, assemble in herds, which are more or less numerous in, proportion to the mildness or severity of the season. At the approach of spring they separate, none but those of the age of one year remaining associated. They are, how- ever, generally gregarious ; and only danger or necessity can possibly divide them. " When a Stag stands at bay," says the accomplished Editor of Thomson's Seasons, before quoted, " his instinct leads him to do so in a river or a lake, if either be near ; in which case he has a great advantage over the dogs, for he firmly stands and holds his -{Papular Stctumari) of &m'matrtt Mature. 175 j position, whilst they swim powerless around him. On land, even, a Stag at bay has great : advantage over the hounds, who exhaust i themselves with their clamour, whilst he is i in a comparative state of rest, and recovers , his wind." Powerful as the Stag is, he has ! never been known to attack a man, unless ! he has been driven into a corner, and hard pressed, without the means of escape. With regard to hunting the Stag, the pursuit, as carried on in the Highlands, is one capable i of rousing all the manly ardour and energy of youth and manhood, whilst all the powers I of both body and mind are called into action. i The beauty, graceful, and magnificent bear- ing of the animal, his sagacity in evading the stratagems of the hunter, or deer stalker, and his courage when at bay, add greatly to the pleasure of the chase. In stalking deer, the animal is generally shot ; but if he is only wounded, and has power to fly, then the dogs are slipped to the pursuit. But, in olden times, the chief reliance for pulling and killing the deer, was in the dogs ; and the flcetness and courage of their hounds were the pride of nobles and kings." The food of Stags varies according to the season. In autumn they search for the buds of green shrubs, the flowers of broom or heath, the leaves of brambles, &c. During the snows of winter they feed on the bark and moss of trees ; and in mild weather they browse in the fields. In the present culti- vated state of this country, Stags are almost unknown in their wild, natural condition ; and such as remain amongst us are kept under the name of Red Deer, together with the Fallow Deer; but their excessive ferocity during the rutting season, and the coarseness of their flesh, have contributed in a great measure to effect their almost total exter- mination. In Scotland, however, they still exist in considerable numbers ; and though it was deemed necessary to abolish Stag- hunting by act of parliament, in consequence of the multitudinous gatherings of the clans, upon this pretext, being often made subser- vient to political purposes, " a Stag-hunt is even in the present day the scene of much of the excitement and profuse hospitality by which this noble sport was characterized in days of yore." " The Stag is an ancient denizen of the forests of this country. From the most remote periods, it has been the favourite object of the chase ; and the severe forest- laws of our earlier Norman monarchs suffi- ciently attest the importance which they attached to the sport. The afforesting of vast tracts of country, by which not only single cottages were destroyed, but whole villages swept away, and churches desecrated and demolished, was the fertile source of misery to the poorer inhabitants, and of in- justice to the ancient proprietors of the soil ; and the cruel inflictions of the oppressive laws which were enacted to preserve the Deer, increased tenfold the curse arising from this tyrannical passion for the chase, for it was a crime less severely penal to kill a man than to destroy or take a Deer." " The ancient customs and laws of ' Ve- nerie,' that noble science which our simple ancestors looked upon as one of the first accomplishments of the high-bred noble, and a knowledge of which was essential to his education, were formal and technical to a most absurd and ludicrous degree. A few of the terms, betokening the different ages of the Stag and Ilind, are still retained, though somewhat altered. The young of either sex is called a CALF ; after a few months the male becomes distinguished by the growth of the bossets, or frontal protu- berances, on which the horns are afterwards developed, which during the first year are merely rounded knobs, from whence he takes the name of KJJOBBER. In the second year they are longer and pointed, and are called dags, and the animal has now the name of BROCKET. In the third year, the first, or brow antler, has made its appearance, and the Deer becomes a SFAYAD. In the fourth, the bez-antler is added, and he is then termed a STAOGARD. He is a STAG in the fifth year, when the third antler, or royal, appears: and in the sixth, the commencement of the sur- royal, or crown, is formed ; when he takes the name of HAKT, which name he retains through life. At this time he is called a Hart or Stag of ten, probably because the branches, including the sur-royal, frequently amount to that number. After the seventh year he is said to be crocked, or palmed, or crowned, according to the number of branches composing the sur-royal. The female is a Calf'm the first year, a Brocket's sister in the second, and in the third, and ever afterwards, a Ilind." LdVs British Quadrupeds. VIRGINIAN DEER. (Cervus Virginia- nus.) This species is found in vast herds in the northern parts of America, and is an animal of great importance to the Indian natives. They are of a light brown colour, I and about the size of the Fallow Deer, but | their tails are longer. Their horns are slender, bend greatly forwards, and have numerous branches on the interior sides, but no brow antlers. They are of a restless and wandering disposition, and in hard winters are observed to feed, much on the different species of usnea or string moss, which hangs from the trees : they are also fond of resort- ing to places impregnated with salt, and vulgarly called salt-licks ; and it is at these favourite haunts that the hunters generally succeed in killing them. Their flesh, though dry, is very valuable to the Indians, who cure it for their winter provision. PORCINE DEER. (Cervus porcmus.) An Indian species of the cervine genus ; about two feet three inches in height ; the body clumsy ; the legs fine and slender ; and the tail about eight inches long. It has slender trifurcated horns, about a foot in length : the colour, on the upper part of the neck, body, and sides is brown ; the belly and rump lighter. [For other species of the genus Cervus, or Deer tribe, see Axis ELK FALLOW-DKEH MUN JAC REINDEER ROEBUCK WA- PITI.] We may mention that there are many species of Deer, chiefly found in South America and in Asia ; specimens of most of 176 (rcauvj) of Natural ^ the species being in the collection of the British Museum, and many of them are to be seen alive in the Gardens of the Zoologi- cal Society, and used to adorn the noble me- nagerie of the Earl of Derby (President of that Society), at Knowsley, Lancashire. DEINACRIDA. A genus of Orthoptern, belonging to the GryUidce or Cricket tribe. Our figure is copied from the one that ac- companies Mr. White's description in the Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. SS. Erebus and Terror. Mr. W. Stephcnson, speaking of it in his remarks on the entomology of New Zealand, says, "It is a peculiarly for- midable insect, found in old trees, secreting ODEINAORIDA HETBRACANIHA.) ' itself in rents and crevices. It is an abundant species in New Zealand, and is carnivorous. It is called by the Maories Weta." The male is distinguished from the other sex (here figured) by its enormous head, the bite of which is very severe. Both sexes are ap- terous, the female being very prolific in ova. Mr. Stephenson believes there are more than one species of this genus. It is allied to the genus Anastostomus of Mr. G. R. Gray. DELPHINID^E. The Dolphin tribe, a family of cetaceous animals, characterized by the moderate size of the head, and usu- ally by the presence of teeth in both jaws. It includes, with the Dolphin and Porpoise, many animals which are ordinarily called Whales ; a considerable number of which occasionally visit the northern coasts of Bri- tain. They are in general voracious feeders ; and their flesh is for the most part rank, oily, and unwholesome. [See WHALE.] DEMOISELLE. ( Anthropoides Virgo.) The Demoiselle, or Numidian Crane, is re- markable for the grace and symmetry of its form, and the elegance of its deportment. It measures three feet three inches in length ; and has a beak two inches and a half long, the base of which is greenish and the tip red: the irides are crimson : the crown of the head is cinereous ; the rest of the head, and neck, black : the feathers of the breast are long and drooping : the under parts of the body, from the breast, the back, and the tail, are bluish ash ; the latter and the quills are tipped with black ; and the legs are black. This gralhitoriul bird is a native of many parts of Asia and Africa ; and is to be met with along the whole of the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean. It delights in damp and marshy places, frequenting those parts in search of small fishes, frogs, &c., which are its favourite food. It is easily domesticated. There is another species, called the CROWN- ED DEMOISELLE (Anthropoides Pnvonia), which is less than the one above described, and about the size of the common heron. The crown of the head is covered with soft black feathers, like velvet ; on the hind part (ANTIIROI is a tuft of stiff hair, which spreads put on all sides in a globular form ; this is four inches in length, and of a reddish brown colour : the sides of the head are bare of fea- thers ; and on each side of the throat hangs a kind of wattle. The general colour of the bird is a bluish ash : the feathers on the fore part of the neck are very long, and hang over the breast ; wing-coverts white ; the greater ones incline to rufous, and those farthest from the body to black : the greater quills and tail are black, and the secondaries chestnut. The female is black where the male is blue-ash, and the wattles on the throat are wanting. This bird is a tame species, and, like the preceding, is often kept in aviaries : it runs very fast ; flies strong, and is able to keep on the wing for a long time together. Another species, the STANLEY DEMOISELLE (Anthropoides paradise,a), is even more elegant than either of the pre- ceding ; it is of a light ashy blue, and in. proportion, colour, length of feathers, and grace, is worthy of all admiration. DENDROCOLAPTES, or HOOKED- BILLED CREEPERS. A genus of Tenuiros- tral Birds, with the bill generally long and curved, the tail feathers stiff and pointed to assist the birds in climbing ; the claws are long and curved. There are several species, natives of South America ; their general colour is brown, with grey mixtures, and in most of the species there are whitish lines or spots about the head and neck : these birds are marked features in the Fauna of South America. [See FURNAKIUS.] DENDROLAGUS, or TREE -KANGA- ROO. A genus of Marsupialian animals Popular SBtrtionarn of ^mmatcXr $ature. 177 belonging to the Kangaroo family. Two species, Dendrolarjus ursinus and imtstus Midler, were discovered by M. S. Muller, in New Guinea. These were found at Triton Bay, and they also inhabit the interior of the country. They are arboreal in their habits, climbing trees with the utmost fa- cility. The tail is considerably elongated, and in one species (the D. inustus) of nearly equal thickness throughout. The D. ursinus is of a deep blackish brown ; the D. inustus paler. Now that New Guinea is taken into the possession of the British, specimens and full particulars of this interesting genus may soon be looked for. DENDROPHYLLIA. The name given to a genus of Polypi, or Madrepores, of co- ral-like structure. They are of arborescent forms, the stem sending cut branches, instead of remaining simply columnar ; and these branches again subdividing. The whole structure is covered with a gelatinous or fleshy substance, which, although it has no direct communication with the stomach, seems to constitute the animal, of which the Polypes are only subordinate parts. DENDROSAURA, or TREE LIZARDS. The name of a tribe of Reptiles, containing the Chamceleons, and used by Mr. Gray in his excellent Descriptive Catalogue of the Li/ards in the British Museum. The scales of the belly, of the side, and of the back, are granular, and in circular bands ; the tongue is worm-like and elongate, and very exten- sile. The eyes are globular, very mobile, covered with a circular lid pierced with a small central hole. The toes are formed into two grasping opposable groups, which fit them admirably for living on trees. [See CHAMELEON.] DENTIROSTRES. The name of a tribe of birds, characterized by having a notch and tooth-like process on each side of the margin of the upper mandible. They ma- nifest rapacious habits, and prey on smaller and weaker birds. The Jiutcher-bird will serve as an example of this tribe. DERMESTES : DERMESTID.E. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, the antennae of which are elevated and perfo- liated transversely. The larvae or grubs of this tribe devour dead bodies, skins, leather, and almost any animal substance, and are ex- ceedingly destructive to books and furniture. " Although obnoxious in these respects, the insects of this family are of infinite service in the economy of nature, by causing the rapid decomposition of animal matter into a substance fitted for the improvement of the soil, and by their labours, united with those of the Silphae, Necrophori, &c., de- stroying such portions of these remains as are left untouched by the Flesh-flies, which only consume the soft portions of the car- casses. Like the perfect insects, their larvaB are seldom observed upon the surface of the matters which they attack." Westwood. This gentleman further observes (in a note), " In some of the Egyptian mummies lately opened, a great number of dead specimens of several species of Dermestes have been discovered in the interior of the body, to- gether with a number of their larva, also dead : hence, from the circumstance of these larvse being found dead in a situation which appears at one time to have been congenial to them, I am induced to think that these insects must have found their way into the body previous to the final operation of em- balmment, whereby they were destroyed." The complete insects are mostlyof a length- ened oval shape, and have a habit of with- drawing the head beneath the thorax when handled. One of the most familiar species is the Dermestes lardarius, or Bacon-beetle, which is about a third of an inch in lcngth,aud of a dusky brown colour, with the upper half of the wing shells whitish or ash-coloured, and marked with black spots. Another species, seen in almost every house during the spring and early part of the summer, is the Atta- Rro>iwifii-TT genus Pellio. It measures (DKRMKsrFs' scarcely a quarter of an LARD A. HI us.) inch in length, and is of a very dark brown or blackish colour, with a white speck on the middle of each wing-shell. DESMAN, or MUSK-RAT. ( Mygale mos- chata.) An insectivorous animal, aquatic in all its habits, and nearly equal in size to DE8MAN, ANT) FORE-FEET. (UYGAI.E MO80HATA.) the Hedgehog. Its muzzle is elongated into a small, very flexible proboscis, which 178 cif Natural is constantly in motion. It lias a long tail, scaly and flattened at the sides ; membranous feet ; eyes very small ; and no external ears. This animal is very common along the rivers and lakes of Southern Russia, where it feeds on worms, the larva; of insects, and particu- larly on leeches, which it easily withdraws froni the mud by means of its flexible pro- boscis. It never conies voluntarily on shore, but is often taken in the nets of the fisher- men. Its burrow, excavated in a bank, com- mences under water, and ascends to above the level of the highest floods. Under the tail of the Desman are two small follicles containing a kind of unctuous substance, of a strong musky odour, from which the name of Musk-rat is given to it. DEW [MOTHS]. A name given, by col- lectors to Moths of the genus Setina. DIADEM SPIDER. (Epeira diadema.) This spider, so common in the autumn, be- longs toWalckenaer's genus Epeira. Its body, when full grown, is nearly as large as a hazel nut, is of a deep chestnut brown colour, and the abdomen beautifully marked by a lon- gitudinal series of round milk-white spots, crossed by others' of a similar appearance, BO as to represent in some degree the pattern of a small diadem. It is chiefly seen during the autumnal season in our gardens, where, in some convenient spot or shelter, it forms a large, round, close web of yellow silk, in which it deposits its eggs, guarding this web with a secondary one of a looser texture. The young are hatched in the ensuing May, the parent insects dying towards the close of autumn. At the tip of the abdomen are placed five papillae or teats, through which the spider draws its thread. The eyes, which are situated on the upper part of the thorax, are eight in number, placed at a small dis- tance from eacli other. The fangs with which the animal wounds its prey are strong, curved, sharp-pointed, and each furnished on the inside, near the tip, with a small ob- long hole or slit, through which is discharged a poisonous fluid into the wound made by the point itself. The feet are of a highly curious structure ; the two claws with which each is terminated being furnished on its under side with several parallel processes resembling the teeth of a comb, and enabling the spider to manage with the utmost facility the threads in its web, &c. [See SPIDER.] DIAMOND BEETLE. C&nfimtu.) This splendid Coleopterous insect belongs to the family Curculionidce, and contains two or three species. It is very abundant in some parts of South America. It is often, with a magnifying glass of no great power, formed DIAMOND B into a very pleasing toy to amuse young people. There are small species of Curculio- nidce in our own island, however, which are scarcely less brilliant when magnified under a good light, and with sufficient power. DIAPERIS. A genus of Coleopterous insects. [See TAXICOKNES.] D I C JE U M. A genus of Tenuirostral Birds, allied to the CHEEPERS : they do not use their tails as these birds do ; and they are generally brilliant in colour, having more or less of scarlet in their plumage. Different species are found in Asia and its islands, and also in Australia. A genus [See PEC- DICOTYL.ES, or PECCARY, of Quadrupeds allied to Swine. CARY.] DICRONOCEPHALTJS. A genus of Coleoptera belonging to the family Ceto- niadce, described by Mr. Hope. The male, which is the only sex at present known, is remarkable for the two horns on the head, which are bent up. The only known species, Dicronocephahts WaUichii, is a native of Nepal, having been found by Dr. Wallich when botanizing among the Himalaya mountains. It is of a yellowish gray colour, and its general form will be better seen by the accompanying cut than by any descrip- tion. It is at present very rare in collec- tions (there is one, however, in the British Museum) ; but, like its congeners, Narycius papular JStrttonarg of ^ntmatett $ature. 179 and Cyphonocephahis, from India, and Jfic- ter.i/ttr* and r/tmiints, from the Eastern Islands, the active researches of Indian officers and colonists will make these pretty and singular insects more common. DIDELPHID^E. A family of quadrupeds belonging to the order Marsupiuliu, and con- sisting of the genus Didefyhis, or Opossum. They are restricted to America. They are characterized by having ten incisors above and eight below, the canines being one on each side of either jaw, and the molars seven, the four last, or true molars, being crowned with sharp tubercles. The limbs are short ; the feet plantigrade ; and the toes, which are five on each foot, armed with sharp, strong, curved claws, except the inner toe or thumb on the hinder feet, which is opposable and destitute of a nail. The tail, except at the base, is scaly and naked ; and it is usu- ally more or less prehensile. In some species the pouch is entirely wanting, being indi- cated only by a slight fold of the skin. [See OPOSSUM.] DIDUNCULUS. A genus of birds found in the South Sea Islands. [See GNATHO- DON.] DIDITS. A genus of birds now extinct. [See DODO.] DIMERA. A section of the order ITom- optera, comprising much smaller insects than those included in the section Trimera, and distinguished from them by having only two joints in the tarsi ; with antennae longer than the head, and composed of from six to ten filiform joints ; whilst they differ from the Monomera by the winged individuals possessing four wings, the anterior being ordinarily of the same membranous texture as the posterior. The section consists of the families Psyllidce, Aphidce, and Aleyrodidce. DIMYARIA. The name given to the second order of Concfiiferce, or Bivalve Shells. It contains a great number of families, which may be grouped into four divisions, arising partly from the shape of the foot of its molluscous inhabitant, but chiefly from the more or less perfect manner in which the valves close upon each other. Sometimes the term Bimusculosa is given to this order. DINGO, or AUSTRALIAN DOG. This species of the canine race has a very wolf- like appearance. The ears are short and erect ; the tail rather bushy ; the hair, which PAMII.IAHIS AU8TRA DIKOO. ( is of a reddish dun colour, is long, thick, and straight. This dog is extremely fierce, and has the same sort of snarling and howling voice as the larger kind of dogs have in ge- neral ; though by some it has been erro- neously_ said neither to bark nor growl. There is good reason, however, to believe that the Dingo is the descendant of a race once domesticated, which has returned to its wild state. DINORNIS. A genus of birds allied to the Ostrich tribe, now only found in a fossil state in New Zealand, whence many bones have been sent to this country. One of the species must have been at least fourteen feet high, and it is believed that some speci- mens may have been still higher. Our space will not allow of our entering into the interesting details of comparative anatomy, which Professor Owen has given in his elaborate Memoir in the Tranactious of the Zoological Society to which the reader is referred. It is known to the natives by the name of Moa. DINOTUERIUM. A genus of extinct herbivorous quadrupeds, of gigantic dimen- sions ; but aa only fragments of this huge creature have yet been found, the size of the entire animal cannot be accurately given. sxtrti. OF DiuoTHEarmf QIOANTBUM. A skull of one was disinterred at Epplesheim, in Hesse Darmstadt, in 1836, measuring about four feet in length and three in breadth ; from which, according to the calculations of Cuvier and Kaup, the Dinotherium is supposed to have attained the length of eighteen feet. Dr. Buckland, who paid great attention to the remains of this immense specimen of extinct Mammalia, is decidedly of opinion that it was an aquatic animal. " It is mechanically impossible," he observes, " that a lower jaw, nearly four feet long, loaded with such heavy tusks at its extremity could have been otherwise than cumbrous and inconvenient to the quadruped living on dry land. No such disadvantage would have attended this structure in a large ani- mal destined to live in water ; and the aquatic habits of the family of Tapirs, to which the Dinotherium was most nearly allied, render it probable that, like them, it was an inhabitant of fresh-water lakes and rivers," &c. The Doctor subsequently 180 of Datura! $|ttarg; says, " Professor Kaup and Dr. Klipstein have recently published a description and figures of this' head, in which they state that the very remarkable form and dispositions of the hinder part of the skull show it to have been connected with muscles of extraordi- nary power, to give that kind of movement to the head which would admit of the peculiar action of the tusks in digging into and tearing up the earth. They further observe that my conjectures respecting the aquatic habits of this animal are confirmed by approximations in the form of the occipital bone to the occiput of Cctacea ; the Dinothe- rium, in this structure, affording a new and important link between the Cetacea and the Pachydermata." DIODON. A remark able genus of Plectog- nathi, or bony fishes with soldered jaws. The DIODON HYSTRIX, commonly termed the Sea-Porcupine, is of a nearly spherical form, sometimes measuring not less than two feet in length ; but it possesses the power of inflating or contracting itselt at pleasure by means of an internal skin or membrane situated beneath the exterior or spiny covering. Its colour is a pale grey, the back being of a somewhat deeper cast ; and the whole body is marked at the base of each spine by a round black spot ; the fins being also spotted. When taken by a line and hook, it inflates its body and elevates its spines to the highest possible degree, as if endeavouring to wound in all directions ; nor can it be touched without danger until it is dead. It is a native of the Indian and American seas ; and its flesh is coarse and worthless. The OBLONG DIODON (Diodon atinga) differs from the former in being of a more lengthened shape, and in having the spines rather round than triangular. Its general colour IB grey, deeper on the back, and with a cast of pink on the lower parts like the Diodon Hystrix : it is marked with numerous round black spots ; but it is only from twelve to fifteen inches in length. Unless very carefully cleaned, it is dangerous to eat it ; for if not absolutely poisonous, the flesh is highly unwholesome. It ia a native of the Indian and American seas. Besides the above, there is the ROUND DIODON (Diodon arbicularis), about nine or ten inches in length ; which is considered a poisonous fish: PLUMIEU'S DIODON (Dio- don Plumieri), a species very nearly allied to the Oblong Diodon : and the PATCHED DIO- DON (Diodon liturosus), which inclines to a globular shape, and is marked on each side of the body with an oval patch and two transverse ones ; and on the back a round spot encircling the dorsal fin : spines white with brown tips, and all the fins greenish yellow. " One day," says Mr. Darwin (while on the coast of Brazil), " I was amused by watching the habits of a Diodon, which was caught swimming near the shore. This fish is well known to possess the singular power of distending itself into a nearly spherical form. After having been taken out of water for a short time, and then again immersed in it, a considerable quantity both of water and air was absorbed by the mouth, and perhaps likewise by the branchial apertures. The process is effected by two methods ; the air is swallowed, and is then forced into the cavity of the body, its return being pre- vented by a muscular contraction which is externally visible ; but the water, I ob- served, entered in a stream through the mouth, which was wide open and motionless ; this latter action must therefore depend on suction. The skin about the abdomen is i much looser than that of the back ; hence, ' during the inflation, the lower surface be- i comes far more distended than the upper ; and the fish, in consequence, floats witli its back downwards. Cuvier doubts whether the Diodon, in this position, is able to swim ; but not only can it thus move forward in a straight line, but likewise it can turn round to either side. This latter movement is effected solely by the aid of the pectoral fins, the tail being collapsed, and not used. From the body being buoyed up with so much air, the branchial openings were out of water : but a stream drawn in by the mouth constantly flowed through them. " The fish, having remained in this dis- tended state for a short time, generally ex- pelled the air and water with considerable force from the branchial apertures and mouth. It could emit, at will, a portion of the water; and it appears, therefore, pro- bable, that this fluid is taken in partly for the sake of regulating its specific gravity. This Diodon possessed several means of de- fence. It could give a severe bite, and could eject water from its mouth to some distance, at the same time it made a curious noise by the movement of its jaws. By the inflation of its body, the papillae, with which the skin is covered, became erect and pointed. But the most curious circumstance was, -that it j emitted from the skin of its belly, when handled, a most beautiful carmine red and fibrous secretion, which stained ivory and paper in so curious a manner, that the tint is retained with all its brightness to the present day. DIOMEDEA. A genus of Palmiped birds. ' [See ALBATROSS.] DIOPSIS, or TELESCOPE TLY. A very singular genus of Dipterous insects, re- markable for the enormously developed pe- dicels on whir.h the eyes are situated. They |9a$ular JDutt'onarg ot &mmatcfr isi are found in Western Africa, India, and the Indian islands, some of the species being of considerable size. One species, the Diopsis Xykrsii, was observed by the distinguished Indian statistician and naturalist after whom it is named by Mr. G. K. Gray, in countless multitudes in one of the Indian vallies. Hence it is not improbable that the habits of the numerous species composing the genus are similar. It is one of those well-marked and remarkable groups of insects, all the species of whi le grou ch hav e been described and figured by Mr. Westwood. They are, how- ever, rare in collections; the British Museum possessing many curious species. DIPLOPTEBA, or DIPLOPTERYGA. roup of Ily third divisi menopterous insects, forming on of the subsection Prve- uite naked, or very slightly the legs are of moderate r qute ith hairs : dones. These wasps obtain their name from the wings being folded throughout their entire length when at rest. The antennae are generally elbowed, and either filiform or thickened at the tips; the palpi are short and filiform ; the maxillae are long, cori- aceous, and compressed ; the thorax is oval and entire ; and the collar extends laterally to the base of the wings. The body is gene- rally black, more or less spotted with buff, and either clothed length, not furnished with organs fitted for the collection of pollen ; and the abdomen is ovate. The sting of the females and neuters is very powerful, and has occasion- ally caused the death of those persons who have been attacked by these insects. This division forms two families, Eumenidce and Vespidee. [See WASP.] DIPSAS. A genus of serpents, placed by Cuvier under the head Coluber. DIPTERA. An order of two-winged in- sects ; of which the common house-fly and blue-bottle fly afford familiar examples. There are, however, some dipterous insects which are destitute of wings : hence it is necessary to notice other peculiarities be- longing to this order. Some possess a pro- boscis and sucker : others have a proboscis and no sucker. They have six legs, furnished with five-jointed tarsi, two palpi, two an- tennae, and three ocelli. The mouth in the insects of this order is formed for suction ; but there are considerable varieties in the mode in which this is accomplished. Behind the wings are placed a pair of movable slender bodies, termed halteres, or balancers, which are kept in continual motion, and are usually present even when the true wings are not developed. The wings are generally horizontal in their position, and transparent ; the eyes are generally large, often occupying nearly the whole head. The Diptera all undergo a complete metamorphosis, as far as respects the comparative structure of the larva and the perfect insect ; the former being generally cylindrical footless grubs. The two-winged insects, though mostly of multitudes. Flies are destined to live wholly on liquid food, and are therefore provided with a proboscis, enclosing hard and sharp- pointed darts, instead of jaws, and fitted for piercing and sucking ; or ending with soft and fleshy lips, for lapping. In our own persons we suffer much from the sharp suckers and bloodtliirsty propensities of gnats and mosquitos (Cttticidce), and also from those of certain midges (Ceratopoyon and Simulium), including the tormenting black flies (Simulium molcstum) of America. The larvae of these insects live in stagnant water, and subsist on minute aquatic ani- mals. Horse-flies and the golden-eyed forest flies (Tabanidce), whose larvae live in the ground, and the stinging stable-flies (5to- moxys\ which closely resemble common house-flies, and in the larva state live in dung, attack both man and animals, goading the latter sometimes almost to madness by their severe and incessant punctures. The winged horse-ticks (Hipppboscce\ the bird- flies (Ornithomyice), the wingless sheep- ticks (MelopJtagi). and the spider-flies (Nycteri- Uce.\ and bee-lice (Brattice), which are also destitute of wings, are truly parasitical in their habits, and pass their whole lives upon the skin of animals. Bot-flies or gad-flies (CEstridce), as they are sometimes called, ap- pear to take no food while in the winged state, and are destitute of a proboscis ; the nourishment obtained by their larvae, which, as is well known, live in the bodies of horses, cattle, sheep, and other animals, being suffi- cient to last these insects during the rest of their lives. Some flies, though apparently hannless in the winged state, deposit their eggs on plants, on the juices of which their young subsist, and are oftentimes productive of immense injury to vegetation ; among these the most notorious for their depreda- tions are the gall-gnats (Cecidomyice), in- cluding the wheat-fly and Hessian-fly, the root-eating maggots of some of the long- l fl flies and fruit flies (Ortalidfs). To this list of noxious flies, are to be added the common house-flies (Muscoe), which pass through the maggot state in dung and other filth, the blue-bottle or blow-flies, and meat-flies (LucUiae and Callipkorce), together with the maggot-producing or viviparous flesh-flies (Sarcophaga andCywo/j/7' necessary to his subsistence than food ; and he drinks often, though not abundantly. We shall conclude this article witli some extracts from an ingenious essay " On the Dog, as the Companion of Man in his Geo- graphical Distribution," by Dr. T. Hodg- kin, in The Zoologist, edited by Mr. New- man : "The most striking natural group, the most marked in its characters, and the most widely diffused of all the known va- rieties, is that which we may trace from China, over the northern portion of the old continent, to the islands of the Northern Ocean and the northern part of America. In this wide extent we find, as we should rea- sonably anticipate, some distinctly marked subdivisions, yet all so evidently maintain- ing the common type, that the least skilful observer must immediately recognize the family resemblance. The dogs constituting this group may be thus enumerated : 1. Those of China. 2. Those of Kamskatka, and others of the same stock employed in drawing sledges in the northern parts of Asiatic Rus- sia. 3. The very distinctly marked variety of dogs occurring in the northern parts of Europe, and which are called Spitz in Ger- many, but which are known as Pomeranian dogs when introduced into France and Eng- land. 4. The dogs of Iceland, with which are probably connected those of Lapland and Greenland. And lastly, those of the Esqui- maux. A very remarkable family likeness is to be detected in all this group, of which perhaps the most striking features are the sharpened nose, rather small pointed ears, the approaching eyes but little projecting, the superior length of hair about the neck, with a greater or less tendency to shagginess on the other parts of the body, and, in most instances, an elevated curled tail, with a temper which may be characterized as rest- less and irritable. We meet with many va- Popular Btrtumarn of STmmatelr $ature. 187 ! rieties in stature, colour, and length of hair. Thus it would appear that the dogs of China are often black, the epitelium of the mouth and tongue having the same colour. Those of the north of Europe are almost invariably wliite or light brown, whilst those of the Esquimaux are often black and white. From China we see specimens both of large and of small size, having the same charac- teristic form. Those of the Esquimaux and Kamskatkadales are of rather a large size, K3QDIMADX DOO, whilst those of Iceland are small, and pro- bably lower in proportion than any other of the group. The dogs of this group appear to differ as widely in their degree of fidelity and docility. The Pomeranian variety, which is rrhaps the most completely domesticated, faithful and sagacious, ar/d makes an ex- cellent guard, and the smaller specimens become the admired pets of the ladies. From an example which came to my knowledge, I am inclined to believe that the Chinese dogs have the same character. Those of the Esquimaux and the Kamskatkadales are chiefly valuable on account of their strength and endurance of fatigue ; but they are often ill-tempered and untractable ; and though i decidedly sagacious and capable of being trained as retrievers, they are destructive, i and cannot be left with safety in the way of live stock, bearing in this, as well as in some 1 other particulars, a strong resemblance to the wolf, with which it is known that their blood is occasionally blended. It may, however, be observed, that independently of such known connexion, the whole group of which we are now speaking has something more of the wolfish expression than any other variety of the Canis familiaris. * * * ' " Another extensive division of the species, and which appears to me to have been spread over a different portion of the globe, and probably to belong to the western part of Asia, the southern parts of Europe, and north of Africa, may perhaps be regarded as com- prising the true hunting dogs. They possess, for the most part, well-developed noses; their ears are large, broad, and pendulous ; their proportions rather thick than other- wise ; their jaws large as compared with other dogs, and their tails thick. The de- scriptions of hounds left by Greek authors, seem to have been applied to dogs of this stock, which will also be recognized in the old English hound, and in all the varieties of the modern hound, down to the beagle. The pointer strikingly exhibits the same characters, and all the varieties of spaniel appear to be essentially branches of the same family, though probably modified by a cross, respecting which I shall presently hazard a conjecture. The true smooth terrier appears I to be of the same division, though some pass- ing under this name are probably mixed with another stock. In some of the dogs of this group we find probably the most marked effects of culture. Their large pendulous ears, as in some varieties of rabbits, may be referred to this cause. With a greater de- gree of submission and attention to man, they have also a greater degree of depend- ence upon him, and some almost resemble the sheep and the cow in this respect, whilst their more artificial faculties, which have been cultivated for many generations, have become innate in the offspring. Thus the pointer's puppy, of a few weeks old, begins to point of his own accord, and anticipates | the first lessons of his trainer ; just as young ; horses will frequently adopt the artificial paces which have been taught to their sires, i " A third group is less distinctly marked i as a whole, and I am not prepared to lay any great stress on the reasons which have induced me to bring some of its varieties < together ; but in others we have the strongest evidence of their affinity, both in visible characters and known connection of blood, j notwithstanding great apparent differences i of figure. In this group I would place the j greyhound, and that variety of shepherd's dog which most nearly approaches him in form. It would be quite a mistake to sup- pose that the shepherd's dog is a single va- riety, since different kinds of dogs are em- ployed for this purpose in different districts. The transition of the greyhound to one of the shepherd's dogs takes place by almost insensible degrees, and Cowper's description of half lurcher and half cur must be familiar and graphic to almost every one. In the young animals, when no mutilation of the tail has taken place, the resemblance is most striking. Another variety, perhaps, is more related to the greyhound than even any va- riety of shepherd's dog ; I mean the English bull-dog. It was the perception of the striking resemblance in some points exhi- bited in these animals, notwithstanding their general difference of figure, before I was aware of the actual consanguinity which breeders are careful to maintain, which first led me to notice the indications of a natural grouping which would seem to clash with artificial arrangement. Though the bull- dog is short, compact, and heavy, with a proverbially large blunt head and broad face, and the greyhound is the very emblem of lightness, his elongated nose, head, and neck resembling a snake, his back long, curved, and flexible, his body, which, with sufficient room for the organs of circulation and respiration, affords almost none for those of digestion, and supported on long and | slender limbs, which seem to render him j among quadrupeds what the hirondeUe de ; mer is among birds there are individual points of resemblance between the two dogs i which are perhaps more striking than any i which can be found among other varieties. The feet and toes are remarkably deli- cately formed ; the ears small and pointed, 188 of Natural $&t though generally inclined to be pendulous, capable of being erected ; the tail remarkably slender, some of the stoutest bull-dogs having tails which would grace an Italian grey- hound. Similar colours also prevail in both varieties, and more especially the brindled, the mottled, and the more or less white. In both, the sense of smell is slow for the dog, whilst the sight is good. Both are ferocious and savage when set on : the ferocity of the greyhound is not unfrequently shown in the destruction of sheep." The author then gives reasons for pre- suming that the Newfoundland dog, which he says has been regarded as a large species of water-spaniel, is distinctly traceable to the Esquimaux stock ; and he concludes by observing that whatever may be the value and results of inquiries like these, as respects the study of ethnology, the labour need not be in vain as respects the animals them- selves, since conclusions of more or less prac- tical value can scarcely fail to be deduced for the guidance of the breeder and the be- nefit of the public. Dogs are found in all parts of the world, with the exception of a few groups of islands in the Southern Pacific Ocean. But it is only in temperate climates that they pre- serve their ardour, courage, sagacity, and other talents. [See BLOODHOUND, BULL-DOG, FOXHOUND, GREYHOUND, HOUND, MASTIFF, POINTER, SPANIEL, SHEPHERD'S DOG, &c.] DOG-FISH. (.Scyttium catulus. ) This species of Shark, called the Large-spotted Dog-fish, is from two to three feet in length; the head is large ; the snout prominent and slightly pointed : the skin rough ; body cylindric ; the colour a brownish grey, with a slight tinge of pale brick red, and marked with very numerous blackish or dusky spots; the belly whitish, and very smooth. These fish, when at their full growth, weigh about twenty pounds each : they are caught in considerable numbers on our own coasts, where their voracious habits do great injury to the fisheries ; and in Scotland they con- stitute no inconsiderable part of the food of the poor. The rough skin of this fish is used by joiners and other artificers in polishing various substances, particularly wood, and is generally known by the name of " fish- skin." The SMALL-SPOTTED DOG-FISH (Scyl- lium canicula) is in many respects simi- lar to the preceding, and is one of the most common species on our southern coasts, where, keeping near the bottom of the water, it feeds on small fish and Crustacea. The upper part of the body is marked with nu- merous small, dark, reddish-brown spots, on a pale reddish ground ; the spots on the fins rather larger and less numerous than those on the body. The PICKED DOG-FISH (Spmax acanthias) is a species very common on the coasts of Kent and Sussex, where it is almost univer- sally called the Bone Dog ; it is also very numerous on the north-eastern and western coasts, and is often seen in shoals among the Scotch islands. This fish is distinguished from the others of this class by haying a single spine placed in front of each of its two dorsal fins, and from which it derives its name. We learn from Mr. Yarrell, who quotes Mr. Couch, that " they are sometimes found in incalculable numbers, to the no small an- noyance of the fishermen, whose hooks they cut from the lines in a rapid succession. The Picked Dog bends itself into the form of a bow for the purpose of using its spines, and by a sudden motion causes them to spring asunder in opposite directions : and so accurately is this intention effected, that if a finger be placed on its head, it will strike it without piercing its own skin." Length about twenty inches ; the upper part of the head and body slate grey ; under parts yel- lowish. Another species, called the BLACK- MOUTHED DOG-FISH, (from the colour of the inside of its mouth) is well known in the Mediterranean. It runs from two feet to two feet six inches in length ; is of a light brown colour on the head and along the back, and on each side are two rows of ocel- lated spots. DOLABELLA. A genus of Tectibran- chiate Mollusca, closely allied to the Sea- Hares (Aplysia), differing from them in having the branchisB at the posterior part of the body, which looks like a truncated cone. Their lateral crest does not close on branchiae, leaving a groove. The inner shell is calcareous. There is more than one spe- cies ; the genus is found both in the Medi- terranean and the Eastern seas. Some ob- servations on them and allied genera have been published by Arthur Adams, F. L. S., of H. M. S. Samarang. Our figure shows the Dolabella liumphii with its shell. DOLIUM. A genus of Mollusca, inhabit- ing univalve shells, found, for the most part, in the Indian, African, and South American PARTRIDGE SHELL. (DOLIUM PERK IX.) seas : the shell is large, light, and oval or globular ; the mouth wide and notched, |30putar Qtcttonarj) of gmmatetr Jlaturr. 189 generally transversely banded. The mollus- cous animal contained in it has a large head with short proboscis, and two tentacula with eyes in the middle. There are several spe- cies, most of which may be seen in the fine collection at the British Museum. The fore- going figure of the Partridge Shell (Dolium perdix) will give a very good general idea of the form of this genus. DOLPHIN.. (Delphinus delphis.) This cetaceous animal bears a great resemblance to the Porpoise, but has a much longer and sharper snout, and the body is of a more slender shape. It often grows to the length of eight or ten feet ; the colour 011 the back and sides is dusky, and the belly whitish ; the teeth are very numerous, sharp pointed, and slightly bending forwards ; and they are placed so close together, that when the mouth is shut the jaws lock into each other. The Dolphin is found in the Mediterranean and Indian seas, and seems to be generally confounded by navigators with the Porpoise, having the general manners and appearance of that animal. It swims very swiftly, and preys on various kinds offish ; and it some- times happens that either from its impetu- osity in the pursuit of prey, or the calls of hunger, it is urged beyond the limits of safety ; and the fishermen on the Cornish coasts, who spread their extensive nets for pilchards, sometimes become possessed of a very unwelcome prize. By ancient writers the Dolphin was cele- brated for its supposed affection for the hu- man race, and its appearance was regarded as a favourable omen. Numerous, indeed, are the fables of antiquity in this respect, which could have no better foundation than poetic fiction : its figure is far from preju- dicing us in its favour ; and its extreme rapacity tends still less to endear it to us. (DE^PHINOS DKLPHIS.) The prejudices of the moderns are of a con- trary character ; for the appearance both of this species and the porpoise at sea, is gene- rally considered as one of the preludes of an approaching storm. Dolphins inhabit every sea, from the equator to the poles, enduring equally well the extremes of heat and cold. The Dolphin, respiring by lungs, and not in the manner of fishes, is compelled to rise to the surface to breathe, throwing out the water from the blow-hole, or aperture in the head, like a cloud of steam. This hole is of a semilunar form, with a kind of valvular apparatus, and opens nearly over the eyes. The structure of the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the animal is ob- served to be attracted by regular or harmoni- ous sounds. Compactness and strength are the characteristics of the genus, and the mus- cular powers of the tail are proverbial. The Dolphin is said to be long-lived, and, like the Whale, seldom brings forth more than one yonng one at a time, which the parent suckles and watches with great care and anxiety. It is, perhaps, almost unnecessary to cau- tion the reader not to confound the cetaceous species we have been describing, with the 1 fish commonly known as the Dolphin at the present day, and hereunder described. DOLPHIN. (Coryphcenahfppuris). This Acanthopterygiousfish has a flat and round- ish snout, and the body tapers from the head to the tail ; but its principal beauty consists in the brilliancy of its colours. The back is spangled with bright bluish-green spots ; the tail and fins are of a gold colour ; and whether viewed alive in its native element, or before it is quite dead, nothing can surpass its lus- tre. It is about five or six feet long, and nearly as thick as the salmon. A remark- able fin runs from the head, along the back, to the root of the tail, which in the middle is seven inches broad, and consists of a kind of coriaceous membrane with soft spines ; opposite to which there is another fin, not more than an inch broad, and extending from the vent to the tail. The tail, which is upwards of two feet and a half long, is divided into two large horns ; and the scales are so very minute as to be hardly percepti- ble. This fish swims with such amazing velocity, as frequently to keep pace with a swift sailing ship for a very considerable time. They abound within the tropics, and are found in all temperate latitudes. In the neighbourhood of the equator, they commit great havoc in the immense shoals of flying-fish which inhabit those regions, and wliich constitute the principal food of the Coryphcena. It is remarkable that, in swallowing their prey, the position of the captured fish is reversed, and it passes down the throat head foremost ; by which ma- noeuvre the fins are prevented from impeding the passage. DON AX. A genus of bivalve shells, the form of which is inequilateral and wedge- shaped. It is found in all parts of the world buried in the sand of the sea-shore. Many of the species are beautiful ; but only two, it is said, are found on the British coasts ; one called the Yellow Donax, the other the Purple. DORIPPE. A genus of brachyurous De- capod Crustaceans (comprehended under the general term Cancer by Linnaeus), found on the sea-coasts of warm climates, where the water is deep; the Mediterranean and Adri- atic seas being among the localities given. 190 0f They are generically characterized by having rather long external antennas, inserted above FLAT-FRONTED DORIFPE, (DORIFFE 8IMA.) the intermediate ones, which are folded, but not entirely lodged in the cavities where they take their insertion : claws (chelae) small, short, equal ; the other feet very long and compressed, the third pair being the greatest; the two last pair elevated upon the back, and terminated by a small hooked nail : carapace slightly depressed, truncated, and spinous before ; truncated, sinuous, and bor- dered behind ; the surface marked with small humps or tubercles : inferior and pos- terior part of the body truncated into a kind of gutter to receive the reflected abdomen, the pieces of which are tuberculous. The eyes are small, lateral, and supported on moderately long peduncles. It is now known, from Mr. Cuming's observations appended to a specimen in the British Museum, that they make use of the feet, elevated on the back to cover themselves, like the Dromice, with foreign bodies. There are some fossil as well as recent species. One fossil species, brought from New Holland by Peron, is named Dorippe nodosa. In the fine collec- tion of James Scott Bowerbank, F.R. S., there are specimens of a species of this genus found on the Isle of Sheppey, in the London clay. DORIS. A genus of naked Gasteropodous marine Mollusca, which are likewise desti- tute of any internal testaceous plate. The mantle is covered with retractile papillse, and separated from the foot by a distinct duplicature. Towards its anterior margin are placed the two superior tentacula : these are retractile, surrounded at the base with a short sheath, and supported on a slender stem, having an enlarged compound plicated summit. The neck is short, and above the mouth there is a small projecting membrane connected at each side with the oral tenta- cula, which are in general minute, and of difficult detection. The mouth is in the form of a short trunk, leading to fleshy lips, within which the tongue is placed. The gullet is a simple membranaceous tube, ter- minating in a stomach. It is obvious, from the structure of the digestive organs, that the species subsist on soft food. The spawn, is gelatinous and of a white colour, and is deposited on sea-weed and stones. Messrs. Alder and Hancock are publishing in one of the works of the Ray Society, de- scriptions and figures of all the British spe- cies of Doris and allied genera, forming the Nudibranchiate Mollusca. It is a truly ele- gant work, the illustrations in which must arrest the attention of even those who feel but little interest in the subject. Col. Mon- tagu, Dr. Johnston of Berwick, and Messrs. Alder and Hancock, with other naturalists, have shown how rich our own coasts are in these beautifully organized shell-less mol- lusca. DORMOUSE. (Myoxus.) A genus of mammiferous quadrupeds, of the Linnsean order Glires. They appear to be interme- diate between the squirrels and mice ; in- habit temperate and warm countries, and subsist entirely on vegetable food. They have two cutting teeth in each jaw ; four toes before, and five behind; and naked ears. These mice inhabit woods and thick hedges, building their nests, which are lined with moss and dead leaves, either in the hollows of trees, or near the roots of close shrubs. Towards the approach of winter they form little magazines of nuts, beans, acorns, &c., on which to subsist during the inclement season ; when they retire to their retreats, roll themselves up, and fall into a torpid or lethargic state, which lasts, with little interruption, till the winter is over. It was formerly believed that their hyberna- tion was a state of continual sleep from the period that they sought their winter quar- ters until they emerged from them in a more genial season. Buifon, however, very pro- perly exposed the absurdity of the ancient notion ; and has observed that these animals occasionally wake, and make use of their stock of provision. They bring forth three or four at a time, which are usually born blind, and remain so for a few days. There are several species. The COMMON DORMOUSE. (Hyoxus aveUa- wartws.) The body is about the size of that of the common mouse, but it is of a more plump or rounder form, and the nose is more obtuse : the eyes are large, black, and pro- (Ml minent ; the ears round and semi-trans- parent ; the tail is two inches and a half long, and more hairy towards the tip than on the other parts : the head, back, sides, belly, and tail are of a tawny red colour, but the throat is white : the fur is remark- ably soft, and the animal altogether has a of 191 s a a mes a, an appears as in spring as in autumn. Its flesh emed a great delicacy by the Ro- o had their gliraria, or places in considerable degree of elegance in its ap- pearance. Its habits are similar to those described in the preceding paragraph. The FAT DORMOUSE. (Myoxus glis.) This species is a native of France and the South of Europe. Its body is covered with soft ash-coloured fur ; the belly is whitish ; the tail is surrounded with very long hair ; and the ears are thin and naked. Its length, from the nose to the tail, is nearly six inches, that of the tail being four and a half ; and the body is thicker than a squirrel's. Like the last-mentioned animal, although these have not its activity and sprightliness, they can ascend trees in search of their food, which they carefully store up for their winter consumption. During its state of torpidity it is said to grow very fat, contrary to the nature of most of the hybernating or sleeping animals ; but there is no doubt that it occasionally wakes, and feeds on its store j in truth, it is at all times fat, and appears as much so in s was estee mans, who had their glira which they were kept and fattened for the table. The GARDEN DORMOUSE (Myoscus nitela) is a native of the temperate parts of Europe and Asia. It makes its nest, like the rest of this genus, in the hollows of trees, and sometimes in those of walls, where it generally fixes its abode, and remains in a state of torpidity during a great part of the winter, awaking, however, at intervals. Its general length is about four inches and a half, and the tail not quite so much. It is of an elegant rufous colour above, and yel- lowish white underneath : the eyes are imbedded in a large black patch or spot, which extends to some distance beyond each ear : the tail is rather wide towards the end, sharpening at the extremity, and is marked on that part by a longitudinal black stripe, having the edges white. Delighting in all sorts of fruit, but particularly in wall fruit, these animals prove very destructive in gardens. They produce their young about the middle of summer, which are about five or six in number. DORSIBRANCHIATA. A name given by Cuvier to an order of Annelidas., or red- blooded worms, which have their organs, and particularly their gills, distributed about equally throughout the middle part of the body. The Nereis, or Sea-centipede, is an example of this order. fSee NKKEIDA.] DORY, DOREE, or JOHN DORY. (Zeus.) There are several species of this very singular Acanthopterygious fish, which is distinguished by having the spinous por- tions of the dorsal and anal fins separated by a deep emargination from the soft-rayed portion, and having the base of all the verti- cal fins, and the carina of the belly anterior to the anal fin, furnished with spines. The COMMON DORY (Zeus faber) is a native of the Mediterranean, Northern, and Atlantic seas ; but no locality is more noted for it than Torbay, on our own western coast. It is distinguished by its large and long head, its dusky green colour, accom- panied by a strong gilt tinge, and particu- larly by a large, oval dusky spot on each BORT (.ZK0S tfABER.) side the body : the mouth is wide, the lower jaw longer than the upper, the teeth small and sharp, and the eyes large ; the whole body is covered with very small scales, and marked by a curved lateral line, which, descending rather suddenly from the gill- covers, passes on to the tail : the back is much arched, and furnished with a row of strong small prickles, which are also con- tinued along the curve of the abdomen : the tail is of a moderate size, and rounded at the end. The Dory is of an extremely voracious nature, preying on the smaller fishes and their spawn, as well as on various kinds of Crustacea and marine insects. The form of the Dory is extremely forbidding, so much so as to deter our ancestors from tasting it ; and although its flesh is now esteemed de- licious food, its reputation among epicures is but of modern date. The name is said to be derived from the Frenchjetwne (yellow) doree, corrupted into John Dory. In gene- ral it is from twelve to fifteen inches in length, though it sometimes arrives at a far superior size, and of the weight of ten or twelve pounds. There are a few other species, but less re- markable than the preceding: The BRA- ZILIAN DORY (Zeus vomer), which is about six or eight inches long; body very thin, without scales, and of a bright silver colour, tinged with a bluish cast on the upper parts. The INDIAN DORY (Zeus Gallus) is about the same size as the one just mentioned : body very thin, silvery, and without scales : head large, mouth wide. Native of the Ame- rican and Indian seas. CILIATED DORY. (Zeus CHiaris.) This species, which is also destitute of scales, is of a bright silver colour, with a cast of bluish-green on the back : head small, and very sloping ; lower jaw rather longer than the upper : several of the last rays both of the dorsal and anal fin extend to a vast distance beyond the mem- brane, reaching farther than the tail itself. It has been supposed that the smaller kind of fishes may be attracted with these long and flexible filaments, and mistake them 192 dTrraSxtrj) at Batumi for worms, while the Dory lies concealed among sea-weeds, &c., waiting for its prey. It w a native of the Indian seas. [See ZEUS.] DOTTEREL. (Characlrius morineJhis.) This Grallatorial bird is about ten inches in length: the beak black, slender, and one inch long : forehead mottled with dusky and grey; the hinder part of the head is black ; and a broad white line over the eyes surrounds the whole. The back and wings are a light brown ; the breast is a pale dull orange ; the middle of the belly is black ; the edges of the feathers are pale rust colour, and the lower part of the back and rump incline to gray. The tail is composed of twelve brown olive-coloured feathers, barred with black near the ends, and tipped with white : the thighs are a reddish white, and the legs black. The female is rather larger, and the colours more dull ; the white line over the eye is smaller ; and the crown of the head is mottled with brown and white. Dotterels inhabit the northern parts of Asia and Eu- rope, frequenting the muddy borders of rivers : they are migratory, being seen on our moors and downs in their nights to and from their breeding-places, from April to June, and again from September to Novem- ber. Being fresh from regions and wilds untrodden by man, and not having expe- rienced persecution, they do not so readily take alarm, as other birds do which have been reared in the vicinity of their general enemy : they have, in consequence, obtained the character of being very stupid birds, and, it is said, may be taken by the most simple artifice ; but night-fowling, and all modes of ensnaring them, have yielded to the more certain method of bring them down with a gun. DOTTEREL, SEA. [See TURNSTONE.] DOVE. [See PIGEON : KINO-DOVE : TUK- TLE-DOVE.] DRAGON. (Draco volans.) Instead of the formidable monster of this name, which recals to the imagination the wild fictions of romance, the animal we are about to describe is a small and harmless lizard, agreeing in the general form of its body with the rest of that tribe ; but furnished with large, ex- pansile, cutaneous processes, which, when expanded, enable it to support itself in the air for a few seconds, in springing from branch to branch, among the lofty trees in which it resides. The total length of this highly curious creature is about ten or twelve inches ; the tail being extremely long in proportion to the body, which is not above four inches. The head is of a moderate size, but very singular form, being furnished be- iieath with a very large triple pouch, one part of which descends beneath the throat, while the two remaining parts project on each side ; all being sharp-pointed : the mouth is rather wide ; the tongue large, and thick at the base ; the teeth small and nu- merous ; the neck, body, and limbs rather slender, and covered with small acuminated and closely set scales. The colour of this animal on the upper parts is an elegant pale blue, or bluish-grey, the back and tail being marked by several transverse dusky undu- lations, while the wings are very elegantly spotted with patches of black, brown, and BBA.OON. (DRACO PIMBRIATI;S ) white : the border of the wings is also white, and the whole under surface of the animal is of a verv pale or whitish brown colour. Species of this genus are Inhabitant! of many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America; they feed on insects ; and are in every respect animals of a harmless nature. All the frightful animals described and figured in the works of some of the older naturalists, under the name of Dragons, are merely fictitious beings, either artificially composed of the skins of different animals, or made by warping some particular species of the ray or skate tribe into a dragon-like shape, by expanding and drying the fins in an elevated position, adding the legs of birds, &c., and otherwise disguising the ani- mals. Such also are the monstrous repre- sentations (to be found in Gesner and Aldro- vandus) of a seven-headed Dragon, with gaping mouths, long body, snake-like necks and tail, and feet resembling those of birds. Some of the dragons of antiquity are de- scribed as having no feet, but as crawling like serpents, and their bodies covered with scales, and so powerful as to crush an ele- phant with the greatest ease. The animal which gave rise to these is probably no other than the great Boa Constrictor. Again, who has not heaid of the fabled Dragon of the middle ages, which had the feet of a lion, the long thick tail of a serpent, and an im- mense throat, from which streamed flames of fire ? This dragon played a distinguished part in the days of chivalry ; and was one of those monsters whom it was the business of the heroes of romance to attack and destroy. We have, involuntarily as it were, been led to notice the fabulous history of the Dragon, iu order to point out the gross absurdities connected with Natural History, which, though long since exploded, were at one period received as matters of fact. DOUC. (Semnopithecits.) A genus of Mon- keys peculiar to Cochin China, the East Indies, aud neighbouring islands. They $3ojpular HDtfttoitarn of &mmatrtt Mature. 193 differ from the true Monkeys by having an The mouth of the Dragon-fly contains a additional small tubercle on the last of the formidable upparatusof mandibles and max- inferior molars ; and are farther distin- ill.-e, denticulated at the tip ; the antennas guished by their lengthened limbs and ex- are very short, being merely a pair of small tremely elongated tail. In their muzzle, as well as in having posterior callosities, they resemble the Gibbons. Though capable of much agility, their movements are staid and hairs ; the wings large and spreading, and the body elongated. There are many different genera and spe- cies of the LibelluluUv, both native and ex- deliberate, and their general deportment otic. One of the largest English species is the remarkable for gravity. [See MONKKYS.] sKshna varia, or Great variegated Dragon- DRAB [MOTHS]. A name given by col- lectors to Moths of the genus GHWWO. They are also called QUAKERS. fly. This insect makes its appearance prin- cipally towards the decline of summer, and is singularly elegant : its general length is about three inches from head to tail, and DRAGONET. (CaHioni/mns li/rct.") A the wings when expanded measure near four beautiful Acanthoptcrygious fish, inhabiting the Mediterranean and Northern seas, and inches from tip to tip : the head is very large ; the neck extremely slender ; and the about a foot in length. The head is large and somewhat depressed ; the mouth wide, and eyes, which occupy by far the greatest part of the head, are of a pea i ly blue-gray cast : the teeth small and numerous ; the eyes are the front is greenish yellow ; the thorax of placed near each other on the upper part of the head ; the body is of a taper form, the same colour, but marked by longitudinal block streaks ; the body, widen is very long, smooth, and destitute of visible scales. Ac- slender, and sub-cylindrical, is black, richly cording to Pennant, the pupils of the eyes variegated with bright blue and deep gross- ure of a rich supphirinc blue colour; the green : the wings are perfectly transparent, i rides line fiery carbuncle, the pectoral fins strengthened by very numerous black re- light brown ; the side lines straight ; the ticular fibres, and exhibit a strongly iri- colours of the fish yellow, blue, and white, descent appearance. In the day-time it flies making a beautiful appearance when fresh about in pursuit of its prc*y with astonishing taken. rapidity ; but during the early morning There are two or three other species, one hours, and in the evening, it is observed to of which, called the OCELI.ATED DUAUONET, sit with its wings expanded, and may be (CaUionymus oeeOatttt) about the si/e of one's easily taken. little finger, is a native of the Indian seas. All the insects of this family are pro- The head is smaller and sharper than in duced from eggs deposited in the water, others of the genus, and rather flat at the which, sinkirg to the bottom, are hatched, top; mouth .small, with tumid, fleshy lips, after a certain period, into flattish hexapod the upper one doubled ; lateral line straight ; larvae : they cast their skins several times tail rounded. before they arrive at their full size, and nil. AGON-FLY. (Libellulidce). A nume- rous family of Neuroptera. They are of blue, green, white, crimson, and scarlet colours ; in some a variety of the most vivid tints are united ; and they are easily distinguished from all other insects by the length of their bodies, the large si/.e of their eyes, anil the i beautiful transparency of their wings. These are of a dusky brown colour : the rudi- ments of the future wings appear on the buck of such as are advanced to the pupa or chrysalis state, in the form of a pair of oblong scales ; and the head is armed with a most singular organ for seizing its prey ; viz., a kind of flat proboscis, with a joint in the middle, and a pair of strong hooks or prongs at the end. This proboscis, when the Dragon- ^ TtttT - fly is at rest, is folded or turned up in such [ ^8slB3rtj fc ivVsft//i^ai^^SflH9fc a manner as to lap over the face like a mask: 9B^ but when the creature sees any insect which it means to attack, it springs suddenly for- wards, and by stretching forth the jointed proboscis, readily obtains its prey. In this 111 ^- ^ nffr" fc >~^ their larva and pupa state they continue for two years, when, having attained their full 111 size, they prepare for their ultimate change ; 11 1 and creeping up the stem of some water- plant, and grasping it with their feet, they 111 make an effort by which the skin of the back 111 and head is forced open, and the enclosed ill Lihcllula gradually emerges, its head and 17 wings first appearing. The wings, at this 1 early period of exclusion, are very tender brilliant and lively insects, which are seen compass of the oblong scales on the back of flying with such strength and rapidity round the meadows, and pursuing the smaller in- the pupa ; but in about half an hour they are fully expanded, and have acquired the M cts with the velocity of a hawk, were at strength and solidity necessary for flight. one time inhabitants of the water, and re- This curious process of the evolution or sided in that element for a long space of time before they assumed their flying form. birth of the Dragon-fly generally takes place on a fine sunny morning ; and though for a 194 Croidurg of Natural fftt time it roves the field and forest, or disports itself on the margin of the silvery stream lightly traversing the air in a thousand directions, and expanding its gossamer wings to the sun how short is its aerial and ter- restrial life, compared with that which it passed in its aquatic state ! Scarcely have the frosts of autumn nipped the tenderest plant, ere the whole tribe of Libellulae perish from the cold. Among the varieties of the Dragon-fly, many of them may sometimes be observed in the same field, or flying within a small distance of each other on the borders of their natal stream ; and though they differ in their size and variegations, their general form and habits correspond too nearly to be mistaken for any other winged insects. A specific notice of each may therefore be thought unnecessary. We shall, however, avail ourselves of Dr. Shaw's description of one species of " exotic " Libellula, and his concluding remarks relative to the extraor- dinary character of the eyes of these insects in general. "The Libellula Lucretia is a native of the Cape of Good Hope (or rather of S. America), and is distinguished by the excessive length of its slender body, which measures not less than five inches and a half in length, though scarcely exceeding the tenth of an inch in diameter : the wings are transparent, of a slender or narrow shape, as in the L. pudla, to which this species is allied in form, and measures five inches and a half in extent from tip to tip : the colour of the head and thorax is brown, with a yellowish stripe on each side, and the body is of a deep mazarine blue. " I should not dismiss the genus Libellula without observing that in some species, and particularly in the L. varia, grandis, &c., the wonderful structure of the cornea or ex- ternal coat of the eye, which prevails in by far the major part of the insect tribe, is ex- hibited with peculiar distinctness. Even a common magnifier, of about an inch focus, demonstrates that the cornea is marked by a prodigious number of minute decussating lines, giving a kind of granular appearance to the whole convexity : but when micro- scopically examined, it exhibits a continued surface of convex hexagons, and if cut from the head, and cleared from its internal pig- ment, it appears perfectly transparent, and seems to consist of an infinity of hexagonal lenses of equal convexity on both surfaces. This is a subject on which much might be said ; but the compass of the present pub- lication forbids too circumstantial a descrip- tion of minute and disputable particulars. It may be sufficient to observe that on each eye of this animal, according to the compu- tation of Lewenhoek, there are about 12,544 of these lenses." To those who would study in detail the members of this group, we would recommend the volume of Rambur in the "Suites a Buffon," and the works of Van der Linden, De Selys Longchamps, and especially Char- pentier. In this country, J. C. Dale, Esq. F.L.S., has made the group a special subject of study, and Mr. W. Evans has published rough figures of all the British species, which may prove useful in identifying them. Dra- gon-flies are often found in a fossil state, as early as in the lias formation. [See PJETA- LUKA.] DRILL. [See APE.] DRIVER ANT. The local name given to a species of Hymenopterous insect belonging to the family of Ants. Its name is Anomma arcens. The following very interesting ac- count is derived from a paper by the Rev. Dr. Savage, an American missionary on the coast of West Africa, and published in the Transactions of the Entomological Society' ' for 1847. The writer prefaces his narrative by saying that he is not aware that the insect in ques- tion has ever been described, or that it exists in any of the European cabinets ; but he thinks it is, without doubt, that of which Mr. Smeathman speaks, when he says, " one species, which seems at times to have no fixed habitation, ranges about in vast armies. By being furnished with very strong jaws, they can attack any animal whatever that impedes their progress, and there is no escape but by immediate flight or instant retreat to the water. The inhabitants of the negro villages are frequently obliged to abandon their dwellings, taking with them their children, &c., and wait till the ants have passed." Dr. Savage says it is evidently closely allied to the Attu cephalotes of Fabri- cius, found in the West Indies and South America, and like that named by the French " Fourmide visite," would be not inappropri- ately styled the " visiting ant," though he considers the appellation Driver more signi- ficant of its habits. " Its domicile," he says, " if such it may be called, consists of a shallow excavation under the roots of trees, shelving rocks, and almost any other sub- stance that will afford a shelter ; not origi- nating with themselves, but adopted and completed as the wants of their community may require ; their mode of life not admit- ting of cells and magazines, and other in- terior arrangements, by which the domiciles of other ants more retiring and less aggres- sive in their habits are characterized. " Their sallies are made in cloudy days, and in the night, chiefly in the latter. This is owing to the uncongenial influence of the sun, an exposure to the direct rays of which, especially when the power is increased by reflection, is almost immediately fatal. If they should be detained abroad till late in the morning of a sunny day by the quantity of their prey, they will construct arches over their path, of dirt agglutinated by a fluid excreted from their mouth. If their way should run under thick grass, sticks, &c., affording sufficient shelter, the arch is dispensed with ; if not, so much dirt is added as is necessary to eke out the arch in connection with. them. In the rainy season, or in a succession of cloudy days, this arch is seldom visible ; their path, however, is very distinct, presenting a beaten appear- ance, and freedom from every tiling movable. They are evidently economists in time and labour ; for if a crevice, fissure in the ground, passage under stones, &c., come in their Popular SBtcttonarj? of &mmatrtf Mature, 195 way, they will adopt them as a substitute for the arch. This covered way seems to be designed in part for the protection of workers in transporting prey, pupae, &c., but chiefly against the direct rays of the sun, an exposure to which, in places where the REFLECTON is strong, is certain death in less than two mi- nutes. When the sun's rays are intercepted for days, the arch is wanting ; and, even with the arch, in a bright strong sunshine, masses of the Drivers are found under the thick grass in holes and other places, re- galing themselves in the shade till the decline of the sun, when their work is re- newed with their characteristic vigour. " In cloudy days, when on their predatory excursions, or migrating, an arch for the protection of the workers, &c. is constructed of the bodies of their largest class. Their widely extended jaws, long slender limbs, and projecting antenna; intertwining, form a sort of net- work that seems to answer well their object. Whenever an alarm is given, the arch is instantly broken, and the ants, joining others of the same class on the out- side of the line, who seem to be acting as commanders, guides, and scouts, run about in a furious manner in pursuit of the enemy. If the alarm should prove to be without foundation, the victory won,or danger passed, the arch is quickly removed, and the main column marches forward as before in all the order of an intellectual military discipline. "I will here describe an attempt that I recently made to destroy one of their commu- nities, which, with the facts in the order in which they transpired, and the collateral cir- cumstances attending it, will fairly illustrate i many of their habits. My observations were ! made in part at my former station (Cape Palmas), where I resided nearly eight years. I have been at my present station about eight months. During the first four months of the latter period I was greatly annoyed by the frequent visitations and ravages of these insects ; at one time literally driving out every member of the female department of the school ; at another the male depart- ment ; then the inmates of my own dwelling; again, attacking my horse, then my pigs, fowls, &c. &c. ; nothing, in fine, possessing animal life escaping their assaults. They always pounced upon us at night, and gene- rally when our senses were reposing in sleep. Occasionally we were apprised of their de- signs at nightfall by a few suspicious in- dividuals lurking in the vicinity in advance of the main body, but mostly they took us by surprise. At last their annoyance seemed to have reached the highest point of our forbearance, and a resolution was forthwith taken to discover their habitation, and, if possible, expel them from the vicinity. Accordingly I commenced cutting over the premises, and had proceeded as far as two- thirds the way down the mount on which my dwellings stand, when, beneath a shelving rock of decomposing granite, their haunt was discovered. They had been roused bythe noise and efforts of the workmen, and had come i forth in incalculable numbers for defence, literally blackening the surrounding grass and shrubbery. Lines of ants, going and com- ing agreeably to the rules of their order, were running in opposite directions. Their paths were very distinct and well trodden, of about an inch in width. In other directions were seen covered ways forsaken, the object of their formation no longer existing, no prey having been discovered, or, if found, being disposed of, and other regions lying open for exploration. Their numbers could not be computed ; millions on millions seemed to be there, besides thousands that were going and coming with astonishing speed and alacrity. " In attempting their destruction I adopted the mode of the natives, which is, to ignite on the spot a collection of the dried leaves of a species of Corypha (fan palm of this coast), about six feet in diameter, and dried grass, with other combustible matter. A fire of great intensity was thus kindled, which con- tinued to burn for a considerable time. This I supposed would be the last of our trouble- some neighbours. Two days after, how- ever, on going to the spot for the purpose of examining into their domicile, I was sur- prised to see a tree at a short distance, about eighteen inches in diameter, to the height of four feet from the ground, with the ad- jacent plants and earth, perfectly black with them. From the lower limbs (four feet high) were festoons or lines of the size of a man's thumb, reaching to the plants and ground below, consisting entirely of these insects ; others were ascending and descend- ing upon them, thus holding free and ready communication with the lower and upper portion of this dense mass. One of these festoons I saw in the act of formation ; it was a good way advanced when first ob- served : ant after ant coming down from above, extending their long limbs and open- ing wide their jaws, gradually lengthened out the living chain till it touched the broad leaf of a Canna coccinea below. It now swung to and fro in the wind, the terminal ant the meanwhile endeavouring to attach it by his jaws and legs to the leaf ; not suc- ceeding, another ant of the same class (the very largest) was seen to ascend the plant, and, fixing his hind legs with the apex of the abdomen firmly to the leaf under the vibrating column, then reaching forth his fore legs and opening wide his jaws, closed in with his companion from above, and thus completed the most curious ladder in the world." In about two hours Dr. Savage visited the spot again, when the hanging lines or fes- toons were gone, and about half of the mass also ; some below the surface, others on their predatory excursions ; and they again under- went the fiery ordeal, which urged them forwards, and they marched on with all their former celerity. Next morning he found them still engaged in removing. Thousands and tens of thousands must have been destroyed by the two fires, and yet apparently their numbers wsre undimi- nished. Neither on this nor any other oc- casion did he detect a winged individual, though it was the season when such are to be found in all communities of ants not apterous. S 2 196 of Jlatural ffi "Their mode of biting differs from that of the soldiers among the Termes The mandi- bles of the latter are flat and sharp, and move in a cross direction, cutting in the manner of scissors. The mandibles of the Driver of the first class are very prominent and formidable, strongly hooked, having one tooth ; those of the second classes are flatter, sharper, and armed with two strong teeth, the edges finely serrated, and admi- rably calculated tor lacerating and cutting muscular fibre. The onset of the former is with a grasp that causes their victim to start and wince as if life were in danger ; their mandibles are fixed so strongly into the flesh, and their hold retained with such pertinacity, that a separation is effected often only by a dismemberment of the body. If permitted to retain their hold, the motion of their jaws is alternately from one side to to the other, penetrating deeper and deeper at every stroke. With the second class there is not only this gradual penetration, but at the same time lacerating and cutting of the flesh, with an approximation of the jaws at each effort. This difference in the form and motion in the two classes led me to infer a difference of duties or office in their economy. This impression has been con- firmed by repeated observations. To the first class, it would appear, is assigned the defence of the community ; it is theirs also to attack and disable their prey. The second lacerate and cut the flesh, and are assisted by the first in tearing it off. Upon the third, who appear to be especially the labourers, devolves the burthen of trans- portation, whether of prey or pupas. They are seen to be assisted often by the second class, and, when the prey is too large for either, the first is called in. They carry their pupse and prey longitu- dinally under their bodies, held firmly be- tween their mandibles and legs, the latter of which are admirably calculated by their length and slenderness for this purpose ; and the freedom and ease with which they carry their burthen is truly surprising When- ever a stream of water intercepts their course in their excursions and migrations, if it should not be extensive they compass it, but if otherwise, they make a line or chain of one another, gradually extending them- selves by numbers across, till a connection is formed with the opposite side, and thus a bridge is constructed, over which the main body passes in safety. Their tenacity of life appears to be truly extraordinary. This was evinced by a series of experiments. An individual of the largest class was submerged to the bottom of a glass of water, where it struggled for about three quarters of an hour, and then apparently expired ; but it revived in about ten minutes after it was taken out, exhibiting about as much vitality and ferocity as before. It was re-submerged for five hours, with like results. It was submerged the third time, and kept under water for twelve hours. When taken out it revived, and continued to exhibit signs of life for about twelve hours more, and then expired. Various other experiments were tried. The head of one of the largest class, when dissevered from the body, grasped the finger of an attendant so furiously as to cause an immediate flow of blood ; another decapitated head retained its power of biting so as to draw blood, precisely in the manner of the insect in possession of all its parts and powers, twenty- four hours after decapita- tion ; while the body to which it belonged lived more than forty-eight hours ! " I know of no insect," says Dr. Savage, " more ferocious and determined upon vic- tory. They fiercely attack anything that comes in their way, 'conquer or die' is their motto. Yet they are not without their uses in the economy of nature. They keep down the more rapid increase of noxious insects and smaller reptiles ; consume much dead animal matter, which is constantly occur- ring, decaying, becoming offensive, and thus vitiating the atmosphere, and, which is by no means the least important in the Torrid Zone, often compelling the inhabitants to keep their dwellings, towns, and their vi- cinity, in a state of comparative cleanliness. The dread of them is upon every living thing. It may be literally said that they are against everything, and everything against them. I have known my dog, on meeting them in the road, instead of run- ning any risk by leaping over them, go a great distance round to avoid their well- known bite. My donkey has more than once stopped so suddenly and turned, as to throw me over her head, or to one side, and when urged forward, leaped far over the line. They will soon kill the largest ani- mal if confined. They attack lizards, guana*, snakes, &c., with complete success. We have lost several animals by them, monkeys, pigs, fowls, &c. The severity of their bite, increased to great intensity by vast numbers, it is impossible to conceive. We may easily believe that it would prove fatal to almost any animal in confinement. They have been known to destroy the Python natalensis, our largest serpent. When gorged with prey it lies powerless for days ; then, mon- ster as it is, it easily becomes their victim Their entrance into a house is soon known by the simultaneous and universal move- ment of rats, mice, lizards. Blapsidte, Blm- tidce, and of the numerous vermin that infest our dwellings. They are decidedly carni- vorous in their propensities. Fresh meat of all kinds is their favourite food ; fresh oils they also love, especially that of the Elais guineiensis, either in the fruit or expressed. It is not true, however, that they devour every thing eatable by us in our houses ; there are many articles which form an ex- ception. If a heap of rubbish comes within their route, they invariably explore it, when larvae and insects of all orders may be seen borne off in triumph, especially the former." DROMEDARY. [See CAMEL.] DROMIA. A genus of Crustacea, some- what allied to Dorippe, of which there are several species. The one figured (Dromia vulgaris) is very common in the Mediterra- nean ; its carapace is almost globular ; the two posterior pairs of legs are raised above tcttonarg of 197 " the plane " of the others ; hence the divi- sion containing it is named NOTOPODA. They are each furnished with two sharp 8FONOE CRAB. (DROMIA VDLQAEtlS ) curved claws, which enable the crab to hold fast by pieces of sponges, medusae, or other marine productions, under which it conceals itself. In the British Museum collection are some very interesting specimens of a common West Indian species (Dromia lator) with pieces of sponge so attached, into which the convexity of the nicely fitted. back of the carapace is very DRONE. The name of the male honey- bee. [See BEE.] DRUMMER. [See BLATTA : FTERO- NAKCYS.] DUCK. {Anas.) A very extensive and natural genus of water-birds, found in all parts of the world. They feed in great part upon animal matter, such as insects and mollusca ; as well as upon vegetables and grain : they are generally seen upon the lakes and rivers of the interior, though they occasionally resort to the sea-shore. Ducks can all swim and dive with facility; they can all fly well ; and they can all walk, though frequently with difficulty. They feed on soft substances, such as fresh-water insects and tender aquatic plants, which they procure near the surface, or at the bot- tom in shallow muddy places, and worms and slugs, which they search for among the grass. Their distinguishing characters are these : the beak is shorter in proportion than that of the goose, strong, flat, or depressed, and commonly furnished with a nail at the extremity. The feet are proportionably larger than those of the goose kind, the middle toe being the longest ; the legs are I shorter, and placed farther backwards ; the back is flatter ; and the body is more com- pressed. The nostrils are small and oval ; and the tongue is broad, the edges near the base being fringed. There are numerous species of this genus, some inhabiting the fresh water, and others the sea. The COMMON WILD DUCK, or MAL- LARD (Anas boschas\ is the original stock of the tame or domesticated Duck, and appears to have been reclaimed at a very early period. Thic bird measures about twenty-three inches in length, thirty-five in breadth, and is two pounds and a half in weight. The bill is of a yellowish green colour, and the head and neck are a deep shining green : a circle of white surrounds the neck, to about three-fourths of its circumference: the upper part of the breast and shoulders is of a deep vinous chestnut ; the breast and belly are gray, marked with transverse speckled lines of a dusky hue ; and the scapulars are white, elegantly barred with brown. The spot on the wing is a rich purple ; and the tail is composed of twenty-four feathers. The male of this species is distinguished by four middle feathers,which are black, and strongly curled upwards ; but of these the female is destitute. Indeed the plumage of the female partakes of none of the male's beauties, ex- cept the spot on the wings. She makes her nest, lays from ten to sixteen greenish-white eggs, and rears her young generally in the most sequestered mosses or bogs, far from the haunts of man, and hidden from his sight among high grass, reeds, and bushes. Like the rest of the Duck tribe, the Mallards, in prodigious numbers, quit the north at the end of autumn, and, migrating southward, arrive at the beginning of winter in large flocks, and spread themselves over all the loughs and marshy wastes in the British isles. They pair in the spring, when the greater part of them again retire northward to breed ; but many straggling pairs stay with us : they, as well as preceding colonists of their tribes, remain to rear their young, who become natives, and remain with us throughout the year. WILD DUOK. (ANAS BOSCHAS.) The flesh of the Wild Duck is held in general estimation, and various methods are resorted to, in order to obtain these birds in quantities. To describe even a tithe part of these various contrivances is not our pur- pose ; but it is necessary to state that the decoy is by far the most favourite method, and is likely long to continue so, as by that species of stratagem Wild Ducks are taken by thousands at a time ; whereas all the other schemes of lying in ambush, shooting, baited hooks, wading in the water with the head covered, &c., are attended with much watching, toil, and fatigue, and are also comparatively trifling in point of success. They abound in Lincolnshire, and are there taken in great numbers. These decoys are usually thus prepared and conducted : It is generally made where there is a large pond surrounded with wood, and beyond that a marshy and uncultivated country. On the south and north sides of the pond, two or three ditches or channels should be made, broader towards the water, and gra- dually narrowing till they terminate in a point : these channels should be covered s 3 198 Crcogurg of Natural over with nets, supported by hooped sticks, so as to form a vault or arch growing nar- rower and narrower to the point, where it should be terminated by a tunnel net : along the banks of these netted channels many hedges should be made of reeds slanting to the edges of the gutters, their acute angles being toward the side next the pool ; and the whole apparatus should also be concealed from the pool by a marginal hedge of reeds, behind which the operations of the fowler are conducted. Provided with a number of Ducks termed decoys, which are rendered tame by education, and accustomed to at- tend their master on being summoned by a whistle, the fowler sets them to feed at the mouths of the pipes. No sooner does the evening commence, than the decoy rises, to use the language of fowlers, and the wild fowl feed during the night. Should the evening be still, the noise of their wings during their flight is heard at a considerable distance, and produces no unpleasing sensa- tion. The fowler, whenever a fit oppor- tunity offers, and he sees his decoy covered with fowl, walks about the pond, and ob- serves into what pipe or channel the as- sembled ducks may be enticed or driven with the greatest facility : then, throwing hemp-seed, or some similar allurement which will float on the surface, at the en- trance of the pipe, and along its extent, he whistles to his decoy-ducks, which instantly obeying the summons, approach, in expecta- tion of being fed as usual ; whither also they are followed by a whole flock of the wild ones, unsuspicious of their meditated ruin. However, their sense of smelling being ex- tremely acute, they would speedily discover the ambuscade, did not the fowler hold a piece of burning turf to his nose, against which he constantly breathes, and thereby prevents the effluvia of his person from af- fecting their very exquisite senses. The Wild Ducks, therefore, in following the de- coy ones, are conducted by them into the broad mouth of the pipe, without the small- est suspicion of danger, the fowler being still hid behind one of the hedges : never- theless, when they have proceeded a short way up the pipe, and perceive it to grow narrower, they begin to apprehend danger and endeavour to return ; but in this attempt they are prevented by the fowler, who now makes his appearance at the broad end be- low. Thus surprised, intimidated, and utter- ly unable to rise because of the surrounding net, the only remaining way of escape seems to be through the narrow-funnelled net at the bottom ; into which they fly, and are instantly taken. Pennant had an account sent him of the produce of ten decoys, which, in one winter, amounted to thirty-two thousand two hun- dred. In Picardy in France, also, vast numbers are taken in decoys, and sold in the Paris market, where, in one season, 30,000 francs have been paid for the produce of the small lake of St. Lambert. Wilson, the celebrated American ornithologist, enu- merates several simple and effective con- trivances made use of in America for the capture of these wary birds. In some ponds j frequented by them, five or six wooden figures, cut and painted to represent ducks, and sunk by pieces of lead nailed to the bottom, so as to float at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a favourable position to be raked from a concealment of brush, &c. These attract the passing flock, which alight, and thus expose themselves to certain destruction. In winter, when de- tached pieces of ice are occasionally floating in the river, some of the sportsmen on the Delaware paint their boats white, and lay- ing themselves flat in the bottom, direct them almost imperceptibly near a flock, be- fore the ducks have distinguished them from a floating piece of ice. On land, another stratagem is sometimes practised with great success. A tight hogshead is sunk in the marsh, or mud, near the place where ducks are accustomed to feed at low water, and where, otherwise, there is no shelter ; the edges and top are carefully concealed with tufts of long coarse grass, and reeds or sedge. From within this the sportsman watches his collected prey, and usually commits great havoc. In China, the sportsman covers his head with a calabash, pierced with eye- holes, and, thus equipped, wades into the water, keeping only his head above the sur- face, and, on arriving amidst a flock, seizes them by the legs, fastens them to his girdle, and takes as many as he wishes, without disturbing the rest. The TAME DUCK. Some individuals in a domestic state appear in nearly the same plumage as the wild ones ; others vary greatly from them, as well as from each other, and are marked with nearly every colour ; but all the males or drakes still re- tain the curled feathers of the tail. The Tame Duck is, however, of a more dull and less elegant form and appearance than the Wild, domestication having deprived it of its lofty gait, long tapering neck, and spright- ly eyes. Tame Ducks are reared with more facility than perhaps most other domestic animals. The very instincts of the young direct them to their favourite element ; and though they are sometimes hatched and conducted by hens, they seem to contemn the admonitions of their leaders ; a circum- stance which seems to indicate that all birds receive their manners rather from nature than education, and attain their various per- fections without the help of any other guide. There appears to be good reason for placing duck-eggs under a hen. The Duck gene- rally proves a heedless, inattentive mother ; for she frequently leaves her eggs till they become corrupted, and even seems to forget that she is entrusted with the charge : she is also equally regardless of her young brood when they are produced ; for she only leads them forth to the water, and then seems to think she has made sufficient provision for them. The hen, on the contrary, who is an indefatigable nurse, broods with unwearied assiduity, and generally hatches a duckling from every egg with which she id entrusted : she does not, indeed, conduct her young to the water, because that is contrary to her nature ) but she always keeps a watchful Popular JBtcttonarg ol Immatctt $ature. 199 ve over them when they approach the >rink. Should the rat, the weasel, or other atural enemy of the feathered tribe, attempt ,o seize any of them, the hen instantly af- brds them her best protection ; and, leading icr supposititious brood to the house when ired with paddling, there nourishes them with all the instinctive ardour of maternal regard. " The village school-boy," as Be- wick says, " witnesses with delight the antic movements of the shapeless little brood, sometimes under the charge of a foster- mother, who, with anxious fears, paddles by he brink, and utters her unavailing cries, chile the Ducklings, regardless of her warn- ngs, and rejoicing in the element so well adapted to their nature, are splashing over each other beneath the pendent foliage ; or, n eager pursuit, snap at their insect prey m the surface, or plunge after them to the bottom : some, meanwhile, are seen perpen- dicularly suspended, with the tail only above water, engaged in the general search after food." There are many different varieties of the Tame Duck : the most obvious distinction, however, between the wild and tame species Lies in the colour of their feet ; those of the tame being black, and the wild yellow. As e before observed, the common species of Tame Ducks derive their origin from the Mallard, and may be traced to that fowl by unerring characters. Tame Ducks are an extremely advantageous kind of poultry ; as they subsist on scattered corn, the refuse of vegetable and animal substances, worms, snails, and insects. They lay a great num- ber of eggs annually ; require very little at- tendance when sitting ; and, with respect to Ducklings, they may be easily fattened in the course of three or four weeks with any kind of pulse or grain and water. MUSCOVY DUCK, or MUSK DUCK (Cairina moschata.) This bird, which takes its name from its musky smell, and not from its being originally obtained from Russia, as is supposed, is upwards of two feet in length. In its wild state it is entirely of a black colour, with glosses of blue and green, anc white wing-coverts ; but when domesticated it varies very considerably : its usual ap- pearance, however, may be thus described. The crown of the head is slightly tufted, and black ; the cheeks and fore part of the neck white, irregularly marked with black ; the belly chiefly white, and the general colour of the rest of the plumage deep brown, darkest and glossed with green on the back, rump, quills, and tail, the two outer feathers of the latter, and the three first primaries being white : the legs and feet are short, thick, and red. They are more prolific and sit oftener than other ducks ; and their eggs, which are frequently tinged with green, are larger and rounder than those of other spe- cies. CANVAS-BACKED DUCK, or PO- CHARD. (Aythya vallisneria.) The zoolo- gist is indebted to the indefatigable Wilson for the lirst account of this much esteemed spe- cies. The Canvas-back is two feet long, and three feet wide, and when in good order weighs three pounds, The beak is large, and of a glos%y black ; the head and part of the neck of a rich glossy reddish-chestnut hue, endin" in a broad space of black that covers he upper part of the breast : back, scapulars, (AYTHTA VALMSKER.A.) lower part of the breast, and belly, white, faintly marked with an infinite number of transverse wavy lines, or points : wing-co- verts gray spotted : tail very short, and pointed ; legs and feet very pale ash. The female is smaller, and not FO brightly co- loured as the male. These birds arrive in the United States, from the north, about the middle of October, and, principally, assemble in the numerous rivers in the neighbourhood of the Chesapeake bay. When they first arrive they are very lean; but from the abundance of their favourite food, they be- come fat about November. From the great demand for these ducks, and the high price they fetch, various methods are employed to decoy them. Besides the species we have described, there are many, for which we can only find room for very brief notices. The SCAUP DUCK (Fuliffula Morifo), somewhat smaller than the common duck. In North America, a variety of this species is better known by the name of the Blue-bill, and is common both to the fresh-water rivers and sea-shores in SCAUP DUCK. (TOLIOULA MARIT.A : VAR.) winter, those which frequent the latter being generally much the fattest, on account of the greater abundance of food along the coast. The GOLDEN-EYE (Clctngula glau- cion), the bill of which is black, short, and broad at the base ; the head is large, and of a deep black hue, glossed with green ; and at each angle of the mouth there is a large white spot. The BLACK DUCK, or SCOTER (Oidcmia mffra) ; a bird whose flavour is so rank and fishy, as to be exempted, with a I few others, from the interdict which forbids ; Roman Catholics the use of animal food on j I certain days, on the supposition of their being j j 200 of Natural cold-blooded, and partaking of the nature of fish. The PIED Di'CK (Anas Labradoria) ; a beautiful and rare species, peculiar to America. CHINESE DUCK (Anas galcricit- lata) ; a remarkable bird somewhat less than a widgeon. The SUMMER or WOOD DUCK (Aix sponsa) ; not more remarkable for its SUMMER DUCK. (AIX 8PONSA.) great beauty, in which it stands pre-eminent, than for its habits, its migrations being di- rectly opposed to those of the other species. AUTUMNAL DUCK (Anas autumnalis) ; native of the West India islands and South Ame- rica, where the inhabitants frequently keep them in the farm-yards. TREE DUCK, or WHISTLING DUCK, (Anas arboreal ; this also is an inhabitant of the West India islands and the adjacent continent of Ame- rica. We learn from Mr. Gosse's " Birds of Jamaica," that its singular whistling note is peculiarly shrill, and is uttered in its cre- puscular flights to and from its feeding places, and also when it is alarmed. He also says these birds are much dreaded by those who plant Guinea-corn ; and that " numerous flocks of both young and old birds frequent the millet-fields from Decem- ber till the end of February, when this corn is reaped. They are most busy in their depredations on moonlight nights ; and as they sweep round in circles, their remark- able whistle always betrays their move- ments." Another remarkable peculiarity is thus recorded: "The Whistling Duck en- deavours to save her young, when pursued, by throwing herself into the man's way ; that is, by rushing up so close to him as to draw his attention, that her young, who are very active, may have an opportunity of escaping. Accordingly, the man, seeing the duck so near him, looking upon her as a much better prize than the young ones, leaves pursuing the ducklings, and endea- vours to catch the subtil dame, who runs before, but takes special care to keep out of his reach ; yet stopping in front of him oc- casionally, to make him renew the pursuit, till the young are entirely out of danger ; when she flies away, leaving her pursuer to fret at his double disappointment." LONG- TAILED DUCK (Harelda glacialis) ; remark- able for the long and slender feathers of its tail. This Duck is very generally known along the shores of the Chesapeake Bay by the name of the South-southerly, from the singularity of its cry, something imi- tative of the sound of those words ; and also, that, when very clamorous, they are supposed to betoken a southerly wind. They inhabit the bays and coasts of North Ame- rica during the winter only ; are rarely found in the marshes, but keep in the chan- nel, diving for small shell-fish, which are their principal food. In passing to and from the bays, sometimes in vast flocks, particu- larly towards evening, their loud and con- fused noise may be heard in calm weather at the distance of several miles. They fly very swiftly, take short excursions, and are lively restless birds. Their native regions are in the north, where great numbers of them re- main during the whole year ; part only of the vast family migrating south to avoid the severest rigours of that climate. They are common to the whole northern hemisphere. In the Orkneys they are met with in con- siderable flocks from October to April ; frequent in Sweden, Lapland, and Russia ; and are said to breed at Hudson's Bay, making their nest among the grass near the sea, like the eider duck, and about the middle of June lay from ten to fourteen bluish- white eggs, the size of those of a pullet. When the young are hatched, the mother carries them to the water in her bill. The nest is lined with the down of her breast, which is ac- counted equally valuable with that of the eider duck, were it to be had in the same quantity. They come to England only in very severe winters, and then but in small straggling parties. TUFTED DUCK (Anas cristata), found in the arctic regions of both continents, and migrating to southern coun- tries in the winter : on the top of the head is a crest consisting of long and slender feathers, which, with the head, neck, and breast, are black, glossed with violet and green. PINTAIL DUCK (Dafila acuta) ; remarkable for the pointed form of its tail: it is abundant in both hemispheres. The NILOTIC MUSK DUCK (Anas Nilotic) ; between the size of the Pintail Duck and the Goose, but stands higher on its legs. It inhabits the Nile, in Upper Egypt ; is easily tamed, and lives among other domestic poultry. GREY- HEADED DUCK (Somateria spectaUlis) ; with red bill, legs, and feet : native of Hudson's Bay. The GREAT BLACK DUCK (Oidemia perspicittatci) ; a species considerably larger than the common Duck. STELLATED DUCK; a species distinguished by its eyes, which are placed higher than usual in an oval black spot ; but its principal characteristic is a large white star on its back. The MADA- GASCAR DUCK ; a large and brilliantly- coloured species : the bill of a yellowish- brown colour ; the head and neck of a dusky green ; and the back is of a deep purple : 29tctianarn of |2ature. 201 the long feathers of the wings are adorned with red eyes ; and the legs and feet are of an orange hue. The HOOK-BILLED DUCK (Anas adunca), which differs but little from the common Wild Duck except in the bill. The FKECKLED DUCK (Anas nrevosa) ; a very rare species which inhabits the neigh- bourhood of Swan River, in Australia, but from its scarcity it is little known either to the colonists or the natives. According to Mr. Gould's description of the specimen in his possession, the whole of the plumage is dark brown, minutely freckled and spotted with irregular oblong marks of white in the direction of the feathers ; the under surface the same, but lighter and tinged with buff ; wings without a speculum ; pri- maries plain brown ; irides light brown ; bill greenish gray, becoming much darker at the tip ; legs bluish green. DUGONG. (Halicore.) A marine animal, herbivorous in regard to its food, and fish- like in its form. It ranks among the Cetacece ; is about seven or eight feet in length ; and D0OONO (HALIOORB DUOONO ) has two large permanent incisive teeth in the upper j aw, and four molar teeth above and below. It is a native of the Indian seas, being common among the . islands of the Indian Archipelago, and visiting also the coasts of New Holland. Its flesh is said to be tender, and not unlike beef. Professor Owen, in the Appendix to Juke's Voyage of II. M. S. Fly, has described a new species from the Eastern seas. DUNLIN. (Pelidna.) A genus of birds belonging to the Scolopacidce or Snipe tribe. The Dunlins in appearance resemble larks ; they fly in troops near the coast ; and lay eir eggs in the sand. There are several the! species ; but it will be sufficient to describe one of them : RED DUNLIN. (Pelidna sub- arcuata.) This bird is about eight inches in length ; top of the head is black, edged with rufous ; the forehead and throat are white dotted with brown ; the nape is red, with small longitudinal black dashes ; the neck, breast, and under parts are red chestnut, sometimes marked with black spots or variegated with white : tail coverts white, transversely rayed with black and red : the back, scapulars, and large wing-co- verts of a deep black ; on the edge of the feathers is a range of angulated bright red spots, the greater portion of which are ter- minated with bright ash ; the tail is of a dusky ash, bordered with white. The beak is black ; and the legs are brown. This bird is a native of most parts of Europe, and is sometimes seen on the British coasts. It rarely appears at any considerable distance inland ; but migrates in the spring and autumn. It lays four or five eggs, of a dirty white colour, spotted with brown ; and its flesh is esteemed a delicacy. The names of the other species are the PIERHE DUNLIN, (Pelidna variabilis) ; LITTLE DUNLIN (Pe- lidna pvsilla) ; TEMMINCK'S DUNLIN (Pe- UdiiaTvmminckii); MINUTE DUNLIN (Pelidna minuta); and the St. DOMINGO DUNLIN, (Pelidna Dominicensis'). DYNASTID^E. A family of Lamellicorn Coleoptera, comprising several beetles re- markable for their size, strength, and for- midable appearance. The males are pre- eminently distinguished by various singular protuberances, horns, or tubercles, arising from the head or thorax, and often from both of these parts of the body. " It must be borne in mind, however," as Mr. West- wood observes, " that these horns are im- movable portions of the horny skeleton, and offer no real analogy with the horns of the mammalia ; although it is interesting, in respect to the analogies existing in remote tribes of the animal kingdom, that the quad- rupeds which are cornuted are herbivorous, and as comparatively harmless as the Dy- nastidae." They chiefly inhabit the tropical regions, excavating burrows in the earth, HZRCULES BEETLE. {DYNA8TE8 HBRC'JI.BS-') where they conceal themselves during the day, or reside in the decomposed trunks of trees ; and they are generally of a dark rich brown or chestnut colour. On the approach of night they leave their retreats, and run ab out the footpaths in woods, or fly around the trees to a considerable height, with a 202 of Natural loud humming noise. It is believed that they subsist principally upon putrescent wood and the detritus of other vegetable matter. Among the most remarkable may be mentioned the Dynastes Hercules, or HERCULES BEETLE. It is usually about four, but sometimes measures not less than five, or even six inches in length : the elytra are of a smooth surface, of a bluish or brownish- gray colour, and generally marked with several small round deep-black spots, of dif- ferent sizes : the head and limbs are jet black ; from the upper part of the thorax proceeds a horn or process of enormous length in proportion to the body, sharp at the tip, curving slightly downwards, and furnished throughout its whole length with a fine, short, velvet-like pile, of a brownish orange colour : from the front of the head proceeds also a strong horn, about two-thirds the length of the former, toothed on its upper surface, but not covered with any of the velvet-like pile. This specie_s is a native of several parts of South America, where great numbers are sometimes seen on the tree called the Mammaea Americana, and have been said by some travellers to rasp off the rind of the slender branches by working nimbly round them with the horns, till they cause the juice to flow, which they drink to intoxication, and thus fall senseless from the tree. This, however, has a very fabulous air, nor, although the account has been often repeated, do we find it any where sufficiently well authenticated to depend upon ; in short, the structure of the horns would render it impossible. The female is destitute both of the frontal and thoracic horn, and but for her large size would hardly be regarded as her lord's mate. The next species, Megasoma elephas, or ELEPHANT BEETLE, is also a native of South America (having been brought from Vene- zuela by Mr. David Dyson), though for a long time it was erroneously supposed to be a native of Africa. Some specimens are at least three inches long. Our figure will show better than any description its form and general appearance. It is covered with a yellowish gray down, which is very short and thickly set : the head is furnished with a long arched horn, which is bifid at the ex- tremity, of a blackish colour, with a large tubercle at the base, directed forwards : the thorax has two small smooth tubercles in the middle, and a strong somewhat oblique horn on each side : the front legs are considerably arched. The next species figured is from the Eastern Islands. It is the Chalcosoma Atlas, or Atlas Beetle. It is of a highly polished metallic surface : BEETLE. (CHALCOSOMA ATLAS.) the horns on the head and thorax vary very much in the different specimens ; but our figure is taken from a specimen in which these prominences are well developed. It seems to be far from uncommon in the Philip- pine Islands. There are fine specimens of it and many other species of l)ynastidce in the collection of the British Museum. We may here say that the females of the Dy- nastidse are devoid of spines or projections on the head and thorax, just like our British Onthophagi, and that, like them, the males have the head more or less armed, according to the quality and quantity of the food they have taken in the larva state. This observa- tion, as far as regards European Lamellicora beetles, is made by M. Mulsant of Lyons, in his excellent and extensive work on the Co- leoptera of France. DYTISCUS : DYTISCID^}. A genus and family of insects belonging to the aquatic carnivora ; which during tlieir larva and perfect states live in water, but quit that element to undergo their metamorphoses, and to pass the time of their pupa condition. The Dytiscus maryinalis (one of the largest European species) is common in stagnant waters ; it is an inch or rather more in length, and is of a dark olive colour, with the |9npuTar JBtcttflnarj? of "Hmmatrtt Mature. 203 thorax and wing-slieaths bordered with yellow. The larva of this insect in shape much more resembles the shrimp tribe than that of its parent. It measures, when full grown, about two inches and a half in length, and is of a pale yellowish-brown colour, with a high degree of transparency : the head is very large, rather flat, and is fur- nished with a pair of very strong curved forceps^ with which it attacks its prey : its legs are slender, and its abdomen is very considerably lengthened, and ciliated_ on each side the tail, which terminates in a divided fin or process. The larva is very bold and voracious, committing great ravages not only among water insects, but even among small fishes, and is therefore con- sidered one of the most mischievous animals that can infest a fish-pond. When full- grown, the larva betakes itself to the ad- joining banks, where it changes into a chry- salis of a whitish colour. There are nume- rous species of this genus, but none so large or destructive as the one here described: some of them are, by comparison, extremely minute. A WATER-nEETIJ As an illustration of this family, we have figured (after Sturm) the Hydaticus inter- ruptus, belonging to a genus of Dytiscidue, of which some species are found in this country. Dr. Schaum has given in " the Zoologist " a revision of all the British species of this family. In the work of Dr. Aube" of Paris, descriptions of the numerous species and genera of Water Beetles will be found, while in the pages of the " List of Hydrocanthari in the British Museum Collection " will be seen how very extensive and how universally distributed is the family of Water Beetles. DZERON, or CHINESE ANTELOPE. (AntiJope yutturosa.) This species of An- telope inhabits China, Thibet, and Tartary, chiefly frequenting the dry and rocky plains, and feeding on the scanty herbage which those barren localities supply. The length of tliis animal is about four feet and a half : the horns, nine inches long, of an opaque yellow colour, and having a backward direction, are stimulated nearly to the tips, and diverge considerably upwards, though the points bend towards each other. The head is rather clumsy ; the nose obtuse ; the ears small and pointed ; and on the middle of the neck grows a large protuberance, occasioned by the peculiar structure of the windpipe. It is of a tawny hue on the upper parts, and white beneath ; but in winter the hair grows long, thick, and hoary. This species, which the Chinese call Whang Yang, or Yellow Goat, is extremely swift and active, but na- turally shy and timid. During the winter season they herd in great numbers, but sepa- rate again on the approach of spring. The Tartars hunt them with the utmost eager- ness, and esteem their flesh very delicious food : the horns form a considerable article of commerce, and are in great request among the Chinese : the female has no horns. Spe- cimens of this Antelope are in the British Museum collection. It has never, however, been brought alive to this country. EAGLE. (AyuUa.) Pre-eminent for cou- rage, strength, and boldness among preda- ceous birds, is the daring and majestic Eagle. This time-honoured monarch of the fea- thered tribes, which in the mythology of Greece and Rome was deemed worthy to rank as the chosen associate of Jupiter, was ever regarded as an emblem of dignity and might, and still has the reputation of being equally magnanimous, fierce, and voracious. What the Lion is among quadrupeds, that the Eagle is presumed to be among birds ; one who disdains all petty plunder, and pur- sues only such prey as would seem to be worthy of conquest. This laudatory cha- racter of the king of birds, however, though true in the main, and generally acquiesced in, is, it must be confessed, more poetically descriptive than logically accurate ; but while, in our zoological character, we are bound to make this admission, far be it from us to disparage the "bird of Jove," or to pluck a single plume from his upsoaring wing. Eagles are distinguished by the fea- thering of the tarsi down to the very base of the claws ; and the males are smaller than the females ; their plumage varying con- siderably, according to age and other cir- cumstances. Of all the feathered tribe the Eagle soars the highest ; and of all others also it has the strongest and most piercing sight. Though extremely powerful when on the wing, the joints of its legs being rather stiff, it finds some difliculty in rising again after a descent ; yet, if not instantly pursued, it will easily carry off a goose or other bird equally large. The Eagle does not rise in the air so much for the purpose of pursuing its prey on the wing, as that it may be enabled to take an extensive survey of the country beneath; for its food does not consist so much of birds that pass most of their time in flight, as of those that live on or near the ground, and of such mammalia as it can vanquish. Buffon remarks, when speaking of the noble nature of this powerful bird, that the Eagle despises small animals, and disregards their insults ; that he seldom devours the whole of his prey, but, like the lion, leaves the fragments to other animals ; and, except when famishing with hunger, he disdains to feed on carrion. The astonish- ingly acute sight of the Eagle enables him to discern his prey at an immense distance ; and, having perceived it, he darts down upon it with a swoop which there is no resisting. It is well understood that the Eagle ia 204 Cmtfurg) of jtahtral ^ able to look stedfastly on the sun, and tc sustain his most dazzling rays : which alone must give him a decided superiority ove every other denizen of the air : this is ac counted for by his being furnished with double eyelids, one of which may be shut while the other is open, so that the glaring light of any dazzling object may be renderec more easily supportable. The nest is com- posed of sticks, twigs, rushes, heath, &c., anc is generally placed upon the jutting ledge of some inaccessible precipice ; or in forests near some lofty tree. The largest species o: Eagles seldom lay more than two eggs, and the smallest never more than three. The IMPERIAL EAGLE. (Aqufla imperialis.', This is the largest species of Eagle known, measuring three feet and a half from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail ; and to it may be referred all the accounts of the an- cients respecting the strength, courage, and magimnimity of these birds. Its colour above is rufous gray, barred with black, the black prevailing most on the wings : the head is strongly crested with long gray fea- thers, the two middle ones being five inches long ; the tail is gray, barred and spotted with black, and tipped with rufous : the under parts of the bird are pale cinereous, very soft and downy ; the beak and cere black ; the feet and legs yellow. It is a native of South America, inhabiting the deep recesses of the forest ; and has the re- putation of being extremely bold and fero- cious. The GOLDEN EAGLE. (Aquila chrysdeta.') This bird is the largest and noblest of the European Eagles ; its length being three feet three inches, the extent of its wings seven feet six inches, and its weight from twelve to sixteen pounds. The bill is of a deep lead colour, with a yellow cere ; eyes large, deep sunk, and covered by a projecting brow ; the irides golden hazel-colour, bright and lustrous. The general colour of the plumage is deep brown, mixed with tawny on the head and neck, and the feathers on the back being finely shaded with a darker hue. The wings, when closed, reach to the end of the tail ; the quill -feathers are cho- colate-coloured, with white shafts ; and the tail brown, the base being generally marked with irregular ash-coloured bars or blotches : the legs are yellow, short, and very strong, being three inches in circumference, and feathered to the very feet, which are covered with large scales, and armed with most for- midable claws. It occurs in various moun- tainous parts of Europe and Asia, and also, though more rarely, in America : in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, it has also occasionally been found. The eyrie or nest of the Golden Eagle is extremely large and strong, being composed of twigs and brandies, interlaced and covered by layers of rushes, heath, &c., and built on the summits of rocks or lofty cliffs. The female lays two or, at most, three eggs, one of which is said to be gene- rally un prolific. The longevity of this spe- cies is said to be great indeed, instances being quoted of its having survived more than a century. The RING-TAILED EAGLE (the Falco fulvus of Buffon), though described i separate species by him, is no other than the notiit'j bird of one and two years of the preced- ing. Its colour is a deep brown, the base o: the tail being distinguished by a white ring the bill is of a dark horn-colour, the upper mandible, which is arched, hanging over the lower one about an inch, and having an angle or tooth on each side ; and the feet are feathered to the toes. The breast is marked with white triangular spots in the middle of each feather : between the bill and the eyes there are spaces of bare skin of a dirty hu thinly set with small black hairs : and the tail, which is of an equal length with the wings when closed, is white, except the tips of the feathers, which are black, or dark brown ; and the coverts under the tail are a reddish brown or bay. The toes are very thick and strong, and covered with yellowish scales ; and the talons, which are black and very powerful, bend almost into semicircu- lar figures, and terminate in very sharp points. " It is held," says Dr. Richardson, " by the aborigines of America, as it is by almost every other people, to be an emblem of might and courage, and the young Indian warrior glories in his Eagle plume as the most honourable ornament with which he can adorn himself. Its feathers are attached to the calumets, or smoking pipes, used by the Indians in the celebration of their solemn festivals, which has obtained for it the name of the Calumet Eagle. Indeed, so highly are these ornaments prized, that a warrior will often exchange a valuable horse for the tail feathers of a single eagle." He further observes that the mature British Golden Eagle has a darkish brown tail and wings, blackish-brown back, clouded with brown- ish-black, and a paler and brighter-brown head. The identity of the Ring-tails with ;he Golden Eagles may now be considered inquestionable, the observations of so many ate ornithologists concurring to establish ;he fact. And though Dr. Richardson says that the Golden Eagle is seldom seen 'arther to the eastward than the Rocky Mountains, M. Audubon asserts that he has seen it on the coast of Labrador, and various )ther parts of the United States. It inhabits clussia, Iceland, and Germany, and is said ;o occur in Northern Africa and Asia Minor. It is also frequently met with in Scotland, and its northern and western slands ; in Ireland also, though much less jfteu ; and occasionally even in the western counties of England. The ROYAL EAGLE (Aquila regalis) is i bird of great beauty, having an elegantly varied plumage and commanding attitudes ; n fact, the account given of it by M. Sonnini, n his edition of Buffon's Natural History, rould lead to the belief that it is much arger and more ferocious than any one of which we have a knowledge. His descrip- ion of it is to this effect : The head is large, and furnished with a crest in form of a iasque : the bill long ; the eyes bright and >iercing ; the claws black, crooked, and of Popular HBtrttanarg of 3nimatrtt flature. 