^(JAavaaiH^^ !> '^miMii. lOFCALi 3 cr ^ . c Ji.J'JWiiUl-^' 5 <^ A>- jy - - — o "^/jdiAiNn ANCElfj-. ';* fflfr 1;^ ^tUBRARYQ/r^ ^tUBRAIi A. T^^. "^ ^ /OJIWDJO"^ ^.KOJITV. /Aovaairi* "J ijjni jui 'vlOS/WC[Lfj^;>^ O uL ^^^ ^^WEUNIVERi'/^ '^JiWDKVSOV^' ^■^^ iMNlVakW' .:vaaii-i^' m. ..,;V3-J0^ ^'' im.K'rnrr. Os i^: ',v.i|[;f;'.r\v,„ <\\F l".'IVTpir/> )l OFCAllFO/i'4. .<\(F I'UIVTDf/K J\EUNIVER% ^lOSANCElfx^ r >> \m/A o i i^ rjiaDNYSoi^"^ '%a]AiNn]WV^ no ■< = S3 I S 5 / F0% % ii '"^o'Aiivaaiiix^^- A^tL jiTfJJO- -% ^ ■''.VOJIIVDJO"^ ^ .^WE•UNIVER5•/A — = oe ^10^ -"■" Q li. ■ UUJI I u j\- \c I mn \ n\' /-i . - -I IJ Jil I ^W I •^"■IIFOfti> ^OfCALIFOft^ ^WEUNIVERi'/A ^lOSANCEiery, ■^FCAIIFO^ ^OFr»' — .^\\z Miivxnry •-J IJJ.II OUl iVERJ/A ^lOSANCEL^T;^ ^tUBRARYOc. ^>^tUBRARY(?/. 5 ^ 63 o 03 >■ -< i •■TiHDNVSOl^^ %a3AINn]WV^ ^^m\mi^ ^aOJIWDdO^"'' '%133NVS01^ %a3AIN(l]ViV> '%u riiriuKirrnrf. irtc iiirci r« nr rk\\Tf\r\. r\C TAiicnn. ^iic Diiixrrnof. . inc.&urcirf^ A NEW GENERAL DICTIONARY O F ARTS AND sciences: O R CompleatSyftem of Univerfal Knowledge. Exhibiting, together with every other Branch of Ufeful Learning, Agriculture Fluxions Hydroftatics Painting Algebra Fortification Law Perfpedtive Anatomy Gardening Logic Philology Architefture Gauging Maritime Affairs Philofophy Arithmetic Geography Mathematics Phyfic Artronom/ Geometry Military Affairs Rhetoric Book-keeping Grammar Mechanics Sculpture Botany Gunnery Merchandize Statics Chemiftry Heraldry Metaphyfics Statuary Chronology Hiftory Mufic Surgery Commerce Horfemanfhip Navigation Surveying Cofmography Hufbandry Optics Theology, &c. Poetry, Criticism, Grammar and Theology, By the Reverend JAMES SCOTT, M. A. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. The Mathematical Branches By Mr. CHARLES GREEN, Late Obferver at the Royal Obfervatory, Greenwich. Naval and Marine Affairs, and Naval Architecture' By Mr. WILLIAM FALCONER, Author of the Shipwreck, and Purfer in the Royal Navy. Botany and Gardening By Mr. JAMES M E A D E R, Gardener to the Right Hon. the Earl of Chefteifield. And the various other Branches of Literatupe, By a SOCIETY of GENTLEMEN, Many of whom are Members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences. LONDON: Printed for J, COOKE, at Shakespear's Head, No. io, Pater-noster-Row. MDCCLXVII. *At- NiPT N /' i To THE PUBLIC. AS there are already fevcral Dictionaries of Arts and Sciences extant, it may perhaps feem unneceflary to trouble the World with another. But we flatter ourfelves that this Objedion will vanifli when it is remembered that, notwithftanding v/hat has been already performed, there is ftill ample room for prefenting the Public with a Work of this kind far fuperior to any Diftionary yet known in the Republic of Letters. If this be granted, the only Queflion remaining will be. Whether the Authors are equal to the tafk, and capable of putting into the Hands of their Readers a Syftem of Literature, in which the various Branches are more fully explained, and the diffe- rent Arts and Sciences enriched with more Difcoveries, and more important Obferva- tions, than thofe of any other Performance of the fame Kind ? In order to anfwer this Qiieffion, we would beg Leave to obferve, that feveral of the Gentlemen concerned in this Work are already known in the Republic of Letters ; «nd that their Labours have more than once obtained the Approbation of proper Judges. And. as they are determined to -exert their utmoft Abilities on this Oc^afion, they have fome Reafon to flatter themfelves that their Readers will not be difiippointed. They would alfo humbly hope, that it will be unneceflary to obferve any thing far- ■ther with regard to the Articles reladng to Poetry, Criticifm, Grammar, and Theo- logy, than that they will all be executed by the Hand of the ingenious Mr. Scott, Tellow of Trinity-College, Cambridge. Afl:ronomy, in all Works of this nature, is, perhaps, more defefcive than any other ■Science. Nor will this appear furprizing, wlien it is remembered, that the Perfons ■who have hitherto undertaken the Aftronomical Articles have not been refident at the ■Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich, and confequently could not have rccourfe to thofe •valuable InftrumeJits and Machines neceflTary for elucidating that important Branch of Science. Thefe Inftruments and Machines have been furnifiied by the State at an im- -menfe Expence, and are not to be equalled in any Part of Europe. Mr. Green, who refided many Years at the Royal Obfervatory, as Obferver, with the late eminent Royal Aflrronomers Dr. Bradley and Mr. Blifs, in confequence of his Office had the chief Ufe of thefe Inftruments, together with free Accefs to the Writings of his Predeceflbrs, •whole Difcoveries have done fo much Honour to their Country ; the Reader may, therefore, be aflfured that the Aftronomical Articles will excel any hitherto publiflied : And that among feveral other valuable Improvements, the twelve Plates of the Zodiac will be given, in which the Places of all the Stars to the fourth Magni- tude, inclufive, will be inferted, as fettled from aftual and accurate Obfcrvations. ^ 04 S7S7 To THE PUBLIC, We would alfo beg Leave to add, that Mr. Green was lately fent to Barbadoes, by the llight Hon. the Lords of the Admiralty, as a proper Perfon to make Obfervations for fixing the Longitude of that Ifland, in order to determine the Merits of each Candidate for the Reward offered by Parliament for the Difcovery of the Longitude. Mr. Falconer, the Conducflor of the Naval and Marine Department, is a Gentleman who has been trained to a Naval Life, whofe Knowledge of the Marine is evidently dilplayed in a Poem called the Shipv/reck, and whofe Abilities, wc apprehend, will be able to Hand the Teft of Scrutiny. The Articles relating to Botany and Gardening have alfo been hidierto executed in a very fuperficial Manner, being merely copied from preceding Treatifes. But we will venture to promife the Reader, that what relates to thefe Particulars will be per- formed in a very different Manner in this Work, Mr. Meader purpofing to enrich his Department with the latell Difcoveries and Improvements in that Science, confirmed by the Prr.6lice of the moft eminent Botanifts and Gardeners. The Abilities of Mr. Meader are fo well known to the Botanifts and Gardeners of thefe Kingdoms, that the Reader may expert to meet with ample Satisfa61:ion. We will venture to add, that the Articles relating to the other Arts and Sciences, will be executed in the lame mallerly Manner, and Improvements added in every Branch of Literature. With all the Advantages above-mentioned, it is not to be doubted but the Public will, for their own fake, as well as to reward Merit, purchafc with Avidity a Vv^ork fo evidently calculated for their Advantage and Emolument, and which will refiefi: fo much Honour on thefe Kingdoms. It has been the common Practice for Authors to fuppofe their Readers have acquired fome degree of Knowledge in the Arts and Sciences before they ven- ture to confult their Dictionaries : And hence many have been difappointed in their Hopes of attaining a competent Knowledge of the Arts and Sciences, after they have talcen the Pains to perufe afiiduoufly fuch voluminous Writings, We therefore pro- pofe to purfue a very difitrent Method : To treat of the Arts and Sciences without fuppofing the Reader has previoudy attained any Knowledge of them ; and to make the various Articles mutually explain and illuftrate each other. And hence we have Reafon to hope, that the Diftionary we now offer to the Public will fupply the Place of a Library ; aflift in afcertaining and improving Pluman Knowledge ; and by in- creaiing tiie Number of the truly learned, real Artifts, and judicious Admirers, diffufe many new Advantages over our native Country. May Pofterity, on confulting our Work fay. Such was then the State of the Arts and --Sciences in Great Britain ! May fucceeding Artifts add to the Difcoveries we have regiftered : And may this Di6lionary, with the Improvements of future Writers, remain a Sanftuary to preferve Human Knov.'ledge from the Ravages and Revolutions of diftant Ages ! L 1ST O F T H E SUBSCRIBERS To this WORK. John Addey, Efq; Mr. Adkins, Balderton, Nottingham/hire, Mr. John William Anderlon, Charter-houfe Square. Captain Henry Alt. Mr. Allen, Bripl Mr. John Allen, Thames Jlreet Mr. AUcock, Five-foot-lane Mr. John Artiton, Rutnford, EJfex Mr. Thomas Auther Mr. William Abbot, Bedford Row Mr. Samuel Alhby Mr. John Arney Mr. Henry Allibon, Knight'' s -Bridge Mr. Akerman, Fenchurch-fireet Mr. Anderfon, Strand B FRancis Turner Blythe, Efq-, of Salop The Reverend Mr. Bateman, Trinley The Reverend Mr. Bernard; of Little Bartjield William Boulton, Efq-, 'Thrift fireet Benjamin Bogie, Efq; Berkjhire The Rev. Mr. Thomas Baldwin, L. L. B. Mr. Richard Beaumont, Stocks-Bridge Mrs. Mary Biddlecomb Mr. Beftiand Mr. Broughan, King's College, Cambridge . Mr. Barrack, of Old Shoreham. Mr. Richard Bull Mr. Samuel Berry, Briflol Mr. John Baker, ditto Mr. George Bifiiop, ditto Mr. William Beach, ditto Mr. James Barton, ditto Mr. BulTey, I'ork Mr. Edward Benftyn Mr. William BlackftafFc, Wood-fir eet, SpitaU Fields The Book Club at Hatesworth, Suffolk Mr. Bokenham Mr. Stephen Bevens, Hachiey Mr. William Bennet Mr. Robert Bugg Mifs Ann J Maru Browne, Difs, Norfolk Mr. Browen, IVorceficr M. John Bay ley, Beitnondfey-fireet Mr. Daniel Ballard, Stroud Mr. Thomas Baker, of Derby Mr. Richard Bruce Mr. Peter Burnet Mr. Abraham Brown M.--. Robert Burnet, Junr. Blacks-fields Mr. A LISr of SUBSCRIBERS. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr: Mr. Mr. Mr. M'. Mr. M-. Mr. Mr, Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Benjamin Beardfall, in Snows-fields Barr, Charterhoufe Square Francis Briitan, of Sutton Robert BecK Bower Thomas Barrow 'BuUivant , Michael Babbs, Holborn . John Booth, Bromley^ Kent Francis Bcvil, Stony-ftreet^ Southwark John Beezcly of Edmonton Thomas Barton Brown, of Holback Daniel Byine John Bawtree, Sr. Martin's- Lane Thomas Bcllemy jiinr. . Ann Bowers, Hound/ditch Jofeph Bolter Jofeph Boughton, Gloucefierjhire . Ben net, JVorkfop B. Blnny, Chew Magna Thomas Brown, Long Parijh Baker, at Canterbury Birch, ALlermaHbnry. Barlow, IVhiUihapel Barlow, in Gracechurch ftreel- Ealdero, Cheapfide B ro m w i c h , L udgate hill ■ Brown, Salijbury Court, LOrd George Henry Cavendish Mr. William Clay, Southwell, Notting- hamjhire The Rev. Mr. Chambers, Bafingham, I.in- cohjloire Mr. Alexander Knight Cheflel, Portfmouth Mr- Stephen Colvs, Alderfgate-JtreeJ . Mrs. Chamberlain, Norwich Mr. George Claridge, %cwcefier. Mr. Jdhn Caniplin, Briflol Mrs. Cha.ppell Thomas Carter, Curjiter-Jlreet^ Gent., Mr. Noah Chi vers, Holborn Mr. Edward Cle nentfon, Maltcn Mowbray Mr. William Colles Mr. Jacob Cloakc, Mcorfields Mr. Daniel Carfwell, Brentwood, Ejjen Mr. Co.n, Wybunlury Mr. Edward Chdlkres, Nottingham Mr. Mr. Mr. Mx. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. , Mr. Mr. Mr. h Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Lawrence Cole, Hackney Cheflel, at Portfmouth Robert ChafTereau, Oxford Road Anthony Collins, of ll'hitney Willatt Cowley, of Broughton Thomas Collin, of Sutherland Edward Clark, of Great IValtbam. John Coulthurft, at Leyton Stone Timothy Corney, at Surfieet, Benjatnin Carter William Cotton Edward Clementfon JohT Cock, Pater -nofter Row Thomas Clutton, Saffron-Hill. Samuel Clark, Sc. Micbael's-Jlky, Corn- ill Collin Campbell in Lei c eft er -fields James Collins, of Cambridge William Clay, Peter-ftreet John Cale, Fetter-lane Vincent Campart John Clarke, of Staines Thomas Cannington of Briftol. Thomas Collins, of Aldermafton Cooper, of Henley Cantwell, of Bennetts Hill Cartwright, Lad-Lane Gierke, Cornhill Colcroft, BifJoopfgate-ftreet. Chilberry, Gracechurch-ftreet Crampton, Cock-Spur Jtreet Coward, Smithfield. Henry Cowling / Mrs Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. D Eaxton Dickcnfon, Efq; Scarborough Mr. John Dale, Briftol . Sarah Dyer, Briftol John Dawes, Taviftock Davy, Jonr. Dunn, Junr. John Drewry, Derby Davies, Longham, Suffolk Robert Dcby ley Thomas Doming of Sutherland. Darwin, Oxford Road. John Dight, Little St. Martin's-lane Thomas Doublcdav Diirrant, Robert's Bridge Thomas Draper, JVcftmtnfter Mr,. A LlSr of SUBSCRIBERS, Mr. John Davie, Dehenhmn Mr. qamuel Davie, Debenham C. ptain James Dew, of Brijlol Mr. Delafield of Briftol Mr. Day, Arundd-Jlreet E SIR Henry Edwards, Bart, of Salop Henry Eaton Efq; Raynham, EJfex The Rev. Mr. Eckley, rcflor of CredenhiH, Hereford/ljire Mr. Thomas Eveleigh, Brijlol Mr. John Eaton, Sbelicu, Chejfoire Mr. William Edge Mr. Richard Evans Mr. Frances Eaden, Birvungham. Mr. James Earley Mrs. Sarah Earley Mr. Parfons Edgecumbe, of 'Tichmarjh Mr. Namlefs Edmonton Mr. Emmerfon, Ho'u-ndfditch Mr. Thomas Edmonds, of Jylejlury Mr. Samuel Errington Mr. Ellis, IVood-ftreet Mr. Earle, Charterhoufe fquare Mr. Emblins, Strand F DEnton Fuft, Efq; C.ifton Mr. Faulkner, Surgeon, Scuibzvell i^ottinghampire Mr. William Fofter, ffiHj-'j College, Cambridge Mr. Thomas Furmage Mrs. Elizabeth Fifher, Mare-Jlreet, Hackney Mr. George Franklin, Talbot Conrty Crace- Chiirch-Jlreet Mr. Lewis Figget, Thames-ftreet Mr. Fallows, of Leominjler Mr. Nicholas Forftcr, Poultry Mr. Charles Forder Mr. Richard Forfter, IVarmingham Mafter John Field, zr. Pender's End Mr. Francis Floyd, at Cajlle Eacre Mr. John Farrel, St. Mildred' s-Court Mr. Richard Flower Mr. Henry Farmer, Junr. of St Jameses Mr. Nicholas Forfter Mrs. Elizabeth FiQier, Hackney Mt. John Flood, ^leenjireet Captain Phillip Fall Mr. Fallows, of Leomlnfler Mr. John Fowler of Oxford Mrs. Penning, Harwich Mrs. Flaherty of Brijlol Mr. Figgins, Lomhard-Jlreet Mr, Fuller, Birchin-Lane Mr. Franklin, Cracechurch-Jlreet G Pierce Galioard, Efq; of Tottenham John Grant Efq; of Lonymculhy The Rev. Mr. Gomond, Redor of Little Birch, Herefordjhire Mr. Newman Gray, Newgate Jlreet Mr. William Gilborn, Serjeant major, of ma- rines, at Plymouth Mr. Jofeph Gillard, Brijlol Mr. James Godlon, I'ork Mrs. J. Grellier, Miftrefs of the French Board- ing School at Tooting Mr. Glenton, Nantwich Mr. Chriftophcr Gum Mr. William Gorton, Brick-Lane, Old Jlreet Mr. Charles Gardener, CheapJide Captain Thomas Gilbert Mr. Newman Gray, London Mr. John Glover, of Cambiidge Mr. Grafton, Whitechapel Mr. George Wood, Beverley Mr. George, AJl) Mr. Grant Mr. Graham, oiKingJland Mr. William Green, Bookfeller, ztBury, three fetts Mr. Henry Golding, JFallingford, Berks Mr. Jofeph Greated, TFeJl-SmithJield Mr. Jofeph Griffin of Battel Mr. Graham, of Kingjland . Mr. John Grinke Mr. Richard Gates, Egham ■ Mr. John Gates, Egham Mr. John Gaisford, of Axbridge Mr. William Grant, of Reading Mr. Thomas Green, of Dorcejler Mr. Gatcficld, Newgate Jlreet A H Tkinfon Haldin, Efqj Nswark, Not- tingkamjhire. James A LIST of SUBSCRIBERS. James Hamilton, Efq-, TVool-wich William Hoach, El'q; ditto The Rev. Mr. Harper, Bockleton The Rev. Mr. Harper Mr. Hutchings, at Southwell, Nottinghamflnre Mr. John Hudlon, Woolwich Mr. Richard Hutton, Beverley Mr. John Hargrave, Hull Mr William Heys, a.t Brsckholes ncSiT Prejlon. Mr. Hillman of the Clife Mr. John Herbert, Oxford Captain Henrv, T'owcfjler Mr. Hartley, Tadcq/ler Mr. Hudfon, D'Jncomb Park. Mr. James Hefcltine Mr. Meredith Hughes Sala Mr. William Hutchinfon, Air-ftreet Mr. Thomas Hawkins, Market-lane Mr. John High:, Blackbeath Mr. Hatcen, IVorce/ler Mr. Thomas Hill, Junr. Forty-Hill Mr.Jofeph Hopwood, Long Acre Mr. Harfty,Junr. Mr. Harper, OMy Mr. Thomas Hurrel, Sutherland Mr. Hugh Harper, Oakly, StaffordJJjirt Mr. Adam Hamilton, Enfield Highway Mr. Holgate, of 1'horgemhy Mr. Luke Hunt, Clerkcnwell Mr. Uolland, of Stepney Mr. John Hodgkinlbn Mr. Richard Hiil Mr. Peter Hodgfken, St. JohrCs-Jlreet Mr. y.ifeph Hewitt Mr. "Hodges, Brijlol Captain Holbrook, Brijlol Mr. Hurle, Brijicl Mr. Hatolock, Southminjier Mr. Holmes, Chelnnf.rd Mr. Harrifon, Bread-fireet Mr. Harrifon, Hound/ditch Mr. Hawkes, Aldgate High-ftreei Mr. Harvey, Whitecrofs-Jtreet Mr. John Hall, Dunjtan's-hill Ichard Jones, Efq-, UJk^ Monmouthjhire Richard Jones, Efq; The R'vV. Mr. James, Braintree The Rev, Mr. Jenkins, Redor of Llangdrt', haval, Denbighjhire Mr. Jackfon, St. Catharine'^ Mr. Philip Johnfon, Briftol Mr. Richard Joy, Jngel- Alley, JVbitechnpet Mr. Nathaniel Jowctt, Manningham Mr. Jones, Weohly Mr. James, Chaljlry Mr. Jackfon, Oxford Roa-d Mr. William Johnfon Mr. Richard Reuben Judkia Mr. Jones, Chalejlry Mr. William Jewett Mr. James Iwebell, Woodfetts Mr. James Inman Mr. William James, Briflol Mr. Jaggers, Burnham Mr. William Joblin, Alderwnflon Mr. Ingham, 'Throgmorton-Jlreet Mr. Ingham, Houridf ditch Mr. Jones, Minories Mr. Johnfon, Crofs Cotirt Mr. Samuel Jephfon, Savage Gardens K R. Thomas Kirby, IVorkfop, Notting- hamjhire John King, of the Cuftom Houfe William King, of the Cujlom-Houfe Kitchen, Tork Gilbert King, Great Maddox-Jlreet John Killick, Leng-lane, Seuthzvark John Knowles JofephKirkc King, of Lee Grainge Thomas Kirland, LeiceJlerJInre ain John Knox, late in the g^th Regiment Samuel Kilby, fFhitechurch Knight, Clements court, Aiilkjlreet Kettle, Ludgaie-ftreet Mr Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Capt Mr, Mr, Mr, THE Rev. Mr. Robert Lewis, M. A. }^een's College, Cambridge I'he Rev. M^ Lewis, Hackney The Rev. Mr. Le Anwyl, A. B. Vicar of Abergcile Mr. William Lundie, Beverley Mr. A LIST of SUBSCRIBERS. Mr. John Lunt, Standijh Mr. John I.indley, PontefraEl Mr. William Lock, Howdcn Mr. Thomas Linney, Burton, near Malton, M.wbray Mr. David Lamb, Hat ton Garden Mr. Samuel Lawrence Mr. William Ladd, Hackney Mr. Lafforeft Mr. Benjamin Lockyear, Rctherhithe Mr. Long, Upton, Wcrcefierjhire Mr. William Lakin, Ivlarlborough Mr. Leverfage, Nancwich Mr. Robert Lock Mr. William Lock Mr. Lloyd Pittel Edwards, UJk, Monmouth- Jhire Mr. Benjamin Lyon^ Si. John's Square Mr. Paul Lceke Mr. John Lifter, Charlotte -ftreet Mr. James Lauder, Hay-market Mr. Thomas Lozano Mr. Robert Law, Kenfmgton Mr. Law, Kmfington Mr. Daniel LathwalU Aylejbury Mr. Francis Lamoert Mr. William Lockwood, Watlingftreet Mr. Robert Law, Kenfmgton Mr. James Lanton, Sivanington Mr. Jofcph Lloyd, Gloucefier jhire Mr. Henry Lawman, A'>zy//.?fw^^/' Mr. Liverits, Cnteaton-Jtreet Mr. Lifter, JVooddreet M THE Rev. Mr. Miller, Manchefter Edward Metcalfe, Efq; Feaiher-ftone Buildings The Rev. Mr. Marker, Bury St. Edmonds The Rev. Mr. Morns, Clenn^ in Shropfihe The Rev. Mr. Miller, Moncejler, PVarwick- flnre Mr. faac Mather, Bijhopfgate-lireet Michael Mdllcv, Greenwuh, Gent. Mr. William Merrick, Brifiol Mr. William McUens, ditto Mrs. Meredi tn Mr. John Mathyfon Mr. William Mitchell, Chandois-Jlrett Mr. John Maclane, Great Newport-Jlreet M ; s . M a u n fcl , Thorp Mulfor Mr. Edward Menweuring, J ur\r. Chejer Mr. Danitl Morier Mr. Francis M ricr Mr. Thomas Marfh, Brick-lane, Old-jlreet Mr. Francis Murrilis Mr. T. Merril, Cambridge Mr. J. Merril, ditto Mr. Thomas Mafon, Holborn Mr. Drothy Mario w, Staines Mr. James Moore, ditto Captain Richard Mackalon, Egham Mr. Magar, B'oomfield Mr. Moliox, Cateaton-Jireet Mr. James Mills, Coleman ftreet Buildings N J Ames Nelthorp, Junr. Efq; Lingfordhali Mr. James Nori is. Grocer, Pert/mouth Mr. Harry Ncwth, Borough Mr. Nicholfon Mr. James Newton Mr. John Norris, Shoreditch Mr. Samuel Nicall Ediine, College-ftreet Mr Wi,liam Nutting, IFomfy, Hereford/hire Mr. Jacob Necdham, of Reading Richard White Newport, Battle Sujfex O RAlph Ogle, Efq; Low Hurtb,nezx New caftle Edward Owen, Efq; Lonymouthy Mr. John Ockendon, Junr. Waltham Abbey Mr. Oliver, Clapton Mr. Hubert Ord Mr. Eubule Owen, Lomand's-Po7id, South-. wark Mrs. E. Oldner, Miftrefs of the French Board-- ing School, Tooting Mr. Anthony Orwin LOrd Prefton, Battle Sufex The Re?. Mr. Thomas ProlTer, Srtoxvd- hill, Herefordfiire Jofcph Pske, Efq; Cambridge Thomas Powis, Efq-, Berwick- B The J LIST of SUBSCRIBERS. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. The Rev. Mr, Peacock, Siainton Mr. Pool, Hinkky, 3 lets Mr. Thomas Pnce, Pengivcrn-kall, Denbigh- Jlj'ire Mrs. Ann Prefton, Brijlol Mr. Biiffcy Prince, Torx Mr. Francis Pound, Wimhleton Daniel Pettingall Peter Pickernall, Pimlico William Page, Hackney Pitch, Sr. J/imes's Mils Pain, Hereford Mr; Phillips, Long IValk, South-ivark Mr. John Poincon, Shfjjield Mr. Samuel Pearfon, Sheffield Thomas Plows, Ntwington-Butts William Prince, 2'ork Roiycrt Pouker Prichard, Godalniing Matthew Povvel John Po'.vel Gabriel Pitt Paverl/, CladenhiUs James Peers, Braintree Pettlt, Saling-hall W^illiam Paine Lewes Prellon, Rotherhithe John Pertfinlbn, Hoxton-fquare Thomas Proudlove, Bromley^ Kent Pendock Gierke Price, Snow-hill J- B- niug ABA rilng of Augufi:. On the firfl: day of this month the Jews fait, in memory of Aaron's death • and on the ninth, becaufe upon that day the temple of Solomon was burnt by the Chaldeans, and the fe- cond temple, built after the Captivitv, by the Ro- mans. It is believed by the Jews, that thofe who were fent as fptes into th; land of Canaan, return- ed on this day to the camp, and engaged the people in rebellion. This too was the day on v/hich, ac- cording to their traditions, the edidt of Adrian was if.iicd out, forbidding them any longer to continue in Judea, or even to lament the defolation of Je- rufaleni. They fafl on the eighteenth of this month, becaufe in the time ofAhaz the lamp of the dinftu- ary was on-that night ex tinguiflied. ABACK, in naval affairs, a fituation of ar- ranging the fails of a fliip, in which they are flatted againft the mafts by the force of the wind, to eftedf a fudden retreat or backward motion, in order to avoid fome danger difcovered before the fhip in a narrow channel, &c. See Backing the Sails. It is likewife common to fpread fome fail aback In the hinder-part of afliip,when fhelies in a road, to keep her at a proper diftance from her anchor, that {he may not run over it, and entangle it with flack cable. See Cable. ABACOT, a cap of ftate, in the figure of a jdouble crown, and worn in antient times by our Englifh kings. ABACTORS, in law, are thofe who drive a- way, or rather fleal whole herds of cattle, in which they are diflinguiflied from fures, or thieves. l"he word is Latin, and derived from ahigo, to drive away. ABACUS, among the ancients, implied a kind of cupboard, or buffet. The word is Latin, and derived from the Greek ACcit,-, which fignified the fame thing. Abacus, in architefture, is the upper mem- ber of the capital of a column, and to which it ferves as a kind of crown. Vitruvius tells us, that the abacus was original- ly intended to reprefent a fquare tile laid over a baflcet. An Athenian matron happening to place a bafket, covered with a fquare tile, on the root of an acanthus, which grew on the grave of a young Corinthian lady, the plant fhooting up the follow- ing fpring encompafled the bafket, till meeting with the tile, the leaves turned back in a kind of fcrolls. Callimachus, an ingenious ftatuary of Athens, was pleafed with thebeautiful novelty, and executed a ca- pital on this {)lan, reprefenting the tile by the abacus, the leaves of the acanthus by the volutes or fcrolls, and the bafket by the vafe or body of the capital. It IHIl retains its original form in the Tufcan, Doric, and ancient Ionic orders; but not in thofe of the Corintliian and Compofite; its four fides or faces being arched inwards, with fome ornament, as a rofej ike. in the middle of each arch. ABB , Scanpzl uP^s the word abacus to fignify aconcavc moulding in the capital of the Tufcan pedeftai. Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, implied a fmall table {frev/ed over with dull, on which thej drew their fchemes and figures. Abacus, in^arithmetic, dje comrfjon multipif*- cation table. - ■ -^ ' ■» ABADIR, in mythology, the ftone which Sa- turn fwallowed, believing it to be his infant fon Jupiter. ABADDON, the name by which the king of the locufls, mentioned by St. John in the Revela- tions, is called. The word is derived from abad, to confume. ABAFT, in naval affarirs, further aft, or nearer the {fern ; as the barricade is fituated abaft the main-mafl., i. e. further aft than, or behind the main-maff. ABAPTISTON, a jiame given by the ancients to the perforating part of the trepan. See Trepan. The word is formed from the Greek a. priv. and ^at/ju, to fink under, becaufe the inffrument is by its confl:ru£tion prevented from finking fuddenly into the brain. ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, the {^ame with diarthrofis. See Diarthrosis. ABAS, a weight ufed in the Ealt-Indies for weighing pearls. It is equal to feven-eighths of the European carat. ABASED, or Abaisse, in heraldry, is applied to the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip or angle tends downwards ; or when the wings are fhut : the natural way of them being fpread, with the tip point- ing to the chief, or the angles. A chevron, a pale, a bend, &c. are alfo faid to be abafed, when their points terminate in, or be- low the center of the fliield. And an ordinary is faid to be abafed, when it is placed below its proper fituation. ABATEMENT, in heraldry, implies fome- thing added to a coat of armour, in order to di- ininiih its proper value and dignity; and indicate fome difhonourable adlion, or ftain, in the charac- ter of the bearer. But it is very juilly obferved, by the la{l editor of Guillim's heraldry, that as arms are infignia iio- bilitatis Is! honoris, they cannot admit of any mark of infamy, without ceafmg to be arms, and becom- ing badges of difgrace, which all would covet to lay afide. Abatement, in law, fignifies an intrufion, or entry on lands before the heir, by a perfon who has no right to make fuch entry. Abatement, alfo implies the fruftrating, or fetting afide a fuit, on account of fome fault either in the matter or manner of proceeding. ABB, among the woollen manufadurers, im- plies the yarn of a weaver's warp. ABBESS, the luperior of an abbev, or convent of ABB of nuns, over whom fhe prefidcs, and is inverted with the fame privileges as the abbots regular. She cannot indeed perform any of the fpiritual of- fices of the pricfthood herfelf; but there are in- flanccs of fome abbefles who have the privilege of commiffioning a prieft to aJl for them.. We read of fome abbeilbs who had formerly a right of confcfling their nuns ; but they abufed it fo much, through a vain and immoderate curiollty, that it was found necefTary to deprive them of it. ABBEY, a m.onaftery, or kind of catholic col- lege, into which peribns retire from the world, to fpend their time in floth and folitude. The infti- tution of thefe religious houfes was certainly firft of all pious and ufeful ; as they were intended for feminaries of religion, and afylums to faniSity : but like many other good things, they have been wret- chedly perverted. Henry the Vlllth having ap- pointed vifitors to infpe£t the behaviour of the ab- bots and monks, found them fo loofe and diffolute, fo prone to idlenefs and pride, fomenting quarrels, and fpiriting up rebellions againlc the government, that he diilolved the order, and converted their re- venues, which amounted to 2,853,000 1. per ann. into lay fees. Abbeys differ only from priories, as thofe are under the government of an abbot, and thefe of a prior. ABBOT, or Ahbat, the fupcrior of an abbey or monaflery of monks, erected into a prelacy. The word appears to be derived from the Hebrew me fubjetfts it appears di- vided into two or three mufcles, confilling of fo many different feries of fibres. Abductor indicis, or of the fore-finger, arifes from the infide of tlie bone of the thumb, and is inferred into the firft bone of the fore-finger, which it draws from the reft towards the thumb. Abductor 7ninimi digiti manus. The fame with abiuc'lor auricularis. See Abductor aurkularis. Abductor minim: digiti pedis, or of the little- toe, arifes from the outfide of the os calcis, near the exterior bone of the metaiarfuc, and is inferred laterally into ths outfide of the fecond bone of thai toe, which it pulls from the reft. Abductor ocuH, or of the eye, is one of the four refti, or of the ftraight mufcles, arifing from the bottom of the orbit, and fpread over the firft proper tunic ; ferving to draw the eye towards the outer canthus. Abductor pallia's, called alfo thenar, arifes from the annular ligament, and firfrbone of the carpus ; from whence pafTmg to ths thumb, it forms that flefliy body called mons lunas : it draws the thumb from the fingers. Abductor polUcis pedis, or of the great-toe, arifes from the in.'ide of the os calcis, and the greater os cuneiforme ; and is inferted into the out- fide of the exterior os fefamoideum pollicis : ie draws the great-toe from the reft. ABELE, in botany. See the article PoptAR- TREE. ABELIANS, Abelgnians, or Abeloites, a feft of heretics during the reign of Arcadius, near Hippo in Africa, whofe diftmguifhing tenet was to marry, and yet live in a profeiled abftinence. The learned ha\'e taken great pains to afcertain the reafon of this denomination ; but after all their labours, it appears that they took their name from Abel, for no other reafon than becaufe, like that patriarch, they had no iffue. ABERRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent motion of the fixed ftars, firft obferved by Dr. Brad- ley, royal profefTor of aftronomy. That able aftronomer, in the year 1725, together with M. JVIolineux, began a feries of nev/ oblerva- tions. i^^TE jr. tV^Mr^^ .i^cj-ralion . ABE tions, fimllar to thofe which Dr. Hook communi- cated to the public about fifty years before, in or- ilsr, if pofTible, to difcoycr the parallax of theearth's annual orbit. — The fuccefs of the undertaking greatly depended on the accuracy of the infirument, for which they v/ere obliged to the ingenious Mr. Graham, who compleated Mr. Molineux's para- lactic feiSlor of twenty-four feet and a half, about the end of November, 1725 ; and on December 3, following y Draconis was for the firft time obferv- cd at Kew, as it pafied near the zenith of that place. Similarobfervations were made on the fifth, eleventh, and twelfth days of the fame month ; when they thought it was needlefs to continue the obfervations ajiy longer at that feafon, it being part of the year when no fenfible difference of the parallax of that ftar could be expefted. — Dr. Bradley, howeverj whole natural genius was continually prompting liim to make obfervations^ remaining at Kev/, ad- jufted the inftrument as ufual, and obferved the "fame ftar on December 17 ; when^ in comparing the laft: with his former obfervations, he found it had paffed more foutherly that day than when ob- ferved before. — He attributed the caufe of this ap- pearance to the uncertainty of the obfervations j and concluded, that either this or the foregoing were not fo exact as they before had fuppofed ; for which xeafon,on December the 20th, they repeated the ob- fervations again, in order to determine from whence this difference proceeded; and found the ftar now paffed more foutherly than before: about the 26th of March following they fourid the ftar 20' more foutherly than at the firft cbfervation ; after which it was obferved to be ftationary for fome time ; but about the middle of April it appeared to be return- ing back : and about the beginnin.g of June it paf- fed at the fame diftance from the zenith as it had done in December, when nrft obferved. In Sep- tember following, it appeared 39" more noitherly than it was in March; the contrary way to what it ought to appear by the annual parallax of the Ihirs. From September the ftar returned towards the fouth, till it arrived in December to the fame fituation it was in at that time twelve montlis, allowing for the difference of declination arifing from the preceftion of the equinox. This was a fufficient proof to con- vince them that the caufe of this apparent m.otion of the ftar was not owing to the inftrument ; and to find one adequate to the effe£t feemcd a difficulty. A ■nutation of the earth's axis firft offered itfelf on this occafion, but v/as foon found ini'ufficient : for fho' the change of declination of y Draconis might have been accounted for; yet it would not, at the lame time, agree with the phenomena in the other ftars ; particularly in a fmail one almoft oppofite in right ai'cenfion to ^Draconis, at pearly the fame diifance from the north pole of the equator; for tho' the ftar feemed to move the fame wav as a nutation of the earth's axis would havem;:de it; yet it changed its ABE declination but about half as much as y Draconi* in the fame time, as appeared upon comparing the fame obfcn-ations made upon the fame days at dif- ferent feafons of the year. This plainly proved that the apparent motion of the ftar was not occafioned by a real nutation ; fince, if that had been the cafe, the alterations in both ftars mult have been nearly equal. The great regularity of the obfervations left them now no room to doubt, but that there was fome re- gular caufe that produced this unexpected motion, which did not depend on the uncertainty or variety of the i'cafons of the year. Upon comparing the obfervations with each other, it was difcovered that, in both the before-mentioned ftars^the apparent dif- ference of declination from the maxima was always nearly proportionable to the verfed fine of the fun's diftance from the equihoftial point. This was an inducement Co think that the caufe, whatever it was, had fome relation to the fun's fituation with refped; to thcfe points. But not being able to frame any hypothcfis at that time, fufficierit to folve all the phenomena, and being very defirous to fearch a little farther into this matter, Dr. Bradley began to think of erecting an inftrument for himfclf at Wan- ftcd; (which inftrument is now at the Royal Obfer- vatory,) that, having it always at hand, he mighty with the more eafe and certainty, enquire into the laws of this new motion. Accordingly, by the con- trivance and help of the fame ingenious Mr. Gra- ham, his inftrument was fixed up the igch of Auguft 1727. As the place v/here his inftrument was hvmg in fome meafure determined its radius, (which was 12' feet); fo it likewife determined the length of the arc or limb, on v/hich the divi* fions were made to adjirft it; for the arc could net conveniently be extended farther than to reach 6" ^ on each fide the zenith. This indeed was fufficient, fince it gave him an opportunity of making choice of fcvcral ftars, very different both in magnitude and fituation ; there being more than two hundred inferted in the Britifh Catalogue, that may be ob- ferved with it. He had not been long obfervihg before he per- ceived, that the notion they before had entertained of the Itars being fartheft north and fouth when the fun was about the equinoxes, was only true of thofe that were iiear the folftitial coloure. And after he had continued to oblerve fome months, he difcover- ed what he then thought to be a general law ot-' feryed by all the ftars, namely, that each of them became ftationary, or was fartheft north or fouth when it paffed over his zenith at fix of the clock, either in the morning or evening. He perceived likewife, that whatever fituation the ftars were in with rcfpe6t to the cardinal points of the ecliptic, the apparent motion of every one tended the fame way, when they paffed his inftrum.ent about the fame hour of the day or night 3 for they all moved Q ' fouthwarij ABE ABE fouthward while they pafied in the day, and north- ward when in the night : lb that each was farthcft north when it came about fix o'clock, in the even- ino-, and fartheft fouth when it came about llx o'clock in the morning. Though he afterwards difcovered that the maxi- ma in moft of thefe liars do not happen exactly when they pafs at thofe hours ; yet, not being then able to prove the contrary, and llippofing that they did, he endeavoured to find out what proportion the great- eft alterations of declination in different ftars, bore to each other; it being very evident that they did not all change their declination equally. — It has been already mentioned, that it appeared from ob- fervation, that y Draconis altered its declination about twice as much as the aforementioned fmall liar, almoll: oppofite to it : but examining the matter more particularly, he found that the great- eit alteration of declination of thofc ftars was as the fme of the latitude of each refpeftively. This made him fufpcft that there might be the like pro- portion between the maxima of otherftars; but here he found obfervations to difagree with fuch an hy- pothefis, and deferred any farther enquiry till he Ihculd have made a feries of obfervations in all parts of the year. When the year was completed, and he had thoroughly examined and compared his obfervations together, he was convinced that tlie apparent mo- tion of the ftars was not owing to a nutation of the ■earth's axis, nor to any alteration in the plumb- line with v.hich the inftrument was conftantly rec- tified. Refraction was alfo confidered ; but here alfo nothing fitisfaftory appeared. At laft this in- genious artronomer conjectured, that all the phe- noma hitherto mentioned proceeded from the pro- t^reflive motion of light, and the earth's annual mo- tion in its orbit; for if light be propagated in time, he perceived that the apparent place of a fixed ob- ject, would not be the fame when the eye is at reft, as when it is moving in any other direftion than that of a line paffing through the eye and objeft; and that when the eye is moving in different direc- tion, the apparent place of the objed would be different. The late ingenious Mr. T. Simpfon of Wool- wich has given us the following propofitions and corollaries, in his Mifcellaneous Tracts, and which fully and concifely explain this phenomenon. PROPOSITION I. If the velocity of the earth in its orbit bears any fenfible proportion to the velocity of light, every ftar in the heavens muft appear diftant from its true place; and that by fo much the more, as the ratio of thofe velocities approaches nearer to that of equality. For if, while the line CG (plate I. fg. i.) is de- fcribed by a particle of light coming fiom a ftar in that dire(El:ion,the eye of an obferver atTbe carriecf, by the earth's motion, thro* T G; and CT be a tube made ufe of in oblerving; and a particle of light, from the laid ftar, bejuftentring at C the end of its axis; then when the eye is arrived at ■£/, the tube will have acquired the poiltion vTi parallel to T C, and the faid particle will be at the point w, where the line C G interfefts the axis of the tube; becaufe GT : GC : : Tv:^m. Let now the tube, by the earth's motion, be brought into the pofition Etf ; then becaufe GT : GC : : Tfc : C?;, the particle v/ill be at w, and therefore is ftill in the axis of the tube: therefore when it enters the eye at G, as it has all the time been in the axis ot' the tube, it muft confequently appear to have come in the direifion thereof, or to make an angle with "^I'H, the line that the earth moves in, equal to CTH, which is different from what it really does, by the angle GCT : whence it is evident that, un- lefs the earth always moves in a right line direftlv to or from a given ftar (which is abfurd to fuppofe) that ftar muit appear diftant from its true place ; and the more fo, as the velocity of the earth (ia refpeiSt of that of light) is increafed. And the fame muft neceffarily be the cafe v/hen the obfervation is made by the naked eye; for the fuppofition and ufe of a tube neither alters the real nor apparent placs of the ftar, but only helps us to a more eafy de- raonftration. PROPOSITION IL To find the path which a ftar, thro' the afore- fiiid caule, in one entire annual revolution of the earth, appears to defcribc. Let ATBA (plate I. /^, 2.) be the orbit of the earth ; S the fun in one focus ; F the other focus ; T the earth moving in its orbit from A to- wards B ;. DT « a tangent at T ; and SD, FE perpendiculars thereto: Let QjwKRQ^be part of an indefinite plane parallel to that of the eclip- tick, paffing thro' R the centre of the given ftar ; and take T n to TR, as the velocity of the earth in its orbit at T, to that of a particle of light coming fi'om the faid ftar : Let T m be parallel ta hR; PnV perpendicular to AB; and Q_R K pa- rallel to PhV: Then from the foregoing propofi- tion it is manifeft, that a ray of light coming from R to the earth at T, will appear as if it proceeded from m, where the line T »;, produced,. interfcvEls the faid parallel plane ; and therefore, becaufe T m is parallel to R ;/, and any parallelogram, inter- fedting two parallel planes, cuts them alike in exerv refpedt, it is. evident that R m muft be equal to T 7i\ and Q_R 7n to V«D; wherefore, fince D and ? are equal to two right angles, DSP and DnP muft be equal, alfo, to two right angles, and con- fequently Q_R ;« ( = V « D ) = D S P = A F E. But '1" ;7 or R OT, ervpreffing the celerity of the earth rj: J", is known to be Liiverfely as SD; or becaufe SD ABE S D X F E is every v/herc the fame, dircclly as F E ; wherefore tlic angles AFE, (YR'" being every where equil, ani Rrn in a conftant proportion to FE, the curve QjnK. defcribeJ by w, the apparent place of the ftar in th. faid parallel plane, will, it is manifeft, be fimilar in all rcfpeds to A E B defcnb- c-d bv the point E : but this curve is known to be a circle; therefore QjnK. muft likcwife be a circle, whofe diameter Q_R fC is divided by R, the true ■place of the ftar in the fame proportion as the tranf- vcrfe axis of the earth's orbit is di\ided by either of its foci. Wherefore, forafmuch as a fmall part of the circumjacent heavens may, in this cafe, be confidered as a plane pafling perpendicular to a line joining the eye and liar, it follows, from the prin- ciples of orthographic projedlion, that the fl:ar will bi {een in the heavens as defcribing an ellipfis, whofe center (as the excentricityof the orbit is but fmall) nearly coincides with the true place of the ftar, except the faid place be in the pole or plane of the ecliptic; in the former of which cafes the flar will appear todefcribea circle, and in the latter an arch of a great circle cf the fphere, which, by reafon of its fmallnefs, may be confidered as a right line. Butthefe conclufionswill perhaps appear more plain from the next propofition, where, for the fake of cafe and brevity, the earth is confidered as moving in an orbit perfedlly circular, from which her real orbit does not greatly differ. PROPOSITION III. Having given, from experiment, the ratio of the velocity of light, to that of the earth in its orbit, and the true places of the fun and a ftar, to find the apparent place of the flar from thence arifing. Let Ar Q_A (plate I. fig. 3.) be the earth's orbit, confidered as a circle ; S the fun in the center there- of ; r tht earth moving about the fame from A to- wards Q_, re a line, which being produced, fhall pafs through the ecliptic place of the given ftar, AS parallel and g r peipendicular thereto : let (/ be perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, fo that ry being equal to Sr or radius, re may be the co- fine of the latitude of the given ffar : this being pre- mifed, it is manifeft that the true place of the ffar from the earth will be in the direflion rf, and with refpedt to the ecliptic, in the line re; therefore the angle S re (:=Q_Sr) being the difference of longitudes of the fun and flar, is given by the que- Ition. Let rg, the fine of the fupplenient of this angle, be denoted by b, its cofine S g, by c, the fine of the given latitude or fe, by j ; and the radius Sr or fr by unity; and, while a particle of light is moving along fr, let the earth be fuppofed to be carried in its orbit from r to p, over a diftance fig- nified by r, and pe; pf being drawn, make r« and H m perpendicular thereto : then, becaufe of the ABE exceeding fmallnefs of p r, it may be confuiered at a right line, and we fhall have i (S r) : A (ry) '; ; r [p r) : rb {:=: p n.) ; and i -.r :: c:rc ( = »' r,), by the fimilarity of the triangles prn, Srg, whence as I (//>) to s (fe) fo is rb, to rbs =: {"'") the fine of the ang-le nfm : but fince the fin,', or tan- gent, of a very fmall arch differs infenfibly from the arch itfelf, thefe values re and rbs may be taken as the meafures of the angles rffi, and «y'"«: hcnca we have, as the femiperiphery A r Q_ ( = 3.14159, is'c.) to 648000 (thefecondsin iSodegrees) foisr^ 648COO re J • . , to -rr- (the number of feconds in the angle 3.14159, y^.^ rfn) ; and as 3.14159, cft. : 648000 :: rbi : 648000 rj 6 7T~= 'i fni : therefore, as the earth moves from r to />, while a particle of light is defcribing fr, it is manifeft from what has preceded, that the flar will appear removed from the great circle, pafl- ing through its true place, and the pole of the eclip- , 64Sooorf . , , , ... tic by —!^ — - feconds, and to have its lati- J • 648000 r s b r^ t^ ude increafed bv iy~ feconds. Q. E. I. ^ 3.i4i59,^f. ^ C O R O L. I. Hence, if C (fig. 4.) be the true place of the ftar, S C F its parallel of latitude, and about C, as a center, the ellipfis FPSTE, and circle FHS OF be defcribed fo, that F C may be=-i '—r- ani 3.14159,^5^. TC, the femiconjugate axis, in proportion thereto as i to I ; and, if the angle S C H be taken equal to the difference of longitudes of the fun and itar, then in the point P, where the elliptical periphery is interfeiSled by the right line H Q__, falling per- pendicularly on F S, the flar will appear to be po- fited. For as i {radim) : b (fine of Q.CH) : : C H :6 xCH=:HQ_; but bv the relation of the two curves C H:CT: :i xC H ( = H Q.) : PQ_; thatis, , no- 6480OG r , 648000 r..-^ by conltruction, i : j : : ^r— x b : — ^ 3-H'S9'^''- 3-'+'59'^''" = P Q_; again, as i [radim] : c (the cofine of QC H) 648000 i: 648000 r c _^^ . :. r^(=v_Hj: 7 =CQ; which 3.i4i59,c5c. 3.i4i59,c5c-. ^ exprefiions are the very fame with thofeabove deter- mined. C O R O L. IL Therefore it follows, that while the fun appear> to purfue his courfe through the ecliptic, the flar will be feen as moving from F towards L and S-, and fo on till it hath defcribed tlie whole elliptic periphery FLSTF, that its latitude v.ill be ths leaft at T, and its apparent longitude the grcateft poiBble, when the angle S C H, fliewing the di- ftance of the fun and liar in the ecliptic, is equal ta two right ones. It alio follows; that the greater ABE axis of the ellipfes, which all fiars appear to de- fcrib?, ore equal, and found byobfervation to amount to 40' feconds of a great circle. The term 20", 25, which frequently occurs in the prac- tical rules hereto annexed, being put for the half thereof. It follows, moreover, that the greateft aberrations, or maxima, in longitude, will be as the cofmes of the latitudes inverfcly ; and the maxima in latitude, as the fines of the fame la- titudes diredlly. C O R O L. iir. Hence may alfo be found, the flars apparent right afcenfion and declination; for let ECP be the pa- rallel of the ftar's declination, P the apparent place of the ftar, wlien in that parallel, make C A per- pendicular to CH, ABD to SF, and BE to PC, and let HK, or the angle H C K, be any didance gone over by the earth in the ecliptic, while the flar by its apparent motion moves through the corre- sponding diftance PL : let K w n G be parallel to H C, and Lri; to PC: then, forafmuch as KL is parallel to HP, the triangles GKL, CHP, muft be equiangular; and therefore GL:CP: :KL : HP ; but K L is to H P, as L I to QP, by the property of the curve, whence it will beGL:CP ■.■XV.'QJ ; wherefore the fides GL, IL, CP, QP, about the equal angles GLI, CPQj, being proportional, the triangles GLI, CPQ_ muft be fnnilar, and therefore the angle GIL a right one; and confequently the right line S F, the locuS of the point G. Therefore, as the angles n,m,r,v, are all given, or continue invariable ; let the angle SCK, or the ecliptic diftance of the fun and ftar be what it will, the ratio of Cm to C G, will al- ways be given; but the ratio of CG to C r is given : therefore the ratio of C w to C r is likewife given: hence bccaufe rv is parallel to CK, the ratio of Cm to Ev will be given. But E ^.■ is the dift'erence of the true and apparent declinations ; and C m, as the fine of the angle H C K : whence it is manifeft, that the aberration of declination, at any time, is as the fine of the fun's elongation from either of the two points wherein he is, when the true and apparent declinations are the fame ; and therefore Cm will be to E z', or AC to E B, the greateft aberration, as Q_H to F/;; that is, as the fine of HCF to the fine of PCCL: but PCQ_, being equal to the angle of pofition, is given, whofe tangent, it is ob^■ious, is to the tangent of HCF, as Q_P to QH, or as CT to CO, or laftly (by conftrudion), as the fine of the ftar's latitude to radius : hence the angle HCF is given, from which, by help of the foregoing theoicm or proportion, the required aberration of declination at any time, and in any cafe, nia\ be readily obtained. The Public are obliged to the ingenious and ce- lebrated aftronomcr Dr. Bevis, for the following ABE PRACTICAL RULES For finding the Aberration in longitude, latitude, declination, and right afcenfion. SYMBOLS. A, the aberration at any given time ; IVT the greateft aberration, or maximum; O) the fun's place in the ecliptic, when the ftar's apparent longi- tude, latitude, declination, or right al'ceiifion, be- ing the fame as the true, tends to excefs ; P, the ftar's angle of pofition ; Z, the fun's elongation from its neareft fyzygy with the ftar, at the time of O . _ For the aberration in longitude. O is always three figns after the ftar's true place in the ecliptic. Prob. I. To find M. Cofinc ftar's latit. : rad. : : 20 : M. Prob. 2. To find A. Rad. : fine fun's elongat. from © : : M : A. Otherwifc, without M. Cofin. ftar's latit. : fin. fun's elongat. from q ; ; 20": A. For the aberration in latitude. O is always at the ftar's oppofition to the fun, Prob. r. To find M. Rad. : fin. ftar's latit. : : 20" : M. Prob, 2. To find A. Rad. : fin. fun's elongat. from :: M : A. Otherwife, without M. Rad ^. fin. ftar's latit. xfin. fun's elongat. from<5 : : 20" : A. Otherwife, Cofec. ftar's latit. fin. fun's elongat. from Q ;'. 20" : A. For the aberration in declination. Prob. I. To find O- Sin. ftar's latit. ; rad, :: tang. P: tang. Z. Then if the ftar (in refped of that pole of the equator which is of the fame denomination as the fear's latitude) be in a fign 1. Afccnding, and P be acute, Z taken from the oppofite to its true place, gives G- 2. Afcending, and P be obtufe, Z added to its true place, gives ©. 3. Defcending, and P be acute, Z added to the oppofite to its true place, gives ©. 4. Defcending, and P be obtufe, Z taken from its true place, gives O. I'rovided in all thefe cafes that the ftar's decli- nation and latitude be both north or both fouth ;• but if one be north and the other fouth, then, for its true place, read oppofite to its true J tacc, and vice \ erfi. Prob. 2. To find M. Sin. Z :nn. P :: 20 : M. Prob. \ ABE Prob. 3. To find A, Rad. : fin. fun's elongat. from O : ; M : A. Otherwife, without M. Rad. )< fin. Z : fin. fun's elongat. from O X fin. P ::2o";A. For the aberration in right afcenfidn. Prob. I. To find Q. Sin. ftar's latit. : rad. :: cotang. P : tang. Z. Then, if the ftar (in refpedt of that pole of the equator, which is of the fame denomination as the ftar's latitude) be in a fign 1. Afccnding, and P be acute, Z added to its true place, gives Q. 2. Afcending, and P be obtufe, Z taken from its true place, gives O. 3. Defcending, and P be acute, Z taken from the oppofite to its true place, gives 0. 4. Defcending, and P be obtufe, Z added to the oppofite to its true place, gives , Prob. 2. To find M. Cof. ftar's dec!, x fin. Z : cof. P X rad. ; ; 20" : M. ABE Prob. 3. To find A. Rad : fin. fun's elongat. from G :; M : A. Otherv/ife, without M, Cofin. ftar's declinat. x fin. Z : fin. Ain's elongat. from Q X cofin. P : : 20" : A. REMARKS. 1. That Vf, ::?, H, 'r, «, n, are figns afcend- ing in refpeft of the north pole, and defcendint* in refpeft of the fouth pole of the equator. And 25» SI-, "E, ■^j t>l, X, are afcending in refped o( the fouth pole, and defcending in refpcdl of the north pole of the equator. 2. i'hat if the fun's place be in that femicirclc of the ecliptic which precedes Q, A muft be taken from the ftar's true longitude, latitude, declination, or right afcenfion, to (hew the apparent ; but if he be in the femicircle following O, A muft be added* 3. That the rules give the values of M and A always in feconds and decimals of a degree. From the preceding rules the following table is calculated. Which v/ill be found of the greatcft ufe to aftrohomers and navigators. A TABLIi of the Aberration in right afcenfion f fixtecn principal ftars , to every ten days in the year. C ci Xi < 1. .s u u I u t X 3 1 "3 « u 'a, CO to 3 u 3 t-. < CO < U rj cr < C 1} 3 G Jan. 10 +15.° + ^3.5 + 16,8 + •8.4 + 20,5 +23.6 + '9,9 + 22,6 + •5,6 + o,i -4,6 -«5,6 -24,9 -•9,9 -26,3 -14,1 10 Jan. ac •=•.3 20,3 14,6 16,6 19,3 23,2 '9,7 22,4 •7.3 3,5 — •jO • 2,6 23,4 19 S 27,1 • 6,7 20 3<= 9.* 16,5 11,9 14,3 17,6 21,9 •8,7 21,4 18,6 6,8 + 2,5 9.2 2'>3 19,0 27,1 i8,S 30 Feb. 9 , 5'9 12,1 S,9 ii,6 •5-3 •9,9 '7,1 19,6 •9,2 9.5 6,0 5,6 • 8,4 •7,6 26,4 20,4 9 Feb. '9 + 2,3 7,4 , 5.6 S,5 12,5 •7,4 '5,' '7,3 •9.3 • 2,4 9,3 — ^,0 »5.o •5,7 24.7 21,3 '9„ Mar, I — 1.3 + 2.5 + 2,1 5-2 9,5 •4,4 12,6 '4,5 18,8 •4.7 12,2 + 2,0 • 1,1 <3,4 22,4 21,5 I Mar. II 4,8 — 2,4 — ',4 + ..» 6.1 10,9 9,7 ">3 17,7 • 6,5 14,8 5,8 6,9 •0,5 •9.3 21,0 • I 21 8,2 7,3 4,8 - •.s + 2,6 7.1 6,6 7,8 16,0 •7,9 17 9,3 — 2,6 7,5 '5.6 20,1 21 3' ".3 11,9 8,' 5,2 — 1,0 + 3,3 + 3,2 4,0 '3-9 •8,7 18,5 12,6 + ^,8 4,1 • 1,6 18,4 3^ Apr. 10 14,1 16,1 ",' 8,4 4,'; — 0,9 - 0,2 + 0,2 •■,4 18,8 19,6 '5,5 6,2 — 0,7 7,2 • 6,2 loApril 20 16,4 19,9 >3.8 "1,4 7,9 4,9 3.5 - 3,7 8,6 18,6 20,0 • 7,9 10.3 + 2,6 — 2,7 .3,6 20 30 18,2 23,1 '5,8 '4,i IM 8,? 6,8 7,4 5,5 17,7 '9 9 19,8 '4,' 5.9 + ••9 10.5 7 '5 May 10 19,6 25.& '7,9 'f'5 f3.9 12,2 9,8 io,S + 2.4 •6,3 • 9,4 , 21,1 •7-5 9.0 6.5 1:1 10 May 20 20,3 ^7,3 19,2 iS,i 16,1 '5,5 •2,4 •4,1 — 0,9 •4,5 • 8,1 = ',7 20,4 .1,8 10, 8 20 30 20, 5 aS,2 10.9 •9.4 lS,2 18.2 '5,° • 6,8 4,^ n • 6,4 21,8 22,6 •4,3 •4.9 — 0,2 30 June 9 20,2 28,5 20,1 20,0 '9,1 20,5 17,0 '9,' 7,2 •4,3 21,4 244 16.4 1S,5 + 3.4 9 June 19 19.3 27,8 IQ.8 20,2 20,5 22,2 iS,5 20,8 10, 1 7,0 ",7 20,3 25.3 18,0 2', 5 6,8 '9 29 i-,8 a6,6 iS,9 19,8 20,8 J3,2 •9.5 22,0 12,6 4,0 8,8 18,6 25,6 •9,2 24,0 10,1 29 July 9 15.S 24,6 17,4 19,0 20,1; 23,6 19,8 22,5 •4,9 + 0,0 , 5.7 •6,5 252 19,8 25,8 •3,' 9 J"iy '9 13.4 21,6 '5,5 •7,4 19,8 23,4 '9.7 22,4 16,8 - 2,3 + 2,4 •38 24,1 •9,9 26 9 '5.7 '9 29 10,6 18,2 13,1 •5,4 1 3,4 22,5 19,2 21,9 lS,2 iA -^ 1,0 10,8 22,3 •9,5 27,2 •7,9 29 Aug. 3 7,6 • 4,4 10,4 • 3,1 16,5 21 18,0 20.5 19.6 8,3 4,3 7,5 '9.9 • 3,4 26 9 •9,7 8 Aug. 18 4.3 10,1 J.4 '°>3 •4,1 .8,9 .6,2 i8,- '9,3 11,0 7,5 3,9 • 69 16,8 25,8 20,9 iS 2S — 0,8 5,4 4,1 7,2 11 4 16,2 '+,• 16,3 192 •3,4 •0,5 + 0,2 13.4 .4.8 23,8 21,4 28 Sept. 7 + 2,6 — 0,6 - 0,7 3>9 8,2 '3.1 »i,5 t3,4 • 8,4 • 5.4 '3,3 — 3>5 9.6 12,3 21.3 2t,4 7 Sept. 17 6,0 + 4.2 + 2,6 *- c,5 4-9 9,5 8,6 10,1 •7,' •7.I '5.7 7.^ 5 4 9-5 • 8,0 20, S •7 ■ ^ *7 9.3 9.0 6,0 + 2,9 — 12 5,7 5,4 6,5 •5.3 '8,3 '7,6 10,5 + i.o 6,4 •4,3 •9,5 ''^ ^r. oa. 7 i:.3 >3-5 §,2 6.3 + 2,2 — 1,7 — 7,1 — 2,7 13. 1 •8,7 19,1 '3,7 • 6,4 - 3.3 + 30 10,2 •7,7| 7 Ofl. 17 15.0 17.5 12,1 9,5 5,8 + 2,3 + lA + 1,2 10,4 18,8 •9,9 7.7 — o,i 5,6 '5. 3, '7 27 17,2 21,2 14,8 •2,5 9.2 6,4 4,8 5,^ 7-5 •8,3 20, J • 8,7 ••,7 3,8 + 0,9 • 2,5,27 Nov. 6 .8,9 24,2 16.9 •5,' •2,2 10,2 8,1 S,S 4-2 •7,2 19,3 20,4 '^•5 18,9 7,2 - 3,8 9,2 6 Nov. 16 20,0 26,4 iS,6 17,1 •5.^ ,3.8 11,2 •2,3 — 0,8 •5 5 iS,8 21,4 10,3 8,3 5.7'6 26 20,4 28,0 19,6 • 8,9 •7-3 i6.9 • 3,9 '55 2,5 •3,5 •7,3 21,9 21,7 •3,' 12,9 + 2,026 Dec. 6 20H 28,5 20,0 • 9,8 •9,1 19,6 16,2 18,2 5,9 10 9 •5.2 21,7 23,7 •5.6 17,0 — ',8 6 Dec. 16 I9>7 28 2 20,0 20,0 20,4 21,0 18,0 20,3 9,' 3,0 •2,7 20,S 25,0 • 7,6 20,5 5,6 16 26 l3,2 27,0 192 21,0 20,7 22,9 •9,3 21,7 ",9 4,9 9,8 19,1 25.6 •8,9 23.4 9,2 26 3' 17.3 26 I iS,6 •■«,,7 20,7 23,3 19,6 2?, 2 >3-3 3,2 8,0 iS,i 25,5 •9,4 24,5 10,931 1 Ufcof this Table. — Suppofe the Aberration of Caftor is wanted for Augull 18- In the angle of meeting, under Caftor and againft Aug. 18, is found 18", 9, which is to be fubtradted (having the negative fign) from the ftar's mean right afcenfion, which gives the apparent. .1 D Aberra-- ABE Aberration' of the planets. Tliis is always cqu-il to the geocentric motion of the planet during tlie time which light takes up in coming from the planet to us. The fcjllowing demonftration is taken nearly from a paper of Mr. Clairaut, among the A'Icmoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris for 1764. It i.s well known that a force a£ting .according to the diagonal of a parallelogram, is equal to two forces according to its two fides ; it is likewile known, that the motion of a planet, feen from the earth, or the motion of the earth fcen from a pla- net, are exa(ftly the fame ; fo that if a planet ap- pear to move one degree a day to an inhabitant ot the eiuth, the ear'.h appears to an inhabitant of that planet to move juft one degree alfo in the fame time. This fuppofcd, let P (Al-5-) be the planet, which Ave will regard as immoveable, APT the apparent motion of "the planet tranflated to the e.irth : in the Intcrxal of time in which light comes from P to T, the earth having advanced from A to T is ftruck by the ray of light, according to the direiftion PT, ;iik1 alfo Ihikes the ray, according to the direftion AT, with the fame velocity and force, as if the ray itfelf had met the eye with the velocity C T ; thus the eye receives two comprefTions of the light, one according to PT, the other according toCT: and fo, by a jingle impreffion, compounded of two others, it refers the planet to the diagonal B T : but the angle PTB is equal to the angle APT, which we have taken equal to the geocentric mo- tion of the planet ; therefore the abberration is equal to the motion which the planet has during the time v/hich light takes up in coming from the planet to the fpeclator's eye. For example, light takes up 8' Y'k °f ^^^ '" coming from the fun to us; the fun's motion in longitude, during that interval, is %o" of a degree, whence it follows, that the fun has conftantly 20" of abberration in longitude; and as the abberration caufes the planet to appear on the fame fide the earth is going, and oppofite that towards which the planet appears to be moving, it follows that if ihe longitude, for example, of a planet be increa- fmtx, the abberration muft diminifh it; the fame holds good of latitude, right afcenfion, and decli- nation. On this principle Mr. Clairaut conftructcd the following table. — It contains the aberration of the planets according to their diurnal motion, and their diftance from the earth, by only adding the con- llant logarithm 9,5292 to thofe of the planet's di- urnal motion in minutes, and of its diltajice from the earth, putting that of the fun = 10,, the fum will be x\-)£ logarithni ff the aberration ; which aberration is alv>/ays to be added te the mean or com- puted longitude, latitude, right afcenfion, or decli- V.ation, to obtain thofe pofitions, fuch as they fi-'Ould appear on obfervation, when they arc de- A BE crcafmg ; but to be fubtradted whon they arc In- creafiniT. A TABLE of the aberration of the planets in longitude, latitude, right afcenfion, or decli- nation. Planel'j diurnal motion. D. M. Diftance from the earth, that of the fun being lo.. 2 _ 3- 4- ;• 6. 7- Sec. 8. 1 9. lO. Sec. °^9 Sec. bee. Sec. Sec. Sec. 1 Sec. Sec. 8 0.8 I.I 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.4 2-7 : 0.16 I.I ..6 2.2 2.7 3-2 3.8 4-3 4.9 S-4 0.24 1.6 2.4 3 2 4.1 49 5.6 6.5 7-3 8.1 32 2.2 3.2 4-3 ?-4 6.5 7-5 8.7 97 10.8 0.40 2-7 4.1 5-4 6.8 8.1 9-4 10.8 12.2 '3-5 0.48 3-2 4.9 b.^ 8.1 9-7 1 1.3 12.9 I4.6|i6.2f 56 S.8 •I-? 7.6 9.4 II. 4 13.2 it;.l|i7-o I8.q 1.00 +•• 6.1 8.1 10.1 12. 1 14 2 i6.2!i8.3 20.3 I. 4 4'S ^5 8.7 10.8 12.9 15.-. 17.3 19.5 21.6 1. 8 4.6 6.9 9.2 II. 5 13.8 16. 1 18.4 20 7 23.0' 1.12 4.9 7-3 9-7 IZ.2 146 17.0 19.5 21.9 24.4 1. 16 5-1 7-7 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0 20.1 23. 1 25.7 1.20 v4 8.1 10.8 '3-S 16.2 189 21.6 24.3 27.1 1.24 ?-7 «■? 11.4 14.2 17.0 19.9 22.7 29.6 28.4 I.2S 5 9 8.9 11.9 14.9 '^9 20.8 23.8 26.8 29.8 " 1.32 b 2 9-3 12.4 i;.6 18.7 21.8 24.9 28.0 3i> 1.36 64 9-7 ro.2 13.0 '3-5 16 3 19.5 22.7 26.0 29.2 32.^ 33.8 1.40 6.8 16.9 20.3 23-7 27.1 30-4 1-44 7.0 10.6 .4.1 17.6 21. 1 24.6 28.! 3i7|3S-2| 1 48 7-,3 1 i.o 14.6 18.3 21.9 25.6 29.2 32-9 36.5 I 52 7.6 II. 4 15.2 189122.7 26.6 30-3 34» 37-9 ..56 7.8 8.1 .1.8,5.7 19.6 0-3 23'; 27.5 3'-4 32.^ 35-3 36-^ 39.2 40.6 2.00 1 2.2 16.2 24.4 28.4 2. 4 8.4 12.6 16.8 1.0 25.2 294 33-<^ 37-7 41.9 2. 8 «.f "3 ° 17.3 21.6 26.0 30-3 34-'' 1,9-° 43-3 2.12 8.9 ■3-4 17.922.3 26.8 3'-3 3?-7 40.2 44.6 2.16 9.1 ,3.8 18.4 23.0 27-6 32.2 36.8 4>-4 6.0 Add to the obferved or apparent pofition, and fubtrad from the mean pofition, when they are ■ increafing. Subtradl from the obferved place, and add to the computed place, when the planet's motion is diminifliing. Although this table goes no farther than to the- diftance 10, equal to that of the fun, yet it may. be extended ad libitum, by fimple multiplication :. For example, if a comet, twice as far from thcr earth as the fun, that is 20, has i degree of diur- nal geocentric motion retrograde; take, in the CO-. lumn of 2, the abbenation for i degree, which isi 4", r, and multiply it by lO; the produft will :be 4i",o, to be fubtracled froiji the obferved- place oE th.e comet. We fiiall fubjoln two tables more for the abber- ration, of the planets, whofc ufe is ftill more eafy^ AberKi- ABE ABE tloiigaluin, ur (lillance, from the fun, fcen (rutn the eanh. Aberration in longitude. Mjr5 Ijupitcr S.iturn Elongation Ven'is Sans Dcz. Set. Sec. Sec. Sec. o.Xll c -36 -28 -26 bup. 6 -43 15 .35 28 25 15 41 I . XI .S2 2b 23 30 34 15 28 22 20 45 19 II. X 23 18 16 Greatefl: digr. 14 15 17 14 II 45 9 III. IX 12 8 6 30 15 7 .■? I 15 + 3 IV.VIII 3 + I + 4 Infer. 6 3 15 5 8 V.VII + 2 8 II J5 .3 10 13 vr.vi 4 11 13 Mercury 's aberration in lonsjitud e- Diftante of th 2 fun. Aphel. Mean dift Perihel. Ucg. Sec. Sec. Sec. Superior part of the orbit. 5 JO -49 48 46 -51 59 48 -55 54 49 15 20 43 38 43 33 3« Greatefl: digre irion 30 17 "18 19 25 20 5 + I + 4 ;; Inferior part of the orbit. 15 10 5 7 5 9 + 10 5 9 9 II 12 14 16 When Mercury is fome degrees from his greatefl digreflions, his geocentric motion fhould be care- fuUy had from altronomical tables or cphemerides, and his aberration be made out from the fuft: table of the planet's abberration. Mercury's abberration in latitude, at his defcend- ing node is 4"^ ; that of the other planets is not near fo much. — The fun's aberration is conflantly 20" in longitude ; but may alter its declination 8'' near the equinoxes, and is nothing about the fol- ftices. — The moon's aberration, never amounts to one fecond. Aberration, in optics, a deviation of the rays of light, refracted by a fpherical lens, or reflected by a fpherical fpeculum, and therefore cannot unite in one and the fame focal point. See Specu- lum, Lens, and Focus. ABETTOR, in lav^', implies a perfon who en- courages another to perform fome criminal a£lion, or who feconds and alTifts him in the performance itftlf. See the iirticle Accessory, But though t!)cre may be abettors in felony, murders, 6ic, there can be none in treafon ; the' law confidering every iridividual concerned in trea- fon as a principal. ABEYANCE, Abeiakce, or Abhayance, in law books, fignifies fomething that exifts in ex- pectation or remembrance only. Thui if a church becomes vacant by the death, of the incumbent, the freehold is faid to be in abeyance, till a nev/ reftor, &c. is appointed and induiited ; for the patron has not the fee, but mere- ly the right of prefenting to it, the freehold itfelf being in the incumbent thus prefented, and confe- quently, till fuch prefent.ition is made, in nobody. ABIB, the name given by the Jews to the lirft month of their facrcd or ecckfiallical year : it was: afterwards called Nifan. It commenced at th^ vernal equinox, and, according to the courfe of the moon, by which their months were regulated, anfwered to the latter part of Mrach and the be- ginning of April. Before the Jews were led away captive into Egypt,, their year began in die month Tifri, which is our September. But afterv/ards when they came out of Egypt, it was ordained by God, that the fucred year, or calendar of ftafts, and ceremonies, kc. Ihould commence in the month Abib, which, is the feventh mouth of the civil year. This word is Hebrew, and fignifies an ear of corn : this month was probably fo called^ becaufe at that feafon the fuft corn was ripe in Paleftinc, ABIES, the fir-tire. See the article FiR- AB-INTESTATE, in the civil law, is applied to a perfon who inherits from one who died in- teftate, or without a will. See Intestate. ABISHERING, in old Law books, implies the bein^ exempt from all amercements, and tranf- greflions of any kind. ABJURATION, in our ancient cufloms, im- plied an. oath taken by a perfon guilty of felony,, and who had fled to a place of fancSuary, whereby he folemnly engaged to leave the realm for ever. Abjuration is now ufed to fignity the re- nouncing, difclaimiug, and denying upon oath^ the pretender to have any maniiei; of right to the throne of thefe kingdoms. Abjuration of Heresy, the fokm;i recanta- tion of fome doctrine as falfe and wicked. ABLACTATION, the ad of weaning a child from the breaft. See t'ne article Weaning. Ablactation, in horticulture, is a term for- merly ufed for a particular method of graftings called, by modern gardeners, inarching, or grafting, by approach. See Grafting by approach. A'BLAQUEATION, in gardening, the art of removing the earth, and laying bare the roots oi trees in Vvinter, that they may be more readily ex- pofeii ABO p«>f(^d to laiiio, fnovv, air, &c. which was former- )y thought neceHIiry fcr their future welfare ; but cxpeiicnce has fliewn it to be a dangerous pra£lice, ufpeciall)-, where the trees are much expofed to the winds, particularly the fouth-weft, which are ge- nerally the moft violent : and it is in a great mea- fure laid afide in the prefent pradice of garden- ing. ABLATIVE, in the Latin grammar, is the name of the fixth cafe, and peculiar to that lan- guage. It is oppofed to the dative, which exprefles the sclion of giving, and the ablative that of taking away. ABLUENTS, in medicine, are the fame with diluters, or fuch remedies as diffolve and carry ofF acrimonious and rtimulating falts, from any part of the body, efpecially from the flomach and in- teltines. ABLUTION, in antiquity, a religious cere- mony, praftifed by the Romans, and confided in wafhing the body before they began the facrifice. The Romans, in all probability, learned this ceremony from the Jews ; fmce we read in Scrip- ture, that Solomon placed at the entry into the temple which he erected to the honour and fervice of the true God, a capacious laver, which the text calls a brazen fea, where the priefts waflied them- felves before they offered facrifice ; having previ- oiifly fanftified the water, by throwing into it the afhcs of a vidlim offered in facrifice. The Mahometans ilill ufe the ceremony of ab- lution. Ablution, in chemiftr}', fignifies the wafhing away the (alts of any body, by frequent aff ulions of warm water. ABOARD, Ital. abordo, Fr. aborde, any part on the deck or infidc of a fliip : hence any perfon tvho afcends a fliip's fide, to go on the deck, or into the apartments, is faid to go aboard. ABOLITION, in a general fenfe, implies the act of defraying a thing, or reducing it to jiothing. Abolition, in law, fignifies the repealing any law or ffatiitc. ABOMASUS, or Adomasum, in comparative anatomy, one of the ftomachs, or ventricles, of ruminating animals, or fuch as chew the cud. All ruminating animals have four ftomachs, viz. the rumen,' or Itomach, properly fo called, the reticulum, the omafus, and the ahomafiis. The abomafus, or laft of the four ftomachs, is vulgarly called the maw ; being the receptacle where the chyle is formed, and from which the food dcfcends immediately into the inteftines, /ABOMINATION, in the facrcd writings, is generally uil-d to cxprcfs idols and idolatry. Thus in I: zek. xx. 7. " Cnft ye away every man the " abominations of his- eyes, and defile not yourfclvcs ■' with the idoh 0; r.gypt." And again in Exod. ABO viii. 26. Mofes fays, " We (hall facrifice the al^ " minatioM of the Egyptians to the Lord." It is not at all to be wondered at that idolatry (hould be called an abomination, as it was accompanied with licentious ceremonies, and the vileit and moft abo- minable practices. The Ifraelites, who were fhep- herds, are faid, in Gen. xlvi. 34. to be an abomi- nation to the Egyptians, becaufe they facrificcd their idols, or their facred animals, to which they paid divine worfliip. The abomination of defola- tion (mentioned by St. Matthew xxiv. 15. " When " therefore ye (hall fee the abomination of defola- " tion, fpoken of by Daniel the prophet, ftand " in the holy place,") means the enfigns of the Roman army, on which were painted the images of animals, as well as of their gods and emperors : at the lalt ficge of Jerufalem, which was carried on under Titus, thefe enfigns were lodged in the temple, when the city was taken. ABORIGINES, in geography, a name given to the original or firft inhabitants of any country, in contradiftindlion to colonies or new inhabitants from fomc other part of the earth. The term aborigines is famous in antiquity ; and tho' at prefent taken as an appellative, it was ori- ginally the proper name of a certain people of Italy, who inhabited the ancient Latium, or country now called Campagna di Roma, when yEneas, with his Trojans, came into Italy. In this fenfe the Aborigines are diftinguifhed from the Janigen.Te, from the Siculi, from the Grecians, and from the Latins, v/hofe name they afterwards affumcd. Authors arc greatly divided with regard to thefe Aborigines ; fome will have them to be the original inhabitants fettled there by Janus, or by Cham, foon after the difperfion at Babel ; fome think they were originally Arcadians, parties of whom were brought into Italy at different times ; and others de- rive this nation from the Laceda-monians, who fled into Italy from the fevere difcipline of Lycurgus. Some again will have them to have been rather of Barbarian than Grecian original, and to have come cither from Scythia or Gaul; -while others believe they were defcended from the Cnnaanites, whowere driven out of their own country by Jolhua. ABORTION, in medicine, an untimely or premature delivery of the foetus. An abortion may proceed from various caufcs ; as immoderate ev.icuations, violent motions, lud- den pallions, frights, &c. It may alfo happen at any time of pregnancy; but if before the lecond month, it is ufually called a falfe conception. A continual or intermitting fever generally pre-' cedes an abortion, together with a pain in the loins and head; a hcavinefs in the eyes ; a bearing down and conftri£lion of the abdomen; and vi'hen the time of mifcarriage is juft at hand, the pains are much the fame with thofe in labour; and felt prin- I cipally ABR cipally about the os pubis, and os facrum. The breafts, which were before turgid, now fubfide and become flaccid; the patient is apt to faint, and a fcrous humour ouzes from the uterus. If the time of pregnancy be far advanced, fo that the foetus mull needs be large; if the caufes of abortion were violent; if the patient be itrongly convulfed; if a large hemorrhage either precede or follow ; if the patient be of a weak conllitution ; if the foetus be putrefied ; or if the woman was never delivered of a live child; the cafe may be confider- ed as dangerous: but, with other circumllances, abortion very rarely proves mortal. Upon the firft appearance of the fymptoms of abortion, the patient mull: be put to bed, and the paffions of the mind kept calm and moderate. The food fhould be eafy of digeflrion. The liquor may be wine, diluted occafionally with water: but in cafe of a diarrhoea, large floodings, &c. the white decoftion appears to be the moft proper liquor. In other refpefts, the diet and regimen mull be fuited to the particular fymptoms which happen to attend abortion; whether they are collivenefs, a tenefmus, vomiting, &c. An habitual weaknefs, or laxity of the uterine veffels, fhould be treated as the fluor albus; but ex- cept the patient be of a thin or hedtical conftitution, a deco£tion of guaiacum, will, in this cafe, prove very fer\'iceable. When the flooding is attended with the breaking out of the waters, and violent pain at the bottom of the abdomen, the time of abortion is judged near. .In this cafe, the ufe of aftringents is to be omitted : as the abortion is natural or unnatural, the midwife is to perform the part adapted to a natural or unna- tural birth : the fame external and internal medi- cines, which tend to bring away the fecundines, and promote lochia, being proper in both cafes. ABORTIVE, in a general fenfe, implies any thing which comes before its proper time, or mil- carries in the execution. Abortive vclom, that made of the ficin of an abortive calf. See Velom. ABRA, a filver coin ftruck in Poland, and near- ly equal in value to an Englifh (hilling. ABRACADABRA, a magical v/ord, which being written in a cer-tain form, a certain number of times, was, in the ages of ignorance and fuper- ftition, fuppofed to have the virtue of a charm or amulet, in curing agues. ABRAHAMITES, were an order of monks, who, in the ninth century, were exterminated by Theophilus for idolatry. It is thename alfo of a fc6t of heretics, who renewed the errors of Paulus and his followers. ABRASION, in furgery, the a61; of wearing a- way the natural mucus which covers the mem- branes, particularly thofe of the ftomach and in- .teftines, by corrofive medicines, .&c. ABR ABRASAX, or Abraxas, a myftical term thai occurs in the antient theology and philofophv of certain heretics, particularly the followers of Ba- filides. Some moderns, on the credit of Tertul- lian and Jerome, have affirmed that this arch- heretic called the Supreme Being by the name of Abraxai ; but this is not very probable, as Ireneus tells us, that the Bafdidians gave no name what- ever to the Almighty, but fay that the Father of all things is ineffable, and without name. It feems as if this word denoted Mithras, or the fun, which was the God of the Perfians. For by- computing the value of each letter, as the Greeks were wont to do, A e P 2 lOO I 200 1 60 365 we come by the number 365, which is the num- ber of days contained in a folar year. In the 17th century two talifmans were found, on one of which was the word ABPACA2 in Greek capitals, and on the other, which is ftill to be feen in the cabinet of St. Genevieve, the following in- fcription : ABPAcAS- AAHNAI. AAIMONaN. AE2IAI. ATNAMEIC. ^-'^--AASATE. OTAHI- AN. nATAEINAN. AHO. nANTOC. KAKOT. AAIMONOc. which is," Abrafax, lord of demons, propitious powers, preferve Ulpius Paulinus from eveiy evil demon." The word Adonai being made ufe .of here immediately after Abrafax, clearly" points out that it is of Oriental, and not of Greek extraction : for which reafon, what Beaufobre has faid is rather ingenious than true, that Abrafax is compounded of two Greek words, of which he makes a^po; and ao-cc^ or a-ct the other ; and fo proves the meaning of it to be the beautiful, or the mag-ii'ifuent Saviour, and applies it to the fun. No- thing has puzzled the learned more than the origin and fignification of this enigmatical term : we fhall prefent our readers with a few of their expla- nations, and then leave them to judge for them- felves. One fays that Abrafax is compounded of the initial letters of feveral words, three Hebrewj and three Greek, in the following manjier : A ftands for Ab, the father B Ben, the fon R Rouacb, the fpirit A Acadofch, holy S Soberia, falvation A Apo, by X Xulou, the tree, or wood. This it muft be confefled is a very orthodox ex»- planation, but fo wild and improbable, that it could E j\wct A BR acfter ha\ e entered into any one's hcaj, except that of an ecclefiaftic vifionary. Another writer, who adopts the plan above, and improves upon it, thinks tliat the letters A. S. A. X. ftand for £:;'9f)»7rEf cuuav ti.yiu Eu^a. There is another dif- ferent account of it given by M. Bafnage, in his Hiflory of the Jews. He afferts, that the word Abrafax took its origin from the Egyptians ; be- caufe there are a great number of amulets to be found, on which is an Harpocrates, the Egyptian God of Silence, fitting on the lotus, and the fcourge in his hand, with the word Abrafax. This is certainly a true account of it : for the word, Abracadabra, which is recommended as a chaim by Serenus Simonicus, who was a follower of Bafilides, is evidently taken from Abrafax. ABREAST, in nav.il affairs. On the different occafions of attack, purfuit, or retreat at fsa, the fquadrons or divifions of a fleet are often obliged to vary their difpofiticns, and yet obferve a proper regularity, by failing in right or curved lines ; when they fail at a proper diftance from each other, and are all equally foi"ward, they are then faid to iiave formed the line abreail, the commander in chief being ftationed in the center ; and the fecond ^nd third in command, if there be any, in the center of their divifions, on each wing ; there being no van or rear in the manoeuvre. See i>INE a he fid. ABRIDGING, the fliortening or contrailing any book, writing, &c. Abridging, in algebra, is reducing a com- pound equation to a more fimple forai. See Equa- tion. ABRIDGMENT, an abftraft or epitome of a larger work. Critics and ftudents, who are commonly the greateft enemies to abridgments, pretend,, that the I euflom of making them was not introduced till a ]ong tim.e after thofe happy ages when the arts and Iciences flourifhed in Greece. In their opinion, abridgments were the firft fruits of idlenefs, when thofe times which fuccecded the fall of the empire were flirouded in the darknefs of barbarifm.. Men of learning, fay they, then only endeavoured to fhorten their labours and ftudies, efpeciaUy in reading the hifforians, philofophers, and lawyers, either for v/aiit of leifuro or courage to perufe the originals. Some authors have thought, that feveral of the books of the Old Teftament are only abridgments «f the books of Gad, Iddo, and Nathan, of the writings of. Solomon, the Chronicles of the kings of Judah, &c. The lawyers com.plain, they owe to this artifice the Ipfs of above two thoufand volumes «f the firft writers in their profefaon, as Popinian, the 'three Scsvo!as> Labenus, Ulpian, Modeili- nus, and feveral ethers, v/hofe names are well known. By the fame m?ans a great number of A BR [the Vvorks of the Greek fathers, from Origenv I or Irenaeus, down to the time of the fchifms and divifions of the church, liave perifhcd : during which period a great variety of authors wrote upon, the books of Scripture. The extradls which Con- ftantinus Porphyrogenitus made from feveral excel- lent Greek and Latin hifforians, relating to hiilory, politics, and morality, tho' in other rcfpefts highly commendable, have occafioned the lofsof the uni- verfal hiftory of Nicholas of Damafcus, great part of the books of Polybius, Diodorus Sicidus, Dio- nyfius Halicarnaffus, &c. Nor have we any room, to doubt but that Juftin has occafioned the lofs of the entire hiflory of 'I'rogus Pompeius, by the abridgment he made of that v/ork ; and it may. juftly be faid, that the fame tiling has happened ia all other branches cxf literature.. It may, however, be alledged in favour of abridg- ments, that they are convenient for fuch as have, neither leifure to confult the originals, ability ta procure them, nor talents to underiland them tho- roughly. Befides, Salmafius has remarked, that the moft excellent works, both among the Greeks, and Romans, would infallibly have perifhed in the times of barbarifm, had it not been for the induftry of the authors of thefe abridgments, who have, at leaft, faved us fome planks out of the general fliipwreck, and no ways prevent our confulting the originals whenever they can be found. Abridgment, in law, implies the fliortening a plaint or declaration. ABROGATION, fignifies the repeaLng and abolifhing a law. ABROTANUM, fouthernwood, in botany. See the article Southernwood. ABRUS, American bitter-vetch, called gli- cine by Linnaeu'^, a kind of kidney-bean, growing in the Eafl: and Weft-Indies^ in Egypt, and othec parts of the world. It is ufed in the Eafl: and Weft-Indies, with the fame intention as liquorice, and increafed by feeds fown in the fpring ; but being a tender plant, it requires a hot-houfe in this climate. ABSCESS, infurgery, an inflammatory tumour, containing purulent matter, pent up in a fleflij^ jxirt. An abfcefs is always the effe£l of an inflamma- tion, which may frequently be difcuffed without coming to a fuppuration, or. before the abfcefs is formed. But when the proper remedies ta difperfe the humour have been too long negledled, or ufed in vain, the utmoft expedition Lhould be ufed to bring the humour to maturation. The proper medicines for prcrr.oting this intention are fuch as increafs cbe motion in the pait, and have a tendency to create a gentle fever ; fuch as fomentations, and fhimtdflling medicines. Suck compofitions alfo as confine tlie heat excited in the part aflecled, b]^ A BS A B S pre^'criting an exceflive perfpiration, are alfo pro- per. The fimple aromatic gumi, and ihe cmo!- iieiit, relaxing, and moiftening medicines, arc therefore proper for maturating the pus. This method mufi: be purfued till the abfcefs has actjuired a fufficient degree of ripenefs, which may- be known by the foftnefs of the part, and the fluc- tuation of the tumour when preiled ; its white- nefs, the remiffion of the pain, heat, rednefs, ten- fion, pulfation, and fe\er ; the pointed apex of the tumour, and a fenfe of weight fucceeding the pain, are likewife figns that the pus is ah'cady formed, and fit for e\acuation. When thefe figns indicate the maturity' of the tumour, the knife is to be introduced into its in- ferior, fofteft, whitcli, and moit prominent part, till the pus flowing out evinces that a fufficient penetration is made : then let the knife be railed equably upwards, fo as to make a large incifion ; or forcing its point through the oppofite part of the abfcefs, let the intermediate integuments be divided, taking care to avoid the fibres and veffels. Then let the ulcer be cured by cleanfing, fup- purating, digeftive, deterfive, and drying medi- cines, which muft be varied according to the ftate of the part. See the article WoLfND. If the patient be afraid of an incifion, let a cauftic be applied to the part, the efcar feparated, and the cure performed, in the fame manner as before. ABSCISSE, or Abscissa, in conic feclions. See Parabola, Ellipsis, and Hyperbola. ABSCISSION, in rhetoric, a figure of fpeech, whereby the fpeaker flops fhort in the middle of his difcourfe, leaving the hearer to draw what con- clufion he pleafes. ABSINTHIUM, wormwood, in botany/ See the article Wormwood. ABSIS, in aftionomy, the fame with apfis. See Apsis. ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, denotes fome- thing that is unconnefted with, or independant on another. Absolute, is alfo an epithet applied to things which are free from limitation, or condition. Absolute Equatim, in allronomy. See Eq^ja- TION. Absolute Number, in algebra. See. Num- ber. Absolute Motion, t t Motion. Absolute Space, ( Seev S.^ace. Absolute T;«f, 3 {Time. ABSOLUTION, a term fynonimous with pan- don or forgivenefs. Pardon is in ccnfequence of an ofFence commit- ted, and relates principally to the offender ; it de- pends upon the party offended, and produces a re- conciliation when it is fincerely alked, and fincerely granted. Forgivenefs ia in confequence cf a crime. and has a particular relation to the punifhnicnf which the crime defenes: it is granted either by a prince or a magiftrate, and arreits the uplifted arm of juftice. Abfolution therefore is in confequence of an of- fence or crime, and properly concerns the flatc of the guilty : it is pronounced either by the civil judge or the ecclefiaftical minifter, and reinflatej the accufed, or the penitent, in the rights of inno- cence. Absolution, in law, is a fentence whereby the party accufed is declared innocent, and confequcnt- iy faved from the punifhment infli£led by the lav/s, for the commiflion of the particular crime or oftcnce with which he is charged. l^he general method of trial, whether the accufccF were guilty or innocent, among the Romans, was generally this : After the caufe had been pleaded on both fides, the prastor pronounced aloud the won? dixerunt, the parties have faid what they have faid, or what they have to fay. Then three billets were immediately diftributed to each judge, one marked with the letter A. for abfolution, another with C. for condemnation, and the third with N. L. for non liquet, it is not clear, to require a refpite of judgment ; and accordingly as there was a majorit/ of this or that mark, the accufed was abfolved, condemned, or refpited. When the votes were equally divided on the fides of abfolution and con- demnation, the accufed was abfoh-ed, from a maxim fuppolcd to be founded on the law of nature. At Athens the praftice- was different ; criminal caufes were carried before the Hel;ca:a, or the tri- bunal of judges called Heliafla?, from «ai^, the fun, becaufe they held their aflemblies in a place uncovered. Whcnfummoned by theThefmothetes, they aflembled in a large number, fometimcs a- mounting to fifteen hundred, and ga\e their fufFra- ges in the following manner : A large vefTel cover- ed wit-h wicker v-^as placed in the middle of the aiTembly, and on it two urns, one of copper and the other of wood ; in- the lids of thofe urns was a long but narrow aperture, in the form- of a paral- lelogram or long fquare. The wooden urn was called ■n.vv'^, being that '-^Xo whichtlie judges cafl the fuffrages for condemning the accufed ; while that of copper was named hlm;;, and recci\ed the fufFr.iges of^ abfolution. As foon as the caufe had been pleaded, tv/o pieces of copper were diftributed to e.^ch of thofe mn'^l- flrates, the one plain, and the other with a hole in it; the foiTner implied abfolution^, and the latter condemnation; and according to the m.ajority of pieces found in the one or the other of thefe urns, the party accufed was' abfolved or con- demned; Absolution', in the canon law, implies the niiniflerial power of remitting fins, vcfled by Chrifl: in. the apoliks, and liom tkciH-derived to th;'c!i:.TcR. - Tiiiis A BS A BS This is all that the primitive church ever pre- tended to, leaving the abiblute, fovereign, inde- pendent, irrcverfible power of abfolution to God alone. The ancients enumerated five kinds of abfolu- tion : I. Baptifm. 2. The eucharilt. 3. The word and dotl:rine. 4. The impofition of hands and prayer. 5. The reconcilement to the com- munion of the church, by a relaxation of her cen- fures. The two firft may be called facramental -, the third declaratory ; the fourth precatory ; and the fifth judicial. The firft had no relation to peni- tential difcipline, being never given to perfons who had once received baptifm. The fecond had fome relation, but did not folely belong to it ; for it was given to all baptized perfons in gene- ral, whether they had ever fell under penitential difcipline or not : and in both cafes was called TO TiMioe, the perfeftion or confummation of a Chriftian. By the third, the minifters of the church made public declaration to men of the .terms of reconciliation and falvation. The fourth was ufod as a concomitant of moll other abfolu- tions : and by the fifth penitents were finally reftored to the peace and full communion of the church. But during the firif ages of the church, the form jof abfolution always run in this manner, Cbriji ahfolve thee ; the indicative form, 1 ahjolve you, having never been heard of till the twefth century, a little before the time of Thomas Aquinas, who was the firft perfon that wrote in defence of it. The judicious Hooker, fpeaking of the abufe of .nbfolution in the Romilh church, fays, " They " flrangely hold, that whatfoever the penitent " doth, his contrition, confeUion, and fatisfa£tion, *' have no place of right to ftand as material parts " of this facrament, nor confequently any fuch " force as to make them available for the taking away of fin, in that they proceed from the pe- nitent himfelf, without the privity of the mi- nifter, but only as they are enjoined by the mi- " nifter's authority and power : — except there- " fore the prieft be willing, God hath by promife " hampered himfelf fo, that it is not now in his " own power to pardon any man : — he hath no " anfwer to make but fuch as that of the angel to " Lot, I can do nothing." This able writer then defcribes the true nature and efFefts of abfo- lution, and adds, " The fentence therefore of " minifterial abfolution hath two effects : touch- " ing fin, it only declareth us freed from the guiltinefs thereof, and reftored unto God's fa- vour ; but concerning right in facred and di- vine myfteries, whereof through fin we are made unworthy, as the power of the church did be- fore eftedtually bind and retain us from accefs unto them ; fo, upon our apparent repentance, it truly relbreth our liberty, loofeth the chains 4C *' wherewith we were tied, remitteth all whatfo- " ever is pall:, and accepteth us no lefs returned, " than if we had never gone aftray." ABSORBENT VeJJeh, in anatomy, are thofe which abforb the fluids of the body. Thus the laiSteals, whole mouths open into the inteftines, and imbibe the nutritious juice, are called by this name. The pores diifufed over the v/hole body are fometimes alio filled abforbent Veffels, becaufe- they imbibe the air, effluvia, &c. Absorbent Medicines, among phyficians, are fuch as have the property of drying up the redun- dant humours, whether taken inwardly, or appliei externally to ulcers, &:c. All the teftaceous powders, boles, chalk, cal- cined bones, magnefia alba, &c. are efteemed powerful abforbents. ABSORPTION, in the animal ceconomy, im- plies the adl whereby the open orifices of the vef- fels imbibe the juices they meet with in the cavities of the body. ABSTEMIOUS, an epithet applied to perfons who ufe great temperance both in eating and drinking, efpecially thofe who abftain from wine. The word is Latin, ahjiemius, and compounded of ahs, from, and temeium, wine. ABSTERGENTS, in the materia medica, are remedies of. a faponaceous nature, capable of dif- folving refinous concretions. Caftellus has con- founded them with abluents. ABSTINENCE, abjiinentia, the refraining from fomething we have a propenfity to, or in the enjoyment of which we find fatisfa(£tion. Several are of opinion, that mankind before the flood abftained from fleih and wine, becaufe the Scriptures exprefly mention, that Noah, after the Deluge, began to plant the vine, and that God permitted him to ufe the flefti of animals for food ; whereas he had given Adam only the fruits and plants of the earth for his fuitenance. There are however many learned interpreters who maintain the contrar)', and believe, that mankind before the Deluge did not deny themfelves the pleafures of either wine or animal food. Indeed the Scriptures themfelves aflure us, that all flefh had corrupted his way ; and therefore tho' the Almighty did not allow Adam to ufe either flcfh or wine, his im- pious defccndants gave themfelves little trouble to obferve the prohibitions of their Maker. The priefts among the Jews were commanded by the law to abftain from wine during the whole time they v/ere engaged in the iervice of the temple ; and the fame prohibition extended to the Nazarites, as long as they continued fuch. The ancient athlets obferved a perpetual ab- ftlnence from all kind of fenfual pleafures, in or- der to render their bodies more hardy and robuft. When Orpheus had foftened the manners of men, he eftablifhed a kind of life fince called the Orphic i A BS Orphic ; one of the chief tenets of which was, not to eat the flefli of animals. In all probability, Orpheus, after making the firft people fenfiblc of the laws of fociety, reftrained them from eating meat, in order to wean them entirely from their primitive fiercenefs : and this pradlice being after- wards adopted by fuch as were defirous of leading a more perfeiSl life than others, the ancients called it Of^iyji ?>ioi, the Orphic life, which is men- tioned by Plato in his Epinomis, and in the fixth book of hii Laws. The Phenicians and AlTyriuns, who were neigh- bours to the Jews, had their facred fafts. The Egyptians, according to Herodotus, facrificed a cow to Ifis, after they had prepared themfelves by fading ; and he attributes the fame cuftoni to the women of Cyrenc. Among the Athenians, the Eleufinian myfleries, as well as the Thefmophores, were attended with rigorous fallings, efpecially among the women, who paiTed a wliole day fitting on the ground in a mourning habit, and without taking any fuftenancc. They had alfo fettled fafts at Rome, in honour of Ju[)iter; and hiftorians alfo mention thofe of Julius Csefar, Auguftus, Vefpafian, Marcus Aurelius, he. The Pythagoreans, or at leaft thofe among them who profeffed the grcateft perfei^fion, and va- lued themfelves for having attained to the greateft degree of their mafter's theory, never tafted either fiefli or fi{h. This abftinence from whatever had life, was a confequence of the metempfychofis ; tho' it is difficult to fay from whence Pythagoras imbibed the averfion he had to beans, mallows, wine, &:c. Abstinexce, in medicine, has a very exten- five fignification : for by this word we underftand ji refraining from all fucculent aliments. Tho' abftinence is not fufficient to cure dif- eafcs, yet it greatly affifts the operation of the me- dicines, and is a prefervative againft many difor- ders, efpecially thofe which refidt from gluttony. We ought to regidate the quantity of aliments we take, according to the lofs of fubftance we fuftain by means of exercife, and tlie time during which perfpiration is more or lefs plentiful ; and alfo to abftain from fuch aliments as we have ob- ferved to difagrce v/ith our conftitution. The kinds of abftinence to which we ought to confine ourfclves, both in ficknefs and health, fhould be regulated by the laws of diet and regi- men. See the article Regimen. Several writers relate wonders of the effects c»f abftinence in the cure of many diforders, and in protracting the time of life. The noble Venetian Cornaro, after every method had proved in vain, fo that his life wasdefpaircd of at forty, recovered, and lived to near an hundred, merely by abfti- nence. Jt ii indeed furprifmg, to what a great age the 2.. A BS primitive Chriftians of the eaft, wlio retired from the perfecution into the dcfarts of Arabia and Egypt, lived, healthy and chcarful, on a very little food. Caftian afl'ures us, that the common quan- tity for twenty-four hours was twelve ounces of bread, and mere wa:er ; and that St. Anthony, on that portion only, lived to the age of an hundred and five years ; James the hermit, an hundred and four ; Arfenius, tutor to the emperor Arcadius, an hundred and twenty ; St. Epiphanius an hundred and fifteen; Simeon the Stylite, an hundred and twelve; and Romauld, an hundred and twenty. We can indeed equal, nay evsn excel, thefe in- ftances of longevity, from the fame caufe, at home. Buchanan tells us, that one Laurence pre- ferved his life to an hundred and forty, by the mere force of temperance and labour ; and Spotf- wood mentions one Kentigern, who lived to an hundred and eighty-five by the fame means. See LoNGiEVITY. Moft of the chronical difeafes, the infirmities of old age, and the untimely deaths of Englifh- men, are, according to Dr. Cheyne, owing to re- pletion, and may be prevented by abftinence. Among the brute creation, we fee extraordinary inftances of long abftinence. It is natural for va- rious fpecies to pafs four, five, or fix months every year, without eith.r eating or drinking. Thetor- toife, dormoufe, ferpent, &c. are obfer\cd. to re- tire regularly, at certain feafons, totheir refpeclive' cells, and there hide themfelves ; fome get into the- aiverns of rocks, or ruins ; fome dig holes imder' ground ; fome retire to the woods, and lay them-- felves up in the clefts of trees; and others bury thcmfeh'cs under water. The ferpent kind bear abftinence to a miracle.. We have feen rattle-fnakes that have fubfifted many- months without food, and ftill retained their vi-- gour and fiercenefs. Dr. Shaw mentions, in his- travels, a couple of ceraftes, a fort of Egyptian- ferpent, which had been kept five years in a bottle- clofe corked, without any fort of food, unlefs a' fmall quantity of fand, wherein they had coiled themfelves up in the bottom of tb.e veilel, may be' reckoned fuch ; yet when he law them, they had'' jL^ft caft their fkins, and Were asbrifk and lively as if juft taken. Li fhort, feveral fpecies of birds, almoft the whole tribe of irfeils, and many among the other tribes, are able to fubfift during- the winter, without food, and many of them with- out rcfpiration. This furnifhes an admirable in- ftance of the wifdom of the Creator : the proper food of thefe creatures, efpecially of the infedl tribe, being then wanting, aprcvifion is made for them to live without it. When the fields are di- vefted of their flowery carpet, and the trees and plants are ftripped of their fruits, what would be- come of fuch animals as fubfift whoily on the pro-- duce.of the fpring and fummer ? and when the air ii E gi;awn : ABS grown rigid-and chilly with the fro{l,what wouldhc- come of thofe tender fpeciep, which are impatient of cold ? 7"o prevent the total deftruclion and ex- tirpation of many fpecies of animals, the author of jiaturc has provided, that creatures thus bereaved of their food, ihould be likev/ife impatient of cold, to lead them thus to fhelter themfelv£s from dan- ger ; and that when arrived ia a place of fecurity, the natural texture and vifcidity of their blood ihould difpofe it, by a farther degree of cold, to ilagnate in the veffels : fo that the circulation flop- ping, and the animal fun6tions being in a great jneafure fufpended, there is no fenfible wafte or confumptioii of parts, but they remain in a kind of drowfy neutral ftate, between life and dcatli, till the warm fun revives both them and their food toge- ther, but thawing at once their congealed juices and thofe of the vegetables on which they teed. The fleep of fuch animals is but very little dilTer- ent from death, and their waicing from a re- furreftion; for if life doth not confift in a cir- culation of the Wood, vvc know not in what it does confift. Hence it is no wonder that tortoifcs, dormice, ScC. are found as fat and flefhy, after fome months ,abiHnence, as before. Sir George Ent weighed his tortoife fe\-eral years fucceflively, at its going to earth in October, and its celling out again in March, and found that out of four pounds four -ounces,"it only iifed to lofe about one ounce. Nor are there wanting inftances of men who have paf- ;led feveral months in as ftrift abfthience as other creatures. The records of the Tower mention a Scotfman imprifoned for felony, and ftriiStly watched in that fortrefs for fix weeks, during which interval he had not the leaft fiiftenance ot any kind, and on that account obtaitied his par- don. The German Ephimerides iJDeak of a wo- man called Martha Taylor, who, from a blow on •the back, lofl: her appetite to fuch a degree, that the only fuftenance fhe took during thirteen months, was only a few drops from a feather. This was indeed a morbid and unnatural cafe, for file flept very little during the whole inter- val. We may add the inftance of S. Chilton of Tinfbury, near Bath, who, in the years 1693, 1694, and 1695, ilept fometimes four months, -and fometimes above fix together, with very little food, and fix weeks with nothing more than a fmall quantity of tent, conveyed v/ith a quill ijito his -mouth, through a hole in his teeth. It is added, that in moft of the inftances of long abflinences related by naturalifts, there were ap- parent marks that the texture of the blood was fi- milar to that of fummer bcafts and infefts. It is indeed no improbable opinion, that the air itfelf may furnifh fome kind of nutriment ; for it is cer- iaiu .there are fubllances of all kinds, animal, ve- ABS gctable, &c. floating in the atmofphere, which niuft be continually taken in by refpiration. ABSTINENTS, a name given to a fed of Heretics, who fprang up in France and Spain, at the end of the third century, when the Chriftians were perfeciited by Dioclefian and Maximian. They were a kind of Gnoftics, or Manicheans ; they decried marriage, condemned the ufe of meals, as if created by the Devil, and degraded the Holy Spirit into the clafs of created Beings. ABSTRACT Lka, am.ong logicians, implies the idea of fome general quality or property con- fideied fimply in itfelf, without any regard to a particular fubjeft : thus magnitude, equity, &c. are abftracl ideas, when we confider them as de- tached from any particular body or perfoii. Abrtra6l ideas are of two kinds, abfolute and relative. The former contain ireneral and univer- fal conceptions of things confidered in themfelves, as b.'ing, elTence, exiftence, a<5f, power, fubftance, mode, (k'c. The latter compare feveral things, and confider merely the relations of one thing to another, without confidering whether the fubje£ts of thofe relations be corpcvral or Ipiritual ; fuch are our ideas of caufe, efled:, likenefs, unlikenefs, fubjecf, objedt, identity, &c. All things that exift, fays Mr. Locke, being particulars, it may perhaps be thought reafonable, that words, which ought to be conformable to things, fliould be fo too : but we find it quite the contrary ; for moft words in all languages are ge- neral terms ; nor has this been the efFedt of ne- gleiSf or chance, but of reafon .and neceflity. Butfince all things that exift are only particular, how came we by general terms ? or where do wc find thofe general natures they are fuppofed to re- prefent .^ Words become general, by being made the figns of general ideas : and ideas become ge- neral, by feparating from them the circumftances of time, place, and other ideas that may determine them to that or this particular exiftence. By this method of abftradlion they are rendered capable of reprefenting more individuals than one, each of which having a conformity to that abftradl idea, is of that fort. But it may not be amifc to trace our notions and names from their beginning, and obferve by what degrees we proceed from our infancy, and enlarge our ideas to general ones. It is evident, that the firft ideas children acquire are only parti- cular, as that of nurfe or mother, and the names they give them are confined to thofe individuals ; afterwards obferving, by time and acquaintance, that there are a great many other things in the world that refemble them in fome common a^ree- o ment of fliape and other qualities, they frame an idea which they find thofe many particulars in- clude ; to this idea they give, with others, the name man, for example ; in this they make no- thing ABS ithing new, but only leave out of the complex idea they had of Peter, John, &c. that which is pecu- liar to each, and retain only what is common to all ; and thus they acquire a general name, and a general idea. By the fame method they advance to more general names and notions ; for obferving Icveral thino'S that differ from their idea of man, and cannot therefore be comprehended under that name to agree with man in fome certain qualities ; and uniting them into one idea, they have another more general idea, to which giving a name, they make it of a more comprehenfive andextenftve na- ture ; thus, by leaving out the ihape, and fome other proportions fignified by the name m.an, and retaining only a body with life, fenfe, and a fpon- taneous motion, they form the idea fignified by the name animal. By the fame way they proceed to "body, fubflance, and at lafl to being, thing, and ■ fuch univerfal terms, which ftand for any ideas •whatfoever. AbilraiSt ideas are not however fo ob\'ious or eafy :to children, or the yet unexerciled mind as particu- lar ones. If they feem fo to men, it is only becaufe •they are rendered fo by confont and familiar ufe : For when we attentively refledt upon them, we fhall find that general ideas are fiiftions and contrivances, -tliat carry difficulties with them, and do not fo eafily offer themfel\es as we are apt to imagine. Does it not, for example, require fome p;iins and fkill to form the general idea of a triangle ; fince it mufl be neither oblique nor reiStangular, neither equilateral nor fcalenon, but all, and none of thefe .at once. In elfeiS:, it is fomething imperfed;, which cannot exilf, an idea wherein fome parts of feveral •different and inconfiflcnt ideas are put together. It is true the mind, in this imperfeft flate, has need ■of fuch ideas, and hailens to them for the conve- niency of communication and enlargement of know- ledge, to which it is naturally very much inclined. There is however reafT:>n to fufpect that fuch ideas -are marks of our imperfeftion, at leaft that the mofl .abftraft ideas are not thofe which the mind is firlf .and mofl eafjly acqi:aiflted with. In the next place, it muft be confidered what is the proper figniiication of general words. It is evident they do not barely fignify one particular thing; for then inflcad of being general terms, they would be . proper names : neither do they fignify a plurality, for then man and men would fignify the fame. General words therefore fignify a fort or fpecies of things ; and confequently the efTences of the fort or fpecies of things, are nothing tlfe but abflrraft ideas. The meafure, or boundary, of each fort, or fpecies, whereby it i.s conftituted that particular fort, and diftinguifhed from others, is v.'hat we call effence, which is nothing but that abflraca: idea to which the name is annexed ; whence it is eafy to obferve, that the effences of the fpecies of things, • and confequently the fort ing of things, is the ABS workmanship of the undcrflanding that abftrads and makes thofe general ideas. Thefe cfiences or abllracS ideas are diflinfl: f])e- cies. Thws a circle is as effentially different from an oval, as a fliecp from a goat ; and rain is as eficntially different from fnow, as water from earth ; that ablhad idea, which is the elTcnce of the one, being impofTiblc to be communicated to the other. And thus any two abftracl ideas, thac in any part vary from one another, with two dii- tindl: names annexed to them, conflitute two dif- tinft forts, or, if you pleafe, fpecies, as effentially different, as any two the mofl remote or oppofite in the world. Propofitions concerning any ab- flraiSl ideas, that are once true, mufl needs bs eternal verities. Such i.s the excellent Mr. Locke's account of abflradl ideas, and it is now generally allowed, that the mind has -the power or faculty taf forming abftra doftrinc in queffion. " I will not affirm, fays " that ingenious v--riter, that other people have not " this wonderful faculty of abftraiting their ideas ; " but I am confident I have it not myfelf. I " have indeed a faculty of imagining or reprefent- " ing to myfelf the ideas of thofe particular " things I have perceived, and of varioufly coni- " pounding or dividing them. I can imagine a " man with two heads, or the upper parts of a " man joined to tiie body of a horfe. I can con- " fider the hand, the eye, the nofe, each by it- "" felf abftrafted, or feparated from the refl of " the body ; but then, whatever hand or eye I ■" imagine, it muft have fome particular fhape and " colour. So likewile the idea of a man, that I " frame to myfelf, mufl be either a white, or a " black, or a tawny, a ftrait, or a crooked, a " tall, or a low, or a middle-fized man. I can- " not by any effort of thought conceive, the ab- " flraiSl idea of a triangle above defcribed ; and it " is equally impoffible for me to form the abftradt " idea of motion, diftinit from the body moving, " and which is neither fwift nor flow, curvilinear, " nor re£tiline:ir ; and the fame may be faid of all " other abflradt general ideas whatfoever." Words, according to Mr.-Locke, become gene- ral by being made the figns of general ideas. But Dr. Berkley fays, words become general by being made the fign, not of an abflraft general idea, but of feveral particular ideas, any one of which it in- differently fuggcfts to the mind. Thus, when it is faid, for example, " The change of motion is pio- " portional to the impreffed force ;" or, *' What- " ever has extent is divifible ;" the propofitions are to be underftood of motion and extenfion in general ; but it will not therefore follow, that they fuggeft to my thoughts an idea of motion without a moving body, or any determinate dire6li»n, ve- locity. A B S A BS locity, &c. or that we inuft coiicch-c an abftrait general idea of extenfion, v/hich is neither line, liirface, nor folic! ; nor great, jior fmall, black, white, nor red, &:c. It only implies that what- ever motion we confider, whether it be fwift or flow, perpendicular, horizontal, or oblique, or in whatever obje£t, the axiom concerning it holds equally true ; as does the other of any particular extenfion, it matters not whether it by a line, furface, or folid, whether of this or that magni- tude, figure, &c. Abstract Terms, in logic, are fuch as denote thofe objecSs which exilt only in the imagination. Thus beauty and uglinefs are abftra^S terms. There are fome objects that pleafe and appear agreeable to us ; whereas, on the contrary, there are others that afl-'cit us in a very dilagreeable man- ner : the former we call beautiful, and the latter ugly ; and yet there are no fuch real fubftances in nature, as beauty and uglinefs ; they fubfiit in our imagination only. Abstract, or pure Alatlhinatia., are thofe bran- ches which treat of magnitude, or quantity, con- fulered abfolutely, and in general, without reflric- tion to a particular part. Geometry, Algebra, and Arithmetic, are therefore abftraiSl Alathe- matics. Abstract Numbers^ are afTemblages of units confidered in themfelves, and not applied to denote any colledLlons of particular and determined things. Thus, 5. is an abftradt number if confidered fimply in itfelf ; but if v^'e fay 5 feet, or 5 pounds, then 5 becomes a concrete number. ABSTRACTION, an operation of the mind, whereby we feparate things naturally conne&d together, and confider each fmgle relation, or pro- perty of the fubjecS fmgly by itfelf. This operation is performed three ways : i. The human m.ind can confider any one part of a thing, as really difiiniS from it ; as the arm, with- out confidering the reft of the body. 2, The mind can, by abftra(£lion, confider the mode of a fubftance, omitting the fubftance itfelf; or con- fider feparately the difFereiU modes, which exift together in the fame fubjeit, I'his fpecies of abftraiStion is ufed by. geometriciap.5, when they confider the length of a body feparately, and which they call a line, omitting the confideratioa of its breadth and depth ; and then its length and breadth together, v/hich they call a furface. By the fame fp>ecies of abflraftion, we can diftinguifh the determination of a motion towards whatever place direiEted, from the motion itfelf. 3. By abftraftiori we omitthe modes and relations of any particular things, in order to form an univerfal idea. It is this facu'tv, or power of abftraftion that makes the grciit difference between man and brutes. -The latter .fecm to reafon about, particular objedls and idea? ; but there does not appear in them, the kail indication of abllrailion. Abstractions, among chemifts, imply the native fpirits of aromatic vegetables, to diftin- guifh them from fpirits produced by fermen- tation. ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, or far removed from the common apprehenfion, and methods of conceiving ; in oppofitioa to what is obvious and palpable. The word is Latin, ah/lrufus, and compounded of abs, from and tiudo, to thruft-. ABSURD, an epithet which is applied to any thing that contradiifls reafon, or the evidence of one's fcnfes. It is too often m.ade ufc of in reli- gious controverfies, when a point is difcuffed that is above human comprehenfion : but in fuch cafes improperly ; for though it would be abfurd to affirm that four and five make only three, or that two and one are equal to nine, as clafliing with a felf-evi- dent propoiition ; yet in religious matters, that are above the reach of human reafon, it fhould never be applied, as the mind is too narrow to compre- hend e\'ery thing that may be. ABSURDITY, a kind of error or offence againft fome evident, and generally received truth or principle. The greateft of all abfurdities is. the contradiSlion. See Contradiction. Absurdity, in behaviour, figiiifies the very contrary of wit. It is next to that, of all things in the world, the moft proper to excite mirth.. What is foolifh, is the object of pity; but ab- furdity, generally proceeds from an opinion of fufHciency, and confequently is an honeft occa- fion for lau2hter. ABUNDANCE, in mythology. See the ar- ticle Plenty. ABUNDANT Nmnbersy with arithmeticians^ are fuch whofe aliquot parts added together is greater than the number iUelf, as 20, whofe ali- quot parts are I, 2, 4, 5, 10, and make 22. See Aliquot, and Number. ABUSE, in a general fenfe, implies the per- verting fomething from its true defign, purpofe, or intention. The word is Latin, ahitfus^ aud compounded of aby from and tifus, ufe, q. d. contrary to the true ufe. Abuse of zvordi, implies the ufing words with- out any clear and diftinft ideas ; or, fometimes, without any idea at all. Language being the conduit,, whereby men con- vey their difco\'eries, reafonings, and knowledge,. from one to another ; he that makes an ill ufe of it, though he does not corrupt the fountains of knowledge, which are in the things themfelves ; vet he does, as much as in him lies, to break or Ifop the pipes whereby it is diftributed for the public ufe. and advantage of mankind ; and may ABU 'be looked upon as an enemy to truth and know- ledge. For as we are let into the knowledge of things by words, fo wc arc oftentimes led into error or miftake by the abufc of words ; flowing from thcfe two caufes, viz. the natural and iina\oidablc imper- fe<3io;i of languages, and the wilful faults and neg- leds of men. In order therefore to guard againfl fuch miftakcs, as well as to promote our improvement in know- ledge, it is neccffary to acquaint ourfclvcs a little with the abufe of words, which men are fo often guilty of. I . They ufe words without clear and diftinft ideas ; or, which is worfe, figns without any thing fignified : inftances of this kind may be taiily had from tlie fchoolmcn and metaph) ficians. 2. Inconllancy in the ufe of words ; it being hard lo find a difcourfe on any fubjcft, wherein the fame words aj'c not ufed fomctimcs for one colleftion of ideas, and fomctimes for another. 3. An affected obfcurity, either by ufing old words in new fignifi- tations, or by introducing new and ambiguous terms, without defining them, or putting them to- gether fo as to confound their ordinary meaning. 4. The taking of words for things ; though this in fome degree concerns all names in general, yet it more particularly affects thofe of fubftances; 'Ihus in the Peripatetic philofophy, fubftantial forms, ab- hcrrences of \acuum, &c. are taken for fomcthing real. c. The /etting them in the place of things^ which they can bv no means fignify : thus v/e may obferve, that in the general name of fubftances, whereof the nominal cfTcnces are only known to lis, when wc affirm or deny any thing about them ; we do, very often, tacitly fuppofe, or intend, they fhould ftand for the real effences of a certain fort of fubflances : but to fuppofe thefe names to fland for a thing, having a real elfence on which the pro- perties depend, is a plain abufe; fince wc would hiake them ftand for fomethinrr, which not bcins; in our complex idea, the name we uie can no ways be the fign of. He therefore that hath names without ideas, wants meaning in his words, and fpeaks only empty founds: he that hath complex ideas without ramcs for them, wants difpatch in his exprelTions : he that ufes words looielv and unlleadily., v;iil either not be mindedi, or not underftood : he that applies his names to ideas different from their common I'fe, wants proprietv, and fpeaks gibberifh : and he that hath ideas of fubflances cifagreeing with the real exiflence of things, fo far wants the mate- rials of true knowledge in his underflanding, and has inllead thereof chimeras. To rcniedv the above-mentioned abufes of fpcech, the following rules m.av be of ufe : I. A man fhould take care to ufe no word with- out a fignification ; no name without an idea which he makes it ftand for. A BY 2. Thole ideas he annexes them to fliould he clear and diftiniit, which, in complex ideas, is by knowing the particular ones that make that ccm- pofitlon. 