205 the length of the middle finger : the back, wings, and tail are brown, spotted with black, and variegated with whitish or yellow- ish streaks ; the belly white, the feathers being very soft, and equal in elegance to those of an egret. It flies with majestic rapidity, and such is the expanse of its wings, that it sometimes strikes and kills its prey with them before it touches it with its claws. Its strength is such as to enable it to tear in pieces in an instant the largest sheep ; the northern : the two birds being, in fact, beautiful analogues of each other in their respective habitats, and doubtless performing similar offices in the great scheme of crea- tion." In courage, power, rapacity, and size, they are also very similar ; but the lengthened and wedge-shaped form of its tail gives to the Australian bird a far more pleasing and elegant contour. One, but by no means the largest, of those which were killed by Mr. Gould, weighed nine pounds, and it pursues, almost indiscriminately, wild and measured six feet eight inches from tip animals ; but its principal food consists of a to tip of the opposite pinions. The Wedge- particular kind of monkeys, called Guaribaa, tailed Eagle frequents the interior portions which it instantly kills, and devours with j of the country rather than the neighbour- extraordinary voracity. Its general residence hood of the sea ; preying indiscriminately is on lofty mountains, and it builds its nest on all the smaller species of Kangaroo which on the highest trees, employing for their , tenant the lulls and plains ; and whose re- construction the bones of the animals it has treats, from the wonderful acuteness of its slaughtered, and some dry branches of trees, vision, it descries while soaring and perform- which it binds together with the ends of ; ing its graceful evolutions in the air. The climbers. It is said to lay two or three eggs, ] enterprising ornithologist, from whose which are white, spotted with reddish-brown, splendid work we have derived the fore- It is chiefly found about the borders of the ' going information, goes on to say, that " its river Amazon. Many virtues are attributed ! tremendous stoop and powerful grasp carry to its burnt feathers. Such is the account, inevitable destruction to its victim, be it witli some slight abridgment, of the de- I ever so large and formidable. The breeders scription given by Sonnini, and copied by > of sheep find in this bird an enemy which Shaw ; the whole resting on the authority commits extensive ravages among their of Don Laurent Alvarez Roxo de Postflitz, lambs, and consequently in its turn it is Portuguese ecclesiastic at Brazil. | persecuted unrelentingly by the shepherds who emi " of the stock-owners, WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE. (Aguilafwota.) fi'en their Dower to e This noble bird is the species of Eagle com- ud ?n Van Diemen's stf s^^;(sS&5 5^; vs^^ystfis&s\^SaSriStv^^ ploy every arti- flect its extirpation, Land considerable the accomplishment He adds, that " the tracts WE!)OE-TAII,Er> EAGI,lt. (iQDII.A FUCOSA.) northern portion of Australia or any other country, "in all probability it will hereafter be found to extend its range as far towards the tropics in the southern hemisphere as waging war upon it, its numbers must neces- sarily be considerably diminished." In the adult bird, the head, throat, and all the upper and under surface of the plumage is blackish brown, stained on the edges and extremities of many of the wing and tail feathers with pale brown ; back and sides of the neck rusty -red ; irides hazel ; cere and space round the eye yellowish white ; bill yel- lowish horn colour, the tip black ; feet light yellow. The colour of the young birds is altogether lighter, and the tail is indistinctly barred near the extremity. The nests are of a very large size, built of sticks and boughs, nearly flat, and, placed on trees which from their vast height, are all but inaccessible to man. It appears that al- though the Wedge-tailed Eagles mostly feed on living prey, they do not scruple to feast on the carcase of a dead bullock when they find one, or refuse to devour carrion, though it may be almost in a state of putridity. We lately saw three specimens of this very fierce Eagle in the Gardens of the Zo- ological Society. Their piercing eyes and enormous beaks clearly indicated their " will and power," while their restlessness was a convincing proof that they could ill brook captivity. XE EAGLE. (Aquila vulturina.') the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaeta) does in The general colour of this species, which in 206 Crra&trg of Natural size is equal to the Golden Eagle, is a deep black, some of the feathers of the back having brownish edges : the bill is very strong, its tip yellow ; the legs of a dirty yellow, and feathered for three quarters of their length : the tail rounded, and consider- ably shorter than the wings. It feeds prin- cipally on carrion, but will attack sheep, and devour them on the spot. Native of Caffraria. CROWNED EAGLE. (Aquila coronata.) This species is about one-third less than the generality of Eagles, but of proportionate boldness and strength. It is a native of Africa, and is said to be principally seen in Guinea. The circles round the eyes are of a deep orange colour ; the fore part of the head, the space round the eyes, and the throat, are covered with white feathers, with small black spots : the hinder part of the head and neck, the back and wings, are of a dark brown, the outer edges of the feathers being lighter : the ridge in the upper part, and the tips of some of the lesser covert- feathers of the wings, are white : the tail is brown, barred across with black, and on its under side appears of a dark and light ash- colour : the breast is of a reddish-brown, with large transverse black spots on the sides : the thighs and legs, down to the feet, are covered with white feathers, beautifully marked with round black spots. The feet and claws are very strong ; the former co- vered with scales of. a bright orange colour, and the latter being black. It takes its name from raising the feathers on the hinder part of the head in the form of a crest or crown. The SUPERB EAGLE (Falco superbus) in- habits the vast forests of Guiana, and is dis- tinguished by a kind of pendent naked craw, like some of the vultures. From the tip of the bill to that of the tail is about twenty- five inches : the upper part of the head and the crest are brown : the back and wings brown, with a few transverse tawny bars : and the tail is alternately barred with black and pale brown : the sides of the neck are tawny ; the throat and breast white ; the abdomen white, with transverse black stripes, interrupted by the white ground-colour : the feathers of the thighs and legs are white, striped with black. The CHEELA EAGLE. ( Falco Cfieela.) This species is a native of India, where it is called Cheela. It is of a stout make, two feet long, and of a deep brown colour ; but on each side of the head there is a mixture of white : the wing-coverts and thighs are marked with small white spots, and the tail is crossed in the middle by a white band : the bill is blue at the base, and black at the tip. The WHITE-TAILED EAGLE. (Halicetusal- bicilla.) This bird inhabits all the northern oarts of Europe, and is found in Scotland and other parts of Great Britain. The beak, cere, and eyes are of a pale yellow ; the sides of the head and neck a pale ash, mixed with reddish-brown : general colour of the plumage brown, darkest on the upper part of the head, neck, and back : quill feathers very dark ; breast irregularly marked with white spots ; tail white ; legs of a bright yellow, and claws black. It is strong, and very ferocious. It usually lays two or three eggs, building its nest upon lofty trees. The WHITE-HEADED SEA EAGLE. (Hali- cetusleucocephalus.) This distinguished bird is about the size of the Golden Eagle, to which it bears a considerable resemblance ; it is, however, of a lighter colour, and the legs are only feathered a little way below the knees. The bill is large, much hooked, and bluish. A row of strong bristly feathers hangs down from under its lower mandible, whence it has sometimes been termed the Bearded (EALIAETDS LFTJCOCEPHAI.UP.) Eagle. It preys chiefly on fish, which it seizes by darting down upon them while swimming near the surface : it also occa- sionally preys on birds and other animals. The American variety is superior in size to the European ; frequenting the neighbour- hood of the sea, and the shores and cliSs of lakes and large rivers, which localities he prefers, from his great partiality for fish. Wilson, the American ornithologist, thus picturesquely describes this powerful bird : "Elevated upon a high, dead limb of some gigantic tree, that commands a wide view of the neighbouring shore and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their busy avocations below the snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air ; the busy tringce, coursing along the sands ; trains of ducks, streaming over the surface ; silent and watch- ful cranes, intent and wading ; clamorous crows, and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid ma- gazine of nature. High over all these hovers one, whose action instantly arrests all the Eagle's attention. He knows him to be the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight, and, balancing himself with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At this moment the eager looks of the Eagle are all ardour, and, levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once more emerg- ing, struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are a signal for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase ; soon gains on the fish-hawk ; each exerts his utmost to tcttanarj? of 3mmatcfr 207 mount above the other, displaying in the rencontre the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unincumbered Eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest exe- cration, the latter drops his fish : the Eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp, ere it reaches the water, and bears it silently away to the woods." When this bird has fasted for some time, its appetite is extremely voracious and indiscriminate : even the most putrid carrion, when nothing better can be had, is accept- able. The nest of this species, formed of large sticks, sods, moss, hay, &c., is usually found in a lofty tree, in a swamp or morass ; and as it is increased and repaired every season, becomes of great size. Fish are daily carried to the nest in such numbers, that they sometimes lie scattered round the tree ; and the odour is very offensive for a considerable distance round it. EAGLE-OWL. (Bubo.) [See OWL.] EAR-SHELL. (Haliotis.) A genus of univalve Mollusca, the shell being of a flattened shape, perforated with small holes on one side, and somewhat resembling the human ear, its base being characterised by a very wide mouth or aperture, the largest in any shell except the Patella or Limpet. This genus sometimes yields small pearls, the rudiments of which are frequently seen in those shells which have not brought them to perfection. The outside is generally rough, worn, or covered with marine sub- stances ; the inside presents the same ena- melled appearance as mother-of-pearl, and exhibits the most beautiful colours. The holes with which the shell is perforated are for the passage of the lobes of the animal's mantle, and are made at regular intervals as it increases in size : when, however, a new one is formed, the one nearest the spire is closed up. The head of the animal is large, having two long round tentacula, with eyes at the base on footstalks ; foot very large, having the margin fringed all round. In its state of rest, it is able to adhere with such tenacity to the substance it is fixed upon as to be removed with great difficulty, although it can detach itself with ease. It is always found near the surface of the water. There are several species of this shell : the one termed the Great Ear-shell is five inches long and nearly three wide ; its shape is an irregular oval, the end where the spiral turn is placed being the largest. It is chiefly found in the East EARTHWORM. (Ziwn&ricM*.) An An- nelide, of whioh there are doubtless many species ; characterised by a long cylindrical body, divided by transverse furrows into a great number of rings, and by a mouth without teeth : they have neither eyes, ten- tacles, gills, nor cirrhi. The common well- known species (Lumbricus terrestris) attains nearly a foot in length, and is composed of upwards of one hundred and twenty rings. They are very abundant, piercing and tra- versing the ground in every direction, subsist- ing on roots, woody fibres, animal matter, and other organized substances. It is well known that they swallow earthy matter, and that having separated the serviceable portion, they eject at the mouth of their burrows the remainder in little intestine-shaped heaps, or worm-casts. Though a small and despised creature, the Earthworm is a most important one in the operations of nature. When it is boring, it insinuates its pointed head between the particles of the earth, amongst which it penetrates like a wedge : and in this posi- tion the anterior part of the body is fixed by the spines, of which there are four pairs on each segment : the hinder parts are then drawn forwards by a shortening of the body ; which swells out the anterior segments, and forcibly dilates the passage into which the head has been already thrust. By the frequent repetition of this process, the little animal more easily permeates hard substances than could be possibly conceived ; and by the united labours of myriads, the earth is lightened, and vegetation thereby wonder- fully assisted. Mr. Knapp, in his ' Journal of a Naturalist,' thus speaks of the Earthworm: "This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the soil, and the ready indicator of an improved staple, consumes on the surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer parts of de- cayed vegetable matters, and conveys with the soil the more woody fibres, where they moulder, and become reduced to a simple nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them are soon returned to the surface, whence, dissolved by frosts and scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil 'death still pro- ducing life.' Thus eminently serviceable as the worm is, it yet becomes the prey of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction. The very emmet seizes it when disabled, arid bears it away as its prize : it constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds; fishes devour it greedily ; the hedgehog eats it ; the mole pursues it unceasingly in the T 2 208 (rtnurg of Natural ^ pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in dry seasons. Secured as the worm appears to be by its residence in the earth from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element, yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way ; frogs eat it ; and even the great water-beetle (.Dytiscus marginalia) I have known to seize it when the bait of the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet, notwithstanding this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully commensurate to its con- sumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all." In White's History of Selborne the valu- able services of the Earthworm are detailed at great length, and with that writer's ac- ccustomed perspicacity. Charles Darwin, F. R. S., has made many interesting obser- vations, which have been thus stated from his published researches : " The burrowing of Earthworms is a process exceedingly useful to the gardener and agriculturist ; and these animals are far more beneficial to mail in this way, than they are injurious by devouring the vegetables set in the soil. They give a kind of under tillage to the land, performing the same below ground that the spade does above for the garden, and the plough for arable land ; and loosening the earth, so as to render it per- meable to air and water. It has been shown, too, that they will even add to the depth of soil ; covering barren tracts with a layer of productive mould. Thus, in fields which have bei een overspread with lime, burnt marl, or cinders, these substances are in time covered with finely-divided soil, well adapted to the support of vegetation. That this result, which is commonly attributed by the farmers to the ' working-down ' of the materials in question, is really due to the action of the Earthworms, appears from the fact, that, in the soil thus formed, large numbers of worm-casts may be distinguished. These are produced by the digestive process of the worms ; which take into their intes- tinal canal a large quantity of the soil through which they burrow, extract from it the greater part of the vegetable matter it may contain, and reject the rest in a finely divided state. In this manner, a field, manured with marl, has been covered, in the course of eighty years, with a bed of earth averaging thirteen inches in thick- ness. "It is commonly supposed," says Dr. Carpenter, " that the Earthworm may be multiplied by the division of its body into two pieces, each of which will continue to live. This does not, however, appear to be the case with the common species. If it is divided across the middle, when in motion, each part will continue to move for a time ; but only the piece which bears the head will be found alive after a few hours. This forms a new tail ; and soon shows little sign of injury. But if the di- vision be made near the head, the body will remain alive, and will renew the head ; and the head, with its few attached segments, will die. There appears, however, to be some species, in which this reproductive power is sufficiently great to produce a new head and body from even a small portion of the original ; so that above twenty indi- viduals have been produced in this manner by the division of a single one into as many parts." EARWIG. (Forjwila.-) AgenusofDer- mapterous insects. The common Earwig, generally called in Scotland GOLLACII (For- ficula auric ularia), is about three quarters of an inch in length, and has a somewhat flattened body ; the wings being folded under veryshort and truncated elytra or wing-cases, and the extremity of the abdomen armed with a horny forceps. When alarmed, the in- sect elevates the abdomen, and opens these forceps, in order to defend itself from the at- tack of its enemies. Though not produced quite perfect from the egg, the Earwig re- quires but a very small change before it ar- rives at that state which fits it for flight and generation. Its natural functions are never suspended ; from the instant it leaves the egg, it continues to eat, move, leap, and pursue its prey ; and a skin which inclosed a part of its body and limbs bursts behind, and gives full play to a set of wings with which it flies in pursuit of its mate. The places in which they are found are chiefly damp and cool situations, under stones and the bark of trees, among chests and boxes which have been long undisturbed, and in similar haunts. They seem to be as timid as hares, and when disturbed run into the nearest hole, satisfied, like the quadrupeds above named, if they can get their heads under cover, and thus exclude the sight of danger, even when their bodies are fully exposed. Hence, it often happens that they will be found with their heads buried in the bottom of flowers, their forked tails sticking up among the stamens and pistils, so that they might escape the notice of any one but a botanist or an entomologist. Mr. Newman gives the following interest- ing description of this insect and its habits: " The Earwig is one of our most common insects ; it is well known to every one, and is very generally an object of unconquerable dislike ; the forceps at its tail, and the threatening manner in which these are turned over its back, to pinch anything of which it is afraid, render it peculiarly dis- gusting. The fore wings of the Earwig are |90pular JBtctumarg at gmmatrtr 209 square, short, leathery pieces, which cover but a very small portion of the body : the insect is incapable of bending or folding them in any direction, or of using them as organs of flight. The hind wings are quite different from the fore wings; they are folded into a very small compass, and covered by the fore wings, except a small portion which protrudes from beneath them ; and, when examined in this position, appear totally useless as organs of flight. When unfolded, the hind wings are remarkably beautiful ; they are of ample size, perfectly transparent, displaying prismatic colours when moved in the light ; and are intersected by veins, which radiate from near the centre to the margin. The shape of these wings, when fully opened, is nearly that of the human ear ; and from this circumstance it seems highly probable that the original name of this insect was Enrwing. [It derives its pre- sent name from its supposed habit of insinu- ating itself into the ears of persons who incautiously lie down and sleep on the grass, &c. : a supposition, if not entirely ground- less, unsupported by any well authenticated instances.] " Earwigs subsist principally on the leaves and flowers of plants, and on fruit ; and they are entirely nocturnal insects, retiring by day into dark crevices and corners, where they are screened from observation. The ra- pidity with which they devour the petals of a flower is remarkable ; they clasp the edge of a petal in their fore legs, and then, stretch- ing out their head as far as possible, bite out a mouthful ; then another mouthful nearer, and so on till the head is brought to the fore-legs. This mode of eating is exactly that which is practised by the caterpillars of butterflies and moths : the part of a leaf or petal is eaten out in a semicircular form, and the head is thrust out to the extreme part, after a series of mouthfuls. Pinks, carnations, and dahlias, very frequently lose all their beauty from the voracity of these insects. When the time of breeding has ar- rived, which is generally in the autumn, the female retires for protection to the cracks in the bark of old trees, or the interstices of weather-boarding, or under heavy stones on the ground : here she commences laying her eggs. The eggs are usually from twenty to fifty in number : when the female has finished laying them, she does not forsake them, as is the habit of other insects, but sits on them in the manner of a hen, until they are hatched. When the little ones leave the shell, they are very perceptibly larger than the eggs which contained them. They pre- cisely resemble the parent in structure and habit, except that they are without wings ; they also differ in colour, being perfectly white. The care of the mother does not cease with the hatching of the eggs : the young ones run after her wherever she moves, and she continues to sit on them and brood over them with the greatest affection for many days. If the young ones are dis- turbed or scattered, or if the parent is taken away from them, she will, on the first op- portunity, collect them again, and brood over them as carefully as before, allowing them to push her about, and cautiously moving one foot after another, for fear of hurting them. How the young ones are fed until the mother's care for them has ceased, does not appear to have been ascertained; for it is not until they are nearly half grown that they are seen feeding on vegetables with the rest. ' A remarkable fact, in relation to the Ear- wig, is its great abundance at particular times, and its subsequent rarity. From the observations of entomologists, it has been proved that these insects migrate in consi- derable flocks, selecting the evening for their excursions. It is common with gardeners to hang up, among the flowers and fruit-trees subject to their attacks, and also to place on the ground, pieces of hollow reeds, lobster- claws, and the like, which offer enticing places of retreat for these insects on the ap- proach of daylight, and by means thereof great numbers of them are obtained in the morning. Poultry are very fond of Earwigs. There are many exotic species of this-genus, some of them with remarkably elongated forceps. EBTJRNA. A genus of marine Mollusca found in the Indian and Chinese seas, in- habiting an oval, thick, smooth, umbilicated shell. The Eburnas in some respects re- semble the Buccina ; from which, how- ever, they are essentially different. The head of the animal is furnished with a proboscis, and two tentacula having eyes in the middle ; foot short ; spire angulated and acute ; aperture oval, terminating an- teriorly in a canal, posteriorly in a groove ; outer lip slightly thickened with an anterior notch, which terminates a spiral fold sur- rounding the body whorl ; umbilicus gene- rally covered by the thickened columellar lip. ECHIDNA, or PORCUPINE ANT- EATER. (.Echidna hystrix.) This curious animal is a native of Australia, and is a striking instance of that beautiful gradation, so frequently observed in the animal king- dom, by which creatures of one tribe or genus approach to those of a very different one. It has the external coating and general ap- pearance of the Porcupine, with the mouth and peculiar generic characters of the ant- eaters. It is about a foot in length : the upper parts of the body and tail are thickly coated with strong and very sharp spines, of a yellowish white with black tips, and thicker in proportion to their length than those of a porcupine. The head, legs, and under parts of the body are of a deep brown, and thickly set with bristly hair ; the tail is very short, and covered with spines pointing perpen- 210 Cr&irfurg of Natural dicularly upwards. The snout is long and j tubular, the mouth small, and the tongue i long and lumbviciform, as in other Ant- | eaters. The legs are very short and thick ; and are each furnished with five rounded, FORCTTPINE ECHIDNA. ^ECHIDNA HTSTRIX.) broad toes : on the fore feet are five very strong, long, and blunt claws ; but on the hind feet there are only four claws, the thumb being destitute of a claw : the first claw on the hind feet is extremely long, rather curved, and sharp pointed ; the next shorter, but of similar appearance ; the two remaining ones far shorter, and blunt : it has great strength, and burrows with won- derful celerity. At a meeting of the Zoological Society, July 22. 1845, Professor Owen communicated his observations on the living Echidna exhi- bited at the Menagerie of the Society in May preceding. The animal when received at the Gardens was active and apparently in sound health. It was placed in a large but shallow box, with a deep layer of sand on one half of the bottom ; the top covered with close cross-bars. The animal manifested more vivacity than might have been ex- pected from a quadruped which, in the pro- portions of its limbs to its body, as well as in its internal organization, makes the nearest approach, after the Ornithorhyncus, to the Reptilia. In the act of walking, which was a kind of waddling gait, the body was alter- nately bent from one side to the other, the belly was lifted entirely off the ground, and the legs, though not so perpendicular as in higher mammalia, were less bent outwards than in lizards. The broad and short fore paws were turned rather inwards j the hind feet had their claws bent outwards and back- wards, resting on the inner border of the sole. The animal was a male; and the tarsal spur, smaller and sharper than in the Orni- thorhyncus, projected backwards and out- wards, almost hidden by the surrounding coarse and close hair. The small eyes gleamed clear and dark ; the ball was sen- sibly retracted when the animal winked, which it did frequently. It commenced an active exploration of its prison soon after it was encaged : the first instinctive action was to seek its ordinary shelter in the earth, and it turned up the sand rapidly by throwing it aside with strong strokes of its powerful fos- sorial paws, and repeating the act in many places, until it had assured itself that the same hard impenetrable bottom everywhere opposed its progress downwards. The animal then began to explore every fissure and cranny, poking its long and slender nose into each crevice and hole, and through the in- terspaces of the cross-bars above. To reach these it had to raise itself almost upright, and often overbalanced itself, falling on its back, and recovering its legs by performing a summerset. I watched these attempts of the animal to escape for more than an hour, and it was not till it had got experience of the strength of its prison, that the Echidna began to notice the foo_d which had been placed there. This consisted of a saucer of bread and milk and some meal-worms. The milk was sucked or rather licked in by rapid protrusion and retraction of the long red cylindrical tongue. The tongue came more than once in contact with the larvas, which were sometimes rolled over by it, but no attempt was made to swallow them. The Echidna offered little resistance when seized by the hind-leg and lifted oil" the ground, and made not the slightest demonstration of defending himself by striking with his hind spurs : the only action when irritated was to roll itself into a ball like a hedgehog the bristles being then erect. Ann. Nat. Hist. ECHIMYS: ECHIMYNA. The name of a genus and subfamily of Rodents, con- taining the genus Echimys or Loncheres ; a largish spiny-haired rat-like animal with a long tail ; it is a native of South America. The genus Octodon, an arboreal type found in Chili ; and Aulacodus or Ground Pig, from South Africa also belong to this sub- family. ECHINEIS. A genus of fish remarkable for a series of suckers on the top of the head. [See REMORA.] ECHINODERMATA. The name given to an extensive order of Invertebrate ani- mals of the class RADIATA, comprising all those which have a hard coriaceous integu- ment, which in some species is covered with sharp spines or prickles, like those of the hedgehog ; a digestive and vascular system ; and a sort of radiating nerves. They are all marine animals, possessing the power of lo- comotion ; the sexes are distinct ; and the young are produced from ova. " In this group," as Mr. Patterson observes, " we find animals of extremely dissimilar appearance associated together. One species is attached, for a certain period, to a stem, and. resembles a polype, with its waving and sensitive arms. In the common star-fish, or ' five-fingers,' we have the arms radiating from a common centre. In the sea-urchius there are no arms, and the form of the body is globular, and, passing over some intermediate gra- dations of figure, we reach creatures which in external aspect, resemble worms, and have Popular SHrtumari) at ftiumatctt $aturc. 211 even been classed as such. At one extremity of the range, the Echinodennata remind us of polypes creatures of inferior organiza- tion ; at the other extremity, they approach the annulose animals, whose structure is of a higher grade. Those occupying the centre of the group may be regarded, therefore, as the types or representatives of the class." There is a very fine collection of them in the British Museum. Prof. E. Forbes has de- scribed and figured the British species in his "British Star-fishes." [See ASTEKIAS ; ECHI- uus ; ENCKINITE ; HOLOTHUUIA ; OPHIU- ECHIKOPS. A singular genus of the Shrew tribe, allied to the Tenrec, and a native of Madagascar and the Mauritius : one species, E. Telfairii, is known. ECHINUS. The generic name of the SEA-URCHINS, or SKA-EGGS, which constitute the type of the class Echinodermata, or cer- tain invertebrate animals, which have a crustaceous or coriaceous integument, most commonly armed with tubercles or spines. They are all inhabitants of the sea ; and many of them have often been found in a fossil state. The spines are connected with the outer skin by very strong ligaments, and are the instruments of motion. They are generally armed with five sharp teeth ; and the pores are furnished with a retractile ten- tacle or feeler to each, by which the animal affixes itself to any object, and stops its mo- tion. The species most esteemed as an escu- lent, and thence denominated Echinus escu- lenttts, is subglobular ; with ten avenues of EDIBI.E SKA URCHIN. (BOHIND8 ESOULENrOR.) pores, the spaces between covered with small tubercles supporting the spines ; body red- dish or yellowish ; spines short, of a violet colour ; losing their colour and falling off the dead animal ; pores in about three rows ; tubercles surrounded with a circle of less ones ; vent closed with a coriaceous mem- brane covered with spines. Echini of this sort constitute no small part of the food of the poor in many countries, and some species are reckoned excellent. In ancient times they were accounted very delicious, being usually dressed with vinegar, honied wine, parsley, and mint ; it is recorded that they composed the principal dish at the famous supper of Lentulus, when he was made Flamen Martialis, or Priest of Mars. Our cut exhibits one half of the surface denuded of its spines to show their mode of insertion. Fossil Echinit.ke, in almost incredible num- bers, are to be traced through all the forma- tions, from the epoch of the transition series to the present time ; many of them being found in our own chalky or flinty soils. The Echinus vulgaris, so perpetually found in a fossil state, is not now traced in a living state : in make it is orbicular ; with ten avenues, two of them always near each other. EDENTATA. The name given to an order of quadrupeds, which although it in- cludes many animals differing from each other widely in habits, and also in certain points of structure, yet agree in so many es- sential characters, and are connected to- gether by so many intermediate links, as to require being associated in the same group. They all agree in the absence of teeth in the front of the jaws ; all resemble each other in the great claws which encompass the ends of their toes ; and they are all distinguished by a certain slowness, or want of activity, ob- j viously arising from the peculiar organiza- I tion of their limbs. The armour-clad, in- ' sectivorous Armadillos, of South America j I the tree-inhabiting Sloths, and hairy tooth- less Ant-eaters, of the same continent ; the ! gigantic Megatherium, which formerly in- habited it ; and the Mania, whose lizard-like body, defended by an impenetrable coat of I mail, excites our wonder all belong to the | order EDENTATA ; which constitute the last i group of unguiculatcd animals, and are sc- , i' verally described in the course of this work, j EEL. (.AnguiUa.) The Eel, which in a , natural arrangement of the animal world I may be considered as in some degree con- necting the fish and serpent tribes, is a native of almost all the waters of the ancient continent, frequenting not only rivers but stagnant waters ; aud occasionally salt marshes and lakes. Its general appear- ance is so well known, and so unlike most other fishes, as to require but a slight description : we should observe, however, that though the external form of the body resembles the snake, the important internal organs, and the character of the skeleton, are decidedly different. The Eel is distinguished by its uniform colours, but more particularly by the peculiar elongation of the lower jaw, which advances to some distance beyond the upper : the head is small and pointed ; the eyes are small, round, and covered by a trans- parent skin, united with the common in- tegument of the body ; the mouth is small, and both jaws and palate are beset with several rows of small sharp teeth : the ori- fices of the gills are very small, of a lunated shape, and are seated close to the pectoral fins, which are small, and of an ovate shape : 212 at $atttral $? cleanly, feeding indiscriminately upon al kinds of small fish, and decayed anima the back-fin commences at some distance beyond the head, and is continued into the tail-fin, which is also united with the vent- fin. The general colour of the Eel is olive- brown on the back, and silvery on the sides and beneath ; the fins are slightly tinged with violet, and sometimes margined with pale red ; it is, however, sometimes seen of a very dark colour, with scarce any silvery tinge, and sometimes yellowish or greenish : those being the most beautiful which in- habit the clearest waters. The skin of the Eel is proverbially slippery, being furnished with a large proportion of mucus : it is also furnished with small deeply-imbedded scales, which are not easily visible in the living animal, but are very conspicuous in the dried skin. Fresh- water eels, inhabiting running streams with gravelly bottoms, are said to be uniformly white upon the belly, and infinitely more delicate than those of muddy waters, which possess a peculiar smell and flavour, by no means agreeable. In the choice of its food the Eel is far from being ,11 matter : they are, however, a most valuable description of fish : their flesh is excellent as food, being highly nutritious, though sometimes too oily for weak stomachs. They are very prolific, hardy, and very easily pre- served : they inhabit almost all our rivers, lakes, and ponds ; and as they are in great esteem for the table, the consumption in our large cities is very considerable. Few ani- mals are more tenacious of life ; they con- tinue to move for a long time even when de- prived of the head and skin, preserving the muscular irritability for many hours after death. The Eel is viviparous, producing its nu- merous young during the decline of summer: these at their first exclusion are very small. Very gross errors on this subject were for- merly indulged in ; but it appears that both eggs and ready-formed young are occa- sionally observed in the same individuals, as is known to be the case also with several other animals. As Mr. Yarrell observes, " during the cold months of the year Eels remain imbedded in mud ; and large quan- tities are frequently taken by eel-spears in the soft soils and harbours and banks of rivers, from which the tide recedes, and leaves the surface exposed for several hours every day. The Eels bury themselves twelve or sixteen inches deep, near the edge of the navigable channel, and generally near some of the many land-drains, the water of which continues to run in its course over the mud into the channel during the whole time the tide is out. In Somersetshire the people know how to find the holes in the banks of rivers in which Eels are laid up, by the hoar- frost not lying over them as it does else- where, and dig them out in heaps. The practice of searching tor Eels in mud in cold weather is not confined to this country." Some marvellous accounts are on record of the migration of Eels from one river to another, over intervening portions of dry land. On this subject the same author thus expresses himself : " There is no doubt that Eels occasionally quit the water, and when grass meadows are wet from dew, or other causes, travel during the night over the moist surface in search of frogs or other suitable food, or to change their situation. Some ponds continually produce Eels, though the owners of these ponds are most desirous of keeping the water free from Eels, from a knowledge of their destructive habits to- wards the spawn and fry of other fishes. Other ponds into which Eels have been con- stantly introduced are obnoxious to them from some quality in the water ; and they are known to leave such places during the night, and have been found on their passage to other retreats." The general size of the Eel is from two to three feet, but it is said that it sometimes, though very rarely, attains to the length of six feet, and to the weight of twenty pounds. It is a fish of slow growth, and is supposed to live to a very considerable age ; and is attacked by a great many species of intestinal worms. The COXGER EEL (Anguilla conger), in its i general appearance is so nearly allied to the common Eel, that on a cursory view it might at first be considered as the same species : it, however, differs materially from it in size, being sometimes ten feet in length, as thick as a man's thigh, and weighing 100 Ibs. : it is also in general of a darker colour on the upper part, and of a brighter hue beneath : there is also on the sides a straight, white, broadish line, seemingly composed of double row of points, which reaches from the head to the tail. The Conger resides gene- rally in the sea, and is only an occasional visitant of fresh waters. In the winter it is supposed to imbed itself under the soft mud, and to lie in an inactive state ; but on the approach of spring it emerges from its j concealment, and visits the mouths of rivers. ; CGNOER EEL. (A.NGUIT..LA CONGFR.) The able naturalist above quoted informs his readers that " the principal fishery for Congers in this country is on the Cornish coast ; where, according to Mr. Couch, it is not uncommon for a boat with three men to bring on shore from five hundred weight to two tons, the fishing being performed du- ring the night ; for this fish will not readily take a bait by day, and even on moonlight nights it is more shy than when in the dark, except in deep water. The most usual bait with the Cornish fishermen is a pilchard. The Congers that keep among rocks hide themselves in crevices, where they are not ^infrequently left by the retiring tide ; but in situations free from rocks, Congers hide themselves by burrowing in the ground. The flesh is not in much estimation, but meets a ready sale at a low price among the lower classes. The adult fish is most vo- -popular J9tctt'0narn of $ature. 213 racious, not sparing even those of its own species. From the stomach of a specimen weighing twenty-five pounds, I took three common Dabs, and a young Conger of three feet in length. The power of the jaws in this fish is very great : in the stomach of small specimens examined on the coast, I i have found the young testaceous coverings I of our shell-fish comminuted to fragments. I They are often tempted by the Crustacea entrapped in the lobster-pots to enter those decoys in order to feed on them, and are thus frequently captured." EFT. [See NEWT.] EGG-BIRD. The name given to some species of web-footed birds belonging to the Laridae family. [See TERN.] EGGER [MOTH]. A name given by col- lectors to the species of Moths, of the genera Lasiocampa and Eriogaster. EGRET. [See HERON.] EIDER DUCK. (Somateria mollissima.) This valuable species of wild duck is of a size between the tame duck and the goose, measuring about two feet in length. The head is large ; the middle of the neck small, with the lower part of it spread out very broad, so as to form a hollow between the shoulders. The bill is of a dirty green or (SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA.) horn colour, and the upper mandible forked in a singular manner towards each eye, and covered with white feathers on the sides as far forward as the nostrils. The upper part of the head is of a soft velvet black, divided behind by a dull white stroke : the feathers, from the nape of the neck to the throat, are puffed out, and look as if they had been clipped off at the lower ends. The cheeks, chin, upper part of the neck, the back, and lesser wing-cover hite ; the scapu- overts, are lars, dirty white ; bastard wings, and pri- mary quills, brown ; secondaries, and greater covert's, darker brown ; the front part of the neck, to the breast, is of a buff colour ; the breast, belly, rump, and tail-coverts are of a deep sooty black ; tail feathers hoary brown ; legs short, and yellow ; webs and nails dusky. The full-grown male weighs from six to seven pounds ; the female only be- tween five and six. Her shape is nearly the same ; but her plumage is quite different, are crossed with two bars of white ; quill dark ; the upper part of the neck marked with dusky streaks ; and the belly is deep brown, spotted obscurely with black. This highly useful and valuable species is a native of the frozen regions of the north : it is extremely abundant in Iceland, Lap- land, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, on the shores of Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, &c. ; it is also very numerous in the Hebrides and the Orcades, but becomes rare as we advance to the south. The female lays five or six pale greenish-olive eggs in a nest composed of marine plants, and thickly lined with a beautiful down of most exquisite fineness, which is highly esteemed for its excessive lightness, elasticity, and useful qualities. The nest is usually formed on small islands, not far from the shore. As long as the fe- male is sitting, the male continues on watch at no great distance ; but as soon as the young are hatched he leaves them : the mother, however, remains with them a con- siderable time afterwards, and is said to assist them out of the nest almost as soon as they creep from the eggs, and proceeding to the shore, they crawl after her : when she arrives at the water's edge she takes them on her back, and swims a few yards with them ; she then dives, and the young being left floating on the surface, they are obliged to take care of themselves. The manner in which the eider down is taken is as follows : When the collectors come to the nest, they carefully remove the female, and take away the superfluous down and eggs ; after which they replace her. She then begins to lay afresh, and again has re- course to the down on her body to cover her eggs ; and in the event of her own stock being exhausted, which is not unfrequently the case, she is now assisted by the male in furnishing the requisite quantity : even this is frequently taken away, when the birds proceed to furnish another supply, both of eggs and down ; but if the cruel robbery be repeated again, they immediately abandon the place. One female generally yields about half a pound of down, which is worth about two dollars. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness, and elasticity, is pre- ferred by the luxurious to every other article for beds and coverlets ; and from the great demand for it, those districts in Norway and Iceland, where these birds abound, are re- garded as the most valuable property, and are guarded with the greatest vigilance. As found in commerce, this down is in balls of the size of a man's fist, and weighing from three to four pounds. It is so fine and elas- tic, that when a ball is opened, and the down cautiously held near the fire to expand, it will completely fill a quilt five feet square : but it is worthy of observation that although the eider down taken from the nests is so excellent, the down of dead birds is little esteemed, from having lost its elasticity. Eider Ducks associate in flocks, generally in deep water, diving to great depth for shell- fish, which constitute their principal food. They frequently retire to the rocky shores the ground colour being of a reddish brown, I to rest, particularly on the appearance of crossed with waved black lines : the wings | an approaching storm. The Greenlanders 214 Creatfurg cf Natural $H kill them with darts, pursuing them in their little boats, watching their course by the air bubbles when they dive, and always strik- ing at them when they rise to the surface wearied. Their flesh is eaten by the Green- landers, but it tastes strongly of fish ; the eggs, however, are much esteemed. The female lays from six to eight eggs, in a rock- built nest, lined with her own exquisite down ; but the eggs and the down are both frequently obtained at the hazard of life by people let down by ropes from craggy steeps. The skin, taken off, feathers and all, are used by the inhabitants, for their under garments. It appears that all the attempts which have been made to domesticate these birds have been unsuccessful. Another species, called the KING EIDER, (Somateria spectabilis of systematic writers), not much unlike the preceding, inhabits the same coasts. Its beak, wattles, and legs are of deep vermillion ; a straight band of velvety black surrounds the base of the upper man- dible of the beak ; and there is a similar double band which becomes spear-shaped on the throat : the top and back of the head are of a fine bluish-grey ; the cheeks are a brilliant sea-green ; the neck, wing-coverts, and upper part of the back are pure white : the scapulars, lower part of the back, wings, tail, and all the under parts of the body are deep black. The entire plumage of the female is brown. ELECTRICAL EEL. [See GYMNOIUS.] ELK, or MOOSE DEER. (Cervus dices.) Of all the animals belonging to the genus Cervus, none are so large as the Elk, which in size is scarcely inferior to a horse, and its immense horns sometimes weigh near fifty pounds. It is common to both continents, inhabiting only the coldest regions, and is observed to attain larger dimensions in Asia and America than in Europe. It cannot boast of the elegant shape so general in the rest of the deer tribe ; the head being dis- proportionately large, the neck short and thick, and the horns dilating almost imme- diately from the base into a broad palmated form ; while its long legs, high shoulders, and heavy upper lip, hanging very much over the lower, give it an imposing, although an uncouth rather than a majestic appear- ance. The colour of the Elk is a dark grayish brown, but much paler on the legs and beneath the tail. The hair, which is of a strong, coarse, and elastic nature, is much longer on the top of the shoulders and on the ridge of the neck than on other parts, forming a kind of stifnsh mane ; under the throat is an excrescence, from which issues a tuft of long hair : the body, which is short and thick, is mounted on tall legs, giving a very ungainly aspect to the animal, which is not diminished when it is in motion, as its gait is a sort of shambling trot. In Europe the Elk is found chiefly in Sweden, Norway, and some parts of Russia. In Asia it occurs in the woody tracts of the Russian dominions, and in Siberia in par- ticular it is found of a gigantic size. In America it has been found as far north as the country has been explored ; its southern range, at former periods, extended to the shores of the great lakes, and throughout the New England states. At present, how- ever, they are seldom heard of to the south of the state of Maine : but in Nova Scotia, around the Bay of Fundy, and in the Hud- son's Bay Company's possessions, they are found in considerable numbers. The Elk is a mild and harmless animal, choosing its residence in the midst of forests, and prin- cipally supporting itself by browsing the boughs of trees : they feed principally by night ; and whenever they graze (which, on account of their short neck and long legs, they do with difficulty), they are observed to choose an ascending ground, for the greater convenience of reaching the surface with their lips. Though naturally of a peaceable and in- offensive disposition, the Elk displays a high degree of courage, and even ferocity, when suddenly attacked ; defending himself with great vigour, not only with his horns, but also by striking violently with his fore feet, in the use of which he is particularly dex- trous. The chase of the Elk or Moose forms an important occupation among the natives of North America, and is performed in dif- ferent ways, some of which are as remark- able for artfulness as others are for boldness and dexterity : they are also often killed with the gun. Their flesh is more relished by the Indians, and persons resident in the fur countries, than that of any other animal. It bears a greater resemblance, in its flavour, to beef than to venison. It is said that the external fat is soft, like that of a breast of mutton, and when put into a bladder is as fine as marrow. In this it differs from all other species of deer, of which the external fat is hard. Their skins, when properly dressed, make a soft, thick, pliable leather, which the Indians prepare by scraping them to an equal thickness, and removing the hair : they are then smeared with the brains of the animal , until they feel soft and spongy ; and, lastly, they are suspended over a fire made of rotten wood, until they are well impregnated with the smoke. " The Moose," says Mr. Gosse, the author of the Canadian Naturalist, " is more shy and difficult to take than any other animal. He Jitrttmiarg at 215 is more vigilant, and Ms senses more acute, than those of the buffalo or caribou, while he is more prudent and crafty than the deer. * * * I know not whether the Moose has ever been tamed ; but I think it not improba- ble that it could be trained to harness, as well as its congeners, the reindeer and the wapiti: and it would, from its size and strength, be more serviceable than either of them. But in a new country, like this, where alone the opportunity for such an experiment is to be found, the inhabitants generally have little time, and less inclination, for innovations." Many extraordinary accounts have been circulated by travellers, who wrote in the 17th century, of Elks or Moose Deer being seen in North America, whose height was twelve feet, and the weight of whose horns was between three and four hundred pounds. Such stories were probably derived from vague and uncertain descriptions furnished by the Indian tribes. That some animal, however, of the deer kind, far superior in size to any at present known, once existed, is sufficiently proved by the enormous fossil horns which have often been found at a con- siderable depth in the bogs of Ireland and the Isle of Man, as well as in America and other parts of the world. Their appearance, however, differs so considerably from the horns of the Elk, that it seems now pretty generally agreed among naturalists, that they must have belonged to some species either quite extinct or hitherto undiscovered. They are much longer and narrower in pro- portion than those of the Elk. and are fur- nished with brow antlers ; and the processes or divisions into which the sides and extre- mities run are much longer, sharper, and more distant in proportion. Specimens of these horns occur in most of our museums, and are justly considered as some of the most interesting examples of fossil zoology. ELAND. The name of a very large and fine species of Antelope found at the Cape of Good Hope. It is the Boselaphus Oreas of naturalists : it is also called the Impophoo. ELATEK : ELATERID^E. A genus and family of Coleopterous insects, having setaceous antennae; but whose leading character is a strong spine situated beneath the thorax, which fits at plea- sure into a small cavity on the upper part of the abdomen ; thus enabling the insect, when laid on its back, to spring up with great force and agility, in order to regain its natural po- sition. There are various spe- cies of these Beetles ; but few of the European species are com- parable in point of size to such ks are natives of the tropics. The largest, and one of the most remarkable, is the ELATEB VLABELLICORN1S, which IS tWO inches and a half long, and of auniform brown colour : it differs from the rest in having very strongly pectinated antennae, the divisions of which, forming a kind of fan on the upper part of each, are nearly a quarter of an inch n length. It is met with in many parts of Asia and Africa. A species, still more remarkable than the jreceding, is the Pyrophorus noctUucus, called n South America Cocoas. It is about an nch and a half long, of a brown colour, and has a smooth, yellow, semi-transparent spot on each side of the thorax ; these spots being, like those on the abdomen of the glowworm, F1RB-FI.T KLA.TIR. (PYROPHORtla NOOTIL0OO8.) highly luminous in the dark : in short, it is one of the most brilliant of the Fire-flies which inhabit South America and the West India islands. It is asserted that a person may with great ease read the smallest print by the light of one of these insects held be- tween the fingers, and gradually moved along the lines, with the luminous spot* above the letters ; but if eight or ten of them be put into a phial, the light will be suffi- ciently great to admit of writing by it. Oviedo says, that the Indians travel in the night with these insects fixed to their hands and feet ; and that they spin, weave, paint, dance, &c., by their light. In "Prescott's Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. p. 261., we are told that in 1520, when the Spaniards visited that country, " the air was filled with the "cocuyos," a species of large beetle which emits an intense phosphoric light from its body, strong enough to enable one to read by it. These wandering fires, seen in the dark- ness of the night, were converted, by the excited imaginations of the besieged, into an army with matchlocks ! " Such is the report of an eye-witness. (Bernal Diaz. Hist, de la Conqui&ta, cap. 122.) Several others might be mentioned of inferior size, one of which it may be necessary to describe ; this is the Elater otulutvs, which is of a dark brown colour, and somewhat smaller than the preceding ; distinguished by the thorax being marked on each side by a large, oval, jet black spot, surrounded by a white mar- gin. It is common in North America. Such species of the Elater as are natives of this country are much smaller than the exotic ones above mentioned, and but rarely distinguished by any peculiar brilliancy. The larvae or grubs of the Elaters live upon wood and roots, and are often very in- jurious to vegetation. Some are confined to old or decaying trees, others devour the roots of herbaceous plants, and are called wire-worms, from their slenderness and un- common hardness. The English wire- worm is said to live, in its feeding or larva state, not less than five years ; during the greater 216 Crra&trg at Datura! part of which time it is supported by de- vouring the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and grass, annually causing a large diminution of the produce, and sometimes destroying whole erops. It is said to be particularly injurious in gardens recently converted from pasture lands ; and the method adopted for alluring and capturing these grubs consists in strewing sliced potatoes or turnips in rows through the garden or field ; women and boys are employed to examine the slices every morning, and collect the insects which readily come to feed upon the bait. Some of these destructive insects are long, slender, worm-like grubs, closely resembling the common meal-worm ; nearly cylindrical, with a hard and smooth skin, of a buff or brownish yellow colour, the head and tail only being a little darker ; each of the first three rings provided with a pair of short legs, arid a short retractile wart or prop-leg, serving to support the extremity of the body, and prevent it from trailing on the ground. Other grubs of Elaters differ from the fore- going in being proportionally broader, not cylindrical, but somewhat flattened. Such are mostly wood-eaters. . After their last transformation, Elaters or Spring-beetles make their appearance upon trees and fences, and some are found on flowers. They creep slowly, and generally fall to the ground on being touched. They fly both by day and night. Their food, in the beetle state, appears to be chiefly derived from flowers ; but some devour the tender leaves of plants. ELEPHANT. (Elephas.) Largest of all living animals, and prodigiously strong, the Elephant is not less remarkable for docility and sagacity. Of this we have concurrent testimony from the earliest ages to the pre- sent time ; yet, were we to form our ideas of its capacities only from the external appear- ance of this formidable animal, a sagacious character is the last we should be likely to give it credit for. The whole form is awkward j the head is large, the eyes ex- tremely small, and the ears very large and pendulous : the body is huge and thick, and the back much arched ; the legs are very clumsy and shapeless, and the feet slightly AFRICAN ELEPHANT (ELKPHAS ai-RTTANT divided into five rounded hoofs : but under this uncouth exterior are qualities which entitle its possessor to the admiration of mankind a mild and gent'e disposition, superior intelligence, great attachment to its master, and invincible perseverance. In point of bulk, the Rhinoceros and the Hip- >opotamus are the only existing terrestrial animals that can approach the Elephant ; though some other species of Pachydermata T extinct must have considerably sur- passed him. The enormous weight of the body could only be sustained by legs of the nost solid construction ; and accordingly we find that these have the aspect of straight columns, the joints being so formed that each bone rests vertically upon the one be- neath it. Elephants, of which only two species at present exist, viz. the Asiatic and the Afri- can, are distinguished by their extraordinary proboscis or trunk, by the possession of two enormous tusks, which project downwards from the upper jaw, and by the absence of front teeth in the lower. The African and Asiatic species differ from each other in the : of the tusks, which are much longer in the former than in the latter. In the young animals the tusks are not visible ; in the more advanced state of growth they are ex- tremely conspicuous ; and in a state of ma- turity they project in some instances six or seven feet ; nay, several tusks measured by Eden were nine feet in length ; and Harten- fels measured one which exceeded fourteen feet ! The largest tusk on record was sold at Amsterdam, and weighed 350 Ibs. It is but rarely that the tusks are seen in the females ; and when they appear, they are but small, and their direction is rather down- wards than upwards. The African Elephant is said to be smaller than the Asiatic ; yet the ivory dealers in London affirm that the largest tusks come from Africa, and are of a better texture, and less liable to turn yellow than the Indian ones. The increase of the tusks arises from circular layers of ivory, applied internally, from the core on which they are formed ; similar to what happens in the horns of some animals. But it is the trunk of the Elephant which may justly be considered as one of the mi- racles of Nature ; being, at once, the organ of respiration, as well as the instrument by which the animal supplies itself with food, and sucks up the water it requires to allay its thirst. This wonderful organ is carti- laginous, and composed of numerous rings, divided through its whole length by a septum, and forming a sort of double tube, termi- nating in a kind of finger-like appendage or movable hook. "Endowed with exquisite sensibility, nearly eight feet in length, and stout in proportion to the massive size of the whole animal, this organ," as is well ex- pressed by Mr. Broderip, " at the volition of the Elephant, will uproot trees or gather grass raise a piece of artillery or pick up a comfit kill a man or brush off a fly. It conveys the food to the mouth, and pumps up the enormous draughts of water, which by its recurvature are turned into and driven down the capacious throat, or showered over the body. Its length sup- plies the place of a long neck, which would have been incompatible with the support of the large head and weighty tusks. A glance -popular HSirtfanarg of &mmatctt Mature. 217 at the head of an elephant will show the thickness and strength of the trunk at its insertion ; and the massy arched bones of the face and thick muscular neck are ad- mirably adapted for supporting and working this powerful and wonderful instrument." Elephants are naturally gregarious ; large troops assembling together, and living in a kind of society. The skin of the Elephant is of a deep ash-coloured brown ; but in some parts of India it is said to be found, thougli rarely, of a white or cream colour. It sometimes arrives at the height of twelve or fourteen feet, though the more general height seems to be about nine or ten feet. These animals are commonly found in the midst of shady woods, being equally averse to extreme heat as to cold : they delight in cool spots, near rivers, and, as they swim with great ease, they frequently bathe in the water. Their general food consists of the tender branches of various trees, as well as of grains and fruits ; on which account it is that their incursions are so much dreaded in i j plantations of various kinds, where they are ' ! said occasionally to commit the most violent depredations ; at the same time injuring the crops by trampling the ground with their huge feet. The wild Elephants of Ceylon, which are much esteemed, live in small groups or fami- lies. In wandering from place to place, the males, who are furnished with the largest tusks, put themselves at the head, and are the first to face every danger. In swimming over any large river, they lead the van, and seek a proper landing-place : next follow the young Elephants, clinging to each other by means of their trunks, whilst the re- mainder of the full-grown bring up the rear. In all ages these animals have been eagerly hunted ; and some of the arts which have been employed to kill or take them merit attention. The Hottentots in South Africa shoot them with tin balls : this chase is attended with considerable danger ; for, with every precaution that can be used, the sagacity of the Elephant often detects the approach of the hunter, who, in tliis case, will, in all probability, fall a victim to the rage of the animal, unless he can instantly disable him. In the island of Sumatra, the inhabitants split sugar-canes (of which food the Elephant is very fond), and impregnate them with poison. In Abyssinia they are pursued by hunters on horseback, in the I following manner : Two men, perfectly ! naked, mount the same horse ; the hinder- most is armed with a broadsword, the lower part of which is covered with cord, and the remainder is exceedingly sharp. In this manner they pursue the Ejephants, and, having singled out one, they irritate him to attack them, when they ride up elos-to him, and the armed man slips from the horse on ! the offside, and, whilst the Elephant's atten- tion is engaged with the horse, he divides the tendons of his foot with a single blow, and thus disables him, when he is dispatched by lances. They are also taken alive in pitfalls, or are driven into enclosures ; in either case they are fed scantily, though regularly, for a few days, when tame Elephants are em- ployed to engage their attention till they can be tied fast to a tree ; after they have become somewhat dispirited, they are led away between two tame ones, and put under the care of keepers, who gradually bring them into subjection, more, however, by caresses and soothing, than by coercion. When tamed, they become the most gentle and obedient of all domestic animals, and, in most cases, are exceedingly fond of their keepers, and soon learn to distinguish the various tones of the human voice, as expres- sive of anger, approbation, or command. The domesticated Elephant performs more i work than six horses, but at the same time j requires much care, and a plentiful supply i of food. He is generally fed with rice, either ; raw or boiled, and mixed with water. To keep him in full vigour, a hundred pounds of this food is said to be required daily, besides fresh herbage to cool him ; and he must be led to the water twice or thrice a day to bathe. His daily consumption of water as drink is about forty gallons. It would be difficult to enumerate all the services of these useful animals, so varied are they, and so valuable where strength is necessary. They are employed in carrying burdens on their bodies, necks, and even in : their mouths, by means of a rope, the end of which they hold fast with their teeth ; they load a boat with amazing dexterity, care- fully keeping all the articles dry, and dis- posing them where they ought to be placed. In propelling wheel carriages heavily laden upon a declivity, they push them forward with their forehead, and support them with their knees. In dragging beams of wood along the ground, they remove obstacles or elevate the ends of the beams so as to clear them. Before the invention of fire-arms, they were used in war by many nations of antiquity ; and they are still employed in the East in dragging artillery over moun- tains. In many parts of India, Elephants are made the executioners of justice ; for they will with their trunks either break the limbs of a criminal, trample him to death, or pierce him with their tusks, as they may be directed. The Elephant has been long made the companion of the sports of the Orientalist in the great hunting parties ; and from the same early period has been made to minister to the wanton and cruel pleasures of Eastern princes, by being stimu- 218 of Datura! g? lated to combat not only with other Ele- phants, but with various wild animals : in short, were it consistent with the limits of this work, we might fill many pages with matter, both historical and anecdotical, relating to the uses of this noble animal. We may, however, observe that, its strength being equal to its bulk, it is able to carry on its back three or four thousand weight ; on its tusks alone it can support near one thou- sand ; and its ordinary pace is equal to that of the horse at an easy trot. In the preceding part of this article we have dwelt particularly on the Elephant's trunk and tusks, as deserving especial no- tice : the organ of hearing would scarcely appear to deserve less. The structure of the Elephant's ear has been investigated with great accuracy by Sir Everard Home. The drum, and every other part of the organ, is much larger in proportion than in other quadrupeds, or in man ; and there is a remarkable difference in the arrangement of the muscular fibres of the drum of its ear, when compared with some quadrupeds and the human species. In the human ear, those fibres are radia of a circle ; and in the horse, the hare, and the cat, they are of an uniform length ; but in the Elephant's ear these fibres are so placed that some are more than double the length of others. Sir E. Home argues, from this remarkable con- struction, that the Elephant has not a musical ear ; but that it has a peculiar com- pensating power in this length of fibre, as its slower vibrations enable it to hear sounds at a great distance. The tusks of the Elephant have long been applied, under the denomination of ivory, to a variety of important uses in the arts. From the fossil remains which have been discovered, it is apparent that they must have been abundantly distributed over the earth ; and some of them appear to have been adapted to a much more northern cli- mate than is now inhabited by the Elephant. It is, indeed, a most curious fact, that skele- tons nearly allied to, if not quite resembling, those of Elephants are occasionally found in a fossil state, and in large quantities, at a great depth under the surface, in Russia and Siberia. " All the arctic circle," says Pen- nant, " is a vast mossy flat, formed of a bed of mud or sand, apparently the effect of the sea, and which gives reason to think that that immense tract was in some distant age won from it. With them are mixed an in- finitely greater number of marine bodies than are found in the higher parts of that portion of Asia. I give the fact : let others, more favoured, explain the cause how these animals were transported from their torrid seats to the Arctic regions : I should have recourse to the only one we have authority for ; and think that phenomenon sufficient. I mention this, because modern philosophers look out for a later cause : I rest convinced, therefore, to avoid contradicting what can never be proved." Dr. Falconer and Major Cautley have brought from the Sewalik Hills in India numerous fossil remains of Ele- phants, some of them of enormous size. They are all in the truly magnificent collec- tion ot'thc British Museum, and are described by the donors in their well-kno\vnwork, the Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis ; the illustrations of which by Mr. Ford will hereafter be cited, like the work of Lyonet (alluded to under Cossrs), as a perfect example of excellence in the drawing of Fossils. EL.MIS : ELMID.E. A genus and sub- family of aquatic Coleoptera, small in size and of an ovate form, found adhering on j the under sides of stones lying at the bottom j of running water. They are unable to swim, ! but are provided with very powerful tarsi and ungues, by which they are enabled to ! retain firm hold on the stones in the most ! boisterous currents. Twelve or thirteen ! species belonging to three genera have been ! found in thia country. ELOPS. (Elaps saurus.') A small fish, known in the West Indies by the name of the Seiu-fish, or Sea Gaily -Wasp. It is | about fifteen inches long ; in the middle five j inches round, and tapering to both ends ; the \ head is smooth, and without scales ; the tail j much forked, and armed both above and ' below by a strong spine, forming a first or ! spiny ray on each side the tail. Its gene- j ral colour is a silvery gray : dusky on the I back, the head slightly tinged with yellow, the fins of a bluish brown, and the belly ! white. EMARGINTJLA. A genus of small Mol- lusca, inhabiting the seas of all climates, I and having two short tentacula, with eyes I at the base ; foot large and thick. The shell I is patelliform, oblong, or oval ; anterior ! margin notched. The Emarginulae may be ' known from Patella? and other approximat- ing genera, by the notch or slit in the ante- rior edge. Recent species, though widely diffused, yet not numerous ; fossil species, rare. EMBERIZA. The name of a genus of Passerine birds. [See BUNTING.] EMBLEMA PICTA, or PAINTED FINCH. This Passerine bird is a native of i the north-west coast of Australia. It is de- I scribed and figured by Mr. Gould ; and exhi- ! bits a singularity in colouring which is rarely ever witnessed among the feathered tribes, the upper parts of the plumage being remark- I ably plain, while the under surface is ex- I tremely beautiful. The face and tliroat are deep vermillion-red ; crown of the head, all the upper surface, and wings, brown ; the base of all the feathers of the throat black, giving to that part a mingled appearance of black and red ; rump deep vermillion-red ; tail dark brown ; chest and all the under surface jet-black ; the flanks thickly spotted with white ; and the centre of the abdomen deep vermillion-red ; upper mandible black, under mandible scarlet ; feet light red. EMERALD [MOTHS.] A name given by collecto s to Moths of the genus Hippar- fJiia. EMPEROR [MOTH]. The name of a species of Saturnia ; a genus of nocturnal Lcpidoptera. [See SATUKNIA.] Popular 3tcttaimri> at ftntmattfr $erature being rarely elevated above that of the surrounding me- dium." " All writers on animal mechanics," ob- serves the able Professor just quoted, and to whom we are indebted for the following detached extracts, " have shown how ad- mirably the whole form of the fish is adapted to the element in which it lives and moves : the viscera are packed in a small compass, in a cavity brought forwards close to the head, and whilst the consequent abrogation of the neck gives the advantage of a more fixed and resisting connection of the head to the trunk, a greater proportion of the trunk behind is left free for the development and allocation of the muscular masses which are to move the tail. In the caudal, which is usually the longest, portion of the trunk, transverse processes cease to be developed, whilst the dermal and intercalary spines shoot out from the middle line above and | below, and give the vertically extended, I compressed form, most efficient for the la- ' teral strokes, by the rapid alternation of ] which the fish is propelled forwards in the diagonal, between the direction of those forces." " You may be reminded that nil the vertebrae of the trunk are distinct from one another at one stage of the quadruped's development, as in the fish throughout life ; and you might suppose that the absence of that development and confluence of certain vertebrae near the tail, to form a sacrum, was a mark of inferiority in fishes. But note what a hindrance such a fettering of j the movements of the caudal vertebra; would I be to creatures which progress by alternate j vigorous inflections of a muscular tail. A sacrum is a consolidation of a greater or less proportion of the vertebral axis of the body, for the transference of more or less of the weight of the body upon limbs organized for its support on dry land ; such a modification would have been useless to the fish, and not only useless, but a hindrance and a defect. " The pectoral fins, those curtailed proto- types of the fore-limbs of other Vertebrata, with the last segment, or hand, alone pro- jecting freely from the trunk, and swathed in a common undivided tegumentary sheath, present a condition analogous to that of the embryo buds of the homologous members in | the higher Vertebrata. But what would i X 3 234 Crcas'urw of Natural have been the effect if both arm and fore- arm had also extended freely from the side ! of the fish, and dangled as a long flexible ] many -jointed appendage in the water ? This ; higher development, as it is termed, in rela- ; tion to the prehensile limb of the denizen of ; dry land, would have been an imperfection i in the structure of the creature which is to cleave the liquid element : in it, therefore, : the fore limb is reduced to_ the smallest pro- ! portions consistent with its required func- ! tions : the brachial and antibrachial seg- 1 ments are abrogated, or hidden in the trunk : the hand alone projects, and can be applied, 1 when the fish darts forwards, prone and flat, by flexion of the wrist, to the side of the trunk ; or it may be extended at right angles, with its flat surfaces turned forwards i and backwards, so as to check and arrest more or less suddenly, according to its clc- , gree of extension, the progress of the fish ; i its breadth may also be diminished or in- ' creased by approximating or divaricating the rays.. In the act of flexion, the fin ! slightly rotates and gives an oblique stroke ! to the water. For these functions, however, the hand requires as much extra develop- ment in breadth, as reduction in length and thickness ; and mark how this is given to the so-called embryo or rudimcntal fore- limb s it is gained by the addition of ten, twenty, or it may be even a hundred digital rays, beyond the number to which the fingers are restricted, in the hand of the liigher i classes of Vertebrata. We find, moreover, ! RS numerous and striking modifications of the pectoral fins, in adjustment to the pe- i culiar habits of the species in Fishes, as we i do in the fore limbs in any of the higher ! classes. This fin may wield a formidable and special weapon of olfence, as in many Siluroid fishes. But the modified hands have a more constant secondary office, that of touch, and arc applied to ascertain the nature of surrounding objects, and particu- larly the character of the bottom of the water in which the fish may live. You may witness the tactile action of the pectoral fins when gold fish are transferred to a strange vessel : their eyes are so placed as to prevent their seeing what is below them ; so they compress their air-bladder, and allow them- selves to sink near the bottom, which they sweep, as it were, by rapid and delicate vi- brations of the pectoral fins, apparently ascertaining that no sharp stone or stick projects upwards, which might injure them in their rapid movements round their pri- son." * * * " Everywhere, whatever re- ! semblance or analogy we may perceive in the ichthyic modification* of the Vertebrate skeleton to the lower forms or the embryos of the higher classes, we shall find such ana- logies to be the result of special adaptations for the purpose or function for wliich that part of the fish is designed. " The ventral fins or homologues of the hind legs are still more rudimental still more embryonic, having in view the com- parison with the stages of development in a land animal than the pectoral fins ; and their small proportional size reminds the homologist of the later appearance of the hind limbs, in the development of the land Vertebrate. But the hind limbs more im- mediately relate to the support and pro- gression of an animal on dry land than the fore limbs : the le86 Smelt 2 149} 38,278 Sole 14 8 542i 100,%2 Tench 40 383,2.-,2 Lobster 1,671 2USN To which he adds, "The Salmon is far more productive than any of these ; the ovarlum of one female salmon will produce 20,000,000 eggs. "That fish have the power of hearing, there can, I think, be no doubt, as I have seen them suddenly move at the report of a gun, though it was impossible for them to see the flash. They also appear to have the sense of smelling, as they will prefer paste and worms that have been prepared with particular perfumes. They have also some curiosity, which I have witnessed by putting some new object into the water, which they have assembled around, and appeared to reconnoitre : carp, especially, would come up to a new fish which was put amongst them. Roach, and other small kinds, are perfectly aware of, and are careful to avoid, those fish which prey upon them. Thus, I have seen large carp swim amongst a shoal of roach without in the least disturbing them, while, if a pike comes near them, they make off in every direction. Fish appear, also, to be capable of entertaining affection for each other. I once caught a female pike during the spawning season, and nothing could drive the male away from the spot at which the female disappeared, whom he had followed to the very edge of the water." " It may be considered as a law," observes Mr. Yarrell, that those Fish wliich swim near the surface of the water have a high standard of respiration, a low degree of muscular irritability, great necessity for oxygen, die soon almost immediately when 236 nf Natural l&t taken out of the water, and have flesh prone to rapid decomposition : mackerel, salmon trout, and herrings are examples. On the contrary, those Fish that live near the bottom of the water have a low standard of respiration, a high degree of muscular irri- tability, and less necessity for oxygen ; they sustain life long after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh remains good for several days." In "The Zoologist," (p. 79.1, et seq.) there i is an article of considerable interest, entitled i " Notes on the Nidification of Fishes," by i R. Q. Couch, Esq., from which the following I passages are extracted : I " We have been accustomed to look on j the inhabitants of the deep as devoid of any j thing like intelligence or affection; as beings 1 guided solely by insatiable appetites, which ! lead them indiscriminately to prey on each i other, and to abandon their offspring to the mercy of the sea and their predatory com- panions, from the instant that the ova are shed. Any attempt to dispel this opinion will probably be received with distrust ; for, taken as a whole, fish are certainly the most universally predaceous of any class of ani- : mals in existence ; being checked only by ', want of power. But notwithstanding this, some, at least, have a redeeming quality, and show a remarkable care and anxiety for their young. Nests are built in which the ova are deposited, and over -which the adult fish will watch till the young make their escape. And where circumstances will not allow of this continued care, as from the reflux of the sea, the old fish will return with the return of the tide, and remain as long as the water will permit. i "During the summers of 1842 and 1843, while searching for the naked molluscs of the county, I occasionally discovered ppr- 1 tions of sea- weed, and the common coralline ! (C. officinaUs), hanging from the rocks in j ! pear-shaped masses, variously intermingled j with each other. On one occasion, having observed that the mass was very curiously ! bound together by a slender silky-looking thread, it was torn open, and the centre was found to be occupied by a mass of trans- parent amber-coloured ova, each being about the tenth of an inch in diameter. ! Though examined on the spot with a lens, I nothing could be discovered to indicate their character. They were, however, kept in a ! basin, and daily supplied with sea-water, , and eventually proved to be the young of i some fish. The nest varies a great deal in size, but rarely exceeds six inches in length, and four inches in breadth. It is pear- shaped, and composed of sea-weed, or the common coralline, as they hang suspended I from the rock. They are brought together, without being detached from their places of growth, by a delicate opaque white thread. This thread is highly elastic, and very much resembles silk, both in appearance and texture : this is brought round the plants, and tightly binds them together, plant after plant, till the ova, which are deposited early, are completely hid from view. This silk- like thread is passed in all directions through and around the mass in a very complicated manner. At first the thread is semi-fluid> but by exposure it solidifies ; and hence contracts and bind the substances, forming the nest so closely together, that it is able to withstand the violence of the sea, and may be thrown carelessly about without derangement. In the centre are deposited the ova, very similar to the masses of frog- spawn in ditches. " It is not necessary to enter into the mi- nute particulars of the development of the young, any further than by observing that they were the subject of observation, till they became excluded from the egg, and that they belonged to the fifteen-spined Stickle- back (Gasterosteits Spinachia). Some of these nests are formed in pools, and are consequently always in water ; others are frequently to be found between tide marks, in situations where they hang dry for several hours during the day ; but whether in the water, or liable to hang dry, they are always carefully watched by the adult animal. On one occasion I repeatedly visited one every day for three weeks, and invariably found it guarded. The old fish would examine it on all sides, and then retire for a short time ; but soon return to renew the examination. On several occasions I laid the eggs bare, by removing a portion of the nest ; but when this was discovered, great exertions were instantly made to recover them. By the mouth of the fish the edges of the opening were again drawn together, and other portions torn from their attachments, and brought over the orifice till the ova were again hid from view. And as great force was some- times necessary to effect this, the fish would force its snout into the nest as far ns the eyes, and then jerk backwards till the object was effected. While thus engaged, it would suffer itself to be taken in the hand, but re- pelled any attack made on the nest, and quitted not its post so long as I remained. And to those nests that were left dry be- tween tide-marks, the guarding fish always returned with the returning tide, nor did they quit the post to any great distance till again carried away by the receding tide. * * * But fish vary a great deal in the modes of what may be called their incuba- tion, as much as any other class of animals. Thus, some of the sharks produce their young alive, and in a state quite ready for active life ; while others, with the rays, deposit eggs very similar, physiologically, to birds' eggs, which are known as mermaid's purses, being frequently to be found cast on shore on most beaches. Also, among the pipe fishes (Syng- nathi) of our own seas, we have instances of marsupial fish, as perfect ns the kangaroo is marsupial among quadrupeds. But the formation of nests and the watchful atten- tion of fish over their young, which I have repeatedly seen, are unsuspected points of great beauty in their history, and give to them a higher degree of intelligence and interest than we have been accustomed to award. But, from their living in the almost boundless ocean, and wandering where they cannot be observed by man, their habits and economy have been but slightly studied, and they have suffered in reputation accordingly. Popular Btcttauarn of gnimatelr Mature. 237 But those finer traits of character, which we are so much accustomed to admire in the higher animals, from their being constantly before our eyes, are not found wanting even among fish." I " Aristotle," says Baron Cuvier, in his ' " Lectures on the History of the Natural Sciences," " in his account of fishes, is truly admirable, giving proof of knowledge on many points superior to our own. Amongst the facts which he relates, many are still in doubt ; however, from time to time, new observations teach us the justice of some of his assertions, even of those which seem the most hazardous. He says, for example, that a fish named Phycis makes a nest like birds. For a long time the thing was treated as a fable ; however, very recently, M. Olivi dis- covered that a fish named the Goby (Gobius niger) has similar habits. The male, in the season of love, makes a hole in the sand, surrounds it with fucus, making a true nest, near which his mate waits, and he never leaves his post till the eggs which have been deposited in it are hatched." [The most ex- tensive general work on Fishes is by Cuvier and Valenciennes, while in this country the works of Sir John Richardson, and Messrs. Yarrell and Lowe, are well worthy of study.] FLAMINGO. (Phcenicopterm.) Tliis is one of the most remarkable of all the aquatic birds for its size, beauty, and, as some say, also for the delicacy of its flesh. The body of the Flamingo is smaller than that of the Stork ; but, owing to the great length of the neck and legs, it stands nearly five feet high ; and measures six feet from the point of the beak to the tip of the claws. The head is small and round, and furnished with a bill nearly seven inches long, which is higher than it is wide, light and hollow, having a membrane at the base, and suddeniy curved downwards from the middle. The long legs and thighs of this bird are extremely slender and delicate, as is also the neck. The plu- mage is not less remarkable than its figure, being of a bright scarlet. The young differ greatly from the adult, changing their plu- mage frequently, and which does not become fully coloured till the third year. Flamin- goes inhabit the warm climates of Asia, Africa, and America : they live and migrate iu large flocks, frequenting desert sea-coasts and salt marshes. They are extremely shy and watchful : while feeding, they keep together, drawn up artificially in lines, which at a distance resemble those of an army ; and, like many other gregarious birds, they employ some to act as sentinels, for the se- curity of the rest. On the approach of danger, these give warning by a loud sound, like that of a trumpet, which is the signal for the flock to take wing ; and when flying they form a triangle. Their food appears to be molluscous ani- mals, spawn, and insects, which they fish up by means of their long neck, turning their head in such a manner as to take advantage of the crook in their beak. Their nest is of a singular construction : it is formed of mud in the shape of a hillock, with a cavity at the top, and of such a height as to admit of the bird's sitting on it, or rather standing, her long legs being placed one on each side at full length ; thus situated, the female generally lays two or three white eggs some- what larger than those of a goose. The young do not fly until they have nearly at- tained their full growth, though they can run very swiftly a few days after their exclu- sion from the shell. In some parts these birds are tamed, principally for the sake of their skins, which are covered with a very fine down, and applicable to all purposes for which those of the swan are employed. When taken young, they soon grow familiar; but they are not found to thrive in the do- mesticated state, as they are extremely im- patient of cold, and apt to decline from the want of their natural food. They are caught by snares, or by making use of tame ones. There are two species : 1. Phcenicopteinis an- tiquorum ; which is of a rose colour, witli red wings, the quills being black : these inhabit the warm regions of the old continent, mi- grating in summer to southern, and some- times to central Europe : these beautiful birds were much esteemed by the Romans, who often used them in their grand sacrifices and sumptuous entertainments ; and such of the luxurious emperors as wished to indulge in the very excess of epicurism, were wont to gratify their guests with a dish of Fla- mingos' tongues ! 2. Phrenicopterus ruber; deep red ; with block quills ; which are pe- culiar to tropical America, migrating in the summer to the southern, but rarely to the middle states. Some interesting particulars of this species are given by Mr. Gosse's correspondent, Mr. Hill, who observes that when he visited the island of Cuba he had excellent oportunities of noticing their habits that he was much among the marshes and swamps where the floods of the river and the sea form lakelets, and successively deposit their stores of living atoms, with the rising and falling tides. " Here the Flamingos flock and feed. They arrange themselves in what seem to be lines, in consequence of their finding their food along the edges of these shallows ; and though it is true that whilst their heads are down, and they are cluttering with their bills in the water, they have one of their number on the watch, standing erect, with his long neck turning round to every point, ready to sound the alarm on the apprehension of danger, what appears to be a studied distribution of themselves back to back, as some observers describe their arrangement, is nothing but their regardlessly turning about in their places, inwardly and outwardly, at a time when all are intent on making the most of the stores which the prolific waters are yield- ing." Speaking of a pair of Flamingos which had been captured, and were kept on board the vessel he was in on the coast, he says, " I was struck with their attitudes, with the excellent adaptation of their two-fold character of waders and swimmers ; to their habits, while standing and feeding in the sort of shoal which we made them in a large tub upon deck. We were here able to observe their natural gait and action. With a firm erectuess, like a man treading a wine-press, 238 Ercatfurjj of Batumi $ they trod and stirred the mashed biscuits, and junked fish, with which we fed them; and plied their long lithe necks, scooping with their heads reversed, and bent inwardly towards their trampling feet. The bill being crooked, and flattened for accommodation to this reversed mode of feeding, when the head is thrust down into the mud-shoals and the sand drifts, the upper bill alone touches the ground. The structure of the tongue, of which Professor Owen has given so minute and interesting a description, is admirably adapted for a mode of feeding altogether pe- culiar. The spines with which the upper surface is armed, are arranged in an irre- gular and alternate series, and act with the notches on the edge of the upper mandible, on which they press when the bird feeds with the head reversed. In this reversed position, the weight and size of the tongue becomes a very efficient instrument for en- trapping the food. The bird muddles, and clutters the bill, and dabbles about, and the tongue receives and holds as a strainer what- ever the water offers of food. There is no- thing of the Heron character in the Fla- mingo. Extraordinary length of neck and legs is common to both, but a firm erect posture is its ordinary standing attitude. The neck is never curved inward and out- ward, convex and concave, like a Crane's, but its movements are in long sweeping curves, which are pe_euliarly pleasing, when the bird is preening its plumage." FLEA. (Pulex irritants.) The common Flea, a troublesome insect of the order Apha- niptera, is well known in every quarter of the globe for its agility, its caution, and its in- vincible pertinacity in feasting on the blood of man and various animals. Like the major part of the Insect race of other tribes, the Flea is produced from an egg, in the form of a minute worm or larva, which changes to a chrysalis, in order to give birth to the perfect animal. The female drops her eggs, at distant intervals, in any favour- able situation : they are very small, of an oval shape, of a white colour, and a polished surface. From these, in the space of six days, are hatched the larvae, which are des- titute of feet, of a lengthened, worm-like shape, beset with distant hairs ; the head furnished with a pair of short antennae, and the tail with a pair of slightly curved forks or holders ; their colour is white, with a red- dish cast, and their motions quick and tor- tuous. In the course of ten or twelve days they attain their full growth, and are then nearly a quarter of an inch long : at this period they cease to feed, and, casting their skin, change to an oval-shaped chrysalis, exhibiting the immature limbs of the in- cluded insect, which in twelve days emerges in its perfect form : in winter, however, the time required for this evolution is consider- ably more. It now begins to exert its lively motions, and employs its sharp proboscis in obtaining nourishment from the juices of the first bird or quadruped to which it can gain access. Nothing can exceed the po- lished elegance of the shelly armour with which the Flea is covered, or the elasticity of its surprising leaps. When examined with a microscope it will be observed to have a small head, large eyes, and a roundish body : it has two short hairy antenna;, com- posed of five joints ; and at a small distance beneath these is the proboscis, which is strong, sharp-pointed, tubular, and placed between a pair of jointed guards or sheaths. Its suit of sable armour appears to be neatly jointed, and beset with a multitude of sharp spines. Its legs are six in number ; the joints of which are so adapted, that it can fold them up one within another, and in leaping they all spring out with prodigious force. [See CHEOOE.] FLITTERMOUSE. [See BAT.] FLOUNDER. (PUuroncctes flesus.) A well-known flat-fish, very similar to the Plaice, but generally smaller and of more obscure colours ; the upper side being of a dull brown, and the under of a dull white : the body is covered with very small scales, and along the back runs a row of small sharp spines : the tail is slightly rounded. The Flounder is an inhabitant of the Northern, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas ; it is also very common about our own coasts : and it even frequents our rivers at a great distance from the salt water. Though inferior to some others of the genus, its flesh is iu con- siderable esteem. ir/OONDER. (PLEURONECTES TLESUS.) The ARGUS FLOUNDER (Plenronc.ctcs Ar- gus') is a very elegant species, native of the American seas, and of the same general form with the Turbot. It is of a yellowish white colour on the upper side, marked by numerous eye-shaped spots, consisting of bright blue circles with yellow centres : the whole skin is also marked both on the body and fins with small blue and brown specks, and is covered with small scales : the under side is of a whitish or pale gray colour : the lateral line is arched over the pectoral fins, and is thence continued straight to the tail, which is rounded at the tip. FLUSTR A. A genus of Corallines, found at the bottom of the sea on certain coasts, some parts being covered with them, but met with more especially on hard ground, in a few fathoms water. Their generic name is derived from the Saxon Flustrian, to weave : hence they arc familiarly termed sea-mats. They consist of calcareous branches, sometimes forming leaves or sterns, with numerous cells, united in clusters like a honeycomb. The aperture of the cells is formed by a semicircular lid, convex ex- ternally and concave internally, which folds Papular Bfrtt'auarn of ftntmatgtt ^attire. 239 down when the polypus is about to advance from the cell ; and, it is said, the lid of the cells opens and shuts without the slightest perceptible synchronous motion of the polypi. Some species have cells on one side of the leaves only. In the most plant-like of them there is no substance in the least E SHA-MAT. (FTAJSTRA FOLTACEA.) resembling that of the plants with which they agree most in form, nor is there any substance similar to theirs in the most ana- logous of the true vegetables ; they are often, however, called " white sea-weeds." In Dr. George Johnstone's admirable " History of British Zoophytes," we read as follows : " When recent it exhales a pleasant scent, which Pallas compares to that of the orange, Dr. Grant to that of violets, and which a friend tells me smells to him like a mixture of the odour of roses and geranium. On the contrary, Mr. Patterson tells me that the smell is strong, peculiar, and disagree- able. It probably varies, and is often not to be perceived at all." From the same authentic source we derive the following information respecting another species, Flustra membranacea ; the cells of which are oblong, with a short blunt spine at each comer. It is thus described : "Polypidom forming a gauze-like incrus- tation on the frond of the sea-weed, spread- ing irregularly to the extent of several square inches, in general thin and closely adherent, but sometimes becoming thickish, and then capable of being detached in con- siderable portions ; cells very obvious to the naked eye, oblong, quadrangular, with a blunt hollow spine at each angle. In many specimens there are some anomalous pro- cesses, a quarter of an inch in height, scat- tered over the surface : they arise from within the cells, are simple, horny, and tubular, but closed at top. When the poly- pes are all protruded, they form a beautiful object under the microscope, from their numbers, their delicacy, the regularity of their disposition, and the vivacity of their motions, now expanding their tentacula into a beautiful campanulate figure, now contracting the circle, and ever and anon retreating within the shelter of their cells. The tentacula are numerous, filiform, white, and in a single series. The Rev. David Landsborough has seen a specimen (and I have seen its equal, Dr. J. remarks) of F. membranacea five feet in length by eight inches in breadth. " As every little cell had been inhabited by a living polype, by counting the cells on a square inch, I calculated that this web of silvery lace had l>een the work and the habitation of above two millions of industrious, and, we doubt not, happy inmates ; so that this single colony on a submarine island was about equal in number to the population of Scot- land." FLY. A name of very general application to insects furnished with wings ; but pro- perly restricted to the numerous genus Musca. The stroner resemblance which exists among all the species of the Fly tribe, together with their small size, makes it difficult to discri- minate them readily ; but the general and most obvious character of Flies, by which they are distinguished from other winged insects, is in their having transparent and naked wings, totally free from the farina or dust visible on those of butterflies, and in having no cases or covers for them. Thus, by this simple character, they are clearly distinguished from the butterfly, the beetle, the grasshopper, &c. The principal parts or members of which Flies are composed are the head, the thorax, the body, and the wings ; from the number of the latter the most obvious distinction for a systematic arrangement of them is drawn. [See Mus- CIDJE.] FLYCATCHERS. (Mvscicapidce.) This very numerous family, which receives its po- pular name from the expertness of the indivi- duals composing it in catching the flying in- sects upon which they feed, is found widely diffused throughout both the eastern and western continents ; and includes many of the most beautiful of the feathered tribes. The general habits of the Flycatchers are those of the shrikes, and, according to their size, they prey on small birds or insects. They have the beak horizontally depressed and armed with bristles at its base, with the point more or less decurved and emarginated. Those which are called " Tyrant Flycatch- ers" (Tyrannus) are American birds, of a large size and very spirited ; they have a long, straight, and very stout bill ; the ridge of the upper mandible straight and blunt, its point abruptly hooked : while the species which inhabit Europe, and come under the denomination of " Restricted Flycatchers " (Mnscicapa), have shorter bristles at the gape, and the bill much more slender, though still depressed, with an acute edge above, and the point a little curved downward. There are, however, only two small species which inhabit this country. The GREY or SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. (Muscicapa ffrisoJa.) This bird is nearly five inches and three quarters in length ; bill broad, flattened, and wide at the base, where it is beset with a few short bristles ; a ridge runs along the upper mandible ; both that and the under one are dusky at the tips, and the latter is yellowish towards the base: all the upper plumage is of a mouse colour, darkest on the wings and tail ; head and neck more or less obscurely spotted with 240 Crra&iru of f}atttral ^t^t dark brown ; the wing coverts, secondary quills, and scapulars, also dark brown, j edged with dingy white ; under parts very I pale ash, tinged with rufous on the sides and breast, the latter being marked with SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. (MdSCICAPA. ORISOL.A..) streaks of brown : the legs are short, and darkish. Of all our summer birds the Fly- catcher is the most mute. It visits this island in the spring, and disappears in Sep- tember. The female builds her nest com- monly in gardens, on any projecting stone in a wall, or on the end of a beam, screened by the leaves of a vine, sweet-briar, or wood- bine, and sometimes close to the post of a door, where people are going in and out all day long. The nest is rather carelessly made of moss and dried grass, mixed in the inside with some wool and a few hairs. She lays four or five eggs, of a dull white, closely spotted ,and blotched with rusty red. This bird feeds on insects, for which it sits watch- ing on a branch or a post, suddenly dropping down upon them, and catching them on the wing, and immediately rising, returns again to its station to wait for more. After the young have quitted the nest, the parent birds follow them from tree to tree, and watch them with the most sedulous attention. They feed them with the flies which flutter among the boughs beneath ; or, pursuing their insect prey with a quick irregular kind of flight, like that of a butterfly, to a greater distance, they immediately return as before described. Mr. Knapp says, " We have perhaps no bird more attached to peculiar situations than the GreyFlycatcher(Jfjwcicapafir?-tso7a)j one pair, or their descendants, frequenting year after year the same hole in the wall, or the same branch on the vine or the plum. I once knew a pair of these birds bring off two broods in one season from the same nest. This Flycatcher delights in emi- nences. The naked spray of a tree, or pro- jecting stone in a building, or even a tall stick in the very middle of the grass-plot, is sure to attract its attention, as affording an uninterrupted view of its winged prey ; and from this it will be in constant activity a whole summer's day, capturing its food, and returning to swallow it." The PIED FLYCATCHER. (Mitscicapa luc- tuosa.) This species is found in Sweden, Russia, and sometimes in this country ; its distribution here, however, being almost con- fined to " the lakes " in the north of England. The beak is black ; the forehead white; crown of the head, and all the upper parts, black ; the lesser wing-coverts and the greater coverts of the primaries are dusky ; the first six quills are wholly dusky, the rest white at the base : the under parts of the bird are white ; the tail is dusky black ; and the legs are black. There is, however, occasionally great variety in their markings. It frequents wild and uncultivated tracts of furze, and open heaths ; and constructs its nest in the hole of a tree. The female lays five very pale blue eggs. The RKD-EYED FLYCATCHER. (Miis- cicapa olivacca.') This species is a native of the southern provinces of North America, and is also found in many of the West India islands, particularly Jamaica, where it is called Wldp-Tom-KeUy, from a fancied resemblance of its note to those words. The head, neck, and back are olive brown ; the wing-coverts and quills are edged with green, as is also the tail ; the feathers dull brown above and greyish beneath : from the beak passing ever the eyes and terminating on the hind head is a reddish white line : the under parts of the body are pale white, irregularly spotted with pale yellow ; beak and feet brown. Mr. Gosse, in describing this species in his "Birds of Jamaica," says he can scarcely understand how the call can be written Wliip-Tom-Kdly, as the accent is most energetically on the last syllable. The familiar name which he gives to it is John- to-whit ; and says that sounds closely re- sembling those words are uttered by this bird with incessant iteration and untir- ing energy from every grove, nay almost from every tree. Its food, he observes, is both animal and vegetable ; for in its stomach he has found seeds of the Tropic birch, and the berries of sweet-wood, and has also observed it jumping out from its umbrageous retreat after stationary, as well as vagrant, prey, " Incubation takes place in June and July. The nest is rather a neat structure, though made of coarse materials. It is a deep cup, about as large as an ordi- nary tea-cup, narrowed at the mouth ; com- posed of dried grass, intermixed with silk- cotton, and, sparingly, with lichen and spiders' nests, and lined with thatch-threads. It is usually suspended between two twigs, or in the fork of one, the margin being over- woven, so as to embrace the twigs. This is very neatly performed. Specimens vary much in beauty. The eggs, commonly three in number, are delicately white, with a few small red-brown spots thinly scattered over the surface, sometimes very minute and few." The CAYENXE FLYCATCHER. (Tityra Cayanensis.) A beautiful s_pecies, above | seven inches in length, which inhabits Cay- ! enne and St. Domingo. The crown of the ! head is a brown yellow ; and from the beak, ' which is dusky, to the hind part of the head, j is a white streak : all the upper parts of the popular Sicttonavi? of Slmnmtrtr gtatur*. 241 body are brown, the feathers lighter on their margins ; the wing-coverts and the upper ones of the tail are brown, their edges rufous: the chin is white, and the rest of the under parts bright yellow : quills and tail brown. PARADISE FLYCATCHER. (Afuscipeta Pa- rndisi.) A singular bird, measuring upwards of twenty inches long, owing ring to its dispro- feet ; but I have known them come on board at a height of fourteen feet and upwards ; and they have been well ascertained to come into channels of a line-of-battle ship, which is considered as high as twenty feet and upwards. But it must not be supposed they have the power of elevating themselves in the air after having left their native element; for, on watcliing them, I have often seen them fall much below the elevation at which :ong, portioned tail, which is generally about fourteen inches. Its head, hind part of the neck, and throat, are greenish black ; the feathers on the former are very long, and form a crest : the back, rump, wing-coverts, and tail-feathers are white ; the greater coverts and quills black, fringed with white; the fore part of the neck, and all the under parts of the body, pure white ; tail cunei- form ; legs ash-coloured. This bird is found in the southern parts of Africa, frequenting the borders of rivers, where its insect food is nost abundant. SWALLOW-TAILKD FLYCATCHER. (Mvtti- voraforficatn.') This bird, whose distinctive appellation is derived from its forked tail, is J fins, and in this manner continue their ten inches in length, of which the tail forms flights for several hundred yards, often pur- one half. The colour of the beak is black ; ! mtd by marine birds in the element to the head and back are light grey, slightly which they are driven for protection against tinged with red ; the under parts of the body sefromthe watebut neveMn non e instance could I observe them rise from the height nt which they first sprang ( for I regard the elevation they first take to depend on the power of the first spring or leap they make on leaving their native ele- ment." In tropical seas the Flying-fish rise from water in flocks, or, more properly, shoals, of hundreds at a time, when disturbed by the passing of a ship, or pursued by their invete- rate foe, the dolphin. They spring from the crest of a wave, and, darting forward, plunge nto another, to wet the membrane of the white ; beneath the wing red ; the wing- ing- coverts ash-colour ; ami the quills blnck, edged with gray. It inhabits Mexico. [See TYUANXUS: RHIPIDUUAS ONYCIIOKHYNCUS.] FLYING-FISH. (Exocetus.) By the extraordinary length and size of their pec- toral fins, the fishes of this genus are enabled to spring occasionally from the water, and to support a kind of temporary flight through the air : hence their name. It is evident, however, that their " flights" are chiefly per- formed for the purpose of escaping from the jaws of the dolphin, and other predaceous fishes, which are constantly pursuing them. Mr. Gosse, in his admirably graphic "Natu- ralist's Sojourn in Jamaica"," has shown that they can (Mrcct and change their flight. The following account cannot, therefore, be en- tirely depended on : " I have never," observes Mr. (I. Bennett, the author of ' Wanderings in New South \Yulcs,' "been able to see any percussion of the pectoral flns during flight, and the greatest length of time I have seen this volatile fish on the fin has been thirty seconds by the watch, and their longest flight mentioned by Captain Hall has been 200 yards ; but he thinks that subsequent observation has extended the space. The most usual height of flight, as seen above the surface of the water, is from two to three the tyrants of their own Gardner, in his 'Travels in Bra/il,' confirms Humboldt's assertion, (denied by Cuvicr,) that the Fly- ing-fish uses its pectoral flns as wings during the time it remains above water. The distinguishing characters of the gcnua are pectoral fins nearly equal to the body in length ; head flattened above and 011 the fides ; the lower part of the body furnished with a longitudinal series of carinated scales on each side ; dorsal fin placed above the anal : eyes large ; jaws furnished with small pointed" teeth. There are but very few of the genus. The MEDITERRANEAN FLYING-FISH (_Exo- cetus exiliens) runs from ten to fifteen inches in length, its general shape resembling that of a herring : the head is rather large, and sloping pretty suddenly in front ; the eyes large, and of a silver colour, with a cast of gold ; the scales are large, thin, and rounded ; and the whole fish is of a bright silvery cast, with a blue or dusky tinge on the upper part. The pectoral fins are of a sharply lanceolate form, and extend as far as the beginning of the tail ; the dorsal and anal fins are shallow, and placed opposite each other near the tail, which is deeply forked with sharp-pointed lobes, the lower being nearly twice the length of the upper ( the ventral fins, which are rather large and long, are situated behind the middle of the body. OCEANIC FLYING-FISH. (Exocetus voli- tans.) This species is somewhat more slen- der, and the head less sloping than the pre- ceding, though from its general resemblance it might be easily mistaken for it ; but the principal difference arises from the ventral fins being seated near the pectoral ones, and from their being much smaller and of a slightly lunated form. This species is of a iligl bright silver colour, gradually deepenin into purplish brown on the back, the dorsa and anal yellowish, and the ventral fins and ing rsal h24 (Erras'ttrji of $tetarn ; I tail reddish. It is a native of the Indian and American seas ; but it is also sometimes found in the Mediterranean, and some soli- tary instances occur of its having been seen about our own coasts. In the Gulf of Mexico i are found some species with curious append- ! ages or filaments attached to the lower jaw. The air-bladder in this, and doubtless in 1 thc rest of the genus, is very large. FLYING SQUIRREL. (Ptcromys.) A genus of rodent mammalia, distinguished from the common Squirrels by the extension 1 of the skin of thc flank between the fore and hind legs, which gives them the power of supporting themselves a short time in thc air, and of making immense leaps. The feet have long bony appendages, which help to support this lateral membrane. To this genus belongs the common Flying Squirrel ( ftct-omgs voraw), which is chiefly found in the most northern regions, and abounds in the birch and pine woods of Siberia in par- ticular. Its colour on the upper parts is a pale grev, and on the under parts milk- white. It measures about six inches and a (Ptf- | This species differs from I The VIRGINIAN FLY rowi/s rolxcilld.) the preceding both in size and colour. Its general length is five inches to the tail, which measures about four inches ; the colour being a subferrujjinous brown above, and yellowish (PTEROMYS VOLDCELL white beneath ; and the edges of the '.lying- . membrane are of a darker tinge than the quarter in length, from the nose to the tail, ' lvst of the fur , contrasting with the white the latter being shorter than the body, 1)onlor of thc ull(lor , )art . 8 ^ he tail is of a thickly furred, of a slightly flattened form, \ similar colour to thc b odv, with thc hair and rounded at the extremity. Its manner | 61 , rCttl u nK towards each side, and the cxtrc- of flight, or rather springing, is performed : mitv somow hat sharpened. Tlie eyes are by means of an expansile furry membrane, hln ; and the earg rat ], er short, " almost reaching from the fore feet to the hind ; and , nn! : eil , uul ^inly rounded. It is a native in order the better to manage this part, the I of the tcnnw riitc parts of North America; thumb of the fore feet is stretched out to a anil bcini , u ^ allt iful little animal and rea- considerable length within the membrane, so as to appear in the skeleton like a long bony process on each side of the fore feet. The Flying Squirrel generally resides in the hollows of trees towards the upper part ; dily tamed, is frequently kept in a state of captivity : it feeds on various fruits, nuts, almonds,c., and shows a considerable degree of attachment to its possessor. It is natu- rally of a gregarious disposition, and may --, " , A *T . nuiv 01 u urvuur luuis uuyuviuvui wnu mj preparing its nest of the finer mosses. It is bc s ' L , en fl vm ,, to t h e number of ten or twelve " ' 5 " 1 ""' - ""'" -" '~ ' together/from tree to tree. Like the former u solitary animal, and is only seen in pairs during the breeding season. It rarely makes its appearance by day, emerging only at the commencement of twilight, when it may be seen elimhing about the trees, and darting with great velocity from one to the other. It feeds on the young buds and catkins of the birch and pine, &e. ; and in the winter it leaves its nest only in mild weather, but does not become torpid during that season. This animal readily springs, or, as it were, swiftly sails, to the distance of twenty fa- thoms or more, and thus passes from one tree to another, always directing its flight obliquely downwards. It very rarely de- scends to the surface, and, when taken and placed on the ground, runs or springs some- what awkwardly, with its tail elevated, be- ginning to climb with great activity as soon as it reaches a tree. If thrown from a height, it immediately spreads its membranes, and, balancing itself, endeavours to direct its motion by the assistance of thc tail. The speeies, it is chiefly nocturnal in its habits it prepares its nest in the hollows of trees, with moss, leaves, &c. ; several often in- habiting the same retreat. They are capable of swimming, in ease of necessity, in the man- ner of other quadrupeds, and, after leaving thc water, can exert their power of flight as before. FOOTMAN [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to different speeies of Moths, of the genera Euiepia and Lilhosia. FORAMENIFERA. A term given by con- chologists to denote a class of minute many- chambered internal shells, which have no open chamber beyond the last partition. FORFICULA. [See EARWIG.] FORMICA. [See ANT.] FORMICID^E. A family of Hymenop- rous insects, composed of the well-known two to four in number : they are at | and highly interesting tribes of Ants; but ' elud'ii Cng arc produced early in May, and are j terous insects, composed of the well-known n two to four in number: they are at j and highly interesting tribes of Ants; bu first blind, and nearly void of hair ; and the j not including the still more singular Ternri parent fosters them by covering them with \ tj'doc, or White Ants, (with which they must her flying-membrane. In their manner of | not be confounded). Both are full of in- sitting and feeding, as well as in the action terest, and worthy of the most careful in- of washing their face with their paws, &c., \ vestigation ; and to each we have accordingly the Flying Squirrel resembles the common devoted no inconsiderable space. [See AST : DRIVER-ANT.] popular iBt'cttcmari) of &mmatclr feature. 