3. He mufl: apply his words, as near as may be, to fuch ideas as common ufe has annexed tc) them. 4. Whcji common ufe hs left the fignification of a v/ord uncertain and loofe ; or ;A'hcre it is to be ufed in a peculiar fenfe ; or where the term is liable to any doubtfulnefs or miflake, there it ought to be defined, and its fignification afcertained. 5. The lafl rule is, that in all difcourfes %vhere- iii one man pretends to inflrutSl or convince ano- ther, he flifiuld I'.fe the fame word conflantlv in the fame fenfe ; if this were conflaiuly done (which no body can refufe without great difin- genuity) many of the books extant might be fpared ; many of the controverfies in difpute v/ould be at an end ; feveral cf thole great volumes^ fwollen with ambiguous v/onls, now ufed in one fenfe, and by and by in another, would fhrink in- to a very narrow compafs. Lsc/n: en Human Under- Jlandlr.g. ABUTTALS, the boundaries of a piece of land. ABUTILON, in botany, a plant of the mal- lov/ kind, bearing a flower, that confifls of five diftinift petals ; from the center of which arifcs a number of united filaments, whofe tops are orna- mented with round antherre, and a fhort fingle Itvle. When the fiov.'er is decayed, the fruit ap- pears, containing a number of cells, each of which when open difccvers a kldney-fhaped feed. There are feveral varieties of thefe plants, fome of which produce round feed ; but moft of the forts being natives of the Weft Indies-, require more heat than this climate can naturally afford them. ABYSS, in a general fenfe, fignifies without a bottom : and is derived from the Greek a, priv. Pyj-fl-©', a bottom. In a particular fenfe it means that imracnfe cavern of the earth into which God collevTted all die waters on the third day, to ferve as a refervoir for the fupply of his creatures. Dr. AYoodv/ard conjeiSlurcs, that there is a mighty mafs of waters enclofed in the bowels of the earth, conffitut- ing a vaft orb in the central parts of it ; and over the furface of this water he imagines the ter- reflrial ftrata to be formed; Thisj according to him, is what Mofes calls the great deep, and what moll authors render the great abyfs. Ho fays, that the fea has a communication with thefe waters, hy means of cliafms in the earth : v.'hich conjecture appears not altogether groundlefs, as it would be difficult to account any other way for the v.-ift in- flux of waters into feveral lakes, as well as into the " Cafpian fea, from which no cfBux has ever yet been obferved. G Aby!J» AC A A C A Abyss, in Scripture, fignifies alfo iicll, or that iminenfe fpiice where, according to the opinion ot the Jews, the giants arc fuftcring the- punifliment of their fins. It is there that the Rephaims, or ancient giants of Canaan, are bound, with all thofe Icings of lyre, Babylon, and Egypt, whole pride and cruelties have been recorded in the Pro-, phets. Thefe abyircs arc the dreary and difmul abode of the impious and unjull. " 1 faw," fays St. John in the Revelations, " a ftar fall from heaven unto " the earth : and to him was given the key of the " b'AtoniLfi pit : that pit, where the migodlv //W/ " fc(k clccitb, and Jhall not find it ; and Jhall dijire to " die^ cind death /Ijall _flec from ihcni." ACACIA, in botany, the f]gyptian thorn. 'I'here are feveral fort;: of this genus of plants ; but all claflcd by Dr. Linna;us with the Mimofa^ or fenfitive plant. The principal difference between the acacia and mimofa is, that the leaves of the acacia will not fall at the touch, whereas thofe of the mimofa will, fo as to appear withered : the foit which is beit known by the name of the Egyptian thorn is very common in England, and produces a tree of a tolerable fize ; the leaves of which are placed oppofite to each other in pairs ; the flowers, which grow in bunches, confift each of one leaf, flightly divided at the extremity into five parts; the tilamcnts are hairy and longer than the Ityle ; from the flower a pod is produced which contains feveral flat oblong feeds. The branches of mod: ot the forts are armed with Itrong fharp thorns. From this plant the gum arabic is taken. Acacia Gcrmanica, an infpifTated juice, made from wild floes before they are ripe. ACACIANS, in ccclefiaitical hiilory, the name cf feveral ie£ts of heretics; fome of whom main- tained, that the fon was only of a fimilar, not the fame fubftance with the father ; and others, that he was not only a diftinct, but alfo of a diflimihir fubftance. ACADEMICS, a fed of ancient philofophers, the difciples of Socrates and Plato, fo called from Academe, which was a garden or villa near Athens, v/here Plato and Socrates ufed to converfe and dif- pute on philofophical fubjefts. The particular te- nets advanced by thefe fages were, that all know- Ii-dge is at beft uncertainty, and that truth is dii"- ftcult if not impoflible to be attained. They did not however carry thefe opiiiions to that extrava- gant pitch which the Pyrrhonians did, who doubt- ed of every thing, hut confined them to phyfics. It is true, indeed, that Socrates profeifed that he knew nothing ; but it v/as partly through modcfty thut he fpoke thus, and partiv to ridicule the pride and vanity of his brother philofophers, who fool- ifhly imagined there was nothing that they did not know. If we excufe in thc'Acr.demlci this affectation of ignorance and difiidencc of thcm- felves, we fhall find little or nothing in their doc- trines but what is pure and praife-worthy. The writings of Plato are full of wifdom and truth : he taught, in the fweeteft and moft eloquent (lile, fuch doctrines as feein to be beyond the reach of human wiidom ; which have occafioned his being upbraided with plagiarifm, as if he had iloleii them from the books of Alofes. It mull be con- fcfled, that it is difficult any other way to account for fome parts of his fublime knowledge ; as that there is one infinite and eternal God, the father and creator of all things ; that he made the world out of nothing, according to a certain exemplar c/r model in his own mind ; that man was born of the earth ; that he was naked ; that he enjoyed a truly happy ftate ; with feveral points befides, fo abhorrent from the heathen, and agreeable to the Jewifli philofophy, that he got tlie name of the Attic Mofcs. Notwithflanding Plato recommended to his dif- ciples a diffidence of thcmfelves, and inftructed them to doubt of every thing ; yet he feems to have done it in fuch a manner as if he did not in- tend to leave them fluctuating between truth and error, but to put them upon their guard againit rafli and precipitate dccifions, and teach them to accuftom their minds to examine every thing freely and wiithout preiudiee, as being the only means of fecuring thcmfelves from error. It were to be wifhed that the fame could be faid of thofe who fucceeded him in his philofophy, namely Aj"cefilas, Carncadcs, Clitomachus, and Philo. But they feem to have carried his erroneous notions much hiaher ; for they do not only affirm that we know nothing, but even that we do not know whether we know any thing. We read of five difFerent academies ; the firft under Socrates and Plato ; the fecond under Ar- cefilas ; the third under Carneades ; the fourth un- der Philo, the difciple of Clitomachus ; and the fifth founded by Antifchus : but they feem rather to be branches cf the fame root, than fo many diflcrent trees ; unlefs indeed we except the fifth academy, in which the Stoic doctrines were drelled out in the old academic fur. ACADEMY, a delicious garden or villa, with- in a mile of Athens, fo called from one Academus, or Ecademits, a citizen of Athens, to whom it originally belonged. Plato tells us, that it was a kind of gymnafium, or ])lace of exercife, in the fuburbs of that city, watered by a gentle fpring, and furroundcd with groves of olive and plantane. It was the favourite retreat of the philofophers and fages of Athens, but particidaily of Socrates and Plato ; for which reafon the fe£t founded by thena was ftiled academic. Alilton gives us a beautiful defcription of it in his Paradifc Regained, Book i\-. 1. 244. bee A C A Sec tlicre the olive grove of aciuk'mfc PJato's retirement, where the Attic biid Trills her thick warbled notes the fumnicr long ; 'I"here flow'ry hill Hyiiiettus with the found Of bees indurtrious murniur oft invites '['o Ihidious nmfing ; there Ililllis rolls His whifpering llream. ■ Cicero had a villa, or place of retirement, near Tuzzuoli, to which he gave the name of academy, where he ufed to entertain his friends with what the poet tails, " The feaft of rcafon, and the flov/ of foul." It was there that he compofed his Acade- mical ^ijejikns., and his book Dc Natura Dcorum. Academy, among the moderns, is generally ufed to fignify a fociety or company of men of letters, eitabliflaed for the culture of the arts and fciences. Some authors have confounded the word aca- demy with that of univerfity ; and it is indeed Ibmetimes ufed for a fchool, or place of inflruction, where the arts and fciences are taught. We have in England two royal academies of this kind, one at Woolwich, and the other at Portfmouth, be- i'ldes a great number of private fchools called aca- demies : but in the proper I'enfe of the words they are really different ; the former implying a fociety of learned men, who meet to confer and communi- cate their lights to one another, for their mutual benefit and the improvement of the arts ; and the latter a body compofed of graduates in the feveral faculties ; of profeflors who teach in the public Ichools ; of regents or tutors, and of iludents who learn under them, and afpire likcwife to degrees. See the article University. Charlemagne has the honour of being the firft that eftabliflred an academy in Kurope. It was compofed of the chief wits of the court, and the emperor himfclf was one of the members. In their academical conferences each perfon was to give an account of what ancient authors he had read, and each academician aflumed the name either of fome ancient writer, or fome celebrated perfon of anti- quity. At prefent moft nations have their academies, RuHia not excepted ; but Italy excels in this re- fpect, at leaft in point of numbers. Wc have but few in England ; the chief of which are the royal fociety, the antiquarian fociety, the fociety for the encouragement of arts, and the academy of painting. See Royal Sodrty, Antiquarian Society, and SociETYyir the Encouragement of Arts. There is alfo a literary fociety eilablifhed in Scot- land. See Edinburgh Society. The French have feveral flourifhing academies of all kinds, particularly the following : French Academy, a fociety inftituted In the year 1635, for perfc(3ing the French language. Fhey mett at the Old Louvre three tiaics a week. A C A diirit)^' the wiiote year; but have tic public aflem- blies, except thofe in which they receive fome new academician, and that which Ls held on St. Louie's day, when they diiiribute the prizes of cloquer.cc and pociry, each of which confifts of a gold me dal. 'J'hey have already publiflied a dictionary, in tituled, LciD it lio'iiiairede I' Academic Franco ife. 'Fhcir motto is, A I'Immortatitt. Royal Academy of Scitrices was founded at Paris in the year )666, and confirmed by the king in 1699, for the improvement of phyfics, mathematics, and chemiftry. The academy at firft confifted of ten honorary academicians ; eight itrangers, affociates ; twenty penfioncrs, fellows ; twenty eleves, or fcholars ; and twelve French afTociates. But in the year i6g6, the academy received a new regulation ; by which it was compofed of ten honorary members, twenty penfioners, three geometricians, three aftronomers, three mcchanits, three anatomiils, three botanifts, three cliemiits, a trcafurer, and a fecretary, who are both perpe- tual ; twenty alTociates, twelve of whom muft be inhabitants of France, and eight foreigners ; and twenty eleves, each of whom muft be attached to one of the penfioncr acaJemifts. In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then regent of the kingdom, thought proper to make fome amendments to this regulation ; and accord- ingly, the clafs of cloves was fuppreiTcd, it ap- pearing to be attended with fome inconveniences, particularly that of making too great an inequa- lity among the acadamicians, and being produc- tive of fome animofitles among the members. At the fame time he created two new dalles, one con- lifting of twehe adjunch, and the other of fix free ailociates. Ever fince the eftablifhment of this academy in the year 1699, they have been very exaft in pub- liftiing every year a voliune in quarto, containing either the works of Its own members, or fuch me- moirs as have been compofed and read to the aca- demy during the courfc of the year. To each volume is prefixed the hlftory of the academy, or an extract of the memoirs, and. In general, of whatever has l>een read or fald in the academy : at the end of the hlflory are the eulogies of fuch aca- demlfts as have died during the coiu-fc of that year. The late Mr. Rouille de Meflay, counfellor to the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of two thoufand fi\'e hundred livrcs, and the other of two thoufand, which are diftributed alternately by the academy every year ; the fubjeifts for the firft muft relate to phyfical aftronomy, and thofe for the latter to na\ igation and commerce. 'i'he motto of this academy is, Invenit Isf pcrficit, Riya! Academy of Jnfcyiptions ami Belki Lettret, was A C A v/as eftabliflicd by Lewis XIV. In the year 1663, and focn after tlicir inftitution, they undertook 10 compofe, by means df medals, a connefted hilto.'y of the principal events of that prince's reign. In the year 1701, tliii academy received a new regulation ; by which- it waj to confift: of ten ho- norary members, ten pcnfioncrs, tcii aflbciatcs, and ten eleves ; but the lall have been fince fup- prefled and united to the affociates. The fecrctary and treafurer are both perpetual ; and the academy liave publifhed fereral volumes, which contain, bc- ildes the memoirs which arc thought proper to ap- pear intire, extracts made by the fecrctary from ie\-eral others, together with the eulogies of the dcceafed members. The academy diftributes every year a gold medal of four hundred livres value, as a literary prize founded by M. Darcy de Noinvillc, 'i'heir motto is, VeUit ?iiori. Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles Lcliies of Prtijfia, a flourifliing academy eftablifhed at Ber- lin in the year 1700, by Frederic I. King of Pruf- lia. This academy has publifhed feveral volumes of memoirs, containing fe\cral curious and ufeful papers in various arts and fciences. Imfrnal Academy of Peterjlurg, a fociety of learned men, ellablifhed at Peterfturg in the year 1726, by the Czarina Catharine ; fince which time they have publifhed thirteen volumes of memoirs wrote in Latin, feveral parts of which, efpecially the mathematical papers, are ^■ery valuable. The motto of this academy is, Paulatim. Roydl Spanijh Academy is an academy for cul- tivating the Caflilian tongue, eftablifhed at Madrid on the model of the French academy. The defign of this fociety was laid by the duke d'Efcalona, and approved of by the king in 1714, who de- clared himfelf its protestor, ft confdls of twenty- four r.cademilb, including the director and fecrc- tary. Its device is a crucible on the fire, with this r.;otto, Limpia fija y da cfpleudov. ii-CADEMY of Natura Curiofi, in Germany, was f.ift founded in 1652, by Mr. Baufch, a phy'fician, nnd t-tken, in 1670, under the protection of the fmperor Leopold, Italy alone has mere academies of note than all the rcil: of the world ; not a city but furniflies a fot of learned pcrfons for an academy, which to them fecms an cfTcntial part of a regular conftitu- tinn. Jarckius has given us a fpecimcn of their hiflory, printed at Lcipfic in 1725. Jarckius's account goes no farther than to the ficidemics of Piedmont, Ferrara, and Milan ; in v/hich lull cjfy he reckons twenty-fiC ; but adds a lid of ail the rcf}, to the number of five hundred and fifty. Academy of Pahiting, is a public fchool to which the paiitters refort, either to draw, or paint, and where the fculptors model after a naked pcr- foHj which they call a model. A C A The royal academy of painting and fculpture at Paris took its rife from the difputes that hap- pened among the mafler-painters and fculptors in that capital. This induced Lc Brun, Sarazin, Corneille, and others of the king's painters, to form the defjgn of a particular academy ; and, Iiaving prefented a petition to the king, they ob- tained an arret, dated the 20th of January, 1648. Their meetings were at firfi: held in the apartments of M. Ciiarmois, fecretary to the m-arfha! Schom- bcrg, v/ho drcv/ up the firft body of flatute^ for the academy. Afterwards tbe academy conferred in the hoi:fc of a friend of M. Charmois, fituate near St. Eufc-^ chius's ; from whence they removed to the hotel dc Cliflbn, where they continued their exercifes till the year 1653, when the academifls removed into the ilreet des Dechargeurs. In the year 1654, and towards the beginning of 1655, they obtained from cardinal Mazarine a brevet and letters patent, which were regiflered in parliament ; and, in grateful acknowlcgement for this favour, they chofe the cardinal for their protedtor, and the chan- cellor for their vice-protector. It is remarkable, that the chancellor had, from the irrll: inftitution of the academy, been named its proteftor ; but, in order to make his court to cardinal Mazarine, he declined that title, and con- tented himfelf with that of vice-protc£tor. In the year 1656, Sarazin granted to the aca- demy an apartment which he at that time had in the galleries of the Louvre ; but they were obliged to quit it in the year 1661 : and M. de Ratabon, fuperintcndant of the buildings, removed them to the Palais-royal, where they remained one and thirty years. At laft the king gave them an apart- ment in the Old Louvre. In the year 1663, the academy obtained, by means of M. Colbert, a penfion of 4000 livres. This academy confifts of a protestor, a vicc- proteflor, a direftor, a chancellor, four reflors, adjuncts to the rectors, a treafurer, forty profcllbrs, one of which is profeflbr of anatomy, and another of geometry ; feveral adjunvfts and counfellors, a fecrctary and hiftoriographer, and two ufhers. The academy of painting holds a public af- fembly every day for two hours, after noon, to which the painters refort, either to defign or paint, and where fculptors model after a naked perfon. There arc twelve prcfeflbrs, each of whom keeps the fchool for a month ; and there are twelve ad- juncts to fupply them in cafe of need. The pro- feflbr upon duty places the naked man, who is called the model, in fuch a pofition as bethinks proper, and feis Ifnn in twi) different attitudes every week : this is what they call fctting the model. In one week of the month he fets two models together, v.diich is what they call fetting the groupe. The paintinj.'s and models made after this A C A this model, as well a: the copies made from them, are called academies, or academy figures. They have like wife a woman who flands for a mode! in the public fchool. Every three months, three prizes for defigii are diftributcd among the eleves, or difciples, as are two others for painting, and two For fculpture, every year. Thofe who gain the prizes of painting and iculpture, are fent to Rome, at the king's expence, to ftudy there, and com- pleat themfelves in their art. Befides the royal academy, there are two other fchools, or academies, of painting in Paris ; one whereof is at the royal manufaifture of the Gobe- lins : this fchool is under the direiSlion of artills, to v/hom the king allows an apartment in the royal hotel of the Gobelins, and who generally are members of the royal academy. The other is the academy of St. Luke, which is maintained by the company of mafter-painters and fculptors, and was eftabliflied by the provoil of Paris, on the 1 2th of Auguft, 1 39 1. Charles VII. in the year 143c, granted to it feveral privileges, which were con- lirmed in the year 1584, by Henry III. and in 16(3, the companies of painters and fculptors were united. This company hath at prefent a houfe near St. Denis de la Chartre, where their office is held ; and a public academy carried on in the fame manner as the royal academy, and where every year they difl:ribute, among their difciples, three prizes for defigns. The only academy we have in England of this kind, is in St. Martin's- lane, London. Academy of Arxhi tenure, a company of fkil- fiil architects, eilabliihed at Paris in the year 1671, by M. Colbert, under the direclion of the iuperintendant of the buildings. Academy is alio ufed in fpeaking of the fchools and feminaries of the Jews, where their rabbins and doiSfors inilruiSted the youth of their nation in the Hebrew language, and explained to them the Talmud and the fee rets of the Cabala. The Jews have always had thcfe fort of academies ever fmce their return from Babylon ; thofe of Tiberias and Babylon have been the moit celebrated. Academy is alfo particularly underflrood of a riding fchool, or a place where young gentlemen are taught to ride the great horfe, as alfo the ufe of arms, dancing, vaulting, &c. This is what Vitruvius calls ephebeum ; and fome others, among the ancients, gvmnafium ; the moderns call it equeflrian, or military academy. The duke of Newcaftle will have the art. of riding to have had its origin in Italy ; and the firft academy of this fort to have been eflabliflicd at Naples, by Frederic Grifon, who, he adds, was the firft that wrote on this fuhjedl, which he did, like a true cavalier, and a good mafter. Henry VTII. fays the fame author, called over two Italians, difciples of Grifon, into England, y/ho A C A /boil flocked the nation with ecuyers, or riding- mafters. He adds, that the greatefl mi.fter which Italy ever produced, was a Neapolitan, called Pigna- telli ; that La Broue rode under him five yeais, Pluvincl nine, and S. Antoine many years; and that thefe Frenchmen filled France with French maflers, which, till then, had known only Italians. The ground fet apart in an academy for tiding, is called the menage, having ufually a pillar in the centre, and other pillars placed two by two at the fides. Academy Figures, in painting, are defigns made after a model with a crayon or pencil. ACAJOU, the Cafieiv-Nut-Trce, in botany, the name of a genus of trees, comprehended by Linnaeus among the anacardiums. See Ana- CARDIl'M. ACALEPTIC, in the ancient profody, an ap- pellation given to fuch verfes as have all their fi:et complete. ACALYPHA, in botany, the three-feeded mer- cury, a plant that produces male and femiale flowers, neither of which have any petals : the calyx of each are compofed of three roundifh leaves ; from the cup of the male flowers arife eight or ten ftamina ; in the center of the female flowers, a round oviary is fituated, fupporting three branching flyles ; when the flowers decay, the oviary is divided into three cells, containing in each one large round i'eed. This plant is the ri- cinocarpos of Eoerhaave. ACANACEOUS, in botanj', are plants of the thiille kind, hax'ing heads with prickles on them. ACANTHA, among botanifts, a name given to the prickles of thorny plants. AcANTHA, is alfo ufed by zoologifts for the fpines of certain flfhcs, as thofe of the echinus marinus. See. AcANTHA is alfo a term ufed by fome ana- tomifirs, for the protuberances of die back-bone, otherwife called fpina dorfi. ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, a kind of forceps,, or inflrument for pulling out thorns, and other fharp-pointed bodies, that may have penetrated the fkin : alfo an inftrument for pulling liairs from the eye-brows, &c. . ACANTHACEOUS, among botanifcs, an epithet- gi\'en to all plants of the thiflle kind,, on account of the prickles with v/liich they are befet. ACANTHUS, in. botany, the branca uiTini, ^ or bears breech ; this plant produces a monope- talous unequal flower, with a double empalemcnt, the outer compofed of three leaves indented : the inner empalement confifts of two leaves, the up- per one concave, and ferratcd at the top, and the ■ H. unde:- A C C wider one convex ; this flower produces four {la- mina, two long, and two fhort, clofely adhering to the ftvle, which is fituated on a roundifh ger- nicn, that afterward becomes an oval capfuls, producing tv/o cells containing iji each one flefhy linooth oblong feed. Acanthus, in archite£l:ure, an ornament re- prcfcnting the Jeaives of the herb acanthus, and ufcd in the capitals of the Corinthian and Com- pofite orders. See the article Capital. For this purpofe, the Greek fculptors imitated the leaves of the foft acanthus, as the Goths did thofe of the prickly kind. ACARNA, a name by v.'hich Theophraftus calls the common thiitle. ACARUS, in zoology, a numerous genus of jnfefts, comprehending the mites in general, and the lice of feveral animals. ACATERY, or Accatry, an officer in the kijig's houfhold, defigned as a check between the clerks of the king's houfliold and the clerks of the kitchen. ACATHUSTUS, in ecclefiaftical hiflory, a hymn anciently fung in the Greek church, in ho- nour of the Virgin. ACAULIS, in botany, thofe flowers which have no vifible llalks, but appear to relt on the ground. ACCEDAS (id curiam, in law, a writ lying where a man hath received or fears falfe imprifon- ment in a hundred court, or court baron. ACCELERATED, in a general fenfe, im- plied quickened, or continually increafing in mo- tion. Accelerated Motion, in phyilcs, is that whofe velocity is continually increaiing ; and when the velocity is equally increafed in equal times, it is faid to be uniformly accelerated. The accelerated motion of falling bodies is pro- duced by the impulfe of gravity, which keeps con- jtantly afting upon them, and thereby communi- cating a new increafe of motion every inftant. The acceleration of the defcent of heavy bodies was firll difcovered by Ga!ila;us ; and by due ap- plication of Sir Ifaac Newton's fecond law of mo- tion, is clear and evident, viz. 77}at the change of motion is always proportionahle to the force imprejfed, and is akvays according to that fame line of direction. For fuppofmg gravity, at equal diilanccs from the earth's center, to ai^t uniformly on all bodies, and that the time in which any body f:\lls to the earth be divided into infinitely fmall and equal parts : let gravity incline the body towards the earth's center, while it moves in the firll infinitely fmall part of the time of its defcent ; if after this the aiStion of gravity fhould ceafe, the body would go towards the earth's center equally, with a velocity equal to the force of that firft imprefllon. But iiicn, if we fuppofe that the adtion of gravity does A CC continue, in the fecond inftant the body will receive a new impulfe towards the earth, equal to that which it received in the firft inftant, confequently its velocity will be doubled, in the third inftant trebled, in the fourth quadrupled, and fo on : for the irrpulfe made in any preceeding inftant is no ways altered by that which is made in the follow- ing ; wherefore the inftants of time being fuppofed infinitely fmall, and all equal, the velocity acquired by the falling body will be in every inltant as the times from the beginning of the defcent, and con- fequently the velocity will be proportionable to the time in which it is acquired. After the fame manner it may be proved that the motion of afcend- ing proje£f ives fhall be equably retarded ; for fince the force of gravity adts continually and equably againft the motion firft begun, it muft diminifh or abate the motion according to the time of afcent, till at laft it entirely ceafe. The fpace run through by a moving body during a given time, and with a given velocity, may be confidered as a reftangle compounded of the time and velocity. Let the right line AB (Plate IL fig. I . ) exprefs the time of any heavy body's defcent, and let BC, at right angles to it, denote the velo- city acquired at the end of the fall. Draw AC, and divide A Yi into any number of equal parts, deno- minated intervals or proportions of the given time, as DE and EG, which will exprefs the velo- cities acquired in the times of defcent A D and AF ; for becaufe of the fimilar triangles AB : AF :: BC:FG,andas AF: AD :: FG:DE; where- fore it is evident that the velocities are as the times of defcent ; that is, as the lines or elements of the triangle ABC, drawn parallel to the bafe BC. By imagining fliorter divifions of time, for ex- ample, but half fo long as the former, the indent- ures of the figure will be proportionably more con- tradled, and it will approach near unto a triangle : And if they be taken infinitely fmall ; that is, if increments of the velocity be fuppofed to be ac- quired continually, and at each indivifible particle of time, which is really the cafe, the reiStangles (o fucceffively produced will form a true triangle, as ABE ; (See Plate IL fig. 2.) the whole time AB confifting of minute portions of times, A i, A 2, &c.. and the area of the triangle ABE, of all the minute furfaces, or minute trapeziums, which an- fwer to the divifions of the times ; the area of the whole triangle cxprefling the fpace run through during the time AB. Or the triangles ABE, A I f being fimilar, their areas are to each other, as the fquaresof their homologous fides AB, A i, &c. and confequently the fpaces gone through, are to each other as the fquares of the times. ^Vhence alio may he deduced this great Liw of acceleration : That a body defccnding with an uni- formly accelerated motion, defcribcs in the whole time of its A C C Its drfcoti, a Jpace which is exaSlly the half of thr.t which it vjouhl ilefcribe uniformly in the fame tune. its which it ivould defriie uniformly in the f, tvith the velocity it acquires at the end of its fill. For, as we have already fhewn, the whole fpace which -the falling body has run through in the time AB, will be reprefented by the triangle ABE ; and the • fpace that body would run through uniformly in the fame time, with the velocity B E, will be repre- fented by the redangle ABEF : But it vi well known, that the triangle is cxaiSfly equal to half the reftangle : fo that the fpace run through, will be the half of that which the body would defcribe uniformly in the fame time, with the velocity ac- quired at the end of its fall. We may therefore conclude, ift. That the fpace which would be uniformly defcribed in half the time AB, with the ultimately acquired velocity BE, is equal to that which has been actually run through by the falling body during the whole time 2d. If the falling body defcribes any given fpace, -or length, in a given time; in twice that time, it will defcribe four times as much ; in thrice thtti time, nine times as much, &c. In a word, if the times are in proportion to each other, as the ferics I, 2, 3, 4, &c. the fpaces run through will be as the fquares of thefe numbers, that is, as i, 4, g, 16, &c. that is to fay, if a body defcribes, for example, 16 feet in the firft fecond minute of its fall, in the two firft taken together, it will de- fcribe four times 16 feet ; nine times 16 feet in the three firft feconds taken together ; and fo on. 3d. The fpaces defcribed by falling bodies, in a ferics of equal inftants or intervals of time, will be as the odd numbers I, 3, 5, 7, g, 5cc. that is, the body which has run thro' 16 feet in the firft fe- cond, will in the next fecond run thro' 48 feet, iu the third fecond 80 feet, (S:c. and fince the veloci- ties acquired in falling are as the times, the fpaces v/ill be likewife as the fquares of the velocities ; and the times and the velocities in the fub-dupli- cate ratio of the fpaces. The motion of an afcending bodv, or of one that is impelled upwards, is diminifhcd or retarded bv the fame principle of gravity afling in a con- trary direiStion, after the fame manner that a falling body is accelerated. See Retardation. A body projected upwards, afcends until it has loft all its moticn ; which it does in the fame inter- val of time that the fame body would have takeij up in acquiring by faHing, a velocity equal to that with which the falling body begait to be projected upv/ards. And confequently the heights to which bodies. projected upwards, with diftcrent velocities, arrive, are to each other as the fquare.of thofe ve- locities. Accelerated Motion of ProjeSlihs. See Pr.o- JtCTILES. AC C Accelerated Motif,n of ccmpreffd hulles. Sec CoMrREssioN and Elasticity. ACCELERATION, in phyfics, an increafe of velocity in the motion of a body ; it is oppofed to retardation, by which term is underftood a dimi- nution of velocity. See Motion, Velocity, and Retardation. Acceleration, in mechanics, implies the aug- mentation or increafe of motion in accelerated bo- dies. Sec Accelerated Motion. Acceleration of the Motion of Pendulums. See the article Pendulum. Acceleration, among the old aftronomcrs, implied the difterence between the revolution of the primum mobile and that of the fun, and which they computed to be about three minutes and fifty-fix feconds. ACCELER ATI VE ^lantity of centripetal Force, in phyfics, is the meafure of that force, proportional to the velocity which it generates in a giveji time. See Centripetal Force. ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the name of two mufcles of the penis, fo denominated froni their accelerating the difcharge of the urine and femen. ACCENDENTES, or AccENS0REs,in theRo- man church, are a lower clafs of minifters, whofe principal bufinefs confifts in lighting, fnufRng, and trimming the lamps, candles, and tapers. ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, were a fort of fupernumerary foldicrs, intended to fupply the places of thofe who might be killed or difabled. ACCENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies a cer- Uiin tone or manner of fpeaking, peculiar to foine country or province. Accent is ufed in grammar for the particular af- fection or impreffion of the voice on certain words and fyllables, by which they acquire their due force and meaning. Some who have written upon this fubjeft make a diftinvllion between accent and tone, referring die former to the variation of the time in fpeaking, and the latter to the dift'erent modula- tions or inflexions of the voice. But there feems . to be no occafion for fuch a difttiidtion ; we fhall therefore confwier them as one and the fame thins, in treating of this article. The ear is foon fatiated with a continuation of one and the lame found ; nor can the foul be afreft- ed at all by the fame motions and percuffions of the air. Nature therefore has wifely inftrufted the voice, in every language, not to move by fingle and uniform founds, nor to ftrike perpetually the fime notes, without any variation of the time. No : — by fuch a pronunciation as this, every found muft necelfanly be furd and unmeaning, painful to the voice, ajid ungrateful to the car. Repeat only the following line in the fame tenor, unchanged alike in time or accent, through every fyllable, and you will have no idea yourfelf, n9r be underftood by any one elfe ; Was A C C A C C Was I glad — that j now | Ins | fea | a I fhore Ihould I find. But if you unite every two of thefe founds into one movement, and let your voice alternately reft on one, and flip over another, and rife on one, and fall on the other, you will find a meaning, and fpeak and be heard with pleafure. This refting and varying of t^je voice is what we properly call the accent.; and this it is which gives to every lan- guage its peculiar ftrength, fweetnefs, and har- mony. It is very juftly remarked by Cicero, that '' mira efl; natura vocis, cujus quidem, e tribus *' omnino fonis inflexo acuto gravi, tanta fit, et *' tarn fuavis varietas perfedta in cantibus. Eft *' aiitcra in dicendo etiam quidam cantus." The vature of the voice is admirable, u^hich frcin three via- Aulatiom only, the circuwf.ex, the grave, and the acute, offords fo great and plenfi'ig a variety of fmging : nay there ii a kind of chant even in our common difcotirfe. Every language has its peculiar accent, which dif- lers according to the genius and temper of the people by whom it is fpoken : it is either grave or acute, ihong or weak, rare or frequent. This it IS which regulates the mufic of different countries, giving to each that particular charafter v/hich makes it ftriclly its own : for as thefe are the foands by which nature teaches us to exprefs the various emotions of the foul, no mufic can poflibly affect or captivate us that is not in fome meafure direfted by them. And this perhaps is the true reafon why an Englifh audience is juitly difpleafed with the great- eft part of the recitative that is performed on our theatres. It does not bear any refemblance to our common manner of exprefling ourfelves ; but is ge- nerally borrowed from the Italians, and feems in- deed to be nothing elfe than the accent of that lan- guage carried a little beyond its natural pitch. It has long been a matter of much contention amongft the learned, whether the Greeks origi- nally made u(c of accents, or they are of modern invention : We would here be fuppofed to mean thofe three characters that are placed over the Syllables of their words, to denote the accent. Thefe are, firft, The acute accent, when the voice is to be railed, which is figured thus (') ; fe- condly, The grave acent, v;hen the voice is to be deprefled, exprefled thus ('); and thirdly. The circurifex, compofcd of the aciue and grave,. which is marked thus C^ or ' ). It is certain that in fpeaking they muft have made ufe of accents, as otherwife their language would have been furd and unmeaning: but it is very improbable, that they exprefled their accents by particular marks ; as we find that all ancient infcriptious and manu- ibripts can boaft of very little precifion, being ■written in capital letters, equidiibr>t from each other, without the leaft diftiniflion either of words or phrafes. If they did not take the pains then to exprefs e\'cn tlieir words exaftly, fo that they could not be miftakcn ; how unlikely is it, that they fiiould mark, with fuch prodigious accuracy, the manner in which every word was to be fpoken ? Indeed fuch a labour as this appears to be unnecef- fary ; as there are very few words in a living lan- guage of fo doubtful a fignification, as to require that the pronunciation of them fhould be ex- prelsly marked down, left they be mifunderftood by the ignorant and unwary. Kow then ihall we ac- count for the introduction of thefe particular m.arks and characters .'' Shall we agree v/ith Il'aac Voffius, and other eminent grammarians, that they are of modern invention ? but at what precife time were they firft of all made ufe of? Some are of opinion, that they are not of much later date than about 900 years, and were introduced by the Arabs to prevent a barbarous pronuncia- tion, which was then breaking in upon them : but it appears to us as if they were of much longer continuance; being in all likelihood invented, when Athens was the feat of arts and fcience, whea fhe was in her meridian glory, the envy and ad- miiration of the world. At that happy period, when the youth of all nations, but particularly of Rome, reforted to her for inftrudtion ; when fhe fent forth her orators, her poets, her painters, and muficians to every corner of the globe ; thefe ac- cents might then firft of all be made ufe of to fa- cilitate the knowledge of her language to ftrangers, and afcertain a pure and perfeft pronunciation of it in foreign countries. But however this mio-ht be, certain it is, that they were never intended for thofe ridiculous purpofes, to which they have been wrefted by gothic and taftelefs grammarians. They were undoubtedly meant for nothing, but to mark, fome certain inflexions and modulations of the voice : what thefe were, it is impoftible at this length of time to determine ; but one may be bold enough to affirm, that tliey could never be intend- ed to alFect the time or quantity of any word, for that would deftroy all order and harmony, and throwthe whole language into confufion. Accent is alfo made ufe of, but improperly, to exprefs the charafters by which the quantity of any word is determined ; fuch is the long accent, . which ftiews that the voice is ta dwell upon that fyllable, and is marked thus ("). The jhort accent, which fhews that the time of pronunciation ought to be quick, and is marked thus ("). There are perfons, who rank the hyphen, the diaftole, and apoftrophe, amongft accents. Accent is alfo applied to any particular tone, , or brogue, that is contradtcd by ai^y perfon, from the cou;itry or province where he has been bred ; thus we fay the northern accent, the Welch ac- ceat, Sec. ActESTT A C C A C C Accent is ufed too in poetry to flguify the cadence or cxi'ura, but in this fenfe it is impro- perly applied. In mufic it means the modulation of the voice, to exprefs any particular paflion. Every bar or mealure is divided into accented and unaccented parts. The accented parts are the prin- cipal, being thofe intended chiefly to move and aft'edl : it is on thefe the fpirit of the mufic de- pends. The harmony muft always be full and free from difcords in the accented parts ; in the others it is not fo abfolutely neceffary, as they are tre- cuently pafl'ed over unobferved. Accentor, in mufic, implies one of the three fmgers in parts, or the perfon who fings the highefl: part in a trio. ACCEPTANCE, in the common law, fig- nities the tacitly agreeing to fome aift before done by another, and which might have been deteatcd before acceptance. Thus, if a bifhop before the flatute of I Eliza- beth, leafed part of his bifhopric for a term of years, at a certain rent, and dies before the term ;is expired ; the new bifliop, if he accepts and re- ceives the rent when due, the leafe is confirmed, which otherwife the new bifhop might have fet afide. In like manner, if baron and fenie, feizcd of land in right of the feme, join and make a le.ife or feoffment, at a certain referved rent, and the baron dies before the leafe be expired ; the feme, if flie receives or accepts the rent, fhe con- firms the leafe or feotFment, and this acceptation {hall bar her from bringing a cui in vita. Acceptance, among civilians, implies the con- fenting to receive fomething offered, which haxl we refuied could not ha\'e taken effe£t. Acceptance, among merchants, denotes the figning or fubfcribing a bill of exchange, by which the acceptor obliges himfelf to pay the contents of the bill, even though the dr.^we^ fliould fail be- fore it becomes due. See Bill of Exchange. Acceptation is ufed in grammar, to fignify . the particular fenfe in which a word is taken or received : thus we lay. Such a word in its firft and natural acceptation denotes, &c. It is owing to the different acceptation in which words are taken, that fo many difputes arife, ajid are carried on in the world. ACCEPTILATION, among civilians, figni- fies an acquittance given by a creditor to a debtor, without receiving any money. ACCEPTOR, or Accepter, among mer- chants, the perfon who accepts a bill of ex- change. ACCESS, in a general fenfe, denotes the ap- proach of one towards another. Access, in a more limited fenfe, implies a pcr- miflion or leave to come near any perfon, place, or thing. Access, among"phyficians, is ufed for the be- ginning of ii paroxifm, or fit of fome periodical difeafe. ACCESSARY, or Accesscry, in law, figni- fies a perlbn who was any ways aiding or allilling in a felonious aftion. Acceflaries are oftwokinds,beforc and after the facl. An acceflary before the fact, is a perfon, who,- though abfent at the time the fellony was commit- ted, yet had previoviffy procured, counfclled, or commanded the principal to commit it. An acceflary after the fact, is a perfon, who knowing the felony to he committed by another, receives, relieves, comforts, and affiils the felon. In cafes of high trcafon, there can be no ac- cefTaries, either before or after ; for all confcnters, knowing receivers, or comforters of traitors, are principals. In cales that are criminal but not c?.pital, there can be no acceffaries, for all the acceffaries before the faft, are in the fame degree as principals ; and acceffaries after, cannot be in lav/ under any pe- nalties as acceiTaries, unlefs the afts oi parliament that infliiEt thofe penalties, do- alfo exprefsly extend to receivers or comforters, which fome do. It follows therefore, the term acceflary refers only to felonies, whether by the common law, or by act of parliament. ACCESSIBLE, fomethin-g that may be ap- proached. Accessible Altitude. See Altitude. ACCESSION, among civilians, is ufed to im- ply the property acquired in fuch things as are con- nected with, or appendag-es of other things. Accession, among j>liyficians, fig nifies she fame with what is generally called paroxilm. See Paroxism. Accession, among politicians, is ufed to figni- fy a prince's agreeing to, and becoming a party in a treaty already concluded between otb.er poten- tates : and alfo to derx)te a prince's coming to the throne, on the death of the preceding king. Accession, in the Roman church, implies a peculiar method of cledting the pope ; and confiffs ii> one of the candidates having obtained two thirds of the votes ; for when this happens, the reft are enrolled by acceffion, ACCIDENT, in a general lenfe, implies fome-- thino- that is unufual, or that happens by chance. Accident, a term in grammar, which is made ufe of to fignify a property that is really attached to' a v/oixl, though it is not in the definition effential to it. Befides the sccidents that are peculiar to ncuns fubilantives, fuch as the cafe, gender, de- clenfion, and number, there are four others that are attendant on words. The firft is, when a worol rs ufed in a figurative fenfe, or differently from what it was originally meant to fignify. Thus (or inllance, the pjrimiiive meaning of the word bear, was that of a rough, fii.igg)', fovage animal : fror^ • i which A C G •which it is adopted to defcribe a perfon of a rude, aukward, and brutal behaviour. The I'econd is, v/hen words are derivative, as gedly, heavenly, earthly, &c. which come from the primitive words God, heaven, earth. The third accident is, when from two or more fimplewords, acomplexis formed : thus, for inftance, from the fimple words common and wealth, comes the compound term common-wealth ; which does not convey the meaning of the two v/ords of v/hich it ib made up, but acquires a fenfe of its own, and fignifies llatc or kingdom. The fourth is the accent or tone of voice with which words are pronounced, which frequently determines their meaning, nay, fometimes gives jthem a fenfe cjuLte foreign to their original figmn- cation ; as when they are ipoken with paflion, or ironically, &c. Accident, in logic, is when we join a con- fufed and undetermined idea of fubftance with a dillinct idea of fome mode ; becaufe that idea is capable of reprefenting all things to which that mode can belong ; as the idea of round compre- hends all round bodies in general. This idea, exprelled by the a.d]eAlverountl, forms the fifth univerfal, and is called accident, becaufe not eflcntial to the thing to which it is at- tributed. It fhould, however, be here obferved, that when we confider two fubftances together, we may confider one of them as the mode of the X)ther : thus a drefled man may be confidered as a whole, compofcd of the man and of his clothes : but the diefs, with refpeiSt to the man, is only a mode under which we confider him, though his habit may be fubilances. The Ariflotelians, after diftributing beings into ten.clafics, reduced them to two general ones, viz. fubftance and accident. From the latter they form.ed nine others ; quantity, relation, quality, aition, paffion, time, place, fituation, habitude. Accident, in the healing art, implies a revo- lution, occafioned by a difeafc, or fome new caufe, which adds ftrength to a diftemper already exilling. Thus the fudden iuppreffion of the fali- va in a peripneumony, is a dreadful accident. The moft celebrated practitioners in phyfic, re- commend a particular regard to the violence of accidents ; becaufe their continuance may augment the diflemper in fuch manner, as to render it in- curable. ACCIDENTAL, in a general fenfe, is an epithet given to fuch things as happen by accident. AcciDENT.'VL Point, in perfpective, is that point in the horizontal line, where all lines parallel among themfelves meet the perfpedtive plane. ACCIPITER, in ornithology, the name of a whole race of birds, the diftinguilhing charac- teriftic of which is, that they have a hooked, or crooked beak. A C C Tliis order comprehends three genera, viz. the parrot, the owl, and the hawk kind. ACCISiVlUS, in antiquity, denotes a feigned refufal of what one earneftly defires. The accifmus was a piece of political diflimula- tion, for which Auguftus and Tiberius are famed. AcciSMUS, in rhetoric, is accounted a fpecies of irony. See Irony. ACCLAMATION, Acclamatio, in Ro.T.an antiquity, a fhout raifed by the people, to teftify their applaufe, or approbation of their princes, generals, &c. Acclamation, in rhetoric, the fame with v/hat is othei-wife called epiphonema. See Epi- PHONEMA. A..CCLAMATION Medals, among antiquaries, thofe whereon the people are reprelt:nted as exprefling their joy by acclamation. ACCLIVITY, a term ufed to denote the af- cent of a hill, or rifing ground, as declivity is the defcent. Acclivity is Ibmetimes ufed by writers in for- tification, for the talus of the rampart. See Tatus. ACCOLADE, in antient cuftoms, the cere- mony of conferring knighthood, by the king's laying his arms about the young knight's neck, and embracing him. ACOLLE'E, in heraldry, a term ufed in diffe- rent fenfes ; fometimes it denotes the fame with accolade ; fometimes two things joined together ; at other times, animals with collars or crowns about their necks ; and finally, battons, or (words, placed faltierwife behind the ihield. ACCOMMODATION, am.ong divines, is the applying what is faid of one i>erfon or thing to another : thus the words of Ifaiah, directed to the Jews of his time, are by St. Paul accommodated to the Jews who were cotemporarics with that apofHe. Accommodation is alfo ufed for an amicable agreement between two or more contending par- ties. ACCOMPANYMENT, in mufic, is ufed for the inftruments which accompany a voice, to make the mufic more full. Among the moderns, the accompanyment fre- quently plavs a different part or melody from the fong it accompanies ; but authors are not agreed whether it was fo among the ancients. AccoMPANYMEKT, in heraldry, denotes any thing added to a ihield byway of ornament, as the belt, mantling, fupporters, &c. Accompanyment is alfo ufed for fevera! bear- in2;s about a principal one, as a faltier, bend, fefs, he. ACCOMPLICE, in law, a perfon who is privy to, or aiding in the perpetra. ii of lijnie crime. See Accessary. By A C C By the law of Scotland accomplices cannot be profeciitcd till the principal offenders arc firll con- viftcd. ACCOMPLISHMENT, in a general fenfc, denotes the perfecting, or entirely linifliing and compleating any matter or thing. AccoMi'LiSHMENT is morc particularly ufcd for the fulfilling of a prophecy ; in which fenfc \vc read of a literal acconiplimnient, a myftical ac- compliftiment, &c. See the article Prophecy. Accomplishment is llill more particularly ufcd for the acquirement of fome branch of Icarn- iiijr, uleful art, polite excrcifc, &c. ACCOMPT and Accomptant. See Ac- count and ACCOUNT.^NT. ACCORD, in mufic, the fame with what is more ufually called concord. See Concord. Accord, in law, a verbal agreement between two or more, where any one is injured by a trelpafs, or other offence committed, to make fatisfaftion to the injured party ; who, after the accord is performed, will be barred in law from bringing any new aftion againft the aggreilor for the fame trefpafs. It is fafeft, however, in pleading, to allege fatisfaftion, and not accord alone ; becaufe in this laft cafe, a precife execution in every part thereof muff be al- ledged ; whereas in the former, the defendant needs only fay, that he paid the plaintiff" fuch a fum in full fatisfaclion of the accord, which he received. ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general fenfe, is ufcd for all arithmetical computations, whether of time, weight, meafure, money, ^ic. Account is alfo ufcd collectively, for the books in which merchants, traders, and hankers enter all their bufmefs, traffic, and bargains with each other. The method of keeping thefe is called book- keeping. See Book-keeping. To open an AccovvT, is to enter in the ledger the nam*, the furname, and the place of abode of the perfon with whom you have dealings ; after Vv-hich the feveral articles are ported or placed, either on the credit or debit fide, according as the perfon is become your creditor or debtor. To place or poji a fum to Account, is to enter it in the ledger, cither on the debit or credit fide, ac- cording as the perfons ai'e become debtors or cre- ditors. To examine mi Account, is to read it exaftly, in order to prove the truth of the computation, or de- tedt errors, if there are any. To fettle an Account, is to fum up all the ar- ticles, both on the debit and credit fide, and find the balance between them ; which being placed on the leaft fide, makes the fum of both equal : this is otherwife called fhuttijig, balancing, clofing, or making up an account. Account in Co?npany,7in account kept by traders in partnerihip, wherein all articles relating to their joint trade aix entered. A C C Accoum is alfo ufcd in different fenfes, as for profit, hazard, &c. Thus we fiy a man has found his account in fomcthing, or it has turned to good account ; alfo, if a man commits errors, they IIkiiI be on his own account, 5i'c. Account, in law, is a writ or action which lies againff- a perfon, who, by reafon of his office or bufincfs, is obliged to render an account to- ano- ther, but rcfufcsto do it ; as a bailiff', for inftance, to hisioid. Account, in the rcniemhrancer's office in thfe exchequer, is the ftate of any branch of the king's revenue ; as the account of the mint, of the v/ard- robe, of the army, of the i^avy, &c. Chamber of ACCOUNTS, in the French polity, a. fovereign court, anfwering nearly to our exche- quer. See ExcHEQLfER. Account of Saks, among merchants, an ac^ count of the difpofal and net proceeds of certain merchandizes, after deducting charges and com- miflion. Auditing an Account, the examining and paf- finj it bv an officer appointed oa purpofe. ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in a general fenfe, denotes one whofe bufinefs it is to keep accounts-. AccouNTANT-Gc;/£'r&s,5 which. r.ci- fembles a fiiffbcating, fulphureous acid, arid by otlier marks dcmonftrates its acidity ; but it is very fel- dom icund alone unmixed, and in a fluid form. But whenever it happens, which is very often the cafe, that it meets with a folid body, capable of attradling that acid, it wiites with it, and becomes fixed and palpable : and when it is afterwards drawn out of that fixed body,, it then falls under the cognizance of out fenfes j and tlien, as far as- it is poflible for us to judge, appeals to be always one and the fame. For if it lays hold of a pinguious fofTile, it pro- duces various kinds of fulpliurs, which, when burnt, emit ftur.es, which being collected, refri- gerated, and mixed with the humid air, yield the fpirit or oil of fulphur per campanum. If you pour this acid liquor into a clean glafs veflel, andexpofe it for a confiderable time to a heat equal to that of boiling water, you will diftil from it a confiderable quantity of pure water, which, whilft the fulphur was burning, had infimiated itfelf out of the air into the acid fumes of the fulphur ; and there will then remain at the bottom a ponderous, thick, cauftic acid, which, in e\ery charafter, refemblea the puseflroilof vitriol, except in its having no par- ticles of a volatile metal, which are always found" more or lefs in oil of vitriol.. But if this acid happens to corrode ITme-ftones^ it then produces alums, which are different accord- ing to the diverCty of the matter which is mixed with them. All thefe, if they are at firft lightly calcined, and then with an intenfe fire urged into vapours, will, by a condenfation of thefe, yield a li- quor, which, when purified according to art, is. nearly the fame with the fonner procured from burning fulphur. Again, if native, green vitriol be reduced, by the- help of a moderate fire, to a dry white powder, and then expofed to a fire gradually increafed to the mofl: extreme degree, it will emit white cloudy va- pours, which, collefled into a liquid, and accu- rately depurated, is again the very fame as was be- fore obtained from fulphur and ajum.. Tlic blue vitriol likcwlfe treated in the fame manner, yields a liquid, which is the fame with. the former ;, nor can it be diftinguifhed from tliem^ if reiEfified according to art. Another foffile acid which we are acquainted with, is produced from nitre only, fo tliat there ne- ver was perhaps a fingle drop feen of it in tlie world but what was dilHlled from niti-e. For if nitre be intimately mixed with three times its quantity or bole, clay, brick-d'uft, or say thing of the like nature, and then urged with a very ftrong fire, a. grc:r.i part of it will be converted iuto red fumes,. v.hich, being condenfed into a liquid,.is called fpirit of nitre. Or if dry nitie he mixed witli an equal, quantity of oil of \itrioI, anddiftilled in the ftrong- flfi. faiid-heat, gradiull^ iucreafed, the famg fpirit- AC I of xilixe will be procured from the liime red fumes. Or, laftly, nitre rubbed with an equal quantity of the red calx of vitriol, or alum, and then urged with a very great degree of heat, will emit the fame fumes, and from them yield a fpirit of nitre, which is as good and as pure as the former ; but it is then called by the chemifts aqua fords, aqua lly- gia, and aqua docimaftica. Sea-falt, like nitre, when it is paie, difcovcrs no figns of acidity ; but if it be treated in the manner iuit mentioned with regard to nitre, it is changed iiito a volatile acid liquor. For if, to prevent its melting, it is mixed witli three times its weiglit of earth, and then urged by a fire gradually increafed to the greatelt degree, it will be diffipated into denfe white fumes, which float about, and are very volatile, but being collefted, form a liquor of a golden or green colour. If diftiUed with oil of vitriol, it yields the fame liquor, but more volatile : and if mixed with the faces of diftilled aium, or vitriol, and afterwards expofed to a very llrong fire, it will then give the fame fpirit of fea-falt : and thefe fpirits, prepared according to thefe three different ways, arc entirely one and the fatiie ; and they will alio be the fame, whether they be made from fal gemms;, fountain, or fea-falt. This fpirit has this peculiarity, that if it be drawii from the pureft fait, and you repeat the dillillation upon frefh pure fait, when it begins, through the violence of die fire, to grow exceeding hot, it emits white fumes, and dilloUes gold, whid\ no other acid in nature is able to penctmte. Acids, in die materia medica, denote fuch me- dicines as axe pcilelled of an acid quality ; fuch are vinegar, fpirit of vitrio', &c. Thefe being powerful antifepdcs, are efteemed good in all putrid and malignant difeafes, and by their cooling virtue are no lefs efficacious in inflam- matory and feverifh cafes. However, great care ought to be taken nor to adminiller them in fuch large quantises as to corrode the bowels, or coagu- late the blood. Acids are alfo commended in the plague, and as ftyptics. Thus, \inegar not only lerves to flop hemorrhages, but being fprinkled upon a red-hot tile or iron, corrects the putrefadbion of the air. See Plague, &c. ACIDITY, Additas, that quality in bodies which renders them acid. See Acid. AClDULiE, a diminutive of acids, four, cold mineral waters, which contain a brifk fpirit,, in contra-diftindion to TUrnia:^ or thofe which are hot. .The name owes its original to a fuppofition tb^t thefe waters were acid ; which later obfervations and experiments have proved to be without founda- tion. 'Ihe admirable viitiies and extraordinarj' <:f5- A CI cacy of mineral waters, both hot and cold, in pcfr fectly curing the mofl obftinate and inveterate dif- eafes, are fo well known and attellcd by long ufe, and an infinite number of experiments, as to put the matter beyond all maimer of difpute. But whence thefe waters derive their fanative power and virtue, is a thing not fo commonly known ; and indeed there are very few who know how to difco- vcr, by a chemical examination, the elements and ingredients in which their wonderful efficacy con- fiib. Now there is no better way to difcover the ele- ments of medicated waters, than by evaporating the liquid by a very gentle heat, either in a tin vcf- fel fet over hot embers in the open air, or, which is better, in a glafs cucurbit, carefully faving the li- quid which drops from the alembic, that the pro- portion of the folid to the liquid may be obtained,. If the evaporation be continued to a drynefs, and the mafs left in the cucurbit be accurately weighed,, we {hall have ths weight of the ingredients, which are of a more fixed nature, aud, though of a dif- ferent texture, midb be examined. Firft then, a folution of die refiduum mult be made in pure diftilled water, which is always requi- fite for the more accurate exam.ination of things, chemically prepared ; for many fpring waters con- tain a confiderable quantity of earth and fait. la. this folution the fait is feparated, and the earth re- mains, being lefs foluhle in v/ater. It is eafy to. know whedier this fait be alcaline, by mixing it with an acid, for then it forms a neutral fait ; or with fill ammoniac, in which cafe a ft:rong urinous' fmell will be produced ; or it may be knov.n by bidd- ing to it a iblution of mercury fublimate in water,, for it will then precipitate a yellow powder ; or if you mix it with fyrup of xiolets, it- will turn of a green colour. The cafe is a litde more difficult, when the falts left after evaporadon are not of one and the fame, but of different kinds ; as when, for ex- ample, alc:Jine falts are mixed with thofe which are neutral. In this cafe, pour common water cm. tiie dry mafs, and, after a gentle agitation, decant it ofF. By this means there will remain a faline powder not eafily didbluble, fof alcaline falts readily diflolve in water. There is another way of fjparadng r.eutral falts from alcaline, and that is- by cry lL.il izadon; in which, rightly performed, e\cry neutrJ fait being bell adapted to receive a folid figure, defcends hrft in the form of cryftals, and nodiing but a lixivious liquor remains, which fwims on top, and receives with more difficulty a Iblid form. The next thina; is to determine the genuine nature and properties of thofe neutral falts. In Older to this, it mu!l be obfcrved, dvat no other fi.lls are conveyed out of the bowels of the earth in the vehicle of wdtcr, than either common ialt, ox A CI A CI T)T a kind of neutral fait, of a vitriolic and fulphu- "reous nature, being compounded of the acid, of ■I'ulphur, or vitriol, aird a fort of alcaline earth; -tlie former, that is, tommon fait, may eafily be diftinguilhed, partly by tlie talte and cubical figure which it afliimes by ciyftallization, and •parti)' by emitting, when mixed with oil of vitriol, a copious white fume of a very penetrating linell. The other fait, which owes its origin to an uni- verfal, fubterraneous, fulphureous acid, is thus tried : mix two parts of this fait with one part of fak of tartar, and one part of powder of char- coal ; let -them incorporate and fufe together in a crucible, in a melting heat ; there will then be produced a red mafs-, of a fulphureous alcaline tafte, refembling the li(er of fulphur, and from which, by highly reftified fpirt of wine, a yellow tinfture ef fulphur may be extrafted, which will tinge filver of a footy colour. From a folution of this mafs in water, by an acid liquor, is precipitated the true lac fulphuris ; a manifefl: proof that the mineral fulphur, which is compounded of the univerlal acid and inflamma- tory principle, is revived in this procefs. This is not only true with regard to all falts procured by art, Init alfo by means of this procefs, a ful- phureous alcaline mafs may be produced out of all the faits, common alone excepted, which are found in mineral v/aters, both hot and cold ; with this difference, that if the neutral fak be com- pounded of an alcaline fait and the fpirit of ful- phur, the fufion by fire will be performed the more eafdy: but if this acid be united with a terrene, or gypfeo-calcareous fak, it becomes far more difHcuk. Befides alcaline and neutral falts, there is, in many cold mineral waters, a vitriolic fait, which is leldom of a fixed nature, but, for the mod part, fubtile and volatile. This fait is difcovered, in all waters, by the da;k purpk and blackifh colour which immediately follows from their being mixed with fine powder of galls, or the rhind of pomegra- nates. The volatility of the fpirit -of this vitriol, or rather of the acid of this mineral, which, in con- junction with martial or olearious particles, con- ftitutes the fubtile fait of vitriol, is manifefl: from thofe mineral waters, which produce a black tinc- ture on being mixed with powder of galls ; for if they are expofed for fome time to the open air in a warm place, they lofe entirely their vitriolic taife and faculty -of changing their colour. There remains yet fomething to be examined in mineral watt;rs, and that is their fubtiie fpiritu- ous particles, which feem to be of an a-reo-ethereal nature, and to be endued with an elaftic property. That they contain a great quantity of thefe is evi- -dent, both from the vapour which ftrikes the nof- trils, and alfo from their affcdting the head in .drijiking. To thefe particles muft alfo be afcribed 2 the vaft quantities of bubbles which are generated' in fome cold mineral waters, on their being poured out of one glafs into another. But thefe bubbles are generated in ftlll greater plerity, and with more force and celerity, when they are mixed with equal quantities of Mofelle, or Rhsnifli wine, or any other that contains a fubtile acid and a little fugar ; for then they look well to the eye, and become of a delicious talle, the vapours proceeding from them in fuch plenty, that they feem to fmoak. This efFervef- cence which generates thefe bubbles, proceeds from the confiicl of the alcaline fait, which prevails in mineral waters, with the fubtile acid of the wine. This fpirituous principle, which refides in thefe waters, is alio the caufe why xeffels or bottles clofe flropped, when heated, burfl: with great vio- lence ; a certain proof of the expanfive power of this fubtile matter. Adoreover, the exiftence of this fpirituous prin- ciple, which ennobles mineral waters, may be proved by the help of an air-pump ; for on exhauft:- nig the receiver, fo great a quantity of bubbles v/ill rife to the furface, that it will appear like a fluid heated to a degree of ebullition. Such things, therefore, as have undergone art examination, and do not produce the like cffedis and phoenomena, may be looked upon as much in- ferior in virtue : for it is chat fubtile mineral fpirit which endues the waters and their ingredients with mch extraordinary qualities, fo as not only to enter immediately, and penetrate the very inmofi: recef- fes and emunftories of the body, but alfo commi:- nicate greater flrength and elaflicity to the folids.' Hence the paffage of the waters through our bodies is facilitated, the vellels freed from all obilruftions, and the fecretion of ufelefs matter in an extraor- dinary manner promoted. But as there is no fpring water which does not afford fome quantity of an earthy fubfl:ance, which, after evaporation, is hardly foluble, fo we find the fame in mineral waters, whether hot or cold, even in thoie of the greateft reputation for medicinal virtues. Now the natme and properties of this grofs fubflance oua;ht alfo to be enquired into ; for as the waters in their courfe meet with various kinds of earth, fome particles thereof are eafily taken up by the inteftine motion -of thefe waters. Thefe particles are chiefly either chalky, okreous, clayey, or flonev. If the water be impregnated with particles of a chalky nature, it will produce an effervefcence with an acid ; or if the refiduum after evaporation be calcined, it will acquire the higheil degree of acrimony. If the waters, efpe- cially thofe which are hot, contain a large quan- tity of this chalky earth, it will feparate in cold weather, and ffick to the veffels which contain it, and in a little time cover them with a ftoney cruft. If ACL li the fediment which remains after cry{l:illizatIon and evaporation, be of a ycllowiih colour, and in calcining changes into a red, it is a fign that the water is impregnated with martial particles, which never fail of producing falutary efFecfts on the hu- man body, by their gentle ailringent and corrobo- rating virtue. But this okerous fubftance, though it derive its colour from iron, cannot be diflblved by an acid, becaufe it is of the nature of clay. — Many waters abound with this bolar and martial earth, without other faline and fpirituous ingredient; whence they «re of no fmall fervice in chroiiic diftempers, both drank and ufed as baths. Befides the hot and cold mineral waters in which alcalies predominate, there are other medicinal fprings impregnated neither with acid nor alcali, nor capable of tinging fyrup of violets, but con- taining only a fait of a neutral or middle nature, which may beftbe procured by evaporation. ACIDULATED, among phylkians, an appel- lation given to fuch medicines as have been mixed with fome acid. See Acid. ACINARIA, in botany, a name fometimes given to the marfh-whortle-berries. SeeWnoRTLE. ACINI, among botanilts. See Acinus. ACINIFORMIS Tunica, in anatomy, the fame with uvea. See Uvea. ACINUS, in botany, a name given to grapes 6r berries growing in clufters, in oppofition to baccs, or fuch berries as grow fmgle. ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is the owning or confeffing fome thing ; but more particularly denotes the reward of fome fervice, or the grateful requital of a favour received. AcKNOWLEDGMENT-A/owy, a certain fum paid by tenants in feveral parts of England, on the death of their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new lords. ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of miflive weapon, with a thong fi.xed to it, whereby it might be drawn back again. Moft authors defcribe the aclides as a fort of dart or javelin ; but Scaliger makes it roundifli or glo- bular, with a wooden ftem to poife it by. ACME, in a general fenfe, denotes the height, point, or top of any thing. Among phyficians it is ufed for the higheft pitch to which a diflemper rifes. Acme alfo denotes the prime orbeftpartof athing. ACNUA, amongil the ancient Romans, figni- fied a certain determinate meafure of land, equal to the Englifh rood, or fourth part of an acre. See Rood. ACOEMETjE, or AcoEMETi, a fet of monks, who chaunted the divine fervice night and day in their monafteries, without interniiffion ; from which they were ftiled a.y.oiwfjoi, or men who lived without fleep. We muft not fuppofe however that AGO they did in facl watch abcays, and prav ivlthout ceajing : human nature could not fupport fuch in- cellant fatigue. They divided their body into three different choirs, who regularly fucceeded and re- lieved each other, io that there was no interruption ill the facred fervice. It is generally believed that Alexander, a monk of Syria, was the founder of this feel, about the beginning of the fifth century. He tirft preached at Conftantinople ; but being obliged to quit that city, he built a monafterv near the mouth of the Pontus Euxinus, where he died in the year 430. He was fucceeded by John, and Marcellus, v/ho having built the famous monaflery near Conftanti- nople, has been miftaken for the inflitutor of this order. Some years afterwards one Studius, a noble- man of confular dignity at Rome, eredted a mo- naftery at Conftantinople, which contained a thou- fand perfons, and was highly celebrated for its pictv and learning. He dedicated it to St. John, and called it from his own name Studium ; whence the monks who lived in it gained the appellation of Studitas. This fe6t was long ftmous for their exemplary piety ; but in time they degenerated, and were ac length condemned by the cm[)eror Juftinian, and pope John II. for favouring the herefy of the Neftorians. There are a kind of Acoemetae ftill fubfifting in the Romifh church ; the religious of the holy fa- crament coming properly enough under that appel- lation, as they have adopted, from the Latin church, what was called the laus pereiinis, pray- ing before the holy facrame'it, fome or other of them, day and night. ACOLUTHI, in antiquity, was a name given of old to the Stoics, who were remarkably tena- cious of their principles, and were not to be Ihaken from their refolutions. The word is of Greek extraflion, compounded of «. nriv. and mhiv^ofy way ; as never deviating from the original courfe. In this fenfe it has been applied to thofe perfons who were firm and un- moveable in their opinions, be they what theywould. AcoLUTHi, in ecclefiaftica! hiftory, is the name of the firft four minor orders below the fub- deacon. The word is Greek, being derived from ixoAsf- Ssf, that is, a fervant. It was a very ancient or- der in the Latin church, being mentioned by Cy- prian, but was unknown to the Greek. Their function in the church was to light the candles, and to bottle the wine that was for confecration, as is remarked in the fourth council of Carthage, and in the ancient rituals ; whence we learn, that when they were ordained, the archdeacon prefented them with a candle and a bottle, to fignify to them the office they were to fupply in the church. We find in the Martyrology, that they held fometimes the L covsrtd AGO covered chalice at mafs, whifh is now done by the fubdeacon. They affifted too the bifhops and oiS- ciating piiefts, in helping them to the faccrdotal habits. There were in the Roman church three forts of acoluthi : the palatini, who waited upon the pope ; the flationarii, who affitled in the churches ; and theregionarii, who helped the deacons in the func- tions which they exercii'ed in different parts of the city. ACONITE, in botany, a genus of plants com- monly known by the name of wolfsbane and mcnkfliood. The petals of the flower confifl: of five unequal irregular leaver, formed fo as to bear a great refem- blance of a helmet, or hood, v/hich in feme fpecies i^ very confpicuous ; and from this particular the name of monkfhood is taken. The common forts are too well known to require any farther defcription. All the fpecies of aconite are extremely acrimo- nious, and thence too often occafion fatal convul- fions, or inflammations, that terminate in a morti- fication. ACONTIAS, in zoology, a fpecies of ferpent, otherv.'ife called jaculum, or the dart-fnake, from its vibrating its body in the manner of a dart. It is about nine or ten inches long, and of the thick- nefs of a man's little finger. On the back it is of a milky grey colour, variegated v/ith fmall black fpots, and furrounded with a white circle, like fo many eyes. The neck ij wholly black : and from it there run two milk-white llreaks along the back to the tail. The belly is perfeflly white.. It is found in Egypt, and in the iflands of the Mediterranean. AcoNTiAS is alfo ufed by naturalifts for a kind of comet, or rather meteor, with a roundifh or oblong head, and a long flender tail refembling a javelin, from whence it takes its name. ACORES, in geography. See Azores. ACORN, the fruit of the oak. Sec the article Oak. Acorns are faid to have been the primitive food q{ mankind. They are aftringent, and therefore cfteemedgood in fluxes. However, they are prin- cipally uied at prefent, for fattening of hogs, poul- Uy, &c. ACORUS, in the materia medica, a name given to two very different roots, the galangal, and the calamus aromaticus. Se^ Gaiangal, and Ca- lamus Aromaticus. AcoRus adiilterinus^ 01 Ba/lard AcoKV i, a name ^iven by fome bot:inilts to tl\e roQt of the yellpw water-iris, or flag-flowei;. ACOUSTICS, in mechanics, is the arc of af- fifting the Icnfe of hearing, by inftruments con- trived for that purpof.', as hearing-trumpets, whif- pering-galleries, &c. for the conftrufticn of which, (??. thpfe arti(;les. A C R Ic is poflible, by the- help of an extended wire,. to hear the beat of a watch more than a furlong, and that almoft inftantaneous ; and Dr. Hook, in the preface to his Micrography, fays, that he knew of a way by which it is eafy to hear a perfon Ipeak through a wall three feet thick. The word is Greek, aKxriy.cti and derived from dK>scj, to hear. Acoustic Du,^, in anatomy, a name fome- times given to the external paffage of the ear, ge- nerally called meatus auditorius. See Meatus AUDITORIUS. Acoustic Injlrumenls, are inftruments contrived to aflift the hearing. ACQUEST, or Acquist, in law, implies goods acquired by f urchafe or donation, in contra- diftin£tion to thofe defcended by inheritance. ACQUISITION, in a general fenfe, implies the obtaining or procuring fomething. But the lawyers ufe it to fignify the right or title to the enjoyment and property of an eftate procured by purchafe. ACQUITAL, in law, fignifies the freeing a perfon from the fufpicion of guilt ; or the declaring a perfon innocent of the crime he is accufcd of. ACQUITTANCE, a difcharge in writing for a fum ot money, vvitnefling that the perfon ta whom it is given hath paid the fame. ACRE, in furveying, is an Englifh fuperficial. meafure of land, containing ten fquare chains, of twenty-two yards each. The French acre is equal to one and a quarter of the Englifh, while that of Strafburg is only about half of the latter. ACRID, an appellation given to fuch things as. are of a fharp or pungent tafte. Dr. Grew iays, an acrid tafte is compounded of pungency and. heat. ACRIMONY, that quality in things which, renders them acrid. See Acrid. ACROATIC was a denomination given by Ariftotle to fuch leflures as were calculated only> for his particular friends and difciples, being chiefly; employed in demonftrating fome fpeculative or. ab- ftrufe part of philofophy. The word is Greek, and derived from ctxfoacjuet/,, to hear. ACROMATIC, or Achromatic, in optics, is a term applied to a particular Ipecies ot telelcope, the moft pecfeft of the refrafting kind, and for the invention of which the late Mr. John DoUond ob- tained his majefty's letters patent for the fole dif-. pofal thereof. But though it be certain that Mr.. Dollond was the firft perfon who made any thing of this kind public, yet it is not quite fo clear that he was the firft who thought of it, or even put it in praiftice ; as appears by a paper, written by. the late Mr. James Ayfcough, and given as a di- reflion to I\'Ii-. Eaftland, one of his workmen, and- ■which A CR which is to the following eftecl : " A lens of " crown-glafs, flat on one fide, and convex on the " other, of two feet focus ; and one of flint-glafs, •' flat on one fide, and concave on the other, fuf- *' ficient, when combined with the former, to " make the focal diftance three feet." This paper is dated 1752, v/hich is a confiderable time before Mr. Dollond made any thing of this kind public. The refult is not known ; but the reader may com- pare it with the following theory, which is agree- able to the patentee's conftruftion. Every ray of light, although it confifts of an in- finite number of component rays of different co- lours, is white during the time it is pafPing through the medium in which it is firft generated ; but in paffingobliquely from that into a deafer, it will change its direction toward the perpendicular, and at the fame time be fcparated into its component rays,. which from that tim.e proceed on diverging from each other, like rays from a center, each of which will then appear of its own particular colour j as is evident in the phenomenon of the rainbow. This bending of the ray, called its refra(5i:ion, is caufed bv a particular property in light called its refrangi- bility ; and the divergency is cauled by the differ- ent degrees of refrangibility in its component rays ; and the more the original or compound ray is re- fraiSted, the greater will be the divergency of its component rays, when it is refrafted by one given medium. See Divergekcy, Light, Ray, Re- fraction, and Refrangibility. Now from this property of light it has been con- cluded, that any two different mediums that can be made to produce equal degrees of refraftion, will alfo produce equal divergencies; whence it fhoidd likewife foUov/, that equal and contrary refraftions would not only deftroy each other, but that the di vergency in one would alfo be exactly counter- balanced by the other, and that to produce refrac- tion without divergency is impoffible. But thofe conclufions are not true ; for it appears from num- berlefs experiments, that a ray of light, after equal and contrary refraftions, may be ftill fubjciEl to di- vergency, if refraiSed through different mediums ; and alfo that different refraiftions may be produced, and yet the divergency in one exaftly correfted in the other : as for exampk", if a prifm (fee Prism) ef white flint-glafs, ABC, (fee Plate LII. /^. i.) be taken, whofe angle C is about 25% and another CBD, of crown-glafs, whofe angle B is 29°, be joined to it, fo as to refrafl: in contrary directions. It will be found that a beam of light, SP, incident on the former at P, will, after it has been rcfra(5ted through both prilms, pal's on in a direftion nearly the fame as it did before it was refraifled by the firff ; but at the fame time, the divergency of its component rays will be very confiderable, and any ©bje£l on which it may fall will appear ftrongly coloured. Again, if the prifm of white flint-glaf g A CR be retained, and one of crown-glafs, whofe angle of refradtion is to that of the white Hint one nearly as 3 : 2, be added to it, it will then be found, that the divergency caufed by the refradtion in one, will be exactly counteracted by that of the other, but that there will ftill remain a confiderable angle of refraction. Now to determine the lens of a given focus, which fhall produce the fame effect with the given prifm ABC or BCB, (fee Fig. 1.) with CD = the given focal diftance as a radius defcribc the femi-circle ABG,. (Plate III. y?^. 2.) and make the Z. ACB = |: the refradting angle in the given prifm, and draw BC ; alfo draw Bl perpendicular to DC, and B A and BE tangents to the equal and fimilar arcs BD and BF. Now, fince the angle ABC is aright angle .-. the triangles ABI, EBI, and ACB, are fimilar,. and the jL ABI, EBI, and ACB equal, whence the prifm ABE is funi- lar to the given prifm, and BI, the femi-aperture of the lens required. For if we fuppofe a ray of light S B parallel to the axis of the lens AC, and incident on it at the extreme part B, it is evident that it will be refradt- ed to the fame point in the axis, viz. C, the center of the fphere, both in the prifm and lens, fince they there perfectly coincide ; and it is well known, from experiment, that parallel rays are rcfradted. to the fame point in the axis, let them fall on what part of the fpherical furface they will. See Aper- ture, Focus, Lens, and Prism. Cor. Hence it is verj' e\'idcnt (notwithftanding vi'hat may have been faid to the contrary) that when DCisconftant, thefcmi-aperturc BI and arcBD (or BF) are fo too ; and confequently that the aberra- tion arifing from the fpherical furface of the lens cannot t)e remedied without departing from the- thecry. ACROMION, in anatomy, fignifies the upper or fuperior part of the fcapula, or flioulder-blade. See Scapula. The v/ord is formed from the Greek cf.y.foi-, the higheft, and wuif, the fhoulder. ACRONYCAL, in aftronomv, is applied to the riling of a ftar above the horizon, or fome other point of the heavens, at fun-fetting ; or its finking below the horizon when the fun rifes ; in which cafe, the ftar, &c. is faid to rife or let acronycal. The v/ord is Greek, tt-AMwyJ^;- £tnd compound- ed of ctxpoi', extremity, and ck^, the nights The acronycal is one of the three poetical rifing<: and fettirigs of the (tars ; the other two are called cof- 7n!cal and heUacr.l. Sec Cosmical and Heliacai:- ACROSPIRE, the popular term for what the botaniils call the germ, plume, or plumule. See- Plumule. ACROSPIRED, in the art of making malt, implies that the grains of barley are (hot or fprout- ed out at both ends. See Malt-m \kivg. ACROS- ACT ACT . ACROSTIC, the name of a kind of poetical coinpoikion, difpofed in fuch a manner, riiat the initial letttrs of the verfes make up fome perfon's name, title, motto, &c. The word is compounded of the Greek ctjcpof, extreme, and 5-/5^®^, verfe. ACROTERlA, in architeclure, are little pe- deftals, ufually without bales, anciently placed at tlic middle and two extremes of the pediments ; and ferving alfo to fupport llatues, &c. The word Ls alfu fometimes ufed to lignify the figures which are placed as ornaments on the tops of churches ; and thofe Iharp pinnacles that ilund in ranges about Hat buildings, with rails and balultcrs. ACT, yiSius^ in a general fenfe, implies the exertion or effedual application of fome power or faculty. It is diftinguiflied from power, as the efFeiSt from the caufe, or as the thing produced from that which produces it. Act, among logician?, denotes an operation of the human mind, as judging, willing, abftradt- ijig, &c. Act, among lawyers, is ufed to fignify an in- ftrument or deed in writing, ferving to prove the truth of fome bargain or tranfaclion. Act is alfo ufed for the final refolution or decree of an aflembly, fenate, council, &c. Act of Faith, Auto da fc, in the church of Rome, is the utmoll exertion of prieftly tyranny, being no other than a gaol-delivery, for burning, &c. the unhappy prifoners who have unfortunately fallen into the unrelenting and defpotic power of the judges of the inquifition. Act, in dramatic poetry, is a certain part or di- vifion of a play, contrived to give a refpite to the adfors and the audience. Every jufl: dramatic ac- tion fhould confifl, according to Horace, of five diftinft parts, dependent on each other. Thefc different portions of the poem are called adis, be- caufe they may be confidered as fo many fubordi- rate aiStions, which tend to the ultimate point in view. When they all run in one direft line, and fucceed each other naturally, till they arrive at the profiofcd end, then the a£lion is fimple, and with- out epifode. It is otherwile, when there are col- lateral branches which are not united to the princi- pal adfion till towards the end of the play ; for in that cafe the plot is complex, and thefe are epifodes. If they never join the common ftream at all, but are entirely fuperfluous, they are faulty, and have a bad efFedf ; as they call oft" the attention of the fpedtators from the main dcfign, and divide and weaken the diftrcfs. Such, for inllancc, are the love-fccncs in the Tragedy of Cato, which may be lopt off entirely, without doing the leaft da- mage to the main adtion of the poem. The five acts have each their particular rules, which arc neceflarv to be obferved by every one who intends to form himfelf after the model of the ancients. The firft, which is called the Protofis, becaufe it contains the propofition of the fubjedt, ought to explain the action of the drama in a plain and clear manner ; it fhould bring us acquainted with all the perfonages, and their characters ; and fhould lay a foundation for the denouemejit and unravel- ling the plot. I fhall initance from the Tragedy of Oedipus by Sophocles, after jult premifing that the Greeks did not divide their plays by adts, but by chorufes, or interludes, which anfwer exadtly the fame purpofe. At the opening of the play, the people requelt the king to find fome remedy for the evils they groan under. He tells them, he has fent Creon to confult the gods, and is every inftant in expedtation of his return. Creon enters with an apparent air of fatisfadtion, and informs them of the oracle's commands to punifli the murderers of Laius : the king makes a refolution to leave no- thing undone towards the difcovery of thofe mur- derers. We have here a clear expofition of the fubjedt : firft, the diftrefs of Thebes ; fecondly, the caufe of her misfortunes ; and thirdly, the remedy is pro- pofed, by which the evil is to be vanquifhed. The fecond and third adt fhould be taken up in heightening the plot, and keeping the expedtation and inquietude of the audience continually in- creafing. This was called by the Greeks the Epi- taf.i. Thus in the Oedipus, adt the fecond and third, the king pronounces before-hand the edidt againll the murderer of Laius, and then exhorts his people to j-ield him all affiflance in detedting the criminal, and bringing him to punifhment. Juft at that time arrives Tirefias the prophet, whom the king quellions about the murderer, but he refufes to anfwer. This throws Oedipus into a rage : at laft Tirefias difcovers to the king every thing that concerns him : Oedipus believes that it is a plot of Creon's, who was jealous of feeing a flranger, as he was, upon the throne, and wanted to fucceed him : however, what Tirefias faid created the king no fmall uneafinefs. Creon endeavours to juftify himfelf, but the king is enraged : Jocafta comes in, and in order to make Oedipus quite eafy, tells him not to credit Tirefias, for the oracle had fore- told that Laius fhould be killed by his own fon, and that fon had died foon after he was born : fhe ac- quaints him moreover, that Laius had been mur- dered bv thieves, in a place where three great roads met. Thefe lalt words, dropt without defign, in- creafe his imeafinefs ; he afks frefh queftions ; he enquires into circumltances, which ferve to prove to him too clearly, that he is himfelf the author of the murder committed in that place. One thing remains to be folved, which is, the report that fe- veral were concerned in the murder of Laius, whereas Oedipus was alone when he did it : an of- ficer ACT ffcer of the hoafholJ, who was well acquaintod with the circumftances, is fent for : in the mean while Oedipus relates to Jocafla, that while he was at the court of Polybus, king of Corinth, he had one day been ren.-oached with not being the fon of that prince ; an J not hiving been able to get this point cleared up by the king, he confultcd the oracle at Delphos, which, inftead of giving him a fatisfaiftory anfwer, had told him that he ftould kill his father, and marry his mother. In order to prevent this, he had relblved never to fee Corinth more, and in his way to Thebes, had met with fuch a man as Laius was defcribed, and killed him and fome of his retinue ; that when this happened, he was alone by himfelf ; therefore, if Laius had been killed by a number of people in company, he certainl)' could not be the perfon that murdered him. Here we fee all is in agitation and perplexi- ty ; the dreadful oracle begins in fonie meafure to be accompliflied againft him, and we wait in trembling anxiety for the event. The next rule is the CaUiftaft;, which carries on the intri-iue, and heightens the diftrefs that is raifed in the Ephajis, till at lall: the plot, being ripe for unravelling, leads to the Catajhopbe. Thus the fourth zSt begins with Jocafta in great diforder preparing for a facrihce. A mefienger arrives from Corinth, with an account of the death of Po- lybus. Jocafta is partly appeafed, as fhe thinks the oracle has now proved falfe, at leaft in one parti- cular : fhe fends to acquaint Oedipus with the pleafing news. He no longer dreads being the murderer of his father, but is ftill in apprehenfion of becoming the inceftuous partner of his mother's bed. The Corinthian, in hopes of filencing his fears, informs him that the queen of Corinth was not his mother, nor Polybus his Either ; and then relates to him the manner of his having received him an infant from the hands of a fhepherd on mount Citheron.' Oedipus perceives that thisfhep- h-erd is the very fame perfon he fent for. Jocafta, who is acquainted with all the remaining parts of the (lory, is for preventing the king from enquiring further : he is determined to know the whole : the queen, unable to fiand the fatal difcoxery, departs. The officer who was fent for arrives, and a moft -dreadful fcenc enfues : every thing is difcovered, by confronting the two fliepherds. Oedipus finds himfelf guilty of all the horrid crimes which the oracle foretold ; and nothing remains but to fee the punifliment infliftcd on him. This leads direftly to The laft rule of the drama, called by the Greeks the Catajhophe, which unravels the intrigue, and brings the play to a conclufion. Accordingly the hfth a£l opens with an officer, who relates what lias pafled in the palace : the queen has killed her- felf, and Oedipus, not having arms to take away his life, has dug out his eyes with one of the clafps A CT of Jocafla's robe, and is filling the palace with the molt bitter lamentations : Creon enters and up- braids him, but at length he is permitted to take a laft farewel of his children : after this he is con- duced back to the palace, and fo the piece ends. From this analylis of the Tragedy of Oedipus, we may collect the ufc of the chorufcs or inter- ludes, which, as was hinted above, anfwer the fame purpofcs with the more modern divifions of the drama, called ails. Thefe were invented by the Romans, to give a breathing-time to the ac- tors and fpeftators : but we muft not fuppofe that during the intervals between the afts, when the theatre remains empty, the plot ftands itill : ffo -, though there is no aftion vifible to the fpedtators, it is fuppofed all the while there is one paffing out of light ; fo that it is not merely for the fake of the refpite that thefe afts are obferved, but te give affairs a greater degree of probability, and render the plot more interefting. For the fpec^ator who fees the aiStion prepared that is to pafs in the interval, does not remain idle, but fup- plies in his imagination the part of the abfent acT:ors : by which means he is agreeably furprifed to fee a new aft come upon the Itage, which is the refult or natural confequence, if I may fo fay, of what has been paffing in his own mind. It fliould be the bufinefs of an author, to con- trive that the moll; dry and difficult parts of the drama fhould be tranfa(R;ed between tlie afts : jull as the ancients endeavoured to throw the nar- rative and unentertaining parts of their plays into the chorufes. Horace has determined the number of acts to be five : but fuch a rule feems to be drawn rather from cuftom, than the reafon of the thing. A.'i author fhould be governed entirely by the fubjedt that he chufes : and if this is of fuch a kind, that it cunnot be drawn out into five acts without emharraffing it with epifodes, or loading it with incidents foreign to the bufinefs ; he had better confine it within three or four ads, than fuiter a flavifli obfervance of rule to get the better of nature and propriety. The a6ts are divided into fcenes, and Voffius remarks that among the ancients, an aft never contained more than (even fcenes : it is eafy to perceive that they fhould not be too numerous, as a proportion fhould be kept up between the length of each aft ; but there can be no rule as to the exaft number, which feems to be ar- bitrary. ACTS of the JpDjIles, one of the facred books of the New Teltament, which was placed among the canonical books at the council of Laodicea, and has been acknowledged fuch by every churcti without controverfy. It contains the hiftory of the infant church during the fpace of 29 or 30 years ; that is, from the afcenfion of our blefled M Saviour ACT ACT Saviour Jefus Chrift, till about the 63d year of the Chriftian rera. It is generally fuppofcd to have been written by St. Luke, from its being addrefl'ed to Theophilus, arid making mention of his Gofpel, in which he had fet forth the aftions and doctrines of Chrif)- till his afcenfion. He here refumes the thread of his hiftory, and gives us an account of the miniftiy of the apoftles and growth of the church. This book contains the accomplifhment of many pro- mifes made by our Saviour; his refurretftion imd afcenfion ; the defcent of the Holy Ghoft on the apoftles, and the wonderous change it wrought on their hearts and manners ; their preaching, and the miracles they performed in confirmation of it % their zeal and prudence in the government of the church at Jerufalem ; the concord, difinterefted- nefs, and charity of the firit Chriflians ; in fhort, every thing that happened in the church till the apolUes feparated themfelves, to few the feed of falvation throughout the whole world. From that period St. Luke dropt the hiftory of the other ajjoflles, from whom he was removed, and attach- ed himlelf to that of St. Paul, who had chofen him for the companion of his labours and travels. Him he followed, the chofen \-e(f;l of the church, in all his miffions, and even to Rome itfelf : for it appears, that the A£ts of the Apoftles were pab- lifhed the fccond year of St. Paul's refidence in that city, that is, in the fixty-third year of Chrift, and the 9th or loth of the emperor Nero. The ftile of this work, which was compofed in Greek, is more pure than that of th.£ other canonical books ; and- one may remark that St. Luke v/as better ikillcd in the Greek than the Hebrew language, as his quotations of the Old Teftament are always taken from the Septuagint verfion. Several different works have been publifhed un- der the title of the Acts of the Apoftles, of which the firft was the adts of Paul and Thecla, written by a difciple of St. John, for which he was de- graded. Afterwards the Manicheans forged a work, called the Kth of St. Peter and St. Paul, which were fa!! cf their errors. They make tlie apoftles iay, that the fouls of men and beafts are the fame, and work miracles to make dogs and fheep tal.k : other writings of tl^is kind are, the Afts of St. Andrew and St. John, the Voyage of St. Peter, the Tranf.ation of St. Paul, with leveral more too tedious to mention. ACTIAN Gcincs, ludi J^iaci., in antiquity, were games infi-itutcd by Auguftus, in commemoration of the victory he gained over Marc Antony at Allium. Some will have it that tliey were celebrated •every third year ; but Strabo, whofe authority Is now generally followed, tells us, that they return- ed every fifth year only, and that they were facred tp Agoilo, tlience called A(^liuSv. AcTi.^N Tean^ a feries of years commencing from the battle of Aftium. See Epocha. ACTION, adio,, in a general fenfe, implies riearlv the fame with 'dO:. See Act. ACTION, as applied to epic poetry, is that which mal'.es the fubjeft or the matter of the poem : in the dramatic, we call it more properly plot or fable. See Drama, Plot, P'able. The five following qualifications feein efien- ti.1l to the epic aiStion : it fhould be fingUy gnat, rnaiveUous-, probable, and aJfeSJing, or in- terefting. Firft, It fliould be flngle : for if two aiSlions were to be carried on at once, both of them equally interefting, the heart would be divided, and all its emotions would be vague and uncertain ; if they were not equally interefting, that which was the leaft fo, would be tirefome and palling ; from which it follows, that unity is eftential to the epic aftion. Hence v/e may coilecl that the life of a hero, which comprizes a vaft variety of ac- tions, can never be the proper matter of a regular poem : and that for feveral reafons ; firft, becaufe it is too diffufed to be taken in at one view ; fe- condly, becaufe all the parts of it are not equally- heroic ; and thirdly, becaufe they do not necef- farily depend on each other, nor tend to one com- mon end. But it may be afked, what it is that makes the a£tion of a poem flngle. Is it the unity of the hero .? Certainly not ; for the Ihad comprizes a whole people. Is it the fuperior excellence of any one particular hero ? That cannot be ; for if A- chilles excelled in valour, Ulyffes excelled no lefs in prudence, Neftor in wifdom, and Agamemnon in authority. How fliall we then define it .'' The aftion is iingle when it is independent of every other aiStion, and when all its parts are connedted in a natural manner with each other. This unity of action is known from the very propofition of the fubjeft itfelf: thus Virgil fays, I fing the hero who, after a thoufaad toils, fettled at length in Italy. Here it is plain that the aftion of j^ilneas is the conqueft of Italy, and the eftabliftiment of his people in a foreign land. If he had faid, I fmg the defpair of Dido ; though in that cafe his poem would have contained but one fmgle book, it would ftill have been a compleat work : or if he had faid, I fing the defcent of j^neas into hell, the funeral obfequies of old Anchifcs, or the fatal adventure of Nifus and Euryalus ; in each of thefe cafes the aftion of his poem would h.ive been entire, though confifting at moft of but five or fix hundred verfes. But faying as he did, I fing the hero who fettled in Italy ; every obftracle this, hero had to furmount, before he was ellablifhed in his kingdom, became part of the poet's fubjeiSt ; and every adventure he met with, that had any conacdion with the main adion, might be intro- duced. ACT duced as epifodcs, to refrefli the mind of the reader by an agreeable variety. See Episode. The next point to be confidered is the greatnefs of the epic adtion : a common and ordinaiy ad- venture does not furnifla from its own llock either matter fufficicntly interefting, or fuch a fund of ufeful inftrudtion, as ve ought to meet with in an epic poem. Nothing lefs than a hero, who is the tavourite of the gods ; or the redudlion of a famous city ; or the conquelt of a kingdom ; or the com- mon fate of mankind, is worth the confideralioii ©f the epic rnufe. The life of an ordinary perfon, or a trivir.l Itory, or a love intrigue, may furnifh matter for a hiflory, a novel, or aromance ; but an epic poem, which ftrains every nerve of the human genius, fliould attempt nothing but what is big with grandeur and magnificence. But it is not ejiougn that the adfion of nn epic poem be great, it fhould alfo be tnarvelkiis. Petro- nius fays. Per ombagti Deorumque m'mijleria, fa- hulofumque jententiarum toimentum praciphandus cjl iiber fpiritu!. " Through all the intricate mazes " of fate, conducted by the miniftering gods, " the wild unfettered genius of the poet muft " dart, and bring his machinery from the vaft un- " bounded fpace of fidtiofi." it is the bufinefs of an epic poem to raife our admiration and allonifh- ment. If v/e look into Homer, the great father of this fpecies of poetry, we are all at once wrapt in amazement : Jupiter thunders on mount Ida; we fee gods and goddefles mingle in a croud of mortal combatants, covered with duft and heavenly ichor. How warmly arc they interefted ! what fur- prizing revolutions do they occafion, attacking and overcoming each other ! Virgil trod in the ftcps ot this mighty mafter : nothing is tranfacfted in the ^neid, without the interpofition of fome deity : the gods are every where ! Juno traverfes the air ; the monarch of die winds lets loole the bellowing tempeft ; all is uproar and contu- fion, until Neptune the god of ocean rifes, and drives back the winds to their caverns. It feems from the frequent ufe which is made of thefe divine agents, that an epic poem could not exift without machinery of this nature, which gives to the moit trifling and common incident of life an air of the marvellous. I would not here be fuppofed to mean, that an epic poem could not be formed without tiie ailiftance of heathenifh deities. No ; if in the hands of Homer fuch ad- mirable ufe could be made of the pagan mytho- logy, which is a fyftem only of abfurdities ; how much more noble and fublime a machinery would a poet of equal genius frame from the chriftian re- ligion ! With what energy, what mafterly force, v/ould he paint the God who created the univcrfe with a word, who rides on the wings of the wind, ajid fees and comprehends every thing at a glance ? How delightful mull it be to foUov/ fuch a poet, ACT while with a foul inflamed with p^-cpi.ciic fire, hs defcribes his hero imagining, attempting, and ex- ecuting the grandefl: exploits ; always under the dirCiStion of fome miniftring angel, fome guardian fpirit, which gives him prudence to forefee, for- titude to encounter, and patience and courage to furmount every obHacle in his way ! See Ma- The fourth qualification cflential to the epic adiion, is that it fhould be probable : for though it feems neceflary in a poem of this nature to m.ake ufe of the agency of fuperior beings to produce efFedts afloniihing and fupernatural, yet they fhould ne\er be em.ployed in matters that contradict any known truths, or even received opinions. The poet declares himfelf infpired by a genius, who affifts at the council of the gods ; and therefore may fairly be allowed to lay open the unknown fprings of great operations. But he never does it in fuch a manner as fliocks probability ; he fhews us fuch things as rcfemble thofe we believe, and relates them with an air of authority and refolution. The refolution fhakes, and the probability of the thing convinces us. We behold heroes, adtions, maimers, painted in charadters we underflrand •, we foiijive die fidlion, nay, we even forget it, through an amiable del ufion that poiTefl^es us. But this would be impo.Tible, if the charadlers were unnatural, or his reprefentations exceeded the bounds of probability : in fuch cafes we fhould laugh, as we do at Homer himfelf, when he makes a river quit his bed to purfue a man, and Vulcau run armed with fire to force the river, back agahi to its channel. The lafl thing that is necelTarv to the epic ac- tion is, that it fhould be interefting : this may be eftedtcd two wavs, one, by the nature of the ac- tion and its object, and the other, by the nature of the obftacles to be furnunmtcd : the former is called the affecting ; the latter excites our curiofitv^ and is therefore called the fingular. The affcdling comprehends fevera! forts of in- terefts ; as nrfl-, a national intereif ; thus a Roman interefts himfelf in the undertaking of ^Tmeas, as being a Roman: fecondly, a religious intereft; a chriitian interells himfelf in the undertaking of Godfrey of Bulloignc to deliver the fepidchre of JeUis Chrift out of the hands of the infidels : thirdly, a natural intereft, or the intereft of hu- manity, " Homo, fum, humani nihil a me alienum " puto :" thus we all intereft ourfelves warmly in the diftrefs of Adam, not only as he is a man, but as he is the father of all mankind, in whole welfare every individual is concerned as a prin- cipal. Wher-e thefe difix-rent kinds of interefts can be blended and joined together, the action cannot fail to affedt and capdvate us. I'he laft of thefe is by far the ftrongefir and, moft prevalent ; and Mikcji has chofen fuch a fubjedl, inwhlch we -.u-e. ACT ACT -arc concerned both for ourielves anS others, and managed it with fo much art and addrefs, that he vill 1)2 for ever read and felt, even though the d:iys o( nioukifli barbarifin fhould again return, v/hen Homer and Virgil will be fuffered to moulder into diifV, neglefted and forgotten ! We are told by Anftotle that the epic aiStion ihould have a beginning, a middle, and an end ; \?hich precept F. Boiru has explained in the fol- lowing manner I'The beginning, fays he, compre- hends thofe caufes that influence the acl:ion, and the refolution that fome perfon takes to perform it ; the middle is the etFect of thofe caufes, and the ditficulties which attend their being carried into execution ; and the end is the unravelling and cef- lation of thofe difficulties. The unravelling may be brought about two ways, either by dif- covcrv, or without it by a revolution. This is called a peripetia ; which if it happen by a dif- covery, the peripetia is twofold j if by a revolu- tion, it is fu\gle. Action, in oratory, means the outward de- portment of the orator, or an accommodation of bis countenance, voice, and gefture, to the fubje6l of which he is treating. Cicero emphatically terms it, the eloquence of the body : and it was ib much efteenied by Demoilhenes, that when he ■(vf.is afked, what was the principal perfecSion of an orator? He anfwered, Aftion. What the fscond ? Action. \\''hat the third ? Adion. As if the matter of the difcourfe was of trivial confequence, fo that it was only well delivered. Indeed he feems to have fpoken thus with fome rcafon, as action is a dirert attack upon the fenfes, which are as it were the inlets to thofe ideas that more immediately afFeiil: the pafTions. P'or this caufe it has been condemned by many fober and judi- cious perfons, as inverting the natural order of things, dragging our reafon after our paffions, which fliould ever go before them. It is impoffible to lay down any rules to afcer- tain the proper modes and degrees of aiSion, which can be univerjally juil and accurate ; be- caufc every nation has fome particular figns of its own to exprefs particular paffions, and no two nations agree in the direct quantity of a£tion that can be made ufe of with propriety. What in Italy is decent and becoming, would be regarded in France as extravagant and prepofterous ; and what with them is lively and fpirited, is looked upon in England as downright grimace and buf- foonery. Yet notwithftanding thi3, there are fome geftures that are univerfally underitood, and feem to be the language of nature herfelf ; even fo far that the very brutes are afteited by them. The face, according to Quintilian, is able to exprefs every movement and paffion of the foul ; it •ihreatens, careffes, and fupplicates ; is forrowful, gay, and bumble. Nay, the very .eyes with him are a never failing fource of eloquence ; they are the windows of the foul, through which we fee whether fho fparkles with joy, or is clouded with fcrrow : they are bright with pleafure, glare with indignation,, arc deprefied with fliame, roll in anger, and are tender and bathed with tears in pity. It is much to be lamented that aftion is (o generallv diiufed in difcourfes from the pulpit ; v.'hich are for the moil: part frigid leiStures of divinity, deli\ered and heard without the leaft marks of feeling, either in the preacher or the audience. It would be highly abfurd to introduce into the pulpit all the variety of theatrical geftures ; but at the fame time there is a certain degree of action, properly regulated, which might be made ufe of with the happieit fuccefs ; as not un- likely to influence thofe who ha\e fliut their ears againft the voice of reafon. Action, in ethics, implies fomething done by a free or moral agent, capable of diftinguifhing good from evil. The efl'ence of a moral action confifts in being done knowingly and voluntarily: that is, the agent mull not only be able to diftinguiOi whe- ther it be good or bad in itfelf, but he mufl: like- wife be entirely free from compuHlon of any kind, and at full liberty to follow the di(£tates of his own underltanding. Hence the actions of ideots, flaves, iic. cannot be called moral. Hence alfo appears the abfurdity of fatalifm, becaufe it de- ftroys the very foundation of morality. Action, in mechanics and phyfics, in fome authors, fignifies the preflure or percuffion of one body againit another : or, according to others, the effect itfelf of fuch preffure. It^ is abfolutely neceflary, in order to reafon juftly upon any fubje£t, to have a juft and deter- minate idea of it ; and as this word is become am- biguous, and ufed both hi a fimple and complex fenfe, it was neccflary to give this double defini- tion of it : but its proper fignification feems to imply the motion which a body really produces, or tends to produce in another ; or in other words, that which it would have produced, had nothing hindered its effedls. For it may be confidered, that we can have no demonftrative evidence of the adtion of bodies upon one another but their motion ; and as the mind can have no precife idea of a caufe, but from the effedt which it produces, it would therefore be abfurd to prefix any idea to the word adtion, ex- cept that of actual motion, or a tendency thereto. Had Leibnitz and his followers but thoroughly confidered this, it is very probable we fliould never have heard of the famous controverfy concerning the vires viva, which feems to have arofe entirely from a mifconception of this nature. ^antity ACT ^tantity of Action, a name given by M. Ac Maupertuis, in the Memoirs of the Parifian aca- demy of faiences for 1744, and in thofe of Ber- lin for 1746, to the produdt of the mafs of a body, into the fpace which it runs through, and into its celerity. He there lays it down as a gene- ral law, " That in the changes made in the " fl:ate of any body, the quantity of aftion ne- " cefiary to produce fuch change is the leali: " poflible." Tliis principle he applies to the jnvelligation of the laws of refrailion, equilibrium, and even to the laws of afting of the fupreme Ueing. In the fame year that M. de Maupertuis com- municated the idea of this principle, profeflor Euler printed a work, entitled, Methodui inven'i- endi lineas curvas maximi vel minimi proprietatc gau- dcntes ; in the fupplement to which he has made an application of this principle to the motion of the planets. It appears from the Memoir of 1744, that it was refledlions on the laws of refra6tion which firft led M. de Maupertuis to the theorem here fpoken of. The principle on which M. de Fer- mat, and after him M. Leibnitz, accounted for the laws of refradlion, by fuppofing that a particle of light in pafling from one point to another, through two different mediums, in each of which it moves with a different velocity, muft do it in the leaft time poflible, and from whence they demon- flrated by geometry, that the particle cannot go from one point to the other in a right line, but that when it arrives at the furface which feparates the two mediums, it mufl: alter its direction in fuch a manner, that the fine of its incidence fliall be to the fme of its refradlion, as its velocity in the firft medium is to its velocity in the feeond ; and from whence alfo thev deduced the well-known law of the conftant ratio of their fines, is very ingeni- <5us ; but notwithftanding, M. de Maupertuis faw it was liable to one great objetJtion, which is, that fhe particle muft approach towards the perpendicu- lar in that medium where its velocity is the leaft, and confcquently refills it the moll, which is contrary to all the mechanical explanations of the refradtion of bodies that have liitherto been given, and of the refraclion of light in particular. Now Sir Ifaac Newton's way of accounting for it is much more fatisfaftorv, and gives a clear reafon for the conftant ratio of the fines, by afcrib- ing the refraftion to the attraftive power of the mediums ; whence it follows, that the denfeft me- diums, whofe attraction is the ftrongefl, fhould caufe the ray to approach towards the perpendi- cular, a fadl confirmed by experiment. Now the atiracftion of the medium could not caufe the ray to approach the perpendicular, without increafing its velocity, as may cafily be demonftrated ; and M. de Maupertuis has attempted to recojicile it ACT with mc-taphyfical principles in the folloAvir>g manner. Inftead of fuppofing, as the aforefaid gentlemen do, that a particle of light proceeds from one point to another in the fhorted time pofTible j he will have it, that a particle of light palfes from one point to another in fuch manner, that the quantity of (iSticn (hsW be the leaft poiTible. This quaiuity of action, fays he, is a real expence, in which nature is always frugal ; and in virtue of this philofophical principle, he difcovers that not only the fines are in a conftant ratio, but that they are alfo in the in^x•rfe ratio of their velocities , agreeable to Sir Ifaac Newton's explanation, and not in the dired ratio, as MefTieurs de Fermat and Leibnitz had fuppoicd. It is very remarkable that of the many philofo- phers who have written on refraction, none fliould hit upon this thought; for it is but making a fmall alteration in the calculus founded on Sl. de Fermat's principle, viz. That the fpace divided by the velocity fliould be a minimum : for calling the fpace run through in the firil medium S with the velocity V; and the fpace run through in the feeond medium s with the velocity v, wc (hall have + a minimum, its fluxion — + - = o whence it is eafy to perceive, that the fines of incidence and refraftion are to each other as S to — s .: it follows that thofe fines zre in the direCt ratio of V : v, which is what M. de Fermat makes it to be : but in order to have thofe fines iii the inverfe ratio, it is only fuppofing that S X V + JX w isa minimiim,whichgives V S + vs :=. o. See Minimum and Fluxion. In the Alemoirs of the academy of Berlin above- cited, may be feen all the other applications which M. de Maupertuis has made of this principle; and whatever (hall be f faying, that they have put themfelves in pof- feiTion, and rendered themfelves mafters of all his aftive debts. Action, in painting and fculpture, is the atti- tude or pofition of the parts of the face and body of fuch figures as are reprefented, and whereby we judge that they are agitated bv paffions : they fay,. This figure by its adlion finely expreffes the paffions with which it is agitated ; This acSlion of a man in a fright is very well. They make ufe of the fame term- in refpeft to animals ; tliey fay. There is- a dog, whofe action very well expreffes fury ; and of a ftag at bay ; There is a ftag, who by his ac-- tion expreffes his grief, &c. ACTIVE, in a general fenfe, implies fome- thing that communicates motion or aciion to ano- ther, in which acceptation the term aifivc ftands oppofed to paffive. Active, a term in grammar, which denotes a word tliat has aa active fignification, or expreffes. an action. Verbs aclive, according to fome grammarians,, are diftinguiflied into three kinds : firft, trcinfitivty. where the atSlion pailes into a fubjeil: difterent from the agent, as Antony loved Cleopatra : fecondiy,. The reflected, or verb >ieutir, v/hich has no noun. I followiiig ACT A C U following it, bccaufe the a£tion returns upon the agent, as I walk, I think, &c. and thirdly. The reciprocal verb, which is ufed only in fome modern languages, where the aftion turns mutually upon the leveral agents who produced it, as in P rench, "Jacque et toi vius vous lotwz : " James and you commend each other, or one another." In the Greek and Latin languages, the aftive and paflive voice have each their diftin6l termi- nations in the different moods and tenfes : but in all modern languages, the paflive voice is expreffed by the participle pad joined to an auxiliary verb, as, I am loved. See Participle, Auxiliary, &c. Active principles, in chemiftry, thofe which a£l of themfelves without any foreign aflift- ance. Thefe are fuppofed to be mercury, oil, and fait ; phlegm and earth are called paflive principles. ACTIVITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies the faculty or power which renders things aftive. Sphere of AcTi\'iTy, the whole (pace in which the virtue, power, or influence of any objeft is exerted. ACTCEA, in botany, a name given by Lin- naeus to a plant, formerly called Chriftophoriana by Tournefort, or herb Chriftopher. It produces a rofaceous flower compofed of four petals ; the filaments are numerous and hairy, topped with round and upright antherae ; it has no Ityle, but the germen, which is oval and placed in the center, is crowned with an oblique comprelTed ftigma. When the flower is decayed, its oviary becomes a globular berry confifting of one cell, containing four feeds, whofe outfides are round, but angular where they are joined. The common fort, called bane-berries, grows plentifully in fome parts of Yorkfliire : but the other fpscies of this plant are natives of America, one of which called black fnake-root, is ufed as an antidote againft the bite of the rattle-fnake. ACTOR, in a general fenfe, fignifies a perfon who acts or performs fomething. Actor, as to the dram.a, fignifies a perfon who rcprcfents fome part or character upon the theatre. The drama confifted originally of nothing more than a fimple chorus, who fung hymns in honour of Bacchus. Thefpis was the firfl: who intro- duced a perfona or a£i:or ; which he did for two reafons, one, to give a kind of refplte, or breath- ing-time to the fingers, and the other, to explain fome particular circumflances which related to their heroes, and without which feveral paflages in their hymns would not er.fily be underftood. iTfcylus, finding a fingle perfon tirefome, ven- tured to introduce a fecond ; and fo chanoed the ancient recitals into dialogues. It was he who iirft invented the bulkinj which was a hijih fljoe. that cncreakd the ilature, and ga\c the wearsf an heroic appearance. Sophocles improved further upon this plan ; and rinding the two perfons of A^fchylus not futh- cient for the variety of incidents, added a third : and here the Greeks Hopped ; at Icaft we do not find in any of their tragedies above three perfons in the fame fcene. In their comedies, they allowed themfelves greater licence. If we confider fome particular circumflances and cuftoms that prevailed on the ancient theatre, we cannot help fuppofing that the aftors trufled rather to the matter of the play, than their nr<;n- ner of performing it, for the entertaining and. afi^efting their audience. In the firli: place they acted in mafks, for which reafon they were called perjona : now it was impoflible for them to ex- prefs any emotion of the foul by the mufclcs of the face, which is the mofl eloquent part of the body, while it was thus concealed from the fpe£lators. To remedy this inconvenience, when the adlor was to vary the paflion, he wore a mafk that was painted, on one fide the face, for inftance, to re- prefent joy, and on the other grief : aaid when there was occafion to make a tranfition from one pafTion to the other, he gave himfelf a dexterous turn, and exhibited the oppofite profile. Another thing, whici^ to us at leafl appears highly ridiculous, is, that on the Roman ftage one adtor frequently fpoke the part, and another gave it a proper accompanyment of action and geflrure. Actors were highly honoured at Athens,, and defpifed at Rome ; where they were not only de- nied all rank among the citizens, but even v/hert a citizen appeared upon the flage, he was ex- pelled his tribe, and deprived of the right of fuffrage by the cenfors. The French have in fome meafure adopted the fame ideas with the Romans ; but we, more humane and polite, thofe of tlie courtly Athenians. ACTUAL, an epithet applied to fuch things, as exift fully and abfolutely. Thus philofophers. fpeak of aftual heat, cold, &c. in oppofition to- virtual or potential. ACTUARIAL naz'fSy in antiquity, a kind of fhips among the Romans, deugned chiefly for expedition. ACUBENE, in aftronomy, the Arabic name of a flar of the fourth magnitude, in the fouthern forceps of cancer ; by Bayer marked a.. See tlie confiellatlon Cancer. ACUPUNCTURE, a method of curing feve- ral diforders among the Chinele and Japonefe^ It confifts in makiiig a great number of punc- tures in the part affected with a gold or filver needle. ACUS, in iclitlivology, the name of two dif- tinct genufe.