243 FOSSANE. (Viverrafusga.) An animal of the Weasel tribe, nearly allied to the Genet, which it greatly resembles : its colours, however, are somewhat bolder, and its rows of spots along the sides more regu- larly disposed : the under part of the body is of a dingy white ; and the tail is annu- lated with black and white. This animal is said to be possessed of considerable fierce- ness, destroying poultry, &c., in the manner of the common weasel. It is a native of Madagascar, Guinea, Cochin-Chiua, &c. FOSSORES. An extensive group of Hymenopterous insects, forming a subsection of the Aculeata. They are solitary in their habits ; and most of the species are organized for excavating cells in earth or wood, in which they bury other insects in a wounded and feeble state, and at the same time de- posit their eggs ; so that the larvae, when their sustenance. The basal joint of the posterior tarsi not being enlarged, the legs are not fitted for carrying pollen, neither is the body clothed with hairs, requisite for its transport. Some species, the structure of whose legs is not adapted for burrowing, are parasitic, and, like the cuckoo among birds, lay their eggs in the nests of other species, at whose expense the young are reared. When full grown, these lame spin a cocoon, in which they pass the pupa state. The perfect insects are generally very active, and loud of the nectar of flowers, especially those of the Umbclliienc. The work of Mr. W. E. Slmckard on the British Fossorial Ilymen- optera is very highly esteemed by Entomo- logists, and we recommend it to those de- sirous of studying the British species, often endowed with such wonderfully interesting habits. FOWL. This term, when taken in a general sense, is of similar import with Birds ; but, in a limited view, it more pe- culiarly signifies the larger kind of birds, both wild and domestic, which are either reared or pursued for the purposes of food. In this sense, Fowl includes all the denizens of the poultry yard, with pheasants, par- tridges, and all other kinds of winged game. FOX. (Cants vuJpee.) Of all beasts of prey, the Fox is considered to be the most crafty and sagacious, whether in obtaining food or in eluding pursuit. They appear to be pretty generally diffused throughout all the northern and temperate parts of the globe ; occurring with numerous varieties, as to colour and size, in most parts of Europe, the north of Asia, and America. The Fox has a broad head, a sharp snout, a flat fore- head, obliquely seated eyes, sharp erect ears, an elongated body well covered with hair, proportionally short limbs, and a straight busliy tail, so long that when pendent it touches the ground. The general colour is a yellow-brown ; and on the forehead, shoulders, hind part of the back, as far as the beginning of the tail, and outside of the hind legs, it is a little mixed with white or ash-colour : the lips, cheek, and throat are white, and a white stripe runs along the under side of the legs ; the tips of the ears and the feet are black : the tail a reddish-yellow, mixed with a blackish tinge, and internally brownish yellow-white, with a blackish cast ; the tip milk white. The Fox varies considerably in size, but in general measures about three feet six inches from the snout to the end of the tail, of which the latter is sixteen inches ; and liquity and quickness of the eye, the sharp shrewd-looking muzzle, and the erect ears, afford the most unequivocal indications of that mingled acuteness and fraud which have long rendered it a by-word and a proverb ; for it is well-known that this cha- racter of its physiognomy is not falsified by the animal's real propensities and ha- bits." The Fox prepares for himself a convenient den in which he lies concealed during the greater part of the day : this he sometimes obtains by dispossessing the badger of his hole ; at other times by forming his own burrow ; but it is always so contrived as to afford the best security to the occupant, by being situated under hard ground, the roots of trees, &c., and is furnished with proper outlets through which he may escape when hard pressed by his hunters. Prudent, pa- tient, and vigilant, he waits the opportunity of depredation, and varies his conduct on every occasion. His domicile is generally at the edge of a wood, and yet within a con- venient distance of some farm-house: from thence he listens to the crowing of the cock, and the cackling of the domestic fowls ; then, concealing his approaches, he creeps stealthily along, attacks his prey, and seldom returns without his booty. Poultry, phea- sants, partridges, small birds, leverets, and rabbits are his favourite objects : but he is also fond of certain berries and fruits, and can occasionally make a meal of field-mice, frogs, newts, &c. The Fox seems to be wholly devoid of that instinct of gratitude which characterizes the Dog, and is even ackal ; nay, what- ever kindness may be shown him when in a found in the Wolf and J state of confinement, he is still sly, timid and suspicious ; insusceptible, as it would seem, of any kind of attachment. His voice is a kind of yelp, or stifled bark, and his bite is very severe and dangerous. There is no animal that affords more di- version to the huntsman, or that gives him more occupation, than the Fox. When he finds himself pursued, he usually makes for his hole, and, penetrating to the bottom, lies quiet till a terrier is sent in to him ; but T 2 244 Crcas'tirn flf JMural should his den be under a rock or the roots of trees, he is safe, for the terrier is no match for him there, and he cannot be dug out. When, as is generally practised, the retreat to his den is cut off, his stratagems and shifts to escape are various. He always seeks the most woody parts of the country, and prefers such paths as are most embarrassed by thorns and briars : he runs in a direct line before the hounds, and at no great dis- tance from them ; and when overtaken, lie defends himself with desperate and silent obstinacy. The fetid odour of the Fox is intolerable : his sight is keen ; and he pos- sesses astonishing acuteness of smell. The time of gestation is about sixty-three days ; and while the female is suckling her young, nothing can exceed her courage and bold- ness. The Fox, unmolested, will live twelve or fourteen years. In the first year he is called a cub ; the second, a Fox ; and the third, an old Fox : he is eighteen months, or nearly two years old, before he arrives at full maturity. The skin makes a warm and soft fur, and is therefore used for muffs, linings, &c. ARCTIC Fox. (Cam's lagopus.) This species is smaller than the common Fox, with a sharp nose, and short rounded ears, almost hid in its fur ; the legs are short, and the toes are covered both above and below with a very thick soft fur : the tail is shorter than that of the common Fox, but more bushy. It inhabits the countries bordering on the Frozen Ocean in both continents. At the approach of winter their coat of hair becomes thick and ragged ; till at length it grows perfectly white, changing colour last oil the ridge of the back and tip of the tail. ARCTIC FOX. (CANTS [VOLPES] I.AOOPDS.) This species preys upon various small quad- rupeds, such as hares, marmots, &c., as well as upon all kinds of water-fowl and their eggs ; also, when necessity urges, on the carcasses of fish left on shore, shell-fish, or whatsoever the sea throws up. Mr. Pennant says, that in Spitzbergen and Greenland, where the ground is eternally frozen, they live in the clefts of rocks, two or th/ee in- habiting the same hole. They swim well, and often cross from island to island in search of prey. They are tame and inoffen- sive animals ; and are killed for the sake of their skins, both in Asia and Hudson's Bay: but though the fur is light and warm, it is i not durable. The Greenlanders take them | cither in pitfalls dug in the snow, and baited Ti fish ; or in springs made with whale- bone laid over a hole made in the snow, strewed over at bottom with fish ; or in traps similarly baited. The arctic travellers and voyagers, Dr. Sir John Richardson, Captains Tarry, Franklin, Ross, Lyon, Back, and Simpson, refer much in their narratives to this inhabitant of snow-covered countries ; and those familiar with their writings can- not but sympathize with their regard for the limited number of animals and plants hich they met with in these dreary wastes. One of the most active, and certainly one i of the prettiest, was the White Arctic Fox ! described above. f "' ANTARCTIC Fox. (Cam's Antarcticus.) This species is found in the Falkland Isles, near the extremity of South America, and is about one-third larger than the Arctic Fox ; has much the appearance of the wolf in its ears, tail, and the strength of its limbs ; whence the French call it Loup-renard, or the Wolf-fox. The head and body are of a cinereous brown hue, the hair being more woolly than that of the common Fox ; the legs are dashed with rust-colour ; the tail dusky, more bushy, and shorter than that of the common Fox, and tipped with white. It resides near the shores, kennels like the rest of its kind, and forms regular paths from one bay to another, probably for the convenience of surprising water- fowl, on which it principally subsists. It is a tame, fetid animal, and barks like a dog. BLACK or SILVERY Fox. (Canis anjen- tatus.) This species inhabits the northern parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and is only distinguishable from the common Fox ERY FOX. (CAN EUJi NTiTOS.) by its copious and beautiful fur, which, parti- cularly in the Asiatic, one, is of a rich and shining black or deep brown colour, with the longer or exterior hairs of a silvery white, giving a highly elegant appearance to the animal, and rendering its fur more valuable than that of almost any other quadruped. RED Fox. (Canis fulvus.) This species is found throughout North America ; its general colour is bright ferruginous on the head, back, and sides : beneath the chin it is white, whilst the throat and neck are of a , dark grey : the under parts of the body i towards the tail are a very pale red. The skins arc much sought for, and employed in various manufactures. Popular Btctionarj? of &mmatrtr $ature. 245 CROSSED Fox. (Cunis decussatus.) The colour of this animal's fur is a sort of gray, resulting from the mixture of black and white hair. He has a black cross on his shoulders, from which he derives his name. The muzzle, lower parts of the body, and the feet are black ; the end of the tail is white. It inhabits the northern parts of America ; and it has been suggested as pro- bable that it is only a variety of the Black Fox. COURAC Fox. (Cants Corsac.) This animal, which inhabits the vast plains of Tartary, is, in summer, of a clear yellow- ferruginous colour : in winter, mixed or lhaded with giey, deeper on the back, white on the belly, and reddish on the feet i the eyes are surrounded with a border of white ; and a brownish stripe runs from them down the nose : the ears are short ; the tail almost as long as the body, both the base and tip being blackish. It commits great ravages among the game ; is hunted with falcons and dogs ; and it is said that not less than forty or fifty thousand are annually taken, sold' to the Russians, and a vast number of them sent into Turkey. SWIFT Fox. (Canfs refer.) This beau- tiful little animal, which is much smaller than any other species, is distinguished by its extraordinary speed, which, it is asserted, surpasses the fleetest antelope, and seems rather to fly than touch the ground in its course. Its body is slender, and the tail rather long, cylindrical, and black : the hair is fine, dense, and soft. FOX-HOUND. Among those manly and exhilarating field sports for which " Old England " has so long been famous, fox- hunting justly claims pre-eminence ; and in the annals of the chase numerous instances of speed, courage, and perseverance are to be found which may well be ranked among the marvellous. With this part of the sub- ject, however, we have no legitimate busi- ness, but merely allude to it, in order to account for the extraordinary care and attention which, for centuries, have been be- stowed on this peculiar breed of dogs a breed in which are combined, in the liighest possible degree of excellence, fleetness, strength, spirit, fine scent, perseverance, and subordination. The Fox-hound is much smaller than the Stag-hound, his average height being from twenty to twenty-two inches ; but in all the requisites for hunting he is unrivalled. To be perfect, we are told, " his legs should be straight as arrows ; his feet round and not too large ; his shoulders black ; his breast rather wide than narrow ; his chest deep ; his back broad ; his head small i his neck thin ; Ms tail thick and bushy, and well carried." FRANCOLIN. The birds which are thus designated bear so great a resemblance to the Partridge, that many naturalists include them in the genus 1'crdix; but there are others who say that the Francolins are dis- tinguished from the Partridges by the beak being longer and stronger ; the tail is also longer, &c. In the manners of the birds also there is a great dissimilarity, the Francolins residing in damp places and perching upon trees, whereas Partridges always rest upon the ground. The COMMON FRANCOLIN (FrancoUnm vuJfiaris) is upwards of twelve inches in length : the upper parts of the head, hind part of the neck, back, and wing-coverts are varied with dusky and yellowish rust- colour ; the sides of the head, neck, breast, and belly are black ; round the neck is a rusty orange collar ; the sides of the neck, breast, and body are black, varied with spots of white ; the lower part of the belly and thighs striped with black ; the lower part of the back and rump crossed with alternate lines of black and yellowish white : the quills dusky, marked with transverse rusty yellow spots : toil rounded, the four middle feathers alternately striped with black and rusty yellow ; the others on each side, with black and white for two-thirds of their length ; the rest black to the tip : legs reddish, and furnished with a spur. This elegant species is found throughout all the warmer parts of Europe ; other allied spe- cies are met with arts is a dusky olive, somewhat irregu- arly marked with numerous dark brown spots ; the under parts being of a whitish cast tinged with green, and thickly spotted. The fore feet have only four toes, and are umvebbed, but the hind feet, which are large and long, are very widely webbed. The irides of the eyes are red, surrounded with a narrow border of yellow : the external membranes of the ears are large and round, of a reddish brown colour, and surrounded 1a pale yellow or whitish margin. In r. Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, we are told that this species frequents springs only, where, by the continual running of the'water a small pond or hole is usually j made before the mouth of the spring, which is rarely without a pair of these Frogs, who I when surprised, with a long leap or two ! enter the mouth of the spring, where they are secure. He adds, that it is commonly be- lieved that they keep the springs clean, and purify the water, and therefore the general prejudice is in their favour, although they are great devourers of young ducks and goslings, which they often swallow whole. The ARGUS FKOG (Rana ocellata) is also a native of several parts of North America, choosing moist situations, as the neighbour- hood of springs and rivulets. In size it dif- fers but little from the Bull-Frog, except that the limbs are thicker and stouter ; but the feet are unwebbed, and are all divided into five toes, each joint being furnished be- neath with a kind of tubercle or process. Its colour is a pale reddish brown, with two distinctly marked whitish elevated lines running down the middle of the back, the intervening space being marked with several broad fascize of a reddish chestnut colour, while the sides are beautifully ornamented with several ocellated or eye-shaped spots, each being half surrounded by an iris-like paler space or crescent. The limbs are elegantly banded with chestnut-coloured stripes : the under parts are of a dull white. In its general manners it is said to resemble the preceding. [For the Tree Frog, see HYLA.] FROGHOPPER. (AphropTiora spumaria.) The popular name of a small but singular Homopterous insect, belonging to the Cerco- pidcK family. They pass their whole lives on plants, on the sterna of which their eggs are laid in the autumn. The following summer they are hatched, and the young immediately perforate the bark with their beaks, and begin to imbibe their sap. Of this they take in such quantities, that it oozes out of their bodies continually, in the form of little bubbles, which soon completely envelope the insects ; and from this circumstance the name of Cuckoo-spits is also very commonly applied to them. They thus remain en- tirely buried and concealed in large masses of foam, until they have completed their final transformation. When the pupa, which is of a beautiful green colour, is about to undergo its change into the complete in- sect, it ceases to absorb any longer the juices of the plant, and to discharge the projecting froth. It then emerges from its concealment. The winged insect is scarely larger than the larva ; but its colour is brown, with a pair of broad, irregular, pale bands across the upper wings. It possesses the power of leaping in a remarkable degree ; for which purpose, the tips of their hind shanks are surrounded with little spines, and the first two joints of their feet have a similar coronet of spines at their extremities. Their thorax projects somewhat between the basis of the wing- covers ; their bodies are rather short, and their wing-covers are almost horizontal and quite broad across the middle, which, with the shortness of their legs, gives them a squat appearance. FULGORA: FULGORID^. A genus and family of insects bearing great resem- blance to the Cicadidoe. Many of them are distinguished by a curious prolongation of the forehead, the shape of which varies ex- tremely in the different species, which in tropical regions are numerous. The legs are in general fitted for leaping, with large spurs ; and the males are destitute of those organs which are employed in the Cicadas for the production of sounds. We should observe, that Kirby and Spence, on the authority of Stedman's Surinam, assert that Fulgora laternaria makes a loud noise in the evening, like that made by a razor- grinder, and that the Dutch in Guiana call it scare-sleep. Dr. Hancock, however, states that the razor-grinder, or the Aria Aria of the natives, is a specis of Cicada. In the typical genus Fulyora the head is dilated in front into the most remarkable porrectcd protuberances, varying in each species, and which is the part of the body asserted by various writers to emit a strong light by night, analogous to that of the fire-flies. Mr. Westwood alludes to this luminous property at some length. " Much uncer- tainty (he says) exists as to the real ex- istence of any luminous power possessed by the typical species of this family. This ac- count originated with Madame Merian (Insccta Surinam, p. 49.), who asserted it to be possessed by Fulgora laternaria in an eminent degree, and her statement long re- ceived general assent, and appears to be the only authority for its existence. Olivier appears to be the first author who doubted the luminosity of the Fulgora!, from infor- mation given to him by M. Richard, who had reared the./'', laternaria in Cayenne, and 250 of Natural had not found it to be luminous. Hoffman - scgg, the Prince Von Nicuwied, and still more recently M. Lacordaire (the two last named authors having been long resident in South America), also concur in this opinion, none of the individuals they had ever seen alive exhibiting the least trace of (FOLOARIA LATERNARIA.) luminosity. The majority of the natives also, who had been questioned on the subject, denied the luminous power, although a few affirmed it ; hence Lacordaire suggests whether one sex may be luminous and the other not. Dr. Hancock read a memoir on the luminosity of the Fulg. laternaria before the Zoological Society, on 24th June, 1834, in which its luminosity is considered en- tirely fabulous. M. Wesmael has recently reasserted the luminous property of the South American species, on the authority of a fi iend who had witnessed it alive. And W. Baird, Esq. has informed me of the ex- istence of a Chinese edict, against young ladies keeping lanthoni-flies." Mr. Adam White, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, published an extract from a letter of J. Bowring, Esq., of Hong Chang, where the F. Canddaria is very abundant, but not known to be luminous. The species are generally very showy, and have been mostly figured by Mr. Westwood. In the British Museum there is a fine collection of them. FULICA. [See COOT.] FULMAR. (Procellaria glacialis.) A Palmiped bird belonging to the Petrel family ; abounding in northern latitudes, though rarely seen in warm or temperate climates ; in fact, it has been met with not only in arctic and antarctic regions, but even at the foot of those impenetrable bar- riers, the floating islands and eternal moun- tains of ice and snow. It measures seven- teen inches in length, and weighs twenty- two ounces. The bill is about two inches long, and strongly formed ; the hook or nail of the upper mandible, and the truncated termination or tip of the under one, are yellow ; the other parts grayish ; the nostrils are contained in one sheath, divided into two tubes. The head, neck, all the under These birds are extremely greedy and gluttonous, and will devour any floating putrid substances : they feed principally on fish, and on the blubber or fat of whales, and other animals ; which being soon con- vertible into oil, supplies it with provision for its young, and with the constant means of defence ; for the Fulmar, like all the Petrels, has a peculiar faculty of spouting from its bill, to a considerable distance, a large quantity of pure oil. Pennant, speak- ing of those which inhabit the isle of St. Kilda, says "No bird is of such use to the islanders as this : the Fulmar supplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a medicine for their dis- tempers." The female is said to lay only one white and very brittle egg, which she hatches about the middle of June. FUNGIA. A genus of Zoophytes, of which there are several species, both recent and fossil, principally from the Indian seas. They belong to the JUiKlrepJii/lIiiea of De Blainville, and consist of animals in nearly the lowest state of organization ; for although they are universally allowed to be animals, they are completely without the power of motion, consisting simply of a living gela- tinous film, which is endowed with the ca- pability of constructing for itself a stony support or framework, derived from the surrounding water. In form it is generally orbicular or oval ; mouth superior, trans- verse in a large disc, which is covered by many thick cirriform tentacula ; and the disc is solidified internally by a calcareous solid pcilyparium, of a simple figure. We are indebted for the following interesting remarks to the elaborate description given of Fungia by Mr. Rymer Jones. " If we investigate the history of the Fungia a little more closely, it is beautiful to observe in apparently one of the most helpless and useless members of creation, the operations of the same power and foresight that shield and guard the highest and most intelligent. The Fungia, whilst it is alive, lies upon the sand at the bottom of the shallow seas of warm climates, or has its base loosely im- bedded in the sand. It is unattached by any pedicle or root, so that a passing wave of any violence might easily take it up and parts, and the tail arc white ; back and , wing-coverts blue gray ; quills dusky blue ; | eggs yellowish, sometimes inclining to red. ' The body is thickly clothed with feathers . upon a fine close djwn. wash it to a distance from the spot it origi- nally occupied. This being the case, what Popular Bictmiiart? at gmmatrtr flature. 251 is to prevent the wave from turning it upside down ? It is only upon the upper surface that the living crust is spread, which forms the Fungia, so that should accident reverse its position the creature would inevitably perish. The arrangement adopted to prevent such an occurrence is simple enough, but not on that account less beautiful. The living film that coats its laminated surface has the faculty of secreting little bubbles of air within its substance ; the bubbles so produced, although disseminated as it were at random, are sufficiently buoyant to act as floats, and thus provided, let the wave wash it ever so far, still the lightest side keeps uppermost, the floats prevent it from being reversed, and the creature settles down in a right position upon the smooth bottom of the sea." We may mention that our figure of the thick-tentacled Fungia (F. cra- sitcntacuJata) is derived from one of the French Voyages of Discovery, and shows the animals projecting from their coral home. The collection of corals and zoophytes in the British Museum, now most wondrously in- creased, contains many fine specimens of this very beautiful and distinct genus. As an ornament on a mantelpiece or on a table, under a bell glass, nothing perhaps is so pleasing as a fine and symmetrical specimen of this coral. GADFLY. ((Estrtts bovis.) The Gadfly, or Ox Gadfly, is a Dipterous insect, about the size of a common Dee, with pule brown wings : it is of a pale yellowish brown colour, with the thorax marked by four longitudinal dusky streaks, and the abdomen by a black bar across It, the tip being covered with orange-coloured hairs. The genus is re- markable for its larvae residing beneath the skin, or in different parts of the bodies of quadrupeds. When the female of this species is ready to deposit her eggs (which chiefly happens in August or December), she fastens on the back of a heifer or cow, and piercing the skin with the tube situated at the top of the abdomen, deposits an egg in the puncture ; an operation which she repeats on many parts of the animal's back. Here the several eggs hatch, and the larvae by their motion and suction cause so many small swellings or abscesses beneath the skin, which growing gradually larger, ex- hibit tubercles of an inch or more in di- ameter, with an opening at the top of each, through which may be observed the larva (a whitish oval maggot, which in time be- comes brown) imbedded in a purulent fluid. There the larvae remain till the middle of the next summer, when they force them- selves out from their respective cells, and, fulling to the ground, each creeps beneath the first convenient shelter, and lying in an inert state becomes contracted into an oval form, but without casting the larva skin, which dries and hardens round it. Having remained in the chrysalis state more than a month, it forces open the top of its coat, or pupa armour, and emerges in its perfect form. [Mr. Bracy Clark', F.L.S., has paid particular attention to the study of the family OSstridue: we refer our readers for further information to the articles BREEZE- FLY : CESTEUS.] GADUS: GADID^E The Gadtdce, or Cod tribe, are a family of Fishes belonging to the Malacopterygious (or soft-finned) order. They include the Cod, Haddock, Whiting, Ling, and others ; and are distin- guished by the following characters : a smooth, oblong body, covered with small, soft, deciduous scales ; head scaleless ; eyes lateral ; jaws and anterior part of the vomer furnished with several ranges of unequal, pointed teeth ; the gills large, seven-rayed, and opening laterally ; and a small beard or cirri at the tip of the lower jaw. Almost all the species have two or three dorsal fins, one or two anal, and one distinct caudal fin ; and they have a large, strong, swimming- bladder, frequently dentated or lobed at its borders. They live for the most part in the seas of cold or temperate climates ; and from their size and their tendency to congregate in particular localities, as well as from the wholesomeness and good flavour of their flesh, they are of first-rate importance to man. [See COD, &c.] GALAGO. (.OalaffoorOtolicnus.') A genus of small quadrumanous animals, inhabiting different parts of Afriea,and subsisting chiefly on insect food. They have great eyes ; large membranous cars, which double down when at rest ; hind limbs of a disproportionate length j and a long and tufted tail. The SENEGAL OALAOO. (G ALASO 9ENEOA.LEK SIS.) best known species are the GREAT GALAGO (Gtilfiyv crassicaudatus), which is as large aa a Rabbit; and the SENEGAL GALAGO (Ga- lago Senegdlensis), or gum animal of Senegal, the size of a Rat. " These pretty animals have at night all the activity of birds, hopping from bough to bough on their hind limbs only. They watch the insects flitting among the leaves, listen to the fluttering of the moth as it darts through the air, lie in wait for it, and spring with the rapidity of an arrow, seldom missing their prize, which is caught by the hands. They make nests in the branches of trees, and cover a bed with grass and leaves for their little ones. They are a favourite article of food in Senegal." GALATH^A. A genus of long-tailed Crustacea. In the British seas four species are recorded as native : their porcelain texture, their sculptured carapace and wide tail, joined to their pleasing colours, espe- cially when alive, render them very at- 252 Criotfurg tractive. Close to this genus is Grimothea, one of the species of which ((?. gregaria) is met with in the Southern seas near the Straits of Magellan, in countless multitudes. GALEOPITHECUS. An extraordinary quadrumanous animal of the Lemurine tribe, called the Flying Lemur, and sometimes termed the Coluga ; it is a native of the islands of the Indian Archipelago ; and its chief pe- culiarity consists in the extension of its skin between the anterior and posterior limbs on eacli side, and between the posterior limbs, including also the tail ; by which it receives a parachute-like support in the air, and is enabled to take long sweeping leaps from tree to tree, somewhat like flying. They may be considered as connecting the Lemurs with the Bats ; differing generically from the latter in having their fingers, which are armed with trenchant nails, no longer than the toes, so that the membrane which occu- pies their intervals, and extends to the sides of the tail, can only answer the purpose ol floating in the air. The general anatomy agrees very closely with that of the Lemurs. They inhabit lofty trees in dark woods ; to which they cling with all four extremities, and traverse easily by means of their strong and extremely compressed, retractile claws. During the day-time they suspend them- selves like Bats from the branches, witli the head downwards ; but at night they rouse themselves, and make an active search for food, which consists of fruit, insects, eggs, birds, &c. They are very inoffensive ani- mals ; and generally produce two young at a birth. GALERUCnWE. A group of leaf-eating beetles, separated from the Chrysomelidcc fa- mily, and consisting mostly of dull-coloured beetles : having an oblong oval, slightly convex body ; a short and rather narrow thorax ; slender antennae, more than half the length of the body, and implanted close together on the forehead ; slender legs, and claws split at the end. They fly mostly by day, and are either very timid or very cun- ning, for, when we attempt to take hold of them, they draw up their legs, and fall to the ground. They sometimes do great in- iury to plants, eating large holes in the eaves, or consuming entirely those that are young and tender. The larvaj are rather short cylindrical grubs, generally of a black- ish colour, and are provided with six legs. They live and feed together in swarms, and sometimes appear in very great numbers on the leaves of plants, committing ravages, at these times, as extensive as those of the most destructive caterpillars. The Galeruca vittata, or striped Cucumber Beetle, a North American species recorded by Dr. Harris in his " Insects of Massachu- setts," is of a light yellow colour above, with a black head, and a broad black stripe on each wing-cover, the inner edge of which is also black, forming a third narrower stripe down the middle of the back ; the abdomen, the greater part of the fore -legs, and the knees and feet of the other legs, are bback. It is rather less than one-fifth of an inch long. Early in the spring it devours the tender leaves of various plants ; and makes its appearance on cucumber, pumpkin, and melon vines, about the end of May or the beginning of June, or as soon as the leaves begin to expand ; and as several broods are produced in the course of the summer, it may be found at various times on these plants, till the latter are destroyed by frost. The females lay their eggs in the ground, and the larvse feed on the roots of plants. Various means have been suggested to pre- vent the ravages of these striped cucumber beetles ; as, wetting the vines with tobacco water, or with infusions of elder, walnut- leaves, or of hops ; others recommend the use of soot, sulphur, Scotch snuff, or pepper, to be sifted upon the plants. In this country several species are found, which will be seen referred to in the works of Messrs. Stephens and Curtis. GALICTIS. A genus of Carnivorous animals allied to the Civets and Genets. GALLIN7E. The name given to an ex- tensive order of Birds, including all those which constitute what are commonly termed " poultry," and furnishing us with the greater number of our farm-yard fowls, and with much excellent game. The name Gal- linos is applied to them from their affinity to the Domestic Cock, in common with which they have generally the upper mandible vaulted, the nostrils pierced in a large mem- branous space at the base of the beak, and covered by a cartilaginous scale. Their wings are short, their carriage heavy, and their flight laborious. They have an ex- tremely muscular gizzard, and generally a large globular crop. In general they lay and incubate on the ground, on a few'care- lessly arranged stems of straw or grass. Some spccies_ are polygamous, and some mo- nogamous : in the former the male is always larger and more gaily coloured than the female ; in the latter the sexes nearly or quite resemble both in size and colour. GALLINACE^E. Some of the most Qt'rtt'cmarn cf ftnimattfr $atttrr. 253 valuable birds we have belong to this order ; Peacocks, Turkeys, Fowls, Pheasants, Par- tridges, &c. being of the number. Their bodies, for the most part, are large and muscular ; their wings short ; and their toes rough beneath, to enable them to scratch the ground in search of worms, &c. Many feed on grain and seeds, whilst others feed on berries, but the greater portion subsist likewise on insects. They are mostly poly- gamous, building their rude nests, in retired situations, on the bare ground. The females of several species are extremely prolific, and continue to lay eggs nearly all the year ; the young follow the parent mother as soon as hatched, and she continues to protect them till they are fully grown. Some are easily domesticated ; others remain in a wild state; but the flesh of nearly all furnish a substan- tial and wholesome food, while their plu- mage serves for various domestic and orna- mental purposes. In their proper alpha- betical order the reader will find them severally described. GALL-INSECT. (.Gallinsecta.) A fa- mily of insects, of a small size, which live upon trees or plants of various kinds. In the larva state they have the appearance of oval or round scales, closely attached to the plant or bark of the tree they inhabit, and exhibit no distinct external organs. If ob- served in spring, their bodies are noticed gradually to increase in size, ending in their acquiring the appearance of a gall, being either spherical, kidney-shaped.boat-shaped, &c. The skin in some is entire and very smooth ; in others it is incised, or offers traces of segments. It is in this state that the females are impregnated, shortly after which they deposit their eggs, of which the number is very great ; these they deposit between the ventral surface of their bodies and a layer of a cottony secretion. Their bodies subsequently dry up and become a solid cocoon, which covers the eggs ; others envelope their eggs in a very abundant cot- tony secretion, which equally defends them. Many of them have been long celebrated for the beautiful dyes they yield. A very curious Gall constructed by a Homopterous insect, of a genus allied to Aphis, has lately been Imported from the East by Mr. Morson. This, which is principally composed of gallic acid and tannin, has been particularly de- scribed in a late number of the Pharmaceu- tical Journal. [See Coccus : KEKMES.] GALLINULE. (GalUnula. ) A genus of birds which frequent fresh waters, swimming and diving about, or running on land witli equal ease and swiftness. The common Gal- linule (Gallinula chl&ropus), called also the WATEH-HEK or MOOR-HEN, is about fourteen inches in length, from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, and weighs from eleven to fourteen ounces. The bill is upwards of an inch long, of a greenish yellow at the tip, I and reddish towards the base ; whence a | kind of horny or membraneous substance i shields the forehead as far as the eyes : this I appendage to the bill is perfectly red in the breeding season ; at other times it varies or ' fades into white. The head is small and I black, except a white spot under each eye : the irides red : all the upper parts of the i plumage dark shining olive green, inclining ! to brown ; under parts dark hoary lead gray : vent feathers black ; those on the belly and the thighs tipped with dirty white: the long loose feathers on the sides, which hang over the upper part of the thighs, are black, streaked with white ; the feathers just beneath the tail are white ; and the legs are dusky green. The toes are very long, particularly the middle one ; their under sides flat and broad, whereby it is enabled to swim ; and, from this part of its conformation, it may be regarded as the bird which connects the web-footed aquatic fowl with the fin-toed. The body is long, and the legs placed far behind ; its feathers thickly set, and bedded upon down. It lies concealed during the day among reeds and willows, by the sides of rivulets : it can run over the surface of such waters as are thickly covered with weeds, and it dives and hides itself with equal ease : it flirts up its tail when running, and flies with its legs hang- ing down. In the evenings, it creeps by the margins of the waters, among the roots of bushes and long loose herbage, in quest of its food, which consists of insects, small fishes, worms, aquatic plants, and seeds : it is also granivorous ; and if killed in Septem- ber or October, after having had the advan- tage of a neighbouring stubble, its flesh is very good. The Gallinule, or Moor-hen, makes it nest of reeds and rushes, closely interwoven, choosing for it a very retired spot close by the brink of the water ; and it is said the female never quits it without covering her eggs with the leaves of the surrounding her- bage. The female lays from five to eight eggs, of a light yellowish brown, marked with rust-coloured spots. Soon after the young are hatched, they take to the water, and shift for themselves. They differ con- siderably from the adults till after their second autumnal moulting, having till then a much lighter plumage. "One circumstance respecting this fami- liar bird," Mr. Gould observes, " appears to have escaped the notice of most ornitholo- gists : we allude to the fact of the female being clothed in a dark and rich plumage, and having the base of the bill and the frontal shield of a bright crimson-red tipped with fine yellow ; her superiority in these respects has caused her to be mistaken for the male, which, contrary to the general rule, is at all times clothed in a duller plu- mage, and has the upper surface more olive than in the female ; the bill is also less richly tinted. There are very few birds of this genus ; and most of them inhabit Java ; but they are not by any means remarkable. GALLIWASP. (Celestus occiduus.) A reptile of the Saurian order. It is nearly two feet in length from the nose to the tip of the tail, which, like the body, is thick and strong, tapering pretty suddenly towards the tip : the limbs are short, and the ani- mal's whole appearance is remarkably stout 254 Crra&trn at Natural fft and plump : the teeth are small in front, but as they approach the back part of the jaws they increase considerably in size. It is a native of the West India islands, and seems to be particularly common in Jamaica, where it is said to frequent woody and marshy districts. It is usually of a palish brown colour, clouded with spots and bands of deeper cast, but it is reported to change its colour occasionally to a lively golden yellow. GALLOWAY. A peculiar breed of strong, active, middle-sized horses ; so called from the county of Galloway, in Scotland, which was formerly noted for them. Tradition reports, that the stock originated from seve- ral Spanish stallions, which swam on shore from some ships wrecked on the coast, be- longing to the famous Armada ; and, pro- pagating with the mares of the country, furnished the kingdom with their posterity. GAMBET. (Totanus.) A genus of wading birds, allied to the Scolopaci'dcK, and inclu- ding numerous species. The GREENSHANK GAMBET (Totanus Glottis) is the largest European species, being nearly the size of the Godwit, with the beak comparatively stout, and a little recurved ; ashy-brown above and on the sides, with the margins of the feathers punctated with brown, the croup and belly white, and tail rayed with narrow irregular bars of gray and white ; the feet green : infrsummer the throat and breast are marked with dusky spots, which disappear after the breeding season. It breeds on the margins of lakes, which it mostly frequents ; is very clamorous when on the wing ; and in winter resorts to the sea-shore The DUTSKY GAMBET (Tota- nus /USCM-S), another European species, but rare in Britain, is more delicately formed, with particularly slender beak and feet, and beautifully barred tail and coverts ; it be- comes entirely suffused on the under parts with fuliginous black in the spring. A third, the REDSHANK GAMBET (Totanus calidris\ is very abundant in this country, breeding also not uncommonly in marshes near the sea-shore, and especially about the estuaries of rivers. There are others, as the delicate WOOD GAMBET (Totanus glareola), remarkable for the extraordinary length of its legs, and its habit of gracefully tripping across the broad floating leaves of aquatic gants when in search of its prey ; and the KEEN- GAMBET, (Totamis ochropus), with shorter legs, and easily known as it flies by its conspicuous white rump. GAME, BLACK and BED. [See GROUSE.] GAMMARTJS : GAMMARID^E. A genus and family of Crustaceans belonging to the order Amphipoda. The body of this marine genus is covered with a coriaceous elastic tegument, generally compressed and arched ; the posterior extremity of the tail is not furnished with swimmerets, but its appendages are in the form of cylin- drical or conical styles. Two at least of the four anterior legs are terminated by claws. The vesicular bags (the use of which has not been ascertained) are situated at the external base of the legs, commencing with the second pair, and accompanied by a small plate. The pectoral scales enclosing the eggs are six in number. There are several species of this family found in the British seas ; for an account of which we must refer our readers to the works of Milne Edwards and Kroyer, but especially of the latter. The genera Talitrus, Orchestia, Dexamine, Amphithoe, and others recorded in the List of Crustacea in the British Museum, belong to this family. The habits of some of these are very in- teresting. [See AMPHIPODA, &c.] GANNET, or SOLAN GOOSE. (Sula Bassana.) This Palmipede bird is about the size of the tame goose; its length two feet nine inches, and its weight nearly seven pounds. The bill is six inches long, jagged at the sides, and straight almost to the point, where it inclines downwards ; a darkish line passes from the brow over the eyes, which are sur- rounded with a naked blue skin, and, like those of the Owl, are set in the head so as to look nearly straight forward, and the ex- treme paleness of the irides gives them a keen wild stare. A loose black bare skin, capable of great distension, hung from the blades of the under bill, and extended over the throat, serves it as a pouch to ca_rry pro- visions in the breeding season to its mate and young. The neck is long ; the body flat, and very full of feathers ; the crown of the head, and a small space on the hind part of the neck, are buff-coloured ; and, with the exception of the quill and bastard- wing fea- thers, the rest of the plumage is white. The legs and toes are black ; but the fore part of both are marked with a pea-green stripe ; and the tail is composed of twelve tapering sharp-pointed feathers, the middle ones being the longest. The male and female are nearly alike ; but the young birds, during the first year, are of a dusky hue, speckled with numerous triangular white spots ; and j it is not until the third year that the plu- mage is perfected. In the Hebrides, the north of Scotland, and in Norway, this species is very abun- dant ; it is also met with in great numbers on the coasts of Newfoundland and other northern regions, as well as in more tem- perate climes of both hemispheres. Their food consists chiefly of salt-water fish, the rr popular SBtcttonarg at &ntmatrtr $atttre. 255 herring and pilchard being their favour- ites ; and they take their prey by darting down upon it from a considerable height. They make their nests, which are composed chiefly of turf and sea-weeds, in the caverns and lissures of rocks, or on their ledges, as well as on the plain surface of the ground. The female (according to Bewick) lays three white eggs, somewhat smaller than those of a goose ; but we find it elsewhere stated, that the Gannet, if not disturbed, will lay only one egg throxighout the year ; but if that be taken away, it will lay another, and in like manner a third, which she is generally per- mitted to hatch. Their greatest known ren- dezvous is the Hebrides and other solitary rocky isles of North Britain, such as the Bass in the Firth of Forth, and Ailsa Crag, in the Firth of Clyde, where their nests, in the months of May and June, are described as so closely placed together, that it is difficult to walk without treading upon some of them ; and it is said that the swarms of the old birds are so prodigious, that when they rise into the air, they stun the ear with their noise, and overshadow the ground like the clouds. The inhabitants of the islands where these birds breed derive considerable emolument from the produce of their eggs ; but to obtain them they encounter the most fearful risks, now climbing rocks which are almost inaccessible, and now clinging to the craggy precipices which, at a prodigious height, overhang a raging sea. In Mr. Couch's " Cornish Fauna " we are told that " the Gannet takes its prey in a different manner from any other of our aquatic birds ; for, traversing the air in all directions, with a heavy and irregular flight, as soon as it discovers the fish it rises to such a height as experience shows best calculated to carry it by a downward motion to the required depth, and then partially closing its wings it falls perpendicularly on the prey, and rarely without success, the time between the plunge and emersion being about fifteen seconds. When pilchards are col- lected into a narrow space, the number and eagerness of the Gannets are such, that it is surprising they do not fall on and kill each other. Their clamour indeed at such times proves them to be well on their guard, but it is also probable that every one in falling has its eye fixed on the fish it intends to seize, and the well-poised wings direct it unerringly to its prey. The form and setting on of the Gannet's wings well fit it for as- suming the perpendicular attitude prepara- tory to its fall, which is effected with ease, rapidity, and precision. They are attached to the body about the centre of gravity, so that the anterior parts drop as on a pivot, and the elbow being about the middle of the distance between the shoulder and wrist, a slight inclination in any direction is suffi- cient to regulate the motion." There are also other species bearing the name of Gan- net, but the one just described is the best known and the largest. The White Gannet, which inhabits China : the Booby Gannet, common on the coasts of South America, and described as being a very stupid bird ; hence the appellation given to it by sailors : and the Brown Gannet, belonging to the West Indies and the western coast of tro- pical Africa. [See SULA.] GARFISH. (Esox Icione.) This fish has a variety of names ; as, Garfish, Sea-pike, Sword-fish, Greenbone, Mackerel-Guide, Sea-Needle, &c. It generally precedes the Mackerel in their annual visit to shallow water for the purpose of spawning, and is taken on various parts of the Dutch, English, OAR-FI8H. (K8OX BELONF.) Scotch, and Irish coasts. It is from twenty to twenty-four inches in length, with long, narrow, beak-like snout, the under jaw pro- jecting ; the teeth are numerous and minute, the eyes large ; the dorsal and anal fins op- posite each other ; pectoral and ventral fins small ; and the tail considerably forked. The upper part of the head and back is of a dark green hue, the sides paler, and the belly a silvery white. It is a very vivacious fish, and seizes the bait with avidity. The flesh of the Garfish has somewhat the flavour of Mackerel, but is more dry ; and the bones GARROT. (.Clangula.-) A genus of the Duck family, widely distributed over the colder and temperate regions of both Europe and America. The head is large, com- pressed, rounded above ; bill shorter than the head, higher than broad at the base ; neck short and thick ; body ovate and depressed ; eyes small ; legs very short, and placed far behind; hind toe lobed. They breed in the colder regions of Europe and America, returning to more temperate climes in winter. They haunt rivers, lakes, estuaries, and feed chiefly on mollusca, and also on larvae, Crustacea, and sometimes small fish, for which they dive. 1. The GOLDEN-EYED GARROT (Clangula vulgaris is a common species in Britain ; 2. The HARLEQUIN GARROT (Clangula histrionica") occurs as a rare straggler. [See DUCK.] GASTEROPODA. The name of a class of molluscous animals which move from place to place by means of a fleshy disc, or foot, situated under the abdomen. The greater part of these Mollusca consist of ani- mals inhabiting a univalve shell, which is cone-shaped and rolled into a spiral ; and of such the snail is a familiar specimen. Some species, on the contrary, have no shell ; of which the slug is an example. The body is elongated, and terminates in front by a head, more or less developed, with a mouth provided with from two to six tentacula ; the back is enveloped in a mantle, which secretes the shell ; and the belly is'covered on its under side by the fleshy mass of the foot. In most aquatic Gasteropoda whose shell is spiral, there is a horny or calcareous disc, called the operculum, which is attached to the hinder part of the foot, and is used for closing the entrance of the shell when the animal withdraws itself. Some of the Gas- z 2 256 ffrtxtfttrg at Natural $?t teropoia inhabit fresh waters, but most of them are marine animals : some are formed for crawling, as the snail, the whelk, &c. ; some are more adapted for swimming ; while a few of this class attach themselves to the surface of rocks, scarcely varying their lo- cality, as is the case with the limpet ; this attachment being produced by the adhesion of the muscular disc, or foot, which acts like a sucker, and can at any time be detached by the will of the animal. In the work of Mrs. Gray, of the British Museum, on Mollusca, are figures of the animals of most of the genera of Gasteropoda. To this very carefully executed and autho- ritative work, we refer our readers, as well as to the various miscellaneous articles in this work ; such as ACIIATIXA, BULIMUS, SNAIL, &c. fossil Gasteropoda. Among the numerous organic remains which exist, none are more extensively diffused throughout the globe, occupying the various geological formations, than fossil univalve shells. It is, indeed, asserted by some of the most experienced geologists, that every fossil turbinated uni- valve of the older beds, from the transition lime to the lias, belongs to the herbivorous genera, which class extends through every stratum in the entire series of geological formations, and still retains its place among the inhabitants of our existing seas : while, on the other hand, the shells of marine car- nivorous univalves are very abundant in the tertiary strata above the chalk, but are rare in the secondary strata from the chalk down- wards to the inferior oolite ; beneath which no trace of them has yet been found. GASTEROSTEUS. The name of a genus of Acanthopterygious ftshes. [See STICKLE- BACK.] GASTROBRANCHUS. (Gastrobranehus glutinosa}. The HAG. A cartilaginous fish, which in its general appearance bears a near resemblance to the Lampreys, but which in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus has been considered as belonging to the class Vermes. It is of a dusky bluish cast above, and reddish towards the head and tail ; is from four to six inches long, and is remarkable for its total want of eyes : the mouth, which is situated beneath, is of an oblong form : on each side are two beards or cirri, and on the upper part four ; in front of the top of the head is a small spout-hole, furnished with a valve, by which it can at pleasure be closed : the teeth, which are of an orange-colour, are arranged on each side of the mouth in a double-row, and in the middle of the roof of the mouth is one sharp-pointed and curved tooth. It has no scales, nor any kind of fin but that which forms the tail, the extremity of the body, where it is surrounded by the caudal fin, which is very shallow, being pointed. Beneath the body, from head to tail, runs a double row of equi-distant pores, through which, on pressure, exudes a viscid fluid ; and beneath the body are two spiracles haying apertures communicating with a series of six globular red cells or vesicles on each side of the body. " The manners of this fish are represented as highly singular : it is said to enter into the bodies of such fishes as it happens to find on the fishermen's hooks, and which consequently have not the power of escaping its attack, and by gnawing its way tlirough the skin, to devour all the in- ternal parts, leaving only the bones and the skin remaining. Another peculiarity in this animal consists in its uncommonly glutinous nature : if put into a large vessel of sea- water it is said in a very short space to render the whole so glutinous as easily to be drawn out into the form of threads. When taken out of water the Gastrobranehus is said to be in- capable of living more than three or four hours." The species we have been describ- ing is called the Blind Gastrobranehus, and is an inhabitant of the Northern seas. Ano- ther, and a much larger one, called the Dom- beyan Gastrobranehus, from its having been first noticed by M. Dombey, is found in the South American seas. GASTROCH^ENA. The name given to a genus of Acephalous Molluscs, found on the coasts of Great Britain and America. They inhabit an equivalve, inequilateral shell, united by a ligament, and having in the in- terior a small spoon-shaped curvature. The Gastrochana penetrates and makes its abode in hard substances ; and seldom exceeds half an inch in length. They are found in the hollows of shells or other marine substances. GAVIAL, or GARIAL. An enormous Reptile found in India, to which the name of the GANGETIC CROCODILE (Crocodihis Gangeticus) is sometimes applied ; but the sub -genus termed. Gavial, by Cuvier, is so strikingly distinguished both from the Crocodile of the Nile and the Alligator by the peculiar form of the mouth, that it is hardly possible, even on a cursory view, to confound it with either of them ; the jaws being remarkably long, narrow, and straight, constituting the anterior part or beak, spreading out at its base, and terminating in front, so as to remind the observer of the beak of the Spoonbill. The head, properly so called, has its sides straight and perpendicular, the upper surface being quadrilateral ; and the mandible, instead of being continued from the forehead by a gradual slope, sinks suddenly to follow a straight and nearly horizontal direction. In the general form and colour of the body and limbs it resembles the common Crocodile, but the number of transverse zones or bands formed by the rows of scales on the back, is greater than in that species. The teeth are nearly double the number of those of the Nilotic Crocodile, and are of equal size throughout the whole length o_f the jaws. It is quite as aquatic in its habits as is the African species ; its hind feet fully webbed ; and the crest on the tail, increasing the sur- face by which it strikes the water, is much elevated. This powerful animal frequently attains the length of twenty-five feet ; and, from its strength and ferocity, is truly for- midable. In one respect, however, it is found very serviceable, viz. in devouring the nu- merous dead bodies of men and animals which are committed to the " sacred river," the effluvia arising from which would other- J3tcttonarg 257 wise, in all probability, be productive of con- tagious diseases. Analogous species of Cro- codiles have been found in a fossil state in Yorkshire and other places. The fossil group is named Teleosaurus. GAZELLE. (AntUope Dorcas.) Of all the Antelopes of the East none are so cele- brated for beauty as the Gazelle ; and ori- ental poets, from time immemorial, have thought that the highest compliment they could pay the female sex was to compare the eyes of a lovely woman with the lustrous organs of vision which distinguish that light and graceful animal. This very beautiful species inhabits Arabia and Syria, where they are seen in large groups, bounding across the desert with such amazing fleet- ness that they seem, bird-like, to skim over the surface. It is so swift that the grey- hound is generally unable to overtake it without the assistance of falcons, which fly at its head and thus check its speed till the dogs regain their lost distance. The Ariel Gazelle is about twenty inches high at the shoulder ; its limbs are slender, but vigorous ; and all its actions are spirited and graceful. It is of a dark fawn colour above, and white below ; the upper parts being divided from the lower by a deep dark band along the flanks. On each side of the face a broad stripe of white passes from the horns over the eyes to the nose. Wild and timid as the Gazelle is, when taken young it is rea- dily domesticated ; and it is frequently seen at large in the court-yards of houses in Syria, their exquisite form, general beauty, and playfulness rendering them especial fa- vourites. GECARCINUS. The name given to those Crustaceans which are formed to live at a distance from the sea ; some residing in fresh water, and some burrowing in the ground, even at a distance from water. [See Land Crab, art. CRAB.] GECKO. This name is given to a con- siderable number of Saurian Reptiles, and is said to be taken from the sound of their voice, which resembles the word gecko uttered in a shrill tone. Our figure, which repre- sents a common New Holland species, is named by Mr. Gray White's Phyllure, or Gecko. It was first described by Dr. Shaw in White's Voyage to New South Wales, and is the Phyliurus platurys of naturalists ; but though very characteristic of the group we prefer giving an account of the COMMON GECKO (Gecko verus) : It is of a thicker and WHITE'S OEOKO, -(PHYL-LORDS PLATDBHS) atouter form than most other lizards, having a large and somewhat triangular flattish head, covered with small scales, a wide mouth, large eyes, minute teeth, and a broad flat tongue. The limbs are of moderate length.and the feet are of a broader form than in the rest of the genus Lacerta, each toe being dilated on the margins, and divided beneath into a great number of parallel transverse lamellae, with- out any longitudinal mark or furrow ; all the toes, except the thumbs, are furnished with small claws ; the tail, which is gene- rally longer than the body, is marked, more or less, according to the age, into divisions or vcrticillated rings : the whole animal is co- vered on the upper parts with numerous, distant, round warts or prominences, ap- proaching more or less to an acute form in different individuals, and sometimes obtuse : beneath each thigh is a row of perforated papillae, as in the Green Lizard and many others : the under parts of the body are co- vered with scales of somewhat dissimilar ap- rance, but all approaching to a round describing the habits, food, &c. of the Geckotidce, Mr. Broderip observes that " the greatest number feed on small animals, sucli as insects, their larvae and pupae. These they catch either by lying in ambush, or by pursuing their feeble prey in the holes and dark crevices to which it retires. The struc- ture of their feet enables them to run in every direction over the smoothest surfaces, and they can even remain suspended beneath the large leaves which a luxuriant tropical vegetation so frequently puts forth. The sharp and retractile nails with which the feet of the greater number are armed enable them to cling to and make rapid progress on trees with the smoothest bark, or penetrate 258 Ertaguri) of Natural fg the holes of rocks, and to climb walls. Of sombre or varying colours adapted generally to the locality where their lot is cast, they will often remain for hours in positions as extraordinary as the flies and insects for which they watch, the wonderful apparatus with which their feet is furnished enabling them to overcome the general law of gravity, and without which they would instantly fall to the earth. The hues of their skins thus render them less objects of suspicion to the little animals for which they lie in wait, and also serve to dodge even the acute eye of the bird of prey that seeks to destroy them. Their eyes enable them to discern objects in the dark, and are at the same time capable of bearing the rays of a bright sun ; for many insects are nocturnal or crepuscular, while the great mass of them are diurnal. The pursuit of their prey leads them near the habitations of man; whose dwelling always attracts certain kinds of insects, and they sometimes fall victims to their appearance, which frequently inspires terror, and after disgust. A Gecko, confident in his powers of flight, appears boldly to await his adver- sary, and his sudden disappearance at a nearer approach adds to the horror which his uncouth form inspires. The poor Geckos too have a bad name. They are supposed to poison whatsoever they touch, be it ani- mate or inanimate, and their saliva is said to vex the skin of those on whom it falls with foul eruptions. Many of these cuticu- lar irritations, when they have actually existed from the intervention of these ani- mals, may have arisen from the extremely sharp claws of a Gecko running over a sleep- ing man, or small blisters may have been raised by the adherent apparatus at the bottom of its feet. In each great division of the globe various species of the Geckotidae are found, though very few of them exist in Europe. Descriptions of the numerous species will be found in Mr. Gray's catalogue of the rep- tiles in the British Museum, where there is a large collection of these interesting lizards. By some biblical commentators, " the spider that taketh hold with her hands, and is in king's palaces " is believed to have been a Gecko ; Geckos are very common in houses in the East, and may be seen running about the walls. GENET. ( Viverra genetta.) This animal belongs to the Weasel tribe ; has a very beautiful soft fur ; and is about the size of a very small cat, but is of a longer form, with a sharp pointed snout, upright ears, slightly pointed, and very long tail. The colour of the Genet is usually a pale reddish grey, the sides of the body being spotted with black, and a dark line running along the back ; where the hair, being longer than on the other parts, resembles a slight mane : the muzzle is dusky ; beneath each eye is a white spot ; the cheeks, sides of the neck, and the limbs, are spotted in a proportion- ally smaller pattern than the body, and the tail is marked with black and white rings. Easily tamed, and of a mild disposition, the Genet, at Constantinople, and various other parts of the East, is domesticated like the Cat, and is said to be equally if not more serviceable in clearing houses of rats and other vermin. It is a native of the western parts of Asia, and is also occasionally found in Spain ; but though it requires a warm climate for its subsistence and propagation, it has not been discovered in India or any part of Africa. This animal, like the Civet, produces an agreeable perfume ; it is, how- ever, less powerful, and its scent much sooner evaporates. There are two or three other species found in the East ; among these may be mentioned LAOCENS1S.) the Rasse (Viverra Mdlaccensis*), found in Java by Dr. Horsfield, but also a native of the Indian continent : our ligure shows this well-marked species. GEOMETRID.E. A family of Lepidop- terous insects, of very considerable extent. It is distinguished from the NOCTUID^E by its general weakness of structure and slen- derness of body, but still more by the re- markable peculiarities and mode of progres- sion of the caterpillars. The wings are large and of various outlines ; in general they are horizontally extended, but in a few species they are carried vertically ; the maxillae short, weak, and nearly membranous ; the labial palpi small and cylindrical ; the antennas variable, being in some males strongly bipectinated ; the legs are slender, the anterior tibiaa being armed with a spur on the inside, and the posterior with two pairs. From their peculiar mode of progres- sion, the caterpillars are called Loopers or Geometricians : they have only three pairs of pectoral, and one pair of ventral pro-legs, with a pair of anal feet ; they then extend the body to its greatest length, when they put down their fore feet, drawing the hind part of the body as close after them as possi- ble, so as to form an arch, like a pair of com- passes, fixing their hind feet, and proceeding again as before. It is evident that they possess great muscular power, and hence their positions during repose are very strik- ing. Fixing themselves by their anal feet alone, they extend their bodies in a straight line, holding it in that position for a long time together. This, together with their obscure colours, and the warts on their bodies, renders it often quite difficult to distinguish them from twigs of trees on which they feed. When alarmed, these caterpillars have the instinct to drop from the leaves, and suspend themselves by a thread, which enables them to remount when the danger is past. The pojwlar 23tctt'0uarp at [mmattt Mature. 259 chrysalides are sometimes naked and sus- pended by the tail, but more frequently enveloped in a slight cocoon, and placed among dry leaves, &c. In their perfect state the Geometridas fly sluggishly in the j twilight, or, if abroad in the day, and are j disturbed, they quickly settle again amongst j the foliage. Many species have a broad wavy band across the fore wings ; these are called Carpet Moths. Figures of all the British species will be found in the very useful work of Mr. Humphreys, " The British Moths." GEOPHAPS. A genus of birds found in , Australia, belonging to a minor group of the i ' Columbkke family, whose habits and economy are very peculiar. Several species are de- scribed by Air. Gould, from whose superb work we glean the following particulars of one, named GEOPHAPS SCRIPT A, or PARTRIDGE BRONZE-WING. This bird is said to be se- cond to none in the world as a delicate viand for the table ; while it is equally interesting to the sportsman, no other bird not strictly gallinaceous so closely resembling the genus Pcrdix (Partridges) in many of its habits and manners ; in Mr. Gould's opinion, in- deed, " in no instance is the theory of the analogical relationship of one group to another more strikingly borne out than in the close resemblance of the members of this group to those of the genus I'erdix." It is sometimes seen in pairs, but more frequently in small coveys of from four to six in number, which, when approached, generally run off with exceeding rapidity, and crouch down among any scanty herbage, instead of seek- ing safety by flight ; the colouring of the bird assimilating so closely to that of the ground or the herbage, that when crouched down for shelter it is not easily to be seen. When it rises, it does so with great rapidity, making a loud whirring noise with its wings, and generally alighting on the horizontal branch of a large tree. On such plains as are intersected with rivers and pools of water, the Partridge Bronzewing is mostly found ; and its principal food is the seeds of various grasses and other small plants, to which are occasionally added insects and berries. The plumage of the head, back, and chest is light, the edges of the primaries and the extremities of the wing-coverts being much paler ; a broad stripe of white runs from beneath the mandible to beneath the eye, another stripe from the posterior angle of the eye down the side of the neck, the interspaces being jet black, which colour surrounds the eye, and also forms a crescent across the lower part of the throat ; abdomen gray ; flanks white ; tail grayish brown, tipped with black ; naked skin round the eye bluish lead-colour ; bill black ; feet dark purplish brown. The female lays two eggs on the bare ground, without any nest ; and the young birds run and fly strongly when they are only as large as a quail. GEOPHILUS. [See CENTIPEDE.] GEOS P I ZA . A genus of the Finch tribe, found by Mr. Darwin on the Galapagos islands, and characterised by the species having an enormously thick and well-de- veloped hard bill. They are terrestrial in their habits. The accompanying cut, copied from Mr. Gould's figure in the Bird portion of the zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, will show the form and appearance of the GEOSPIZA MAGNIUOSTRIS, and the accom- panying extract from the ever-interesting journal of Mr. Darwin tells us all that is known of their habits. " These birds," he says, "are the most singular of any in the Galapagos archipelago. They all agree in many points, namely, in a peculiar struc- ture of their bill, short tails, general form, and in their plumage. The females are gray or brown, but the old cocks jet-black. All the species, excepting two, feed in flocks on the ground, and have very similar habits. It is very remarkable that a nearly perfect gradation of structure in this one group can be traced in the form of the beak, from one exceeding in dimensions that of the largest grosbeak, to another differing but little from that of a warbler." GERBILLUS. A genus of Glirine mam- malia, chiefly found in South Africa and in India : most of the species are long-tailed, and may be seen in the British Museum col- lection. GEKBOA. (Diptts jEgyptus.') [See JER- lOA.] GHOST-MOTH. (HepMus humuli.) A nocturnal Lepidopterous insect, which re- ceives this name from the male being of a jute colour, and from its habit of hovering with a pendulum-like motion over one spot 'often in church-yards), where the female is concealed. Of the singular habits of this in- sect the following interesting particulars are given in the " Journal of a Naturalist." The larva which produces this creature is hidden "n the ground during the season of winter ; the fly being formed in the month of May, and soon rising from the soil, then commences its short career. At this time one or more of them may frequently be observed under some hedge in a mead, or some low place in a damp pasture, only a few feet from the round, persevering for a length of time together in a very irregular flight, and falling, and balancing about in a space not exceeding a few yards in circumference, an action not observable in any other, and fully indicating this moth. This procedure is not 260 Ertarfttrg of $ahtral the meaningless vagary of the hour, but a frolicsome dance, the wooing of its mate, which lies concealed in the herbage over which it sports. The two insects are some- thing similar in their general form, but very differently marked. The male exhibitor is known by his four glossy, satiny, white wings, bordered with buff ; the lady reposer (HEPIOLUS HDMULI.) has her upper wings of a tawny yellow, spotted and banded with deep brown. They are very inert creatures, easily captured ; and their existence appears to be of very short duration, as we soon cease to observe them, either in action or at rest. The male probably becomes the prey of every bird that feeds by night ; his colour and his actions rendering him particularly obnoxious to dangers of this nature ; and the frequency witli which we find his wings scattered about, points out the cause of death to most of them. The bat pursues with great avidity all those (HEPIOLUS HUM DLL) creatures that fly in the evening ; and by its actions it seems to meet with constant em- ployment, and has greater probability ot success than some insectivorous birds that feed by day, as all the myriads which abound at this time are the sole prey of itself and a few nocturnal ramblers. From this singular flight in the twilight hour, haunting as it were one particular spot, the fancy of some :ollector, considering it as a spectre-like action, named it the Ghost-moth. GIBBON. (1'ithecus lar.) The Gibbon, or Long-armed Ape, is a species of the Quadrumana, distinguished from others by the slenderness of its form, but more par- ticularly by the extraordinary length of its arms, which, when the animal is standing erect, reach to the ankle-joints. The hands and feet are even more adapted for climbing than those of the Orang-Outang ; their form, in fact, is admirably suited to their arboreal habits ; and they are here observed to sweep from the branch of one tree to another with surpassing velocity : suspending themselves by their long anterior limbs, they launch onwards by an energetic muscular move- ment, seizing with wonderful precision the distant branches, and continuing their pro- gression without any pause or perceptible effort. It is worthy of note, that their feet, which are very long, have the soles turned so much inwards as to afford no support to the erect posture. The colour of the Gibbon is black ; but the face is commonly sur- rounded with a white or grey beard. There s a variety, called the WHITE GIBBON, which GIBBON , OR LONG-ARMED APE. (PITHECT73 l,AR.) differs from the above species in being en- tirely white, except the face and hands, which are black. Notwithstanding the ap- parent ferocity of the Gibbon, and its un- gainly figure, it is of a more gentle and tractable nature than any of its congeners ; and it has even been commended for the decorum and decency of its behaviour. It inhabits the islands of the Indian Archi- pelago. GILTHEAD. (.Chrysopliris auralus.) An Acanthopterygious fish, of a broad and com- pressed form, about twelve inches in length, and somewhat resembling the Bream. It is found in abundance in the Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken on the coasts of France and Spain. The back is sharp, and of a dusky green or silvery gray colour ; be- tween the eyes there is a gold-coloured crescent-shaped stripe, from which it re- ceives its name : the incisor teeth in each jaw are conical, the molar ones roundish ; the tail is very forked, the fins are grayish- blue, the dorsal fin extending almost the SHrttcwarp of ^ature. 261 whole length of the back. It feeds on : various kinds of Crustacea and mollusca ; and chiefly inhabits deep waters and bold rocky shores. j GIRAFFE, or CAMELOPARD. (Camelo- pardalis Giraffa.) This most remarkable Ru- ' minant, which in its general structure most ; nearly approaches the Deer, has points of affinity, also, with the Antelopes and Camels, besides very striking peculiarities of its I own. If height alone constituted precedency \ among quadrupeds, the Giraife, as Le Vail- i lant justly observes, must hold the first rank. I The enormous apparent length of the fore legs and its long tapering neck must strike ! every one at the first glance : while its small and elevated head, its large and brilliant eyes, its mild aspect, and the whole contour of the animal, differing from all others, can- not fail to excite admiration ; for, notwith- standing the unusual proportions of the limbs, its general form is not merely elegant but highly picturesque. The horns of the \ Giraffe differ both in t both in texture and shape from *K.OLr., OF OIBAFFI those of all other horned quadrupeds ; form- ing, as it were, a part of the skull, and con- sisting of two porous bony substances, about three inches long, with which the top of the head is armed, and which are placed just above the ears, and crowned with a thick tuft of stiff upright hairs : a considerable . - protuberance also rises on the middle of the times makes a successful defence by striking darker hue, less regularly shaped on the sides than on the neck and shoulders. The vertebrae of the neck are slightly curved ; but although nothing can exceed the grace- fulness of form which this part sometimes presents, the fewness of the joints prevents the neck from being generally l>ent or arched with swan-like elegance. The peculiarities of conformation which this animal displays are all adapted to the mode of life which is natural to it ; for it is destined to browse upon the foliage and young shoots of trees, at a height far greater than that which any other animal can reach, whilst standing on the ground. For this purpose it is furnished with an elongated prehensile tongue, with which it lays hold of the tender branches, and draws them into its mouth ; being as- sisted by its projecting upper lip, which is at once flexible and very muscular. In order to bring its mouth to the ground, which it seldom does except to drink, or to pick up some unusual delicacy, the Giraffe is obliged to stretch its fore legs widely apart, and to bend its neck into a semicir- cular form. " The head of the Giraffe re- sembles that of the camel in the absence of a naked muzzle, and in the shape and or- ganization of the nostrils, which are oblique and narrow apertures, defended by the hair which grows from their margins, and sur- rounded by cutaneous muscular fibres by which the animal can close them at will. This is a beautiful provision for the defence of the air passages, and the irritable mem- brane lining the olfactory cavities, against the fine particles of sand which the storms of the desert raise in almost suffocating clouds. The large, dark, and lustrous eyes of the Giraffe, which beam with a peculiarly mild but fearless expression, are so placed as to take in a wider range of the horizon than is subject to the vision of any other quadruped. While browsing on his favour- ite acacia, the Giraffe, by means of his late- rally projecting orbits, can direct Ms sight so as to anticipate a threatened attack in the rear from the stealthy lion, or any other foe of the desert. To an open attack he some- forehead between the eyes, which appears to be an enlargement of the bony substance, similar to the two horns just mentioned. The neck ia furnished with a very short stiff mane. The tail is of moderate length, gra- dually tapering towards the end, and termi- nating in a tuft of long hair. The fore part of the body is very thick and muscular ; the hind part thin and meagre. The Giraffe, in its wild state, when full grown, measures seventeen feet from the top of the head to the fore feet ; the female, however, is not so high ; and it must be understood that this measurement is taken at the maximum height, none of those brought to or bred in Europe^ having reached more than fourteen feet. At first view the fore legs seem twice the length of the hind : but this difference, on accurate examination, appears to result chiefly from the extraordinary height of the shoulders. The colour of the Giraffe is a light fawn, marked with numerous large spots of a out his powerful and well-armed feet ; and the king of beasts is said to be frequently repelled and disabled by the wounds which the Giraffe has thus inflicted with his hoofs. The horns of the Giraffe, small as they are, and muffled with skin and hair, are by no means the insignificant weapons they have been supposed to be. We have seen them wielded by the males against each other with fearful and reckless force ; and we know that they are the natural arms of the Giraffe most dreaded by the keeper of the present living Giraffes in the Zoological Gardens, because they are most commonly and sud- denly put in use. The Giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly elevating the head, like the deer, ox, or sheep ; but strikes the callous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack with a side- long sweep of the neck. One blow thus de- livered at full swing against the head of an unlucky attendant would be fatal : the fe- male once drove her horns in sport through 262 0f an inch board. Notwithstanding those na- tural arms of hoofs and horns, the Giraffe does not turn to do battle except at the last i extremity ; where escape is possible, it seeks it in flight. This is extremely rapid, espe- ! cially along rising ground ; but cannot be ; maintained for a sufficient period of time to i enable it to escape the Arab mounted on his j long-winded steed. The paces of the Giraffe, j owing to the disproportion between his long j legs and short body, are very peculiar: when walking at a brisk rate, it seems to move ! forward simultaneously the two legs of the j same side, as noticed of old by the learned I bishop of Sicca, in his account of the pre- sents brought to Hydaspes by the Abyssinian ambassadors." " In the sanded paddock appropriated to the Giraffes in the Zoolo- gical Gardens, they exhibit in the warm days of summer all their various and sin- gular paces. In the simple walk, the neck, which is then stretched out in a line with the back, gives them a stiff and awkward appearance ; but this is entirely lost when they commence their graceful undulating canter." " The tongue is an organ exqui- sitely formed for prehension ; it is used to hook down the branches which grow beyond the reach of the muzzle of the Giraffe, and the animal in captivity instinctively puts it to use in a variety of ways. We have seen the Giraffe> in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, stretching upwards its neck and head, and protruding its tongue to the full extent, to hook out single straws, which were platted into the partition, separating it from the contiguous inclosure. In our own mena- gerie at Regent's Park many a fair lady has been robbed of the artificial flowers which adorned her bonnet, by the nimble filching tongue of the rare object of her admiration. The Giraffe seems, indeed, to be guided more by the eye than the nose in the selection of objects of food ; and if we may judge of the apparent satisfaction with which the mock leaves and flowers so obtained are masti- cated, the tongue would seem by no means to enjoy the sensitive in the same degree as the motive powers. The difference in the size of the nerves of sensation and motion which we observed in the dissection of the tongue accords with these habits of the living animal. From the same dissection it was proved that the movements of the tongue, both those of extension, prehension, and re- traction, were due to muscular, and not, as Sir Everard Home supposed, to vascular ac- tion. Observations of the living animal, and dissection of the dead, have at length dispelled most of the errors and doubta which obscured the exact knowledge of the nature and zoological affinities of the Gi- raffe." "A Giraffe more than two- thirds grown will eat daily in confinement eighteen pounds of clover hay, and eighteen pounds of a mixed vegetable diet, consisting of car- rots, mangel-wurzel, barley, split beans, and onions ; and will drink four gallons of water. They copulate in March. The female has four inguinal udders : she brings forth one young at a birth ; and the period of gesta- tion is fifteen months. The new-born Gi- raffe measures six feet from the fore-hoofs to the top of the head. In a few hours it is able to follow the dam. It resembles the mature animal in the markings of the hide. The first Giraffe known to have been pro- duced in captivity was brought forth in June, 1839, at the gardens of the Zoological Society of London." BraiicU? s Diet. Two varieties of this curious animal are known ; | one of them peculiar to Nubia, Abyssinia, ' and the adjacent districts ; the other a native j of Southern Africa. The remains of an animal closely allied to I the Giraffe has been found in a fossil state, ! by Capt. Cautley and Dr. Falconer, in the Seewalik Hills in India. They have de- scribed it under the name Sirathcrium. The head is a gigantic resemblance of that of the Giraffe ; as may be seen in the fine specimen \ preserved in the gallery of the British ' Museum. GLASS-SNAKE. The name given in j North America to a species of lizard, the ! OPHISAURUS VEXTRALIS. It belongs to the family ZONURID^E of Mr. Gray, and has doubtless acquired its name from its " brittle- j ness," a habit not uncommon with lizards of allowing their tails to be left in the hands of any who surprise them. GLAUCOPIS. A genus of birds belonging to the family CORVID^E ; the only known spe- cies being the GLAUCOPIS CINEKEA, or NEW ZEALAND CKOW. This bird, which has all the habits of a crow, is called by the natives of New Zealand Kokako. Its plumage is a very dark green, not much varied in any part of the body ; the legs are black and coarse, the claws long. It has a strong black beak, a little curved ; and a small brilliant light-blue flap hanging down on each side from the ear : the colour of these flaps fades, however, immediately the bird is dead, and ! becomes of nearly the same hue as its plu- mage. GLATJCUS. A genus of molluscous ani- mals found in the warmer latitudes floating in the open sea, and remarkable for their beau- tiful azure blue and silvery tints. They are about one inch and three quarters in length, with a subcylindrical body, and the tail terminating in a sharp point, the head fur- nished with four very short tentacula, and the sides of the bodj r having tufts or branchise disposed in pairs, surrounded by digitated appendages, fitted for swimming. GLIRES. (Lat. glis, a dormouse.) The fourth order of Mammalia in the Linnaean system, distinguished by two flat incisors in each jaw. They are also called RODENTIA, or GNAWERS. GLOBE-FISH. [See DIODOJT and TETKA- ODON.] GLOMERIS. A myriapode bearing a strong resemblance to the woodlouse, in its oval form, and its habit of rolling itself into a ball. [See MYRIAPODA and ZEPHRONIA.] GLOW-WORM. (Lampyris noctiluca). This curious and interesting insect (the fe- male of which, being expressly called by this name), is seen during the summer months, Popular JDirttmiarj) at "Hmmatetf ^atttre. 263 as late as the close of August, on dry banks, about woods, pastures, and hedgerows, ex- hibiting, as soon as the dusk of the evening commences, the most vivid and beautiful phosphoric splendour. The male insect is rather more than half an inch in length ; the head is of a dun colour, the thorax margined with dusky red, as are also the legs and the edges of the segments of the body ; and the wings are shorter than the body. The fe- male is wingless, but in most other respects resembles the male : the thorax is semicir- cular ; the body is very soft, of an obkng form, and pointed at the extremity. It is hardly yet determined with certainty whether the male Glow-worm is at all lumi- nous ; but it is universally understood that if it be, it is in a very slight degree. The phosphorescent light emitted by the female, and which can be increased or lessened at will, proceeds from the abdomen, near the tail ; it is of a yellow colour, with a very slight cast of green. The larva, pupa, and complete female insect scarcely differ per- ceptibly from each other in general ap- pearance, but the phosphoric light is strongest in the perfect animal. The general idea among naturalists is, that the light emitted by the female is for the purpose of attracting the other sex ; and in numerous instances have poets availed themselves of so pleasing a simile as " the Glow-worm's amorous fire," to illustrate the pure intensity of that flame which so often burns in a heroine's breast. Dismissing the poetical metaphor, however, we may observe that the Glow-worm is a slow-moving, inactive insect, and its light not perceptible in the day-time, even if carried into a darkened room, unless the creature is turned on its back, and put in motion ; but as night advances, its lamp again begins to burn. On this subject Mr. Knapp remarks, that on a warm dewy evening at the end of September he observed on the house-bank multitudes of these small evanescent sparks in the grass. " The number of them and their actions, creej away from our sight, contrary to lifeless dulness observed in summer, sug- gested the idea that the whole body had availed themselves of this warm moist even- ing to migrate to their winter station. A single spark or so was to be seen some eve- nings after this, but no such large moving parties were to be discovered again. If we conclude that the summer light of the glow- worm is displayed as a signal taper, the appearance of this autumnal light can have no such object in view, nor can we rationally assign any use of it to the creature itself, unless, indeed, it serves as a point of union in these supposed migrations, like the leading call in the flight of night-moving birds. The activity and numbers of these insects, in the above-mentioned evening, enabled me to observe the frequent presence and disappearance of the light of an individual, which did not seem to be the result of will, but produced by situation." [See LAMPY- HIS : ELATER.] GLUTTON. (Giilo arcticus.) A carni- vorous quadruped, of a very voracious na- ture, and about the size of a large Badger ; between which animal and the Polecat it seems to be intermediate ; nearly resembling the former in its general figure and aspect, and agreeing with the latter as to its denti- tion. The muzzle, beyond the eyes, is black- ish brown, covered with hard shining hair ; between the eyes and ears runs a whitis ash-coloured band or fillet ; the top of the sh or head and back are black-brown, the sides inclining to a chestnut colour ; and the feet are black. These animals are slow and comparatively deficient in agility ; but they are very persevering, determined, and cun- ning. In the northern regions, both of the Old and New World, they are said to be of SKOLt, OP OLOTTON. (STJLO ARCTIC 08.) uncommon fierceness and strength, some- times even disputing their prey with the Wolf and Bear. They often proceed at a steady pace for miles, hunting out weak or dying animals, and stealing unawares upon hares, marmots, birds, &c. They are said to surprise the larger quadrupeds, such as the Rein-deer and the Elk, as they lie asleep ; and to tear the neck and throat in the same manner as the Weasel. What they cannot devour at once they are said to hide under ground or in a hollow tree. They prefer putrid flesh, and are extremely fetid. The female brings forth two young at a litter once a year. The fur is much used for muffs, linings, &c. ; and the skins brought from Siberia are much preferred to others, from their being of a more glossy black. This animal is also called the WOLVEKEXE. GLYCIPIIILA. A genus of Tenuirostral birds belonging to the family Meliphairicke, of which we may mention GLYCIPIIILA FUL- VIFRONS, or the FULVOUS-FRONTED HONEY- EATER. This species, Mr. Gould observes, differs sufficiently from the true MeUphagi to fully justify its separation into a distinct genus. It prefers to dwell among the trees that crown the low stony ridges, rather than those growing on the lower lands or the 264 ai $attiral ^t brushes ; its flight is rapid, it mounts high ! the surface, and the Gnat quickly emerges in the air, and flics off to a distance with an i extremely rapid horizontal and even mo- tion. The song is rather remarkable, being commenced with a single note slowly drawn i out, and followed by a quick repetition of a j double note, repeated several times in suc- i cession, and mostly uttered when the bird is i perched on the topmost branch of a tree. It from its confinement. A warm, rainy season is most favourable to the evolution of Gnata ; and, in such summers, particular districts in most countries are occasionall them in countless swarms who inhabit the more favoured regions of the European continent can hardly conceive hat torments are endured from them in nally pestered by . Those persons n exceedingly active bird among the I some parts of the world ; but of all people I branches, gracefully clinging about and around the flowers of the Eucalypti in search ! of food. It builds in some low bush or i scrubby plant, near the ground, the nest ; being of a compact cup-shaped form, con- structed of dried grasses, and lined with soft ! wool. The eggs are rather large, and often much lengthened ; sometimes quite white, ; but more generally blotched with large ! marks of chestnut-red. It feeds on the pol- 1 len of flowers and insects. GLTPTODON. The name given to an extinct quadruped, of gigantic dimensions, which, like the Armadilloes day. was covered with a tes the present elated bony armour. In size it was equal to the Rhino- ceros. Prof. Owen has published an elabo- rate memoir on it, which is beautifully il- lustrated. The fine specimen in the College " ~ its dimensions, curious characters, and state of preservation. It was found in South Ame- rica. GNAT. (CulKX.) The Culicidce, or Gnat tribe, are a family of Dipterous insects, whose mouths are furnished with bristly stings, in- cluded in flexile sheaths. Some of the spe- cies are extremely troublesome, as they pierce the skin to feed upon the blood, and at the same time inject an irritating poison- ous fluid. Their flight is accompanied by a humming noise, occasioned by the vibration of their wings : they seldom appear in the day-time, except in thick woods, and they abound in moist situations, which is easily accounted for by their larvae being inhabit- ants of the water. In this state they are very active, swimming with great agility, and often descending ; but coming to the surface to breathe, which they do head down- i wards, the respiratory orifice being at the I end of a very prolonged spiracle arising from I the end of the abdomen. That well-known the Laplanders appear to be the greatest sufferers ; for during the heats of their short summe_r, the Gnats fill the air witli such swarming myriads, that the poor inhabitants can hardly venture to walk out of their cabins, without having first smeared their hands and faces with a composition of tar and cream, which is found by experience to prevent their attacks. A very small black Gnat ( CuJex reptam>\ with transparent wings, and the legs marked by a white bar, is particularly troublesome in marshy districts during the evening, by its creeping motion on the skin of the face, &c. To the above we may add, that the MOS- QUITO (Culex mosquito}, so much dreaded by all who visit the West Indies and America, where its bite seems to operate with peculiar malignity, is a species of Gnat which derives side with a pair of antennae-like jointed pro- cesses ; the thorax large and angular ; the body suddenly lessening from this part, and continuing of nearly the same size to the tail, which is abruptly truncated, and tipped with four foliaceous processes. In about fifteen days' time the larvae are full grown, and arrive at the pupa state; the animal then appears to have a rounded form, is very active, and still inhabits the water ; the position of its breathing apparatus, however, is now altered, being situated at the anterior part of the body, and consists of two little tubes, which are applied to the surface of the water for the reception of air. When, ready to assume the perfect state, it rises to moister atmosphere. But it is not wonderful that in uncultivated wastes, where the waters stagnate, and the heat of the sun is almost insupportable, that the atmosphere should frequently be filled with clouds of these insects, varying in size from three or four inches in length to a minuteness only dis- cernible by the assistance of a microscope. [See MOSQUITO.] GNATHODON. A genus of bivalve shells, of which there is one well- known species, (Gnathodon cu-neatiis), from New Orleans. It is ovate, equivalve, and equi- lateral ; and is known from all other shells by the characters of the hinge, having in one valve, a sharp, angular, notched, car- dinal tooth, and two lateral teeth, the posterior of which is elongated, and the anterior angulated, tortuous, shaped like a jawbone ; in the other valve, two cardinal and two lateral teeth, the interior of which is wedge-shaped. Ligament internal, cunei- form ; muscular impressions two. The name has also subsequently been given to a genus of birds. [See next article.] GNATHODON. A genus of birds de- scribed by Sir W. Jardine, from a specimen which belonged to Lady Harvey. From the contour of its beak, which has the upper mandible strongly hooked, as in the Dodo, and the under mandible dee is supposed by Mr. Gould or granivorous ; the beak being expressly adapted to denude palm nuts, or other strongly coated seeds, of their hard outer covering. Mr. Gould considers that it is more nearly allied to the Pigeon tribe (Co- lumbidce) than to any other family ; the form of the body and wings, and the struc- ture of the feathers, indicating this affinity. The only known species, Guathodon strigi- leeply notched, it to be frugivorous 29ftt0narjj of 265 rostris, is rather larger than a partridge, and has the head, neck, breast, and belly, of a glossy green black ; the back, wings, tail, GHATEODON 8 IIUQIROSTRIS. and under tail-coverts, of a deep chestnut red : the beak and naked part round the eye are of a yellowish colour. It is believed to be a native of one of the South Sea Islands ; and the Didunculus< found by the recent American Voyage of Discovery under C. Wilkes, is thought to be the same bird. GNU. (Bosdaphus Gnu.) A very singular species of Antelope, which, at first sight, appears to be a monstrous being, compounded of parts of different animals. Its general colour is a deep umber-brown, approaching to black. It is four feet in height, having the body and crupper of a small horse, and is covered with brown hair ; the tail is fur- nished with long white hairs (.like a horse), and on the neck is a beautiful flowing mane, white at the base, and black at the tips. Its horns, approximated and enlarged at the base, descend outwardly, and turn up at the point ; the muzzle is large, flat, and sur- rounded by a circle of projecting hairs ; under the throat and dewlap is another black mane ; and the legs are as light and Blender as those of a stag. The Gnus in- habit the wild karoos of South Africa and >ra.) i the hilly districts, where they roam mostly ; in large herds, and migrate according to the ; season. They are naturally wild and dif- i ficult of approach ; and when first alarmed, ; they fling up their heels and plunge about i like a restive horse : they soon, however, I take to flight, and traverse the desert with , such astonishing celerity not in a tumul- tuous mass, but in single file, following a leader that they are quickly out of dan- ger. When wounded they will sometimes turn upon the hunter and pursue him in turn, darting forwards on their assailant with amazing force and impetuosity, so that it requires the utmost coolness on his part to evade the attack. When taken young, this animal is easily domesticated. GOAT. (Copra hircus.) The distin- guishing characters in the genus Capra in the Linmi'an system of Zoology are, that the horns are hollow, turned upwards, and annulated on their surfaces ; that there are eight cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and none in the upper ; and that the male is generally bearded. In its domestic state the Goat is found in almost every part of the globe, bearing the extremes of heat and cold, and differing in size and form according to various circumstances ; the horns generally having a curvature outwards towards the tips. Buffon's account of this animal is strik- ingly descriptive. " The Goat," says he, " is superior to the sheep both in sentiment and dexterity. He approaches man spon- taneously, and is easily familiarized. He is sensible of caresses, and capable of a con- siderable degree of attachment. He is stronger, lighter, more agile, and less timid than the sheep. He is a sprightly, capri- cious, wandering, wanton animal. It is with much difficulty that he can be confined, and he loves to retire into solitude, and to climb, stand, and even sleep, on rugged and lofty eminences. He is robust and easily nourished, for he eats almost every herb, and is injured by very few. His bodily temper- ament, which in all animals has a great influence on the natural disposition, is not essentially different from that of the sheep. These two animals, whose internal organ- ization is almost entirely similar, are nou- rished, grow, and multiply in the same manner ; and their diseases are the same, excepting a few, to which the Goat is not subject. The Goat fears not, like the sheep, too great a degree of heat. He cheerfully exposes himself to the sun, and sleeps under his most ardent rays without being affected with the vertigo or any_ other inconveniency. He is not afraid of rain or storms ; but he appears to feel the effects of severe cold. The inconstancy of his disposition is marked by the irregularity of his actions. He walks, stops short, runs, leaps, approaches or re- tires, shows or conceals himself, or flies off, as if actuated by mere caprice, and without any other cause than what arises from an eccentric vivacity of temper. The supple- ness of his organs, and the strength and nervousness of his frame, are hardly suffi- cient to support the petulance and rapidity of his natural movements." The original stock of the Common Goat, as of other races of animals early subjugated by Man, cannot be distinctly traced ; but it appears to be the same with that of numerous half-domesticated breeds, which abound in Asia. Mr. Bell, in his History of British Quadrupeds, remarks, that " most modern 266 Ereatfurg nf Natural zoologists who have paid much attention to the question, and who have brought to the consideration of it all the helps which recent discoveries in philosophical zoology have furnished, have leaned to the belief that the ^Egagrus, or Wild Goat of the mountains of Caucasus and of Persia, is the true original stock. The zoological characters of this animal certainly bear a closer resemblance to those of the domestic breeds ; and it is worthy of remark, that the horns of the Persian Domestic Goat, though smaller, are similar in form to those of the Paseng or jEgagrus. The arguments which have been urged from the intermixture of the Ibex with the Common Goat are at present of little value ; as the facts recorded are very defi- cient. The large Goats which are reported to have been brought from the Alps and the Pyrenees to the Garden of Plants in Paris, and which were stated to have been wild, the Ibex with Goat, e probably the progeny of Common Goat, as there is no proof of the existence of the true ^Egagrus in Europe. These were found to be capable of producing offspring, and the details are given by Mr. Fred. Cuvier with great clearness ; but the old fault still remains ; the question is not set at rest by these observations ; for we are only informed that they produce offspring, without any statement whether they will breed inter se, or only with the Common Goat. The progeny, however, were either prematurely brought forth, or lived only a short time in a sick and languishing condi- tion." " The condition of the Goat, in some parts of our own islands," says the same intelli- gent and accurate writer, " is much more wild than that of any other of our domestic animals. In the mountains of Wales espe- cially the Wild Goats roam over the most inaccessible parts of the mountains and rocks, without the slightest appearance of domes- tication, or of having been deduced from a domestic stock. It is a hardy, active, power- ful animal ; capable of maintaining its foot- ing on the smallest point on which its feet can possibly rest, and of taking considerable leaps with the utmost certainty of safely alighting, although the spot which it desires to attain be perhaps but the rugged point or ledge of a precipice. It will thus find its food in places inaccessible to almost all other animals, and live and thrive by cropping the scanty herbage which they furnish. In the mountain ranges of Europe, on the Alps and Pyrenees, the Goat is found at a great eleva- tion, approaching as near the line of per- petual snow as it can find the scanty means of its sustenance ; and it feeds on many plants which to other ruminants are distaste- ful, and even deleterious : thus, hemlock, henbane, and digitalis is eaten by it with impunity, and even the acrid euphorbia is not rejected." The milk of the Goat is sweet, nutritive, and medicinal ; this may be accounted for from the animal's food being chiefly derived from the heathy mountains and shrubby pastures, where sweet and aromatic herbs abound. In ancient times the skin of the Goat was regarded as a most useful article of clothing : it is still manufactured into the best Turkey or Morocco leather ; while that of the kid (whose flesh is regarded as a deli- cacy) forms the softest and most beautiful leather for gloves, &c. The usual colour of the domestic Goat is black and white, or a pale reddish-brown, with a black stripe down the back ; but sometimes brown, white, or spotted. In old males the beard is very long ; and the horns, which are transversely rugose, bending outwards and falling back, are sometimes nearly three feet long. We find that the Common Goat inhabits most parts of the world, either native or naturalized. It endures all kinds of weather, being found in Europe as high as Wardhuys, in Norway, where it feeds during the winter season on moss, the bark of fir trees, and even of logs intended for fuel. It is also asserted that they thrive equally well in the hottest parts of Africa and India. The odour of the Goat, which at all times is pro- verbially strong, is intolerably so in the rutting season (from September to No- vember) ; but it is commonly believed that horses are refreshed by it, which accounts for this animal being often kept about sta- bles. Upon this subject Mr. Bell observes, " Many persons keep Goats in their stables, from an idea that they contribute to the health of the horses ; a fancy not perhaps so far-fetched or absurd as at first sight it might appear; for I believe that all animals are kept in better temper and greater cheerful- ness by the presence of a companion than in solitude, and the active and good-hu- moured Goat may in this way really per- form the benefit which has been attributed to it upon mistaken grounds ; indeed, in- stances of close attachment between the horse and the stable Goat are not unfre- quent." The female goes five months with young, and usually produces two kids at a birth ; sometimes, however, three, and occa- sionally but one. The ANGORA GOAT (Copra Angorensis) is by far the most elegant of all the varieties of the Goat, and is a native of Angora, a small district of Asia Minor, and remarkable for producing not only this peculiar race of goats, but also sheep, cats, rabbits, &c., with hair of uncommon fineness. The Goat of Angora is generally of a beautiful milk- white colour, short legged, with black, spreading, spirally-twisted horns, and pen- dulous ears. Its chief and distinguishing excellence, however, is the wool, which covers the whole body in long pendent spiral ringlets ; and it is from the hair of this ani- mal that the finest camlets are made. The CASHMERE GOAT, so highly prized for its fleece, is descended from the Goat of TMbet, which pastures on the Himalaya. It is smaller than the common domestic Goat, and has long, fine, silky wool. Thibet is situated at the northern descent of the Himalaya mountains, and Cashmere at the southern ; hence there is some difference in the climate ; it is observed, also, that the colder the region where the animal pas- tures, the heavier and finer is its fleece. The Goats which pasture in the highest vales of Papular 23tctt0nar nf 267 Thibet are of a bright ochre colour ; in lower grounds, the colour becomes of a yel- CASHMERE OOAT. lowish-white, and still farther downwards entirely white. The highest mountains of the Himalaya inhabitable by man contain also a species of black Goats, the wool of which as a material for shawls in India ob- tains the highest price. The Goats of Thibet and Cashmere have the fine curled wool close to the skin, just as the under hair of our common Goat lies below the coarse upper hair. The flesh of the Cashmere Goat tastes as well as that of the common one ; and its milk is as rich ; but these animals owe their great celebrity to the extraordi- nary beauty and costliness of the shawls for which the Asiatics have been so long famous. The SYRIAN GOAT is remarkable for its large pendulous ears, which are usually from one to two feet in length, and some- times so troublesome to the animal, that the owners are obliged to trim them, to enable it to feed more at ease. The horns are black, bending a little forwards ; and are only about two inches long. The colour of its hair is like that of a fox ; and there are two fleshy excrescences under its throat. This variety appears to have been known to Aristotle. There are several other varieties of the Goat which it is needless to enumerate. But there is one species in North America (the ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT), which we should notice, inasmuch as it has given rise to much diiFerence of opinion as to its proper place in a system of arrangement. It has been designated Ovis montana. The Rocky Mountain Goat nearly equals in size a com- mon sheep, and has a shaggy appearance, in consequence of the protrusion of the long hair beyond the wool, which is white and soft. Its horns are about five inches long, conical, somewhat curved backwards, and projecting but slightly beyond the wool of the head. They are in great num- bers about the head waters of the Colum- bia, and furnish the principal part of the food of the natives of that district. They appear to be more numerous on the western than on tne eastern side of the mountains, and are rarely seen in the plains. The skin is very thick and spongy, and is principally used in making moccasons. Next to the fleece of the Cashmere Goat this is believed to be the finest ; and it is prized accord- ingly. GOAT-MOTH. PEEDA.] [See Cossus LIGNI- GOATSUCKER, or NIG HT-JAR. (Ca- primufffiis Europeans.) There are many spe- cies of Goatsuckers, but this is the only one of the genus that inhabits Europe perma- nently, the Caprimulgus rujicollis being con- fined to South Western Europe, and ap- pearing there only in the summer. With us it is only a summer visitant, appearing about the middle of May, and retiring in September or October. Before, however, we give a description of the bird, it may be as well to observe that the name Goatsucker, although very generally used, and retained in most ornithological works, has no foun- dation but in the ignorance and superstition of the ancients, who believed it sucked the teats of goats ; on which account Bewick suggests the propriety of dropping the ; name, and adopting that of NIGHT-JAY, "which, though not universally known, bears some analogy to the nature and qua- lities of the bird, both in respect to the time of its appearance, which is always the dusk of the evening, as well as to the jarring noise it utters whilst at rest perched on a tree, and by which it is peculiarly distinguished." Like the Owl, it is seldom seen in the day- time, unless disturbed, or on dark and gloomy days, when its eyes are not dazzled by the bright rays of the sun. As moths, gnats, beetles, and other night insects are its food, it is peculiar ly_ formed to enable it to catch them on the wing. For this purpose nature has bestowed on it a mouth of great compa- rative size, which as the Goatsucker flies, it can quickly open, while the insects are addi- tionally secured by the bill being surrounded on the inner side with a glutinous substance that prevents their escape. This manner of flying with its mouth open is the cause of that whirring noise which this bird makes while chasing its prey. It arises from the resistance made to the mouth by the air and is more or less loud according to the velocity with which the bird moves. When 268 Cmtfttrj? at Natural j perched, it usually sits on a bare twig, with j its head lower than its tail, and in this atti- ' tude, utters its jarring. It does not perch like other birds, sitting across the branch, but lengthwise, and its hinder toe is capable I of being turned forward as well as backward. It is solitary in its habits, and is generally I seen alone. The colours of this bird, though plain, have a beautiful effect from the elegance of I their disposition, the plumage being beauti- 1 fully freckled, barred, and spotted with j browns, black, grey, and ferruginous, vari- , ously arranged and diversified. The bill is i small, flat, and hooked at the tip; the eyes 1 are large, full, and black ; the legs are short, j rough, and scaly, and feathered below the ! knee : the toes are connected by a membrane I as far as the first joint ; the middle one is ! considerably longer than the rest, and the claw is serrated on one side. The use of this peculiar organ is not clearly ascertained ; I by some it is affirmed that the bird employs it to clear away the fragments of insects that may have clogged up the fringe of bristles ; I by others, that it strikes its prey with its i foot, and that this long serrated claw enables i it to hold the insect more securely ; and by I others again, that it uses it to clean its plu- j mage. The male is distinguished from the I female by an oval white spot, near the end of the first three quill-feathers. These birds i frequent moors and wild heathy tracts ! abounding in fern ; they make no nest, but the female deposits her eggs, which are of a dull-white colour, on the ground. Mont- 1 belliard, who wrote this bird's history for i Buffon, states, that it no sooner perceives its ! retreat to be discovered by an enemy, than '. it carefully rolls its eggs to a more secure | situation. There are other species bearing the same general appellation ; one of which is known in America as Whip-poor- Will ; another as i C/mck-Will's-Widow, a third as the Xight- Jiawk, and a fourth as the Rain-bird. There j are also the Banded Goatsucker, and Crested j Goatsucker, natives of New Holland ; be- sides several inhabiting various parts of I ludia, Africa, &c. These are placed in dif- ferent genera : for descriptions of figures of which we refer our readers to the works of Mr. Gould, and of Messrs. Gray and Mitchell. | The two first-mentioned we shall here de- j scribe, from Wilson. WHIP-POOE-WILL. (Caprimulgus \_An- trostomus~\ vociferus.) The notes of this soli- tary and celebrated bird, when first heard in the spring, at evening twilight or morning's dawn, seem like the voice of an old friend, and are listened to by almost all with great interest. At first they issue from some re- tired part of the woods, the glen, or mountain ; in a few evenings, perhaps, we hear them from the adjoining coppice, the garden fence, the road before the door, and even from the roof of the dwelling-house, long after the family have retired to rest. He soon becomes a re- gular acquaintance. Every morning his shrill and rapid repetitions are heard from the adjoining woods ; and when two or more are calling out at the same time, as is often the case in the pairing season, and at no great distance from each other, the noise, mingling with the echoes from the mountains, is really surprising. Their notes seem pretty plainly to articulate the words which have been generally applied to them, Wliip-poor- WHIP- POOR-WILL. (OA.PRIMUr.,OU3 VOOIFEUUfO Will, the first and last syllables being uttered with great emphasis, and the whole in about a second to each repetition ; but when two or more males meet, their whip-poor will alter- cations become much more rapid and inces- sant, as if each were straining to overpower or silence the other. When near, you often hear an introductory cluck between the notes. At these times, as well as at almost all others, they fly low, not more than a few feet from the surface, skimming about the house and before the door, alighting on the wood-pile, or settling on the roof. Towards midnight they generally become silent, unless in clear moonlight, when they are heard with little intermission till morning. If there be a creek near, with high precipitoiis bushy banks, they are sure to be found in such situations. During the day they sit in the most retired, solitary, and deep-shaded parts of the woods, generally on high ground, where they repose in silence. When dis- turbed, they rise within a few feet, sail low and slowly through the woods for thirty or forty yards, and generally settle on a low branch or on the ground. Their sight ap- pears deficient during the day, as, like owls, they seem to want that vivacity for which they are distinguished in the morning and evening twilight. They are rarely shot at or molested ; and from being thus tran- siently seen in the obscurity of dusk, or in the deep umbrage of the woods, no wonder their particular markings of plumage should be so little known, or that they should be confounded with the Night-hawk, whom in general appearance they so much resemble. The female begins to lay about the second week in May, selecting for this purpose the most unfrequented part of the wood, often where some brush, old logs, heaps of leaves, &c. had been lying, and always on a dry situation. The eggs are deposited on the ground, or on the leaves, not the slightest appearance of a nest being visible. These are usually two in number, in shape much resembling those of the Night-hawk, but having the ground colour much darker, and more thickly marbled with dark olive. at 269 The Whip-poor-will is nine inches and a half long, and nineteen inches in extent ; the bill is blackish, a full quarter of an inch long, and bent a little at the point, the under mandible arched a little upwards ; the nostrils are prominent and tubular, their openings directed forward ; the mouth is extravagantly large, of a pale flesh colour within, and beset along the sides with a number of long, thick, elastic bristles, which end in fine hair, and curve inwards ; these seem to serve as feelers ; and prevent the escape of winged insects : the eyes are very large, full, and bluish black ; the plumage above is so variegated with black, pale cream, brown, and rust colour, sprinkled and pow- dered in such minute streaks and spots, as to defy description ; the upper part of the head is of a light brownish gray, marked with a longitudinal streak of black, with others radiating from it ; the back is darker, finely streaked with a less deep black ; the scapulars are very light whitish ochre, beau- tifully variegated with two or three ob- lique streaks of very deep black; the tail is rounded, the three outer feathers on each side are blackish brown for half their length, thence pure white to the tips ; the deep brown of these feathers is regularly studded with light brow-n spots ; the four middle ones are without the white at the ends, but beau- tifully marked with herring-bone figures of black and light ochre finely powdered. The cheeks and sides of the head are of a brown orange colour ; the wings, when shut, reach scarcely to the middle of the tail, and are elegantly spotted with very light and dark brown ; chin black, streaked with brown ; a narrow semicircle of white passes across the throat ; breast and belly irregularly mottled and streaked with black and yellow oclire, legs and feet light purplish flesh colour, seamed with white ; the former feathered before, nearly to the feet ; the two exterior toes are joined to the middle one, as far as the first joint, by a broad membrane ; and the inner edge of the middle claw is pec- tinated, and therefore probably employed as a comb to rid the plumage of its vermin. The female is about an inch less in length and in extent, and differs also in being much lighter on the upper parts. Their food ap- pears to be large moths, grasshoppers, ants, and such insects as frequent the bark of old rotten and decayed timber : they are also expert in darting after winged insects. They will sometimes skim in the dusk, within a few feet of a person, uttering a kind of low chatter as they pass. In their migra- tions north, and on their return, they pro- bably stop a day or two at some of their former stages, and do not advance in one continued flight. This bird, like the owl and other nocturnal flyers, is regarded with a kind of suspicious awe by the weakminded and superstitious. "Night," says Wilson, " to minds of this complexion, brings with it its kindred horrors, its apparitions, strange sounds, and awful sights ; and this solitary nd inoffensive bird being a frequent wan- derer in these hours of ghosts and hobgoblins is considered by the Indians as being, by habit and repute, little better than one of them. The CHUCK- WILL'S- WIDOW. Caprimul- yus [Antrostomus] Carolinensis.~) This spe- cies is twelve inches long, and twenty-six in extent ; bill yellowish, tipt with black ; the sides of the mouth are armed with numerous long bristles, strong, tapering, and furnished with finer hairs branching from each ; cheeks and chin rust colour, speckled with black ; over the eye extends a line of small whitish spots ; head and back very deep brown, powdered with rust and cream colour, and marked with long ragged streaks of black ; scapulars broadly spotted with deep black, bordered and in- CHOCK-WTLI/8-WIDOW. (Ci.PRIM01.ODS OAROIINENSIS.) terspersed with a creamy white : the plu- mage of that part of the neck which falls over the back is long, something like that of a cock, and streaked with yellowish brown ; wing quills barred with black and bright rust ; tail rounded, extending about an inch beyond the tips of the wings ; the middle feathers being powdered with various tints of ferruginous, and elegantly marked with fine zig-zag lines, and large herring-bone figures of black ; exterior edges of the three outer feathers barred like the wings, their interior vanes being pure snowy white, marbled with black ; across the throat is a slight whitish band ; breast black, powdered with rust ; belly and vent lighter ; legs feathered before nearly to the feet, which are of a dirty purplish flesh-colour. The Chuck- Will's- Widow, whose notes seem exactly to articulate these words, com- mences its singular call generally in the evening, soon after sunset, and continues it, with short occasional interruptions, for se- veral hours. This note, or call, instantly attracts the attention of a stranger, and is strikingly different from that of the Whip- poor-Will. In sound and articulation it seems plainly to express the words which have been applied to it (&I*** Will's- Widow), pronouncing each syllable leisurely and dis- tinctly, putting the principal emphasis on the last word. In a still evening it may be heard at the distance of nearly a mile, the tones of its voice being stronger and more full than those of the Whip-poor- Will, who utters his with much greater rapidity. The flight of this bird is low, skimming about at a few feet above the surface of the ground, frequently settling on old logs, or on the fences, and from thence sweeping around, in pursuit of various winged insects that fly in the night. Like the Whip-poor- Will, it prefers the declivities of glens and other deeply shaded places, making the surround- ing mountains ring with echoes the whole 270 Croi&trg of Natural i^ , evening. The Chuck- Will's- Widow lays | its eggs, two in number, on the ground, in the woods ; they are of a dull olive colour, sprinkled with darker specks, and about as large as a pigeon's. This singular genus of birds, formed to subsist on the superabundance of nocturnal insects, are exactly and surprisingly fitted for their peculiar mode of life. Their flight is low, to accommodate itself to their prey ; silent, that they may be the better concealed, and sweep upon it unawares ; their sight, most acute in the dusk, when such insects are abroad ; their evolutions, something like those of the bat, quick and sudden ; their mouths capable of prodigious expansion, to seize with more certainty, and furnished with long branching hairs, or bristles, serving as palisadoes to secure what comes between I them. Reposing so much during the heats of day, they are much infested with vermin, particularly about the head, and are provided with a comb on the inner edge of the middle claw, with which they are often employed in ridding themselves of these pests, at least when in a state of captivity. Having no weapons of defence except their wings, their chief security is in the solitude of night, and in their colour and close retreats by day ; the former so much resembling that of dead leaves, of various hues, as not to be readily distinguished from them even when close at hand. [See NIGUT-IIAWK .] GOBIOIDE^E. A family of Acanthop- terygious fishes, including the Blenuies, Gobies, &c. They may be recognised by the slenderness and flexibility of their dorsal rays. They have an uniformly wide intes- tinal canal, and no pyloric cceca. GOBY. (Gobius.) A genus of Acanthop- terygious fishes, of which there are several species, of a small size, in general varying from three to six inches in length ; but none of them are much esteemed for food. They are distinguished by their ventral and tho- racic fins being united in their whole length, or at their bases. The spines of the dorsal RED QOBT (OOJ fins are flexible ; the openings of their ears, with four rays. Like the Blenny, they can live a long time out of water. Several spe- cies are found in the Mediterranean, Ame- rican, and Indian seas : some also on our own coasts. Three or four will suffice for examples. The BLACK GOBY, or ROCK-FISH. (GoUus niger.) This is an inhabitant of the Medi- terranean and Northern seas, and also of the rocky parts of our own coast : it grows to the length of six inches ; the body is soft, slippery, and slender : the head large, the cheeks inflated, and the lips very thick ; the mouth is wide, and furnished with numerous small teeth in each jaw, the lower of which is the longest. The ventral fins coalesce, and form a sort of funnel, by which these fish are said to affix themselves immovably to the rocks. The general colour of the fish is a dusky black, and the tail is rounded at the end. The LANCE-TAILED GOBY (Gdbius lanceo- latus) is distinguished by and named from the peculiar form of its tail, which is large in proportion to the fish, and sharp-pointed at the tip. The body is of a lengthened shape, and nearly of equal diameter through- out : the head is oblong, and truncated in front ; the jaws of equal length, a,nd armed with sharp teeth ; and the body is covered with scales, those toward the tail being much larger than those on the upper parts. This is a West Indian species. The BLUE GOBY (Gobius cceruleus') is a highly beautiful, though very small species : colour fine blue, rather paler beneath : tail red, with a black border. From the bril- liancy of its colours it appears, when swim- ming in a calm sea, during a bright sunshine, like a small tube of sapphire, tipped with carbuncle. It is found on the eastern coasts of Africa ; and the Negroes use it as a bait for other fish. The SPOTTED GOBY (Gobiiis minutus) is about three inches long ; the head is large ; the irides blue ; the mouth wide, with several rows of small pointed teeth, curving in- wards ; the dorsal fins distinct, pectoral and ventral fins large ; tail a little rounded. The general colour is a pale yellowish- white, freckled with minute light brown specks, and occasionally a row of larger spots along the lateral line. It is frequently taken on our sandy shores in shrimpers' nets ; it is also plentiful in the Thames, where it is called by the fishermen Polewig, or Polly- bait. GODWIT. (Limosa.~) There are several species of these Grallatorial birds. They are a timid, shy, and solitary tribe ; charac- terized by a straight beak, longer than that of the snipes, sometimes slightly bent at the extremity, and by long legs, naked far above the knee. They live amidst the fens, salt marshes, and deep muddy places near the mouths of rivers ; seldom remaining above a day or two in the same place, and often re- moving suddenly in a flock at night, when they fly very high. When pursued, they run with great speed, and scream as they rise. They subsist on worms and larvae, and their flesh is very excellent. They are migratory, and moult twice in the year. The COMMON GODWIT (Limosa jEgoce- phala) is sixteen inches in length, and weighs about twelve ounces. The bill is four inches long, bent a little upwards, and black at the point : the head, neck, back, scapulars, and coverts are a dingy reddish pale brown, each feather being marked down the middle with a dark spot. The fore part of the breast is streaked with black ; belly, vent, and tail white, the latter barred with black : the webs of the first six quill-feathers black, popular Stctionarn of &mmatctt $nturr. 271 edged on the interior sides with reddish brown : legs inclining to greenish blue. In the spring and summer the Godwit resides in the fens and marshes, where it rears its young ; but when the winter sets in with severity, it seeks the salt-marshes and sea- shores. The RED GODWIT. (Limosa rt of gftumatrtr $atttre. 