- vf filhes 3 the one called the acus of Ariftotle, ADA Ariftotle, and the other the acus of Bellonius. The former is generally called, in Englifh the needle-fifh, and the latter the gar-fifh. ACUTE, an epithet applied to fuch objefts as terminate in a fharp point or edge ; in which acceptation it is oppofed to obtufe. Acute Angle, in geometry, is that which is lefs than a right-angle, or ninety degrees. See Ancle. AcvT'E-an^kd Cone, is a right cone, whofe axis makes an acute angle with its fides. AcvTE-angled Triangle, in geometry, is that whofe angles are all acute : it is otherwife called an oxygonous triangle. See Triangle. Acute angular Jecfion of a cotie, an expreflion made ufe of by the ancient geometricians, to fignify the ellipfis. See Cone, and Ellipsis. Acute Accent, in grammar. See Accent. Acute, in mufic, is applied to a tone or found that is fliarp or high, in refpecl to fome other tone. In this fenfe it flands oppofed to grave. Acute Difeafis, among phyficians, imply fuch as move with velocity towards a crifis, and are at- tended with danger. In this knk the word acute is oppofed to chronic. Ad, in grammar, a Latin prcpofition, frequently iifed in the compolition of words in the Englifh as well as the Latin language. Sometimes the (/ is fupprefled, and fometimes changed into another let- ter. Adage, a fliort fentence, or proverb, contain- ing fome wife remark, or ufeful obfervation. We have a colledfion of Greek and Roman adages, by Erafmus, and another of Englifh pro- verbs, by Mr. Ray. ADACjIO, an Italian adverb, fignifying flowly, Icifurely ; and is nfed in mufic, to ftgnify the flow- eft of all times, except the grave. It is fometimes repeated, as adagio, adagio, and tlien fignifies a ll'.ll greater retardation of the time than when ufcd iingly. ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the diamond. See Diamond. ADAMI Pomum, Adam's apple, in anatomy, a prominence in the fore part of the throat ; fo called from an idle conceit that a piece of the for- bidden fruit fluck in Adam's throat, and occafioned this tumor ; though it is in reality nothing more than the convex part of the firft cartilage of the laiynx. See Larynx. ADAMICA Terra, adamic earth, a name giveji to the common clay, from a luppofition of its being the adamah, or ruddy earth, out of which the firll man was formed. Some writers call the flimy fubftance found at the bottom of the fea by the name of Adamica terra. ADAMITES, the n.ime of a feft of ancient heretics, who are mentioned by Epiphanius, anJ ADA after him by St. Auftin and Theodoret : they arc fuppofed to be a branch of the Bafilidians and Car- pocratians. It is much difputed amongft the learn- ed at what time this fedl firft fprang up, and who was its author. Some affirm, that it began in the fecond century of the church, and that its infti- tutor was Prodicus, a difciple of Carpocrates : but it appears from Tertullian, and Clem.ent of Alex- andria, that his followers never had the name of Adamites, though they profefl'ed the fame erro.'s. However this might be, they took the name of Adamites, according to Epiphanius, from their pretending to be reinftated in primitive innocence, like Adam at his firft creation, whofe nakednefs they thought themfelves obliged to imitate. They detefted marriage, affirming that the conjugal union had never been known but for fin ; and that the privilege of enjoying women in common belonged to thofe who like them were reinftated in original purity. However incompatible thefe tenets were with chaftity, they all of them pretended to vaft continence, and declared that if any of their fol- lowers fell into carnal ftns, they would chafe him from their allembly, as Adam and Eve were driven out of paradife for eating the forbidden fruit. They looked upon themfelves as fo many Adams and Eves, and their temple as paradife : a ftrange paradife indeed, v.'hich was nothing but a fubter- raneous cavern, into which they entered ftark naked, men and women ; and as foon as ever their chief had pronounced aloud, " Increafe and multiply," committed the moft fcandalous actions, even adul- tery and inceft ! They had not even regard to common decency, but openly in the face of the fun imitated the beaftly impudence of the ancient Cynics. They boafted that they were pofTefTed of the fecret books of Zoroafler, for which reafon they have been fufpedted by fome of praclifmg ma- gic arts. This deteftable feft did not at firft continue long, but ftarted up afrefli in the twelfth century, imder one Tandamus, fince known by the name of Tanchelin. They appeared again in the fifteenth centuiy, under one Picard, who pretended that he was fent into the world as another Adam, to re- eftabiifh the law of nature, which, according to him, confirted in going naked, and having all the women in common. They aflembled, like the notaries of the Bona Dea (only that there were men as well as women) by night, and like them too h.ad their fecrets and mylferies. One of the fundamental maxims of their fociety was contained in the following verfe : Jura, pc'jura, fecreium prodere noli. Some learned men have thought that this feft is ■\'ery ancient, and trace them up as high as the fol- lowers and votaries of the heathen god Priapus. ADANSONIA, in botany, a "tender kind of gourd, ADD {^ourd, fiiid to come originally from Ethiopia. It coiifiib of a flower whofe cup is monophylous ; the petals are five in number-, round and (-leihyj, the filaments arc numerous, furrounding a long tubulous crooked ftjle ; and the fruit is a hard oval Ihell, covered with down, which contains feeds funilar to chocolate nuts, and of a dufky co- lour. ADAPTERS, in chemiftry, are hollow veffels, of an oblong form, perfoi^ated at each extremity, for conneiSling the receiver to the nofe of the re- tort, alembic, &C. ADAR, the name of a Hebrew mcnith, which ?.nhvcrs to part of our February and March : it is the twelfth of their facred, and the fixth of their civil year. On th-e fevcnth of this month the Jews cele- brate a fafl, in commemoration of the death of Mofcs. They do the fame on the thirteenth, which they call the fait of Efther ; and on the fourteenth they hold the feaft of Purim, to celebrate their deliver- znce from the cruelties of Haman by means of Efther. As the lunar year, which the Jews have been ufed to follow in their calculations, is (horter than the folar by eleven days, they infert at the end of every three years an intercalary month of twenty-nine days, which they call Veader, or the fecond Adar. ADARCE, in the ancient materia medica^ was a kind of fait concreted about reeds and other ve- getables in form of incruftations. — It was applied externally in various cutaneous dilbrders, as a de- tergent and diffolver. ADARTICULATION, a term ufed by fome writers in anatomy, for what is more generally called arthrodia, and diarthrofis. ADERAMIN, in aftronomy, the Arabic name of a ftar of the third magnitude, in the left fhoul- der of Cepheus, marked a. by Bayer. See th-e conrtellation Cepheus. ADDER, in zoology, a name fometimes gi\cn to the viper. See Viper. Adders-tongue, OphioghJJum, in botany. See Cphioglossu.m. Adder- woPvT, in botany, the fame with biftort, or fnake-weed. See Bistort. ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax vfed by Shipwrights, carpenters, coopers, &c. ADDITION, in a general fenfe implies the imiting or joining feveral things together ; or, the adding fomething to another. Addition, in arithmetic, is the firft of the four fundamental or principal rules of that fcience, whereby we are taught to ftnd a fum equal to fe- veral fmall ones. In fctting down the numbers to be added, care niuft be- taken to place every figure in its proper 3 ADD place, that is, units under units, tens undtr tens, &c. Then will the reafon of the work appear very evident from this undeniable maxim, viz. that ail the farts are equal to the zihole. And the method of fetting down the total may cafdy be accounted for from the nature of numeration, which explrjns the different \alue of places, as they proceed from the right to the left-hand ; fQr as 9 i-s the grcateft fmnple cfiaracfer or figure, fo every number e.\ceed- ing 9, being compound, muft require inore places than one to. exprels it. — Thus the number ten can no otherwile be exprefl'ed in figures but by Ve- moving the figure i into the place of tens, which is done by fupplying the units place with a cypher ; and as it is the fame with every other column (ten being ftill the proportion of incrcafe) confequently when the fum of any column amounts to 10 or more, the units exceeding, if there be any, or a cypher, if none, mult be fet under fuch column, and the ten or tens carried on as fo many units to the next colunm on the left-hand ; for example, fuppofe we were to add the numbers 47, 397, and 687, together, they niuft be placed in the follow- ing maimer, one under another.; 47 397 68.7 1131 Having thus placed the above numbers, draw a ftraight line under them, and beginning at the place of units, add all the figures together in thait column, putting their fum under the faid ftraight line 5 as in this example, fay, fe\xn and feven make fourteen, and feven make tv/enty-one ; wherefore, put one under the line in units place, and carry two for the two tens to the next column, and then proceed, faying, two that I carry and eight is ten, and nine is nineteen, and four make twenty-three, fet down three under the line in tens place, and carry two to the next column ; then fay, two and fix is eight, and three make eleven, which, bccaufc it is the laft column, put dowji ele\cn, and the work is done. Addition of different (Ltmn'misticns, Wheji the numbers are of dift'erent denominations, or when they contain, for example, pounds, fhillings, pence, and farthings ; tons, hundreds, quarters, pounds, &C. care muft be taken to place the given numbers in fuch -order under each other, that eacli column, from top to bottom, may confift of one and the fame value, as pence under pence, fliillings under ()ii]lings, and pounds under pounds. Having firft drawn a line under the columns, add them together, confidering how mariy of each fmaller make an unit of the next that is fuperior to it, (always obferving to begin at the Icaft denomi- nation) and for every fuch unit carry one to the next fuperior denomination, that is, for every 4 O ux ADD ADD in the farthings, you muft carry one to the pence ; for every I2 in the pence column carry one to the fhi!]ing;s column ; and for every 20 contained in the (hillings, caixy one to the pounds, and the odd farthings, pence, and fliillings, put under their proper columns below the line, as in the following examples. Let it be required to add together, 146/. 16s. yid, 274/. 10 J. II -id. 567/. i-j s. 10 \d. and 78/. 11/. 6 | a'. Firft fet them dowji one under the other, in the fol- lowing manner, and draw a line as before di- reded. I- ^- ^■ 146 16 7 4 274 10 II I 567 17 \o\ 78 II 6^ 1067 17 o\ Firft begin with the leafl denomination, which is farthings, and add them together, faying | and \ is i, and f is 6, and | make 9, which is 2 pence and one farthing over, which iet dowii under far- things below the line, and carry the 2 to the pence ; then fay, 2 and 6 is 8, and 10 is 18, and 11 is 29, and 7 make 36, which is 3 fhillings, and no- thing over ; therefore put down nothing under the pence column, and carry 3 to the fliillings ; then fay, 3 and 11 is 14, and 17 is 31, and 10 is 14, and 16 is 57, v/hich makes 2 pounds, and 17 fliil- lings over; put down the 17 fhillings under fhil- lings, and carry 2 to the pounds, faying 2 and 8 is 10, and 7 is 17, and 4 is 21, and 6 make 27, which is 2 tens, and 7 over ; therefore put down a 7 under the units place of the pounds, and carry 2 to the tens, and fay, 2 and 7 is 9, and 6 is 15, and 7 is 22, and 4 is 26 ; put down the 6, and carry 2 to the next column, faying, 2 and 5 is 7, and 2 is 9, and i is 10, which place down under the line in luch a manner that the cy- pher may ftand under the laft column of the pounds, and the i to the left-hand, and the work is done. Note, that whatfoever fums are to be added together, whether of money, weights, mca- fiires, &c. when you come to the greatefl: deno- minations, as you caft up the feveral columns thereof, you are to carry the tens of every preced- jn«>^ column to that which follows. Addition ef Decimal Nvmhers docs nowjys differ from that of iivtegcrs, due c?-re being taken to place the particular fums fo that the firfl place of the integral or decimal parts be exaiftly uiidcj each csther, as is feen in the following exampk ; 5684,94 3415^^3 28,48 i39r8,7-t{ Cyphers on the right-hand of a decimal num- ber fignify nothing, and are therefore more ele- gantly omitted ; thus, 47.080I r 47.08 Inftead of { ^^•'°° i We write i ^^-J 4.506 f ^ 4.506 4. 120 J t 4-12 112.406 112.406 See the article Decimals. Addition of Vulgar FraB'ions. When the fra£Hons to be added have one common denomina- tor, add the numerators together for a new nume- rator, and place it over the given common de- nominator ; thus -J, -J, and J , when added to- gether, make \ , or ^ : but when amongft the given fraiSlions there are either compound ones,, or Angle with different denominators, thej' muft be prepared by reduflion before they can be added. See Fractions, and Reduction of Fractions. Addition, in algebra, is performed by con- necting the quantities to be added with their proper figns or charadler of -f and — , and unit- ing or joining together thofe which are fimilar and capable of it. See Similar, Algebra, and Character. The difficulty in algebraic additions, will chiefly arife from the figns-)- and — made uie of in them ; but only concei\ c, that what + aiHrms — denies,, or what the flrfl: alledges or brings, the fecond annuls and takes away ; if -|- makes a tradefmaii worth fuch a fum, — deprives him of it again i let us fuppcrfe a perfon has in pofl'eflion 20 pounds,, and tlwt he ov/es 10 pounds, then it is plain that his real worth is only 10 pounds ; fo in algebra, -f- 20 added to — 10, the fum will be equal to 10. Addition of algebra may be reduced to the follow- ing rules ; Rule L When die letters, called quantities, arc the- fame, and have the fame fign prefixed, add the quantities together, and to the fum prefix the conv- mon fign. Example I. Example 2. Example 3. h-=.\i)— 12 Numbers reprefented by the fame letter in any operation, are fuppofed to be of the fame \'alue, and thofe by different letters of ditFerent values ; thus in example third, the letter a reprefents 4, and h reprefents 2 ; again the figure or number, pre- fixed to .any letter or quantity, (called its co-effi- cient) fhews hov/ often that quantity is to be taken ^ thus, 3a fhews that the quarrtity reprefent- ed by a is to be taken 3 times, and when a quantity (lands without a co-cJhcient, it is always .underilood ta have ADD have an unit prefixed. Qijantities wliich differ only in their co-efficients, (as «, 3a and 5a) are faid to h^ like or fimilar, Ijut 3« and 5/' are unlike, and not fimilar. Qiiantities which Hand without any prefixed fign before them, are always under- ftood to have the fign + before them : thus, 3^7 »nd + 3^, both represent the fame thing. Rule II. When the quantities are like, but have different figns ; fubftraiSl the co-efficient of the leffer from that of the greater, and to the difference, if any prefix the fign of the greater, adjoining the letter or letters, common to each quantity. Example 4. Example 5. Example 6. -^=-y b=z LI 5^- a= 55- 7 3rt= 21 —4*=— 44 —2b + ^a=z— 22 + 21 ADD 2rt = 14 -3*=-33 3i-l-2fl= 33+H III. Rule When the quantities are unlike, fet them in order with their proper figns prefixed. Example 7. Example 8. Example g. a + b A-^—Sy "jz—x—a a — c 2«— z "jz—d+c 2a + b—c ^x + ^y+2n — z \Ji^z—x—a—d-{-c Additon of algebraic fractions is performed •by the fame rules as numerical fractions, they be- ing firft reduced to one denomination, and their lowell terms. See Fractions. Addition of furd, or irrationals. In thefe Pf eaations we have two cafes. Case I. When the furds quantities are alike, add the rational parts, or thofe which are without the radical fign, if they arc joined to any, and to their fum join their furd. Example i. Example 2. 7 x\/^ 5 y\ /d!n~) \ Sxs/li^, ysy4m—y\ \2X \/a b b)\r d m—y\ C A S E II. Wien the furd quantities are unlike, they are only to be added by their figns, and torn thence Will arife compound furds. Example 3. Example 4. \/~b7^ ms/da+} "V b -z?' VI \/^ yl In the laff example, the letters under the radi- al figns being different, firft put down 7n\/ da + and becaufe the quantity wv/zT'has the fign -)- , therefore after w v^^/rt +^1 put the fign -|-, afte"" v/hich put the quantity m \/ %, and we have m \/da ->ry\->!-m\/~zl Addition of logarithms. Sec Logarithms. Additions, among diftillers, a general name for fuch things as are added to the wafh or liquor while fermenting, in order to increafe the vinofity and quantity of the fpirit, or to give it a particular flavour. Additions, in law, denote all forts of defigna- tions given to a perfon, over and above his proper name and furname, &c. Thefe additions are ordained to prevent one man's being grieved or molefted for another ; and that every perfon might \x. certainly known, fo as to bear his own burden. If a man is of different degrees, as duke, earl, &c. he fliall have the moft worthy ; and the title of knight, or baronet, is part of the party's name, and therefore ought to be rightly ufed ; whereas that of efquire, or gentleman, being as people pleafe to call them, may be ufcd or not, or varied at plcafure. An earl of Ireland is no addition of honour here ; nay, the law-addition to the children of Bri- tifli noblemen is only that of efquire, commonly called lord. Writs without the proper additions, if excepted to, {hall abate ; only where the procefs of out- lawry doth not lie, additions are not neceffarv. The addition of a parifii, not in any city, muit mention the county, otherwife it is not good. Addition of ratios, the fame with what i.<; otherwife called compofition of jratios. See Com- position and Ratio. Addition, in mufic, a dot marked on the right fide of a note, to fignify that it is to be founded" or lengthened half as much more as it would have been without fuch mark. See Note, and Cha- racter. ADDITIONAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething over the ufual fum or quantity. Additional Duties, thefe charged upon cer- tain commodities, over and above what were for- merly obliged to be paid. ADDITIVE, in a general fenfe, fignifies fome- thing to be added : mathematicians fpeak of addi- tive ratios, aftronomers of additive equations. See the articles Ratio, aiid Equation. ADDRESS, in a general fenfe, denotes the nice management of an affair, or the trimfadino- it with great propriety and fkill. Address is, more particularlv, ufed for a fpeech made to the king, in the name of feme confider- able body of men, by way of congratulation, pe- tition, or remonftrance, AdJreflis A D E AdJreiTes of parliament were firrt fet on foot un- der Oliver Croniwel. ADDUCENT Mufcks, among anatomifts, the ■fame with thofc more ufually called adduftors. See Adductor. ADDUCTION, Addu^lo, among anatomifts, denotes the action of the mufcles called adduU^rei. See Adductor. ADDUC TOR, in anatomy, a general name -for all fuch mufcles as ferve to draw one part of the •body towards another. Thus, Adductor hrachii is a mufcle of the arm, ferving to bring it rov/ards the trunk of the bodv. Adductor indiiis, a mufcle of the fore-finger, .which draws it towards the thumb. Adductor cculi, a mufcle of the eye, directing its pupil towards the nofe ; and otherwife called 'bibitonus, for a iilcc reafon. Anatomifts reckon u.p feveral other abductors, as the addudor pollicls, the adduHor pallicis pedis, adduiior tniii'mil dit^iu pedis^ adduSlor projiatx^ (sfc- ADELPHIANI, in church hiftory, a fefl of heretics, who always fafted on Sundays. ADEMPTION, ademptio, among civilians, .denotes the revocation of fomc donation or favour. The ademption of a legacy may be done either in exprefs terms, or indiredtly, by difpoling of it jDtherwife. ADENOGRAPHY, ct^nviy^di'pid, that part of .anatomy which treats of the glands. See Gland. ADEPS, in anatomy, denotes the fat found in .the abdomen ; differing from the common fat, or pitiguedo, as being thicker, harder, and of a more -earthy fubftauce. Adhps, among phyficians, is ufed in a more general fenfe, for all kinds of animal fat: thefe they prefcribe for their ripening quality. ADEPTS, the name given to the proficients in alchemy, particularly thofe who pretend to have found out the philofophers ftone, and the panacea, .or univerfal m.edicine. Akhemilts will have it, that there are airways twelve adepts ; the places of thofe who die being immediately fupplied by others of the fraternity. ADEQUATE, in a gener.al fenfe, fomething exaftly correfponding with another. Thus, A-DEqi-'ATE Ideas are thofe which perfedtly re- prefent all the parts and properties of the object. See Idea. In this fenfe, xhe idea of a figure bounded by a -curve line, which returns iirto itfelf, and whofe parts are all equally diftant from a certain point in the middle, is an adequate idea of a circle. All fimple and abitraifted ideas are adequate ones, becaufe they reprefent obje£ts as they really .are : whereas' thofe of fubitances are inadequate, .in regard our knowlege of fubihuice is extremely de- A DH ADESSENARIANS, Adejjinarll, a fca of Chriftians, who maintain that Jefus Chrift is real- ly prefent in the eucharilt, though not by way of tranfubitantiation. The Adeffenarians differ among themfelvcs, fome of them holding, that the body of Jefus Chrift is in the bread ; others, that it is about the bread /others, that it is with the bread; and others, that it is under the bread. See Eucharist. KYiYY.Q,'YYX) Equations , or affected, in algebra; thofe wherein the unknown quantity is found to rife to two or more different powers : for example, 7.' + az^ — bz^nd'-qn, in which there is found three different powers of z, that is, 2% s" and z. See Eqltation'. 'Eke term affeJled is fometimes likcwife ufed in algebra, when fpeaking of quantities which have co-efRcients. Thus in the quantity 3 a-, x is faid to be aftedted with the co-efEcient 3. It is likewife faid, that an algebraic quantity Is affected with the fign + or — , or with a radical fign •/ ; meaning that it has the fign -f or — , or that it includes a radical fign •v/. See Co-effi- cient and Radical. ADHESION, in phyfics, the ftate of two bodies joined or faffcned together by mutual at- traction, the interpofition of their own parts, or the impulfe or preffure of external bodies. Muf- chenbroeck in his EJJhi de Phyfique, has given a great many remaks on the adhefion of bodies, and relates various experiments which he h.ad made on this matter ; the chief of which concern the re- filtance of feveral bodies to frafture, in virtue of the adhefion of their parts ; which adhefion he afcribes, principally, to their mutual attraction. Common experiments prove the mutual adhefion of the parts of water to each other, as well as to the bodies they touch. The fame may be faid of the particles of air, on which M. Petit has a me- moir, among thofe of the academy of fciences at Paris, for the year 1 73 1. Some authors feem not difpofed to admit, that the adhefion oi the parts of water, on indeed of bodies in general, is to be attributed to the attraction of their parts, and they reafon thus : Suppofe, fay they, attrac- tion to adt at the diltance of a line from a particle of water, about this particle defcribe a circle whofe radius is one line ; the particle of water will not be attracted but by the particles which are included within the circle, and as thefe particles .aCt in con- trary directions, their mutual effeCts muff deftroy one another, and there can be no attraction of the particle, fincc it will have no more tendency one way than the other. See Attraction of Cohefion. Adhesion, among logicians, denotes the main- taining fome tenet, merely on account of its fup • pofed advantage, without any pofitive evidence for its truth. Adhesion ADJ ADJ Adhesion, in medicine and anatomy. There are frequent inftances of the adhefion of the lungs to the pleura and diaphragm, which occafions many diforders. We alfo read of adhefions of the inteltincs, of the dura mater to the cranium, &c. ADIANTIUM, in botany, maiden-hair. See Maiden-hair. ADIAPHORISTS, or Mapho'ita, in church hiflory, names given to the moderate Lutherans, in the fixteenth century. The name imports lukewarmnefs, or indiffe- rence ; being compounded of the privative «, and J^/ct9op^, different. ADJACENT, in geometry, whatfocver lies immediately near each other : an angle is faid to be adjacent to another angle, when the one is immediately contiguous to the other, fo that they both have one common fide. This term is more particularly ufed when the two angles have not only one common fide, but alfo when the two other fides form one right line. See Angle, and Side. ADJECTIVE is a term made ufe of in gram- mar, and comes from the Latin word adje^us, added to, bccaufe it is always joined to the noun fubfran- tive, either expreffed or undcrftood, to fhew its qua- lities or accidents. Some pcrfons have improperly called the follovv- ing words fubftantives, viz. the fublime, the grand, the beautiful, &:c. They are ufed indeed fub{?:an- tively ; but ftill are only adjectives, employed to exprefs that idea of fublimity, grandeur, and beauty, \\hich is raifed by fome iubilance, or agent. It was in the fame manner that the Greeks and Latins made ufe of adjectives of the neuter gender inftead of fubftantives : but then in this cafe the fubflantive was always unde;-ftood ; as in the following ex- amples, y.;{\t H 'znyvt iK^iH a.v]f.i ottik Gfjn to y^^v/M r.ai TO T/Z03I' ; where it is evident that u/t-p is un- derftood : and in the following paiTage of Horace, mifcuit utile dulci, ■/jviii., or part, is to be fupplied. The definition which F. BufEer gives of ad- iectivcs is by no means a bad one, though fome- vvhat diitertnt from other grammarians : nouns, according to him, are fubftantives, when the ob- jects which thev rcprefent are confidercd fimply and in the.mteiveE, without any regard to their quali- ties : on the contr.iry, they are adjectives when they exprefs the quality of an objcft. Thus when we'fay limply a king, the word king is a fubftan- rivc, becaufe none of its qualities are exprefled ; !ijt when we fay a pious king, or a virtuous king, ■ )r a good king, thefe words pious, virtuous, and ■ ood are adjeitivcs,- bccaufe they exprefs fo many . ualities in the king. See Noun Substantive, AD INQUIRENDUM, in law, a writ com- manding inquiry to be ruade about fomething con- nefted with a caufe depending in the king's courts; as of baftardy, for inflance. ADJOURNMENT, in law, the putting off a court or meeting to another time or place. Thus, Adjournment in Eyre, is the appointmeKt of a certain day, when the juftices in eyre are to meet again. Adjournments cf ParUament differ from pro- rogations, in being not only for a fhort time, but alfo in regard each houfe has the privilege of ad- journing itfclf. See Prorogation. ADIPOSE, in a general fenfe, denotes fome- thing belonging to the fat of the body. The term adipofe is chiefly ufed by phyficians and anatomifis, in whofe writings we read of adipofe cells, adipofe du6ts, adipofe membrane, adipofe vefl"els, &c. See Cell, Duct, 5cc. ADIT, Ad'ttus, in a general fenfe, fignifies the , pafl'age to, or entrance of any thing. Thus we read of an adit of a mine, adit of a theatre, adit of fhips, 5:c. See Mine, Theatre, &c. ADJUNCT, Adjuniliim, among philofophers, fomething added to another, to which it does not naturally belong : thus water in a fponge is an ad- junct to it ; fo are clothes to a man. Adjuncts are what we commonly call circum — ftances : thefe, in ethics, are commonly reckoned' ieven, quii, quid, uhi, quibus auxiliii, cur, qucmodo, quando. ADJUNCTS, in rhetoric, a denomination given to all words added with a view to increafe thf. force of the difcourfe : fuch are adjetSives, attri- butes, epithets, &c. Adjunct is alfo ufed for a colleague, or affift- ' ant. Thus, Adjunct Gods, in heathen theology, were a kind of inferior deities, v.'hofe office it was to af- fiit the firperior gods : fuch were Mars, Bel'cna, . and Nemefis accounted. AD JURA REGIS, in law, a w.rit which lies ; for a clerk prefented to a living by the king, againft thofe who endeavour to eject him, to the prejudice of tlie king's title. ADJU'i'AGE, or Ajuiage, m hydraulics, is a tube fitted to the mouth of a jet-d'eau, through which the water is played, or directed into any de- fired figure ; fo that 'the great variety of fountains is chiefly owing to the difurent ftruflurc,- &:c. of their adjutages. ; ,,". .'^.'. Mr. Martctt, who was ■. ery converfant'in thefe things, gives the following proportions of the bores ' of the adjutages and pipes of condudt, divid- . ing the inch into 12 equal parts, which he calls lines. P Heigi-t ADJ Heiglit of the re- fervoirs. Feet 5 10 15 20 25 3^ 40 50 60 80 100 DlametPTs of fit Ad- jutages, Lines 3, 4, 5, or 6 4, 5, or 6 - 5 or 6 - - 6 - - - Ditto - Ditto - 7 or 8 - - 8 or 10 - - 10 or 12 - - 12 or 14 - - 12, 14, or 15 Diameter of the pipes of conduct. 22 25 27 3° 33 36 5' 65 72 87 96 There is a certain and juft proportion to be ob- ferved between the adjutage, whereby the jet is de- livered, and the pipe conducting it from the head. In general about five times the diameter of the ad- jutage for jets under half an inch, and fix or feven times for all above, will fize the pipes of conduct pretty well. In refervoirs of the f;:me altitude, and adjutages of different diameters, the expence of water is pro- portionable to the fquares of the diameters of the adjutages. But in refervoirs of different altitudes, the excefs of the expence of water from greater heights more than in fmaller is in the fubduplicate ratio, or as the fquare roots of the altitudes ; from whence we have the two following; tables : TABLE I. Aeljut, Feet I — 2- Pints -6: 3 14 4 25 5 29 6 56 7 76' 8 iioi- 9 126 Height TABLE II. 6- 8- 9- 10- 12- 15- 18- 20- 25- 30- 35- 40- 45- 48- II. 10 TI' I2J I2| 14 15^- 17 i84- 206 22^,- 24 244 276- 28 It is Ihewn from experiment, that 14 Paris pints of water will be delivered in a minute from an adjutage of three lines diameter, when the height of the refcrvoir above the orifice is 12 feet ; which may be taken as a fundamental rule for fountains aflifted with the foregoing principles. Likewife cbferve, that the foregoing tables of Mr. Mariott's <3f the expcnces of water are calculated ioi one ADM minute of. time; and fliould the expence of two refervoirs of unequal heights and different adju- tages be required, ufe the following rule : The expence of water of two refervoirs whofe altitudes are different, and alfo their adjutages, are in the compound ratio of the fquares of the dia- meters of the adjutages, and of the fubduplicate ratio of the heights. See the article Foun- tain. ADJUTANT, in the military' art, an officer whofe bufinefs it is to affift the major, and there- fore fometimcs called the aid-major. See Major. Each battalion of foot, and regiment of horfe, has an adjutant, who receives the orders every night from the brigade-major ; which, after car- rying them to the colonel, he delivers out to the ferjeants. When detachments are to be made, he gives the number to be furnifhed by each company, and afligns the hour and place of rendezvous. He alfo places the guards, receives and diftributes the am- munition to the companies ; and, by the major's orders, regulates the price of bread, beer, &c. Adjutant is fometimes ufed by the French for an aid-du-camp. See Aid-du-Camp. Adjvt AtiTS-Genera/, among the Jefuits, a fe- ledf number of fathers, who refide with the general of that order : they have each a province, or country, aligned them, as England, Germany, &c. and their bufinefs is to inform the father-general of ftate occurrences in fach countries. ADJUTORIUM, among phyficians, is ufed for a medicine prefcribed along with another more efficacious one ; and, particularly, for an external application, after the proper ufe of internal me- dicines. Adjutorium, in anatomy, a name fometimes given to the humerus, or Ihoulder-blade. See Humerus. ADMEASUREMENT, in law, a writ for adjulting the fliarcs of fomething to be divided. Thus, Ad.measurement of Dower takes place, when the widow of the deceafed claims more as her dower than what of right belongs to her. And, Admeasurement of Pafture rmy be obtained, when any of the perfons who have right in a com- mon pafture, puts more cattle to feed on it than he ought. ADMINICLE, adminiculum, in our old law- books, is ufed for aid, help, or fupport. Adminicle, in the French jurifprudence, fig- nifies the beginning or firft (ketch of a proof. Adminicles, among antiquarians, denote the attributes or ornaments wherewith Juno is repre^ fentcd on medals. ADMINICULATOR, in church-hiftory, an officer otherwife called advocate of the poor. See Advocate. ADMI- ADM ADMINISTRATION, in a political fcnfc, denotes, or ought to denote, the attendance of the trullees of the people on public affairs ; but, more particularly, adminiftration is ufed for the execu- tive part of the government, which is faid to be good or bad, according as the laws are duly en- forced, and juftice done the fubjefts. See Go- vernment. Administration, in law, the office of an ad- niinifbrator. See Administrator. Whenever a man dies inteftate, letters of admi- niftration are taken out in the prerogative court. Administration is alfo ufed for the manage- naent of the affairs of a minor, lunatic, &c. ADMINISTRATOR, in law, the perfon to whom the goods, effefts, or eftate of one who died inteftate are entrufted ; for which he is to be ac- countable, when required. The bifhop of the diocefe where the party dies, is regularly to grant adminiftration : but if the in- teftate has goods in different diocefes, he is to be accountable for them, when required. The [jerfons to whom adminiftration is granted areahufband, wife, children, whether fons or daughters, the father or mother, brother or fifters, and in general tlve next of kin, as uncle, aunt, coufm ; then to a creditor. An aftion lies for and againft an adminiftrator, as for and againft an executor ; only that he is ac- countable no farther than to the value of the goods. ADMINISTRATRIX, a female, or woman who acls as adminiftrator. See Administrator. ADA4IRAL, Jdmiralius, or Admirallus, a great officer who fuperintends the naval armaments of a kingdom, and has the determination of all caufes in the marine. There has been great variety df opinions with rSgard to the origin and denomination of this im- portant office ; which fcems to have been eftablifti- ed in moft countries lying near the fea. Some have borrowed it from the Greek, others from the Arabic, while a third fort, with more appearance of reafon, derive both the title and dignity from the Saracens. But as no certain conclufions feem to have been hitherto deduced from thefe elaborate refearches, and fmce it is not our province to give an hiftoric?! or chronological detail of the diffe- rence of rank r.nd power with which admirals have been inverted in different nations, we {hall decline to fatigue our readers with an enquiry fo fruitlefs and foreign to our purpofe ; and inftead thereof, prefent them with a real account of the office and duty of admirals at fea, as well as of the Lord high Admiral of England, the former of which feems to have been entirely negle^Ried, probably for a very ftifficient reafon, by the gentlemen who have hitherto furnifhed us with thefe critical in- vcftigations. A D M Lcrri high Al>'^nK.\h of Enghii'J, ftilej in feme ancient records, caplttinus ?imr'itimatum, an officer of great antiquity and triilf, who has the entire manngemtnt of the royal navy, and foimcrly had the decifion of all maritime cafes, civil and cri- minal ; he judged of all things done at fea, or abroad by Britifh mariners, and thofc with whom they might be connedled ; upon the fca-coafts, in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers below the firft bridge from the fea. By him the inferior ad- mirals, captains, and heutcnants are ccrnmiiuon- ed ; all deputies for particular coafts appointed, and coroners to view dead bodies found on the fea-coail, or at fea : he alfo appoints the judges for his court of admiralt)'^, and may iniprifon, &cc. All ports and havens are ivfra corpus comiiatus, and the lord admiral hath no jurifdi;in of Amalthea, the goat that fuck]cd him. Afterwards making a prefcnt of the buckler to Minerva, this goddefs fixed the head of Medufa on the middle jof it, which, by that means, became capable of turning all thofe into ftone who looked at it. VEGIUCHUS, in heathcji mythology, a fur- name of Jupiter, given him on account of his Laving been fuckled by a goat. j'EGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of fcveral detergent ointments, ufed for eating oii" iTOttcn flefh, and cleanflng foul ulcers. j'l'lNIGMA, a.ivifiJ.a., denotes any dark faying xjr queflion, wherein fome well known thing is .concealed under obfcure language. The parable, gryphus, and rebus, are by fome 2 JE QJJ accounted three fpecies, or branches of aenigma. See Parable, Gryphus, and Rebus. j^OLIC li'iiileSi, among gramn^.arians, one of the five dialedls of the Greek tongue, agreeing ill moil things with the Doric dialed:. See Doric. /EoLic digamma. See Digamma. j^OLic verfe, in profody, a kind of verfe, con- fifting of an iambus, or fjwndee, then of two ana- pefts, feparated by a long iyllabie, and laftly, of another fyllable. Such is, O Jidlifcr'i conditor orbis. 7E0LIPILE, in hydraulics, aninftrumentcon- fifting of a hollow metalline ball, with a fmall pipe or neck fcrewed thereto, which being filled with water, and expofed to the fire, produces a flrong blafl of wind. This inftrument the mechanical and experimen- tal philofophers chiefly make ufe of, to account for the natural caufe and generation of winds, and fome have ufed this machine to meafure the gravity and rarefadlion of the air, but without iuccefs, as there are many objeflions and difficulties which it is liable to. Others have fuppofed that if the seolipile was fixed to fome fonorous inftrument, as a trumpet or a horn, it might produce mufic, or with proper additions be made to reprefent the fluiiliuating and playing up and down of the ftreani of a fountain ; likewife being placed before the fire, to ferve as a pair of bellows, when an intenfe heat is required ; but thefe fuppofitions are only theory, and not capable of being reduced to praifice, for experience fhews us that inftead of the blaft kindling the fire it totally extinguLfhes, or puts it out. However, the ceolopile being pro- perly conftrufted, it may with fome fucccfs, we think, be applied to cure fmoaking chimnies, and without great expence ; for being filled with water, and hung properly in the funnel of the chimney, the blall which v/ill qiiickly enfue from the heat of the fire, will drive up the loitering fmoke, and caufe a ftrong draught. See Wind, Heat, Water, Air, and Rarefaction. iEOLUS, in the heathen theology, the god of the winds, painted with fwoln blubber cheeks, like one who widi main force endeavours to blow a blaft ; alfo with two fmall wings upon his flioulders, and a fiery high-coloured counte- nance. EQUATION, EQUATOR, ^QLTILIBRATOR, ^.QUILIBRIUM, EQUINOCTIAL, EQUIPOLLENT, EQUIVALENT, EQUIVOCAL, EQUIVOCATIONJ" f"EQUATION. Equator. Eqctilibrator. Equilibrium. 5-See-( Equinoctial. Equipollent. Eqijivalent. Equivocal. LEquivocation. ERA, AER /ERA, in chronology, a ferics of y.-ais, com- mencing from a certain fixed point of time, called cpocha: thus, we fay the Chriftian rrra, that is, the number of years elapfcd fincc the birth of Chrift. 'I'hc generality of authors, howc\Tr, nfe the terms a-ra and epocha in a fynonymous fenfe, or for the point of time from which the compu- tation commences, making no other dilTcrcncc be- tween them, except that the fornnr is chiefly uied by the vulgar, and the latter by chronologcrs. See Epocha. AERIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fome- tliing partaking of the nature of air : thus we fay, an aerial i'ublfance, aerial particles, he. " Aerial Perfpe£live, is that which reprefents bodies diminifhed and weakened in proportion to tlieir diftance from the eye, and has chiefly to do with the colours of objecSls, whofc luflre and force is diminifhed in proportion to the diftance of the objeift you are to reprefent ; for the longer the column of air that any body is feen through, fo much the fainter do the rays emitted from it, ap- pear to the eye. See Perspective. AERIANS, Jeria/ii, in church hiftory, the name of certain fedlaries of the fourth century, who were fo called from Aerius, a prieft of Ar- menia, who was their chief. Thefe Arians had pretty much the fame notions, with refpeft to the Trinity, that the Arians had ; but they entertain- ed befides fome tenets that were peculiar to them- felves. Aerius was diflatisSed that Euftathius, his former companion, fhould fucceed to a bifhopric, for which he had been candidate himfelf; and therefore defamed the order of bifliops, as an en- croachment upon the priefthood. He looked upon all the fafts of the church to be merely fuperfti- tious, and affirmed that even the pafTover itfelf fhould not be obfen'ed ; he admitted none into his feft, but thofe who lived in continence, and con- tkmned marriage as unlawful. AEROGRAPHY fignifies a defcription of the air, efpecially of its dimenfions, and other moft obvious properties ; in which fenfe, it differs but little from AEROLOGY, v/hich is a fcientifical account of the nature and lefs obvious properties of air. See Air and Atmosphere. AEROMANCY, Aeromantia, a fpecies of di- vination performed by means of air, winds, &c. Aeromancy is alfo ufed for the art of fore- telling the various changes of the air and weather, by means of barometers, hygrometers, &c. See Barometer, &c. AEROMETRY, the fcience of meafuring the air, its powers and properties ; the term, at pre- fent, is not much in ufe, for this part of natural philofophy is commonly called pneumaiics. See Pneumatics. JE TH yf-.SCm'NOMENE, in botany, a genus of plants, that bears a papilionaceous flower, and it', leaves contraft by the touch ; whence it has been called the baflard fcnfiti\e plmt. Botanifls enu- merate fi\e forts, which are all natives of the warmer climates. j^SCL'LAPIUS's Setpeiit, /Efculcipii aaguis, in zoology, a harmlcfs kind of ferpcnt, otherwife called parx'a. See PARitA. j'F'SCULUS, in botany. See Horse-'Cheskut. TETHER, A/Oiip, in phyfiology, an exceeding fine, thin, fubtile fluid, concerning which philo- fophers are greatly divided ; however, the fenti- ments of Sir Ifaac Newton, v.-hich arc molt re- ceived, are as follows : 1. He fuppofcs that anffithcrial fubftance is dif- fufcd through all places, and that it is capable of contraction and dilatation, ftror.gly elaliic, and much like air in all refpects, but much more fubtile. 2. He fuppofcs that this aether pervades all groft bodies, but yet fo as to itand rarer in their pores, than in free fpaces, and fo much the rarer as their pores are lefs : that it is the caufe why light incident on thofe bodies, is refra£fed towards the perpendicular. See Light and Refraction. Why two well polifhed metals cohere in a receiver exhaufted of air. See Cohesion. Why mer- cury flands fometimes up to the top of a glafs pipe, though much higher than 30 inches, and one of the chief caufes why the parts of all bodies cohere ; .ilfo the caufe of filtration, of the rifing of water in fmall glals pipes, above the furface of the ftagnated water they are dipped in, for he fufpc6is the sether may itand rarer, not only in the infenfible pores of bodies, but even in the very fenfible cavities of thefe pipes. See Capil- lary Tube. And the fame principle may caufe menftruums to pervade with violence the pores of bodies they dilTolve, the furrounding a;ther as well as the atmofphcre preffing them together. 3. He fuppoies the rarer --ether within bodies, and the denfer without them, not to be terminated in a mathematical fuperficiss, but to grow gra- dually into one another, the external sether begin- ning to grow rarer, and the internal to grow den- fer, at fome little diftance from the fuperficies of the body, and running through all degrees of den- fity in tl;ie intermediate fpaces ; and that this may be the caufe why light, in Grimaldi's experiment, pafling by the edge of a knife, or other opakc body, is turned afide, and as it were refradled, and by that refra£lion makes feveral colours. Let ABCD, (Plate VL//. I.) beadenfebody whether opake or tranfparent ; EFGH, the out- fide of the uniform aether which is within it ; IKLM, the infide of the uniform fether which is without it, and conceive the aether which is between EFGH and I K L M to run through all R intermediate -^ T H ^ T H iiitermediate degrees of denfity, between that of the two uniform aethers on either fide. This be- ing fuppofeJ, the rays of the fun SB, SK, which pafs by the edge of this body between B and K, ought in their paflage through the unequally dcnfe sethcr there, to receive a ply from the dcn- for sethcr, which is on that fide towards K ; and that the more, by how much they pafs nearer to the body, and thereby be fcattered through the fpace P Q_R S 7% as by experience they are found to be. iNow the fpace between the limits EFGH and I K L M, he calls the fpace of the sethcr's graduated rarity. 4. When two bodies moving towards one ano- ther come near together, he fuppofcs the a;ther between them to grow rarer than before, and the fpaces of its graduated rarity to extend further from the fuperficies of the bodies towards one another, and this by reafon that the aether can- not move and play up and down fo freely in the ftraight pafTage between the bodies as it could be- fore they carae fo near together. Thus, if the fpace of the aether's graduated rarity reach from f 36 body A BCD EF (fig. 1.) only to the diftance GHLMRS, when no other body is near it, yet ni.iy it reach farther, as to I K, when another body N O P Q_ approaches ; and as the other body ap- proaches more and more, he fuppofes the sther between them vrill grow rarer and rarer. — Note, He has fo defcribed thofe fuppofitions, as if he thought the fpaces of graduated :vther had precife limits, as is exprefcd at IFZL.M in the firlf figure, ;ind at GMRS iixtlie fecond, for thus he thought Ive could better exprefs himfelf: but he did not think they have fuch precife limits, but rather de- cay infenfibly, and in fo decaying, extend to a much greater diilance than can eafdy be believed, or need bs fuppofed. 5, Now^ from the fourth fuppofition it fol- lows, that if two bodies approaching one another, come fo near together as to make the asther be- tween them begin to rarify, they will have a se- lu6tance from beiiig brought nearer together, and an endeavour to recede from one another ; which reluiStance and endeavour will increafe as they come nearer together, becaufe thereby they caufe the interjaceat aether to rarefy more and more ; but at length, when they come fo near together, that the excefs of prefjure of the external ?ethcr which, fur- round the bodies,, above that of the rarefied ather which is between them, is fo great, as to overcome the relui^ance which the bodies have from being brought togeth.er, then will- that excefs of pref- fure drive them witli violerice together, and nwkc them adhere ftrongly to one another, as was faid i^;i the fecond fuppolition. For inftance, (Plate IV. yf^. 2.) when the bodies ED and NP are fo near together, that the fpaces He likewife fuppofi;s a-ther to confift of parts. di.fcring from one anothsr in fubtilty by indefinite degrees ; that in the pores of bodies there is lefs.- of the grofier aether in proportion to the finer than in open fpaces^ and confequently,. that in the great body of the earth, there is much lefs of the grofTer sther in proportion to the finer than, in the regions of the air ; aird that yet the groflor .-ether in the air afte6fs the upper regions of the earth, and the finer asther in the earth the lower regions of the air, in fuch a manner, that from the top of the air to the furface of the earth,. and JETH JET H and again from the furface of the earth to the txnter thereof, the a;ther is inreiifiblv finer and finer. Imagine now any body fufpcndcd in the air, or Iving on the earth, and the aether being by the hypothelis, groiTer in the pores which are in the upper parts of the body, than thofe which are in the lower parts of the body, and that the groflcr a'thcr being lefs apt to be lodged in thofe pores, than the finer sther below, it will endea\oiir to get out and give way to the finer ather below, which cannot be without the bodies defcendincr to make room above for it to go out into. See Gravity. The above doftrine of the a-thcr is paft of what was drawn up by Sir Ifaac Newton for the ufe of Mr. Boyle ; his further thoughts on the fame fubjeft will be foimd in the following Qiie- ries, which he inferted many years after among others, in his excellent book of Optics. ^'^.. 1 6. When a man in the dark prefTes eitlier corner of his eye with his finger, he will fee a circle of colours like thofe in a peacock's tail. If the eye and the finger remain quiet, thefe colours ■» anifh in a fecond minute of time ; but if the fin- ger be moved v/ith a quivering motion they appear again. Do not thefe colours arife from fuch mo- tions excited in the bottom of the eye, by the preilure and motion of the finger, as at other times are excited there by light caufing vifion? And do not the motions once excited continue about a fecond of time before they ceafe ? And when a man by a ftroke upon his eye fees a flafli of light, are not the like motions excited in the retina by the ftroke ? And when a coal of fire moving nimbly in the circumference of a circle, makes the whole circumference appear like a circle of fire, is it not becaufe the motions excited in the bot- tom of the eye by the rays of light, are of a laft- ing nature, and continue till the coal of fire in going round returns to its former place ? And con- Itdering the laftingnefs of the motions excited i.n the bottom of the eye by light, are they not of a vibrating nature ? ^. 17. If a ftone be thrown into ftagnating water, the waves excited thereby continue fome time to arife ^n the place where the ftone fell into the water, and are propagated from thence in con- centric circks upon the furface of the water to great diftances. And the vibrations or tremors ex- cited in the air by percuflion, continue a little time to move from the place of perculJion in concentric fpheres to great diftances. And in like manner, when a ray of light falls upon the furface of any f-ellucid body, and is there refracted or reflected ; may not waves of vibrations or tremors be thereby excited on the refradting or refledting medium at the point of incidence, and continue to arife there, and to be propagated from thence as Ions; as they continue to arife, and be propagated v.'hen'they arc excited in the bottom of the eye by t'le p.-rfTur.^' c: motion of the finger, or from the liglit wliich comes from the coal of fire in the experimeiits . above mentioned? And thefe vibration? piop,i-j.aced • from the point of incidence to great iiiiiillances i* • And do they not overtake the rays of light, ami by overtaking tliem fucceiTuely, do, they not put tiiem into fits of eafv refledtion and eafy tranf- million defcribed above ? tor if the rays endeavour to recede from the denfeft part of the vibration, they may be idternately accelerated and retarded by the vibrations overtaking them. J^u. 18. If in two large tali cylindrical vcffels of glafs inverted, tv/o little thermometers be fuf- pended fo as not to touch the vefTels, and the air be drawn out of one of thef3 velTels, and thefe veffels thus prepared be carried cut of a cold place into a warm one ; tlve thermometer in vacuo will grow warm as much, and almoft as foon, as the thermometer which is not in vacuo. And when the vellels are carried back into die cold place,, the thermometer in -vocuo will grow cold almoft as fooji as die other thermometer. Is not the heat of the warm room,, conveved through die vacuum by the vibrations, of a much fubtLler medium than air, which after the air v.-as drawn out remained in the vacuum 1 y\iid is not this medium the fime with that medium by v/hich light is refrafted and re- fleiSlid, and by whofe vibrations light communi- cates heat to bodies, arul is put into fits of eafy reflexion and eafy tranfmiffion I And do not the vibrations of this medium '\i\ hot bodies, contri- bute to the intenfenefs and duration of the heal ? And do not hot bodies communicate their heat to- contiguous cold ones, by the vibrations of this medium propagated from them into the cold ones \ And is not this m.edium exceedingly more rare and fubtile than the air, and exceedingly mora elaftic and active ? And doth it not readily pervade all bodies ? And is it not, by its elaftic force, ex- panded through all the heavens ? See Heat. ^i. 19. Doth not the refraction of light pro- ceed from the different denfit)' of this ssthereaL medium in different places, the light receding al- ways from the dcnfer p.ii-ts of the medium .■ And is not the denfity of it greater in free and open fpaces void of air and other groffer bodies, than. witb.in the pores of water, gLifs,, cryftal, gems, and other compacl bodies ? For when light paffes. through glafs or cryftal, au>l falling very obliquely upon the farther furface thereof is totallv reflected, tl>e total refleftion ought to proceed rather from- tlie denfity and vigour of tlie medium without and beyond the glafs, than from the rarity and weak- nei's thereof. - ■ ^i. 20. Doth nrt this atherial medium in. paOing out of water, glafs, cryftal, and other compact and denfe bodies, into empty (paces, grow. denfer and denfcr bv decrees, snd bv that means rehvA tlie rays of light, not in ;i point, but by I bending them gradually in curve lines ? And doth net the gradual condenlation of this medium ex- tend to fome diilance from the bodies,^ and thereby caufe the infledtions of the rays of light, which pafs by the edges of denfe bodies, at fome diftance from the bodies. See Inflection, REFtECTioN, and Refraction. ^i. 21. Is not this medium much rarer within the denfe bodies of the fun, ft;ir», planets and comets, than in the empty cclellial fpaces between them ? And in pafling from them to greater dijlances, doth it not grow denfer and denfer per petually, and thereby caufe the gravity of thofe great bodies towards one another, and of their parts, towards the bodies ; every body endeavour- ing to go from the denfer parts of the medium to- wards the rarer ? For if this medium be rarer within the fun's body than at its furface, and rarer there than at the hundredth part of an inch from its body, and rarer there than at the fifteenth part of an inch from its body, and rarer there than at the orb of Saturn ; he fees no reafoii v.hy the in- creafe of denfity fhould ftop anv where, and not rather be continued througii all diftanccs from the Sun to Saturn, and beyond. And though this in- creafe of denfity may be exceeding flow, yet if the clartic force of this medium be exceeding great, it may fuffice to impel bodies from the denfer parts of the medium towards the rarer, with all that power which we call gravity. And that theelaftic torce of this medium is exceeding great, may be ga;'iered from the fwiftnefs of its vibrations. .Sounds move about 1140 Englifh feet in a fecond of time, and in feven or eight minutes of time they move above one hundred Englifh miles. Light moves from the Sun to us in about feven or eight minutes of time, whicii dillance is about 70000000 of Englifh miles, fuppofing the hori- zontal parallax of the Sun to be twelve feconds. And the vibrations or pulfes of this medium, that they may caufe the alternate fits of cafy tranf- mifiion and cafy reflexion, muft be fwifter than light, and by confequence above 700000 times jTwifter than founds. And therefore the elaftic force of this medium, in proportion to its denfity, rtiLift be above 700000x700000 (that is, above 490000000OC0) times greater than the elaftic force of the air is in proportion to its denfity. For the velocities of the pulfes of elaftic mediums, are in a fubduplicate ratio of the elafticities and the rarities of the mediums taken together. As attraiftion is ftronger In fmall macrnets than in great ones, in prcportinn to their bulk ; and gravity is greater in the furfaces of fmall planets than in thole of great ones, in proportion to their bulk ; and fmall bodies are agitated much more by electric attrafiion, than great ones : fo the fmall- neis of the rays of light ipay contribiKe very ^ T H much to the power of the a^ent by which they are refraE\ed. And fo if any one ftiould fuppofe that aither, like our air, may contain particles which endeavour to recede from one another (for he owns he does not know what this a;ther is) and that its particles are exceedingly fmaHer than thofe of air, or even than thofe of light ; the exceeding fmallnefs of its particles may contribute to tiie greatnefs of the force by which thofe particles may recede from one another, and thereby make that medium exceedingly more rare and elaftic than air, and by confequence exceedingly lefs abk to refift the motions of projectiles, and exceedingly lefs able to prefs upon grols bodies, by endeavour- ing to expand itfelf. ^n. 22. May not planets and comets, and ail grofs bodies, perform their motions more freclv, and with lefs refift-ance, in this a-therial medium, than in any fluid which tills all fpace adequately without leaving any pores, and by confequence is much denfer than quickfilver or gold ? And may not its refiftance be fo fmall, as to be inconfider- able I For inftaiice, if this nether fliould be fup- pofed 700000 times more elaftic than our air, and above 70C000 times more rare ; its refiftance v.'ould be above 600000000 times lef.i than that of water. And fo fmall a refiftance would fcarce make any fenfible alteration in the motions of the planets in ten thoufand years. If any one would afk, how a medium can be fo rare ? let him tell us how the air, in the upper parts of the atmofphere, can be above a hundred thoufand times rarer than gold. Let him alfo tell us, how an eleftric body can, by friftion, emit an exhalation fo rare and fubtilc, and yet fo potent, as by its emiftion to caufe no fenfible diminution of the weight of the eledtric body, and to be expanded through a fphere, whofe diameter is above two feet ; and yet to be able to agitate, and carry up leaf-copper, or leaf-gold, at the djftance of above a foot from the electric body? And how the effluvia of a magnet can be fo rare and fubtilc, as to pafs through a plate of glafs without any refiftance or diminution of their torce ; and yet fo potent, as to turn a magnetic needle beyond the glafs ? Is not vifion performed chiefly by tfee vibrations of this medium, excited in the bottom of the eye by the rays of light, and propagated through the folid, pellucid, and uniform capillamenta of the optic nerves into the place of fenfation ? And is not hearing performed by the vibrations either of this or fome other medium, excited in the auditory nerves by the tremors of the air, and propagated through the iblid, pellucid, and uniform capilla- menta of thofe nerves into the place of fenfation ? And ib of the other fenfts. ^u. 24. Is not animal motion performed by the vibrations of this medium, excited in the brain by the power cf the will, and propagated i'rom thence / through ^T H through the foliJ, pelluciii, and uniform capilla- menta of the nerves into the mufcles, for contraft- ing and dilating them ? Suppofing that the capilla- ments of the nei-ves are each of them folid and uniform, that the vibrating motion of the :ethcreal medium may be propagated along them from one end to the other, uniformly and without interrup- tion : for obftruitions in the nerves create palfies. And that they may be fufficiently uniform, he fuppofes them to be pellucid, when viewed fmgly, though the reflections in their cylindrical furfaces, may make the whole nerve compofcd of many capillamenta appear opake and white : for opacity arifes from reflecting furfaces, fuch as may dilturb and interrupt the motion of this medium. jEther, in chem.iftry, an extremely penetrating fpirit, made by diftilling (pirit of wine with oil of vitriol, and then precipitating the fulphureous gas with an alcali. Concentrated oil of vitriol be'nc', dropt by de- grees into an equal quantity, or fi\e or iix times its quantity, of highly redtilied fpirit of wine, the liquor becomes firit yellow and then reddifn, and exhales an agreeable, difrufive, penetrating fmell, which if freely taken in with the breath attefts the lungs : the tafte of the liquor is conildera- bly acid. On digefting the mixture for fome days, and then committin"; it to diftillation in a retort with a very gentle warmth, there arifes a fubtile fpirir, more fragrant and penetrating in fmell than the undlilllled liquor, very volatile, inflammable, in tafte not at all acid, but of the aromatic kind. This is the dulcified fpirit of vitriol. It comes over in thin invifiblc vapours, which condenie upon the fides of the recipient in flraight ftrise. This fpirit is fucceeded by one of a different kind, which, being caught in a feparate receiver, is found to be fenfibly acid, and of a pungent fuf- focating fmell, like the fumes of burning brim- llone. Along with it comes over a fmall quantity of oil ; which fometimes proves colourlei's, and fwims on the fulphureous liquor, and fometimes appears yellowifh or greenilh, and fmks to the bottom, according as the vinous fpirit in the max- ture was in large or in fmall proportion. The dulcified fpirit alfo has frequently fome flight acidity, fuf&cient to alter the fine green tintture, which in its perfect ftate it extracts from the leaves of plants. It is purified or recti- fied from this redundant acid, by mixing it with a weak folution of fixed alcaline fait, and diftilling it over a fecond time : for every pint of the fpirit, may be taken a folution of a, dram of alcali in a pint of water. If the fpirit, thus reCIified, be mingled agp-in with an equal quantity of a like alcaline folution, the mixture fhaken together, appears milky : on ftanding for a little time;^ thete ariles to the fur- 4 JET H face an extremely fubtile fluid, called by the che- mlfts sethcr, or ;cthcrial fpirit of wine. A con- fiderable quantity of dulcified fpirit may Itlll be fcparated from the remaining liquor by didillation ; and this fpirit, mixed v^'ith frcfli alcaline folution, aftbrds more rether. The a-ther is the lighted:, moft volatile, andmofi: inflammable of all known liquors. It. fwims on the moft highly retSlified fpirit of wine, being lighter than that fpirit in the proportion nearly of 0,730 to 0,830. Dropt on the warm hand, it al- moll exhales, diffafing a penetrating fragrance, and leaving no nioiiture behind. On the approach, of a candle it takes fire, and goes off in a flaflv like lightning. It does not mingle with water, ■with acid, or with alcaline liquors; but dlflblves fome unctuous and refinous bodies. Among me- tallic fubftanccs, it difcovers a remarkable attrac- tion to gold, but feems to have no eftett on any of the otliers : mixed with a lolution of gold made in acids, it imbibes the gold from the acid, carries it to the furface, and keeps it there diflolved into a. yellow liquor ; hence its ufe for difcovering gold in liquids. The only perfon we know of who has given any plaufible theory of the produflion of this fubtile fluid, is Mr. Macquer. Spirit of wine confills chiefly of an oil, cxquifitely attenuated by fermentation, and intimately combined with water. According to Mr. Macquer, the aether is no other than this fubtllized oil, extricated by the vitriolic acid ; which acid, having a ftrong affinity or at- traction to water, abforbs the watery element ci' the fpirit, and thus fcts the oily one at liberty. AixHERiAi., fomcthing that participates of the nature of aether. See /I'Ither. ^Etherial 0//, among chemifls, a fubtile eficn- tlal oil, approaching to the nature of fpirits. Sec the article Oit. jE THJOFS, or Mthiops Mineral,, a preparation of mercurv, made by rubbing In a nvarble or glafs mortar, equal quantities of quick-filver and flowers of fulphur, till the mercury wholly difappears', and there remains a fine deep black powder, from whence it has got the name of /Ethiops. This Is cfteemed one of the fafe.ft preparations of mercury, a.'id is much ufed againlt cutaneous foulnefTes, in fcrophulous cafes, in remains of ven.ereal difordcrs, and even in the gout and rheu-- niatifm. In fccrbutlc cafes fcarce any medicine exceeds it; and it has been long known as- The age of a horfe, deer, &c. is knov/n. by feve- ral marks ; for which fee the articles Horse, Deer, &c. Ghronologers are far from being agreed with re- fpedt to the age of the world-; fome making it more, fome lefs. See the article World. AsE, is alfo ufed in a fyrionimous fenfe with century. S.ec Centurv. Age likewife denotes certain periods of the du- ration of the world. Thus, among Chriflian chronologers, .we mce*- with AGE with the age of the law of nature, which comprc- hcjids the whole time between Adam and Moles ; the age of the Jewifli law, which takes in all the time from Mofes to Chrift ; and laftly, the age of grace, or the number of years fince the birth of Chrift. Among ancient hiftorians, the duration of the world is alfo fubdivided into certain periods, called ages; of which they reckon three : the firft, reach- uig from the creation to the deluge which happened in Greece during the reign of Ogygcs, is called the obfcure or uncertain age ; the hiftory of man- kind, during that period, being altogether uncer- tain. The fecond, called the fabulous or heroic, terminates at the firft olympiad ; where the third, or hiftoricaJ age, commences. The ancient poets alfo divided the duration of the world into four ages, or periods ; the firft of which they called the golden age ; the fecond, the filver age ; the third, tlie brazen age ; and the fourth, the iron age. Not unlike thefe are the four ages of the world, as computed by the Eaft-Indians, "who extend them to a monftrous length. Age alfo denotes certain degrees or periods of human life, commonly reckoned four, viz. infancy, youth, manhood, and old age : the firft of which extends to the fourteenth year; the fecond, to the twenty-fifth year; the third, to the fiftieth year ; and the fourth, to the feventy-fifth year, or rather, as long as a man lives. Age, in law, fignifies certain periods of life, when perfons of both fexes are enabled to do cer- tain adts, which for want of years and difcretion they were incapable of before : thus, a man at twelve years of age ought to take the oath of allegiance to the king in a leet : at fourteen, which is his age of difcretion, he may marry, choofe his guardian, and claim his lands held iji focage. Twenty-one is called full age, a man or wo- man being then capable of afting for themfelves, of managing their affairs, making contrails, dif- pofmg of their eftates, and the like ; which before that age they could not do. A woman is dowable at nine years of age, may marry at twelve, and at fourteen chufe her guar- dian. If a man or woman afts in any of the above- mentioned capacities before the time preicribed by law, he or fhe may retra£t at that time, otherwife they are fuppofed to agree to it anew, and it fliall be deemed valid. Thus, if a man marries before fourteen, or a woman before twelve, they may ei- ther agree to the marriage or not, at thefe feveral ages ; and fo on in other cafes. At fourteen, a man may difpofe of his perfonal -eftate by will, but not of lands. At this age too a man or woman is firft capable of being a witnefs, and under it perfons are not generally puniflKible 4 A GE for crimes, though they muft fitisfy the damage fuftained by trefpafs committed by them. Age-Prier, /Etatcm precari, is when an aftion being brought againft a perfon under age, for lands defcended to him, he, by motion or petition, fliews the matter to the court, praying the aftion may be ftayed till his full age; v/hich the court generally agrees to. However, as a purchafcr, a minor fhall not have his age-pricr ; nor in any writ of afTize, of dower, or petition; but he may in any aiilioa of debt. By the civil law the cafe is otherwife, an in- fant or minor being obliged to anfwer by his tutor or curator. Among the Romans it was unlawful to put up for any public office, or magiftracy, unlefs the can- didate had attained to a certain age; which dif- fered according to the offices fued for. Hence the phrafes confular age, pra;torian age, &c. See the articles CoKsui., Praetor, &c. Age of the Moon, in aftronomy, is the num- ber of days that are paft fince her laft conjundlion with the fun, or from the day of her change. See the article Moon. AGEMOGLANS, Jgiamoghns, or Azlamo- ghnis, in the Turkifli cuftoms, Chriftian children raifed every third year, by way of tribute, from the Chriftians tolerated in the Turkifh empire. The collectors of this odious tax ufe to taice one child out of three, pitching always upon the moft handfomc. The word agemoglans properly fignifies a bar- barian's child ; and out of their number, after be- ing circumcifcd, and inftructed in the religion and language of their tyrannical mafters, are the jani- zaries recruited. As to thofe who are thought un- fit for the army, they are employed in the lowefl: offices of the feraglio. AGENDA, among philofophers and divines, fignifies the duties which a man lies under an obli- gation to perform : thus we meet with the agenda of a Chriftian, or the duties he ought to perform, in oppofition to the credenda, or things he is to believe. Agenda is more particularly ufed for divine fervice, in which fenfe we meet with agenda ma- tutina b' vefpertina ; that is, morning and evening prayers. Agent, in mechanics, a power which a£ts upon other bodies by virtue of its own motion, and by that adfion caufes or effedls a change therein. See Action or Motion. Agents are either natural or moral. Natural Aoznrs ai-e all fuch inanimate bodies, as have a power to adl upon other bodies in a cer- tain and determinate manner : fuch is fire, which has the invariable property or power to warm or heat. Moral Agents, on the contrary, are rational T creatures. AG G A G L creatures, capable of regulating their ailions hj a certain rule. Thele are otherwife called free or voluntary agents. Agents, among phyficians and chemifls, an appellation given to all kinds of menftruums. Agent is alfo ufed to denote a perfon entruft- ed with the management of an afFair, whether be- longing to a fociety, company, or prl\'ate perfon ; thus we fay, agents of the Exchequer, of the Vic- tualling-office, &:c. Agent and Patient, in law, is faid of a perfon who is the doer of any thing, and alfo the party to whom it is done. Thus, if a man who is indebted to another, makes his creditor his executor, and dies, the executor may retain fo much of the goods of the deceafed as v.'ill fatisfy his debt ; by which means he becomes agent and patient ; that is, the perfon to whom the debt is due, and the perfon who pays it. AGER, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of land allowed to each citizen. See the article Agrarian Law. Acer is alfo ufed, in middle-age writers, for an acre of land. See the article Acre. AGERATUM, in botany, the baftard hemp agrimony, a plant which produces male and fe- male and hermaphrodite flofcules in one common empalement ; it contains five fliort hairy filaments, with an oblong germen, in which are fituated fe- verai angulated oblong downy feeds. — This plant was antiently known among the Greeks by the name of eupatorium ; the leaves are recom- mended as vulnerary and hepatic ; alfo to dilTolve hard tumours, and abforb fuperfluous humidities. The maudlin, which is alfo called ageratum, is r.ot of this genus, but a fpecies of the achillsa. See Achill.s;a and Maudlin. AGGER, in the ancient military art, a bank CT rampart, compofed of various materials, as earth, boughs of trees, &c. The agger of the ancients vms of the fame na- ture with what the moderns call lines. Agger was alfo ufed in feveral other fcnfes, as for a wall or bulwark to keep oft" the fea ; for the middle part of a military road, ufuaily raifed into a ridge ; and fometimss for the heap of earth raifed over crraves, more commonly called tunudi. AGGLUTINANTS, y1y«IutinnKtia, in phar- macy, &:c. make a clafs of {brengthcning medicines, of a' glutinous or vifcous nature; which, by rca- tiilv adhering to the folids, contribute greatly to repair their lofs. AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, de- notes the joining two or more things togetiier, by means of a proper glue or cement. Agglutination, among phyficians, fignifies either the adherence of new fublbnce, or the giv- ing a glutinous confiftence to the animal fluids^ whereby they become more fit for nourifhing the body. AGGREGATE is much the fame as the futn arifing from the addition or colledlion of feveral things together, the whole of which is called the aggregate, fum, or total. AGGREGATION, in natural philofophy, is a particular kind of union or affociation of feve- ral things which have no natural connexion one with the other by nature ; but by fome artificial means are collected together fo as to form one whole. Thus a houfe is a body of aggregation, being form- ed of wood, ftone, mortar, he. which have no na- tural connexion one with the other. AGGRESSOR, among lawyers, denotes the perfon who began a quarrel, or made the firll aflault. It is a very material point to know who was the firft aggreffor, and accordingly never fails to be ftridtlv enquired into. AGIADES, in the Turkifh armies, denote ar kind of pioneers employed in fortifying camps, and the like offices. AGIO, in commerce, a term chiefly ufed in Holland and at Venice, where it denotes the dif- ference between the value of bank-ftock and the current coin. Agio is alfo ufed for the profit arifing from the difcounting a note, bill, &c. AGISTA4ENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in law, the taking in other people's cattle to graze, at fo much per month. The term is peculiarly ufed for the taking iir cattle to be fed in the king's forefl:s, as well as for the profits thence arifing. Agistment is alfo ufed in a metaphorical fenfe, for any tax, burden, or charge : thus, the tax levied for repairing the banks of Romney- marfh was called agiji amentum. AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer be- longing to foreils, who has the care of the cattle taken in to be arazed, and levies the monies du3 on that account. There are four fuch agifiors in each foreft, all created by letters patent, and commonly called gueft-takers, or gift -takers. AGITATION, in phyfics, a brifk inteflinc motion of the fmall corpufcies of anv natural body. Thus fermentation and efiervefcence are produced by a quick agitation of the particles of the fermenting body : fire Hkewife agitates the moil fubcile particles of matter. See Fire. AGLAOPHOTIS, in botany, a term ufed fon^etimes for piony. See the article PiONY. AGLECTS, Aglets, or Agleeds, among^ botanifts, tjie fame with v.'hat is ufuaily called apices. See Apices. AGLIA> AGO AG R AGLTA, a term ufcd by ancient phyficians for a whitifh fpot in the eye, caufed by a congcftipn of humours. AGNATION, Jgnatto, among civilians, de- i'lotes the relation of kinfliip fubfifting between the defcendants of the fame man, in the male line. AGNOET^., in church hiftory, a feft of he- retics, fo called on account of their maintaining that Chrift, with refpe£t to his human nature, was ignorant of many things, and particularly of the day of judgment ; an opinion which they built upon the text, Mark xiii. 32. whereof the mod natural meaning is, that the knowledge of the day of judgment does not concern our Saviour, confidered in the charafter of Meifiah. AGNOETISM, among ecclefiaftical writers, fignifies the do(Slrine or herefy of the agnoetse. See Agnoetje. AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth or honorary name, given to a perfon on ac- count of fome extraordinary aftion, virtue, or other accomplifhment. Thus the agnomen Afri- canus was beftowed upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great atchievements in Africa. AGNUS, the lamb, in zoology, the young of the fheep kind ; for the proper treatment of which, fee the article Lamb. Agnus CaJJus, in botany, the chafte tree, fo called on fuppofition that it allayed luft, by cooling the genital parts when heated by feminal turgef- cency. In the prefent medical practice it is but little ufed. Botanifts enumerate five fpecies of thefe plants, which are all clafled under the gene- ral name vitex. See Vitex. Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax ftamped with the figure of a lamb fupport- ing a crofs. Thefe being confecrated by the pope with great folemnity, and diftributed among the people, are fuppofed to have great virtues ; as to preferve thofe who carry them worthily, and with faith, from all manner of accidents, to expel evil fpirits, &c. Agnus Dei, is alfo a popular name for that part of the mafs, where the pried: ftrikes his brcaft thrice, and fays the prayer beginning with the words agnui dci. Agnus Scytbicus,\n natural hiftory, the name of a fiftitious plant, refembling a lamb, faid to grow in Tartary. Kzempfer, who was in the country, could not by the moll diligent enquiry, find any account of it ; and thefore concludes the whole to be a fiilion. AGONALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals celebrated in honour of Janus, or of the god Agonius, whom the Romans invoked before un- dertaking any affair of importance. They fecm to have been kept three times in the year, viz. on the fifth of the ides of January, on the twelfrh of the calends of June, and or. tht: third of the ides of December. AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes, in Grecian antiquity, was the prcfident or fuperin- tendant of the facred games ; who not only de- frayed the expcnccs attending them, but infpe^ted the manners and dilcipline of the athletx, and ad- judged the prizes to the -litStors. AGONY, am.ong phyficians, denotes extreme pain, or the utmofl efforts of nature llruggling with a difeafe. Agony, in a more limited fenfe, is ufed for the pangs of death ; v/hich are Icfs painful than ufually imagined, the body being then incapabL- of quick fenfations. See Death. AGONYCLITA;, or Agonyclites, iu church hiftory, a feft of Chriftians, in the feventh century, who prayed always ftanding, as thinking it unlawful to kneel. AGRARIAN Stations, agvaria: ftationes, i:! ths- Roman art of war, were a kind of advanced guards pofted in the fields. Agrarian Lawi, among the fame people, thofe relating to the divifion and diftribution cf lands ; of which there were a great number : but that called the Agrarian Law, by way of eminence, was publiflied by Spurius CaOlus, about the year of Rome 268, for dividing the conquered lands equally among all the citizens, and limiting the. number of acres which each citizen m.ight enjoy. Harrington, in his Oceana, thinks an agrarian law the only bafis of liberty ; through the want cA which, or the non-obfervance of it, the common.- wealth of Rome came to ruin. He likewife lays down the plan of an agrarian law for England, whereby no man fhould b-c allowed to poffefs more- than 2000]. a year in lands. AGREEMENT, in law, fignifies the confcnt of feveral perfnns to any thing done. There are three kinds of agreement. Firft, an agreement already executed at the beginning, as when money is paid, or other fatisfaction made for the thing agreed to. Secondly, an agreement after an aft done by another, to which a perfon agrees : this is alfo executed. Thirdly, an zina- ment executory, or to be executed, m time to come. An agreement put in writing dflss not change its nature, but if it be fealed and delivered, it bs- conies ftill ftronger ; nay, any writing under hand- and feal, or a provifo amounting to aa agcecmeni, is equivalent to a co\ enant. AGR1CUI,TURE, in a general fcnfc, denotes the art of rendering the earth fertile by tillage and culture. In this fenfe, it comprehends gar- dening, as well us hufbandry. See the articles Gardening and Husbandry. Agriculture is more particularly ufed for the inauageuv:nt AGR A GU management of arable lands, by ploughing, fal- lowing, manuring, 6tc. See the article Plough- ing, &CC. Agriculture is a no lefs honourable than pro- fitable art, holding the higheft efteem among the ancients, and equally valued by the moderns. The Egyptians aicribed the invention of agri- culture to Ofiris ; the Greeks to Ceres and her fon Triptolemus ; and the Italians to Saturn, or Janus : but the Jew^s, with more reafon, afcribe this honour to Noah, who, immediately after the flood, fet about tilling the ground and planting vineyards. Agriculture has been the delight of the greateft men. We are told, that Cyrus the Younger planted and cultivated his garden, in a great mea- ilire, with his own hands ; and it is well known, that the Romans took many of their beft generals from the plough. But not to detain the reader with a needlefs encomium of this univerfally admired art, we fliall here fubjoin its principal branches, which will be treated of under their refpedfive articles. Agriculture, then, may be fubdivided into the proper management of all kinds of arable lands, whether of a clayey, fandy, loamy, or whatever other foil. See the articles Clay-Lands, San- dy-Lakds, &c. 2. Of lands employed in paflurage, whether they be meadow-lands, marfhy-lands, &c. See Meadow-Lakds, Sic. 3. Of wood-lands, or thofe laid out in nur- feries, plantations, forefts, woods, &c. See the article Wood-Lands, &c. AGRIFOLIUM, or Aquifolium, in botany. See Ilex. AGRIMONOIDES, in botany, a plant bear- ing rofaceous flowers ; it is claffed by Linnaeus with the agrimonia. AGRIMONIA, in botany, agrimony, a genus of plants of dift'crent fpecies ; the fort which is beft known in the fhops, grows wild in feveral parts of England : the flower, which is rofaceous and pentapetalous, contains a monophylous cup, acurately divided into five fegments ; in the center, t vvo ftyles rell on the germcn, furrounded by twelve capillary filaments, whofe baii;s are inferred in the calyx. When the flower is decayed, the germen becomes two roundiih feeds, faftcnened to the em- palement. The leaves of this plant make a very pleafant tea, and are faid to be good in the jaundice, in ca- chectic cafes, and in obftruflions of the liver and fpleen . AGRIPPA, a denomination given by ancient as well a? modern phyficians, to children born with the feet foremoft. See the article Delivery. AGROM, in medicine, a diforder incident to the people of the Eaft-Indies, vvherein their torques chave in feveral places. The remedy for this difeafe, which they atttri- bute to an extreme heat in the ftomach, is to chew the black feeded bafilica, and to drink a chaly- beated liquor, or the juice of large mint. AGROSTEMA, in botany, a genus of decan- drious plants, according to Linna;us ; but better known by the name of lychnis, or campion. See Lychnis. AGROSTIS, in botany, a genus of triandri- ous plants, v/hofe flowers are compofed of two pointed valves, one fliorter than the other, termi- nated with a beard ; the germen is round, fup- porting two reflexed ftyles, with three capillary filaments, and produces fingle feeds edged on both fides. Thefe plants are very troublefome weeds in gardens, and is commonly called in Englifh, couch or quick grafs. AGROSTAGRAPHIA, among naturalifts, fignifies the hiftory or defcription of graflTes. Such is that of Scheuchzer, containing an accurate de- fcription of feveral hundreds fpecies of grafs. AGRYPNIA, in a general fenfe, denotes much the fame with watchfulnefs, or an inaptitude to fleep ; which is a very troublefome fymptom of feverifli and other diforders. See the article Watching. AGUAPECACO, in ornithology, a Brazilian bird of the moor-hen kind, about the fize of a pigeon, very long-legged, with a beak like that of a common hen ; its back and the upper part of its wings are brown ; and in each wing there is a fmall horn, or prickle, ferving the bird as a de- fenfive weapon. AGUE, a general name for all periodical fevers, which, according to the different times of the return of the feverifli paroxyfm, or fit, are de- nominated quotidian, tertian, or quartan agues. See the article Quotidian, &c. Agues are thought to be owing to a fuppreflion of perfpiration, as their more immediate caufe, whether that be occafioned by a foggy and nioifl air, or by putrid damps ; but their caufa proxima feems to be an a6lual corruption of the humours of the bod v. Dr. Pringle thinks the bcfl way of accounting for the periodic returns, is upon the principle of putrefadlion. The heat of the body, he obferves, varies little, and therefore the corruption produced in any of the humours muft happen in a determi- nate time. If we fuppofe, that in the paroxyfm, the more corrupted particles of the blood do not all pafs off through the fkin with the fweat, but that fome part of them are difcharged with the bile ; thefe particles coming into the intcftines, and being from thence taken up by the lacteals, and carried into the blood, may there aft as a new ferment and occafion a return of the fit. Thus, the corruption of the bile may be the eftecl of the firft fit, and the caufe of them that enfue. The j A I D A I R The doctoj- farther obferves, that though all moifl: countries arc fuhjeft to agues of fome kind or other ; yet if the inoillure is pure, and the fum- mers are not clofe and hot, they will moftly ap- pear in a regular tertian fhape, and be cafily cured. But if the nioifture arifes from long ftagnating water, in which plants, fifhes, and inletts, die and rot, then the damps, being of a putrid nature, not only occafion more frequent, but more dan- gerous fevers, which oftener appear in the form of quotidians, and double tertian, than that of fingle •lies. It is remarkable ho\v much thefe fevers vary with the feafon ; for however frequent, violent, or dangerous they are in the decline of fummcr, or be- ginning of autumn, when the putrefaction is highefl ; yet before winter they are commonly reduced to a fmall number, become mild, and generally aflume a regular tertian form. Ague-T)yc, a name by which feme call fafla- fras, on account of its febrifuge qualities. AGUTI, in zoology, an American quadruped of the rat-kind, of the fize of the Guinea-pig, which it greatly rcfcmbles : its hairs are rigid and glofTy, of a mixed colour between red and brown, with more or lefs of black ; its whifkcrs are like thofe of the rabbit-kind ; but like the hog, its upper-chop is longer than the under one ; its upper- lip is fplit, like that of the hare ; its tail is very fliort, the eyes are prominent, and the legs are altogether, or almoft naked. AHICCYATLI, in zoology, an American ferpent, nearly allied to the hasmorrhous and rattle- fnake ; only that it is larger than the former, and wants the rattle of the latter. Its poilbn is as fatal as any yet known. AID, in a general fenfe, denotes any kind of affiflance given by one perfon to another. Aid, or Ayde^ in law, denotes a petition made in court to call in help from another perfon, who has intereit in land, or other thing contefted. This is called aid prier, which not only ftrengthens the party that prays for the aid, but gives the other perfon an opportujiity of avoiding a prejudice that might otherwife accrue to his own right. Thus, a tenant for life may pray aid of the perfon in rever- fion ; and a city, or borough, that holds a fee- farm of the king, if any thing be demanded of them, may pray for aid of the king. Aid-de-Camp, in military affairs, an officer employed to receive and carry the orders of a creneral. They ought to be alert in compre- hending, and punftu.i] and difiinct in delivering them. In the French armies every general is allowed four aids-de camp, a lieutenant-general two, and A marflial-de-camp one. Aid-Major, the French term for aii adjutant. See the aitlcle Adjutant. Aid, auxtlium, in ancient culloms, a fubfidy paid by vaflids to their lord, on certain occa- fions. Such were the aid of relief, paid upon the death of the lord mcfne, to his heir; t\\c aid cheval, or capital aid, due to the chief lord on fcveral occafions ; as to make his eldeil fon a knight, to make up a portion for marrying his daughter ; and fo in other cafes. Royal Aiv>, an appellation fometimes given to the land-tax. Aids, in the menage, are the fame with what fome writers call cherifhings, and ufed to avoid the ncceffity of corrections. The inner heel, inner leg, inner rein, &c. are called inner aids ; as the outer heel, the outer leg, outer rein, he. are called outer aids. AIGUISCE, AiGuissE, or Eguisce, in he- raldry, denotes a crofs with its four ends fharpened, but io as to terminate in obtufe angles. It differs from the crofs fitchee, inafmuch as the latter goes tapering by degrees to a point, and the former only at the ends. AILE, or AiEL, in law, a writ which lies where a pcrfon's grand-father, or great-grand-father being feifed of lands, &c. in fee-fimple the day that he died, and a ftranger abates or enters the fame day, and difpoffeffes the heir of his inhe- ritance. AIR, in phyfiology, from theGrceko(«f, fignify- ing the fame thing. A light, fluid, tranfparent body, capable of compreflion and dilatation, which covers this terreflrial globe, and furrounds it to a confulerable height. 'I he ancients confidered air as an element, tho' it be moff certain that air taken in the ordinary ac- ceptation, is very far from the fimplicity of an elementary fubftance, notwithffanding fome of its parts may merit that denomination. Wherefore air may be difl-inguifhed into vulgar or heterogene, and proper or elementary. V ul2;ar or hetero"ene air, is an affemblase of corpulcles of ^'anous kinds, conftituting all toge- ther a fluid mafs, wherein v/e live and move, and iiilpire and exfpire it alternately : which total mafs, we call atmofphere. See Atmosphere. The heterogene fubfiances of which the air con- fifts, may be reduced to two forts : namely, firit, the matter of light or fire, perpetually flowing from the heavenly bodies. See Fire. 'Fo which fome naturalifis add eleclric and magnetic exhala- tions from the earth. See Electricity, and Magnetism. Secondly, 'Fhe infinite number of particles raifed under the form of vapours or ex- halations from the fea, rivers, minerals, vege- tables, or animals ; whether by the heat of the fun, (ubterraneous fires, or chimneys, and other artificial fires. See Exh,'\lation, and Vapour. U Sii; A I R Sir Ifaac Newton conceives the confufed mafj of vapours, air, a]id exhalations, which we call the atmol'pherc, to he nothing elle but the panicles of all forts of bodies, of which the earth confiils, fcparated and kept at a diftance by rarefied ajthcr. See j^£ther. Elementary air, or air properly fo called, is a fubtile, homogcne and elaftic fubftance, being the h:\fis, or as we may Cay, the fundanienta! ingre- dient of the whole air of the ataiofphere, from whence it lakes its name. Sir Ifaac Newton ohferves again, that if it be Confidered how by the continual fermentations raifed in thebov/els of the earth, there are real fub- ftances raifed out of all kinds of bodies ; it may not perhaps be thought abfurd, that the moft per- manent part of the atmofphere, which is the true air, fliould be conftituted of thefe ; efpecially fince they are the heavielt of all others, and fo muit fub- fide to the lower part of the atmofphere, and float upon the furfice of the earth, and buoy up the lighter exhalations and vapours to float in great plenty above them : for the air, as in reafon it ought to be efleemed the moft ponderous part of tjie atmofphere, becaufe the loweff, fo it betrays its ponderofity by making vapours afcend readily in it, by fuftaining mifls, and clouds of fnow, and by buoying up grofs 'and ponderous fmoke. The pioper air is alfo tlie moft grofs and inaftive part of the aUiofphere, affording living things no nou- rifhmcnt, if deprived of the more tender exhala- tions and fpirits that float in it: and what m.ore ina(5fivc and remote from nourifhmcnt than me- tallic bodies ? Proper air has a multitude of charafteriftics, the mofl confiderable of which are the following: If air be clofe confined in a metalline or glafs vefTel, it will remain the fame, without any alte- ration, ever preferving the form of air : but this does not hold good of vapours ; which, as foon as they grow old, lofe their whole elafticity, adhere to the inner furfr.ce of the glafs, and at length trickle dovm to the bottom. It is almolt the fame with the exhalations of other bodies, they becoming in a manner infenfible and loft after their elafiicity is gone. This is confirm.ed by m.any of Mr. Boyle's experiments on the air drawn from grapes, dough, flefli, and other fubftances : and further ftill by Dr. Hales's experiments in his Vegetable Statics, &c. Bythe means of air terreitrial bodies once on fire, continue to burn, till all their parts which contain any fire are confumed ; on the contrary, vapours and exhalations extinguifh thequickefl fire in an in- ffant, ajid even red hot iron. Vapours alfo, in- ftead of being neceflary to refpiration, as air is, are frequently detrimental thereto, and fometimes oc- cafton AifFocation ; inftances of which we ha\e in AI R burning briniftoiie, ajid the grotto Dil Cam, inltaiv, vi'hich brings on fuddcn death. If air be not a fluid difi:in.-- nionftrating it in his Dialogues. The path was eafy from one dilcovery to another, yet flill Galila;o's knowledge of the matter was imperfecft. At length Torricelli fell upon the lucky guefs that the counterpoife which keeps fluids above their level, when nothing prefles upon their internal furface, is the mafsof air reftmg upon the external furface. He came at it in the following manner ; in 1643, this difciple of Galileo being fet upon executing a litde experiment on the vacuum form- ed in pumps, above the column of water, when it exceeds 34 feet, thought of ufing a fluid heavier than water, fuch as quickfilver. He fuppofed that, whatfoever was the caufe that fuflained a column of 34 feet above its level, the fame force woul 1 fuftain a column of any other fluid, which weigh- ed as much as the column of water on the fame bafe; whence he concluded that quickfilver, being about 14 dmcs as heavy as water, would not bj kept up higlier than 2-9 or 30 inches. He there- fore iook a glafs tube of fevcral feet in length, fealed it hermetically at one end, and filled it with quickfilver ; then inverting it upright, by prefTing his finger againfl: the open orifice, he plunged it in- to a veflel of quickfilver, and fuffering the fluid to run out, the event verified his conjedfure ; the' quickfilver, faithful to the lavvs of hydrortatics, defcended till die column of it above 'the furface of that in die refcrvolr, was about 30 inches high. roricelli's ej-periment became famous in a fliort time. Father Alerfenne, who kept up a literary correfpondeiice with moft of the literati in Itah', was informed of it in 1664, and communicated it to thofe of -France, who prefendy repeated it: the, famous Mefll-s. Pafcal and Petit, curious naturalifl.s at that time, were the firfl. who made it, and varied It difl^erciit ways. This occafioned the ingenious treadfe which M. Pafcal publiflied at 23 years of age, under the title of, Experiences NouveUeifouckont la Fuide^ which rendered his name famous through- out Europe. Torricelli refleifling en the caufe of this pheno- menon, was at length led to conclude; that the weight of the air incumbent on the furface of the ftagnated quickfilver, was the thing that counter- balanced the fluid contained in the tube. See Torricellian Experiment. In reality M. Pafcal, who, in tlie abovemen- tioned treatife, made ufe of the principle o{' fu^a vacui, ha-.ing, as he fa vs, fome gliminerin? notion A . or A IR of the weight of the air, quickly adopted Torri- celJi's idea, and deviled feveral experiments to con- iirm it, one of which was to procure a vacuum above the refervoir of quickfilver. In this cafe he found the column fink down to the level ; but this appearing to him not fufEciently powerful to diifw pate the prejudices of the ancient philofophy, he prevailed on a brother-in-law, M. Perier, to exe- cute the famous experiment of Puy-de-Doinc, fo univerfally known as not to need a recital here. M. Perier obferves that die height of the quick- filver half way up the mountain was lefs by fome inches than at the foot of it, and ftill lefs at tbe top ; fo that it was now plain that, it was the weight of the atmolphere which counterpoU'ed tlic quickfilver. We fhould not omit fome itiftances of the faga- city of Des Cartes with regard to the phasnome- non wd have been fpeaking of. There are proofs that this philofopher was ferifible,. before Tcrriccl- li, of the weight of the air, and of its aftion for fultaining water in pumps, and tubes clofed at tho upper end. Amojigfr his r,etters there is one dated in the year i6jr, in which he accounts for the fufpenfion of quickfdver, in tubes clofed at top, by afcribing it to the weight; of the column of air contiuucd up to the clouds ; the fame way he explains, in the fame letter, the preflure of a glafs filled with hot air, upon.a body, care being taken to clofe all communication with, the external air. There are further proofs of this his opinion.in feve- ral other of his letters. In one of them, not long after Galileo's Dialogues on iVIotion v/ere publiih- t;d, Des Cartes rejects the pretended force of a \acuum, advanced by the Italian philofopher, and attributes the adhefion of two polifhed bodies fole- ly to the prcfTure of the circumambient atmofphere. Laflly, in a letter wrote foon after that jufl men- tioned, fpeaking of watering uots wherein the fluid is retained by cIoGng the top orifice,. " The " water, fays he^ is not retained in the vcfiel by a " horror vciaii, but by the weight of the air." And in another letter, he puts in a claim to the idea of the Puy-de-Dome expeJ-iment. After hav- ing defired of M. de Carcavi to inform him of the fucccfs of that experiment ; which the public rumour had advertifed hiin to have been made by M.Pafcal hirafelf, " I had reafon, fays he, to " eypeft this from him, rather than from you, " becaufe I firft propofed it to him two years ago, '_' alluring him at the fame time, that although I " had not tried it, yet I could not doubt of the " confequcnce ; but as he is a friend of M. Ro- " berva), who profeifes himfeif no friend to me, " I fuppofe he is guided by that gentleman's " paffions." It will not be improper in this place, to fay fomething of Francifcus Linus his hypothefis, v/hereby he pretends to folvs the phreiiomen of the 7 A IR fufpenfion of the quickfilver in die Torricelliau experiment. His principles are thcfe : 1. That there is an infeparability of bodies, fo that diere can be !io vacuities //; rerum na~ tura. 2. That the deferted part of the tube is filkd with a fmall film of quickfilver, which being taken oft" from the upper part of it, is both ex- tenuated, and extended dirough the feeming v.a- cuity.. 3. Tliat by this extended film or rnpe, as he calls it,, of dilated quickfilver, the reff of thi quickfilver in die tube is fufpended, and kept up from fallino- into the refervoir. 4. 'i'hat this funicle or rope is exceedingly rare- fied and extended by the weight of the pendent quickfilver, and will, upon removal of that violent caufe which fo holds it, recontra'fl itfcif into its former dimenfions again, and fo draw up what body foever it ha.s hold of along with it; as the - effluvia of an eleftric body, upon its retreat, plucks up f^ravvs or any other thing with it,, that it is able to wield. 5. That this extcnfion of the film of quickfilver is not Indefinite, but hath a certain limit beyond which it v/ill not be ftretched ; and thcrtfore if the tube be of an exceeding great heie;ht, the quickfilver v/ill rather part with another film and c:c tend that, and fo a third or fourth, till it comes to the ftandard of 29 inches, where it rells, hav- - ing not weight nor power enough to fcparate ano-- ther film from it, Thefe are his principles, and to give a tafle of the applicatiori of them, we Ihall add, that his reafon why the quickfilver i;i a tube under 2g inches defceruls not all, is this ; becaufe it flicks with its uppermoflfurface fo ciofe to the top of the tube, that there- is not weight enough to break that adhefion ; the reafon whereof is, becaufe there is nothing to fueceed in the room of the defend- ing quickfilver, and therefore it firmly flicks tliere, ns dasetur vaiunm. In longer tubes it falls to that flandard, becaufe then the greater weight of quickfilver is able to break that contiguity or adhefion, and therefore tlie uppermoft furface of the quickfilver being fiiced off, is dilated into a thiji column or funicle, • which fupplies that feeming vacuity. For the poiitive arguments to avouch his prin- ciples by, Linniiis has none at all ; and only what he fetches fl /is/Avvij;/, from his commodious folu- tion of difficulties, ajid folving the pha3nomena better than others have done. I'his is the funicu- lar hypothefis, and the only one we have met with' that pretends to account for the phenomena, by taking off the excefs of gravitation of the quick- filver in the tube. Thus much then may be faid, that nature either fufpends her fettled laws for the produdion of thefc A I R thefe phaenomena, or th:it there is ibme additional preffure communicated to the qiiiciililver in the veflel, which can be no other, as has been proved, than the preffure of the air which is contiguous to it; or lalHy, that the excefs of prelfure from the quickhlver in the tube, is by foine way or other, v/hich we cannot difcover, taken off, or rendered ineffeiftual. It is unreafonablc to imagine tli-.t nature fhould forlake her wonted paths on fo trifling an occafion : it is certain we ha\'e no precedents to warrant fuch a fufpicion. Wlien the I'choohnen fay, nature ab- hors a vacuum, they niufl: mean by nature, if they ifleau any thing, either the Author of all created b'eings, or the creatures themfelves ; if they would be underftood in the firli: fcnfc, they unavoidably charge Omnifcience itfelf with incogitancy, fup- pofing him to have created the world as continual- ly to ftand in need of miracles for its prefervation ; it being in tlieir own power,^ as often as they pleafe to make a trifling experiment, to put him to the neceffity of interpofing to hinder a vacuum. If they mean by nature the creatures themfelves, then they mud of neceffity fall into another abfurdity, vi'hilfc they fuppofc brute matter to be intelligent, and to put iticlf in aclion in purfuit of fome de- terminate end. This we prefume may be fufiicient to e.\-pole that grofs opinion concerning a ft/ga vaair, fuppofmg it could account for the experi- ments, which it cannot do by any means. It muft be confelTed, that Ariftotle himfelf doss foFiiewhere aflert the gravitation of the air ; and to prove his aflcrtion, he appeals to the experiment of a bladder full blown; which, fa) j he, , weighing more than when it was flaccid,, is a manifeft token cf the weight of the air contaijied in it. Cut it is certain, however unreafonabie it may feem, that his follov/ers departed from their m.afl:er, by aflert- ii'ig the conirary forfevcral ages together. Galiljeo feems to be one of the firft who dif- covered the Ipecific gravity of the air, by difterer.t experiments. But the Krll experiment of this nature, which was generally taken notice of, was that of Merfenne. He procured to himfelf on aollpile, or hollow globe of brafs, with a very (lender neck. See /EoLiPiLE. This he placed in the fire till it be- came red-hot,, and immediately weighed it by a ballance whilfr it remained fo. Afterv/ards he let it cool, and then weighed it again ; and finding its weight to be greater than before, he concluded that the excefs was the weight of the air which had been expelled hy the heat, and had been per- mitted to return again upon the cooling of the globe. Thus he was fatisfied that the air was a ponderous body; but in what meal'ure it was fo, lie could not, by this experiment alone, determine. He therefore repeated the trial again, and found slse weight of the globe when it ViTiS red-hot to be AIR the fame as before. Then he placed tlie neck of it under water, and fuiTlred it to cool in thst pofture; which being uonc, he found his globe to be almort filled with water; and knowing tlie bulk of that water to be the fame with the bulk of the air which was expelled by the heat, upon weighing that water and comparing its weight with the weight of the air found by the former exp>'riment, he concluded the fpecific gravity of air to be about 1300 times lefs than the fpecific gravity of water ; whereas, by the experiments of Galikto, it came out but 400 times lefs. If we take a mean be- tween thefe tv/o, we muH: fay it is 850 times lighter ; and this agrees very well with later ami more exa'fl: obfervations. Mr. Cotes always found the proportion of water to air, to be between tiie proportions of 800 and 900 to I ; but it generally approached fomewhat nearer to 900, Mr. Hauklbce took a bottle which held more than three gallons, and of a form fomething oval ; which figiira he chofe, for the advantage of its more eafy libration in water. Into this bottle he put as much lead as would ferve to fink it below the furface of the water.. And the reafon why he chofe rather to have the weight of lead inclofeil' within the bottle, than fixed any where on the outfide, was, to prevent the inconveniencics which, in the latter cafe, mufl needs have arofe from bub- bles of air : for thefe bubbles would have inevit- ably adhered to, and lurked in great plenty about the body of the weight, had it been placed on thi outfide, whicli mull have caufed fome errors in the computatians of an experiment that required io much exadlnefs and nicety. Thefe things thus pro\ided,, the bottle cojitainiivg common air clofcd up, was by a wire fufpsnded in the water, at one end of a. very good bal.-.nce, and v/as counterpoifej in the water, by a weight of 3584; grains in tks oppofite fcak-. Then being taken out of the v/ater, and flcrewed to the air-pump, in fi-ve .iiinutcs time it was pretty well exhaufted, the mercury ia the gage ftanding at near 29 i inches : after which, having turned a cock that fkrewed both to the bottle and the pump, and fo prevented the aii 's return into it again ; it was taken oft from the- pumpj and fufpended as before, at one end of the balance in the water. And now the weiglit of it was but 1754 grains; which, therefore, fubtra(51- ed from 358 i- grains (the weight of the bottle with tlie inclofsd air, before it had been applied to the air-pump) gave, for the difterence, 183 grains; which difference muft confcquently be the weight of a quantity of air, drawn from the bottle by tlie pump. Having thus determined the weight of the exhauiled air, the cock was opened under water ; upon which the water was at firft impelled with a confiderable violence into the bottle (though thi.s force abated gradually afterwards) and continued to A I R to riifh in, till fuch a quantity was entcrcJ, as was equal to the bulk of the air vvithdrawii. And then the bottle, being examined by the balance again, was found to weigh 162 132 grains ; from v/hich fubflraiSting 1 75 f grains (the weight of the bottle with the fmal! remains of included air, after it was taken from the air-pumpj there remains 161956^ grains, for the weight of the mafs of water, equal in bulk to the quantity of air ex- haufted. So that the proportion of the weights of two equal bulks of air and water, is as 183 to 161956^, or as I to 885. There are two things particularly obfervable in this experiment. Firfl, that in making it after this manner, one needs not be \'cry follicitous about a nice and accurate exhauflion of the receiver ; the fuccefs of the experiment docs not at all depend upon it : for to what degree foe\'er the exhauftion be made, it muft ftill anfvvcr in proportion to the quantity taken out. Neither can any more water poffibly enter into the receiver, than what will juft fupply the place, rmd fill up the room, delerced by the exhauftcd air. Secondly, the feafon of the year is to be confidered in this experiment. Ke made it in the warm month of May, the mercury in the barometer ftanding at the fame time at 29,7 inches. From whence it is reafonable to conclude, that a fenfible -difference would arife, were it to be tried in the- months of December or January, when thcftate-and conftitution of the air is ufually different from what it is in the foregoing months. Br. J urin therefore recommends a mean tempera- ture of the air to make the experiment in, and be- lieves that the weight of air would then be found to that of water, nearly as i to 800. Muffchenbrock fays he has fometimes found the proportion to be as i to 606 ; and obferves, that in making the experiment in different years and feafons, he met with a continual difference ; but that in experiments made in Europe, the limits w.ll never he v.