289 of the cocks. This is answered by another ; and they presently come forth one by one from the bushes, strutting about with all the pride and ostentation they can display. Their necks are incurvated ; the feathers on them are erected into a sort of ruff ; the i plumes of their tails are expanded like fans ; j they strut about in a style resembling the pomp of the turkey-cock. They seem to vie I with each other ui state! iness ; and, as they I pass each other, frequently cast looks of in- sult, and utter notes of defiance. These are the signals for battles. They engage with wonderful spirit and fierceness ; and during their contests, they leap a foot or two from the ground, and utter a cackling, screaming, and discordant cry. These places of ex- hibition have been often discovered by the hunters ; and a fatal discovery it has been for the poor Grouse. Their destroyers con- struct for themselves lurking holes made of pine branches, called " bough houses," within a few yards of the spot. Hither they repair with their fowling-pieces, in the latter part of the night, and wait the appearance of the birds. Watching the moment when two are proudly eyeing each other, or en- gaged in battle, or when a greater number can be seen in a range, they pour on them a destructive charge of shot. They com- monly keep together in coveys of ten or a dozen, or packs, as the phrase is, until, the pairing season : and it has been remarked, that when a company of sportsmen have surrounded a pack of Grouse, the birds seldom or never rise upon their pinions while they are encircled ; but each runs along till it has passed the person that is nearest, and then nutters ff with the utmost expedition The inieresting facts contained in the foregoing account are derived from the inimitable " American Ornithology " by Alex. Wilson. GRUB. A name applied more especially to the hexapod worms or maggots hatched from the eggs of beetles. GRUTD^E. The name of the family of wading birds represented by the Crane. GRTJS. A genus of Grallatorial birds belonging to the family Gruula:. [See CKAXE.] GRYLLID^E. The second family be- longing to the Saltatorinl Orthoptcra; con- taining the Field and House Cricket. [See CRICKET.] GUACHARO BIRD. (Steatornis Caripen- *?.) A bird of South America, belonging to the family of Gaotsuckers ( Cavrimulffidce), relative to the locality and habits of which a most interesting account is given by Baron Humbo_ldt, in his "Personal Narrative." This bird is of the size of a common fowl ; the plumage sombre, brownish-grey, mixed with small striae and black dots ; large white heart-shaped spots bordered with black on the head, and on the wing and tail feathers ; but no spots on the back : the bill is horny, wide, and long ; the upper mandible hooked ; and the base is furnished with stiff hairs, directed forwards. The following narrative is derived, in a somewhat abridged form, from an article by the talented author of Zoological Recrea- tions. "When they (Humboldt and his party) arrived at the foot of the lofty moun- tain of Guacharo, they were only four hun- dred paces from the cavern, without yet perceiving the entrance. The torrent runs in a hollow excavated by the waters ; and they went on under a ledge or cornice, the projection of which prevented them from seeing the sky. The path winds like the river, and, at the last turning, they sud- denly stood before the immense opening of the cave. The (Jucva del Guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a rock, and the entrance is towards the south, forming a vault eighty feet broad and seventy-two feet high, an elevation but a fifth less than that 8TEATORN18 CARIPKUSI8.) of the Louvre. The rock surmounting the cavern was covered with trees of gigantic height, and all the luxuriant profusion of an intertropical vegetation. The travellers saw with astonishment plantain-leaved he- liconias eighteen feet in height, the praga palm, and tree arums, follow the banks of the river, even to the subterranean places. There the vegetation continues, as in the deep crevices of the Andes, half shut out from the light of day, nor does it disappear till a distance of thirty or forty paces from the entrance. The party went forward for about four hundred and thirty feet without being obliged to light their torches. Where the light began to fail, they heard from afar the hoarse cries of the Guacharo birds. These birds quit the cavern only at night- fall, especially when there is moonlight ; and Humboldt remarks that it is almost the only frugivorous nocturnal bird yet known. It feeds on very hard fruits, and the Indians assured him that it does not pursue either the lamellicorn insects or those phalamce which serve as food to the goatsuckers. He states that it is difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise made by thousands of these birds in the dark recesses of the cavern, whence their shrill and piercing cries strike upon the vaulted rocks, and are repeated by the echo in the depths of the grotto. By fixing torches of copal to the end of a long - 290 (Ercas'ur|) of Natural pole, the Indians showed the nests of these [ them by their parents : these are preserved, birds fifty or sixty feet above the heads of I and, under the name of semiUu del Guacharo the explorers, in funnel-shaped holes, with which the cavern roof is pierced like a sieve. " Once a year, near midsummer, the Gua- charo cavern is entered by the Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the greater part of the nests, while the old birds hover over the heads of the robbers, as if to defend their brood, uttering horrible cries. The young which fall down are opened on the spot. The peritoneum is found loaded with (Guacharo seed), are considered a celebrated remedy against intermittent fevers, and sent to the sick at Cariaco and other low locali- ties where fever prevails. The Cueru del Guacharo is situated nearly in lat. 10 1(K, and consequently in the centre of the torrid zone." GUAN. A genus of Gallinaceous birds found in the New World. [See PJSNELOPE.] fat, and a layer of the same substance reaches I GTJANA. The name given to several from the abdomen to the vent, forming a I species of Lizards (lyuana). The best known kind of cushion between the bird's legs, Humboldt here remarks, that this quantity pecies (Iguana tubcrculata) is found in many parts of America and the West of fat in frugivorous animals, not exposed | India islands. It inhabits rocky and woody to the light, and exerting but little muscular j places ; feeds on insects and vegetables ; and motion, brings to mind what has been long j is often seen of the length of from three to observed in the fattening of geese and oxen, even five feet : its general colour is green, It is well known, he adds, how favourable shaded with brown : the back is strongly darkness and repose are to this process. At the period above mentioned, which is gene- rally known at Caripe by the designation of ' the oil harvest,' huts are built by the In- dians, with palm leaves, near the entrance, and even in the very porch of the cavern. There the fat of the young birds just killed is melted in clay pots over a brushwood fire ; serrated ; and this, witli its large gular pouch, which it has the power of inflating to a great degree, gives a formidable appear- ance to an animal otherwise harmless. We learn from Catesby that these reptiles are of various sizes, from two to five feet in length ; that their mouths are furnished with exceed- ing small teeth, but thei are armed and this fat is named butter or oil of the j with a long beak, with which they bite with Guacharo. It is half liquid, transparent, inodorous, and so pure that it will keep above a year without turning rancid. Hum- boldt observes that the race of Guacharo birds would have been extinct long since if several circumstances had not contributed to its preservation. The natives, withheld r in tich great strength : and that they inhabit warm countries only. Many of the Bahama islands abound with them, where they nestle in hollow rocks and trees. Their eggs have not a hard shell, like those of alligators, but a skin only, like those of a turtle ; and are esteemed a good food : they lay a great by superstitious fears, seldom dare to pro- I number of eggs at a time, in the earth, ceed far into the recesses of the cavern, i which are there hatched by the sun's heat. Humboldt had great difficulty in persuading These Guanas are a great part of the sub- them to pass beyond the outer part of the j sistence of the inhabitants of the Bahama cave, the only portion of it which they visit > islands, for which purpose they visit many annually to collect the oil ; and the whole : of the remote Kayes and islands in their authority of the Padres was necessary to , sloops to catch them, which they do by dogs make them penetrate as far as the spot ! trained up for that purpose. Their flesh is where the floor rises abruptly at an incliua- j easy of digestion, delicate, and well-tasted : tion of sixty degrees, and where a small they are sometimes roasted, but the more subterraneous cascade is formed by the tor- ! common way is to boil them, taking out the rent. In the minds of the Indians this cave, | leaves of fat, which are melted and clarified, inhabited by nocturnal birds, is associated and put into a calabash or dish, into which with mystic ideas, and they believe that in | they dip the flesh of the Guana as they eat the deep recesses of the cavern the souls of i it. Though they are not amphibious, they their ancestors sojourn. They say that man '. are said to keep under water above an hour, should avoid places that are enlightened Their pace on land is slow ; and when they go the these perhaps the great for the missionaries dec neither by the sun nor the moon ; and ' to and join the Guacharoes ' means to rejoin sir fathers in short, to die. At the en- trance of the cave the magicians and poisoners perform their exorcisms to conjure the chief of the evil spirits. It appears also, as another cause of preservation, that Gua- charo birds inhabit neighbouring caverns too narrow to be accessible to man, and from cavern is repeopled ; ies declared that no sensible diminution of the birds had been observed. Young birds of this species have been sent to the port of Cumana, and have lived there several days, but without taking any food ; j scales are small ; the tail is "forked ; and the seeds offered to them not suiting them. | both that and the dorsal fin are spotted with The crops and gizzards of the young birds | black : the upper jaw is longer than the ! opened in the cavern contain all sorts of | lower ; and furnished with short cirri. Qud- hard and dry fruits, which are conveyed to geons appear to delight in slow rivers : they swim, they do not use their feet, but merely guide themselves with their tails. They are so impatient of cold, that they rarely appear out of their holes but when the sun shines. GUANACO. The local name of a variety of species of the Llama [which see], GUDGEON. (Cyprinus gobio.) A small Malacopterygious fresh-water fish, generally about five or six inches in length and of a sub- cylindrical shape; its usual colour is a pale olive brown above, spotted with black ; the sides silvery, and the belly white ; the Popular Btcttonarj) at Tntmatett Mature. 291 swim together in shoals, feeding on worms, aquatic insects, &c., and affording excellent amusement to anglers from the avidity with which they seize the bait : they may also be taken in considerable numbers with the casting-net. The Gudgeon spawns in May, generally among stones in shallow water. The flesh is delicate, and easy of digestion. GUILLEMOT. ( Uria.) The Guillemots are a genus of sea-birds, haying a striking resemblance both to the A Icithe (Auks) and the Colymhidie (Divers). Their bills, though of a slender shape, are firm, strong, and pointed; the upper mandible slightly bending near the end, and the base covered with soft short feathers : tongue long and slender ; legs placed far backward ; and no hind toe. Some of the species api>ear to be very stupid, frequent experience not seeming to teach them the danger of fire-arms ; while others are sufficiently alert. They are numerously spread over various parts of the northern regions ; and, like many others, seek more temperate climes on the approach of winter : thus during that season they are regular visitants of the British coasts. FOOLISH GUILLEMOT. (ORIA TROII.E.) The FOOLISH GUILLEMOT. ( Uria troile. ) This bird is about seventeen inches in length, and twenty-seven in breadth. The bill is bluish-black, straight, nearly three inches long, and sharp-pointed : from each eye to the hinder part of the head there is a slight division of the plumage ; and the feathers on the upper part of the bill are short, and soft as velvet. The head, neck, back, wings, and tail, are of a deep mouse-colour ; the tips of the lesser quill-feathers, the breast, belly, and vent, are white ; the entire under side of the body is pure white : legs dusky. Like the Auk, which it greatly resembles, the Guillemot lays but one egg, which is large in proportion to her size : sometimes it is of a pale blue or sea-green colour, and at other times white, spotted, or neatly streaked with intersecting lines. These birds are found in great numbers on the cliffs which encircle several parts of our coasts ; and, in the breeding season espe- cially, they will often suffer themselves to be killed or taken, rather than quit the cliff they have chosen for their abode. The young has been descril>ed as a distinct species, by some authors, as the Lesser Guil- lemot. In this state it measures sixteen inches in length, and from tip to tip of its extended wings, twenty-six. The top of the head, the whole upiwr part of the body, the wings, and the tail, are of a very dark mouse-colour ; the cheeks, throat, and lower side of the body, white ; from the angle of the eye is a dusky stroke, pointing to the back part of the Read ; the tips of the secondary feathers are white ; the tail is very short ; and the legs and feet are dusky. The BLACK GUILLEMOT. (Uria gryUe.) This species, called by seamen the Dovekey or Dovekie, differs from the preceding prin- cipally in the colour of its plumage, which, except a large patch of white on the coverts of each wing, is black, sleek and glossy ; its feathers appearing all unwebbed, like silky hair : legs and feet red ; claws black. The nest is made in the deep crevices of the rocks which overhang the sea : the egg (for it is generally said that one egg only is laid) is grey, sometimes spotted with rust-colour. On this much questioned and very question- able fact, the observing and intelligent Ame- rican ornithologist, Audubon, thus writes : " Whether European writers have spoken of this species at random, or after due ob- servation, I cannot say. All I know is, that every one of them whose writings I have consulted, says that the Black Guille- mot lays only one egg. As I have no reason whatever to doubt their assertion, I might be tempted to suppose that our species differs from theirs, were I not perfectly aware that birds in different places will construct dif- ferent nests, and lay more or fewer eggs Our species always deposits three, unless it may have been disturbed ; and this fact I have assured myself of by having caught the birds in more than twenty instances sitting on that number. Nay, on several occasions, at Labrador, some of my party and myself saw several Black Guillemots sitting on eggs in the same fissure of a rock, where every bird had three eggs under it ; a fact which I communicated to my friend Thomas Nuttall. What was most surprising c c 2 292 of Batumi to me was, that even the fishermen there thought that this bird laid only a single egg ; and when I asked them how they knew, they simply and good-naturedly answered that they had heard so." (ORIA. ORTI We now turn to the first volume of Mr. Watertou's amusing and characteristic Essays, to extract his Notes of a visit to the haunts of the Guillemot. " The immense range of perpendicular rocks, lashed by old ocean's briny surge, offers a choice and fa- vourable retreat to myriads of wild-fowl, from far-famed Flamborough-head to Bemp- ton, and thence to Buckton and Speaton, and outwards to the Bay of Filey. He who wishes to examine the nidification of these birds ought to be at this part of the sea-coast early in the month of May. About five miles from Bridlington Quay is the village of Flamborough, chiefly inhabited by fisher- men ; and a little farther on is a country inn, called the North Star, which has good accommodation for man and horse ; but a lady would feel herself ill at ease in it, on account of the daily visits of the fishermen, those hardy sons of Neptune, who stop at it on their way to the ocean, and again on their return. Here they rendezvous, to for- tify their interior with a pint or two of comfort, and to smoke a pipe, by way of compensation for the many buffets which they ever and anon receive in the exercise of their stormy and nocturnal calling. i " On the bare ledges of these stupendous cliffs the Guillemot lays its egg, which is exposed to the face of heaven, without any nest whatever : but the razor-bills and puf- fins lay theirs in crannies, deep and difficult of access. Here too the peregrine falcon breeds, and here the raven rears its young ; while the rock-pigeon and the starling enter the fissures of the precipice, and proceed with their nidification, far removed from the pry- ing eye of man. The Kittiwake makes her nest of dried grass wherever she can find a lodgment, and lays two spotted eggs, very rarely three. The cormorant and shag in- habit that part of the rocks which is oppo- site to Buckton Hall. You are told that the cormorants had their nests, in former times, near to the Flamborough lighthouse ; but now these birds totally abandon the place during the breeding season. The jackdaw is found throughout the whole of this bold and craggy shore : he associates with the sea-fowl, as though he were quite at home amongst his own inland congeners. To- wards the top of the cliffs, both rabbits and foxes have descended from the table land above them, and managed to find a shelter 1 j among the crevices, in places where you I would suppose that no four-footed animal I would ever dare to venture. A low mound, half earth, half stone, thrown up by the farmers for the protection of their flocks, skirts the winding summit of the precipice. Cattle have been known to surmount this artificial boundary, and lose their lives in the roaring surge below. This extensive range of rocks, as far as appertains to birds, is not considered private property. Any person who can climb it may carry away what number of eggs he chooses. Still there is a kind of honourable understanding be- twixt the different sets of climbers, that 'they will not trespass over the boundaries which have been marked by mutual consent. " The usual process of seeking for the eggs is generally carried on by three men, though two will suffice in case of necessity. Having provided themselves with two ropes of suf- ficient length and strength, they drive an iron bar into the ground, about six inches deep, on the table land at the top of the precipice. To this bar is fastened the thick- est of the two ropes, and then it is thrown down the rocks. He who is to descend now puts his legs through a pair of hempen braces, which meet round his middle, and there form a waistband. At each end of this waist- band is a loophole, through which they reeve the smaller rope. Sometimes an iron hook and eye are used in lieu of this loop. A man now holds the rope firmly in his hand, and gradually lowers his comrade down the precipice. While he is descending he has hold of the other rope, which was fastened to the iron bar ; and, with this assistance, he passes from ledge to ledge, and from rock to rock, picking up the eggs of the Guille- mot, and putting them into two bags, which he had slung across his shoulder ere he com- menced his arduous undertaking. When he has filled these bags with eggs, he jerks the rope, and the motion informs his friend at the top that it is now tkne to draw him up. On coming up again to the place from whence he first set out, all the eggs are taken from the bags, and put into a large basket, prior to their being packed in hampers, and carried off in a cart by wholesale dealers, who purchase them from the climbers for sixpence the score. At Bridlington and the neighbouring places the eggs are retailed at a halfpenny a-piece. The rocks are searched for eggs every third day, provided the wea- er be fair. It requir dress on the part of the descending climber requires considerable ad- to save himself from being hit by fragments of the rock, which are broken off by the rope coming in contact with them. He avoids the danger by moving sidewise when the stone is falling, and by taking care, as he goes down, to clear away with his foot any portion of the rock that seems ready to give way. One of the climbers, while he was imparting to me instructions how to act, grinned purposely, and showed his upper jaw. I learned by his story, that, last year, a falling stone had driven two of his front teeth down his throat ; while the poor climber, with all his dexterity, was unable to feud off the blow. Popular SJtcttonary of &mmatclr $aturr. 293 " As I was lowered down, the grandeur I and sublimity of the scene beggared all de- | scription, and amply repaid any little un- I i pleasant sensations which arose on the score I of danger. The sea was roaring at the base 1 of this stupendous wall of rocks ; thousands i and tens of thousands of wild-fowl were in I an instant on the wing : the kittiwakes and j jackdaws rose in circling flight ; while most ! of the Guillemots, razorbills, and puffins ! left the ledges of the rocks in a straight and i downward line, with a peculiarly quick mo- i tion of the pinions, till they plunged into the ocean. It was easy to distinguish the j puffins from the razorbills in their descent : ' these presented a back of a uniformly dark j colour, those had a faint white diagonal line ! running across the wiugs. The nests of the | kittiwakes were close to each other, on every j part of the rocks which was capable of hold- ing them ; and they were so numerous as totally to defy any attempt to count them. : On the bare and level ledge of the rocks, often not more than six inches wide, lay the eggs of the Guillemots : some were placed parallel with the range of the shelf, others nearly so, and others with their blunt and sharp ends indiscriminately pointing to the sea. By no glutinous matter, nor any foreign body whatever, were they affixed to the rock: bare they lay, and unattached, as on the palm of your outstretched hand. You might > see nine or ten, or sometimes twelve old Guillemots in a line, so near to each other that their wings seemed to touch those of their neighbours ; and when they flew off at your approach, you would see as many eggs as you had counted birds sitting on the ledge. The eggs vary in size and shape and colour beyond all belief. Some are large, others small, some exceedingly sharp at one end, and others nearly rotund. The rock- climbers assure you that the Guillemot, when undisturbed, never lays more than one egg ; but if that be taken away, she will lay another, and so on. They also assure you that when the young Guillemot gets to a certain size, it manages to climb upon the back of the old bird, which conveys it down to the ocean. Having carried a good tele- scope with me, through it I saw numbers of young Guillemots, diving and sporting on the sea, quite unable to fly ; and I observed others on the ledges of the rocks, as I went , down among them, in such situations that, had they attempted to fall into the waves beneath, they would have been killed by striking against the projecting points of the intervening sharp and rugged rocks : where- I fore I concluded that the information of the rock-climbers was to be depended upon ; i and I more easily gave credit to it, because ; I myself have seen an old swan sailing on the water with her young ones upon her back, about a week after they had been \ hatched. " He who rejoices when he sees all nature smiling around him, and who takes an iu- j terest in contemplating the birds of heaven as they wing their way before him, will feel sad at heart on learning the unmerited per- secution to which these harmless sea-fowl are exposed. Parties of sportsmen, from all quarters of the kingdom, visit Flamborough and its vicinity during the summer months, and spread sad devastation all around them. No profit attends the carnage ; the poor un- fortunate birds serve merely as marks to aim at, and they are generally left where they fall. Did these heartless gunners re- flect, but for one moment, how many inno- cent birds their shot destroys ; how many fall disabled on the wave, there to linger for hours, perhaps for days, in torture and in anguish ; did they but consider how many helpless young ones will never see again their parents coming to the rock with food ; they would, methinks, adopt some other plan to try their skill, or cheat the lingering hour." GUINEA-FOWL, or PINTADO. (Nu- mida mcleuifris.) The Guinea-fowls are na- tives of Africa and its adjacent islands : their manners are similar to those of the domestic poultry, and their food the same. This spe- cies is bigger than a large cock : the head is bare of feathers, and covered with a naked bluish skin ; on the top is a callous conical protuberance : and on each side of the upper mandible, at the base, hangs a loose wattle, which in the female is red, and in the male bluish : the upper part of the neck is almost naked, being very thinly furnished with a few straggling hairy feathers : the skiu is of a bluish ash : the lower part of the neck is GUINEA-FOWL. (NOMIDA MELEAGRIS,) covered with feathers of a purple hue ; but the general colour of the plumage is dark bluish gray, sprinkled with round wliite spots of different sizes, on the whole of the feathers, the breast only excepted. which is of a uniform gray blue : the greater quills are white ; and the rest are similar to the upper parts of the plumage, spotted and longitudinally barred with white. Its wings are short, and the tail pendulous, or pointing downwards. This bird is now common in our poultry yards, but from the circumstance of the young ones being difficult to rear, they are not bred in numbers at all equal to those of the domestic poultry. The female lays many eggs in a season, which she frequently secretes till she has produced her young brood. The egg is smaller than that of the common hen, and of a rounder shape ; in colour reddish white, obscurely freckled with a darker colour ; and is delicious eating. The Guinea-fowl is a restless and clamorous bird : its voice is harsh and unpleasant, con- c c 3 294 of flatuval |$t' sisting cliicfly of two notes ca-wzoc, ca- iac frequently repeated; which is com- pared by Latham to a door turning upon its rusty hinges, or to an ungreased axle-tree. During the night it perches on high places, and if disturbed, alarms everything within hearing by its unceasing cry. It scrapes in the ground like the hen, and delights in rolling in the dust to free itself from insects. In a wild state these birds associate in flocks, giving the preference to marshy places, where they subsist almost wholly on insects, worms, and seeds. They formed a part of the Roman banquets ; and they are greatly esteemed in this country by many persons, who consider their flavour to resemble that of the pheasant. In Jamaica and other islands in the West Indies, the Guinea-fowls come in numerous coveys from the woods, and scattering them- selves in the provision-grounds at early dawn, commit serious depredations by scratching up and devouring the seed-yams, &c. ; and as they are birds of extreme caution and suspicion, it is no easy matter to get at them without the assistance of a dog ; but when pursued by an animal whose speed exceeds their own, they instantly betake themselves to a tree, where, their attention being in- tently flxed upon the dog beneath, they may easily be shot. They are also sometimes caught, Mr. Gosse tells us, by the following stratagem : a small quantity of corn is steeped for a night in proof rum, and is then placed in a shallow vessel, with a little fresh rum, and the water expressed from a bitter cassava, grated : this is deposited within an enclosed ground to which the depredators resort. A small quantity of the grated cas- sava is then strewed over it, and it is left. The fowls eat the medicated food eagerly, and are soon found reeling about intoxicated, unable to escape, and content with thrusting the head into a corner. Frequently a large part of the flock are found dead from this cause. The CRESTED GUINEA-FOWL. (Numida crista.ta.) This species inhabits the hottest i parts of Africa, and is smaller than the one j above described. The occiput, upper part of the neck, and the throat, are nearly des- titute of feathers : the sides and hinder part of the neck are of a deep blue colour ; the space round the ears is blue gray ; and the anterior part of the neck is of a crimson red : the head is surmounted by a fine crest, com- posed of black feathers, with delicate webs, drooping over the hind head and beak. The general plumage is black ; the body, with the exception of the neck and breast, being spotted with small points of faint blue, en- circled with a brilliant blue : the large wing feathers are dusky brown and spotless ; the secondaries are the same, with four longi- tudinal stripes down the shafts : three or fbur of these have a large white spot ex- tending the whole length of the under webs ; the rest nearer the body having the longi- tudinal blue rays : legs and feet dusky ; hind claw elevated from the ground, and blunt. They live in flocks of many hundreds ; and their cry, uttered at the rising and setting of the sun, is very harsh and discordant. In their food and habits they differ very little, if at all, from the other species. GUINEA-PIG. [SeeCAVY.] GUINEA- WORM. [See FILAIUA MEPI- UENS1S.] GULL, (iartw.) The birds of this web- footed and well-known marine genus are numerously dispersed over every quarter of the world, and are met with, at certain seasons, in some parts, in prodigious multi- tudes. They assemble together in a kind of straggling mixed flocks, consisting of various kinds, and greatly enliven the beach and rocky cliffs by their irregular movements, whilst their shrill cries are often deadened by the noise of the waves, or nearly drowned in the roarings of the surge. They occasion- ally take a wide range over the ocean, and are met with by navigators many leagues distant from the land. They are all greedy and gluttonous, almost indiscriminately de- vouring whatever comes in their way, whether of fresh or putrid substances, until they are obliged to disgorge their overloaded stomachs ; but, at the same time, it appears that they are able to endure hunger a long while. The larger kind of Gulls are most common in cold climates of the north, where they breed and rear their young, feeding chiefly upon the rotting carcasses of dead I whales, &c., which they find floating on the sea, among the ice, or driven on shore by the wind and waves. In temperate and culti- vated countries some species occasionally leave the shores for the interior, probably to search for a change of food, such as worms, slugs, &c., and of these they find, for a time, an abundant supply on the downs and pas- tures which they visit. Their general cha- racteristics are a strong and straight bill, but bent downwards at the point ; the lower mandible has an angular prominence on the under side, which tapers towards, and forms its tip ; the tongue is a little cloven. The body is clothed with a great quantity of down and feathers, which, together with the large head and long wings, give these birds an appearance of bulk, without a propor- tionate weight. The legs are small, naked above the knees : feet webbed, and the back toe detached, and very small. The COMMON GULL. (Larus canus.) This bird, which is one of the most numerous of the genus, breeds on the ledges of cliffs that overhang the sea ; and, during the winter season, frequents almost every part of the British coasts where the high bold shores present a favourable situation. Like other rapacious birds, it lays but few eggs. It generally measures about seventeen inches in length, and thirty-six in breadth : the bill is yellow ; the head, neck, tail, and the whole under side of the body, are pure white ; the back and the coverts of the wings are gray ; and the legs are a dull white tinged with green. The BLACK-BACKED GULL. (Larus ma- rinus.) This species measures from twenty- six to twenty-nine inches in length, and five feet nine inches in breadth. The bill JButfomirn at 'Hmmntrtf $ature. 295 is pale yellow, very thick and strong ; the projecting angle on the lower mandible is light red, with a black spot in the middle, on each side : the irides are yellow, and the edges of the eyelids orange : the upper part ] of the back and wings black : all the other i parts of its plumage, including the tips of the quill feathers, are white : the legs are of i a pale flesh-colour. The Black-backed Gull is common in the northern parts of Europe, though but thinly scattered on the coasts of ' England. In their native haunts, their fa- vourite breeding places are high inaccessible islets, covered with long coarse grass. Their eggs are of a round shape, of a dark olive colour, thinly marked with dusky spots, and ' quite black at the thicker end. They prin- cipally subsist on fish, but when such food ! is not easily obtainable they will devour j carrion. Their cry is hoarse and disagrce- | able. The IVORY GULL. (Larus cburneus.} A species of Gull, so called from its white plu- mage, the pureness of which certainly equals ! in colour new-fallen snow. It is very com- mon in the arctic regions, especially in Baf- fin's Bay and the straits leading to it. By our Arctic Voyagers, Captains Parry, Lyons, Ross, and others, it is often mentioned, and is strikingly characteristic of the arctic seas. It is said to have occurred in the Orkney Islands ; but in Britain this snow-white bird must be regarded as about as rara an avis as the black swan was to the ancients. Tie HEKRINO GULL, or SILVERY GULL. (Larus argentatm.) This species, which has obtained its name from pursuing and prey- ing upon the shoals of herrings, is met with in the northern seas, and is also well known on our own coasts. In length it is twenty- three inches, and in breadtli fifty-two : the bill is yellow, except the spot on the angular knob of the under mandible, which is deep orange : the irides pale yellow, and tin edges of the eyelids red: the head, neck, and tail are white; the back and wing- coverts are dark bluish ash ; and the legs are of a pale flesh-colour. They make their nests of dry grass, mixed with sea-weed, on the projecting ledges of the rocks, and lay gs of a dirty white colour, spo with black. These Gulls are said to be re- three eggs of a dirty white colour, spotted ese Gulls are said to be re- markable for their vigilance ; and fishermen describe them as the hold and constant at- tendants on their nets, from which they find it difficult to drive them. The young, which are ash-coloured spotted with brown, do not assume their mature plumage till they arc one year old : a circumstance, indeed, com- mon to others of the genus ; and which, not being properly attended to, has occasioned considerable confusion in the_ descriptions which have sometimes been given of them. [For the Arctic Gull and Skua Gull, see LESTKIS.] GULO. A genus of carnivorous quadru- peds, the formidably armed skull of which is well shown in the woodcut for the habits 296 of i of this fierce animal. [See GLUTTON and | Japanese, the Carolina, the Lineated, the WOLVERINE.] | Flying, &c. ; with the last mentioned of which GURNARD . ( TVfctaO A genus of Acan- we sha11 close our account of the Gurnards. ! thopterygious fishes, of which there are se- veral species. The generic characters are head nearly square, covered with bony plates ; two dorsal fins, the rays of the first spinous, those of the second flexible ; teeth in both jaws and on the front of the vomer pointed, small, and numerous ; seven bran- chiostegous rays ; and three slender appen- dages at the base of each pectoral fin. I The GREY GURNARD. (Trigla yurnardus.) \ This fish is distinguished by its elongated body, and varies from one to two feet in i length : the back is of a greenish brown i colour, marked with black, yellow, and j white spots ; the lateral line is very promi- nent, and strongly serrated ; and the sides 1 are of a pale hue, variegated with numerous ; white spots : the belly is white ; the nose | ; long, sloping, and bifurcated. The eyes are ; large : near the extremity of the gill-covers i there is a strong, sharp, long spine j and ex- ! actly above the pectoral fins there is another. The first dorsal fin consists of eight spiny rays, and the second of nineteen soft rays ; the pectoral fins are transparent, and sup- | ported by ten rays, bifurcated from the middle ; the ventral fins contain six rays, and the anal nineteen. The Grey Gurnard is common on our coasts, feeding on worms, insects, &c. It bites eagerly at a red bait, ! and is usually taken with a hook in deep ' ater, though in calm weather they may be I seen in considerable numbers on the surface. They make a sort of croaking noise, or croon, | whence probably arises the name of crooner, by which they are called in Ireland. The RED GUKNARD. or CUCKOO GURNARD. (Trigla ciiculus.) This is an elegant species, about a foot in length, and of a slender The FLYING GURNARD. (Trigla volitans.') form ; its colour a beautiful bright red, more or less distinctly marked by whitish trans- verse bars, the sides and belly silvery white : This singular and beautiful species is about a foot in length ; of a crimson colour above, and pale beneath ; the head blunt, and armed on each side with two very strong and large spines pointing backwards. The whole body is covered with strong, sharp- pointed, and closely united scales : the pec- toral fins extremely large, transparent, of an olive-green colour, richly marked with nu- merous bright blue spots : pectoral processes six in number, not separate as in other spe- cies, but united, so as to appear like a small fin on each side the thorax : tail pale violet, with the rays crossed by dusky spots, and the base strengthened by two obliquely transverse bony ribs. In the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian seas, the Flying Gur- nard swims in shoals ; and is often seen darting from the water and sustaining itself for a while in the air, after the manner of the genus Exocetus. GYMNOPHTHALMTD^. The name of a family of Lizards, in which the eyes are distinct and exposed, the eyelids being rudi- mentary. There are several genera, which will be found described in Mr. Gray's valu- able List of the Reptiles in the British Museum ; but, important as these are to naturalists, it is quite out of the scope of this work to refer to them. GYMNOTUS. A genus of Malacoptery- S'ous fishes, which contains the well-known YMNOTUS ELECTRICUS, or ELECTRIC EEL ; a fish possessing the extraordinary pro- perty of communicating a sensation simijar to an electrical shock, when touched with the hand or an electric conductor. The Gymiiotus is a fish of a disagreeable appear- ance, bear iring a ge , though neral resemblance to a pressed ; and the usual length is from four to five feet, though it is sometimes six, or even eight. It is a native of South Ame- rica, where it inhabits the larger rivers. The seat of the organs which produce this curious electrical effect is along the under side of large eel, though thicker in proportion, and much darker. It is nearly of equal scales extremely small ; lateral line com- thickness throughout : the head is broad, - 1 of pointed white scales edged with j depressed, and obtuse : the tail is corn- ! black ; a similar row on each side the back : : fins transparent ; the first dorsal marked on i the edge by a black spot ; the second tinged i near its edge with yellow. It is common on the English coasts ; feeds on crustaceous animals ; and spawns in May or June. The SAVPHIRINE GURNARD. (Trigla hi- rundo.) This valuable species is distin- | guished by the large size of its pectoral fins, which are beautifully edged and spotted with a fine blue colour. It is larger than the preceding, more abundant, and quite equal to any others as food. The head is I larger and more flattened than that of the i Red Gurnard ; the eyes are large ; the scales small, oval, and smooth ; and the \ lateral line bifurcates at the tail. It is a I native of the European seas ; and is fre- ' quently taken on the Cornish coasts, and I some other parts of this island. By means of its large and long pectoral fins it occa- sionally springs out of the water to some the tail. They are composed of four bundles of parallel membranaceous laminae, placed very near each other, and nearly horizon- tally, extended from the skin to the central medial plane of the body, connected together by numerous vertical lamiuse, arranged ! distance. There are several other species ; | transversely. The little cells, or rather the as the Shining, the Mailed, the Piper, the j small prismatic and transverse canals, inter- 297' ccpted by these two kinds of laminae, are, according to Cuvier, filled with a gelatinous substance ; and the whole apparatus is abun- dantly supplied with nerves. It is said to possess power, when in full vigour, to knock down a man, and benumb the limb affected, in the most painful manner, for several hours after communicating the shock ; and it is by this extraordinary faculty that the Gymuotus supports its existence : the fishes and. other animals Gymuotus supports its existence : the smaller hich happen to approach it being stupified, and thus falling an easy prey to the electrical tyrant. Those who wish to understand the nature of the organs by which this electrical power is pro- duced may find them minutely described by Hunter in vol. 65. of the Philosophical Transactions. The following observations are given in Brande's Dictionary: "Al- though to all outward appearance the Gym- notus is nearly allied to the Eel, yet were that part of the body cut off which contains the nutrient, respiratory, and generative organs, all the parts, in fact, which are essential to the existence of the Gymnotus as a mere fish, it would present a short and thick-bodied form, very different from that of the eel. The long electric organs are tacked on, as it were, behind the true fish, and thus give the Gymnotus its anguiliform body. The back bone and muscles are of course co-extended with the electric organs | for their support and motion ; and the air- | bladder is continued along the produced ' electrophorous trunk, to give it convenient specific levity. Two long dorsal nerves are continued from the fifth and eighth cerebral nerves for ordinary sensation and motion. The spinal chord is continued along the vertebral column, for the exclusive supply of the electrical organs. These organs are four in number ; two very large above, and two small ones below. The electricity dis- charged from them decomposes chemical compounds, produces the spark, and mag- netizes iron, as does that of the Torpedo. But the magnetizing power seems to be re- latively weaker, while the benumbing shock communicated to other animals is stronger than in any other electric fish." Ilumboldt has given a lively narrative of the mode of capture of the Gymnoti, em- ployed by the Indians of South America. They rouse the Gymnoti by driving horses and mules into the ponds which those fish inhabit, and harpoon them when they have exhausted their electricity upon the unhappy quadrupeds. "I wished," says Ilumboldt, "that a clever artist could have depicted the most animated period of the attack : the groups of Indians surrounding the pond, the horses with their manes erect and eyeballs wild with pain and fright, striving to escape from the electric storm which they had roused, and driven back by the shouts and long whips of the excited Indians : the livid yellow eels, like great water-snakes, swim- ming near the surface and pursuing their enemy : all these objects presented a most picturesque and exciting 'ensemble.' In less than five minutes two horses were killed : the eel, being more than five feet in length, glides beneath the body of the horse and discharges the whole length of its electric organ : it attacks at the same time the heart, the digestive viscera, and, above all, the gastric plexus of nerves. I thought the scene would have a tragic termination, and expected to see most of the quadrupeds killed ; but the Indians assured me the fishing would soon be finished, and that only the first attack of the Gymnoti was really formidable. In fact, after the conflict had lasted a quarter of an hour, the mules and ' horses api eared less alarmed ; they no ; longer erected their manes, and their eyes expressed less pain and terror. One no longer saw them struck down in the water ; and the eels, instead of swimming to the attack, retreated from their assailants and approached the shore." The Indians now began to use their missiles ; and by means of the long cord attached to the harpoon, jerked the fish out of the water without re- ceiving any shock so long as the cord was dry. All the circumstances narrated by the celebrated philosopher, establish the close analogy between the Gymnotus and Torpedo in the vital phenomena attending the exer- cise of their extraordinary means of offence. The exercise is voluntary and exhaustive of the nerrous energy ; like voluntary muscular effort, it needs repose and nourishment to produce a fresh accumulation. " I was so fortunate (says Professor Owen) as to witness the experiments performed by Professor Faraday on the large Gymnotus which was so long preserved alive at the Adelaide Gallery in London. That the most powerful shocks were received when one hand grasped the head and the other hand the tail of the Gymnotus, I had pain- ful experience ; especially at the wrists, the elbow, and across the back. But our dis- tinguished experimenter showed us that the nearer the hands were together within certain limits, the less powerful was the shock. He demonstrated by the galvano- meter that the direction of the electric cur- rent was always from the anterior parts of the animal to the posterior parts, and that the person touching the fish with both hands received only the discharge of the parts of the organs included between the points of contact. Needles were converted into mag- nets : iodine was obtained by polar decom- position of iodide of potassium ; and, avail- ing himself of this test, Professor Faraday showed that any given part of the organ is negative to other parts before it, and positive to such as are behind it. Finally, heat was evolved, and the electric spark obtained." There are several other fish belonging to the Gymnotus tribe ; but they are much smaller ; and whether they possess any electric power is a matter of great doubt : yet the structure of the lower part of their bodies seems to imply a similar contrivance of nature. Most of them are natives of the same climate as the Gymnotus Electricus, and are considered edible food. The prin- cipal are the Carapo Gymnote, the Rostrated Gymnote, and the White Gymnote. GYMNURA. An insectivorous animal belonging to the family Erinaceadae, inha- 298 Crcaattri) of biting Sumatra. In its dentition and spiny covering it closely resembles the Hedgehog tribe ; but it has the long, naked, scaly tail and pointed muzzle of the Shrews. Its generic character has been given by Dr. Horsfield and Mr. Vigors : Head elongated, acuminated, compressed on the sides, flattish above ; muzzle obtuse, elongated, and pro- jecting forward considerably beyond the lower jaw ; tongue rather smooth, large : auricles rounded, somewhat prominent, naked : eyes small ; nostrils lateral, promi- nent, with the margins convoluted ; vibrissae elongated. Body rather robust ; the short fur soft, but with distant, erect, subelongated hairs : tail rather long, smootli, naked, and scaly. Feet plantigrade, pentadactyle, the fore-feet with a rather short thumb. Claws narrow, curved, very acute, and retractile. The body, legs, and first half of the tail are black ; the head, the neck, and the shoulders are white ; and a black band passes over the eyes. Cuvier, in his " Rfegne Animal " (1829), observes that the genus Gymnura of MM. Vigors and Horsfield appears to approach Cladobates in its teeth, and the Shrews in its pointed muzzle and scaly tail. It has five unguiculated toes on all its feet, and rather stiff bristles projecting forth from the woolly hair. The species is called G. RAFFLESII, in compliment to the accomplished founder of Singapore, Sir Stamford Raffles. GYPAETUS, or BEARDED VULTURE. A genus of birds which may be considered as intermediate between the eagles and vul- tures. The BEAUDED VULTUKE (.Gwi : tus barbatus*), sometimes called the Bearded Griffin or Lammergeyer, is the largest bird of prey belonging to the Eastern Continent, and it appears to be the only Vulture which has ever been found in a wild state in Bri- tain. It usually inhabits the high chains of mountains, and nestles in inaccessible accli- vities. It is found in Europe as far north as Astracan, but is much more common in Spain, on the Pyrenees, Portugal, the isle of Elba, Tuscany, Malta, Turkey, and in the Archipelago ; but is nowhere so abundant as in South Africa, in which quarter it at- tains a larger size than elsewhere. In the adult bird the head and upper part of the neck are of a dirty white colour ; a black stripe extends from the base of the beak, and passes above the eyes ; another, arising behind the eyes, passes over the ears ; lower part of the neck, breast, and belly, orange- red ; mantle, back, and wing-coverts, deep grey-brown, but on the centre of each feather is a white longitudinal stripe : wings and tail-feathers ashy-grey, the shafts white ; tail long, very much graduated ; beak and claws black ; feet blue ; iris orange, eye sur- rounded by a red lid. Length about four feet and a half. "Unlike the typical vultures," says Mr. Gould, "which are distinguished by their bare necks, indicative of their propensity for feed- ing on carrion, the Lammergeyer has the neck thickly covered with feathers, resem- bling those of the true eagles, with which it also accords in its bold and predatory habits, pouncing with violent impetuosity on ani- mals exceeding itself in size ; hence the young chamois, the wild goat, the mountain hare, and various species of birds find in it a formidable and ferocious enemy. Having seized its prey, the Lammergeyer devours it upon the spot, the straight form of their talons disabling them from carrying it to a distance. It refuses flesh in a state of putrefaction, unless sharply pressed by hunger ; hence nature has limited this species as to numbers : while, on the other hand, to the Vultures, who are destined to clear the earth from animal matter in a state of decomposition, and thus render the utmost service to man in the countries where they abound, she has given an almost illimitable increase." GYRINUS : GYRINID^E. A genus and family of aquatic Beetles, the type of which is known under the name of Whirligigs, or Water-flea, from its peculiar motio: are in general of small or moderate size , and are to be seen, from the first fine days of spring till the end of autumn, on the surface of quiet waters, and even upon that of the sea, often appearing in great numbers, and appearing like brilliant points. They are active swimmers, and curvet about in every direction. Sometimes they remain stationary without the slightest motion ; but no sooner are they approached , than they escape by darting under the surface of the water, and swimming off with the greatest agility. The four hind-legs are used as oars, and the anterior ones for seizing the prey : when they dart beneath the surface, a bubble of air like a silvery ball remains attached to the hind part of the body. When seized, they discharge a milky fluid, which spreads over the body, and probably produces the dis- agreeable odour which they then emit. There are several species found in this country, but it is not necessary to describe them separately. These beetles are almost the only water insects which exhibit a bril- ; liant metallic lustre, a peculiarity dependent I upon the habits of the insects which gene- i rally swim upon the surface of the water. HADDOCK. (Gadiis ceglejinus.) This ! well-known Malacopterygious fish is nearly I allied to the cod ; and, like it, is a native ' of the Northern seas, where it assembles j in prodigious shoals, visiting particular I & papular Jitcttonarj) of gfotmatctt jtature. 299 ' ! coasts at stated seasons. Nor is it by any means scarce on the shores of Britain or I Ireland ; immense quantities, indeed, are taken at different localities, particularly I along our eastern coast ; and as its flesh is sweet and wholesome, and can be pre- served with facility, it is a fish of consi- derable value. The Haddock is generally about twelve or fourteen inches in length, arid weighs from two to three pounds ; though, occasionally, they are met with HADDOCK. (OADD9 -ECJLEFTNtJS.) nearly three feet long, and weighing ten or twelve pounds : the smaller or moderate sized ones, however, are most esteemed for the table. The body is long and slender ; : the head slopes suddenly down from the ! crown to the point of the nose ; the lower ! jaw is longer than the tipper, and furnished I with a narrow band of teeth : the barbule at : the chin is small ; the eye is large, and the irides silvery ; the head, cheeks, back, and upper part of the sides, are of a dull grayish hue ; lower part of the sides and belly, sil- very. On each side, is a large black spot, (of which we shall again have to speak.) The lateral line is black : the dorsal fins and tail dusky bluish gray ; pectoral, ven- tral, and anal fins lighter : the tail bifid. Their food is small fish, Crustacea, and marine insects : they spawn in February and March ; and they are in the best con- 1 dition for the table from October to January. 1 In stormv weather this fish is said to imbed itself in the ooze at the bottom of the sea ; and those which are taken shortly after are observed to have mud on their backs. We are always loth to make allusion to ignorant superstitions, however popular they may be, unless we can furnish some rational solution for their existence ; but they have sometimes taken such deep root, that not to mention, might almost seem to sanction them. We of course allude to the " thumb and finger marks of St. Peter ; " and shall therefore extract from Mr. Yar- rell's excellent work the following remarks, as supplying additional information of a ger- mane character ; " Pennant says, ' Our 'coun- tryman Turner suggested that the Haddock was the Opos or Asinus of the ancients. Different reasons have been assigned for giving this name to the species, some imagin- ing it to be from the colour of the fish, others because it used to be carried on the backs of asses to market.' A different reason appears to me more likely to have suggested the name : the dark mark on the shoulder of the Haddock very frequently extends over shoulder on the other side, te patc , forcibly remind- ing the observer of the dark stripe over the withers of the ass ; and the superstition that assigns the mark in the Haddock to the impression St. Peter left with his finger and thumb when he took the tribute-money out of a fish of this species, which has been con- ; tinued to the whole race of Haddocks ever ! since the miracle, may possibly have had reference, or even its origin, in the obvious similarity of this mark on the same part of the body of the Haddock and of the humble animal which had borne the Christian Sa- viour. That the reference to St. Peter is gratuitous, is shown by the fact that the Haddock does not exist in the sea of the country where the miracle was performed." j Independently of which, the Sea of Galilee is a large fresh water lake. H^EMATOPUS, or OYSTER- CATCHEB. A genus of wading birds, the best known species of which is the Common Oyster-Catcher, H.ostralegus. [SeeOYSTEU- CATCHER.] HAG. [See GASTROBRANCHUS.] HAIR-STREAK [BUTTERFLY]. A name given to various species of Butterflies, of the genus Thecla. HAKE. (Gadus merlucius of Linnaeus.) This Malacopterygious fish inhabits the seas of the north of Europe and the Medi- terranean ; it is also found on the western and southern coasts of England, as well as on various parts of the coast of Ire- laud. It is of a lengthened form, generally from one to two feet, but sometimes more : the head is rather large, broad and flat at the top, but compressed on the sides ; wide mouth; lower jaw the longest ; teeth slender and sharp, with a single row in each jaw : the colour of the body is a dusky brown above, and lighter beneath ; dorsal and cau- dal fins dark ; ventral and anal fins light brown ; the pectoral and ventral fins are of moderate size, and of a sharpened shape ; and the tail is nearly even at the end. It is salted and dried in the manner of cod, haddock, &c., but is not considered as a delicate fish either in its fresh or salted state, and is rarely admitted to the tables of the affluent : it forms, however, a very useful article of food for the lower orders in many parts both of our own and other countries. It is a very voracious fish ; and when pil- chards approach the shores, it follows them, continuing in great numbers through the winter ; so that when pilchards are taken in a sean, on the Cornish coast, many Hakes are generally found inclosed with them. By Dr. Fleming and other naturalists, this fish is regarded as belonging to a distinct genus, characterized by haying one anal and two dorsal fins. (Merlucius. ) HALCYON. A genus of the Kingfisher family, of which there are many species : of these we may specify the SACKED KING- FISHER (Halcyon scmctus), which is generally distributed over the Australian continent, and feeds on various insects and reptiles ; as Mantidae, grasshoppers, caterpillars, lizards, and small snakes ; and Mr. Gould found that specimens killed in the vicinity of salt marshes had their stomachs literally crammed with crabs and other crustaceous 300 (Erratfttrjj of Natural H? 10 tori? ; animals. It also excavates holes in the nests of a species of ant which are constructed around the holes and dead branches of the Eucalypti, feeding on the larva, a most fa- vourite food. HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT. (Hippoglos- sus. This is the largest fish belonging to the Pkuroncctidoe or Flat-fish family, attain- ing the length of six or seven feet in the northern seas, and weighing from 300 to 400 Ibs. In shape and fins the Halibut is like the Flounder ; and the lateral line is arched. Its flesh is rather coarse and dry, but it ad- mits of being salted. In some of the smaller species, which are found in the Mediterra- nean, the eyes look towards the left side, instead of towards the right, the latter being the ordinary rule of the family ; and when that happens it is said to be " reversed." HALICH.ERUS. A genus of Seals. [See SKAL.] HALICHONDRIA. A genus of Sponges, in which the cartilaginous skeleton is strengthened by siliceous spieulae. See Dr. Fleming's British Animals, and Dr. John- ston's British Sponges, for an account of the many entirely British species. HALICORE. A genus of Cetaceous ani- mals, found in the Eastern seas. [See DUGONG.] HALIOTIS: HALIOTIDuE. A genus and family of Gasteropodous Mollusca, not widely different from the Limpets, and hav- ing the Haliotis or Ear-shell as the type. These splendid shells are remarkable for the pearly iridescence of the inner surface, and the row of holes following the course of the spine. [See EAK-SHELL.] HALMATURUS. A genus of Marsupi- alia belonging to the Kangaroo family. As an example we may give Parry's Kangaroo, Ilalmnturus Parnji, a species familiar to the colonists and natives of New South Wales. It is very shy, escapes with great fleetness from its pursuers, and inhabits the moun- tainous parts. It is easily tamed, becoming very familiar. The male measures five feet from the nose to the end of the tail. The body is bluish gray, whitish beneath ; the head brownish ; a white streak on the face below the eye, and a short one on each eye- brow. Capt. Sir Edward Parry has given an interesting account of its habits in confine- ment. Those who wish to get further inform- ation on this genus and its allies must consult the noble monagraph of the Kangaroos, by John Gould, F. R. S., where all the species are admirably figured and described. The reader may consult also witli profit, Mr. Waterhouse's History of Mammalia, and the volume on Marsupialia in the Natural- ist's Library. HALTICID^E. The scientific name Ilaltica, derived from a word signifying to leap, has been applied to a family of insects allied to the Chrysomelidae, and popularly known as flea-beetles. The following are their chief peculiarities : The body is oval and very convex above ; the thorax is short, wide behind and narrow before ; the head is pretty broad ; the antennae are slender, about half the length of the body, and are implanted nearly on the middle of the fore- head ; and the hindmost thighs are very thick, being formed for leaping. The sur- face of the body is smooth, generally polished, and often prettily or brilliantly coloured. The claws are very thick at one end, are deeply notched towards the other, and ter- minate with a long, curved, and sharp point, which enables the insect to lay hold firmly upon the leaves of the plants on which they live. These beetles eat the leaves of vege- tables, preferring especially plants of the cabbage, turnip, mustard, cress, radish, and horse-radish kind, or those which, in bota- nical language, are called cruciferous plants, to which they are often exceedingly inju- rious. The flea-beetles conceal themselves, during the winter, in dry places, under stones, in tufts of withered grass, and in chinks of walls. They lay their eggs in the spring, upon the leaves of the plants upon which they feed. The larvae of the smaller kinds burrow into the leaves, and eat the soft pulpy substance under the skin, forming therein little winding passages, in which they finally complete their transformations. Hence the plants suffer as much from the depredations of the larvae as from those of the beetles, a fact that has too often been overlooked. The larvae of the larger kinds live exposed on the surface of the leaves which they devour, till they come to their growth, and go into the ground, where they are changed to pupae, and soon afterwards to beetles. The mining larvae are little slender grubs, which arrive at maturity, turn to pupae, and then to beetles in a few weeks. Hence there is a constant succession of these insects, in their various states, throughout the summer. One of the most destructive species of this family is the Turnip-flea (HaUica nemorum"), [which see]. HAMSTER. (Cricetiis frumcntarirts.) A rodent animal, of the rat tribe, distinguished by two enormous cheek pouches, which will hold a quarter of a pint, and by its remark- able instincts. It inhabits the sandy districts of the north of Europe and Asia, Austria, Silesia, and many parts of Germany, Poland, &c., and is very injurious to the agriculturist, on account of the quantity of grain it de- vours. The general size of the Hamster is nearly that of a brown or Norway rat, but it is of a much thicker form, and has a short and somewhat hairy tail. Its colour is a pale reddish brown above, and black be- neath : the muzzle is whitish, the cheeks at jtature. 301 reddish, and on each side the body are three white spots, those on the shoulders being the largest : the ears are rather large, and rounded. On the hind feet are five toes, and on the fore feet are four, with a claw in place of a fifth. They sometimes vary in colour ; and the male is invariably larger than the female. The quantity of grain which they consume is very great ; and what they cannot devour, they carry off in their cheek-pouches, and deposit in their holes for their winter subsistence. Their dwellings are formed under the earth, and consist of more or fewer apartments, ac- cording to the age of the animal : a young Hamster makes them hardly a foot deep ; an old one sinks them to the depth of four or five feet, and the whole diameter of the residence, taking in all its habitations, is sometimes eight or ten feet. The principal chamber is lined with dried grass, and serves for a lodging : the others are vaults destined for the preservation of provisions, of which he amasses a great quantity during the au- tumn. Each hole has two apertures ; the one descending obliquely, and the other per- pendicularly, and it is through the latter that the animal makes its ingress and egress. The holes of the females, who never reside with the males, have more numerous pas- sages. The female breeds two or three times a year, producing from six to ten, and some- times more : the growth of the young is very rapid, and at about the age of three weeks the old one forces them out of the burrows to shift for themselves. The Hamster is carnivorous as well as granivorous, for though it feeds on all kinds of herbs as well as corn, it occasionally at- tacks and devours the smaller kinds of ani- mals. On the approach of winter the Ham- ster retires into his subtenanean abode, the entry of which he closes with great care ; and thus remaining tranquil and secure, feeds on his collected store till the frost be- comes severe : he then falls into a profound slumber, and in that dormant state con- tinues rolled up, apparently lifeless, his limbs inflexible and his body perfectly cold. This lethargy of the Hamster has been generally ascribed to the effect of cold alone : but more recent observations have proved, that unless at a certain depth beneath the surface, so as to be beyond the access of the external air, the animal does not fall into its torpid state, and that the severest cold on the surface does not affect it. On the contrary, when dug put of its burrow and exposed to the air, it infallibly wakes in a few hours. The waking of the Hamster is a gradual operation: he first loses the rigidity of his limbs, then makes deep inspirations, at long intervals ; after this he begins to move his limbs, open his mouth, and utters an unpleasant rattling sound : he at length opens his eyes, and endeavours to rise, but reels about for some time, as if in a state of intoxication, till at length he perfectly recovers his usual powers. When exposed to a cold air he is sometimes two hours in waking ; but in a warmer air the transition is effected in half the time. The character which naturalists have given of these animals is very unfavourable. They constantly reject all society with one another, and they will not only destroy every animal which they are capable of conquering but will fight, kill, and devour their own species: yet, fierce as they are, they quail before their deadly enemy the polecat, which chases them into their holes, and unrelentingly destroys them. The fur of the Hamster is said to be valuable ; and the peasant who ' goes a hamster nesting ' in the winter, ob- tains not only the skin of the animal, but his hoard, which is said commonly to amount to two bushels of good grain in each maga- zine. Buffon says, that in Gotha, where these animals were proscribed on account of their vast devastations among the corn, 146,132 of their skins were delivered at the Hotel de Ville of the capital in the course of three years. HARE. (Lepus.~) A well-known genus of Rodent mammalia, containing several species. We shall first describe The COMMOX HARE (Lepw timidus\ which possesses all the characters of the genus Lepus in such a degree as to form its most perfect type. Its hearing and sight are most acute ; its timidity is unequalled ; and its swiftness is surpassed by none. The general length of the Hare is about two feet; the colour a sub- ferruginous gray, with the cliin and belly white : the throat and breast ferruginous, and COMMON HARE. (LEPU3 T1MIDUS,) the tips of the ears blackish: the tail is black- ish above, and white below : the feet are co- vered beneath as well as above with fur ; the upper lip is divided; the eyes are large, pro- minent, and placed laterally ; and they are said to be constantly open even during sleep: the hinder legs are much longer than the fore legs ; the feet are hairy ; and the tail is short and turned up. Its favourite residence is in rich and somewhat dry and flat grounds, and it is rarely discovered in very hilly or mountainous situations. It feeds principally by night, and remains concealed during the day in its form, beneath some bush or slight shelter. To this spot it constantly returns, and becomes so attached to it, that it is with difficulty compelled to abandon it : in choosing its place of rest, however, it is governed by the seasons, and while a cool and shady spot is its resort in summer, it selects for its winter lair a situation where it can best receive the genial warmth of the sun. The Hare is a very prolific animal, gene- rally producing three or four young at a time, and breeding several times in a year. The eyes of the young are open at birth : the dam suckles them about twenty days, after which they leave her, and procure their 302 of ^atttral own subsistence. Its food consists of various kinds of herbage, but it prefers vegetables of a milky and succulent quality, and is espe- cially fond of parsley. It is at times a very annoying and destructive invader, not only of the field and garden, doing great injury to the young wheat and other grain ; but it also frequently commits sad havoc in young plantations, by gnawing off the bark, and feeding on the young shoots of various shrubs. It is proverbially timid, and flies if dis- turbed when feeding, at the slightest alarm ; I and, led by a natural instinct, it invariably makes towards the rising ground, the length of its hind legs giving it an advantage in has effectually evaded the hounds. It is also not unusual for the Hare to betake itself to furze bushes, and leap from one to another, whereby the dogs are frequently misled ; and as it swims well, and takes the water readily, it will cross a river with the same intent, if it has the opportunity. It may be observed, however, that the first doubling which a Hare makes generally affords a key to all its future attempts of that kind, the latter exactly resembling the former. The Hare is a short-lived animal, and is supposed rarely to exceed the term of seven or eight years. Its voice, which is seldom heard but in the distress of sudden this respect over its pursuers. These animals , surprise or when wounded, resembles the seldom migrate far from the spot where they j sharp cry of an infant. Its enemies are are produced ; but each makes a form at a i numerous and powerful. Every species of small distance, showing a predilection rather the dog kind pursues it by instinct ; the cat for the place of their nativity than the society | and the weasel tribes exercise all their arts to ensnare it ; and birds of prey, snakes, adders, &c. drive it from its form, particu- larly during the summer season : these, with of their kind. They pair in February ; and as they only quit their couch in the night time to obtain food, so they never leave it for the companionship of their mates but at the same silent hour : often, indeed, are they observed by moonlight, playing and skipping about in the most sportive manner ; but the slightest breeze, or even the falling of a leaf, is sufficient to disturb their revels ; and they instantly fly off, each pursuing a different track. the more destructive pursuits of mankind contribute to thin the number of these animals, which from their prolific nature would otherwise multiply to an extravagant degree. The flesh is now much prized for its peculiar flavour, as it was by the Romans ; but it was forbidden to be eaten among the In order to enable this creature to perceive Jews, Mahometans, and ancient Britons, the most distant approaches of danger, nature The fur, until of late years, when silk became has provided it with very long ears, which, so generally used, was of great importance like tubes applied to the auditory organs of | in the manufacture of hats ; and in some deaf persons, convey to it such sounds as are j parts of the continent it is also woven into remote ; and the motions of the Hare are directed accordingly. Its large prominent eyes being placed so far backward as to receive the rays of light on every side, it can ' " " ^ ' J ~ 1 - il - ;i receive me rays ui iigiit uu cvci^ UUA it ^,u almost see distinctly behind while it runs directly forward. The muscles of its body pith fat, ctly forwa being strong, and unencumbered ^t has no superfluous burden of flesh to carry : and to assist it in escaping from its pursuers, the hinder legs are considerably longer than the fore, which adds to the swiftness of its motions. But they generally exhaust their powers by their first efforts, and are con- sequently much more easily caught than foxes, though these wily creatures are slow when compared with them. When the Hare hears the hounds at a distance, it flies for some time from a natural impulse, till having gained some hill or rising ground, and left the dogs so far behind that their cries no longer reach its ears, it stops, rears on its hinder legs, and looks back, for the purpose of satisfying itself whether its enemies are still in sight or not : but the dogs having once gained the scent, trace it with united and unerring skill ; and the poor animal soon again receives indications of their approach. Sometimes, when hard hunted, it will start a fresh Hare, and squat in the same form ; at others, it will creep under the door of a sheep-cot, and conceal itself among the sheep ; sometimes it will enter a hole, like the rabbit ; at others, it will run up one side of a quickset hedge, and down the other ; and it has been known to ascend the top of a cut hedge, and run a considerable way, by which stratagem it cloth. The IRISH HARE (Lepus Hibernicus~), usu- ally considered a species of the common Hare of England, is said by Mr. Bell, in his " British Quadrupeds," to be specifically distinct. In support of his opinion, he says, " The characters in which it principally differs from the latter are as follows : It is somewhat larger ; the head is rather shorter ; the ears are even shorter than the head, while those of the English Hare are fully an irtionally inch longer ; the limbs are rather shorter ; and the hiu proport der legs ! gs do not so much exceed the fore legs in length. The character of the fur is also remarkably dif- ferent : it is composed exclusively of the uniform soft and shorter hair which in the English species is mixed with the black- tipped long hairs, which give the peculiar mottled appearance of that animal ; it is therefore of a uniform reddish brown colour on the back and sides. The ears are reddish gray, blackish at the tip, with a dark line near the outer margin. The tail is nearly of the same relative length as in the common species. The numerous discrepancies in the colour and texture of the fur, and in the form and proportion of the different parts of the animal, appear to me to be too import- ant to constitute merely the characters of a variety." The SCOTCH, or VARYIXG HARE, (faptis variabilis.) This species, which is inter- mediate in size between the Common Hare and the Rabbit, differs greatly in its habits from both. Though confined to alpine dis- Papular 0tctuwari) 0f &mniat*lr Mature. 303 geogr in No tricts (and therefore sometimes called the Alpine Hare), it is diffused through a wide ographical range; being found on the Alps, orway, Sweden, Lapland, Russia, Siberia, and Kamtschatka, and occurring also in our own island on the summits of the Scottish mountains. In summer its colour is a tawny gray, with a slight admixture of black ; in winter it is entirely white, except the tips of the ears, which are black. It shelters itself in the cliffs of rocks, is easily tamed, and becomes extremely playful and amusing. Towards the month of September it changes its colour, and resumes its summer dress about April ; but in the intensely cold climate of Siberia it continues white all the year round. It has been sometimes found entirely coal black ; a variety which is also known to take place occasionally in the common species. When the winter has proved unusually severe, the Varying Hare has been known to migrate from the frozen hills of Siberia, and to descend, in troops of five or six hundred, into the plains and woody districts, where they remained till the returning spring. In the southern and western provinces of Russia there is a mixed breed of Hares, which sustains only a partial loss of its colours ; the sides, and the more exposed parts of the ears and legs, becoming white in the coldest months, while the other parts remain unchanged. This variety is by the Russians called Russak : and prodigious numbers are taken in snares for the sake of their skins only ; the Russians and Tartars, like our own druidical ancestors, holding the flesh of Hares in the utmost detestation. The AMERICAN HARE (Lcpus Americanus) is not much larger than a rabbit, by which name indeed it is well known throughout the northern parts of that vast continent. The summer hair is dark brown on the upper part of the head, lighter on the sides. and of an ash colour below ; the ears are wide, edged with white, tipped with brown, and dark coloured behind ; tail dark above, white beneath, having the under surface turned up ; the fore legs are shorter and the hinder longer in proportion than those of the European. In the middle and south- ern states, the change in the colour of the hair is by no means as remarkable as it is farther north, where it becomes nearly white. It is not hunted in America, but is generally roused by a dog, and shot or caught by means of snares or a common box-trap, the latter being the most usual mode. It has the same kind of leaping gait as the Euro- pean hare ; and, like that animal, it breeds several times during the year. It is not of a migratory nature, but always continues to haunt the same places, taking occasional refuge under the roots of trees, or in the hollows near the roots. In Mr. Gosse's " Canadian Naturalist" we find the following information respecting the American Hare : "It is found pretty generally over North America, from this ince, even to the Gulf of Mexico, where it more common than it is with us. Here its winter coat is nearly white, but in summer provi is mo it is of a yellowish brown, with a white tail. It makes a nest or bed of moss and leaves in some hollow tree or old log, whence it issues chiefly by night. Though not so much addicted to gnawing as the squirrels, yet as its teeth are formed in the same manner, it probably resembles them in its food, eating various kinds of nuts and seeds, as well as green herbs. It is said also occasionally to peel off the bark from apple and other trees. A singular mode of taking furred animals out of hollow trees, logs, &c. is practised in the south, called 'twisting.' I once saw it performed on a rabbit (so called) ; the dogs had tracked him and driven him to his hole in the bottom of a hollow hickory tree. The hole was too small to admit the hunter's hand with convenience, so we made the negroes cut down the tree, which was soon effected. When it fell, we watched the butt, to see that the rabbit did not run out, but he did not make his appearance. The hunter then got some long slender switches, and probing the hollow, found that the rabbit was at the farther end several feet up the trunk. He now commenced turning the switch round in one direction, a great many times, until the tip of it had become so entangled in the animal's fur, as to bear a strong pull. He then began to puil steadily out, but the rabbit held on as well as he could, and made considerable resistance, crying most piteously, like a child ; at last the skin gave way, and a great mass of fur and skin came out attached to the switch, pulled off by main force. He now took a new switch, and commenced twisting again, and this time pulled the little thing down, but the skin was torn almost completely off the loins and thighs of the poor little crea- ture, and so tightly twisted about the end of the stick, that we were obliged to cut the skin to get the animal free 1 " A more cold- blooded or barbarous cruelty, practised on a harmless and defenceless animal, it is scarcely possible to conceive j and were it not for the undoubted veracity of the writer we should reject it as well on the score of its incredibility as of its inhumanity. The CAPE HARE. (Lepus Capensis.') This species, which is about the size of the one last described, inhabits the country near the Cape of Good Hope, frequenting the most rocky and mountainous situations, and taking up its abode in the fissures of the cliffs. The ears are long, broad in the middle, naked, and rose-coloured on the outside, and covered with short grey hairs within : the back and upper parts generally are similar in colour to that of the Common Hare ; the cheeks and sides are cinereous ; the breast, belly, and legs, ferruginous ; and the tail, which is bushy, turns upwards. At the Cape it is called the Mountain Hare, or VLAKTE HAAS. In one of the specimens in the British Museum the nape of the neck has two white streaks. The BAIKAL HARE (Lepus Tola?) is rather larger than the common Hare, and has a longer and smaller head, but in colour and general appearance, pretty much resembles it. This animal is an inhabitant of the open 304 Criarfurg nf Natural |Sts"t0ry ; hilly places in Dauria and Mongolia, and is said to extend as far as Tibet. In the colour of its flesh it agrees with the rabbit, but differs both from that animal and the hare in its manners ; neither burrowing in the ground, like the former, nor running far when pursued, like the latter ; but instantly taking refuge in the holes of rocks. [For Alpine Lagomys, Calling Hare, &c., see LAGOMYS.] H ARELD A. A genus of Ducks, contain- ing the Long-tailed Duck (//. gla<-i!i*). [See DUCK.] HARENGUS. [See HERRING.] HARFANG. The Great Snowy Owl. [See OWL.] HARLEQUIN BEETLE. [See ACRO- CINUS.] HARLEQUIN DUCK. (Cla?iffula fiis- trivtiica). A magnificent species found on HART.EQT3IN DUCK.. both continents i it derives its name from the singularity of its markings. It is seven- teen inches in length, and twenty-eight inches in extent : the bill is of a lead colour, tipped with red; upper part of the head black ; between the eye and bill a broad space of white, extending over the eye, and ending in reddish ; behind the ear, a similar spot ; neck black, ending below in a circle of white ; breast deep slate ; shoulders marked with a semicircle of white ; belly black ; sides chestnut ; body above, black, or deep slate ; some of the scapulars white ; greater wing-coverts tipt with white ; legs and feet deep ash ; vent and pointed tail black. It swims and dives well ; flies swift, and to a great height ; and has a whistling note. The female lays ten white eggs on the grass ; the young are prettily speckled. At Hudson's Bay, where it breeds, and is said to frequent the small rivulets inland, it is called the Painted Duck ; at Newfoundland and along the coast of New England, the Lord. It is an admirable diver, and is often seen in deep water, considerably out at sea. HARPA, or HARP-SHELL. A beau- tiful genus of shells, so regularly marked with parallel longitudinal ribs on the outer surface, as to suggest at the first glance the idea of the stringed instrument to which it owes its name. The upper end of each rib is projected and pointed ; spire short, last whorl large and deeply notched ; outer lip thickened, and is supposed to have no oper- culum. The Mollusc which inhabits it has the head large ; mouth open below ; des- titute of a proboscis ; but having two ten- (HARPA VENTRIC08A.) tacula, with eyes in the middle : foot large. It has been asserted by some naturalists that the animal can, when attacked by an enemy, disembarrass itself of part of its foot, and retire entirely within its shell. The prin- cipal localities of this genus are the Red Sea and the Indian and South American Oceans. There are several species, all handsome, and some rare ; among them the Harpa multi- costa, which is very rare, and the Harpa i in in r/alis, from the Mauritius, the markings of which are very elegant 5 but perhaps the more abundant species here figured, Harpa ventricosa, is as beautiful in form and colour- ing as any species of this marine carnivorous genus. HARP-SEAL. The Greenland Seal. [See SEAL.] HARPY EAGLE. (ThrasaMus.) A genus of Accipitrine Birds found in South Ame- rica ; celebrated for the enormous develop- ment of their beak and legs, and the con- sequent strength and power they evince in mastering their prey. The following short but characteristic notice of this bird occurs in " Edwards's Voyage up the Amazon." " While absent upon this excursion, Mr. Bradley, an Irishman, who trades upon the Upper Amai'jn, arrived at Mr. Norris's, !|90jptiTar fflt of &ntmattfr 305 | bringing many singular birds and curiosities 1 of various kinds. One of the former was a young Harpy Eagle, a most ferocious look- ing character, with a harpy's crest and a beak and talons in correspondence. He was turned loose into the garden, and before long gave us a sample of his powers. With erected crest and flashing eyes, uttering a frightful shriek, he pounced upon a young ibis, and quicker than thought had torn his reeking liver from his body. The whole animal world there was wild with fear." No member of the Bird class could look more I fierce and indignant than a noble specimen > of this formidable Eagle, which we saw : some years ago in the Zoological Gardens, j Regent's Park. Its whole aspect was that ! of formidably organized power ; and even the appendage of the crest added much to its terrific appearance. HARRIER. A well-known kind of hound, remarkable for his sagacity in tracing, I and boldness in pursuing Ms game. There j are several varieties, but all differing in their i services ; some being adapted for one sort of j game, and some for another. The best breed, and that to which the name is more emphatically applied, is the Harrier used for hunting the Hare, which is supposed to have been originally produced by a cross between the Foxhound and the Beagle. The Harrier is generally from sixteen to eighteen ; inches in height. I HART. The name given to a Stag or i male Deer, which has completed his fifth ! year. [See DEER.] | HARVEST-FLY. [See CICADA septem- i decim.] I HAWFINCH. [See GROSBEAK.] HAWK. (FalconidcE.} The name by which several birds of prey, closely allied to the Falcons, are designated ; as the Goshawk, i the Sparrow-hawk, &c., which will be found i under their respective names. The beak of the Hawks resembles that of the Falcons in its general form, being curved from the base , but the wings are shorter, and want the pointed tips which are characteristic of that division of the family. The most pow- erful Hawks are found in cold countries, inhabiting hilly districts where there are woods, and seeking their prey near the ground. Among the whole, none is more j bold and pertinacious in pursuit of its prey than the Sparrow-hawk [which see]. In the first volume of Gray and Mitchell's genera of Birds will be found descriptions of the nu- merous genera, with references to the greater part of the species, and figures of most of the typical forms. In the List of Birds in the British Museum collection, which is ex- ceedingly rich in the Hawk tribe, will be seen how numerous the species are. We refer those desirous of further information to those two works. HAWK-OWL. [See OWLS.] HAZEL WORM, a name sometimes ap- plied to the little lizard Anguis fragilis, more commonly called the Blind-worm [which see]. HEATHCOCK. [See GROUSE.] HEDGEHOG. (.Erino.ce.us Europceus. ) The common Hedgehog is found in most of the temperate parts of Europe and Asia ; and though it has a formidable appearance, it is one of the most harmless creatures in existence. It is an insectivorous quadruped, whose generic character may be thus de- scribed : the back covered with sharp strong spines, about an inch long, with the power of rolling itself up in a ball by means of appropriate muscles ; muzzle pointed ; tail short ; and each foot ftve-toed and armed with robust claws : the head is very conical ; the ears short, broad, and rounded ; the eyes prominent ; the body oblong, and conical above ; and the legs short, almost naked, and of a dusky colour. It is about ten inches in length, and its colour is gene- rally a grey-brown. Its close covering of sharp Rpines, which are firmly fixed in its tough skin, and sufficiently elastic to bear great violence without breaking, protects it from falls or blows, and as effectually secures it from the attacks of an enemy ; for when molested, it instantly rolls itself into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but its prickles to the foe ; and the more the animal is irri- tated and alarmed, the more firmly does it contract itself, and the more stiff and strong does its bristly panoply become. Thus rolled up, it patiently waits till the danger is past : the cat, the weasel, the ferret, and the martin soon decline the combat ; and though a well-trained wire-haired terrier, or a fox, may now and then be found to open a Hedgehog, it generally remains impene- trable and secure. From this state of secu- rity, in fact, it is not easily forced ; scarcely anything but cold water obliging it to un- fold itself. The usual food of the Hedgehog is beetles, worms, slugs, and snails ; it is also said to de- vour fruit, the roots of plants, and certain other vegetable substances, while it shows itself not so restricted as has been thought in its choice of animal food ; eggs, frdjb, toads, mice, and even snakes occasionally, serving for its repast. The Hedgehog is strictly nocturnal, remaining coiled up in its retreat during the day, and wandering about nearly all the night in search of food. It generally resides in small thickets, in hedges, or in ditches covered with bushes, making a hole about six or eight inches deep, which it lines with moss, grass, or leaves. The hi- bernation of the Hedgehog is undoubted : CDS 306 of although it lays up no store for the winter, it retires to its hole, and in its warm, soft nest of moss and leaves, it lies secure from the rigours of the frost and the violence of the tempest, passing the dreary season in a profoundly torpid state. The female pro duces from two to four young ones early in the summer, which at their birth are blind, and covered with soft white spines, which in two or three days become hard and elastic. The flesh of these animals, though generally rejected as human food, is said to be very delicate. Many absurd errors prevail as to the habits of this animal. It is charged with sucking the teats of cows by night, and wounding their udders with its spines, thereby causing those ulcerations which are sometimes observed : from this false accusa- tion, however, the smallness of its mouth is a sufficient exculpation. It is also said to be very destructive to gardens and orchards, by rolling itself among fruit, and thus car- rying off a quantity on its spines : but its spines are evidently so disposed, that no fruit would stick on them, even were the experiment attempted. But so far from being mischievous and injurious, the Hedge- hog is found to be of real use, and is often kept for the purpose of ridding houses of the numerous cockroaches by which some are infested ; and it is well known to devour many destructive insects of the beetle kind and others, which are injurious to the farmer and gardener. In the "Journal of a Naturalist," this animal is thus noticed : " Notwithstanding all the persecutions from prejudice and wantonness to which the Hedgehog is ex- posed, it is yet common with us ; sleeping by day in a bed. of leaves and moss, under the cover of a very thick bramble or furze- bush, and at times in some hollow stump of a tree. It creeps out in the summer even- ings ; and, running about with more agility than its dull appearance promises, feeds on dew-worms and beetles, which it finds among the herbage, but retires with trepidation at the approach of man. In the autumn, crabs, fruits, haws, and the common fruits of the hedge, constitute its diet. In the winter, covering itself deeply in moss and leaves, it sleeps during the severe weather ; and, when drawn out from its bed, scarcely anything of the creature is to be observed, it exhibiting only a ball of leaves, which it seems to attach to its spines by repeatedly rolling itself round in its nest." The SIBERIAN or LONG-EARED HEDGE- HOG. (Erinaceus auritus.) This species is in general larger than the common or Euro- pean, ffld may be easily distinguished by its ears, which are large, oval, open, and naked, with soft whitish hair on the inside, and edged with brown : the upper part of the animal is covered with slender brown spines, with a whitish ring near the base, and another towards the tip, and the legs and belly are clothed with soft white fur. In its general manner and habits this species is said to resemble the common Hedgehog. The EARLESS HEDGEHOG appears to be only a variety of the common species : the head, however, is somewhat shorter and the snout more blunt ; there is no appearance of ex- ternal ears ; it is shorter; and the whole animal is of a whitish hue. HEDGE-SPARROW. [See SPARROW.] HELAMYS, or JUMPING HARE. This animal constitutes a genus of mammalia, of the order Rodentia, al lied to the Jerboas. The head is large, the tail long, the fore legs are very short in comparison with the hinder. They have four molars, each composed of two laminae ; their lower incisors are truncated : the fore feet have five toes, furnished with long pointed nails ; the hind feet have four toes, which are separate as far as the bones of the metatarsus, and furnished with large claws, almost resembling hoofs. The species Helamys cajfer is pale fulvous, with a long tufted tail, black at the tip. It is as large as a rabbit, and, like it, inhabits deep bur- rows. Our cut exhibits one about to spring, while another is at the mouth of its bur- row. HELARCTOS. A genus of Bears found in India and the Eastern Islands. The Malay < and Java Bears may be given as illustrations, j [See BEAR.] HELICINA. A genus of Mollusca, found ; in America and the West Indies. Some in- j habit the sea, but others are terrestrial, either feeding upon trees or subsisting on the vege- | table productions of the fields and gardens. : The head of the animal is furnished with a j proboscis and two tentacula, with eyes at i the base on tubercles ; foot short. The shell | is of a flattened shape, mouth semicircular, ' closed by a horny operculum, which is formed of concentric layers, and permanently at- tached to the foot ; outer lip thickened and reflected, inner lip spread over the body- whorl, terminating in a point. There are a great many species. HELICONIDJE. A family of Lepidop- terous insects ; in which the wings vary in shape, but are often very long and narrow, and the discoidal cell of the hind wings is ] always closed ; the antennae are slightly I clavate ; the palpi are short, and wide apart J3tctumar of "Ummatclf Mature. 307 at the base, the second joint being generally clothed with hairs directed upwards at its extremity. The caterpillars are cylindrical, and either spinose or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy appendages ; and the chrysalides are often ornamented with bril- liant golden spots. The species belonging to this family are entirely exotic, of a mode- rately large size, and of very varied colours. In some of the species the wings are quite denuded of scales and in many they are but slightly covered. One of the species, Euplcea (JMiiKifs) Jiamata, is said to be so abundant in New Holland, that it occasionally dark- ens the air from the clouds of them. By many authors this and the allied genera are placed in the separate family Danaidce. We must refer our readers to Mr. Doubleday's elaborate letter-press to his work on the Diurnal Lepidoptera, so beautifully illus- trated by Mr. Hewitson. HELICTIS. A genus of carnivorous Quadrupeds allied to the Skunks, of which there are at least two species, one found in China, where it was discovered by Mr. Reeves, the other in Nepal, whence it was sent by Mr. Hodgson. HELIORNIS. A genus of Birds found in South America. [See FINFOOT.] HELIX : HELICID.E. The general name of a large and most extensively diffused class of Molluscous animals with a shelly covering. It is equally adapted to the hottest and the coldest climates, the most cultivated and the most barren situations. In the Cuvierian system this is the type of a family of ter- restrial and air-breathing Gasteropods. The common Garden Snail of this country, and the Edible Snail of France and Italy, are well-known examples of this family ; but in tropical climates more striking ones are to be found. The work of Dr. Pfeiffer is the latest and the most elaborate on this group. In the works of Wood, Sowerby, Reeve and others, a great number of species are figured. An inspection of the cases containing them in the British Museum will show how varied their forms are, and how beautifully coloured are many of the species. There are some brought from the Philippine Islands by Mr. Cuming, which when wetted lose their co- lour, but regain it when dry. This is owing to the nature of the epidermis. [See Sx AIL.] HELMET-SHELL. (Cassis.} A family of shells, of which there are several species, mostly found on tropical shores, but some are also met with in the Mediterranean. They are inhabited by molluscous animals, some of which grow to a very large size, re- quiring of course a corresponding magnitude of shell. They live at some distance from the shore, on the sand, into which they oc- casionally burrow, so as to hide themselves. The back of the Helmet-shell is convex, and the under part flat : the mouth is long and narrow : the lip is strongly serrated, and rises into a high thick border or ledge on the back ; and the pillar is generally strongly toothed, and beset with small asperities. The shells of the Cassis rufa and other spe- cies are beautifully sculptured by Italian artists in imitation of antique cameos, the different layers of colouring matter resem- bling the onyx and other precious stones formerly used for this purpose. Upon this subject some interesting par- ticulars were detailed by Mr. J. E. Gray, at a meeting of the Society of Arts, held April 21. 1847. He observed that numerous at- tempts have been made to substitute various materials, such as porcelain and glass, for the ancient cameos ; but their great in- feriority has caused them to be neglected. The best and now most used substitutes are shells; several kinds of which afford the necessary difference of colour, and at the same time are soft enough to be worked with ease and hard enough to resist wear. The shells used are those of the flesh-eating univalves, which are peculiar as being formed of three layers of calcareous matters, each layer being a perpendicular lamina placed side by side. The cameo cutter selects those shells which have the three layers composed of different colours, as they afford him the means of relieving his work ; but the kinds now employed, and which experience has taught him are best for his purpose, are the Bull's Mouth (Cassis rufa) from the Indian Seas, the Black Helmet (Cassis Madagas- cariensis), a West Indian shell, the Horned Helmet (Cassis cornuta\from Madagascar, and the Queen Conch (Strombus gigas), a na- tive of the West Indies. The two first are the best shells. After detailing the pecu- liarities of these shells, Mr. Gray proceeded to {jive an account of the progress of the art, which was confined to Rome for upwards of forty years, and to Italy until the last twenty years, at which period an Italian commenced the making of them in Paris ; and now about three hundred persons are employed in this branch of trade in that city. The number of shells used annually thirty years ago was about three hundred, the whole of which were sent from England ; the value of each shell in Rome being 30s. To show the increase of this trade, the number of shells used in France last year was nearly as follows : Bull's Mouth - 80,000 Is. 8d. 6,400 Black Helmet - 8,000 5s. 1,800 Horned Helmet 500 2s. 6d. 60 Queen Conch - 1,200 Is. 2^d. 700 100,500 shells. Value 8$GO The average value of the large cameos made in Paris is about six francs each, giving a sterling value of 32,0007., and the value of the small cameos is about 8,0007., giving a total value of the cameos produced in Paris for 308 Crratfury at Natural ^t the last year of 40,0007., while in England not more than six persons are employed in this trade. A thciujuum, May 1. 1847. HELOPID.E. A family of insects be- longing to the order Colcoptcra, division He- teromcra, in which the antennas are inserted near the eyes, and the terminal joint is always the longest, covered at the base by the margin of the head, filiform, or slightly thickened at the tip, elytra not soldered together ; maxillary palpi, with the last joint largest, hatchet-shaped ; eyes gene- rally kidney-shaped. The larvae generally filiform, with smooth shining bodies and very short feet. They are found in old wood, while the perfect insects are frequently found upon flowers, or below the bark of trees. This family consists of several genera, most of which are exotic. Mr. Paget, of Yarmouth, in his Natural History of that town, mentions that the larva of the common Helops violaceus injured the wood of a window-frame very much, in which several of these insects had taken up their abode. HEMEROBIUS: HEMEROBIID^E. LACE- WING FLIES. A genus and family of insects belonging to the order Neuroptera ; remarkable for the exceeding brilliancy of the eyes in most of the species, and for the LACE-WING delicate structure and varied colours of their long reticulated wings; so that, although of small size, they are very conspicuous. They deposit their eggs upon plants, attaching them at the extremity of along slender foot- stalk, the base of which is fastened to the leaf : thus fixed in small clusters, they have the appearance of minute fungi. The larvae of these insects are extremely ravenous ; and, as they feed on the Aphides, or plant-lice, are highly beneficial. During the summer they arrive at their full growth in about fifteen days ; they then spin a silken cocoon, in which they enter as inactive pupae, and there remain during the winter. HEMIDACTYLUS. A genus of Lizards belonging to the Gecko family, in wliich the tail is depressed, angular above, with cross rows ot spines, the toes being free. The species are found in various parts of the world, and will be found described in Mr. Gray's Catalogue of Reptiles ; one species seems to be common on the shores of the Mediterranean. IIEMIPODIUS. A genus of Gallinaceous Birds allied to the Quails, of which there are very many species in Africa and Asia chiefly. Colonel Sykes has described many of the East India species. We must refer to Gray's and Mitchell's Genera of Birds for a list of the species and figures of the form, and limit ourselves to the notice of a species figured in the work of Mr. Gould, where it is called the SWIFT-FLYING HEMIPODE. This bird inhabits New South Wales, and is the " Little Quail " of the colonists. The male is little more than half the size of the female. It breeds in September and October : the nest is slightly constructed of grasses, placed in a shallow depression of the ground, under the shelter of a small tuft of grass : eggs four in number. The Hemi- podius lies so close as to be nearly trodden on before it will rise, and, when flushed, flies off with such rapidity as to make it very difficult to shoot. IIEMIPTERA. An order of Insects cha- racterized by having a horny beak for suc- tion ; four wings, whereof the uppermost are generally thick at the base, with thinner extremities, which lie flat, and cross each other on the top of the back, or are of uni- form thickness throughout, and slope at the sides like a roof. Transformation partial. Larvse and pupae nearly like the adult in- sect, but wanting wings. The various kinds of field and house bugs give out a strong and disagreeable smell. Many of them (some Pentatomidce and Lyi Cimicidee, Hfduviadce, Hydrome.tr idee, Ne- ptdce, and Notonectidce) live entirely on the juices of animals, and by this means destroy great numbers of noxious insects ; some are of much service in the arts, affording us the costly cochineal, scarlet grain, lac, and manna ; but the benefits derived from these are more than counterbalanced by the in- juries committed by the domestic kinds, and by the numerous tribes of plant- bugs, locusts or cicadas, tree- hoppers, plant-lice, bark lice, mealy bugs, and the like, that suck the juices of plants, and require the greatest care and watchfulness on our part to keep them in check. The works of Burmeister, Amyot, and Servilla, Meyer, Hatton and others may be referred to for the species, which are very numerous, and often most beautifully coloured, the colour and odour being by no means iu harmony. HEN. The general name of the female among the feathered tribes, but more espe- cially applied to the female of the gallina- ceous kind. HEN-HARRIER. (Circus cyanetts.) This bird is a species of hawk ; about eighteen inches in length, and three feet in extent from the tips of the wings extended. The bill is black, and covered at the base with JStcttomtrr? at 309 long bristly feathers : cere, irides, and edges of the eyelids, yellow : the upper parts of the plumage bluish gray, mixed with light tinges of rusty ; the breast and under-coverts of the wings white, the former streaked with reddish brown, and the latter marked with bars of the same : the wings and tail are a bluish-gray, variegated with black ; and the legs are long, slender, and yellow. The Hen-Harrier feeds on birds and reptiles ; it flies low, skimming along the surface of the ground in search of prey, and is extremely destructive to young poultry and the fea- thered game. It makes its nest on the ground, and lays four eggs of a reddish colour, with a few white spots. HEPATTJS. A beautiful genus of Crus- tacea found in South America, and so named from its liver-coloured marking. The genus is allied to Calappa, and belongs to the same family. IIEPIALID^J. A family of Lepidopter- ous insects, in the section HETEKOCEKA (corresponding with the first group of La- treille's NOCTUKNA). It is distinguished by having the antennaj very short and filiform, never feathered to the tip ; the spiral tongue either very short or obsolete ; and the palpi also generally obsolete ; the wings elongated, and deflexed in repose ; the ab- domen also elongated, its extremity being attenuated into a long ovipositor, capable of being withdrawn, or introduced into the crevices of the bark of trees, &c. The cater- pillars are sixteen-footed fleshy grubs ; and feed upon the roots of vegetables or the wood of standing trees : when full grown, they construct a cocoon of the refuse of what they have been feeding upon. The chrysalis is armed with transverse rows of fine reflexed spines on the abdominal segments, which assist the insect whilst making its efforts to emerge from its confinement and assume the perfect state. The Hepialidce are called Sicifts, from the rapidity of their flight, which takes place during the twilight. Some of the species are very remarkable, particu- larly HEPIALUS VIKESCENS, a large spe- cies from New Zealand, described by Mr. Doubleday. The caterpillar of this is very frequently attached by a fungus ; which en- tirely converts it into a vegetable substance, the fructification and its pedicel projecting considerably. This fungus is the Sphwria RobertsiofH.ook.er (S. erucarumofMuls&nt.') Among the most striking Hepialidas of this country are Hepialus HumuH, or the Ghost Moth, and Cossns lignipcrda, or the Goat Moth [which see]. HEPIOLUS. [See GHOST-MOTH.] HERMIT CRAB. The name given to different species of the family Paijuridce, which occupy empty shells, in which they protect their soft and otherwise easily injured tails. [See CRAB : PAGURUS.] i HERON. (Ardea.) Though birds of the crane, the stork, and the Heron kind, have I a strong affinity to each other, the Heron may be distinguished by its smaller size, its longer bill, and particularly by the middle claw on each foot, which is serrated, for the better seizing and securing its slippery prey. Herons reside on the banks of lakes and rivers, or in marshy places : their food con- sists of fishes and their fry, frogs, and field mice, as well as all sorts of insects, snails, and worms. They build in large societies in the same place ; and when they fly, their neck is contracted and folded over their back, and their legs are extended. The COMMON HERON (Ardea cinerea) is remarkably light in proportion to its bulk, scarcely weighing three pounds and a half, though its length is upwards of three feet, and its extended breadth above five. The bill is six inches long, straight, pointed, and strong ; the upper mandible is of a yellowish horn colour, the under one yellow : the fore- head, neck, middle of the belly, edge of the wing, and the thighs, are of a pure white; the occiput, the sides of the breast,and those of the body, of a deep black : the fore part of the neck is adorned with large longitudinal spots of black and gray ; the back and wings are blue gray. A bare greenish skin is extended from the beak beyond the eyes, the irides of which are yellow, giving them a fierce and piercing aspect. The back part of the head is ornamented with several elongated narrow black feathers, the two middle of which are upwards of eight inches in length ; the whole forming an elegant pendent crest ; the fea- thers of the scapulars are also elongated, and fall over the back in fine disunited plumes. The tail is composed of twelve short cinereous feathers ; the legs are of a dirty green colour, long, and bare above the knees; and the inner edge of the middle claw is finely serrated. The female is destitute of the long crest of the male, having only a short plume of dusky feathers ; and in general her plumage is gray : the same re- marks are also nearly applicable to the young birds. In the breeding season they congregate in large societies, and, like the rooks, build their nests on trees, with sticks, lined with dried grass, wool, and other warm materials. The female lays from four to six eggs, of a pale greenish blue colour. This bird commits great devastation in ponds and shallow waters. As a proof of its appetite, it is asserted by Willoughby and others, that a single Heron will destroy fifty small roach and dace, one day with another. Though it generally takes its prey by wad- ing into the water, and waiting patiently for its approach, it frequently also catches it whilst on the wing ; but this is only in shallow waters, where it is able to dart with more certainty than in the deep ; for in this case, though the fish does at the first sight of its enemy descend, yet the bird, with its long beak and legs, instantly pins it to the bottom, and there seizes it securely. In general, the Heron is seen taking his gloomy stand by the side of a lake, as if meditating mischief, motionless, and gorged with plun- der. His usual attitude on such occasions is that of sinking his long neck between his shoulders, and keeping his head turned on one side, as if viewing the water more ll of hi intently. When the call lunger returns, 310 Crragurii ol Batumi ^ the toil of an hour or two is sufficient to fill his capacious stomach; and, though he often feeds by night, he generally is able to retire long before to his lodging in some wood, which he quits early next morning. But in cold and stormy seasons, when his prey is no longer within his reach the fish then abiding in the deep as their warmest situation, and frogs, lizards, and other reptiles, also seldom venturing from their retreats during the continuance of such weather the Heron is obliged to practise abstinence, and to feed on such weeds as the margin of the lake affords : hence he feels the ills both of hunger and repletion, and notwithstanding the amazing quantity he devours, he is always lean and emaciated. While on this subject, it may, however, be well to attend to what Mr. Waterton has written : " I attribute the bad character (says he) which the Heron has with us, for destroying fish, more to erroneous ideas, than to any well-authenticated proofs that it commits extensive depredations on our store-ponds. Under this impression, which certainly hitherto has not been to my dis- advantage, I encourage this poor persecuted wader to come and take shelter here ; and I am glad to see it build its nest in the trees which overhang the water, though carp, and tench, and many other sorts of fish are there in abundance. Close attention to its habits has convinced me that I have iiot done wrongly. Let us bear in mind that the He- ron can neither swim nor dive ; wherefore the range of its depredations on the finny tribe must necessarily be very circumscribed. In the shallow water only can it surprise the fish ; and, even there, when we see it standing motionless, and suppose it to be intent on striking some delicious perch or passing tench, it is just as likely that it has waded into the pond to have a better opportunity of transfixing a water-rat lurking at the mouth of its hole, or of gobbling down some unfortunate frog which had taken refuge on the rush-grown margin of the pool. The water-rat may appear a large morsel to be swallowed whole ; but BO great are the ex- pansive powers of the Heron's throat, that it can gulp down one of these animals with- out much apparent difficulty. As the ordi- nary food of this bird consists of reptiles, quadrupeds, and fish, and as the Herons can only catch the fish when they come into shallow water, I think we may fairly con- sider this wader not very injurious to our property ; especially when we reflect for a moment on the prodigious fecundity of fish." In its aerial journies the Heron soars to a great height, and its harsh cry while on the wing frequently attracts the ear. In flying, it draws the head between the shoul- ders, and the legs, stretched out, seem, like the longer tails of some birds, to serve as a rudder. The motion of their wings is heavy and flagging, and yet they proceed at a very considerable rate. In England, Heron- hawking was formerly a favourite diversion among the nobility and gentry of the king- dom, at whose tables this bird was a favour- ite dish, not less esteemed than pheasants and peacocks. It was ranked among the royal game, and protected as such by the | laws ; and a penalty of twenty shillings was j incurred by any person who took or destroyed j its eggs Dr. Latham says, l> In England, and the milder climates, this species of Heron ! is stationary ; migratory in the colder, ac- ! cording to the season ; and is rarely seen far north : inhabits Africa and Asia in general, the Cape of Good Hope, Calcutta, and other parts of India ; and is found in America from Carolina to New York." The AOAMI HEROX. (Ardea Agami.) By general consent, as it were, tliis bird is al- lowed to be the most beautiful of the genus. It is a native of Surinam, and is rather more than two feet and a half in length : its beak is about six inches long, and dusky, with the base of the under mandible pale ; the crown, the crest, and the hind part of the neck are bluish gray ; the upper parts of the body, the wings, and the tail, are a fine glossy green ; the quills are black ; the sides of the neck bright rufous, with an ele- gant black it white and rufous line, bounded by :entral part : the breast is clothed with long, loose, dark feathers ; those on the back of the neck black, with a white streak down the middle of each shaft : the under parts of the body are deep rufous ; and the tail is brown. The GREAT HKRON. {Ardea Hcrodias.*) This species inhabits North America, and is one of the largest of the genus, measuring upwards of five feet in length : the beak is eight inches long, and of a brown colour, inclining to yellow on the sides : on the back of the head is a long-feathered crest : the space between the beak and eye is naked, and of a pale yellow : all the upper parts of the body, with the belly, tail, and legs, are brown ; the quills black ; the neck, breast, and thighs rufous. Like the rest of this HBtctujnarj? at $aturr. 311 genus, tV.e Great Heron frequents the bor- ders of lakes and rivers, and feeds on reptiles and small fishes. The GREAT WHITE HERON. (Herodias al- 6a.) This hird's plumage is wholly white ; it may therefore be easily known from the com- mon Heron : it is also rather smaller, the tail and legs are longer, and it has no crest. Its character and manner of living are the same, and it is found in the same countries, though the species is far less numerous, and it is rarely seen in Great Britain. It is found on the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas, the lakes of Great Tartary, and sometimes even much farther north : it is also met with in various parts of Africa and America. The LITTLE EGRET HERON (Herodias gar- zettci) is one of the most elegant as well as one of the smallest of the Heron tribe. The beak is black, the naked space round the eyes greenish, the legs dusky, and the feet black. Its colour is of the purest white, and it is adorned with soft, silky, flowing plumes on the head, breast, and shoulders, which give the bird a beauty quite peculiar to itself. These delicately-formed feathers are six or eight inches in length, with slender shafts, twisted and bent down towards their tips : they were formerly used to decorate the helmets of warriors, but they now embellish the turbans of Turks and Persians, or are applied to the more consistent purpose of ornamenting the head-dresses of European ladies. The Little Egret is only about eighteen inches in length, and seldom ex- ceeds a pound and a half in weight. These birds are said to have once been plentiful in this country, but they are now nearly ex- tinct here ; they are, however, abundant in the south of Europe, and are found in almost every temperate and warm climate. Like the Common Heron, they perch and build on trees, and live on the same kinds of food. The NIGHT HEROX. (Nycticorax griseus.) This species, which with its congeners is placed by modern naturalists in a separate genus (Nyctic.orax}, is by no means numer- i ous, though widely dispersed over Europe, Asia, and America. It is about twenty inches in length : the bill is slightly arched," strong, slack, inclining to yellow at the base : from the beak round the eyes the skin is and bl ire and of a greenish colour : over each eye is a white line ; a black patch, glossed with green, covers the crown of the head and the nape of the neck, from which three long narrow white feathers, tipped with brown, hang loose and waving. The hinder part of the neck, coverts of the wings, the sides, and tail, are ash gray ; throat white ; fore part of the neck, breast, and belly, yellowish white or buff ; the back black ; legs greenish yellow. The plumage of the female is con- siderably less bright and distinct ; and she has none of the delicate plumes which flow from the head of the male. She lays three or four white eggs. The Night Heron fre- quents the sea-shores, rivers, and inland marshes, and lives upon insects, slugs, rep- tiles, and fish. It remains concealed during the day, and does not roam abroad until the approach of night, when its harsh and dis- agreeable cry is painfully distinguishable. It builds its nest on trees and on rocky cliffs. There are numerous other species and varieties of the Heron, differing in their size and plumage, but nearly all having the same habits, and being characterized by simi- lar features with those we have described. Among the most important are the Purple- crested Heron (Ardea purpurea), common in the western parts of Asia and the north of Europe ; the Violet Heron (Ardea leuco- cephala ) of the East Indies ; the Cocoi ! Heron (Ardea cocoi), a large species, native of Brazil ; the Little White Heron (Ardea ' jEquinoctialis), a native of Carolina and some other parts of North America ; besides the Blue, the Brown, the Black, the Ash- coloured Heron, &c. In Mr. Edwards's narrative of a " Voyage j up the Amazon," one cannot but be struck I with the multitudes of large birds which al- most everywhere met the eye of the voyager ; i not the least numerous or important among i them being various species of Herons. " Up- on the trees," says he, " were perched birds j of every variety, which flew before our ad- ; vance at short distances in constantly in- creasing numbers, or, curving, passed directly over us ; in either case affording marks too ! tempting to be neglected. Upon some top- j most limb the great blue Heron, elsewhere shyest of the shy, sat curiously gazing at ' our approach. Near him, but lower down, : herons white as driven snow some tall and i majestic as river naiads, others small and ! the pictures of grace were quietly dozing j after their morning's meal. Multitudes of i night herons, or tacartfs, with a loud quack, ; flew startled by ; and now and then, but ; rarely, a boat-bill with his long-plumed crest would scud before us. The snake-bird peered out his long neck to discover the cause of the general commotion ; the cor- morant dove, from the dry stick where he had slept away the last hour, into the water below, swimming with head scarcely visible above the surface, and a ready eye to a I treacherous shot. Ducks rose hurriedly, and whistled away j curassows flew timidly to ' the deeper wood ; and fearless hawks, of j many varieties, looked boldly on the danger." I HERRING. (Clupea Harengus.) This Malacopterygious fish, which frequents our coasts in such numbers, and furnishes a large class of persons with an important article of food, is from ten to twelve inches in length. It is principally distinguished by the bril- liant silvery colour of its body, the advance- ment of the lower jaw beyond the upper, and by the number of rays in the anal fin, which are generally found to amount to sixteen : the back and sides are green, varied with 312 at $?ts't0rj); blue ; the eyes are large ; the mouth without visible teeth ; the openings of the gill-covers very large ; the scales moderate in size, oval, and thin ; the lateral line not very distinctly visible ; the belly carinated, but not serrated : the fins rather small than large for the size of the fish ; and the tail considerably forked. It has long been asserted, and generally believed, that Herrings are found in the greatest abundance in the high northern latitudes ; and that the prodigious shoals which at certain seasons fill our seas, are making their migratory excursions from those icy regions. But this " great fact " in natural history has not only been called in question of late, but the migration of the Herring from one latitude to another has been denied by men of high scientific at- tainments who have given the subject great attention, and who assert that the Herring, having passed the winter and spring months in the deep recesses of the ocean, follows the dictates of nature, and at the proper season approaches the shallower water near the coasts to deposit its spawn. We shall there- fore lay the statements, pro and con, before our readers Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, says, " The great winter rendezvous of the Herring is within the arctic circle : there they con- tinue many months, in order to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning, the seas within that space swarming with small Crustacea in a far greater degree than in our warmer latitudes." He then thus proceeds : " This mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the spring : we dis- tinguish this vast body by that name, for the word Herring is derived from the Ger- man, Heer, an army, to express their num- bers. They begin to appear off the Shetland isles in April and May : these are only fore- runners of the grand shoal which comes in June, and their appearance is marked by certain signs, by the numbers of birds, such as gannets and others, which follow to prey on them : but when the main body ap- proaches, its breadth and depth is such as to alter the very appearance of the ocean. It is divided into distinct columns of five or six miles in length and three or four in breadth, and they drive the water before them with a kind of rippling : sometimes they sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes ; then rise again to the surface, and in bright weather reflect a variety of splendid colours, like a field of the most precious gems, in which, or rather in a much more valuable light, should this stupendous gift of Provi- dence be considered by the inhabitants of the British isles. The first check this army meets in its march southward, is from the Shetland isles, which divide it into two parts ; one wing takes to the east, the other to the western shores of Great Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their numbers : Others pass on towards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of Herrings : they then pass through the British Channel, and after that in a manner disappear : those which take to the west, after offering themselves to the Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, proceed towards the north of Ire- land, where they meet with a second inter- ruption, and are obliged to make a second division : the one takes to the western side, and is scarce perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of the Atlantic ; but the other, which passes into the Irish sea, re- joices and feeds the inhabitants of the coasts that border it. These brigades, as we may call them, which are thus separated from the greater columns, are often capricious in their movements, and do not show an invariable attachment to their haunts." The foregoing account, so well detailed by Pennant, was until lately, as we have before remarked, the generally received opinion ; but it is now supposed that the Herring, like the Mackerel, is in reality at no very great distance during the winter months from the shores which it most frequents at the com- mencement of the spawning season ; and this is thought a sufficient explanation of the glittering myriads which at particular seasons illumine the surface of the ocean for miles together. As a proof of this, Dr. Bloch observes that Herrings are in reality found at almost all seasons of the year about some of the European coasts, and that the north- ern voyages, supposed by Pennant and others, are impracticable in the short period assigned by naturalists ; the fish, in its swiftest progress, being utterly incapable of moving at so rapid a rate as this migration necessarily supposes. But the subject has been more amply dis- cussed by Mr. Yarrell, who brings forward so many valid and well-supported objections to the theory of the Herring's migration from the arctic seas, that we shall take the liberty of extracting them from his excellent work. " To show that this supposed migration to and from high northern latitudes does not exist, it is only necessary to state, that the Herring has never been noticed, that I am aware, as abounding in the Arctic Ocean : it has not been observed in any number in the proper icy seas ; nor have our whale- fishers or arctic voyagers taken any parti- cular notice of them. There is no fishery for them of any consequence either in Greenland or Iceland. On the southern coast of Greenland the Herring is a rare fish ; and only a small variety of it, accord- ing to Crantz, is found on the northern shore. This small variety or species was found by Sir John Franklin, on the shore of the Polar basin, on his second journey. ' That the Herring is, to a certain degree, a migratory fish,' says Dr. M'Culloch, ' may be true ; but even a much more limited mi- I gration is far from demonstrable. It is at any rate perfectly certain that there is no such progress along the east and west coasts from a central point.' There can be no doubt that the Herring inhabits the deep water all round our coast, and only ap- proaches the shores for the purpose of depo- siting its spawn within the immediate influence of the two principal agents in vi- vification increased temperature and oxy- gen ; and as soon as that essential operation is effected, the shoals that haunt our coast disappear : but individuals are to be found, and many are caught, throughout the year. $3tctt0irar of Ztnimtittls $atur*. 