-ider than i to 606, and i to 1000. The laws of the air's gravitation and preffure, as a fluid, muft be the fame as thofe of other fluids ; and confequcntly its preffure muft be proportional to its perpendicular height. See Moreover this confequcncc is confirmed by ex- periments. For if the Torricellian tube be carried to a more elevated place, where the columin of air is fhcrter, the colum.n of quickfilver which it fuftains will alfo be fhorter, falling about a quar- ter of an inch upon an afcent of an hundred feet. On this principle depends the ftrufture and ufc of the barometer. Sec B.\ROiMET'£R. And from the fame principle it likewife follows, that air, like all other fluids, preffes equally in all dircdions. A proof whereof is, that we .fee foft fubftances endure its preffure without any altera- tion of their form, and -brittle ones wnhoufbrcalc- A I R ing, notwithftandiiig the preffure of the column of air on fuch bodies is equal to that of a column of quickfilver of 30 inches, or to one of water °^ 33 or 34 feet : but if the preffure be removed or diminifhed on one fide, the effedl: of it on the other fide will be inftantaneoufty perceptible. From the weight and fluidity of the air con- jointly confidered, many effe6ls and ufes of it mav be eafily deduced. By the combination of thefe two qualities, it envelops the earth and all bodies upon it, compreffes and unites them with a con- fiderable force. The fpecific gravity of air beiiu- known, the weight of a cubic foot of it will al!b be known. For if a cubic foot of water weio-hs 62 pounds, a cubic foot of air will weigh about the 8coth part of 62 pounds ; whence may be concluded the weight of any certain quantity of air. Likewife the force with which the air com- preffes all terreftrial bodies, m.iy be deterinined ; for it is evident, that fuch preffure is the fame as if the whole globe were covered witli water about 33 teet high. Now a cubic foot of water weighing 62 pounds, 33 feet will weigh 33 times 62 pounds'^ or about 2046 pounds ; and as the earth's furface contains about 55683136665024.00 fquare feet, 2046 times this great number muft be taken to get nearly the weight reduced to pounds, with v/hich the air compreffes our globe. Now the effedt cf fuch a preffure muft be very confiderable. It pre- vents, for example, the arterial veffels of plants and animals, from being exceflively diftended by the im.petuoufity of the juices, which circulate in them, or by the elaftic force of the air, of which a confiderable quantity is intermixed with the blood. From air thus mixed with the blood, it is that v/hen, by meaais of a cupping-glafs, the preffure of the external air is in a great meafure taken off from one part of the bod)', that part is diftended, and caufes an alteration in the circula- tion of the fluids in the capillary veffels. The fame caufe hinders the fluids from tran- fpiring, and efcaping through the pores of their containing veffels, as it happens to travellers in afcending high mountains : they find thcm.felves more and more relaxed, as they advance upwards. j and at length are feized with fpitting of blood, or other hremorrhages, becaufe there is not fufficient preffure of air en the pulmonary veflels. The fame happens to animals ffiut up in the receiver of an air pump ; whilft the air is pumping out, they tumify, vomit, flaver, fweat, and render their urine and other excrements. See Vacuum. To the lame two qualities of the air, weight, and fluidity, is owing the mixture of bodies con- tiguous to one another, elpecially fluids. Aivd divers liquids, as oils and falts, which readily mix of themfelves in air, but will not mix at all in vacuo. Al.o, in confcquencc of t'.ie fkme two qualities, the A I R the air determines the aftion ol: one body upon another.- Thus fire, which burns wood, is put out, and its flame is diflipated, if the air be with- drawn ; becaufe then there is nothing that is able to apply the particles of the fire againft thofe of the combuilible fubftance, and hinder the flame from diffipating. The fame happens to gold dif- foh'ina; in aqua regia ; the menilruum ceafing to a6l on the metal as loon as the air is drawn off : and it is in'confequence of this determining faculty of the air, that Dr. Papin invented the (hgejhr, which bears his name. See Digester. On the fame account it is, that on the tops of very high mountains, fuch as the Pic of TenerifTe, fubftances of the mod poignant favour, as p-^pper, giliger, fait, fpirit of wine, '•cc. are in a manner infipid ; for through want of an agent fulficient to apply their particles on the tongue, and caufe them to enter its pores, they are rarefied and difperfed away by the mere warmth of the mouth. The only fubftance found to retain its reliih there is Canary-wine, and this in virtue of its uncluous quality, which makes it adhere clofely to the palate, and hinders it from evaporating. The fame principle of gravity produces alfo, in part, winds, which are nothing elfe but air put in motion through fome alteration in its equilibrium. See Wind. Another quality of the air, from whence arife a multitude of etFeits, fome already mentioned, is its elafticity, whereby it yields to the impreffion of other bodies, by contracting its volume ; and re- flores itfelf again to the fame extent, by repelling or weakening the caufe which had contracted it. This elaftic force is one of the moft diftinguifh- ing properties of air ; the two other properties be- fore fpoken of, being common to it with other fluids. An infinity of proofs evince the exiftence of this faculty in air. If we prefs, for example, a blown bladder with the hand, we find a fenfible refiftance from the included air ; and upon ceafing the preffure, the part comprefl'ed immediately is rellored to its former fize. On this property of the air depends the con- flruction and ufe of the air pump. See Am Pump. Every particle of air makes a continual effort to dilate itfelf, and thereby acts forcibly againfl all neighbouring particles, which alfo exert the like force ; but if the refinance happens to ceafe, or to be weakened, the particle inftantly becomes pro- digioufly rarefied. This is the reafon why little glafs balls, placed under the receiver of an air pump, do, upon pumping out the air, burft afun- der by the force of the air which they contain. If a clofe flaccid bladder, containing but a ihiall portion of air, be put under the receiver, it will tumify as the air is exhaufled, and at length ap- A IR pear full. The fame thing happens if the flaccid bladder be carried to the top of a very high moun- tain. The fame experiment fhcws very mnnlfefily, that the elaflicity of folid bodies is very different from the elaftic virtue of air, and that elafric folid bodies are dilated after a veiy different manner from air. Yor when air ceafes to be comprefied, it not only dilates, but then occupies a far greater fpace, and exifls under an immenfely greater volume than be- fore ; which is never obfervcd in folid elaftic bodies, thofe refuming only the figure they had before they were comprefied. The air, fuch as that near the furface of the earth, is rarefied in fuch fort, that its volume is ever in the in\erfe ratio of the v,'ei2:ht which com- preifes it ; that is, if air preiTed by a certain weight occupies a certain fpace, the fame air prciTed by a weight which is but the half of the former, will occupy a fpace double that which it occupied in the former cafe. Boyle and Alariotte eftablifhed this rule from experiments. The fame rule takes place in comprefTed air, as Mariotte has alfo fliewn. However, this rule is not to be admitted as fcrupu- loufly exact ; for when air is very forcibly com- pre.led, and reduced to a bulk four times lefs than before, the efFeCt does not anfwer precifely to Ma- riotte's rule ; the air, in this cafe, begins to make a greater refiftance, and requires a ftronger com- prefiion, that is, a greater weight than according to the rule; and a m.oderate degree of attention will fhew the impoffibility of the rules being exact- ly true : for fuppofing the air to be fo ftrongly comprefTed, that all its particles come in contadl with one another, fo as to form but one folid mafs, it can be comprefTed no farther ; fince bodies are impenetrable. It is no lefs evident, that air cannot . be rarefied in infinitum, and that its rarefaction mufl have its limits ; whence it follows, that the rule of the rarefaction being in the inverfe ratio of the ccmprefling weight, cannot again be abfolute- ly exaft ; fince, according to this rule, to ^ny given degree of the air's rarefaftion, a correfpond- ing weight might be afligned which would hinder that rarefaction from becoming; greater : but when the air is rarefied the moft that is poflible, it is not charged with ar.y weight at all, and yet it occupies a certain fpace. We know not how to allign an}"^ precife limits to the elafticity of the air, nor to deftroy or any ways alter it. Mr. Boyle made a multitude of experi- ments, to fee if he could weaken the fpring of air extremely rarefied in the receiver of his air pump, by keeping it a long time comprefTed by fo great a weight as it is aftonifhing to think it could endure a fingle moment; and, after all, he could perceive no fenfibie diminution of the elafticity. And M. de Roberval having left an air gun charged full 1 6 years ; it, upon being difcharged, propelled the Y, ball A I R A I R ball with as much force as if the air haJ been new- ly condenfed. However, Mr. HrLukfbce undertook to prove, by an aSual experiment, that the fpring of the air may be fo far difconcerted by a violent preiTure, as not to be able to reftore itfelf till after fome time. To this end he took a ftrong brafs condenfing engine, into which he poured half a pint of water ; then, the upper part being ftrongly fcrewed on, he threw into it with a fyringe three or four atmo- ipheres of air, as near as he could guefs ; and, in this flate, he fufFered it to remain fomething more than an hour. Then Jetting out as much of the air, by taking ofF the fyringe, as would readily go away, he preli^ntly fcrewed on its room a box of leather collars, through which there palled a fmall e,lafs tube, open at both ends, whcfe lower orifice was plunged under the furface of the included water. After this, in a very little time, he found the water had afcended very near a foot in the tube, and it continued rifing till it had reached near fix- teen inches. He concluded from hence, that the elaftic force of the air had been weakened for fome time ; for had it remained the fame as at firft, the whole air would have efcaped from the veflcl upon opening it ; whence it follows, according to Mr. Haukfbee, that what air was left in the veffel, became after fome timie rarefied, and caufed the water to rife in the glafs tube. But is it not poiTible, that a confiderable quan- tity of the air might have entered into the water, fince the air which relied thereon was three or four times more comprefTed than the natural, and v/as not in a condition to extricate itftif till after fome time ? fo that v/hat of it could freely efcape, did in efFc<3: get out of the veffel whilfl; that which had penetrated the water required time to woik its way back agafn. M. Muffchenbroek "having poured quickfilver into a tube eight feet long, one of whofe ends was recurved and clofed up, by which the air in the recurved end was cqmprcfled, fealed the ef'ier end hermetically, marking the degree of the temperature of die air at that time : from which time, he fays, he conftantly obfcrved that the mer- cury kept at the fame height in the tube, when the air had the fame degree of warmth as when the expcrim.ent was firft made ; on the contrary, v/hen the air was warmer, the quickfilver rofe in the tube ; whence it feems to follow, that the com- prcffion of the air does not hurt its elaflicity. I{ovv-ever, it cannot be denied that Dr. Hales has proved the pofiibility of the thing, by kindling A/iphur in a glafs full of air ; and, perhaps, there are a great number of exhalations capable of pro- ducing the fame efFedl. It is plain, that the weight or preiTure of the air does net at all depend on its elafticity, and that it is neither more nor lefs heavy than if it were not 6 at all elaftic. Cut from its being elaftic, it follows that it is fufceptible of a preffure, that reduces it to fuch a fpace, that the force of its elafticity, which rea£ls againft the preffing weight, is exadtly equal to that weight. Indeed the true law of the elafticity is, that it increafes in proportion totheden- fity of the air, and that its denfity increafes in propor- tion to the forces which comprefs it. But there is a neceirary equality between adlion and rea6fion; that is, the gravity of the air which effetls its compreftion, and the elafticity of it which gives it its tendency to expanfion, are equal. See Density, and Re action. Thus the elafticity incrcafing, or abating, gene- rally in proportion to the augmentation or dimi- nution of the denfity ; that is to fay, as the fpaces between the particles of the air increafes or di- minifhes ; it matters not, whether or no the air be comprefted or confined within a certain fpace, by the weight of the atmofphere, or by any other caufe : it is fufiScient, that it tends to expand itfelf with a force equal to that of the caufe which com- prcfles it. For this reafon, if fuch air as is near the earth, be inclofed in a veffel, fo that it can have no communication with the external air, the prefTure of fuch inclofed air againft the inward furface of the veffel, will be exactly equal to the preffure of the atmofphere on its outfide. Hence we fee, that the air of a very clofe room fuftains the quickfilver in the barometer, by its elaftic force, at the fiime height, as the weight of the whole atmofphere would do. See Elasticity. According to this principle the air, by proper contrivances, may be condenfed ; and upon it, is founded the conftrucElion of the air gun. See Condenser, and Air Gun. To what degree air is fufceptible of condenfa- tion, by compreiEon, is not certainly known. Mr. Boyle found means of rendering it thirteen times denfer, bv comprefling it, than it was be- fore : others affert, that they have known it re- duced to a fixtieth part of its common bulk. Dr. Hales made it thirty-eight times more denfe, by means of a prefs : but by caufing w.ater to freeze, in a grenade or hallow bullet of caft iron, he re- duced air to ToTa of fts volume, fo that it muft have been above twice as fpecifically hca\y as water: and as water is ilofcompreffible, it follows from this experiment that the aereal particles muft be of a nature very different from thofe of water; fince, otherwife, it would be impoffible to reduce air to a volume above 800 times lefs than its com- mon one ; and indeed Dr. Halley, in the Philofo- phical Tranfaftions, fays, in confequence of fome experiments made in London, and others at Flo- rence in the Academy del Cimento, it may be fafely affirmed that no force is capable of reducing air into a fpace 800 lefs than that which it natu- rally occupies near the furface of the earth. Air, in virtue of its elaftic force, is dilatable to a very A I R a very amazing degree. Fire has the property of rarefying it very confiderably ; and, throiigli fuch rarefaiHon, air produces the fame eftciit as if its elaftic force were increafed ; and thus it endeavours to extend itfelf in all directions. On the contrary, cold condenfes it, and it may be faid, in that cir- cumftancc, to have loft of its elartic force. The force of heated air may be proved by confining it clofe in a tliin glafs phial, hermetically fealed, and fet on a fire ; the air then is rarefied fo forcibly as to buril the phial in pieces, with a confiderable noife. Likcvvife a bladder half full of air, held jiear the fire, will not only become tumid by the fwelling of its air, but will alfo burrt afunder. M. Amontons found that air made as hot as boil- ing water, acquired a force which is to that of the v/eight of the atmofphere, as lo to 33, or as 10 to 35 ; and that the refult was alike, whether a greater or a lefs quantity of air were made ufe of in the experiment. Mr. Haukfbec obferved that a portion of air, inclofed in a glafs tube, when it began to freeze, formed a volume which was to that of the fame quantity of air in the greateft heat of fummer here in England, as 6 to 7. M. Amontons aflerts, that the elafticity of fuch air as he calls temperate, is to the elafticity of air of the fame heat as boiling water, as 3 to 4 nearly, or, more accurately, as 55 to 73 : but Dr. Daniel Bernoulli, from experiments of his own, fays he has found that the elafticity of the hotteft air at Peterlburg, in the midft of fummer, has not fo much elaiticity as M. Amontons afcribes to tem- perate air ; and is firmly perfuaded, that even un- der the line itfelf, the air can never acquire fuch a heat ; and, from a courfe of obfervations, he col- lects that the greateft variations of the heat of that country, are contained between the terms of 3 and 4 ; believing that the heat of air, whofe elafticity is equal to three-fourths of the elaiticity of air as hot as boiling water, muft be in a manner intoler- able to an animal bod)'. When air is at liberty, and clear of the caufe that comprefled it, it ever afTumes a fpherical figure in the intcrftices of the fluids in which it is lodged. This is evident in liquors placed in the receiver of an air pump, by exhaufting the air ; for at firft there appears a multitude of extraordi- nary Ima'l bubbles, like grains of fine fand, dif- perfed through the fluid mafs, and rifing upwards ; and as more air is pumped out they enlarge in fize, but ftill continue round. If a plate of metal be immerged in the liquor, upon pumping, its fur- face will be feen covered over wit'.i i'mall bubbles, which arc nothing but the air v/hich adhered to it, now expanding itfelf. No means have been neglected to difcover how far air will be dilated, when entirely free : but the enquiry is fubjeft to great difiiculties ; becaufe our AI R atmofphere is compofed of divers elaftic fluid.-;, whicii have not all the fame force ; confequently to know how far air that is pure, and without any mixture, can be dilated, it will be firft neccllary to procure pure air, which is no cafy matter. It muft next be known in what veilcl, and how, fuch air muft be placed, that its particles may be kept feparate, fo as not to act upon one another : indeed many philofophers have defpaired of folving the problem ; neverthelefs we may conclude, with Muflbhcnbroek, from fome coarfe experiments, that the aii; near the furface of our globe, may expand fo far as to occupy a fpace four thoufand times as great as it does in its ordinary ftate. Mr. Boyle, from feveral experiments, found it dilated nine times, from others 31 times, then from 60 to 150 times ; and laitly, as he fays, 8000, lOooo, and even 13679 times beyond its firft bulk ; and this purely from its innate expanfive virtue, without having any recourfe to fire. On this principle depends the conftruclion and ufe of the manometer. See Manometer. From the feveral before cited experiments, it appears how greatly Ariftotle was miftaken, when he pronounced that air ten times rarefied, changes its nature, and becomes fire. Amontons makes the rarefa6tion of the air to arife from the fire which it contains ; fo that by augmenting the degree of heat, the rarefaction will be encreafed to a far greater degree than it can pof- fibly be by a fpontaneous dilatation. From this principle he deduces the conftruc- tion and ufe of the thermometer. S;e Ther- mometer. He firft of all difcovered that the more denfe ths air is, the more it will be dilated by the fame de- gree of heat : in confequence of which difcovcry he wrote a tradl to prove, that the fpring and weight of the air combined v."ith a moderate degree of heat, may be fufficient to produce even earths quakes, and other m.oft violent commotions in na- ture. Sec Earthquake. Dr. Hales made many curious and accurate ex- periments v/ith regard to theafuring the great quan- tities of air that were raifed, or generated, or ab- forbed, by the fermentation arifiiig from the mix- ture and variety of folid and fluid fubftances, whereby he could eafily eftimate the furprifing effects of fermentation on the air. He put into the bolthead /•, (Plate I. /j. 6.) the ingredients, and then run the long neck of the bolt-head into the deep cylindrical glafs a y, and inclined the inverted glafs i? y, and boIt-hcad al- moft horizontal in a large veflel of water, that t'l^ water might run into the glafs ay: v/hen it v/as almoft up to the top a, of the bolt-head, he the:\ imm.erfed the bottom of the bolt-head, ,and lower part of y of the cylindrical glafs under water, raifing at th; fame time the end a upnerrooit.. Then A I R Then before he took them out of the water, he fet the bolt-head, and lower part of the cylindri- cal glafs a;', into the earthen veflel xx full of water, and having lifted all out of the great veffeL of water, he marked the furface z of the water in the glafs ay. If the ingredients in the bolthead, upon fermenting, generated air, then the water would fall from z to j, and the empty fpace zy, was equal to the quantity of air generated. But if the ingredients upon fermentation did abforb or fix the aiilive particles of air, then the furface of the water would afcend from z to ;;, and the fpace k«, which was filled with water, was equal to the bulk of air, which was abforbed by the ingredients, or by the fume arifing from them. To make an eftimate of the quantity of air ab- , forbed, or fixed, or generated, by a burning can- dle, burning brimftone or nitre, or by the breath of a living animal, he. he firft placed a high itand or pedeftal on the veflel full of water xx ; (Plate I. fig-"].) which pedeftal' reached a little higher than zz; in this pedeftal he placed the candle, or living animal, and then whelmed over it the large inverted glafs zz^ii, which was fuf- pended by a firing, fo as to have its mouth r r, three or four inches under water ; then with a fyphon he fucked tlie air out of the glafs veffel, till the water rofe to zz. But when any noxious thing, as burning brimftone, aqua-fortis, or the like were placed under the glafs ; then by affixing to the fyphon the nofe of a large pair of bellows, whofe wide fucking orifice was clofed up, as the bellows v/ere enlarged they drew the air quickly out of the glafs z-zaa, through the fyphon ; the other leg of which fyphon he immediately drew from under the glafs vefTel, marking the height of the water zz. When the materials on the pedeftal generated air, then the water would fub- fide from zz to aa, which fpace xzaa, was equal to the quantity of air generated : but when on the contrary, they deftroyed any part of the air's elafticity, then the water would rife from aa (the heighth that he at firft fucked it to) to zz, and the fpace zzao, was equal to the quantity of air whofe elafticity was deftroyed. When the matter for trying the experiments was phofphorus, gunpowder, nitre, &:c. the Doc- tor ufually fired them on the pedeftal by means of aburnin* glafs, v/hich colle£ted tlie fun's rays into a focal point on the matter to be fired. He like- wife made an eftimate of the quantity of air which arofe from any body by diftillation, or fufion. He firft put the matter intended to be diftilled into a fmall retort r, (Plate I. fig. ^.) and then at a cemented faft to it the glafs vefTc-l ab., which was very capacious at b, with a hole in the bottom ; he bound a bladder over the cement, which was made of tobacco-pipe clay and bean flower, well mixed with fome hair, tj'ing over the whole four AIR fmall fticks, which ferved as fplinters to ftrengthen the joint ; matters being thus prepared, holding the retort uppermoft, he immerged the bolt-head into a large velTel of water to a, the top of the bolt-head ; as the water ruflied in at the bottom of the bolt-head, the air was driven out through the fyphon ; when the bolt-head was full of water to z, then he clofed the outward orifice of the fyphon with the end of his finger, and drew the other leg out of the water at the fame time, by which means the water continued up to z, and could not fubfide. Then he placed under the bolt-head while it was in die water, the veflel jc *•, which done, he lifted the veflel xx with the bolt-head in it, out of the water, and tied a wax thread at z, to mark the height of the water ; and then ap- proached the retort gradually to the fire, taking care to fcreen the whole bolt-head from the heat of the fire. As the matter diftilled, all, except the air, went down into the water in the bolt-head and vefTel, the air that was generated, or deftroy- ed, would be feen by caufing the furface of the water in the holt-head to ftand below or above the point z, as at ^■, when all was fet afide and cold. For if the body diftilling generates air of an elaftic quality, that added to the former will not permit the water y, to rife fo high as z, and the fpace between z and y below, will fhew how much air was produced from its fixed ftate : but if when all is cold, the furface of the water y be feen above the point z, it then fhews that the diftilled body did deftroy, that is, imbibe or abforb a part of the natural air above z ; and the fpace between z and y filled with water, will fhew what quantity was changed from a repellent elaftic to a fixed ftate. This quantity of generated or abforbed air, it is eafy to meafure in cubic inches, by ftopping the end of the bolt-head with a cork, and then with a quantity of water of a known weight, to fill it firft to z, and afterwards to^', and the difference of weight in the two bulks of water gives the num- ber of cubic inches, from a table of fpecific gravities. After the Doiftor has given a defcription, as above, of his inftruments and method of making experiments, he then gives the event or refult of a great number which he made with great accu- racy. He found that a cubic inch of hog's blood, diftilled to dry fcoria, produced 33 cubic inches ; that a cubic inch of tallov diftilled, produced 18 cubic inches of air ; that half a cubic inch of the tip of a fallow deer's horn, produced 117 cubic inches, or 234 times its own bulk in air. A dram of volatile fait, of fal aromatic diftilled, generated no air, but abforbed 2j cubic inches. Phofphorus fired in a fmall receiver, expanded into a fpace equal to 60 cubic inches, and abforbed 28 cubic inches of air. He likewife found th.it from £ an inch of oak frefh cut from the growing tree, was A I R \V?.s generated io8 cubic incl-ies of air ; and that from 135 grains of thin fliavings taken trcrn the fame piece of oak, and laid before the fire 24 hours, it evaporated 24 grains of moifture in that time. From 388 grams of Indian wheat, Vvhich grew in his own garden, but not come to full maturity, was generated 270 cubic inches of air, the weight of which air was 77 grains, which is one fourth of the weight of the wheat. Ke likewife adds, that from a cubic inch, or 318 grains of peafe, was generated 396 cubic inches of ail-, or 113 grains, which is fomething more than one third of the weight of the peafe. The Doc- tor alfo found great plenty of air incorporated into the fubftance of vegetables, which by the atlion of fermentation, is rcufed into an elaftic ftate, as is evident from many experiments, and which may be feen at length in the DoiSlor's treatife of the Analj-fis of the^Air. Air, in medicine, makes one, and not the leaft powerful, of the non-naturals; as upon it the very life of animals depends. • It is fufceptible of different qualities ; hot, moitl, cold, drv, ferene, pure, and temperate. It is fubjccl to variations, more or lefs fuddcn, and to be mixed with im.pure, corrupted, contagious, metallic, I'ulphureous exhalations, which are all prejudicial to health. The beft quality of the air is to be pure and fv.-eet, void of ail bad exiralattons, neither too hot, cold, dry, nor moift. ~The fudden changes of the air are inevitable and dangerous ; whence proceed a great number of difeafes, which reign in the fpring and autumn, towards the approach of winter. Hofpitals, camps, places where lead is melted, and the earth juft thrown up, are generally unhealthy, on ac- count of the bad exhalations. Lighted charcoal, in a clofe place, fills the air with fulphureous par- ticles, which are unwholefome, and fometimes kin the ftroiigcft perfons. l^oo hot an air difpofes to malignant fevers ; if it be without moifture, it produces diary and putrid fevers. Agues are epidemic in the fens of Cam- bridgefhire, • the hundreds of Eflex, and in fome parts of Kent, on account of the vapours, which weaken the fibres of the body, and obftruiSt the pores of 'the fkin ; befides, a cold and moifl: con- ftituti6r» cf the air produces coughs, dillillations, ■ and iTiOumatic pains. Hcftic and confumptive people are in great dan- ger, both in very hot and in very cold weather. When the paffage through the pores of the fkin is ftopt by cold, the patient is either apt to fall into a loofenefs, or to have his legs fvvelled, and the aflhmatic fymptoYns increafed. Air, in mythology, was worflirpped 'bv the .pagans, under tb, names of Jupiter and Juno -, the former rcprcfenting the fuperior and finer part 5 AIR of the atmofpherc, and the latter th: inferior ani grofTer part. ' -■■■ Air, in painting and fculpture, denotes th:; manner and very life of action ; or,'' it is that which exprefies the difpolition of the' agent. Serf Action. '"'"" ''■' "■'' Some ufe the word to fighify the gefture or at- titude of ' a figure. . '- ' 'f- "' ' Aiii, in muific, implies the melody proper for fcngs, odes, &c. being ufuallv quick and lively. T'he term is fometimes uled to fignify the fongs themfelves, called by the Romans, tz:rc7, whence the word in this acceptation is derived. Airs, in the menage, fignify the artificial mo- tions of taught or rrienaged horfes ; fuch as the demi-volt, curvet, capriole, &c. " Some extend the term to the natural pates of a horfc, as walking, trotting, galloping ; but this is not a proper application of the word, and is accordingly riever u-fed in the latter fenfe by the beft v.'rit«rs. Air-bladder, a veficle found in the bodies of all fifties, except thofe of the cartilaginous and ce- taceous kinds. It is vulg-arly called the fwim, or fv.'imming bladder. By the afllftance of this bladder, which is al- ways more or lefs replete witii air, the fifti is en- abled to fuftain its body at any depth. When the fifli is near the bottom, the great weight of the incumbent water comprefi^es its body, or rather the inclofed air-bladder, till the whole fifli be- comes equiponderant with an equal bulk of v.-atcr. In the middle of the fluid, wher& the preflure is lefs, the air-bladder expands; thereby increafcs the bulk of the fifli, without adding any thing to its weight, till it here alfo becomes equiponderant with an equal bulk of water : and in this manner the air-bladder expands, as the fifh rifes nearer the furface, arid by that means fuftains it in any depth. There is however no doubt but fi.fties have a power of expanding and comprelling the air-blad- der, exclufive of the weight of the water, and by that means of rifing or finking at pleafure. Some fifties have only a fingle air-bladder ; fome a double one ; and in others it is triple, or di- vided into three cells. Fifties which lie grovelling at the bottom, have no air-bladders ; and it is re- markable, that if the air-bladder be either pricked or burft, in fifties naturally furniftied with it, they imm.ediately fink to the bottom ; from whence they can never rife themfelves. Air-gun, a pneumatic machine for exploding bullets, &c. with great violence. See Gun. MtJs:, c. Then as e : f : gd : lid. .-. e -\- h.i = f -1- gel, or e — f rzi gd — hd; where gd — hd is the logarithm of the ratio of the air fought. In v.ords, the logarithm of the ratio of the denfitv of the air in its natural ftate to that in the receiver after the operation, is always equal to the produft of the number of ftrokes of the pifton, multiplied bv the logarithm of the ratio betv.'een the capacity of the barrel and receiver together and the receiver alone. Thus if the capacity of the receiver be 10, that of the barrel i, and the number of ftrokes 30 ; then will the primitive air be found to the remain- ing, as I to -i?j- nearly. If the capacity of receiver and barrel were given, and it were requir- ed to find the number of ftrokes of the pifton to rarefy the air to a certain degree ; then from the thccrcm abo\'e, e — f ^z gd — hd, we get L /r - /' =: (f = the number of ftroke? required ; which is in words, Subtrad: the logarithm of the remaining air from the logarithm of the primiti\-e air ; like- wife the logarithm of the capacity of the receiver, from the logarithm of the fum of the capacity of the receiver and barrel together, and then dividing the firft diftcrence by the latter, the quotie.-st vv-ill be the number of ftrokes required. Thus fuppofe the content of the receiver be equal to 600 cubic inches, and the content of the barrel be equal to 30 cubic inches, what number of ftrokes, or turns of the pump will rarefy the air under the receiver 800 times more than in its natural ftate ? The anfwer will be, 137,007, which is the ftrokes and part of a turn, required to rarefy the air 800 times more than when in its natural Itate. If the con- tent of the receiver be required, the other things being giveii, we fhall find, from the above theo- t — f rem, the expreffion will be -f A = ^. d AiR-SHAFTS, among miners, are holes made from the open air to meet the adits, and fupply them with frefh air. Thefe air-fhafts, "when the adits are thirty or forty fathoms in length, become abfolutely necef- fary, in order to let in frcfli air, and at the fame give vent to the damps and noxious vapours. AiR-THRF.ADS, in natural hiftory, a name given to the long filaments, fo frequently feen in autumn floating about in the air. Thefe threads are the work of fpiders, efpecial- ly of that fpecies called the long-legged ficld-fpider; which, having mounted to the fummit of a bufh or tree, darts from its tail fevcral of thefe threads, till one is produced capable of fupporting the creature in the air ; on this it ir.ounts in queft of prey, and frequently rifes to a \ery confiderable height. Ner A LA Nor does the fpider that has thus raifed itfelf dcfcend always by tiie fame thread ; it often winds that up, and dares out another, more or leislong, as the creature intends a higher or lower flight. Air-vessels, in plants, are certain \'eircls or dudts for imbibing or conveying air to the fevcral parts of the plant. ARIANI, in ccclefiaftical hiftory, a branch of the Arians, v/ho, befides the common tenets of that feci, denied the conllantiabilitv of the Holy Ghofi: with the Father and Son. AIRING, in horlemanfliip, irniilics the cxer- cifing a horfe in the open air ; a practice that can- not be too much commended. AIRY, or Aery, among fportfmen, implies the neft of a hawk or eagle. Airy Triplidty, among aflrologers, denotes the three figns Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius. AISiAMENTA, in law, the lame with eafe- ment. See the article Easet^ient. AIUS LOCUTIUS, the name of a deity to whom the Romans erected an altar. The words are Latin, and fignify, " A fpealcing " voice." The following accident gave occafion to the Ro- mans credling an altar to the Aius Locutius. One M. Beditius, a plebeian, acquainted the tribunes, that, in walking the ftreets by night, he had heard a voice over the temple of Vefta, giving the Romans notice that the Gauls were coming againfl: them. This intimation was however neglefted ; but after the truth was confirmed by the event, Camillus acknowledged this \oice to be a new deity, and e- rected an altar to it, under the name of the Aius Locutius. AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, in hydraulics, a fmall pipe fitted to the aperture of a jet-d'eau, or fountain. See Adjutage and Fountain. AJUTANT, in military affairs. See the ar- ticle Adjutant. j AIZOON, in botany, a name given by Lin- nreus to the ficoidca, and by fome writers to the fedums, aloes, &c. It is alio called fempervive. ALA, or Alj^, in botany, a term ufed in dif- ferent fenfes ; fometimes it denotes the hollow be- tween the ftalk of a plant and its leaves ; alfo it is ufed for leaves which coniift: of manv lobes, or v/ings ; fometimes it is applied to fignifv thofe pe- tals of papilionaceous flowers between the vexil- lum and carina ; it is likewife uled for the {lender membranaceous parts of fome feeds, and for thofe foliaceous membranes which in fome plants run the whole length of the ftem, whence it is called caiiUs alatiis, i. c. a winged ftalk, ala in Latin fig- nitving a wing. ALABASTRA, in botanv, a term given to the calyx of flowers before thev arc expanded, par- ticularly to the rofc-bud. ALABASTER, Aiabajlrius, in natural hiftory. ALA the name of a genus of folTils, nearly allied to t.iat of marble. It is an elegant ftone of great brightnefs, but brittle, tho' it will receive a fine po- lifh. Naturalifls enumerate feveral fpecies of alabaf- ter ; as, the fnow-white fliining alabafter, or that called the lygdine by the ancients. Boet in- forms us, that this ftone is extremely white, and found only in Taurus ; but it was formerly brought from Arabia. It is not very compa£t, but heavy, and confifts of a multitude of broad flat large particles, which are very bright and perfecSt- ly v/hite. It cuts very freely, and is capable of a fine polifli. There are very large ftrata of it in Arabia, Egypt, and many parts of Italy ; but it is fcldom brought over to England. l^'^hitifh yellow alabafter is of a foft confiftence, and difters in nothing from common marble but in hardnefs, and in its fhining when polifhed. It is of a loofe open texture, confidcrably heavy, and nearly of the colour of honey, but more deep in fome places than others. It confifts of irregular pieces lying in tables one over another, and altoge- ther compofe a remarkable bright and very brittle mafs. Befides the places above-mentioned, it has been found in Germany, France, and Derby- fliire. Yellow and reddifh variegated alabafter is the common alabafter of the ancients. It is fo foft that it may be cut with a knife ; and has the fame name in all languages. It is remarkably bright, glittering, and almoft tranfparent ; and its texture \cry loofe and open, though it is moderately hea- vy. The ground is of a clear pale yellov/, be- twxen that of honey and amber, and beautifully variegated with crooked undulated veins, fome of which are broad, and others narrow ; fome of a pale red, others whitifli, and others again of a xety agreeable pale brown. It will bear a very fine polifh, and confifts of large angular fparry concre- tions. It was formerly found only in Egypt, but is now met with in many parts of England. A-LA-MI-RE, among muficians, is the name of a note in the modern fcale of mufic. See Ga- mut. ALAMODE, in commerce, the name of a \'ery thni, gloiTv, black filk, chiefly ufed for women's hoods and men's mourning fcarfs. ALARES A^ufcuii, in anatomy, the Latin name of the mufcles generally called pterygoidei. See the article Pterygoideus. ALARM, in m.ilitary aftairs, implies either the apprehenfion of being fuddenlv attacked, or the notice of fuch an attack, fignified by the firing of a cannon, mufket, &c. Falfe alarms are frequently made ufe of to har- rafs the enemy, by keeping them continually under arms. Alarm-bell, the bell rung upon any Aiddcn A a cn-.er- ALB ALB cmcrgcncv, as a fire, mutiny, approach of an ene- my, or the like. Alarm-post, the place appointed for drawing up a regiment in cafe of an alarm. Alarm, the name of a kind of clock, contriv- ed for waking people at a certain hour, by making i'.n uncommon r.oife, &:c. ALATED Leaver, in botanv, are thofe com- pofed of feveral pinnated ones. S^e Pinnated. ALATERNUS, in botanv, the ever green pri- vet, a plant that produces male and female flow- ers ; the male are compofed of a monophylous fun- nel fhap'd cup, cut in five fegments at the brim, furrounding five fmall petals with the fame number of filaments ; the female flowers have the appear- ance of the male, but when examined, are without anyftamina, having a trifid ilyle placed on the ger- men, which afterwards becomes a round, foft ber- ry containing three feeds. This plant is very common in England, and vulgarly called philly- rea ; the moft diftinguifhed difference between them is, that the leaves of the true phillyrea are placed oppofite in pairs on the branches, whereas the leaves of the alaternus are fituated alternately, whence the name is fuppofed to be derived. — The variegated fort, (commonly called the flriped phil- lyrea) which is a beautiful plant, is encreafed by layers, and the other fpecies by layers or feeds ; this genus of plants are clafTed by Linnseus with the rhamnus. See the article Rhamnus. ALBANENSES, the name of certain heretics, v^ho troubled the peace of the church in the fe- venth century. They revived in a great meafure the errors of the Manicheans, and other fe(Etaries, which had been dropt for near three hundred years. Their firft reverie confided in eftablifhing two principles, the one good and the other evil ; to the latter they attributed all the books of the Old Tef- tament, which they rejected with abhorrence ; the former they faid was the father of Jefus Chrift,the fountain of good, and author of theNewTeftament. They affirmed that the world had exifled from e- ternity ; denied any refurreftion of the body; and held with Pythagoras, the tranfmigration of fouls. They afierted, that a man has a power of giving himfelf the holy fpirit ; and that the accounts we read of hell are all fable and fidion ; with other tenets equally iinchriftian, wild, and ridicu- lous. ALBANI, in antiquity, a college of the Salli, or the prieils of Mars, fo called from Mount Al- banus, the place of their refidence. ALBATI, a fort of Chriitian hermits, who flourifhed in the year 1399, during the pontificate of Boniface IX. The v/ere fo called from the v/^hite linen which they wore. They c ime down from t'iie Alps into feveral provir.ce; of Italy, under the condudt of a prieft cloathed in white, and holding a crucifix in his hand. The follow- 6 crs of this priefl:, whofe great zeal made lum looked upon as a faint, multiplied fo fall, that it alarmed the pope, who, fending foldiers, appre- hended and put him to death ; upon which his fol- lowers immediately difperfed. Thefe monks pro- fefTed forrow and v/eepinsr for the fins and calami- ties of the times : they eat together in the high- ways, and flept promifcuouflv. ALBE, a fmall piece of money, current in Ger- many, worth about three halfpence. ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about four- teen {hillings; it was coined during the admiiiiftra- tion of Albcrtus, archduke of Aulhia. ALBIGENSES, a k€t of heretics who fprung up in the twelfth century : they were fo called from one Oliver, a difciple of Peter de Valdo, or Wal- dius, who firft fpread his errors at AIbi, a city of Languedoc, on the banks of the Tarne. If we believe the catholic writers, this feiSl was the very hodge-podge, or fcum of all the heretics, that have ftarted up fince the firft propagation of chriftianity. It contained the eftence of ail the errors which had been advanced by theBafilidians, Arians, Manicheans, &c. mixed up with a thou- fand abfurd ingredients of their own invention. Yet bad as it was, it gained fo confiderable a ground againft the corruptions of the Romifti church, and the profligacy of their clergy, that it was not fupprefied v/ithout great bloodfhed and murthers. They were at firft fupported bv Rai- mond, count of Touloufe, when the catholics a- greed upon a holy league, or crufade againft them. He vvas joined by the king of Arragon, but was defeated at the fiege of Muret, where he was kill- ed, and the defeat followed by the furrender of the city of Touloufe, and the conqueft of the greateft part of Languedoc and Provence. His fuccefibr agreed with the pope to fet up the inquifition in his ftate, and to extirpate the Albigenfes. In an aflembly held at Milan, the archbifhop of Tou- loufe drew up articles^ agreeable to which the count made a moft ample declaration againft them, which he publifhed at Touloufe in 1253. This compleated the ruin of the Albigenfes. ALBITROSSE, the name of a bird, very common in fe\'eral parts of the Weft-Indies ; but not reduced to any certain genus. ALBORAK, among Mahometan v/riters, the beaft on which Mahomet rode in his journey to heaven. ALBUGINEA Tunica, in anatomy, the third or innermoft coat of the tefticles, fo called from its white colour. AliiUginea is alfo a name given by fome ana- tomifts to one of the co.its of the eye, called alfo adnata. See the article Eve. ALBUGO, among phyficians, denotes a dif- temper of the eye, caufed by a white, denfe, and opaque fpot, growing on the tunica cornea. The A L C A LC The word is formed from the Latin alius, white. This is a troublefo'me difeafe, which is more or lefs offenfive to the fight, according to the greater or lefs portion of the tianfparent part of the cor- nea atFeifted by it : for fometimes it fixes on the exterior furface only of this membrane, fometimes on the interior, and fometimes it runs more or lefs deep into it. It is moft commonly the confcquence of inflam- mations, by the extravafatiori of humours between the membranes of this tunicle, and particularly in the fmall-pox, by the fuppuration of puftules upon this part. I have, favs the learned Dr. Mead, made ufe of two methods of cure for this diforder of the fight ; the one in the outward fort, the other in the in- ward. In the former cafe I ordered the following powder : Take of common glafs any quantity ; pound it in a mortar, into a very fine powder ; then add an equal quantity of white fugar-candy, and levi- gate the mixture on a marble with great labour, till it becomes quite impalpable. A little of this powder, put into the eye with a quill every day, gradually abfterges and wears off the fpot by its inciding quality. The other me- thod above-mentioned of removing this fpeclc is, to order a dexterous furgcon to pare it cautioufly every day with a knife ; for this tunicle is com- pofed of feveral lamelhie one over another, and has thicknefs enough to bear paring off fome of its parts. I have feen feveral inftances of cures by the eye-powder, but the paring of the coat has not fucceeded with me above once or twice. How- ever, it is better to try a doubtful remedy than none. Mead's Manila 6f Pracepta. ALBUM Gritcum, in the old materia medica, the white dung of dogs, faid to be good for in- flammations of the throat; but it is little regarded at prefent. ALBUMEN, a term ufed by medical writers for the white of an egg. It is ufed in collyriums, on account of its cool- ing and agglutinating quality : it is alfo often an ingredient in ointments for burns. ALBURN, the Englifli name for a fort of compound colour, formed by mixing red and white. ALCAICS, a name given to feveral different kinds of metre, which were made ufe of by the Greeks and Latins : they are fo called from the in- ventor of theni Alcaeus, a famous Lyric poet, born at Mitylene, in the ifland of Leibos, about the 44th Olympiad. He was cotemporary with the celebrated Sappho ; and left fexeral works behind him, of which only a few fragments are now re- maining. He was an inveterate enemy to tyrants, a«d particularly to Pittacus and Periander; for which rcafon. Horace mentions him thus Aktt'i ininaces Stcfhhor'ique graves caynccr.c. The firft fpecies of Alcaic verfe is of four feet, and confifls of a fjjondee or trochee, a bacchius, and two daftvles, as thus : 'jujluin ct I Ur.achn \ propoii \ t'l virurn. In every flanza, where this kind of metre is ufed, the two firfl: verfes are of this fort ; the other two verfes differ, the third being an iambic dimeter hypercataleftic, i. e. with a long fyllable over and above, as Nw vid I ttisln \Jlar,fis [ tyran \ n't. And the fourth verfe an alcaic, which confuls of two daftyles and two trochees, or a trochee and a. fpondee, as, Menu quit ] fit foUrl \ a, r.cc | Ju/ler, The following is a complete alcaic itanza, Vefler \ camoenae., \ Fefler in \ arduos Tollor j Sahuios ; \ jn'. rniht j frigidum Praenef | te, feu | Tltur | Jitpl | num. Sen liqui I dae placu \ ere Baiae ! Befides thefe two forts of alcaic verfe, which aro called dactylic, there is another called fimply alcaic, which confifts of an epitritus fecundus, two chori- ambufes, and a bacchius ; as thus, Fil'ium dl I cunt ThctuVis | Jub lacrimo | sa Trdjae. Alcaic Ode^ a kind of manly ode, compofed of feveral flrophes, each confifting of four verfes ; the two firft of which are always alcaics of the firft kind ; the third verfe is a dimeter hypercata- lectic, or confifting of four feet and a long fylla- ble ; and the fourth verfe is an alcaic of the fe- cond kind. The following ftrophe is of this fpe- cies, which Horace calls rmnaces Alcai camoena. Non pojjidentem mi/'ta vocaveris Retle beatum : reSiius oceupat Nomen teatt, qui deorum Miourihus japi enter utt. Sic. Hor. Alcaid, Alcavde, or Alcalde, among the Spaniards and Portuguefe, is a magiftrate, or officer of juftice, anfwering nearly to our juftice of peace. The alcaid is properly a Moorifli officer,. where he is inverted with fupreme jurifdidion, both- in civil and criminal cafes. ALCALI, or Alkali, a general appellation given by phyficians and chemifts to all fubftances, which, on being mixed with acids, excite an effer- vefcence. The word originally fignified the fait extrafled from the afhes of iali, or glafswort : but was afterwards applied to all falts that effervefccd with- acids. Alcalies are generally divided into two kinds,, and diftinguifhed by the epithets of ^xed and volatile. Fixed Alkalies are diftinguifhed from faline; fubftances not alcaline, by their effervefcing with all acids, forming with them neutral falts, preci- pitating A L C ipitating Iblutioiis made in acids, and changing lyrup of violets green. They arc diftiugnifhed from volatile alculics by their fixity an.\a-^ a gut, and eJo?, refemblance. Anatomifts are not agreed whether the allantoig has or has not any exiftcnce in the human fpecies. ALLAY. See the article Alloy. ALLEGATION, in law, implies the produc- ing inftrumcnts, or deeds, for proving the truth of fomething litigated before the court. ALLEGIANCE, in law, fignifies the obe- dience which every fubJeiSt owes to his lawful fo-« vereign. The word is formed from the Latin allegiantia, and derived from allego, to admit. Allegiance is either natural, acquired, or local. Natural Allegiance is that which every fubjeiSl born ought to pay immediately upon his birth. Acquired Allegtance is that which a perfon naturalized, or made a denizen, owes to the kin*. Local Allegiance is that which a perfon, on hie entering the dominions of another prince, ought to pay for his protection. Oath ij/Allegian'CE is that taken by the fubjedt, and in which he acknowledges the king a temporal prince. ALLEGORICAL, fomething belonging to, o»- partaking of, the nature of an allegory. See Al- legory. Allegorical Pcctry is that where fome ufeful moral is conveyed under the veil of fiftion and alle- gory. The moft beautiful poem of this kind ia ours, or perhaps in any other language, is Spenfer's Fairy Queen. This Ipecies of poetry allows the largeft fcope and latitude to the genius; the fancy of the poet, winged with the wildeft enthufiafm, may fly out beyond the bounds of fpace and time ; it may give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name. Not: contented with bodying forth the virtues, vices, paffions, and all natural and moral qualities; it may dart into the fairy-land of fiction : and with more than magic power conjure up a new creation of monftrous dragons, enchanted caftles, and tre- mendous giants. Yet rolling in this fine frenzy tlis eye of the poet muft ftill watch the moral : how- ever wild and romantic his inventions are, the myf- tical meaning of his fable muft appear under the veil diftin(Et and intelligible. It is this, and this only, v.hich can juitify him, when he tranfports us, beyond the bounds of nature, into that ideal coun- try, whofe inhabitants are all apparitions, whofe very rocks have voice and language, and whofi: trees drop tears of blooJ. Having thus given the reader a fhort (tetch of . the general rneaning of allegorical poetry, it may not be amifs to mention four qualifications, which appear to be necefliiry to this fort of compofition. The firft is, that the fable muft be lively and furprizing, in order to raife and engage our curiofity^ ALL ALL curlofity. As there is more invention therefore employed in a work of this kind than in mere narration, or defcription, or indeed than in gene- ral amplifications on any fubjedl whatever, it con- fequently requires a more than ordinary heat of fancy, when the fubjeough to ad- mit two perfons to walk a-breaft, whereas a path is fuppofed to admit of but one at a time : but if an alley is wider than ten or twelve feet, it may, with moie propriety, be called a walk. Covered AlleYj is where the trees on each fide meet at the top, fo as to form a fliade. ALL-HEaL, in botany. See Panax. ALLIANCE, in the civil and cannon law, im- plies the relation between two perfons, or two fami- lies contraQed by marriage. Alliance is alfo uTed to fignify a treaty entered into by fovereign princes or ftates, for their mutual fifety or defence. Defmfwe Alliance is that whereby the con- trading parties engage to fland by and aflift ■ each other againft any power that (hall attack either. Ofinfive Alliance implies an agreement be- j tween powers, whereby they engage themfelves to attack jointly fome other prince or Itate. I ALLIGATION, in arithmetic, is that rule by which we refolve qucftions that concern the mixing or uniting divers fimples or particulars into one mafs or fum, according to any price or fum re- quired. The word is formed from the Latin, aH-garty which fignifies to tie together; perhaps from a fort of vincula or curve, commonly ufed to connedt or join the feverai quantities or numbers together. Alligation is either medial or alternate. ^LLiGATiot^ medial, is, when having the feveral quantities and rates of divers fimples propofed, wa difcover the rate of a mixture compounded of thofe fimples. All queftions in this may be folved by the following rule. Having the quantity of the ingredients and the particular prices, to find the price of fome part of the mixture, Ruk. Multiply the ingredients feverally by their own prices, and divide the fum of thofe produds by the fum of the ingredients, and the quotient an- fwers the queftion. Example, A Tobacconift would mix 2cft. of tobacco, aC 9 pence the pound, with 6o}fc. at izd. with 4ofb at 1 8//. and with 12ft' at 2s. the pound. Place the numbers of their value as follows; ffe. s. d. £, 20 at 09 per ft. v.;ill coft o 60 at 10 - - - - o 40 at 16 - .__- _^ 12 at 20--- - - -I s. d. 15 o o o o o 4 o Sum fimple 132 Total value 7 19 o 132 = IS. 2{d. = the . Therefore 7/. 19^ Talue of one pound. Alligatio>j altermte, is when the rates or qua- lities of divers fimples are given, and the quantity of each is required, necelTary to make a mixtute of the given rate or quality; it likewife fliews the proportion of feveral ingredients, and counter- changes the places of fuch exce.Ces or differences as arife between the mean price and the extremes; afcribing that to the greater extreme which comes from the lelTer, and contrarily. To refolve queftions in alligation alternate, obferve the following rules. Firft, when the prices of the fimples are expreffed, but no quantity given, and it is required how much of each fimple we muft take to fell onequan • tity or meafure at a mean rate propounded ; Ruk. Link the extremes together, and take the difFe- rence between each number and the mean rate pro- E e pounded ALL ALL pomnJed, anJ place that difFerence againfl- Its yoTce- felbw which will be the quantity required of that ^oke-ftllow in this mixture. i r ., * hxample. I A Merchant hath fpices, feme at gd. per pound, feme at \2d. fome at 241^. and feme at ^od per pound ; how much of each fort muft he take, that he may fell a pound for 2od. Link the numbers together in the following man ner : Pi ice propofed 20^. The difFerence between 9 and 20 = ir, which is placed againft its yoke- fellow 30, which denotes that u pounds is to be taken off that at 30^: per pound, to make the mixture: the difference be- tween 12 and 20 is 8, which place againft its yoke- fellow ; likewife between 24 and 20 is 4, and 30 and 20 is 10, which place in their proper places, as in the example above, and the work is done ; for the numbers 10, 4, 8, and 11, are the quanti- ties of each required. Note, That as many different ways as the num- bers can be linked together, fo many different an- fwers will be given, and yet all true. Second, when the price of all the fimples, and the quantity of one is given, to find the quantity of all the reft, fo as one meafure or quantity may bear a mean rate or price propounded. RuU. As the difference ftandlngagainftthequantity given: To the reft of the differences befides : : So is the quantity given : To the quantity fought : -each to its refpe 9> 20, 3c 8 6 12-'> 9 J 8 . 