313 far are they from being migratory to us , that Herrings visit the from the North only, west coast of the county of Cork in Augus I which is earlier than those which come dow i the Irish Channel arrive, and long befor they make their appearance at other plao much farther north. ' In former times, tl. fishery on the east coast did not commenc till that on the west had terminated. It i remarkable also that the eastern fishery ha become so abundant as quite to have ob scured the western.' And Dr. M'Culloch from other examples, confirms a stattmen previously made, that the fishery has com menced soonest on the southern part of th shore ; and what is also remarkable, tha for some years past it has become later ever year. The Herring is in truth a most capri' cious fish, seldom remaining in one place and there is scarcely a fishing station roum the British islands that has not experiencec in the visits of this fish the greatest varia- tions both as to time and quantity, withou any accountable reason." Herrings are full of roe in the end of June and continue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when they deposit their spawn The young Herrings begin to approach the shores in July and August, and are then from half an inch to two inches long. The Herring was unknown to the ancients, being rarely, if ever, found within the Mediterra- nean. The Dutch are said to have engaged in the fishery in 1164. The invention of Pickling or salting Herrings is acribed to one Benkeb, or Benkelson, of Biervliet, near Sluys, who died in 1397. The empercr Charles V. visited his grave, and ordered a magnificent tomb to be erected to his me- mory. Since this early period the Dutch have uniformly maintained their ascendancy in the Herring fishery ; but, owing to the Reformation, and the relaxed observance of Lent in Roman Catholic countries, the de- mand for Herrings upon the Continent is now far less than in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The mode of fishing for Herrings is by drift-nets, very similar to those employed in the pilchard fisheries : the fishing is carried on only in the night ; the most favourable time being when it is quite dark, and the surface of the water is rurHed by a breeze. Though there are some other species of Herrings, none of them are of the same com- mercial importance as the Common Herring, already described, which so abundantly visits our shores ; a slight notice of one of them, therefore, is all that will be necessary. LEACH'S HERRING. (Clupea Leachii.) 'The Herring," says Mr. Yarrell, " which I now refer to, is found heavy with roe at the end of January, which it does not deposit till the middle of February. Its length is not more than seven inches and a half, and ts depth near two inches. It is known that Dr. Leach had often stated that our coast produced a second species of Herring ; but am not aware that any notice of it ha :ver appeared in print. In order, however o identify the name of that distinguished '.aturalist with a fish of which he was pro- bably the first observer, I proposed for it the name of Clupea Leachii." The flesh of thi species is said to differ from that of the Common Herring in flavour, arid to be much more mild. A family of Lepidop- terous insects, corresponding with the Plebei Lrbicoli of Linnaeus, and in many respects approaching to the Moths. The six feet are of uniform size in both sexes, the hinc tibise having a pair of spurs at the apex, and another pair near the middle of the limb the antennas are wide apart at the base, and are often terminated in a very strong hook ; the maxillae are fery long ; and the lower wings are generally horizontal during re- pose. All the known caterpillars belonging to this family are cylindrical without spines, with the anterior segments narrowed, and the head very large : they roll up leaves, in which they construct a slight silken cocoon, herein the chrysalis form is assumed ; this entire, without angular prominences, and attached by the tail as well as girt round the middle. These Butterflies have a peculiar, short, erking kind of flight, which has obtained for them the name of Skippers. The species re of comparatively small size, and of ob- cure colours, but some are ornamented with right transparent spots, and others have HZSPERIA [PAMPHILi] 8YI.VANU3. V. he hind wings furnished with long tails. They have a robust body ; and frequently ettle on flowers, leaves, and branches. There are a few British species, descriptions f which will be found in the works of Ste- hens and Humphreys. The " Genera of Jiurnal Lepidoptera " of Doubleday and iewitson will be found to contain much nformation on this family, which in foreign ountnes abounds in species and genera. HESSIAN FLY. (Cecidomyia destructor.) his far-famed fly, as well as the " wheat- y, which are common both to Europe and America, are small gnats or midges, and aelong to the family called Ceculomyiadee, T gall-gnats. The insects of this fam'ily are ery numerous, and most of them, in the naggot state, live in galls or unnatural en- 314 Cmttfttrw of $atttral largements of the stems, leaves, and buds of Elants, caused by the punctures of the winged isects in laying their eggs. The Hessian fly, wheat-fly, arid some others differ from the majority in not producing such altera- tions in plants. The proboscis of these in- sects is very short, and does not contain the piercing bristles found in the long proboscis of the biting gnats and mosquitoes. Their antennae are long, composed of many little bead-like joints, which are larger in the males than in the females ; and each joint is surrounded with short hairs. Their eyes are kidney-shaped. Their legs are rather long and very slender. Their wings have only two, three, or four veins in them, and are fringed with little hairs around the edges ; when not in use, they are generally carried flat on the back. The hind body of the female often ends with a retractile, coni- cal tube, wherewith they deposit their eggs. Their young are little footless maggots, taper- ing at each end, and generally of a deep yel- low or orange colour. They live on the juices of plants, and undergo their transformations either in these plants or in the ground. The Hessian fly obtained its common name from a supposition that it was imported into England from Germany, and taken to North America in some straw, by the Hessian troops under the command of Sir W. Howe, in the war of the Revolution. This sup- position, however, has been thought to be erroneous, because the early inquiries made to discover the Hessian fly in Germany were unsuccessful. Dr. Thaddeus Harris brings together, with much industry, a large amount of information from various sources relative to its economy, its habits, and transforma- tions ; and from his statement we shall en- deavour to lay the principal facts before our readers. The head and thorax of this fly are black. The hind body is tawny, and co- vered with fine grayish hairs. The wings are blackish, but are more or less tinged with yellow at the base, where also they are very narrow ; they are fringed with short hairs, and are rounded at the end. The body measures about one-tenth of an inch in length, and the wings expand one quarter of an inch or more. Two broods or gene- rations are brought to maturity in the course of a year, and the flies appear in the spring and autumn. It has frequently been as- serted that the flies lay their eggs on the grains in the ear; but whether this be true or not, it is certain that they do lay their eggs on the young plants, and long before the grain is ripe. The egg is about the fiftieth of an inch long, and four thousandths of an inch in diameter, cylindrical, translucent, and of a pale red colour. The maggots, when they first come out of the shells, are of a pale red colour. Forthwith they crawl down the leaf, and work their way between it and the main stalk, passing downwards till they come to a joint, just above which they remain, a little below the surface of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Having thus fixed themselves upon the stalk, they become stationary, and never move from the place till their transformations are com- pleted. They do not eat the stalk, neither do they penetrate within it, as some persons have supposed, but they lie lengthwise upon its surface, covered by the lower part of the i leaves, and are nourished wholly by the j sap, which they appear to take by suction. They soon lose their reddish colour, turn ! pale, and will be found to be clouded with whitish spots ; and through their transparent : skins a greenish stripe may be seen in the ! middle of their bodies. As they increase in size, and grow plump arid firm, they become , imbedded in the side of the stem, by the i pressure of their bodies upon the growing j plant ; but when two or three are fixed in [ this manner around the stem, they weaken j and impoverish the plant, and cause it to fall down, or to wither and die. They usually | come to their full size in five or six weeks, and then measure about three-twentieths of an inch in length. Their skin now gradually hardens, becomes brownish, and soon changes to a bright chestnut colour. This change j usually happens about the first of December, j when the insect may be said to enter on the | pupa state, for after this time it takes no more nourishment. The brown and leathery skin, within which the maggot lias changed to a pupa or chrysalis, is long, egg-shaped, smooth, and marked with eleven transverse lines, and measures one-eighth of an inch in length. In this form it has been commonly likened to a flax-seed. It appears, then, from the remarks of the most careful ob- servers that the maggots of the Hessian fly do not cast off their skins in order to become pupae, wherein they differ from the larv of ! most other gnats, and agree with those of common flies ; neither dp they spin cocoons, as some of the Cecidomyians are supposed to do. Inclosed within the dried skin of the larva, wliich thus becomes a kind of cocoon , or shell for the pupa, it jremains throughout , i the winter, safely lodged in its bed on the side j ' of the stem, near the root of the plant ; and protected from the cold by the dead leaves. Very soon after the flies come forth in the spring, they are prepared to lay their eggs on the leaves of the wheat sown in the autumn ! before, and also on the spring-sown wheat, i that begins, at this time, to appear above | the surface of the ground. They continue | to come forth and lay their eggs for the ' space of three weeks, after which they en- | tirely disappear from the fields. The mag- gots, hatched from these eggs, pass along the stems of the wheat, nearly to the roots, I become stationary, and turn to pupas in June and July. In this state they are found at the time of harvest, and, when the grain is gathered, they remain in the stubble in the j fields. To this there are, however, a few I exceptions ; for a few of the insects do not j pass so far down the side of the stems as to j i be put of the way of the sickle when the grain is reaped, and consequently will be gathered and carried away with the straw ; and from this circumstance it is possible that they might have been imported in straw from a foreign country. In the winged state, these I flies, or more properly gnats, are very active, I and, though very small and seemingly feeble, are able to fly to a considerable dis- | tance in search of fields of young grain. popular SKrtumarj) of &mmatctr $atttrc. 315 The best modes of preventing the ravages of the Hessian fly are thus stated by Mr. Herrick, in the ' American Journal of Science,' vol. 41. " The stouter varieties of wheat ought always to be chosen, and the land should be kept in good condition. If full wheat is sown late, some of the eggs will be avoided, but risk of winter killing the plants will be incurred. If cattle are per- mitted to graze the wheat fields during the fall, they will devour many of the eggs. A large number of the pup may be destroyed by burning the wheat stubble immediately after harvest, and then ploughing and har- rowing the land. This method will un- doubtedly do much good. As the Hessian fly also lays its eggs, to some extent, on rye and barley, these crops should be treated in a similar manner." It is found that luxu- riant crops more often escape injury than those that are thin and light. Steeping the grain and rolling it in plaster or lime tends to promote a rapid and vigorous growth, and will therefore prove beneficial. Sowing the fields with wood ashes, in the proportion of two bushels to an acre, in the autumn, and again in the first and last weeks in April, and as late in the month of May as the sower can pass over the wheat without injury to it, has been found useful. Favourable re- ports have been made upon the practice of allowing sheep to feed off the crop late in the autumn, and it has also been recom- mended to turn them into the fields again in the spring, in order to retard the growth of the plant till after the fly has disappeared. Too much cannot be said in favour of a judicious management of the soil, feeding off the crop by cattle in the autumn, and burn- ing the stubble after harvest ; which will materially lessen the evils arising from the depredations of this noxious insect. Mr. Hardy has described aud given the history of the British species. HETEROCERA. A section of Lepidop- tera, agreeing with the Linnaean genera Sphinx and Phalcena. It derives its name from the diversified formation of the an- tennae, which are never terminated by a club, like those of the butterflies, but are generally setaceous, filiform, or fusiform, those of the males being moreover often furnished with lateral appendages, forming branches. The caterpillars are much varied, but the pupse are generally of a conical form, and are or- dinarily enclosed in a cocoon, the quiescent state being often undergone in the ground. M "lorn entomologists have found much diffi- culty in defining the various groups which compose the Creptiscularia and Nocturna, and our space precludes us from entering at large upon any subject where much un- certainty exists ; nor, indeed, is it essential that we should do so. Mr. Westwood ob- serves^ that " Urania, Castnia, Agarista, Sphinx, ^Egeria, and Anthrocera are groups of equal value among themselves : and on account of the peculiar conformation of their antennae, they were united into one group by Linnaeus, who, it is well known, con- sidered this character as of the highest im- portance. Take, for instance, the three English groups, Sphinx, JEgeria, and An- throcera, and we find the first isolated : the second, in its fenestrated wings, approaches some of the Sphingidae, but its metamor- phoses are totally different, resembling those of Cossus ; whilst Antlirocera, on the other hand, is, in its preparatory states, a Bombyx, and in its final one probably intermediate between Macrpglossa and Pyralis ; ./;er at four ; till six they continue sharp at the points ; but at ten they appear long and blunted. There are, however, many circumstances which render a decision as to the age of the Horse very difficult after the marks are effaced from the lower inci- sors ; and it should be observed, that Horses which are always kept in the stable have the mark much sooner worn out than those that are at grass ; to say nothing of the various artful tricks resorted to by dealers and jockeys to deceive the inexperienced and unwary. The Horse has three natural paces, namely, walking, trotting, and galloping. In the first, he moves off with one of his fore feet, which is immediately followed by the hind leg of the opposite side ; and so with the other fore and hind leg. His trot differs from his walk, not only in its greater velo- city, but also in this, that he always moves the two opposite legs together. Trie gallop is a series of leaps, and it is true and regular, when the horse lifts his two feet on one side at the same time, and follows with those on ! the other side. These three natural paces may be converted into artificial paces by art and skill. But as this is a part of the science | of horsemanship, it is not necessary to be more than adverted to in this place : we shall therefore merely observe, that the trot is the pace which enables all quadrupeds to balance and support themselves with ease | and firmness ; and it is therefore the most proper for ensuring a free determined motion to the Horse. An old writer, Camerarius, says, a perfect 1 Horse should have the breast broad, the hips round, and the mane long, the countenance i fierce like a lion, a nose like a sheep, the ! head, legs, and skin of a deer, the throat and i neck of a wolf, and the ear and tail of a fox. This is as graphic as it is concise ; but to be serviceable it is much too general : we there- fore turn to the pages of the Penny Cyclo- i pa;dia for fuller particulars as to the proper I conformation of the Horse. " The head, should not be disproportionally large, and should be well set on; t. e. the lower jaw- bones should be sufficiently far apart to enable the head to form that angle with the neck which gives free motion and a graceful carriage to it, and prevents its bearing too heavy on the hand. The eye should be large and a little prominent, and the eyelid : fine and thin. The ear should be small and I erect, and quick in motion. The lop-ear indicates dulness or stubbornness ; and when it is habitually laid too far back upon the neck, there is too frequently a disposition to mischief. The nostril in every breed should be somewhat expanded : it can hardly be too much so in the Racer, the Hunter, the Roadster, and the Coach-horse, for this ani- mal breathes only through the nostril, and would be dangerously distressed when much speed is required of him, if the nostril could not dilate to admit and to return the air. The neck should be long rather than short. It then enables the animal to graze with more ease, and to throw his weight more forward, whether he is in harness or galloping at the top of his speed. It should be muscular at its base, and gradually become fine as it ap- proaches the head. The withers should be somewhat high in every Horse, except per- haps that of heavy draught, and it does not harm him, for there is larger surface for the attachment of the muscles of the back, and they act at greater mechanical advantage. A slanting direction of the shoulder gives also much mechanical advantage, as well as an easy and pleasant action, and a greater degree of safety. It must not however exist in any considerable degree in the Horse of draught, and particularly of heavy draught. The chest must be capacious, for it contains the heart and the lungs, the organs on which the speed and endurance of the Horse depend. Capacity of chest is indispensable in every Horse, but the form of the chest admits of variation. In the waggon-horse the circular chest may be admitted, because he seldom goes at any great speed, and there is com- paratively little variation in the quantity of air required ; but in other Horses the varia- tion is often fearful. The quantity of air expended in the gallop is many times that required in hard work* Here we must have depth of chest, not only as giving more room for the insertion of the muscles on the action of which the expansion of the chest depends, but a conformation of the chest which admiti of that expansion. That which is somewhat straight may be easily bent into a circle when greater capacity is required ; that which is already circular admits of no expansion. A few words more are all that our limits permit us to add, and they contain almost all that is necessary on the conformation of 330 Crrarfurg nf Natural ^f the Horse. The loins should be broad, the quarters long, the thighs muscular, and the hocks well bent and well under the Horse." Some peculiarity of breed distinguishes the Horses of most civilized countries ; or, rather, there is some particular breed for which one country is more celebrated than others. Thus there is the Spanish Genette, a small but fleet and beautiful variety, which is generally ranked next to the Barb : their heads are rather large, their manes thick, their ears long and well pointed, their shoulders somewhat heavy, their chests full and large, and their legs clean and handsome. They move with great ease, and carry them- selves very gracefully. They are usually of a black or dark bay colour ; and some of them, particularly s ( uch as come from the province of Andalusia, are said to possess, in a superior degree, high courage, docility, and other estimable qualities France produces a motley breed ; adapted rather for the pur- poses of war than of the chase, and generally considered as heavy- shouldered. But great attention has of late years been paid to the Improvement of them by crosses with the best bred English varieties ; a remark, by the by, which may in a great measure be applied to the breed of Horses elsewhere throughout the continent. And we may safely assert, that whatever could be gained from long experience and careful assiduity, whatever wealth could procure, or skill effect, in order to arrive at perfection in the various breeds, and in the proper training, of this noble animal, has been fully attained in England. It is impossible to say at what early period the Horse was first considered an object of interest in Britain ; but we know that when our rude and warlike ancestors had to contend with the Roman invaders, they de- pended much on their cavalry and war- chariots, which they managed with great skill and dexterity. We likewise know that the Saxons paid great attention to the Horse, and took considerable pains to improve the natural breed. King Athelstan obtained several German running-horses from Hugh Capet of France ; and William the Con- queror, with his Norman followers, intro- duced the Spanish horse, in whose Veins ran the blood of the swift- footed Barb. When the Crusaders returned from the Holy Land, they brought with them many a noble Eastern steed ; arid from that time a greater admixture of Arabian blood with the Horses of Europe was a natural consequence. It must however be apparent, when we re- member with what a heavy load of armour both horseman and horsfe were encumbered, that our mail-clad warriors must necessarily have required horses of prodigious strength, and that fleetness was of far less consequence to them than weight and mettle. King Jolm, who appears to have devoted much attention to the'breed of Horses, imported a hundred choice stallions of the Flanders kind ; to which act may probably be traced the foun- dation of that character for size, strength, and vigour, which English horses, whether for draught or war, have since maintained. Subsequent monarchs also evinced a strong desire for keeping up, undiminished, a race of Horses which, in a national point of view, had become so valuable, and their exporta- tion was accordingly forbidden. At the period to which we have been alluding, the breeds of Horses most in repute for superior weight and strength were those of Flanders and Normandy. In course of time, the cum- brous armour, the battle-axe and shield, were laid aside ; and when the sword and carbine, with the lighter dresses of our ca- valry, were introduced, speed and elegance were deemed of more account than size and power. At length the sports of the field en- gaged the attention and became the amuse- ment of kings and princes ; the nobility of the land vied with each other in keeping the choicest studs, the English Hunter was un- matched for ardour in the chase, combined with the most persevering endurance ; and the English Race-horse distanced all com- petition. The RACE-HORSE. " Whether or not the blood of our finest Racers be pure Eastern, or a mixture of the Arabian or Barb with the best of our English stock," Mr. Bell ob- can scarcely, with all the accuracy of our turf genealogy, be positively ascer- tained : but it is undoubted that the most celebrated Horses that this country has ever produced are traceable from son to sire back to some or other of the well-known Arabian, Barbary, or Turkish stallions which have at different times been imported. The impor- tance of the influence of the sire in breeding Horses is in no point more clearly proved than by the fact that the progeny of the most celebrated Horses have generally sus- tained the reputation of their sires. Thug the descendants of Eclipse numbered no less than three hundred and sixty-four winners." " The Racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head ; his fine and finely- set-on neck ; his oblique lengthened shoul- ders ; well-bent hinder legs ; his ample mus- cular quarters ; his flat legs, rather short from the knee downwards ; and his long elastic pastern. From this perfect symme- try, however, many celebrated Race-horses have shown remarkable deviations ; and yet they have not failed to enter into the excita- tion and enjoyment of the sport, straining every muscle, and evincing indescribable at 331 energy in their competitors. The HUNTER. ideavours to outstrip their __ It is generally allowed that this fine animal, whose spirit is only equalled by his endurance of fatigue, and whose speed is on a par with his beautiful form, presents a happy combination of those THE HDNTKR qualities which give swiftness to the racer, vigour to the charger, and muscular power to the draught-horse. " The first property of a good hunter is, that he should be light in hand. For this purpose his head must be small ; his neck thin, especially beneath ; his crest firm and arched ; and his jaws wide. The head will then befell set on. It will form a pleasant angle with the neck, which gives a light and pleasant mouth" The compact and serviceable ROADSTER, " a hunter in miniature," as a perfect spe- cimen of this truly valuable animal has been called ; the splendid CAUKIAGE HOUSE, with COAOB-HORSE. his arched crest and high action ; the power- ful DKAY HORSE, whose united strength and size (derived from the Suffolk Punch and the Flanders breed) are unequalled ; the round-chested and long-backed SUFFOLK PUNCH HORSE ; and the patient CAKT HORSE, have each their peculiar merits, and require careful attention to the breed and management. We have also some smaller varieties, excellent in their kind : as the useful GALLOWAY ; the diminutive and hardy SHETLAND PONY ; and the sturdy rough Pony bred in the New Forest. But our limits have long warned us to bring this article to a close : we therefore beg to refer our readers to the various works which are exclusively devoted to " the Horse " for what- ever further information may be required ; and conclude by tritely remarking, that ac- cording to the degree of cultivation bestowed on them, Horses improve or degenerate ; Iheir qualities of sagacity and docility alone remaining inherent. A curious point, and one of great interest in the investigation of zoological relations, which may be properly introduced in this place, is "that the characters of the male parent of the mother's first progeny show themselves in her subsequent offspring by other males, however different those males mav be in form and colour. Mr. Bell ob- serves that this truth has been illustrated by him when treating oh the Dog and on the Hog, and he adds that it receives a remark- able and interesting confirmation from the case of a mare belonging to the Earl of Morton, to which he had before alluded. In that case the mare was young, and after producing the female hybrid by the Quagga, had first a filly, and afterwards a colt, by a fine black Arabian Horse. They both re- sembled the Quagga in the dark line along the back, the stripes across the forehead, and the bars across the legs : in the filly the mane was short and stiff, like that of the Quagga ; in the colt it was long, but so stiff as to arch upwards and hang clear of the sides of the neck ; in other respects they were nearly pure Arabian. This and other such cases should not be forgotten by breed- ers of animals, who are anxious about the perfection of their stock, and should make them particularly careful as to the male influence which first makes its impression on the female. The mode of catching and taming wild horses in South America is so well described by Mr. Darwin, in his "Researches," and shows so strikingly what mastery over the brute creation man can attain, that we trust it will be considered an appropriate adden- dum to the foregoing. "A troop of wild young horses is driven into the corral, or large enclosure of stakes, and the door is shut. We will suppose that one man alone has to catch and mount a horse, which as yet had never felt bridle or saddle. I con- ceive, except by a Gaucho, such a feat would be utterly impracticable. The Gaucho picks out a full-grown colt ; and as the beast rushes round the circus, he throws his lazo so as to catch both the front legs. Instantly the horse rolls over with a heavy shock, and, 332 (Drcndurg at Natural whilst struggling on the ground, the Gaucho, holding the lazo tight, makes a circle, so as to catch one of the hind legs, j ust beneath the fetlock, and draws it close to the two front. He then hitches the lazo, so tha/P the three legs are bound together. Then sitting on the horse's neck, he fixes a strong bridle, without a bit, to the lower jaw. This he does by passing a narrow thong through the eye-holes, at the end of the reins, and several times round both jaw and tongue. The two front legs are now tied closely to- gether, with a strong leathern thong, fast- ened by a slip-knot. The lazo, which bound the three together, being then loosed, the horse rises with difficulty. The Gaucho now holding fast the bridle fixed to the lower jaw, leads the horse outside the corral. If a second man is present (other- wise the trouble is much greater) he holds the animal's head, whilst the first puts on the horsecloths and saddle, and girths the whole together. During this operation, the horse, from dread and astonishment at thus being bound round the waist, throws him- self, over and over again, on the ground, and, till beaten, is unwilling to rise. At last, when the saddling is finished, the poor animal can hardly breathe from fear, and is white with foam and sweat. The man now prepares to mount, by pressing heavily on the stirrup, so that the horse may not lose its balance ; and at the moment he throws his leg over the animal's back he pulls the slip-knot, and the beast is free. Some " do- midors " (horse-subduers) pull the knot while the animal is lying on the ground, and, standing over the saddle, allow it to rise beneath them. The horse, wild with dread, gives a few most violent bounds, and then starts off at full gallop : when quite exhausted, the man, by patience, brings him back to the corral, where, reeking hot, and scarcely alive, the poor beast is let free. Those animals which will not gallop away, but obstinately throw themselves on the ground, are by far the most troublesome. Tliis process is tremendously severe, but in two or three trials the horse is tamed. It is not, however, for some weeks that the ani- mal is ridden with the iron bit and solid ring ; for it must Icaru to associate the will of its rider with the feel of the rein, before the most powerful bridle can be of any service." HORSE-GUARD. This name, we are informed by Mr. Doubleday, is applied in the United States to Hymenopterons insects of the genus Monedula, from their habit of capturing Gadflies (.Tapani'). HOUND. There are several species of Dogs which come under this appellation, as the Foxhound. Greyhound, Bloodhound, &c. which will be found in their proper alpha- betical order in this volume. Hounds may be distinguished into such as discover and pursue the game by sight ; and those which find and pursue it by the excellence of their ecent. HOUND-FISH. The name applied some- times to different species of the Shark family. LSee DOG -FISH.] HOWLET. (Strijc a! tiro.*) A bird of the Owl kind, so called from its mournful, howl- ing voice. It measures eighteen inches in length : the head, back, wings, and tail, are cinereous, with black and white spots ; the head is large, round, nnd full -feathered ; and the wings reach to the extremity of the tail. HUMBLE-BEE. (Bombus.) Of the villose or hairy bees popularly called Hum- ble-bees, there are several species. One of the largest and most common is the Apis JapitJarhts of Linnaeus, so named from the circumstance of its nest being generally situated in stony or gravelly places. This species is entirely of a deep black colour, ex- cept the end of the abdomen, which is red or orange-coloured, more or less deep in dif- ferent individuals. The female is of large size, measuring nearly an inch in length ; the male is considerably smaller, and the labouring bee is still smaller than the male. Humble-bees are the only tribe besides the hive- bees that in this part of the world construct nests by the united labour of the society. Their habitations are sometimes excavated at a considerable depth in the ground, and sometimes built upon its surface, beneath stones, &c. The societies consist, in some species, of about fifty or sixty indi- viduals ; in others of as many as two or three hundred. They contain males, fe- males, and workers or neuters. The females alone survive the winter ; and they employ the first fine days in spring to commence their nests, which they very quickly exca- vate, and supply with a mixture of honey and pollen for the nourishment of the first brood, which consists exclusively of workers. These, after having undergone their trans- formations, assist in the construction of new cells, the collection of the food, and the rear- ing of the larvae. In autumn the males and females are produced ; and at the com- mencement of winter all but the larger females die ; these remain in a sort of cham- ber distinct from the rest, but, as it would appear, without any supply of food. It should be observed that though the Humble- bees collect honey as well as the common ones, it is neither so fine nor so good : nor is their wax so clean, or so capable of fusion. HUMBLE-BEE FLY. (Bombylita.) A name very usually given to a species of the large order Diptera, comprehending species of different sizes, but all agreeing in the great resemblance they bear, at first sight, to the Humble-bees of the smaller or middle-sized kinds : but on examination, it will appear that they are destitute of trunks, and have but one pair of wings. Nature has assigned for the larvae of some of the species a very singular habitation the intestines of horses, or under the thick skins of oxen. In the latter case, the worm hatched from the egg of its parent fly, deposited there, forms a tumour which furnishes it with food and lodging, and in the middle there is an aper- ture for the purpose of respiration. Some, however, feed on vegetable substances, and one species in particular shows a strong pre- dilection for the bulbous roots of flowers. r J3tcttanary nf $atttrr. 333 HUMMING-BIRD. (Trochilm.) The birds included in the family of Trochilidte, or Humming-birds, are at once the most diminutive and the most brilliantly coloured of the whole feathered race. Their vivacity, swiftness, and singular appearance, unite in rendering them the admiration of mankind j while their colours are so radiant that we can only compare their peculiar splendour with the brilliancy of polished metals and 1 the superior lustre of the ruby, the sapphire, or the emerald. This is their general cha- racter ; but there are some species whose plumage is comparatively obscure, exhibit- ing only a golden-green tinge, diffused over the brown or purplish colour of the back and wings. In size they vary from that of a wren to a humble-bee ; the muscles of their wings are very strong, and their plu- mage dense and compact : they are almost ever in motion; and the velocity with which they dart through the air, and the rapidly- vibrating motion of their wings, are quite inconceivable. These lovely gems of ani- mated nature are peculiar to America, and almost exclusively tropical : some species, however, migrate into the temperate regions on either side of the equator during the warm season ; and stragglers have occasion- ally been met with even in cold situations. They are characterized by a long and ex- tremely slender bill, inclosing an extensile and retractile tongue, which is divided into two filaments from the middle to the tip, by which they extract the nectar and the small insects which may lurk in the recesses of flowers. Their feet are very small, their wings long and narrow ; the mechanism of their whole form being, in fact, like that of the Swift, formed for rapid and powerful flight. When hovering before a flower, they seem suspended in the air, rather than sus- tained by the vigorous movement of their pinions ; and it is to the constant murmur or buzzing sound, caused by the rapid vibra- tion of them, that these beautiful little crea- tures derive their name. How greatly they must add to the richness of a Transatlantic landscape, when fluttering from flower to flower in the morning sunbeams J " Wherever a creeping vine opens its fra- grant clusters, or wherever a tree- flower blooms, may these little things be seen. In the garden or in the woods, over the water, every where they are darting about ; of all sizes, from one that might easily be mistaken for a diiferent variety of bird, to the tiny Hermit (T. rttfigaster), whose body is not half the size of the bees buzzing about the same sweets. Sometimes they are seen chasing each other in sport with a rapidity of flight and intricacy of path the eye is puzzled to follow. Again circling round and round, they rise high in mid air, then dart off like light to some distant attraction. Perched upon a little limb, they smooth their plumes and seem to delight in their dazzling hues i then starting off leisurely, they skim along, stopping capriciously to kiss the co- quetting flowerets. Often two meet in mid air and furiously fight, their crests and the feathers upon their throats all erected and blazing, and altogether pictures of the most violent rage. Several times we saw them battling with large black bees, who frequent the same flowers, and may be supposed often to interfere provokingly. Like lightning our little heroes would come down, but the coat of shining mail would ward their furious strokes. Again and again would they renew the attack, until their anger had expended itself by its own fury, or until the apathetic bee, once roused, had put forth powers that drove the invader from the field." Edwarda's Voyage up the Amnson. The Humming-birds are generally divided into two classes those with curved bills, and those whose bills are straight. We shall endeavour to give a description of the most remarkable species ; reserving some of them for insertion under the article Trochi- lidce. Their nests are very beautifully con- structed, being usually composed of vegeta- ble down, such as that of the cotton-plant or silk-cotton tree ; and being covered on the outside with bits of lichen, leaves, moss, &c. Sometimes they arc suspended from the extremities of twigs of the orange, the pomegranate, or the citron-tree ; and some- times from a house, provided they can find convenient twigs for the purpose : for it is to be observed, that although these birds are most numerous in the dense forests, where the wild blossoms almost vie with themselves in splendour, they are also seen in the gar- dens of cultivated districts, and do not appear at all disinclined to the society of Man, though it is very difficult to keep them in a state of domestication. The Humming- bird is very irascible, two males scarcely ever meeting without a contest ensuing : they will also attack birds of a much larger size, as wrens or king-birds, and they some- times even have contests for a flower with the humble-bee. TOPAZ-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD. (TVo- I'liilim pella.) Both in size and colours this species is decidedly superior to any others of the curve-billed kind. Its body is as large as that of a wren ; and from the tip of the bill to the end of the two long-tailed fea- thers, it measures from eight to ten inches. The upper part of the head and neck are of a glossy black, the back and smaller wing- coverts being of a fine deep orange-purple colour ; the throat and part of the neck is of the most splendid topaz yellow, changing from the lustre of polished gold to deep emerald green, according to the situations in which it is viewed : the topaz-coloured plumage is separated from the breast and sides of the neck by a black line, beneath which the whole breast and sides are of a deep but shining purple rose-colour : the wings are of a purplish brown ; the rump of a bright gross-green ; and the tail orange- purple, except the two middle feathers, which are purple-brown, of a narrow shape, and pointed at the tips, and exceed the rest in length by about four inches. The bill is moderately long, curved, and black ; the legs are also black. The female is far less brilliant than the male, being of a dark coppery-green colour, with dusky wings, and 334 Crcajsurrj of Datura! $?t the two middle feathers of the tail no longer than the rest. This species is said to be principally found hi Surinam and Guiana, where it frequents the banks of rivers and brooks, the surface of wlu'eh they skim after the manner of swallows. FORK-TAILED HUMMING-BIRD. (Trocld- lusforjicatus.) This species is chiefly notice- able for the shining beauty of its tail-fea- thers, which appear of a brilliant blue, green, or golden colour, according to the lights in which they are seen, and form a very long and broad tail in proportion to the body of the bird : the crown of the head is blue, and a shining golden lustre pervades the rest of the plumage, but it is trifling in comparison with the beauty of the tail : the legs, feet, and claws are black. BAR-TAILED HUMMING-BIRD. (Trochttus sparganurus.) This elegant bird is nearly eight inches long : its colour is green-gold, but not very bright, except on the throat, where it is rich and brilliant : the tail is long and strongly forked, and the feathers are velvet-black, each being crossed by a broad golden crimson bar, and rounded at the end: bill and legs black. Native of Peru. HARLEQUIN HUMMING-BIRD. (Trochilus multicolor.) A highly elegant species, re- markable for the variety of its colours. Its length is about four inches ; the bill long, slightly bent, and of a pale yellow hue : the crown of the head, throat, neck, breast, upper part of the back, rump, and wiug-eoverts, fine gilded grass-green : the whole upper part of the neck, ultramarine blue, divided from the green of the back by a narrow black bar ; the wings and tail light brown ; belly and vent-feathers red ; wings long in pro- portion to the bird ; tail rounded at the tip. CRESTED HUMMING-BIRD. (TrocJiilus cris- tatus.) This bird is a native of the West Indies : the bill is slender, sharp-pointed, incurvatcd, and blackish ; the top of the head, from the bill to the hinder part, which terminates in a crest, is partly green and partly blue, and shines with a most brilliant metallic lustre : the plumage on the upper part of the body and wings is dark green intermixed with gold colour ; the breast and belly are of a dingy grey ; the tail is a bluish- black, glossy on the upper surface ; and the legs and feet, which are very small, are blackish. SAPPHIRE AND EMERALD HUMMING-BIRD. (Trochilus bicolor.) The two brilliant colours with which this bird is invested, not only merit the title of the gems by which they are called, but possess a vivid metallic splendour not exhibited by the gems themselves. The sapphire colour covers the head and throat, beyond which it blends with the lucid golden emerald colour of the breast, belly, and back : the wings are brown ; the tail glossy bluish- black ; and the belly white : the upper man- dible is black, the lower whitish. Native of South America and the West Indies. RUBY-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD. (Tro- chiius cohibris.) This beautiful species is about three inches and a half in length from the tip of the bill to that of the tail : the bill black ; the crown, upper part of the neck, back, and coverts of the wings are of a most resplendent and variable green and gold colour ; the chin and throat rival the ruby in brilliancy, changing, according to the light, either into a burnished gold colour, or a deep brown tint : the breast and belly are white ; the wings and tail purplish- brown, but the two middle tail-feathers a;reen. It is a native of, and continues in the southern parts of the American conti- nent during the whole year, but appears in North America only in summer. It breeds "n Florida, Carolina, and some of the West India islands ; and is even seen in Canada. In that entertaining book, " The Canadian Naturalist," this bird and its habits are thus noticed in one of the "Conversations:" C. Ha ! there is what I have long wished to see, a Humming-bird sucking the flowers. There are two of them : let us take a closer ew of them. F. No, no : stay where you are, and remain quite still, and talk in a low_ voice ; for on the slightest alarm, and their brilliant little eyes are glancing in every direction, they shoot off with the straightncss and speed of an arrow. See how they hover on the wing, in front of the blossoms, quite N. AMERICAN HTJMM1NO-BIRD. (TROCHILU8 OOL18RIS.) stationary, while their long tongue is in- serted, but their wings vibrating so rapidly as to be only visible as an indistinct cloud on each side. C. One of them has suddenly vanished, but I did not see him fly, though I was watching him F. He has gone only about a yard : you may see him stationary again to the r'ght of where he was before. These starts are so sudden and so rapid, that they are often lost to the sight. C. How very little and how very beautiful ! the body glitters in the sun with green and gold, and the throat is just like a glowing coal of fire. Now they rest on a twig ; one of them I perceive has not the brilliant throat of the other. F. That is the female; in other respects her plumage is like that of the male. It is the Ruby-throated Humming- bird (Trochttus coUbris), and is scattered 8 popular JBtrttonarp 0C &mmattfr ^attire. 335 over the whole of this continent, at least to the outer edges of the others, glossed with the latitude of o7 degrees north." LEAST HUMMING-BIRD. (Trochilus mini- mus.) This is the smallest of the whole feathered tribe ; being about an inch and a ' quarter in length, and weighing only about twenty grains : the general colour on the upper parts is green gold ; the quill and tail feathers glossy violet-brown, and the exterior tail-feathers edged and tipped with white ; the under parts of the bodv are of a dull white ; and the legs and feet black. Native of several parts of South America, and of some of the West India islands. golden green, varying in intensity. The tail is slightly forked, the feathers regularly gra- duating from the uropygials outwards, save that the outmost but one is exceedingly lengthened. Throat, breast, and belly, gor- geous emerald-green, extending to the thighs; vent and under tail-coverts, purpled black. The plumage of the hind head long and loose, descending in two lateral tufts upon the nape, which are to some extent erectile. The whole upper plumage of the female, from the hind head, is rich golden green ; tail blue black, the exterior two feathers on each side broadly tipped with white : uro- The LONG-TAILED HUMMING-BIRD (TVo- chilus putytmus) is called by Mr. Gosse "the gem of American ornithology ;" its slender form, velvet crest, emerald bosom, and : lengthened tail-plumes, rendering it one of the most elegant even of this most brilliant family. The length of the male is ten inches and a quarter ; wings expanded, six and 1 three-eighths, and longest tail-feather seven ; inches and a half. Irides black ; beak coral red, the tip black ; feet purplish- brown, soles paler. Crown, hind head, and nape deep pygials golden-green. Wings as in the male. Tinder parts white, the feathers having round tips of metallic green on the sides of the neck, and being mingled with green ones on the sides of the body. " The Long-tail is a permanent resident in Jamaica, and is not uncommonly seen at all seasons and in all situations. It loves to frequent the margins of woods and road- sides, where it sucks the blossoms of the trees, occasionally descending, however, to the low shrubs. There is one locality where it is abundant, the summit of that range of **^^o- ^ mountains just behind Bluefields, and known ^~"v~ ^?5r^* -* " c^lj&fe as the Bluefields Ridge. Behind the peaks ' X '^ifl^^^^B which are visible from the sea, at an eleva- ^.^^M^^^^BSB^Efi^^XuBNk^^^fli tion of about half a mile, there runs through i *^-^^^^ _~2^^^^^' the dense woods a narrow path, just pass- * "*^-^*l/ / several miles, and no cultivation, save the .' : ' ' - isolated provision grounds of the negroes, M ^ '-" which are teeming with enormous arums, V^& ^-'V' y *jv fyj'f^ and these are hidden from view far up in Wj j& Vs\/X/f ^ the thick woods. The refreshing coolness p| nr/? of this road, its unbroken solitude, combined $m V(Wj with the peculiarity and luxuriance of the 1$!}^ ji 1 V// vegetation, made it one of my favourite re- |p Tjr Ms sorts. Not a tree, from the thickness of j \ \l one's wrist up to the giant magnitude of the hoary figs and cotton trees, but is clothed \ 11 with fantastic parasites; begonias with I \ waxen flowers, and ferns with hirsate stems, 1 \ climb up the trunks ; enormous bromelias \ spring from the greater forks, and fringe the horizontal limbs ; various orchideae with \ matted roots end grotesque blossoms droop from every bough, and long lianes, like the \ cordage of a ship, depend from the loftiest \ branches, or stretch from tree to tree. Ele- \ gant tree-ferns and towering palms are nu- > v -%> merous ; here and there the wild plantain 01' heliconia waves its long flag-like leaves I from amidst the humbler bushes, and in the i most obscure corners over some decaying i log, nods the noble spike of a magnificent \ limodorum. Nothing is flaunting or showy ; \ all is solemn and subdued ; but all is ex- \ quisitely beautiful. Now and then the ear is startled by the long-drawn measured (TBOCHILCS FOI.YTMUS.) velvety-black, very slightly glossed ; back, itself mysteriously unseen, like the hymn of praise of an angel. It is so in keeping with the solitude, and with the scene, that we are rump, wing, and tail-coverts, rich golden green ; wings purplish-black ; tail deep black, with bluish gloss, the uropygials, and unconsciously arrested to admire and listen. The smaller wood consists largely of the plant called Glass-eye berry, a Scrophula- 336 Ereaurw cf Natural rious shrub, the blossoms of which, though presenting little beauty in form or hue, are pre-eminently attractive to the Long-tailed Humming-bird. These bushes are at no part of the year out of blossom, the scarlet berries appearing at all seasons on the same stalk as the flowers. And here at any time one may with tolerable certainty calculate on finding these very lovely birds. But it is in March, April, and May that they abound : I suppose I have sometimes seen not fewer than a hundred come successively to rifle the blossoms within the space of half as many yards in the course of a forenoon. They are, however, in no respect gregarious ; though three or four may be at one moment hovering round the blossoms of the same bush, there is no association ; each is go- verned by his individual preference, and each attends to his own affairs." " The Humming-birds in Jamaica do not confine themselves to any particular season for nidification. In almost every month of the year I have either found, or had brought to me, the nests of Polytmus in occupation. Still, as far as my experience goes, they are most numerous in June ; while Mr. Hill considers January as the most normal period. It is not improbable that two broods are reared in a season. In the latter part of February, a friend showed me a nest of this species in a singular situation, but which I afterwards found to be quite in accorda: produce a reddish tinge, from the thinness of the shell." BKMAl E LONG-T HDMMINQ-BIRD, All the Humming-birds have more or j. mierwarus lounu 10 IHJ quite in accordance less the habit when in flight of pausing in , with its usual habits : it was composed the air, and throwing the body and tail into ; wholly of moss, and suspended to one of the j rapid and odd contortions ; this seems to be fibres, not thicker than whipcord, belong- i most the case with Mango, but perhaps is ing to the root of a tree, and contained two j more observable in Polytmus from the effect eggs. Mr. Gosse goes on describing, in his ^ that such motions have on the beautiful long peculiarly pleasant manner, his further j feathers of the tail. That the object of these operations in endeavouring to become ac- ! quick turns is the capture of insects I am quainted with every particular respecting sure, having watched one thus engaged pretty the nidification and general habits of this close to me ; I drew up and observed it interesting species. We select one example, carefully, and distinctly saw the minuteflies " On the 12th of November, we took, in | i u the air, which it pursued and caught, and Bluefields morass, the nest of a Polytmus, \ heard repeatedly the snapping of the beak, containing two eggs, one of which had the [ My presence scarcely disturbed it, if at all. chick considerably advanced, the other was * * * When I left England, I had laid freshly laid. The nest was placed on a myself out for the attempt to bring these > hanging twig of a black -mangrove tree, the radiant creatures alive to this country : and ; twig passing perpendicularly through the ; after a little acquaintance with the Jamaican j side, and out at the bottom. It is now be- ! species, Polytmus seemed, from its beauty, [ fore me. It is a very compact cup, one inch its abundance, its size, its docility, and its \ and three quarters deep without, and one mountain habitat, to be the species at once ! inch deep within ; the sides about a quarter most likely to succeed, .and most worthy of of an inch thick, the inner margin a little ' the effort. My expectations were disap- over-arching, so as to narrow the opening : ' pointed : yet as the efforts themselves made the total diameter at top, one inch and a me more familiar with their habits, the half ; one inch in the clear. It is mainly : reader, I trust, will pardon some prolixity 'ery closely pressed, : of detail in the narration of these attempts." [We have already so fully availed ourselves composed of silk cotton vcij tiusci^ yicoacu, mixed with the still more glossy cotton of an asclepias, particularly round the edge ; \ of Mr. Gosse's labours, that we beg to refer, the seed remaining attached to some of the for further information, to the work itself; filaments. On the outside the whole struc- and we take the opportunity of assuring ture is quite covered with spider's web, him, at the same time, that his readers will crossed and recrosscd in every direction, and be far more inclined to applaud than to con- made to adhere by some viscous substance, ! demn what he is pleased to call his " pro- evidently applied after the web was placed, lixity." We have personally derived both probably saliva. Little bits of pale green pleasure and instruction from its perusal ; lichen, and fragments of thin laminated ! and we trust that many who consult our bark, are stuck here and there on the outside, | volume will be induced, from the extracts by means of the webs having been passed j they have seen, to become possessed of "The over them. The eggs are long-oval, pure i Birds of Jamaica ; " for a more delightful white, save that, when fresh, the contents specimen of descriptive ornithology never popttLtr SJtcttonan) of Slmmatrtf $ature. 337 came from the pen of a naturalist, thoroughly imbued with his subject, and perfectly com- petent to impart his knowledge to the world in the most enticing form.] The works of M. Bourcier and Mr. Gould on Humming- birds are full of figures of these living jewels. In 1851, the visitors to the Zoological Gardens were charmed with Mr. Gould's display of so many gorgeous groupes of these birds. HURON. (Perm nigricans.) An Acan- thopterygian fish belonging to the family Percidce, known to the English settlers on the borders of Lake Huron by the name of " Black Bass" the word bass being almost synonymous with perch. It haunts deep holes at the mouths of rivers or edges of banks, and readily takes a hook baited with a small fish, or a piece of white rag trailed after a boat, as in fishing for mackerel. The flesh is firm, white, and well-flavoured ; and it is, accordingly, in high estimation as an article of food. HYAENA. A well-known genus of digi- tigrade and carnivorous quadrupeds, distin- guished by having no tuberculous teeth or small teeth behind the carnivorous, which, from their peculiar conformation, aided by the enormous strength of their jaws, are adapted for crushing the hardest substances. The skull of the Hyasna is short, and re- fcs hair. Many absurd notions respecting the Hyaena were entertained by the ancients its annual change of sex, its imitatic a of the human voice, its power of charming or fas- cinating shepherds, &c., subjects which at markable for its solidity ; the muzzle also is short ; and the temporal muscles, which raise the lower jaw, together with those of the neck, are very fully developed. The tongue is rough, the eyes are projecting, and the ears are large. The neck, chest, and shoulders are extremely powerful ; but the hind-quarters are low, and the hind-legs seem comparatively feeble. It has four toes j on eacli foot, furnished with blunt, stout, ! unretractile claws. Beneath the tail is a i glandulous pouch, analogous to that of the ' Civets, but not secreting a similar odorous ; substance. The common or STUIPKD Hr.nyx (ffi/cena I vttJf/ftn's) is a native of Asiatic Turkev, Syria, ! Abyssinia, &c. It is of a brownish gray co- lour, marked by several transverse dark brown bands on the body, which are more numerous as well as of a deeper colour on the legs : from the neck along the upper part of the back runs a strong bristly mane the nose is black ; the ears are rather long, sharp-pointed, and nearly naked; the tail is short rather than long, and very full of 8TRITED HYJENA. (HYJ2NA VULOAHI8.) the present day scarcely deserve to be men- tioned. Hyaenas generally inhabit caverns and rocky places, prowling about at night to feed on the remains of dead animals, or whatever living prey they can seize ; but they seldom attack man, except in self-de- fence. As carrion-feeders they seem destined to fill up an important station in the eco- nomy of nature, by cleansing the earth of the decaying carcasses of the larger beasts, whose remains might otherwise infect the at- mosphere with pestilential effluvia. Though not gregarious from any social principle, they sometimes assemble in troops, and fol- low the movements of an army in order to feast on the bodies of those who perish on the field of battle : nay, it is asserted nor is it inconsistent with their insatiable vo- racity and the peculiar strength of their claws that they have been often known to tear newly-buried corpses out of their graves. The aspect of the Hyaena seems to indicate a gloominess and malignity of disposition, with which its manners in a state of cap- tivity appear in general to correspond : savageness and intractability mark its every look and movement ; and it is said that its courage is equal to its rapacity. It was for- merly supposed, and universally believed, that the Hyaena was untameable ; but that it is possible, however difficult it may be, to tame it, there now exists not the shadow of a doubt. A remarkable peculiarity in this animal is, that when he is first obliged to run, he always appears lame for a consider- able distance, and that, in some cases, to such a degree as to induce a belief that one of his legs is broken ; but after running for some time, this halting disappears, and he proceeds on his course very swiftly. Mr. Bruce, the persevering and entertaining Abyssinian traveller, says, " I do not think there is any one that has hitherto written of this animal who ever saw the thousandth part of them that I have. They were a plague in Abyssinia in every situation, both in the city and in the field, and, I think, surpassed the sheep in number. Gondar was full of them from the time it turned dark till the dawn of day, seeking the different pieces of slaughtered carcasses which this cruel and unclean people expose in the streets without burial, and who firmly believe that these animals are Falasha from the neigh- bouring mountains, transformed by magic, 338 &rsfturg cf Natural Hi and come down to eat human flesh in the dark in safety." " One night in Maitsha, being very intent on observation, I heard something pass behind me towards the bed, but upon looking round could perceive no- thing. Having finished what I was then about, I went out of my tent, intending di- rectly to return, which I immediately did, when I perceived large blue eyes glaring at me in the dark. I called upon my servant with a light, and there was the Hyaena standing nigh the head of the bed, with two or three large bunches of candles in his mouth. To have fired at him I was in danger of breaking my quadrant or other furniture, and he seemed, by keeping the candles steadily in his mouth, to wisli for no other prey at that time. As his mouth was full, and he had no claws to tear with, I was not afraid of him, but with a pike struck him as near the heart as I could judge. It was not till then he showed any sign of fierceness ; but, upon feeling his wound, he let drop the candles, and endea- voured to run up the shaft of the spear to arrive at me. so that, in self-defence, I was obliged to draw a pistol from my girdle and shoot him, and nearly at the same time my servant cleft his skull with a battle-axe. In a word, the Hyaena was the plague of our lives, the terror of our night-walks, the de- struction of our mules and asses, which above all others are his favourite food." The SPOTTED HYAENA bears a consider- able resemblance to the former species, but is marked with numerous round blackish- brown spots instead of stripes, and the mane is much less. Its habits are similar to the Striped Hyaena, and it commits equal rav amongst the cattle of the districts in which it resides. This species inhabits many parts of Africa, but is numerous round the Cape of Good Hope, where it is much dreaded. It rarely, however, moves abroad during the day, but passes that period in a state of re- pose, either in holes in the ground, or in retired situations densely covered with bush. Till lately, it seems. Hyaenas were in the habit of paying nightly visits to the streets of Cape Town, and were regarded as very useful in carrying away the animal refuse ; but partly from better regulations now exist- ing in the town, and partly from the num- ber of these animals having greatly decreased, this no longer occurs. In the interior of Southern Africa the ravages of this beast are still frightful, and it is no uncommon thing to find that they have entered the hut of a native in the night, and devoured or dreadfully mangled some of the younger branches of the family. And yet, notwith- standing this ferocity, the Spotted Hyaena is sometimes domiciliated in the houses of the peasantry, among whom, we are told, " he is preferred to the dog himself for attach- ment to his master, for general sagacity, and even, it is said, for his qualifications for the chase." Another species (Ilyccna villosa) is men- tioned by Cuvier, as differing from the pre- ceding by having stripes on the legs, the rest of the body being of a dark grayish-brown. It inhabits the south of Africa, and is known there under the name of the sea-shore wolf, HYAENA-DOG. A name given to the Wild Dog of the settlers at the Cape. It is smaller and more slender than either the Hyaena or the Wolf. In its general osteo- logical structure it agrees with the dogs, and it has no mane ; but the head resembles the Hyaena's, and it has only four toes to each foot. Its colour is a reddish-brown, with patches of black and white intermixed : nose and muzzle black, with a strong black line passing from them up the centre of the fore- head to between the ears. It is fierce, swift, and active ; is very destructive to animals which are less fleet and powerful than itself ; and commits great havoc on sheep. It is the Hycena venatica of Dr. Burchell's Travels, and the Lycaon vettuticus of Mr. Gray. HYALEA. A genus of Molluscous ani- mals belonging to the class Pteropoda, and distinguished by their wing-shaped organs of locomotion. They are found in the At- lantic and Mediterranean, and the shell is known in this country by the trivial name of Venus' Chariot. It is globose, glassy, and transparent, with a triangular opening at the upper part where the dorsal portion ad- vances beyond the ventral, which is vaulted ; dorsal more flat ; lower extremity triden- date. The head of the animal is very in- distinct, and it has no eyes. HYDATINA, or HYDATIDS. A term denoting several species of parasitic animal- cules, or cyst-like productions, found in the bodies of men and animals, and which are possessed of extraordinary powers of repro- duction. HYDRA. The name given to a genus of minute polypi found in stagnant pools of of 339 water, where numbers are often seen clus- tering upon aquatic plants, &c. These ani- mals present us with the simplest kind of structure which has yet been ascertained. The Hydra consists simply of a fleshy tube, open at both extremities, and the aperture of the tube serving as a mouth, which is situate in the more dilated end, and this mouth is provided at its margin with a single row of tentacula, or loug flexible arms, which diverge from each other like the spokes of a wheel. Looking to this ani- mal, we may suppose that nature has formed it to prove that animal life may be carried HYDRA FUSCA. on without the aid of the complicated ma- chinery which she has given to the higher orders of creation. The Hydra viridis, or Green Polype, has the power of fixing itself in an erect position by the foot, and if it wishes to change place, it slowly bends till its head touches the plane on which it is moving, and adheres to it by the mouth, or one or two of its tentacula ; the foot is then detached, and by a curve of the body placed close to the head, where it is again fixed, preparatory to a new step, which it performs by a repetition of the same movements. When in search of prey, the Hydra permits its arms to float loosely through the water ; by which means it succeeds in obtaining a supply of food ; for if, in their active course, any of the minute Crustacea and aquatic worms should but touch one of the tentacula, it is immediately seized, other arms are soon coiled round it, and the unfortunate victim is speedily conveyed to the mouth. With regard to the powers of reproduction possessed by these simple animals, it is to be observed that, when mature and well sup- plied with food, minute gemmules or buds are seen to become developed from the com- mon substance of the body : these gemmaB appear at first like delicate gelatinous tu- bercles upon the exterior of the parent polype ; but, as they increase in size, they gradually assume a similar form, and be- come perforated at their unattached ex- tremity. During the first period of the for- mation of these sprouts, they are evidently continuous with the general substance from which they arise ; but, at length, when the young is fully formed and ripe for indepen- dent existence, the point of union between the two becomes more and more slender, until a slight effort on the part of either is sufficient to detach them, and the process is completed. But among the many remarkable features in the history of the Hydra, that which ap- pears the most so, is its capability of repro- ducing the whole structure from separate portions of it. New tentacula will replace any which have been accidentally lost or removed. If the body is divided transversely, each segment will become a new animal ; the upper one closing the aperture at its base, and the lower one speedily developing tentacula around the newly-formed mouth. If divided longitudinally, each half will, in a very short space of time, begin to ply its tentacula ; nay, if cut transversely into several segments, each will in time become a perfect animal. Trembly was the fir=t man who gave a detailed account of this curious polype. [See POLYPI.] HYDRACHNA. A genus of aquatic in- sects closley allied to the Acaridce [which see]. One of the largest and by far the most elegant of the genus is the Hydrachna geo- graphica, so named from the fancied map- like distribution of its variegations. Its shape is globular, and its colour a polished black, ornamented with red spots, which in a certain light have a kind of gilded lustre. The legs of this insect, as in the rest of the genus, are hairy ; it swims with great ce- lerity, and appears in almost constant mo- tion. The eggs of the Hydrachna are small and round : the young, when first excluded, are furnished with six legs only ; but they acquire two more legs after the first or second change of their skin. IIYDROBRANCHIATA. The first sec- tion of the order Gasteropoda, containing Mollusca which breathe water only. HYDROCANTHARI, or WATER BEETLES. The name of a great group of Coleoptera, containing Dytiscus, C'olymbetes, and numerous other genera. HYDROCHCERUS. [See CAPYBARA.] HYDROMETRID^E. A family of in- sects, some species of which may be met with in almost every pond or stream, skim- ming along the surface, and turning about With the greatest rapidity. The body is boat-shaped, the hind feet servjng as a rudder, while the two middle feet brush along the surface of the water, and give the required motion : the under side of the body is clothed with a thick coating of fine hairs, evidently intended to prevent the insect from coming in contact with the water. HYDROPHILUS. A remarkable genus of aquatic insects, differing from that of Dy- tiscus only in the structure of the antennae, which, instead of being setaceous, are short, and furnished with a clavated and perfo- liated tip or knob. One large species, com- mon in our ponds and ditches, is an inch O G 2 340 tEm&trg at Batumi Un and a half long, oval, and of a deep brown colour, highly polished. The eggs are laid in a sort of cocoon, spun by the female, and coated with a gummy matter that is imper- vious to the water on which it floats. The larvae are observed to prey on the smaller kinds of water-snails, tadpoles, &c., and ap- pear very voracious ; and they remain about two years before they change into pupae or chrysalides. When the larva is arrived at HYDROFH1LUS FICEOtJ. its full growth, it secretes itself in the bank of the water it inhabits, and having formed a convenient cell, lies dormant for some time ; after which it divests itself of its skin, and appears in the form of a chrysalis ; in this state it remains some time longer, when it again releases itself of its exuvize, appears in its complete or beetle form, and as soon as the elytra or wing-cases acquire a suffi- cient degree of strength and colour ; it comes forth from its retreat, and commits itself in its new form to its native element. It is a curious circumstance that some of the species offfi/drophilidce found in this country exceed in size those from tropical climates j many of the species are, however, very mi- nute. [See DYTISCUS.] HYDROPHIS, or WATER-SNAKE. This genus of reptiles is very common in certain parts of the Indian Seas, where it feeds on fishes, and is considered excessively venomous. They have the back part of the body and tail very much compressed and ,ised vertically, which, imparting to them he power of swimming, renders them aquatic animals. They have a range of cales a little broader than the rest under lie belly ; the head small, not bulged, ob- tuse, and covered with large plates. Several species are found in the salt water of Bengal, and others in the Indian Ocean. HYDRUS. A species of small aquatic serpents, having the extremity of their tails enlarged, and very much compressed ; which conformation gives them greater facility in moving through the water. They inhabit the intertropioal parts of Asia, and the neighbouring islands, and in some situations are very abundant. HYLA. A genus of Batrachian reptiles, known as Tree Frogs, and generically dif- ferring from the common Frogs in no re- spect excepting that the extremity of each cf their toes is widened and rounded into a sort of viscous palette, which enables them to adhere to the surfaces of bodies, and to climb trees, to which last they resort during the summer, in pursuit of insects ; but they deposit their eggs in water, and penetrate 'nto the mud in winter, like other Frogs. The TREE FROG (Hyla arborea) exceeds all other European species in the beauty of its colours, the elegance of its form, and the agility of its movements ; while its size is smaller than any of the tribe. It is a native of France, Germany, Italy, and many other countries of Europe, but is not found in the British islands. During the summer months its principal residence is on the upper parts of trees, where it wanders among the foliage in quest of insects, which it catches with extreme celerity, either stealing softly towards its prey, or springing upon it with a sudden leap ; and it is often seen suspending itself by its feet to the under parts of the leaves, to enjoy their shade. Its colour on the upper parts is green, more or less bright : the abdomen is whitish, and marked by numerous granules : on each side of the body is a dark violet-coloured streak, tinged underneath with yellow, separating the green of the upper parts from the white colour of the lower. The body is short, plump, and smooth : the hind legs are very long and slender ; the fore feet have four and the hind feet five toes, all of which are termi- nated by round, flat, and dilated tips, the under surface of which, being soft and glu- tinous, enables the animal to hang with perfect security from the leaves of trees, &c. ; it can also adhere to any substance by its abdomen, which is covered with small glan- dular granules, by merely pressing itself against it. Though the Tree Frog inhabits the woods during the summer months, yet on the approach of winter it retires to the waters, and there submerging itself in the soft mud, or concealing itself beneath the banks, remains in a state of torpidity, and again emerges in the spring, at which period it deposits its spawn in the water, like the rest, in small clustered masses. The male at this period inflates its throat in a sur- prising manner, and croaks in so loud and JBfrttanarjj at &mmatett Mature. 341 sharp a key as to be heard at an immense distance. During their residence among the trees they are observed to be particularly noisy on the approach of rain. IIYLOBATES. [See APE, Long-armed.] HYMENOPTERA. An order of insects, distinguished by four naked membranous wings, and comprehending many interesting groups ; as Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon- flies, &c. The anterior wings are usually much larger than the posterior ; and the nervures, or hard framework on which the membrane of the wing is extended, are but few. The mouth is furnished with man- dibles and maxillae, and the abdomen ia terminated either by an ovipositor or a sting. The larvae of some of these insects greatly re- semble those of the order Lepidoptera (.But- terflies and Moths"), but differ in the number of their legs, &c. Most hymenopterous insects i when in the perfect state are constantly re- j sorting to flowers, either for the purpose of ; gathering honey, or of preying upon the less powerful species of their own class. Hy- j menopterous insects love the light of the < sun ; they take wing only during the day- time, remaining at rest in the night, and in I dull and wet weather ; and it must be ad- j mitted that they excel all other insects in the number and variety of their instincts, j which are wonderfully displayed in the methods employed by them in providing not merely for their own welfare, but for the comfort and future wants of their offspring. In the adult state these insects live chiefly on the honey and pollen of flowers, and the juices of fruits. The larvae of the Saw-flies | (Tenthredinidcc), under the form of false caterpillars and slugs, are leaf-eaters, and ' are oftentimes productive of much injury j to plants. The larvae of the JLipJiydriadte, i and of the Horn-tails ( Uroceruke), are borers ; and wood-eaters, and consequently injurious to the plants inhabited by them. Pines and firs suffer most from their attacks. Some of the warty excrescences on the leaves and steins of plants, such as oak-apples, gall- nuts, and the like, arise from the punctures of four-winged gall-flies (DipMfpididat), and the irritation produced by their larvae, which reside in these swellings. The injury caused by them is, comparatively, of very little importance, while, on the other hand, we are greatly indebted to these insects for the gall-nuts that are extensively used in colouring, and in medicine, and form the chief ingredient in ink. We may, therefore, write down these insects among the benefac- tors of the human race. Immense numbers of caterpillars and other noxious insects are preyed upon by internal enemies, the larvas of the ichneumon-flies (Evaniadce, Ichneu~ monidce, and Chalcididce), which live upon the fat of their victims, and finally destroy them. Some of these ichneumon-flies (7oA- neumoncs ovulorinn) are extremely small, and confine their attacks to the eggs of other insects, which they puncture, and the little creatures produced from the latter find a sufficient quantity of food to supply all their wants within the larger eggs they occupy. The ruby-taiLs (Chrysididce), and the cuckoo- bees (Ifylceus, Sphecodes, Ifomada, Melecta, Epeolus, Ccelioxys, and Stelis), lay their eggs in the provisioned nests of other insects, whose young are robbed of their food by the earlier hatched intruders, and are conse- quently starved to death. The wood-wasps (Crabronidce~), and numerous kinds of sand- wasps (Larradcc, JSembicidue, Sphegidce, Pom- pilidoe, and Scoliadce), mud-wasps (Pelope.us), the stinging velvet-ants (Mutilfadce), and the solitary wasps ( Odynerus and Eumenes), are predaceous in their habits, and provision their nests with other insects, which serve for food to their young. The food of ants consists of animal and vegetable juices ; and though these industrious little animals sometimes prove troublesome by their fond- ness for sweets, yet, as they seize and destroy many insects also, their occasional trespasses may well be forgiven. Even the proverbially irritable paper-making wasps and hornets (Polistcs and Vespd) are not without their use in the economy cf nature ; for they feed their tender offspring not only with vege- table juices, but with the soft parts of other insects, great numbers of which they seize and destroy for this purpose. The solitary and social bec9(Andreiiadce anfLApidce) live wholly on the honey and pollen of flowers, and feed their young with a mixture of the same, called bee-bread. Various kinds of bees arc domesticated for the sake of their stores of wax and honey, and are thus made to contribute directly to the comfort and convenience of man, in return for the care and attention afforded them. Honey and wax are also obtained from several species of wild bees (Melipona, Trigona, and Tetra- gonal, essentially different from the domes- ticated kinds. While bees and other hy- menopterous insects seek only the grati- fication of their own inclinations, in their frequent visits to flowers, they carry on their bodies the yellow dust or pollen from one blossom to another, and scatter it over the parts prepared to receive and be fertilized by it, whereby they render an important service to vegetation. HYRAX. A curious genus of small rab- bit-like animals, inhabiting rocky and moun- tainous districts in Africa and Syria. The best known species are the Cape Hyrax, K001 RABBIT.- (1YRAX CAPBN8IS.) which inhabits Southern Africa ; and the Syrian Hyrax, which is common to Syria, Arabia, and Abyssinia The CAPE HYKAX {Hyrax Capensis) resides in the hollows of rocks, leaping with great agility from crag to crag, though its walking or general pace is by no means quick. In size G G 3 342 Creating of Batumi $?tst0rj) ; and colour it greatly resembles the rabbits : it is of a thick form, with short limbs, the hinder being the longest, and it is destitute of a tail. The head is rather small ; the ears short and rounded ; the eyes large and black ; the fore feet have each four soft pulpy toes, with flattish, rounded nails ; the hiiid feet have only three, the inner one of which is furnished with a sharp crooked claw. Both this and the Syrian Hyrax live in families, and take up their abode in caves or crevices in the sides of rocks. They sub- sist on grain, fruit, roots, the young shoots of shrubs, herbs, and grass: they are easily tamed, and are lively, active, docile, and cleanly when domesticated. Although the external appearance and the habits of the Hyrax appear to point it out as being a rodent quadruped, Cuvier says that its os- teological structure shows it to belong to the Pachydermata, and that, notwithstanding the smallness of its proportions, it must be regarded as intermediate between the Rhi- noceros and the Tapir. The Syrian species is doubtless " the Coney " of the Scriptures. HYSTRIX. [See PORCUPINE.] IBEX. A quadruped of the Goat kind, several distinct species of which are said to exist among the mountain ranges of Europe, Asia, and Africa, most of them resembling each other in structure and habits. Those best known are the IBEX CAPKA, and the IBEX ^EGAGRUS, or Caucasian Ibex : they are each much larger and stronger than the common domestic Goat ; and to the one or the other of these, that animal is believed to owe its origin. The Ibex Capra inhabits the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains, va- rious parts of the Alps, &c. Its colour is a deep hoary brown ; the under parts of the body andinsidesof the limbs being of a much paler or whitish hue : its body is thick, short, and strong ; it has a small head ; large eyes ; strong legs ; very short hoofs ; and a short tail. The horns, which are extremely large and long, and of a deep brown colour, are marked on the upper surface with protu- berant transverse knots or half circles : the hair is harsh ; and the male is furnished with a beard. The female is smaller than the male, with smaller horns in proportion, much less boldly knotted. These animals usually resort to the most precipitous heights of lofty mountains, where they assemble in small flocks, sometimes consisting of ten or fifteen individuals. They are remarkably swift, and display amazing agility and dex- terity in leaping. They are objects of the chase, but the danger attendant on the pur- suit of them is great indeed ; for not only are strencth, address, and activity necessary to the hunter when following the Ibex from one precipice to another, or in tracking him among difficult passes; but, when close pressed, he will sometimes turn on his pur- suer with impetuous rapidity, and hurl him down the most frightful declivity. The fore legs being considerably shorter than the hinder, enables these animals to ascend with more facility than to descend, and hence, when pursued, they always attempt to gain the summits of the mountains. The season for hunting them is during August and Sep- tember, when they are usually in good con- dition. The voice of the Ibex is a sharp, short whistle, not unlike that of the chamois, but of shorter duration ; sometimes, and especially when irritated, they make a snort- ing noise. The female has seldom more than one young one at a time ; to this she pays great attention, defending it with courage and obstinacy. The CAUCASIAN IBEX (Ibex jEgagrus) is considerably larger than the Common Goat, and in form bears considerable resemblance to the animals of the cervine genus. It in- habits the loftiest rocky points about Mount Caucasus. Its general colour is a brownish- gray above, and white beneath: the forehead is nearly black: and a black stripe is con- tinued down the back ; the horns, which are very large, and bend far backwards, are smooth, black, sharply ridged near the top, and hollowed on their exterior side, but have no appearance of either knots or rings ; they are about three feet long, close at the base, about a foot apart in the middle, and eight or nine inches at the tips. The male has a large brownish beard: the female has neither horns nor beard. One of the handsomest of these animals is the JEMLAII IBEX, an inhabitant of the Himalaya Mountains. Its head is finely formed, full of beauty and expression: it has Papular Btrtttmary of gmmatefc $aturr. 343 no beard ; and its horns are remarkably massive at the base. It lives solitarily or in small herds ; and though bold and pugna- cious, it is easily tamed. IBIS. A genus of birds which in their general habits and conformation closely ap- proach the Storks: they chiefly inhabit warm countries, but, except in very cold regions, they are to be found in all parts of the world. Generic characters: beak arched, long, slenrier,thick at the base, and quandrangular, i rounded at the tip, which is obtuse ; nostrils | linear, extending from the root to the tip of the beak, and dividing it into three portions, ! of which the upper is the broadest, and flat- tened ; head and throat bare ; legs long, and ! four-toed, the front webbed at their base as far as the first joint, the hind toe very long, all provided with claws. They frequent the borders of rivers and lakes, feeding on insects, worms, mollusca, and occasionally on vege- table matter. They perform powerful and elevated flights, extending their neck and legs, and utlering a hoarse croak. THE GLOSSY IBIS (Ibisfalcinellus) is nearly , two feet in length. In the adult bird, the I neck, breast, top of the back, and all the inferior parts of the body, are of a bright red chestnut ; the wing-coverts, quills, tail-fea- thers, and the rest of the back, of a dusky green, glossed with bronze and purple ; but it varies much in its plumage at different ages. This species builds in Asia, and is found on the streams and lakes, in flocks of thirty or forty_. They migrate perodically to Egypt ; and in their passage they are numerous in Poland, Hungary, Turkey, and the Grecian Archipelago. They occasionally visit the banks of the Danube, Switzerland, and, more rarely, England and Holland. The WHITE IBIS (Ibis rdigiosat arrives in Egypt about the time that the inundation of the Nile commences, its numbers in- creasing or diminishing with the increase or diminution of the waters : and it migrates about the end of June, at which time it is first noticed in Ethiopia. This species does not collect in large flights, more than eight ten seldom being seen together. They are about the size of a fowl ; the head and neck bare ; the body white ; the primaries of the wings tipped with shining, ashy black, among which the white forms oblique notches; the secondaries bright black, glossed with green and violet ; the quill feathers of the tail white. This and the above described were the two species of birds adored by the ancient Egyptians, who used to rear them in their temples, and after death embalm them. Their mummies are found to this day in numbers, in the vast catacombs of ancient Memphis. 344 Crragurg of Batumi " This," says Cuvier, " is the most cele- brated species : it was reared in the temples of ancient Egypt, with veneration which ap- proached to worship ; and it was embalmed after its death, as some said, because it de- voured the serpents which would otherwise have become dangerous to the country : according to others, because there was a resemblance between its plumage and some of the phases of the moon : finally, ac- cording to other some, because its advent announced the rising of the Nile. For a long time it was thought that this Ibis of the Egyptians was the Tantalus of Africa: we now know it belongs to the genus of ivhich we are treating. It is as large as a hen, with white plumage, except the end of the wing-feathers, which is black ; the last coverts have their barbs elongated, loose, black, with violet reflections, and thus co- vering the end of the wings and tail. The bill and the feet are black, as well as all the naked part of the head and neck : this part is covered in youth, at least on its upper surface, with small blackish feathers. The species is found throughout the extent of Africa." The SCARLET IBIS (Ibis rvbra) is a very splendid bird, and is found in the hottest parts of America in large flocks. They fly rapidly, but rarely, except at morning and evening, in search of food. The plumage is scarlet ; beak naked ; part of the cheeks, legs, and feet, pale red. Before the Scarlet Ibis reaches its full age, its plumage varies considerably Other species are found in India, Madagascar, the Cape ol Good Hope, and Mexico. ICHNEUMON. (Herpcstes.-) An animal bearing a very close resemblance to the weasel tribe both in form and habits. From the snout to the root of the tail it is about eighteen inches long : it has a long, agile body, short limbs, semi-plantigrade feet, small glowing eyes, and a pointed nose. It glides towards its prey with a snake-like movement, and then darts suddenly upon it. These animals feed upon birds, reptiles, ICHNEUMON. (HERFF? TONECTMON.) rats, mice, &c. Their disposition is as san- guinary as their habits are predatory ; but though the destruction they cause among the poultry is very annoying, it is well com- pensated by the incessant war they wage against reptiles, the eggs of which they de- vour with the greatest avidity. The most celebrated species inhabits Egypt and the adjacent countries, where it is called " Pha- raoh's rat." It is larger than a cat, but formed like a weasel ; it is of a gray colour, and has a long tail, terminated by a black tuft. This species was ranked by the ancient Egyptians among their numerous divinities on account, it is supposed, of the benefits it confers on man by the destruction of croco- diles, whose eggs it digs out of the sand, and sucks. It is also a natural enemy of the whole serpent race, and so exceedingly ex- pert in seizing them by the neck, as to avoid any injury to itself. The Ichneumon is easily domesticated, seeming to form an attachment to its place of residence ; and it is not unfrequently kept tame both in India and Egypt, for the purpose of clearing the houses of mice and rats. Ichneumons are sometimes seen to squat on their haunches, and feed themselves with their fore paws, like the squirrel. When they sleep, they bring their head and tail under their belly, and appear like a round ball. In a wild te they generally reside along the banks of rivers ; and they swim and dive like the state otter, being able to continue under water for a great length of time. ICHNEUMONID.33, or ICHNEUMON- FLIES. A family of hymenopterous in- sects, the genera and species of which are very numerous, and their manners ex- tremely diversified, but all agreeing in this characteristic that they deposit their eggs in the bodies of other living insects, and generally in those of caterpillars. The females have a sharp and strong abdominal tube, or ovipositor, which is used to insert their eggs into the bodies of Caterpillars that live beneath the bark, or in the cre- vices of wood ; this is generally long, and capable of piercing almost any substance ; while such as have a short ovipositor, place their eggs in or upon those caterpillars to which they have easy access. These eggs |3fljwlar 23tctf0narg of Ilirimatcll jtature. 345 are in a few days hatched, and the young larvx, which resemble minute white mag- gots, subsist on the juices of their victim, but without absolutely destroying it : in fact, the animal they infest may continue to exist for some time, thus alfording them a continued supply of nutriment ; but when the Ichneumons are ready to undergo their last metamorphosis, they pierce the skin, and each spinning itself up in a small oval silken case, changes into chrysalis, the whole number forming a group on the shrivelled body of the caterpillar ; and, after a certain period, they emerge in the state of complete Ichneumons. One of the most familiar ex- amples of this process is aiforded by the caterpillar of the common white or cabbage butterfly, which in autumn may be fre- quently observed to creep up some wall or other convenient surface, in order to under- go its own change into chrysalis ; but in the space of a day or two a numerous tribe of small maggots will be seen to emerge from it, and immediately proceed to envelope themselves in distinct yellow silken cases ; the whole forming a group around the cater- pillar. The perfect Ichneumons feed solely upon the juices of flowers, and fly about with considerable agility in search of their food, or of proper situations for the deposition of their eggs. These carnivorous insects are of various sizes ; some are so small, that the Aphis, or plant-louse, serves as a cradle for their young ; others again, from their size and strength, are formidable even to the spider, destroying them with their powerful stings : some place their eggs within the aurelia of a nascent insect ; others deposit them within the nest, which the wasp has curiously contrived for her young ; and, as both are produced at the sama time, the offspring of the Ichneumon not only devour the young wasps, but the whole supply of larvae which the parent had carefully provided for their support. The best known, and perhaps the most formida- ble of this genus, is the common Ichneumon with four wings like the bee ; a long slender black body ; and a three-forked tail, con- sisting of bristles, of which the two exterior are black, and the central one is red. But when we read that " probably more than 3000 species exist in Europe alone, and the number peculiar to other parts of the globe may fairly be reckoned as at least equal," it would seem to be of little use to attempt to give more than this general description : we shall therefore conclude by remarking, that however terrible to other insect tribes the Ichneumon-flies may be, their destruction of countless myriads, which would otherwise be left to banquet on the fruits of the earth, must be of the most essential service to man- kind. ICHTHYIAETUS. A Bub-genus of the Falcon family of birds, so named from their living principally on fish. From the account given in Mr. Gould's work, some members of the genus would seem to partake of the habits of the vulture family : among these is the ICHTIIYIAKTliS LEUCOGASTER, of WHITE- BELLIED SEA EAGLE. This is a fearless and familiar bird, found throughout the whole of South Australia. It is distin- guished by its never plunging beneath the surface of the water, but living on dead cetacea. fish, &c., left on the shore by the tide. In Bass's Straits it subsists principally on Petrels and Penguins, which are easily captured. On the main land it builds a large flat nest on a fork of the loftiest trees, on islands, on the flat surface of a large stone, and sometimes on the twigs and branches of barilla, a low shrub. One nest was observed on a tree 200 feet high and 41 feet round, where it probably had its nest for several years. ICHTHYOSAURUS, or FISH-LIZARD. A genus of extinct marine animals which combined the characters of saurian reptiles and fishes, with some peculiar to cetaceous mammalia. This extraordinary creature, whose fossil remains discover Its anatomical conformation, has been the subject of much learned investigation ; and the anatomy and animal economy of it are in a manner esta- blished. Some of the largest exceeded thirty feet in length ; and, from their structure, it is easy to conceive that they must have been very formidable enemies to the other in- habitants of the deep. The spinal column was formed like that of a fish, the vertebra ICHTHYOSAURUS COMMDNIB. being concave on both surfaces, and the arches which enclosed the spinal chord al- ways remained distinct from the bodies as in reptiles ; hence the body must have had great flexibility ; but the progression of these animals through the water was chiefly by means of the anterior and posterior extre- mities (of which there were four), formed very much upon the plan of the feet or pad- dles of the whale. The general form of the head was not unlike that of the porpoise ; and it had an elongated and pointed muzzle, the mouth being armed with numerous cro- codile-like teeth ; and its body terminated in a long and powerful tail. From the ab- sence of any remains of scales or plates, it may be concluded that the skin was naked, like that of the whales and their allies ; and that it was an air-breathing animal, coming to the surface of the water occasionally, no doubt exists. From the remains of crushed and partially-digested fish bones and scales which are found with their bones, it appears that the Ichthvosauri principally preyed upon fishes. Dr. Buckland states that the fos- sil remains of 'these animals abound along the whole extent of the lias formation, from the coasts of Dorset, through Somerset and Lei- 346 CDrraSurg nf Batumi costershire, to the coast of Yorkshire. The lias of Germany and France also contains them. Mr. Pearce found, within a specimen of the Ichthyosaurus, what he thinks may have been an embryo ; and although the Ichthyo- saurus, by analogy, might have been sup- posed to be oviparous in its generation, yet Dr. Buckland and Professor Owen think there is no reason why it should not have been viviparous ; and from the evidence of Mr. Pearce's specimen it appears fair to sup- pose that they really were so. The collec- tion of remains of Ichthyosauri in the Bri- tish Museum is very perfect and great : and I with the allied Plesiosauri forms quite a feature in the room devoted to their exhi- I bition. i ICTERIA, or CHATTERING FLY- . CATCHER. (Icteria virulis.) This bird abounds in most parts of North America ! during the summer months, and is remark- able both for its colouring and its habits. ! It is about six inches in length : nearly the i whole of the upper parts of its body are of a i rich deep olive green, the tips of the wings I excepted, which are of a dusky brown : the ! throat, breast, and sides of the body are of a : bright yellow ; the belly and vent white ; the I forehead pale ash ; from the nostrils a line of | white extends to the upper part of the eyes, I which it nearly surrounds ; another white I spot is situated at the base of the under man- I dible : beak strong and black ; legs and feet pale blue. It has the faculty of mimicking almost any noise that it hears, which it will repeat during the whole night if the weather be fine. Its favourite residence is in close hazel or bramble thickets, and its nest is composed of dry leaves with layers of grape vine bark, lined with fibrous roots and dry grass. The female lays four flesh-coloured i eggs, sprinkled with brown and dull red | spots. i IGUANA. A gemis of Reptiles of which | there are several species ; the genus includ- ing several of large dimensions, common I in the tropical parts of America, some of i which feed on vegetable substances, and ; are esteemed delicious food ; while there are others which appear to be omnivorous. They are thus characterized by Cuvier : body scalei and tail covered with small imbricated scales : the ridge of the back garnished with a row of spines, or rather of elevated, com- pressed, and pointed scales ; under the throat a depressed and depending dewlap, the edge of which is attached to a cartilaginous appendage of the hyoid bone. Their t lighs are provided with a similar arrangement of porous tubercles with the true lizards, and their head is covered with scaly plates. Each jaw is furnished with a row of com- pressed triangular teeth, having their cutting edges serrated : there are also two small rows on the posterior part of the palate. They live for the most part on trees, but sometimes take to the water, and swim with ease. They attain a great size, being sometimes found five feet in length, though they are much more often from two to three: their upper parts are bluish-green,and some- times slate colour ; the under parts yellow- ish-greeii ; in general, on the sides of the body are brown stripes or zigzags edged with yellow ; and the tail is surrounded with large brown or yellow rings. The Common Iguanas (If/uana tuberculatu) are eagerly sought, especially in the spring, being es- teemed a great delicacy. They are caught by means of a noose attached to the end of a stick : for the animal, though formidable in appearance, is timid and defenceless. It is very active ; but when it has taken refuge in a tree, it appears to depend on the secu- rity of its situation, and never offers to stir unless roused ; hence it is easily taken. The female deposits her eggs, which are about the size of a pigeon's egg, in the sand, where they are left to be hatched by the genial warmth of the sun. IGUANIDJE. The family of Saurians, or lizard-like reptiles, of which the animal just described is the type, and of which there are several sub-genera: descriptions of which are given in Mr. Gray's elaborate work, the Catalogue of Lizards in the British Museum. [See LIZAKD.] IGUANODON. The name given to an extinct gigantic reptile, closely resembling the Iguana in osseous structure, whose re- mains were discovered by Dr. Mantell in the wealden formation of the South of England, in the localities of Purbeck, the Isle of Wight, and Maidstone. From its dentition there seems to be no doubt that it was herbivorous ; the form of the teeth, considered with relation to the demands made by the habits of the animal, being well adapted for cropping tough vegetable food, such as the Clathraria and similar plants which are found buried with the Iguanodon. From the proportions which the bones of the Iguanodon bear to those of the Iguana, this t xtinct monster is calculated to have been 70 feet in length from the snout to the end of the tail ; the length of the tail alone 52^ feet, and the circumference of the body 14i feet. The thigh bone of the full-sized Iguanodon is twenty times the size of that of the Iguana ; and on the snout of this pro- digious reptile was a short but strong horn : its whole appearance, indeed, must have realized the wildest poetical fictions of the dragons of old. In the British Museum are contained all the specimens of Iguanodon obtained by Dr. Mantell ; and a comparison of the teeth and bones, with those of its recent comparatively Lilliputian analogue, is a most interesting and curious study. !{30pul;ir iDtcttonarn of Sufmatrtf 347 INCA. A genus of Lamellicorn Beetles, by many authors placed among the Goliath beetles, but whose situation in the system, according to more modern views, is nearer TricMus. They are natives of South Ame- rica. The species figured here is Inca V.'cbcri. It is of a violet black ; the thorax edged with white ; three-banded, the outer bands connected with the white edge of the thorax: the elytra have a reddish tinge, spotted with ! small palish marks. It is a native of South America : and the accompanying figure will show its form and appearance. [See GOLIATH.] INDICATOR. [See HONEY-GUIDE.] INDRI. The name of a quadruped be- longing to the family Lemuridie. It is a native of Madagascar, and from its fine long hair is called Indris laniyer. INFEROBRANCHIATA. An order of molluscous animals (Gasteropods), charac- terized by the position of the gills, which are situated beneath the produced margin of the mantle. They are incapable of swim- ming, and are therefore confined to the sea- shore, where they subsist upon sea-weeds and other aquatic plants. INFUSORIA. A term applied by na- turalists to the numerous minute animals found in water, which are commonly called animalcules. Had the microscope never been invented, the existence of myriads of living creatures whose forms aud properties are now in some measure revealed to us, would have been wholly unknown. Ehren- berg, who by means of a most powerful mi- croscope, was enabled to describe species which are not larger than from one-thou- sandth to two-thousandth of a line in dia- meter, infers, that a single drop of water may hold 500 millions of these animalcule. By what arithmetical power, then, shall the numbers that swarm in every stagnant pool or lake be calculated ? " All true Infusoria," says he, "even the smallest monads, are organized animal bodies (none consisting of a homogeneous jelly), and distinctly pro- vided with at least a mouth and internal nutritive apparatus." They are found equally abundant as fossils. The Norwegian earth, called BeargrneM, or Mountain meal, is principally composed of fossil animalcules. Professor Bailey tells us that the town of Charleston, in the United States, is built upon a bed of auimalculae several hundred feet in thickness, every cubic inch of which is filled with myriads of perfectly preserved microscopic shells. He says also, that these polythalamia, or many-chambered shells, to whose labour South Carolina owes so large a portion of her territory, are still at work, in countless thousands, upon her coasts, filling up harbours, forming shoals, and depositing their shells to record the present state of the sea-shore, as their predecessors, now en- tombed beneath Charleston, have done with regard to ancient oceans. The most highly organized Infusoria are called by Cuvier Rotifera [which see]. The immense importance of the Infusoria in the scale of animal existence is chiefly seen by those who visit the Arctic and Ant- arctic seas. Although remotely supporting the higher animals, yet the want of them would be materially felt. This is well stated by Capt. Sir James Clark Ross, who, in speaking of a small fish found by him in the South Seas, and described by Dr. Sir John Richardson, under the name of Notothenia phucce, says, " They occupy the place of the Merlanffiis poJaris and Ophulium Parryii, of the Arctic seas, the latter of which they much resemble ; like them, they conceal themselves from the persecutions of their enemies in the small cracks and cavities of the pack ice, and may be seen when driven from shelter by the ships striking and pass- ing over their protecting pieces of ice. The seals and petrels are their chief enemies, whilst they, in their turn, live upon the smaller Canci-i and Limacince. Thus we be- hold in these regions, where the vegetable kingdom, which constitutes the support of animal life in milder climates, has no repre- sentative, a chain of animal existences, maintained by each preying upon that next below it in the order of created beings, and all eventually nourished and sustained by the minute infusorial animalculae which we found filling the ocean with an inconceivable multitude of the minutest forms of organic life." Antarctic Voyage, vol. ii. p. 161. INSECTS. (Insccta.') A class of inver- tebrate animals, to which the term insecta has been applied, in reference to the in- sected, or divided, appearance of the body, which is not only composed of a continuous series of segments, articulating with each other, but is also often divided or cut into three very marked portions, to which the names head, thorax, and abdomen have been applied. There is no class of the animal kingdom which has been the subject of more numerous and various attempts at classifica- tion than that of Insects : nor is it at all surprising ; since it is pre-eminent in regard to the number of distinct species which it includes, and unsurpassed by any, save the 348 Crra&trn at fLitural Infusory Animalcules, in regard to the num- ber of individuals at any time existing on the earth's surface, which belong to the numerous and diversified races compre- hended in it. In ordinary phraseology, an Insect may be defined as a little animal without bones or cartilages ; furnished with a trunk, or else a mouth opening lengthwise; and with eyes destitute of coverings. This definition will comprehend the whole class of Insects, either with or without wings ; either in their caterpillar or perfect state. Every year adds to the difficulty of de- fining in a brief manner the characters of the great and smaller divisions of the ani- mal kingdom. Hence it will appear, that in this class of animals there are numerous distinctions, and that no general description will serve for all : so various are the appe- tites, manners, and modes of propagation, that every species requires its distinct history. Though so far inferior in point of magni- tude, Insects, it must he confessed, surpass in variety of structure and singularity of appearance all the larger branches of the animal world. The general characters by which they are distinguished from other animals are these : First, they are furnished with several feet : secondly, the muscles are affixed to the internal surface of the skin, which, though hard, sometimes preserves a certain degree of flexibility : thirdly, they breathe, not like the generality of larger animals, by lungs or gills, but by spiracles or breathing holes, distributed in a series or row on each side the whole length of the abdo- men, and communicating with two long air- pipes within their bodies, and a number of smaller ones, to carry the air to every part. The head is furnished with a pair of antennae, or horns, which are extremely various in the different tribes, and which, by their differences of structure, form a leading cha- racter in the institution of the genera into which Insects are distributed. Insects have a very small brain, and in- stead of a spinal marrow, a kind of knotted cord, extending from the brain to the hinder extremity ; and numerous small whitish threads, which are the nerves, spread from the brain and knots, in various directions. The heart is a long tube, lying under the skin of the back, having little holes on each side for the admission of the juices of the body, which are prevented from escaping again by valves or clappers, formed to close the holes within. Moreover, this tubular heart is divided into several chambers, by transverse partitions, in each of which there is a hole shut by a valve, which allows the blood to flow only from the hinder to the fore part of the heart, and prevents it from passing in the contrary direction. The ancients entertained an idea that In- sects were destitute of jlood ; hence they called them animalia exsanguinea : but now they are well known to be so far from blood- less animals, that in many of them the cir- culation itself of the blood is clearly and dis- tinctly perceived. The blood of Insects differs from that of the larger animals chiefly in oolour, since in most insects it wants redness, being generally of a clear or watery aspect, and sometimes of a yellowish hue. The circulation of the blood is particularly conspicuous in Spiders, and in some species of Cimex or bug, especially the Cimex lectu- larius ; it is to be observed, however, that it does not circulate in proper arteries and veins ; but is driven from the fore part of the heart into the head, and thence escapes into the body, where it is mingled with the nutritive juices that filter through the sides of the intestines, and the mingled fluid pene- trates the crevices among the flesh and other internal parts, flowing along the sides of the air-pipes, whereby it receives from the air that influence which renders it fitted to nourish the frame and maintain life. The first state in which the generality of Insects appear is that of an egg ; some few, however, are viviparous. From the egg is hatched the Insect in its Larva state ; the Larvae or Caterpillars of Insects differing materially from each other, according to the different tribes to which they belong. There are some Insects, however, which undergo no change of shape, but are hatched from the | egg complete in all their parts, and undergo I no farther alteration than that of casting their skin from time to time, till at length they acquire the complete resemblance of the parent animal. Most insects, in the course of their lives, I are subject to very great changes of form, I attended by equally remarkable changes in | their habits and propensities. These changes, j transformations, or metamorphoses, as they ! are called, might cause the same insect, at j different ages, to be mistaken for as many j different animals. For example, a cater- ! pillar, after feeding upon leaves till it is fully Elace of conceal- j ir-skin, and pre- j grown, retires into some place of conceal sents itself in an entirely different form, one i wherein it has neither the power of moving ! about, nor of taking food ; in fact, in this, its second or chrysalis state, the insect seems to be a lifeless oblong oval or conical body, without a distinct head, or movable limbs ; after resting awhile, an inward struggle begins, the chrysalis-skin bursts open, and from the rent issues a butterfly, or a moth, whose small and flabby wings soon extend and harden, and become fitted to bear away the insect in search of the honeyed juice of flowers and other liquids that suffice for its nourishment. In the different tribes of Insects the Pupa or Chrysalis differs almost as much as the Larva. In most of the Beetle tribe it is fur- nished with short legs : in the Butterfly tribe it is perfectly destitute of all appearance of legs, and has no other motion than a mere writhing when touched : in the Locust tribe it differs very little from the perfect Insect, except in not having the wings complete : and in most of the Fly tribe it is perfectly oval, without any apparent motion, or dis- tinction of parts. The Pupse of the Bee tribe, and other Insects of a similar cast, are less shapeless than those of Flies, exhibiting the faint appearance of the limbs : while those of the Libellulaj or Dragon-flies are loco- motive, as in the Locust tribe, but differ most widely from the appearance of the complete Popular IBtctt'onarn of &ntmatett Mature. 349 Insect, and may be numbered among the most singular in the whole class of Insects. From the Pupa or Chrysalis at length emerges the Insect in its complete or ultimate form, from which it can never change, nor can it receive any further increase of growth. Hence there are three periods in the life of an insect, more or less distinctly marked by corresponding changes in the form, power, and habits. In the first, or period of infancy, an insect is technically called a larva, a word signifying a mask, because therein its future form is more or less masked or con- cealed. This name is not only applied to grubs, caterpillars, and maggots, and to other insects that undergo a complete transforma- tion, but also to young and wingless grass- hoppers, and bugs, and indeed to all young insects before the wings begin to appear. In this first period, which is generally much the longest, insects are always wingless, pass most of their time in eating, grow rapidly, and usually cast off their skins repeatedly. The second period, wherein those Insects that undergo a partial transformation, retain their activity and their appetites forfood, continue to grow, and acquire the rudiments of wings, while others, at this age, entirely lose their larva form, take no food, and remain at rest in a deathlike sleep, is called the pupa state, from a slight resemblance that some of the latter present to an infant trussed in bandages, as was the fashion among the Romans. The pupae from caterpillars, how- ever, are more commonly called chrysalids, because some of them, as the name implies, are gilt or adorned with golden spo_ts ; and grubs, after their first transformation, are often named nymphs ; the reason for which is not very obvious. At the end of the second period Insects again shed their skins, and come forth fully grown, and (with few ex- ceptions) provided with wings. They thus enter xipon their last or adult state, wherein they no longer increase in size, and during which they provide for a continuation of their kind. This period usually lasts only a short time, for most Insects die immediately after their eggs are laid. Bees, wasps, and ants, however, which live in society, and labour together for the common good of their com- munities, continue much longer in the adult state. Insects possess some particular parts which are not to be found in any of the larger animals : among these are the antennce before mentioned, which are those processes or jointed bodies situated on each side the head. They differ extremely in the different tribes of Insects, and are found to constitute one of the most convenient parts to fix upon in the distribution of Insects into genera and species. It is therefore necessary slightly to enumerate some of them : Antenna setacea, or setaceous antenna; bristle-shaped, or growing fine and sharp at its termination ; antenna Jiliformitt, or thread-shaped, being of equal size throughout: antenna monili for mis, or moniliform ; each joint being globular, or nearly so : antenna, clavata, club-shaped ; having a knob at the top, as in the major part of Butterflies: antenna fissilis, or fissile; one which is split or divided at the tip into veral lamellae or flat separations : antenna pectinata, or pectinated; one which is divided along each side into numerous processes in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a comb : antenna barbata, or bearded ; one which is slightly feathered, either on one or both sides, with fine lateral fibres or hairs : antenna pcrfoliata, perfoliate ; the joints of a flattened and circular shape, with the stem or body of the antenna passing through them, as in the leaves of some plants, in which the stem seems to pass through them. Another part peculiar to Insects consists in a pair or two of short jointed processes proceeding from the mouth : these are termed palpi, or feelers, which in some Insects are very con- spicuous, but not in all. The mouth in Insects is generally situated at the lower part of the front, and varies much in structure in the different orders. In some it is furnished with very strong jaws, often notched or serrated on the inner side into the appearance of teeth, and which always meet horizontally; in others the mouth consists of a tube or instrument for suction, either simple, or guarded by various kinds of appendages. The eyes in Insects are commonly situated on each side of the head, and are two in number ; but in some Insects, as in Spiders, there are six or eight. In most of the Insect tribes the eyes may be considered as com- pound, the cornea presenting when viewed with a microscope the appearance of an in- finite number of separate convexities, like so many real convex lenses. There are also on the heads of many Insects three small, smooth, lucid globules resembling so many separate eyes, placed on the top of the head, between or above the lateral ones : these Linnaeus distinguishes by the title of stem- mata ; they are also called ocelli. The body in the major part of Insects is divided into the thorax or upper part, and the abdomen or lower part. In many of the Beetle tribe the back of the thorax is distinguished by a small triangular piece or division, situ- ated at its lower part, between the junc- ture of the wing-sheaths: this triangular part is called scutellum, or the escutcheon. The under part of the thorax is called the breast, or pectus, and in this the sternum is frequently distinguishable. The abdomen is marked into transverse sections, and the last joint terminates in the tail. The wing- sheaths or shelly coverings, in the Beetle tribe and some others, are termed elytra. The name of the orders into which Insects are divided, as Colcoptera, Hymenoptera, Dip- tera, Neuroptera, &c., have reference chiefly to the number ana nature of their wings ; but as the definitions will be found under their respective names, we need not here repeat them. In the Introductory Letter to "Kirby and Spence's Entomology," the beauties of the Insect world are thus graphically pour- trayed : "Insects, indeed, appear to have been Nature's favourite productions, in which, to manifest her power and skill, she has combined and concentrated almost all that is either beautiful and graceful, in- teresting and alluring, or curious and sin- gular, in every other class and order of her 350 j) ai Natural children. To these her valued miniatures she has given the most delicate touch and highest linish of her pencil. Numbers she has armed with glittering mail, which re- flects a lustre like that of burnished metals ; in others she lights up the dazzling radiance of polished gems : some she has decked with what looks like liquid drops, or plates of gold and silver ; or with scales or pile, which mimic the colour and emit the ray of the same precious metals. Some exhibit a rude exterior, like stones in their native state ; while others represent their smooth and shining face after they have been submitted to the tool of the polisher : others, again, like so many pigmy Atlases bearing on their backs a microcosm, by the rugged and various elevations and depressions of their tuberculated crust, present to the eye of the beholder no unapt imitation of the unequal surface of the earth, now horrid with mis- shapen rocks, ridges, and precipices now swelling into hills and mountains, and now sinking into valleys, glens, and caves ; while not a few are covered with branching spines, which fancy may form into a forest of trees. . . . The sight indeed of a well-stored cabinet of Insects will bring before every beholder not conversant with them, forms in endless variety, which before he would not have thought it possible could exist in nature, resembling nothing that the other departments of the animal kingdom ex- hibit, and exceeding even the wildest fic- tions of the most fertile imagination." Before we close this article, we beg leave to quote from Mr. Newman's work on " The History of Insects," the following brief but admirable summary : " The senses of in- sects are, properly speaking, seven : love, touch, taste, smell, hearing, sight, and the commanding and governing sense, called volition, mind, thought, or instinct. Love is that sense which ensures obedience to the great command, ' Increase and multiply : ' its gratification seems the great object of an insect's life, after having arrived at matu- rity : its seat is in the organs of generation. Touch is a most invaluable sense to insects ; they have two antennae and four feelers attached to the mouth, which appear pro- vided purposely for the exercise of this sense : the tarsi are also employed to ascer- tain qualities by touch ; but the other parts of the body appear insensible to feeling, either as regards the ascertaining of qua- lities or the sensation of pain. Taste is un- doubtedly possessed by insects in an eminent degree ; and they seem to have the same preferences for animal or vegetable food which are evinced by vertebrated animals. Smell appears to be the sense by which in- sects are led to discover strongly-scented substances at a great distance, where it is quite impossible that sight should aid them ; its seat, however, is wholly unknown. Hear- ing seems also to be possessed by insects, or to what purpose would the merry cricket sing his evening song, if there were none of his kind to listen to and admire it ? The seat of this sense is also wholly unknown. Sight is a sense of which we have abundant evidence ; it is seated in two large compound eyes, often occupying nearly the whole head, and also occasionally in three minute simple eyes, situated in a triangle on the crown of the head. The mind of insects is more wonderful than our own : it has neither speculation, retention, judgment, nor power ; it is, in fact, an existence which comes perfect from the Creator : the new- born bee is perfectly mistress of architec- ture ; she is heaven-instructed : the mind is not only the ruling sense, but is a distinct immaterial element." INSECTIVORA. The fourth Order of of Mammiferous animals, comprising the Shrews, Hedgehogs, Moles, &c. As the name denotes, they subsist principally on insects, worms, &c. In general they lead a noc- turnal and subterranean life ; and in cold countries most of them pass the winter in a torpid state. Their legs are short, and in running they place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground. There is great va- riety in the front teeth of the animals be- longing to this Order ; in some the canine teeth are longer than the incisors, while in others the canines are very small or entirely wanting. The Order is naturally divided into those with simple fore legs, and those in which the fore legs are peculiarly fitted for digging. The first division comprises the Hedgehogs, the Tenrecs or Madagascar Hedgehogs (which have the muzzle very long, and have not the power of rolling themselves into a ball), the Shrews, and the Desmans (Sorex moschatus), a curious tribe of aquatic animals, with webbed feet, and the nose so much prolonged as to look like a proboscis. The second division comprises the Moles, the Shining or Cape Moles (the only quadrupeds whose fur has a metallic gloss), the Radiated Moles, and the Scalops or Shrew Mole of the United States. [See MOLE : HEDGEHOG : SHREW, &c. INSESSORES. The name given by Mr. Vigors to a most extensive order of Perching Birds ; in which are comprehended all those tribes which live habitually among trees, with the exception of the birds of prey and the climbing birds. In all the true Inses- sorial Birds, the toes are three before and one behind. The adaptation of the foot of this order to grasping or perching is evident from the situation of the hinder toe ; which is invariably placed on the same level with those in front ; and by which they are dis- tinguished from the Gallinaceous and Wading Birds. The toes are slender, flex- ible, and of moderate length, with long, slender, and slightly curved claws ; of which the foot of the Canary affords a very good example. The birds of this order are ge- nerally on the wing ; and we accordingly find that, in proportion as the legs are small and weak, the wings are highly developed. The male is nearly always larger than the female, and is more distinguished for the brilliancy of his plumage. The Perchers live in pairs, and construct their nests, usu- ally in trees, bushes, &c., with great art. This order is divided, by the form of the beak, into four subordinate groups ; namely 1. Canirostres, or conical-billed birds ; $J0jpuTar Uatctwnarp at future. 351 the greater part of which are omnivorous, though some are exclusively granivorous, 2. Dentirostres, or tooth-billed birds ; which are characterized by a tooth or notch near the extremity of the upper mandible : these feed on insects, small birds, &c. 3. Tenui- rostres, or slender-billed birds : these have a long slender bill, adapted for sucking up vegetable juices, &c. ; and to this group be- long also many whose principal food consists of insects. 4. Fissirostres, or gaping-billed birds ; in which the beak is very much flat- tened, in order to afford them greater facility for capturing insects when on the wing, as is seen in the swallow and others of that kind. INTESTINALIA. The name given to those invertebrate animals, or worms, which are known to inhabit the intestinal canal. They have been divided into five orders ; viz. 1. Ncmatoitlea (Round-worms) ; 2. Acanthoccphala ( Hooked- worms) ; 3. Tre- watoda (Fluke-worms) ; 4. Ccstoidea (Tape- worms) ; 5. Cystica (Hydatids). IRIDINA. A genus of Conchifera, con- sisting of one species only, the Iridina exotica, which is found in the Nile, and iu many other rivers of warm climates. The shell is equivalve and inequilateral ; teetli very small and numerous ; inside very iridescent and of a red cast ; ligament external ; the hinge lamina crenulated in its whole length. It is used by the natives of Egypt as spoons in measuring oil, butter, and different kinds of provisions. ISOC ARDIA. A genus of Conchifera, the shells of which are remarkable for the beauti- ful curvature of the diverging umbones. ISOPODA. The name of an order of aquatic Crustacea, many of which are para- sitic upon other animals, very frequently upon larger Crustacea. Iin,US, or JTJLUS. The Julidce are a family of Myriapoda, very nearly allied to the Centipedes (Scolopendrac) ; but their body, instead of being flattened, as in that genus, is nearly cylindrical. Each of the numerous segments of the body is furnished with two pair of feet or legs, which are scarcely large or strong enough to support its weight ; so that the animal, instead of appearing to walk, seems to have a sort of undulatory motion, like a serpent or worm. They roll themselves up in a spiral form ; and the firmness of the rings of the body enables them to resist considerable pressure. The eyes of the lulidce are composed of nu- UMUP.) merous hexagonal convexities, as in the greater part of the insect tribes ; and the mouth resembles that of the larvae of many insects by being furnished with a pair of denticulated jaws ; by means of which they are enabled to divide with facility the por- tions of decaying vegetable matter on which they usually feed. Some are found under stones, others in the earth, and some inhabit nuts. The most common species is the lulus sabulosuf, about an inch and a quarter in length : its colour is a polished brownish black, with whitish legs : it is oviparous, and the young, when first hatched, have only three pair of legs, which are situated near the head ; the remainder being gra- dually acquired till the number is complete, which usually amounts to a hundred and twenty on each side. In its young or grow- ing state, it is of a pale colour, with a dark red spot on each side of every segment ; and in this state it may sometimes be found in the soft mould of hollow trees. The largest species known is the lulus Indus, or lulus maximus, which in its conformation re- sembles the species above described, but is from six to seven inches long. This is found in South America and the warmer parts of Asia, inhabiting woods and other retired places. The lululfz have no poisonous or- gans, and are perfectly innoxious to man : indeed, by their consuming vegetable sub- stances that are in a state of decomposition, they may be considered beneficial. Mr. New- port, F.R.S., has made them and the Scolo- pcndridae a special object of study, and has published the results in the Linnaean Tran- sactions. In the British Museum there is a very extensive collection of these interest- ing Myriapoda. [See CUILOGNATHA.] JABIRU. A large aquatic bird, allied to the stork, three species of which are known, respectively inhabiting America, Western Africa, and Australasia. It is the Mycterin of Liuntcus. It is somewhat larger than the swan ; the head is large ; the neck thick ; si-.) 