7 Js Then fay, As 20, the difference againft the quantity given : to 8 the next difference : : fo 30 : to 12, the quantity required at I2 This jc darker coloured than the loregoing, and not fo clear or bright. It is generally drier and morecom- padt ; though fometinics, efpecially the ca(k fort, quite foft and clammy. Its fmell is much llronger and more difagreable; the tafte intenfely bitter and naufeous, with little ornothingof the aromatic fla- vour of the fccotorine. Aloe CabalUna. Caballine, or horfe aloes, are prepare.!, probably, from the ahe gu'menfu cahiUina vuigari Jimilii fed Ijta maculata, and not, as is gene- rally fuppol'ed, from the faces of the hepatic; the difference not being in purita, but in quality. It IS cafily difiinguiflicd from both the foregoing by its ftrong rank fmell : in other refpefls it agreea pretty much with iheheptic; and is, not unfre- qucntly, fold in its place. Sometimes it is pre- pared fo pure and bright as fcarce to be diftinguifh- able by the eye, even from the focotorine; but its offenfive fmell readily betrays it: and if this alfo fhould be difTipated by art, its wanting the aroma- t.c flavour of the finer aloes will be a fufficient cri- terion. Aloes is a ftimulating cathartic bitter : taken ir» fufliciEnt dofes to purge effeftiially, as two fcruples or a dram, it occafions commonly a great irritation about the anus, and fometimes a difcharge of blood. In fmaller dofes, as ten or twelve grains, repeated once or twice a day, it not only evacuates the firft paffages, but attenuates and diffolves.vifcid humours in the remote parts ; warms the habit, quickens the circulation, and promotes the menftrual and ha;- morrhoidal fluxes: its continued ufe renders the blood fenfibly more fluid, as appears on venefe£tion. For a lime, in thefe fmall dofes, it does not adfe by ftool ; but at length it produces a gentle loofe- nefs, of longer continuance than that occafioned by moft other purgatives: hence its utility in ha- bitual coftivencfs. This ftimulating cathartic is particularly adapted to peifons of a phlegmatic tem- perament and fedentary life, to cachectic indifpo- fitions, and opprefllons of the ftomach by vifcii crudities contradled from irregularity : in dry bi- ; lious habits it is often iniurious, immoderately heat- ing the blood, or inflaming the bowels. This bitter juice is accounted deftru6tive to worms (or to the matter which favoiirs their pro- dudion) whether taken internally, or applied \n plaifters to the umbilical region. It is powerfully antifeptic; and commonly made an ingredient in tinftures and balfams for cleanfing and healing wounds or putrid fores. Aloes is fometimes taken by itfelf, fometimes! mixed with faponaceous medicines, warmed with aromatics, acuated with pungent materials, com- bined with the deobftruent gums, &c. Many of thefe kinds of compofitions have been received as ot'hcinals: a pill, for example, compofed of equal parts of aloes and foap, with a proper quantity of thin honey ; a powder, of eight par;s of aloes, with two of canella alba, or with one of virginian fnake root, and one of ginger ; a tindture made by digefting five ounces of (h^fe powders in five or fix pints of mountain wine; pills of four parts of aloes, two of myrrh, and two or one of faffron, made up with fyrup of faffron, or of orange peel ; vinous and fpirituous tindlures of the aloes, with different proportions of the myrrh and faftroOj &c. Among different aromatic materials made trial of, cicves feemed the beft adapted for alleviating the offenfivenefs of the aloes ^ the committee ap- Y I pointed ALP A L S •pointed by the London college for reforming their '' pharmacopoeia, made choice of canella alba, on account of its not rendering the medicine fo hot as the necefiary quantity ot the clove itfelf would do, a«d yet having fo much of the clove flavour, as to cover the aloes in a fufEcient degree ; fame com- mend the cafia caryophyelata, or clove bark, as fcaving more of the clove flavour than canella alba, and yet not being very hot. Where volatile fpirits ase to be joined, a folution of the aloes, i-n dulci- fied fpirit of fal ammoniac, or in fpirit of fal am- moniac made with quick lime, are very elegant preparations, an-; require little afliftance from aro- matics to render them fupportable to the palat-c ; the offenfivenefs of the aloes being greatly abated fcy the fpirit, and the pungency of the fpiritflieath- cd by the aloes ; the fpirit of fa! ammoniac made fixed with alkaline fait, does not diflblve near fo xnuch of the aloes as the tvvoabovementioned. Aloes Wood. See Xyloalo£s. ALOETICS, a general name for all medicines, whofe bafis or principal ingredient is aloes. ALOGIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a kO. of ancient heretics, who denied that Jefus Chrift is the logos, or eternal word ; and therefore they rejeft- ed the gofpel of St. John as a fpurious produc- tion. The word is Greek, and compounded of a, priv. and x-7 r, the word. ALOlDES, in botany. See Stratiotes; ALOPECIA, in medicine, implies a falling ofF 6f the hair, occafioned either by a defedl of nou- rilhment, or a bad ftate of the humours. ALOPECUE.US, fox-tail grafs, in botany, a diflLndl: genus of plants; it produces a triandrious flower, confiiling of one hollow valve with a long awn or heard infetted on its back part; near the bafe the germen is round, fupporting two ftyles, and contains a fingle round feed in a cover. ALP, a name given to the bullfinch, in feveral parts of England. See Bullfinch. ALPHA, the name of the firfl; letter of the Greek alphabet, anfwering to our A. As a numeral it flands for one, orthefiiftof any thing ; hence alpha and omega, being the firfl and lafl: letters in the Greek alphabet are ufed to fignify the eternity of God. ALPHABET, the natural or cuflomarj' feries of the feveral letters of a language. The word is formed from alpha and beta, the fiiil and fecond letters of the Greek alphabet. The number of letters is different in the alpha- bets of different languages. The Englifh alpha- bet contains 24 letters, to which if we add /' and v oonfonant, the fum will be 26, the French 23, the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan 22 each, the Arabic 28, the Perfian 31, the Turkifli 23, the Georgian 36, the Coptic 32 , the Mui- covite 43, the Greek 24, tlie Latin 22, the Scla- vonic 27, the Dutch 26, theSpanifh 27, the Italian 20, the Ethiopic and Tartarian, each 202, the Indians of Bengal 21, the Baramefe 19. The Chi- nefe have, properly fpeaking, no alphabet, except we call their whole language by that name; their letters are words, or rather hieroglyphics, amount- ing to about So, 000. Alphabet is alfo ufed for a cypher, or table of the ufual letters of the alphabet, with tl.e corref- pondent fecret charaders, and other blank fymbols intended to render the writing more difficult to be decyphered. Alphaeet, among merchants, a kind of index, with the twenty-four letters in their natural order, in which are fct down the nanr? of thofe who have open accounts, referring the folios of the ledger. ALPHABETICAL, fomething belonging to, or placed in order of, t'>e alphabet. ALPHETA, in aftionrmy, the name of a fixed flar of the fecond magnitude in the norihein crown, and generally called iucida coraiii. See the conftellsi'. n CoVioti a. ft-ptentrionale. ALPHONSIN, in furgery, an inftrument for ext'adfing bullets out of gun-fliot wounds. This inflrument derivi;s its name from the in- ventor Alphonfus Ferrier, a phyfician of Naples. It confifts of three branches, which are clofed by a ring. When clofed and introduced into the wound, the operator draws back the ring to- wards the handle, upon which tne hranchcj open- ing take hold of the ball ; and then the ring is pulhed from th,; haft, by which means the branches grafp the ball fo firmly as to extradt it from the wound, ■ ALPHONSIN E Tables, aftronomical tables computed by order of Alphonfus, king of Caflile ; that prince is even fuppofed to have affifted in the conftruflion. ALPHOS, among phyficians, a difeafe of the fkin, otherwife called vitiligo, wh n that mem- brane is fprinkled, or, as it v/ere covered with white fpots. Several authors confider it as a fymptom of the leprofy. See the article Leprosy. The word is Greek, and fignifies white, which in that language is a radix. ALRaMECH, in aftronomy, the Arabic name of a flar of the firfi: magnitude, commonly called Ardlurus. SccArcturus. ALSINE, chickweed, in botnny, a genus of pentandrious plants. The middle kind called alfine media, by C. Bauhine, is the chickweed of the fhops, and grows wild in molt gardens, and oftea on dunghills. The flowers which are fmall and rofaceous, are produced in great plenty fom early in the fpring till Midfummer. The whole plant may be ufed medicinally, and is accounted cool- J^juxir. iji-ai%ft^ Altar. ALT ALT ^■ag, and therefore good in fevers, and in confump-, c tions arifing from he£lical diforders. ; ALT in mufic, a term applied to the high notes in the fcale. See Gamut. / ALTAR, a kind of table of wood, or ftone, or metal, elevated above the ground, upon which facrifices were offered to fome deity. Amongft the Romans the altar was a fort of pe- deftal, either fquare or round, or triangular, a- dorned with fcujpture, bas-relievos, and infcrip- tions, whereon the vidlims were burnt which they facrificed to their idols. The Greeks diftinguiflied two different kinds of altars, one they called Ciu^oj ,1 which was the real altar, on which they facrificed to their gods ; the ether was termed £-;«*,•«, being much fmaller, and only a fort of hearth, on which they offered up facrifices to their heroes. The heathens had a cuftom, when they made any folemn vow, to lay hold on the altar ; to which Pericles alludes, when he fays, " Ton may be a friend as far as to the altar ;" as if he had faid, you may love your friend fo well, as to .lo any thing but forfwear yourfelf for him. Their altars could not be touched, nor even approached, without facri- lege, by perfons who had committed murder, or women who had been defiled. They were the moft facred afylums, as well to the innocent as the guilty, none being forced from them, but thofe who had commitied the moft enormous villainies. Altars are of great antiquity amongft the Jewifli nation ; Noah when he came out of the ark built an altar, and offered up facrifices to the Lord : A- braham eredled another in Sichem, and one in the plain of Mamre. The altars, which God com- manded Mofes to make, were to be of earth, of rough ftones ; it being exprefly forbidden that they fliould be hewn In the tabernacle were two al- tars ; one the brazen altar, which was for burnt- offerings, and the other the altar of incenfe, made of gold- Altar of Burnt offerings, was a kind of coffer, made of bhittim-wood, covered with plates of brafs ; its height was three cubits, and its breadth five cubits. It was placed by Mofes to the eaft, before the entrance of the tabernacle, in the open air, that the fire which was kept upon it continu- ally, might not fully the infide of the tablsrnacle. hi each of the four corners of this altar, there was a fpire in the appearance of a fiorn, wrought out of rhe fame piece of wood with the altar itfelf, and covered with brafs ; within the altar was a grate of brafs, on which the fire was made ; and through this grace fell the afhes, in proportion as they increafed upon the altar, and were received below, within a pan, which was placed under it. At the four corners of this grate were four rings acd four chains, which kept it up at the four horns pf the altar. This altar was portable, and was carried on the flioulders of the priefts, by fiaves of Shiitim-wood, overlaid with brafs, and put into rings fattened to the fides of the altar. Such was the altar of burnt-offerings belonging to the taber- nacle, eredied by Mofes in the wildernefs ; but the altar of burnt-offerings, ere£led in Solomon's tem- ple, was much larger, being twenty cubits fquare, and ten high. It was covered with thick plates of brafs, and filled with rough ftones ; and on the eaft fide there was an eafy afcent leading up to it. After the return of the Jews from captivity, and the building of the fecond temple by Zeruhbabel, their altars were in fome refpedls different from' thofe in ufe before the captivity, being compofed of large piles of unhewn ftones, thirty-two cubits fquare at the bottom, and twenty-four cubits at the top. The afcent to this altar was by a gentle ri- fing, thirty-tv;o cubits in length, and lixteen in breadth. See Plate VJ . fig i- h-Li i^Vi of hicenfe, was a imall table of Shittim- wood, covered with plates of purs gold, one cubit fquare and two high. At each of the four corners thereof was a horn ; round it was a fmali border, and over it a crown of gold. Every morning and evening the officiating prieft offered incenfe upon this altar ; for which end he entered with the fmoaking cenfer, filled with fire from the altar of burnt- offerings, into the fandtuary, or holy place, where this altar was fixed over-againft the table of fhew bread. The prieft, having placed the cenfer upon it, retired out of the fanSuary. This was ther altar which was hidden by Jeremiah before the cap- tivity. See Plate IV. fig. 2. Altar, or Table for the Jhew bread, was of Shitem -wood, covered with plates of gold; it had a little border round it, adorned with fculpture, and was two cubits in length, one in breadth, and one and a half in height. It was placed in tho fanduary to hold the fiuw-bread; which were twelve cakes, made in a fquare form, having as it were four faces or fides. The Hebrew term foe this fort of bread, fignifies literally bread of faces. It was called the fhcw-bread, becaufe it was expofed to public view before the ark : none but the priefts could lawfully eat of this bread, which was ferved up hot on the Sabbath day ; and at the fame time the ftale ones, which had been expofed during the whole week before, were taken away. The offer- ing of the (hew-brcad was accompanied with fait and frankinqenfe, which was burnt upon the tabic, at the time when they fet on frefh cakes- Authors are not agreed as to the manner of ranging the cakes of ujew-bread upon the table. Some think they were placed in three piles, containing four cakes each ; others fay, there were but v.wo piles ol: fix cakes. The rabbins tell us, that betweeiv every two cakes, there were two golden pipes, fup- potted by forks of the fame metal, whofe end icfted ALT ALT refted uoon the ground to convey air to the loaves,! and hinJer them from growing mouldy. ' The Altar, which was obferved by St. Paul at Athens, being dedicated thus, to the unknown Cod, has puzzled the moft learned commentators, to determine precifely what it was ; becaufe it was lifiial among the heathens to engrave upon theirl altars the name or proper enfign of the deity, to ■whom they were dedicated. Some follow the opi- nion of St. Jerom, who informs us, that the in- fcription was not exadlly as St. Paul relates, but that the words were, " To the Gods of Afia, *' Europe, and Africa ; to the unknown and *' ftrange Gods." Others think that St. Paul propofed to fpeak of thofe altars, which were to be feen in feveral parts of Attica, without any parti- cular infcription, and erefted after a folemn expia- tion of the country, made by the philofopher Epi- menides. But it feems to us unneceflary to go in learch of foreign and difficult interpretations of this paffage, as it may be taken in its plain and literal meaning. Lucian in his Dialogue, en- titled, Philopatris, fwears by the unknown God of Athens ; and adds, " Being come to Athens, and *' finding there the unknown God, we worfhipped *' him, and gave thanks to him, with hands lifted " up to heaven." This fmgle authority proves incontenftibly that there was an altar at Athens e;e£ted to the unknown God, with th<: very in- fcription mentioned by the Apoftle. Altar, in the modern ul'e of the word, fignifies the communion table. Altar, or Ara, in aftronomy, a conftclla- tion of the fouthern hemifphere, containing feven liars, whereof five are of the fourth magnitude, and two of the fifth J this conftellation is not vifible in our climate. ALTARAGE, the profits which the prieft re- ceives on account of the altar. ALTERAN rS, in medicine. See the article Alteratives. ALTtRATE, in mufic and geometry. See SesQIJI ALTER ate. AL'l'KRATiVES, or Alterative medicines, in the healing art, are fuch medicines as correiil the bad qualities of the anima] fluids, without oc- cafioning any fenfible evacuation. ALTERCUM, in botany, a name given by fome old writers to a plant now called hyofcyamus. See the article Hyoscyamus. ALTERN-BASE, in trigonometry, is a term ufed in contradiftindtion to the true bafe. Thus, in oblique triangles, when the true bafe is the fum of the fides, then the difference of the fides is the altern-bafe ; but when the difference of the fides is the true bafe, then the fum of the fides is called the altern-bafe, ALl ERNATE, in a general fenfc, fignifies a term applied to fuch perfons or things, as fuccecd each other by turns. Alternate, in botany, is fuch a difpofition of the leaves of fome plants, that the firfl leaf on one fide of a branch ftands higher than the firft ojt the other fide, the fecond leaf the fame, and fo con- tinued to the top. Alternate, in heraldry, is faid with regard to the fituation of the quarters. Thus the firft and fourth quarters, and the fecond and third, are ufually of the fame nature, and are thence called alternate quarters. Alternate Jngls, in geometry. See Angles. Alternate Ratio, is the ratio of antecedent to antecedent, and confequent to confequent, in any proportion. Thus if A : B : C : D. then will the ratio of A to C, be as the ratio of B to D. which is alternate; he«ce this kind of proportion can only take place when the quantities are of the fame kind. ALTERNATION properly fignifies a fucccf- fion by turns. Alternation of ^antit'ies is a term ufed to exprefs the different ways, that any particular number of things maybe varied, changed, or com- bined. See Combination. ALTERNATIVE, in a general fenfe, im- plies nearly the fame as alternate. See Alter- nate. ALTHi^A, marfhmallow, in botany, a genu* of plants producing a flower with a double em- palement ; the outer one is monophyllous, irregu- larly divided at the extremity into nine narrow parts, the interior empalement is alfo compotd of one leaf, cut at the top into five broad fegments, and are both premanent, the ffower contains five heart- fhaped petals, which join together at the bafe; the filaments are numerous, joined below in a cy- lindrical form, but loofe at the tops, and are in- ferted in the corollae; in the center is placed an orbiculated germen, fupporting a fljort cylindrical flyle, topped with a numerous lligma; the empale- ment becomes afterwards a round depreffed cap- fulas, divided into feveral cellsi each containing a fingle compreffed kidney- fhaped feed. The common althaa grows in moift places in divers parts of England, the root is perennial, but the ftalk is annual, and dies to the ground every autumn ; the ftalk is upright, with a few fmall fide branches, and furni/hed with hoary foft angulated leaves J the ffower blows in July and Augulf, and comes out from the wings of the leaves fhaped like the common mallow, but lefs, and of a paler colour. In medicine the leaves of this plant afford a very foft mucilaginous fubftance in decodion, which is therefore good in all complaints arifing from acrimony i thus it is of great fervice in dy- fentcries. ALT ALT fenteries, and in many kinds of cholics ; it alfo greatly affifts in obftru£lions of the reins and urinary paflages, by lubricating the parts, and tbereby making them yield better to the pa/Tage and expulfion of fuch matter; it is likewife good in ftranguaries and heat of urine : it is much ufed in glyfters, and fometimes in maturatin^^ cata- plafms. Mr. Ray mentions it as a pedtoral ; and it muft certainly be of fervice to eafe the coughs thence arifing, and is alfo of ufe in pleurilies. The roots of this plant partake of the virtues of the leaves, but are accounted more efficacious ; they yield a great flime or mucilage to any de- codtion or infufion, which renders it very fmooth and emollient, whereby it makes the parts give way to almolt any thing that prefles upon them, and wonderfully facilitates the paifage of any fliarp particles through the minutell canals, without fufFering their points to wound and irritate the membranes ; fometimes they are given inwardly, not fo much to force the urine, as to (heath with the mucilage it affords the fharpnefs and acrimony of the humours. Thefyrup in the fhops, in which this is the principal ingredient, and from whence it takes its name, is good in the fame intention, but not fo efficacious as the fame ingredients in de- coiSlion only, becaufe fugar improperly mixes with medicines of a mucilaginous nature. Althjea Frutex. See Hibiscus, ALTIMETRY, the art of meafuring heights or depths, whether acceflible or inacceflible. See Altitude. ALTITUDE, in geometry, one of the three dimenfions of a folid body, and is often exprefTed by height, or depth ; thus we fay, the length, breadth, and height ; or, the length, breadth, and depth of a body ; where height and depth are the fame as if we had faid, the altitude of that folid. The altitude of an earthly objedt is commonly un- derftood to be its height above the ground, or to be equal to the length of a perpendicular let fall from the apex of the objedt to tlie horizontal bafe, or to the ground on which itftands. Altitude of a Figure, the diftance of the vertex from the bafe, or length of the perpen- dicular line AD, (Plate Vl.fig. i.J where A is the vertex of the triangle ABC, BC the bafe, and AD:i:the altitude of the triangle. The altitudes of objefls on the earth, are either acceffible or iniicceffible. They are faid to be ac- ceflible, when we can approach without obftacle the foot or bafe of the objsft, at that point where the perpendicular from the vertex falls ; and on the contrary, they are faid to be inacceffible, when we cannot approach the obje£l, by reafon of Ibme hindrance or impediment, as a ditch, river, rock, &c. To talean accejjiblc A- titude. Let AB (Plate VI. fig, 4.) reprcfent the objcia )ou would take the altitude of. Firfl-, At any diftance from the objea, with a quadrant or other inftrument, take the angle of its altitude, as A ^ B ; then with a chain or rod meafure the diftance e B, and you. will have in the triangle ABt-, right angled at B, the fide B e, and angle A * B, to find the fide A B, (which is the altitude of the objeft above the eye) which is found by the following propor- - tion. As radius ; Is to the diftance of the eye from the obje£l=BC; So is the tangent of the obferved angle ACB ; \ To the altitude of the objedt BA above the eye. Therefore adding the altitude of the eye to BA, ' gives the true altitude of the objeiSl, let it be tower, fteeple, tree, or any other fimilar thing. If no inftrument be at hand for obferving ths angular height, you may find the altitude of any acceffible objea by the (hadow. Thus, Let EB, ' (Plate Vr. /^. 5.) be the fliadow of the fteeple ' AE, made by the folar rays coming from the fun; then find a place, D, where a ftaff, or walking cane, CD, being held or placed upright, fhall caft the extremity of its fliadow juft upon the point B; then meafure the length of the fliadow EB and DB, and as the height of the ftaff is known, the analogy will be thus ; As the length of the fliadow BD: Is to the fliadow BE : So is the height of the ftaff DE r To the height of the fteeple EA. To take an hiaccejfihle Altitude. Let AC, (Plate VI. fig. 6 ) reprefent a tower, which by means of fomc ditch, river, &c. is inacceffible to find its altitude. Firft, Pitch upon two ftations any where in the bafe line CB, as at D and B ; meafure the did ance DB, between the two ftations j then take the angular height of the tower, both at D and B, and you will then have given in the oblique triangle ABD, the angle ABD=the angular height of the tower at the ftation B ; and the angle ADB = 180"— the angular height ac the ftation D; likewife the fide BD to find DA, which is done thus : As the fine of the angle BADr: 180 — the fum of the angles ABD and 413B : Is to the fide DB, = the diftance of the ftations : So is the fine of the angle DBA: To the fide AD. Then we have given in the triangle ACD, right- . angled at C, the fide AD, found by the laft ana- logy ; and the angle ADC = the angular height of the tower taken at the ftation D, to hnJ AC, the height of the tower, vi'hich is done thus: ALT ALT As radius: Is to the fide AD:: So is the fine of the angle ADC To the fidcC A =: the altitude required. The way of taking the altitude of high moun- tains, whofe funitnits are accefllble, is by carrying a bsrometsr to the top, and obferving how many divifions and parts the mercury differs from what it flood at below in the valley ; by which means you have the altitude in Englifti feet, by a table of M. Caflini's, which is inferred in the Hiftoire de I'Academie Royale, for the years 1703 and 1704, which he founded on very accurate obfervations and menfurations of the altitudes of feveial moun- tains. Altitude, in optics, is an angle fubtended between a line drawn from the eye parallel to the horizon, and a ray emitted from an objedt to the eye. Thus, if through the two extremes of an cbjeS A and B, (Plate VI. fig. 2.) two parallels AD and BO be drawn, the angle BCA, inter- cepted between a vifual ray paffing through the vertex A, and terminating the fhadow thereof in C, makes with the right line BC, what is called by fome the altitude of the luminary. Altitude a/"//;^ £)'4', in perfpe£live, is aright line let fall from the eye perpendicular to the geo- metrical plane, being the point from whence the principal ray proceeds. Altitude, in aftronomy, js the diftance of the fun, or ftar, from the horizon, and is meafured by an arch of a vertical circle intercepted between the celeflial objefl and the horizon. Altitude of the Pole, is the height of the pole ■above the horizon, and is reprefented by the arch ph, (Plate yh fig. 3.) where h h is the horizon. The elevation of the pole is always equal to the latitude of the place, and the diftance of the pole from the zenith, reprefented by the arch H p, is always equal to the complement of latitude. Altitude c/the Equinoiilal, is its height above tl e horizon, and is always equal to the comple- ment of the latitude of the place, and is reprefented by the arch JE h (Plaie VI, /^. 3.) Metidian Altitude of a Star, or Planet, is an arch of the meridian intercepted between the cen- ter of the planet and the horizon. To take a me- ridian altitude, fee Meridian, Observation, or AlTITuDE Jpparent Altitude of a Star, Planet, he. is the arch of a vertical circle intercepted between the fenfible horizon and the center of the planet. As, let C D (Plate VI. /j-. 3.) be the true hori- zon, H O the fenfible horizon, Q_D a vertical circle whofe center is C, the center of the earth, and let L be any point in the heavens; let H be the place of obfervation, and L M an arch of a ciitle drawn through L on the center H, then is L M the apparent altitude of the point L, whicb'V is always lefs than the true. True Altitude, which is the arch Q_D. of a vertical circle whofe center is C, the center of the- earth. Parallax in Altttude, is an arch intercepted- between the true and apparent place of a ftar, or. planet, when diminiftied by the fmall arch of RefraElion in Altitude, or the fmall arch» whereby the altitude of a ftar, or planet, is in- creafed ; confequently, as the arch of parallax di- minifhes the altitude, the difference between the" two arches is the true difference between the true • and apparent altitude. Altitude of Motion, a term ufed by fome wri- ters, "to exprefs the meafure of any motion, com- puted according to the line of direflion of the moving force. Altitude of the Nonagefimal Degree, is its alti- tude reckoned from the point at which itrifes; or it is the complement to a quadrant of the nonage- fimal degree, from the vertex of any place. See NoNAGESIMAL. Altitude of the Earth's Shadoiv. See EcLlPsSi' of the Moon, Altitvue of the Moon's Shadow. See Eclipse ' oj the Sun. Parallels of ALTITUDES. See the article Pa's- RALLEL. ^adrani of Altitude. See the article Qua^ BRANT. ALTO and Basso, in law, denotes the abfo- lute ubmifFion of all difference, high and low to fome arbitrator. ALTOM, a name given in feveral parts of the Turkifli dominions to what the Europeans call a fequin. See Sequin. ALTO-RELIEVO. See the article Re- lievo. ALTO-REPIENO, in mufir, the tenor of the grand chorus, which fings or plays only now and then in fome particular places. ALTUS, in mufic. See Countertenor. ALVARISTS were a branch of the Tomefts, fo called from Alvares their leader, who afTerted the dodlrine of fufficient grace, inftead of the efH-^ cacious grace of the ancient Thomifls. ALUCO, in natural hiftory, a name by which fome authors call the common white owl. See Owl. ALUDE, a kind of coloured fiieep's leather dreffed with the wool on. ALUDELS, in chemiftry, are earthen pots without bottoms, inlerted into each other, and ufcd in fublimations. See the article Sublima- tion. The firft aludel is fitted to a pot, containing the- matter to be fublimed, and placed in the furnace ; ^ die fccond aludel is a(!julkd to the former j and ALU A L U in this manner any number of aludels, lequifite in the operation, are placed an each other, and the upper one fitted to a blind head, where the flowers that afcend higheft are retained. ALVEARIUM, in anatomy, the hollow of the auiicle, or external ear. The word is Latin, and derived from alvenus, a channel, or cavity. ALVEOLUS, in natural hiftory, fignifies one of thofe waxen cells which compofe the combs in bee-hives. Thefe cells ferve both for ftore houfes, wherein the honey and wax for future ufe are depofited, and alfo for nidufes to defend the embryo bees, while hatching. See Bee. Alveolus, in anatomy, the focket-like cavity in the jaw, wherein each of die teeth are fet. Alveolus, in botany, a name given to the cells in which the feeds of certain plants are placed, fuch as the fjr-3ower, &c. ALUM, Jluwen, in natural hiftory, a femi- fanfparent, auftere, flyptic fait, compofed of the vitriolic acid, and a certain earth, found in all the argillaceous foffils hitherto examined. The greateft quantities of this fait are artificial- ly produced from different kinds of minerals, whofe nature and compofitionare little known. The reddilh Roman alum is prepared from a reddifh ftone found at the bottom of the hill Tol- fa, near Civita Vecchia, in the ecclefiaftical ftate. In Sweden and Lme parts of Bohemia, alum is made from pyritae and other ores ; in England, at Altfattel, and fundry other places, from bitumi- nous minerals of the pitccalkind ; at Solfatara near Naples, from a whitifh earth ; in Mifnia^ from a blackifh one; at Leowenberg near Freyenwalde, frcm a reddifii one, and from different minerals at Saalfeld, Reichenbach, Leufetsdorff, Sufersdorff, Eliard, Schwentzel, Duben, &c. There are wa- ters impregnated with alum, though fev/ if any that leave a perfeit alum on bare evaporation. The pureft and moft perfect alum ore is the red- difh ftone of Tolfa .this is laid to yield alum with- out any additional matter, though oot v.'ithout artificial management: the alum obtained from it is tiiiiSlured with the reddifh colour of the ftone. In its natural ftate it gives ho marks of alum ; and, if expofed to the air, it continues a hard infipid ftone. Calcined or roaftcd, and then laid for a time in the air, it becomes by degrees aluminous, and gives out its alum on being boiled in water. This is the alum which the Italians call alu?n di rocca, alum made from a ftore or rock ; among us, the. name alumen rupeuni, or rock alum, is ofien applied to the larger cryftalline maftes, whatever fubjefl they have been prepared from. The aluminous pyritse and bitumens require 110 calcination, unlefs they greatly abound with fulphur. Thefe minetals, at hift taken out of the earth, are compa(f>, and often bright and glitter- ing: they have no manner of tarte, and difcover no mark of their holding any tiling faline; the vitriolic acid being as yet blended with an infiam-- mable matter, by which its acidity and all its fa- line characlers are deftroyed. On baieexpofure to the open air, the inflammable principle is diilipated, and the acid is combined with the aluminous earth into a perfeh9 A M B A MB the place, fnould be a bark or tan-bsd about three feet deep ; when the plants can no longer be con- tained in the common hot-bed frames, then re- move and plunge them in new bark, previoufly prepared : here they may remain till thev are ar- rived to their full perfection, obferving to give them plenty of air in hot weather, and likewife fre- quent waterings. , When they are full grov/n, and the weather favourable, they m.ay be placed in the open air in fuch a fituation, as to be protefted from the violence of the winds, which would otherwife greatly damage them. Thefe plants, when properly managed, make a moft delightful appearance with their fine variegated leaves, in which their greatefl beauty coiififts : the prince's- featlier is a beautiful plant about three feet high ; the flowers are produced at the wings of the ftalks, and in clufters ; at the extremity of the branches they are long and hang downward, and are of a bright purple colour. One fpecies of the amaran- thus has formerly been ufcd in medicine ; it is ac- counted drying and reftringent, and is reconmiend- cd in fluxes of all kinds. AMARANTHUS Codfcomh. See Celosia Amar-jUh. AMARYLLIS, in botany, the lily daffodil, a genus of plants bearing liliaceous flowers, with roots like thofc of the narciflus. There are various fpecies of thefe plants, ibme of which produce very- beautiful flowers ; the moft remarkable forts are, the Guernfey lily, the Jacob^a lily, and the Mexi- can lily, commonly fo called. The Guernfey lily is a native of the Weft-Lidies, but thrives ex- tremely well in Guernfey and Jerfey, from whence the roots arc imported ; they are tolerably hardy, and fliould be planted in Juiyand Auguft, to produce their fine bloflbms in autumn ; but they fcarcely will blow in England the fucceeding year. The Jacobaea and Mexican lilies fhould be kept in a hot-houfe in the winter. The Mexican generally blov/s in the fpring, but the Jacobaea flov/ers at different times in the year; the flowers of both forts are larger than thofe of the Guernfey lily ; thofe of the Jaco- boea produce bloflbms the colour of crimfon velvet, and the Mexican of a red copperifn colour : they are all encreafed by ofF-fets, which in general they produce plentifully. AMATORII 'MiifaiU, in anatomy, thofc muf- cles of the eye that draw it fideways, and aflift the look called ogling. AMAZON, in antiquity, a bold daring wom.an, whofe breafts have been cut off" to render her more proper for lighting. In a mere limited fenfe, it implied one of the ancient nation of women who inhabited that part of the LefTer Afia, now called Amafia. ^V"e alfo read of Scythian, German, Ly- bian, and American amazons. Amazons, in a figurative fenfe, is an appella- tion given to bees, from their being governed by a *, the wcftern Sumatra iflandi, about the id.md jjoiiieo and Cape Comorin, near Malabar, and on the Ethiopian coafl:, which, from Sol afa to Brana, K fiiiil to be very rich in ambergris. Pieces are lomctimes met with of an extraordinary fizc. Chevalier and Garcias mention a piece weighing no lefs than three thoulaiid poiuida, found in I555 .•It Cape Comorin, and fold for alphaltum ; and Job. Hugo von Lindfchott informs u.;, that a mafs of thirty quintals was found at the fame Cape. Monaides and Francifcus Hernandez mention a piece of an hundred pounds ; Garcias, one as large as a man, and another which was ninety palms in length and eighteen in breadth ; Montainis, one of "an hundred and thirty pounds ; Kempfer, one exceeding that weight, found in his time in the province of Kinokuni, in Japan. 'i"he Dutch Eaft-India companv purchafed of king Tidori in 1693, for eleven thoufand rix-dollars, a piece of ambergris, weighing one hundred and eighty two poimds, which was kept many years at Amfter- dam, and feen bythoufands; but afterwards broken :uid fold in pieces. It was of the fhape of a tor- toife, and meafured five foot eight inches by two foot two. Nicholas Chevalier has given a par- ticular dcfcription of it in a treatiie printed at Amflerdam in 1700. Ambergris is of various colours, afli-coloured, ■whitifh, yellowifli, blackifli-grey, brown, black, ttreaked, and fpotted. The pieces which have been fwallowed by fifties arc the leaft cfteemed, as deceiving an ill fmell froar the animal. The quite blackifh and the quite whitifli are to be rejeifled ; and thofe which are fmooth and of an uniform tex- ture, we riiay fufpecl of being counterfeits. The afh-grey-coloured ambergris, with whitifh, black- ifh, and yellowifli ftreaks or fpecks, is accounted the bell, efpecially when intermixed with beaks of birds, bits of cuttle-bone, or other like matters ; not that thefe arc eflential to the ambergris, but they are marks of its behig genuine. The befl ambergris is light, like wax to the touch, crum- 'bly, yet fomcwhat tenacious, fo as to flick to the 'ir.oitar or peftle ; it has an agreeable fmell, but no remarkable taflc : it eafily melts in the fire, takes flame from a candle, and burns away without intermiffion. It has been hitherto looked upon as exceedingly tliflicult, and not at all totally Ibluble in fpirit of v/ine ; the fpirit being fuppofed to extract only a fmall part, as it does from amber. It has hovvevcr ■licen fouiid that this menftruum may be made to diiiblve ambergris both readily and totally. If am- [ bergris, broke in pieces, be put into twelve times its weight of a good tartarizcd fpirit of wine, or of a plain highly red:ified fpirit, the fpirit will extradl little till it begins to boil, but will then quickly tliflblve the whole of the ambergris, except its im- purities. The tincture made in t;u-tarized fpirit is , A M B of a deep reddifli colour ; that made in pure fpirit fcarccly any. The refiduum appears of a large volume, though when dried proves to be only a very fmall quantity of a fine earthy matter, a- mounting: when the ambergris is free from vifible impurities, to a grain or two upon two fcruples. It is probable that ambergris has often been dif- folved, though the palenefs of the folution and apparent bulk of the refiduum have induced the operator to tliink othcrwifs. In keeping the tinc- ture or folution, if the vcfTel be loofely ftopt, fo as to fufFcr a part of the menflruum to exhale, a pro- portionable quantity of the ambergris precipitates, in form of a white uniStuous fubftance, like tal- low, ioluble again upon adding niore fpirit. Le- mery looked upon this as wax, and hence endea- voin-ed to proxc that ambergris proceeded from the labour of bee;. Ambergris is ufed principally as a perfume, in balfams, fnufFs, dentrifices, hair-powders, wafh- balls, Sec. It was formerly held in fome e/leem as a medicine, and faid to poffefs nervine, analeptic, aphrodifiac, cephalic, and other virtues ; but is at prefent little regarded. A tinfture of it is fome- timcs prepared with fpirit of rofes. This fpirit has no ad\'antage as a menflruum for the ambergris above fimple fpirit of wine, though it may in fome cafes be an ufeful addition in point of fcent ; folu- tions of ambergris by itfelf having very little fmell. And hence it is ufed as an ingredient for heighten- ing the odours of other bodies, as aromatic waters, fpirits, &c. The principal fecret jn this opera- tion confifts in adding the perfume fo fparingly, that while it heightens and improves the fmell of the fubftance it is joined with, it may not betray its own. A few drops therefore of the tin£ture of ambergris may be very advantageoufly added to any of the odoriferous waters, as hungary, lavender. Sic. Common water diflilled from ambergris proves confiderably impregnated with its fra- grance. AMBIDEXTER, a perfon who ufes both hands alike, and with the fame dexterity. The word is Latin, amhidexira, and compound- ed of ambtt, both, and dextra, right hand. Ambidexter, among lawyers, implies a juror who receives money from both parties for giving his verdict. AMBIGENAL Hyperkh, is one of the triple hyperbolas of the fecond order, having one of its infinite legs falling within an angle formed by the afymptotcs, and the other falling without that angle. Thus, Let AC, CD, (Plate VII. fg. i.) be two afymptotcs, EBF, one of thofe hyper- bolas ; then if the infinite leg BE, falls within the angle A CD, and the infinite leg BP\ without that angle, the faid hyperbola is called ambigenal,' a name firfl given it by Sir Ifaac Newton. AMBIGUITY, in grammar, is a -defeA in language, A M B language, ai-ifing either irom the particular ar- rangement of the words in any fcntencc, or fVoni the terms that are made ufe oi' being of a double and doubtful meaning. AMBIT, (imkitiis, in geometry, fignifics the line or lines by which any figure is bounded, and denotes the fame as perimeter. See Peiume'ier. AMBLE, or Ambling, in horfemanfliip, a pe- culiar kind of pace, wherein a horfe's two legs of the fame fide move at the fame time. The ambling horfe changes fides at each re- move, two legs of a fide being in the air, and two on the ground at the fame time. An ambic is ufually the firft natural pace of young colts, which they quit as foon as they have itrength enough to trot : there is no fuch thing as an amble in the menage, the riding-mafi:ers allowing of no other paces befides walk, trot, and gallop ; their reafon is, that a horle may be put from a trot to a gallop without fuch a flop, which lofes time, and in- terrupts the juftnefs and cadence of the menage. AMBLYGONAL, among the ancient geome- tricians, fignifies obtufe angular, as a triangle is faid to be obtufe angular, when one of the angles is ^rnore than 90° degrees. AMBLYOPY, among phyficians, fignifies an obfcuration of the fight, fo that objects at a dif- tance cannot be clearly diftinguiflied. The v/ord is Greek, aij.ChvuTrtdii and, com- pounded of ct//,'?A©'5 dull, and e word is Greek and compounded of Ajj.pt- fi>.»7^ov, a net, and s;/*^, refemblance ; becaufe the Itrufture of the membrane refcmbles a net ; and hence the Latins call it rariformis. AMPHIBIOLOGY, in grammar, implies the fame as ambiguity, or that the phrafe is capable of two different interpretations. The word is Greek, ctjt/.^/Po^o^iet, and compound- ed of a.fji'pi, and ^-^aa*., to throw. AMPHIBRACHYS, in Greek and Latin poetry, is the iiaine of a foot conllfting of three fyllables, one of which is long, and placed in the middle, between two fliort ones : as adunca candra, &c. It is derived from the Greek «.y.if /, and Pp4,xyerpendicular to the length of the leg; but having obferved, that though the amputation at firil be even, yet after- wards the gaftrocnemiiis mufcle, contradfing^ draws back the inferior part of the ftump more, ftrongly than the other mufcles can do the reft of it; I have lately, in order to preferve the regularity of the cicatrix, allowed for this exccfs of contrac- tion, and made the circular incifion in fuch a man- ner rJiat the part of the wound which is on the calf of the leg, is farther from the ham than that on the fliin is from the middle of the patella. In the mean time, one of your affiftants muft. carry a ilrong ligature round the thigh about three' or four inches above the patella, which, pafling- through a couple of flits in a fquare piece of leather, he muft twifl: v/ith a tourniquet, til! the artery is. comprcfied, to prevent any great eftufion of blood ;, and, to do it more efteflually, he may lay a bolfter of tow or linen under the ligature, upon that part where the artery creeps. The courfe of the blood being flopped, 3-ou mufl begin your incifion jufl below the linen roller, on- tlie under part of the limb, bringing your knile to- wajds you ; which, at one fweep, may cut more than the femi-cijrcle : then, beginning your fecond wound on the upper part, it mufl be continued, from the one extremity to the other cf the firfl •? wound AMP wound, making them but one line. The incifions iiuill be made quite through the mcmbrana adi- poi'a, as far as the mufclcs ; then, taking ofF the li- nen roller, and an afliftant drawing back the (kin MS far as it will go, you make your wound from the edges of it, when drawn back through the flefti to thebone, in the fame maimer as you did through thefkin. Before you faw the bones, you muft cut the ligament between them with the point of your knffe.; and the afliftant who holds the leg while it is fawing, muft: obferve not to lift it upwards, which would clog the inltrunicnt. In amputating below the knee, it is of advantage to Itand on die infide of the leg, becaufe the tibia and fibula lie in a pofition to be fawed at the fame time,if the inftrumentbe applied externally: where- as, if we lay it on the infidc of the leg, the tibia will be divided hrft, and the fibula afterwards ; which not only lengthens the operation, but is alfo apt to fplinter the fibula when it is almoft fawed through, unlefsthe afliftant be very careful in fupporting it. When the leg is taken off, the next regard is to 1)6 had to the itopping of the blood, which muft be effeclually done before the patient is put to bed, or there will be great danger of bleeding again, when the fever is excited, and the veffels of the itump dilated,, botli which happen a very little while after the operation. There is no method for this purpofe fo fecure as tying the extremities of the veflels with a ligature, which, with a crooked nee- dle palled twice through the flefh almoft round them, will, when the knot is made, neceflarily in- cLofe them in the ftricture ; and to difcoverthe ori- fice of a veflel, your afliftant muft every time loofen the tourniquet : this is a much better way than ufing the artery forceps, where the veflels are apt to flip away out of the ligature ; and as to ftiptic appli- cations, their want of fafety is fo well known now, that the ufe of them, in ha;morrhages from large vef- fels, is almoft univerfally rejedted. It fometimes happens in a large ftump, that ten or more vefiels require tying ; which dene, you muft apply loofe dry lint to the wound, or, in cafe the fmall veftels bleed plentifully, you muft throw a handful of flour among the lint, which will contri- bute to the more eftciStual flopping up their orifices. Before you lay on the pledget, you muft hind the ftump, and begin to roll from the lower part of the thigh down to the extremity of the ftump. The ufe of this roller is to keep the (kin forwards, which, notwithftanding the ftcps already taken to prevent its tailing back, would in fome meafure do fo, un- lefs luftaincd in this manner. The dreffings may be fecured by the crofs cloth and gentle bandage ; and the method of treating the wound muft be the fame as that for. other recent and incifed v.'ounds. See article Wound. Before the iiwention of making the double in- cifion I have nowjuft defcribed, the cureof aftump AMP was always a work of time ; for by cutting down to the bone at once, and fawing it dire£tly, the con- fequence was, that the (kin and flefh withdrew themfclves, and left it protruding out of the wound two or three inches in fome cafes ; fo that it rarely happened that an exfoliation did not follow; which, beildes being tedious, alfo frequently reduced the wound to an habitual ulcer, and at beft left a point- ed ftump, with a cicatrix ready to fly open upon the Icaft: accident ; all which inconveniencies are avoided by this new method, and I know not of any objeftion to it, unlefs that the pain of making the wound is fuppofed to be twice as much as in the other, becaufe of the double incifion ; but when we confider that we only cut the (kin once, and the flefh once, though not in the fame mo- ment, I fancy, upon refledfion, the difi^erence of pain will be thought inconfiderable. In amputating the thigh, the firft incifion is to be made a little more than two inches above the mid- dle of the patella ; after the operation, a roller fhould be carried round the body, and down the thigh, to fupport the fkin and fleih. This is alfo the moft proper bandage, as abfcelTes will fome- times form in the upper part of the thigh, which cannot difchar^^e themfelves fo conveniently with any other, it being almoft imprafticable to roll about the abfcefs, unlefs you begin from the body. The amputation of the arm and cubit differs fo little from the foregoing operations, .that it will be but a repetition to defcribe it. However, it muft be laid down as a rule, to preferve as much of the limb as polTible, and in all amputations of the up- per limbs to place your patient in a chair. There, are, in armies, a great many inftances of gun(hot wounds of the arm, near the fcapula, which require amputation at the fhoulder ; but the appre- henfion of lofing the patients oji the fpotby the h.-s- morrhage, has deterred furgcons from undertaking it. I have heard of its having been done once; but, though it had never been performed, v/e might learn it is pradltcable from the cafe of a poor miller, whofe arm and fcapula were both torn from his body by a rope which -was accidentally twifted round his . v/rift, and fuddenly drawn up by the mill. The poor man recovered in a few weeks. It is remark- able in this accident, that, after fainting, the hre- morrhage flopped of iti'elf, and never bled afrefh, though nothing but lint and turpentine were laid on the great veffels. In cafe, therefore, of a wound or frafture near the joint, or incurable fiftulas in the joint, not attended with much caries, I think the operation may be performed fafe'.y in this man- ner : The patient's arm being held horizontal, make an incifion through the membrana adipofa, from the upper part of the fhoulder, r.crofi the pec- toral mufcle down to the arm-pit ; then, turning the knife with, its edge upwards, divide that muf- cle. A M Y j\c, antl purt of the deltoid ; all which may be tioiie without danger of wounding the great vcfTcls, which will become expofed by thefe openings ; if they be not, cut ftill more of the deltoid mulcle, and carry the arm backward ; then with a llrong ligature having tied the artery and vein, purfue the circular incifion through the joint, and carefully divide the velTels at a confiderable diftance below the ligature ; the other fmall vefiels are to be Hop- ped as in other cafes. In performing this operation, regard fliould be had to the faving as much fkin as pofiible, and to the fituation of the proceflus acromion, which projeiting confiderably beyond the joint, an un- . wary operator would be apt to cut upon it. The amputation of the fingers and toes is better performed in their articulation, than by any of the other methods : for this purpofe a ftraight knife muft be ufed, and the incilion of the fkin be made not exadfly upon the joint, but a little towards the extremity of the fingers, that more of it may be prcferved for the eafier healing afterwards ; it will alfo facilitate the feparation in the joint, when you cut the finger from the metacarpal. bone, to make two fmall longitudinal incifions on each iidc of it firfl. In thefe amputations there is general- ly a vefTel or two that require tying, and which often prove troublefome when the ligature is •omitted. It may happen that the bones of the toes, and part only of ..the mctatarfal bones, are carious, in which cafe the leg need not be cut off, but only fo nmch of the foot as is difordered ; a fmall fpnng- Jaw is better to divide with here than a large one. When this operation is performed, the heel and remainder of the foot will be of great fervice, and the wound heal up iafely, as I have once found by experience. Slunp^s Surgery. AMSDORFIANS, the name of a feft of pro- teflants, who appeared in the fixteenth century, under one Amfdorf their leader, from whom they took their name. They bore a very ftrong refem- blance to fom.e of our modern fe6lai-ics ; maintaiji- ing that faith was alone neceflary to falvation, and that good works were fo far from being profitable, that they v/ere even pernicious. AMULET, a charm or prefervative againft mifchief, witchcraft, and difeafes. The word is Latin, aimiktum, which fignifies the fame thing. The ancients of all nations were extremely fond of amulets ; but the prefent philofophy has pretty well banifhed thefe and other impofitions of the fame kind from the world. AMYGDALES, in anatomy; fee the article Tonsils. AMYGDALUS, the almond-tree. See Al- MOND-TREi;. ANA, among phyficians, denotes an equal 'IAN A quantity of the Ingredients that immediately pre- cede it in prefcription. ANABaPTIS rS, a religious fed, who fprung up in the fixteenth century; fo called, becaufe they rebaptized thofe who had been baptized m their infancy ; condemning infant-baptifm, be- caufe it is impoffible that children fhould give a reafon of their fiiith, which they held to be nccef- fary, before they could be received regularly into the fold and family of Chrifl's flock. See Baptism. The word is of Greek derivation, being com- pounded of ctva., again, and jict7r]i(a, I baptize. It is not agreed as to the precife time when this fe£i firlt arofe, nor who was the father of it. Some pretend that the Bohemians began to lay the foundations of it in the year 1503 : others trace jt up ftill higher, as far as the twelfth century. Car- loftad, Quinglius, Balthazar Pacimontanus, Pe- largus, and feveral otliers, have been accufed of be- ing tire authors of it : but the moft general opinion fatners it upon Thomas Munfter of Zwickaw, a city of the marquifate of Mifnia, and Nicholas Storck of ttolberg in Saxony; two perfons, who were originally difciples of Luther, but feparated tnemfelves from him, under pretence that his doc- trine was not fufficiently pure and perfei^t. They affirmed that all Scripture was little more than dead letter, without immediate infpiration from God : for which reafon they pretended to vifions and revelations, as the only means whereby they could conduct themfelves righteoufly, and attain to the true and eflcntial religion of Chrift. They defpifed all laws civil and ecclefialHc, and infpired the common people with the warmeit hatred of all nobility, magiftracy, and power. They were for having every thing in common, and would have all men free and independent : they promifed theni'a kingdom of their own, where they Ihould reign alone, having firft exterminated all the wicked and impious. Munfter preached up evangelical liberty fo far, that he excited all the peafants of Suabia, and other parts of Germany, who leagued together to defend the purity of the Gofpel, and call oft' the yoke of fervitude, which they had fo long, and fo inglorioufly borne. 'i'hey diev/ up a manifefto, which was as it were the ftand.ard of rebellion, that fpread almoft throughout rdl Germany : but being at laft defeated on all fides, they laid down their arms, except in Thurin^ia, where Munfter had placed the principal feat of his chimerical kingdom. He had for his companion one PfhifFct, a bold def- pcrate fellow, who pretended that God had re- vealed himfelf to him, that he fhould take up arms to extirpate the nobility. They were both of them at laft taken at Mulhaufen, and beheaded in the yeari585. However, the fcdl was not thus extinguifhed ; but a few years after rofe again to a very confiderable height. ANA height, under the conduct of John of Leyden, who from being their taylor, became at length their king. They ravaged with t!ie utmofl: infolcnce and fury all the places wherever they came, and feized upon the city of Muniler. The Lutherans as well as Catholics joined together to fupprefs them ; which was at Jall: accomplished by the city of Mun- fter's being retaken, and John of Leyden made prifonor, who underwent foon after the punifhment that he had fo richly deferved. One of the arguments made ufe of by the Ana- baptiils is taken from the following words of St. Mark, where our Saviour fays, He that believes, and it hapti'z.ed, ftiall be faveil. From this they rea- fon, that as none but adults can pofTibly beiicve, io none but adults are capable of being baptized; efpecially, as there is no one paflage in all the New Tefiamcnt where the baptilm of infants is exprefsly cnjoijied. But to this it may be anfwered, that ihe necelTity of infant baptilm has been handed down by tradition, and is confirmed by the prac- tice of the primitive church. Befides which we are told, that children are capable o£ the kingdom of heaven ; Suffer, fays our Saviour, Mark x. 14. the little children to come unto me, for of fuch is the ki?igdom of heaven.. Now if what St. John afferts be true, chap. iii. 5. That unlefs a man be baptized, }>e cayinot enter into the kingdom of God ; it follows evidently, that little children are capable of being baptized. Another argument, by which the Anabaptifts flrengthen themfclves in their faith, , is taken from the following words of St. Paul, Rom. v. 17. //" by one man's offence death reigned by one ; 77iucb more they which receive abundance of grace, and of the gift of righteoufnefs, fliail reign in life by one, Jcfus Chrifl. Here, fay they, it is plain that by one man's offence, (viz. Adam's) all are become cri- minal, and obnoxious to death : but ihofe only can reign in life who receive abundance of grace, and of the gift of righteoufnefs. Now children not having an aiflual faith, are not the objefts of grace, are not within the covenant of grace, Vvhich ex- tends only to thofe who believe in Jefus Chrift. But why fo ? May not children have an actual faith, not indeed of themfelves, but by others, for inltancc, their godfathers and godmothers ? Can any thing be more juft and equitable, than that thole who finned in the will of another, ftiould be juftified by the will of another ? Is it not rea- fonable, that as through the offence of one, miny are dead ; fo ih> ough the righteoufnefs of one, the grace of God fhould abound unto many, that they may live ? ANABASII, in antiquity, were couriers who were fent on horfeback, or in chariots, with dif- patches of importance. The word is Greek, and derived from w^Pst/yii), to mount. ' 7 ANA ANABIBAZON, in aflronomy, the Arabic name for the Dragon's tail, or fouthern node of the moon. See Node. ANACALYPTERIA, in antiquity, were fell i- vals obferved among the Greeks on the day when the bride was permitted to lay afide her veil, and appear in public. The word is Greek, and derived from cn/a;taAu'T7