11 II 2 352 (Erocrfurg at Natural and the bill is long, conical, smooth, and pointed. The body is entirely white ; the head and neck are very bare of feathers, and covered with a thick black skin ; and the tail is broad and short : the legs, which are more than two feet long, are thick and scaly ; and the bill and feet are black. Our figure represents a gigantic species from the west coast of Africa', the Mycteria Senegalensis, on the shore of which it must form a strik- ing featnre. In the enormous size of the beak this species resembles the Adjutant of India, and like that bird, we suppose this species to be somewhat of a carrion eater. JACAMAR. (Galbula.) The birds be- longing to this genus, of which there are but a few known species, are very mucti allied to the Kingfishers, except that their feet are quite different, and they inhabit moist woods; whereas the Kingfishers are only found on or near the banks of rivers. Their plumage has a metallic lustre, which it is extremely difficult to imitate. The GREEN JACAMAR (Galbiila viridis) is a splendid bird, about the size of a lark ; its prevailing colour on the upper parts of the body being a most brilliant, changeable green, glossed with copper and gold. The beak is about two inches in length, black, slightly incurved, and sharp-pointed : the legs, which are short and weak, are a green- ish yellow ; and the claws black. Its breast and belly are of a dusky yellow hue, and 3ge-shapcd the two middle feathers very long, and the *y y the chin white. The tail is the two middle feathers ver, , outer ones much shorter, The habits of this bird are very solitary ; it resorts to the thickest ' part? of the woods, where it can obtain plenty of insects, and is seldom seen in company with another. Its flight is short and quick ; and it is said to have an agree- able note. The PARADISE JACAMAR (Galbula pnra- disea) is a less solitary bird than the others of this genus ; being found in pairs, and fre- quenting the more open parts of the woods. It is nearly a foot in length : beak two and a half inches long, black, pointed, square, and compressed on the sides : head of a dull violet green ; throat, fore part of the neck, and under wing-coverts white ; the rest of the plumage green, varying in shades and glosses according to the lights in which it is viewed ; the two middle tail-feathers six inches long, and the outer one only an inch : legs black. Native of Surinam and Cayenne. JACANA. A genus of wading birds, dis- tinguished by the extraordinary length of their toes and their spine-like claws, espe- cially that of the hinder toe. They are very light birds ; and the wide surface over which their toes extend, enables them the more easily to procure their food, consisting of worms, small fishes, and insects, by walking on the leaves of aquatic plants which float on the water. Various species of the Jacana, which in contour and habit resemble our moor-hen, are spread over the tropical re- gions both of the Old and New World. The COMMON JACANA (Parra Jacana~) is about ten inches long, the beak being up- wards of one inch, and orange-coloured : the head, throat, neck, breast, and under parts are black ; the back, wing-coverts, and sca- pulars bright chestnut ; spur on the wing yellow, and the bend of the wing varied with black : the quills olive-yellow, tipped and partly edged with dusky ; tail rounded, chestnut tipped with black ; legs greenish ash. These birds inhabit Brazil, Surinam, and other parts of South America and the West Indies : they are very shy and noisy, and their note is very shrill. The INDIAN JACANA (Parra Indica) is a shy bird, frequenting stagnant lakes, and building its nest upon floating materials, among weeds, near the banks. It has a yel- low beak, with the base of its upper man- dible dusky blue ; and near the gape a red spot : over the eye is a white streak, which reaches some distance down the side of the neck : the head, neck, and upper parts of the body are deep blue-black : the back and wings are ashy-brown : legs dirty yellowish- brown. The BRONZED JACANA (Parra cerva) is a highly elegant species inhabiting Brazil. The prevailing colour of the body is black, brilliantly glossed with blue and violet re- flections : its head and neck are of a brilliant bronzed-green colour : behind the eye is a white streak : the quills are black ; the wing-coverts dull yellow ; and the rump and tail are blood-red. JACCHTJS, or MARMOZET. A genus of Monkeys, of a small size, with short muzzle, tiesh-coloured face, and round head. The five fingers are armed with claws, e_xcept the thumbs of the posterior extremities, which have nails : fur very soft ; tail full and hand- some. Length of body about eight inches ; tail eleven. General colour olive-gray; head and shoulders nearly black ; the tail and lower part of the back are annulated with pale gray ; and two tufts of pale hair grow round the ears. They are squirrel-like in their habits, and omnivorous ; feeding on roots, seeds, fruits, insects, snails, and young birds. Native of Guyana and Brazil. JACK. [See PIKE.] JACKAL. (Canis awreiw.) This animal in its appearance somewhat resembles the fox, while its habits are more like those of the wolf. It is a native of India, Persia, and various other of the warmer parts of Asia, as also of Barbary, and the interior of South of 353 Africa. Its size is about that of a fox, but longer in the legs ; its colour a light orange- yellow or yellowish gray above, and whitish below, with dark shades about the back : the tail hangs straight, is rather bushy, and ge- nerally black at the tip : the ears are very ruddy, and the muzzle pointed. The voice of the Jackal is described as peculiarly hi- deous, consisting of an indistinct bark and a piteous howl. It resides in woods, holes, and rocky places ; and preys indiscriminately on all the weaker animals, committing ra- vages among flocks, in the poultry-yard, &c., though it seldom ventures abroad till nightfall. Jackals frequently go in great troops to hunt their prey, and by their dread ful yellings alarm and put to flight deer, an- telopes, and other timid quadrupeds ; while the Lion, instinctively attending to the cla- mour, is said to follow till the Jackals have hunted down the prey, and, having satiated himself on the spoil, leaves only the scanty remains to the famished hunters. Hence the Jackal has been popularly called " the lion's provider." Some say that the Jackal has a natural propensity to follow mankind, instead of flying from him, like the Wolf and the Fox : also that the whelp is readily tamed, and, when grown up, assumes all the habits of the domestic Dog : nay, it is well known that the Jackal interbreeds with the common dog ; its period of gestation is the same, and the hybrid progeny is fertile. We should, however, observe, that between the Jackal and the Dog there exists such an irreconcileable antipathy, that they never meet without a combat. JACKDAW, or DAW. (Coryus mrnie- dula.) A well-known English bird, consi- derably less than the Rook, being about thirteen inches in length, and twenty-eisht in breadth. The bill and legs are black ; the claws strong and hooked ; eyes white ; the hinder part of the head and neck is sil- very gray ; the rest of the plumage is of a fine glossy blue-black above, beneath dusky. Jackdaws frequent church steeples, old towers, and ruins, in flocks, where they build their nests : the female lays five or six eggs, paler and smaller than those of the crow. They are easily tamed, and may be taught, like the magpie, &c., to imitate human ar- ticulation : they have also the mischievous faculty of stealing and hiding money, spoons, or other glittering and metallic substances. They feed on insects, grain, fruit, small pieces of flesh, eggs, &c. They remain in this coun- try during the whole year ; but in France, Germany, and other parts of the Continent, they are migratory. From an article, headed " Habits of the Jackdaw," in Mr. Waterton's Essays, we glean the folio wing observations : " Though the Jackdaw makes use of the same kind of materials for building as those which are found in the nest of the rook ; though it is, to all appearance, quite as hardy a bird ; and though it passes the night, ex- posed to the chilling cold and rains of winter, on the leafless branches of the lofty elm ; still, when the period for incubation arrives, it bids farewell to those exposed heights, where the rook remains to hatch its young, and betakes itself to the shelter which is afforded in the holes of steeples, towers, and trees. Perhaps there is no instance in the annals of ornithology which tells of the Jackdaw ever building its nest in the open air. Wishing to try whether these two con- geners could not be induced to continue the year throughout in that bond of society which, I had observed, was only broken during incubation, I made a commodious cavity in an aged elm, just at the place where it had lost a mighty limb, some forty years ago, in a tremendous gale of wind which laid prostrate some of the finest trees in this part of Yorkshire. At the approach of breed- ing-time, a pair of Jackdaws took possession of it, and reared their young in shelter ; while the rooks performed a similar duty on the top of the same tree, exposed to all the rigours of an English spring. This success induced me to appropriate other conveniences for the incubation of the Jackdaw ; and I have now the satisfaction to see an uninter- rupted fellowship exist, the year throughout, between the Jackdaw and the Rook." JAGUAR, or OUNCE. (Felis onco.) A fierce and destructive animal of the feline kind, partaking of the qualities and habits of the Tiger : it is a native of the hotter parts of South America, and from its being the most formidable quadruped there, is sometimes called the tiger or panther of the New World. It is as large as a wolf, and lives solely on prey. Its ground colour is a pale brownish "ow, variegated on the upper parts of the JiOUAR. (FE1.1S ONCA.) body with streaks and irregular oblong spots of black ; the top of the back being marked with long uninterrupted stripes, and the sides with rows of regular open marks : the thighs and legs are marked with full black spots ; the breast and belly are whitish ; the tail not so long as the body ; the upper part irregularly niarked with large black spots, the lower with smaller ones. It swims and climbs with ease : and preys not only on the larger domestic quadrupeds, and on smaller 354 at that are wild, but also on birds, fish, tortoises, turtles' eggs. &c. It must, however, be very hard pressed before it will attack man. JANTHINA. A Molluscous animal, be- longing to the Pcctinibranchiata. The shell has some resemblance to our land snails, but the aperture is angular at its lower part and at its outer side, where, however, the angle formed by the union of the upper and lower halves of the outer lip is much rounded in most of the species ; the columella straight and elongated, the inner lip turned back over it. The animal has no operctilum, but carries under its foot a vesicular organ, like a congeries of foam-bubbles, of solid con- sistence, that prevents creeping, but serves as a buoy to support it at the surface of the water. The head is a cylindrical proboscis ; and is terminated with a mouth cleft ver- tically, and armed with little curved spines : on each side of it is a forked tentaculum. The shells are of a violet colour ; and when the animal is irritated it pours forth an excretion of deeper blue to tinge the sea around it. " The method in which this animal fills its float," says Capt. Grey, " is curious : it throws it back, and gradually lifts the lip of the valve out of water, until the valve stands vertical ; it then closes the valve tightly round a globule of air, around which it folds, by means of the most complex and delicate machinery. The valve is then bent over until it touches the edge of the float nearest the head, and when it is in this po- sition, the portion of it which is inflated with air looks like a bladder, the air gra- dually is expelled into the float, and as this process takes place the bladder in the valve diminishes, and the valve becomes by de- grees like a lip pushed forwards until it lies flat on the float : the valve is composed of two portions, a cup and a lip. The time occupied from first removing the valve from the float, until the inflation, and the expul- sion of air into the float being completed, so that the valve begins to move again, is sixty-one seconds, from the mean of several experiments. These animals have also the power of compressing the valve into a hol- low tube, which they elevate above the water like a funnel, and draw down air through it. The colouring matter which they emit has no stinging, electric, or dele- terious properties whatever, that I could discover. I found that when this colouring matter was mixed with water, it became of a deep blue. In those which I caught in NOT. 1837, I may have been deceived, and the colouring matter might also possibly have been scarlet directly it was emitted. It is difficult to conceive what use this liquid can be to the fish against its foes, yet it certainly uses it as a means of defence. To one of these shells, the fish in which was alive and well, we found attached a number of barnacles, some of which were of large size." Narrative of Expedition in South Australia. JAY. (Garrulusglandarius.) The Jay is the most elegant bird of the Corvine genus in Britain, and is about thirteen inches in length. Its general colour is a light purplish buif, paler on the under parts ; the wings black, with a large white spot in the middle: its bill and tail are black ; the former notched on each side near the tip, and the latter rather rounded at the end : the fea- thers on the forehead are white, streaked with black, and form a tuft which it can erect or depress at pleasure : the greater wing-coverts are elegantly barred with black, fine pale blue, and white alternately ; the lesser wing-coverts bay ; the belly and IS GljANDARIUS.} vent almost white : the greater quills are black, with light edges ; the bases of some of them white ; lesser quills black ; those next the body chestnut : legs of a dirty flesh colour. The Jay is very common in this country, and is found in most of the tem- perate parts of Europe, frequenting woods, and feeding on acorns, beech-mast, berries, and fruits of Yarious kinds, insects, and sometimes young birds in the absence of the old ones. The Jays are distinguished as well for the beautiful "arrangement of their colours, as for their harsh, grating voice, and petulant, restless disposition. In confine- ment, however, it loses the beauty of its plu- mage, and becomes of a dull or brownish tinge. When an owl or other bird of prey appears in the woods, they utter piercing cries, and assemble in great numbers to at- tack the common enemy : the same thing takes place when they see a sportsman, whom they often frustrate by their vociferous noise. Like their kindred, the magpie and jackdaw, they can be taught a variety of words and sounds, particularly those of a harsh and grating character, as that of a saw, &c. They sometimes assemble in great numbers in the spring, and seem to hold a conference, (as Bewick says) probably for papular Sh'cttanarj? at &ntmat*tr Mature. 355 the purpose of pairing and of fixing upon the districts they are to occupy ; and the noise made on these occasions may be aptly compared to that of a distant meeting of dis- orderly drunken persons. The Jay builds in woods, and makes an artless nest, composed of sticks, fibres, and slender twigs ; lays five or six eggs, ash-gray, mixed with green and faintly spotted with brown. In the ' Journal of a Naturalist ' we find, in reference to the love of offspring, as being particularly manifested in birds, the follow- ing remarks on the Jay. " This bird is al- ways extremely timid and cautious, when its own interest or safety is solely concerned ; but no sooner does its hungry brood clamour for supply, than it loses all this wary cha- racter, and it becomes a bold and impudent thief. At this period it will visit our gardens, which it rarely approaches at other times, plunder them of every raspberry, cherry, or bean, that it can obtain, and will not cease from rapine as long as any of the brood or the crop remains. We see all the nestlings approach, and, settling near some meditated scene of plunder, quietly await a summons to commence. A parent bird from some tree surveys the ground, then descends upon the cherry, or into the rows, immediately announces a discovery by a low but parti- cular call, and all the family flock into the banquet, which having finished by repeated visits, the old birds return to the woods, with all their chattering children, and become the same wild cautious creatures they were before." The BLUE JAY. (Garrulus cristatun.) This elegant species is a native of North America, considerably smaller than the European Jay, with a tail much longer in proportion : the head is handsomely crested, with loose silky plumes ; bill black ; legs brown : the whole bird is of a fine blue colour on the upper parts, with the wings and tail marked by uumerous black bars ; neck encircled with a BLUE JAY. (GARRULUS CHI STATUS.) black collar ; under parts blossom-colour, with a slight cast of blue ; tail tipped with white ; legs, feet, and thighs of a dusky brown. Its note is less discordant than the European Jay ; but its manners are very similar. It is said to be a great destroyer of maize or Indian com, often assembling in large flocks to devour it. Mr. Gosse, in his ' Canadian Naturalist,' thus speaks of this bird, in his observations m ade during the month of December. " The Blue Jay continues as numerous and as noisy as ever. His harsh screaming voice may be heard above that of all the other feathered inhabitants of our groves, all the year through. A beautiful bird he is, with his bright violet, white, and sky-blue coat, long j tail, and pointed crest ; and by his airs and i grimaces he appears to have" HO mean idea | of his own personal attractions, and probably I he may think his voice as charming as his ; plumage, as he so continually gives us the | benefit of his music. He appears to tyran- j nize over his brethren occasionally. I once | saw, in the south, a Blue Jay in close and ' hot pursuit of a summer Red-bird ( Tanagra \ Era), and Wilson records a parallel inci- ! dent. He has other notes, besides his com- j mon loud squall, some of which are difficult j to recognize. In the clearing, the parties of i these birds, for they are hardly numerous | enough to be called flocks, generally fly high, ! and alight about the summits of lofty trees ; j >ut in the woods, particularly in spring, i they as frequently choose a lower altitude. They are wary, and rather difficult of ap- JELI/XVFISH. Tinder the heads " Acale- pha," " Berfie," and " Medusa," will be found various information applicable to the present article, the popular name of " Jelly-fishes " being very generally used (by the unscienti- fic) to denote the different marine substances forming that branch of the class RADIATA which is comprised in the order Acalepha. Extreme delicacy of structure is common to | the whole group ; most of them have no j hard support whatever, and the animals when removed from their natural element wholly lose their form ; but there are a few j species which have a very thin cartilaginous covering, and these retain a semblance of the animal as it appeared when alive. We find that in every climate the ocean swarms with infinite multitudes of animals, which, from their minuteness and transparency, would be almost imperceptible, were it not for the phosphorescent properties of some of them being retidered evident on the slightest agitation. All, however, are not equally mi- nute : some grow to a large size, and their forms are perfectly well known to the casual observers of marine substances which lie on every beach. Most of these are highly phos- phorescent ; and in tropical regions, more particularly, where they exist in the greatest abundance, the path of a vessel is marked by a brilliant line of glowing light, and the whole surface of the ocean often displays a beautiful luminosity. Even on our own coasts a similar effect is very frequently ob- served, though the luminous appearance is vastly less brilliant. In ' Patterson's Introduction to Zoology ' we find the following practical observations: " Our admiration for the various func- 356 of tions performed by the Acalcphce is much I vered with short hair, and very much re- increased when we reflect upon the extremely I semble those of a bird : the hind feet have small quantity of solid matter which enters into their composition. This fact admits of easy illustration, both in the Beroes and in the Medusae. On one occasion, we took a dead Cydippe, and placing it on a piece of glass, exposed it to the sun. As the moisture evaporated, the different parts appeared as if confusedly painted on the glass ; and when it was become perfectly dry, a touch re- moved the only vestiges of what had been so lately a graceful and animated being. With regard to the Medusa:, we may mention an anecdote which we learned from an eminent zoologist, now a professor in one of the En- glish universities [Prof. E. Forbes, we be- lieve]. He had, a few years ago, been de- livering some zoological lectures in a seaport town in Scotland, in the course of which he had reverted to some of the most remarkable points in the economy of the Acalepluc. three toes on each, the middle of which is somewhat larger than the rest, and all are furnished with sharp and strong claws : there is also a very small spur or back toe, with After the lecture, a farmer who had been its corresponding claw. On each side the present came forward, and inquired if he nose are several long hairs or whiskers ; and j had understood him correctly, as having | the cutting teetli are sharp and strong, re- stated that the Medusae contained so little | sembling those of a rat. In its attitudes and manner of progression this animal much re- ' of solid material that they might be regarded as little else than a mass of animated sea- watcr ? On being answered in the affirma- tive, he remarked, that it would have saved him many a pound had he known that ner, for he had been in the habit of em- ng his men and horses in carting away rge quantities of jelly-fish from the shore, and using them as manure on his farm, and he now believed they could have been of little more real use than an equal weight of sea-water. Assuming that so much as one ton weight of Medusae recently thrown on ployir large i the beach had been carted away in one load, it will be found that, according to the ex- periments of Professor Owen, the entire quantity of solid material would be only abo " mbles a bird ; generally standing, like the Kangaroo, on its hind feet, and leaping with much celerity, and to a great distance. It i principally uses the fore legs in feeding, i putting to his mouth the ears of corn, and ' various other vegetable substances on which i it feeds. The Jerboas inhabit dry, hard, and clayey i ground, in which they make their burrows. These are of considerable length, and run obliquely and winding ; at about half a yard below the surface of the ground, they ter- minate in large excavations or nests ; they are usually provided but with one opening, though the animals are provident enougli to make another passage, to within a short dis- ut four pounds of avo_irdupois weight, an j tance from the surface, through which they amount of solid material which, if com- i rapidly penetrate in case of necessity. They pressed, the farmer might, with ease, have carried home in one of his coat pockets." JERBOA. of rodent q . (Dipus.) uadrupeds i This singular genus peds may be considered as an intermediate link between the Squirrel and the Bat, but agreeing with the latter rather than the former ; while the enormous development of its hind legs and tail cause keep within their holes during the day, sleeping rolled up, with their head between their thighs : at sunset they come out, and remain abroad till morning. From the ra- pidity with which they take their leaps (of six or seven feet at a time), it is nearly im- possible to overtake them. In leaping, they carry their tails stretched out ; but in stand- ing or walking, they carry them in a curved it to bear considerable resemblance in form form, the lower curve touching the ground, to the Kangaroo. One species is a native of i In their wild state these animals are very Egypt, Syria, &c. ; and was known to the ancients under the name of Dipus, (two-footed), which is still its scientific appellation. The most common species is the Dipas sagitta. It is of a pale yellowish fond of bulbous roots; but, when confined, they will feed on raw meat. They are tamed without much difficulty, but require to be kept warm. There are some other species of the Jerboa ; fawn colour on the upper parts, and white [ by far the largest of which is the CAPE JER- beneath ; the length of the body is about ' BOA, a native of the mountainous country to eight inches, and of the tail ten, being the north of the Cape of Good Hope. Its terminated by a tuft of black hair, the tip length from the nose to the tail is fourteen of which is white, but the rest short and inches, and the tail itself somewhat more. rough. The head is short ; the ears thin, The head is broad, the muzzle sharp, and broad, upright, and rounded i the eyes large, the upper jaw longer than the lower: the round, and dark coloured; the fore legs about ears are large, the whiskers long and black, an inch long, with five toes to each foot, the I and the tail is extremely full of hair. It is inner toe very small, but furnished with a an animal of great strength and activity, sharp, crooked claw, like the rest ; the hind and will spring to the distance of twenty or legs are extremely long, thin, sparingly co- , thirty feet at once. When eating, it sits up- |90ptitar 3ictianarg at SIniraatefc jlature. 357 right in the manner of a squirrel ; and it burrows in the ground, like the smaller kind of Jerboas, with great ease and expedition ; having five very strong and long claws on each of its fore feet : those on its hind feet are short, and four in number. [See HE- LAMYS.l JERFALCON. [See FALCON.] JOHN CROW VULTURE. The local name in Jamaica for the Turkey Buzzard. [See TURKEY BUZZARD.] JOHN DORY. [See DORY.] JUMNOS. A singular genus of Coleoptera belonging to the family Cetoniadcc, one spe- cies of which, described by Mr. W. W. Saunders, is still very rare in collections ; this is the J.Ruckeri; it is of a brilliant green with large yellow marks on the elytra, and the male has long fore legs. It is a native of Northern India. JUMPING HARE. [See HELAMYS.] JUNGLE-FOWL. (Megapodius tumulus.-, rk on the " Birds of gives an interesting account of this bird, which in size is about that of a com- mon Fowl, and must not be confounded with the Jungle Cock of India, a very different bird. Its mode of constructing its mound- like nest, and its manner of depositing the eggs, &c., very much resemble those described under TALEGALLA [which see]. " The Jungle-fowl," we learn, "is almost exclu- clusively confined to the dense thickets im- mediately adjacent to the sea-beach : it ap- pears never to go far inland, except along the banks of creeks. It is always met with in pairs or quite solitary, and feeds on the ground, its food consisting of roots which its powerful claws enable it to scratch up with the utmost facility, and also of seeds, berries, and insects, particularly the larger species of Coleoptera. It is at all times a very dif- ficult bird to procure ; for although the rustling noise produced by its stiff pinions when flying away be frequently heard, the bird itself is seldom to be seen. Its flight is heavy and unsustained in the extreme ; when first disturbed it invariably flies to a tree, and on alighting stretches out its head and neck in a straight line with its body, re- maining in this position as stationary and motionless as the branch upon which it is perched : if, however, it becomes fairly alarmed, it takes a horizontal but laborious flight for about a hundred yards, with its legs hanging down as if broken. I did not myself detect any note or cry, but from the natives' description and imitation of it, it much resembles the clucking of the domestic fowl, ending with a scream like that of the peacock." The head and crest of this bird is of a very deep cinnamon brown ; back of the neck and all the under surface very dark gray ; back and wings cinnamon brown ; upper and under tail coverts dark chestnut brown ; tail blackish brown ; bill reddish brown, with yellow edpes ; tarsi and feet bright orange. It appears that on Mr. Gil- bert's arrival at Port Essington his attention was attracted to numerous great mounds of | the neck tliin and finely proportioned ; the earth which were pointed out to him by some of the residents as being the tumuli of the aborigines. The natives, on the other hand, assured him that they were formed by the Jungle-fowl for the purpose of hatch- ing its eggs : and so it afterwards proved. One of these mounds is described as 'fifteen feet high, and sixty in circumference at the base, and so enveloped in thickly foliaged trees as to preclude the possibility of the sun's rays reaching any part of it. KAIIAU. The Proboscis Monkey. [See MONKEYS.] KAKAPO. A New Zealand parrot. [See SiRiaors.] KALONG. The name given to several species of Fox-bats (.Pteropidce), [See PTEROPCS.] KANGAROO. (J/ocropt.) This extra- ordinary animal is peculiar to Australasia, and belongs to the marsupial order of quad- rupeds ; but it receives its scientific name from the enormous length of the hind feet, which is the distinguishing characteristic in all the animals included in the family Ma- cropopidce, or Kangaroo tribe. But before we proceed to describe the form and habits of this singular quadruped, we shall mention the circumstances (as detailed by Dr. Shaw) attending its first discovery. This was in 1770, when the celebrated navigator Captain Cook was stationed for a short time on that part of the coast of New Holland which is now called New South Wales. On Friday, June 22, says Captain Cook, a party who were engaged in shooting pigeons for the use <- 1 the sick of the ship, saw an animal which they described to be as large as a greyhound, of a slender make, and ex- tremely swift. The following day the same kind of animal was again seen by a great many other people. On the 24th it was seen by Captain Cook himself, who, walking at a little distance from the shore, observed a quadruped, which he thought bore some resemblance to a greyhound, and was of a light mouse-colour, with a long tail, and which he should have taken for a kind of wild dog, had not its extraordinary manner of leaping, instead of running, convinced him of the contrary. Mr. Banks also ob- tained a view of it, and immediately con- cluded it to be an animal perfectly new and undescribed. Some time after, this gentle- man, accompanied by a small party, had an opportunity of chasing two with his grey- hound, which the Kangaroo, by its bound- ing leaps over the high grass, soon out- stripped. It was not long, however, before one was shot ; and the scientific associates in this expedition of discovery were then fully gratified. The u upper hile parts of the Kangaroo are small, while the lower are remarkably large in proportion ; yet its general appearance is decidedly picturesque. The head bears some resemblance to that of a deer, and the visage is mild and placid : the ears are mo- derately large, rather pointed, and upright ; the eyes large, and the mouth rather small ; 358 of Datura! glt fore legs extremely short, with the feet divided into five toes, each furnished with a short and somewhat hooked claw ; the hinder feet, on the contrary, are provided with only four toes, the middle one of which is long, of great strength, and terminated by a large and powerful hoof-like nail or claw : so that the head and upper parts seem strangely disproportioned to the pos- terior parts of the animal, which are robust and powerful. The tail, which is very long, is extremely thick at the base, gradually tapering, and appears to act as a supple- mental limb, when the animal assumes its erect or sitting posture. When feeding, it is seen in a crouching position, resting on its fore paws, as well as on the hinder extre- mities, whilst it browses on the herbage ; and in this attitude it hops gently along, deriving some assistance from its tail. On the least alarm, however, it raises itself on its hind legs, and bounds away to a distance with great rapidity. The leap is of very great length ; and is accomplished by the muscular action of the tail, almost as much as by that of the limbs. They use their tails and hinder feet also as weapons of de- fence : for when pursued and overtaken by dogs, they turn, and seizing them with their lore feet, strike them with their hinder ones, sometimes causing death by a single blow. The under side of the hind foot has a cal- lous sole along its whole length; and its great length is chiefly given by the elonga- tion of the metatarsal bones. Kangaroos have no canine teeth : their incisors are six in the upper jaw, and but two in the lower; the former short, and the latter long : the molars, which are separated from the in- cisors by a large vacant space, are ten in number in each jaw. They are exclusively herbivorous in their diet, feeding chiefly on grass : and they associate in small herds, under the guidance of the older males. The ventral pouch, or receptacle for the young, with which the female Kangaroo is fur- nished, is indeed a most curious provision of nature. Being situated just below her breasts, there the young ones sit to suck ; and even when they arc old enough to leave the pouch, for exercise or amusement, they immediately seek refuge in it on the least alarm. The number of species which are now known are very considerable : they vary in size, from that of a rat to the Great Kan- garoo, the male of which has been known to measure nearly eight feet from the nose to the tip of the tail, and to weigh 220 Ibs. ; but in form and habits they bear a strong resemblance to each other. The young are produced in an extremely imperfect state, and are even disproportionately small ; not exceeding an inch in length. These ani- mals are easily tamed ; and when in a state of domestication, they are harmless and timid. Their flesh is eaten in Australia, and is said to be nutritious. Some persons are loud in their commendations of it ; Colonel Light, indeed, goes so far as to re- commend all who are fond of ox-tail soup (and they are not a few), to take a trip to South Australia, and eat Kangaroo-tail soup ; which, he says, if made with the skill that soups in England are, would as far surpass the ox as turtle does the French potage,. Mr. Gould's great work on the Kangaroo Family is a most noble contribution to Natural History : in it all the species are figured and described with the hand of a master. We must also refer to the work of Mr. Waterhouse, who has devoted a thick octavo volume to their history. Both these works are indispensable to those who would desire to study this important family. KERMES. (Coccus ilicis.) An insect pro- duced in the excrescences of a small oak, the Quercus coccifcrn, and found in many parts of Asia and the South of Europe. The body of this insect is full of reddish juice, and when dead, and transformed into an appa- rent grain or berry, it is used for the pur- pose of dyeing a brilliant red colour. They were long taken for the seeds of the tree on which they live, and hence called {/rains of Kermcs. Kermes is now nearly superseded by the use of cochineal, but though much inferior in brilliancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real Mexican cochineal, they re- tain the colour better, and are less liable to stain. This is said to have been the cele- brated Phoenician dye. [See COCHINEAL.] KESTREL. (Falco Tinnuncuhts.) A beautiful bird of the Hawk kind, known also as the Stannel Hawk, and Windhover. The male is about fourteen inches in length, and in breadth two feet three inches. Its colours, at first sight, distinguish it from all other hawks : the crown of the head, and the greater part of the tail, are of a fine light gray hue ; and on the lower part of the latter there is a broad black bar, succeeded by white tips. The back and coverts of the wings bright cinnamon brown, spotted witli black ; quill feathers dusky, with light edges ; inside of the wings white, beautifully spotted with brown on the under coverts, and barred on all the quills with pale ash. The whole under side of the bird is of a pale rust colour, streaked and spotted with black. The bill blue ; cere and eyelids yel- low ; legs yellow ; claws black. The co- lours of the female are less vivid than those of the male : the back and wing-coverts are rusty brown, and elegantly marked with numerous undulated bars of black ; the breast, belly, and thighs are of a pale reddish buff, with dusky streaks pointing downwards ; and the tail is marked by a pretty broad dark ash -coloured bar near the end. The Kestrel is widely diffused throughout Europe, and is by no means rare in the more temperate parts of'North America. It breeds in the hollows of decayed trees, and in the holes of rocks, towers, and ruined buildings ; and lays four or five pale reddish eggs. It feeds on small birds, field mice, reptiles, and insects : after securing its prey, it plucks the feathers very dexterously from birds, but swallows mice entire, and discharges the hair, in the form of round balls, from its mouth. This bird, when in quest of food, ' glides softly through the air, at a mode- Pajmtar HBtctumarj? of &mmatrtr $atuv*. 359 rate height, now poised in tlie breeze on fluttering pinion, now resting in the void apparently without motion ; till, at last, down he comes, like a falling stone, upon the unconscious prey below." That discern- ing friend of the feathered tribes, Mr. Wa- terton, whose words we have just quoted, thus apostrophizes in this bird's favour : " Did the nurseryman, the farmer, and the country gentleman, know the value of the 'Windhover's services, they would vie with each other in offering him a safe retreat. | He may be said to live almost entirely on mice ; and mice, you know, are not the friends of man ; for they bring desolation to the bee-hive, destruction to the pea-bed, and spoliation to the corn-stack. Add to this, they arc extremely injurious to the planter of trees." Again, " I prize the services of the Windhover Hawk, which are manifest by the quantity of mice he destroys ; and I do all in my power to put this pretty bird on a good footing with the gamekeepers and sportsmen of our neighbourhood. Were this bird properly protected, it would repay our kindness with interest ; and we should then have the Windhover by day, and the owls by night, to thin the swarms of mice which overrun the land." " The Windhover," he further observes, " is a social bird, and, un- like most other hawks, it seems fond of taking up its abode near the haunts of men. What heartfelt pleasure I often experience in watching the evolutions of this handsome little falcon ! and with what content I see the crow and the magpie forming their own nests ; as I know that, on the return of an- other spring, these very nests will afford shelter to the Windhover ! Were I to allow the crow and the magpie to be persecuted, there would be no chance for the Wind- hover to rear its progeny here ; for Nature has not taught this bird the art of making its nest in a tree. How astonishing, and how diversified, are the habits of birds 1 The Windhover is never known to make use of a nest until it has been abandoned for good and all by the rightful owner ; whilst, on the contrary, the cuckoo lays her egg in one of which the original framer still retains possession." KING-BIRD. A name given to the Ty- rant Flycatcher. (Muscicapa Tyrannus.") [See TYJIANT FLYCATCHEK.] KING -FISH. [SeeOpAH.] KINGFISHER. (Alcedo.) A rather nu- merous genus of birds, and widely diffused in warm climates, although there is but one species occurring in Europe. They are, in general, birds of an inelegant shape, the head being large in proportion to the size of the body, and the legs and feet very small ; but they are of singular brilliancy of plumage, in which blue, green, and orange are the prevailing colours. They are distinguished by having a long, straight, strong, and acute bill ; wings rather short ; body thick and compact ; head large and elongated ; plumage thick and glossy. In some of the larger species, however, the colours are more ob- ecure, exliibiting a mixture of brown, black, and white, variously modified in the different birds. In their manners they all seem to agree ; frequenting the banks of rivers, &c., where, perched on a branch of a tree, or other projecting object, they will remain motion- less for hours, watching till some fish comes under its station, when the bird dives per- pendicularly down into the water, and brings up its prey with its feet, carries it to land, kills it by repeated strokes of the bill, and immediately swallows it : afterwards casting up the scales and other indigestible parts, hi pellets, like birds of prey. The COMMOK or EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. (Alcedo ispida.) This retired and solitary bird, which is only to be found near rivers, brooks, or stagnant waters, subsisting en- tirely on the smaller kinds of fish, is only seven inches in length, and eleven in breadth: its bill is nearly two inches long, the upper mandible being black, and rather red at the base ; the under one, as well as the inside of the mouth, orange-coloured : the throat is white : the crown of the head is a deep shining green, with numerous transverse bright blue streaks : the shoulders and whole wings dark green, but the edges of the quill feathers are glossed with pale blue, and the shoulders marked by numerous small blue spots. The middle of the back, the rump, and coverts of the tail are of a most resplendent azure : the tail is very short, and of a deep rich blue colour ; and the whole under part of the body is of a bright orange : legs red ; claws black. The female commonly deposits her eggs (which are from five to eight in number, and perfectly white) in a hole in the river's banks, which has probably been made by the mole or the water-rat. If the nest be robbed, the bird returns and lays in the same situation. " I have had," says Reaumur, " one of these females brought me, taken from her nest about three leagues from my house. After admiring the beauty of her colours, I permitted her to fly ; when the fond creature was instantly seen to repair to the nest where she had just before been made a captive : there joining the male, she again began to lay, though it was for the tlurd time, and the season was very far ad- vanced. At each time she had seven eggs." In this country the Kingfisher begins to lay early in the season, and excludes her first brood about the beginning of April. The fidelity of the male exceeds that of the turtle : he brings the female large supplies of fish during the season of incubation ; and she, contrary to most other birds, is always plump and fat at that time. The male, who on other occasions always makes a twit- tering noise, now enters the nest with all the silence and circumspection imaginable. The young are hatched at the expiration of twenty days ; but they do not acquire the beauty of their plumage till after the first moulting season. This bird is usually seen flying rapidly near the surface of the stream ; and the velocity with which it maintains its flight, considering the shortness of its wings, is really surprising. The ancients attributed to the Kingfisher innumerable habits and properties equally 360 ErraSttrp of Batumi improbable. They supposed that it built its nest upon the ocean ; but as this floating cradle would be likely to be destroyed by storms, they endowed the bird with powers to lull the raging of the waves during the period of incubation : hence those tranquil days near the solstice were termed halcyon days ; and that the feathered voyager might want no accomplishment, they attributed to i f , the charm of song. They also kept the dead body of the bird as a safeguard against thunder, and as a relic by which the peace of families would be preserved. But it is not to the fanciful genius of the ancients alone that this bird is indebted for wonderful attributes. The Tartars and Ostiaks preserve the skin about their persons as an amulet against every ill ; and they consider that the feathers have magic influence, when properly used, in securing a female's love : nor are such superstitions entirely confined to bar- barous nations ; for there are persons, it is said, who believe that if the body of a King- fisher be suspended by a thread, its breast, by some magnetic influence, will invariably turn to the north. We shall now endeavour to point out, in the briefest manner possible, some of the other most important species. The GIANT KINGFISHER. (Dacelo gigantea.) This is the largest species known, measuring eighteen inches from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail : the colour of the plumage chiefly composed of olive-brown and a pale blue- green. Native of Australia. PIED KING- FISHER. (Alcedo rudis.) Size of the song- thrush. The plumage chiefly party-coloured of black and white. Native of various parts of Asia and Africa SMYRNA KINGMSHEK. (Alcedo Smyrnensis). Size of the missel- thrush. A most brilliantly coloured bird ; the bright blue of the wings yielding in lustre to none of the feathered tribes. Native of the hotter parts of both Africa and Asia SACKED KINGFISHER. (Alcedo sacra.) Crown of the head and upper parts blue-green ; the throat white ; the under parts pale ferrugi- nous, passing upwards like a collar round the neck. Native of the South Sea Islands. CRESTED KINGFISHER. (Alcedo cristata.) A singularly brilliant and elegant species. The crown of the head covered with long blue-green feathers, barred with black, form a crest ; the back, wings, and tail are of an exceeding fine ultramarine blue ; the breast, belly, thighs, and covert-feathers under the tail are of a bright orange-colour ; and the legs scarlet. Native of Madagascar. The next species demands a more lengthened notice. The AMERICAN or BELTED KINGFISHER. (Alcedo alcyon.) This species is distin- guished by being of a bluish slate-colour, with a ferruginous band on the breast ; having a large collar of pure white round the neck ; and an elevated crest on the head : legs extremely short. It inhabits all parts of the North American continent, and is the only species of its tribe found within the United States. " Like the love-lorn swains, of whom poets tell us," says Wilson, " he delights in murmuring streams and falling waters ; not, however, merely that they may soothe his ear, but for a gratification somewhat more substantial. Amidst the roar of the cataract, or over the foam of a torrent, he sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing his piercing eye in every direction below for Ms scaly prey, which, with a sudden circular plunge, he sweeps from their native element, and swallows in an instant. His voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watchman's rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden ; but is softened by the sound of the brawling streams and cascades among which he gene- rally rambles. He courses along the windings of the brook or river, at a small height above the surface, sometimes suspending himself by the rapid action of his wings, like certain species of hawks, ready to pounce on the fry below ; now and then settling on an old dead overhanging limb to reconnoitre. Mill- dams are particularly visited by this fea- thered fisher ; and the sound of his pipe is as well known to the miller, as the rattling of his own hopper. Rapid streams, with high perpendicular banks, particularly if they be of a hard clayey or sandy nature, are also favourite places of resort for this bird ; not only because in such places the small fish are more exposed to view, but because those steep and dry banks are the chosen situations for his nest. Into these he digs with bill and claws horizontally, sometimes to the extent of four or five feet, at the distance of a foot or two from the surface. The few materials he takes in are not always placed at the ex- tremity of the hole, that he and his mate may have room to turn with convenience. The eggs are five, pure white, and the first brood usually comes out about the beginning of June, and sometimes sooner, according to the part of the country where they reside. They are very tenacious of their haunts, breeding for several successive years in the same hole, and do not readily forsake it, even though it be visited." It is this species that Mr. Gosse, in his " Birds of Jamaica," thus prettily descrioes : " Where the mangrove or the sea-grape stretches its branches down to the water's edge, stopping the way along the yellow beach, the Kingfisher delights to resort, sit- ting on a projecting twig ; here he waits patiently for the approach of some small $[ ifjtagular Mcttouarj) of &ntmatrtr Mature. 361 fish, on which he drops perpendicularly, and the water, then our modern innovators ought having seized it in his powerful beak, emerges to consider the osprey in the same light : ; from the wave, and returns to his former and even the barn owl might give them a station to swallow it. It is a very shy and hint that she feels inclined to seek a new recluse bird ; I have found scarcely any more difficult of approach : the posts of observation acquaintance ; for I myself have seen her plunge into the water, bring out a fish, and which he chooses are mostly such as com- convey it to her nest. Indeed, the swallow, mand a wide view ; and it was very wary ; with a still better grace, might ask permission long before the gunner can creep within to form a new division, distant both from shot, the bird takes alarm, and darts away land and water-birds, and call it ethereal ; to a distant tree. Often as it sits watching, because it procures the whole of its sustenance and sometimes at the moment of flying, it from insects in the circumambient air." " I utters a loud rattling churr." " The form of love to take my stand behind a large tree, the body of this bird, in conjunction with and watch the Kingfisher as he hovers over the head and beak, is wedge-shaped, the tip the water, and at last plunges into it, with of the latter being the point. This form ia admirably suited for its sudden and im- a velocity like that of an arrow from a bow. How we are lost in astonishment when we petuous plunges upon its fishy prey : as the reflect that instinct forces this little bird to powerful texture, great size, sharp point, and seek its sustenance underneath the water ; cutting edges of the beak, are for holding it. and that it can emerge from it in perfect The feathers of the throat and breast are of safety ; though it possesses none of the fa- the closest texture, and lie on each other culties (save that of plunging) which have like scales, preventing the access of any been so liberally granted to most other birds water to the body, while, from their glossy, ; satiny surface, the water is thrown off in- which frequent the deep 1 I sometimes fancy that it is all over with it, when I see it plunge stantly on emersion, as from the plumage of into a pond, which I know to be well stocked a duck. The feet again, though small, are with ravenous pike ; still it invariably re- muscular, the tarsus very short, the toes turns uninjured, and prepares to take another united into a broad, flat palm, and the claws dip." " There are people who imagine that unusually strong, short, and sharp. When one remembers that the Kingfisher digs his own cave out of the clayey or gravelly cliffs the brilliancy of the plumage of birds has some connection with a tropical sun. Here, however, in our own native bird, we have to the depth of several feet, we shall see the an instance that the glowing sun of the use of his strong and broad feet, as we may tropics is not required to produce a splendid see it also in the Mole." plumage. The hottest parts of Asia and of Africa do not present us with an azure more rich and lovely than that which adorns the Mr. Waterton, in his ' Essays,' has fur- nished some interesting notes on the habits of the Kingfisher, with a selection from wliich back of this charming little bird; while throughout the whole of America, from Hud- . we will conclude the article : " Modern or- son's Bay to Tierra del Fuego, there has not j nithologists," says this gentleman, " have been discovered a Kingfisher with colours thought fit to remove the Kingfisher from the land birds, and assign it a place amongst the water-fowl. To me the change appears half so rich or beautiful. Asia, Africa, and America offer to the naturalist a vast abun- dance of different species of the Kingfisher. a bad one ; and I could wish to see it brought back again to the original situation in which Europe presents only one ; but that one ia like a gem of the finest lustre." our ancestors had placed it : for there seems to be nothing in its external formation wliich can warrant this arbitrary transposition, The plumage of the Kingfisher is precisely that of the land bird, and, of course, some KINKAJOU. (Ccrcoleptcs.) A genus of Plantigrade Caruivora allied to the Coati- mondis. It has a very long tail, which is pre- hensile at the end : the muzzle is short, the parts of the skin are bare of feathers ; while /*^ll^^K_~^0^^^^ the whole body is deprived of that thick t>. " . !^S^. coat of down so remarkable in those birds ^^"*^MMKK '"^-^^BW which are classed under the denomination Pl^^ of water-fowl. Its feet are not webbed, its ~^^^^^L. breast-bone is formed like that of land birds ; ^^H9*^^*^^EBg| ^^^^^^ and its legs are ill calculated to enable it __,r#~ f ^p^^^*-^^ "^^^^fefc ! to walk into the water. Thus we see that ^^^^^^5B^^ dg^^^Sgs^^:- _ S^^fc it can neither swim with the duck, nor dive ,.,~v* .^-.^J/, ~~ J ^ r *^S^/^'P^ ^^^r with the merganser, nor wade with the heron. ^-*jr- ' v ^^// ' n momentary, and bears no similarity to the immersion of those water-fowl which can pursue their prey under the surface, and persevere for a certain length of time, till they lay hold of it. Still the mode of taking its food is similar to that of the gulls, which first see the fish, and then plunge into the deep to obtain it ; but this bird differs from tongue slender and extensile 5 with two pointed molars before, and three tubercular lines behind. One species only is known, (.Cercoleptes caudivolvulus.) [See POTTO.] KITE. (Fdlco mtlvus.) This well-known bird may be distinguished from all the rest of the hawk kind by its forked tail. Its the gull in every other habit." " If the Kingfisher is to be considered a water-bird length is a little more than two feet, and its areadth five : the bill is two inches long, merely because it draws its sustenance from very much curved at the end, and of horn . perpetually on the wing ; and appears to repose on the boso of the air without making the least effort t support itself, so easy and elegant is its motion there. It is, however, intent on its prey beneath ; and as the yourg chicken, ducks, goslings, &c. suffer by the Kite's de- predations, it is proscribed by the universal voice of every rural district. Were it not for this, its appearance would be welcomed as the harbinger of clear skies and fine weather ; for it is in such that it makes its principal excursions. It breeds in large forests, or wooded hilly countries >, and lays two or three eggs, of a whitish colour, spotted with pale yellow, and of a roundish form. In the breeding season it will at times approach near the outskirts of villages, seeking ma- terials for its nest ; but in general it avoids the haunts of man. The nest is usually in the fork of a thick tree, where it is concealed by the branches : the external part is formed of twigs, thickly matted together ; and the interior is lined with wool, or some other soft and warm substance. The young re- main a long time in the nest, and are ex- tremely voracious in their appetite ; so that to provide them with food requires consider- able labour, and greatly heightens the parent bird's audacity. There was a time when the Kite appears to have been of as much service in London, as the Vulture still is in some of the crowded cities of the East ; for we read that in the reign of Henry VIII. the British metropolis swarmed with Kites, attracted thither by the various kinds of offal thrown into the streets, and that these birds fearlessly de- scended, and fearlessly performed the sca- venger's office in the midst of the people, it being forbidden to kill them. When such a fact as this is brought before our eyes, the " street nuisances " of the present day appear like a comparative luxury ; and we are apt to think that " metropolitan improvements " must have since gone on at such a rate that there can no longer be any room for them. The MISSISSIPPI KITE. (Elanus Mis- >(.s-/.s.) 'ihe celebrated American ornithologist, Wilson, thus introduces this species : " In my perambulations I fre- quently remarked this hawk sailing about in easy circles, and at a considerable height in the air, generally in company with the turkey buzzards, whose manner of flight it so exactly imitates as to seem the same species, only in minature, or seen at a more immense height. Why these two birds, whose food and manners, in other respects, are so different, should so frequently asso- ciate together in air, I am at a loss to com- prehend. We cannot for a moment suppose them mutually deceived by the similarity of each other's flight : the keenness of their vision forbids all suspicion of this kind. They may perhaps be engaged, at such times, in mere amusement, as they are observed to soar to great heights previous to a storm ; or, what is more probable, they may both be in pursuit of their respective food. One, that he may reconnoitre a vast extent of surface below, and trace the tainted at- mosphere to his favourite carrion ; the other, in search of those large beetles, or coleop- terous insects, that are known often to wing the higher regions of the air ; and which, in the three individuals of this species of hawk which I examined by dissection, were the only substances found in their stomachs. For several miles, as I passed near Bayo Manchak, the trees were swarming with a kind of cicada, or locust, that made a deaf- ening noise ; and here I observed numbers of the hawk now before us sweeping about among the trees like swallows, evidently 'n pursuit of these locusts ; so that insects, t would appear, are the principal food of this species. Yet when we contemplate the beak and talons of this bird, both so sharp and powerful, it is difficult to believe that they were not intended by nature for some more formidable prey than beetles, locusts, or grasshoppers ; and I doubt not but mice, lizards, snakes, and small birds, furnish him with an occasional repast. This hawk, which proved to be a male, though wounded and precipitated from a vast height, exhibited, in his distress, symp- ;oms of great strength, and an almost un- conquerable spirit. I no sooner approached to pick him up than he instantly gave battle, striking rapidly with his claws, wheeling round and round as he lay partly on his rump ; and defending himself with great vigilance and dexterity ; while his dark red eye sparkled with rage. Nowithstanding 1 my caution in seizing him to carry him home, he struck his hind claw into my hand with such force as to penetrate into the >one. The Mississippi Kite measures fourteen nches in length, and three feet in extent. The head and neck of a hoary white ; the ower parts a whitish ash ; bill, cere, lores, and narrow line round the eye, black ; back, rump, scapulars, and wing-coverts, dark (lackish ash ; wings very long and pointed ; he primaries are black, marked down each ide of the shaft with reddish sorrel : all the upper plumage at the roots is white ; the capulars are also spotted with white ; tail Stcttonarp of ImmateXr $atttr*. 363 I slightly forked, and, as well as the rump, ! jet black : legs vermillion, tinged with 1 orange, and becoming blackish towards the i toes ; claws black ; iris of the eye dark red; I pupil, black. The long pointed wings and 1 forked tail point out the affinity of this bird to that family or subdivison of the/fco genus, distinguished by the name of Kites, which sail without flapping the wings, and eat from their talons as they glide along. ' KITTEN [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to Moths of the genus Ccrura. KIWI. A remarkable and curious bird of New Zealand, which we have described under AFTEUYX, (Apteryx Aiistralis) or Wingless Emu. " These birds," the Rev. W. Yate observes, " hide themselves during the day ; and come out of their retreats, which are generally small holes in the earth, or under stones, at night, to seek for their food. They run very fast, and are only to be caught by dogs, by torch-light, which they sometimes kick and bruise severely. They are highly prized, when taken, which is very rarely, by the natives ; and their skins are kept till a sufficient number are col- lected to make into a garment. I have only seen one garment made of skins of this bird, during my six years and a half residence in New Zealand : and no consideration would induce the man to whom it belonged to part with it." The flesh is black, sinewy, tough, and tasteless. [See APTERYX.J KNOTHORN [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to Moths of the genus Phycita. KOKAKO. The name given by the na- tives of New Zealand to a corvine bird, called, by some, the New Zealand Crow. [See GLAUCOPIS CINEREA.] KOODOO, or STRIPED ANTELOPE. (A ntilope strepsiceros. ) This magnificent ani- mal has no rival among the Antelope genus for size and height, or for bold and widely - spreading horns. It is eight feet in length KOODOO, OR STRIPED ANTBLOPB. (ANTILOPB STREPSIOEROS.) d four feet in height at the shoulder ; with ponderous horns beautifully twisted, having a prominent spiral ridge running obliquely Vom the base to the point, and extending to he length of about four feet. The colour of ,he back and sides is a light brown, witli a narrow white band along the spine, and several similar stripes descending obliquely down the sides and hips ; the belly and under arts being of a pale hue. The head is large, he ears broad, and the limbs thick and robust; yet, notwithstanding its heavy make, t takes long bounding leaps with surprising agility. It inhabits the woody parts ot Cat- fraria, along the banks of the rivers ; and when pursued takes to the water. KUKUPA. A beautiful species of Wood- geon known by this name in New Zealand, .. here it is very plentiful. It is described by the Rev. W. Yate as " much larger than the largest wild or tame pigeons in England, and has a plumage unrivalled among the extensive family of doves for splendour and variety : green, purple, and gold are, how- ever, the prevailing colours. It is a heavy- lying bird, which makes it an easy prey to he hawks, with which the woods abound. They are easily killed with a spear or a musket ; and if two birds are found upon the same tree, they are either so sluggish or stupid as not to fly when one is either killed or wounded. They feed upon the berries of the Hiro ; are most delicious eating ; and are in season from January to June. The natives destroy vast numbers of these birds, and value them much, on account of both the quantity and the quality of their flesh. LABRUS : LABRID^E. A genus and family of Acanthopterygious fishes, the spe- cies of which are very numerous in tropical seas ; and even on our own shores they are abundant. The Labridce family (Wrasses or Rock-fish, as they are also called) are chiefly remarkable for their thick fleshy lips, their large and strong conical teeth, their oblong scaly body, and their brilliant co- lours. They are further generically distin- guished by a single dorsal fin, extending nearly the whole length of the back, part of the rays spinous, and behind the point of each spinous ray a short membranous filament. [See WRASSE,] LACERTA : LACERTIDJE. A genus and family of reptiles. [See LIZARD.] LACKEY [MOTHS]. A name given by collectors to species of Moths of the genus Clisiocampa. LADY-BIRD. The popular name given to a well-known genus of coleopterous in- LADT-BtBD AND LARVA. 364 3Di*ncuri) at sects, which are sometimes seen, in vast numbers, in hop plantations, &e., where they are of infinite service in destroying the various species of Aphides, which are so pre- judicial to certain plants and fruit-trees. (.See COCCINELLA.] L^MODIPODA. The name of an order of marine Crustaceans, with sessile eyes, and in which the posterior extremity of the body exhibits no distinct brand ii;c. The body is almost linear or filiform, and with the head consists of eight or nine segments, with some small tubercle-like appendages at its pos- terior and inferior extremity : the limbs are terminated by a strong hook. The females carry their ova beneath the second and third segments of the body in a pouch formed of approximated scales. The Cf/amus Ceti, or Whale louse, is an example of this order. LAGOMYS. A genus of Rodent Quad- rupeds, separated from the Hares. The ALPINE LAGOMYS (Laijnmys Alpinus) has sometimes been confounded with the Vary- ing Hare, in consequence of the latter having also obtained the name of A Ipine ; but is a far smaller animal, scarce exceeding a Guinea-pig (Cavia capnyba) in size, and measuring only nine inches in length ; while it has a long head, and the ears are short, broad, and rounded. It is a native of the Altaic mountains, extending even as far as Kamtschatka ; inhabiting woody tracts amidst rocks and cataracts, and forming burrows beneath the rocks, or lodging in their fissures. In fair weather they seldom leave their holes in the day-time ; but when the weather is dull they are seen runnin about among the rocks, and frequently ut- ig a sort of whistle or chirping bird- like d. During the autumn they prepare for their winter support, by collecting a plentiful assortment of the finest herbs and grasses ; which, after drying in the sun, they dispose into heaps of various sizes, according to the number of animals employed in form- ing them : these are easily distinguishable even through the deep snow, being often several feet in height and breadth. These little hayricks, raised by their industrious labours, are often found of great service to the adventurous sable-hunters, whose horses would perish were it not for the supplies which they thus occasionally discover. For this reason the Alpine Hare has a name among every Siberian and Tartar nation where it is found : a circumstance which marks its importance to society ; for few animals, so diminutive, are noticed in those regions, unless possessed of some valuable or attractive qualities. The OGOTONA HARE. (Lagomys Ogotona.) This little animal, whose length is only six inches, inhabits the vast deserts of Mongolia, and the frontiers of Chinese Tartary, living in sandy plains or on rocky mountains. It sometimes burrows under the soil, or con- ceals itself under heaps of stones, and forms a soft nest at no great depth from the sur- face. Before the approach of winter these animals collect large quantities of herbs, with which they fill their holes; and, di- rected by the same instinct as the Alpine Lagomys,they also form hemispherical ricks of hay, about a foot high, for their support during the inclement season. The colour of the Ogotona Hare is a pale brown above, and white beneath : on the nose is a yel- lowish spot, which colour is seen on the out- sides of the limbs and the space about the up. Hawks, magpies, and owls indiscri- minately prey on them ; but their most formidable enemies are the cat, the fitchet, and the ermine. The CALLING HARE (Lagomys pmiUus) extremely resembles the Ogotona Hare, just described, but is rather smaller. The head is long, and covered with fur to the very tip of the nose ; the ears are large and rounded. ; and the legs very short. The whole body is covered with very soft, long, smooth fur, of a brownish lead colour, with the hairs tipped with black ; but on the sides a yel- lowish tinge prevails. It is an inhabitant of the south-east parts of Kussia, and is an animal of so solitary a nature, that it is very rarely to be seen even in places it most fre- quents. It commonly chooses its residence MNO HARE. (LAGOMYS PUSILT..OS ) dry gentle declivity, where the turf and covered with bushes : it there in some is firm forms an obliquely descending burrow, the entrance of which is scarcely more than two inches in diameter ; and so numerous and intricate are the avenues which lead to their retreats, that they would with great diffi- culty be discovered, did not their voice be- tray them. This voice resembles the piping of a quail, but is so loud that it may be heard at a surprising distance, particularly as there is nothing in the structure of its or- gans which can account for so powerful a tone. These little animals are of an ex- tremely gentle disposition, and easily tamed. Their pace is a kind of leaping motion, but not very quick, nor do they run well, on account of the shortness of their legs. LAGOPUS. [See PTARMIGAN.] LAGOSTOMUS. A genus of Rodent Mammalia, in which the fore feet are fur- nished with four toes, the hinder with three only, as in the Cavies, all of them armed with stout claws adapted for digging. The ears are of moderate size, and the tail com- paratively short. Their three anterior mo- lars of the upper jaw consist each of two double layers, and the last of three. The only known species (Lagostomus trichodac- tiilujf) is about the size of a Hare, and in- habits Chili and Brazil : its general colour HBtctt'onarp of 3mmatctt 365 is grayish ; the fur of two sorts, one entirely white, and the other, which is coarser, black, except at the base ; the under parts white. Its motions are quick, and resemble those of a Rabbit ; and it seeks its food by night, subsisting wholly on vegetables ; inhabits the level country ; and is not esteemed as food. It has very generally obtained the name of Viscacha ; and it has also been figured in Griffith's edition of Cuvier's Regne Animal under the name of the Diana Marmot. L AGRIID^E. A family of small Coleop- terous insects, found in woods and hedges, and upon plants, counterfeiting death when alarmed, like the Cantharidse. The head and thorax are narrow ; the elytra soft and flexible ; and the antennae filiform. Their bodies are soft, and although they creep but awkwardly, they are active on the wing. The larvae are found in the winter, under dead oak leaves, upon which they feed : when disturbed, they roll themselves up, with the head bent towards the tail ; and they assume the pupa state without forming any cocoon. The species are few in number, but widely dispersed. LAMB. The young of the SHEEP. | LAMBRUS. A genus of short-tailed Crustacea, most of the species of which are tropical : many of them have very long fore-legs, and are curiously covered with knobs and spines. The Eurynume as^era is the only member of this group found in the British seas. L AMELLIBRANCHIATA. An order of acephalous (headless) molluscs, in bivalve shells ; all the species being aquatic. In these the mouth is not situated upon a pro- minent part of the body, nor assisted in its choice of food by organs of special sensation in its neighbourhood ; but the entrance to the stomach is buried between the folds of the mantle. The shell of these animals is composed of particles of carbonate of lime, exuded from the surface of the mantle, and contained in the cavities of cells, or between layers of membrane ; and a constant relation is preserved between the size of the animal and that of its shell. The valves are con- nected together in various ways. In the first place, they are jointed by a hinge ; which is sometimes formed by the locking of a con- tinuous ridge on one valve into a groove in the other, and sometimes by little projections which fit into corresponding hollows in the opposite valve. Near the hinge is fixed the ligament ; which is composed of an elastic animal substance, and answers the purpose of binding the valves together, and at the same time keeping them a little apart, which may be regarded as their natural position. The Lamellibranchiata have usually more power of motion than the other Acephala ; but they do not in general attain any great size. They are distributed over the whole globe, principally frequenting the shores or shallows ;*but the largest kinds are only found in warm latitudes. LAMELLICORNES. The name by which an extensive section of Coleoptera tribe is distinguished. With respect to the size of the body, and the variety of forms exhibited in the head and thorax, it is one of the most beautiful of the coleopterous order ; while those species which in their perfect state live upon fresh vegetable substances display metallic colours of great brilliancy : the majority, however, are of an uniform black or brown colour. All have wings ; and they crawl but slowly on the ground. They feed on manure and other decomposed sub- stances ; but some species subsist on the roots of vegetables, and in their larva state do great injury to the cultivator. The an- tennae are always short ; they usually con- sist of nine or ten joints, and are terminated in a club, generally composed of the three last, which are lamellar, and are either arranged like a fan, a comb, or the leaves of a book. The larvae have the body long, nearly semi-r.ylindrical, soft, often trans- versely wrinkled, whitish-coloured, twelve- jointed, with the head scaly, armed with strong jaws and six scaly feet. A general idea of their form may be obtained from that of the grub which produces the common Cockchafer. Some species do not change to pupae until they have passed three or four years as larva ; they form for themselves in their retreats, with the earth or the debris of the materials they have gnawed, a cocoon of an ovoid form, or in the shape of an elon- gated ball, of which the particles are fastened together with a glutinous secretion. LAMELLIPEDES. The term applied to the third section of the order Conchifera Dimyaria, containing Bivalves, with the foot of the animal broad and thin ; as in the genus Cardiacea, &c. LAMPREY. (Petromyzon marinus.} This fish has a long and slender body, nearly cy- lindrical, resembling an eel ; and its skin, which has no scales, is covered with a glu- tinous mucus. The Marine or Sea Lamprey sometimes grows to a very large size (three feet in length) ; the British specimens, how- ever, are generally far inferior in magnitude. The usual colour of the Lamprey is a dull brownish olive, clouded with yellowish- white variegations ; the back darker than the other parts, and the abdomen paler : the fins are tinged with dull orange, and the tail with blue. The mouth is of a round form, re- sembling that of a leech, and, like it, pos- sesses the power of sucking and adhering to stones or other substances with extra- ordinary tenacity. The tongue, which move* 366 Crcagtirn at Natural $?t'stcrj) ; to and fro like a piston, and which is the principal instrument in the act of suction, is furnished with two longitudinal rows of small teeth, and the mouth is lined with several circular rows. On the top of the head is a small orifice or spout-hole, through which is discharged the superfluous water taken in at the mouth and gills ; and on each side the neck is a row of seven equi- distant spiracles, or breathing-holes. In re- ference to this respiratory apparatus Mr. Owen has remarked, that " when the Lam- prey is firmly attached, as is commonly the case, to foreign bodies, by means of its suc- torial mouth, it is obvious that no water can pass by that aperture from the pharynx to the gills ; it is therefore alternately received and expelled by the external apertures." The first dorsal fin, which is rather shallow, with a rounded outline, commences towards the lower part of the back ; the second is nearly of the same extent, but with a sub- triangular outline : the tail is short, and slightly rounded. The Lamprey usually quits the sea in the spring for the purpose of spawning, and after quantities in the Thames from Battersea, Reach to Taplow Mills, and was sold to the Dutch as bait for the Turbot, Cod, and other i fisheries. Four hundred thousand have been I sold in one season for this purpose, at the i rate of forty shillings per thousand. From i five pounds to eight pounds a thousand have i been given ; but a comparative scarcity of late years, and consequent increase in price, has obliged the line fishermen to adopt other substances for bait. Formerly the Thames alone supplied from one million to twelve hundred thousand Lamperns annually. They are very tenacious of life, and the Dutch fishermen managed to keep them | alive at sea for many weeks." Great quan- i titles are also taken in the rivers of Ger- i many : after being fried, they are packed in i barrels by layers, between each of which is \ a layer of bay leaves and spices, sprinkled over with vinegar ; and in this state they j are sent to other countries. This species spawns in April and May. It feeds on in- ! sects, worms, &c., and is a prolific fish i There are a few more species, of a smaller j size ; but in all the main characteristics they an absence of a few months returns to its j correspond with the foregoing, original marine element. When in motion hanging at rest, or obey the current, so strong is its power of suction. | ? Its general habits seem pretty much to re- I I- semble those of the eel ; and, the moticmlJf ! el y tra ! alld the bod y usual! y elongated and i onmorii a t depressed ; by the thorax project- e or less over the head : small man- ^SSSSS^^TOrSS^ I Sl'lr^ml^cSws 1 rimp1eT^nd bi fc in high estimation ; those taken in the Severn pits litv i species the females are apterous, i others furnished only with short They are voracious in their habits \( in the larva state upon the bodies of snails, : and not upon plants. The species are, for ; the most part, exotic, and are often orna- water-side in the vicinity o1 these a little blood is thrown, Lamprey to come forth, when taken. readily The RIVER LAMPREY, or LAMPERN. (Pe- tromyzonjluviatilis.) This well-known spe- cies inhabits fresh waters, and is common iu the Thames, the Severn, the Dee, the Tweed, &c. It is from twelve to fifteen inches in length ; has a rounded head, a slender cy- lindrical body for about two-thirds of its length, and then compressed to the end of the tail. " Formerly," says Mr. Yarrel. " the Lampern was considered a fish of consider- able importance. It was taken in great : Scarcely any exceed an inch in length. j When alarmed, they fold their antennae and j legs against the body, and remain motion- ' less, as though dead ; many, also, at such times, bend their abdomen downwards. The three most important genera are Lycus, Omalisus, and Dictyoptera. [See GLOW- WORM.] LANNER. (Falco lannarivs.) A bird of the long- winged Hawk kind, rather less than the buzzard. It breeds in France, where it continues the whole year, is very docile, and seems well adapted to all the purposes of hawking. It is also met with in Ireland, and is thus described by Pennant : The ear is a palish blue ; the crown of the head, brown and yellow clay-colour ; above each eye a broad white line passes to the hind part of the head ; and beneath each a black mark points downwards. The throat is white ; the breast is tinged with dull yellow, and marked with brown spots point- ing downwards ; the thighs and vent are spotted in a similar manner ; the back and coverts of the wings are a deep brown, edged with a paler tinge ; the quill-feathers are dusky ; the inner webs arc marked with JBicttonanj of gmmatctt Astute. 367 oval rust-coloured spots ; and the tail is spotted in the same manner as the wings. LANTERN-FLY. (Fulgora lantern- aria.') Tliis insect is curious both on ac- count of its size and its singular properties. It is nearly three inches and a half in length from the tip of the front to that of the tail, and about five inches and a half broad with its wings expanded : the body is of a length- ened oval shape, sub-cylindric, and divided into several rings or segments ; while the head is distinguished by a singular prolon- gation, which sometimes equals the rest of the body in size. In this projection the lumi- nous property of the Lantern-fly is said to exist ; but the luminosity of this insect of which there are several species is doubted by most naturalists ; who say, that if it really exists, it is only at particular seasons. It is therefore but right that we should give our authority : Madame Merian, in her work on the Insects of Surinam, says, " The Indians once brought me, before I knew that they shone by night, a number of these Lantern-flies, which I shut up in a large wooden box. In the night they made such a noise that I awoke in a fright, and ordered a light to be brought ; not knowing from whence the noise proceeded. As soon as we found that it came from the box, we opened it ; but were still much more alarmed, and let it fall to the ground in a fright, at seeing a flame of fire come out of it ; and as many animals as came out, so many flames of fire appeared. When we found this to be the case, we recovered from our fright, and again collected the insects, highly admiring their splendid appearance." The ground-colour is an elegant yellow, with a strong tinge of green, and marked with numerous bright brown stripes and spots : the wings are very large, and the lower pair are decorated with a large eye- shaped spot on the middle of each, the iris or border of the spot being red, and the centre half red and half semitransparent white ; the head or lantern is pale yellow, with longitudinal red stripes. This beauti- ful insect is a native of several parts of South America. [See FULOORA.] The Fulgara candelaria, a native of China, is a much smaller species; measuring about two inches in length, and two inches and a half in breadth. The body is oval, and the head produced into a long horn- shaped process : the colours are very elegant; the head and horn being of a fine reddish brown, and covered^ with numerous white specks : the thorax is of a deep yellow, and the body black above, but deep yellow be- neath : the wings are oval ; the upper pair blackish, with numerous green reticulations, dividing the whole surface into innumerable squares, and farther decorated by several yellow spots : the under wings are orange- coloured, with broad black tips. LAP-DOG. The little pets of the draw- ing-room and boudoir who bear the enviable appellation of Ladies' Lap-dogs, and who for years past have been growing " small by degrees and beautifully less," belong to that race of Dogs which have been described as "timid, fond, and affectionate the most grateful for kindness, the most patient under Ill-treatment;" of course we mean the SPANIELS ; and, therefore, under that word will the Lap-dog's zoological character be found. Nature originally, without doubt, had some hand in the production of these highly-favoured diminutives ; but her em- pire over them has long been usurped by Fancy and Fashion, who have agreed that the ears of these companions of female love- liness should be remarkably long and full, and the hair (of the ears more especially) plentiful and beautifully waved; that " liver-colour-and-white," though its pre- tensions to beauty are but moderate, is not to be despised ; that " black-and-white " is entitled to our particular regard ; but that the dear little " black-and-tan " variety is vastly to be preferred to either ; while it is absolute treason to honour any with the title of " King Charles's breed " which do not possess certain indubitable signs of royal descent, as a black-roofed mouth, &c. There is also a variety of the Spaniel, generally of a white colour, and the hair of which is ex- tremely long : it is called the Maltese dog, and is said to be one of the most elegant of the Lap-dog tribe. LAPPET [MOTH]. A name given by collectors to species of Moths, of the genera Gastropacha and EutriclM. LAPWING or PEE WIT. ( Vandlus cris- tatus.) This bird, which is about the size of a pigeon, belongs to the snipe and plover tribe. It is found in this country in large flocks, except during the pairing season, when it separates for the purposes of incuba- tion. It builds a slight inartificial nest on the ground, and lays four eggs of an olive The Lapwing's bill is black ; the crown of the head and the cast spotted with black. crest are of a shining black ; the cheeks and sides of the neck, white : the throat and fore- part of the neck are black ; the hind part, a mixture of red, white, and cinereous. The back and scapulars are of a glossy green co- lour, the latter variegated with purple : the small wing-coverts are of a resplendent black blue and green hue ; the greater quill-fea- thers are black ; and the breast and belly are white. The vent and coverts of the tail are orange-coloured ; the tail IB black and white ; and the legs are red. The young birds run about very soon after they are hatched. During this period the old ones J 368 Qtoatfurg cC Natural are very assiduous in their attention to their charge : on the approach of any person, they flutter round his head with great inquietude, and if he persists in advancing they will en- deavour to draw him away, by running along the ground as if lame, and thereby inviting pursuit. It subsists chiefly on worms and the animalcula of the sea-shore. These birds are very lively and active during their love season, being almost continually in motion, sporting and frolicking in the air in all directions, or springing and bounding from spot to spot with great agility. " Far from her nest, the lapwing cries ' away.' " Shaks. In the month of October they are in good condition for the table, and their eggs are considered a delicacy. [See TERUTERO.] LARID^E. Birds of the Gull tribe, all of which are oceanic in their habits, and distin- guished for great powers of flight. [See GULL and LESTRIS.] LARK. (Alauda.) There are many spe- cies of this bird, and their great characteristic distinction from other birds consists in the extreme elongation in an almost straight line of their hinder claws ; by this formation the prehensile faculty is nearly destroyed, and consequently, with the exception of a few species with shorter claws, they are in- capable of perching upon trees. The bill is straight, slender, bending a little towards the end, and sharp- pointed : the toes are all divided to their origin, the nostrils are co- vered with feathers, and the tongue is bifid. These birds are famed for singing during flight ; and there is something very delightful in listening to their melodious strains when the performers are soaring aloft, beyond the reach of human ken. From the situation of their nests they are greatly exposed to the attacks of predaceous animals of the weasel kind, which destroy great numbers of the eggs and young. The speci< rhich first claims our notice is The SKY-LARK. (Alauda arvensis.) This delightful songster, the most harmonious of the whole family, is universally diifused throughout Europe, and is everywhere ex- tremely prolific. It is about seven inches in is.) length : bill dusky, the base of the under mandible yellowish : the feathers on the top of the head are dusky, edged with rufous brown ; they are rather elongated, and may be set up as a crest : the plumage on the upper part of the body is reddish-brown, with the middle darkest, and the edges rather pale : the upper part of the breast is yellow, spotted with black ; and the lower part of the body is a pale yellow. The tail is dusky brown ; legs dusky ; claws dusky ; the hind one being very long, straight, and strong. The male is of a deeper colour, and larger than the female ; and is further distinguished by having the hind claw longer. The spe- cies is subject, however, to considerable va- riety ; and has even been found of a pure white colour. The Sky-lark commences his song early in the spring, continuing it during the whole summer, and is one of the few birds that chant whilst on the wing. When it first rises from the earth, its notes are feeble and interrupted ; as it ascends, how- ever, they gradually swell to their full tone, and long after the bird has reached a height where it is lost to the eye, it still continues to charm the ear with its melody. It mounts almost perpendicularly, and by successive springs, and descends in an oblique direction, unless when threatened with danger, when it drops like a stone. The female forms her nest on the ground, close to some turf, which serves at once to hide and shelter it ; some- times in corn-fields ; and, at others, in va- rious sorts of pasturage. She lays four or five dirty white eggs, blotched and spotted with brown ; and she generally produces two broods in a year. These prolific birds live on seeds and insects, they are most abun- dant in the more open and highest cultivated situations abounding in corn, being but sel- dom seen in extensive moors at a distance from arable land. In winter they assemble in vast flocks, grow very fat, and are taken in great numbers for the table. The WOOD-LARK (Alauda arborea) greatly resembles the Sky-lark, though it is much smaller, and the colours are less dis- tinct. The feathers on the crown and upper parts of the body are marked with dusky spots edged with light reddish brown : from the beak over the eye is a narrow yellowish white band surrounding the crown of the head ; the feathers over the ears are brown, beneath which is another light band : quilla dusky ; neck and breast yellowish white, tinged with brown, and marked with dusky spots : tail short ; the four outer feathers on each side black, with dirty wliite tips ; tail- coverts very long and brown : legs yellowish flesh-colour : hind claws long, and slightly bent. It is generally found near the borders of woods, perches on trees, and sings during the night, so as sometimes to be mistaken for the nightingale. When kept in a cage, near one of the latter birds, it often strives to excel it, and, if not speedily removed, will fall a victim to emulation. This species can be easily distinguished from the Sky-lark during flight, as it does not mount in the air in a perpendicular manner, and continue hovering and singing in the same spot like r at 369 that bird ; but will often rise to a great height, and keep flying in large irregular circles, singing the whole time with little intermission, sometimes for an hour together. Its song, though not so loud as that of the Sky-lark, is more melodious, and may some- times be heard in fine weather even in the depth of winter. This bird feeds on grain, seeds, and insects : its nest is placed under a tuft of high grass or furze, or in a low bush ; and is made of dry grass, lined with finer grass and hair. The female lays four or five eggs, of a dusky colour, interspersed with deep brown spots, and, like the former spe_cies, often raises two broods in the year. It is a general inhabitant of Europe, but not so plentiful as the Sky-lark. It is more abundant in Devonshire than in any other part of England. These birds get very fat after harvest, and are taken in great num- bers. The CRESTED LARK (Alauda cristate) is distinguished from other species by the feathers on the crown of the head being much elongated and forming a crest, which is darker than the rest of the plumage. The back is ash-coloured, spotted with brown ; the breast and belly yellowish white ; and the throat is beautifully spotted. The tail is rather short ; the two outer feathers, with their exterior edges, white, tinged with red. The song of this bird is fine, but not equal to the Skylark : its aerial excursions are likewise shorter. Though found in many parts of Europe, frequenting the banks of lakes and rivers, it does not appear to be known in England. The TIT-LARK. (Anthus pratensis.) This bird, which, by the older writers was classed with the larks, belongs to a different genus and family ; but may be described here. It is of an elegant and slender shape, five inches and a half in length, and nine in breadth. The bill is black ; the back and head are of a greenish brown colour, spotted with black ; the throat and lower part of the belly are white ; the breast is yellow, spotted with black; the tail is dusky ; and the feet are of a pale yellow colour. In many parts of England this is a very com- mon bird ; and is met with in marshes, barren moors, and mountainous heaths : its nest, made of dry grass and stalks of plants, lined with fine grass and horse-hair, is placed on the ground amongst furze and long grass. The eggs are generally six in number, but ' vary considerably in size and colour : and the Cuckoo is said to deposit its eggs among them. During the period of incubation, tlie male pours forth its short but pleasing song ; j it generally springs into the air, increasing i its song as it descends to the ground, from a ! height of 30 or 40 feet. In winter many Tit-larks betake themselves to the sea-shore. The TREE TIT-LARK. (.A nthm arboreus.) This bird greatly resembles the Tit-lark; but may be readily distinguished from it, by the bill being much broader at the base, and the legs being yellowish-brown instead of dusky. It is a solitary species, never associating m flocks, nor seen on the moors and downs, where the Titlark is most abundant. The nest of this species is placed only amongst high grass in the most cultivated parts, where there are plenty of trees. Its eggs, of which there are four, are of a dirty bluish white, blotched and si-otted with purplish brown. Its flight is very peculiar, mounting up in a fluttering manner, and after some time descending to a neighbouring tree with motionless wing and expanded tail, and then alighting on the ground, warbling during its descent. It is chiefly found in the western and south-western counties of England. There are other species enumerated by ornithologists ; as the MEADOW LARK, a species common in many parts of Italy : the SHOKE LAIJK, known as an inhabitant both of Europe and America, and very abundant in the latter continent : the BHOAVN LAHK : the ROCK LARK, found at the Cape of Good Hope : the MARSH LARK, native of Germanv : the SIBERIAN LARK : the RED LARK : th'e BLACK LARK, &c. L ARRID^E. A family of Hymenopterous insects, small in extent, and the species of which it is composed are but of moderate size. They are distinguished by the labrum being entirely or partially concealed, and the mandibles deeply notched on the inner side near the base. They are ordinarily found in sandy situations, and are fossorial in their habits. One species, the beautiful and rare Dinetus pictus, is remarkable for the convoluted antennae of the males ; and the exotic genus Polar-its is not less distinguished by the constricted segments of its abdomen. LATHAMUS. A genus of Parrakeets found in Australia ; as an example we may mention LATHAMUS DISCOLOR, termed by the colonists of Van Diemen's Land the " Swift Parrakeet." During September and the four following months this migratory species is abundant in the gum forests, and very com- mon in the shrubberies and gardens at Hobart Town; small flights of them continually flying up and down the streets and over the houses. They gather a fine clear honey from the fresh-blown flowers of the Eucalypti (especially E. yibbosus}, which daily expand. They are quite fearless, and allow the inha- bitants to pass within a few feet of their heads. Their eggs are laid in holes in the loftiest and most inaccessible trees. For J 370 EmtsJurn of Natural fe other species see Mr. Gould's Birds of Aus- tralia. LEAF-CUTTING BEES. [See MEGA- CHILE.] LEECH. (Hirudo.) A genus of suctorial animals, or red-blooded worms, of aquatic habits, provided with a sucker at both ends of the body : the greater part are inhabit- ants of fresh water ; some, however, are only found in the sea ; while others live in moist situations near stagnant water, pur- suing earth-worms, &c. Many of them accu- mulate their eggs into cocoons, enveloped by a fibrous excretion, at first sight so closely re- sembling sponge in structure as to have been once mistaken by a distinguished naturalist for a new genus of that family. The species which principally deserves our attention is f :is.) the common Leech (the Ilinido medicinalis of Linnaeus). This species, which is usually about the length of the middle finger, bears a considerable resemblance to the earth- worm in its general structure, but differs as to the conformation of its mouth and di- gestive apparatus. Its skin is composed of from ninety to a hundred or more soft rings, by means of which it acquires its agility, and swims in the water. It has a small head ; a black skin, edged with a yellow line on each side, and some yellowish spots on the back ; and the belty, which is of a reddish colour, is marked with pale yellow spots. But the most remarkable part is the moutli, which is situated in the middle of the cavity of the anterior sucker ; and three little cartilaginous bodies, or jaws, are seen to be disposed around it, in such a manner that the three edges form three radii of a circle. Each of these has two rows of mi- nute teeth at its edge, so that it resembles a small semicircular saw. It is imbedded at its base in a bed of muscle, by the action of which it is worked, in such a manner as to cut into the skin, a sawing movement being given to each piece separately. It is in this manner that the tri-radiate form of the leech-bite is occasioned ; each ray being a separate little saw, this apparatus enabling the leech to penetrate the skin without causing a dangerous wound. The lacerated character of the wound is very favourable to the flow of blood ; wliich is further promoted by the vacuum created by the action of the sucker. The alimentary canal consists of an oesophagus, a long stomach, with ccecal sacs, and an intestine. The operation of digestion is extremely slow, notwithstanding the rapid and excessive manner in which the Leech fills its stomach ; a single meal of blood will suffice for many months ; nay, more than a year will sometimes elapse, before the blood has passed through the ali- mentary canal in the ordinary manner, during all which period so much of the blood as remains undigested in the stomach continues in a fluid state. This accounts for the reluctance of the Leech, after being used to abstract blood, to repeat the opera- tion ; it not only being gorged at the time, but provided with a sufficient supply for so much longer. Indeed, the true medicinal Leech does not seem to take any solid ali- ment, but subsists on the fluids of frogs, fish, &c. Leeches are furnished with eight or ten simple eyes, which may be detected with a magnifying glass as a semi-circular row of black points, situated above the mouth upon the sucking surface of the oral disc ; and to these visual specks it is sup- posed they are indebted for whatever sight they possess. Leeches derive their principal interest from the use that is made of them as a re- medial agent ; but it should be observed that there are only two species so employed, and these are principally derived from the South of France, Sweden, Poland, and Hungary. It is common for the leech- . dealers to drive horses and cows into the ponds, that the Leeches may fatten and pro- pagate more abundantly by sucking their blood. Children are also employed to catch them by the hand ; and grown persons wade into the shallow waters in the spring of the year, and catch the Leeches that adhere to their naked legs. In summer, when they have retired to deeper waters, a sort of raft is constructed of twigs and rushes, by which a few are entangled. They are also taken by laying baits of liver, to which the Leeches resort, and are then caught ; but this last method is thought to make them sickly. A Leech may be known to be in good health if it be active in the water, and plump when taken out. The most certain method of nducing Leeches to bite, is to cleanse the skin thoroughly ; and they should be ex- posed to the air for a short time previous to their application, as by this means they will bite more freely. If they are voracious, they may be applied to the part by being held lightly in the fingers, or they may be placed in a leech-glass, which is a preferable mode. HBtcttanarj) of ffmmatcfr jflature. 371 They should not be disturbed whilst suck- inpth ends are dilatable and equally tena- cious. The TUBERCULATED LEECH. (Ponto- ella muricata.) A marine species, which adheres strongly to fish, and leaves a black mpression on the place. The body, which s taper and rounded at the greater extre- ity, is furnished with two small horns, strongly annulated, and tuberculated on the rings ; and the tail is dilatable. LEIPO A. A genus of Gallinaceous birds, the only known species of which is LEIPOA OCELLATA. The " Native Phea- sant " of the colonists of Western Australia ; which in its habits is very like the domestic 'owl. It deposits its eggs in a mound of mnd, about three feet high, the inside being lined with layers of dried leaves, grasses, &c. The bird never sits on the eggs, but leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun's rays. The natives are very fond of the eggs, and rob the mounds twice or thrice in a season. These mounds resemble ant-hills ; and, indeed, ants often abound in them. Captain Grey observes that the nests are at least nine feet in diameter and three feet high. By the natives this bird is named Ngowoo. LEMMING. (Georychus lemmus.') There are several species of this animal, varying in size and colour according to the regions they inhabit. They are found in Norway, Lap- land, Siberia, and the northern parts of America ; those of Norway being nearly the size of a water rat, and of a tawny colour, variegated with black, the sides of the head and the under parts being white ; while those of Lapland and Siberia are scarcely larger than a field mouse, and much less distinctly marked. The head of the Lem- ming is large, short, thick, and well furred ; the eyes and ears small ; the body thick ; and the limbs short and stout, especially the 372 Otoarftirn of Natural fore legs : they have five toes on each foot, and the claws on the fore feet are strong, compressed, and rather crooked : the tail is very short, thick, cylindrical, and covered with strong hairs, disposed like those of a pencil at the tip. They subsist entirely on vegetable food. They form shallow bur- rows, in summer time, under the ground and in winter make long passages under the snow in search of food. The most extra- pairs of extremities, and to the ordinary quadruped in their elongated pointed head and sharp projecting muzzle : thev are also void of that mischievous and petulant dis- position which so much distinguishes the monkey tribe ; and at the same time thev differ from them in their dentition. They are all natives of Madagascar and of some )t the smaller islands in its neighbourhood The general form of the body is slender and elongated ; the head shaped' somewhat like that of a fox ; and the eyes large, as in the generality of nocturnal" animals. A long curved claw on the first fingers of the hind feet distinguishes them from all other quad- rumana. Their hind legs are much longer than their anterior limbs, and for the most part they are excellent leapers. Gentle ordinary characteristic of these animals is i a , nd narmlessa s these animals in general are, at ] tne y. w "l defend themselves with great their migrations, which they undertake ... irregular epochs upon an average about once in ten years : these migrations are sup- posed to arise from an unusual multiplica- tion of the animals in the mountainous parts they inhabit, together with a deficiency of food ; and, perhaps, a kind of instinctive prescience of the severity of the approachin- winter. They descend from the mountains in incredible numbers, and assemble in the plains ; and then, as it were with one con- sent, they march on in a direct course, no obstacle deterring them, and nothing seem- ing to make them turn aside. If they are disturbed while swimming over a lake or river, they will not recede, but swim on, find soon re-assume their former order. They chiefly move at night, or early in the morning ; so completely devouring the her- bage as they pass, that the ground has the appearance of having been burnt. Exposed as they are to every attack from owls, hawks, weasels, &c., and so many being de- stroyed in attempting to cross rivers and lakes, the diminution of their numbers is very great ; so that comparatively very few return to their native haunts. When en- raged, they raise themselves on their hind feet, and utter a barking sound. They breed several times in the year, producing five or six at a birth. Formerly, so gross was the superstition of the common people of Nor- way, and so great their terror at these de- vastating marches, that they believed the Lemmings fell from the clouds ; and they were actually exorcised by the clergy. The HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING is of an ash colour, with a tinge of tawny on the back, having a dusky stripe along its middle, and a pale line on each side. The hair is very fine, soft, and long. It is known that they migrate like the foregoing species. It occurs n Labrador, and all parts of Northern Ame- rica bordering on the Polar Sea. It has the character of being very inoffensive, and so easily tamed that, when caught, it will be- come not only reconciled to its situation in a day or two, but show a fondness for the caresses of its master. LEMUR. A genus of Quadrumanous ani- nals which approximate to the Monkey .ribe in having opposable thumbs on both solution when attacked. naunts they associate in troops ; but they are seldom seen abroad in the day-time, always as much as possible secluding them- selves from the light. They subsist on fruit, insects, and small birds. Their fur is usually very fine and silky ; and the tail long and bushy : there are species, however, which are wholly destitute of a tail, and others where that member is merely ru- > dimentary. [See Lorn: for the Flying Lemur, < see GALEOPITUECUS.] LEO. The classical appellation for the Lion. [See Liox.] ( Felis leopardus. ) A grs LEOPARD. ^ ^ e ful and active animal belonging to thVf'dTne tribe, but so like the Panther as to be fre- quently taken for it by the mere casual observer. The principal difference is in size ; the Leopard being considerably the smaller of the two, and of a paler yellow colour ; i while the ocelli or rounded marks on the i Panther are larger, and more distinctly > formed. Both animals are widely diffused through the tropical regions of the Old World ; being natives of Africa, Persia, Chi- na, India, and many of the Indian islands. The general length of the Leopard, from nose to tail, is four feet ; and of the tail, t^ and a half; and so great is its flexibility of i body, that it is able to take surprising leaps, ! to swim, climb trees, or crawl like a snake ! upon the ground, with nearly equal facility. ! When pursued, they often take refuge in trees, and occasionally spring upon their prey from the branches. In speaking of the I Leopard, Mr. Swainson observes, " Although I the names of Leopard and Panther have S)tctt0mm) of gCmmatrtr gtatttr*. 373 been long familiar in common language, and have conveyed the idea of two distinct spe- cies, yet it is perfectly clear that no scientific writer of the last generation either described, or indeed appeared to know, in what respects the animals differed. It seems that numerous specimens of what are called the Leopard are in the Zoological Gardens, and one has been figured in the book so entitled ; but Mr. Bennett has not made the slightest at- tempt to investigate the subject, or to throw any light upon this difficult question. In this dilemma we shall therefore repose on the opinions of Major Hamilton Smith, whose long experience and accuracy of observation are well known, and whose authority in this department of nature deservedly ranks above that of any other naturalist of this country. The Leopard, as denned by Major Smith, when compared with the Jaguar and Panther of naturalists, is uniformly of a paler yellowish colour, rather smaller, and the dots rose formed, or consisting of several dots partially united into a circular figure in some instances, and into a quadrangular, triangular, or other less determinate forms : there are also several single isolated black spots, which more especially occur on the outside of the limbs." Mr. Swainson then proceeds to say, " Our own opinion of the specific dissimilarity between the Leopard and the Panther, judging from what has been written on the subject, is in perfect unison with that of Major Smith ; while the following remark of that observing natu- ralist, incidentally inserted in his account of the Panther of antiquity, seems to us almost conclusive : ' The open spots which mark all the Panthers have the inner surface of the annuli or rings more fulvous (in other words darker) than the general colour of the sides ; but in the Leopard no such dis- tinction appears, nor is there room, as the small and more congregated dots are too small to admit it.' In truth, if there is any reliance to be placed in the most accurate figures hitherto published, the small spots of the Leopard and the large ones of the Panther must strike even a casual observer, and lead him to believe that the two animals were called by different names." Like most feline animals, Leopards are fierce and ra- pacious ; and, it is remarked, that though they are ever devouring, they always appear lean and emaciated. They are taken in pitfalls, covered over with slight hurdles, on which a bait of flesh is placed. Their skins are very valuable. The HUNTING LEOPARD, or CHEETAH. (Guepardajubata.~) This species exhibits in its form and habits a mixture of the feline and canine tribes ; so much so, indeed, as to have induced some naturalists to designate it as a distinct genus under the name of Cynaihirus, or Gticparda. " Intermediate in size and shape between the Leopard and the hound, i observes Mr. Bennett, in the Toiver Menage- rie) he is slenderer in his body, more elevated on his legs, and less flattened on the fore part of his head than the former, while he is deficient in the peculiarly graceful form, both of head and body, which characterizes the latter. His tail is entirely that of a cat : and his limbs, although more elongated I than in any other species of that group, seem to be better fitted for strong muscular ex- ertion than for active and long-continued speed." Though the Hunting Leopard pos- sesses much of the sagacity and fidelity of the dog, its anatomical structure and general habits are undoubtedly feline. The general ground-colour is a bright yellowish brown above, lighter on the sides, and nearly white beneath ; marked with numerous small black spots on the back, sides, and limbs ; and which are continued along the tail, so closely set as to appear like rings; the tip of the tail is white, as is also the whole of its under surface, with the exception of the rings just mentioned. The ears are short and rounded, marked with a broad black spot at the base, the tip and inside being whitish. The upper part of the head is of a deeper tinge than the rest ; from each eye is a blackish line running down to the corners of the mouth, and the extremity of the nose, like that of a j 4og, is black. The fur does not possess that ( sleekness which distinguishes the feline race in general, but has a peculiar kind of crisp- ness ; and there is very little appearance of | a mane, except that the hair is somewhat 1 longer and more crisp along the back of the j This useful and docile species, which it is : believed might be reduced to a state of per- j feet domestication, inhabits the greater part ! both of Asia and Africa. In India and ; Persia, where they are employed in the : chase, they are carried, chained and hood- j winked, to the field in low cars. When the \ hunters come within view of a herd of ante- j lopes, the Leopard is liberated, and the game is pointed out to him : he does not, i however, immediately dash forward in pur- ' suit, but steals along cautiously till he has nearly approached the herd unseen, when | with a few rapid and vigorous bounds he darts on the timid game, and strangles it almost instantaneously. Should he, how- j ever, fail in his first efforts and miss his prey, he attempts no pursuit, but returns to : the call of his master, evidently disappointed, | and generally almost breathless. LEPADOGASTER. A genus of small | Malacopterygious fishes, which have the power of attaching themselves to rocks and ; other hard substances, by means of the disc, ! whereby they are enabled to remain and j find their food in situations where every j 374 Erratfurj? of Datura! ^t' other species of fish would be swept away by the current of the water. They have large pectorals reaching to the under side of the body ; head broad and depressed ; snout curved and protractile ; body without scales; gills with little opening, and four or five rays : they have no air-bladder, but they swim briskly In the Rev. David L/andsborough's 'Excursions to Arran,' the little two-spotted sucker-fish, (Lepadogaster bimaculatus), whose fry he found on opening a scallop, furnishes him with a subject which he treats in a very pleasant and edifying manner : " How wonderfully the l/ord teaches the feeblest of his creatures to provide for their own safety and that of their offspring I What a charming nursery this little sucker- fish selects for itself ! It is rather nice in its choice. It is not an old, weather-beaten, scallop that it takes possession of, but one that is fresh without, and smooth and pure within. After it has entered, it certainly has some way of gluingthe valves together, for it is not without difficulty that they can be torn asunder. Neither is it imprisoned, though the apartment is thus shut against intruders ; for, closely as the valves cohere, there are some little apertures about the ears of the shell through which it can make its exit with its numerous family, or by which such little creatures as they feed on may, in their simplicity, enter." LEP AS. A genus of Cirrhipedous animals, of which the Barnacle (Lepas anatifera) is a specimen. They adhere in clusters to rocks, shells, floating wood, and other extraneous marine substances, and, being incapable of changing place, are supposed to be true hermaphrodites. The word Lepas, in the Linnaoan system, contains all the Cirrhipeds, or Multivalves. It was formerly applied to Limpets or Patella : in short, the ancient definition, " Concha petrae adhserens," would apply to any shells attached to rocks. Much may be expected from the researches of Mr. Charles Darwin, F. R. S., into their history. He has just published, in one of the Ray Society's volumes, a minute ana- tomical and zoological investigation of all the species of Cirrhipeds. [See BALANCS.] LEPIDOPTERA. An order of four- winged insects, containing some of the largest and most beautiful in nature, and compre hending all those usually ranked as Butter- flies, Moths, and Sphinxes. The wings, which vary in size, figure, and position, are covered with a multitude of minute scales, which when rubbed appear like powder or farinaceous dust ; the nervures of the wings being disposed chiefly in a longitudinal direction. The antennae are composed of numerous minute joints, and are generally distinct. They are also furnished with a proboscis, composed of two sub-cylindrical tubes, between which there is an interme- diate one, or sucker ; and by means of it they are enabled to extract the nectar from flowers, that being the only aliment on which they subsist. The head, thorax, and abdomen are always more or less covered with hair. In the Linnaean system, this order is com- posed of three genera : 1. Papilla (Butter- flies) ; which in the Cuvierian system is represented by the_ Diurna: 2. Sphinx (the Hawk Moths) ; viz. the Crepuscularia of Cuvier, which mostly fly in the morning or evening twilight : 3. Phalcena (or Moths) ; called by Cuvier the Nocturna, or those which in general fly only during the night. Some of these are domestic pests, and devour cloth, wool, furs, feathers, wax, lard, flour, and the like ; but by far the greatest num- ber live wholly on vegetable food, certain kinds being exclusively leaf-eaters, while others attack the buds, fruits, seeds, bark, pith, stems, and roots of plants. The larvaa of L/epidopterous insects are well known by the name of Caterpillars. [See BUTTERFLY and CATERPILLAR.] So great is the number of insects belonging to this order, that Dr. Burmeister supposes them to amount to nearly one sixth of the whole of the insect tribes. The imago state is characterized by several peculiarities not occurring in any of the other orders. " The body is compact, and densely clothed with hairs or scales : the head is free, not being received into a frontal prothoracic cavity, but attached by a narrow ligament ; it is furnished at the sides with a pair of large granulated eyes, and its hinder part often with a pair of ocelli, which are generally hidden by the thick covering of hairs or scales : the antennae are inserted on the upper part of the head, and are generally long and multiarticulate, very variable in form, and often very complicated in the males ; the mouth, at first sight, appears to consist of a long and delicate spirally con- voluted organ, which, when examined, is found to consist of two pieces, each of which is sometimes provided with a small jointed appendage or palpus at its base. This very slender proboscis (or antlia as it is called by Kirby and Spence) is employed to pump up the nectar of flowers, upon which alone it subsists, into the mouth and stomach of the insect, and which, from its peculiar con- struction, is admirably adapted for pene- trating to the depths of the narrowest blos- soms. When at rest, it is coiled up, and defended by two large and compressed palpi, composed of three joints inserted upon a fleshy piece, soldered to the front of the head." * * * * " The thorax is robust and compact, the prothoracic portion minute, owing to the fore-legs performing no supple- mental functions, whilst the mesothorax, to which is attached the anterior pair of large wings, is greatly enlarged, the metathorax being again reduced in size. The prothorax bears upon its upper side a pair of organs, especially characteristic of the order, name- ly, a pair of scales covered with hair quite distinct from the wing-covers (tegulae), which Kirby and Spence call patagia or tippets, but which have been overlooked by all other authors except Chabrier, who first discovered them." * * * * "The wings are attached to the lateral and superior parts of the meso- and meta-thorax, and are always present, except in a few species, of which the females alone are apterous, or have the wings reduced -papular Btctumari) ai ftnimxttto jlatur*. 37.' to small and useless appendages: these wings are of large size, and are not folded up ; the two fine layers of membrane of which the wings are composed, like the upper and lower surface of a leaf, are kept expanded by a number of longitudinal corneous veins, or nerves, as they have been called." * * * * ' The wings in this order offer another pecu- liarity, since, instead of being naked and transparent, they are clothed with a double layer of minute scales, somewhat resembling those of fishes. These scales, upon which the beauty of these insects so entirely de- pends, are easily detached in the form of a fine dust, and, when examined under the microscope, are exceedingly variable in their form, but generally more or less wedge- shaped, or oval ; sometimes toothe_d or notched at the broadest end, and having a slender point at the base, by which they are attached upon the membranous surface of the wing, which, when denuded, presents the appearance of numerous minute impres- sions arranged in lines, in which the base of the scales are planted, being laid upon each other like the tiles on the roof of a house. The number of these scales is very great, there being more than 400,000 on the wings of the silkworm moth, according to Leuwenhoeck : in some species, however, the wings are partially, or even entirely, de- nuded of scales ; and in others, small patches only are thus denuded, as in the great Atlas Moth. In many species, these scales exhibit the most brilliant metallic tints, so that in the bright light of the sun it is almost im- possible to look upon them." * * * * " The variations in the colours and markings of the wings are almost as numerous as the species themselves : the sexes also often differ materially from each other ; still some feneral principles are evident in the distri- ution of these colours and markings. Thus the Pontice and Pierides are almost uniformly white ; Colias and its allies yellow ; the Fritillaries rich brown, spotted with black and with silvery spots on the under side ; Hipparchia and its allies ornamented with eye- like marks ; the Lycenae copper- co- loured ; the Polyommati fine blue, with small eyes on the under side : the Zyganoe with red under wings ; the Noctuidce with an ear-like mark in the middle of the fore wings ; the Geometridae. with waved carpet- like marks." We are indebted for the pre- vious extracts to Mr. Westwood's excellent " Introduction to the Classification of In- sects." We must refer our readers, who wish to study the subject more particularly, to the works of Dr. Boisduval, Messrs. Doubleday and Hewitson, and others. The recently published Lists of British Species, drawn up with so much study and care by Mr. II. Doubleday of Epping, and by Mr. Stephens (Cat. Lep. in Brit. Mus.) are indis- pensable to all who study the British species ; as British authors, up to his time, have been apt to multiply species, and occasionally to misapply the names, from the want of au- thentic specimens to compare with their species. More particular information will be found under the different species of Lepi- doptera described in the course of the work. LEPIDOSIREN. A genus placed by some authors among the Fish, by others among the Amphibia : of late it has been the subject of many learned papers, abroad and at home; the'best known species is named Lepidosiren annectens, and is a native of Africa. Dr. Melville differs from Professor Owen with regard to the position of this remarkable genus in the Animal Kingdom, as he regards it as a true Amphibian. He rests its cha- racter on the absence of the super-occipital bone, the presence of the large epi- and basi- cranial bones, the non-development of the maxillary and intermaxillary bones ; and especially the enormous magnitude of the Wernerian bones, which become subservient to mastication, and anchylosed to the ex- panded terygoids ; on the nostril being doubled ; on the existence of external cuta- neous gills during the adult condition, which did not occur in any fish ; and on the co- existence of external and internal gills, with lungs : in other words, on its exhibiting the different modes of circulation, respiration, &c., in the produce second stage of the larva of the frog and Amphiuma, or Meno- poma, and other characters. One species (about a foot long) inhabits the upper part of the river Gambia ; and another (between two and three feet in length) is a native of the large rivers of South America. In its respiratory apparatus, it bears the closest correspondence with the Perenni- branchiate Batrachia ; but in many other points of its internal structure, it more re- sembles certain species of fishes. The African species is said to pass nine months out of the twelve in a state of torpidity ; burying it- self in the mud during the dry season, and again reviving when the sources of the river are swollen by the rains. LEPIDOSTEUS. A genus of fishes with very bony polished scales, one species of which is found in the United States. Many allied genera are found in a fossil state. LEPISMA. A Linnaean genus of Apte- rous insects ; distinguished by an elongated body, covered with small scales, frequently silvery and brilliant. They have six feet, run with great velocity, and some of them by means of their caudal appendage are LEPI9MA VITTA.TA. enabled to leap. The antennae are setaceous, and usually very long. Several species hide beneath stones 5 others conceal themselves in the cracks of old window-frames and under damp boards, &c. 376 LEPTID^E. A subfamily of Dipterous insects, distinguished by the proboscis being short and membranous ; the lips terminal and thick ; and the abdomen usually with live distinct segments. LEPTOCEPHALUS, or ANGLESEA ! MORRIS. A Malacopterygious fish, cha- racterized by a very small and short head, : and a remarkably compressed body. It is common in the seas of hot climates. One specimen of it was taken on the coast of Anglesea by a gentleman named Morris, i and is described by Pennant ; but since that time many others have been found on our ; coasts. It is four inches long ; head very j small ; the eyes large ; lower jaw slender ; numerous small teeth in each jaw ; the body compressed sideways ; extremely thin, and almost transparent : the bones forming the vertebrse have no spinous processes what- ever ; the dorsal and abdominal margins, as well as the lateral line, exhibit a series of small black specks ; and its general opal- like hue and graceful motions give it a very pleasing appearance. It is usually found among sea-weed. LEPTOCONCHUS. A genus of Mollusca, found in the Red Sea, where it is imbedded in calcareous masses of Polyperia. The head of the animal is furnished with a pro- boscis ; two tentacula, with eyes in the middle ; foot of moderate size, and no oper- culum. The shell is of a dirty-white colour, subglobular, delicate, fragile, and translu- cent ; spire low ; aperture large, and fur- rowed externally. LEPTOPHINA. The name given to a subfamily of serpents belonging to the family Colubridce. They are characterized by a long and very slender body, slightly de- pressed : the head elongated, and narrowed before ; and a very long, slender, and acutely pointed tail. "The whole of the serpents composing these genera live," Mr. Bell ob- serves, "in woods, entwining themselves amongst the branches of trees, and gliding with great rapidity and elegance from one to another. Their habits, combined with the graceful slenderness of their form, the beautiful metallic reflection from the surface in some species, and the bright and change- able hues in others, place them among the most interesting of the serpent tribe. Their food consists of large insects, young birds, &c., which the extraordinary size of the head, the width of the gape, and the great dilatability of the neck and body, enable them to swallow, notwithstanding the small size of these parts in a state of rest." They are perfectly harmless ; and it is even said that children are in the habit of taming and playing with some of the species, twining them round their necks and arms, and that the snakes appear pleased at being thus ca- ressed. LEPTOPTILUS. AgenusofGrallatorial birds, containing the well known Adjutant of India [which see]. LEPTURIIXaS. The third family of Longicorn beetles, comprising such as have the eyes rounded, or very slightly emargi- nate ; the antennae of moderate length, in- serted before the eyes ; the head is inclined downwards, and narrowed into a neck at its union with the thorax, which is conical or trapezoid, and narrower in front than the head ; the mandibles are acute at the tips ; the elytra are narrowed to the tips, so as to give the terminal part of the body the ap- pearance of an elongated but reversed tri- angle. These insects are of moderate size, active, and generally gaily coloured, being often ornamented with yellow markings ; they are found either upon umbelliferous flowers in the hot sunshine, or on the trunks of trees, where they usually reside in their previous states. One of the largest and finest of these beetles is a North American species, the JDes- mocerns palliatus, which appears on the flowers and leaves of the common elder towards the end of June and until the middle of July. It is of a deep violet or Prussian blue colour, sometimes glossed with green, and nearly one half of the fore part of the wing-covers is orange-yellow, suggesting the idea of a short cloak of this colour thrown over the shoulders, which the name palliatus, that is, cloaked, was designed to express. The head is narrow ; the thorax is narrow before and wide behind, and has a little sharp pro- jecting point on each side of the base. The larva; live in the lower part of the stems of the elder, and devour the pith, as Dr. Harris informs us. In this country are many spe- cies, some of which are rather large and hand- some. They are described in the works of Mr. Stephens. LEPUS. [SeeHAEE.] A group of parasitic Crustacea ; one species of which infests the Sun-fish (Orthogariscus}. The fish and its parasite are thus described in Capt. Grey's Travels in Australia : " We caught also a fish ( Or thogariscus), which the seamen called a devil-fish. The length of it was six feet two inches ; breadth from fin to fin, three feet six inches ; length from tip of nose to pectoral fin, two feet ; thickness through the breast, one foot six inches. This fish was infested about its nose with a kind of parasite (Lernea), having two long thin tails. The sailors stated that these animals frequently cause large sores about the nose of the fish, and that when suffering from this, it will allow the sea birds to sit on it, and peck away at the affected part. The habit of the fish is to swim during calms, with one of the hind fins out of water, and it is then har- pooned from a boat. I have myself seen petrels perched upon them ; and directly one of these fish was hoisted on board, the sailors looked for the parasites and found them. They were an inch long, and covered with a transparent shell marked with gray spots and lines ; the hind part of the body, near the tail, being darker than the fore part, as if the intestines were seated there. These little creatures adhered strongly to any sub- stance that they were laid on, and caused an irritating feeling to the skin, if placed on it ; they swam with great rapidity when put Cfje Creagurg ot Natural 377 into sea water, and in their movements in swimming much resembled a tadpole ; their tails were merely long transparent fibres." Our figure represents a species, Anthosoma Smithii, which derives its generic name from its body resembling the blossom of a flower. In Dr. Baird's British Entomostraca figures and descriptions of the Britisli species are given. LESTRIS. A genus of Palmipede birds, distinguished from the true Gulls by their membranous nostrils being larger and open- ing nearer to the point and edge of the beak; the tail also is pointed. The females are larger than the males, which is the reverse of what is observable in the genus Larus ; and they lay but two eggs, of a dark colour. LESTRIS PARASITICUS ; the ARCTIC GULL. This species is common in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Numbers of them frequent the Hebrides in the breeding season ; and they are also to be seen in the Orkneys, and on the coast of Yorkshire. They make their nest of moss, on the dry grassy tufts in boggy places, and lay two eggs of an ash colour, spotted with black. The length of the Arctic Gull is twenty-one inches the bill is dusky, pretty much hooked at the end, but the straight part is covered with a sort of cere : the nostrils are narrow, and placed near the end. In the male the crown of the head is black ; the back, wings, and tail are dusky ; and the whole under side of the body is white : the legs are small, scaly, and black. The female is entirely brown. They are ravenous and ferocious to such a degree, that they pursue other gulls of a less vigorous and determined nature, whenever they observe them to have a prize worth contending for, and compel them to drop or disgorge their prey ; which the pursuer usually catches as it falls. Mr. Fisher, in his Journal of a Voyage to the Arctic regions, in H. M. SS. Hecla and Griper (1820), gives the following information on this subject : " Several Arctic Gulls were seen to-day for the first time. This bird is commonly called by our Greenland seamen the Boatswain, and sometimes Dirty Allen, a name somewhat analogous to that by which it is characterized by the Danes, viz. Stroudt-' jager, or Dung-bird. All these names have had their origin from a mistaken notion that these birds lived on the excrements of the lesser gulls, which, on being pursued, either from fear, or to relieve themselves from the persecution of fierce enemies,voided something to satiate the voracious appetites of their pursuers, and by that means escape from further molestation. The fallacy of this opinion is now, however, pretty gene- rally known. That the Arctic Gulls do pursue those of their own genus which they can master (particularly the Kittiwakes) is an incontestable fact ; but the object of their pursuit is not the excrement, but the prey that the pursued is at that time possessed of, and which at length they are forced to drop, to secure their own safety ; which they effect during the time that their enemy is em- ployed picking it up, although that is done in a very short period, for they manage the business with such dexterity, that the object dropped is generally caught before it reaches the water." LESTRIS CATARACTES ; the SKUA GCTLL. This is the most formidable of all the Gull kind, preying not only on fishes, but also on the smaller kinds of water-fowl, and, as some assert, even on young lambs. It is a stout bird, two feet in length, and between four and five from tip to tip of the extended wings. The bill is dark, strong, much hooked, sharp at the tip, and covered to the nostrils with a kind of cere. The whole upper plumage is of a deep brown, edged with a dull rust colour; the under parts being considerably lighter : the tail is white at the root, the shafts are of the same colour, and the webs of deep brown : the legs and toes are covered with coarse black scales ; and the claws are strong and hooked. This fierce species is met with in the high lati- tudes of both hemispheres, where they are much more common than in the warm or temperate parts of the globe. They are un- commonly courageous in defence of their young, and attack, with eagle-like courage and ferocity, any animal that dares to dis- turb them ; nay, those persons who are about to rob their nests, aware of the recep- tion they are likely to meet with, hold a knife or other sharp instrument over their heads, upon which the enraged bird rushes, to its own destruction. By many people their feathers are preferred to those of the goose ; and in some parts they are killed in great numbers merely for the sake of them. LEUCISCTJS. A genus of Malacoptery- gious fishes, of the genus Cyprinidce. It contains many species, chiefly distinguished from others of the Carp tribe by the com- parative shortness of the dorsal and anal fins, and a deficiency of barbules about the mouth. [For examples of this genus, see BLEAK : CHUB : DACE : ROACH, &c.] LEUCOPHASIA ; called by HUbner Lep- toria. A genus of Butterflies distinguished from the other " Whites " by the narrow elongated wings, rounded at the end. There are few species in this genus ; we particular- ize the British LEUCOPHASIA SINAPIS ; or WOOD WHITE BUTTERFLT. In certain woods and copses this insect is to be met with at the end of (LEOCOPHASIA SINAP13.) 378 (Erea&trg at $atttral , May and beginning of August. Its wings I above are milk-white, with a dusky rounded I spot at the tip of the anterior, and the base sprinkled with dusky ; beneath, the tip and I base are yellowish tipped with green : the 1 posterior wings are faintly tinged with yellow | and sprinkled with dusky clouds : bodycine- I reous above, white beneath ; antennas white, j with black rings. In the female the wings j are more rounded. Caterpillar green, with i a deep yellow lateral line : it feeds on the lotus corniculatus. The Chrysalis is fusiform; greenish with a yellow streak on the sides, and white spots on the stigmata. I LEUCOSIADJ3. A family of Decapod [ Crustacea, containing many fine round por- ; cellane exotic crabs ; the genus Ebalia of I the British seas belongs to this family. ! LEVERET. The young of the Hare I during the first year of its age. LIBELLULA : LIBELLFLIDJE. A genus and family of Neuropterous insects ; the distinguishing characters of which are : that the mouth is furnished with jaws ; that ! the antennas are shorter than the thorax ; } that the wings are extended ; and that the tail is terminated by a kind of forceps. [See I DlZAGON-FLY : PjiTALUKA.] A gen Holla : found in New Holland : it contains the I LICMETIS NASICUS, or LONG-BILLED COCK- ATOO. This species of the Psittacidce or Parrot tribe, like the common Cacatua galcrita, assembles in large flocks and spends much of its time on the ground, where it grubs up the roots of orchids and other bulbous plants, upon which it irminly sub- I sists. It not unfrequently makes inroads to the newly-sown fields of corn, where its at- tacks are most destructive. In confinement I they appear dull and morose, and show a ! very irritable temper. The general plumage j is white, washed with pale brimstone-yellow j on the under surface of the wing, and with ! bright brimstone-yellow on the under sur- I face of the tail ; line across the forehead and lores scarlet ; the feathers of the head, neck, and breast are also scarlet at the base, show- ing through the white, particularly on the breast ; ifides light brown ; bill white ; naked skin round the eye greenish blue ; legs and feet dull olive gray. The sexes are alike in size and colour. The female de- posits two white eggs on a layer of rotten wood at the bottom of holes in the larger gum trees. LIMA. A genus of Conchifera, inhabiting a longitudinal shell, almost always white, nearly equivalve, obliquely fan-shaped, and slightly eared ; valves gaping near the bosses, which are distant ; hinge with a triangular disc between the umbones, divided in the centre by a triangular ligamentary pit, with- out teeth. The animal makes use of the valves of his shell as natatory organs, work- ing them like fins or paddles, and by this means proceeding at a rapid rate through the water. Two or three species are found on our coasts, and fossil species occurring in lias, inferior oolite, &c. LIMACINA. A genus of Mollusca be- longing to the order 1'teropoda. It inhabits the northern seas ; and is said to be devoured by whales in vast quantities. The shell is thin, fragile, papyraceous, spiral, and ob- liquely convolute ; spiral side rather pro- minent, the other side uinbilicated ; aperture large. The body of the animal is long ; and it can retire completely into its shell. LIMAX : LIMACIN2E. A genus and family of voracious naked Molluscs, com- monly called Slugs. In most of the terres- trial species of this order there is a prominent head, with four retractile tentacula ; and at the end of the longest pair the eyes are situ- ated. Tlie figure of the Limax is oblong, approaching to cylindric. On the back there is a kind of shield or disc, formed by the mantle; and this shield covers the pulmonary sac, the orifice of which is on the right side. They are diffused throughout all climates, particular species being restricted to each ; and they are every where regarded as inve- terate destroyers of garden produce. [See SLOG.] LIMENITIS. A genus of Butterflies, one species of which is found in this country. LIMENITIS CAMILLA ; or HONEYSUCKLE BUTTERFLY. This somewhat rare species, which on the Continent is known as SyhiUa, is noted for the graceful elegance with which it floats along with outstretched wing. Its general colour is a dark brown, spotted with black, the anterior wings having a curved central white band, intersected with black veins, a grayish crescent and three or four small white dots ; the posterior wings are very similar, but tlie white band in the centre is oblique and straight ; between the fascia and the margin is a double parallel series of obscure black spots : beneath, the anterior wings are brown, clouded with ful- vous, and there are several white spots : the posterior wings at the base are a mixture of tawny-orange and bluish-gray, with several black zig-zag lines and dots ; then brownish tctumarji of 379 orange, a white band, a double series of black spots, and a few white dots. The body is dusky bluck above, white beneath ; antenna black above, tawny beneath and at the tip. Caterpillar green, with the head and legs reddish : it feeds on the various species of honeysuckle : the chrysalis is green spotted with gold, forked in front. The Honeysuckle Butterfly appears to de- light in settling on the blossoms of the bramble. LIMOSA. A genus of Wading Birds, fre- quenting marshes and the sea-shore. They are characterized by a long straight beak, slightly bent at the extremity ; and by the external toes, which are long and slender, being palmated at the base. [See GOD- WIT.] LIMPET. (Patella.') A genus of marine Molluscous animals ; the distinguishing characters of which are : that the shell is univalve, of a gibbous shape, almost conical, always fixed to a rock or some hard body ; and having its apex sometimes sharp-pointed, at others obtuse : straight, or crooked ; whole, or perforated : these variations oc- casioning so many specific distinctions. The means by which the l/impet affixes itself to a rock were first clearly explained by Reaumur. The shell approaches to a conic figure ; the base of which is occupied by a large muscle, which alone contains nearly as much flesh as the whole body of the fish : this muscle is not confined within the shell, but assists the creature in its pro- gressive motion, or in fixing itself at plea- sure. When in a quiescent state, which is commonly the case, it applies this muscle every way round to the surface of some stone, and so firmly attaches itself to it that it is not easily separated even with the as- sistance of a knife. It is said that crows and other birds which endeavour to detach them for food, are sometimes caught by the points of their bills, and are held there until drowned by the advancing tide. The Common Limpet (P. vulgaris), which is very numerous on the British coasts, has rough prominent striae, with edges sharply crenated ; and the vertex is near the centre. Another species, frequent on the Cornish coast, is called the Transparent Limpet ; it has a pellucid shell, longitudinally marked with rows of rich blue spots ; and the vertex ia placed near one of the edges. But the most beautiful varieties are found on the shores of the Oriental seas and the coasts of the Me- diterranean. Limpets are herbivorous, feed- ing upon sea-weeds, which they reduce with their long riband-shaped tongues. Many and very opposite opinions have been given to account for the extraordinary tenacity with which this animal adheres to the rock : that which to us appears the most feasible, ascribes the true cause to a viscous juice emitted from the muscle of which we have spoken, which, though imperceptible to the eye, is nevertheless capable of pro- ducing these surprising effects. This, it ia observed, may be perceived by the touch ; for if the finger be applied to the place im- mediately after the removal of the Limpet from a stone, the tenacity of this juice will be extremely strong j but if any wet touches the stone after the removal of the fish, no viscosity will be perceptible, the whole sub- stance of the glue being instantly dissolved, and its effects totally lost. Water, therefore, is a sufficient solvent for this glue ; but the close adhesion of the outer rim of the great circular muscle prevents the external water from acting on it, otherwise it must always be destroyed as soon as discharged. How- ever, the under surface of the body of the animal is entirely covered with small tuber- cles, containing water, which the creature discharges whenever inclined to liberate itself, and the whole cement immediately dissolves before it. LIMULUS, or KING-CRAB. A genus of large Crustacea, belonging to the group Xyphosuraor SiKOrd- tails, sometimes attain- ing the length of two feet. The Limuli are of a very singular form and structure : their bodies are divided into two parts ; of which the anterior, covered by a large semicircular shield, bears the eyes, the antennae, and six pairs of legs, which surround the mouth, and are used both for walking and for mastica- tion ; whilst another shield of a somewhat triangular shape covers the posterior portion of the body, which supports five pairs of swimming legs, and terminates in a long pointed process. The Limuli are confined to the shores of tropical Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, and tropical America. The best known species comes from the Molucca islands : hence they are sometimes termed Molucca crabs. Their habits do not appear to be very well understood : it seems, how- ever, that they prefer the neighbourhood of sandy shores ; and it is said that, in order to avoid the violent heat of the sun, which becomes fatal to their existence, they bury 380 at themselves in the sand. The long hirny process is used by some of the Malays as a RING-CRAB. (LIMDLUS MOIOCCA^OS.) point for their arrows ; the wounds it makes being dangerous, like those made by the jagged spines of certain fishes. LING. ( Gadus molva.) This is a valu- able fish of the Gadidce family, or Cod tribe. The body is very long and slender, usually from three to four feet ; the head is flat ; the teeth in the upper jaw are numerous and very small, while those in the lower are few, long, and sharp ; and the lower jaw is LINO. fail'DS MOI.VA.) shorter than the upper, with a single barbule at its extremity : lateral line straight ; scales small ; two dorsal fins of equal height; one short near the head ; the other long, reaching nearly to the tail, which is rounded at the end. The colour of this fish varies, being sometimes of an olive hue on the sides and back, and sometimes cinereous : the belly is white, as are also the ventral fins, and the dorsal and anal are edged with white : the tail is marked near the end with a transverse black bar, and tipped with white. The Ling is an inhabitant of the Northern seas, and forms in many places a considerable article of commerce. Large quantities are taken among the Western Islands, in the Orkneys, on the Yorkshire and Cornish coasts, and, generally speaking, all round the Irish coast. They spawn in June, depositing their eggs in the soft oozy ground at the mouths of rivers ; at which I period the males separate from the females. j While the Ling continues in season, its liver 1 is very white, and abounds with a fine- ; flavoured oil ; but no sooner does it cease to i be in season, than its liver becomes red, ! and destitute of oil. The same, indeed, | happens to the Cod and some other fishes, in a certain degree, but not so remarkably as in the Ling. Besides a certain portion which are consumed fresh, considerable quantities are cured for exportation. The young are called drizzles LINGUL A. A genus of Conchifera, found in the Philippine Islands, &c., and consti- tuting a singular anomaly, as being the only bivalve shell that is pedunculated. The animal has two long ciliated arms, which are curled up during repose. Shell thin, either horny or calcareous, equivalve, equi- lateral, peaked at the apex, and generally open at the base. There are several recent species found in the Moluccas, and some fossils in sandy indurated marl, limestone, &c. Lingula cmatina is so named from its resemblance to a duck's bill. LINNET. (FringillaUnota.) The Brown or Gray Linnet is a well-known song-bird, being common in every part of Europe. Its length is about five inches and a half, in- cluding the bill and tail : the bill is bluish gray ; the neck, back, and upper parts of the head, dark reddish brown, the edges of the feathers being pale ; under parts dirty reddish white ; breast deeper than the rest, sides streaked with brown ; quills dusky, edged with white ; the tail, which is a little forked, is of a brown colour, edged with white, except the two middle feathers, which are bordered with a dull red : legs short and brown. The female is marked on the breast with streaks of brown ; her wings have less of white ; and her colours are in general less bright. The Linuet usually . (FRJNOILLA. LINOTA.) builds in some thick bush or hedge, preferring the white-thorn and furze ; the outside is composed of moss, dry grass, and roots ; ind the inside of fine soft wool and hair. The female lays four or five eggs, which are white, spotted with blue, and irregularly spotted with brown at the larger end. The young are hatched towards the end of April or beginning of May. The song of the Linnet is lively and sweetly varied ; its manners are gentle, and its disposition is docile. When confined with other birds it easily adopts their song, and when taken young it may be readily taught to modulate ts voice to any sound to which it is accus- ;omed. But those persons who have paid popular JBtctifluarji at &mmat*tt ^attire. 381 most attention to the natural note of this I It is in Africa, however, that he reigns su- bird must be well aware that its native strains \ preme among the weaker quadrupeds, and are more delightful than any iii which it I exerts his power to the greatest extent. A is capable of being instructed. Linnets, | Lion of the largest size has been found to says Bewick, are frequently seen in flocks ; measure about eight feet from the nose to during the winter ; and their assembling j the tail, and the tail itself about four feet : with other kinds of small birds is the sure I the general colour is a pale tawny, still paler presage of a coming storm. They may be or more inclining to white beneath : the caught in clap-nets during the summer | head is very large, the ears rounded, the face months ; but flight-birds are most plentiful j covered with short or close hair ; the upper about the beginning of October. They feed [ part of the head, the neck, and shoulders on various seeds, and are particularly fond : coated with long shaggy hair, forming a of linseed ; from which circumstance, it is ! pendent mane ; on the body the hair is short said, they derive their name. I and smooth ; and the tail is terminated by In alluding to the domestic attachments I a tuft of blackish hair. The Lioness is smaller of some species of birds, the Journal of a than the Lion, has no mane, and is of a Naturalist thus speaks of the Linnet : " This whiter cast beneath. During the day the songster is no solitary visitor of our dwellings: Lion usually slumbers in his retreat ; and as it delights and lives in society, frequenting \ night sets in, he rouses from his lair, and open commons and gorsy fields, where ; begins his prowl. Being of the cat tribe, his several pairs, without the least rivalry or , eyes are incapable of bearing a strong light ; contention, will build their nests and rear ! the night is therefore his proper time for their offspring in the same neighbourhood, ' action. twittering and warbling all the day long. I Much has been written respecting a sharp This duty over, the families unite, and I prickle, or corneous process, concealed in the form large associations, feeding and moving j tuft of hair at the extremity of the Lion's in company, as one united household ; ) tail, with which he was said to lash himself and, resorting to the head of some sunny tree, | when angry, or to arouse his dormant rage, they will pass hours in the enjoyment of the | Homer, Lucan, and Pliny had so described warmth, chattering with each other in a low i him : but though they appeared to have no and gentle note ; and they will thus regu- j doubt of his lashing his sides with that object, larly assemble during any occasional bright j they did not advert to this peculiarity of gleam throughout all the winter season, caudal structure. Didymus Alexandrinus, ' and still their voice is song,' which, heard at some little distance, forms a very pleasing concert, innocent and joyous. The Linnet is the cleanliest of birds, delighting to dabble in the water, and dress its plumage in every little rill that runs by. The extent of voice in a single bird is not remarkable, being more pleasing than powerful ; yet a large field of furze, in a mild sunny April morn- ing, animated with the actions and cheering music of these harmless little creatures, united with the bright glow and odour of this early blossom, is not visited without gratification and pleasure." LION. (Felts leo.) This most noble as well as most formidable of all carnivorous animals is chiefly distinguished by the pre- sence of a full flowing mane in the male, a commentator on the ' Iliad,' however, tt ? < L b W lfted ^ and * le < llsa l>l >ett n ce j having found a black homy prickle among of the feline markings in both sexes before the hair of the tail i mme diatey conjectured they arrive at maturity. The Lion is prm- that he had ascertained the (* cau J se of the cipally an inhabitant of the interior wilds of 8tirnulus when the anima i flourishes that Africa but is also found, though far less mem ber in defiance of his enemies. The plentifully, m the hotter regions of Asia. su bject afterwards remained unnoticed for centuries, till at length Blumenbach verified the fact of its existence, although lie did not admit that it could produce the effect attri- buted to it by the ancient scholiast. He remarked, indeed, that the tail was termi- nated by a horny prickle, surrounded at its base by an annular fold of the skin, and so buried in the tuft of hair that its use for the I purpose stated could only be imaginary. I Since that time it has been clearly proved, | by the examination of Lions, both living j and dead, that there is occasionally present i at the extreme tip of the tail, a horny prickle, i scarcely three-eighths of an inch in length, ' which is altogether unconnected with the I.ION. (FEIJ3 LEO.) 382 raurg of Natural g& caudal vertebrae, and easily detached from the skin ; what its real use may be is purely conjectural, but that the animal is furnished with it in order to incite him to anger cannot for a moment be entertained. We should here observe, that in one of the ba,s -/< li< /s discovered, through the laudable zeal of Sir MOSCI.BS WHICH MOVE THE RETRACTILE CLAWS. Stratford Canning,in the excavations of Nim- roud (the supposed site of the ancient city of Nineveh), and now in the British Museum, an exaggerated representation of this " prickle " is very apparent. From this it is certain that the fact of its existence was perfectly established in the time of the Assyrians, or it would not have been prominently intro- duced in the figure of the sculptured Lion . When in quest of prey his roaring re- sembles the sound of distant thunder, and, being re-echoed by the rocks and mountains, appals and puts to flight every animal within hearing. In general, however, he wait." in ambush, or creeps insidiously towards Ms victim ; and then, springing on it with a tremendous bound, he seizes it with his powerful claws. His strength is prodigious : a single stroke of his paw, it is affirmed, is sufficient to break the back of a horse ; and his strength is such as to enable him to carry off a buffalo or antelope, with as much apparent ease as a cat carries off a rat. The Lion is supposed to be destitute of a fine scent, and to hunt by the eye alone : he will devour as much at one time as will serve him for two or three days ; and, when sa- tiated with food, he is said to retire to his den, which he seldom quits, except for the purpose of prowling about for his prey. His teeth are so strong, that lie breaks the bones with perfect ease, and often swallows them together with the flesh : his tongue, as in other feline animals, is furnished with re- versed prickles, but they are so large and strong in the Lion as to be capable of lace- ating the skin : the muscles which raise the . aw are of enormous size ; and those which support the head, as well as the ligamentum nuchae which runs along the spinous pro- jesses of the vertebrae to the occiput, are very highly developed. The Lioness is said to jo with young five months, and to produce Jut one brood in the year: the young are generally from two to four in number, which the parent nurses with great assiduity, and attends in their first excursions for prey ; and it is remarked that in a state of captivity she usually becomes very savage as soon as she becomes a mother. From the writings of ancient historians it appears very clear that Lions were at one time found in Europe, but they have long since totally disappeared. They are also no longer seen in Egypt, Palestine, or Syria, where they once were evidently far from uncommon ; and, as Cuvier remarks, even in Asia generally, with the exception of some countries between India and Persia, and some districts of Arabia, they have be- come comparatively rare. Nor is this to be wondered at, when we reflect on the con- stantly increasing numbers of the human race, the superior advantages given to man by the arts of civilization, and, above all, the destruction which is caused by using fire-arms against them, instead of the spear and the arrow. " His true country," as Mr. Bennett observes, " is Africa, in the vast and untrodden wilds of which, from the immense deserts of the north to the trackless forests of the south, he reigns supreme and uncon- trolled. In the sandy deserts of Arabia, in some of the wild districts of Persia, and in the vast jungles of Hindostan, he still main- tains a precarious footing ; but from the classic soil of Greece, as well as from the whole of Asia Minor, both of which were once exposed to his ravages, he has been utterly dislodged and extirpated." How different was it in the time of the Romans ! Struck with the magnificent appearance of these animals, they imported them in vast numbers from Africa, for their public spectacles. Quintus Scaevola, according to Pliny, was the first in Rome who exhibited a combat of Lions; but Sylla the dictator, during his praetorship, exhibited a hundred Lions ; after him, Pompey the Great produced no less than six hundred in the grand circus ; and Caesar the dictator four hundred. Mark Antony appeared in the streets of Rome in a chariot drawn by these noble animals, accompanied by his mistress Cytheris, an actress from the theatre : a sight, says Pliny, that surpassed in enormity even all the calamities of the times. " The general prey of the African Lion," Mr. Broderip observes, " consists of the larger herbivorous quadrupeds, very few of which it is unable to master ; and it is a severe scourge to the farmer, who is consequently ever on the look-out for Lions, and generally a most imperturbable and unerring shot. Though mortal accidents frequently happen in these huntings, the cool sportsman seldom fails of using his rifle with effect. Lions when roused, it seems, walk off quietly at first, and if no cover is near, and they are not pursued, they gradually mend their pace to a trot, till they have reached a good distance, and then they bound away. Their demeanour upon these occasions has been described to us by eye-witnesses to be of a careless description, as if they did not want a fray, but, if pressed, were ready to fight it out. If they are pursued closely, they turn and couch, generally with their faces to the adversary ; then the nerves of the sportsman litrttonavii at 383 are tried. If he is collected and master of his craft, the well-directed rifle ends the scene at once ; but if, in the flutter of the moment, the vital parts are missed, or the ball passes by, leaving the Lion unhurt, the infuriated beast frequently charges on his enemies, dealing destruction around him. This, how- ever, is not always the case ; and a steady unshrinking deportment has, in more in- stances than one, saved the life of the hunter." The distinctions which some naturalists have pointed out as existing between the African and Asiatic Lions have been alto- gether denied by BufFon, with whom Cuvier appears to coincide. On the other hand, modern writers, who have lately paid great attention to the subject, state that the African Lion is larger, has a more regular and graceful form, is generally of a darker colour, and has a less extensive mane. The African varieties are, 1. The Barbary Lion, which is described as having a deep yellow- ish brown fur and a full flowing mane : 2. The Senegal Lion, the fur of which is of a brighter yellow tint, and the mane thinner : 3. The Cape Lion, of which there are two varieties, one brown, the other yellowish ; the former being the most powerful and ferocious. The Asiatic varieties are generally distinguished as the Bemjal Lion ; the Per- sian or Arabian Lion; and the Maneiess Lion of Guzerat ; the last of which appears to be limited to a comparatively small dis- trict. There is also the Puma, or American Lion; a description of which will be found in its proper alphabetical position : but that animal, it should be observed, is destitute of several of the distinguishing characters of the true Lion, and is not entitled to the ap- pellation. We would willingly, if space permitted, insert some of the stirring narratives which recent travellers have given of Oriental Lion hunts : our readers must, however, be content with a brief notice, which w copy from the excellent publication last quoted : " The habits of the Asiatic Lions do not differ much from those of Africa, excepting that the former, from the state of the six or seven years old ; and the natural period of a Lion's life is generally supposed to be about twenty-two years ; but instances are on record which show they have some- times attained the " age of man." LION-LIZARD. The name applied by Catesby in his Natural History of Carolina to the Basilisk (Hasiliscus Americanus.) LITHODOMUS. A Molluscous animal inhabiting a bivalve shell, oblong, almost equally rounded at both ends, and the sum- mits very near the anterior. They at first suspend themselves to stones, like the com- mon Mussels, but then they perforate them, STONE-BO K.ER. (T.lTHOnOMUS I-IIHOFHAGUS ) and bury themselves in the excavations, whence they cannot issue. Cuvier says, that when young, the Lithodomus suspends itself to rocks by a byssus, but, as it grows, it pierces a hole, and introduces itself, forming a cavity which thenceforward it never leaves : indeed, after a short time, as it merely en- larges the interior, without making the en- trance any wider, its increasing bulk renders it unable to quit its cell, and in such cases the byssus dies away. LITHOPHAGIDJE. A family of the order Conchifera Dimyaria, consisting of tere- brating bivalves, gaping anteriorly, and having no accessory valves. LITHOTRYA. A genus of Molluscous animals, allied to the family of Pedunculated Cirripedes, inhabiting an irregularly shaped pyramidal shell, consisting of eight unequal pieces ; having at the base an irregularly cap-shaped appendage, like the inverted shell of a Patella, and to which the lower part of the peduncle is affixed. The genus country, frequent the jungles. In India the | derives its name from the power possessed elephant is generally employed in the chase which is even now conducted with more pomp and circumstance than in Africa. The grand Asiatic huntings of former times, those of Genghis Khan for instance, will occur to many of our readers. The ac- counts of most Asiatic modern sportsmen ve a most courageous bearing to the Lions those encounters. One of these states by the animal of making dwelling holes in stones or pieces of rock. LITTORINA. A genus of Mollusca found on the sea-shores in all parts of the world, feeding upon sea-weed. They in- habit a turbinated, thick shell, consisting of few whorls ; spire acuminated ; columella rather flattened ; opcrculum, horny, spiral, with rapidly increasing volutions. The common Periwinkle is a specimen of this fn that the Lions in India, instead of running away when pursued through a jungle, seldom take to cover as a refuge at all. On the approach of their enemies, they spring out I LIZARD. (Lacerta. ) A group of Reptiles, to meet them open-mouthed in the plain. | which not only differ from every other class They are thus easily shot ; but if they are j of animals, but they also vary widely from missed or only slightly wounded, they are . each other. With respect to size, the ranks of m ?f fr\ n '^ b ll^ r l a J ie ^.^ he y are v f n ! no class of beings are so opposite contrast the said to have sprung on the heads of the largest elephants, and to have fairly pulled them to the ground, riders and all." The mane and tuft on the tail of a Lion are not fully developed till the animal is gigantic and ferocious Crocodile with the in- offensive Chameleon ; or the monstrous Sau- rian reptiles, whose fossil remains excite the wonder of all beholders, with the harmless little Lizard of our walls and copses I They 384 at Natural vary too in colour greatly, and they differ considerably in form. But the principal distinction between the Lizard species arises from the manner of bringing forth their young. Some are viviparous ; others emit their spawn like fishes. The Crocodile, the Iguana, and all the larger kinds, produce eggs, which are hatched by the vivifying heat of the sun : the animals that issue from them are complete on leaving their shells, and their first efforts to run are in order to procure subsistence in their native element. The viviparous kinds, in which are all the Salamanders, are produced from the bodies of the females perfect and active, and un- dergo no future change : but those which are bred in the water, and, as is generally supposed, from spawn, suffer a very con- siderable change in their form ; being gene- rated with external skins or coverings, which sometimes enclose their feet, and give them a serpentine appearance. To these adscititious skins fins are superadded above and below their tails, which assist the ani- mals in swimming ; but when the false skins drop off, these likewise disappear ; and then the Lizards, with their four feet, are com- pletely formed, and exchange the water for the land. The most important of all these will be found described in other parts of this volume ; and we shall therefore have to consider in this place those only which are denominated Lacertidce, or True Lizards, which are bright-eyed, active, slender little animals, adorned with brilliant colours, and whose aspect and manners have nothing re- pulsive about them. The GREEN LIZARD. (Lacerta agiJis.) This elegant species, which is found in all the warmer parts of Europe, and seems pretty generally diffused throughout the Old Continent, is from ten to fifteen inches in length ; exhibiting a rich and varied mix- ture of darker and lighter green, interspersed with spots and marks of yellow, brown, &c. The head is green, covered with large an- gular scales ; the rest of the upper parts with very small ovate ones : the tail, which is commonly much longer than the body, is marked into very numerous scaly rings ; ttI8) and the under part of the animal, both on the body and limbs, is of a pale blue-green cast : beneath the throat is a kind of collar, formed by a row of scales much larger than the rest ; the abdomen and under surface of the limbs is likewise covered with scales : the tongue is moderately long, broad ut the base, bifid towards the tip, and covered on its broad part with numerous rows of minute sharp papillae pointing backwards. and thus the better enabling the animal to retain and swallow its prey, which consists chiefly of insects, small worms, &c. The Green Lizard is found in various situations, in gardens, about warm walls, buildings, &c. It is extremely active, pursuing its insect prey with great celerity, and readily es- caping from pursuit when disturbed If taken, however, it soon becomes familiar, and to a certain degree may even be tamed ; for which reason it is regarded with favour in many countries. It appears to run into many varieties both as to size and colour, but in all these states the particular charac- teristics of the species are easily ascertained. The VARIEGATED LIZARD. (Teius te- guixin.) The colour of this large species is highly beautiful, consisting of an elegant variegation of brown, blackish, and purple spots, on a pale bluish-white, and, in some parts, yellowish ground. The head is co- vered, as in the Green Lizard, with large scales or plates ; the body with small scales, so disposed as to mark the sides into nu- merous tapering annul! or strias ; and the tail, which is very long, is surrounded by extremely numerous rings of small square scales, and tapers to a slender point. The head is rather longer and more tapering than that of the Green Lizard : the tongue is broad, flat, long, forked at the tip, and cu- riously striated on each side. Native of South America. The VIVIPAROUS LIZARD. (Zootpca vivi- para.~) As its name imports, this reptile is produced alive. It frequents thickets, heaths, and sunny banks ; and several are often seen in such situations basking in the summer sun, and watching for their insect prey. They burrow in the ground, and retreat to their hiding-places on the slightest alarm. The average length of this species is about six inches. We have specified three species of this group, and others will be found scattered throughout this work. Lizards are so nu- merous in genera and species that we must refer our readers who are desirous of making further acquaintance with them to the ela- borate and admirable descriptive Catalogue of Lizards in the British Museum, by J. E. Gray, F. B. S., a goodly volume of nearly 300 pages. LIMNORIA. A genus of Isopodous Crus- tacea, in which the head is as broad as the first segment of the body, and the eyes gra- I.IMNORTA TFF liffjmtar JBtctumarg of gmmatctr $ature. 385 nuhited. The only known species (.L. lig- nornm) is like a small wood-louse in general appearance. It is of an ash-colour, with black eyes : it was first discovered in Britain by Mr. Stevenson, the builder of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, who found it exceedingly de- structive to the wood-work necessary in lay- ing the foundations of that useful structure, which it perforated in every direction. It is found in other parts of the British and Irish coasts, and has even attracted notice in France by its perforating ravages into wooden piles, piers, jetties, and other struc- tures embedded in the sea. The small line by the side of the figure denotes the natural size of this Lilliputian but destruc- tive Isopode. [See CHEJLUKA.] LITHOSIID^E. This family of Hetero- cerous Lepidoptera is of small extent, and the species are weak and inactive : the body is slender ; the antennae are slender and se- taceous ; the mouth considerably developed, the maxillae being long and spiral, and the labial palpi of moderate size, and three- jointed ; the thorax is not crested ; and the wings are comparatively of delicate struc- ture, and elongated. The brilliant colours of some of these insects would seem to in- dicate that they flew by day ; but the con- trary is the case, and their flight is short and feeble. The larvae are cylindrical, often somewhat hairy, with six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal feet : they are solitary in their habits, and never reside either in a case or in a general tent-like web. There are several exotic species of this family which are very splendid. The species of the genus Lithosia found in this country are very sombre in colour. LLAMA, or GUANACO. (Auchenia gla- ma.) This animal bears a strong resem- blance to the Camel in form and structure, but is much inferior in size. It is a native of South America, and is particularly plen- tiful in Peru, where it inhabits, in a wild state, the highest and coldest parts of moun- tains, feeding in numerous herds, and flying with great rapidity at the sight of man. The ancient Peruvians, however, completely subdued and domesticated it as a beast 01 burthen, and to them it answered the same purposes as the camel and dromedary of the old continent. The general size of the Jama is nearly that of a stag, or about four eet and a half in height, and six feet in ength : the neck is very long, and habitually upright ; the head is small ; the eyes large and brilliant ; the lips thick ; and the ears ong and movable : the haunches are slightly elevated ; and on the breast is a bunch which constantly exudes a yellowish oily matter. Its general colour is a light brown, the under parts being whitish ; and sometimes it is said to be varied or patched with darker and ighter shades on different parts, and to have a black stripe running down the back. The tail is about five inches long, small, straight, and slightly curved downwards. The hoofs are divided, and terminated by small horny appendages, rounded above, and on either side somewhat curved. It has no upper cutting teeth. In the wild animal the hair s long and shaggy ; in the domesticated imoother and closer. It requires no care or expense with respect to attendance or pro- ision for its sustenance ; it is satisfied with egetables, requiring neither corn nor hay ; and it even exceeds the camel in its absti- nence and endurance of thirst. The voice of the Llama resembles the shrill neighing of the horse. It is naturally patient and enduring ; but when angry or attacked, it strikes with its feet, and ejects from its mouth a quantity of saliva, which is said to be of so caustic a nature as to inflame the skin and produce slight eruptions. When the Spaniards invaded South America, it was kept in immense numbers for the purposes of traffic, and also for food ; its skin, also, was prepared as leather, and its wool spun and manufactured into cloth. Immense numbers were constantly employed in the transport of ore from the mines ; the ordi- nary load of each Llama was about 100 IDS., and its rate of travelling with this burthen over rugged mountain passes was from twelve to fifteen miles a day. At the present time, however, the horse, the ass, and especially the mule, which have been introduced from Europe, have very generally superseded the Llama as beasts of burthen ; whilst the in- troduction of the sheep, the goat, and the ox, has rendered it less necessary as affording either food, leather, or wool. The fleece of the Gucmaco, the name usually given to the wild Llama, is longer than that of the do- mesticated animal, and is in much request for the manufacture of many woollen cloths of a delicate texture. LOACH, or LOCHE. (Cobitis barbatula.) A small fish, often found secreted under stones in small, shallow, clear streams, and which swims rapidly away when disturbed T.OACH. .COB.TIS SARBATtJtA.) by moving the stone. It seldom exceeds four inches in length ; has six barbules about the mouth ; feeds on worms and aquatic in- 386 at $atttral ^ sects ; and the flesh is accounted excellent. The head, back, and sides are clouded and spotted with brown on a yellowish white ground ; the fins spotted with dark brown ; and the belly and under surface white. LOBIVANELLUS. A genus of Birds allied to the Lapwings, of which we may particularize the LOBIVAXELLUS LOBATUS, or WATTLED PJSWIT. This is an attractive and showy bird, of the Plover kind, common in most parts of New South Wales, and when unmolested approaching sufficiently close to the dwellings of the settlers to permit its habits, &c. to be minutely observed. In some districts, however, it has been much per- secuted, and has become so shy and distrust- ful as to obtain the name of the Alarm Bird, from its rising high in the air and screaming at the approach of every intruder. It is distinguished by a beautiful primrose-co- loured wattle, with which the colouring of the bill and the bold eye closely assimilate ; the head, back of the neck, and sides of the chest, are black ; back, wing-coverts, and scapularies, dark grayish-brown ; primaries black ; tail white, crossed near the extremity by a broad band of black ; tarsi purplish red ; scales black ; spur yellow. The colours of the plumage are strongly contrasted ; and, taken altogether, it is one of the most beau- tiful of the Plovers yet discovered. " While on the wing," Mr. Gould observes, " it has much of the carriage of the common Eu- ropean Pewit ( Vanettus cristatus\ but a de- cided difference is observable in its mode of running, and in its more bold and attractive manners." LOBSTER. (Hamarus vulgaris). A crus- taceous animal, belonging to the sub-order MACROURA, or long-tailed Decapods (but constituting a species of Cancer, or crab, in the Linnaean system). Lobsters are found in great plenty about many of the European shores ; their general habitation being in fiie clearest waters, about the foot of such rocks as impend over the sea. The colour of this animal alive is a fine bluish black, beautifully variegated with paler spots and clouds : it has a smooth thorax ; a short serrated snout ; very long antennae, and between them two shorter bifid ones. The claws and fangs are large, the greater being tuberculated, und the lesser serrated on their interior edges : it has four pair of legs ; the tail has six joints; and the caudal fin is rounded. The two great claws of the Lobster constitute its instruments of provision and defence : they open like a pair of nippers, possess great strength, are notched like a saw, and take a firm hold. Besides these powerful members, which may be considered as arms, the Lobster has eight legs and a tail ; the latter, expanded laterally, being a very powerful instrument for motion in water. Between the two claws is placed the head, very small, and furnished with eyes, which are projectile or retractile at pleasure. The mouth, like that of an insect, opens longitudinally, and is furnished with two teeth for the comminution of its food ; and between them there is a fleshy substance shaped like a tongue. The intestines consist of one long canal ; and the spinal marrow ! is lodged in the breast-bone. The ovary, < or place where the spawn is first produced, is situated backward towards the tail, where a red substance is always found, composed ; of a number of small spawns, too minute for exclusion : from this receptacle proceed two canals, which open on each side of the June- ; tures of the shell, towards the belly ; and through these > passages the small round particles, destined for the future young, descend to be excluded, and arranged under the tail. No sooner do the young quit the parent Lobster than they seek refuge in the minute crevices of the rocks and other secure apertures ; and in a few weeks they acquire hard, firm shells, which furnish them both with defensive and otfcnsive armour. Like the crabs, they change their shelly covering annually ; previous to which pro- cess they appear sick, languid, and restless ; no longer laboriously harrowing up the sand, or hunting for their prey, but lying torpid and motionless, as if in anxious expectation of their approaching fate. They acquire the new shell in about three or four days, during which time, being perfectly defence- less, they become the prey, not only of fish, but also of such of their own species as are not in the same condition. It is difficult to conceive how they are able to draw the ; muscles of their claws out of their hard j covering ; but persons who have paid par- j ticular attention to the subject say, that during the pining state of the animal, before casting its shell, the limb becomes contracted to such a degree as to be capable of being withdrawn through the joints and narrow passage near the body. Like all other crus- taceous animals, they only increase in size whilst in a soft state ; and on comparing the dimensions of the old shell with that of the new, the latter is frequently found to be one-third larger an amazing addition in such a short interval, and which cannot be explained on any known principle of animal vegetation. These animals are very sensible to the shock communicated to the fluid in which they live, by the firing of cannon ; and the circumstance of Lobsters losing their claws from this cause, or from thunder-claps, is well authenticated. The restoration of claws lost thus, or from their frequent combats with each other, in which the vanquished party generally leaves one of his limbs in his adversary's grasp, may be readily ob- served, as the new limb seldom, if ever, attains the size of the former one. In the water they are very rapid in their motions, and, when suddenly alarmed, can spring to a great distance. They effect their retreat in a rock with surprising dexterity, throwing themselves into a passage barely sufficient for their bodies to pass. Lobsters begin to breed in the spring, and continue breeding during part of the summer. In the months of July and August the young may be ob- served in great numbers in the little pools left by the tide among the rocks. In some places Lobsters are caught with the hand ; but they are generally taken by means of pots or traps, constructed of osier twigs, and ipopuTar IBicttonarj) of ^mmatetf ^lattice. 387 \ baited with garbage ; they are then at- tached to a cord thrown into the sea, and their stations marked by means of buoys. Lobsters are esteemed a very rich and nourishing aliment ; and they are generally in their best season from the middle of October till the beginning of May. There are several varieties ; with some differences in the claws, the size, and the places of re- sort, but few in the habits or conformations. LOBSTER MOTH. [See STAUROPUS.] LOCUSTS. (Locustidce.) These noxious insects, whose numbers and voracity consti- tute one of the severest pests of the hotter regions of the globe, are classed with the Grasshoppers by Linnaeus, under the genus Gryllus; but more modern entomologists have applied the term Saltatvria to them, on account of the power of leaping which the species possess ; and in this instance, as in many others where the scientific names of genera and subgenera (of insects in par- ticular) differ, some unavoidable confusion exists. They have coloured elytra, and large wings, disposed when at rest in straight folds, covered by the long narrow wing- cases, and frequently exhibiting blue, green, or red colours : the antennae are short ; the feet have only three joints ; and the hind legs are long, strong, and formed for leap- iire most celebrated species is the MIORA- TOUY LOCUST (Gryllus miyratorms\ which, of all the animals capable of injuring man- kind, seem to possess the most dreadful powers of destruction. In Syria, Egypt, and almost all the south cf Asia, these insects make their appearance in legions, and carry (OBYT desolation with them, in a few hours changing the most fertile provinces into barren de- serts, and darkening the air by their num- bers. This formidable Locust is generally of a brownish colour, varied with pale red, and the legs are of a bluish cast. Happily for mankind, this awful visitation is not frequently repeated ; for they are often not only the precursors of famine, but, when they die, the putrefaction which arises from their inconceivable number is so great, that I it is justly regarded as the cause of some of those desolating pestilences which almost depopulate whole districts of country. Mr. Barrow, in his " Travels," states, that in the southern parts of Africa the whole surface of the ground might literally be said to be covered with them for an area of nearly 2000 square miles. When driven into the sea by a north-west wind, they formed upon the shore for fifty miles a bank three or four feet high, and when the wind was south- east the stench was so powerful as to be smelt at the distance of 150 miles : the air, in short, became poisoned by their fetid ex- halations. Mr. Darwin, in his " Kesearch.es," has the following graphical description of a swarm of Locusts, closely resembling the species (Gryllus migrator ius) which he saw in South America, in 1835. It was at the passage of the Cordilleras, near the village and river of Luxan. " Shortly before we arrived at this place, we observed to the southward a ragged cloud of a dark reddish- brown colour. For some time, we had no doubt but that it was thick smoke pro- ceeding from some great fire on the plains. Soon afterwards we found it was a pest of locusts. The insects overtook us, as they were travelling northward, by the aid of a light breeze, at the rate, I should sup- pose, of ten or fifteen miles an hour. The main body filled the air from a height of twenty feet, to that, as it appeared, of two or three thousand above the ground. The noise of their approach was that of a strong breeze passing through the rigging of a ship. The sky seen through the advanced guard appeared like a mezzptinto engraving, but the main body was impervious to sight ; they were not, however, so thick but that they could escape from a stick moved back- ward and forward. When they alighted they were more numerous than the leaves in a field, and changed the green into a red- dish colour : the swarm having once alighted, the individuals flew from side to side in any direction. Of course this swarm cannot even be compared to those of the Eastern world, yet it was sufficient to make the well-known descriptions of their ravages more intel- ligible." But to recount the various devastations which these famished insects have at differ- ent times occasioned, would be endless. They have several times visited Poland and the south of Europe in amazing numbers ; and instances have been known of their reaching our own coasts : happily for us, however, the cold and humidity of the cli- mate are by no means favourable to their production. One of the largest Locusts known is the Gri/llus cristatus of Linnaeus, a highly beau- tiful species ; being of a bright red, with the body annulated with black, and the legs varied with yellow : the upper wings marked alternately with dark and pale green ; the lower with transverse wavy streaks : its length is about four inches ; and the ex- panse of wings when fully extended about seven and a half. These, with other large kinds, are made use of in some parts of the world as an article of food ; and sold, both 388 nf Natural ffii fresh and salted, in the markets of some parts of the Levant. Hasselquist, alluding to the passage in the New Testament in which John the Baptist is said to have fed on Locusts and wild honey, thus expresses himself : " They who deny insects to have been the food of this holy man, urge that this insect is an unaccustomary and unna- tural food ; but they would soon be con- vinced to the contrary, if they would travel hither, to Egypt, Arabia, or Syria, and take a meal with the Arabs. Roasted Locusts are at this time eaten by the Arabs, at the proper season, when they can procure them ; so that in all probability this dish had been used in the time of St. John." He further says, that when corn is scarce the Arabians grind the Locusts in handmills, or pound them in stone mortars, and bake them as bread ; that he has frequently seen Locusts used by the Arabians, even when there was no scarcity of corn ; but then they stew them with butter, and make them into a kind of fricasee, the flavour of which is by no means disagreeable. Later travellers have fully confirmed these remarks. We may accord- ingly see the folly of that dispute among Divines about the nature of St. John's food in the wilderness some maintaining that the word in the original text means the fruit of a certain tree ; others that a species of bird is intended, &c. ; while those who adhered to the literal meaning were the only ones who were both consistent and orthodox. To give a description of the various species of Locusts, would extend this article to an unreasonable length, and at the same time afford but little of useful information : it may be necessary, however, to show how the three large groups or genera may be dis- tinguished from each other : Acrydium. (Spine-breasted Locusts.) The thorax and wing-covers of ordinary dimensions ; a pro- jecting spine in the middle of the breast ; and a little projecting cushion between the nails of all the feet. 2. Locusta. (Locusts proper.) The thorax, and usually the wing- covers also, of ordinary dimensions ; no pro- jecting spine in the middle of the breasts ; cushions between the nails of the feet. 3. Tetrix. ( Grouse Locust. ) The thorax greatly prolonged, tapering to a point behind and covering the whole of the back to the extremity of the abdomen ; wing-covers exceedingly minute, consisting only of a little scale on each side of the body ; fore- part of the breast forming a projection like a cravat or stock, to receive the lower part of the head : no spine in the middle of the breast ; no cushions between the nails. " In the South of France," says Dr. Thad- deus Harris, " the people make a business, at certain seasons of the year, of collecting Locusts and their eggs, the latter being turned out of the ground in little masses cemented and covered with a sort of gum in which they are enveloped by the insects. Rewards are offered and paid for their col- lection, half a franc being given for a kilo- gramme (about 2 Ib. 3J oz. avoirdupois) of the insects, and a quarter of a franc for the same weight of their eggs. At this rate twenty thousand francs were paid in Mar- seilles, and twenty-five thousand in Aries, in the year 1013 ; in 1824, five thousand five hundred and forty-two, and in 1825, six thousand two hundred francs were paid in \ Marseilles. It is stated that an active boy | can collect from six to seven kilogrammes I (or from 13 Ib. 3oz. to 15 Ib. 7 oz.) of eggs in I one day. The Locusts are taken by means of a piece of stout cloth, carried by four per- sons, two of whom draw it rapidly along, so that the edge may sweep over the surface of the soil, and the two others hold up the cloth behind at an angle of forty-five degrees. This contrivance seems to operate somewhat like a horse-rake, in gathering the insects into winrows or heaps, from which they are I speedily transferred to large sacks. A some- what similar plan has been successfully tried in this country (United States of America), as appears by an account published in the " New England Farmer." It is there stated that, in July, 1826, Mr. Arnold Thompson, of Epsom, New Hampshire, caught, in one evening, between the hours of eight and twelve, in his own and his neighbour's grain- fields, five bushels and three pecks of grass- hoppers, or more properly locusts. His mode of catching them was by attaching two sheets together, and fastening them to a pole, which was used as the front part of the drag The pole extended beyond the width of the sheets, so as to admit persons at both sides to draw it forward. At the sides of the drag, braces extended from the pole to raise the back part considerably from the ground, so that the grasshoppers could not escape. After running the drag about a dozen rods with rapidity, the braces were taken out, and the sheets doubled over ; the insects were then swept from each end towards the centre of the sheet, where was left an opening to the mouth of a bag which held about half I a bushel ; when deposited and tied up, the 1 drag was again opened and ready to proceed. When this bag was filled so as to become j burthensome, (their weight is about the same as that of the same measure of corn,) the bag was opened into a larger one, and the grasshoppers received into a new deposit. The drag can be used only in the evening, when the grasshoppers are perched on the top of the grain. His manner of destroying them was by dipping the large bags into a kettle of boiling water. When boiled, they had a reddish appearance, and made a fine feast for the farmer's hogs." LONGICORNES; or LONGICORN BEETLES. The name given to a tribe of coleopterous insects, or beetles, which are readily distinguished by the great length of the antennas, and by the first three joints of the tarsi being furnished with a brush. The larvae mostly reside in the interior of trees, or under the bark ; and are either wholly destitute of feet, or have them very small. Both in their larva and perfect state, but particularly in the former, they do much injury to vegetation. Some of the tropical species are brilliantly coloured ; and some are remarkable for exhaling an agreeable musky odour. Popular JBtcttmiarj) at ^m'matett $atur. 389 I most brilliant coloured plumage. The cir- cumference of the eye and the cheeks are destitute of feathers : the upper mandible overhanging the under one very much, a ! structure which is very important to this bird, as it enables it to root up bulbs, upon which it chiefly feeds. The best known spe- cies, which was named after Sir Elijah Impey by Dr. Latham (L. Impeyanus or refulgens), seems to be common in the Himalaya moun- tains ; and a pair, in May, 1847, were brought alive to this country. " The crest and the greater part of the plumage of the back in the male is composed of the most beautiful and resplendent colours, reflecting various hues of gold, copper, sapphire, and emerald. The tail is of a reddish chestnut ; the rump white. The female and young are brown, varied with gray and tawny yellow. It is to be hoped that this fine species may be do- miciled in this country. It can easily be brought down to the plains of India, but, from the great heat, it seldom long survives. LORIS. (Loris or Stenops.) A genus of i Quadrumanous animals, allied to the Le- I murs. They have a short muzzle, slender Mr. Westwood observes : " From the habits of these insects, in burrowing into the very heart of solid timber, there can be no doubt that the marvellous accounts which we con- stantly meet with in the journals of the discovery of insects, in cutting up logs of wood (especially foreign timber), relate to the larvae, or perfect states, of these insects ; and it is owing to the same circumstance that our English catalogues have been swelled by the introduction of numerous species, which have, indeed, been captured alive in this country, but which have no legitimate claim to be regarded as natives, having been entirely produced from larvae imported in timber from abroad. # * * From the large size of many of these larvae, and the long period during which they re- main in that state, it may easily be con- ceived that they do much damage to trees, boring very deeply, and cutting channels into them. A few species appear to subsist in the larva state upon the roots of plants. Another peculiarity resulting from their lignivorous habits is exhibited in their geo- graphical distribution ; the tropical and thickly wooded districts of South America possessing a far greater number of species (and these, too, of the largest size) than are to be found in corresponding latitudes in Africa ; the speedy decay of vegetable mat- ter requiring the presence of great quan- tities of such insects. In India but very few gigantic species of Longicornes are to be found." LONGIPENNES. Cuvier's name for a family of aquatic birds, whose wings are re- markably long, their powers of flight pro- portionally great, and their habits entirely marine. The beak is hooked at the top, and the hind toe is wanting. The Albatross furnishes an example. LONGIROSTRES. The name given by Cuvier to a tribe of wading birds, divided into families and genera, and distinguished principally by the length and tenuity of their bills. LOPHIADJE. A tribe of spiny- finned fishes, distinguished by the bones of the carpus being so elongated as to form a sort of arm, by which the pectoral fins are sup- ported. The Lophius piscatwius, or Angler, is the type of this family. LOPHIUS. [See ANGLER.] LOPHOBRANCHII. An order of osseous fishes, distinguished by the structure of their gills, which are in the form of small round tufts, disposed in pairs, and arranged along the branchial arches. They are also further distinguished by having their body covered with shields or small plates, which often give it an angular form. [See PIPE- FISH.] LOPHOPHORUS, orlMPEYAN PHEA- SANT ; in India also called MOXAUL. A genus of gallinaceous birds, belonging to the Pheasant tribe, having the head surmounted by an egret, the feathers in the male being very much elongated. The tail is large and flat, the tail-coverts short ; the male is of the body, no tail, large approximating eyes, and rough tongue. Two species only are known, both of which are natives of the East Indies, the SUORT-LIMBED LORIS (Lemur tardigra- dits), and the SLENDER LORIS (Lemur grad- lis) : the latter is remarkable for the dispro- portionate length of its limbs, and especially of its fore-arms. They are nocturnal and arboreal in their habits ; they subsist on insects, occasionally on small birds or quad- rupeds, and have an excessively slow gait. During the day they sleep clinging to a branch : at night they prowl among the forest boughs in quest of food. Nothing can escape the scrutiny of their large glaring orbs, or the tenacity of their grasp ; and when they have marked their victim, they cautiously and noiselessly approach it till it is within their reach. " The genus Loris" Mr. Bennett observes, in his ' Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoolo- gical Society,' " forms part of that division of the Quadrumanous order which is essen- tially distinguished by an unequal number or irregular disposition of the incisor teeth in the two jaws ; terminal nostrils with si- nuous openings ; and a long subulate or sickle-shaped claw upon the fore-finger of the hinder hands, all the rest of the nails being flat and rounded like those of the 390 of jtatttrol greater part of the monkeys and of man. The Loris differs from the other genera of this family in having four incisors in the upper jaw, placed in pairs with a vacant space between, and six in the lower, directed obliquely forwards ; canines of moderate (LORIS ORA.CILIS.) size ; twelve molars above and ten below ; a short rounded head, and little or no tail. * * * * In addition to these primary cha- racters, the Loris are distinguished by large prominent eyes, placed in front of the head and at no great distance from each other ; short ears, scarcely rising through the hair with which they are invested, a rough tongue ; nostrils projecting beyond the mouth and surrounded by a naked muzzle ; and thumbs widely separated from the fin- gers, both on the fore and hinder hands." Little is known of the habits of the Loris in a state of nature ; but the following de- scription of one in confinement is from the pen of Sir W. Jones : " In his manners he was for the most part gentle, except in the cold season, when his temper seemed wholly changed : and his Creator, who made him so sensible of cold, to which he must often have been exposed even in his native forests, gave him, probably for that reason, his thick fur, which we rarely see on animals in these tropical climates : to me, who not only con- stantly fed him, but bathed him twice a week in water accommodated to the seasons, and whom he clearly distinguished from others, he was at all times grateful ; but when I disturbed him in winter, he was usually in- dignant, and seemed to reproach me with the uneasiness which he felt, though no pos- sible precautions had been omitted to keep him in a proper degree of warmth. * * * * From half an hour after sunrise to half an hour before sunset he slept without inter- mission, rolled up like a hedgehog ; and, as soon as he awoke, he began to prepare him- self for the labours of his approaching day, licking and dressing himself like a cat, an operation which the flexibility of his neck and limbs enabled him to perform very com- pletely : he was then ready for a slight breakfast, after which he commonly took a short nap ; but when the sun was quite set, he recovered all his vivacity. His ordinary food was the sweet fruit of this country ; plantains always, and mangoes during the season ; but he refused peaches, and was not fond of mulberries, or even of guaiavas : milk he lapped eagerly, but was contented with plain water. In general he was not voracious, but never appeared satiated with grasshoppers, and passed the whole night, while the hot season lasted, in prowling for them. LORY. A name given to several birds of the Parrot tribe, from their frequently repeating the word. They are remarkable for their brilliant colours, dense soft plumage, and comparatively feeble beaks. They are (LORIU9 PHILIPPINKNSIS.) very active and gay, even in captivity. They are found for the most part in the Moluccas, and are held in great estimation in some parts of the East. Many of the species are very docile and familiar. The following are of great beauty. The COLLARED LORY. ( Lorius domi- ceUa.) This species is about the size of a common pigeon ; general colour of the body scarlet ; the wings grass green, with the ridge of the shoulders blue, and the tops of the quill feathers rather dusky : across the breast is a moderately broad yellow bar, sometimes waved or intermixed with a portion of red ; thighs violet-blue ; crown of the head violet-black ; bill deep yellow ; under coverts of the wings violet-blue ; and the under surface of the tail inclining to purple. It is lively, gay, and remarkable for its distinctness of utterance. CERAM LORY. Size (Lorius garrulus.) of the preceding ; colour scarlet, with deep grass-green wings and thighs : shoulder tips yellow : tips of the wings inclining to violet- brown : tail generally of the same scarlet colour with the rest of the plumage for about half its length, the remainder blue, but the two middle tail-feathers of a green hue. SCARLET LORY. (Lorius cceruleatus.) The head, neck, body, and coverts of the tail are of a shining s-jarlet hue, except the j feathers on the lower part of the neck be- i hind, which are tipped with yellow. The 1 greater quills of the wings are a dark green, popular litrttanarj) of &mmatrtt Mature. 391 and those which fall over them are a lighter green. The upper part of the tail is of a bright blue colour, the central feathers being slightly tinted with green. The crown of the head is red ; and the legs and feet are of a blue-black. RAJAH LORY. (Lorins rajah.") The co- lour of this splendid bird is a vivid scarlet, with the wings entirely golden yellow : on the top of the head is a broad spot of the same colour, and across the breast a broad bar : the thighs are yellow ; the bill yellow- ish white ; and the legs blackish. KIXG LORY. (Aprosmictus scapuJatris.') The habitat of this showy and noble species is New South Wales, where it is said to be almost wholly confined to the brushes, as it there finds a plentiful supply of seeds, fruit, and berries ; but we find in Mr. Gould's description, that " when the Indian corn is becoming ripe it leaves its umbrageous abode and sallies forth in large flocks, which commit great devastation on the ripening grain." The sexes differ very considerably in the colouring of the plumage : the male has the head, neck, and all the under surface scarlet; back and wings green, the inner webs of the primaries and secondaries being black ; along the scapularies a broad line of pale verdigris green ; the rump and upper tail- coverts rich deep blue ; tail black ; bill scarlet ; legs nearly brown. The female has the head and all the upper surface green j throat and chest green tinged with red ; ab- domen and under tail-coverts scarlet ; rump dull blue ; two centre tail feathers green ; the remainder green, passing into bluish black ; and with a rose-coloured spot at the extremity of the under surface. Another species, the RED-WINGED LORY {Aprosmictus erythropterus"), is said by Mr. Gould to have much of the character of the King Lory, being morose, indocile, shy, and wary ; and is as exclusively an inhabitant of the in- terior Loryi extend along the coast. He further tells his readers, that the extensive belts of Acacia pendula which stretch over and diversify the arid plains of the great Australian basin, are tenanted with thousands of this bird, besides numerous other species, roaming about either in small companies of six or eight, or in flocks of a much greater number. It is beyond the power of my pen (says Mr. Gould) to describe or give a just idea of the extreme beauty of the appearance of the Red-winged Lory when seen among the silvery branches of the acacia, particularly when the flocks comprise a large number of adult males, the gorgeous scarlet of whose shoulders offers so striking a contrast to the surrounding objects. LOTTIA. A genus of Mollusca, closely resembling Patella ; but the shells are generally rather flatter, and have the apex placed somewhat nearer the posterior margin. LOUSE. (Pecliculus.l A genus of para- sitic aptera, most disagreeable and unseemly to us, from the idea that invariably aecom- exclusively an inhabitant of the in- of Australia as its near ally the King is a denizen of the thick brushes which panies their presence viz. that they are seldom prevalent where cleanliness is not wholly neglected. They ai'e characterized by having six feet formed for walking, a mouth furnished with a proboscis, antennae as long as the thorax, and the abdomen depressed, and formed of several segments. They undergo no metamorphosis, they are very prolific, and their generations succeed each other very rapidly. The number of species is very considerable ; for not only are the human race, but many animals also, subject to the intrusive visits of its pecu- liar parasite. The Pediculits humanus, or common louse, is distinguished by its pale and livid colour, and lobated, oval abdomen. It is produced from a small oval egg, popularly called a nit, fastened or agglutinated by its smaller end to the hair on which it is deposited. From this egg proceeds the insect, complete in all its parts, and differing only from the parent animal in its smaller size. When examined by the microscope the principal appearances are as follow : the trunk or proboscis, which is generally concealed in its sheath or tube, is of a very sharp form, and is furnished, towards its upper part, with a few reversed aculei or prickles : the eyes are large, smooth, and black ; the stomach and intestines, which possess the greater part of the abdominal cavity, afford an extremely distinct and curious view of the peristaltic motion ; while the ramifica- tions of the tracheae or respiratory tubes ap- pear dispersed throughout various parts of the animal : the legs are short, and termi- nated by a sharp-pointed double claw ; and the insect is everywhere covered by a strong granulated skin. It would be as unnecessary as disgusting to dwell on the habits of this insect, or on the dreadful and loathsome disease by which, in ancient times, the human race was visited ; and from which Herod, Antiochus, Callisthenes, Sylla, and many others, are said to have perished. Those who would study the history, scientific and popular, of these parasites, must take ad- vantage of Mr. Denny's elaborate work : the number of species found on Birds, &c., in this and other countries, is very great. LOVE-BIRD. (Peittacula.) The name given to a beautiful and diminutive group of birds belonging to the Psittacidce. They are distinguished by the tail being slightly graduated : they are found in both conti- nents ; and are remarkable for having no furcula. LOXIA. A genus of Conirostral passerine birds, remarkable on account of the peculiar conformation of the bill, which is compressed, and the two mandibles so strongly curved, that their points cross each other. [See CROSSBILL.] LUCANID^3. [STAG BEETLES.] An important family of Coleopterous insects, comprising some of very large dimensions. The LucanidcK are distinguished by having the antennae terminated by a large club, composed of several of the apical joints ; by the legs being robust, the anterior tibia: being 392 of Datura! generally dilated and toothed ; by the males of many species having singular horns affixed to the head and thorax ; and by the great size of the mandibles. The larvae are large fleshy grubs, having the extremity of the body curved towards the breast, so that it is not able to creep upon a flat surface, but compelled to lie on its side. Both in their larva and perfect states these insects are herbivorous, their habits, however, varying in the different families, according to their several structures. The family is of mode- rate extent, and but sparingly scattered over the globe. Amongst the exotic genera, the beautiful Australian genus Lamprima is dis- tinguished by its splendid metallic colouring, the remarkable porrected and villose man- dibles, and the large plate which arms the extremity of the anterior tibiae of the males. Another most remarkable genus is Chia- sognathus, in which the mandibles are longer than the body, rather slender, bent down towards the tip, where they are suddenly re- flexed ; they are also furnished on the under side at the base with a long horn : the colours of this genus are exceedingly splendid and metallic. The beetles of this family fly abroad during the night, and frequently enter houses at that time, somewhat to 'the alarm of the oc- cupants ; but they are not venomous, and never attempt to bite without provocation. They pass the day on the trunks of trees, and live upon the sap, for procuring which the brushes of their jaws and lip seem to be designed. They are said also occasionally to bite and seize caterpillars and other soft- bodied insects, for the purpose of sucking out their juices. They lay their eggs in crevices of the bark of trees, especially near the roots, where they may sometimes be seen thus em- ployed. The grubs of the large kinds are said to be six years in coming to their growth, living all this time in the trunks and roots of trees, boring into the solid wood, and re- ducing it to a substance resembling very coarse sawdust ; and the injury thus caused by them is sometimes very considerable. When they have arrived at their full size, they enclose themselves in egg-shaped pods, composed of gnawed particles of wood and bark stuck together and lined with a kind of glue : within these pods they are transformed to pupae, of a yellowish white colour, having the body and all the limbs of the future beetle encased in a whitish film, which being thrown off in due time, the insects appear in the beetle form, burst the walls of their pri- son, crawl through the passages the larvae had gnawed, and come forth on the outside of the trees. Our figure represents the Lu- canus Ibex, a very common Brazilian spe- cies ; but we may rather refer to the common Stag-beetle (Lucanus cervus), a highly cha- racteristic species of the group, which is seen flying about in the evening, in the middle of summer, especially round the oaks, upon the wood of which the larva feeds ; remaining in that state for several years, before under- going its final transformation. LUCEBNARIA. A genus of Polypi be- longing to the Radiata. They affix them- selves by a slender peduncle to sea-weeds and other substances. The upper part ex- pands like an inverted parasol, and is sur- rounded by numerous tentacula ; and be- tween these are eight e;cca, proceeding from the stomach, and containing a red granulated matter. L. auricula, here figured, has the border octagonal, with a bundle of tentacula *.n eacli division. LTICINA. A genus of bivalve Mollusca, comprising many species, both recent and fossil, and very universally diffused. The shell is nearly round, inequilateral, and ra- diately striated ; bosses small and pointed ; the outer surface sculptured, the interior SHcttonarn ol $aturc. 393 often punctured with small holes ; cardinal and lateral teeth distinct, but variable in lumber. The foot of the animal is long and jylindrical. LUMBRICUS. A genus of worms in the ^innsean system, of which the common Earth-worm is the type. They generally ive beneath the surface of the ground, either lerforating the dry soil, or burying them- selves in mud, where many of them lead a semi-aquatic life. [See EARTH-WORM.] LUMP-FISH. (Cyclopterus lumpus.) A Halacopterygious fish, deriving its name from the clumsiness of its form : its height ieing about half its length, and its thickness ..bout half its height. The names LrMP- SUCKEK and COCK PADDLE are also given to it. These fish are very remarkable for the manner in which their ventral fins are ar- ranged. They are united by a membrane so as to form a kind of oval and concave disc ; by means of which they are enabled to adhere with great force to any substance to which they apply themselves. This, the largest of the" genus, sometimes weighs seven pounds. The back is arched and sharp, of a blackish colour, variegated with brown ; the body is covered over with sharp, black tubercles ; and on each side there are three rows of large bony scales, and another on the back. The great resort of this species is on the Northern seas, about the coast of Greenland : it is also caught in many parts of the British seas, during the spring season ; when it approaches the shore for the purpose of depositing its spawn. In the Northern seas great numbers of them are devoured by the seals, who swal- low all but the skins, quantities of which, thus emptied, are seen floating about in the spring months ; and it is said that the spots where the seals carry on their depredations can be readily distinguished by the smooth- ness of the water. Its power of adhesion is truly wonderful. Pennant says, " that on placing a fish of this species, just caught, into a pail of water, it fixed itself so firmly to the bottom, that on taking it by the tail the whole pail by that means was lifted though it held some gallons, and that with- out removing the fish from its hold." The colours of the Lump-fish, when in the highest perfection, combine various shades of blue purple, and rich orange ; and in the month of March it may be frequently seen in th shops of London fishmongers, suspended by the middle of the back, its singular form an< brilliant colours being sure to attract the attention of the public. The flesh is sof and insipid ; but the Greenlanders gladly avail themselves of the arrival of the species LURCHER. A species of Dog whose prin- ipal use is to assist the poacher in his ne- arious and demoralizing nocturnal trade, t is supposed to be descended from the Shep- icrd's Dog and the Greyhound, exhibiting he stout, rough, homely character of the ormer, combined with the long muzzle and imbs of the latter. It is not eo tall as the Greyhound ; its hair is rough and wiry ; the ars are half erect ; and the tail is short and pendent. None of the canine species evince more sagacity, or serve their masters with more fidelity. Whether it be required to drive partridges into the net, to run down a hare, to seize a fallow-deer, or to start a bbit, the Lurcher pursues his object in ilence, and with so much skill as to render Imost useless to the owner of him any other description of sporting dog. LUTRARIA. A genus of Conchifera, found in the sand at the mouth of rivers in emperate climates. Foot of the animal iharp, oval, and long. The shell is inequi- Jateral, oblong or ovate, gaping at both ex- tremities ; hinge with two cardinal teeth in one valve, and a triangular pit; no lateral teeth j in which respect it differs from the genus Mactra, which it otherwise much re- sembles. LYC^EN A . A genus of Butterflies closely allied to Polyommatus. Referring the stu- dent to the work of Messrs. Doubleday and Hewitson, we here restrict ourselves to the notice of two British species. The LYC^ENA DISPAR, or LARGE COPPER BUTTERFLY. It is generally remarked that this splendid insect is chiefly confined to the fenny counties of Cambridge and Hunting- don, and the neighbouring ones of Suffolk and Norfolk. The upper surface of the wings of the male are a brilliant copper colour, with an obscure row of spots towards the tip ; the costal and posterior margins, and a patch at the base, black ; the posterior, with a slender oblong discoidal line, and the margins black ; beneath, the anterior wings are pale fulvous orange, with ten distinct ocelli, with a large black pupil and slender white iris : posterior wings bluish, with an elongate discoidal streak, and numerous rather obsolete ocelli, with a black pupil and pale blue iris : the hinder margin is deep orange, except where it unites with the anterior, margined internally and externally with a series of black spots. In the female the anterior wings above are divested of the gloss so conspicuous in the male, and have nine or ten black spots, two or three of which are placed near the base of the costal margin, the rest in an arcuated band near the tip : the posterior wings are dusky brown, with the nervures and a denticulated hinder band copper-coloured. The ocellated spots vary considerably in both sexes. Caterpillar bright green, and somewhat hairy, with in- numerable white dots : it feeds upon a kind of dock. The chrysalis is at tirst green ; afterwards pale ash, with a dark dorsal line, and two abbreviated white ones on each side. The LYC^ENA PIIL.EAS, or SMALL COPPER BUTTERFLY. One very part of our island, as 394 at Natural well as on the adjacent continent, this pretty Butterfly is tolerably abundant on commons, roadsides, pastures, and heaths. The an- terior wings above are of a brilliant copper colour, with the posterior margin and eight discoidal spots black ; the hinder wings are brownish black, with a copper band on the J(P hinder margin, which is externally den- ticulated, and has a black line and some dots on the disc : beneath, the colour is paler and not glossy, and there are ten distinct black spots on the disc ; the posterior wings are drab-coloured, tinged with copper, and 3ATHRPILLAB AND CHRYSALIS OF L. PHUB sprinkled with numerous blackish dots : the cilia are rose-coloured at the tip, and black at the base : the body is black with tawny hairs above ; the antennae black, annulated with white. Caterpillar green, with a yellow dorsal stripe. It is observed to feed much on the sorrel. Mr. Knapp, in his attractive work, the ' Journal of a Naturalist,' speaking of this pretty little butterfly, says, " We shall see these diminutive creatures, whenever they come near each other, dart into action, and continue buffeting one another about till one retires from the contest ; when the victor returns in triumph to the station he had left. Should the enemy again advance, the combat is again renewed ; but should a cloud obscure the sun, or a breeze chill the air, their ardour becomes abated, and con- tention ceases. The papilio phlaias enjoys a combat even with its kindred. Two of them are seldom disturbed, when basking on a knot of asters in September, without mutual strife ensuing." A family of lepidopterous insects, comprising several distinct groups of small, but beautiful Butterflies, including Polyommati, or the Blues ; Lyccenai, or the Coppers ; and Theclce, or the Hair-streaks. The majority of these have at least the anal angle, if not the entire under surface of the wing, ornamented with eye-like spots of various colours. The flight of these insects is feeble and slow. The caterpillars have a great resemblance to wood-lice ; and the chrysalis is short, obtuse at each end, and girt round the middle as well as attached by the tail. " They have hitherto been ob- served to feed only upon the leaves of dif- ferent trees and plants in the larva state ; but a beautiful Indian species (Tttecla Iso- crates) resides within the fruit of the pome- granate, several being found within one fruit, in which, after consuming the interior, they assume the pupa state, having first eaten as many holes as there are insects through the rind of the fruit, and carefully attached its footstalk to the branch, by a coating of silk, in order to prevent its falling." Westwood. LYMEXYLON : LYMEXYLONID^E. A genus and family of Serricorn Beetles ; having the antennas simple and sub-moni- liform, and the thorax nearly cylindrical. They are nearly allied to the Elateridce and BuprestidcB. From the latter, however, the insects of this small group are distin- guished by having the head broad before, narrowed behind, and not sunk into the thorax ; they have not the breast-spine of the Elaters, and their legs are close together, and not separated from each other by a broad breast-bone, as in the Buprestians ; and the hip-joints are long, and not sunk "nto the breast. In the principal insects of this family the antennas are short, and from the third joint, flattened, widened, and saw- toothed on the inside ; and the jaw-feelers of the males have a singular fringed piece attached to them. The body is long, narrow, nearly cylindrical, and not so firm and hard as in the Elaters. The feet are five-jointed, long, and slender. The larvae of Lymexylon and Hyleccetus are very odd-looking, long, ind slender grubs. The head is small : the irst ring is very much hunched ; and on the top of the last ring there is a fleshy ap- pendage, resembling a leaf in Lymexylon, ind like a straight horn in Hyleccetus. They lave six short legs near the head. These jrubs inhabit oak-trees, and make long cy- indrical burrows in the solid wood. The jenerical name Hyleccetus means a sleeper .n the woods, or one who makes his bed in ;he forest. One species of these insects (Ly- mexylon navale) is very common in the oak forests of the north of Europe, but rare in ngland. Its larva is very long. At one ,ime it multiplied to such an extent in the dock-yards at Toulon, that the injuries it Popular HBt'ctmnarn of &tumatelr $ature. 395 committed in the wood-works were very se- rious. It is recorded that Linnaeus was once consulted by the King of Sweden upon the cause of the decay and destruction of the ship- timber in the royal dock-yards, and having SHIP-TIMBER BEEILE. (LYMEXYLOU NAVALE ) traced it to the depredations of insects, and ascertained the history of the depredations, by directing the timber to be sunk under water during the season when these insects made their appearance in the winged-state, and were busied in laying their eggs, he effectually secured it from future attacks. LYMN^A. A genus of Mollusca, inha- biting a thin, oval or oblong shell ; and having two triangular tcntacula, with eyes at the base ; foot oval and thin. Like the LYMN.EA STAONA1 IS. Physse, which they much resemble in ap- pearance, they are abundantly found in our rivers and ponds, particularly the latter. They feed on aquatic plants, to the under side of the leaves of which they adhere, and come to the surface of the water for air ; the number of their eggs is very great, and they are deposited on stones, stems of vegetables, &c., in long masses enveloped in a glairy substance. LYNX. (Fells lynx.) The name given to certain species of feline animals, which differ slightly from others of the cat tribe, in having the ears tufted with hair, in the greater elevation of the body at the haunches, and in having a shorter tail. They are less courageous than the other felines, and show a sullen and suspicious disposition : they live upon small quadrupeds and birds, pur- suing the latter to the tops of trees ; and some of them also resort to the water, to feed on fishes. With some slight varieties as to size and colour, the Lynx appears to be found in all the colder regions of Europe, Asia, and America, residing in thick woods, and preying on hares, deer, birds, and al- most every kind of defenceless animal. Its average length is about three feet. In colour the Lynx varies, but is generally of a pale gray, with a slight reddish tinge : the back and whole upper parts are obscurely spotted with small dusky or blackish marks ; the throat, breast, and belly are white ; the tail white, with a black tip ; and the ears tipped with pencils of long black hair. Its eyes are brilliant and penetrating, its aspect mild, and its general air sprightly and agreeable. Though possessing nothing in common with the wolf but a kind of howl, it is often mis- taken for that animal when heard at a dis- tance. The female produces two or three young at a birth, and carefully secretes them in the recesses of the woods. The Lynx is clothed with a very thick soft fur ; and the colder the climate, the more valuable it ge- nerally is : those skins which approach to a pale or whitish colour, and on which the spots are most distinct, are the most valued. The skin of the Canada Lynx forms a consider- able article in the fur trade ; the Hudson's Bay Company alone annually importing from seven to nine thousand skins The fur is close and fine on the back, longer and paler OP the belly. When blown aside it shows on the middle of the back a dark liver-brown colour from the roots to near the tip, but on the sides it is for the greatest part of its length of a pale yellowish brown, being merely a little darker near the roots. LYRE-BIRD OF AUSTRALIA. (Me- nura superba. ) Among the many curious and beautiful genera and species of the feathered tribes which Mr. Gould has delineated and described in his elegant work, 'The Birds of Australia,' no one seems to deserve more attention than the Lyre-bird ; for, inde- pendently of its remarkable form, and the opposite opinions entertained by ornitho- logists as to the situation it should occupy in the natural system ; " and although," as Mr. Gould observes, " more than fifty years have now elapsed since the bird was first discovered, little or no information has been hitherto published respecting its economy and habits." After paying considerable at- tention to the subject, while in Australia, this gentleman is decidedly of opinion that it has not, as has been generally considered, the most remote relationship to the GalK- nacece, but that it forms, with certain Ame- rican genera, a family of the Insessorial order. " Notwithstanding the great size of Menura, and the extraordinary form of its tail, in almost every other point it presents a striking resemblance to its minute con- geners : like them, it possesses the bristles at the base of the bill, but to a less extent, the same unusual mass of loose, flowing, hair- like feathers on the back and rump, the same extraordinary power of running, and the like feebleness of flight." The great stronghold of the Lyre-bird is the colony of 396 at New South Wales : it inhabits equally the brushes on the coast, and those that clothe the sides of the mountains in the interior. " Of all the birds I have ever met with," says Mr. Gould, " the Menura is by far the most shy and difficult to procure. While among the brushes I have been surrounded by these birds, pouring forth their loud and liquid calls, for days together, without being able to get a sight of them ; and it was only by the most determined perseverance and extreme caution that I was enabled to effect this desirable object." The Lyre-bird is constantly engaged in traversing the brush from one end to the other, from mountain- top to the bottom of the gullies whose steep and rugged sides present no obstacle to its long legs ana powerful muscular thighs. When running quickly through the bush they carry the tail horizontally, that being the only position in which it could be borne at such times. Besides its loud full call, which may be heard at a great distance, it has an inward and varied song, the lower notes of which can only be heard when you have stealthily approached to within a few yards of the bird while it is singing. Its habits appear to be solitary, seldom more than a pair being seen together. It constructs a large nest, formed on the outside of sticks and twigs, like that of a magpie, and lined with the inner bark of trees and fibrous roots. The eggs are two in number, of a light colour, freckled with spots of red. The general colour of the plu- mage is brown ; the secondary wing-feathers nearest the body, and the outer webs of the remainder, rich rufous brown ; upper tail- coverts tinged with rufous ; chin and front of the throat rufous, all the under surface brownish ash-colour ; upper surface of the tail blackish brown ; under surface silvery gray, becoming very dark on the external web of the outer feather ; the inner webs fine rufous, crossed by numerous transparent bands ; the margin of the inner web and tips black ; bare space round the eye of a dark lead colour ; legs and feet black. The female is destitute of this singularly formed tail, and in having the bare space round the eye less extensive. LYTTA. [See CANTHAIJIDES.] MACATJCO. A genus of quadrumanous animals nearly approaching the Monkey tribe. [See LEMUR.] MACAW. These magnificent birds be- long to the Psittaculoi, or Parrot tribe, and are distinguished by having their cheeks destitute of feathers, and their tail-feathers long. They are all natives of the tropical regions of South America ; and abound in the swampy grounds which are covered with palm-trees, the fruit of which they are par- ticularly fond of. They generally appear in pairs, and are always observed to perch on the summits of trees, or on the highest branch. During the dav they wander to the distance of about a league from their favour- ite spot or home, but always return in the evening. They build their nests in the hollow of decayed trees ; and lay twice in the year, generally two eggs at a time. The male and female share alternately in the labour of incubation, &c. When young they iBapuTar JBtrtianarg at &nimatrtt jtature. 397 are easily tamed, and soon grow familiar with persons they are accustomed to see ; but, like all the Parrot tribe, they show an aversion to strangers. They are particularly fond of fruits, but in a domesticated state they will feed on almost every article, more especially sugar, bread, and fruits. Like other Parrots, they use their claws with great dexterity, though in climbing thev always begin by taking hold with their bill in the first instance, using their feet only as a second point of their motion. They may be taught to speak, but their articulation is hoarse and unpleasant. Rarely, however, are those which are brought to Europe known to articulate more than a word or two, and their general voice is a loud and piercing scream. We have figured a lovely Brazilian species called, from its fine hya- cinthine plumage, the MACROCERCUS HTTA- CINTIIINUS. It is not so common in aviaries as the other species. The SCARLET MACAW. (Macrocercus macao.} This bird is allowed to be the most splendid with regard to colour, as well as one of the largest of all the Psittacidce. From the tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail some of them measure thirty- six inches. The arch of the upper man- dible, from the forehead to the point of the bill, is nearly three inches ; the upper mandible is whitish, the lower black or dusky. The nostrils are placed in the upper part of the bill, just within the fea- thers. The sides of the head are destitute of feathers, and covered with a whitish, wrinkled skin : the head, neck, breast, belly, thighs, upper part of the back, and lesser covert-feathers of the wings, are of a very fine bright red or scarlet colour ; the quill- feathers of the wings are externally of a fine blue, and on their under sides of a faint red : the first feathers next above the quills are a bright yellow, some of the fea- thers being tipped with green ; the blue quills which fall next the back are tinged with green ; and the hinder part of the thigh has some green intermixed with the red. The lower belly and covert-feathers under the tail, as also the lower part of the back and coverts on the upper side of the tail, are of a very fine blue colour : the tail- feathers gradually shorten towards the sides; some of the longest or middle-feathers are wholly red ; the shorter, or side-feathers, are partly red and partly blue ; the legs and feet are covered with dusky scales ; and the toes are disposed two forwards and two backwards, as ill others of the parrot tribe, all armed with strong claws. This noble bird, which occasionally varies in some degree in point of size and colours, was justly considered at its first introduction into Europe as a present fit for royalty, and was one of the principal ornaments in the halls of palaces. BLUE AND YELLOW MACAW. (J/ocrocer ararauna.) This species is less common than the Scarlet Macaw, and but little in- ferior in point of size. The bill is arched and of a black colour : the nostrils are placed at the base of the upper mandible, in a white bare skin, which extends all round the eyes, this skin being variegated with fine lines of small black feathers : imme- diately under the bill is a large black spot, which encompasses part of the bare white space on the sides of the head : the feathers on the top of the head are green, gradually becoming blue on the neck : the upper side of the neck, the back, and upper sides of the wings and tail are of an exceeding fine blue colour, the lesser wing-coverts and the rump being a little tinged with green, and the tail and upper sides of the quill-feathers with purple : all the blue feathers of the back, wings, and tail are of a reddish yellow on their under sides : the fore part of the neck, the breast, belly, thighs, and covert- feathers under the tail, are of a fine yellow orange-colour, except the hinder parts of the thighs, where there is a little blue in- termixed : the covert-feathers withinside the wings are yellow, which appears out- wardly on the ridge or joint in the upper part of the wing : the legs and feet are nearly black. BRAZILIAN GREEN MACAW. (Macrocercus severus.) This bird is about the size of a tame pigeon : the colour is a fine green ; the bend of the shoulders and whole under side of both wings and tail red : quill-fea- thers and some of the larger coverts fine blue : tail green above, but growing blue at the tips ; the two middle feathers blue throughout their whole length on the outer edges : bill black, with flesh-coloured cere : dark feathers round the bill : legs black, with a feathery red zone round the bottom of the thighs. It is said to be common in Brazil, appearing in innumerable flocks, and committing great devastation among the coffee plantations, by devouring the ripe berries. MACKEREL. (Scomber scomber.) This well-known fish is one of the most beautiful as regards the brilliancy of its colours, and at the same time one of the most useful as regards the food of man, among the inhabit- ants of the watery element. It is a native IIACKERBL. (SCOMBER SCOMBER.) of the European and American seas, gene^ rally appearing at stated seasons, in vast shoals, round particular coasts. The pe- riodical appearance of these large shoals was formerly imputed to its migration from north to south : but many facts are opposed to this idea ; and there is abundant reason to believe that it inhabits the deeper parts of the seas around our island through the whole year, and that its periodical appear- ance on our coasts, in such vast numbers, is solely due to its seeking the shore, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The obser- 398 &rnuttrn nf Natural ^ vations on this subject, which were made when speaking of the Herring, are equally applicable here ; and, to the able zoologist (Mr. Yarrell) whom on that occasion we quoted, we are now further indebted for the following sensible arguments in support of this theory. He says, " It does not appear to have been sufficiently considered, that, inhabiting a medium which varied but little either in its temperature or productions, locally, fishes are removed beyond the in- fluence of the two principal causes which make a temporary change of situation ne- cessary. Independently of the difficulty of tracing the course pursued through so vast an expanse of water, the order of the appear- ance of the fish at different places on the shores of the temperate and southern parts of Europe is the reverse of that which, ac- I cording to their theory, ought to have hap- I pened. It is known that this fish is now taken, even on some parts of our own coast, I in every month of the year. It is probable that the Mackerel inhabits almost the whole of the European seas ; and the law of nature which obliges them and many others to visit the shallower water of the shores at a par- ticular season, appears to be one of those wise and bountiful provisions of the Creator, by which not only is the species perpetuated with the greatest certainty, but a large por- tion of the parent animals are thus brought within the reach of man ; who, but for the action of this law, would be deprived of many of those species most valuable to him as food. For the Mackerel dispersed over the immense surface of the deep, no effective fishery could be carried on : but, approach- ing the shore as they do from all directions, and roving along the coast collected in im- mense shoals, millions are caught, which yet form but a very small portion compared with the myriads that escape." The usual length of the Mackerel is about fourteen inches, or varying from twelve to sixteen : but in the northern seas it is occa- sionally found of greater size. Its colour on the upper parts, as far as the lateral line, is a rich, deep blue, accompanied by a varying tingeof green, and marked by numerous black transverse streaks, which in the male are nearly straight, but in the female beautifully undulated : the jaws, gill-covers, and abdo- men are of a bright silvery hue, with a slight varying cast of gold-green along the sides. The scales are small, oval, and transparent ; the pinnules or spurious fins are small, and five in number both above and below : the nose is pointed ; the under jaw the longest ; the teeth are alike in both jaws, curving slightly inward ; and the tail is crescent- shaped. Beautiful as are the colours of the Mackerel when alive, no sooner is it caught than its lustre begins to disappear. It is a voracious feeder, and its growth is rapid ; but it is not the largest fish that are accounted the best for the table. Those taken in May or June are considered superior in flavour to such as are caught either in the spring or autumn. There are various modes of fish- ing for Mackerel ; but the way in which the greatest numbers are taken is by drift- nets. MACROTJRA. The name of a very ex- tensive group of crustacous animals, (other- wise called Long-tailed Decapods), including Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, &c. At the end of the tail is a sort of fin, expanded laterally, which serves, by its vertical strokes, to pro- pel the animals through the water. MACTR A : MACTRAD^E. A genus and family of Molluscous animals of the order Conchifera Dimyaria. Shell oval, transverse, with thin cardinal and lateral teeth ; valves slightly inequilateral, and gaping a little on each side ; bosses protuberant. Animal, foot sharp, oval, and long. The Maetrse live in the sand, and are universally diffused. The genus includes many rare and beautiful species ; though the shells exhibit rather a diversity of form, they are generally more or less triangular. MADREPHYLLL3EA. The name given to an extensive group of Zoophytes, forming part of the MADKKPOKES. [See next Art.^ MADREPORE. A submarine substance, resembling coral, and_ consisting of carbonate of lime with some animal matter. It is of a white colour, wrinkled on the surface, and full of cavities or cells, inhabited by a small animal, which discharges a liquid from which the stony substance is formed. " Those beautiful rocky masses," observes Mr. Rymer Jones, " for such they appear to the vulgar eye, called Madrepores, which, branching into countless varieties of arborescent forms, are abundantly met with in the ocean, and so frequently ornament the cabinets of the curious, are merely fabrics constructed by compound Polyps, and owe their growth to the accumulation of earthy particles de- posited within a fleshy substance that is nourished by countless Polyps, more or less resembling Hydrce, diffused over all its ex- ternal surface. * * * Every one of the branchy stems of the Madrepore is seen, upon a cursory survey, to be covered with multitudes of minute pits or depressions, although these, from the smallness of their size, are scarcely visible to an inattentive observer. Examined with a magnifying glass, however, each of these multitudinous orifices is found to be a cell of beautiful con- struction, equally remarkable for the mathe- popular JStcttonarj? at ^mmatctt Mature. 399 natical regularity with which it is formed ,nd the exquisite fineness of the materials composing it. * * * Let us endeavour to aicture to ourselves an extent of the bed of ;he ocean, spacious as these realms that we inhabit, carpeted with living plants ; every slade of grass and every flower instinct with "ife, and all the vast expanse busily engaged ^11 deriving from the surrounding water ma- terials for subsistence : let us consider that from age to age, the wide-spread scene is building up, by constant precipitation from the sea, a rocky territory, co-extensive with tself, and then we shall perceive that, in the course of time, even these almost unknown members of the animal creation may perform achievements at which the boldest mind is startled when it comes to survey what they have accomplished." MAGILUS. A genus of Mollusca, inhabit- ng a thick, tubular, irrregularly contorted shell ; spire short, consisting of three or four whorls ; aperture longer than wide, without any notch, but an angle at the base. When in a young state," observes Miss Callow, "this curious shell presents all the character of a regular spiral univalve. This animal establishes itself in the excavations of M drepores ; and as the coral increases around it, the Magilus is obliged, in order to have its aperture on a level with the surrounding surface, or near it, to construct a tube, the growth of the coral determining its length. As this tube goes on increasing, the animal abandons the spiral for the tubular part of the shell ; and in the operation it leaves be- hind no partitions, but secretes a compact calcareous matter, which reaches to the very summit of the spiral part ; so that in an old specimen the posterior part of the shell pre- sents a solid mass. One species only, Magi- lus antiquus, is known. The colour is white more or less pure." MAGOT. The Barbary Ape. (Pithecus Inuus.} [See APE.] MAGPIE. (Pica catuJata.) A crafty and familiar bird of the corvine family, whose plumage of black and white, green and purple, with the rich and gilded variegations )f its tail, may be safely pronounced beauti- ul ; yet its propensity for mischief, its noise, and its restless and quarrelsome dis- position, render it every where an unwel- come intruder. In length it is about eighteen iches ; its bill is strong and black ; eyes lazel ; head, neck, back, breast, and tail- coverts deep black, forming a fine contrast with the snowy whiteness of the under parts and scapulars. The plumage is in general glossed with green, purple, and blue, which catch the eye in different lights, and are particularly resplendent on the tail, which is very long, and rather wedge-shaped: vent, under tail-coverts, thighs, and legs black : on the throat and part of the neck the feathers are mixed with others, resembling strong whitish hairs. It feeds both on animal and vegetable substances ; and when satisfied with its present meal, it will hide the re- mainder of its provision for a future occasion. It builds its nest of sticks and clay, with great art and sagacity ; defending it on all sides with sharp thorny twigs, leaving only a hole for entrance, and furnishing the inside with a lining of fibrous roots and other soft materials. The female lays seven or eight eggs, pale green, spotted with black. The Magpie may easily be tamed and taught to pronounce words and short sentences, but MAOPIE. (PIOA CAODATA.) its tones are too shrill and sharp to be a perfect imitation of the human voice. Like other birds of its kind, it is addicted to steal- ing and hoarding. It will occasionally plunder the nests of some other birds, and even carry off whole broods of stray duck- lings when its young demand more food than is easily obtained : but it has its good qualities also ; for it frees our pastures of an incredible number of grubs and slugs, and often performs a friendly office for sheep and oxen, by getting on their backs and freeing them from troublesome vermin. Magpies may be said to be social, though not actually gregarious. MALACODERMAT A. A section of Pen- tamerous Coleoptera: for a familiar example of which we must refer to the Glow-worm (Lampyris), and Soldier-beetle (.Telephorus) The antennae differ in the two sexes. The accompanying figure represents the female of the Lamprocera Latreillii, also called 400 cf Datura! $2t's'tcrvy ; flomalistis yrandis, a native of Brazil. The pectinated figure on the one side shows the antennae of the male ; the other figure re- presenting the leg, with its five-jointed or pentamerous tarsus. MALLEUS, or HAMMER- HF.ADED OYSTER. ( Malleus vulyaris\ A genus al- lied to Ostrea, chiefly remarkable for its sin- gular form ; the two sides of the hinge being extended so as to resemble in some measure the head of a hammer, while the valves, elongated nearly at right angles to these, represent the handle. It inhabits the Indian archipelago, attaching itself by a byssus to submarine rocks. The shape of the shells are so very various, that scarcely two of a species can be found alike ; externally their appearance is very rude and irregular, but the interior is extremely beautiful, being lined with the most brilliant mother-of- pearl ; hence, as they are rather rare also, they generally obtain a good price. MALURUS. A genus of Passerine birds, abundantly dispersed throughout New South Wales, containing several species, one of which, MALURUS CTANEUS, named by the colo- nists the SUPERB WARBLER, BLUE WREN, &c., is the oldest known species of the whole of the lovely group forming the genus ; and its favourite haunts are localities of a wild and sterile character, thinly covered with low scrubby brushwood, near the borders of rivers and ravines. The male in summer has the crown of the head, ear-coverts, and a lunar-shaped mark on the upper part of the back light metallic blue ; lores, line over the eye, occiput, scapularies, back, rump, and upper tail-coverts velvety black ; throat and chest bluish black ; tail deep blue, in- distinctly barred with a darker hue, and finely tipped with white ; wings brown ; under surface buffy white, tinged with blue on the flanks ; bill black ; feet brown. The female has the lores and a circle surrounding the eye reddish brown ; wings and tail brown ; under surface brownish white ; bill reddish brown ; feet pale brown. The Malurus Cyaneus is of a very wander- ing disposition, but seldom travels far beyond the district in which it was bred. During the winter they associate in small flocks ; but as spring advances they separate into pairs, the male undergoing a most surprising change of plumage, which for a few months is as resplendent as it is possible to conceive: indeed, its whole character and nature appear also to have received a new impulse ; the little creature now displaying great vivacity, proudly showing off its gorgeous attire, and pouring out its animated song almost unceasingly, until the female has completed her task of incubation. In the winter no bird can be more tame and fami- liar, seeming to court, rather than shun, the presence of man. Its mode of progression is a succession of bounding hops, performed with great rapidity, its short and rounded wing incapacitating it for protracted flight. Two, if not three, broods are reared in a season ; and, independently of her own young, the female is the foster-parent of the Bronze Cuckoo, a single egg of which species is frequently found deposited in her dome-shaped nest, which has a small hole at the side for an entrance, and is usually placed near the ground, in a secluded bush, tuft of grass, or under the shelter of a bank. The song is a hurried strain, somewhat re- sembling that of the European Wren. MAMMALIA. That class which is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom, because it is composed of the beings whose faculties are the most numerous, whose structure is the most perfect, whose movements are the most various, and whose intelligence is the most developed. The term is derived from mammce [breasts'], and the class contains all those animals which suckle their young by means of breasts. Most mammiferous ani- mals are formed for walking ; a few, how- ever, can sustain themselves in the air ; and a limited number are destined to live in the water. From Man, who, from his most perfect organization, stands at the head of the system, to Whales and other cetaceous animals, which are classed at the end of Mammalia, the skeleton is formed upon the same general principles, and its parts are only altered and modified to suit the station which the animal is destined to fill. All Mammalia are viviparous ; the foetus derives its nourishment direct from the blood of the mother, and, after birth, she supports it, for a longer or shorter time, by her milk, a nutritious liquid secreted by particular glands, called mammary. Sometimes the young are born with their eyes open, and can immediately run about, and procure their own food ; but many come into the d, a of utter helplessness. world with their eyes closed, and in a state Linnaaus was the first to bring under review the whole animal, vegetable, and 23t'cti0narp at &mmatcXf $aittrc. 401 mineral kingdoms, wherein he described and i named every natural object which had been discovered up to his time, and introduced into his writings a language fitted to supply all the wants of the age : and not long after his death, Gmelin edited a new edition of the " Systema Naturae," with additions up to that date (1788). Various scientific men subsequently attempted to improve the arrangement of Linnaeus ; and at length appeared the "Regne Animal," by Cuvier, who, having shown that there are "immu- table laws prescribed to living beings," di- vides his class Mammalia into the following orders: !. BIMANA ; with two hands, of which Man is the only species. He has three kinds of teeth. 2. QUADRUMAXA ; animals with four hands, and having three kinds of teeth : Monkeys, &c. 3. CARXA- KIA. These have three kinds of teeth, which are more or less of a carnivorous cha- racter. Thumb of the anterior extremities never opposable to the other fingers or toes. It is divided into three families : Cheirop- tera, or bats ; Insectivora, or such animals as feed much on insects, as the Hedgehog, &c. ; Carnivora, animals which subsist on flesh ; Cats, &c. 4. MARSUPIALIA ; animals pro- vided with a pouch for the protection of their young after birth, as the Kangaroo, &c. 5. RODENTIA, or Gnawers ; animals with two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by a void space. The molars in most genera with flat or riggled crowns, and in others blunt tubercles: Hares, Squirrels, &c 6. EDENTATA; generally destitute of teeth, some genera with molars only ; their toes varying in number, and provided with large hoof-like nails : Ant- eaters, &c. 7. PACHVDERMATA, or thick- skinned animals ; it includes all the hoofed quadrupeds, except the ruminants : Horses, &c. 8. RUMINANTIA ; animals which ru- minate or chew the cud, with cloven feet, and provided with four stomachs : Deer, &c. 9. CETACEA ; Whales and their conge- ners. The essential characters of the Mammalia are taken from the number and structure of their teeth, and the construction of their hands and feet : on the perfection of the organs of touch the expertness of the animal depends ; and from their dental formula may, in a great measure, be deduced the nature of their food and digestive functions. Living for the most part on the earth's s\ir- face, the Mammalia are exposed to the transitions of heat and cold : hence the bodies of most of them are covered with a coating of hair, varying in thickness. As their habitation approaches the northern regions, it is more dense, and thinner to- wards the equator. And it is to be observed, that the cetaceous animals which inhabit the sea are totally divested of hair. The Mammalia are, of all animals, those which approach the nearest to Man, in re- gard to their intellectual powers ; yet in this respect they present the greatest differences amongst themselves. This the reader will observe, as he turns to the various articles in this volume, where the instincts and habits of each species are described. MAMMOTH. (Elephcus primogcnhts.) A term employed to designate an extinct spe- cies of elephant, the fos_sil remains of which have been at various times discovered em- bedded in the newer tertiary deposits both in Europe and Asia. A great quantity of fossil ivory is obtained from Siberia ; and even whole carcasses, covered with flesh and skin, preserved by the eternal frost of those regions, have been found in the northern parts of that country. It is not to be con- founded with the J/asfcx/on, a gigantic fossil animal of North America. Some authors derive the name " Mam- moth" from the word Behemoth, used in the book of Job to designate an immensely large animal, or from Mehemoth, an Arab term applied to elephants of extraordinary size ; while others are of opinion that it is merely an adoption of the word Mammouth, given by the Siberians to a huge animal, which they (in order to account for the quantity of Mammoth-horns, or fossil ivory) pretend lived underground in the manner of moles, and could not bear the light of day. This story is in a manner corroborated by the Chinese account of a subterranean animal, which in their great work on Natural His- tory is thus described : " The animal called tien-schu, tyn-schu, or yn-schu (signifying the mouse that conceals itself), lives entirely in subterranean caverns ; in form it re sembles a mouse, but is equal to an ox or a buifalo in size. It has no tail, and is of a dark colour ; it is exceedingly strong, and digs caverns in which it lives, in rocky and woody places." It is the universal opinion throughout Siberia, that Mammoths have been found with the flesh quite fresh and filled with blood ; this, although an ex- aggeration, is founded on the fact that entire bodies have been discovered, preserved in ice, with the flesh comparatively in a state of freshness. The best authenticated in- stance of this was that of the Mammoth brought to St. Petersburg by Mr. Adams, and first recorded in Oct. 1807 in the 'Journal du Nord.' The account is related in ' The Zoologist ' as follows : " In 1799 a Tungusian fisherman observed, in a bank on the shore of the Frozen Ocean, at the mouth of the river Lena, a shapeless mass, almost enveloped in ice, and he was quite unable to make out what it could be. The year following, a larger portion of this mass became visible, but the fisherman was still unable to ascertain its nature. Towards the end of the following summer one of the tusks and an entire side of the animal were exposed. It was not, however, until the fifth year from its discovery, when the ice having melted sooner than usual, that the enormous animal became entirely detached from the bank or cliff in which it was first observed, and came thundering down on to a sand- bank below. In the month of March, 1804, the fisherman extracted the tusks, which were 9 feet 6 inches long, and together weighed 360 Ibs., and sold them at Jakutsk for fifty rubles. Two years afterwards Mr. Adams visited the animal, and found it much mutilated. The Jakoutes residing in the neighbourhood had cut away the flesh to 402 of $t'gt0rg ; feed their dogs ; wild beasts, especially white bears, foxes, &c., had also eaten a great quantity of it. Nevertheless, the skeleton was entire, with the exception of a fore leg ; the other bones being still held together by ligaments and portions of skin. The head was covered with dried skin ; one of the ears was entire, and furnished with a tuft of hairs : the pupil of the eye was still to be distinguished ; the brain was in the skull, but somewhat dried ; the lower lip had been gnawed by animals, the upper one was en- tirely gone, and the teeth consequently ex- posed ; the neck was furnished with a long mane ; the skin was covered with long hair and a reddish wool ; the portion of skin still remaining was so heavy, that ten men could scarcely carry it : according to Mr. Adams, more than thirty pounds weight of hair and wool was collected from the wet sand into which it had been trodden by the white bears while devouring the flesh. Mr. Adams took the greatest pains in collecting what remained of this unique specimen of an ancient creation, and procured the tusks from Jakutsk. The Emperor of Russia pur- chased the skeleton, which is now in the Museum of the Academy of St. Petersburg. The height of the creature is about nine feet, and its extreme length to the tip of the tail about sixteen feet. Portions of the skin and hair were presented to most of the conti- nental museums, as well as to the College of Surgeons in London." " The Mammoth seems a link connecting the past and the present worlds a being whose body has outlived its destination. All the arguments which have been used to prove that the earth has undergone some great convulsion since this huge animal was en- dowed with life, appear perfectly untenable. In the first place, it is evident that its life be- came a sacrifice to a sudden snow-storm, by which it was overtaken, overwhelmed, and suffocated. The suddenness of the storm might have been accidental ; the winter might have set in earlier, it might have been more severe than usual : but the animal was well adapted for such winters ; its long, warm, and shaggy coat proclaim it a de- nizen of arctic countries, and is admirably adapted to exclude the severest cold : such a clothing would have been intolerable in tropical regions, where elephants now abound. We learn from Bishop Heber that in some of the colder and mountainous dis- tricts of northern India, hairy elephants still exist, thus showing that this clothing is provided as an especial protection against the climate ; and at the same time leading to the obvious conclusion, that the well-clad Mammoth, like the Polar Bear, was the des- tined denizen of still severer climes. Nature ever adapts her creatures to the circumstances under which she has chosen to place them." Dr. Falconer and Major Cautley found numerous species of fossil elephants in the Sewalik Hills, which are described in their beautifully illustrated work, and are now in the British Museum. MAN. Linnaeus was the first who ven- tured to class Man in a scientific system with the rest of animated nature ; nor did he wholly escape censure for degrading the dignity of the human race by such an ap- proximation : but whether considered as the head of the animal creation, and a part of : it ; or as a sole genus and sole species, dis- ; tinct from others, and lord of all ; it is not ; merely correct, but absolutely necessary, to \ define Man if viewed solely in a physical i light, and setting aside his divine reason, I and his immortal nature as a being pro- ! vided with two hands, designed for prehen- I sion, and having fingers protected by flat nails ; with two feet, destined for walking ; with a single stomach ; and with three kinds of teeth, incisive, canine, and molar. His position is upright, his food both vegetable and animal, his body naked. Man is the only animal truly bimanous and biped. His whole body is modified for the 1 vertical position. His feet furnish him with a larger base than those of other mamma- lians ; the muscles whicli retain the foot and thigh in the state of extension are more vi- gorous, whence results the swelling of the ' calf and buttock ; the flexors of the leg are attached higher up, which permits of com- i plete extension of the knee, and renders the calf more apparent. The pelvis is larger, which separates the thighs and feet, and i gives to the trunk that pyramidal form fa- j vourable to equilibrium : the necks of the i thigh-bones form an angle with the body of the bone, which increases still more the se- paration of the feet, and augments the basis ' of the body. And the head, in this vertical ; position, is in equilibrium with the trunk, | because its articulation is exactly under the | middle of its mass. Man thus preserves the i entire use of his hands for the arts, while j his organs of sense are most favourably si- | tiiated for observation. His two e3 r es are \ directed forwards ; which produces more unity in the result of his vision, and con- centrates his attention more closely on objects of this kind. He has a particular pre-emi- nence in his organ of voice : of all mamma- lians, he can alone articulate sounds. Hence results his most invaluable mode of com- munication ; for of all the signs which can be conveniently employed for the transmis- sion of ideas, variations of sound are those which can be perceived at the greatest dis- tance, and in the most various directions simultaneously. The ordinary produce of the human spe- cies is but one child at a birth ; the period of gestation, nine months. The foetus grows more rapidly as it approaches the time of birth. The infant, on the contrary, increases always more and more slowly. It has reached upwards of a fourth of its height when born ; attains the half of it at two years and a half ; and the three-fourths at nine or ten years. By the eighteenth year the growth almost entirely ceases. Man rarely exceeds six feet, and seldom remains under five. Woman is ordinarily some inches shorter. Scarcely has the body attained its full growth in height, before it commences to increase in bulk ; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue. The different vessels become gradually ob- structed ; the solids become rigid ; decrepi- Popular JBtrttouarj) of &mnuitett Mature. 403 tude and decay follow in their turn ; and most of the species, either from disease, ac- cidents, or merely old age, perish ere they are " threescore years and ten." Occasion- ally one lives upwards of a hundred years ; but long before that patriarchal age is reached, the survivor needs no monitor to tell him that " all is labour and sorrow." It has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more than one species in the human race ; but it is merely a dispute of words ; and if the term species is used in its common scientific sense, it cannot be denied that there is but one species_. There are, however, certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, colour, nature of the hair, or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions of this species. Blumenbach reduces these varieties to five : The first variety, usually called the Cau- casian, from its supposed origin in the Cau- casus, occupies the central parts of the old continent, namely, Western Asia, Eastern and Northern Africa, Hindostan, and Eu- rope. Its characters are the colour of the skin, more or less white or brown ; the cheeks tinged with red ; long hair, either brown or light ; the head almost spherical ; the face oval and narrow ; the features moderately marked, the nose slightly arched ; the mouth small ; the front teeth placed perpendi- cularly in the jaws ; the chin full and round. The regularity of the features of such a countenance, which is that of the European, causes it to be generally considered (by them at least) as the most agreeable 2 The second variety has been called the Eastern variety. The colour in this race is yellow ; the hair black, stiff, straight, and rather thin ; the head almost square ; the face large, flat, and depressed ; the features indistinctly marked ; the nose small and flat ; the cheeks round and prominent ; the chin pointed ; the eyes small. This variety comprises the Asiatics to the east of the Ganges and of Mount Beloor, except the Malays. 3. The American variety resembles that last de- scribed in several points. Its principal cha- racters are the copper colour ; stiff, thin, straight black hair ; low forehead ; eyes sunk ; the nose somewhat projecting ; cheek bones prominent ; the face large. This va- riety comprises all the Americans except the Esquimaux. There are several branches, however, which differ considerably. 4. The fourth variety is called by Blumenbach the Malay, and described as of a tawny colour ; the hair black, soft, thick, and curled ; the forehead a little projecting ; the nose thick, wide, and flattened ; the mouth large ; the upper jaw projecting. This variety com- prehends the islanders of the Pacific Ocean. 5. The remaining variety is the Negro. Its characters are : colour black ; hair black and woolly ; head narrow ; forehead con- vex and arched ; cheek-bones projecting ; nose large, and almost confounded with the upper jaw ; the upper front teeth obliquely placed ; the lips thick ; the chin drawn in ; the legs crooked. This race is found in Western and Southern Africa, and the great islands of the Pacific, generally in the in- terior. There are very great differences in the tribes included in this variety : the Negro, with the complexion of jet, and wool ; the Caffre, with a copper complexion, and long hair ; the sooty Papous, or New Guineamen ; the native of Van Diemen's Land, &c. " Within each of these varieties are included numerous smaller divisions, which are cer- tainly, though less prominently, distinct in their features. The varieties of national appearance between the Scotch, English, French, and Germans, for example, are in general distinguishable, though it would be difficult to define their differences. Similar subdivisions of character exist among all the varieties, and so fill up the intervals between the extreme specimens of each as to form a regular and nearly perfect series, of which the Esquimaux and Negro might occupy the extremities, and the European the middle place, between the broad and high features of the one, and the narrow, elongated, and depressed skull and face of the other." Those writers who have gone deeply into the subject, and attempted to account for all the causes which have contributed to the diversity of the human species, have gene- rally been led into a more discursive field than they had anticipated ; while the re- sult, perhaps, has been both inconclusive and unsatisfactory. In such a compendium as this, where brevity is scarcely less essential than precision, we are constantly warned not to exceed our limits. We shall therefore not pretend to describe minutely the ana- tomical structure of Man, neither shall we attempt to follow him from his entrance into life to his mortal exit ; but shall endeavour to lay before the reader such of our " glean- ings " as we conceive will best illustrate the subject, without extending the article to an unwarrantable length. If Man be compared with the other classes of animated nature, we shall find that he possesses most of those advantages united, which the rest only partially enjoy. In- finitely superior to all others in the mental powers, he is also superior to them in the aptness and proportion of his form. He would indeed be one of the most wretched beings on earth, if, with a sentient mind, he was so constructed as to be incapable of obeying its impulses. In the lectures of Pro- fessor Green, this subject has been handled with philosophical acuteness and masterly power. He says, " In a comparison of the frame and capabilities of Man with those of the inferior animals, if we take the human frame as the ideal standard of form, it will be found that all others present many de- clensions from the idea by exaggeration or defect ; and it will be found from this sur- vey that Man is unquestionably endowed with that structure, the perfection of which is revealed in such a balanced relation of the parts to a whole as may best fit it for a being exercising intelligent choice, and destined for moral freedom. It is not, therefore, an absolute perfection of the constituents singly, but the proportional development of all, and their harmonious constitution to One, for which we contend; a constitution which implies in a far higher degree than in any other animal a balanced relation of the living 404 STrcarfttrp tif Datura! ^ powers and faculties, and which requires, therefore, in Man pre-eminently, the endow- ment of rational will as necessary for the control and adjustment of the balance. Man has not the quick hearing of the timid herbi- vorous animals ; but it was not intended that he should catch the sound of distant danger, and be governed by his fears : he has not the piercing sight of the eagle, nor the keen scent of the beast of prey ; but neither was Man intended to be the fellow of the tiger, or a denizen of the forest. Hence the de- parture from the perfect proportion of Man which we observe in the inferior animals may be regarded as deformities by exagge- ration or defect, dependent upon a preponder- ance of a part that necessitates a particular use, or the absence of a part that deprives the animal of a power, and in both instances alike abrogates that freedom for which pro- | vision is made in the balanced relation of the constituents of the human fabric, which permits the free choice of means, and the adaptation to any purpose determined by an intelligent free-will. Dilate the head, and you have a symptom of disease ; pro- trude the jaws, you have a voracious animal ; lengthen the ears, timidity is expressed ; let the nose project, and the animal is governed by its scent ; enlarge the belly, and you are reminded of the animal appetites : long arms may fit him for an inhabitant of the trees, and a fit companion for the ape ; and pre- dominant length of legs are infallibly asso- sociated with the habits of the wading or leaping animals. In all, regarding Man's form with reference to his destination as the ideal standard, the means become ends ; de- formity prevails, and becomes the badge of unintelligent slavery to the mere animal nature." " In the contemplation of the human ske- leton, its most striking characteristic, and that which contradistinguishes it from the bony fabric of all other animals, is its adap- tation to the erect position ; an attribute not only peculiar to Man, but without which his structure could not correspond with his spiritual endowments, since it is at once the need and symbol of a being raised above the servile condition of the mere animal nature. Thus the skull is poised with a slight pre- ponderance anteriorly, at the top of the vertebral column ; and a plumb-line dropped from the point of its support falls through the centre of gravity between the feet, which present the base of support to the whole towering fabric. We remark, however, that the supporting parts do not range with this line. The spine is bent like an italic S : it recedes at the chest, in order to give room to its cavity ; and at the same time is har- moniously inflected forwards at the loins and neck, in order to facilitate its balance over the points of support : and it cannot be doubted that these curves contribute to the capability of bending 'and changing the position of the trunk, without endangering the loss of balance. But the balance of the body is also greatly aided by the breadth of the human pelvis, which, supplying a broad base of support, permitn the inclinations of the trunk without the necessity of altering the position of the lower limbs. The lateral breadth of the pelvis, however, throws the heads of the thigh-bones, upon which the weight of the body is transmitted, to some distance on each side of the line that falls througli the centre of gravity : and in order to provide a compensating adjustment, the thigh-bones are placed obliquely, inclining towards each other ; so that in the upright posture with the feet together they touch at the knees, and the weight is then received upon the heads of the leg-bones or tibice, \ which stand perpendicularly under the cen- I tre of gravity : and these again are planted I upon the arch of the foot or instep, on which the whole weight of the body securely rests. 1 Then, in order to secure in the foot the requisite firmness in standing, we find that it is articulated with the leg at right angles, so that both the heel and toes touch the ground ; and the joint is placed nearer the posterior than the anterior part of the foot, so as to increase the base of support in that direction towards which the body tends most to fall : besides which, the weight is here received on the inner side of the foot, where it is most arched, thereby offering not only the advantage of a strong support, but one which is highly elastic, yielding without injury in alighting iipon the feet, and acting as a spring in progression. Thus the ma- jestic cc-lumn of the human form is raised and built up upon its pedestal ; and the living pillar, readily maintaining its equi- poise, bears aloft its capital, whilst the upper limbs are left free to adlibitive motion. Thus the place of the head, as the corporeal representative of that which perceives and wills ; the disposition of the senses therein as the media of intelligence, and of the organs of speech as the interpreters of thought ; and the arrangement of the upper limbs as the instruments of volition, no longer sub- servient to mere animal needs, all impress us with the conviction that even the skele- ton cannot be intelligible to us without ad- mitting that the human bodily frame was designed for the instrument and dwelling of a being contradistinguished from, and ele- vated above, all other animals." It has been well argued by a popular writer of the present day, that, " destitute of either projecting teeth or strong claws, covered neither with hard scales nor with bristles, nor with a thick hide, and surpassed in speed by many of his more powerful antagonists, Man's condition would seem most pitiable, and inferior to that of any other animal ; for on all the rest of those to whom she has denied the weapons of attack, Nature has bestowed the means either of defence, or of concealment, or of flight. But Man, by his superior reason, has sub- dued all other animals. His intellect can scarcely suggest the mechanism which his hands cannot frame ; and he has made for himself arms more powerful and destructive than any other creature wields ; he has clothed himself in armour and built walls of defence with which he can defy the attacks of any but his fellow-men. Naturally unarmed, Man has conquered the whole armed creation : some he has driven from r JBt'ctumarj) of &mmatctr $atur*. 405 their abodes, and almost exterminated ; others he has forced to share his labour ; and others he uses for his food, his clothing, or his pleasure. The only other part of the human structure which it is now necessary to notice is the brain, whose size in propor- tion to the rest of the nervous system far surpasses that of any other animal. This may be at once seen by observing the pro- portion which the cranium, or rather the cavity containing the brain, and the face, bear to each other. In many cases also it may be estimated by what is called the facial angle of Camper, which is found by drawing a line from the most prominent part of the forehead to that of the upper jaw-bone, and observe the angle which it forms with another line drawn through the meatus auditorius externus to the base of the nose, or (the head being held in a vertical position) with a horizontal line. In Man the facial angle is in the average of Euro- peans 80o . in some children it is a right angle, but in some negroes is not more than 703. in the adult chimpanzee (which ap- proaches in this respect nearest to Man) the facial angle is only 3.5, and in the orang or satyr 30. In other animals it is still less, except when it is increased by the promi- nence of large frontal sinuses, or by the comparative shortness of the jaws. In regard to its structure the human brain exceeds all other in development of its cerebral hemispheres, in the number and development of parts, in the depth and number of its convolutions, and in the quan- tity of its medullary matter in proportion to the cortical. " In the economy of the human body there are peculiarities not less marked than those in its structure. Perhaps the most charac- teristic is the ability which Man enjoys of living on almost any part of the globe, and of thriving alike in either extreme of natural temperature. Thus the Greenlanders and Esquimaux have reached between 70 and 80 of north latitude, while the negro of Africa and the red man of America live under the equator. But even Europeans, accustomed to a temperate climate, can bear either of these extremes of cold and heat, as has been sufficiently proved by the nume- rous instances in which those who have gone on the Arctic expeditions have been obliged to winter in high northern latitudes ; and, on the other hand, by the slight degree in j which European settlers in the hottest parts of Africa are influenced by the temperature. " In adaptation with his ability to inhabit almost every climate, Man can subsist on the most varied food. In the northern re- gions, where the earth is covered through the greater part of the year with snow, and vegetables of any kind can be procured only in the smallest quantity, the Esquimaux and Samoides subsist as well on animal food alone as the European does on the most carefully mixed diet : and on the other hand, the inhabitant of the torrid zone is not more inconvenienced by his daily sub- sistence on the cocoa-nut, banana, yam, rice, and other farinaceous and acid vegeta- bles. In the temperate climates, where ani- mal and vegetable food can be procured with equal facility, Man is truly omnivorous ; towards the poles animal food or fish be- comes more exclusively his diet ; and to- wards the equator his food is chiefly com- posed of vegetables : and there is no doubt that in each case that food which is most universally adopted is that which is best adapted for the health of the inhabitants. " There is not a proof in the whole history of animals that any species or individual has ever made an advance towards an improve- ment, or an alteration in its condition : whether solitary or living in herds, the habits of all remain the same ; all of the same species appear endowed with the same fa- culties and dispositions, and each is in mental power the same throughout his life. Con- trast with these the progress of Man. In his origin weak, naked, and defenceless, he has not only obtained dominion over all the animate creation, but the very elements are made to serve his purpose. Of the earth he has built his houses, and constructed weapons and the implements of art ; he uses the wind to carry him in ships, and to prepare his food ; and when the wind will not suit him, he employs fire and water to replace or to resist it. By artificial light he has pre- vented the inconveniences of darkness ; he has stopped and made rivers, and has forced deserts, marshes, and forests alike to bear his food ; he has marked out and measured the course of the celestial bodies, till he has discovered from them the size and form of the earth that he himself inhabits." With regard to the proportions of the human figure, we have no exact knowledge ; for the beauty of the best statues is better conceived by observing than by measuring them. Those of antiquity, which were at first copied after the human form, are now become the models of it ; nor is there one Man found whose person approaches to those inimitable performances that have thus, in one figure, united the perfections of numbers. It is sufficient to say that, from being at first models, they are now become originals ; and are used to correct deviations in that form from whence they are taken. We must not, however, pretend to give the propor- tions of the human body as taken from these, there being nothing more arbitrary. Some, for instance, who have studied after models, divide the body into ten times the length of the face, and others into eight. Some even pretend to assert that there is a similitude of proportion in different parts of the body : thus, that the head is the length of the face ; the thumb the length of the nose ; the space between the eyes the breadth of an eye ; the breadth of the thigh, where thickest, double that of the thickest part of the leg, and treble the smallest ; that the arms when extended are equal to the length of the figure; and that the legs and thighs are half the length of the body. All this, however, is extremely arbitrary ; and the excellence of a shape, or the beauty of a statue, results from the attitude and position of the whole, rather than from any determined measure- ments, begun without experience, and sanc- tioned by caprice. It may in general be 406 (Emfttrg of Natural remarked, that the proportions alter in every age, and are obviously different in the two sexes. In Women the shoulders are narrower, and the neck is proportionally longer, than in Men ; the hips are also considerably larger, and the thighs shorter. These pro- portions, however, vary greatly at different stages of life : in infancy the upper parts of the body are much larger than .the lower ; and the legs and thighs do not nearly con- stitute half the height of the whole figure. In proportion as the child increases in age, the inferior parts lengthen, so that the body is not equally divided till it arrives at its full stature. There is a striking difference in the size of Men. Those are said to be tall who mea- sure from five feet eight to six feet in height; the middle stature is from five feet five to five feet eight ; and such as fall short of these proportions are said to be of a diminu- tive size. It should be observed, however, that the same person is always taller in the morning than on going to bed at night ; there being sometimes the difference of an inch. The reason of this is obvious. Be- tween all the joints of the back-bone a glutinous liquor, styled synovia, is deposited, which serves, like oil in a machine, to give the parts an easy play on each other: this lubricating liquor, or synovia, according to anatomists, is poured in during the season of repose, and is consumed by exercise and employment ; so that after hard labour scarcely any of it remains, but the joints grow stiff, and their motion is painful and uneasy. Hence, therefore, the body di- minishes in stature : for this moisture being drained away from between the numerous joints of the back-bone, they lie close on each other, and their entire length is thus very sensibly diminished ; but sleep, by re- storing the fluid, again swells the spaces between the vertebrae, and the whole is ex- tended to its former dimensions. A comparison between the strength of Men and other animals may be estimated by various modes. First, by the weight they are able to carry. It is affirmed that the porters of Constantinople carry burdens of nine hundred pounds weight : and Des- guliers tells us that, by means of a certain harness, by which every part of a Man's body was proportionably loaded, the person he employed in this experiment was able to support in an erect posture, a weight not less than two thousand pounds. A horse, about seven times our bulk, would be thus able to raise a weight of fourteen thousand pounds, if his strength were in the same pro- portion. But the fact is, a horse cannot carry on his back above two or three hundred weight ; while a Man can support two thou- sand pounds. But if we reflect for a moment, the reason of this will be apparent : a load on a Man's shoulders is placed to the greatest ad- vantage ; while, on the contrary, on the back of a horse it is placed to the greatest disadvan- tage. Suppose a Man to be standing as upright as possible under this before mentioned enor- mous weight; then all the bones may be com- pared to pillars supporting a buildirg, and his muscles will have very little employment in this dangerous duty : however, they are not absolutely inactive ; as Man, let him stand ever so upright, will have some bending in different parts of his body. The muscles therefore give the bones a partial assistance, and that with the greatest possible ad- vantage. The greatest force of a horse, and of other quadrupeds, is exerted when the load is placed in such a position that the column of the bones can be properly applied, which is lengthwise. When, therefore, we estimate the comparative strength of a horse, we must not regard what he can carry, but what he can draw : and in this case his amazing superiority over Man is easily dis- covered ; for one horse can draw a load which ten Men would be unable to move. Among the ancients, strength was a qua- lity of much greater use than at present ; as, in time of war, the same Man who had strength enough to carry the heaviest armour, had also ability sufficient to strike the most fatal blow. In this case, his strength was at once his protection and his power. We should not, therefore, be surprised when we read of one Man whose personal prowess rendered him terrible in war, and irresistible, though we may fairly make allowances for its being greatly exaggerated by flattery, or magnified by terror. And, in an age of ignorance, which is ever an age of wonder, mankind, having no just idea of the human powers, were pleased rather to represent what they wished than what they knew ; and exalted human strength, to fill up the whole sphere of their limited conceptions. Great strength is an accidental endowment ; two or three persons in a country may possess it, and these may institute a claim to heroism ; but prodigious strength is not hereditary, like family honours ; and when we contemplate the splendid characters of Homer's heroes, who are all represented as the descendants of heroes, we may well be- lieve that they are more indebted to their princely titles, than to their bodily strength and indomitable vigour, for their splen- did attributes and their herculean achieve- ments. There are indeed, in later ages_, some in- stances of amazing strength, which cannot be questioned ; but in these Nature is found to pursue her ordinary course. These strong men have originated from the lowest ranks, and gradually risen into notice as their ad- ventitious superiority had more opportunities of being displayed. Among this number may be ranked the Roman tribune who ob- tained the name of the second Achilles, and who is said to have killed, with his own hand, at different times, three hundred of the enemy ; and, when insidiously attacked by twenty-five of his own countrymen, though past his sixtieth year, to have killed fourteen of them before he himself was slain. Of this number, too, was Milo, who, when he stood upright, could not be moved from his place. Pliny also mentions one named Athenatus, who walked across the stage at Rome loaded with a breast-plate which weighed five hundred pounds, and buskins of the same weight. But of all the prodigies of strength recorded in authentic history, Btfttmiarg of $aturr. 407 Maximinius, the Roman emperor, may be I counter certain death. Hunger, however, reckoned the chief. Whatever we are told terrible as it is in its approaches, is said to be of him is well attested : his character was j not proportionately so in its duration ; for ; too exalted not to be perfectly known ; and j the pain occasioned by famine decreases as that very strength for which he was cele- I the strength fails, and a total insensibility brated, at last procured him no less a reward ' at length comes to the relief of the wretched than the empire of the world. Maximinius j sufferer. It is, however, incontestably cer- was upwards of nine feet high, and one of the tain that Man is less able to support hunger best-proportioned men in the whole empire, j than any other animal : nor is he better He was a Thracian by birth ; and, from ; qualified to bear a state of watchfulness, being a simple herdsman, rose, through the Sleep, indeed, seems much more necessary several gradations of office, till he became ' to him than to any other creature ; as, when : Emperor of Rome. The first opportunity , awake, he may be said to exhaust a greater which offered of exerting his strength, was i proportion of the nervous fluid, and con- in the presence of a numerous assembly of : sequently to stand in need of an adequate citizens in the theatre, where he overthrew j supply. Other animals, when most awake, twelve of the strongest men in wrestling, are but little removed from a state of slum- and outstripped two of the fleetest horses in her : their inert faculties, imprisoned in running, on the same day. He could draw j matter, and rather exerted by impulse than a loaded chariot, which two strong horses ' deliberation, require sleep more as a cessa- were unable to move ; and could break the i tion from motion than from thought. But "aw of a horse with one blow of his fist, and I with respect to Man it is far otherwise ; his lis thigh with a kick. In war he was always ideas, fatigued with their various excursions, i engaged in the foremost ranks, where he dis- demand a cessation, not less than the body I played feats of activity that could only be i from toil. Fortunately for mankind, sleep : equalled by his success ; and happy had it ' generally arrives in time to relieve the mental been for him and his people, if, from being powers, as well as the bodily frame : but it formidable to his enemies, he had not become is often in vain that all light is excluded, , still more so to his subjects. He reigned ; all noise removed, and warmth and softness I for some time at enmity with all the world ; j conspire, as it were, to invite sleep ; the j all mankind wishing for his death, yet none j restless and active mind still retains its for- ' daring to strike the blow; and, as if Fortune [ mer vigilance ; and reason, that wishes to had resolved that through life he should resign the reins, is obliged, in spite of herself, wer fir, continue unconquerable, he was killed at last by his O.MI subjects while asleep. In more modern times we have several in- to maintain them. In this disagreeable state, the mind ranges from thought to thought, willing to lose the distinctness of by increasing the multitude of stances of bodily strength, and not a few of i perceptio amazing swiftness ; but these merely cor- images. At last, when sleep makes nearer poreal perfections are now considered as of | approaches, every object of the imagination small advantage, either in peace or war. i begins to blend with that which lies next to The invention of gunpowder in some mea- I it ; a part of their distinction fades away ; sure levelled all flesh to one standard, and ! and ensuing sleep fashions out dreams for wrought a total change in martial education I the remainder. | through all parts of the world. In peace In sleep the whole nervous frame is re- also, the discovery of new machines almost ' laxed. while the heart and lungs seem more i everyday, and the application of the strength forcibly exerted. This fuller circulation pro- I of irrational animals to the purposes of life, duces also a tension of the muscles : it may and, above all, the wondrous uses of the be considered as a kind of exercise, con- steam-engine, have rendered human strength of less value. The boast of corporeal strength is therefore consigned to barbarous nations, where, from the deficiency of art, its value is still felt ; but in more civilized countries, its proud pre-eminence has fallen in a ratio commensurate with the progress of art, and the advancement of intellectual superiority. But Man, though invested with superior powers, and possessed of more numerous ! privileges, with respect to his necessities seems to be inferior to the meanest animals. Nature has introduced him into life with a greater variety of wants and infirmities than the rest of her creatures, unarmed in the midst of enemies. Among the many thou- sand imaginary wants peculiar to Man, he has two in common with all other animals, which nevertheless he feels in a greater de- gree than they : these are the want of sleep, and hunger. The latter is a more destructive foe to mankind than watchfulness : but, though fatal without its proper antidote, it may always be removed by food ; and to acquire this, Men have been known to en- tinued through the whole frame ; and by this the perspiration becomes more copious, though the appetite for food is entirely removed. Too much sleep dulls the ap- prehension, weakens the memory, and un- fits the body for supporting fatigue : too little sleep, on the contrary, emaciates the frame, produces melancholy, and wastes the constitution. A life of study, it is well known, unfits the body for receiving this grateful refreshment ; and the approaches of sleep are averted by intense reflection : when, therefore, it comes at last, its con- tinuance should not be hastily interrupted. Sleep is, indeed, by some a very agreeable period e pronoui of Man's need to be existence, in consequence of the pleasurable dreams which sometimes attend it. This, however, is rather fanciful than just ; the pleasure which dreams are capable of conveying seldom reaching to our waking pitch of fe- licity : the mind often, in the midst of its visionary satisfactions, demands of itself, whether it does not owe them to an illusion ? and not unf requently awakes with the reply. 408 Creagurg at Datura! But it is seldom, except in cases of the highest delight or the deepest distress, that the mind has power thus to disengage itself from the empire of fancy : in the common course of its operations, it submits to those numerous fantastic images which succeed each other, and which, like many of our waking thoughts, are generally forgotten. There are others on whom dreams appear to have a very different effect; and who, without seeming to remember their impressions the succeeding morning, have yet evidenced, by their actions during sleep, that they were very powerfully impelled by their dominion; per- forming many of the ordinary duties to which they have been accustomed when awake ; and, with a ridiculous industry, completing by night what they had failed to accomplish by day. Numerous instances might indeed be cited to show that the imagination is equally active by night as by day, and that it often involuntarily intrudes where it is least commanded or desired. While awake, and in health, this busy principle cannot much deceive us : it may raise a thousand phantoms before us, build schemes of hap- piness, or shudder at ideal misery ; but the senses are all alive and sound to evince its falsity. Our eyes show us that the prospect is not present : our hearing and our touch depose against its reality ; and our taste and smelling are equally vigilant in de- tecting the imposition. Reason, therefore, at once determines on the cause ; and the fleeting intruder, Imagination, is restrained or banished from the mind. But it is other- wise in sleep : the senses being as much as possible at rest, having lost their peculiar functions, the imagination is then left to riot at large, and to lead the understanding captive. Every incursive idea then becomes a reality ; and the mind, being destitute of every power that can correct the illusion, receives them for truths. But we fear we have trespassed too long on this part of our subject ; we therefore hasten from the consideration of what may be thought ideal and imaginary, to that which is actual and manifest. Every object in nature has its improvement and decay. The human form no sooner arrives at ma- turity, than it instantly begins to decline. The "waste is at first insensible, and fre- quently several years revolve before we per- ceive any considerable alteration : but we ought to feel the weight of our years better than their number can be estimated by strangers ; and as those are seldom deceived who judge of our age by external signs, we might be more sensible of the truth, were we more attentive to our feelings, and did not suffer ourselves to be deceived by vanity and fallacious hopes. When the body has ac- quired its full stature, and is extended to its just dimensions, it begins to increase in thickness ; and this augmentation is the first step towards a decay, being merely an addition of superfluous matter, which in- flates the body, and loads it with an useless weight : this matter, which is denominated fai, about the age of thirty-five or forty, begins to cover the muscles and interrupt their activity : every action then requires a greater exertion to perform it ; and the in- crease of size is at the expense of ease, ac- tivity, and strength. The bones also be- come every day more solid. In the embryo they are almost as soft as the muscles and the flesh ; by degrees they harden and ac- quire their natural vigour ; but the circula- tion is still carried on through them ; and how hard soever the bones may seem, the blood holds its current through them, as through all other parts of the body. Like the softer parts, they are furnished, through all their substance, with their proper canals, although in the different stages of existence they are of very different capacities. In infancy they are capacious, and the blood flows through the bones with almost the same facility as through the other channels. In manhood their size is greatly diminished ; the vessels are almost imperceptible, and the circulation through them is proportionably slow. But in the decline of life, the blood which meanders through the bones no longer contributing to their growth, of necessity tends to increase their rigidity. In pro- portion as we advance in years, the bones, the cartilages, the membranes, the flesh, the skin, and every libre of the body, be- come more solid, hard, and dry : every part shrinks, every motion becomes more slow ; the circulation of the fluids is performed with less freedom ; perspiration diminishes ; the secretions alter ; the digestion becomes slow and laborious ; and the juices no longer serving to convey their accustomed nutri- ment, those parts may be said to live no longer when the circulation ceases. Thus the body dies by little and little ; all its functions are weakened by degrees ; life is driven from one part of the frame to another ; universal rigidity prevails ; and death at last closes tlie scene. When the natural stamina are good, life may perhaps be pro- longed for a few years, by moderating the passions, by temperance, and by abstemious- ness : but no human art can prolong the period of life to any considerable extent. It is apparent, indeed, that the duration of life has no absolute dependence either on manners, customs, or the qualities of par- ticular food: much, it is true, is to be as- cribed to the quality of the air ; but we may rely upon it that, if luxury and intem- perance be excepted, nothing can alter those laws of mechanism which regulate the num- ber of our years. Well may it be said, that Man is a com- pound being the link between spiritual and animal existence ; partaking of both their natures, but having also something peculiar to himself. His intellectual facul- ties prove his alliance to a superior class of beings : his sensual appetites and passions show his affinity to the brute creation. We cannot close this article without re- ferring to Dr. Prichard's admirable Re- searches into the Physical History of Man, a work which, although we have not here quoted it, we recommend to the attention of pur readers as one which discusses a most important subject with consummate ability, MANAKIN. [See PARDALOTUS.] Popular ^Dictionary of "Hmmatetf $atur*. 409 MANATUS. A genus of herbivorous marine animals, familiarly called Sea Cows, and usuallyassociated with the order Cetacea. The body of the Manatus is of an oblong shape, terminated by a lengthened oval fin : it generally measures six or seven feet in length, but sometimes grows to an enormous size ; and its paddles or fins exhibit rudi- ments of nails, by the aid of which the un- wieldy animal drags its body along on the shore, to browse on the herbage that grows on and near the banks of the great rivers to which it resorts. The skin of the Manatus is of a blackish colour, very tough and hard, and full of inequalities, like the bark of an oak ; and on it are sprinkled a few bristly hairs, about an inch in length. The eyes are exceedingly small in proportion to the size of the animal. It has no external ears, but only two orifices, scarcely large enough to admit a quill ; the tongue is pointed, and extremely small ; the mouth is destitute of teeth, but furnished with two solid white bones, extending the entire length of both jaws, which serve instead of grinders ; the lips are double ; and near the junction of the two jaws the mouth is full of white tubular bristles, answering the same purpose as the laminae in whales, to prevent the food from issuing out with the water. The lips are also thick-set with bristles, serving, in- stead of teeth, to cut the strong roots of the marine plants, which, floating ashore, point out the vicinity of these animals. MANDRILL. The great blue-faced Ba- boon. [See BABOON.] MANGO-FISH. [See POLTNEMUS.] MANIS ; PANGOLIN ; or SCALY ANT- EATER. The Linnaean genus Manis con- sists of certain singular animals, known also by the name of Pangolins and Scaly Ant- eaters ; and are limited to the warmest parts of Asia and Africa. They resemble the Afyr- mecofihaga, or Hairy Ant-eaters, in having a very long extensible tongue, furnished with a glutinous mucus for securing their insect food, and in being destitute of teeth ; but differing wholly from them in the body, limbs, and tail being covered with a panoply of large, imbricated scales, overlapping each other, after the manner of lacertine reptiles ; and also in being able to roll themselves up when in danger, by which their trenchant scales become erect, and present a defensive armour sufficient to repel the assaults of the most ferocious of the_ir enemies. They are quite harmless in their nature, entirely sub- sist on ants, termites, &c., and differ from the true Ant-eaters of South America in little else than in being provided with this scaly integument. They are remarkable for the strength and number of their caudal vertebrae ; and in a general view of the ani- mal kingdom, they may be considered as having the appearance of forming a kind of link between the proper viviparous quadru- peds and the Lizards. The LONG-TAILED MANIS. (Manis tetra- dactyla.) This species is generally upwards of two feet in length, and the tail is more than twice as long as the body : the head is small, the snout narrow ; the whole body, except the under part, covered with broad but sharp-pointed scales, which are striated throughout their whole length. The legs are very short ; scaled like the body ; and on each of the feet are four claws, those on the fore feet being stronger than those on the hind. The colour of the whole animal s an uniform deep brown, with a cast of yellow, and a glossy surface. It is a native of Africa. The SHORT-TAILED MANIS. (Manis pen- tadnctijla.) In this species the head is small as in the former, but the tail is much thicker nd shorter, being not so long as the body, wide at the base, gradually tapering, but terminating very obtusely. The feet are furnished with five toes each, those on the fore feet, except the exterior one, which is very small, being extremely strong. The scales differ in shape from those of the pre- ceding, being much larger and wider in pro- portion to the body and tail : they are also much harder, and so impenetrable when the animal rolls itself up, that when the tiger, panther, or hyaena attempts to force it. the Manis remains perfectly secure, and the as- sailant suffers for his temerity. The Manis chiefly inhabits the most obscure parts of 410 Crcatfurg of Batumi the forest, and digs itself a retreat in the cleft of some rock, where it brings forth its young. It is a native of India, in many parts of which it is called the Bajjerkeit. MANT1CORA. [See CICINDELID.E.] MANTIS : MANTID^E. A genus and family of Orthopterous insects, whose singu- lar appearance, and the grotesque forms they usually assume when lying in wait for their prey, have not only attracted great attention, but have given rise to the most superstitious notions among the vulgar. The Mantiike are characterized by having a narrow and elongated body ; the anterior legs of enor- mous length ; short palpi, terminating in a point ; the tarsi five-jointed, and the wings plaited longitudinally. These insects fre- quent trees and plants ; and the forms and colours of their wings and bodies are so like the leaves and twigs which surround them as to give them remarkable power to elude observation. The PRAYING MANTIS (Mantis religi- osa) is of a beautiful green colour, nearly three inches in length, of a slender shape, and in its general sitting posture holds up the two fore-legs, slightly bent, in an attitude resembling that of a person when at prayer ; in which position it will some- times remain motionless for several hours. It is termed by the French prie-Dieu. Its food consists of flies and other insects, which it is exceedingly dexterous in catching and retaining. " The monkish legends tell us that St. Francis Xavier, seeing a Mantis moving along in its solemn way, holding up its two fore-legs as in the act of devotion, desired it to sing the praises of God ; where- upon the insect carolled forth a fine can- ticle ! (Ins. Arch., p. 63.) Mouffet, also, in- forms us, that ' so divine a creature is this esteemed, that if a childe ask the way to such a place, she will stretch out one of her feet, and shew him the right way, and seldom or never misse. As she resembleth those diviners in the elevation of her hands, so also in likenesse of motion ; for they do not sport themselves as others do, nor leap, nor play ; but, walking softly, she retains her modesty, and shews forth a mature kind of gravity 1 ' But this gravity (.as Mr. West- wood aptly says) has an object of a very dif- ferent kind to that of the sorcerer. It is thus, after exhibiting a wonderful degree of patience, that, like a cat approaching a mouse, the Mantis moves almost impercep- tibly along, and steals towards its prey, fearful of putting it to flight. When suffi- ciently near, the fore leg is extended to its full length, and the insect seized, being im- mediately secured between the tibia and ; femur, where it is held by the numerous \ teeth with which those parts are armed." j These insects are of a very voracious and j pugnacious nature ; and when kept with others of their own species in a state of cap- i tivity, will fight till one or the other is de- ! stroyed in the contest Very similar to the foregoing is the Mantis precaria. It is of a beautiful green colour, with the thorax j ciliated on each side, and the upper wings j each marked in the middle by a transparent spot. This species is held in the highest ; veneration by some of the ignorant African j tribes. But of all the Mantes, perhaps the j most singular in its appearance is the Empusa j gongylodes, which, from its thin limbs and j the grotesque form of its body, especially in j its dried state, seems to resemble the con- i junction of several fragments of withered I stalks, &c. MANTISPA : MANTISPID^E. A genus 1 and family of insects belonging to the order ; Neuroptera. They appear to be very closely ; allied to the Henierob'Mve in the general j character of the veins of the wings. The I species are but of small size, of dull colours, and widely dispersed throughout the globe. They chiefly reside upon oaks, and the structure of the fore legs and mouth seems to indicate that their habits are predaceous. MARECA. A genus of Palmipede birds, containing the Widgeon (.Mareca Penelope.), [which see.] MARGARITACE./E. An order of Mol- lusca, containing several interesting genera ; among which is the Avicula margaritifera, the shell of which produces the most valued Pearls, as well as the greatest quantity of Mother- of-Pearl ; the latter being simply the nacreous interior of the shell. The pearls are separate formations of a similar sub- stance, deposited by the mantle. The best Pearls are generally produced at the point, where the attachment of the adductor muscle causes a roughness in the shell. The gra- dual change which takes place in the posi- tion of this muscle, in accordance with the growth of the animal, causes the detach- ment of the pearl ; and it is generally found imbedded in the substance of the muscle, by the motion of whose fibres its spherical form seems chiefly occasioned. But the formation of Pearls is by no means confined to this species ; for any shell, univalve or bivalve, with a nacreous interior, may produce them. MARGAY. (Felis tigrina.) A species of wild cat, native of South America. It is about the size of the common cat ; and is very fierce and untameable. The ground- colour is a bright tawny : the face striped downwards with black ; the shoulders and body marked both with stripes and large oblong black spots ; small spots on the legs ; the breast, belly, and insides of the limbs, whitish : long tail, marked with black and gray. It resides principally on trees, prey- ing on birds ; and seldom brings forth more than two young ones at a hi Jh. Popular SBtctionarg of &mmatrtr Mature. 411 M ARGINELL A. A genus of Molluscous animals, inhabiting an oval, smooth, shining shell, often handsomely coloured ; the spire exceedingly short ; the right lip having a thick margin ; plaits nearly equal in size ; and no operculum. The head of the animal is very distinct, with a small proboscis, and two tentacula having eyes at the base. It covers the greater part of the shell with the mantle, and by continually depositing vi- treous matter gives it a bright polish, which, together with the delicately neat arrange- ment of colours in most species, renders them very beautiful. MARIKINA. An appellation given ey, furnished to a Brazilian species of Monkey, furnished with a mane, and having a tuft of hair at the end of its tail. It is the Jacchus Rosalia of na- turalists. MARMOT. (Arciomys.-) A genus of Rodent animals of which there are several species. The Marmots in their dentition are nearly allied to the squirrels, though in their general form they are very dissimilar to those active little quadrupeds, and have been generally classed with the rats. They have five molar teeth on each side of the lower jaw ; short legs ; a rather short tail ; heavy body ; and a short flat head : four toes on the fore feet, and flve on the hinder. They live in communities ; have extensive burrows on the sides of high and cold moun- tains ; and pass the winter in a dormant state. The ALPINE MARMOT (Arctamys Alpinus) is about the size of a rabbit ; of a grayish yellow colour, approaching to brown to- wards the head ; and has a short tail. This species inhabits the mountains of Europe (particularly those of the Alps and Pyre- nees), just below the region of perpetual snow ; and feeds on insects, roots, and vege- tables. They live in large societies ; and when they are eating, they post a sentinel, who on the approach of any danger gives a shrill whistle, when they all retire into their burrows, which are contrived with great art, and are well lined with moss and hay. In these retreats they remain in a torpid state from the autumn till April. In fine weather tney are seen sporting about the neighbour- hood of their burrows ; they delight in bask- ing in the sunshine, and frequently assume an upright posture, sitting on their hind feet. Before they retire to their winter quarters they are observed to grow exces- sively fat ; and, on the contrary, appear greatly emaciated on first emerging from them. In a domestic state the Marmot will eat almost any kind of animal or vegetable food. There are many Marmots inhabiting North America which have been considered as be- longing to the sub-genus Spermophilus. The most celebrated of these is the PRAIRIE DOG. (Arctomys ludovicianits.) The name of Prairie Dog has been given to it from a sup- posed similarity between its warning cry and the barking of a small dog. They live in large communities ; their villages, as they are termed by the hunters, sometimes being many miles in extent. The entrance to each burrow is at the summit of the mound of earth thrown up during the progress of the excavation below. The hole descends vertically to the depth of one or two feet, after which it continues in an oblique direc- tion. This Marmot, like the rest of the spe- cies, becomes torpid during the winter, and, to protect itself against the rigour of the season, stops the month of its hole, and con- structs a neat globular cell at the bottom of it, of fine dry grass, so compactly put to- gether as almost to form a solid mass. In the "Travels in North America" by the Hon. C. A. Murray, we find an account of this animal. Speaking of an extensive and desolate prairie through which he was pass- ing, is the following description of the "Prairie Dog." "In this waste there was not either bird or beast to be seen, except Prairie Dogs. I do not know how these little animals obtained this absurd appella- tion, as they do not bear the slightest re- semblance to the canine species, either in formation or habits. In size they vary ex- tremely, but in general they are not larger than a squirrel, and not unlike one in ap- pearance, except that they want his bushy tail ; the head is also somewhat rounder. They burrow under the light soil, and throw it up round the entrance to their dwelling like the English rabbit : on this little mound they generally sit, chirping and chattering to one another, like two neighbour gossips in a village. Their number is incredible, and their cities (for they deserve no less a name) full of activity and bustle. I do not know what their occupations are ; but I have seen them constantly running from one hole to another, although they do not ever pay any distant visits. They seem on the approach of danger always to retire to their own homes : but their great delight apparently consists in braving it, with the usual insolence of cowardice when secure from punishment ; for, as you approach, they wag their little tails, elevate then- heads, and chatter at you like a monkey, louder and louder the nearer you come : but no sooner is the hand raised to any missile, whether gun, arrow, stick, or stone, than they pop into the hole with a rapidity only equalled by that sudden disappearance of Punch, with which, when a child, I have been so much delighted in the streets and squares of London." Their holes seem to be tenanted also by a species of owls (Strix cunicularia) ; and this apparently discrepant N N 2 412 &rrauri? at Natural ^t couple live together united not in the bonds of matrimony but of friendship. There are several other American species. The QUKBEC MARMOT (Arctomys empetra), a solitary animal, whose burrows are almost perpendicular, and situated in dry spots, at some distance from the water. The Woon- CIIUCK (A rctomys^ monax) ; they make their burrows in the sides of hills, which extend a considerable distance, and terminate in chambers lined with dry grass, leaves, &c. They are easily tamed, and are very cleanly. Besides the foregoing, many species of the Marmot are found in the north of Europe and Asia : they swarm in the Ukraine, about the Boristhenes, in the southern desert of Great Tartary, and in the Alcaic mountains south of the Irtis. They burrow, and form magazines of corn and nuts ; sit like squir- rels while they eat ; and generally bring forth from five to eight young. They are both herbivorous and carnivorous. MARMOZET,orOUISTITIS. (Jacchus.) A genus of American monkeys distinguished from the rest by the absence of the additional molar, and by the sharpness and crooked- ness of their nails. The thumb is not oppo- sable, being placed in the same line with the other fingers ; and that of the hind feet is very short. The tail is large, and thickly covered with hair ; but it is not prehensile ; and in many species it is marked by trans- verse bars, giving it a very elegant appear- ance : several are also distinguished by tufts of hair projecting from the sides of the head. They are very agile in their move- ments, and extremely cautious and wary ; exhibiting a degree of wildness and distrust even when in confinement. They show much instinctive sagacity in their search for insect food. MARSUPIALTA, or MARSUPIALS. A singular family of the order Carnivara, in the class Mammalia; and so called from the females having a pouch (marsupium), or temporary abode for the young immediately after birth, and into which they retreat long after they can walk, whenever they are ap- prehensive of danger. Two particular bones, called the marsupial bones, attached to the pubis, and placed amidst the abdominal muscles, support this pouch. Professor Owen says, " they assist in producing a compres- sion of the mammary gland, necessary for the alimentation of a peculiarly feeble off- spring, and they defend the abdominal vis- cera from the pressure of the young as they increase in size, during their mammary or marsupial existence, and still more when they return to the pouch for temporary shelter." It should moreover be observed, that these marsupial bones are found like- wise in the male, and even in species where the pouch-formed fold of skin is scarcely perceptible. New South Wales abounds in marsupial animals, but they are found also in America and the Asiatic islands. [See KANGAROO : OPOSSUM.] MARTEN. (Mustela foina.) This elegant and lively animal, whose agile and graceful motions are not excelled by any of the weasel tribe, resides in woods, and preys chiefly on birds and small animals. Its general length from nose to tail is about a foot and a half, and the tail is ten inches long. The female breeds in hollow trees, produces from three to seven young at a time, and has ' at least two litters in a year. They are very destructive to game of every kind, and to All sorts of domestic poultry, eggs, &c. : they will also feed on rats, mice, and moles ; are very fond of honey, and will sometimes j eat seeds and grain. The Marten is of a dark tawny colour, with a white throat ; and the belly is of a dusky brown : the tail is bushy, and of a darker colour than the other parts ; the ears are moderately large and rounded ; muzzle pointed ; and the eyes : bright and lively. It is very wild and un- | tameable if captured when full grown, but if taken young is susceptible of great do- cility. It has two sorts of fur ; the outer, which is very long, and brown of different shades in different parts of the body ; and the inner, which is extremely soft, short, and of a light yellowish gray colour. The PINE MARTEX (Miistela martes) is an inhabitant of the woody districts in the northern parts of America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; it is also found about the region of Mount Caucasus, as well as in Sweden, Norway, &c. It very closely re- sembles the preceding, but may be dis- tinguished by its smaller size, longer legs, finer, thicker, and more glossy fur, and from the throat being marked with a broad yellow spot. The Pine Marten preys on mice, rabbits, partridges, &c. It never frequents houses, as the common Marten occasionally does ; but confines itself altogether to the woods and fields. Its fur is far superior in quality to that of the former species, and the skins form a great article of commerce. When this animal is pursued, and its retreat cut off, it shows its teeth, erects its hair, arches its back, and hisses like a cat. It burrows in the ground, carries its young about six weeks, and brings forth from four to seven in a litter about the latter end of April. Both this and the former species have a kind of musky smell. PENNANT'S MARTEN. (Hmtda Cann- densis.) This is also a native of the north- ern parts of America. It is a larger and stronger animal than the Pine Marten ; lives in the woods, preferring damp places to dry; and climbs with facility. It brings forth once a year, from two to four young. It is sought for its skin, of which considerable popular SEh'cturnarp 0f &m'mate& feature. 413 numbers are every year exported by the fur traders. MARTIN. [See SWALLOW.] MASON-BEE. A species of the genus given by Messrs. Kirby and Spence in their " Introduction to Entomology," that we take the liberty of extracting it. " This insect (0. murarius) bores a cylindrical cavity from _________ ____ __ _ r _____ _ - - two to three incnes deep, in hard sand which Osmia, remarkable for constructing its nest j its mandibles alone would be scarcely ca- of agglutinated sand, fixing it on the sides ! pable of penetrating, were it not provided of walls, &c., or availing itself of some cavity [ with a slightly glutinous liquor which it or suitable projection for that purpose. This I pours out of its mouth, that, like the vinegar species constructs six or eight cells near each I with which Hannibal softened the Alps, other, though irregularly placed ; and the | acts upon the cement of the sand, and ren- female, having deposited an egg, with a 1 ders the se paration of the grains easy to the kaxe with which our little pioneer supply of honey and pollen in each, covers double pic the whole and fills the spaces between the is furnished. But the most remarkable cir- cells with the same kind of material she had i cumstance is the mode in which it disposes used in constructing them ; the whole having i of the excavated materials. Instead of the appearance of a dab of mud, which might j throwing them at random on a heap, it have been placed there by accident. This carefully forms them into little oblong pel- viscid mud, or mortar, which is at first soft, lets, and arranges them round the entramie soon becomes as hard as stone ; and the eggs being laid in it, undergo the same metamorphosis as those of the common bees. Several species select the deserted shells of of the hole so as to form a tunnel, which, when the excavation is completed, is often not less than two or three inches in length. For the greater part of its height this tunnel snails, in the spiral tubes of which they I is upright, but towards the top it bends into construct their nests. The bee having found a curve ; always, however, retaining its cy- a shell suitable to her purpose, deposits an lindrical form. The little masses are so egg, together with a suitable supply of pollen attached to each other in this cylinder as to and honey, at the extremity of the tube ; I leave numerous vacuities between them, the space occupied thereby being not quite which give it the appearance of filagree- half an inch in length : this space she closes | work. You will readily divine that the by a thin partition, which is composed of excavated hole is intended for the reception abraded leaves or moss, repeating the ope- of an egg, but for what purpose the external ration until she has constructed the required tunnel is meant is not so apparent. One use, number of shells ; she next closes up the and perhaps the most important, would seem entrance to the tube, for which purpose she I to be to prevent the incursions of the artful collects pellets of earth, small pieces of stick, Ichneumons, Chrysidae, &c., which are ever pebbles, &c., which, being mixed with some j on the watch to insinuate their parasitic liquid secreted by the animal, form a secure young into the nests of other insects : it protection to her works. The larva having may render their access to the nest more consumed the store laid up by the provident | difficult ; they may dread to enter into so parent, spins a cocoon of a toughish texture [ long and dark a defile. I have seen, how- and of a dark brown colour ; and in due time the perfect insect makes its appearance. The genus Osmia contains many species, each having a favourite locality for its nest- building operations, but all of them varying their economy in accordance with accidental circumstances. Some of these bees are red, and others black ; but they are all nearly of the same size, being about the length of drones, though not so thick. The black Mason-bees have stings ; but the red, being males, have none. MASON-WASP. (Odynerus murarius, ever, more than once a Chrysis come out of these tunnels. That its use is only tempo- rary is plain from the circumstance that the insect employs the whole fabric, when is laid and store of fruit procured, g up the remaining vacuity of the in fiflfn^ hole ; taking down the pellets, which are very conveniently at hand, and placing them in it until the entrance is filled." Speaking of the care which Mason-wasps take for their young, the same authors say : " One species not only incloses a living caterpillar along with its eggs in the cell, which it carefully closes, but at the expiration of a few days, pametinus, #c.) Hymenppterous insects, I when the b has appearcd and whose nests may be found in this country | consumed its provision, re-opens the n in most sandy banks exposed to the sun, and who received the name from the in- genuity with which they construct their ha- e-opens the nest, incloses a second caterpillar, and again shuts the mouth: and this operation it repeats until the young one has attained its full growth." MASTIFF. (Canis moloesus.-) This noble and powerful variety of the Canine race is distinguished by a large head and broad muzzle, very thick pendulous lips, moderate sized dependent ears, heavy brow, a strong and well-proportioned body, and the tail rather full. Like most of the larger kinds of dogs, although extremely vigilant over any thing committed to his charge, he will not abuse the power with which he I tation. An account of this is so pleasingly j intrusted, nor call it into action unless pro- 414 Crotfurg of Natural yoked by injuries. In this he shows a dis- position the very reverse of that of the Bull- dog, who seldom waits for aggression, but savagely and insidiously makes the first attack. So famous was great Britain for its Mastiffe when the Romans were its masters, and in such high estimation were their strength, courage, and sagacity held by the Roman emperors, that a resident officer was appointed, for the purpose of breeding them, and transmitting to the im- perial city such as he thought capable of sustaining the combats in the amphitheatre. Strabo says that the Gauls trained British mastiffs for war, and used them in their battles. According to Dr. Caius, three were a match for a bear, and four for a lion. A remarkable variety, if not a distinct species of this animal, is the Thibet Dog. MASTODON. A genus of extinct quad- rupeds, the remains of which in a fossil state show that it was a pachydermatous animal allied to the elephants. It lias received its name from the conical projections on the surfaces of the molar teeth. Some of these were natives of the Old World ; but by far the largest in size have been found on the American continent. The skeleton of one, termed the Mastodon gigantcus, which was lately exhibited in London, under the name of the Missouri Leviathan, and is now in the British Museum, must have con- siderably exceeded in its dimensions the largest elephants now existing. In some parts of North America the fossil remains of this stupendous animal are abundant, particularly in the saline morass popularly termed the Big bone Lick, in the northern part of Kentucky. There are no traces within the period of tradition or history of the existence of these animals as a living genus. When and how they perished, if ascertained at all, must be revealed by geo- logical data. It is worthy of remark, that the skeletons seem to have been unmoved since the death of the animal ; some, in fact, which were found near the banks of the great rivers, appearing in a vertical position, as if they had sunk down or been imbedded in the mud. Among many curious traditions which were believed by the native Indians concern- ing this gigantic animal and its destruction, the following may be noticed : The Shawnee Indians believed that with these stupendous quadrupeds there existed men of propor- tionate dimensions, and that the Great Being destroyed both with thunderbolts. Those of Virginia state that as a troop of these terrible quadrupeds were destroying the deer, the bisons, and the other animals created for the use of the Indians, the Great Man slew them all with his thunder, except the big Bull, who, nothing daunted, presented his enormous forehead to the bolts, and shook them off as they fell, till, being at last wounded in the side, he fled towards the great lakes, where he is to this day. MAY-FLY. [See EPHEMERA.] MEADOW BROWN [BUTTERFLY]. A name given by collectors to Butterflies of the species Hii>parchia janira. MEAL [MOTH]. The name given to the Pl/ralis farinalis. MEDUSA. The name given to a genus of marine animals, in the class Acalepha, which present to the eye, when floating in their native element, an umbrella-shaped disc, from beneath which a number of ten- tacula or filaments depend. In the cen- tral part of the concave side of this disc is the stomach, in the middle of which is the mouth, opening downwards, and surrounded by four leaf-like tentacula. The Medusae are commonly known by the name of " sea- blubber," "jelly-fish," &c. They receive nutriment by means of innumerable mi- nute pores ; and in their stomachs are found small Crustacea, mollusca, and even fishes. At certain seasons many of them sting and inflame the hand that touches them ; and their tentacula seem to possess considerable muscular power, capable of drawing to- wards the mouth almost any thing that comes within their reach. They swim by muscular contraction of the margins of the disc. Many of the Medusae are phospho- rescent, and give that luminous appearance to the sea which has been so often described and variously accounted for. [See ACA- LEPII.E.] MEDUSA'S HEAD. A name sometimes applied to those species of Star-fishes which have the rays very much branched. [See EURYALE.] MEGACEPHALON. The name of a singular genus of birds allied to the TalcgaJla and Leipoa, and doubtless resembling these genera in habits. One species (M. maleo) is known ; it is a native of Celebes, but is rare in collections. MEGACHILE. A genus of bees, popu- larly named leaf-cutters, from their habit of cutting off pieces of the leaves of the rose, elm, and other trees, and using them in the construction of the cases in which they de- posit the pollen and honey necessary for the food of the larvae. There are several spe- cies ; but one of them will be amply suffi- cient for us to describe. Megachilv, WiUugh- bietta: the WILLOW BEE. The male is about half an inch long ; colour, black : the face densely clothed with bright yellow, the vertex with pale ferruginous hair : the antenna; have the apical segment compressed, SBtcttonani at 415 and when viewed in front broader than the rest : the cheeks and under side of the tho- rax are clothed with an ashy pubescence ; above with yellow ferruginous hair : the femora are yellow, with three black stripes in front : the tibiae are black above, yellow at their extreme apex : tarsi palmated, and all the joints fringed with white silvery hairs. These insects exhibit wonderful me- chanical ingenuity in the construction of their pollen-cases ; the same species some- times choosing trees, posts, or rails in a decaying state, at other times burrowing in banks, or in the mortar of old walls, or availing itself of the interstices from which the mortar has fallen out. Mr. F. Smith tells us that on one occasion he split off a large portion of an old willow tree, which was perforated in all directions by the bees, and in doing so, laid open to view a channel, about eight inches long, containing seven cells, constructed of rose-leaves. These he preserved for some weeks ; at length a male bee made its escape, and on examination, it proved to have quitted the upper cell. The rest followed in regular succession, three other males, and three females. Mr. Smith observes, that he is not acquainted with any species of this genus which continues its burrow to the outside of the substance in which it is constructed, as a means of escape for its young brood. The Leaf-cutter Beea are subject to the intrusion of parasites, be- longing to the genus Ccelioxys. " The process which one of these bees em- ploys in cutting the pieces of leaf that com- pose her nest is worthy of attention. Nothing can be more expeditious : she is not longer about it than we should be with a pair of scissars. After hovering for some moments over a rose-bush, as if to reconnoitre the ground, the bee alights upon the leaf she has selected, usually taking her station upon its edge, so that the margin passes between her legs. With her strong mandibles she cuts without intermission in a curve line so as to detach a triangular portion. When this hangs by the last fibre, lest its weight should carry her to the ground, she balances her little wings for flight, and the very mo- ment it parts from the leaf flies off with it in triumph ; the detached portion remaining bent between her legs in a direction perpen- dicular to her body. Thus without rule or compasses do these diminutive creatures mete out the materials of their work into portions of an ellipse, into ovals or circles, accurately accommodating the dimensions of the several pieces of each figure to each other. What other architect could carry impressed upon the tablet of his memory the entire idea of the edifice which he has to erect, and, destitute of square and plumb- line, cut out his materials in their exact dimensions without making a single mis- take ? Yet this is what our little bee in- variably does. So far are human art and reason excelled by the teaching of the Al- mighty." Kirby and Spencers Entomology. MEGALOSAURUS. The name given to an extinct genus of lizard-like reptiles, of gigantic size, discovered in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, near Oxford. Some of them measured from forty to fifty feet in length ; but no perfect skeleton has been found. The generic character of this animal is founded by Dr. Buckland chiefly on the structure of the teeth, which he describes as presenting " a combination of mechanical contrivances analogous to those which are adopted in the construction of the knife, the sabre, and the saw." These teeth were arranged in a pretty close series, in sockets, along the alveolar border of the jaws ; and when it is remem- bered that, according to the measurement of the imperfect remains which have been discovered, the Megalosaurus was about seventy feet in length, the predaceous powers of this carnivorous extinct monster must have been truly apalling MEGALOTIS. A genus of Mammalia allied to the family Canidce. [See FENNEC.] MEGATHERIUM. This name has been given by Cuvier to an extinct genus of gi- gantic quadrupeds, whose structure bears a great resemblance to that of the Bradypus or Sloth family. Several remains of the Megatherium have been found in South America : the one described by Cuvier was in a fossil state, and found a hundred feet below the surface of a sandy soil, in the vici- nity of the river La Plata ; other specimens, however, have since been found on the same continent, but not in BO complete a state. The skeleton was twelve feet (French) long, by six feet in height ; the thigh-bones ex- cessively thick, and the leg-bones still more so in proportion : the fore limbs were longer than the- hind, and there were three enormous claws on the fore feet, but only a single one on the hinder. The head was relatively small : in the upper jaw were five teeth on each side, and in the under jaw four all molars. " As to its place in the system of quadru- peds," Cuvier observes, " it is perfectly marked by the sole inspection of the ordinary indicatory characters, that is, the claws and teeth. These show that it must be classed in the family of unguiculated quadrupeds destitute of cutting teeth ; and, in fact, it has striking relations with these animals in all parts of its body. The great thickness of the branches of the lower jaw, surpassing even that of the elephant, seems to prove that the vast animal was not content with leaves, but, like the elephant and rhinoceros, broke and ground the branches themselves, its close and flat-crowned teeth appearing very proper for that purpose. The position of the bones of the nose, having some analogy 416 of with that of the elephant and tapir, would induce a suspicion that the animal wore a trunk, but it must have been very short, since the length of the head and neck together equals that of the fore legs. However this be, we find in the absence of canine teeth and the shortness of the muzzle, sufficient characters to constitute a new genus in the family of the edcntatcd, which ought to be placed between the Sloth and the Armadillo ; since to the shape of the head of the former, it joins the teeth of the latter. It would be necessary to know particulars of which a skeleton cannot inform us, such as the nature of the teguments, the form of the tongue, the position of the mammae, &c., in order to determine to which of these it approached the most. In the mean time, I thought I might give it the generic name of Megathe- rium, and the trivial one of Americanum. It adds to the numerous facts which apprise us that the animals of the ancient world were all different from those we now see on the earth ; for it is scarcely probable that, if this animal still existed, so remarkable a spec-es could have hitherto escaped the researches of naturalists. It is also a new and very strong proof of the invariable laws of the subordination of characters, and the justness of the consequences thence deduced for the classification of organized bodies ; and under both these views it is one of the most valuable discoveries which have for a long time been made in Natural History." Remains of a similar animal were collected by Sir Woodbine Parish, in the river Salado, which runs through the flat alluvial plains to the south of the city of Buenos Ayres. It was found there after a succession of three unusually dry seasons, which lowered the waters in an extraordinary degree, end ex- posed part of the pelvis to view, as it stood upright in the bottom of the river. This animal apears to have been larger than the one described by Cuvier. The thigh bone was twice the thickness of that of the largest elephant ; the fore foot measured more than a yard in length, and more than twelve inches in width, and was terminated by an enormous claw ; and the upper part of the tail was two feet wide. [See the articles SLOTH and MYLODON.] MEGAPODIUS. A genus of Rasorial birds ; so called from their large feet, which serve an important part in their economy. The eggs of these birds *are very large ; we may mention The DUPERREY'S MEOAPOPITIS (Meijapo- dim Dupcrreyii), which inhabits the um- brageous forests of New Guinea. In size it is rather less than the partridge : the neck is well clothed with feathers ; and a very thick crest, raised towards the occiput, covers the head : the wings are concave, an inch longer than the tail, and terminated in a point ; tail sub-oval, pointed, and very short : legs grayish, and feathered down to the tarsi. The neck, throat, belly, and lateral parts, are of a gray slate-colour : the feathers of the back and the wing-coverts are large, and of a ruddy yellowish brown : rump, upper part of the tail, and vent-fea- thers ochreous red. The bird is timid, runs very fast among the bushes, like a partridge in standing corn, and utters a feeble cluck. The MEGAPODIUS TUMULUS. [See JUN- GLE-FOWL.] MELANDRYID^E. A family of Coleop- terous insects, specially distinguished by the large size of the three terminal joints of the maxillary palpi : the body is generally elon- gate and sub-cylindric or depressed ; the mandibles are short and often bifid at the ; tips ; and the tarsal claws are entire : the | penultimate joint of the tarsi is generally bilobed in the two anterior pair of legs ; in those species in which it is entire, the hind legs are formed for leaping, being long and compressed with slender tarsi. These insects chiefly reside beneath the bark of trees. MELE AGRIS. A genus of Rasorial birds, which contains two species, the COMMON TURKEY (M. gallopavo) and the still more splendid HONDURAS TURKEY (M. ocellata.) [See TURKEY.] MELIT^EA. A genus of Butterflies be- longing to the family Nymphalidce, and distinguished by their antenna;, which have a wide flat club ; the eyes are naked. There | are several British species, for which we must refer to such works as Stephens, Wood, and Humphreys and Westwood: we particularize two. MELITEA SELENE, APRIL FRITILLARY, or SILVER-SPOT BUTTERFLY. This is a well- ! known and beautiful insect, occurring on ; heaths and in woods throughout the south and west of England ; two broods being pro- | duced, one in May, and another in August. \ The wings above are pale fulvous, spotted with black, and a marginal series of dusky spots, bounded by a slender black line : the ground colour of the posterior wings is ferru- SILVER-SPOT BUTTERFLY. (MET.II-EA SELENI-.) ginous, with a brighter band at the base, which is bordered on each side with a row of irregular silver and yellow spots, and having a large black ocellus in the centre, with a rufous pupil ; the rest of the wing is Popular iBCrttmiarg flf ^mmatctr Mature. 417 varied with ferruginous and yellowish, with three silvery spot's, placed transversely ; on the inner and anterior margins a striga composed of black dots, and six silver spots, edged internally with hlack : the anterior wings are distinctly varied with black, the hinder margin being strongly tipped with deep brown, and having a distinct row of conical black spots. Caterpillar black, with a clear lateral stripe ; spines half-yellow. The MELIT.^A ARTEMIS, GREASY FRITIL- LAKV, or SCABIOUS BUTTERFLY. This insect makes its appearance towards the end of May : it is more local than most of its kind ; rare in the neighbourhood of London, but particularly abundant near Brighton ; occurring plentifully also in various other parts of the south and west of England, but being in some places rarely seen. The wings above are reddish-fulvous, undulated with black, and spotted with yellow ; the posterior marked with three distinct bands, the middle one bearing a striga composed of from four to seven black dots : the under surface of the anterior wings is glossy, with some ochracoous dashes at the tip : the pos- terior wings beneath are fulvous, with three transverse yellow bands, slightly edged with black : between the outer bands is a row of seven black dots, edged with ochraceous ; and the basal band is broken and irregular : the cilia are yellowish : the body and an- tennas dusky. The Caterpillar is black above and yellowish beneath, with a row of white dots down the back and on each side : head and spines black ; legs red-brown. It feeds on the Scabiosa succisa, plantain, &c., and appears in September: about the end of April it changes to a pale green chrysalis, spotted with black, and having yellow tuber- cles at the extremity of the body. In about fifteen days the butterfly is produced. MELIPHAGA. A genus of Tenuirostral birds belonging to the Meliphaffidai family, very many species of which will be found described in the great work of Mr. Gould on the Birds of Australia, the country where they abound ; of these we may specify The MELIPHAGA NOV^-HOLLANDI.B, or NEW HOLLAND HOXEY-EATER. This is one of the most abundant and familiar birds in- habiting the colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and South Australia ; breeding among shrubs and flowering plants, aiid being common, in fact, on the sandy districts wherever the Banksias abound. " Nor is it the least attractive of the Aus- tralian Fauna ; the strikingly contrasted markings of its plumage, and the beautiful appearance of its golden-edged wings, when passing with its quick, devious, and jumping flight from shrub to shrub, rendering it a conspicuous and pleasing object." Gould. It usually rears two or three broods during the course of the season, which lasts from August to January. The nest is composed of small wiry sticks, coarse grasses, and strips of bark ; the inside lined with the soft woolly portion of the blossoms of small ground plants. It lays two, and sometimes three eggs, of a pale buff colour, spotted with deep chestnut-brown at the larger end. Its food principally consists of the juices and pollen of flowers ; but it also feeds on fruit and insects. The MELIPHAGA SERICEA, or WHITE- CHEEKED HOXEY-EATER. This species appears to be more confined to an eastern locality in Australia than the one above de- scribed, found in more open districts, and less seen in the interior of the country. When perched on the trees it is a most showy bird, its white cheek-feathers and contrasted tints of colouring rendering it very conspi- cuous. It is readily known from the Meli- phaga Novcc-HoUandiae by its white cheeks and the absence of white tips to the tail- feathers. The MELIPHAGA AUSTKALASIANA, or TASMANIA^ HOXEY-EATER. This species, which is smaller than either of the preced- ing, and less brilliantly marked, is abun- dantly dispersed over every part of Van Diemen's Land, preferring such parts of the forests as are clothed with a thick brush of dwarf shrubby trees, growing beneath the more lofty gums, where numbers of these birds may be heard pouring forth their loud, shrill, and liquid notes in quick suc- cession. It also resorts to the more open hills, where it finds thick beds of the Epacria hose bright red and white heath- like blossoms afford it an abundant supply of food. But, independently of the honey it obtains from the tube of every floret, which. 418 Crouton) of Natural it rifles by means of its slender brush-like tongue, it feeds on various kinds of insects. The nest is placed on a low shrub near the ground ; it is of a circular form, outwardly constructed of the inner rind of the stringy bark gum-tree, generally lined with fine grasses. The male has a black stripe pass- ing from the base of the bill through the eye, and a lunar-shaped black mark down each side of the breast ; a narrow stripe above the eye and one behind the lunar marks on the breast white ; all the upper this place than to refer to the articles on the various species of Bees, which will be found, at considerable length, arranged according to their respective alphabetical situations. MELOE, OIL, or MAY-BEETLE. A genus of Coleopterous insects belonging to the Cantharidce ; " now confined," as Mr. West- wood informs us, " to those apterous species, which have the body large and distended, with the elytra short, oval, and lapping over each other at the base of the suture. These insects crawl slowly along upon the ground, or amongst low herbage, upon which they feed, especially relishing the wild butter- cups (Ranunculus bulbosus and It. acrw)- (MBL1PHA3A AUSTRALASIAN*.) surface dusky black ; wings blackish brown, ! the primaries and secondaries margined ex- ! ternally with golden yellow ; tail feathers brownish black, fringed with golden yellow at the base, the two lateral feathers having a long oval spot of white on their inner . webs at the tip ; throat and chest white, I flanks and under tail-coverts sooty gray : bill and feet black. The female is of a nearly dusky brown above and beneath ; and has only a faint tinge of the golden yellow on the wings and tail. MELLIFERA. A very extensive and interesting group of acnleated Hymenoptera, comprising the various species of Bees, which, from their peculiar construction and admi- rable economy, may be considered as the types of the order. These insects are cha- racterized by having the basal joint of the posterior tarsi dilated into an oblong or sub- triangular plate, which is hirsute on the inside, and provided with instruments for collecting and carrying pollen ; the jaws are strong, and varied in the different species ; the maxillae and labium are elongated, and often transformed into a proboscis capable of being folded up many times beneath the head. The larvae feed exclusively upon pollen or honey. Some of the species live in society, residing in dwellings of such regular construction, that the beauties of insect architecture may be said to rival the skill of the mechanic, while insect industry, order and good government may well command the admiration of mankind, and furnish them with lessons worthy of their imitation. It is not necessary, however, to do more in Mr. Jeffreys also found them very abundant on Arum maculatum, near Cromlyn Bur- rows. When alarmed, they emit from the joints of the legs an oily yellowish liquor, whence they have obtained the name of Oil Beetles. In some parts of Spain they are used instead of the blister-fly, or are mixed with it. They are also said by Latreille to be employed by farriers ; and Hoppe tells us that they were, when he wrote (179,5) in use as a specific against hydrophobia in Germany ; and the oil which is expressed from these insects is used in Sweden with the greatest success, in the cure of rheuma- tism, by bathing the affected part. (Drury's Insects ) General Hard wick has also de- scribed a species of Melol ! , found in all parts of Bengal, Bahar, and Oude, possessing all the properties of the Spanish blistering-fly. From the medicinal properties of these in- sects, Latreille has surmised in his ingenious memoirs upon the Buprestis of the ancients, that that noxious animal must have been a Meloe. M. Blot, however, contends, on the contrary, that the Meloe is not serviceable in medicine. The preparatory states of these insects have been the subject of much con- troversy. According to Gocdart, Linnajus, Frisch, and De Geer, the females burrow into the earth, and there deposit a large mass of yellow eggs, agglutinated together, which produce minute larvae of a long narrow flat- tened form, with thirteen jointed bodies, six short legs, and two long anal setae. They are exceedingly active in their movements, attaching themselves to flies, bees, &c., which it is said that they suck." Mr. Newport has lately proved the accuracy of these state- ments in most particulars, and in his admi- rable memoir on the Natural History of the Oil Beetle, in the twentieth volume of the Transactions of the Linnaean Society, has settled this hitherto much " vexed question," and traced the Meloe from the egg to the perfect insect. [See OIL BEETLE.] popular Btrttanaqi of &mmatrtr flaturc. 419 very of C and widely distributed group of Coleoptera ; of which the well-known and destructive Cockchafer (Melolontha vulguris) is the type. [See COCKCHAFER.] MELOPSITTACUS. A sub-genus of the Parrot family, fouud in Australia, which contains The MELOPSITTACUS UNDULATUS, or WAKBLIXG GRASS-PAREAKEET. We learn from Mr. Gould that this lovely little bird is pre-eminent among the numerous mem- bers of the Parrot family in Australia, both for beauty of plumage and elegance of form : it is alp . remarkable for its sprightly and animated manners. It is believed to be ge- nerally dispersed over the central parts of Australia, but so exclusively an inhabitant of the vast inland plains that it is rarely seen between the mountain ranges and the coast. They breed in the hollow spouts of the large Eucalypti, and may be seen in flocks of many hundreds feeding upon the grass-seeds that are found in abundance on the plains. The nature of their food and the excessive heat of these plains compel them frequently to seek the water ; but be- fore going to drink, they settle together in clusters on the neighbouring trees. Their flight is remarkably straight and rapid, and is generally accompanied, by a screeching noise. During the heat of the day when sitting motionless among the leaves of the gum-tree, they so closely assimilate in colour as to be detected with difficulty. The breed- ing season is at its height in December, and by the end of the month the young are generally capable of providing for them- selves ; they then assemble in vast flights, preparatory to their great migratory move- ment. The eggs are pure white, in number three or four, and are deposited in the holes and spouts of the gum-trees without any nest. They are particularly interestiing as cage-birds ; for, independently of their highly ornamental appearance, they have a most animated and pleasing song ; besides which, they are continually billing, cooing, and feeding each other; and their inward warbling is constantly heard from morning to night. The young gain their full livery in about eight months, the sexes being precisely alike in the colouring and marking of their plu- mage. Forehead and crown straw yellow ; the remainder of the head, ear-coverts, nape, upper part of the back, scapularies, and wing-coverts pale greenish yellow, each feather having a crescent-shaped mark of blackish brown near the extremity ; wings brown ; the outer webs of the feathers deep green, margined with greenish yellow : face and throat yellow, with a patch of rich blue on each cheek, below which are three cir- cular spots of bluish black ; rump, upper ' tail-coverts, and all the under surface bright : green ; two centre tail-feathers blue, the re- ' mainder green, crossed in the middle by an oblique band of yellow ; irides straw white ; : nostrils bright blue or greenish blue and brown ; legs pale bluish lead colour. In a state of nature they feed exclusively upon i grass-seeds ; but in confinement they thrive i equally well on canary-seed. MELYRID^. A family of Coleopterous insects, haying an oblong or ovate body, soft, and but slightly convex : the palpi are short, filiform, and pointed at the tip ; the thorax rather convex ; and the antennas moderately long, serrated, nodose, or pectinated in the ! males of some of the species. These insects are generally of small size, and very gaily coloured, green and red being most conspi- ! cuous. They may be ordinarily found upon [ flowers, us they frequent them for the sake i of the insects which they find there to feed ! on. Some of the species of the British genus Malachius have the anterior angles of the j thorax and the base of the abdomen fur- | nished with several red bladder-like ap- pendages, which the insect is able to contract or dilate at will ; it may therefore be pro- vided for the purpose of increasing or de- creasing its gravity during flight, or be used as a portion of an apparatus for emitting an offensive effluvium. The exotic genera are few, and exhibit no remarkable features. MEMBRACIS: MEMBRACnXE. (Tree- hoppers.) A genus and family of Hemip- terous insects, in many respects resembling the Cicadidce, but they enjoy the faculty of leaping, which the Cicadas do not. This faculty does not, as in the grasshoppers and other leaping insects, result from an enlarge- ment of their hindmost thighs, which do not differ much in thickness from the others ; but is owing to the length of their hinder r to the bristles and spines with shanks, o which these parts are clothed and tipped. spines serve to fix the hind legs se- Thes curely to the surface, and when the insect suddenly unbends its legs, its body is launched forward in the air. Some of them, when assisted by their wings, will leap to the distance of five or six feet, which is more than two hundred and fifty times their own length ; in the same proportion, " a man of ordinary stature should be able at once to vault through the air to the distance of a quarter of a mile." Some of these " leaping harvest-flies " have the face nearly vertical, and the thorax very large, tapering to a point behind, covering the whole of the upper side of the body, and overtopping even the head, 420 Crotfurg at Natural which is not visible from above. In others the face slopes downwards towards the breast, the thorax is of moderate size, and does not extend much, if at all, beyond the base of the wing-covers, and does not conceal the head when viewed from above. The habits of some of the " Tree-hoppers " are presumed to be much the same as those of the musical harvest-flies [See CICADID,*:], for they are found on the limbs of trees, where they deposit their eggs, only during the adult state, and probably pass the early period of their existence in the ground. Others, however, are known to live and undergo all their changes on the stems of plants. Among the former is the American Two-spotted Tree-hopper, or Menibracis Iri- maculata of Fabricius,which may be found in great abundance on the locust-tree (Robinia pseudacacia) during the months of Sep- tember arid October. These, as well as other tree-hoppers, show but little activity when undisturbed, remaining without motion for hours together on the limbs of the trees ; but, on the approach of the fingers, they leap vigorously, and, spreading their wings at the same time, fly to another limb and settle there, in the same position as before. They never sit across the limbs, but always in the direction of their length, with the head or fore part of the body towards the extremity of the branches. On account of their pecu- liar form, which is that of a thick cone with a very oblique direction, their dark colour, and their fixed posture while perching, they would readily be mistaken for the thorns of the tree, a circumstance undoubtedly in- tended for their preservation. This insect measures about half an inch from the tip of the horn to the end of the body ; the male is blackish above, with a long yellow spot on each side of the back ; the female is ash- coloured, and without spots. While on the trees, these insects, though perfectly still, are not unemployed ; but puncture the bark with their sharp and slender beaks, and imbibe the sap for nourishment. The female also appears to commit her eggs to the pro- tection of the tree, being furnished with a piercer beneath the extremity of her body, with which to make suitable perforations in the branches. Another species, the ^yhite- lined Tree-hopper (Membracis univittata\ which may be found upon the oak-tree in the U. States during the month of July. It is about four-tenths of an inch in length ; the thorax is brown, has a short obtuse horn extending obliquely upwards from its fore part, and there is a white line on the back, extending from the top of the horn to the hinder extremity. Tree-hoppers are often surrounded by ants, for the sake of their castings, and for the sap which oozes from the punctures made by the former, of which the ants are very fond. MENOBRANCHUS. A genus of Reptiles belonging to the Salamander group, distin- guished from the allied genera by its per- sistent branchiae ; the head having two rows of teeth in the upper and one row in the lower jaw. There are four toes to each foot, the toes being destitute of claws. There are at least two species of this genus found in North America. MENURA. [See LYRE-BIRD.] MEPHITIS. A genus of carnivorous .is for th smell. [See SKUNK.] MERGUS. A genus of Palmipede Birds ; three species of which are found in this country. The MERGANSER, or GOOSANDER. (Jtfer- gus merganser.) These birds are nearly al- lied to the Duck and Diver tribes. They are inhabitants of the arctic regions, breed ing very far north in summer, and migrating southwards in winter ; in severe seasons oc- casionally frequenting the lakes and rivers of Britain, but leaving this country early in the spring. Their food consists principally of fish, which they take by rapid diving : crustaceans, mollusca, and insects are also devoured by them ; but they seem to be in- capable of digesting vegetable matter of any kind. The male weighs about four pounds, and measures in length two feet three inches, and across the wings three feet two inches. The bill is three inches long, narrow, and finely serrated, the tip being armed with a hooked horny tip : both mandibles are black on tne upper and under parts, and crimson oil the sides : the head is large, and crowned with a great quantity of long loose feathers, which, when erected, form a crest ; these feathers are of a glossy bottle-green ; the cheeks and upper part of the neck are a dull black ; the lower part, breast, belly, vent, and inner wing-coverts of a fine cream co- lour : the upper part of the back, and the lower scapulars, are black ; the lower part of the back and the tail are ash-coloured, the latter consisting of eighteen feathers. The legs and feet are very deep orange- colour. The flesh of this aquatic bird is accounted rank and fishy. The RED-BREASTED MERGANSER or GOOSANDER. (Mergus serrator.) This spe- cies measures one foot nine inches in length, and weighs about two pounds : the bill is long, hooked at the tip, and toothed at the edges ; the upper mandible is dark brown, tinged with green, and edged with red ; the lower one wholly red : the irides are a pur- plish red : the head, long pendent crest, and upper part of the neck, are of a glossy violet black, varying in different lights to a golden- green i the neck and belly white ; the breast RED-BREASTED MERGANSER. (MEROTJS SERRA.TOR.) Jitctumarg of gmmatrtr Mature. 421 rusty red, spotted with black on the front, and bordered on each side with five or six white feathers, edged with black ; the upper part of the back glossy black ; the lower, the rump, and sides being marked with transverse zigzag lines of brown and gray : the feathers nearest to the wings are white ; the greater coverts, some of the secondary quills, and the scapulars, black and white : the primary quills are black ; some tipped with white, and others white on the upper half and black to their points. The tail is short, its colour brown : the legs and feet of a deep orange-colour. It is remarked, how- ever, that these birds, both male and female, differ much in their plumage : some being whiter, brighter, and more distinctly marked than others. They are met with in great flocks at Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, &c. The HOOPED MEROAXSEK. (Meryus cu- cuUatus.) This species is peculiar to Ame- rica, and is usually found along the lakes and fresh water rivers rather than near the sea, ; tracing up creeks, and visiting mill- ponds, diving perpetually for their food. Like the Red- breasted, they are migratory, the manners, food, and places of resort of both being very much alike. On the sea- coast this species is very commonly called the hairy-head. It is eighteen inches in length, and two feet in extent ; bill black- ish red, narrow, thickly toothed, and fur- nished with a projecting nail at the ex- tremity ; the head is ornamented with a large circular crest, which the bird has the faculty of raising or depressing at pleasure ; the fore part of this, as far as the eye, is black, thence to the hind head white, and elegantly tipped with black ; it is composed (MEUOUS cuouttA-rus.) of two separate rows of feathers, radiating from each side of the head ; irides golden ; eye very small ; neck black ; part of the lesser wing-coverts very pale ash, under which the greater wing-coverts and secon- daries form four alternate bars of black and white ; tertials long, black, and streaked down the middle with white ; the black on the back curves handsomely round in two points on the breast, which, with the whole lower parts, are pure white ; sides, under the wings and flanks, reddish brown, beau- tifully crossed with parallel lines of black ; tail pointed; legs and feet, flesh-coloured; claws, large and stout. The female is rather less than the male ; the crest is smaller ; and the plumage in general is less decided and handsome in its markings. Her nest is composed of grass, lined with feathers from the breast ; and she lays six white eggs. MERIONES. A genus of Mammalia, belonging to the order Rodentia, distin- guished from Gerbillus, to which they are closely allied, by their hind feet being much longer, the tail nearly naked, and the ex- istence of a small tooth before the superior molars. There are two species found in North America; one is the Meriones Cana- dcnsilained by Reaumur. He discovered that heir mode of progression consisted in thrust- ng their tongue-like foot out of the shell, curving it, hooking it to some adjacent body, and thus drawing themselves forward to the point of attachment. Although Mussels commonly afford a sup- ply of wholesome food, they sometimes (in spring) acquire very poisonous properties ; 442 (EreaSurg of Natural y&i and many persons have been suddenly at- tacked with violent symptoms after eating them. It frequently happens, indeed, with some constitutions, after partaking of certain kinds of shell-fish, that intolerable itchings all over the body take place, accompanied by great restlessness and agitation, and fol- lowed by cutaneous eruptions. MUSTELA : MUSTELID^E. A genus and family of carnivorous Mammalia, dis- tinguished by the length and slenderness of their bodies. The characters of this genus are : six cutting-teeth in each jaw, the upper being erect, acute, and separate ; the lower more obtuse ; the tongue smooth. [See WEASEL.] MUTILLIDJE. A family of Hymenop- terous insects, generally found in hot Bandy situations, and bearing considerable resem- blance to other sand-wasps. They are soli- tary in their habits : the males occasionally frequent flowers ; but the females are always found on the ground, and they run with great quickness, secreting themselves, on the approach of danger, amongst grass and under stones. The antennae are filiform or seta- ceous, the first and third joints being elon- gated ; the labrum is transverse and ciliated; the mandibles notched ; and the body often very much clothed with hair. The females are destitute of wings and ocelli, but they are provided with a powerful sting. MYA. A genus of Molluscous animals, inclosed in a bivalve shell. The Myaa are to be found both in the ocean and in rivers : the marine kinds generally burrow in the sand, and those which inhabit rivers are ge- nerally found in the mud. They are of considerable importance, in consequence of the shell sometimes producing a quantity of pearls : and the shell is well known by the name of the Pearl Mussel. One end of this shell gapes considerably, and at the aperture the thick epidermis is lengthened out into a tube, which can be withdrawn by the ani- mal at pleasure. It is found on the shores of the European, Asiatic, and African seas ; and in several places it is used as food ; it is also devoured by various aquatic birds. Ac- cording to Camden, Sir John Hawkins had a patent for fishing for it in the river Irt, in Cumberland. There was also a great fishery for pearls in the river Tay, which extended from Perth to Loch Tay ; and it is said that the pearls sent from thence, from the year 1761 to 1764, were worth 10,0007. At the present day it is not uncommon to find pearls in these shells which bring from 11. to 21. MYCETES. A genus of Quadrumana inhabiting the American continent, and po- pularly called Howling Monkeys. They are distinguished by a pyramidal head, the upper jaw of which descends much below the cra- nium, while the branches of the lower one ascend very high, for the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed by a vesicular inflation of the hyoid bone, which communicates with their larynx, and imparts to their voice pro- el ii'iou? volume and a most frightful sound. Hence the appellation bestowed on them. They are shaggy animals, about the size of a fox, of different shades of brown or black- ish ; the females carry their young upon their shoulders, and some of them are dif- ferently coloured from the males : these MONKEY. (MYCETE9 URSINCS.) are of a social disposition and grave deport- ment ; and most of them have thick beards. They utter their hideous yells and howling by night ; and subsist on fruits and foliage. MYCETOPIIILID^E. A subfamily of Dipterous insects, of small and active habits. They are found in damp situations, amongst various plants ; and many of the species enter our houses, and are found on the windows. They are capable of leaping by means of their hind legs ; and are distin- guished by having two or three unequal- sized ocelli ; eyes generally round ; head not rostrated ; the antennas slender, and never fasciculated. A gem Birds allied to the Storks, of which there arc several species : the best known is the M. Americana, or common Jabiru. [See JA- BIRU.] MYLABRIS. A gentis of Vesicatory Bee- tles (Cuntharidce'). The head is large, broad, and rounded behind ; the thorax nearly orbicular ; and the elytra slightly inclined at the sides. They have long an- tenna, with eleven distinct joints in both sexes. This genus abounds in species, Africa, and Asia being the chief countries where they are found. Myhibris cichorii, the species here figured, inhabits the south of Europe ; $3tcttaiuirj) of $ature. 443 i and its vesicatory properties are as powerful as the Cantharis of the shops, with which it is said to be mixed in Italy. MYLODOX. A gigantic animal, which has long since become extinct, but of whose former existence there can be no doubt ; in- asmuch as a magnificent skeleton of it has been discovered, and is now in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. The teeth of the Mylodon are eighteen in number, five on each side above and four below : they are simple, long, fangless, of uniform substance and nearly straight, with the exception of the first tooth in the upper jaw, which is slightly curved. From its dentition, therefore, and the peculiar con- formation of the jaws, it is concluded that it fed on the leaves or slender terminal twigs of trees, in this respect resembling the giraffe, the elephant, and the sloth. The extra- ordinary stature of the giraffe raises its mouth with ease to its food ; the trunk of the elephant conveys the food to its mouth ; and the comparatively light weight of the sloth enables him to run along the under side of the boughs till he has reached a com- modious feeding-place : but the Mylodon and his congeners had short and massive necks, and were as bulky as the Rhinoceros ; so that it is apparently impossible they could obtain their food in the same manner as either of the animal* we have mentioned. In his analysis of the osteological structure of the Mylodon, Professor Owen, after alluding to its very perfect clavicles, which have been alternately received as evidence of the bur- rowing and climbing hypothesis, does not admit them to be necessarily essential to those qualities, since the bear and the badger, the one a climbing and the other a burrow- ing animal, are perfectly destitute of them : but from a comparison of the hand of the Mylodon with that of certain ant-eaters, he infers that it was an instrument employed in digging or removing the earth. The great bulk of the posterior extremities, and the corresponding excess of muscular power, as shown by the spinal crest of the sacrum, he regards as farther evidence against the climbing theory ; while he believes that the enormous tail formed a tripod with the hind legs, which could well support the weight of the animal, and leave the anterior limbs at liberty. " If the foregoing physiological in- terpretation of the osseous frame- work of the gigantic extinct sloths be the true one," says Mr. Owen, " they may be supposed to have commenced the process of prostrating the chosen tree by scratching away the soil from the roots ; for which office we find in the Mylodon the modern scansorial fore-feet of the sloth modified after the type of that of the partially fossorial ant-eater. The compressed or subcompressed form of the claws, which detracts from their power as burrowing instruments, adds to their fit- ness for penetrating the interspaces of roots, and for exposing and liberating them from the attached soil. This operation having y effected by the alternate action of the fore foot, aided probably by the ungiii- been dul the fore oiilatfc digits of the hind feet, the long and curved fore-claws, which are habitually flexed and fettered in the movements of ex- tension, would next be applied to the op- posite sides of the loosened trunk of the tree: and now the Mylodon would derive the full advantage of those modifications of its fore- feet by which it resembles the Bradypus ; the correspondence in the structure of the prehensile instruments of the existing and extinct sloths, extending as far as was com- patible with the different degrees of resist- ance to be overcome. In the small climbing sloth the claws are long and slender, having only to bear the weight of the animal's light body, which is approximated by the action of the muscles towards the grasped branch, as to a fixed point. The stouter proportions of the prehensile hooks of the Mylodon accord with the harder task of overcoming the resistance of the part seized and bringing it down to the body. For the long and slender branchial and anti-branchial bones of the climbing sloth we find substituted in its gigantic predecessor a humerus, radius, and ulna of more robust proportions, of such proportions, indeed, in the Jlylodon robust us as are unequalled in any other known ex- isting or extinct animal. The tree being thu.s partly undermined and firmlj grappled with, the muscles of the trunk, the pelvis, and hind limbs, animated by the nervous influence of the unusually large spinal chord, would combine their forces with those of the anterior members in the efforts at prostration. And now let us picture to our- selves the massive frame of the Megatherium, convulsed with the mighty wrestling, every vibrating fibre reacting upon its bony attach- ment with a force which the sharp and strong crests and apophyses loudly bespeak : extraordinary must have been the strength and proportions of that tree, which, rocked to and fro, to right and left, in such an em- brace, could long withstand the efforts of its ponderous assailant." MYOCHAMA. A genus of Mollusca, of which only one species is known (the H. cmomioides of New South Wales), described by Mr. Sowerby as " inequivalve, irregu- lar, attached, sub-equilateral ; attached valve flat, with two marginal, diverging teeth, and one end of a little testaceous appendage fixed between them by a horny cartilage ; frte valve convex, with umbo incurved, and two very minute diverging teeth, between which the other end of the testaceous appendage is placed ; external surface of both valves conforming to the grooves or undulations of the shell to which the specimen is attached ; muscular impressions two in each valve ; palleal impression with a short sinus." MYOXTJS. [See DORMOUSE.] MYRAPETRA. A genus of Hymenop- tera, which constructs a singular nest. [See WASP.] MYRIAPODA. The name given to the lowest class of articulated animals ; in- cluded by some naturalists among the in- sects, and bearing considerable affinity to them ; but differing from that large class in the absence of wings, and in the body being 444 Crcatfurg of Natural l&t composed of an extensive series of segments, each provided with a pair of legs. [See IULUS : CENTIPEDE : CHILOPODA : CUILOG- NATHA : SCOLOI'ENDEA.] MYRMECOBIUS. A genus of marsupial animals which feed on ants. Myrmecobius fa.icta.tus, the only known species, is a native of Australia : it is formed like a squirrel, and is of the size of a rat : has fifty-two teeth ; and is marked on the lower part of the back with white bauds on a reddish ground tint. MYRMECOPHAGA. The name of a genus of edentate quadrupeds. [See AXT- EATER.] MYRMELEON ; MYRMELEONID^E. A genus and family of Neuropterous insects, one species of which, the Mt/rmeleon formi- caleo, or ANT-LION, has been described under its well-known English name. MYSIS, or OPOSSUM SHRIMP. (Mysis vulyaris.) This curious little Crustacean bears, in its general form, a strong resem- blance to the ordinary Shrimps ; it is, how- ever, distinguished from the true Decapoda by the external position of its branch-lie, &c. In regard to the number of the feet, it holds an intermediate place between the Decapods and ordinary Stomapods. Each of the legs has a natural appendage, so much developed as to make the limb appear bifid : and thus, including the feet-jaws, which also possess similar appendages, the Opossum Shrimp rray be said to have tliirty-two legs. The OPO83UM SHRIMP. (MYSIS VDI.GARIS.) common name of this Crustacean is derived from the peculiar conformation which enables it to afford a special protection to the eggs. Attached to the inner division of each of the posterior legs the female has a large concave scale : and thus a pouch is formed, which is capable of considerable ex- tension. Here the eggs are received when they quit the ovarium, and here the young remain till their form is fully developed; when the parent opens the valves of the pouch, and liberates the whole brood at once. These are the chief Crustacea which inhabit the Arctic Ocean in such amazing numbers as to constitute the principal food of the Whalebone Whale, and to support the pro- digious shoals of Salmon which resort thither in the months of July and August. MYTH/ACE^. An order of Mollusca, of which the common Mitssel furnishes an example. MYTILUS. [See MUSSEL.] MYZANTHA. A genus of Australian j birds, belonging to the family JUeKphagidee, One species is the M. Garrula, or GAKJIULOUS HONEY EATEK, called the Miner by the co- lonists in Vau Diemen's Land : it moves about in small flocks of from four to ten in number. Mr. Gould tells us that it is very restless and inquisitive if its haunts be in- truded upon ; " no sooner does the hunter come within the precincts of its abode than the whole tribe assemble round him and perform the most grotesque actions, spread- ing out their wings and tail, hanging from the branches, and keeping up all the time AUSTRALIAN BELIXBIRD. (MYZANTHA MELANOPHRYS.) one incessant babbling note :" by following up the intruder in this way, " they become very troublesome and annoying, awaking as they do the suspicions of the other animals of which you are in pursuit." It feeds among the branches of the Eucalypti, from the pollen of the flowers of which it obtains abundance of genial food ; but it also preys with avidity on insects. Its nest is cup- shaped, and very neatly built of fine twigs and coarse grass, and lined with feathers, and it is about the size of that of the com- mon Thrush (Turdus musicus). Another pretty yellow-olive species peculiar to New- South Wales is the AUSTHALIAN BELL-BIKD (Myzantha meJaiwphrys), figured in our cut from Mr. Gould's fine work. The note of this is peculiar, and from it the colonists have given the species the name of Bell-bird; the sound having been compared, and justly, to the sound of distant sheep-bells : and when this is poured forth from a hundred throats it produces a most singular effect. The Bell-bird of Demerara is quite another bird. [See CAMPANEKO (Procnias caruncu- lata)."} By some naturalists the generic name given to these birds is Manorhiiia. Other species will be found figured in the great work of Mr. Gould. NAIDES. (Nais.~) These are small semi- aquatic worms, of the order Terricolce, closely allied to the Earthworms, but having the elongated body, and the rings less marked. They live in holes which they perforate in mud at the bottom of water, and from which they protrude the anterior portion of the body, incessantly moving it. Some have black points upon the head, which have been regarded as eyes. Many species exist in our fresh waters ; and their reproductive power is not less astonishing than that of the Hydra or Polypus. Some have very long bristles ; others a long protrusile trunk ; end several have small tentacles at the hind extremity. papular SKcttonarj) of mmatetr $aturr. 445 NAKOO. One of the native names of the Narrow-beaked Crocodile of India. (Ga- vialis gangeticus.) NARWHAL. (Hfonoflonmonoceros.] This extraordinary marine animal, which is also known under the name of the SEA UNICOKX, belongs to the Cetacea, but differs from every other kind of Whale by having no teeth, properly so called, and in being armed with a formidable horn, projecting directly for- ward from the upper jaw, in a straight line with the body. This horn is from six to ten feet long, spirally striated throughout its whole length, and tapering to a point : it is harder and whiter than ivory, for which article it was at one time not only substi- tuted, but was also in high repute for its supposed medicinal powers. The Narwhal is generally from twenty to thirty feet in length from the mouth to the tail ; some- object." " It would be a strange anomaly were tl.e apparent singleness of this weapon real ; but the truth is, that both the teeth are invariably formed in the jaw, not only of the male, but of the female also but that in ordinary cases one only, and this in the former sex, is fully developed, the other remaining in a rudimentary condition, as is the case with both in the female." NASALIS. A genus of monkeys, con- taining the curious Bornean long-nosed Mon- key. [See PUOBOSCIS MO.VKEY.] NASS A. A genus of Mollusca, inhabiting a small globular or oval shell, according to the spire, which in some is short, and in others long ; mouth oblong, notched ; inner lip thickened, and spread out, occasionally very large ; right lip often wrinkled ; oper- culum horny. By some authors this genus is united to Buccinum, on account of the times much more ; and it is occasionally, I little tooth-like projection terminating the though not very often, found with two of these horns, or tusks, sometimes of equal length, and sometimes very unequal. The head of this animal is short, and convex above ; the mouth small ; the spiracle or columclla. The head of the animal is large, the proboscis short, or altogether wanting ; two tentacula, with eyes in the middle ; foot very large. They abound in the South of Europe, and some are occasionally seen on breathing-hole duplicated within; the tongue j our own coasts. They may sometimes be long ; the pectoral fins small ; the back fin- | see n feeding on the Mactra, which they effect less, convex, and rather wide ; becoming gra- j by piercing the shell with their proboscis, dually accuminated towards the tail, which, ; and extracting the con tents through the small as in other Whales, is horizontal. The skin ! round aperture which by this means they is darkly marbled on the back, lighter on the sides, and nearly white on the belly : it is quite smooth, and there is a considerable depth of oil or blubber beneath. " The Nar- have formed. NASUA. A genus of Plantigrade quad- rupeds, distinguished by the elongation and of arctic seas and i upward curve of the snout, which the ani- consist of th?.l? kind* I *& belonging to this genus have the power of flat-fish, medusa,, and other marine ani- mals. It is taken by means of the harpoon ; and its flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders. Although both swift and strong, as well as being armed with such a prodigious weapon, NATATORES. The name given to an Order of birds? viz . those w hich are wcb- the Narwhal is one of the most peaceable ; f oote d, and otherwise adapted for an aquatic inhabitants of the ocean. j Ufe. This order includes five families ; the We have the authority of Mr. Bell for j AiMtidai, or Ducks; the Colymbidte, or stating that in the general form ot the body, j)i vers ; the Alctd